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THE 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNICA 


ELEVENTH     EDITION 


FIRST  edition,  published  in  three  volumes,  1768—1771. 

SECOND  ten  1777—1784. 

THIRD  eighteen  1788—1797. 

FOURTH  twenty  1801  —  1810. 

FIFTH  twenty  1815—1817. 

SIXTH  twenty  1823—1824. 

SEVENTH  twenty-one  1830—1842. 

EIGHTH  twenty-two  1853  —  1860. 

NINTH  twenty-five  1875—1889. 

TENTH  ninth  edition  and  eleven 

supplementary  volumes,  1902 — 1903. 

ELEVENTH        „         published  in  twenty-nine  volumes,  1910 — 1911. 


COPYRIGHT 

in  all  countries  subscribing  to  the 
Bern  Convention 

by 
THE  CHANCELLOR,  MASTERS  AND  SCHOLARS 

of  the 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CAMBRIDGE 


All  rights  reserved 


THE 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA  BRITANNICA 


DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS,    SCIENCES,    LITERATURE    AND    GENERAL 

INFORMATION 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


VOLUME  X 

EVANGELICAL  CHURCH    to   FRANCIS  JOSEPH 


. 
Cambridge,  England: 

at  the  University  Press 

New  York,  35  West  3  2nd  Street 
1910 


•E3 


Copyright,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  1910, 

by 
The  Encyclopxdia  Britannica  Company 


INITIALS  USED  IN  VOLUME  X.  TO   IDENTIFY   INDIVIDUAL 

CONTRIBUTORS,!  WITH  THE*  HEADINGS  OF  THE 

ARTICLES   IN  THIS  VOLUME  SO  SIGNED. 


A.  B.  R.  ALFRED  BARTON  RENDLE,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.,  F.t.S.  [ 

Keeper,  Department  of  Botany,  British  Museum.    Author  of  Text  Book  on  Classi-  i  Flower. 
fication  of  Flowering  Plants  ;  &c.  I 

A.  D.  AUSTIN  DOBSON,  LL.D.  f  n.iHinir  u»n 

See  the  biographical  article  :  DOBSON,  H.  AUSTIN.  \  *'      IDB'  " 


A.  F.  B.  ALDRED  FARRER  BARKER,  M.Sc.  f  —  .* 

Professor  of  Textile  Industries  at  Bradford  Technical  College.  [ 

A.  F.  P.  ALBERT  FREDERICK  POLLARD,  M.A.,  F.R.HiST.Soc.  f  -,„,       _.  . 

Professor  of  English  History  in  the  University  of  London.     Fellow  of  All  Souls'         'rrar'  Blsn°P» 
College,  Oxford.    Assistant  Editor  of  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  1893--^  F°",  Edward; 
1901.     Lothian   Prizeman,   Oxford,    1892;    Arnold   Prizeman,    1898.    Author   of     Fox,  Richard. 

England  under  Protector  Somerset',  Henry  VIII.',  Life  of  Thomas  Cranmer',  &c. 

A.  G.  MAJOR  ARTHUR  GEORGE  FREDERICK  GRIFFITHS  (d.  1908).  (" 

H.M.     Inspector  of  Prisons,   1878-1896.     Author  of  The  Chronicles  of  Newgate;  -I  Finger  Prints. 
Secrets  of  the  Prison  House  ;  &c.  [ 


A.  Go.*  REV.  ALEXANDER  GORDON,  M.A.  J^'     Basi1'    Jacobus    and 

Lecturer  on  Church  History  in  the  University  of  Manchester.  JOnann, 

iFamilists;  Farel,  G.;    Flaeius. 

A.  H.-S.  SIR  A.  HOUTUM-SCHINDLER,  C.I.E.  f  Fars; 

General  in  the  Persian  Army.    Author  of  Eastern  Persian  Irak.  ~\  Firuzabad. 

A.  L.  ANDREW  LANG.  f  Fairy; 

See  the  biographical  article:  LANG,  ANDREW.  1  Family. 

A.  L.  B.  ALFRED  LYS  BALDRY.  r 

Art  Critic  of  the  Globe,   1893-1908.     Author  of  Modern  Mural  Decoration  and  I  p.,, 
biographies  of  Albert  Moore,  Sir  H.  von  Herkomer,  R.A.,  Sir  J.  E.  Millais,  P.R.A.,  1  *orluny- 
Marcus  Stone,  R.A.,  and  G.  H.  Boughton,  R.A.  [ 

A.  H.  ALFRED  NEWTON,  F.R.S.  f  Falcon;  Fieldfare;  Finch. 

See  the  biographical  article:  NEWTON,  ALFRED.  \  Flycatcher;  Fowl. 

A.  S.  ARTHUR  SMITHELLS,  F.R.S.  r 

Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Leeds.    Author  of  Scientific  Papers  on  -{  Flame. 
Flame  and  Spectrum  Analysis. 

A.  M.  C.  AGNES  MARY  CLERKE.  f 

See  the  biographical  article:  CLERKE,  A.  M.  \  Flamsteed. 

A.  W.  ARTHUR  WATSON.  f  ,  . 

Secretary  in  the  Academic  Department,  University  of  London.  |  Examinations  (M  part) 

A.  W.  R.  ALEXANDER  WOOD  RENTON,  M.A.,  LL.B.  r 

Puisne  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Ceylon.    Editor  of  Encyclopaedia  of  the  Laws  J  Fixtures; 
of  England.  \Flat. 

A.  W.  W.          ADOLPHUS  WILLIAM  WARD,  D.Lrrr.,  LL.D.  f  Foote,  Samuel; 

See  the  biographical  article  :  WARD,  A.  W.  \  Ford,  John. 

C.  El.  SIR  CHARLES  NORTON  EDGCUMBE  ELIOT,  K.C.M.G.,  C.B.,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.       f 

Vice-Chancellor   of   Sheffield   University.      Formerly   Fellow   of   Trinity    College, 
Oxford.    H.M.'s  Commissioner  and  Commander-in-Chief  for  the  British  East  Africa  -j  Finno-Ugrian. 
Protectorate;  Agent  and  Consul-General  at  Zanzibar;  Consul-General  for  German 
East  Africa,  1900-1904. 

C.  F.  B.  CHARLES  FRANCIS  BASTABLE,  M.A.,  LL.D. 

Regius  Professor  of  Laws  and  Professor  of  Political  Economy  in  the  University  of  J  _,. 
Dublin.    Author  of  Public  Finance;  Commerce  of  Nations;  Theory  of  International  )  Finance. 
Trade;  &c.  [ 

C.  F.  C.  C.  F.  CROSS,  B.Sc.  (Lond.),  F.C.S.,  F.I.C.  / 

Analytical  and  Consulting  Chemist.  \ 

1  A  complete  list,  showing  all  individual  contributors,  appears  in  the  final  volume. 

v 

1979 


vi  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

C.  F.  R.  CHARLES  FRANCIS  RICHARDSON,  A.M.,  PH.D.  f 

Professor  of  English  at  Dartmouth  College,  Hanover,  New  Hampshire,  U.S.A.  "I  Fiske,  John. 
Author  of  A  Story  of  English  Rhyme;  A  History  of  American  Literature;  &c.  I 

C.  H.  T.*  CRAWFORD  HOWELL  TOY,  A.M.  f 

See  the  biographical  article:  TOY,  CRAWFORD  HOWELL.  \ 

C.  J.  CHARLES  JOHNSON,  M.A.  (" 

Clerk  in  H.M.  Public  Record  Office.    Joint  Editor  of  the  Domesday  Survey  for  the  ~]  Exchequer  (in  part). 
Victoria  County  History:  Norfolk.  I 

C.  J,  B.  M.         CHARLES  JOHN  BRUCE  MARRIOTT,  M.A.  f  Footbali.  R    ^  (i    b    ,\ 

Clare  College,  Cambridge.    Secretary  of  the  Rugby  Football  Union.  I  g^  (™  pa">- 

C.  J.  N.  F.          CHARLES  JAMES  NICOL  FLEMING.  f  Fonthaii.  £>„„/,„  /;„  *„,<•> 

H.M.  Inspector  of  Schools,  Scotch  Education  Department.  \  F<     tbaU-  •"»  (m  partl 

C.  L.  K.  CHARLES  LETHBRIDGE  KINGSFORD,  M.A.,  F.R.HisT.Soc.,  F.S.A.  ( Fahvan. 

Assistant  Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Education.    Author  of  Life  of  Henry  V.    Editor  •],,     ^  .,  ' 
of  Chronicles  of  London  and  Stow's  Survey  of  London.  I  Fastoll. 

C.  P.  I.  SlR    COURTENAY   PEREGRINE   ILBERT,  K.C.B.,  K. C.S.I.,  C.I.E. 

Clerk  of  the  House  of  Commons.     Chairman  of  Statute  Law  Committee.    Parlia- 


mentary Counsel  to  the  Treasury,  1 899-190 1 .  Legal  Member  of  Council  of  Governor- . 
General  of  India,  1882-1886;  President,  1886.  Fellow  of  the  British  Academy. 
Formerly  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  Author  of  The  Government 
of  India ;  Legislative  Method  and  Forms. 


Evidence. 


C.  W.  A.  CHARLES  WILLIAM  ALCOCK  (d.  1907).  f  -,„„-„„     .          ,.     /.         A 

Formerly  Secretary  of  the  Football  Association,  London.  \  ^>0tb&\\:  Association  (in  part). 

D.  H.  DAVID  HANNAY.  f  _.         .  _         n-«|.  „.  «,., 

Formerly  British  Vice-Consul  at  Barcelona.    Author  of  Short  History  of  the  Royal  \  First  Ol   June'   Battle   °r  tne» 
Navy ;  Life  of  Emilia  Castelar;  &c.  [  Fox,  Charles  James. 

D.  Mn.  REV.  DUGALD  MACFADYEN,  M.A.  f 

Minister  of  South  Grove  Congregational  Church,  Highgate.    Director  of  the  London  I  Excommunication. 
Missionary  Society.  I 

D.  N.  P.  DIARMID  NOEL  PATON,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.  (Edin.).  f 

Regius  Professor  of  Physiology  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.     Formerly  Super- 
intendent of   Research  Laboratory  of   Royal  College  of  Physicians,   Edinburgh.  4  Fever. 
Biological  Fellow  of  Edinburgh  University,  1884.    Author  of  Essentials  of  Human 
Physiology;  &c. 

D.  S.  M.*  DAVID  SAMUEL  MARGOLIOUTH,  M.A.,  D.Lrrr.  f" 

Laudian  Professor  of  Arabic,  Oxford.    Fellow  of  New  College.    Author  of  Arabic  J  _         ., 
Papyri  of  the  Bodleian  Library;  Mohammed  and  the  Rise  of  Islam;  Cairo,  Jerusalem  i  fatimites. 
and  Damascus.  I 

E.  B.  EDWARD  BRECK,  M.A.,  PH.D.  f  _  „  . 

Formerly  Foreign  Correspondent  of  the  New  York  Herald  and  the  New  York  Times,  i  *  . 

Author  of  Fencing;  Wilderness  Pets;  Sporting  in  Nova  Scotia;  &c.  I  Football:  American  (in  part). 

E.  Ca.  EGERTON  CASTLE,  M.A.,  F.S.A.  f_      . 

Trinity  College.  Cambridge.    Author  of  Schools  and  Masters  of  Fence;  &c.  \ 

Ed.  C.*  THE  HON.  EDWARD  EVAN  CHARTERIS.  f  .          •. 

Barrister-at-Law,  Inner  Temple.  \  Falr  (m  Part>- 

E.  C.  B.  RT.  REV.  EDWARD  CUTHBERT  BUTLER,  O.S.B.,  M.A.,  D.Lnr.  f"  Fontevrault; 

Abbot  of  Downside  Abbey,  Bath.    Author  of  "  The  Lausiac  History  of  Palladius,"  4  Francis  of  Assisi,  St; 
in  Cambridge  Texts  and  Studies,  vol.  vi.  L  Francis  of  Paola,  St. 

E.  C.  Q.  EDMUND  CROSBY  QUIGGIN,  M.A.  f 

Fellow    and    Lecturer    in    Modern    Languages    and   Monro  Lecturer   in   Celtic,  -j  Finn  mac  Cool. 
Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.  [ 

E.  D.  R.  LIEUT.-COLONEL  EiiiLius  C.  DELME  RADCLIFFE.  f  palconrv 

Author  of  Falconry:  Notes  on  the  Falconidae  used  in  India  in  Falconry.  \    '  ** 

E.  E.  A.  ERNEST  E.  AUSTEN.  f 

Assistant  in  Department  of  Zoology,  Natural  History  Museum,  South  Kensington.  \  Flea. 

E.  E.  H.  REV.  EDWARD  EVERETT  HALE.  J  E.v(,rpft 

See  the  biographical  article:  HALE,  E.  E.  ett> 

f  Ewalcl,  Johannes;  Fabliau; 
Fabre,  Ferdinand;  Feuillet; 

E.  G.  EDMUND  GOSSE,  LL.D.  I  Finiand.  ji,frllture- 

See  the  biographical  article  :GossE,  EDMUND.  nterrt.  Literature 

FitzGerald,  Edward;  Flaubert; 
I  Flemish    Literature;  Forssell. 

E.  H.  P.  EDWARD  HENRY  PALMER,  M.A.  f  _  . 

See  the  biographical  article:  PALMER,  E.  H.  \  Firdousi  (in  part). 

E.  K.  EDMUND  KNECHT,  PH.D.,  M.SC.TECH.  (Manchester),  F.I.C.  f 

Professor  of  Technological  Chemistry,  Manchester  University.     Head  of  Chemical 
Department,  Municipal  School  of  Technology,  Manchester.     Examiner  in  Dyeing,  -s  Finishing. 
City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute.    Author  of  A  Manual  of  Dyeing;  &c.    Editor 
of  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Dyers  and  Colourists. 

E.  M.  Ha.          ERNEST  MAES  HARVEY.  f  Exchange. 

Partner  in  Messrs.  Allen  Harvey  &  Ross,  Bullion  Brokers,  London. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


Vll 


E.O.* 

E.  0.  S. 
E.  Pr. 

E.  Re. 
E.  Tn. 

E.  W.  H. 

F.  C.C. 
F.  G.  P. 

F.J.H. 

F.  J.  W. 

F.  R.  C. 
F.S. 
G.A.B. 

G.  A.  Be. 

G.  B.  A. 
G.  C.L. 


G.E. 

G.  F.  Z. 
G,  G.  P.* 
G.  P. 

G.  W.  T. 


EDMUND  OWEN,  M.B.,  F.R.C.S.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc. 

Consulting  Surgeon  to  St  Mary's_Hospital,  London,  and  to  the  Children's  Hospital, 

Late  Examiner  1  Fistula. 


Great  Ormond  Street,  London.    Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour, 
in  Surgery  at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  London  and  Durham. 

Manual  of  Anatomy  for  Senior  Students. 


Author  of  A 


( 


EDWIN  OTHO  SACHS,  F.R.S.  (Edin.),  A.M.lNST.M.E.  r 

Chairman  of  the  British  Fire  Prevention  Committee.     Vice-President,  National  J  -,.  A  ™      ,,  ,.     ,. 

Fire  Brigades  Union.    Vice-President,  International  Fire  Service  Council.     Author  1  re  Extinction. 

of  Fires  and  Public  Entertainments ;  &c. 

EDGAR  PRESTAGE.  f 

Special  Lecturer  in  Portuguese  Literature  at  the  University  of  Manchester.     Com-  J  Falcao; 
mendador,   Portuguese  Order  of  S.  Thiago.     Corresponding   Member  of  Lisbon  1  Ferreira. 
Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Lisbon  Geographical  Society.  I 


ELISEE  RECLUS. 

See  the  biographical  article:  RECLUS,  J.  J.  E. 


Fire. 


REV.  ETHELRED  LEONARD  TAUNTON,  (d.  1907).  J  Feckenham; 

Author  of  Ttie  English  Black  Monks  of  St  Benedict ;  History  of  the  Jesuits  in  England.  {  Fisher,  John. 


ERNEST  WILLIAM  HOBSON,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S. ,  F.R.A.S. 

Fellow  and  Tutor  in  Mathematics,  Christ's  College,  Cambridge, 
in  Mathematics  in  the  University. 


Stokes  Lecturer  J  Fourier's  Series. 


FREDERICK  CORNWALLIS  CONYBEARE,  M.A.,  D.Tn.  (Giessen). 

Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.     Formerly  Fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford.  - 
Author  of  The  Ancient  Armenian  Texts  of  Aristotle;  Myth,  Magic  and  Morals;  &c. 

FREDERICK  GYMER  PARSONS,  F.R.C.S.,  F.Z.S.,  F.R.ANTHROP.INST. 

Vice-President,  Anatomical  Society  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Lecturer  on 
Anatomy  at  St  Thomas's  Hospital  and  the  London  School  of  Medicine  for  Women. 
Formerly  Huntenan  Professor  at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  I 

FRANCIS  JOHN  HAVERFIELD,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.S.  A.  r 

Camden   Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  University  of  Oxford.      Fellow  of  J  „ 
Brasenose  College.     Ford's  Lecturer,  1906-1907.     Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.  1  *  osse- 
Author  of  Monographs  on  Roman  History,  especially  Roman  Britain;  &c.  [_  ' 

FREDERICK  JOSEPH  WALL,  F.C.S. 

Secretary  to  the  Football  Association. 

FRANK  R.  CANA. 

Author  of  South  Africa  from  the  Great  Trek  to  the  Union. 

FRANCIS  STORR,  M.A. 

Editor  of  the  Journal  of  Education,  London. 


Extreme  Unction. 


Eye:  Anatomy. 


j  Football:  Association  (in  part). 
France:  Colonies. 


Officier  d'Academie,  Paris. 


-[  Fable. 


GEORGE  A.  BOULENGER,  D.Sc.,  PH.D.,  F.R.S. 

In  charge  of  the  Collections  of  Reptiles  and  Fishes,  Department  of  Zoology,  British  J  Flat-fish. 
Museum.    Vice-President  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London. 

GEORGE  ANDREAS  BERRY,  M.B.,  F.R.C.S.,  F.R.S.  (Edin.). 

Hon.  Surgeon  Oculist  to  His  Majesty  in  Scotland.     Formerly  Senior  Ophthalmic 

Surgeon,  Edinburgh  Royal  Infirmary,  and  Lecturer  on  Ophthalmology  in  the  Uni-  J 

versity   of    Edinburgh.      Vice-President,    Ophthalmological    Society.       Author   of  ]  Eye:  Diseases. 

Diseases    of   the    Eye;    The    Elements    of   Ophthalmoscopic    Diagnosis;     Subjective 

Symptoms  in  Eye  Diseases ;  &c.  [ 

GEORGE  BURTON  ADAMS,  A.M.,  B.D.,  PH.D.,  LITT.D.  r 

Professor  of   History,   Yale   University.     Editor  of  American  Historical    Review.   \  —         .. 
Author  of  Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages;  Political  History  of  England,   1066- "   Feudalism. 
1216 ;  &c.  [ 

GEORGE  COLLINS  LEVEY,  C.M.G. 

Member  of  Board  of  Advice  to  Agent-General  of  Victoria.  Formerly  Editor  and 
Proprietor  of  the  Melbourne  Herald.  Secretary,  Colonial  Committee  of  Royal 
Commission  to  Paris  Exhibition,  1900.  Secretary,  Adelaide  Exhibition,  1887.  J  Exhibition. 
Secretary,  Royal  Commission,  Hobart  Exhibition,  1894-1895.  Secretary  to  Com- 
missioners for  Victoria  at  the  Exhibitions  in  London,  Paris,  Vienna,  Philadelphia 
and  Melbourne,  1873,  1876,  1878,  1880-1881. 

REV.  GEORGE  EDMUNDSON,  M.A.,  F.R.HiST.S. 

Formerly  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Brasenose  College,  Oxford.  Ford's  Lecturer,  1909. 
Hon.  Member,  Dutch  Historical  Society,  and  Foreign  Member,  Netherlands  Associa- 
tion of  Literature. 

GEORGE  FREDERICK  ZIMMER,  A.M.lNST.C.E. 
Author  of  Mechanical  Handling  of  Material. 

GEORGE  GRENVILLE  PHILLIMORE,  M.A.,  B.C.L. 

Christ  Church,  Oxford.    Barrister-at-Law,  Middle  Temple. 

GIFFORD  PINCHOT,  A.M.,  D.Sc.,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  Forestry,  Yale  University.    Formerly  Chief  Forester,  U.S.A.     President      u-nrp<:tc  and  1?nrp«trv 
of  the  National  Conservation  Association.     Member  of  the  Society  of  American  J  *°™sl 
Foresters,  Royal  English  Arboricultural  Society,  &c.     Author  of  The   White  Pine;          United  Slates. 
A  Primer  of  Forestry ;  &c. 

REV.  GRIFFITHS  WHEELER  THATCHER,  M.A.,  B.D.  f  Fairuzabadl; 

Warden  of  Camden  College,  Sydney,  N.S.W.    Formerly  Tutor  in  Hebrew  and  Old  J  Fakhr  ud-Din  Razi; 
Testament  History  at  Mansfield  College,  Oxford.  Farabr   Farazdaq. 


Flanders. 


/  Flour  and  Flour  Manufacture. 
Fishery,  Law  of. 


vi  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

C.  F.  R.  CHARLES  FRANCIS  RICHARDSON,  A.M.,  PH.D.  (" 

Professor  of  English  at  Dartmouth  College,  Hanover,  New  Hampshire,  U.S.A.  ~\  Fiske,  John. 
Author  of  A  Story  of  English  Rhyme;  A  History  of  American  Literature;  &c.  I 

C.  H.  T.*  CRAWFORD  HOWELL  TOY,  A.M.  -fEzekiel. 

See  the  biographical  article:  TOY,  CRAWFORD  HOWELL.  \ 

C.  3.  CHARLES  JOHNSON,  M.A.  f 

Clerk  in  H.M.  Public  Record  Office.    Joint  Editor  of  the  Domesday  Survey  for  the  *!  Exchequer  (in  part). 
Victoria  County  History:  Norfolk.  I 

C.  J,  B.  M.          CHARLES  JOHN  BRUCE  MARRIOTT,  M.A.  /  F00than-  Ruebv  (in  tart) 

Clare  College,  Cambridge.    Secretary  of  the  Rugby  Football  Union.  I  Ug0y  (tn  part)f 

C.  J.  N.  F.          CHARLES  JAMES  NICOL  FLEMING.  f  ir00tball-  Ruobv  (in  •hurt) 

H.M.  Inspector  of  Schools,  Scotch  Education  Department.  I F(  Kugt>y  (tn  part)' 

C.  L.  K.  CHARLES  LETHBRIDGE  KINGSFORD,  M.A.,  F.R.HisT.Soc.,  F.S.A.  f  pai,van. 

Assistant  Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Education.    Author  of  Life  of  Henry  V.    Editor  "i  _     : ?  ., ' 
of  Chronicles  of  London  and  Stow's  Survey  of  London.  I  **SIOH. 

C.  P.  I.  SIR    COURTENAY   PEREGRINE   ILBERT,  K.C.B.,  K.C.S.I.,  C.I.E. 

Clerk  of  the  House  of  Commons.    Chairman  of  Statute  Law  Committee.    Parlia- 


mentary Counsel  to  the  Treasury,  1899-1901.  Legal  Member  of  Council  of  Governor- 
General  of  India,  1882-1886;  President,  1886.  Fellow  of  the  British  Academy. 
Formerly  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  Author  of  The  Government 
of  India ;  Legislative  Method  and  Forms. 


Evidence. 


C.  W.  A.  CHARLES  WILLIAM  ALCOCK  (d.  1907).  f  rw*h«n.  a         f     r    *„  rt 

Formerly  Secretary  of  the  Football  Association,  London.  \  ••••«  Association  (in  part). 

L  Formerly  British  Vice-Consul  at  Barcelona.    Author  of  Short  History  of  the  Royal  \  First  of  June>   Battle   of  the' 
Navy ;  Life  of  Emilia  Castelar ;  &c.  \  Fox,  Charles  James. 

D.  Mn.  REV.  DUGALD  MACFADYEN,  M.A.  f 

Minister  of  South  Grove  Congregational  Church,  Highgate.    Director  of  the  London  -j  Excommunication. 
Missionary  Society.  L 

D.  N.  P.  DIARMID  NOEL  PATON,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.  (Edin.).  f 

Regius  Professor  of  Physiology  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.     Formerly  Super- 
intendent of   Research   Laboratory  of   Royal  College  of   Physicians,   Edinburgh,  -j  Fever. 
Biological  Fellow  of  Edinburgh  University,  1884.    Author  of  Essentials  of  Human 
Physiology;  &c. 

D.  S.  M.*  DAVID  SAMUEL  MARGOLIOUTH,  M.A.,  D.LiTT.  I" 

Laudian  Professor  of  Arabic,  Oxford.     Fellow  of  New  College.    Author  of  Arabic  J  _         .. 
Papyri  of  the  Bodleian  Library;  Mohammed  and  the  Rise  of  Islam;  Cairo,  Jerusalem  i  Fatimites. 
and  Damascus.  L 

E.  B.  EDWARD  BRECK,  M.A.,  PH.D.  f  -,  .,  . 

Formerly  Foreign  Correspondent  of  the  New  York  Herald  and  the  New  York  Times.  1  *  lnf '  . 

Author  of  Fencing;  Wilderness  Pets;  Sporting  in  Nova  Scotia;  &c.  I  Football:  American  (in  part). 

E.  Ca.  EGERTON  CASTLE,  M.A.,  F.S.A. 

Trinity  College:  Cambridge.    Author  of  Schools  and  Masters  of  Fence;  &c. 

Ed.  C.*  THE  HON.  EDWARD  EVAN  CHARTERIS.  J  ».•-/•         ,\ 

Barrister-at-Law,  Inner  Temple.  \  rair  (tn  Parl)- 

E.  C.  B.  RT.  REV.  EDWARD  CUTHBERT  BUTLER,  O.S.B.,  M.A.,  D.LITT.  f  Fontevrault; 

Abbot  of  Downside  Abbey,  Bath.    Author  of  "  The  Lausiac  History  of  Palladius,"  4  Francis  of  Assisi,  St; 
in  Cambridge  Texts  and  Studies,  vol.  vi.  L  Francis  Of  Paola,  St. 

E.  C.  Q.  EDMUND  CROSBY  QUIGGIN,  M.A.  f 

Fellow    and     Lecturer    in    Modern    Languages    and   Monro   Lecturer   in    Celtic,  -s  Finn  mac  Cool. 
Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.  [ 

E.  D.  R.  LlEUT.-COLONEL   EMILIUS    C.    DELME   RADCLIFFE.  f  Falconrv> 

Author  of  Falconry:  Notes  on  the  Falconidae  used  in  India  in  Falconry.  \ 

E.  E.  A.  ERNEST  E.  AUSTEN.  J" 

Assistant  in  Department  of  Zoology,  Natural  History  Museum,  South  Kensington.  \  Flea. 

E.  E.  H.  REV.  EDWARD  EVERETT  HALE.  J  Fvftrptt 

See  the  biographical  article:  HALE,  E.  E.  ett' 

f  Ewald,  Johannes;  Fabliau; 
Fabre,  Ferdinand;  Feuillet; 
E.  G.  EDMUND  GOSSE,  LL.D.  J  r-inianrt.  T:tern,urP. 

See  the  biographical  article:  GOSSE,  EDMUND.  rltzGeL    EdwaTd;  Flaubert; 

I  Flemish    Literature;  Forssell. 

E.  H.  P.  EDWARD  HENRY  PALMER,  M.A.  f  ..          - 

See  the  biographical  article :  PALMER,  E.  H.  \  Firdousi  (in  part). 

E.  K.  EDMUND  KNECHT,  PH.D.,  M.SC.TECH.  (Manchester),  F.I.C. 

Professor  of  Technological  Chemistry,  Manchester  University.     Head  of  Chemical 
Department,  Municipal  School  of  Technology,  Manchester.     Examiner  in  Dyeing,  -j  Finishing. 
City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute.    Author  of  A  Manual  of  Dyeing;  &c.    Editor 
of  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Dyers  and  Colourists. 

E.  M.  Ha.          ERNEST  MAES  HARVEY.  I"  Exchange. 

Partner  in  Messrs.  Allen  Harvey  &  Ross,  Bullion  Brokers,  London.  t 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


Vll 


E.O.* 

E.  0.  S. 
E.  Pr. 

E.  Re. 
E.  Tn. 

E.  W.  H. 

F.C.C. 
P.  G.  P. 

r»  u*  H» 

p.  j.  w. 

F.  R.  C. 
F.S. 
G.A.B. 

G.  A.  Be. 

G.  B.  A. 
G.C.L. 


EDMUND  OWEN,  M.B.,  F.R.C.S.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc. 

Consulting;  Surgeon  to  St  Mary's  Hospital,  London,  and  to  the  Children's  Hospital, 

-        '  Late  Examiner  -|  Fistula. 


Great  Ormond  Street,  London.    Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour, 
in  Surgery  at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  London  and  Durham. 
Manual  of  A  natomy  for  Senior  Students. 


Author  of  A 


( 


EDWIN  OTHO  SACHS,  F.R.S.  (Edin.),  A.M.lNST.M.E.  r 

Chairman  of  the  British  Fire  Prevention  Committee.     Vice-President,  National  j  —.  .  p.      !?»*:.,„*!„., 

Fire  Brigades  Union.    Vice-President,  International  Fire  Service  Council.     Author]  'uon> 

of  Fires  and  Public  Entertainments ;  &c.  L 

EDGAR  PRESTAGE.  f 

Special  Lecturer  in  Portuguese  Literature  at  the  University  of  Manchester.     Com-  J  Falcao; 
mendador,   Portuguese  Order  of  S.  Thiago.     Corresponding  Member  of  Lisbon  |  Ferreira. 
Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Lisbon  Geographical  Society.  L 


Fire. 


ELISEE  RECLUS. 

See  the  biographical  article:  RECLUS,  J.  J.  E. 

REV.  ETHELRED  LEONARD  TAUNTON,  (d.  1907).  /  Feckenham; 

Author  of  The  English  Black  Monks  of  St  Benedict ;  History  of  the  Jesuits  in  England.  {_  Fisher,  John. 


ERNEST  WILLIAM  HOBSON,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S. ,  F.R.A.S. 

Fellow  and  Tutor  in  Mathematics,  Christ's  College,  Cambridge, 
in  Mathematics  in  the  University. 


Stokes  Lecturer  J  Fourier's  Series. 


Extreme  Unction. 


Eye:  Anatomy. 


j  Football:  Association  (in  part). 
France:  Colonies. 


G.  E. 

G.  P.  Z. 
G.  G.  P.* 
G.  P. 

G.  W.  T. 


FREDERICK  CORNWALLIS  CONYBEARE,  M.A.,  D.Tn.  (Giessen). 

Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.     Formerly  Fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford.  - 
Author  of  The  Ancient  Armenian  Texts  of  Aristotle;  Myth,  Magic  and  Morals;  &c. 

FREDERICK  GYMER  PARSONS,  F.R.C.S.,  F.Z.S.,  F.R.ANTHROP.INST. 

Vice-President,  Anatomical  Society  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Lecturer  on 
Anatomy  at  St  Thomas's  Hospital  and  the  London  School  of  Medicine  for  Women. 
Formerly  Huntenan  Professor  at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  L 

FRANCIS  JOHN  HAVERFIELD,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.S. A.  r 

Camden  Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  University  of  Oxford.  Fellow  of  J  jfnee_ 
Brasenose  College.  Ford's  Lecturer,  1906-1907.  Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.  1  *osse' 
Author  of  Monographs  on  Roman  History,  especially  Roman  Britain;  &c.  [  " 

FREDERICK  JOSEPH  WALL,  F.C.S. 

Secretary  to  the  Football  Association. 

FRANK  R.  CANA. 

Author  of  South  Africa  from  the  Great  Trek  to  the  Union. 

FRANCIS  STORR,  M.A.  f 

Editor  of  the  Journal  of  Education,  London.    Officier  d'Academie,  Paris.  ~|_  *aD'e- 

GEORGE  A.  BOULENGER,  D.Sc.,  PH.D.,  F.R.S.  f 

In  charge  of  the  Collections  of  Reptiles  and  Fishes,  Department  of  Zoology,  British  -j  Flat-flsh. 
Museum.    Vice-President  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London. 

GEORGE  ANDREAS  BERRY,  M.B.,  F.R.C.S.,  F.R.S.  (Edin.). 

Hon.  Surgeon  Oculist  to  His  Majesty  in  Scotland.     Formerly  Senior  Ophthalmic 

Surgeon,  Edinburgh  Royal  Infirmary,  and  Lecturer  on  Ophthalmology  in  the  Uni-  J 

versity   of    Edinburgh.      Vice-President,    Ophthalmological    Society.      Author   of  j  Eye :  Diseases. 

Diseases    of   the    Eye;    The    Elements    of    Ophthalmoscopic    Diagnosis;     Subjective 

Symptoms  in  Eye  Diseases ;  &c.  L 

GEORGE  BURTON  ADAMS,  A.M.,  B.D.,  PH.D.,  Lnr.D.  f 

Professor  of   History,  Yale   University.     Editor  of  American  Historical    Review. 
Author  of  Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages;  Political  History  of  England,   1066- ' 
1216;  &c. 

GEORGE  COLLINS  LEVEY,  C.M.G. 

Member  of  Board  of  Advice  to  Agent-General  of  Victoria.  Formerly  Editor  and 
Proprietor  of  the  Melbourne  Herald.  Secretary,  Colonial  Committee  of  Royal 
Commission  to  Paris  Exhibition,  1900.  Secretary,  Adelaide  Exhibition,  1887.  . 
Secretary,  Royal  Commission,  Hobart  Exhibition,  1894-1895.  Secretary  to  Com- 
missioners for  Victoria  at  the  Exhibitions  in  London,  Paris,  Vienna,  Philadelphia 
and  Melbourne,  1873,  1876,  1878,  1880-1881. 

REV.  GEORGE  EDMUNDSON,  M.A.,  F.R.Hisx.S.  r 

Formerly  Fellow  and  Tutor  of   Brasenose  College,  Oxford.     Ford's  Lecturer,    1909.  J  _,,      j 
Hon.  Member,  Dutch  Historical  Society,  and  Foreign  Member,  Netherlands  Associa-  |  *lanQ  ** 
tion  of  Literature. 


Exhibition. 


GEORGE  FREDERICK  ZIMMER,  A.M.lNST.C.E. 
Author  of  Mechanical  Handling  of  Material. 


J  Flour  and  Flour  Manufacture. 


GEORGE  GRENVILLE  PHILLIMORE,  M.A.,  B.C.L. 

Christ  Church,  Oxford.    Barrister-at-Law,  Middle  Temple. 


J  Fishery,  Law  of. 

GIFFORD  PINCHOT,  A.M.,  D.Sc.,  LL.D.  r 

Professor  of  Forestry,  Yale  University.    Formerly  Chief  Forester,  U.S.A. 
of  the  National  Conservation  Association.     Member  of  the  Society  of  American 
Foresters,  Royal  English  Arboricultural  Society,  &c.     Author  of  The   White  Pine;  I 
A  Primer  of  Forestry;  &c.  [_ 

REV.  GRIFFITHS  WHEELER  THATCHER,  M.A.,  B.D.  f  Fairuzabadl; 

Formerly  Tutor  in  Hebrew  and  Old  -|  Fakhr  ud-Din  Razi; 


President  I  Forests  and  Forestry: 

United  States. 


Warden  of  Camden  College,  Sydney,  N.S.W. 
Testament  History  at  Mansfield  College,  Oxford. 


FarabI;  Farazdaq. 


viii  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

H.  B.  S.  REV.  HENRY  BARCLAY  SWETE,  M.A.,  D.D.,  LITT.D.  r 

Regius  Professor  of  Divinity,  Cambridge  University.    Fellow  of  Gonville  and  Caius  J 

College,  Cambridge.    Fellow  of  King's  College,  London.    Fellow  of  British  Academy.  1  Fathers  of  the  Church. 
Hon.  Canon  of  Ely  Cathedral.    Author  of  The  Holy  Spirit  in  the  New  Testament;  &c.  (. 

H.  Ch.  HUGH  CHISHOLM,  M.A.  f 

Formerly  Scholar  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford.    Editor  of  the  nth  Edition  •{  Forster. 
of  the  Encyclopaedic,  Britannica ;  Co-Editor  of  the  loth  edition.  L 

H.  De.  HIPPOLYTE  DELEHAYE,  S.J.  f  Fiacre  Saint- 

Assistant  in  the  compilation  of  the  Bollandist  publications:  Analecta  Bollandiana •{  -p.^ 
and  Acta  Sanctorum.  \  Flo»an«  Saint. 

H.  F.  G.  HANS  FRIEDRICH  GADOW,  F.R.S.,  PH.D.  ( 

Strickland  Curator  and  Lecturer  on   Zoology  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  4  Flamingo. 
Author  of  "  Amphibia  and  Reptiles,"  in  the  Cambridge  Natural  History. 

H.  L.  S.  H.  LAWRENCE  SWINBURNE  (d.  1909).  |  Flag. 

H.  St.  HENRY  STURT,  M.A.  f  Fechner; 

Author  of  Idola  Theatri ;  The  Idea  of  a  Free  Church ;  Personal  Idealism.  \  Feuerbach,  Lud wig  A. 

f  Fitz  Neal; 
H.  W.  C.  D.       HENRY  WILLIAM  CARLESS  DAVIS,  M.A.  Fitz  Peter,  Geoffrey; 

Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford.    Fellow  of  All  Souls'  College,  Oxford,  -j  Fitz  Stephen,  William; 
1895-1902.    Author  of  England  under  the  Normans  and  Angevins;  Charlemagne.  p<jjz  Xhedmar'  Flambard' 

1  Florence  of  Worcester. 
H.  W.  S.  H.  WICKHAM  STEED.  f 

Correspondent  of  The  Times  at  Vienna.     Correspondent  of  The  Times  at  Rome,  -j  Fabrizi. 
1897-1902.  I 

I.  A.  ISRAEL  ABRAHAMS,  M.A.  f 

Reader  in  Talmudic  and  Rabbinic  Literature,  University  of  Cambridge.    President,  J  Exilareh; 
Jewish  Historical  Society  of  England.    Author  of  A  Short  History  of  Jewish  Litera-  |  Eybeschutz. 
lure;  Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

J.  A.  C.  SIR  JOSEPH  ARCHER  CROWE,  K.C.M.G.  I  p    k  v 

See  the  biographical  article:  CROWE,  SIR  JOSEPH  A.  \  J1'w*'  v 

J.  A.  H.  JOHN  ALLEN  HOWE,  B.Sc.  f 

Curator  and  Librarian  of  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  London.    Author  of -j  France:  Geology. 
The  Geology  of  Building  Stones.  I 

J.  A.  S.  JOHN  ADDINGTON  SYMONDS,  LL.D.  J  Ficino; 

See  the  biographical  article:  SYMONDS,  JOHN  A.  I  Filelfo. 

J.  B.*  JOSEPH  BURTON.  f  Firebrick  t:n  ,,ar,\ 

Partner  in  Pilkington's  Tile  and  Pottery  Co.,  Clifton  Junction,  Manchester.  \ 

J.  B.  P.  JAMES  BELL  PETTIGREW,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.C.P.  (Edin.)  (1834-1908).      f 

Chandos  Professor  of  Medicine  and  Anatomy,  University  of  St  Andrews,  1875-1  Flight  and  Flying  (m  part). 
1908.    Author  of  Animal  Locomotion;  &c.  I 

J.  Bt.  JAMES  BARTLETT.  f 

Lecturer  on   Construction,   Architecture,   Sanitation,   Quantities,  &c.,  at   King's]  u-.,-.!.*: 
College,   London.     Member  of  Society  of  Architects.     Member  of  Institute  of  1  *  ounaa»°ns' 
Junior  Engineers.  L 

J.  C.  M.  JAMES  CLERK  MAXWELL,  LL.D.  J  Faraday. 

See  the  biographical  article:  MAXWELL,  JAMES  CLERK.  X 

J.  E.  C.  B.          JOHN  EDWARD  COURTENAY  BODLEY,  M.A.  f 

Balliol  College,  Oxford.    Corresponding  Member  of  the  Institute  of  France.    Author-^  France:    History,  1870-1910. 
of  France ;  The  Coronation  of  Edward  VII. ;  &c.  |_ 

J.  E.  P.  W.        JOHN  EDWARD  POWER  WALLIS,  M.A. 

Puisne  Judge,  Madras.     Vice-Chancellor  of  Madras  University.     Inns  of  Court  •{  Extradition. 
Reader  in  Constitutional  Law,  1892-1897.    Formerly  Editor  of  Stale  Trials.  I 

J.  F.  St.  JOHN  FREDERICK  STENNING,  M.A.  f 

Dean  and  Fellow  of  Wadham  College,  Oxford.     University  Lecturer  in  Aramaic,  -i  Exodus,  Book  01. 
Lecturer  in  Divinity  and  Hebrew  at  Wadham  College. 

J.  G.  H.  JOSEPH  G.  HORNER,  A.M.I.MECH.E.  f  Forging; 

Author  of  Plating  and  Boiler  Making ;  Practical  Metal  Turning ;  &c.  \_  Founding. 

J.  G.  R.  JOHN  GEORGE  ROBERTSON,  M.A.,  PH.D.  r 

Professor  of  German  at  the  University  of  London.     Formerly  Lecturer  on  the)  , 

English  Language,  Strassburg  University.    Author  of  History  of  German  Literature ;  |  Fouque,  Baron. 
&c.  I 

J.  H.  P.*  JOHN  HUNGERFORD  POLLEN,  M.A.  (d.  1908).  r 

Formerly  Professor  of  Fine  Arts  in  Catholic  University  of  Dublin.     Fellow  of 
Merton   College,   Oxford.     Cantor  Lecturer,   Society  of  Arts,    1885.     Author  of  J  Fan. 
Ancient  and   Modern   Furniture  and    Woodwork;  Ancient  and  Modern  Gold  and  1 
Silversmith's  Work;  The  Trajan  Column;  &c. 

J.  HI.  R.  JOHN  HOLLAND  ROSE,  M.A.,  LITT.D. 

Lecturer  on  Modern  History  to  the  Cambridge  University  Local  Lectures  Syndicate.  J  _       hx 
Author  of  Life  of  Napoleon  I. ;  Napoleonic  Studies;  The  Development  of  the  European  ]  * 
Nations ;  The  Life  of  Pitt ;  chapters  in  the  Cambridge  Modern  History.  |_ 

J.  H.  R.  JOHN  HORACE  ROUND,  M.A.,  LL.D.  (Edin.).  f  Ferrers-  Family 

Author  of  Feudal  England;  Studies  in  Peerage  and  Family  History;  Peerage  and-\  _-,     _  •'' 

Pedigree;  &c.  [  *ltzgeraia.   ramuy. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


IX 


j.i. 

J.  K.  L. 


Francis  I.  of  France. 


Farragut; 
Fitzroy. 


J.  L.  B. 

J.  Ma. 
J.  M.  S. 

J.  Pa. 

J.  P.  E. 

J.  R.  C. 
J.  R.  F.* 
J.  R.  J.  J. 
J.  S.  Bl. 

J.  S.  F. 
J.  S.  K. 

J.  T.  Be. 

K.  S. 
L.  D.* 
L.  F.  S. 
L.  J. 


JULES  ISAAC.  S 

Professor  of  History  at  the  Lycee  of  Lyons.  I 

SIR  JOHN  KNOX  LAUGHTON,  M.A.,  Lrrr.D. 

Professor  of  Modern  History,  King's  College,  London.  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
Records  Society.  Served  in  the  Baltic,  1854-1855;  in  China,  1856-1859.  Mathe- 
matical and  Naval  Instructor,  Royal  Naval  College,  Portsmouth,  1866-1873;. 
Greenwich,  1873-1885.  President,  Royal  Meteorological  Society,  1882-1884. 
Honorary  Fellow,  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.  Fellow,  King's  College, 
London.  Author  of  Physical  Geography  in  its  Relation  to  the  Prevailing  Winds  and 
Currents;  Studies  in  Naval  History;  Sea  Fights  and  Adventures;  &c. 

JULIAN  LEVETT  BAKER,  F.I.C. 

Analytical  and  Consulting  Chemist.    Examiner  in  Brewing  to  the  City  and  Guilds 
of  London  Institute,  Department  of  Technology.     Hon.  Secretary  of  the  Institute  j  • 
of  Brewing.    Author  of  The  Brewing  Industry;  &c. 

JOHN  MACDONALD.  /Fair  (in part). 

JAMES  MONTGOMERY  STUART.  /  Fo  c  1 

Author  of  The  History  of  Free  Trade  in  Tuscany ;  Reminiscences  and  Essays.  1     OSC010. 

JAMES  PATON,  F.L.S. 

Superintendent  of  Museums  and  Art  Galleries  of  Corporation  of  Glasgow.    Assistant 
in  Museum  of  Science  and  Art,  Edinburgh,   1861-1876.     President  of  Museums - 
Association  of  United  Kingdom,  1896.    Editor  and  part-author  of  Scottish  National 
Memorials,  1890. 

JEAN  PAUL  HIPPOLYTE  EMMANUEL  ADHEMAR  ESMEIN. 

Professor  of  Law  in  the  University  of  Paris.  Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 
Member  of  the  Institute  of  France.  Author  of  Cours  elementaire  d'histoire  du  droit 
fran$ais;  &c.  L 

JOSEPH  ROGERSON  COTTER,  M.A.  f 

Assistant  to  the  Professor  of  Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy,  Trinity  College,  •<  Fluorescence. 
Dublin.    Editor  of  2nd  edition  of  Preston's  Theory  of  Heat.  I 

JOSEPH  R.  FISHER. 

Editor  of  the  Northern  Whig,  Belfast. 
the  Press ;  &c. 


Feather  (in  part). 


France:  Law  and  Institutions. 


Author  of  Finland  and  the  Tsars;  Law  of  4  Finland. 


Fireworks:  History. 


Britannica.     Joint   Editor  of   the)  Fasting; 

Critical   History   of  the    Christian  1  Feasts  and  Festivals. 


JULIAN  ROBERT  JOHN  JOCELYN. 

Colonel,  R.A.     Formerly  Commandant,  Ordnance  College;  Member  of  Ordnance 
Committee ;  Commandant,  Schools  of  Gunnery. 

REV.  JOHN  SUTHERLAND  BLACK,  M.A.,  LL.D. 

Assistant  Editor,  o.th  edition,  Encyclopaedia 
Encyclopaedia  Biblica.  Translated  Ritschl's 
Doctrine  of  Justification  and  Reconciliation. 

JOHN  SMITH  FLETT,  D.Sc.,  F.G.S.  c 

Petrographer  to  the  Geological  Survey.    Formerly  Lecturer  on  Petrology  in  Edin-  J  Felsite; 
burgh  University.     Neill  Medallist  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.     Bigsby  j  pijnt 
Medallist  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London. 

JOHN  SCOTT  KELTIE,  LL.D.,  F.S.S.,  F.S.A.  (Scot.).  r 

Secretary,  Royal  Geographical  Society.     Knight  of  Swedish  Order  of  North  Star.      Finland   ( 
Commander  of  the  Norwegian  Order  of  St  Olaf.     Hon.  Member,  Geographical^  *}.        ' 
Societies  of  Paris,  Berlin,  Rome,  &c.    Editor  of  Statesman's  Year  Book.    Editor  of     *  miners. 
the  Geographical  Journal.  I 

JOHN  T.  BEALBY.  r 

Joint  Author  of  Stanford's  Europe.     Formerly  Editor  of  the  Scottish  Geographical  J.  Fens; 

Magazine.     Translator  of  Sven  Hedin's  Through  Asia,  Central  Asia  and  Tibet;  &c.  [  Ferghana  (in  part). 


L.  V.* 


KATHLEEN  SCHLESINGER. 

Author  of  The  Instruments  of  the  Orchestra. 

LOUIS    DUCHESNE. 

See  the  biographical  article:  DUCHESNE,  L.  M.  O. 

LESLIE  FREDERIC  SCOTT,  M.A.,  K.C. 
Barrister-at-Law,  Inner  Temple. 

LlEUT.-COLONEL   LOUIS    CHARLES   JACKSON,  R.E.,  C.M.G. 

Assistant  Director  of  Fortifications  and  Works,  War  Office.  Formerly  Instructor 
in  Fortification,  R.M.A.,  Woolwich.  Instructor  in  Fortification  and  Military 
Engineering,  School  of  Military  Engineering,  Chatham 


LUIGI  VILLARI. 

Italian  Foreign  Office  (Emigration  Dept.).  Formerly  Newspaper  Correspondent 
in  east  of  Europe.  Italian  Vice-Consul  in  New  Orleans,  1906;  Philadelphia,  1907; 
Boston,  U.S.A.,  1907-1910.  Author  of  Italian  Life  in  Town  and  Country;  Fire  and 
Sword  in  the  Caucasus ;  &c. 


/Fiddle;  Fife;  Flageolet; 
\Flute  (in  part). 


Formosus. 


Factor. 


'  Fortification  and  Siegecraft. 


I 


Faliero;  Fanti,  Manfredo; 
Farini,  Luigi  Carlo; 
Farnese:  Family; 
Ferdinand  I.  and  IV.  of  Naples; 
Ferdinand  II.  of  the  Two 

Sicilies; 

Fiesco;  Filangieri,  C.; 
Florence;  Foscari; 
Fossombroni; 
Francis  II.  of  the  Two 

Sicilies; 
Francis  IV.  and  V.  of  Modena. 


Folklore. 


x  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

BL  Ha.  MARCUS  HARTOG,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  F.L.S.  r 

Professor  of  Zoology,  University  College,  Cork.  Author  of  "  Protozoa,"  in  Cam-  -{ 
bridge  Natural  History;  and  papers  for  various  scientific  journals. 

N.  W.  T.  NORTHCOTE  WHITBRIDGE  THOMAS,  M.A.  f  Faith  Healing- 

Government  Anthropologist  to  Southern  Nigeria.     Corresponding  Member  of  the]  °' 

Societe  d'Anthropologie  de  Paris.  Author  of  Thought  Transference  ;  Kinship  and  1 
Marriage  in  Australia  ;  &c.  [_ 

0.  H.*  OTTO  HEHNER,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.  r 

Public  Analyst.    Formerly  President  of  Society  of  Public  Analysts.    Vice-President  J  Food  Preservation 
of  Institute  of  Chemistry  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.    Author  of  works  on  Butter  | 
Analysis;  Alcohol  Tables;  &c.  I 

0.  M.  DAVID  ORME  MASSON,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.  f 

Professor  of  Chemistry,  Melbourne  University.    Author  of  papers  on  chemistry  in  -I  Fireworks:   Modern. 
the  transactions  of  various  learned  societies.  [ 

P.  A.  PAUL  DANIEL  ALPHANDERY.  r 

Professor  of  the  History  of  Dogma,  Ecole  Pratique  des  Hautes  Etudes,  Sorbonne,  J  _. 

Paris.    Author  of  Les  Idees  morales  chez  les  heterodoxes  latines  au  debut  du  XIII'  1  F  lageliants. 

siecle.  [ 

P.  A.  K.  PRINCE  PETER  ALEXEIVITCH  KROPOTKIN.  /  Ferghana  (in  part)  ; 

See  the  biographical  article:  KROPOTKIN,  P.  A.  I  Finland  (in  part). 

P.C.Y.  PHILIP  CHESNEY  YORKE,  M.A.  f  Falkland;  Fanshaw; 

Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  1  Fawkes,  Guy;  Fell,  John; 

\  Fortescue,  Sir  John. 

P.  C.  M.  PETER  CHALMERS  MITCHELL,  F.R.S.,  F.Z.S.,  D.Sc.,  LL.D. 

Secretary  to  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.     University  Demonstrator  in  Com- 

parative  Anatomy   and   Assistant   to   Linacre   Professor  at   Oxford,    1881-1891.  J  Evolution 

Examiner  in  Zoology  to  the  University  of  London,  1903.      Author  of  Outlines  of 

Biology;  &c.  [ 

P.  G.  K.  PAUL  GEORGE  KONODY.  r 

Art  Critic  of  the  Observer  and  the  Daily  Mail.     Formerly  Editor  of  The  Artist  J  Florenzo  di  Lorenzo; 
Author  of  The  Art  of  Walter  Crane;  Velasquez,  Life  and  Work;  &c.  I  Fragonard. 

P.  J.  H.  PHILIP  JOSEPH  HARTOG,  M.A.,  L.  is  Sc.  (Paris).  r 

Academic  Registrar  of  the  University  of  London.  Author  of  The  Writing  of  English,  I.  .  t,  ,.  A 
and  articles  in  the  Special  Reports  on  educational  subjects  of  the  Board  of  Edu-  1  Examinations  (in  part). 
cation. 

P.  W.  PAUL  WIRIATH.  f 

Director  of  the  Ecole  Superieure  Pratique  de  Commerce  et  d'Industrie,  Paris.  \  France:  History  to  1870. 

R.  Ad.  ROBERT  ADAMSON,  LL.D.  C  Fichte; 

See  the  biographical  article:  ADAMSON,  R.  "1  Fourier,  F.  C.  M. 

R.  A.  S.  M.        ROBERT  ALEXANDER  STEWART  MACALISTER,  M.A.,  F.S.A.  f 

St  John's  College,  Cambridge.     Director  of  Excavations  for  the  Palestine  Ex-  -I  Font. 
ploration  Fund. 

R.  H.  C.  REV.  ROBERT  HENRY  CHARLES,  M.A.,  D.D.,  D.LITT.  (Oxon.).  r 

Grinfield  Lecturer  and  Lecturer  in  Biblical  Studies,  Oxford.     Fellow  of  the  British      FIM-   Ti,W  /,^/y  Tf~,lrn, 
Academy.     Formerly  Senior  Moderator  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.     Author  and  1        „  '  ,      ,    am  founlt 
Editor  of  Book  of  Enoch;  Book  of  Jubilees;  Apocalypse  of  Baruch;  Assumption  of         DOORS  of. 
Moses  ;  Ascension  of  Isaiah  ;  Testaments  of  the  XII.  Patriarchs  ;  &c.  I 

R.  J.  M.  RONALD  JOHN  MCNEILL,  M.A.  f  Fenians; 

Christ  Church,  Oxford.     Barrister-at-Law.     Formerly  Editor  of  the  St  James's  -\  Fitzgerald,  Lord  Edward; 
Gazette,  London.  ^  Flood,  Henry. 

R.  L.*  RICHARD  LYDEKKER,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  F.Z.S.  r 

Member  of  the  Staff  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  1874-1882.     Author  of  J  Flying-Squirrel; 
Catalogue  of  Fossil  Mammals,  Reptiles  and  Birds  in  British  Museum;  The  Deer]  Fox. 
of  all  Lands;  The  Game  Animals  of  Africa;  &c. 

R.  N.  B.  ROBERT  NISBET  BAIN  (d.  1909). 

Assistant  Librarian,   British   Museum,    1883-1909.     Author  of  Scandinavia:  the     17™    ,   rnnnt=  w«n 
Political  History  of  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  1513-1900;  The  First  Romanovs,  '  ' 

1613-1725  ;  Slavonic  Europe  :  the  Political  History  of  Poland  and  Russia  from  1460 
to  1706;  &c. 

R.  Po.  RENE  POUPARDIN,  D.  is  L.  r 

Secretary  of  the  Ecole  des  Charles.  Honorary  Librarian  at  the  Bibliotheque  1 
Nationale,  Paris.  Author  of  Le  Royaume  de  Provence  sous  les  Carolingiens;  Recueil  ) 
des  chartes  de  Saint-Germain  ;  &c. 

R.  P.  S.  R.  PHENE  SPIERS,  F.S.A.,  F.R.I.B.A. 

Formerly   Master  of  the  Architectural  School,   Royal  Academy,   London.     Past 

President  of  Architectural  Association.     Associate  and  Fellow  of  King's  College,  J  Flute:   Architecture. 

London.    Corresponding  Member  of  the  Institute  of  France.    Editor  of  Fergusson's 

History  of  Architecture.  .  Author  of  Architecture:  East  and  West;  &c. 

R.  S.  C.  ROBERT  SEYMOUR  CONWAY,  M.A.,  D.LITT.  (Cantab.).  f 

Professor  of  Latin  and  Indo-European  Philology  in  the  University  of  Manchester.  I  _  ..  . 
Formerly  Professor  of  Latin  in  University  College.  Cardiff;  and  Fellow  of  Gonville  1  *allscl' 
and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.  Author  of  The  Italic  Dialects.  I 

R.  Tr.  ROLAND  TRUSLOVE,  M.A.  f 

Formerly  Scholar  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford.    Fellow,  Dean  and  Lecturer  in  Classics  -J  France:  Statistics. 
at  Worcester  College,  Oxford. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


XI 


S.  A.  C. 
S.tJ. 

stc. 

S.  E.  B. 

S.  E.  S.-R. 
T.  A.  I. 
T.  As. 

T.  Ba. 
T.  H.  H.* 

T.  K.  C. 
T.Se. 

T.  Wo. 
V.  M. 

W.  A.  B.  C. 

W.  A.  P. 
W.  B.* 
W.  Ca. 
W.  Ga. 

W.He. 
W.  M.  R. 


STANLEY  ARTHUR  COOK,  M.A.  j" 

Editor  for  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.     Lecturer  in  Hebrew  and  Syriac,  and 
formerly  Fellow,  Gonyille  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.    Examiner  in  Hebrew  and  J  Exodus,  The; 
Aramaic,  London  University,  1904-1908.     Author  of  Glossary  of  Aramaic  Inscrip-}  p...  an|j  wBi,ornjau    Rnnke  nf 
tions;  The  Laws  of  Moses  and  the  Code  of  Hammurabi;  Critical  Notes  on  Old  Testa-     Ezra  and    lenemian>  Bo°KS  Ol 
ment  History;  Religion  of  Ancient  Palestine;  &c. 


SIDNEY  COLVIN,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article  :  COLVIN,  S. 

VISCOUNT  ST  CYRES. 

See  the  biographical  article:  IDDESLEIGH,  IST  EARL  OF 

HON.  SIMEON  EBEN  BALDWIN,  M.A.,  LL.D. 

Professor   of   Constitutional  and  Private  International  Law  in  Yale    University. 
Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Comparative  Law  of  the  American  Bar  Association.  • 
Formerly  Chief  Justice  of  Connecticut.     Author  of  Modern  Political  Institutions; 
American  Railroad  Law;  &c. 

STEPHEN  EDWARD  SPRING-RICE,  M.A.,  C.B.  (1856-1902). 

Formerly  Principal  Clerk,  H.M.  Treasury,  and  Auditor  of  the  Civil  List.    Fellow  of  - 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 

THOMAS  ALLAN  INGRAM,  M.A.,  LL.D. 
Trinity  College,  Dublin. 


/  Fine  Arts;  Finiguerra; 

I  Flaxman. 

\  Fenelon. 


Extradition:  U.S.A. 


Exchequer  (in  part). 


•I  Explosives:  Law. 


THOMAS  ASHBY,  M.A.,  D.LITT.  (Oxon.),  F.S.A. 

Director  of  British  School  of  Archaeology  at  Rome.     Formerly  Scholar  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.     Craven  Fellow,  1897.     Corresponding  Member  of  the  Imperial" 
German  Archaeological  Institute.    Author  of  the  Classical  Topography  of  the  Roman 
Campagna;  &c. 


Faesulae;  Falerii;  Falerio; 
Fanum  Fortunae; 
Ferentino;  Fermo; 
Flaminia  Via; 
Florence:  Early  History: 
.  Fondi;  Fonni;  Forum  Appiu 


SIR  THOMAS  BARCLAY,  M.P. 

Member  of  the  Institute  of  International  Law.    Member  of  the  Supreme  Council  of  J  Exterritoriality 
the  Congo  Free  State.     Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.     Author  of  Problems  of  ] 
International  Practice  and  Diplomacy;  &c.    M.P.  for  Blackburn,  1910.  I 


-f. 


j  Eve  (in  part). 


SIR  THOMAS  HUNGERFORD  HOLDICH,  K.C.M.G.,  K.C.I.E.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.G.S. 

Colonel  in  the  Royal  Engineers.     Superintendent,  Frontier  Surveys,  India,  1892-  . 

1898.      Gold    Medallist,    R.G.S.,    London,    1887.     H.M.    Commissioner   for   the  •{  Everest,  Mount 

Persia-Beluch  Boundary,  1896.     Author  of  The  Indian  Borderland;  The  Gates  of 

India ;  &c.  L 

REV.  THOMAS  KELLY  CHEYNE,  D.D. 

See  the  biographical  article :  CHEYNE,  T.  K. 

THOMAS  SECCOMBE,  MA.  [" 

Lecturer  in  History,  East  London  and  Birkbeck  Colleges,  University  of  London. 
Stanhope  Prizeman,  Oxford,   1887.     Formerly  Assistant  Editor  of  Dictionary  of  J  Fawceit,  Henry. 
National  Biography,  1891-1901.    Joint-author  of  The  Bookman  History  of  English 
Literature.    Author  of  The  Age  of  Johnson ;  &c. 

THOMAS  WOODHOUSE.  r 

Head  of  Weaving  and  Textile  Designing  Department,  Technical  College,  Dundee.       ~\  ' 

VICTOR  CHARLES  MAHILLON.  r 

Principal  of  the  Conservatoire  Royal  deMusique  at  Brussels.    Chevalier  of  the  Legion  J  Flute  (in  part). 
of  Honour. 

REV.  WILLIAM  AUGUSTUS  BREVOORT  COOLIDGE,  M.A.,  F.R.G  S.,  Ph.D.  (Bern),  r 
Fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  Professor  of  English  History,  St  David's! 
College,  Lampeter,  1880-1881.  Author  of  Guide  to  Switzerland;  The  Alps  in] 
Nature  and  in  History ;  &c.  Editor  of  the  Alpine  Journal,  1880-1889.  L 

WALTER  ALISON  PHILLIPS,  M.A.  f  Excellency  Faust- 

Formerly  Exhibitioner  of  Merton  College  and  Senior  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  •{  w  i,       •     -om 


Flax. 


Oxford.    Author  of  Modern  Europe;  &c. 

WILLIAM  BURTON,  M.A.,  F.C.S. 

Chairman,  Joint  Committee  of  Pottery  Manufacturers  of  Great  Britain. 
English  Stoneware  and  Earthenware ;  &c. 


•v 

Author  of -j  Firebrick  (in  part). 


WALTER  CAMP,  A.M. 

Member  of  Yale  University  Council. 
and  Figures;  &c. 


Author  of  American  Football;  Football  Facts  -I  Football:    American  (in  part). 


WALTER  GARSTANG,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 

Professor  of  Zoology  at  the  University  of  Leeds.     Scientific  Adviser  to  H.M. 
Delegates  on  the  International  Council  for  the  Exploration  of  the  Sea,  1901-1907.-;  Fisheries, 
Formerly  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford.    Author  of  The  Races  and  Migrations 
of  the  Mackerel ;  The  Impoverishment  of  the  Sea ;  &c. 

WALTER  HEPWORTH. 

Formerly  Commissioner  of  the  Council  of  Education,  Science  and  Art  Department,  - 
South  Kensington. 


WILLIAM  MICHAEL  ROSSETTI. 

See  the  biographical  article :  ROSSETTI,  DANTE  G. 


Fool. 

Ferrari,  Gaudenzio; 
Fielding,  Copley; 
Franceschi,  Piero;  Francia. 


Xll 
W.  P.  P. 

W.  N.  S. 

W.  P.  R. 

W.  R.  S. 
W.  R.  E.  H. 

W.  Sch. 
W.  W.  F.* 
W.  W.  R.* 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


WILLIAM  PLANE  PYCRAFT,  F.Z.S. 

Assistant  in  the  Zoological  Department,   British  Museum.     Formerly  Assistant . 
Linacre    Professor   of    Comparative    Anatomy,    Oxford.      Vice-President   of   the 
Selborne  Society.    Author  of  A  History  of  Birds ;  &c. 

WILLIAM  NAPIER  SHAW,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S. 

Director  of  the  Meteorological  Office.    Reader  in  Meteorology  in  the  University  of 
London.      President    of    Permanent    International    Meteorological    Committee.  „ 
Member  of  Meteorological  Council,  1897-1905.    Hon.  Fellow  of  Emmanuel  College, " 
Cambridge.     Fellow  of  Emmanuel  College,  1877-1899;  Senior  Tutor,  1890-1899. 
Joint  Author  of  Text  Book  of  Practical  Physics;  &c. 

HON.  WILLIAM  PEMBER  REEVES.  , 

Director  of  London  School  of  Economics.    Agent-General  and  High  Commissioner 
for  New  Zealand,  1896-1909.     Minister  of  Education,  Labour  and  Justice,  NewJ  nni  Sir  William 
Author  of  The  Long  White  Cloud,  a  History  of  New  Zealand; 


Feather  (in  part). 


Fog. 


Zealand,  1891-1896. 
&c. 


Eve  (in  part). 


Explosives. 


WILLIAM  ROBERTSON  SMITH,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article:  SMITH,  W.  R. 

WILLIAM  RICHARD  EATON  HODGKINSON,  PH.D.,  F.R.S. 

Professor  of   Chemistry  and   Physics,   Ordnance  College,   Woolwich.     Formerly 
Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physics,  R.M.A.,  Woolwich.    Part  Author  of  Valentin- " 
Hodgkinson's  Practical  Chemistry;  &c. 

SIR  WILHELM  SCHLICH,  K.C.I.E.,  M.A.,  PH.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.  r 

Professor  of  Forestry  at  the  University  of  Oxford.    Hon.  Fellow  of  St  John's  College.  I  _  ,  _ 

Author  of  A  Manual  of  Forestry;  Forestry  in  the  United  Kingdom;  The  Outlook  of)  Forests  and  Forestry. 
the  World's  Timber  Supply;  &c.  [ 

WILLIAM  WARDE  FOWLER,  M.A.  f 

Fellow   of  Lincoln   College,   Oxford.     Sub-rector,    1881-1904.     Gifford  Lecturer, 
Edinburgh  University,  1908.    Author  of  The  City-State  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans;' 
The  Roman  Festivals  of  the  Republican  Period ;  &c. 

WILLIAM  WALKER  ROCKWELL,  LIC.THEOL. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Church  History,  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
Author  of  Die  Doppelehe  des  Landgrafen  Philipp  von  Hessen. 


Fortuna. 


New  York.  -  Ferrara-Florence,  Council  of. 


PRINCIPAL  UNSIGNED  ARTICLES 


Evil  Eye. 
Excise. 
Execution. 

Executors  and  Adminis- 
trators. 
•  Exeter. 
Exile. 
Eylau. 
Famine. 


Fault. 

Federal  Government 

Federalist  Party. 

Fehmic  Courts. 

Felony. 

Fez. 

Fezzan. 

Fictions. 

Fife. 


Fig. 

Filigree 

Fir. 

Fives. 

Fleurus. 

Florida. 

Foix. 

Fold. 

Fontenelle. 


Fontenoy. 

Foot  and  Mouth  Disease. 

Forest  Laws. 

Foriarshire. 

Forgery. 

Formosa. 

Foundling  Hospitals. 

Fountain. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNIC  A 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


VOLUME  X 


EVAN&ELICAL  CHURCH  CONFERENCE,  a  convention  of 
delegates  from  the  different  Protestant  churches  of  Germany. 
The  conference  originated  in  1848,  when  the  general  desire  for 
political  unity  made  itself  felt  in  the  ecclesiastical  sphere  as  well. 
A  preliminary  meeting  was  held  at  Sandhof  near  Frankfort  in 
June  of  that  year,  and  on  the  2ist  of  September  some  five 
hundred  delegates  representing  the  Lutheran,  the  Reformed,  the 
United  and  the  Moravian  churches  assembled  at  Wittenberg. 
The  gathering  was  known  as  Kirchentag  (church  diet),  and, 
while  leaving  each  denomination  free  in  respect  of  constitution, 
ritual,  doctrine  and  attitude  towards  the  state,  agreed  to  act 
unitedly  in  bearing  witness  against  the  non-evangelical  churches 
and  in  defending  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  churches  in  the 
federation.  The  organization  thus  closely  resembles  that  of  the 
Free  Church  Federation  in  England.  The  movement  exercised 
considerable  influence  during  the  middle  of  the  igth  century. 
Though  no  Kirchentag,  as  such,  has  been  convened  since  1871, 
its  place  has  been  taken  by  the  Kongress  fiir  innere  Mission, 
which  holds  annual  meetings  in  different  towns.  There  is  also 
a  biennial  conference  of  the  evangelical  churches  held  at  Eisenach 
to  discuss  matters  of  general  interest.  Its  decisions  have  no 
legislative  force. 

EVANGELICAL  UNION,  a  religious  denomination  which 
originated  in  the  suspension  of  the  Rev.  James  Morison  (1816- 
1893),  minister  of  a  United  Secession  congregation  in  Kilmarnock, 
Scotland,  for  certain  views  regarding  faith,  the  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  in  salvation,  and  the  extent  of  the  atonement,  which  were 
regarded  by  the  supreme  court  of  his  church  as  anti-Calvinistic 
and  heretical.  Morison  was  suspended  by  the  presbytery  in 
1841  and  thereupon  definitely  withdrew  from  the  Secession 
Church.  His  father,  who  was  minister  at  Bathgate,  and  two 
other  ministers,  being  deposed  not  long  afterwards  for  similar 
opinions,  the  four  met  at  Kilmarnock  on  the  i6th  of  May  1843 
(two  days  before  the  "  Disruption  "  of  the  Free  Church),  and, 
on  the  basis  of  certain  doctrinal  principles,  formed  themselves 
into  an  association  under  the  name  of  the  Evangelical  Union, 
"  for  the  purpose  of  countenancing,  counselling  and  otherwise 
aiding  one  another,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  training  up 
spiritual  and  devoted  young  men  to  carry  forward  the  work  and 
'  pleasure  of  the  Lord.'  "  The  doctrinal  views  of  the  new  de- 
nomination gradually  assumed  a  more  decidedly  anti-Calvinistic 
x.  i 


form,  and  they  began  also  to  find  many  sympathizers  among 
the  Congregationalists  of  Scotland.  Nine  students  were  expelled 
from  the  Congregational  Academy  for  holding  "  Morisonian  " 
doctrines,  and  in  1845  eight  churches  were  disjoined  from  the 
Congregational  Union  of  Scotland  and  formed  a  connexion  with 
the  Evangelical  Union.  The  Union  exercised  no  jurisdiction 
over  the  individual  churches  connected  with  it,  and  in  this  respect 
adhered  to  the  Independent  or  Congregational  form  of  church 
government;  but  those  congregations  which  originally  were  Pres- 
byterian vested  their  government  in  a  body  of  elders.  In  1889 
the  denomination  numbered  93  churches;  and  in  1896,  after 
prolonged  negotiation,  the  Evangelical  Union  was  incorporated 
with  the  Congregational  Union  of  Scotland. 

See  The  Evangelical  Union  Annual;  History  of  the  Evangelical 
Union,  by  F.  Ferguson  (Glasgow,  1876);  The  Worthies  of  the  E.U. 
(1883) ;  W.  Adamson,  Life  of  Dr  James  Morison  (1898). 

EVANS,  CHRISTMAS  (1766-1838),  Welsh  Nonconformist 
divine,  was  born  near  the  village  of  Llandyssul,  Cardiganshire, 
on  the  25th  of  December  1766.  His  father,  a  shoemaker,  died 
early,  and  the  boy  grew  up  as  an  illiterate  farm  labourer.  At 
the  age  of  seventeen,  becoming  servant  to  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  David  Davies,  he  was  affected  by  a  religious  revival  and 
learned  to  read  and  write  in  English  and  Welsh.  The  itinerant 
Calvinistic  Methodist  preachers  and  the  members  of  the  Baptist 
church  at  Llandyssul  further  influenced  him,  and  he  soon  joined 
the  latter  denomination.  In  1789  he  went  into  North  Wales 
as  a  preacher  and  settled  for  two  years  in  the  desolate  peninsula 
of  Lleyn,  Carnarvonshire,  whence  he  removed  to  Llangefni  in 
Anglesey.  Here,  on  a  stipend  of  £17  a  year,  supplemented  by  a 
little  tract-selling,  he  built  up  a  strong  Baptist  community, 
modelling  his  organization  to  some  extent  on  that  of  the  Calvin- 
istic Methodists.  Many  new  chapels  were  built,  the  money  being 
collected  on  preaching  tours  which  Evans  undertook  in  South 
Wales. 

In  1826  Evans  accepted  an  invitation  to  Caerphilly,  where 
he  remained  for  two  years,  removing  in  1828  to  Cardiff. 
In  1832,  in  response  to  urgent  calls  from  the  north,  he  settled 
in  Carnarvon  and  again  undertook  the  old  work  of  building  and 
collecting.  He  was  taken  ill  on  a  tour  in  South  Wales,  and  died 
at  Swansea  on  the  igth  of  July  1838.  In  spite  of  his  early  dis- 
advantages and  personal  disfigurement  (he  had  lost  an  eye  in  a 


EVANS,  E.  H.— EVANS,  O. 


youthful  brawl),  Christmas  Evans  was  a  remarkably  powerful 
preacher.  To  a  natural  aptitude  for  this  calling-  he  united  a 
nimble  mind  and  an  inquiring  spirit;  his  character  was  simple, 
his  piety  humble  and  his  faith  fervently  evangelical.  For  a  time 
he  came  under  Sandemanian  influence,  and  when  the  Wesleyans 
entered  Wales  he  took  the  Calvinist  side  in  the  bitter  controversies 
that  were  frequent  from  1800  to  1810.  His  chief  characteristic 
was  a  vivid  and  affluent  imagination,  which  absorbed  and 
controlled  all  his  other  powers,  and  earned  for  him  the  name  of 
"  the  Bunyan  of  Wales." 

His  works  were  edited  by  Owen  Davies  in  3  vols.  (Carnarvon, 
1895-1897).  See  the  Lives  by  D.  R.  Stephens  (1847)  and  Paxton 
Hood  (1883). 

EVANS,  EVAN  HERBER  (1836-1896),  Welsh  Nonconformist 
divine,  was  born  on  the  5th  of  July  1836,  at  Pant  yr  Onen  near 
Newcastle  Emlyn,  Cardiganshire.  As  a  boy  he  saw  something 
of  the  "  Rebecca  Riots,"  and  went  to  school  at  the  neighbouring 
village  of  Llechryd.  In  1853  he  went  into  business,  first  at 
Pontypridd  and  then  at  Merthyr,  but  next  year  made  his  way  to 
Liverpool.  He  decided  to  enter  the  ministry,  and  studied  arts 
and  theology  respectively  at  the  Normal  College,  Swansea,  and 
the  Memorial  College,  Brecon,  his  convictions  being  deepened 
by  the  religious  revival  of  1858-1859.  In  1862  he  succeeded 
Thomas  Jones  as  minister  of  the  Congregational  church  at 
Morriston  near  Swansea.  In  1865  he  became  pastor  of  Salem 
church,  Carnarvon,  a  charge  which  he  occupied  for  nearly  thirty 
years  despite  many  invitations  to  English  pastorates.  In  1894 
he  became  principal  of  the  Congregational  college  at  Bangor. 
He  died  on  the  3Oth  of  December  1896.  He  was  chairman  of 
the  Welsh  Congregational  Union  in  1886  and  of  the  Congregational 
Union  of  England  and  Wales  in  1892;  and  by  his  earnest 
ministry,  his  eloquence  and  his  literary  work,  especially  in  the 
denominational  paper  Y  Dysgedydd,  he  achieved  a  position  of 
great  influence  in  his  country. 

See  Life  by  H.  Elvet  Lewis. 

EVANS,  SIR  GEORGE  DE  LACY  (1787-1870),  British  soldier, 
was  born  at  Moig,  Limerick,  in  1787.  He  was  educated  at 
Woolwich  Academy,  and  entered  the  army  in  1806  as  a  volunteer, 
obtaining  an  ensigncy  in  the  22nd  regiment  in  1807.  His  early 
service  was  spent  in  India,  but  he  exchanged  into  the  3rd  Light 
Dragoons  in  order  to  take  part  in  the  Peninsular  War,  and  was 
present  in  the  retreat  from  Burgos  in  1812.  In  1813  he  was  at 
Vittoria,  and  was  afterwards  employed  in  making  a  military 
survey  of  the  passes  of  the  Pyrenees.  He  took  part  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1814,  and  was  present  at  Pampeluna,  the  Nive  and 
Toulouse;  and  later  in  the  year  he  served  with  great  distinction 
on  the  staff  in  General  Ross's  Bladensburg  campaign,  and  took 
part  in  the  capture  of  Washington  and  of  Baltimore  and  the 
operations  before  New  Orleans.  He  returned  to  England  in  the 
spring  of  1815,  in  time  to  take  part  in  the  Waterloo  campaign  as 
assistant  quartermaster-general  on  Sir  T.  Picton's  staff.  As  a 
member  of  the  staff  of  the  duke  of  Wellington  he  accompanied 
the  English  army  to  Paris,  and  remained  there  during  the 
occupation  of  the  city  by  the  allies.  He  was  still  a  substantive 
captain  in  the  5th  West  India  regiment,  though  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  by  brevet,  when  he  went  on  half-pay  in  1818.  In  1830 
he  was  elected  M.P.  for  Rye  in  the  Liberal  interest;  but  in  the 
election  of  1832  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  both  for  that 
borough  and  for  Westminster.  For  the  latter  constituency  he 
was,  however,  returned  in  1833,  and,  except  in  the  parliament 
of  1841-1846,  he  continued  to  represent  it  till  1865,  when  he 
retired  from  political  life.  His  parliamentary  duties  did  not, 
however,  interfere  with  his  career  as  a  soldier.  In  1835  he  went 
out  to  Spain  in  command  of  the  Spanish  Legion,  recruited  in 
England,  and  9600  strong,  which  served  for  two  years  in  the 
Carlist  War  on  the  side  of  the  queen  of  Spain.  In  spite  of  great 
difficulties  the  legion  won  great  distinction  on  the  battlefields 
of  northern  Spain,  and  Evans  was  able  to  say  that  no  prisoners 
had  been  taken  from  it  m  action,  that  it  had  never  lost  a  gun 
or  an  equipage,  and  that  it  had  taken  27  guns  and  noo  prisoners 
from  the  enemy.  He  received  several  Spanish  orders,  and  on  his 
return  in  1839  was  made  a  colonel  and  K.C.B.  In  1846  he  became 


major-general;  and  in  1854,  on  the  breaking-out  of  the  Crimean 
War,  he  was  made  lieutenant-general  and  appointed  to  command 
the  2nd  division  of  the  Army  of  the  East.  At  the  battle  of  the 
Alma,  where  he  received  a  severe  wound,  his  quick  comprehension 
of  the  features  of  the  combat  largely  contributed  to  the  victory. 
On  the  26th  of  October  he  defeated  a  large  Russian  force  which 
attacked  his  position  on  Mount  Inkerman.  Illness  and  fatigue 
compelled  him  a  few  days  after  this  to  leave  the  command  of  his 
division  in  the  hands  of  General  Pennefather;  but  he  rose 
from  his  sick-bed  on  the  day  of  the  battle  of  Inkerman,  the  5th  of 
November,  and,  declining  to  take  the  command  of  his  division 
from  Pennefather,  aided  him  in  the  long-protracted  struggle  by 
his  advice.  On  his  return  invalided  to  England  in  the  following 
February,  Evans  received  the  thanks  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
He  was  made  a  G.C.B.,  and  the  university  of  Oxford  conferred  on 
him  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  In  1861  he  was  promoted  to  the  full 
rank  of  general.  He  died  in  London  on  the  9th  of  January  1870. 

EVANS,  SIR  JOHN  (1823-1908),  English  archaeologist  and 
geologist,  son  of  the  Rev.  Dr  A.  B.  Evans,  head  master  of 
Market  Bosworth  grammar  school,  was  born  at  Britwell  Court, 
Bucks,  on  the  i7th  of  November  1823.  He  was  for  many  years 
head  of  the  extensive  paper  manufactory  of  Messrs  John  Dickin- 
son at  Nash  Mills,  Hemel  Hempstead,  but  was  especially  dis- 
tinguished as  an  antiquary  and  numismatist.  He  was  the  author 
of  three  books,  standard  in  their  respective  departments:  The 
Coins  of  the  Ancient  Britons  (1864);  The  Ancient  Stone  Imple- 
ments, Weapons  and  Ornaments  of  Great  Britain  (1872,  2nd  ed. 
1897);  and  The  Ancient  Bronze  Implements,  Weapons  and 
Ornaments  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (1881).  He  also  wrote  a 
number  of  separate  papers  on  archaeological  and  geological  sub- 
jects— notably  the  papers  on  "  Flint  Implements  in  the  Drift  " 
communicated  in  1860  and  1862  to  Archaeologia,  the  organ  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries.  Of  that  society  he  was  president  from 
1885  to  1892,  and  he  was  president  of  the  Numismatic  Society 
from  1874  to  the  time  of  his  death.  He  also  presided  over  the 
Geological  Society,  1874-1876;  the  Anthropological  Institute, 
1877-1879;  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  1892-1893; 
the  British  Association,  1897-1898;  and  for  twenty  years  (1878- 
1898)  he  was  treasurer  of  the  Royal  Society.  As  president  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries  he  was  an  ex  officio  trustee  of  the  British 
Museum,  and  subsequently  he  became  a  permanent  trustee. 
His  academic  honours  included  honorary  degrees  from  several 
universities,  and  he  was  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Institut 
de  France.  He  was  created  a  K.C.B.  in  1892.  He  died  at 
Berkhamsted  on  the  3ist  of  May  1908. 

His  eldest  son,  ARTHUR  JOHN  EVANS,  born  in  1851,  was 
educated  at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  and  Gottingen.  He  be- 
came fellow  of  Brasenose  and  in  1884  keeper  of  the  Ashmolean 
Museum  at  Oxford.  He  travelled  in  Finland  and  Lapland  in 
1873-1874,  and  in  1875  made  a  special  study  of  archaeology 
and  ethnology  in  the  Balkan  States.  In  1893  he  began  his 
investigations  in  Crete,  which  have  resulted  in  discoveries  of 
the  utmost  importance  concerning  the  early  history  of  Greece 
and  the  eastern  Mediterranean  (see  AEGEAN  CIVILIZATION  and 
CRETE).  He  is  a  member  of  all  the  chief  archaeological  societies 
in  Europe,  holds  honorary  degrees  at  Oxford,  Edinburgh  and 
Dublin,  and  is  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  His  chief  publi- 
cations are:  Cretan  Piclographs  and  Prae- Phoenician  Script 
(1896);  Further  Discoveries  of  Cretan  and  Aegean  Script  (1898); 
The  Mycenaean  Tree  and  Pillar  Cidt  (1901);  Scripta  Minoa 
(1909  foil.);  and  reports  on  the  excavations.  He  also  edited 
with  additions  Freeman's  History  of  Sicily,  vol.  iv. 

EVANS,  OLIVER  (1755-1819),  American  mechanician,  was 
born  at  Newport,  Delaware,  in  1755.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a 
wheelwright,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  invented  a  machine 
for  making  the  card-teeth  used  in  carding  wool  and  cotton. 
In  1780  he  became  partner  with  his  brothers,  who  were  practical 
millers,  and  soon  introduced  various  labour-saving  appliances 
which  both  cheapened  and  improved  the  processes  of  flour- 
milling.  Turning  his  attention  to  the  steam  engine,  he  employed 
steam  at  a  relatively  high  pressure,  and  the  plans  of  his  invention 
which  he  sent  over  to  England  in  1787  and  in  1794-1795  are  said 


EVANSON— EVANSVILLE 


to  have  been  seen  by  R.  Trevithick,  whom  in  that  case  he 
anticipated  in  the  adoption  of  the  high-pressure  principle.  He 
made  use  of  his  engine  for  driving  mil)  machinery;  and  in  1803 
he  constructed  a  steam  dredging  machine,  which  also  propelled 
itself  on  land.  In  1819  a  disastrous  fire  broke  out  in  his  factory 
at  Pittsburg,  and  he  did  not  long  survive  it,  dying  at  New  York 
on  the  2ist  of  April  1819. 

EVANSON,  EDWARD  (1731-1805),  English  divine,  was  born 
on  the  2ist  of  April  1731  at  Warrington,  Lancashire.  After 
graduating  at  Cambridge  (Emmanuel  College)  and  taking  holy 
orders,  he  officiated  for  several  years  as  curate  at  Mitcham.  In 
1768  he  became  vicar  of  South  Mimms  near  Barnet;  and  in 
November  1769  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Tewkesbury, 
with  which  he  held  also  the  vicarage  of  Longdon  in  Worcester- 
shire. In  the  course  of  his  studies  he  discovered  what  he  thought 
important  variance  between  the  teaching  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land and  that  of  the  Bible,  and  he  did  not  conceal  his  convictions. 
In  reading  the  service  he  altered  or  omitted  phrases  which  seemed 
to  him  untrue,  and  in  reading  the  Scriptures  pointed  out  errors 
in  the  translation.  A  crisis  was  brought  on  by  his  sermon  on  the 
resurrection,  preached  at  Easter  1771;  and  in  November  1773 
a  prosecution  was  instituted  against  him  in  the  consistory  court 
of  Gloucester.  He  was  charged  with  "  depraving  the  public 
worship  of  God  contained  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England, 
asserting  the  same  to  be  superstitious  and  unchristian,  preaching, 
writing  and  conversing  against  the  creeds  and  the  divinity  of 
our  Saviour,  and  assuming  to  himself  the  power  of  making 
arbitrary  alterations  in  his  performance  of  the  public  worship." 
A  protest  was  at  once  signed  and  published  by  a  large  number 
of  his  parishioners  against  the  prosecution.  The  case  was  dis- 
missed on  technical  grounds,  but  appeals  were  made  to  the  court 
of  arches  and  the  court  of  delegates.  Meanwhile  Evanson  had 
made  his  views  generally  known  by  several  publications.  In 
1772  appeared  anonymously  his  Doctrines  of  a  Trinity  and  the 
Incarnation  of  God,  examined  upon  the  Principles  of  Reason  and 
Common  Sense.  This  was  followed  in  1777  by  A  Letter  to  Dr 
Hurd,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  wherein  the  Importance  of  the  Prophecies 
of  the  New  Testament  and  the  Nature  of  the  Grand  Apostasy  pre- 
dicted in  them  are  particularly  and  impartially  considered.  He  also 
wrote  some  papers  on  the  Sabbath,  which  brought  him  into 
controversy  with  Joseph  Priestley,  who  published  the  whole 
discussion  (1792).  In  the  same  year  appeared  Evanson's  work 
entitled  The  Dissonance  of  the  four  generally  received  Evangelists, 
to  which  replies  were  published  by  Priestley  and  David  Simpson 
(1793).  Evanson  rejected  most  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment as  forgeries,  and  of  the  four  gospels  he  accepted  only  that 
of  St  Luke.  In  his  later  years  he  ministered  to  a  Unitarian 
congregation  at  Lympston,  Devonshire.  In  1802  he  published 
Reflections  upon  the  State  of  Religion  in  Christendom,  in  which  he 
attempted  to  explain  and  illustrate  the  mysterious  foreshadow- 
ings  of  the  Apocalypse.  This  he  considered  the  most  important 
of  his  writings.  Shortly  before  his  death  at  Colford,  near 
Crediton,  Devonshire,  on  the  2$th  of  September  1805,  he  com- 
pleted his  Second  Thoughts  on  the  Trinity,  in  reply  to  a  work  of  the 
bishop  of  Gloucester. 

His  sermons  (prefaced  by  a  Life  by  G.  Rogers)  were  published  in 
two  volumes  in  1807,  and  were  the  occasion  of  T.  Falconer's  Bampton 
Lectures  in  181 1.  A  narrative  of  the  circumstances  which  led  to  the 
prosecution  of  Evanson  was  published  by  N.  Havard,  the  town-clerk 
of  Tewkesbury,  in  1778. 

EVANSTON,  a  city  of  Cook  county,  Illinois,  U.S.A.,  on  the 
shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  12  m.  N.  of  Chicago.  Pop.  (1900) 
19,259,  of  whom  4441  were  foreign-born;  (1910  U.  S.  census) 
24,978.  It  is  served  by  the  Chicago  &  North-Western,  and  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St  Paul  railways,  and  by  two  electric 
lines.  The  city  is  an  important  residential  suburb  of  Chicago. 
In  1908  the  Evanston  public  library  had  41,430  volumes.  In  the 
city  are  the  College  of  Liberal  Arts  (1855),  the  Academy  (1860), 
and  the  schools  of  music  (1895)  and  engineering  (1908)  of  North- 
western University,  co-educational,  chartered  in  1851,  opened  in 
1855,  the  largest  school  cf  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
America.  In  1909-1910  it  had  productive  funds  amounting  to 
about  $7,500,000,  and,  including  all  the  allied  schools,  a  faculty  of 


418  instructors  and  4487  students;  its  schools  of  medicine  (1869), 
law  (1859),  pharmacy  (1886),  commerce  (1908)  and  dentistry 
(1887)  are  in  Chicago.  In  1909  its  library  had  114,869  volumes 
and  79,000  pamphlets  (exclusive  of  the  libraries  of  the  professional 
schools  in  Chicago);  and  the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute  had  a 
library  of  25,671  volumes  and  4500  pamphlets.  The  university 
maintains  the  Grand  Prairie  Seminary  at  Onarga,  Iroquois 
county,  and  the  Elgin  Academy  at  Elgin,  Kane  county.  Enjoy- 
ing the  privileges  of  the  university,  though  actually  independent 
of  it,  are  the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute  (Evanston  Theological 
Seminary),  founded  in  1855,  situated  on  the  university  campus, 
and  probably  the  best-endowed  Methodist  Episcopal  theological 
seminary  in  the  United  States,  and  affiliated  with  the  Institute, 
the  Norwegian  Danish  Theological  school;  and  the  Swedish 
Theological  Seminary,  founded  at  Galesburg  in  1870,  removed  to 
Evanston  in  1882,  and  occupying  buildings  on  the  university 
campus  until  1907,  when  it  removed  to  Orrington  Avenue  and 
Noyes  Street.  The  Cumnock  School  of  Oratory,  at  Evanston, 
also  co-operates  with  the  university.  By  the  charter  of  the 
university  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  is  forbidden  within 
4  m.  of  the  university  campus.  The  manufacturing  importance 
of  the  city  is  slight,  but  is  rapidly  increasing.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  wrought  iron  and  steel  pipe,  bakers'  machinery 
and  bricks.  In  1905  the  value  of  the  factory  products  was 
$2,550,529,  being  an  increase  of  207-3%  since  1900.  In 
Evanston  are  the  publishing  offices  of  the  National  Woman's 
Christian  Temperance  Union.  Evanston  was  incorporated  as  a 
town  in  1863  and  as  a  village  in  1872,  and  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1892.  The  villages  of  North  Evanston  and 
South  Evanston  were  annexed  to  Evanston  in  1874  and  1892 
respectively. 

EVANSVILLE,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Vanderburg 
county,  Indiana,  U.S.A.,  and  a  port  of  entry,  on  the  N.  bank  of 
the  Ohio  river,  200  m.  below  Louisville,  Kentucky — measuring 
by  the  windings  of  the  river,  which  double  the  direct  distance. 
Pop.  (1890)  50,756;  (1900)  59,007;  (1010  census)  69,647. 
Of  the  total  population  in  1900,  5518  were  negroes,  5626  were 
foreign-born  (including  4380  from  Germany  and  384  from  Eng- 
land), and  17,419  were  of  foreign  parentage  (both  parents 
foreign-born),  and  of  these  13,910  were  of  German  parentage. 
Evansville  is  served  by  the  Evansville  &  Terre  Haute,  the 
Evansville  &  Indianapolis,  the  Illinois  Central,  the  Louisville  & 
Nashville,  the  Louisville,  Henderson  &  St  Louis,  and  the  Southern 
railways,  by  several  interurban  electric  lines,  and  by  river  steam- 
boats. The  city  is  situated  on  a  plateau  above  the  river,  and 
has  a  number  of  fine  business  and  public  buildings,  including 
the  court  house  and  city  hall,  the  Southern  Indiana  hospital  for 
the  insane,  the  United  States  marine  hospital,  and  the  Willard 
library  and  art  gallery,  containing  in  1908  about  30,000  volumes. 
The  city's  numerous  railway  connexions  and  its  situation  in 
a  coal-producing  region  (there  are  five  mines  within  the  city 
limits)  and  on  the  Ohio  river,  which  is  navigable  nearly  all  the 
year,  combine  to  make  it  the  principal  commercial  and  manu- 
facturing centre  of  Southern  Indiana.  It  is  in  a  tobacco-growing 
region,  is  one  of  the  largest  hardwood  lumber  markets  in  the 
country,  and  has  an  important  shipping  trade  in  pork,  agricul- 
tural products,  dried  fruits,  lime  and  limestone,  flour  and  tobacco. 
Among  its  manufactures  in  1905  were  flour  and  grist  mill  products 
(value,  $2,638,914),  furniture  ($1,655,246),  lumber  and  timber 
products  ($1,229,533),  railway  cars  ($1,118,376),  packed  meats 
($998,428),  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  cigars  and  cigarettes, 
malt  liquors,  carriages  and  wagons,  leather  and  canned  goods. 
The  value  of  the  factory  products  increased  from  $12,167,524 
in  1900  to  $19,201,716  in  1905,  or  57-8%,  and  in  the  latter  year 
Evansville  ranked  third  among  the  manufacturing  cities  in  the 
state.  The  waterworks  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  city. 
First  settled  about  1812,  Evansville  was  laid  out  in  1817,  and 
was  named  in  honour  of  Robert  Morgan  Evans  (1783-1844),  one 
of  its  founders,  who  was  an  officer  under  General  W.  H.  Harrison 
in  the  war  of  1812.  It  soon  became  a  thriving  commercial  town 
with  an  extensive  river  trade,  was  incorporated  in  1819,  and 
received  a  city  charter  in  1847.  The  completion  of  the  Wabash 


EVARISTUS— EVE 


&  Erie  Canal,  in  1853,  from  Evansville  to  Toledo,  Ohio,  a  distance 
of  400  m.,  greatly  accelerated  the  city's  growth. 

EVARISTUS,  fourth  pope  (c.  98-105),  was  the  immediate 
successor  of  Clement. 

EVARTS,  WILLIAM  MAXWELL  (1818-1901),  American 
lawyer,  was  born  in  Boston  on  the  6th  of  February  1818.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1837,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  New  York 
in  1841,  and  soon  took  high  rank  in  his  profession.  In  1860  he 
was  chairman  of  the  New  York  delegation  to  the  Republican 
national  convention.  In  1861  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  the  United  States  senatorship  from  New  York.  He  was  chief 
counsel  for  President  Johnson  during  the  impeachment  trial, 
and  from  July  1868  until  March  1869  he  was  attorney-general  of 
the  United  States.  In  1872  he  was  counsel  for  the  United  States 
in  the  "  Alabama  "  arbitration.  During  President  Hayes's  ad- 
ministration (1877-1881)  he  was  secretary  of  state;  and  from 
1885  to  1891  he  was  one  of  the  senators  from  New  York.  As 
an  orator  Senator  Evarts  stood  in  the  foremost  rank,  and  some 
of  his  best  speeches  were  published.  He  died  in  New  York  on 
the  28th  of  February  1901. 

EVE,  the  English  transcription,  through  Lat.  Eva  and  Gr.  E&a, 
of  the  Hebrew  name  *W  Hawah,  given  by  Adam  to  his  wife 
because  she  was  "  mother  of  all  living,"  or  perhaps  more  strictly, 
"  of  every  group  of  those  connected  by  female  kinship  "  (see 
W.  R.  Smith,  Kinship,  and  ed.,  p.  208),  as  if  Eve  were  the  per- 
sonification of  mother-kinship,  just  as  Adam  ("  man  ")  is  the 
personification  of  mankind. 

[The  abstract  meaning  "  life  "  (LXX.  Zuri),  once  favoured  by 
Robertson  Smith,  is  at  any  rate  unsuitable  in  a  popular  story. 
Wellhausen  and  Noldeke  would  compare  the  Ar.  hayyatun, 
"  serpent,"  and  the  former  remarks  that,  if  this  is  right,  the 
Israelites  received  their  first  ancestress  from  the  Hivvites 
(Hivites),  who  were  originally  the  serpent-tribe  (Composition  des 
Hexateuchs,  p.  343;  cf.  Reste  arabischen  Heidentums,  2nd  ed., 
p.  154).  Cheyne,  too,  assumes  a  common  origin  for  Hawah  and 
the  IJiwites.] 

[The  account  of  the  origin  of  Eve  (Gen.  iii.  21-23)  nins  thus: 
"  And  Yahweh-Elohim  caused  a  deep  sleep  to  fall  upon  the  man, 
and  he  slept.  And  he  took  one  of  his  ribs,  and  closed 
o™Eve"  UP  tne  flesh  'n  its  stead,  and  the  rib  which  Yahweh- 
Elohim  had  taken  from  the  man  he  built  up  into  a 
woman,  and  he  brought  her  to  the  man."  Enchanted  at  the 
sight,  the  man  now  burst  out  into  elevated,  rhythmic  speech: 
"  This  one,"  he  said,  "  at  length  is  bone  of  my  bone  and  flesh 
of  my  flesh,"  &c.;  to  which  the  narrator  adds  the  comment, 
"  Therefore  doth  a  man  forsake  his  father  and  his  mother,  and 
cleave  to  his  wife,  and  they  become  one  flesh  (body)."  Whether 
this  comment  implies  the  existence  of  the  custom  of  beena, 
marriage  (W.R. Smith,  Kinship,  2nd  ed.,  p.  208),  seems  doubtful. 
It  is  at  least  equally  possible  that  the  expression  "  his  wife  " 
simply  reflects  the  fact  that  among  ordinary  Israelites  circum- 
stances had  quite  naturally  brought  about  the  prevalence  of 
monogamy.1  What  the  narrator  gives  is  not  a  doctrine  of 
marriage,  much  less  a  precept,  but  an  explanation  of  a  simple 
and  natural  phenomenon.  How  is  it,  he  asks,  that  a  man  is  so 
irresistibly  drawn  towards  a  woman?  And  he  answers:  Because 
the  first  woman  was  built  up  out  of  a  rib  of  the  first  man.  At  the 
same  time  it  is  plain  that  the  already  existing  tendency  towards 
monogamy  must  have  been  powerfully  assisted  by  this  presenta- 
tion of  Eye's  story  as  well  as  by  the  prophetic  descriptions  of 
Yahweh's  relation  to  Israel  under  the  figure  of  a  monogamous 
union.] 

[The  narrator  is  no  rhetorician,  and  spares  us  a  description  of 
the  ideal  woman.  But  we  know  that,  for  Adam,  his  strangely 
New  produced  wife  was  a  "  help  (or  helper)  matching  or 

Testament  corresponding  to  him  ";  or,  as  the  Authorized  Version 
*^lc"  puts  it,  "  a  help  meet  for  him  "  (ii.  186).  This  does 
not,  of  course,  exclude  subordination  on  the  part  of  the 
woman;  what  is  excluded  is  that  exaggeration  of  natural 
subordination  which  the  narrator  may  have  found  both  in  his 

1  That  polygamy  had  not  become  morally  objectionable  is  shown 
by  the  stories  of  Lamech,  Abraham  and  Jacob. 


own  and  in  the  neighbouring  countries,  and  which  he  may  have 
regarded  as  (together  with  the  pains  of  parturition)  the  punish- 
ment of  the  woman's  transgression  (Gen.  iii.  16).  His  own  ideal 
of  woman  seems  to  have  made  its  way  in  Palestine  by  slow  degrees. 
An  apocryphal  book  (Tobit  viii.  6,  7)  seems  to  contain  the  only 
reference  to  the  section  till  we  come  to  the  time  of  Christ,  to 
whom  the  comment  in  Gen.  ii.  24  supplies  the  text  for  an  authori- 
tative prohibition  of  divorce,  which  presupposes  and  sanctifies 
monogamy  (Matt.  x.  7,  8;  Matt.  xix.  5).  For  other  New 
Testament  applications  of  the  story  of  Eve  see  i  Cor.  xi.  8,  9 
(especially);  2  Cor.  xi.  3;  i  Tim.  ii.  13,  14;  and  in  general  cf. 
ADAM,  and  Ency.  Biblica,  "  Adam  and  Eve."] 

[The  seeming  omissions  in  the  Biblical  narrative  have  been 
filled  up  by  imaginative  Jewish  writers.]  The  earliest  source 
which  remains  to  us  is  the  Book  of  Jubilees,  or  Lepto-  imagiaa- 
genesis,  a  Palestinian  work  (referred  by  R.  H.  Charles  tive  or 
to  the  century  immediately  preceding  the  Christian  era ;  legendary 
see  APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE).  In  this  book,  which  was 
largely  used  by  Christian  writers,  we  find  a  chronology 
of  the  lives  of  Adam  and  Eve  and  the  names  of  their  daughters — 
Avan  and  Azura.2  The  Targum  of  Jonathan  informs  us  that  Eve 
was  created  from  the  thirteenth  rib  of  Adam's  right  side,  thus 
taking  the  view  that  Adam  had  a  rib  more  than  his  descendants. 
Some  of  the  Jewish  legends  show  clear  marks  of  foreign  influence. 
Thus  the  notion  that  the  first  man  was  a  double  being,  afterwards 
separated  into  the  two  persons  of  Adam  and  Eve  (Berachot,  61; 
Erubin,  18),  may  be  traced  back  to  Philo  (De  mundi  opif.  §53; 
cf.  Quaest.  in  Gen.  lib.  i.  §25),  who  borrows  the  idea,  and  almost 
the  words,  of  the  myth  related  by  Aristophanes  in  the  Platonic 
Symposium  (189  D,  190  A),  which,  in  extravagant  form,  explains 
the  passion  of  love  by  the  legend  that  male  and  female  originally 
formed  one  body. 

[A  recent  critic3  (F.  Schwally)  even  holds  that  this  notion 
was  originally  expressed  in  the  account  of  the  creation  of  man  in 
Gen.  i.  27.  This  involves  a  textual  emendation,  and  one  must 
at  least  admit  that  the  present  text  is  not  without  difficulty, 
and  that  Berossus  refers  to  the  existence  of  primeval  monstrous 
androgynous  beings  according  to  Babylonian  mythology.] 
There  is  an  analogous  Iranian  legend  of  the  true  man,  which 
parted  into  man  and  woman  in  the  Bundahish4  (the  Parsi 
Genesis),  and  an  Indian  legend,  which,  according  to  Spiegel, 
has  presumably  an  Iranian  source.6 

[It  has  been  remarked  elsewhere  (ADAM,  §16)  that  though 
the  later  Jews  gathered  material  for  thought  very  widely,  such 
guidance  as  they  required  in  theological  reflection  was  course  of 
mainly  derived  from  Greek  culture.     What,  for  in- Jewish  and 
stance,  was  to  be  made  of  such  a  story  as  that  in  Gen.  Christian 
ii.-iv.?   To  "  minds  trained  under  the  influence  of  the  £j^re~ 
Jewish  Haggada,  in  which  the  whole  Biblical  history 
is  freely  intermixed  with  legendary  and  parabolic  matter,"  the 
question  as  to  the  literal  truth  of  that  story  could  hardly  be 
formulated.     It  is  otherwise  when  the  Greek  leaven  begins  to 
work.] 

Josephus,  in  the  prologue  to  his  Archaeology,  reserves  the 
problem  of  the  true  meaning  of  the  Mosaic  narrative,  but  does 
not  regard  everything  as  strictly  literal.  Philo,  the  great  repre- 
sentative of  Alexandrian  allegory,  expressly  argues  that  in  the 
nature  of  things  the  trees  of  life  and  knowledge  cannot  be  taken 
otherwise  than  symbolically.  His  interpretation  of  the  creation 
of  Eve  is,  as  has  been  already  observed,  plainly  suggested  by  a 
Platonic  myth.  The  longing  for  reunion  which  love  implants 
in  the  divided  halves  of  the  original  dual  man  is  the  source  of 
sensual  pleasure  (symbolized  by  the  serpent),  which  in  turn  is 
the  beginning  of  all  transgression.  Eve  represents  the  sensuous 
or  perceptive  part  of  man's  nature,  Adam  the  reason.  The 
serpent,  therefore,  does  not  venture  to  attack  Adam  directly. 

1  See  West's  authoritative  translation  in  Pahlavi  Texts  (Sacred 
Books  of  the  East). 

3  "  Die  bibl.  Schopf  ungsberichte  "  (Archivfur Religwnsunsscnschaft, 

ix.  171  ff.). 

4  Spiegel,  Erdnische  Alterthumskunde,  i.  511. 

6  Muir,  Sanscrit  Texts,  vol.  i.  p.  25;  cf.  Spiegel,  vol.  i.  p.  458. 


EVECTION— EVELYN 


It  is  sense  which  yields  to  pleasure,  and  in  turn  enslaves  the  reason 
and  destroys  its  immortal  virtue.  This  exposition,  in  which 
the  elements  of  the  Bible  narrative  become  mere  symbols  of 
the  abstract  notions  of  Greek  philosophy,  and  are  adapted  to 
Greek  conceptions  of  the  origin  of  evil  in  the  material  and  sensuous 
part  of  man,  was  adopted  into  Christian  theology  by  Clement 
and  Origen,  notwithstanding  its  obvious  inconsistency  with  the 
Pauline  anthropology,  and  the  difficulty  which  its  supporters 
felt  in  reconciling  it  with  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  excellence 
of  the  married  state  (Clemens  Alex.  Stromala,  p.  174).  These 
difficulties  had  more  weight  with  the  Western  church,  which, 
less  devoted  to  speculative  abstractions  and  more  deeply  in- 
fluenced by  the  Pauline  anthropology,  refused,  especially  since 
Augustine,  to  reduce  Paradise  and  the  fall  to  the  region  of  pure 
intelligibilia;  though  a  spiritual  sense  was  admitted  along  with 
the  literal  (Aug.  Civ.  Dei,  xiii.  2i).J 

The  history  of  Adam  and  Eve  became  the  basis  of  anthropo- 
logical discussions  which  acquired  more  than  speculative  import- 
ance from  their  connexion  with  the  doctrine  of  original  sin  and 
the  meaning  of  the  sacrament  of  baptism.  One  or  two  points 
in  Augustinian  teaching  may  be  here  mentioned  as  having  to  do 
particularly  with  Eve.  The  question  whether  the  soul  of  Eve 
was  derived  from  Adam  or  directly  infused  by  the  Creator  is 
raised  as  an  element  in  the  great  problem  of  traducianism  and 
creationism  (De  Gen.  ad  lit.  lib.  x.).  And  it  is  from  Augustine 
that  Milton  derives  the  idea  that  Adam  sinned,  not  from  desire 
for  the  forbidden  fruit,  but  because  love  forbade  him  to  dissociate 
his  fate  from  Eve's  (ibid.  lib.  xi.  sub  fin.').  Medieval  discussion 
moved  mainly  in  the  lines  laid  down  by  Augustine.  A  sufficient 
sample  of  the  way  in  which  the  subject  was  treated  by  the  school- 
men may  be  found  in  the  Summa  of  Thomas,  pars  i.  qu.  xcii. 
De  productione  mulieris. 

The  Reformers,  always  hostile  to  allegory,  and  in  this  matter 
especially  influenced  by  the  Augustinian  anthropology,  adhered 
strictly  to  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  history  of  the  Proto- 
plasts, which  has  continued  to  be  generally  identified  with 
Protestant  orthodoxy.  The  disintegration  of  the  confessional 
doctrine  of  sin  in  last  century  was  naturally  associated  with  new 
theories  of  the  meaning  of  the  biblical  narrative;  but  neither 
renewed  forms  of  the  allegorical  interpretation,  in  which  every- 
thing is  reduced  to  abstract  ideas  about  reason  and  sensuality, 
nor  the  attempts  of  Eichhorn  and  others  to  extract  a  kernel  of 
simple  history  by  allowing  largely  for  the  influence  of  poetical 
form  in  so  early  a  narrative,  have  found  lasting  acceptance. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  strict  historical  interpretation  is  beset 
with  difficulties  which  modern  interpreters  have  felt  with  in- 
creasing force,  and  which  there  is  a  growing  disposition  to  solve 
by  adopting  in  one  or  other  form  what  is  called  the  mythical 
theory  of  the  narrative.  But  interpretations  pass  under  this 
now  popular  title  which  have  no  real  claim  to  be  so  designated. 
What  is  common  to  the  "  mythical  "  interpretations  is  to  find  the 
real  value  of  the  narrative,  not  in  the  form  of  the  story,  but  in  the 
thoughts  which  it  embodies.  But  the  story  cannot  be  called 
a  myth  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  unless  we  are  prepared 
to  place  it  on  one  line  with  the  myths  of  heathenism,  produced 
by  the  unconscious  play  of  plastic  fancy,  giving  shape  to  the 
impressions  of  natural  phenomena  on  primitive  observers.  Such 
a  theory  does  no  justice  to  a  narrative  which  embodies  profound 
truths  peculiar  to  the  religion  of  revelation.  Other  forms  of  the 
so-called  mythical  interpretation  are  little  more  than  abstract 
allegory  in  a  new  guise,  ignoring  the  fact  that  the  biblical  story 
does  not  teach  general  truths  which  repeat  themselves  in  every 
individual,  but  gives  a  view  of  the  purpose  of  man's  creation, 
and  of  the  origin  of  sin,  in  connexion  with  the  divine  plan  of 
redemption.  Among  his  other  services  in  refutation  of  the 
unhistorical  rationalism  of  last  century,  Kant  has  the  merit  of 
having  forcibly  recalled  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  narrative  of 
Genesis,  even  if  we  do  not  take  it  literally,  must  be  regarded  as 

1  Thus  in  medieval  theology  Eve  is  a  type  of  the  church,  and  her 
formation  from  the  rib  has  a  mystic  reason,  inasmuch  as  blood  and 
water  (the  sacraments  of  the  church)  flowed  from  the  side  of  Christ 
on  the  cross  (Thomas,  Summa,  par.  i.  qu.  xcii.). 


presenting  a  view  of  the  beginnings  of  the  history  of  the  human 
race  (Muthmasslicher  Anfang  der  Menschengeschichte,  1786). 
Those  who  recognize  this  fact  ought  not  to  call  themselves  or  be 
called  by  others  adherents  of  the  mythical  theory,  although  they 
also  recognize  that  in  the  nature  of  things  the  divine  truths 
brought  out  in  the  history  of  the  creation  and  fall  could  not  have 
been  expressed  either  in  the  form  of  literal  history  or  in  the  shape 
of  abstract  metaphysical  doctrine;  or  even  although  they  may 
hold — as  is  done  by  many  who  accept  the  narrative  as  a  part  of 
supernatural  revelation — that  the  specific  biblical  truths  which 
the  narrative  conveys  are  presented  through  the  vehicle  of  a 
story  which,  at  least  in  some  of  its  parts,  may  possibly  be  shaped 
by  the  influence  of  legends  common  to  the  Hebrews  with  their 
heathen  neighbours.  (W.  R.  S.;  [T.  K.  C.)) 

EVECTION  (Latin  for  "  carrying  away  "),  in  astronomy,  the 
largest  inequality  produced  by  the  action  of  the  sun  in  the 
monthly  revolution  of  the  moon  around  the  earth.  The  deviation 
expressed  by  it  has  a  maximum  amount  of  about  i°  15'  in  either 
direction.  It  may  be  considered  as  arising  from  a  semi-annual 
variation  in  the  eccentricity  of  the  moon's  orbit  and  the  position 
of  its  perigee.  It  was  discovered  by  Ptolemy. 

EVELETH,  a  city  of  St  Louis  county,  Minnesota,  U.S.A.,  about 
71  m.  N.N.W.  of  Duluth.  Pop.  (1900)  2752;  (1905,  state  census) 
5332,  of  whom  2975  were  foreign-born  (1145  Finns,  676  Aus- 
trians  and  325  Swedes);  (1910)  7036.  Eveleth  is  served  by  the 
Duluth,  Missabe  &  Northern  and  the  Duluth  &  Iron  Range  rail- 
ways. It  lies  in  the  midst  of  the  great  red  and  brown  hematite 
iron-ore  deposits  of  the  Mesabi  Range — the  richest  in  the  Lake 
Superior  district — and  the  mining  and  shipping  of  this  ore  are 
its  principal  industries.  The  municipality  owns  and  operates 
the  water-works,  the  water  being  obtained  from  Lake  Saint 
Mary,  one  of  a  chain  of  small  lakes  lying  S.  of  the  city.  Eve- 
leth was  first  chartered  as  a  city  in  1902. 

EVELYN,  JOHN  (1620-1706),  English  diarist,  was  born  at 
Wotton  House,  near  Dorking,  Surrey,  on  the  3ist  of  October 
1620.  He  was  the  younger  son  of  Richard  Evelyn,  who  owned 
large  estates  in  the  county,  and  was  in  1633  high  sheriff  of  Surrey 
and  Sussex.  When  John  Evelyn  was  five  years  old  he  went  to 
live  with  his  mother's  parents  at  Cliffe,  near  Lewes.  He  refused 
to  leave  his  "  too  indulgent  "  grandmother  for  Eton,  and  when 
on  her  husband's  death  she  married  again,  the  boy  went  with  her 
to  Southover,  where  he  attended  the  free  school  of  the  place. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  Middle  Temple  in  February  1637,  and  in 
May  be  became  a  fellow  commoner  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford. 
He  left  the  university  without  taking  a  degree,  and  in  1640  was 
residing  in  the  Middle  Temple.  In  that  year  his  father  died,  and 
in  July  1641  he  crossed  to  Holland.  He  was  enrolled  as  a 
volunteer  in  Apsley's  company,  then  encamped  before  Genep 
on  the  Waal,  but  his  commission  was  apparently  complimentary, 
his  military  experience  being  limited  to  six  days  of  camp  life, 
during  which,  however,  he  took  his  turn  at  "  trailing  a  pike." 
He  returned  in  the  autumn  to  find  England  on  the  verge  of 
civil  war.  Evelyn's  part  in  the  conflict  is  best  told  in  his  own 
words : — 

"  I2th  November  was  the  battle  of  Brentford,  surprisingly  fought. 
...  I  came  in  with  my  horse  and  arms  just  at  the  retreat;  but 
was  not  permitted  to  stay  longer  than  the  1 5th  by  reason  of  the  army 
marching  to  Gloucester;  which  would  have  left  both  me  and  my 
brothers  exposed  to  ruin,  without  any  advantage  to  his  Majesty 
.  .  .  and  on  the  loth  [December]  returned  to  Wotton,  nobody 
knowing  of  my  having  been  in  his  Majesty's  army." 

At  Wotton  he  employed  himself  in  improving  his  brother's' 
property,  making  a  fishpond,  an  island  and  other  alterations  in 
the  gardens.  But  he  found  it  difficult  to  avoid  taking  a  side; 
he  was  importuned  to  sign  the  Covenant,  and  "  finding  it  im- 
possible to  evade  doing  very  unhandsome  things,"  he  obtained 
leave  in  October  1643  from  the  king  to  travel  abroad.  From 
this  date  bis  Diary  becomes  full  and  interesting.  He  travelled  in 
France  and  visited  the  cities  of  Italy,  returning  in  the  autumn 
of  1646  to  Paris,  where  he  became  intimate  with  Sir  Richard 
Browne,  the  English  resident  at  the  court  of  France.  In  June 
of  the  following  year  he  married  Browne's  daughter  and  heiress, 
Mary,  then  a  child  of  not  more  than  twelve  years  of  age.  Leaving 


EVELYN 


his  wife  in  the  care  of  her  parents,  he  returned  to  England  to 
settle  his  affairs.  He  visited  Charles  I.  at  Hampton  Court  in 
1647,  and  during  the  next  two  years  maintained  a  cipher  corre- 
spondence with  his  father-in-law  in  the  royal  interest.  In  1649 
he  obtained  a  pass  to  return  to  Paris,  but  in  1650  paid  a  short 
visit  to  England.  The  defeat  of  Charles  II.  at  Worcester  in  1651 
convinced  him  that  the  royalist  cause  was  hopeless,  and  he  decided 
to  return  to  England.  He  went  in  1652  to  Sayes  Court  at  Dept- 
ford,  a  house  which  Sir  Richard  Browne  had  held  on  a  lease 
from  the  crown.  This  had  been  seized  by  the  parliament,  but 
Evelyn  was  able  to  compound  with  the  occupiers  for  £3500,  and 
after  the  Restoration  his  possession  was  secured.  Here  his  wife 
joined  him,  their  eldest  son,  Richard,  being  born  in  August  1652. 
Under  the  Commonwealth  Evelyn  amused  himself  with  his 
favourite  occupation  of  gardening,  and  made  many  friends  among 
the  scientific  inquirers  of  the  time.  He  was  one  of  the  promoters 
of  the  scheme  for  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  the  king's  charter  in 
1662  was  nominated  a  member  of  its  directing  council.  Mean- 
while he  had  refused  employment  from  the  government  of  the 
Commonwealth,  and  had  maintained  a  cipher  correspondence 
with  Charles.  In  1659  he  published  an  Apology  for  the  Royal 
Party,  and  in  December  of  that  year  he  vainly  tried  to  persuade 
Colonel  Herbert  Morley,  then  lieutenant  of  the  Tower,  to  forestall 
General  Monk  by  declaring  for  the  king.  From  the  Restoration 
onwards  Evelyn  enjoyed  unbroken  court  favour  till  his  death  in 
1706;  but  he  never  held  any  important  political  office,  although 
he  filled  many  useful  and  often  laborious  minor  posts.  He  was 
commissioner  for  improving  the  streets  and  buildings  of  London, 
for  examining  into  the  affairs  of  charitable  foundations,  com- 
missioner of  the  Mint,  and  of  foreign  plantations.  In  1664  he 
accepted  the  responsibility  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded 
and  the  prisoners  in  the  Dutch  war.  He  stuck  to  his  post 
throughout  the  plague  year,  contenting  himself  with  sending  his 
family  away  to  Wotton.  He  found  it  impossible  to  secure 
sufficient  money  for  the  proper_ discharge  of  his  functions,  and  in 
1688  he  was  still  petitioning  for  payment  of  his  accounts  in  this 
business.  Evelyn  was  secretary  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1672, 
and  as  an  enthusiastic  promoter  of  its  interests  was  twice  (in 
1682  and  1691)  offered  the  presidency.  Through  his  influence 
Henry  Howard,  duke  of  Norfolk,  was  induced  to  present  the 
Arundel  marbles  to  the  university  of  Oxford  (1667)  and  the 
valuable  Arundel  library  to  Gresham  College  (1678).  In  the 
reign  of  James  II.,  during  the  earl  of  Clarendon's  absence  in 
Ireland,  he  acted  as  one  of  the  commissioners  of  the  privy  seal. 
He  was  seriously  alarmed  by  the  king's  attacks  on  the  English 
Church,  and  refused  on  two  occasions  to  license  the  illegal  sale 
of  Roman  Catholic  literature.  He  concurred  in  the  revolution  of 
1688,  in  1695  was  entrusted  with  the  office  of  treasurer  of  Green- 
wich hospital  for  old  sailors,  and  laid  the  first  stone  of  the  new 
building  on  the  3oth  of  June  1696.  In  1694  he  left  Sayes  Court 
to  live  at  Wotton  with  his  brother,  whose  heir  he  had  become, 
and  whom  he  actually  succeeded  in  1 699.  He  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life  there,  dying  on  the  27th  of  February  1706.  Evelyn's  house 
at  Sayes  Court  had  been  let  to  Captain,  afterwards  Admiral  John 
Benbow,  who  was  not  a  "  polite  "  tenant.  He  sublet  it  to  Peter 
the  Great,  who  was  then  visiting  the  dockyard  at  Deptford. 
The  tsar  did  great  damage  to  Evelyn's  beautiful  gardens,  and, 
it  is  said,  made  it  one  of  his  amusements  to  ride  in  a  wheelbarrow 
along  a  thick  holly  hedge  planted  especially  by  the  owner.  The 
house  was  subsequently  used  as  a  workhouse,  and  is  now  alms- 
houses,  the  grounds  having  been  converted  into  public  gardens 
by  Mr  Evelyn  in  1886. 

It  will  be  seen  that  Evelyn's  politics  were  not  of  the  heroic 
order.  But  he  was  honourable  and  consistent  in  his  adherence 
to  the  monarchical  principle  throughout  his  life.  With  the  court 
of  Charles  II.  he  could  have  had  no  sympathy,  his  dignified 
domestic  life  and  his  serious  attention  to  religion  standing  in  the 
strongest  contrast  with  the  profligacy  of  the  royal  surroundings. 
His  Diary  is  therefore  a  valuable  chronicle  of  contemporary 
events  from  the  standpoint  of  a  moderate  politician  and  a  devout 
adherent  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  had  none  of  Pepys's 
love  of  gossip,  and  was  devoid  of  his  all-embracing  curiosity, 


as  of  his  diverting  frankness  of  self-revelation.  Both  were  admir- 
able civil  servants,  and  they  had  a  mutual  admiration  for  each 
other's  sterling  qualities.  Evelyn's  Diary  covers  more  than  half 
a  century  (1640-1706)  crowded  with  remarkable  events,  while 
Pepys  only  deals  with  a  few  years  of  Charles  II. 's  reign. 

Evelyn  was  a  generous  art  patron,  and  Grinling  Gibbons  was 
introduced  by  him  to  the  notice  of  Charles  II.  His  domestic 
affections  were  very  strong.  He  had  six  sons,  of  whom  John 
(1655-1699),  the  author  of  some  translations,  alone  reached 
manhood.  He  has  left  a  pathetic  account  of  the  extraordinary 
accomplishments  of  his  son  Richard,  who  died  before  he  was  six 
years  old,  and  of  a  daughter  Mary,  who  lived  to  be  twenty,  and 
probably  wrote  most  of  her  father's  Mundus  muliebris  (1690). 
Of  his  two  other  daughters,  Susannah,  who  married  William 
Draper  of  Addiscombe,  Surrey,  survived  him. 

Evelyn's  Diary  remained  in  MS.  until  1818.  It  is  in  a  quarto 
volume  containing  700  pages,  covering  the  years  between  1641  and 
1697,  and  is  continued  in  a  smaller  book  which  brings  the  narrative 
down  to  within  three  weeks  of  its  author's  death.  A  selection  from 
this  was  edited  by  William  Bray,  with  the  permission  of  the  Evelyn 
family,  in  1818,  under  the  title  of  Memoirs  illustrative  of  the  Life  and 
Writings  of  John  Evelyn,  comprising  his  Diary  from  1641  to  1705/6, 
and  a  Selection  of  his  Familiar  Letters.  Other  editions  followed, 
the  most  notable  being  those  of  Mr  H.  B.  Wheatley  (1879)  and 
Mr  Austin  Dobson  (3  vols.,  1906).  Evelyn's  active  mind  produced 
many  other  works,  and  although  these  have  been  overshadowed  by 
the  famous  Diary  they  are  of  considerable  interest.  They  include : 
Of  Liberty  and  Servitude  .  .  .  (1649),  a  translation  from  the  French 
of  Frangois  de  la  Mothe  le  Vayer,  Evelyn's  own  copy  of  which  contains 
a  note  that  he  was  "  like  to  be  call'd  in  question  by  the  Rebells  for 
this  booke  ";  The  State  of  France,  as  it  stood  in  the  IX th  year  of 
.  .  .  Louis  XIII.  (1652) ;  An  Essay  on  the  First  Book  of  T.  Lucretius 
Cams  de  Rerum  Natura.  Interpreted  and  made  English  verse  by 
J.  Evelyn  (1656) ;  The  Golden  Book  of  St  John  Chrysoslom,  concerning 
the  Education  of  Children.  Translated  out  of  the  Greek  by  J.  E. 
(printed  1658,  dated  1659);  The  French  Gardener:  instructing  how 
to  cultivate  all  sorts  of  Fruit-trees  .  .  .  (1658),  translated  from  the 
French  of  N.  de  Bonnefons;  A  Character  of  England  .  .  .  (1659), 
describing  the  customs  of  the  country  as  they  would  appear  to  a 
foreign  observer,  reprinted  in  Somers'  Tracts  (ed.  Scott,  1812),  and 
in  the  Harleian  Miscellany  (ed.  Park,  1813);  The  Late  News  from 
Brussels  unmasked  .  .  .  (1660),  in  answer  to  a  libellous  pamphlet 
on  Charles  I.  by  Marchmont  Needham;  Fumifugium,  or  the  incon- 
venience of  the  Aer  and  Smoak  of  London  dissipated  (1661),  in  which 
he  suggested  that  sweet-smelling  trees  should  be  planted  in  London 
to  purify  the  air;  Instructions  concerning  erecting  of  a  Library  .  .  . 
(1661),  from  the  French  of  Gabriel  Naud6;  Tyrannus  or  the  Mode, 
in  a  Discourse  of  Sumptuary  Laws  (1661) ;  Sculptura:  or  the  History 
and  Art  of  Chalcography  and  Engraving  in  Copper  .  .  .  (1662); 
Sylva,  or  a  Discourse  of  Forest  Trees  .  .  .  to  which  is  annexed 
Pomona  .  .  .  Also  Kalendarium  Hortense  .  .  .  (1664) ;  A  Parallel 
of  the  Ancient  Architecture  with  the  Modern  .  .  .  (1664),  from 
the  French  of  Roland  Freart ;  The  History  of  the  three  late  famous 
Imposters,  viz.  Padre  Ottomano,  Mahomed  Bei,  and  Sabatei  Sevi 
.  .  .  (1669);  Navigation  and  Commerce  ...  in  which  his  Majesties 
title  to  the  Dominion  of  the  Sea  is  asserted  against  the  Novel  and 
later  Pretenders  (1674),  which  is  a  preface  to  a  projected  history 
of  the  Dutch  wars  undertaken  at  the  request  of  Charles  II.,  but 
countermanded  on  the  conclusion  of  peace;  A  Philosophical  Dis- 
course of  Earth  .  .  .  (1676),  a  treatise  on  horticulture,  better  known 
by  its  later  title  of  Terra;  The  Compleat  Gardener  .  .  .  (1693),  from 
the  French  of  J.  de  la  Quintinie;  Numismata  .  .  .  (1697).  Some 
of  these  were  reprinted  in  The  Miscellaneous  Writings  of  John  Evelyn, 
edited  (1825)  by  William  Upcott.  Evelyn's  friendship  with  Mary 
Blagge,  afterwards  Mrs  Godolphin,  is  recorded  in  the  diary,  when  he 
says  he  designed  "  to  consecrate  her  worthy  life  to  posterity."  This 
he  effectually  did  in  a  little  masterpiece  of  religious  biography  which 
remained  in  MS.  in  the  possession  of  the  Harcourt  family  until  it 
was  edited  by  Samuel  Wilberforce,  bishop  of  Oxford,  as  the  Life  of 
Mrs  Godolphin  (1847),  reprinted  in  the  "  King's  Classics  "  (1904). 
The  picture  of  Mistress  Blagge's  saintly  life  at  court  is  heightened 
in  interest  when  read  in  connexion  with  the  scandalous  memoirs 
of  the  comte  de  Gramont,  or  contemporary  political  satires  on  the 
court.  Numerous  other  papers  and  letters  of  Evelyn  on  scientific 
subjects  and  matters  of  public  interest  are  preserved,  a  collection  of 
private  and  official  letters  and  papers  (1642-1712)  by,  or  addressed 
to,  Sir  Richard  Browne  and  his  son-in-law  being  in  the  British  Museum 
(Add.  MSS.  15857  and  15858). 

Next  to  the  Diary  Evelyn's  most  valuable  work  is  Sylva.  By  the 
glass  factories  and  iron  furnaces  the  country  was  being  rapidly 
depleted  of  wood,  while  no  attempt  was  being  made  to  replace  the 
damage  by  planting.  Evelyn  put  in  a  plea  for  afforestation,  and 
besides  producing  a  valuable  work  on  arboriculture,  he  was  able  to 
assert  in  his  preface  to  the  king  that  he  had  really  induced  landowners 
to  plant  many  millions  of  trees. 


EVERDINGEN— EVERETT,  A.  H. 


EVERDINGEN,  ALLART  VAN  (i62i-?i675),  Dutch  painter 
and  engraver,  the  son  of  a  government  clerk  at  Alkmaar,  was 
born,  it  is  said,  in  1621,  and  educated,  if  we  believe  an  old  tradi- 
tion, under  Roeland  Savery  at  Utrecht.  He  wandered  in  1645 
to  Haarlem,  where  he  studied  under  Peter  de  Molyn,  and  finally 
settled  about  1657  at  Amsterdam,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death.  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  greater  contrast  than  that 
which  is  presented  by  the  works  of  Savery  and  Everdingen. 
Savery  inherited  the  gaudy  style  of  the  Breughels,  which  he 
carried  into  the  i;th  century;  whilst  Everdingen  realized  the 
large  and  effective  system  of  coloured  and  powerfully  shaded 
landscape  which  marks  the  precursors  of  Rembrandt.  It  is  not 
easy  on  this  account  to  believe  that  Savery  was  Everdingen's 
master,  while  it  is  quite  within  the  range  of  probability  that  he 
acquired  the  elements  of  landscape  painting  from  de  Molyn. 
Pieter  de  Molyn,  by  birth  a  Londoner,  lived  from  1624  till  1661 
in  Haarlem.  He  went  periodically  on  visits  to  Norway,  and  his 
works,  though  scarce,  exhibit  a  broad  and  sweeping  mode  of 
execution,  differing  but  slightly  from  that  transferred  at  the 
opening  of  the  i7th  century  from  Jan  van  Goyen  to  Solomon 
Ruysdael.  His  etchings  have  nearly  the  breadth  and  effect  of 
those  of  Everdingen.  It  is  still  an  open  question  when  de  Molyn 
wielded  influence  on  his  clever  disciple.  Alkmaar,  a  busy  trading 
place  near  the  Texel,  had  little  of  the  picturesque  for  an  artist 
except  polders  and  downs  or  waves  and  sky.  Accordingly  we 
find  Allart  at  first  a  painter  of  coast  scenery.  But  on  one  of  his 
expeditions  he  is  said  to  have  been  cast  ashore  in  Norway,  and 
during  the  repairs  of  his  ship  he  visited  the  inland  valleys,  and 
thus  gave  a  new  course  to  his  art.  In  early  pieces  he  cleverly 
represents  the  sea  in  motion  under  varied,  but  mostly  clouded, 
aspects  of  sky.  Their  general  intonation  is  strong  and  brown, 
and  effects  are  rendered  in  a  powerful  key,  but  the  execution  is 
much  more  uniform  than  that  of  Jacob  Ruysdael.  A  dark  scud 
lowering  on  a  rolling  sea  near  the  walls  of  Flushing  characterizes 
Everdingen's  "  Mouth  of  the  Schelde  "  in  the  Hermitage  at  St 
Petersburg.  Storm  is  the  marked  feature  of  sea-pieces  in  the 
Staedel  or  Robartes  collections ;  and  a  strand  with  wreckers 
at  the  foot  of  a  cliff  in  the  Munich  Pinakothek  may  be  a  reminis- 
cence of  personal  adventure  in  Norway.  But  the  Norwegian  coast 
was  studied  in  calms  as  well  as  in  gales;  and  a  fine  canvas  at 
Munich  shows  fishermen  on  a  still  and  sunny  day  taking  herrings 
to  a  smoking  hut  at  the  foot  of  a  Norwegian  crag.  The  earliest 
of  Everdingen's  sea-pieces  bears  the  date  of  1640.  After  1645 
we  meet  with  nothing  but  representations  of  inland  scenery, 
and  particularly  of  Norwegian  valleys,  remarkable  alike  for 
wildness  and  a  decisive  depth  of  tone.  The  master's  favourite 
theme  is  a  fall  in  a  glen,  with  mournful  fringes  of  pines  inter- 
spersed with  birch,  and  log-huts  at  the  base  of  rocks  and  craggy 
slopes.  The  water  tumbles  over  the  foreground,  so  as  to  entitle 
the  painter  to  the  name  of  "  inventor  of  cascades."  It  gives 
Everdingen  his  character  as  a  precursor  of  Jacob  Ruysdael  in  a 
certain  form  of  landscape  composition;  but  though  very  skilful 
in  arrangement  and  clever  in  effects,  Everdingen  remains  much 
more  simple  in  execution;  he  is  much  less  subtle  in  feeling 
or  varied  in  touch  than  his  great  and  incomparable  countryman. 
Five  of  Everdingen's  cascades  are  in  the  museum  of  Copenhagen 
alone:  of  these,  one  is  dated  1647,  another  1649.  In  the  Hermit- 
age at  St  Petersburg  is  a  fine  example  of  1647;  another  in  the 
Pinakothek  at  Munich  was  finished  in  1656.  English  public 
galleries  ignore  Everdingen;  but  one  of  his  best-known  master- 
pieces is  the  Norwegian  glen  belonging  to  Lord  Listowel.  Of 
his  etchings  and  drawings  there  are  much  larger  and  more 
numerous  specimens  in  England  than  elsewhere.  Being  a  col- 
lector as  well  as  an  engraver  and  painter,  he  brought  together 
a  large  number  of  works  of  all  kinds  and  masters;  and  the 
sale  of  these  by  his  heirs  at  Amsterdam  on  the  nth  of  March 
1676  gives  an  approximate  clue  to  the  date  of  the  painter's 
death. 

His  two  brothers,  Jan  and  Caesar,  were  both  painters.  CAESAR 
VAN  EVERDINGEN  (1606-1679),  mainly  known  as  a  portrait 
painter,  enjoyed  some  vogue  during  his  life,  and  many  of  his 
pictures  are  to  be  seen  in  the  museums  and  private  houses  of 


Holland.  They  show  a  certain  cleverness,  but  are  far  from 
entitling  him  to  rank  as  a  master. 

EVEREST,  SIR  GEORGE  (1790-1866),  British  surveyor  and 
geographer,  was  the  son  of  Tristram  Everest  of  Gwerndale, 
Brecknockshire,  and  was  born  there  on  the  4th  of  July  1790. 
From  school  at  Marlow  he  proceeded  to  the  military  academy 
at  Woolwich,  where  he  attracted  the  special  notice  of  the  mathe- 
matical master,  and  passed  so  well  in  his  examinations  that  he 
was  declared  fit  for  a  commission  before  attaining  the  necessary 
age.  Having  gone  to  India  in  1806  as  a  cadet  in  the  Bengal 
Artillery,  he  was  selected  by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  to  take  part  in 
the  reconnaissance  of  Java  (1814-1816);  and  after  being  em- 
ployed in  various  engineering  works  throughout  India,  he  was 
appointed  in  1818  assistant  to  Colonel  Lambton,  the  founder  of 
the  great  trigonometrical  survey  of  that  country.  In  1823,  on 
Colonel  Lambton's  death,  he  succeeded  to  the  post  of  super- 
intendent of  the  survey;  in  1830  he  was  appointed  by  the  court 
of  directors  of  the  East  India  Company  surveyor-general  of  India ; 
and  from  that  date  till  his  retirement  from  the  service  in  1843 
he  continued  to  discharge  the  laborious  duties  of  both  offices. 
During  the  rest  of  his  life  he  resided  in  England,  where  he  became 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  an  active  member  of  several 
other  scientific  associations.  In  1861  he  was  made  a  C.B.  and 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood,  and  in  1862  he  was  chosen 
vice-president  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society.  He  died  at 
Greenwich  on  the  ist  of  December  1866.  The  geodetical  labours 
of  Sir  George  Everest  rank  among  the  finest  achievements  of 
their  kind;  and  more  especially  his  measurement  of  the  meri- 
dional arc  of  India,  115°  in  length,  is  accounted  as  unrivalled 
in  the  annals  of  the  science.  In  great  part  the  Indian  survey  is 
what  he  made  it. 

His  works  are  purely  professional : — A  paper  in  vol.  i.  of  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  pointing  out  a  mistake 
in  La  Caille's  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  which  he 
had  discovered  during  sick-leave  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  An 
account  of  the  measurement  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian  between  the 
parallels  of  18°  3'  and  24°  7',  being  a  continuation  of  the  Grand 
Meridional  Arc  of  India,  as  detailed  by  Lieut.-Col.  Lambton  in  the 
volumes  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Calcutta  (London,  1830);  An 
account  of  the  measurement  of  two  sections  of  the  Meridional  A  re  of 
India  bounded  by  the  parallels  of  18°  3'  15",  24°  7'  11",  and  20°  30' 
48"  (London,  1847). 

EVEREST,  MOUNT,  the  highest  mountain  in  the  world.  It 
is  a  peak  of  the  Himalayas  situated  in  Nepal  almost  precisely 
on  the  intersection  of  the  meridian  87  E.  long,  with  the  parallel 
28  N.  lat.  Its  elevation  as  at  present  determined  by  trigono- 
metrical observation  is  29,002  ft.,  but  it  is  possible  that  further 
investigation  into  the  value  of  refraction  at  such  altitudes  will 
result  in  placing  the  summit  even  higher.  It  has  been  confused 
with  a  peak  to  the  west  of  it  called  Gaurisankar  (by  Schlagint- 
weit),  which  is  more  than  5000  ft.  lower;  but  the  observations 
of  Captain  Wood  from  peaks  near  Khatmandu,  in  Nepal,  and 
those  of  the  same  officer,  and  of  Major  Ryder,  from  the  route 
between  Lhasa  and  the  sources  of  the  Brahmaputra  in  1904, 
have  definitely  fixed  the  relative  position  of  the  two  mountain 
masses,  and  conclusively  proved  that  there  is  no  higher  peak 
than  Everest  in  the  Himalayan  system.  The  peak  possesses 
no  distinctive  native  name  and  has  been  called  Everest  after 
Sir  George  Everest  (q.v.),  who  completed  the  trigonometrical 
survey  of  the  Himalayas  in  1841  and  first  fixed  its  position  and 
altitude.  (T.  H.  H.*) 

EVERETT,  ALEXANDER  HILL  (1790-1847),  American 
author  and  diplomatist,  was  born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  on 
the  I9th  of  March  1790.  He  was  the  son  of  Rev.  Oliver  Everett 
(1753-1802),  a  Congregational  minister  in  Boston,  and  the 
brother  of  Edward  Everett.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1806, 
taking  the  highest  honours  of  his  year,  though  the  youngest 
member  of  his  class.  He  spent  one  year  as  a  teacher  in  Phillips 
Academy,  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  and  then  began  the  study  of 
law  in  the  office  of  John  Quincy  Adams.  In  1809  Adams  was 
appointed  minister  to  Russia,  and  Everett  accompanied  him  as 
his  private  secretary,  remaining  attached  to  the  American 
legation  in  Russia  until  1811.  He  was  secretary  of  the  American 
legation  at  The  Hague  in  1815-1816,  and  charge  d'affaires  there 


8 


EVERETT,  C.  C.— EVERETT,  EDWARD 


from  1818  to  1824.  From  1825  to  1829,  during  the  presidency 
of  John  Quincy  Adams,  he  was  the  United  States  minister  to 
Spain.  At  that  time  Spain  recognized  none  of  the  governments 
established  by  her  revolted  colonies,  and  Everett  became  the 
medium  of  all  communications  between  the  Spanish  government 
and  the  several  nations  of  Spanish  origin  which  had  been  estab- 
lished, by  successful  revolutions,  on  the  other  side  of  the  ocean. 
Everett  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  legislature  in  1830- 
1835,  was  president  of  Jefferson  College  in  Louisiana  in  1842- 
1844,  and  was  appointed  commissioner  of  the  United  States  to 
China  in  1845,  but  did  not  go  to  that  country  until  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  died  on  the  2gth  of  May  1847  at  Canton,  China. 
Everett,  however,  is  known  rather  as  a  man  of  letters  than  as 
a  diplomat.  In  addition  to  numerous  articles,  published  chiefly 
in  the  North  American  Review,  of  which  he  was  the  editor  from 
1829  to  1835,  he  wrote:  Europe,  or  a  General  Survey  of  the 
Political  Situation  of  the  Principal  Powers,  with  Conjectures  on 
their  Future  Prospects  (1822),  which  attracted  considerable 
attention  in  Europe  and  was  translated  into  German,  French 
and  Spanish;  New  Ideas  on  Population  (1822);  America,  or  a 
General  Survey  of  the  Political  Situation  of  the  Several  Powers 
of  the  Western  Continent,  with  Conjectures  on  their  Future  Pros- 
pects (1827),  which  was  translated  into  several  European  lan- 
guages; a  volume  of  Poems  (1845);  and  Critical  and  Miscellane- 
ous Essays  (first  series,  1845;  second  series,  1847). 

EVERETT,  CHARLES  CARROLL  (1829-1900),  American 
divine  and  philosopher,  was  born  on  the  i9th  of  June  1829,  at 
Brunswick,  Maine.  He  studied  at  Bowdoin  College,  where  he 
graduated  in  1850,  after  which  he  proceeded  to  Berlin.  Subse- 
quently he  took  a  degree  in  divinity  at  the  Harvard  Divinity 
School.  From  1859  to  1869  he  was  pastor  of  the  Independent 
Congregational  (Unitarian)  church  at  Bangor,  Maine.  This 
charge  he  resigned  to  take  the  Bussey  professorship  of  theology 
at-  Harvard  University,  and,  in  1878,  became  dean  of  the  faculty 
of  theology.  Interested  in  a  variety  of  subjects,  he  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  the  philosophy  of  religion,  and  published  The 
Science  of  Thought  (Boston,  1869;  revised  1891).  He  also  wrote 
Fickle' s  Science  of  Knowledge  (1884);  Poetry,  Comedy  and  Duty 
(1888);  Religions  before  Christianity  (1883);  Ethics  for  Young 
People  (1891) ;  The  Gospel  of  Paul  (1892).  He  died  at  Cambridge 
on  the  i6th  of  October  1900. 

EVERETT,  EDWARD  (1794-1865),  American  statesman  and 
orator,  was  born  in  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  on  the  nth  of 
April  1794.  He  was  the  son  of  Rev.  Oliver  Everett  and  the 
brother  of  Alexander  Hill  Everett  (q.v.).  His  father  died  in 
1802,  and  his  mother  removed  to  Boston  with  her  family  after 
Her  husband's  death.  At  seventeen  Edward  Everett  graduated 
from  Harvard  College,  taking  first  honours  in  his  class.  While 
at 'college  he  was  the  chief  editor  of  The  Lyceum,  the  earliest 
in  the  series  of  college  journals  published  at  the  American 
Cambridge.  His  earlier  predilections  were  for  the  study  of  law, 
but  the  advice  of  Joseph  Stevens  Buckminster,  a  distinguished 
preacher  in  Boston,  led  him  to  prepare  for  the  pulpit,  and  as  a 
preacher  he  at  once  distinguished  himself.  He  was  called  to 
the  ministry  of  the  Brattle  Street  church  (Unitarian)  in  Boston 
before  he  was  twenty  years  old.  His  sermons  attracted  wide 
attention  in  that  community,  and  he  gained  a  considerable 
reputation  as  a  theologian  and  a  controversialist  by  his  pub- 
lication in  1814  of  a  volume  entitled  Defence  of  Christianity, 
written  in  answer  to  a  work,  The  Grounds  of  Christianity  Exa- 
mined (1813),  by  George  Bethune  English  (1787-1828),  an 
adventurer,  who,  born  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  was  in  turn 
a  student  of  law  and  of  theology,  an  editor  of  a  newspaper,  and 
a  soldier  of  fortune  in  Egypt.  Everett's  tastes,  however,  were 
then,  as  always,  those  of  a  scholar;  and  in  1815,  after  a  service 
of  little  more  than  a  year  in  the  pulpit,  he  resigned  his  charge 
to  accept  a  professorship  of  Greek  literature  in  Harvard  College. 

After  nearly  five  years  spent  in  Europe  in  preparation,  he 
entered  with  enthusiasm  on  his  duties,  and,  for  five  years  more, 
gave  a  vigorous  impulse,  not  only  to  the  study  of  Greek,  but  to 
all  the  work  of  the  college.  In  January  1820  he  assumed  the 
charge  of  the  North  American  Review,  which  now  became  a 


quarterly;  and  he  was  indefatigable  during  the  four  years  of 
his  editorship  in  contributing  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects. 
From  1825  to  1835  he  was  a  member  of  the  National  House  of 
Representatives,  supporting  generally  the  administration  of 
President  J.  Q.  Adams  and  opposing  that  of  Jackson,  which 
succeeded  it.  He  bore  a  part  in  almost  every  important  debate, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  committee  of  foreign  affairs  during 
the  whole  time  of  his  service  in  Congress.  Everett  was  a  member 
of  nearly  all  the  most  important  select  committees,  such  as  those 
on  the  Indian  relations  of  the  state  of  Georgia,  the  Apportion- 
ment Bill,  and  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  and  drew  the 
report  either  of  the  majority  or  the  minority.  The  report  on  the 
congress  of  Panama,  the  leading  measure  of  the  first  session  of 
the  Nineteenth  Congress,  was  drawn  up  by  Everett,  although  he 
was  the  youngest  member  of  the  committee  and  had  just  entered 
Congress.  He  led  the  unsuccessful  opposition  to  the  Indian 
policy  of  General  Jackson  (the  removal  of  the  Cherokee  and  other 
Indians,  without  their  consent,  from 'lands  guaranteed  to  them 
by  treaty). 

In  1835  he  was  elected  governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  brought 
to  the  duties  of  the  office  the  untiring  diligence  which  was  the 
characteristic  of  his  public  life.  We  can  only  allude  to  a  few 
of  the  measures  which  received  his  efficient  support,  e.g.  the 
establishment  of  the  board  of  education  (the  first  of  such  boards 
in  the  United  States),  the  scientific  surveys  of  the  state  (the  first 
of  such  public  surveys),  the  criminal  law  commission,  and  the 
preservation  of  a  sound  currency  during  the  panic  of  1837. 

Everett  filled  the  office  of  governor  for  four  years,  and  was  then 
defeated  by  a  single  vote,  out  of  more  than  one  hundred  thousand. 
The  election  is  of  interest  historically  as  being  the  first  important 
American  election  where  the  issue  turned  on  the  question  of  the 
prohibition  of  the  retail  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  In  the 
following  spring  he  made  a  visit  with  his  family  to  Europe.  In 
1841,  while  residing  in  Florence,  he  was  named  United  States 
minister  to  Great  Britain,  and  arrived  in  London  to  enter  upon 
the  duties  of  his  mission  at  the  close  of  that  year.  Great  ques- 
tions were  at  that  time  open  between  the  two  countries — the 
north-eastern  boundary,  the  affair  of  M'Leod,  the  seizure  of 
American  vessels  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  in  the  course  of  a  few 
months  the  affair  of  the  "  Creole,"  to  which  was  soon  added  the 
Oregon  question.  His  position  was  more  difficult  by  reason  of 
the  frequent  changes  that  took  place  in  the  department  at  home, 
which,  in  the  course  of  four  years,  was  occupied  successively  by 
Messrs  Webster,  Legare,  Upshur,  Calhoun  and  Buchanan.  From 
all  these  gentlemen  Everett  received  marks  of  'approbation  and 
confidence. 

By  the  institution  of  the  special  mission  of  Lord  Ashburton, 
however,  the  direct  negotiations  between  the  two  governments 
were,  about  the  time  of  Everett's  arrival  in  London,  transferred 
to  Washington,  though  much  business  was  transacted  at  the 
American  legation  in  London. 

Immediately  after  the  accession  of  Polk  to  the  presidency 
Everett  was  recalled.  From  January  1846  to  1849,  as  the 
successor  of  Josiah  Quincy,  he  was  president  of  Harvard  College. 
On  the  death,  in  October  1852,  of  his  friend  Daniel  Webster,  to 
whom  he  had  always  been  closely  attached,  and  of  whom  he  was 
always  a  confidential  adviser,  he  succeeded  him  as  secretary  of 
state,  which  post  he  held  for  the  remaining  months  of  P'illmore's 
administration,  leaving  it  to  go  into  the  Senate  in  1853,  as  one 
of  the  representatives  of  Massachusetts.  Under  the  work  of 
the  long  session  of  1853-1854  his  health  gave  way.  In  May 
1854  he  resigned  his  seat,  on  the  orders  of  his  physician,  and 
retired  to  what  was  called  private  life. 

But,  as  it  proved,  the  remaining  ten  years  of  his  life  most  widely 
established  his  reputation  and  influence  throughout  America. 
As  early  as  1820  he  had  established  a  reputation  as  an  orator, 
such  as  few  men  in  later  days  have  enjoyed.  He  was  frequently 
invited  todeliveran  "  oration"  on  sometopicof  historical  or  other 
interest.  With  him  these  "  orations,"  instead  of  being  the 
ephemeral  entertainments  of  an  hour,  became  careful  studies 
of  some  important  theme.  Eager  to  avert,  if  possible,  the  im- 
pending conflict  of  arms  between  the  North  and  South,  Everett 


EVERETT— EVERGREEN 


prepared  an  "  oration  "  on  George  Washington,  which  he  de- 
livered in  every  part  of  America.  In  this  way,  too,  he  raised 
more  than  one  hundred  thousand  dollars,  for  the  purchase  of 
the  old  home  of  Washington  at  Mount  Vernon.  Everett  also 
prepared  for  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  a  biographical  sketch 
of  Washington,  which  was  published  separately  in  1860.  In 
1860  Everett  was  the  candidate  of  the  short-lived  Consti- 
tutional-Union party  for  the  vice-presidency,  on  the  ticket 
with  John  Bell  (q.v.),  but  received  only  39  electoral  votes. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  zealously  supported  the  national 
government  and  was  called  upon  in  every  quarter  to  speak  at 
public  meetings.  He  delivered  the  last  of  his  great  orations  at 
Gettysburg,  after  the  battle,  on  the  consecration  of  the  national 
cemetery  there.  On  the  gth  of  January  1865  he  spoke  at  a  public 
meeting  in  Boston  to  raise  funds  for  the  southern-  poor  in 
Savannah.  At  that  meeting  he  caught  cold,  and  the  immediate 
result  was  his  death  on  the  isth  of  January  1865. 

In  Everett's  life  and  career  was  a  combination  of  the  results 
of  diligent  training,  unflinching  industry,  delicate  literary  tastes 
and  unequalled  acquaintance  with  modern  international  politics. 
This  combination  made  him  in  America  an  entirely  exceptional 
person.  He  was  never  loved  by  the  political  managers;  he  was 
always  enthusiastically  received  by  assemblies  of  the  people. 
He  would  have  said  himself  that  the  most  eager  wish  of  his  life 
had  been  for  the  higher  education  of  his  countrymen.  His 
orations  have  been  collected  in  four  volumes  (1850-1859).  A 
work  on  international  law,  on  which  he  was  engaged  at  his  death, 
was  never  finished.  Allibone  records  84  titles  of  his  books  and 
published  addresses.  (E.  E.  H.) 

EVERETT,  a  city  of  Middlesex  county,  Massachusetts,  U.S.A., 
adjoining  Chelsea  and  3  m.  N.  of  Boston,  of  which  it  is  a  resi- 
dential suburb.  Pop.  (1880)  4159;  (1890)  11,068;  (1900) 
24.336,  of  whom  6882  were  foreign-born;  (1910  census) 
33,484.  It  covers  an  area  of  about  3  sq.  m.  and  is  served  by 
the  Boston  &  Maine  railway  and  by  interurban  electric  lines. 
Everett  has  the  Frederick  E.  Parlin  memorial  library  (1878),  the 
Shute  memorial  library  (1898),  the  Whidden  memorial  hospital 
and  Woodlawn  cemetery  (176  acres).  The  principal  manufac- 
tures are  coke,  chemicals  and  boots  and  shoes;  among  others  are 
iron  and  structural  steel.  According  to  the  U.S.  Census  of 
Manufactures  (1905),  "  the  coke  industry  in  Everett  is  unique, 
inasmuch  as  illuminating  gas  is  the  primary  product  and  coke 
really  a  by-product,  while  the  coal  used  is  brought  from  mines 
located  in  Nova  Scotia."  The  value  of  the  city's  total  factory 
product  increased  from  $4,437,180  in  1900  to  $6,135,650  in  1905 
°r  38-3%.  Everett  was  first  settled  about  1630,  remaining  a 
part  of  Maiden  (and  being  known  as  South  Maiden)  until  1870, 
when  it  was  incorporated  as  a  township.  It  was  chartered  as 
a  city  in  1892. 

EVERETT,  a  city,  a  sub-port  of  entry,  and  the  county-seat  of 
Snohomish  county,  Washington,  U.S.A.,  on  Puget  Sound,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Snohomish  river,  about  35  m.  N.  of  Seattle. 
Pop.  (1900)  7838;  (1910  U.  S.  census)  24,814.  The  city  is 
served  by  the  Northern  Pacific  and  the  Great  Northern  railways, 
being  the  western  terminus  of  the  latter's  main  transcontinental 
line,  by  interurban  electric  railway,  and  by  several  lines  of 
Sound  and  coasting  freight  and  passenger  steamboats.  Everett 
has  a  fine  harbour  with  several  large  iron  piers.  Among  its 
principal  buildings  are  a  Carnegie  library,  a  Y.M.C.A.  building 
and  two  hospitals.  The  buildings  of  the  Pacific  College  were 
erected  here  by  the  United  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  in  1908. 
The  city  is  in  a  rich  lumbering,  gardening,  farming,  and  copper-, 
gold- and  silver-mining  district.  There  is  a  U.S.  assayer's  office 
here,  and  there  are  extensive  shipyards,  a  large  paper  mill,  iron 
works,  and,  just  outside  the  city  limits,  the  smelters  of  the 
American  Smelters  Securities  Company,  in  connexion  with  which 
is  one  of  the  two  plants  in  the  United  States  for  saving  arsenic 
from  smelter  fumes.  Lumber  interests,  however,  are  of  most 
importance,  and  here  are  some  of  the  largest  lumber  plants  in 
the  Pacific  Northwest.  Red-cedar  shingles  are  an  important 
product.  Everett  was  settled  in  1891  and  was  incorporated  in 
1893.  Its  rapid  growth  is  due  to  its  favourable  situation  as  a 


commercial  port,  its  transportation  facilities,  and  its  nearness 
to  extensive  forests  whence  the  material  for  its  chief  industries 
is  obtained. 

EVERGLADES,  an  American  lake,  about  8000  sq.  m.  in  area, 
in  which  are  numerous  half -submerged  islands;  situated  in  the 
southern  part  of  Florida,  U.S.A.,  in  Lee,  De'Soto,  Bade  and 
St  Lucie  counties.  West  of  it  is  the  Big  Cypress  Swamp.  The 
floor  of  the  lake  is  a  limestone  basin,  extending  from  Lake 
Okechobee  in  the  N.  to  the  extreme  S.  part  of  the  state,  and 
the  lake  varies  in  depth  from  i  to  12  ft.,  its  water  being  pure 
and  clear.  The  surface  is  above  tide  level,  and  the  lake  is 
enclosed,  probably  on  all  sides,  within  an  outcropping  limestone 
rim,  averaging  about  10  ft.  above  mean  low  tide,  and  approach- 
ing much  nearer  to  the  Atlantic  on  the  E.  than  to  the  gulf  on  the 
W.  There  are  several  small  outlets,  such  as  the  Miami  river  and 
the  New  river  on  the  E.  and  the  Shark  river  on  the  S.W.,  but 
no  streams  empty  into  the  Everglades,  and  the  water-supply  is 
furnished  by  springs  and  precipitation.  There  is  a  general  south- 
easterly movement  of  the  water.  The  soil  of  the  islands  is  very 
fertile  and  is  subject  to  frequent  inundations,  but  gradually 
the  water  area  is  being  replaced  by  land.  The  vegetation  is 
luxuriant,  the  live  oak,  wild  lemon,  wild  orange,  cucumber, 
papaw,  custard  apple  and  wild  rubber  trees  being  among  the 
indigenous  species;  there  are,  besides,  many  varieties  of  wild 
flowers,  the  orchids  being  especially  noteworthy.  The  fauna 
is  also  varied;  the  otter,  alligator  and  crocodile  are  found,  also 
the  deer  and  panther,  and  among  the  native  birds  are  the  ibis, 
egret,  heron  and  limpkin.  There  are  two  seasons,  wet  and  dry, 
but  the  climate  is  equable. 

Systematic  exploration  has  been  prevented  by  the  dense 
growth  of  saw  grass  (Cladium  effusum),  a  kind  of  sedge,  with 
sharp,  saw-toothed  leaves,  which  grows  everywhere  on  the  muck- 
covered  rock  basin  and  extends  several  feet  above  the  shallow 
water.  The  first  white  man  to  enter  the  region  was  Escalente 
de  Fontenada,  a  Spanish  captive  of  an  Indian  chief,  who  named 
the  lake  Laguno  del  Espiritu  Santo  and  the  islands  Cayos  del 
Espiritu  Santo.  Between  1841  and  1856  various  United  States 
military  forces  penetrated  the  Everglades  for  the  purpose  of 
attacking  and  driving  out  the  Seminoles,  who  took  refuge  here. 
The  most  important  explorations  during  the  later  years  of  the 
1 9th  century  were  those  of  Major  Archie  P.  Williams  in  1883, 
James  E.  Ingraham  in  1892  and  Hugh  L.  Willoughby  in  1897. 
The  Seminole  Indians  were  in  1909  practically  the  only  inhabi- 
tants. In  1850  under  the  "  Arkansas  Bill,"  or  Swamp  and  Over- 
flow Act,  practically  all  of  the  Everglades,  which  the  state  had 
been  urging  the  federal  government  to  drain  and  reclaim,  were 
turned  over  to  the  state  for  that  purpose,  with  the  provision 
that  all  proceeds  from  such  lands  be  applied  to  their  reclamation. 
A  board  of  trustees  for  the  Internal  Improvement  Fund,  created 
in  1855  and  having  as  members  ex  officio  the  governor,  comp- 
troller, treasurer,  attorney-general  and  commissioner-general, 
sold  and  allowed  to  railway  companies  much  of  the  grant. 
Between  1881  and  1896  a  private  company  owning  4,000,000 
acres  of  the  Everglades  attempted  to  dig  a  canal  from  Lake 
Okechobee  through  Lake  Hicpochee  and  along  the  Caloosa- 
hatchee  river  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  the  canal  was  closed  in 
1902  by  overflows.  Six  canals  were  begun  under  state  control 
in  1905  from  the  lake  to  the  Atlantic,  the  northernmost  at 
Jensen,  the  southernmost  at  Ft.  Lauderdale;  the  total  cost, 
estimated  at  $1,035,000  for  the  reclamation  of  12,500  sq.  m., 
is  raised  by  a  drainage  tax  (not  to  exceed  10  cents  per  acre) 
levied  by  the  trustees  of  the  Internal  Improvement  Fund  and 
Board  of  Drainage  commissioners.  The  small  area  reclaimed 
prior  to  that  year  (1905)  was  found  very  fertile  and  particularly 
adapted  to  raising  sugar-cane,  oranges  and  garden  truck. 

See  Hugh  L.  Willoughby's  Across  the  Everglades  (Philadelphia, 
1898),  and  especially  an  article  "  The  Everglades  of  Florida  "  by 
Edwin  A.  Dix  and  John  M.  MacGonigle,  in  the  Century  Magazine 
for  February  1905. 

EVERGREEN,  a  general  term  applied  to  plants  which  are 
always  in  leaf,  as  contrasted  with  deciduous  trees  which 
are  bare  for  some  part  of  the  year  (see  HORTICULTURE).  In 


10 


EVERLASTING— EVESHAM 


temperate  or  colder  zones  where  a  season  favourable  to  vegeta- 
tion is  succeeded  by  an  unfavourable  or  winter  season,  leaves  of 
evergreens  must  be  protected  from  the  frost  and  cold  drying 
winds,  and  are  therefore  tougher  or  more  leathery  in  texture 
than  those  of  deciduous  trees,  and  frequently,  as  in  pines,  firs 
and  other  conifers,  are  needle-like,  thus  exposing  a  much  smaller 
surface  to  the  drying  action  of  cold  winds.  The  number  of 
seasons  for  which  the  leaves  last  varies  in  different  plants;  every 
season  some  of  the  older  leaves  fall,  while  new  ones  are  regularly 
produced.  The  common  English  bramble  is  practically  ever- 
green, the  leaves  lasting  through  winter  and  until  the  new  leaves 
are  developed  next  spring.  In  privet  also  the  leaves  fall  after  the 
production  of  new  ones  in  the  next  year.  In  other  cases  the 
leaves  last  several  years,  as  in  conifers,  and  may  sometimes 
be  found  on  eleven-year-old  shoots. 

EVERLASTING,  or  IMMORTELLE,  a  plant  belonging  to  the 
division  Tubuliflorae  of  the  natural  order  Compositae,  known 
botanically  as  Helichrysum  orientate.  It  is  a  native  of  North 
Africa,  Crete,  and  the  parts  of  Asia  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean; and  it  is  cultivated  in  many  parts  of  Europe.  It  first 
became  known  in  Europe  about  the  year  1629,  and  has  been  culti- 
vated since  1815.  In  common  with  several  other  plants  of  the 
same  group,  known  as  "  everlastings,"  the  immortelle  plant 
possesses  a  large  involucre  of  dry  scale-like  or  scarious  bracts, 
which  preserve  their  appearance  when  dried,  provided  the  plant 
be  gathered  in  proper  condition.  The  chief  supph'es  of  Helichry- 
sum orientate  come  from  lower  Provence,  where  it  is  cultivated 
in  large  quantities  on  the  ground  sloping  to  the  Mediterranean, 
in  positions  well  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  usually  in  plots  sur- 
rounded by  dry  stone  walls.  The  finest  flowers  are  grown  on  the 
slopes  of  Bandols  and  Ciotat,  where  the  plant  begins  to  flower  in 
June.  It  requires  a  light  sandy  or  stony  soil,  and  is  very  readily 
injured  by  rain  or  heavy  dews.  It  can  be  propagated  in  quantity 
by  means  of  offsets  from  the  older  stems.  The  flowering  stems 
are  gathered  in  June,  when  the  bracts  are  fully  developed,  all  the 
fully-expanded  and  immature  flowers  being  pulled  off  and  re- 
jected. A  well-managed  plantation  is  productive  for  eight  or 
ten  years.  The  plant  is  tufted  in  its  growth,  each  plant  produc- 
ing 60  or  70  stems,  while  each  stem  produces  an  average  of  20 
flowers.  About  400  such  stems  weigh  a  kilogramme.  A  hectare 
of  ground  will  produce  40,000  plants,  bearing  from  2,400,000  to 
2,800,000  stems,  and  weighing  from  5^  to  6£  tons,  or  from  2  to 
3  tons  per  acre.  The  colour  of  the  bracts  is  a  deep  yellow. 
The  natural  flowers  are  commonly  used  for  garlands  for  the  dead, 
or  plants  dyed  black  are  mixed  with  the  yellow  ones.  The  plant 
is  also  dyed  green  or  orange-red,  and  thus  employed  for  bouquets 
or  other  ornamental  purposes. 

Other  species  of  Helichrysum  and  species  of  allied  genera  with 
scarious  heads  of  flowers  are  also  known  as  "  everlastings."  One 
of  the  best  known  is  the  Australian  species  H.  bractealum,  with 
several  varieties,  including  double  forms,  of  different  colours; 
H.  veslilum  (Cape  of  Good  Hope)  has  white  satiny  heads.  Others 
are  species  of  Helipterum  (West  Australia  and  South  Africa), 
Ammobium  and  Waitzia  (Australia)  and  Xeranthemum  (south 
Europe).  Several  members  of  the  natural  order  Amarantaceae 
have  also  "  everlasting  "  flowers;  such  are  Gomphrena  globosa, 
with  rounded  or  oval  heads  of  white,  orange,  rose  or  violet, 
scarious  bracts,  and  Celosia  pyramidalis,  with  its  elegant,  loose, 
pyramidal  inflorescences.  Frequently  these  everlastings  are 
mixed  with  bleached  grasses,  as  Lagurus  ovatus,  Briza  maxima, 
Bromus  brizaeformis,  or  with  the  leaves  of  the  Cape  silver  tree 
(Leucadendron  argenteum),  to  form  bouquets  or  ornamental 
groups. 

EVERSLEY,  CHARLES  SHAW  LEFEVRE,  VISCOUNT  (1794- 
1888),  speaker  of  the  British  House  of  Commons,  eldest  son  of 
Mr  Charles  Shaw  (who  assumed  his  wife's  name  of  Lefevre  in 
addition  to  his  own  on  his  marriage),  was  born  in  London  on  the 
22nd  of  February  1794,  and  educated  at  Winchester  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1819, 
and  though  a  diligent  student  was  also  a  keen  sportsman. 
Marrying  a  daughter  of  Mr  Samuel  Whitbread,  whose  wife  was 
the  sister  of  Earl  Grey,  afterwards  premier,  he  thus  became 


connected  with  two  influential  political  families,  and  in  1830  he 
entered  the  House  of  Commons  as  member  for  Downton,  in  the 
Liberal  interest.  In  1831  he  was  returned,  after  a  severe  contest, 
as  one  of  the  county  members  for  Hampshire,  in  which  he  resided ; 
and  after  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Act  of  1832  he  was  elected 
for  the  Northern  Division  of  the  county.  For  some  years  Mr 
Shaw  Lefevre  was  chairman  of  a  committee  on  petitions  for 
private  bills.  In  1835  he  was  chairman  of  a  committee  on 
agricultural  distress,  but  as  his  report  was  not  accepted  by  the 
House,  he  published  it  as  a  pamphlet  addressed  to  his  con- 
stituents. He  acquired  a  high  reputation  in  the  House  of 
Commons  for  his  judicial  fairness,  combined  with  singular  tact 
and  courtesy,  and  when  Mr  James  Abercromby  retired  in  1839, 
he  was  nominated  as  the  Liberal  candidate  for  the  chair.  The 
Conservatives  put  forward  Henry  Goulburn,  but  Mr  Shaw 
Lefevre  was  elected  by  3 1 7  votes  to  299.  The  period  was  one  of 
fierce  party  conflict,  and  the  debates  were  frequently  very 
acrimonious;  but  the  dignity,  temper  and  firmness  of  the  new 
speaker  were  never  at  fault.  In  1857  he  had  served  longer  than 
any  of  his  predecessors,  except  the  celebrated  Arthur  Onslow 
(1691-1768),  who  was  speaker  for  more  than  33  years  in  five 
successive  parliaments.  Retiring  on  a  pension,  he  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  as  Viscount  Eversley  of  Heckfield,  in  the  county 
of  Southampton.  His  appearances  in  the  House  of  Lords  were 
very  infrequent,  but  in  his  own  county  he  was  active  in  the 
public  service.  From  1 859  he  was  an  ecclesiastical  commissioner, 
and  he  was  also  appointed  a  trustee  of  the  British  Museum. 
He  died  on  the  28th  of  December  1888,  the  viscountcy  becoming 
extinct. 

His  younger  brother,  Sir  JOHN  GEORGE  SHAW  LEFEVRE  (1797- 
1879),  who  was  senior  wrangler  at  Cambridge  in  1818,  had  a  long 
and  distinguished  career  as  a  public  official.  He  was  under- 
secretary for  the  colonies,  and  had  much  to  do  with  the  intro- 
duction of  the  new  poor  law  in  1834,  and  with  the  foundation 
of  the  colony  of  South  Australia;  then  having  served  on  several 
important  commissions  he  was  made  clerk  of  the  parliaments  in 
1855,  and  in  the  same  year  became  one  of  the  first  civil  service 
commissioners.  He  helped  to  found  the  university  of  London, 
of  which  he  was  vice-chancellor  for  twenty  years,  and  also  the 
Athenaeum  Club.  He  died  on  the  2oth  of  August  1879. 

The  latter's  son,  GEORGE  JOHN  SHAW  LEFEVRE  (b.  1832), 
was  created  Baron  Eversley  in  1906,  in  recognition  of  long  and 
prominent  services  to  the  Liberal  party.  He  had  filled  the 
following  offices: — civil  lord  of  the  admiralty,  1856;  secretary 
to  the  board  of  trade,  1860-1871;  under-secretary,  home 
office,  1871;  secretary  to  the  admiralty,  1871-1874;  first 
commissioner  of  works,  1881-1883;  postmaster-general,  1883- 
1884;  first  commissioner  of  works,  1892-1893;  president  of 
local  government  board,  1894-1895;  chairman  of  royal  com- 
mission on  agriculture,  1893-1896. 

EVESHAM,  a  market-town  and  municipal  borough  in  the 
Evesham  parliamentary  division  of  Worcestershire,  England, 
107  m.  W.N.W.  of  London  by  the  Great  Western  railway,  and 
15  m.  S.E.  by  E.  of  Worcester,  with  a  station  on  the  Redditch- 
Ashchurch  branch  of  the  Midland  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  7101. 
It  lies  on  the  right  (north)  bank  of  the  Avon,  in  the  rich  and 
beautiful  Vale  of  Evesham.  The  district  is  devoted  to  market- 
gardening  and  orchards,  and  the  trade  of  the  town  is  mainly 
agricultural.  Evesham  is  a  place  of  considerable  antiquity,  a 
Benedictine  house  having  been  founded  here  by  St  Egwin  in 
the  8th  century.  It  became  a  wealthy  abbey,  but  was  almost 
wholly  destroyed  at  the  Dissolution.  The  churchyard,  however, 
is  entered  by  a  Norman  gateway,  and  there  survives  also  a 
magnificent  isolated  bell-tower  dating  from  1533,  of  the  best 
ornate  Perpendicular  workmanship.  The  abbey  walls  surround 
the  churchyard,  but  almost  the  only  other  remnant  is  a  single 
Decorated  arch.  Close  to  the  bell-tower,  however,  are  the  two 
parish  churches  of  St  Lawrence  and  of  All  Saints,  the  former 
of  the  i6th  century,  the  latter  containing  Early  English  work, 
and  the  ornate  chapel  of  Abbot  Lichfield,  who  erected  the  bell- 
tower.  Other  buildings  include  an  Elizabethan  town  hall,  the 
grammar  school,  founded  by  Abbot  Lichfield,  and  the  picturesque 


EVIDENCE 


ii 


almonry.  The  borough  includes  the  parish  of  Bengeworth 
St  Peter,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Evesham  is  governed 
by  a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and  12  councillors.  Area,  2265  acres. 

Evesham  (Homme,  Ethomme)  grew  up  around  the  Benedictine 
abbey,  and  had  evidently  become  of  some  importance  as  a  trad- 
ing centre  in  1055,  when  Edward  the  Confessor  gave  it  a  market 
and  the  privileges  of  a  commercial  town.  It  is  uncertain  when 
the  town  first  became  a  borough,  but  the  Domesday  statement 
that  the  men  paid  203.  may  indicate  the  existence  of  a  more  or 
less  organized  body  of  tradesmen.  Before  1482  the  burgesses 
were  holding  the  town  at  a  fee  farm  rent  of  twenty  marks,  but 
the  abbot  still  had  practical  control  of  the  town,  and  his  steward 
presided  over  the  court  at  which  the  bailiffs  were  chosen.  After 
the  Dissolution  the  manor  with  the  markets  and  fairs  and  other 
privileges  was  granted  to  Sir  Philip  Hoby,  who  increased  his 
power  over  the  town  by  persuading  the  burgesses  to  agree  that, 
after  they  had  nominated  six  candidates  for  the  office  of  bailiff, 
the  steward  of  the  court  instructed  by  him  should  indicate  the 
two  to  be  chosen.  This  privilege  was  contested  by  Queen 
Elizabeth,  but  when  the  case  was  taken  before  the  court  of  the 
exchequer  it  was  decided  in  favour  of  Sir  Philip's  heir,  Sir 
Edward  Hoby.  In  1604  James  I.  granted  the  burgesses  their 
first  charter,  but  in  the  following  year,  by  a  second  charter,  he 
incorporated  Evesham  with  the  village  of  Bengeworth,  and 
granted  that  the  borough  should  be  governed  by  a  mayor  and 
seven  aldermen,-to  whom  he  gave  the  power  of  holding  markets 
and  fairs  and  several  other  privileges  which  had  formerly  belonged 
to  the  lord  of  the  manor.  Evesham  received  two  later  charters, 
but  in  1688  that  of  1605  was  restored  and  still  remains  the  govern- 
ing charter  of  the  borough.  Evesham  returned  two  members 
to  parliament  in  1295  and  again  in  1337,  after  which  date  the 
privilege  lapsed  until  1 604.  Its  two  members  were  reduced  to  one 
by  the  act  of  1867,  and  the  borough  was  disfranchised  in  1885. 

Evesham  gave  its  name  to  the  famous  battle,  fought  on  the 
4th  of  August  1265,  between  the  forces  of  Simon  de  Montfort, 
earl  of  Leicester,  and  the  royalist  army  under  Prince  Edward. 
After  a  masterly  campaign,  in  which  the  prince  had  succeeded 
in  defeating  Leicester  in  the  valleys  of  the  Severn  and  Usk,  and 
had  destroyed  the  forces  of  the  younger  Montfort  at  Kenilworth 
before  he  could  effect  a  junction  with  the  main  body,  the  royalist 
forces  approached  Evesham  in  the  morning  of  the  4th  of  August 
in  time  to  intercept  Leicester's  march  towards  Kenilworth. 
Caught  in  the  bend  of  the  river  Avon  by  the  converging  columns, 
and  surrounded  on  all  sides,  the  old  earl  attempted  to  cut  his 
way  out  of  the  town  to  the  northward.  At  first  the  fury  of  his 
assault  forced  back  the  superior  numbers  of  the  prince;  but 
Simon's  Welsh  levies  melted  away  and  his  enemies  closed  the 
last  avenue  of  escape.  The  final  struggle  took  place  on  Green 
Hill,  a  little  to  the  north-west  of  the  town,  where  the  devoted 
friends  of  de  Montfort  formed  a  ring  round  their  leader,  and  died 
with  him.  The  spot  is  marked  with  an  obelisk. 

EVIDENCE  (Lat.  evidentia,  evideri,  to  appear  clearly),  a  term 
which  may  be  defined  briefly  as  denoting  the  facts  presented  to 
the  mind  of  a  person  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  him  to  decide 
a  disputed  question.  Evidence  in  the  widest  sense  includes  all 
such  facts,  and  reference  may  be  made  to  the  article  LOGIC  for 
the  science  or  art  of  dealing  with  the  proper  way  of  drawing 
correct  conclusions  and  the  nature  of  proof.  In  a  narrower 
sense,  however,  evidence  includes  in  English  law  only  such  facts 
as  are  allowed  to  be  so  presented  in  the  course  of  judicial  pro- 
ceedings. Thus  we  say  that  a  fact  is  not  evidence,  meaning 
thereby  that  it  is  not  admissible  as  evidence  in  accordance  with 
the  rules  of  English  law.  The  law  of  legal  evidence  is  part  of  the 
law  of  procedure.  It  determines  the  kinds  of  evidence  which 
may  be  produced  in  judicial  proceedings,  and  regulates  the  mode 
in  which,  and  the  conditions  under  which,  evidence  may  be 
produced  and  tested. 

The  English  law  of  evidence  is  of  comparatively  modern  growth. 

It  enshrines  certain  maxims,  some  derived  from  Roman   law, 

History       some  invented  by  Coke,  who,  as  J.  B.  Thayer  says, 

"  spawned  Latin  maxims  freely."     But  for  the  most 

part  it  was  built  up  by  English   judges  in  the  course  of  the 


1 8th  century,  and  consists  of  this  judge-made  law,  as  modified 
by  statutory  enactments  of  the  igth  century.  Early  Teutonic 
procedure  knew  nothing  of  evidence  in  the  modern  sense,  just 
as  it  knew  nothing  of  trials  in  the  modern  sense.  What  it  knew 
was  "  proofs."  There  were  two  modes  of  proof,  ordeals  and 
oaths.  Both  were  appeals  to  the  supernatural.  The  judicial 
combat  was  a  bilateral  ordeal.  Proof  followed,  instead  of  pre- 
ceding, judgment.  A  judgment  of  the  court,  called  by  German 
writers  the  Beweisurteil,  and  by  M.  M.  Bigelow  the  "  medial 
judgment,"  awarded  that  one  of  the  two  litigants  must  prove 
his  case,  by  his  body  in  battle,  or  by  a  one-sided  ordeal,  or  by 
an  oath  with  oath-helpers,  or  by  the  oaths  of  witnesses.  The 
court  had  no  desire  to  hear  or  weigh  conflicting  testimony.  To 
do  so  would  have  been  to  exercise  critical  faculties,  which  the 
court  did  not  possess,  and  the  exercise  of  which  would  have  been 
foreign  to  the  whole  spirit  of  the  age.  The  litigant  upon  whom 
the  burden  of  furnishing  proof  was  imposed  had  a  certain  task 
to  perform.  If  he  performed  it,  he  won;  if  he  failed,  he  lost. 
The  number  of  oath-helpers  varied  in  different  cases,  and  was 
determined  by  the  law  or  by  the  court.  They  were  probably, 
at  the  outset,  kinsmen,  who  would  have  had  to  take  up  the 
blood-feud.  At  a  later  stage  they  became  witnesses  to  character. 
In  the  cases,  comparatively  rare,  where  the  oaths  of  witnesses 
were  admitted  as  proof,  their  oaths  differed  materially  from  the 
sworn  testimony  of  modern  courts.  As  a  rule  no  one  could 
testify  to  a  fact  unless,  when  the  fact  happened,  he  was  solemnly 
"  taken  to  witness."  Then,  when  the  witness  was  adduced,  he 
came  merely  to  swear  to  a  set  formula.  He  did  not  make  a 
promissory  oath  to  answer  questions  truly.  He  merely  made  an 
assertory  oath  in  a  prescribed  form. 

In  the  course  of  the  lath  and  i3th  centuries  the  old  formal 
accusatory  procedure  began  to  break  down,  and  to  be  super- 
seded by  another  form  of  procedure  known  as  inquisitio,  inquest, 
or  enquSle.  Its  decay  was  hastened  by  the  decree  of  the  fourth 
Lateran  Council  in  1215,  which  forbade  ecclesiastics  to  take  part 
in  ordeals.  The  Norman  administrative  system  introduced  into 
England  by  the  Conquest  was  familiar  with  a  method  of  ascer- 
taining and  determining  facts  by  means  of  a  verdict,  return  or 
finding  made  on  oath  by  a  body  of  men  drawn  from  the  locality. 
The  system  may  be  traced  to  Carolingian,  and  even  earlier, 
sources.  Henry  II.,  by  instituting  the  grand  assize  and  the 
four  petty  assizes,  placed  at  the  disposal  of  litigants  in  certain 
actions  the  opportunity  of  giving  proof  by  the  verdict  of  a  sworn 
inquest  of  neighbours,  proof  "  by  the  country."  The  system  was 
gradually  extended  to  other  cases,  criminal  as  well  as  civil.  The 
verdict  given  was  that  of  persons  having  a  general,  but  not  neces- 
sarily a  particular,  acquaintance  with  the  persons,  places  and 
facts  to  which  the  inquiry  related.  It  was,  in  fact,  a  finding  by 
local  popular  opinion.  Had  the  finding  of  such  an  inquest  been 
treated  as  final  and  conclusive  in  criminal  cases,  English 
criminal  procedure  might,  like  the  continental  inquisition,  the 
French  enquete,  have  taken  the  path  which,  in  the  forcible  lan- 
guage of  Fortescue  (De  laudibus,  &c.)  "  leads  to  hell  "  (semita 
ipsa  est  ad  gehennam).  Fortunately  English  criminal  procedure 
took  a  different  course.  The  spirit  of  the  old  accusatory  pro- 
cedure was  applied  to  the  new  procedure  by  inquest.  In  serious 
cases  the  words  of  the  jurors,  the  accusing  jurors,  were  treated 
not  as  testimony,  but  as  accusation,  the  new  indictment  was 
treated  as  corresponding  to  the  old  appeal,  and  the  preliminary 
finding  by  the  accusing  jury  had  to  be  supplemented  by  the 
verdict  of  another  jury.  In  course  of  time  the  second  jury  were 
required  to  base  their  findings  not  on  their  own  knowledge,  but 
on  evidence  submitted  to  them.  Thus  the  modern  system  of 
inquiry  by  grand  jury  and  trial  by  petty  jury  was  gradually 
developed. 

A  few  words  may  here  be  said  about  the  parallel  development 
of  criminal  procedure  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  tendency 
in  the  i2th  and  i3th  centuries  to  abolish  the  old  formal  methods 
of  procedure,  and  to  give  the  new  procedure  the  name  of  inquisi- 
tion or  inquest,  was  not  peculiar  to  England.  Elsewhere  the 
old  procedure  was  breaking  down  at  the  same  time,  and  for 
similar  reasons.  It  was  the  great  pope  Innocent  III.,  the  pope 


12 


EVIDENCE 


of  the  fourth  Lateran  Council,  who  introduced  the  new  in- 
quisitorial procedure  into  the  canon  law.  The  procedure 
was  applied  to  cases  of  heresy,  and,  as  so  applied,  especially  by 
the  Dominicans,  speedily  assumed  the  features  which  made  it 
infamous.  "  Every  safeguard  of  innocence  was  abolished  or 
disregarded;  torture  was  freely  used.  Everything  seems  to  have 
been  done  to  secure  a  conviction."  Yet,  in  spite  of  its  monstrous 
defects,  the  inquisitorial  procedure  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts, 
secret  in  its  methods,  unfair  to  the  accused,  having  torture  as 
an  integral  element,  gradually  forced  its  way  into  the  temporal 
courts,  and  may  almost  be  said  to  have  been  adopted  by  the 
common  law  of  western  Europe.  In  connexion  with  this  in- 
quisitorial procedure  continental  jurists  elaborated  a  theory  of 
evidence,  or  judicial  proofs,  which  formed  the  subject  of  an 
extensive  literature.  Under  the  rules  thus  evolved  full  proof 
(plena  probatio)  was  essential  for  conviction,  in  the  absence  of 
confession,  and  the  standard  of  full  proof  was  fixed  so  high  that 
it  was  in  most  cases  unattainable.  It  therefore  became  material 
to  obtain  confession  by  some  means  or  other.  The  most  effective 
means  was  torture,  and  thus  torture  became  an  essential  feature 
in  criminal  procedure.  The  rules  of  evidence  attempted  to 
graduate  the  weight  to  be  attached  to  different  kinds  of  testi- 
mony and  almost  to  estimate  that  weight  in  numerical  terms. 
"  Le  parlement  de  Toulouse,"  said  Voltaire,  "  a  un  usage  tres 
singulier  dans  les  preuves  par  temoins.  On  admet  ailleurs  des 
demi-preuves,  .  .  .  mais  a  Toulouse  on  admet  des  quarts  et  des 
huitiemes  de  preuves."  Modern  continental  procedure,  as  em- 
bodied in  the  most  recent  codes,  has  removed  the  worst  features 
of  inquisitorial  procedure,  and  has  shaken  itself  free  from  the 
trammels  imposed  by  the  old  theory  and  technical  rules  of  proof. 
But  in  this,  as  in  other  branches  of  law,  France  seems  to  have 
paid  the  penalty  for  having  been  first  in  the  field  with  codification 
by  lagging  behind  in  material  reforms.  The  French  Code  of 
Criminal  Procedure  was  largely  based  on  Colbert's  Ordonnance  of 
1670,  and  though  embodying  some  reforms,  and  since  amended 
on  certain  points,  still  retains  some  of  the  features  of  the  un- 
reformed  procedure  which  was  condemned  in  the  i8th  century  by 
Voltaire  and  the  philosophes.  Military  procedure  is  in  the  rear 
of  civil  procedure,  and  the  trial  of  Captain  Dreyfus  at  Rennes  in 
1899  presented  some  interesting  archaisms.  Among  these  were 
the  weight  attached  to  the  rank  and  position  of  witnesses  as 
compared  with  the  intrinsic  character  of  their  evidence,  and  the 
extraordinary  importance  attributed  to  confession  even  when 
made  under  suspicious  circumstances  and  supported  by  flimsy 
evidence. 

The  history  of  criminal  procedure  in  England  has  been  traced 
by  Sir  James  Stephen.  The  modern  rules  and  practice  as  to 
evidence  and  witnesses  in  the  common  law  courts,  both  in  civil 
and  in  criminal  cases,  appear  to  have  taken  shape  in  the  course 
of  the  1 8th  century.  The  first  systematic  treatise  on  the 
English  law  of  evidence  appears  to  have  been  written  by  Chief 
Baron  Gilbert,  who  died  in  1726,  but  whose  Law  of  Evidence 
was  not  published  until  1761.  In  writing  it  he  is  said  to  have 
been  much  influenced  by  Locke.1  It  is  highly  praised  by  Black- 
stone  as  "  a  work  which  it  is  impossible  to  abstract  or  abridge 
without  losing  some  beauty  and  destroying  the  charm  of  the 
whole  ";  but  Bentham,  who  rarely  agrees  with  Blackstone, 
speaks  of  it  as  running  throughout  "  in  the  same  strain  of 
anility,  garrulity,  narrow-mindedness,  absurdity,  perpetual  mis- 
representation and  indefatigable  self-contradiction."  In  any 
case  it  remained  the  standard  authority  on  the  law  of  evidence 
throughout  the  remainder  of  the  i8th  century.  Bentham  wrote 
his  Rationale  of  Judicial  Evidence,  specially  applied  to  English 
Practice,  at  various  times  between  the  years  1802  and  1812. 

1  Reference  may  be  made  to  a  well-known  passage  in  the  Essay 
concerning  Human  Understanding  (Book  iv.  ch.  xv.) :  "  The  grounds 
of  probability  are — First,  the  conformity  of  anything  with  our  own 
knowledge,  observation  and  experience.  Second,  the  testimony  of 
others  touching  their  observation  and  experience.  In  the  testimony 
of  others  is  to  be  considered  (l)  the  number,  (2)  the  integrity, 
(3)  the  skill  of  the  witnesses.  (4)  The  design  of  the  author,  where 
it  is  a  testimony  out  of  a  book  cited.  (5)  The  consistency  of  the 
parts  and  circumstances  of  the  relation.  (6)  Contrary  testimonies." 


By  this  time  he  had  lost  the  nervous  and  simple  style  of  his 
youth,  and  required  an  editor  to  make  him  readable.  His 
great  interpreter,  Dumont,  condensed  his  views  on  evidence 
into  the  Traite  des  preuves  judiciaires,  which  was  published  in 
1823.  The  manuscript  of  the  Rationale  was  edited  for  English 
reading,  and  to  a  great  extent  rewritten,  by  J.  S.  Mill,  and 
was  published  in  five  volumes  in  1827.  The  book  had  a  great 
effect  both  in  England  and  on  the  continent.  The  English 
version,  though  crabbed  and  artificial  in  style,  and  unmeasured 
in  its  invective,  is  a  storehouse  of  comments  and  criticisms  on  the 
principles  of  evidence  and  the  practice  of  the  courts,  which  are 
always  shrewd  and  often  profound.  Bentham  examined  the 
practice  of  the  courts  by  the  light  of  practical  utility.  Starting 
from  the  principle  that  the  object  of  judicial  evidence  is  the 
discovery  of  truth,  he  condemned  the  rules  which  excluded  some 
of  the  best  sources  of  evidence.  The  most  characteristic  feature 
of  the  common-law  rules  of  evidence  was,  as  Bentham  pointed 
out,  and,  indeed,  still  is,  their  exclusionary  character.  They 
excluded  and  prohibited  the  use  of  certain  kinds  of  evidence 
which  would  be  used  in  ordinary  inquiries.  In  particular,  they 
disqualified  certain  classes  of  witnesses  on  the  ground  of  interest 
in  the  subject-matter  of  the  inquiry,  instead  of  treating  the 
interest  of  the  witness  as  a  matter  affecting  his  credibility.  It 
was  against  this  confusion  between  competency  and  credibility 
that  Bentham  directed  his  principal  attack.  He  also  attacked 
the  system  of  paper  evidence,  evidence  by  means  of  affidavits 
instead  of  by  oral  testimony  in  court,  which  prevailed  in  the 
court  of  chancery,  and  in  ecclesiastical  courts.  Subsequent 
legislation  has  endorsed  his  criticisms.  The  Judicature  Acts 
have  reduced  the  use  of  affidavits  in  chancery  proceedings  within 
reasonable  limits.  A  series  of  acts  of  parliament  have  removed, 
step  by  step,  almost  all  the  disqualifications  which  formerly 
made  certain  witnesses  incompetent  to  testify. 

Before  Bentham's  work  appeared,  an  act  of  1814  had  removed 
the  incompetency  of  ratepayers  as  witnesses  in  certain  cases 
relating  to  parishes.  The  Civil  Procedure  Act  1833  enacted 
that  a  witness  should  not  be  objected  to  as  incompetent,  solely 
on  the  ground  that  the  verdict  or  judgment  would  be  admissible 
in  evidence  for  or  against  him.  An  act  of  1840  removed  some 
doubts  as  to  the  competency  of  ratepayers  to  give  evidence 
in  matters  relating  to  their  parish.  The  Evidence  Act  1843 
enacted  broadly  that  witnesses  should  not  be  excluded  from 
giving  evidence  by  reason  of  incapacity  from  crime  or  interest. 
The  Evidence  Act  1851  made  parties  to  legal  proceedings  ad- 
missible witnesses  subject  to  a  proviso  that  "  nothing  herein 
contained  shall  render  any  person  who  in  any  criminal  proceed- 
ing is  charged  with  the  commission  of  any  indictable  offence,  or 
any  offence  punishable  on  summary  conviction,  competent  or 
compellable  to  give  evidence  for  or  against  himself  or  herself,  or 
shall  render  any  person  compellable  to  answer  any  question 
tending  to  criminate  himself  or  herself,  or  shall  in  any  criminal 
proceeding  render  any  husband  competent  or  ccmpellable  to  give 
evidence  for  or  against  his  wife,  or  any  wife  competent  or  com- 
pellable to  give  evidence  for  or  against  her  husband."  The 
Evidence  (Scotland)  Act  1853  made  a  similar  provision  for  Scot- 
land. The  Evidence  Amendment  Act  1853  made  the  husbands 
and  wives  of  parties  admissible  witnesses,  except  that  husbands 
and  wives  could  not  give  evidence  for  or  against  each  other  in 
criminal  proceedings  or  in  proceedings  for  adultery,  and  could 
not  be  compelled  to  disclose  communications  made  to  each  other 
during  marriage.  Under  the  Matrimonial  Causes  Act  1857  the 
petitioner  can  be  examined  and  cross-examined  on  oath  at  the 
hearing,  but  is  not  bound  to  answer  any  question  tending  to 
show  that  he  or  she  has  been  guilty  of  adultery.  Under  the 
Matrimonial  Causes  Act  1859,  on  a  wife's  petition  for  dissolution 
of  marriage  on  the  ground  of  adultery  coupled  with  cruelty  or 
desertion,  husband  and  wife  are  competent  and  compellable  to 
give  evidence  as  to  the  cruelty  or  desertion.  The  Crown  Suits 
&c.  Act  1865  declared  that  revenue  proceedings  were  not  to 
be  treated  as  criminal  proceedings  for  the  purposes  of  the  acts 
of  1851  and  1853.  The  Evidence  Further  Amendment  Act  1869 
declared  that  parties  to  actions  for  breach  of  promise  of  marriage 


EVIDENCE 


were  competent  to  give  evidence  in  the  action,  subject  to  a 
proviso  that  the  plaintiff  should  not  recover  unless  his  or  her 
testimony  was  corroborated  by  some  other  material  evidence. 
It  also  made  the  parties  to  proceedings  instituted  in  consequence 
of  adultery,  and  their  husbands  and  wives,  competent  to  give 
evidence,  but  a  witness  in  any  such  proceeding,  whether  a  party 
or  not,  is  not  to  be  liable  to  be  asked  or  bound  to  answer  any 
question  tending  to  show  that  he  or  she  has  been  guilty  of 
adultery,  unless  the  witness  has  already  given  evidence  in  the 
same  proceeding  in  disproof  of  the  alleged  adultery.  There  are 
similar  provisions  applying  to  Scotland  in  the  Conjugal  Rights 
(Scotland)  Amendment  Act  1861,  and  the  Evidence  Further 
Amendment  (Scotland)  Act  1874.  The  Evidence  Act  1877 
enacts  that  "  on  the  trial  of  any  indictment  or  other  proceeding 
for  the  non-repair  of  any  public  highway  or  bridge,  or  for  a 
nuisance  to  any  public  highway,  river,  or  bridge,  and  of  any 
other  indictment  or  proceeding  instituted  for  the  purpose  of 
trying  or  enforcing  a  civil  right  only,  every  defendant  to  such 
indictment  or  proceeding,  and  the  wife  or  husband  of  any  such 
defendant  shall  be  admissible  witnesses  and  compellable  to  give 
evidence."  From  1872  onwards  numerous  enactments  were 
passed  making  persons  charged  with  particular  offences,  and 
their  husbands  and  wives,  competent  witnesses.  The  language 
and  effect  of  these  enactments  were  not  always  the  same,  but 
the  insertion  of  some  provision  to  this  effect  in  an  act  creating 
a  new  offence,  especially  if  it  was  punishable  by  summary 
proceedings,  gradually  became  almost  a  common  form  in  legis- 
lation. In  the  year  1874  a  bill  to  generalize  these  particular 
provisions,  and  to  make  the  evidence  of  persons  charged  with 
criminal  offences  admissible  in  all  cases  was  introduced  by  Mr 
Gladstone's  government,  and  was  passed  by  the  standing  com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Commons.  During  the  next  fourteen 
years  bills  for  the  same  purpose  were  repeatedly  introduced, 
either  by  the  government  of  the  day,  or  by  Lord  Bramwell  as 
an  independent  member  of  the  House  of  Lords.  Finally  the 
Criminal  Evidence  Act  1898,  introduced  by  Lord  Halsbury,  has 
enacted  in  general  terms  that  "  every  person  charged  with  an 
offence,  and  the  wife  or  husband,  as  the  case  may  be,  of  the 
person  so  charged,  shall  be  a  competent  witness  for  the  defence 
at  every  stage  of  the  proceedings,  whether  the  person  so  charged 
is  charged  solely  or  jointly  with  any  other  person."  But  this 
general  enactment  is  qualified  by  some  special  restrictions,  the 
nature  of  which  will  be  noticed  below.  The  act  applies  to 
Scotland  but  not  to  Ireland.  It  was  not  to  apply  to  proceedings 
in  courts-martial  unless  so  applied  by  general  orders  or  rules 
made  under  statutory  authority.  The  provisions  of  the  act  have 
been  applied  by  rules  to  military  courts-martial,  but  have  not 
yet  been  applied  to  naval  courts-martial.  The  removal  of  dis- 
qualifications for  want  of  religious  belief  is  referred  to  below 
under  the  head  of  "  Witnesses." 

The  act  of  1898  finishes  for  the  present  the  history  of  English 
legislation  on  evidence.  For  a  view  of  the  legal  literature  on  the 
.  „„.,,,  _  subject  it  is  necessary  to  take  a  step  backwards.  Early 
-  in  the  igth  century  Chief  Baron  Gilbert  was  superseded 
as  an  authority  on  the  English  law  of  evidence  by  the  books  of 
Phillips  (1814)  and  Starkie  (1824),  who  were  followed  by  Roscoe 
(Nisi  Prius,  1827;  Criminal  Cases,  1835),  Greenleaf  (American, 
1842),  Taylor  (based  on  Greenleaf,  1848),  and  Best  (1849).  In 
1876  Sir  James  Fitzjames  Stephen  brought  out  his  Digest  of  the 
Law  of  Evidence,  based  upon  the  Indian  Evidence  Act  1872,  which 
he  had  prepared  and  passed  as  law  member  of  the  council  of  the 
governor-general  of  India.  This  Digest  obtained  a  rapid  and 
well-deserved  success,  and  has  materially  influenced  the  form  of 
subsequent  writings  on  the  English  law  of  evidence.  It  sifted 
out  what  Stephen  conceived  to  be  the  main  rules  of  evidence 
from  the  mass  of  extraneous  matter  in  which  they  had  been  em- 
bedded. Roscoe's  Digests  told  the  lawyer  what  things  must  be 
proved  in  order  to  sustain  particular  actions  or  criminal  charges, 
and  related  as  much  to  pleadings  and  to  substantive  law  as  to 
evidence  proper.  Taylor's  two  large  volumes  were  a  vast  storehouse 
of  useful  information,  but  his  book  was  one  to  consult,  not  to  master. 
Stephen  eliminated  much  of  this  extraneous  matter,  and  summed  up 
his  rules  in  a  series  of  succinct  propositions,  supplemented  by  apt 
illustrations,  and  couched  in  such  a  form  that  they  could  be  easily 
read  and  remembered.  Hence  the  English  Digest,  like  the  Indian 
Act,  has  been  of  much  educational  value.  Its  most  original  feature, 
but  unfortunately  also  its  weakest  point,  is  its  theory  of  relevancy. 


Pondering  the  multitude  of  "  exclusionary  "  rules  which  had  been 
laid  down  by  the  English  courts,  Stephen  thought  that  he  had 
discovered  the  general  principle  on  which  those  rules  reposed,  and 
could  devise  a  formula  by  which  the  principle  could  be  expressed. 
"  My  study  of  the  subject,"  he  says,  "  both  practically  and  in  books 
has  conyinced  me  that  the  doctrine  that  all  facts  in  issue  and  relevant 
to  the  issue,  and  no  others,  may  be  proved,  is  the  unexpressed 
principle  which  forms  the  centre  of  and  gives  unity  to  all  the  express 
negative  rules  which  form  the  great  mass  of  the  law."  The  result  was 
the  chapter  on  the  relevancy  of  facts  in  the  Indian  Evidence  Act, 
and  the  definition  of  relevancy  in  s.  7  of  that  act.  This  definition 
was  based  on  the  view  that  a  distinction  could  be  drawn  between 
things  which  were  and  things  which  were  not  causally  connected 
with  each  other,  and  that  relevancy  depended  on  causal  connexion. 
Subsequent  criticism  convinced  Stephen  that  his  definition  was  in 
some  respects  too  narrow  and  in  others  too  wide,  and  eventually 
he  adopted  a  definition  out  of  which  all  reference  to  causality  was 
dropped.  But  even  in  their  amended  form  the  provisions  about 
relevancy  are  open  to  serious  criticism.  The  doctrine  of  relevancy, 
i.e.  of  the  probative  effect  of  facts,  is  a  branch  of  logic,  not  of  law, 
and  is  out  of  place  both  in  an  enactment  of  the  legislature  and  in  a 
compendium  of  legal  rules.  The  necessity  under  which  Stephen 
found  himself  of  extending  the  range  of  relevant  facts  by  making  it 
include  facts  "  deemed  to  be  relevant,"  and  then  narrowing  it  by 
enabling  the  judge  to  exclude  evidence  of  facts  which  are  relevant, 
illustrates  the  difference  between  the  rules  of  logic  and  the  rules  of 
law.  Relevancy  is  one  thing;  admissibility  is  another;  and  the 
confusion  between  them,  which  is  much  older  than  Stephen,  is  to 
be  regretted.  Rightly  or  wrongly  English  judges  have,  on  practical 
grounds,  declared  inadmissible  evidence  of  facts,  which  are  relevant 
in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term,  and  which  are  so  treated  in  non- 
judicial  inquiries.  Under  these  circumstances  the  attempt  so  to 
define  relevancy  as  to  make  it  conterminous  with  admissibility  is 
misleading,  and  most  readers  of  Stephen's  Act  and  Digest  would 
find  them  more  intelligible  and  more  useful  if  "  admissible  "  were 
substituted  for  "  relevant  "  throughout.  Indeed  it  is  hardly  too 
much  to  say  that  Stephen's  doctrine  of  relevancy  is  theoretically 
unsound  and  practically  useless.  The  other  parts  of  the  work  contain 
terse  and  vigorous  statements  of  the  law,  but  a  Procrustean  attempt 
to  make  legal  rules  square  with  a  preconceived  theory  has  often 
made  the  language  and  arrangement  artificial,  and  the  work,  in 
spite  of  its  compression,  still  contains  rules  which,  under  a  more 
scientific  treatment,  would  find  their  appropriate  place  in  other 
branches  of  the  law.  These  defects  are  characteristic  of  a  strong 
and  able  man,  who  saw  clearly,  and  expressed  forcibly  what  he  did 
see,  but  was  apt  to  ignore  or  to  deny  the  existence  of  what  he  did 
not  see,  whose  mind  was  vigorous  rather  than  subtle  or  accurate, 
and  who,  in  spite  of  his  learning,  was  somewhat  deficient  in  the 
historical  sense.  But  notwithstanding  these  defects,  the  con- 
spicuous ability  of  the  author,  his  learning,  and  his  practical 
experience,  especially  in  criminal  cases,  attach  greater  weight  to 
Fitzjames  Stephen's  statements  than  to  those  of  any  other  English 
writer  on  the  law  of  evidence. 

The  object  of  every  trial  is,  or  may  be,  to  determine  two 
classes  of  questions  or  issues,  which  are  usually  distinguished 
as  questions  of  law,  and  questions  of  fact,  although  „ 
the  distinction  between  them  is  not  so  clear  as  might 
appear  on  a  superficial  view.  In  a  trial  by  jury  these  two  classes 
of  questions  are  answered  by  different  persons.  The  judge  lays 
down  the  law.  The  jury,  under  the  guidance  of  the  judge,  find 
the  facts.  It  was  with  reference  to  trial  by  jury  that  the  English 
rules  of  evidence  were  originally  framed;  it  is  by  the  peculiarities 
of  this  form  of  trial  that  many  of  them  are  to  be  explained;  it 
is  to  this  form  of  trial  alone  that  some  of  the  most  important  of 
them  are  exclusively  applicable.  The  negative,  exclusive,  or 
exclusionary  rules  which  form  the  characteristic  features  of  the 
English  law  of  evidence,  are  the  rules  in  accordance  with  which 
the  judge  guides  the  jury.  There  is  no  difference  of  principle 
between  the  method  of  inquiry  in  judicial  and  in  non-judicial 
proceedings.  In  either  case  a  person  who  wishes  to  find  out 
whether  a  particular  event  did  or  did  not  happen,  tries,  in  the 
first  place,  to  obtain  information  from  persons  who  were  present 
and  saw  what  happened  (direct  evidence),  and,  failing  this,  to 
obtain  information  from  persons  who  can  tell  him  about  facts 
from  which  he  can  draw  an  inference  as  to  whether  the  event 
did  or  did  not  happen  (indirect  evidence).  But  in  judicial 
inquiries  the  information  given  must  be  given  on  oath,  and  be 
liable  to  be  tested  by  cross-examination.  And  there  are  rules 
of  law  which  exclude  from  the  consideration  of  the  jury  certain 
classes  of  facts  which,  in  an  ordinary  inquiry,. would,  or  might, 
be  taken  into  consideration.  Facts  so  excluded  are  said  to  be 
"  not  admissible  as  evidence,"  or  "  not  evidence,"  according 


EVIDENCE 


as  the  word  is  used  in  the  wider  or  in  the  narrower  sense.    Am 
the  easiest  way  of  determining  whether  a  fact  is  or  is  not  evidence 
in  the  narrower  sense,  is  first  to  consider  whether  it  has  any 
bearing  on  the  question  to  be  tried,  and,  if  it  has,  to  consider 
whether  it  falls  within  any  one  or  more  of  the  rules  of  exclusion 
laid  down  by  English  law.     These  rules  of  exclusion  are  peculiar 
to  English  law  and  to  systems  derived  from  English  law.     They 
have  been  much  criticized,  and  some  of  them  have  been  repealed 
or  materially  modified  by  legislation.     Most  of  them  may  be 
traced  to  directions  given  by  a  judge  in  the  course  of  trying  a 
particular  case,  given  with  special  reference  to  the  circumstances 
of  that  case,  but  expressed  in  general  language,  and,  partly 
through  the  influence  of  text-writers,  eventually  hardened  into 
general  rules.     In  some  cases  their  origin  is  only  intelligible  by 
reference  to  obsolete  forms  of  pleading  or  practice.     But  in  most 
cases  they  were  originally  rules  of  convenience  laid  down  by  the 
judge  for  the  assistance  of  the  jury.     The  judge  is  a  man  of  trainee 
experience,  who  has  to  arrive  at  a  conclusion  with  the  help  ol 
twelve  untrained  men,  and  who  is  naturally  anxious  to  keep  them 
straight,  and  give  them  every  assistance  in  his  power.     The 
exclusion  of  certain  forms  of  evidence  assists  the  jury  by  con- 
centrating their  attention  on  the  questions  immediately  before 
them,  and  by  preventing  them  from  being  distracted  or  be- 
wildered by  facts  which  either  have  no  bearing  on  the  question 
before  them,  or  have  so  remote  a  bearing  on  those  questions  as 
to  be  practically  useless  as  guides  to  the  truth.     It  also  prevents  a 
jury  from  being  misled  by  statements  the  effect  of  which,  through 
the  prejudice  they  excite,  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  their  true 
weight.     In  this  respect  the  rules  of  exclusion  may  be  compared 
to  blinkers,  which  keep  a  horse's  eyes  on  the  road  before  him. 
In  criminal  cases  the  rules  of  exclusion  secure  fair  play  to  the 
accused,  because  he  comes  to  the  trial  prepared  to  meet  a  specific 
charge,  and  ought  not  to  be  suddenly  confronted  by  statements 
which  he  had  no  reason  to  expect  would  be  made  against  him. 
They  protect  absent  persons  against  statements  affecting  their 
character.     And  lastly  they  prevent  the  infinite  waste  of  time 
which  would  ensue  in  the  discussion -of  a  question  of  fact  if  an 
inquiry  were  allowed  to  branch  out  into  all  the  subjects  with 
which  that  fact  is  more  or  less  connected.     The  purely  practical 
grounds  on  which  the  rules  are  based,  according  to  the  view  of 
a  great  judge,  may  be  illustrated  by  some  remarks  of  Mr  Justice 
Willes  (1814-1872).     In  discussing  the  question  whether  evi- 
dence of  the  plaintiff's  conduct  on  other  occasions  ought  to  be 
admitted,  he  said: — 

"  It  is  not  easy  in  all  cases  to  draw  the  line  and  to  define  with 
accuracy  where  probability  ceases  and  speculation  begins;  but 
we  are  bound  to  lay  down  the  rule  to  the  best  of  our  ability.  No 
doubt  the  rule  as  to  confining  the  evidence  to  that  which  is  relevant 
and  pertinent  to  the  issue  is  one  of  great  importance,  not  only  as 
regards  the  particular  case,  but  also  with  reference  to  saving  the 
time  of  the  court,  and  preventing  the  minds  of  the  jury  from  being 
drawn  away  from  the  real  point  they  have  to  decide. . . .  Now  it 
appears  to  me  that  the  evidence  proposed  to  be  given  in  this  case, 
if  admitted,  would  not  have  shown  that  it  was  more  probable  that 
the  contract  was  subject  to  the  condition  insisted  upon  by  the 
defendant.  The  question  may  be  put  thus,  Does  the  fact  of  a  person 
having  once  or  many  times  in  his  life  done  a  particular  act  in  a 
particular  way  make  it  more  probable  that  he  has  done  the  same 
thing  in  the  same  way  upon  another  and  different  occasion?  To 
admit  such  speculative  evidence  would,  I  think,  be  fraught  with 
great  danger. ...  If  such  evidence  were  held  admissible  it  would 
be  difficult  to  say  that  the  defendant  might  not  in  any  case,  where 
the  question  was  whether  or  not  there  had  been  a  sale  of  goods  on 
credit,  call  witnesses  to  prove  that  the  plaintiff  had  dealt  with  other 
persons  upon  a  certain  credit;  or,  in  an  action  for  an  assault,  that 
the  plaintiff  might  not  give  evidence  of  former  assaults  committed 
by  the  defendant  upon  other  persons,  or  upon  other  persons  of  a 
particular  class,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  that  he  was  a  quarrelsome 
individual,  and  therefore  that  it  was  highly  probable  that  the 
particular  charge  of  assault  was  well  founded.  The  extent  to  which 
this  sort  of  thing  might  be  carried  is  inconceivable ....  To  obviate 
the  prejudices,  the  injustice,  and  the  waste  of  time  to  which  the 
admission  of  such  evidence  would  lead,  and  bearing  in  mind  the 
extent  to  which  it  might  be  carried,  and  that  litigants  are  mortal, 
it  is  necessary  not  only  to  adhere  to  the  rule,  but  to  lay  it  down 
strictly.  I  think,  therefore,  the  fact  that  the  plaintiff  had  entered 
into  contracts  of  a  particular  kind  with  other  persons  on  other 
occasions  could  not  be  properly  admitted  in  evidence  where  no 


custom  of  trade  to  make  such  contracts,  and  no  connexion  between 
such  and  the  one  in  question,  was  shown  to  exist"  (Hollineham  v 
Head,  1858,  4  C.B.  N.S.  388). 

There  is  no  difference  between  the  principles  of  evidence  in 
civil  and  in  criminal  cases,  although  there  are  a  few  special  rules, 
such  as  those  relating  to  confessions  and  to  dying  declarations] 
which  are  only  applicable  to  criminal  proceedings.  But  in  civil 
proceedings  the  issues  are  narrowed  by  mutual  admissions  of 
the  parties,  more  use  is  made  of  evidence  taken  out  of  court,  such 
as  affidavits,  and,  generally,  the  rules  of  evidence  are  less  strictly 
applied.  It  is  often  impolitic  to  object  to  the  admission  of 
evidence,  even  when  the  objection  may  be  sustained  by  previous 
rulings.  The  general  tendency  of  modern  procedure  is  to  place 
a  more  liberal  and  less  technical  construction  on  rules  of  evidence, 
especially  in  civil  cases.  In  recent  volumes  of  law  reports  cases 
turning  on  the  admissibility  of  evidence  are  conspicuous  by  their 
rarity.  Various  causes  have  operated  in  this  direction.  One  of 
them  has  been  the  change  in  the  system  of  pleading,  under  which 
each  party  now  knows  before  the  actual  trial  the  main  facts  on 
which  his  opponent  relies.  Another  is  the  interaction  of  chancery 
and  common-law  practice  and  traditions  since  the  Judicature 
Acts.  In  the  chancery  courts  the  rules  of  evidence  were  always 
less  carefully  observed,  or,  as  Westminster  would  have  said, 
less  understood,  than  in  the  courts  of  common  law.  A  judge 
trying  questions  of  fact  alone  might  naturally  think  that  blinkers, 
though  useful  for  a  jury,  are  unnecessary  for  a  judge.  And  the 
chancery  judge  was  apt  to  read  his  affidavits  first,  and  to  deter- 
mine their  admissibility  afterwards.  In  the  meantime  they  had 
affected  his  mind. 

The  tendency  of  modern  text-writers,  among  whom  Professor 
J.  B.  Thayer  (1831-1902),  of  Harvard,  was  perhaps  the  most 
independent,  instructive  and  suggestive,  is  to  restrict  materially 
the  field  occupied  by  the  law  of  evidence,  and  to  relegate  to  other 
branches  of  the  law  topics  traditionally  treated  under  the  head 
of  evidence.  Thus  in  every  way  the  law  of  evidence,  though 
still  embodying  some  principles  of  great  importance,  is  of  less 
comparative  importance  as  a  branch  of  English  law  than  it  was 
half  a  century  ago.  Legal  rules,  like  dogmas,  have  their  growth 
and  decay.  First  comes  the  judge  who  gives  a  ruling  in  a  parti- 
cular case.  Then  comes  the  text-writer  who  collects  the  scattered 
rulings,  throws  them  into  the  form  of  general  propositions, 
connects  them  together  by  some  theory,  sound  or  unsound, 
and  often  ignores  or  obscures  their  historical  origin.  After  him 
comes  the  legislator  who  crystallizes  the  propositions  into  enact- 
ments, not  always  to  the  advantage  of  mankind.  So  also  with 
decay.  Legal  rules  fall  into  the  background,  are  explained  away, 
are  ignored,  are  denied,  are  overruled.  Much  of  the  English 
law  of  evidence  is  in  a  stage  of  decay. 

The  subject-matter  of  the  law  of  evidence  may  be  arranged 
differently  according  to  the  taste  or  point  of  view  of  the  writer, 
tt  will  be  arranged  here  under  the  following  heads: — I.  Prelimin- 
ary Matter;  II.  Classes  of  Evidence;  III.  Rules  of  Exclusion;. 
[V.  Documentary  Evidence;  V.  Witnesses. 

I.  PRELIMINARY  MATTER 

Under  this  head  may  be  grouped  certain  principles  and  con- 
siderations which  limit  the  range  of  matters  to  which  evidence 
relates. 

i.  Law  and  Fact. — Evidence  relates  only  to  facts.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  to  touch  on  the  distinction  between  law 
and  facts.  Ad  quaeslionem  facli  non  respondent  judices;  ad 
quaestitnem  juris  non  respondent  juratores.  Thus  Coke,  attribut- 
ng,  after  his  wont,  to  Bracton  a  maxim  which  may  have  been 
nvented  by  himself.  The  maxim  became  the  subject  of  political 
controversy,  and  the  two  rival  views  are  represented  by  Pul- 
*.eney's  lines — 

"  For  twelve  honest  men  have  decided  the  cause 
Who  are  judges  alike  of  the  facts  and  the  laws," 

md  by  Lord  Mansfield's  variant — 

"  Who  are  judges  of  facts,  but  not  judges  of  laws." 
The  particular  question  raised  with  respect  to  the  law  of  libel 


EVIDENCE 


was  settled  by  Fox's  Libel  Act  1792.  Coke's  maxim  describes 
in  a  broad  general  way  the  distinction  between  the  functions  of 
the  judge  and  of  the  jury,  but  is  only  true  subject  to  important 
qualifications.  Judges  in  jury  cases  constantly  decide  what  may 
be  properly  called  questions  of  fact,  though  their  action  is 
often  disguised  by  the  language  applied  or  the  procedure  em- 
ployed. Juries,  in  giving  a  general  verdict,  often  practically 
take  the  law  into  their  own  hands.  The  border-line  between  the 
two  classes  of  questions  is  indicated  by  the  "  mixed  questions 
of  law  and  fact,"  to  use  a  common  phrase,  which  arise  in  such 
cases  as  those  relating  to  "  necessaries,"  "  due  diligence," 
"  negligence,"  "  reasonableness,"  "  reasonable  and  probable 
cause."  In  the  treatment  of  these  cases  the  line  has  been  drawn 
differently  at  different  times,  and  two  conflicting  tendencies 
are  discernible.  On  the  one  hand,  there  is  the  natural  tendency 
to  generalize  common  inferences  into  legal  rules,  and  to  fix  legal 
standards  of  duty.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  the  sound  instinct 
that  it  is  a  mistake  to  define  and  refine  too  much  in  these  cases, 
and  that  the  better  course  is  to  leave  broadly  to  the  jury,  under 
the  general  guidance  of  the  judge,  the  question  what  would  be 
done  by  the  "  reasonable  "  or  "  prudent  "  man  in  particular 
cases.  The  latter  tendency  predominates  in  modern  English 
law,  and  is  reflected  by  the  enactments  in  the  recent  acts  codify- 
ing the  law  on  bills  of  exchange  and  sale  of  goods,  that  certain 
questions  of  reasonableness  are  to  be  treated  as  questions  of 
fact.  On  the  same  ground  rests  the  dislike  to  limit  the  right  of 
a  jury  to  give  a  genera)  verdict  in  criminal  cases.  Questions  of 
custom  begin  by  being  questions  of  fact,  but  as  the  custom  obtains 
general  recognition  it  becomes  law.  Many  of  the  rules  of  the 
English  mercantile  law  were  "  found  "  as  customs  by  Lord 
Mansfield's  special  juries.  Generally,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  jury  act  in  subordinate  co-operation  with  the  judge, 
and  that  the  extent  to  which  the  judge  limits  or  encroaches  on 
the  province  of  the  jury  is  apt  to  depend  on  the  personal  idiosyn- 
crasy of  the  judge. 

2.  Judicial  Notice. — It  may  be  doubted  whether  the  subject 
of  judicial  notice  belongs  properly  to  the  law  of  evidence,  and 
whether  it  does  not  belong  rather  to  the  general  topic  of  legal  or 
judicial  reasoning.     Matters  which  are  the  subject  of  judicial 
notice  are  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  judicial  mind.     It  would 
be  absurd  to  require  evidence  of  every  fact;  many  facts  must 
be  assumed  to  be  known.     The  judge,  like  the  juryman,  is  sup- 
posed to  bring  with  him  to  the  consideration  of  the  question 
which  he  has  to  try  common  sense,  a  general  knowledge  of 
human  nature  and  the  ways  of  the  world,  and  also  knowledge  of 
things  that  "  everybody  is  supposed  to  know."     Of  such  matters 
judicial  notice  is  said  to  be  taken.     But  the  range  of  general 
knowledge  is  indefinite,  and  the  range  of  judicial  notice  has,  for 
reasons  of  convenience,  been  fixed  or  extended,  both  by  rulings 
of  the  judges  and  by  numerous  enactments  of  the  legislature. 
It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  here  the  matters  of  which 
judicial  notice  must  or  may  be  taken.     These  are  to  be  found 
in  the  text-books.     For  present  purposes  it  must  suffice  to  say 
that  they  include  not  only  matters  of  fact  of  common  and  certain 
knowledge,  but  the  law  and  practice  of  the  courts,  and  many 
matters  connected  with  the  government  of  the  country. 

3.  Presumptions. — A  presumption  in  the  ordinary  sense  is  an 
inference.     It  is  an  argument,  based  on  observation,  that  what 
has  happened  in  some  cases  will  probably  happen  in  others  of  the 
like  nature.     The  subject  of  presumptions,  so  far  as  they  are 
mere  inferences  or  arguments,  belongs,  not  to  the  law  of  evidence, 
or  to  law  at  all,  but  to  rules  of  reasoning.     But  a  legal  presump- 
tion, or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  a  presumption  of  law,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  a  presumption  of  fact,  is  something  more.     It 
may  be  described,  in  Stephen's  language,  as  "  a  rule  of  law  that 
courts  and  judges  shall  draw  a  particular  inference  from  a 
particular  fact,  or  from  particular  evidence,  unless  and  until 
the  truth  "  (perhaps  it  would  be  better   to  say  'soundness  ') 
"  of  the  inference  is  disproved."     Courts  and  legislatures  have 
laid  down  such  rules  on  grounds  of  public  policy  or  general  con- 
venience, and  the  rules  have  then  to  be  observed  as  rules  of 
positive  law,  not  merely  used  as  part  of  the  ordinary  process  of 


reasoning  or  argument.  Some  so-called  presumptions  are  rules 
of  substantive  law  under  a  disguise.  To  this  class  appear  to 
belong  "  conclusive  presumptions  of  law,"  such  as  the  common- 
law  presumption  that  a  child  under  seven  years  of  age  cannot 
commit  a  felony.  So  again  the  presumption  that  every  one 
knows  the  law  is  merely  an  awkward  way  of  saying  that  ignorance 
of  the  law  is  not  a  legal  excuse  for  breaking  it.  Of  true  legal 
presumptions,  the  majority  may  be  dealt  with  most  appropriately 
under  different  branches  of  the  substantive  law,  such  as  the  law 
of  crime,  of  property,  or  of  contract,  and  accordingly  Stephen 
has  included  in  his  Digest  of  the  Law  of  Evidence  only  some  which 
are  common  to  more  than  one  branch  of  the  law.  The  effect 
of  a  presumption  is  to  impute  to  certain  facts  or  groups  of  facts 
a  prima  facie  significance  or  operation,  and  thus,  in  legal  pro- 
ceedings, to  throw  upon  the  party  against  whom  it  works  the 
duty  of  bringing  forward  evidence  to  meet  it.  Accordingly  the 
subject  of  presumptions  is  intimately  connected  with  the  subject 
of  the  burden  of  proof,  and  the  same  legal  rule  may  be  expressed 
in  different  forms,  either  as  throwing  the  advantage  of  a  presump- 
tion on  one  side,  or  as  throwing  the  burden  of  proof  on  the  other. 
Thus  the  rule  in  Stephen's  Digest,  which  says  that  the  burden  of 
proving  that  any  person  has  been  guilty  of  a  crime  or  wrongful 
act  is  on  the  person  who  asserts  it,  appears  in  the  article  entitled 
"  Presumption  of  Innocence."  Among  the  more  ordinary  and 
more  important  legal  presumptions  are  the  presumption  of 
regularity  in  proceedings,  described  generally  as  a  presumption 
omnia  esse  rite  acta,  and  including  the  presumption  that  the 
holder  of  a  public  office  has  been  duly  appointed,  and  has  duly 
performed  his  official  duties,  the  presumption  of  the  legitimacy 
of  a  child  born  during  the  mother's  marriage,  or  within  the 
period  of  gestation  after  her  husband's  death,  and  the  presump- 
tions as  to  life  and  death.  "  A  person  shown  not  to  have  been 
heard  of  for  seven  years  by  those  (if  any)  who,  if  he  had  been 
alive,  would  naturally  have  heard  of  him,  is  presumed  to  be  dead 
unless  the  circumstances  of  the  case  are  such  as  to  account  for 
his  not  being  heard  of  without  assuming  his  death;  but  there  is 
no  presumption  as  to  the  time  when  he  died,  and  the  burden  of 
proving  his  death  at  any  particular  time  is  upon  the  person  who 
asserts  it.  There  is  no  presumption  "  (i.e.  legal  presumption) 
"  as  to  the  age  at  which  a  person  died  who  is  shown  to  have  been 
alive  at  a  given  time,  or  as  to  the  order  in  which  two  or  more 
persons  died  who  are  shown  to  have  died  in  the  same  accident, 
shipwreck  or  battle"  (Stephen,  Dig.,  art.  99).  A  document 
proved  or  purporting  to  be  thirty  years  old  is  presumed  to  be 
genuine,  and  to  have  been  properly  executed  and  (if  necessary) 
attested  if  produced  from  the  proper  custody.  And  the  legal 
presumption  of  a  "  lost  grant,"  i.e.  the  presumption  that  a  right 
or  alleged  right  which  has  been  long  enjoyed  without  interrup- 
tion had  a  legal  origin,  still  survives  in  addition  to  the  common 
law  and  statutory  rules  of  prescription. 

4.  Burden  of  Proof. — The  expression  onus  probandi  has  come 
down  from  the  classical  Roman  law,  and  both  it  and  the  Roman 
maxims,  Agenti  incumbit  probatio,  Necessitas  probandi  incumbit 
ei  qui  dicit  non  ei  qui  negat,  and  Reus  excipiendo  fit  actor,  must 
be  read  with  reference  to  the  Roman  system  of  actions,  under 
which  nothing  was  admitted,  but  the  plaintiff's  case  was  tried 
first;  then,  unless  that  failed,  the  defendant's  on  his  exceptio; 
then,  unless  that  failed,  the  plaintiff's  on  his  replicatio,  and  so 
on.  Under  such  a  system  the  burden  was  always  on  the  "  actor." 
In  modern  law  the  phrase  "  burden  of  proof  "  may  mean  one  of 
two  things,  which  are  often  confused — the  burden  of  establish- 
ing the  proposition  or  issue  on  which  the  case  depends,  and  the 
burden  of  producing  evidence  on  any  particular  point  either  at 
the  beginning  or  at  a  later  stage  of  the  case.  The  burden  in  the 
former  sense  ordinarily  rests  on  the  plaintiff  or  prosecutor.  The 
burden  in  the  latter  sense,  that  of  going  forward  with  evidence 
on  a  particular  point,  may  shift  from  side  to  side  as  the  case 
proceeds.  The  general  rule  is  that  he  who  alleges  a  fact  must 
prove  it,  whether  the  allegation  is  couched  in  affirmative  or 
negative  terms.  But  this  rule  is  subject  to  the  effect  of  presump- 
tions in  particular  cases,  to  the  principle  that  in  considering  the 
amount  of  evidence  necessary  to  shift  the  burden  of  proof  regard 


i6 


EVIDENCE 


must  be  had  to  the  opportunities  of  knowledge  possessed  by  the 
parties  respectively,  and  to  the  express  provisions  of  statutes 
directing  where  the  burden  of  proof  is  to  lie  in  particular  cases. 
Thus  many  statutes  expressly  direct  that  the  proof  of  lawful 
excuse  or  authority,  or  the  absence  of  fraudulent  intent,  is  to  lie 
on  the  person  charged  with  an  offence.  And  the  Summary 
Jurisdiction  Act  1848  provides  that  if  the  information  or  com- 
plaint in  summary  proceedings  negatives  any  exemption,  excep- 
tion, proviso,  or  condition  in  the  statute  on  which  it  is  founded, 
the  prosecutor  or  complainant  need  not  prove  the  negative,  but 
the  defendant  may  prove  the  affirmative  in  his  defence. 

II.  CLASSES  OF  EVIDENCE 

Evidence  is  often  described  as  being  either  oral  or  document- 
ary. To  these  two  classes  should  be  added  a  third,  called  by 
Bentham  real  evidence,  and  consisting  of  things  presented 
immediately  to  the  senses  of  the  judge  or  the  jury.  Thus  the 
judge  or  jury  may  go  to  view  any  place  the  sight  of  which  may 
help  to  an  understanding  of  the  evidence,  and  may  inspect  any- 
thing sufficiently  identified  and  produced  in  court  as  material 
to  the  decision.  Weapons,  clothes  and  things  alleged  to  have 
been  stolen  or  damaged  are  often  brought  into  court  for  this 
purpose.  Oral  evidence  consists  of  the  statements  of  witnesses. 
Documentary  evidence  consists  of  documents  submitted  to  the 
judge  or  jury  by  way  of  proof.  The  distinction  between  primary 
and  secondary  evidence  relates  only  to  documentary  evidence, 
and  will  be  noticed  in  the  section  under  that  head.  A  division 
of  evidence  from  another  point  of  view  is  that  into  direct  and 
indirect,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  circumstantial  evidence. 
By  direct  evidence  is  meant  the  statement  of  a  person  who  saw, 
or  otherwise  observed  with  his  senses,  the  fact  in  question.  By 
indirect  or  circumstantial  evidence  is  meant  evidence  of  facts 
from  which  the  fact  in  question  may  be  inferred.  The  difference 
between  direct  and  indirect  evidence  is  a  difference  of  kind, 
not  of  degree,  and  therefore  the  rule  or  maxim  as  to  "  best 
evidence  "  has  no  application  to  it.  Juries  naturally  attach 
more  weight  to  direct  evidence,  and  in  some  legal  systems  it  is 
only  this  class  of  evidence  which  is  allowed  to  have  full  probative 
force.  In  some  respects  indirect  evidence  is  superior  to  direct 
evidence,  because,  as  Paley  puts  it,  "  facts  cannot  lie,"  whilst 
witnesses  can  and  do.  On  the  other  hand  facts  often  deceive; 
that  is  to  say,  the  inferences  drawn  from  them  are  often  erroneous. 
The  circumstances  in  which  crimes  are  ordinarily  committed  are 
such  that  direct  evidence  of  their  commission  is  usually  not 
obtainable,  and  when  criminality  depends  on  a  state  of  mind, 
such  as  intention,  that  state  must  necessarily  be  inferred  by 
means  of  indirect  evidence. 

III.  RULES  OF  EXCLUSION 

It  seems  desirable  to  state  the  leading  rules  of  exclusion  in 
their  crude  form  instead  of  obscuring  their  historical  origin  by 
attempting  to  force  them  into  the  shape  of  precise  technical 
propositions  forming  parts  of  a  logically  connected  system.  The 
judges  who  laid  the  foundations  of  our  modern  law  of  evidence, 
like  those  who  first  discoursed  on  the  duties  of  trustees,  little 
dreamt  of  the  elaborate  and  artificial  system  which  was  to  be 
based  upon  their  remarks.  The  rules  will  be  found,  as  might  be 
expected,  to  be  vague,  to  overlap  each  other,  to  require  much 
explanation,  and  to  be  subject  to  many  exceptions.  They  may 
be  stated  as  follows: — (i)  Facts  not  relevant  to  the  issue  cannot 
be  admitted  as  evidence.  (2)  The  evidence  produced  must  be 
the  best  obtainable  under  the  circumstances.  (3)  Hearsay  is 
not  evidence.  (4)  Opinion  is  not  evidence. 

i .  Rule  of  Relevancy. — The  so-called  rule  of  relevancy  is  some- 
times stated  by  text-writers  in  the  form  in  which  it  was  laid 
down  by  Baron  Parke  in  1837  (Wright  v.  Doe  and  Tatham,  7  A. 
and  E.  384),  when  he  described  "  one  great  principle  "  in  the 
law  of  evidence  as  being  that  "  all  facts  which  are  relevant  to  the 
issue  may  be  proved."  Stated  in  different  forms,  the  rule  has 
been  made  by  Fitzjames  Stephen  the  central  point  of  his  theory 
of  evidence.  But  relevancy,  in  the  proper  and  natural  sense, 
as  we  have  said,  is  a  matter  not  of  law,  but  of  logic.  If  Baron 


Parke's  dictum  relates  to  relevancy  in  its  natural  sense  it  is  not 
true;  if  it  relates  to  relevancy  in  a  narrow  and  artificial  sense, 
as  equivalent  to  admissible,  it  is  tautological.  Such  practical 
importance  as  the  rule  of  relevancy  possesses  consists,  not  in 
what  it  includes,  but  in  what  it  excludes,  and  for  that  reason 
it  seems  better  to  state  the  rule  in  a  negative  or  exclusive  form. 
But  whether  the  rule  is  stated  in  a  positive  or  in  a  negative  form 
its  vagueness  is  apparent.  No  precise  line  can  be  drawn  between 
"  relevant  "  and  "  irrelevant  "  facts.  The  two  classes  shade 
into  each  other  by  imperceptible  degrees.  The  broad  truth  is 
that  the  courts  have  excluded  from  consideration  certain  matters 
which  have  some  bearing  on  the  question  to  be  decided,  and 
which,  in  that  sense,  are  relevant,  and  that  they  have  done  so 
on  grounds  of  policy  and  convenience.  Among  the  matters  so 
excluded  are  matters  which  are  likely  to  mislead  the  jury,  or  to 
complicate  the  case  unnecessarily,  or  which  are  of  slight,  remote, 
or  merely  conjectural  importance.  Instances  of  the  classes  of 
matters  so  excluded  can  be  given,  but  it  seems  difficult  to  refer 
their  exclusion  to  any  more  general  principle  than  this.  Rules 
as  to  evidence  of  character  and  conduct  appear  to  fall  under  this 
principle.  Evidence  is  not  admissible  to  show  that  the  person 
who  is  alleged  to  have  done  a  thing  was  of  a  disposition  or  char- 
acter which  makes  it  probable  that  he  would  or  would  not  have 
done  it.  This  rule  excludes  the  biographical  accounts  of  the 
prisoner  which  are  so  familiar  in  French  trials,  and  is  an  im- 
portant principle  in  English  trials.  It  is  subject  to  three  excep- 
tions: first,  that  evidence  of  good  character  is  admissible  in 
favour  of  the  prisoner  in  all  criminal  cases;  secondly,  that  a 
prisoner  indicted  for  rape  is  entitled  to  call  evidence  as  to  the 
immoral  character  of  the  prosecutrix;  and  thirdly,  that  a 
witness  may  be  called  to  say  that  he  would  not  believe  a  previous 
witness  on  his  oath.  The  exception  allowing  the  good  character 
of  a  prisoner  to  influence  the  verdict,  as  distinguished  from  the 
sentence,  is  more  humane  than  logical,  and  seems  to  have  been 
at  first  admitted  in  capital  cases  only.  The  exception  in  rape 
cases  does  not  allow  evidence  to  be  given  of  specific  acts  of  im- 
morality with  persons  other  than  the  prisoner,  doubtless  on  the 
ground  that  such  evidence  would  affect  the  reputations  of  third 
parties.  Where  the  character  of  a  person  is  expressly  in  issue, 
as  in  actions  of  libel  and  slander,  the  rule  of  exclusion,  as  stated 
above,  does  not  apply.  Nor  does  it  prevent  evidence  of  bad 
character  from  being  given  in  mitigation  of  damages,  where  the 
amount  of  damages  virtually  depends  on  character,  as  in  cases  of 
defamation  and  seduction.  As  to  conduct  there  is  a  similar 
general  rule,  that  evidence  of  the  conduct  of  a  person  on  other 
occasions  is  not  to  be  used  merely  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the 
likelihood  of'  his  having  acted  in  a  similar  way  on  a  particular 
occasion.  Thus,  on  a  charge  of  murder,  the  prosecutor  cannot 
give  evidence  of  the  prisoner's  conduct  to  other  persons  for  the 
purpose  of  proving  a  bloodthirsty  and  murderous  disposition. 
And  in  a  civil  case  a  defendant  was  not  allowed  to  show  that 
the  plaintiff  had  sold  goods  on  particular  terms  to  other  persons 
for  the  purpose  of  proving  that  he  had  sold  similar  goods  on  the 
same  terms  to  the  defendant.  But  this  general  rule  must  be 
carefully  construed.  Where  several  offences  are  so  connected 
with  each  other  as  to  form  parts  of  an  entire  transaction,  evidence 
of  one  is  admissible  as  proof  of  another.  Thus,  where  a  prisoner 
is  charged  with  stealing  particular  goods  from  a  particular  place, 
evidence  may  be  given  that  other  goods,  taken  from  the  same 
place  at  the  same  time,  were  found  in  his  possession.  And  where 
it  is  proved  or  admitted  that  a  person  did  a  particular  act,  and 
the  question  is  as  to  his  state  of  mind,  that  is  to  say,  whether  he 
did  the  act  knowingly,  intentionally,  fraudulently,  or  the  like, 
evidence  may  be  given  of  the  commission  by  him  of  similar  acts 
on  other  occasions  for  the  purpose  ofJproving  his' state  of  mind 
on  the  occasion.  This  principle  is  most  commonly  applied  in 
charges  for  uttering  false  documents  or  base  coin,  and  not  uncom- 
monly in  charges  for  false  pretences,  embezzlement  or  murder. 
In  proceedings  for  the  receipt  or  possession  of  stolen  property, 
the  legislature  has  expressly  authorized  evidence  to  be  given  of 
the  possession  by  the  prisoner  of  other  stolen  property,  or  of  his 
previous  conviction  of  an  offence  involving  fraud  or  dishonesty 


EVIDENCE 


(Prevention  of  Crimes  Act  1871).  Again,  where  there  is  a 
question  whether  a  person  committed  an  offence,  evidence  may 
be  given  of  any  fact  supplying  a  motive  or  constituting  prepara- 
tion for  the  offence,  of  any  subsequent  conduct  of  the  person 
accused,  which  is  apparently  influenced  by  the  commission  of 
the  offence,  and  of  any  act  done  by  him,  or  by  his  authority,  in 
consequence  of  the  offence.  Thus,  evidence  may  be  given  that, 
after  the  commission  of  the  alleged  offence,  the  prisoner  ab- 
sconded, or  was  in  possession  of  the  property,  or  the  proceeds 
of  the  property,  acquired  by  the  offence,  or  that  he  attempted 
to  conceal  things  which  were  or  might  have  been  used  in  com- 
mitting the  offence,  or  as  to  the  manner  in  which  he  conducted 
himself  when  statements  were  made  in  his  presence  and  hearing. 
Statements  made  to  or  in  the  presence  of  a  person  charged  with 
an  offence  are  admitted  as  evidence,  not  of  the  facts  stated,  but 
of  the  conduct  or  demeanour  of  the  person  to  whom  or  in  whose 
presence  they  are  made,  or  of  the  general  character  of  the  trans- 
action of  which  they  form  part  (under  the  res  gestae  rule  men- 
tioned below). 

2.  Best  Evidence  Rule. — Statements  to  the  effect  of  the  best 
evidence  rule  were  often  made  by  Chief  Justice  Holt  about  the 
beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  and  became  familiar  in  the  courts. 
Chief  Baron  Gilbert,  in  his  book  on  evidence,  which  must  have 
been  written  before  1726,  says  that  "  the  first  and  most  signal 
rule  in  relation  to  evidence  is  this,  that  a  man  must  have  the 
utmost  evidence  the  nature  of  the  fact  is  capable  of."     And  in 
the  great  case  of  Omichund  v.  Barker  (1744),  Lord  Hardwicke 
went  so  far  as  to  say,  "  The  judges  and  sages  of  the  law  have  laid 
down  that  there  is  but  one  general  rule  of  evidence,  the  best  that 
the  nature  of  the  case  will  admit  "  (i  Atkyns  49).     It  is  no 
wonder  that  a  rule  thus  solemnly  stated  should  have  found  a 
prominent  place  in  text-books  on  the  law  of  evidence.     But, 
apart  from  its  application  to  documentary  evidence,  it  does  not 
seem  to  be  more  than  a  useful  guiding  principle  which  underlies, 
or  may  be  used  in  support  of,  several  rules. 

It  is  to  documentary  evidence  that  the  principle  is  usually 
applied,  in  the  form  of  the  narrower  rule  excluding,  subject  to 
exceptions,  secondary  evidence  of  the  contents  of  a  document 
where  primary  evidence  is  obtainable.  In  this  form  the  rule  is 
a  rule  of  exclusion,  but  may  be  most  conveniently  dealt  with 
in  connexion  with  the  special  subject  of  documentary  evidence. 
As  noticed  above,  the  general  rule  does  not  apply  to  the  differ- 
ence between  direct  and  indirect  evidence.  And,  doubtless  on 
account  of  its  vague  character,  it  finds  no  place  in  Stephen's 
Digest. 

3.  Hearsay. — The  term  "  hearsay  "  primarily  applies  to  what 
a  witness  has  heard  another  person  say  in  respect  to  a  fact  in 
dispute.     But  it  is  extended  to  any  statement,  whether  reduced 
to  writing  or  not,  which  is  brought  before  the  court,  not  by  the 
author  of  the  statement,  but  by  a  person  to  whose  knowledge  the 
statement  has  been  brought.     Thus  the  hearsay  rule  excludes 
statements,  oral  or  written,  made  in  the  first  instance  by  a  person 
who  is  not  called  as  a  witness  in  the  case.     Historically  this  rule 
may  be  traced  to  the  time  when  the  functions  of  the  witnesses 
were  first  distinguished  from  the  functions  of  the  jury,  and  when 
the  witnesses  were  required  by  their  formula  to  testify  de  visu 
suo  et  auditu,  to  state  what  they  knew  about  facts  from  the  direct 
evidence  of  their  senses,  not  from  the  information  of  others. 
The  rule  excludes  statements  the  effect  of  which  is  liable  to  be 
altered  by  the  narrator,  and  which  purport  to  have  been  made 
by  persons  who  did  not  necessarily  speak  under  the  sanction  of 
an  oath,  and  whose  accuracy  or  veracity  is  not  tested  by  cross- 
examination.     It  is  therefore  of  practical  utility  in  shutting  out 
many  loose  statements  and  much  irresponsible  gossip.     On  the 
other  hand,  it  excludes  statements  which  are  of  some  value  as 
evidence,  and  may  indeed  be  the  only  available  evidence.     Thus, 
a  statement  has  been  excluded  as  hearsay,  even  though  it  can  be 
proved  that  the  author  of  the  statement  made  it  on  oath,  or 
that  it  was  against  his  interest  when  he  made  it,  or  that  he  is 
prevented  by  insanity  or  other  illness  from  giving  evidence  him- 
self, or  that  he  has  left  the  country  and  disappeared,  or  that  he 
is  dead. 


Owing  to  the  inconveniences  which  would  be  caused  by  a  strict 
application  of  the  rule,  it  has  been  so  much  eaten  into  by  exceptions 
that  some  persons  doubt  whether  the  rule  and  the  exceptions  ought 
not  to  change  places.  Among  the  exceptions  the  following  may  be 
noticed:  (a)  Certain  sworn  statements. — In  many  cases  statements 
made  by  a  person  whose  evidence  is  material,  but  who  cannot  come 
before  the  court,  or  could  not  come  before  it  without  serious  diffi- 
culty, delay  or  expense,  may  be  admitted  as  evidence  under  proper 
safeguards.  Under  the  Indictable  Offences  Act  1848,  where  a  person 
has  made  a  deposition  before  a  justice  at  a  preliminary  inquiry  into 
an  offence,  his  deposition  may  be  read  in  evidence  on  proof  that  the 
deponent  is  dead,  or  too  ill  to  travel,  that  the  deposition  was  taken 
in  the  presence  of  the  accused  person,  and  that  the  accused  then  had 
a  full  opportunity  of  cross-examining  the  deponent.  The  deposition 
must  appear  to  be  signed  by  the  justice  before  whom  it  purports  to 
have  been  taken.  Depositions  taken  before  a  coroner  are  admissible 
under  the  same  principle.  And  the  principle  probably  extends  to 
cases  where  the  deponent  is  insane,  or  kept  away  by  the  person 
accused.  There  are  other  statutory  provisions  for  the  admission  of 
depositions,  as  in  the  Criminal  Law  Amendment  Act  1867;  the 
Foreign  Jurisdiction  Act  1890;  and  the  Children  Act  1908,  incor- 
porating an  act  of  1894.  In  civil  cases  the  rule  excluding  statements 
not  made  in  court  at  the  trial  is  much  less  strictly  applied.  Frequent 
use  is  made  of  evidence  taken  before  an  examiner,  or  under  a  com- 
mission. Affidavits  are  freely  used  for  subordinate  issues  or  under 
an  arrangement  between  the  parties,  and  leave  may  be  given  to  use 
evidence  taken  in  other  proceedings.  The  old  chancery  practice, 
under  which  evidence,  both  at  the  trial  and  at  other  stages  of  a 
proceeding,  was  normally  taken  by  affidavit,  irrespectively  of  consent, 
was  altered  by  the  Judicature  Acts.  Under  the  existing  rules  of 
the  supreme  court  evidence  may  be  given  by  affidavit  upon  any 
motion,  petition  or  summons,  but  the  court  or  a  judge  may,  on  the 
application  of  either  party,  order  the  attendance  for  cross-examina- 
tion of  the  person  making  the  affidavit.  (b)  Dying  declarations. — 
In  a  trial  for  murder  or  manslaughter  a  declaration  by  the  person 
killed  as  to  the  cause  of  his  death,  or  as  to  any  of  the  circumstances 
of  the  transaction  which  resulted  in  his  death,  is  admissible  as 
evidence.  But  this  exception  is  very  strictly  construed.  It  must 
be  proved  that  the  declarant,  at  the  time  of  making  the  declaration, 
was  in  actual  danger  of  death,  and  had  given  up  all  nope  of  recovery. 
(c)  Statements  in  pedigree  cases. — On  a  question  of  pedigree  the 
statement  of  a  deceased  person,  whether  based  on  his  own  personal 
knowledge  or  on  family  tradition,  is  admissible  as  evidence,  if  it  is 
proved  that  the  person  who  made  the  statement  was  related  to  the 
person  about  whose  family  relations  the  statement  was  made,  and 
that  the  statement  was  made  before  the  question  with  respect  to 
which  the  evidence  is  required  had  arisen,  (d)  Statements  as  to 
matters  of  public_  or  general  interest. — Statements  by  deceased  per- 
sons are  admissible  as  evidence  of  reputation  or  general  belief  in 
questions  relating  to  the  existence  of  any  public  or  general  right 
or  custom,  or  matter  of  public  and  general  interest.  Statements  of 
this  kind  are  constantly  admitted  in  questions  relating  to  right  of 
way,  or  rights  of  common,  or  manorial  or  other  local  customs. 
Maps,  copies  of  court  rolls,  leases  and  other  deeds,  and  verdicts, 
judgments,  and  orders  of  court  fall  within  the  exception  in  cases  of 
this  kind.  (e)  Statements  in  course  of  duty  or  business. — A  statement 
with  respect  to  a  particular  fact  made  by  a  deceased  person  in 
pursuance  of  his  duty  in  connexion  with  any  office,  employment  or 
business,  whether  public  or  private,  is  admissible  as  evidence  of  that 
fact,  if  the  statement  appears  to  have  been  made  from  personal 
knowledge,  and  at  or  about  the  time  when  the  fact  occurred.  This 
exception  covers  entries  by  clerks  and  other  employees.  (/)  Statements 
against  interest. — A  statement  made  by  a  deceased  person  against 
his  pecuniary  or  proprietary  interest  is  admissible  as  evidence, 
without  reference  to  the  time  at  which  it  was  made.  Where  such  a 
statement  is  admissible  the  whole  of  it  becomes  admissible,  though 
it  may  contain  matters  not  against  the  interest  of  the  person  who 
made  it,  and  though  the  total  effect  may  be  in  his  favour.  Thus, 
where  there  was  a<juestion  whether  a  particular  sum  was  a  gift  or  a 
loan,  entries  in  an  account  book  of  receipt  of  interest  on  the  sum 
were  admitted,  and  a  statement  in  the  book  that  the  alleged  debtor 
had  on  a  particular  date  acknowledged  the  loan  was  also  admitted. 
(g)  Public  documents. — Under  this  head  may  be  placed  recitals  in 
public  acts  of  parliament,  notices  in  the  London,  Edinburgh,  or  Dublin 
Gazette  (which  are  made  evidence  by  statute  in  a  large  number  of 
cases),  and  entries  made  in  the  performance  of  duty  in  official 
registers  or  records,  such  as  registers  of  births,  deaths  or  marriages, 
registers  of  companies,  records  in  judicial  proceedings,  and  the  like. 
An  entry  in  a  public  document  may  be  treated  as  a  statement  made 
in  the  course  of  duty,  but  it  is  admissible  whether  the  person  who 
made  the  statement  is  alive  or  dead,  and  without  any  evidence  as 
to  personal  knowledge,  or  the  time  at  which  the  statement  is  made. 
(h)  Admissions. — By  the  term  "  admission,"  as  here  used,  is  meant 
a  statement  made  out  of  the  witness-box  by  a  part  v  to  the  proceedings, 
whether  civil  or  criminal,  or  by  some  person  whose  statements  are 
binding  on  that  party,  against  the  interest  of  that  party.  The  term 
includes  admissions  made  in  answer  to  interrogatories,  or  to  a  notice 
to  admit  facts,  but  not  admissions  made  on  the  pleadings.  Admis- 
sions, in  this  sense  of  the  term,  are  admissible  as  evidence  against  the 
person  by  whom  they  are  made,  or  on  whom  they  are  binding, 


i8 


EVIDENCE 


without  reference  to  the  life  or  death  of  the  person  who  made  them. 
A  person  is  bound  by  the  statements  of  his  agent,  acting  within  the 
scope  of  his  authority,  and  barristers  and  solicitors  are  agents  for 
their  clients  in  the  conduct  of  legal  proceedings.  Conversely,  a 
person  suing  or  defending  on  behalf  of  another,  e.g.  as  agent  or 
trustee,  is  bound  by  the  statements  of  the  person  whom  he  repre- 
sents. Statements  respecting  property  made  by  a  predecessor  in 
title  bind  the  successor.  Where  a  statement  is  put  in  evidence  as  an 
admission  by,  or  binding  on,  any  person,  that  person  is  entitled  to 
have  the  whole  statement  given  in  evidence.  The  principle  of  this 
rule  is  obviously  sound,  because  it  would  be  unfair  to  pick  out  from 
a  man's  statement  what  tells  against  him,  and  to  suppress  what  is 
in  his  favour.  But  the  application  of  the  rule  is  sometimes  attended 
with  difficulty.  An  admission  will  not  be  allowed  to  be  used  as 
evidence  if  it  was  made  under  a  stipulation,  express  or  implied,  that 
it  should  not  be  so  used.  Such  admissions  are  said  to  be  made 
"  without  prejudice."  (i)  Confessions. — A  confession  is  an  admission 
by  a  person  accused  of  an  offence  that  he  has  committed  the  offence 
of  which  he  is  accused.  But  the  rules  about  admitting  as  evidence 
confessions  in  criminal  proceedings  are  much  more  strict  than  the 
rules  about  admissions  in  civil  proceedings.  The  general  rule  is, 
that  a  confession  is  not  admissible  as  evidence  against  any  person 
except  the  person  who  makes  it.  But  a  confession  made  by  one 
accomplice  m  the  presence  of  another  is  admissible  against  the  latter 
to  this  extent,  that,  if  it  implicates  him,  his  silence  under  the  charge 
may  be  used  against  him,  whilst  on  the  other  hand  his  prompt 
repudiation  of  the  charge  might  tell  in  his  favour.  In  other  words, 
the  confession  may  be  used  as  evidence  of  the  conduct  of  the  person 
in  whose  presence  it  was  made.  A  confession  cannot  be  admitted 
as  evidence  unless  proved  to  be  voluntary.  A  confession  is  not 
treated  as  being  voluntary  if  it  appears  to  the  court  to  have  been 
caused  by  any  inducement,  threat  or  promise  which  proceeded 
from  a  magistrate  or  other  person  in  authority  concerned  in  the 
charge,  and  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  court,  gave  the  accused 
person  reasonable  ground  for  supposing  that  by  making  a  confession 
he  would  gain  some  advantage  or  avoid  some  evil  in  reference  to  the 
proceedings  against  him.  This  applies  to  any  inducement,  threat 
or  promise  having  reference  to  the  charge,  whether  it  is  addressed 
directly  to  the  accused  person  or  is  brought  to  his  knowledge  indirectly. 
But  a  confession  is  not  involuntary  merely  because  it  appears  to 
have  been  caused  by  the  exhortations  of  a  person  in  authority  to 
make  it  as  a  matter  of  religious  duty,  or  by  an  inducement  collateral 
to  the  proceedings,  or  by  an  inducement  held  out  by  a  person  having 
nothing  to  do  with  the  apprehension,  prosecution  or  examination 
of  the  prisoner.  Thus,  a  confession  made  to  a  gaol  chaplain  in  con- 
sequence of  religious  exhortation  has  been  admitted  as  evidence. 
So  also  has  a  confession  made  by  a  prisoner  to  a  gaoler  in  consequence 
of  a  promise  by  the  gaoler,  that  if  the  prisoner  confessed  he  should 
be  allowed  to  see  his  wife.  To  make  a  confession  involuntary,  the 
inducement  must  have  reference  to  the  prisoner's  escape  from  the 
charge  against  him,  and  must  be  made  by  some  person  having  power 
to  relieve  him,  wholly  or  partially,  from  the  consequences  of  the 
charge.  A  confession  is  treated  as  voluntary  if,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
court,  it  was  made  after  the  complete  removal  of  the  impression 
produced  by  any  inducement,  threat  or  promise  which  would  have 
made  it  involuntary.  Where  a  confession  was  made  under  an 
inducement  which  makes  the  confession  involuntary,  evidence 
may  be  given  of  facts  discovered  in  consequence  of  the  confession, 
and  of  so  much  of  the  confession  as  distinctly  relates  to  those  facts. 
Thus,  A.  under  circumstances  which  make  the'confession  involuntary, 
tells  a  policeman  that  he,  A.,  had  thrown  a  lantern  into  the  pond. 
Evidence  may  be  given  that  the  lantern  was  found  in  the  pond,  and 
that  A.  said  he  had  thrown  it  there.  It  is  of  course  improper  to  try 
to  extort  a  confession  by  fraud  or  under  the  promise  of  secrecy. 
But  if  a  confession  is  otherwise  admissible  as  evidence,  it  does  not 
become  inadmissible  merely  because  it  was  made  under  a  promise 
of  secrecy,  or  in  consequence  of  a  deception  practised  on  the  accused 
person  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  it,  or  when  he  was  drunk,  or 
because  it  was  made  in  answer  to  questions,  whether  put  by  a 
magistrate  or  by  a  private  person,  or  because  he  was  not  warned 
that  he  was  not  bound  to  make  the  confession,  and  that  it  might 
be  used  against  him.  If  a  confession  is  given  in  evidence,  the  whole 
of  it  must  be  given,  and  not  merely  the  parts  disadvantageous  to  the 
accused  person.  Evidence  amounting  to  a  confession  may  be  used 
as  such  against  the  person  who  gave  it,  though  it  was  given  on  oath, 
and  though  the  proceeding  in  which  it  was  given  had  reference  to 
the  same  subject-matter  as  the  proceeding  in  which  it  is  to  be  used, 
and  though  the  witness  might  have  refused  to  answer  the  questions 
put  to  him.  But  if,  after  refusing  to  answer  such  questions,  the 
witness  is  improperly  compelled  to  answer,  his  answers  are  not 
a  voluntary  confession.  The  grave  jealousy  and  suspicion  with 
which  the  English  law  regards  confessions  offer  a  marked  contrast 
to  the  importance  attached  to  this  form  of  evidence  in  other  systems 
of  procedure,  such  as  the  inquisitorial  system  which  long  prevailed, 
and  still  to  some  extent  prevails,  on  the  continent.  (;')  Res  gestae. — 
Statements  are  often  admitted  as  evidence  on  the  ground  that  they 
form  part  of  what  is  called  the  "  transaction,"  or  res  gestae,  the 
occurrence  or  nature  of  which  is  in  question.  For  instance,  where 
an  act  may  be  proved,  statements  accompanying  and  explaining 
the  act  made  by  or  to  the  person  doing  it,  may  be  given  in  evidence. 


There  is  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  principle  on  which  this 
exception  from  the  hearsay  rule  rests,  but  there  is  often  practical 
difficulty  in  applying  it,  and  the  practice  has  varied.  How  long  is 
the  "  transaction  "  to  be  treated  as  lasting?  What  ought  to  be 
treated  as  "  the  immediate  and  natural  effect  of  continuing  action," 
and,  for  that  reason,  as  part  of  the  res  gestae  ?  When  an  act  of  violence 
is  committed,  to  what  extent  are  the  terms  of  the  complaint  made 
by  the  sufferer,  as  distinguished  from  the  fact  of  a  complaint  having 
been  made,  admissible  as  evidence  ?  These  are  some  of  the  questions 
raised.  The  cases  in  which  statements  by  a  person  as  to  his  bodily 
or  mental  condition  may  be  put  in  evidence  may  perhaps  be  treated 
as  falling  under  the  same  principle.  In  the  Rugeley  poisoning  case, 
statements  by  the  deceased  person  before  his  illness  as  to  his  state 
of  health,  and  as  to  his  symptoms  during  illness,  were  admitted  as 
evidence  for  the  prosecution.  Under  the  same  principle  may  also 
be  brought  the  rule  as  to  statements  in  conspiracy  cases.  In  charges 
of  conspiracy,  after  evidence  has  been  given  of  the  existence  of  the 
plot,  and  of  the  connexion  of  the  accused  with  it,  the  charge  against 
one  conspirator  may  be  supported  by  evidence  of  anything  done, 
written,  or  said,  not  only  by  him,  but  by  any  other  of  the  conspirators, 
in  furtherance  of  the  common  purpose.  On  the  other  hand,  a  state- 
ment made  by  one  conspirator,  not  in  execution  of  the  common 
purpose,  but  in  narration  of  some  event  forming  part  of  the  con- 
spiracy, would  be  treated,  not  as  part  of  the  "  transaction,"  but  as 
a  statement  excluded  by  the  hearsay  rule.  Thus  the  admissibility 
of  writings  in  conspiracy  cases  may  depend  on  the  time  when  they 
can  be  shown  to  have  been  in  the  possession  of  a  fellow-conspirator, 
whether  before  or  after  the  prisoner's  apprehension,  (k)  Complaints 
in  rape  cases,  &c. — In  trials  for  rape  and  similar  offences,  the  fact 
that  shortly  after  the  commission  of  the  alleged  offence  a  complaint 
was  made  by  the  person  against  whom  the  offence  was  committed, 
and  also  the  terms  of  the  complaint,  have  been  admitted  as  evidence, 
not  of  the  facts  complained  of,  but  of  the  consistency  of  the  com- 
plainant's conduct  with  the  story  told  by  her  in  the  witness-box,  and 
as  negativing  consent  on  her  part. 

4.  Opinion. — The  rule  excluding  expressions  of  opinion  also 
dates  from  the  first  distinction  between  the  functions  of  wit- 
nesses and  jury.  It  was  for  the  witnesses  to  state  facts,  for  the 
jury  to  form  conclusions.  Of  course  every  statement  of  fact 
involves  inference,  and  implies  a  judgment  on  phenomena  ob- 
served by  the  senses.  And  the  inference  is  often  erroneous,  as  in 
the  answer  to  the  question,  "  Was  he  drunk  ?"  A  prudent  wit- 
ness will  often  guard  himself,  and  is  allowed  to  guard  himself,  by 
answering  to  the  best  of  his  belief.  But,  for  practical  purposes, 
it  is  possible  to  draw  a  distinction  between  a  statement  of  facts 
observed  and  an  expression  of  opinion  as  to  the  inference  to  be 
drawn  from  these  facts,  and  the  rule  telling  witnesses  to  state 
facts  and  not  express  opinions  is  of  great  value  in  keeping  their 
statements  out  of  the  region  of  argument  and  conjecture.  The 
evidence  of  "  experts,"  that  is  to  say,  of  persons  having  a  special 
knowledge  of  some  particular  subject,  is  generally  described  as 
constituting  the  chief  exception  to  the  rule.  But  perhaps  it 
would  be  more  accurate  to  say  that  experts  are  allowed  a  much 
wider  range  than  ordinary  witnesses  in  the  expression  of  their 
opinions,  and  in  the  statement  of  facts  on  which  their  opinions 
are  based.  Thus,  in  a  poisoning  case,  a  doctor  may  be  asked 
as  an  expert  whether,  in  his  opinion,  a  particular  poison  produces 
particular  symptoms.  And,  where  lunacy  is  set  up  as  a  defence, 
an  expert  may  be  asked  whether,  in  his  opinion,  the  symptoms 
exhibited  by  the  alleged  lunatic  commonly  show  unsoundness  of 
mind,  and  whether  such  unsoundness  of  mind  usually  renders 
persons  incapable  of  knowing  the  nature  of  their  acts,  or  of 
knowing  that  what  they  do  is  either  wrong  or  contrary  to  the 
law.  Similar  principles  are  applied  to  the  evidence  of  engineers, 
and  in  numerous  other  cases.  In  cases  of  disputed  handwriting 
the  evidence  of  experts  in  handwriting  is  expressly  recognized 
by  statute  (Evidence  and  Practice  on  Criminal  Trials  1865). 

IV.  DOCUMENTARY  EVIDENCE 

Charters  and  other  writings  were  exhibited  to  the  jury  at  a 
very  early  date,  and  it  is  to  writings  so  exhibited  that  the  term 
"  evidence  "  or  "  evidences  "  seems  to  have  been  originally 
applied  par  excellence.  The  oral  evidence  of  witnesses  came 
later.  Where  a  document  is  to  be  used  as  evidence  the  first 
question  is  how  its  contents  are  to  be  proved.  To  this  question 
the  principle  of  "  best  evidence  "  applies,  in  the  form  of  the  rule 
that  primary  evidence  must  be  given  except  in  the  cases  where 
secondary  evidence  is  allowed.  By  primary  evidence  is  meant 
the  document  itself  produced  for  inspection.  By  secondary 


EVIDENCE 


evidence  is  meant  a  copy  of  the  document,  or  verbal  accounts  of 
its  contents. 

The  rule  as  to  the  inadmissibility  of  a  copy  of  a  document  is 
applied  much  more  strictly  to  private  than  to  public  or  official 
documents.  Secondary  evidence  may  be  given  of  the  contents  of 
a  private  document  in  the  following  cases: 

(a)  Where  the  original  is  shown  or  appears  to  be  in  the  possession 
of  the  adverse  party,  and  he,  after  having  been  served 
with  reasonable  notice  to  produce  it,  does  not  do  so. 
(6)  Where  the  original  is  shown  or  appears  to  be  in  the  possession 
or  power  of  a  stranger  not  legally  bound  to  produce  it,  and 
he,  after  having  been  served  with  a  writ  of  subpoena  duces 
tecum,  or  after  having  been  sworn  as  a  witness  and  asked 
for  the  document,  and  having  admitted  that  it  is  in  court, 
refuses  to  produce  it. 

(c)  Where  it  is  shown  that  proper  search  has  been  made  for  the 

original,  and  there  is  reason  for  believing  that  it  is  destroyed 
or  lost. 

(d)  Where  the  original  is  of  such  a  nature  as  not  to  be  easily 

movable,  as  in  the  case  of  a  placard  posted  on  a  wall,  or 
of  a  tombstone,  or  is  in  a  country  from  which  it  is  not 
permitted  to  be  removed. 

(e)  Where  the  original  is  a  document  for  the  proof  of  which  special 

provision  is  made  by  any  act  of  parliament,  or  any  law  in 
force  for  the  time  being.  Documents  of  that  kind  are 
practically  treated  on  the  same  footing  as  private  docu- 
ments. 

(/)  Where  the  document  is  an  entry  in  a  banker's  book,  provable 
according  to  the  special  provisions  of  the  Bankers'  Books 
Evidence  Act  1879. 

Secondary  evidence  of  a  private  document  is  usually  given  either 
by  producing  a  copy  and  calling  a  witness  who  can  prove  the  copy 
to  be  correct,  or,  when  there  is  no  copy  obtainable,  by  calling  a 
witness  who  has  seen  the  document,  and  can  give  an  account  of  its 
contents.  No  general  definition  of  public  document  is  possible, 
but  the  rules  of  evidence  applicable  to  public  documents  are  expressly 
applied  by  statute  to  many  classes  of  documents.  Primary  evidence 
of  any  public  document  may  be  given  by  producing  the  document 
from  proper  custody,  and  by  a  witness  identifying  it  as  being  what 
it  professes  to  be.  Public  documents  may  always  be  proved  by 
secondary  evidence,  but  the  particular  kind  of  secondary  evidence 
required  is  in  many  cases  defined  by  statute.  Where  a  document 
is  of  such  a  public  nature  as  to  be  admissible  in  evidence  on  its  mere 
production  from  the  proper  custody,  and  no  statute  exists  which 
renders  its  contents  provable  by  means  of  a  copy,  any  copy  thereof 
or  extract  therefrom  is  admissible  as  proof  of  its  contents,  if  it  is 
proved  to  be  an  examined  copy  or  extract,  or  purports  to  be  signed 
or  certified  as  a  true  copy  or  extract  by  the  officer  to  whose  custody 
the  original  is  entrusted.  Many  statutes  provide  that  various 
certificates,  official  and  public  documents,  documents  and  proceed- 
ings of  corporations  and  of  joint  stock  and  other  companies,  and 
certified  copies  of  documents,  by-laws,  entries  in  registers  and  other 
books,  shajl  be  receivable  as  evidence  of  certain  particulars  in  courts 
of  justice,  if  they  are  authenticated  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the 
statutes.  Whenever,  by  virtue  of  any  such  provision,  any  such 
certificate  or  certified  copy  is  receivable  as  proof  of  any  p^.rtj- 
cular  in  any  court  of  justice,  it  is  admissible  as  evidence,  if  it 
purports  to  be  authenticated  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  law, 
without  calling  any  witness  to  prove  any  stamp,  seal,  or  signature 
required  for  its  authentication,  or  the  official  character  of  the  person 
who  appears  to  have  signed  it.  The  Documentary  Evidence  Acts 
1868,  1882  and  1895,  provide  modes  of  proving  the  contents  of 
several  classes  of  proclamations,  orders  and  regulations. 

If  a  document  is  of  a  kind  which  is  required  by  law  to  be  attested, 

but  not  otherwise,  an  attesting  witness  must  be  called  to  prove  its 

due  execution.     But  this  rule  is  subject  to  the  following  exceptions : 

(d)  If  it  is  proved  that  there  is  no  attesting  witness  alive,  and 

capable  of  giving  evidence,  then  it  is  sufficient  to  prove 

that  the  attestation  of  at  least  one  attesting  witness  is    in 

his   handwriting,   and   that   the   signature   of   the   person 

executing   the  document  is  in   the  handwriting  of   that 

person. 

(6)  If  the  document  is  proved,  or  purports  to  be,  more  than 
thirty  years  old,  and  is  produced  from  what  the  court 
considers  to  be  its  proper  custody,  an  attesting  witness 
need  not  be  called,  and  it  will  be  presumed  without  evidence 
that  the  instrument  was  duly  executed  and  attested. 

Where  a  document  embodies  a  judgment,  a  contract,  a  grant, 
or  disposition  of  property,  or  any  other  legal  transaction  or 
"  act  in  the  law,"  on  which  rights  depend,  the  validity  of  the 
transaction  may  be  impugned  on  the  ground  of  fraud,  incapacity, 
want  of  consideration,  or  other  legal  ground.  But  this  seems 
outside  the  law  of  evidence.  In  this  class  of  cases  a  question 
often  arises  whether  extrinsic  evidence  can  be  produced  to  vary 
the  nature  of  the  transaction  embodied  in  the  document.  The 
answer  to  this  question  seems  to  depend  on  whether  the  docu- 


ment was  or  was  not  intended  to  be  a  complete  and  final  state- 
ment of  the  transaction  which  it  embodies.  If  it  was,  you  cannot 
go  outside  the  document  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
nature  of  the  transaction.  If  it  was  not,  you  may.  But  the 
mere  statement  of  this  test  shows  the  difficulty  of  formulating 
precise  rules,  and  of  applying  them  when  formulated.  Fitz- 
James  Stephen  mentions,  among  the  facts  which  may  be  proved 
in  these  cases,  the  existence  of  separate  and  consistent  oral 
agreements  as  to  matters  on  which  the  document  is  silent,  if  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  the  document  is  not  a  complete  and  final 
statement  of  the  transaction,  and  the  existence  of  any  usage  or 
custom  with  reference  to  which  a  contract  may  be  presumed  to 
have  been  made.  But  he  admits  that  the  rules  on  the  subject 
are  "  by  no  means  easy  to  apply,  inasmuch  as  from  the  nature 
of  the  case  an  enormous  number  of  transactions  fall  close  on 
one  side  or  the  other  of  most  of  them."  The  underlying  principle 
appears  to  be  a  rule  of  substantive  law  rather  than  of  evidence. 
When  parties  to  an  arrangement  have  reduced  the  terms  of  the 
arrangement  to  a  definite,  complete,  and  final  written  form,  they 
should  be  bound  exclusively  by  the  terms  embodied  in  that  form. 
The  question  in  each  case  is  under  what  circumstances  they 
ought  to  be  treated  as  having  done  so. 

The  expression  "  parol  evidence,"  which  includes  written  as 
well  as  verbal  evidence,  has  often  been  applied  to  the  extrinsic 
evidence  produced  for  the  purpose  of  varying  the  nature  of  the 
transaction  embodied  in  a  document.  It  is  also  applied  to  ex- 
trinsic evidence  used  for  another  purpose,  namely,  that  of  ex- 
plaining the  meaning  of  the  terms  used  in  a  document.  The  two 
questions,  What  is  the  real  nature  of  the  transaction  referred 
to  in  a  document?  and,  What  is  the  meaning  of  a  document?  are 
often  confused,  but  are  really  distinct  from  each  other.  The 
rules  bearing  on  the  latter  question  are  rules  of  construction  or 
interpretation  rather  than  of  evidence,  but  are  ordinarily  treated 
as  part  of  the  law  of  evidence,  and  are  for  that  reason  included 
by  Fitz  James  Stephen  in  his  Digest.  In  stating  these  rules  he 
adopts,  with  verbal  modifications,  the  six  propositions  laid  down 
by  Vice-Chancellor  Wigram  in  his  Examinations  of  the  Rules  of 
Law  respecting  the  admission  of  Extrinsic  Evidence  in  Aid  of  the 
Interpretation  of  Wills.  The  substance  of  these  propositions 
appears  to  be  this,  that  wherever  the  meaning  of  a  document 
cannot  be  satisfactorily  ascertained  from  the  document  itself, 
use  may  be  made  of  any  other  evidence  for  the  purpose  of 
elucidating  the  meaning,  subject  to  one  restriction,  that,  except 
in  cases  of  equivocation,  i.e.  where  a  person  or  thing  is  described 
in  terms  applicable  equally  to  more  than  one,  resort  cannot  be 
had  to  extrinsic  expressions  of  the  author's  intention. 

V.  WITNESSES 

1.  Attendance. — If  a  witness  does  not  attend  voluntarily  he 
can  be  required  to  attend  by  a  writ  of  subpoena. 

2.  Competency. — As  a  general  rule  every  person  is  a  com- 
petent witness.     Formerly  persons  were  disqualified  by  crime 
or  interest,  or  by  being  parties  to  the  proceedings,  but  these 
disqualifications  have  now  been  removed  by  statute,  and  the 
circumstances  which  formerly  created  them  do  not  affect  the 
competency,  though  they  may  often  affect  the  credibility,  of  a 
witness. 

Under  the  general  law  as  it  stood  before  the  Criminal  Evidence 
Act  1898  came  into  force,  a  person  charged  with  an  offence  was 
not  competent  to  give  evidence  on  his  own  behalf.  But  many 
exceptions  had  been  made  to  this  rule  by  legislation,  and  the  rule 
itself  was  finally  abolished  by  the  act  of  1898.  Under  that  law 
a  person  charged  is  a  competent  witness,  but  he  can  only  give 
evidence  for  the  defence,  and  can  only  give  evidence  if  he  himself 
applies  to  do  so.  Under  the  law  as  it  stood  before  1898,  persons 
jointly  charged  and  being  tried  together  were  not  competent  to 
give  evidence  either  for  or  against  each  other.  Under  the  act 
of  1898  a  person  charged  jointly  with  another  is  a  competent 
witness,  but  only  for  the  defence,  and  not  for  the  prosecution. 
If,  therefore,  one  of  the  persons  charged  applies  to  give  evidence 
his  cross-examination  must  not  be  conducted  with  a  view  to 
establish  the  guilt  of  the  other.  Consequently,  if  it  is  thought 


20 


EVIDENCE 


desirable  to  use  against  one  prisoner  the  evidence  of  another 
who  is  being  tried  with  him,  the  latter  should  be  released,  or  a 
separate  verdict  of  not  guilty  taken  against  him.  •  A  prisoner  so 
giving  evidence  is  popularly  said  to  turn  king's  evidence.  It 
follows  that,  subject  to  what  has  been  said  above  as  to  persons 
tried  together,  the  evidence  of  an  accomplice  is  admissible 
against  his  principal,  and  vice  versa.  The  evidence  of  an  accom- 
plice is,  however,  always  received  with  great  jealousy  and  caution. 
A  conviction  on  the  unsupported  testimony  of  an  accomplice 
may,  in  some  cases,  be  strictly  legal,  but  the  practice  is  to  require 
it  to  be  confirmed  by  unimpeachable  testimony  in  some  material 
part,  and  more  especially  as  to  his  identification  of  the  person  or 
persons  against  whom  his  evidence  may  be  received.  The  wife 
of  a  person  charged  is  now  a  competent  witness,  but,  except  in 
certain  special  cases,  she  can  only  give  evidence  for  the  defence, 
and  can  only  give  evidence  if  her  husband  applies  that  she  should 
do  so.  The  special  cases  in  which  a  wife  can  be  called  as  a 
witness  either  for  the  prosecution  or  for  the  defence,  and  without 
the  consent  of  the  person  charged,  are  cases  arising  under  parti- 
cular enactments  scheduled  to  the  act  of  1898,  and  relating 
mainly  to  offences  against  wives  and  children,  and  cases  in  which 
the  wife  is  by  common  law  a  competent  witness  against  her 
husband,  i.e.  where  the  proceeding  is  against  the  husband  for 
bodily  injury  or  violence  inflicted  on  his  wife.  The  rule  of  ex- 
clusion extends  only  to  a  lawful  wife.  There  is  no  ground  for 
supposing  that  the  wife  of  a  prosecutor  is  an  incompetent  witness. 
A  witness  is  incompetent  if,  in  the  opinion  of  the  court,  he  is 
prevented  by  extreme  youth,  disease  affecting  his  mind,  or  any 
other  cause  of  the  same  kind,  from  recollecting  the  matter  on 
which  he  is  to  testify,  from  understanding  the  questions  put  to  him, 
from  giving  rational  answers  to  those  questions,  or  from  knowing 
that  he  ought  to  speak  the  truth.  A  witness  unable  to  speak 
or  hear  is  not  incompetent,  but  may  give  his  evidence  by  writing 
or  by  signs,  or  in  any  other  manner  in  which  he  can  make  it  in- 
telligible. The  particular  form  of  the  religious  belief  of  a  witness, 
or  his  want  of  religious  belief,  does  not  affect  his  competency. 
This  ground  of  incompetency  has  now  been  finally  removed  by  the 
Oaths  Act  1888.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  effect  of  the  successive 
enactments  which  have  gradually  removed  the  disqualifications 
attaching  to  various  classes  of  witnesses  has  been  to  draw  a 
distinction  between  the  competency  of  a  witness  and  his  credibility. 
No  person  is  disqualified  on  moral  or  religious  grounds,  but  his 
character  may  be  such  as  to  throw  grave  doubts  on  the  value 
of  his  evidence.  No  relationship,  except  to  a  limited  extent  that 
of  husband  and  wife,  excludes  from  giving  evidence.  The  parent 
may  be  examined  on  the  trial  of  the  child,  the  child  on  that  of 
the  parent,  master  for  or  against  servant,  and  servant  for  or 
against  master.  The  relationship  of  the  witness  to  the  prose- 
cutor or  the  prisoner  in  such  cases  may  affect  the  credibility  of 
the  witness,  but  does  not  exclude  his  evidence. 

3.  Privilege. — It  does  not  follow  that,  because  a  person  is 
competent  to  give  evidence,  he  can  therefore  be  compelled  to 
do  so. 

No  one,  except  a  person  charged  with  an  offence  when  giving 
evidence  on  his  own  application,  and  as  to  the  offence  where- 
with he  is  charged,  is  bound  to  answer  a  question  if  the  answer 
would,  in  the  opinion  of  the  court,  have  a  tendency  to  expose 
the  witness,  or  the  wife  or  husband  of  the  witness,  to  any  criminal 
charge,  penalty,  or  forfeiture,  which  the  court  regards  as  reason- 
ably likely  to  be  preferred  or  sued  for.  Accordingly,  an  accom- 
plice cannot  be  examined  without  his  consent,  but  if  an  accom- 
plice who  has  come  forward  to  give  evidence  on  a  promise  of 
pardon,  or  favourable  consideration,  refuses  to  give  full  and  fair 
information,  he  renders  himself  liable  to  be  convicted  on  his 
own  confession.  However,  even  accomplices  in  such  circum- 
stances are  not  required  to  answer  on  their  cross-examination 
as  to  other  offences.  Where,  under  the  new  law,  a  person  charged 
with  an  offence  offers  himself  as  a  witness,  he  may  be  asked  any 
question  in  cross-examination,  notwithstanding  that  it  would 
tend  to  criminate  him  as  to  the  offence  charged.  But  he  may 
not  be  asked,  and  if  he  is  asked  must  not  be  required  to  answer, 
any  question  tending  to  show  that  he  has  committed,  or  been 


convicted  of,  or  been  charged  with,  any  other  offence,  or  is  of 
bad  character,  unless: — 

(i.)  The  proof  that  he  has  committed,  or  been  convicted  of,  the 
other  offence  is  admissible  evidence  to  show  that  he  is 
guilty  of  the  offence  with  which  he  is  then  charged ;  or, 
(ii.)  He  has  personally,  or  by  his  advocate,  asked  questions  of 
the  witnesses  for  the  prosecution,  with  a  view  to  establish 
his  own  good  character,  or  has  given  evidence  of  his  good 
character,  or  the  nature  or  conduct  of  the  defence  is  such 
as  to  involve  imputations  on  the  character  of  the  prose- 
cutor or  the  witnesses  for  the  prosecution;  or, 
(iii.)  He  has  given  evidence  against  any  other  person  charged 
with  the  same  offence. 

He  may  not  be  asked  questions  tending  to  criminate  his  wife. 

The  privilege  as  to  criminating  answers  does  not  cover  answers 
merely  tending  to  establish  a  civil  liability.  No  one  is  excused 
from  answering  a  question  or  producing  a  document  only  because 
the  answer  or  document  may  establish  or  tend  to  establish  that 
he  owes  a  debt,  or  is  otherwise  liable  to  any  civil  proceeding. 
It  is  a  privilege  for  the  protection  of  the  witness,  and  therefore 
may  be  waived  by  him.  But  there  are  other  privileges  which 
cannot  be  so  waived.  Thus,  on  grounds  of  public  policy,  no  one 
can  be  compelled,  or  is  allowed,  to  give  evidence  relating  to  any 
affairs  of  state,  or  as  to  official  communications  between  public 
officers  upon  public  affairs,  except  with  the  consent  of  the  head 
of  the  department  concerned,  and  this  consent  is  refused  if  the 
production  of  the  information  asked  for  is  considered  detri- 
mental to  the  public  service. 

Again,  in  cases  in  which  the  government  is  immediately  con- 
cerned, no  witness  can  be  compelled  to  answer  any  question  the 
answer  to  which  would  tend  to  discover  the  names  of  persons 
by  or  to  whom  information  was  given  as  to  the  commission  of 
offences.  It  is,  as  a  rule,  for  the  court  to  decide  whether  the  per- 
mission of  any  such  question  would  or  would  not,  under  the 
circumstances  of  the  particular  case,  be  injurious  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice. 

A  husband  is  not  compellable  to  disclose  any  communication 
made  to  him  by  his  wife  during  the  marriage;  and  a  wife  is  not 
compellable  to  disclose  any  communication  made  to  her  by  her 
husband  during  the  marriage. 

A  legal  adviser  is  not  permitted,  whether  during  or  after  the 
termination  of  his  employment  as  such,  unless  with  his  client's 
express  consent,  to  disclose  any  communication,  oral  or  docu- 
mentary, made  to  him  as  such  legal  adviser,  by  or  on  behalf  of 
his  client,  during,  in  the  course  of,  and  for  the  purpose  of  his 
employment,  or  to  disclose  any  advice  given  by  him  to  his  client 
during,  in  the  course  of,  and  for  the  purpose  of  such  employment. 
But  this  protection  does  not  extend  to — 

(a)  Any  such  communication  if  made  in  furtherance  of  any 
criminal  purpose;  nor 

(b)  Any  fact  observed  by  a  legal  adviser  in  the  course  of  his 
employment  as  such,  showing  that  any  crime  or  fraud  has  been 
committed  since  the  commencement  of  his  employment,  whether 
his  attention  was  directed  to  such  fact  by  or  on  behalf  of  his 
client  or  not;  nor 

(c)  Any  fact  with  which  the  legal  adviser  became  acquainted 
otherwise  than  in  his  character  as  such. 

Medical  men  and  clergymen  are  not  privileged  from  the  dis- 
closure of  communications  made  to  them  in  professional  con- 
fidence, but  it  is  not  usual  to  press  for  the  disclosures  of  com- 
munications made  to  clergymen. 

4.  Oaths. — A  witness  must  give  his  evidence  under  the  sanction 
of  an  oath,  or  of  what  is  equivalent  to  an  oath,  that  is  to  say,  of 
a  solemn  promise  to  speak  the  truth.     The  ordinary  form  of  oath 
is  adapted  to  Christians,  but  a  person  belonging  to  a  non- 
Christian  religion  may  be  sworn  in  any  form  prescribed  or 
recognized  by  the  custom  of  his  religion.     (See  the  article  OATH.) 

5.  Publicity. — The  evidence  of  a  witness  at  a  trial  must,  as 
a  general  rule,  be  given  in  open  court  in  the  course  of  the  trial. 
The  secrecy  which  was  such  a  characteristic  feature  of  the 
"  inquisition  "  procedure  is  abhorrent  to  English  law,  and,  even 
where  publicity  conflicts  with  decency,  English  courts  are  very 
reluctant  to  dispense  with  or  relax  the  safeguards  for  justice 
which  publicity  involves. 


EVIL  EYE 


21 


6.  Examination. — The  normal  course  of  procedure  is  this. 
The  party  who  begins,  i.e.  ordinarily  the  plaintiff  or  prosecutor, 
calls  his  witnesses  in  order.  Each  witness  is  first  examined  on 
behalf  of  the  party  for  whom  he  is  called.  This  is  called  the 
examination  in  chief.  Then  he  is  liable  to  be  cross-examined 
on  behalf  of  the  other  side.  And,  finally,  he  may  be  re-examined 
on  behalf  of  his  own  side.  After  the  case  for  the  other  side  has 
been  opened,  the  same  procedure  is  adopted  with  the  witnesses 
for  that  side.  In  some  cases  the  party  who  began  is  allowed  to 
adduce  further  evidence  in  reply  to  his  opponent's  evidence. 
The  examination  is  conducted,  not  by  the  court,  but  by  or  on 
behalf  of  the  contending  parties.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  prin- 
ciple underlying  this  procedure  is  that  of  the  duel,  or  conflict 
between  two  contending  parties,  each  relying  on  and  using  his 
own  evidence,  and  trying  to  break  down  the  evidence  of  his 
opponent.  It  differs  from  the  principle  of  the  "  inquisition  " 
procedure,  in  which  the  court  takes  a  more  active  part,  and  in 
which  the  cases  for  the  two  sides  are  not  so  sharply  distinguished. 
In  a  continental  trial  it  is  often  difficult  to  determine  whether 
the  case  for  the  prosecution  or  the  case  for  the  defence  is  proceed- 
ing. Conflicting  witnesses  stand  up  together  and  are  "  con- 
fronted "  with  each  other.  In  the  examination  in  chief  questions 
must  be  confined  to  matters  bearing  on  the  main  question  at 
issue,  and  a  witness  must  not  be  asked  leading  questions,  i.e. 
questions  suggesting  the  answer  which  the  person  putting  the 
question  wishes  or  expects  to  receive,  or  suggesting  disputed 
facts  about  which  the  witness  is  to  testify.  But  the  rule  about 
leading  questions  is  not  applied  where  the  questions  asked  are 
simply  introductory,  and  form  no  part  of  the  real  substance  of 
the  inquiry,  or  where  they  relate  to  matters  which,  though 
material,  are  not  disputed.  And  if  the  witness  called  by  a  person 
appears  to  be  directly  hostile  to  him,  or  interested  on  the  other 
side,  or  unwilling  to  reply,  the  reason  for  the  rules  applying  to 
examination  in  chief  breaks  down,  and  the  witness  may  be 
asked  leading  questions  and  cross-examined,  and  treated  in  every 
respect  as  though  he  was  a  witness  called  on  the  other  side,  except 
that  a  party  producing  a  witness  must  not  impeach  his  credit  by 
general  evidence  of  bad  character  (Evidence  and  Practice  on 
Criminal  Trials  Act  1865).  In  cross-examination  questions  not 
bearing  on  the  main  issue  and  leading  questions  may  be  put  and 
(subject  to  the  rules  as  to  privilege)  must  be  answered,  as  the 
cross-examiner  is  entitled  to  test  the  examination  in  chief  by 
every  means  in  his  power.  Questions  not  bearing  on  the  main 
issue  are  often  asked  in  cross-examination  merely  for  the  purpose 
of  putting  off  his  guard  a  witness  who  is  supposed  to  have  learnt 
up  his  story.  In  cross-examination  questions  may  also  be  asked 
which  tend  either  to  test  the  accuracy  or  credibility  of  the 
witness,  or  to  shake  his  credit  by  impeaching  his  motives  or  in- 
juring his  character.  The  licence  allowed  in  cross-examination  has 
often  been  seriously  abused,  and  the  power  of  the  court  to  check 
it  is  recognized  by  one  of  the  rules  of  the  supreme  court  (R.S.C. 
xxxvi.  30,  added  in  1883).  It  is  considered  wrong  to  put 
questions  which  assume  that  facts  have  been  proved  which  have 
not  been  proved,  or  that  answers  have  been  given  contrary  to 
the  fact.  A  witness  ought  not  to  be  pressed  in  cross-examination 
as  to  any  facts  which,  if  admitted,  would  not  affect  the  question 
at  issue  or  the  credibility  of  the  witness.  If  the  cross-examiner 
intends  to  adduce  evidence  contrary  to  the  evidence  given  by 
the  witness,  he  ought  to  put  to  the  witness  in  cross-examination 
the  substance  of  the  evidence  which  he  proposes  to  adduce,  in 
order  to  give  the  witness  an  opportunity  of  retracting  or  explain- 
ing. Where  a  witness  has  answered  a  question  which  only  tends 
to  affect  his  credibility  by  injuring  his  character,  it  is  only  in  a 
limited  number  of  cases  that  evidence  can  be  given  to  contra- 
dict his  answer.  Where  he  is  asked  whether  he  has  ever  been 
convicted  of  any  felony  or  misdemeanour,  and  denies  or  refuses 
to  answer,  proof  may  be  given  of  the  truth  of  the  facts  suggested 
(28  &  29  Viet.  c.  15,  s.  6).  The  same  rule  is  observed  where 
he  is  asked  a  question  tending  to  show  that  he  is  not  impartial. 
Where  a  witness  has  previously  made  a  statement  inconsistent 
with  his  evidence,  proof  may  be  given  that  he  did  in  fact  make 
it.  But  before  such  proof  is  given  the  circumstances  of  the  alleged 


statement,  sufficient  to  designate  the  particular  occasion,  must 
be  mentioned  to  the  witness,  and  he  must  be  asked  whether  he 
did  or  did  not  make  the  statement.  And  if  the  statement  was 
made  in,  or  has  been  reduced  to,  writing,  the  attention  of  the 
witness  must,  before  the  writing  is  used  against  him,  be  called  to 
those  parts  of  the  writing  which  are  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of 
contradicting  him  (Evidence  and  Practice  on  Criminal  Trials  Act 
1865,  ss.  4,  5).  The  credibility  of  a  witness  may  be  impeached 
by  the  evidence  of  persons  who  swear  that  they,  from  their 
knowledge  of  the  witness,  believe  him  to  be  unworthy  of 
credit  on  his  oath.  These  persons  may  not  on  their  examina- 
tion in  chief  give  reasons  for  their  belief,  but  they  may  be 
asked  their  reasons  in  cross-examination,  and  their  answers 
cannot  be  contradicted.  When  the  credit  of  a  witness  is  so 
impeached,  the  party  who  called  the  witness  may  give  evidence 
in  reply  to  show  that  the  witness  is  worthy  of  credit.  Re- 
examination  must  be  directed  exclusively  to  the  explanation 
of  matters  referred  to  in  cross-examination,  and  if  new  matter 
is,  by  the  permission  of  the  court,  introduced  in  re-examination, 
the  other  side  may  further  cross-examine  upon  it.  A  witness 
under  examination  may  refresh  his  memory  by  referring  to  any 
writing  made  by  himself  at  or  about  the  time  of  the  occurrence 
to  which  the  writing  relates,  or  made  by  any  other  person,  and 
read  and  found  accurate  by  the  witness  at  or  about  the  time. 
An  expert  may  refresh  his  memory  by  reference  to  professional 
treatises. 

For  the  history  of  the  English  law  of  evidence,  see  Brunner, 
Entstehung  der  Schwurgerichte;  Bigelow,  History  of  Procedure  in 
England;  Stephen  (Sir  J.  F.),  History  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  England; 
Pollock  and  Maitland,  History  of  English  Law,  bk.  ii.  ch.  ix. ; 
Thayer,  Preliminary  Treatise  on  Evidence  at  the  Common  Law.  The 
principal  text-books  now  in  use  are — Roscoe,  Digest  of  the  Law  of 
Evidence  on  the  Trial  of  Actions  at  Nisi  Prius  (i8th  ed.,  1907); 
Roscoe,  Digest  of  the  Law  of  Evidence  in  Criminal  Cases  (i3th  ed., 
1908);  Taylor,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Evidence  (loth  ed.,  1906); 
Best,  Principles  of  the  Law  of  Evidence  (loth  ed.,  1906);  Powell, 
Principles  and  Practice  of  the  Law  of  Evidence  (8th  ed.,  1904); 
Stephen,  Digest  of  the  Law  of  Evidence  (8th  ed.,  1907) ;  Wills,  Theory 
and  Practice  of  the  Law  of  Evidence  (1907).  For  the  history  of  the  law 
of  criminal  evidence  in  France,  see  Esmein,  Hist,  de  la  procedure 
criminelle  en  France.  For  Germany,  see  Holtzendorff,  Encyclopiidie 
der  Rechtswissenschaft  (passages  indexed  under  head  "  JBeweis  ") ; 
Holtzendorff,  Rechtslexikon  ("  Beweis  ").  (C.  P.  I.) 

EVIL  EYE.  The  terror  of  the  arts  of  "  fascination,"  i.e.  that 
certain  persons  can  bewitch,  injure  and  even  kill  with  a  glance, 
has  been  and  is  still  very  widely  spread.  The  power  was  not 
thought  to  be  always  maliciously  cultivated.  It  was  as  often 
supposed  to  be  involuntary  (cf.  Deuteronomy  xxviii.  54);  and 
a  story  is  told  of  a  Slav  who,  afflicted  with  the  evil  eye,  at  last 
blinded  himself  in  order  that  he  might  not  be  the  means  of  injur- 
ing his  children  (Woyciki,  Polish  Folklore,  trans,  by  Lewenstein, 
p.  25).  Few  of  the  old  classic  writers  fail  to  refer  to  the  dread 
power.  In  Rome  the  "  evil  eye  "  was  so  well  recognized  that 
Pliny  states  that  special  laws  were  enacted  against  injury  to 
crops  by  incantation,  excantation  or  fascination.  The  power 
was  styled  fta.aKa.via  by  the  Greeks  and  fascinatio  by  the  Latins. 
Children  and  young  animals  of  all  kinds  were  thought  to  be  speci- 
ally susceptible.  Charms  were  worn  against  the  evil  eye  both 
by  man  and  beast,  and  in  Judges  viii.  21  it  is  thought  there  is 
a  reference  to  this  custom  in  the  allusion  to  the  "  ornaments  " 
on  the  necks  of  camels.  In  classic  times  the  wearing  of  amulets 
was  universal.  They  were  of  three  classes:  (i)  those  the  in- 
tention of  which  was  to  attract  on  to  themselves,  as  the  light- 
ning-rod the  lightning,  the  malignant  glance;  (2)  charms  hidden 
in  the  bosom  of  the  dress;  (3)  written  words  from  sacred  writ- 
ings. Of  these  three  types  the  first  was  most  numerous.  They 
were  oftenest  of  a  grotesque  and  generally  grossly  obscene  nature. 
They  were  also  made  in  the  form  of  frogs,  beetles  and  so  on. 
But  the  ancients  did  not  wholly  rely  on  amulets.  Spitting  was 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  a  most  common  antidote  to  the 
poison  of  the  evil  eye.  According  to  Theocritus  it  is  necessary 
to  spit  three  times  into  the  breast  of  the  person  who  fears]  fascina- 
tion. Gestures,  too,  often  intentionally  obscene,  Vere  regarded 
as  prophylactics  on  meeting  the  dreaded  individual.  The  evil 
eye  was  believed  to  have  its  impulse  in  envy,  and  thus  it  came 


22 


EVOLUTION 


[HISTORY 


to  be  regarded  as  unlucky  to  have  any  of  your  possessions  praised. 
Among  the  Romans,  therefore,  it  was  customary  when  praising 
anything  to  add  Praefiscini  dixerim  (Fain  Evil!  I  should  say). 
This  custom  survives  in  modern  Italy,  where  in  like  circumstances 
is  said  Si  mal  occhio  non  ci  fosse  (May  the  evil  eye  not  strike  it). 
The  object  of  these  conventional  phrases  was  to  prove  that  the 
speaker  was  sincere  and  had  no  evil  designs  in  his  praise.  Though 
there  is  no  set  formula,  traces  of  the  custom  are  found  in  English 
rural  sayings,  e.g.  the  Somersetshire  "  I  don't  wish  ee  no  harm, 
so  I  on't  zay  no  more."  This  is  what  the  Scots  call  "  fore- 
speaking,"  when  praise  beyond  measure  is  likely  to  be  followed 
by  disease  or  accident.  A  Manxman  will  never  say  he  is  very 
well:  he  usually  admits  that  he  is  "  middling,"  or  qualifies  his  ad- 
mission of  good  health  by  adding  "  now  "  or  "  just  now."  The 
belief  led  in  many  countries  to  the  saying,  when  one  heard  any- 
body or  anything  praised  superabundantly,  "  God  preserve  him 
or  it."  So  in  Ireland,  to  avoid  being  suspected  of  having  the  evil 
eye,  it  is  advisable  when  looking  at  a  child  to  say  "  God  bless  it"; 
and  when  passing  a  farm-yard  where  cows  are  collected  at  milking 
time  it  is  usual  for  the  peasant  to  say,  "  The  blessing  of  God  be 
on  you  and  all  your  labour."  Bacon  writes:  "  It  seems  some 
have  been  so  curious  as  to  note  that  the  times  when  the  stroke 
...  of  an  envious  eye  does  most  hurt  are  particularly  when 
the  party  envied  is  beheld  in  glory  and  triumph." 

The  powers  of  the  evil  eye  seem  indeed  to  have  been  most 
feared  by  the  prosperous.  Its  powers  are  often  quoted  as  almost 
limitless.  Thus  one  record  solemnly  declares  that  in  a  town 
of  Africa  a  fascinator  called  Elzanar  killed  by  his  evil  art  no  less 
than  80  people  in  two  years  (W.  W.  Story,  Castle  St  Angela, 
1877,  p.  149).  The  belief  as  affecting  cattle  was  universal  in  the 
Scottish  Highlands  as  late  as  the  i8th  century  and  still  lingers. 
Thus  if  a  stranger  looks  admiringly  on  a  cow  the  peasants  still 
think  she  will  waste  away,  and  they  offer  the  visitor  some  of  her 
milk  to  drink  in  the  belief  that  in  this  manner  the  spell  is  broken. 
The  modern  Turks  and  Arabs  also  think  that  their  horses  and 
camels  are  subject  to  the  evil  eye.  But  the  people  of  Italy, 
especially  the  Neapolitans,  are  the  best  modern  instances  of 
implicit  believers.  The  jettatore,  as  the  owner  of  the  evil  eye  is 
called,  is  #o  feared  that  at  his  approach  it  is  scarcely  an  ex- 
aggeration to  say  that  a  street  will  clear:  everybody  will  rush 
into  doorways  or  up  alleys  to  avoid  the  dreaded  glance.  The 
jettatore  di  bambini  (fascinator  of  children)  is  the  most  dreaded 
of  all.  The  evil  eye  is  still  much  feared  for  horses  in  India, 
China,  Turkey,  Greece  and  almost  everywhere  where  horses  are 
found.  In  rural  England  the  pig  is  of  all  animals  oftenest 
"  overlooked."  While  the  Italians  are  perhaps  the  greatest 
believers  in  the  evil  eye  as  affecting  persons,  the  superstition 
is  rife  in  the  East.  In  India  the  belief  is  universal.  In  Bombay 
the  blast  of  the  evil  eye  is  supposed  to  be  a  form  of  spirit-pos- 
session. In  western  India  all  witches  and  wizards  are  said  to 
be  evil-eyed.  Modern  Egyptian  mothers  thus  account  for  the 
sickly  appearance  of  their  babies.  In  Turkey  passages  from 
the  Koran  are  painted  on  the  outside  of  houses  to  save  the  in- 
mates, and  texts  as  amulets  are  worn  upon  the  person,  or  hung 
upon  camels  and  horses  by  Arabs,  Abyssinians  and  other 
peoples.  The  superstition  is  universal  among  savage  races. 

For  a  full  discussion  see  Evil  Eye  by  F.  T.  Elworthy  (London, 
1895);  also  W.  W.  Story,  Castle  St  Angela  and  the  Evil  Eye  (1877); 
E.  N.  Rolfe  and  H.  Ingleby,  Naples  in  1888  (1888);  Johannes 
Christian  Frommann,  Tractatus  de  fascinatione  novus  et  singularis, 
&c.,  &c.  (Nuremburg,  1675) ;  R.  C.  Maclagan,  Evil  Eye  in  the  Western 
Highlands  (1902). 

EVOLUTION.  The  modern  doctrine  of  evolution  or  "  evolv- 
ing," as  opposed  to  that  of  simple  creation,  has  been  denned  by 
Prof.  James  Sully  in  the  pth  edition  of  this  encyclopaedia  as  a 
"  natural  history  of  the  cosmos  including  organic  beings,  ex- 
pressed in  physical  terms  as  a  mechanical  process."  The  follow- 
ing exposition  of  the  historical  development  of  the  doctrine  is 
taken  from  Sully's  article,  and  for  the  most  part  is  in  his  own 
words. 

In  the  modern  doctrine  of  evolution  the  cosmic  system  appears 
as  a  natural  product  of  elementary  matter  and  its  laws.  The 
various  grades  of  life  on  our  planet  are  the  natural  consequences 


of  certain  physical  processes  involved  in  the  gradual  transfor- 
mations of  the  earth.  Conscious  life  is  viewed  as  conditioned  by 
physical  (organic  and  more  especially  nervous)  processes,  and 
as  evolving  itself  in  close  correlation  with  organic  evolution. 
Finally,  human  development,  as  exhibited  in  historical  and  pre- 
historical  records,  is  regarded  as  the  highest  and  most  complex 
result  of  organic  and  physical  evolution.  This  modern  doctrine 
of  evolution  is  but  an  expansion  and  completion  of  those  physical 
theories  (see  below)  which  opened  the  history  of  speculation. 
It  differs  from  them  in  being  grounded  on  exact  and  verified 
research.  As  such,  moreover,  it  is  a  much  more  limited  theory 
of  evolution  than  the  ancient.  It  does  not  necessarily  concern 
itself  about  the  question  of  the  infinitude  of  worlds  in  space  and 
in  time.  It  is  content  to  explain  the  origin  and  course  of  develop- 
ment of  the  world,  the  solar  or,  at  most,  the  sidereal  system 
which  falls  under  our  own  observation.  It  would  be  difficult  to 
say  what  branches  of  science  had  done  most  towards  the  establish- 
ment of  this  doctrine.  We  must  content  ourselves  by  referring 
to  the  progress  of  physical  (including  chemical)  theory,  which  has 
led  to  the  great  generalization  of  the  conservation  of  energy;  to 
the  discovery  of  the  fundamental  chemical  identity  of  the  matter 
of  our  planet  and  of  other  celestial  bodies,  and  of  the  chemical 
relations  of  organic  and  inorganic  bodies;  to  the  advance  of 
astronomical  speculation  respecting  the  origin  of  the  solar  system, 
&c.;  to  the  growth  of  the  science  of  geology  which  has  necessi- 
tated the  conception  of  vast  and  unimaginable  periods  of  time 
in  the  past  history  of  our  globe,  and  to  the  rapid  march  of  the 
biological  sciences  which  has  made  us  familiar  with  the  simplest 
types  and  elements  of  organism;  finally,  to  the  development 
of  the  science  of  anthropology  (including  comparative  psycho- 
logy, philology,  &c.),  and  to  the  vast  extension  and  improvement 
of  all  branches  of  historical  study. 

History  of  the  Idea  of  Evolution. — The  doctrine  of  evolution 
in  its  finished  and  definite  form  is  a  modern  product.  It  required 
for  its  formation  an  amount  of  scientific  knowledge  which  could 
only  be  very  gradually  acquired.  It  is  vain,  therefore,  to  look 
for  clearly  defined  and  systematic  presentations  of  the  idea  among 
ancient  writers.  On  the  other  hand,  nearly  all  systems  of  philo- 
sophy have  discussed  the  underlying  problems.  Such  questions 
as  the  origin  of  the  cosmos  as  a  whole,  the  production  of  organic 
beings  and  of  conscious  minds,  and  the  meaning  of  the  observable 
grades  of  creation,  have  from  the  dawn  of  speculation  occupied 
men's  minds;  and  the  answers  to  these  questions  often  imply  a 
vague  recognition  of  the  idea  of  a  gradual  evolution  of  things. 
Accordingly,  in  tracing  the  antecedents  of  the  modern  philosophic 
doctrine  we  shall  have  to  glance  at  most  of  the  principal  systems 
of  cosmology,  ancient  and  modern.  Yet  since  in  these  systems 
inquiries  into  the  esse  and  fieri  of  the  world  are  rarely  distin- 
guished with  any  precision,  it  will  be  necessary  to  indicate 
very  briefly  the  general  outlines  of  the  system  so  far  as  they 
are  necessary  for  understanding  their  bearing  on  the  problems 
of  evolution. 

Mythological  Interpretation. — The  problem  of  the  origin  of  the 
world  was  the  first  to  engage  man's  speculative  activity.  Nor 
was  this  line  of  inquiry  pursued  simply  as  a  step  in  the  more 
practical  problem  of  man's  final  destiny.  The  order  of  ideas 
observable  in  children  suggests  the  reflection  that  man  began  to 
discuss  the  "whence"  of  existence  before  the  "whither."  At 
first,  as  in  the  case  of  the  child,  the  problem  of  the  genesis  of 
things  was  conceived  anthropomorphically:  the  question 
"  How  did  the  world  arise?"  first  shaped  itself  to  the  human 
mind  under  the  form  "  Who  made  the  world?"  As  long  as  the 
problem  was  conceived  in  this  simple  manner  there  was,  of  course, 
no  room  for  the  idea  of  a  necessary  self-conditioned  evolution. 
Yet  the  first  indistinct  germ  of  such  an  idea  appears  to  emerge 
in  combination  with  that  of  creation  in  some  of  the  ancient 
systems  of  theogony.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the  myth  of  the 
ancient  Parsees,  the  gods  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman  are  said  to 
evolve  themselves  out  of  a  primordial  matter.  It  may  be  sup- 
posed that  these  crude  fancies  embody  a  dim  recognition  of  the 
physical  forces  and  objects  personified  under  the  forms  of  deities, 
and  a  rude  attempt  to  account  for  their  genesis  as  a  natural 


HISTORY] 


EVOLUTION 


process.  These  first  unscientific  ideas  of  a  genesis  of  the  per- 
manent objects  of  nature  took  as  their  pattern  the  process  of 
organic  reproduction  and  development,  and  this,  not  only 
because  these  objects  were  regarded  as  personalities,  but  also 
because  this  particular  mode  of  becoming  would  most  impress 
these  early  observers.  This  same  way  of  looking  at  the  origin 
of  the  material  world  is  illustrated  in  the  Egyptian  notion  of  a 
cosmic  egg  out  of  which  issues  the  god  (Phta)  who  creates  the 
world. 

Indian  Philosophy. — Passing  from  mythology  to  speculation 
properly  so  called,  we  find  in  the  early  systems  of  philosophy  of 
India  theories  of  emanation  which  approach  in  some  respects 
the  idea  of  evolution.  Brahma  is  conceived  as  the  eternal  self- 
existent  being,  which  on  its  material  side  unfolds  itself  to  the 
world  by  gradually  condensing  itself  to  material  objects  through 
the  gradations  of  ether,  fire,  water,  earth  and  the  elements.  At 
the  same  time  this  eternal  being  is  conceived  as  the  all-embracing 
world-soul  from  which  emanates  the  hierarchy  of  individual 
souls.  In  the  later  system  of  emanation  of  Sankhya  there  is  a 
more  marked  approach  to  a  materialistic  doctrine  of  evolution. 
If,  we  are  told,  we  follow  the  chain  of  causes  far  enough  back 
we  reach  unlimited  eternal  creative  nature  or  matter.  Out  of 
this  "  principal  thing  "  or  "  original  nature  "  all  material  and 
spiritual  existence  issues,  and  into  it  will  return.  Yet  this  prim- 
ordial creative  nature  is  endowed  with  volition  with  regard  to 
its  own  development.  Its  first  emanation  as  plastic  nature 
contains  the  original  soul  or  deity  out  of  which  all  individual 
souls  issue. 

Early  Greek  Physicists. — Passing  by  Buddhism,  which,  though 
teaching  the  periodic  destruction  of  our  world  by  fire,  &c.,  does 
not  seek  to  determine  the  ultimate  origin  of  the  cosmos,  we  come 
to  those  early  Greek  physical  philosophers  who  distinctly  set 
themselves  to  eliminate  the  idea  of  divine  interference  with  the 
world  by  representing  its  origin  and  changes  as  a  natural  process. 
The  early  Ionian  physicists,  including  Thales,  Anaximander  and 
Anaximenes,  seek  to  explain  the  world  as  generated  out  of  a 
primordial  matter  (Gr.  uXrj;  hence  the  name  "  Hylozoists  "), 
which  is  at  the  same  time  the  universal  support  of  things.  This 
substance  is  endowed  with  a  generative  or  transmutative  force 
by  virtue  of  which  it  passes  into  a  succession  of  forms.  They 
thus  resemble  modern  evolutionists,  since  they  regard  the  world 
with  its  infinite  variety  of  forms  as  issuing  from  a  simple  mode 
of  matter.  More  especially  the  cosmology  of  Anaximander 
resembles  the  modern  doctrine  of  evolution  in  its  conception  of 
the  indeterminate  (  TO  aireipov )  out  of  which  the  particular  forms 
of  the  cosmos  are  differentiated.  Again,  Anaximander  may  be 
said  to  prepare  the  way  for  more  modern  conceptions  of  material 
evolution  by  regarding  his  primordial  substance  as  eternal,  and 
by  looking  on  all  generation  as  alternating  with  destruction, 
each  step  of  the  process  being  of  course  simply  a  transformation 
of  the  indestructible  substance.  Once  more,  the  notion  that 
this  indeterminate  body  contains  potentially  in  itself  the  funda- 
mental contraries — hot,  cold,  &c. — by  the  excretion  or  evolution 
of  which  definite  substances  were  generated,  is  clearly  a  fore- 
casting of  that  antithesis  of  potentiality  and  actuality  which 
from  Aristotle  downwards  has  been  made  the  basis  of  so  many 
theories  of  development.  In  conclusion,  it  is  noteworthy  that 
though  resorting  to  utterly  fanciful  hypotheses  respecting  the 
order  of  the  development  of  the  world,  Anaximander  agrees  with 
modern  evolutionists  in  conceiving  the  heavenly  bodies  as 
arising  out  of  an  aggregation  of  diffused  matter,  and  in  assigning 
to  organic  life  an  origin  in  the  inorganic  materials  of  the  primitive 
earth  (pristine  mud).  The  doctrine  of  Anaximenes,  who  unites 
the  conceptions  of  a  determinate  and  indeterminate  original 
substance  adopted  by  Thales  and  Anaximander  in  the  hypothesis 
of  a  primordial  and  all-generating  air,  is  a  clear  advance  on  these 
theories,  inasmuch  as  it  introduces  the  scientific  idea  of  con- 
densation and  rarefaction  as  the  great  generating  or  transforming 
agencies.  For  the  rest,  his  theory  is  chiefly  important  as  em- 
phasizing the  vital  character  of  the  original  substance.  The 
primordial  air  is  conceived  as  animated.  Anaximenes  seems 
to  have  inclined  to  a  view  of  cosmic  evolution  as  throughout 


involving  a  quasi-spiritual  factor.  This  idea  of  the  air  as  the 
original  principle  and  source  of  life  and  intelligence  is  much 
more  clearly  expressed  by  a  later  writer,  Diogenes  of  Apollonia. 
Diogenes  made  this  conception  of  a  vital  and  intelligent  air  the 
ground  of  a  teleological  view  of  climatic  and  atmospheric  pheno- 
mena. It  is  noteworthy  that  he  sought  to  establish  the  identity 
of  organic  and  inorganic  matter  by  help  of  the  facts  of  vegetal 
and  animal  nutrition.  Diogenes  distinctly  taught'that  the  world 
is  of  finite  duration,  and  will  be  renewed  out  of  the  primitive 
substance. 

Heraclitus  again  deserves  a  prominent  place  in  a  history  of 
the  idea  of  evolution.  Heraclitus  conceives  of  the  incessant 
process  of  flux  in  which  all  things  are  involved  as  consisting  of 
two  sides  or  moments — generation  and  decay — which  are  re- 
garded as  a  confluence  of  opposite  streams.  In  thus  making 
transition  or  change,  viewed  as  the  identity  of  existence  and 
non-existence,  the  leading  idea  of  his  system,  Heraclitus  antici- 
pated in  some  measure  Hegel's  peculiar  doctrine  of  evolution 
as  a  dialectic  process.1  At  the  same  time  we  may  find  expressed 
in  figurative  language  the  germs  of  thoughts  which  enter  into 
still  newer  doctrines  of  evolution.  For  example,  the  notion  of 
conflict  (TroXe/ios)  as  the  father  of  all  things  and  of  harmony  as 
arising  out  of  a  union  of  discords,  and  again  of  an  endeavour  by 
individual  things  to  maintain  themselves  in  permanence  against 
the  universal  process  of  destruction  and  renovation,  cannot  but 
remind  one  of  certain  fundamental  ideas  in  Darwin's  theory  of 
evolution. 

Empedocles. — Empedocles  took  an  important  step  in  the  direc- 
tion of  modern  conceptions  of  physical  evolution  by  teaching  that 
all  things  arise,  not  by  transformations  of  some  primitive  form  of 
matter,  but  by  various  combinations  of  a  number  of  permanent 
elements.  Further,  by  maintaining  that  the  elements  are  con- 
tinually being  combined  and  separated  by  the  two  forces  love 
and  hatred,  which  appear  to  represent  in  a  figurative  way  the 
physical  forces  of  attraction  and  repulsion,  Empedocles  may  be 
said  to  have  made  a  considerable  advance  in  the  construction 
of  the  idea  of  evolution  as  a  strictly  mechanical  process.  It 
may  be  observed,  too,  that  the  hypothesis  of  a  primitive  com- 
pact mass  (sphaerus),  in  which  love  (attraction)  is  supreme, 
has  some  curious  points  of  similarity  to,  and  contrast  with,  that 
notion  of  a  primitive  nebulous  matter  with  which  the  modern 
doctrine  of  cosmic  evolution  usually  sets  out.  Empedocles  tries 
to  explain  the  genesis  of  organic  beings,  and,  according  to  Lange, 
anticipates  the  idea  of  Darwin  that  adaptations  abound,  because 
it  is  their  nature  to  perpetuate  themselves.  He  further  recog- 
nizes a  progress  in  the  production  of  vegetable  and  animal  forms, 
though  this  part  of  his  theory  is  essentially  crude  and  unscientific. 
More  important  in  relation  to  the  modern  problems  of  evolution 
is  his  thoroughly  materialistic  way  of  explaining  the  origin  of 
sensation  and  knowledge  by  help  of  his  peculiar  hypothesis  of 
effluvia  and  pores.  The  supposition  that  sensation  thus  rests 
on  a  material  process  of  absorption  from  external  bodies  natur- 
ally led  up  to  the  idea  that  plants  and  even  inorganic  subtances 
are  precipient,  and  so  to  an  indistinct  recognition  of  organic  life 
as  a  scale  of  intelligence. 

Atomists. — In  the  theory  of  Atomism  taught  by  Leucippus 
and  Democritus  we  have  the  basis  of  the  modern  mechanical 
conceptions  of  cosmic  evolution.  Here  the  endless  harmonious 
diversity  of  our  cosmos,  as  well  as  of  other  worlds  supposed  to 
coexist  with  our  own,  is  said  to  arise  through  the  various  com- 
bination of  indivisible  material  elements  differing  in  figure  and 
magnitude  only.  The  force  which  brings  the  atoms  together  in 
the  forms  of  objects  is  inherent  in  the  elements,  and  all  their 
motions  are  necessary.  The  origin  of  things,  which  is  also  their 
substance,  is  thus  laid  in  the  simplest  and  most  homogeneous 
elements  or  principles.  The  real  world  thus  arising  consists  only 
of  diverse  combinations  of  atoms,  having  the  properties  of 
magnitude,  figure,  weight  and  hardness,  all  other  qualities  being 
relative  only  to  the  sentient  organism.  The  problem  of  the 
genesis  of  mind  is  practically  solved  by  identifying  the  soul, 

1  This  is  brought  out  by  F.  Lassalle,  Die  Philosophic  Herakleitos, 
p.  126. 


EVOLUTION 


[HISTORY 


or  vital  principle,  with  heat  or  fire  which  pervades  in  unequal 
proportions,  not  only  man  and  animals,  but  plants  and  nature 
as  a  whole,  and  through  the  agitation  of  which  by  incoming 
effluvia  all  sensation  arises. 

Aristotle. — Aristotle  is  much  nearer  a  conception  of  evolution 
than  his  master  Plato.  It  is  true  he  sets  out  with  a  transcendent 
Deity,  and  follows  Plato  in  viewing  the  creation  of  the  cosmos 
as  a  process  of  descent  from  the  more  to  the  less  perfect  accord- 
ing to  the  distance  from  the  original  self-moving  agency.  Yet 
on  the  whole  Aristotle  leans  to  a  teleo logical  theory  of  evolution, 
which  he  interprets  dualistually  by  means  of  certain  meta- 
physical distinctions.  Thus  even  his  idea  of  the  relation  of  the 
divine  activity  to  the  world  shows  a  tendency  to  a  pantheistic 
notion  of  a  divine  thought  which  gradually  realizes  itself  in  the 
process  of  becoming.  Aristotle's  distinction  of  form  and  matter, 
and  his  conception  of  becoming  as  a  transition  from  actuality 
to  potentiality,  provides  a  new  ontological  way  of  conceiving 
the  process  of  material  and  organic  evolution.1  To  Aristotle 
the  whole  of  nature  is  instinct  with  a  vital  impulse  towards  some 
higher  manifestation.  Organic  life  presents  itself  to  him  as  a 
progressive  scale  of  complexity  determined  by  its  final  end, 
namely,  man.2  In  some  respects  Aristotle  approaches  the 
modern  view  of  evolution.  Thus,  though  he  looked  on  species 
as  fixed,  being  the  realization  of  an  unchanging  formative  prin- 
ciple (tj>vais),  he  seems,  as  Ueberweg  observes,  to  have  inclined 
to  entertain  the  possibility  of  a  spontaneous  generation  in  the 
case  of  the  lowest  organisms.  Aristotle's  teleological  concep- 
tion of  organic  evolution  often  approaches  modern  mechanical 
conceptions.  Thus  he  says  that  nature  fashions  organs  in  the 
order  of  their  necessity,  the  first  being  those  essential  to  life. 
So,  too,  in  his  psychology  he  speaks  of  the  several  degrees  of 
mind  as  arising  according  to  a  progressive  necessity.3  In  his 
view  of  touch  and  taste,  as  the  two  fundamental  and  essential 
senses,  he  may  remind  one  of  Herbert  Spencer's  doctrine.  At 
the  same  time  Aristotle  precludes  the  idea  of  a  natural  develop- 
ment of  the  mental  series  by  the  supposition  that  man  contains, 
over  and  above  a  natural  finite  soul  inseparable  from  the  body, 
a  substantial  and  eternal  principle  (vovs)  which  enters  into  the 
individual  from  without.  Aristotle's  brief  suggestions  respect- 
ing the  origin  of  society  and  governments  in  the  Politics  show  a 
leaning  to  a  naturalistic  interpretation  of  human  history  as  a 
development  conditioned  by  growing  necessities. 

Strata. — Of  Aristotle's  immediate  successors  one  deserves 
to  be  noticed  here,  namely,  Strato  of  Lampsacus,  who  de- 
veloped his  master's  cosmology  into  a  system  of  naturalism. 
Strato  appears  to  reject  Aristotle's  idea  of  an  original  source 
of  movement  and  life  extraneous  to  the  world  in  favour  of  an 
immanent  principle.  All  parts  of  matter  have  an  inward  plastic 
life  whereby  they  can  fashion  themselves  to  the  best  advantage, 
according  to  their  capability,  though  not  with  consciousness. 

The  Stoics. — In  the  cosmology  of  the  Stoics  we  have  the  germ 
of  a  monistic  and  pantheistic  conception  of  evolution.  All  things 
are  said  to  be  developed  out  of  an  original  being,  which  is  at  once 
material  (fire)  and  spiritual  (the  Deity),  and  in  turn  they  will 
dissolve  back  into  this  primordial  source.  At  the  same  time  the 
world  as  a  developed  whole  is  regarded  as  an  organism  which  is 
permeated  with  the  divine  Spirit,  and  so  we  may  say  that  the 
world-process  is  a  self-realization  of  the  divine  Being.  The  forma- 
tive principle  or  force  of  the  world  is  said  to  contain  the  several 
rational  germinal  forms  of  things.  Individual  things  are  sup- 
posed to  arise  out  of  the  original  being,  as  animals  and  plants  out 
of  seeds.  Individual  souls  are  an  efflux  from  the  all-compassing 
world-soul.  The  necessity  in  the  world's  order  is  regarded  by 
the  Stoics  as  identical  with  the  divine  reason,  and  this  idea  is 
used  as  the  basis  of  a  teleological  and  optimistic  view  of  nature. 
Very  curious,  in  relation  to  modern  evolutional  ideas,  is  the 
Stoical  doctrine  that  our  world  is  but  one  of  a  series  of  exactly 

1  Zeller  says  that  through  this  distinction  Aristotle  first  made 
possible  the  idea  of  development. 

*  See  this  well  brought  out  in  G.  H.  Lewes's  Aristotle,  p.  187. 

3  Grote  calls  attention  to  the  contrast  between  Plato's  and  Aris- 
totle's way  of  conceiving  the  gradations  of  mind  (Aristotle,  ii.  171). 


identical  ones,  all  of  which  are  destined  to  be  burnt  up  and 
destroyed. 

The  Epicureans — Lucretius. — The  Epicureans  differed  from 
the  Stoics  by  adopting  a  purely  mechanical  view  of  the  world- 
process.  Their  fundamental  conception  is  that  of  Democritus; 
they  seek  to  account  for  the  formation  of  the  cosmos,  with  its 
order  and  regularity,  by  setting  out  with  the  idea  of  an  original 
(vertical)  motion  of  the  atoms,  which  somehow  or  other  results 
in  movements  towards  and  from  one  another.  Our  world  is  but 
one  of  an  infinite  number  of  others,  and  all  the  harmonies  and 
adaptations  of  the  universe  are  regarded  as  a  special  case  of  the 
infinite  possibilities  of  mechanical  events.  Lucretius  regards  the 
primitive  atoms  (first  beginnings  or  first  bodies)  as  seeds  out 
of  which  individual  things  are  developed.  All  living  and  sentient 
things  are  formed  out  of  insentient  atoms  (e.g.  worms  spring  out 
of  dung).  The  peculiarity  of  organic  and  sentient  bodies  is  due 
to  the  minuteness  and  shape  of  their  particles,  and  to  their  special 
motions  and  combinations.  So,  too,  mind  consists  but  of  ex- 
tremely fine  particles  of  matter,  and  dissolves  into  air  when  the 
body  dies.  Lucretius  traces,  in  the  fifth  book  of  his  poem,  the 
progressive  genesis  of  vegetal  and  animal  forms  out  of  the  mother- 
earth.  He  vaguely  anticipates  the  modern  idea  of  the  world 
as  a  survival  of  the  fittest  when  he  says  that  many  races  may 
have  lived  and  died  out,  and  that  those  which  still  exist  have 
been  protected  either  by  craft,  courage  or  speed.  Lucretius 
touches  on  the  development  of  man  out  of  a  primitive,  hardy, 
beast-like  condition.  Pregnant  hints  are  given  respecting  a 
natural  development  of  language  which  has  its  germs  in  sounds 
of  quadrupeds  and  birds,  of  religious  ideas  out  of  dreams  and 
waking  hallucinations,  and  of  the  art  of  music  by  help  of  the 
suggestion  of  natural  sounds.  Lucretius  thus  recognizes  the 
whole  range  of  existence  to  which  the  doctrine  of  evolution  may 
be  applied. 

Neoplatonists. — In  the  doctrines  of  the  Neoplatonists,  of 
whom  Plotinus  is  the  most  important,  we  have  the  world- 
process  represented  after  the  example  of  Plato  as  a  series  of 
descending  steps,  each  being  less  perfect  than  its  predecessors, 
since  it  is  further  removed  from  the  first  cause.4  The  system 
of  Plotinus,  Zellar  remarks,  is  not  strictly  speaking  one  of 
emanation,  since  there  is  no  communication  of  the  divine 
essence  to  the  created  world;  yet  it  resembles  emanation  inas- 
much as  the  genesis  of  the  world  is  conceived  as  a  necessary 
physical  effect,  and  not  as  the  result  of  volition.  In  Proclus  we 
find  this  conception  of  an  emanation  of  the  world  out  of  the 
Deity,  or  the  absolute,  made  more  exaot,  the  process  being  re- 
garded as  threefold — (i)  persistence  of  cause  in  effect,  (2)  the 
departure  of  effect  from  cause,  and  (3)  the  tendency  of  effect  to 
revert  to  its  cause. 

The  Fathers. — The  speculations  of  the  fathers  respecting 
the  origin  and  course  of  the  world  seek  to  combine  Christian 
ideas  of  the  Deity  with  doctrines  of  Greek  philosophy.  The 
common  idea  of  the  origin  of  things  is  that  of  an  absolute  creation 
of  matter  and  mind  alike.  The  course  of  human  history  is 
regarded  by  those  writers  who  are  most  concerned  to  refute 
Judaism  as  a  progressive  divine  education.  Among  the  Gnostics 
we  meet  with  the  hypothesis  of  emanation,  as,  for  example,  in 
the  curious  cosmic  theory  of  Valentinus. 

Middle  Ages — Early  Schoolmen. — In  the  speculative  writings 
of  the  middle  ages,  including  those  of  the  schoolmen,  we  find 
no  progress  towards  a  more  accurate  and  scientific  view  of  nature. 
The  cosmology  of  this  period  consists  for  the  most  part  of  the 
Aristotelian  teleological  view  of  nature  combined  with  the 
Christian  idea  of  the  Deity  and  His  relation  to  the  world.  In 
certain  writers,  however,  there  appears  a  more  elaborate  trans- 
formation of  the  doctrine  of  creation  into  a  system  of  emanation. 
According  to  John  Scotus  Erigena,  the  nothing  out  of  which  the 
world  is  created  is  the  divine  essence.  Creation  is  the  act  by 
which  God  passes  through  the  primordial  causes,  or  universal 
ideas,  into  the  region  of  particular  things  (processio),  in  order 
finally  to  return  to  himself  (reversio).  The  transition  from  the 

*  Zeller  observes  that  this  scale  of  decreasing  perfection  is  a 
necessary  consequence  of  the  idea  of  a  transcendent  deity. 


HISTORY] 


EVOLUTION 


universal  to  the  particular  is  of  course  conceived  as  a  descent 
or  degradation.  A  similar  doctrine  of  emanation  is  to  be  found 
in  the  writings  of  Bernhard  of  Chartres,  who  conceives  the 
process  of  the  unfolding  of  the  world  as  a  movement  in  a  circle 
from  the  most  general  to  the  individual,  and  from  this  back  to 
the  most  general.  This  movement  is  said  to  go  forth  from  God 
to  the  animated  heaven,  stars,  visible  world  and  man,  which 
represent  decreasing  degrees  of  cognition. 

Arab  Philosophers. — Elaborate  doctrines  of  emanation,  largely 
based  on  Neoplatonic  ideas,  are  also  propounded  by  some  of 
the  Arabic  philosophers,  as  by  FarabI  and  Avicenna.  The 
leading  thought  is  that  of  a  descending  series  of  intelligences, 
each  emanating  from  its  predecessor,  and  having  its  appropriate 
region  in  the  universe. 

Jewish  Philosophy. — In  the  Jewish  speculations  of  the  middle 
ages  may  be  found  curious  forms  of  the  doctrine  of  emanations 
uniting  the  Biblical  idea  of  creation  with  elements  drawn  from 
the  Persians  and  the  Greeks.  In  the  later  and  developed  form 
of  the  Kabbala,  the  origin  of  the  world  is  represented  as  a  gradu- 
ally descending  emanation  of  the  lower  out  of  the  higher.  Among 
the  philosophic  Jews,  the  Spanish  Avicebron,  in  his  Fans  Vitae, 
expounds  a  curious  doctrine  of  emanation.  Here  the  divine  will 
is  viewed  as  an  efflux  from  the  divine  wisdom,  as  the  inter- 
mediate link  between  God,  the  first  substance,  and  all  things, 
and  as  the  fountain  out  of  which  all  forms  emanate.  At  the 
same  time  all  forms,  including  the  higher  intelligible  ones,  are 
said  to  have  their  existence  only  in  matter.  Matter  is  the  one 
universal  substance,  body  and  mind  being  merely  specifica- 
tions of  this.  Thus  Avicebron  approaches,  as  Salomon  Munk 
observes,1  a  pantheistic  conception  of  the  world,  though  he 
distinctly  denies  both  matter  and  form  to  God. 

Later  Scholastics. — Passing  now  to  the  later  schoolmen,  a  bare 
mention  must  be  made  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  who  elaborately 
argues  for  the  absolute  creation  of  the  world  out  of  nothing,  and 
of  Albertus  Magnus,  who  reasons  against  the  Aristotelian  idea 
of  the  past  eternity  of  the  world.  More  importance  attaches  to 
Duns  Scotus,  who  brings  prominently  forward  the  idea  of  a 
progressive  development  in  nature  by  means  of  a  process  of 
determination.  The  original  substance  of  the  world  is  the 
materia  primo-prima,  which  is  the  immediate  creation  of  the 
Deity.  This  serves  Duns  Scotus  as  the  most  universal  basis 
of  existence,  all  angels  having  material  bodies.  This  matter 
is  differentiated  into  particular  things  (which  are  not  privations 
but  perfections)  through  the  addition  of  an  individualizing 
principle  (haecceitas)  to  the  universal  (quidditas) .  The  whole 
world  is  represented  by  the  figure  of  a  tree,  of  which  the  seeds 
and  roots  are  the  first  indeterminate  matter,  the  leaves  the 
accidents,  the  twigs  and  branches  corruptible  creatures,  the 
blossoms  the  rational  soul,  and  the  fruit  pure  spirits  or  angels. 
It  is  also  described  as  a  bifurcation  of  two  twigs,  mental  and 
bodily  creation  out  of  a  common  root.  One  might  almost  say 
that  Duns  Scotus  recognizes  the  principle  of  a  gradual  physical 
evolution,  only  that  he  chooses  to  represent  the  mechanism  by 
which  the  process  is  brought  about  by  means  of  quaint  scholastic 
fictions. 

Revival  of  Learning. — The  period  of  the  revival  of  learning, 
which  was  also  that  of  a  renewed  study  of  nature,  is  marked  by 
a  considerable  amount  of  speculation  respecting  the  origin  of 
the  universe.  In  some  of  these  we  see  a  return  to  Greek  theories, 
though  the  influence  of  physical  discoveries,  more  especially  those 
of  Copernicus,  Kepler  and  Galileo,  is  distinctly  traceable. 

Telesio. — An  example  of  a  return  to  early  Greek  speculation 
is  to  be  met  with  in  Bernardino  Telesio.  By  this  writer  the  world 
is  explained  as  a  product  of  three  principles — dead  matter,  and 
two  active  forces,  heat  and  cold.  Terrestrial  things  arise  through 
a  confluence  of  heat,  which  issues  from  the  heavens,  and  cold, 
which  comes  from  the  earth.  Both  principles  have  sensibility, 
and  thus  all  products  of  their  collision  are  sentient,  that  is,  feel 
pleasure  and  pain.  The  superiority  of  animals  to  plants  and 
metals  in  the  possession  of  special  organs  of  sense  is  connected 
with  the  greater  complexity  and  heterogeneity  of  their  structure. 
1  Melanges  de  philosophic  jtiive  et  arabe,  p.  225. 


Giordano  Bruno. — In  the  system  of  Giordano  Bruno,  who 
sought  to  construct  a  philosophy  of  nature  on  the  basis  of  new 
scientific  ideas,  more  particularly  the  doctrine  of  Copernicus, 
we  find  the  outlines  of  a  theory  of  cosmic  evolution  conceived 
as  an  essentially  vital  process.  Matter  and  form  are  here  identi- 
fied, and  the  evolution  of  the  world  is  presented  as  the  unfolding 
of  the  world-spirit  to  its  perfect  forms  according  to  the  plastic 
substratum  (matter)  which  is  but  one  of  its  sides.  This  process 
of  change  is  conceived  as  a  transformation,  in  appearance  only, 
of  the  real  unchanging  substance  (matter  and  form).  All  parts 
of  matter  are  capable  of  developing  into  all  forms;  thus  the 
materials  of  the  table  and  chair  may  under  proper  circumstances 
be  developed  to  the  life  of  the  plant  or  of  the  animal.  The 
elementary  parts  of  existence  are  the  minima,  or  monads,  which 
are  at  once  material  and  mental.  On  their  material  side  they  are 
not  absolutely  unextended,  but  spherical.  Bruno  looked  on  our 
solar  system  as  but  one  out  of  an  infinite  number  of  worlds. 
His  theory  of  evolution  is  essentially  pantheistic,  and  he  does  not 
employ  his  hypothesis  of  monads  in  order  to  work  out  a  more 
mechanical  conception. 

Campanella. — A  word  must  be  given  to  one  of  Bruno's  con- 
temporary compatriots,  namely  Campanella,  who  gave  poetic 
expression  to  that  system  of  universal  vitalism  which  Bruno 
developed.  He  argues,  from  the  principle  quicquid  est  in  ejfectibus 
esse  et  in  causis,  that  the  elements  and  the  whole  world  have 
sensation,  and  thus  he  appears  to  derive  the  organic  part  of 
nature  out  of  the  so-called  "  inorganic." 

Boehme. — Another  writer  of  this  transition  period  deserves 
a  passing  reference  here,  namely,  Jacob  Boehme  the  mystic, 
who  by  his  conception  of  a  process  of  inner  diremption  as  the 
essential  character  of  all  mind,  and  so  of  God,  prepared  the 
way  for  later  German  theories  of  the  origin  of  the  world  as 
the  self-differentiation  and  self-externalization  of  the  absolute 
spirit. 

Hobbes  and  Gassendi. — The  influence  of  an  advancing  study  of 
nature,  which  was  stimulated  if  not  guided  by  Bacon's  writings, 
is  seen  in  the  more  careful  doctrines  of  materialism  worked  out 
almost  simultaneously  by  Hobbes  and  Gassendi.  These  theories, 
however,  contain  little  that  bears  directly  on  the  hypothesis  of 
a  natural  evolution  of  things.  In  the  view  of  Hobbes,  the 
difficulty  of  the  genesis  of  conscious  minds  is  solved  by  saying 
that  sensation  and  thought  are  part  of  the  reaction  of  the  organ- 
ism on  external  movement.  Yet  Hobbes  appears  (as  Clarke 
points  out)  to  have  vaguely  felt  the  difficulty;  and  in  a  passage 
of  his  Physics  (chap.  25,  sect.  5)  he  says  that  the  universal  exist- 
ence of  sensation  in  matter  cannot  be  disproved,  though  he 
shows  that  when  there  are  no  organic  arrangements  the  mental 
side  of  the  movement  (phantasma)  is  evanescent.  The  theory 
of  the  origin  of  society  put  forth  by  Hobbes,  though  directly 
opposed  in  most  respects  to  modern  ideas  of  social  evolution, 
deserves  mention  here  by  reason  of  its  enforcing  that  principle 
of  struggle  (helium  omnium  contra  omnes)  which  has  played 
so  conspicuous  a  part  in  the  modern  doctrine  of  evolution. 
Gassendi,  with  some  deviations,  follows  Epicurus  in  his  theory 
of  the  formation  of  the  world.  The  world  consists  of  a  finite 
number  of  atoms,  which  have  in  their  own  nature  a  self-moving 
force  or  principle.  These  atoms,  which  are  the  seeds  of  all  things, 
are,  however,  not  eternal  but  created  by  God.  Gassendi  dis- 
tinctly argues  against  the  existence  of  a  world-soul  or  a  principle 
of  life  in  nature. 

Descartes. — In  the  philosophy  of  Descartes  we  meet  with  a 
dualism  of  mind  and  matter  which  does  not  easily  lend  itself 
to  the  conception  of  evolution.  His  doctrine  that  consciousness 
is  confined  to  man,  the  lower  animals  being  unconscious  machines 
(automata),  excludes  all  idea  of  a  progressive  development  of 
mind.  Yet  Descartes,  in  his  Principia  Philosophiae,  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  modern  mechanical  conception  of  nature  and 
of  physical  evolution.  In  the  third  part  of  this  work  he  inclines 
to  a  thoroughly  natural  hypothesis  respecting  the  genesis  of  the 
physical  world,  and  adds  in  the  fourth  part  that  the  same  kind 
of  explanation  might  be  applied  to  the  nature  and  formation 
of  plants  and  animals.  He  is  indeed  careful  to  keep  right  with 


26 


EVOLUTION 


[HISTORY 


the  orthodox  doctrine  of  creation  by  saying  that  he  does  not 
believe  the  world  actually  arose  in  this  mechanical  way  out  of 
the  three  kinds  of  elements  which  he  here  supposes,  but  that  he 
simply  puts  out  his  hypothesis  as  a  mode  of  conceiving  how  it 
might  have  arisen.  Descartes's  account  of  the  mind  and  its 
passions  is  thoroughly  materialistic,  and  to  this  extent  he  works 
in  the  direction  of  a  materialistic  explanation  of  the  origin  of 
mental  life. 

Spinoza. — In  Spinoza's  pantheistic  theory  of  the  world,  which 
regards  thought  and  extension  as  but  two  sides  of  one  substance, 
the  problem  of  becoming  is  submerged  in  that  of  being.  Al- 
though Spinoza's  theory  attributes  a  mental  side  to  all  physical 
events,  he  rejects  all  teleological  conceptions  and  explains  the 
order  of  things  as  the  result  of  an  inherent  necessity.  He  recog- 
nizes gradations  of  things  according  to  the  degree  of  complexity 
of  their  movements  and  that  of  their  conceptions.  To  Spinoza 
(as  Kuno  Fischer  observes)  man  differs  from  the  rest  of  nature 
in  the  degree  only  and  not  in  the  kind  of  his  powers.  So  far 
Spinoza  approaches  the  conception  of  evolution.  He  may  be 
said  to  furnish  a  further  contribution  to  a  metaphysical  con- 
ception of  evolution  in  his  view  of  all  finite  individual  things 
as  the  infinite  variety  to  which  the  unlimited  productive  power 
of  the  universal  substance  gives  birth.  Sir  F.  Pollock  has 
taken  pains  to  show  how  nearly  Spinoza  approaches  certain 
ideas  contained  in  the  modern  doctrine  of  evolution,  as  for 
example  that  of  self-preservation  as  the  determining  force  in 
things. 

Locke. — In  Locke  we  find,  with  a  retention  of  certain  anti- 
evolutionist  ideas,  a  marked  tendency  to  this  mode  of  viewing 
the  world.  To  Locke  the  universe  is  the  result  of  a  direct  act  of 
creation,  even  matter  being  limited  in  duration  and  created. 
Even  if  matter  were  eternal  it  would,  he  thinks,  be  incapable  of 
producing  motion;  and  if  motion  is  itself  conceived  as  eternal, 
thought  can  never  begin  to  be.  The  first  eternal  being  is  thus 
spiritual  or  "  cogitative,"  and  contains  in  itself  all  the  perfections 
that  can  ever  after  exist.  He  repeatedly  insists  on  the  impos- 
sibility of  senseless  matter  putting  on  sense.1  Yet  while  thus 
placing  himself  at  a  point  of  view  opposed  to  that  of  a  gradual 
evolution  of  the  organic  world,  Locke  prepared  the  way  for  this 
doctrine  in  more  ways  than  one.  First  of  all,  his  genetic  method 
as  applied  to  the  mind's  ideas — which  kid  the  foundations  of 
English  analytical  psychology — was  a  step  in  the  direction  of 
a  conception  of  mental  life  as  a  gradual  evolution.  Again  he 
works  towards  the  same  end  in  his  celebrated  refutation  of  the 
scholastic  theory  of  real  specific  essences.  In  this  argument  he 
emphasizes  the  vagueness  of  the  boundaries  which  mark  off 
organic  species  with  a  view  to  show  that  these  do  not  correspond 
to  absolutely  fixed  divisions  in  the  objective  world,  that  they 
are  made  by  the  mind,  not  by  nature.2  This  idea  of  the  continuity 
of  species  is  developed  more  fully  in  a  remarkable  passage 
(Essay,  bk.  iii.  ch.  vi.  §  12),  where  he  is  arguing  in  favour  of  the 
hypothesis,  afterwards  elaborated  by  Leibnitz,  of  a  graduated 
series  of  minds  (species  of  spirits)  from  the  Deity  down  to  the 
lowest  animal  intelligence.  He  here  observes  that  "  all  quite 
down  from  us  the  descent  is  by  easy  steps,  and  a  continued 
series  of  things,  that  in  each  remove  differ  very  little  from  one 
another."  Thus  man  approaches  the  beasts,  and  the  animal 
kingdom  is  nearly  joined  with  the  vegetable,  and  so  on  down 
to  the  lowest  and  "  most  inorganical  parts  of  matter."  Finally, 
it  is  to  be  observed  that  Locke  had  a  singularly  clear  view  of 
organic  arrangements  (which  of  course  he  explained  according 
to  a  theistic  teleology)  as  an  adaptation  to  the  circumstances 
of  the  environment  or  to  "  the  neighbourhood  of  the  bodies  that 
surround  us."  Thus  he  suggests  that  man  has  not  eyes  of  a 
microscopic  delicacy,  because  he  would  receive  no  great  advan- 
tage from  such  acute  organs,  since  though  adding  indefinitely 
to  his  speculative  knowledge  of  the  physical  world  they  would 

1  Yet  he  leaves  open  the  question  whether  the  Deity  has  annexed 
thought  to  matter  as  a  faculty,  or  whether  it  rests  on  a  distinct 
spiritual  principle. 

1  Locke  half  playfully  touches  on  certain  monsters,  with  respect 
to  which  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  they  ought  to  be  called 
men.  (Essay,  book  iii.  ch.  vi.  sect.  26,  27.) 


not  practically  benefit  their  possessor  (e.g.  by  enabling  him  to 
avoid  things  at  a  convenient  distance).3 

Idea  of  Progress  in  History. — Before  leaving  the  I7th  century 
we  must  just  refer  to  the  writers  who  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
essentially  modern  conception  of  human  history  as  a  gradual 
upward  progress.  According  to  Flint,4  there  were  four  men  who 
in  this  and  the  preceding  century  seized  and  made  prominent 
this  idea,  namely,  Bodin,  Bacon,  Descartes  and  Pascal.  The 
former  distinctly  argues  against  the  idea  of  a  deterioration  of 
man  in  the  past.  In  this  way  we  see  that  just  as  advancing 
natural  science  was  preparing  the  way  for  a  doctrine  of  physical 
evolution,  so  advancing  historical  research  was  leading  to  the 
application  of  a  similar  idea  to  the  collective  human  life. 

English  Writers  of  the  i8th  Century — Hume. — The  theological 
discussions  which  make  up  so  large  a  part  of  the  English  specu- 
lation of  the  i8th  century  cannot  detain  us  here.  There  is, 
however,  one  writer  who  sets  forth  so  clearly  the  alternative 
suppositions  respecting  the  origin  of  the  world  that  he  claims  a 
brief  notice.  We  refer  to  David  Hume.  In  his  Dialogues  con- 
cerning Natural  Religion  he  puts  forward  tentatively,  in  the 
person  of  one  of  his  interlocutors,  the  ancient  hypothesis  that 
since  the  world  resembles  an  animal  or  vegetal  organism  rather 
than  a  machine,  it  might  more  easily  be  accounted  for  by  a  pro- 
cess of  generation  than  by  an  act  of  creation.  Later  on  he 
develops  the  materialistic  view  of  Epicurus,  only  modifying  it 
so  far  as  to  conceive  of  matter  as  finite.  Since  a  finite  number 
of  particles  is  only  susceptible  of  finite  transpositions,  it  must 
happen  (he  says),  in  an  eternal  duration  that  every  possible 
order  or  position  will  be  tried  an  infinite  number  of  times,  and 
hence  this  world  is  to  be  regarded  (as  the  Stoics  maintained)  as  an 
exact  reproduction  of  previous  worlds.  The  speaker  seeks  to 
make  intelligible  the  appearance  of  art  and  contrivance  in  the 
world  as  a  result  of  a  natural  settlement  of  the  universe  (which 
passes  through  a  succession  of  chaotic  conditions)  into  a  stable 
condition,  having  a  constancy  in  its  forms,  yet  without  its 
several  parts  losing  their  motion  and  fluctuation. 

French  Writers  of  the  i8th  Century. — Let  us  now  pass  to  the 
French  writers  of  the  i8th  century.  Here  we  are  first  struck 
by  the  results  of  advancing  physical  speculation  in  their  bearing 
on  the  conception  of  the  world.  Careful  attempts,  based  on  new 
scientific  truths,  are  made  to  explain  the  genesis  of  the  world  as 
a  natural  process.  Maupertuis,  who,  together  with  Voltaire, 
introduced  the  new  idea  of  the  universe  as  based  on  Newton's 
discoveries,  sought  to  account  for  the  origin  of  organic  things  by 
the  hypothesis  of  sentient  atoms.  Buffon  the  naturalist  specu- 
lated, not  only  on  the  structure  and  genesis  of  organic  beings, 
but  also  on  the  course  of  formation  of  the  earth  and  solar  system, 
which  he  conceived  after  the  analogy  of  the  development  of 
organic  beings  out  of  seed.  Diderot,  too,  in  his  varied  intellectual 
activity,  found  time  to  speculate  on  the  genesis  of  sensation 
and  thought  out  of  a  combination  of  matter  endowed  with  an 
elementary  kind  of  sentience.  De  la  Mettrie  worked  out  a 
materialistic  doctrine  of  the  origin  of  things,  according  to  which 
sensation  and  consciousness  are  nothing  but  a  development  out 
of  matter.  He  sought  (L'Homme-machine)  to  connect  man  in 
his  original  condition  with  the  lower  animals,  and  emphasized 
(L'Homme-plante)  the  essential  unity  of  plan  of  all  living  things. 
Helvdtius,  in  his  work  on  man,  referred  all  differences  between 
our  species  and  the  lower  animals  to  certain  peculiarities  of 
organization,  and  so  prepared  the  way  for  a  conception  of  human 
development  out  of  lower  forms  as  a  process  of  physical  evolution . 
Charles  Bonnet  met  the  difficulty  of  the  origin  of  conscious  beings 
much  in  the  same  way  as  Leibnitz,  by  the  supposition  of  eternal 
minute  organic  bodies  to  which  are  attached  immortal  souls. 
Yet  though  in  this  way  opposing  himself  to  the  method  of  the 
modern  doctrine  of  evolution,  he  aided  the  development  of 
this  doctrine  by  his  view  of  the  organic  world  as  an  ascending 

8  A  similar  coincidence  between  the  teleological  and  the  modern 
evolutional  way  of  viewing  things  is  to  be  met  with  in  Locke's  account 
of  the  use  of  pain  in  relation  to  the  preservation  of  our  being  (bk.  ii. 
ch.  vii.  sect.  4). 

4  Philosophy  of  History  (1893),  p.  103,  where  an  interesting  sketch 
of  the  growth  of  the  idea  of  progress  is  to  be  found. 


HISTORY] 


EVOLUTION 


27 


scale  from  the  simple  to  the  complex.  Robinet,  in  his  treatise 
De  la  nature,  worked  out  the  same  conception  of  a  gradation  in 
organic  existence,  connecting  this  with  a  general  view  of  nature 
as  a  progress  from  the  lowest  inorganic  forms  of  matter  up  to 
man.  The  process  is  conceived  as  an  infinite  series  of  variations 
or  specifications  of  one  primitive  and  common  type.  Man  is 
the  chef-d'oeuvre  of  nature,  which  the  gradual  progression  of 
beings  was  to  have  as  its  last  term,  and  all  lower  creations  are 
regarded  as  pre-conditions  of  man's  existence,  since  nature 
"  could  only  realize  the  human  form  by  combining  in  all  imagin- 
able ways  each  of  the  traits  which  was  to  enter  into  it."  The 
formative  force  in  this  process  of  evolution  (or  "  metamor- 
phosis ")  is  conceived  as  an  intellectual  principle  (idee  generalrice). 
Robinet  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  that  view  of  the  world  as 
wholly  vital,  and  as  a  progressive  unfolding  of  a  spiritual  for- 
mative principle,  which  was  afterwards  worked  out  by  Schelling. 
It  is  to  be  'added  that  Robinet  adopted  a  thorough-going 
materialistic  view  of  the  dependence  of  mind  on  body,  going 
even  to  the  length  of  assigning  special  nerve-fibres  to  the  moral 
sense.  The  system  of  Holbach  seeks  to  provide  a  consistent 
materialistic  view  of  the  world  and  its  processes.  Mental  opera- 
tions are  identified  with  physical  movements,  the  three  con- 
ditions of  physical  movement,  inertia,  attraction  and  repulsion, 
being  in  the  moral  world  self-love,  love  and  hate.  He  left  open 
the  question  whether  the  capability  of  sensation  belongs  to  all 
matter,  or  is  confined  to  the  combinations  of  certain  materials. 
He  looked  on  the  actions  of  the  individual  organism  and  of 
society  as  determined  by  the  needs  of  self-preservation.  He 
conceived  of  man  as  a  product  of  nature  that  had  gradually 
developed  itself  from  a  low  condition,  though  he  relinquished  the 
problem  of  the  exact  mode  of  his  first  genesis  and  advance  as 
not  soluble  by  data  of  experience.  Holbach  thus  worked  out  the 
basis  of  a  rigorously  materialistic  conception  of  evolution. 

The  question  of  human  development  which  Holbach  touched 
on  was  one  which  occupied  many  minds  both  in  and  out  of 
France  during  the  i8th  century,  and  more  especially  towards 
its  close.  The  foundations  of  this  theory  of  history  as  an  upward 
progress  of  man  out  of  a  barbaric  and  animal  condition  were 
laid  by  Vico  in  his  celebrated  work  Principii  di  scienza  nuova. 
In  France  the  doctrine  was  represented  by  Turgot  and  Condorcet. 

German  Writers  of  the  i8th  Century — Leibnitz. — In  Leibnitz 
we  find,  if  not  a  doctrine  of  evolution  in  the  strict  sense,  a  theory 
of  the  world  which  is  curiously  related  to  the  modern  doctrine. 
The  chief  aim  of  Leibnitz  is  no  doubt  to  account  for  the  world 
in  its  static  aspect  as  a  co-existent  whole,  to  conceive  the  ultimate 
reality  of  things  in  such  a  way  as  to  solve  the  mystery  of  mind 
and  matter.  Yet  by  his  very  mode  of  solving  the  problem  he 
is  led  on  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  world-process.  By  placing 
substantial  reality  in  an  infinite  number  of  monads  whose  essen- 
tial nature  is  force  or  activity,  which  is  conceived  as  mental 
(representation),  Leibnitz  was  carried  on  to  the  explanation  of 
the  successive  order  of  the  world.  He  prepares  the  way,  too, 
for  a  doctrine  of  evolution  by  his  monistic  idea  of  the  substantial 
similarity  of  all  things,  inorganic  and  organic,  bodily  and  spiritual, 
and  still  more  by  his  conception  of  a  perfect  gradation  of  existence 
from  the  lowest  "  inanimate  "  objects,  whose  essential  activity 
is  confused  representation,  up  to  the  highest  organized  being — 
man — with  his  clear  intelligence.1  Turning  now  to  Leibnitz's 
conception  of  the  world  as  a  process,  we  see  first  that  he  supplies, 
in  his  notion  of  the  underlying  reality  as  force  which  is  repre- 
sented as  spiritual  (quelque  chose  d'analogique  au  sentiment  et 
d  l'app(tit),  both  a  mechanical  and  a  Ideological  explanation  of 
its  order.  More  than  this,  Leibnitz  supposes  that  the  activity 
of  the  monads  takes  the  form  of  a  self-evolution.  It  is  the  follow- 
ing out  of  an  inherent  tendency  or  impulse  to  a  series  of  changes, 
all  of  which  were  virtually  pre-existent,  and  this  process  cannot 
be  interfered  with  from  without.  As  the  individual  monad, 
so  the  whole  system  which  makes  up  the  world  is  a  gradual 

1  G.  H.  Lewes  points  out  that  Leibnitz  is  inconsistent  in  his  account 
of  the  intelligence  of  man  in  relation  to  that  of  lower  animals,  since 
when  answering  Locke  he  no  longer  regards  these  as  differing  in 
degree  only. 


development.  In  this  case,  however,  we  cannot  say  that  each 
step  goes  out  of  the  other  as  in  that  of  individual  development. 
Each  monad  is  an  original  independent  being,  and  is  determined 
to  take  this  particular  point  in  the  universe,  this  place  in  the  scale 
of  beings.  We  see  how  different  this  metaphysical  conception 
is  from  that  scientific  notion  of  cosmic  evolution  in  which  the 
lower  stages  are  the  antecedents  and  conditions  of  the  higher. 
It  is  probable  that  Leibnitz's  notion  of  time  and  space,  which 
approaches  Kant's  theory,  led  him  to  attach  but  little  importance 
to  the  successive  order  of  the  world.  Leibnitz,  in  fact,  presents 
to  us  an  infinite  system  of  perfectly  distinct  though  parallel 
developments,  which  on  their  mental  side  assume  the  aspect  of 
a  scale,  not  through  any  mutual  action,  but  solely  through 
the  determination  of  the  Deity.  Even  this  idea,  however,  is 
incomplete,  for  Leibnitz  fails  to  explain  the  physical  aspect  of 
development.  Thus  he  does  not  account  for  the  fact  that  organic 
beings — which  have  always  existed  as  preformations  (in  the  case 
of  animals  as  animaux  spermatiques) — come  to  be  developed 
under  given  conditions.  Yet  Leibnitz  prepared  the  way  for  a 
new  conception  of  organic  evolution.  The  modern  monistic 
doctrine,  that  all  material  things  consist  of  sentient  elements, 
and  that  consciousness  arises  through  a  combination  of  these, 
was  a  natural  transformation  of  Leibnitz's  theory.2 

Lessing. — Of  Leibnitz's  immediate  followers  we  may  mention 
Lessing,  who  in  his  Education  of  the  Human  Race  brought  out 
the  truth  of  the  process  of  gradual  development  underlying 
human  history,  even  though  he  expressed  this  in  a  form  incon- 
sistent with  the  idea  of  a  spontaneous  evolution. 

Herder. — Herder,  on  the  other  hand,  Lessing's  contemporary, 
treated  the  subject  of  man's  development  in  a  thoroughly 
naturalistic  spirit.  In  his  Ideen  zur  Philosophic  der  Geschichte, 
Herder  adopts  Leibnitz's  idea  of  a  graduated  scale  of  beings,  at 
the  same  time  conceiving  of  the  lower  stages  as  the  conditions 
of  the  higher.  Thus  man  is  said  to  be  the  highest  product  of 
nature,  and  as  such  to  be  dependent  on  all  lower  products.  All 
material  things  are  assimilated  to  one  another  as  organic,  the 
vitalizing  principle  being  inherent  in  all  matter.  The  develop- 
ment of  man  is  explained  in  connexion  with  that  of  the  earth, 
and  in  relation  to  climatic  variations,  &c.  Man's  mental  faculties 
are  viewed  as  related  to  his  organization,  and  as  developed  under 
the  pressure  of  the  necessities  of  life.3 

Kant. — Kant's  relation  to  the  doctrine  of  evolution  is  a 
many-sided  one.  In  the  first  place,  his  peculiar  system  of  sub- 
jective idealism,  involving  the  idea  that  time  is  but  a  mental 
form  to  which  there  corresponds  nothing  in  the  sphere  of 
noumenal  reality,  serves  to  give  a  peculiar  philosophical  inter- 
pretation to  every  doctrine  of  cosmic  evolution.  Kant,  like 
Leibnitz,  seeks  to  reconcile  the  mechanical  and  Ideological 
views  of  nature,  only  he  assigns  to  these  different  spheres.  The 
order  of  the  inorganic  world  is  explained  by  properly  physical 
causes.  In  his  Natitrgeschichte  des  Himmels,  in  which  he  antici- 
pated the  nebular  theory  afterwards  more  fully  developed  by 
Laplace,  Kant  sought  to  explain  the  genesis  of  the  cosmos  as 
a  product  of  physical  forces  and  laws.  The  worlds,  or  systems 
of  worlds,  which  fill  infinite  space  are  continually  being  formed 
and  destroyed.  Chaos  passes  by  a  process  of  evolution  into  a 
cosmos,  and  this  again  into  chaos.  So  far  as  the  evolution  of 
the  solar  system  is  concerned,  Kant  held  these  mechanical  causes 
as  adequate.  For  the  world  as  a  whole,  however,  he  postulated 
a  beginning  in  time  (whence  his  use  of  the  word  creation),  and 
further  supposed  that  the  impulse  of  organization  which  was 
conveyed  to  chaotic  matter  by  the  Creator  issued  from  a  central 
point  in  the  infinite  space  spreading  gradually  outwards.4  While 

2  Both  Lewes  and  du  Bois  Reymond  have  brought  out  the  points 
of  contact  between  Leibnitz's  theory  of  monads  and  modern  bio- 
logical speculations  (Hist,  of  Phil.  ii.  287,  and  Leibnitzsche  Gedanken 
in  der  modernen  Naturwissenschaft,  p.  23  seq.). 
_  '  For  Herder's  position  in  relation  to  the  modern  doctrine  of  evolu- 
tion see  F.  von  Barenbach's  Herder  als  Vorgdnger  Darwins,  a  work 
which  tends  to  exaggerate  the  proximity  of  the  two  writers. 

4  Kant  held  it  probable  that  other  planets  besides  our  earth  are 
inhabited,  and  that  their  inhabitants  form  a  scale  of  beings,  their 
perfection  increasing  with  the  distance  of  the  planet  which  they 
inhabit  from  the  sun. 


28 


EVOLUTION 


[HISTORY 


in  his  cosmology  Kant  thus  relies  on  mechanical  conceptions,  in 
his  treatment  of  organic  life  his  mind  is,  on  the  contrary,  domin- 
ated by  Ideological  ideas.  An  organism  was  to  him  something 
controlled  by  a  formative  organizing  principle.  It  was  natural, 
therefore,  that  he  rejected  the  idea  of  a  spontaneous  generation 
of  organisms  (which  was  just  then  being  advocated  by  his  friend 
Forster),  not  only  as  unsupported  by  experience  but  as  an  in- 
adequate hypothesis.  Experience  forbids  our  excluding  organic 
activity  from  natural  causes,  also  our  excluding  intelligence  from 
purposeful  (zwecktatigen)  causes;  hence  experience  forbids  our 
denning  the  fundamental  force  or  first  cause  out  of  which  living 
creatures  arose.1  Just  as  Kant  thus  sharply  marks  off  the  regions 
of  the  inorganic  and  the  organic,  so  he  sets  man  in  strong  oppo- 
sition to  the  lower  animals.  His  ascription  to  man  of  a  unique 
faculty,  free-will,  forbade  his  conceiving  our  species  as  a  link 
in  a  graduated  series  of  organic  developments.  In  his  doctrine 
of  human  development  he  does  indeed  recognize  an  early  stage 
of  existence  in  which  our  species  was  dominated  by  sensuous 
enjoyment  and  instinct.  He  further  conceives  of  this  stage  as 
itself  a  process  of  (natural)  development,  namely,  of  the  natural 
disposition  of  the  species  to  vary  in  the  greatest  possible  manner 
so  as  to  preserve  its  unity  through  a  process  of  self-adaptation 
(Anarten)  to  climate.  This,  he  says,  must  not  be  conceived  as 
resulting  from  the  action  of  external  causes,  but  is  due  to  a 
natural  disposition  (Anlage).  From  this  capability  of  natural 
development  (which  already  involves  a  teleological  idea)  Kant 
distinguishes  the  power  of  moral  self-development  or  self- 
liberation  from  the  dominion  of  nature,  the  gradual  realization 
of  which  constitutes  human  history  or  progress.  This  moral 
development  is  regarded  as  a  gradual  approach  to  that  rational, 
social  and  political  state  in  which  will  be  realized  the  greatest 
possible  quantity  of  liberty.  Thus  Kant,  though  he  appropriated 
and  gave  new  form  to  the  idea  of  human  progress,  conceived  of 
this  as  wholly  distinct  from  a  natural  (mechanical)  process. 
In  this  particular,  as  in  his  view  of  organic  actions,  Kant  dis- 
tinctly opposed  the  idea  of  evolution  as  one  universal  process 
swaying  alike  the  physical  and  the  moral  world. 

Schelling. — In  the  earlier  writings  of  Schelling,  containing 
the  philosophy  of  identity,  existence  is  represented  as  a  becom- 
ing, or  process  of  evolution.  Nature  and  mind  (which  are  the 
two  sides,  or  polar  directions,  of  the  one  absolute)  are  each 
viewed  as  an  activity  advancing  by  an  uninterrupted  succession 
of  stages.  The  side  of  this  process  which  Schelling  worked  out 
most  completely  is  the  negative  side,  that  is,  nature.  Nature 
is  essentially  a  process  of  organic  self-evolution.  It  can  only  be 
understood  by  subordinating  the  mechanical  conception  to  the 
vital,  by  conceiving  the  world  as  one  organism  animated  by  a 
spiritual  principle  or  intelligence  (Weltseele).  From  this  point 
of  view  the  processes  of  nature  from  the  inorganic  up  to  the  most 
complex  of  the  organic  become  stages  in  the  self-realization  of 
nature.  All  organic  forms  are  at  bottom  but  one  organization, 
and  the  inorganic  world  shows  the  same  formative  activity  in 
various  degrees  or  potences.  Schelling  conceives  of  the  gradual 
self-evolution  of  nature  in  a  succession  of  higher  and  higher  forms 
as  brought  about  by  a  limitation  of  her  infinite  productivity, 
showing  itself  in  a  series  of  points  of  arrest.  The  detailed  exhi- 
bition of  the  organizing  activity  of  nature  in  the  several  processes 
of  the  organic  and  inorganic  world  rests  on  a  number  of  fanciful 
and  unscientific  ideas.  Schelling's  theory  is  a  bold  attempt  to 
revitalize  nature  in  the  light  of  growing  physical  and  physio- 
logical science,  and  by  so  doing  to  comprehend  the  unity  of  the 
world  under  the  idea  of  one  principle  of  organic  development. 
His  highly  figurative  language  might  leave  us  in  doubt  how  far 
he  conceived  the  higher  stages  of  this  evolution  of  nature  as 
following  the  lower  in  time.  In  the  introduction  to  his  work 
Von  der  Weltseele,  however,  he  argues  in  favour  of  the  possibility 
of  a  transmutation  of  species  in  periods  incommensurable  with 
ours.  The  evolution  of  mind  (the  positive  pole)  proceeds  by 

1  Kant  calls  the  doctrine  of  the  transmutation  of  species  "  a 
hazardous  fancy  of  the  reason."  Yet,  as  Strauss  and  others  have 
shown,  Kant's  mind  betrayed  a  decided  leaning  at  times  to  a  more 
mechanical  conception  of  organic  forms  as  related  by  descent. 


way  of  three  stages — theoretic,  practical  and  aesthetical  activity. 
Schelling's  later  theosophic  speculations  do  not  specially  concern 
us  here. 

Followers  of  Schelling. — Of  the  followers  of  Schelling  a  word 
or  two  must  be  said.  Heinrich  Steffens,  in  his  Anthropologie, 
seeks  to  trace  out  the  origin  and  history  of  man  in  connexion 
with  a  general  theory  of  the  development  of  the  earth,  and  this 
again  as  related  to  the  formation  of  the  solar  system.  All  these 
processes  are  regarded  as  a  series  of  manifestations  of  a  vital 
principle  in  higher  and  higher  forms.  Oken,  again,  who  carries 
Schelling's  ideas  into  the  region  of  biological  science,  seeks  to 
reconstruct  the  gradual  evolution  of  the  material  world  out  of 
original  matter,  which  is  the  first  immediate  appearance  of  God, 
or  the  absolute.  This  process  is  an  upward  one,  through  the 
formation  of  the  solar  system  and  of  our  earth  with  its  inorganic 
bodies,  up  to  the  production  of  man.  The  process  is  essentially 
a  polar  linear  action,  or  differentiation  from  a  common  centre. 
By  means  of  this  process  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system  separate 
themselves,  and  the  order  of  cosmic  evolution  is  repeated  in 
that  of  terrestrial  evolution.  The  organic  world  (like  the  world 
as  a  whole)  arises  out  of  a  primitive  chaos,  namely,  the  infusorial 
slime.  A  somewhat  similar  working  out  of  Schelling's  idea  is 
to  be  found  in  H.  C.  Oersted's  work  entitled  The  Soul  in  Nature 
(Eng.  trans.).  Of  later  works  based  on  Schelling's  doctrine  of 
evolution  mention  may  be  made  of  the  volume  entitled  Natur 
und  Idee,  by  G.  F.  Cams.  According  to  this  writer,  existence  is 
nothing  but  a  becoming,  and  matter  is  simply  the  momentary 
product  of  the  process  of  becoming,  while  force  is  this  process 
constantly  revealing  itself  in  these  products. 

Hegel. — Like  Schelling,  Hegel  conceives  the  problem  of  exist- 
ence as  one  of  becoming.  He  differs  from  him  with  respect  to 
the  ultimate  motive  of  that  process  of  gradual  evolution  which 
reveals  itself  alike  in  nature  and  in  mind.  With  Hegel  the 
absolute  is  itself  a  dialectic  process  which  contains  within  itself 
a  principle  of  progress  from  difference  to  difference  and  from 
unity  to  unity.  "  This  process  (W.  Wallace  remarks)  knows 
nothing  of  the  distinctions  between  past  and  future,  because  it 
implies  an  eternal  present."  This  conception  of  an  immanent 
spontaneous  evolution  is  applied  alike  both  to  nature  and  to 
mind  and  history.  Nature  to  Hegel  is  the  idea  in  the  form  of 
hetereity;  and  finding  itself  here  it  has  to  remove  this  exteriority 
in  a  progressive  evolution  towards  an  existence  for  itself  in  life 
and  mind.  Nature  (says  Zeller)  is  to  Hegel  a  system  of  grada- 
tions, of  which  one  arises  necessarily  out  of  the  other,  and  is  the 
proximate  truth  of  that  out  of  which  it  results.  There  are  three 
stadia,  or  moments,  in  this  process  of  nature — (i)  the  mechanical 
moment,  or  matter  -devoid  of  individuality;  (2)  the  physical 
moment,  or  matter  which  has  particularized  itself  in  bodies — 
the  solar  system;  and  (3)  the  organic  moment,  or  organic  beings, 
beginning  with  the  geological  organism — or  the  mineral  kingdom, 
plants  and  animals.  Yet  this  process  of  development  is  not  to 
be  conceived  as  if  one  stage  is  naturally  produced  out  of  the  other, 
and  not  even  as  if  the  one  followed  the  other  in  time.  Only 
spirit  has  a  history;  in  nature  all  forms  are  contemporaneous.2 
Hegel's  interpretation  of  mind  and  history  as  a  process  of  evolu- 
tion has  more  scientific  interest  than  his  conception  of  nature. 
His  theory  of  the  development  of  free-will  (the  objective  spirit), 
which  takes  its  start  from  Kant's  conception  of  history,  with 
its  three  stages  of  legal  right,  morality  as  determined  by  motive 
and  instinctive  goodness  (Sittlichkeit) ,  might  almost  as  well  be 
expressed  in  terms  of  a  thoroughly  naturalistic  doctrine  of 
human  development.  So,  too,  some  of  his  conceptions  respecting 
the  development  of  art  and  religion  (the  absolute  spirit)  lend 
themselves  to  a  similar  interpretation.  Yet  while,  in  its  applica- 
tion to  history,  Hegel's  theory  of  evolution  has  points  of  re- 
semblance with  those  doctrines  which  seek  to  explain  the  world- 
process  as  one  unbroken  progress  occurring  in  time,  it  constitutes 
on  the  whole  a  theory  apart  and  sui  generis.  It  does  not  conceive 
of  the  organic  as  succeeding  on  the  inorganic,  or  of  conscious  life 

2  Hegel  somewhere  says  that  the  question  of  the  eternal  duration 
of  the  world  is  unanswerable :  time  as  well  as  space  can  be  predicated 
of  nnitudes  only. 


HISTORY] 


EVOLUTION 


29 


as  conditioned  in  time  by  lower  forms.  In  this  respect  it  re- 
sembles Leibnitz's  idea  of  the  world  as  a  development ;  the  idea 
of  evolution  is  in  each  case  a  metaphysical  as  distinguished  from 
a  scientific  one.  Hegel  gives  a  place  in  his  metaphysical  system 
to  the  mechanical  and  the  Ideological  views;  yet  in  his  treatment 
of  the  world  as  an  evolution  the  idea  of  end  or  purpose  is  the 
predominant  one. 

Of  the  followers  of  Hegel  who  have  worked  out  his  peculiar 
idea  of  evolution  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  speak.  A  bare  reference 
may  be  made  to  J.  K.  F.  Rosenkranz,  who  in  his  work  Hegel's 
Naturphilosophie  seeks  to  develop  Hegel's  idea  of  an  earth- 
organism  in  the  light  of  modern  science,  recognizing  in  crystalliza- 
tion the  morphological  element. 

Schopenhauer. — Of  the  other  German  philosophers  immediately 
following  Kant,  there  is  only  one  who  calls  for  notice  here, 
namely,  Arthur  Schopenhauer.  This  writer,  by  his  conception  of 
the  world  as  will  which  objectifies  itself  in  a  series  of  gradations 
from  the  lowest  manifestations  of  matter  up  to  conscious  man, 
gives  a  slightly  new  shape  to  the  evolutional  view  of  Schelling, 
though  he  deprives  this  view  of  its  optimistic  character  by 
denying  any  co-operation  of  intelligence  in  the  world-process. 
In  truth,  Schopenhauer's  -conception  of  the  world  as  the  activity 
of  a  blind  force  is  at.  bottom  a  materialistic  and  mechanical 
'rather  than  a  spiritualistic  and  Ideological  theory.  Moreover, 
Schopenhauer's  subjective  idealism,  and  his  view  of  time  as 
something  illusory,  hindered  him  from  viewing  this  process  as  a 
sequence  of  events  in  time.  Thus  he  ascribes  eternity  of  existence 
to  species  under  the  form  of  the  "  Platonic  ideas."  As  Ludwig 
Noire  observes,  Schopenhauer  has  no  feeling  for  the  problem 
of  the  origin  of  organic  beings.  He  says  Lamarck's  original 
animal  is  something  metaphysical,  not  physical,  namely,  the 
will  to  live.  "  Every  species  (according  to  Schopenhauer)  has  of 
its  own  will,  and  according  to  the  circumstances  under  which 
it  would  live,  determined  its  form  and  organization,— yet  not 
as  something  physical  in  time,  but  as  something  metaphysical 
out  of  time." 

Von  Baer. — Before  leaving  the  German  speculation  of  the 
first  half  of  the  century,  a  word  must  be  said  of  von  Baer,  to 
whose  biological  contributions  we  shall  refer  later  in  this  article, 
who  recognized  in  the  law  of  development  the  law  of  the  universe 
as  a  whole.  In  his  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  Thiere  (p.  264) 
he  distinctly  tells  us  that  the  law  of  growing  individuality  is 
"  the  fundamental  thought  which  goes  through  all  forms  and 
degrees  of  animal  development  and  all  single  relations.  It  is 
the  same  thought  which  collected  in  the  cosmic  space  the  divided 
masses  into  spheres,  and  combined  these  to  solar  systems; 
the  same  which  caused  the  weather-beaten  dust  on  the  surface 
of  our  metallic  planet  to  spring  forth  into  living  forms."  Von 
Baer  thus  prepared  the  way  for  Herbert  Spencer's  generalization 
of  the  law  of  organic  evolution  as  the  law  of  all  evolution. 

Comte. — As  we  arrive  at  the  igth  century,  though  yet  before  the 
days  of  Darwin,  biology  is  already  beginning  to  affect  the  general 
aspect  of  thought.  It  might  suffice  to  single  out  the  influence 
of  Auguste  Comte,  as  the  last  great  thinker  who  wrote  before 
Darwinism  began  to  permeate  philosophic  speculation.  Though 
Comte  did  not  actually  contribute  to  a  theory  of  cosmic  organic 
evolution,  he  helped  to  lay  the  foundations  of  a  scientific  con- 
ception of  human  history  as  a  natural  process  of  development 
determined  by  general  laws  of  human  nature  together  with  the 
accumulating  influences  of  the  past.  Comte  does  not  recognize 
that  this  process  is  aided  by  any  increase  of  innate  capacity; 
on  the  contrary,  progress  is  to  him  the  unfolding  of  fundamental 
faculties  of  human  nature  which  always  pre-existed  in  a  latent 
condition;  yet  he  may  perhaps  be  said  to  have  prepared  the 
way  for  the  new  conception  of  human  progress  by  his  inclusion 
of  mental  laws  under  biology. 

Development  of  the  Biological  Doctrine. — In  the  ipth  century 
the  doctrine  of  evolution  received  new  biological  contents  and 
became  transformed  from  a  vague,  partly  metaphysical  theory 
to  the  dominant  modern  conception.  At  this  point  it  is  con- 
venient to  leave  the  guidance  of  Professor  J.  Sully  and  to  follow 
closely  T.  H.  Huxley,  who  in  the  Qth  edition  of  this  encyclopaedia 


traced  the  history  of  the  growth  of  the  biological  idea  of  evolution 
from  its  philosophical  beginnings  to  its  efflorescence  in  Charles 
Darwin.  . 

In  the  earlier  half  of  the  i8th  century  the  term  "  evolution  " 
was  introduced  into  biological  writings  in  order  to  denote  the 
mode  in  which  some  of  the  most  eminent  physiologists  of  that 
time  conceived  that  the  generation  of  living  things  took  place; 
in  opposition  to  the  hypothesis  advocated,  in  the  preceding 
century,  by  W.  Harvey  in  that  remarkable  work1  which  would 
give  him  a  claim  to  rank  among  the  founders  of  biological  science, 
even  had  he  not  been  the  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood. 

One  of  Harvey's  prime  objects  is  to  defend  and  establish,  on 
the  basis  of  direct  observation,  the  opinion  already  held  by 
Aristotle,  that,  in  the  higher  animals  at  any  rate,  the  formation 
of  the  new  organism  by  the  process  of  generation  takes  place, 
not  suddenly,  by  simultaneous  accretion  of  rudiments  of  all  or 
the  most  important  of  the  organs  of  the  adult,  nor  by  sudden 
metamorphosis  of  a  formative  substance  into  a  miniature  of 
the  whole,  which  subsequently  grows,  but  by  epigenesis,  or 
successive  differentiation  of  a  relatively  homogeneous  rudiment 
into  the  parts  and  structures  which  are  characteristic  of  the 
adult. 

"  Et  primo,  quidem,  quoniam  per  epigenesin  sive  partium  super- 
exorientiura  additamentum  pullum  fabricari  certum  est:  quaenam 
pars  ante  alias  omnes  exstruatur,  et  quid  de  ilia  ejusque  generandi 
modo  observandum  veniat,  dispiciemus.  Ratum  sane  est  et  in  ovo 
manifesto  apparet  quod  Arisloteles  de  perfectorum  animalium  genera- 
tione enuntiat:  nimirum,  non  omnes  paries  simul  fieri,  sed  ordine 
aliam  post  aliam;  primumque  existere  particulam  genitalem,  cujus 
virtute  postea  (tanquam  ex  principio  quodam)  reliquae  omnes 
partes  prosiliant.  Qualem  in  plantarum  seminibus  (fabis,  puta, 
aut  glandibus)  gemmam  sive  apicem  protuberantem  cernimus,  totius 
futurae  arboris  principium.  Estque  haec  particula  velul  flius  eman- 
cipatus  seorsumque  collocalus,  et  principium  per  se  vivens;  unde 
postea  membrorum  ordo  describilur;  et  quaecunque  ad  absohendum 
animal  pertinent,  disponuntur?  Quoniam  enim  nulla  pars  se  ipsam 
general;  sed  foslquam  generata  est,  se  ipsam  jam  auget;  idea  earn 
primum  orin  necesse  est,  quae  principium  augendi  contineat  (sive 
enim  planta,  sive  animal  est,  aeque  omnibus  inesl  quod  vim  habeat 
vegetandi,  sive  nutriendi),3  simulque  reliquas  omnes  partes  suo 
quamque  ordine  distinguat  et  formet;  proindeque  in  eadem  primo- 
genita  particula  anima  primario  inest,  sensus,  motusque,  et  totius 
vitae  auctor  et  principium."  (Exercilatio  51.) 

Harvey  proceeds  to  contrast  this  view  with  that  of  the 
"  Medici,"  or  followers  of  Hippocrates  and  Galen,  who,  "  badly 
philosophizing,"  imagined  that  the  brain,  the  heart,  and  the 
liver  were  simultaneously  first  generated  in  the  form  of  vesicles; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  while  expressing  his  agreement  with 
Aristotle  in  the  principle  of  epigenesis,  he  maintains  that  it  is 
the  blood  which  is  the  primal  generative  part,  and  not,  as 
Aristotle  thought,  the  heart. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  i7th  century  the  doctrine  of  epigenesis 
thus  advocated  by  Harvey  was  controverted  on  the  ground  of 
direct  observation  by  M.  Malpighi,  who  affirmed  that  the  body 
of  the  chick  is  to  be  seen  in  the  egg  before  the  punctum  sanguineum 
makes  it  appearance.  But  from  this  perfectly  correct  observa- 
tion a  conclusion  which  is  by  no  means  warranted  was  drawn, 
namely,  that  the  chick  as  a  whole  really  exists  in  the  egg  ante- 
cedently to  incubation;  and  that  what  happens  in  the  course  of 
the  latter  process  is  no  addition  of  new  parts,  "  alias  post  alias 
natas,"  as  Harvey  puts  it,  but  a  simple  expansion  or  unfolding 
of  the  organs  which  already  exist,  though  they  are  too  small 
and  inconspicuous  to  be  discovered.  The  weight  of  Malpighi's 
observations  therefore  fell  into  the  scale  of  that  doctrine  which 
Harvey  terms  metamorphosis,  in  contradistinction  to  epigenesis. 

The  views  of  Malpighi  were  warmly  welcomed  on  philosophical 
grounds  by  Leibnitz,4  who  found  in  them  a  support  to  his 

1  The  Exercitationes  de  generatione  animalium,  which  Dr  George 
Ent  extracted  from  him  and  published  in  1651. 

2  De  generatione  animalium,  lib.  ii.  cap.  x. 
8  De  generatione  animalium,  lib.  ii.  cap.  iv. 

*  "  Cependant,  pour  revenir  aux  formes  ordinaires  ou  aux  ames 
materielles,  cette  duree  qu'il  leur  faut  attribuer,  &  la  place  de  celle 
qu'on  avoit  attribute  aux  atomes  pourroit  faire  douter  si  elles  ne  vont 
pas  de  corps  en  corps;  ce  qui  seroit  la  metempsychose,  a  peu  pres 
comme  quelques  philosophes  ont  cru  la  transmission  du  mouvement 


EVOLUTION 


[HISTORY 


hypothesis  of  monads,  and  by  Nicholas  Malebranche;1  while,  in 
the  middle  of  the  i8th  century,  not  only  speculative  considera- 
tions, but  a  great  number  of  new  and  interesting  observations  on 
the  phenomena  of  generation,  led  the  ingenious  Charles  Bonnet 
and  A.  von  Haller,  the  first  physiologist  of  the  age,  to  adopt, 
advocate  and  extend  them. 

Bonnet  affirms  that,  before  fecundation,  the  hen's  egg  contains 
an  excessively  minute  but  complete  chick;  and  that  fecundation 
and  incubation  simply  cause  this  germ  to  absorb  nutritious 
matters,  which  are  deposited  in  the  interstices  of  the  elementary 
structures  of  which  the  miniature  chick,  or  germ,  is  made  up. 
The  consequence  of  this  intussusceptive  growth  is  the  "  develop- 
ment "  or  "  evolution  "  of  the  germ  into  the  visible  bird.  Thus 
an  organized  individual  (tout  organist}  "  is  a  composite  body 
consisting  of  the  original,  or  elementary,  parts  and  of  the  matters 
which  have  been  associated  with  them  by  the  aid  of  nutrition  "; 
so  that,  if  these  matters  could  be  extracted  from  the  individual 
(tout),  it  would,  so  to  speak,  become  concentrated  in  a  point, 
and  would  thus  be  restored  to  its  primitive  condition  of  a  germ; 
"  just  as,  by  extracting  from  a  bone  the  calcareous  substance 
which  is  the  source  of  its  hardness,  it  is  reduced  to  its  primitive 
state  of  gristle  or  membrane."2 

"  Evolution  "  and  "  development  "  are,  for  Bonnet,  synony- 
mous terms;  and  since  by  "  evolution  "  he  means  simply  the 
expansion  of  that  which  was  invisible  into  visibility,  he  was 
naturally  led  to  the  conclusion,  at  which  Leibnitz  had  arrived 
by  a  different  line  of  reasoning,  that  no  such  thing  as  generation, 
in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word  exists  in  nature.  The  growth  of 
an  organic  being  is  simply  a  process  of  enlargement,  as  a  particle 
of  dry  gelatine  may  be  swelled  up  by  the  intussusception  of 
water;  its  death  is  a  shrinkage,  such  as  the  swelled  jelly  might 
undergo  on  desiccation.  Nothing  really  new  is  produced  in  the 
living  world,  but  the  germs  which  develop  have  existed  since  the 
beginning  of  things;  and  nothing  really  dies,  but,  when  what  we 
call  death  takes  place,  the  living  thing  shrinks  back  into  its  germ 
state.3 

et  celle  des  especes.  Mais  cette  imagination  est  bien  eloignee  de 
la  nature  des  choses.  II  n'y  a  point  de  tel  passage;  et  c'est  ici 
ou  les  transformations  de  Messieurs  Swammerdam,  Malpighi,  et 
Leewenhoek,  qui  sont  des  plus  excellens  observateurs  de  notre  terns, 
sont  venues  a  mon  secours  et  m'ont  fait  admettre  plus  aisement,  que 
1'animal,  et  toute  autre  substance  organisee  ne  commence  point 
lorsque  nous  le  croyons,  et  que  sa  generation  apparente  n'est  qu'un 
developpement  et  une  espece  d 'augmentation.  Aussi  ai-je  remarque 
que  1'auteur  de  la  Recherche  de  la  verite,  M.  Regis,  M.  Hartsoeker, 
et  d'autres  habiles  hommes  n'ont  pas  ete  fort  eloignes  de  ce  senti- 
ment." Leibnitz,  Systimenouveaude  la  nature  (1695).  Thedoctrine 
of  "  Emboitement  "  is  contained  in  the  Considerations  sur  le  principe 
de  vie  (1705) ;  the  preface  to  the  Theodicee  (1710) ;  and  the  Principes 
de  la  nature  et  de  la  grace  (§  6)  (1718). 

"  II  est  vrai  que  la  pensee  la  plus  raisonnable  et  la  plus  conforme 
&  1'experience  sur  cette  question  tres  difficile  de  la  formation  du 
foetus;  c'est  que  les  enfans  sont  deja  presque  tout  formes  avant 
m6me  1'action  par  laquelle  ils  sont  congus;  et  que  leurs  meres  ne 
font  que  leur  donner  I'accroissement  ordinaire  dans  le  temps  de  la 
grossesse."  De  la  recherche  de  la  verite,  livre  ii.  chap.  vii.  p.  334 
(7th  ed.,  1721). 

2  Considerations  sur  les  corps  organises,  chap.  x. 

'  Bonnet  had  the  courage  of  his  opinions,  and  in  the  Palingenesie 
philosophique,  part  vi.  chap,  iv.,  he  develops  a  hypothesis  which  he 
terms  "  evolution  naturelle  ";  and  which,  making  allowance  for  his 
peculiar  views  of  the  nature  of  generation,  bears  no  small  resemblance 
to  what  is  understood  by  "  evolution  "  at  the  present  day: — 

"Si  la  volontfe  divine  a  cree  par  un  seul  Acte  1'Universalite  des 
fitres,  d'oft  venoient  ces  plantes  et  ces  animaux  dont  Moyse  nous 
decrit  la  Production  au  troisieme  et  au  cinquieme  jour  du  renouvelle- 
ment  de  notre  monde  ? 

"  Abuserois-je  de  la  liberte  de  conjectures  si  je  disois,  que  les 
Plantes  et  les  Animaux  qui  existent  aujourd'hui  sont  parvenus  par 
une  sprte  devolution  naturelle  des  Etres  organises  qui  p^euplaient  ce 
premier  Monde,  sorti  immediatement  des  MAINS  du  CREATEUR  ? . . . 

"  Ne  supposons  que  trois  revolutions.  La  Terre  vient  de  sortir 
des  MAINS  du  CREATEUR.  Des  causes  preparees  par  sa  SAGESSE  font 
developper  de  toutes  parts  les  Germes.  Les  Etres  organises  commen- 
cent  a  jouir  de  1'existence.  Ils  etoient  probablement  alors  bien 
differens  de  ce  qu'ils  sont  aujourd'hui.  Ils  1'etoient  autant  que 
ce  premier  Monde  differoit  de  celui  que  nous  habitons.  Nous 
manquons  de  moyens  pour  juger  de  ces  dissemblances,  et  pout-Sire 
que  le  plus  habile  Naturaliste  qui  auroit  ete  place  dans  ce  premier 
Monde  y  auroit  entierement  meconnu  nos  Plantes  et  nos  Animaux." 


The  two  parts  of  Bonnet's  hypothesis,  namely,  the  doctrine 
that  all  living  things  proceed  from  pre-existing  germs,  and  that 
these  contain,  one  enclosed  within  the  other,  the  germs  of  all 
future  living  things,  which  is  the  hypothesis  of  "  emboltement," 
and  the  doctrine  that  every  germ  contains  in  miniature  all  the 
organs  of  the  adult,  which  is  the  hypothesis  of  evolution  or 
development,  in  the  primary  senses  of  these  words,  must  be 
carefully  distinguished.  In  fact,  while  holding  firmly  by  the 
former,  Bonnet  more  or  less  modified  the  latter  in  his  later 
writings,  and,  at  length,  he  admits  that  a  "  germ  "  need  not  be 
an  actual  miniature  of  the  organism,  but  that  it  may  be 
merely  an  "  original  'preformation  "  capable  of  producing  the 
latter.4 

But,  thus  defined,  the  germ  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  the 
"particula  genitalis"  of  Aristotle,  or  the  "primordium  vegetale" 
or  "  ovum  "  of  Harvey;  and  the  "  evolution  "  of  such  a  germ 
would  not  be  distinguishable  from  "  epigenesis." 

Supported  by  the  great  authority  of  Haller,  the  doctrine  of 
evolution,  or  development,  prevailed  throughout  the  whole 
of  the  i8th  century,  and  Cuvier  appears  to  have  substantially 
adopted  Bonnet's  later  views,  though  probably  he  would  not 
have  gone  all  lengths  in  the  direction  of  "  emboitement."  In 
a  well-known  note  to  Charles  Leopold  Laurillard's  £loge,  prefixed 
to  the  last  edition  of  the  Ossemensfossiles,  the  "  radical  de  1'etre  " 
is  much  the  same  thing  as  Aristotle's  "  particula  genitalis  "  and 
Harvey's  "  ovum."6 

Bonnet's  eminent  contemporary,  Buff  on,  held  nearly  the  same 
views  with  respect  to  the  nature  of  the  germ,  and  expresses  them 
even  more  confidently. 

"  Ceux  qui  ont  cru  que  le  cceur  etoit  le  premier  forme,  se  sont 
trompes;  ceux  qui  disent  que  c'est  le  sang  se  trompent  aussi:  tout 
est  forme  en  mime  temps.  Si  1'on  ne  consulte  que  Vobservation,  le 
poulet  se  voit  dans  1'ceuf  avant  qu'il  ait  et£  couve."  • 

"  J'ai  ouvert  une  grande  quantite  d'ceufs  a  differens  temps  avant 
et  apres  1'incubation,  et  ie  me  suis  convaincu  par  mes  yeux  que  le 
poulet  existe  en  entier  dans  le  milieu  de  la  cicatrule  au  moment 
qu'il  sort  du  corps  de  la  poule."  * 

The  "  moule  interieur  "  of  Buffon  is  the  aggregate  of  ele- 
mentary parts  which  constitute  the  individual,  and  is  thus  the 
equivalent  of  Bonnet's  germ,*  as  defined  in  the  passage  cited 
above.  But  Buffon  further  imagined  that  innumerable  "  mole- 
cules organiques  "  are  dispersed  throughout  the  world,  and  that 
alimentation  consists  in  the  appropriation  by  the  parts  of  an 
organism  of  those  molecules  which  are  analogous  to  them. 
Growth,  therefore,  was,  on  this  hypothesis,  partly  a  process 
of  simple  evolution,  and  partly  of  what  has  been  termed  syn- 
genesis. Buffon's  opinion  is,  in  fact,  a  sort  of  combination  of 
views,  essentially  similar  to  those  of  Bonnet,  with  others,  some- 
what similar  to  those  of  the  "  Medici  "  whom  Harvey  condemns. 
The  "  molecules  organiques  "  are  physical  equivalents  of  Leib- 
nitz's "  monads." 

It  is  a  striking  example  of  the  difficulty  of  getting  people 
to  use  their  own  powers  of  investigation  accurately,  that  this 
form  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution  should  have  held  its  ground 
so  long;  for  it  was  thoroughly  and  completely  exploded,  not 
long  after  its  enunciation,  by  Caspar  Frederick  Wolff,  who  in  his 
Theoria  generationis,  published  in  1759,  placed  the  opposite 
theory  of  epigenesis  upon  the  secure  foundation  of  fact,  from 
which  it  has  never  been  displaced.  But  Wolff  had  no  immediate 

4  "  Ce  mot  (germe)  ne  designera  pas  seulement  un  corps  organise 
reduit  en  petit;  il  designera  encore  toute  espece  de  preformation 
originelle  dont  un  Tout  organique  peut  resulter  comme  de  son  principe 
immediat." — Palingenesie  philosophique,  part.  x.  chap.  ii. 

6  "  M.  Cuvier  consid6rant  que  tous  les  Rtres  organises  sont  derives 
de  parens,  et  ne  voyant  dans  la  nature  aucune  force  capable  de 
produire  1'organisation,  croyait  a  la  pre-existence  des  germes;  non 
pas  a  la  pre-existence  d'un  6tre  tout  forme,  puisqu'il  est  bien  evident 
que  ce  n  est  que  par  des  developpemens  successifs  que  I'etre  acquiert 
sa  forme;  mais,  si  Ton  peut  s'exprimer  ainsi,  &  la  pre-existence  du 
radical  de  I'etre,  radical  qui  existe  avant  que  la  serie  des  Evolutions 
ne  commence,  et  qui  remonte  certainement,  suivant  la  belle  observa- 
tion de  Bonnet,  a  plusieurs  generations." — Laurillard,  Eloge  de 
Cuvier,  note  12. 

6  Hisloire  naturelle,  torn.  ii.  ed.  ii.  (1750),  p.  350. 

7  Ibid.  p.  351.  8  See  particularly  Button,  I.e.  p.  41. 


HISTORY] 


EVOLUTION 


successors.  The  school  of  Cuvier  was  lamentably  deficient  in 
embryologists;  and  it  was  only  in  the  course  of  the  first  thirty 
years  of  the  ipth  century  that  Prevost  and  Dumas  in  France, 
and,  later  on,  Dollinger,  Pander,  von  Bar,  Rathke,  and  Remak 
in  Germany,  founded  modern  embryology;  and,  at  the  same 
time,  proved  the  utter  incompatibility  of  the  hypothesis  of 
evolution  as  formulated  by  Bonnet  and  Haller  with  easily 
demonstrable  facts. 

Nevertheless,  though  the  conceptions  originally  denoted 
by  "  evolution  "  and  "  development  "  were  shown  to  be  unten- 
able, the  words  retained  their  application  to  the  process  by  which 
the  embryos  of  living  beings  gradually  make  their  appearance; 
and  the  terms"  development,""  Entwickelung,"and  "  evolutio  " 
are  now  indiscriminately  used  for  the  series  of  genetic  changes 
exhibited  by  living  beings,  by  writers  who  would  emphatically 
deny  that  "  development  "  or  "  Entwickelung  "  or  "  evolutio," 
in  the  sense  in  which  these  words  were  usually  employed  by 
Bonnet  or  Haller,  ever  occurs. 

Evolution,  or  development,  is,  in  fact,  at  present  employed 
in  biology  as  a  general  name  for  the  history  of  the  steps  by 
which  any  living  being  has  acquired  the  morphological  and  the 
physiological  characters  which  distinguish  it.  As  civil  history 
may  be  divided  into  biography,  which  is  the  history  of  individuals, 
and  universal  history,  which  is  the  history  of  the  human  race, 
so  evolution  falls  naturally  into  two  categories — the  evolution 
of  the  individual  (see  EMBRYOLOGY)  and  the  evolution  of  the 
sum  of  living  beings. 

The  Evolution  of  the  Sum  of  Living  Beings. — The  notion  that 
all  the  kinds  of  animals  and  plants  may  have  come  into  existence 
by  the  growth  and  modification  of  primordial  germs  is  as  old 
as  speculative  thought;  but  the  modern  scientific  form  of  the 
doctrine  can  be  traced  historically  to  the  influence  of  several 
converging  lines  of  philosophical  speculation  and  of  physical 
observation,  none  of  which  go  further  back  than  the  i7th  century. 
These  are: — 

1.  The  enunciation  by  Descartes  of  the  conception  that  the 
physical  universe,  whether  living  or  not  living,  is  a  mechanism, 
and  that,  as  such,  it  is  explicable  on  physical  principles. 

2.  The  observation  of   the  gradations  of   structure,   from 
extreme   simplicity   to   very  great   complexity,   presented   by 
living  things,  and  of  the  relation  of  these  graduated  forms  to 
one  another. 

3.  The  observation  of  the  existence  of  an  analogy  between 
the  series  of  gradations  presented  by  the  species  which  compose 
any  great  group  of  animals  or  plants,  and  the  series  of  embryonic 
conditions  of  the  highest  members  of  that  group. 

4.  The  observation  that  large  groups  of  species  of  widely 
different  habits  present  the  same  fundamental  plan  of  structure; 
and  that  parts  of  the  same  animal  or  plant,  the  functions  of  which 
are  very  different,  likewise  exhibit  modifications  of  a  common 
plan. 

5.  The  observation  of  the  existence  of  structures,  in  a  rudi- 
mentary and  apparently  useless  condition,  in  one  species  of  a 
group,  which  are  fully  developed  and  have  definite  functions 
in  other  species  of  the  same  group. 

6.  The  observation  of  the  effects  of  varying  conditions  in 
modifying  living  organisms. 

7.  The  observation  of  the  facts  of  geographical  distribution. 

8.  The  observation  of  the  facts  of  the  geological  succession 
of  the  forms  of  life. 

i.  Notwithstanding  the  elaborate  disguise  which  fear  of 
the  powers  that  were  led  Descartes  to  throw  over  his  real  opinions, 
it  is  impossible  to  read  the  Principes  de  la  philosophic  without 
acquiring  the  conviction  that  this  great  philosopher  held  that  the 
physical  world  and  all  things  in  it,  whether  living  or  not  living, 
have  originated  by  a  process  of  evolution,  due  to  the  continuous 
operation  of  purely  physical  causes,  out  of  a  primitive  relatively 
formless  matter.1 

'As  Buffon  has  well  said: — "  L'idee  de  ramener  1'explication  de 
tous  les  phenomenes  £  des  principes  mecaniques  est  assurement 
grande  et  belle.ce  pas  est  le  plus  hardi  qu'on  peut  faire  en  philosophie, 
et  c'est  Descartes  qui  1'a  fait." — I.e.  p.  50. 


The  following  passage  is  especially  instructive: — 

"  Et  tant  s'en  faut  que  je  veuille  que  Ton  croie  toutes  les  choses 
que  j'ecrirai,  que  meme  je  pretends  en  proposer  ici  quelques-unes 
que  je  crois  absolument  6tre  fausses;  a  savoir,  je  ne  doute  point 
que  le  monde  n'ait  ete  cree  au  commencement  avec  autant  de  per- 
fection qu'il  en  a;  en  sorte  que  le  soleil,  la  terre,  la  lune,  et  les 
etoiles  ont  ete  des  lors;  et  que  la  terre  n'a  pas  eu  seulement  en  soi 
les  semences  des  plantes,  mais  que  les  plantes  meme  en  ont  couvert 
une  partie;  et  qu'Adam  et  Eve  n'ont  pas  ete  crees  enfans  mais  en 
Ige  d'hommes  parfaits.  La  religion  chretienne  veut  que  nous  le 
croyons  ainsi,  et  la  raison  naturelle  nous  persuade  entierement  cette 
verite;  car  si  nous  considerons  la  toute  puissance  de  Dieu,  nous 
devons  juger  que  tout  ce  qu'il  a  fait  a  eu  des  le  commencement 
toute  la  perfection  qu'il  devoit  avoir.  Mais  neanmoins,  comme  on 
connoitroit  beaucoup  mieux  quelle  a  ete  la  nature  d'Adam  et  celle 
des  arbres  de  Paradis  si  on  avoit  examine  comment  les  enfants  se 
forment  peu  4  peu  dans  le  ventre  de  leurs  meres  et  comment  les 
plantes  sortent  de  leurs  semences,  que  si  on  avoit  seulement  considere 
quels  ils  ont  ete  quand  Dieu  les  a  crees :  tout  de  me"me,  nous  ferons 
mieux  entendre  quelle  est  generalement  la  nature  de  toutes  les 
choses  qui  sont  au  monde  si  nous  pouvons  imaginer  quelques  prin- 
cipes qui  soient  fort  intelligibles  et  fort  simples,  desquels  nous 
puissions  voir  clairement  que  les  astres  et  la  terre  et  ennn  tout  ce 
monde  visible  auroit  pu  lire  produit  ainsi  que  de  quelques  semences 
(bien  que  nous  sachions  qu'il  n'a  pas  ete  produit  en  cette  facon) 
que  si  nous  la  decrivions  seulement  comme  il  est,  ou  bien  comme 
nous  croyons  qu'il  a  ete  cree.  Et  parceque  je  pense  avoir  trouve  des 
principes  qui  sont  tels,  je  tacherai  ici  de  les  expliquer."2 

If  we  read  between  the  lines  of  this  singular  exhibition  of 
force  of  one  kind  and  weakness  of  another,  it  is  clear  that 
Descartes  believed  that  he  had  divined  the  mode  in  which  the 
physical  universe  had  been  evolved;  and  the  Traite  de  I'homme 
and  the  essay  Sur  les  passions  afford  abundant  additional 
evidence  that  he  sought  for,  and  thought  he  had  found,  an 
explanation  of  the  phenomena  of  physical  life  by  deduction 
from  purely  physical  laws. 

Spinoza  abounds  in  the  same  sense,  and  is  as  usual  perfectly 
candid — 

"  Naturae  leges  et  regulae,  secundum  quas  omnia  fiunt  et  ex  unis 
formis  in  alias  mutantur,  sunt  ubique  et  semper  eadem."3 

Leibnitz's  doctrine  of  continuity  necessarily  led  him  in  the 
same  direction;  and,  of  the  infinite  multitude  of  monads  with 
which  he  peopled  the  world,  each  is  supposed  to  be  the  focus  of 
an  endless  process  of  evolution  and  involution.  In  the  Protogaea, 
xxvi.,  Leibnitz  distinctly  suggests  the  mutability  of  species — 

"  Alii  mirantur  in  saxis  passim  species  videri  quas  vel  in  orbe 
cognito,  vel  saltern  in  vicinis  locis  frustra  quaeras.  Ita  Cornua 
Ammonis,  quae  ex  nautilorum  numero  habeantur,  passim  et  forma 
et  magnitudine  (nam  et  pedali  diametro  aliquando  reperiuntur) 
ab  omnibus  illis  naturis  discrepare  dicunt,  quas  praebet  mare.  Sed 
quis  absconditos  ejus  recessus  aut  subterraneas  abysses  pervesti- 
gavit  ?  quam  multa  nobis  animalia  antea  ignota  offert  novus  orbis  ? 
Et  credibile  est  per  magnas  illas  conversiones  etiam  animalium 
species  plurimum  immutatas." 

Thus  in  the  end  of  the  i?th  century  the  seed  was  sown  which 
has  at  intervals  brought  forth  recurrent  crops  of  evolutional 
hypotheses,  based,  more  or  less  completely,  on  general  reasonings. 

Among  the  earliest  of  these  speculations  is  that  put  forward 
by  Benolt  de  Maillet  in  his  Telliamed,  which,  though  printed  in 
1735,  was  not  published  until  twenty-three  years  later.  Con- 
sidering that  this  book  was  written  before  the  time  of  Haller, 
or  Bonnet,  or  Linnaeus,  or  Hutton,  it  surely  deserves  more 
respectful  consideration  than  it  usually  receives.  For  De 
Maillet  not  only  has  a  definite  conception  of  the  plasticity  of 
living  things,  and  of  the  production  of  existing  species  by  the 
modification  of  their  predecessors,  but  he  clearly  apprehends 
the  cardinal  maxim  of  modern  geological  science,  that  the 
explanation  of  the  structure  of  the  globe  is  to  be  sought  in  the 
deductive  application  to  geological  phenomena  of  the  principles 
established  inductively  by  the  study  of  the  present  course  of 
nature.  Somewhat  later,  P.  L.  M.  de  Maupertuis 4  suggested 
a  curious  hypothesis  as  to  the  causes  of  variation,  which  he 
thinks  may  be  sufficient  to  account  for  the  origin  of  all  animals 

1  Principes  de  la  philosophie,  Troisieme  partie,  §  45. 

3  Ethices,  Pars  tertia,  Praefatio. 

4  Sysleme  de  la  Nature.     Essai  sur  la  formation  des  corps  organises, 
1751.  xiv. 


EVOLUTION 


[HISTORY 


PV 


from  a  single  pair.  Jean  Baptiste  Ren6  Robinet1  followed  out 
much  the  same  line  of  thought,  as  De  Maillet,  but  less  soberly; 
and  Bonnet's  speculations  in  the  Palingenesie,  which  appeared 
in  1769,  have  already  been  mentioned.  Buffon  (1753-1778), 
at  first  a  partisan  of  the  absolute  immutability  of  species,  subse- 
quently appears  to  have  believed  that  larger  or  smaller  groups 
of  species  have  been  produced  by  the  modification  of  a  primitive 
stock;  but  he  contributed  nothing  to  the  general  doctrine  of 
evolution. 

Erasmus  Darwin  (Zoonomia,  1794),  though  a  zealous  evolu- 
tionist, can  hardly  be  said  to  have  made  any  real  advance  on  his 
predecessors;  and,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Goethe  had 
the  advantage  of  a  wide  knowledge  of  morphological  facts,  and 
a  true  insight  into  their  signification,  while  he  threw  all  the 
power  of  a  great  poet  into  the  expression  of  his  conceptions,  it 
may  be  questioned  whether  he  supplied  the  doctrine  of  evolution 
with  a  firmer  scientific  basis  than  it  already  possessed.  Moreover, 
whatever  the  value  of  Goethe's  labours  in  that  field,  they  were 
not  published  before  1820,  long  after  evolutionism  had  taken 
a  new  departure  from  the  works  of  Treviranus  and  Lamarck — 
the  first  of  its  advocates  who  were  equipped  for  their  task  with 
the  needful  large  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  phenomena 
of  life  as  a  whole.  It  is  remarkable  that  each  of  these  writers 
seems  to  have  been  led,  independently  and  contemporaneously, 
to  invent  the  same  name  of  "  biology  "  for  the  science  of  the 
phenomena  of  life;  and  thus,  following  Buffon,  to  have  recog- 
nized the  essential  unity  of  these  phenomena,  and  their  contra- 
distinction from  those  of  inanimate  nature.  And  it  is  hard  to 
say  whether  Lamarck  or  Treviranus  has  the  priority  in  pro- 
pounding the  main  thesis  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution;  for 
though  the  first  volume  of  Treviranus's  Biologic  appeared  only 
in  1802,  he  says,  in  the  preface  to  his  later  work,  the  Erschei- 
nungen  und  Gesetze  des  organischen  Lebens,  dated  1831,  that  he 
wrote  the  first  volume  of  the  Biologic  "  nearly  five-and-thirty 
years  ago,"  or  about  1796. 

Now,  in  1794,  there  is  evidence  that  Lamarck  held  doctrines 
which  present  a  striking  contrast  to  those  which  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Philosophic  zoologique,  as  the  following  passages 
show: — 

"  685.  Quoique  mon  unique  objet  dans  cet  article  n'ait  ete  que 
de  trailer  de  la  cause  physique  de  1'entretien  de  la  vie  des  £tres 
organiques,  malgre  cela  j'ai  ose  avancer  en  debutant,  que  1'existence 
de  ces  6tres  etonnants  n'appartiennent  nulleraent  a  la  nature;  que 
tout  ce  qu'on  peut  entendre  par  le  mot  nature,  ne  pouvoit  donner 
la  vie,  c'est-a-dire,  que  toutes  les  qualites  de  la  matiere,  jointes  a 
toutes  les  circonstances  possibles,  et  mSme  A  I'activite  repandue 
dans  1'univers,  ne  pouvaient  point  produire  un  Stre  muni  du  mouve- 
ment  organique,  capable  de  reproduire  son  semblable,  et  sujet  a 
la  mort. 

"  686.  Tous  les  individus  de  cette  nature,  qui  existent,  proviennent 
d'individus  semblables  qui  tous  ensemble  constituent  1'espece 
entiere.  Or,  je  crois  qu'il  est  aussi  impossible  4 1'homme  de  connoitre 
la  cause  physique  du  premier  individu  de  chaque  espece,  que 
d'assigner  aussi  physiquement  la  cause  de  1'existence  de  la  matiere  ou 
de  1'univers  entier.  C'est  au  moins  ce  que  le  resultat  de  mes  con- 
naissances  et  de  mes  reflexions  me  portent  4  penser.  S'il  existe 
beaucoup  de  varietes  produites  par  1'effet  des  circonstances,  ces 
varietes  ne  denaturent  point  les  especes;  mais  on  se  trompe,  sans 
doute  souvent,  en  indiquant  comme  espece,  ce  qui  n'est  que  variete; 
et  alors  je  sens  que  cette  erreur  peut  tirer  a  consequence  dans  les 
raisonnements  que  Ton  fait  sur  cette  matiere."  ! 

The  first  three  volumes  of  Treviranus's  Biologic,  which  contains 
his  general  views  of  evolution,  appeared  between  1802  and  1805. 
The  Recherches  sur  I 'organisation  des  corps  vivants,  which  sketches 
out  Lamarck's  doctrines,  was  published  in  1802;  but  the  full 
development  of  his  views  in  the  Philosophic  zoologique  did  not 
take  place  until  1809. 

1  Considerations  philosophiques  sur  la  gradation  naturelle  des 
formes  de  I'etre;  ou  les  essais  de  la  nature  qui  apprend  a  faire  1'homme 
(1768). 

*  Recherches  sur  les  causes  des  principaux  fails  physiques,  par  J,  B. 
Lamarck.  Paris.  Seconde  anneedelaRepublique.  In  the  preface, 
Lamarck  says  that  the  work  was  written  in  1776,  and  presented  to 
the  Academy  in  1780;  but  it  was  not  published  before  1794,  and  at 
that  time  it  presumably  expressed  Lamarck's  mature  views.  It 
would  be  interesting  to  know  what  brought  about  the  change  of 
opinion  manifested  in  the  Recherches  sur  I' organisation  des  corps 
vivants,  published  only  seven  years  later. 


The  Biologic  and  the  Philosophic  zoologique  are  both  very 
remarkable  productions,  and  are  still  worthy  of  attentive  study, 
but  they  fell  upon  evil  times.  The  vast  authority  of  Cuvier 
was  employed  in  support  of  the  traditionally  respectable  hypo- 
theses of  special  creation  and  of  catastrophism;  and  the  wild 
speculations  of  the  Discours  sur  les  revolutions  de  la  surface  du 
globe  were  held  to  be  models  of  sound  scientific  thinking,  while 
the  really  much  more  sober  and  philosophical  hypotheses  of 
the  Hydro  geologic  were  scouted.  For  many  years  it  was  the 
fashion  to  speak  of  Lamarck  with  ridicule,  while  Treviranus  was 
altogether  ignored. 

Nevertheless,  the  work  had  been  done.  The  conception  of 
evolution  was  henceforward  irrespressible,  and  it  incessantly 
reappears,  in  one  shape  or  another,3  up  to  the  year  1858,  when 
Charles  Darwin  and  A.  R.  Wallace  published  their  Theory  oj 
Natural  Selection.  The  Origin  of  Species  appeared  in  1859; 
and  thenceforward  the  doctrine  of  evolution  assumed  a  position 
and  acquired  an  importance  which  it  never  before  possessed.  In 
the  Origin  of  Species,  and  in  his  other  numerous  and  important 
contributions  to  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  biological 
evolution,  Darwin  confined  himself  to  the  discussion  of  the 
causes  which  have  brought  about  the  present  condition  of  living 
matter,  assuming  such  matter  to  have  once  come  into  existence. 
On  the  other  hand,  Spencer4  and  E.  Haeckel5  dealt  with 
the  whole  problem  of  evolution.  The  profound  and  vigorous 
writings  of  Spencer  embody  the  spirit  of  Descartes  in  the  know- 
ledge of  our  own  day,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  Principes 
de  la  philosophic  of  the  igth  century;  while,  whatever  hesita- 
tion may  not  unfrequently  be  felt  by  less  daring  minds  in 
following  Haeckel  in  many  of  his  speculations,  his  attempt 
to  systematize  the  doctrine  of  evolution  and  to  exhibit  its 
influence  as  the  central  thought  of  modern  biology,  cannot  fail 
to  have  a  far-reaching  influence  on  the  progress  of  science. 

If  we  seek  for  the  reason  of  the  difference  between  the  scientific 
position  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution  in  the  days  of  Lamarck 
and  that  which  it  occupies  now,  we  shall  find  it  in  the  great 
accumulation  of  facts,  the  several  classes  of  which  have  been 
enumerated  above,  under  the  second  to  the  eighth  heads.  For 
those  which  are  grouped  under  the  second  to  the  seventh  of  these 
classes,  respectively,  have  a  clear  significance  on  the  hypothesis 
of  evolution,  while  they  are  unintelligible  if  that  hypothesis 
be  denied.  And  those  of  the  eighth  group  are  not  only  unin- 
intelligible  without  the  assumption  of  evolution,  but  can  be 
proved  never  to  be  discordant  with  that  hypothesis,  while,  in 
some  cases,  they  are  exactly  such  as  the  hypothesis  requires. 
The  demonstration  of  these  assertions  would  require  a  volume, 
but  the  general  nature  of  the  evidence  on  which  they  rest  may  be 
briefly  indicated. 

2.  The  accurate  investigation  of  the  lowest  forms  of  animal 
life,  commenced  by  Leeuwenhoek  and  Swammerdam,  and 
continued  by  the  remarkable  labours  of  Reaumur,  Abraham 
Trembley,  Bonnet,  and  a  host  of  other  observers  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  i7th  and  the  first  half  of  the  i8th  centuries,  drew 
the  attention  of  biologists  to  the  gradation  in  the  complexity 
of  organization  which  is  presented  byliving  beings, and  culminated 
in  the  doctrine  of  the  echelle  des  elres,  so  powerfully  and  clearly 
stated  by  Bonnet,  and,  before  him,  adumbrated  by  Locke  and 
by  Leibnitz.  In  the  then  state  of  knowledge,  it  appeared  that 
all  the  species  of  animals  and  plants  could  be  arranged  in  one 
series,  in  such  a  manner  that,  by  insensible  gradations,  the 
mineral  passed  into  the  plant,  the  plant  into  the  polype,  the 
polype  into  the  worm,  and  so,  through  gradually  higher  forms 
of  life,  to  man,  at  the  summit  of  the  animated  world. 

But,  as  knowledge  advanced,  this  conception  ceased  to  be 
tenable  in  the  crude  form  in  which  it  was  first  put  forward. 
Taking  into  account  existing  animals  and  plants  alone,  it  became 
obvious  that  they  fell  into  groups  which  were  more  or  less 
sharply  separated  from  one  another;  and,  moreover,  that  even 

'  See  the  "  Historical  Sketch  "  prefixed  to  the  last  edition  of  the 
Origin  of  Species. 

4  First  Principles  and  Principles  of  Biology  (1860-1864). 
6  Cenerelle  Morphologic  (1866). 


HISTORY] 


EVOLUTION 


33 


the  species  of  a  genus  can  hardly  ever  be  arranged  in  linear 
series.  Their  natural  resemblances  and  differences  are  only 
to  be  expressed  by  disposing  them  as  if  they  were  branches 
springing  from  a  common  hypothetical  centre. 

Lamarck,  while  affirming  the  verbal  proposition  that  animals 
form  a  single  series,  was  forced  by  his  vast  acquaintance  with 
the  details  of  zoology  to  limit  the  assertion  to  such  a  series  as 
may  be  formed  out  of  the  abstractions  constituted  by  the 
common  characters  of  each  group.1 

Cuvier  on  anatomical,  and  Von  Baer  on  embryological  grounds, 
made  the  further  step  of  proving  that,  even  in  this  limited  sense, 
animals  cannot  be  arranged  in  a  single  series,  but  that  there  are 
several  distinct  plans  of  organization  to  be  observed  among 
them,  no  one  of  which,  in  its  highest  and  most  complicated 
modification,  leads  to  any  of  the  others. 

The  conclusions  enunciated  by  Cuvier  and  Von  Baer  have  been 
confirmed  in  principle  by  all  subsequent  research  into  the 
structure  of  animals  and  plants.  But  the  effect  of  the  adoption 
of  these  conclusions  has  been  rather  to  substitute  a  new  metaphor 
for  that  of  Bonnet  than  to  abolish  the  conception  expressed  by  it. 
Instead  of  regarding  living  things  as  capable  of  arrangement  in 
one  series  like  the  steps  of  a  ladder,  the  results  of  modern  in- 
vestigation compel  us  to  dispose  them  as  if  they  were  the  twigs 
and  branches  of  a  tree.  The  ends  of  the  twigs  represent  in- 
dividuals, the  'smallest  groups  of  twigs  species,  larger  groups 
genera,  and  so  on,  until  we  arrive  at  the  source  of  all  these 
ramifications  of  the  main  branch,  which  is  represented  by  a 
common  plan  of  structure.  At  the  present  moment  it  is  im- 
possible to  draw  up  any  definition,  based  on  broad  anatomical 
or  developmental  characters,  by  which  any  one  of  Cuvier's  great 
groups  shall  be  separated  from  all  the  rest.  On  the  contrary, 
the  lower  members  of  each  tend  to  converge  towards  the  lower 
members  of  all  the  others.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  vegetable 
world.  The  apparently  clear  distinction  between  flowering  and 
flowerless  plants  has  been  broken  down  by  the  series  of  grada- 
tions between  the  two  exhibited  by  the  Lycopodiaceae,  Rhizo- 
carpeae,  and  Gymnospermeae.  The  groups  of  Fungi,  Lichcneae 
and  Algae  have  completely  run  into  one  another,  and,  when  the 
lowest  forms  of  each  are  alone  considered,  even  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms  cease  to  have  a  definite  frontier. 

If  it  is  permissible  to  speak  of  the  relations  of  living  forms  to 
one  another  metaphorically,  the  similitude  chosen  must  un- 
doubtedly be  that  of  a  common  root,  whence  two  main  trunks, 
one  representing  the  vegetable  and  one  the  animal  world,  spring; 
and,  each  dividing  into  a  few  main  branches,  these  subdivide  into 
multitudes  of  branchlets  and  these  into  smaller  groups  of  twigs. 

As  Lamarck  has  well  said: — 2 

"  II  n'y  a  que  ceux  qui  se  sont  longtemps  et  fortement  occupes  de  la 
determination  des  especes,  et  qui  ont  consulte  de  riches  collections, 
qui  peuvent  savoir  jusqu'a  quel  point  les  especes,  parmi  les  corps 
vivants,  se  fondent  les  unes  dans  les  autres,  et  qui  ont  pu  se  con- 
vaincre  que,  dans  les  parties  ou  nous  voyons  des  especes  isolees,  cela 
n'est  ainsi  que  parcequ'il  nous  en  manque  d'autres  qui  en  sont  plus 
voisines  et  que  nous  n'avons  pas  encore  recueillies. 

"  Je  ne  veux  pas  dire  pour  cela  que  lesanimaux  qui  existent  forment 
une  s£rie  tres-simple  et  partout  egalement  nuancee;  mais  je  dis 
qu'ils  forment  une  serie  rameuse,  irregulierement  graduee  et  qui 
n'a  point  de  discontinuite  dans  ses  parties,  ou  qui,  du  moins,  n'en 
a  toujours  pas  eu,  s'il  est  vrai  que,  par  suite  de  quelques  especes 
perdues,  il  s'en  trouve  quelque  part.  II  en  resulte  que  les  especes 

3ui  terminent  chaque  rameau  de  la  serie  generate  tiennent,  au  moins 
'un  c6te,  a  d'autres  especes  voisines  qui  se  nuancent  avec  elles. 
Voili  ce  que  1'etat  bien  connu  des  choses  me  met  maintenant  a 
portee  de  demontrer.     Je  n'ai  besoin  d'aucune  hypothese  ni  d'aucune 
supposition  pour  cela :  j  'en  atteste  tous  les  naturalistes  observateurs." 

3.  In  a  remarkable  essay3  Meckel  remarks: — 
"  There  is  no  good  physiologist  who  has  not  been  struck  by  the 
observation  that  the  original  form  of  all  organisms  is  one  and  the 


"  II  s'agit  done  de  prouver  que  la  serie  qui  constitute  1'echelle 
animale  reside  essentiellement  dans  la  distribution  des  masses  princi- 
pales  qui  la  composent  et  non  dans  celle  des  especes  ni  me"me  toujours 
dans  celle  des  genres." — Phil,  zoplogique,  chap.  v. 
2  Philosophic  zoologique,  premiere  partie,  chap.  iii. 

'  Entwurf  einer  Darstellung  der  zwischen  clem  Embryozustande 
der  hoheren  Thiere  und  dem  permanenten  der  niederen  stattfindenden 
Parallele,"  Beytrdge  zur  vergleichenden  Anatomic,  Bd.  ii.  1811. 


same,  and  that  out  of  this  one  form,  all,  the  lowest  as  well  as  the 
highest,  are  developed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  latter  pass  through 
the  permanent  forms  of  the  former  as  transitory  stages.  Aristotle, 
Haller,  Harvey,  Kielmeyer,  Autenrieth,  and  many  others  have 
either  made  this  observation  incidentally,  or,  especially  the  latter, 
have  drawn  particular  attention  to  it,  and  drawn  therefrom  results 
of  permanent  importance  for  physiology." 

Meckel  proceeds  to  exemplify  the  thesis,  that  the  lower  forms 
of  animals  represent  stages  in  the  course  of  the  development 
of  the  higher,  with  a  large  series  of  illustrations. 

After  comparing  the  salamanders  and  the  perenni-branchiate 
Urodela  with  the  tadpoles  and  the  frogs,  and  enunciating  the 
law  that  the  more  highly  any  animal  is  organized  the  more 
quickly  does.it  pass  through  the  lower  stages,  Meckel  goes  on  to 
say: — 

"  From  these  lowest  Vertebrata  to  the  highest,  and  to  the  highest 
forms  among  these,  the  comparison  between  the  embryonic  condi- 
tions of  the  higher  animals  and  the  adult  states  of  the  lower  can 
be  more  completely  and  thoroughly  instituted  than  if  the  survey  is 
extended  to  the  Invertebrata,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  are  in  many 
respects  constructed  upon  an  altogether  too  dissimilar  type ;  indeed 
they  often  differ  from  one  another  far  more  than  the  lowest  vertebrate 
does  from  the  highest  mammal;  yet  the  following  pages  will  show 
that  the  comparison  may  be  also  extended  to  them  with  interest. 
In  fact,  there  is  a  period  when,  as  Aristotle  long  ago  said,  the  embryo 
of  the  highest  animal  has  the  form  of  a  mere  worm,  and,  devoid  of 
internal  and  external  organization,  is  merely  an  almost  structureless 
lump  of  polype-substance.  Notwithstanding  the  origin  of  organs,  it 
still  for  a  certain  time,  by  reason  of  its  want  of  an  internal  bony 
skeleton,  remains  worm  and  mollusk,  and  only  later  enters  into  the 
series  of  the  Vertebrata,  although  traces  of  the  vertebral  column 
even  in  the  earliest  periods  testify  its  claim  to  a  place  in  that  series." — 
Op.  cit.  pp.  4,  5. 

If  Meckel's  proposition  is  so  far  qualified,  that  the  comparison 
of  adult  with  embryonic  forms  is  restricted  within  the  limits  of 
one  type  of  organization;  and  if  it  is  further  recollected,  that 
the  resemblance  between  the  permanent  lower  form  and  the 
embryonic  stage  of  a  higher  form  is  not  special  but  general,  it 
is  in  entire  accordance  with  modern  embryology;  although  there 
is  no  branch  of  biology  which  has  grown  so  largely,  and  improved 
its  methods  so  much  since  Meckel's  time,  as  this.  In  its  original 
form,  the  doctrine  of  "  arrest  of  development,"  as  advocated  by 
Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire  and  Serres,  was  no  doubt  an  over-state- 
ment of  the  case.  It  is  not  true,  for  example,  that  a  fish  is  a 
reptile  arrested  in  its  development,  or  that  a  reptile  was  ever  a 
fish;  but  it  is  true  that  the  reptile  embryo,  at  one  stage  of  its 
development,  is  an  organism  which,  if  it  had  an  independent 
existence,  must  be  classified  among  fishes;  and  all  the  organs 
of  the  reptile  pass,  in  the  course  of  their  development,  through 
conditions  which  are  closely  analogous  to  those  which  are 
permanent  in  some  fishes. 

4.  That  branch  of  biology  which  is  termed  morphology  is  a 
commentary  upon,  and  expansion  of,  the  proposition  that  widely 
different  animals  or  plants,  and  widely  different  parts  of  animals 
or  plants,  are  constructed  upon  the  same  plan.     From  the  rough 
comparison  of  the  skeleton  of  a  bird  with  that  of  a  man  by 
Pierre  Delon,  in  the  i6th  century  (to  go  no  further  back),  down 
to  the  theory  of  the  limbs  and  the  theory  of  the  skull  at  the 
present  day;   or,  from  the  first  demonstration  of  the  homologies 
of  the  parts  of  a  flower  by  C.  F.  Wolff,  to  the  present  elaborate 
analysis  of  the  floral  organs,  morphology  exhibits  a  continual 
advance  towards  the  demonstration  of  a  fundamental  unity 
among  the  seeming  diversities  of  living  structures.     And  this 
demonstration  has  been  completed  by  the  final  establishment  of 
the  cell  theory  (see  CYTOLOGY),  which  involves  the  admission  of  a 
primitive  conformity,  not  only  of  all  the  elementary  structures 
in  animals  and  plants  respectively,  but  of  those  in  the  one  of 
these  great  divisions  of  living  things  with  those  in  the  other. 
No  a  priori  difficulty  can  be  said  to  stand  in  the  way  of  evolution, 
when  it  can  be  shown  that  all  animals  and  all  plants  proceed  by 
modes  of  development,  which  are  similar  in  principle,  from  a 
fundamental  protoplasmic  material. 

5.  The  innumerable  cases  of  structures,  which  are  rudimentary 
and  apparently  useless,   in  species,   the  close  allies  of  which 
possess  well-developed  and  functionally  important  homologous 


x.  2 


34 


EVOLUTION 


(ONTOGENY 


structures,  are  readily  intelligible  on  the  theory  of  evolution, 
while  it  is  hard  to  conceive  their  raison  d'etre  on  any  other 
hypothesis.  However,  a  cautious  reasoner  will  probably  rather 
explain  such  cases  deductively  from  the  doctrine  of  evolution 
than  endeavour  to  support  the  doctrine  of  evolution  by  them. 
For  it  is  almost  impossible  to  prove  that  any  structure,  however 
rudimentary,  is  useless — that  is  to  say,  that  it  plays  no  part 
whatever  in  the  economy;  and,  if  it  is  in  the  slightest  degree 
useful,  there  is  no  reason  why,  on  the  hypothesis  of  direct 
creation,  it  should  not  have  been  created.  Nevertheless,  double- 
edged  as  is  the  argument  from  rudimentary  organs,  there  is 
probably  none  which  has  produced  a  greater  effect  in  promoting 
the  general  acceptance  of  the  theory  of  evolution. 

6.  The  older  advocates  of  evolution  sought  for  the  causes  of 
the  process  exclusively  in  the  influence  of  varying  conditions, 
such  as  climate  and  station,  or  hybridization,  upon  living  forms. 
Even  Treviranus  has  got  no  further  than  this  point.     Lamarck 
introduced  the  conception  of  the  action  of  an  animal  on  itself 
as  a  factor  in  producing  modification.     Starting  from  the  well- 
known  fact  that  the  habitual  use  of  a  limb  tends  to  develop  the 
muscles  of  the  limb,  and  to  produce  a  greater  and  greater  facility 
in  using  it,  he  made  the  general  assumption  that  the  effort  of 
an  animal  to  exert  an  organ  in  a  given  direction  tends  to  develop 
the  organ  in  that  direction.     But  a  little  consideration  showed 
that,  though  Lamarck  had  seized  what,  as  far  as  it  goes,  is  a  true 
cause  of  modification,  it  is  a  cause  the  actual  effects  of  which 
are  wholly  inadequate  to  account  for  any  considerable  modifica- 
tion in  animals,  and  which  can  have  no  influence  at  all  in  the 
vegetable  world;    and  probably  nothing  contributed  so  much 
to  discredit  evolution,  in  the  early  part  of  the  igth  century,  as 
the  floods  of  easy  ridicule  which  were  poured  upon  this  part 
of  Lamarck's  speculation.     The  theory  of  natural  selection,  or 
survival  of  the  fittest,  was  suggested  by  William  Charles  Wells 
in  1813,  and  further  elaborated  by  Patrick  Matthew  in  1831. 
But  the  pregnant  suggestions  of  these  writers  remained  practically 
unnoticed  and  forgotten,  until  the  theory  was  independently 
devised  and  promulgated  by  Charles  Robert  Darwin  and  Alfred 
Russell  Wallace  in  1858,  and  the  effect  of  its  publication  was 
immediate  and  profound. 

Those  who  were  unwilling  to  accept  evolution,  without 
better  grounds  than  such  as  are  offered  by  Lamarck,  and  who 
therefore  preferred  to  suspend  their  judgment  on  the  question, 
found  in  the  principle  of  selective  breeding,  pursued  in  all  its 
applications  with  marvellous  knowledge  and  skill  by  Darwin, 
a  valid  explanation  of  the  occurrence  of  varieties  and  races; 
and  they  saw  clearly  that,  if  the  explanation  would  apply  to 
species,  it  would  not  only  solve  the  problem  of  their  evolution, 
but  that  it  would  account  for  the  facts  of  teleology,  as  well  as 
for  those  of  morphology;  and  for  the  persistence  of  some  forms 
of  life  unchanged  through  long  epochs  of  time,  while  others 
undergo  comparatively  rapid  metamorphosis. 

How  far  "  natural  selection  "  suffices  for  the  production  of 
species  remains  to  be  seen.  Few  can  doubt  that,  if  not  the 
whole  cause,  it  is  a  very  important  factor  in  that  operation; 
and  that  it  must  play  a  great  part  in  the  sorting  out  of  varieties 
into  those  which  are  transitory  and  those  which  are  permanent. 

But  the  causes  and  conditions  of  variation  have  yet  to  be 
thoroughly  explored;  and  the  importance  of  natural  selection 
will  not  be  impaired,  even  if  further  inquiries  should  prove 
that  variability  is  definite,  and  is  determined  in  certain  directions 
rather  than  in  others,  by  conditions  inherent  in  that  which  varies. 
It  is  quite  conceivable  that  every  species  tends  to  produce 
varieties  of  a  limited  number  and  kind,  and  that  the  effect  of 
natural  selection  is  to  favour  the  development  of  some  of  these, 
while  it  opposes  the  development  of  others  along  their  pre- 
determined lines  of  modification. 

7.  No  truths  brought   to   light   by  biological   investigation 
were  better  calculated  to  inspire  distrust  of  the  dogmas  intruded 
upon  science  in  the  name  of  theology  than  those  which  relate 
to  the  distribution  of  animals  and  plants  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth.     Very  skilful  accommodation  was  needful,  if  the  limitation 
of  sloths  to  South  America,   and   of   the   Ornithorhynchus  to 


Australia,  was  to  be  reconciled  with  the  literal  interpretation 
of  the  history  of  the  Deluge;  and,  with  the  establishment  of 
the  existence  of  distinct  provinces  of  distribution,  any  serious 
belief  in  the  peopling  of  the  world  by  migration  from  Mount 
Ararat  came  to  an  end. 

Under  these  circumstances,  only  one  alternative  was  left  for 
those  who  denied  the  occurrence  of  evolution;  namely,  the 
supposition  that  the  characteristic  animals  and  plants  of  each 
great  province  were  created,  as  such,  within  the  limits  in  which 
we  find  them.  And  as  the  hypothesis  of  "  specific  centres," 
thus  formulated,  was  heterodox  from  the  theological  point  of 
view,  and  unintelligible  under  its  scientific  aspect,  it  may  be 
passed  over  without  further  notice,  as  a  phase  of  transition  from 
the  creational  to  the  evolutional  hypothesis. 

8.  In  fact,  the  strongest  and  most  conclusive  arguments  in 
favour  of  evolution  are  those  which  are  based  upon  the  facts 
of  geographical,  taken  in  conjunction  with  those  of  geological, 
distribution. 

Both  Darwin  and  Wallace  lay  great  stress  on  the  close  relation 
which  obtains  between  the  existing  fauna  of  any  region  and  that 
of  the  immediately  antecedent  geological  epoch  in  the  same 
region;  and  rightly,  for  it  is  in  truth  inconceivable  that  there 
should  be  no  genetic  connexion  between  the  two.  It  is  possible 
to  put  into  words  the  proposition,  that  all  the  animals  and  plants 
of  each  geological  epoch  were  annihilated,  and  that  a  new  set 
of  very  similar  forms  was  created  for  the  next  epoch,  but  it 
may  be  doubted  if  any  one  who  ever  tried  to  form  a  distinct 
mental  image  of  this  process  of  spontaneous  generation  on  the 
grandest  scale  ever  really  succeeded  in  realizing  it. 

In  later  years  the  attention  of  the  best  palaeontologists  has 
been  withdrawn  from  the  hodman's  work  of  making  "  new 
species  "  of  fossils,  to  the  scientific  task  of  completing  our 
knowledge  of  individual  species,  and  tracing  out  the  succession 
of  the  forms  presented  by  any  given  type  in  time. 

Evolution  at  the  Beginning  of  the  zoth  century. — Since  Huxley 
and  Sully  wrote  their  masterly  essays  in  the  pth  edition  of  this 
encyclopaedia,  the  doctrine  of  evolution  has  outgrown  the 
trammels  of  controversy  and  has  been  accepted  as  a  fundamental 
principle.  Writers  on  biological  subjects  no  longer  have  to  waste 
space  in  weighing  evolution  against  this  or  that  philosophical 
theory  or  religious  tradition;  philosophical  writers  have  frankly 
accepted  it,  and  the  supporters  of  religious  tradition  have  made 
broad  their  phylacteries  to  write  on  them  the  new  words.  A 
closer  scrutiny  of  the  writers  of  all  ages  who  preceded  Charles 
Darwin,  and,  in  particular,  the  light  thrown  back  from  Darwin 
on  the  earlier  writings  of  Herbert  Spencer,  have  made  plain 
that  without  Darwin  the  world  by  this  time  might  have  come 
to  a  general  acceptance  of  evolution;  but  it  seems  established 
as  a  historical  fact  that  the  world  has  come  to  accept  evolution, 
first,  because  of  Darwin's  theory  of  natural  selection,  and  second, 
because  of  Darwin's  exposition  of  the  evidence  for  the  actual 
occurrence  of  organic  evolution.  The  evidence  as  set  out  by 
Darwin  has  been  added  to  enormously;  new  knowledge  has  in 
many  cases  altered  our  conceptions  of  the  mode  of  the  actual 
process  of  evolution,  and  from  time  to  time  a  varying  stress  has 
been  laid  on  what  are  known  as  the  purely  Darwinian  factors 
in  the  theory.  The  balance  of  these  tendencies  has  been  against 
the  attachment  of  great  importance  to  sexual  selection,  and  in 
favour  of  attaching  a  great  importance  to  natural  selection; 
but  the  dominant  feature  in  the  recent  history  of  the  theory 
has  been  its  universal  acceptance  and  the  recognition  that  this 
general  acceptance  has  come  from  the  stimulus  given  by  Darwin. 

A  change  has  taken  place  in  the  use  of  the  word  evolution. 
Huxley,  following  historical  custom,  devoted  one  section  of  his 
article  to  the  "  Evolution  of  the  Individual."    The   Otttogen 
facts  and  theories  respecting  this  are  now  discussed 
under  such  headings  as  EMBRYOLOGY;   HEREDITY;  VARIATION 
AND  SELECTION;   under  these  headings  must  be  sought  informa- 
tion on  the  important  recent  modifications  with  regard  to  the 
theory  of  the  relation  between  the  development  of  the  individual 
and  the  development  of  the  race,  the  part  played  by  the  environ- 
ment on  the  individual,  and  the  modern  developments  of  the 


PHYLOGENY] 


EVOLUTION 


35 


old  quarrel  between  evolution  and  epigenesis.  The  most  striking 
general  change  has  been  against  seeing  in  the  facts  of  ontogeny 
any  direct  evidence  as  to  phylogeny.  The  general  proposition 
as  to  a  parallelism  between  individual  and  ancestral  development 
is  no  doubt  indisputable,  but  extended  knowledge  of  the  very 
different  ontogenetic  histories  of  closely  allied  forms  has  led  us 
to  a  much  fuller  conception  of  the  mode  in  which  stages  in 
embryonic  and  larval  history  have  been  modified  in  relation 
to  their  surroundings,  and  to  a  consequent  reluctance  to  attach 
detailed  importance  to  the  embryological  argument  for  evolution. 

The  vast  bulk  of  botanical  and  zoological  work  on  living  and 
extinct  forms  published  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  igth 
Ph  1  a  centurv  increased  almost  beyond  all  expectation  the 
'  evidence  for  the  fact  of  evolution.  The  discovery  of 
a  single  fossil  creature  in  a  geological  stratum  of  a  wrong  period, 
the  detection  of  a  single  anatomical  or  physiological  fact  irrecon- 
cilable with  origin  by  descent  with  modification,  would  have  been 
destructive  of  the  theory  and  would  have  made  the  reputation 
of  the  observer.  But  in  the  prodigious  number  of  supporting 
discoveries  that  have  been  made  no  single  negative  factor  has 
appeared,  and  the  evolution  from  their  predecessors  of  the 
forms  of  life  existing  now  or  at  any  other  period  must  be  taken 
as  proved.  It  is  necessary  to  notice,  however,  that  although 
the  general  course  of  the  stream  of  life  is  certain,  there  is  not  the 
same  certainty  as  to  the  actual  individual  pedigrees  of  the 
existing  forms.  In  the  attempts  to  place  existing  creatures  in 
approximately  phylogenetic  order,  a  striking  change,  due  to  a 
more  logical  consideration  of  the  process  of  evolution,  has  become 
established  and  is  already  resolving  many  of  the  earlier  difficulties 
and  banishing  from  the  more  recent  tables  the  numerous  hypo- 
thetical intermediate  forms  so  familiar  in  the  older  phylogenetic 
trees.  The  older  method  was  to  attempt  the  comparison  between 
the  highest  member  of  a  lower  group  and  the  lowest  member  of 
a  higher  group — to  suppose,  for  example,  that  the  gorilla  and  the 
chimpanzee,  the  highest  members  of  the  apes,  were  the  existing 
representatives  of  the  ancestors  of  man  and  to  compare  these 
forms  with  the  lowest  members  of  the  human  race.  Such  a 
comparison  is  necessarily  illogical,  as  the  existing  apes  are 
separated  from  the  common  ancestor  by  at  least  as  large  a  number 
of  generations  as  separate  it  from  any  of  the  forms  of  existing 
man.  In  the  natural  process  of  growth,  the  gap  must  necessarily 
be  wider  between  the  summits  of  the  twigs  than  lower  down, 
and,  instead  of  imagining  "  missing  links,"  it  is  necessary  to 
trace  each  separate  branch  as  low  down  as  possible,  and  to 
institute  the  comparisons  between  the  lowest  points  that  can  be 
reached.  The  method  is  simply  the  logical  result  of  the  fact 
that  every  existing  form  of  life  stands  at  the  summit  of  a  long 
branch  of  the  whole  tree  of  life.  A  due  consideration  of  it  leads  to 
the  curious  paradox  that  if  any  two  animals  be  compared,  the 
zoologically  lower  will  be  separated  from  the  common  ancestor 
by  a  larger  number  of  generations,  since,  on  the  average,  sexual 
maturity  is  reached  more  quickly  by  the  lower  form.  Naturally 
very  many  other  factors  have  to  be  considered,  but  this  alone  is 
a  sufficient  reason  to  restrain  attempts  to  place  existing  forms 
in  linear  phylogenetic  series.  In  embryology  the  method  finds 
its  expression  in  the  limitation  of  comparisons  to  the  correspond- 
ing stages  of  low  and  high  forms  and  the  exclusion  of  the  com- 
parisons between  the  adult  stages  of  low  forms  and  the  embryonic 
stages  of  higher  forms.  Another  expression  of  the  same  method, 
due  to  Cope,  and  specially  valuable  to  the  taxonomist,  is 
that  when  the  relationship  between  orders  is  being  considered, 
characters  of  subordinal  rank  must  be  neglected.  It  must  not 
be  supposed  that  earlier  writers  all  neglected  this  method,  or 
still  less  that  all  writers  now  employ  it,  but  merely  that  formerly 
it  was  frequently  overlooked  by  the  best  writers,  and  now  is 
neglected  only  by  the  worst.  The  result  is,  on  the  one  hand, 

clearing  away  of  much  fantastic  phylogeny,  on  the  other, 
an  enormous  reduction  of  the  supposed  gaps  between  groups. 

There  has  been  a  renewed  activity  in  the  study  of  existing 
forms  from  the  point  of  view  of  obtaining  evidence  as  to  the 
nature  and  origin  of  species.  Comparative  anatomists  have  been 
learning  to  refrain  from  basing  the  diagnosis  of  a  species,  or  the 


description  of  the  condition  of  an  organ,  on  the  evidence  of  a 
single  specimen.  Naturalists  who  deal  specially  with  museum 
collections  have  been  compelled,  it  is  true,  for  other 
reasons  to  attach  an  increasing  importance  to  what  is  ^"™p^ra" 
called  the  type  specimen,  but  they  find  that  this  insist-  torn""" 
ence  on  the  individual,  although  invaluable  from  the 
point  of  view  of  recording  species,  is  unsatisfactory  from  the  point 
of  view  of  scientific  zoology;  and  propositions  for  the  ameliora- 
tion of  this  condition  of  affairs  range  from  a  refusal  of  Linnaean 
nomenclature  in  such  cases,  to  the  institution  of  a  division 
between  master  species  for  such  species  as  have  been  properly 
revised  by  the  comparative  morphologist,  and  provisional  species 
for  such  species  as  have  been  provisionally  registered  by  those 
working  at  collections.  Those  who  work  with  living  forms  of 
which  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  large  number  of  specimens,  and 
those  who  make  revisions  of  the  provisional  species  of  palaeonto- 
logists, are  slowly  coming  to  some  such  conception  as  that  a 
species  is  the  abstract  central  point  around  which  a  group  of 
variations  oscillate,  and  that  the  peripheral  oscillations  of  one 
species  may  even  overlap  those  of  an  allied  species.  It  is  plain 
that  we  have  moved  far  from  the  connotation  and  denotation 
of  the  word  species  at  the  time  when  Darwin  began  to  discuss  the 
origin  of  species,  and  that  the  movement,  on  the  one  hand,  tends 
to  simplify  the  problem  philosophically,  and,  on  the  other,  to 
make  it  difficult  for  the  amateur  theorist. 

The  conception  of  evolution  is  being  applied  more  rigidly  to 
the  comparative  anatomy  of  organs  and  systems  of  organs. 
When  a  series  of  the  modifications  of  an  anatomical  structure 
has  been  sufficiently  examined,  it  is  frequently  possible  to  decide 
that  one  particular  condition  is  primitive,  ancestral  or  central, 
and  that  the  other  conditions  have  been  derived  from  it.  Such 
a  condition  has  been  termed,  with  regard  to  the  group  of  animals 
or  plants  the  organs  of  which  are  being  studied,  archecentric. 
The  possession  of  the  character  in  the  archecentric  condition 
in  (say)  two  of  the  members  of  the  group  does  not  indicate  that 
these  two  members  are  more  nearly  related  to  one  another 
than  they  are  to  other  members  of  the  group;  the  archecentric 
condition  is  part  of  the  common  heritage  of  all  the  members  of 
the  group,  and  may  be  retained  by  any.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  the  ancestral  condition  is  modified,  it  may  be  regarded 
as  having  moved  outwards  along  some  radius  from  the  arche- 
centric condition.  Such  modified  conditions  have  been  termed 
apocentric.  It  is  obvious  that  the  mere  apocentricity  of  a  char- 
acter can  be  no  guide  to  the  affinities  of  its  possessor.  It  is 
necessary  to  determine  if  the  modification  be  a  simple  change 
that  might  have  occurred  in  independent  cases,  in  fact  if  it 
be  a  multiradial  apocentricity,  or  if  it  involved  intricate  and 
precisely  combined  anatomical  changes  that  we  could  not  expect 
to  occur  twice  independently;  that  is  to  say,  if  it  be  a  uniradial 
apocentricity.  Multiradial  apocentricities  lie  at  the  root  of 
many  of  the  phenomena  that  have  been  grouped  under  the 
designation  convergence.  Especially  in  the  case  of  manifest 
adaptations,  organs  possessed  by  creatures  far  apart  genealogic- 
ally may  be  moulded  into  conditions  that  are  extremely  alike. 
Sir  E.  Ray  Lankester's  term,  homoplasy,  has  passed  into  currency 
as  designating  such  cases  where  different  genetic  material  has 
been  pressed  by  similar  conditions  into  similar  moulds.  These 
may  be  called  heterogeneous  homoplasies,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  recognize  the  existence  of  homogeneous  homoplasies, 
here  called  multiradial  apocentricities.  A  complex  apocentric 
modification  of  a  kind  which  we  cannot  imagine  to  have 
been  repeated  independently,  and  which  is  to  be  designated  as 
uniradial,  frequently  forms  a  new  centre  around  which  new 
diverging  modifications  are  produced.  With  reference  to  any 
particular  group  of  forms  such  a  new  centre  of  modification 
may  be  termed  a  metacentre,  and  it  is  plain  that  the  archecentre 
of  the  whole  group  is  a  metacentre  of  the  larger  group  cf  which 
the  group  under  consideration  is  a  branch.  Thus,  for  instance, 
the  archecentric  condition  of  any  Avian  structure  is  a  meta- 
centre of  the  Sauropsidan  stem.  A  form  of  apocentricity 
extremely  common  and  often  perplexing  may  be  termed  pseudo- 
centric;  in  such  a  condition  there  is  an  apparent  simplicity  that 


EVOLUTION 


[BIONOMICS 


reveals  its  secondary  nature  by  some  small  and  apparently 
meaningless  complexity. 

Another  group  of  investigations  that  seems  to  play  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  future  development  of  the  theory  of  evolution 
relates  to  the  study  of  what  is  known  as  organic 
symmetry.  The  differentiations  of  structure  that  char- 
acterize animals  and  plants  are  being  shown  to  be 
orderly  and  definite  in  many  respects;  the  relations  of  the 
various  parts  to  one  another  and  to  the  whole,  the  modes  of 
repetition  of  parts,  and  the  series  of  changes  that  occur  in  groups 
of  repeated  parts  appear  to  be  to  a  certain  extent  inevitable, 
to  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  living  material  itself  and  on  the 
necessary  conditions  of  its  growth.  Closely  allied  to  the  study 
of  symmetry  is  the  study  of  the  direct  effect  of  the  circumambient 
media  on  embryonic  young  and  adult  stages  of  living  beings 
(see  EMBRYOLOGY:  Physiology;  HEREDITY;  and  VARIATION 
AND  SELECTION),  and  a  still  larger  number  of  observers  have 
added  to  our  knowledge  of  these.  It  is  impossible  here  to  give 
even  a  list  of  the  names  of  the  many  observers  who  in  recent 
times  have  made  empirical  study  of  the  effects  of  growth-forces 
and  of  the  symmetrical  limitations  and  definitions  of  growth. 
It  is  to  be  noticed,  however,  that,  even  after  such  phenomena 
have  been  properly  grouped  and  designated  under  Greek  names 
as  laws  of  organic  growth,  they  have  not  become  explanations  of 
the  series  of  facts  they  correlate.  Their  importance  in  the  theory 
of  evplution  is  none  the  less  very  great.  In  the  first  place,  they 
lessen  the  number  of  separate  facts  to  be  explained;  in  the 
second,  they  limit  the  field  within  which  explanation  must  be 
sought,  since,  for  instance,  if  a  particular  mode  of  repetition  of 
parts  occur  in  mosses,  in  flowering-plants,  in  beetles  and  in 
elephants,  the  seeker  of  ultimate  explanations  may  exclude 
from  the  field  of  his  inquiry  all  the  conditions  individual  to 
these  different  organic  forms,  and  confine  himself  only  to  what 
is  common  to  all  of  them;  that  is  to  say,  practically  only 
the  living  material  and  its  environment.  The  prosecution 
of  such  inquiries  is  beginning  to  make  unnecessary  much  in- 
genious speculation  of  a  kind  that  was  prominent  from  1880 
to  1000;  much  futile  effort  has  been  wasted  in  the  endeavour 
to  find  on  Darwinian  principles  special  "  selection-values  "  for 
phenomena  the  universality  of  which  places  them  outside  the 
possibility  of  having  relations  with  the  particular  conditions 
of  particular  organisms.  On  the  other  hand,  many  of  those 
who  have  been  specially  successful  in  grouping  diverse  pheno- 
mena under  empirical  generalizations  have  erred  logically  in 
posing  their  generalizations  against  such  a  vera  causa  as 
the  preservation  of  favoured  individuals  and  races.  The  thirty 
years  which  followed  the  publication  of  the  Origin  of  Species 
were  characterized  chiefly  by  anatomical  and  embryological 
work;  since  then  there  has  been  no  diminution  in  anatomical 
and  embryological  enthusiasm,  but  many  of  the  continually 
increasing  body  of  investigators  have  turned  again  to  bionomical 
work.  Inasmuch  as  Lamarck  attempted  to  frame  a  theory  of 
evolution  in  which  the  principle  of  natural  selection  had  no  part, 
the  interpretation  placed  on  their  work  by  many  bionomical 
investigators  recalls  the  theories  of  Lamarck,  and  the  name 
Neo-Lamarckism  has  been  used  of  such  a  school  of  biologists, 
particularly  active  in  America.  The  weakness  of  the  Neo- 
Lamarckian  view  lies  in  its  interpretation  of  heredity;  its 
strength  lies  in  its  zealous  study  of  the  living  world  and  the 
detection  therein  of  proximate  empirical  laws,  a  strength  shared 
by  very  many  bionomical  investigations,  the  authors  of  which 
would  prefer  to  call  themselves  Darwinians,  or  to  leave  them- 
selves without  sectarian  designation. 

Statistical  inquiry  into  the  facts  of  life  has  long  been  employed, 
and  in  particular  Francis  Gallon,  within  the  Darwinian  period,  has 
advocated  its  employment  and  developed  its  methods. 
metrics.       Within  quite  recent  years,  however,  a  special  school 
has  arisen  with  the  main  object  of  treating  the  pro- 
cesses of  evolution  quantitatively.     Here  it  is  right  to  speak  of 
Karl  Pearson  as  a  pioneer  of  notable  importance.     It  has  been 
the  habit  of  biologists  to  use  the  terms  variation,   selection, 
elimination,  correlation  and  so  forth,  vaguely;   the  new  school, 


which  has  been  strongly  reinforced  from  the  side  of  physical 
science,  insists  on  quantitative  measurements  of  the  terms. 
When  the  anatomist  says  that  one  race  is  characterized  by  long 
heads,  another  by  round  heads,  the  biometricist  demands  numbers 
and  percentages.  When  an  organ  is  stated  to  be  variable,  the 
biometricist  demands  statistics  to  show  the  range  of  the  varia- 
tions and  the  mode  of  their  distribution.  When  a  character  is 
said  to  be  favoured  by  natural  selection,  the  biometricist  demands 
investigation  of  the  death-rate  of  individuals  with  or  without 
the  character.  When  a  character  is  said  to  be  transmitted,  or 
to  be  correlated  with  another  character,  the  biometricist  declares 
the  statement  valueless  without  numerical  estimations  of  the 
inheritance  or  correlation.  The  subject  is  still  so  new,  and  its 
technical  methods  (see  VARIATION  AND  SELECTION)  have  as 
yet  spread  so  little  beyond  the  group  which  is  formulating  and 
defining  them,  that  it  is  difficult  to  do  more  than  guess  at  the 
importance  of  the  results  likely  to  be  gained.  Enough,  however, 
has  already  been  done  to  show  the  vast  importance  of  the 
method  in  grouping  and  codifying  the  empirical  facts  of  life, 
and  in  so  preparing  the  way  for  the  investigation  of  ultimate 
"  causes."  The  chief  pitfall  appears  to  be  the  tendency  to  attach 
more  meaning  to  the  results  than  from  their  nature  they  can  bear. 
The  ultimate  value  of  numerical  inquiries  must  depend  on  the 
equivalence  of  the  units  on  which  they  are  based.  Many  of 
the  characters  that  up  to  the  present  have  been  dealt  with  by 
biometrical  inquiry  are  obviously  composite.  The  height  or 
length  of  the  arm  of  a  human  being,  for  instance,  is  the  result 
of  many  factors,  some  inherent,  some  due  to  environment,  and 
until  these  have  been  sifted  out,  numerical  laws  of  inheritance 
or  of  correlation  can  have  no  more  than  an  empirical  value. 
The  analysis  of  composite  characters  into  their  indivisible  units 
and  statistical  inquiry  into  the  behaviour  of  the  units  would 
seem  to  be  a  necessary  part  of  biometric  investigation,  and  one 
to  which  much  further  attention  will  have  to  be  paid. 

It  is  well  known  that  Darwin  was  deeply  impressed  by  differ- 
ences in  flora  and  fauna,  which  seemed  to  be  functions  of 
locality,  and  not  the  result  of  obvious  dissimilarities  of 
environment.  A.  R.  Wallace's  studies  of  island  life, 
and  the  work  of  many  different  observers  on  local 
races  of  animals  and  plants,  marine,  fluviatile  and  terrestrial, 
have  brought  about  a  conception  of  segregation  as  apart  from 
differences  of  environment  as  being  one  of  the  factors  in  the 
differentiation  of  living  forms.  The  segregation  may  be  geo- 
graphical, or  may  be  the  result  of  preferential  mating,  or  of 
seasonal  mating,  and  its  effects  plainly  can  be  made  no  more  of 
than  proximate  or  empirical  laws  of  differentiation,  of  great 
importance  in  codifying  and  simplifying  the  facts  to  be  explained. 
The  minute  attention  paid  by  modern  systematists  to  the  exact 
localities  of  subspecies  and  races  is  bringing  together  a  vast 
store  of  facts  which  will  throw  further  light  on  the  problem 
of  segregation,  but  the  difficulty  of  utilizing  these  facts  is  in- 
creased by  an  unfortunate  tendency  to  make  locality  itself  one 
of  the  diagnostic  characters. 

Consideration   of   phylogenetic   series,    especially   from    the 
palaeontological  side,  has  led  many  writers  to  the  conception 

that  there  is  something  of  the  nature  of  a  growth-force  „ 

•  •  *  ••       •        •     •  i  i     DBtntBtsm, 

inherent  in  organisms  and  tending  inevitably  towards 

divergent  evolution.  It  is  suggested  that  even  in  the  absence  of 
modification  produced  by  any  possible  Darwinian  or  Lamarckian 
factors,  that  even  in  a  neutral  environment,  divergent  evolution 
of  some  kind  would  have  occurred.  The  conception  is  necessarily 
somewhat  hazy,  but  the  words  bathmism  and  bathmic  Evolution 
have  been  employed  by  a  number  of  writers  for  some  such 
conception.  Closely  connected  with  it,  and  probably  under- 
lying many  of  the  facts  which  have  led  to  it,  is  a  more  definite 
group  of  ideas  that  may  be  brought  together  under  the  phrase 
"  phylogenetic  limitation  of  variation."  In  its  simplest  form, 
this  phrase  implies  such  an  obvious  fact  as  that  whatever  be  the 
future  development  of,  say,  existing  cockroaches,  it  will  be  on 
lines  determined  by  the  present  structure  of  these  creatures. 
In  a  more  general  way,  the  phrase  implies  that  at  each  successive 
branching  of  the  tree  of  life,  the  branches  become  more  specialized, 


EVORA— EVREUX 


37 


more  defined,  and,  in  a  sense,  more  limited.  The  full  implications 
of  the  group  of  ideas  require,  and  are  likely  to  receive,  much 
attention  in  the  immediate  future  of  biological  investigation, 
but  it  is  enough  at  present  to  point  out  that  until  the  more 
obvious  lines  of  inquiry  have  been  opened  out  much  more  fully, 
we  cannot  be  in  a  position  to  guess  at  the  existence  of  a  residuum, 
for  which  such  a  metaphysical  conception  as  bathmism  would 
serve  even  as  a  convenient  disguise  for  ignorance. 

Almost  every  side  of  zoology  has  contributed  to  the  theory 
of  evolution,  but  of  special  importance  are  the  facts  and  theories 
associated  with  the  names  of  Gregor  Mendel,  A.  Weismann 
and  Hugo  de  Vries.  These  are  discussed  under  the  headings 
HEREDITY;  MENDELISM;  and  VARIATION  AND  SELECTION.  It 
has  been  a  feature  of  great  promise  in  recent  contributions  to  the 
theory  of  evolution,  that  such  contributions  have  received 
attention  almost  directly  in  proportion  to  the  new  methods  of 
observation  and  the  new  series  of  facts  with  which  they  have 
come.  Those  have  found  little  favour  who  brought  to  the 
debate  only  formal  criticisms  or  amplifications  of  the  Darwinian 
arguments,  or  re-marshallings  of  the  Darwinian  facts,  however 
ably  conducted.  The  time  has  not  yet  come  for  the  attempt 
to  synthesize  the  results  of  the  many  different  and  often 
apparently  antagonistic  groups  of  workers.  The  great  work  that 
is  going  on  is  the  simplification  of  the  facts  to  be  explained  by 
grouping  them  under  empirical  laws;  and  the  most  general  state- 
ment relating  to  these  that  can  yet  be  made  is  that  no  single  one 
of  these  laws  has  as  yet  shown  signs  of  taking  rank  as  a  vera  causa 
comparable  with  the  Darwinian  principle  of  natural  selection. 

For  evolution  in  relation  to  society  see  SOCIOLOGY. 

REFERENCES. — Practically,  every  botanical  and  zoological  pub- 
lication of  recent  date  has  its  bearing  on  evolution.  The  following 
are  a  few  of  the  more  general  works:  Bateson,  Materials  for  the 
Study  of  Variation;  Bunge,  Vilalismus  und  Mechanismus;  Cope, 
Origin  of  the  Fittest,  Primary  Factors  of  Organic  Evolution,  Darwin's 
Life  and  Letters;  H.  de  Vries,  Species  and  Varieties  and  their  Origin 
by  Mutation;  Eimer,  Organic  Evolution;  Gulick,  "  Divergent 
Evolution  through  Cumulative  Segregation,"  Jour.  Linn.  Soc.  xx. ; 
Haacke,  Schopfung  des  Menschen;  Mitchell,  "  Valuation  of  Zoo- 
logical Characters,"  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  viii.  pt.  7;  Pearson,  Grammar 
of  Science;  Romanes,  Darwin  and  after  Darwin;  Sedgwick,  Presi- 
dential Address  to  Section  Zoology,  Brit.  Ass.  Rep.  1899;  Wallace, 
Darwinism;  Weismann,  The  Germ-Plasm.  Further  references  of 
great  value  will  be  found  in  the  works  of  Bateson  and  Pearson 
referred  to  above,  and  in  the  annual  volumes  of  the  Zoological 
Record,  particularly  under  the  head  "  General  Subject."  (P.  C.  M.) 

EVORA,  the  capital  of  an  administrative  district  in  the 
province  of  Alemtejo,  Portugal;  72  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Lisbon,  on 
the  Casa  Branca-Evora-Elvas  railway.  Pop.  (1900)  16,020. 
Evora  occupies  a  fertile  valley  enclosed  by  low  hills.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  ramparts  flanked  with  towers,  and  is  further 
defended  by  two  forts;  but  the  neglected  condition  of  these, 
combined  with  the  narrow  arcaded  streets  and  crumbling  walls 
of  Roman  or  Moorish  masonry,  gives  the  city  an  appearance 
corresponding  with  its  real  antiquity.  Evora  is  the  see  of  an 
archbishop,  and  has  several  churches,  convents  and  hospitals, 
barracks,  a  diocesan  school  and  a  museum.  A  university, 
founded  in  1550,  was  abolished  on  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits 
in  the  i8th  century.  The  cathedral,  originally  a  Romanesque 
building  erected  1186-1204,  was  restored  in  Gothic  style  about 
1400;  its  richly  decorated  chancel  was  added  in  1761.  The 
church  of  Sao  Francisco  (1507-1525)  is  a  good  example  of  the 
blended  Moorish  and  Gothic  architecture  known  as  Manoellian. 
The  art  gallery,  formerly  the  archbishop's  palace,  contains  a 
collection  of  Portuguese  and  early  Flemish  paintings.  An 
ancient  tower,  and  the  so-called  aqueduct  of  Sertorius,  9  m. 
long,  have  been  partly  demolished  to  make  room  for  the  market- 
square,  in  which  one  of  the  largest  fairs  in  Portugal  is  held  at 
midsummer.  Both  tower  and  aqueduct  were  long  believed  to 
have  been  of  Roman  origin,  but  are  now  known  to  have  been 
constructed  about  1540-1555  in  the  reign  of  John  III.,  at  the 
instance  of  an  antiquary  named  Resende.  The  aqueduct  was 
probably  constructed  on  the  site  of  the  old  Roman  one.  A  small 
Roman  temple  is  used  as  a  public  library;  it  is  usually  known 
as  the  temple  of  Diana,  a  name  for  which  no  valid  authority 


exists.  Evora  is  of  little  commercial  importance,  except  as  an 
agricultural  centre,  but  its  neighbourhood  is  famous  for  its  mules 
and  abounds  in  cork- woods;  there  are  also  mines  of  iron,  copper, 
and  asbestos  and  marble  quarries. 

Under  its  original  name  of  Ebora,  the  city  was  from  80  to  72  B.C. 
the  headquarters  of  Sertorius,  and  it  long  remained  an  important 
Roman  military  station.  It  was  called  Liberalitas  Juliae  on 
account  of  certain  municipal  privileges  bestowed  on  it  by 
Julius  Caesar  (c.  100-44  B.C.).  Its  bishopric,  founded  in  the 
5th  century,  was  raised  to  an  archbishopric  in  the  i6th.  In 
712  Evora  was  conquered  by  the  Moors,  who  named  it  Jabura; 
and  it  was  only  retaken  in  1166.  Fom  1663  to  1665  it  was  held 
by  the  Spaniards.  In  1832  Dom  Miguel,  retreating  before  Dom 
Pedro,  took  refuge  in  Evora;  and  here  was  signed  the  con- 
vention of  Evora,  by  which  he  was  banished.  (See  PORTUGAL.) 

The  administrative  district  of  Evora  coincides  with  the  sentral 
part  of  Alemtejo  (q.v.);  pop.  (1900)  128,062;  area,  2856  sq.  m. 

JJVREUX,  a  town  of  north-western  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Eure,  67  m.  W.N.W.  of  Paris  on  the  Western 
railway  to  Cherbourg.  Pop.  (1906)  town,  13,773;  commune, 
18,971.  Situated  in  the  pleasant  valley  of  the  Iton,  arms  of 
which  traverse  it,  the  town,  on  the  south,  slopes  up  toward 
the  public  gardens  and  the  railway  station.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  and  its  cathedral  is  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  in  France. 
Part  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  nave  dates  from  the  nth  century; 
the  west  facade  with  its  two  ungainly  towers  is,  for  the  most  part, 
the  work  of  the  late  Renaissance,  and  various  styles  of  the 
intervening  period  are  represented  in  the  rest  of  the  church. 
A  thorough  restoration  was  completed  in  1896.  The  elaborate 
north  transept  and  portal  are  in  the  flamboyant  Gothic;  the  choir, 
the  finest  part  of  the  interior,  is  in  an  earlier  Gothic  style. 
Cardinal  de  la  Balue,  bishop  of  Evreux  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
iSth  century,  constructed  the  octagonal  central  tower,  with  its 
elegant  spire;  to  him  is  also  due  the  Lady  chapel,  which  is  remark- 
able for  some  finely  preserved  stained  glass.  Two  rose  windows 
in  the  transepts  and  the  carved  wooden  screens  of  the  side  chapels 
are  masterpieces  of  16th-century  workmanship.  The  episcopal 
palace,  a  building  of  the  isth  century,  adjoins  the  south  side 
of  the  cathedral.  An  interesting  belfry,  facing  the  handsome 
modern  town  hall,  dates  from  the  15th  century.  The  church  of 
St  Taurin,  in  part  Romanesque,  has  a  choir  of  the  i4th  century 
and  other  portions  of  later  date;  it  contains  the  shrine  of  St 
Taurin,  a  work  of  the  i3th  century.  At  Vieil  Evreux,  35  m. 
south-east  of  the  town,  the  remains  of  a  Roman  theatre,  a  palace, 
baths  and  an  aqueduct  have  been  discovered,  as  well  as  various 
relics  which  are  now  deposited  in  the  museum  of  Evreux.  Evreux 
is  the  seat  of  a  prefect,  a  court  of  assizes,  of  tribunals  of  first 
instance  and  commerce,  a  chamber  of  commerce  and  a  board  of 
trade  arbitrators,  and  has  a  branch  of  the  Bank  of  France,  a 
lycee  and  training  colleges  for  teachers.  The  making  of  ticking, 
boots  and  shoes,  agricultural  implements  and  gas  motors,  and 
metal-founding  and  bleaching  are  carried  on. 

Vieil-Evreux  (Mediolanum  Aulercorum)  was  the  capital  of  the 
Gallic  tribe  of  the  Aulerci  Eburovices  and  a  flourishing  city  dur- 
ing the  Gallo-Roman  period.  Its  bishopric  dates  from  the  4th 
century. 

The  first  family  of  the  counts  of  Evreux  which  is  known 
was  descended  from  an  illegitimate  son  of  Richard  I.,  duke  of 
Normandy,  and  became  extinct  in  the  male  line  with  the  death 
of  Count  William  in  1 1 18.  The  countship  passed  in  right  of  Agnes, 
William's  sister,  wife  of  Simon  de  Montfort-l'Amaury  (d.  1087) 
to  the  house  of  the  lords  of  Montfort-l'Amaury.  Amaury  III. 
of  Montfort  ceded  it  in  1200  to  King  Philip  Augustus.  Philip 
the  Fair  presented  it  (1307)  to  his  brother  Louis,  for  whose  benefit 
Philip  the  Long  raised  the  countship  of  Evreux  into  a  peerage 
of  France  (1317).  Philip  of  Evreux,  son  of  Louis,  became  king 
of  Navarre  by  his  marriage  with  Jeanne,  daughter  of  Louis  the 
Headstrong  (Hutin),  and  their  son  Charles  the  Bad  and  their 
grandson  Charles  the  Noble  were  also  kings  of  Navarre.  The 
latter  ceded  his  countships  of  Evreux,  Champagne  and  Brie 
to  King  Charles  VI.  (1404).  In  1427  the  countship  of  Evreux 
was  bestowed  by  King  Charles  VII.  on  Sir  John  Stuart  of 


EWALD 


Darnley  (c.  1365-1429),  the  commander  of  his  Scottish  body- 
guard, who  in  1423  had  received  the  seigniory  of  Aubigny  and 
in  February  1427/8  was  granted  the  right  to  quarter  the  royal 
arms  of  France  for  his  victories  over  the  English  (see  Lady 
Elizabeth  Cust,  Account  of  the  Stuarts  of  Aubigny  in  France, 
1422-1672, 1891).  On  Stuart's  death  (before  Orleans  during  an 
attack  on  an  English  convoy)  the  countship  reverted  to  the  crown. 
It  was  again  temporarily  alienated  (1569-1584)  as  an  appanage 
for  Francis,  duke  of  Anjou,  and  in  1651  was  finally  made  over  to 
Frederic  Maurice  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne,  duke  of  Bouillon,  in 
exchange  for  the  principality  of  Sedan. 

EWALD,  GEORG  HEINRICH  AUGUST  VON  (1803-1875), 
German  Orientalist  and  theologian,  was  born  on  the  i6th  of 
November  1803  at  Gottingen,  where  his  father  was  a  linen- 
weaver.  In  1815  he  was  sent  to  the  gymnasium,  and  in  1820 
he  entered  the  university  of  his  native  town,  where  under 
J.  G.  Eichhorn  and  T.  C.  Tychsen  he  devoted  himself  specially 
to  the  study  of  Oriental  languages.  At  the  close  of  his  academical 
career  in  1823  he  was  appointed  to  a  mastership  in  the  gymnasium 
at  Wolfenbiittel,  and  made  a  study  of  the  Oriental  manuscripts 
in  the  Wolfenbiittel  library.  But  in  the  spring  of  1824  he  was 
recalled  to  Gottingen  as  repetent,  or  theological  tutor,  and  in 
1827  (the  year  of  Eichhorn's  death)  he  became  professor  extra- 
ordinarius  in  philosophy  and  lecturer  in  Old  Testament  exegesis. 
In  1831  he  was  promoted  to  the  position  of  professor  ordinarius 
in  philosophy;  in  1833  he  became  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Scientific  Society,  and  in  1835,  after  Tychsen's  death,  he  entered 
the  faculty  of  theology,  taking  the  chair  of  Oriental  languages. 

Two  years  later  occurred  the  first  important  episode  in  his 
studious  life.  In  1837,  on  the  i8th  of  November,  along  with  six 
of  his  colleagues  he  signed  a  formal  protest  against  the  action 
of  King  Ernst  August  (duke  of  Cumberland)  in  abolishing  the 
liberal  constitution  of  1833,  which  had  been  granted  to  the 
Hanoverians  by  his  predecessor  William  IV.  This  bold  procedure 
of  the  seven  professors  led  to  their  speedy  expulsion  from  the 
university  (i4th  December).  Early  in  1838  Ewald  received  a 
call  to  Tubingen,  and  there  for  upwards  of  ten  years  he  held  a 
chair  as  professor  ordinarius,  first  in  philosophy  and  afterwards, 
from  1841,  in  theology.  To  this  period  belong  some  of  his  most 
important  works,  and  also  the  commencement  of  his  bitter  feud 
with  F.  C.  Baur  and  the  Tubingen  school.  In  1847,  "  the  great 
shipwreck-year  in  Germany,"  as  he  has  called  it,  he  was  invited 
back  to  Gottingen  on  honourable  terms — the  liberal  constitution 
having  been  restored.  He  gladly  accepted  the  invitation.  In 
1862-1863  he  took  an  active  part  in  a  movement  for  reform 
within  the  Hanoverian  Church,  and  he  was  a  member  of  the  synod 
which  passed  the  new  constitution.  He  had  an  important  share 
also  in  the  formation  of  the  Protestantenverein,  or  Protestant 
association,  in  September  1863.  But  the  chief  crisis  in  his  life 
arose  out  of  the  political  events  of  1866.  His  loyalty  to  King 
George  (son  of  Ernst  August)  would  not  permit  him  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  victorious  king  of  Prussia,  and  he  was 
therefore  placed  on  the  retired  list,  though  with  the  full  amount 
of  his  salary  as  pension.  Perhaps  even  this  degree  of  severity 
might  have  been  held  by  the  Prussian  authorities  to  be  un- 
necessary, had  Ewald  been  less  exasperating  in  his  language. 
The  violent  tone  of  some  of  his  printed  manifestoes  about  this 
time,  especially  of  his  Lob  des  Konigs  u.  des  Volkes,  led  to  his 
being  deprived  of  the  venia  legendi  (1868)  and  also  to  a  criminal 
process,  which,  however,  resulted  in  his  acquittal  (May  1869). 
Then,  and  on  two  subsequent  occasions,  he  was  returned  by  the 
city  of  Hanover  as  a  member  of  the  North  German  and  German 
parliaments.  In  June  1874  he  was  found  guilty  of  a  libel  on 
Prince  Bismarck,  whom  he  had  compared  to  Frederick  II.  in 
"  his  unrighteous  war  with  Austria  and  his  ruination  of  religion 
and  morality,"  to  Napoleon  III.  in  his  way  of  "  picking  out  the 
best  time  possible  for  robbery  and  plunder."  For  this  offence 
he  was  sentenced  to  undergo  three  weeks'  imprisonment.  He 
died  in  his  72nd  year  of  heart  disease  on  the  4th  of  May  1875. 

Ewald  was  no  common  man.  In  his  public  life  he  displayed 
many  noble  characteristics, — perfect  simplicity  and  sincerity, 
intense  moral  earnestness,  sturdy  independence,  absolute 


fearlessness.  As  a  teacher  he  had  a  remarkable  power  of  kindling 
enthusiasm;  and  he  sent  out  many  distinguished  pupils,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  Hitzig,  Schrader,  Noldeke,  Diestel 
and  Dillmann.  His  disciples  were  not  all  of  one  school,  but  many 
eminent  scholars  who  apparently  have  been  untouched  by  his 
influence  have  in  fact  developed  some  of  the  many  ideas  which  he 
suggested.  His  numerous  writings,  from  1823  onwards,  were 
the  reservoirs  in  which  the  entire  energy  of  a  life  was  stored. 
His  Hebrew  Grammar  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  biblical  philology. 
All  subsequent  works  in  that  department  have  been  avowedly 
based  on  his,  and  to  him  will  always  belong  the  honour  of  having 
been,  as  Hitzig  has  called  him,  "  the  second  founder  of  the 
science  of  the  Hebrew  language. "  As  an  exegete  and  biblical  critic 
no  less  than  as  a  grammarian  he  has  left  his  abiding  mark.  His 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  the  result  of  thirty  years'  labour, 
was  epoch-making  in  that  branch  of  research.  While  in  every  line 
it  bears  the  marks  of  intense  individuality,  it  is  at  the  same  time 
a  product  highly  characteristic  of  the  age,  and  even  of  the  decade, 
in  which  it  appeared.  If  it  is  obviously  the  outcome  of  immense 
learning  on  the  part  of  its  author,  it  is  no  less  manifestly  the 
result  of  the  speculations  and  researches  of  many  laborious 
predecessors  in  all  departments  of  history,  theology  and  philo- 
sophy. Taking  up  the  idea  of  a  divine  education  of  the  human 
race,  which  Lessing  and  Herder  had  made  so  familiar  to  the 
modern  mind,  and  firmly  believing  that  to  each  of  the  leading 
nations  of  antiquity  a  special  task  had  been  providentially 
assigned,  Ewald  felt  no  difficulty  about  Israel's  place  in  universal 
history,  or  about  the  problem  which  that  race  had  been  called 
upon  to  solve.  The  history  of  Israel,  according  to  him,  is  simply 
the  history  of  the  manner  in  which  the  one  true  religion  really 
and  truly  came  into  the  possession  of  mankind.  Other  nations, 
indeed,  had  attempted  the  highest  problems  in  religion;  but 
Israel  alone,  in  the  providence  of  God,  had  succeeded,  for  Israel 
alone  had  been  inspired.  Such  is  the  supreme  meaning  of  that 
national  history  which  began  with  the  exodus  and  culminated 
(at  the  same  time  virtually  terminating)  in  the  appearing  of 
Christ.  The  historical  interval  that  separated  these  two  events  is 
treated  as  naturally  dividing  itself  into  three  great  periods, 
— those  of  Moses,  David  and  Ezra.  The  periods  are  externally 
indicated  by  the  successive  names  by  which  the  chosen  people 
were  called — Hebrews,  Israelites,  Jews.  The  events  prior  to 
the  exodus  are  relegated  by  Ewald  to  a  preliminary  chapter  of 
primitive  history;  and  the  events  of  the  apostolic  and  post- 
apostolic  age  are  treated  as  a  kind  of  appendix.  The  entire  con- 
struction of  the  history  is  based,  as  has  already  been  said,  on  a 
critical  examination  and  chronological  arrangement  of  the 
available  documents.  So  far  as  the  results  of  criticism  are  still 
uncertain  with  regard  to  the  age  and  authorship  of  any  of  these, 
Ewald's  conclusions  must  of  course  be  regarded  as  unsatisfactory. 
But  his  work  remains  a  storehouse  of  learning  and  is  increasingly 
recognized  as  a  work  of  rare  genius. 

Of  his  works  the  more  important  are : — Die  Composition  der 
Genesis  kritisch  untersucht  (1823),  an  acute  and  able  attempt  to 
account  for  the  use  of  the  two  names  of  God  without  recourse  to  the 
document-hypothesis;  he  was  not  himself,  however,  permanently 
convinced  by  it;  De  metris  carminum  Arabicorum  (1825);  Das 
Hohelied  Salome's  ubersetzt  u.  erklart  (1826;  3rd  ed.,  1866);  Kritische 
Grammatik  der  hebr.  Sprache  (1827) — this  afterwards  became  the 
Ausfiihrliches  Lehrbuch  der  hebr.  Sprache  (8th  ed.,  1870);  and  it  was 
followed  by  the  Hebr.  Sprachlehre  fur  Anfanger  (4th  ed.,  1874); 
Uber  einige  alter e  Sanskritmetra  (1827);  Liber  Vakedii  de  Meso- 
polamiae  expugnatae  historia  (1827);  Commentarius  in  Apocalypsin 
Johannis  (1828);  Abhandlungen  zur  biblischen  u.  orientahschen 
Liter atur  (1832);  Grammatica  critica  linguae  Arabicae  (1831-1833); 
Die  poetischen  Biicher  des  alien  Bundes  (1835-1837,  3rd  ed.,  1866- 
1867);  Die  Propheten  des  alien  Bundes  (1840-1841,  2nd  ed.,  1867- 
1868);  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  (1843-1859,  3rd  ed.,  1864-1868); 
Alterthumer  Israels  (1848);  Die  drei  erslen  Evangelien  ubersetzt  u. 
erklart  (1850);  Uber  das  dlhiopische  Buck  Henoch  (1854);  Die 
Sendschreiben  des  Apostels  Paulus  ubersetzt  u.  erklart  (1857);  Die 
Johanneischen  Schriflen  ubersetzt  u.  erklart  (1861-1862);  Uber  das 
vierte  Esrabuch  (1863);  Sieben  Sendschreiben  des  neuen  Bundes 
(1870) ;  Das  Sendschreiben  an  die  Hebrder  u.  Jakobos'  Rundschreiben 
(1870) ;  Die  Lehre  der  Bibel  von  Gott,  oder  Theologie  des  alien  u. 
neuen  Bundes  (1871-1875).  The  Jahrbucher  der  biblischen  Wissen- 
schaft  (1849-1865)  were  edited,  and  for  the  most  part  written,  by 
him.  He  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  Zeitschrift  fur  die  Kunde  des 


EWALD 


39 


Morgenlandes,  begun  in  1837;  and  he  frequently  contributed  on 
various  subjects  to  the  G oiling,  gelehrle  Anzeigen.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  many  pamphlets  of  an  occasional  character. 

The  following  have  been  translated  into  English : — Hebrew  Gram- 
mar, by  John  Nicholson  (from  2nd  German  edition)  (London  1836) ; 
Introductory  Hebrew  Grammar  (from  3rd  German  edition)  (London, 
1870);  History  of  Israel,  5  yols.  (corresponding  to  vols.  i.-iv.  of  the 
German),  by  Russell  Martineau  and  J.  Estlin  Carpenter  (London, 
1867-1874);  Antiquities  of  Israel,  by  H.  S.  Solly  (London,  1876); 
Commentary  on  the  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament,  by  J.  Frederick 
Smith  (2  vols.,  London,  1876-1877);  Isaiah  the  Prophet,  chaps, 
i.-xxxiii.,  by  O.  Glover  (London,  1869) ;  Life  of  Jesus  Christ,  also 
by  O.  Glover  (London,  1865). 

See  the  article  in  Herzoe-Hauck;  T.  Witton  Davies,  Heinricn 
Ewald  (1903) ;  and  cf.  T.  K.  Cheyne,  Founders  of  Old  Testament 
Criticism  (1893);  F.  Lichtenberger,  History  of  German  Theology  in 
the  Nineteenth  Century  (1889). 

EWALO,  JOHANNES  (1743-1781),  the  greatest  lyrical  poet  of 
Denmark,  was  the  son  of  a  melancholy  and  sickly  chaplain  at 
Copenhagen,  where  he  was  born  on  the  i8th  of  November  1743. 
At  the  age  of  eleven  he  was  sent  to  school  at  Schleswig,  his 
father's  birthplace,  and  returned  to  the  capital  only  to  enter 
the  university  in  1758.  His  father  was  by  that  time  dead,  and 
in  his  mother,  a  frivolous  and  foolish  woman,  he  found  neither 
sympathy  nor  moral  support.  At  fifteen  he  fell  passionately 
in  love  with  Arense  Hulegaard,  a  girl  whose  father  afterwards 
married  the  poet's  mother;  and  the  romantic  boy  resolved  on 
various  modes  of  making  himself  admired  by  the  young  lady. 
He  began  to  learn  Abyssinian,  for  the  purpose  of  going  out  as  a 
missionary  to  Africa,  but  this  scheme  was  soon  given  up,  and  he 
persuaded  a  brother,  four  years  older  than  himself,  to  run  away 
that  they  might  enlist  as  hussars  in  the  Prussian  army.  They 
managed  to  reach  Hamburg  just  when  the  Seven  Years'  War 
was  commencing  and  were  allowed  to  enter  a  regiment.  But 
the  elder  brother  soon  got  tired  and  ran  away,  while  the  poet, 
after  a  series  of  extraordinary  adventures,  deserted  to  the 
Austrian  army,  where  from  being  drummer  he  rose  to  being 
sergeant,  and  was  only  not  made  an  officer  because  he  was  a 
Protestant.  In  1 760  he  was  weary  of  a  soldier's  life  and  deserted 
again,  getting  safe  back  to  Denmark.  For  the  next  two  years 
he  worked  with  great  diligence  at  the  university,  but  the  Arense 
for  whom  he  had  gone  through  so  much  hardship  and  taken  so 
much  pains  married  another  man  almost  immediately  after 
Ewald's  final  and  very  successful  examination.  The  disappoint- 
ment was  one  from  which  he  never  recovered,  but  his  own 
weakness  of  will  was  largely  to  blame  for  it.  He  plunged  into 
dissipation  of  every  kind,  and  gave  his  serious  thoughts  only  to 
poetry. 

In  1763  his  first  work,  a  perfunctory  dissertation,  De  pyrologia 
sacra,  first  saw  the  light.  In  1 764  he  made  a  considerable  success 
with  a  short  prose  story  in  the  popular  manner  of  Sneedorf, 
Lykkens  Tempel  (The  Temple  of  Fortune),  which  was  translated 
into  German  and  Icelandic.  On  the  death  of  Frederick  V.,  how- 
ever, Ewald  first  appeared  prominently  as  a  poet ;  he  published  in 
1 766  three  Elegies  over  the  dead  king,  which  were  received  with 
universal  acclamation,  and  of  which  one,  at  least,  is  a  veritable 
masterpiece.  But  his  dramatic  poem  Adam  og  Eva  (Adam  and 
Eve),  by  far  the  finest  imaginative  work  produced  in  Denmark 
up  to  that  time,  was  rejected  by  the  Society  of  Arts  in  1767  and 
was  not  published  until  1769.  At  the  latter  date,  however,  its 
merits  were  perceived.  In  1770  Ewald  attained  success  with 
Philet,  a  narrative  and  lyrical  poem,  and  still  more  with  his 
splendid  Rolf  Krage,  the  first  original  Danish  tragedy.  For  the 
next  ten  years  Ewald  was  occupied  in  producing  one  brilliant 
poetical  work  after  another,  in  rapid  succession.  In  1771  he 
published  De  brutale  Klappers  (The  Brutal  Clappers),  a  tragi- 
comedy or  parody  satirizing  the  dispute  then  raging  between 
the  critics  and  the  manager  of  the  Royal  Theatre;  in  1772 
he  translated  from  the  German  the  lyrical  drama  of  Philemon 
and  Baucis,  and  brought  out  his  versified  comedy  of  Harlequin 
Patriot,  a  satire  on  the  passion  for  political  scribbling  created  by 
Struensee's  introduction  of  the  liberty  of  the  press.  In  1773  he 
published  Pebersvendene  (Old  Bachelors),  a  prose  comedy. 
In  1771  he  had  already  collected  some  of  his  lyrical  poems  under 
the  title  of  Adskilligt  af  Johannes  Ewald  (Miscellanies).  In  1774 


appeared  the  heroic  opera  of  Balder 's  Dod  (Balder's  Death), 
and  in  1779  the  finest  of  his  works,  the  lyrical  drama  Fiskerne 
(The  Fishers),  which  contains  the  Danish  National  Song,  "  King 
Christian  stood  by  the  high  Mast,"  his  most  famous  lyric.  In 
the  two  poems  last  mentioned,  however,  Ewald  passed  beyond 
contemporary  taste,  and  these  great  works,  the  pride  of  Danish 
literature,  were  coldly  received.  But  while  the  new  poetry  was 
slowly  winning  its  way  into  popular  esteem,  the  poet  did  not  lack 
admirers,  and  at  the  head  of  these  he  founded  in  1775  the  Danish 
Literary  Society,  a  body  which  became  influential,  and  which 
made  the  study  of  Ewald  a  cultus.  But  the  poet's  health  had 
broken;  when  he  was  writing  Rolf  Krage  he  was  already  an 
inmate  of  the  consumptive  hospital,  and  when  he  seemed  to  be 
recovering,  his  health  was  shattered  again  by  a  night  spent  in  the 
frosty  streets.  He  embittered  his  existence  by  the  recklessness 
of  his  private  life,  and  finally,  through  a  fall  from  a  horse,  he 
ended  by  becoming  a  complete  invalid.  His  last  ten  years  were 
full  of  acute  suffering;  his  mother  treated  him  with  cruelty, 
his  family  with  neglect,  and  but  few  even  of  his  friends  showed 
any  manliness  or  generosity  towards  him.  Ini774he  was  placed 
in  the  house  of  an  inspector  of  fisheries  at  Rungsted,  where 
Anna  Hedevig  Jacobsen,  the  daughter  of  the  house,  tended  the 
wasted  poet  with  infinite  tenderness  and  skill.  He  stayed  in 
this  house  for  three  years,  and  wrote  there  some  of  his  finest  later 
lyrics.  Meanwhile  he  had  fallen  deeply  in  love  with  the  charming 
solace  of  his  sufferings  and  won  her  consent  to  a  marriage. 
This  step,  however,  was  prevented  by  his  family,  who  roughly 
removed  him  to  their  own  keeping  near  Kronborg.  Here  he 
was  treated  so  infamously  that  he  insisted  on  being  taken  back 
to  Copenhagen  in  1777,  where  he  found  an  older,  but  no  less 
tender  nurse,  in  Ane  KirsUiie  Skou.  Here  he  wrote  Fiskerne 
with  his  imagination  full  of  the  familiar  shore  at  Hornbaek, 
near  Rungsted.  In  1780  he  was  a  little  better,  and  managed  to 
be  present  at  the  theatre  at  the  first  performance  of  his  poem. 
But  this  excitement  hastened  his  end,  and  after  months  of  extreme 
agony  he  died  on  the  I7th  of  March  1781,  and  was  carried  to 
the  grave  by  a  large  assembly  of  his  admirers,  since  he  was  now 
just  recognized  by  the  public  for  the  first  time  as  the  greatest 
national  poet.  Among  his  papers  were  found  fragments  of 
three  dramas,  two  on  old  Scandinavian  subjects,  entitled 
Frode  and  Helgo,  and  the  third  a  tragedy  on  the  story  of 
Hamlet,  which  he  meant  to  treat  in  a  way  wholly  distinct  from 
Shakespeare's. 

Ewald  belongs  to  the  race  of  poetical  reformers  who  appeared 
in  all  countries  of  Europe  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  century;  but  it  is 
interesting  to  observe  that  in  point  of  time  he  preceded  all  of 
them.  He  was  born  six  years  earlier  than  Goethe  and  Alfieri, 
sixteen  years  before  Schiller,  nine  years  before  Andre  Ch6nier, 
and  twenty-seven  years  earlier  than  Wordsworth,  but  he  did  for 
Denmark  what  each  of  these  poets  did  for  his  own  country. 
Ewald  found  Danish  literature  given  over  to  tasteless  rhetoric, 
and  without  art  or  vigour.  He  introduced  vivacity  of  style, 
freshness  and  brevity  of  form,  and  an  imaginative  study  of  nature 
which  was  then  unprecedented.  But  perhaps  his  greatest  claim 
to  notice  is  the  fact  that  he  was  the  first  person  to  call  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Scandinavian  peoples  to  the  treasuries  of  their  ancient 
history  and  mythology,  and  to  suggest  the  use  of  these  in  imagina- 
tive writing.  With  a  colouring  more  distinctly  modern  than  that 
of  Collins  and  Gray,  his  lyrics  yet  resemble  the  odes  of  these  his 
English  contemporaries  more  closely  than  those  of  any  continental 
poet;  from  another  point  of  view  his  ballads  remind  us  of  those 
of  Schiller,  which  they  preceded.  His  dramas,  which  had  an 
immense  influence  on  the  Danish  stage,  are  now  chiefly  of  anti- 
quarian interest,  with  the  exception  of  "  The  Fishers,"  a  work 
that  must  always  live  as  a  great  national  poem.  In  personal 
character  and  in  fate  Ewald  seems  to  have  been  not  unlike 
Heinrich  Heine. 

The  first  collected  edition  of  Ewald's  works  began  to  appear  in 
his  lifetime.  It  is  in  four  volumes,  1780-1784.  His  works  have 
constantly  been  reprinted,  but  the  standard  edition  is  that  by 
Liebenberg,  in  8  vols.,  1850-1855.  The  best  biographies  of  him  are 
those  by  C.  Molbech  (1831),  Hammerich  (1860)  and  Andreas  Dolleris 
(looo)/  (E.  G.) 


40' 


EWART— EWING 


EWART,  WILLIAM  (1798-1869),  English  politician,  was 
born  in  Liverpool  on  the  ist  of  May  1798.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  gaining  the  Newdigate  prize 
for  English  verse.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Middle 
Temple  in  1827,  and  the  next  year  entered  parliament  for  the 
borough  of  Bletchingley  in  Surrey.  He  subsequently  sat  for 
LiverpDol from  1830  to  1837,  for  Wigan  in  1839,  and  for  Dumfries 
Burghs  from  1841  until  his  retirement  from  public  life  in  1868. 
He  died  at  Broadleas,  near  Devizes,  on  the  23rd  of  January  1869. 
Ewart,  who  was  an  advanced  liberal  in  politics,  was  responsible 
during  his  long  political  career  for  many  useful  measures.  In 
1834  he  carried  a  bill  for  the  abolition  of  hanging  in  chains,  and 
in  1837  he  was  successful  in  getting  an  act  passed  for  abolishing 
capital  punishment  for  cattle-stealing  and  other  offences.  In 
1850  he  carried  a  bill  for  establishing  free  libraries  supported  out 
of  the  rates,  and  in  1864  he  was  instrumental  in  getting  an  act 
passed  for  legalizing  the  use  of  the  metric  system  of  weights  and 
measures.  He  was  always  a  strong  advocate  for  the  abolition 
of  capital  punishment,  and  on  his  motion  in  1864  a  select  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  consider  the  subject.  Other  reforms 
which  he  advocated  and  which  have  since  been  carried  out  were 
an  annual  statement  on  education,  and  the  examination  of 
candidates  for  the  civil  service  and  army. 

EWE,  a  group  of  Negro  peoples  of  the  Slave  Coast.  West 
Africa.  By  the  natives  their  country  is  called  Ewe-me,  "  Land 
of  the  Ewe."  The  Ewe  family  forms  five  linguistic  groups: 
the  Anlo  or  Anglawa  on  the  Gold  Coast  frontier,  the  Krepi  of 
Anfueh  speech,  the  Jeji,  the  Dahomeyans  and  the  Mahi. 

See  further  DAHOMEY,  and  A.  B.  Ellis,  The  Ewe-Speaking  Peoples 
of  the  Slave  Coast  .  .  .  (London,  1890). 

EWELL,  RICHARD  STODDERT  (1817-1872),  American 
soldier,  lieutenant-general  in  the  Confederate  army,  was  born  in 
Georgetown,  now  a  part  of  Washington,  D.C.,  on  the  2nd  of 
February  1817,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1840.  As  a 
cavalry  officer  he  saw  much  active  service  in  the  Mexican  War 
and  later  in  Indian  warfare  in  New  Mexico.  He  resigned  his 
commission  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and  entered  the 
Confederate  service.  He  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  first  Bull 
Run  campaign,  and  a  division  in  the  famous  Valley  Campaign 
of  "  Stonewall  "  Jackson,  to  whom  he  was  next  in  rank.  At  Cross 
Keys  he  was  in  command  of  the  forces  which  defeated  General 
Fremont.  Ewell's  division  served  with  Jackson  in  the  Seven 
Days  and  in  the  campaign  of  Second  Bull  Run.  At  the  action 
of  Groveton  Ewell  lost  a  leg,  but  did  not  on  that  account  retire 
from  active  service,  though  other  generals  led  his  men  in  the 
sanguinary  battles  of  Antietam  (where  they  lost  47%  of  their 
numbers)  and  Fredericksburg.  After  the  death  of  "  Stonewall  " 
Jackson,  Ewell  was  promoted  lieutenant-general  and  appointed 
to  command  the  2nd  Corps,  with  which  he  had  served  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Valley  Campaign.  His  promotion  set  aside 
General  J.  E.  B.  Stuart,  the  temporary  commander  of  Jackscfl's 
corps;  that  Ewell,  crippled  as  he  was,  was  preferred  to  the 
brilliant  cavalry  leader  was  a  marked  testimony  to  his  sterling 
qualities  as  a  soldier.  The  invasion  of  Pennsylvania  soon 
followed,  Ewell's  corps  leading  the  advance  of  Lee's  army.  A 
federal  force  was  skilfully  cut  off  and  destroyed  near  Winchester, 
Va.,  and  Ewell's  corps  then  raided  Maryland  and  southern 
Pennsylvania  unchecked.  At  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  the 
2nd  Corps  decided  the  fighting  of  the  first  day  in  favour  of 
the  Confederates,  driving  the  enemy  before  them;  on  the 
second  day  it  fought  a  desperate  action  on  Lee's  left  wing. 
Ewell  took  part  in  the  closing  operations  of  1863  and  in  all  the 
battles-  of  the  Wilderness  and  Petersburg  campaigns.  In  the 
final  campaign  of  1865  he  and  the  remnant  of  his  corps  were  cut 
off  and  forqed  to  surrender  at  Sailor's  Creek,  a  few  days  before 
his  chief  capitulated  to  Grant  at  Appomattox.  After  the  war 
General  Ewell  lived  in  retirement.  He  died  near  Spring  Hill, 
Maury  County,  Tennessee,  on  the  25th  of  January  1872. 

EWING,  ALEXANDER  0814-1873),  Scottish  divine,  was 
born  of  an  old  Highland  family  in  Aberdeen  on  the  25th  of 
March  1814.  In  October  1838  he  was  admitted  to  deacon's 
orders,  and  after  his  return  from  Italy  he  took  charge  of  the 


episcopal  congregation  at  Forres,  and  was  ordained  a  presbyter 
in  the  autumn  of  1841.  In  1846  he  was  elected  first  bishop  of 
the  newly  restored  diocese  of  Argyll  and  the  Isles,  the  duties  of 
which  position  he  discharged  till  his  death  on  the  22nd  of  May 
1873.  In  1851  he  received  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the  univer- 
sity of  Oxford.  Though  hampered  by  a  delicate  bodily  constitu- 
tion, he  worked  in  a  spirit  of  buoyant  cheerfulness.  By  the 
charm  of  his  personal  manner  and  his  catholic  sympathies  he 
gradually  attained  a  prominent  position.  In  theological  dis- 
cussion he  contended  for  the  exercise  of  a  wide  tolerance,  and 
attached  little  importance  to  ecclesiastical  authority  and 
organization.  His  own  theological  position  had  close  affinity 
with  that  of  Thomas  Erskine  of  Linlathen  and  Frederick 
Denison  Maurice;  but  his  opinions  were  the  fruit  of  his  own 
meditation,  and  were  coloured  by  his  own  individuality.  The 
trend  of  his  teaching  is  only  to  be  gathered  from  fragmentary 
publications — letters  to  the  newspapers,  pamphlets,  special 
sermons,  essays  contributed  to  the  series  of  Present  Day  Papers, 
of  which  he  was  the  editor,  and  a  volume  of  sermons  entitled 
Revelation  considered  as  Light. 

Besides  his  strictly  theological  writings,  Ewing  was  the  author 
of  the  Cathedral  or  Abbey  Church  of  lona  (1865),  the  first  part  of 
which  contains  drawings  and  descriptive  letterpress  of  the  ruins, 
and  the  second  a  history  of  the  early  Celtic  church  and  the  mission 
of  St  Columba.  See  Memoir  of  Alexander  Ewing,  D.C.L.,  by  A.  J. 
Ross  (1877). 

EWING.  JULIANA  HORATIA  ORR  (1841-1885),  English 
writer  of  books  for  children,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Alfred  Gatty 
and  of  Margaret  Gatty  (<?.».),  was  born  at  Ecclesfield,  Yorkshire, 
in  1841.  One  of  a  large  family,  she  was  accustomed  to  act  as 
nursery  story-teller  to  her  brothers  and  sisters,  and  her  brother 
Alfred  Scott  Gatty  provided  music  to  accompany  her  plays. 
She  was  well  educated  in  classics  and  modern  languages,  and  at 
an  early  age  began  to  publish  verses,  being  a  contributor  to 
Aunt  Judy's  Magazine,  which  her  mother  started  in  1866.  The 
Land  of  Lost  Toys  and  many  other  of  Juliana's  stories  appeared 
in  this  magazine.  In  1867  she  married  Major  Alexander  Ewing, 
himself  an  author,  and  the  composer  of  the  well-known  hymn 
"  Jerusalem  the  Golden."  From  this  time  until  her  death 
(i3th  may  1885),  previously  to  which  she  had  been  a  constant 
invalid,  Mrs  Ewing  produced  a  number  of  charming  children's 
stories.  The  best  of  these  are:  The  Brownies  (1870),  A  Flat-Iron 
for  a  Farthing  (1873),  Lob-lie-by  the  Fire  (1874),  The  Story  of  a 
Short  Life  (1885)  and  Jackanapes  (1884),  the  two  last-named,  in 
particular,  obtaining  great  success;  among  others  may  be 
mentioned  Mrs  Over -the-W ay's  Remembrances  (1869),  Six  to 
Sixteen,  Jan  of  the  Windmill  (1876),  A  Great  Emergency  (1877), 
We  and  the  World  (1881),  Old-Fashioned  Fairy  Tales,  Brothers 
of  Pity  (1882),  The  Doll's  Wash,  Master  Fritz,  Our  Garden,  A 
Soldier's  Children,  Three  Little  Nest- Birds,  A  Week  Spent  in  a 
Glass-House,  A  Sweet  Little  Dear,  and  Blue-Red  (1883).  Many 
of  these  were  published  by  the  S.P.C.K.  Simple  and  unaffected 
in  style,  and  sound  and  wholesome  in  matter,  with  quiet  touches 
of  humour  and  bright  sketches  of  scenery  and  character,  Mrs 
Ewing's  best  stories  have  never  been  surpassed  in  the  style  of 
literature  to  which  they  belong. 

EWING,  THOMAS  (1780-1871),  American  lawyer  and  states- 
man, was  born  near  the  present  West  Liberty,  West  Virginia,  on 
the  28th  of  December  1789.  His  father,  George  Ewing,  settled  at 
Lancaster,  Fairfield  county,  Ohio,  in  1792.  Thomas  graduated 
at  Ohio  University,  Athens,  Ohio,  in  1815,  and  in  August  1816 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Lancaster,  where  he  won  high  rank 
as  an  advocate.  He  was  a  Whig  member  of  the  United  States 
senate  in  1831-1837,  and  as  such  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
legislative  struggle  over  the  United  States  Bank,  whose  re- 
chartering  he  favoured  and  which  he  resolutely  defended  against 
President  Jackson's  attack,  opposing  in  able  speeches  the  with- 
drawal of  deposits  and  Secretary  Woodbury's  "  Specie  Circular  " 
of  1836.  In  March  1841  he  became  secretary  of  the  treasury  in 
President  W.  H.  Harrison's  cabinet.  When,  however,  after 
President  Tyler's  accession,  the  relations  between  the  President 
and  the  Whig  Party  became  strained,  he  retired  (September 
1841)  and  was  succeeded  by  Walter  Forward  (1786-1852). 


EXAMINATIONS 


Subsequently  from  March  1849  to  July  1850  he  was  a  member 
of  President  Taylor's  cabinet  as  the  first  secretary  of  the  newly 
established  department  of  the  interior.  He  thoroughly  organized 
the  department,  and  in  his  able  annual  report  advocated  the 
construction  by  government  aid  of  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific 
Coast.  In  1850-1851  he  filled  the  unexpired  term  of  Thomas 
Corwin  in  the  U.S.  Senate,  strenuously  opposing  Clay's  com- 
promise measures  and  advocating  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the 
District  of  Columbia.  He  was  subsequently  a  delegate  to  the 
Peace  Congress  in  1861,  and  was  a  loyal  supporter  of  President 
Lincoln's  war  policy.  He  died  at  Lancaster,  Ohio,  on  the  26th 
of  October  1871. 

His  daughter  was  the  wife  of  General  William  T.  Sherman. 
His  son,  Hugh  Boyle  Ewing  (1826-1905),  served  throughout  the 
Civil  War  in  the  Federal  armies,  rising  from  the  rank  of  colonel 
(1861)  to  that  of  brigadier-general  (1862)  and  brevet  major- 
general  (1865),  and  commanding  brigades  at  Antietam  and 
Vicksburg  and  a  division  at  Chickamauga;  and  was  minister  of 
the  United  States  to  the  Netherlands  in  1866-1870.  Another  son, 
Thomas  Ewing  (1829-1896),  studied  at  Brown  University  in 
1852-1854  (in  1894,  by  a  special  vote,  he  was  placed  on  the 
list  of  graduates  in  the  class  of  1856) ;  he  was  a  lawyer  and  a  free- 
state  politician  in  Kansas  in  1857-1861,  and  was  the  first  chief- 
justice  of  the  Kansas  supreme  court  (1861-1862).  In  the  Civil 
War  he  attained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  (March  1863)  and 
received  the  brevet  of  major-general  (1865).  He  was  sub- 
sequently a  representative  in  Congress  from  Ohio  in  1877-1881; 
and  from  1882  to  1896  practised  law  in  New  York  City,  where  he 
was  long  one  of  the  recognized  leaders  of  the  bar. 

EXAMINATIONS.  The  term  "  examination  "  (i.e.  inspecting, 
weighing  and  testing;  from  Lat.  examen,  the  tongue  of  a  balance) 
is  used  in  the  following  article  to  denote  a  systematic  test  of 
knowledge,  and  of  either  special  or  general  capacity  or  fitness, 
carried  out  under  the  authority  of  some  public  body. 

i.  History. — The  oldest  known  system  of  examinations  in 
history  is  that  used  in  China  for  the  selection  of  officers  for  the 
public  service  (c.  1115  B.C.),  and  the  periodic  tests  which  they 
undergo  after  entry  (c.  2200  B.C.).  See  CHINA;  also  W.  A.  P. 
Martin,  The  Lore  of  Cathay  (1901),  p.  311  et  seq.;  T.  L.  Bullock, 
"  Competitive  Examinations  in  China  "  (Nineteenth  Century, 
July  1894);  and  Etienne  Zi,  Pratique  des  examens  litteraires  en 
Chine  (Shanghai,  1894).  The  abolition  of  this  system  was 
announced  in  1906,  and,  as  a  partial  substitute,  it  was  decided  to 
hold  an  annual  examination  in  Peking  of  Chinese  graduates 
educated  abroad  (Times,  22nd  of  October  1906). 

The  majority  of  examinations  in  western  countries  are  derived 
from  the  university  examinations  of  the  middle  ages.  The  first 
universities  of  Europe  consisted  of  corporations  of  teachers  and 
of  students  analogous  to  the  trade  gilds  and  merchant  gilds  of 
the  time.  In  the  trade  gilds  there  were  apprentices,  companions, 
and  masters.  No  one  was  admitted  to  mastership  until  he  had 
served  his  apprenticeship  (q.v.),  nor,  as  a  rule,  until  he  had  shown 
that  he  could  accomplish  a  piece  of  work  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
gild. 

The  object  of  the  universities  was  to  teach;  and  to  the  three 
classes  established  by  the  gild  correspond  roughly  the  scholar, 
the  bachelor  or  pupil-teacher  (see  Rashdall  i.  209,  note  2,  and  221, 
note  5),  and  the  master  or  doctor  (two  terms  at  first  equivalent) 
who,  having  served  his  apprenticeship  and  passed  a  definite 
technical  test,  had  received  permission  to  teach.  The  early 
universities  of  Europe,  being  under  the  same  religious  authority 
and  animated  by  the  same  philosophy,  resembled  each  other  very 
closely  in  curriculum  and  general  organization  and  examinations, 
and  by  the  authority  of  the  emperor,  or  of  the  pope  in  most  cases, 
the  permission  to  teach  granted  by  one  university  was  valid  in 
all  (jus  ubicunque  docendi). 

The  earliest  university  examinations  of  which  a  description  is 
available  are  those  in  civil  and  in  canon  law  held  at  Bologna 
at  a  period  subsequent  to  1219.  The  student  was  admitted 
without  examination  as  bachelor  after  from  four  to  six  years' 
study,  and  after  from  six  to  eight  years'  study  became 
qualified  as  a  candidate  for  the  doctorate.  He  might  obtain 


the  doctorate  in  both  branches  of  law  in  ten  years  (Rashdall  i. 
221-222). 

The  doctoral  examination  at  Bologna  in  the  I3th-i4th 
centuries  consisted  of  two  parts — a  private  examination  which 
was  the  real  test,  and  a  public  one  of  a  ceremonial  character 
(conventus).  The  candidate  first  took  an  "  oath  that  he  had 
complied  with  all  the  statutable  conditions,  that  he  would  give 
no  more  than  the  statutable  fees  or  entertainments  to  the  rector 
himself,  the  doctor  or  his  fellow-students,  and  that  he  would 
obey  the  rector."  He  was  then  presented  to  the  archdeacon  of 
Bologna  by  one  or  more  doctors,  who  were  required  to  have 
satisfied  themselves  of  his  fitness  by  private  examination.  Ori 
the  morning  of  the  examination,  after  attending  mass,  he  was 
assigned  by  one  of  the  doctors  of  the  assembled  college  two 
passages  (puncta)  in  the  civil  or  canon  law,  which  he  retired  to 
his  house  to  study,  possibly  with  the  assistance  of  the  presenting 
doctor.  Later  in  the  day  he  gave  a  lecture  on,  or  exposition  of, 
the  prepared  passages,  and  was  examined  on  them  by  two  of 
the  doctors  appointed  by  the  college.  Other  doctors  might  then 
put  supplementary  questions  on  law  arising  out  of  the  passages, 
or  might  suggest  objections  to  his  answers.  The  vote  of  the 
doctors  present  was  taken  by  ballot,  and  the  fate  of  the  candidate 
was  determined  by  the  majority.  The  successful  candidate, 
who  received  the  title  of  licentiate,  was,  on  payment  of  a  heavy 
fee  and  other  expenses,  permitted  to  proceed  to  the  conventus, 
or  final  public  examination.  This  consisted  in  the  delivery  of 
a  speech  and  the  defence  of  a  thesis  on  some  point  of  law, 
selected  by  the  candidate,  against  opponents  selected  from  among 
the  students.  The  successful  candidate  received  from  the  arch- 
deacon the  formal  "  licence  to  teach  "  by  the  authority  of  the 
pope  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity,  and  was  invested  with  the 
insignia  of  office.  At  Bologna,  though  not  at  Paris,  the  "  per- 
mission to  teach  "  soon  became  fictitious,  only  a  small  number 
of  doctors  being  allowed  to  exercise  the  right  of  teaching  in  that 
university  (Rashdall). 

In  the  faculty  of  arts  of  Paris,  towards  the  end  of  the  i3th 
century,  the  system  was  already  more  complicated  than  at 
Bologna.  The  baccalaureate,  licentiateship,  and  mastership 
formed  three  distinct  degrees.  For  admission  to  the  baccalaureate 
a  preliminary  test  or  "  Responsions  "  was  first  required,  at  which 
the  candidate  had  to  dispute  in  grammar  or  logic  with  a  master. 
The  examiners  then  inspected  the  certificates  (schedulae)  of 
residence  and  of  having  attended  lectures  in  the  prescribed 
subjects,  and  examined  him  in  the  contents  of  his  books.  The 
successful  candidate  was  admitted  to  maintain  a  thesis  against 
an  opponent,  a  process  called  "  determination  "  (see  Rashdall 
i.  443  et  seq.),  and  as  bachelor  was  then  permitted  to  give 
"cursory"  lectures.  After  five  or  six  years  from  the  date  of  begin- 
ning his  studies  (matriculation)  and  being  twenty  years  of  age 
(these  conditions  varied  at  different  periods),  a  bachelor  was 
permitted  to  present  himself  for  the  examination  for  the  licentiate- 
ship,  which  was  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  part  was 
conducted  in  private  by  the  chancellor  and  four  examiners 
(temptatores  in  cameris),  and  included  an  inquiry  into  the 
candidate's  residence,  attendance  at  lectures,  and  performance 
of  exercises,  as  well  as  examination  in  prescribed  books;  those 
candidates  adjudged  worthy  were  admitted  to  the  more  im- 
portant examination  before  the  faculty,  and  the  names  of 
successful  candidates  were  sent  to  the  chancellor  in  batches  of 
eight  or  more  at  a  time,  arranged  in  order  of  merit.  (The  order 
of  merit  at  the  examination  for  the  licentiateship  existed  in 
Paris  till  quite  recently.)  Each  successful  candidate  was  then 
required  to  maintain  a  thesis  chosen  by  himself  (quodlibetica) 
in  St  Julian's  church,  and  was  finally  submitted  to  a  purely 
formal  public  examination  (collatio)  at  either  the  episcopal 
palace  or  the  abbey  of  Ste  Genevieve,  before  receiving  from 
the  chancellor,  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity,  the  licence  to  incept 
or  begin  to  teach  in  the  faculty  of  arts.  After  some  six  months 
more  the  licentiate  took  part  "  in  a  peculiarly  solemn  disputa- 
tion known  as  his  'Vespers,'  "  then  gave  his  formal  inaugural 
lecture  or  disputation  before  the  faculty,  and  was  received  into 
the  faculty  as  master.  This  last  process  was  called  "  inception." 


EXAMINATIONS 


In  discussing  the  value  of  medieval  examinations  of  the  kind 
described,  Paulsen  (TheGerman  Universities (1906), p. 25) asserts 
that  they  were  well  adapted  to  increase  a  student's  alertness, 
his  power  of  comprehending  new  ideas,  and  his  ability  quickly 
and  surely  to  assimilate  them  to  his  own,  and  that  "  they  did 
more  to  enable  [students]  to  grasp  a  subject  than  the  mute  and 
solitary  reviewing  and  cramming  of  our  modern  examinations 
can  possibly  do."  At  their  best  they  fulfilled  precisely  the 
technical  purpose  for  which  they  were  intended;  they  fully 
tested  the  capacity  of  the  candidate  to  teach  the  subjects  which 
he  was  required  to  teach  in  accordance  with  the  methods  which 
he  was  required  to  use.  The  limitations  of  the  test  were  the 
limitations  of  the  educational  and  philosophic  ideals  of  the  time, 
in  which  a  dogmatic  basis  was  presupposed  to  all  knowledge 
and  criticism  was  limited  to  the  superstructure.  At  their  worst, 
even  with  venal  examiners  (and  additional  fees  were  often  offered 
as  a  bribe),  Rashdall  regards  these  examinations  (at  the  end  of 
the  I3th  century)  as  probably  "  less  of  a  farce  than  the  pass 
examinations  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  almost  within  the 
memory  «f  persons  now  living."  It  is,  however,  to  be  pointed  out 
that  the  standard  in  Paris  and  elsewhere  at  a  later  date  became 
scandalously  low  in  some  cases.  In  some  universities  the  sons  of 
nobles  were  regularly  excused  certain  examinations.  At  Cam- 
bridge in  1774  Fellow  Commoners  were  examined  with  such 
precipitation  to  fulfil  the  formal  requirements  of  the  statutes 
that  the  ceremony  was  termed  "  huddling  for  a  degree  "  (Jebb, 
Remarks  upon  the  Present  Mode  of  Education  in  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  4th  ed.,  1774,  p.  32).  The  last  privileges  of  this 
kind  were  abolished  at  Cambridge  by  a  grace  passed  on  the  2oth 
of  March  1884. 

In  the  medieval  examinations  described  above  we  find  most  of 
the  elements  of  our  present  examinations:  certificates  of  previous 
study  and  good  conduct,  preparation  of  set-books,  questioning 
on  subjects  not  specially  prepared,  division  of  examinations 
into  various  parts,  classification  in  order  of  merit,  payment  of 
fees,  the  presentation  of  a  dissertation,  and  the  defence  and 
publication  of  a  thesis  (a  term  of  which  the  meaning  has  now 
become  extended). 

The  requirement  to  write  answers  to  questions  written  or 
dictated,  to  satisfy  a  practical  test  (other  than  in  teaching), 
and  a  clinical  test  in  medicine,  appear  to  be  of  later  date.1  The 
medieval  candidate  for  the  doctorate  in  medicine,  although 
required  to  have  attended  practice  before  presenting  himself, 
discussed  as  his  thesis  a  purely  theoretical  question,  often 
semi-theological  in  character,  of  which  as  an  extreme  example 
may  be  quoted  "  whether  Adam  had  a  navel." 

The  competitive  system  was  developed  considerably  at 
Louvain,  and  in  the  1 5th  century  the  candidates  for  the  master- 
ship of  arts  were  divided  into  three  classes  (rigor osi,  honour-men; 
transibiles,  pass-men;  gratiosi,  charity-passes),  while  a  fourth, 
which  was  not  published,  contained  the  names  of  those  who  failed. 
In  the  1 7th  century  the  first  class  comprised  the  names  of  twelve, 
and  the  second,  of  twenty-four,  candidates,  who  were  divided 
on  the  report  of  their  teachers  into  classes  before  the  examination, 
and  finally  arranged  in  order  of  merit  by  the  examiners 
(Vernulaeus,  quoted  by  Sir  W.  Hamilton,  Discussions,  1852; 
p.  647;  Rashdall,  loc.  cit.  ii.  262).  At  the  Cambridge  tripos  (as 
described  by  Jebb  in  1774,  Remarks,  &c.,  pp.  20-31)  the  first 
twenty-four  candidates  were  also  selected  by  a  preliminary  test; 
they  were  then  divided  further  into  "  wranglers"  (the  disputants, 
par  excellence)  and  Senior  Optimes,  the  next  twelve  on  the  list 
being  called  the  Junior  Optimes.  These  names  have  in  the 
mathematics  tripos  survived  the  procedure.  (The  name  Tripos 
is  derived  from  the  three-legged  stool  on  which  "  an  old 
bachilour,"  selected  for  the  purpose,  sat  during  his  disputation 
with  the  senior  bachelor  of  the  year,  who  was  required  to  pro- 
pound two  questions  to  him.) 

1  W.  W.  Rouse  Ball  in  his  History  of  the  Study  of  Mathematics  at 
Cambridge  (1889),  p.  193,  states  that  he  can  find  no  record  of  any 
European  examinations  by  means  of  written  papers  earlier  than 
those  introduced  by  R.  Bentley  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  in 
1702. 


The  subjects  in  which  the  medieval  universities  examined 
were  (i.)  those  of  the  trivium  and  quadrivium  in  the  faculty  of 
arts;  (ii.)  theology;  (iii.)  medicine;  and  (iv.)  civil  and  canon 
law.  The  number  of  subjects  in  which  examinations  arc  held 
has  since  grown  immensely.  We  can  only  sketch  in  outline 
the  transformations  of  certain  typical  university  systems  of 
examinations. 

At  Oxford  there  is  rio  record  of  a  process  of  formal  examination 
on  books  similar  to  that  of  Paris  (Rashdall,  ii.  442  et  seq.), 
disputations  being  apparently  the  only  test  applied  in  its  early 
history.  Examinations  were  definitely  introduced  for  the  B.A. 
and  M.A.  degrees  by  Laud  in  1636-1638  (Brodrick,  History  of 
Oxford,  p.  114),  but  the  standard  prescribed  was  so  much  beyond 
the  actual  requirements  of  later  times  that  it  may  be  doubted  if 
it  was  enforced.  The  studies  fell  in  the  i8th  century  into  an 
"  abject  state,"  from  which  they  were  first  raised  by  a  statute 
passed  in  1800  (Report  of  Oxford  University  Commissisn  of 
1850-1852,  p.  60  et  seq.),  under  which  distinctions  were  first 
allotted  to  the  ablest  candidates  for  the  bachelor's  degree. 
Further  changes  were  made  in  1807  and  1825;  and  in  1830  a 
distinction  was  made  between  honours  examinations  of  a  more 
difficult  character,  at  which  successful  candidates  were  divided 
into  four  classes,  and  pass  examinations  of  an  easier  character. 
By  the  statutes  of  1849  and  1858  an  intermediate  "  Moderations  " 
examination  was  instituted  between  the  preliminary  examination 
called  "  Responsions  "  and  the  final  examination.  Since  1850, 
although  fresh  subjects  of  examination  have  been  introduced, 
no  considerable  change  of  system  has  been  made. 

The  bachelor's  degree  at  Oxford  tended  from  an  early  period  to 
be  postponed  to  an  advanced  stage  of  studies,  while  the  require- 
ments for  the  master's  degree  diminished  until,  in  1807,  the 
examination  for  the  M.A.  was  abolished.  It  is  now  awarded  to 
bachelors  of  three  years'  standing  on  payment  of  a  fee. 

Cambridge  in  early  times  followed  the  example  of  Oxford, 
and  here  also  the  bachelor's  degree  became  more  and  more 
important  (Bass  Mullinger,  History  of  the  University  of  Cambridge 
from  1535.  .  .  ,  p.  414),  and  the  M.A.  has  been  finally  reduced  to 
a  mere  formality,  awarded  on  terms  similar  to  those  of  the  sister 
university.  The  standard  of  examinations  was  raised  in  Cam- 
bridge at  an  earlier  date  than  at  Oxford,  and  in  the  i8th  century 
the  tripos  "  established  the  reputation  of  Cambridge  as  a  School 
of  Mathematical  Science."  The  school,  however,  produced 
few,  if  any,  great  mathematicians  between  Newton  and  George 
Green.  It  was  only  between  1830  and  1840  that  the  standard 
of  the  tripos  became  a  high  one.  At  Cambridge  there  is  no 
intermediate  examination  between  the  "  Previous  Examination  " 
(commonly  called  "Little-go"),  which  corresponds  to  Oxford 
"  Responsions  "  or  "  Smalls  "  and  the  triposes  and  examinations 
for  the  "  Poll "  degree,  which  correspond  to  the  Oxford  final 
honours  and  pass  examinations  respectively.  But  most  of  the 
triposes  have  been  divided  into  two  parts,  of  which  the  second  is 
not  obligatory  in  order  to  obtain  a  degree.  The  "  senior  wrangler  " 
was  the  first  candidate  in  order  of  merit  in  the  first  part  of  the 
mathematical  tripos.  The  abolition  of  order  of  merit  at  this 
examination  was  decided  on  in  1906,  and  names  of  candidates 
appeared  in  this  order  for  the  last  time  in  1909. 

At  the  Scottish  universities  the  B.A.  degree  has  become 
extinct,  and  the  M.A.,  awarded  on  the  results  of  examination, 
is  the  first  degree  in  the  faculty  of  arts. 

The  incorporation  of  the  university  of  London  in  1 836  marks  an 
era  in  the  history  of  examinations;  the  teaching  and  examining 
functions  of  a  university  were  dissociated  for  the  first  time. ' 
Until  1858  the  London  examinations  were  open  only  to  students 
in  affiliated  colleges,  and  the  teachers  had  no  share  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  examiners  or  indetermining  the  curricula  for  examina- 
tions; in  1858  the  examinations  were  thrown  open  to  all  comers, 
and  no  requirements  were  insisted  on  with  regard  to  courses  of 
study  except  for  degrees  in  the  faculty  of  medicine.  The  sole 
function  of  the  university  was  to  examine,  and  its  examinations 
for  matriculation  and  for  degrees  in  arts  and  science  were  carried 
on  by  means  of  written  papers  not  only  in  London  but  in  many 
centres  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  colonies.  From  the 


EXAMINATIONS 


43 


first  the  degrees  were  (unlike  those  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
until  1871)  open  to  all  male  persons  without  religious  distinctions; 
and  in  1878  they  were  opened  to  women.  (Tripos  examinations 
were  thrown  open  to  women  at  Cambridge  by  the  grace  of  24th 
Feb.  1881,  and  at  Oxford  women  were  admitted  to  examinations 
for  honours  by  statute  of  zgth  April  1884.  Proposals  to  admit 
women  to  university  degrees  were  rejected  by  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  in  1896  and  1897  respectively.) 

The  standard  of  difficulty  set  by  the  university  of  London 
was  a  high  one,  very  much  higher  for  its  pass  degrees  than  the 
corresponding  standards  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  while  the 
standard  for  honours  was  equally  high.  In  medicine  the 
examinations  were  made  both  wider  in  range  and  more  searching 
than  those  of  any  other  examining  body.  But,  for  reasons  dealt 
with  below,  great  discontent  was  roused  by  the  new  system. 
In  1880  the  Victoria  University,  Manchester,  was  established, 
in  which  teaching  and  examining  were  again  united;  and  in  the 
universities  since  established,  with  the  exception  of  the  Royal 
University  of  Ireland  (which  was  created  in  1880  as  an  examining 
body  on  the  model  of  London,  but  which  was  dissolved  under  the 
Irish  Universities  Act  1908,  and  replaced  by  the  National  Univer- 
sity of  Ireland  and  the  Queen's  University  of  Belfast),  the  pre- 
cedent of  Victoria  has  been  followed.  By  an  act  passed  in  1898, 
of  which  the  provisions  came  into  force  in  1900,  the  university  of 
London  was  reconstituted  as  a  teaching  university,  although 
provision  was  made  for  the  continuance  of  the  system  of  examina- 
tions by  "  external  examiners  "  for  "  external  students,"  together 
with  "  internal  examinations  "  for  "  internal  students,"  in  which 
the  teachers  and  the  external  examiners  of  the  university  are 
associated.  The  examinations  in  music  and  the  final  examina- 
tions in  law  and  medicine  are  carried  on  [1910]  both  for 
"  internal  "  and  "  external  "  students  by  "  external  "  examiners 
only,  who  are,  however,  appointed  on  the  recommendation  of 
boards  of  studies  consisting  mainly  of  London  teachers. 

At  the  university  of  Dublin,  examinations  have  been  main- 
tained both  for  the  B.A.  and  M.A.  degrees,  and  students  may  be 
admitted  to  the  examinations  in  subjects  other  than  divinity, 
law,  medicine,  and  engineering  without  attendance  at  university 
courses. 

The  examinations  of  the  newer  universities,  the  Victoria  Uni- 
versity of  Manchester,  Birmingham,  Liverpool,  Leeds,  Sheffield 
and  Wales,  are  open  only  to  students  at  these  universities, 
and  are  conducted  by  the  teachers  in  association  with  one  or 
more  external  examiners  for  each  subject.  In  some  universities, 
e.g.  Manchester,  the  M.A.  degree  is  given  after  examination  to 
students  who  have  taken  a  pass,  and  without  examination  to 
those  who  have  taken  an  honours  degree. 

The  universities  which  have  departed  furthest  from  the 
medieval  system  of  examinations,  at  any  rate  in  appearance, 
are  those  of  Germany.  The  baccalaureate  has  disappeared, 
but  students  cannot  be  matriculated  without  having  passed  the 
Abiturienten-examen  (see  below),  probably  the  most  severe  of 
all  entrance  examinations  (foreign  students  may  be  exempted 
under  certain  conditions).  The  student  desiring  to  proceed  to 
the  doctorate  is  free  from  examinations  thereafter  until  he 
presents  his  thesis  for  the  doctor's  degree,1  when,  if  it  is  accepted, 
he  is  submitted  to  a  public  oral  examination  not  only  in  his 
principal  subject  (Hauptfach),  but  also  as  a  rule  in  two  or  more 
collateral  subjects  (Nebenfacher).  The  doctor's  degree  does  not 
give  the  right  to  teach  in  a  faculty  (venia  legendi).  To  acquire 
this  a  doctor  must  present  a  further  thesis  (Habilitationsschrifl), 
and  must  deliver  two  lectures,  one  before  the  faculty,  followed 
by  a  discussion  (colloquium),  the  other  in  public;  but  these 
lectures  "  seem  to  be  merely  secondary  and  are  tending  to  become 
so  more  and  more";  "scientific  productiveness  is  so  sharply 
emphasized  among  the  conditions  for  admission  that  it  over- 
shadows all  the  rest  "  (Paulsen,  loc.  cit.  p.  165). 

1  It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  professors  of  chemistry  of  a 
number  of  German,  Austrian  and  Swiss  universities,  have,  by  agree- 
ment, instituted  an  intermediate  examination  in  that  subject  which 
students  are  required  to  pass  before  beginning  work  on  the  doctoral 
thesis.  The  examination  of  the  students  is  conducted  by  the  teachers 
concerned. 


In  France  the  examination  for  the  baccalaureate,  though 
conducted  in  part  by  university  examiners,  has  become  a  school- 
leaving  examination  (see  below).  The  licentiateship  has  been 
preserved  in  the  faculties  of  arts,  science  and  laws,  and  is  in 
point  of  difficulty  about  equal  to  the  pass  degree  examinations 
of  the  university  of  London,  though  differing  in  the  nature  of  the 
tests.  In  the  faculty  of  sciences,  the  three  subjects  of  examina- 
tion selected  may,  under  a  recent  regulation,  be  taken  separately. 
Until  a  few  years  ago  the  successful  candidates  at  the  licentiate- 
ship  were  arranged  in  order  of  merit.  For  the  doctorate  in  the 
faculty  of  letters  two  theses  must  be  submitted,  of  which  the 
subject  and  plan  must  be  approved  by  the  faculty  (until  recently 
one  of  them  was  required  to  be  written  in  Latin).  Permission 
to  print  the  theses  is  given  by  the  rector  or  vice-rector  after 
report  from  one  or  more  professors,  and  they  are  then  discussed 
publicly  by  the  faculty  and  the  candidate  (soutenance  de  these). 
In  this  public  discussion  the  "  disputation  "  of  the  middle  ages 
survives  in  its  least  changed  form.  The  literary  theses  required 
by  French  universities  are,  as  a  rule,  volumes  of  several  hun- 
dred pages,  and  more  important  in  character  even  than  the 
German  Habilitationsschrift.  The  possession  of  the  doctorate 
is  a  sine  qua  non  for  eligibility  to  a  university  chair,  and  to  a 
lectureship  in  the  university  of  Paris. 

In  the  faculty  of  sciences  a  candidate  for  the  doctorate  may 
submit  two  theses,  or  else  submit  one  thesis  and  undergo  an 
oral  examination. 

For  the  doctorate  in  law,  a  thesis  and  two  oral  examinations  are 
required. 

In  the  faculty  of  medicine  there  is  no  licentiateship,  but  for 
the  doctorate  six  examinations  must  be  passed  and  a  thesis 
submitted. 

There  is  also  a  special  doctorate,  the  "  doctoral  d' University," 
awarded  on  a  thesis  and  an  oral  examination;  and  there  are 
diplomas  (Dipldmes  d' Etudes  superieures)  awarded  on  disserta- 
tions and  examinations  on  subjects  in  philosophy,  history  and 
geography,  classics  or  modern  languages,  selected  mainly  by  the 
candidate  and  approved  by  the  faculty. 

2.  Professional  Examinations,  (a)  Teaching. — University  ex- 
aminations for  degrees  having  ceased  to  be  used  as  technical 
tests  of  teaching  capacity,  new  examinations  have  been  devised 
for  this  purpose.  The  test  for  German  university  teachers  has 
been  described  above.  For  secondary  teachers,  W.  von  Hum- 
boldt  instituted  a  special  examination  in  1810  (Paulsen,  Gesch. 
des  gelehrten  Unterrichts,  ii.  pp.  283  and  393),  and  an  examina- 
tion for  primary  teachers  was  instituted  in  Prussia  in  1794. 

In  France  there  is  a  competitive  examination  for  secondary 
teachers,  the  agregation,  originally  established  in  1766.  Agreges 
have  a  right  to  state  employment  and  they  alone  can  occupy  the 
highest  teaching  post  (chaire  de  professeur)  in  a  state  secondary 
school,  other  posts  being  open  to  licentiates.  There  are  also 
examinations  for  primary  teachers.  The  tests  for  teachers  are 
different  for  the  two  sexes. 

In  England  there  is  no  obligatory  test  for  secondary  teachers. 
The  universities  and  the  College  of  Preceptors  conduct  examina- 
tions for  teaching  diplomas.  The  Board  of  Education  holds 
special  examinations  (Preliminary  Certificate  examination  and 
Certificate  examination,  &c.)  for  primary  teachers. 

(b)  Medicine. — See  MEDICAL  EDUCATION. 

(c)  Other  Professions. — A  system  of  professional  examinations 
carried  on  by  professional  bodies,  in  some  cases  with  legal 
sanction,  was  developed  in  England  during  the  igth  century. 
Those    in    the   following  subjects    are  the    most    important: 
Accountancy  (Institute  of  Chartered  Accountants  and  Society 
of  Accountants  and   Auditors),  actuarial  work   (Institute  of 
Actuaries),  music  (Royal  Academy  of  Music,  Royal  College  of 
Music,  Trinity  College  of  Music,  Royal  College  of  Organists,  and 
the  Incorporated  Society  of  Musicians) ,  pharmacy  (Pharmaceuti- 
cal Society),  plumbing  (the  Plumbers'  Company),  surveying 
(Surveyors'  Institution),  veterinary  medicine  (Royal  College  of 
Veterinary  Surgeons),  technical  subjects,  e.g.  cotton-spinning, 
dyeing,  motor-manufacture  (City  &  Guilds  of  London  Institute) , 
architecture  (Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects),  commercial 


44 


EXAMINATIONS 


subjects,  shorthand  (the  Society  of  Arts  and  London  Chamber 
of  Commerce),  engineering  (Institutions  of  Civil  Engineers,  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  and  of  Electrical  Engineers). 

3.  School-leaving    Examinations.— The    faculty    of   arts   in 
medieval    universities    covered    secondary  as  well  as  higher 
education  in  the  subjects  concerned.  The  division  in  arts  subjects 
between  secondary  and  university  education  has  been  drawn  at 
different  levels  in  different  countries.  Thus  the  first  two  years 
of  the  arts  curriculum  in  English  and  American  universities 
correspond,  roughly  speaking,  to  the  last  two  years  spent  in  a 
secondary  school  of  Germany  or'  France,  and  the  continental 
"  school-leaving  examinations "  correspond  to  the  intermediate 
examinations  of  the  newer  English  universities  and  to  the  pass 
examinations  for  the  degree  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  (Mark 
Pattison,  Suggestions  on  Academical  Organization,  1868,  p.  238, 
and    Matthew    Arnold,    Higher   Schools    and    Universities   in 
Germany,  1892,  p.  209). 

A  tabular  summary  is  given  (see  Tables  I.,  II.,  III.,  IV.)  of  the 
requirements  of  the  secondary  school-leaving  examinations  of 
France,  Prussia  (for  the  nine-year  secondary  schools)  and 
Scotland,  and  of  the  university  of  London. 

There  are  in  England  a  number  of  school  examinations  which, 
under  prescribed  conditions,  also  serve  as  school-leaving  examina- 
tions, and  give  entrance  to  certain  universities,  especially  the 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  local  examinations  (both  established  in 
1858), and  the  examinations  of  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  "Joint 
Board."  A  movement  to  reduce  the  number  of  entrance  examina- 
tions and  to  secure  uniformity  in  their  standard  was  set  on  foot  in 
1901.  In  that  year  the  General  Medical  Council  communicated 
to  the  Board  of  Education  a  memorial  on  the  subject  from 
the  Headmasters'  Conference.  The  memorial  was  further  com- 
municated to  various  professional  bodies  concerned.  Conferences 
were  held  by  the  consultative  committee  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion in  1903,  with  representatives  of  the  universities,  the  Head- 
masters' Conference,  the  Association  of  Head-Masters,  the 
Association  of  Head-Mistresses,  the  College  of  Preceptors,  the 
Private  Schools'  Association,  and  with  representatives  of  pro- 
fessional bodies.  The  committee  were  of  opinion  that  a  central 
board,  consisting  of  representatives  of  the  Board  of  Education 
and  the  different  examining  bodies,  should  be  established,  to 
co-ordinate  and  control  the  standards  of  [the  examinations, 
and  to  secure  interchangeability  of  certificates,  &c.,  as  soon  as 
a  sufficient  number  of  such  bodies  signified  their  willingness  to 
be  represented  on  the  board.  They  recommended  that  the 
examination  should  be  conducted  by  external  and  internal  ex- 
aminers, representing  in  each  case  the  examining  body  and  the 
school  staff  respectively,  and  that  reports  on  the  school  work  of 
candidates  should  be  available  for  reference  by  the  examiners 
(circular  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  I2th  of  July  1904). 

The  "  accrediting  "  system  in  the  United  States  was  started  by 
the  university  of  Michigan  in  1871.  A  school  desiring  to  be 
accredited  is  submitted  to  inspection  without  previous  notice. 
If  the  inspection  is  satisfactory,  the  school  is  accredited  by  a 
university  for  from  one  to  three  years,  and  upon  the  favourable 
report  of  its  principal  any  of  its  students  are  admitted  to  the 
university  by  which  it  has  been  accredited  without  any  entrance 
examination.  In  practice  it  is  found  that  many  students  whom 
their  teachers  refuse  to  certify  are  able  to  pass  the  university 
entrance  examination.  The  statistics  of  nine  years  show  that  the 
standard  of  the  certified  students  is  higher  than  that  of  non- 
certified  students.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  schools  are  accredited 
by  the  university  of  Michigan.  In  1904  it  was  stated  that  the 
system  was  gaining  favour  in  the  east,1  and  that  it  had  been 
adopted  more  or  less  by  all  the  eastern  colleges  and  universities 
with  the  exception  of  Harvard,  Yale,  Princeton  and  Columbia. 

4.  Methods   of  Examination. — Examinations   may   test    (i.) 
knowledge,  or,  more  exactly,  the  power  of  restating  facts  and 
arguments  of  a  kind  that  may  be  learnt  by  rote;  (ii.)  the  power 

1  See  E.  E.  Brown  in  Monographs  on  Education  in  the  United 
States  (ed.  by  N.  M.  Butler,  1900,  i.  164),  and  T.  Gregory  Foster  and 
H.  R.  Reichel,  Report  of  Mostly  Educational  Commission  (1904), 
pp.  1 1 7- 1 19  and  288-289. 


Written. 


of  doing  something,  e.g.  of  making  a. precis  of  a  written  document, 
of  writing  a  letter  or  a  report  on  a  particular  subject  with  a 
particular  object  in  view,  of  translating  from  or  into  a  foreign 
language,  of  solving  a  mathematical  problem,  of  criticizing  a 
passage  from  a  literary  work,  of  writing  an  essay  on  an  historical 
or  literary  subject  with  the  aid  of  books  in  a  library,  of  diagnosing 
the  malady  of  a  patient,  of  analysing  a  chemical  mixture  or  com- 
pound; and  (the  highest  form  under  the  rubric)  of  making  an 
original  contribution  to  learning  or  science  as  the  result  of 
personal  investigation  or  experiment.  Examinations  are  carried 
out  at  present  by  means  of  (i)  written  papers;  (2)  oral  examina- 
tions; (3)  practical,  including  in  medicine  clinical,  tests;  (4) 
theses;  or  a  combination  of  these. 

In  written  examinations  the  candidates  are,  as  a  rule,  supplied 
with  a  number  of  printed  questions,  of  which  they  must  answer 
all,  or  a  certain  proportion,  within  a  given  time, 
varying,  as  a  rule,  from  15  to  3  hours,  the  latter  being 
the  duration  most  generally  adopted  for  higher  examinations  in 
England.  Whereas  in  France  and  Germany  the  questions  are 
generally  few  in  number  and  require  long  answers,  showing 
constructive  skill  and  mastery  of  the  mother-tongue  on  the  part 
of  the  candidates,  such  "essay-papers"  are  comparatively  rare 
in  England.  In  many  subjects,  the  written  examinations  test 
rnemory  rather  than  capacity.  It  has  been  suggested  that  sets 
of  questions  to  be  answered  in  writing  should  as  a  rule  be  divided 
into  two  parts:  (i.)  a  number  of  questions  requiring  short  answers 
and  intended  to  test  the  range  of  the  candidate's  knowledge; 
(ii.)  questions  requiring  long  answers,  intended  to  test  its  depth, 
and  the  candidate's  powers  of  co-ordination  and  reflection. 
A  necessary  condition  for  the  application  of  the  second  kind  of 
test  is  that  time  should  be  given  for  reflection  and  for  rewriting, 
say  one-third  or  one-quarter  of  the  whole  time  allowed.  A 
further  distinction  is  important,  especially  in  such  subjects  as 
mathematics  or  foreign  languages,  in  which  it  is  legitimate  to  ask 
what  precise  power  on  the  part  of  a  candidate  the  passing  of 
an  examination  shall  signify.  Owing  to  a  prevailing  confusion 
between  tests  of  memory  and  tests  of  capacity,  the  allowance 
for  chance  fairly  applied  to  the  former  is  apt  to  be  unduly 
extended  to  the  latter.  In  applying  tests  of  memory,  it  may  be 
legitimate  to  allow  a  candidate  to  pass  who  answers  correctly 
from  30  to  50%  of  the  questions;  such  an  allowance  if  applied 
to  a  test  of  capacity,  such  as  the  performance  of  a  sum  in  addi- 
tion, the  solution  of  triangles  by  means  of  trigonometrical  tables, 
or  the  translation  of  an  easy  passage  from  a  foreign  language, 
appears  to  be  irrational.  A  candidate  who  obtains  only  50% 
of  the  marks  in  performing  such  operations  cannot  be  regarded  as 
being  able  to  perform  them;  and,  if  the  examination  is  to  be 
treated  as  a  test  of  his  capacity  to  perform  them,  he  should  be 
rejected  unless  he  obtains  full  marks,  less  a  certain  allowance 
(say  10,  or  at  most  20%)  in  view  of  the  more  or  less  artificial 
conditions  inherent  in  all  examinations. 

The  oral  examination  is  better  suited  than  the  written  to 
discover  the  range  of  a  candidate's  knowledge;  it  also  serves 
as  a  test  of  his  powers  of  expression  in  his  mother- 
tongue,  or  in  a  foreign  language,  and  may  be  used  (as 
in  the  examination  for  entrance  to  the  Osborne  Naval  College) 
to  test  the  important  qualities  (hardly  tested  in  any  other 
examinations  at  present),  readiness  of  wit,  common-sense  and 
nerve.  It  may  be  objected  that  candidates  are  heavily  handi- 
capped by  nervousness  in  oral  examinations,  but  this  objec- 
tion does  not  afford  sufficient  ground  for  rejecting  the  test, 
provided  that  it  is  supplemented  by  others.  Oral  tests  are 
used  almost  invariably  in  medical  examinations;  and  there 
is  a  growing  tendency  to  make  them  compulsory  in  dealing 
with  modern  languages.  Oral  examinations  are  much  more 
used  abroad  than  in  England,  where  the  pupils  during  their 
school  years  receive  but  little  exercise  in  the  art  of  consecutive 
speaking. 

The  laboratory  examination  may  be  used  in  subjects  like 
physics,  chemistry,  geology,  zoology,  botany,  anatomy,  physio- 
logy, to  test  powers  of  manipulation  and  knowledge  of 
experimental  methods.  In  some  cases  (e.g.  in  certain  honours 


Oral. 


EXAMINATIONS 


TABLE  I— PRUSSIA :  ABITURIENTEN  EXAMEN 


45 


I. 

Name  of 
Examination. 

II. 

Minimum  Age 
for  Entry. 

III. 
Length  of  Course 
of  Study. 

IV. 

Subjects. 

V. 

Co-ordination  with 
Teaching. 

VI. 

Examiners. 

VII. 
Nature  of  Examination  and 
General  Remarks. 

Abituricnten 

Examen 
(established  in 
1788). 

Age  only  limited 
by  condition  of 
length  of  school 
course.  The 
usual  age  is 
17-18. 

9  years. 

Candidates   who 
have    not    at- 
tended   the    9 
years'      school 
course  may  be 
admitted  to  the 
examinationoQ 
special  ap- 
plication. 

In  Gymnasium. 
•  C  German  essay. 
Mathematics. 
.S-s  Translation  into  Latin. 
>     Translation    from    Greek    into 
"*  L     German. 
(Latin. 
Greek. 
English  or  French. 
Religion. 

The  object  of  the  ex- 
amination is  defined 
as    being    a    test    of 
whether    the    candi- 
date has  fulfilled  the 
aims  laid  down  in  the 
curricula,     &c.,    pre- 
scribed  for   a   Gym- 
nasium,       Real-gym- 
nasium or  Ober-real- 
schule,    as    the    case 

The  Examining  Board 
consists  of  a  govern- 
ment inspector  (der 
Konigliche  Kommis- 
sar)  acting  as  chair- 
man, the  Headmaster 
of  the  school,  and  the 
teachers  of  the  high- 
est classes  in  the 
school.  The  inspector 
may  nominate  a 

The     written     examination 
extends  over  four  or  five 
days.     Only  one  paper  is 
given  each  day,  for  which 
3  to  si  hours  are  allowed 
(si  hours  for  the  German 
essay).     For     essays     in 
foreign  languages  diction- 
aries may  be  used. 

History. 

Mathematics. 

may  be.  and  the  sub- 
jects of  examination 

deputy,  who  is,  as  a 
rule,  the  headmaster 

In  Real-Gymnasium. 

are  those   prescribed 
in   the   curricula   for 

of  the  school. 
Each  teacher  con- 

{German essay. 
Mathematics. 
Translation  from  Latin. 
Translation  from  German  into, 
or  essay  in,  English  or  French. 

the    kind    of    school 
concerned. 
The  report  on  the 
school  work  of  each 
candidate       in       his 

cerned  selects  for  the 
written  examination 
three  alternative  sub- 
jects in  his  branch, 
from  which,  after 

Physics. 

various    subjects     is 

receiving  a  report 

(Latin. 

laid  before  the  Exam- 

thereon from  the 

English. 

ining    Board    before 

headmaster,  the  in- 

French. 

Physics  or  Chemistry. 

the  beginning  of  the 
examination. 

spector  makes  a  final 
choice. 

Religion. 

The     papers     are 

History. 

marked  by  the 

Mathematics. 

teachers  concerned, 

In  Ober-Realsehule. 

and  circulated  to  the 

C  German  essay. 

whole  Board  of  Ex- 
aminers, who  then 

Mathematics. 
§     An  exercise  in  French  and    in 
.—-<       English  (an  essay  in  one  lan- 
£         guage  and  a  translation  from 
the  other  into  German). 
[  Physics  or  Chemistry. 

decide  whether  in- 
dividual candidates 
shall  be  (i.)  rejected, 
(ii.)  admitted  with 
exemption  from  the 
oral  examination,  or 

(English. 

(iii.)  submitted  to  the 

French. 

oral  examination. 

Physics. 

Chemistry. 

Religion. 

History. 

Mathematics. 

TABLE  II.— FRANCE  :  BACCALAUREAT 


I. 

Name  of 
Examination  . 

II. 

Minimum  Age 
for  Entry. 

III. 

Length  of  Course 
of  Study. 

IV. 

Subjects. 

V. 
Co-ordination  with 
Teaching. 

VI. 

Examiners. 

vn. 

Nature  of  Examination  and 
General  Remarks. 

Baccalaureat     dt 

Part  I.,   16,  or, 

There  is  no  re- 

Part I.  is  divided  into  four  Branches, 

The  syllabus  of  the  ex- 

The  Board   of   Exam- 

The    written     portion     of 

renseignement 
secondairg. 

This  examina- 
tion has  been 
carried  on 
under  different 
forms  since 
1808.  The  reg- 
ulations sum- 
marized here 
date  from  1902, 

with       special 
permission,  15. 
Part  II.  may  not 
be  taken  within 
a  n     academic 
year  after  pass- 
ing Part  I. 

quirement     of 
attendance. 
Part  I.  of  the 
examination 
corresponds  ex- 
actly    to     the 
subjects  taken 
in  the  "second 
cycle"  of  secon- 
dary education, 
and  Part  II.  to 
the    dassc    de 

viz.:  — 
(i)  Latin-Greek. 
(2)  Latin-modern  languages. 
(3)  Latin-science. 
(4)  Science-modern  languages. 
In  each   Branch   the  examination  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  viz.  written 
and  oral.     The  nature  of  the  ex- 
amination   may    be    indicated    by 
the      following      requirements     in 
Branch  (i):— 

amination  is  that  pre- 
scribed for  the  higher 
classes    in    the  Gov- 
ernment     secondary 
schools. 
The  candidate  may 
submit      his      livret 
scolaire,     or     school 
record,  which  will  be 
taken  'into  account. 

iners      (or      "iury") 
consists   of  (i.)   Uni- 
versity        examiners 
being   members  of  a 
faculty   of   letters  or 
facul  ty    of    sciences  ; 
(it.)    secondary 
teachers,     active     or 
retired,    selected    by 
the  minister  of  public 
instruction.    The 
Board      consists     of 

Part  I.  extends  over 
from  9  to  10  hours  in 
all  (not  on  a  single  day), 
in  periods  of  3  or  4  hours 
each;  the  written  portion 
of  Part  II.  extends  over 
from  6  to  9  hours.  The 
oral  examination  for  each 
part  lasts  J  hour  on  the 
average,  and  is  public. 

philosophic 
and   classf   tie 
math  e  m  a- 
tiques. 
See  also  under  V. 

Written. 

(i.)  French  composition, 
(ii.)  Translation  from  Latin. 
(iii.)  Translation  from  Greek. 

(i.)  Explanation   of  a   Greek 

from  four  to  six  ex- 
aminers,   of    whom, 
when  the  number  is 
even,  half  are  chosen 
from  either  category. 

described  re- 
placed  the 

bacealaurtat- 
is-lettrcs,  bac- 

calaureat-  es- 

text. 

sciences,  and 

(ii.)  F.xplanation    of   a    Latin 

fiti/'t  ttl'i  urt'n  t 

text. 

de  I'ensetgne- 

(iii.)  Explanation  of  a  French 

text. 

(iv.)  Test  in  a  modern  foreign 

language. 

"« 

5" 

(v.)  Interrogation   on    ancient 

history. 

(vi.)  Interrogation    on  modern 

history. 

(vii.)  Interrogation       on      geo 

graphy. 

(viii.)  Interrogation  on    mathe- 

matics. 

(ix.)  Interrogation  on  physics. 

Part    II.    is    divided     into     two 

Branches,  viz.:  — 

(i)  Philosophy. 

(2)  Mathematics. 

The  nature  of  the  examination  may 

be  indicated  by  the  following  re- 

quirements in  Branch  (i):  — 

a  f    (i.)  An  essay  in  French  on  a 

philosophical    subject. 

'C  ]  (ii.)  An  examination  in  physical 

?  L            and  natural  science. 

{(i.)  Interrogation  on  philosophy 
and  philosophical  writers. 

(ii.)  Interrogation  on    contem- 

porary history. 

(iii.)  Interrogation    on    physical 

science. 

(iv.)  Interrogation     on     natural 

science. 

46 


EXAMINATIONS 

TABLE  III— SCOTLAND:  SCHOOL-LEAVING  EXAMINATION 


I. 

Name  of 
Examination. 

II. 
Minimum  Age 
for  Entry. 

III. 
Length  of  Course 
of  Study. 

IV. 

Subjects. 

V. 
Co-ordination  with 
Teaching. 

VI. 

Examiners. 

VII. 

Nature  of  Examination  and 
General  Remarks. 

Scottish    school- 

17  on  istof  Janu- 

4 years. 

Candidates  must  pass  in  four  subjects 

Schools  are  inspected. 

The  examiners  are  ap- 

The    examination     consists 

leaving   exam- 

ary    following 

on  the  higher  grade  standard,  or 

and    the    course    of 

pointed  by  the  Scot- 

of  a   written   examination 

ination  (estab- 

the    year     in 

in    three    subjects    on    the    higher 

instruction  must  be 

tish    Educa  tion    De- 

and an  oral  examination, 

lished      1888). 

which  the  can- 

grade   standard    and    two   on    the 

approved  by  the  Scot- 

partment. 

on   which    stress    is    laid. 

(See  pamphlet 

didate     passes 

lower.        A    pass    in    drawing    is 

tish    Education    De- 

The   length     of    the    ex- 

on the  "Leav- 

the last  of  the 

accepted  in  lieu  of  one  of  the  two 

partment,     but     the 

amination  varies  with  the 

ing  Certificate 
Examination  " 

written   exam- 
inations. 

lower    grade    passes.     A    pass    in 
Gaelic  is  reckoned  as  a  pass  on  the 

examinations  are  con  - 
ducted    by    external 

subjects    selected.        The 
periods      of     examination 

issued   by   the 

lower  grade.     All  candidates   must 

examiners  with  whom 

vary  from   i  to  aj  hours. 

Scottish    Edu- 

have passed  in  higher  English  and 

teachers      are      not 

If    trie    candidate    selects 

cation  Depart- 

in  either    higher    or    lower    grade 

associated. 

on      the      higher      grade  , 

ment,  1908.) 

mathematics.     The  remaining  sub- 

English,     Latin,      mathe- 

jects may   be    either    science   with 

matics,    and    French,    the 

one    or    more    languages    (Latin, 

examination    extends    over 

Greek.  French,   German,  Spanish, 

19^  hours. 

or  Italian),  or  languages  only.  But 

where  two  or  more  languages  other 

'  . 

than  English  are  taken,  the  candi- 

date's  group   must    include  either 

higher  or    lower   grade   Latin.     A 

pass  in  Spanish,  Italian,  or  science 

(in  which  subjects  there  is  only  one 

examination)  is  reckoned  as  a  pass 

on  the  higher  grade  standard. 

TABLE  IV— UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON  SCHOOL  EXAMINATION,  MATRICULATION  STANDARD 


I. 

Name  of 
Examination. 

II. 
Minimum  Age 
For  Entry. 

III. 
Length  of  Course 
of  Study. 

IV. 
Subjects. 

V. 

Co-ordination  with 
Teaching. 

VI. 
Examiners. 

VII. 
Nature  of  Examination  and 
General  Remarks. 

School  examina- 

The     minimum 

The    curriculum 

Pupils    must    satisfy    the    examiners 

Schools  under  approved 

The      examiners      are 

The     examination     extends 

tion,  matricula- 
tion   standard 

age  of  entry 
is  15,  but  if  the 

of  each  school 
is     considered 

in  not  less  than  five  subjects,  as 
follows:— 

inspection  ,  and  course 
of  instruction  ap- 

ordinarily those  ap- 
6oi  ntrcl     by     the 

over    at    least    18    hours, 
and   includes  an  oral   ex- 

(established in 
1903). 
Note  —  A    higher 
school  -  leaving 
certificate    is 
awarded    to 
pupils  who(i.) 
have    pursued 
an  approved 
course  of  study 
for  a  period  of 
years  at   a 
school     or 
schools    under 
inspection  ap- 
proved by  tie 

candidate  is 
under  16  he 
must  remain  at 
school  until  he 
is  16  years  of 
age  in  order  to 
be  qualified  for 
the  school-leav- 
ing certificate, 
and  cannot  be 
registered  as  a 
student  of  the 
University  un- 
til  be  has 
reached  (hat 
age. 

on    its    own 

merits. 

(i)  English. 
(2)  Elementary  mathematics. 
(3)  Latin,   or  elementary    mechanics, 
or    elementary    physics  —  heat, 
light  and  sound,  or  elementary 
chemistry,  or  elementary  botany, 
or  general  elementary  science. 
(4)  and    (5)  Two    of    the    following 
subjects,  neither  of  which  has 
already  been  taken  under  section 
(3).    If  Latin  be  not  taken,  one 
of    the    other  subjects  selected 
must  be  another  language,  either 
ancient    or    modern,    from   the 
list,  and  languages  other  than 
those  included  in  the  list  may 

proved  by  the  Uni- 
versity. 
The    papers    are 
ordinarily  set  on  the 
matriculation    sylla- 
bus, but  papers  may 
be  specially  set  more 
closely  in  accordance 
with    the   school 
curriculum   provided 
that  the  syllabus  pro- 
posed is  approved  by 
the  University  as  at 
least    equivalent    to 
that  for  which  it  is 
substituted. 

niversity     for    the 
ordinary    matricula- 
tion examination. 

amination       in       modern 
languages. 

University; 

be  taken   if  approved    by    the 

and  (ii.)  being 

University,    provided    that    the 

matriculated 

language    is    included    in    the 

students,  have 

regular    curriculum  :  —    Latin, 

passed     the 

Greek,  French,  German,  ancient 

higher  school 

history,  modern  history,  history 

examination" 
in  at  least  three 
subjects  at  one 

and    geography,    physical    and 
general    geography,   logic,   geo- 
metrical and  mechanical  draw- 

and the  same 

ing,     mathematics    (more    ad- 

examination. 

vanced),  elementary  mechanics, 

elementary   chemistry,   elemen- 

tary  physics  —  heat,  light  and 

sound,     elementary     physics  — 

electricity  and  magnetism,  ele- 

mentary   biology  —  botany,    ele- 

mentary biology  —  zoology,  gen- 

eral elementary  science  (chem- 

istry and  physics). 

Practical. 


examinations)  the  examination  may  be  prolonged  over  one  or 
more  days,  and  may  test  higher  powers  of  investigation.  But 
such  powers  can  only  be  fully  tested  by  the  perform- 
ance of  original  work,  under  conditions  difficult  to 
fulfil  in  the  examination  room  or  laboratory.  At  the  French 
examinations  for  the  prix  de  Rome  the  candidates  are  required 
to  execute  a  painting  in  a  given  number  of  days,  under  strict 
supervision  (en  loge). 

In  medicine  the  clinical  examination  of  a  patient  is  a  test 
carried  out  under  conditions  more  nearly  approaching  those  of 
actual  work  than  any  other;  and  distinction  in  medical  examina- 
tions is  probably  more  often  followed  by  distinction  in  after  life 
than  is  the  case  in  other  examinations. 

For  the  doctor's  degree  (where  this  is  not  an  honorary  dis- 
tinction) a  thesis  or  dissertation  is  generally,  though  not  in- 
variably,  required  in  England.     Of  recent  years  the 
thesis  has  been  introduced  into  lower  examinations; 
it  is  required  for  the  master's  degree  at  London  in  the  case  of 
internal  students,  in  subjects  other  than  mathematics  (1910); 


both  at  Oxford  and  London,  the  B.Sc.  degree,  and  at  Cambridge 
the  B.A.  degree,  may  be  given  for  research,  although  the  number 
of  students  proceeding  to  a  degree  in  this  way  is  at  present 
relatively  small.  In  certain  of  the  honours  B.A.  and  B.Sc. 
examinations  at  Manchester  and  Liverpool,  candidates  may  take 
the  written  portion  of  the  examination  at  the  end  of  the  second 
year's  course  of  study  and  submit  a  dissertation  at  the  end  of 
the  third  year.  Theses  are  generally  examined  by  two  or  more 
specialists. 

5.  Competitive  Examinations. — The  arrangement  of  students  in 
order  of  merit  led  naturally  to  the  use  of  examinations  not  only 
as  a  qualifying  but  also  as  a  selective  test,  and  to  the  offering  of 
money  prizes  (including  exhibitions,  scholarships  and  fellowships) 
on  the  results.  In  1854  selection  by  examination  as  a  method 
of  appointment  to  posts  in  the  English  public  service  was  first 
substituted  for  the  patronage  system ,  which  had  caused  grave 
dissatisfaction  (see  Macaulay's  speech  on  the  subject,  The  Times 
of  the  25th  of  June  1853).  The  first  public  competitive  examina- 
tion for  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Woolwich,  took  place  in 


EXAMINATIONS 


47 


1855,  and  in  1870  the  principle  of  open  competition  for  the  civil 
service  was  adopted  as  a  general  rule.  (For  further  details 
see  CIVIL  SERVICE.) 

In  the  Wurttemberg  civil  service  candidates  are  admitted  to 
a  year's  probation  after  passing  a  theoretical  examination,  at 
the  conclusion  of  which  they  must  pass  an  examination  of  a  more 
practical  character  (A.  Herbert,  Sacrifice  of  Education  .  .  .,1889, 
p.  in). 

In  the  award  of  scholarships,  &c.,  it  should  be  definitely  decided 
whether  the  scholarship  is  to  be  awarded  (i)  for  attainment, 
in  which  case  the  examination-test  pure  and  simple  may  suffice, 
or  (2)  for  promise,  in  which  case  personal  information  and  a 
curriculum  vitae  are  necessary.  To  take  a  simple  instance:  a 
candidate  partly  educated  in  Germany  may  obtain  more  marks 
in  German  at  a  scholarship  examination  than  another  who  is 
more  gifted,  but  whose  opportunities  have  been  less;  the  question 
at  once  arises,  are  the  examiners  to  take  the  circumstances  of 
the  candidate  _into  account  or  not  ?  It  is  understood  that  at  the 
colleges  of  the  older  universities  such  circumstances  are  con- 
sidered. It  must  again  be  decided  whether  the  financial  circum- 
stances of  candidates  are  to  be  taken  into  account;  are  scholar- 
ships intended  as  prizes,  or  as  a  means  of  enabling  poor  students 
to  obtain  a  university  education?  In  some  cases  wealthy 
students  have  been  known  to  return  the  emoluments  of  scholar- 
ships. It  many  universities  of  the  United  States  there  is  a 
definite  understanding  that  emoluments  shall  only  be  accepted 
by  those  needing  them.  It  would  not  be  difficult  to  ask  candi- 
dates to  make  a  confidential  declaration  on  this  subject  on 
entrance  and  to  establish  in  Great  Britain  a  tradition  similar 
to  that  of  the  United  States,  and  steps  in  this  direction  have  been 
taken  both  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  (LordCurzonof  Kedleston, 
University  Reform,  p.  86). 

A  special  allowance  may  be  made  for  age.  In  certain  scholar- 
ship examinations  held  formerly  by  the  London  County  Council 
a  percentage  was  added  to  the  marks  of  each  candidate  pro- 
portionate to  the  number  of  months  by  which  his  age  fell  short 
of  the  maximum  age  for  entry.  The  whole  subject  of  entrance 
scholarships  at  English  schools  and  universities,  and  especially 
their  tendency  to  produce  premature  specialization,  has  recently 
been  much  discussed. 

6.  The   Organization    and    Conduct    of   Examinations. — The 
organization  and  conduct  of  examinations,  in  such  a  way  that 
each  candidate  shall  be  treated  in  precisely  the  same  way  as 
every  other   candidate,  is  a  complex  matter,  especially  where 
several    thousand    candidates    are    concerned.     The    greatest 
precautions  must  be  taken  to  ensure  the  secrecy  of  the  examina- 
tion papers  before  the  examination,  and  the  effective  isolation 
of  individual  candidates  during  the  examination.  The  super- 
vision should  be  adequate  to  remove  all  temptation  to  copying. 
The  hygienic  conditions  should  be  such  as  to  reduce  the  strain 
to  a  minimum.     The  question  of  the  mental  fatigue  produced 
by  examinations  has  been  studied  by  certain  German  observers, 
but  has  not  yet  been  fully  investigated. 

7.  Marking,  Classification  and  Errors  of  Detail. — In  applying 
a  single  test  in  a  qualifying  examination  it  would  be  sufficient 
to    mark  candidates  as  passing  or  failing.     But  examinations 
consist  as  a  rule  of  a  number  of  tests,  each  one  of  which  is  complex; 
and  a  mark  is  recorded  in  respect  of  each  test  or  portion  of  a 
test  in  order  to  enable  the  examining  body  to  estimate  the  per- 
formance, considered  as  a  whole,  of  the  candidate.    At  Oxford 
the  marks  are  not  numerical,  but  the  papers  are  judged  as  of  this 
or  that  supposed  "  class,"   and  various  degrees  of  merit  are 
indicated  by  the  symbols  a,  /3,  y,  d,  to  which  the  signs  +  or  — 
may   be   prefixed,   according  as  they  are  above  or  below  a 
certain  standard  within  each  class.     At  Cambridge,  numerical 
marks  are  used.     The  advantage  of  numerical  marks  is  that  they 
are  more  easily  manipulated  than  symbols;  the  disadvantage, 
that  they  produce  the  false  impression  that  merit  can  be  estimated 
with  mathematical  accuracy.     Professor  F.  Y.  Edgeworth,  in 
two  papers   on   "  The   Statistics  of  Examinations "   and  the 
"  Element  of  Chance  in  Competitive  Examinations  "  (Journal 
of  the  Royal  Statistical  Society,  1888  and  1890),  has  dealt  with 


the  subject,  although  on  somewhat  limited  lines.  His  investiga- 
tions show  clearly  that  with  candidates  near  the  border-line  of 
failure,  which  must  necessarily  be  fixed  at  a  given  point  (subject 
to  certain  allowances,  where  more  than  one  subject  is  considered), 
the  element  of  chance  necessarily  enters  largely  into  the  question 
of  pass  and  failure.  The  fact  may  be  stated  in  this  way: — the 
general  efficiency  of  the  test  being  granted,  it  is  true  to  say  that 
the  large  majority  of  those  who  pass  an  examination  will  be 
superior  in  efficiency  to  those  who  fail;  but  a  few  of  those  who 
faU  may  be  superior  to  a  few  of  those  who  pass.  These  errors  are 
not  peculiar  to  the  examination  system,  they  are  inherent  in 
all  human  judgments.  It  is  necessary  to  allow  for  them  in 
considering  the  failure  of  an  individual  candidate  as  an  index 
of  inefficiency. 

The  element  of  chance,  which  prevails  in  the  region  on  either 
side  of  the  border  between  pass  and  failure,  obviously  prevails 
equally  on  either  side  of  the  border  between  "  classes,"  where 
candidates  are  classified;  it  has  been  suggested  by  Dr  Schuster 
that  numerical  order  should  accompany  classification  so  as  to 
avoid  the  creation  of  an  artificial  gap  between  the  last  candidate 
in  one  class  and  the  highest  in  the  next.  Edgeworth's  objection 
to  such  an  argument  is  that  the  number  of  uncertainties  is  far 
less  when  candidates  are  classed  than  when  they  are  placed  in 
ostensible  order  of  merit. 

The  difficulties  of  comparison  of  marks  are  further  complicated 
when  students  take  different  subjects  and  it  is  necessary  to 
compare  their  merit  by  means  of  marks  allotted  by  different 
examiners  and  added  together.  In  a  pass  examination  the 
question  has  to  be  considered  how  far,  if  at  all,  excellence  in  one 
subject  shall  compensate  for  deficiency  in  another,  a  question 
which  is  indeterminate  until  the  precise  object  of  the  whole 
examination  is  formulated.  In  the  competitive  examination 
for  the  Indian  civil  service,  places  are  allotted  on  the  aggregate 
of  marks  obtained  in  a  number  of  subjects  selected  by  the 
candidate  from  a  list  of  thirty-two.  The  successful  candidates  are 
compared  a  year  later  on  the  results  of  another  examination  in 
which  there  is  again  a  choice,  though  a  much  more  limited  one.  The 
order  of  merit  in  the  two  examinations  is,  as  a  rule,  very  different. 

Two  further  points  may  be  noted.  An  examiner  may  have 
underestimated  the  time  required  to  answer  the  questions  which 
he  has  set;  this  will  be  obvious  if  with'  a  large  number  of 
candidates  (say  300  or  400)  none  approaches  the  maximum 
mark.  In  this  case  the  maximum  should  be  reduced.  Again,  it 
is  generally  recognized  to  be  undesirable  to  give  marks  for  a 
smattering.  In  order  to  avoid  this  various  devices  are  adopted. 
The  simplest  is  to  award  a  proportion  of  marks  (say  10  to  15, 
or  even  20%)  for  "  general  impression."  In  some  examinations, 
unless  say  20%  or  more  marks  are  obtained  for  a  particular 
subject,  no  credit  is  given  for  the  paper  in  that  subject.  Latham 
(The  Action  of  Examinations,  1877,  p.  490)  describes  other 
numerical  adjustments  used  to  meet  this  difficulty,  especially 
that  used  in  ^English  civil  service  examinations.  The  numerical 
results  of  the  civil  service  examinations  are  reduced  so  as  to 
conform  to  a  certain  symmetrical  "  frequency-curve,"  of  which 
the  abscissae  represent  percentages  of  marks  between  definite 
limits  and  the  ordinates  the  number  of  candidates  obtaining 
marks  between  those  limits.  C.  E.  Fawsitt  (The  Education  of 
the  Examiner,  Royal  Philosophical  Society  of  Glasgow,  1905) 
shows  that  frequency-curves  deduced  from  actual  investigation 
of  class-marks  are  not  symmetrical,  but  have  two  maxima 
corresponding  to  the  performance  of  "  non-workers  "  and  of 
"  workers."  In  pass  examinations  of  a  well-known  character 
there  is  a  maximum  just  beyond  the  pass  mark,  this  being  the 
point  of  efficiency  at  which  many  students  aim. 
-  8.  The  Object  and  Efficiency  of  Examinations,  and  their  Indirect 
Effects. — In  order  to  estimate  the  efficiency  of  an  examination 
as  a  test,  the  precise  question  should  be  asked  in  each  case — 
what  is  it  intended  to  test?  Much  of  the  evil  attributed  to, 
and  resulting  from,  examinations  is  due  to  the  fact  that  this 
question  has  not  been  definitely  put,  and  that  a  test  legitimate 
for  certain  purposes  has  been  used  for  others  to  which  it  is 
unsuited.  Examinations  are  suited  in  the  first  instance  for  the 


48 


EXAMINATIONS 


purpose  for  which  they  were  originally  designed  in  medieval 
universities — the  test  of  technical  and  professional  capacity;  it 
has  never  been  proposed  to  abolish  qualifying  examinations  for 
doctors,  pharmaceutical  chemists,  &c.;  the  tests  applied  are 
(or  should  be)  direct  tests  of  capacity  carried  out  under  con- 
ditions as  nearly  as  possible  like  those  of  actual  practice.  If  a 
student  can  auscultate  correctly,  or  make  up  a  prescription,  at 
an  examination,  he  will  in  all  probability  be  able  to  do  so  in  other 
circumstances. 

Examinations  as  tests  of  the  knowledge  of  isolated  facts  are 
necessarily  of  relatively  small  value,  because  the  memory  of  such 
facts  is  transient;  and  memorization  of  a  large  number  of  facts 
for  examination  purposes  is  generally  admitted  to  be  specially 
transient;  the  "knowledge-test,"  considered  apart  from  a 
test  of  capacity,  is  in  fact  not  a  test  of  permanent  knowledge, 
but  of  the  power  of  retaining  facts  for  a  length  of  time  which  it  is 
impossible  to  estimate  and  which  with  some  candidates  extends 
over  a  few  weeks  only.  When  used  as  tests  of  "  general  culture," 
examinations,  in  the  view  of  Paulsen,  based  on  a  study  of  German 
education,  not  only  fail  in  their  purpose,  but  tend  to  destroy  the 
faculties  which  it  is  desired  to  develop  (Geschichle  des  gelehrten 
Unterrichls,  ii.  684  et  seq.);  to  prepare  ready  answers  to  the 
numberless  questions  which  an  examiner  may  ask  on  a  large 
variety  of  subjects  is  to  paralyse  the  natural  and  free  activity 
of  the  mind  (cf .  A.  C.  Benson  on  the  results  of  English  secondary 
classical  education,  From  a  College  Window,  3rd  ed.,  1906,  pp. 
154-177).  If  pushed  to  its  logical  conclusion  the  view  of  Paulsen 
must,  it  is  submitted,  lead  to  the  complete  abandonment  at 
examinations  of  tests  of  "  knowledge  "  as  distinguished  from 
direct  tests  of  capacity.  Thus  isolated  questions  on  details  of 
grammar  would  disappear  from  papers  on  the  mother-tongue 
and  on  foreign  languages,  in  which  the  test  would  consist  mainly 
or  entirely  of  composition  and  translation.  Erudition  would 
be  tested  by  the  power  of  writing,  at  leisure,  a  dissertation  on 
some  subject  selected  by  the  examiners  or  the  candidate  or,  in 
the  case  of  a  teacher,  by  the  delivery  of  a  lecture  on  the  subject. 
At  the  French  aggregation  candidates  are  given  twenty-four 
hours  for  the  preparation  of  a  lecture  of  this  kind.  Such  examina- 
tions would  test  the  "  skill  in  the  manipulation  of  facts  which  is 
the  true  sign  of  a  trained  intelligence  "  (cf.  K.  Pearson,  "  The 
Function  of  Science  in  the  Modern  State,"  Ency.  Brit.  loth  ed. 
xxxii.  Prefatory  essay).  They  might  possibly  be  supplemented 
by  easy  oral  examinations  to  test  both  range  of  knowledge  and 
readiness  of  mind.  But  in  the  case  of  a  pupil  who  had  passed 
through  a  good  secondary  school  it  would  be  as  safe  to  rely  for 
supplementary  information  under  this  head  on  the  testimony 
of  his  teachers,  as  it  is  to  rely  on  their  evidence  with  regard  to 
the  fundamental  and  all-important  element  on  which  no  examina- 
tion supplies  direct  information — personal  character. 

The  main  arguments  of  those  opposed  to  the  examination 
system  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  (i.)  Examinations 
tend  to  destroy  natural  interests  and  exclude  from  the  attention 
of  the  pupil  all  matters  outside  the  purview  of  the  examination 
(they  would  not  do  so  if  examinations  were  so  limited  in  character 
that  preparation  therefor  could  absorb  only  a  fraction  of  the 
pupil's  time);  (ii.)  they  tend  to  cultivate  a  personal  judgment 
where  no  personal  basis  of  judgment  is  possible. (this  argument, 
directed  mainly  against  the  Oxford  essay  system,  applies  not  to 
examinations  in  general,  but  to  the  character  of  the  subjects 
set  for  essays);  (iii.)  competitive  examinations  on  the  home 
and  Indian  civil  services  scheme  tend  to  diffuse  mental  energy 
over  too  many  subjects  (but  see  (xviii.)  below) ;  (iv.)  examinations, 
especially  competitive  examinations,  tend  to  become  more  and 
more  difficult,  difficulty  being  confused  with  efficiency — this  has 
shown  itself  with  the  Cambridge  mathematical  tripos,  in  which 
for  years  questions  of  increasing  difficulty  were  set  on  relatively 
unimportant  subjects,  until  the  examination  was  reformed 
(reply:  all  examinations  should  be  overhauled  periodically); 
(v.)  they  tend  to  paralyse  the  powers  of  exposition,  all  statements 
of  knowledge  being  thrown  into  a  form  suitable,  not  for  an 
uninstructed  person,  but  for  one  who  already  possesses  it,  the 
examiner  (this  tendency  should  be  counteracted  by  definite 


training  in  composition);  (vi.)  the  sample  of  knowledge  and 
capacity  yielded  at  an  examination  is  frequently  not  a  fair 
sample;  it  is  liable  to  extreme  variations  in  a  favourable  sense, 
if  the  candidate  happens  to  have  prepared  the  precise  questions 
asked;  in  an  unfavourable  sense,  if  the  candidate  is  suffering 
from  misfortune  or  from  accidental  ill-health,  the  latter,  owing 
to  the  periodic  function,  occurring  much  more  frequently  in  the 
case  of  women  than  of  men — [the  reform  of  examination 
methods  may  remove  to  a  great  extent  the  element  of  chance  in 
questions  set;  in  a  competitive  examination  it  is  impossible  to 
allow  for  ill-health;  in  a  qualifying  examination  it  is  difficult 
to  make  any  allowance  unless  the  examination  is  definitely 
conducted  in  whole  or  in  part  by  the  teachers,  and  the  past  record 
of  the  candidate  is  taken  into  account  (cf.  Paulsen,  The  German 
Universities,  pp.  344-345)];  (vii.)  examinations  of  several 
hundred  candidates  at  a  time  cannot  be  rationally  conducted 
so  as  to  be  equally  fair  to  the  individuality  of  all  candidates; 
the  individual  test  is  the  only  complete  one  (it  is  admitted 
that  examinations  on  a  large  scale  necessarily  involve  a  margin 
of  error;  but  this  error  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  especi- 
ally by  a  combination  of  oral  and  practical  with  written  work) ; 
(viii.)  the  multiplicity  of  school  examinations  required  for 
different  reasons  produces  confusion  in  our  secondary  education 
(there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  admit  equivalence  of  "  school- 
leaving  "  and  entrance  examinations;  thus  entrance  examina- 
tions of  Oxford,  Cambridge  and  London,  and  the  Northern 
Universities  Joint  Board  are  interchangeable  under  certain 
conditions);  (ix.)  the  multiplicity  of  examinations  tends  to 
"  underselling  "  (the  success  of  the  London  examinations  in 
medicine  proves  that  a  high  standard  attracts  candidates  as 
well  as  a  low  one;  possibly  intermediate  standards  may  be 
killed  in  the  competition;  it  is  by  no  means  obvious  that  a 
uniform  system  of  examinations  would  conduce  to  efficiency); 
(x.)  examinations  produce  physical  damage  to  health,  especially 
in  the  case  of  women-students  (on  this  point  more  statistical 
evidence  is  needed;  see,  however,  Engelmann  quoted  by 
G.  Stanley  Hall,  Adolescence,  1905,  ii.  588  et  seq.);  (xi.)  examina- 
tions have  in  England  mechanically  cast  the  education  of  women 
into  the  same  mould  as  that  of  men,  without  reference  to  the 
different  social  functions  of  the  two  sexes  (the  remedy  is 
obvious);  (xii.)  it  is  unjustifiable  to  give  a  man  a  university 
position  on  the  results  of  his  performance  in  the  examination 
room,  a  practice  common  in  England  though  almost  unknown  on 
the  continent;  a  just  estimate  of  a  man's  powers  in  research  or  for 
teaching  can  only  be  properly  based  on  his  performance.  The 
present  system  merely  leads  to  the  transmission  of  the  sterile  art 
of  passing  examinations.  (At  Oxford  and  Cambridge  many 
fellowships  are  now  awarded  on  the  results  of  examination;  it  is 
sometimes  stated,  in  defence  of  this  system,  that  young  men  can- 
not be  expected  to  carry  out  research  in  classics  or  philosophy.) 
On  the  other  hand,  the  defenders  of  examinations  reply  that 
(xiii.)  examinations  are  necessary  in  order  to  test  the  efficiency 
of  schools  to  which  grants  of  public  money  are  given  (this 
argument  has  become  somewhat  out  of  date  owing  to  the  recent 
substitution  of  "  inspection  "  for  examination  as  a  test  of  the 
efficiency  of  schools;  a  combination  of  inspection  and  examina- 
tion is  also  sometimes  used);  (xiv.)  they  serve  as  a  necessary 
incentive  to  steady  and  concentrated  work l  (the  reply  made  to 
this  is  that  the  incentive  is  a  bad  one,  and  that  with  efficient 
teachers  it  is  unnecessary);  (xv.)  they  show  both  student  and 
teacher  where  they  have  failed  (unnecessaiy  for  efficient 
teachers) ;  (xvi.)  though  possibly  harmful  to  the  highest  class  of 
men,  they  are  good  for  the  mass  (reply:  no  system  which 
damages  the  highest  class  of  men  is  tolerable);  (xvii.)  they  are 
indispensable  as  an  impartial  means  of  selecting  men  for  the 
civil  service;  (xviii.)  in  a  difficult  examination  like  the  first 
class  civil  service  examination  the  qualities  of  quickness  of  com- 
prehension, industry,  concentration,  power  of  rapidly  passing 

1  The  Oxford  commissioners  of  1852  reported  that  "  the  ex- 
aminations have  become  the  chief  instruments  not  only  for  testing 
the  proficiency  of  the  students  but  also  for  stimulating  and  directing 
the  studies  of  the  place  "  (Report,  p.  61). 


EXARCH— EXCELLENCY 


49 


from  one  subject  to  another,  good  health,  are  necessary  for  success, 
though  not  tested  directly,  and  these  qualities  are  valuable 
in  any  kind  of  work  (this  appears  to  be  incontrovertible); 
(xix.)  examination  records  show  that  success  in  examinations 
is  generally  followed  by  success  in  after-life,  and  the  test  is 
therefore  efficient  (it  does  not  follow  that  certain  rejected 
candidates  may  not  be  extremely  efficient) ;  (xx.)  as  a  plea  for 
purely  "  external  examinations,"  teachers  cannot  be  trusted 
to  be  impartial  and  it  is  better  for  a  boy  to  "  cram  "  than 
to  curry  favour  with  his  teacher  (Latham). 

The  brief  comments  in  brackets,  appended  above  to  the  argu- 
ments, merely  indicate  what  has  been  said  or  can  be  said  on  the 
other  side.  It  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  in  spite  of  the 
powerful  objections  that  have  been  advanced  against  examina- 
tions, they  are,  in  the  view  of  the  majority  of  English  people, 
an  indispensable  element  in  the  social  organization  of  a  highly 
specialized  democratic  state,  which  prefers  to  trust  nearly  all 
decisions  to  committees  rather  than  to  individuals.  But  in  view 
of  the  extreme  importance  of  the  matter,  and  especially  of  the 
evidence  that,  for  some  cause  or  other  (which  may  or  may  not 
be  the  examination  system),  intellectual  interest  and  initiative 
seem  to  diminish  in  many  cases  very  markedly  during  school 
and  college  life  in  England,  the  whole  subject  seems  to  call  for 
a  searching  and  impartial  inquiry. 

SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION. — The  works  mentioned  above,  and 
T.  D.  Acland,  Some  Account  of  the  Origin  and  Objects  of  the  New 
Oxford  Examinations  for  the  Title  of  Associate  in  Arts  (London,  1858) ; 
Matthew  Arnold,  Higher  Schools  and  Universities  in  Germany  (1874); 
Graham  Balfour,  The  Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  (2nd  ed.,  Oxford,  1903) ;  W.  W.  Rouse  Ball,  Origin  and 
History  of  the  Mathematical  Tripos  (Cambridge,  1880) ;  Adolf  Beier, 
Die  hoheren  Schulen  in  Preussen  and  Hire  Lehrer  (1902-1906)  (in 
progress) ;  Cloudesley  Brereton,  "  A  New  Method  of  awarding 
Scholarships,"  School  World,  1907,  p.  409;  G.  C.  Brodrick,  A 
History  of  the  University  of  Oxford  (London,  1886) ;  F.  Buisson, 
Dictionnaire  de  pedagogic  (1880-1887);  Lord  Curzon  of  Kedleston, 
Principles  and  Methods  of  University  Reform  (1909) ;  J.  Demogeot 
and  H.  Montucci,  De  I'enseignement  superieur  en  Angleterre  et  en 
Ecosse  (1870);  H.  Denifle,  Die  Universitaten  des  Mittelalters  bis 
1400  (Berlin,  1885) ;  F.  Y.  Edgeworth,  "  The  Statistics  of  Examina- 
tions," and  "  The  Element  of  Chance  in  Competitive  Examinations," 
Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society,  1888  and  1890  respectively; 
H.  W.  Eve,  Lecture  "  On  Marking,"  in  The  Practice  of  Education 
(Cambridge,  1883) ;  Charles  E.  Fawsitt,  The  Education  of  the  Ex- 
aminer (Royal  Philosophical  Society  of  Glasgow)  (Glasgow,  1905) ; 
J.  G.  Fitch,  "  The  Proposed  Admission  of  Girls  to  the  University 
Local  Examination,"  Education  Miscellanies  (1865),  vol.  x. ;  W. 
Garnett,  "  The  Representation  of  certain  Examination  Results," 
Journ.  Statist.  Soc.  (Jan.  1910) ;  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Adolescence 
(London,  1905) ;  Sir  W.  Hamilton,  Discussions  on  Philosophy 
(London,  1853);  P.  J.  Hartog,  "Universities,  Schools  and  Ex- 
aminations" in  the  university  Review  (July  1905);  P.  J.  Hartog 
and  Mrs  A.  H.  Langdon,  The  Writing  of  English  (1907);  Auberon 
Herbert  (edited  by),  The  Sacrifice  of  Education  to  Examination, 
Letters  from  "  All  Sorts  and  Conditions  of  Men  "  (1889);  Influence 
of  Examinations,  Report  by  a  Committee,  British  Association 
Reports  for  1903,  p.  434,  and  for  1904,  p.  360;  John  Jebb,  Remarks 
upon  the  Present  Mode  of  Education  in  the  University  of  Cambridge 
(4th  ed.,  1774);  Henry  Latham,  On  the  Action  of  Examinations 
(Cambridge,  1877);  H.  C.  Maxwell  Lyte,  A  History  of  the  University 
of  Oxford  to  the  Year  1530  (London,  1886);  W.  A.  P.  Martin,  The 
Lore  of  Cathay  (Edinburgh  and  London,  1901);  T.  B.  Mullinger, 
The  University  of  Cambridge  (Cambridge,  1873);  Plow  to  pass 
Examinations  successfully,  by  an  Oxford  Coach;  Mark  Patti- 
son,  Suggestions  on  Academical  Organization  (Edinburgh,  1868); 
Friedrich  Paulsen,  The  German  Universities  and  University  Study 
(London,  1906)  and  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts  (Leipzig, 
1896) ;  George  Peacock,  Observations  on  the  Statutes  of  the  University 
of  Cambridge  (1841);  Programme  des  examens^  du  nouyeau  bacca- 
laureat  de  I'enseignement  secondaire,  Delalain  freres,  Paris ;  Hastings 
Rashdall,  The  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages  (Oxford,  1895) ; 
Rein's  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch  der  Padagogik  (2nded.,  1902,  &c.), 
articles  "  Prufungen  "  (by  F.  Paulsen),  &c. ;  Third  Report  of  the 
Royal  Commissioners  on  Scientific  Instructions,  .1873;  J.  E.  Thorold 
Rogers,  Education  in  Oxford  (1861);  M.  E.  Sadler,  "  Memorandum 
on  the  Leaving  Examinations  ...  in  the  Secondary  Schools  of 
Prussia,"  in  Report  of  Royal  Commission  on  Secondary  Education, 
vol.  v.  p.  27  (1895);  C.  A.  Schmid,  Geschichte  der  Erziehung  (Stutt- 
gart, 1884,  &c.),  and  Encyklopddie  des  gesammten  Erziehungs-  und 
Unterrichtswesens  (2nd  ed.,  1876-87),  articles  "  Priifung,"  "  Scnulprii- 
fungen,"  "  Versetzungsprtifungen,"  &c. ;  Scholarships,  various  papers 
on,  by  H.  B.  Baker,  A.  A.  David,  H.  A.  Miers,  M.  E.  Sadler  and 
H.  Bompas  Smith,  and  others,  British  Association  Report,  1907, 


pp.  707-718;  Arthur  Schuster,  article  on  "  Universities  and 
Examinations  "  in  the  University  Review  (May  1905) ;  W.  H.  Sharp, 
The  Educational  System  of  Japan  (Office  of  the  Director-General  of 
Education  in  India)  (Bombay,  1906) ;  Special  Educational  Reports, 
issued  by  the  Board  of  Education,  passim;  A.  M.  M.  Stedman, 
Oxford:  its  Life  and  Schools  (London,  1887);  I.  Todhunter,  Conflict 
of  Studies  (1873) ;  William  Whewell,  Of  a  Liberal  Education  (London, 
1845) ;  Christopher  Wordsworth,  Scholae  academicae  (Cambridge, 
1877) ;  Etienne  Zi  (or  Siu  or  Seu),  Pratique  des  examens  litteraires  en 
Chine  (Shanghai,  1894).  Private  information  from  Professor  M.  E. 
Sadler  and  Mr  A.  E.  Twentyman.  (P.  J.  H.;  A.  WN.) 

EXARCH  (e£apx<w,  a  chief  person  or  leader),  a  title  that  has 
been  conferred  at  different  periods  on  certain  chief  officers  or 
governors,  both  in  secular  and  ecclesiastical  matters.  Of  these, 
the  most  important  were  the  exarchs  of  Ravenna  (?.».).  In 
the  ecclesiastical  organization  the  exarch  of  a  diocese  (the  word 
being  here  used  of  the  political  division)  was  in  the  4th  and  sth 
centuries  the  same  as  primate.  This  dignity  was  intermediate 
between  the  patriarchal  and  the  metropolitan,  the  name  patriarch 
being  restricted  after  A.D.  451  to  the  chief  bishops  of  the  most 
important  cities  (see  PATRIARCH).  The  title  of  Exarch  was  also 
formerly  given  in  the  Eastern  Church  to  a  general  or  superior 
over  several  monasteries,  and  to  certain  ecclesiastics  deputed 
by  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  to  collect  the  tribute  payable 
by  the  Church  to  the  Turkish  government.  In  the  modern 
Greek  Church  an  exarch  is  a  deputy,  or  legate  a  lalere,  of  the 
patriarch,  whose  office  it  is  to  visit  the  clergy  and  churches  in  the 
provinces  allotted  to  him.  The  title  of  exarch  has  been  borne 
by  the  head  of  the  Bulgarian  Church  (see  BULGARIA),  since 
in  1872  it  repudiated  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Greek  patriarch 
of  Constantinople.  Hence  the  names  of  the  politico-religious 
parties  in  the  recent  history  of  the  Near  East:  "  Exarchists  " 
and  "  Patriarchists." 

EXC  AMBION  (a  word  connected  with  a  large  class  of  Low  Latin 
and  Romance  forms,  such  as  cambium,  concambium,  scambium, 
from  Lat.  cambire,  Gr.  Ka.ii.ftta>  or  Kanirrtiv,  to  bend,  turn  or 
fold),  in  Scots  law,  the  exchange  (q.ii.)  of  one  heritable  subject 
for  another.  The  modern  Scottish  excambion  may  consist  in 
the  exchange  of  any  heritable  subjects  whatever,  e.g.  a  patronage 
or,  what  often  occurs,  a  portion  of  a  glebe  for  servitude.  Writing 
is  not,  by  the  law  of  Scotland,  essential  to  an  excambion.  Chiefly 
in  favour  of  the  class  of  cottars  and  small  feuars,  and  for  con- 
venience in  straightening  marches,  the  law  will  consider  the  most 
informal  memoranda,  and  even  a  verbal  agreement,  if  supported 
by  the  subsequent  possession.  The  power  to  excamb  was  gradu- 
ally conferred  on  entailed  proprietors.  The  Montgomery  Act, 
which  was  passed  in  1770,  to  facilitate  agricultural  improvements, 
permitted  50  acres  arable  and  100  acres  not  fit  for  the  plough 
to  be  excambed.  This  was  enlarged  by  the  Rosebery  Act  in 
1836,  under  which  one-fourth  of  an  entailed  estate,  not  including 
the  mansion-house,  home  farm  and  policies,  might  be  excambed, 
provided  the  heirs  took  no  higher  grassum  (O.E.  gersum,  fine) 
than  £200.  The  power  was  applied  to  the  whole  estate  by  the 
Rutherford  Act  of  1848,  and  the  necessary  consents  of  substitute 
heirs  are  now  regulated  by  the  Entail  (Scotland)  Act  1882. 

EXCELLENCY  (Lat.  excellentia,  excellence),  a  title  or  predicate 
of  honour.  The  earliest  records  of  its  use  are  associated  with 
the  Frank  and  Lombard  kings;  e.g.  Anastasius  Bibliothecarius 
(d.  c.  886)  in  his  life  of  Pope  Honorius  refers  to  Charlemagne 
as  "his  excellency"  (ejus  excellentia);  and  during  the  middle 
ages  it  was  freely  applied  to  or  assumed  by  emperors,  kings  and 
sovereign  princes  geneially,  though  rather  as  a  rhetorical  flourish 
than  as  a  part  of  their  formal  style.  Its  use  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  various  charters  in  the  Red  Book  of  the  exchequer,  where 
the  addresses  to  the  king  vary  between  "  your  excellency," 
"your  dignity"  (vestra  dignitas},  "your  sublimity"  (vestra 
sublimitas)  and  the  like,  according  to  the  taste  and  inventiveness 
of  the  writers.  Du  Cange  also  gives  examples  of  the  style 
excellentia  being  applied  to  the  pope  and  even  to  a  bishop  (in 
a  charter  of  1182).  With  the  gradual  stereotyping  of  titles  of 
honour  that  of  "  excellency  "  was  definitively  superseded  in  the 
case  of  sovereigns  of  the  highest  rank,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
i Sth  century,  by  those  of  "  highness  "  and  "  grace,"  and  later  by 
"  majesty,"  first  assumed  in  England  by  King  Henry  VIII. 


EXCHANGE 


Dukes  and  counts  of  the  Empire  and  the  Italian  reigning  princes 
continued,  however,  to  be  "  excellencies  "  for  a  while  longer. 
In  1 593  the  bestowal  of  the  title  of  excellence  by  Henry  IV.  of 
France  on  the  due  de  Nevers,  his  ambassador  at  Rome,  set  a 
precedent  that  was  universally  followed  from  the  time  of  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648).  This,  together  with  the  reservation 
in  1640  of  the  title  "  eminence  "  (q.v.)  to  the  cardinals,  led  the 
Italian  princes  to  adopt  the  style  of  "  highness"  (altezza)  instead 
of  "  excellency."  In  France,  from  1654  onwards,  the  title  of 
excellence  was  given  to  all  high  civil  and  military  officials,  and 
this  example  was  followed  in  Germany  in  the  i8th  century. 

The  subsequent  fate  of  the  title  varies  very  greatly  in  different 
countries.  In  Great  Britain  it  is  borne  by  the  viceroy  of  India, 
the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  all  governors  of  colonies  and 
ambassadors.  In  the  United  States  it  is  part  of  the  official  style 
of  the  governors  of  states,  but  not  of  that  of  the  president; 
though  diplomatic  usage  varies  in  this  respect,  some  states 
(e.g.  France)  conceding  to  him  the  style  of  "  excellency,"  others 
(e.g.  Belgium)  refusing  it.  The  custom  of  other  republics  differs: 
in  France  the  president  is  addressed  as  excellence  by  courtesy; 
in  Switzerland  the  title  is  omitted;  in  the  South  American 
republics  it  is  part  of  the  official  style  (Pradier-Fodere,  Cows  de 
droit  diplom.  i.  89).  In  Spain  the  title  of  excelencia  properly 
belonged  to  the  grandees  and  to  those  who  had  the  right  to  be 
covered  in  the  royal  presence,  but  it  was  extended  also  to  high 
officials,  viceroys,  ministers,  captains-general,  lieutenants-general, 
ambassadors  and  knights  of  the  Golden  Fleece.  In  Austria  the 
title  Exzellenz  belongs  properly  to  privy  councillors.  It  has, 
however,  gradually  been  extended  by  custom  to  all  the  higher 
military  commands  from  lieutenant-field-marshal  upwards. 
Ministers,  even  when  not  privy  councillors,  are  styled  Exzellenz. 
In  Germany  the  title  is  borne  by  the  imperial  chancellor,  the 
principal  secretaries  of  state,  ministers  and  Oberpriisidenten  in 
Prussia,  by  generals  from  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  upwards, 
by  the  chief  court  officials,  and  it  is  also  sometimes  bestowed 
as  a  title  of  honour  in  cases  where  it  is  not  attached  to  the  office 
held  by  its  recipient.  In  Russia  the  title  is  very  common,  being 
borne  by  all  officers  from  major-general  upwards  and  by  all 
officials  above  the  rank  of  acting  privy  councillor.  Officers 
and  officials  of  the  highest  rank  have  the  title  of  "  high  ex- 
cellency." Finally,  in  Italy,  the  title  eccelenza,  which  had  come 
to  be  used  in  the  republics  of  Venice  and  Genoa  as  the  usual 
form  of  address  to  nobles,  has  become  as  meaningless  as  the 
English  title  of  "esquire"  or  the  address  of  "sir,"  being,  especi- 
ally in  the  south,  the  usual  form  of  address  to  any  stranger. 

In  the  diplomatic  service  the  title  of  excellency  is  technically 
reserved  to  ambassadors,  but  in  addressing  envoys  also  this 
form  is  commonly  used  by  courtesy.  (W.  A.  P.) 

EXCHANGE,  in  general,  the  action  of  mutual  giving  and 
receiving  objects,  interests,  benefits,  rights,  &c.  The  word  comes 
through  the  French  from  the  Late  Lat.  excambium  (see  Ex- 
CAMBION).  The  present  article  deals  with  the  theory  and 
practice  of  exchange  in  monetary  transactions,  but  this  may 
conveniently  be  prefaced  by  a  brief  statement  as  to  the  law 
relating  to  the  exchange  of  property  and  other  matters.  In 
Engh'sh  law  exchange  is  defined  as  the  mutual  grant  of  equal 
interests,  the  one  in  consideration  of  the  other.  The  ancient 
common  law  conveyance  had  certain  restrictions,  e.g.  identity 
in  quantity  of  interest,  fee-simple  for  fee-simple,  &c.,  entry  to 
perfect  the  conveyance,  and  an  implied  warranty  of  title  and 
right  of  entry  by  either  party  in  case  of  eviction.  Such  exchanges 
are  now  effected  by  mutual  conveyances  with  the  usual  covenants 
for  title.  Exchanges  are  also  frequently  made  by  order  of  the 
Board  of  Agriculture  under  the  Inclosure  Acts,  and  there  are 
also  statutes  enabling  ecclesiastical  corporations  to  exchange 
benefices  with  the  approval  of  the  ecclesiastical  commissioners. 
The  international  exchange  of  territories  is  effected  by  treaties. 
The  exchange  of  prisoners  of  war  is  regulated  by  documents 
called  "  cartels "  (Med.  Lat.  cartettus,  diminutive  of  carta, 
paper,  bill),  which  specify  a  certain  agreed-on  value  for  each 
rank  of  prisoners.  The  practice  superseded  the  older  one  of 
ransom  at  the  end  of  a  war.  By  the  Regimental  Exchanges  Act 


1875  the  sovereign  may  by  regulation  authorize  exchanges  by 
officers  from  one  regiment  to  another.  (For  "  labour  exchanges  " 
see  UNEMPLOYMENT.) 

Exchange  in  relation  to  money  affairs  denotes  a  species  of 
barter  not  of  goods  but  of  the  value  of  goods,  a  payment  in  one 
place  being  exchanged  for  a  payment  in  another  place.  The 
popular  statement  of  the  theory  of  exchange  represents  four 
principals  involved  in  two  transactions.  A  and  B  are  two  persons 
residing  in  one  place  different  from  the  domicile  of  C  and  D; 
A  sells  goods  to  C;  B  buys  goods  from  D;  A  sells  his  claim 
on  C  to  B,  who  remits  it  to  D  in  satisfaction  of  his  debt,  and  D 
receives  the  cash  from  C,  so  that,  assuming  the  two  transactions 
to  be  of  equal  value,  one  piece  of  paper  satisfies  the  four  parties 
to  these  two  transactions,  and  the  trouble,  expense  and  risk  of 
sending  money  from  both  places  are  avoided.  The  piece  of  paper 
which  performs  the  service  may  be  a  telegraphic  order,  cheque 
or  bill  of  exchange.  In  this  elementary  proposition  there  would 
be  no  difficulty  of  exchange,  as  the  full  value  of  A's  claim  on  C 
would  be  paid  for  by  B,  who  is  under  the  necessity  of  sending 
in  exactly  similar  amount  of  money  to  D;  but  it  can  be  seen  that 
in  actual  practice  the  claims  of  one  place  on  another  place  would 
not  be  exactly  balanced  by  the  necessities  of  the  one  place  to 
meet  obligations  in  the  other  place;  thus  arises  the  complication 
of  exchange,  which  may  best  be  described  as  the  price  of  monetary 
claims  on  distant  debtors. 

Supposing,  for  example,  that  A  in  London  had  a  claim  on  C  in 
Edinburgh  amounting  to  £100,  and  that  B  in  London  did  not 
require  to  remit  more  than  £90  to  D  in  Edinburgh,  it  is  evident 
that  B  in  London  must  be  offered  some  inducement  to  take  over 
the  whole  of  A's  claim.  B  might  give  A  £99:  19:  o,  and  could 
then,  after  satisfying  his  debt  to  D,  have  £10  to  his  credit  in 
Edinburgh,  which  he  could  retain  there  at  interest  until  he  had 
incurred  further  liability  to  D,  or  he  could  have  the  balance  of 
£10  returned  him  in  coin  at  an  expense,  say,  of  sixpence;  this 
would  leave  B  with  a  profit  of  sixpence  on  the  transaction,  and, 
assuming  that  these  figures  are  reasonable,  exchange  on  Edin- 
burgh in  London  would  be  one  shilling  discount  per  £100. 
Supposing  the  necessities  of  B  induced  him  to  offer  A  only 
£99:14:0  for  his  £100  claim,  A  would  then  prefer  that  C 
remitted  him  £100  in  coin,  which,  on  the  above  scale  of  expenses 
would  cost  55.  and  A  would  receive  £  99 : 1 5  :  o  net.  On  these 
premises,  exchange  on  Edinburgh  in  London  cannot  fall  below 
\  %  discount,  and  the  same  circumstances  prevent  it  from  rising 
above  i%  premium,  for  B,  in  no  case,  would  pay  more  for  A's 
claim  than  £100  plus  the  cost  of  sending  coin  to  Scotland.  If 
this  basis  is  appreciated,  all  exchange  problems  between  different 
countries  can  be  mastered,  and  the  quotations  in  the  daily 
papers  of  cable  payments,  sight  drafts  (cheques)  and  long  bills 
are  then  understood  and  supply  an  interesting  indication  of  the 
state  of  international  financial  relations.  As  shown  above,  the 
balance  of  indebtedness  must  eventually  be  remitted  by  coin, 
and  consequently  when  exchange  in  any  city  is  quoted  at  one  or 
other  of  the  limit  points  given  in  our  example  as  j%  discount 
or  i%  premium,  this  exchange  immediately  acquires  a  very 
serious  importance,  because  with  the  development  of  modern 
monetary  systems  under  which  enormous  trade  is  carried  on 
with  a  most  moderate  foundation  of  actual  coin  the  weakening 
or  strengthening  of  that  foundation  is  a  very  vital  matter. 

While  the  understanding  of  the  theory  is  essential  for  any 
facile  interpretation  of  an  exchange,  there  are  of  course  in- 
numerable details  of  practice  which  require  to  be  known  to  identify 
the  limit  points  of  exchange  in  any  particular  city.  The  limit 
points  can  only  be  taken  advantage  of  by  banking  experts,  and, 
although  we  assume  a  trader  remitting  his  indebtedness  in  coin 
when  he  is  asked  to  pay  too  high  a  price  for  his  bill  of  exchange, 
in  actual  affairs  the  banker  will  supply  the  cheque  or  bill  and 
himself  will  do  the  professional  business  of  sending  away  bullion. 
Similarly,  we  have  represented  one  trader  drawing  on  another 
trader  and  selling  his  draft  to  a  third  trader  who  remits  the  draft 
to  a  fourth.  In  actual  practice,  however,  No.  i  draws  on  No.  2 
and  disposes  of  his  draft  to  a  banker;  No.  4  draws  on  No.  3  and 
sells  his  draft  to  a  banker;  because,  speaking  generally,  whenever 


EXCHANGE 


goods  are  shipped,  the  shipper  immediately  requires  his  money; 
he  draws  a  bill  against  the  goods,  and  it  is  the  function  of  a  banker 
to  help,  as  a  sort  of  debt-collecting  agency,  by  buying  these 
drafts;  and  the  bank,  being  a  mart  for  all  forms  of  remittance, 
gets  an  immense  variety  of  demand  for  cable  payments,  cheques 
and  bills  on  all  centres.  This  does  not  affect  the  theory,  for  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  banker  is  a  necessary  link  between 
the  buyer  and  seller  of  exchange,  because  the  seller  can  only 
sell  what  he  has  and  the  buyer  must  have  exactly  what  he  wants. 

To  return  to  the  question  of  limit  points:  if  a  universal 
currency  system  existed,  with  the  same  monetary  standard 
that  is  used  in  England,  and  the  coinage  kept  in  a  proper  con- 
dition of  weight  and  fineness,  and  the  coin  readily  supplied 
to  meet  every  reasonable  claim — if,  in  fact,  the  pound  sterling 
were  the  prevalent  coin  and  the  English  banking  system  obtained 
everywhere,  then  we  should  find  all  exchange  quotations  as  simple 
as  our  case  of  London  and  Edinburgh,  that  is  to  say,  all  exchanges 
would  be  quoted  at  par  or  a  premium  or  a  discount.  The  limit 
points  in  any  place  of  the  exchange  on  London  would  represent 
simply  and  obviously  the  cost  of  the  transmission  of  the  coin. 
These  limit  points  would  vary  at  each  place  according  to  the 
distance  from  London,  the  cost  of  freight,  the  risk  involved 
in  the  transmission  and  the  local  rate  of  interest.  On  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  some  advance  has  been  made  in  the  direction 
of  a  universal  coinage.  Countries  subscribing  to  the  Latin 
Union  have  agreed  on  the  franc  as  a  common  unit,  and  Belgium, 
Switzerland,  France  and  Italy  quote  exchange  between  them- 
selves at  a  premium  or  discount.  Greece,  Spain  and  other 
countries  are  also  parties  to  the  arrangement,  but  their  currencies 
are  in  a  bad  state,  and  the  exchange  quotations  involve  a  con- 
siderable element  of  speculation.  We  have,  however,  to  deal  with 
another  factor  in  international  finance,  namely,  the  enormous 
variety  of  currency  systems;  and  we  have  then  to  discover, 
in  each  case,  the  exchange  which  represents  par  and  corresponds 
to  our  £100  for  £100  in  the  London-Edinburgh  example.  The 
United  States  furnishes  perhaps  the  easiest  problem,  and  we  must 
find  out  how  many  dollars  in  gold  contain  exactly  the  same 
amount  of  the  precious  metal  as  is  contained  in  one  hundred 
sovereigns.  The  answer  is  486!,  and  the  arithmetic  is  a  question 
of  the  mint  laws  of  the  two  countries.  Gold  coin  in  the  United 
States  contains  one-tenth  alloy  and  in  England  one-twelfth 
alloy.  Ten  dollars  contain  258  grains  of  gold,  nine-tenths  fine. 
One  pound  contains  123-274  grains  of  gold,  eleven-twelfths  fine, 
consequently  £100  is  worth  $4865,  or,  to  be  exact,  $4863, 
and  when  cable  payments  between  London  and  New  York  are 
quoted  at  4-86f  for  the  £i  sterling,  exchange  is  about  par.  As 
a  cable  payment  is  an  immediate  transfer  from  one  city  to 
another,  no  question  of  interest  or  other  charge  is  involved. 
Owing  to  the  cost  of  sending  gold  as  detailed  above,  the  New 
York  cable  exchange  varies  from  about  4-84  to  4-895;  at  the 
former  point  gold  leaves  London  for  New  York,  and  at  the 
latter  point  gold  comes  to  England.  Besides  insurance,  freight, 
packing,  commission  and  interest,  there  must  also  be  considered 
the  circumstance  that  coin  taken  in  bulk  is  always  a  little  worn 
and  under  full  weight,  and  in  the  process  of  turning  sovereigns 
into  dollars,  the  result  would  not  bear  out  the  calculation  based 
on  the  mint  regulations:  consequently,  when  taking  gold  from 
London,  the  demand  would  first  fall  on  the  raw  metal  as  received 
from  South  Africa  or  Australia  to  be  minted  in  the  United  States, 
then  on  any  stock  of  American  coin  the  Bank  of  England  might 
have  and  be  willing  to  sell  by  weight  (which  would  be  accounted 
by  tale  in  New  York),  and  lastly  the  demand  would  be  satisfied 
by  sovereigns  taken  by  tale  from  the  Bank  of  England  and  con- 
verted by  weight  in  America. 

The  instance  of  the  American  quotation  may  be  further  taken 
to  explain  some  of  the  numerous  points  which  the  study  of  the 
exchange  involves.  In  the  first  place,  it  will  be  noted  that  we 
have  quoted  the  price  in  dollars.  In  London,  business  in  bills, 
&c.,  on  New  York  is  quoted  either  in  pence  or  in  dollars,  that  is 
to  say,  payments  are  negotiated  for  so  many  dollars  either  at 
49  fy  pence  per  dollar,  or  at  the  equivalent  rate  $4-88  for  the 
pound.  In  practice  it  is  much  more  convenient  to  quote  in 


London  in  the  money  of  the  foreign  country,  as  it  makes  com- 
parison with  the  foreign  rate  on  London  very  simple.  Some 
foreign  countries  quote  exchange  on  London  in  pence,  and  then, 
of  course,  in  relation  to  those  countries  the  same  practice  will 
obtain  in  England,  but  the  majority  of  the  exchange  quotations 
on  London  are  in  francs,  marks,  gulden,  lire,  kronen  or  other 
foreign  money.  Another  point  which  must  be  explained  is  the 
reason  why  exchange  varies  between  what  we  have  called  the 
limit  points;  why  there  is  sometimes  so  much  demand  for  bills 
on  London  and  why  at  other  times  so  many  bills  are  being 
offered.  Similar  causes  operate  on  other  exchanges,  and  if  we 
develop  the  New  York  case  we  shall  provide  explanations  for 
exchange  movements  in  other  countries. 

At  one  time  the  financial  relations  between  England  and 
America  were  as  follows.  England  was  the  principal  creditor  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  latter  country  had  to  remit  continually 
very  large  amounts  in  payment  of  interest  on  English  money 
and  profits  on  English  investments,  in  payment  for  shipping 
freights,  for  banking  commissions,  insurance  premiums  and  an 
immense  variety  of  services,  besides  paying  for  the  large  imports 
which  crossed  the  Atlantic  from  English  ports.  In  the  fall  of 
the  year  these  payments  would  be  more  than  offset  by  the 
enormous  exports  of  food-stuffs,  cotton,  tobacco,  &c.,  so  that 
during  the  first  half  of  the  year  exchange  would  be  at  or  about 
the  limit  of  4-895  and  gold  would  have  to  be  sent  from  New  York 
to  supplement  the  deficient  quantity  of  bills.  In  the  autumn 
the  produce  bills  would  flood  the  exchange  market  and  gold 
would  be  sent  from  London  as  exchange  got  to  the  other  limit 
point  of  4-84.  These  conditions  are  still  very  potent,  but  latterly 
another  element  has  entered  into  the  position,  and  the  new 
development  is  so  powerful  as  to  reverse  sometimes  what  we  may 
call  the  natural  and  legitimate  movement  in  the  exchange.  This 
new  element  is  the  more  intimate  banking  and  financial  relation- 
ship which  has  been  established  between  the  two  countries. 
As  American  conditions  have  become  more  stable,  with  better 
security  for  capital  and  an  assured  feeling  about  the  currency 
of  the  United  States,  bankers  in  London  have  gladly  allowed 
their  banking  friends  in  New  York  and  other  large  cities  to  draw 
bills  on  London  whenever  there  was  a  good  demand  for  sterling 
remittances.  We  have,  therefore,  to  consider  a  fresh  type  of 
bill  of  which  the  drawer  has  no  claim  on  the  drawee,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  incurs  a  debt  to  the  drawee.  To  take  a  very  usual 
method,  a  banker  in  Wall  Street,  New  York,  will  advance  money 
to  stockbrokers,  investors  and  speculators  against  bonds  and 
shares  with  a  20%  margin.  He  deposits  this  security  with  a  trust 
company  in  New  York  which  acts  both  for  the  American  and 
English  banker.  The  Wall  Street  banker  then  draws  a  bill  at 
60  days'  sight  or  90  days'  sight  on  the  banker  in  Lombard  Street 
and  sells  this  draft  to  supply  the  money  he  lends  the  stockbroker. 
Two  or  three  months  hence  the  New  York  banker  must  send 
money  to  London  with  which  to  meet  the  bill,  so  that,  whereas,  in 
the  case  of  a  commercial  bill,  the  produce  is  despatched  and  in  due 
course  the  consignee  must  find  the  money  for  the  bill,  in  the  case 
of  a  finance  bill,  as  it  is  called,  the  bill  is  drawn  and  in  due  course 
the  drawer  must  send  the  value  with  which  it  is  to  be  honoured. 
In  any  event  the  acceptor,  the  London  banker,  has  to  pay 
the  bill,  so  that  it  will  be  easily  understood  that  relations  of 
the  greatest  confidence  are  necessary  between  the  drawer  and 
drawee  before  finance  bills  of  this  class  can  be  created. 

The  profit  arising  from  the  transaction  we  have  sketched  is 
realized  by  the  separate  parties  in  this  way.  The  New  York 
banker  lends  money  for  three  months,  say,  at  5%  per  annum, 
he  pays  a  commission  of  •5*5-%  to  the  trust  company  which  has 
custody  of  the  security,  a  charge  equivalent  to  \%  interest  per 
annum.  He  draws  on  London  at  90  days'  sight  and  sells  the  bill 
at  4-83!,  the  cable  rate  being  4-87!,  the  buyer  of  a  three  months' 
bill  making  the  allowance  for  the  English  bill  stamp  of  5  per 
mille  and  the  London  discount  rate  of  3%.  The  drawer  of  the 
bill  must  also  pay  a  commission  of  -fg%  to  the  London  banker 
who  accepts  the  draft;  this  is  equivalent  to  another  J%  per 
annum  in  the  rate  of  discount,  so  that  money  raised  in  this  way 
costs  J  %  for  the  trust  company,  3  %  the  London  discount  rate, 


EXCHANGE 


about  |%  for  bill  stamps,  and  \%  for  London  commission — 
altogether,  4^%;  and,  as  the  money  is  loaned  at  5%,  there 
appears  to  be  £  %  profit  to  the  drawer  of  the  bill.  This,  however, 
is  on  the  assumption  that  the  cable  rate  is  still  4-87!  when  the 
bill  falls  due  for  payment  and  that  the  drawer  would  have  to 
pay  that  price  to  telegraph  the  money  to  meet  the  draft.  But 
exchange  on  London  can  go  up  or  down  between  4-84  and  4-895, 
and  if  at  the  end  of  the  three  months  the  cable  rate  is  4-84  the 
New  York  banker  will  be  able  to  cover  his  bill  at  almost  the  same 
rate  at  which  he  sold  it  and  will  only  be  out  of  pocket  to  the 
extent  of  the  commissions  and  stamps,  so  that  the  accommodation 
will  only  cost  him  i£%  and  his  profit  will  be  3^%.  If  he  has 
to  pay  more  than  4-871  for  his  cable  at  the  maturity  of  the  bill 
his  profit  will  be  less  than  5  %,  and  he  may  even  be  a  loser  on  the 
transaction. 

It  is  obvious,  then,  that  a  high  rate  of  interest  in  New  York, 
with  a  high  rate  of  exchange  on  London  and  a  low  rate  of  dis- 
count in  England,  would  induce  the  creation  of  these  finance 
bills.  The  supply  of  these  bills  would  prevent  New  York  ex- 
change reaching  the  limit  point  at  which  gold  leaves  the  United 
States,  and  the  maturity  of  these  bills  in  the  autumn  would 
ensure  a  demand  for  the  produce  bills  and  possibly  prevent 
exchange  from  falling  to  the  other  limit  point  at  which  London 
has  to  send  gold  to  New  York. 

We  have  pointed  out  the  essential  difference  between  these 
finance  bills  and  what  we  have  called  produce  bills,  but  there  is 
another  very  striking  difference,  that  of  the  question  of  supply. 
These  finance  bills  are  obviously  very  difficult  to  limit  in  their 
amounts;  produce  bills  are,  of  course,  limited  by  the  extent  of 
the  surplus  crops  of  the  United  States  and  by  the  demand  for 
the  produce  in  Europe,  but  so  long  as  it  is  mutually  satisfactory 
to  the  big  finance  houses  in  both  countries  to  draw  on  credit 
granted  in  London,  so  long  may  these  accommodation  bills  be 
created,  and  the  pressure  of  the  bills  in  New  York  may  depress 
exchange  so  much  that  gold  leaves  London  at  a  time  when  it  is 
required  in  other  directions.  In  such  a  case  the  embarrassment 
caused  by  this  artificial  drain  of  the  gold  reserve  would  much 
more  than  offset  the  amount  of  the  commission  earned  by  the 
accepting  houses.  The  Bank  of  England  may  have  to  raise  its 
rate  of  discount  at  the  expense  of  the  entire  home  trade;  prob- 
ably, also,  with  the  rise  in  the  value  of  money,  consequent  on  the 
diminished  resources,  all  investment  securities  fall  in  value  and 
more  onerous  terms  must  be  submitted  to  by  the  government, 
corporations  and  colonies,  in  the  issue  of  any  loans  they  may 
require.  It  will,  therefore,  be  appreciated  that,  although  these 
finance  bills  may  be  perfectly  safe,  their  excessive  creation  is 
viewed  with  great  disfavour,  and  considerable  apprehension  is 
felt  when  the  adventures  of  speculators  in  New  York  make 
great  demands  for  loans  against  stocks  and  shares,  and,  through 
the  instrumentality  of  these  finance  bills,  shift  the  burden  on  to 
the  shoulders  of  the  London  discount  market.  The  effect  of 
this  is  to  level  money  rates  as  between  New  York  and  London, 
and  in  the  process  the  pressure  falls  on  London  and  the  relief 
goes  to  America.  Eventually,  of  course,  the  bills  must  be  met 
and  funds  sent  for  that  purpose  from  across  the  Atlantic,  but  in 
the  meanwhile  the  disturbance  of  the  gold  supply  is  an  incon- 
venience. 

We  have  explained  the  process  of  employing  credits  granted 
in  London  to  finance  Wall  Street;  there  are,  also,  many  other 
typesof  bill  to  which  the  acceptor  lends  his  name  on  the  assurance 
that  he  will  in  due  course  be  supplied  with  the  funds  required 
to  meet  the  acceptance.  In  the  case  of  the  produce  bills,  a 
London  banker  will  accept  the  bills  in  order  that  they  may  be 
more  easily  marketable  than  if  they  were  drawn  direct  on  the 
actual  consignee  of  the  cotton,  tobacco  or  wheat.  The  consignees 
in  Liverpool,  &c.,  pay  a  commission  for  this  assistance  and 
reimburse  the  London  bank  as  the  produce  is  gradually  disposed 
of.  The  transaction  appears  slightly  more  complicated  when 
English  bankers  accept  bills  for  produce  shipped  from  the 
United  States  to  merchants  living  in  Hamburg,  Genoa,  Singapore 
and  all  other  great  ports,  but  the  principle  is  the  same,  and  the 
influence  of  such  business  on  the  exchange  affects,  in  the  first 


instance,  the  quotation  between  America  and  London,  but  after- 
wards, when  money  must  be  sent  to  London  with  which  to  honour 
the  bills,  the  exchanges  with  Germany,  Italy  or  the  Straits 
Settlements  bear  their  share  in  the  eventual  adjustment,  the 
spinners,  tobacco  manufacturers  and  corn  factors  requiring 
drafts  on  London  where  so  much  of  the  trade  of  the  world  is 
financed. 

We  shall  have  to  consider  later  the  reasons  which  ensure  to 
London  this  peculiar  and  predominant  position.  We  have  so 
far  used  the  American  exchange  as  an  example  to  explain  causes 
which  produce  fluctuations  in  all  the  principal  exchanges  on 
London  and  to  show  the  points  between  which  fluctuations  are 
limited.  The  fact  that  America  is  still  developing  at  a  much 
greater  rate  than  the  Old  World  makes  an  important  distinction 
between  the  financial  position  in  New  York  and  the  financial 
position  of  the  big  capitals  in  Europe.  There  is  not  in  America 
the  huge  accumulation  of  savings  and  investment  money  which 
the  Old  World  has  collected,  so  that  whereas  Europe  helps  to 
finance  the  United  States,  the  latter  country  has  so  many  home 
enterprises  that  she  can  spare  none  of  her  funds  to  assist  Europe. 
It  would  not  be  possible  for  London  to  draw  on  New  York  such 
bills  as  we  have  described  as  finance  bills,  for  they  could  never  be 
discounted  there  except  on  the  most  onerous  terms,  and  there  is 
nothing  in  America  which  corresponds  to  the  London  money 
market. 

'  We  have  to  deal  with  dollars  and  cents  in  America,  with  francs 
in  France,  with  marks  in  Germany,  and  different  money  units  in 
nearly  every  country;  but,  given  the  mint  regulations,  the 
theoretical  par  of  exchange  and  the  theoretical  limit  points  are 
arrived  at  by  simple  arithmetic.  An  exhaustive  statement  with 
reference  to  every  country  would  involve  an  amount  of  tedious 
repetition,  so  that  for  the  purposes  of  this  article  it  is  more 
instructive  to  consider  the  essential  differences  between  the 
important  exchanges  than  to  go  into  the  details  of  coinage, 
which  would  appeal  rather  to  the  numismatist  than  to  the  ex- 
change expert. 

The  United  States,  offering  as  it  does  a  vast  field  for  profitable 
investment,  must  annually  remit  huge  amounts  for  interest 
on  bonds  and  shares  held  by  Europeans;  coupons  and  dividend 
warrants  payable  in  America  are  offered  for  sale  daily  in  London, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  quarters  the  amount  of  these  claims, 
coupons  and  drawn  bonds  is  very  large,  and  a  considerable  set 
off  to  the  indebtedness  of  Europe  for  American  produce.  It  is 
often  asserted  that  the  United  States  is  rapidly  getting  sufficiently 
wealthy  to  repurchase  all  these  bonds  and  shares;  but  whenever 
trade  conditions  are  exceptionally  good  in  the  States,  fresh 
evidence  is  forthcoming  that  assistance  from  London  and  Europe 
is  essential  to  finance  the  commercial  development  of  the  United 
States.  This  illustrates  a  feature  common  to  all  new  countries, 
and  the  effect  is  that  they  make  annual  payments  to  the  older 
countries  and  especially  to  England. 

A  government  loan  or  other  large  borrowing  arranged  abroad 
will  immediately  move  the  exchange  in  favour  of  the  borrowing 
country.  A  tendency  adverse  to  the  United  States  results  from 
the  drafts  and  letters  of  credit  of  the  large  number  of  holiday 
makers  who  cross  the  Atlantic  and  spend  so  much  money  in 
Europe.  When  remittance  is  made  of  the  incomes  of  Americans 
who  have  taken  up  their  residence  in  the  Old  World  the  exchange 
is  affected  in  a  similar  manner. 

In  one  respect  the  United  States  stands  far  superior  to  most 
of  the  older  countries.  There  are  no  restrictions  on  the  free 
export  of  gold  when  exchange  reaches  the  limit  point  showing 
that  the  demand  for  bills  on  London  exceeds  the  supply.  New 
York  (with  London  and  India)  is  a  free  gold  market,  and  this  is 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  reasons  why  money  is  so  readily  advanced 
to  the  United  States,  and  the  finance  bills,  to  which  we  referred 
above,  would  not  be  allowed  to  the  same  extent  were  it  not  for 
the  fact  that  New  York  will  remit  gold  when  other  forms  of 
remittance  are  insufficient  to  satisfy  foreign  creditors.  When 
exchange  between  Paris  and  London  reaches  the  theoretical  limit 
point  of  25-32  (25  francs  32  centimes  for  the  £i  sterling),  gold 
does  not  leave  Paris  for  London  unless  the  Bank  of  France  is 


EXCHANGE 


53 


willing  to  allow  it.  By  law,  silver  is  also  legal  tender  in  France, 
and  if  the  State  Bank  is  pressed  for  gold  a  premium  will  be 
charged  for  it  if  it  is  supplied.  Gold  may  be  collected  on  cheaper 
terms  in  small  amounts  from  the  great  trading  corporations 
or  from  the  offices  of  the  railways,  but  a  large  shipment  can  only 
be  made  by  special  arrangement  with  the  Bank  of  France. 
Similarly,  in  Germany,  where  a  gold  standard  is  supposed  to 
obtain,  if  a  banker  requires  a  large  amount  of  gold  from  the 
Reichsbank  he  is  warned  that  he  had  better  not  take  it,  and  if 
he  persists  he  incurs  the  displeasure  of  the  government  institution 
to  the  prejudice  of  his  business,  so  that  the  theoretical  limit 
point  of  20  marks  52  pf.  to  the  pound  sterling  has  no  practical 
significance,  and  gold  cannot  be  secured  from  Berlin  when 
exchange  is  against  that  city,  and  Germany  has,  when  put  to  the 
test,  an  inconvertible  and  sometimes  a  debased  currency.  There 
is  no  state  bank  in  the  United  States,  and  no  government  inter- 
ference with  the  natural  course  of  paying  debts.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  monetary  conditions  in  New  York  indicate  a  great 
shortage  of  funds,  and  rates  of  interest  are  uncomfortably  high, 
the  United  States  treasury  has  sometimes  parted  with  some  of 
its  revenue  accumulations  to  the  principal  New  York  bankers 
on  condition  that  they  at  once  engage  a  similar  amount  of  gold 
for  import  from  abroad,  which  shall  be  turned  over  to  the  treasury 
on  arrival.  As  these  advances  are  made  free  of  interest  the  effect 
is  to  adjust  the  limit  point  of  484  to  about  485,  and  the  United 
States  treasury  seems  to  have  taken  a  leaf  out  of  the  book  of 
the  German  Reichsbank,  which  frequently  offers  similar  facilities 
to  gold  importers  and  creates  an  artificial  limit  point  in  the 
Berlin  Exchange.  The  Reichsbank  gives  credit  in  Berlin  for 
gold  that  has  only  got  as  far  as  Hamburg,  and  sometimes  gives 
so  many  days'  credit  that  the  agent  in  London  of  German  banking 
houses  can  afford  an  extravagant  price  for  bar  gold  and  even 
risk  the  loss  in  weight  on  a  withdrawal  of  sovereigns,  although 
the  exchange  may  not  have  fallen  to  the  other  limit  point  of 
20-32.  In  England  the  only  effort  that  is  made  to  attract  gold 
is  some  action  by  the  Bank  of  England  in  the  direction  of  raising 
discount  rates;  occasionally,  also,  the  bank  outbids  other 
purchasers  for  the  arrivals  of  raw  gold  from  South  Africa, 
Australia  and  other  mining  countries.  Quite  exceptionally,  for 
instance  during  the  Boer  War,  the  Bank  of  England  allowed 
advances  free  of  interest  against  gold  shipped  to  London. 

Many  of  the  principal  banking  houses  in  all  the  important 
capitals  receive  continually  throughout  the  day  telegraphic 
information  of  the  tendency  and  movement  of  all  the  exchanges, 
and  on  the  smallest  margin  of  profit  a  large  business  is  done  in 
what  is  called  arbitrage  (?.».).  For  instance,  cheques  or  bills 
on  London  will  be  bought  by  X  in  Paris  and  remitted  to  Y  in 
London.  X  will  recoup  himself  by  selling  a  cable  payment  on 
Z  in  New  York.  Z  will  put  himself  in  funds  to  meet  the  cable 
payment  by  selling  60  days'  sight  drafts  on  Y,  who  pays  the  60 
days'  drafts  at  maturity  out  of  the  proceeds  of  the  cheques  or 
bills  received  from  Paris,  and  this  complicated  transaction, 
involving  no  outlay  of  capital,  must  show  some  minute  profit 
after  all  expense  of  bill  stamps,  discount,  cables  and  commissions 
has  been  allowed  for.  Such  business  is  very  difficult  and  very 
technical.  The  arbitrageur  must  be  in  first-class  credit,  must 
make  the  most  exact  calculation,  and  be  prompt  to  take 
advantage  of  the  small  differences  in  exchange,  differences 
which  can  be  only  temporary,  as  these  operations  soon  bring 
about  an  adjustment. 

The  European  exchanges  with  which  London  is  chiefly  con- 
cerned are  Paris  and  Berlin,  through  which  centres  most  of  the 
financial  business  of  the  rest  of  Europe  is  conducted ;  for  example, 
Scandinavia,  Russia  and  Austria  bank  more  largely  with  Berlin 
than  elsewhere.  Italy,  Switzerland,  Belgium  and  Spain  bank 
chiefly  in  Paris.  European  claims  on  London  or  debts  to  London 
are  settled  mostly  through  Germany  or  France,  and  consequently 
the  German  and  French  rates  of  exchange  are  affected  by  the 
relation  of  England  with  the  rest  of  the  Continent.  The  ex- 
changes on  Paris  and  Berlin  are  therefore  most  carefully  watched 
by  all  those  big  interests  which  are  concerned  with  the  rate  of 
discount  and  the  value  of  money  in  London. 


If  the  Paris  cheque  falls  to  25-12,  gold  arrivals  in  the  London 
bullion  market  will  be  taken  by  French  bankers  unless  the  profit 
shown  by  the  exchange  on  some  other  country  enables  other 
buyers  to  pay  more  for  the  gold  than  Paris  can  afford.  If  the 
Paris  cheque  falls  still  further,  it  would  pay  to  take  sovereigns 
from  the  Bank  of  England  for  export,  and  so  much  would  be 
taken  as  would  satisfy  the  demand  to  send  money  to  France,  or 
until  the  consequent  scarcity  of  money  in  London  made  rates 
of  interest  so  high  in  England  that  French  bankers  would  prefer 
to  leave  money  and  perhaps  increase  their  balances.  As  between 
London  and  Paris  and  Berlin  the  greatest  factor  operating  the 
exchanges  is  the  relative  value  of  money  in  the  three  centres. 
There  is  no  great  excess  of  trade  balance  at  any  season  in  favour 
of  Germany  or  France  and  against  England.  On  the  other  hand 
the  banking  relations  between  those  countries  are  very  intimate, 
and  if  funds  can  be  very  profitably  employed  in  one  of  these 
places,  there  will  be  a  good  demand  for  remittance,  and  exchange 
will  move  in  favour  of  that  place,  that  is  to  say,  exchange  will 
go  towards  that  limit  point  at  which  gold  will  be  sent.  The 
great  pastoral  and  agricultural  countries  like  South  America, 
Egypt  and  India  are  in  a  position  to  draw  very  largely  on  London 
when  their  crops  or  other  products  are  ready  for  shipment. 
In  the  early  months  of  the  year  gold  goes  freely  to  South  America 
to  pay  for  the  cereals,  hides  and  meat,  and  in  the  autumn  Egypt 
and  India  send  such  quantities  of  cotton  and  wheat  that  exchange 
moves  heavily  in  favour  of  those  countries,  and  gold  must  go 
to  adjust  the  trade  balance.  During  the  rest  of  the  year  the  gold 
tends  to  return  as  these  countries  always  require  bills  on  London 
or  some  form  of  payment  to  meet  interest  and  dividends  on 
European  money  invested  in  their  government  debts,  railways 
and  trading  enterprises,  and  to  pay  for  the  European  manu- 
factures which  they  import.  Exchange  then  moves  in  favour 
of  England,  and  the  Bank  of  England  can  replenish  its  reserve. 
Over  the  greater  part  of  the  world  the  rate  of  exchange  on  London 
is  an  indication  simply  of  the  trade  balance.  The  greater  part  of 
the  world  receives  payment  for  food  stuffs,  and  has  to  pay  for 
European  manufactures,  shipping  freights,  banking  services 
and  professionaljcommissions. 

The  greatest  complication  in  exchange  questions  arises  when 
we  have  to  deal  with  a  country  employing  a  silver  standard,  and, 
fortunately  for  the  development  of  trade,  this  problem  has 
disappeared  of  late  years  in  the  case  of  India,  Ceylon,  Japan, 
Mexico  and  the  Straits  Settlements,  and  now  the  only  important 
country  using  silver  as  a  standard  is  China.  When  the  monetary 
standard  in  one  country  is  only  a  commodity  in  another  country 
we  are  as  far  removed  from  the  ideal  of  an  international  currency 
as  can  be  imagined.  We  can  fix  no  limit  points  to  the  exchange 
and  we  cannot  settle  any  theoretical  par  of  exchange.  The  price 
of  silver  in  the  gold-using  country  may  vary  as  much  as  the  price 
of  copper  or  tin,  and  in  the  silver-using  country  gold  is  dealt 
in  just  as  any  other  metal.  In  both  cases  the  only  metal  of 
constant  price  is  the  metal  which  is  used  as  the  money  standard. 
The  easiest  method  of  explaining  the  position  is  to  consider  that 
any  one  in  a  gold-using  country  having  a  claim  in  currency  on 
a  silver-using  country  has  to  offer  for  sale  so  many  ounces  of 
silver,  and  vice  versa  the  exporter  in  a  silver-using  country 
sending  produce  to  London  has  to  offer  a  draft  representing  so 
many  ounces  of  gold.  This  introduces  a  very  unsatisfactory 
element.  To  take  a  practical  example: — a  tea-grower  in  China 
has  raised  his  crop  in  spite  of  the  usual  experience  of  weather  and 
labour  difficulties  and  the  endless  risks  that  a  planter  must  face; 
the  tea  is  then  sent  to  London  to  take  its  chance  of  good  or  bad 
prices,  and  at  the  same  time  the  planter  has  a  draft  to  sell  repre- 
senting locally  a  certain  weight  of  gold;  now,  in  addition  to  all 
the  risks  of  weather  and  trading  conditions,  and  the  chances  of 
the  fluctuations  in  the  tea  market,  he  is  compelled  to  gamble 
in  the  metal  market  on  the  price  of  gold.  Some  years  ago  when 
a  large  number  of  important  countries  employed  a  silver  standard 
it  was  seriously  suggested  that  a  fixed  ratio  should  be  agreed 
internationally  at  which  gold  and  silver  should  be  exchanged. 
This  advocacy  of  bimetallism  (q.v.)  was  especially  persistent  at 
a  time  when  silver  had  suffered  a  very  great  fall  in  price  and  the 


54 


EXCHEQUER 


prominent  exponents  could  generally  be  identified  either  as 
extremely  practical  men  who  were  interested  in  the  price  of 
silver,  or  as  very  inexperienced  theorists.  The  difficulty  of  the 
two  standards  was  successfully  solved  by  discarding  the  use  of 
silver,  and  the  chief  silver-using  countries  adopted  a  gold 
standard  which  has  given  greater  security  for  the  investment 
of  foreign  capital,  has  simplified  business  and  brought  about  a 
large  increase  of  trade. 

In  the  case  of  a  country  of  which  the  government  has  been 
subject  to  great  financial  difficulties,  gold  has  been  shipped  to 
satisfy  foreign  creditors  so  long  as  the  supply  held  out,  and  the 
exchange  with  sucTi  a  country  will  continue  to  move  adversely 
with  every  fresh  political  embarrassment  and  any  other  economic 
cause  reflecting  on  the  national  credit.  With  the  collapse  of  the 
monarchy  in  Brazil  the  value  of  the  milreis  fell  from  zyd.  to  sd., 
and  all  the  Spanish-American  countries  have  from  time  to  time 
afforded  most  distressing  examples  of  the  demoralizing  effects  on 
the  currency  of  unstable  and  reckless  administration.  In  Europe 
similar  results  have  been  shown  by  the  mistrust  inspired  by  the 
governments  of  Spain,  Greece,  Italy  and  some  other  states. 
The  raising  of  revenue  by  the  use  of  the  printing  press  creates 
an  inconvertible  and  depreciating  paper  currency  which  frightens 
foreign  capital  and  severely  taxes  the  unfortunate  country  which 
must  make  payment  abroad  for  the  service  of  debt  and  other 
obligations.  With  the  tardy  appreciation  of  the  old  proverb  that 
"  honesty  is  the  best  policy  "  nearly  every  country  of  importance 
has  made  strenuous  efforts  to  improve  the  integrity  of  its  money. 

Exchange  quotations  are  not  published  from  many  of  the 
British  colonies,  as  their  financial  business  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
comparatively  few  excellently  managed  banks,  which  establish, 
by  agreement,  conventional  exchanges  fixed  for  a  considerable 
period,  notably  in  the  case  of  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  South 
Africa.  The  Scottish  and  Irish  banks  supply  similar  examples 
of  a  monopoly  in  exchange. 

The  following  table  taken  from  the  money  article  of  a  London 
daily  paper  indicates  the  exchanges  which  are  of  most  interest 
to  England:— 

Foreign  Exchanges. 


June  14. 

June  15. 

June  1  6. 

Paris,  cheques 

25  f.  18  c. 

25  f.  18  c. 

25  f.  18  c. 

„     Mkt.  discount  . 

2i-|  p.c. 

2H  p.c. 

2*-f  p.C. 

Brussels,  cheques 

25  f.  23  c. 

25  f-  23*  c. 

Berlin,  sight    . 

20  m.  48!  pf. 

20  m.  48!  pf. 

20  m.  48  pf. 

„         8  days 

20  m.  46^  pf. 

20  m.  46J  pf  . 

20  m.  45^  pf. 

„         Mkt.  discount 

3i  P-c. 

3j  P.C. 

3l  P.C. 

Vienna,  sight  . 

Holiday 

24  kr.  O2j  h. 

24  kr.  O2j  h. 

Amsterdam,  sight 

12  fl.  134  c. 

12  fl.    I3i  C. 

Italy,  sight 

Holiday 

25  lire  15  c. 

Madrid,  sight. 

,, 

27  ps.  68 

Lisbon,  sight  . 

,, 

St  Petersburg,  3ms.   . 
Bombay,  T.T. 

94  r.  10 

is.  4<1. 

94  r.  10 

is.  4d. 

is.  4d. 

Calcutta,  T.T.      .      . 

is.  41!. 

is.  4d. 

is.  4d. 

Hong-Kong,  T.T.      . 
Shanghai,  T.T.     . 

2s.  i  Ad. 

2S.  I0|d. 

2S.  Ij^d. 

2s.  io|d. 

2s.  i  Ad. 

2S.  lOfd. 

Singapore,  T.T.    . 

2s.  4rSd. 

2s.  4Ad. 

2S.  4^^. 

Yokohama,  T.T..      . 

23.  Ofd. 

2S.  Ofd. 

2S.  Ofd. 

*Rio  de  Jan'ro,  90  days 

i6j^d. 

i6Ad. 

i6JJd. 

*Valparaiso,    90    days 

Coml  

Hid. 

I4fd. 

I4\d. 

*B.  Ayres,  90  days 

48d. 

48d. 

*  These  rates  are  telegraphed  on  the  day  preceding  their  receipt. 

In  the  case  of  Paris  and  Berlin  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
local  rate  of  discount  is  also  given,  as  the  value  of  money  in  these 
centres,  in  relation  to  the  value  of  money  in  London,  is  the  most 
important  factor  in  a  movement  of  the  exchange.  Vienna  has 
become  important  owing  to  the  improvement  in  the  financial 
position  of  Austria,  and  still  greater  improvement  is  shown  in 
the  case  of  Italy,  whose  currency  stands  in  the  above  list  better 
even  than  that  of  France.  Spain,  which  should  stand  at  about 
the  same  rate,  still  has  a  depreciated  paper  currency.  Lisbon 
stands  also  at  a  discount,  as  the  milreis  should  be  worth  53^ 
pence. 

In  Russia  the  exchange  showing  94.10  roubles  to  £10  is  care- 


fully and  cleverly  controlled  in  spite  of  the  bad  internal  position. 
The  India  exchanges  move  slightly,  as  the  currency  is  firmly 
established  at  the  rate  of  15  rupees  to  the  £i.  Hong-Kong  quotes 
for  the  old  Mexican  dollar  and  a  British  trade  dollar;  Shanghai 
for  the  tael  containing  on  an  average  5175  grains  of  fine  silver. 
The  Straits  Settlements  have  fixed  their  money  on  a  gold  basis 
at  2s.  4d.  per  dollar,  on  the  lines  of  the  arrangement  made  in 
India.  In  Japan  there  is  a  gold  standard,  and  par  of  exchange 
is  as.  o£d.  for  the  yen.  Brazil,  Chile  and  Argentina  have  a 
depreciated  paper  currency,  and  the  last  quotation  of  48d.  is  for 
the  gold  dollar  equal  to  five  francs,  but  there  is  a  premium  on 
gold  in  the  River  Plate  of  127.27^%  and  for  the  present  a  gold 
standard  is  re-established  on  this  basis.  The  letters  T.T.  with 
the  eastern  exchanges  signify  telegraphic  transfer  or  the  rate  for 
payments  made  by  cable.  The  very  important  New  York  rates 
are  always  given  in  another  part  of  the  daily  paper  with  other 
details  of  American  commercial  interest. 

These  rates  are  all  quotations  for  payments  in  England,  and 
all  over  the  world  the  exchange  on  London  is  the  exchange  of 
the  greatest  importance.  This  unique  position  was  gained 
originally,  probably,  through  the  geographical  position  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  has  been  maintained  owing  to  several 
reasons  which  secure  to  London  a  peculiar  position  by  comparison 
with  any  other  capital.  Britain's  colossal  trade  ensures  a  supply 
of  and  a  demand  for  English  remittances.  Even  when  goods 
or  produce  are  dealt  in  between  foreign  countries  a  credit  is  opened 
in  London,  so  that  the  shipper  of  the  produce  can  offer  in  the 
local  market  a  bill  of  exchange  which  is  readily  saleable.  With 
the  highly  developed  banking  system  a  large  amount  of  deposits 
is  collected  in  London,  and  the  result  is  that  bills  of  any  usance 
up  to  six  months  can  be  immediately  discounted,  and  the  pro- 
ceeds, if  required,  can  be  handed  over  in  gold.  There  are  in 
London  a  great  number  of  wealthy  banks  and  banking  houses 
whose  reputation  and  solidity  allow  any  one  of  them  to  accept 
bills  for  amounts  varying  from  one  to  ten  millions  sterling, 
whereby  large  commissions  are  earned. 

These  four  advantages,  namely,  a  free  gold  market,  a  huge 
trade,  an  enormous  accumulation  of  wealth,  and  a  discount 
market  such  as  exists  nowhere  else,  have  made  London  an 
unrivalled  financial  centre,  and  consequently  bills  on  London 
are  an  international  money  and  the  best  medium  of  exchange. 

AUTHORITIES. — A  B  C  of  the  Foreign  Exchanges,  by  George 
Clare;  Foreign  Exchanges,  by  Goschen;  Arbitrage,  by  Deutsch; 
Arbitrages  et  Parites,  by  Ottoman  Haupt;  Swoboda,  Arbitrage  (i2th 
edition),  by  Max  Fuerst.  (E.  M.  HA.) 

EXCHEQUER.  The  word  "  exchequer  "  is  the  English  form 
of  the  Fr.  ichiquier,  low  Lat.  scaccarium,  and  its  primary  meaning 
is  a  chess-board  (see  Chess).  As  the  name  of  a  government 
department  dealing  with  accounts  it  is  derived  from  the  exchequer 
or  the  "  abacus  "  by  means  of  which  such  accounts  were  kept, 
such  a  contrivance  being  almost  universally  in  use  before  the 
introduction  of  the  Arabic  notation.  In  England  the  department 
or  court  of  accounts  was  named  originally  "  the  tallies  "  from 
the  notched  sticks  or  tallies  which  constituted  the  primitive 
means  of  account-keeping  (which  were  only  abolished  in  1826), 
and  was  only  subsequently,  probably  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I., 
named  the  exchequer  from  the  use  of  the  abacus.  Both  the  name 
and  the  general  features  of  the  institution  may  reasonably'  be 
attributed  to  Norman  influence,  since  we  find  both  in  Normandy 
and  in  the  Norman  kingdom  of  Sicily,  as  well  as  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland;  the  two  latter  cases  being  directly  due  to  English 
example.  As  a  court  of  law  the  exchequer  owed  its  existence  in 
England,  as  elsewhere,  to  the  necessity  of  deciding  legal  questions 
arising  from  matters  of  account,  and  its  secondary  activities  soon 
overshadowed  its  original  functions. 

We  cannot  say  whether  the  exchequer,  as  known  in  England, 
is  older  than  the  beginning  of  the  i  zth  century.  The  treasury, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  its  constituents,  dates  from 
before  the  conquest,  and  the  officers  of  the  exchequer  who  were 
drawn  from  the  treasury  staff  can  be  traced  back  to  Domesday. 
But  our  earliest  information  about  the  exchequer  itself,  apart 
from  that  afforded  by  the  pipe  rolls  (see  RECORD),  rests  on  a 


EXCHEQUER 


55 


treatise  (Dialogus  de  Scaccario)  written  about  A.D.  1179  by 
Richard,  bishop  of  London  and  treasurer  of  England.  His 
father,  Nigel,  bishop  of  Ely,  had  been  treasurer  of  Henry  I.,  and 
nephew  to  that  king's  great  financial  minister  Roger,  bishop  of 
Salisbury.  Nigel  is  said  to  have  reconstituted  the  exchequer  after 
the  troubles  of  Stephen's  reign  upon  the  model  which  he  inherited 
from  his  uncle.  The  Angevin,  or  rather  the  Norman,  exchequer 
cannot  be  regarded  in  strictness  as  a  permanent  department. 
It  consisted  of  two  parts:  the  lower  exchequer,  which  was 
closely  connected  with  the  permanent  treasury  and  was  an 
office  for  the  receipt  and  payment  of  money;  and  the  upper 
exchequer,  which  was  a  court  sitting  twice  a  year  to  settle 
accounts  and  thus  nearly  related  to  the  Curia  Regis  (q.v.).  We 
dare  hardly  say  that  either  exchequer  existed  in  vacation; 
indeed  the  word  (like  the  word  "  diet  ")  seems  to  have  been 
limited  at  first  to  the  actual  sitting  of  the  king's  courtfor  financial 
purposes.  The  Michaelmas  and  Easter  exchequers  were  the 
sessions  of  this  court  "  at  the  exchequer  "  or  chess-board  as  it 
had  previously  sat  "at  the  tallies."  The  constitution  of  the 
court  was  that  of  the  normal  Prankish  curia.  The  king  was  the 
nominal  president,  and  the  court  consisted  of  his  great  officers 
of  state  and  his  barons,  or  tenants-in-chief,  and  it  is  doubtless 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  exchequer  was  originally  the  curia  itself 
sitting  for  a  special  purpose  that  its  unofficial  judges  retained 
the  name  of  "  barons  "  until  recent  times.  Of  the  great  officers 
we  may  probably  find  the  steward  in  the  person  of  the  justiciar, 
the  normal  president  of  the  court.  He  sat  at  the  head  of  the 
exchequer  table.  The  butler  was  not  represented.  The  chan- 
cellor sat  on  the  justiciar's  left;  he  was  custodian  ex  officio  of 
the  seal  of  the  court,  and  thus  responsible  for  the  issue  of  all  writs 
and  summonses,  and  moreover  for  the  keeping  of  a  duplicate  roll 
of  accounts  embodying  the  judgments  of  the  court.  On  the  left 
of  the  chancellor,  and  thus  clear  of  the  table,  since  their  services 
might  be  required  elsewhere  at  any  moment,  sat  the  constable, 
the  two  chamberlains  and  the  marshal.  The  constable  was  the 
chief  of  the  outdoor  service  of  the  court,  and  was  responsible 
for  everything  connected  with  the  army,  or  with  hunting  and 
hawking.  The  two  chamberlains  were  the  lay  colleagues  of  the 
treasurer,  and  shared  with  him  the  duty  of  receiving  and  paying 
money,  and  keeping  safe  the  seal  of  the  court,  and  all  the  records 
and  other  contents  of  the  treasury.  The  marshal,  who  was 
subordinate  to  the  constable,  shared  his  duties,  and  was  specially 
responsible  for  the  custody  of  prisoners  and  of  the  vouchers 
produced  by  accountants.  At  the  head  of  the  table  on  the 
justiciar's  right  sat,  in  Henry  II. 's  time,  an  extraordinary  member 
of  the  court,  the  bishop  of  Winchester.  The  treasurer,  like  the 
chancellor  a  clerk,  sat  at  the  head  of  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
table.  He  charged  the  accountants  with  their  fixed  debts,  and 
dictated  the  contents  of  the  great  roll  of  accounts  (or  pipe  roll) 
which  embodied  the  decisions  of  the  court  as  to  the  indebtedness 
of  the  sheriffs  and  other  accountants.  These  persons  with  certain 
subordinates  constituted  the  court  of  accounts,  or  upper  ex- 
chequer, whereas  the  lower  exchequer,  or  exchequer  of  receipt, 
consisted  almost  exclusively  of  the  subordinates  of  the 
treasurer  and  chamberlains.  In  the  upper  exchequer  the 
justiciar  appointed  the  calculator,  who  exhibited  the  state  of 
each  account  by  means  of  counters  on  the  exchequer  table,  so 
that  the  proceedings  of  the  court  might  be  clear  to  the  presumably 
illiterate  sheriff.  The  calculator  sat  in  the  centre  of  the  side  of 
the  table  on  the  president's  left.  The  chancellor's  staff  consisted 
of  the  Magisler  Scriptorii  (probably  the  ancestor  of  the  modern 
master  of  the  rolls),  whose  duties  are  not  stated;  a  clerk  (the 
modern  chancellor  of  the  exchequer)  who  settled  the  form  of  all 
writs  and  summonses,  charged  the  sheriff  with  all  fines  and 
amercements,  and  acted  as  a  check  on  the  treasurer  in  the  com- 
position of  the  great  roll;  and  a  scribe  (afterwards  the  comp- 
troller of  the  pipe),  who  wrote  out  the  writs  and  summonses  and 
kept  a  duplicate  of  the  great  roll,  known  as  the  chancellor's  roll. 
The  constable's  subordinates  were  the  marshal  and  a  clerk,  who, 
besides  the  duty  of  paying  outdoor  servants  of  the  crown,  had  the 
special  task  of  producing  duplicates  of  all  writs  issued  by  the 
Curia  Regis.  The  treasurer  and  chamberlains,  being  colleagues, 


had  a  joint  staff,  the  clerical  or  literate  members  of  which  were 
servants  of  the  treasurer,  while  the  lay  or  illiterate  members 
depended  on  the  chamberlains.  Hence  while  the  treasurer  and 
his  clerks  kept  their  accounts  by  means  of  rolls,  the  chamberlains 
and  their  Serjeants  duplicated  them  so  far  as  possible  by  means 
of  tallies.  Thus  the  great  roll  was  written  by  the  treasurer's 
scribe  (the  engrosser,  afterwards  the  clerk  of  the  pipe),  while  the 
payments  on  account  and  other  allowances  to  be  credited  to  the 
sheriff  were  registered  by  the  tally  cutter  of  the  chamberlains. 

In  the  exchequer  of  receipt  the  staff  was  similarly  divided 
between  the  treasurer  and  chamberlains;  the  treasurer  having 
a  clerk  who  kept  the  issue  and  receipt  rolls  (the  later  clerk  of  the 
pells)  and  four  tellers,  while  each  of  the  chamberlains  was  repre- 
sented by  a  knight  (afterwards  the  deputy  chamberlains) ,  who 
controlled  the  clerk's  account  by  means  of  tallies,  and  held  their 
lands  by  this  serjeanty;  these  three  had  joint  control  of  the 
treasury,  and  'could  not  act  independently.  The  other  Serjeants 
were  the  knight  or  "  pesour  "  who  weighed  the  money,  the  melter 
who  assayed  it,  and  the  ushers  of  the  two  exchequers.  It  should 
be  noted  that  all  the  lay  offices  of  the  treasury  in  both  exchequers 
were  hereditary.  Henry  II.  had  also  a  personal  clerk  who 
supervised  the  proceedings  personally  in  the  upper,  and  by 
deputy  in  the  lower,  exchequer. 

The  business  of  the  ancient  exchequer  was  primarily  financial, 
although  we  know  that  some  judicial  business  was  done  there  and 
that  the  court  of  common  pleas  was  derived  from  it  rather  than 
from  the  curia  proper.  The  principal  accountants  were  the 
sheriffs,  who  were  bound,  as  the  king's  principal  financial  agents 
in  each  county,  to  give  an  account  of  their  stewardship  twice  a 
year,  at  the  exchequers  of  Easter  and  Michaelmas.  Half  the 
annual  revenue  was  payable  at  Easter,  and  at  Michaelmas  the 
balance  was  exacted,  and  the  accounts  made  up  for  the  year, 
and  formally  enrolled  on  the  pipe  roll.  The  fixed  revenue  con- 
sisted of  the.farms  of  the  king's  demesne  lands  within  the  counties, 
of  the  county  mints,  and  of  certain  boroughs  (see  BOROUGH) 
which  paid  annual  sums  as  the  price  of  their  liberties.  Danegeld 
was  also  regarded  as  fixed  revenue,  though  after  the  accession  of 
Henry  II.  it  was  not  frequently  levied.  There  were  also  rents 
of  assarts  and  purprestures  and  mining  and  other  royalties. 
The  casual  revenue  consisted  of  the  profits  of  the  feudal  incidents 
(escheat,  wardship  and  marriage) ,  of  the  profits  of  justice  (amerce- 
ments, and  goods  of  felons  and  outlaws) ,  and  of  fines,  or  payments 
made  by  the  king's  subjects  to  secure  grants  of  land,  wardships 
or  marriages,  and  of  immunities,  as  well  as  for  the  hastening 
and  sometimes  the  delaying  of  justice.  Besides  this,  there  were 
the  revenues  arising  from  aids  and  scutages  of  the  king's  military 
tenants,  tallages  of  the  crown  lands,  customs  of  ports,  and  special 
"  gifts,"  or  general  assessments  made  on  particular  occasions. 
For  the  collection  of  all  these  the  sheriff  was  primarily  responsible, 
though  in  some  cases  the  accountants  dealt  directly  with  the 
exchequer,  and  were  bound  to  make  their  appearance  in  person 
on  the  day  when  the  sheriff  accounted. 

We  gather  both  from  tradition  and  from  the  example  of  the 
Scottish  exchequer  that  the  farms  of  demesne  lands  were  origin- 
ally paid  in  kind,  by  way  of  purveyance  for  the  royal  household, 
and  although  such  farms  are  expressed  even  in  Domesday  Book 
in  terms  of  money,  the  tradition  that  there  was  a  system  of 
customary  valuation  is  a  sufficient  explanation,  and  not  of  itself 
incredible.  At  some  date,  possibly  under  the  administration  of 
Roger  of  Salisbury,  the  inconvenience  of  this  arrangement  led 
to  the  substitution  of  money  payments  at  the  exchequer.  The 
rapid  deterioration  of  a  small  silver  coinage  led  to  successive 
efforts  to  maintain  the  value  of  these  payments,  first  by  a  "scale  " 
deduction  of  6d.  in  the  £  for  wear,  then  by  the  substitution  of 
payment  by  weight  for  payment  by  tale,  and  finally  by  the 
reduction  of  most  of  such  payments  to  their  pure  silver  value 
by  means  of  an  assay,  a  process  originally  confined  to  payments 
from  particular  manors.  Only  the  farms  of  counties,  however, 
were  so  treated,  and  not  all  of  those.  The  amount  to  be  deducted 
in  these  cases  was  settled  by  the  weighing  and  assaying  of  a 
specimen  pound  of  silver  in  the  presence  of  the  sheriff  by  the 
pesour  and  the  melter  in  the  lower  exchequer.  The  casual 


EXCHEQUER 


revenue  was  paid  by  tale,  and  for  the  determination  of  its 
amount  it  was  necessary  to  have  copies  of  all  grants  made  in  the 
chancery  on  which  rents  were  reserved,  or  fines  payable.  These 
were  known  first  as  conlrabrevia  and  later  as  originalia;  the 
profits  of  justice  were  settled  by  the  delivery  of  "  estreats  " 
from  the  justices,  while  for  certain  minor  casualties  the  oath  of 
the  sheriff  was  at  first  the  only  security.  At  a  later  date  many  of 
them  were  determined  by  copies  of  inquisitions  sent  in  from  the 
chancery.  All  this  business  might  be  transacted  anywhere  in 
England,  and  though  convenience  placed  the  exchequer  first  at 
Winchester  (where  the  treasury  was),  and  afterwards  usually 
at  Westminster,  it  held  occasional  sessions  at  other  towns  even 
in  the  I4th  century. 

The  Angevin  exchequer,  described  by  Richard  the  Treasurer, 
remained  the  ideal  of  the  institution  throughout  its  history,  and 
the  lineaments  of  the  original  exemplar  were  never  completely 
effaced;  but  the  rapid  increase  both  of  financial  and  judicial 
business  led  to  a  multiplication  of  machinery  and  a  growing 
complexity  of  constitution.  Even  in  the  time  of  Henry  II.  we 
gather  that  the  great  officers  of  state,  except  the  treasurer  and 
chancellor,  commonly  attended  by  deputy.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  the  chancellor  had  also  ceased  to  attend,  and  his  clerk 
acquired  the  title  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  To  the  same 
period  belongs  the  institution  of  the  king's  and  lord  treasurer's 
remembrancers.  These  at  first  had  common  duties  and  kept 
duplicate  rolls,  but  by  the  ordinance  of  1323  their 'functions  were 
differentiated.  Henceforward  the  king's  remembrancer  was  more 
particularly  concerned  with  the  casual,  and  the  lord  treasurer's 
remembrancer  with  the  fixed  revenue.  The  former  put  all  debts 
in  charge,  while  the  latter  saw  to  their  recovery  when  they  had 
found  their  way  on  to  the  great  roll.  Hence  the  preliminary 
stages  of  each  account,  the  receiving  and  registering  of  the 
king's  writs  to  the  treasurer  and  barons,  and  the  drawing  up  of 
all  particulars  of  account,  lay  with  the  king's  remembrancer,  and 
he  retained  the  corresponding  vouchers.  The  lord  treasurer's 
remembrancer  exacted  the  "  remanets  "  of  such  accounts  as  had 
been  enrolled,  as  well  as  reserved  rents  and  fixed  revenue,  and 
so  became  closely  connected  with  the  clerk  of  the  pipe.  Before 
the  end  of  the  I4th  century  these  three  Offices  had  already 
crystallized  into  separate  departments. 

In  the  meantime  the  increasing  length  and  variety  of  accounts, 
as  well  as  the  growth  of  judicial  business,  had  led  to  various  efforts 
at  reform.  As  early  as  22  Henry  II.  it  became  necessary  to 
remove  from  the  great  roll  the  debts  which  it  seemed  hopeless  to 
levy,  and  further  ordinances  to  the  same  end  were  made  by 
statute  in  54  Henry  III.  and  in  12  Edward  I.  By  this  last  a 
special  "  exannual  roll  "  was  established  in  which  the 
"  desperate  debts  "  were  recorded,  in  order  that  the  sheriff 
might  be  reminded  of  them  yearly  without  their  overloading  the 
great  roll.  But  the  largest  accession  of  financial  business  arose 
from  the  "  foreign  accounts,"  that  is  to  say,  the  accounts  of 
national  services,  which  did  not  naturally  form  part  of  the 
account  of  any  county.  These  did  not  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
form  a  part  of  the  exchequer  business.  Such  expenses  as  appear 
on  the  pipe  roll  were  paid  by  the  sheriffs,  or  by  the  bailiffs  of 
"  honours  ";  payments  out  of  the  treasury  itself  would  only 
appear  on  the  receipt  and  issue  rolls,  and  the  "  spending  depart- 
ments "  probably  drew  their  supplies  from  the  camera  curie, 
and  not  directly  from  the  exchequer.  In  the  course  of  the  i3th 
century  the  exchequer  gradually  acquired  partial  control  of  these 
national  accounts.  Even  in  18  Henry  II.  there  is  an  account  for 
the  forests  of  England,  and  soon  the  mint,  the  wardrobe  and  the 
escheators  followed.  The  undated  statute  of  the  exchequer 
(probably  about  1276)  provides  for  escheators,  the  earldom  of 
Chester,  the  Channel  Islands,  the  customs  and  the  wardrobe. 
During  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  the  wardrobe  account  became 
unmanageable,  since  it  not  only  financed  the  household,  army, 
navy  and  diplomatic  service,  but  raised  money  on  the  customs 
independently  of  the  exchequer.  The  reform  of  1323-1326,  due 
to  Walter  de  Stapledon,  in  remedying  this  state  of  things,  greatly 
increased  the  number  of  "  foreign  accounts  "  by  making  the 
great  wardrobe  (the  storekeeping  department),  the  butler, 


purveyors,  keepers  of  horses  or  of  the  stud,  the  clerk  of  the 
"  hamper  "  of  the  chancery  (who  took  the  fees  for  the  great 
seal),  and  the  various  ambassadors,  directly  accountable  to  the 
exchequer.  At  the  same  time  the  sheriffs'  accounts  were  ex- 
pedited by  the  further  simplification  of  the  great  roll,  and  by 
appointing  a  special  officer,  the  "  foreign  apposer,"  to  take  the' 
account  of  the  "  green  wax,"  or  estreats,  so  that  two  accounts 
could  go  on  at  once.  Another  baron  (the  sth  or  cursitor  baron) 
was  appointed,  and  the  whole  business  of  foreign  accounts  was 
transferred  to  a  separate  building  where  one  baron  and  certain 
auditors  spent  their  whole  time  in  settling  the  balances  due  on 
the  accounts  already  mentioned,  as  well  as  those  of  castles,  &c., 
not  let  to  farm,  Wales,  Gascony,  Ireland,  aids  (clerical  and  lay), 
temporalities  of  vacant  bishoprics,  abbeys,  priories  and  dignities, 
mines  of  silver  and  tin,  ulnage  and  so  forth.  These  balances 
were  accounted  for  in  the  exchequer  itself,  and  entered  on  the 
pipe  roll,  but  the  preliminary  accounts  were  filed  by  the  king's 
remembrancer,  and  enrolled  separately  by  the  treasurer's 
remembrancer  as  a  supplement  to  the  pipe  roll. 

The  next  important  change,  about  the  end  of  the  isth  century, 
was  the  gradual  substitution  of  special  auditors  appointed  by  the 
crown,  known  as  the  auditors  of  the  prests  (the  predecessors 
of  the  commissioners  for  auditing  public  accounts),  for  the 
auditors  of  the  exchequer.  Accounts  when  passed  by  them  were 
presented  in  duplicate  and  "  declared  "  before  the  treasurer, 
under-treasurer  and  chancellor.  Of  the  two  copies,  one,  on 
paper,  was  retained  by  the  auditors,  the  other,  on  parchment, 
was  successively  enrolled  by  the  king's  and  lord  treasurer's 
remembrancers,  and  finally  by  the  clerk  of  the  pipe,  to  secure 
the  levying  of  any  "  remanets  "  or  "  supers  "  by  process  of  the 
exchequer. 

Besides  the  two  great  difficulties  of  the  postponement  of 
financial  to  legal  business,  and  of  preventing  the  sheriffs  from 
exacting  the  same  debt  twice,  the  exchequer  was,  as  has  been 
seen,  hampered  in  its  functions  by  the  interference  of  other 
departments  in  financial  matters.  Its  own  branches  even 
acquired  a  certain  independence.  The  exchequer  of  the  Jews, 
which  came  to  an  end  in  18  Edward  I.,  was  such  a  branch.  In 
27  Henry  VIII.  the  court  of  augmentations  was  established  to 
deal  with  forfeited  lands  of  monasteries.  This  was  followed  in 
32  &  33  Henry  VIII.  by  the  courts  of  first-fruits  and  tenths 
and  of  general  surveyors.  These  were  reabsorbed  by  the  ex- 
chequer in  i  Mary,  but  remained  as  separate  departments 
within  it.  But  the  development  of  the  treasury,  which  succeeded 
to  the  functions  of  the  camera  curie  or  the  king's  chamber, 
ultimately  reduced  the  administrative  functions  of  the  exchequer 
to  unimportance,  and  the  audit  office  took  over  its  duties  with 
regard  to  public  accounts.  So  that  when  the  statute  of  3  &  4 
William  IV.  cap.  99,  removed  the  sheriff's  accounts  also  from 
its  competence,  and  brought  to  an  end  the  series  of  pipe  rolls 
which  begins  in  1130,  the  ancient  exchequer  may  be  said  to  have 
come  to  an  end.  (C.  J.) 

In  1834  an  act  was  passed  abolishing  the  old  offices  of  the 
exchequer,  and  creating  a  new  exchequer  under  a  comptroller- 
general,  the  detailed  business  of  payments  formerly  made  at 
the  exchequer  being  transferred  to  the  paymaster-general, 
whose  office  was  further  enlarged  in  1836  and  1848.  And  in 
1866,  as  the  result  of  a  select  committee  reporting  unfavour- 
ably on  the  system  of  exchequer  control  as  established  in 
1834,  the  exchequer  was  abolished  altogether  as  a  distinct 
department  of  state,  and  a  new  exchequer  and  audit  depart- 
ment established. 

The  ancient  term  exchequer  now  survives  mainly  as  the 
official  title  of  the  national  banking  account  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  This  central  account  is  commonly  called  the  ex- 
chequer, and  its  statutory  title  is  "His  Majesty's  Exchequer." 
It  may  also  be  described  with  statutory  authority  as  "  The 
Account  of  the  Consolidated  Fund  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland." 
This  account  is,  in  fact,  divided  between  the  Banks  of  England 
and  Ireland.  At  the  head  office  of  each  of  these  institutions 
receipts  are  accepted  and  payments  made  on  account  of  the 
exchequer;  but  in  published  documents  the  two  accounts  are 


EXCHEQUER 


57 


consolidated  into  one,  the  balances  only  at  the  two  banks  being 
shown  separately. 

Operations  affecting  the  exchequer  are  regulated  by  the 
Exchequer  and  Audit  Departments  Act  1866.  Section  10  pre- 
scribes that  the  gross  revenue  of  the  United  Kingdom  (less 
drawbacks  and  repayments,  which  are  not  really  revenue)  is 
payable,  and  must  sooner  or  later  be  paid  into  the  exchequer. 
Section  n  directs  that  payments  should  be  made  from  the 
fund  so  formed  to  meet  the  current  requirements  of  spending 
departments.  Sections  13,  14,  15  lay  down  the  conditions 
under  which  money  can  be  drawn  from  the  exchequer.  Drafts  on 
the  exchequer  require  the  approval  of  an  officer  independent 
of  the  executive  government,  the  comptroller  and  auditor- 
general.  But  the  description  of  the  formal  procedure  required 
by  statute  cannot  adequately  express  the  actual  working  of 
the  system,  or  the  part  it  plays  in  the  national  finance.  The 
simplicity  of  the  system  laid  down  by  the  act  of  1866  has  been 
disturbed  by  the  diversion  ofv  certain  branches  or  portions  of 
revenue  from  the  exchequer  to  "  Local  Taxation  Accounts," 
under  a  system  initiated  by  the  Local  Government  Act  1888, 
and  much  extended  since. 

While  the  exchequer  is,  as  already  stated,  the  central  account, 
it  is  not  directly  in  contact  with  the  details  of  either  revenue 
or  expenditure.  As  regards  revenue,  the  produce  of  taxes  and 
other  sources  of  income  passes,  in  the  first  instance,  into  the 
separate  accounts  of  the  respective  receiving  departments — 
mainly,  of  course,  those  of  the  customs,  inland  revenue  and  post 
office.  A  not  inconsiderable  portion  is  received  in  the  provinces, 
and  remitted  to  London  or  Dublin  by  bills  or  otherwise,  and  the 
ultimate  transfers  to  the  exchequer  are  made  (in  round  sums) 
from  the  accounts  of  the  receiving  departments  in  London  or  in 
Dublin.  Thus,  there  are  always  considerable  sums  due  to  the 
exchequer  by  the  revenue  departments;  on  the  other  hand,  as 
floating  balances  are  (for  the  sake  of  economy)  used  temporarily 
for  current  expenses,  there  are  generally  amounts  due  by  the 
exchequer  to  the  receiving  departments;  such  cross  claims 
are  adjusted  periodically,  generally  once  a  month.  The  finance 
accounts  of  the  United  Kingdom  show  the  gross  amounts  due 
to  the  exchequer  from  the  departments,  and  likewise  the  amounts 
payable  out  of  the  gross  revenue  in  priority  to  the  claim  of  the 
exchequer.  On  the  expenditure  side  a  similar  system  prevails. 
No  detailed  payments  are  made  direct  from  the  exchequer,  but 
round  sums  are  issued  from  it  to  subsidiary  accounts,  from 
which  the  actual  drafts  for  the  public  services  are  met.  For 
instance,  the  interest  on  the  national  debt  is  paid  by  the  Bank 
of  England  from  a  separate  account  fed  by  transfers  of  round 
sums  from  the  exchequer  as  required.  Similarly,  payments  for 
army,  navy  and  most  civil  services  are  met  by  the  paymaster- 
general  out  of  an  account  of  his  own,  fed  by  daily  transfers  from 
the  exchequer. 

This  system  has  two  noticeable  effects.  Firstly,  it  secures  the 
simplicity  and  finality  of  the  exchequer  accounts,  and  therefore 
of  all  ordinary  statements  of  national  finance.  Every  evening 
the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  can  tell  his  position  so  far  as  the 
exchequer  is  concerned;  on  the  first  day  of  every  quarter  the 
press  is  able  to  comment  on  the  national  income  and  expenditure 
up  to  the  evening  before.  The  annual  account  is  closed  on  the 
evening  of  the  315!  of  March,  and  there  can  be  no  reopening  of 
the  budget  of  a  past  year  such  as  may  occur  under  other  financial 
systems.  The  second  effect  of  the  system  is  to  introduce  a  certain 
artificiality  into  the  financial  statements.  Actual  facts  cannot  be 
reduced  to  the  simplicity  of  exchequer  figures;  there  is  always 
(as  already  explained)  revenue  received  by  government  which 
has  not  yet  reached  the  exchequer;  and  there  must  always 
be  a  considerable  outstanding  liability  in  the  form  of  cheques 
issued  but  not  yet  cashed.  The  suggested  criticism  is,  how- 
ever, met  if  it  can  be  shown  that,  on  the  whole,  the  differences 
between  the  true  revenue  and  the  exchequer  receipts,  or 
between  the  true  (or  audited)  expenditure  and  the  exchequer 
issues,  are  not,  taking  one  year  with  another,  relatively  con- 
siderable. The  following  figures  (ooo's  omitted)  illustrate  this 
point: — 


Expenditure. 


Year. 

Exchequer 
Issues. 

Audited 
Expenditure. 

Difference. 

1888-1889 
1889-1890 
1890-1891 
1891-1892 
1892-1893 
1893-1894 
1894-1895 
1895-1896 
1896-1897 
1897-1898 

£85,674 
86,083 
87,732 
89,928 

90,375 
91,303 
93,919 
97-764 
101,477 
102,936 

£86,070 
86,033 
87,638 
90,125 
90,164 
91-530 
93,8i8 
97-667 

101,543 
103,010 

£+396 
-  50 
-  94 
+  197 

—  211 
+227 
—  IOI 

-  97 

+  66 

+  74 

Total     for  / 
10  years  ) 

£927,191 

£927,598 

£+407 

Revenue. 


Year. 

Exchequer 
Receipts. 

Actual  Revenue. 

Difference. 

1888-1889 
1889-1890 
1890-1891 
1891-1892 
1892-1893 
1893-1894 
1894-1895 
1895-1896 
1896-1897 
1897-1898 

£88,473 
89,304 
89,489 
90,995 
90,395 
9i,i33 
94,684 
101,974 
103,960 
106,614 

£88,038 
89,416 
89,282 
91,428 
90,181 
91,265 
94,873 
102,031 
104,089 
106,691 

£-435 

+  112 

-207 

+433 
-214 

+  132 
+  189 

+  57 
+  129 

+  77 

Total     for  / 
10  years  \ 

£947,on 

£947,294 

£+273 

Surplus. 


Year. 

Exchequer 
Accounts. 

Diff.  between 
Actual  Rev. 
and  Aud.  Exp. 

Difference. 

1888-1889 

£2,799 

£i,968 

£-831 

1889-1890 

3,221 

3,383 

+  162 

1890-1891 

1,757 

1,644 

-113 

1891-1892 

1,067 

1,303 

+236 

1892-1893 

20 

17 

-     3 

1893-1894 

-/70 

-265 

-  95 

1894-1895 

765 

1,055 

+2.90 

1895-1896 

4.2IO 

4,364 

+  154 

1896-1897 

2,473 

2,546 

+  73 

1897-1898 

3,678 

3,681 

+     3 

Total     for  ) 
10  years  \ 

£19,820 

£19-696 

£-124 

The  third  column  in  the  above  shows  the  price  which  has  to  be 
paid  (in  the  form  of  discrepancies  between  facts  and  figures) 
for  the  simplicity  secured  to  statements  and  records  of  the  national 
finance  by  the  present  system  embodied  in  the  term  exchequer. 
Probably  few  will  think  the  price  too  high  in  consideration  of 
the  advantages  secured. 

The  principal  official  who  derives  a  title  from  the  exchequer 
in  its  living  sense  is,  of  course,  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
He  is  the  person  named  second  in  the  patent  appointing  com- 
missions for  executing  the  office  of  lord  high  treasurer  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland;  but  he  is  appointed  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  for  Great  Britain  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
for  Ireland  by  two  additional  patents.  Although,  in  fact,  the 
finance  minister  of  the  United  Kingdom,  he  has  no  statutory 
power  over  the  exchequer  apart  from  his  position  as  second 
commissioner  of  the  treasury;  but  in  virtue  of  his  office  he  is 
by  statute  master  of  the  mint,  senior  commissioner  for  the 
reduction  of  the  national  debt,  a  trustee  of  the  British  Museum, 
an  ecclesiastical  commissioner,  a  member  of  the  board  of  agri- 
culture, a  commissioner  of  public  works  and  buildings,  local 
government,  and  education,  a  commissioner  for  regulating  the 
offices  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  has  certain  functions 
connected  with  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  for  India. 
The  only  other  exchequer  officer  requiring  mention  is  the 


EXCISE 


comptroller  and  auditor-general,  whose  functions  as  comptroller- 
general  of  the  exchequer  have  been  already  described. 

The  ancient  name  of  the  national  banking  account  has  been 
attached  to  two  of  the  forms  of  unfunded  national  debt.  Ex- 
chequer bills,  which  date  from  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary 
(they  took  the  place  of  the  tallies,  previously  used  for  the  same 
purpose),  became  extinct  in  1897,  but  exchequer  bonds  (first 
issued  by  Mr  Gladstone  in  1853)  still  possess  a  practical  import- 
ance. An  exchequer  bond  is  a  promise  by  government  to  pay  a 
specified  sum  after  a  specified  period,  generally  three  or  five  years, 
and  meanwhile  to  pay  interest  half-yearly  at  a  specified  rate 
on  that  sum.  Government  possesses  no  general  power  to  issue 
exchequer  bonds;  such  power  is  only  conferred  by  a  special  act, 
and  for  specified  purposes;  but  when  the  power  has  been 
created,  exchequer  bonds  issued  in  pursuance  of  it  are  governed 
by  general  statutory  provisions  contained  in  the  Exchequer  Bills 
and  Bonds  Act  1866,  and  amending  acts.  These  acts  create 
machinery  for  the  issue  of  exchequer  bonds  and  for  the  payment 
of  interest  thereon,  and  protect  them  against  forgery. 

Some  traces  may  be  mentioned  of  the  ancient  uses  of  the 
name  exchequer  which  still  remain.  The  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  still  presides  at  the  ceremony  of  "  pricking  the  list 
of  sheriffs,"  which  is  a  quasi-judicial  function;  and  on  that 
occasion  he  wears  a  robe  of  black  silk  with  gold  embroidery, 
which  suggests  a  judicial  costume.  In  England  the  last  judge 
who  was  styled  baron  of  the  exchequer  (Baron  Pollock)  died 
in  1897.  In  Scotland  the  jurisdiction  of  the  barons  of  the 
exchequer  was  transferred  to  the  court  of  session  in  1856,  but  the 
same  act  requires  the  appointment  of  one  of  the  judges  as  "  lord 
ordinary  in  exchequer  causes,"  which  office  still  exists.  In 
Ireland  Lord  Chief  Baron  Palles  was  the  last  to  retain  the  old 
title.  A  street  near  Dublin  Castle  is  called  Exchequer  Street, 
recalling  the  separate  Irish  exchequer,  which  ceased  in  1817. 
The  old  term  also  survives  in  the  full  title  of  the  treasury  repre- 
sentative in  Scotland,  which  is  "  The  King's  and  the  Lord 
Treasurer's  Remembrancer  in  Exchequer,"  while  his  office  in  the 
historic  Parliament  Square  is  styled  "  Exchequer  Chambers." 

(S.  E.  S.-R.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For  the  early  exchequer  Thomas  Madox's 
History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Excheqwr  (London,  1711)  remains  the 
standard  authority,  and  in  it  the  Dialogus  de  Scaccario  of  Richard 
the  Treasurer  (1179)  was  first  printed  (edited  since  by  A.  Hughes, 
C.  G.  Crump  and  C.  Johnson,  Oxford,  1902).  The  publications  of 
the  Pipe  Roll  Society  (London,  1884  et  seq.),  the  Pipe  Rolls  and 
Chancellor's  Roll,  printed  by  the  Record  Commission  (London,  1833 
and  1844),  and  H.  Hall's  edition  of  the  Receipt  Roll  of  the  Exchequer 
31  Henry  II.  (London,  1899)  should  also  be  consulted.  A  popular 
account  is  in  H.  Hall's  Court  Life  under  the  Plantagenets  (London, 
1901),  and  a  careful  study  in  Dr  Parow's  thesis,  Compolus  Vice- 
comitis  (Berlin,  1906).  For  the  I3th  and  I4th  centuries  H.  Hall's 
edition  of  the  Red  Book  of  the  Exchequer  (London,  Rolls  Series,  1896) 
is  essential,  as  also  the  Public  Record  Office  List  of  Foreign  Accounts 
(London,  1900).  Later  practice  may  be  gathered  from  the  similar 
List  and  Index  of  Declared  Accounts  (London,  1893),  and  from  such 
books  as  Sir  T.  Fanshawe's  Practice  of  the  Exchequer  Court,  written 
about  A.D.  1600  (London,  1658) ;  Christopher  Vernon's  The  Exchequer 
Opened  (London,  1661),  or  Sir  Geoffrey  Gilbert's  Treatise  on  the 
Court  of  Exchequer  (London,  1758),  as  well  as  from  the  statutes 
abolishing  various  offices  in  the  exchequer.  H.  Hall's  Antiquities 
of  the  Exchequer  (London,  1891)  gives  many  interesting  details  of 
various  dates.  For  the  Scottish  exchequer  The  Exchequer  Rolls  of 
Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1878  et  seq.)  should  be  consulted,  while 
Gilbert's  book  noted  above  gives  some  details  on  that  of  Ireland. 
See  also  Appendix  13  to  the  great  account  of  Public  Income  and 
Expenditure  from  1688  to  1869,  in  three  volumes,  prepared  for 
parliament  by  H.  W.  Chisholm  (1869) ;  and  for  sidelights  on  the 
working  of  the  office  from  1825  to  1866  the  reminiscences  of  the 
same  author  (the  last  chief  clerk  of  the  exchequer)  in  Temple  Bar 
(January  to  April  1891). 

EXCISE  (derived  through  the  Dutch,  excijs  or  accijs,  possibly 
from  Late  Lat.  accensare, — ad,  to,  and  census,  tax;  the  word 
owes  something  to  a  confusion  with  excisum,  cut  out),  a  term  now 
well  known  in  public  finance,  signifying  a  duty  charged  on  home 
goods,  either  in  the  process  of  their  manufacture,  or  before  their 
sale  to  the  home  consumers.  This  form  of  taxation  implies  a 
commonwealth  somewhat  advanced  in  manufactures,  markets 
and  general  riches;  and  it  interferes  so  directly  with  the 
industry  and  liberty  of  the  subject  that  it  has  seldom  been 


introduced  save  in  some  supreme  financial  exigency,  and  has  as 
seldom  been  borne,  even  after  long  usage,  with  less  than  the 
ordinary  impatience  of  taxation.  Yet  excise  duties  can  boast 
a  respectable  antiquity,  having  a  distinct  parallel  in  the  vectigal 
rerum  venalium  (or  toll  levied  on  all  commodities  sold  by 
auction,  or  in  public  market)  of  the  Romans.  But  the  Roman 
excise  was  mild  compared  with  that  of  modern  nations,  having 
never  been  more  than  centesima,  or  i%,  of  the  value;  and  it 
was  much  shorter  lived  than  the  modern  examples,  having  been 
first  imposed  by  Augustus,  reduced  for  a  time  one-half  by 
Tiberius,  and  finally  abolished  by  Caligula,  A.D.  38,  so  that  the 
Roman  excise  cannot  have  had  a  duration  of  much  more  than 
half  a  century.  Its  remission  must  have  been  deemed  a  great 
boon  in  the  marts  of  Rome,  since  it  was  commemorated  by  the 
issue  of  small  brass  coins  with  the  legend  Remissis  Centesimis, 
specimens  of  which  are  still  to  be  found  in  collections. 

The  history  of  this  branch  of  revenue  in  the  United  Kingdom 
dates  from  the  period  of  the  ci,vil  wars,  when  the  republican 
government,  following  the  example  of  Holland,  established, 
as  a  means  of  defraying  the  heavy  expenditure  of  the  time, 
various  duties  of  excise,  which  the  royalists  when  restored  to 
power  found  too  convenient  or  too  necessary  to  be  abandoned, 
notwithstanding  their  origin  and  their  general  unpopularity. 
On  the  contrary,  they  were  destined  to  be  steadily  increased 
both  in  number  and  in  amount.  It  is  curious  that  the 
first  commodities  selected  for  excise  were  those  on  which  this 
branch  of  taxation,  after  great  extension,  had  again  in  the  period 
of  reform  and  free  trade  been  in  a  manner  permanently  reduced, 
viz.  malt  liquors,  and  such  kindred  beverages  as  cider  perry 
and  spruce  beer.  The  other  excise  duties  remaining  are  chiefly 
in  the  form  of  licences,  such  as  to  kill  game  and  to  use  and  carry 
guns,  to  sell  gold  and  silver  plate,  to  pursue  the  business  of 
appraisers  or  auctioneers,  hawkers  or  pedlars,  pawnbrokers 
or  patent-medicine  vendors,  to  manufacture  tobacco  or  snuff, 
to  deal  in  sweets  or  in  foreign  wines,  to  make  vinegar,  to  roast 
malt,  or  to  use  a  still  in  chemistry  or  otherwise.  It  may  be 
presumed  that  the  policy  of  the  licence  duties  was  at  first  not  so 
much  to  collect  revenue,  though  in  the  aggregate  they  yielded  a 
large  sum,  as  to  guard  the  main  sources  of  excise,  and  to  place 
certain  classes  of  dealers,  by  registration  and  an  annual  payment 
to  the  exchequer,  under  a  direct  legal  responsibility.  The  excise 
system  of  the  United  Kingdom  as  now  pruned  and  reformed, 
however,  while  still  the  most  prolific  of  all  the  sources  of  revenue, 
is  simple  in  process,  and  is  contentedly  borne  as  compared  with 
what  was  the  case  in  the  i8th,  and  the  beginning  of  the  ipth 
century.  The  wars  with  Bonaparte  strained  the  government 
resources  to  the  uttermost,  and  excise  duties  were  multiplied 
and  increased  in  every  practicable  form.  Bricks,  candles,  calico 
prints,  glass,  hides  and  skins,  leather,  paper,  salt,  soap,  and  other 
commodities  of  home  manufacture  and  consumption  were  placed, 
with  their  respective  industries,  under  excise  surveillance  and  fine. 
When  the  duties  could  no  longer  be  increased  in  number,  they 
were  raised  in  rate.  The  duty  on  British  spirits,  which  had 
begun  at  a  few  pence  per  gallon  in  1660,  rose  step  by  step  to 
us.  8jd.  per  gallon  in  1820;  and  the  duty  on  salt  was  augmented 
to  three  or  fourfold  its  value. 

The  old  unpopularity  of  excise,  though  now  somewhat  out  of 
date,  must  have  had  real  enough  grounds.  It  breaks  out  in 
English  literature,  from  songs  and  pasquinades  to  grave  political 
essays  and  legal  commentaries.  Blackstone,  in  quoting  the 
declaration  of  parliament  in  1649  that  "  excise  is  the  most  easy 
and  indifferent  levy  that  can  be  laid  upon  the  people,"  adds  on 
his  own  authority  that  "  from  its  first  original  to  the  present  time 
its  very  name  has  been  odious  to  the  people  of  England  "  (book  i. 
cap.  8,  tenth  edition,  1786);  while  the  definition  of  "excise" 
gravely  inserted  by  Dr  Johnson  in  the  Dictionary,  at  the  imminent 
risk  of  subjecting  the  eminent  author  to  a  prosecution  for  libel — 
viz.  "a  hateful  tax  levied  upon  commodities,  and  adjudged  not 
by  the  common  judges  of  property,  but  wretches  hired  by  those 
to  whom  excise  is  paid" — can  hardly  be  ever  forgotten. 

The  duties  of  excise  in  the  United  Kingdom  were,  until  the 
passing  of  the  Finance  Act  1908,  under  the  control  of  the 


EXCOMMUNICATION 


commissioners  of  inland  revenue;  they  are  now  under  the  control 
of  the  commissioners  of  customs;  the  amount  raised,  apart  from 
changes  in  the  rate,  shows  a  fairly  constant  tendency  to  increase, 
and  is  usually  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  tests  of  the  prosperity 
of  the  working  classes. 

The  spirit  duty  is  levied  according  to  the  quantity  of  "  proof 
spirit  "  contained  in  the  product  of  distillation,  and  the  charge 
is  taken  at  three  different  points  in  the  process  of  manufacture, 
the  trader  being  liable  for  the 'result  of  the  highest  of  the  three 
calculations.  What  is  known  as  "  proof  spirit  "  is  obtained 
by  mixing  nearly  equal  weights  of  pure  alcohol  and  water,  the 
quantity  of  pure  alcohol  being  in  bulk  about  57%  of  the  whole. 
Owing  to  the  high  rate  of  duty  as  compared  with  the  volume 
and  intrinsic  value  of  the  spirits,  the  whole  process  of  manufacture 
is  carried  on  under  the  close  supervision  of  revenue  officials. 
All  the  vessels  used  are  measured  by  them  and  are  secured  with 
revenue  locks;  the  premises  are  under  constant  survey;  and 
notice  has  to  be  given  by  the  distiller  of  the  materials  used  and 
of  the  several  stages  of  his  operations.  Though  the  charge  for 
duty  is  raised  at  the  time  when  the  process  of  distillation  is 
completed,  the  duty  is  not  actually  paid  until  the  spirits  are 
required  for  consumption.  In  the  meanwhile  they  may  be 
retained  in  an  approved  "  warehouse,"  which  is  also  subject  to 
close  supervision. 

The  beer  duty  dates  from  1880,  in  which  year  it  was  substituted 
for  the  duty  on  malt.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  worts  depends 
chiefly  on  the  amount  of  sugar  which  they  contain,  and  is 
ascertained  by  the  saccharometer. 

Excise  licences  may  be  divided  into — (a)  licences  for  the  sale 
or  manufacture  of  excisable  liquors,  (b)  licences  for  other  trades, 
such  as  tobacco  dealers  or  manufacturers,  auctioneers,  pawn- 
brokers, &c.,  (c)  licences  for  male  servants,  carriages,  motors 
and  armorial  bearings,  and  (d)  gun,  game  and  dog  licences. 
Nearly  the  whole  of  the  licence  duties  is  paid  over  to  the  local 
taxation  account. 

The  railway  passenger  duty,  which  was  made  an  excise  duty 
by  the  Railway  Passenger  Duty  Act  1847,  applies  only  to  Great 
Britain.  It  is  levied  on  all  passenger  fares  exceeding  id.  per  mile, 
the  rate  being  2%  on  urban  and  5%  on  other  traffic. 

The  other  items  which  go  to  make  up  the  excise  revenue 
are  the  charges  on  deliveries  from  bonded  warehouses,  and  the 
duties  on  coffee  mixture  labels  and  on  chicory. 

For  more  detailed  information  reference  should  be  made  to 
Highmore's  Excise  Laws,  and  the  annual  reports  of  the  commissioners 
of  inland  revenue,  especially  those  issued  in  1870  and  1885.  See 
also  TAXATION  ;  ENGLISH  FINANCE. 

EXCOMMUNICATION  (Lat.  ex,  out  of,  away  from;  communis, 
common),  the  judicial  exclusion  of  offenders  from  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  religious  community  to  which  they  belong. 
The  history  of  the  practice  of  excommunication  may  be  traced 
through  (i)  pagan  analogues,  (2)  Hebrew  custom,  (3)  primitive 
Christian  practice,  (4)  medieval  and  monastic  usage,  (5)  modern 
survivals  in  existing  Christian  churches. 

1.  Among  pagan  analogues  are  the  Gr.  -xfpvifiuv  eip7«<r0<u 
(Demosth.  505,  14),  the  exclusion  of  an  offender  from  purification 
with  holy  water.     This  exclusion  was  enforced  in  the  case  of 
persons  whose  hands  were  denied  with  bloodshed.     Its  con- 
sequences are  described  Aesch.  Choeph.  283,  Eum.  625  f.,  Soph. 
Oed.  Tyr.  236  S.     The  Roman  exsecratio  and  diris  devotio  was  a 
solemn  pronouncement  of  a  religious  curse  by  priests,  intended 
to  call  down  the  divine  wrath  upon  enemies,  and  to  devote  them 
to  destruction  by  powers  human  and  divine.     The  Druids  claimed 
the  dread  power  of  excluding  offenders  from  sacrifice  (Caes. 
B.C.  vi.  13).     Primitive  Semitic  customs  recognize  that  when 
persons  are  laid  under  a  ban  or  taboo  (herem)  restrictions  are 
imposed  on  contact  with  them,  and  that  the  breach  of  these 
involves  supernatural  dangers.     Impious  sinners,  or  enemies 
of  the  community  and  its  god,   might  be  devoted  to  utter 
destruction.  . 

2.  Hebrew    Custom. — In    a    theocracy    excommunication    is 
necessarily  both  a  civil  and  a  religious  penalty.     The  word  used 
in  the  New  Testament  to  describe  an  excommunicated  person, 


59 

(i  Cor.  xvi.  22,  Gal.  i.  8-9,  Rom.  ix.  3),  is  the 
Septuagint  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  herem.  The  word  means 
"  set  apart  "  (cf.  harem),  and  does  not  distinguish  originally 
between  things  set  apart  because  devoted  to  God  and  things 
devoted  to  destruction.  Lev.  xxvii.  16-34  defines  the  law  for 
dealing  with  "  devoted "  things;  according  to  v.  28  "  No 
devoted  thing  that  a  man  shall  devote  unto  the  Lord,  of  all  that 
he  hath,  whether  of  man  or  beast,  or  of  the  field  of  his  possession, 
shall  be  sold  or  redeemed.  None  devoted  shall  be  ransomed, 
he  shall  surely  be  put  to  death."  As  in  Greece  and  Rome  whole 
cities  or  nations  might  be  devoted  to  destruction  by  pronounce- 
ment of  a  ban  (Numbers  xxi.  2,  3,  Deut.  ii.  34,  iii.  6,  vii.  2). 
Occasionally  Israelites  as  well  as  aliens  fall  under  the  curse 
(Judg.  xxi.  5,  n).  A  milder  form  of  penalty  was  the  temporary 
separation  or  seclusion  (niddah)  prescribed  for  ceremonial  unclean- 
ness.  This  was  the  ordinary  form  of  religious  discipline.  In 
the  time  of  Ezra  the  Jewish  "  magistrates  and  judges  "  among 
their  ecclesiastico-civil  functions  have  the  right  of  pronouncing 
sentence  whether  it  be  unto  death,  or  to  "  rooting  out,"  or  to 
confiscation'of  goods,  or  to  imprisonment  (Ezra  vii.  26).  There 
is  also  a  lighter  form  of  excommunication  which  "  devotes  " 
the  goods  of  an  offender,  but  only  separates  him  from  the 
congregation.  Both  major  and  minor  kinds  of  excommunication 
are  recognized  by  the  Talmud.  The  lesser  (niddah)  involved 
exclusion  from  the  synagogue  for  thirty  days,  and  other  penalties, 
and  might  be  renewed  if  the  offender  remained  impenitent. 
The  major  excommunication  (herem)  excluded  from  the  Temple 
as  well  as  the  synagogue  and  from  all  association  with  the  faithful. 
Spinoza  was  excommunicated  (July  16,  1656)  for  contempt  of 
the  law.  Seldon  (De  jure  nat.  et  gen.,  iv.  7)  gives  the  text  of  the 
curse  pronounced  on  the  culprit.  The  Exemplar  Humanae  Vitae 
of  Uriel  d'Acosta  also  deserves  reference.  The  practice  of  the 
Jewish  courts  in  New  Testament  times  may  be  inferred  from 
certain  passages  in  the  Gospels.  Luke  vi.  22,  John  ix.  22,  xii.  42 
indicate  that  exclusion  from  the  synagogue  was  a  recognized 
penalty,  and  that  it  was  probably  inflicted  on  those  who  confessed 
Jesus  as  the  Christ.  John  xvi.  2  ("  Whosoever  killeth  you,"  &c.) 
may  point  to  the  power  of  inflicting  the  major  penalty.  The 
Talmud  itself  says  that  the  judgment  of  capital  cases  was  taken 
away  from  Israel  forty  years  before  the  destruction  of  the  Temple. 
"  Forty  "  is  probably  a  round  number  without  historical  value, 
but  the  circumstance  recorded  by  this  tradition  and  confirmed 
by  the  evangelist's  account  of  the  trial  of  Jesus  is  historical, 
and  is  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  several  restrictions  imposed  on 
the  Jewish  courts  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  procurators. 

3.  Primitive  Christian  Practice. — The  use  of  excommunication 
as  a  form  of  Christian  discipline  is  based  on  the  precept  of  Christ 
and  on  apostolic  practice.  The  general  principles  which  govern 
the  exclusion  of  members  from  a  religious  community  may  be 
gathered  from  the  New  Testament  writings.  Matt,  xviii.  15-17 
prescribes  a  threefold  admonition,  first  privately,  then  in  the 
presence  of  witnesses  (cf.  Titus  iii.  10),  then  before  the  church. 
This  is  a  graded  procedure  as  in  the  Jewish  synagogue  and  makes 
exclusion  a  last  resort.  Nothing  is  said  as  to  the  nature  and 
effects  of  excommunication.  The  tone  of  the  passage  when 
compared  with  the  disciplinary  methods  of  the  synagogue  in- 
dicates that  its  purpose  was  to  introduce  elements  of  reason  and 
moral  suasion  in  place  of  sterner  methods.  Its  object  is  rather 
the  protection  of  the  church  than  the  punishment  of  the  sinner. 
The  offender  is  only  treated  as  a  heathen  and  publican  when  the 
purity  and  safety  of  the  church  demand  it.  In  the  locus  classicus 
on  this  subject  (i  Cor.  v.  5)  Paul  refers  to  a  formal  meeting  of  the 
Corinthian  church  at  which  the  incestuous  person  is  "  delivered 
unto  Satan  for  the  destruction  of  the  flesh  that  the  spirit  may  be 
saved  in  the  day  of  the  Lord  Jesus."  These  are  mysterious 
words  implying  (i)  a  formal  ecclesiastical  censure,  (2)  a  physical 
penalty,  (3)  the  hope  of  a  spiritual  result.  The  form  of  penalty 
which  would  meet  these  conditions  is  not  explained.  There  is  a 
reference  in  2  Cor.  ii.  6-1 1  to  a  case  of  discipline  which  may  or 
may  not  be  the  same.  If  it  be  the  same  it  indicates  that  the  ex- 
communication had  not  been  final;  the  offender  had  been 
received  back.  If  it  be  not  the  same  it  shows  the  Corinthian 


6o 


EXCOMMUNICATION 


church  exercising  discipline  independently  of  apostolic  advice. 
Up  to  this  point  there  is  no  established  formal  practice,  i  Tim. 
i.  20  ("  Hymenaeus  and  Alexander  whom  I  delivered  unto  Satan 
that  they  might  be  taught  not  to  blaspheme  ")  seems  to  refer 
to  an  excommunication,  but  it  does  not  appear  whether  the 
apostle  had  acted  as  representing  a  church,  nor  is  there  anything 
to  explain  the  exact  consequences  or  limits  of  the  deliverance 
to  Satan,  i  Cor.  xvi.  22,  Gal.  i.  8,  9,  Rom.  ix.  3  refer  to  the 
practice  of  regarding  a  person  as  anathema.  Taking  these 
passages  as  a  whole  they  seem  to  point  to  an  exclusion  from 
church  fellowship  rather  than  to  a  final  cutting  off  from  the  hope 
of  salvation.  In  the  pastoral  letters  there  is  already  a  formal 
and  recognized  method  of  procedure  in  cases  of  church  discipline. 
i  Tim.  v.  19,  20  requires  two  or  three  witnesses  in  the  case  of 
an  accusation  against  an  elder,  and  a  public  reproof.  Tit.  iii.  20 
recognizes  a  factious  spirit  as  a  reason  for  excommunication 
after  two  admonitions  (cf.  Tim.  vi.  and  2  John  v.  10).  In  3  John 
v.  9-10  Diotrephes  appears  to  have  secured  an  excommunication 
by  the  action  of  a  party  in  the  church.  It  is  clear  from  these 
illustrations  that  within  the  New  Testament  there  is  development 
from  spontaneous  towards  strictly  regulated  methods;  also 
that  the  use  of  excommunication  is  chiefly  for  disciplinary  and 
protective  rather  than  punitive  purposes.  A  process  which  is 
intended  to  produce  penitence  and  ultimate  restoration  cannot 
at  the  same  time  contemplate  handing  the  offender  over  to 
eternal  punishment. 

4.  Medieval  and  Monastic  Usage. — The  writings  of  the  church 
Fathers  give  sufficient  evidence  that  two  degrees  of  excommuni- 
cation, the  d$opiovi6s  and  the  a^opicr^os  iraireX^s,  as  they 
were  generally  called,  were  in  use  during,  or  at  least  soon  after, 
the  apostolic  age.  The  former,  which  involved  exclusion  from 
participation  in  the  eucharistic  service  and  from  the  eucharist 
itself,  though  not  from  the  so-called  "  service  of  the  catechu- 
mens," was  the  usual  punishment  of  comparatively  light  offences; 
the  latter,  which  was  the  penalty  for  graver  scandals,  involved 
"  exclusion  from  all  church  privileges," — a  vague  expression 
which  has  sometimes  been  interpreted  as  meaning  total  exclusion 
from  the  very  precincts  of  the  church  building  (inter  hiemantes 
orare)  and  from  the  favour  of  God  (Bingham,  Antiquities  of 
Christian  Church,  xvi.  2.  16).  For  some  sins,  such  as  adultery, 
the  sentence  of  excommunication  was  in  the  2nd  century  regarded 
as  iroLvriMft  in  the  sense  of  being  irrevocable.  Difference  of 
opinion  as  to  the  absolutely  "  irremissible  "  character  of  mortal 
sins  led  to  the  important  controversy  associated  with  the  names 
of  Zephyrinus,  Tertullian,  Calistus,  Hippolytus,  Cyprian  and 
Novatian,  in  which  the  stricter  and  more  montanistic  party  held 
that  for  those  who  had  been  guilty  of  such  sins  as  theft,  fraud, 
denial  of  the  faith,  there  should  be  no  restoration  to  church 
fellowship  even  in  the  hour  of  death.  On  this  point  the 
provincial  synods  of  Illiberis  (Elvira)  in  305  and  of  Ancyra  in 
315  subsequently  came  to  conflicting  decisions,  the  council  of 
Elvira  forbidding  the  reception  of  offenders  into  communion 
during  life,  and  the  council  of  Ancyra  fixing  a  limit  to  the  penalty 
in  the  same  cases.  But  the  excommunication  was  on  all  hands 
regarded  as  being  "  medicinal  "  in  its  character.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  the  word  avaBtpa.  had  fallen  into  disuse  about  the 
beginning  of  the  4th  century,  and  that,  throughout  the  same 
period,  no  instance  of  the  judicial  use  of  the  phrase  irapadovvcu, 
T<$  2aTaf{i  can  be  found. 

A  new  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  church  censure  may  be 
said  to  have  begun  with  the  publication  of  those  imperial  edicts 
against  heresy,  the  first  of  which,  De  summa  trinilale  et  fide 
catholica,  dates  from  380.  Till  then  exclusion  from  church 
privileges  had  been  a  spiritual  discipline  merely;  thenceforward 
it  was  to  expose  a  man  to  serious  temporal  risks.  Excommunica- 
tion still  continued  to  be  occasionally  used  in  the  spirit  of  genuine 
Christian  fidelity,  as  by  Ambrose  in  the  case  of  Theodosius 
himself  (390) ;  but  the  temptation  to  wield  it  as  an  instrument 
of  secular  tyranny  too  often  proved  to  be  irresistible.  The  church 
fell  back  on  carnal  weapons  in  her  warfare  and  invoked  the 
secular  powers  to  uphold  the  ecclesiastical.  In  the  formula  used 
by  Synesius  (410)  which  is  to  be  found  in  Bingham's  Antiquities, 


we  already  find  the  attention  of  magistrates  specially  called  to 
the  censured  person.  The  history  of  the  next  thousand  years 
shows  that  the  magistrates  were  seldom  slow  to  respond  to  the 
appeal.  Even  the  hastiest  survey  of  that  long  and  interesting 
period  enables  the  student  to  notice  a  marked  development  in 
the  theory  and  practice  of  excommunication.  One  or  two  points 
may  be  specially  noted.  ( i )  When  the  Empire  became  nominally 
Christian  and  the  quality  of  the  church  life  was  sacrificed  to  the 
quantity  of  its  adherents,  the  original  character  of  excommunica- 
tion was  lost.  The  power  of  excommunication  was  transferred 
from  the  community  to  the  bishop,  and  was  liable  to  abuse  from 
personal  motives:  Gregory  the  Great  rebukes  a  bishop  for  using 
for  private  ends  power  conferred  for  the  public  good  (Epist.  ii. 
34).  Excommunication  became  a  common  penalty  applied  in 
numberless  cases  (see  the  Penitential  of  Archbishop  Theodosius: 
Haddan  and  Stubbs,  Councils  and  Documents,  iii.  1737),  and  was 
invested  with  superstitious  terrors.  (2)  While  it  had  been  held 
as  an  undoubted  principle  by  the  ancient  church  that  this 
sentence  could  only  be  passed  on  living  individuals  whose  fault 
had  been  distinctly  stated  and  fully  proved,  we  find  the  medieval 
church  on  the  one  hand  sanctioning  the  practice  of  excommunica- 
tion of  the  dead  (Morinus,  De  poenit.  x.  c.  9),  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  by  means  of  the  papal  interdict,  excluding  whole  countries 
and  kingdoms  at  once  from  the  means  of  grace.  The  earliest 
well-authenticated  instance  of  such  an  interdict  is  that  which 
was  passed  (998)  by  Pope  Gregory  V.  on  France,  in  consequence 
of  the  contumacy  of  King  Robert  the  Wise.  Other  instances  are 
those  laid  respectively  on  Germany  in  1102  by  Gregory  VII. 
(Hildebrand),  on  England  in  1208  by  Innocent  III.,  on  Rome 
itself  in  1155  by  Adrian  IV.  (3)  While  in  the  ancient  church  the 
language  used  in  excommunicating  had  been  carefully  measured, 
we  find  an  amazing  recklessness  in  the  phraseology  employed 
by  the  medieval  clergy.  The  curse  of  Ernulphus  or  Arnulphus 
of  Rochester  (c.  noo),  often  quoted  by  students  of  English 
literature,  is  a  very  fair  specimen  of  that  class  of  composition. 
With  it  may  be  compared  the  formula  transcribed  by  Dr  Burton 
in  his  History  of  Scotland  (iii.  317  ff.).  To  the  spoken  word  was 
added  the  language  of  symbol.  By  means  of  lighted  candles 
violently  dashed  to  the  ground  and  extinguished  the  faithful 
were  graphically  taught  the  meaning  of  the  greater  excommuni- 
cation— though  in  a  somewhat  misleading  way,  for  it  is  a 
fundamental  principle  of  the  canon  law  that  disciplina  est. 
excommunicatio,  non  eradicatio.  The  first  instance,  however,  of 
excommunication  by  "  bell,  book  and  candle  "  is  comparatively 
late  (c.  1190). 

5.  Modern  Survivals  in  Existing  Christian  Churches. — At  the 
Reformation  the  necessity  for  church  discipline  did  not  cease  to 
be  recognized;  but  the  administration  of  it  in  many  Reformed 
churches  has  passed  through  a  period  of  some  confusion.  In 
some  instances  the  old  episcopal  power  passed  more  or  less  into 
the  hands  of  the  civil  magistrate  (a  state  of  matters  which  was 
highly  approved  by  Erastus  and  his  followers),  in  other  cases  it 
was  conceded  to  the  presby  terial  courts.  In  the  Anglican  Church 
the  bishops  (subject  to  appeal  to  the  sovereign)  have  the  right 
of  excommunicating,  and  their  sentence,  if  sustained,  may  in 
certain  cases  carry  with  it  civil  -consequences.  But  this  right 
is  in  practice  never  exercised.  In  the  law  of  England  sentence 
of  excommunication,  upon  being  properly  certified  by  the 
bishop,  was  followed  by  the  writ  de  excommunicato  capiendo 
for  the  arrest  of  the  offender.  The  statute  5  Eliz.  c.  23  pro- 
vided for  the  better  execution  of  this  writ.  By  the  53  Geo.  III. 
c.  127  (which  does  not,  however,  extend  to  Ireland)  it  was  enacted 
that  "  excommunication,  together  with  all  proceedings  following 
thereupon,  shall  in  all  cases,  save  those  hereafter  to  be  specified, 
be  discontinued."  Disobedience  to  or  contempt  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical courts  is  to  be  punished  by  a  new  writ,  de  conlumace 
capiendo,  to  follow  on  the  certificate  of  the  judge  that  the 
defender  is  contumacious  and  in  contempt.  Sect.  2  provides 
that  nothing  shall  prevent  "  any  ecclesiastical  court  from 
pronouncing  or  declaring  persons  to  be  excommunicate  on 
definite  sentences  pronounced  as  spiritual  censures  for  offences 
of  ecclesiastical  cognizance."  No  persons  so  excommunicated 


EXCRETION— EXECUTION 


61 


shall  incur  any  civil  penalty  or  incapacity  whatever,  save  such 
sentence  of  imprisonment,  not  exceeding  six  months,  as  the 
court  shall  direct  and  certify  to  the  king  in  chancery. 

In  the  churches  which  consciously  shaped  their  polity  at  or 
after  the  Reformation  the  principle  of  excommunication  is 
preserved  in  the  practice  of  church  discipline.  Calvin  devotes  a 
chapter  in  the  Institutes  (bk.  iv.  chap,  xii.)  to  the  "  Discipline  of 
the  Church;  its  Principal  Use  in  Censure  and  Excommunication." 
The  three  ends  proposed  by  the  church  in  such  discipline  are 
there  stated  to  be,  (i)  that  those  who  lead  scandalous  lives  may 
not  to  the  dishonour  of  God  be  numbered  among  Christians, 
seeing  that  the  church  is  the  body  of  Christ;  (2)  that  the  good 
may  not  be  corrupted  by  constant  association  with  the  wicked; 
(3)  that  those  who  are  censured  or  excommunicated,  confounded 
with  shame,  may  be  led  to  repentance.  He  differentiates 
decisively  between  excommunication  and  anathema.  "  When 
Christ  promises  that  what  his  ministers  bind  on  earth  shall  be 
bound  in  heaven,  he  limits  the  power  of  binding  to  the  censure  of 
the  church;  by  which  those  who  are  excommunicated  are  not 
cast  into  eternal  ruin  and  condemnation,  but  by  having  their 
life  and  conduct  condemned  are  also  certified  of  their  final 
condemnation  unless  they  repent.  For  excommunication  differs 
from  anathema:  anathema  which  ought  to  be  very  rarely,  or 
never,  resorted  to,  in  precluding  all  pardon,  execrates  a  person, 
and  devotes  him  to  eternal  perdition :  whereas  excommunication 
rather  censures  and  punishes  his  conduct.  Yet  in  such  a  manner 
by  warning  him  of  his  future  condemnation  it  recalls  him  to 
salvation  "  (Inst.  bk.  iv.  chap.  xii.  10).  The  Reformed  churches 
in  England  and  America  accepted  the  distinction  between  public 
and  private  offences.  The  usual  provision  is  that  private 
offences  are  to  be  dealt  with  according  to  the  rule  in  Matt.  v. 
23-24,  xviii.  15-17;  public  offences  are  to  be  dealt  with  according 
to  the  rule  in  i  Cor.  v.  3-5, 13.  The  public  expulsion  or  suspension 
of  the  offender  is  necessary  for  the  good  repute  of  the  church, 
and  its  influence  over  the  faithful  members.  The  expelled 
member  may  be  readmitted  on  showing  the  fruits  of  repentance. 

In  Scotland  three  degrees  of  church  censure  are  recognized — 
admonition,  suspension  from  sealing  ordinances  (which  may  be 
called  temporary  excommunication),  and  excommunication 
properly  so-called.  Intimation  of  the  last-named  censure  may 
occasionally  (but  very  rarely)  be  given  by  authority  of  a  pres- 
.bytery  in  a  public  and  solemn  manner,  according  to  the  following 
formula: — "  Whereas  thou  N.  hast  been  by  sufficient  proof 
convicted  (here  mention  the  sin)  and  after  due  admonition  and 
prayer  remainest  obstinate  without  any  evidence  or  sign  of  true 
repentance:  Therefore  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
and  before  this  congregation,  I  pronounce  and  declare  thee  N. 
excommunicated,  shut  out  from  the  communion  of  the  faithful, 
debar  thee  from  privileges,  and  deliver  thee  unto  Satan  for  the 
destruction  of  thy  flesh,  that  thy  spirit  may  be  saved  in  the  day 
of  the  Lord  Jesus."  This  is  called  the  greater  excommunication. 
The  congregation  are  thereafter  warned  to  shun  all  unnecessary 
converse  with  the  excommunicate  (see  Form  of  Process,  c.  8). 
Formerly  excommunicated  persons  were  deprived  of  feudal 
rights  in  Scotland;  but  in  1690  all  acts  enjoining  civil  pains 
upon  sentences  of  excommunication  were  finally  repealed 
(Burton's  History,  vii.  435). 

The  question  whether  the  power  of  excommunication  rests 
in  the  church  or  in  the  clergy  has  been  an  important  one  in  the 
history  of  English  and  American  churches.  Hooker  lays  down 
(Survey,  pt.  3,  pp.  33-46)  four  necessary  conditions  for  the 
execution  of  a  sentence  involving  church  discipline.  "  (i)  The 
cause  exactly  recorded  is  fully  and  nakedly  to  be  presented  to  the 
consideration  of  the  congregation.  (2)  The  elders  are  to  go 
before  the  congregation  in  laying  open  the  rule  so  far  as  reacheth 
any  particular  now  to  be  considered,  and  to  express  their  judg- 
ment and  determination  thereof,  so  far  as  appertains  to  them- 
selves. (3)  Unless  the  people  be  able  to  convince  them  of  errors 
and  mistakes  in  their  sentence,  they  are  bound  to  joyn  their 
judgment  with  theirs  to  the  compleating  of  the  sentence.  (4)  The 
sentence  thus  compleatly  issued  is  to  be  solemnly  passed  and 
pronounced  upon  the  delinquent  by  the  ruling  Elder  whether 


it  be  of  censure  or  excommunication."  In  this  passage  it  is  clear 
that  the  effective  power  of  discipline  is  regarded  as  being  wholly 
in  the  power  of  the  individual  church  or  congregation.  Hooker 
expressly  denies  the  power  of  synods  to  excommunicate:  "  that 
there  should  be  Synods,  which  have  poteslatem  juridicam  is 
nowhere  proved  in  Scripture  because  it  is  not  a  truth  "  (Survey, 
pt.  4,  pp.  48,  49). 

The  confession  of  faith  issued  by  the  London-Amsterdam 
church  (the  original  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers'  churches)  in  1596 
declares  that  the  Christian  congregation  having  power  to  elect 
its  minister  has  also  power  to  excommunicate  him  if  the  case 
so  require  (Walker,  Creeds  and  Platforms  of  Congregationalism, 
p.  66).  In  1603  the  document  known  as  "  Points  of  Difference  " 
(i.e.  from  the  established  Anglicanism)  submitted  to  James  I. 
sets  forth:  "  That  all  particular  Churches  ought  to  be  so  con- 
stituted as,  having  their  owne  peculiar  Officers,  the  whole  body 
of  every  Church  may  meet  together  in  one  place,  and  jointly 
performe  their  duties  to  God  and  one  towards  another.  And  that 
the  censures  of  admonition  and  excommunication  be  in  due 
manner  executed,  for  sinne,  convicted,  and  obstinately  stood 
in.  This  power  also  to  be  in  the  body  of  the  Church  whereof 
the  partyes  so  offending  and  persisting  are  members."  The 
Cambridge  Platform  of  1648  by  which  the  New  England  churches 
defined  their  practice,  devotes  ch.  xiv.  to  "  excommunication  and 
other  censures."  It  follows  in  the  main  the  line  of  Hooker  and 
Calvin,  but  adds  (§6)  an  important  definition:  "Excommunica- 
tion being  a  spirituall  punishment  it  doth  not  prejudice  the  ex- 
communicate in,  nor  deprive  him  of  his  civil  rights,  therfore 
toucheth  not  princes,  or  other  magistrates,  in  point  of  their  civil 
dignity  or  authority.  And,  the  excommunicate  being  but  as  a 
publican  and  a  heathen,  heathen  being  lawfully  permitted  to 
come  to  hear  the  word  in  church  assemblyes;  wee  acknowledg 
therfore  the  like  liberty  of  hearing  the  word,  may  be  permitted 
to  persons  excommunicate,  that  is  permitted  unto  heathen. 
And  because  wee  are  not  without  hope  of  his  recovery,  wee  are  not 
to  account  him  as  an  enemy  but  to  admonish  him  as  a  brother." 
The  Savoy  Declaration  of  1658  defines  the  theory  and  practice 
of  the  older  English  Nonconformist  churches  in  the  section  on 
the  "  Institution  of  Churches  and  the  Order  appointed  in  them 
by  Jesus  Christ"  (xix.).  The  important  article  is  as  follows: — 
"  The  Censures  so  appointed  by  Christ,  are  Admonition  and 
Excommunication;  and  whereas  some  offences  are  or  may  be 
known  onely  to  some,  it  is  appointed  by  Christ,  that  those  to 
whom  they  are  so  known,  do  first  admonish  the  offender  in 
private:  in  publique  offences  where  any  sin,  before  all;  or  in 
case  of  non-amendment  upon  private  admonition,  the  offence 
being  related  to  the  Church,  and  the  offender  not  manifesting 
his  repentance,  he  is  to  be  duely  admonished  in  the  Name  of 
Christ  by  the  whole  Church,  by  the  Ministery  of  the  Elders  of  the 
Church,  and  if  this  Censure  prevail  not  for  his  repentance,  then 
he  is  to  be  cast  out  by  Excommunication  with  the  consent  of 
the  Church." 

In  contemporary  English  Free  Churches  the  purity  of  the 
church  is  commonly  secured  by  the  removal  of  persons  unsuitable 
for  membership  from  the  church  books  by  a  vote  of  the  re- 
sponsible authority.  (D.  MM.) 

EXCRETION  (Lat.  ex,  out  of,  cernere,  cretum,  to  separate), 
in  plant  and  animal  physiology,  the  separation  from  an  organ  of 
some  substance,  also  the  substance  separated.  The  term  usually 
refers  to  the  separation  of  waste  or  harmful  products,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  "  secretion,"  which  refers  to  products  that 
play  a  useful  or  necessary  part  in  the  functions  of  the  organism. 

EXECUTION  (from  Lat.  ex-sequor,  exseculus,  follow  or  carry 
out),  the  carrying  into  effect  of  anything,  whether  a  rite,  a  piece 
of  music,  an  office,  &c. ;  and  so  sometimes  involving  a  notion  of 
skill  in  the  performance.  Technically,  the  word  is  used  in  law 
in  the  execution  of  a  deed  (its  formal  signing  and  sealing),  an 
execution  (see  below)  by  the  sheriff's  officers  under  a  "  writ  of 
execution  "  (the  enforcement  of  a  judgment  on  a  debtor's  goods) ; 
and  execution  of  death  has  been  shortened  to  the  one  word  to 
denote  CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT  (q.v.). 

Civil  Execution  may  be  defined  as  the  process  by  which  the 


EXECUTION 


judgments  or  orders  of  courts  of  law  are  made  effectual.  In 
Roman  law  the  earliest  mode  of  execution  was  the  seizure, 
legalized  by  the  actio  per  manus  injectionem,  of  the  debtor  as  a 
slave  of  the  creditor.  During  the  later  Republic,  imprisonment 
took  the  place  of  slavery.  Under  the  regime  of  the  actio  per 
manus  injectionem,  the  debtor  might  dispute  the  debt — the  issue 
being  raised  by  his  finding  a  substitute  (vindex)  to  conduct  the 
case  for  him.  By  the  time  of  Gaius  (iv.  25)  the  actio  per  manus 
injectionem  had  been  superseded  by  the  actio  judicati,  the  object 
of  which  was  to  enable  the  creditor  to  take  payment  of  the  debt 
or  compel  the  debtor  to  find  security  (pignus  in  causa  judicati 
captum:  Cautio  judicatum  sohi),  and  in  A.D.  320  Constantino 
abolished  imprisonment  for  debt,  unless  the  debtor  were  con- 
tumacious. The  time  allowed  for  payment  of  a  judgment  debt 
was  by  the  XII.  Tables  30  days;  it  was  afterwards  extended 
to  two  months,  and  ultimately,  by  Justinian,  to  four  months. 
The  next  stage  in  the  Roman  law  of  execution  was  the  recognition 
of  bankruptcy  either  against  the  will  of  the  bankrupt  (missio 
in  bona)  or  on  the  application  of  the  bankrupt  (cessio  bonorum; 
and  see  BANKRUPTCY).  Lastly,  in  the  time  of  Antoninus  Pius, 
judgment  debts  were  directly  enforced  by  the  seizure  and  sale 
of  the  debtor's  property.  Slaves,  oxen  and  implements  of 
husbandry  were  privileged;  and  movable  property  was  to  be 
exhausted  before  recourse  was  had  to  land  (see  Hunter,  Roman 
Law,  4th  ed.  pp.  1029  et  seq.,  Sohm,  Inst.  Rom.  Law,  2nd  ed. 
pp.  302-305). 

GREAT  BRITAIN. — The  English  law  of  execution  is  very  compli- 
cated, and  only  a  statement  of  the  principal  processes  can  here  be 
attempted. 

High  Court. — Fieri  Facias.  A  judgment  for  the  recovery  of  money 
or  costs  is  enforced,  as  a  rule,  by  writ  of  fieri  facias  addressed  to  the 
sheriff,  and  directing  him  to  cause  to  be  made  (fieri  facias)  of  the 
goods  and  chattels  of  the  debtor  a  levy  of  a  sum  sufficient  to  satisfy 
the  judgment  and  costs,  which  carry  interest  at  4%  per  annum. 
The  seizure  effected  by  the  sheriff  or  his  officer,  under  this  writ, 
of  the  property  of  the  debtor,  is  what  is  popularly  known  as  "  the 
putting-in  "  of  an  execution.  The  seizure  should  be  carried  out 
with  all  possible  despatch.  The  sheriff  or  his  officer  must  not  break 
open  the  debtor's  house  in  effecting  a  seizure,  for  "  a  man's  house 
is  his  castle"  (Semayne's  Case  [1604],  5  Coke  Rep.  91);  but  this 
principle  applies  only  to  a  dwelling-house,  and  a  barn  or  outhouse 
unconnected  with  the  dwelling-house  may  be  broken  into.  The 
sheriff  on  receipt  of  the  writ  endorses  on  it  the  day,  hour,  month 
and  year  when  he  received  it ;  and  the  writ  binds  the  debtor's  goods 
as  at  the  date  of  its  delivery,  except  as  regards  goods  sold  before 
seizure  in  market  overt,  or  purchased  for  value,  without  notice 
before  actual  seizure  (Sale  of  Goods  Act  1893,  s.  26,  which  supersedes 
s.  16  of  the  Statute  of  Frauds  and  s.  I  of  the  Mercantile  Law  Amend- 
ment Act  1856).  This  rule  is  limited  to  goods,  and  does  not  apply 
to  the  money  or  bank  notes  of  the  debtor  which  are  not  bound  by 
the  writ  till  seized  under  it  (Johnson  v.  Pickering,  Oct.  14, 1907,  C.A.). 
The  mere  seizure  of  the  goods,  however,  although,  subject  to  such 
exceptions  as  those  just  stated,  it  binds  the  interest  of  the  debtor, 
and  gives  the  sheriff  such  an  interest  in  the  goods  as  will  enable 
him  to  sue  for  the  recovery  of  their  possession,  does  not  pass  the 
property  in  the  goods  to  the  sheriff.  The  goods  are  in  the  custody 
of  the  law.  But  the  property  remains  in  the  debtor  who  may  get 
rid  of  the  execution  on  payment  of  the  claim  and  fees  of  the  sheriff 
[as  to  which  see  Sheriffs  Act  1887,  s.  20,  and  order  of  2ist  of  August 
1888,  Annual  Practice  (1908),  vol.  ii.  p.  278].  The  wearing  apparel, 
bedding,  tools,  &c.,  of  the  debtor  to  the  value  of  £5  are  protected. 
Competing  claims  as  to  the  ownership  of  the  goods  seized  are  brought 
before  the  courts  by  the  procedure  of  "  interpleader."  After 
seizure,  the  sheriff  must  retain  possession,  and,  in  default  of  payment 
by  the  execution  debtor,  proceed  to  sell.  Where  the  judgment  debt, 
including  legal  expenses,  exceeds  £20,  the  sale  must  be  by  public 
auction,  unless  the  Court  otherwise  orders,  and  must  be  publicly 
advertised.  The  proceeds  of  sale,  after  deduction  of  the  sheriff  s 
fees  and  expenses,  become  the  property  of  the  execution  creditor 
to  the  extent  of  his  claim.  The  Bankruptcy  Act  1890  (53  &  54 
Viet.  c.  71,  s.  ii  [2])  requires  the  sheriff  in  case  of  sale  under  a 
judgment  for  a  sum  exceeding  £20  to  hold  the  proceeds  for  14 
days  in  case  notice  of  bankruptcy  proceedings  should  be  served  upon 
him  (see  BANKRUPTCY).  The  form  of  the  writ  of  fieri  facias  requires 
the  sheriff  to  make  a  return  to  the  writ.  In  practice  this  is  seldom 
done  unless  the  execution  has  been  ineffective  or  there  has  been 
delay  in  the  execution  of  the  writ;  but  the  judgment  creditor  may 
obtain  an  order  calling  on  the  sheriff  to  make  a  return.  A  sheriff 
or  his  officer,  who  is  guilty  of  extortion  in  the  execution  of  the  writ, 
is  liable  to  committal  for  contempt,  and  to  forfeit  £200  and  pay  all 
damages  suffered  by  the  person  aggrieved  (Sheriffs  Act  1887  [50 
&  51  Viet.  c.  55],  s.  29  [2]),  besides  being  civilly  liable  to  such 
person.  Imprisonment  for  debt  in  execution  of  civil  judgments  is 


now  abolished  except  in  cases  of  default  in  the  nature  of  contempt, 
unsatisfied  judgments  for  penalties,  defaults  by  persons  in  a  fiduciary 
character,  and  defaults  by  judgment  debtors  (Debtors  Act  1869  [32 
&  33  Viet.  c.  62];  Bankruptcy  Act  1883  [46  &  47  Viet.  c.  52], 
ss.  53,  103).  Imprisonment  for  debt  has  been  abolished  within 
similar  limits  in  Scotland  (Debtors  Scotland]  Act  1880  [43  &  44 
Viet.  c.  34]  and  Ireland,  Debtors  Ireland]  Act  1872,  35  &  36 
Viet.  c.  57)-  There  may  still  be  imprisonment  in  England,  under 
the  writ — rarely  used  in  practice — ne  exeat  regno,  which  issues  to 
prevent  a  debtor  from  leaving  the  kindgom. 

Writ  of  Elegit. — The  writ  of  elegit  is  a  process  enabling  the  creditor 
to  satisfy  his  judgment  debt  out  of  the  lands  of  the  debtor.  It 
derives  its  name  from  the  election  of  the  creditor  in  favour  of  this 
mode  of  recovery.  It  is  founded  on  the  Statute  of  Westminster 
(1285,  13  Ed.  I.  c.  18),  under  which  the  sheriff  was  required  to  deliver 
to  the  creditor  all  the  chattels  (except  oxen  and  beasts  of  the  plough) 
and  half  the  lands  of  the  debtor  until  the  debt  was  satisfied.  By  the 
Judgments  Act  1838  the  remedy  was  extended  to  all  the  debtor's 
lands,  and  by  the  Bankruptcy  Act  1883  the  writ  no  longer  extends 
to  the  debtor's  goods.  The  writ  is  enforceable  against  legal  interests 
whether  in  possession  or  remainder  (Hood-Barrs  v.  Cathcart,  1895, 
2  Ch.  41 1),  but  not  against  equitable  interests  in  land  (Earl  of  Jersey 
v.  Uxbridge  Rural  Sanitary  Authority,  1891,  3  Ch.  183).  When  the 
debtor's  interest  is  equitable,  recourse  is  had  to  equitable  execution 
by  the  appointment  of  a  receiver  or  to  bankruptcy  proceedings. 

The  writ  is  directed  to  the  sheriff,  who,  after  marking  on  it  the 
date  of  its  receipt,  at  once  in  pursuance  of  its  directions  holds  an 
inquiry  with  a  jury  as  to  the  nature  and  value  of  the  interest  of  the 
debtor  in  the  lands  extended  under  the  writ,  and  delivers  to  the 
creditor  at  a  reasonable  price  and  extent  in  accordance  with  the 
writ,  the  lands  of  which  the  debtor  was  possessed  in  the  bailiwick. 
When  the  sheriff  has  returned  and  filed  a  record  (in  the  central 
office  of  the  High  Court)  of  the  writ  and  the  execution  thereof,  the 
execution  creditor  becomes  "  tenant  to  the  elegit."  Where  the 
land  is  freehold  the  creditor  acquires  only  a  chattel  interest  in  it; 
where  the  land  is  leasehold  he  acquires  the  whole  of  the  debtor's 
interest  (Johns  v.  Pink,  1900,  I  Ch.  296).  The  creditor  is  entitled 
to  hold  the  land  till  his  debt  is  satisfied,  or  enough  to  satisfy  it  is 
tendered  to  him,  and  under  the  Judgments  Act  1864  the  creditor 
may  obtain  an  order  for  sale.  Until  the  land  is  delivered  on  execu- 
tion and  the  writs  which  have  effected  the  delivery  are  registered 
in  the  Land  Registry,  the  judgment  does  not  create  any  charge  on 
the  land  so  as  to  fetter  the  debtor's  power  of  dealing  witn  it.  Land 
Charges  Registration  Acts  1888  and  1900.  (See  R.S.C.,  O.  xliii.) 

Writs  of  Possession  and  Delivery. — Judgments  for  the  recovery  or 
for  the  delivery  of  the  possession  of  land  are  enforceable  by  writ  of 
possession.  The  recovery  of  specific  chattels  is  obtained  by  writ 
of  delivery  (R.S.C.,  O.  xlvii.,  xlviii.). 

Writ  of  Sequestration. — Where  a  judgment  directing  the  payment 
of  money  into  court,  or  the  performance  by  the  defendant  of  any 
act  within  a  limited  time,  has  not  been  complied  with,  or  where  a 
corporation  has  wilfully  disobeyed  a  judgment,  a  writ  of  sequestra- 
tion is  issued,  to  not  less  than  four  sequestrators,  ordering  them  to 
enter  upon  the  real  estate  of  the  party  in  default,  and  "  sequester  " 
the  rents  and  profits  until  the  judgment  has  been  obeyed  (R.S.C., 
O.  xliii.  r.  6). 

Equitable  Execution. — Where  a  judgment  creditor  is  otherwise 
unable  to  reach  the  property  of  his  debtor  he  may  obtain  equitable 
execution,  usually  by  the  appointment  of  a  receiver,  who  collects 
the  rents  and  profits  of  the  debtor's  land  for  the  benefit  of  the 
creditor  (R.S.C.,  O.  1.  rr.  I5A-22).  But  receivers  may  be  appointed 
of  interests  in  personal  property  belonging  to  the  debtor  by  virtue 
of  the  Judicature  Act  1873,  s.  25  (8). 

Attachment. — A  judgment  creditor  may  "  attach  "  debts  due  by 
third  parties  to  his  debtor  by  what  are  known  as  garnishee  proceed- 
ings. Stock  and  shares  belonging  to  a  judgment  debtor  may  be 
charged  by  a  charging  order,  so  as,  in  the  first  instance,  to  prevent 
transfer  of  the  stock  or  payment  of  the  dividends,  and  ultimately  to 
enable  the  judgment  creditor  to  realise  his  charge.  A  writ  of 
attachment  of  the  person  of  a  defaulting  debtor  or  party  may  be 
obtained  in  a  variety  of  cases  akin  to  contempt  (e.g.  against  a  person 
failing  to  comply  with  an  order  to  answer  interrogatories,  or  against 
a  solicitor  not  entering  an  appearance  in  an  action,  in  breach  of  his 
written  undertaking  to  do  so),  and  in  the  cases  where  imprisonment 
for  debt  is  still  preserved  by  the  Debtors  Act  1869  (R.S.C.,  O.  xliv.). 
CONTEMPT  OF  COURT  (q.v.)  in  its  ordinary  forms  is  also  punishable 
by  summary  committal. 

County  Courts. — In  the  county  courts  the  chief  modes  of  execution 
are  "  warrant  of  execution  in  the  nature  of  a  writ  of  fieri  facias  "; 
garnishee  proceedings;  equitable  execution;  warrants  of  possession 
and  delivery,  corresponding  to  the  writs  of  possession  and  delivery 
above  mentioned;  committal,  where  a  judgment  debtor  has,  or, 
since  the  date  of  the  judgment  has  had,  means  to  pay  his  debt; 
and  attachment  of  the  person  for  contempt  of  court.  If  the  judg- 
ment debtor  assaults  the  bailiff  or  his  officer  or  rescues  the  goods, 
he  is  liable  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  £5. 

SCOTLAND. — The  principal  modes  of  execution  or^'  diligence  "  in 
Scots  law  are  (i.)  Arrestment  and  forthcoming,  which  corresponds 
to  the  English  garnishee  proceedings;  (ii.)  arrestment  jurisdictionis 
fundandae  causa,  i.e.  the  seizure  of  movables  within  the  jurisdiction 


EXECUTORS  AND  ADMINISTRATORS 


to  found  jurisdiction  against  their  owner,  being  a  foreigner;  this 
procedure,  which  is  not,  however,  strictly  a  "  diligence,"  as  it  does 
not  bind  the  goods,  is  analogous  to  the  French  saisie-arrit,  and 
to  the  obsolete  practice  in  the  mayor's  court  of  London  known  as 
"  foreign  attachment "  (see  Glyn  and  Jackson,  Mayor's  Court 
Practice,  2nd  ed.,  vii.  260);  (iii.)  arrestment  under  meditatione  fugae 
warrant,  corresponding  to  the  old  English  writ  of  ne  exeat  regno, 
and  applicable  in  the  case  of  a  debtor  who  intends  to  leave  Scotland 
to  evade  an  action ;  (iv.)  arrestment  on  dependence,  i.e.  of  funds  in 
security;  (v.)  poinding,  i.e.  valuation  and  sale  of  the  debtor's 
goods;  (vi.)  sequestration,  e.g.  of  tenant's  effects  under  a  landlord's 
hypothec  for  rent ;  (vii.)  action  of  adjudication,  by  which  a  debtor's 
"  heritable  "  (i.e.  real)  estate  is  transferred  to  his  judgment  creditor 
in  satisfaction  of  his  debt  or  security  therefor.  In  Scots  law 
"  multiplepoinding  "  is  the  equivalent  of  "  interpleader." 

IRELAND. — The  law  of  execution  in  Ireland  (see  R.S.C.,  1905, 
Orders  xli.-xlviii.)  is  practically  the  same  as  in  England. 

BRITISH  POSSESSIONS. — The  Judicature  Acts  of  most  of  the 
Colonies  have  also  adopted  English  Law.  Parts  of  the  French  Code 
de  procedure  civile  are  still  in  force  in  Mauritius.  But  its  provisions 
have  been  modified  by  local  enactment  (No.  19  of  1868)  as  regards 
realty,  and  the  rules  of  the  Supreme  Court  1903  have  introduced  the 
English  forms  of  writs.  Quebec  and  St  Lucia,  where  French  law 
formerly  prevailed,  have  now  their  own  codes  of  Civil  Procedure. 
The  law  of  execution  under  the  Quebec  Code  resembles  the  French, 
that  under  the  St  Lucia  Code  the  English  system.  In  British 
Guiana  and  Ceylon,  in  which  Roman  Dutch  law  in  one  form  or 
another  prevailed,  the  English  law  of  execution  has  now  in  substance 
been  adopted  (British  Guiana  Rules  of  Court,  1900,  Order  xxxvi.)., 
Ceylon  (Code  of  Civil  Procedure,  No.  2  of  1889) ;  the  modes  of  exe- 
cution in  the  South  African  Colonies  are  also  the  subject  of  local 
enactment,  largely  influenced  by  English  law  (cf.  the  Sheriffs' 
Ordinance,  1902,  No.  9  of  1902),  (Orange  River  Colony)  and  (Pro- 
clamation 17  of  1902),  Transvaal  (Nathan,  Common  Law  of  South 
Africa,  vol.  iv.  p.  2206) ;  and  generally,  Van  Zyl,  Judicial  Practice 
of  South  Africa,  pp.  198  et  seq. 

UNITED  STATES. — Execution  in  the  United  States  is  founded 
upon  English  law,  which  it  closely  resembles.  Substantially  the 
same  forms  of  execution  are  in  force.  The  provisions  of  the  Statute 
of  Frauds  making  the  lien  of  execution  attach  only  on  delivery  to 
the  sheriff  were  generally  adopted  in  America,  and  are  still  law  in 
many  of  the  states.  The  law  as  to  the  rights  and  duties  of  sheriffs 
is  substantially  the  same  as  in  England.  The  "  homestead  laws  " 
(q.v.)  which  are  in  force  in  nearly  all  the  American  States  exempt 
a  certain  amount  or  value  of  real  estate  occupied  by  a  debtor  as 
his  homestead  from  a  forced  sale  for  the  payment  of  his  debts. 
This  homestead  legislation  has  been  copied  in  some  British  colonies, 
e.g.  Western  Australia  (No.  37  of  1898,  Pt.  viii.),  Quebec  (Rev.  Stats., 
ss.  1743-1748),  Manitoba  (Rev.  Stats.,  1902,  c.  58,  s.  29,  c.  21,  s.  9), 
Ontario  (Rev.  Stats.,  1897,  c.  29),  British  Columbia  (Rev.  Stats., 
1897,  c.  93),  New  South  Wales  (Crown  Lands  Act  1895,  Pt.  iii.), 
New  Zealand  (Family  Homes  Protection  Act  1895,  No.  20  of  1895). 
FRANCE. — Provisional  execution  (saisie-arr£t)  with  a  view  to 
obtain  security  has  been  already  mentioned.  Execution  against 
personalty  (saisie-execution)  is  preceded  by  a  commandement  or 
summons,  personally  served  upon,  or  left  at  the  domicile  of  the  debtor 
calling  on  him  to  pay.  The  necessary  bedding  of  debtors  and  of 
their  children  residing  with  them,  and  the  clothes  worn  by  them, 
cannot  be  seized  in  execution  under  any  circumstances.  Objects 
declared  by  law  to  be  immovable  by  destination  (immeubles  par 
destination),  such  as  beasts  of  burden  and  agricultural  implements, 
books  relating  to  the  debtor's  profession,  to  the  value  of  300  francs, 
workmen's  tools,  military  equipments,  provisions  and  certain  cattle 
cannot  be  seized,  even  for  a  debt  due  to  Government,  unless  in  respect 
of  provisions  furnished  to  the  debtor,  or  amounts  due  to  the  manu- 
facturers or  vendors  of  protected  articles  or  to  parties  who  advanced 
moneys  to  purchase,  manufacture  or  repair  them.  Growing  fruits 
cannot  be  seized  except  during  the  six  weeks  preceding  the  ordinary 
period  when  they  become  ripe.  Execution  against  immovable 
property  (la  saisie  immobiliere)  is  preceded  also  by  a  summons  to 
pay,  and  execution  cannot  issue  until  the  expiry  of  30  days  after 
service  of  such  summons  (see  further  Code  Proc.  Civ.,  Arts.  673-689). 
Imprisonment  for  debt  was  abolished  in  all  civil  and  commercial 
matters  by  the  law  of  22nd  of  July  1867,  which  extends  to  foreigners. 
It  still  subsists  in  favour  of  the  State  for  non-payment  of  fines,  &c. 
The  French  system  is  in  substance  in  force  in  Belgium  (Code  Civ. 
Proc.,  Arts.  51  et  seq.),  the  Netherlands  (CodeCiv.  Proc.,  Arts.  43oet 
seq.),  Italy  (Code  Civ.  Proc.,  Arts.  553  et  seq.,  659  et  seq.),  and  Spain. 
GERMANY. — Under  the  German  Code  of  Civil  Prodecure  (Arts. 
796  et  seq.),  both  the  goods  and  (if  the  goods  do  not  offer  adequate 
security)  the  person  of  the  debtor  may  be  seized  (the  process  is  called 
arrest)  as  a  guarantee  of  payment.  The  debtor's  goods  cannot  be 
sold  except  in  pursuance  of  a  judgment  notified  to  the  debtor  either 
before  or  within  a  prescribed  period  after  the  execution  (Art.  809 
[3],  and  law  of  3Oth  of  April  1886).  Imprisonment  for  debt  in  civil 
and  commercial  matters  has  been  abolished  or  limited  on  the  lines 
of  the  French  law  of  1867  in  many  countries  (e.g.  Italy,  law  of  the 
6th  of  December  1877;  Belgium,  law  of  the  27th  of  July  1871; 
Greece,  law  of  the  9th  of  March  1900;  Russia,  decree  of  the  7th  of 
March  1879). 


AUTHORITIES. — Anderson,  Execution  (London,  1889);  Annual 
Practice  (London,  1908) ;  Johnston  Edwards,  Execution  (London, 
1888);  Mather,  Sheriff  Law  (London,  1903).  As  to  Scots  law, 
Mackay,  Manual  of  Practice  (Edinburgh,  1893).  As  to  American 
law,  Bingham,  Judgments  and  Executions  (Philadelphia,  1836); 
A.  C.  Freeman,  Law  of  Execution,  Civil  Cases  (3rd  ed.,  San  Francisco, 
1900) ;  H.  M.  Herman,  Law  of  Executions  (New  York,  1875) ;  American 
Notes  to  tit.  "  Execution,"  in  Ruling  Cases  (London  and  Boston, 
1897) ;  Bouvier,  Law  Diet.,  ed.  Rawle  (1897),  s.v.  "  Execution." 

EXECUTORS  AND  ADMINISTRATORS,  in  English  law,  those 
persons  upon  whom  the  property  of  a  deceased  person  both  real 
and  personal  devolves  according  as  he  has  or  has  not  left  a  will. 
Executors  differ  from  administrators  both  in  the  mode  of  their 
creation  and  in  the  date  at  which  their  estate  vests.  An  executor 
can  only  be  appointed  by  the  will  of  his  testator;  such  appoint- 
ment may  be  express  or  implied,  and  in  the  latter  case  he  is  said 
to  be  an  executor  "according  to  the  tenor."  The  estate  of  an 
executor  vests  in  him  from  the  date  of  the  testator's  death.  An 
administrator  on  the  other  hand  is  appointed  by  the  probate 
division  of  the  High  Court,  and  his  estate  does  not  vest  till  such 
appointment,  the  title  to  the  property  being  vested  till  then  in 
the  judge  of  the  probate  division.  As  to  whom  the  court  will 
appoint  administrators  and  the  various  kinds  of  administrators 
see  under  ADMINISTRATION.  Apart  from  these  two  points  the 
rights  and  liabilities  of  executors  and  administrators  are  the 
same,  and  they  may  be  indifferently  referred  to  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  deceased.  As  to  their  appointment  before  the 
establishment  of  the  court  of  probate  see  articles  WILL  and 
INTESTACY.  Before  the  Land  Transfer  Act  1897,  the  real  estate 
of  the  deceased  did  not  devolve  upon  the  representative  but 
vested  directly  in  the  devisee  or  heir-at-law,  but  by  that  act 
it  was  provided  that  the  personal  representative  should  be  also 
the  real  representative,  and  therefore  it  may  now  be  said  broadly 
that  the  representative  takes  the  whole  estate  of  the  deceased. 
There  are,  however,  a  few  minor  exceptions  to  this  rule,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  lands  held  in  joint  tenancy  and  copyhold 
lands.  As  the  representative  stands  in  the  shoes  of  the  deceased 
he  is  entitled  to  sue  upon  any  contract  or  for  any  debt  which  the 
deceased  might  have  sued  in  his  lifetime. 

The  duties  of  a  representative  are  as  follows:  I.  To  bury  the 
deceased  in  a  manner  suitable  to  the  estate  he  leaves  behind  him ; 
and  the  expenses  of  such  funeral  take  precedence  of  any  duty  or 
debt  whatever;  but  extravagant  expenses  will  not  be  allowed. 
No  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  what  is  a  reasonable  allowance  for 
this  purpose,  as  it  is  impossible  to  know  at  the  time  of  the  funeral 
what  the  estate  of  the  deceased  may  amount  to.  The  broad  rule 
is  that  the  representative  must  allow  such  sum  as  seems  reasonable, 
having  regard  to  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case  and  the  conditions 
in  life  of  the  deceased,  remembering  that  if  he  should  exceed  this  he 
will  be  personally  liable  for  such  excess  in  the  event  of  the  estate 
proving  insolvent. 

2.  He  must  obtain  probate  or  letters  of  administration  to  the 
deceased  within  six  months  of  the  death,  or,  if  such  grant  be  dis- 
puted, within  two  months  of  the  determination  of  such  suit.     The 
penalty  for  not  doing  so  is  fixed  by  the  Stamp  Act  1815,  §  37,  at 
£100,  and  an  additional  stamp  duty  at  the  rate  of  10%.     As  to 
the  formalities  of  PROBATE  see  that  article. 

3.  Strictly  speaking,  he  must  compile  an  inventory  of  all  the 
estate  of  the  deceased,  whether  in  possession  or  outstanding,  and  he 
js  to  deliver  it  to  the  court  on  oath.     He  is  to  collect  all  the  goods  so 
inventoried  and  to  commence  actions  to  get  in  all  those  outstanding, 
and  he  is  responsible  to  creditors  for  the  whole  of  such  estate, 
whether  in  possession  or  in  action.     This  duty  is  thrown  upon  the 
representative  by  an  act  of  1529,  but  it  is  not  the  modern  practice 
to  exhibit  such  inventory  unless  he  be  cited  for  it  in  the  spiritual 
court  at  the  instance  of  a  party  interested.     It  is,  however,  necessary 
to  file  an  affidavit  setting  out  the  value  of  the  estate  of  the  deceased 
upon  applying  for  a  grant  of  probate  or  letters  of  administration. 

4.  The  representative  must  pay  the  debts  of  the  deceased  according 
to  their  priority.     Next  to  the  legitimate  funeral  expenses  come 
the  costs  of  proving  and  administering  the  estate ;    in  the  event, 
however,  of  the  funeral  and  testamentary  expenses  being  charged 
by  the  will  upon  any  particular  fund,  they  will  be  primarily  payable 
out  of  that  fund.     The  representative  must  be  careful  to  pay  the 
debts  according  to  the  rules  of  priority,  otherwise  he  will  become 
personally  liable  to  the  creditors  of  one  degree  if  he  has  exhausted 
the  estate  in  paying  creditors  of  a  lesser  degree.     First  of  all,  a 
solicitor  has  a  lien  for  his  costs  upon  any  fund  or  duty  which  he  has 
recovered  for  the  deceased;    next  in  order  come  debts  due  to  the 
crown  by  record  or  speciality;    then  debts  given  a  priority  by 
statute,  as,  for  example,  by  the  Poor  Relief  Act  1743,  money  due 
by  an  overseer  of  the  poor  to  his  parish.     Next,  debts  of  record,  i.e. 


64 


EXEDRA— EXELMANS 


judgment  recovered  against  the  deceased  in  any  court  of  record; 
all  such  debts  are  equal  among  themselves,  but  a  judgment  creditor 
who  has  sued  out  execution  is  preferred  to  one  who  has  not;  another 
class  of  debts  of  record  are  statutes  merchant  and  staple,  or  recog- 
nizances in  the  nature  of  statute  staple,  i.e.  bonds  of  record  acknow- 
ledged before  the  lord  mayor  of  London  or  the  mayor  of  the  staple. 
Last  in  the  order  of  debts  come  specialty  and  simple  contract  debts, 
which  by  Hinde  Palmer's  Act  (the  Executors  Act  1869)  are  of  equal 
degree,  though  as  between  specialty  debts  bonds  given  for  value 
rank  before  voluntary  bonds  unless  assigned  for  value,  and  as 
between  simple  contract  debts  those  due  to  the  crown  have  priority. 
Though  the  creditors  can  if  necessary  take  all  the  estate  of  the 
deceased  to  satisfy  their  claims,  yet  as  between  the  various  classes 
of  assets  the  representative  must  pay  the  debts  out  of  assets  in  the 
following  order:  (i.)  General  personal  estate  not  specifically  be- 
queathed nor  exempted  from  payment  of  debts;  (ii.)  real  estate 
appropriated  to  debts;  (iii.)  real  estate  descended;  (iv.)  real  estate 
devised  charged  with  payment  of  debts;  (v.)  general  pecuniary 
legacies  pro  rata;  (vi.)  specific  legacies  and  devises;  (vii.)  real 
estate  over  which  a  general  power  of  appointment  has  been  exercised 
by  will;  (viii.)  the  widow's  paraphernalia. 

5.  The  debts  of  the  deceased  being  satisfied,  the  representative 
must  next  proceed  to  satisfy  the  legacies  and  devises  left  by  the 
testator.     In  order  to  enable  him  to  do  this  with  safety  to  himself, 
it  is  provided  that  he  cannot  be  compelled  to  divide  the  estate 
among  the  legatees  or  next  of  kin  until  twelve  months  from  the 
death  of  the  deceased  (this  is  commonly  known  as  "  the  executor's 
year  "),  though  if  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  solvency  of  the  estate 
he  may  do  so  at  once.     As  a  further  protection  the  representative 
may  give  notice  by  advertisement   for  creditors   to  send   in  their 
claims  against  the  estate,  and  on  expiration  of  the  notices  he  may 
proceed  to  divide  the  estate,  though  even  then  the  creditor  may 
follow  the  assets  to  the  person  who  has  received  them  and  recover 
for  his  debt.     As  between  legatees  the  following  priorities  must  be 
observed:    (l)   Specific   legatees   and   devisees,    (2)   demonstrative 
legatees,  and  (3)  general  legatees ;  and  as  to  this  last  class  the  testator 
can  give  priority  to  one  over  another.     If  there  are  not  sufficient 
assets  to  pay  the  general  legatees  they  must  abate  rateably.  Legacies 
were  not  payable  out  of  the  real  estate  prior  to  the  Land  Transfer 
Act  1897,  unless  the  testator  charged  the  realty  with  them.     Even 
then  unless  the  testator  exonerates  his  personalty  from  payment  of 
the  legacies  the  personalty  will  be  the  first  fund  chargeable.     It 
has  been  suggested  that  the  effect  of  the  act  is  to  make  the  realty 
chargeable  pro  rata  with  the  personalty,  but  this  is  doubtful. 

6.  The  residue,  after  all  legacies  and  devises  are  satisfied,  must, 
if  there  be  a  will,  be  paid  to  the  residuary  legatee  therein  named, 
and  if  there  be  no  will  the  real  estate  will  go  to  the  heir  (see  IN- 
HERITANCE) and  the  personalty  to  the  next  of  kin  (see  INTESTACY). 
It  was  held  at  one  time  that  in  default  of  a  residuary  legatee  the 
residue  fell  to  the  executor  himself,  but  now  nothing  less  than  the 
expressed  intention  of  the  testator  can  give  it  to  him. 

The  liabilities  of  the  representative  may  be  shortly  stated.  He  is 
liable  in  his  representative  capacity  in  all  cases  where  the  deceased 
would  be  liable  were  he  alive.  To  this  general  rule  there  are  some 
exceptions.  The  representative  cannot  be  sued  for  breach  of  a 
contract  for  personal  services  which  can  be  performed  only  in  the 
lifetime  of  the  person  contracting,  nor  again  can  he  be  sued  in  a 
case  where  unliquidated  damages  only  could  have  been  recovered 
against  the  deceased.  He  is  liable  in  his  personal  capacity  in  the 
following  cases:  if  he  contracts  to  pay  a  debt  due  by  the  deceased, 
or  if  having  admitted  that  he  had  assets  in  his  hands  sufficient  to 
pay  a  debt  or  legacy  he  has  misapplied  such  assets  so  that  he  cannot 
satisfy  them;  or  lastly,  if  by  mismanaging  the  estate  and  effects 
of  the  deceased  he  has  made  himself  liable  For  a  devastavit.  Shortly 
stated,  a  representative  is  bound  to  exercise  the  ordinary  care  of  a 
business  man  in  administering  the  estate  of  the  deceased,  and  he 
will  be  liable  for  the  loss  to  the  estate  caused  by  his  own  negligence, 
or  by  the  negligence  of  a  co-representative  which  his  act  or  neglect 
has  rendered  possible.  Though  the  general  rule  of  delegatus  non 
potest  delegari  holds  good  of  a  representative,  yet  in  certain  cases  he 
may  "  rely  upon  skilled  persons  in  matters  in  which  he  cannot  be 
expected  to  be  experienced,"  e.g.  he  must  employ  solicitors  to 
conduct  a  lawsuit. 

The  privileges  of  the  representative  are  these :  he  may  prefer  one 
creditor  to  another  of  equal  degree;  he  may  retain  a  debt  owing 
to  him  from  the  deceased  as  against  other  creditors  of  equal  degree 
(see  RETAINER);  he  may  reimburse  himself  out  of  the  estate  all 
expenses  incurred  in  the  execution  of  his  trust. 

An  executor  de  son  tort  is  one  who,  without  any  title  to  do  so, 
wrongfully  intermeddles  with  the  assets  of  the  deceased,  dealing 
with  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  hold  himself  out  as  executor.  In 
such  a  case  he  is  subject  to  all  the  liabilities  of  an  executor,  and  can 
claim  none  of  the  privileges.  He  may  be  treated  by  the  creditor  as 
the  executor,  and,  if  he  is  really  assuming  to  act  as  executor,  creditors 
and  legatees  will  get  a  good  title  from  him,  but  he  is  liable  to  be  sued 
by  the  rightful  representative  for  damages  for  interfering  with  the 
property  of  the  deceased. 

Scotland. — Executor  in  Scots  law  is  a  more  extensive  term  than  in 
English.  He  is  either  nominative  or  dative,  th,e  latter  appointed 
by  the  court  and  corresponding  in  most  respects  to  the  English 


administrator.  Caution  is  required  from  the  latter,  not  from  the 
former.  By  the  common  law  doctrine  of  passive  representation  the 
heir  or  executor  was  liable  to  be  sued  for  implement  of  the  deceased's 
obligations.  The  Roman  principle  of  ben*,ficium  inventarii  was  first 
introduced  by  an  act  of  1695.  As  the  law  at  present  stands,  the  heir 
or  executor  is  liable  only  to  the  value  of  the  succession,  except 
where  there  has  been  vitious  intromission  in  movables,  and  in 
gestio  pro  haerede  (behaviour  as  heir)  and  other  cases  in  herit- 
ables.  The  present  inventory  duty  on  succession  to  movables  and 
heritables  depends  on  the  Finance  Acts  1 894-1909(566  ESTATE  DUTY)  . 
In  England  the  executor  is  bound  to  pay  the  debts  of  the  deceased 
in  a  certain  order,  but  in  Scotland  they  all  rank  part  passu  except 
privileged  debts  (see  PRIVILEGE). 

AUTHORITIES. — R.  L.  Vaughan  Williams,  The  Law  of  Executors 
and  Administrators;  W.  G.  Walker,  Compendium  on  the  Law  of 
Executors  and  Administrators;  James  Schouler,  Law  of  Executors 
and  Administrators  (3rd  ed.,  Boston,  1901). 

EXEDRA,  or  EXHEDRA  (from  Gr.  e£,  out,  and  eopa,  a  seat), 
an  architectural  term  originally  applied  to  a  seat  or  recess  out 
of  doors,  intended  for  conversation.  Such  recesses  were  generally 
semicircular,  as  in  the  important  example  built  by  Herodes 
Atticus  at  Olympia.  In  the  great  Roman  thermae  (baths)  they 
were  of  large  size,  and  like  apses  were  covered  with  a  hemispheri- 
cal vault.  An  example  of  these  exists  at  Pompeii  in  the  Street 
of  the  Tombs.  From  Vitruvius  we  learn  that  they  were  often 
covered  over,  and  they  are  described  by  him  (v.  n)  as  places 
leading  out  of  porticoes,  where  philosophers  and  rhetoricians 
could  debate  or  harangue. 

EXELMANS,  REN6  JOSEPH  ISIDORE,  COUNT  (1775-1852), 
marshal  of  France,  was  born  at  Bar-le-Duc  on  the  I3th  of 
November  1775.  He  volunteered  into  the  3rd  battalion  of  the 
Meuse  in  1791,  became  a  lieutenant  in  1797,  and  in  1798  was  aide- 
de-camp  to  General  Eble,  and  in  the  following  year  to  General 
Broussier.  In  his  first  campaign  in  Italy  he  greatly  distinguished 
himself;  and  in  April  1799  he  was  rewarded  for  his  services  by 
the  grade  of  captain  of  dragoons.  In  the  same  year  he  took 
part  with  honour  in  the  conquest  of  Naples  and  was  again  pro- 
moted, and  in  1801  he  became  aide-de-camp  to  General  Murat. 
He  accompanied  Murat  in  the  Austrian,  Prussian  and  Polish 
campaigns  of  1805,  1806  and  1807.  At  the  passage  of  the 
Danube,  and  in  the  action  of  Wertingen,  he  specially  distin- 
guished himself;  he  was  made  colonel  for  the  valour  which  he 
displayed  at  Austerlitz,  and  general  of  brigade  for  his  conduct 
at  Eylau  in  1807.  In  1808  he  accompanied  Murat  to  Spain, 
but  was  there  made  prisoner  and  conveyed  to  England. 
On  regaining  his  liberty  in  1811  he  went  to  Naples,  where 
King  Joachim  Murat  appointed  him  grand-master  of  horse. 
Exelmans,  however,  rejoined  the  French  army  on  the  eve  of  the 
Russian  campaign,  and  on  the  field  of  Borodino  won  the  rank  of 
general  of  division.  In  the  retreat  from  Moscow  his  steadfast 
courage  was  conspicuously  manifested  on  several  occasions. 
In  1813  he  was  made,  for  services  in  the  campaign  of  Saxony 
and  Silesia,  grand-officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  in  1814 
he  reaped  additional  glory  by  his  intrepidity  and  skill  in  the 
campaign  of  France.  When  the  Bourbons  were  restored, 
Exelmans  retained  his  position  in  the  army.  In  January  1815 
he  was  tried  on  an  accusation  of  having  treasonable  relations 
with  Murat,  but  was  acquitted.  Napoleon  on  his  return  from 
Elba  made  Exelmans  a  peer  of  France  and  placed  him  in 
command  of  the  II.  cavalry  corps,  which  he  commanded  in 
the  Waterloo  campaign,  the  battle  of  Ligny  and  Grouchy's 
march  on  Wavre.  In  the  closing  operations  round  Paris 
Exelmans  won  great  distinction.  After  the  second  Restora- 
tion he  denounced,  in  the  House  of  Peers,  the  execution  of 
Marshal  Ney  as  an  "  abominable  assassination  ";  thereafter  he 
lived  in  exile  in  Belgium  and  Nassau  for  some  years,  till  1819, 
when  he  was  recalled  to  France.  In  1828  he  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  cavalry;  and  after  the  July  revolution  of 
1 830  he  received  from  Louis  Philippe  the  grand  cross  of  the  Legion 
of  Honour,  and  was  reinstated  as  a  peer  of  France.  At  the 
revolution  of  1848  Exelmans  was  one  of  the  adherents  of  Louis 
Napoleon;  and  in  1851  he  was,  in  recognition  of  his  long  and 
brilliant  military  career,  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  marshal  of 
France.  His  death,  which  took  place  on  the  loth  of  July  1852, 
was  the  result  of  a  fall  from  his  horse. 


EXEQUATUR— EXETER 


EXEQUATUR,  the  letter  patent,  issued  by  a  foreign  office 
and  signed  by  a  sovereign,  which  guarantees  to  a  foreign  consul 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  his  office,  and  ensures  his  recognition 
in  the  state  in  which  he  is  appointed  to  exercise  them.  If  a 
consul  is  not  appointed  by  commission  he  receives  no  exequatur; 
and  a  notice  in  the  Gazette  in  this  case  has  to  suffice.  The  exe- 
quatur may  be  withdrawn,  but  in  practice,  where  a  consul  is 
obnoxious,  an  opportunity  is  afforded  to  his  government  to 
recall  him. 

EXETER,  EARL,  MARQUESS  AND  DUKE  OF.  These 
English  titles  have  been  borne  at  different  times  by  members 
of  the  families  of  Holand  or  Holland,  Beaufort,  Courtenay  and 
Cecil.  The  earls  of  Devon  of  the  family  of  de  Redvers  were 
sometimes  called  earls  of  Exeter;  but  the  ist  duke  of  Exeter 
was  JOHN  (c.  1355-1400),  a  younger  son  of  Thomas  Holand, 
earl  of  Kent  (d.  1360).  John's  mother,  Joan  (d.  1385),  a  descend- 
ant of  Edward  I.,  married  for  her  third  husband  Edward  the 
Black  Prince,  by  whom  she  was  the  mother  of  Richard  II.,  and 
her  son  John  was  thus  the  king's  half-brother,  a  relationship 
to  which  he  owed  his  high  station  at  the  English  court.  He 
married  Elizabeth  (d.  1426),  a  daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt,  duke 
of  Lancaster,  and  was  constantly  in  Richard's  train  until  1385, 
when  his  murder  of  Ralph  Stafford  disturbed  these  friendly 
relations.  John  then  went  to  Spain  as  constable  of  the  English 
army  under  John  of  Gaunt;  but  after  his  return  to  England  in 
1387  he  was  created  earl  of  Huntingdon,  was  made  admiral  of 
the  fleet  and  chamberlain  of  England,  and  was  again  high  in  the 
king's  favour.  He  was  Richard's  chief  helper  in  the  proceedings 
against  the  lords  appellant  in  1397,  was  created  duke  of  Exeter 
in  September  of  this  year,  and  went  with  the  king  to  Ireland  in 
1399.  After  the  accession  of  his  brother-in-law,  Henry  IV., 
Holand  was  tried  for  his  share  in  the  events  of  1397,  and  was 
reduced  to  his  earlier  rank  of  earl  of  Huntingdon.  He  was 
soon  plotting  against  Henry's  life,  and  after  the  projected 
rising  in  1400  had  failed  he  was  captured  and  was  probably 
beheaded  at  Pleshey  in  Essex  on  the  i6th  of  January  I4OO.1 
He  was  afterwards  attainted  and  his  titles  and  lands  were 
forfeited. 

In  1416  THOMAS  BEAUFORT,  earl  of  Dorset,  was  created  duke 
of  Exeter;  but  this  dignity  was  only  granted  for  his  life,  and 
consequently  it  expired  on  his  death  in  1426. 

In  1416  JOHN  (1395-1447),  son  of  John  Holand,  the  former 
duke  of  Exeter,  was  allowed  to  take  his  father's  earldom  of 
Huntingdon.  This  nobleman  rendered  great  assistance  to 
Henry  V.  in  his  conquest  of  France,  fighting  both  on  sea  and 
on  land.  He  was  marshal  of  England,  admiral  of  England  and 
governor  of  Aquitaine  under  Henry  VI.;  was  one  of  the  king's 
representatives  at  the  conference  of  Arras  in  1435;  and  in  1443 
was  created  duke  of  Exeter.  When  he  died  on  the  5th  of  August 
1447  his  titles  passed  to  his  son  HENRY  (1430-1473),  who, 
although  married  to  Anne  (d.  1476),  daughter  of  Richard,  duke  of 
York,  fought  for  Henry  VI.  during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  After 
having  been  imprisoned  by  York  at  Pontefract,  he  was  present 
at  the  battle  of  Towton,  sailed  with  Henry's  queen,  Margaret 
of  Anjou,  to  Flanders  in  1463,  and  was  wounded  at  Barnet  in 
1471.  In  1461  he  had  been  attainted  and  his  dukedom  declared 
forfeited,  and  he  died  without  sons,  probably  in  1473. 

Coming  to  the  family  of  Courtenay  the  title  of  marquess  of 
Exeter  was  borne  by  HENRY  COURTENAY  (c.  1496-1538),  earl  of 
Devon,  who  was  made  a  marquess  in  1525.  A  grandson  of 
Edward  IV.,  Courtenay  was  a  prominent  figure  at  the  court  of 
Henry  VIII.  until  Thomas  Cromwell  rose  to  power,  when  his 
high  birth,  his  great  wealth  and  his  independent  position  made 
him  an  object  of  suspicion.  Some  slight  discontent  in  the  west 
of  England  gave  the  occasion  for  his  arrest,  and  he  was  tried  and 
beheaded  on  the  gth  of  December  1538.  A  few  days  later  he 
was  declared  a  traitor  and  his  titles  were  forfeited;  although 
his  only  son,  EDWARD  (c.  1526-1556),  who  was  restored  to  the 

1  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  about  the  place  and  manner 
of  the  earl's  death,  and  this  question  has  an  important  bearing  upon 
the  privilege  of  trial  by  peers  of  the  realm.  See  L.  W.  Vernon- 
Harcourt,  His  Grace  the  Steward  and  Trial  of  Peers  (1907). 

X.  3 


earldom  of  Devon  in  1553  and  was  a  suitor  for  the  hand  of  Queen 
Mary,  is  sometimes  called  marquess  of  Exeter. 

The  title  of  earl  of  Exeter  was  first  bestowed  upon  the  Cecils 
(see  CECIL:  Family)  in  1605  when  THOMAS,  2nd  Lord  Burghley 
(1542-1623),  the  eldest  son  of  William  Cecil,  Lord  Burghley, 
was  made  earl  of  Exeter  by  James  I.  Thomas  had  been  a 
member  of  parliament  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  who 
knighted  him  in  1575,  and  had  fought  under  the  earl  of  Leicester 
in  the  Netherlands.  After  his  father's  death  in  1598  he  became 
president  of  the  Council  of  the  North  and  was  made  a  knight  of 
the  Garter.  He  died  on  the  7th  or  8th  of  February  1623.  His 
direct  descendants  continued  to  bear  the  title  of  earl  of  Exeter, 
and  in  1 80 1  HENRY  (1754-1804),  the  loth  earl,  was  advanced  to 
the  dignity  of  marquess  of  Exeter,  the  present  marquess  being 
his  lineal  descendant.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  ist  marquess 
is  Tennyson's  "  lord  of  Burghley." 

See  G.  E.  C(okayne),  Complete  Peerage  (1887-1898). 

EXETER,  a  city  and  county  of  a  city,  municipal,  county  and 
parliamentary  borough,  and  the  county  town  of  Devonshire, 
England,  172  m.  W.S.W.  of  London,  on  the  London  &  South 
Western  and  the  Great  Western  railways.  Pop.  (1901)  47,185. 
The  ancient  city  occupies  a  broad  ridge  of  land,  which  rises 
steeply  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Exe.  At  the  head  of  the  ridge 
is  the  castle,  on  the  site  of  a  great  British  earthwork.  The  High 
Street  and  its  continuation,  called  Fore  Street,  are  narrow,  but 
very  picturesque,  with  many  houses  of  the  i6th  and  I7th 
centuries.  There  is  a  maze  of  lesser  streets  within  the  ancient 
walls,  the  line  of  which  may  be  traced.  All  the  gates  have 
disappeared.  The  suburbs,  which  have  greatly  extended  since 
the  beginning  of  the  igth  century,  contain  many  good  streets, 
terraces  and  detached  villas.  The  surrounding  country  is  rich, 
fertile  and  of  great  beauty.  Extensive  views  are  commanded  in 
the  direction  of  Haldon,  a  stretch  of  high  moorland  which  may 
be  regarded  as  an  outlier  of  Dartmoor.  The  lofty  mound  of  the 
castle  is  laid  out  as  a  promenade,  with  fine  trees  and  broad  walks. 

The  cathedral,  although  not  one  of  the  largest  in  England,  is 
unsurpassed  in  the  beauty  of  its  architecture  and  the  richness 
of  its  details.  With  the  exception  of  the  Norman  transeptal 
towers,  the  general  character  is  Decorated,  ranging  from  about 
1280  to  1369.  Transeptal  towers  occur  elsewhere  in  England 
only  in  the  collegiate  church  of  Ottery  St  Mary,  in  Devonshire, 
for  which  Exeter  cathedral  served  as  a  model.  The  west  front 
is  of  later  date  than  the  rest  (probably  1369-1394),  and  the 
porch  is  wholly  covered  with  statues.  Within,  the  most  note- 
worthy features  are  the  long  unbroken  roof,  extending  throughout 
nave  and  choir,  with  no  central  tower  or  lantern;  the  beautiful 
sculpture  of  bosses  and  corbels;  the  minstrel's  gallery,  projecting 
from  the  north  triforium  of  the  nave;  and  the  remarkable 
manner  in  which  the  several  parts  of  the  church  are  made  to 
correspond.  The  window  tracery  is  much  varied;  but  each 
window  answers  to  that  on  the  opposite  side  of  nave  or  choir; 
pier  answers  to  pier,  aisle  to  aisle,  and  chapel  to  chapel,  while 
the  transeptal  towers  complete  the  balance  of  parts.  A  complete 
restoration  under  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  was  carried  out  between  1870 
and  1877.  The  modern  stall  work,  the  reredos,  the  choir  pave- 
ment of  tiles,  rich  marbles  and  porphyries,  the  stained  glass  and 
the  sculptured  pulpits  in  choir  and  nave  are  meritorious.  The 
episcopal  throne,  a  sheaf  of  tabernacle  work  in  wood,  was  erected 
by  Bishop  Stapeldon  about  1320,  and  in  the  north  transept  is 
an  ancient  clock.  The  most  interesting  monuments  are  those  of 
bishops  of  the  i2th  and  i3th  centuries,  in  the  choir  and  lady 
chapel.  Some  important  MSS.,  including  the  famous  book  of 
Saxon  poetry  given  by  Leofric  to  his  cathedral,  are  preserved 
in  the  chapter-house.  The  united  sees  of  Devonshire  and 
Cornwall  were  fixed  at  Exeter  from  the  installation  there  of 
Leofric  (1050)  by  the  Confessor,  until  the  re-erection  of  the 
Cornish  see  in  1876.  The  bishop's  palace  embodies  Early 
English  portions.  The  diocese  covers  the  greater  part  of  Devon- 
shire, with  a  very  small  part  of  Dorsetshire. 

The  guildhall  in  the  High  Street  is  a  picturesque  Elizabethan 
building,  which  contains  some  interesting  portraits;  among 
them  being  one  of  General  Monk,  who  was  a  native  of  Devon, 


66 


EXETER 


and  another  of  Henrietta,  duchess  of  Orleans,  given  by  her 
brother  Charles  II.  Both  are  by  Sir  Peter  Lely.  The  assize 
hall  and  sessions  house  dates  from  1774.  The  Albert  Memorial 
Museum  contains  a  school  of  art,  an  excellent  free  library,  a 
reading-room,  and  a  museum  of  natural  history  and  antiquities. 
There  is  a  good  collection  of  local  birds,  and  some  remarkable 
pottery  and  bronze  relics  extracted  from  barrows  near  Honiton 
or  found  in  various  parts  of  Devonshire.  Of  the  castle,  called 
Rougemont,  the  chief  architectural  remnant  is  a  portion  of  a 
gateway  tower  which  may  be  late  Norman.  Traces  are  also 
seen  of  the  surrounding  earthworks,  which  may  have  belonged 
to  the  original  British  stronghold.  Beneath  the  castle  wall  is 
the  pleasant  promenade  of  Northernhay.  The  churches  of 
Exeter  are  of  little  importance,  being  mostly  small,  and  closely 
beset  with  buildings,  but  the  modern  church  of  St  Michael  (1860) 
deserves  notice.  The  Devon  and  Exeter  Institution,  founded 
in  1813,  contains  a  large  and  valuable  library,  and  among 
educational  establishments  may  be  noticed  the  technical  and 
university  extension  college,  the  diocesan  training  college  and 
school;  and  the  grammar  school,  which  was  founded  under  a 
scheme  of  Walter  de  Stapeldon,  bishop  of  Exeter  and  founder  of 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  in  1332,  and  refounded  in  1629,  but 
occupies  modern  buildings  ( 1 886)  outside  the  city .  It  is  endowed 
with  a  large  number  of  leaving  exhibitions,  and  about  150  boys 
are  educated.  There  are  two  market-houses  in  the  city,  many 
hospitals  and  many  charitable  institutions,  including  the  pictur- 
esque hospital  or  almshouse  of  William  Wynard,  recorder  of 
Exeter  (1439)- 

Exeter  is  one  of  the  principal  railway  centres  in  the  south-west, 
and  it  also  has  some  shipping  trade,  communicating  with  the 
sea  by  way  of  the  Exeter  ship-canal,  originally  cut  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  (1564),  and  enlarged  in  1675  and  1827.  This  canal 
is  an  interesting  work,  being  the  first  canal  carried  out  in  the 
United  Kingdom  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  sea-going  vessels  to 
pass  to  an  inland  port.  The  river  Exe  was  very  early  utilized 
by  small  craft  trading  to  Exeter,  parliament  having  granted 
powers  for  the  improvement  of  the  navigation  by  the  construc- 
tion of  a  canal  3  m.  long  from  Exeter  to  the  river;  at  a  later 
date  this  canal  was  extended  lower  down  to  the  tidal  estuary  of 
the  Exe.  Previous  to  the  year  1820  it  was  only  available  for 
vessels  of  a  draft  not  exceeding  9  ft.,  but  by  deepening  it,  raising 
the  banks,  and  constructing  new  locks,  vessels  drawing  14  ft.  of 
water  were  enabled  to  pass  up  to  a  basin  and  wharves  at  Exeter. 
These  works  were  carried  out  under  the  advice  of  Thomas 
Telford.  A  floating  basin  is  accessible  to  vessels  of  350  tons. 
Larger  vessels  lie  at  Topsham,  at  the  junction  of  the  canal  with 
the  estuary  of  the  Exe;  while  at  the  mouth  of  the  estuary  is 
the  port  of  Exmouth.  Imports  are  miscellaneous,  while  paper, 
grain,  cider  and  other  goods  are  exported.  Brewing,  paper- 
making  and  iron-founding  are  carried  on,  and  the  city  is  an 
important  centre  of  agricultural  trade.  The  parliamentary 
borough  returns  one  member.  The  city  is  governed  by  a 
mayor,  14  aldermen  and  42  councillors.  Area,  3158  acres. 
The  eastern  suburb  of  Heavitree,  where  is  the  Exeter  city 
asylum,  is  an  urban  district  with  a  population  (1901)  of  7529. 

Exeter  was  the  Romano-British  country  town  of  Isca  Dam- 
noniorum — the  most  westerly  town  in  the  south-west  of  Roman 
Britain.  Mosaic  pavements,  potsherds,  coins  and  other  relics 
have  been  found,  and  probably  traces  of  the  Roman  walls  survive 
here  and  there  in  the  medieval  walls.  It  is  said  to  be  the  Caer 
Isce  of  the  Britons,  and  its  importance  as  a  British  stronghold  is 
shown  by  the  great  earthwork  which  the  Britons  threw  up  to 
defend  it,  on  the  site  of  which  the  castle  was  afterwards  built,  and 
by  the  number  of  roads  which  branch  from  it.  Exeter  is  famous 
for  the  number  of  sieges  which  it  sustained  as  the  chief  town 
in  the  south-west  of  England.  In  1001  it  was  unsuccessfully 
besieged  by  the  Danes,  but  in  the  following  year  was  given  by 
King  ^Ethelred  to  Queen  Emma,  who  appointed  as  reeve,  Hugh,  a 
Frenchman,  owing  to  whose  treachery  it  was  taken  and  destroyed 
by  Sweyn  in  1003.  By  1050,  however,  it  had  recovered,  and 
was  chosen  by  Leofric  as  the  new  seat  of  the  bishops  of  Devon. 
In  1068,  after  a  siege  of  eighteen  days,  Exeter  surrendered  to 


the  Conqueror,  who  threw  up  a  castle  which  was  called  Rouge- 
mont, from  the  colour  of  the  rock  on  which  it  stood.  Again  in 
1137  the  town  was  held  for  Matilda  by  Baldwin  de  Redvers  for 
three  months  and  surrendered,  at  last,  owing  to  lack  of  water. 
Three  times  subsequently  Exeter  held  out  successfully  for  the  king 
— in  1467  against  the  Yorkists,  in  1497  against  Perkin  Warbeck, 
and  in  1549  against  the  men  of  Cornwall  and  Devon,  who  rose 
in  defence  of  the  old  religion.  During  the  civil  wars  the  city 
declared  for  parliament,  but  was  in  1643  taken  by  the  royalists, 
who  held  it  until  1646.  The  only  other  historical  event  of 
importance  is  the  entry  of  William,  prince  of  Orange,  in  1688, 
shortly  after  his  arrival  in  England.  Exeter  was  evidently  a 
borough  by  prescription  some  time  before  the  Conquest,  since 
the  burgesses  are  mentioned  in  the  Domesday  Survey.  Its 
first  charter  granted  by  Henry  I.  gave  the  burgesses  all  the  free 
customs  which  the  citizens  of  London  enjoyed,  and  was  confirmed 
and  enlarged  by  most  of  the  succeeding  kings.  By  1227  govern- 
ment by  a  reeve  had  given  place  to  that  by  a  mayor  and  four 
bailiffs,  which  continued  until  the  Municipal  Reform  Act  of  1835. 
Numerous  trade  gilds  were  incorporated  in  Exeter,  one  of  the 
first  being  the  tailors'  gild,  incorporated  in  1466.  This  by  1482 
had  become  so  powerful  that  it  interfered  with  the  government 
of  the  town,  and  was  dissolved  on  the  petition  of  the  burgesses. 
Another  powerful  gild  was  that  of  the  merchant  adventurers, 
incorporated  in  1559,  which  is  said  to  have  dictated  laws  to  which 
the  mayor  and  bailiffs  submitted.  From  1295  to  1885  Exeter 
was  represented  in  parliament  by  two  members,  but  in  the  latter 
year  the  number  of  representatives  was  reduced  to  one.  Exeter 
was  formerly  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  woollen  goods, 
introduced  in  Elizabeth's  reign,  and  the  value  of  its  exports 
at  one  time  exceeded  half  a  million  sterling  yearly.  The  trade 
declined  partly  owing  to  the  stringent  laws  of  the  trade  gilds, 
and  by  the  beginning  of  the  I9th  century  had  entirely  dis- 
appeared, although  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  prosperity  it 
had  been  surpassed  in  value  and  importance  only  by  that  of 
Leeds. 

See  Victoria  County  History,  Devon;  Richard  Izacke,  Antiquities 
of  the  City  of  Exeter  (1677) ;  George  Oliver,  The  History  of  the  City 
of  Exeter  (1861);  and  E.  A.  Freeman,  Exeter  ("  Historic  Towns  " 
series)  (London,  1887),  in  the  preface  to  which  the  names  of  earlier 
historians  of  the  city  are  given. 

EXETER,  a  town  and  one  of  the  county-seats  of  Rockingham 
county,  New  Hampshire,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Squamscott  river, 
about  12  m.  S.W.  of  Portsmouth  and  about  51  m.  N.  by  E.  of 
Boston,  Mass.  Pop.  (1890)  4284;  (1900)  4922  (1066  foreign- 
born);  (1910)  4897;  area,  about  17  sq.  m.  It  is  served  by  the 
Western  Division  of  the  Boston  &  Maine  railway.  The  town 
has  a  public  library  and  some  old  houses  built  in  the  colonial 
period,  and  is  the  seat  of  Phillips  Exeter  Academy  (incorporated 
in  1781  and  opened  in  1783).  In  its  charter  this  institution  is 
described  as  "  an  academy  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  piety 
and  virtue,  and  for  the  education  of  youth  in  the  English,  Latin 
and  Greek  languages,  in  writing,  arithmetic,  music  and  the  art 
of  speaking,  practical  geometry,  logic  and  geography,  and  such 
other  of  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences  or  languages,  as  opportunity 
may  hereafter  permit."  It  was  founded  by  Dr  John  Phillips 
(1719-1795),  a  graduate  of  Harvard  College,  who  acquired 
considerable  wealth  as  a  merchant  at  Exeter  and  gave  nearly 
all  of  it  to  the  cause  of  education.  The  academy  is  one  of  the 
foremost  secondary  schools  in  the  country,  and  among  its 
alumni  have  been  Daniel  Webster,  Edward  Everett,  Lewis 
Cass  (born  in  Exeter  in  a  house  still  standing),  John  Parker  Hale, 
George  Bancroft,  Jared  Sparks,  John  Gorham  Palfrey,  Richard 
Hildreth  and  Francis  Bowen.  The  government  of  the  academy 
is  vested  in  a  board  of  six  trustees,  regarding  whom  the  founder 
provided  that  a  majority  should  be  laymen  and  not  inhabitants 
of  Exeter.  In  1909-1910  the  institution  had  20  buildings,  32 
acres  of  recreation  grounds,  16  instructors  and  488  students, 
representing  38  states  and  territories  of  the  United  States  and 
4  foreign  countries.  At  Exeter  also  is  the  Robinson  female 
seminary  (1867),  with  14  instructors  and  272  students  in  1906- 
1907.  The  river  furnishes  water-power,  and  among  the  manu- 
factures of  the  town  are  shoes,  machinery,  cottons,  brass,  &c. 


EXETER  BOOK— EXHIBITION 


67 


The  town  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  state;  it  was  founded  in 
1638  by  Rev.  John  Wheelwright,  an  Antinomian  leader  who 
with  a  number  of  followers  settled  here  after  his  banishment 
from  Massachusetts.  For  their  government  the  settlers  adopted 
(1639)  a  plantation  covenant.  There  was  disagreement  from  the 
first,  however,  with  regard  to  the  measure  of  loyalty  to  the  king, 
and  in  1643,  when  Massachusetts  had  asserted  her  claim  to  this 
region  and  the  other  three  New  Hampshire  towns  had  submitted 
to  her  jurisdiction,  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Exeter 
also  yielded,  while  the  minority,  including  the  founder,  removed 
from  the  town.  In  1680  the  town  became  a  part  of  the  newly 
created  province  of  New  Hampshire.  During  the  French  and 
Indian  wars  it  was  usually  protected  by  a  garrison,  and  some 
of  the  garrison  houses  are  still  standing.  From  1776  to  1784 
the  state  legislature  usually  met  at  Exeter. 

See  C.  H.  Bell,  History  of  the  Town  of  Exeter  (Exeter,  1888). 

EXETER  BOOK  [Codex  Exoniensis],  an  anthology  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  poetry  presented  to  Exeter  cathedral  by  Leofric,1  bishop 
of  Exeter,  England,  from  1050  to  1071,  and  still  in  the  possession 
of  the  dean  and  chapter.  It  contains  some  legal  documents,  the 
poems  entitled  Crist,  Guthlac,  Phoenix,  Juliana,  The  Wanderer 
and  others,  and  concludes  with  between  eighty  and  ninety 
riddles.  It  was  first  described  in  Humphrey  Wanley's  Catalogus 
.  .  .  (1705)  in  detail  but  with  many  inaccuracies;  subse- 
quently by  J.  J.  Conybeare,  Account  of  a  Saxon  Manuscript 
(a  paper  read  in  1812;  printed  with  some  extracts  from  the 
MS.  in  Archaeologia,  vol.  xvii.  pp.  180-197,  1814).  A  complete 
transcript  made  (1831)  by  Robert  Chambers  is  in  the  British 
Museum  (Addit.  MS.  9067).  It  was  first  printed  in  1842  by 
Benjamin  Thorpe  for  the  Soc.  of  Antiq.,  London,  as  Codex 
Exoniensis  .  .  .  with  an  English  Translation,  Notes  and  Indexes. 
More  recent  editions,  chiefly  based  on  Thorpe's  text,  are: — in 
Chr.  Grein's  Bibliotftek  der  A.S.  Poesie  (vol.  iii.  part  i,  ed. 
R.  Wiilker,  Leipzig,  1897,  with  a  bibliography),  J.  Schipper  in 
Pfeiffer's  Cermania,  vol.  xix.  pp.  327-339,  and  Israel  Gollancz, 
The  Exeter  Book,  pt.  i.  (1895),  with  English  translation,  for  the 
Early  English  Text  Society. 

A  detailed  account,  with  bibliographies  of  the  separate  poems,  is 
given  by  R.  Wiilker,  in  Crundriss  .  .  .  der  A.S.  Literatur,  pp.  218-236 
(Leipzig,  1885) ;  see  also  the  introduction  to  The  Crist  of  Cynewulf .  . . , 
edited  by  Prof.  A.  S.  Cook,  with  introduction,  notes  and  a  glossary 
(Boston,  U.S.A.,  1900).  For  the  poems  contained  in  the  MS.  see 
also  CYNEWULF  and  RIDDLES. 

EXHIBITION,  a  term,  meaning  in  general  a  public  display,2 
which  has  a  special  modern  sense  as  applied  to  public  shows  of 
goods  for  the  promotion  of  trade  (Fr.  exposition).  The  first 
exhibition  in  this  sense  of  which  there  is  any  account,  in  either 
sacred  or  profane  history,  was  that  held  by  King  Ahasuerus, 
who,  according  to  the  Book  of  Esther,  showed  in  the  third  year 
of  his  reign  "  the  riches  of  his  glorious  kingdom,  and  the  honour 
of  his  excellent  majesty,  many  days,  even  a  hundred  and  four- 
score days."  The  locale  of  this  function  was  Shushan,  the 
palace  and  the  exhibits  consisted  of  "  white,  green  and  blue 
hangings,  fastened  with  cords  of  fine  linen  and  purple  to  silver 
rings  and  pillars  of  marble:  the  beds  were  of  gold  and  silver, 
upon  a  pavement  of  red,  and  blue,  and  white  and  black  marble. 
And  they  gave  them  drink  in  vessels  of  gold,  the  vessels  being 
diverse  one  from  another."  The  first  exhibition  since  the 
Christian]  era  was  at  Venice  during  the  dogeship  of  Lorenzo 
Tiepolo,  in  1268.  On  that  occasion  there  was  a  grand  display, 
consisting  of  a  water  fete,  a  procession  of  the  trades  and  an 
industrial  exhibition.  The  various  gilds  of  the  Queen  City  of  the 
Seas  marched  through  the  narrow  streets  to  the  great  square  of 
St  Mark,  and  their  leaders  asked  the  dogaressa  to  inspect  the 
products  of  their  industry.  Other  medieval  exhibitions  were 
the  fairs  held  at  Leipzig  and  Nizhni  Novgorod  in  Europe,  at 
Tanta  in  Egypt,  and  in  1689  that  by  the  Dutch  at  Leiden. 

1  For  Leofric,  see  F.  E.  Warren,  The  Leofric  Missal  (1883). 

1  An  "  exhibition,"  in  the  sense  of  a  minor  scholarship,  or  annual 
payment  to  a  student  from  the  funds  of  a  school  or  college,  is  a 
modern  survival  from  the  obsolete  meaning  of  "  maintenance  "  or 
"  endowment  "  (cf.  Late  Lat.  exhibitio  et  tegumentum,  i.e.  food  and 
raiment). 


The  first  modern  exhibition  was  held  at  London  in  1756  by 
the  Society  of  Arts,  which  offered  prizes  for  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  tapestry,  carpets  and  porcelain,  the  exhibits 
being  placed  side  by  side.  Five  years  afterwards,  in  1761,  the 
same  society  gave  an  exhibition  of  agricultural  machinery. 
In  1797  a  collective  display  of  the  art  factories  of  France,  includ- 
ing those  of  Sevres,  the  Gobelins  and  the  Savonnerie,  was  made 
in  the  palace  of  St  Cloud,  and  the  exhibition  was  repeated  during 
the  following  year  in  the  rue  de  Varennes,  Paris.  This  experiment 
was  so  successful  that  in  the  last  three  days  of  the  same  year  an 
exhibition  under  official  auspices,  at  which  private  exhibitors 
were  allowed  to  compete,  was  held  in  the  Champ  de  Mars.  Four 
years  later,  in  1801,  there  was  a  second  official  exhibition  in 
the  grand  court  of  the  Louvre.  Upon  that  occasion  juries  of 
practical  men  examined  the  objects  shown,  and  the  winners  of  a 
gold  medal  were  invited  to  dine  with  Napoleon,  who  was  at 
that  time  First  Consul.  In  the  report  of  the  jury  the  following 
remarkable  sentence  appeared: — "  There  is  not  an  artist  or 
inventor  who,  once  obtaining  thus  a  public  recognition  of 
his  ability,  has  not  found  his  reputation  and  his  business 
largely  increased."  The  third  Paris  Exhibition,  held  in  1802, 
was  the  first  to  publish  an  official  catalogue.  There  were  540 
exhibitors,  including  J.  E.  Montgolfier,  the  first  aeronaut,  and 
J.  M.  Jacquard,  the  inventor  of  the  loom  which  bears  his  name. 
The  fourth  exhibition  was  held  in  1806  in  the  esplanade  in  front 
of  the  H6tel  des  Invalides,  and  attracted  1422  exhibitors.  There 
were  no  more  exhibitions  till  after  the  fall  of  the  empire,  but  in 
1819  the  fifth  was  held  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVIII.,  with 
1622  exhibitors.  Others  were  held  at  Paris  at  various  intervals, 
that  in  1849  having  4500  exhibitors. 

Other  exhibitions,  though  on  a  smaller  scale,  were  held  in 
Dublin,  London,  and  in  various  parts  of  Germany  and  Austria 
during  the  first  half  of  the  i9th  century — that  in  1844,  held  at 
Berlin,  having  3040  exhibitors.  Switzerland,  Holland,  Belgium, 
Sweden,  Russia,  Poland,  Italy,  Spain  and  Portugal  all  held 
exhibitions,  and  there  was  a  Free  Trade  Bazaar  of  British 
Manufactures  at  Covent  Garden  theatre  in  1845,  which  at 
the  time  created  a  great  deal  of  interest.  But  all  these 
exhibitions  were  confined  to  the  products  of  the  country 
in  which  they  took  place,  and  the  first  great  International 
Exhibition  was  held  in  London  in  1851  by  the  Society  of  Arts, 
under  the  presidency  of  the  prince  consort.  All  nations  were 
invited  to  compete;  a  site  was  obtained  in  Hyde  Park,  and  a 
building  20  acres  in  extent  was  erected,  after  the  design  of  Sir 
Joseph  Paxton,  at  a  cost  of  £193,168.  The  exhibition  was  open 
for  five  months  and  fifteen  days.  The  receipts  amounted  to 
£506,100,  and  the  surplus  was  £186,000.  The  number  of  visitors 
was  6,039,195,  and  the  money  taken  at  the  doors  was  £423,792. 
The  total  number  of  exhibitors  was  13,937,  of  which  Great 
Britain  contributed  6861,  the  British  colonies  520  and  foreign 
countries  6556.  The  International  Exhibition  of  1851  was 
followed  by  those  of  New  York  and  Dublin  in  1853,  Melbourne 
and  Munich  in  1854,  and  Paris  in  1855 — this  latter  was  held  in 
the  Palais  d'Industrie,  which  remained  in  existence  until  pulled 
down  to  make  room  for  the  two  Palais  des  Beaux  Arts,  which 
formed  one  of  the  attractions  of  the  1900  exhibition.  The 
exhibitors  numbered  20,839  and  the  visitors  5,162,330.  There 
were  national  exhibitions  during  the  following  years  in  several 
European  countries,  but  the  next  great  world's  fair  was  held  at 
London  in  1862.  The  total  space  roofed  in  amounted  to  988,000 
sq.  ft.,  22-65  acres,  the  number  of  visitors  was  6,211,103,  and 
the  amount  received  at  the  doors  £408,530.  The  death  of  the 
prince  consort  had  a  depressing  effect  upon  the  enterprise. 
In  1865  an  exhibition  was  held  at  Dublin,  the  greater  proportion 
of  the  funds  being  supplied  by  Sir  Benjamin  Lee  Guinness. 
The  number  of  attendances  during  six  months  was  900,000,  and 
the  exhibition  was  opened  at  night.  An  Italian  exhibition  was 
held  at  Rome  in  1862. 

The  Paris  Exhibition  of  1867  was  upon  a  far  larger  scale  than 
that  of  1855.  It  was  held,  like  those  that  preceded  and  succeeded 
it,  at  the  Champ  de  Mars,  and  covered  41  acres.  The  building 
resembled  an  exaggerated  gasometer.  The  external  ring  was 


68 


EXHIBITION 


devoted  to  machinery,  the  internal  to  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  civilization,  commencing  with  the  stone  age  and  con- 
tinuing to  the  present  era.  A  great  feature  of  the  exhibition  was 
the  park,  which  was  studded  with  specimens  of  every  style  of 
modern  architecture — Turkish  mosques,  Swedish  cottages, 
English  lighthouses,  Egyptian  palaces  and  Swiss  chalets.  The 
number  of  attendances  was  6, 805,969.  The  exhibitors  numbered 
43,217,  and  the  total  amount  received  for  entrances,  concessions, 
&c.,  was  £420,735.  This  was  the  first  exhibition  at  which  there 
were  international  restaurants.  The  cost  of  the  exhibition  was 
defrayed  partly  by  the  state  and  partly  by  private  subscriptions. 

Small  exhibitions  were  held  in  various  parts  of  Europe  between 
1867  and  1870,  and  in  the  latter  year  a  series  of  international 
exhibitions,  confined  to  one  or  two  special  descriptions  of 
produce  or  manufactures,  was  inaugurated  in  London  at  South 
Kensington.  These  continued  till  1874,  but  they  failed  to  attract 
any  very  large  attendance  of  the  public  and  were  abandoned. 
A  medal  was  given  to  each  exhibitor,  and  reports  on  the  various 
exhibits  were  published,  but  there  was  no  examination  of  the 
exhibits  by  jurors.  In  1873  there  was  an  International  Exhibi- 
tion at  Vienna.  The  main  building,  a  rotunda,  was  erected  in 
the  beautiful  park  of  the  Austrian  capital.  There  were  halls 
for  machinery  and  agricultural  products,  and  hundreds  of 
buildings,  erected  by  different  nations,  were  scattered  amongst 
the  woodlands  of  the  Prater.  Unfortunately,  an  outbreak 
of  cholera  diminished  the  attendance  of  visitors,  and  the  receipts 
were  only  £206,477,  although  the  visitors  were  said  to  have 
reached  6,740,500,  and  the  number  of  exhibitors  was  25,760. 

None  of  the  International  Exhibitions  held  between  1857 
and  1873  had  attracted  as  many  as  7,000,000  visitors,  but  the 
gradual  extension  of  education  amongst  the  masses,  and  the 
greater  facilities  for  locomotion,  brought  about  by  the  growth 
of  the  railway  system  in  all  portions  of  the  civilized  world, 
largely  increased  the  attendances  at  subsequent  World's  Fairs. 
The  Centennial  Exhibition  of  1876,  to  celebrate  the  one-hundredth 
anniversary  of  American  Independence,  was  held  at  Fairmount 
Park,  Philadelphia.  The  funds  were  raised  partly  by  private 
subscriptions,  and  partly  by  donations  from  the  city  of  Phila- 
delphia, from  Pennsylvania  and  some  of  the  neighbouring  states. 
The  central  government  at  Washington  made  a  large  loan, 
which  was  subsequently  repaid.  The  principal  buildings,  five  in 
number,  occupied  an  area  of  485  acres,  and  there  were  several 
smaller  structures,  which  in  the  aggregate  must  have  filled  half 
as  much  space  more,  the  largest  being  that  devoted  to  the  ex- 
hibits of  the  various  departments  of  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, which  covered  7  acres.  Several  novelties  in  exhibition 
management  were  introduced  at  Philadelphia.  Instead  of  gold, 
silver  and  bronze  medals,  only  one  description,  bronze,  was 
issued,  the  difference  between  the  merits  of  the  different  exhibits 
being  shown  by  the  reports.  Season  tickets  were  not  issued, 
and  the  price  of  admission,  the  same  on  all  occasions,  was  half 
a  dollar,  or  about  zs.  id.  The  exhibition  was  not  open  at  night 
or  on  Sundays,  thus  following  the  British,  and  not  the  con- 
tinental, precedent.  The  number  of  visitors  was  9,892,625,  of 
whom  8,004,214  paid  for  admission,  the  balance  being  exhibitors, 
officials  and  attendants.  The  total  receipts  amounted  to 
£763,899.  Upon  one  occasion,  the  Pennsylvania  day,  274,919 
persons — the  largest  number  that  had  visited  any  exhibition 
up  to  that  date — passed  through  the  turnstiles.  The  display 
of  machinery  was  the  finest  ever  made,  that  of  the  United  States 
occupying  480,000  sq.  ft.  The  motive-power  was  obtained  from 
a  Corliss  engine  of  1600  horse-power.  At  this  exhibition  the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  British  Colonies  of  Canada,  Victoria, 
New  South  Wales,  New  Zealand,  Cape  Colony  and  Tasmania 
made  a  very  fine  display,  which  was  only  excelled  by  that  of  the 
United  States, 

The  Paris  Exhibition  of  1878  was  upon  a  far  larger  scale  in 
every  respect  than  any  which  had  been  previously  held  in  any 
part  of  the  world.  The  total  area  covered  not  less  than  66  acres, 
the  main  building  in  the  Champ  de  Mars  occupying  54  acres. 
The  French  exhibits  filled  one-half  the  entire  space,  the  remaining 
moiety  being  occupied  by  the  other  nations  of  the  world.  The 


United  Kingdom,  British  India,  Canada,  Victoria,  New  South 
Wales,  Queensland,  South  Australia,  Cape  Colony  and  some 
of  the  British  crown  colonies  occupied  nearly  one-third  of  the 
space  set  aside  for  nations  outside  France.  Germany  was  the 
only  great  country  which  was  not  represented,  but  there  were  a 
few  German  paintings.  The  display  of  fine  arts  and  machinery 
was  upon  a  very  large  and  comprehensive  scale,  and  the  Avenue 
des  Nations,  a  street  2400  ft.  in  length,  was  devoted  to  specimens 
of  the  domestic  architecture  of  nearly  every  country  in  Europe, 
and  of  several  in  Asia,  Africa  and  America.  The  palace  of  the 
Trocadero,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Seine,  was  erected  for 
the  exhibition.  It  was  a  handsome  structure,  with  towers  2 50  ft. 
in  height  and  flanked  by  two  galleries.  The  rules  for  admission 
were  the  same  as  those  at  Philadelphia,  and  every  person — 
exhibitor,  journalist  or  official — who  had  the  right  of  entrance 
was  compelled  to  forward  two  copies  of  his  or  her  photograph, 
one  of  which  was  attached  to  the  card  of  entry.  The  ordinary 
tickets  were  not  sold  at  the  doors,  but  were  obtainable  at  various 
government  offices  and  shops,  and  from  numerous  pedlars  in 
all  parts  of  the  city  and  suburbs.  The  buildings  were  somewhat 
unfinished  upon  the  opening  day,  political  complications  having 
prevented  the  French  government  and  the  French  people  from 
paying  much  attention  to  the  exhibition  till  about  six  months 
before  it  was  opened;  but  the  efforts  made  in  April  were  pro- 
digious, and  by  June  ist,  a  month  after  the  opening,  the  exhibi- 
tion was  complete,  and  afforded  an  object-lesson  of  the  recovery 
of  France  from  the  calamities  of  1870-1871.  The  decisions 
arrived  at  by  the  international  juries  were  accompanied  by 
medals  of  gold,  silver  and  bronze.  The  expenditure  by  the 
United  Kingdom  was  defrayed  out  of  the  consolidated*  revenue, 
each  British  colony  defraying  its  own  expenses.  The  display  of 
the  United  Kingdom  was  under  the  control  of  a  royal  commission, 
of  which  the  prince  of  Wales  was  president.  The  number  of 
paying  visitors  to  the  exhibition  was  13,000,000,  and  the  cost 
of  the  enterprise  to  the  French  government,  which  supplied  all 
the  funds,  was  a  little  less  than  a  million  sterling,  after  allowing 
for  the  value  of  the  permanent  buildings  and  the  Trocadero 
Palace,  which  were  sold  to  the  city  of  Paris.  The  total  number 
of  persons  who  visited  Paris  during  the  time  the  exhibition  was 
open  was  571,792,  or  308,974  more  than  came  to  the  French 
metropolis  during  the  year  1877,  and  46,021  in  excess  of  the 
visitors  during  the  previous  exhibition  of  1867.  It  was  stated 
at  the  time  that,  in  addition  to  the  impetus  given  to  the  trade  of 
France,  the  revenue  of  the  Republic  and  of  the  city  of  Paris 
from  customs  and  octroi  duties  was  increased  by  nearly  three 
millions  sterling  as  compared  with  the  previous  year. 

Exhibitions  on  a  scale  of  considerable  magnitude  were  held  at 
Sydney  and  Melbourne  in  1879  and  1880,  and  many  continental 
and  American  manufacturers  took  advantage  of  them  in  order 
to  bring  the  products  of  their  industry  directly  under  the  notice 
of  Australian  consumers,  who  had  previously  purchased  their 
supplies  through  the  instrumentality  of  British  merchants. 
The  United  Kingdom  and  India  made  an  excellent  display  at 
both  cities,  but  the  effect  of  the  two  great  Australian  exhibitions 
was  to  give  a  decided  impetus  to  German,  American,  French  and 
Belgian  trade.  One  of  the  immediate  results  was  that  lines  of 
steamers  to  Melbourne  and  Sydney  commenced  to  run  from 
Marseilles  and  Bremen;  another,  that  for  the  first  time  in  the 
history  of  the  Australian  colonies,  branches  of  French  banks 
were  opened  in  the  two  principal  cities.  The  whole  cost  of  these 
exhibitions  was  defrayed  by  the  local  governments. 

Exhibitions  were  held  at  Turin  and  Brussels  during  1880, 
and  smaller  ones  at  Newcastle,  Milan,  Lahore,  Adelaide,  Perth, 
Moscow,  Ghent  and  Lille  during  1881  and  1882,  and  at  Zurich, 
Bordeaux  and  Caraccas  in  Venezuela  during  1883.  The  next 
of  any  importance  was  held  at  Amsterdam  in  the  latter  year. 
On  that  occasion  a  new  departure  in  exhibition  management 
was  made.  The  government  of  the  Netherlands  was  to  a  certain 
extent  responsible  for  the  administration  of  the  exhibition, 
but  the  funds  were  obtained  from  private  sources,  and  a  charge 
was  made  to  each  nation  represented  for  the  space  it  occupied. 
The  United  Kingdom,  India,  Victoria  and  New  South  Wales 


EXHIBITION 


69 


took  part  in  the  exhibition,  but  there  was  no  official  representa- 
tion of  the  mother  country.  Exhibitions  on  somewhat  similar 
lines  were  held  at  Nice  and  Calcutta  in  the  winter  of  1883  and 
1884,  and  at  Antwerp  in  1895. 

A  series  of  exhibitions,  under  the  presidency  of  the  then  prince 
of  Wales,  and  managed  by  Sir  Cunliffe  Owen,  was  commenced  at 
South  Kensington  in  1883.  The  first  was  devoted  to  a  display  of 
the  various  industries  connected  with  fishing;  the  second,  in 
1884,  to  objects  connected  with  hygiene;  the  third,  in  1885,  to 
inventions;  and  the  fourth,  in  1886,  to  the  British  colonies  and 
India.  These  exhibitions  attracted  a  large  number  of  visitors 
and  realized  a  substantial  profit.  They  might  have  been  con- 
tinued indefinitely  if  it  had  not  been  that  the  buildings  in  which 
they  were  held  had  become  very  dilapidated,  and  that  the  ground 
covered  by  them  was  required  for  other  purposes.  There  was 
no  examination  of  the  exhibits  by  juries,  but  a  tolerably  liberal 
supply  of  instrumental  music  was  supplied  by  military  and 
civil  bands.  The  Crystal  Palace  held  a  successful  International 
Exhibition  in  1884,  and  there  was  an  Italian  Exhibition  at  Turin, 
and  a  Forestry  Exhibition  at  Edinburgh,  during  the  same  year. 
A  World's  Industrial  Fair  was  held  at  New  Orleans  in  1884-1885, 
and  there  were  universal  Exhibitions  at  Montenegro  and  Antwerp 
in  1885,  at  Edinburgh  in  1886,  Liverpool,  Adelaide,  Newcastle 
and  Manchester  in  1887,  and  at  Glasgow,  Barcelona  and  Brussels 
in  1888.  Melbourne  held  an  International  Exhibition  in  1888- 
1889  to  celebrate  the  Centenary  of  Australia.  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  France,  Austria  and  the  United  States  were  officially 
represented,  and  an  expenditure  of  £237,784  was  incurred  by  the 
local  government. 

The  Paris  Exhibition  of  1889  marked  an  important  change 
in  the  policy  which  had  previously  characterized  the  management 
of  these  gatherings.  The  funds  were  contributed  partly  by  the 
state,  which  voted  17,000,000  francs,  and  by  the  municipality  of 
Paris,  which  gave  8,000,000.  A  guarantee  fund  amounting  to 
23,124,000  francs  was  raised,  and  on  this  security  a  sum  of 
18,000,000  francs  was  obtained  and  paid  into  the  coffers  of  the 
administration.  The  bankers  who  advanced  this  sum  recouped 
themselves  by  the  issue  of  1,200,000  "  bons,"  each  of  25  francs. 
Every  bon  contained  25  admissions,  valued  at  i  franc,  and 
certain  privileges  in  the  shape  of  participation  in  a  lottery,  the 
grand  prix  being  £20,000.  The  calculations  of  the  promoters 
were  tolerably  accurate.  The  attendances  reached  the  then 
unprecedented  number  of  32,350,297,  of  whom  25,398,609  paid 
in  entrance  tickets  and  2,723,366  entered  by  season  tickets.  A 
sum  of  2,307,999  francs  was  obtained  by  concessions  for 
restaurants  and  "  side-shows,"  upon  which  the  administration 
relied  for  much  of  the  attractiveness  of  the  exhibition.  The 
total  expenditure  was  44,000,000  francs,  and  there  was  a  small 
surplus.  The  space  covered  in  the  Champ  de  Mars,  the  Trocadero, 
the  Palais  d'Industrie,  the  Invalides  and  the  Quai  d'Orsay  was 
72  acres,  as  compared  with  66  acres  in  1878  and  41  acres  in  1867. 
Amongst  the  novelties  was  the  Eiffel  Tower,  1000  ft.  in  height, 
and  a  faithful  reproduction  of  a  street  in  Cairo.  The  system  of 
international  juries  was  continued,  but  instead  of  gold,  silver 
and  copper  medals,  diplomas  of  various  merits  were  granted, 
each  entitling  the  holder  to  a  uniform  medal  of  bronze.  Some 
of  the  "  side-shows,"  although  perhaps  pecuniary  successes, 
did  not  add  to  the  dignity  of  the  exhibition.  The  date  at  which 
it  was  held,  the  Centenary  of  the  French  Revolution,  did  not 
commend  it  to  several  European  governments.  Austria, 
Hungary,  Belgium,  China,  Egypt,  Spain,  Great  Britain,  Italy, 
Luxemburg,  Holland,  Peru,  Portugal,  Rumania  and  Russia 
took  part,  but  not  officially,  while  Germany,  Sweden,  Turkey 
and  Montenegro  were  conspicuous  by  their  absence.  On  the 
other  hand,  Argentina,  Bolivia,  Chile,  the  United  States,  Greece, 
Guatemala,  Morocco,  Mexico,  Nicaragua,  Norway,  Paraguay, 
Salvador,  the  South  African  Republic,  Switzerland,  Uruguay 
and  Venezuela  sent  commissioners,  who  were  accredited  to  the 
government  of  the  French  Republic.  The  total  number  of 
exhibitors  was  61,722,  of  which  France  contributed  33,937,  and 
the  rest  of  the  world  27,785.  The  British  and  colonial  section 
was  under  the  management  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  which  obtained 


a  guarantee  fund  of  £16,800,  and,  in  order  to  recoup  itself  for  its 
expenditure,  made  a  charge  to  exhibitors  of  55.  per  sq.  ft.  for  the 
space  occupied.  There  were  altogether  1149  British  exhibitors, 
of  whom  429  were  in  the  Fine  Arts  section.  One  of  the  features 
of  the  exhibition  was  the  number  of  congresses  and  conferences 
held  in  connexion  with  it. 

During  the  year  1890  there  was  a  Mining  Exhibition  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  and  a  Military  Exhibition  in  the  grounds  of 
Chelsea  Hospital;  in  1891  a  Naval  Exhibition  at  Chelsea  and 
an  International  at  Jamaica.  In  1891-1892  there  were  exhibi- 
tions at  Palermo  and  at  Launceston  in  Tasmania;  in  1892,  a 
Naval  Exhibition  at  Liverpool,  and  one  of  Electrical  Appliances 
at  the  Crystal  Palace.  A  series  of  small  national  exhibitions 
under  private  management  was  held  at  Earl's  Court  between 
1887  and  1891.  The  first  of  the  series  was  that  of  the  United 
States — Italy  followed  in  1888,  Spain  in  1889,  France  in  1890 
and  Germany  in  1891. 

The  next  exhibition  of  the  first  order  of  magnitude  was  at 
Chicago  in  1893,  and  was  held  in  celebration  of  the  4ooth  anni- 
versary of  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus.  The  financial 
arrangements  were  undertaken  by  a  company,  with  a  capital  of 
£2,000,000.  The  central  government  at  Washington  allotted 
£20,000  for  the  purposes  of  foreign  exhibits,  and  £300,000  for 
the  erection  and  administration  of  a  building  for  exhibits  from 
the  various  government  departments.  The  exhibition  was  held 
at  Jackson  Park,  a  place  for  public  recreation,  580  acres  in  extent, 
situated  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  on  the  southern  side  of 
the  city,  with  which  it  was  connected  by  railways  and  tramways. 
Special  provision  was  made  for  locomotion  in  the  grounds 
themselves  by  a  continuous  travelling  platform  and  an  elevated 
electric  railway.  The  proximity  of  the  lake,  and  of  some  artificial 
canals  which  had  been  constructed,  rendered  possible  the  service 
of  electric  and  steam  launches.  The  exhibition  remained  open 
from  the  ist  of  May  to  the  3oth  of  October,  and  was  visited  by 
21,477,212  persons,  each  of  whom  paid  half  a  dollar  (about 
2s.  id.)  for  admission.  The  largest  number  of  visitors  on  any 
one  day  was  716,881.  In  addition  to  its  direct  vote  of  £320,000, 
Congress  granted  £soo,oqo  to  the  exhibition  in  a  special  coinage, 
which  sold  at  an  enhanced  price.  The  receipts  from  admissions 
were  £2,120,000;  from  concessions,  £750,000;  and  the  miscel- 
laneous receipts,  £159,000:  total,  £3,029,000.  The  total 
expenses  were  £5,222,000.  Of  the  sums  raised  by  the  Company, 
£400,000  was  returned  to  the  subscribers.  Speaking  roughly,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  total  outlay  on  the  Chicago  Exhibition  was 
six  millions  sterling,  of  which  three  millions  were  earned  by  the 
Fair,  two  millions  subscribed  by  Chicago  and  a  million  provided 
by  the  United  States  government.  The  sums  expended  by  the 
participating  foreign  governments  were  estimated  at  £i  ,440,000. 
The  total  area  occupied  by  buildings  at  Chicago  was  as  nearly  as 
possible  200  acres,  the  largest  building,  that  devoted  to  manu- 
factures, being  1687  ft.  by  787,  and  30-5  acres.  The  funds  for 
the  British  commission,  which  was  under  the  control  of  the 
Society  of  Arts,  were  provided  by  the  imperial  government, 
which  granted  £60,000.  The  number  of  British  exhibitors  was 
2236,  of  whom  597  were  Industrial,  501  Fine  Arts  and  1138 
Women's  work.  In  this  total  were  included  18  Indian  exhibi- 
tors. The  space  occupied  by  Great  Britain  was  306,285  sq.  ft.; 
and,  in  addition,  separate  buildings  were  erected  in  the  grounds. 
These  were  Victoria  House,  the  headquarters  of  the  British 
commission;  the  Indian  Pavilion,  erected  by  the  Indian  Tea 
Association;  the  Kiosk  of  the  White  Star  Steamship  Company; 
and  the  structure  set  up  by  the  Maxim-Nordenfelt  Company. 
Canada  and  New  South  Wales  had  separate  buildings,  which 
covered  100,140  and  56,951  sq.  ft.  respectively;  and  Cape 
Colony  occupied  5250,  Ceylon  27,574,  British  Guiana  3367, 
Jamaica  4250,  Trinidad  3400  and  India  3584  sq.  ft.  in  the 
several  buildings.  The  total  space  occupied  by  the  British 
Colonies  was  therefore  193,660  sq.  ft.  The  system  of  awards 
was  considered  extremely  unsatisfactory.  Instead  of  inter- 
national juries,  a  single  judge  was  appointed  for  each  class,  and 
the  recompenses  were  all  of  one  grade,  a  bronze  medal  and  a 
diploma,  on  which  was  stated  the  reasons  which  induced  the 


EXHIBITION 


judge  to  make  his  decision.  Some  judges  took  a  high  standard, 
and  refused  to  make  awards  except  to  a  small  proportion  of 
selected  exhibits;  others  took  a  low  one,  and  gave  awards 
indiscriminately.  About  1183  awards  were  made  to  British 
exhibitors.  The  French  refused  to  accept  any  awards.  The 
value  of  the  British  goods  exhibited  was  estimated,  exclusive 
of  Fine  Arts,  at  £430,000,  and  the  expenses  of  showing  them  at 
£200,000.  A  large  expenditure  was  incurred  in  the  erection  of 
buildings,  which  were  more  remarkable  for  their  beauty  and 
grandeur  than  for  their  suitableness  to  the  purposes  for  which 
they  were  intended.  Considerable  areas  were  devoted  to  "  side- 
shows," and  the  Midway  Plaisance,  as  it  was  termed,  resembled 
a  gigantic  fair.  Every  country  in  the  world  contributed  some- 
thing. There  were  sights  and  shows  of  every  sort  from  every- 
where. The  foreign  countries  represented  were  Argentina, 
Austria,  Belgium,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Bulgaria,  Chile,  Colombia, 
Costa  Rica,  Cuba,  Curacoa,  Denmark,  Danish  West  Indies, 
Ecuador,  France,  Germany,  Greece,  Guatemala,  Honduras, 
Hayti,  Japan,  Johore,  Korea,  Liberia,  Mexico,  Monaco,  Nether- 
lands, Norway,  Orange  Free  State,  Paraguay,  Persia,  Portugal, 
Russia,  Siam,  Spain,  Sweden,  Turkey,  United  Kingdom  and 
Colonies,  Uruguay  and  Venezuela. 

Exhibitions  were  held  at  Antwerp,  Madrid  and  Bucharest 
in  1894;  Hobart  in  1804-1895;  Bordeaux,  1895;  Nizhni 
Novgorod,  Berlin  and  Buda-Pest  in  1896;  Brussels  and  Brisbane 
in  1897.  A  series  of  exhibitions,  under  the  management  of  the 
London  Exhibitions  Company,  commenced  at  Earl's  Court  in 
1895  and  continued  in  successive  years. 

The  Paris  Exhibition  of  1000  was  larger  than  any  which  had 
been  previously  held  in  Europe.  The  buildings  did  not  cover 
so  much  ground  as  those  at  Chicago,  but  many  of  those  at  Paris 
had  two  or  more  floors.  In  addition  to  the  localities  occupied 
in  1889,  additional  space  was  obtained  at  the  Champs  Elysees, 
the  park  of  Vincennes,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Seine  between 
the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  and  at  the  Trocadero.  The  total 
superficial  area  occupied  was  as  follows:  Champ  de  Mars, 
124  acres;  Esplanade  des  Invalides,  30  acres;  Trocadero 
Gardens,  40  acres;  Champs  Elysees,  37  acres;  quays  on  left 
bank  of  Seine,  23  acres;  quays  on  right  bank  of  Seine,  23  acres; 
park  at  Vincennes,  270  acres :  total,  549  acres.  The  space  occupied 
by  buildings  and  covered  in  amounted  to  4,865,328  sq.  ft.,  nij 
acres.  The  French  section  covered  2,691,000  sq.  ft.,  the  foreign 
1,829,880,  and  those  at  the  park  of  Vincennes  344,448  sq.  ft. 
About  one  hundred  French  and  seventy-five  foreign  pavilions  and 
detached  buildings  were  erected  in  the  grounds  in  addition  to 
the  thirty-six  official  pavilions,  which  were  for  the  most  part 
along  the  Quai  d'Orsay.  Funds  were  raised  upon  the  same 
system  as  that  adopted  in  1889.  The  French  government  granted 
£800,000,  and  a  similar  sum  was  contributed  by  the  munici- 
pality of  Paris.  £2,400,000  was  raised  by  the  issue  of  3,250,000 
"  bons,"  each  of  the  value  of  20  francs,  and  containing  20 
tickets  of  admission  to  the  exhibition  of  the  face  value  of  one 
franc  each,  and  a  document  which  gave  its  holder  a  right  either 
to  a  reduced  rate  for  admission  to  the  different  "  side-shows  " 
or  else  to  a  diminution  in  the  railway  fare  to  and  from  Paris, 
together  with  a  participation  in  the  prizes,  amounting  to  six 
million  francs,  drawn  at  a  series  of  lotteries.  Permission  to 
erect  restaurants,  and  to  open  places  of  amusement  in  buildings 
erected  for  that  purpose,  were  sold  at  high  prices,  and  for  these 
privileges,  which  only  realised  2,307,999  francs  in  1889,  the 
concessionaires  agreed  to  pay  8,864,442  francs  in  1900.  The 
results  did  not  justify  the  expectations  which  had  been  formed, 
and  the  administration  finally  consented  to  receive  a  much 
smaller  sum.  The  administration  calculated  that  they  would 
ha  ve  65,000,000  paying  visitors,though  there  were  only  13,000,000 
in  1878  and  25,398,609  in  1889.  A  very  few  weeks  after  the 
opening  day,  April  isth,  it  became  evident  that  the  estimated 
figures  would  not  be  reached,  since  a  large  number  of  holders 
of  "  bons  "  threw  them  on  the  market,  and  the  selling  price  of 
an  admission  ticket  declined  from  the  par  value  of  one  franc  to 
less  than  half  that  amount,  or  from  30  to  50  centimes.  The 
proprietors  of  the  restaurants  and  "  side-shows  "  discovered 


that  they  had  paid  too  much  for  their  concessions,  that  the 
buildings  they  had  erected  were  far  too  handsome  and  costly 
to  be  profitable,  and  that  the  public  preferred  the  exhibition 
itself  to  the  so-called  attractions.  The  exhibition  was  largely 
visited  by  foreigners,  but  various  causes  kept  away  many 
persons  of  wealth  and  position.  Although  many  speculators  were 
ruined,  the  exhibition  itself  was  successful.  The  attendance 
was  unprecedentedly  large,  and  during  the  seven  months  the 
exhibition  was  open,  39,000,000  persons  paid  for  admission  with 
47,000,000  tickets,  since  from  two  to  five  tickets  were  demanded 
at  certain  times  of  the  day  and  on  certain  occasions.  The  entries 
of  exhibitors,  attendants  and  officials  totalled  9,000,000.  The 
receipts  were  114,456,213  francs  (£4,578,249),  and  the  ex- 
penditure 1 16,500,000  (£4,660,000) ,  leaving  a  deficiency  of  rather 
more  than  two  millions  of  francs  (£80,000).  It  was  calculated 
that  the  expenditure  of  the  foreign  nations  which  took  part  in 
the  exhibition  was  six  millions  sterling,  and  of  the  French 
exhibitors  and  concessionaires  three  millions  sterling. 

A  new  plan  of  classifying  exhibits  was  adopted  at  Paris,  all 
being  displayed  according  to  their  nature,  and  not  according  to 
their  country  of  origin,  as  had  been  the  system  at  previous 
exhibitions.  One-half  the  space  in  each  group  was  allotted  to 
France,  so  that  the  exhibitors  of  that  nation  were  enabled  to 
overwhelm  their  rivals  by  the  number  and  magnitude  of  the 
objects  displayed  by  them.  All  the  agricultural  implements, 
whatever  their  nationality,  were  in  one  place,  all  the  ceramics 
in  another,  so  that  there  was  no  exclusively  British  and  no 
exclusively  German  court.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  was 
in  the  Trocadero,  where  the  French,  British,  Dutch,  and  Portu- 
guese Colonies,  Algeria,  Tunis,  Siberia,  the  South  African 
Republic,  China  and  Japan  were  allowed  to  erect  at  their  own 
cost  separate  pavilions.  The  greater  number  of  the  nationalities 
represented  had  palaces  of  their  own  in  the  rue  des  Nations  along 
the  Quai  d'Orsay,  in  which  thoroughfare  were  to  be  seen  the 
buildings  erected  by  Italy,  Turkey,  the  United  States,  Denmark, 
Portugal,  Austria,  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  Peru,  Hungary,  the 
United  Kingdom,  Persia,  Belgium,  Norway,  Luxemburg, 
Finland,  Germany,  Spain,  Bulgaria,  Monaco,  Sweden,  Rumania, 
Greece,  Servia  and  Mexico.  Scattered  about  the  grounds,  in 
addition  to  those  in  the  Trocadero,  were  the  buildings  of  San 
Marino,  Morocco,  Ecuador  and  Korea.  Nearly  every  civilized 
country  in  the  world  was  represented  at  the  exhibition,  the  most 
conspicuous  absentees  being  Argentina,  Brazil,  Chile,  and  some 
other  South  and  Central  American  Republics,  and  a  number 
of  the  British  colonies.  The  most  noteworthy  attractions  of  the 
exhibition  were  the  magnificent  effects  produced  by  electricity 
in  the  palace  devoted  to  it  in  the  Chateau  d'Eau  and  in  the  Hall 
of  Illusions,  the  two  palaces  of  the  Fine  Arts  in  the  Champs 
Elysees,  and  the  Bridge  over  the  Seine  dedicated  to  the  memory 
of  Alexander  II.  These  permanent  Fine  Art  palaces  were 
devoted,  the  one  to  modern  painting  and  sculpture,  the 
other  to  the  works  of  French  artists  and  art  workmen  who 
flourished  from  the  dawn  of  French  art  up  to  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century. 

The  United  Kingdom  was  well  but  not  largely  represented 
both  in  Fine  Arts  and  Manufactures,  the  administration  of  the 
section  being  in  the  hands  of  a  royal  commission,  presided  over 
by  the  prince  of  Wales.  The  British  pavilion  contained  an 
important  collection  of  paintings  of  the  British  school,  chiefly 
by  Reynolds,  Gainsborough  and  their  contemporaries,  and  by 
Turner  and  Burne-Jones.  Special  buildings  had  been  erected 
by  the  British  colonies  and  by  British  India.  Canada,  West 
Australia  and  Mauritius  occupied  the  former,  India  and  Ceylon 
the  latter.  For  the  first  time  since  the  war  of  1870  Germany 
took  part  in  a  French  International  Exhibition,  and  the  exhibits 
showed  the  great  industrial  progress  which  had  been  made  since 
the  foundation  of  the  empire  in  1870.  The  United  States  made 
a  fine  display,  and  fairly  divided  the  honours  with  Germany.  Re- 
markable progress  was  manifested  in  the  exhibits  of  Canada  and 
Hungary.  France  maintained  her  superiority  in  all  the  objects 
in  which  good  taste  was  the  first  consideration,  but  the  more 
utilitarian  exhibits  were  more  remarkable  for  their  number  than 


EXHUMATION— EXILE 


their  quality,  except  those  connected  with  electrical  work  and 
display,  automobiles  and  iron-work.  The  number  of  exhibitors 
in  the  industrial  section  from  the  British  empire,  including  India 
and  the  colonies,  was  1250,  who  obtained  1647  awards,  as  many 
persons  exhibited  in  several  classes.  There  were,  in  addition, 
465  awards  for  "  collaborateurs,"  that  is,  assistants,  engineers, 
foremen,  craftsmen  and  workmen  who  had  co-operated  in  the 
production  of  the  exhibits.  In  the  British  Fine  Arts  section 
there  were  429  exhibits  by  282  exhibitors  and  175  awards. 

In  later  years,  important  international  exhibitions  have  been 
held  at  Glasgow,  and  at  Buffalo,  New  York,  in  1901,  at  St  Louis 
(commemorating  the  Louisiana  purchase)  in  1904,  at  Li6ge  in 
1905,  at  Milan  in  1906,  at  Dublin  in  1907,  and  in  London(Franco- 
British),  1908.  In  the  artistic  taste  and  magnificence  of  their 
buildings  and  the  interest  of  their  exhibits  these  took  their  cue 
from  the  great  Paris  Exhibition,  and  even  in  some  cases  went 
beyond  it,  notably  at  Buffalo  (q.v.),  St  Louis  (q.v.)  and  London. 
And  it  might  well  be  thought  that  the  evolution  of  this  type  of 
public  show  had  reached  its  limits.  (G.  C.  L.) 

EXHUMATION  (from  Med.  Lat.  exhumare;  ex,  out  of,  and 
humus,  ground),  the  act  of  digging  up  and  removing  an  object 
from  the  ground.  The  word  is  particularly  applied  to  the 
removal  of  a  dead  body  from  its  place  of  burial.  For  the  offence 
of  exhuming  a  body  without  legal  authority,  and  the  process  of 
obtaining  such  authority,  see  BURIAL  AND  BURIAL  ACTS. 

EXILARCH,  in  Jewish  history,  "Chief  or  Prince  of  the 
Captivity."  The  Jews  of  Babylonia,  after  the  fall  of  the  first 
temple,  were  termed  by  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  the  people  of  the 
"  Exile."  Hence  the  head  of  the  Babylonian  Jews  was  the 
exilarch  (in  Aramaic  Resh  Galulha).  The  office  was  hereditary 
and  carried  with  it  considerable  power.  Some  traditions  regarded 
the  last  king  of  Davidic  descent  (Jehoiachin)  as  the  first  exilarch, 
and  all  the  later  holders  of  the  dignity  claimed  to  be  scions  of  the 
royal  house  of  Judah.  Under  the  Arsacids  and  Sassanids  the 
office  continued.  In  the  6th  century  an  attempt  was  made  to 
secure  by  force  political  autonomy  for  the  Jews,  but  the  exilarch 
who  led  the  movement  (Mar  Zu(ra)  was  executed.  For  some  time 
thereafter  the  office  was  in  abeyance,  but  under  Arabic  rule  there 
was  a  considerable  revival  of  its  dignity.  From  the  middle  of 
the  7th  till  the  nth  centuries  the  exilarchs  were  all  descendants 
of  Bostanai,  through  whom  "  the  splendour  of  the  office  was 
renewed  and  its  political  position  made  secure  "  (Bacher).  The 
last  exilarch  of  importance  was  David,  son  of  Zakkai,  whose 
contest  with  Seadiah  (q.v.)  had  momentous  consequences. 
Hezekiah  (c.  1040)  was  the  last  Babylonian  exilarch,  though 
the  title  left  its  traces  in  later  ages.  Benjamin  of  Tudela 
(Itinerary,  p.  61)  names  an  exilarch  Daniel  b.  Hisdai  in  the  i2th 
century.  Petahiah  (Travels,  p.  17)  records  that  this  Daniel's 
nephew  succeeded  to  the  office  jointly  with  a  R.  Samuel.  The 
latter,  according  to  Petahiah,  had  a  learned  daughter  who 
"  gave  instruction,  through  a  window,  remaining  in  the  house 
while  the  disciples  were  below,  unable  to  see  her." 

Our  chief  knowledge  of  the  position  and  function  of  the 
exilarch  concerns  the  period  beginning  with  the  Arabic  rule  in 
Persia.  In  the  age  succeeding  the  Mahommedan  conquest  the 
exilarch  was  noted  for  the  stately  retinue  that  accompanied  him, 
the  luxurious  banquets  given  at  his  abode,  and  the  courtly 
etiquette  that  prevailed  there.  A  brilliant  account  has  come 
down  of  the  ceremonies  at  the  installation  of  a  new  exilarch. 
Homage  was  paid  to  him  by  the  rabbinical  heads  of  the  colleges 
(each  of  whom  was  called  Gaon,  q.v.) ;  rich  gifts  were  presented; 
he  visited  the  synagogue  in  state,  where  a  costly  canopy  had 
been  erected  over  his  seat.  The  exilarch  then  delivered  a  dis- 
course, and  in  the  benediction  or  doxology  (Qaddish)  his  name 
was  inserted.  Thereafter  he  never  left  his  house  except  in  a 
carriage  of  state  and  in  the  company  of  a  large  retinue.  He 
would  frequently  have  audiences  of  the  king,  by  whom  he  was 
graciously  received.  He  derived  a  revenue  from  taxes  which  he 
was  empowered  to  exact.  The  exilarch  could  excommunicate, 
and  no  doubt  had  considerable  jurisdiction  over  the  Jews.  A 
spirited  description  of  the  glories  of  the  exilarch  is  given  in 
Disraeli's  novel  Alroy. 


See  Neubauer,  Mediaeval  Jewish  Chronicles,  \\.  68  seq. ;  Zacuto, 
Yuhasin ;  Graetz,  Geschichte,  vols.  iv.-vi. ;  Benjamin  of  Tudela, 
Itinerary,  ed.  Adler,  pp.  39  seq.;  Bacher,  Jewish  Encyclopaedia, 
vol.  v.  288.  (I.  A.) 

EXILE  (Lat.  exsilium  or  exilium,  from  exsul  or  exul,  which  is 
derived  from  ex,  out  of,  and  the  root  sal,  to  go,  seen  in  salire,  to 
leap,  consul,  &c.;  the  connexion  with  solum,  soil,  country  is  now 
generally  considered  wrong),  banishment  from  one's  native 
country  by  the  compulsion  of  authority.  In  a  general  sense 
exile  is  applied  to  prolonged  absence  from  one's  country  either 
through  force  of  circumstances  or  when  undergone  voluntarily. 
Among  the  Greeks,  in  the  Homeric  age,  banishment  ($11717)  was 
sometimes  inflicted  as  a  punishment  by  the  authorities  for 
crimes  affecting  the  general  interests,  but  is  chiefly  known  in 
connexion  with  cases  of  homicide.  With  these  the  state  had 
nothing  to  do;  the  punishment  of  the  murderer  was  the  duty 
and  privilege  of  the  relatives  of  the  murdered  man.  Unless  the 
relatives  could  be  induced  to  accept  a  money  payment  by  way 
of  compensation  (irowq,  weregeld;  see  especially  Homer,  Iliad, 
xviii.  497),  in  which  case  the  murderer  was  allowed  to  remain  in 
the  country,  his  only  means  of  escaping  punishment  was  flight 
to  a  foreign  land.  If,  during  his  self-imposed  exile,  the  relatives 
expressed  their  willingness  to  accept  the  indemnity,  he  was  at 
liberty  to  return  and  resume  his  position  in  society. 

In  later  times  banishment  is  (i)  a  legal  punishment  for 
particular  offences;  (2)  voluntary. 

1.  Banishment  for  life  with  confiscation  of  property  was 
inflicted  upon  those  who  destroyed  or  uprooted  the  sacred  olives 
at  Athens;  upon  those  who  remained  neutral  during  a  sedition 
(by  a  law  of  Solon,  which  subsequently  fell  into  abeyance) ;  upon 
those  who  gave  refuge  to  or  received  on  board  ship  a  man  who 
had  fled  to  avoid  punishment;  upon  those  who  wounded  with 
intent  to  kill  and  those  who  prompted  them  to  such  an  act  (it  is 
uncertain  whether  in  this  case  exile  was  for  life  or  temporary); 
upon  any  one  who  wilfully  murdered  an  alien;  for  impiety. 
Certain  political  crimes  were  also  similarly  punished — treason, 
laconism,  sycophancy  (see  SYCOPHANT),  attempts  to  subvert 
existing  decrees.     For  the  peculiar  form  of  banishment  called 
OSTRACISM,  see  separate  article. 

In  cases  of  voluntary  homicide  the  punishment  was  death; 
but  (except  in  cases  of  parricide)  the  murderer  could  leave  the 
country  unmolested  after  the  first  day  of  the  trial.  He  was 
bound  to  remain  outside  Attica,  and  when  on  foreign  soil  was 
not  allowed  to  appear  at  the  public  games,  to  enter  the  temples 
or  take  part  in  sacrifices;  but  provided  that  he  adhered  to  the 
prescribed  regulations,  he  was  accorded  a  certain  amount  of 
protection.  Even  when  a  general  amnesty  was  proclaimed, 
he  was  not  allowed  to  return;  if  he  did  so,  he  might  at  once  be 
put  to  death. 

Temporary  exile  (the  period  of  which  is  uncertain)  without 
confiscation,  was  the  punishment  for  involuntary  homicide.  As 
soon  as  the  relatives  of  the  deceased  became  reconciled  to  the 
man  who  had  slain  him,  the  latter  was  permitted  to  return; 
further,  since  banishment  was  only  temporary,  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  the  law  insisted  upon  such  reconciliation. 

2.  Citizens  sometimes  voluntarily  left  the  country  for  other 
reasons  (debt,  inability  to  pay  a  fine).     Since  extradition  was 
only  demanded  in  cases  of  high  treason  or  other  serious  offences 
against  the  state,  the  fugitive  was  not  interfered  with.     He  was 
at  liberty  to  return  after  a  certain  time  had  elapsed. 

Little  is  known  about  exile  as  it  affected  Sparta  and  other 
Greek  towns,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  same  conditions  pre- 
vailed as  at  Athens. 

At  Rome,  in  early  times,  exile  was  not  a  punishment,  but  rather 
a  means  of  escaping  punishment.  Before  judgment  had  been 
finally  pronounced  it  was  open  to  any  Roman  citizen  condemned 
to  death  to  escape  the  penalty  by  voluntary  exile  (solum  vertere 
exsilii  causa).  To  prevent  his  return,  he  was  interdicted  from 
the  use  of  fire  and  water;  if  he  broke  the  interdict  and  returned, 
any  one  had  the  right  to  put  him  to  death.  The  aquae  et  ignis 
(to  which  et  tecti  "shelter"  is  sometimes  added)  interdictio  is 
variously  explained  as  exclusion  from  the  necessaries  of  life, 


EXILI— EXMOUTH 


from  the  symbols  of  civic  communion,  or  from  "  the  marks  of 
a  pure  society,  which  the  criminal  would  defile  by  his  further 
use  of  them."  Subsequently  (probably  at  the  time  of  the 
Gracchi)  it  became  a  recognized  legal  penalty,  practically 
equivalent  to  "  exile,"  taking  the  place  of  capital  punishment. 
The  criminal  was  permitted  to  withdraw  from  the  city  after 
sentence  was  pronounced;  but  in  order  that  this  withdrawal 
might  as  far  as  possible  bear  the  character  of  a  punishment,  his 
departure  was  sanctioned  by  a  decree  of  the  people  which 
declared  his  exile  permanent.  Authorities  are  not  agreed 
whether  this  exile  by  interdiction  entailed  loss  of  civitas;  accord- 
ing to  some  this  did  not  ensue  until  (as  in  earlier  times)  the 
criminal  had  assumed  the  citizenship  of  the  state  in  which  he 
had  taken  refuge  and  thereby  lost  his  rights  as  a  citizen  of  Rome, 
while  others  hold  that  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  Tiberius 
(A.D.  23)  that  capilis  deminutio  media  became  the  direct  con- 
sequence of  trial  and  conviction.  Interdictio  was  the  punishment 
for  treason,  murder,  arson  and  other  serious  offences  which  came 
under  the  cognizance  of  the  quaestiones  perpetuae  (permanent 
judicial  commissions  for  certain  offences);  confiscation  of 
property  was  only  inflicted  in  extreme  cases. 

Under  the  Empire  interdictio  gradually  fell  into  disuse  and  a 
new  form  of  banishment,  introduced  by  Augustus,  called  depor- 
tatio,  generally  in  insulam,  took  its  place.  For  some  time  the  two 
probably  existed  side  by  side.  Deportatio  consisted  in  trans- 
portation for  life  to  an  island  (or  some  place  prescribed  on  the 
mainland,  not  of  Italy),  accompanied  by  loss  of  civitas  and  all 
civil  rights,  and  confiscation  of  property.  The  most  dreaded 
places  of  exile  were  the  islands  of  Gyarus,  Sardinia,  an  oasis  in  the 
desert  (quasi  in  insulam)  of  Libya;  Crete,  Cyprus  and  Rhodes 
were  considered  more  tolerable.  Large  bodies  of  persons  were 
also  transported  in  this  manner;  thus  Tiberius  sent  4000 
freedmen  to  Sardinia  for  Jewish  or  Egyptian  superstitious 
practices.  Deportatio  was  originally  inflicted  upon  political 
criminals,  but  in  course  of  time  became  more  particularly  a 
means  of  removing  those  whose  wealth  and  popularity  rendered 
them  objects  of  suspicion.  It  was  also  a  punishment  for  the 
following  offences:  adultery,  murder,  poisoning,  forgery,  em- 
bezzlement, sacrilege  and  certain  cases  of  immorality. 

Relegatio  was  a  milder  form  of  deporlalio.  It  either  excluded 
the  person  banished  from  one  specified  district  only,  with 
permission  to  choose  a  residence  elsewhere,  or  the  place  of  exile 
was  fixed.  Relegatio  could  be  either  temporary  or  for  life,  but 
it  did  not  in  either  case  carry  with  it  loss  of  civitas  or  property, 
.nor  was  the  exile  under  military  surveillance,  as  in  the  case  of 
deportatio.  Thus,  Ovid,  when  in  exile  at  Tomi,  says  (Tristia, 
v.,i-i):  "  he  (i.e.  the  emperor)  has  not  deprived  me  of  life,  nor  of 
wealth,  nor  of  the  rights  of  a  citizen  .  .  .he  has  simply  ordered 
me  to  leave  my  home."  He  calls  himself  relegatus,  not  exsul. 

In  later  writers  the  word  exsilium  is  used  in  the  sense  of  all  its 
three  forms — aquae  el  ignis  interdictio,  deportatio  and  relegatio. 

In  England  the  first  enactment  legalizing  banishment  dates 
from  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  (39  Eliz.  c.  4),  which  gave  power 
to  banish  from  the  realm  "such  rogues  as  are  dangerous  to  the 
inferior  people."  A  statute  of  Charles  II.  (18  Car.  II.  c.  3)  gave 
power  to  execute  or  to  transport  to  America  for  life  the  moss- 
troopers of  Cumberland  and  Northumberland.  Banishment  or 
transportation  for  criminal  offences  was  regulated  by  an  act  of 
1824  (5  Geo.  IV.  s.  84)  and  finally  abolished  by  the  Penal  Servi- 
tude Acts  1853  and  1857  (see  further  DEPORTATION).  The  word 
exile  has  sometimes,  though  wrongly,  been  applied  to  the  sending 
away  from  a  country  of  those  who  are  not  natives  of  it,  but  who 
may  be  temporary  or  even  permanent  residents  in  it  (see  ALIEN; 
EXPATRIATION;  EXPULSION). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J.  J.  Thonissen,  Le  Droit  penal  de  la  republique 
athenienne  (Brussels,  1875);  G.  F.  Schomann,  Griechische  Alter- 
tiimer  (4th  ed.,  1897),  p.  46;  T.  Mommsen,  Romisches  Strafrecht 
(1899),  pp.  68,  964,  and  Romisches  Slaatsrecht  (1887),  iii.  p.  48; 
L.  M.  Hartmann,  De  exilio  apttd  Romanes  (Berlin,  1887);  F.  von 
Holtzendorff-Vietmansdorf,  Die  Deportatipnsstrafe  im  romischen 
Alterthum  (Leipzig,  1859);  articles  in  Smith's  Diet,  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities  (3rd  ed.,  1890)  and  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Diet, 
des  antiquites  (C.  Lecrivain  and  G.  Humbert). 


EXILI,  an  Italian  chemist  and  poisoner  in  the  I7th  century. 
His  real  name  was  probably  Nicolo  Egidi  or  Eggidio.  Few 
authentic  details  of  his  life  exist.  Tradition,  however,  credits  him 
with  having  been  originally  the  salaried  poisoner  at  Rome  of 
Olympia  Maidalchina,  the  mistress  of  Pope  Innocent  X.  Subse- 
quently he  became  a  gentleman  in  waiting  to  Queen  Christina 
of  Sweden,  whose  taste  for  chemistry  may  have  influenced  this 
appointment.  In  1663  his  presence  in  France  aroused  the 
suspicions  of  the  French  government,  and  he  was  imprisoned  in 
the  Bastille.  Here  he  is  said  to  have  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Godin  de  Sainte-Croix,  the  lover  of  the  marquise  de  Brin- 
villiers  (q.v.).  After  three  months'  imprisonment,  powerful 
influences  secured  Exili's  release,  and  he  left  France  for  England. 
In  1681  he  was  again  in  Italy,  where  he  married  the  countess 
Fantaguzzi,  second  cousin  of  Duke  Francis  of  Modena. 

EXMOOR  FOREST,  a  high  moorland  in  Somersetshire  and 
Devonshire,  England.  The  uplands  of  this  district  are  bounded 
by  the  low  alluvial  plain  of  Sedgemoor  on  the  east,  by  the  lower 
basin  of  the  Exe  on  the  south,  by  the  basin  of  the  Taw  (in  part) 
on  the  west,  and  by  the  Bristol  Channel  on  the  north.  The  area 
thus  defined,  however,  includes  not  only  Exmoor  but  the  Brendon 
and  Quantock  Hills  east  of  it.  Excluding  these,  the  total  area  in 
the  district  lying  at  an  elevation  exceeding  1000  ft.  is  about 
120  sq.  m.  The  geological  formation  is  Devonian.  The  ancient 
forest  had  an  area  of  about  20,000  acres,  and  was  enclosed  in 
1815.  Large  tracts  are  still  uncultivated;  and  the  wild  red 
deer  and  native  Exmoor  pony  are  characteristic  of  the  district. 
The  highest  point  is  Dunkery  Beacon  in  the  east  (1707  ft.),  but 
Span  Head  in  the  south-west  is  1618  ft.,  and  a  height  of  1500  ft. 
is  exceeded  at  several  points.  The  Exe,  Barle,  Lyn  and  other 
streams,  traversing  deep  picturesque  valleys  except  in  their 
uppermost  courses,  are  in  favour  with  trout  fishermen.  The  few 
villages,  such  as  Exford,  Withypool  and  Simonsbath,  with 
Lynton  and  Lynmouth  on  the  coast,  afford  centres  for  tourists 
and  sportsmen.  Exmoor  is  noted  for  its  stag  hunting.  The 
district  has  a  further  fame  through  Richard  Blackmore's  novel, 
Lorna  Doone. 

EXMOUTH,  EDWARD  PELLEW,  IST  VISCOUNT  (1757-1833), 
English  admiral,  was  descended  from  a  family  which  came 
originally  from  Normandy,  but  had  for  many  centuries  been 
settled  in  the  west  of  Cornwall.  He  was  born  at  Dover,  on  the 
ipth  of  April  1757.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  entered  the  navy, 
and  even  then  his  smartness  and  activity,  his  feats  of  daring,  and 
his  spirit  of  resolute  independence  awakened  remark,  and  pointed 
him  out  as  one  specially  fitted  to  distinguish  himself  in  his  pro- 
fession. He  had,  however,  no  opportunity  of  active  service  till 
1776,  when,  at  the  battle  of  Lake  Champlain,  his  gallantry, 
promptitude  and  skill,  not  only  saved  the  "Carleton" — whose 
command  had  devolved  upon  him  during  the  progress  of  the 
battle — from  imminent  danger,  but  enabled  her  to  take  a 
prominent  part  in  sinking  two  of  the  enemy's  ships.  For  his 
services  on  this  occasion  he  obtained  a  lieutenant's  commission, 
and  the  command  of  the  schooner  in  which  he  had  so  bravely 
done  his  duty.  The  following  year,  in  command  of  a  brigade  of 
seamen,  he  shared  in  the  hardships  and  perils  of  the  American 
campaign  of  General  Burgoyne.  In  1782,  in  command  of  the 
"  Pelican,"  he  attacked  three  French  privateers  inside  the 
lie  de  Batz,  and  compelled  them  to  run  themselves  on  shore — 
a  feat  for  which  he  was  rewarded  by  the  rank  of  post-captain. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  French  War  in  1793,  he  was  appointed  to 
the  "  Nymphe,"  a  frigate  of  36  guns;  and,  notwithstanding 
that  for  the  sake  of  expedition  she  was  manned  chiefly  by 
Cornish  miners,  he  captured,  after  a  desperate  conflict,  the 
French  frigate  "  La  Cleopatre,"  a  vessel  of  equal  strength.  For 
this  act  he  obtained  the  honour  of  knighthood.  In  1794  he 
received  the  command  of  the  "  Arethusa  "  (38),  and  in  a  fight 
with  the  French  frigate  squadron  off  the  lie  de  Batz  he  com- 
pelled the  "  Pomona  "  (44)  to  surrender.  The  same  year  the 
western  squadron  was  increased  and  its  command  divided,  the 
second  squadron  being  given  to  Sir  Edward  Pellew  in  the  "  In- 
defatigable "  (44).  While  in  command  of  this  squadron  he,  on 
several  occasions,  performed  acts  of  great  personal  daring; 


EXMOUTH— EXODUS,  BOOK  OF 


73 


and  for  his  bravery  in  boarding  the  wrecked  transport  "  Button," 
and  his  promptitude  and  resolution  in  adopting  measures  so  as 
to  save  the  lives  of  all  on  board,  he  was  in  1 796  created  a  baronet. 
In  1798  he  joined  the  channel  fleet,  and  in  command  of  the 
"  Impetueux  "  (74)  took  part  in  several  actions  with  great 
distinction.  In  1802  Sir  Edward  Pellew  was  elected  member 
of  parliament  for  Dunstable,  and  during  the  time  that  he  sat  in 
the  Commons  he  was  a  strenuous  supporter  of  Pitt.  In  1804 
he  was  made  rear-admiral  of  the  blue,  and  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  in  India,  where,  by  his  vigilance  and  rapidity  of  move- 
ment, he  entirely  cleared  the  seas  of  French  cruisers,  and  secured 
complete  protection  to  English  commerce.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1809,  and  in  1810  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
in  the  North  Sea,  and  in  18 1 1  commander-in-chief  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. In  1814  he  was  created  Baron  Exmouth  of  Canonteign, 
and  in  the  following  year  was  made  K.C.B.,  and  a  little  later 
G.C.B.  When  the  dey  of  Algiers,  in  1816,  violated  the  treaty  for 
the  abolition  of  slavery,  Exmouth  was  directed  to  attack  the 
town.  Accordingly,  on  the  26th  of  August,  he  engaged  theAlgcrine 
battery  and  fleet,  and  after  a  severe  action  of  nine  hours'duration, 
he  set  on  fire  the  arsenal  and  every  vessel  of  the  enemy's  fleet,  and 
shattered  the  sea  defences  into  ruins.  At  the  close  of  the  action 
the  dey  apologized  for  his  conduct,  and  agreed  to  a  renewal  of 
the  treaty,  at  the  same  time  delivering  up  over  three  thousand 
persons  of  various  nationalities  who  had  been  Algerine  slaves. 
For  this  splendid  victory  Exmouth  was  advanced  to  the  dignity 
of  viscount.  Shortly  before  his  death,  which  took  place  on  the 
23rd  of  January  1833,  he  was  made  vice-admiral. 

He  had  married  Susan  (d.  1837),  daughter  of  James  Frowde 
of  Knoyle,  Wiltshire,  who  bore  him  four  sons  and  two  daughters. 
His  eldest  son,  Pownoll  Bastard  Pellew  (1786-1833),  became 
2nd  Viscount  Exmouth,  and  his  descendant,  Edward  Addington 
Hargreaves  Pellew  (b.  1890),  became  the  5th  viscount  in  1899. 

Exmouth's  second  son,  Sir  Fleetwood  Broughton  Reynolds 
Pellew  (1789-1861),  was  like  his  father  an  admiral.  The  third 
son  was  George  Pellew  (1793-1866),  author  and  divine,  who 
married  Frances  (d.  1870),  daughter  of  the  prime  minister, 
Lord  Sidmouth,  and  wrote  his  father-in-law's  life  (The  Life  and 
Correspondence  of  Henry  Addington,  ist  Viscount  Sidmouth,  1847). 

Exmouth  had  a  brother,  Sir  Israel  Pellew  (1758-1832),  also 
an  admiral,  who  was  present  at.  the  battle  of  Trafalgar. 

A  Life  of  the  1st  viscount,  by  Edward  Osier,  was  published  in 
1835- 

EXMOUTH,  a  market-town,  seaport  and  watering-place  in 
the  Honiton  parliamentary  division  of  Devonshire,  England, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Exe,  105  m.  S.E.  by  S.  of  Exeter  by 
the  London  &  South-Western  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district 
(1901)  10,485.  In  the  i8th  century  it  consisted  of  a  primitive 
fishing  village  at  the  base  of  Beacon  Hill,  a  height  commanding 
fine  views  over  the  estuary  and  the  English  Channel.  After  its 
more  modern  terraces  were  built  up  the  hillside,  Exmouth  became 
the  first  seaside  resort  in  Devon.  Its  excellent  bathing  and  the 
beauty  of  its  coast  and  moorland  scenery  attract  many  visitors 
in  summer,  while  it  is  frequented  in  winter  by  sufferers  from 
pulmonary  disease.  The  climate  is  unusually  mild,  as  a  range  of 
hills  shelters  the  town  on  the  east.  A  promenade  runs  along  the 
sea  wall;  there  are  golf  links  and  public  gardens,  and  the  port 
is  a  favourite  yachting  centre,  a  regatta  being  held  annually. 
Near  the  town  is  a  natural  harbour  called  the  Bight.  The  local 
industries  include  fishing,  brick-making  and  the  manufacture  of 
Honiton  lace.  Exmouth  was  early  a  place  of  importance,  and 
in  1347  contributed  10  vessels  to  the  fleet  sent  to  attack  Calais. 
It  once  possessed  a  fort  or  "  castelet,"  designed  to  command 
the  estuary  of  the  Exe.  This  fort,  which  was  garrisoned  for  the 
king  during  the  Civil  War,  was  blockaded  and  captured  by 
Colonel  Shapcoate  in  1646. 

EXODUS,  BOOK  OF,  in  the  Bible,  a  book  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment which  derives  its  name,  through  the  Greek,  from  the  event 
which  forms  the  most  prominent  feature  of  the  history  it 
narrates,  viz.  the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  Egypt.  Strictly 
speaking,  however,  this  title  is  applicable  to  the  first  half  only, 
the  historical  portion  of  the  book,  and  takes  no  account  of  those 


chapters  which  describe  the  giving  of  the  Law  on  Mt.  Sinai,  nor 
of  those  which  deal  with  the  Tabernacle  and  its  furniture.  By 
the  Jews  it  is  usually  styled  after  its  opening  words  "to?"  d?yn 
(We'eleh  Shemotk)  or,  more  briefly,  ntap  (Shemolh). 

In  its  present  form  the  book  sets  forth  (a)  the  oppression  of 
the  Israelites  in  Egypt  (ch.  i.),  (b)  the  birth  and  education  of 
Moses,  and  his  flight  to  the  land  of  Midian  (ch.  ii.),  (c)  the  theo- 
phany  at  Mt.  Horeb  (the  Burning  Bush),  and  the  subsequent 
commission  of  Moses  and  Aaron  (iii.  i-iv.  17),  (d)  the  return  of 
Moses  to  Egypt,  and  his  appeal  to  Pharaoh  which  results  in  the 
further  oppression  of  Israel  (iv.  i8-vii.  7),  (e)  the  plagues  of 
Egypt  (vii.  8-xi.  10),  (/)  the  institution  of  the  Passover  and  of 
the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Cakes,  the  last  plague,  and  Israel's 
departure  from  Egypt  (xii.  i-xiii.  16),  (g)  the  crossing  of  the 
Red  Sea  and  the  discomfiture  of  the  Egyptians,  the  Song  of 
Triumph,  the  sending  of  the  manna  and  other  incidents  of  the 
journeying  through  the  wilderness  (xiii.  i7~xviii.  27),  (h)  the 
giving  of  the  Law,  including  the  Decalogue  and  the  so-called 
Book  of  the  Covenant,  on  Sinai-Horeb  (xix.-xxiv.),  (i)  directions 
for  the  building  of  the  Tabernacle  arid  for  the  consecration  of 
the  priests  (xxv.-xxxi.),  (j)  the  sin  of  the  Golden  Calf,  and 
another  earlier  version  of  the  first  legislation  (xxxii.-xxxiv.), 
(£)  the  construction  of  the  Tabernacle  and  its  erection  (xxxv.-xl.) . 
The  book  of  Exodus,  however,  like  the  other  books  of  the  Hexa- 
teuch,  is  a  composite  work  which  has  passed,  so  to  speak,  through 
many  editions;  hence  the  order  of  events  given  above  cannot 
lay  claim  to  any  higher  authority  than  that  of  the  latest  editor. 
Moreover,  the  documents  from  which  the  book  has  been  compiled 
belong  to  different  periods  in  the  history  of  Israel,  and  each  of 
them,  admittedly,  reflects  the  standpoint  of  the  age  in  which  it 
was  written.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  contents  of  the  book  are 
not  of  equal  historical  value;  and  though  the  claim  of  a  passage 
to  be  considered  historical  is  not  necessarily  determined  by  the 
age  of  the  source  from  which  it  is  derived,  yet,  in  view  of  the 
known  practice  of  Hebrew  writers,  greater  weight  naturally 
attaches  to  the  earlier  documents  in  those  cases  in  which  the 
sources  are  at  variance  with  one  another.  Any  attempt,  there- 
fore, at  restoring  the  actual  course  of  history  must  be  preceded 
by  an  inquiry  into  the  source  of  the  various  contents  of  the  book. 

The  sources  from  which  the  book  of  Exodus  has  been  compiled 
are  the  same  as  those  which  form  the  basis  of  the  book  of  Genesis, 
while  the  method  of  composition  is  very  similar.  Here,  too,  the 
strongly  marked  characteristics  of  P,  or  the  Priestly  Document, 
as  opposed  to  JE,  enable  us  to  determine  the  extent  of  that 
document  with  comparative  ease;  but  the  absence,  in  some 
cases,  of  conclusive  criteria  prevents  any  final  judgment  as  to 
the  exact  limits  of  the  two  strands  which  have  been  united  in 
the  composite  JE.  The  latter  statement  applies  especially  to 
the  legislative  portions  of  the  book:  in  the  historical  sections 
the  separation  of  the  two  sources  gives  rise  to  fewer  difficulties. 
It  does  not,  however,  lie  within  the  scope  of  the  present  article 
to  examine  the  various  sources  underlying  the  narrative  with 
any  minuteness,  but  rather  to  sum  up  those  results  of  modern 
criticism  which  have  been  generally  accepted  by  Old  Testament 
scholars.  To  this  end  it  will  be  convenient  to  treat  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  book  under  three  main  heads:  (a)  the  historical 
portion  (ch.  i.-xviii.),  (b)  the  sections  dealing  with  the  giving  of 
the  Law  (xix.-xxiv.,  xxxii.-xxxiv.).  and  (c)  the  construction  of 
the  Tabernacle  and  its  furniture  (xxv.-xxxi.,  xxxv.-xl.). 

(a)  Israel  in  Egypt  and  the  Exodus  (ch.  i.-xviii.).  (i)  i.  l-vii.  13. 
— The  analysis  of  these  chapters  shows  that  the  history,  in  the  main, 
has  been  derived  from  the  two  sources  J  and  E,  chiefly  the  former, 
and  that  a  later  editor  has  included  certain  passages  from  P,  besides 
introducing  a  slight  alteration  of  the  original  order  and  other  re- 
dactional  changes.  The  combined  narrative  of  JE  sets  forth  the 
rise  of  a  new  king  in  Egypt,  who  endeavoured  to  check  the  growing 
strength  of  the  children  of  Israel ;  it  thus  prepares  the  way  for  the 
birth  of  Moses,  his  early  life  in  Egypt,  his  flight  to  Midian  and 
marriage  with  Zipporah,  the  theophany  at  Mt.  Horeb,  and  his  divine 
commission  to  deliver  Israel  from  Egypt. 

At  the  very  outset  the  two  sources  betray  their  divergent  origin 
and  point  of  view.  According  to  J  (i.  6,  8-12,  206)  the  Israelites 
dwell  apart  in  the  province  of  Goshen,  and  their  numbers  become 
so  great  as  to  call  for  severe  measures  of  repression,  the  method 
employed  being  that  of  forced  labour.  E,  on  the  other  hand  (i.  15-2011, 


74 


EXODUS,  BOOK  OF 


21,  22),  represents  them  as  living  among  the  Egyptians,  and  so 
few  in  number  that  two  midwives  satisfy  their  requirements.  It  is 
to  this  latter  source  that  we  owe  the  account  of  the  birth  of  Moses 
and  of  his  education  at  the  court  of  Pharaoh  (ii.  i-io).  On  reaching 
manhood  Moses  openly  displays  his  sympathy  with  his  brethren  by 
slaying  an  Egyptian,  and  has,  in  consequence,  to  flee  to  Midian, 
where  he  marries  Zipporah,  the  daughter  of  the  priest  of  Midian 
(ii.  11-22).  In  this  section  the  editor  has  undoubtedly  made  use  of 
the  parallel  narrative  of  J,  though  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the 
exact  point  at  which  J's  account  is  introduced:  certainly  ii.  156-22 
belong  to  that  source.1  The  narrative  of  the  call  of  Moses  is  by  no 
means  uniform,  and  shows  obvious  traces  of  twofold  origin  (J  iii. 
2-40,  5,  7,  8,  16-18;  iv.  1-12  (13-16),  29-31;  E  iii.  I,  46,  6,  9-14, 
21,  22;  iv.  17,  18,  206,  27,  28).  These  two  sources  present  striking 
points  of  difference,  which  reappear  in  the  subsequent  narrative. 
According  to  E,  Moses  with  Aaron  is  to  demand  from  Pharaoh  the 
release  of  Israel,  which  will  be  effected  in  spite  of  his  opposition ; 
in  assurance  thereof  the  promise  is  given  that  they  shall  serve  God 
upon  this  mountain;  moreover,  the  people  on  their  departure  are 
to  borrow  raiment  and  jewels  from  their  Egyptian  neighbours. 
According  to  J,  on  the  other  hand,  the  spokesmen  are  to  be  Moses 
and  the  elders;  and  their  request  is  for  a  temporary  departure  only, 
viz.  "three  days'  journey  into  the  wilderness";  their  departure 
from  Egypt  is  a  hurried  one.  Yet  another  difficulty,  which  dis- 
appears as  soon  as  the  composite  character  of  the  narrative  is  recog- 
nized, is  that  of  the  signs.  In  J  three  signs  are  given  for  the  purpose 
of  reassuring  Moses,  only  one  of  which  is  wrought  with  the  rod  (iv. 
1-9),  but  in  iv.  17  (E)  the  reference  is  clearly  to  entirely  different 
signs,  probably  the  plagues  of  Egypt,  which  according  to  E  were 
invariably  wrought  by  "  the  rod  of  God."  Further,  it  is  question- 
able if  the  passage  iv.  13-16  really  forms  part  of  the  original  narrative 
of  J,  and  is  not  rather  to  be  ascribed  to  the  redactor  of  JE.  The 
name  of  Aaron  has  certainly  been  introduced  by  a  later  hand  in  J's 
account  of  the  plague  of  frogs  (viii.  12),  and  the  only  passage  in  J 
in  which  Aaron  is  represented  as  taking  an  active  part  is  iv.  29-31, 
where  the  mention  of  his  name  causes  no  little  difficulty.2  In  E, 
on  the  other  hand,  Aaron  is  sent  by  God  to  meet  Moses  at  Mt. 
Horeb,  after  the  latter  had  taken  leave  of  Jethro,  and,  later  on, 
accompanies  him  into  the  presence  of  Pharaoh.  The  succeeding 
narrative  (v.  I-vi.  l)  is  mainly  taken  from  J,  though  E's  account 
of  the  first  interview  with  Pharaoh  has  been  partially  retained  in 
y.  i,  2,  4.  Moses  and  the  elders  ask  leave  to  go  three  days'  journey 
into  the  wilderness  to  sacrifice  to  Yahweh,  a  request  which  is  met  by 
an  increase  of  the  burdensome  work  of  brick-making:  henceforward 
the  Israelites  have  to  provide  their  own  straw.  The  people  complain 
bitterly  to  Moses,  who  appeals  to  Yahweh  and  is  assured  by  him 
of  the  future  deliverance  of  Israel  "  by  a  strong  hand." 

With  the  exception  of  the  genealogical  list  (i.  1-5)  and  the  brief 
notices  of  the  increase  of  Israel  (i.  7)  and  of  its  oppression  at  the 
hands  of  the  Egyptians  (i.  13,  14;  ii.  236-25),  the  narrative  so  far 
exhibits  no  traces  of  P3.  But  in  vi.  2-yii.  13  we  are  confronted 
with  a  narrative  which  carries  us  back  to  ii.  236-25  and  gives  practic- 
ally a  parallel  account  to  that  of  JE  in  ch.  iii.-y.  Thus  the  revelation 
of  the  divine  name,  vi.  2  f.,  finds  its  counterpart  in  iii.  lof.,  the  message 
to  be  delivered  to  Israel  (vi.  6  f .)  is  very  similar  to  that  of  ch.  iii.  16  f ., 
while  the  demand  which  is  to  be  addressed  to  Pharaoh  is  identical 

1  The  fact  that  the  father-in-law  of  Moses  is  called  Reuel  in  v.  18, 
as  contrasted  with  the  name  Jethro,  which  occurs  in  iii.  I  f.  and  in 
all  subsequent  passages  from  E,  cannot  be  taken  as  conclusive  on 
this  point,  since  critics  are  agreed  that  "  Reuel  "  in  this  verse  is  a 
later  addition:  had  it  been  original  we  should  have  expected  the 
name  to  be  given  at  v.  16  rather  than  at  v.  18.  But,  if  no  argument 
can  be  based  on  the  discrepancy  between  the  two  names,  we  may  at 
least  assume  that  the  namelessness  of  the  priest  in  ».  16  f.  points  to 
a  different  source  for  those  verses  from  that  of  iii.  I  f.  Elsewhere  J 
speaks  of  "  Hobab,  the  son  of  Reuel  the  Midianite,  Moses'  father-in- 
law  "  (Num.  x.  29) ;  the  addition,  "  the  priest  of  Midian,"  only  occurs 
in  the  (secondary)  passages  iii.  i,  xviii.  i  (E).  Probably  RJE 
omitted  the  name  in  ii.  16  and  added  "  the  priest  of  Midian  "  in 
iii.  I,  xviii  I,  from  harmonizing  motives.  Further,  mi.  !5B-22 
speak  of  one  son  being  born  to  Moses  at  this  period,  a  statement 
which  is  borne  out  by  iv.  20,  25  ("  sons  "  in  iv.  20  is  obviously  a 
correction),  whereas  ch.  xviii.  (E)  mentions  two  sons. 

The  original  order  of  events  in  J  seems  to  have  been  as  follows: 
after  the  -death  of  Pharaoh  (ii.  230;  the  Septuagint  repeats  this 
notice  before  iv.  19)  Moses  returns  to  Egypt  with  his  wife  and  son 
(iv.  19,  20)  in  obedience  to  Yahweh's  command.  On  the  way  he  is 
seized  with  a  sudden  illness,  which  Zipporah  attributes  to  the  fact 
that  he  has  not  been  circumcised  and  seeks  to  avert  by  circumcising 
her  son  (iv.  24-26).  The  scene  of  the  theophany,  therefore,  according 
to  J,  is  to  be  placed  on  the  way  from  Midian  to  Goshen.  Probably 
the  displacement  of  iv.  19,  20,  24-26  is  due  to  the  editor  of  JE,  who 
was  thus  enabled  to  combine  the  two  narratives  of  the  theophany. 

*  Cf.  iv.  30;  Aaron  had  received  no  command  to  do  the  signs, 
and  the  words  "  and  he  did  the  signs  "  are  most  naturally  referred 
to  Moses. 

3  The  expansion 'in  iii.  8c,  15,  176;  iv.  22,  23,  are  probably  the 
work  of  a  Deuteronomistic  redactor. 


with  that  which  had  been  already  refused  in  ch.  v.  No  allusion, 
however,  is  made  by  Moses  to  this  previous  demand;  he  merely 
urges  the  same  objection  as  that  put  forward  in  iv.  lof.  With  the 
resumption4  of  the  story  in  vi.  28  f.  Moses  reiterates  his  objection, 
and  is  told  that  Aaron  shall  be  his  "  prophet  "  and  speak  for  him, 
and  shall  also  perform  the  sign  of  the  rod  (cf.  iv.  2-4).  The  sign, 
however,  has  no  effect  on  Pharaoh  (vii.  13),  and  we  thus  reach  the 
same  point  in  the  narrative  as  at  vi.  i.  Apart  from  the  literary 
characteristics  which  clearly  differentiate  this  narrative  from  the 
preceding  accounts  of  J  and  E.  the  following  points  of  variation  are 
worthy  of  consideration:  (i)  The  people  refuse  to  listen  to  Moses; 
(2)  Aaron  is  appointed  to  be  Moses'  spokesman,  not  with  the  people, 
but  with  Pharaoh;  (3)  one  sign  is  given  (not  three)  and  performed 
before  Pharaoh;  (4)  the  rod  is  turned  into  a  reptile  (tannin),  not  a 
serpent  (nahash). 

(2)  vii.  14-xi.  10.    The  First  Plagues  of  Egypt. — In  this  section  the 
analysis  again  reveals  three  main  sources,  which  are  clearly  marked 
off  from  one  another  both  by  their  linguistic  features  and  by  their 
difference  of  representation.    The  principal  source  is  J,  from  which 
are  derived  six  plagues,  viz.  killing  of  the  fish  in  the  river  (vii.  14, 
16,  170,  18,  2la,  24,  25),  frogs  (viii.  1-4,  8-150),  insects  (viii.  20-32), 
murrain  (ix.  1-7),  hail  (ix.  13-18,  236,  246,  256-34),  locusts  (x.  10, 
3-1 1,  136,  146,  150,  c-19,  24-26,  28,  29),  the  threat  to  slay  all  the 
first-born  (xi.  4-8).    The  most  striking  characteristic  of  this  narrative 
is  that  the  plagues  are  represented  as  mainly  due  to  natural  causes 
and  follow  a  natural  sequence.    Thus  Yahweh  smites  the  river  so 
that  the  fish  die  and  render  the  water  undrinkable.     This  is  suc- 
ceeded by  a  plague  of  frogs.    The  swarms  of  flies  and  insects,  which 
next  appear,  are  the  natural  outcome  of  the  decaying  masses  of 
frogs,  and  these,  in  turn,  would  form  a  natural  medium  for  the 
spread  of  cattle  disease.    Destructive  hailstorms,  again,  though  rare, 
are  not  unknown  in  Egypt,  while  the  locusts  are  definitely  stated 
to  have  been  brought  by  a  strong  east  wind.     Other  distinctive 
features  of  J's  narrative  are:  (i)  Moses  alone  is  bidden  to  interview 
Pharaoh  (vii.  14  f. ;  viii.  I  f.,  20  f. ;  ix.  I  f.,  13  f. ;  x.  I  f.);  (2)  on 
each  occasion  he  makes  a  formal  demand;  (3)  on  Pharaoh's  refusal 
the  plague  is  announced,  and  takes  place  at  a  fixed  time  without  any 
human  intervention;  (4)  when  the  plague  is  sent,  Pharaoh  sends  for 
Moses  and  entreats  his  intercession,  promising  in  most  cases  to 
accede  in  part  to  his  request;  when  the  plague  is  removed,  however, 
the  promise  is  left  unfulfilled,  the  standing  phrase  being  "  and 
Pharaoh's  heart  was  heavy  (laa),  "  or  "  and  Pharaoh  made  heavy 
(vasn)  his  heart  " ;  (5)  the  plagues  do  not  affect  the  children  of  Israel 
in  Goshen.    E's  account  (water  turned  into  blood,  vii.  15,  176,  206, 
23;  hail,  ix.  22,  230,  240,  250,  35;  locusts,  x.  12,  130,  140,  156) 
is  more  fragmentary,  having  been  doubtless  superseded  in  most  cases 
by  the  fuller  and  more  graphic  narrative  of  J,  but  the  plague  of 
darkness  (x.  20-23,  27)  is  found  only  in  this  source.    As  contrasted 
with  J  the  narrative  emphasizes  the  miraculous  character  of  the 
plagues.     They  are  brought  about  by  "  the  rod  of  God,"  which 
Moses  wields,  the  effect  being  instantaneous  and  all-embracing. 
The  Israelites  are  represented  as  living  among  the  Egyptians,  and 
enjoy  no  immunity  from  the  plagues,  except  that  of  darkness. 
Their  departure  from  Egypt  is  deliberate;  the  people  have  time  to 
borrow  raiment  and  jewels  from  their  neighbours.     E  regularly 
uses  the  phrase.  "  and  Pharaoh's  heart  was  strong  (pin),"  or    "and 
Yahweh  made  strong  (p'tn)  Pharaoh's  heart  "  and  "  he  would  not 
let  the  children  of  Israel  (or,  them)  go."    In  the  priestly  narrative 
(P)  the  plagues  assume  the  form  of  a  trial  of  skill  between  Aaron, 
who  acts  at  Moses'  command,  and  the  Egyptian  magicians,  and  thus 
connect  with  vii.  8-13.     The  magicians  succeed  in  turning  the  Nile 
water  into  blood  (vii.  19,  200,  216,  22),  and  in  bringing  up  frogs 
(viii.  5-7),  but  they  fail  to  bring  forth  lice  (viii.  156-19),  and  are 
themselves  smitten  with  boils  (ix.  8-12):  the  two  last-named  plagues 
have  no  parallel  either  in  J  or  E.     Throughout  the  P  sections 
Aaron  is  associated  with  Moses,  and  the  regular  command  given  to 
the  latter  is  "Say  unto  Aaron":  no  demand  is  ever  made  to 
Pharaoh,  and  the  description  of  the  plague  is  quite  short.     The 
formula  employed  by  P  is  "  and  Pharaoh's  heart  was  strong   (pin)," 
or,  "  and  Pharaoh  made  strong  (?''n)  his  heart,"  as  in  E,  but  it  is 
distinguished  from  E's  phrase  by  the  addition  of  "  and  he  hearkened 
not  unto  them  as  Yahweh  had  spoken." 

(3)  xii.  i-xiii.  16.     The  Last  Plague,  the  Deliverance  from  Egypt, 
the  Institution  of  the  Passover  and  of  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Cakes, 
the  Consecration  of  the  First-born. — This  section  presents  the  usual 
phenomena  of  a  composite  narrative,  viz.  repetitions  and  inconsist- 
encies.   Thus  J's  regulations  for  the  Passover  (xii.  21-23,  276)  seem 
at  first  sight  simply  to  repeat  the  commands  given  to  Moses  and 
Aaron  in  xii.  1-13  (P),  but  in  reality  they  are  a  parallel  and  divergent 
account.     In  TO.  1-13  the  choice  of  the  lamb  and  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  to  be  eaten  constitute  the  essential  feature,  the  smearing 
with  the  blood  being  quite  secondary;  in  TO.  21  f.  the  latter  point 
is  all-important,  and  no  regulations  are  given  for  the  paschal  meal 
(which,  possibly,  formed  no  part  of  J's  original  account).    Similarly 
the  institution  of  the  Feast  of  Mazzoth,  or  Unleavened  Cakes  (xiii. 
3-ioJ),  does  not  form  the  sequel  to  the  regulations  laid  down  in  xii. 


4  The  genealogy  of  Moses  and  Aaron  (w.  14-27)  appears  to  be  a 
later  addition. 


EXODUS,  BOOK  OF 


75 


14-20  (P),  but  is  independent  of  them:  it  omits  all  reference  to 
the  "  holy  convocations  "  and  to  the  abstinence  from  labour,  and  is 
obviously  simpler  and  more  primitive.  J's  account,  again,  makes 
important  exceptions  (xiii.  11-13)  to  the  severe  enactment  of  P  with 
reference  to  the  first-born  (xiii.  i).  The  description  of  the  smiting 
of  the  first-born  of  Egypt  is  derived  from  J  (xii.  29-34,  37-39)-  who 
clearly  sees  in  the  Feast  of  Mazzoth  a  perpetual  reminder  of  the 
haste  with  which  the  Israelites  fled  from  Egypt;  the  editor  of  JE, 
however,  has  included  some  extracts  from  E  (xii.  31,  35,  36),  which 
point  to  a  more  deliberate  departure.  The  section  has  been  worked 
over  by  a  Deuteronomistic  editor,  whose  hand  can  be  clearly  traced 
in  the  additions  xii.  24-270 ;  xiii.  36,  5,  8,  9,  14-16. 

(4)  xiii.  17— xv.  21.     The  Crossing  of  the  Red  Sea. — According  to  J 
the  children  of  Israel  departed  from  Egypt  under  the  guidance  of 
Yahweh,  who  leads  them  by  day  in  a  pillar  of  cloud  and  by  night  in  a 
pillar  of  fire  (xiii.  21,  22).     On  hearing  of  their  flight  Pharaoh  at 
once  starts  in  pursuit.    The  Israelites,  terrified  by  the  approach  of 
the  Egyptians,  upbraid  Moses,  who  promises  them  deliverance  by 
the  hand  of  Yahweh  (xiv.  5,  6,  76,  loa,  11-14,  196)-    Yahweh  then 
causes  a  strong  east  wind  to  blow  all  that  night,  which  drives  back 
the  waters  from  the  shallows,  and  so  renders  it  possible  for  the  host 
of  Israel  to  cross  over.    The  Egyptians  follow,  but  the  progress  of 
their  chariots  is  hindered  by  the  soft  sand,  and  in  the  morning  they 
are  caught  by  the  returning  waters  (xiv.  2ib,  24,  25,  276,  286,  30). 
The  story,  however,  has  been  combined  with  the  somewhat  different 
account  of  E,  which  doubtless  covered  the  same  ground,  and  also 
with  that  of  P.    According  to  the  former,  Elohim  did  not  permit  the 
Israelites  to  take  the  shorter  route  to  Canaan  by  the  .Mediterranean 
coast,  for  fear  of  the  Philistines,  but  led  them  southwards  to  the 
Red  Sea,  whither  they  were  pursued  by  the  Egyptians  (xiii.  17-19). 
The  remainder  of  E's  account  has  only  been  preserved  in  a  frag- 
mentary form  (xiv.  "jaa,  106,  150,  190,  2Oa),  from  which  it  may  be 
gathered  that  Moses  divided  the  waters  by  stretching  out  his  rod, 
thus  presupposing  that  the  crossing  took  place  by  day,  and  that 
the  dark  cloud  which  divided  the  two  hosts  was  miraculously  caused 
by  the  angel  of  God.    P  also  represents  the  sea  as  divided  by  means 
of  Moses'  rod,  but  heightens  the  effect  by  describing  the  crossing  as 
taking  place  between  walls  of  water  (xiii.  20;  xiv.   1-4,  8,  9,  156, 
166-18,  2ia,  c,  22,  23,  26,  270,  280,  29). 

J's  version  of  the  Song  of  Moses  probably  does  not  extend  beyond 
xv.  I,  and  has  its  counterpart  in  the  very  similar  song  of  Miriam  (E), 
in  w.  20,  21.  The  rest  of  the  song  (w.  2-18)  is  probably  the  work 
of  a  later  writer;  for  these  verses  set  forth  not  only  the  deliverance 
from  Egypt,  but  also  the  entrance  of  Israel  into  Canaan  (w.  13-17), 
and  further  presuppose  the  existence  of  the  temple  (w.  136,  176). 
These  phenomena  have  been  explained  as  due  to  later  expansion, 
but  the  poem  has  all  the  appearance  of  being  a  unity,  and  the 
language,  style  and  rhythm  all  point  to  a  later  age.  Verse  19  is 
probably  the  work  of  the  redactor  (Rp)  who  inserted  the  song. 

(5)  xv.  22-xviii.  27.    Incidents  in  the  Wilderness. — The  narrative 
of  the  first  journeying  in  the  wilderness  (xv.  22-xvii.  7)  presents  a 
series  of  difficulties  which  probably  owe  their  origin  to  the  editorial 
activity  of  Rp,  who  appears  to  have  transferred  to  the  beginning 
of  the  wanderings  a  number  of  incidents  which  rightly  belong  to  the 
end.    The  concluding  verses  of  ch.  xv.  contain  J's  account  of  the 
sweetening  of  the  waters  of  Marah,  with  which  has  been  incorporated 
a  fragment  of  E's  story  of  Massah  (xv.  256)  and  a  Deuteronomic 
expansion  in'fl.  26.    Then  follows  (ch.  xvi.)  P's  version  of  the  sending 
of  the  manna  and  quails.     In  its  present  form,  this  narrative  con- 
tains a  number  of  conflicting  elements,  which  can  only  be  the  result 
of  editorial  activity.     Thus  w.  6,  7  must  originally  have  preceded 
TO.  ii,  12,  though  the  redactor  has  attempted  to  evade  the  difficulty 
by  inserting  v.  8.    Again,  the  account  of  the  quails,  which  is  obviously 
incomplete,  is  undoubtedly  derived  from  Num.  xi.;  but  the  latter 
account,  which  admittedly  belongs  to  JE,  places  the  incident  at 
the  end  of  the  wanderings.    Closer  examination  also  of  P's  narrative 
of  the  manna  shows  that  its  true  position  is  after  the  departure 
from  Mt.  Sinai;  cf.  the  expressions  used  in  w.  g,  10,  33,  34,  implying 
the  existence  of  the  ark  and  the  tabernacle.     P's  account  of  the 
manna,  however,  can  hardly  have  stood  originally  in  close  juxta- 
position with  his  account  of  the  quails  (cf.  Num.  xi.  6),  but  the  two 
narratives  were  probably  combined  by  Rp  before  they  were  trans- 
ferred to  their  present  position.    The  same  redactor  doubtless  added 
v.  8  (and  possibly  w.  17,  18)  by  way  of  explanation,  and  w.  5  and 
22-30,  which  imply  that  the  law  of  the  Sabbath  was  already  known, 
and  introduce  a  fresh  element  into  the  story.     A  plausible  ex- 
planation of  Rp's  action  is  supplied  by  the  theory  that  an  earlier 
account  of  the  giving  of  the  manna  already  existed  at  this  point  of 
the  narrative.     We  know  from  Deuteronomy  viii.  2  f.,  16  that  JE 
contained  an  account  of  the  manna,  which  included  the  explanation 
of  Ex.  xvi.  15,  and  also  emphasized,  as  the  motive  for  the  gift, 
Yahweh's   desire    "to   prove   thee  (i.e.  test  thy  disposition)  .  .  . 
whether  thou  wouldst  keep  his  commandments,  or  no."    Fragments 
of  this  early  story  of  Massah  (testing)  were  incorporated  by  Rp 
in  his  story  of  the  manna  and  the  quails,  viz.  xv.  256;   xvi.  4,  15, 
i6a,  196-21.      These  verses  must  be  assigned  to  E,  for  in  xvii.  3,  2C 
(wherefore  do  ye  tempt  the  Lord  ?),  70  (to  Massah),  c  (because  they 
tempted  .  .  .,  &c.),  we  find  yet  another  version  (J)  of  the  same 
incident,  according  to  which  the  people  tempted  (tested)  Yahweh. 
It  was  owing  to  the  combination  of  this  latter  account  with  E's 


further  description  of  the  striving  of  the  people  for  water  at  Meribah 
that  the  double  name  Massah-Meribah  arose,  xvii.  16-7  (ia  belongs 
to  P),  though  Deut.  xxxiii.  8  makes  it  clear  that  Massah  and  Meribah 
were  separate  localities  (cf.  Deut.  ix.  22,  2  f.,  16,  where  Massah 
occurs  alone) :  P's  version  of  striving  at  Meribah,  in  which  traces  of 
J's  account  have  been  preserved,  is  given  at  Num.  xx.  1-13. 

xvii.  8-16.  The  Battle  with  Amalek  at  Rephidim. — This  incident  is 
derived  from  E,  but  is  clearly  out  of  place  in  its  present  context. 
Its  close  connexion  with  the  end  of  the  wanderings  is  shown  by  (a) 
the  description  of  Moses  as  an  infirm  old  man;  (b)  the  r61e  played 
by  Joshua  in  contrast  with  xxiv.  13,  xxxiii.  II,  where  he  is  intro- 
duced as  a  young  man  and  Moses'  minister;  and  (c)  the  references 
elsewhere  to  the  home  of  the  Amalekites:  according  to  Num.  xiii. 
29,  xiv.  25,  xliii.  45,  they  dwelt  in  the  S.  or  S.W.  of  Judah  near 
Kadesh  (cf.  I  Sam.  xv.  6f.,  30;  Gen.  xiv.  7;  xxxvi.  12). 

Ch.  xviii.  The  visit  of  Jethro  to  Moses  and  the  appointment  of  judges. 
— This  story,  like  the  preceding  one,  is  mainly  derived  from  E  and  is 
also  out  of  place.  Allusions  in  the  chapter  itself  point  unmistakably 
to  a  time  just  before  the  departure  from  Sinai-Horeb,  and  this  date 
is  confirmed  both  by  Deut.  i.  9-16  and  by  the  parallel  account  of  J 
in  Num.  x.  29-32.  The  narrative,  however,  displays  signs  of  com- 
pilation, and  it  is  not  improbable  that  R'B  has  incorporated  in  w. 
7- 1 1  part  of  J's  account  of  the  visit  of  Moses'  father-in-law  (cf.  the 
use  of  Yahweh). 

(b)  Ch.  xix.-xxiv.,  xxxii.,  xxxiv. — The  contents  of  these  chapters, 
which,  owing  to  their  contents,  form  the  most  important  section  in 
the  book  of  Exodus,  may  be  briefly  analysed  as  follows.  In  ch.  xix. 
we  have  a  twofold  description  of  the  theophany  on  Mt.  Sinai  (or 
Horeb),  followed  by  the  Decalogue  in  xx.  1-17.  Alongside  of  this 
code  we  find  another,  dealing  in  part  with  the  civil  and  social  (xxi. 
2-xxii.  17),  in  part  with  the  religious  life  of  Israel,  the  so-called 
Book  of  the  Covenant,  xx.  22-xxiii.  19.  Ch.  xxiv.  contains  a  com- 
posite narrative  of  the  ratification  of  the  covenant.  In  chs.  xxxii. 
and  xxxiii.  we  have  again  two  narratives  of  the  sin  of  the  people 
and  of  Moses'  intercession,  while  in  ch.  xxxiv.  we  are  confronted 
with  yet  another  early  code,  which  is  practically  identical  with  the 
religious  enactments  of  xx.  22-26;  xxii.  29,  30;  xxiii.  10-19. 

With  but  few  exceptions  the  provenance  of  the  individual  sections 
may  be  said  to  have  been  finally  determined  by  the  labours  of  the 
critics,  but  even  a  cursory  examination  of  their  contents  makes  it 
evident  that  the  sequence  of  events,  which  they  now  present,  cannot 
be  original,  but  is  rather  the  outcome  of  a  long  process  of  revision, 
during  which  the  text  has  suffered  considerably  from  alterations, 
omissions,  dislocations  and  additions.  Yet  owing  to  the  method  cf 
composition  employed  by  Hebrew  editors,  or  revisers,  it  is  possible 
jn  this  case,  as  in  others,  not  only  to  determine  the  source  of  each 
individual  passage,  but  also  to  trace  with  considerable  confidence 
the  various  stages  in  the  process  by  which  it  reached  its  final  form 
and  position.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  the  evidence 
at  our  disposal  is,  in  some  cases,  capable  of  more  than  one  interpre- 
tation. Hence  a  final  conclusion  can  hardly  be  expected,  but  with 
certain  modifications  in  detail  the  following  solution  of  the  problem 
may  be  accepted  as  representing  the  point  of  view  of  recent  criticism. 

Ch.  xix.  contains  two  parallel  accounts  of  the  theophany  on 
Horeb-Sinai,  from  E  and  J  respectively,  which  differ  materially 
from  one  another.  According  to  the  former,  Moses  is  instructed  by 
God  (Elohim)  to  sanctify  the  people  against  the  third  day  (w.  90, 
10,  na).  This  is  done  and  the  people  are  brought  by  Moses  to  the 
foot  of  the  mountain  (Horeb),  where  they  hear  the  divine  voice 
(14-17,  19).  A  noticeable  feature  of  this  narrative,  of  which  xx. 
18-21  forms  a  natural  continuation,  is  the  fact  that  the  theophany 
is  addressed  to  the  people,  who  are  too  frightened  to  remain  near 
the  mountain  itself.  In  J,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  the  priests  who 
are  sanctified,  and  great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  people 
from  "  breaking  through  to  gaze  "  (20-22).  In  this  account  the 
mountain  is  called  "  Sinai  "  throughout,  and  "  Yahweh  "  appears 
instead  of  "  Elohim  "  (lift,  18,  20  f.).  Moreover,  Moses  and  Aaron 
and  the  priests  are  summoned  to  the  top  of  the  mount  (in  v.  246 
render  "  thou  and  Aaron  with  thee,  and  the  priests:  but  let  not  the 
people,"  &c.).  Vv.  36-8,  which  have  been  expanded  by  a  Deutero- 
nomic editor,  have  been  transferred  from  their  original  context  after 
xx.  21 ;  the  introductory  verses  I,  20  form  part  of  P's  itinerary. 

Of  the  succeeding  legislation  in  xx.-xxiii.,  xxxii  .-xxxiv.,  un- 
doubtedly the  earlier  sections  are  xx.  22-26;  xxii.  29,  30;  xxiii. 
10-19,  and  xxxiv.  10-26,  which  contain  regulations  with  regard  to 
worship  and  religious  festivals,  and  form  the  basis  of  the  covenant 
made  by  Yahweh  with  Israel  on  Sinai-Horeb,  as  recorded  by  E  and  J 
respectively.  The  narrative  which  introduces  the  covenant  laws 
of  J  -has  been  preserved  partly  in  its  present  context,  ch.  xxxiv., 
partly  in  xxiv.  i,  2,  9-11;  the  narrative  of  E,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  in  part  disappeared  owing  to  the  interpolation  of  later  material, 
in  part  has  been  retained  in  xxiv.  3-8.  J's  narrative  xxiv.  i  f., 
9-1 1  clearly  forms  the  continuation  of  xix.  20  f.,  116,  13,  25,  but  the 
introductory  words  of  v.  I,  "  and  unto  Moses  he  said,"  point  to  some 
omission.  Originally,  no  doubt,  it  included  the  recital  of  the  divine 
instructions  to  the  people  in  accordance  with  xix.  21  f.,  116-13, 
the  statement  that  Yahweh  came  down  on  the  third  day,  and  that  a 
long  blast  was  blown  on  the  trumpet  (or  ram's  horn  [^3S,  as  opposed 
to  lev  E]).  From  xxiv.  I  f.  we  learn  that  Moses  and  Aaron,  Nadab 
and  Abihu,  and  seventy  of  the  elders  were  summoned  to  the  top 


76 


EXODUS,  BOOK  OF 


of  the  mountain,  but  that  Moses  alone  was  permitted  to  approach 
Yahweh.  Then  followed  the  theophany,  and,  as  the  text  stands, 
the  sacrificial  meal  (g-n).1  The  conclusion  of  J's  narrative  is  given 
in  ch.  xxxiv.,2  which  describes  how  Moses  hewed  two  tables  of  stone 
at  Yahweh's  command,  and  went  up  to  the  top  of  the  mountain, 
where  he  received  the  words  of  the  covenant  and  wrote  them  on  the 
tables.  As  it  stands,  however,  this  chapter  represents  the  legislation 
which  it  contains  as  a  renewal  of  a  former  covenant,  also  written 
on  tables  of  stone,  which  had  been  broken  (ib,  40).  But  the  docu- 
ment from  which  the  chapter,  as  a  whole,  is  derived,  is  certainly  J, 
while  the  previous  references  to  tables  of  stone  and  to  Moses'  breaking 
them  belong  to  the  parallel  narrative  of  E.  Moreover,  the  covenant 
here  set  forth  (v.  10  f.)  is  clearly  a  new  one,  and  contains  no  hint 
of  any  previous  legislation,  nor  of  any  breach  of  it  by  the  people. 
In  view  of  these  facts  we  are  forced  to  conclude  that  16  ("  like  unto 
the  first  .  .  .  brakest  "),  40  ("  and  he  hewed  .  .  .  the  first  ")  and 
v.  28  ("  the  ten  words  ")  formed  no  part  of  the  original  narrative,3 
but  were  inserted  by  a  later  Deuteronomic  redactor.  In  the  view 
of  this  editor  the  Decalogue  alone  formed  the  basis  of  the  covenant 
at  Sinai- Horeb,  and  in  order  to  retain  J's  version,  he  represented  it 
as  a  renewal  of  the  tables  of  stone  which  Moses  had  broken.4 

The  legislation  contained  in  xxxiv.  10-26,  which  may  be  described 
as  the  oldest  legal  code  of  the  Hexateuch,  is  almost  entirely  religious. 
It  prohibits  the  making  of  molten  images  (v.  17),  the  use  of  leaven 
in  sacrifices  (250),  the  retention  of  the  sacrifice  until  the  morning 
(256),'  and  the  seething  of  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk  (266);  and 
enjoins  the  observance  of  the  thiee  annual  feasts  and  the  Sabbath 
(i8a,  21-23),  and  the  dedication  of  the  first-born  (19,  20,  derived 
from  xiii.  11-13)  and  of  the  first-fruits  (260). 

The  parallel  collection  of  E  is  preserved  in  xx.  24-26,  xxiii.  10-19, 
to  which  we  should  probably  add  xxii.  29-31  (for  which  xxiii.  190 
was  afterwards  substituted).  The  two  collections  resemble  one 
another  so  closely,  both  in  form  and  extent,  that  they  can  only  be 
regarded  as  two  versions  of  the  same  code.  E  has,  however,  pre- 
served certain  additional  regulations  with  regard  to  the  building  of 
altars  (xx.  24-26)  and  the  observance  of  the  seventh  year  (xxiii. 
10,  n),  and  omits  the  prohibition  of  molten  images  (xx.  22,  23, 
appear  to  be  the  work  of  a  redactor);  xxiii.  20-33,  the  promises 
attached  to  the  observance  of  the  covenant,  probably  formed  no 
part  of  the  original  code,  but  were  added  by  the  Deuteronomic 
redactor;  cf.  especially  w.  23-250,  27,  28,  316-33.  The  narrative  of 
E  relative  to  the  delivery  of  these  laws  has  disappeared,6  but  xxiv. 
3-8  (which  manifestly  nave  no  connexion  with  their  immediate 
context)  clearly  point  back  to  some  such  narrative.  These  verses 
describe  how  Moses  wrote  all  the  words  of  the  Lord  in  a  book  and 
recited  them  to  the  people  (v.  7)  as  the  basis  of  a  covenant,  which 
was  solemnly  ratified  by  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood  of  the  accompany- 
ing sacrifices. 

In  the  existing  text  the  covenant  laws  of  E  (xx.  24-26,  xxii.  29-31, 
xxiii.  10-19)  are  combined  with  a  mass  of  civil  and  other  legislation; 
hence  the  title  "  Book  of  the  Covenant  "  (referred  to  above,  xxiv.  7) 
has  usually  been  applied  to  the  whole  section,  xx.  22-xxiii.  33.  But 
this  section  includes  three  distinct  elements:  (a)  the  "  words  " 
(o'-mn)  found  in  xx.  24-26,  xxii.  29-31,  xxiii.  i-io;  (b)  the  "judg- 
ments "  (D'OWD-I),  xxi.  2-xxii.  17;  and  (c)  a  group  of  moral  and 
ethical  enactments,  xxii.  18-28,  xxiii.  1-9;  and  an  examination  of 
their  contents  makes  it  evident  that,  though  the  last  two  groups  are 
unmistakably  derived  from  E,  they  cannot  have  formed  part  of  the 
original  "  Book  of  the  Covenant";  for  the  "judgments,"  which 
are  expressed  in  a  hypothetical  form,  consist  of  a  number  of  legal 
decisions  on  points  of  civil  law.  The  cases  dealt  with  fall  into  -five 
divisions:  (i)  The  rights  of  slaves,  xxi.  2-1 1 ;  (2)  capital  offences, 
xxi.  12-16  (v.  17  has  probably  been  added  later) ;  (3)  injuries  inflicted 
by  man  or  beast,  xxi.  18-32;  (4)  losses  incurred  by  culpable 
negligence  or  theft,  xxi.  33-xxii.  6;  (5)  cases  arising  out  of  deposits, 
loans,  seduction,  xxii.  7-17.  It  is  obvious,  from  their  very  nature, 
that  these  legal  precedents  could  not  have  been  included  in  the 
covenant  which  the  people  (xxiv.  3)  promised  to  observe,  and  it  is 

1  Unless  we  follow  Riedel  and  read  simply  "  and  worshipped  " 
(vnnr-i)  instead  of  "  and  drank  "  (wwn),  treating  "  and  ate " 
(I^KI)  as  a  later  addition ;  cf.  HDB,  extra  vol.  p.  631  note. 

1  Vv.  6-9  are  out  of  place  here :  they  belong  to  the  story  of  Moses' 
intercession  in  ch.  xxxiii. 

*  This  view  is  confirmed  by  (a)  a  comparison  of  v.  ib  ("  and  I  will 
write")  with  w.  27,  28;  according  to  the  latter,  Moses  wrote  the 
words  of  the  covenant;  and  (b)  the  tardy  mention  of  Moses  in  46; 
the  name  would  naturally  be  given  at  the  beginning  of  the  verse. 

4  Others  suppose  that  the  present  position  of  ch.  xxxiv.  is  due,  in 
the  first  instance,  to  RJE,  but  in  view  of  the  other  Deuteronomic 
expansions  in  w.  106-16,  23,  24,  it  is  more  probable  that  J's  version 
was  discarded  by  RJE  in  favour  of  E's,  and  was  afterwards  restored 
by  RD. 

5  Reading  "  the  sacrifice  of  my  feasts  "  for  "  the  sacrifice  of  the 
feast  of  the  Passover." 

6  Unless,  with  Bacon,  we  are  to  regard  xxiv.  12-14,  J86  as  original. 
More  probably  a  later  editor  has  worked  up  old  material  of  E  (of 
which  there  are  unmistakable  traces)  in  order  to  include  the  whole 
of  xx.-xxiii.  in  the  covenant:  xxiv.  15-180  are  an  addition  from  P. 


now  generally  admitted  that  the  words  "  and  the  judgments  " 
(which  are  missing  in  c.  I  6)  have  been  inserted  in  xxiv.  30  by  the 
redactor  to  whom  the  present  position  of  the  "  judgments  "  is  due.7 
The^  majority  of  critics,  therefore,  adopt  Kuenen's  conjecture  that 
the  "  judgments  "  were  originally  delivered  by  Moses  on  the  borders 
of  Moab,  and  that  when  D's  revised  version  of  Ex.  xxi. -xxiii.  was 
combined  with  IE,  the  older  code  was  placed  alongside  of  E's  other 
legislation  at  Horeb.  The  third  group  of  laws  (xxii.  18-28,  xxiii. 
1-9)  appears  to  have  been  added  somewhat  later  than  the  bulk  of 
xxi.-xxiii.  Some  of  the  regulations  are  couched  in  hypothetical  form, 
but  their  contents  are  of  a  different  character  to  the  "  judgments," 
e.g.  xxii.  25  f.,  xxiii.  4  f. ;  others,  again,  are  of  a  similar  nature,  but 
differ  in  form,  e.g.  xxii.  18  f.  Lastly,  xxii.  20-24,  xxiii.  1-3  set  forth 
a  number  of  moral  injunctions  affecting  the  individual,  which  cannot 
have  found  place  in  a  civil  code.  At  the  same  time,  these  additions 
must  for  the  most  part  be  prior  to  D,  since  many  of  them  are  included  in 
Deut.  xii.-xxvi.,  though  there  are  traces  of  Deuteronomic  revision. 

Now  it  is  obvious  that  the  results  obtained  by  the  foregoing 
analysis  of  J  and  E  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  history  of  the 
remaining  section  of  E's  legislation,  viz.  the  Decalogue  (q.v.),  Ex. 
xx.  1-17  (  =  Deut.  v.  6-2 1 ).  At  present  the  "Ten  Words"  stand 
in  the  forefront  of  E's  collection  of  laws,  and  it  is  evident  that  they 
were  already  found  in  that  position  by  the  author  of  Deuteronomy, 
who  treated  them  as  the  sole  basis  of  the  covenant  at  Horeb.  The 
evidence,  however,  afforded  (a)  by  the  parallel  version  of  Deutero- 
nomy and  (b)  by  the  literary  analysis  of  J  and  E  not  only  fails 
to  support  this  tradition,  but  excites  the  gravest  suspicions  as  to 
the  originality  both  of  the  form  and  of  the  position  in  which  the 
Decalogue  now  appears.  For  when  compared  with  Ex.  xx.  1-17 
the  parallel  version  of  Deut.  v.  6  ff.  is  found  to  exhibit  a  number 
of  variations,  and,  in  particular,  assigns  an  entirely  different  reason 
for  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath.  But  these  variations  are 
practically  limited  to  the  explanatory  comments  attached  to  the 
2nd,  4th,  5th  and  loth  commandments;  and  the  majority  of  critics 
are  now  agreed  that  these  comments  were  added  at  a  later  date, 
and  that  all  the  commandments,  like  the  ist  and  the  6th  to  the 
9th,  were  originally  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  single  short  sentence. 
This  view  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  the  additions,  or  comments, 
bear,  for  the  most  part,  a  close  resemblance  to  the  style  of  D.  They 
can  scarcely,  however,  have  been  transferred  from  Deuteronomy  to 
Exodus  (or  vice  versa),  owing  to  the  variations  between  the  two 
versions:  we  must  rather  regard  them  as  the  work  of  a  Deuteronomic 
redactor.  But  the  expansion  and  revision  of  the  Decalogue  were 
not  limited  to  the  Deuteronomic  school.  Literary  traces  pfj  and  E 
in  the  2nd,  3rd,  4th  and  ipth  commandments  point  to  earlier  activity 
on  the  part  of  RJE,  while  the  addition  of  v.  n,  which  bases  the 
observance  of  the  Sabbath  on  P  's  narrative  of  the  Creation  (Gen.  ii. 
1-3),  can  only  be  ascribed  to  a  priestly  writer:  its  absence  from 
Deut.  v.  6  ff.  is  otherwise  inexplicable.  Thus  the  Decalogue,  as 
given  in  Exodus,  would  seem  to  have  passed  through  at  least  three 
stages  before  it  assumed  its  present  form.  But  even  in  its  original 
form  it  could  hardly  have  formed  part  of  E's  Horeb  legislation; 
for  (a)  both  J  and  E  have  preserved  a  different  collection  of  laws 
(or  "  words  )  inscribed  by  Moses,  which  are  definitely  set  forth 
as  the  basis  of  the  covenant  at  Sinai-Horeb  (Ex.  xxxiv.  10,  xxiv. 
3  f.),  and  (b)  the  further  legislation  of  E  in  ch.  xx.-xxiii.  affords 
close  parallels  to  all  the  commandments  (except  the  7th  and  the 
loth),  and  a  comparison  of  the  two  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  which  is 
the  more  primitive.  Hence  we  can  only  conclude  that  the  Decalogue, 
in  its  original  short  form,  came  into  existence  during  the  period  after 
the  completion  of  E,  but  before  the  promulgation  of  Deuteronomy. 
Its  present  position  is,  doubtless,  to  be  ascribed  to  a  redactor  who 
was  influenced  by  the  same  conception  as  the  author  of  Deuteronomy. 
This  redactor,  however,  did  not  limit  the  Horeb  covenant  to  the 
Decalogue,  but  retained  E's  legislation  alongside  of  it.  The  insertion 
of  the  Decalogue,  or  rather  the  point  of  view  which  prompted  its 
insertion,  naturally  involved  certain  consequential  changes  of  the 
existing  text.  The  most  important  of  these,  viz.  the  harmonistic 
additions  to  ch.  xxxiv.,  by  means  of  which  J's  version  of  the  covenant 
was  represented  as  a  renewal  of  the  Decalogue,  has  already  been  dis- 
cussed; other  passages  which  show  traces  of  similar  revision  are 
xxiv.  12-150,  1 86,  and  xxxiv.  1-6. 

The  confusion  introduced  into  the  legislation  by  later  additions, 
with  the  consequent  displacement  of  earlier  material,  has  not  been 
without  effect  on  the  narratives  belonging  to  the  different  sources. 
Hence  the  sequence  of  events  after  the  completion  of  the  covenant 
on  Sinai-Horeb  is  not  always  easy  to  trace,  though  indications  are 
not  wanting  in  both  J  and  E  of  the  probable  course  of  the  history. 
The  two  main  incidents  that  precede  the  departure  of  the  children 
of  Israel  from  the  mountain  (Num.  x.  29  ff.)  are  (l)  the  sin  of  the 
people,  and  (2)  the  intercession  of  Moses,  of  both  of  which  a  double 
account  has  been  preserved. 


7  The  present  text  of  xxiv.  12  also  has  probably  been  transposed 
in  accordance  with  the  view  that  the  "  judgment  "  formed  part  of 
the  covenant,  cf.  Deut.  v.  31.  Originally  the  latter  part  of  the  verse 
must  have  run,  "  That  I  may  give  thee  the  tables  of  stone  which  I 
have  written,  and  may  teach  thee  the  law  and  the  commandment.  " 
For  further  details  see  Bacon,  Triple  Tradition  of  Exodus,  pp. 
ill  f.,  132  f. 


EXODUS 


77 


(1)  The  Sin  of  the  People. — According  to  J   (xxxii.  25-29)  the 
people,  during  the  absence  of  Moses,  "  break  loose,"  i.e.  mutiny. 
Their  behaviour  excites  the  anger  of  Moses  on  his  return,  and  in 
response  to  his  appeal  the  sons  of  Levi  arm  themselves  and  slay  a 
large  number  of  the  people :  as  a  reward  for  their  services  they  are 
bidden  to  consecrate  themselves  to  Yahweh.     The  fragmentary  form 
of  the  narrative — we  miss  especially  a  fuller  account  of  the  "  breaking 
loose  " — is  doubtless  due  to  the  latter  editor,  who  substituted  the 
story  of  the  golden  calf  (xxxii.  1-6,  15-24,  35),  according  to  which  the 
sin  of  the  people  consisted  in  direct  violation  of  the  2nd  command- 
ment.    At  the  instigation  of  the  people  Aaron  makes  a  molten  calf 
out  of  the  golden  ornaments  brought  from  Egypt ;  Moses  and  Joshua, 
on  their  return  to  the  camp,  find  the  people  holding  festival  in  honour 
of  the  occasion;  Moses  in  his  anger  breaks  the  tables  of  the  covenant 
which  he  is  carrying:   he  then  demolishes  the  golden  calf,  and  ad- 
ministers a  severe  rebuke  to  Aaron.     The  punishment  of  the  people 
is  briefly  recorded  in  v.  35.     This  latter  narrative,  which  is  obviously 
inconsistent  with  the  story  of  J,  shows  unmistakable  traces  of  E. 
In  its  present  form,  however,  it  can  hardly  be  original,  but  must 
have   been   revised   in   accordance   with   the   later   Deuteronomic 
conception  which  represented  the  sin  committed  by  the  people  as 
a  breach  of  the  2nd  commandment.     Possibly  ro.  7-14  are  also  to  be 
treated  as  a  Deuteronomic  expansion  (cf.  Deut.  ix.  12-14).     Though 
they  show  clear  traces  of  J,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  fit  them 
into  that  narrative  in  view  of  Moses'  action  in  w.  25-29  and  of  his 
intercession  in  ch.  xxxiii. ;  in  any  case,  w.  8  and  13  must  be  regarded 
as  redactional. 

(2)  Moses'  Intercession. — The  time  for  departure  from  the  Sacred 
Mount  had  now  arrived,  and  Moses  is  accordingly  bidden  to  lead 
the  people  to  the  promised  land.     Yahweh  himself  refuses  to  accom- 
pany Israel  owing  to  their  disobedience,  but  in  response  to  Moses' 
passionate  appeal  finally  consents  to  let  his  presence  go  with  them. 
The  account  of  Moses'  intercession  has  been  preserved  in  J,  though 
the  narrative  has  undergone  considerable  dislocation.     The  true 
sequence  of  the  narrative  appears  to  be  as  follows:  Moses  is  com- 
manded to  lead  the  people  to  Canaan  (xxxiii.  1-3);  he  pleads  that 
he  is  unequal  to  the  task  (Num.  xi.  loc,  n,  12,  14,  15),  and,  presum- 
ably, asks  for  assistance,  which  is  promised  (omitted).     Moses  then 
asks  for  a  fuller  knowledge  of  Yahweh  and  his  ways  (xxxiii.  12,  13) : 
this  request  also  is  granted  (v.  17),  and  he  is  emboldened  to  pray  that 
he  may  see  the  glory  of  Yahweh;  Yahweh  replies  that  his  prayer 
can  only  be  granted  in  part,  for  "  man  shall  not  see  me  and  live  "; 
a  partial  revelation  is  then  vouchsafed  to  Moses  (xxxiii.   18-23, 
xxxiv.  6-8) :  finally,  Moses  beseeches  Yahweh  to  go  in  the  midst 
of  his  people,  and  is  assured  that  Yahweh's  presence  shall  accompany 
them   (xxxiv.  9,  xxxiii.    14-16).     The  passage  from  Numbers  xi., 
which  is  here  included,  is  obviously  out  of  place  in  its  present  context 
(the  story  of  the  quails),  and  supplies  in  part  the  necessary  ante- 
cedent to  Ex.  xxxiii.  12,  13;  the  passage  is  now  separated  from 
Ex.  xxxiii.  by  Ex.  xxxiv.  (J),  which  has  been  wrongly  transferred  to 
the  close  of  the  Horeb-Sinai  incidents  (see  above),  and  by  the  priestly 
legislation  of  Ex.  xxxv.— xl.,  Leviticus  and  Num.  i.— x. ;  but  originally 
it  must  have  stood  in  close  connexion  with  that  chapter.     A  similar 
displacement  has  taken  place  with  regard  to  Ex.  xxxiv.  6-9,  which 
clearly  forms  the  sequel  to  xxxiii.  17-23.     The  latter  passage,  how- 
ever, can  hardly  represent  the  conclusion  of  the  interview,  which 
is  found  more  naturally  in  xxxiii.   I^.-i6.     E's  account  of  Moses' 
intercession  seems  to  have  been  retained,  in  part,  in  xxxii.  30-34, 
but  the  passage  has  probably  been  revised  by  a  later  hand;  in  any 
case  its  position  before  instead  of  after  the  dismissal  would  seem  to 
be  redactional. 

It  is  a  pjausible  conjecture  that  the  original  narratives  of  J  and  E 
also  contained  directions  for  the  construction  of  an  ark,1  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  personal  presence  of  Yahweh,  and  also  for  the  erection 
of  a  "  tent  of  meeting  "  outside  the  camp,  and  that  these  commands 
were  omitted  by  R^  in  favour  of  the  more  elaborate  instructions 
given  in  ch.  xxv.-xxix.  (P).  The  subsequent  narrative  of  J  (Num. 
x-  33-36,  xiv.  44)  implies  an  account  of  the  making  of  the  ark,  while 
the  remarkable  description  in  Ex.  xxxiii.  7-11  (E)  of  Moses'  practice 
in  regard  to  the  "  tent  of  meeting  "  points  no  less  clearly  to  some 
earlier  statement  as  to  the  making  of  this  tent. 

The  history  of  Exodus  in  its  original  form  doubtless  concluded 
with  the  visit  of  Moses'  father-in-law  and  the  appointment  of  judges 
(ch.  xviii.),  the  departure  from  the  mountain  and  the  battle  with 
Amalek  (xvii.  8-16). 

(c)  The  Construction  of  the  Tabernacle  and  its  Furniture  (ch.  xxv.- 
xxxi.,  xxxv.— xl.). — It  has  long  been  recognized  that  the  elaborate 
description  of  the  Tabernacle  and  its  furniture,  and  the  accompanying 
directions  for  the  dress  and  consecration  of  the  priests,  contained  in 
ch.  xxv.-xxxi.,  have  no  claim  to  be  regarded  as  an  historical  present- 
ment of  the  Mosaic  Tabernacle  and  its  service.  The  language, 
style  and  contents  of  this  section  point  unmistakably  to  the  hand  of 
P;  and  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  these  chapters  form 
part  of  an  ideal  representation  of  the  post-exilic  ritual  system, 
which  has  been  transferred  to  the  Mosaic  age.  According  to  this 

1  According  to  Deut.  x.  I  f.,  which  is  in  the  main  a  verbal  excerpt 
from  Ex.  xxxiv.  I  f.,  Yahweh  ordered  Moses  to  make  an  ark  of  acacia 
wood  before  he  ascended  the  mountain. 


representation,  Moses,  on  the  seventh  day  after  the  conclusion  of 
the  covenant,  was  summoned  to  the  top  of  the  mountain,  and  there 
received  instructions  with  regard  to  (a)  the  furniture  of  the  sanctuary, 
viz.  the  ark,  the  table  and  the  lamp-stand  (ch.  xxv.) ;  (6)  the  Tabernacle 
(ch.  xxvi.) ;  (c)  the  court  of  the  Tabernacle  and  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering  (ch.  xxvii.) ;  (d)  the  dress  of  the  priests  (ch.  xxviii.) ;  (e)  the 
consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  (xxix.  1-37);  and  (/)  the  daily 
burnt-offering  (xxix.  38-42) :  the  section  ends  with  a  formal  con- 
clusion (xxix.  43-46).  The  two  following  chapters  contain  further 
instructions  relative  to  the  altar  of  incense  (xxx.  i-io),  the  payment 
of  the  half-shekel  (11-16),  the  brazen  laver  (17-21),  the  anointing  oil 
(22-33),  the  incense  (34-38),  the  appointment  of  Bezaleel  and  Oholiab 
(xxxi.  i-n)  and  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  (12-17).  It 's  hardly 
doubtful,  however,  that  these  two  chapters  formed  no  part  of  P's 
original  legislation,  but  were  added  by  a  later  hand.2  For  (i)  the 
altar  of  incense  is  here  mentioned  for  the  first  time,  and  was  appar- 
ently unknown  to  the  author  of  ch.  xxv.-xxix.  Had  he  known  of  its 
existence,  he  could  hardly  have  failed  to  include  it  with  the  rest  of 
the  Tabernacle  furniture  in  ch.  xxvi.,  and  must  have  mentioned  it  at 
xxvi.  34  f.,  where  the  relative  positions  of  the  contents  of  the  Taber- 
nacle are  defined :  further,  the  ritual  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev. 
xvi.  referred  to  in  xxx.  10)  ignores  this  altar,  and  mentions  only  one 
altar  (cf.  "  the  altar,"  xxvii.  i),  viz.  that  of  burnt-offering;  (2)  the 
command  as  to  the  half-shekel  presupposes  the  census  of  Num.  i., 
and  appears  to  have  been  unknown  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
x.  32)  (Heb.  33) ;  (3)  the  instructions  as  to  the  brazen  laver  would 
naturally  be  expected  alongside  of  those  for  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering  in  ch.  xxvii. ;  (4)  the  following  section  relating  to  the  anoint- 
ing oil  presupposes  the  altar  of  incense  (v.  28),  and  further  extends 
the  ceremony  of  anointing  to  Aaron's  sons,  though,  elsewhere,  the 
ceremony  is  confined  to  Aaron  (xxix.  7,  Lev.  viii.  12),  cf.  the  title 
"anointed  priest"  applied  to  the  high  priest  (Lev.  iv.  3,  &c.); 
(5)  the  directions  for  compounding  the  incense  connect  naturally 
with  xxx.  i-io,  while  (6)  the  appointment  of  Bezaleel  and  Oholiah 
cannot  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  ch.  xxx.— xxxi.  The  concluding 
section  on  the  Sabbath  (xxxi.  12-17)  shows  marks  of  resemblance  to 
H  (Lev.  xvii.-xxvi.),  especially  in  w.  12-140,  which  appear  to  have 
been  expanded,  very  possibly  by  the  editor  who  inserted  the  passage. 
The  continuation  of  P's  narrative  is  given  in  xxxiv.  29-35,  which 
describe  Moses'  return  from  the  mount.  The  subsequent  chapters 
(xxxv.-xl.),  however,  can  hardly  belong  to  the  original  stratum  of  P, 
if  only  because  they  presuppose  ch.  xxx.,  xxxi.,  and  were  probably 
added  at  a  later  stage  than  the  latter  chapters.  They  narrate  how 
the  commands  of  ch.  xxv.— xxxi.  were  carried  out,  and  practically 
repeat  the  earlier  chapters  verbatim,  merely  the  tenses  being  changed, 
the  most  noticeable  omissions  being  xxvii.  20  f.  (oil  for  the  lamps), 
xxviii.  30  (Urim  and  Thummim),  xxix.  1-37  (the  consecration  of  the 
priests,  which  recurs  in  Lev.  viii.)  and  xxix.  38-42  (the  daily  burnt- 
offering).  Apart  from  the  omissions  the  most  striking  difference 
between  the  two  sections  is  the  variation  in  order,  the  different 
sections  of  ch.  xxv.-xxxi.  being  here  set  forth  in  their  natural  sequence. 
The  secondary  character  of  these  concluding  chapters  receives  con- 
siderable confirmation  from  a  comparison  of  the  Septuagint  text. 
For  this  version  exhibits  numerous  cases  of  variation,  both  as  regards 
order  and  contents,  from  the  Hebrew  text ;  moreover  the  translation, 
more  particularly  of  many  technical  terms,  differs  from  that  of  ch. 
xxv.— xxxi.,  and  seems  to  be  the  work  of  different  translators.  Hence 
it  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  the  final  recension  of  these  chapters 
had  not  been  completed  when  the  Alexandrine  version  was  made. 

AUTHORITIES. — In  addition  to  the  various  English  and  German 
commentaries  on  Exodus  included  under  the  head  of  the  Pentateuch, 
the  following  English  works  are  especially  worthy  of  mention: 
S.  R.  Driver,  Introd.  to  the  Literature  of  the  O.T.,  and  "  Exodus  "  in 
the  Camb.  Bible;  B.  W.  Bacon,  The  Triple  Tradition  of  the  Exodus 
(Hartford,  U.S.A.,  1894),  ?"d  A.  H.  McNeile,  The  Book  of  Exodus 
(Westminster  Commentaries)  (1908) ;  also  the  articles  on  "  Exodus  " 
by  G.  Harford-Battersby  (Hastings,  Diet.  Bib.  vol.  i.)  and  by  G.  F. 
Moore,  Ency.  Biblica,  vol.  ii.  (J.  F.  ST.) 

EXODUS,  THE,  the  name  given  to  the  journey  (Gr.  l£o$os)  of 
the  Israelites  from  Egypt  into  Palestine,  under  the  leadership 
of  Moses  and  Aaron,  as  described  in  the  books  of  the  Bible  from 
Exodus  to  Joshua.  These  books  contain  the  great  national  epic 
of  Judaism  relating  the  deliverance  of  the  people  from  bondage 
in  Egypt,  the  overthrow  of  the  pursuing  Pharaoh  and  his  army, 
the  divinely  guided  wanderings  through  the  wilderness  and  the 
final  entry  into  the  promised  land.  Careful  criticism  of  the 
narratives3  has  resulted  in  the  separation  of  later  accretions 
from  the  earliest  records,  and  the  tracing  of  the  elaboration  of 
older  traditions  under  the  influence  of  developing  religious  and 
social  institutions.  In  the  story  of  the  Exodus  there  have  been 
incorporated  codes  of  laws  and  institutions  which  were  to  be 
observed  by  the  descendants  of  the  Israelites  in  their  future 

1  To  the  same  hand  are  to  be  ascribed  also  xxvii.  6,  20,  21; 
xxviii.  41 ;  xxix.  21,  38-41. 

*  See  the  articles  on  the  books  in  question. 


EXODUS 


home,  and  these,  really  of  later  origin,  have  thus  been  thrown 
back  to  the  earlier  period  in  order  to  give  them  the  stamp  of 
authority.  So,  although  a  certain  amount  of  the  narrative 
could  date  from  the  days  of  Moses,  the  Exodus  story  has  been 
made  the  vehicle  for  the  aims  and  ideals  of  subsequent  ages, 
and  has  been  adapted  from  time  to  time  to  the  requirements 
of  later  stages  of  thought.  The  work  of  criticism  has  brought 
to  light  important  examples  of  fluctuating  tradition,  singular 
lacunae  in  some  places  and  unusual  wealth  of  tradition  in  others, 
and  has  demonstrated  that  much  of  that  which  had  long  been 
felt  to  be  impossible  and  incredible  was  due  to  writers  of  the 
post-exilic  age  many  centuries  after  the  presumed  date  of  the 
events. 

The  book  of  Genesis  'closes  with  the  migration  of  Jacob's 
family  into  Egypt  to  escape  the  famine  in  Canaan.  Jacob  died 
and  was  buried  in  Canaan  by  his  sons,  who,  however,  returned 
again  to  the  pastures  which  the  Egyptian  king  had  granted 
them  in  Goshen.  Their  brother  Joseph  on  his  death-bed  promised 
that  God  would  bring  them  to  the  land  promised  to  their  fore- 
fathers and  solemnly  adjured  them  to  carry  up  his  bones  (Gen.  I.). 
In  the  book  of  Exodus  the  family  has  become  a  people.1  The 
Pharaoh  is  hostile,  and  Yahweh,  the  Israelite  deity,  is  moved 
to  send  a  deliverer;  on  the  events  that  followed  see  EXODUS, 
BOOK  or;  MOSES.  It  has  been  thought  that  dynastic  changes 
occasioned  the  change  in  Egyptian  policy  (e.g.  the  expulsion  of 
the  Hyksos),  but  if  the  Israelites  built  Rameses  and  Pithom 
(Ex.  i.  n),  cities  which,  as  excavation  has  shown,  belong  to  the 
time  of  Rameses  II.  (i3th  century  B.C.),  earlier  dates  are  in- 
admissible. On  these  grounds  the  Exodus  may  have  taken 
place  under  one  of  his  successors,  and  since  Mineptah  or 
Merneptah  (son  of  Rameses) ,  in  relating  his  successes  in  Palestine, 
boasts  that  Ysiraal  is  desolated,  it  would  seem  that  the  Israelites 
had  already  returned.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  suggested 
that  when  Jacob  and  his  family  entered  Egypt,  some  Israelite 
tribes  had  remained  behind  and  that  it  is  to  these  that  Mineptah 's 
inscription  refers.  The  problem  is  complicated  by  the  fact  that, 
from  the  Egyptian  evidence,  not  only  was  there  at  this  time 
no  remarkable  emigration  of  oppressed  Hebrews,  but  Bedouin 
tribes  were  then  receiving  permission  to  enter  Egypt  and  to 
feed  their  flocks  upon  Egyptian  soil.  It  might  be  assumed  that 
the  Israelites  (or  at  least  those  who  had  not  remained  behind 
in  Palestine)  effected  their  departure  at  a  somewhat  later  date, 
and  in  the  time  of  Mineptah's  successor,  Seti  II.,  there  is  an 
Egyptian  report  of  the  pursuit  of  some  fugitive  slaves  over  the 
eastern  frontier.  The  value  of  all  such  evidence  will  naturally 
depend  largely  upon  the  estimate  formed  of  the  biblical  narra- 
tives, but  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that  these  have  not  yet 
found  Egyptian  testimony  to  support  them.  Although  the 
information  which  has  been  brought  to  bear  upon  Egyptian  life 
and  customs  substantiates  the  general  accuracy  of  the  local 
colouring  in  some  of  the  biblical  narratives,  the  latter  contain 
several  inherent  improbabilities,  and  whatever  future  research 
may  yield,  no  definite  trace  of  Egyptian  influence  has  so  far 
been  found  in  Israelite  institutions. 

No  allusions  to  Israelites  in  Egypt  have  yet  been  found  on  the 
monuments;  against  the  view  that  the  Aperiu  (or  Apury)  of  the 
inscriptions  were  Hebrews,  see  S.  R.  Driver  in  D.  G.  Hogarth, 
Authority  and  Archaeology,  pp.  56  sqq.;  H.  W.  Hogg,  Ency.  Bib.  col. 
1310.  The  plagues  of  Egypt  have  been  shown  to  be  those  to  which 
the  land  is  naturally  subject  (R.  Thomson,  Plagues  of  Egypt),  but 
the  description  of  the  relations  of  Moses  and  Aaron  to  the  court 
raises  many  difficult  questions  (H.  P.  Smith,  O.T.  Hist.  pp.  57-60). 
Those  who  reject  Ex.  i.  1 1  and  hold  that  480  years  elapsed  between 
the  Exodus  and  the  foundation  of  the  temple  (i  Kings  vi.  I,  see 
BIBLE:  Chronology)  place  the  former  about  the  time  of  Tethmosis 
(Thothmes)  IIJ.,  and  suppose  that  the  hostile  Habiri  (Khabiri)  who 

1  There  is  a  lacuna  between  the  oldest  traditions  in  Genesis  and 
those  in  Exodus:  the  latter  beginning  simply  "  and  there  arose  a 
new  king  over  Egypt  which  knew  not  Joseph.  '  The  interval  between 
Jacob's  arrival  in  Egypt  and  the  Exodus  is  given  varyingly  as  400 
or  430  years  (Gen.  xv.  13,  Ex.  xii.  40  seq.,  Acts  vii.  6);  but  the 
Samaritan  and  Septuagint  versions  allow  only  2 1 5  years  (Ex.  loc.  cit. ), 
and  a  period  of  only  four  generations  is  presupposed  in  Gen.  xv.  1 6 
(cf.  the  length  of  the  genealogies  between  the  contemporaries  of 
Joseph  and  those  of  Moses  in  Ex.  vi.  16-20). 


troubled  Palestine  in  the  isth  century  are  no  other  than  Hebrews 
(the  equation  is  philologically  sound),  i.e.  the  invading  Israelites.2 
But  although  the  evidence  of  the  Amarna  tablets  might  thus  support 
the  biblical  tradition  in  its  barest  outlines,  the  view  in  question,  if 
correct,  would  necessitate  the  rejection  of  a  great  mass  of  the  biblical 
narratives  as  a  whole. 

In  the  absence  of  external  evidence  the  study  of  the  Exodus 
of  the  Israelites  must  be  based  upon  the  Israelite  records,  and 
divergent  or  contradictory  views  must  be  carefully  noticed. 
Regarded  simply  as  a  journey  from  Egypt  into  Palestine  it  is  the 
most  probable  of  occurrences:  the  difficulty  arises  from  the 
actual  narratives.  The  first  stage  is  the  escape  from  the  land  of 
Goshen  (q.v.),  the  district  allotted  to  the  family  of  Jacob  (Gen. 
xlvi.  28-34,  xlvii.  i,  4,  6).3  As  to  the  route  taken  across  the 
Red  Sea  (Yam  Suph)  scholars  are  no^ agreed  (see  W.  M.  Mtiller, 
Ency.  Bib.  col.  1436  sqq.);  it  depends  upon  the  view  held 
regarding  the  second  stage  of  the  journey,  the  road  to  the 
mountain  of  Sinai  or  Horeb  and  thence  to  Kadesh.  The  last- 
mentioned  place  is  identified  with  Ain  Kadis,  about  50  m.  south 
of  Beersheba;  but  the  identification  of  the  mountain  is  uncertain, 
and  it  is  possible  that  tradition  confused  two  distinct  places. 
According  to  one  favourite  view,  the  journey  was  taken  across 
the  Sinaitic  peninsula  to  Midian,  the  home  of  Jethro.  Others 
plead  strongly  for  the  traditional  site  Jebel  Musa  or  Serbal  in 
the  south  of  the  peninsula  (see  J.  R.  Harris,  Diet.  Bible,  iv. 
pp.  536  sqq.;  H.  Winckler,  Ency.  Bib.  col.  4641).  The  latter 
view  implies  that  the  oppressed  Israelites  left  Egypt  for  one 
of  its  dependencies,  and  both  theories  find  only  conjectural 
identifications  in  the  various  stations  recorded  in  Num.  xxxiii. 
But  this  list  of  forty  names,  corresponding  to  the  years  of 
wandering,  is  from  a  post-exilic  source,  and  may  be  based 
merely  upon  a  knowledge  of  caravan-routes;  even  if  it  be  of 
older  origin,  it  is  of  secondary  value  since  it  represents  a  tradition 
differing  notably  from  that  in  the  earlier  narratives  themselves, 
and  these  on  inspection  confirm  Judg.  xi.  16  seq.,  where  the 
Israelites  proceed  immediately  to  Kadesh. 

Ex.  xvi.-xviii.  presuppose  a  settled  encampment  and  a  law- 
giving,  and  thus  belong  to  a  stage  after  Sinai  had  been  reached  (Ex. 
xix.  sqq.).  They  are  closely  related,  as  regards  subject  matter,  &c., 
to  the  narratives  in  Num.  x.  2g-xi.,  xx.  1-13  (Sinai  to  Kadesh), 
and  the  initial  step  is  the  recognition  that  the  latter  is  their  original 
context  (see  G.  F.  Moore,  Ency.  Bib.  col.  1443  [v.]).  Further, 
internal  peculiarities  associating  events  now  at  Sinai-Horeb  with 
those  at  Kadesh  support  the  view  that  Kadesh  was  their  true  scene, 
and  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  in  Ex.  xv.  22  seq.  the  Israelites  already 
reach  the  wilderness  of  Shur  and  accomplish  the  three  days'  journey 
which  had  been  their  original  aim  (cf.  Ex.  iii.  18,  v.  3,  viii.  27). 
The  wilderness  of  Shur  (Gen.  xvi.  7,  xx.  I ;  I  Sam.  xv.  7,  xxvii.  8) 
is  the  natural  scene  of  conflicts  with  Amalekites  (Ex.  xvii.  8  sqq.), 
and  its  sanctuary  of  Kadesh  or  En  Mishpat  ("  well  of  judgment," 
Gen.  xiv.  7)  was  doubtless  associated  with  traditions  of  the  giving 
of  statutes  and  ordinances.  The  detour  to  Sinai-Horeb  appears  to 
belong  to  a  later  stage  of  the  tradition,  and  is  connected  with  the 
introduction  of  laws  and  institutions  of  relatively  later  form.  It  is 
foreshadowed  by  the  injunction  to  avoid  the  direct  way  into  Palestine 
(see  Ex.  xiii.  17-10),  since  on  reaching  Kadesh  the  Israelites  would 
be  within  reach  of  hostile  tribes,  and  the  conflicts  which  it  was  pro- 
posed to  avoid  actually  ensued.4  The  forty  years  of  wandering  in 
the  wilderness  is  characteristic  of  the  Deuteronomic  and  post-exilic 
narratives; in  the  earlier  sources  the  fruitful  oasis  of  Kadesh  is  the 
centre,  and  even  after  the  tradition  of  a  detour  to  Sinai-Horeb  was 
developed,  only  a  brief  period  is  spent  at  the  holy  mountain. 

From  Kadesh  spies  were  sent  into  Palestine,  and  when  the 
people  were  dismayed  at  their  tidings  and  incurred  the  wrath 
of  Yahweh,  the  penalty  of  the  forty  years'  delay  was  pronounced 

2  See,  e.g.,  J.  Orr,  Problem  of  the  O.T.  pp.  422  sqq. ;  Ed.  Meyer,  Die 
Israeliten,  pp.  222  sqq.  Some,  too,  find  in  the  Amarna  tablets 
the  historicafbackground  for  Joseph's  high  position  at  the  Egyptian 
court  (see  Cheyne,  Ency.  Bib.  art.  "  Joseph  "). 

»  For  the  varying  traditions  regarding  the  number  of  the  people 
and  their  residence  (whether  settled  apart,  cf.,  e.g.,  Gen.  xlvi.  34, 
Ex.  viii.  22,  ix.  26,  x.  23,  or  in  the  midst  of  the  Egyptians)  see  the 
recent  commentaries. 

4  See  further  J.  Wellhausen,  Prolegomena,  pp.  342  sqq.;  G.  F. 
Moore,  Ency.  Bib.  col.  1443;  S.  A.  Cook,  Jew.  Quart.  Rev.  (1906), 
pp.  741  sqq.  (1907),  p.  122,  and  art.  MOSES.  Ex.  xiii.  17-19  forbids 
the  compromise  which  would  place  Sinai-Horeb  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Kadesh  (A.  E.  Haynes,  Pal.  Explor.  Fund,  Quart.  Statem. 
(1896),  pp.  175  sqq.;  C.  F.  Kent  [see  Lit.  below],  p.  381). 


EXOGAMY 


79 


(Num.  xiii.  seq.).  Originally  Caleb  alone  was  exempt  and  for 
his  faith  received  a  blessing;  later  tradition  adds  Joshua  and 
in  Deut.  i.  37  seq.  alludes  to  some  unknown  offence  of  Moses. 
According  to  Num.  xxi.  1-3  the  Israelites  (a  generalizing  ampli- 
fication) captured  Hormah,  on  the  way  to  Beersheba,  and 
subsequently  the  dan  Caleb  and  the  Kenites  (the  clan  of  Moses' 
father-in-law)  are  found  in  Judah  (Judg.  i.  16).  Although  the 
traditions  regard  their  efforts  as  part  of  a  common  movement 
(from  Gilgal,  see  below),  it  is  more  probable  that  these  (notably 
Caleb)  escaped  the  punishment  which  befell  the  rest  of  the 
Israelites,  and  made  their  way  direct  from  Kadesh  into  the 
south  of  Palestine.1  On  the  other  band,  according  to  the  pre- 
vailing tradition,  the  attempt  to  break  northwards  was  frustrated 
by  a  defeat  at  Hormah  (Num.  xiv.  40-45),  an  endeavour  to  pass 
Edom  failed,  and  the  people  turned  back  to  the  Yam  Suph  (here 
at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah)  and  proceeded  up  to  the 
east  of  Edom  and  Moab.  Conflicting  views  are  represented  (on 
which  see  MOAB),  but  at  length  Shitcim  was  reached  and  pre- 
parations were  made  to  cross  the  Jordan  into  the  promised  land. 
This  having  been  effected,  Gilgal  became  the  base  for  a  series  of 
operations  in  which  the  united  tribes  took  part.  But  again  the 
representations  disagree,  and  to  the  overwhelming  campaigns 
depicted  in  the  book  of  Joshua  most  critics  prefer  the  account 
of  the  more  gradual  process  as  related  in  the  opening  chapter  of 
the  book  of  Judges  (see  Jews :  History,  §  8) . 

Thus,  whatever  evidence  may  be  supplied  by  archaeological 
research,  the  problem  of  the  Exodus  must  always  be  studied  in 
the  light  of  the  biblical  narratives.  That  the  religious  life  of 
Israel  as  portrayed  therein  dates  from  this  remote  period  cannot 
be  maintained  against  the  results  of  excavation  or  against  the 
later  history,  nor  can  we  picture  a  united  people  in  the  desert 
when  subsequent  vicissitudes  represent  the  union  as  the  work  of 
many  years,  and  show  that  it  lasted  for  a  short  time  only  under 
David  and  Solomon.  During  the  centuries  in  which  the  narratives 
were  taking  shape  many  profound  changes  occurred  to  affect 
the  traditions.  Developments  associated  with  the  Deuteronomic 
reform  and  the  reorganization  of  Judaism  in  post-exilic  days 
can  be  unmistakably  recognized,  and  it  would  be  unsafe  to 
assume  that  other  vicissitudes  have  not  also  left  their  mark. 
Allowance  must  be  made  for  the  shifting  of  boundaries  or  of 
spheres  of  influence  (Egypt,  Edom,  Moab),  for  the  incorporation 
of  tribes  and  of  their  own  tribal  traditions,  and  in  particular 
for  other  movements  (e.g.  from  Arabia).2  If  certain  clans 
moved  direct  from  Kadesh  into  Judah,  it  is  improbable  that 
others  made  the  lengthy  detour  from  Kadesh  by  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah,  but  this  may  well  be  an  attempt  to  fuse  the  traditions 
of  two  distinct  migrations.  Among  the  Joseph-tribes  (Ephraim 
and  Manasseh),  the  most  important  of  Israelite  divisions,  the 
traditions  of  an  ancestor  who  had  lived  and  died  in  Egypt 
would  be  a  cherished  possession,  but  although  most  writers 
agree  that  not  all  the  tribes  were  in  Egypt,  it  is  impossible  to 
determine  their  number  with  any  certainty.  At  certain 
periods,  intercourse  with  Egypt  was  especially  intimate,  and 
there  is  much  in  favour  of  the  view  that  the  name  Mizraim 
(Egypt)  extended  beyond  the  borders  of  Egypt  proper.  Refer- 
ence has  already  been  made  to  other  cases  of  geographical 
vagueness,  and  one  must  recognize  that  in  a  body  of  traditions 
such  as  this  there  was  room  for  the  inclusion  of  the  most  diverse 
elements  which  it  is  almost  hopeless  to  separate,  in  view  of  the 
scantiness  of  relevant  evidence  from  other  sources,  and  the 
literary  intricacy  of  the  extant  narratives.  That  many  different 
beliefs  have  influenced  the  tradition  is  apparent  from  what  has 
been  said  above,  and  is  especially  noticeable  from  a  study  of  the 
general  features.  Thus,  although  the  Israelites  possessed  cattle 
(Ex.  xvii.  3,  xix.  13,  xxiv.  5,  xxxii.  6,  xxxiv.  3;  Num.  xx.  19), 
allusion  is  made  to  their  lack  of  meat  in  order  to  magnify  the 
wonders  of  the  journey,  and  among  divinely  sent  aids  to  guide 

1  So  B.  Stade,  Steuernagel,  Guthe,  G.  F.  Moore,  H.  P.  Smith, 
C.  F.  Kent,  &c.  See  CALEB;  JERAHMEEL;  JUDAH;  KENITES; 
LEVITES;  and  JEWS:  History,  §§  5,  20  (end). 

1  An  instructive  parallel  to  the  last-mentioned  is  afforded  by 
Dissard's  account  of  the  migration  of  Arab  tribes  into  Palestine  in 
the  i8th  century  A.D.  (Revue  biblique,  July  1905). 


and  direct  the  people  upon  the  march  not  only  does  Moses 
require  the  assistance  of  a  human  helper  (Jethro  or  Hobab), 
but  the  angel,  the  ark,  the  pillar  of  cloud  and  of  fire  and  the 
mysterious  hornet  are  also  provided. 

In  addition  to  the  references  already  given,  see  J.  W.  Colenso, 
Pentateuch  and  Book  of  Joshua  (on  internal  difficulties) ;  A.  Jeremias, 
Alle  Test,  im  Lichte  d.  alt.  Orients*  (pp.  402  sqq.,  on  later  references 
in  Manetho,  &c.,  with  which  cf.  also  R.  H.  Charles,  Jubilees,  p. 
245  seq.);  art.  "Exodus"  in  Ency.  Bib.;  Ed.  Meyer,  Israeliten 
(passim);  Bonhoff,  Theolog.  Stud.  u.  Krit.  (1907),  pp.  159-217; 
the  histories  of  Israel  and  commentaries  on  the  book  of  Exodus. 
Among  the  numerous  special  works,  mention  may  be  made  of 
G.  Ebers,  Durch  Gosen  zum  Sinai;  E.  H.  Palmer,  Desert  of  the 
Exodus;  O.  A.  Toff  teen,  The  Historic  Exodus;  fuller  information  is 
given  in  L.  B.  Paton,  Hist,  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  p.  34  (also  ch.  viii.) ; 
and  C.  F.  Kent,  Beginnings  of  Heb.  Hist.  p.  355  seq.  (S.  A.  C.) 

EXOGAMY  (Gr.  e£o),  outside;  and  yapos,  marriage),  the  term 
proposed  by  J.  F.  McLennan  for  the  custom  compelling  marriage 
"  out  of  the  tribe  "  (or  rather  "  out  of  the  totem  ") ;  its  converse 
is  endogamy  (q.v.).  McLennan  would  find  an  explanation  of 
exogamy  in  the  prevalence  of  female  infanticide,  which,  "  render- 
ing women  scarce,  led  at  once  to  polyandry  within  the  tribe, 
and  the  capturing  of  women  from  without."  Infanticide  of 
girls  is,  and  no  doubt  ever  has  been,  a  very  common  practice 
among  savages,  and  for  obvious  reasons.  Among  tribes  in  a 
primitive  stage  of  social  organization  girl-children  must  always 
have  been  a  hindrance  and  a  source  of  weakness.  They  had  to  be 
fed  and  yet  they  could  not  take  part  in  the  hunt  for  food,  and  they 
offered  a  temptation  to  neighbouring  tribes.  Infanticide,  how- 
ever, is  not  proved  to  have  been  so  universal  as  McLennan 
suggests,  and  it  is  more  probable  that  the  reason  of  exogamy  is 
really  to  be  found  in  that  primitive  social  system  which  made 
the  "  captured  "  woman  the  only  wife  in  the  modern  sense  of 
the  term.  In  the  beginnings  of  human  society  children  were 
related  only  to  their  mother;  and  the  women  of  a  tribe  were 
common  property.  Thus  no  man  might  appropriate  any  female 
or  attempt  to  maintain  proprietary  rights  over  her.  With  women 
of  other  tribes  it  would  be  different,  and  a  warrior  who  captured 
a  woman  would  doubtless  pass  unchallenged  in  his  claim  to 
possess  her  absolutely.  Infanticide,  the  evil  physical  effects  of 
"  in-and-in  "  breeding,  the  natural  strength  of  the  impulse  to 
possess  on  the  man's  part,  and  the  greater  feeling  of  security 
and  a  tendency  to  family  life  and  affections  on  the  woman's, 
would  combine  to  make  exogamy  increase  and  marriages  within 
the  tribe  decrease.  A  natural  impulse  would  in  a  few  generations 
tend  to  become  a  law  or  a  custom,  the  violation  of  which  would  be 
looked  on  with  horror.  Physical  capture,  too,  as  soon  as  in- 
creasing civilization  and  tribal  intercommunication  removed  the 
necessity  for  violence,  became  symbolic  of  the  more  permanent 
and  individual  relations  of  the  sexes.  An  additional  explanation 
of  the  prevalence  of  exogamy  may '  be  found  in  the  natural 
tendency  of  exogamous  tribes  to  increase  in  numbers  and 
strength  at  the  expense  of  those  communities  which  moved 
towards  decadence  by  in-breeding.  Thus  tradition  would 
harden  into  a  prejudice,  strong  as  a  principle  of  religion,  and 
exogamy  would  become  the  inviolable  custom  it  is  found  to  be 
among  many  races.  In  Australia,  Sir  G.  Grey  writes:  "  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  facts  connected  with  the  natives  is  that 
they  are  divided  into  certain  great  families,  all  the  members  of 
which  bear  the  same  name  .  .  .  these  family  names  are  common 
over  a  great  portion  of  the  continent  and  a  man  cannot  marry 
a  woman  of  his  own  family  name."  In  eastern  Africa,  Sir  R. 
Burton  says:  "  The  Somal  will  not  marry  one  of  the  same,  or 
even  of  a  consanguineous  family,"  and  the  Bakalahari  have  the 
same  rule.  Paul  B .  du  Chaillu  found  exogamy  the  rule  and  blood 
marriages  regarded  as  an  abomination  throughout  western 
Equatorial  Africa.  In  India  the  Khasias,  Juangs,  Waralis, 
Oraons,  Hos  and  other  tribes  are  strictly  exogamous.  The 
Kalmucks  are  divided  into  hordes,  and  no  man  may  marry  a 
woman  of  the  same  horde.  Circassians  and  Samoyedes  have 
similar  rules.  The  Ostiaks  regard  endogamy  (marriage  within 
the  clan)  as  a  crime,  as  do  the  Yakuts  of  Siberia.  Among 
the  Indians  of  America  severe  rules  prescribing  exogamy  prevail. 
The  Tsimsheean  Indians  of  British  Columbia  are  divided  into 


8o 


EXORCISM— EXPERT 


tribes  and  totems,  or  "  crests  which  are  common  to  all  the  tribes," 
says  one  writer.  "  The  crests  are  the  whale,  the  porpoise,  the 
eagle,  the  coon,  the  wolf  and  the  frog.  .  .  .  The  relationship 
existing  between  persons  of  the  same  crest  is  nearer  than  that 
between  members  of  the  same  tribe.  .  .  .  Members  of  the  same 
tribe  may  marry,  but  those  of  the  same  crest  are  not  allowed  to 
under  any  circumstances;  that  is,  a  whale  may  not  marry  a 
whale,  but  a  whale  may  marry  a  frog,  &c."  The  Thlinkeets, 
the  Mayas  of  Yucatan  and  the  Indians  of  Guiana  are  exogamous, 
observing  a  custom  which  is  thus  seen  to  exist  throughout  Africa, 
in  Siberia,  China,  India,  Polynesia  and  the  Americas. 

AUTHORITIES. — J.  F.  McLennan,  Primitive  Marriage  (1865),  and 
Studies  in  Anc.  Hist.  (1896);  Lord  Avebury,  Origin  of  Civilization 
(1902);  Westermarck,  History  of  Human  Marriage  (1894);  A.  Lang, 
Social  Origins  (1903);  L.  H.  Morgan,  Ancient  Society  (1877);  J.  G. 
Frazer,  Totemism  and  Exogamy  (1910);  see  also  TOTEM. 

EXORCISM  (Gr.  e£opwfew',  to  conjure  out),  the  expulsion 
of  evil  spirits  from  persons  or  places  by  incantations,  magical 
rites  or  other  means.  As  a  corollary  of  the  animistic  theory  of 
diseases  and  of  belief  in  Possession  (q.v.),  we  find  widely  spread 
customs  whose  object  is  to  get  rid  of  tne  evil  influen  :es.  These 
customs  may  take  the  form  of  a  general  expulsion  of  evils, 
either  once  a  year  or  at  irregular  intervals;  the  evils,  which  are 
often  regarded  as  spirits,  sometimes  as  the  souls  of  the  dead, 
may  be  expelled,  according  to  primitive  philosophy,  either 
immediately  by  spells,  purifications  or  some  form  of  coercion; 
or  they  may  be  put  on  the  back  of  a  scapegoat  or  other  material 
vehicle.  Among  the  means  of  compelling  the  evil  spirits  are 
assaults  with  warlike  weapons  or  sticks,  the  noise  of  musical 
instruments  or  of  the  human  voice,  the  use  of  masks,  the  invoca- 
tion of  more  powerful  good  spirits,  &c. ;  both  fire  and  water  are 
used  to  drive  them  out,  and  the  use  of  iron  is  a  common  means 
of  holding  them  at  bay. 

The  term  exorcism  is  applied  more  especially  to  the  freeing 
of  an  individual  from  a  possessing  or  disease-causing  spirit; 
the  means  adopted  are  frequently  the  same  as  those  mentioned 
above;  in  the  East  Indies  the  sufferer  sometimes  dances  round 
a  small  ship,  into  which  the  spirit  passes  and  is  then  set  adrift. 
The  patient  may  be  beaten  or  means  may  be  employed  whose 
efficiency  depends  largely  on  their  suggestive  nature.  Among 
the  Dakota  Indians  the  medicine-man  chants  hi-le-li-lah!  at  the 
bed  of  the  sick  man  and  accompanies  his  chant  with  the  rattle; 
he  then  sucks  at  the  affected  part  till  the  possessing  spirit  is 
supposed  to  come  out  and  take  its  flight,  when  men  fire  guns  at  it 
from  the  door  of  the  tent.  The  Zulus  believe  that  they  can  get  rid 
of  the  souls  of  the  dead,  which  cause  diseases,  by  sacrifices  of 
cattle,  or  by  expostulating  with  the  spirits;  so  too  the  shaman  or 
magician  in  other  parts  of  the  world  offers  the  possessing  spirit 
objects  or  animals. 

The  professional  exorcist  was  known  among  the  Jews;  in 
Greece  the  art  was  practised  by  women,  and  it  is  recorded  that 
the  mothers  of  Epicurus  and  Aeschines  belonged  to  this  class; 
both  were  bitterly  reproached,  the  one  by  the  Stoics,  the  other 
by  Demosthenes,  with  having  taken  part  in  the  practices  in 
question.  The  prominence  of  exorcism  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
Christian  church  appears  from  its  frequent  mention  in  the 
writings  of  the  fathers,  and  by  the  3rd  century  there  was  an  order 
of  exorcists  (see  EXORCIST).  The  ancient  rite  of  exorcism  in 
connexion  with  baptism  is  still  retained  in  the  Roman  ritual,  as 
is  also  a  form  of  service  for  the  exorcising  of  possessed  persons. 
The  exorcist  signs  the  possessed  person  with  the  figure  of  the 
cross,  desires  him  to  kneel,  and  sprinkles  him  with  holy  water; 
after  which  the  exorcist  asks  the  devil  his  name,  and  abjures  him 
by  the  holy  mysteries  of  the  Christian  religion  not  to  afflict  the 
person  possessed  any  more.  Then,  laying  his  right  hand  on  the 
demoniac's  head,  he  repeats  the  form  of  exorcism  as  follows: 
"I  exorcise  thee,  unclean  spirit,  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ; 
tremble,  O  Satan,  thou  enemy  of  the  faith,  thou  foe  of  mankind, 
who  hast  brought  death  into  the  world,  who  hast  deprived  men 
of  life,  and  hast  rebelled  against  justice,  thou  seducer  of  mankind, 
thou  root  of  evil,  thou  source  of  avarice,  discord  and  envy." 
•Houses  and  other  places  supposed  to  be  haunted  by  unclean 


spirits  are  likewise  to  be  exorcised  with  similar  rites,  and  in  general 
exorcism  has  a  place  in  all  the  ceremonies  for  consecrating  and 
blessing  persons  or  things  (see  BENEDICTION). 

See  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture;  Skeat,  Malay  Magic,  p.  427  seq. ; 
Frazer,  Golden  Bough,  vol.  iii.  189;  Krafft,  Ausfiihrliche  Historic  von 
Exorcismus;  Koldeweg,  Der  Exorcismus  im  Herzogthum  Braun- 
schweig ;  Brecher,  Das  Transcendentale,  Magie,  etc.  im.Talmud,  j 

-..»-,.        'Z^.'J^-L—         A/:_        A . '  _l '          /T~\  ._  *_•!_«_.  \  I 


Thompson,  Devils  and  Evil  Spirits  of  Babylonia. 

EXORCIST  (Lat.  exorcista,  Gr.  e&jp/dffTTjs),  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  the  third  grade  in  the  minor  orders  of  the  clergy, 
between  those  of  acolyte  and  reader.  The  office,  which  involves 
the  right  of  ceremonially  exorcising  devils  (see  EXORCISM),  is 
actually  no  more  than  a  preliminary  stage  of  the  priesthood. 
The  earliest  record  of  the  special  ordination  of  exorcists  is  the 
7th  canon  of  the  council  of  Carthage  (A.D.  256).  "  When  they 
are  ordained,"  it  runs,  "  they  receive  from  the  hand  of  the 
bishop  a  little  book  in  which  the  exorcisms  are  written,  receiving 
power  to  lay  hands  on  the  energumeni,  whether  baptized  or  cate- 
chumens." Whatever  its  present  position,  the  office  of  exorcist 
was,  until  comparatively  recent  times,  by  no  means  considered 
a  sinecure.  "  The  exorcist  a  terror  to  demons  "  (Paulinus, 
Epist.  24)  survived  the  Reformation  among  Protestants,  with 
the  belief,  expressed  by  Firmilianus  in  his  epistle  to  St  Cyprian, 
that  "  through  the  exorcists,  by  the  voice  of  man  and  the  power 
of  God,  the  devil  may  be  whipped,  and  burnt  and  tortured." 

EXOTIC  (Gr.  «£wruc6s,  foreign,  from  e£«,  outside),  of 
foreign  origin,  or  belonging  to  another  country.  The  term  is 
now  used  in  the  restricted  sense  of  something  not  indigenous 
or  native,  and  is  mostly  applied  to  plants  introduced  from 
foreign  countries,  which  have  not  become  acclimatized.  Figura- 
tively, "  exotic  "  is  used  to  convey  the  sense  of  something  rare, 
delicate  or  extravagant. 

EXPATRIATION  (from  Late  Lat.  expalriare,  to  exile,  and 
patria,  native  land),  a  term  used  in  a  general  sense  for  the  banish- 
ment of  a  person  from  his  own  country.  In  international 
law  expatriation  is  the  renunciation  or  change  of  allegiance  to 
one's  native  or  adopted  country.  It  may  take  place  either  by  a 
voluntary  act  or  by  operation  of  law.  Some  countries,  as  France 
and  England,  disclaim  their  subjects  if  they  become  naturalized 
in  another  country,  others,  again,  passively  permit  expatriation 
whether  a  new  nationality  has  been  acquired  or  not;  others, 
as  Germany,  make  expatriation  the  consequence  of  continued 
absence  from  their  territory.  (See  ALIEN;  ALLEGIANCE; 
NATURALIZATION.) 

EXPERT  (Lat.  experlus,  from  experiri,  to  try),  strictly, 
skilled,  or  one  who  has  special  knowledge;  as  used  in  law,  an 
expert  is  a  person,  selected  by  a  court,  or  adduced  by  a  party 
to  a  cause,  to  give  his  opinion  on  some  point  in  issue  with  which 
he  is  peculiarly  conversant.  In  Roman  law  questions  of  dis- 
puted handwriting  were  referred  to  experts;  and  in  France, 
whenever  the  court  considers  that  a  report  by  experts  is  necessary, 
it  is  ordered  by  a  judgment  clearly  setting  forth  the  objects  of 
the  expertise  (Code  Proc.  Civ.  art.  302).  Three  experts  are  then 
to  be  appointed,  unless  the  parties  agree  upon  one  only  (art. 
303).  The  experts  are  required  to  take  an  oath  (art.  305),  but 
in  practice  this  requirement  is  frequently  dispensed  with.  They 
may  be  challenged  on  the  same  grounds  as  witnesses  (art.  310). 
The  necessary  documentary  and  other  evidence  is  laid  before 
them  (art.  317),  and  they  make  a  single  report  to  the  court,  even 
if  they  express  different  opinions:  in  that  case  the  grounds  only 
of  the  different  opinions  are  to  be  stated,  and  not  the  personal 
opinion  of  each  of  the  experts  (art.  318).  If  the  court  is  not 
satisfied  with  the  report,  new  experts  may  be  appointed  (art. 
322);  the  judges  are  not  bound  to  adopt  the  opinion  of  the 
experts  (art.  323).  "  This  procedure  in  regard  to  experts  is 
common  to  both  the  civil  and  commercial  courts,  but  it  is  much 
more  frequently  resorted  to  in  the  commercial  court  than  in 
the  civil  court,  and  the  investigation  is  usually  conducted  by 
special  experts  officially  attached  to  each  of  these  courts  " 
(Bodington,  French  Law  of  Evidence,  London,  1904,  p.  102). 


EXPLOSIVES 


81 


A  similar  system  is  to  be  found  in  force  in  many  other  European 
countries;  see  e.g.  Codes  of  Civil  Procedure  of  Holland,  arts. 
222  et  seq.;  Belgium,  arts.  302  et  seq.;  Italy,  arts.  252  et  seq.; 
as  well  as  in  those  colonies  where  French  law  has  been  followed 
(Codes  of  Civil  Procedure  of  Quebec,  arts.  392  et  seq.;  St  Lucia, 
arts.  286  et  seq.).  In  Mauritius  the  articles  of  the  French  law, 
summarized  above,  are  still  nominally  in  force;  but  in  practice 
each  side  calls  its  own  expert  evidence,  as  in  England. 

There  is  some  evidence  that  in  England  the  courts  were  in  early 
times  in  the  habit  of  *.  ummoning  to  their  assistance,  apparently 
as  assessors,  persons  specially  qualified  to  advise  upon  any 
scientific  or  technical  question  that  required  to  be  determined. 
Thus  "  in  an  appeal  of  maihem  (i.e.  wounding)  .  .  .  the  court 
did  not  know  how  to  adjudge  because  the  wound  was  new,  and 
then  the  defendant  took  issue  and  prayed  the  court  that  the 
maihem  might  be  examined,  on  which  a  writ  was  sent  to  the 
sheriff  to  cause  to  come  medicos  chirurgieos  de  melioribus  London, 
ad  informandum  dominum  regent  et  curiam  de  his  quae  eis  ex  parte 
domini  regis  injungerentur  (Year  Book,  21  Hen.  VII.  pi.  30, 
p.  33).  The  practice  of  calling  in  expert  assistance  in  judicial 
inquiries  was  not  confined  to  medico-legal  cases.  "  If  matters 
arise,"  said  Justice  Saunders  in  Buckley  v.  Rice  Thomas  (1554, 
Plowden,  124  a),  "  which  concern  other  faculties,  we  commonly 
apply  for  the  aid  of  that  science  or  faculty  which  it  concerns." 
English  procedure,  however,  being  litigious,  and  not,  like 
continental  European  procedure,  inquisitorial,  in  its  character, 
the  expert  soon  became,  and  still  is,  simply  a  witness  to  speak 
to  matters  of  opinion. 

There  is  a  considerable  body  of  law  in  England  as  to  expert 
evidence.  Only  a  few  points  can  be  touched  upon  here,  (i) 
An  expert  is  permitted  to  refresh  his  memory  in  regard  to  any 
fact  by  referring  to  anything  written  by  himself  or  under  his 
direction  at  the  time  when  the  fact  occurred  or  at  a  time  when 
it  was  fresh  in  his  memory.  This  is  also  law  generally  in  the 
United  States  (see  e.g.  New  York  Civil  Code,  s.  1843).  In 
Scotland,  medical  and  other  scientific  reports  are  lodged  in 
process  before  the  trial,  and  the  witness  reads  them  as  part  of  his 
evidence  and  is  liable  to  be  examined  or  cross-examined  on  their 
contents.  (2)  In  strictness,  an  expert  will  not  be  allowed,  in 
cases  of  alleged  insanity,  to  say  that  a  litigating  or  incriminated 
party  is  insane  or  the  reverse,  and  so  to  usurp  the  prerogative 
of  the  court  or  jury.  But  he  may  be  asked  whether  certain  facts 
or  symptoms,  assuming  them  to  be  proved,  are  or  are  not  indicative 
of  insanity.  But  in  practice  this  rule  is  relaxed  both  in  England 
and  in  Scotland,  and  (where  it  exists)  to  a  still  greater  extent  in 
America.  (3)  Foreign  law  can  only  be  proved  in  English 
courts —  and  the  same  rule  applies  in  Scotland — (a)  by  obtaining 
an  opinion  on  the  subject  from  a  superior  court  of  the  country 
whose  laws  are  in  dispute  under  the  Foreign  Law  Ascertainment 
Act  1 86 1  or  the  British  Law  Ascertainment  Act  1859,  or  (6)  by 
the  evidence  of  a  lawyer  of  the  country  whose  law  is  in  question, 
or  who  has  studied  it  in  that  country,  or  of  an  official  whose 
position  requires,  and  therefore  presumes,  a  sufficient  knowledge 
of  that  law.  (4)  The  weight  of  authority  both  in  England  and  in 
America  supports  the  view  that  an  expert  is  not  bound  to  give 
evidence  as  to  matters  of  opinion  unless  upon  an  undertaking 
by  the  party  calling  him  to  pay  a  reasonable  remuneration  for 
his  evidence. 

Statutory  provision  has  been  made  in  England  for  the  summon- 
ing of  expert  assistance  by  the  legal  tribunals  in  various  cases. 
In  the  county  courts  the  judge  may,  if  he  thinks  fit,  on  the 
application  of  either  party,  call  in  as  assessor  one  or  more  persons 
of  skill  and  experience  as  to  the  matters  in  dispute  (County 
Courts  Act  1888,  s.  103),  and  special  provision  is  made  for 
calling  in  an  assessor  in  employers'  liability  cases  (act  of  1880, 
s.  6)  and  admiralty  matters  (see  County  Courts  Admiralty 
Jurisdiction  Acts  of  1868  and  1869).  In  the  High  Court  and 
court  of  appeal  one  or  more  specially  qualified  assessors  may  be 
called  in  to  assist  in  the  hearing  of  any  cause  or  matter  except  a 
criminal  proceeding  by  the  crown  (Judicature  Acts  1873,  s.  56), 
and  a  like  power  is  given  to  both  these  courts  and  the  judicial 
committee  of  the  privy  council  in  patent  cases  (Patents,  &c.,  Act 


1883,  s.  28).  Maritime  causes,  whether  original  or  on  appeal  from 
county  courts,  are  usually  taken  in  the  presence  of  Elder  Brethren 
of  the  Trinity  House,  who  advise  the  judge  without  having  any 
right  to  control  or  any  responsibility  for  his  decision  (see  the 
"  Beryl,"  1884,  9  P.D.  i),  and  on  appeal  in  maritime  causes 
nautical  assessories  are  usually  called  in  by  the  court  of  appeal, 
and  may  be  called  in  by  the  House  of  Lords  (Judicature  Act 
1891,  s.  3);  a  like  provision  is  made  as  to  maritime  causes 
in  Scottish  courts  (Nautical  Assessors  [Scotland]  Act  1894). 
The  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council,  besides  its  power 
to  call  in  assessors  in  patent  cases,  is  authorized  to  call  them 
in  in  ecclesiastical  causes  (Appellate  Jurisdiction  Act  1876,  s.  14). 

In  addition  to  the  authorities  cited  in  the  text,  see  Taylor,  Law  of 
Evidence  (9th  ed.,  London,  1895);  J.  D.  Lawson,  Law  of  Expert  and 
Opinion  Evidence  (1900). 

EXPLOSIVES,  a  general  term  for  substances  which  by  certain 
treatment  "  explode,"  i.e.  decompose  or  change  in  a  violent 
manner  so  as  to  generate  force.  From  the  manner  and  degree  of 
violence  of  the  decomposition  they  are  classified  into  "  pro- 
pellants  "  and  "  detonators,"  but  this  classification  is  not  capable 
of  sharp  delimitation.  In  some  cases  the  same  substance  may  be 
employed  for  either  purpose  under  altered  external  conditions; 
but  there  are  some  substances  which  could  not  possibly  be  em- 
ployed as  propellants,  and  others  which  can  scarcely  be  induced 
to  explode  in  the  manner  known  as  "  detonation."  A  propellant 
may  be  considered  as  a  substance  that  on  explosion  produces 
such  a  disturbance  that  neighbouring  substances  are  thrown 
to  some  distance;  a  detonator  or  disrupter  may  produce  an 
extremely  violent  disturbance  within  a  limited  area  without 
projecting  substances  to  any  great  distance.  Time  is  an  im- 
portant, perhaps  the  most  important,  factor  in  this  action.  A 
propellant  generally  acts  by  burning  in  a  more  or  less  rapid  and 
regular  manner,  producing  from  a  comparatively  small  volume 
a  large  volume  of  gases;  during  this  action  heat  is  also  developed, 
which,  being  expended  mostly  on  the  gaseous  products,  causes 
a  further  expansion.  The  noise  accompanying  an  explosion  is 
due  to  an  air  wave,  and  is  markedly  different  in  the  case  of 
a  detonator  from  a  real  propellant.  Some  cases  of  ordinary 
combustion  can  be  accelerated  into  explosions  by  increasing  the 
area  of  contact  between  the  combustible  and  the  oxygen  supplier, 
for  instance,  ordinary  gas  or  dust  explosions.  Neither  tempera- 
ture nor  quantity  of  heat  energy  necessarily  gives  an  explosive 
action.  Some  metals,  e.g.  aluminium  and  magnesium,  will, 
in  oxidizing,  produce  a  great  thermal  effect,  but  unless  there  be 
some  gaseous  products  no  real  explosive  action. 

Explosives  may  be  mechanical  mixtures  of  substances  capable 
of  chemical  interaction  with  the  production  of  large  volumes  of 
gases,  or  definite  chemical  compounds  of  a  pecuh'ar  class  known 
as  "  endothermic,"  the  decomposition  of  which  is  also  attended 
with  the  evolution  of  gases  in  large  quantity. 

All  chemical  compounds  are  either  "  endothermic  "  or  "  exo- 
thermic." In  endothermic  compounds  energy,  in  some  form,  has 
been  taken  up  in  the  act  of  formation  of  the  compound.  Some  of 
this  energy  has  become  potential,  or  rather  the  compound  formed 
has  been  raised  to  a  higher  potential.  This  case  occurs  when  two 
elements  can  be  united  only  under  some  compulsion  such  as  a  very 
high  temperature,  by  the  aid  of  an  electric  current,  or  spark,  or  as  a 
secondary  product  whilst  some  other  reactions  are  proceeding. 
For  example,  oxygen  and  nitrogen  combine  only  under  the  influence 
of  an  electric  spark,  and  carbon  and  calcium  in  the  electric  furnace. 
The  formation  of  chlorates  by  the  action  of  chlorine  on  boiling  potash 
is  a  good  instance  of  a  complex  compound  (potassium  chlorate), 
being  formed  in  small  quantity  as  a  secondary  product  whilst  a 
large  quantity  of  primary  and  simpler  products  (potassium  chloride 
and  water)  is  forming.  In  chlorate  formation  the  greater  part  of  the 
reaction  represents  a  running  down  of  energy  and  formation  of 
exothermic  compounds,  with  only  a  small  yield  of  an  endothermic 
substance.  Another  idea  of  the  meaning  of  endothermic  is  obtained 
from  acetylene.  When  26  parts  by  weight  of  this  substance  ^are 
burnt,  the  heat  produced  will  warm  up  310,450  parts  of  water  i°  C. 
Acetylene  consists  of  24  parts  of  carbon  and  2  of  hydrogen  by  weight. 
The  24  parts  of  carbon  will,  if  in  the  form  of  pure  charcoal,  heat 
192,000  parts  of  water  i°,  and  the  2  parts  of  hydrogen  will  heat 
68,000  parts  of  water  i°,  the  total  heat  production  being  260,000 
heat  units.  Thus  26  grams  of  acetylene  give  an  excess  of  50,450 
units  over  the  amount  given  by  the  constituents.  This  excess  of 


EXPLOSIVES 


heat  energy *  is  due  to  some  form  of  potential  energy  in  the  com- 
pound which  becomes  actual  heat  energy  at  the  moment  of  dis- 
solution of  the  chemical  union.  The  manner  in  which  a  substance 
is  endothermic  is  of  importance  as  regards  the  practical  employment 
of  explosives.  Some  particular  endothermic  state  or  form  results 
from  the  mode  of  formation  and  the  consequent  internal  structure 
of  the  molecule.  Physical  structure  alone  can  be  the  cause  of  a 
relative  endothermic  state,  as  in  the  glass  bulbs  known  as  Rupert's 
drops.  &c.,  or  even  in  chilled  steel.  Rupert's  drops  fly  in  pieces 
on  being  scratched  or  cut  to  a  certain  depth.  The  cause  is  un- 
doubtedly to  be  ascribed  to  the  molecular  state  of  the  glass  brought 
about  by  chilling  from  the  melted  state.  The  molecules  have  not 
had  time  to  separate  or  arrange  themselves  in  easy  positions.  In 
steel  when  melted  the  carbide  of  iron  is  no  doubt  diffused  equally 
throughout  the  liquid.  When  cooled  slowly  some  carbide  separates 
out  more  or  less,  and  the  steel  is  soft  or  annealed.  When  chilled 
the  carbides  are  retained  in  solid  solution.  The  volume  of  chilled 
glass  or  steel  differs  slightly  from  that  in  the  annealed  state. 

Superfused  substances  are  probably  in  a  similar  state  of  physical 
potential  or  strain.  Many  metallic  salts,  and  organic  compounds 
especially,  will  exhibit  this  state  when  completely  melted  and  then 
allowed  to  cool  in  a  clean  atmosphere.  On  touching  with  a  little 
of  the  same  substance  in  a  solid  state  the  liquids  will  begin  to 
crystallize,  at  the  same  time  becoming  heated  almost  up  to  their 
melting-points.  The  metal  gallium  shows  this  excellently  well, 
keeping  liquid  for  years  until  touched  with  the  solid  metal,  when 
there  is  a  considerable  rise  of  temperature  as  solidification  takes 
place. 

All  carbon  compounds,  excepting  carbon  dioxide,  and  many  if 
not  all  compounds  of  nitrogen,  are  endothermic.  Most  of  the  ex- 
plosives in  common  use  contain  nitrogen  in  some  form. 

Exothermic  compounds  are  in  a  certain  sense  the  reverse  of 
endothermic;  they  are  relatively  inert  and  react  but  slowly  or  not 
at  all,  unless  energy  be  expended  upon  them  from  outside.  Water, 
carbon  dioxide  and  most  of  the  common  minerals  belong  to  this 
class. 

The  explosives  actually  employed  at  the  present  time  include 
mixtures,  such  as  gunpowders  and  some  chlorate  compositions, 
the  ingredients  of  which  separately  may  be  non-explosive; 
compounds  used  singly,  as  guncotton,  nitroglycerin  (in  the  form 
of  dynamite),  picric  acid  (as  lyddite  or  melinite),  trinitrotoluene, 
nitrocresols,  mercury  fulminate,  &c.;  combinations  of  some 
explosive  compounds,  such  as  cordite  and  the  smokeless  pro- 
pellants in  general  use  for  military  purposes;  and,  finally, 
blasting  and  detonating  or  igniting  compositions,  some  of 
which  contain  inert  diluting  materials  as  well  as  one  or  more 
high  explosives.  Many  igniting  compositions  are  examples 
of  the  last  type,  consisting  of  a  high  explosive  diluted  with  a 
neutral  substance,  and  frequently  containing  in  addition  a 
composition  which  is  inflamed  by  the  explosion  of  the  diluted 
high  explosive,  the  flame  in  turn  igniting  the  actual  propellant. 

Explosive  Mixtures. — The  explosive  mixture  longest  known 
is  undoubtedly  gunpowder  (q.v.)  in  some  form — that  is,  a  mixture 
of  charcoal  with  sulphur  and  nitre,  the  last  being  the  oxygen 
provider.  Besides  the  nitrates  of  metals  and  ammonium  nitrate, 
there  is  a  limited  number  of  other  substances  capable  of  serving 
in  a  sufficiently  energetic  manner  as  oxygen  providers.  A  few 
chlorates,  perchlorates,  permanganates  and  chromates  almost 
complete  the  list.  Of  these  the  sodium,  potassium  and  barium 
chlorates  are  best  known  and  have  been  actually  tried,  in 
admixture  with  some  combustible  substances,  as  practical  ex- 
plosives. Most  other  metallic  chlorates  are  barred  from  prac- 
tical employment  owing  to  instability,  deliquescence  or  other 
property. 

Of  the  chlorates  those  of  potassium  and  sodium  are  the  most 
stable,  and  mixtures  of  either  of  these  salts  with  sulphur  or 
sulphides,  phosphorus,  charcoal,  sugar,  starch,  finely-ground 
cellulose,  coal  or  almost  any  kind  of  organic,  i.e.  carbon,  com- 
pound, in  certain  proportions,  yield  an  explosive  mixture. 
In  many  cases  these  mixtures  are  not  only  fired  or  exploded  by 
heating  to  a  certain  temperature,  but  also  by  quite  moderate 
friction  or  percussion.  Consequently  there  is  much  danger  in 
manufacture  and  storage,  and  however  these  mixtures  have 
been  made  up,  they  are  quite  out  of  the  question  as  propellants  on 
account  of  their  great  tendency  to  explode  in  the  manner  of  a 
detonator.  In  addition  they  are  not  smokeless,  and  leave  a 

1  Not  necessarily  heat  energy  entirely.  A  number  of  substances 
— acetylides  and  some  nitrogen  compounds,  such  as  nitrogen  chloride 
— decompose  with  extreme  violence,  but  little  heat  is  produced. 


considerable  residue  which  in  a  gun  would  produce  serious 
fouling. 

Mixtures  of  chlorates  with  aromatic  compounds  such  as  the 
nitro-  or  dinitro-benzenes  or  even  naphthalene  make  very 
powerful  blasting  agents.  The  violent  action  of  a  chlorate 
mixture  is  due  first  to  the  rapid  evolution  of  oxygen,  and  also 
to  the  fact  that  a  chlorate  can  be  detonated  when  alone.  A 
drop  of  sulphuric  acid  will  start  the  combustion  of  a  chlorate 
mixture.  In  admixture  with  sulphur,  sulphides  and  especially 
phosphorus,  chlorates  give  extremely  sensitive  compositions, 
some  of  which  form  the  basis  of  friction  tube  and  firing  mixtures. 

Potassium  and  sodium  perchlorates  and  permanganates 
make  similar  but  slightly  less  sensitive  explosive  mixtures  with 
the  above-mentioned  substances.  Finely  divided  metals  such  as 
aluminium  or  magnesium  give  also  with  permanganates,  chlorates 
or  perchlorates  sensitive  and  powerful  explosives.  Bichromates, 
although  containing  much  available  oxygen,  form  but  feeble 
explosive  mixtures,  but  some  compounds  of  chromic  acid  with 
diazo  compounds  and  some  acetylides  are  extremely  powerful 
as  well  as  sensitive.  Ammonium  bichromate  is  a  self-com- 
bustible after  the  type  of  ammonium  nitrate,  but  scarcely  an 
explosive. 

Explosive  Compounds. — Nearly  all  the  explosive  compounds 
in  actual  use  either  for  blasting  purposes  or  as  propellants  are 
nitrogen  compounds,  and  are  obtained  more  or  less  directly  from 
nitric  acid.  Most  of  the  propellants  at  present  employed  consist 
essentially  of  nitrates  of  some  organic  compound,  and  may  be 
viewed  theoretically  as  nitric  acid,  the  hydrogen  of  which  has 
been  replaced  by  a  carbon  complex;  such  compounds  are 
expressed  by  M-O-NO2,  which  indicates  that  the  carbon  group 
is  in  some  manner  united  by  means  of  oxygen  to  the  nitrogen 
group.  Guncotton  and  nitroglycerin  are  of  this  class.  Another 
large  class  of  explosives  is  formed  by  a  more  direct  attachment 
of  nitrogen  to  the  carbon  complex,  as  represented  by  M-NO2. 
A  number  of  explosives  of  the  detonating  type  are  of  this  class. 
They  contain  the  same  proportions  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  as 
nitrites,  but  are  not  nitrites.  They  have  been  termed  nitro- 
derivatives  for  distinction.  One  of  the  simplest  and  longest- 
known  members  of  this  group  is  nitrobenzene,  CsHsNOj,  which 
is  employed  to  some  extent  as  an  explosive,  being  one  ingredient 
in  rack-a-rock  and  other  blasting  compositions.  The  dinitro- 
benzenes,  C6H4(NO2)2,  made  from  it  are  solids  which  are  some- 
what extensively  employed  as  constituents  of  some  sporting 
powders,  and  in  admixture  with  ammonium  nitrate  form  a  blast- 
ing powder  of  a  "  flameless  "  variety  which  is  comparatively 
safe  in  dusty  or  "gassy"  coal  seams. 

Picric  acid  or  trinitrophenol,  C6H2-OH-(N02)3  is  employed 
as  a  high  explosive  for  shell,  &c.  It  requires,  however,  either  to 
be  enclosed  and  heated,  or  to  be  started  by  a  powerful  detonator 
to  develop  its  full  effect.  Its  compounds  with  metals,  such  as 
the  potassium  salt,  C6H2-OK-(NO2)3,  are  when  dry  very  easily 
detonated  by  friction  or  percussion  and  always  on  heating, 
whereas  picric  acid  itself  will  burn  very  quietly  when  set  fire 
to  under  ordinary  conditions.  Trinitrotoluene,  C6H2-CH3-(NO2)3, 
is  a  high  explosive  resembling  picric  acid  in  the  manner  of  its  ex- 
plosion (to  which  in  fact  it  is  a  rival),  but  differs  therefrom  in  not 
forming  salts  with  metals.  The  nitronaphthols,  Ci0H6-OH-N02, 
and  higher  nitration  products  may  be  counted  in  the  list.  Their 
salts  with  metals  behave  much  like  the  picrates. 

All  these  nitro  compounds  can  be  reduced  by  the  action  of 
nascent  hydrogen  to  substances  called  amines  (<?.!>.),  which  are 
not  always  explosive  in  themselves,  but  in  some  cases  can  form 
nitrates  of  a  self-combustible  nature.  Aminoacetic  acid,  for 
instance,  will  form  a  nitrate  which  burns  rapidly  but  quietly,  and 
might  be  employed  as  an  explosive.  By  the  action  of  nitrous  acid 
at  low  temperatures  on  aromatic  amines,  e.g.  aniline,  CeHjNH^, 
diazo  compounds  are  produced.  These  are  all  highly  explosive, 
and  when  in  a  dry  state  are  for  the  most  part  also  extremely 
sensitive  to  friction,  percussion  or  heat.  As  many  of  these  diazo 
compounds  contain  no  oxygen  their  explosive  nature  must  be 
ascribed  to  the  peculiar  state  of  union  of  the  nitrogen.  This 
state  is  attempted  to  be  shown  by  the  formulae  such  as,  for 


EXPLOSIVES 


instance,  C«H5-N:N'X,  which  may  be  some  compound  of  diazo- 
benzene.  Probably  the  most  vigorous  high  explosive  at  present 
known  is  the  substance  called  hydrazoic  acid  or  azoimide  (q.v.). 
It  forms  salts  with  metals  such  as  AgN3,  which  explode  in  a 
peculiar  manner.  The  ammonium  compound,  NH4N3,  may 
become  a  practical  explosive  of  great  value. 

Mercuric  fulminate,  HgC2N2O2,  is  one  of  the  most  useful 
high  explosives  known.  It  is  formed  by  the  action  of  a  solution 
of  mercurous  nitrate,  containing  some  nitrous  acid,  on  alcohol. 
It  is  a  white  crystalline  substance  almost  insoluble  in  cold  water 
and  requiring  130  times  its  weight  of  boiling  water  for  solution. 
It  may  be  heated  to  180°  C.  before  exploding,  and  the  explosion 
so  brought  about  is  much  milder  than  that  produced  by  per- 
cussion. It  forms  the  principal  ingredient  in  cap  compositions, 
in  many  fuses  and  in  detonators.  In  many  of  these  compositions 
the  fulminate  is  diluted  by  mixture  with  certain  quantities  of 
inert  powders  so  that  its  sensitiveness  to  friction  or  percussion 
is  just  so  much  lowered,  or  slowed  down,  that  it  will  fire  another 
mixture  capable  of  burning  with  a  hot  flame.  For  detonating 
dynamite,  guncotton,  &c.,  it  is  generally  employed  without 
admixture  of  a  diluent. 

Smokeless  Propellants. — Gunpowders  and  all  other  explosive 
mixtures  or  compounds  containing  metallic  salts  must  form 
smoke  on  combustion.  The  solids  produced  by  the  resolution 
of  the  compounds  are  in  an  extremely  finely-divided  state,  and  on 
being  ejected  into  the  atmosphere  become  more  or  less  attached 
to  water  vapour,  which  is  so  precipitated,  and  consequently  adds 
to  the  smoke.  The  simplest  examples  of  propellants  of  the  smoke- 
less class  are  compressed  gases.  Compressed  air  was  the  pro- 
pellant  for  the  Zalinski  dynamite  gun.  Liquefied  carbon  dioxide 
has  also  been  proposed  and  used  to  a  slight  extent  with  the  same 
idea.  It  is  scarcely  practical,  however,  because  when  a  quantity 
of  a  gas  liquefied  by  pressure  passes  back  again  into  the  gaseous 
state,  there  is  a  great  absorption  of  heat,  and  any  remaining 
liquid,  and  the  containing  vessel,  are  considerably  cooled.  Steam 
guns  were  tried  in  the  American  Civil  War  in  1864;  but  a  steam 
gun  is  not  smokeless,  for  the  steam  escaping  from  the  long  tube 
or  gun  immediately  condenses  on  expansion,  forming  white  mist 
or  smoke. 

At  the  earliest  stage  of  the  development  of  guncotton  the 
advantage  of  its  smokeless  combustion  was  fully  appreciated 
(see  GUNCOTTON).  That  it  did  not  at  once  take  its  position 
as  the  smokeless  propellant,  was  simply  due  to  its  physical 
state — a  fibrous  porous  mass — which  burnt  too  quickly  or  even 
detonated  under  the  pressure  required  in  fire-arms  of  any  kind. 
In  the  early  eighties  of  the  igth  century  it  was  found  that  several 
substances  would  partly  dissolve  or  at  least  gelatinize  guncotton, 
and  the  moment  when  guncotton  proper  was  obtained  as  a 
colloid  or  jelly  was  the  real  start  in  the  matter  of  smokeless 
propellants. 

Guncotton  is  converted  into  a  gelatinous  form  by  several 
substances,  such  as  esters,  e.g.  ethyl  acetate  or  benzoate,  acetone 
and  other  ketones,  and  many  benzene  compounds,  most  of  which 
are  volatile  liquids.  On  contact  with  the  guncotton  a  jelly  is 
formed  which  stiffens  as  the  evaporation  of  the  gelatinizing 
agent  proceeds,  and  finally  hardens  when  the  evaporation  is 
complete.  Whilst  in  a  stiff  pasty  state  it  may  be  cut,  moulded 
or  pressed  into  any  desired  shape  without  any  danger  of  ignition. 
In  fact  guncotton  in  the  colloid  state  may  be  hammered  on  an 
anvil,  and,  as  a  rule,  only  the  portion  struck  will  detonate  or  fire. 
Guncotton  alone  makes  a  very  hard  and  somewhat  brittle  mass 
after  treatment  with  the  gelatinizing  agent  and  complete  drying, 
and  small  quantities  of  camphor,  vaseline,  castor  oil  and  other 
substances  are  incorporated  with  the  gelatinous  guncotton  to 
moderate  this  hard  and  brittle  state. 

All  the  smokeless  powders,  of  which  gelatinized  guncottons 
or  nitrated  celluloses  are  the  base,  are  moulded  into  some  con- 
veniently shaped  grain,  e.g.  tubes,  cords,  rods,  disks  or  tablets, 
so  that  the  rate  of  burning  may  be  controlled  as  desired.  The 
Vieille  powder,  invented  in  1887  and  adopted  in  France  for  a 
magazine  rifle,  consisted  of  gelatinized  guncotton  with  a  little 
picric  acid.  Later  a  mixture  of  two  varieties  of  guncotton 


gelatinized  together  was  used.  In  addition  to  guncottons  other 
explosive  or  non-explosive  substances  are  contained  in  some  of 
these  powders.  Guncotton  alone  in  the  colloid  state  burns  very 
slowly  if  in  moderate-sized  pieces,  and  when  subdivided  or  made 
into  thin  rods  or  strips  it  is  still  very  mild  as  an  explosive,  partly 
from  a  chemical  reason,  viz.  there  is  not  sufficient  oxygen  in  it 
to  burn  the  carbon  to  dioxide.  Many  mixtures  are  consequently 
in  use,  and  many  more  have  been  proposed,  which  contain  some 
metallic  salt  capable  of  supplying  oxygen,  such  as  barium  or 
ammonium  nitrate,  &c.,  the  idea  being  to  accelerate  the  rate  of 
burning  of  the  guncotton  and  if  possible  avoid  the  production 
of  smoke. 

The  discovery  by  A.  Nobel  that  nitroglycerin  could  be  incor- 
porated with  collodion  cotton  to  form  blasting  gelatin  (see 
DYNAMITE)  led  more  or  less  directly  to  the  invention  of  ballistite, 
which  differs  from  blasting  gelatin  only  in  the  relative  amounts  of 
collodion,  or  soluble  nitrated  cotton,  and  nitroglycerin.  Ballis- 
tite was  adopted  by  the  Italian  government  in  1890  as  a  military 
powder.  Very  many  substances  and  mixtures  have  been 
proposed  for  smokeless  powder,  but  the  two  substances,  gun- 
cotton  and  nitroglycerin,  have  for  the  most  part  kept  the  field 
against  all  other  combinations,  and  for  several  reasons.  Nitro- 
glycerin contains  a  slight  excess  of  oxygen  over  that  necessary  to 
convert  the  whole  of  the  carbon  into  carbon  dioxide;  it  burns 
in  a  more  energetic  manner  than  guneotton;  the  two  can  be 
incorporated  together  in  any  proportion  whilst  the  guncotton 
is  in  the  gelatinous  state;  also  all  the  liquids  which  gelatinize 
guncotton  dissolve  nitroglycerin,  and,  as  these  gelatinizing 
liquids  evaporate,  the  nitroglycerin  is  left  entangled  in  the  gun- 
cotton  jelly,  and  then  shares  more  or  less  its  colloidal  character. 
In  burning  the  nitroglycerin  is  protected  from  detonation  by  the 
gelatinous  state  of  the  guncotton,  but  still  adds  to  the  rate  of 
burning  and  produces  a  higher  temperature. 

Desirable  Qualities. — Smokelessness  is  one  only  of  the  desirable 
properties  of  a  propellant.  All  the  present  so-called  smokeless 
powders  produce  a  little  fume  or  haze,  mainly  due  to  the  conden- 
sation of  the  steam  which  forms  one  of  the  combustion  products. 
There  is  often  also  a  little  vapour  from  the  substances,  such  as  oils, 
mineral  jelly,  vaseline  or  other  hydrocarbon  added  for  lubrication  or 
to  render  the  finished  material  pliable,  &c.  The  gases  produced 
should  neither  be  very  poisonous  nor  exert  a  corrosive  action  on 
metals,  &c.  The  powder  itself  should  have  good  keeping  qualities, 
that  is,  not  be  liable  to  chemical  changes  within  ordinary  ranges  of 
temperature  or  in  different  climates  when  stored  for  a  few  years. 
In  these  powders  slight  chemical  changes  are  generally  followed  by 
noticeable  ballistic  changes.  All  the  smokeless  powders  of  the 
present  day  produce  some  oxide  of  nitrogen,  traces  of  which  hang 
about  the  gun  after  firing  and  change  rapidly  into  nitrous  and  nitric 
acids.  Nitrous  acid  is  particularly  objectionable  in  connexion  with 
metals,  as  it  acts  as  a  carrier  of  oxygen.  The  fouling  from  modern 
smokeless  powders  is  a  slight  deposit  of  acid  grease,  and  the  remedy 
consists  in  washing  out  the  bore  of  the  piece  with  an  alkaline  liquid. 
The  castor  oil,  mineral  jelly  or  camphor,  and  similar  substances 
added  to  smokeless  powders  are  supposed  to  act  as  lubricants  to 
some  extent.  They  are  not  as  effective  in  this  respect  as  mineral 
salts,  and  the  rifling  of  both  small-arms  and  ordnance  using  smokeless 
powders  is  severely  gripped  by  the  metal  of  the  projectile.  The 
alkaline  fouling  produced  by  the  black  and  brown  powders  acted 
as  a  preventive  of  rusting  to  some  extent,  as  well  as  a  lubricant  in 
the  bore. 

Danger  in  Manufacture. — In  the  case  of  the  old  gunpowders, 
the  most  dangerous  manufacturing  operation  was  incorporation. 
With  the  modern  colloid  propellants  the  most  dangerous  operations 
are  the  chemical  processes  in  the  preparation  of  nitroglycerin,  the 
drying  of  guncotton,  &c.  After  once  the  gelatinizing  solvent  has 
been  added,  all  the  mechanical  operations  can  be  conducted,  practi- 
cally, with  perfect  safety.  This  statement  appears  to  be  correct  for 
all  kinds  of  nitrated  cellulose  powders,  whether  mixed  with  nitro- 
glycerin or  other  substances.  Should  they  become  ignited,  which  is 
possible  by  a  rise  of  temperature  (to  say  180°)  or  contact  with  a 
flame,  the  mixture  burns  quickly,  but  does  not  detonate. 

As  a  rule  naval  and  military  smokeless  powders  are  shaped  into 
flakes,  cubes,  cords  or  cylinders,  with  or  without  longitudinal  perfora- 
tions. All  the  modifications  in  shape  and  size  are  intended  to  regulate 
the  rate  of  burning.  Sporting  powders  are  often  coloured  for  trade 
distinction.  Some  powders  are  blackleaded  by  glazing  with  pure 
graphite,  as  is  done  with  black  powders.  One  object  of  this  glazing 
is  to  prevent  the  grains  or  pieces  becoming  joined  by  pressure; 
for  rods  or  pieces  of  some  smokeless  powders  might  possibly  unite 
under  considerable  pressure,  producing  larger  pieces  and  thus 
altering  the  rate  of  burning.  Most  smokeless  powders  are  fairly 


EXPRESS 


insensitive  to  shock.  All  these  gelatinized  powders  are  a  little  less 
easily  ignited  than  black  powders.  A  slightly  different  cap  com- 
position is  required  for  small-arm  cartridges,  and  cannon  cartridges 
generally  require  a  small  primer  or  starter  of  powdered  black  gun- 
powder. 

It  is  desired  that  a  propellant  shall  produce  the  maximum  velocity 
with  the  minimum  pressure.  The  pressure  should  start  gently  so 
that  the  inertia  of  the  projectile  is  overcome  without  any  undue 
local  strain  on  the  breech  near  the  powder  chamber,  and  more 
especially  that  as  more  and  more  space  is  given  to  the  gases  by  the 
movement  of  the  projectile  up  the  gun  to  the  muzzle,  gas  should  be 
produced  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  keep  the  pressure  nearly  uniform 
or  slightly  increasing  along  the  bore.  The  leading  idea  for  im- 
provements in  relation  to  propellants  is  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible 
pressure  regularly  developed,  and  at  the  same  time  the  lowest 
temperatures.  (W.  R.  E.  H.) 

Law. — In  1860  an  act  was  passed  in  England  "  to  amend  the 
law  concerning  the  making,  keeping  and  carriage  of  gunpowder 
and  compositions  of  an  explosive  nature,  and  concerning  the 
manufacture  and  use  of  fireworks"  (23  &  24  Viet.  c.  139), 
whereby  previous  acts  on  the  same  subject  were  repealed,  anol 
minute  and  stringent  regulations  introduced.  Amending  acts 
were  passed  in  1861  and  1862.  In  1875  was  passed  the  Ex- 
plosives Act  (38  &  39  Viet.  c.  17),  which  repealed  the  former 
acts,  and  dealt  with  the  whole  subject  in  a  more  comprehensive 
manner.  This  act,  containing  122  sections,  and  applying  to 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  as  well  as  to  England,  constitutes,  with 
various  orders  in  council  'and  home  office  orders,  a  complete  code. 
The  act  of  1875  was  based  on  the  report  of  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  public  opinion  having  been  greatly  excited 
on  the  subject  by  a  terrible  explosion  on  the  Regent's  Canal  in 
1874.  Explosives  are  thus  defined:  (i)  Gunpowder,  nitro- 
glycerin,  dynamite,  gun-cotton,  blasting  powders,  fulminate  of 
mercury  or  of  other  metals,  coloured  fires,  and  every  other 
substance,  whether  similar  to  those  above-mentioned  or  not, 
used  or  manufactured  with  a  view  to  produce  a  practical  effect 
by  explosion  or  a  pyrotechnic  effect,  and  including  (2)  fog-signals, 
fireworks,  fuses,  rockets,  percussion  caps,  detonators,  cartridges, 
ammunition  of  all  descriptions,  and  every  adaptation  or  prepara- 
tion of  an  explosive  as  above  defined.  Part  i.  deals  with  gun- 
powder, providing  that  it  shall  be  manufactured  only  at  factories 
lawfully  existing  or  licensed  under  the  act;  that  it  shall  be  kept 
(except  for  private  use)  only  in  existing  or  new  magazines  or 
stores,  or  in  registered  premises,  licensed  under  the  act.  Private 
persons  may  keep  gunpowder  for  their  own  use  to  the  amount  of 
thirty  pounds.  The  act  also  prescribes  rules  for  the  proper  keep- 
ing of  gunpowder  on  registered  premises.  Part  ii.  deals  with 
nitro-giycerin  and  other  explosives;  part  iii.  with  inspection, 
accidents,  search,  &c. ;  part  iv.  contains  various  supplementary 
provisions.  By  order  in  council  the  term  "  explosive  "  may  be 
extended  to  any  substance  which  appears  to  be  specially  dangerous 
to  life  or  property  by  reason  of  its  explosive  properties,  or  to 
any  process  liable  to  explosion  in  the  manufacture  thereof,  and 
the  provisions  of  the  act  then  extend  to  such  substance  just  as 
if  it  were  included  in  the  term  "  explosive  "  in  the  act.  The  act 
lays  down  minute  and  stringent  regulations  for  the  sale  of  gun- 
powder, restricting  the  sale  thereof  in  public  thoroughfares  or 
places,  or  to  any  child  apparently  under  the  age  of  thirteen; 
requiring  the  sale  of  gunpowder  to  be  in  closed  packages  labelled; 
it  also  lays  down  general  rules  for  conveyance,  &c.  The  act  also 
gives  power  by  order  in  council  to  define,  from  time  to  time,  the 
composition,  quality  and  character  of  any  explosive,  and  to 
classify  explosives,  and  such  orders  in  council  are  frequently 
made  including  new  substances;  those  in  force  will  be  found  in 
the  Statutory  Rules  and  Orders,  tit.  "  explosive  substance."  The 
Merchant  Shipping  Act  1894  imposes  restrictions  on  the  carriage 
of  dangerous  goods  in  a  British  or  foreign  vessel,  "  dangerous 
goods  "  meaning  aquafortis,  vitriol,  naphtha,  benzine,  gunpowder, 
lucifer  matches,  nitro-glycerin,  petroleum  and  any  explosive 
within  the  meaning  of  the  Explosives  Act  1875.  The  act  is 
administered  by  the  home  office,  and  an  annual  report  is  pub- 
lished containing  the  proceedings  of  the  inspectors  of  explosives 
and  an  account  of  the  working  of  the  act.  Each  annual  report 
gives  a  list  of  explosives  at  the  time  authorized  for  manufacture 


or  importation,  and  appendices  containing  information  as  to 
accidents,  experiments, .&c. 

Practically  every  European  country  has  legislated  on  the  lines 
of  the  English  act  of  1875,  Austria  taking  the  lead,  in  1877,  with 
an  explosives  ordinance  almost  identical  with  the  English  act. 
The  United  States  and  the  various  English  colonies  also  have 
explosives  acts  regulating  the  manufacture,  storage  and  importa- 
tion of  explosives.  (See  also  PETROLEUM.)  (T.  A.  I.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — M.  Berthelot,  Sur  la  force  des  matieres  explosives 
(Paris,  1883);  P.  F.  Chalon,  Les  Explostfs  modernes  (Paris,  1886); 
W.  H.  Wardell,  Handbook  of  Gunpowder  and  Guncotton  (London, 
1888);  T.  P.  Cundill,  A  Dictionary  of  Explosives  (London,  1889  and 
1897) ;  M.  Eissler,  A  Handbook  of  Modern  Explosives  (London,  1896, 
new  ed.  1903);  J.  A.  Longridge,  Smokeless  Powder  and  its  Influence 
on  Gun  Construction  (London,  1890);  C.  Napier  Hake  and  W. 
Macnab,  Explosives  and  their  Power  (London,  1892);  G.  Coralys, 
Les  Explosifs  (Paris,  1893);  A.  Ponteaux,  La  Poudre  sans  fumee 
et  les  poudres  anciennes  (Paris,  1893);  F.  Salvati,  Vocabolario  di 
polveri  ed  explosivi  (Rome,  1893);  C.  Guttmann,  The  Manufacture 
of  Explosives  (London,  1895  and  later) ;  S.  J.  von  Romocki,  Geschichte 
der  Sprengstoffchemie,  der  Sprengtechnik  und  des  Torpedowesens  bis 
zum  Beginn  der  neusten  Zeit  (Berlin,  1895);  Geschichte  der  Explosiv- 
stoffe,  die  rauchschwachen  Pulver  (Berlin,  1896);  P.  G.  Sanford, 
Nitro-explosives  (London,  1896);  L.  Gody,  Traite  theorique  et 
pratique  des  matures  explosives  (Namur,  1896);  R.  Wille,  Der 
Plastomerite  (Berlin,  1898);  E.  Sarrau,  Introduction  a  la  theorie 
des  explosifs  (1893);  Theorie  des  explosifs  (1896);  O.  Guttmann, 
Manufacture  of  Explosives  (London,  1895);  E.  M.  Weaver,  Notes  on 
Military  Explosives  (New  York,  1906) ;  M.  Eissler,  The  Modern  High 
Explosives  (New  York,  1906) ;  Treatise  on  Service  Explosives, 
published  by  order  of  the  secretary  of  state  for  war  (London,  1907). 
Most  of  the  literature  on  modern  explosives,  e.g.  dynamite,  &c.. 
is  to  be  found  in  papers  contributed  to  scientific  journals  and  societies. 
An  index  to  those  which  have  appeared  in  the  Journal  of  the  Society 
of  Chemical  Industry  is  to  be  found  in  the  decennial  index  (1908) 
compiled  by  F.  W.  Renant. 

EXPRESS  (through  the  French  from  the  past  participle  of  the 
Lat.  exprimere,  to  press  out,  by  transference  used  of  representing 
objects  in  painting  or  sculpture,  or  of  thoughts,  &c.  in  words),  a 
word  signifying  that  which  is  clearly  and  definitely  set  forth  or 
represented,  explicit,  and  thus  used  of  a  meaning,  a  law,  a  con- 
tract and  the  like,  being  specially  contrasted  with  "  implied." 
Thus  in  law,  malice,  for  which  there  is  actual  evidence,  as  apart 
from  that  which  may  be  inferred  from  the  acts  of  the  person 
charged,  is  known  as  "  express."  The  word  is  most  frequently 
used  with  the  idea  of  something  done  with  a  definite  purpose; 
the  term  "  express  train,"  now  meaning  one  that  travels  at  a 
high  speed  over  long  distances  with  few  intermediate  stoppages, 
was,  in  the  early  days  of  railways,  applied  to  what  is  now  usually 
called  a  "  special,"  i.e.  a  train  not  running  according  to  the 
ordinary  time-tables  of  the  railway  company,  but  for  some 
specific  purpose,  or  engaged  by  a  private  person.  About  1845 
this  term  became  used  for  a  train  running  to  a  particular  place 
without  stopping.  Similarly  in  the  British  postal  service, 
express  delivery  is  a  special  and  immediate  delivery  of  a  letter, 
parcel,  &c.,  by  an  express  messenger  at  a  particular  increased 
rate.  The  system  was  adopted  in  1891. 

In  the  United  States  of  America,  express  companies  for  the 
rapid  transmission  of  parcels  and  luggage  and  light  goods  gener- 
ally perform  the  function  of  the  post  office  or  the  railways  in 
the  United  Kingdom  and  the  continent  of  Europe.  Not  only 
do  they  deliver  goods,  but  by  the  cash  on  delivery  system  (see 
CASH)  the  express  companies  act  as  agents  both  for  the  purchaser 
and  seller  of  goods.  They  also  serve  as  a  most  efficient  agency 
for  the  transmission  of  money,  the  express  money  order  being 
much  more  easily  convertible  than  the  postal  money  orders,  as 
the  latter  can  only  be  redeemed  at  offices  in  large  and  important 
towns.  The  system  dates  back  to  1839,  when  one  William 
Frederick  Harnden  (1813-1845),  a  conductor  on  the  Boston  and 
Worcester  railway,  undertook  on  his  own  account  the  carrying 
of  small  parcels  and  the  performance  of  small  commissions. 
Obliged  to  leave  the  company's  service  or  abandon  his  enterprise, 
he  started  an  "  express  "  service  between  Boston  and  New 
York,  carrying  parcels,  executing  commissions  and  collecting 
drafts  and  bills.  Alvin  Adams  followed  in  1840,  also  between 
Boston  and  New  York.  From  1840  to  1845  the  system  was 
adopted  by  many  others  between  the  more  important  towns 


EXPROPRIATION— EXTENSION 


»5 


throughout  the  States.  The  attempt  to  carry  letters  also  was 
stopped  by  the  government  as  interfering  v/ith  the  post  office. 
In  1854  began  the  amalgamation  of  many  of  the  companies. 
Thus  under  the  name  of  the  Adams  Express  Company  the 
services  started  by  Harnden  and  Adams  were  consolidated.  The 
lines  connecting  the  west  and  east  by  Albany,  Buffalo  and  the 
lakes  were  consolidated  in  the  American  Express  Company, 
under  the  direction  of  William  G.  Fargo  (<?.».),  Henry  Wells  and 
Johnston  Livingston,  while  another  company,  Wells,  Fargo  & 
Co.,  operated  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  celebrated  "  Pony 
Express  "  was  started  in  1860  between  San  Francisco  and  St 
Joseph,  Missouri,  the  time  scheduled  being  eight  days.  The 
service  was  carried  on  by  relays  of  horses,  with  stations 
25  m.  apart.  The  charge  made  for  the  service  was  $2.50  per 
$  oz.  The  completion  of  the  Pacific  Telegraph  Company  line 
in  1 86 1  was  followed  by  the  discontinuance  of  the  regular 
service. 

The  name  "  express  "  is  applied  to  a  rifle  having  high  velocity, 
flat  trajectory  and  long  fixed-sight  ranges;  and  an  "express- 
bullet  "  is  a  light  bullet  with  a  heavy  charge  of  powder  used  in 
such  a  rifle  (see  RIFLE). 

EXPROPRIATION,  the  taking  away  or  depriving  of  property 
(Late  Lat.  expropriare,  to  take  away,  proprium,  i.  e.  that  which 
is  one's  own) .  The  term  is  particularly  applied  to  the  compulsory 
acquisition  of  private  property  by  the  state  or  other  public 
authority. 

EXPULSION  (Lat.  expulsio,  from  expellere),  the  act  of  driving 
out,  or  of  removing  a  person  from  the  membership  of  a  body 
or  the  holding  of  an  office,  or  of  depriving  him  of  the  right  of 
attending  a  meeting,  &c.  In  the  United  Kingdom  the  House 
of  Commons  can  by  resolution  expel  a  member.  Such  resolution 
cannot  be  questioned  by  any  court  of  law.  But  expulsion  is 
only  resorted  to  in  cases  where  members  are  guilty  of  offences 
rendering  them  unfit  for  a  seat  in  the  House,  such  as  being  in 
open  rebellion,  being  guilty  of  forgery,  perjury,  fraud  or  breach 
of  trust,  misappropriation  of  public  money,  corruption,  conduct 
unbecoming  the  character  of  an  officer  and  a  gentleman,  &c.  It 
is  customary  to  order  the  member,  if  absent,  to  attend  in  his 
place,  before  an  order  is  made  for  his  expulsion  (see  May,  Parlia- 
mentary Practice,  1906,  p.  56  seq.).  Municipal  corporations  or 
other  local  government  bodies  have  no  express  power  to  expel 
a  member,  except  in  such  cases  where  the  law  declares  the 
member  to  have  vacated  his  seat,  or  where  power  is  given  by 
statute  to  declare  the  member's  seat  vacant.  In  the  cases  of 
officers  and  servants  of  the  crown,  tenure  varies  with  the  nature 
of  the  office.  Some  officials  hold  their  offices  ad  vilam  out 
culpam  or  dum  bene  se  gesserunt,  others  can  be  dismissed  at  any 
time  and  without  reason  assigned  and  without  compensation. 
In  the  case  of  membership  of  a  voluntary  association  (club,  &c.) 
the  right  of  expulsion  depends  upon  the  rules,  and  must  be 
exercised  in  good  faith.  Courts  of  justice  have  jurisdiction  to 
prevent  the  improper  expulsion  of  the  member  of  a  voluntary 
association  where  that  member  has  a  right  of  property  in  the 
association.  In  the  case  of  meetings,  where  the  meeting  is  one 
of  a  public  body,  any  person  not  a  member  of  the  body  is 
entitled  to  be  present  only  on  sufferance,  and  may  be  expelled 
on  a  resolution  of  the  body.  In  the  case  of  ordinary  public 
meetings  those  who  convene  the  meeting  stand  in  the  position 
of  licensors  to  those  attending  and  may  revoke  the  licence  and 
expel  any  person  who  creates  disorder  or  makes  himself  otherwise 
objectionable. 

Expulsion  of  Aliens. — Under  the  Naturalization  Act  of  1870, 
the  last  of  the  civil  disqualifications  affecting  aliens  in  England 
was  removed.  The  political  disqualifications  which  remained 
only  applied  to  electoral  rights.  In  the  very  exceptional  cases 
in  which  it  was  retained  in  the  statute  book,  expulsion  was 
considered  to  have  fallen  into  desuetude,  but  it  has  been  revived 
by  the  Aliens  Act  of  1905  (5  Edw.  VII.  c.  13).  Under  this 
act  powers  are  given  to  the  secretary  of  state  to  make  an  order 
requiring  an  alien  to  leave  the  United  Kingdom  within  a  time 
fixed  by  the  order  and  thereafter  to  remain  outside  the  United 
Kingdom,  subject  to  certain  conditions,  provided  it  is  certified 


to  him  that  the  alien  has  been  convicted  of  any  felony  or  mis- 
demeanour or  other  offence  for  which  the  court  has  power  to 
impose  imprisonment  without  the  option  of  a  fine,  &c.,  or  that 
he  has  been  sentenced  in  a  foreign  country  with  which  there  is 
an  extradition  treaty,  for  a  crime  not  being  an  offence  of  a 
political  character.  There  are  also  provisions  applicable  within 
one  year  after  the  alien  has  entered  the  United  Kingdom  in  the 
case  of  pauper  aliens.  Precautions  are  taken  to  prevent,  as 
far  as  possible,  any  abuse  of  the  power  of  expulsion.  Under  the 
French  law  of  expulsion  (December  3,  1849)  there  are  no  such 
precautions,  the  minister  of  the  interior  having  an  absolute 
discretion  to  order  any  foreigner  as  a  measure  of  public  policy 
to  leave  French  territory  and  in  fact  to  have  him  taken  immedi- 
ately to  the  frontier. 

EXTENSION  (Lat.  ex,  out ;  tendere,  to  stretch),  in  general, 
the  action  of  straining  or  stretching  out.  It  is  usually  employed 
metaphorically  (cf.  the  phrase  an  "extension  of  time,"  a  period 
allowed  in  excess  of  what  has  been  agreed  upon).  It  is  used 
as  a  technical  term  in  logic  to  describe  the  total  number  of 
objects  to  which  a  given  term  may  be  applied;  thus  the  meaning 
of  the  term  "  King  "  in  "  extension  "  means  the  kings  of  England, 
Italy,  Spain,  &c.  (cf.  DENOTATION),  while  in  "  intension  "  it 
means  the  attributes  which  taken  together  make  up  the  idea  of 
kinghood  (see  CONNOTATION).  In  psychology  the  literal  sense 
of  extension  is  retained,  i.e.  "  spread-outness."  The  perception 
of  space  by  the  senses  of  sight  and  touch,  as  opposed  to  semi- 
spatial  perceptions  by  smell  and  hearing,  is  that  of  "  continuous 
expanse  composed  of  positions  separated  and  connected  by 
distances"  (Stout);  to  this  the  term  "extension"  is  applied. 
The  perception  of  separate  objects  involves  position  and  distance, 
but  these  taken  together  are  not  extension,  which  necessarily 
implies  continuity.  To  move  one's  finger  along  the  keys  of  a 
piano  gives  both  the  position  and  the  distance  of  the  keys; 
to  move  it  along  the  frame  gives  the  idea  of  extension.  By 
expanding  this  idea  we  obtain  the  conception  of  all  space  as 
an  extended  whole.  To  this  perception  are  necessary  both  form 
and  material.  It  should  be  observed  the  actual  quality  of  a 
stimulus  (rough,  smooth,  dry,  &c.)  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
spatial  perception  as  such,  which  is  concerned  purely  with  what 
is  known  as  "  local  signature."  The  elementary  undifferentiated 
sensation  excited  by  the  stimuli  exerted  by  a  continuous  whole 
is  known  as  its  "  extensive  quantity  "  or  "  extensity."  The 
term  has  to  do  not  with  the  kind  of  object  which  excites  the 
sensation,  but  simply  with  the  vague  massiveness  of  the  latter. 
As  such  it  is  distinguishable  in  thought  from  extension,  though 
it  is  not  easy  to  say  whether  and  if  so  how  far  the  quantitative 
aspect  of  space  can  exist  apart  from  spatial  order.  Extensity 
as  an  element  in  the  complex  of  extension  must  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  intensity.  Mere  increase  of  pressure  implies 
increase  of  intensity  of  sensation;  to  increase  the  extensity 
the  area,  so  to  speak,  of  the  exciting  stimulus  must  be  increased. 
Thus  the  extensity  (also  called  "  voluminousness,"  or  "  massive- 
ness  ")  of  the  sensation  produced  by  a  roll  of  thunder  is  greater 
than  that  produced  by  a  whistle  or  the  bark  of  a  dog.  It  should 
be  observed  that  this  application  of  the  idea  of  extensity  to 
sensation  in  general,  rather  than  to  the  matter  which  is  the 
exciting  stimulus,  is  only  an  analogy,  an  attempt  to  explain 
a  common  psychic  phenomenon  by  terminology  which  is  in- 
trinsically suitable  to  the  physical.  As  a  natural  consequence 
the  term  represents  different  shades  of  meaning  in  different 
treatises,  verging  sometimes  towards  the  physical,  sometimes 
towards  the  psychic,  meaning. 

In  connexion  with  extension  elaborate  psycho-physical 
experiments  have  been  devised,  e.g.  with  the  object  of  comparing 
the  accuracy  of  tactual  and  visual  perception  and  discovering 
what  are  the  least  differences  which  each  can  observe.  At  a 
distance  two  lights  appear  as  one,  just  as  two  stars  distinguishable 
through  a  telescope  are  one  to  the  naked  eye  (see  VISION): 
again  if  the  points  of  a  compass  are  brought  close  together 
and  pressed  lightly  on  the  skin  the  sensation,  though  vague  and 
diffused,  is  a  single  one. 

See  PSYCHOLOGY  and  works  there  quoted ;  also  SPACE  AND  TIME. 


86      EXTENUATING  CIRCUMSTANCES— EXTERRITORIALITY 


EXTENUATING  CIRCUMSTANCES.  This  expression  is  used 
in  law  with  reference  to  crimes,  to  describe  cases  in  which, 
though  an  offence  has  been  committed  without  legal  justification 
or  excuse,  its  gravity,  from  the  point  of  view  of  punishment  or 
moral  opprobrium,  is  mitigated  or  reduced  by  reason  of  the  facts 
leading  up  to  or  attending  the  commission  of  the  offence.  Ac- 
cording to  English  procedure,  the  jury  has  no  power  to  determine 
the  punishment  to  be  awarded  for  an  offence.  The  sentence, 
with  certain  exceptions  in  capital  cases,  is  within  the  sole  discre- 
tion of  the  judge,  subject  to  the  statutory  prescriptions  as  to  the 
kind  and  maximum  of  punishment.  It  is  common  practice  for 
juries  to  add  to  their  verdict,  guilty  or  not  guilty,  a  rider  recom- 
mending the  accused  to  mercy  on  the  ground  of  grave  provocation 
received,  or  other  circumstances  which  in  their  view  should 
mitigate  the  penalty.  This  form  of  rider  is  often  added  on  a 
verdict  of  guilty  of  wilful  murder,  a  crime  as  to  which  the  judge 
has  no  discretion  as  to  punishment,  but  the  recommendation 
is  sent  to  the  Home  Office  for  consideration  in  advising  as  to 
exercise  of  the  prerogative  of  mercy.  Quite  independently  of 
any  recommendation  by  the  jury,  the  judge  is  entitled  to  take 
into  account  matters  proved  during  the  trial,  or  laid  before  him 
after  verdict,  as  a  guide  to  him  in  determining  the  quantum 
of  punishment. 

Under  the  French  law  (Code  d'inslruction  criminette,  art.  345), 
it  is  the  sole  right  and  the  duty  of  a  jury  in  a  criminal  case  to 
pronounce  whether  or  not  the  commission  of  the  offence  was 
attended  by  extenuating  circumstances  (cir  Constances  atlenuantes) . 
They  are  not  bound  to  say  anything  about  the  matter;  but 
the  whole  or  the  majority  may  qualify  the  verdict  by  finding 
extenuation,  and  if  they  do,  the  powers  of  the  court  to  impose 
the  maximum  punishment  are  taken  away  and  the  sentence  to  be 
pronounced  is  reduced  in  accordance  with  the  scale  laid  down 
in  art.  463  of  the  Code  penal.  The  most  important  result  of  this 
rule  is  to  enable  a  jury  to  prevent  the  infliction  of  capital  punish- 
ment for  murder.  In  cases  of  what  is  termed  "  crime  passionel," 
French  juries,  when  they  do  not  acquit,  almost  invariably  find 
extenuation;  and  a  like  verdict  has  become  common  even  in  the 
case  of  cold-blooded  and  sordid  murders,  owing  to  objections 
to  capital  punishment. 

EXTERRITORIALITY,  a  term  of  international  law,  used  to 
denominate  certain  immunities  from  the  application  of  the  rule 
that  every  person  is  subject  for  all  acts  done  within  the  boundaries 
of  a  state  to  its  local  laws.  It  is  also  employed  to  describe  the 
quasi-extraterritorial  position,  to  borrow  the  phrase  of  Grotius, 
of  the  dwelling-place  of  an  accredited  diplomatic  agent,  and  of 
the  public  ships  of  one  state  while  in  the  waters  of  another. 
Latterly  its  sense  has  been  extended  to  all  cases  in  which  states 
refrain  from  enforcing  their  laws  within  their  territorial  juris- 
diction. The  cases  recognized  by  the  law  of  nations  relate  to: 
(i)  the  persons  and  belongings  of  foreign  sovereigns,  whether 
incognito  or  not;  (2)  the  persons  and  belongings  of  ambassadors, 
ministers  plenipotentiary,  and  other  accredited  diplomatic 
agents  and  their  suites  (but  not  consuls,  except  in  some  non- 
Christian  countries,  in  which  they  sometimes  have  a  diplomatic 
character);  (3)  public  ships  in  foreign  waters.  Exterritoriality 
has  also  been  granted  by  treaty  to  the  subjects  and  citizens 
of  contracting  Christian  states  resident  within  the  territory 
of  certain  non-Christian  states.  Lastly,  it  is  held  that  when 
armies  or  regiments  are  allowed  by  a  foreign  state  to  cross 
its  territory,  they  necessarily  have  exterritorial  rights.  "  The 
ground  upon  which  the  immunity  of  sovereign  rulers  from 
process  in  our  courts,"  said  Mr  Justice  Wills  in  the  case  of 
Mighell  v.  Sultan  of  Johore,  1894,  "is  recognized  by  our  law,  is 
that  it  would  be  absolutely  inconsistent  with  the  status  of  an 
independent  sovereign  that  he  should  be  subject  to  the  process  of 
a  foreign  tribunal,"  unless  he  deliberately  submits  to  its  juris- 
diction. It  has,  however,  been  held  where  the  foreign  sovereign 
was  also  a  British  subject  (Duke  of  Brunswick  v.  King  of  Hanover, 
1844),  that  he  is  amenable  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  English 
Courts  in  respect  of  transactions  done  by  him  in  his  capacity 
as  a  subject.  A  "  foreign  sovereign  "  may  be  taken  to  include 
the  president  of  a  republic,  and  even  a  potentate  whose  inde- 


pendence is  not  complete.  Thus  in  the  case,  cited  above,  of 
Mighell  v.  Sultan  of  Johore,  the  sultan  was  ascertained  to  have 
abandoned  all  right  to  contract  with  foreign  states,  and  to 
have  placed  his  territory  under  British  protection.  The  court 
held  that  he  was,  nevertheless,  a  foreign  sovereign  in  so  far  as 
immunity  from  British  jurisdiction  was  concerned.  The  im- 
munity of  a  foreign  diplomatic  agent,  as  the  direct  representative 
of  a  foreign  sovereign  (or  state),  is  based  on  the  same  grounds 
as  that  of  the  sovereign  authority  itself.  The  international 
practice  in  the  case  of  Great  Britain  was  confirmed  by  an  act 
of  parliament  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  which  is  still  in  force. 
The  preamble  to  this  act  states  that  "  turbulent  and  disorderly 
persons  in  a  most  outrageous  manner  had  insulted  the  person 
of  the  then  ambassador  of  his  Czarish  Majesty,  emperor  of  Great 
Russia,"  by  arresting  and  detaining  him  in  custody  for  several 
hours,  "  in  contempt  to  the  protection  granted  by  Her  Majesty, 
contrary  to  the  law  of  nations,  and  in  prejudice  of  the  rights 
and  privileges  which  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers, 
authorized  and  received  as  such,  have  at  all  times  been  thereby 
possessed  of,  and  ought  to  be  kept  sacred  and  inviolable."  This 
preamble  has  been  repeatedly  held  by  our  courts  to  be  declaratory 
of  the  English  common  law.  The  act  provides  that  all  suits, 
writs,  processes,  against  any  accredited  ambassador  or  public 
minister  or  his  domestic  servant,  and  all  proceedings  and  judg- 
ments had  thereupon,  are  "  utterly  null  and  void,"  and  that 
any  person  violating  these  provisions  shall  be  punished  for  a 
breach  of  the  public  peace.  Thus  a  foreign  diplomatic  agent 
cannot,  like  the  sovereign  he  represents,  waive  his  immunity 
by  submitting  to  the  British  jurisdiction.  The  diplomatic  im- 
munity necessarily  covers  the  residence  of  the  diplomatic  agent, 
which  some  writers  describe  as  assimilated  to  territory  of  the 
state  represented  by  the  agent;  but  there  is  no  consideration 
which  can  justify  any  extension  of  the  immunity  beyond  the 
needs  of  the  diplomatic  mission  resident  within  it.  It  is  different 
with  public  ships  in  foreign  waters.  In  their  case  the  ex- 
territoriality attaches  to  the  vessel.  Beyond  its  bulwarks 
captain  and  crew  are  subject  to  the  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  the 
state  upon  whose  territory  they  happen  to  be.  By  a  foreign  public 
ship  is  now  understood  any  ship  in  the  service  of  a  foreign  state. 
It  was  even  held  in  the  case  of  the  "  Parlement  Beige  "  (1880), 
a  packet  belonging  to  the  Belgian  government,  that  the  character 
of  the  vessel  as  a  public  ship  was  not  affected  by  its  carrying 
passengers  and  merchandise  for  hire.  In  a  more  recent  case  an 
action  brought  by  the  owners  of  a  Greek  vessel  against  a  vessel 
belonging  to  the  state  of  Rumania  was  dismissed,  though  the 
agents  of  the  Rumanian  government  had  entered  an  appearance 
unconditionally  and  had  obtained  the  release  of  the  vessel  on 
bail,  on  the  ground  that  the  Rumanian  government  had  not 
authorized  acceptance  of  the  British  jurisdiction  (The  "  Jassy," 
1906,  75  L.J.P.  93). 

Writers  frequently  describe  the  exterritoriality  of  both  em- 
bassies and  ships  as  absolute.  There  is,  however,  this  differ- 
ence, that  the  exterritoriality  of  the  latter  not  being,  like  that 
of  embassies,  a  derived  one,  there  seems  to  be  no  ground  for 
limitation  of  it.  It  was,  nevertheless,  laid  down  by  the  arbitrators 
in  the  "  Alabama  "  case  (Cockburn  dissenting),  that  the  privilege 
of  exterritoriality  accorded  to  vessels  had  not  been  admitted 
into  the  law  of  nations  as  an  absolute  right,  but  solely  as  a 
proceeding  founded  on  the  principle  of  courtesy  and  mutual 
deference  between  different  nations,  and  that  it  could  therefore 
"never  be  appealed  to  for  the  protection  of  acts  done  in  violation 
of  neutrality." 

The  exterritorial  settlements  in  the  Far  East,  the  privileges 
of  Christians  under  the  arrangements  made  with  the  Ottoman 
Porte,  and  other  exceptions  from  local  jurisdictions,  are  subject 
to  the  conditions  laid  down  in  the  treaties  by  which  they  have 
been  created.  There  are  also  cases  in  which  British  communities 
have  grown  up  in  barbarous  countries  without  the  consent 
of  any  local  authority.  All  these  are  regulated  by  orders  in 
council,  issued  now  in  virtue  of  the  Foreign  Jurisdiction  Act 
1890,  an  act  enabling  the  crown  to  exercise  any  jurisdiction  it 
may  have  "  within  a  foreign  country  "  in  as  ample  a  manner 


EXTORTION— EXTRADITION 


as  if  it  had  been  acquired  "  by  cession  or  conquest  of  territory." 
A  very  exceptional  case  of  exterritoriality  is  that  granted  to  the 
pope  under  a  special  Italian  enactment.  (T.  BA.) 

EXTORTION  (Lat.  exlorsio,  from  extorquere,  to  twist  out,  to 
lake  away  by  force),  in  English  law  the  term  applied  to  the 
exaction  by  public  officers  of  money  or  money's  worth  not  due 
at  all,  or  in  excess  of  what  is  due,  or  before  it  is  due.  Such 
exaction,  unless  made  in  good  faith  (i.e.  in  honest  mistake  as 
to  the  sum  properly  payable),  is  a  misdemeanour  by  the  common 
law  and  is  punishable  by  fine  and  (or)  imprisonment.  Besides 
the  punishment  above  stated,  an  action  for  twice  the  value  of 
the  thing  extorted  lies  against  officers  of  the  king  (1275,  3  Edw.  I. 
c.  46).  There  are  numerous  provisions  for  the  punishment  of 
particular  officers  who  make  illegal  exactions  or  take  illegal 
fees:  e.g.  sheriffs  and  their  officers  (Sheriffs  Act  1887),  county 
court  bailiffs  (County  Courts  Act  1888),  clerks  of  courts  of 
justice,  and  gaolers  who  exact  fees  from  prisoners.  A  gaoler 
is  also  punishable  for  detaining  the  corpse  of  a  prisoner  as 
security  for  debt.  The  term  "  public  officer  "  is  not  limited  to 
offices  under  the  crown;  and  there  are  old  precedents  of  criminal 
proceedings  for  extortion  against  churchwardens,  and  against 
millers  and  ferrymen  who  demand  tolls  in  excess  of  what  is 
customary  under  their  franchise. 

The  term  extortion  is  also  applied  to  the  exaction  of  money 
or  money's  worth  by  menaces  of  personal  violence  or  by 
threats  to  accuse  of  crime  or  to  publish  defamatory  matter 
about  another  person.  These  offences  fall  partly  under  the  head 
of  robbery  and  partly  under  blackmail,  or  what  in  French  is 
termed  chantage. 

See  Russell  on  Crimes  (6th  ed.,  vol.  i.  p.  423;  vol.  iii.  p.  348). 

EXTRACT  (from  Lat.  extrahere,  to  draw  out),  in  pharmacy, 
the  name  given  to  preparations  formed  by  evaporating  or  con- 
centrating solutions  of  active  principles;  tinctures  are  solutions 
which  have  not  been  subjected  to  any  evaporation.  "  Liquid 
extracts  "  are  those  of  a  syrupy  consistency,  and  are  generally 
prepared  by  treating  the  drug  with  the  solvent  (water,  alcohol, 
&c.)  and  concentrating  the  solution  until  it  attains  the  desired 
consistency.  "  Ordinary  extracts  "  are  thick,  tenacious  and 
sometimes  even  dry  preparations ;  they  are  obtained  by  evaporat- 
ing solutions  as  obtained  above,  or  the  juices  expressed  from 
the  plants. 

Extraction,  in  chemical  technology,  is  a  process  for  separating 
one  substance  from  another  by  taking  advantage  of  the  varying 
solubility  of  the  components  in  some  chosen  solvent.  The  term 
"  lixiviation  "  is  used  when  water  is  the  solvent.  In  laboratory 
practice  all  the  common  solvents  are  employed.  With  small  quan- 
tities it  may  suffice  to  shake  the  substance  with  the  solvent,  the 
mixture  being  heated  if  necessary,  filter  and  distil  or  otherwise 
remove  the  solvent  from  the  distillate.  For  larger  quantities 
continuous  extraction  is  advisable.  This  may  be  carried  out 
in  many  forms  of  apparatus;  one  of  the  most  convenient  is 
the  Soxhlet  extractor,  in  which  the  extract  siphons  into  the 
flask  containing  the  solvent,  and  so  maintains  the  quantity  of 
available  solvent  practically  constant.  Continuous  extraction 
is  generally  the  practice  in  technology.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant applications  is  in  the  fat  and  gelatine  industries. 

EXTRADITION  (Lat.  ex,  out,  and  traditio,  handing  over), 
the  surrender  of  an  alleged  criminal  for  trial  by  a  foreign  state 
where  he  has  taken  refuge,  to  the  state  against  which  the  alleged 
offence  has  been  committed.  When  a  person  who  has  committed 
an  offence  in  one  country  escapes  to  another,  what  is  the  duty 
of  the  latter  with  regard  to  him?  Should  the  country  of  refuge 
try  him  in  its  own  courts  according  to  its  own  laws,  or  deliver 
him  up  to  the  country  whose  laws  he  has  broken?  To  the 
general  question  international  law  gives  no  certain  answer. 
Some  jurists,  Grotius  among  them,  incline  to  hold  that  a  state 
is  bound  to  give  up  fugitive  criminals,  but  the  majority  appear 
to  deny  the  obligation  as  a  matter  of  right,  and  prefer  to  put 
it  on  the  ground  of  comity.  And  the  universal  practice  of  nations 
is  to  surrender  criminals  only  in  consequence  of  some  special 
treaty  with  the  country  which  demands  them. 

There  are  two  practical  difficulties  about  extradition  which 


have  probably  prevented  the  growth  of  any  uniform  rule  on  the 
subject.  One  is  the  variation  in  the  definitions  of  crime  adopted 
by  different  countries.  The  second  is  the  possibility  of  the 
process  of  extradition  being  employed  to  get  hold  of  a  person 
who  is  wanted  by  his  country,  not  really  for  a  criminal,  but  for 
a  political  offence.  In  modern  states,  and  more  particularly 
in  England,  offences  of  a  political  character  have  always  been 
carefully  excluded  from  the  operation  of  the  law  of  extradition. 

i.  UNITED  KINGDOM. — The  Extradition  Acts  1870-1873 
(33  &  34  Viet.  cc.  62,  and  36  &  37  Viet.  c.  60)  and  the  Fugitive 
Offenders  Act  1881  (44  &  45  Viet.  c.  69)  deal  with  different 
branches  of  the  same  subject,  the  recovery  and  surrender  of 
fugitive  criminals.  The  Extradition  Acts  apply  in  the  case  of 
countries  with  which  Great  Britain  has  extradition  treaties. 
The  Fugitive  Offenders  Act  applies — (i)  as  between  the  United 
Kingdom  and  any  British  possession,  (2)  as  between  any  two 
British  possessions,  and  (3)  as  between  the  United  Kingdom 
or  a  British  possession  and  certain  foreign  countries,  such  as 
Turkey  and  China,  in  which  the  crown  exercises  foreign  juris- 
diction. 

Conditions  of  Surrender. — In  spite  of  some  earlier  authorities 
it  has  long  been  settled  that  in  English  law  there  is  no  power  to 
surrender  fugitive  criminals  to  a  foreign  country  without  express 
statutory  authority.  Such  authority  is  now  given  by  the 
Extradition  Acts  1870-1873,  but  only  in  the  case  of  the  offences 
therein  specified,  and  with  regard  to  countries  with  which  an 
arrangement  has  been  entered  into,  and  to  which  the  acts  have 
been  applied  by  order  in  council.  The  acts  are  further  to  be 
applied,  subject  to  such  "  conditions,  exceptions  and  qualifica- 
tions as  may  be  deemed  expedient  "  (s.  2);  and  these  conditions, 
&c.,  are  invariably  to  be  found  in  the  extradition  treaty  which 
is  set  out  in  the  order  in  council  applying  the  Extradition  Acts 
to  a  particular  country.  To  support  a  demand  for  extradition 
from  Great  Britain  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  show  that  the 
offence  is  one  of  those  enumerated  in  the  Extradition  Acts,  and 
also  in  the  particular  treaty,  and  that  the  acts  charged  amount 
to  the  offence  according  to  the  laws  both  of  Great  Britain  and  of 
the  state  demanding  the  surrender. 

Surrender  of  Subjects. — A  further  question  arises  where  a  state 
is  called  on  to  surrender  one  of  its  own  subjects.  Some  of  the 
treaties,  such  as  those  with  France  and  Germany,  stipulate 
that  neither  contracting  party  shall  surrender  its  own  subjects, 
and  in  such  cases  a  British  subject  cannot  be  surrendered  by 
his  own  country.  The  treaties  with  Spain,  Switzerland  and 
Luxemburg  provide  for  the  surrender  by  Great  Britain  of  her 
own  subjects,  but  there  is  no  reciprocity.  Other  treaties,  such 
as  those  with  Austria,  Belgium,  Russia  and  the  Netherlands, 
give  each  party  the  option  of  surrendering  or  refusing  to  surrender 
its  own  subjects  in  each  particular  case.  Under  such  treaties 
British  subjects  are  surrendered  unless  the  secretary  of  state 
intervenes  to  forbid  it.  Lastly,  some  treaties,  such  as  that  with 
the  United  States,  contain  no  restriction  of  this  kind,  and  the 
subjects  of  each  power  are  freely  surrendered  to  the  other. 
Surrender  by  Great  Britain  is  also  subject  to  the  following 
restrictions  contained  in  s.  3  of  the  Extradition  Act  1870: — 
(i)  that  the  offence  is  not  of  a  political  character,  and  the  requisi- 
tion has  not  been  made  with  a  view  to  try  and  punish  for  an 
offence  of  a  political  character;  (2)  that  the  prisoner  shall  not 
be  liable  to  be  tried  for  any  but  the  specified  extradition  offences; 
(3)  that  he  shall  not  be  surrendered  until  he  has  been  tried  and 
served  his  sentence  for  offences  committed  in  Great  Britain; 
and  (4)  that  he  shall  not  be  actually  given  up  until  fifteen  days 
after  his  committal  for  extradition,  so  as  to  allow  of  an  applica- 
tion to  the  courts. 

Political  Offences.— The  question  as  to  what  constitutes  a 
political  offence  is  one  of  some  nicety.  It  was  discussed  in  In 
re  Caslioni  (1890,  i  Q.B.  149),  where  it  was  held,  following  the 
opinion  of  Mr  Justice  Stephen  in  his  History  of  the  Criminal  Law, 
that  to  give  an  offence  a  political  character  it  must  be  "  incidental 
to  and  form  part  of  political  disturbances."  Extradition  was 
accordingly  refused  for  homicide  committed  in  the  course  of  an 
armed  rising  against  the  constituted  authorities.  In  the  more 


88 


EXTRADITION 


recent  case  of  In  re  Meunier  (1894,  2  Q.B.  415),  an  Anarchist 
was  charged  with  causing  two  explosions  in  Paris — one  at  the 
Caf6  Very  resulting  in  the  death  of  two  persons,  and  the  other 
at  certain  barracks.  It  was  not  contended  that  the  outrage 
at  the  cafe  was  a  political  crime,  but  it  was  argued  that  the 
explosion  at  the  barracks  came  within  the  description.  The 
court,  however,  held  that  to  constitute  a  political  offence  there 
must  be  two  or  more  parties  in  the  state,  each  seeking  to  impose 
a  government  of  its  own  choice  on  the  other,  which  was  not  the 
case  with  regard  to  Anarchist  crimes.  The  party  of  anarchy 
was  the  enemy  of  all  governments,  and  its  effects  were  directed 
primarily  against  the  general  body  of  citizens.  The  test  applied 
in  the  earlier  case  is  perhaps  the  more  satisfactory  of  the  two. 

With  regard  to  the  provision  that  surrender  shall  not  be 
granted  if  the  requisition  has  in  fact  been  made  with  a  view  to 
try  and  punish  for  an  offence  of  a  political  character,  it  was 
decided  in  the  case  of  Arton  (1896,  i  Q.B.  108)  that  a  mere  sug- 
gestion, that  after  his  surrender  for  a  non-political  crime,  the 
prisoner  would  be  interrogated  on  political  matters  (his  alleged 
complicity  in  the  Panama  scandal),  and  punished  for  his  refusal 
to  answer,  was  not  enough  to  bring  him  within  the  provision. 
The  court  also  held  that  it  had  no  jurisdiction  to  entertain  a 
suggestion  that  the  request  of  the  French  government  for  his 
extradition  was  not  made  in  good  faith  and  in  the  interests  of 
justice. 

Extradition  Offences. — The  following  is  a  list  of  crimes  in 
respect  of  which  extradition  may  be  provided  for  under  the 
Extradition  Acts  1870-1873,  and  the  Slave  Trade  Act  1873. 
Extradition  Act  1870: — (i)  Murder;  (2)  Attempt  to  murder; 
(3)  Conspiracy  to  murder;  (4)  Manslaughter;  (5)  Counter- 
feiting and  altering  money,  uttering  counterfeit  or  altered  money; 
(6)  Forgery,  counterfeiting,  and  altering  and  uttering  what  is 
forged  or  counterfeited  or  altered;  (7)  Embezzlement  and 
larceny;  (8)  Obtaining  money  or  goods  by  false  pretences; 
(9)  Crimes  by  bankrupts  against  bankruptcy  law;  (10)  Fraud 
by  a  bailee,  banker,  agent,  factor,  trustee  or  director,  or  member 
or  public  officer  of  any  company  made  criminal  by  any  law  for  the 
tiije  being  in  force;  (n)  Rape;  (12)  Abduction;  (13)  Child- 
stealing;  (14)  Burglary  and  housebreaking;  (15)  Arson;  (16) 
Robbery  with  violence;  (17)  Threats  by  letter  or  otherwise  with 
intent  to  extort;  (18)  Crimes  committed  at  sea:  (a)  Piracy  by 
the  law  of  nations;  (b)  Sinking  or  destroying  a  vessel  at  sea,  or 
attempting  or  conspiring  to  do  so;  (c)  Assault  on  a  ship  on  the 
high  seas,  with  intent  to  destroy  life  or  to  do  grievous  bodily  harm ; 
(d)  Revolt,  or  conspiring  to  revolt,  by  two  or  more  persons  on  board 
a  ship  on  the  high  seas  against  the  authority  of  the  master; 
(19)  Bribery.  Extradition  Act  1873: — (20)  Kidnapping  and  false 
imprisonment;  (21)  Perjury  and  subornation  of  perjury.  This 
act  also  extends  to  indictable  offences  under  24  &  25  Viet, 
cc.  96,  97,  98,  99,  100,  and  amending  and  substituted  acts. 
Among  such  offences  included  in  various  extradition  treaties 
are  the  following: — (22)  Obtaining  valuable  securities  by  false 
pretences;  (23)  Receiving  any  money,  valuable  security  or 
other  property,  knowing  the  same  to  have  been  stolen  or  unlaw- 
fully obtained;  (24)  Falsification  of  accounts  (see  In  re  Arton, 
1896,  i  Q.B.  509);  (25)  Malicious  injury  to  property,  if  such 
offence  be  indictable;  (26)  Knowingly  making,  without  lawful 
authority,  any  instrument,  tool  or  engine  adapted  and  intended 
for  the  counterfeiting  of  coin  of  the  realm;  (27)  Abandoning 
children;  exposing  or  unlawfully  detaining  them;  (28)  Any 
malicious  act  done  with  intent  to  endanger  the  safety  of  any 
person  in  a  railway  train;  (29)  Wounding  or  inflicting  grievous 
bodily  harm;  (30)  Assault  occasioning  actual  bodily  harm; 
(31)  Assaulting  a  magistrate  or  peace  or  public  officer;  (32) 
Indecent  assault;  (33)  Unlawful  carnal  knowledge,  or  any 
attempt  to  have  unlawful  carnal  knowledge,  of  a  girl  under  age; 
(34)  Bigamy;  (35)  Administering  drugs  or  using  instruments 
with  intent  to  procure  the  miscarriage  of  women;  (36)  Any 
indictable  offence  under  the  laws  for  the  time  being  in  force  in 
relation  to  bankruptcy.  Slave  Trade  Act  1873  (36  &  37  Viet, 
c.  88,  s.  27): — (37)  Dealing  in  slaves  in  such  manner  as  to 
constitute  a  criminal  offence  against  the  laws  of  both  states. 


The  United  Kingdom  has  extradition  treaties  with  practically 
all  civilized  foreign  countries;  and  though  it  is  not  practicable 
to  state  which  of  the  statutory  extradition  offences  are  included 
in  each,  it  may  be  said  generally  that  crimes  i  to  17  inclusive 
are  covered  in  all,  though  Rumania  has  reserved  the  right  to 
refuse,  and  Portugal  does  refuse,  to  surrender  for  a  crime  punish- 
able with  death. 

The  act  of  1873  provides  for  the  surrender  of  accessories 
before  and  after  the  fact  to  extradition  crimes,  and  most  of  the 
treaties  contain  a  clause  by  which  extradition  is  to  be  granted 
for  participation  in  any  of  the  crimes  specified  in  the  treaty, 
provided  that  such  participation  is  punishable  by  the  laws  of 
both  countries.  Several  of  the  treaties  also  contain  clauses 
providing  for  optional  surrender  in  respect  of  any  crime  not 
expressly  mentioned  for  which  extradition  can  be  granted  by 
the  laws  of  both  countries. 

It  is  further  to  be  noted  that  the  restrictions  on  surrender 
in  the  Extradition  Acts  apply  only  to  surrenders  by  Great  Britain. 
Foreign  countries  may  surrender  fugitives  to  Great  Britain 
without  any  treaty,  if  they  are  willing  to  do  so  and  their  law 
allows  of  it,  and  such  surrenders  have  not  infrequently  been 
made.  But  when  surrendered  for  an  extradition  crime,  the 
prisoner  cannot  be  tried  in  England  for  any  other  crime  com- 
mitted before  such  surrender,  until  he  has  been  restored,  or  has 
had  an  opportunity  of  returning,  to  the  foreign  state  from  which 
he  was  extradited. 

Procedure. — To  obtain  from  a  foreign  country  the  extradition  of 
a  fugitive  from  the  United  Kingdom,  it  is  necessary  to  procure 
a  warrant  for  his  arrest,  and  to  send  it,  or  a  certified  copy,  to  the 
home  secretary  together  with  such  further  evidence  as  is  required 
by  the  treaty  with  the  country  in  question.  In  most  cases 
an  information  or  deposition  containing  evidence  which  would 
justify  a  committal  for  trial  in  Great  Britain  will  be  required. 
The  home  secretary  will  then  communicate  through  the  foreign 
secretary  and  the  proper  diplomatic  channels  with  the  foreign 
authorities,  and  in  case  of  urgency  will  ask  them  by  telegraph  for 
a  provisional  arrest.  For  the  arrest  in  the  United  Kingdom  of 
fugitive  criminals  whose  extradition  is  requested  by  a  foreign 
state,  two  procedures  are  provided  in  ss.  7  and  8  of  the  act  of 
1870: — (i)  On  a  diplomatic  requisition  supported  by  the  warrant 
of  arrest  and  documentary  evidence,  the  home  secretary,  if  he 
thinks  the  crime  is  not  of  a  political  character,  will  order  the 
chief  magistrate  at  Bow  Street  to  proceed;  and  such  magistrate 
will  then  issue  a  warrant  of  arrest  on  such  evidence  as  would  be 
required  if  the  offence  had  been  committed  in  the  United  King- 
dom. (2)  More  summarily,  any  magistrate  or  justice  of  the  peace 
may  issue  a  provisional  warrant  of  arrest  on  evidence  which 
would  support  such  a  warrant  if  the  crime  had  been  committed 
within  his  jurisdiction.  In  practice  a  sworn  information  is  re- 
quired, but  this  may  be  based  on  a  telegram  from  the  foreign 
authorities.  The  magistrate  or  justice  must  then  report  the 
issue  of  the  warrant  to  the  home  secretary,  who  may  cancel  it 
and  discharge  the  prisoner.  When  arrested  on  the  provisional 
warrant,  the  prisoner  will  be  brought  up  before  a  magistrate 
and  remanded  to  Bow  Street,  and  will  then  be  further  remanded 
until  the  magistrate  at  Bow  Street  is  notified  that  a  formal 
requisition  for  surrender  has  been  made;  and  unless  such 
requisition  is  made  in  reasonable  time  the  prisoner  is  entitled 
to  be  discharged.  The  examination  of  the  prisoner  prior  to  his 
committal  for  extradition  ordinarily  takes  place  at  Bow  Street. 
The  magistrate  is  required  to  hear  evidence  that  the  alleged 
offence  is  of  a  political  character  or  is  not  an  extradition  crime. 
If  satisfied  in  these  respects,  and  if  the  foreign  warrant  of  arrest 
is  duly  authenticated,  and  evidence  is  given  which  according 
to  English  law  would  justify  a  committal  for  trial,  if  the  prisoner 
has  not  yet  been  tried,  or  would  prove  a  conviction  if  he  has 
already  been  convicted,  the  magistrate  will  commit  him  for 
extradition.  Under  the  Extradition  Act  1893  the  home  secretary, 
if  of  opinion  that  removal  to  Bow  Street  would  be  dangerous  to 
the  prisoner's  life,  or  prejudicial  to  his  health,  may  order  the  case 
to  be  taken  by  a  magistrate  at  the  place  where  the  prisoner  was 
apprehended,  or  then  is,  and  the  magistrate  may  order  the 


EXTRADOS— EXTREME  UNCTION 


89 


prisoner  to  be  detained  in  such  place.  After  committal  for  extra- 
dition, every  prisoner  has  fifteen  days  in  which  to  apply  for 
habeas  corpus,  and  after  such  period,  or  at  the  close  of  the  habeas 
corpus  proceedings  if  they  are  unsuccessful,  the  home  secretary 
issues  his  warrant  for  surrender,  and  the  prisoner  is  handed  over 
to  the  officers  of  the  foreign  government. 

The  Extradition  Acts  apply  to  the  British  colonies,  the 
governor  being  substituted  for  the  secretary  of  state.  Their 
operation  may,  however,  be  suspended  by  order  in  council,  as 
in  the  case  of  Canada,  where  the  colony  has  passed  an  Extradition 
Act  of  its  own  (see  Statutory  Rules  and  Orders). 

Fugitive  Offenders  Act. — There  are  no  extradition  treaties 
with  certain  countries  in  which  the  crown  exercises  foreign  juris- 
diction, such  as  Cyprus,  Turkey,  Egypt,  China,  Japan,  Corea, 
Zanzibar,  Morocco,  Siam,  Persia,  Somali,  &c.  In  these  countries 
the  Fugitive  Offenders  Act  1881  (44  &  45  Viet.  c.  69)  has  been 
applied,  pursuant  to  s.  36  of  that  statute,  and  the  measures  for 
obtaining  surrender  of  a  fugitive  criminal  are  the  same  as  in  a 
British  colony.  The  act,  however,  only  applies  to  persons  over 
whom  the  crown  has  jurisdiction  in  these  territories,  and  generally 
is  expressly  restricted  to  British  subjects. 

Under  this  act  a  fugitive  from  one  part  of  the  king's  dominions 
to  another,  or  to  a  country  where  the  crown  exercises  foreign 
jurisdiction,  may  be  brought  back  by  a  procedure  analogous  to 
extradition,  but  applicable  only  to  treason,  piracy  and  offences 
punishable  with  twelve  months'  imprisonment  with  hard  labour 
or  more.  The  original  warrant  of  arrest  must  be  endorsed  by  one 
of  several  authorities  where  the  offenders  happen  to  be, — in 
practice  by  the  home  secretary  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  by 
the  governor  in  a  colony.  Pending  the  arrival  of  the  original 
warrant  a  provisional  arrest  may  be  made,  as  under  the  Ex- 
tradition Acts.  The  fugitive  must  then  be  brought  up  for 
examination  before  a  local  magistrate,  who,  if  the  endorsed 
warrant  is  duly  authenticated,  and  evidence  is  produced  "  which, 
according  to  the  law  administered  by  the  magistrate,  raises  a 
strong  or  probable  presumption  that  the  offender  committed  the 
offence,  and  that  the  act  applies  to  it,"  may  commit  him  for  re- 
turn. An  interval  of  fifteen  days  is  allowed  for  habeas  corpus  pro- 
ceedings, and  (s.  10)  the  court  has  a  large  discretion  to  discharge 
the  prisoner,  or  impose  terms,  if  it  thinks  the  case  frivolous,  or 
that  the  return  would  be  unjust  or  oppressive,  or  too  severe 
a  punishment.  The  next  step  is  for  the  home  secretary  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  the  governor  in  a  colony,  to  issue  a 
warrant  for  the  return  of  the  prisoner.  He  must  be  removed 
within  a  month,  in  the  absence  of  reasonable  cause  to  the  con- 
trary. If  not  prosecuted  within  six  months  after  arrival,  or  if 
acquitted,  he  is  entitled  to  be  sent  back  free  of  cost. 

In  the  case  of  fugitive  offenders  from  one  part  of  the  United 
Kingdom  to  another,  it  is  enough  to  get  the  warrant  of  arrest 
backed  by  a  magistrate  having  jurisdiction  in  that  part  of 
the  United  Kingdom  where  the  offender  happens  to  be.  A 
warrant  issued  by  a  metropolitan  police  magistrate  may  be 
executed,  without  backing,  by  a  metropolitan  police  officer  any- 
where, and  there  are  certain  other  exceptions,  but  as  a  rule  a 
warrant  cannot  be  executed  without  being  backed  by  a  local 
magistrate.  (J.  E.  P.  W.) 

2.  UNITED  STATES.— Foreign  extradition  is  purely  an  affair  of 
the  United  States,  and  not  for  the  individual  states  themselves. 
Upon  a  demand  upon  the  United  States  for  extradition,  there  is 
a  preliminary  examination  before  a  commissioner  or  judge  before 
there  can  be  a  surrender  to  the  foreign  government  (Revised 
Statutes,  Title  LXVI.;  22  Statutes  at  Large,  213).  It  is  enough 
to  show  probable  guilt  (Ornelas  v.  Ruiz,  161  United  States 
Reports,  502).  An  extradition  treaty  covers  crimes  previously 
committed.  If  a  Power,  with  which  the  United  States  have 
such  a  treaty,  surrenders  a  fugitive  charged*  with  a  crime  not 
included  in  the  treaty,  he  may  be  tried  in  the  United  States  for 
such  crime.  Inter-state  extradition  is  regulated  by  act  of  Con- 
gress under  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  (Article  IV.  s. 
2;  United  States  Revised  Statutes,  s.  5278).  A  surrender  may 
be  demanded  of  one  properly  charged  with  an  act  which  con- 
stitutes a  crime  under  the  laws  of  the  demanding  state,  although 


it  be  no  crime  in  the  other  state.  A  party  improperly  surrendered 
may  be  released  by  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  either  from  a  state  or 
United  States  court  (Robb  v.  Conolly,  in  U.S.  Reports,  624).  On 
his  return  to  the  state  from  which  he  fled,  he  is  subject  to  prosecu- 
tion for  any  crime,  though  on  a  foreign  extradition  the  law  is  other- 
wise (Lascelles  v.  Georgia,  148  U.S.  Reports,  537).  (S.  E.  B.). 

See  Sir  E.  Clarke,  Treatise  upon  the  Law  of  Extradition  (4th  ed., 
1904) ;  Biron  and  Chalmers,  Law  and  Practice  of  Extradition  (1903). 

EXTRADOS  (extra,  outside,  Fr.  dos,  back),  the  architectural 
term  for  the  outer  boundary  of  the  voussoirs  of  an  arch  (q.v.). 

EXTREME  UNCTION,  a  sacrament  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  In  James  v.  14  it  is  ordained  that,  if  any  believer  is 
sick,  he  shall  call  for  the  elders  of  the  church;  and  they  shall 
pray  over  him,  anointing  him  with  oil  in  the  name  of  the  Lord; 
and  the  prayer  of  faith  shall  save  him  that  is  sick,  and  the  Lord 
shall  raise  him  up;  and  if  he  have  committed  sins,  it  shall  be 
forgiven  him. 

Origen  reprobated  medical  art  on  the  ground  that  the  pre- 
scription here  cited  is  enough;  modern  faith-healers  and  Peculiar 
People  have  followed  in  his  wake.  The  Catholic  Church  has  more 
wisely  left  physicians  in  possession,  and  elevated  the  anointing 
of  the  sick  into  a  sacrament  to  be  used  only  in  cases  of  mortal 
sickness,  and  even  then  not  to  the  exclusion  of  the  healing  art. 

It  has  been  general  since  the  9th  century.  The  council  of 
Florence  A.D.  1439  thus  defined  it: — 

"  The  fifth  sacrament  is  extreme  unction.  Its  matter  is  olive 
oil,  blessed  by  a  bishop.  It  shall  not  be  given  except  to  a  sick  person 
whose  death  is  apprehended.  He  shall  be  anointed  in  the  following 
places:  the  eyes,  ears,  nostrils',  mouth,  hands,  feet,  reins.  The 
form  of  the  sacrament  is  this:  Through  this  anointing  of  thee  and 
through  its  most  pious  mercy, 'be  forgiven  all  thy  sins  of  sight,  &c. 
.  .  .  and  so  in  respect  of  the  other  organs.  A  priest  can  administer 
this  sacrament.  But  its  effect  is  to  make  whole  the  mind,  and, 
so  far  as  it  is  expedient,  the  body  as  well." 

This  sacrament  supplements  that  of  penance  (viz.  remission 
of  post-baptismal  sin)  in  the  sense  that  any  guilt  unconfessed  or 
left  over  after  normal  penances  imposed  by  confessors  is  purged 
thereby.  It  was  discussed  in  the  i2th  century  whether  this 
sacrament  is  indelible  like  baptism,  or  whether  it  can  be  repeated; 
and  the  latter  view,  that  of  Peter  Lombard,  prevailed. 

It  was  a  popular  opinion  in  the  middle  ages  that  extreme 
unction  extinguishes  all  ties  and  links  with  this  world,  so  that  he 
who  has  received  it  must,  if  he  recovers,  renounce  the  eating  of 
flesh  and  matrimonial  relations.  A  few  peasants  of  Lombardy 
still  believe  that  one  who  has  received  extreme  unction  ought  to 
be  left  to  die,  and  that  sick  people  may  be  starved  to  death 
through  the  withholding  of  food  on  superstitious  grounds.  Such 
opinions,  combated  by  bishops  and  councils,  were  due  to  the 
influence  of  the  consolamenlum  of  the  Cathars  (q.v.).  In  both 
sacraments  the  death-bed  baptism  of  an  earlier  age  seems  to 
survive,  and  they  both  fulfil  a  deep-seated  need  of  the  human 
spirit. 

Some  Gnostics  sprinkled  the  heads  of  the  dying  with  oil  and 
water  to  render  them  invisible  to  the  powers  of  darkness;  but  in 
the  East  generally,  where  the  need  to  compete  with  the  Cathar 
sacrament  of  Consolatio  was  less  acutely  felt,  extreme  unction 
is  unknown.  The  Latinizing  Armenians  adopted  it  from  Rome 
in  the  crusading  epoch.  At  an  earlier  date,  however,  it  was  usual 
to  anoint  the  dead." 

In  the  Roman  Church  the  bishop  blesses  the  oil  of  the  sick 
used  in  extreme  unctions  on  Holy  Thursday  at  the  Chrismal 
Mass,1  using  the  following  prayer  of  the  sacramentaries  of 
Gelasius  and  Hadrian: — 

"  Send  forth,  we  pray  Thee,  O  Lord,  Thy  holy  spirit,  the  Paraclete 
from  Heaven,  into  this  fatness  of  oil,  which  Thou  hast  deigned  to 
produce  from  the  green  wood  for  refreshment  of  mind  and  body; 
and  through  Thy  holy  benediction  may  it  be  for  all  that  anoint,  taste, 
touch,  a  protection  of  mind  and  body,  of  soul  and  spirit,  unto  the 
easing  away  of  all  pain,  all  weakness,  all  sickness  of  mind  and  body ; 
wherefore  Thou  hast  anointed  priest,  kings  and  prophets  and  martyrs 
with  thy  chrism,  perfected  by  Thee,  O  Lord,  blessed  and  abiding  in 
our  bowels  in  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ." 

See  L.  Duchesne,  Origines  du  Culte  Chretien  (Paris,  1898). 
(F.  C.  C.) 

1  The  oil  left  over  from  the  year  before  is  burnt. 


9o 


EYBESCHUTZ— EYCK,  VAN 


EYBESCHtfTZ,  JONATHAN  (1690-1764),  German  rabbi, 
was  from  1750  rabbi  in  Altona.  He  was  a  man  of  erudition, 
but  he  owed  his  fame  chiefly  to  his  personality.  Few  men  of  the 
period  so  profoundly  impressed  their  mark  on  Jewish  life.  He 
became  specially  notorious  because  of  a  curious  controversy 
that  arose  concerning  the  amulets  which  Eybeschiitz  was  sus- 
pected of  issuing.  These  amulets  recognized  the  Messianic 
claims  of  Sabbatai  Sebi  (q.v.),  and  a  famous  rabbinic  con- 
temporary of  Eybeschiitz,  Jacob  Emden,  boldly  accused  him 
of  heresy.  The  controversy  was  a  momentous  incident  in  the 
Jewish  life  of  the  period,  and  though  there  is  insufficient  evidence 
against  Eybeschtitz,  Emden  may  be  credited  with  having 
crushed  the  lingering  belief  in  Sabbatai  current  even  in  some 
orthodox  circles.  (I.  A.) 

EYCK,  VAN,  the  name  of  a  family  of  Flemish  painters  in  whose 
works  the  rise  and  mature  development  of  art  in  western  Flanders 
are  represented.  Though  bred  in  the  valley  of  the  Meuse,  they 
finally  established  their  professional  domicile  in  Ghent  and  in 
Bruges;  and  there,  by  skill  and  inventive  genius,  they  changed 
the  traditional  habits  of  the  earlier  schools,  remodelled  the 
primitive  forms  of  Flemish  design,  and  introduced  a  complete 
revolution  into  the  technical  methods  of  execution  familiar  to 
their  countrymen. 

i.  HUBERT  (Huybrecht)  VAN  EYCK  (?  1366-1426)  was  the 
oldest  and  most  remarkable  of  this  race  of  artists.  The  date 
of  his  birth  and  the  records  of  his  progress  are  lost  amidst  the 
ruins  of  the  earlier  civilization  of  the  valley  of  the  Meuse.  He 
was  born  about  1366,  at  Maeseyck,  under  the  shelter  or  protection 
of  a  Benedictine  convent,  in  which  art  and  letters  had  been 
cultivated  from  the  beginning  of  the  8th  century.  But  after  a 
long  series  of  wars — when  the  country  became  insecure,  and  the 
schools  which  had  flourished  in  the  towns  decayed — he  wandered 
to  Flanders,  and  there  for  the  first  time  gained  a  name.  As  court 
painter  to  the  hereditary  prince  of  Burgundy,  and  as  client  to 
one  of  the  richest  of  the  Ghent  patricians,  Hubert  is  celebrated. 
Here,  in  middle  age,  between  1410  and  1420,  he  signalized 
himself  as  the  inventor  of  a  new  method  of  painting.  Here  he 
lived  in  the  pay  of  Philip  of  Charolais  till  1421.  Here  he  painted 
pictures  for  the  corporation,  whose  chief  magistrates  honoured 
him  with  a  state  visit  in  1424.  His  principal  masterpiece, 
the  "  Worship  of  the  Lamb,"  commissioned  by  Jodocus  Vijdts, 
lord  of  Pamele,  is  the  noblest  creation  of  the  Flemish  school,  a 
piece  of  which  we  possess  all  the  parts  dispersed  from  St  Bavon 
in  Ghent  to  the  galleries  of  Brussels  and  Berlin, — one  upon  which 
Hubert  laboured  till  he  died,  leaving  it  to  be  completed  by  his 
brother.  Almost  unique  as  an  illustration  of  contemporary 
feeling  for  Christian  art,  this  great  composition  can  only  be 
matched  by  the  "  Fount  of  Salvation,"  in  the  museum  of  Madrid. 
It  represents,  on  numerous  panels,  Christ  on  the  judgment  seat, 
with  the  Virgin  and  St  John  the  Baptist  at  His  sides,  hearing 
the  songs  of  the  angels,  and  contemplated  by  Adam  and  Eve, 
and,  beneath  him,  the  Lamb  shedding  His  blood  in  the  presence 
of  angels,  apostles,  prophets,  martyrs,  knights  and  hermits. 
On  the  outer  sides  of  the  panels  are  the  Virgin  and  the  angel 
annunciate,  the  sibyls  and  prophets  who  foretold  the  coming 
of  the  Lord,  and  the  donors  in  prayer  at  the  feet  of  the  Baptist  and 
Evangelist.  After  this  great  work  was  finished  it  was  placed, 
in  1432,  on  an  altar  in  St  Bavon  of  Ghent,  with  an  inscription 
on  the  framework  describing  Hubert  as  "  maior  quo  nemo 
repertus,"  and  setting  forth,  in  colours  as  imperishable  as  the 
picture  itself,  that  Hubert  began  and  John  afterwards  brought 
it  to  perfection.  John  van  Eyck  certainly  wished  to  guard 
against  an  error  which  ill-informed  posterity  showed  itself 
but  too  prone  to  foster,  the  error  that  he  alone  had  composed 
and  carried  out  an  altarpiece  executed  jointly  by  Hubert  and 
himself.  His  contemporaries  may  be  credited  with  full-  know- 
ledge of  the  truth  in  this  respect,  and  the  facts  were  equally 
well  known  to  the  duke  of  Burgundy  or  the  chiefs  of  the  corpora- 
tion of  Bruges,  who  visited  the  painter's  house  in  state  in  1432, 
and  the  members  of  the  chamber  of  rhetoric  at  Ghent,  who 
reproduced  the  Agnus  Dei  as  a  tableau  vivant  in  1456.  Yet 
a  later  generation  of  Flemings  forgot  the  claims  of  Hubert, 


and  gave  the  honours  that  were  his  due  to  his  brother  John 
exclusively. 

The  solemn  grandeur  of  church  art  in  the  isth  century  never 
found,  out  of  Italy,  a  nobler  exponent  than  Hubert  van  Eyck. 
His  representation  of  Christ  as  the  judge,  between  the  Virgin  and 
St  John,  affords  a  fine  display  of  realistic  truth,  combined  with 
pure  drawing  and  gorgeous  colour,  and  a  happy  union  of  earnest- 
ness and  simplicity  with  the  deepest  religious  feeling.  In  contrast 
with  earlier  productions  of  the  Flemish  school,  it  shows  a  singular 
depth  of  tone  and  great  richness  of  detail.  Finished  with  sur- 
prising skill,  it  is  executed  with  the  new  oil  medium,  of  which 
Hubert  shared  the  invention  with  his  brother,  but  of  which  no 
rival  artists  at  the  time  possessed  the  secret, — a  medium  which 
consists  of  subtle  mixtures  of  oil  and  varnish  applied  to  the 
moistening  of  pigments  after  a  fashion,  only  kept  secret  for  a 
time  from  gildsmen  of  neighbouring  cities,  but  unrevealed  to 
the  Italians  till  near  the  close  of  the  1 5th  century.  When  Hubert 
died  on  the  i8th  of  September  1426  he  was  buried  in  the  chapel 
on  the  altar  of  which  his  masterpiece  was  placed.  According 
to  a  tradition  as  old  as  the  i6th  century,  his  arm  was  preserved 
as  a  relic  in  a  casket  above  the  portal  of  St  Bavon  of  Ghent. 
During  a  life  of  much  apparent  activity  and  surprising  successes 
he  taught  the  elements  of  his  art  to  his  brother  John,  who  sur- 
vived him. 

2.  JOHN  (Jan)  VAN  EYCK  (?  1385-1440).  The  date  of  his 
birth  is  not  more  accurately  known  than  that  of  his  elder  brother, 
but  he  was  born  much  later  than  Hubert,  who  took  charge  of 
him  and  made  him  his  "  disciple."  Under  this  tuition  John 
learnt  to  draw  and  paint,  and  mastered  the  properties  of  colours 
from  Pliny.  Later  on,  Hubert  admitted  him  into  partnership, 
and  both  were  made  court  painters  to  Philip  of  Charolais.  After 
the  breaking  up  of  the  prince's  household  in  1421,  John  became 
his  own  master,  left  the  workshop  of  Hubert,  and  took  an 
engagement  as  painter  to  John  of  Bavaria,  at  that  time  resident 
at  the  Hague  as  count  of  Holland.  From  the  Hague  he  returned 
in  1424  to  take  service  with  Philip,  now  duke  of  Burgundy,  at  a 
salary  of  100  livres  per  annum,  and  from  that  time  till  his  death 
John  van  Eyck  remained  the  faithful  servant  of  his  prince, 
who  never  treated  him  otherwise  than  graciously.  He  was 
frequently  employed  in  missions  of  trust;  and  following  the 
fortunes  of  a  chief  who  was  always  in  the  saddle,  he  appears  for 
a  time  to  have  been  in  ceaseless  motion,  receiving  extra  pay  foi 
secret  services  at  Leiden,  drawing  his  salary  at  Bruges,  yet 
settled  in  a  fixed  abode  at  Lille.  In  1428  he  joined  the  embassy 
sent  by  Philip  the  Good  to  Lisbon  to  beg  the  hand  of  Isabella 
of  Portugal.  His  portrait  of  the  bride  fixed  the  duke's  choice. 
After  his  return  he  settled  finally  at  Bruges,  where  he  married, 
and  his  wife  bore  him  a  daughter,  known  in  after  years  as  a  nun 
in  the  convent  of  Maeseyck.  At  the  christening  of  this  child 
the  duke  was  sponsor,  and  this  was  but  one  of  many  distinctions 
by  which  Philip  the  Good  rewarded  his  painter's  merits.  Numer- 
ous altarpieces  and  portraits  now  give  proof  of  van  Eyck's 
extensive  practice.  As  finished  works  of  art  and  models  of 
conscientious  labour  they  are  all  worthy  of  the  name  they 
bear,  though  not  of  equal  excellence,  none  being  better  than 
those  which  were  completed  about  1432.  Of  an  earlier  period, 
a  "  Consecration  of  Thomas  a  Becket  "  has  been  preserved,  and 
may  now  be  seen  at  Chatsworth,  bearing  the  date  of  1421;  no 
doubt  this  picture  would  give  a  fair  representation  of  van  Eyck's 
talents  at  the  moment  when  he  started  as  an  independent 
master,  but  that  time  and  accidents  of  omission  and  commission 
have  altered  its  state  to  such  an  extent  that  no  conclusive  opinion 
can  be  formed  respecting  it.  The  panels  of  the  "  Worship  oi 
the  Lamb  "  were  completed  nine  years  later.  They  show  that 
John  van  Eyck  was  quite  able  to  work  in  the  spirit  of  his  brother. 
He  had  not  only  Ihe  lines  of  Hubert's  compositions  to  guide 
him,  he  had  also  those  parts  to  look  at  and  to  study  which 
Hubert  had  finished.  He  continued  the  work  with  almost 
as  much  vigour  as  his  master.  His  own  experience  had  been 
increased  by  travel,  and  he  had  seen  the  finest  varieties  of 
landscape  in  Portugal  and  the  Spanish  provinces.  This  enabled 
him  to  transfer  to  his  pictures  the  charming  scenery  of  lands 


EYE 


91 


more  sunny  than  those  of  Flanders,  and  this  he  did  with  accuracy 
and  not  without  poetic  feeling.  We  may  ascribe  much  of  the 
success  which  attended  his  efforts  to  complete  the  altarpiece 
of  Ghent  to  the  cleverness  with  which  he  reproduced  the  varied 
aspect  of  changing  scenery,  reminiscent  here  of  the  orange 
groves  of  Cintra,  there  of  the  bluffs  and  crags  of  his  native 
valley.  In  all  these  backgrounds,  though  we  miss  the  scientific 
rules  of  perspective  with  which  the  van  Eycks  were  not  familiar, 
we  find  such  delicate  perceptions  of  gradations  in  tone,  such 
atmosphere,  yet  such  minuteness  and  perfection  of  finish,  that  our 
admiration  never  flags.  Nor  is  the  colour  less  brilliant  or  the 
touch  less  firm  than  in  Hubert's  panels.  John  only  differs  from 
his  brother  in  being  less  masculine  and  less  sternly  religious. 
He  excels  in  two  splendid  likenesses  of  Jodocus  Vijdts  and  his 
wife  Catherine  Burluuts.  The  same  vigorous  style  and  coloured 
key  of  harmony  characterizes  the  small  "  Virgin  and  Child  "  of 
1432  at  Ince,  and  the  "  Madonna,"  probably  of  the  same  date, 
at  the  Louvre,  executed  for  Rollin,  chancellor  of  Burgundy. 
Contemporary  with  these,  the  male  portraits  in  the  National 
Gallery,  and  the  "  Man  with  the  Pinks,"  in  the  BerlinMuseum 
(1432-1434),  show  no  relaxation  of  power;  but  later  creations 
display  no  further  progress,  unless  we  accept  as  progress  a  more 
searching  delicacy  of  finish,  counterbalanced  by  an  excessive 
softness  of  rounding  in  flesh  contours.  An  unfaltering  minute- 
ness of  hand  and  great  tenderness  of  treatment  may  be  found, 
combined  with  angularity  of  drapery  and  some  awkwardness 
of  attitude  in  the  full  length  portrait  couple  (John  Arnolfini  and 
his  wife)  at  the  National  Gallery  (1434),  in  which  a  rare  insight 
into  the  detail  of  animal  nature  is  revealed  in  a  study  of  a  terrier 
dog.  A  "  Madonna  with  Saints,"  at  Dresden,  equally  soft  and 
minute,  charms  us  by  the  mastery  with  which  an  architectural 
background  is  put  in.  The  bold  and  energetic  striving  of  earlier 
days,  the  strong  bright  tone,  are  not  equalled  by  the  soft  blending 
and  tender  tints  of  the  later  ones.  Sometimes  a  crude  ruddi- 
ness in  flesh  strikes  us  as  a  growing  defect,  an  instance  of  which 
is  the  picture  in  the  museum  of  Bruges,  in  which  Canon  van  der 
Paelen  is  represented  kneeling  before  the  Virgin  under  the 
protection  of  St  George  (1434).  From  first  to  last  van  Eyck 
retains  his  ability  in  portraiture.  Firje  specimens  are  the  two 
male  likenesses  in  the  gallery  of  Vienna|(j,436),  and  a  female,  the 
master's  wife,  in  the  gallery  of  Bruges  (1439).  His  death  in 
1440/41  at  Bruges  is  authentically  recorded.  He  was  buried 
in  St  Donat.  Like  many  great  aj^ists  he  formed  but  few  pupils. 
Hubert's  disciple,  Jodocus  of  Ghent,  hardly  does  honour  to  his 
master's  teaching,  and  only  acquires  importance  after  he  has 
thrown  off  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  Flemish  teaching.  Petrus 
Cristus,  who  was  taught  by  John,  remains  immeasurably  behind 
him  in  everything  that  Bftlates  to  art.  But  if  the  personal 
influence  of  the  van  Eycks  was  small,  that  of  their  works  was 
immense,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  their  example, 
taken  in  conjunction  with  that  of  van  der  Weyden,  determined 
the  current  and  practice  of  painting  throughout  the  whole  of 
Europe  north  of  the  Alps  for  nearly  a  century. 

See  also  Waagen,  Hubert  and  Johann  van  Eyck  (1822);  Voll> 
Werke  des  Jan  van  Eyck  (1900) ;  L.  Kammerer  on  the  two  families  in 
Knackfuss's  Kunstter-Monographien  (1898).  (J.  A.  C.) 

EYE,  a  market-town  and  municipal  borough  in  the  Eye 
parliamentary  division  of  Suffolk;  England;  945  m.  N.E.  from 
London  by  the  Great  Eastern  railway,  the  terminus  of  a  branch 
from  the  Ipswich-Norwich  line.  Pop.  (i9QI)  2004.  The  church 
of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul  is  mainly  of  Perpendicular  flint  work, 
with  Early  English  portions  and  a  fine  Perpendicular  rood 
screen.  It  was  formerly  attached  to  a  Benedictine  priory. 
Slight  fragments  of  a  Norman  castle  crown  a  mound  of  probably 
earlier  construction.  There  are  a  town  hall,  corn  exchange, 
and  grammar  school  founded  in  1566.  Brewing  is  the  chief 
industry.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and 
1 2  councillors.  Area,  4410  acres. 

Eye  (Heya,  Aye)  was  once  surrounded  by  a  stream,  from 
which  it  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name.  Leland  says  it  was 
situated  in  a  marsh  and  had  formerly  been  accessible  by  river 
vessels  from  Cromer,  though  the  river  was  then  only  navigable 


to  Burston,  12  m.  from  Eye.  From  the  discovery  of  numerous 
bones  and  Roman  urns  and  coins  it  has  been  thought  that  the 
place  was  once  the  cemetery  of  a  Roman  camp.  William  I. 
gave  the  lordship  of  Eye  to  Robert  Malet,  a  Norman,  who  built  a 
castle  and  a  Benedictine  monastery  which  was  at  first  subordinate 
to  the  abbey  of  Bernay  in  Normandy.  Eye  is  a  borough  by 
prescription.  In  1205  King  John  granted  to  the  townsmen  a 
charter  freeing  them  from  various  tolls  and  customs  and  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  shire  and  hundred  courts.  Later  charters 
were  granted  by  Elizabeth  in  1558  and  1574,  by  James  I.  in 
1604,  and  by  William  III.  in  1697.  In  1574  the  borough  was 
newly  incorporated  under  two  bailiffs,  ten  chief  and  twenty-four 
inferior  burgesses,  and  an  annual  fair  on  Whit-Monday  and  a 
market  on  Saturday  were  granted.  Two  members  were  returned 
to  each  parliament  from  1571  till  1832,  when  the  Reform  Act 
reduced  the  membership  to  one.  By  the  Redistribution  Act  of 
1885  the  representation  was  merged  in  the  Eye  division  of  the 
county.  The  making  of  pillow-lace  was  formerly  carried  on 
extensively,  but  practically  ceased  with  the  introduction  of 
machinery. 

EYE  (O.  Eng.  edge,  Ger.  Auge;  derived  from  an  Indo-European 
root  also  seen  in  Lat.  oc-ulus,  the  organ  of  vision  (?.».). 

ANATOMY. — The  eye  consists  of  the  eyeball,  which  is  the  true 
organ  of  sight,  as  well  as  of  certain  muscles  which  move  it,  and 
of  the  lachrymal  apparatus  which  keeps  the  front  of  it  in  a 
moist  condition.  The  eyeball  is  contained  in  the  front  of  the 
orbit  and  is  a  sphere  of  about  an  inch  (24  mm.)  in  diameter. 
From  the  front  of  this  a  segment  of  a  lesser  sphere  projects 
slightly  and  forms  the  cornea  (fig.  i,  co).  There  are  three  coats 


CO, 

Sc, 

ch, 
PC, 


R          Sc 
FIG.  i. — Diagrammatic  Section  through  the  Eyeball. 

L,    Lens. 

V,    Vitreous  body 


Conjunctiva. 

Cornea. 

Sclerotic. 

Choroid. 

Ciliary  processes. 
me,   Ciliary  muscle. 
O,     Optic  nerve. 
R,     Retina. 

/,      Iris.  [humour. 

aq,    Anterior  chamber  of  aqueous 


Z,  Zonule  of  Zinn,  the  ciliary 
process  being  removed  to 
show  it. 

p,    Canal  of  Petit. 

m.    Yellow  spot. 

The  dotted  line  behind  the 
cornea  represents  its  pos- 
terior epithelium. 


to  the  eyeball,  an  external  (protective),  a  middle  (vascular), and 
an  internal  (sensory).  There  are  also  three  refracting  media,  the 
aqueous  humour,  the  lens  and  the  vitreous  humour  or  body. 

The  protective  coat  consists  of  the  sclerotic  in  the  posterior 
five-sixths  and  the  cornea  in  the  anterior  sixth.  The  sclerotic 
(fig.  i,  Sc)  is  a  firm  fibrous  coat,  forming  the  "  white  of  the  eye," 
which  posteriorly  is  pierced  by  the  optic  nerve  and  blends  with 
the  sheath  of  that  nerve,  while  anteriorly  it  is  continued  into  the 
cornea  at  the  corneo-scleral  junction.  At  this  point  a  small  canal, 
known  as  the  canal  of  Schlemm,  runs  round  the  margin  of  the 
cornea  in  the  substance  of  the  sclerotic  (see  fig.  i).  Between 
the  sclerotic  and  the  subjacent  choroid  coat  is  a  lymph  space 
traversed  by  some  loose  pigmented  connective  tissue, — the 


EYE 


[ANATOMY 


lamina  fusca.  The  cornea  is  quite  continuous  with  the  sclerotic 
but  has  a  greater  convexity.  Under  the  microscope  it  is  seen  to 
consist  of  five  layers.  Most  anteriorly  there  is  a  lay er  of  stratified 
epithelium,  then  an  anterior  elastic  layer,  then  the  substantia 
propria  of  the  cornea  which  is  fibrous  with  spaces  in  which  the 
stellate  corneal  corpuscles  lie,  while  behind  this  is  the  posterior 
elastic  layer  and  then  a  delicate  layer  of  endothelium.  The 
transparency  of  the  cornea  is  due  to  the  fact  that  all  these 
structures  have  the  same  refractive  index. 

The  middle  or  vascular  coat  of  the  eye  consists  of  the  choroid, 
the  ciliary  processes  and  the  iris.  The  choroid  (fig.  i,  ch)  does  not 
come  quite  as  far  forward  as  the  corneo-scleral  junction;  it  is 
composed  of  numerous  blood-vessels  and  pigment  cells  bound 
together  by  connective  tissue  and,  superficially,  is  lined  by  a 
delicate  layer  of  pigmented  connective  tissue  called  the  lamina 
suprachoroidea  in  contact  with  the  already-mentioned  peri- 
choroidal  lymph  space.  -  On  the  deep  surface  of  the  choroid  is 
a  structureless  basal  lamina. 

The  ciliary  processes  are  some  seventy  triangular  ridges, 
radially  arranged,  with  their  apices  pointing  backward  (fig.  i,  pc), 
while  their  bases  are  level  with  the  corneo-scleral  junction. 
They  are  as  vascular  as  the  rest  of  the  choroid,  and  contain  in  their 
interior  the  ciliary  muscle,  which  consists  of  radiating  and  circular 
fibres.  The  radiating  fibres  (fig.  i,  me)  rise,  close  to  the  canal  of 
Schlemm,  from  the  margin  of  the  posterior  elastic  lamina  of  the 
cornea,  and  pass  backward  and  outward  into  the  ciliary  processes 
and  anterior  part  of  the  choroid,  which  they  pull  forward  when 
they  contract.  The  circular  fibres  lie  just  internal  to  these  and 
are  few  or  .wanting  in  short-sighted  people. 

The  iris  (fig.  i,  7)  is  the  coloured  diaphragm  of  the  eye,  the 
centre  of  which  is  pierced  to  form  the  pupil;  it  is  composed  of  a 
connective  tissue  stroma  containing  blood-vessels,  pigment  cells 
and  muscle  fibres.  In  front  of  it  is  a  reflection  of  the  same  layer 
of  endothelium  which  lines  the  back  of  the  cornea,  while  behind 
both  it  and  the  ciliary  processes  is  a  double  layer  of  epithelium, 
deeply  pigmented,  which  really  belongs  to  the  retina.  The  pig- 
ment in  the  substance  of  the  iris  is  variously  coloured  in  different 
individuals,  and  is  often  deposited  after  birth,  so  that,  in  newly- 
born  European  children,  the  colour  of  the  eyes  is  often  slate-blue 
owing  to  the  black  pigment  at  the  back  of  the  iris  showing 
through.  White,  yellow  or  reddish-brown  pigment  is  deposited 
later  in  the  substance  of  the  iris,  causing  the  appearance,  with 
the  black  pigment  behind,  of  grey,  hazel  or  brown  eyes.  In 
blue-eyed  people  very  little  interstitial  pigment  is  formed,  while 
in  Albinos  the  posterior  pigment  is  also  absent  and  the  blood- 
vessels give  the  pink  coloration.  The  muscle  fibres  of  the  iris 
are  described  as  circular  and  radiating,  though  it  is  still  uncertain 
whether  the  latter  are  really  muscular  rather  than  elastic.  On 
to  the  front  of  the  iris,  at  its  margin,  the  posterior  layer  of  the 
posterior  elastic  lamina  is  continued  as  a  series  of  ridges  called 
the  ligamentum  pectinatum  iridis,  while  between  these  ridges  are 
depressions  known  as  the  spaces  of  Fontana. 

The  inner  or  sensory  layer  of  the  wall  of  the  eyeball  is  the 
retina;  it  is  a  delicate  transparent  membrane  which  becomes 
thinner  as  the  front  of  the  eye  is  approached.  A  short  distance 
behind  the  ciliary  processes  the  nervous  part  of  it  stops  and 
forms  a  scalloped  border  called  the  ora  serrata,  but  the  pigmented 
layer  is  continued  on  behind  the  ciliary  processes  and  iris,  as 
has  been  mentioned,  and  is  known  as  the  pars  ciliaris  retinae 
and  pars  iridica  retinae.  Under  the  microscope  the  posterior 
part  of  the  retina  is  seen  to  consist  of  eight  layers.  In  its  passage 
from  the  lens  and  vitreous  the  light  reaches  these  layers  in  the 
following  order: — (i)  Layer  of  nerve  fibres;  (2)  Layer  of  ganglion 
cells;  (3)  Inner  molecular  layer;  (4)  Inner  nuclear  layer;  (5) 
Outer  molecular  layer;  (6)  Outer  nuclear  layer;  (7)  Layer  of 
rods  and  cones;  (8)  Pigmented  layer. 

The  layer  of  nerve  fibres  (fig.  2,  2)  is  composed  of  the  axis-cylinders 
only  of  the  fibres  of  the  optic  nerve  which  pierce  the  sclerotic,  choroid 
and  all  the  succeeding  layers  of  the  retina  to  radiate  over  its  surface. 

The  ganglionic  layer  (fig.  2,  j)  consists  of  a  single  stratum  of  large 
ganglion  cells,  each  of  which  is  continuous  with  a  fibre  of  the  preced- 
ing layer  which  forms  its  axon.  Each  also  gives  off  a  number  of  finer 
processes  (dendrites)  which  arborize  in  the  next  layer. 


The  inner  molecular  layer  (fig.  2, 4)  is  formed  by  the  interlacement 
of  the  dendrites  of  the  last  layer  with  those  of  the  cells  of  the  inner 
nuclear  layer  which  comes  next. 

The  inner  nuclear  layer  (fig.  2,  5)  contains  three  different  kinds 
of  cells,  but  the  most  important  and  numerous  are  large  bipolar 
cells,  which  send  one  process  into  the  inner  molecular  layer,  as  has 
just  been  mentioned,  and  the  other  into  the  outer  molecular  layer, 
where  they  arborize  with  the  ends  of  the  rod  and  cone  fibres. 

The  outer  molecular  layer  (fig.  2,  6)  is  very  narrow  and  is  formed 
by  the  arborizations  just  described.  The  outer  nuclear  layer  (fig. 
2,  7),  like  the  inner,  consists  of  oval  cells,  which  are  of  two  kinds. 
The  rod  granules  are  transversely  striped,  and  are  connected  ex- 
ternally with  the  rods,  while  internally  processes  pass  into  the  outer 
molecular  layer  to  end  in  a  knob  around  which  the  arborizations 
of  the  inner  nuclear  cells  lie.  The  cone  granules  are  situated  more 
externally,  and  are  in  close  contact  with  the  cones;  internally  their 
processes  form  a  foot-plate  in  the  outer  molecular  layer  from  which 
arborizations  extend. 

The  layer  of  rods  and  cones  (fig.  2,  p)  contains  these  structures, 
the  rods  being  more  numerous  than  the  cones.  The  rods  are  spindle- 
shaped  bodies,  of  which  the  inner  segment  is  thicker  than  the  outer. 
The  cones  are  thicker  and  shorter  than  the  rods,  and  resemble  Indian 
clubs,  the  handles  of  which  are  directed  outward  and  are  transversely 
striped.  In  the  outer  part  of  the  rods  the  visual  purple  or  rhodopsin 
is  found. 

The  pigmented  layer  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  hexagonal  cells 
containing  pigment,  which  is  capable  or  moving  towards  the  rods 
and  cones  when  the  eye  is  exposed  to  light  and  away  from  them  in 
the  dark. 

Supporting  the  delicate  nervous  structures  of  the  retina  are 
a  series  of  connective  tissue  rods  known  as  the  fibres  of  Miiller 
(fig.  2,  Ct);  these  run  through  the  thickness  of  the  retina  at 


FIG.  2. — Diagrammatic  section  through  the  retina  to  show  tht, 
several  layers,  which  are  numbered  as  in  the  text.  Ct,  The  radial 
fibres  of  the  supporting  connective  tissue. 

right  angles  to  its  surface,  and  are  joined  together  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  layer  of  nerve  fibres  to  form  the  inner  limiting  mem- 
brane. More  externally,  at  the  bases  of  the  rods  and  cones,  they 
unite  again  to  form  the  outer  limiting  membrane. 

When  the  retina  is  looked  at  with  the  naked  eye  from  in  front 
two  small  marks  are  seen  on  it.  One  of  these  is  an  oval  depression 
about  3  mm.  across,  which,  owing  to  the  presence  of  pigment,  is 
of  a  yellow  colour  and  is  known  as  the  yellow  spot  (macula 
lutea);  it  is  situated  directly  in  the  antero-posterior  axis  of  the 
eyeball,  and  at  its  margin  the  nerve  fibre  layer  is  thinned  and  the 
ganglionic  layer  thickened.  At  its  centre,  however,  both  these 
layers  are  wanting,  and  in  the  layer  of  rods  and  cones  only  the 
cones  are  present.  This  central  part  is  called  the  fovea  centralis 
and  is  the  point  of  acutest  vision.  The  second  mark  is  situated 
a  little  below  and  to  the  inner  side  of  the  yellow  spot;  it  is  a 
circular  disk  with  raised  margins  and  a  depressed  centre  and  is 
called  the  optic  disk;  in  structure  it  is  a  complete  contrast  to  the 
yellow  spot,  for  all  the  layers  except  that  of  the  nerve  fibres  are 
wanting,  and  consequently,  as  light  cannot  be  appreciated  here, 
it  is  known  as  the  "  blind  spot."  It  marks  the  point  of  entry  of 
the  optic  nerve,  and  at  its  centre  the  retinal  artery  appears  and 
divides  into  branches.  An  appreciation  of  the  condition  of  the 
optic  disk  is  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  ophthalmoscope. 

The  crystalline  lens  (fig.  i,  /-)  with  its  ligament  separates  the 
aqueous  from  the  vitreous  chamber  of  the  eye;  it  is  a  biconvex 
lens  the  posterior  surface  of  which  is  more  curved  than  the  an- 
terior. Radiating  from  the  anterior  and  posterior  poles  are  three 
faint  lines  forming  a  Y,  the  posterior  Y  being  erect  and  the 
anterior  inverted.  Running  from  these  figures  are  a  series  of 
lamellae,  like  the  layers  of  an  onion,  each  of  which  is  made  up  of 
a  number  of  fibrils  called  the  lens  fibres.  On  the  anterior  surface 
of  the  lens  is  a  layer  of  epithelial  cells,  which,  towards  the  margin 
or  equator,  gradually  elongate  into  lens  fibres.  The  whole  lens 
is  enclosed  in  an  elastic  structureless  membrane,  and,  like  the 


EMBRYOLOGY] 


EYE 


93 


cornea,  its  transparency  is  due  to  the  fact  that  all  its  constituents 
have  the  same  refractive  index. 

The  ligament  of  the  lens  is  the  thickened  anterior  part  of  the 
hyaloid  membrane  which  surrounds  the  vitreous  body;  it  is 
closely  connected  to  the  iris  at  the  era  serrata,  and  then  splits 
into  two  layers ,  of  which  the  anterior  is  the  thicker  and  blends 
with  the  anterior  part  of  the  elastic  capsule  of  the  lens,  so  that, 
when  its  attachment  to  the  ora  serrata  is  drawn  forward  by  the 
ciliary  muscle,  the  lens,  by  its  own  elasticity,  increases  its  con- 
vexity. Between  the  anterior  and  posterior  splitting  of  the 
hyaloid  membrane  is  a  circular  lymph  space  surrounding  the 
margin  of  the  lens  known  as  the  canal  of  Petit  (fig.  i,  p). 

The  aqueous  humour  (fig.  i,  aq)  is  contained  between  the  lens 
and  its  ligament  posteriorly  and  the  cornea  anteriorly.  It  is 
practically  a  very  weak  solution  of  common  salt  (chloride  of 
sodium  1-4%).  The  space  containing  it  is  imperfectly  divided 
into  a  large  anterior  and  a  small  posterior  chamber  by  a  per- 
forated diaphragm — the  iris. 

The  vitreous  body  or  humour  is  a  jelly  which  fills  all  the 
contents  of  the  eyeball  behind  the  lens.  It  is  surrounded  by  the 
hyaloid  membrane,  already  noticed,  and  anteriorly  is  concave 
for  the  reception  of  the  lens. 

From  the  centre  of  the  optic  disk  to  the  posterior  pole  of  the 
lens  a  lymph  canal  formed  by  a  tube  of  the  hyaloid  membrane 
stretches  through  the  centre  of  the  vitreous  body;  this  is  the 
canal  of  Stilling,  which  in  the  embryo  transmitted  the  hyaloid 
artery  to  the  lens.  The  composition  of  the  vitreous  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  of  the  aqueous  humour. 

The  arteries  of  the  eyeball  are  all  derived  from  the  ophthalmic 
branch  of  the  internal  carotid,  and  consist  of  the  retinal  which 
'enters  the  optic  nerve  far  back  in  the  orbit,  the  two  long  ciliaries, 
which  run  forward  in  the  choroid  and  join  the  anterior  ciliaries, 
from  muscular  branches  of  the  ophthalmic,  in  the  circulus  iridis 
major  round  the  margin  of  the  iris,  and  the  six  to  twelve  short 
ciliaries  which  pierce  the  sclerotic  round  the  optic  nerve  and 
supply  the  choroid  and  ciliary  processes. 

The  veins  of  the  eyeball  emerge  as  four  or  five  trunks  rather 
behind  the  equator;  these  are  called  from  their  appearance 
venae  vorticosae,  and  open  into  the  superior  ophthalmic  vein.  In 
addition  to  these  there  is  a  retinal  vein  which  accompanies  its 
artery. 

Accessory  Structures  of  the  Eye. — The  eyelids  are  composed  of 
the  following  structures  from  in  front  backward:  (i)  Skin;  (2) 
Superficial  fascia;  (3)  Orbicularis  palpebrarum  muscle;  (4) 
Tarsal  plates  of  fibrous  tissue  attached  to  the  orbital  margin  by 
the  superior  and  inferior  palpebral  ligaments,  and,  at  the  junction 
of  the  eyelids,  by  the  external  and  internal  tarsal  ligaments  of 
which  the  latter  is  also  known  as  the  tendo  oculi;  (5)  Meibomian 
glands,  which  are  large  modified  sebaceous  glands  lubricating  the 
edges  of  the  lids  and  preventing  them  adhering,  and  Glands  of 
Moll,  large  sweat  glands  which,  when  inflamed,  cause  a  "  sty  "; 
(6)  the  conjunctiva,  a  layer  of  mucous  membrane  which  lines  the 
back  of  the  eyelids  and  is  reflected  on  to  the  front  of  the  globe, 
the  reflection  forming  the  fornix:  on  the  front  of  the  cornea  the 
conjunctiva  is  continuous  with  the  layer  of  epithelial  cells  already 
mentioned. 

The  lachrymal  gland  is  found  in  the  upper  and  outer  part  of 
the  front  of  the  orbit.  It  is  about  the  size  of  an  almond  and 
has  an  upper  (orbital)  and  a  lower  (palpebral)  part.  Its  six  to 
twelve  ducts  open  on  to  the  superior  fornix  of  the  conjunctiva. 

The  lachrymal  canals  (canaliculi)  (see  fig.  3,  2  and  3)  are 
superior  and  inferior,  and  open  by  minute  orifices  (puncta)  on  to 
the  free  margins  of  the  two  eyelids  near  their  inner  point  of 
junction.  They  collect  the  tears,  secreted  by  the  lachrymal 
gland,  which  thus  pass  right  across  the  front  of  the  eyeball,  con- 
tinually moistening  the  conjunctiva.  The  two  ducts  are  bent 
round  a  small  pink  tubercle  called  the  caruncula  lachrymalis 
(fig.  3,  4)  at  the  inner  angle  of  the  eyelids,  and  open  into  the 
lachrymal  sac  (fig.  3,  6),  which  lies  in  a  groove  in  the  lachrymal 
bone.  The  sac  is  continued  down  into  the  nasal  duct  (fig.  3,  6), 
which  is  about  J  inch  long  and  opens  into  the  inferior  meatus  of 
the  nose,  its  opening  being  guarded  by  a  valve. 


The  orbit  contains  seven  muscles,  six  of  which  rise  close  to  the 
optic  foramen.    The  levator  palpebrae  superioris  is  the  highest, 
and  passes  forward  to  the  superior  tarsal  plate  and  fornix  of  the 
conjunctiva.   The  superior  and  inferior  recti  are  inserted  into  the 
upper   and   lower   sur- 
faces of  the  eyeball  re- 
spectively; they  make 
the  eye  look  inward  as 
well   as   up   or   down. 
The   external   and   in- 
ternal recti  are  inserted 
into   the   sides  of   the 
eyeball    and    make    it 
look    outward    or    in- 
ward.      The    superior 
oblique    runs    forward 
to  a  pulley  in  the  inner 
and  front  part  of  the 
roof  of  the  orbit,  round 
which   it   turns   to   be 
inserted  into  the  outer      FIG.  3. — Lachrymal  Canals  and  Duct, 
and   back   part  of  the  j,  Orbicular  muscle.    5,  Lachrymal  sac. 
eyeball.     It  turns  the  2,  Lachrymal  canal.     6,  Lachrymal  duct, 
glance   downward   and  3,  Punctum.  7,  Angular  artery, 

outward.    The  inferior  4,  Caruncula. 

oblique  rises  from  the  inner  and  front  part  of  the  floor  of  the 
orbit,  and  is  also  inserted  into  the  outer  and  back  part  of  the 
eyeball.  It  directs  the  glance  upward  and  outward.  Of  all 
these  muscles  the  superior  oblique  is  supplied  by  the  fourth 
cranial  nerve,  the  external  rectus  by  the  sixth  and  the  rest  by  the 
third. 

The  posterior  part  of  the  eyeball  and  the  anterior  parts  of  the 
muscles  are  enveloped  in  a  lymph  space,  known  as  the  capsule 
of  Tenon,  which  assists  their  movements. 

EMBRYOLOGY. — As  is  pointed  out  in  the  article  BBAIN,  the 
optic  vesicles  grow  out  from  the  fore-brain,  and  the  part  nearest 
the  brain  becomes  constricted  and  elongated  to  form  the  optic 
stalk  (see  figs.  4  and  5,  /3).  At  the  same  time  the  ectoderm 
covering  the  side  of  the  head  thickens  and  becomes  invaginated 
to  form  the  lens  vesicle  (see  figs.  4  and  5,  5),  which  later  loses  its 
connexion  with  the  surface  and  approaches  the  optic  vesicle, 
causing  that  structure  to  become  cupped  for  its  reception,  so 
that  what  was  the  optic  vesicle  becomes  the  optic  cup  and  consists 
of  an  external  and  an  internal  layer  of  cells  (fig.  6  j3  and  5).  Of 
these  the  outer  cells  become  the  retinal  pigment,  while  the 
inner  form  the  other  layers  of  the  retina.  The  invagination  of 
the  optic  cup  extends,  as  the  choroidal  fissure  (not  shown  in  the 


FIG.  4.  FIG.  5. 

Diagram  of  Developing  Diagram  of  Developing 

Eye  (ist  stage).  Eye  (2nd  stage), 

a,  Forebrain.  0,  Optic  cup. 

f),  Optic  vesicle.  5,  Invagination  of  lens. 
y,  Superficial  ectoderm.  Other  letters  as  in 

5,    Thickening  for  lens.  fig.  4. 

diagrams),  along  the  lower  and  back  part  of  the  optic  stalk,  and 
into  this  slit  sinks  some  of  the  surrounding  mesoderm  to  form 
the  vitreous  body  and  the  hyaloid  arteries,  one  of  which  persists.1 
When  this  has  happened  the  fissure  closes  up.  The  anterior 
epithelium  of  the  lens  vesicle  remains,  but  from  the  posterior 
the  lens  fibres  are  developed  and  these  gradually  fill  up  the 
cavity.  The  superficial  layer  of  head  ectoderm,  from  which  the 
lens  has  been  invaginated  and  separated,  becomes  the  anterior 

1  Some  embryologists  regard  the  vitreous  body  as  formed  from 
the  ectoderm  (see  Quain's  Anatomy,  vol.  i.,  1908). 


94 


EYE 


[COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY 


Other  letters  as   in 
figs.  4  and  5. 


FIG.  7. 


8,  Vitreous. 
«,  Aqueous. 
«e,  Eyelids. 


epithelium  of  the  cornea  (fig.  6,  «),  and  between  it  and  the  lens 
the  mesoderm  sinks  in  to  form  the  cornea,  iris  and  anterior 
chamber  of  the  eye,  while  surrounding  the  optic  cup  the  meso- 
derm forms  the  sclerotic  and  choroid 
coats  (fig.  7,  i?  and  f ).  Up  to  the  seventh 
month  the  pupil  is  closed  by  the  mem- 
brana  pupillaris,  derived  from  the  cap- 
sule of  the  lens  which  is  part  of  the 
mesodermal  ingrowth  through  the 
choroidal  fissure  already  mentioned. 
The  hyaloid  artery  remains,  as  a  pro- 
longation of  the  retinal  artery  to  the 
pIG  6  lens,  until  just  before  birth,  but  after 

Diagram  of 'Developing  that    its    sheath    forms    the    canal    of 
Eye  (3rd  stage).         Stilling.     Most    of    the    fibres    of    the 
8,  Solid  lens.  optic  nerve  are  centripetal  and  begin 

€>  ^["^LfJ^6^"?,.'  as  the  axons  of  the  ganglionic  cells  of 
the  retina;  a  few,  however,  are  centri- 
fugal and  come  from  the  nerve  cells  in 
the  brain. 

The  eyelids  are  developed  as  ecto- 
dermal  folds,  which  blend  with  one 
another  about  the  third  month  and 
separate  again  before  birth  in  Man 
(fig.  7,  <c).  The  lachrymal  sac  and 
duct  are  formed  from  solid  ectoder- 
mal  thickenings  which  later  become 
DlagEyT  t^SeT  -nalized. 

The      mesodermal       It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the    optic 
tissues  are  dotted,    nerve  and  retina  are  formed  from  the 
f,    Choroid  and  Iris.        brain  ectoderm;   the  lens,  anterior  epi- 
2'  vlSSSi  nea'  thelium  of  the  cornea,  skin  of  the  eyelids, 

conjunctiva  and  lachrymal  apparatus 
from  the  superficial  ectoderm;  while  the 
sclerotic,  choroid,  vitreous  and  aqueous 
humours  as  well  as  the  iris  and  cornea  are  derived  from  the 
mesoderm. 

See  Human  Embryology,  by  C.  S.  Minot  (New  York);  Quain's 
Anatomy,  vol.  i.  (1908);  "  Entwickelung  des  Auges  der  Wirbel- 
tiere," by  A.  Froriep,  in  Handbuch  der  vergleichenden  und  experi- 
mentellen  Entwickelungslehre  der  Wirbeltiere  (O.  Hertwig,  Jena, 
1905)- 

COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY. — The  Acrania,  as  represented  by 
Amphioxus  (the  lancelet),  have  a  patch  of  pigment  in  the  fore 
part  of  the  brain  which  is  regarded  as  the  remains  of  a  degenerated 
eye.  In  the  Cyclostomata  the  hag  (Myxine)  and  larval  lamprey 
(Ammocoetes)  have  ill-developed  eyes  lying  beneath  the  skin  and 
devoid  of  lens,  iris,  cornea  and  sclerotic  as  well  as  eye  muscles. 
In  the  adult  lamprey  (Petromyzon)  these  structures  are  developed 
at  the  metamorphosis,  and  the  skin  becomes  transparent,  render- 
ing sight  possible.  Ocular  muscles  are  developed,  but,  unlike 
most  vertebrates,  the  inferior  rectus  is  supplied  by  the  sixth 
nerve  while  all  the  others  are  supplied  by  the  third.  In  all 
vertebrates  the  retina  consists  of  a  layer  of  senso-neural  cells, 
the  rods  and  cones,  separated  from  the  light  by  the  other  layers 
which  together  represent  the  optic  ganglia  of  the  invertebrates; 
in  the  latter  animals,  however,  the  senso-neural  cells  are  nearer 
the  light  than  the  ganglia. 

In  fishes  the  eyeball  is  flattened  in  front,  but  the  flat  cornea 
is  compensated  by  a  spherical  lens,  which,  unlike  that  of  other 
vertebrates,  is  adapted  for  near  vision  when  at  rest.  The  iris 
in  some  bony  fishes  (Teleostei)  is  not  contractile.  In  the 
Teleostei,  too,  there  is  a  process  of  the  choroid  which  projects 
into  the  vitreous  chamber  and  runs  forward  to  the  lens;  it  is 
known  as  the  processus  falciformis,  and,  besides  nourishing  the 
lens,  is  concerned  in  accommodation.  This  specialized  group 
of  fishes  is  also  remarkable  for  the  possession  of  a  so-called 
choroid  gland,  which  is  really  a  rete  mirabile  (see  ARTERIES) 
between  the  choroid  and  sclerotic.  The  sclerotic  in  fishes  is 
usually  chondrified  and  sometimes  calcified  or  ossified.  In  the 
retina  the  rods  and  cones  are  about  equal  in  number,  and  the 
cones  are  very  large.  In  the  cartilaginous  fishes  (Elasmobranchs) 


there  is  a  silvery  layer,  called  the  tapetum  lucidum,  on  the  retinal 
surface  of  the  choroid. 

In  the  Amphibia  the  cornea  is  more  convex  than  in  the  fish, 
but  the  lens  is  circular  and  the  sclerotic  often  chondrified.  There 
is  no  processus  falcifcrmis  or  tapetum  lucidum,  but  the  class 
is  interesting  in  that  it  shows  the  first  rudiments  of  the  ciliary 
muscle,  although  accommodation  is  brought  about  by  shifting 
the  lens.  In  the  retina  the  rods  outnumber  the  cones  and  these 
latter  are  smaller  than  in  any  other  animals.  In  some  Amphibians 
coloured  oil  globules  are  found  in  connexion  with  the  cones, 
and  sometimes  two  cones  are  joined,  forming  double  or  twin 

nes. 

In  Reptilia  the  eye  is  spherical  and  its  anterior  part  is  often 
protected  by  bony  plates  in  the  sclerotic  (Lacertiliaand  Chelonia). 
The  ciliary  muscle  is  striated,  and  in  most  reptiles  accommodation 
is  effected  by  relaxing  the  ciliary  ligament  as  in  higher  vertebrates, 
though  in  the  snakes  (Ophidia)  the  lens  is  shifted  as  it  is  in  the 
lower  forms.  Many  lizards  have  a  vascular  projection  of  the 
choroid  into  the  vitreous,  foreshadowing  the  pecten  of  birds 
and  homologous  with  the  processus  falciformis  of  fishes.  In 
the  retina  the  rods  are  scarce  or  absent. 

In  birds  the  eye  is  tubular,  especially  in  nocturnal  and  raptorial 
forms:  this  is  due  to  a  lengthening  of  the  ciliary  region,  which  is 
always  protected  by  bony  plates  in  the  sclerotic.  The  pecten, 
already  mentioned  in  lizards,  is  a  pleated  vascular  projection 
from  the  optic  disk  towards  the  lens  which  in  some  cases  it  reaches. 
In  Apteryx  this  structure  disappears.  In  the  retina  the  cones 
outnumber  the  rods,  but  are  not  as  numerous  as  in  the  reptiles. 
The  ciliary  muscle  is  of  the  striped  variety. 

In  the  Mammalia  the  eye  is  largely  enclosed  in  the  orbit,  and 
bony  plates  in  the  sclerotic  are  only  found  in  the  monotremes. 
The  cornea  is  convex  except  in  aquatic  mammals,  in  which  it  is 
flattened.  The  lens  is  biconvex  in  diurnal  mammals,  but  in 
nocturnal  and  aquatic  it  is  spherical.  There  is  no  pecten,  but 
the  numerous  hyaloid  arteries  which  are  found  in  the  embryo 
represent  it.  The  iris  usually  has  a  circular  pupil,  but  in  some 
ungulates  and  kangaroos  it  is  a  transverse  slit.  In  the  Cetacea 
this  transverse  opening  is  kidney-shaped,  the  hilum  of  the  kidney 
being  above.  In  many  carnivores,  especially  nocturnal  ones, 
the  slit  is  vertical,  and  this  form  of  opening  seems  adapted  to  a 
feeble  light,  for  it  is  found  in  the  owl,  among  birds.  The  tapetum 
lucidum  is  found  in  Ungulata,  Cetacea  and  Carnivora.  The 
ciliary  muscle  is  unstriped.  In  the  retina  the  rods  are  more 
numerous  than  the  cones,  while  the  macula  lutea  only  appears 
in  the  Primates  in  connexion  with  binocular  vision. 

Among  the  accessory  structures  of  the  eye  the  retractor  bulbi 
muscle  is  found  in  amphibians,  reptiles,  birds  and  many  mam- 
mals; its  nerve  supply  shows  that  it  is  probably  a  derivative  of 
the  external  or  posterior  rectus.  The  nictitating  membrane 
or  third  eyelid  is  well-developed  in  amphibians,  reptiles,  birds 
and  some  few  sharks;  it  is  less  marked  in  mammals,  and  in 
Man  is  only  represented  by  the  little  plica  semilunaris.  When 
functional  it  is  drawn  across  the  eye  by  special  muscles  derived 
from  the  retractor  bulbi,  called  the  bursalis  and  pyramidalis. 
In  connexion  with  the  nictitating  membrane  the  Harderian 
gland  is  developed,  while  the  lachrymal  gland  secretes  fluid 
for  the  other  eyelids  to  spread  over  the  conjunctiva.  These 
two  glands  are  specialized  parts  of  a  row  of  glands  which  in  the 
Urodela  (tailed  amphibians)  are  situated  along  the  lower  eyelid; 
the  outer  or  posterior  part  of  this  row  becomes  the  lachrymal 
gland,  which  in  higher  vertebrates  shifts  from  the  lower  to  the 
upper  eyelid,  while  the  inner  or  anterior  part  becomes  the 
Harderian  gland.  Below  the  amphibians  glands  are  not  necessary, 
as  the  water  keeps  the  eye  moist. 

The  lachrymal  duct  first  appears  in  the  tailed  amphibians; 
in  snakes  and  gecko  lizards,  however,  it  opens  into  the  mouth. 

For  literature  up  to  1900  see  R.  Wiedersheim's  Vergleichende 
Anatomie  der  Wirbeltiere  (Jena,  1902).  Later  literature  is  noticed 
in  the  catalogue  of  the  Physiological  Series  of  the  R.  College  of 
Surgeons  of  England  Museum,  vol.  iii.  (London,  1906).  (F.  G.  P.) 

EYE  DISEASES. — The  specially  important  diseases  of  the  eye 
are  those  which  temporarily  or  permanently  interfere  with 


DISEASES] 


EYE 


95 


sight.  In  considering  the  pathology  of  the  eye  it  may  be  re- 
membered that  (i)  it  is  a  double  organ,  while  (2)  either  eye 
may  have  its  own  trouble. 

i.  The  two  eyes  act  together,  under  normal  conditions,  for 
all  practical  purposes  exactly  as  if  there  were  but  one  eye  placed 
in  the  middle  of  the  face.  All  impressions  made  upon  either 
retina,  to  the  one  side  of  a  vertical  line  through  the  centre,  the 
fovea  centralis,  before  giving  rise  to  conscious  perception  cause 
a  stimulation  of  the  same  area  in  the  brain.  Impressions 
formed  simultaneously,  for  instance,  on  the  right  side  of  the 
right  retina  and  on  corresponding  areas  of  the  right  side  of  the 
left  retina,  are  conveyed  to  the  same  spots  in  the  right  occipital 
lobe  of  the  brain.  Pathological  processes,  therefore,  which  are 
localized  in  the  right  or  left  occipital  lobes,  or  along  any  part  of 
the  course  of  the  fibres  which  pass  from  the  right  or  left  optic 
tracts  to  these  "  visual  centres,"  cause  defects  in  function  of 
the  right  or  left  halves  of  the  two  retinae.  Hemianopia,  or  half- 
blindness,  arising  from  these  pathological  changes,  is  of  very 
varying  degrees  of  severity,  according  to  the  nature  and  extent  of 
the  particular  lesion.  The  blind  areas  in  the  two  fields  of  vision, 
corresponding  to  the  outward  projection  of  the  paralysed  retinal 
areas,  are  always  symmetrical  both  in  shape  and  degree.  The 
central  lesion  may  for  instance  be  very  sftiall,  but  at  the  same 
time  destructive  to  the  nerve  tissue.  This  will  be  revealed  as 
a  sector-shaped  or  insular  symmetrical  complete  blindness  in 
the  fields  of  vision  to  the  opposite  side.  Or  a  large  central  area, 
or  an  area  comprising  many  or  all  of  the  nerve  fibres  which  pass 
to  the  visual  centre  on  one  side,  may  be  involved  in  a  lesion 
which  causes  impairment  of  function,  but  no  actual  destruction 
of  the  nerve  tissue.  There  is  thus  caused  a  symmetrical  weaken- 
ing of  vision  (amblyopia)  in  the  opposite  fields.  In  such  cases 
the  colour  vision  is  so  much  more  evidently  affected  than  the 
sense  of  form  that  the  condition  has  been  called  hemiachroma- 
topsia  or  half-colour  blindness.  Hemianopia  may  be  caused 
by  haemorrhage,  by  embolism,  by  tumour  growth  which  either 
directly  involves  the  visual  nerve  elements  or  affects  them  by 
compression  and  by  inflammation.  Transitory  hemianopia 
is  rare  and  is  no  doubt  most  frequently  of  toxic  origin. 

The  two  eyes  also  act  as  if  they  were  one  in  accommodating. 
It  is  impossible  for  the  two  eyes  to  accommodate  simultaneously 
to  different  extents,  so  that  where  there  is,  as  occasionally 
happens,  a  difference  in  focus  between  them,  this  difference 
remains  the  same  for  all  distances  for  which  they  are  adapted. 
In  such  cases,  therefore,  both  eyes  cannot  ever  be  accurately 
adapted  at  the  same  time,  though  either  may  be  alone.  It 
often  happens  as  a  consequence  that  the  one  eye  is  used  to  receive 
the  sharpest  images  of  distant,  and  the  other  of  near  objects. 
Any  pathological  change  which  leads  to  an  interference  in  the 
accommodating  power  of  one  eye  alone  must  have  its  origin  in  a 
lesion  which  lies  peripherally  to  the  nucleus  of  the  third  cranial 
nerve.  Such  a  lesion  is  usually  one  of  the  third  nerve  itself. 
Consequently,  a  unilateral  accommodation  paresis  is  almost 
invariably  associated  with  pareses  of  some  of  the  oculo-motor 
muscles.  A  bilateral  accommodation  paresis  is  not  uncommon. 
It  is  due  to  a  nuclear  or  more  central  cerebral  disturbance. 
Unlike  a  hemianopia,  which  is  mostly  permanent,  a  double 
accommodation  paresis  is  frequently  transitory.  It  is  often  a 
post-diphtheritic  condition,  appearing  alone  or  associated  with 
other  paresis. 

Both  eyes  are  also  normally  intimately  associated  in  their 
movements.  They  move  in  response  to  a  stimulus  or  a  com- 
bination of  stimuli,  emanating  from  different  centres  of  the 
brain,  but  one  which  is  always  equally  distributed  to  the  corre- 
sponding muscles  in  both  eyes,  so  that  the  two  lines  of  fixation 
meet  at  the  succession  of  points  on  which  attention  is  directed. 
The  movements  are  thus  associated  in  the  same  direction,  to 
the  right  or  left,  upwards  or  downwards,  &c.  In  addition, 
owing  to  the  space  which  separates  the  two  eyes,  convergent 
movements,  caused  by  stimuli  equally  distributed  between  the 
two  internal  recti,  are  required  for  the  fixation  of  nearer  and 
nearer-lying  objects.  These  movements  would  not  be  necessary 
in  the  case  of  a  single  eye.  It  would  merely  have  to  accommodate. 


The  converging  movements  of  the  double  eye  occur  in  association 
with  accommodation,  and  thus  a  close  connexion  becomes 
established  between  the  stimuli  to  accommodation  and  con- 
vergence. All  combinations  of  convergent  and  associated 
movements  are  constantly  taking  place  normally,  just  as  if  a 
single  centrally-placed  eye  were  moved  in  all  directions  and 
altered  its  accommodation  according  to  the  distance,  in  any 
direction,  of  the  object  which  is  fixed. 

Associated  and  convergent  movements  may  be  interfered 
with  pathologically  in  different  ways.  Cerebral  lesions  may 
lead  to  their  impairment  or  complete  abolition,  or  they  may 
give  rise  to  involuntary  spasmodic  action,  as  the  result  of 
paralysing  or  irritating  the  centres  from  which  the  various 
co-ordinated  impulses  are  controlled  or  emanate.  Lesions  which 
do  not  involve  the  centres  may  prevent  the  response  to  associated 
impulses  in  one  eye  alone  by  interfering  with  the  functional 
activity  of  one  or  more  of  the  nerves  along  which  the  stimuli 
are  conveyed.  Paralysis  of  oculo-motor  nerves  is  thus  a  common 
cause  of  defects  of  association  in  the  movements  of  the  double 
eye.  The  great  advantage  of  simultaneous  binocular  vision— 
viz.  the  appreciation  of  depth,  or  stereoscopic  vision — is  thus 
lost  for  some,  or  it  may  be  all  directions  of  fixation.  Instead 
of  seeing  singly  with  two  eyes,  there  is  then  double-vision 
(diplopia).  This  persists  so  long  as  the  defect  of  association 
continues,  or  so  long  as  the  habit  of  mentally  suppressing  the 
image  of  the  faultily-directed  eye  is  not  acquired. 

In  the  absence  of  any  nerve  lesions,  central  or  other,  interfering 
with  their  associated  movements,  the  eyes  continue  throughout 
life  to  respond  equally  to  the  stimuli  which  cause  these  move- 
ments, even  when,  owing  to  a  visual  defect  of  the  one  eye, 
binocular  vision  has  become  impossible.  It  is  otherwise,  however, 
with  the  proper  co-ordination  of  convergent  movements.  These 
are  primarily  regulated  by  the  unconscious  desire  for  binocular 
vision,  and  more  or  less  firmly  associated  with  accommodation. 
When  one  eye  becomes  blind,  or  when  binocular  vision  for  other 
reasons  is  lost,  the  impulse  is  gradually,  as  it  were,  unlearnt. 
This  is  the  cause  of  divergent  concomitant  squinJ.  Under  some- 
what similar  conditions  a  degree  of  convergence,  which  is  in 
excess  of  the  requirements  of  fixation,  may  be  acquired  from 
different  causes.  This  gives  rise  to  convergent  concomitant 
squint. 

For  Astigmatism,  &c.,  see  the  article  VISION. 

2.  Taking  each  eye  as  a  single  organ,  we  find  it  to  be  subject 
to  many  diseases.  In  some  cases  both  eyes  may  be  affected  in 
the  same  way,  e.g.  where  the  local  disease  is  a  manifestation  of 
some  general  disturbance.  Apart  from  the  fibrous  coat  of  the 
eye,  the  sclera,  which  is  little  prone  to  disease,  and  the  external 
muscles  and  other  adnexa,  the  eye  may  be  looked  upon  as 
composed  of  two  elements,  (a)  the  dioptric  media,  and  (fr)  the 
parts  more  or  less  directly  connected  with  perception.  Patho- 
logical conditions  affecting  either  of  these  elements  may  interfere 
with  sight. 

The  dioptric  media,  or  the  transparent  portions  which  are  con- 
cerned in  the  transmission  of  light  to,  and  the  formation  of  images 
upon,  the  retina,  are  the  following:  the  cornea,  the  aqueous 
humour,  the  crystalline  lens  and  the  vitreous  humour.  Loss  of 
transparency  in  any  cf  these  media  leads  to  blurring  of  the  retinal 
images  of  external  objects.  In  addition  to  loss  of  transparency 
the  cornea  may  have  its  curvature  altered  by  pathological  pro- 
cesses. This  necessarily  causes  imperfection  of  sight.  The 
crystalline  lens,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be  dislocated,  and  thus 
cause  image  distortion. 

The  Cornea. — The  transparency  of  the  cornea  is  mainly  lost 
by  imflammation  (kcratitis),  which  causes  either  an  infiltration  of 
its  tissues  with  leucocytes,  or  a  more  focal,  more  destructive 
ulcerative  process. 

Inflammation  of  the  cornea  may  be  primary  or  secondary, 
i.e.  the  inflammatory  changes  met  with  in  the  corneal  tissue 
may  be  directly  connected  with  one  or  more  foci  of  inflammation 
in  the  cornea  itself  or  the  focus  or  foci  may  be  in  some  other  part 
of  the  eye.  Only  the  very  superficial  forms  of  primary  keratitis, 
those  confined  to  the  epithelial  layer,  leave  no  permanent  change : 


96 


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there  is  otherwise  always  a  loss  of  tissue  resulting  from  the 
inflammation  and  this  loss  is  made  up  for  by  more  or  less  densely 
intransparent  connective  tissue  (nebula,  leucoma).  These  accord- 
ing to  their  site  and  extent  cause  greater  or  less  visual  disturb- 
ance. Primary  keratitis  may  be  ulcerative  or  non-ulcerative, 
superficial  or  deep,  diffuse  or  circumscribed,  vascularized  or 
non-vascularized.  It  may  be  complicated  by  deeper  inflamma- 
tions of  the  eye  such  as  iritis  and  cyclitis.  In  some  cases  the 
anterior  chamber  is  invaded  by  pus  (hypopyon).  The  healing 
of  a  corneal  ulcer  is  characterized  by  the  disappearance  of  pain 
where  this  has  been  a  symptom  and  by  the  rounding  off  of  its 
sharp  margins  as  epithelium  spreads  over  them  from  the  surround- 
ing healthy  parts.  Ulcers  tend  to  extend  either  in  depth  or 
superficially,  rarely  in  both  manners  at  the  same  time.  A  deep 
ulcer  leads  to  perforation  with  more  or  less  serious  consequences 
according  to  the  extent  of  the  perforation.  Often  an  eye  bears 
permanent  traces  of  a  perforation  in  adhesion  of  the  iris  to  the 
back  of  a  corneal  scar  or  in  changes  in  the  lens  capsule  (cap- 
sular  cataract).  In  other  cases  the  ulcerated  cornea  may  yield 
to  pressure  from  within,  which  causes  it  to  bulge  forwards 
(staphyloma) . 

The  principal  causes  of  primary  keratitis  are  traumata  and 
infection  from  the  conjunctiva.  Traumata  are  most  serious  when 
the  body  causing  the  wound  is  not  aseptic  or  when  micro- 
organisms from  some  other  source,  often  the  conjunctiva  and 
tear-sac,  effect  a  lodgment  before  healing  of  the  wound  has 
sufficiently  advanced.  In  infected  cases  a  complication  with 
iritis  is  not  uncommon  owing  to  the  penetration  of  toxines  into 
the  anterior  chamber. 

Inflammations  of  the  cornea  are  the  most  important  diseases 
of  the  eye,  because  they  are  among  the  most  frequent,  because 
of  the  value  of  the  cornea  to  vision  and  because  much  good  can 
often  be  done  by  judicious  treatment  and  much  harm  result 
from  wrong  interference  and  neglect.  The  treatment  of  primary 
keratitis  must  vary  according  to  the  cause.  Generally  speaking 
the  aim  should  be  to  render  the  ulcerated  portions  as  aseptic 
as  possible  without  using  applications  which  are  apt  to  cause 
a  great  deal  of  irritation  and  thus  interfere  with  healing.  On 
this  account  it  is  important  to  be  able  to  recognize  when  healing 
is  taking  place,  for  as  soon  as  this  is  the  case,  rest,  along  with 
frequent  irrigation  of  the  conjunctiva  with  sterilized  water  at 
the  body  temperature,  and  occasionally  mild  antiseptic  irrigation 
of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane  is  all  that  is  required.  It  is  a 
common  and  dangerous  mistake  to  over  treat. 

Of  local  antiseptics  which  are  of  use  may  be  mentioned  the 
actual  cautery,  chlorine  water,  freshly  prepared  silver  nitrate  or 
protargol,  and  the  yellow  oxide  of  mercury.  These  different 
agents  are  of  course  not  all  equally  applicable  in  any  given 
case;  it  depends  upon  the  severity  as  well  as  upon  the 
nature  of  the  inflammation  which  is  the  most  suitable.  For 
instance,  the  actual  cautery  is  employed  only  in  the  case  of  the 
deeper  septic  or  malignant  ulcers,  in  which  the  destruction  of 
tissue  is  already  considerable  and  tending  to  spread  further. 
Again  the  yellow  oxide  of  mercury  should  only  be  used  in  the 
more  superficial,  strumous  forms  of  inflammation.  Many  other 
substances  are  also  in  use,  but  need  not  here  be  referred  to. 

Secondary  keratitis  takes  the  form  of  an  interstitial  deposit  of 
leucocytes  between  the  layers  of  the  cornea  as  well  as  often  of 
vascularization,  sometimes  intense,  from  the  deeper  network 
of  vessels  (anterior  ciliary)  surrounding  the  cornea.  The  duration 
of  a  secondary  keratitis  is  usually  prolonged,  often  lasting  many 
months.  More  or  less  complete  restoration  of  transparency  is  the 
rule,  however,  eventually. 

No  local  treatment  is  called  for  except  the  shading  of  the  eyes 
and  in  most  cases  the  use  of  a  mydriatic  to  prevent  synechiae 
when  the  iris  is  involved.  Often  it  is  advisable  to  do  something 
for  the  general  health.  In  young  people  there  is  probably  nothing 
better  than  cod-liver  oil  and  syrup  of  the  iodide  of  iron.  In- 
herited syphilis,  tuberculous  and  other  inflammations  are  the 
causes  of  secondary  keratitis. 

N euro-paralytic  Keratitis. — When  the  fifth  nerve  is  paralysed 
there  is  a  tendency  for  the  cornea  to  become  inflamed.  Different 


forms  of  inflammation  may  then  occur  which  all,  besides  anaes- 
thesia, show  a  marked  slowness  in  healing.  The  main  cause  of 
neuro-paralytic  keratitis  lies  in  the  greater  vulnerability  of 
the  cornea.  The  prognosis  is  necessarily  bad.  The  treatment 
consists  in  as  far  as  possible  protecting  the  eye  from  external 
influences,  by  keeping  it  tied  up,  and  by  frequently  irrigating 
with  antiseptic  lotions. 

Certain  non-inflammatory  and  degenerative  changes  are  met 
with  in  the  cornea.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned  keratoconus 
or  conical  cornea,  in  which,  owing  to  some  disturbance  of  vitality, 
the  nature  of  which  has  not  been  discovered,  the  normal  curvature 
of  the  cornea  becomes  altered  to  something  more  of  a  hyberboloid 
of  revolution,  with  consequent  impairment  of  vision:  arcus 
senilis,  a  whitish  opacity  due  to  fatty  degeneration,  extending 
round  the  corneal  margin,  varying  in  thickness  in  different 
subjects  and  usually  only  met  with  in  old  people:  transverse 
calcareous  film,  consisting  of  a  finely  punctiform  opacity  extend- 
ing, in  a  tolerably  uniformly  wide  band,  occupying  the  zone  of 
the  cornea  which  is  left  uncovered  when  the  lids  are  half  closed. 

Tumours  of  the  cornea  are  not  common.  Those  chiefly  met 
with  are  dermoids,  fibromata,  sarcomata  and  epitheliomata. 

Sderilis. — Inflammation  of  the  sclera  is  confined  to  its  anterior 
part  which  is  covered  by  conjunctiva.  Scleritis  may  occur  in 
circumscribed  patches  or  may  be  diffused  in  the  shape  of  a  belt 
round  the  cornea.  The  former  is  usually  more  superficial  and 
uncomplicated,  the  latter  deeper  and  complicated  with  corneal 
infiltration,  irido-cyclitis  and  anterior  choroiditis.  Superficial 
scleritis  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  episcleritis,  is  a  long-continued 
disease  which  is  associated  with  very  varying  degrees  of  dis- 
comfort. The  chronic  nature  of  the  affection  depends  mainly 
upon  the  tendency  that  the  inflammation  has  to  recur  in  successive 
patches  at  different  parts  of  the  sclera.  Often  only  one  eye  at  a 
time  is  affected.  Each  patch  lasts  for  a  month  or  two  and  is 
succeeded  by  another  after  an  interval  of  varying  duration. 
Months  or  years  may  elapse  between  the  attacks.  The  cicatricial 
site  of  a  previous  patch  is  rarely  again  attacked.  The  scleral 
infiltration  causes  a  firm  swelling,  often  sensitive  to  touch,  over 
which  the  conjunctiva  is  freely  movable.  The  overlying  con- 
junctiva is  always  injected.  The  infiltration  itself  at  the  height 
of  the  process  is  densely  vascularized.  Seen  through  the  con- 
junctiva its  vessels  have  a  darker,  more  purplish  hue  than  the 
superficial  ones.  The  swelling  caused  by  the  infiltration  gradu- 
ally subsides,  leaving  a  cicatrix  to  which  the  overlying  conjunctiva 
becomes  adherent.  The  cicatrix  has  a  slaty  porcellanous- 
looking  colour.  Superficial  scleritis  occurs  in  both  sexes  with 
about  equal  frequency.  No  definite  cause  for  the  inflammation 
is  known.  The  treatment  'on  the  whole  is  unsatisfactory. 
Burning  down  the  nodules  with  the  actual  cautery,  and  sub- 
sequently a  visit  to  such  baths  as  Harrogatc,  Buxton,  Homburg 
and  Wiesbaden,  may  be  recommended. 

Deep  scleritis  with  its  attendant  complications  is  altogether 
a  more  serious  disease.  Etiologically  it  is  equally  obscure. 
Both  eyes  are  almost  always  attacked.  It  more  generally  occurs 
in  young  people,  mostly  in  young  women.  Deep  scleritis  is 
more  persistent  and  less  subject  to  periods  of  intermission  than 
episcleritis.  The  deeper  and  more  wide-spread  inflammatory 
infiltrations  of  the  sclera  lead  eventually  to  weakening  of  that 
coat,  and  cause  it  to  yield  to  the  intra-ocular  pressure.  Vision 
suffers  from  extension  of  the  infiltration  to  the  cornea,  or  from 
iritis  with  its  attendant  synechiae,  or  from  anterior  choroiditis, 
and  sometimes  also  from  secondary  glaucoma.  The  treatment 
is  on  the  whole  unsatisfactory.  Iridectomy,  especially  if  done 
early  in  the  process,  may  be  of  use. 

The  Aqueous  Humour. — Intransparencyof  the  aqueous  humour 
is  always  due  to  some  exudation.  This  comes  either  from  the 
iris  or  the  ciliary  processes,  and  may  be  blood,  pus  or  fibrin. 
An  exudation  in  this  situation  tends  naturally  to  gravitate  to 
the  most  dependent  part,  and,  in  the  case  of  blood  or  pus,  is 
known  as  hyphaema  or  hypopyon. 

The  Crystalline  Lens  Cataract. — Intransparency  of  the  crys- 
talline lens  is  technically  known  as  cataract.  Cataract  may  be 
idiopathic  and  uncomplicated,  or  traumatic,  or  secondary  to 


DISEASES] 


EYE 


97 


disease  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  eye.  The  modified  epithelial 
structure  of  which  the  lens  is  composed  is  always  being  added  to 
throughout  life.  The  older  portions  of  the  lens  are  consequently 
the  more  central.  They  are  harder  and  less  elastic.  This 
arrangement  seems  to  predispose  to  difficulties  of  nutrition. 
In  many  people,  in  the  absence  altogether  of  general  or  local 
disease,  the  transparency  of  the  lens  is  lost  owing  to  degeneration 
of  the  incompletely-nourished  fibres.  This  idiopathic  cataract 
mostly  occurs  in  old  people;  hence  the  term  senile  cataract. 
So-called  senile  cataract  is  not,  however,  necessarily  associated 
with  any  general  senile  changes.  An  idiopathic  uncomplicated 
cataract  is  also  met  with  as  a  congenital  defect  due  to  faulty 
development  of  the  crystalline  lens.  A  particular  and  not 
uncommon  form  of  this  kind  of  cataract,  which  may  also  develop 
during  infancy,  is  lamellar  or  zonular  cataract.  This  is  a  partial 
and  stationary  form  of  cataract  in  which,  while  the  greater  part 
of  the  lens  retains  its  transparency,  some  of  the  lamellae  are 
intransparent.  Traumatic  cataract  occurs  in  two  ways:  by 
laceration  or  rupture  of  the  lens  capsule,  or  by  nutritional  changes 
consequent  upon  injuries  to  the  deeper  structures  of  the  eye. 
The  transparency  of  the  lens  is  dependent  upon  the  integrity 
of  its  capsule.  Penetrating  wounds  of  the  eye  involving  the 
capsule,  or  rupture  of  the  capsule  from  severe  blows  on  the  eye 
without  perforation  of  its  coats,  are  followed  by  rapidly  develop- 
ing cataract.  Severe  non-penetrating  injuries,  which  do  not 
cause  rupture  of  the  capsule,  are  sometimes  followed,  after  a 
time,  by  slowly-progressing  cataract.  Secondary  cataract  is 
due  to  abnormalities  in  the  nutrient  matter  supplied  to  the  lens 
owing  to  disease  of  the  ciliary  body,  choroid  or  retina.  In  some 
diseases,  as  diabetes,  the  altered  general  nutrition  tells  in  the 
same  way  on  the  crystalline  lens.  Cataract  is  then  rapidly 
formed.  All  cases  of  cataract  in  diabetes  are  not,  however, 
necessarily  true  diabetic  cataracts  in  the  above  sense.  Disloca- 
tions of  the  lens  are  traumatic  or  congenital.  In  old-standing 
disease  of  the  eye  the  suspensory  ligament  may  yield  in  part, 
and  thus  lead  to  lens  dislocation.  The  lens  is  practically  always 
cataractous  before  this  takes  place. 

The  Vitreous  Humour. —  The  vitreous  humour  loses  its  trans- 
parency owing  to  exudation  from  the  inflamed  ciliary  body  or 
choroid.  The  exudation  may  be  fibrinous  or  purulent;  the 
latter  only  as  a  result  of  injuries  by  which  foreign  bodies  or 
septic  matter  are  introduced  into  the  eye  or  in  metastatic 
choroiditis.  Blood  may  also  be  effused  into  the  vitreous  from 
rupture  of  retinal,  ciliary  or  choroidal  vessels.  The  pathological 
significance  of  the  various  effusions  into  the  vitreous  depends 
greatly  upon  the  cause.  In  many  cases  effusion  and  absorption 
are  constantly  taking  place  simultaneously.  The  extent  of 
possible  clearing  depends  greatly  upon  the  preponderance  of 
the  latter  process. 

Diseases  of  the  Iris  and  Ciliary  Body. — Inflammation  of  the 
iris,  iritis,  arises  from  different  causes.  The  various  idiopathic 
forms  have  relations  to  constitutional  disturbances  such  as 
rheumatism,  gout,  albuminuria,  tuberculosis,  fevers,  syphilis, 
gonorrhoea  and  others,  or  they  may  come  from  cold  alone. 
Traumatic  and  infected  cases  are  attributable  to  accidents, 
the  presence  of  foreign  bodies,  operations,  &c.  In  addition, 
iritis  may  be  secondary  to  keratitis,  scleritis  or  choroiditis. 
The  beginning  of  an  attack  of  inflammation  of  the  iris  is  char- 
acterized by  alterations  in  its  colour  due  to  hyperaemia  and  by 
circumcorneal  injection.  Later  on,  exudation  takes  place  into 
the  substance  of  the  iris,  causing  thickening  and  also  a  loss  of 
gloss  of  its  surface.  According  to  the  nature  and  severity  of 
the  exudation  there  may  be  deposits  formed  on  the  back  of  the 
cornea,  attachments  between  the  iris  and  lens  capsule  (synechiae), 
or  even  gelatinous-looking  coagulations  or  pus  in  the  anterior 
chamber. 

The  subjective  symptoms  to  which  the  inflammation  may 
give  rise  are  dread  of  light  (photophobia),  pain,  generally  most 
severe  at  night  and  often  very  great,  also  more  or  less  impairment 
of  sight.  Along  with  the  pain  and  photophobia  there  is  lacryma- 
tion.  An  acute  attack  of  iritis  usually  lasts  about  six  weeks. 
Some  cases  become  chronic  and  last  much  longer.  Others  are 
x.  4 


chronic  from  the  first,  and  in  one  clinical  type  of  iritis,  in  which 
the  ciliary  body  is  also  at  the  same  time  affected,  viz.  iritis 
serosa,  there  is  usually  comparatively  little  injection  of  the  eye 
or  pain,  so  that  the  patient's  attention  may  only  be  directed  to 
the  eye  owing  to  the  gradual  impairment  of  sight  which  results. 
In  some  cases,  and  more  particularly  in  men,  there  is  a  tendency 
to  the  recurrence  at  longer  or  shorter  intervals  of  attacks  of 
iritis  (recurrent  iritis).  In  these  cases,  as  well  as  in  all  cases  of 
plastic  iritis  which  have  not  been  properly  treated,  serious 
consequences  to  sight  are  apt  to  follow  from  the  binding  down 
of  the  iris  to  the  lens  capsule  and  the  occlusion  of  the  pupil  by 
exudation. 

Inflammation  of  the  ciliary  body,  cyclitis,  is  frequently  asso- 
ciated with  iritis.  This  association  is  probable  in  all  cases  where 
there  are  deposits  on  the  posterior  surface  of  the  cornea.  It  is 
certain  where  there  are  changes  in  the  intra-ocular  tension. 
Often  in  cyclitis  there  is  a  very  marked  diminution  in  tension. 
Cyclitis  is  also  present  when  the  degree  of  visual  disturbance 
is  greater  than  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  visible  changes  in 
the  pupil  and  anterior  chamber.  The  exudation  may,  as  in 
iritis,  be  serous,  plastic  or  purulent.  It  passes  from  the  two 
free  surfaces  of  the  ciliary  body  into  the  posterior  aqueous,  and 
into  the  vitreous,  chambers.  This  produces,  what  is  a  constant 
sign  of  cyclitis,  more  or  less  intransparency  of  the  vitreous 
humour.  Where  there  has  been  excessive  exudation  into  the 
vitreous,  subsequent  shrinking  and  liquefaction  take  place, 
leading  to  detachment  of  the  retina  and  consequent  blindness. 

The  treatment  of  iritis  necessarily  differs  to  some  extent 
according  to  the  cause.  The  general  treatment  applicable  to 
all  cases  need  only  be  here  considered.  What  should  be  aimed 
at,  at  the  time  of  the  inflammation,  is  to  put  the  eye  as  far  as 
possible  at  rest,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  synechiae  and 
alleviate  the  pain.  An  attempt  should  be  made  to  get  the  pupil 
thoroughly  dilated  with  atropine.  The  dilatation  should  be  kept 
up  as  long  as  any  circumcorneal  injection  lasts.  If  a  case  of 
iritis  be  left  to  itself  or  treated  without  the  use  of  a  mydriatic, 
posterior  synechiae  almost  invariably  form.  Some  fibrinous 
exudation  may  even  organize  into  a  membrane  stretching 
across,  and  more  or  less  completely  occluding,  the  pupil. 
Synechiae,  though  not  of  themselves  causing  impairment  of 
vision,  increase  the  risk  that  the  eye  runs  from  subsequent 
attacks  of  iritis.  It  should  however  be  remembered  that  as 
the  main  call  for  a  mydriatic  is  to  prevent  synechiae,  the  raison 
d'etre  for  its  use  no  longer  exists  when,  having  been  begun  too 
late,  the  pupil  cannot  properly  be  dilated  by  it.  Under  these 
conditions  it  may  even  do  harm.  The  eyes  should  also  be  kept 
shaded  from  the  light  by  the  use  of  a  shade  or  neutral-tinted 
glasses.  During  an  attack  any  use  of  the  eyes  for  reading  or 
sewing  or  work  of  any  kind  calling  for  accommodation  must  be 
prohibited.  This  applies  equally  to  the  case  of  inflammation 
in  one  eye  alone  and  in  both. 

Pain  is  best  relieved  by  hot  fomentations,  cocain,  and  in 
many  cases  the  internal  use  of  salicin  or  phenacetin.  The 
treatment  sometimes  required  for  cases  of  old  iritis  is  iridectomy. 
The  operation  is  called  for  in  two  different  classes  of  cases. 
In  the  first  place,  to  improve  vision  where  the  pupil  is  small,  and 
to  a  great  extent  occluded,  though  the  condition  has  not  so  far 
led  to  serious  nutritive  changes;  and  in  the  second  place,  with 
the  object  as  well  of  preventing  the  complete  destruction  of 
vision  which  either  the  existing  condition  or  the  danger  of 
recurrence  of  the  inflammation  has  threatened.  Iridectomy 
for  iritis  should  be  performed  when  the  inflammation  has 
entirely  subsided.  The  portion  of  iris  excised  should  be  large. 
The  operation  is  urgently  called  for  where  the  condition  of  iris 
bombans  exists. 

Iris  tumours,  either  simple  or  malignant,  are  of  rare  occurrence. 

A  frequent  result  of  a  severe  blow  on  the  eye  is  a  separation 
of  a  portion  of  the  iris  from  its  peripheral  attachment  (iridodi- 
alysis).  Of  congenital  anomalies  the  most  commonly  met  with 
are  coloboma  and  more  or  less  persistence  of  the  foetal  pupillary 
membrane.  The  most  serious  form  of  irido-cyclitis  is  that  which 
may  follow  penetrating  wounds  of  the  eye.  Under  certain 

5 


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[DISEASES 


conditions  this  leads  to  a  similar  inflammation  in  the  other  eye. 
This  so-called  sympathetic  ophlhalmitis  is  of  a  malignant  type, 
causing  destruction  of  the  sympathizing  eye. 

The  Retina. — Choroidal  inflammations  are  generally  patchy, 
various  foci  of  inflammation  being  scattered  over  the  choroid. 
These  patches  may  in  course  of  time  become  more  or  less  con- 
fluent. The  effect  upon  vision  depends  upon  the  extent  to  which 
the  external  or  percipient  elements  of  the  retina  become  involved. 
It  is  especially  serious  when  the  more  central  portions  of  the 
retina  are  thus  affected  (choroido-retinitis  centralis). 

A  peculiar  and  grave  pathological  condition  of  the  eye  is  what 
is  known  as  glaucoma.  A  characteristic  of  this  condition  is 
increase  of  the  intra-ocular  tension,  which  has  a  deleterious 
effect  on  the  optic  nerve  end  and  its  ramifications  in  the  retina. 
The  cause  of  the  rise  of  tension  is  partly  congestive,  partly 
mechanical.  The  effect  of  glaucoma,  when  untreated,  is  to  cause 
ever-increasing  loss  of  sight,  although  the  time  occupied  by  the 
process  before  it  leads  to  complete  blindness  varies  within  such 
extraordinary  wide  limits  as  from  a  few  hours  to  many  years. 
The  uveal  tract  may  be  the  site  of  sarcoma. 

The  retina  is  subject  to  inflammation,  to  detachment  from  the 
choroid,  to  haemorrhages  from  the  blood-vessels  and  to  tumour. 
Retinal  inflammation  may  primarily  affect  either  the  nerve 
elements  or  the  connective  tissue  framework.  The  former  is 
usually  associated  with  some  general  disease  such  as  albuminuria 
or  diabetes  and  is  bilateral.  The  tissue  changes  are  oedema,  the 
formation  of  exudative  patches,  and  haemorrhage.  Where  the 
connective  tissue  elements  are  primarily  affected,  the  condition 
is  a  slow  one,  similar  to  sclerosis  of  the  central  nervous  system. 
The  gradual  blindness  which  this  causes  is  due  to  compression 
of  the  retinal  nerve  elements  by  the  connective  tissue  hyperplasia, 
which  is  always  associated  with  characteristic  changes  in  the 
disposition  of  the  retinal  pigment.  This  retinal  sclerosis  is 
consequently  generally  known  as  retinitis  pigmentosa,  a  disease 
to  which  there  is  a  hereditary  predisposition.  Besides  occurring 
during  inflammation,  haemorrhages  into  the  retina  are  met  with 
in  phlebitis  of  the  central  retinal  vein,  which  is  almost  invariably 
unilateral,  and  in  certain  conditions  of  the  blood,  as  pernicious 
anaemia,  when  they  are  always  bilateral. 

The  optic  nerve  is  subject  to  inflammation  (optic  neuritis) 
and  atrophy.  Double  optic  neuritis,  affecting,  however,  only 
the  intra-ocular  ends  of  the  nerves,  is  an  almost  constant 
accompaniment  of  brain  tumour.  Unilateral  neuritis  has  a 
different  causation,  depending  upon  an  inflammation,  mainly 
perineuritic,  of  the  nerve  in  the  orbit.  It  is  analogous  to 
peripheral  inflammation  of  other  nerves,  such  as  the  third, 
fourth,  sixth  and  seventh  cranial  nerves. 

Diseases  of  the  Conjunctiva. — These  are  the  most  frequent 
diseases  of  the  eye  with  which  the  surgeon  has  to  deal.  They 
generally  lead  to  more  or  less  interference  with  the  functional 
activity  of  the  eye  and  often  indeed  to  great  impairment  of  vision 
owing  to  the  tendency  which  there  is  for  the  cornea  to  become 
implicated. 

Many  different  micro-organisms  are  of  pathogenetic  importance 
in  connexion  with  the  conjunctiva.  Microbes  exist  in  the  normal 
conjunctival  sac.  These  are  mostly  harmless,  though  it  is  usual 
to  find  at  any  rate  a  small  proportion  of  others  which  are  known 
to  be  pyogenetic.  This  fact  is  of  great  importance  in  connexion 
both  with  problems  of  etiology  and  the  practical  question  of 
operations  on  the  eye. 

Hyperaemia. — When  the  conjunctiva  becomes  hyperaemic 
its  colour  is  heightened  and  its  transparency  lessened.  Some- 
times too  it  becomes  thickened  and  its  surface  altered  in  appear- 
ance. The  often  marked  heightening  of  colour  is  due  to  the  very 
superficial  position  of  the  dilated  vessels.  This  is  specially  the 
case  with  that  part  of  the  membrane  which  forms  the  transition 
fold  between  the  palpebral  and  the.  ocular  conjunctiva.  Con- 
sequently it  is  there  that  the  redness  is  most  marked,  while  it  is 
seen  to  diminish  towards  the  cornea.  An  important  diagnostic 
mark  is  thus  furnished  between  purely  conjunctival  hyperaemia 
and  what  is  called  circumcorneal  congestion,  which  is  always 
an  indication  of  more  deep-seated  vascular  dilatation.  It  also 


differs  materially  from  a  scleral  injection,  in  which  there  is  a 
visible  dilatation  of  the  superficial  scleral  vessels. 

When  a  conjunctival  hyperaemia  has  existed  for  some  time 
the  papillae  become  swollen,  and  small  blebs  form  on  the  surface 
of  the  membrane:  sometimes  too,  lymph  follicles  begin  to  show. 
The  enlargement  and  compression  of  adjacent  papillae  give 
rise  to  a  velvety  appearance  of  the  surface. 

Hyperaemia  of  the  conjunctiva  where  not  followed  by  in- 
flammation causes  more  or  less  lacrymation  but  no  alteration 
in  the  character  of  its  secretion.  The  hyperaemia  may  he  acute 
and  transitory  or  chronic.  Much  depends  upon  the  cause  as  well 
as  upon  the  persistence  of  the  irritation  which  sets  it  up. 

Traumata,  the  presence  of  foreign  bodies  in  the  conjunctival 
sac,  or  the  irritations  of  superficial  chalky  infarcts  in  the 
Meibomian  ducts,  cause  more  or  less  severe  transitory  congestion. 
Continued  subjection  to  irritating  particles  such  as  flour,  stones, 
dust,  &c.,  causes  a  more  continued  hyperaemia  which  is  often 
circumscribed  and  less  pronounced.  Bad  air  in  schools,  barracks, 
workhouses,  &c.,  also  causes  a  chronic  hyperaemia  in  which  it  is 
common  to  find  a  follicular  hyperplasia.  Long  exposure  to  too 
intense  light,  astigmatism  and  other 'ocular  defects  which  cause 
asthenopia  lead  also  to  chronic  hyperaemia.  Anaemic  individuals 
are  often  subject  to  discomfort  from  hyperaemia  of  this  nature. 

The  treatment  of  conjunctival  hyperaemia  consists  first  in 
the  removal  of  the  cause  when  it  can  be  discovered.  Often 
this  is  difficult.  In  addition  the  application  of  hot  sterilized 
water  is  useful  and  soothing. 

Conjunctivitis. — When  the  conjunctiva  is  actually  inflamed 
the  congested  membrane  is  brought  into  a  condition  of  heightened 
secreting  action.  The  secretions  become  more  copious  and  more 
or  less  altered  in  character.  A  sufficiently  practical  though  by 
no  means  sharply  defined  clinical  division  of  cases  of  conjuncti- 
vitis is  arrived  at  by  taking  into  consideration  the  character  of 
the  secretion  from  the  inflamed  membrane  and  the  visible  tissue 
alterations  which  the  membrane  undergoes.  The  common 
varieties  of  conjunctivitis  which  may  thus  be  distinguished  are  the 
following:  (a)  Catarrhal  conjunctivitis,  (/?)  Purulent  conjuncti- 
vitis, (7)  Phlyctenular  conjunctivitis,  (5)  Granular  conjunctivitis 
and  (e)  Diphtheritic  conjunctivitis. 

However  desirable  a  truly  etiological  classification  might 
appear  to  be,  it  is  doubtful  whether  such  could  satisfactorily 
be  made.  So  much  is  certain  at  all  events,  that  not  only  can 
identically  the  same  clinical  appearance  result  from  the  actions 
of  quite  different  pathogenetic  organisms,  but  that  various 
concomitant  circumstances  may  lead  to  very  different  clinical 
signs  being  set  up  by  one  and  the  same  microbe.  As  regards 
contagion  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  secretion  in  the  case  of  a 
true  conjunctivitis  (i.e.  not  merely  a  hyperaemia)  is  always  more 
or  less  contagious.  The  degree  of  virulence  varies  not  only  in 
different  cases,  but  the  effect  of  contagion  from  the  same  source 
may  be  different  in  different  individuals.  Healthy  conjunctivae 
may  thus  react  differently,  not  only  as  regards  the  degree  of 
severity,  but  even  according  to  different  clinical  types,  when 
infected  by  secretion  from  the  same  source.  There  are  no  doubt 
different  reasons  for  this,  such  as  the  stage  at  which  the  inflamma- 
tion has  arrived  in  the  eye  from  which  the  secretion  is  derived, 
differences  in  the  surroundings  and  in  the  susceptibility  of  the 
infected  individuals,  the  presence  of  dormant  microbes  of  a 
virulent  type  in  the  healthy  conjunctiva  which  has  been  infected, 
&c.  Many  points  in  this  connexion  are  very  difficult  to  investi- 
gate and  much  remains  to  be  elucidated.  Contagion  usually 
takes  place  directly  and  not  through  the  air.  Often  in  this 
way  one  eye  is  first  affected  and  may  in  some  cases,  when 
sufficient  care  is  afterwards  taken,  be  the  only  one  to  suffer. 

The  treatment  in  all  severer  forms  of  conjunctivitis  should  be 
undertaken  with  the  primary  object  in  view  of  preventing  any 
implication  of  the  cornea. 

Catarrhal  conjunctivitis,  which  is  characterized  by  an  increased 
mucoid  secretion  accompanying  the  hyperaemia,  is  usually 
bilateral  and  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic.  Acute  conjuncti- 
vitis lasts  as  a  rule  only  for  a  week  or  two:  the  chronic  type 
may  persist',  with  or  without  occasional  exacerbations,  for 


DISEASES] 


EYE 


99 


years.  The  subjective  symptoms  vary  in  intensity  with  the 
severity  of  the  inflammation.  There  is  always  more  or  less 
troublesome  "  burning  "  in  the  eyes  with  a  tired  heavy  feeling 
in  the  lids.  This  is  aggravated  by  reading,  which  is  most  dis- 
tressing in  a  close  or  smoky  atmosphere  and  by  artificial  light. 
In  acute  cases,  indeed,  reading  is  altogether  impossible.  In  all 
cases  of  catarrhal  conjunctivitis  the  symptoms  are  also  more 
marked  if  the  eyes  have  been  tied  up,  even  though  this  may 
produce  a  temporary  relief. 

A  curious  variety  of  acute  catarrhal  conjunctivitis,  in  which 
the  hyp'eraemia  and  lacrymation  are  the  predominant  features, 
is  the  so-called  hay-fever.  In  this  condition  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  nose  and  throat  are  similarly  affected,  and  there 
is  at  the  same  time  more  or  less  constitutional  disturbance. 
Hay-fever  is  due  to  irritation  from  the  pollen  of  many  plants,  but 
principally  from  that  of  the  different  grasses.  Some  people  are 
so  susceptible  to  it  that  they  invariably  suffer  every  year  during 
the  early  summer  months.  Here  it  is  difficult  to  remove  the 
cause,  but  many  cases  can  be  cured  and  almost  all  are  alleviated 
be  means  of  a  special  antitoxin  applied  locally. 

Other  ectogenetic  causes  of  catarrhal  conjunctivitis  which 
have  been  studied  are  mostly  microbic.  Of  these  the  most 
common  are  the  Morax-Axenfeld  and  the  Koch-Weeks  con- 
junctivitis. 

The  Morax-Axenfeld  bacillus  sets  up  a  conjunctivitis  which 
affects  individuals  of  all  ages  and  conditions  and  which  is  con- 
tagious. The  inflammation  is  usually  chronic,  at  most  subacute. 
It  is  often  sufficiently  characteristic  to  be  recognized  without  a 
microscopical  examination  of  the  secretions.  In  typical  cases 
the  lid  margin,  palpebral  conjunctiva,  and  it  may  be  a  patch 
of  ocular  conjunctiva  at  the  outer  or  inner  angle  are  alone 
hyperaemic:  the  secretion  is  not  copious  and  is  mostly  found 
as  a  greyish  coagulum  lying  at  the  inner  lid-margin.  The 
subjective  symptoms  are  usually  slight.  Complications  with 
other  varieties  of  catarrhal  conjunctivitis  are  not  uncommon. 
This  mild  form  of  conjunctivitis  generally  lasts  for  many  months, 
subject  to  more  or  less  complete  disappearance  followed  by 
recurrences.  It  can  be  rapidly  cured  by  the  use  of  an  oxide  of 
zinc  ointment,  which  should  be  continued  for  some  time  after 
the  appearances  have  altogether  passed  off. 

The  conjunctivitis  caused  by  the  Koch-Weeks  microbe  is 
still  more  common.  It  is  a  more  acute  type,  affects  mostly 
children,  and  is  very  contagious  and  often  epidemic.  Here  the 
hyperaemia  involves  both  the  ocular  and  the  palpebral  con- 
junctiva, and  usually  there  is  considerable  swelling  of  the  lids 
and  a  copious  secretion.  Both  eyes  are  always  affected. 
Occasionally  the  engorged  conjunctival  vessels  give  way,  caus- 
ing numerous  small  extravasations  (ecchymoses).  Complications 
with  phlyctenulae  (vide  infra)  are  common  in  children.  The 
acute  symptoms  last  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  after  which  the 
course  is  more  chronic.  Treatment  with  nitrate  of  silver  in 
solution  is  generally  satisfactory.  Other  less  frequent  microbic 
causes  of  catarrhal  conjunctivitis  yield  to  the  same  treatment. 

A  form  of  epidemic  muco-purulent  conjunctivitis  is  not  un- 
common, in  which  the  swelling  of  the  conjunctival  folds  and  lids 
is  much  more  marked  and  the  secretions  copious.  It  is  less 
amenable  to  treatment  and  also  apt  to  be  complicated  by 
corneal  ulceration.  The  microbe  which  gives  rise  to  this  con- 
dition has  not  been  definitely  established.  This  inflammation  is 
also  known  as  school  ophthalmia.  This  is  extremely  contagious, 
so  that  isolation  of  cases  becomes  necessary.  The  treatment 
with  weak  solutions  of  sub-acetate  of  lead  during  the  acute 
stage,  provided  there  be  no  corneal  complication,  and  sub- 
sequently with  a  weak  solution  of  tannic  acid,  may  be  recom- 
mended. 

Purulent  Conjunctivitis. — Some  of  the  severer  forms  of 
catarrhal  conjunctivitis  are  accompanied  not  only  by  a  good 
deal  of  swelling  of  both  conjunctiva  and  lids  but  also  by  a 
decidedly  muco-purulent  secretion.  Nevertheless  there  is  a 
sufficiently  sharply-defined  clinical  difference  between  the 
catarrhal  and  purulent  types  of  inflammation.  In  purulent 
conjunctivitis  the  oedema  of  the  lids  is  always  marked,  often 


excessive,  the  hyperaemia  of  the  whole  conjunctiva  is  intense: 
the  membrane  is  also  infiltrated  and  swollen  (chemosis),  the 
papillae  enlarged  and  the  secretion  almost  wholly  purulent. 
Although  this  variety  of  conjunctivitis  is  principally  due  to 
infection  by  gonococci,  other  microbes,  which  more  frequently 
set  up  a  catarrhal  type,  may  lead  to  the  purulent  form. 

All  forms  are  contagious,  and  transference  of  the  secretion 
to  other  eyes  usually  sets  up  the  same  type  of  severe  inflamma- 
tion. The  way  in  which  infection  mostly  takes  place  is  by 
direct  transference  by  means  of  the  hands,  towels,  &c.,  of 
secretions  containing  gonococci  either  from  the  eye  or  from 
some  other  mucous  membrane.  The  poison  may  also  sometimes 
be  carried  by  flies.  The  dried  secretion  loses  its  virulence. 

In  new-born  children  (ophthalmia  neonatorum)  infection 
takes  place  from  the  maternal  passages  during  birth.  Not- 
withstanding the  great  changes  which  occur  during  the  progress 
of  a  purulent  conjunctivitis,  there  is  on  recovery  a  complete 
restitutio  ad  integrum  so  far  as  the  conjunctiva  is  concerned. 
Owing  to  the  tendency  to  severe  ulceration  of  the  cornea,  more 
or  less  serious  destructions  of  that  membrane,  and  consequently 
more  or  less  interference  with  sight,  may  result  before  the 
inflammation  has  passed  off.  This  is  a  special  danger  in  the 
case  of  adults.  For  this  reason  when  only  one  eye  is  affected 
the  first  point  to  be  attended  to  in  the  treatment  is  to  secure  the 
second  eye  from  contagion  by  efficient  occlusion.  The  appliance 
known  as  Buller's  shield,  a  watch-glass  strapped  down  by  plaster, 
is  the  best  for  this  purpose.  It  not  only  admits  of  the  patient 
seeing  with  the  sound  eye,  but  allows  the  other  to  remain  under 
direct  observation.  The  treatment  otherwise  consists  in  frequent 
removal  of  the  secretions  from  the  affected  eye,  and  the  use 
of  nitrate  of  silver  solution  as  a  bactericide  applied  directly 
to  the  conjunctival  surface;  sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  cut 
away  the  chemotic  conjunctiva  immediately  surrounding  the 
cornea.  When  the  cornea  has  become  affected  efforts  may  be 
made  with  the  thermo-cautery  or  otherwise  to  limit  the  area  of 
destruction  and  thus  admit  of  something  being  done  to  improve 
the  vision  after  all  inflammation  has  subsided.  The  greatest 
cleanliness  as  well  as  proper  antiseptic  precautions  should  of 
course  be  observed  by  every  one  in  any  way  connected  with  the 
treatment  of  such  cases. 

Phlyctenular  conjunctivitis  is  an  acute  inflammation  of  the 
ocular  conjunctiva,  in  which  little  blebs  or  phlyctenules  form, 
more  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  corneal  margin,  as  well  as 
on  the  epithelial  continuation  of  the  conjunctiva  which  covers 
the  cornea.  The  inflammation  is  characterized  by  being  dis- 
tributed in  little  circumscribed  foci  and  not  diffused  as  in  all 
other  forms  of  conjunctivitis.  In  it  the  conjunctival  secretion 
is  not  altered,  unless  there  should  exist  at  the  same  time  a  com- 
plication with  some  other  form  of  conjunctivitis.  This  condition 
is  most  frequent  in  children,  particularly  such  as  are  ill-nourished 
or  are  recovering  from  some  illness,  e.g.  measles.  The  suscepti- 
bility occurs  in  fact  mainly  where  there  exists  what  used  to  be 
called  a  "  strumous  "  diathesis.  In  many  cases,  therefore,  there 
is  some  kind  of  tubercular  basis  for  the  manifestations.  This 
basis  has  to  do  with  the  susceptibility  only,  at  all  events  to  begin 
with.  The  local  changes  are  not  tuberculous;  their  exact  origin 
has  not  been  clearly  established.  They  are  in  all  probability 
produced  by  staphylococci. 

Many  children  suffering  from  phlyctenular  conjunctivitis  get 
after  a  short  time  an  eczematous  excoriation  of  the  skin  of  the 
nostrils.  This  excoriated,  scabby  area  contains  crowds  of 
staphylococci  which  find  a  nidus  here,  where  the  copious  tear- 
flow  down  the  nostrils  has  excoriated  and  irritated  the  skin. 
Lacrymation  is  indeed  a  very  common  concomitant  of  phlyc- 
tenular conjunctivitis.  Another  frequently  distressing  symptom 
is  a  pronounced  dread  of  light  (photophobia),  which  often  leads 
to  convulsive  and  very  persistent  closing  of  the  lids  (blepharo- 
spasm).  Indeed  the  relief  of  the  photophobia  is  often  the  most 
important  point  to  be  considered  in  the  treatment  of  phlyc- 
tenular conjunctivitis.  The  photophobia  may  be  very  severe 
when  the  local  changes  are  slight.  The  eyes  should  be  shaded 
but  not  bandaged.  Cocain  may  be  freely  used.  The  best 


IOO 


EYEMOUTH— EYLAU 


local  application  is  the  yellow  oxide  of  mercury  used  as  an 
ointment. 

Phlyctenular  conjunctivitis,  and  the  corneal  complications 
with  which  it  is  so  often  associated,  constitute  a  large  proportion 
(from  i  to  J)  of  all  eye  affections  with  which  the  surgeon  has  to 
deal. 

Granular  Conjunctivitis. — This  disease,  which  also  goes  by  the 
name  of  trachoma,  is  characterized  by  an  inflammatory  infiltra- 
tion of  the  adenoid  tissue  of  the  conjunctiva.  The  inflammation 
is  accompanied  by  the  formation  of  so-called  granules,  and  at  the 
same  time  by  a  hyperplasia  of  the  papillae.  The  changes  further 
lead  in  the  course  of  time  to  cicatricial  transformations,  so  that 
a  gradual  and  progressive  atrophy  of  the  conjunctiva  results. 
The  disease  takes  its  origin  most  frequently  in  the  conjunc- 
tival  fold  of  the  upper  lid,  but  eventually  as  a  rule  involves 
the  cornea  and  the  deeper  tissues  of  the  lid,  particularly  the 
tarsus. 

The  etiology  of  trachoma  is  unknown.  Though  a  perfectly 
distinctive  affection  when  fully  established,  the  differential 
diagnosis  from  other  forms  of  conjunctivitis,  particularly  those 
associated  with  much  follicular  enlargement  or  which  have  begun 
as  purulent  inflammation,  may  be  difficult.  Trachoma  is  mostly 
chronic.  When  occurring  in  an  acute  form  it  is  more  amenable 
to  treatment  and  less  likely  to  end  in  cicatricial  changes.  Fully 
half  the  cases  of  trachoma  which  occur  are  complicated  by 
pannus,  which  is  the  name  given  to  the  affection  when  it  has 
spread  to  the  cornea.  Pannus  is  a  superficial  vascularized  in- 
filtration of  the  cornea.  The  veiling  which  it  produces  causes 
more  or  less  defect  of  sight. 

Various  methods  of  treatment  are  in  use  for  trachoma.  Ex- 
pression by  means  of  roller-forceps  or  repeated  grattage  are 
amongst  the  more  effective  means  of  surgical  treatment,  while 
local  applications  of  copper  sulphate  or  of  alum  are  certainly 
useful  in  suitable  cases. 

Diphtheritic  conjunctivitis  is  characterized  by  an  infiltration 
into  the  conjunctival  tissues  which,  owing  to  great  coagulability, 
rapidly  interferes  with  the  nutrition  of  the  invaded  area  and 
thus  leads  to  necrosis  of  the  diphtheritic  membrane.  Con- 
junctival diphtheria  may  or  may  not  be  associated  with 
diphtheria  of  the  throat.  It  is  essentially  a  disease  of  early 
childhood,  not  more  than  10%  of  all  cases  occurring  after 
the  age  of  four.  The  cornea  is  exposed  to  great  risk,  more 
particularly  during  the  first  few  days,  and  may  be  lost  by 
necrosis.  Subsequent  ulceration  is  not  uncommon,  but  may 
often  be  arrested  before  complete  destruction  has  taken  place. 
The  disease  is  generally  confined  to  one  eye,  and  complicated  by 
swelling  of  the  preauricular  glands  of  that  side.  It  may  prove 
fatal.  In  true  conjunctival  diphtheria  the  'exciting  cause  is  the 
Klebs-Loffler  bacillus.  The  inflammation  occurs  in  very  varying 
degrees  of  severity.  The  secretion  is  at  first  thin  and  scant, 
afterwards  purulent  and  more  copious.  In  severe  cases  there  is 
great  chemosis  with  much  tense  swelling  of  the  lids,  which  are 
often  of  an  ashy-grey  colour.  A  streptococcus  infection  pro- 
duces somewhat  similar  and  often  quite  as  disastrous  results. 

The  treatment  must  be  both  general  with  antitoxin  and  local 
with  antiseptics.  Of  rarer  forms  of  conjunctivitis  may  be 
mentioned  Parinaud's  conjunctivitis  and  the  so-called  spring 
catarrh. 

Non-inflammatory  Conjunctival  Ajfections. — These  are  of  less 
importance  than  conjunctivitis,  either  on  account  of  their  com- 
parative infrequency  or  because  of  their  harmlessness.  The 
following  conditions  may  be  shortly  referred  to. 

Amyloid  degeneration,  in  which  waxy-looking  masses  grow 
from  the  palpebral  conjunctiva  of  both  lids,  often  attaining  very 
considerable  dimensions.  The  condition  is  not  uncommon  in 
China  and  elsewhere  in  the  East. 

Essential  Shrinking  of  the  Conjunctiva. — This  is  the  result  of 
pemphigus,  in  which  the  disease  has  attacked  the  conjunctiva 
and  led  to  its  atrophy. 

Pterygium  is  a  hypertrophic  thickening  of  the  conjunctiva  of 
triangular  shape  firmly  attached  by  its  apex  to  the  superficial 
layers  of  the  cornea.  It  is  a  common  condition  in  warm  climates 


owing  to  exposure  to  sun  and  dust,  and  often  calls  for  operative 
interference. 

Tumours  of  the  Conjunctiva. — These  may  be  malignant  or 
benign,  also  syphilitic  and  tubercular.  (G.  A.  BE.) 

EYEMOUTH,  a  police  burgh  of  Berwickshire,  Scotland.  Pop. 
(1901)  2436.  It  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eye,  75  m. 
N.N.W.  of  Berwick-on-Tweed  by  the  North  British  railway  via 
Burnmouth.  Its  public  buildings  are  the  town  hall,  library 
and  masonic  hall.  The  main  industry  is  the  fishing  and  allied 
trades.  The  harbour  was  enlarged  in  1887,  and  the  bay  is  easily 
accessible  and  affords  good  anchorage.  Owing  to  the  rugged 
character  of  the  coast  and  its  numerous  ravines  and  caves  the 
whole  district  was  once  infested  with  smugglers.  The  promon- 
tory of  St  Abb's  Head  is  3  m.  to  the  N.W. 

EYLAU  (Preussisch- Eylau),  a  town  of  Germany,  in  east 
Prussia,  on  the  Pasmar,  23  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Konigsberg  by  rail  on 
the  line  Pillau-Prostken.  It  has  an  Evangelical  church,  a  teachers' 
seminary,  a  hospital,  foundries  and  saw  mills.  Pop.  3200. 
Eylau  was  founded  in  1336  by  Arnolf  von  Eilenstein,  a  knight 
of  the  Teutonic  Order.  It  is  famous  as  the  scene  of  a  battle 
between  the  army  of  Napoleon  and  the  Russians  and  Prussians 
commanded  by  General  Bennigsen,  fought  on  the  8th  of  February 
1807. 

The  battle  was  preceded  by  a  severe  general  engagement  on 
the  7th.  The  head  of  Napoleon's  column  (cavalry  and  infantry) , 
advancing  from  the  south-west,  found  itself  opposed  at  the  outlet 
of  the  Griinhofchen  defile  by  a  strong  Russian  rearguard  which 
held  the  (frozen)  lakes  on  either  side  of  the  Eylau  road,  and 
attacked  at  once,  dislodging  the  enemy  after  a  sharp  conflict. 
The  French  turned  both  wings  of  the  enemy,  and  Bagration, 
who  commanded  the  Russian  rearguard,  retired  through  Eylau 
to  the  main  army,  which  was  now  arrayed  for  battle  east  of 
Eylau.  Barclay  de  Tolly  made  a  strenuous  resistance  in  Eylau 
itself,  and  in  the  churchyard,  and  these  localities  changed  hands 
several  times  before  remaining  finally  in  possession  of  the  French. 
It  is  very  doubtful  whether  Napoleon  actually  ordered  this 
attack  upon  Eylau,  and  it  is  suggested  that  the  French  soldiers 
were  encouraged  to  a  premature  assault  by  the  hope  of  obtaining 
quarters  in  the  village.  There  is,  however,  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  this  attack  was  prejudicial  to  Napoleon's  chance  of 
success,  for  his  own  army  was  intended  to  pin  the  enemy  in  front, 
while  the  outlying  "  masses  of  manoeuvre  "  closed  upon  his 
flanks  and  rear  (see  NAPOLEONIC  CAMPAIGNS).  In  this  case  the 
vigour  of  the  "  general  advanced  guard  "  was  superfluous,  for 
Bennigsen  stood  to  fight  of  his  own  free  will. 

The  foremost  line  of  the  French  bivouacs  extended  from 
Rothenen  to  Freiheit,  but  a  large  proportion  of  the  army  spent 
the  night  in  quarters  farther  back.  The  Russian  army  on  the 
other  hand  spent  the  night  bivouacked  in  order  of  battle,  the 
right  at  Schloditten  and  the  left  at  Serpallen.  The  cold  was 
extreme,  2°  F.  being  registered  in  the  early  morning,  and  food 
was  scarce  in  both  armies.  The  ground  was  covered  at  the  time 
of  battle  with  deep  snow,  and  all  the  lakes  and  marshes  were 
frozen,  so  that  troops  of  all  arms  could  pass  everywhere,  so  far 
as  the  snow  permitted.  Two  of  Napoleon's  corps  (Davout  and 
Ney)  were  still  absent,  and  Ney  did  not  receive  his  orders  until 
the  morning  of  the  8th.  His  task  was  to  descend  upon  the 
Russian  right,  and  also  to  prevent  a  Prussian  corps  under 
Lestocq  from  coming  on  to  the  battlefield.  Davout's  corps 
advancing  from  the  south-east  on  Mollwitten  was  destined  for 
the  attack  of  Bennigsen's  left  wing  about  Serpallen  and  Klein 
Sausgarten.  In  the  meantime  Napoleon  with  his  forces  at  and 
about  Eylau  made  the  preparations  for  the  frontal  attack. 
His  infantry  extended  from  the  windmill,  through  Eylau,  to 
Rothenen,  and  the  artillery  was  deployed  along  the  whole  front; 
behind  each  infantry  corps  and  on  the  wings  stood  the  cavalry. 
The  Guard  was  in  second  line  south  of  Eylau,  and  an  army 
reserve  stood  near  the  Waschkeiten  lake.  Bennigsen's  army 
was  drawn  up  in  line  from  Schloditten  to  Klein  Sausgarten,  the 
front  likewise  covered  by  guns,  in  which  arm  he  was  numerically 
much  superior.  A  detachment  occupied  Serpallen. 

The  battle  opened  in  a  dense  snowstorm.     About  8  A.M. 


EYRA— EYRE,  E.  J. 


101 


Bennigsen's  guns  opened  fire  on  Eylau,  and  after  a  fierce  but 
undecided  artillery  fight  the  French  delivered  an  infantry 
attack  from  Eylau.  This  was  repulsed  with  heavy  losses,  and  the 
Russians  advanced  towards  the  windmill  in  force.  Thereupon 
Napoleon  ordered  his  centre,  the  VII.  corps  of  Augereau,to  move 
forward  from  the  church  against  the  Russian  front,  the  division 
of  St  Hilaire  on  Augereau's  right  participating  in  the  attack. 
If  we  conceive  of  this  first  stage  of  the  battle  as  the  action  of 
the  "  general  advanced  guard,"  Augereau  must  be  held  to  have 
overdone  his  part.  The  VII.  corps  advanced  in  dense  masses, 
but  in  the  fierce  snowstorm  lost  its  direction.  St  Hilaire  attacked 
directly  and  unsupported;  Augereau's  corps  was  still  less 
fortunate.  Crossing  obliquely  the  front  of  the  Russian  line,  as 
if  making  for  Schloditten,  it  came  under  a  feu  d'enfer  and  was 
practically  annihilated.  In  the  confusion  the  Russian  cavalry 
charged  with  the  utmost  fury  downhill  and  with  the  wind  behind 
them.  Three  thousand  men  only  out  of  about  fourteen  thousand 
appeared  at  the  evening  parade  of  the  corps.  The  rest  were 
killed,  wounded,  prisoners  or  dispersed.  The  marshal  and  every 
senior  officer  was  amongst  the  killed  and  wounded,  and  one 
regiment,  the  I4thof  the  Line,  cut  off  in  the  midst  of  the  Russians 
and  refusing  to  surrender,  fell  almost  to  a  man.  The  Russian 


<i    « 


Scale,  1:100,000 


Emery  W»lke<  K. 


iMiles 


counterstroke  penetrated  into  Eylau  itself  and  Napoleon  himself 
was  in  serious  danger.  With  the  utmost  coolness,  however,  he 
judged  the  pace  of  the  Russian  advance  and  ordered  up  a 
battalion  of  the  Guard  at  the  exact  moment  required.  In  the 
streets  of  Eylau  the  Guard  had  the  Russians  at  their  mercy, 
and  few  escaped.  Still  the  situation  for  the  French  was  desperate 
and  the  battle  had  to  be  maintained  at  all  costs.  Napoleon  now 
sent  forward  the  cavalry  along  the  whole  line.  In  the  centre 
the  charge  was  led  by  Murat  and  Bessieres,  and  the  Russian 
horsemen  were  swept  off  the  field.  The  Cuirassiers  under 
D'Hautpoult  charged  through  the  Russian  guns,  broke  through 
the  first  line  of  infantry  and  then  through  the  second,  penetrating 
to  the  woods  of  Anklappen. 

The  shock  of  a  second  wave  of  cavalry  broke  the  lines  again, 
and  though  in  the  final  retirement  the  exhausted  troopers  lost 
terribly,  they  had  achieved  their  object.  The  wreck  of  Augereau's 
and  other  divisions  had  been  reformed,  the  Guard  brought  up 
into  first  line,  and,  above  all,  Davout's  leading  troops  had  oc- 
cupied Serpallen.  Thence,  with  his  left  in  touch  with  Napoleon's 
right  (St  Hilaire),  and  his  right  extending  gradually  towards 
Klein  Sausgarten,  the  marshal  pressed  steadily  upon  the  Russian 
left,  rolling  it  up  before  him,  until  his  right  had  reached 
Kutschitten  and  his  centre  Anklappen.  By  that  time  the 
troops  under  Napoleon's  immediate  command,  pivoting  their  left 
on  Eylau  church,  had  wheeled  gradually  inward  until  the  general 


line  extended  from  the  church  to  Kutschitten.  The  Russian 
army  was  being  driven  westward,  when  the  advance  of  Lestocq 
gave  them  fresh  steadiness.  The  Prussian  corps  had  been 
fighting  a  continuous  flank-guard  action  against  Marshal  Ney 
to  the  north-west  of  Althof,  and  Lestocq  had  finally  succeeded 
in  disengaging  his  main  body,  Ney  being  held  up  at  Althof  by 
a  small  rearguard,  while  the  Prussians,  gathering  as  they  went  the 
fugitives  of  the  Russian  army,  hastened  to  oppose  Davout. 
The  impetus  of  these  fresh  troops  led  by  Lestocq  and  his  staff- 
officer  Scharnhorst  was  such  as  to  check  even  the  famous 
divisions  of  Davout's  corps  which  had  won  the  battle  of  Auerstadt 
single-handed.  The  French  were  now  gradually  forced  back 
until  their  right  was  again  at  Sausgarten  and  their  centre  on 
the  Kreege  Berg. 

Both  sides  were  now  utterly  exhausted,  for  the  Prussians 
also  had  been  marching  and  fighting  all  day  against  Ney.  The 
battle  died  away  at  nightfall,  Ney's  corps  being  unable  effectively 
to  intervene  owing  to  the  steadiness  of  the  Prussian  detachment 
left  to  oppose  him,  and  the  extreme  difficulty  of  the  roads. 
A  severe  conflict  between  the  Russian  extreme  right  and  Ney's 
corps  which  at  last  appeared  on  the  field  at  Schloditten  ended 
the  battle.  Bennigsen  retreated  during  the  night  through  Schmo- 
ditten,  Lestocq  through  Kutschitten.  The  numbers  engaged 
in  the  first  stage  of  the  battle  may  be  taken  as — Napoleon,  50,000, 
Bennigsen,  67,000,  to  which  later  were  added  on  the  one  side 
Ney  and  Davout,  29,000,  on  the  other  Lestocq,  7000.  The  losses 
were  roughly,  15,000  men  to  the  French,  18,000  to  the  Allies,  or 
21  and  27%  respectively  of  the  troops  actually  engaged.  The 
French  lost  5  eagles  and  7  other  colours,  the  Russians  16  colours 
and  24  guns. 

EYRA  (Felis  eyra),  a  South  American  wild  cat,  of  weasel-like 
build,  and  uniform  coloration,  varying  in  different  individuals 
from  reddish-yellow  to  chestnut.  It  is  found  in  Brazil,  Guiana 
and  Paraguay,  and  extends  its  range  to  the  Rio  del  Norte,  but 
is  rare  north  of  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  Little  is  known  of  its 
habits  in  a  wild  state,  beyond  the  fact  that  it  is  a  forest -dweller, 
active  in  movement  and  fierce  in  disposition.  Several  have 
been  exhibited  in  the  London  Zoological  Gardens,  and  some  have 
grown  gentle  in  captivity.  Don  Felix  de  Azara  wrote  of  one 
which  he  kept  on  a  chain  that  it  was  "  as  gentle  and  playful  as 
any  kitten  could  be."  The  name  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
jaguarondi. 

EYRE,  EDWARD  JOHN  (1815-1901),  British  colonial  governor, 
the  son  of  a  Yorkshire  clergyman,  was  born  on  the  5th  of  August 
1815.  He  was  intended  for  the  army,  but  delays  having  arisen 
in  producing  a  commission,  he  went  out  to  New  South  Wales, 
where  he  engaged  in  the  difficult  but  very  necessary  undertaking 
of  transporting  stock  westward  to  the  new  colony  of  South 
Australia,  then  in  great  distress,  and  where  he  became  magistrate 
and  protector  of  the  aborigines,  whose  interests  he  warmly 
advocated.  Already  experienced  as  an  Australian  traveller, 
he  undertook  the  most  extensive  and  difficult  journeys  in  the 
desert  country  north  and  west  of  Adelaide,  and  after  encountering 
the  greatest  hardships,  proved  the  possibility  of  land  communica- 
tion between  South  and  West  Australia.  In  1845  he  returned 
to  England  and  published  the  narrative  of  his  travels.  In  1846 
he  was  appointed  lieutenant-governor  of  New  Zealand,  where  he 
served  under  Sir  George  Grey.  After  successively  governing  St 
Vincent  and  Antigua,  he  was  in  1862  appointed  acting-governor 
of  Jamaica  and  in  1864  governor.  In  October  1865  a  negro 
insurrection  broke  out  and  was  repressed  with  laudable  vigour, 
but  the  unquestionable  severity  and  alleged  illegality  of  Eyre's 
subsequent  proceedings  raised  a  storm  at  home  which  induced 
the  government  to  suspend  him  and  to  despatch  a  special 
commission  of  investigation,  the  effect  of  whose  inquiries, 
declared  by  his  successor,  Sir  John  Peter  Grant,  to  have  been 
"  admirably  conducted,"  was  that  he  should  not  be  reinstated 
in  his  office.  The  government,  nevertheless,  saw  nothing  in 
Eyre's  conduct  to  justify  legal  proceedings;  indictments  pre- 
ferred by  amateur  prosecutors  at  home  against  him  and  military 
officers  who  had  acted  under  his  direction,  resulted  in  failure, 
and  he  retired  upon  the  pension  of  a  colonial  governor.  As  an 


102 


EYRE,  SIR  J.— EZEKIEL 


explorer  Eyre  must  be  classed  in  the  highest  rank,  but  opinions 
are  always  likely  to  differ  as  to  his  action  in  the  Jamaica  rebellion. 
He  died  on  the  3oth  of  November  1901. 

EYRE,  SIR  JAMES  (1734-1799),  English  judge,  was  the  son  of 
the  Rev.  Thomas  Eyre,  of  Wells,  Somerset.  He  was  educated  at 
Winchester  College  and  at  St  John's  College,  Oxford,  which, 
however,  he  left  without  taking  a  degree.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar  at  Gray's  Inn  in  1755,  and  commenced  practice  in  the  lord 
mayor's  and  sheriffs'  courts,  having  become  by  purchase  one  of 
the  four  counsel  to  the  corporation  of  London.  He  was  appointed 
recorder  of  London  in  1763.  He  was  counsel  for  the  plaintiff  in 
the  case  of  Wilkes  v.  Wood,  and  made  a  brilliant  speech  in  condem- 
nation of  the  execution  of  general  search  warrants.  His  refusal  to 
voice  the  remonstrances  of  the  corporation  against  the  exclusion 
of  Wilkes  from  parliament  earned  him  the  recognition  of  the 
ministry,  and  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  exchequer  in  1772. 
From  June  1792  to  January  1793  he  was  chief  commissioner  of 
the  great  seal.  In  1793  he  was  made  chief  justice  of  the  common 
pleas,  and  presided  over  the  trials  of  Home  Tooke,  Thomas 
Crosfield  and  others,  with  great  ability  and  impartiality.  He 
died  on  the  ist  of  July  1799  and  was  buried  at  Ruscombe, 
Berkshire. 

See  Howell,  State  Trials,  xix.  (1154-1155);  Foss,  Lives  of  the 
Judges. 

EYRIE,  the  alternative  English  form  of  the  words  Aerie  or 
Aery,  the  lofty  nest  of  a  bird  of  prey,  especially  of  an  eagle, 
hence  any  lofty  place  of  abode;  the  term  is  also  used  of  the 
brood  of  the  bird.  The  word  derives  from  the  Fr.  aire,  of  the 
same  meaning,  which  comes  from  the  Lat.  area,  an  open  space, 
but  was  early  connected  with  aerius,  high  in  the  air,  airy,  a 
confusion  that  has  affected  the  spelling  of  the  word.  The 
forms  "  eyrie  "  or  "  eyry  "  date  from  a  i7th  century  attempt 
to  derive  the  word  from  the  Teutonic  ey,  an  egg. 

EZEKIEL  C>Kpm',  "God  strengthens"  or  "God  is  strong"; 
Sept.  'lefe/aijX;  Vulg.  Ezechiel),  son  of  Buzi,  one  of  the  most 
vigorous  and  impressive  of  the  older  Israelite  thinkers.  He 
was  a  priest  of  the  Jerusalem  temple,  probably  a  member  of 
the  dominant  house  of  Zadok,  and  doubtless  had  the  literary 
training  of  the  cultivated  priesthood  of  the  time,  including 
acquaintance  with  the  national  historical,  legal  and  ritual 
traditions  and  with  the  contemporary  history  and  customs 
of  neighbouring  peoples.  In  the  year  597  (being  then,  prob- 
ably, not  far  from  thirty  years  of  age)  he  was  carried  off 
to  Babylonia  by  Nebuchadrezzar  with  King  Jehoiachin  and 
a  large  body  of  nobles,  military  men  and  artisans,  and  there,  it 
would  seem,  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  His  prophecies  are 
dated  from  this  year  ("  our  captivity,"  xl.  i),  except  in  i.  I, 
where  the  meaning  of  the  date  "  thirtieth  year  "  is  obscure; 
it  cannot  refer  to  his  age  (which  would  be  otherwise  expressed 
in  Hebrew),  or  to  the  reform  of  Josiah,  621  (which  is  not  else- 
where employed  as  an  epoch);  possibly  the  reference  is  to  the 
era  of  Nabopolassar  (626  according  to  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy), 
if  chronological  inexactness  be  supposed  (34  or  33  years  instead 
of  30),  a  supposition  not  at  all  improbable.  That  the  word 
"  thirtieth  "  is  old,  appears  from  the  fact  that  a  scribe  has  added 
a  gloss  (w.  2,  3)  to  bring  this  statement  into  accord  with  the 
usual  way  of  reckoning  in  the  book:  the  "thirtieth"  year, 
he  explains,  is  the  fifth  year  of  the  captivity  of  Jehoiachin.  The 
exiles  dwelt  at  Tell-abib  ("  Hill  of  the  flood  "),  one  of  the  mounds 
or  ruins  made  by  the  great  floods  that  devastated  the  country,1 
near  the  "  river  "  Chebar  (Kebar),  probably  a  large  canal  not 
far  south  of  the  city  of  Babylon.  Here  they  had  their  own 
lands,  and  some  form  of  local  government  by  elders,  and  appear 
to  have  been  prosperous  and  contented;  probably  the  only 
demand  made  on  them  by  the  Babylonian  government  was  the 
payment  of  taxes. 

Ezekiel  was  married  (xxiv.  18),  had  his  own  house,  and  com- 
ported himself  quietly  as  a  Babylonian  subject.  But  he  was  a 
profoundly  interested  observer  of  affairs  at  home  and  among 

1  The  Assyrian  term  abubu  is  used  of  the  great  primeval  deluge 
(in  the  Gilgamesh  epic),  and  also  of  the  local  floods  common  in  the 
country. 


the  exiles:  as  patriot  and  ethical  teacher  he  deplored  alike  the 
political  blindness  of  the  Jerusalem  government  (King  Zedekiah 
revolted  in  588)  and  the  immorality  and  religious  superficiality 
and  apostasy  of  the  people.  He,  like  Jeremiah,  was  friendly  to 
Nebuchadrezzar,  regarding  him  as  Yahweh's  instrument  for  the 
chastisement  of  the  nation.  Convinced  that  opposition  to 
Babylonian  rule  was  suicidal,  and  interpreting  historical  events, 
in  the  manner  of  the  times,  as  indications  of  the  temper  of  the 
deity,  he  held  that  the  imminent  political  destruction  of  the 
nation  was  proof  of  Yahweh's  anger  with  the  people  on  account 
of  their  moral  and  religious  depravity;  Jerusalem  was  hope- 
lessly corrupt  and  must  be  destroyed  (xxiv.).  On  the  other 
hand,  he  was  equally  convinced  that,  as  his  predecessors  had 
taught  (Hos.  xi.  8,  9;  Isa.  vii.  3  al.),  Yahweh's  love  for  his  people 
would  not  suffer  them  to  perish  utterly — a  remnant  would  be 
saved,  and  this  remnant  he  naturally  found  in  the  exiles  in 
Babylonia,  a  little  band  plucked  from  the  burning  and  kept  safe 
in  a  foreign  land  till  the  wrath  should  have  passed  (xi.  14  ff.). 
This  conception  of  the  exiles  as  the  kernel  of  the  restored  nation 
he  further  set  forth  in  the  great  vision  of  ch.  i.,  in  which  Yahweh 
is  represented  as  leaving  Jerusalem  and  coming  to  take  up  his 
abode  among  them  in  Babylonia  for  a  time,  intending,  however, 
to  return  to  his  own  city  (xliii.  7). 

This,  then,  was  Ezekiel's  political  creed — destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem and  its  inhabitants,  restoration  of  the  exiles,  and  mean- 
time submission  to  Babylon.  His  arraignment  of  the  Judeans  is 
violent,  almost  malignant  (vi .  x  vi.  al. ) .  The  well-meaning  but  weak 
king  Zedekiah  he  denounces  with  bitter  scorn  as  a  perjured  traitor 
(xvii) .  He  does  not  discuss  the  possibility  of  successful  resistance 
to  the  Chaldeans;  he  simply  assumes  that  the  attempt  is  foolish 
and  wicked,  and,  like  other  prophets,  he  identifies  his  political 
programme  with  the  will  of  God.  Probably  his  judgment  of  the 
situation  was  correct;  yet,  in  view  of  Sennacherib's  failure  at 
Jerusalem  in  701  and  of  the  admitted  strength  of  the  city,  the 
hope  of  the  Jewish  nobles  could  not  be  considered  wholly  un- 
founded, and  in  any  case  their  patriotism  (like  that  of  the  national 
party  in  the  Roman  siege)  was  not  unworthy  of  admiration.  The 
prophet's  predictions  of  disaster  continued,  according  to  the 
record,  up  to  the  investment  of  the  city  by  the  Chaldean  army  in 
588  (i.-xxiv.);  after  the  fall  of  the  city  (586)  his  tone  changed  to 
one  of  consolation  (xxxiii.-xxxix.) — the  destruction  of  the  wicked 
mass  accomplished,  he  turned  to  the  task  of  reconstruction.  He 
describes  the  safe  and  happy  establishment  of  the  people  in  their 
own  land,  and  gives  a  sketch  of  a  new  constitution,  of  which  the 
main  point  is  the  absolute  control  of  public  religion  by  the  priest- 
hood (xl.-xlviii.). 

The  discourses  of  the  first  period  (i.-xxiv.)  do  not  confine  them- 
selves to  political  affairs,  but  contain  much  interesting  ethical  and 
religious  -material.  The  picture  given  of  Jerusalemite  morals  is 
an  appalling  one.  Society  is  described  as  honeycombed  with 
crimes  and  vices;  prophets,  priests,  princes  and  the  people 
generally  are  said  to  practise  unblushingly  extortion,  oppression, 
murder,  falsehood,  adultery  (xxii.).  This  description  is  doubtless 
exaggerated.  It  may  be  assumed  that  the  social  corruption  in 
Jerusalem  was  such  as  is  usually  found  in  wealthy  communities, 
made  bolder  in  this  case,  perhaps,  by  the  political  unrest  and  the 
weakness  of  the  royal  government  under  Zedekiah.  No  such 
charges  are  brought  by  the  prophet  against  the  exiles,  in  whose 
simple  life,  indeed,  there  was  little  or  no  opportunity  for  flagrant 
violation  of  law.  Ezekiel's  own  moral  code  is  that  of  the  prophets, 
which  insists  on  the  practice  of  the  fundamental  civic  virtues. 
He  puts  ritual  offences,  however,  in  the  same  category  with 
offences  against  the  moral  law,  and  he  does  not  distinguish 
between  immorality  and  practices  that  are  survivals  of  old 
recognized  customs:  in  ch.  xxii.  he  mentions  "eating  with  the 
blood"2  along  with  murder,  and  failure  to  observe  ritual  regula- 
tions along  with  oppression  of  the  fatherless  and  the  widow;  the 
old  customary  law  permitted  marriage  with  a  half-sister  (father's 
daughter),  with  a  daughter-in-law,  and  with  a  father's  wife  (Gen. 
xx.  12,  xxxviii.  26;  2  Sam.  xvi.  21,  22),  but  the  more  refined 

2  So  we  must  read  (as  Robertson  Smith  has  pointed  out)  in  xxii.  9 
and  xviii.  6,  instead  of  "eating  on  the  mountains." 


EZEKIEL 


103 


feeling  of  the  later  time  frowned  on  the  custom,  and  Ezekiel 
treats  it  as  adultery.1  However,  notwithstanding  the  insistence 
on  ritual,  natural  in  a  priest,  his  moral  standard  is  high;  follow- 
ing the  prescription  of  Ex.  xxii.  21  [20]  he  regards  oppression  of 
resident  aliens  (a  class  that  had  not  then  received  full  civil  rights) 
as  a  crime  (xxii.  7),  and  in  his  new  constitution  (xlvii.  22,  23) 
gives  them  equal  rights  with  the  homeborn.  His  strongest 
denunciation  is  directed  against  the  religious  practices  of  the 
time  in  Judea — the  worship  of  the  Canaanite  local  deities  (the 
Baals),  the  Phoenician  Tammuz,  and  the  sun  and  other  Baby- 
lonian and  Assyrian  gods  (vi.,  viii.,  xvi.,  xxiii.);  he  maintained 
vigorously  the  prophetic  struggle  for  the  sole  worship  of  Yahweh. 
Probably  he  believed  in  the  existence  of  other  gods,  though  he 
does  not  express  himself  clearly  on  this  point;  in  any  case  he 
held  that  the  worship  of  other  deities  was  destructive  to  Israel. 
His  conception  of  Yahweh  shows  a  mingling  of  the  high  and  the 
low.  On  the  one  hand,  he  regards  him  as  supreme  in  power, 
controlling  the  destinies  of  Babylonia  and  Egypt  as  well  as  those 
of  Israel,  and  as  inflexibly  just  in  dealing  with  ordinary  offences 
against  morality.  But  he  conceives  of  him,  on  the  other  hand, 
as  limited  locally  and  morally — as  having  his  special  abode  in 
the  Jerusalem  temple,  or  elsewhere  in  the  midst  of  the  Israelite 
people,  and  as  dealing  with  other  nations  solely  in  the  interests 
of  Israel.  The  bitter  invectives  against  Ammon,  Moab,  Edom, 
Philistia,  Tyre,  Sidon  and  Egypt,  put  into  Yahweh's  mouth,  are 
based  wholly  on  the  fact  that  these  peoples  are  regarded  as 
hostile  and  hurtful  to  Israel;  Babylonia,  though  nowise  superior 
to  Egypt  morally,  is  favoured  and  applauded  because  it  is 
believed  to  be  the  instrument  for  securing  ultimately  the  pros- 
perity of  Yahweh's  people.  The  administration  of  the  affairs  of 
the  world  by  the  God  of  Israel  is  represented,  in  a  word,  as 
determined  not  by  ethical  considerations  but  by  personal  prefer- 
ences. There  is  no  hint  in  Ezekiel's  writings  of  the  grandiose 
conception  of  Isa.  xl.-lv.,  that  Israel's  mission  is  to  give  the 
knowledge  of  religious  truth  to  the  other  nations  of  the  world; 
he  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  Yahweh's  object  in  restoring  the 
fortunes  of  Israel  is  to  establish  his  reputation  among  the  nations 
as  a  powerful  deity  (xxxvi.  20-23,  xxxvii.  28,  xxxix.  23).  "  The 
prophet  regards  Yahweh's  administrative  control  as  immediate: 
he  introduces  no  angels  or  other  subordinate  supernatural 
agents — the  cherubs  and  the  "  men  "  of  ix.  2  and  xl.  3  are  merely 
imaginative  symbols  or  representations  of  divine  activity.  His 
high  conception  of  God's  transcendence,  it  may  be  supposed,  led 
him  to  ignore  intermediary  agencies,  which  are  common  in  the 
popular  literature,  and  later,  under  the  influence  of  this  same 
conception  of  transcendence,  are  freely  employed. 

The  relations  between  the  writings  of  Ezekiel  and  those  of 
Jeremiah  is  not  clear.  They  have  so  much  in  common  that  they 
must  have  drawn  from  the  same  current  bodies  of  thought,  or 
there  must  have  been  borrowing  in  one  direction  or  the  other. 
In  one  point,  however, — the  attitude  toward  the  ritual — the  two 
men  differ  radically.  The  finer  mind  of  the  nation,  represented 
mainly  by  the  prophets  from  Amos  onward,  had  denounced 
unsparingly  the  superficial  non-moral  popular  cult.  The 
struggle  between  ethical  religion  and  the  current  worship  became 
acute  toward  the  end  of  the  7th  century.  There  were  two 
possible  solutions  of  the  difficulty.  The  ritual  books  of  our 
Pentateuch  were  not  then  in  existence,  and  the  sacrificial  cult 
might  be  treated  with  contempt  as  not  authoritative.  This  is 
the  course  taken  by  Jeremiah,  who  says  boldly  that  God  requires 
only  obedience  (Jer.  vii.  21  ff.).  On  the  other  hand  the  better 
party  among  the  priests,  believing  the  ritual  to  be  necessary, 
might  undertake  to  moralize  it;  of  such  a  movement,  begun 
by  Deuteronomy,  Ezekiel  is  the  most  eminent  representative. 
Priest  and  prophet,  he  sought  to  unify  the  national  religious 
consciousness  by  preserving  the  sacrificial  cult,  discarding  its 
abuses  and  vitalizing  it  ethically.  The  event  showed  that  he 
judged  the  situation  rightly — the  religious  scheme  announced 
by  him,  though  not  accepted  in  all  its  details,  became  the 
dominant  policy  of  the  later  time,  and  he  has  been  justly  called 

'The  stricter  marriage  law  is  formulated   in  Lev.  xviii.    8-15, 

XX.   II  ff. 


"  the  father  of  Judaism."  He  speaks  as  a  legislator,  citing 
no  authority;  but  he  formulates,  doubtless,  the  ideas,  and 
perhaps  the  practices  of  the  Jerusalem  priesthood.  His  ritual 
code  (xliii.-xlvi.),  which  in  elaborateness  stands  midway  between 
that  of  Deuteronomy  and  that  of  the  middle  books  of  the  Penta- 
teuch (resembling  most  nearly  the  code  of  Lev.  xvii.-xxvi.) 
shows  good  judgment.  Its  most  noteworthy  features  are  two. 
Certain  priests  of  idolatrous  Judean  shrines  (distinguished  by 
him  as  "  Levites  ")  he  deprives  of  priestly  functions,  degrading 
them  to  the  rank  of  temple  menials;  and  he  takes  from  the 
civil  ruler  all  authority  over  public  religion,  permitting  him 
merely  to  furnish  material  for  sacrifices.  He  is,  however,  much 
more  than  a  ritual  reformer.  He  is  the  first  to  express  clearly  the 
conception  of  a  sacred  nation,  isolated  by  its  religion  from  all 
others,  the  guardian  of  divine  law  and  the  abode  of  divine 
majesty.  This  kingdom  of  God  he  conceives  of  as  moral: 
Yahweh  is  to  put  his  own  spirit  into  the  people,2  creating  in 
them  a  disposition  to  obey  his  commandments,  which  are  moral 
as  well  as  ritual  (xxxvi.  26,  27).  The  conception  of  a  sacred 
nation  controlled  the  whole  succeeding  Jewish  development; 
if  it  was  narrow  in  its  exclusive  regard  for  Israel,  its  intensity 
saved  the  Jewish  religion  to  the  world. 

Text  and  Authorship. — The  Hebrew  text  of  the  book  of  Ezekiel 
is  not  in  good  condition — it  is  full  of  scribal  inaccuracies  and 
additions.  Many  of  the  errors  may  be  corrected  with  the  aid 
of  the  Septuagint  (e.g.  the  430 — 39O-j-4o-of  iv.  5,  6  is  to  be 
changed  to  190),  and  none  of  them  affect  the  general  thought. 
The  substantial  genuineness  of  the  discourses  is  now  accepted  by 
the  great  body  of  critics.  The  Talmudic  tradition  (Baba  Battira 
146)  that  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue  "  wrote  "  Ezekiel, 
may  refer  to  editorial  work  by  later  scholars.3  There  is  no 
validity  in  the  objections  of  Zunz  (Gottesdienstl.  Vortr.)  that 
the  specific  prediction  concerning  Zedekiah  (xii.  12  f.)  is  non- 
Prophetic,  and  that  the  drawing-up  of  a  new  constitution  soon 
after  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  the  mention  of  Noah, 
Daniel,  Job  and  Persia  are  improbable.  The  prediction  in 
question  was  doubtless  added  by  Ezekiel  after  the  event;  the 
code  belongs  precisely  in  his  time,  and  the  constitution  was  natural 
for  a  priest;  Noah,  Daniel  and  Job  are  old  legendary  Hebrew 
figures;  and  it  is  not  probable  that  the  prophet's  "  Paras  "  is 
our  "  Persia."  Havet's  contention  (in  La  Modernite  des  pro- 
phetes)  that  Gog  represents  the  Parthians  (40  B.C.)  has  little  or 
nothing  in  its  support.  There  are  additions  made  post  eventum, 
as  in  the  case  mentioned  above  and  in  xxix.  17-20,  and  the 
description  of  the  commerce  of  Tyre  (xxvii.  96-250),  which 
interrupts  the  comparison  of  the  city  to  a  ship,  looks  like  an 
insertion  whether  by  the  prophet  or  by  some  other;  but  there  is 
no  good  reason  to  doubt  that  the  book  is  substantially  the  work 
of  Ezekiel.  Ezekiel's  style  is  generally  impetuous  and  vigorous, 
somewhat  smoother  in  the  consolatory  discourses  (xxxiv., 
xxxvi.,  xxxvii.);  he  produces  a  great  effect  by  the  cumulation 
of  details,  and  is  a  master  of  invective;  he  is  fond  of  symbolic 
pictures,  proverbs  and  allegories;  his  "  visions  "  are  elaborate 
literary  productions,  his  prophecies  show  less  spontaneity  than 
those  of  any  preceding  prophet  (he  receives  his  revelations  in 
the  form  of  a  book,  ii.  9),  and  in  their  present  shape  were  hardly 
pronounced  in  public — a  fact  that  seems  to  be  hinted  at  in  the 
statement  that  he  was  "  dumb  "  till  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (iii.26, 
xxxiii.  22);  in  private  interviews  the  people  did  not  take  him 
seriously  (xxxiii.  30-33).  His  book  was  accepted  early  as  part 
of  the  sacred  literature:  Ben-Sira  (c.  180  B.C.)  mentions  him 
along  with  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  (Ecclus.  xlix.  8);  he  is  not 
quoted  directly  in  the  New  Testament,  but  his  imagery  is 
employed  largely  in  the  Apocalypse  and  elsewhere.  His  diver- 
gencies from  the  Pentateuchal  code  gave  rise  to  serious  doubts, 
but,  after  prolonged  study,  the  discrepancies  were  explained, 
and  the  book  was  finally  canonized  (Shab.  136).  According  to 

*  Yahweh's  spirit,  thought  of  as  Yahweh's  vital  principle,  as 
man's  spirit  is  man's  vital  principle,  is  to  be  breathed  into  them,  as, 
in  Gen.  ii.  7,  Yahweh  breathes  his  own  breath  into  the  lifeless  body. 
The  spirit  in  the  Old  Testament  is  a  refined  material  thing  that  may 
come  or  be  poured  out  on  men. 

3  The  "  Great  Synagogue  "  is  semi-mythical. 


104. 


EZRA— EZRA, 


Jerome  (Preface  to  Comm.  on  Ezek.)  the  Jewish  youth  were 
forbidden  to  read  the  mysterious  first  chapter  (called  the  markaba, 
the  "  chariot  ")  and  the  concluding  section  (xl.-xlviii.)  till  they 
reached  the  age  of  thirty  years. 

The  book  divides  itself  naturally  into  three  parts:  the  arraignment 
of  Jerusalem  (i.-xxiv.) ;  denunciation  of  foreign  enemies  (xxv.- 
xxxii.);  consolatory  construction  of  the  future  (xxxiii.-xlviii.). 
The  opening  "  vision  "  (i.),  an  elaborate  symbolic  picture,  is  of  the 
nature  of  a  general  preface,  and  was  composed  probably  late  in  the 
prophet's  life.  Out  of  the  north  (the  Babylonian  sacred  mountain) 
comes  a  bright  cloud,  wherein  appear  four  Creatures  (formed  on  the 
model  of  Babylonian  composite  figures),  each  with  four  faces  (man, 
lion,  bull,  eagle)  and  attended  by  a  wheel;  the  wheels  are  full  of 
eyes,  and  move  straight  forward,  impelled  by  the  spirit  dwelling 
in  the  Creatures  (the  spirit  of  Yahweh).  Supported  on  their  heads 
is  something  like  a  crystalline  firmament,  above  which  is  a  form  like 
a  sapphire  throne  (cf.  Ex.  xxiv.  10),  and  on  the  throne  a  man-like 
form  (Yahweh)  surrounded  by  a  rainbow  brightness.  The  Wheels 
symbolize  divine  omniscience  and  control,  and  the  whole  vision 
represents  the  coming  of  Yahweh  to  take  up  his  abode  among  the 
exiles.  The  prophet  then  receives  his  call  (ii.,  iii.)  in  the  shape  of  a 
roll  of  a  book,  which  he  is  required  to  eat  (an  indication  of  the 
literary  form  now  taken  by  prophecy).  He  is  informed  that  the 
people  to  whom  he  is  sent  are  rebellious  and  stiff-necked  (this  indi- 
cates his  opinion  of  the  people,  and  gives  the  keynote  of  the  following 
discourses);  he  is  appointed  watchman  to  warn  men  when  they 
sin,  and  is  to  be  held  responsible  for  the  consequences  if  he  fail  in 
this  duty.  To  this  high  conception  of  a  preacher's  function  the 
prophet  was  faithful  throughout  his  career.  Next  follow  minatory 
discourses  (iv.-vii.)  predicting  the  siege  and  capture  of  Jerusalem — 
perhaps  revised  after  the  event.  There  are  several  symbolic  acts 
descriptive  of  the  siege.  One  of  these  (iv.  4  ff.)  gives  the  duration 
of  the  national  punishment  in  loose  chronological  reckoning:  40 
years  (a  round  number)  for  Tudah,  and  150  more  (according  to  the 
corrected  text)  for  Israel,  the  starting-point,  probably,  being  the 
year  722,  the  date  of  the  capture  of  Samaria ;  the  procedure  described 
in  v.  8  is  not  to  be  understood  literally.  In  vi.  the  idolatry  of  the 
nation  is  pictured  in  darkest  colours.  Next  follows  (viii.-xi.)  a 
detailed  description,  in  the  form  of  a  vision,  of  the  sin  of  Jerusalem : 
within  the  temple-area  elders  and  others  are  worshipping  beast- 
forms,  Tammuz  and  the  sun  (probably  actual  cults  of  the  time) ;  l 
men  approach  to  defile  the  temple  and  slay  the  inhabitants  of  the 
city  (ix.).  In  ch.  x.  the  imagery  of  ch.  i.  reappears,  and  the  Creatures 
are  identified  with  the  cherubs  of  Solomon  s  temple.  This  appears 
to  be  an  independent  form  of  the  vision,  which  has  been  brought 
into  connexion  with  that  of  i.  by  a  harmonizing  editor.  There 
follow  a  symbolic  prediction  of  the  exile  (xii.)  and  a  denunciation 
of  non-moral  prophets  and  prophetesses  (xiii.) — though  Yahweh 
deceive  a  prophet,  yet  he  and  those  who  consult  him  will  be  punished ; 
and  so  corrupt  is  the  nation  that  the  presence  of  a  few  eminently 
good  men  will  not  save  it  (xiv.).2  After  a  comparison  of  Israel 
to  a  worthless  wild  vine  (xv.)  come  two  allegories,  one  portraying 
idolatrous  Jerusalem  as  the  unfaithful  spouse  of  Yahweh  (xvi.), 
the  other  describing  the  fate  of  Zedekiah  (xvii.).  The  fine  insistence 
on  individual  moral  responsibility  in  xviii.  (cf.  Deut.  xxiv.  16,  Jer. 
xxxi.  29  f.),  while  it  is  a  protest  against  a  superficial  current  view, 
is  not  to  be  understood  as  a  denial  of  all  moral  relations  between 
successive  generations.  This  latter  question  had  not  presented 
itself  to  the  prophet's  mind ;  his  object  was  simply  to  correct  the 
opinion  of  the  people  that  their  present  misfortunes  were  due  not 
to  their  own  faults  but  to  those  of  their  predecessors.  A  more 
sympathetic  attitude  appears  in  two  elegies  (xix.),  one  on  the  kings 
Jehoahaz  and  Jehoiachin,  the  other  on  the  nation.  These  are 
followed  by  a  scathing  sketch  of  Israel's  religious  career  (xx.  1-26), 
in  which,  contrary  to  the  view  of  earlier  prophets,  it  is  declared  that 
the  nation  had  always  been  disobedient.  From  this  point  to  the 
end  of  xxiv.  there  is  a  mingling  of  threat  and  promise.3  The  allegory 
of  xxiii.  is  similar  to  that  of  xvi.,  except  that  in  the  latter  Samaria 
is  relatively  treated  with  favour,  while  in  the  former  it  (Aholah)  is 
involved  in  the  same  condemnation  as  that  of  Jerusalem.  At  this 
point  is  introduced  (xxv.-xxxii.)  the  series  of  discourses  directed 
against  foreign  nations.  The  description  of  the  king  of  Tyre  (xxviii. 
11-19)  as  dwelling  in  Eden,  the  garden  of  God,  the  sacred  mountain, 
under  the  protection  of  the  cherub,  bears  a  curious  resemblance  to 
the  narrative  in  Gen.  ii.,  iii.,  of  which,  however,  it  seems  to  be  in- 
dependent, using  different  Babylonian  material ;  the  text  is  corrupt. 
The  section  dealing  with  Egypt  is  one  of  remarkable  imaginative 
power  and  rhetorical  vigour:  the  king  of  Egypt  is  compared  to  a 
magnificent  cedar  of  Lebanon  (in  xxxi.  3  read:  "  there  was  a  cedar 
in  Lebanon  ")  and  to  the  dragon  of  the  Nile,  and  the  picture  of  his 


1  In  viii.  17  the  unintelligible  expression  "  they  put  the  branch 
to  their  nose  "  is  the  rendering  of  a  corrupt  Hebrew  text ;  a  probable 
emendation  is:   "  they  are  sending  a  stench  to  my  nostrils.  ' 

2  The  legendary  figure  of  Daniel  (xiv.  14)  is  later  taken  by  the 
author  of  the  book  of  Daniel  as  his  hero. 

*  For  a  reconstruction  of  the  poem  in  xxi.  IO,  ii,  see  the  English 
Ezekiel  in  Haupt's  Sacred  Books. 


3RD  BOOK  OF 

descent  into  Sheol  is  intensely  tragic.  Whether  these  discourses 
were  all  uttered  between  the  investment  of  Jerusalem  and  its  fall, 
or  were  here  inserted  by  Ezekiel  or  by  a  scribe,  it  is  not  possible  to 
say.  In  xxxiii.  the  function  of  the  prophet  as  watchman  is  described 
at  length  (expansion  of  the  description  in  iii.)  and  the  news  of  the 
capture  of  the  city  is  received.  The  following  chapters  (xxxiv.- 
xxxix.)  are  devoted  to  reconstruction:  Edom,  the  detested  enemy 
of  Israel,  is  to  be  crushed;  the  nation,  politically  raised  from  the 
dead,  with  North  and  South  united  (xxxvii.),  is  to  be  established 
under  a  Davidide  king;  a  final  assault,  made  by  Gog,  is  to  be  suc- 
cessfully met,4  and  then  the  people  are  to  dwell  in  their  own  land  in 
peace  for  ever ;  this  Gog  section  is  regarded  by  some  as  the  beginning 
of  Jewish  apocalyptic  writing.  In  the  last  section  (xl.-xlviii.),  put 
as  a  vision,  the  temple  is  to  be  rebuilt,  in  dimensions  and  arrange- 
ments a  reproduction  of  the  temple  of  Solomon  (cf.  i  Kings  vi.,  vii.), 
the  sacrifices  and  festivals  and  the  functions  of  priests  and  prince 
are  prescribed,  a  stream  issuing  from  under  the  temple  is  to  vivify 
the  Dead  Sea  and  fertilize  the  land  (this  is  meant  literally),  the  land 
is  divided  into  parallel  strips  and  assigned  to  the  tribes.  The 
prophet's  thought  is  summed  up  in  the  name  of  the  city :  Yahweh 
Shammah,  "  Yahweh  is  there,"  God  dwelling  for  ever  in  the  midst 
of  his  people. 

LITERATURE. — For  the  older  works  see  the  Introductions  of  J.  G. 
Carpzov  (1757)  and  C.  H.  H.  Wright  (1890).  For  legends:  Pseud. - 
Epiphan.,  De  mi.  prophet. ;  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  Itin. ;  Hamburger, 
Realencycl.;  Jew.  Encycl.  On  the  Hebrew  text;  C.  H.  Cornill, 
Ezechiel  (1886)  (very  valuable  for  text  and  ancient  versions) ; 
H.  Graetz,  Emendationes  (1893);  C.  H.  Toy,  "Text  of  Ezek." 

(1899)  in  Haupt's  Sacred  Books  of  the  Old  Test.     Commentaries: 
F.  Hitzig  (1847);    H.  Ewald  (1868);    E.  Reuss  (French  ed.,  1876; 
Germ,  ed.,  1892);    Currey  (1876)  in  Speaker's  Comm.;    R.  Smend 
(revision  of  Hitzig)  (1880)  in  Kurzgefasst.  exeget.  Handbuch;   A.  B. 
Davidson  (1882)  in  Cambr.  Bible  for  Schools;  J.  Skinner  (1895)  in 
Expos.  Bible;   A.  Bertholet  (1897)  in  Marti's  Kurz.  Hand-Comm.; 
C.  H.  Toy  (1899)  in  Haupt's  Sacr.  Bks.  (Eng.  ed.) ;  R.  Kraetzschmar 

(1900)  in  W.  Nowack's  Handkommentar.     See  also  Duhm,  Theol.  d. 
Propheten    (1875);     A.    Kuenen.    Prophets   and   Prophecy    (1877); 
Gautier,  La  Mission  du  prophete  Ezechiel  (1891) ;  Montefiore,  Hibbert 
Lectures  (1892) ;   A.  Bertholet,  Der  Verfassungsentwurf  des  Hesekiel 
(1896);    articles   in   Herzog-Hauck,   Realencykl.;    Hastings,   Bibl. 
Diet.;   Cheyne,  Encycl.  Bibl.,  Jew.  Encycl.;   F.  Bleek,  Introd.  (Eng. 
tr.,    1875),    and    Bleek- Wellhausen    (Germ.)    (1878);    Wildeboer, 
Letterkunde  d.  Oud.  Verbonds  (1893),  and  Germ,  transl.,  Lift.  d.  Alt. 
Test.;  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Hist,  de  I'art,  &c.,  in  which,  however,  the 
restoration  of  Ezekiel's  temple  (by  Chipiez)  is  probably  untrust- 
worthy. (C.  H.  T.*) 

EZRA  (from  a  Hebrew  word  meaning  "  help  "),  in  the  Bible, 
the  famous  scribe  and  priest  at  the  time  of  the  return  of  the 
Jews  in  the  reign  of  the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes  I.  (458  B.C.). 
His  book  and  that  of  Nehemiah  form  one  work  (see  EZRA  AND 
NEHEMIAH,  BOOKS  or),  apart  from  which  we  have  little  trust- 
worthy evidence  as  to  his  life.  Even  in  the  beginning  of  the 
2nd  century  B.C.,  when  Ben  Sira  praises  notable  figures  of  the 
exilic  and  post-exilic  age  (Zerubbabel,  Jeshua  and  Nehemiah), 
Ezra  is  passed  over  (Ecclesiasticus  xlix.  11-13),  and  he  is  not 
mentioned  in  a  still  later  and  somewhat  fanciful  description  of 
Nehemiah's  work  (2  Mace.  i.  18-36).  Already  well  known  as  a 
scribe,  Ezra's  labours  were  magnified  by  subsequent  tradition. 
He  was  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  scribes  and  the  founder  of 
the  Great  Synagogue.  According  to  the  apocryphal  fourth 
book  of  Ezra  (or  2  Esdras  xiv.)  he  restored  the  law  which  had 
been  lost,  and  rewrote  all  the  sacred  records  (which  had  been 
destroyed)  in  addition  to  no  fewer  than  seventy  apocryphal 
works.  The  former  theory  recurs  elsewhere  in  Jewish  tradition, 
and  may  be  associated  with  the  representation  in  Ezra- Nehemiah 
which  connects  him  with  the  law.  But  the  story  of  his  many 
literary  efforts,  like  the  more  modern  conjecture  that  he  closed 
the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  rests  upon  no  ancient  basis. 

See  BIBLE,  sect.  Old  Testament  (Canon  and  Criticism);  JEWS 
(history,  §21  seq.).  The  apocryphal  books,  called  I  and  2  Esdras 
(the  Greek  form  of  the  name)  in  the  English  Bible,  are  dealt  with 
below  as  EZRA,  THIRD  BOOK  OF,  and  EZRA,  FOURTH  BOOK  OF, 
while  the  canonical  book  of  Ezra  is  dealt  with  under  EZRA  AND 
NEHEMIAH. 

EZRA,  THIRD  BOOK  OF  [i  Esdras].  The  titles  of  the  various 
books  of  the  Ezra  literature  are  very  confusing.  The  Greek, 
the  Old  Latin,  the  Syriac,  and  the  English  Bible  from  1560 


4  Gog  probably  represents  a  Scythian  horde  (though  such  an 
invasion  never  took  place) — certainly  not  Alexander  the  Great,  who 
would  have  been  called  "king  of  Greece,"  and  would  have  been 
regarded  not  as  an  enemy  but  as  a  friend. 


EZRA,  SRD  BOOK  OF 


105 


onwards  designate  this  book  as  i  Esdras,  the  canonical  books 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  being  2  Esdras  in  the  Greek.  In  the  Vulgate, 
however,  our  author  was,  through  the  action  of  Jerome,  degraded 
into  the  third  place  and  called  3  Esdras,  whereas  the  canonical 
books  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (see  EZRA  AND  NEHEMIAH,  BOOKS  OF, 
below)  were  called  i  and  2  Esdras,  and  the  Apocalypse  of  Ezra 
4  Esdras.  Thus  the  nomenclature  of  our  book  follows,  and 
possibly  wrongly,  the  usage  of  the  Vulgate.1  In  the  Ethiopic 
version  a  different  usage  prevails.  The  Apocalyspe  is  called 
i  Esdras,  our  author  2  Esdras,  and  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  3  Esdras, 
or  3  and  4  Esdras.  Throughout  this  article  we  shall  use  the  best 
attested  designation  of  this  book,  i.e.  i  Esdras. 

Contents. — With  the  exception  of  one  original  section,  namely, 
that  of  Darius  and  the  three  young  men,  our  author  contains 
essentially  the  same  materials  as  the  canonical  Ezra  and  some 
sections  of  2  Chronicles  and  Nehemiah.  To  the  various  explana- 
tions of  this  phenomenon  we  shall  recur  later.  The  book  may 
be  divided  as  follows  (the  verse  division  is  that  of  the  Cambridge 
LXX):— 

Chap.  i.  =2  Chron.  xxxv.  l-xxxvi.  21. — Great  passover  of  Jpsiah: 
his  death  at  Megiddo.  His  successors  down  to  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  Captivity.  (Verses  i.  21-22  are  not  found  else- 
where, though  the  LXX  of  2  Chron.  xxxv.  20  exhibits  a  very 
distant  parallel.) 

Chap.  ii.  i-i4  =  Ezra  i. — The  edict  of  Cyrus.  Restoration  of  the 
sacred  vessels  through  Sanabassar  to  Jerusalem. 

Chap.  ii.  15-25  =  Ezra  iv.  6-24. — First  attempt  to  rebuild  the 
Temple:  opposition  of  the  Samaritans.  Decree  of  Artaxerxes: 
work  abandoned  till  the  second  year  of  Darius. 

Chap.  iii.  l-v.  6. — This  section  is  peculiar  to  our  author.  The 
contest  between  the  three  pages  waiting  at  the  court  of  Darius  and 
the  victory  of  the  Jewish  youth  "  Zerubbabel,"  to  whom  as  a  reward 
Darius  decrees  the  return  of  the  Jews  and  the  restoration  of  the 
Temple  and  worship.  Partial  list  of  those  who  returned  with 
"  Joachim,  son  of  Zerubbabel." 

Chap.  v.  7-70  =  Ezra  ii.-iv.  5. — List  of  exiles  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel.  Work  on  the  Temple  begun.  Offer  of  the  Samaritans' 
co-operation  rejected.  Suspension  of  the  work  through  their 
intervention  till  the  reign  of  Darius. 

Chap.  vi.  I— vii.  9  =  Ezra  v.  I— vi.  18. — Work  resumed  in  the  second 
year  of  Darius.  Correspondence  between  Sisinnes  and  Darius  with 
reference  to  the  building  of  the  Temple.  Darius'  favourable  decree. 
Completion  of  the  work  by  Zerubbabel. 

Chap.  vii.  10-15  =Ezra  vi.  19-22. — Celebration  of  the  completion 
of  the  Temple. 

Chap.  viii.  l-ix.  36  =  Ezra  vii.-x. — Return  of  the  exiles  under 
Ezra.  Mixed  marriages  forbidden. 

Chap.  ix.  37-55  =  Nehemiah  vii.  73-viii.  12. — The  reading  of  the 
Law. 

Thus,  apart  from  iii.  i-v.  3,  which  gives  an  account  of  the 
pages'  contest,  the  contents  of  the  book  are  doublets  of  the 
canonical  Ezra  and  portions  of  2  Chronicles  and  Nehemiah. 
The  beginning  of  the  book  seems  imperfect,  with  its  abrupt 
opening  "And  Josiah  held  the  passover":  its  conclusion  is 
mutilated,  as  it  breaks  off  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence.  As 
Thackeray  suggests,  it  probably  continued  the  history  of  the 
feast  of  Tabernacles  described  in  Neh.  viii. — a  view  that  is 
supported  by  Joseph.  Ant.  xi.  5.  5,  "  who  describes  that  feast 
using  an  Esdras  word  bravbpduais  and  .  .  .  having  hitherto 
followed  Esdras  as  his  authority  passes  on  to  the  Book  of 
Nehemiah." 

Claims  to  Canonicity. — It  would  seem  that  even  greater  value 
was  attached  to  i  Esdras  than  to  the  Hebrew  Ezra,  (i)  For 
in  the  best  MSS.  (BA)  it  stands  before  2  Esdras  — the  verbal 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  (2)  It  is  used  by 
Josephus,  who  in  fact  does  not  seem  aware  of  the  existence 
of  2  Esdras.  (3)  i  Esdras  is  frequently  quoted  by  the  Greek 
fathers — Clem.  Alex.,  Origen,  Eusebius,  and  by  the  Latin — 
Tertullian,  Cyprian,  Augustine.  The  adverse  judgment  of  the 
church  is  due  to  Jerome,  who,  from  his  firm  attachment  to  the 
Hebrew  Old  Testament,  declined  to  translate  the  "dreams  " 
of  3  and  4  Esdras.  This  judgment  influenced  alike  the  Council 

1 ''  At  the  Council  of  Trent  (when  the  Septuagint  Canon  was 
virtually  accepted  as  authoritative),  bv  a  most  curious  aberration, 
Esdras  iii.  and  iv.  and  the  Epistle  of  Manasseh  were  alone  excluded 
from  the  canon  and  remitted  to  our  appendix." — Howorth,  "  Un- 
conventional Views  on  the  Text  of  the  Bible,"  in  the  P.S.B.A., 
1901,  p.  149. 


of  Trent  and  the  Lutheran  church  in  Germany;  for  Luther 
also  refused  to  translate  Esdras  and  the  Apocalypse  of  Ezra. 

Origin  and  Relation  to  the  Canonical  Ezra. — Various  theories 
have  been  given  as  to  the  relation  of  the  book  and  the  canonical 
Ezra. 

1 .  Some  scholars,  as  Keil,  Bissell  and  formerly  Schiirer,  regarded 
i  Esdras  as  a  free  compilation  fromthe  Greek  of  2  Esdras(2  Chron. 
and  Ezra-Nehemiah) .     This  theory  has  now  given  place  to  others 
more  accordant  with  the  facts  of  the  case. 

2.  Others,  as  Ewald,  Hist,  of  Isr.  v.  126-128,  and  Thackeray 
in  Hastings'  Bible  Dictionary,  assume  a  lost  Greek  version  of 
Chronicles,   Ezra  and   Nehemiah,   from   which   were   derived 
i   Esdras — a    free    redaction    of    the    former    and   2    Esdras. 
Thackeray  claims  that  we  have  "  a  satisfactory  explanation 
of  the  coincidences  in  translation  and  deviation  from  the  Hebrew 
in  i  Esdras  and  2  Esdras,  if  we  suppose  both  are  to  some  extent 
dependent  on  a  lost  Greek  original."     But  later  in  the  same 
article  Thackeray  is  compelled  to  modify  this  view  and  admit 
that  i  Esdras  is  not  a  mere  redaction  of  a  no  longer  extant 
version  of  the  canonical  books,  but  shows  not  only  an  independent 
knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  text  but  also  of  a  Hebrew  text  superior 
in  not  a  few  passages  to  the  Massoretic  text,  where  2  Esdras 
gives  either  an  inaccurate  version  or  a  version  reproducing  the 
secondary  Massoretic  text. 

3.  Others  like  Michaelis,  Trendelenburg,  Pohlmann,  Herzfeld, 
Fritzsche  hold  it  to  be  a  direct  and  independent  translation  of 
the  Hebrew.     There  is  much  to  be  said  in  favour  of  this  view. 
It  presupposes  in  reality  two  independent  recensions  of  the 
Hebrew  text,  such  as  we  cannot  reasonably  doubt  existed  at 
one  time  of  the  Book  of  Daniel.     Against  this  it  has  been  urged 
that  the  story  of  the  three  pages  was  written  originally  in  Greek 
(Ewald,  Schiirer,  Thackeray).     The  only  grounds  for  this  theory 
are  the  easiness  of  the  Greek  style  and  the  paronomasia  in 
iv.  62  aveaiv  nai  afaaiv.     But  the  former  is  no  real  objection, 
and  the  latter  may  be  purely  accidental.     On  the  other  hand 
there  are  several  undoubted  Semiticisms.     Thus  we  have  two 
instances  of  the  split  relative  oB  .  .  .  aurov  iii.  5;  ou  .  .  .  for'  avrtf 
iv.  63  and  the  phrase  pointed  out  by  Fritzsche  TO.  diKaia  iroitt 
d?ro  ir6.VTUv  =  ]D&!X'Dney.     It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that 
there  are  fewer  Hebraisms  in  this  section  of  the  book  than  in  the 
rest. 

4.  Sir  H.  H.  Howorth  in  the  treatises  referred  to  at  the  close 
of  this  article  has  shown  cogent  grounds  for  regarding  i  Esdras 
as  the  original  and  genuine  Septuagint  translation,  and  2  Esdras 
as  probably  that  of  Theodotion.     For  this  view  he  adduces 
among  others  the  following  grounds:  (i.)  Its  use  by  Josephus, 
who  apparently  was  not  acquainted  with  2  Esdras.      (ii.)  Its 
precedence  of  2  Esdras  in  the  great  uncials,     (iii.)  Its  origin  at  a 
time  when  Chronicles,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  formed  a  single  work, 
(iv.)  Its  preservation  of  a  better  Hebrew  text  in  many  instances 
than  2  Esdras.      (v.)  The  fact  that  i  Esdras  and  the  Septuagint 
of  Daniel  go  back  to  one  and  the  same  translator,  as  Dr  Gwynn 
(Diet.  Christ.  Biog.  iv.  977)  has  pointed  out  (cf.  i  Esdr.  vi.  31, 
and  Dan.  ii.  5). 

This  contention  of  Howorth  has  been  accepted  by  Nestle, 
Cheyne,  Bertholet,  Ginsburg  and  other  scholars,  though  they 
regard  the  question  of  an  Aramaic  original  of  chapters  iii.  i-v.  6 
as  doubtful.  Howorth's  further  claim  that  he  has  established 
the  historical  credibility  of  the  book  as  a  whole  and  its  chrono- 
logical accuracy  as  against  the  canonical  Ezra  has  not  as  yet 
met  with  acceptance;  but  his  arguments  have  not  been  fairly 
met  and  answered. 

5.  Volz  (Encyc.  Bibl.  ii.  1490)  thinks  that  the  solution  of  the 
problem  is  to  be  found  in  a  different  direction.     The  text  is  of 
unequal  value,  and  the  inequalities  are  so  great  as  to  exclude 
the  supposition  that  the  Greek  version  was  produced  aus  einem 
Guss.     iii.  i-v.  3  is  an  independent  narrative  written  originally  in 
Greek  and  itself  a  composite  production,  the  praise  of  truth 
being  an  addition,     vi.  i-vii.  15,  ii.  15-250  is  a  fragment  of  an 
Aramaic  narrative.     Some  in  Josephus  (Ant.  xi.  4.  9)  an  account 
of  Samaritan  intrigues  is  introduced  immediately  after  i  Esdras 
vii.  15,  it  is  natural  to  infer  that  something  of  the  same  kind 


io6 


EZRA,  4TH  BOOK  OF 


has  fallen  out  between  vi.  and  ii.  15-25.  The  Aramaic  text 
behind  i  Esdras  here  is  better  than  that  behind  the  canonical 
Ezra.  Next,  viii.-ix.  is  from  the  Ezra  document  (  =  Ezra  vii.-x.; 
Neh.  vii.  73,  viii.  i  sqq.),  though  implying  a  different  Hebrew  text. 
ii.  1-15;  v.  7-73;  vii.  2-4,  6-15  are  from  the  Chronicles:  likewise 
i.  is  from  2  Chron.  xxxv.-vi.,  2  Esdras  being  at  the  same  time 
before  the  translator. 

Date. — The  book  must  be  placed  between  300  B.C.  and  A.D.  100, 
when  it  was  used  by  Josephus.  It  is  idle  to  attempt  any  nearer 
limits  until  definite  conclusions  have  been  reached  on  the  chief 
problems  of  the  book. 

MSS.  and  Versions. — The  book  is  found  in  B  and  A.  The 
latter  seems  to  have  preserved  the  more  ancient  form  of  the 
text,  as  it  is  generally  that  followed  by  Josephus.  The  Old 
Latin  in  two  recensions  is  published  by  Sabatier,  Bibliorum 
sacrorum  Latinae  versiones  antiquae,  iii.  Another  Latin  transla- 
tion is  given  in  Lagarde  (Septuag.  Studien,  ii.,  1892).  In  Syriac 
the  text  is  found  only  in  the  Syro-Hexaplar  of  Paul  of  Telia 
(A.D.  616).  See  Walton's  Polyglott.  There  is  also  an  Ethiopic 
version  edited  by  Dillmann  (Bibl.  Vet.  Test.  Aelh.  v.,  1894) 
and  an  Armenian. 

LITERATURE. — Exegesis :  Fritzsche,  Exegel.  Handb.  zu  den  Apokr. 
(1851);  Zockler,  Die  Apokryphen,<  155-161  (1891);  Bissell  inLange- 
Schaff's  Comm.  (1880);  Lupton  in  Speaker's  Comm.  (1888);  Ball, 
notes  to  I  Esdr.  in  the  Variorum  Apocrypha.  Introduction  and 
critical  Inquiries:  Trendelenburg,  "  Apocr.  Esra,"  in  Eichhorn's 
Allgem.  Bibl.  der  bibl.  Litt.  i.  178-232  (1787);  Pohlmann,  "  Uber 
das  Ansehen  des  apokr.  dritten  Buchs  Esras,"  in  Tubingen  Theol. 
Quartalschrift,  257-275  (1859);  Sir  H.  Howorth,  "Character  and 
Importance  of  I  Esdras,"  in  the  Academy  (1893),  pp.  13,  60,  106, 
174,  326,  524;  and  further  studies  entitled  "  Some  Unconventional 
Views  on  the  Text  of  the  Bible,"  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of 
Biblical  Archaeology,  1901,  pp.  147-159;  306-330,  1902,  June  and 
November.  (R.  H.  C.) 

EZRA,  FOURTH  BOOK  (or  APOCALYPSE)  OF.  This  is  the 
most  profound  and  touching  of  the  Jewish  Apocalypses.  It 
stands  in  the  relation  of  a  sister  work  to  the  Apocalypse  of 
Baruch,  but  though  the  relation  is  so  close,  they  have  many 
points  of  divergence.  Thus,  whereas  the  former  represents  the 
ordinary  Judaism  of  the  ist  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the 
teaching  of  4  Ezra  on  the  Law,  Works,  Justification,  Original 
Sin  and  Free  Will  approximates  to  the  school  of  Shammai  and 
serves  to  explain  the  Pauline  doctrines  on  those  subjects;  but 
to  this  subject  we  shall  return. 

Original  Language  and  Versions. — In  the  Latin  version  our 
book  consists  of  sixteen  chapters,  of  which,  however,  only 
iii.-xiv.  are  found  in  the  other  versions.  To  iii.-xiv.,  accordingly, 
the  present  notice  is  confined.  After  the  example  of  most  of  the 
Latin  MSS.  we  designate  the  book  4  Ezra  (see  Bensly-James, 
Fourth  Book  of  Ezra,  pp.  xxiv-xxvii).  In  the  First  Arabic  and 
Ethiopic  versions  it  is  called  i  Ezra;  in  some  Latin  MSS.  and  in 
the  English  Authorized  Version  it  is  2  Ezra,  and  in  the  Armenian 
3  Ezra.  Chapters  i.-ii.  are  sometimes  called  3  Ezra,  and  xv.-xvi. 
5  Ezra.  All  the  versions  go  back  to  a  Greek  text.  This  is  shown 
by  the  late  Greek  apocalypse  of  Ezra  (Tischendorf,  Apocalypses 
Apocryphae,  1866,  pp.  24-33), the  author  of  which  was  acquainted 
with  the  Greek  of  4  Ezra;  also  by  quotations  from  it  in  Barn, 
iv.  4;  xii.  1=4  Ezra  xii.  10  sqq.,  v.  5;  Clem.  Alex.  Strom,  iii.  16 
(here  first  expressly  cited)  =  4  Ezra  v.  35,  &c.  (see  Bensly-James, 
op.  cit.  pp.  xxvii-xxxviii.  The  derivation  of  the  Latin  version 
from  the  Greek  is  obvious  when  we  consider  its  very  numerous 
Graecisms.  Thus  the  genitive  is  found  after  the  comparative 
(v.  13)  horum  majora;  xi.  29  duorum  capitum  majus,  even  the 
genitive  absolute  as  in  x.  9,  the  double  negative,  de  and  ex  with 
the  genitive.  Peculiar  genders  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  the 
influence  of  the  original  forms  in  Greek,  as  x.  23  signaculum 
(<r<£poyis)  .  .  .  tradita  est;  xi.  4  caput  (w^aXi?)  .  .  .  sed  el  ipsa. 
In  vi.  25  we  have  the  Greek  attraction  of  the  relative — omnibus 
islis  quibus  praedixi  tibi.  In  his  Messias  Judaeorum  (1869), 
pp.  36-110,  Hilgenfeld  has  given  a  reconstruction  of  the  Greek 
text.  Till  1896  only  Ewald  believed  that  4  Ezra  was  written 
originally  in  Hebrew.  In  that  year  Wellhausen  (Gott.  Gel.  Anz. 
pp.  12-13)  and  Charles  (Apoc.  Bar.  p.  Ixxii)  pointed  out  that 
a  Hebrew  original  must  be  assumed  on  various  grounds;  and 


this  view  the  former  established  in  his  Skizzen  u.  Vorarbeiten, 
vi.  234-240  (1899).  Of  the  numerous  grounds  for  this  assumption 
it  will  be  necessary  only  to  adduce  such  constructions  as  "  de  quo 
me  interrogas  de  eo,"  iv.  28,  and  xiii.  26,  "  qui  per  semet  ipsum 
liberabit  "  (  =  ta-iyg)=  "  through  whom  he  will  deliver,"  or  to 
point  to  such  a  mistranslation  as  vii.  33,  "  longanimitas  con- 
gregabitur,"  where  for  "  congregabitur "  ( =  ion1)  we  require 
"  evanescet,"  which  is  another  and  the  actual  meaning  of  the 
Hebrew  verb  in  this  passage.  The  same  mistranslation  is  found 
in  the  Vulgate  in  Hosea  iv.  3.  Gunkel  has  adopted  this  view 
in  his  German  translation  of  the  book  in  Kautzsch's  Apok.  und 
Pseud,  des  A.  Testaments,  ii.  332-333,  and  brought  forward  in 
confirmation  the  following  remarkable  instance  in  viii.  23, 
where  though  the  Latin,  Syriac,  Ethiopic,  Arabic  and  Armenian 
Versions  read  lestificalur,  the  Second  Arabic  version  and  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions  have  nevei  els  rov  aiS>va,  which  are  to  be 
explained  as  translations  of  (s^)  "^  n"oj>.  Another  interesting 
case  is  found  in  xiv.  3,  where  the  Latin  and  all  other  versions 
but  Arabic2  read  super  rubum  and  the  Arabic2  in  monle  Sinai. 
Here  there  is  a  corruption  of  "w  "  bush  "  into  'J'D  "  Sinai." 

Latin  Version. — All  the  older  editions  of  this  version,  as  those 
of  Fabricius,  Sabatier,  Volkmar,  Hilgenfeld,  Fritzsche,  as  well  as 
in  the  older  editions  of  the  Bible,  are  based  ultimately  on  only 
one  MS.,  the  Codex  Sangermanensis  (written  A.D.  822),  as  Gilde- 
meister  proved  in  1 865  from  the  fact  that  the  large  fragment  between 
verses  36  and  37  in  chapter  vii.,  which  is  omitted  in  all  the  above 
editions,  originated  through  the  excision  of  a  leaf  in  this  MS.  A 
splendid  edition  of  this  version  based  on  MSS.  containing  the  missing 
fragment,  which  have  been  subsequently  discovered,  has  been  pub- 
lished by  Bensly-James,  op.  cit.  This  edition  has  taken  account 
of  all  the  important  MSS.  known,  save  one  at  Leon  in  Spain. 

Syriac  Version. — This  version,  found  in  the  Ambrosian  Library 
in  Milan,  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Ceriani,  Monumenta  sacra 
et  prof  ana,  II.  ii.  pp.  99-124  (1866).  Two  years  later  this  scholar 
edited  the  Syriac  text,  op.  cit.  V.  i.  pp.  4-111,  and  in  1883  repro- 


and  correction. 

Ethiopic  Version. — First  edited  and  translated  by  Laurence, 
Primi  Ezrae  libri  versio  Aethiopica  (1820).  Laurence's  Latin 
translation  was  corrected  by  Praetorius  and  reprinted  in  Hilgen- 
feld's  Messias  Judaeorum.  In  1894  Dillmann's  text  based  on  ten 
MSS.  was  published — V.T.  Aeth. libri  apocryphi,  v.  153-193. 

Arabic  Versions. — The  First  Arabic  version  was  translated  from  a 
MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library  into  English  by  Ockley  (in  Whiston's 
Primitive  Christianity,  vol.  iv.  1711).  This  was  done  into  Latin 
and  corrected  by  Steiner  for  Hilgenfeld's  Mess.  Jud.  The  Second 
Arabic  version,  which  is  independent  of  the  first,  has  been  edited 
from  a  Vatican  MS.  and  translated  into  Latin  by  Gildemeister,  1877. 

Armenian  Version. — First  printed  in  the  Armenian  Bible  (1805). 
Translated  into  Latin  by  Petermann  for  Hilgenfeld's  Mess.  Jud.; 
next  with  Armenian  text  and  English  translation  by  Issaverdens  in 
the  Uncanonical  Writings  of  the  Old  Testament,  pp.  488  sqq.  (Venice, 
1901). 

Georgian  Version. — According  to  F.  C.  Conybeare  an  accurate 
Georgian  version  made  from  the  Greek  exists  in  an  i  ith-century  MS. 
at  Jerusalem. 

Relation  of  the  above  Versions. — These  versions  stand  in  the  order 
of  worth  as  follows:  Latin,  Syriac,  Ethiopic.  The  remaining 
versions  are  paraphrastic  and  less  accurate,  and  are  guilty  of  addi- 
tions and  omissions.  All  the  versions,  save  the  Second  Arabic  one, 
go  back  to  the  same  Greek  version.  The  Second  Arabic  version 
presupposes  a  second  Greek  version. 

Modern  Versions. — -All  the  English  versions  are  now  antiquated, 
except  those  in  the  Variorum  Apocrypha  and  the  Revised  Version 
of  the  Apocrypha,  and  even  these  are  far  from  satisfactory.  Simi- 
larly, all  the  German  versions  are  behindhand,  except  the  excellent 
version  of  Gunkel  in  Apok.  u.  Pseud,  ii.  252-401,  which,  however, 
needs  occasional  correction. 

Contents. — The  book  (iii.-xiv.)  consists  of  seven  visions  or 
parts,  like  the  apocalypse  of  Baruch.  They  are  :  (i)  iii.  i-v.  19; 
(2)  v.  20-vi.  34;  (3)  vi.  35-ix.  25;  (4)  ix.  26-x.  60;  (5)  xi.  i-xii. 
51;  (6)  xiii.;  (7)  xiv.  These  deal  with  (i)  religious  problems 
and  speculations  and  (2)  eschatological  questions.  The  first 
three  are  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  religious  problems  affecting 
in  the  main  the  individual.  The  presuppositions  underlying 
these  are  in  many  cases  the  same  as  those  in  the  Pauline  Epistles. 
The  next  three  visions  are  principally  concerned  with  eschato- 
logical problems  which  relate  to  the  nation.  The  seventh  vision 


EZRA,  4TH  BOOK  OF 


is  a  fragment  of  the  Ezra  Saga  recounting  the  rewriting  of  the 
Scriptures,  which  had  been  destroyed.  This  has  no  organic 
connexion  with  what  precedes. 

First  Vision,  iii.-v.  19. — "  In  the  thirtieth  year  after  the  ruin 
of  the  city  I  Salathiel  (the  same  is  Ezra)  was  in  Babylon  and  lay 
troubled  upon  ray  bed."  In  a  long  prayer  Ezra  asks  how  the  deso- 
lation of  Sion  and  the  prosperity  of  Babylon  can  be  in  keeping  with 
the  justice  of  God.  The  angel  Uriel  answers  that  God's  ways  are 
unsearchable  and  past  man's  understanding.  When  Ezra  asks 
when  the  end  will  be  and  what  are  the  signs  of  it,  the  angel  answers 
that  the  end  is  at  hand  and  enumerates  the  signs  of  it. 

Second  Vision,  v.  H-VJ.  34.— Phaltiel,  chief  of  the  people, 
reproaches  Ezra  for  forsaking  his  flock.  Ezra  fasts,  and  in  his 
prayer  asks  why  God  had  given  up  his  people  into  the  hands  of  the 
heathen.  Uriel  replies:  "  Lovest  thou  that  people^  better  than 
He  that  made  them?"  Man  cannot  find  out  God's  judgment. 
The  end  is  at  hand ;  its  signs  are  recounted. 

Third  Vision,  vi.  35-ix.  25. — Ezra  recounts  the  works  of  creation, 
and  asks  why  Israel  does  not  possess  the  world  since  the  world 
was  made  for  Israel.  The  answer  is  that  the  present  state  is  a 
necessary  stage  to  the  coming  one.  Then  follows  an  account  of 
the  Messianic  age  and  the  resurrection:  the  punishment  of  the 
wicked  and  the  blessings  of  the  righteous.  There  can  be  no  intar- 
cession  for  the  departed.  Few  will  be  saved— only  as  it  were  a 
grape  out  of  a  cluster  or  a  plant  out  of  a  forest. 

Fourth  Vision,  ix.  26^x.  60. — Ezra  eats  of  herbs  in  the  held  ol 
Ardat,  and  sees  in  a  vision  a  woman  mourning  for  her  only  son. 
Ezra  reminds  her  of  the  greater  desolation  of  Sion.  Suddenly  she 
is  transfigured  and  vanishes,  and  in  her  place  appears  a  city.  The 
woman,  Uriel  explains,  represents  Sion. 

Fifth  Vision,  xi.  i-xii.  39.— Vision  of  an  eagle  with  three  heads, 
twelve  wings  and  eight  winglets,  which  is  rebuked  by  a  lion  and 
destroyed.  The  eagle  is  the  fourth  kingdom  seen  by  Daniel,  and 
the  lion  is  the  Messiah. 

Sixth  Vision,  xiii. — Vision  of  a  man  (i.e.  the  Messiah)  arising 
from  the  sea,  who  destroys  his  enemies  who  assemble  against  him, 
and  gathers  to  him  another  multitude,  i.e.  the  lost  Ten  Tribes. 

Seventh  Vision,  xiv. — Ezra  is  told  of  his  approaching  translation. 
He  asks  for  the  restoration  of  the  Law,  and  is  enabled  by  God  to 
dictate  in  forty  days  ninety-four  books  (the  twenty-four  canonical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  that  were  lost,  and  seventy  secret  books 
for  the  wise  among  the  people). 

Ezra's  translation  is  found  in  the  Canon  only  in  the  Oriental 
Versions.  In  the  Latin  it  was  omitted  when  xv.-xvi.  were  added. 

Integrity.— According  to  Gunkel  (Apok.  u.  Pseud,,  ii.  33S-352) 
the  whole  book  is  the  work  of  one  writer.  Thus  down  to  vii. 
1 6  he  deals  with  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  suffering  in  the 
world,  and  from  vii.  17  to  ix.  25  with  the  question  who  is  worthy 
to  share  in  the  blessedness  of  the  next  world.  As  regards  the 
first  problem  the  writer  shows,  in  the  first  vision,  that  suffering 
and  death  come  from  sin— no  less  truly  on  the  part  of  Israel 
than  of  all  men,  for  God  created  man  to  be  immortal;  that  the 
end  is  nigh,  when  wrongs  will  be  righted;  God's  rule  will  then 
be  recognized.  In  the  second  he  emphasizes  the  consolation  to 
be  found  in  the  coming  time,  and  in  the  third  he  speaks  solely  of 
the  next  world,  and  then  addresses  himself  to  the  second  problem. 
The  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  visions  are  eschatological.  In  these 
the  writer  turns  aside  from  the  religious  problems  of  the  first 
three  visions  and  concerns  himself  only  with  the  future  national 
supremacy  of  Israel.  Zion's  glory  will  certainly  be  revealed 
(vision  four),  Israel  will  destroy  Rome  (five)  and  the  hostile 
Gentiles  (six).  Then  the  book  is  brought  to  a  close  with  the 
legend  of  Ezra's  restoration  of  the  lost  Old  Testament  Scriptures. 

In  the  course  of  the  above  work  there  are  many  inconsistencies 
and  contradictions.  These  Gunkel  explains  by  admitting  that 
the  writer  has  drawn  largely  on  tradition,  both  oral  and  written, 
for  his  materials.  Thus  he  concedes  that  eschatological  materials 
in  v.  1-13,  vi.  18-28,  vii.  26  sqq.,  also  ix.  i  sqq.,  are  from  this 
source,  and  apparently  from  an  originally  independent  work,  as 
Kabisch  urges,  but  that  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  separate  the 
borrowed  elements  from  the  text.  Again,  in  the  four  last  visions 
he  is  obliged  to  make  the  same  concession  on  a  very  large  scale 
Vision  four  is  based  on  a  current  novel,  which  the  author  has 
taken  up  and  put  into  an  allegorical  form.  Visions  five  and  six 
are  drawn  from  oral  or  written  tradition,  and  relate  only  to  the 
political  expectations  of  Israel,  and  seven  is  a  reproduction  of  a 
legend,  for  the  independent  existence  of  which  evidence  is 
furnished  by  the  quotations  in  Bensly-James  pp.  xxxvii-xxxviii 


107 

Thus  the  chief  champion  of  the  unity  of  the  book  makes  so 
many  concessions  as  to  its  dependence  on  previously  existing 
sources  that,  to  the  student  of  eschatology,  there  is  little  to 
choose  between  his  view  and  that  of  Kabisch.  In  fact,  if  the 
rue  meaning  of  the  borrowed  materials  is  to  be  discovered,  the 
sources  must  be  disentangled.  Hence  the  need  of  some  such 
analysis  as  that  of  Kabisch  (Das  vierte  Buck  Ezra,  1889):  S  =  an 
Apocalypse  of  Salathiel,  c.  A.D.  100,  preserved  in  a  fragmentary 
condition,  iii.  1-31,  iv.  1-51,  v.  i3&-vi.  10,  3O-vii.  25,  vii.  45-viii. 
62,  ix.  i3-x.  57,  xii.  40-48,  xiv.  28-35.  E  =  an  Ezra  Apocalypse, 
c.  31  B.C.,  iv.  52-v.  130,  vi.  13-28,  vii.  26-44,  viii.  63-ix.  12. 
A  =  an  Eagle  Vision,  c.  A.D.  90,  x.  6o-xii.  35.  M  =  a  Son-of-Man 
Vision,  xiii.  E2  =  an  Ezra  fragment,  c.  A.D.  100,  xiv.  1-170, 
18-27,  36-47.  All  these,  according  to  Kabisch,  were  edited  by  a 
Zealot,  c.  120,  who  supplied  the  connecting  links  and  made 
many  small  additions.  In  the  main  this  analysis  is  excellent. 
[f  we  assume  that  the  editor  was  also  the  author  of  S,  and  that 
such  a  vigorous  stylist,  as  he  shows  himself  to  be,  recast  to  some 
extent  the  materials  he  borrowed,  there  remains  but  slight 
difference  between  the  views  of  Kabisch  and  Gunkel.  Neither 
view,  however,  is  quite  satisfactory,  and  the  problem  still  awaits 
solution.  Other  attempts,  such  as  Ewald's  (Gesch.  d.  Volkes 
Israel3,  vii.  69-83)  and  De  Faye's  (Apocalypses  juries,  155-165), 
make  no  contribution. 

School  of  the  Author.— The  author  or  final  redactor  of  the  book 
was  a  pessimist,  and  herein  his  book  stands  in  strong  contrast 
with  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch.  Thus  to  the  question  pro- 
pounded in  the  New  Testament— "Are  there  few  that  be  saved?  " 
he  has  no  hesitation  in  answering,  "  There  be  many  created,  but 
few  that  be  saved  "  (viii.  3):  "  An  evil  heart  hath  grown  up  in 
us  which  hath  led  us  astray  .  .  .  and  that  not  a  few  only  but 
wellnigh  all  that  have  been  created  "  (vii.  48) .  In  the  Apocalypse 
of  Baruch  on  the  other  hand  it  is  definitely  maintained  that  not 
a  few  shall  be  saved  (xxi.  n).  Moreover,  the  sufferings  of  the 
wicked  are  so  great  in  the  next  world  it  were  better,  according 
to  4  Ezra  (as  also  to  the  school  of  Shammai),  that  man  had  not 
been  born.  "  It  is  much  better  (for  the  beasts  of  the  field)  than 
for  us;  for  they  expect  not  a  judgment  and  know  not  of 
torments  "  (vii.  66):  yet  "  it  would  have  been  best  not  to  have 
given  a  body  to  Adam,  or  that  being  done,  to  have  restrained 
him  from  sin;  for  what  profit  is  there  that  man  should  in  the 
present  life  live  in  heaviness  and  after  death  look  for  punishment" 
(vii.  1 1 6,  117).  In  iv.  12  the  nexus  of  life,  sin  and  suffering  just 
referred  to,  is  put  still  more  strongly:  "  It  were  better  we  had 
not  been  at  all  than  that  we  should  be  born  and  sin  and  suffer."1 
The  different  attitude  of  these  two  writers  towards  this  question 
springs  from  their  respective  views  on  the  question  of  free  will. 
The  author  of  Baruch  declares  (iv.  15,  19):  "  For  though  Adam 
sinned  and  brought  untimely  death  upon  all,  yet  of  those  who 
were  born  from  him  each  one  of  them  prepared  for  his  own  soul 
torment  to  come,  and  again  each  one  of  them  has  chosen  for 
himself  glories  to  come  .  .  .  each  one  of  us  has  been  the  Adam 
of  his  own  soul."  Though  the  writer  of  Ezra  would  admit  the 
possibility  of  a  few  Israelites  attaining  to  salvation  through  the 
most  strenuous  endeavour,  yet  he  holds  that  man  is  all  but 
predoomed  through  his  original  evil  disposition  or  through  the 
fall  of  Adam  (vii.  118).  "  O  Adam,  what  hast  thou  done:  for 
though  it  was  thou  that  sinned,  the  evil  is  not  fallen  on  thee 
alone,  but  upon  all  of  us  that  come  of  thee." 

Another  contrast  between  the  two  books  is  that  while  Baruch 
shows  some  mercy  to  the  Gentiles  (Ixxii.  4-6)  in  the  Messianic 
period,  none  according  to  4  Ezra  and  the  Shammaites  (Toseph. 
Sank.  xiii.  2)  will  be  extended  to  them,  iii.  30,  ix.  22  sq.,  xii.  34, 
xiii.  37  sq.). 

On  the  above  grounds  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  conclude  that 
whereas  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch  owes  its  leading  character- 
istics to  a  pupil  of  HillePs  school,  4  Ezra  shows  just  as  clearly 
its  derivation  from  that  of  Shammai.  Kohler  (Jewish  Encyc. 

1  In  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  x.  6,  we  find  a  similar  expression : 
"  Blessed  is  he  who  was  not  born,  or  being  born  has  died, 
here  death  is  said  to  be  preferable  to  witnessing  the  present  woe 
Jerusalem. 


io8 


EZRA  AND  NEHEMIAH 


v.  221)  points  out  that  the  view  of  4  Ezra  that  the  Ten 
Tribes  will  return  was  held  by  the  Shammaites,  whereas  it  was 
denied  by  Aqiba.  The  Apocalypse  of  Baruch  is  silent  on  this 

point. 

Time  and  Place.— The  work  was  written  towards  the  close  of 
the  ist  century  (iii.  i,  29),  and  somewhere  in  the  east. 

LITERATURE. — In  addition  to  the  authorities  mentioned  above, 
see  Dillmann,  Herzog's  Real-Encyk."  xii.  353  sqq.;  Schiirer, Gescfi. 
des  iiid.  Volkes 3,  iii.  246  sqq. ;  and  the  articles  on  4  Lsdras  in 
Hastings'  Bible  Dictionary undtheEncydopaediaBiblicaby Thackeray 
and  James  respectively.  '("••  "••  *»J 

EZRA  AND  NEHEMIAH,  BOOKS  OF,  in  the  Old  Testament. 
The  two  canonical  books  entitled  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  in  the 
English  Bibie1  correspond  to  the  i  and  2  Esdras  of  the  Vulgate, 
to  the  2  Esdras  of  the  Septuagint,  and  to  the  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  of  the  Massoretic  (Hebrew)  text.  Though  for  many 
centuries  they  have  thus  been  treated  as  separate  compositions, 
we  have  abundant  evidence  that  they  were  anciently  regarded  as 
forming  but  one  book,  and  a  careful  examination  proves  that 
together  with  the  book  of  Chronicles  they  constitute  one  single 
work.  The  two  books  may  therefore  be  conveniently  treated 
together. 

•  |  i.  Position  and  Date.—Origen  (Euseb,  H.E.vi.  25),  expressly 
enumerating  the  twenty-two  books  of  the  old  covenant  as 
acknowledged  by  the  Jews  and  accepted  by  the  Christian  church, 
names  "  the  First  and  Second  Ezra  in  one  book  ";  Melito  of 
Sardis  (Euseb.  H.E.  iv.  26)  in  like  manner  mentions  the  book 
of  Ezra  only.  So  also  the  Talmud  (in  Baba  balhrd,  14.  2),  nor 
can  it  be  supposed  that  Josephus  in  his  enumeration  (c.  A  p. 
i.  8)  reckoned  Nehemiah  as  apart  from  Ezra.  That  the  Jews 
themselves  recognized  no  real  separation  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  no  Massoretic  notes  are  found  after  Ezra  x.,  but  at  the  end 
of  Nehemiah  the  contents  of  both  are  reckoned  together,  and  it 
is  stated  that  Neh.  iii.  22  is  the  middle  verse  of  the  book.  Their 
position  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  before  the  book  of  Chronicles 
is,  however,  illogical.  The  introductory  verses  of  Ezra  i.  are 
identical  with  the  conclusion  of  2  Chron.  xxxvi.,  whilst  in  the 
version  of  i  Esdras  no  less  than  two  chapters  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  sq.) 
overlap.  The  cause  of  the  separation  is  probably  to  be  found 
in  the  late  reception  of  Chronicles  into  the  Jewish  canon.  Further 
proof  of  the  unity  of  the  three  is  to  be  found  in  the  general  simi- 
larity of  style  and  treatment.  The  same  linguistic  criteria  recur, 
and  the  interest  in  lists  and  genealogies,  in  priests  and  Levites, 
and  in  the  temple  service  point  unmistakably  to  the  presence 
of  the  same  hand  (the  so-called  "  chronicler  ")  in  Chronicles- 
Ezra-Nehemiah.  See  BIBLE  (sect.  Canon) ;  CHRONICLES. 

The  period  of  history  covered  by  the  books  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  extends  from  the  return  of  the  exiles  under  Zerubbabel 
in  537-536  B.C.  to  Nehemiah's  second  visit  to  Jerusalem  in  432 
B.C.  In  their  present  form,  however,  the  books  are  considerably 
later,  and  allusions  to  Nehemiah  in  the  past  (Neh.  xii.  26,  47), 
to  the  days  of  Jaddua  (the  grandson  of  Nehemiah's  contem- 
porary Joiada;  ib.  xii.  n),  to  Darius  (Nothus  423  B.C.  or  rather 
Codomannus  336  B.C.,  ib.  v.  22),  and  the  use  of  the  term  "  king 
of  Persia,"  as  a  distinctive  title  after  the  fall  of  that  empire 
(332  B.C.),  are  enough  to  show  that,  as  a  whole,  they  belong  to 
the  same  age  as  the  book  of  Chronicles. 

2.  Contents. — Their  contents  may  be  divided  into  four  parts: — 
(a)  The  events  preceding  the  mission  of  Ezra  (i.-vi.). — In  the 
first  year  of  his  reign  Cyrus  was  inspired  to  grant  a  decree  per- 
mitting the  Jews  to  return  to  build  the  temple  in  Jerusalem 
(i.);  a  list  of  families  is  given  (ii.).  The  altar  of  burnt-offering 
was  set  up,  and  in  the  second  year  of  the  return  the  foundations 
of  the  new  temple  were  laid  .with  great  solemnity  (iii.).  The 
"  adversaries  of  Judah  and  'Benjamin  "  offered  to  assist  but 
were  repulsed,  and  they  raised  such  opposition  to  the  progress 
of  the  work  that  it  ceased  until  the  second  year  of  Darius  (521- 
520  B.C.).  Aroused  by  the  prophets  Haggai  and  Zechariah  the 
building  was  then  resumed,  and  despite  fresh  attempts  to 
hinder  the  work  it  was  completed,  consecrated  and  dedicated 

1  References  to  I  Esdras  in  this  article  are  to  the  book  discussed 
above  as  Ezra,  THIRD  BOOK  OF. 


in  the  sixth  year  of  that  king  (vi.).  The  event  was  solemnized 
by  the  celebration  of  the  Passover  (cf.  2  Chron.  xxx.,  Hezekiah; 
xxxv.  Josiah). 

(6)  An  interval  of  fifty-eight  years  is  passed  over  in  silence, 
and  the  rest  of  the  book  of  Ezra  comprises  his  account  of  his 
mission  to  Jerusalem  (vii. -x.).  Ezra,  a  scribe  of  repute,  well 
versed  in  the  laws  of  Moses,  returns  with  a  band  of  exiles  in 
order  to  reorganize  the  religious  community.  A  few  months 
after  his  arrival  (seventh  year  of  Artaxerxes,  458  B.C.)  he  insti- 
tuted a  great  religious  reform,  viz.  the  prohibition  of  inter- 
marriage with  the  heathen  of  the  land  (cf.  already  vi.  21). 
In  spite  of  some  opposition  (x.  15  obscurely  worded)  the  reform 
was  accepted,  and  the  foundations  of  a  new  community  were 
laid. 

(c)  Twelve  years  elapse  before  the  return  of  Nehemiah,  whose 
description  of  his  work  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  pieces  of 
Old  Testament  narrative  (Neh.  i.-vi.).  In  the  twentieth  year  of 
Artaxerxes  (445  B.C.),  Nehemiah  the  royal  cup-bearer  at  Shushan 
(Susa,  the  royal  winter  palace)  was  visited  by  friends  from  Judah 
and  was  overcome  with  grief  at  the  tidings  of  the  miserable  con- 
dition of  Jerusalem  and  the  pitiful  state  of  the  Judaean  remnant 
which  had  escaped  the  captivity.  He  obtained  permission  to 
return,  and  on  reaching  the  city  made  a  secret  survey  of  the  ruins 
and  called  upon  the  nobles  and  rulers  to  assist  in  repairing  them. 
Much  opposition  was  caused  by  Sanballat  the  Horonite  (i.e.  of 
the  Moabite  Horonaim  or  Beth-horon,  about  15  m.  N.W.  of 
Jerusalem),  Tobiah  the  Ammonite,  Geshem  (or  Gashmu)  the 
Arabian,  and  the  Ashdodites,  whose  virulence  increased  as  the 
rebuilding  of  the  walls  continued.  But  notwithstanding  attempts ' 
upon  the  city  and  upon  the  life  of  Nehemiah,  and  in  spite  of 
intrigues  among  certain  members  of  the  Judaean  section,  in 
fifty- two  days  the  city  walls  were  complete  (Neh.  vi.  15).  The 
hostility,  however,  did  not  cease,  and  measures  were  taken  to 
ensure  the  safety  of  the  city  (vi.  i6-vii.  4).  A  valuable  account 
is  given  of  Nehemiah's  economical  reforms,  illustrating  the 
internal  social  conditions  of  the  period  and  the  general  character 
of  the  former  governors  who  had  been  placed  in  charge  (v.,  cf. 
the  laws  codified  in  Lev.  xxv.  35  sqq.). 

(d)  The  remaining  chapters  carry  on  the  story  of  the  labours 
of  both  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  The  list  of  those  who  returned 
under  the  decree  of  Cyrus  is  repeated  (Neh.  vii.),  and  leads  up  to 
the  reading  of  the  Law  by  Ezra,  a  great  national  confession  of 
guilt,  and  a  solemn  undertaking  to  observe  the  new  covenant,  the 
provisions  of  which  are  detailed  (x.  28-39)  •  After  sundry  lists  of 
the  families  dwelling  in  Jerusalem  and  its  neighbourhood  (xi.  i 
sqq.,  apparently  a  sequel  to  vii.  1-4),*  and  of  various  priests  and 
Levites,  an  account  is  given  of  the  dedication  of  the  walls  (xii. 
27-43),  the  arrangements  for  the  Levitical  organization  (w.  44- 
47),  and  a  fresh  separation  from  the  heathen  (Moabites  and 
Ammonites,  xiii.  1-3;  cf.  Deut.  xxiii.  3  seq.).  The  book  concludes 
with  another  extract  from  Nehemiah's  memoirs  dealing  with 
the  events  of  a  second  visit,  twelve  years  later  (xiii.  4-31).  On 
this  occasion  he  vindicated  the  sanctity  of  the  temple  by 
expelling  Tobiah,  reorganized  the  supplies  for  the  Levites,  took 
measures  to  uphold  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  and  pro- 
tested energetically  against  the  foreign  marriages.  In  the  course 
of  his  reforms  he  thrust  out  a  son  of  Joiada  (son  of  Eliashib, 
the  high-priest),  who  had  married  the  daughter  of  Sanballat,  an 
incident  which  had  an  important  result  (see  SAMARITANS). 

That  these  books  are  the  result  of  compilation  (like  the  book 
of  Chronicles  itself)  is  evident  from  the  many  abrupt  changes; 
the  inclusion  of  certain  documents  written  in  an  Aramaic  dialect 
(Ezr.  iv.  8-vi.  18,  vii.  12-26)';  the  character  of  the  name-lists; 
the  lengthy  gaps  in  the  history;  the  use  made  of  two  distinct 
sources,  attributed  to  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  respectively,  and 
from  the  varying  form  in  which  the  narratives  are  cast.  The 

2  With  Neh.  xi.  4-19  cf.  I  Chron.  ix.  3-17;  with  the  list  xii.  1-7  cf. 
w.  12-21  and  x  3-9;  and  with  xii.  10  sq.  cf.  i  Chron.  vi.  3-15  (to 
which  it  forms  the  sequel).  See  further  Smend,  Listen  d.  Esra  u. 
Neh.  (1881). 

'Sometimes  wrongly  styled  Chaldee  (q.v.);  see  SEMITIC  LAN- 
GUAGES. 


EZRA  AND  NEHEMIAH 


109 


chronicler's  hand  can  usually  be  readily  recognized.  There 
are  relatively  few  traces  of  it  in  Nehemiah's  memoirs  and  in 
the  Aramaic  documents,  but  elsewhere  the  sources  are  largely 
coloured,  if  not  written  from  the  standpoint  of  his  age.  Ex- 
amples of  artificial  arrangement  appear  notably  in  Ezr.  ii.-iii.  i 
compared  with  Neh.  vii.  6-viii.  i  (first  clause);  in  the  present 
position  of  Ezr.  iv.  6-23;  and  in  the  dislocation  of  certain 
portions  of  the  two  memoirs  in  Neh.  viii.-xiii.  (see  below).  It 
should  be  noticed  that  the  present  order  of  the  narratives  involves 
the  theory  that  some  catastrophe  ensued  after  Ezr.  x.  and  before 
Neh.  i.;  that  the  walls  had  been  destroyed  and  the  gates  burnt 
down;  that  some  external  opposition  (with  which,  however,  Ezra 
did  not  have  to  contend)  had  been  successful;  that  the  main 
object  of  Ezra's  mission  was  delayed  for  twelve  years,  and, 
finally,  that  only  through  Nehemiah's  energy  was  the  work  of 
social  and  religious  reorganization  successful.  These  topics 
raise  serious  historical  problems  (see  JEWS:  History,  §  21). 

3.  Criticism  of  Ezra  i.-vi. — The  chronicler's  account  of  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  seventy  years'  interval  (2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  20  sq.;  cf.  Jer.  xxv.  n,  xxix.  10,  also  Is.  xxiii.  17),  and  the 
return  of  42,360  of  the  exiles  (Ezr.  ii.  64  sqq.)  represent  a 
special  view  of  the  history  of  the  period.  The  totals,  as  also  the 
detailed  figures,  in  Ezr.,  Neh.  and  i  Esdr.  v.  vary  considerably; 
the  number  is  extremely  large  (contrast  Jer.  lii.  30);  it  includes 
the  common  people  (contrast  2  Kings  xxiv.  14,  xxv.  12),  and 
ignores  the  fact  that  Judah  was  not  depopulated,  that  the  Jews 
were  carried  off  to  other  places  besides  Babylon  and  that  many 
remained  behind  in  Babylon.  According  to  this  view,  Judah 
and  Jerusalem  were  practically  deserted  until  the  return.  The 
list  in  Ezr.  ii.  is  that  of  families  which  returned  "  every  man  unto 
his  city  "  under  twelve  leaders  (including  Nehemiah,  Azariah 
[cf.  Ezra],  Zerubbabel  and  Jeshua);  it  recurs  with  many  varia- 
tions in  a  different  and  apparently  more  original  context  in  Neh. 
vii.,  and  in  i  Esdr.  v.  is  ascribed  to  the  time  of  Darius.  The 
families  (to  judge  from  the  northwards  extension  of  Judaean 
territory)  are  probably  those  of  the  population  in  the  later 
Persian  period,  hardly  those  who  returned  to  the  precise  homes 
of  their  ancestors  (see  C.  F.  Kent,  Israel's  Hist,  and  Biogr. 
Narratives,  p.  379).  The  offerings  which  are  for  the  temple- 
service  in  Neh.  vii.  70-72  (cf.  i  Chron.  xxix.  6-8)  are  for  the 
building  of  the  temple  in  Ezr.  ii.  68-70;  and  since  the  walls  are 
not  yet  built,  the  topographical  details  in  Neh.  viii.  i  (see  i  Esdr. 
v.  47)  are  adjusted,  and  the  event  of  the  seventh  month  is  not  the 
reading  of  the  Law  amid  the  laments  of  the  people  (Neh.  viii.; 
see  nil.  9-11)  but  the  erection  of  the  altar  by  Jeshua  and  Zerub- 
babel under  inauspicious  circumstances  (cf.  Ezr.  iii.  3  with  i 
Esdr.  v.  50). 

The  chronologically  misplaced  account  of  the  successful  opposi- 
tion in  the  time  of  Ahasuerus  (i.e.  Xerxes)  and  Artaxerxes  (the 
son  and  grandson  of  Darius  respectively)  breaks  the  account  of 
the  temple  under  Cyrus  and  Darius,  and  is  concerned  with  the 
city  walls  (iv.  6-23)';  there  is  some  obscurity  in  w.  7-9:  Rehum 
and  Shimshai  evidently  take  the  lead,  Tabeel  may  be  an  Aram- 
aized  equivalent  of  Tobiah.  A  recent  return  is  implied  (iv.  12) 
and  the  record  hints  that  a  new  decree  may  be  made  (».  21). 
The  account  of  the  unsuccessful  opposition  to  the  temple  in  the 
time  of  Darius  (v.  sq.;  for  another  account  see  Jos.  Ant.  xi.  4,  9) 
is  independent  of  iv.  7-23,  and  throws  another  light  upon  the 
decree  of  Cyrus  (vi.  3-5,  contrast  i.  2-4).  It  implies  that  Shesh- 
bazzar,  who  had  been  sent  with  the  temple  vessels  in  the  time  of 
Cyrus,  had  laid  the  foundations  and  that  the  work  had  continued 
without  cessation  (v.  16,  contrast  iv.  5,  24).  The  beginning  of 
the  reply  of  Darius  is  wanting  (vi.  6  sqq.),  and  the  decree  which 
had  been  sought  in  Babylon  is  found  at  Ecbatana.  Chap.  vi.  15 

1  Its  real  position  in  the  history  of  this  period  is  not  certain. 
Against  the  supposition  that  the  names  refer  to  Cambyses  and 
Pseudo-Smerdis  who  reigned  after  Cyrus  and  before  Darius,  see 
H.  E.  Ryle,  Camb.  Bible,  "  Ezra  and  Neh.,"  p.  65  sq.  Against  the 
view  that  Darius  is  D.  ii.  Nothus  of  423-404  B.C.,  see  G.  A.  Smith, 
Minor  Prophets,  ii.  191  sqq.  The  ignorance  of  the  compiler  regarding 
the  sequence  of  the  kings  finds  a  parallel  in  that  of  the  author  of  the 
book  of  Daniel  (q.v.) ;  see  C.  C.  Torrey,  Amer.  Journ.  of  Sent.  Lang. 
(1907),  P-  178,  n.  i. 


sqq.  follow  more  naturally  upon  v.  1-2,  but  v.  14  with  its  difficult 
reference  to  Artaxerxes  now  seems  to  presuppose  the  decree  in 
iv.  21  and  looks  forward  to  the  time  of  Ezra  or  Nehemiah.  As 
regards  this  section  (Ezr.  i.-vi.)  as  a  whole,  there  is  little  doubt 
that  i.  iii.  i-iv.  5,  vi.  15-22  are  from  the  chronicler,  whose  free 
treatment  of  his  material  is  seen  in  the  use  he  has  made  of  ch.  ii. 
Notwithstanding  the  unimpeachable  evidence  for  the  tolerant 
attitude  of  Persian  kings  and  governors  towards  the  religion  of 
subject  races,  it  is  probable  that  the  various  decrees  incorporated 
in  the  book  (cf.  also  i  Esdr.  iv.  42  sqq.)  have  been  reshaped  from 
a  Jewish  standpoint.  A  noteworthy  example  appears  in  the 
account  of  the  unique  powers  entrusted  to  Ezra  (vii.  11-26),  the 
introduction  to  whose  memoirs,  at  all  events,  is  quite  in  the  style 
of  the  chronicler. 

4.  Memoirs  of  Nehemiah  and  Ezra. — The  memoirs  of  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  do  not  appear  to  have  been  incorporated  without 
some  adjustment.  The  lapse  of  time  between  Neh.  i.  i  and  ii.  i 
is  noteworthy,  and  with  the  prayer  in  i.  5-11  cf.  Ezr.  ix.  6-15, 
Dan.  ix.  4  sqq.  (also  parallels  in  Deuteronomy);  chap.  i.  in  its 
present  form  may  be  a  compiler's  introduction.  The  important 
topographical  list  in  ch.  iii.  is  probably  from  another  source; 
the  style  is  different,  Nehemiah  is  absent,  and  the  high-priest 
is  unusually  prominent.2  Chap,  v.,  where  Nehemiah  reviews  his 
past  conduct  as  governor,  turns  aside  to  economic  reforms  and 
scarcely  falls  within  the  fifty-two  days  of  the  building  of  the 
walls.  The  chapter  is  closely  associated  with  the  contents  of 
xiii.  and  breaks  the  account  of  the  opposition.  Anticipated 
already  in  ii.  10,  the  hostility  partly  arises  from  the  repudiation 
of  Samaritan  religious  claims  (ii.  20;  cf.  Ezr.  iv.  3)  and  is  partly 
political.  It  is  difficult  to  follow  its  progrees  clearly,  and  the 
account  ceases  abruptly  in  vi.  17-19  with  the  notice  of  the 
conspiracy  of  Tobiah  and  the  nobles  of  Judah.  The  chronicler's 
style  can  be  recognized  in  vii..  1-5  (in  its  present  form),  where 
steps  are  taken  to  protect  and  to  people  Jerusalem;  the  older 
sequel  is  now  found  in  ch.  xi.  Whilst  the  account  of  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  walls  is  marked  by  the  use  of  the  pronoun  "  I  " 
(xii.  31, 38, 40),  it  is  probably  now  due  as  a  whole  to  the  chronicler, 
and  when  the  more  trustworthy  memoirs  of  Nehemiah  are 
resumed  (xiii.  4  sqq.)  the  episodes,  although  placed  twelve 
years  later  (ver.  6),  are  intimately  connected  with  the  preceding 
reforms  (cf.  xii.  44-xiii.  3  with  xiii.  10  sqq.,  23  sqq.).3  Nehemiah's 
attitude  towards  intermarriage  is  markedly  moderate  in  contrast 
to  the  drastic  measures  of  Ezra,  whose  mission  and  work  the 
simpler  and  perhaps  earlier  narratives  of  Nehemiah  originally 
ignored,  and  the  relation  between  the  two  is  complicated  further 
by  the  literary  character  of  the  memoir  of  Ezra. 

To  the  last  mentioned  are  prefixed  (a)  the  scribe's  genealogy, 
which  traces  him  back  to  Aaron  and  names  as  his  immediate 
ancestor,  Seraiah,  who  had  been  slain  130  years  previously 
(Ezr.  vii.  1-5),  and  (6)  an  independent  account  of  the  return 
(OT.  6-10)  with  a  reference  to  Ezra's  renown,  obviously  not 
from  the  hand  of  Ezra  himself.  Whatever  the  original  prelude 
to  Ezra's  thanksgiving  may  have  been  (vii.  27  seq.),  we  now 
have  the  essentially  Jewish  account  of  the  letter  of  Artaxerxes 
with  its  unusual  concessions.4  The  list  of  those  who  returned 
amounts  to  the  moderate  total  of  1496  males  (viii.,  but  1690  in 
i  Esdr.  viii.  30  sqq.).  Ezra's  mission  was  obviously  concerned 
with  the  Law  and  Temple  service  (vii.  6,  10,  14  sqq.,  25;  viii.  17, 
24-30,  33  sq.),  but  four  months  elapse  between  his  return  in  the 
fifth  month  (vii.  9)  and  the  preparations  for  the  marriage  reforms 
in  the  ninth  (x.  9),  and  there  is  a  delay  of  twelve  years  before  the 
Law  is  read  (Neh.  viii.).  The  Septuagint  version  (i  Esdr.  ix.;  cf. 
Josephus,  Antiq.  xi.  5.  5  and  some  modern  scholars)  would  place 

2  See  further  H.  G.  Mitchell,  Journ.  of  Bibl.  Lit.  (1903),  pp.  88  sqq. 
The  chronological  difficulties  will  be  seen  from  xiii.  6  ("  before 
this  "),  which  would  imply  that  the  dedication  of  the  walls  was  on 
the  occasion  of  Nehemiah's  later  visit  (see  G.  A.  Smith,  Expositor, 
July  1906,  p.  12).  His  previous  departure  is  perhaps  foreshadowed 
in  vii.  2. 

4  See  Ency.  Bib.  col.  1480.  Papyri  from  a  Jewish  colony  in 
Elephantine  (407  B.C.)  clearly  show  the  form  which  royal  permits 
could  take,  and  what  the  Jews  were  prepared  to  give  in  return;  the 
points  of  resemblance  are  extremely  interesting,  but  compared  with 
the  biblical  documents  the  papyri  reveal  some  striking  differences. 


no 


EZZO— EZZOLIED 


the  latter  after  Ezr.  x.,  but  more  probably  this  event  (dated  in 
the  seventh  month)  should  precede  the  great  undertaking  in 
Ezr.  ix.1  That  the  adjustment  was  attended  with  considerable 
revision  of  the  passages  appears  from  a  careful  comparison  of 
Neh.  viii.  sq.  with  Ezr.  ix.  sq.  With  Ezra's  confession  (ix.  6  sqq.) 
compare  the  prayer  in  Neh.  ix.  5  sqq.,  which  the  Septuagint 
ascribes  to  him.  In  Ezr.  x.  (written  in  the  third  person)  the 
number  of  those  that  had  intermarried  with  the  heathen  is 
relatively  small  considering  the  general  trend  of  the  preliminaries, 
and  the  list  bears  a  marked  resemblance  to  that  in  ch.  ii.  It 
ends  abruptly  and  obscurely  (x.  44;  cf.  i  Esdr.  ix.  36),  and  whilst 
as  a  whole  the  memoirs  of  Ezra  point  to  ideas  later  than  those  of 
Nehemiah,  the  present  close  literary  connexion  between  them 
is  seen  in  the  isolated  reference  to  Johanan  the  son  of  Eliashib 
in  Ezra  x.  6,  which  seems  to  be  connected  with  Neh.  xiii.  7,  and 
(after  W.  R.  Smith)  in  the  suitability  of  ib.  xiii.  i,  2  between 
Ezr.  x.  9  and  10.  The  list  of  signatories  in  Neh.  x.  1-27  should 
be  compared  with  the  names  in  xii.  and  i  Chron.  xxiv. ;  the  true 
connexion  of  ix.  38  is  very  obscure,  and  the  relation  to  Ezr.  ix. 
seq.  is  complicated  by  the  reference  to  the  separation  from  the 
heathen  in  Neh.  ix.  2.  The  description  of  the  covenant  (Neh.  x. 
28  sqq.,  marked  by  the  use  of  "  we  ")  is  closely  connected  with 
xii.  43-xiii.  3  (from  the  same  or  an  allied  source),  and  anticipates 
the  parallel  though  somewhat  preliminary  measures  detailed 
in  the  more  genuine  memoirs  (Neh.  xiii.  4  sqq.)-  Finally,  the 
specific  allusion  in  xiii.  1-3  to  Ammon  and  Moab  is  possibly 
intended  as  an  introduction  to  the  references  to  Tobiah  and 
Sanballat  respectively  (w.  4  seq.,  28). 

5.  Summary. — The  literary  and  historical  criticism  of  Ezra- 
Nehemiah  is  closely  bound  up  with  that  of  Chronicles,  whose 
characteristic  features  it  shares.  Although  the  three  formed 
a  unit  at  one  stage  it  may  seem  doubtful  whether  two  so  closely 
related  chapters  as  i  Chron.  ix.  and  Neh.  xi.  would  have  appeared 
in  one  single  work,  while  the  repetition  of  Neh.  vii.  6-viii.  i  in 
Ezr.  ii.-iii.  i  is  less  unnatural  if  they  had  originally  appeared  in 
distinct  sources.  Thus  other  hands  apart  from  the  compiler  of 
Chronicles  may  have  helped  to  shape  the  narratives,  either 
before  their  union  with  that  book  or  after  their  separation.2 
The  present  intricacy  is  also  due  partly  to  specific  historical 
theories  regarding  the  post-exilic  period.  Here  the  recension  in 
i  Esdras  especially  merits  attention  for  its  text,  literary  structure 
and  for  its  variant  traditions.3  Its  account  of  a  return  in  the 
time  of  Darius  scarcely  arose  after  Ezr.  i.-iii.  (Cyrus) ;  the  reverse 
seems  more  probable,  and  the  possibility  of  some  confusion  or 
of  an  intentional  adjustment  to  the  earlier  date  is  emphasized 
by  the  relation  between  the  popular  feeling  in  Ezr.  iii.  12  (Cyrus) 
and  Hag.  ii.  3  (Darius),  and  between  the  grant  by  Cyrus  in  iii.  7 
(it  is  not  certain  that  he  held  Phoenicia)  and  the  permit  of 
Darius  in  i  Esdr.  iv.  47-57  (see  v.  48).  To  the  latter  context 
belongs  the  list  of  names  which  reappears  in  Ezr.  ii.  (Cyrus). 
But  from  the  independent  testimony  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah  it 
is  doubtful  whether  the  chronicler's  account  of  the  return  under 
Cyrus  is  at  all  trustworthy.  The  list  in  i  Esdr.  v.,  Ezr.  ii., 
as  already  observed,  appears  to  be  in  its  more  original  context 
in  Neh.  vii.,  i.e.  in  the  time  of  Artaxerxes,  and  it  is  questionable 
whether  the  earliest  of  the  surviving  detailed  traditions  in 
Ezra-Nehemiah  went  back  before  this  reign.  It  is  precisely  at 
this  age  that  there  is  evidence  for  a  return,  apparently  other 
than  that  of  Ezra  or  Nehemiah  (see  Ezr.  iv.  12),  yet  no  account 
seems  to  be  preserved  unless  the  records  were  used  for  the 
history  of  earlier  periods  (cf.  generally  Ezr.  iii.  12  sq.  with  Neh. 

1  C.  C.  Torrey,  Comp.  and  Hist.  Value  of  Ezra-Nell.  (Beihefte  of 
Zeit.f.  alttest.  Wissens.,  1896),  pp.  30-34;   C.  F.  Kent,  Israel's  Hist, 
and  Biog.  Narratives,  pp.  32,  369.     Since  Neh.  vii.  70-73  is  closely 
joined  to  viii.,  the  suggested  transposition  would  place  its  account 
of  the  contributions  to  the  temple  in  a  more  appropriate  context 
(cf.  Ezr.  viii.  24-30,  33  sq.). 

2  For  linguistic  evidence  reference  should  be  made  to  J.  Geissler, 
Die  litterartschen  Beziehungen  d.  Esramemoiren  (Chemnitz,  1899). 

'  See  especially  Sir  Henry  Howorth,  Proc.  of  Society  of  Bibl.  Arch. 
(1901-1904),  passim;  C.  C.  Torrey,  Ezra  Studies  (Chicago,  1910). 
For  the  text,  see  A.  Klostermann,  Real-Ency.  f.  prot.  Theol.  v.  501 
«qq. ;  H.  Guthe  in  Haupt's  Sacred  Books  of  Old  Testament  (1899); 
and  S.  A.  Cook  in  R.  H.  Charles,  Apocrypha  and  Pseudepigrapha. 


viii.  9-1 1 ;  Ezr.  iii.  7  with  the  special  favour  enlisted  on  behalf 
of  the  Jews  in  vi.  7  sq.,  13,  vii.  21;  Neh.  ii.  7  sq.).  But  the 
account  of  the  events  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  is  extremely 
perplexing.  Since  the  building  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem 
must  have  begun  early  in  the  fifth  month  (Neh.  vi.  15),  an 
allowance  of  three  days  (ii.  n)  makes  the  date  of  Nehemiah's 
arrival  practically  the  anniversary  of  Ezra's  return  (Ezr.  vii.  9, 
viii.  32).  Considering  the  close  connexion  between  the  work 
of  the  two  men  this  can  hardly  be  accidental.  The  compiler, 
however,  clearly  intends  Neh.  vi.  15  (25th  of  sixth  month)  to  be 
the  prelude  to  the  events  in  Neh.  vii.  73,  viii.  (seventh  month), 
but  the  true  sequence  of  Neh.  vi.  sqq.  is  uncertain,  and  the 
possibility  of  artificiality  is  suggested  by  the  unembelh'shed 
statement  of  Josephus  that  the  building  of  the  walls  occupied, 
not  fifty-two  days,  but  two  years  four  months  (Ant.  xi.  5.  8). 
The  present  chronological  order  of  Nehemiah's  work  is  confused 
(cf.  §4,  n.  3),  and  the  obscure  interval  of  twelve  years  in  his  work 
corresponds  very  closely  to  that  which  now  separates  the  records 
of  Ezra's  labours.  However,  both  the  recovery  of  the  compilers' 
aims  and  attempted  reconstructions  are  precluded  from  finality 
by  the  scantiness  of  independent  historical  evidence.  (See 
further  JEWS:  History,  §21  seq.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — S.  R.  Driver,  Lit.  of  the  O.  T.  (1909),  pp.  540  sqq. 
and  the  commentaries  of  H.  E.  Ryle  (Camb.  Bible,  1893),  C.  Siegfried 
(1901),  A.  Bertholet  (1902),  and  T.  W.  Davies  (Cent.  Bible,  1909). 
Impetus  to  recent  criticism  of  these  books  starts  with  Van  Hoonacker 
(Neh.  et  Esd.  [1890];  see  also  Expos.  Times  [1897],  pp.  351-354,  and 
M.-J.  Lagrange,  Rev.  biblique,  iii.  561-585  [1894],  iv.  186-202  [1895]) 
and  W.  H.  Kosters  (Germ,  ed.,  Wiederherstellung  Israels,  1895). 
The  latter's  important  conclusions  (for  which  see  his  article  with 
Cheyne's  additions  in  Ency.  Bib.  col.  1473  sqq.,  3380  sqq.)  have  been 
adversely  criticized,  especially  by  J.  Wellhausen  (Nachrichten  of  the 
Univ.  of  Gottingen,  1895,  pp.  166-186),  E.  Meyer  (Entstehung  d. 
Judentums,  1896),  J.  Nikel  (Wiederherstellung  d.  jiid.  Gemein., 
1900),  and  S.  Jampel  in  Monatsschrift  f.  Gesch.  u.  Wissens.  d. 
Judentums,  vols.  xlvi.-xlvii.  (1902-1903).  The  negative  criticisms 
of  Kosters  have,  however,  been  strengthened  by  his  replies  (in  the 
Dutch  Theolog.  Tijdschriff),  and  by  the  discussions  of  C.  C.  Torrey 
and  C.  F.  Kent  (op.  cit)  and  of  G.  Jahn  (Esra  u.  Neh.  pp.  i-Ixxviii ; 
1909),  and  his  general  position  appears  to  do  more  justice  to  the 
biblical  evidence  as  a  whole.  (S.  A.  C.) 

EZZO,  or  EHRENFRIED  (c.  954-1024),  count  palatine  in  Lor- 
raine, was  the  son  of  a  certain  Hermann  (d.  c.  1000),  also  a  count 
palatine  in  Lorraine  who  had  possessions  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Bonn.  Having  married  Matilda  (d.  1025),  a  daughter  of  the 
emperor  Otto  II.,  Ezzo  came  to  the  front  during  the  reign  of  his 
brother-in-law,  the  emperor  Otto  III.  (983-1002);  his  power  was 
increased  owing  to  the  liberal  grant  of  lands  in  Thuringia  and 
Franconia  which  he  received  with  his  wife,  and  some  time  later 
his  position  as  count  palatine  was  recognized  as  an  hereditary 
dignity.  Otto's  successor,  the  emperor  Henry  II.,  was  less 
friendly  towards  the  powerful  count  palatine,  though  there  was 
no  serious  trouble  between  them  until  ion;  but  some  disturb- 
ances in  Lorraine  quickly  compelled  the  emperor  to  come  to  terms, 
and  the  assistance  of  Ezzo  was  purchased  by  a  gift  of  lands. 
Henceforward  the  relations  between  Henry  and  his  vassal  appear 
to  have  been  satisfactory.  Very  little  is  known  about  Ezzo's 
later  life,  but  we  are  told  that  he  died  at  a  great  age  at  Saalfeld 
on  the  2  ist  of  March  1024.  He  left  three  sons,  among  them  being 
Hermann,  who  was  archbishop  of  Cologne  from  1036  to  1056, 
and  Otto,  who  was  for  a  short  time  duke  of  Swabia;  and  seven 
daughters,  six  of  whom  became  abbesses.  Ezzo  founded  a 
monastery  at  Brauweiler  near  Cologne,  the  place  where  his 
marriage  had  been  celebrated.  This  was  dedicated  in  1028  by 
Piligrim,  archbishop  of  Cologne,  and  here  both  Ezzo  and  his  wife 
were  buried. 

EZZOLIED,  or  ANEGENGE,  an  old  German  poem,  written  by 
Ezzo,  a  scholar  of  Bamberg.  It  was  written  about  1060,  but  not, 
as  one  authority  asserts,  composed  while  the  author  was  making 
a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem.  The  subject  of  the  poem  is  the  life  of 
Christ.  Very  popular  during  the  later  middle  ages,  the  Eazolied 
had  a  great  influence  on  the  poetry  of  south  Germany,  and  is 
valuable  as  a  monument  of  the  poetical  literature  of  the  time. 

The  text  is  printed  in  the  Denkmaler  deutscher  Poesie  und  Prosa 
aus  dem  8-12.  Jahrhundert  (Berlin,  1892)  of  C.  V.  Mullenhoff  and  W. 
Scherer. 


F— FABER,   F.  W. 


in 


FThis  is  the  sixth  letter  of  the  English  alphabet  as  it  was 
of  the  Latin.     In  the  ordinary  Greek  alphabet  the  symbol 
has  disappeared,  although  it  survived  far  into  historical 
times  in  many  Greek  dialects  as  F,  the  digamma,  the 
use  of  which  in  early  times  was  inductively  proved  by  Bentley, 
when  comparatively  little  was  known  of  the  local  alphabets 
and  dialects  of  Greece.     The  so-called  stigma  r,  which  serves 
for  the  numeral  6,  is  all  that  remains  to  represent  it.     This 
symbol  derives  its  name  from  its  resemblance  in  medieval  MSS. 
to  the  abbreviation  for  <JT.     The  symbol  occupying  the  same  posi- 
tion in  the  Phoenician  alphabet  was  Vau  (^-  ^j-1),  which  seems 
to  be  represented  by  the  Greek  T,  the  Latin  V,  at  the  end  of 
the  early  alphabet.     Many  authorities  therefore  contend  that 
F  is  only  a  modification  of  the  preceding  symbol  E  and  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  symbol  Vau.     In  some  early  Latin 
inscriptions  F  is  represented  by  I',  as  E  is  by  II.     It  must  be 
admitted  that  the  resemblance  between  the  sixth  symbol  of 
the  Phoenician  alphabet  and  the  corresponding  symbol  of  the 
European  alphabet  is  not  striking.     But  the  position  of  the 
limbs  of  symbols  in  early  alphabets  often  varies  surprisingly. 
In  Greek,  besides  F  we  find  for /in  Pamphylia  (the  only  Greek 
district  in  Asia  which  possesses  the  symbol)  ^,  and  in  Boeotia, 
Thessaly,  Tarentum,  Cumae  and  on  Chalcidian  vases  of  Italy  the 
form  E,  though  except  at  Cumae  and  on  the  vases  the  form  F 
exists  contemporaneously  with  E  or  even  earlier.     At  the  little 
townof  Falerii  (Civita  Castellana),  whose  alphabet  is  undoubtedly 
of  the  same  origin  as  the  Latin,  F  takes  the  form  1\     Though 
uncertain,  therefore,  it  seems  not  impossible  that  the  original 
symbol  of  the  Phoenician  alphabet,  which  was  a  consonant  like 
the  English  w,  may  have  been  differentiated  in  Greek  into  two 
symbols,  one  indicating  the  consonant  value  w  and  retaining 
the  position  of  the  Phoenician  consonant  Vau,  the  other  having 
the  vowel  value  u,  which  ultimately  most  dialects  changed  to 
a  modified  sound  like  French  u  or  German  ii.     Be  this  as  it  may, 
the  value  of  the  symbol  F  in  Greek  was  w,  a  bilabial  voiced 
sound,  not  the  labio-dental  unvoiced  sound  which  we  call  /. 
When  the  Romans  adopted  the  Greek  alphabet  they  took  over 
the  symbols  with  their  Greek  values.     But  Greek  had  no  sound 
corresponding  to  the  Latin  /,  for  <j>  was  pronounced  p-h,  like  the 
final  sound  of  lip  in  ordinary  English  or  the  initial  sound  of  pig 
in   Irish   English.     Consequently  in   the   very  old  inscription 
on  a  gold  fibula  found  at  Praeneste  and  published  in  1887  (see 
ALPHABET)  the  Latin  /  is  represented  by  FB.    Later,  as  Latin 
did  not  use  F  for  the  consonant  written  as  v  in  vis,  &c.,  H  was 
dropped  and  F  received  a  new  special  value  in  Latin  as  repre- 
sentative of  the  unvoiced  labio-dental  spirant.     In  the  Oscan 
and    Umbrian   dialects,   whose   alphabet   was   borrowed   from 
Etruscan,  a  special  form  appears  for  /,  viz.  8,  the  old  form  E 
being  kept  for  the  other  consonant  v  (i.e.  English  w).     The 
8  has  generally  been  asserted  to  be  developed  out  of  the  second 
element  in  the  combination  FB,  its  upper  and  lower  halves 
being  first  converted  into  lozenges,  $,  which  naturally  changed 
to  8  when  inscribed  without  lifting  the  writing  or  incising  im- 
plement.    Recent   discoveries,    however,    make   this   doubtful 
(see  ALPHABET).  (p-  Gi.) 

FABBRONI,  ANGELO  (1732-1803),  Italian  [biographer,  was 
born  at  Marradi  in  Tuscany  on  the  25th  of  September  1732. 
After  studying  at  Faenza  he  entered  the  Roman  college  founded 
for  the  education  of  young  Tuscans.  On  the  conclusion  of  his 
studies  he  continued  his  stay  in  Rome,  and  having  been  introduced 
to  the  celebrated  Jansenist  Bottari,  received  from  him  the  canonry 
of  Santa  Teresa  in  Trastevere.  Some  time  after  this  he  was 
chosen  to  preach  a  discourse  in  the  pontifical  chapel  before 
Benedict  XIV.  and  made  such  a  favourable  impression  that  the 
pontiff  settled  on  him  an  annuity,  with  the  possession  of  which 
Fabbroni  was  able  to  devote  his  whole  time  to  study.  He  wa 


ntimatewith  Leopold  I.,  grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  but  the  Jesuits 
disliked  him  on  account  of  his  Jansenist  views.  Besides  his 
other  literary  labours  he  began  at  Pisa  in  1771  a  literary  journal, 
which  he  continued  till  1796.  About  1772  he  made  a  journey  to 
Paris,  where  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Condorcet,  Diderot, 
d'Alembert,  Rousseau  and  most  of  the  other  eminent  Frenchmen 
of  the  day.  He  also  spent  four  months  in  London.  He  died  at 
3isa  on  the  22nd  of  September  1803. 

The  following  are  his  principal  works: — Vitae  Italorum  doctrina 
excellentium  qui  saeculis  XVII.  et  XVIII.  floruerunt  (20  vols., 
'isa,  1778-1799,  1804-1805),  the  last  two  vols.,  published  post- 
luraously,  contain  a  life  of  the  author;  Laurentii  Medicei  Magnifici 
Vita  (2  vols.,  Pisa,  1784),  a  work  which  served  as  a  basis  for  H. 
Roscoe's  Life  of  Lorenzo  dei  Medici;  Leonis  X.  pontificis  maximi 
Vita  (Pisa,  1797) ;  and  Elogi  di  Dante  Alighieri,  di  Angela  Poliziano, 
di  Lodovico  Ariosto,  e  di  Torq.  Tasso  (Parma,  1800). 

FABER,  the  name  of  a  family  of  German  lead-pencil  manu- 
facturers. Their  business  was  founded  in  1760  at  Stein,  near 
Nuremberg,  by  Kaspar  Faber  (d.  1 7  84) .  It  was  then  inherited  by 
lis  son  Anton  Wilhelm  (d.  1819).  Georg  Leonhard  Faber  suc- 
ceeded in  1810  (d.  1839),  and  the  business  passed  to  Johann  Lothar 
von  Faber  (1817-1896),  the  great-grandson  of  the  founder.  At 
the  time  of  his  assuming  control  about  twenty  hands  were  em- 
ployed, under  old-fashioned  conditions,  and  owing  to  the  inven- 
tion of  the  French  crayons  Conies  of  Nicolas  Jacques  Conte  (q.v.) 
competition  had  reduced  the  entire  Nuremberg  industry  to  a  low 
ebb  (see  PENCIL)  .  Johann  introduced  improvements  in  machinery 
and  methods,  brought  his  factory  to  the  highest  state  of  efficiency, 
and  it  became  a  model  for  all  the  other  German  and  Austrian  manu- 
facturers. He  established  branches  in  New  York,  Paris,  London 
and  Berlin,  and  agencies  in  Vienna,  St  Petersburg  and  Hamburg, 
and  made  his  greatest  coup  in  1856,  when  he  contracted  for  the 
exclusive  control  of  the  graphite  obtained  from  the  East  Siberian 
mines.  Faber  had  also  branched  out  into  the  manufacture  of 
water-colour  and  oil  paints,  inks,  slates  and  slate-pencils,  and 
engineers'  and  architects'  drawing  instruments,  and  built 
additional  factories  to  house  his  various  industries  at  New  York 
and  at  Noisy-le-Sec,  near  Paris,  and  had  his  own  cedar  mills 
in  Florida.  For  his  services  to  German  industry  he  received  a 
patent  of  nobility  and  an  appointment  as  councillor  of  state. 
After  the  death  of  his  widow  (1903)  the  business  was  inherited 
by  his  grand-daughter  Countess  Otilie  von  Faber-Castell  and  her 
husband,  Count  Alexander. 

FABER,  BASIL  (i52o-c.  1576),  Lutheran  schoolmaster  and 
theologian,  was  born  at  Sorau,  in  lower  Lusatia,  in  1520.  In 
1538  he  entered  the  university  of  Wittenberg,  studying  as 
pauper  gratis  under  Melanchthon.  Choosing  the  schoolmaster's 
profession,  he  became  successively  rector  of  the  schools  at 
Nordhausen,  Tennstadt  (1555),  Magdeburg  (1557)  and  Quedlin- 
burg  (1560).  From  this  last  post  he  was  removed  in  December 
1570  as  a  Crypto-Calvinist.  In  1571  he  was  appointed  to  the 
Raths-gymnasium  at  Erfurt,  not  as  rector,  but  as  director 
(Vorsteher).  In  this  situation  he  remained  till  his  death  in  1575 
or  1576.  His  translation  of  the  first  twenty-five  chapters  of 
Luther's  commentary  on  Genesis  was  published  in  1557;  in  other 
ways  he  promoted  the  spread  of  Lutheran  views.  He  was  a 
contributor  to  the  first  four  of  the  Magdeburg  Centuries.  He  is 
best  known  by  his  Thesaurus  eruditionis  scholasticae  (1571; 
last  edition,  improved  by  J.  H.  Leich,  1749,  folio,  2  vols.);  this 
was  followed  by  his  Libellus  de  disciplina  scholastica  (1572). 

See  Wagenmann  and  G.Muller  in  Herzog-Hauck's  Realencyklopadie 
(1898).  (A.  Go.*) 

FABER,  FREDERICK  WILLIAM  (1814-1863),  British  hymn 
writer  and  theologian,  was  born  on  the  28th  of  June  1814  at 
Calverley,  Yorkshire,  of  which  place  his  grandfather,  Thomas 
Faber,  was  vicar.  He  attended  the  grammar  school  of  Bishop 
Auckland  for  a  short  time,  but  a  large  portion  of  his  boyhood 
was  spent  in  Westmorland.  He  afterwards  went  to  Harrow 


112 


FABER,  JACOBUS— FABERT 


and  to  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  In  1835  he  obtained  a  scholar- 
ship at  University  College;  and  in  1836  he  gained  the  Newdigate 
prize  for  a  poem  on  "  The  Knights  of  St  John,"  which  elicited 
special  praise  from  Keble.  Among  his  college  friends  were  Dean 
Stanley  and  Roundell  Palmer,  ist  earl  of  Selborne.  In  January 
1837  he  was  elected  fellow  of  University  College.  Meanwhile  he 
had  given  up  the  Calvinistic  views  of  his  youth,  and  had  become 
an  enthusiastic  follower  of  John  Henry  Newman.  In  1841  a 
travelling  tutorship  took  him  to  the  continent;  and  on  his 
return  a  book  appeared  called  Sights  and  Thoughts  in  Foreign 
Churches  and  among  Foreign  Peoples  (London,  1842),  with  a 
dedication  to  his  friend  the  poet  Wordsworth.  He  accepted  the 
rectory  of  Elton  in  Huntingdonshire,  but  soon  after  went  again 
to  the  continent,  in  order  to  study  the  methods  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church;  and  after  a  prolonged  mental  struggle  he 
joined  the  Roman  Catholic  communion  in  November  1845.  He 
founded  a  religious  community  at  Birmingham,  called  Wilfridians, 
which  was  ultimately  merged  in  the  oratory  of  St  Philip  Neri, 
with  John  Henry  Newman  as  Superior.  In  1849  a  branch  of  the 
oratory — subsequently  independent — was  established  in  London, 
first  in  King  William  Street,  and  afterwards  at  Brompton,  over 
which  Faber  presided  till  his  death  on  the  26th  of  September 
1863.  In  spite  of  his  weak  health,  an  almost  incredible  amount  of 
work  was  crowded  into  those  years.  He  published  a  number  of 
theological  works,  and  edited  the  Oratorian  Lives  of  the  Saints. 
He  was  an  eloquent  preacher,  and  a  man  of  great  charm  of 
character.  It  is  mainly  as  a  hymn-writer,  however,  that  Faber 
is  remembered.  Among  his  best-known  hymns  are: — "  The 
Greatness  of  God,"  "  The  Will  of  God,"  "  The  Eternal  Father," 
"  The  God  of  my  Childhood,  "  "  Jesus  is  God,"  "  The  Pilgrims 
of  the  Night,"  "  The  Land  beyond  the  Sea,"  "  Sweet  Saviour, 
bless  us  ere  we  go,"  "  I  was  wandering  and  weary,"  and  "  The 
Shadow  of  the  Rock."  The  hymns  are  largely  used  in  Protestant 
collections.  In  addition  to  many  pamphlets  and  translations, 
Faber  published  the  following  works:  All  for  Jesus;  The 
Precious  Blood;  Bethlehem;  The  Blessed  Sacrament;  The 
Creator  and  the  Creature;  Growth  of  Holiness;  Spiritual  Con- 
ferences; The  Foot  of  the  Cross  (8  vols.,  London,  1853-1860). 

See  his  Life  and  Letters,  by  Father  J.  E.  Bowden  (London,  1869), 
and  A  Brief  Sketch  of  the  Early  Life  of  the  late  F.  W.  Faber,  D.D.,  by 
his  brother  the  Rev.  F.  A.  Faber  (London,  1869). 

FABER,  FABRI  or  FABRY  (surnamed  STAPULENSIS),  JACOBUS 
[Jacques  Lefevre  d'fitaples]  (c.  1455-6.  1536),  a  pioneer  of  the 
Protestant  movement  in  France,  was  born  of  humble  parents  at 
Etaples,  in  Pas  de  Calais,  Picardy,  about  1455.  He  appears  to 
have  been  possessed  of  considerable  means.  He  had  already  been 
ordained  priest  when  he  entered  the  university  of  Paris  for  higher 
education.  Hermonymus  of  Sparta  was  his  master  in  Greek. 
He  visited  Italy  before  1486,  for  he  heard  the  lectures  of  Argyro- 
pulus,  who  died  in  that  year;  he  formed  a  friendship  with 
Paulus  Aemilius  of  Verona.  In  1492  he  again  travelled  in  Italy, 
studying  in  Florence,  Rome  and  Venice,  making  himself  familiar 
with  the  writings  of  Aristotle,  though  greatly  influenced  by  the 
Platonic  philosophy.  Returning  to  Paris,  he  became  professor  in 
the  college  of  Cardinal  Lemoine.  Among  his  famous  pupils  were 
F.  W.  Vatable  and  Farel;  his  connexion  with  the  latter  drew  him 
to  the  Calvinistic  side  of  the  movement  of  reform.  At  this  time  he 
began  the  publication,  with  critical  apparatus,  of  Boetius  (De 
Arithmetica) ,  and  Aristotle's  Physics  (1492),  Ethics  (1497),  Meta- 
physics (1501)  and  Politics  (1506).  In  1507  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  St  Germain  des  Pres,  near 
Paris;  this  was  due  to  his  connexion  with  the  family  of  Brifonnet 
(one  of  whom  was  the  superior),  especially  with  William  Bri- 
fonnet,  cardinal  bishop  of  St  Malo  (Meaux).  He  now  began  to 
give  himself  to  Biblical  studies,  the  first-fruit  of  which  was  his 
Quintuplex  Psalterium:  Gallicum,  Romanum,  Hebraicum,  Vetus, 
Conciliatum  (1509);  the  Conciliatum  was  his  own  version.  This 
was  followed  by  S.  Pauli  Epistolae  xiv.  ex  vulgala  editione,  adjecta 
intelligenlia  ex  Graeco  cum  commenlariis  (1512),  a  work  of  great 
independence  and  judgment.  His  De  Maria  Magdalena  et 
triduo  Christi  disceptatio  (1517)  provoked  violent  controversy 
and  was  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne  (1521).  He  had  left  Paris 


during  the  whole  of  1 520,  and,  removing  to  Meaux,  was  appointed 
(May  i,  1523)  vicar-general  to  Bishop  Briconnet,  and  published 
his  French  version  of  the  New  Testament  (1523).  This  (con- 
temporary with  Luther's  German  version)  has  been  the  basis  of 
all  subsequent  translations  into  French.  From  this,  in  the  same 
year,  he  extracted  the  versions  of  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  "  a 
1'usage  du  diocese  de  Meaux."  The  prefaces  and  notes  to  both 
these  expressed  the  view  that  Holy  Scripture  is  the  only  rule  of 
doctrine,  and  that  justification  is  by  faith  alone.  He  incurred 
much  hostility,  but  was  protected  by  Francis  I.  and  the  princess 
Margaret.  Francis  being  in  captivity  after  the  battle  of  Pavia 
(February  25,  1525),  Faber  was  condemned  and  his  works  sup- 
pressed by  commission  of  the  parlement;  these  measures  were 
quashed  on  the  return  of  Francis  some  months  later.  He  issued 
Le  Psautier  de  David  (1525),  and  was  appointed  royal  librarian  at 
Blois  (1526);  his  version  of  the  Pentateuch  appeared  two  years 
later.  His  complete  version  of  the  Bible  (1530),  on  the  basis  of 
Jerome,  took  the  same  place  as  his  version  of  the  New  Testament. 
Margaret  (now  queen  of  Navarre)  led  him  to  take  refuge  (1531)  at 
Nerac  from  persecution.  He  is  said  to  have  been  visited  (1533) 
by  Calvin  on  his  flight  from  France.  He  died  in  1536  or  1537. 

See  C.  H.  Graf,  Essai  sur  la  vie  et  les  ecrits  (1842);  G.  Bonet- 
Maury,  in  A.  Herzog-Hauck's  Realencyklopddie  (1898).  (A.  Go.*) 

FABER  (or  LEFEVRE),  JOHANN  (1478-1541),  German  theo- 
logian, styled  from  the  title  of  one  of  his  works  "  Malleus 
Haereticorum,"  son  of  one  Heigerlin,  a  smith  (faber),  was  born 
at  Leutkirch,  in  Swabia,  in  1478.  His  early  life  is  obscure;  the 
tradition  that  he  joined  the  Dominicans  is  untenable.  He  studied 
theology  and  canon  law  at  Tubingen  and  at  Freiburg  im  Breisgau, 
where  he  matriculated  on  the  26th  of  July  1509,  and  graduated 
M.A.  and  doctor  of  canon  law.  He  was  soon  appointed  vicar 
of  Lindau  and  Leutkirch,  and  shortly  afterwards  canon  of  Basel. 
In  1518  Hugo  von  Landenberg,  bishop  of  Constance,  made  him 
one  of  his  vicars-general,  and  Pope  Leo  X.  appointed  him  papal 
protonotary.  He  was  an  advocate  of  reforms,  in  sympathy  with 
Erasmus,  and  corresponded  (1519-1520)  with  Zwingli.  While 
he  defended  Luther  against  Eck,  he  was  as  little  inclined  to  adopt 
the  position  of  Luther  as  of  Carlstadt.  His  journey  to  Rome 
in  the  autumn  of  1521  had  the  result  of  estranging  him  from  the 
views  of  the  Protestant  leaders.  He  published  Opus  adversus 
nova  quaedam  dogmata  Lutheri  (1522),  and  appeared  as  a  disputant 
against  Zwingli  at  Zurich  (1523).  Then  followed  his  Malleus  in 
haeresin  Lutheranam  (1524).  Among  his  efforts  to  stem  the  tide 
of  Protestant  innovation  was  the  establishment  of  a  training- 
house  for  the  maintenance  and  instruction  of  popular  preachers, 
drawn  from  the  lower  ranks,  to  compete  with  the  orators  of  reform. 
In  1526  he  became  court  preacher  to  the  emperor  Ferdinand,  and 
in  1527  and  1528  was  sent  by  him  as  envoy  to  Spain  and  England. 
He  approved  the  death  by  burning  of  Balthasar  Hubmeier,  the 
Baptist,  at  Vienna  on  the  loth  of  March  1528.  In  1531  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Vienna,  and  combined  with  this  (till  1538) 
the  administration  of  the  diocese  of  Neustadt.  He  died  at  Vienna 
on  the  2ist  of  May  1541.  His  works  were  collected  in  three 
volumes,  1537,  1539  and  1541. 

See  C.  E.  Kettner,  Diss.  de  J.  Fabri  Vita  Scriptisgue  (1737); 
Wagenmann  and  Egli  in  Herzog-Hauck's  Realencyklopadie  (1898). 

(A.  Go.*) 

FABERT,  ABRAHAM  DE  (1599-1660),  marshal  of  France, 
was  the  son  of  Abraham  Fabert,  seigneur  de  Moulins  (d.  1638), 
a  famous  printer  who  rendered  great  services,  civil  and  military, 
to  Henry  IV.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  entered  the  Gardes 
franqaises,  and  in  1618  received  a  commission  in  the  Piedmont 
regiment,  becoming  major  in  1627.  He  distinguished  himself 
repeatedly  in  the  constant  wars  of  the  period,  notably  in  La 
Rochelle  and  at  the  siege  of  Exilles  in  1630.  His  bravery  and 
engineering  skill  were  again  displayed  in  the  sieges  of  Avesnes  and 
Maubeuge  in  1637,  and  in  1642  Louis  XIII.  made  him  governor 
of  the  recently-acquired  fortress  of  Sedan.  In  1651  he  became 
lieutenant-general,  and  in  1654  at  the  siege  of  Stenay  he  intro- 
duced new  methods  of  siegecraft  which  anticipated  in  a  measure 
the  great  improvements  of  Vauban.  In  1658  Fabert  was  made 
a  marshal  of  France,  being  the  first  commoner  to  attain  that  rank. 
He  died  at  Sedan  on  the  I7th  of  May  1660. 


FABIAN— FABIUS 


See  Histoire  du  marechal  de  Fabert  (Amsterdam,  1697) ;  P.  Barre, 
Vie  de  Fabert  (Paris,  1752);  A.  Feillet,  Le  Premier  Marechal  de 
France  plebeien  (Paris,  1869) ;  Bourelly,  Le  Marechal  Fabert  (Paris, 
1880). 

FABIAN  [FABIANUS],  SAINT  (d.  250),  pope  and  martyr,  was 
chosen  pope,  or  bishop  of  Rome,  in  January  236  in  succession  to 
Anteros.  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.  vi.  29)  relates  how  the  Christians, 
having  assembled  in  Rome  to  elect  a  new  bishop,  saw  a  dove 
alight  upon  the  head  of  Fabian,  a  stranger  to  the  city,  who  was 
thus  marked  out  for  this  dignity,  and  was  at  once  proclaimed 
bishop,  although  there  were  several  famous  men  among  the 
candidates  for  the  vacant  position.  Fabian  was  martyred  during 
the  persecution  under  the  emperor  Decius,  his  death  taking  place 
on  the  2oth  of  January  250,  and  was  buried  in  the  catacomb  of 
Calixtus,  where  a  memorial  has  been  found.  He  is  said  to  have 
baptized  the  emperor  Philip  and  his  son,  to  have  done  some  build- 
ing in  the  catacombs,  to  have  improved  the  organization  of  the 
church  in  Rome,  to  have  appointed  officials  to  register  the  deeds 
of  the  martyrs,  and  to  have  founded  several  churches  in  France. 
His  deeds  are  thus  described  in  the. Liber  Pontificalis:  "Hie 
regiones  dividit  diaconibus  et  fecit  vii  subdiacones,  qui  vii 
notariis  imminerent,  ut  gestas  martyrum  integro  fideliter  col- 
ligerent,  et  multas  fabricas  per  cymiteria  fieri  praecepit." 
Although  there  is  very  little  authentic  information  about  Fabian, 
there  is  evidence  that  his  episcopate  was  one  of  great  importance 
in  the  history  of  the  early  church.  He  was  highly  esteemed  by 
Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage ;  Novatian  refers  to  his  nobilissimae 
memoriae,  and  he  corresponded  with  Origen.  One  authority 
refers  to  him  as  Flavian. 

See  the  article  on  "  Fabian  "  by  A.  Harnack  in  Herzog-Hauck's 
Realencyklopadie,  Band  v.  (Leipzig,  1898). 

FABIUS,  the  name  of  a  number  of  Roman  soldiers  and 
statesmen.  The  Fabian  gens  was  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
distinguished  patrician  families  of  Rome.  Its  members  claimed 
descent  from  Hercules  and  a  daughter  of  the  Arcadian  Evander. 
From  the  earliest  times  it  played  a  prominent  part  in  Roman 
history,  and  was  one  of  the  two  gentes  exclusively  charged  with 
the  management  of  the  most  ancient  festival  in  Rome — the 
Lupercalia  (Ovid,  Fasti,  ii.  375).  The  chief  family  names  of  the 
Fabian  gens  or  clan,  in  republican  times,  were  Vibulanus,  Am- 
bustus,  Maximus,  Buteo,  Pictor,  Dorso,  Labeo;  with  surnames 
Verrucosus,  Rullianus,  Gurges.  Aemilianus,  Allobrogicus  (all 
of  the  Maximus  branch).  The  most  important  members  of  the 
family  are  the  following: — 

1.  MARCUS  FABIUS  AMBUSTUS,  pontifex  maximus  in  the  year 
of  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls  (390).     His  three  sons, 
Quintus,  Numerius  and  Caeso,  although  they  had  been  sent  as 
ambassadors  to  the  Gauls  when  they  were  besieging  Clusium, 
subsequently  took  part  in  hostilities  (Livy  v.  35).     The  Gauls 
thereupon  demanded  their  surrender,  on  the  ground  that  they 
had  violated  the  law  of  nations;  the  Romans,  by  way  of  reply, 
sleeted  them  consular  tribunes  in  the  following  year.     The  result 
was  the  march  of  the  Gauls  upon  Rome,  the  battle  of  the  Allia, 
and  the  capture  of  the  city  (Livy  vi.  i). 

2.  Q.    FABIUS    MAXIMUS,   surnamed    Rullianus   or    Rullus, 
master  of  the  horse  in  the  second  Samnite  War  to  L.  Papirius 
Cursor,  by  whom  he  was  degraded  for  having  fought  the  Samnites 
contrary  to  orders  (Livy  viii.  30),  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he 
gained  a  victory.     In  315,  when,  dictator,  he  was  defeated  by  the 
Samnites  at  Lautulae  (Livy  ix.  23).     In  310  he  defeated  the 
Etruscans  at  the  Vadimonian  Lake.     In  295,  consul  for  the  fifth 
time,  he  defeated,  at  the  great  battle  of  Sentinum,  the  combined 
forces  of  the  Etrurians,  Umbrians,  Samnites  and  Gauls  (see 
ROME:  History,  II.   "The  Republic").     As  censor  (304)   he 
altered  the  arrangement  of  Appius  Claudius  Caecus,  whereby  the 
freedmen  were  taken  into  all  the  tribes,  and  limited  them  to  the 
four  city  tribes.     For  this  he  is  said  to  have  received  the  title  of 
Maximus,  as  the  deliverer  of  the  comitia  from  the  rule  of  the  mob 
(Livy  ix.  46),  but  there  is  reason  to  think  that  this  title  was  first 
conferred  on  his  grandson.     It  is  probable  that  his  achievements 
are  greatly  exaggerated  by  historians  favourable  to  the  Fabian 
house. 

3.  QUINTUS  FABIUS  MAXIMUS,  surnamed  Verrucosus  (from  a 


wart  on  his  lip),  Ovicula  ("  the  lamb,"  from  his  mild  disposition), 
and  Cunctator  ("  the  delayer,"  from  his  cautious  tactics  in  the 
war  against  Hannibal),  grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  served  his 
first  consulship  in  Liguria  (233  B.C.),  was  censor  (230)  and  consul 
for  the  second  time  (228).  In  218  he  was  sent  to  Carthage  to 
demand  satisfaction  for  the  attack  on  Saguntum  (Livy  xxi.  18). 
According  to  the  well-known  story,  he  held  up  a  fold  of  his  toga 
and  offered  the  Carthaginians  the  choice  between  peace  and  war. 
When  they  declared  themselves  indifferent,  he  let  fall  his  toga 
with  the  words,  "  Then  take  war."  After  the  disastrous  cam- 
paign on  the  Trebia,  and  the  defeat  on  the  banks  of  the  Trasimene 
Lake,  Fabius  was  named  dictator  (Livy  calls  him  pro-dictator, 
since  he  was  nominated,  not  by  the  consul,  but  by  the  people) 
in  2 1 7,  and  began  his  tactics  of  "  masterly  inactivity."  Manoeuv- 
ring among  the  hills,  where  Hannibal's  cavalry  were  useless,  he 
cut  off  his  supplies,  harassed  him  incessantly,  and  did  everything 
except  fight.  His  steady  adherence  to  his  plan  caused  dissatisfac- 
tion at  Rome  and  in  his  own  camp,  and  aroused  the  suspicion  that 
he  was  merely  endeavouring  to  prolong  his  command.  Minucius 
Rufus,  his  master  of  the  horse,  seized  the  opportunity,  during  the 
absence  of  Fabius  at  Rome,  to  make  an  attack  upon  the  enemy 
which  proved  successful.  The  people,  more  than  ever  convinced 
that  a  forward  movement  was  necessary,  divided  the  command 
between  Minucius  and  Fabius  (Livy  xxii.  15.  24;  Polybius  iii.  88). 
Minucius  was  led  into  an  ambuscade  by  Hannibal,  and  his  army 
was  only  saved  by  the  opportune  arrival  of  Fabius.  Minucius 
confessed  his  mistake  and  henceforth  submitted  to  the  orders  of 
Fabius  (Livy  xxiii.  32) .  At  the  end  of  the  legal  time  of  six  months 
Fabius  resigned  the  dictatorship  and  the  war  was  carried  on  by 
the  consuls.  The  result  of  the  abandonment  of  Fabian  tactics 
was  the  disaster  of  Cannae  (216).  In  215  and  214  (as  consul  for 
the  third  and  fourth  times)  he  was  in  charge  of  the  operations 
against  Hannibal  together  with  Claudius  Marcellus  (Livy  xxiii. 
39).  He  laid  siege  to  Capua,  which  had  gone  over  to  Hannibal 
after  Cannae,  and  captured  the  important  position  of  Casilinum ; 
in  his  fifth  consulship  (209)  he  retook  Tarentum,  which  had  been 
occupied  by  Hannibal  for  three  years  (Livy  xxvii.  15;  Polybius 
xiii.  4;  Plutarch,  Fabius).  He  died  in  203.  Fabius  was  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  the  new  aggressive  policy,  and  did  all  he 
could  to  prevent  the  invasion  of  Africa  by  Scipio.  He  was 
distinguished  for  calmness  and  prudence,  while  by  no  means 
lacking  in  courage  when  it  was  required.  In  his  later  years, 
however,  he  became  morose,  and  showed  jealousy  of  rising  young 
men,  especially  Scipio  (Life  by  Plutarch;  Livy  xx.-xxx.;  Poly- 
bius iii.  87-106). 

4.  Q.  FABIUS  MAXIMUS  AEMILIANUS,  eldest  son  of  L.  Aemilius 
Paullus,  adopted  by  Fabius  Cunctator.     He  served  in  the  last 
Macedonian  War  (168),  and,  as  consul,  defeated  Viriathus  in 
Spain  (Livy,  Epit.  52).     He  was  the  pupil  and  patron  of  Polybius 
(Polybius  xviii.,  xxix.  6,  xxxii.  8-10;  Livy  xliv.  35). 

5.  Q.   FABIUS  MAXIMUS  ALLOBROGICUS,   son   of  the  above, 
consul  121  in  Gaul.     He  obtained  his  surname  from  his  victory 
over  the  Allobroges  and  Arverni  in  that  year  (Veil.  Pat.  ii.  10; 
Eutropius  iv.  22).     As  censor  (108)  he  erected  the  first  triumphal 
arch. 

6.  Q.  FABIUS  VIBULANUS,  with  his  brothers  Caeso  and  Marcus, 
filled  the  consulship  for  seven  years  in  succession  (48 5-479  B.C.). 
In  the  last  year  there  was  a  reaction  against  the  family,  in  con- 
sequence of  Caeso  espousing  the  cause  of  the  plebeians.  Thereupon 
the  Fabii — to  the  number,  it  is  said,  of  306  patricians,  with  some 
$000  dependents — emigrated  from  Rome  under  the  leadership  of 
Caeso,  and  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Cremera,  a  few  miles  above 
Rome.     For  two  years  the  exiles  continued  to  be  the  city's  chief 
defence  against  the  Veientes,  until  at  last  they  were  surprised  and 
cut  off.     The  only  survivor  of  the  gens  was  Quintus,  the  son  of 
Marcus,  who  apparently  took  no  part  in  the  battle.     The  story 
that  he  had  been  left  behind  at  Rome  on  account  of  his  youth  can- 
not be  true,  as  he  was  consul  ten  years  afterwards.     This  Quintus 
was  consul  in  467,  465  and  459,  and  a  member  of  the  second 
decemvirate  in  450,  on  the  fall  of  which  he  went  into  voluntary 
exile  (Livy  ii.  42,  48-50,  iii.  i,  o,  41,  58,  vi.  i;  Dion.  Halic. 
viii.  82-86,  ix.  14-22;  Ovid,  Fasti,  ii.  195). 


FABIUS  PICTOR— FABLE 


The  Fabian  name  is  met  with  as  late  as  the  and  century  A.D.  A 
complete  list  of  the  Fabii  will  be  found  in  de  Vit's  Onomasticon; 
see  also  W.  N.  du  Rieu,  Disputatio  de  Gente  Fabia  (1856),  containing 
an  account  of  57  members  of  the  family. 

FABIUS  PICTOR,  QUINTUS,  the  father  of  Roman  history, 
was  born  about  254  B.C.  He  was  the  grandson  of  Gaius  Fabius, 
who  received  the  surname  Piclor  for  his  painting  of  the  temple 
of  Salus  (302).  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  subjugation  of  the 
Gauls  in  the  north  of  Italy  (225),  and  after  the  battle  of  Cannae 
(216)  was  employed  by  the  Romans  to  proceed  to  Delphi  in  order 
to  consult  the  oracle  of  Apollo.  He  was  the  earliest  prose  writer 
of  Roman  history.  His  materials  consisted  of  the  Annales 
Maximi,  Commentarii  Consular -es,  and  similar  records;  the 
chronicles  of  the  great  Roman  families;  and  his  own  experiences 
in  the  Second  Punic  War.  He  is  also  said  to  have  made  much  use 
of  the  Greek  historian  Diocles  of  Peparethus.  His  work,  which 
was  written  in  Greek,  began  with  the  arrival  of  Aeneas  in  Italy, 
and  ended  with  the  Hannibalic  war.  Although  Polybius  and 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  frequently  find  fault  with  him,  the 
first  uses  him  as  his  chief  authority  for  the  Second  Punic  War. 
A  Latin  version  of  the  work  was  in  existence  in  the  time  of  Cicero, 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  was  by  Fabius  Pictor  or  by  a  later 
writer  with  whom  he  was  confused — Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Ser- 
vilianus  (consul  142);  or  there  may  have  been  two  annalists  of 
the  name  of  Fabius  Pictor. 

Fragments  in  H.  Peter,  Historicorum  Romanorum  Fragmenta 
(1883) ;  see  also  ANNALISTS  and  LIVY,  and  Teuffel-Schwabe,  History 
of  Roman  Literature,  §  1 1 6. 

FABLE  (Fr.  fable,  Lat.  fabula).     With  certain  restrictions, 
the  necessity  of  which  will  be  shown  in  the  course  of  the  article, 
we  may  accept  the  definition  of  "  fable  "  which  Dr  Johnson  pro- 
poses in  his  Life  of  Gay:  "  A  fable  or  apologue  seems  to  be,  in  its 
genuine  state,  a  narrative  in  which  beings  irrational,  and  some- 
times inanimate  (arbores  loquuntur,  non  tantum  ferae),  are,  for  the 
purpose  of  moral  instruction,  feigned  to  act  and  speak  with  human 
interests  and  passions."    The  description  of  La  Fontaine,  the 
greatest  of  fabulists,  is  a  poetic  rendering  of  Johnson's  definition: 
"  Fables  in  sooth  are  not  what  they  appear; 
Our  moralists  are  mice,  and  such  small  deer. 
We  yawn  at  sermons,  but  we  gladly  turn 
To  moral  tales,  and  so  amused  we  learn." 

The  fable  is  distinguished  from  the  myth,  which  grows  and  is  not 
made,  the  spontaneous  and  unconscious  product  of  primitive 
fancy  as  it  plays  round  some  phenomenon  of  natural  or  historical 
fact.  The  literary  myth,  such  as,  for  instance,  the  legend  of 
Pandora  in  Hesiod  or  the  tale  of  Er  in  the  Republic  of  Plato,  is 
really  an  allegory,  and  differs  from  the  fable  in  so  far  as  it  is 
self-interpreting;  the  story  and  the  moral  are  intermingled 
throughout.  Between  the  parable  and  the  fable  there  is  no  clear 
line  of  demarcation,  and  theologians  like  Trench  have  unwarrant- 
ably narrowed  their  definition  of  a  parable  to  fit  those  of  the 
New  Testament.  The  soundest  distinction  is  drawn  by  Neander. 
In  the  fable  human  passions  and  actions  are  attributed  to  beasts; 
in  the  parable  the  lower  creation  is  employed  only  to  illustrate 
the  higher  life  and  never  transgresses  the  laws  of  its  kind.  But 
whether  Jotham's  apologue  of  the  trees  choosing  a  king,  perhaps 
the  first  recorded  in  literature,  should  be  classed  as  a  fable  or  a 
parable  is  hardly  worth  disputing.  Lastly,  we  may  point  out 
the  close  affinity  between  the  fable  and  the  proverb.  A  proverb 
is  often  a  condensed  or  fossilized  fable,  and  not  a  few  fables  are 
amplified  or  elaborated  proverbs. 

The  history  of  the  fable  goes  back  to  the  remotest  antiquity, 
and  Aesop  has  even  less  claim  to  be  reckoned  the  father  of  the 
fable  than  has  Homer  to  be  entitled  the  father  of  poetry.  The 
fable  has  its  origin  in  the  universal  impulse  of  men  to  express  their 
thoughts  in  concrete  images,  and  is  strictly  parallel  to  the  use  of 
metaphor  in  language.  It  is  the  most  widely  diffused  if  not  the 
most  primitive  form  of  literature.  Though  it  has  fallen  from  its 
high  place  it  still  survives,  as  in  J.  Chandler  Harris's  Uncle  Remus 
and  Rudyard  Kipling's  Jungle  Book.  The  Arab  of  to-day  will 
invent  a  fable  at  every  turn  of  the  conversation  as  the  readiest 
form  of  argument,  and  in  the  Life  of  Coventry  Patmore  it  is 
told  how  an  impromptu  fable  of  his  about  the  pious  dormouse 
found  its  way  into  Catholic  books  of  devotion. 


With  the  fable,  as  we  know  it,  the  moral  is  indispensable. 
As  La  Fontaine  puts  it,  an  apologue  is  composed  of  two  parts, 
body  and  soul.  The  body  is  the  story,  the  soul  the  morality. 
But  if  we  revert  to  the  earliest  type  we  shall  find  that  this  is  no 
longer  the  case.  In  the  primitive  beast-fable,  which  is  the  direct 
progenitor  of  the  Aesopian  fable,  the  story  is  told  simply  for  its 
own  sake,  and  is  as  innocent  of  any  moral  as  the  fairy  tales  of 
Little  Red  Riding-Hood  and  Jack  and  the  Beanstalk.  Thus, 
in  a  legend  of  the  Flathead  Indians,  the  Little  Wolf  found  in 
cloud-land  his  grandsires  the  Spiders  with  their  grizzled  hair  and 
long  crooked  nails,  and  they  spun  balls  of  thread  to  let  him  down 
to  earth;  when  he  came  down  and  found. his  wife  the  Speckled 
Duck,  whom  the  Old  Wolf  had  taken  from  him,  she  fled  in  con- 
fusion, and  this  is  why  she  lives  and  dives  alone  to  this  very  day. 
Such  animal  myths  are  as  common  in  the  New  World  as  in  the  Old, 
and  abound  from  Finland  and  Kamtchatka  to  the  Hottentots  and 
Australasians.  From  the  story  invented,  as  the  one  above 
quoted,  to  account  for  some  peculiarity  of  the  animal  world, 
or  told  as  a  pure  exercise  of  the  imagination,  just  as  a  sailor  spins 
a  yarn  about  the  sea-serpent,  to  the  moral  apologue  the  transition 
is  easy;  and  that  it  has  been  effected  by  savages  unaided  by 
the  example  of  higher  races  seems  sufficiently  proved  by  the  tales 
quoted  by  E.  B.  Tylor  (Primitive  Culture,  vol.  i.  p.  411).  From 
the  beast-fables  of  savages  we  come  next  to  the  Oriental  apologues, 
which  we  still  possess  in  their  original  form.  The  East,  the  land 
of  myth  and  legend,  is  the  natural  home  of  the  fable,  and  Hindu- 
stan was  the  birthplace,  if  not  of  the  original  of  these  tales,  at 
least  of  the  oldest  shape  in  which  they  still  exist.  The  Pancha 
Tantra  (2nd  century  B.C.),  or  fables  of  the  Brahma  Vishnu 
Sarman,  have  been  translated  from  Sanskrit  into  almost  every 
language  and  adapted  by  most  modern  fabulists.  The  Kalilah 
and  Dimna  (names  of  two  jackals),  or  fables  of  Bidpai  (or  Pilpai), 
passed  from  India  to  western  Europe  through  the  successive 
stages  of  Pahlavi  (ancient  Persian),  Arabic,  Greek,  Latin.  By 
the  end  of  the  i6th  century  there  were  Italian,  French  and  English 
versions.  There  is  an  excellent  Arabic  edition  (Paris,  1816)  with 
an  introduction  by  Sylvestre  de  Sacy.  The  Hitopadesa,  or 
"  friendly  instruction,"  is  a  modernized  form  of  the  same  work, 
and  of  it  there  are  three  translations  into  English  by  Dr  Charles 
Wilkins,  Sir  William  Jones  and  Professor  F.  Johnson.  The 
Hitopadesa  is  a  complete  chaplet  of  fables  loosely  strung  together, 
but  connected  so  as  to  form  something  of  a  continuous  story, 
with  moral  reflections  freely  interspersed,  purporting  to  be  written 
for  the  instruction  of  some  dissolute  young  princes.  Thus,  in  the 
first  fable  a  flock  of  pigeons  see  the  grains  of  rice  which  a  fowler 
has  scattered,  and  are  about  to  descend  on  them,  when  the  king 
of  the  pigeons  warns  them  by  telling  the  fable  of  a  traveller  who 
being  greedy  of  a  bracelet  was  devoured  by  a  tiger.  They  neglect 
his  warning  and  are  caught  in  the  net,  but  are  afterwards  delivered 
by  the  king  of  the  mice,  who  tells  the  story  of  the  Deer,  the  Jackal 
and  the  Crow,  to  show  that  no  real  friendship  can  exist  between^ 
the  strong  and  the  weak,  the  beast  of  prey  and  his  quarry,  and  so 
on  to  the  end  of  the  volume.  Another  book  of  Eastern  fables  is 
well  worthy  of  notice,  Buddhaghosha' s  Parables,  a  commentary 
on  the  Dhammapada  or  Buddha's  Paths  of  Virtue.  The  original 
is  in  Pali,  but  an  English  translation  of  the  Burmese  version 
was  made  by  Captain  T.  Rogers,  R.E. 

From  Hindustan  the  Sanskrit  fables  passed  to  China,  Tibet 
and  Persia;  and  they  must  have  reached  Greece  at  an  early  age, 
for  many  of  the  fables  which  passed  under  the  name  of  Aesop 
are  identical  with  those  of  the  East.  Aesop  to  us  is  little  more 
than  a  name,  though,  if  we  may  trust  a  passing  notice  in  Herodotus 
(ii.  134),  he  must  have  lived  in  the  6th  century  B.C.  Probably 
his  fables  were  never  written  down,  though  several  are  ascribed 
to  him  by  Xenophon,  Aristotle,  Plutarch  and  other  Greek  writers, 
and  Plato  represents  Socrates  as  beguiling  his  last  days  by 
versifying  such  as  he  remembered.  Aristophanes  alludes  to 
them  as  merry  tales,  and  Plato,  while  excluding  the  poets  from 
his  ideal  republic,  admits  Aesop  as  a  moral  teacher.  Of  the 
various  versions  of  Aesop's  Fables,  by  far  the  most  trustworthy 
is  that  of  Babrius  or  Babrias,  a  Greek  probably  of  the  3rd 
century  A.D.,  who  rendered  them  in  choliambic  verse.  These, 


FABLE 


which  were  long  known  in  fragments  only,  were  recovered  in  a 
MS.  found  by  M.  Minas  in  a  monastery  on  Mount  Athos  in  1842, 
now  in  the  British  Museum.1  An  inferior  version  of  the  same  in 
Latin  iambics  was  made  by  Phaedrus,  a  slave  of  Thracian  origin, 
brought  to  Rome  in  the  time  of  Augustus  and  manumitted  by  him. 
Phaedrus  professes  to  polish  in  senarian  verse  the  rough-hewn 
blocks  from  Aesop's  quarry;  but  the  numerous  allusions  to 
contemporary  events,  as,  for  example,  his  hit  at  Sejanus  in  the 
Frogs  and  the  Sun,  which  brought  upon  the  author  disgrace  and 
imprisonment,  show  that  many  of  them  are  original  or  free  adapta- 
tions. For  some  time  scholars  doubted  as  to  the  genuineness  of 
Phaedrus's  fables,  but  their  doubts  have  been  lately  dispelled 
by  a  closer  examination  of  the  MSS.  and  by  the  discovery  of  two 
verses  of  a  fable  on  a  tomb  at  Apulum  in  Dacia.  Phaedrus's 
style  is  simple,  clear  and  brief,  but  dry  and  unpoetical;  and, 
as  Lessing  has  pointed  out,  he  often  falls  into  absurdities  when 
he  deserts  his  original.  For  instance,  in  Aesop  the  dog  with  the 
meat  in  his  mouth  sees  his  reflection  in  the  water  as  he  passes 
over  a  bridge;  Phaedrus  makes  him  see  it  as  he  swims  across  the 
river. 

To  sum  up  the  characteristics  of  the  Aesopian  fable,  it  is 
artless,  simple  and  transparent.  It  affects  no  graces  of  style,  and 
we  hardly  need  the  text  with  which  each  concludes,  6  nvdos  SjjXoT 
Sri,  K.r.X.  The  moral  inculcated  is  that  of  Proverbial  Philosophy 
and  Poor  Richard's  A  Imanacks.  Aesop  is  no  maker  of  phrases,  but 
an  orator  who  wishes  to  gain  some  point  or  induce  some  course  of 
action.  It  is  the  Aesopian  type  that  Aristotle  has  in  view  when 
he  treats  of  the  fable  as  a  branch  of  rhetoric,  not  of  poetry. 

The  Latin  race  was  given  to  moralizing,  and  the  language  lent 
itself  to  crisp  and  pointed  narrative,  but  they  lacked  the  free 
play  of  fancy,  the  childlike  "  make-believe,"  to  produce  a  national 
body  of  fables.  With  the  doubtful  exception  of  Phaedrus,  we 
possess  nothing  but  solitary  examples,  such  as  the  famous 
apologue  of  Menenius  Agrippa  to  the  Plebs  and  the  exquisite 
Town  Mouse  and  Country  Mouse  of  Horace's  Satires. 

The  fables  of  the  rhetorician  Aphthonius  about  A.D.  400  in 
Greek  prose,  and  those  in  Latin  elegiac  verse  by  Avianus,  used 
for  centuries  as  a  text-book  in  schools,  form  in  the  history  of 
the  apologue  a  link  between  classical  and  medieval  times.  In  a 
Latin  dress,  sometimes  in  prose,  sometimes  in  regular  verse, 
and  sometimes  in  rhymed  stanzas,  the  fable  contributed,  with 
other  kinds  of  narratives,  to  make  up  the  huge  mass  of  stories 
which  has  been  bequeathed  to  us  by  the  monastic  libraries. 
These  served  more  uses  than  one.  They  were  at  once  easier  and 
safer  reading  than  the  classics.  To  the  lazy  monk  they  stood  in 
place  of  novels;  to  the  more  industrious  and  gifted  they  fur- 
nished an  exercise  on  a  par  with  Latin  verse  composition  in  our 
public  schools;  the  more  original  transformed  them  inio  fabliaux, 
or  embodied  them  in  edifying  stories,  as  in  the  Gesla  Romanorum. 
It  is  not  in  the  Speculum  Doctrinale  of  Vincent  de  Beauvais,  a 
Dominican  of  the  I2th  century,  nor  in  the  collection  of  his 
contemporary  Odo  de  Cerinton,  an  English  Cistercian,  nor  in 
Planudes  of  the  I4th  century,  whose  one  distinction  is  to  have 
added  to  the  fables  a  life  of  Aesop,  that  the  direct  lineage  of  La 
Fontaine  must  be  traced.  It  is  the  fabliaux  that  inspired  some 
of  his  best  fables — the  Lion's  Court,  the  Young  Widow,  the  Coach 
and  the  Fly. 

As  the  supremacy  of  Latin  declined  and  modern  languages  began 
to  be  turned  to  literary  uses,  the  fable  took  a  new  life.  Not  only 
were  there  numerous  adaptations  of  Aesop,  known  as  Ysopets, 
but  Marie  de  France  in  the  i3th  century  composed  many  original 
fables,  some  rivalling  La  Fontaine's  in  simplicity  and  gracefulness. 
Later,  also,  fables  were  not  wanting,  though  not  numerous,  in 
the  English  tongue.  Chaucer  has  given  us  one,  in  his  Nonne 
Preste's  Tale,  which  is  an  expansion  of  the  fable  Don  Coc  el  don 
Werpil  of  Marie  de  France;  another  is  Lydgate's  tale  of  The 
Churl  and  the  Bird. 

Several  of  Odo's  tales,  like  Chaucer's  story,  can  be  ultimately 

1  M.  Minas  professed  to  have  discovered  under  the  same  circum- 
stances another  collection  of  ninety-four  fables  by  Babrius.  This 
second  part  was  accepted  by  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis,  but  J.  Conington 
conclusively  proved  it  spurious,  and  probably  a  forgery.  c 
BABRIUS. 


See 


traced  to  the  History  of  Reynard  the  Fox.  This  great  beast-epic 
has  been  referred  by  Grimm  as  far  back  as  the  icth  century,  and 
is  known  to  us  in  three  forms,  each  with  independent  episodes, 
but  all  woven  upon  a  common  basis.  The  Latin  form  is  probably 
the  earliest,  and  the  poems  Reinardus  and  Ysengrinus  date  from 
the  loth  or  nth  century.  Next  come  the  German  versions. 
The  most  ancient,  that  of  a  minnesinger  Heinrich  der  Glichesaere 
(probably  a  Swabian) ,  was  analysed  and  edited  by  Grimm  in  1 840. 
The  French  poem  of  more  than  30,000  lines,  the  Roman  du 
Renard,  belongs  probably  to  the  i3th  century.  In  1498  appeared 
Reynke  de  Voss,  almost  a  literal  version  in  Low  Saxon  of  the 
Flemish  poem  of  the  i2th  century,  Reinaert  de  Vos.  Hence 
the  well-known  version  of  Goethe  into  modern  German  hexa- 
meters was  taken.  The  poem  has  been  well  named  "  an  unholy 
world  Bible."  In  it  the  Aesopian  fable  received  a  development 
which  was  in  several  respects  quite  original.  We  have  here  no 
short  and  unconnected  stories.  Materials,  partly  borrowed  from 
older  apologues,  but  in  a  much  greater  proportion  new,  are 
worked  up  into  one  long  and  systematic  tale.  The  moral,  so 
prominent  in  the  fable  proper,  shrinks  so  far  into  the  background, 
that  the  epic  might  be  considered  a  work  of  pure  fiction,  an  animal 
romance.  The  attempts  to  discover  in  it  personal  satire  have 
signally  failed;  some  critics  deny  even  the  design  to  represent 
human  conduct  at  all;  and  we  can  scarcely  get  nearer  to  its 
signification  than  by  regarding  it  as  being,  in  a  general  way,  what 
Carlyle  has  called  "  a  parody  of  human  life."  It  represents  a 
contest  maintained  successfully,  by  selfish  craft  and  audacity, 
against  enemies  of  all  sorts,  in  a  half-barbarous  and  ill-organized 
society.  With  his  weakest  foes,  like  Chaunteclere  the  Cock, 
Reynard  uses  brute-force;  over  the  weak  who  are  protected,  like 
Kiward  the  Hare  and  Belin  the  Ram,  he  is  victorious  by  uniting 
violence  with  cunning;  Bruin,  the  dull,  strong,  formidable  Bear, 
is  humbled  by  having  greater  power  than  his  own  enlisted  against 
him;  and  the  most  dangerous  of  all  the  fox's  enemies,  Isengrim, 
the  obstinate, 'greedy  and  implacable  Wolf,  after  being  baffled 
by  repeated  strokes  of  malicious  ingenuity,  forces  Reynard  to  a 
single  combat,  but  even  thus  is  not  a  match  for  his  dexterous 
adversary.  The  knavish  fox  has  allies  worthy  of  him  in  Grimbart 
the  watchful  badger,  and  in  his  own  aunt  Dame  Rukenawe,  the 
learned  She-ape;  and  he  plays  at  his  pleasure  on  the  simple 
credulity  of  the  Lion-King,  the  image  of  an  impotent  feudal 
sovereign.  The  characters  of  these  and  other  brutes  are  kept 
up  with  a  rude  kind  of  consistency,  which  gives  them  great 
liveliness;  many  of  the  incidents  are  devised  with  much  force 
of  humour;  and  the  sly  hits  at  the  weak  points  of  medieval 
polity  and  manners  and  religion  are  incessant  and  palpable. 

It  is  needless  to  trace  the  fable,  or  illustrations  borrowed  from 
fables,  that  so  frequently  occur  as  incidental  ornaments  in  the 
older  literature  of  England  and  other  countries.  It  has  appeared 
in  every  modern  nation  of  Europe,  but  has  nowhere  become  very 
important,  and  has  hardly  ever  exhibited  much  originality  either 
of  spirit  or  of  manner.  In  English,  Prior  transplanted  from  France 
some  of  La  Fontaine's  ease  of  narration  and  artful  artlessness, 
while  Gay  took  as  his  model  the  Conies  rather  than  the  Fables. 
Gay's  fables  are  often  political  satires,  but  some,  like  the  Fox  on 
his  Deathbed,  have  the  true  ring,  and  in  the  Hare  with  many 
Friends  there  is  genuine  pathos.  To  Dryden's  spirited  remodel- 
lings  of  old  poems,  romances  and  fabliaux,  the  name  of  fables, 
which  he  was  pleased  to  give  them,  is  quite  inapplicable.  In 
German,  Hagedorn  and  Gellert,  both  famous  in  their  day  and 
the  latter  extolled  by  Goethe,  are  quite  forgotten;  and  even 
Lessing's  fables  are  read  by  few  but  schoolboys.  In  Spanish, 
Yriarte's  fables  on  literary  subjects  are  sprightly  and  graceful, 
but  the  critic  is  more  than  the  fabulist.  A  spirited  version  of  the 
best  appeared  in  Blackwood's  Magazine,  1839.  Among  Italians 
Pignotti  is  famous  for  versatility  and  command  of  rhythm,  as 
amongst  Russians  is  Kriloff  for  his  keen  satire  on  Russian  society. 
He  has  been  translated  into  English  by  Ralston. 

France  alone  in  modern  times  has  attained  any  pre-eminence  in 
the  fable,  and  this  distinction  is  almost  entirely  owing  to  one 
author.  Marie  de  France  in  the  i3th  century,  Gilles  Corrozet, 
Guillaume  Haudent  and  Guillaume  Gueroult  in  the  i6th,  are  now 


n6 


FABLIAU 


studied  mainly  as  the  precursors  of  La  Fontaine,  from  whom 
he  may  have  borrowed  a  stray  hint  or  the  outline  of  a  story. 
The  unique  character  of  his  work  has  given  a  new  word  to  the 
French  language:  other  writers  of  fables  are  called  fabulisles, 
La  Fontaine  is  named  le  fattier.  He  is  a  true  poet;  his  verse 
is  exquisitely  modulated;  his  love  of  nature  often  reminds  us  of 
Virgil,  as  do  his  tenderness  and  pathos  (see,  for  instance,  The 
Two  Pigeons  and  Death  and  the  Woodcutter).  He  is  full  of  sly 
fun  and  delicate  humour;  like  Horace  he  satirizes  without 
wounding,  and  "  plays  around  the  heart."  Lastly,  he  is  a  keen 
observer  of  men.  The  whole  society  of  the  lyth  century,  its 
greatness  and  its  foibles,  its  luxury  and  its  squalor,  from  Le 
grand  monarque  to  the  poor  manant,  from  his  majesty  the  lion 
to  the  courtier  of  an  ape,  is  painted  to  the  life.  To  borrow  his 
own  phrase,  La  Fontaine's  fables  are  "  une  ample  comedie 
a  cent  actes  divers."  Rousseau  did  his  best  to  discredit  the 
Fables  as  immoral  and  corruptors  of  youth,  but  in  spite  of  Emile 
they  are  studied  in  every  French  school  and  are  more  familiar 
to  most  Frenchmen  than  their  breviary.  Among  the  successors 
of  La  Fontaine  the  most  distinguished  is  Florian.  He  justly 
estimates  his  own  merits  in  the  pretty  apologue  that  he  prefixed 
to  his  Fables.  He  asks  a  sage  whether  a  fabulist  writing  after 
La  Fontaine  would  not  be  wise  to  consign  bis  work  to  the  flames. 
The  sage  replies  by  a  question:  "  What  would  you  say  did  some 
sweet,  ingenuous  Maid  of  Athens  refuse  to  let  herself  be  seen 
because  there  was  once  a  Helen  of  Troy  ?  " 

The  fables  of  Lessing  represent  the  reaction  against  the  French 
school  of  fabulists.  "  With  La  Fontaine  himself,"  says  Lessing, 
"  I  have  no  quarrel,  but  against-  the  imitators  of  La  Fontaine  I 
enter  my  protest."  His  attention  was  first  called  to  the  fable 
by  Gellert's  popular  work  published  in  1 746.  Gellert's  fables  were 
closely  modelled  after  La  Fontaine's,  and  were  a  vehicle  for  lively 
railings  against  the  fair  sex,  and  hits  at  contemporary  follies. 
Lessing's  early  essays  were  in  the  same  style,  but  his  subsequent 
study  of  the  history  and  theory  of  the  fable  led  him  to  discard  his 
former  model  as  a  perversion  of  later  times,  and  the  "  Fabeln," 
published  in  1759,  are  the  outcome  of  his  riper  views.  Lessing's 
fables,  like  all  that  he  wrote,  display  his  vigorous  common  sense. 
He  has,  it  is  true,  little  of  La  Fontaine's  curiosa  felicitas,  his  sly 
humour  and  lightness  of  touch;  and  Frenchmen  would  say  that 
his  criticism  of  La  Fontaine  is  an  illustration  of  the  fable  of  the 
sour  grapes.  On  the  other  hand,  he  has  the  rare  power  of  looking 
at  both  sides  of  a  moral  problem;  he  holds  a  brief  for  the  stupid 
and  the  feeble,  the  ass  and  the  lamb;  and  in  spite  of  his  formal 
protest  against  poetical  ornament,  there  is  in  not  a  few  of  his 
fables  a  vein  of  true  poetry,  as  in  the  Sheep  (ii.  13)  and  Jupiter 
and  the  Sheep  (ii.  18).  But  the  monograph  which  introduced  the 
Fabeln  is  of  more  inportance  than  the  tables  themselves. 
According  to  Lessing  the  ideal  fable  is  that  of  Aesop.  All  the 
elaborations  and  refinements  of  later  authors,  from  Phaedrus 
to  La  Fontaine,  are  perversions  of  this  original.  The  fable  is 
essentially  a  moral  precept  illustrated  by  a  single  example, 
and  it  is  the  lesson  thus  enforced  which  gives  to  the  fable  its 
unity  and  makes  it  a  work  of  art.  The  illustration  must  be  either 
an  actual  occurrence  or  represented  as  such,  because  a  fictitious 
case  invented  ad  hoc  can  appeal  but  feebly  to  the  reader's 
judgment.  Lastly,  the  fable  requires  a  story  or  connected  chain 
of  events.  A  single  fact  will  not  make  a  fable,  but  is  only  an 
emblem.  We  thus  arrive  at  the  following  definition: — "  A  fable 
is  a  relation  of  a  series  of  changes  which  together  form  a  whole. 
The  unity  of  the  fable  consists  herein,  that  all  the  parts  lead  up  to 
an  end,  the  end  for  which  the  fable  was  invented  being  the  moral 
precept." 

We  may  notice  in  passing  a  problem  in  connexion  with  the 
fable  which  had  long  been  debated,  but  never  satisfactorily 
resolved  till  Lessing  took  it  in  hand — Why  should  animals 
have  been  almost  universally  chosen  as  the  chief  dramatis 
personae?  The  reason,  according  to  Lessing,  is  that  animals 
have  distinct  characters  which  are  known  and  recognized  by  all. 
The  fabulist  who  writes  of  Britannicus  and  Nero  appeals  to  the 
few  who  know  Roman  history.  The  Wolf  and  the  Lamb  comes 
home  to  every  one  whether  learned  or  simple.  But,  besides  this, 


human  sympathies  obscure  the  moral  judgment;  hence  it  follows 
that  the  fable,  unlike  the  drama  and  the  epos,  should  abstain 
from  all  that  is  likely  to  arouse  our  prejudices  or  our  passions. 
In  this  respect  the  Wolf  and  the  Lamb  of  Aesop  is  a  more  perfect 
fable  than  the  Rich  Man  and  the  Poor  Man's  Ewe  Lamb  of  Nathan. 
Lessing's  analysis  and  definition  of  the  fable,  though  he  seems 
himself  unconscious  of  the  scope  of  his  argument,  is  in  truth  its 
death-warrant.  The  beast-fable  arose  in  a  primitive  age  when 
men  firmly  believed  that  beasts  could  talk  and  reason,  that  any 
wolf  they  met  might  be  a  were-wolf,  that  a  peacock  might  be  a 
Pythagoras  in  disguise,  and  an  ox  or  even  a  cat  a  being  worthy  of 
their  worship.  To  this  succeeded  the  second  age  of  the  fable, 
which  belongs  to  the  same  stage  of  culture  as  the  Hebrew  proverbs 
and  the  gnomic  poets  of  Greece.  That  honesty  is  the  best  policy, 
that  death  is  common  to  all,  seemed  to  the  men  of  that  day 
profound  truths  worthy  to  be  embalmed  in  verse  or  set  off  by  the 
aid  of  story  or  anecdote.  Last  comes  an  age  of  high  literary 
culture  which  tolerates  the  trite  morals  and  hackneyed  tales  for 
the  sake  of  the  exquisite  setting,  and  is  amused  at  the  wit  which 
introduces  topics  and  characters  of  the  day  under  the  transparent 
veil  of  animal  life.  Such  an  artificial  product  can  be  nothing  more 
than  the  fashion  of  a  day,  and  must,  like  pastoral  poetry,  die  a 
natural  death.  A  serious  moralist  would  hardly  choose  that  form 
to  inculcate,  like  Mandeville  in  his  Fable  of  the  Bees,  a  new 
doctrine  in  morals,  for  the  moral  of  the  fable  must  be  such  that 
he  who  runs  may  read.  A  true  poet  will  not  care  to  masquerade 
as  a  moral  teacher,  or  show  his  wit  by  refurbishing  some  old-world 
maxim.  Yet  Taine  in  France,  Lowell  in  America,  and  J.  A. 
Froude  in  England  have  proved  that  the  fable  as  one  form  of 
literature  is  not  yet  extinct,  and  is  capable  of  new  and  unexpected 
developments. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Pantschatanirum,  ed.  Kosegarten  (Bonn,  1848); 
Hitopadesa,  ed.  Max  Miiller  (1864) ;  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  Calilah  et 
Dimna,  ou  Fables  de  Bidpai,  en  Arabe,  precedees  d'un  memoire  sur 
I'origine  de  ce  livre  (Paris,  1816),  translated  by  the  Rev.  Wyndham 
Knatchbull  (Oxford,  1819);  Comparetti,  Ricerche  intorno  al  Libra 
di  Sindebad  (Milan,  1869);  Max  Miiller,  "Migration  of  Fables," 
Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  vol.  iv.  (1875);  Keller,  Unter- 
suchungen  uber  die  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Fabel  (Leipzig,  1862); 
Babrius,  ed.  W.  G.  Rutherford,  with  excursus  on  Greek  fables 
(1883);  L.  Hervieux,  Les  Fabulistes  latins  (1884);  Jakob  Grimm, 
Reinhart  Fuchs  (Berlin,  1834);  A.  C.  M.  Robert,  Fables  inediles  des 
XII',  XIII'  et  XIV'  siedes,  &c.  (Paris,  1825);  Taine,  Essai 
sur  les  fables  de  La  Fontaine  (1853);  Saint-Marc  Girardin,  La 
Fontaine  et  les  fabitlisies  (Paris,  1867).  (F.  S.) 

FABLIAU.  The  entertaining  tales  in  eight-syllable  rhymed 
verse  which  form  a  marked  section  of  French  medieval  litera- 
ture are  called  fabliaux,  the  word  being  derived  by  Littre  from 
fablel,  a  diminutive  of  fable.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose,  as  is 
frequently  done,  that  every  legend  of  the  middle  ages  is  a  fabliau. 
In  a  poem  of  the  i2th  century  a  clear  distinction  is  drawn 
between  songs  of  chivalry,  war  or  love,  and  fabliaux,  which  are 
recitals  of  laughter.  A  fabliau  always  related  an  event;  it  was 
usually  brief,  containing  not  more  than  400  lines;  it  was  neither 
sentimental,  religious  nor  supernatural,  but  comic  and  gay. 
MM.  de  Montaiglon  and  Raynaud,  who  have  closely  investigated 
this  class  of  literature,  consider  that  about  150  fabliaux  have 
come  down  to  us  more  or  less  intact;  a  vast  number  have 
doubtless  disappeared.  It  appears  from  a  phrase  in  the  writings 
of  the  trouvere,  Henri  d'  Andeli,  that  the  fabliau  was  not  thought 
worthy  of  being  copied  out  on  parchment.  The  wonder,  then, 
is  that  so  many  of  these  ephemeral  compositions  have  been 
preserved.  Arguments  brought  forward  by  M.  Joseph  Bedier, 
however,  tend  to  show  that  we  need  not  regret  the  disappearance 
of  the  majority  of  the  fabliaux,  as  those  which  were  copied  into 
MSS.  were  those  which  were  felt  to  be  of  the  greatest  intrinsic 
value.  As  early  as  the  8th  century  fabliaux  must  have  existed, 
since  the  faithful  are  forbidden  to  take  pleasure  in  these  fabulas 
inanes  by  the  Paenitentiale  of  Egbert.  But  it  appears  that  all  the 
early  examples  are  lost. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  best  scholars,  the  earliest  surviving 
fabliau  is  that  of  Richeut,  which  dates  from  1159.  This  is  a 
rough  and  powerful  study  of  the  coarse  life  of  the  day,  with 
little  plot,  but  engaged  with  a  realistic  picture  of  manners. 


FABRE 


117 


Such  poems,  but  of  a  more  strictly  narrative  nature,  continued 
to  be  produced,  mainly  in  the  north  and  north-east  of  France, 
until  the  middle  of  the  i4th  century.  Much  speculation  has  been 
expended  on  the  probable  sources  of  the  tales  which  the  trouveres 
told.  The  Aryan  theory,  which  saw  in  them  the  direct  influence 
of  India  upon  Europe,  has  now  been  generally  abandoned.  It 
does  not  seem  probable  that  any  ancient  or  exotic  influences  were 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  French  jongleurs,  who  simply  invented 
or  adapted  stories  of  that  universal  kind  which  springs  unsown 
from  every  untilled  field  of  human  society.  More  remarkable 
than  the  narratives  themselves  is  the  spirit  in  which  they  are 
told.  This  is  full  of  the  national  humour  and  the  national  irony, 
the  true  esprit  gaulois.  A  very  large  section  of  these  popular 
poems  deals  satirically  with  the  pretensions  of  the  clergy.  Such 
are  the  famous  Pretre  aux  mures,  the  Pretre  qui  dit  la  Passion 
and  Les  Perdrix.  Some  of  these  are  innocently  merry;  others  are 
singularly  depraved  and  obscene.  Another  class  of  fabliaux  is 
that  which  comprises  jests  against  the  professions;  in  this, 
the  most  prominent  example  is  Le  Vilain  Mire,  a  satire  on 
doctors,  which  curiously  predicts  the  Medecin  malgre  lui  of 
Moliere.  There  are  also  tales  whose  purpose  is  rather  voluptuous 
than  witty,  and  whose  aim  is  to  excuse  libertinage  and  render 
marriage  ridiculous.  Among  these  are  prominent  Court  Mantel 
and  Le  Dit  de  Berenger.  Yet  another  class  repeated,  with  a 
strain  of  irony  or  oddity,  such  familiar  classical  stories  as  those 
of  Narcissus,  and  Pyramus  and  Thisbe.  It  is  rarely  that  any 
elevation  of  tone  raises  these  poems  above  a  familiar  and  even 
playful  level,  but  there  are  some  that  are  almost  idealistic. 
Among  these  the  story  of  a  sort  of  Sisyphus  errant,  Le  Chevalier 
de  Barizel,  offers  an  ethical  interest  which  lifts  it  in  certain 
respects  above  all  other  surviving  fabliaux.  An  instance  of  the 
pathetic  fabliau  is  Housse  Partie,  a  kind  of  primitive  version  of 
the  story  of  King  Lear. 

In  composing  these  pieces,  of  very  varied  character,  the 
jongleurs  have  practised  an  art  which  was  in  many  respects 
rudimentary,  but  sincere  and  simple.  The  student  of  language 
finds  the  rich  vocabulary  of  the  fabliaux  much  more  attractive 
to  him  than  the  conventionality  of  the  serious  religious  and 
amatory  poems  of  the  same  age.  The  object  of  the  writers  was 
the  immediate  amusement  of  their  audience;  by  reference  to 
familiar  things,  they  hoped  to  arouse  a  quick  and  genuine 
merriment.  Hence  their  incorrectness  and  their  negligence 
are  balanced  by  a  delightful  ease  and  absence  of  pedantry,  and 
in  the  fabliaux  we  get  closer  than  elsewhere  to  the  living  diction 
of  medieval  France.  It  is  true  that  if  we  extend  too  severe  a 
judgment  to  these  pieces,  we  may  find  ourselves  obliged  to 
condemn  them  altogether.  An  instructed  French  critic,  vexed 
with  their  faults,  has  gone  so  far  as  to  say  that  "  the  subjects 
of  these  tales  are  degrading,  their  inspiration  nothing  better 
than  flat  and  cruel  derision,  their  distinguishing  features  rascality, 
vulgarity  and  platitude  of  style."  From  one  point  of  view,  this 
condemnation  of  the  fabliau  is  hardly  too  severe.  But  such 
scholars  as  Gaston  Paris  and  Paul  Meyer  have  not  failed  to 
emphasize  other  sides  to  the  question.  They  have  praised,  in 
the  general  laxity  of  style  and  garrulity  of  the  middle  ages, 
the  terseness  of  the  jongleurs;  in  the  period  of  false  ornament, 
their  fidelity  to  nature;  in  a  time  of  general  vagueness,  the 
sharp  and  picturesque  outlines  of  their  art.  One  feature  of  the 
fabliaux,  however,  cannot  be  praised  and  yet  must  not  be  over- 
looked. In  no  other  section  of  the  world's  literature  is  the  scorn 
and  hatred  of  women  so  prominent.  It  is  difficult  to  account 
for  the  anti-feminine  rage  which  pervades  the  fabliaux,  and  takes 
hideous  shapes  in  such  examples  as  Le  Valet  aux  deux  femmes, 
Le  Pecheur  de  Pont-sur-Seine  and  Chicheface  et  Bigorne.  Probably 
this  was  a  violent  reaction  against  the  extravagant  cult  of 
woman  as  expressed  in  the  contemporary  lais  as  well  as  in  the 
legends  of  saints.  The  exaggeration  was  not  greater  in  the  one 
case  than  in  the  other,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  exaltation  was 
made  endurable  to  those  who  listened  to  the  trouveres  by  the 
corresponding  degradation.  We  must  remember,  too,  that 
those  who  listened  were  not  nobles  or  clerks,  they  were  the 
common  people.  The  fabliaux  were  fabellae  ignobilium,  little 


stories  told  to  amuse  persons  of  low  degree,  who  were  irritated 
by  the  moral  pretensions  of  their  superiors. 

The  names  of  about  twenty  of  the  authors  of  fabliaux  have 
been  preserved,  although  in  most  cases  nothing  is  known  of  their 
personal  history.  The  most  famous  poet  of  this  class  of  writing 
is  the  man  whose  name,  or  more  probably  pseudonym,  was 
Rutebeuf.  He  wrote  Frere  Denyse  and  Le  Sacristain,  while  to 
him  is  attributed  the  Dit  d'Aristote,  in  the  course  of  which  Aristotle 
gives  good  advice  to  Alexander.  Fabliaux,  however,  form  but  a 
small  part  of  the  work  of  Rutebeuf,  who  was  a  satirical  poet  of 
wide  accomplishment  and  varied  energy.  Most  of  the  jongleurs 
who  wrote  these  merry  and  indecent  tales  in  octosyllabic  verse 
were  persons  of  less  distinction.  Henri  d'Andeli  was  an  ecclesi- 
astic, attached,  it  is  supposed,  to  the  cathedral  of  Rouen.  Jean 
de  Conde,  who  flourished  in  the  court  of  Hainaut  from  1310  to 
1340,  and  Who  is  the  latest  of  the  genuine  writers  of  fabliaux, 
lived  in  comfort  and  security,  but  most  of  the  professional 
jongleurs  seem  to  have  spent  their  years  in  a  Bohemian  existence, 
wandering  among  the  clergy  and  the  merchant  class,  alternately 
begging  for  money  and  food  and  reciting  their  mocking  verses. 

The  principal  authorities  for  the  fabliaux  are  MM.  Anatole  de 
Montaiglon  and  Gaston  Raynaud,  who  published  the  text,  in  6  vols., 
between  1872  and  1890.  This  edition  corrected  and  supplemented 
the  very  valuable  labours  of  Meon  (1808-1823)  and  Jubinal  (1839- 
1842).  The  works  of  Henri  d'Andeli  were  edited  by  M.  A.  Heron 
in  1880,  and  those  of  Rutebeuf  were  made  the  subject  of  an  ex- 
haustive monograph  by  M.  Leon  Cledat  in  1891.  See  also  the 
editions  of  separate  fabliaux  by  Gaston  Paris,  Paul  Meyer,  Ebeling, 
August  Scheler  and  other  modern  scholars.  M.  Joseph  Bedier's  Les 
Fabliaux  (1895)  is  a  useful  summary  of  critical  opinion  on  the 
entire  subject.  (E.  G.) 

FABRE,  FERDINAND  (1830-1898),  French  novelist,  was  born 
at  Bedarieux,  in  Herault,  a  very  picturesque  district  of  the 
south  of  France,  which  he  made  completely  his  own  in  literature. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  local  architect,  who  failed  in  business,  and 
Ferdinand  was  brought  up  by  his  uncle,  the  Abbe  Fulcran  Fabre, 
at  Camplong  among  the  mulberry  woods.  Of  his  childhood  and 
early  youth  he  has  given  a  charming  account  in  Ma  Vocation 
(1889).  He  was  destined  to  the  priesthood,  and  was  sent  for 
that  purpose  to  the  seminary  of  St  Pons  de  Thomieres,  where,  in 
1848,  he  had,  as  he  believed,  an  ecstatic  vision  of  Christ,  who 
warned  him  "  It  is  not  the  will  of  God  that  thou  shouldst  be  a 
priest."  He  had  now  to  look  about  for  a  profession,  and,  after 
attempting  medicine  at  Montpellier,  was  articled  as  a  lawyer's 
clerk  in  Paris.  In  1853  he  published  a  volume  of  verses,  Feuilles 
de  lierre,  broke  down  in  health,  and  crept  back,  humble  and 
apparently  without  ambitidn,  to  his  old  home  at  Bedarieux. 
After  some  eight  or  nine  years  of  country  life  he  reappeared  in 
Paris,  with  the  MS.  of  his  earliest  novel,  Les  Courbezon  (1862), 
in  which  he  treated  the  subject  which  was  to  recur  in  almost  all 
his  books,  the  daily  business  of  country  priests  in  the  Cevennes. 
This  story  enjoyed  an  immediate  success  with  the  literary  class 
of  readers;  George  Sand  praised  it,  Sainte-Beuve  hailed  in  its 
author  "  the  strongest  of  the  disciples  of  Balzac,"  and  it  was 
crowned  by  the  French  Academy.  From  this  time  forth  Fabre 
settled  down  to  the  production  of  novels,  of  which  at  the  time  of 
his  death  he  had  published  about  twenty.  Among  these  the 
most  important  were  Le  Chewier  (1868),  unique  among  his 
works  as  written  in  an  experimental  mixture  of  Cevenol  patois  . 
and  French  of  the  i6th  century;  L'Abbe  Tigrane,  candidat  d  la 
papaute  (1873),  by  common  consent  the  best  of  all  Fabre's 
novels,  a  very  powerful  picture  of  unscrupulous  priestly  ambition; 
Man  Oncle  Celestin  (1881),  a  study  of  the  entirely  single  and 
tender-hearted  country  abbe;  and  Lucifer  (1884),  a  marvellous 
gallery  of  serious  clerical  portraits.  In  1 883  Fabre  was  appointed 
curator  of  the  Mazarin  Library,  with  rooms  in  the  Institute, 
where,  on  nth  February  1898,  he  died  after  a  brief  attack  of 
pneumonia.  Ferdinand  Fabre  occupies  in  French  literature  a 
position  somewhat  analogous  to  that  of  Mr  Thomas  Hardy 
amongst  English  writers  of  fiction.  He  deals  almost  exclusively 
with  the  population  of  the  mountain  villages  of  Herault,  and 
particularly  with  its  priests.  He  loved  most  of  all  to  treat  of 
the  celibate  virtues,  the  strictly  ecclesiastical  passions,  the 
enduring  tension  of  the  young  soul  drawn  between  the  spiritual 


n8 


FABRE  D'EGLANTINE— FABRICIUS,  GAIUS 


vocation  and  the  physical  demands  of  nature.  Although  never 
a  priest,  he  preserved  a  comprehension  of  and  a  sympathy  with 
the  clerical  character,  and  he  always  indignantly  denied  that  he 
was  hostile  to  the  Church,  although  he  stood  just  outside  her 
borders.  Fabre  possessed  a  limited  and  a  monotonous  talent, 
but  within  his  own  field  he  was  as  original  as  he  was  wholesome 
and  charming. 

See  also  J.  Lemaitre,  Les  Contemporains,  vol.  ii.;  G.  Pellissier, 
Etudes  de  litterature  conlemporaine  (1898);  E.  W.  Gosse,  French 
Profiles  (1905).  (E.  G.) 

FABRE    D'EGLANTINE,    PHILIPPE    FRANCOIS    NAZAIRE 

(1750-1794),  French  dramatist  and  revolutionist,  was  born  at 
Carcassonne  on  the  28th  of  July  1750.  His  real  name  was 
simple  Fabre,  the  "  d'£glantine  "  being  added  in  commemora- 
tion of  his  receiving  the  golden  eglantine  of  Clemence  Isaure  from 
the  academy  of  the  floral  games  at  Toulouse.  After  travelling 
through  the  provinces  as  an  actor,  he  came  to  Paris,  and  produced 
an  unsuccessful  comedy  entitled  Les  Gens  de  lettres,  ou  le  pro- 
vincial a  Paris  (1787).  A  tragedy,  Augusta,  produced  at  the 
Theatre  Franc.ais,  was  also  a  failure.  One  only  of  his  plays, 
Philinte,  ou  la  suite  du  Misanthrope  (1790),  still  preserves  its 
reputation.  It  professes  to  be  a  continuation  of  Moliere's 
Misanthrope,  but  the  hero  of  the  piece  is  of  a  different  character 
from  ,the  nominal  prototype — an  impersonation,  indeed,  of 
pure  and  simple  egotism.  On  its  publication  the  play  was 
introduced  by  a  preface,  in  which  the  author  mercilessly  satirizes 
the  Optimiste  of  his  rival  J.  F.  Collin  d'Harleville,  whose  Chdteaux 
en  Espagne  had  gained  the  applause  which  Fabre's  Presomptueux 
(1789)  had  failed  to  win.  The  character  of  Philinte  had  much 
political  significance.  Alceste  received  the  highest  praise,  and 
evidently  represents  the  citizen  patriot,  while  Philinte  is  a 
dangerous  aristocrat  in  disguise.  Fabre  was  president  and 
secretary  of  the  club  of  the  Cordeliers,  and  belonged  also  to  the 
Jacobin  club.  He  was  chosen  by  Danton  as  his  private  secretary, 
and  sat  in  the  National  Convention.  He  voted  for  the  king's 
death,  supporting  the  maximum  and  the  law  of  the  suspected, 
and  he  was  a  bitter  enemy  of  the  Girondins.  After  the  death  of 
Marat  he  published  a  Portrait  de  I' Ami  du  Peuple.  On  the 
abolition  of  the  Gregorian  calendar  he  sat  on  the  committee 
entrusted  with  the  formation  of  the  republican  substitute, 
and  to  him  was  due  a  large  part  of  the  new  nomenclature,  with 
its  poetic  Prairial  and  Floreal,  its  prosaic  Primidi  and  Duodi. 
The  report  which  he  made  on  the  subject,  on  the  24th  of  October, 
has  some  scientific  value.  On  the  1 2th  of  January  1794  he  was 
arrested  by  order  of  the  committee  of  public  safety  on  a  charge 
of  malversation  and  forgery  in  connexion  with  the  affairs  of  the 
Compagnie  des  Indes.  Documents  still  existing  prove  that  the 
charge  was  altogether  groundless.  During  his  trial  Fabre  showed 
the  greatest  calmness  and  sang  his  own  well-known  song  of 
//  pleut,  il  pleut,  bergire,  rentre  tes  blancs  moutons.  He  was 
guillotined  on  the  5th  of  April  1794.  On  his  way  to  the  scaffold 
he  distributed  his  manuscript  poems  to  the  people. 

A  posthumous  play,  Les  Precepteurs,  steeped  with  the  doctrines 
of  Rousseau's  Entile,  was  performed  on  the  i7th  of  September 
1794,  and  met  with  an  enthusiastic  reception.  Among  Fabre's 
other  plays  are  the  gay  and  successful  Convalescent  de  qualM 
(1791),  and  L'Intrigue  epistolaire  (1791).  In  the  latter  play 
Fabre  is  supposed  to  have  drawn  a  portrait  of  the  painter  Jean 
Baptiste  Greuze. 

The  author's  CEuvres  melees  et  posthumes  were  published  at  Paris 
1802,  2  vo!s.  See  Albert  Maurin,  Galerie  hist,  de  la  Revolution 
franfaise,  tome  n;  Jules  Janin,  Hist,  de  la  lilt,  dram.;  Chenier, 
Tableau  de  la  lilt,  frangaise;  F.  A.  Aulard  in  the  Nouvelle  Revue 
(July  1885). 

FABRETTI,  RAPHAEL  (1618-1700),  Italian  antiquary,  was 
born  in  1618  at  Urbino  in  Umbria.  He  studied  law  at  Cagli  and 
Urbino,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  at  the  age  of  eighteen. 
While  in  Rome  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Cardinal  Lorenzo 
Imperial!,  who  employed  him  successively  as  treasurer  and 
auditor  of  the  papal  legation  in  Spain,  where  he  remained 
thirteen  years.  Meanwhile,  his  favourite  classical  and  anti- 
quarian studies  were  not  neglected;  and  on  his  return  journey 
he  made  important  observations  of  the  relics  and  monuments  of 


Spain,  France  and  Italy.  At  Rome  he  was  appointed  judge  of 
appellation  of  the  Capitol,  which  post  he  left  to  be  auditor  of  the 
legation  at  Urbino.  After  three  years  he  returned  to  Rome,  on 
the  invitation  of  Cardinal  Carpegna,  vicar  of  Innocent  XI., 
and  devoted  himself  to  antiquarian  research,  examining  with 
minute  care  the  monuments  and  inscriptions  of  the  Campagna. 
He  always  rode  a  horse  which  his  friends  nicknamed  "  Marco 
Polo,"  after  the  Venetian  traveller.  By  Innocent  XII.  he  was 
made  keeper  of  the  archives  of  the  castle  St  Angelo,  a  charge 
which  he  retained  till  his  death.  He  died  at  Rome  on  the  7th  of 
January  1700.  His  collection  of  inscriptions  and  monuments 
was  purchased  by  Cardinal  Stoppani,  and  placed  in  the  ducal 
palace  at  Urbino,  where  they  may  still  be  seen. 

His  work  De  Aquis  et  Aquae-ductibus  veteris  Romae  (1680), 
three  dissertations  on  the  topography  of  ancient  Latium,  is 
inserted  in  Graevius's  Thesaurus,  iv.  (1677).  His  interpretation 
of  certain  passages  in  Livy  and  other  classical  authors  involved 
him  in  a  dispute  with  Gronovius,  which  bore  a  strong  resemblance 
to  that  between  Milton  and  Salmasius,  Gronovius  addressing 
Fabretti  as  Faber  Rusticus,  and  the  latter,  in  reply,  speaking  of 
Grunnovius  and  his  titivilitia.  In  this  controversy  Fabretti 
used  the  pseudonym  lasitheus,  which  he  afterwards  took  as  his 
pastoral  name  in  the  Academy  of  the  Arcadians.  His  other 
works,  De  Columna  Trajani  Syntagma  (Rome,  1683),  and 
Inscriptionum  Antiquarum  Explicatio  (Rome,  1699),  throw  much 
light  on  Roman  antiquity.  In  the  former  is  to  be  found  his 
explication  of  a  bas-relief,  with  inscriptions,  now  in  the  Capitol 
at  Rome,  representing  the  war  and  taking  of  Troy,  known  as  the 
Iliac  table.  Letters  and  other  shorter  works  of  Fabretti  are  to 
be  found  in  pubh'cations  of  the  time,  as  the  Journal  des  Savants. 

See  Crescimbeni,  Le  Vile  degli  Arcadi  illustri;  Fabroni,  Vilae 
Italorum,  vi.  174;  Niceron,  iv.  372;  J.  Lamius,  Memorabilia 
Italorum  eruditione  praestantium  (Florence,  1742-1748). 

FABRIANI,  SEVERING  (1792-1849),  Italian  author  and 
teacher,  was  born  at  Spilamberto,  Italy,  on  the  7th  of  January 
1792.  Entering  the  Church,  he  took  up  educational  work,  but 
in  consequence  of  complete  loss  of  voice  he  resolved  to  devote 
himself  to  teaching  deaf  mutes,  and  founded  a  small  school 
specially  for  them.  This  school  the  duke  of  Modena  made  into 
an  institute,  and  by  a  special  authority  from  the  pope  a  teaching 
staff  of  nuns  was  appointed.  Fabriani's  method  of  instruction 
is  summed  up  in  his  Logical  Letters  on  Italian  Grammar  (1847). 
He  died  on  the  27th  of  April  1849. 

FABRIANO,  a  town  of  the  Marches,  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Ancona,  from  which  it  is  44  m.  S.W.  by  rail,  1066  ft.  above 
sea-level.  Pop.  (1901)  town  9586,  commune  22,996.  It  has 
been  noted  since  the  I3th  century  for  its  paper  mills,  which  still 
produce  the  best  paper  in  Italy.  A  school  of  painting  arose  here, 
one  of  the  early  masters  of  which  is  Allegretto  Nuzi  (1308-1385) ; 
and  several  of  the  churches  contain  works  by  him  and  other  local 
masters.  His  pupil,  Gentile  da  Fabriano  (1370-1428),  was  a 
painter  of  considerably  greater  skill  and  wider  knowledge;  but 
there  are  no  important  works  of  his  at  Fabriano.  The  sacristy 
of  S.  Agostino  also  contains  some  good  frescoes  by  Ottaviano 
Nelli  of  Gubbio.  The  municipal  picture  gallery  contains  a 
collection  of  pictures,  and  among  them  are  some  primitive 
frescoes,  attributable  to  the  i2th  century,  which  still  retain 
traces  of  Byzantine  influence.  The  Archivio  Comunale  contains 
documents  on  watermarked  paper  of  local  manufacture  going 
back  to  the  i3th  century.  The  Ponte  dell'  Acra,  a  bridge  of  the 
1 5th  century,  is  noticeable  for  the  ingenuity  and  strength  of  its 
construction.  The  hospital  of  S.  Maria  Buon  Gesu  is  a  fine  work 
of  1456,  attributed  to  Rossellino. 

See  A.  Zonghi,  Anliche  Carte  Fabrianesi.  (T.  As.) 

FABRICIUS,  GAIUS  LUSCINUS  (i.e.  "  the  one-eyed  "),  Roman 
general,  was  the  first  member  of  the  Fabrician  gens  who  settled  in 
Rome.  He  migrated  to  Rome  from  Aletrium  (Livy  ix.  43), 
one  of  the  Hernican  towns  which  was  allowed  to  retain  its 
independence  as  a  reward  for  not  having  revolted.  In  285  he 
was  one  of  the  ambassadors  sent  to  the  Tarentines  to  dissuade 
them  from  making  war  on  the  Romans.  In  282  (when  consul) 
he  defeated  the  Bruttians  and  Lucanians,  who  had  besieged 


FABRICIUS,  G.— FABRIZI 


119 


Thurii  (Livy,  Epil.  12).  After  the  defeat  of  the  Romans  by 
Pyrrhus  at  Heraclea  (280),  Fabricius  was  sent  to  treat  for  the 
ransom  and  exchange  of  the  prisoners.  All  attempts  to  bribe 
him  were  unsuccessful,  and  Pyrrhus  is  said  to  have  been  so 
impressed  that  he  released  the  prisoners  without  ransom 
(Plutarch,  Pyrrhus,  18).  The  story  that  Pyrrhus  attempted  to 
frighten  Fabricius  by  the  sight  of  an  elephant  is  probably  a 
fiction.  In  278  Fabricius  was  elected  consul  for  the  second  time, 
and  was  successful  in  negotiating  terms  of  peace  with  Pyrrhus, 
who  sailed  away  to  Sicily.  Fabricius  afterwards  gained  a  series 
of  victories  over  the  Samnites,  the  Lucanians  and  the  Bruttians, 
and  on  his  return  to  Rome  received  the  honour  of  a  triumph. 
Notwithstanding  the  offices  he  had  filled  he  died  poor,  and  pro- 
vision had  to  be  made  for  his  daughter  out  of  the  funds  of  the 
state  (Val.  Max.  iv.  4,  10).  Fabricius  was  regarded  by  the 
Romans  of  later  times  as  a  model  of  ancient  simplicity  and 
incorruptible  integrity. 

FABRICIUS,  GEORG  (1516-1571),  German  poet,  historian 
and  archaeologist,  was  born  at  Chemnitz  in  upper  Saxony  on 
the  23rd  of  April  1516,  and  educated  at  Leipzig.  Travelling  in 
Italy  with  one  of  his  pupils,  he  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the 
antiquities  of  Rome.  He  published  the  results  in  his  Roma  ( 1 5  50) , 
in  which  the  correspondence  between  every  discoverable  relic 
of  the  old  city  and  the  references  to  them  in  ancient  literature 
was  traced  in  detail.  In  1546  he  was  appointed  rector  of  the 
college  of  Meissen,  where  he  died  on  the  i7th  of  July  1571.  In 
his  sacred  poems  he  affected  to  avoid  every  word  with  the  slightest 
savour  of  paganism;  and  he  blamed  the  poets  for  their  allusions 
to  pagan  divinities. 

Principal  works:  editions  of  Terence  (1548)  and  Virgil  (1551); 
Poematum  sacrorum  libri  xxv.  (1560);  Poelarum  veterum  ecclesia- 
sticorum  opera  Christiana  (1562) ;  De  Re  Poetica  libri  septem  (1565) ; 
Rerum  Misnicarum  libri  septem  (1569);  (posthumous)  Originum 
illustrissimae  stirpis  Saxonicae  libri  seplem  (1597) ;  Rerum  Germaniae 
magnae  et  Saxoniae  universae  memorabilium  mirabiliummx  volumina 
duo  (1609).  A  life  of  Georg  Fabricius  was  published  in  1839  by 
D.  C.  W.  Baumgarten-Crusius,  who  in  1845  also  issued  an  edition  of 
Fabricius's  Epistolae  ad  W.  Meurerum  et  alias  aeguales,  with  a  short 
sketch  De  Vita  Ge.  Fabricii  et  de  genie  Fabriciorum;  see  also  F. 
Wachter  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allgemeine  Encydopddie. 

FABRICIUS,  HIERONYMUS  [FABRIZIO,  GERONIMO]  (1537- 
1619),  Italian  anatomist  and  embryologist,  was  surnamed 
Acquapendente  from  the  episcopal  city  of  that  name,  where  he 
was  born  in  1537.  At  Padua,  after  a  course  of  philosophy,  he 
studied  medicine  under  G.  Fallopius,  whose  successor  as  teacher 
of  anatomy  and  surgery  he  became  in  1562.  From  the  senators 
of  Venice  he  received  numerous  honours,  and  an  anatomical 
theatre  was  built  by  them  for  his  accommodation.  He  died  at 
Venice  on  the  2ist  of  May  1619.  His  works  include  De  visione, 
wee  et  auditu  (1600),  De  formate  foetu  (1600),  De  venamm 
osliolis  (1603),  De  formation*  ovi  et  pulli  (1621),  His  collected 
works  were  published  at  Leipzig  in  1687  as  Opera  omnia  Ana- 
tomlca  et  Physiologica,  but  the  Leiden  edition,  pubh'shed  by 
Albinus  in  1738,  is  preferred  as  containing  a  life  of  the  author 
and  the  prefaces  of  his  treatises.  (See  ANATOMY;  EMBRYOLOGY.) 

FABRICIUS,  JOHANN  ALBERT  (1668-1736),  German  classical 
scholar  and  bibliographer,  was  born  at  Leipzig  on  the  nth. of 
November  1668.  His  father,  Werner  Fabricius,  director  of  music 
in  the  church  of  St  Paul  at  Leipzig,  was  the  author  of  several 
works,  the  most  important  being  Deliciae  Harmonicas  (1656). 
The  son  received  his  early  education  from  his  father,  who  on  his 
deathbed  recommended  him  to  the  care  of  the  theologian 
Valentin  Alberti.  He  studied  under  J.  G.  Herrichen,  and  after- 
wards at  Quedlinburg  under  Samuel  Schmid.  It  was  in  Schmid's 
library,  as  he  afterwards  said,  that  he  found  the  two  books, 
F.  Earth's  Adversaria  and  D.  G.  Morhof's  Polyhistor  Literarius, 
which  suggested  to  him  the  idea  of  his  Bibliothecae,  the  works  on 
which  his  great  reputation  was  founded.  Having  returned  to 
Leipzig  in  1686,  he  published  anonymously  (two  years  later) 
his  first  work,  Scriptorum  receniiorum  decas,  an  attack  on  ten 
writers  of  the  day.  His  Decas  Decadum,  sive  plagiariorum  et 
pseudonymorum  centuria  (1689)  is  the  only  one  ot  his  works  to 
which  he  signs  the  name  Faber.  He  then  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  medicine,  which,  however,  he  relinquished  for  that 


of  theology;  and  having  gone  to  Hamburg  in  1693,  he  proposed 
to  travel  abroad,  when  the  unexpected  tidings  that  the  expense 
of  his  education  had  absorbed  his  whole  patrimony,  and  even  left 
him  in  debt  to  his  trustee,  forced  him  to  abandon  his  project. 
He  therefore  remained  at  Hamburg  in  the  capacity  of  librarian 
to  J.  F.  Mayer.  In  1696  he  accompanied  his  patron  to  Sweden; 
and  on  his  return  to  Hamburg,  not  long  afterwards,  he  became 
a  candidate  for  the  chair  of  logic  and  philosophy.  The  suffrages 
being  equally  divided  between  Fabricius  and  Sebastian  Edzardus, 
one  of  his  opponents,  the  appointment  was  decided  by  lot  in 
favour  of  Edzardus;  but  in  1699  Fabricius  succeeded  Vincent 
Placcius  in  the  chair  of  rhetoric  and  ethics,  a  post  which  he  held 
till  his  death,  refusing  invitations  to  Greifswald,  Kiel,  Giessen 
and  Wittenberg.  He  died  at  Hamburg  on  the  3oth  of  April  1736. 

Fabricius  is  credited  with  128  books,  but  very  many  of  them 
were  only  books  which  he  had  edited.  One  of  the  most  famed  and 
laborious  of  these  is  the  Bibliotheca  Latina  (1697,  republished  in  an 
improved  and  amended  form  by  J.  A.  Ernesti,  1773).  The  divisions 
of  the  compilation  are — the  writers  to  the  age  of  Tiberius;  thence 
to  that  of  the  Antonines;  and  thirdly,  to  the  decay  of  the  language; 
a  fourth  gives  fragments  from  old  authors,  and  chapters  on  early 
Christian  literature.  A  supplementary  work  was  Bibliolheca  Latina 
mediae  el  infimae  Aetatis  (1734—1736;  supplementary  volume  by 
C.  Schottgen,  1746;  ed.  Mansi,  1754).  His  chef-d'ceuvre,  however, 
is  the  BMiotheca  Graeca  (1705-1728,  revised  and  continued  by 
G.  C.  Harles,  1790—1812),  a  work  which  has  justly  been  denominated 
maximus  antiquae  erudilionis  thesaurus.  Its  divisions  are  marked 
off  by  Homer,  Plato,  Christ,  Constantine,  and  the  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople in  1453,  while  a  sixth  section  is  devoted  to  canon  law, 
jurisprudence  and  medicine.  Of  his  remaining  works  we  may 
mention :  — Bibliolheca  A  ntiquaria,  an  account  of  the  writers  whose 
works  illustrated  Hebrew,  Greek,  Roman  and  Christian  antiquities 
(1713);  Centifolium  Lutheranum,  a  Lutheran  bibliography  (1728); 
Bibliotheca  Ecclesiastica  (1718).  His  Codex  Apocryphus  (1703)  is 
still  considered  indispensable  as  an  authority  on  apocryphal  Christian 
literature. 

The  details  of  the  Jife  of  Fabricius  are  to  be  found  in  De  Vita  et 
Scriptis  J.  A.  Fabricii  Commeniarius,  by  his  son-in-law,  H.  S. 
Reimarus,  the  well-known  editor  of  Dio  Cassius,  published  at 
Hamburg,  1737 ;  see  also  C.  F.  Bahr  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allgemeine 
Encyclop&die,  and  J.  E.  Sandys,  Hist.  Class.  Schol.  iii.  (1908). 

FABRICIUS,  JOHANN  -CHRISTIAN  (1745-1808),  Danish 
entomologist  and  economist,  was  born  at  Tondern  in  Schleswig 
on  the  7th  of  January  1745.  After  studying  at  Altona  and 
Copenhagen,  he  was  sent  to  Upsala,  where  he  attended  the 
lectures  of  Linnaeus.  He  devoted  his  attention  professionally 
to  political  economy,  and,  after  lecturing  on  that  subject  in  1769, 
was  appointed  in  1775  professor  of  natural  history,  economy 
and  finance  at  Kiel,  in  which  capacity  he  wrote  various  works, 
chiefly  referring  to  Denmark,  and  of  no  special  interest.  He 
also  published  a  few  other  works  on  general  and  natural  history, 
botany  and  travel  (including  Reise  nach  Norwegen,  1779),  and, 
although  his  professional  stipend  was  small,  he  extended  his 
personal  researches  into  every  town  in  northern  and  central 
Europe  where  a  natural  history  museum  was  to  be  found. 
It  is  as  an  entomologist  that  his  memory  survives,  and  for  many 
years  his  great  scientific  reputation  rested  upon  the  system  of 
classification  which  he  founded  upon  the  structure  of  the  mouth- 
organs  instead  of  the  wings.  He  had  a  keen  eye  for  specific 
differences,  and  possessed  the  art  of  terse  and  accurate  description. 
He  died  on  the  3rd  of  March  1808. 

A  complete  list  of  his  entomological  publications  (31)  will  be 
found  in  Hagen's  Bibliotheca  Entomologiae;  the  following  are  the 
chief: — Syslema  Entomologiae  (1775);  Genera  Insectorum  (1776); 
Philosophia  Entomologica  (1778);  Species  insectorum  (1781);  Man- 
tissa Insectorum  (1787);  Entomologia  Systematica  (1792-1794),  with 
a  supplement  (1798);  Systema  Eleulheralorum  (1801),  Rhyngolorum 
(1803),  Piezatorum  (1804),  and  Antliatorum  (1805).  Full  particulars 
of  his  life  will  be  found,  with  a  portrait,  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Entomological  Society  of  London  (1845),  4,  pp.  i-xvi,  where  his  auto- 
biography is  translated  from  the  Danish. 

FABRIZI,  NICOLA  (1804-1885),  Italian  patriot,  was  born  at 
Modena  on  the  4th  of  April  1804.  He  took  part  in  the  Modena 
insurrection  of  1831,  and  attempted  to  succour  Ancona,  but  was 
arrested  at  sea  and  taken  to  Toulon,  whence  he  proceeded  to 
Marseilles.  Afterwards  he  organized  with  Mazzini  the  ill-fated 
Savoy  expedition.  Taking  refuge  in  Spain,  he  fought  against  the 
Carlists,  and  was  decorated  for  valour  on  the  battlefield  (i8th 
July  1837).  At  the  end  of  the  Carlist  War  he  established  a 


I2O 


FABROT— FACCIOLATI 


centre  of  conspiracy  at  Malta,  endeavoured  to  dissuade  Mazzini 
from  the  Bandiera  enterprise,  but  aided  Crispi  in  organizing  the 
Sicilian  revolution  of  1848.  With  a  company  of  volunteers  he 
distinguished  himself  in  the  defence  of  Venice,  afterwards 
proceeding  to  Rome,  where  he  took  part  in  the  defence  of  San 
Pancrazio.  Upon  the  fall  of  Rome  he  returned  to  Malta,  accumu- 
lating arms  and  stores,  which  he  conveyed  to  Sicily,  after  having, 
in  1859,  worked  with  Crispi  to  prepare  the  Sicilian  revolution  of 
1860.  While  Garibaldi  was  sailing  from  Genoa  towards  Marsala 
Fabrizi  landed  at  Pizzolo,  and,  after  severe  fighting,  joined 
Garibaldi  at  Palermo.  Under  the  Garibaldian  Dictatorship  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  Messina  and  minister  of  war.  Return- 
ing to  Malta  after  the  Neapolitan  plebiscite,  which  he  had 
vainly  endeavoured  to  postpone,  he  was  recalled  to  aid  Cialdini 
in  suppressing  brigandage.  While  on  his  way  to  Sicily  in  1862, 
to  induce  Garibaldi  to '  give  up  the  Aspromonte  enterprise, 
he  was  arrested  at  Naples  by  Lamarmora.  During  the  war  of 
1866  he  became  Garibaldi's  chief  of  staff,  and  in  1867  fought  at 
Mentana.  In  parliament  he  endeavoured  to  promote  agreement 
between  the  chiefs  of  the  Left,  and  from  1878  onwards  worked  to 
secure  the  return  of  Crispi  to  power,  but  died  on  the  3ist  of 
March  1885,  two  years  before  the  realization  of  his  object.  His 
whole  life  was  characterized  by  ardent  patriotism  and  unim- 
peachable integrity.  (H.  W.  S.) 

FABROT,  CHARLES  ANNIBAL  (1580-1659),  French  juris- 
consult, was  born  at  Aix  in  Provence  on  the  isth  of  September 
1580.  At  an  early  age  he  made  great  progress  in  the  ancient 
languages  and  in  the  civil  and  the  canon  law;  and  in  1602  he 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  law,  and  was  made  avocat  to 
the  parlement  of  Aix.  In  1609  he  obtained  a  professorship  in 
the  university  of  his  native  town.  He  is  best  known  by  his 
translation  of  the  Basilica,  which  may  be  said  to  have  formed 
the  code  of  the  Eastern  empire  till  its  destruction.  This  work  was 
published  at  Paris  in  1647  in  7  vols.  fol.,  and  obtained  for  its 
author  a  considerable  pension  from  the  chancellor,  Pierre  Seguier, 
to  whom  it  was  dedicated.  Fabrot  likewise  rendered  great  service 
to  the  science  of  jurisprudence  by  Kis  edition  of  Cujas,  which 
comprised  several  treatises  of  that  great  jurist  previously  un- 
published. He  also  edited  the  works  of  several  Byzantine 
historians,  and  was  besides  the  author  of  various  antiquarian 
and  legal  treatises.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  i6th  of  January  1659. 

FABYAN,  ROBERT  (d.  1513),  English  chronicler,  belonged"  to 
an  Essex  family,  members  of  which  had  been  connected  with 
trade  in  London.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Drapers  company, 
alderman  of  Farringdon  Without,  and  served  as  sheriff  in  1493- 
1494.  In  1496  he  was  one  of  those  appointed  to  make  repre- 
sentations to  the  king  on  the  new  impositions  on  English  cloth 
in  Flanders.  Next  year  he  was  one  of  the  aldermen  employed 
in  keeping  watch  at  the  time  of  the  Cornish  rebellion.  He 
resigned  his  aldermanry  in  1502,  on  the  pretext  of  poverty, 
apparently  in  order  to  avoid  the  expense  of  mayoralty.  He 
had,  however,  acquired  considerable  wealth  with  his  wife 
Elizabeth  Pake,  by  whom  he  had  a  numerous  family.  He  spent 
his  latter  years  on  his  estate  of  Halstedys  at  Theydon  Garnon  in 
Essex.  He  died  on  the  28th  of  February  1513  (Inquisitiones 
post  mortem  for  London,  p.  29,  edited  by  G.  S.  Fry,  1896);  his 
will,  dated  the  nth  of  July  1511,  was  proved  on  the  I2th  of  July 
1513.  Fabyan's  Chronicle  was  first  published  by  Richard 
Pynson  in  1516  as  The  new  chronicles  of  England  and  of  France. 
In  this  edition  it  ends  with  the  reign  of  Richard  III.,  and  this 
probably  represents  the  work  as  Fabyan  left  it,  though  with 
the  omission  of  an  autobiographical  note  and  some  religious 
verses,  which  form  the  Envoi  of  his  history.  The  note  and  verses 
are  first  found  in  the  second  edition,  printed  by  John  Rastell  in 
1 533  with  continuations  down  to  1 509.  A  third  edition  appeared 
in  1542,  and  a  fourth  in  1559  with  additions  to  that  year.  The 
only  modern  edition  is  that  of  Sir  Henry  Ellis,  1811. 

In  the  note  above  mentioned  Fabyan  himself  says:  "  and 
here  I  make  an  ende  of  the  vii.  parte  and  hole  werke,  the  vii. 
day  of  November  in  the  yere  of  our  Lord  Jesu  Christes  In- 
carnation M.vc.  and  iiij."  This  seems  conclusive  that  in  1504 
he  did  not  contemplate  any  extension  of  his  chronicles  beyond 


1485.  The  continuations  printed  by  Rastell  are  certainly  not 
Fabyan's  work.  But  Stow  in  his  Collections  (ap.  Survey  of 
London,  ii.  305-306,  ed.  C.  L.  Kingsford)  states  that  Fabyan  wrote 
"  a  Chronicle  of  London,  England  and  of  France,  beginning  at  the 
creation  and  endynge  in  the  third  year  of  Henry  VIII.,  which 
both  I  have  in  written  hand."  In  his  Survey  of  London  (i.  191, 
209,  ii.  55, 1 16)  Stow  several  times  quotes  Fabyan  as  his  authority 
for  statements  which  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  printed  continua- 
tions of  Rastell.  Some  further  evidence  may  be  found  in  other 
notes  of  Stow's  (ap.  Survey  of  London,  ii.  280,  283,  365-366), 
and  in  the  citation  by  Hakluyt  of  an  unprinted  work  of  Fabyan 
as  the  authority  for  his  note  of  Cabot's  voyages.  That  Fabyan 
had  continued  his  Chronicle  to  1511  may  be  accepted  as  certain, 
but  no  trace  of  the  manuscript  can  now  be  found. 

It  is  only  the  seventh  part  of  Fabyan's  Chronicle,  from  the 
Norman  Conquest  onwards,  that  possesses  any  historical  value. 
For  his  French  history  he  followed  chiefly  the  Compendium  super 
Francorum  geslis  of  Robert  Gaguin,  printed  at  Paris  in  1497. 
For  English  history  his  best  source  was  the  old  Chronicles  of 
London,  from  which  he  borrowed  also  the  arrangement  of  his 
work  in  civic  form.  From  1440  to  1485  he  follows,  as  a  rule 
with  great  fidelity,  the  original  of  the  London  Chronicle  in 
Cotton  MS.  Vitellius  A.  XVI.  (printed  in  Chronicles  of  London, 
1905,  pp.  153-264)- 

Fabyan's  own  merits  are  little  more  than  those  of  an  industrious 
compiler,  who  strung  together  the  accounts  of  his  different 
authorities  without  any  critical  capacity.  He  says  expressly 
that  his  work  was  "  gaderyd  without  understandynge,"  and 
speaks  of  himself  as  "of  cunnynge  full  destitute."  Nevertheless 
he  deserves  the  praise  which  he  has  received  as  an  early  worker, 
and  for  having  made  public  information  which  through  Hall  and 
Holinshed  has  become  the  common  property  of  later  historians, 
and  has  only  recently  been  otherwise  accessible.  Bale  alleges 
that  the  first  edition  was  burnt  by  order  of  Cardinal  Wolsey 
because  it  reflected  on  the  wealth  of  the  clergy;  this  probably 
refers  to  his  version  of  the  Lollards  Bill  of  1410,  which  Fabyan 
extracted  from  one  of  the  London  Chronicles. 

See  further  Ellis'  Introduction;  W.  Busch,  England  under  the 
Tudors  (trans.  A.  M.  Todd,  1895),  i.  405-410;  and  C.  L.  Kingsford, 
Chronicles  of  London,  pp.  xxvi-xxxii  (1905).  (C.  L.  K.) 

FAQ ADE,  a  French  architectural  term  signifying  the  external 
face  of  a  building,  but  more  generally  applied  to  the  principal 
front. 

FACCIOLATI,  JACOPO  (1682-1769),  Italian  philologist,  was 
born  at  Torriglia,  in  the  province  of  Padua,  in  1682.  He  owed 
his  admission  to  the  seminary  of  Padua  to  Cardinal  Barberigo, 
who  had  formed  a  high  opinion  of  the  boy's  talents.  As  professor 
of  logic,  and  regent  of  the  schools,  Facciolati  was  the  ornament 
of  the  Paduan  university  during  a  period  of  forty-five  years. 
He  published  improved  editions  of  several  philological  works, 
such  as  the  Thesaurus  Ciceronianus  of  Nizolius,  and  the  polyglot 
vocabulary  known  under  the  name  of  Calepino.  The  latter  work, 
in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his  pupil  Egidio  Forcellini,  he 
completed  in  four  years — 1715  to  1719.  It  was  written  in  seven 
languages,  and  suggested  to  the  editor  the  idea  of  his  opus 
magnum,  the  Totius  Latinitatis  Lexicon,  which  was  ultimately 
published  at  Cardinal  Priole's  expense,  4  vols.  fol.,  Padua,  1771 
(revised  ed.  by  de  Vit,  1858-1887).  In  the  compilation  of  this 
work  the  chief  burden  seems  to  have  been  borne  by  Facciolati 's 
pupil  Forcellini,  to  whom,  however,  the  lexicographer  allows  a 
very  scanty  measure  of  justice.  Perhaps  the  best  testimony  to 
the  learning  and  industry  of  the  compiler  is  the  well-known 
observation  that  the  whole  body  of  Latinity,  if  it  were  to  perish, 
might  be  restored  from  this  lexicon.  Facciolati's  mastery  of 
Latin  style,  as  displayed  in  his  epistles,  has  been  very  much 
admired  for  its  purity  and  grace.  In  or  about  1739  Facciolati 
undertook  the  continuation  of  Papadopoli's  history  of  the 
university  of  Padua,  carrying  it  on  to  his  own  day.  Facciolati 
was  known  over  all  Europe  as  one  of  the  most  enlightened  and 
zealous  teachers  of  the  time;  and  among  the  many  flattering 
invitations  which  he  received,  but  always  declined,  was  one  frcm 
the  king  of  Portugal,  to  accept  the  directorship  of  a  college  at 


FACE— FACTOR 


121 


Lisbon  for  the  young  nobility.  He  died  in  1769.  His  history  of 
the  university  was  published  in  1757,  under  the  name  Fasti 
Gymnasii  Patavini.  In  1808  a  volume  containing  nine  of  his 
Epistles,  never  before  published,  was  issued  at  Padua. 

See  J.  E.  Sandys,  Hist.  Class.  Schol.  ii.  (1908). 

FACE  (from  Lat.  fades,  derived  either  from  facere,  to  make, 
or  from  a  root  fa-,  meaning  "  appear  ";  cf.  Gr.  (paivfiv) ,  a  word 
whose  various  meanings  of  surface,  front,  expression  of  coun- 
tenance, look  or  appearance,  are  adaptations  of  the  application 
of  the  word  to  the  external  part  of  the  front  portion  of  the  head, 
usually  taken  to  extend  from  the  top  of  the  forehead  to  the 
point  of  the  chin,  and  from  ear  to  ear  (see  ANATOMY:  Superficial 
and  Artistic;  and  PHYSIOGNOMY). 

FACTION  (through  the  French,  from  Lat.  faclio,  a  company 
of  persons  combined  for  action,  facere,  to  do;  from  the  other 
French  derivative  fac.on  comes  "fashion"),  a  term,  used  especi- 
ally with  an  opprobrious  meaning,  for  a  body  of  partisans  who 
put  their  party  aims  and  interests  above  those  of  the  state  or 
public,  and  employ  unscrupulous  or  questionable  means;  it  is 
thus  a  common  term  of  reciprocal  abuse  between  parties.  In  the 
history  of  the  Roman  and  Later  Roman  empires  the  factions 
(factiones)  of  the  circus  and  hippodrome,  at  Rome  and  Constanti- 
nople, played  a  prominent  part  in  politics.  The  factiones  were 
properly  the  four  companies  into  which  the  charioteers  were 
divided,  and  distinguished  by  the  colours  they  wore.  Originally 
at  Rome  there  were  only  two,  white  (albata)  and  red  (russata), 
when  each  race  was  open  to  two  chariots  only;  on  the  increase 
to  four,  the  green  (prasina)  and  blue  (veneta)  were  added.  At 
Constantinople  the  last  two  absorbed  the  red  and  white  factions. 

For  a  brilliant  description  of  the  factions  at  Constantinople  under 
Justinian,  and  the  part  they  played  in  the  celebrated  Nika  riot  in 
January  532,  see  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall,  ch.  xl. ;  and  J.  B. 
Bury's  Appendix  10  in  vol.  iv.  of  his  edition  (1898),  for  a  discus- 
sion of  the  relationship  between  the  facliones  and  the  demes  of 
Constantinople. 

FACTOR  (from  Lat.  facere,  to  make  or  do),  strictly  "  one  who 
makes  ";  thus  in  ordinary  parlance,  anything  which  goes  to  the 
composition  of  anything  else  is  termed  one  of  its  "  factors," 
and  in  mathematics  the  term  is  used  of  those  quantities  which, 
when  multiplied  together,  produce  a  given  product.  In  a  special 
sense,  however — and  that  to  which  this  article  is  devoted — 
"  factor  "  is  the  name  given  to  a  mercantile  agent  (of  the  class 
known  as  "  general  agents  ")  employed  to  buy  or  sell  goods 
for  a  commission.  When  employed  to  sell,  the  possession  of  the 
goods  is  entrusted  to  him  by  his  principal,  and  wjien  employed 
to  buy  it  is  his  duty  to  obtain  possession  of  the  goods  and  to 
consign  them  to  his  principal.  In  this  he  differs  from  a  broker 
(q.v.),  who  has  not  such  possession,  and  it  is  this  distinguishing 
characteristic  which  gave  rise  in  England  to  the  series  of  statutes 
known  as  the  Factors  Acts.  By  these  acts,  consolidated  and 
extended  by  the  act  of  1889,  third  parties  buying  or  taking 
pledges  from  factors  are  protected  as  if  the  factor  were  in  reality 
owner;  but  these  enactments  have  in  no  way  affected  the 
contractual  relations  between  the  factor  and  his  employer, 
and  it  will  be  convenient  to  define  them  before  discussing  the 
position  of  third  parties  as  affected  by  the  act. 

I.  FACTOR  AND  PRINCIPAL 

A  factor  is  appointed  or  dismissed  in  the  same  way  as  any 
other  agent.  He  may  be  employed  for  a  single  transaction  or  to 
transact  all  his  principal's  business  of  a  certain  class  during  a 
limited  period  or  till  such  time  as  his  authority  may  be  deter- 
mined. A  factor's  duty  is  to  sell  or  buy  as  directed ;  to  carry  out 
with  care,  skill  and  good  faith  any  instructions  he  may  receive; 
to  receive  or  make  payment;  to  keep  accounts,  and  to  hand  over 
to  his  principal  the  balance  standing  to  his  principal's  credit, 
without  any  deduction  save  for  commission  and  expenses.  All 
express  instructions  he  must  carry  out  to  the  full,  provided  they 
do  not  involve  fraud  or  illegality.  On  any  point  not  covered  by 
his  express  instructions  he  must  follow  the  usual  practice  of  his 
particular  business,  if  not  inconsistent  with  his  instructions  or 
his  position  as  factor.  Many  usages  of  businesses  in  which 
factors  are  employed  have  been  proved  in  court,  and  may  now 


be  regarded  as  legally  established.  For  instance,  he  may,  unless 
otherwise  directed,  sell  in  his  own  name,  give  warranties  as  to 
goods  sold  by  him,  sell  by  sample  (in  most  businesses),  give  such 
credit  as  is  usual  in  his  business,  receive  payment  in  cash  or  as 
customary,  and  give  receipts  in  full  discharge,  sell  by  indorsement 
of  bills  of  lading,  and  insure  the  goods.  It  is  his  duty  to  clear  the 
goods  at  the  customs,  take  charge  of  them  and  keep  them 
safely,  give  such  notices  to  his  principal  and  others  as  may  be 
required,  and  if  necessary  take  legal  proceedings  for  the  protection 
of  the  goods.  On  the  other  hand,  he  has  not  authority  to  delegate 
his  employment,  or  to  barter;  and  as  between  himself  and  his 
principal  he  has  no  right  to  pledge  the  goods,  although  as  between 
the  principal  and  the  pledgee,  an  unauthorized  pledge  made  by 
the  factor  may  by  virtue  of  the  Factors  Act  1889  be  binding 
upon  the  principal.  It  is,  moreover,  inconsistent  with  his 
employment  as  agent  that  he  should  buy  or  sell  on  his  own 
account  from  or  to  his  principal.  A  factor  has  no  right  to  follow 
any  usage  which  is  inconsistent  with  the  ordinary  duties  and 
authority  of  a  factor  unless  his  principal  has  expressly  or  impliedly 
given  his  consent. 

On  the  due  performance  of  his  duties  the  factor  is  entitled  to 
his  commission,  which  is  usually  a  percentage  on  the  value  of  the 
goods  sold  or  bought  by  him  on  account  of  his  principal,  regulated 
in  amount  by  the  usages  of  each  business.  Sometimes  the  factor 
makes  himself  personally  responsible  for  the  solvency  of  the 
persons  with  whom  he  deals,  in  order  that  his  principal  may 
avoid  the  risk  entailed  by  the  usual  trade  credit.  In  such  a  case 
the  factor  is  said  to  be  employed  on  del  credere  terms,  and  is 
entitled  to  a  higher  rate  of  commission,  usually  25%  extra. 
Such  an  arrangement  is  not  a  contract  of  guarantee  within  the 
Statute  of  Frauds,  and  therefore  need  not  be  in  writing.  Besides 
his  remuneration,  the  factor  is  entitled  to  be  reimbursed  by  his 
principal  for  any  expenses,  and  to  be  indemnified  against  any 
liabilities  which  he  may  have  properly  incurred  in  the  execution 
of  his  principal's  instructions.  Foj  the  purpose  of  enforcing  his 
rights  a  factor  has,  without  legal  proceedings,  two  remedies. 
Firstly,  by  virtue  of  his  general  lien  (q.v.)  he  may  hold  any  of  his 
principal's  goods  which  come  to  his  hands  as  security  for  the 
payment  to  him  of  any  commission,  out-of-pocket  expenses, 
or  even  general  balance  of  account  in  his  favour.  Although  he 
cannot  sell  the  goods,  he  may  refuse  to  give  them  up  until  he  is 
paid.  Secondly,  where  he  has  consigned  goods  to  his  principal 
but  not  been  paid,  he  may  "  stop  in  transit  "  subject  to  the  same 
rules  of  law  as  an  ordinary  vendor;  that  is  to  say,  he  must  exer- 
cise his  right  before  the  transit  ends;  and  his  right  may  be 
defeated  by  his  principal  transferring  the  document  of  title  to 
the  goods  to  some  third  person,  who  takes  it  in  good  faith  and 
for  valuable  consideration  (Factors  Act  1889,  section  10).  If  the 
factor  does  not  carry  out  his  principal's  instructions,  or  carries 
them  out  so  negligently  or  unskilfully  that  his  principal  gets  no 
benefit  thereby,  the  factor  loses  his  commission  and  his  right 
to  reimbursement  and  indemnity.  If  by  such  failure  or  negli- 
gence the  principal  suffers  any  loss,  the  latter  may  recover  it  as 
damages.  So  too  if  the  factor  fails  to  render  proper  accounts  his 
principal  may  by  proper  legal  proceedings  obtain  an  account 
and  payment  of  what  is  found  due;  and  threatened  breaches 
of  duty  may  be  summarily  stopped  by  an  injunction.  Criminal 
acts  by  the  factor  in  relation  to  his  principal's  goods  are  dealt 
with  by  section  78  of  the  Larceny  Act  1860. 

II.    PRINCIPAL  AND  THIRD  PARTY 

(a)  At  Common  Law. — The  actual  authority  of  a  factor  is 
defined  by  the  same  limits  as  his  duty,  the  nature  of  which  has 
been  just  described;  i.e.  firstly,  by  his  principal's  express 
instructions;  secondly,  by  the  rules  of  law  and  usages  of  trade, 
in  view  of  which  those  instructions  were  expressed.  But  his 
power  to  bind  his  principal  as  regards  third  parties  is  often  wider 
than  his  actual  authority;  for  it  would  not  be  reasonable  that 
third  parties  should  be  prejudiced  by  secret  instructions,  given 
in  derogation  of  the  authority  ordinarily  conferred  by  the  custom 
of  trade;  and,  as  regards  them,  the  factor  is  said  to  have 
"  apparent  "  or  "  ostensible  "  authority,  or  to  be  held  out  as  having 


FACTORY  ACTS— FACULTY 


122 

authority  to  do  what  is  customary,  even  though  he  may  in  fact 
have  been  expressly  forbidden  so  to  do  by  his  principal.  But 
this  rule  is  subject  to  the  proviso  that  if  the  third  party  have 
notice  of  the  factor's  actual  instructions,  the  "apparent 
authority  will  not  be  greater  than  the  actual.  "  The  general 
principle  of  law,"  said  Lord  Blackburn  in  the  case  of  Cole  v. 
North-Western  Bank,  1875,  L.R.  10,  C.P.  363,  "  is  that  when  the 
true  owner  has  clothed  any  one  with  apparent  authority  to  act 
as  his  agent,  he  is  bound  to  those  who  deal  with  the  agent  on 
the  assumption  that  he  really  is  an  agent  with  that  authority, 
to  the  same  extent  as  if  the  apparent  authority  were  real." 
Under  such  circumstances  the  principal  is  for  reasons  of  common 
fairness  precluded,  or,  in  legal  phraseology,  estopped,  from 
denying  his  agent's  authority.  On  the  same  principle  of  estoppel, 
but  not  by  reason  of  any  trade  usages,  a  course  of  dealing  which 
has  been  followed  between  a  factor  and  a  third  party  with  the 
assent  of  the  principal  will  give  the  factor  apparent  authority 
to  continue  dealing  on  the  same  terms  even  after  the  principal's 
assent  has  been  withdrawn;  provided  that  the  third  party  has  no 
notice  of  the  withdrawal. 

Such  apparent  authority  binds  the  principal  both  as  to  acts 
done  in  excess  of  the  actual  authority  and  also  when  the  actual 
authority  has  entirely  ceased. '  For  instance,  A.B.  receives  goods 
from  C.  D.  with  instructions  not  to  sell  below  is.  per  Ib;  A.  B. 
sells  at  lojd.,  the  market  price;  the  buyer  is  entitled  to  the  goods 
at  ic^d.,  because  A.  B.  had  apparent  authority,  although  he 
exceeded  his  actual  authority.  On  the  same  principle  the  buyer 
would  get  a  good  title  by  buying  from  A.  B.  goods  entrusted  to 
him  by  C.  D.,  even  though  at  the  time  of  the  sale  C.  D.  had 
revoked  A.  B.'s  authority  and  instructed  him  not  to  sell  at  all. 
In  either  case  the  factor  is  held  out  as  having  authority  to  sell, 
and  the  principal  cannot  afterwards  turn  round  and  say  that  his 
factor  had  no  such  authority.  As  in  the  course  of  his  business 
the  factor  must  necessarily  make  representations  preliminary 
to  the  contracts  into  which  he  enters,  so  the  principal  will  be 
bound  by  any  such  representations  as  may  be  within  the  factor's 
actual  or  apparent  authority  to  the  same  degree  as  by  the 
factor's  contracts. 

(b)  Under  the  Factors  Act  1889. — The  main  object  of  the 
Factors  Acts,  in  so  far  as  they  relate  to  transactions  carried 
out  by  factors,  has  been  to  add  to  the  number  of  cases  in  which 
third  parties  honestly  buying  or  lending  money  on  the  security 
of  goods  may  get  a  good  title  from  persons  in  whose  possession 
the  goods  are  with  the  consent,  actual  or  apparent,  of  the  real 
owners,  thus  calling  in  aid  the  principle  of  French  law  that 
"  possession  -oaut  litre  "  as  against  the  doctrine  of  the  English 
common  law  that  "  nemo  dal  quod  non  habet."  The  chief  change 
in  the  law  relating  specially  to  factors  has  been  to  put  pledges 
by  factors  on  the  same  footing  as  sales,  so  as  to  bind  a  principal 
to  third  parties  by  his  factor's  pledge  as  by  his  factor's  sale. 
The  Factors  Act  1889  in  part  re-enacts  and  in  part  extends  the 
provisions  of  the  earlier  acts  of  1823,  1825,  1842  and  1877; 
and  is,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  sales  by  factors,  in  large  measure 
merely  declaratory  of  the  law  as  it  previously  existed.  Its  most 
important  provisions  concerning  factors  are  as  follows: — 

Section  I.,  s.s.  I.  The  expression  mercantile  agent  shall  mean  a 
mercantile  agent  having  in  the  customary  course  of  his  business 
as  such  agent  authority  either  to  sell  goods,  or  to  consign  goods 
for  the  purpose  of  sale,  or  to  buy  goods,  or  to  raise  money  on  the 
security  of  goods; 

2.  A  person  shall  be  deemed  to  be  in  possession  of  goods  or  o 
the  documents  or  title  to  goods  when  the  goods  or  documents  are 
in  his  actual  custody  or  are  held  by  any  other  person  subject  to  his 
control  or  for  him  on  his  behalf. 

4.  The  expression  "  document  of  title  "  shall  include  any  bill  o 
lading,  dock  warrant,  warehouse  keeper's  certificate,  and  warrant 
or  order  for  the  delivery  of  goods,  and  any  other  document  used  in 
the  ordinary  course  of  business  as  proof  of  the  possession  or  contro 
of  goods,  or  authorizing  or  purporting  to  authorize,  either  by  in 
dorsement  or  by  delivery,  the  possessor  of  the  document  to  transfe 
or  receive  goods  thereby  represented. 

Section  II.,  s.s.  I.  Where  a  mercantile  agent  is,  with  the  consen 
of  the  owner,  in  possession  of  goods  or  of  the  documents  or  title  t< 
goods,  any  sale,  pledge  or  other  disposition  of  the  goods  made  b 
him  when  acting  in  the  ordinary  course  of  business  of  a  mercantil 
agent  shall,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  this  act,  be  as  valid  as  : 


ie  were  expressly  authorized  by  the  owner  of  the  goods  to  make 
he  same;  provided  that  the  person  taking  under  the  disposition 
cts  in  good  faith,  and  has  not  at  the  time  of  the  disposition  notice 
hat  the  person  making  the  disposition  has  not  authority  to  make 
he  same. 

2.  Where  a  mercantile  agent  has,  with  the  consent  of  the  owner, 
jeen  in  possession  of  goods  or  of  the  documents  of  title  to  goods, 
any  sale,  pledge  or  other  disposition  which  would  have  been  valid 

F  the  consent  had  continued  shall  be  valid  notwithstanding  the 
[etermination  of   the  consent;   provided   that   the   person   taking 
under  the  disposition  has  not  at  the  time  thereof  notice  that  the 
onsent  has  been  determined. 

3.  Where  a   mercantile  agent   has  obtained  possession    of    any 
locuments  of  title  to  goods  by  reason  of  his  being  or  having  been, 

with  the  consent  of  the  owner,  in  possession  of  the  goods  repre- 
ented  thereby,  or  of  any  other  documents  of  title  to  the  goods,  his 
sossession  of  the  first-mentioned  documents  shall,  for  the  purposes 
>f  the  act,  be  deemed  to  be  with  the  consent  of  the  owner. 

III.  ENFORCEMENT  or  CONTRACTS 

1.  Where  a  factor   makes  a  contract  in  the  name  of  his 
principal  and  himself  signs  as  agent  only,  he  drops  out  as  soon 
as  the  contract  is  made,  and  the  principal  and  third  party  alone 
can  sue  or  be  sued  upon  it.     As  factors  usually  contract  in  their 
own  name  this  is  not  a  common  case.     It  is  characteristic  of 

>rokers  rather  than  of  factors. 

2.  Where  a  factor  makes  a  contract  for  the  principal  without 
disclosing  his  principal's  name,  the  third  party  may,  on  dis- 
covering the  principal,  elect  whether  he  will  treat  the  factor  or 
lis  principal  as  the  party  to  the  contract;  provided  that  if  the 
:actor  contract  expressly  as  factor,  so  as  to  exclude  the  idea  that 
ie  is  personally  responsible,  he  will  not  be  liable.     The  principal 
may  sue  upon  the  contract,  so  also  may  the  factor,  unless  the 
principal  first  intervene. 

3.  Where  a  factor  makes  a  contract  in  his  own  name  without 
disclosing  the  existence  of  his  principal,  the  third  party  may, 
on  discovering  the  existence  of  the  principal,  elect  whether  he 
will  sue  the  factor  or  the  principal.     Either  principal  or  factor 
may  sue  the  third  party  upon  the  contract.     But  if  the  factor 
has  been  permitted  by  the  principal  to  hold  himself  out  as  the 
principal,  and  the  person  dealing  with  the  factor  has  believed 
that  the  factor  was  the  principal  and  has  acted  on  that  belief 
before  ascertaining  his  mistake,  then  in  an  action  by  the  principal 
the  third  party  may  set  up  any  defences  he  would  have  had 
against  the  factor  if  the  factor  had  brought  the  action  on  his  own 
account  as  principal. 

4.  Where  a  factor  has  a  lien  upon  the  goods  and  their  proceeds 
for  advances  made  to  the  principal  it  will  be  no  defence  to  an 
action  by  him  for  the  third  party  to  plead  that  he  has  paid  the 
principal,  unless  the  factor  by  his  conduct  led  the  third  party  to 
believe  that  he  agreed  to  a  settlement  being   made   with  his 
principal. 

5.  The  factor  who  acts  for  a  foreign  principal  will  always  be 
personally  liable  unless  it  is  clear  that  the  third  party  has  agreed 
to  look  only  to  the  principal. 

6.  If  a  factor  contract  by  deed  under  seal  he  alone  can  sue 
or  be  sued  upon  the  contract;    but  mercantile  practice  makes 
contracts  by  deed  uncommon. 

AUTHORITIES. — Story,  Commentaries  on  the  Law  of  Agency 
(Boston,  1882);  Boyd  and  Pearson,  The  Factors  Acts  1823  to 
1877  (London,  1884);  Blackwell,  The  Law  relating  to  Factors 
(London,  1897).  (L.  F.  S.) 

FACTORY  ACTS,  the  name  given  generally  to  a  long  series 
of  acts  constituting  one  of  the  most  important  chapters  in  the 
history  of  English  labour  legislation  (see  LABOUR  LEGISLATION)  ; 
the  term  "  factory  "  itself  being  short  for  manufactory,  a  building 
or  collection  of  buildings  in  which  men  or  women  are  employed 
in  industry. 

FACULA  (diminutive  of  fax,  Lat.  for  "  torch  "),  in  astronomy, 
a  minute  shining  spot  on  the  sun's  disk,  markedly  brighter  than 
the  photosphere  in  general,  usually  appearing  in  groups.  Faculae 
are  most  frequent  in  the  neighbourhood  of  spots.  (See  SUN.) 

FACULTY  (through  the  French,  from  the  Lat.  facultas, 
ability  to  do  anything,  iromfacilis,  easy,facere,  to  do;  another 
form  of  the  word  in  Lat.  facilitas,  facility,  ease,  keeps  the  original 
meaning),  power  or  capacity  of  mind  or  body  for  particular  kinds 


FAED— FAEROE 


123 


of  activity,  feeling,  &c.  In  the  early  history  of  psychology  the 
term  was  applied  to  various  mental  processes  considered  as 
causes  or  conditions  of  the  mind — a  treatment  of  "  class  concepts 
of  mental  phenomena  as  if  they  were  real  forces  producing  these 
phenomena"  (G.  F.  Stout,  Analytic  Psychology,  vol.  i.  p.  17). 
In  medieval  Latin  facultas  was  used  to  translate  Suva/its  in  the 
Aristotelian  application  of  the  word  to  a  branch  of  learning  or 
knowledge,  and  thus  it  is  particularly  applied  to  the  various 
departments  of  knowledge  as  taught  in  a  university  and  to  the 
body  of  teachers  of  the  particular  art  or  science  taught.  The 
principal  "  faculties  "  in  the  medieval  universities  were  theology, 
canon  and  civil  law,  medicine  and  arts  (see  UNIVERSITIES).  A 
further  extension  of  this  use  is  to  the  body  of  members  of  any 
particular  profession. 

In  law,  "  faculty  "  is  a  dispensation  or  licence  to  do  that 
which  is  not  permitted  by  the  common  law.  The  word  in  this 
sense  is  used  only  in  ecclesiastical  law.  A  faculty  may  be  granted 
to  be  ordained  deacon  under  twenty-three  years  of  age;  to 
hold  two  livings  at  once  (usually  called  a  licence  or  dispensation, 
but  granted  under  the  seal  of  the  office  of  faculties;  see 
BENEFICE);  to  be  married  at  any  place  or  time  (usually  called  a 
special  licence;  see  MARRIAGE;  LICENCE);  to  act  as  a  notary 
public  (q.v.).  Any  alteration  in  a  church,  such  as  an  addition 
or  diminution  in  the  fabric  or  the  utensils  or  ornaments  of  the 
church,  cannot  strictly  be  made  without  the  legal  sanction  of  the 
ordinary,  which  can  only  be  expressed  by  the  issue  of  a  faculty. 
So  a  faculty  would  be  required  for  a  vault,  for  the  removal  of  a 
body,  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  monuments,  for  alterations 
in  a  parsonage  house,  for  brick  graves,  for  the  apportionment 
of  a  seat,  &c.  Cathedrals,  however,  are  exempt  from  the  necessity 
for  a  faculty  before  making  alterations  in  the  fabric,  utensils  or 
ornaments. 

The  court  of  faculties  is  the  court  of  the  archbishop  for  granting 
faculties.  It  is  a  court  in  which  there  is  no  litigation  or  holding 
of  pleas.  Its  chief  officer  is  called  the  master  of  faculties,  and 
he  is  one  and  the  same  with  the  judge  of  the  court  of  arches. 
Attached  to  the  court  of  faculties  are  a  registrar  and  deputy 
registrars,  a  chief  clerk  and  record-keeper,  and  a  seal  keeper. 
In  Scotland  the  society  of  advocates  of  the  court  of  session,  and 
local  bodies  of  legal  practitioners,  are  described  as  faculties. 

FAED,  THOMAS  (1826-1900),  British  painter,  born  in  Kirk- 
cudbrightshire, was  the  brother  of  John  Faed,  R.S.A.,  and 
received  his  art  education  in  the  school  of  design,  Edinburgh. 
He  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy  in 
1849,  came  to  London  three  years  later,  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1861,  and  academician  in  1864,  and 
retired  in  1893.  He  had  much  success  as  a  painter  of  domestic 
genre,  and  had  considerable  executive  capacity.  Three  of  his 
pictures,  "  The  Silken  Gown,"  "  Faults  on  Both  Sides,"  and  "  The 
Highland  Mother,"  are  in  the  National  Gallery  of  British  Art. 

See  William  D.  McKay,  The  Scottish  School  of  Painting  (1906). 

FAENZA  (anc.  Favenlia),  a  city  and  episcopal  see  of  Emilia, 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Ravenna,  from  which  it  is  31  m.  S.W. 
by  rail,  no  ft.  above  sea-level.  It  is  31  m.  S.E.  of  Bologna  by 
rail,  on  the  line  from  Bologna  to  Rimini,  and  it  is  the  junction 
of  a  line  to  Florence  through  the  Apennines.  Pop.  (1901) 
21,809  (town),  39,757  (commune).  The  town  is  surrounded  by 
walls  which  date  from  1456.  The  cathedral  of  S.  Costanzo 
stands  in  the  spacious  Piazza  Vittorio  Emanuele  in  the  centre 
of  the  town.  It  was  begun  in  1474  by  Giuliano  da  Maiano; 
the  facade  is,  however,  incomplete.  In  the  interior  is  the 
beautiful  early  Renaissance  tomb  of  S.  Savinus  with  reliefs 
showing  scenes  from  his  life,  of  fine  and  fresh  execution,  by 
Benedetto  da  Maiano;  and  later  tombs  by  P.  Bariloto,  a  local 
sculptor.  Opposite  the  cathedral  is  a  fountain  with  bronze 
ornamentation  of  1583-1621.  The  clock  tower  alongside  the 
cathedral  belongs  to  the  i7th  century.  Beyond  it  is  the  Palazzo 
Comunale,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  Manfredi,  but  entirely 
reconstructed.  The  other  churches  of  the  town  have  been  mostly 
restored,  but  S.  Michele  (and  the  Palazzo  Manfredi  opposite  it) 
are  fine  early  Renaissance  buildings  in  brickwork.  The  municipal 
art  gallery  contains  an  altar-piece  by  Girolamo  da  Treviso  (who 


also  painted  a  fresco  in  the  Chiesa  della  Commenda),  a  wooden 
St  Jerome  by  Donatello,  and  a  bust  of  the  young  St  John  by 
Antonio  Rossellino  (?),  and  some  fine  specimens  of  majolica, 
a  variety  of  which,  faience,  takes  its  name  from  the  town.  It 
was  largely  manufactured  in  the  i5th  and  i6th  centuries,  and 
the  industry  has  been  revived  in  modern  times  with  success. 

The  ancient  Faventia,  on  the  Via  Aemilia,  was  obviously 
from  its  name  founded  by  the  Romans  and  had  the  citizenship 
before  the  Social  War.  It  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  C. 
Papirius  Carbo  and  C.  Norbanus  by  Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  Pius 
in  82  B.C.  In  the  census  of  Vespasian  a  woman  of  Faventia  is 
said  to  have  given  her  age  as  135.  Pliny  speaks  of  the  whiteness 
of  its  linen,  and  the  productiveness  of  its  vines  is  mentioned. 
It  is  noticeable  that  some  of  the  fields  in  the  territory  of  the 
ancient  Faventia  still  preserve  the  exact  size  of  the  ancient 
Roman  centuria  of  200  iugeri  (E.  Bormann  in  Corp.  Inscr.  Lai. 
xi.,  Berlin,  1888,  p.  121).  When  the  exarchate  was  established, 
the  town  became  part  of  it,  and  in  748  it  was  taken  by  Liutprand. 
Desiderius  gave  it  to  the  church  with  the  duchy  of  Ferrara. 
In  the  nth  century  it  began  to  increase  in  importance.  In  the 
wars  of  the  I2th  and  I3th  centuries  it  at  first  took  the  imperial 
side,  but  in  1240  it  stood  a  long  siege  from  Frederick  II.  and 
was  only  taken  after  eight  months.  After  further  struggles 
between  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  the  Manfredi  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  place  early  in  the  i4th  century,  and  remained  in 
power  until  1501,  when  the  town  was  taken  by  Caesar  Borgia 
and  the  last  legitimate  members  of  the  house  of  the  Manfredi 
were  drowned  in  the  Tiber;  and,  after  falling  for  a  few  years 
into  the  hands  of  the  Venetians,  it  became  a  part  of  the  states 
of  the  church  in  1509.  (T.  As.) 

FAEROE  (also  written  FAROE  or  THE  FAEROES,  Danish 
Faeroerne  or  Fdroerne,  "the  sheep  islands"),  a  group  of  islands 
in  the  North  Sea  belonging  to  Denmark.  They  are  situated 
between  Iceland  and  the  Shetland  Islands,  about  200  m.  N.W. 
of  the  latter,  about  the  intersection  of  7°  E.  with  62°  N.  The 
total  land  area  of  the  group  is  511  sq.  m.,  and  there  are  twenty- 
one  islands  (excluding  small  rocks  and  reefs),  of  which  seventeen 
are  inhabited.  The  population  in  1880  amounted  to  11,220, 
and  in  1900  to  15,230.  The  principal  islands  are  Stromo,  on 
which  is  the  chief  town,  Thorshavn,  with  a  population  of  1656; 
Ostero,  Siidero,  Vaago,  Sando  and  Bordo.  They  consist  through- 
out of  rocks  and  hills,  separated  from  each  other  by  narrow  valleys 
or  ravines;  but,  though  the  hills  rise  abruptly,  there  are  often 
on  their  summits,  or  at  different  stages  of  their  ascent,  plains  of 
considerable  magnitude.  Almost  everywhere  they  present  to 
the  sea  perpendicular  cliffs,  broken  into  fantastic  forms,  affording 
at  every  turn,  to  those  who  sail  along  the  coast,  the  most 
picturesque  and  varied  scenery.  The  highest  hills  are  Slattare- 
tindur  in  Ostero,  and  Kopende  and  Skellingfjeld  in  Stromo, 
which  rise  respectively  to  2894,  2592  and  2520  ft.  The  sea 
pierces  the  islands  in  deep  fjords,  or  separates  them  by  narrow 
inlets  through  which  tidal  currents  set  with  great  violence,  at 
speeds  up  to  seven  or  eight  knots  an  hour;  and,  as  communica- 
tions are  maintained  almost  wholly  by  boat,  the  natives  have 
need  of  expert  watermanship.  There  are  several  lakes  in  which 
trout  are  abundant,  and  char  also  occur;  the  largest  is  Sorvaag 
Lake  in  Vaago,  which  is  close  to  the  sea,  and  discharges  into  it 
by  a  sheer  fall  of  about  160  ft.  Trees  are  scarce,  and  there  is 
evidence  that  they  formerly  flourished  where  they  cannot  do 
so  now. 

The  fundamental  formation  is  a  series  of  great  sheets  of  columnar 
basalt,  70  to  100  ft.  thick,  in  which  are  intercalated  thin  beds  of  tuff. 
Upon  the  basalt  rests  the  so-called  Coal  formation,  35  to  50  ft.  thick ; 
the  lower  part  of  this  is  mainly  fireclay  and  sandstone,  the  upper 
part  is  weathered  clay  with  thin  layers  of  brown  coal  and  shale. 
The  coal  is  found  in  Siidero  and  in  some  of  the  other  islands  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  make  it  a  matter  of  exploitation.  Above  these 
beds  there  are  layers  of  dolerite,  15  to  20  ft.  thick,  with  nodular 
segregations  and  abundant  cavities  which  are  often  lined  with 
zeolites.  As  the  rocks  lie  in  a  horizontal  position,  on  most  of  the 
islands  of  the  group  only  the  basalts  or  dolerite  are  visible.  The 
crater  from  which  the  volcanic  rocks  were  outpoured  probably  lies 
off  the  Faeroe  Bank  some  distance  to  the  south-west  of  Siidero. 
The  basalts  are  submarine  flows  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  land 


124 


FAESULAE 


upon  which  grew  the  vegetation  which  gave  rise  to  the  coals-  the 
ettusion  of  dolerite  which  covered  up  the  Coal  formation  was  sub- 
aenal.  The  existing  land  features,  with  the  fiords,  are  due  to  ice 
erosion  in  the  glacial  period.1 


The  climate  is  oceanic;  fogs  are  common,  violent  storms  are 
frequent  at  all  seasons.     July  and  August  are  the  only  true 
summer  months,  but  the  winters  are  not  very  severe.     It  seldom 
freezes  for  more  than  one  month,  and  the  harbours  are  rarely 
ice-bound.     The  methods  of  agriculture  are  extremely  primitive 
and  less  than  3  %  of  the  total  area  is  under  cultivation.     As  the 
plough  is  ill-suited  to  the  rugged  surface  of  the  land,  the  ground 
is    usually  turned  up  with  the  spade,  care  being  taken  not  to 
destroy  the  roots  of  the  grass,  as  hay  is  the  principal  crop. 
Horses  and  cows  are  few,  and  the  cows  give  little  milk,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  coarse  hay  upon  which  they  are  fed.     The  number 
of  sheep,  however,  justifies  the  name  of  the  islands,  some  indi- 
viduals having  flocks  of  from  three  to  five  hundred,  and  the  total 
number   in    the   islands   considerably   exceeds   ten    thousand. 
The  northern  hare  (Lepus  alpinus)  is  pretty  abundant  in  Stromo 
and  Ostero,   having  been  introduced  into  the  islands  about 
1840-1850.     The  catching  of  the  numerous  sea-birds  which  build 
their  nests  upon  the  face  of  the  cliffs  forms  an  important  source 
of  subsistence  to  the  inhabitants.     Sometimes  the  fowler  is  let 
down  from  the  top  of  the  cliff;  at  other  times  he  climbs  the 
rocks,  or,  where  possible,  is  pushed  upwards  by  poles  made  for 
the  purpose.     The  birds  and  the  contents  of  the  nests  are  taken 
in  nets  mounted  on  poles;  shooting  is  not  practised,  lest  it 
should  permanently  scare  the  birds  away.     Fowling  has   some- 
what decreased  in  modern  times,  as  the  fisheries  have  risen  in 
importance.     The  puffin  is  most  commonly  taken  for  its  feathers. 
The  cod  fishery  is  especially  important,  dried  fish  being  exported 
in  large  quantity,  and  the  swim-bladders  made  into  gelatine 
and  also  used  and  exported  for  food.     The  whaling  industry 
came  into  importance  towards  the  close  of  the  ipth  century 
and  stations  for  the  extraction  of  the  oil  and  whalebone  have 
been  established  at  several  points,  under  careful  regulations 
designed  to  mitigate  the  pollution  of  water,  the  danger  to  live- 
stock from  eating  the  blubber,  &c.     The  finner  whale  is  the  species 
most  commonly  taken. 

The  trade  of  the  Faeroe  Islands  was  for  some  time  a  monopoly 

in  the  hands  of  a  mercantile  house  at  Copenhagen,  and  this 

monopoly  was  afterwards  assumed  by  the  Danish  government 

but  by  the  law  of  the  2ist  of  March  1855  all  restrictions  were 

removed.     The  produce  of  the  whaling  and  fishing  industries, 

woollen  goods,  lamb  skins  and  feathers,  are  the  chief  exports, 

while  in  Thorshavn  the  preserving  of  fish  and  the  manufacture 

of  carpets  are  carried  on  to  some  extent.     Thorshavn  is  situated 

on  the  S.E.  side  of  Stromo,  upon  a  narrow  tongue  of  land 

having  creeks  on  each  side,  where  ships  may  be  safely  moored! 

t  is  the  seat  of  the  chief  government  and  ecclesiastical  officials 

and  has  a  government  house  and  a  hospital.     The  houses  are 

generally  built  of  wood  and  roofed  with  birch  bark  covered  with 

turf.     The  character  of  the  people  is  marked  by  simplicity  of 

manners,  kindness  and  hospitality.     They  are  healthy,  and  the 

population  increases  steadily.     The  Faeroes  form  an  amt  (county) 

of  Denmark.     They  have  also  a  local  parliament  (lagthing) 

consisting  of  the  amtmann  and  nineteen  other  members.     Among 

other  duties,  this  body  elects  a  representative  to  the  upper  house 

of  parliament  (landsthing}  in  Denmark;   the  people  choose  by 

vote  a  representative  in   the  lower  house   (Jolkething)      The 

islands  are  included  in  the  Danish  bishopric  of  Zealand. 

History.— The  early  history  of  the  Faeroes  is  not  clear  It 
appears  that  about  the  beginning  of  the  oth  century  Grim 
Kamban,  a  Norwegian  emigrant  who  had  left  his  country  to 
escape  the  tyranny  of  Harold  Haarfager,  settled  in  the  islands 
tt  is  said  that  a  small  colony  of  Irish  and  Scottish  monks  were 
found  in  Sudero  and  dispersed  by  him.  The  Faeroes  then  already 
bore  their  name  of  Sheep  Islands,  as  these  animals  had  been 
found  to  nourish  here  exceedingly.  Early  in  the  nth  century 
Sigmund  or  Sigismund  Bresterson,  whose  family  had  flourished 
in  the  southern  islands  but  had  been  almost  exterminated  by 


invaders  from  the  northern,  was  sent  from  Norway,  whither  he 
had  escaped,  to  take  possession  of  the  islands  for  Olaf  Trygvason 
king  of  Norway.  He  introduced  Christianity,  and,  though  he 
was  subsequently  murdered,  Norwegian  supremacy  was  upheld 
and  continued  till  1386,  when  the  islands  were  transferred  to 
Denmark.  English  adventurers  gave  great  trouble  to  the  in- 
habitants in  the  1 6th  century,  and  the  name  of  Magnus  Heineson 
a  native  of  Stromo,  who  was  sent  by  Frederick  II.  to  clear  the 
seas,  is  still  celebrated  in  many  songs  and  stories.  There  was 
formerly  a  bishopric  at  Kirkebo,  S.  of  Thorshavn,  where  remains 
of  the  cathedral  may  be  seen;  but  it  was  abolished  at  the 
introduction  of  Protestantism  by  Christian  III.  Denmark  re- 
tained possession  of  the  Faeroes  at  the  peace  of  Kiel  in  i8is 
The  native  literature  of  the  islands  consists  of  the  Faereyinga 
Saga  dealing  with  the  period  of  Sigmund  Bresterson,  and  a 
number  of  popular  songs  and  legends  of  early  origin. 

.BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Lucas  Jacobson  Debes-  Feroa  Reserata  (Copen- 
hagen, 1673;  Eng.  transl.  London,  1675);  Torfaeus,  De  rebus  eestis 
7S    PP6"1^6"'.    '.695):    I    Landt,    Be'krivele    ^ 
T(  t    ^  and  D^cnPtfns  °f  the  Feroe  Islands  (London, 
V J'  lym'?f  OIk  Pen  and  Penc^'Sketches  of  Faroe  and  Iceland 
;  J.   Russel-Jeaffreson,   The  Faroe  Islands  (1901);  J    Falk 
Rpnne,  Beskrtvelse  over  Faroerne  (Copenhagen,  1902) fC.  H   Osten- 
feld,  E.  Warming  and  others,  Botany  of  the  FaZroes  (Copenhagen 
1901-1903);  Annandale,   The  Faroes  and  Iceland  (Oxford,   1905) 

7«nM  Te37f?  Saga  Wasi  tpHwkted  by  F.  York  Powell  (London 
1896);  for  folk-songs  and  legends  see  S.  Kraeth,  Die  faroischen 
Lieder  von  Stgurdtfaderborn,  1877);  V.  U.  Hammershaimb, 
faeroisk  Anthologi  (Copenhagen,  1886-1891). 

FAESULAE  (mod.  Fiesole,  q.v.),  an  ancient  city  of  Etruria 
on  the  height  3  m.  to  the  N.E.  of  Florentia,  970  ft.  above  sea- 
level.     Remains  of  its  waUs  are  preserved  on  all  sides,  especially 
on  the  N.E.,  in  one  place  to  a  height  of  12  to  14  courses     The 
blocks  are  often  not  quite  rectangular,  and  the  courses  sometimes 
change;  but  the  general  tendency  is  horizontal  and  the  walls 
are  not  of  remote  antiquity,  the  irregularities  in  them  being 
rather  due  to  the  hardness  of  the  material  employed,  the  rock  of 
the  hill  itself.     The  courses  vary  in  height  from  i  to  3  ft    and 
some  blocks  are  as  long  as  1 2$  ft.     In  this  portion  of  the  wall  are 
two  drains,  below  one  of  which  is  a  phallus.     The  site  of  an  ancient 
gate,  and  the  road  below  it,  can  be  traced;  a  little  farther  E 
was  an  archway,  conjectured  by  Dennis  to  be  a  gate  of  the  Roman 
period,  destroyed  in  1848.   The  whole  circuit  of  the  walls  extended 
for  about  if  m.     The  Franciscan  monastery  (1130  ft.)  occupies 
the  site  of  the  acropolis,  once  encircled  by  a  triple  wall  of  which 
no  traces  are  now  visible.     Here  was  also  the  Capilolium  of 
Roman  times,  as  an  inscription  found  here  in  1879  records  (Corpus 
litter.  Lot.  xi.,  Berlin,  1888,  No.  1545).   The  Roman  theatre 
below  the  cathedral  to  the  N.E.,  has  19  tiers  of  stone  seats  and  is 
37  yds.  in  diameter.     Above  it  is  an  embanking  wall  of  irregular 
masonry,  and  below  it  some  remains  of  Roman  baths,  including 
five  parallel  vaults  of  concrete.     Just  outside  the  town  on  the  E 
a  reservoir,  roofed  by  the  convergence  of  its  sides,  which  were  of 
large  regular  blocks,  was  discovered  in  1832,  but  filled  in  again 
Over  1000  silver  denarii,  all  coined  before  63  B.C.,  were  found 
at  Faesulae  in  1829.     A  small  museum  contains  the  objects  found 
in  the  excavations  of  the  theatre. 

Though  Faesulae  was  an  Etruscan  city,  we  have  no  record  of 
it  in  history  until  215  B.C.,  when  the  Gauls  passed  near  it  in 
their  march  on  Rome.  Twelve  years  later  Hannibal  seems  to 
have  taken  this  route  in  his  march  south  after  the  victory  of  the 
Trebia.  It  appears  to  have  suffered  at  the  hands  of  Rome  in  the 
Social  War,  and  Sulla  expelled  some  of  the  inhabitants  from 
their  lands  to  make  room  for  his  veterans,  but  some  of  the  latter 
were  soon  driven  out  in  their  turn  by  the  former  occupiers. 
Both  the  veterans,  who  soon  wasted  what  they  had  acquired, 
and  the  dispossessed  cultivators  joined  the  partisans  of  Catiline,' 
and  Manlius,  one  of  his  supporters,  made  his  headquarters  at 
Faesulae.  Under  the  empire  we  hear  practically  nothing  of  it; 
in  A.D.  405  Radagaisus  was  crushed  in  the  neighbouring  hills' 
and  Belisarius  besieged  and  took  it  in  A.D.  539. 


See   Hans   von    Post,    "  Om   Faroarnes   uppkomst,"   Geoloeiska 
Forentngens  i  Stockholm  Forhandlingar,  vol.  xxiv.  (1902). 


See  L.  A.  Milani,  Rendiconti  dei  Lincei,  ser.  vi.  vol  ix  (1900) 
289  seq.,  on  the  discovery  of  an  archaic  altar  of  the  Locus  sacer  of 
Florence,  belonging  to  Ancharia  (Angerona),  the  goddess  of  Fiesole 

(T.  As.) 


FAFNIR— FA-HIEN 


FAFNIR,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  son  of  the  giant 
Hreidmar.  He  was  the  guardian  of  the  hoard  of  the  Nibelungs 
and  was  killed  by  Sigurd. 

FAGGING  (from  "fag,"  meaning  "weary";  of  uncertain 
etymology),  in  English  public  schools,  a  system  under  which, 
generally  with  the  full  approval  of  the  authorities,  a  junior  boy 
performs  certain  duties  for  a  senior.  In  detail  this  custom 
varies  slightly  in  the  different  schools,  but  its  purpose — the. 
maintenance  of  discipline  among  the  boys  themselves — is  the 
same.  Dr  Arnold  of  Rugby  defined  fagging  as  "  the  power 
given  by  the  supreme  authorities  of  the  school  to  the  Sixth  Form, 
to  be  exercised  by  them  over  the  lower  boys,  for  the  sake  of 
securing  a  regular  government  among  the  boys  themselves, 
and  avoiding  the  evils  of  anarchy;  in  other  words,  of  the  lawless 
tyranny  of  brute  force."  Fagging  was  a  fully  established  system 
at  Eton  and  Winchester  in  the  i6th  century,  and  is  probably  a 
good  deal  older.  That  the  advantages  of  thus  granting  the 
boys  a  kind  of  autonomy  have  stood  the  test  of  time  is  obvious 
from  the  fact  that  in  almost  all  the  great  public  schools  founded 
during  the  igth  century,  fagging  has  been  deliberately  adopted 
by  the  authorities.  The  right  to  fag  carries  with  it  certain 
well-defined  duties.  The  fag-master  is  the  protector  of  his 
fags,  and  responsible  for  their  happiness  and  good  conduct.  In 
cases  of  bullying  or  injustice  their  appeal  is  to  him,  not  to  the 
form  or  house  master,  and,  except  in  the  gravest  cases,  all  such 
cases  are  dealt  with  by  the  fag-master  on  his  own  responsibility 
and  without  report  to  the  master.  Until  recent  years  a  fag's 
duties  included  such  humble  tasks  as  blacking  boots,  brushing 
clothes,  and  cooking  breakfasts,  and  there  was  no  limit  as  to 
hours;  almost  all  the  fag's  spare  time  being  so  monopolized. 
This  is  now  changed.  Fagging  is  now  restricted  to  such  light 
tasks  as  running  errands,  bringing  tea  to  the  "master's  "  study, 
and  fagging  at  cricket  or  football.  At  Eton  there  is  no  cricket 
fagging,  and  at  most  schools  it  is  made  lighter  by  all  the  fags 
taking  their  turn  in  regular  order  for  one  hour,  so  that  each  boy 
has  to  "  fag  "  but  once  in  so  many  weeks.  At  Rugby  there  is 
"  study-fagging  " — two  fags  being  assigned  to  each  Sixth  Form 
boy  and  made  responsible  for  the  sweeping  out  and  tidying  up 
of  his  study  alternately  each  week, — and  "  night-fagging  " — 
running  errands  for  the  Sixth  between  8.30  and  9.30  every 
evening, — and  each  boy  can  choose  whether  he  will  be  a  study- 
fag  or  night-fag.  The  right  to  fag  is  usually  restricted  to  the 
Sixth  Form,  but  at  Eton  the  privilege  is  also  granted  the  Fifth, 
and  at  Marlborough  and  elsewhere  the  Eleven  have  a  right  to 
fag  at  cricket,  whether  in  the  Sixth  or  not. 

FAGGOT,  a  bundle  of  sticks  used  for  firewood.  The  word 
is  adapted  from  the  Fr.  fagot,  and  appears  in  Italian  as  fagotto, 
the  name  given  to  the  bassoon  (q.v.).  "  Faggot  "  is  frequently 
used  with  reference  to  the  burning  of  heretics,  and  recanted 
heretics  wore  an  embroidered  faggot  on  the  arm  as  a  symbol 
of  the  punishment  they  had  escaped.  In  the  i8th  century  the 
word  is  used  of  a  "  dummy  "  soldier,  appearing  on  the  rolls  of  a 
regiment.  It  is  this  use,  coupled  with  the  idea  of  a  bundle  of 
sticks  as  being  capable  of  subdivision,  that  appears  in  the 
expression  "  faggot-vote,"  a  vote  artificially  created  by  the 
minute  splitting  up  of  property  so  as  to  give  a  bare  qualification 
for  the  franchise. 

FAGNIEZ,  GUSTAVE  CHARLES  (1842-  ),  French  historian 
and  economist,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of  October  1842. 
Trained  at  the  Ecole  des  Charles  and  the  Ecole  des  Hautes 
Etudes,  he  made  his  first  appearance  in  the  world  of  scholarship 
as  the  author  of  an  excellent  book  called  FJudes  sur  I'industrie 
el  la  dasse  industrielle  a  Paris  au  XIII'  etau  XI V'  siecle  (1877). 
This  work,  composed  almost  entirely  from  documents,  many 
unpublished,  opened  a  new  field  for  historical  study.  Twenty 
years  later  he  supplemented  this  book  by  an  interesting  collection 
of  Documents  relalifs  a  I'histoire  de  I'industrie  et  du  commerce  en 
France  (2  vols.,  1898-1900),  and  in  1897  he  published  L'£conomie 
sociale  de  la  France  sous  Henri  IV,  a.  volume  containing  the 
results  of  very  minute  research.  He  did  not,  however,  confine 
himself  to  economic  history.  His  Le  Pere  Joseph  el  Richelieu 
(1894),  though  somewhat  frigid  and  severe,  is  based  on  a  mass 


of  unpublished  information,  and  shows  remarkable  psychologic 
grasp.  In  1878  his  Journal  parisien  de  Jean  de  Maupoint,  prieur 
de  Ste  Catherine '-de-la-Coulure  was  published  in  vol.  iv.  of  the 
Memoires  de  la  society  de  I'histoire  de  Paris  el  de  I' fie  de  France. 
He  wrote  numerous  articles  in  the  Revue  historique  (of  which 
he  was  co-director  with  Gabriel  Monod  for  some  years)  and  in 
other  learned  reviews,  such  as  the  Revue  des  questions  historiques 
and  the  Journal  des  savants.  In  1901  he  was  elected  member  of 
the  Academic, des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques. 

FAGUET,  EMILE  (1847-  ),  French  critic  and  man  of 
letters,  was  born  at  La  Roche  sur  Yon  on  the  i7th  of  December 
1847.  He  was  educated  at  the  normal  school  in  Paris,  and  after 
teaching  for  some  time  in  La  Rochelle  and  Bordeaux  he  came  to 
Paris.  After  acting  as  assistant  professor  of  poetry  in  the  uni- 
versity he  became  professor  in  1897.  He  was  elected  to  the 
academy  in  1900,  and  received  the  ribbon  of  the  Legion  of  Honour 
in  the  next  year.  He  acted  as  dramatic  critic  to  the  Sokil; 
from  1892  he  was  literary  critic  to  the  Revue  bleue;  and  in  1896 
took  the  place  of  M.  Jules  Lemaitre  on  the  Journal  des  dibats. 
Among  his  works  are  monographs  on  Flaubert  (1899),  Andre 
Chenier  (1902),  Zola  (1903);  an  admirably  concise  Histoire  de  la 
litlerature  franchise  depuis  le  XVII'  siecle  jusqu'd  nos  jours; 
series  of  literary  studies  on  the  i7th,  i8th  and  igth  centuries; 
Questions  politiques  (1890; ;  Propos  litter aires  (3  series,  1902— 
1905);  Le  Liberalisme  (1902);  and  L' Anticlericalisme  (1906). 

See  A.  Seche,  £mile  Faguet  (1904). 

FA-HIEN  (fl.  A.D.  399-414),  Chinese  Buddhist  monk,  pilgrim- 
traveller,  and  writer,  author  of  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
valuable  Chinese  accounts  of  India.  He  started  from  Changgan 
or  Si-gan-fu,  then  the  capital  of  the  Tsin  empire,  and  passing  the 
Great  Wall,  crossed  the  "  River  of  Sand  '' or  Gobi  Desert  beyond, 
that  home  of  "  evil  demons  and  hot  winds,"  which  he  vividly 
describes, — where  the  only  way-marks  were  the  bones  of  the 
dead,  where  no  bird  appeared  in  the  air  above,  no  animal  on  the 
ground  below.  Arriving  at  Khotan,  the  traveller  witnessed  a 
great  Buddhist  festival;  here,  as  in  Yarkand,  Afghanistan  and 
other  parts  thoroughly  Islamized  before  the  close  of  the  middle 
ages,  Fa-Hien  shows  us  Buddhism  still  prevailing.  India  was 
reached  by  a  perilous  descent  of  "  ten  thousand  cubits  "  from  the 
"  wall-like  hills  "  of  the  Hindu  Rush  into  the  Indus  valley  (about 
A.D.  402);  and  the  pilgrim  passed  the  next  ten  years  in  the 
"  central  "  Buddhist  realm, — making  journeys  to  Peshawur  and 
Afghanistan  (especially  the  Kabul  region)  on  one  side,  and  to  the 
Ganges  valley  on  another.  His  especial  concern  was  the  explora- 
tion of  the  scenes  of  Buddha's  life,  the  copying  of  Buddhist 
texts,  and  converse  with  the  Buddhist  monks  and  sages  whom 
the  Brahmin  reaction  had  not  yet  driven  out.  Thus  we  find  him 
at  Buddha's  birthplace  on  the  Kohana,  north-west  of  Benares; 
in  Patna  and  on  the  Vulture  Peak  near  Patna;  at  the  Jetvana 
monastery  in  Oudh;  as  well  as  at  Muttra  on  the  Jumna,  at 
Kanauj,  and  at  Tamluk  near  the  mouth  of  the  Hugli.  But  now 
the  narrative,  which  in  its  earlier  portions  was  primarily  historical 
and  geographical,  becomes  mystical  and  theological;  miracle- 
stories  and  meditations  upon  Buddhist  moralities  and  sacred 
memories  almost  entirely  replace  matters  of  fact.  From  the 
Ganges  delta  Fa-Hien  sailed  with  a  merchant  ship,  in  fourteen 
days,  to  Ceylon,  where  he  transcribed  all  the  sacred  books,  as  yet 
unknown  in  China,  which  he  could  find;  witnessed  the  festival 
of  the  exhibition  of  Buddha's  tooth;  and  remarked  the  trade  of 
Arab  merchants  to  the  island,  two  centuries  before  Mahomet. 
He  returned  by  sea  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yangtse-Kiang,  changing 
vessels  at  Java,  and  narrowly  escaping  shipwreck  or  the  fate 
of  Jonah. 

Fa-Hien's  work  is  valuable  evidence  to  the  strength,  and  in 
many  places  to  the  dominance,  of  Buddhism  in  central  Asia 
and  in  India  at  the  time  of  the  collapse  of  the  Roman  empire  in 
western  Europe.  His  tone  throughout  is  that  of  the  devout, 
learned,  sensible,  rarely  hysterical  pilgrim-traveller.  His  record 
is  careful  and  accurate,  and  most  of  his  positions  can  be  identi- 
fied; his  devotion  is  so  strong  that  it  leads  him  to  depreciate 
China  as  a  "  border-land,"  India  the  home  of  Buddha  being  the 
true  "  middle  kingdom  "  of  his  creed. 


126 


FAHLCRANTZ— FAIN 


See  James  Leggc,  Record  of  Buddhistic  Kingdoms,  being  an  account 
by  the  Chinese  Monk  Fd-hien  of  his  travels  in  India  and  Ceylon; 
translated  and  edited,  with  map,  &c.  (Oxford,  1886);  S.  Beal, 
Travels  of  Fah-IIian  and  Sung-  Yun,  Buddhist  pilgrims  from  China 
to  India,  400  and  518  A.D.,  translated,  with  map,  &c.  (1869); 
C.  R.  Beazley,  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography,  vol.  i.  (1897),  pp.  478-485. 

FAHLCRANTZ,  CHRISTIAN  ERIK  (1790-1866),  Swedish 
author,  was  born  at  Stora  Tuna  in  Sweden  on  the  3oth  of  August 
1790.  His  brothers,  Carl  Johan  (1774-1861),  the  landscape- 
painter,  and  Axel  Magnus  (1780-1854),  the  sculptor,  became 
hardly  less  distinguished  than  himself.  In  1804  he  entered  the 
university  of  Upsala;  in  1821  he  became  tutor  in  Arabic,  and 
in  1825  professor  of  Oriental  languages.  In  1828  he  entered  the 
church,  but  earlier  than  this,  in  1825,  he  published  his  Noachs 
Ark,  a  successful  satire  on  the  literary  and  social  life  of  his  time, 
followed  in  1826  by  a  second  part.  In  1835  Fahlcrantz  brought 
out  the  first  part  of  his  epic  of  Ansgarius,  which  was  completed 
in  1846,  in  14  cantos.  In  1842  he  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Swedish  Academy,  and  in  1849  he  was  made  bishop  of  Vesteras, 
his  next  literary  work  being  an  archaeological  study  on  the 
beautiful  ancient  cathedral  of  his  diocese.  In  the  course  of  the 
years  1858-1861  appeared  the  five  volumes  of  his  Romjorr  och 
nu  (Rome  as  it  was  and  is),  a  theological  polemic,  mainly  directed 
against  the  Jesuits.  He  died  on  the  6th  of  August  1866.  His 
complete  works  (7  vols.,  Orebro,  1863-1866)  were  issued  mainly 
under  his  own  superintendence. 

FAHRENHEIT,  GABRIEL  DANIEL  (1686-1736),  German 
physicist,  was  born  at  Danzig  on  the  I4th  of  May  1686.  For  the 
most  part  he  lived  in  England  and  Holland,  devoting  himself 
to  the  study  of  physics  and  making  a  living,  apparently,  by  the 
manufacture  of  meteorological  instruments.  He  was  the  author 
of  important  improvements  in  the  construction  of  thermometers, 
and  he  introduced  the  thermometric  scale  known  by  his  name 
and  still  extensively  used  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
(see  THERMOMETRY).  He  also  invented  an  improved  form  of 
hygrometer,  a  description  of  which,  together  with  accounts  of 
various  observations  and  experiments  made  by  him,  was  pub- 
lished in  the  Phil.  Trans,  for  1724.  He  died  in  Holland  on  the 
1 6th  of  September  1736. 

FAIDHERBE,  LOUIS  LEON  CESAR  (1818-1889),  French 
general  and  colonial  administrator,  was  born  on  the  3rd  of 
June  1818,  at  Lille,  received  his  military  education  at  the  Ecole 
Poly  technique  and  at  Metz,  and  entered  the  engineers  in  1840. 
From  1844  to  1847  he  served  in  Algeria,  then  two  years  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  again  in  Algeria,  taking  part  in  many  expedi- 
tions against  the  Arabs.  In  1852  he  was  transferred  to  Senegal 
as  sub-director  of  engineers,  and  in  1854  was  promoted  chef  de 
bataillon  and  appointed  governor  of  the  colony.  He  held  this 
post  with  one  brief  interval  until  July  1865.  The  work  he 
accomplished  in  West  Africa  constitutes  his  most  enduring 
monument.  At  that  time  France  possessed  in  Senegal  little  else 
than  the  town  of  St  Louis  and  a  strip  of  coast.  Explorers  had, 
however,  made  known  the  riches  and  possibilities  of  the  Niger 
regions,  and  Faidherbe  formed  the  design  of  adding  those 
countries  to  the  French  dominions.  He  even  dreamed  of  creating 
a  French  African  empire  stretching  from  Senegal  to  the  Red  Sea. 
To  accomplish  even  the  first  part  of  his  design  he  had  very 
inadequate  resources,  especially  in  view  of  the  aggressive  action 
of  Omar  Al-Hadji,  the  Moslem  ruler  of  the  countries  of  the 
middle  Niger.  By  boldly  advancing  the  French  outposts  on  the 
upper  Senegal  Faidherbe  stemmed  the  Moslem  advance,  and  by 
an  advantageous  treaty  with  Omar  in  1860  brought  the  French 
possessions  into  touch  with  the  Niger.  He  also  brought  into 
subjection  the  country  lying  between  the  Senegal  and  Gambia. 
When  he  resigned  his  post  French  rule  had  been  firmly  established 
over  a  very  considerable  and  fertile  area  and  the  foundation 
laid  upon  which  his  successors  built  up  the  predominant  position 
occupied  now  by  France  in  West  Africa.  In  1863  he  became 
general  of  brigade.  From  1867  to  the  early  part  of  1870  he 
commanded  the  subdivision  of  Bona  in  Algeria,  and  was  com- 
manding the  Constantine  division  at  the  commencement  of  the 
Franco-German  War.  Promoted  general  of  division  inNovember 
1870,  he  was  on  the  3rd  of  December  appointed  by  the  Govern- 


ment of  National  Defence  to  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
of  the  North.  In  this  post  he  showed  himself  to  be  possessed 
of  the  highest  military  talents,  and  the  struggle  between  the  I. 
German  army  and  that  commanded  by  Faidherbe,  in  which  were 
included  the  hard-fought  battles  of  Pont  Noyelles,  Bapaume  and 
St  Quentin,  was  perhaps  the  most  honourable  to  the  French  army 
in  the  whole  of  the  People's  War.  Even  with  the  inadequate 
force  of  which  he  disposed  he  was  able  to  maintain  a  steady 
resistance  up  to  the  end  of  the  war.  Elected  to  the  National 
Assembly  for  the  department  of  the  Nord,  he  resigned  his  seat 
in  consequence  of  its  reactionary  proceedings.  For  his  services 
he  was  decorated  with  the  grand  cross,  and  made  chancellor 
of  the  order  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  In  1872  he  went  on  a 
scientific  mission  to  Upper  Egypt,  where  he  studied  the  monu- 
ments and  inscriptions.  An  enthusiastic  geographer,  philologist 
and  archaeologist,  he  wrote  numerous  works,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  Collection  des  inscriptions  numidiques  (1870), 
Epigraphie  phenicienne  (1873),  Essai  sur  la  langue  paid  (1875), 
and  Le  Zenaga  des  tribes  senegalaises  (1877),  the  last  a  study  of 
the  Berber  language.  He  also  wrote  on  the  geography  and 
history  of  Senegal  and^the  Sahara,  and  La  Campagne  de  I'armee  du 
Nord  (1872).  He  was  elected  a  senator  in  1879,  and,  in  spite  of 
failing  health,  continued  to  the  last  a  close  student  of  his  favourite 
subjects.  He  died  on  the  29th  of  September  1889,  and  received 
a  public  funeral.  Statues  and  monuments  to  his  memory  were 
erected  at  Lille,  Bapaume,  St  Quentin  and  St  Louis,  Senegal. 

FAIENCE,  properly  the  French  term  for  the  porzellana  di 
Faenza,  a  fine  kind  of  glazed  and  painted  earthenware  made  at 
Faenza  in  Italy,  hence  a  term  applied  generally  to  all  kinds  of 
pottery  other  than  unglazed  pottery  or  porcelain.  It  is  often 
particularly  applied  to  the  translucent  earthenware  made  in 
Persia  (see  CERAMICS). 

FAILLY,  PIERRE  LOUIS  CHARLES  DE  (1810-1892),  French 
general,  was  born  at  Rozoy-sur-Serre  (Aisne)  on  the  2ist  of 
January  1810,  and  entered  the  army  from  St  Cyr  in  1828.  In 
1851  he  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  Napoleon  III., 
with  whom  he  was  a  favourite,  made  him  general  of  brigade  in 
1854  and  general  of  division  in  1855,  after  which  for  a  time  De 
Failly  was  his  aide-de-camp.  In  the  war  of  1859  De  Failly 
commanded  a  division,  and  in  1867  he  defeated  Garibaldi  at 
Mentana,  this  action  being  the  first  in  which  the  chassepot  was 
used.  In  1870  De  Failly  commanded  the  V.  corps.  His  in- 
activity at  Bitsch  on  the  6th  of  August  while  the  I.  corps  on  his 
right  and  the  II.  corps  on  his  left  were  crushed  at  Worth  and 
Spicheren  respectively,  gave  rise  to  the  greatest  indignation  in 
France,  and  his  military  career  ended,  after  the  V.  corps  had  been 
severely  handled  at  Beaumont  on  the  3oth  of  August,  with  the 
catastrophe  of  Sedan.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  retirement. 
De  Failly  wrote  Campaigne  de  1870,  Operations  et  marche  du  f" 
corps  jusqu'au  30  aodt  (Brussels,  1871). 

FAIN,  AGATHON  JEAN  FRANCOIS  (1778-1837),  French 
historian,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  nth  of  January  1778.  Having 
gained  admittance  to  the  offices  of  the  Directory,  he  became 
head  of  a  department.  Under  the  Consulate  he  entered  the 
office  of  the  secretary  of  state,  in  the  department  of  the  archives. 
In  1806  he  was  appointed  secretary  and  archivist  to  the  cabinet 
particulier  of  the  emperor,  whom  he  attended  on  his  campaigns 
and  journeys.  He  was  created  a  baron  of  the  empire  in  1809, 
and,  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  was  first  secretary  of  the  cabinet 
and  confidential  secretary.  Compelled  by  the  second  Restoration 
to  retire  into  private  life,  he  devoted  his  leisure  to  writing  the 
history  of  his  times,  an  occupation  for  which  his  previous  employ- 
ments well  fitted  him.  He  published  successively  Manuscrit  de 
1814,  conlenant  I'histoire  des  six  derniers  mois  du  regne  de  Napoleon 
(1823;  new  edition  with  illustrations,  1906);  Manuscrit  de 
1813,  contenant  le  precis  des  ivenements  de  celle  annie  pour  scnir 
&  I'histoire  de  Vempereur  Napoleon  (1824);  Manuscrit  de  1812 
(1827);  and  Manuscrit  de  Van  Hi.  (1704-1795),  contenant  les 
premieres  transactions  de  I' Europe  avec  la  republique  franqaise  et 
le  tableau  des  derniers  evenements  du  regime  conventionnel  (1828), 
all  of  which  are  remarkable  for  accuracy  and  wide  range  of 
knowledge,  and  are  a  very  valuable  source  for  the  history  of 


FAIR 


127 


Napoleon  I.  Of  still  greater  importance  for  the  history  of 
Napoleon  are  Fain's  Memoires,  which  were  published  posthum- 
ously in  1908;  they  relate  more  particularly  to  the  last  five 
years  of  the  empire,  and  give  a  detailed  picture  of  the  emperor  at 
work  on  his  correspondence  among  his  confidential  secretaries. 
Immediately  after  the  overthrow  of  Charles  X.,  King  Louis 
Philippe  appointed  Fain  first  secretary  of  his  cabinet  (August 
1830).  Fain  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  state  and  deputy 
from  Montargis  from  1834  until  his  death,  which  occurred  in 
Paris  on  the  i6th  of  September  1837. 

FAIR,  a  commercial  institution,  defined  as  a  "  greater  species 
of  market  recurring  at  more  distant  intervals":  both  "fair" 
and  "  market  "  (q.v.)  have  been  distinguished  by  Lord  Coke 
from  "mart,"  which  he  considers  as  a  greater  species  of  fair; 
and  all  three  may  be  defined  as  periodic  gatherings  of  buyers  and 
sellers  in  an  appointed  place,  subject  to  special  regulation  by 
law  or  custom.  Thus  in  England  from  a  strictly  legal  point  of 
view  there  can  be  no  fair  or  market  without  a  franchise;  and  a 
franchise  of  fair  or  market  can  only  be  exercised  by  right  of  a 
grant  from  the  crown,  or  by  the  authority  of  parliament  or  by 
prescription  presupposing  a  grant.  In  the  earliest  times  periodical 
trading  in  special  localities  was  necessitated  by  the  difficulties  of 
communication  and  the  dangers  of  travel.  Public  gatherings, 
whether  religious,  military  or  judicial,  which  brought  together 
widely  scattered  populations,  were  utilized  as  opportunities  for 
commerce.  At  the  festivals  of  Delos  and  at  the  Olympic  games 
trade,  it  is  said,  found  important  outlets,  while  in  Etruria  the 
annual  general  assembly  at  the  temple  of  Voltumna  served  at 
the  same  time  as  a  fair  and  was  regularly  attended  by  Roman 
traders.  Instances  of  a  similar  nature  might  be  multiplied; 
but  it  was  above  all  with  religious  festivals  which  recurred  with 
regularity  and  convoked  large  numbers  of  persons  that  fairs, 
as  distinguished  from  markets,  are  most  intimately  associated. 

The  most  commonly  accepted  derivation  of  the  word  "fair" 
is  from  the  Latin  feria,  a  name  which  the  church  borrowed  from 
Roman  custom  and  applied  to  her  own  festivals.  A  fair  was 
generally  held  during  the  period  of  a  saint's  feast  and  in  the 
precincts  of  his  church  or  abbey,  but  in  England  this  desecration 
of  church  or  churchyard  was  first  forbidden  by  the  Statute  of 
Winton  (c.  Edward  I.).  Most  of  the  famous  fairs  of  medieval 
England  and  Europe,  with  their  tolls  or  other  revenues,  and, 
within  certain  limits  of  time  and  place,  their  monopoly  of  trade, 
were  grants  from  the  sovereign  to  abbots,  bishops  and  other 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries.  Their  "holy  day"  associations  are 
preserved  in  the  German  word  for  fairs,  Messen;  as  also  in  the 
kirmiss,  "  church  mass,"  of  the  people  of  Brittany.  So  very 
intimate  was  the  connexion  between  the  fair  and  the  feast  of  the 
saint  that  the  former  has  very  commonly  been  regarded  as  an 
off-shoot  or  development  of  the  latter.  But  there  is  every  reason 
to  suppose  that  fairs  were  already  existing  national  institutions, 
long  before  the  church  turned  or  was  privileged  to  turn  them  to 
her  own  profit. 

The  first  charter  of  the  great  fair  of  Stourbridge,  near 
Cambridge,  was  granted  by  King  John  for  the  maintenance  of 
a  leper  hospital;  but  the  origin  of  the  fair  itself  is  ascribed 
to  Carausius,  the  rebel  emperor  of  Britain,  A.D.  207.  At  all 
events,  it  may  be  seen  from  the  data  given  in  Herbert  Spencer's 
Descriptive  Sociology  that  the  country  had  then  arrived  at  the 
stage  of  development  where  fairs  might  have  been  recognized  as 
a  necessity.  The  Romans  also  appear  to  have  elaborated  a 
market-law  similar  to  that  in  force  throughout  medieval  Europe 
— though  it  must  be  observed  that  the  Roman  nundinae,  which 
some  have  regarded  as  fairs,  were  weekly  markets.  It  has  also 
been  supposed  that  the  ancient  fairs  of  Lyons  were  a  special 
privilege  granted  by  the  Roman  conquerors;  and  Sidonius 
Apollinaris,  A.D.  427,  alludes  to  the  fairs  of  the  district  afterwards 
known  as  the  county  of  Champagne,  as  if  they  were  then  familiarly 
known  institutions.  Fairs,  in  a  word,  would  not  only  have  arisen 
naturally,  wherever  the  means  of  communication  between  indi- 
vidual centres  of  production  and  consumption  were  felt  to  be 
inadequate  to  the  demand  for  an  interchange  of  commodities; 
but,  from  their  very  nature,  they  might  be  expected  to  show 


some  essential  resemblances,  even  in  points  of  legislation,  and 
where  no  international  transmission  of  custom  could  have  been 
possible.  Thus,  the  fair  courts  of  pre-Spanish  Mexico  corre- 
sponded very  closely  to  those  of  the  Beaucaire  fair.  They 
resembled  the  English  courts  of  piepowder.  The  Spaniards, 
when  first  they  saw  the  Mexican  fairs,  were  reminded  of  the  like 
institutions  in  Salamanca  and  Granada.  The  great  fair  or  market 
at  the  city  of  Mexico  is  said  to  have  been  attended  by  about 
40,000  or  50,000  persons,  and  is  thus  described  by  Prescott: — 

"  Officers  patrolled  the  square,  whose  business  it  was  to  keep  the 
peace,  to  collect  the  dues  imposed  on  the  various  kinds  of  merchan- 
dise, to  see  that  no  false  measures  or  fraud  of  any  kind  were  used, 
and  to  bring  offenders  at  once  to  justice.  A  court  of  twelve  judges 
sat  in  one  part  of  the  tianguez  clothed  with  those  ample  and 
summary  powers  which,  in  despotic  countries,  are  often  delegated 
even  to  petty  tribunals.  The  extreme  severity  with  which  they 
exercised  those  powers,  in  more  than  one  instance,  proves  that  they 
were  not  a  dead  letter." 

But  notwithstanding  the  great  antiquity  of  fairs,  their  charters 
are  comparatively  modern— the  oldest  known  being  that  of  St 
Denys,  Paris,  which  Dagobert,  king  of  the  Franks,  granted 
(A.D.  642)  to  the  monks  of  the  place  "  for  the  glory  of  God,  and 
the  honour  of  St  Denys  at  his  festival." 

In  England  it  was  only  after  the  Norman  conquest  that  fairs 
became  of  capital  importance.  Records  exist  of  2800  grants  of 
franchise  markets  and  fairs  between  the  years  1199  and  1483. 
More  than  half  of  these  were  made  during  the  reigns  of  John  and 
Henry  III.,  when  the  power  of  the  church  was  in  ascendancy. 
The  first  recorded  grant,  however,  appears  to  be  that  of  William 
the  Conqueror  to  the  bishop  of  Winchester,  for  leave  to  hold 
an  annual "  free  fair  "  at  St  Giles's  hill.  The  monk  who  had  been 
the  king's  jester  received  his  charter  of  Bartholomew  fair, 
Smithfield,  in  the  year  1133.  And  in  1248  Henry  III.  granted 
a  like  privilege  to  the  abbot  of  Westminster,  in  honour  of  the 
"  translation  "  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  Sometimes  fairs  were 
granted  to  towns  as  a  means  for  enabling  them  to  recover  from 
the  effects  of  war  and  other  disasters.  Thus,  Edward  III. 
granted  a  "  free  fair  "  to  the  town  of  Burnley  in  Rutland,  just 
as,  in  subsequent  times,  Charles  VII.  favoured  Bordeaux  after 
the  English  wars,  and  Louis  XIV.  gave  fair  charters  to  the 
towns  of  Dieppe  and  Toulon.  The  importance  attached  to 
these  old  fairs  rnay  be  understood  from  the  inducements  which, 
in  the  I4th  century,  Charles  IV.  held  out  to  traders  visiting  the 
great  fair  of  Frankfort-on-Main.  The  charter  declared  that 
both  during  the  continuance  of  the  fair,  and  for  eighteen  days 
before  and  after  it,  merchants  would  be  exempt  from  imperial 
taxation,  from  arrest  for  debt,  or  civil  process  of  any  sort,  except 
such  as  might  arise  from  the  transactions  of  the  market  itself 
and  within  its  precincts.  Philip  of  Valois's  regulations  for  the 
fairs  of  Troyes  in  Champagne  might  not  only  be  accepted  as 
typical  of  all  subsequent  fair-legislation  of  the  kingdom,  but 
even  of  the  English  and  German  laws  on  the  subject.  The  fair 
had  its  staff  of  notaries  for  the  attestation  of  bargains,  its  court 
of  justice,  its  police  officers,  its  sergeants  for  the  execution  of  the 
market  judges'  decrees,  and  its  visitors — of  whom  we  may  mention 
the  prud'hommes, — whose  duty  it  was  to  examine  the  quality  of 
goods  exposed  for  sale,  and  to  confiscate  those  found  unfit  for 
consumption.  The  confiscation  required  the  consent  of  five  or 
six  representatives  of  the  merchant  community  at  the  fair. 
The  effect  of  these  great  "  free  fairs  "  of  England  and  the 
continent  on  the  development  of  society  was  indeed  great. 
They  helped  to  familiarize  the  western  and  northern  countries 
with  the  banking  and  financial  systems  of  the  Lombards  and 
Florentines,  who  resorted  to  them  under  the  protection  of  the 
sovereign's  "  firm  peace,"  and  the  ghostly  terrors  of  the  pope. 
They  usually  became  the  seat  of  foreign  agencies.  In  the  names 
of  her  streets  Provins  preserved  the  memory  of  her  1 2th-century 
intercourse  with  the  agents  and  merchants  of  Germany  and  the 
Low  Countries,  and  long  before  that  time  the  Syrian  traders  at 
St  Denys  had  established  their  powerful  association  in  Paris. 
Like  the  church  on  the  religious  side,  the  free  fairs  on  the  com- 
mercial side  evoked  and  cherished  the  international  spirit.  And 
during  long  ages,  when  commercial  "  protection  "  was  regarded 


128 


FAIR 


as  indispensable  to  a  nation's  wealth,  and  the  merchant  was 
compelled  to  "  fight  his  way  through  a  wilderness  of  taxes," 
they  were  the  sole  and,  so  far  as  they  went,  the  complete  sub- 
stitute for  the  free  trade  of  later  days. 

Their  privileges,  however,  were,  from  their  very  nature, 
destined  to  grow  more  oppressive  and  intolerable  the  more 
the  towns  were  multiplied  and  the  means  of  communication 
increased.  The  people  of  London  were  compelled  to  close  their 
shops  during  the  days  when  the  abbot  of  Westminster's  fair  was 
open.  But  a  more  curious  and  complete  instance  of  such  an 
ecclesiastical  monopoly  was  that  of  the  St  Giles's  fair,  at  first 
granted  for  the  customary  three  days,  which  were  increased  by 
Henry  III.  to  sixteen.  The  bishop  of  Winchester  was,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  lord  of  this  fair.  On  the  eve  of  St  Giles's  feast 
the  magistrates  of  Winchester  surrendered  the  keys  of  the  city 
gates  to  the  bishop,  who  then  appointed  his  own  mayor,  bailiff 
and  coroner,  to  hold  office  until  the  close  of  the  fair.  During  the 
same  period,  Winchester  and  Southampton  also — though  it  was 
then  a  thriving  trading  town — were  forbidden  to  transact  their 
ordinary  commercial  business,  except  within  the  bishop's  fair, 
or  with  his  special  permission.  The  bishop's  officers  were  posted 
along  the  highways,  with  power  to  forfeit  to  his  lordship  all  goods 
bought  and  sold  within  7  m.  of  the  fair — in  whose  centre  stood 
"  the  pavilion,"  or  bishop's  court.  It  is  clear,  from  the  curious 
record  of  the  Establishment  and  Expenses  of  the  Household  of 
Percy,  sth  earl  of  Northumberland,  that  fairs  were  the  chief 
centres  of  country  traffic  even  as  late  as  the  i6th  century.  They 
began  to  decline  rapidly  after  1759,  when  good  roads  had  been 
constructed  and  canal  communication  established  between  Liver- 
pool and  the  towns  of  Yorkshire,  Cheshire  and  Lancashire.  In 
the  great  towns  their  extinction  was  hastened  in  consequence  of 
their  evil  effects  on  public  morals.  All  the  London  fairs  were 
abolished  as  public  nuisances  before  1855 — the  last  year  of  the 
ever  famous  fair  of  St  Bartholomew;  and  the  fairs  of  Paris  were 
swept  away  in  the  storm  of  the  Revolution. 

English  Fairs  and  Markets. — For  the  general  reasons  apparent 
from  the  preceding  sketch,  fairs  in  England,  as  in  France  and 
Germany,  have  very  largely  given  way  to  markets  for  specialities. 
Even  the  live-stock  market  of  the  metropolis  is  being  superseded 
by  the  dead-meat  market,  a  change  which  has  been  encouraged 
by  modern  legislation  on  cattle  disease,  the  movements  of  home 
stock  and  the  importation  of  foreign  animals.  Agricultural 
markets  are  also  disappearing  before  the  "  agencies  "  and  the 
corn  exchanges  in  the  principal  towns.  Still  there  are  some 
considerable  fairs  yet  remaining.  Of  the  English  fairs  for  live 
stock,  those  of  Weyhill  in  Hampshire  (October  10),  St  Faith's, 
near  Norwich  (October  17),  as  also  several  held  at  Devizes, 
Wiltshire,  are  among  the  largest  in  the  kingdom.  The  first  named 
stands  next  to  none  for  its  display  of  sheep.  Horncastle,  Lincoln- 
shire, is  the  largest  horse  fair  in  the  kingdom,  and  is  regularly 
visited  by  American  and  continental  dealers.  The  other  leading 
horse  fairs  in  England  are  Howden  in  Yorkshire  (well  known  for 
its  hunters)  ,Woodbridge  (on  Lady  Day)  for  Suffolk  horses,  Barnet 
in  Hertfordshire,  and  Lincoln.  Exeter  December  fair  has  a 
large  display  of  cattle,  horses  and  most  kinds  of  commodities. 
Large  numbers  of  Scotch  cattle  are  also  brought  to  the  fairs  of 
Carlisle  and  Ormskirk.  Nottingham  has  a  fair  for  geese.  Ipswich 
has  a  fair  for  lambs  on  the  ist  of  August,  and  for  butter  and 
cheese  on  the  ist  of  September.  Gloucester  fair  is  also  famous 
for  the  last-named  commodity.  Falkirk  fair,  or  tryst,  for  cattle 
and  sheep,  is  one  of  the  largest  in  Scotland;  and  Ballinasloe, 
Galway,  holds  a  like  position  among  Irish  fairs.  The  Ballinasloe 
cattle  are  usually  fed  for  a  year  in  Leinster  before  they  are 
considered  fit  for  the  Dublin  or  Liverpool  markets. 

French  Fairs. — In  France  fairs  and  markets  are  held  under 
the  authority  of  the  prefects,  new  fairs  and  markets  being  estab- 
lished by  order  of  the  prefects  at  the  instance  of  the  commune 
interested.  Before  the  Revolution  fairs  and  markets  could  only 
be  established  by  seigneurs  jusliciers,  but  only  two  small  markets 
have  survived  the  law  of  1790  abolishing  private  ownership  of 
market  rights,  namely,  the  Marche  Ste  Catherine  and  the  Marche 
des  enfants  rouges,  both  in  Paris.  Under  the  present  system 


markets  and  fairs  are  held  in  most  of  the  towns  and  villages  in 
France;  and  at  all  such  gatherings  entertainments  form  an 
important  feature.  The  great  fair  of  Beaucaire  instituted  in 
1 1 68)  has  steadily  declined  since  the  opening  of  railway  com- 
munication, and  now  ranks  with  the  fairs  of  ordinary  provincial 
towns.  Situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Canal  du 
Midi,  and  less  than  40  m.  from  the  sea,  it  at  one  time  attracted 
merchants  from  Spain,  from  Switzerland  and  Germany,  and 
from  the  Levant  and  Mediterranean  ports,  and  formed  one  of  the 
greatest  temporary  centres  of  commerce  on  the  continent.  One 
trade  firm  alone,  it  is  said,  rarely  did  less  than  i  ,000,000  francs 
worth  of  business  during  the  fortnight  that  the  fair  lasted. 

German  Fairs. — In  Germany  the  police  authorities  are  con- 
sidered the  market  authorities,  and  to  them  in  most  cases  is 
assigned  the  duty  of  establishing  new  fairs  and  markets,  subject 
to  magisterial  decision.  The  three  great  fairs  of  Germany  are 
those  of  Frankfort-on-Main,  Frankfort-on-Oder  and  Leipzig, 
but,  like  all  the  large  fairs  of  Europe,  they  have  declined  rapidly 
in  importance.  Those  of  Frankfort-on-Main  begin  on  Easter 
Tuesday  and  on  the  nearest  Monday  to  September  8  respectively, 
and  their  legal  duration  is  three  weeks,  though  the  limit  is  regu- 
larly extended.  The  fairs  of  the  second-named  city  are  Remini- 
scere,  February  or  March;  St  Margaret,  July;  St  Martin, 
November.  Ordinarily  they  last  fifteen  days,  which  is  double  the 
legal  term.  The  greatest  of  the  German  fairs  are  those  of  Leipzig, 
whose  display  of  books  is  famous  all  over  the  world.  Its  three 
fairs  are  dated  January  i,  Easter,  Michaelmas.  The  Easter  one 
is  the  book  fair,  which  is  attended  by  all  the  principal  booksellers 
of  Germany,  and  by  many  more  from  the  adjoining  countries. 
Most  German  publishers  have  agents  at  Leipzig.  As  many  as 
5000  new  publications  have  been  entered  in  a  single  Leipzig 
catalogue.  As  in  the  other  instances  given,  the  Leipzig  fairs  last 
for  three  weeks,  or  nearly  thrice  their  allotted  duration.  Here  no 
days  of  grace  are  allowed,  and  the  holder  of  a  bill  must  demand 
payment  when  due,  and  protest,  if  necessary,  on  the  same  day, 
otherwise  he  cannot  proceed  against  either  drawer  or  endorser. 

Russian  Fairs. — In  Russia  fairs  are  held  by  local  authorities. 
Landed  proprietors  may  also  hold  fairs  on  their  estates  subject 
to  the  sanction  of  the  local  authorities;  but  no  private  tolls 
may  be  levied  on  commodities  brought  to  such  fairs.  In  Siberia 
and  the  east  of  Russia,  where  more  primitive  conditions  foster 
such  centres  of  trade,  fairs  are  still  of  considerable  importance. 
Throughout  Russia  generally  they  are  very  numerous.  The 
most  important,  that  of  Nijni  Novgorod,  held  annually  in  July 
and  August  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Volga  and  Kama, 
was  instituted  in  the  I7th  century  by  the  tsar  Michael  Fedoro- 
vitch.  In  1881  it  was  calculated  that  trade  to  the  value  of 
246,000,000  roubles  was  carried  on  within  the  limits  of  the  fair. 
It  still  continues  to  be  of  great  commercial  importance,  and  is 
usually  attended  by  upwards  of  100,000  persons  from  all  parts 
of  Asia  and  eastern  Europe.  Other  fairs  of  consequence  are 
those  of  Irbit  in  Perm,  Kharkoff  (January  and  August) ,  Poltava 
(August  and  February),  Koreunais  in  Koursk,  Ourloupinsknia 
in  the  Don  Cossack  country,  Krolevetz  in  Tchernigoff,  and  a 
third  fair  held  at  Poltava  on  the  feast  of  the  Ascension. 

Indian  Fairs. — The  largest  of  these,  and  perhaps  the  largest 
in  Asia,  is  that  of  Hurdwar,  on  the  upper  course  of  the  Ganges. 
The  visitors  to  this  holy  fair  number  from  200,000  to  300,000; 
but  every  twelfth  year  there  occurs  a  special  pilgrimage  to  the 
sacred  river,  when  the  numbers  may  amount  to  a  million  or 
upwards.  Those  who  go  solely  for  the  purposes  of  trade  are 
Nepalese,  Mongolians,  Tibetans,  central  Asiatics  and  Mahom- 
medan  pedlars  from  the  Punjab,  Sind  and  the  border  states. 
Persian  shawls  and  carpets,  Indian  silks,  Kashmir  shawls,  cottons 
(Indian  and  English) ,  preserved  fruits,  spices,  drugs,  &c.,  together 
with  immense  numbers  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep  and  camels,  are 
brought  to  this  famous  fair. 

American  Fairs. — The  word  "  fair,"  as  now  used  in  the  United 
States,  appears  to  have  completely  lost  its  Old  World  meaning. 
It  seems  to  be  exclusively  applied  to  industrial  exhibitions  and 
to  what  in  England  are  called  fancy  bazaars.  Thus,  during  the 
Civil  War,  large  sums  were  collected  at  the  "  sanitary  fairs," 


FAIRBAIRN,  A.  M.— FAIRBAIRN,  W. 


129 


for  the  benefit  of  the  sick  and  wounded.  To  the  first-named  class 
belong  the  state  and  county  fairs,  as  they  are  called.  Among  the 
first  and  best-known  of  these  was  the  "  New  York  World's  Fair," 
opened  in  1853  by  a  company  formed  in  1851.  (See  EXHIBITION.) 

Law  of  Fairs. — As  no  market  or  fair  can  be  held  in  England 
without  a  royal  charter,  or  right  of  prescription,  so  any  person 
establishing  a  fair  without  such  sanction  is  liable  to  be  sued  under 
a  writ  of  Quo  warranto,  by  any  one  to  whose  property  the  said 
market  may  be  injurious.  Nor  can  a  fair  or  market  be  legally  held 
beyond  the  time  specified  in  the  grant;  and  by  5  Edward  III.  c.  5 
(1331)  a  merchant  selling  goods  after  the  legal  expiry  of  the  fair 
forfeited  double  their  value.  To  be  valid,  a  sale  must  take  place  in 
"  market-overt  "  (open  market) ;  "  it  will  not  be  binding  if  it  carries 
with  it  a  presumption  of  fraudulence."  These  regulations  satisfied, 
the  sale  "  transfers  a  complete  property  in  the  thing  sold  to  the 
vendee;  so  that  however  injurious  or  illegal  the  title  of  the  vendor 
may  be,  yet  the  vendee's  is  good  against  all  men  except  the  king." 
(In  Scottish  law,  the  claims  of  the  real  owner  would  still  remain 
valid.)  However,  by  21  Henry  VIII.  c.  2  (1529)  it  was  enacted  that, 
"  if  any  felon  rob  or  take  away  money,  goods,  or  chattels,  and  be 
indicted  and  found  guilty,  or  otherwise  attainted  upon  evidence 
given  by  the  owner  or  party  robbed,  or  by  any  other  by  their  pro- 
curement, the  owner  or  party  robbed  shall  be  restored  to  his  money, 
goods  or  chattels,"  but  only  those  goods  were  restored  which  were 
specified  in  the  indictment,  now  could  the  owner  recover  from  a 
bona  fide  purchaser  in  market-overt  who  had  sold  the  goods  before 
conviction.  For  obvious  reasons  the  rules  of  market-overt  were 
made  particularly  stringent  in  the  case  of  horses.  Thus,  by  2 
Philip  &  Mary  c.  7  (1555)  and  31  Eliz.  c.  12  (1589)  no  sale  of  a 
horse  was  legal  which  had  not  satisfied  the  following  conditions: — 
Public  exposure  of  the  animal  for  at  least  an  hour  between  sunrise 
and  sunset;  identification  of  the  vendor  by  the  market  officer,  or 
guarantee  for  his  honesty  by  "  one  sufficient  and  credible  person  "; 
entry  of  these  particulars,  together  with  a  description  of  the  animal, 
and  a  statement  of  the  price  paid  for  it,  in  the  market  officer's  book. 
Even  if  his  rights  should  have  been  violated  in  spite  of  all  these 
precautions,  the  lawful  owner  could  recover,  if  he  claimed  within 
six  months,  produced  witnesses,  and  tendered  the  price  paid  to  the 
vendor.  Tolls  were  not  a  "  necessary  incident  "  of  a  fair — i.e.  they 
were  illegal  unless  specially  granted  in  the  patent,  or  recognized  by 
custom.  As  a  rule,  they  were  paid  only  by  the  vendee,  and  to  the 
market  clerk,  whose  record  of  the  payment  was  aa  attestation  to 
the  genuineness  of  the  purchase.  By  2  &  3  Philip  &  Mary  c.  7 
every  lord  of  a  fair  entitled  to  exact  tolls  was  bound  to  appoint  a 
clerk  to  collect  and  enter  them.  It  was  also  this  functionary's 
business  to  test  measures  and  weights.  Tolls,  again,  are  sometimes 
held  to  include  "  stallage  "  and  "  picage,"  which  mean  respectively 
the  price  for  permission  to  erect  stalls  and  to  dig  holes  for  posts  in 
the  market  grounds.  But  toll  proper  belongs  to  the  lord  of  the 
market,  whereas  the  other  two  are  usually  regarded  as  the  property 
of  the  lord  of  the  soil.  The  law  also  provided  that  stallage  might 
be  levied  on  any  house  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  a  market,  and  kept 
open  for  business  during  the  legal  term  of  the  said  market.  Among 
modern  statutes,  one  of  the  chief  is  the  Markets  and  Fairs  Clauses 
Act  1847,  the  chief  purpose  of  which  was  to  consolidate  previous 
measures.  By  the  act  no  proprietors  of  a  new  market  were  per- 
mitted to  let  stallages,  take  tolls,  or  in  any  way  open  their  ground 
for  business,  until  two  justices  of  the  peace  certified  to  the  completion 
of  the  fair  or  market.  After  the  opening  of  the  place  for  public  use, 
no  person  other  than  a  licensed  hawker  may  sell  anywhere  within 
the  borough,  his  own  house  or  shop  excepted,  any  articles  in  respect 
of  which  tolls  are  legally  exigible  in  the  market.  A  breach  of  this 
provision  entails  a  penalty  of  forty  shillings.  Vendors  of  unwhole- 
some meat  are  liable  to  a  penalty  of  £5  for  each  offence;  and  the 
"  inspectors  of  provisions  "  have  full  liberty  to  seize  the  goods  and 
institute  proceedings  against  the  owners.  They  may  also  enter  "  at 
all  times  of  the  day,  with  or  without  assistance,  the  slaughter-house 
which  the  undertaker  of  the  market  may,  by  the  special  act,  have 
been  empowered  to  construct.  For  general  sanitary  reasons, 
persons  are  prohibited  from  killing  animals  anywhere  except  in 
these  slaughter-houses.  Again,  by  the  Fairs  Act  1873,  times  of 
holding  fairs  are  determined  by  the  secretary  of  state;  while  the 
Fairs  Act  1871  empowers  him  to  abolish  any  fair  on  the  represent- 
ation of  the  magistrate  and  with  the  consent  of  the  owner.  The 
preamble  of  the  act  states  that  many  fairs  held  in  England  and  Wales 
are  both  unnecessary  and  productive  of  "  grievous  immorality." 

The  Fair  Courts. — The  piepowder  courts,  the  lowest  but  most 
expeditious  courts  of  justice  in  the  kingdom,  as  Chitty  calls  them, 
were  very  ancient.  The  Conqueror's  law  De  Emporiis  shows  their 
pre-existence  in  Normandy.  Their  name  was  derived  from  pied 
poudreux,  i.  e.  "  dusty-foot." l  The  lord  of  the  fair  or  his  representa- 
tive was  the  presiding  judge,  and  usually  he  was  assisted  by  a  jury 
of  traders  chosen  on  the  spot.  Their  jurisdiction  was  limited  by 
the  legal  time  and  precincts  of  the  fair,  and  to  disputes  about 


1  In  Med.  Lat.  pede-pulverosus  meant  an  itinerant  merchant  or 
pedlar.  In  Scots  borough  law  "  marchand  travelland  "  and  "  dusty 
lute  "  are  identical. 

x.  5 


contracts,   "  slander  of  wares,"  attestations,   the  preservation  of 
order,  &c. 

Authorities. — See  Herbert  Spencer's  Descriptive  Sociology  (1873), 
especially  the  columns  and  paragraphs  on  "  Distribution";  Pres- 
cott's  History  of  Mexico,  for  descriptions  of  fairs  under  the  Aztecs; 
Giles  Jacob's  Law  Dictionary  (London,  1809);  Joseph  Chilly's 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Commerce  and  Manufactures,  vol.  ii.  chap.  9 
(London,  1824) ;  Holmshed's  and  Grafton's  Chronicles,  for  lists,  &c., 
of  English  fairs;  Meyer's  Das  grosse  Conversations-Lexicon  (1852), 
under  "Messen";  article  "  Foire "  in  Larousse's  Dictionnaire 
universelle  du  XIX'  siecle  (Paris,  1866-1874),  and  its  references 
to  past  authorities;  and  especially,  the  second  volume,  commercial 
series,  of  the  Encyclopedic  methodique  (Paris,  1783);  M'Culloch's 
Dictionary  of  Commerce  (1869—1871);  Wharton's  History  of  English 
Poetry,  pp.  185,  186  of  edition  of  1870  (London,  Murray  &  Son),  for 
a  description  of  the  Winchester  Fair,  &c. ;  a  note  by  Professor  Henry 
Morley  in  p.  498,  vol.  vii.  Notes  and  Queries,  second  series;  the  same 
author's  unique  History  of  the  Fair  of  St  Bartholomew  (London,  1859) ; 
Wharton's  Law  Lexicon  (Will's  edition,  London,  1876) ;  P.  Huvelin's 
Essai  historique  sur  le  droit  des  marches  et  des  foires  (Paris,  1897); 
Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Market  Rights  and  Tolls,  vols.  i. 
(1889),  xiv.  (1891);  Final  Report  (1891);  Walford's  Fairs,  Past 
and  Present  (1883);  The  Law  relating  to  Markets  and  Fairs,  by 
Pease  and  Chitty  (London,  1899).  (J.  MA.;  Ev.  C.*) 

FAIRBAIRN,  ANDREW  MARTIN  (1838-  ),  British  Non- 
conformist divine,  was  born  near  Edinburgh  on  the  4th  of 
November  1838.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Edin- 
burgh and  Berlin,  and  at  the  Evangelical  Union  Theological 
Academy  in  Glasgow.  He  entered  the  Congregational  ministry 
and  held  pastorates  at  Bathgate,  West  Lothian  and  at  Aberdeen. 
From  1877  to  1886  he  was  principal  of  Airedale  College,  Bradford, 
a  post  which  he  gave  up  to  become  the  first  principal  of  Mansfield 
College,  Oxford.  In  the  transference  to  Oxford  under  that  name 
of  Spring  Hill  College,  Birmingham,  he  took  a  considerable  part, 
and  he  has  exercised  influence  not  only  over  generations  of  his 
own  students,  but  also  over  a  large  number  of  undergraduates 
in  the  university  generally.  He  was  granted  the  degree  of  M.A. 
by  a  decree  of  Convocation,  and  in  1903  received  the  honorary 
degree  of  doctor  of  literature.  He  was  also  given  the  degrees  of 
doctor  of  divinity  of  Edinburgh  and  Yale,  and  doctor  of  laws 
of  Aberdeen.  His  activities  were  not  limited  to  his  college  work. 
He  delivered  the  Muir  lectures  at  Edinburgh  University  (1878- 
1882),  the  Gifford  lectures  at  Aberdeen  (1892-1894),  the  Lyman 
Beecher  lectures  at  Yale  (1891-1892),  and  the  Haskell  lectures 
in  India  (1898-1899).  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Commis- 
sion of  Secondary  Education  in  1894-1895,  and  of  the  Royal 
Commission  on  the  Endowments  of  the  Welsh  Church  in  1 906.  In 
1883  he  was  chairman  of  the  Congregational  Union  of  England 
and  Wales.  He  is  a  prolific  writer  on  theological  subjects.  He 
resigned  his  position  at  Mansfield  College  in  the  spring  of  1909. 

Among  his  works  are : — Studies  in  the  Philosophy  of  Religion  and 
History  (1876);  Studies  in  the  Life  of  Christ  (1881);  Religion  in 
History  and  in  Modern  Life  (1884;  rev.  1893);  Christ  in  Modern 
Theology  (1893);  Christ  in  the  Centuries  (1893);  Catholicism  Roman 
and  Anglican  (1899);  Philosophy  of  the  Christian  Religion  (1902); 
Studies  in  Religion  and  Theology  (1909). 

FAIRBAIRN,  SIR  WILLIAM,  Bart.  (1780-1874),  Scottish 
engineer,  was  born  on  the  igth  of  February  1789  at  Kelso, 
Roxburghshire,  where  his  father  was  a  farm-bailiff.  In  1803 
he  obtained  work  at  three  shillings  a  week  as  a  mason's  labourer 
on  the  bridge  then  being  built  by  John  Rennie  at  Kelso;  but 
within  a  few  days  he  was  incapacitated  by  an  accident.  Later 
in  the  same  year,  his  father  having  been  appointed  steward  on  a 
farm  connected  with  Percy  Main  Colliery  near  North  Shields, 
he  obtained  employment  as  a  carter  in  connexion  with  the 
colliery.  In  March  1804  he  was  bound  an  apprentice  to  a  mill- 
wright at  Percy  Main,  and  then  found  time  to  supplement  the 
deficiencies  of  his  early  education  by  systematic  private  study. 
It  was  at  Percy  Main  that  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  George 
Stephenson,  who  then  had  charge  of  an  engine  at  a  neighbouring 
colliery.  For  some  years  subsequent  to  the  expiry  of  his  appren- 
ticeship in  1811,  he  lived  a  somewhat  roving  life,  seldom  remain- 
ing long  in  one  place  and  often  reduced  to  very  hard  straits  before 
he  got  employment.  But  in  1817  he  entered  into  partnership 
with  a  shopmate,  James  Lillie,  with  whose  aid  he  hired  an  old 
shed  in  High  Street,  Manchester,  where  he  set  up  a  lathe  and 
began  business.  The  firm  quickly  secured  a  good  reputation, 


130 


FAIRBANKS,  E.— FAIRFAX  OF  CAMERON 


and  the  improvements  in  mill-work  and  water-wheels  introduced 
by  Fairbairn  caused  its  fame  to  extend  beyond  Manchester  to 
Scotland  and  even  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  partnership 
was  dissolved  in  1832. 

In  1830  Fairbairn  had  been  employed  by  the  Forth  and  Clyde 
Canal  Company  to  make  experiments  with  the  view  of  determin- 
ing whether  it  were  possible  to  construct  steamers  capable  of 
traversing  the  canal  at  a  speed  which  would  compete  successfully 
with  that  of  the  railway;  and  the  results  of  his  investigation 
were  published  by  him  in  1831,  under  the  title  Remarks  on  Canal 
Navigation.  His  plan  of  using  iron  boats  proved  inadequate 
to  overcome  the  difficulties  of  this  problem,  but  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  use  of  this  material  both  in  the  case  of  merchant 
vessels  and  men-of-war  he  took  a  leading  part.  In  this  way 
also  he  was  led  to  pursue  extensive  experiments  in  regard  to 
the  strength  of  iron.  In  1835  he  established,  in  connexion  with 
his  Manchester  business,  a  shipbuilding  yard  at  Millwall,  London, 
where  he  constructed  several  hundred  vessels,  including  many 
for  the  royal  navy;  but  he  ultimately  found  that  other  engage- 
ments prevented  him  from  paying  adequate  attention  to  the 
management,  and  at  the  end  of  fourteen  years  he  disposed  of  the 
concern  at  a  great  loss.  In  1837  he  was  consulted  by  the  sultan 
of  Turkey  in  regard  to  machinery  for  the  government  workshops 
at  Constantinople.  In  1845  he  was  employed,  in  conjunction 
with  Robert  Stephenson,  in  constructing  the  tubular  railway 
bridges  across  the  Conway  and  Menai  Straits.  The  share  he  had 
in  the  undertaking  has  been  the  subject  of  some  dispute;  his 
own  version  is  contained  in  a  volume  he  published  in  1849,  An 
Account  of  the  Construction  of  the  Britannia  and  Conway  Tubular 
Bridges.  In  1849  he  was  invited  by  the  king  of  Prussia  to  submit 
designs  for  the  construction  of  a  bridge  across  the  Rhine,  but 
after  various  negotiations,  another  design,  by  a  Prussian  engineer, 
which  was  a  modification  of  Fairbairn's,  was  adopted.  Another 
matter  which  engaged  much  of  Fairbairn's  attention  was  steam 
boilers,  in  the  construction  of  which  he  effected  many  improve- 
ments. Amid  all  the  cares  of  business  he  found  time  for  varied 
scientific  investigation.  In  1851  his  fertility  and  readiness  of 
invention  greatly  aided  an  inquiry  carried  out  at  his  Manchester 
works  by  Sir  William  Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin)  and  J.  P.  Joule, 
at  the  instigation  of  William  Hopkins,  to  determine  the  melting 
points  of  substances  under  great  pressure;  and  from  1861  to 
1865  he  was  employed  to  guide  the  experiments  of  the  govern- 
ment committee  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  "  application  of 
iron  to  defensive  purposes."  He  died  at  Moor  Park,  Surrey, 
on  the  i8th  of  August  1874.  Fairbairn  was  a  member  of  many 
learned  societies,  both  British  and  foreign,  and  in  1861  served 
as  president  of  the  British  Association.  He  declined  a  knighthood 
in  1861,  but  accepted  a  baronetcy  in  1869. 

His  youngest  brother,  Sir  PETER  FAIRBAIRN  (1799-1861), 
founded  a  large  machine  manufacturing  business  in  Leeds. 
Starting  on  a  small  scale  with  flax-spinning  machinery,  he 
subsequently  extended  his  operations  to  the  manufacture  of 
textile  machinery  in  general,  and  finally  to  that  of  engineering 
tools.  He  was  knighted  in  1858. 

See  The  Life  of  Sir  William  Fairbairn,  partly  written  by  himself 
and  edited  and  completed  by  Dr  William  Pole  (1877). 

FAIRBANKS,  ERASTUS  (1792-1864),  American  manufacturer, 
was  born  in  Brimfield,  Massachusetts,  on  the  28th  of  October 
1792.  He  studied  law  but  abandoned  it  for  mercantile  pur- 
suits, finally  settling  in  St  Johnsbury,  Vermont,  where  in  1824  he 
formed  a  partnership  with  his  brother  Thaddeus  for  the  manu- 
facture of  stoves  and  ploughs.  Subsequently  the  scales  invented 
by  Thaddeus  were  manufactured  extensively.  Erastus  was  a 
member  of  the  state  legislature  in  1836-1838,  and  governor  of 
Vermont  in  1852-1853  and  1860-1861,  during  his  second  term 
rendering  valuable  aid  in  the  equipment  and  despatch  of  troops 
in  the  early  days  of  the  Civil  War.  His  son  HORACE  (1820-1888) 
became  president  of  E.  &  T.  Fairbanks  &  Co.  in  1874,  and 
was  governor  of  Vermont  from  1876  to  1878. 

His  brother,  THADDEUS  FAIRBANKS  (1796-1886),  inventor, 
was  born  at  Brimfield,  Massachusetts,  on  the  i7th  of  January 
1796.  He  early  manifested  a  genius  for  mechanics  and  designed 


the  models  from  which  he  and  his  brother  manufactured  stoves 
and  ploughs  at  St  Johnsbury.  In  1826  he  patented  a  cast-iron 
plough  which  was  extensively  used.  The  growing  of  hemp  was 
an  important  industry  in  the  vicinity  of  St  Johnsbury,  and  in 
1831  Fairbanks  invented  a  hemp-dressing  machine.  By  the  old 
contrivances  then  in  use,  the  weighing  of  loads  of  hemp-straw 
was  tedious  and  difficult,  and  in  1831  Fairbanks  invented  his 
famous  compound-lever  platform  scale,  which  marked  a  great 
advance  in  the  construction  of  machines  for  weighing  bulky 
and  heavy  objects.  He  subsequently  obtained  more  than  fifty 
patents  for  improvements  or  innovations  'in  scales  and  in 
machinery  used  in  their  manufacture,  the  last  being  granted 
on  his  ninetieth  birthday.  His  firm,  eventually  known  as 
E.  &  T.  Fairbanks  &  Co.,  went  into  the  manufacture  of  scales 
of  all  sizes,  in  which  these  inventions  were  utilized.  He,  with  his 
brothers,  Erastus  and  Joseph  P.,  founded  the  St  Johnsbury 
Academy.  He  died  at  St  Johnsbury  on  the  1 2th  of  April  1886. 

The  latter's.  son  HENRY,  born  in  1830  at  St  Johnsbury, 
Vermont,  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1853  and  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1857,  and  was  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  at  Dartmouth  from  1859  to  1865  and  of ' 
natural  history  from  1865  to  1868.  In  the  following  year  he 
patented  a  grain-scale  and  thenceforth  devoted  himself  to  the 
scale  manufacturing  business  of  his  family.  Altogether  he 
obtained  more  than  thirty  patents  for  mechanical  devices. 

FAIRFAX,  EDWARD  (c.  1580-1635),  English  poet,  translator 
of  Tasso,  was  born  at  Leeds,  the  second  son  of  Sir  Thomas 
Fairfax  of  Denton  (father  of  the  ist  Baron  Fairfax  of  Cameron). 
His  legitimacy  has  been  called  in  question,  and  the  date  of  his 
birth  has  not  been  ascertained.  He  is  said  to  have  been  only 
about  twenty  years  of  age  when  he  published  his  translation  of 
the  Gerusalemme  Liberata,  which  would  place  his  birth  about  the 
year  1580.  He  preferred  a  life  of  study  and  retirement  to  the 
military  service  in  which  his  brothers  were  distinguished.  He 
married  a  sister  of  Walter  Laycock,  chief  alnager  of  the  northern 
counties,  and  lived  on  a  small  estate  at  Fewston,  Yorkshire. 
There  his  time  was  spent  in  his  literary  pursuits,  and  in  the 
education  of  his  children  and  those  of  his  elder  brother,  Sir 
Thomas  Fairfax,  afterwards  baron  of  Cameron.  His  translation 
appeared  in  1600, — Godfrey  of  Bulloigne,  or  the  Recoiierie  of 
lerusalem,  done  into  English  heroicall  Verse  by  Edw.  Fairefax, 
Gent.,  and  was  dedicated  to  the  queen.  It  was  enthusiastically 
received.  In  the  same  year  in  which  it  was  published  extracts 
from  it  were  printed  in  England's  Parnassus.  Edward  Phillips, 
the  nephew  of  Milton,  in  his  Theatrum  Poetarum,  warmly 
eulogized  the  translation.  Edmund  Waller  said  he  was  indebted 
to  it  for  the  harmony  of  his  numbers.  It  is  said  that  it  was  King 
James's  favourite  English  poem,  and  that  Charles  I.  entertained 
himself  in  prison  with  its  pages.  Fairfax  employed  the  same 
number  of  lines  and  stanzas  as  his  original,  but  within  the  limits 
of  each  stanza  he  allowed  himself  the  greatest  liberty.  Other 
translators  may  give  a  more  literal  version,  but  Fairfax  alone 
seizes  upon  the  poetical  and  chivalrous  character  of  the  poem. 
He  presented,  says  Mr  Courthope,  "  an  idea  of  the  chivalrous 
past  of  Europe,  as  seen  through  the  medium  of  Catholic  orthodoxy 
and  classical  humanism."  The  sweetness  and  melody  of  many 
passages  are  scarcely  excelled  even  by  Spenser.  Fairfax  made 
no  other  appeal  to  the  public.  He  wrote,  however,  a  series  of 
eclogues,  twelve  in  number,  the  fourth  of  which  was  published, 
by  permission  of  the  family,  in  Mrs  Cooper's  Muses'  Library 
(1737).  Another  of  the  eclogues  and  a  Discourse  on  Witchcraft, 
as  it  was  acted  in  the  Family  of  Mr  Edward  Fairfax  of  Fuystone 
in  the  county  of  York  in  1621,  edited  from  the  original  copy  by 
Lord  Houghton,  appeared  in  the  Miscellanies  of  the  Philobiblon 
Society  (1858-1859).  Fairfax  was  a  firm  believer  in  witchcraft. 
He  fancied  that  two  of  his  children  had  been  bewitched,  and 
he  had  the  poor  wretches  whom  he  accused  brought  to  trial, 
but  without  obtaining  a  conviction.  Fairfax  died  at  Fewston 
and  was  buried  there  on  the  27th  of  January  1635. 

FAIRFAX  OF  CAMERON,  FERDINANDO  FAIRFAX,  2ND 
BARON  (1584-1648),  English  parliamentary  general,  was  a  son 
of  Thomas  Fairfax  of  Denton  (1560-1640),  who  in  1627  was 


FAIRFAX  OF  CAMERON 


created  Baron  Fairfax  of  Cameron  in  the  peerage  of  Scotland. 
Born  on  the  agth  of  March  1584,  he  obtained  his  military  educa- 
tion in  the  Netherlands,  and  was  member  of  parliament  for 
Boroughbridge  during  the  six  parliaments  which  met  between 
1614  and  1629  and  also  during  the  Short  Parliament  of  1640. 
In  May  1640  he  succeeded  his  father  as  Baron  Fairfax,  but  being 
a  Scottish  peer  he  sat  in  the  English  House  of  Commons  as  one 
of  the  representatives  of  Yorkshire  during  the  Long  Parliament 
from  1640  until  his  death;  he  took  the  side  of  the  parliament, 
but  held  moderate  views  and  desired  to  maintain  the  peace. 
In  the  first  Scottish  war  Fairfax  had  commanded  a  regiment  in 
the  king's  army;  then  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  in  1642 
he  was  made  commander  of  the  parliamentary  forces  in  York- 
shire, with  Newcastle  as  his  opponent.  Hostilities  began  after 
the  repudiation  of  a  treaty  of  neutrality  entered  into  by  Fairfax 
with  the  Royalists.  At  first  he  met  with  no  success.  He  was 
driven  from  York,  where  he  was  besieging  the  Royalists,  to 
Selby;  then  in  1643  to  Leeds;  and  after  beating  off  an  attack 
at  that  place  he  was  totally  defeated  on  the  3oth  of  June  at 
Adwalton  Moor.  He  escaped  to  Hull,  which  he  successfully 
defended  against  Newcastle  from  the  2nd  of  September  till  the 
nth  of  October,  and  by  means  of  a  brilliant  sally  caused  the 
siege  to  be  raised.  Fairfax  was  victorious  at  Selby  on  the  nth 
of  April  1644,  and  joining  the  Scots  besieged  York,  after  which 
he  was  present  at  Marston  Moor,  where  he  commanded  the 
infantry  and  was  routed.  He  was  subsequently,  in  July,  made 
governor  of  York  and  charged  with  the  further  reduction  of  the 
county.  In  December  he  took  the  town  of  Pontefract,  but  failed 
to  secure  the  castle.  He  resigned  his  command  on  the  passing  of 
the  Self-denying  Ordinance,  but  remained  a  member  of  the 
committee  for  the  government  of  Yorkshire,  and  was  appointed, 
on  the  24th  of  July  1645,  steward  of  the  manor  of  Pontefract. 
He  died  from  an  accident  on  the  I4th  of  March  1648  and  was 
buried  at  Bolton  Percy.  He  was  twice  married,  and  by  his  first 
wife,  Mary,  daughter  of  Edmund  Sheffield,  3rd  Lord  Sheffield 
(afterwards  ist  earl  of  Mulgrave),  he  had  six  daughters  and 
two  sons,  Thomas,  who  succeeded  him  as  3rd  baron,  and  Charles, 
a  colonel  of  horse,  who  was  killed  at  Marston  Moor.  During  his 
command  in  Yorkshire,  Fairfax  engaged  in  a  paper  war  with 
Newcastle,  and  wrote  The  Answer  of  Ferdinando,  Lord  Fairfax, 
to  a  Declaration  of  William,  earl  of  Newcastle  (1642;  printed 
in  Rushworth,  pt.  iii.  vol.  ii.  p.  139) ;  he  also  published  A  Letter 
from  .  .  .  Lord  Fairfax  to  .  .  .  Robert,  Earl  of  Essex  (1643), 
describing  the  victorious  sally  at  Hull. 

FAIRFAX  OF  CAMERON,  THOMAS  FAIRFAX,  3RD  BARON 
(1612-1671),  parliamentary  general  and  commander-in-chief 
during  the  English  Civil  War,  the  eldest  son  of  the  2nd  lord, 
was  born  at  Denton,  near  Otley,  Yorkshire,  on  the  I7th  of 
January  1612.  He  studied  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge 
(1626-1629),  and  then  proceeded  to  Holland  to  serve  as  a 
volunteer  with  the  English  army  in  the  Low  Countries  under 
Sir  Horace  (Lord)  Vere.  This  connexion  led  to  one  still  closer; 
in  the  summer  of  1637  Fairfax  married  Anne  Vere,  the  daughter 
of  the  general. 

The  Fairfaxes,  father  and  son,  though  serving  at  first  under 
Charles  I.  (Thomas  commanded  a  troop  of  horse,  and  was 
knighted  by  the  king  in  1640),  were  opposed  to  the  arbitrary 
prerogative  of  the  crown,  and  Sir  Thomas  declared  that 
"  his  judgment  was  for  the  parliament  as  the  king  and  king- 
dom's great  and  safest  council."  When  Charles  endeavoured 
to  raise  a  guard  for  his  own  person  at  York,  intending 
it,  as  the  event  afterwards  proved,  to  form  the  nucleus  of 
an  army,  Fairfax  was  employed  to  present  a  petition  to  his 
sovereign,  entreating  him  to  hearken  to  the  voice  of  his  parlia- 
ment, and  to  discontinue  the  raising  of  troops.  This  was  at  a 
great  meeting  of  the  freeholders  and  farmers  of  Yorkshire 
convened  by  the  king  on  Heworth  Moor  near  York.  Charles 
evaded  receiving  the  petition,  pressing  his  horse  forward,  but 
Fairfax  followed  him  and  placed  the  petition  on  the  pommel  of 
the  king's  saddle.  The  incident  is  typical  of  the  times  and  of 
the  actors  in  the  scene.  War  broke  out,  Lord  Fairfax  was 
appointed  general  of  the  Parliamentary  forces  in  the  north, 


and  his  son,  Sir  Thomas,  was  made  lieutenant-general  of  the 
horse  under  him.  Both  father  and  son  distinguished  themselves 
in  the  campaigns  in  Yorkshire  (see  GREAT  REBELLION).  Some- 
times severely  defeated,  more  often  successful,  and  always 
energetic,  prudent  and  resourceful,  they  contrived  to  keep  up 
the  struggle  until  the  crisis  of  1644,  when  York  was  held  by  the 
marquess  of  Newcastle  against  the  combined  forces  of  the  English 
Parliamentarians  and  the  Scots,  and  Prince  Rupert  hastened 
with  all  available  forces  to  its  relief.  A  gathering  of  eager 
national  forces  within  a  few  square  miles  of  ground  naturally 
led  to  a  battle,  and  Marston  Moor  (<?.».)  was  decisive  of  the 
struggle  in  the  north.  The  younger  Fairfax  bore  himself  with 
the  greatest  gallantry  in  the  battle,  and  though  severely  wounded 
managed  to  join  Cromwell  and  the  victorious  cavalry  on  the  other 
wing.  One  of  his  brothers,  Colonel  Charles  Fairfax,  was  killed 
in  the  action.  But  the  marquess  of  Newcastle  fled  the  kingdom, 
and  the  Royalists  abandoned  all  hope  of  retrieving  their  affairs. 
The  city  of  York  was  taken,  and  nearly  the  whole  north  submitted 
to  the  parliament. 

In  the  south  and  west  of  England,  however,  the  Royalist 
cause  was  still  active.  The  war  had  lasted  two  years,  and  the 
nation  began  to  complain  of  the  contributions  that  were  exacted, 
and  the  excesses  that  were  committed  by  the  military.  Dis- 
satisfaction was  expressed  with  the  military  commanders,  and, 
as  a  preliminary  step  to  reform,  the  Self-denying  Ordinance 
was  passed.  This  involved  the  removal  of  the  earl  of  Essex 
from  the  supreme  command,  and  the  reconstruction  of  the  armed 
forces  of  the  parliament.  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  was  selected  as 
the  new  lord  general  with  Cromwell  as  his  lieutenant-general 
and  cavalry  commander,  and  after  a  short  preliminary  campaign 
the  "  New  Model  "  justified  its  existence,  and  "  the  rebels'  new 
brutish  general,"  as  the  king  called  him,  his  capacity  as  com- 
mander-in-chief in  the  decisive  victory  of  Naseby  (<?.».).  The 
king  fled  to  Wales.  Fairfax  besieged  Leicester,  and  was  suc- 
cessful at  Taunton,  Bridgwater  and  Bristol.  The  whole  west 
was  soon  reduced. 

Fairfax  arrived  in  London  on  the  I2th  ef  November  1645. 
In  his  progress  towards  the  capital  he  was  accompanied  by 
applauding  crowds.  Complimentary  speeches  and  thanks  were 
presented  to  him  by  both  houses  of  parliament,  along  with  a 
jewel  of  great  value  set  with  diamonds,  and  a  sum  of  money. 
The  king  had  returned  from  Wales  and  established  himself  at 
Oxford,  where  there  was  a  strong  garrison,  but,  ever  vacillating, 
he  withdrew  secretly,  and  proceeded  to  Newark  to  throw  himself 
into  the  arms  of  the  Scots.  Oxford  capitulated;  and  by  the 
end  of  September  1646  Charles  had  neither  army  nor  garrison 
in  England.  In  January  1647  he  was  delivered  up  by  the  Scots 
to  the  commissioners  of  parliament.  Fairfax  met  the  king 
beyond  Nottingham,  and  accompanied  him  during  the  journey 
to  Holmby,  treating  him  with  the  utmost  consideration  in  every 
way.  "  The  general,"  said  Charles,  "  is  a  man  of  honour,  and 
keeps  his  word  which  he  had  pledged  to  me."  With  the  collapse 
of  the  Royalist  cause  came  a  confused  period  of  negotiations 
between  the  parliament  and  the  king,  between  the  king  and  the 
Scots,  and  between  the  Presbyterians  and  the  Independents  in 
and  out  of  parliament.  In  these  negotiations  the  New  Model 
Army  soon  began  to  take  a  most  active  part.  The  lord  general 
was  placed  in  the  unpleasant  position  of  intermediary  between 
his  own  officers  and  parliament.  To  the  grievances,  usual  in 
armies  of  that  time,  concerning  arrears  of  pay  and  indemnity 
for  acts  committed  on  duty,  there  was  quickly  added  the  political 
propaganda  of  the  Independents,  and  in  July  the  person  of  the 
king  was  seized  by  Joyce,  a  subaltern  of  cavalry — an  act  which 
sufficiently  demonstrated  the  hopelessness  of  controlling  the 
army  by  its  articles  of  war.  It  had,  in  fact,  become  the  most 
formidable  political  party  in  the  realm,  and  pressed  straight  on 
to  the  overthrow  of  parliament  and  the  punishment  of  Charles. 
Fairfax  was  more  at  home  in  the  field  than  at  the  head  of  a 
political  committee,  and,  finding  events  too  strong  for  him,  he 
sought  to  resign  his  commission  as  commander-in-chief.  He  was, 
however,  persuaded  to  retain  it.  He  thus  remained  the  titular 
chief  of  the  army  party,  and  with  the  greater  part  of  its  objects 


132 


FAIRFIELD 


he  was  in  complete,  sometimes  most  active,  sympathy.  Shortly 
before  the  outbreak  of  the  second  Civil  War,  Fairfax  succeeded 
his  father  in  the  barony  and  in  the  office  of  governor  of  Hull. 
In  the  field  against  the  English  Royalists  in  1648  he  displayed 
his  former  energy  and  skill,  and  his  operations  culminated  in  the 
successful  siege  of  Colchester,  after  the  surrender  of  which  place 
he  approved  the  execution  of  the  Royalist  leaders  Sir  Charles 
Lucas  and  Sir  George  Lisle,  holding  that  these  officers  had  broken 
their  parole.  At  the  same  time  Cromwell's  great  victory  of 
Preston  crushed  the  Scots,  and  the  Independents  became 
practically  all-powerful. 

Milton,  in  a  sonnet  written  during  the  siege  of  Colchester, 
called  upon  the  lord  general  to  settle  the  kingdom,  but  the  crisis 
was  now  at  hand.     Fairfax  was  in  agreement  with  Cromwell 
and  the  army  leaders  in  demanding  the  punishment  of  Charles, 
and  he  was  still  the  effective  head  of  the  army.     He  approved, 
if  he  did  not  take  an  active  part  in,  Pride's  Purge  (December 
6th,  1648),  but  on  the  last  and  gravest  of  the  questions  at  issue 
he  set  himself  in  deliberate  and  open  opposition  to  the  policy 
of  the  officers.     He  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  judges  who 
were  to  try  the  king,  and  attended  the  preliminary  sitting  of  the 
court.     Then,  convinced  at  last  that  the  king's  death  was  in- 
tended, he  refused  to  act.    In  calling  over  the  court,  when  the 
crier  pronounced  the  name  of  Fairfax,  a  lady  in  the  gallery  called 
out  "  that  the  Lord  Fairfax  was  not  there  in  person,  that   he 
would  never  sit  among  them,  and  that  they  did  him  wrong  to 
name  him  as  a  commissioner."    This  was  Lady  Fairfax,  who 
could  not  forbear,  as  Whitelocke  says,  to  exclaim  aloud  against 
the  proceedings  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice.     His  last  service 
as   commander-in-chief  was  the  suppression  of   the  Leveller 
mutiny  at  Burford  in  May  1640.     He  had  given  his  adhesion  to 
the  new  order  of  things,  and  had  been  reappointed  lord  general. 
But  he  merely  administered  the  affairs  of  the  army,  and  when  in 
1650  the  Scots  had  declared  for  Charles  II.,  and  the  council  of 
state  resolved  to  send  an  army  to  Scotland  in  order  to  prevent 
an    invasion   of    England,    Fairfax   resigned    his    commission. 
Cromwell  was  appointed  his  successor,  "  captain-general  and 
commander-in-chief  of  all  the  forces  raised  or  to  be  raised  by 
authority  of  parliament  within  the  commonwealth  of  England." 
Fairfax  received  a  pension  of  £5000  a  year,  and  lived  in  retirement 
at  his  Yorkshire  home  of  Nunappleton  till  after  the  death  of  the 
Protector.     The  troubles  of  the  later  Commonwealth  recalled 
Lord  Fairfax  to  political  activity,  and  for  the  last  time  his 
appearance  in  arms  helped  to  shape  the  future  of  the  country 
when  Monk  invited  him  to  assist  in  the  operations  about  to 
be  undertaken  against  Lambert's  army.    In  December  1659 
he  appeared  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  Yorkshire  gentlemen, 
and  such  was  the  influence  of  Fairfax's  name  and  reputation 
that   1200  horse  quitted  Lambert's  colours  and  joined  him. 
This  was  speedily  followed  by  the  breaking  up  of  all  Lambert's 
forces,  and  that  day  secured  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy. 
A  "  free  "  parliament  was  called;  Fairfax  was  elected  member 
for  Yorkshire,  and  was  put  at  the  head  of  the  commission 
appointed  by  the  House  of  Commons  to  wait  upon  Charles  II. 
at  the  Hague  and  urge  his  speedy  return.     Of  course  the  "  merry 
monarch,  scandalous  and  poor,"  was  glad  to  obey  the  summons, 
and  Fairfax  provided  the  horse  on  which  Charles  rode  at    his 
coronation.     The  remaining  eleven  years  of  the  life  of  Lord 
Fairfax  were  spent  in  retirement  at  his  seat  in  Yorkshire.     He 
must,  like  Milton,  have  been  sorely  grieved  and  shocked  by  the 
scenes   that    followed — the   brutal   indignities   offered   to   the 
remains  of  his  companions  in  arms,  Cromwell  and  Ireton,  the 
sacrifice  of  Sir  Harry  Vane,  the  neglect  or  desecration  of  all 
that  was  great,  noble  or  graceful  in  England,  and  the  flood  ol 
immorality  which,  flowing  from  Whitehall,  sapped  the  founda- 
tions of  the  national  strength  and  honour.     Lord  Fairfax  died  al 
Nunappleton  on  the  I2th  of  November  1671,  and  was  buried  a1 
B  ilborough ,  near  York.     Asa  soldier  he  was  exact  and  methodical 
in  planning,  in  the  heat  of  battle  "  so  highly  transported  that 
scarce  any  one  durst  speak  a  word  to  him"   (Whitelocke) 
chivalrous  and  punctilious  in  his  dealings  with  his  own  men 
and  the  enemy.     Honour  and  conscientiousness  were  equally  the 


characteristics  of  his  private  and  public  character.  But  his 
modesty  and  distrust  of  his  powers  made  him  less  effectual  as  a 
statesman  than  as  a  soldier,  and  above  all  he  is  placed  at  a  dis- 
advantage by  being  both  in  war  and  peace  overshadowed  by 
lis  associate  Cromwell. 

Lord  Fairfax  had  a  taste  for  literature.  He  translated  some 
of  the  Psalms,  and  wrote  poems  on  solitude,  the  Christian  war- 
are,  the  shortness  of  life,  &c.  During  the  last  year  or  two  of 
lis  life  he  wrote  two  Memorials  which  have  been  published — one 
on  the  northern  actions  in  which  he  was  engaged  in  1642-1644, 
and  the  other  on  some  events  in  his  tenure  of  the  chief  command. 
At  York  and  at  Oxford  he  endeavoured  to  save  the  libraries 
'rom  pillage,  and  he  enriched  the  Bodleian  with  some  valuable 
VtSS.  His  only  daughter,  Mary  Fairfax,  was  married  to  George 
Villiers,  the  profligate  duke  of  Buckingham  of  Charles  II. 's  court. 

His  correspondence,  edited  by  G.  W.  Johnson,  was  published  in 
1848-1849  in  four  volumes  (see  note  thereon  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biogr., 
s.v.),  and  a  life  of  him  by  Clements  R.  Markham  in  1870.  See  also 
S.  R.  Gardiner,  History  of  the  Great  Civil  War  (1893). 

His  descendant  Thomas,  6th  baron  (1692-1782),  inherited 
:rom  his  mother,  the  heiress  of  Thomas,  2nd  Baron  Culpepper, 
arge  estates  in  Virginia,  U.S.A.,  and  having  sold  Denton  Hall 
and  his  Yorkshire  estates  he  retired  there  about  1746,  dying  a 
bachelor.  He  was  a  friend  of  George  Washington.  Thomas 
found  his  cousin  William  Fairfax  settled  in  Virginia,  and  made 
him  his  agent,  and  Bryan  (1737-1802),  the  son  of  William 
Fairfax,  eventually  inherited  the  title,  becoming  8th  baron  in 
1793.  His  claim  was  admitted  by  the  House  of  Lords  in  1800. 
But  it  was  practically  dropped  by  the  American  family,  until, 
shortly  before  the  coronation  of  Edward  VII.,  the  successor  in 
title  was  discovered  in  Albert  Kirby  Fairfax  (b.  1870),  a 
descendant  of  the  8th  baron,  who  was  an  American  citizen. 
In  November  1908  Albert's  claim  to  the  title  as  I2th  baron  was 
allowed  by  the  House  of  Lords. 

FAIRFIELD,  a  township  in  Fairfield  county,  Connecticut, 
U.S.A.,  near  Long  Island  Sound,  adjoining  Bridgeport  on  the  E. 
and  Westport  on  the  W.  Pop.  (1890)  3868;  (1900)  4489  (1041 
being  foreign-born) ;  (1910)  6134.  It  is  served  by  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  &  Hartford  railway.  The  principal  villages  of  the 
township  are  Fairfield,  Southport,  Greenfield  Hill  and  Stratfield. 
The  beautiful  scenery  and  fine  sea  air  attract  to  the  township  a 
considerable  number  of  summer  visitors.  The  township  has  the 
well-equipped  Pequot  and  Fairfield  memorial  libraries  (the 
former  in  the  village  of  Southport,  the  latter  in  the  village  of 
Fairfield),  the  Fairfield  fresh  air  home  (which  cares  for  between 
one  and  two  hundred  poor  children  of  New  York  during  each 
summer  season) ,  and  the  Gould  home  for  self-supporting  women. 
The  Fairfield  Historical  Society  has  a  museum  of  antiquities 
and  a  collection  of  genealogical  and  historical  works.  Among 
Fairfield's  manufactures  are  chemicals,  wire  and  rubber  goods. 
Truck-gardening  is  an  important  industry  of  the  township.  In 
the  Pequot  Swamp  within  the  present  Fairfield  a  force  of  Pequot 
Indians  was  badly  defeated  in  1637  by  some  whites,  among  whom 
was  Roger  Ludlow,  who,  attracted  by  the  country,  founded  the 
settlement  in  1639  and  gave  it  its  present  name  in  1645.  Within 
its  original  limits  were  included  what  are  now  the  townships  of 
Redding  (separated,  1767),  Weston  (1787)  and  Easton  (formed 
from  part  of  Weston  in  1845),  and  parts  of  the  present  Westport 
and  Bridgeport.  During  the  colonial  period  Fairfield  was  a 
place  of  considerable  importance,  but  subsequently  it  was  greatly 
outstripped  by  Bridgeport,  to  which,  in  1870,  a  portion  of  it 
was  annexed.  On  the  8th  of  July  1779  Fairfield  was  burned  by 
the  British  and  Hessians  under  Governor  William  Tryon.  Among 
the  prominent  men  who  have  lived  in  Fairfield  are  Roger  Sher- 
man, the  first  President  Dwight  of  Yale  (who  described  Fairfield 
in  his  Travels  andinhispoemGreenfield  Hill),  Chancellor  James 
Kent,  and  Joseph  Earle  Sheffield. 

See  Frank  S.  Child,  An  Old  New  England  Town,  Sketches  of  Life, 
Scenery  and  Character  (New  York,  1895) ;  and  Mrs  E.  H.  Schenck, 
History  of  Fairfield  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1889-1905). 

FAIRFIELD,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Jefferson  county, 
Iowa,  U.S.A.,  about  51  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Burlington.  Pop.  (1890) 
3391;  (1900)  4689,  of  whom  206  were  foreign-born  and  54  were 


FAIRHAVEN— FAIRUZABADI 


133 


negroes;  (1905)  5009;  (1910)  4970.  Area,  about  2-25  sq.  m. 
Fairfield  is  served  by  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy,  and  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  railways,  The  city  is  in  a  blue 
grass  country,  in  which  much  live  stock  is  bred;  and  it  is  an 
important  market  for  draft  horses.  It  is  the  seat  of  Parsons 
College  (Presbyterian,  co-educational,  1875),  endowed  by  Lewis 
Baldwin  Parsons,  Sr.  (1798-1855),  a  merchant  of  Buffalo,  N.Y. 
The  college  offers  classical,  philosophical  and  scientific  courses, 
and  has  a  school  of  music  and  an  academic  department;  in 
1907-1908  it  had  19  instructors  and  257  students,  of  whom  93 
were  in  the  college  and  97  were  in  the  school  of  music.  Fairfield 
has  a  Carnegie  library  (1892),  and  a  museum  with  a  collection  of 
laces.  Immediately  E.  of  the  city  is  an  attractive  Chautauqua 
Park,  of  30  acres,  with  an  auditorium  capable  of  seating  about 
4000  persons;  and  there  is  an  annual  Chautauqua  assembly. 
The  principal  manufactures  of  Fairfield  are  farm  waggons, 
farming  implements,  drain-tile,  malleable  iron,  cotton  gloves  and 
mittens  and  cotton  garments.  The  municipality  owns  its  water- 
works and  an  electric-lighting  plant.  Fairfield  was  settled  in 
1839;  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1847;  and  was  first 
chartered  as  a  city  in  the  same  year. 

See  Charles  H.  Fletcher,  Jefferson  County,  Iowa:  Centennial 
History  (Fairfield,  1876). 

FAIRHAVEN,  a  township  in  Bristol  county,  Massachusetts, 
U.S.A.,  on  New  Bedford  Harbor,  opposite  New  Bedford.  Pop. 
(1890)  2919;  (1900)  3567  (599  being  foreign-born);  (1905,  state 
census)  4235;  (1910)  5122.  Area,  about  13  sq.  m.  Fairhavenis 
served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railway  and  by 
electric  railway  to  Mattapoisett  and  Marion,  and  is  connected 
with  New  Bedford  by  two  bridges,  by  electric  railway,  and  by 
the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  ferry  line.  The  principal 
village  is  Fairhaven;  others  are  Oxford,  Naskatucket  and 
Sconticut  Neck.  As  a  summer  resort  Fairhaven  is  widely  known. 
Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the  following,  presented  to 
the  township  by  Henry  H.  Rogers  (1840-1909),  a  native  of 
Fairhaven  and  a  large  stockholder  and  long  vice-president  of  the 
Standard  Oil  Co. ;  the  town  hall,  a  memorial  of  Mrs  Rogers,  the 
Rogers  public  schools;  the  Millicent  public  library  (17,500  vols. 
in  1908),  a  memorial  to  his  daughter;  and  a  fine  granite  memorial 
church  (Unitarian)  with  parish  house,  a  memorial  to  his  mother; 
and  there  is  also  a  public  park,  of  13  acres,  the  gift  of  Mr  Rogers. 
From  1830  to  1857  the  inhabitants  of  Fairhaven  were  chiefly 
engaged  in  whaling,  and  the  fishing  interests  are  still  important. 
Among  manufactures  are  tacks,  nails,  iron  goods,  loom-cranks, 
glass,  yachts  and  boats,  and  shoes. 

Fairhaven,  originally  a  part  of  New  Bedford,  was  incorporated 
as  a  separate  township  in  1812.  On  the  sth  of  September  1778 
a  fleet  and  armed  force  under  Earl  Grey,  sent  to  punish  New 
Bedford  and  what  is  now  Fairhaven  for  their  activity  in  privateer- 
ing, burned  the  shipping  and  destroyed  much  of  New  Bedford. 
The  troops  then  marched  to  the  head  of  the  Acushnet  river,  and 
down  the  east  bank  to  Sconticut  Neck,  where  they  camped  till 
the  7th  of  September,  when  they  re-embarked,  having  meanwhile 
dismantled  a  small  fort,  built  during  the  early  days  of  the  war, 
on  the  east  side  of  the  river  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbour. 
On  the  evening  of  the  Sth  of  September  a  landing  force  from  the 
fleet,  which  had  begun  to  set  fire  to  Fairhaven,  was  driven  off 
by  a  body  of  about  1 50  minute-men  commanded  by  Major  Israel 
Fearing;  and  on  the  following  day  the  fleet  departed.  The  fort 
was  at  once  rebuilt  and  was  named  Fort  Fearing,  but  as  early 
as  1784  it  had  become  known  as  Fort  Phoenix;  it  was  one  of  the 
strongest  defences  on  the  New  England  coast  during  the  war  of 
1812.  The  township  of  Acushnet  was  formed  from  the  northern 
part  of  Fairhaven  in  1860. 

See  James  L.  Gillingham  and  others,  A  Brief  History  of  the  Town 
of  Fairhaven,  Massachusetts  (Fairhaven,  1903). 

FAIRHOLT,  FREDERICK  WILLIAM  (1814-1866),  English 
antiquary  and  wood  engraver,  was  born  in  London  in  1814. 
His  father,  who  was  of  a  German  family  (the  name  was  originally 
Fahrholz),  was  a  tobacco  manufacturer,  and  for  some  years 
Fairholt  himself  was  employed  in  the  business.  For  a  time  he 
was  a  drawing-master,  afterwards  a  scene-painter,  and  in  1835 
he  became  assistant  to  S.  Sly,  the  wood  engraver.  Some  pen 


and  ink  copies  made  by  him  of  figures  from  Hogarth's  plates  led 
to  his  being  employed  by  Charles  Knight  on  several  of  his 
illustrated  publications.  His  first  published  literary  work  was 
a  contribution  to  Hone's  Year-Book  in  1831.  His  life  was  one 
of  almost  uninterrupted  quiet  labour,  carried  on  until  within  a 
few  days  of  death.  Several  works  on  civic  pageantry  and  some 
collections  of  ancient  unpublished  songs  and  dialogues  were 
edited  by  him  for  the  Percy  Society  in  1842.  In  1844  he  was 
elected  fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  He  published  an 
edition  of  the  dramatic  works  of  Lyly  in  1856.  His  principal 
independent  works  are  Tobacco,  its  History  and  Association 
(1859);  Gog  and  Magog  (i860);  Up  the  Nile  and  Home  Again 
(1862);  many  articles  and  serials  contributed  to  the  Art  Journal, 
some  of  which  were  afterwards  separately  published,  as  Costume 
in  England  (1846);  Dictionary  of  Terms  in  Art  (1854).  These 
works  are  illustrated  by  numerous  cuts,  drawn  on  the  wood  by 
his  own  hand.  His  pencil  was  also  employed  in  illustrating 
Evans's  Coins  of  the  Ancient  Britons,  Madden's  Jewish  Coinage, 
Halliwell's  folio  Shakespeare  and  his  Sir  John  Maundeville, 
Roach  Smith's  Richborough,  the  Miscellanea  Graphica  of  Lord 
Londesborough,  and  many  other  works.  He  died  on  the  3rd  of 
April  1866.  His  books  relating  to  Shakespeare  were  bequeathed 
to  the  library  at  Stratford-on-Avon;  those  on  civic  pageantry 
(between  200  and  300  volumes)  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries; 
his  old  prints  and  works  on  costume  to  the  British  Museum; 
his  general  library  bed.  sired  to  be  sold  and  the  proceeds  devoted 
to  the  Literary  Fund. 

FAIRMONT,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Marion  county, 
West  Virginia,  U.S.A.,  on  both  sides  of  the  Monongahela  river, 
about  75  m.  S.E.  of  Wheeling.  Pop.  (1890)  1023;  (1900)  5655, 
of  whom  283  were  negroes  and  182  foreign-born;  (1910)  9711. 
It  is  served  by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  railway.  Among  its  manu- 
factures are  glass,  machinery,  flour  and  furniture,  and  it  is  an 
important  shipping  point  for  coal  mined  in  the  vicinity.  The 
city  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  West  Virginia  state  normal  schools. 
Fairmont  was  laid  out  as  Middletown  in  1 8 1 9,  became  the  county- 
seat  of  the  newly  established  Marion  county  in  1842,  received  its 
present  name  about  1844,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1899. 

FAIR  OAKS,  a  station  on  a  branch  of  the  Southern  railway, 
6  m.  E.  of  Richmond,  Virginia,  U.S.A.  It  is  noted  as  the  site 
of  one  of  the  battles  of  the  Civil  War,  fought  on  the  3ist  of  May 
and  the  ist  of  June  1862,  between  the  Union  (Army  of  the 
Potomac)  under  General  G.  B.  McClellan  and  the  Confederate 
forces  (Army  of  Northern  Virginia)  commanded  by  General  J.  E. 
Johnston.  The  attack  of  the  Confederates  was  made  at  a  moment 
when  the  river  Chickahominy  divided  the  Federal  army  into 
two  unequal  parts,  and  was,  moreover,  swollen  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  endanger  the  bridges.  General  Johnston  stationed  part 
of  his  troops  along  the  river  to  prevent  the  Federals  sending 
aid  to  the  smaller  force  south  of  it,  upon  which  the  Con- 
federate attack,  commanded  by  General  Longstreet,  was  directed. 
Many  accidents,  due  to  the  inexperience  of  the  staff  officers 
and  to  the  difficulty  of  the  ground,  hindered  the  development  of 
Longstreet's  attack,  but  the  Federals  were  gradually  driven 
back  with  a  loss  of  ten  guns,  though  at  the  last  moment  reinforce- 
ments managed  to  cross  the  river  and  re-establish  the  line  of 
defence.  At  the  close  of  the  day  Johnston  was  severely  wounded, 
and  General  G.  W.  Smith  succeeded  to  the  command.  The 
battle  was  renewed  on  the  ist  of  June  but  not  fought  out.  At 
the  close  of  the  action  General  R.  E.  Lee  took  over  the  command 
of  the  Confederates,  which  he  held  till  the  final  surrender  in 
April  1865.  So  far  as  the  victory  lay  with  either  side,  it  was 
with  the  Union  army,  for  the  Confederates  failed  to  achieve 
their  purpose  of  destroying  the  almost  isolated  left  wing  of 
McClellan's  army,  and  after  the  battle  they  withdrew  into  the 
lines  of  Richmond.  The  Union  losses  were  5031  in  killed, 
wounded  and  missing;  those  of  the  Confederates  were  6134. 
The  battle  is  sometimes  known  as  the  battle  of  Seven  Pines. 

FAIRUZABADI  [Abu-t-Tahir  ibn  Ibrahim  Majd  ud-Din  ul- 
Fairuzabadl]  (1329-1414),  Arabian  lexicographer,  was  born  at 
Karazln  near  Shiraz.  His  student  days  were  spent  in  Shiraz, 
Wasit,  Bagdad  and  Damascus.  He  taught  for  ten  years  in 


FAIRY 


Jerusalem,  and  afterwards  travelled  in  western  Asia  and  Egypt. 
In  1368  he  settled  in  Mecca,  where  he  remained  for  fifteen  years. 
He  next  visited  India  and  spent  some  time  in  Delhi,  then  remained 
in  Mecca  another  ten  years.  The  following  three  years  were 
spent  in  Bagdad,  in  Shiraz  (where  he  was  received  by  Timur), 
and  in  Ta'iz.  In  1395  he  was  appointed  chief  cadi  (qadi)  of 
Yemen,  married  a  daughter  of  the  sultan,  and  died  at  Zabld 
in  1414.  During  this  last  period  of  his  life  he  converted  his 
house  at  Mecca  into  a  school  of  Malikite  law  and  established 
three  teachers  in  it.  He  wrote  a  huge  lexicographical  work 
of  60  or  100  volumes  uniting  the  dictionaries  of  Ibn  Slda,  a 
Spanish  philologist  (d.  1066),  and  of  Sajam  (d.  1252).  A  digest 
of  or  an  extract  from  this  last  work  is  his  famous  diction- 
ary al-Qamus  ("  the  Ocean  "),  which  has  been  published  in 
Egypt,  Constantinople  and  India,  has  been  translated  into 
Turkish  and  Persian,  and  has  itself  been  the  basis  of  several  later 
dictionaries.  (G.  W.  T.) 

FAIRY  (Fr.  fie,  faerie;  Prov.  fada;  Sp.  hada;  Ital.  fata; 
med.  Lat.  fatare,  to  enchant,  from  Lat.  fatum,  fate,  destiny), 
the  common  term  for  a  supposed  race  of  supernatural  beings 
who  magically  intermeddle  in  human  affairs.  Of  all  the  minor 
creatures  of  mythology  the  fairies  are  the  most  beautiful,  the 
most  numerous,  the  most  memorable  in  literature.  Like  all 
organic  growths,  whether  of  nature  or  of  the  fancy,  they  are  not 
the  immediate  product  of  one  country  or  of  one  time;  they 
have  a  pedigree,  and  the  question  of  their  ancestry  and  affiliation 
is  one  of  wide  bearing.  But  mixture  and  connexion  of  races 
have  in  this  as  in  many  other  cases  so  changed  the  original 
folk-product  that  it  is  difficult  to  disengage  and  separate  the 
different  strains  that  have  gone  to  the  making  or  moulding  of 
the  result  as  we  have  it. 

It  is  not  in  literature,  however  ancient,  that  we  must  look  for 
the  early  forms  of  the  fairy  belief.  Many  of  Homer's  heroes 
have  fairy  lemans,  called  nymphs,  fairies  taken  up  into  a  higher 
region  of  poetry  and  religion;  and  the  fairy  leman  is  notable 
in  the  story  of  Athamas  and  his  cloud  bride  Nephele,  but  this 
character  is  as  familiar  to  the  unpoetical  Eskimo,  and  to  the  Red 
Indians,  with  their  bird-bride  and  beaver-bride  (see  A.  Lang's 
Custom  and  Myth,  "  The  Story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  ").  The 
Gandharvas  of  Sanskrit  poetry  are  also  fairies. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  facts  about  fairies  is  the  wide 
distribution  and  long  persistence  of  the  belief  in  them.  They 
are  the  chief  factor  in  surviving  Irish  superstition.  Here  they 
dwell  in  the  "  raths,"  old  earth-forts,  or  earthen  bases  of  later 
palisaded  dwellings  of  the  Norman  period,  and  in  the  subter- 
ranean houses,  common  also  in  Scotland.  They  are  an  organized 
people,  often  called  "  the  army,"  and  their  life  corresponds  to 
human  life  in  all  particulars.  They  carry  off  children,  leaving 
changeling  substitutes,  transport  men  and  women  into  fairyland, 
and  are  generally  the  causes  of  all  mysterious  phenomena.  Whirls 
of  dust  are  caused  by  the  fairy  marching  army,  as  by  the  being 
called  Kutchi  in  the  Dieri  tribe  of  Australia.  In  1907,  in  northern 
Ireland,  a  farmer's  house  was  troubled  with  flying  stones  (see 
POLTERGEIST).  The  neighbours  said  that  the  fairies  caused  the 
phenomenon,  as  the  man  had  swept  his  chimney  with  a  bough 
of  holly,  and  the  holly  is  "  a  gentle  tree,"  dear  to  the  fairies. 
The  fairy  changeling  belief  also  exists  in  some  districts  of  Argyll, 
and  a  fairy  boy  dwelt  long  in  a  small  farm-house  in  Glencoe, 
now  unoccupied. 

In  Ireland  and  the  west  Highlands  neolithic  arrow-heads 
and  flint  chips  are  still  fairy  weapons.  They  are  dipped  in  water, 
which  is  given  to  ailing  cattle  and  human  beings  as  a  sovereign 
remedy  for  diseases.  The  writer  knows  of  "  a  little  lassie  in 
green  "  who  is  a  fairy  and,  according  to  the  percipients,  haunts 
the  banks  of  the  Mukomar  pool  on  the  Lochy.  In  Glencoe  is  a 
fairy  hill  where  the  fairy  music,  vocal  and  instrumental,  is  heard 
in  still  weather.  In  the  Highlands,  however,  there  is  much  more 
interest  in  second  sight  than  in  fairies,  while  in  Ireland  the 
reverse  is  the  case.  The  best  book  on  Celtic  fairy  lore  is  still 
that  of  the  minister  of  Aberfoyle,  the  Rev.  Mr  Kirk  (ob.  1692). 
His  work  on  The  Secret  Commonwealth  of  Elves,  Fauns  and 
Fairies,  left  in  MS.  and  incomplete  (the  remainder  is  in  the  Laing 


MSS.,  Edinburgh  University  library),  was  published  (a  hundred 
copies)  in  1815  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  in  the  Bibliotheque  de 
Carabas  (Lang)  there  is  a  French  translation.  Mr  Kirk  is  said 
(though  his  tomb  exists)  to  have  been  carried  away  by  fairies. 
He  appeared  to  a  friend  and  said  that  he  would  come  again, 
when  the  friend  must  throw  a  dirk  over  his  shoulder  and  he 
would  return  to  this  world.  The  friend,  however,  lost  his  nerve 
and  did  not  throw  the  dirk.  In  the  same  way  a  woman  re- 
appeared to  her  husband  in  Glencoe  in  the  last  generation, 
but  he  was  wooing  another  lass  and  did  not  make  any  effort  to 
recover  his  wife.  His  character  was  therefore  lost  in  the  glen. 

It  is  clear  that  in  many  respects  fairyland  corresponds  to  the 
pre-Christian  abode  of  the  dead.  Like  Persephone  when  carried 
to  Hades,  or  Wainamoi'nen  in  the  Hades  of  the  Finns  (Manala), 
a  living  human  being  must  not  eat  in  fairyland;  if  he  does, 
he  dwells  there  for  ever.  Tamlane  in  the  ballad,  however,  was 
"  fat  and  fair  of  flesh,"  yet  was  rescued  by  Janet:  probably 
he  had  not  abstained  from  fairy  food.  He  was  to  be  given  as 
the  kane  to  Hell,  which  shows  a  distinction  between  the  beliefs 
in  hell  and  in  the  place  of  fairies. 

It  is  a  not  uncommon  theory  that  the  fairies  survive  in  legend 
from  prehistoric  memories  of  a  pigmy  people  dwelling  in  the 
subterranean  earth-houses,  but  the  contents  of  these  do  not 
indicate  an  age  prior  to  the  close  of  the  Roman  occupation  of 
Britain;  nor  are  pigmy  bones  common  in  neolithic  sepulchres. 
The  "  people  of  peace  "  (Daoine  Shie)  of  Ireland  and  Scotland 
are  usually  of  ordinary  stature,  indeed  not  to  be  recognized  as 
varying  from  mankind  except  by  their  proceedings  (see  J.  Curtin, 
Irish  Folk-tales). 

The  belief  in  a  species  of  lady  fairies,  deathly  to  their  human 
lovers,  was  found  by  R.  L.  Stevenson  to  be  as  common  in  Samoa 
(see  Island  Nights'  Entertainments)  as  in  Strathfinlas  or  on  the 
banks  of  Loch  Awe.  In  New  Caledonia  a  native  friend  of  J.  J. 
Atkinson  (author  of  Primal  Law)  told  him  that  he  had  met 
and  caressed  the  girl  of  his  heart  in  the  forest,  that  she  had 
vanished  and  must  have  been  a  fairy.  He  therefore  would  die 
in  three  days,  which  (Mr  Atkinson  informs  the  writer)  he  punctu- 
ally did.  The  Greek  sirens  of  Homer  are  clearly  a  form  of  these 
deadly  fairies,  as  the  Nereids  and  Oreads  and  Naiads  are  fairies 
of  wells,  mountains  and  the  sea.  The  fairy  women  who  come 
to  the  births  of  children  and  foretell  their  fortunes  (Fata,  Moerae, 
ancient  Egyptian  Hathors,  Fees,  Dominae  Fatales),  with  their 
spindles,  are  refractions  of  the  human  "  spae-women  "  (in  the 
Scots  term)  who  attend  at  birth  and  derive  omens  of  the  child's 
future  from  various  signs.  The  custom  is  common  among 
several  savage  races,  and  these  women,  represented  in  the 
spiritual  world  by  Fata,  bequeath  to  us  the  French  fee,  in  the 
sense  of  fairy.  Perrault  also  uses  fee  for  anything  that  has 
magical  quality;  "  the  key  was  fee,"  had  mana,  or  wakan, 
savage  words  for  the  supposed  "  power,"  or  ether,  which  works 
magic  or  is  the  vehicle  of  magical  influences. 

Though  the  fairy  belief  is  universally  human,  the  nearest 
analogy  to  the  shape  which  it  takes  in  Scotland  and  Ireland — 
the  "  pixies  "  of  south-western  England — is  to  be  found  in  Jan 
or  Jinnis  of  the  Arabs,  Moors  and  people  of  Palestine.  In  stories 
which  have  passed  through  a  literary  medium,  like  The  Arabian 
Nights,  the  geni  or  Jan  do  not  so  much  resemble  our  fairies  as 
they  do  in  the  popular  superstitions  of  the  East,  orally  collected. 
The  Jan  are  now  a  subterranean  commonwealth,  now  they  reside 
in  ruinous  places,  like  the  fairies  in  the  Irish  raths.  Like  the 
fairies  they  go  about  in  whirls  of  dust,  or  the  dust-whirls  them- 
selves are  Jan.  They  carry  off  men  and  women  "  to  their  own 
herd,"  in  the  phrase  of  Mr  Kirk,  and  are  kind  to  mortals  who  are 
kind  to  them.  They  chiefly  differ  from  our  fairies  in  their 
greater  tendency  to  wear  animal  forms;  though,  like  the 
fairies,  when  they  choose  to  appear  in  human  shape  they  are 
not  to  be  distinguished  from  men  and  women  of  mortal  mould. 
Like  the  fairies  everywhere  they  have  amours  with  mortals, 
such  as  that  of  the  Queen  of  Faery  with  Thomas  of  Ercildoune. 
The  herb  rue  is  potent  against  them,  as  in  British  folk-lore,  and 
a  man  long  captive  among  the  Jan  escaped  from  them  by 
observing  their  avoidance  of  rue,  and  by  plucking  two  handfuls 


FAIRY  RING— FAITH  HEALING 


thereof.  They,  like  the  British  brownies  (a  kind  of  domesticated 
fairy),  are  the  causes  of  strange  disappearances  of  things.  To 
preserve  houses  from  their  influences,  rue,  that  "  herb  of  grace," 
is  kept  in  the  apartments,  and  the  name  of  Allah  is  constantly 
invoked.  If  this  is  omitted,  things  are  stolen  by  the  Jan. 

They  often  bear  animal  names,  and  it  is  dangerous  to  call  a 
cat  or  dog  without  pointing  at  the  animal,  for  a  Jinni  of  the 
same  name  may  be  present  and  may  take  advantage  of  the 
invocation.  A  man,  in  fun,  called  to  a  goat  to  escort  his  wife 
on  a  walk:  he  did  not  point  at  the  goat,  and  the  wife  disappeared. 
A  Jinni  had  carried  her  off,  and  her  husband  had  to  seek  her  at 
the  court  of  the  Jan.  Euphemistically  they  are  addressed  as 
mubarakin,  "  blessed  ones,"  as  we  say  "  the  good  folk  "  or  "  the 
people  of  peace."  As  our  fairies  give  gold  which  changes  into 
withered  leaves,  the  Jan  give  onion  peels  which  turn  into  gold. 
Like  our  fairies  the  Jan  can  apply  an  ointment,  kohl,  to  human 
eyes,  after  which  the  person  so  favoured  can  see  Jan,  or  fairies, 
which  are  invisible  to  other  mortals,  and  can  see  treasure  wherever 
it  may  be  concealed  (see  Folk-lore  of  the  Holy  Land,  by  J.  E. 
Hanauer,  1907). 

It  is  plain  that  fairies  and  Jan  are  practically  identical, 
a  curious  proof  of  the  uniformity  of  the  working  of  imagination 
in  peoples  v/idely  separated  in  race  and  religion.  Fairies 
naturally  won  their  way  into  the  poetry  of  the  middle  ages. 
They  take  lovers  from  among  men,  and  are  often  described  as 
of  delicate,  unearthly,  ravishing  beauty.  The  enjoyment  of 
their  charms  is,  however,  generally  qualified  by  some  restriction 
or  compact,  the  breaking  of  which  is  the  cause  of  calamity  to 
the  lover  and  all  his  race,  as  in  the  notable  tale  of  Melusine. 
This  fay  by  enchantment  built  the  castle  of  Lusignan  for  her 
husband.  It  was  her  nature  to  take  every  week  the  form  of  a 
serpent  from  the  waist  below.  The  hebdomadal  transformation 
being  once,  contrary  to  compact,  witnessed  by  her  husband, 
she  left  him  with  much  wailing,  and  was  said  to  return  and 
give  warning  by  her  appearance  and  great  shrieks  whenever  one 
of  the  race  of  Lusignan  was  about  to  die.  At  the  birth  of  Ogier 
le  Danois  six  fairies  attend,  five  of  whom  give  good  gifts,  which 
the  sixth  overrides  with  a  restriction.  Gervaise  of  Tilbury, 
writing  early  in  the  i3th  century,  has  in  his  Otia  Imperialia  a 
chapter,  De  lamiis  et  nocturnis  larvis,  where  he  gives  it  out,  as 
proved  by  individuals  beyond  all  exception,  that  men  have  been 
lovers  of  beings  of  this  kind  whom  they  call  Fadas,  and  who 
did  in  case  of  infidelity  or  infringement  of  secrecy  inflict  terrible 
punishment — the  loss  of  goods  and  even  of  life.  There  seems 
little  in  the  characteristics  of  these  fairies  of  romance  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  human  beings,  except  their  supernatural 
knowledge  and  power.  They  are  not  often  represented  as 
diminutive  in  stature,  and  seem  to  be  subject  to  such  human 
passions  as  love,  jealousy,  envy  and  revenge.  To  this  class 
belong  the  fairies  of  Boiardo,  Ariosto  and  Spenser. 

There  is  no  good  modern  book  on  the  fairy  belief  in  general. 
Keightley's  Fairy  Mythology  is  full  of  interesting  matter;  Rhys's 
Celtic  Mythology  is  especially  copious  about  Welsh  fairies,  which 
are  practically  identical  with  those  of  Ireland  and  Scotland.  The 
works  of  Mr  Jeremiah  Curtin  and  Dr  Douglas  Hyde  are  useful  for 
Ireland ;  for  Scotland,  Kirk's  Secret  Commonwealth  has  already  been 
quoted.  Scott's  dissertation  on  fairies  in  The  Border  Minstrelsy  is 
rich  in  lore,  though  necessarily  Scott  had  not  the  wide  field  of 
comparative  study  opened  by  more  recent  researches.  There  is  a 


FAIRY  RING,  the  popular  name  for  the  circular  patches  of  a 
dark  green  colour  that  are  to  be  seen  occasionally  on  permanent 
grass-land,  either  lawn  or  meadow,  on  which  the  fairies  were 
supposed  to  hold  their  midnight  revels.  They  mark  the  area  of 
growth  of  some  fungus,  starting  from  a  centre  of  one  or  more 
plants.  The  mycelium  produced  from  the  spores  dropped  by 
the  fungus  or  from  the  "  spawn  "  in  the  soil,  radiates  outwards, 
and  each  year's  successive  crop  of  fungi  rises  from  the  new 
growth  round  the  circle.  The  rich  colour  of  the  grass  is  due 
to  the  fertilizing  quality  of  the  decaying  fungi,  which  are 
peculiarly  rich  in  nitrogenous  substances.  The  most  complete 
and  symmetrical  grass  rings  are  formed  by  Marasmius  oreades, 


the  fairy  ring  champignon,  but  the  mushroom  and  many  other 
species  occasionally  form  rings,  both  on  grass-lands  and  in  woods. 
Observations  were  made  on  a  ring  in  a  pine-wood  for  a  period  of 
nine  years,  and  it  was  calculated  that  it  increased  from  centre 
to  circumference  about  8|  in.  each  year.  The  fungus  was  never 
found  growing  within  the  circle  during  the  time  the  ring  was 
under  observation,  the  decaying  vegetation  necessary  for  its 
growth  having  become  exhausted. 

FAITHFULL,  EMILY  (1835-1895),  English  philanthropist, 
was  the  youngest  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Ferdinand  Faithfull, 
and  was  born  at  Headley  Rectory,  Surrey,  in  1835.  She  took  a 
great  interest  in  the  conditions  of  working-women,  and  with  the 
object  of  extending  their  sphere  of  labour,  which  was  then 
painfully  limited,  in  1860  she  set  up  in  London  a  printing  estab- 
lishment for  women.  The  "  Victoria  Press,"  as  it  was  called, 
soon  obtained  quite  a  reputation  for  its  excellent  work,  and  Miss 
Faithfull  was  shortly  afterwards  appointed  printer  and  publisher 
in  ordinary  to  Queen  Victoria.  In  1863  she  began  the  publication 
of  a  monthly  organ,  The  Victoria  Magazine,  in  which  for  eighteen 
years  she  continuously  and  earnestly  advocated  the  claims  of 
women  to  remunerative  employment.  In  1868  she  published  a 
novel,  Change  upon  Change,  She  also  appeared  as  a  lecturer, 
and  with  the  object  of  furthering  the  interests  of  her  sex,  lectured 
widely  and  successfully  both  in  England  and  the  United  States, 
which  latter  she  visited  in  1872  and  1882.  In  1888  she  was 
awarded  a  civil  list  pension  of  £50.  She  died  in  Manchester  on 
the  3ist  of  May  1895. 

FAITH  HEALING,  a  form  of  "mind  cure,"  characterized  by  the 
doctrine  that  while  pain  and  disease  really  exist,  they  may  be 
neutralized  and  dispelled  by  faith  in  Divine  power;  the  doctrine 
known  as  Christian  Science  (q.v.)  holds,  however,  that  pain  is 
only  an  illusion  and  seeks  to  cure  the  patient  by  instilling  into 
him  this  belief.  In  the  Christian  Church  the  tradition  of  faith 
healing  dates  from  the  earliest  days  of  Christianity;  upon  the 
miracles  of  the  New  Testament  follow  cases  of  healing,  first  by 
the  Apostles,  then  by  their  successors;  but  faith  healing  proper 
is  gradually,  from  the  3rd  century  onwards,  transformed  into 
trust  in  relics,  though  faith  cures  still  occur  sporadically  in  later 
times.  Catherine  of  Siena  is  said  to  have  saved  Father  Matthew 
from  dying  of  the  plague,  but  in  this  case  it  is  rather  the  healer 
than  the  healed  who  was  strong  in  faith.  With  the  Reformation 
faith  healing  proper  reappears  among  the  Moravians  and 
Waldenses,  who,  like  the  Peculiar  People  of  our  own  day,  put 
their  trust  in  prayer  and  anointing  with  oil.  In  the  i6th  century 
we  find  faith  cures  recorded  of  Luther  and  other  reformers, 
in  the  next  century  of  the  Baptists,  Quakers  and  other  Puritan 
sects,  and  in  the  i8th  century  the  faith  healing  of  the  Methodists 
in  this  country  was  paralleled  by  Pietism  in  Germany,  which 
drew  into  its  ranks  so  distinguished  a  man  of  science  as  Stahl 
(1660-1734).  In  the  i  gth  century  Prince  Hohenlohe-Waldenburg- 
Schillingsfurst,  canon  of  Grosswardein,  was  a  famous  healer  on 
the  continent;  the  Mormons  and  Irvingites  were  prominent 
among  English-speaking  peoples;  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
1 9th  century  faith  healing  became  popular  in  London,  and 
Bethshan  homes  were  opened  in  1881,  and  since  then  it  has 
found  many  adherents  in  England. 

Under  faith  healing  in  a  wider  sense  may  be  included  (i)  the 
cures  in  the  temples  of  Aesculapius  and  other  deities  in  the 
ancient  world;  (2)  the  practice  of  touching  for  the  king's  evil, 
in  vogue  from  the  nth  to  the  i8th  century;  (3)  the  cures  of 
Valentine  Greatrakes,  the  "  Stroker "  (1620-1683);  and  (4) 
the  miracles  of  Lourdes,  and  other  resorts  of  pilgrims,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  St  Winifred's  Well  in  Flintshire, 
Treves  with  its  Holy  Coat,  the  grave  of  the  Jansenist  F.  de  Paris 
in  the  i8th  century,  the  little  town  of  Kevelaer  from  1641  on- 
wards, the  tombs  of  St  Louis,  Francis  of  Assisi,  Catherine  of 
Siena  and  others. 

An  animistic  theory  of  disease  was  held  by  Pastor  J.  Ch. 
Blumhardt,  Dorothea  Trudel,  Boltzius  and  other  European 
faith  healers.  Used  in  this  sense  faith  healing  is  indistinguishable 
from  much  of  savage  leech-craft,  which  seeks  to  cure  disease 
by  expelling  the  evil  spirit  in  some  portion  of  the  body.  Although 


136 


FAITHORNE— FALAISE 


it  is  usually  present,  faith  in  the  medicine  man  is  not  essential 
for  the  efficacy  of  the  method.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
lineal  descendant  of  savage  medicine — the  magical  leech-craft 
of  European  folk-lore;  cures  for  toothache,  warts,  &c.,  act  in 
spite  of  the  disbelief  of  the  sufferer;  how  far  incredulity  on  the 
part  of  the  healer  would  result  in  failure  is  an  open  question. 

From  the  psychological  point  of  view  all  these  different  kinds 
of  faith  healing,  as  indeed  all  kinds  of  mind  cure,  including 
those  of  Christian  Science  and  hypnotism,  depend  on  suggestion 
(q.v.).  In  faith  healing  proper  not  only  are  powerful  direct 
suggestions  used,  but  the  religious  atmosphere  and  the  auto- 
suggestions of  the  patient  co-operate,  especially  where  the  cures 
take  place  during  a  period  of  religious  revival  or  at  other  times 
when  large  assemblies  and  strong  emotions  are  found.  The 
suggestibility  of  large  crowds  is  markedly  greater  than  that  of 
individuals,  and  to  this  and  the  greater  faith  must  be  attributed 
the  greater  success  of  the  fashionable  places  of  pilgrimage. 

See  A.  T.  Myers  and  F.  W.  H.  Myers  in  Proc.  Soc.  Psychical  Re- 
search, ix.  160-209,  on  the  miracles  of  Lourdes,  with  bibliography; 
A.  Feilding,  Faith  Healing  and  Christian  Science;  O.  Stoll,  Sug- 
gestion una  Hypnotismus  in  der  Volkerpsychologie;  article  "Great- 
rakes  "  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  (N.  W.  T.) 

FAITHORNE,  WILLIAM  (1626  or  1627-1691),  English  painter 
and  engraver,  was  born  in  London  and  was  apprenticed  to 
Robert  Peake,  a  painter  and  printseller,  who  received  the  honour 
of  knighthood  from  Charles  I.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
he  accompanied  his  master  into  the  king's  service,  and  being 
made  prisoner  at  Basinghouse,  he  was  confined  for  some  time  to 
Aldersgate,  where,  however,  he  was  permitted  to  follow  his 
profession  of  engraver,  and  among  other  portraits  did  a  small 
one  of  the  first  Villiers,  duke  of  Buckingham.  At  the  earnest 
solicitation  of  his  friends  he  very  soon  regained  his  liberty, 
but  only  on  condition  of  retiring  to  France.  There  he  was  so 
fortunate  as  to  receive  instruction  from  Robert  Nanteuil.  He 
was  permitted  to  return  to  England  about  1650,  and  took  up  a 
shop  near  Temple  Bar,  where,  besides  his  work  as  an  engraver, 
he  carried  on  a  large  business  as  a  printseller.  In  1680  he  gave 
up  his  shop  and  retired  to  a  house  in  Blackfriars,  occupying 
himself  chiefly  in  painting  portraits  from  the  life  in  crayons, 
although  still  occasionally  engaged  in  engraving.  It  is  said  that 
his  life  was  shortened  by  the  misfortunes,  dissipation,  and  early 
death  of  his  son  William.  Faithorne  is  especially  famous  as  a 
portrait  engraver,  and  among  those  on  whom  he  exercised  his  art 
were  a  large  number  of  eminent  persons,  including  Sir  Henry 
Spelman,  Oliver  Cromwell,  Henry  Somerset,  the  marquis  of 
Worcester,  John  Milton,  Queen  Catherine,  Prince  Rupert, 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  Thomas  Hobbes,  Richard 
Hooker,  Robert  second  earl  of  Essex,  and  Charles  I.  All  his  works 
are  remarkable  for  their  combination  of  freedom  and  strength 
with  softness  and  delicacy,  and  his  crayon  paintings  unite  to 
these  the  additional  quality  of  clear  and  brilliant  colouring. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  work  on  engraving  (1622). 

His  son  WILLIAM  (1656-1686),  mezzotint  engraver,  at  an  early 
age  gave  promise  of  attaining  great  excellence,  but  became  idle 
and  dissipated,  and  involved  his  father  in  money  difficulties. 
Among  persons  of  note  whose  portraits  he  engraved  are  Charles 
II.,  Mary  princess  of  Orange,  Queen  Anne  when  princess  of 
Denmark,  and  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden. 

The  best  account  of  the  Faithornes  is  that  contained  in  Walpole's 
Anecdotes  of  Painting.  A  life  of  Faithorne  the  elder  is  preserved 
in  the  British  Museum  among  the  papers  of  Mr  Bayford,  librarian 
to  Lord  Oxford,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Faithorne. 

FAIZABAD,  a  town  of  Afghanistan,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Badakshan,  situated  on  the  Kokcha  river.  In  1821  it  was 
destroyed  by  Murad  Beg  of  Kunduz,  and  the  inhabitants  removed 
to  Kunduz.  But  since  Badakshan  was  annexed  by  Abdur 
Rahman,  the  town  has  recovered  its  former  importance,  and  is 
now  a  considerable  place  of  trade.  It  is  the  chief  cantonment 
for  eastern  Afghanistan  and  the  Pamir  region,  and  is  protected 
by  a  fort  built  in  1904. 

FAJARDO,  a  district  and  town  on  the  E.  coast  of  Porto  Rico, 
belonging  to  the  department  of  Humacao.  Pop.  (1899)  of  the 
district,  16,782;  and  of  the  town,  3414.  The  district  is  highly 


fertile  and  is  well  watered,  owing  in  great  measure  to  its  abundant 
rainfall.  Sugar  production  is  its  principal  industry,  but  some 
attention  is  also  given  to  the  growing  of  oranges  and  pineapples. 
The  town,  which  was  founded  in  1774,  is  a  busy  commercial 
centre  standing  ij  m.  from  a  large  and  well-sheltered  bay,  at  the 
entrance  to  which  is  the  cape  called  Cabeza  de  San  Juan.  It  is 
the  market  town  for  a  number  of  small  islands  off  the  E.  coast, 
some  of  which  produce  cattle  for  export. 

FAKHR  UD-DlN  RAZI  (1149-1209),  Arabian  historian  and 
theologian,  was  the  son  of  a  preacher,  himself  a  writer,  and  was 
born  at  Rai  (Rei,  Rhagae),  near  Tehran,  where  he  received  his 
earliest  training.  Here  and  at  Maragha,  whither  he  followed  his 
teacher  Majd  ud-Dln  ul-Jill,  he  studied  philosophy  and  theology. 
He  was  a  Shafi'ite  in  law  and  a  follower  of  Ash'ari  (q.v.)  in 
theology,  and  became  renowned  as  a  defender  of  orthodoxy. 
During  a  journey  in  Khwarizm  and  Mawara'1-nahr  he  preached 
both  in  Persian  and  Arabic  against  the  sects  of  Islam.  After 
this  tour  he  returned  to  his  native  city,  but  settled  later  in  Herat, 
where  he  died.  His  dogmatic  positions  may  be  seen  from  his 
work  Kitdb  ul-Muhassal,  which  is  analysed  by  Schmolders  in  his 
Essai  sur  les  Scales  philosophiques  chez  les  Arabes  (Paris,  1842). 
Extracts  from  his  History  of  the  Dynasties  were  published  by 
Jourdain  in  the  Fundgruben  des  Orients  (vol.  v.),  and  by  D.  R. 
Heinzius  (St  Petersburg,  1828).  His  greatest  work  is  the 
Mafatih  ul-Ghaib  ("  The  Keys  of  Mystery "),  an  extensive 
commentary  on  the  Koran  published  at  Cairo  (8  vols.,  1890) 
and  elsewhere;  it  is  specially  full  in  its  exposition  of  Ash'arite 
theology  and  its  use  of  early  and  late  Mu'tazilite  writings. 

For  an  account  of  his  life  see  F.  Wustenfeld's  Geschichte  der 
arabischen  Arzte,  No.  200  (Gottingen,  1840);  for  a  list  of  his  works 
cf.  C.  Brockelmann's  Gesch.  der  arabischen  Literatur,  vol.  i  (Weimar, 
1898),  pp.  506  ff.  An  account  of  his  teaching  is  given  by  M.  Schreiner 
in  the  Zeitschrift  der  deutschen  morgenldndischen  Gesellschaft  (vol.  52, 
pp.  505  ff-)-  (G.  W.  T.) 

FAKIR  (from  Arabic  faqlr,  "  poor  "),  a  term  equivalent  to 
Dervish  (q.v.)  or  Mahommedan  religious  mendicant,  but  which 
has  come  to  be  specially  applied  to  the  Hindu  devotees  and 
ascetics  of  India.  There  are  two  classes  of  these  Indian  Fakirs, 
(i)  the  religious  orders,  and  (2)  the  nomad  rogues  who  infest  the 
country.  The  ascetic  orders  resemble  the  Franciscans  of  Christi- 
anity. The  bulk  lead  really  excellent  lives  in  monasteries, 
which  are  centres  of  education  and  poor-relief;  while  others  go 
out  to  visit  the  poor  as  Gurus  or  teachers.  Strict  celibacy  is 
not  enforced  among  them.  These  orders  are  of  very  ancient  date, 
owing  their  establishment  to  the  ancient  Hindu  rule,  followed 
by  the  Buddhists,  that  each  "  twice-born  "  man  should  lead  in 
the  woods  the  life  of  an  ascetic.  The  second  class  of  Fakirs  are 
simply  disreputable  beggars  who  wander  round  extorting,  under 
the  guise  of  religion,  alms  from  the  charitable  and  practising 
on  the  superstitions  of  the  villagers.  As  a  rule  they  make  no 
real  pretence  of  leading  a  religious  life.  They  are  said  to  number 
nearly  a  million.  Many  of  them  are  known  as  "  Jogi,"  and  lay 
claim  to  miraculous  powers  which  they  declare  have  become 
theirs  by  the  practice  of  abstinence  and  extreme  austerities. 
The  tortures  which  some  of  these  wretches  will  inflict  upon 
themselves  are  almost  incredible.  They  will  hold  their  arms  over 
their  heads  until  the  muscles  atrophy,  will  keep  their  fists 
clenched  till  the  nails  grow  through  the  palms,  will  lie  on  beds 
of  nails,  cut  and  stab  themselves,  drag,  week  after  week,  enormous 
chains  loaded  with  masses  of  iron,  or  hang  themselves  before  a 
fire  near  enough  to  scorch.  Most  of  them  are  inexpressibly 
filthy  and  verminous.  Among  the  filthiest  are  the  Aghoris, 
who  preserve  the  ancient  cannibal  ritual  of  the  followers  of  Siva, 
eat  filth,  and  use  a  human  skull  as  a  drinking-vessel.  Formerly 
the  fakirs  were  always  nude  and  smeared  with  ashes;  but  now 
they  are  compelled  to  wear  some  pretence  of  clothing.  The 
natives  do  not  really  respect  these  wandering  friars,  but  they 
dread  their  curses. 

See  John  Campbell  Oman,  The  Mystics,  Ascetics  and  Saints  of 
India  (1903),  and  Indian  Census  Reports. 

FALAISE,  a  town  of  north-western  France,  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Calvados,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ante,  19  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Caen  by  road.  Pop.  (1906) 


FALASHAS— FALCAO 


6215.  The  principal  object  of  interest  is  the  castle,  now  partly 
in  ruins,  but  formerly  the  seat  of  the  dukes  of  Normandy  and  the 
birthplace  of  William  the  Conqueror.  It  is  situated  on  a  lofty 
crag  overlooking  the  town,  and  consists  of  a  square  mass  defended 
by  towers  and  flanked  by  a  small  donjon  and  a  lofty  tower  added 
by  the  English  in  the  isth  century;  the  rest  of  the  castle  dates 
chiefly  from  the  i2th  century.  Near  the  castle,  in  the  Place  de 
la  Trinite,  is  an  equestrian  statue  in  bronze  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  to  whom  the  town  owed  its  prosperity.  The  churches 
of  La  Trinite  and  St  Gervais  combine  the  Gothic  and  Renaissance 
styles  of  architecture,  and  St  Gervais  also  includes  Romanesque 
workmanship.  A  street  passes  by  way  of  a  tunnel  beneath  the 
choir  of  La  Trinite.  Falaise  has  populous  suburbs,  one  of  which, 
Guibray,  is  celebrated  for  its  annual  fair  for  horses,  cattle  and 
wool,  which  has  been  held  in  August  since  the  nth  century. 
The  town  is  the  seat  of  a  subprefecture  and  has  tribunals  of 
first  instance  and  commerce,  a  chamber  of  arts  and  manufacture, 
a  board  of  trade-arbitrators  and  a  communal  college.  Tanning 
and  important  manufactures  of  hosiery  are  carried  on. 

From  1417,  when  after  a  siege  of  forty-seven  days  it  succumbed 
to  Henry  V.,  king  of  England,  till  1450,  when  it  was  retaken  by 
the  French,  Falaise  was  in  the  hands  of  the  English. 

FALASHAS  (i.e.  exiles;  Ethiopic  falas,  a  stranger),  or  "Jews 
of  Abyssinia,"  a  tribe  of  Hamitic  stock,  akin  to  Galla,  Somali 
and  Beja,  though  they  profess  the  Jewish  religion.  They  claim 
to  be  descended  from  the  ten  tribes  banished  from  the  Holy  Land. 
Another  tradition  assigns  them  as  ancestor  Menelek,  Solomon's 
alleged  son  by  the  queen  of  Sheba.  There  is  little  or  no  physical 
difference  between  them  and  the  typical  Abyssinians,  except 
perhaps  that  their  eyes  are  a  little  more  oblique;  and  they  may 
certainly  be  regarded  as  Hamitic.  It  is  uncertain  when  they 
became  Jews:  one  account  suggests  in  Solomon's  time;  another, 
at  the  Babylonian  captivity;  a  third,  during  the  ist  century 
of  the  Christian  era.  That  one  of  the  earlier  dates  is  correct 
seems  probable  from  the  fact  that  the  Falashas  know  nothing 
of  either  the  Babylonian  or  Jerusalem  Talmud,  make  no  use  of 
phylacteries  (tefillin),  and  observe  neither  the  feast  of  Purim 
nor  the  dedication  of  the  temple.  They  possess — not  in  Hebrew, 
of  which  they  are  altogether  ignorant,  but  in  Ethiopic  (or  Geez) — 
the  canonical  and  apocryphal  books  of  the  Old  Testament; 
a  volume  of  extracts  from  the  Pentateuch,  with  comments  given 
to  Moses  by  God  on  Mount  Sinai;  the  Te-e-sa-sa  Sanbat,  or 
laws  of  the  Sabbath;  the  Ardit,  a  book  of  secrets  revealed  to 
twelve  saints,  which  is  used  as  a  charm  against  disease;  lives  of 
Abraham,  Moses,  &c.;  and  a  translation  of  Josephus  called  Sana 
Aihud.  A  copy  of  the  Orit  or  Mosaic  law  is  kept  in  the  holy  of 
holies  in  every  synagogue.  Various  pagan  observances  are 
mingled  in  their  ritual:  every  newly-built  house  is  considered 
uninhabitable  till  the  blood  of  a  sheep  or  fowl  has  been  spilt  in  it; 
a  woman  guilty  of  a  breach  of  chastity  has  to  undergo  purification 
by  leaping  into  a  flaming  fire;  the  Sabbath  has  been  deified,  and, 
as  the  goddess  Sanbat,  receives  adoration  and  sacrifice  and  is 
said  to  have  ten  thousand  times  ten  thousand  angels  to  wait 
on  her  commands.  There  is  a  monastic  system,  introduced 
it  is  said  in  the  4th  century  A.D.  by  Aba  Zebra,  a  pious  man 
who  retired  from  the  world  and  lived  in  the  cave  of  Hoharewa, 
in  the  province  of  Armatshoho.  The  monks  must  prepare  all 
their  food  with  their  own  hands,  and  no  lay  person,  male  or 
female,  may  enter  their  houses.  Celibacy  is  not  practised  by  the 
priests,  but  they  are  not  allowed  to  marry  a  second  time,  and  no 
one  is  admitted  into  the  order  who  has  eaten  bread  with  a 
Christian,  or  is  the  son  or  grandson  of  a  man  thus  contaminated. 
Belief  in  the  evil  eye  or  shadow  is  universal,  and  spirit-raisers, 
soothsayers  and  rain-doctors  are  in  repute.  Education  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  monks  and  priests,  and  is  confined  to  boys.  Fasts, 
obligatory  on  all  above  seven  years  of  age,  are  held  on  every 
Monday  and  Thursday,  on  every  new  moon,  and  at  the  passover 
(the  2 1  st  or  2  2nd  of  April) .  The  annual  festivals  are  the  passover, 
the  harvest  feast,  the  Baala  Mazalat  or  feast  of  tabernacles 
(during  which,  however,  no  booths  are  built) ,  the  day  of  covenant 
or  assembly  and  Abraham's  day.  It  is  believed  that  after  death 
the  soul  remains  in  a  place  of  darkness  till  the  third  day,  when  the 


first  sacrifice  for  the  dead  is  offered;  prayers  are  read  in  the 
synagogue  for  the  repose  of  the  departed,  and  for  seven  days  a 
formal  lament  takes  place  every  morning  in  his  house.  No 
coffins  are  used,  and  a  stone  vault  is  built  over  the  corpse  so 
that  it  may  not  come  into  direct  contact  with  the  earth. 

The  Falashas  are  an  industrious  people,  living  for  the  most  part 
in  villages  of  their  own,  or,  if  they  settle  in  a  Christian  or  Mahom- 
medan  town,  occupying  a  separate  quarter.  They  had  their  own 
kings,  who,  they  pretend,  were  descended  from  David,  from  the 
zoth  century  until  1800,  when  the  royal  race  became  extinct, 
and  they  then  became  subject  to  the  Abyssinian  kingdom  of 
Tigre.  They  do  not  mix  with  the  Abyssinians,  and  never  marry 
women  of  alien  religions.  They  are  even  forbidden  to  enter  the 
houses  of  Christians,  and  from  such  a  pollution  have  to  be  purified 
before  entering  their  own  houses.  Polygamy  is  not  practised; 
early  marriages  are  rare,  and  their  morals  are  generally  better 
than  those  of  their  Christian  masters.  Unlike  most  Jews,  they 
have  no  liking  for  trade,  but  are  skilled  in  agriculture,  in  the 
manufacture  of  pottery,  ironware  and  cloth,  and  are  good 
masons.  Their  numbers  are  variously  estimated  at  from  one 
hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — M.  Flad,  Zwolf  Jahre  in  Abyssinia  (Basel,  1869), 
and  his  Falashas  of  Abyssinia,  translated  from  the  German  by  S.  P. 
Goodhart  (London,  1869) ;  H.  A.  Stern,  Wanderings  among  the 
Falashas  in  Abyssinia  (London,  1862);  Joseph  Halevy,  Travels  in 
Abyssinia  (trans.  London,  1878);  Morals,  "The  Falashas"  in 
Penn  Monthly  (Philadelphia,  1880);  Cyrus  Adlcr,  "Bibliography 
of  the  Falashas  "  in  American  Hebrew  (i6th  of  March  1894) ;  Lewin, 
"  Ein  verlassener  Bruderstamm,"  in  Bloch's  Wochenschrift  (7th 
February  1902),  p.  85;  J.  Faitlovitch,  Notes  d'un  voyage  chez  les 
Falachas  (Paris,  1905). 

FALCAO,  CHRISTOVAO  DE  SOUSA  (?  1512-1557),  Portuguese 
poet,  came  of  a  noble  family  settled  at  Portalegre  in  the  Alemtejo, 
which  had  originated  with  John  Falcon  or  Falconet,  one  of  the 
Englishmen  who  went  to  Portugal  in  1386  in  the  suite  of  Philippa 
of  Lancaster.  His  father,  Joao  Vaz  de  Almada  Falcao,  was  an 
upright  public  servant  who  had  held  the  captaincy  of  Elmina  on 
the  West  African  coast,  but  died,  as  he  had  lived,  a  poor  man. 
There  is  a  tradition  that  in  boyhood  Christovao  fell  in  love 
with  a  beautiful  child  and  rich  heiress,  D.  Maria  Brandao,  and 
in  1526  married  her  clandestinely,  but  parental  opposition 
prevented  the  ratification  of  the  marriage.  Family  pride,  it  is 
said,  drove  the  father  of  Christovao  to  keep  his  son  under  strict 
surveillance  in  his  own  house  for  five  years,  while  the  lady's 
parents,  objecting  to  the  youth's  small  means,  put  her  into  the 
Cistercian  convent  of  Lorvao,  and  there  endeavoured  to  wean 
her  heart  from  him  by  the  accusation  that  he  coveted  her  fortune 
more  than  her  person.  Their  arguments  and  the  promise  of  a 
good  match  ultimately  prevailed,  and  in  1534  D.  Maria  left  the 
convent  to  marry  D.  Luis  de  Silva,  captain  of  Tangier,  while  the 
broken-hearted  Christovao  told  his  sad  story  in  some  beautiful 
lyrics  and  particularly  in  the  eclogue  Clirisfal.  He  had  been  the 
disciple  and  friend  of  the  poets  Bernardim  Ribeiro  and  Sa  de 
Miranda,  and  when  his  great  disappointment  came,  Falcao  laid 
aside  poetry  and  entered  on  a  diplomatic  career.  There  is 
documentary  evidence  that  he  was  employed  at  the  Portuguese 
embassy  in  Rome  in  1542,  but  he  soon  returned  to  Portugal, 
and  we  find  him  at  court  again  in  1548  and  1551.  The  date  of 
his  death,  as  of  his  birth,  is  uncertain.  Such  is  the  story  accepted 
by  Dr  Theophilo  Braga,  the  historian  of  Portuguese  literature, 
but  Senhor  Guimaraes  shows  that  the  first  part  is  doubtful, 
and,  putting  aside  the  testimony  of  a  contemporary  and  grave 
writer,  Diogo  do  Couto,  he  even  denies  the  title  of  poet  to 
Christovao  Falcao,  arguing  from  internal  •  and  other  evidence 
that  Clirisfal  is  the  work  of  Bernardim  Ribeiro;  his  destructive 
criticism  is,  however,  stronger  than  his  constructive  work.  The 
eclogue,  with  its  104  verses,  is  the  very  poem  of  saudade,  and  its 
simple,  direct  language  and  chaste  and  tender  feeling,  enshrined 
in  exquisitely  sounding  verses,  has  won  for  its  author  lasting 
fame  and  a  unique  position  in  Portuguese  literature.  Its 
influence  on  later  poets  has  been  very  considerable,  and  Camoens 
used  several  of  the  verses  as  proverbs. 

The  poetical  works  of  Christovao  Falca*  were  published  anony- 
mously, owing,  it  is  supposed,  to  their  personal  nature  and  allusions. 


I38 


FALCK— FALCON 


and,  in  part  or  in  whole,  they  have  been  often  reprinted.  There 
is  a  modern  critical  edition  of  Chrisfal  and  a  Carta  (lettej)  by  A. 
Epiphanio  da  Silva  Dias  under  the  title  Obras  de  Christovao  Falcao 
(Oporto,  1893),  and  one  of  the  Cantigas  and  Esparsas  by  the  same 
scholar  appeared  in  the  Revista  Lusitana,  vol.  4,  pp.  142-179  (Lisbon, 
1896),  under  the  name  Fragmento  de  um  Cancioneiro  do  Seculo  XVI. 
See  Bernardim  Ribeiro  e  o  Bucolismo,  by  Dr  T.  Braga  (Oporto,  1897), 
and  Bernardim  Ribeiro  (O  Poeta  Crisfal),  by  Delfim  Guimaraes 
(Lisbon,  1908).  (E.  PR.) 

FALCK,  ANTON  REINHARD  (1777-1843),  Dutch  statesman, 
was  born  at  Utrecht  on  the  ipth  of  March  1777.  He  studied 
at  the  university  of  Leiden,  and  entered  the  Dutch  diplomatic 
service,  being  appointed  to  the  legation  at  Madrid.  Under  King 
Louis  Napoleon  he  was  secretary-general  for  foreign  affairs,  but 
resigned  office  on  the  annexation  of  the  Batavian  republic  to 
France.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  revolt  of  1813  against 
French  domination,  and  had  a  considerable  share  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  new  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  As  minister  of 
education  under  William  I.  he  reorganized  the  universities  of 
Ghent,  Louvain  and  Liege  and  the  Royal  Academy  of  Brussels. 
Side  by  side  with  his  activities  in  education  he  directed  the 
departments  of  trade  and  the  colonies.  Falck  was  called  in 
Holland  the  king's  good  genius,  but  William  I.  presently  tired 
of  his  counsels  and  he  was  superseded  by  Van  Maanen.  He  was 
ambassador  in  London  when  the  disturbances  of  1830  convinced 
him  of  the  necessity  of  the  separation  of  Belgium  from  Holland. 
He  consequently  resigned  his  post  and  lived  in  close  retirement 
until  1839,  when  he  became  the  first  Dutch  minister  at  the  Belgian 
court.  He  died  at  Brussels  on  the  i6th  of  March  1843.  Besides 
some  historical  works  he  left  a  correspondence  of  considerable 
political  interest,  printed  in  Brieven  van  A.  R.  Falck,  1795-1843 
(znd  ed.  The  Hague,  1861),  and  Amblsbrieven  van  A.  R.  Falck 
(ibid.  1878). 

FALCON,  the  most  northern  state  of  Venezuela,  with  an 
extensive  coast  line  on  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Venezuela. 
Pop.  (1905  est.)  173,968.  It  lies  between  the  Caribbean  on  the 
N.  and  the  state  of  Lara  on  the  S.,  with  Zulia  and  the  Gulf  of 
Venezuela  on  the  W.  Its  surface  is  much  broken  by  irregular 
ranges  of  low  mountains,  and  extensive  areas  on  the  coast  are 
sandy  plains  and  tropical  swamps.  The  climate  is  hot,  but, 
being  tempered  by  the  trade  winds,  is  not  considered  unhealthy 
except  in  the  swampy  districts.  The  state  is  sparsely  settled 
and  has  no  large  towns,  its  capital,  Coro,  being  important 
chiefly  because  of  its  history,  and  as  the  entrepot  for  an  extensive 
inland  district.  The  only  port  in  the  state  is  La  Vela  de  Coro, 
on  a  small  bay  of  the  same  name,  7  m.  E.  of  the  capital,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  railway. 

FALCON  (Lat.  Falco;1  Fr.  Faucon;  Teutonic,  Folk  or  Valken), 
a  word  now  restricted  to  the  high-couraged  and  long-winged 
birds  of  prey  which  take  their  quarry  as  it  moves;  but  formerly 
it  had  a  very  different  meaning,  being  by  the  naturalists  of  the 
1 8th  and  even  of  the  igth  century  extended  to  a  great  number 
of  birds  comprised  in  the  genus  Falco  of  Linnaeus  and  writers 
of  his  day,2  while,  on  the  other  hand,  by  falconers,  it  was, 
and  still  is,  technically  limited  to  the  female  of  the  birds 
employed  by  them  in  their  vocation  (see  FALCONRY),  whether 
"  long-winged  "  and  therefore  "  noble,"  or  "  short-winged  "  and 
"  ignoble." 

According  to  modern  usage,  the  majority  of  the  falcons,  in  the 
sense  first  given,  may  be  separated  intone  very  distinct  groups: 
(i)  the  falcons  pure  and  simple  (Falco  proper);  (2)  the  large 
northern  falcons  (Hierofalco,  Cuvier);  (3)  the  "  desert  falcons  " 
(Gennaea,  Kaup);  (4)  the  merlins  (Aesalon,  Kaup);  and  (5) 
the  hobbies  (Hypotriorchis,  Boie).  A  sixth  group,  the  kestrels 

1  Unknown  to  classical  writers,  the  earliest  use  of  this  word  is  said 
to  be  by  Servius  Honoratus  (circa  A.D.  390-480)  in  his  notes  on  Aen. 
x.  145.  It  seems  possibly  to  be  the  Latinized  form  of  the  Teutonic 
Falk,  though  falx  is  commonly  accounted  its  root. 

The  nomenclature  of  nearly  all  the  older  writers  on  this  point  is 
extremely  confused.  What  many  of  them,  even  so  lately  as  Pen- 
nant's time,  termed  the  "  gentle  falcon  "  is  certainly  the  bird  we 
now  call  the  goshawk  (i.e.  goose-hawk),  which  name  itself  may 
have  been  transferred  to  the  Astur  palumbarius  of  modern  ornitho- 
logists, from  one  of  the  long-winged  birds  of  prey. 


(Tinnunculus,  Vieillot),  is  often  added.    This,  however,  appears 
to  have  been  justifiably  reckoned  a  distinct  genus. 

The  typical  falcon  is  by  common  consent  allowed  to  be  that 
almost  cosmopolitan  species  to  which  unfortunately  the  English 
epithet  "  peregrine "  (i.e.  strange  or  wandering)  has  been 
attached.  It  is  the  Falco  peregrinus  of  Tunstall  (1771)  and  of 
most  recent  ornithologists,  though  some  prefer  the  specific  name 
communis  applied  by  J.  F.  Gmelin  a  few  years  later  (1788)  to  a 
bird  which,  if  his  diagnosis  be  correct,  could  not  have  been  a  true 
falcon  at  all,  since  it  had  yellow  irides — a  colour  never  met  with 
in  the  eyes  of  any  bird  now  called  by  naturalists  a  "  falcon.  " 
This  species  inhabits  suitable  localities  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  globe,  though  examples  from  North  America  have  by 
some  received  specific  recognition  as  F.  anatum  (the  "  duck- 
hawk  "),  and  those  from  Australia  have  been  described  as  distinct 
under  the  name  of  F.  melanogenys.  Here,  as  in  so  many  other 
cases,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  decide  as  to  which  forms  should, 
and  which  should  not,  be  accounted  merely  local  races.  In  size 
not  surpassing  a  raven,  this  falcon  (fig.  i)  is  perhaps  the  most 
powerful  bird  of  prey  for  its  bulk  that  flies,  and  its  courage  is  not 
less  than  its  power.  It  is  the  species,  in  Europe,  most  commonly 


FIG.  i. — Peregrine  Falcon. 

trained  for  the  sport  of  hawking  (see  FALCONRY).  Volumes  have 
been  written  upon  it,  and  to  attempt  a  complete  account  of  it  is, 
within  the  limits  now  available,  impossible.  The  plumage  of  the 
adult  is  generally  blackish-blue  above,  and  white,  with  a  more  or 
less  deep  cream-coloured  tinge,  beneath — the  lower  parts,  except 
the  chin  and  throat,  being  barred  transversely  with  black,  while 
a  black  patch  extends  from  the  bill  to  the  ear-coverts,  and 
descends  on  either  side  beneath  the  mandible.  The  young  have 
the  upper  parts  deep  blackish-brown,  and  the  lower  white,  more 
or  less  strongly  tinged  with  ochraceous-brown,  and  striped 
longitudinally  with  blackish-brown.  From  Port  Kennedy,  the 
most  northern  part  of  the  American  continent,  to  Tasmania, 
and  from  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  to  Mendoza  in  the 
Argentine  territory,  there  is  scarcely  a  country  in  which  this 
falcon  has  not  been  found.  Specimens  have  been  received  from 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  it  is  only  a  question  of  the  technical 
differentiation  of  species  whether  it  does  not  extend  to  Cape 
Horn.  Fearless  as  it  is,  and  adapting  itself  to  almost  every 
circumstance,  it  will  form  its  eyry  equally  on  the  sea-washed 
cliffs,  the  craggy  mountains,  or  (though  more  rarely)  the  drier 
spots  of  a  marsh  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  as  on  trees  (says 
H.  Schlegel)  in  the  forests  of  Java  or  the  waterless  ravines  of 
Australia.  In  the  United  Kingdom  it  was  formerly  very  common, 
and  hardly  a  high  rock  from  the  Shetlands  to  the  Isle  of  Wight 


FALCON 


139 


but  had  a  pair  as  its  tenants.  But  the  British  gamekeeper  has 
long  held  the  mistaken  faith  that  it  is  his  worst  foe,  and  the 
number  of  pairs  now  allowed  to  rear  their  brood  unmolested  in 
the  British  Islands  is  very  small.  Yet  its  utility  to  the  game- 
preserver,  by  destroying  every  one  of  his  most  precious  wards 
that  shows  any  sign  of  infirmity,  can  hardly  be  questiorfed  by 
reason,  and  G.  E.  Freeman  (Falconry)  has  earnestly  urged  its 
claims  to  protection.1  Nearly  allied  to  this  falcon  are  several 
species,  such  as  F.  barbarus  of  Mauretania,  F.  minor  of  South 

( Africa,  the  Asiatic  F.  babylonicus,  F.  peregrinator  of  India 
(the  shaheen),  and  perhaps  F.  cassini  of  South  America,  with 
some  others. 

Next  to  the  typical  falcons  comes  a  group  known  as  the 
"  great  northern  "  falcons  (Hierofalco).  Of  these  the  most  re- 
markable is  the  gyrfalcon  (F.  gyrfalco),  whose  home  is  in  the 
Scandinavian  mountains,  though  the  young  are  yearly  visitants 

i  to  the  plains  of  Holland  and  Germany.  In  plumage  it  very 
much  resembles  F.  peregrinus,  but  its  flanks  have  generally  a 
bluer  tinge,  and  its  superiority  in  size  is  at  once  manifest.  Nearly 
allied  to  it  is  the  Icelander  (F.  islandus),  which  externally  differs 
in  its  paler  colouring  and  in  almost  entirely  wanting  the  black 
mandibular  patch.  Its  proportions,  however,  differ  a  good  deal, 
its  body  being  elongated.  Its  country  is  shown  by  its  name, 
but  it  also  inhabits  south  Greenland,  and  not  unfrequently 
makes  its  way  to  the  British  Islands.  Very  close  to  this  comes  the 
Greenland  falcon  (F.  candicans),  a  native  of  north  Greenland, 
and  perhaps  of  other  countries  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  Like 
the  last,  the  Greenland  falcon  from  time  to  time  occurs  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  but  it  is  always  to  be  distinguished  by  wearing 
a  plumage  in  which  at  every  age  the  prevailing  colour  is  pure 
white.  In  north-eastern  America  these  birds  are  replaced  by 
a  kindred  form  (F.  labradorus),  first  detected  by  Audubon  and 
subsequently  recognized  by  Dresser  (Orn.  Miscell.  i.  135).  It 
is  at  once  distinguished  by  its  very  dark  colouring,  the  lower  parts 
being  occasionally  almost  as  deeply  tinted  at  all  ages  as  the 
upper. 

All  the  birds  hitherto  named  possess  one  character  in  common. 
The  darker  markings  of  their  plumage  are  longitudinal  before  the 
first  real  moult  takes  place,  and  for  ever  afterwards  are  transverse. 
In  other  words,  when  young  the  markings  are  in  the  form  of 
stripes,  when  old  intheformof  bars.  The  variation  of  tint  is  very 
great,  especially  in  F.  peregrinus;  but  the  experience  of  falconers, 
whose  business  it  is  to  keep  their  birds  in  the  very  highest  condi- 
tion, shows  that  a  falcon  of  either  of  these  groups  if  light-coloured 
in  youth  is  light-coloured  when  adult,  and  if  dark  when  young 
is  also  dark  when  old — age,  after  the  first  moult,  making  no 
difference  in  the  complexion  of  the  bird.  The  next  group  is  that 
of  the  so-called  "  desert  falcons  "  (Gennaea),  wherein  the  differ- 
ence just  indicated  does  not  obtain,  for  long  as  the  bird  may  live 
and  often  as  it  may  moult,  the  original  style  of  markings  never 
gives  way  to  any  other.  Foremost  among  these  are  to  be  con- 
sidered the  lanner  and  the  saker  (commonly  termed  F.  lanarius 
and  F.  sacer),  both  well  known  in  the  palmy  days  of  falconry, 
but  only  since  about  1845  readmitted  to  full  recognition.  Both 
of  these  birds  belong  properly  to  south-eastern  Europe,  North 
Africa  and  south-western  Asia.  They  are,  for  their  bulk,  less 
powerful  than  the  members  of  the  preceding  group,  and 
though  they  may  be  trained  to  high  flights  are  naturally 
captors  of  humbler  game.  The  precise  number  of  species  is- 
very  doubtful,  but  among  the  many  candidates  for  recognition 
are  especially  to  be  named  the  lugger  (F.  jugger)  of  India,  and 
the  prairie  falcon  (F.  mexicanus)  of  the  western  plains  of  North 
America. 

The  systematist  finds  it  hard  to  decide  in  what  group  he 
should  place  two  somewhat  large  Australian  species  (F.  hypoleucus 

1  It  is  not  to  be  inferred,  as  many  writers  have  done,  that  falcons 
habitually  prey  upon  birds  in  which  disease  has  made  any  serious 
progress.  Such  birds  meet  their  fate  from  the  less  noble  Accipttres 
or  predatory  animals  of  many  kinds.  But  when  a  bird  is  first 
affected  by  any  disorder,  its  power  of  taking  care  of  itself  is  at  once 
impaired,  and  hence  in  the  majority  of  cases  it  may  become  an  eas> 
victim  under  circumstances  which  would  enable  a  perfectly  sound 
bird  to  escape  from  the  attack  even  of  a  falcon. 


and  F.  subniger),  both  of  which  are  rare  in  collections — the  latter 
especially. 

A  small  but  very  beautiful  group  comes  next — the  merlins2 

Aesalon  of  some  writers,  Lilhofalco  of  others).     The  European 

merlin  (F.  aesalon)  is  perhaps  the  boldest  of  the  Accipilres, 

not  hesitating  to  attack  birds  of  twice  its  own  size,  and  even  on 


FIG.  2. — Merlin. 

occasion  threatening  human  beings.  Yet  it  readily  becomes  tame, 
if  not  affectionate,  when  reclaimed,  and  its  ordinary  prey  consists 
of  the  smaller  Passer es.  Its  "  pinion  of  glossy  blue  "  has  become 
almost  proverbial,  and  a  deep  ruddy  blush  suffuses  its  lower 
parts;  but  these  are  characteristic  only  of  the  male — the  female 
maintaining  very  nearly  the  sober  brown  plumage  she  wore 
when  as  a  nestling  she  left  her  lowly  cradle  in  the  heather.  Very 
close  to  this  bird  comes  the  pigeon-hawk  (F.  columbarius)  of 
North  America — so  close,  indeed,  that  none  but  an  expert 
ornithologist  can  detect  the  difference.  The  turumti  of  Anglo- 
Indians  (F.  chicguera),  and  its  representative  from  southern 
Africa  (F.  ruficollis),  also  belong  to  this  group,  but  they  are 
considerably  larger  than  either  of  the  former. 

Lastly,    the    Hobbies    (Hypotriorchis)    comprise    a    greater 
number  of  forms — though  how  many  seems  to  be  doubtful. 


FIG.  3.— Hobby. 


They  are  in  life  at  once  recognizable  by  their  bold  upstanding 
position,  and  at  any  time  by  their  long  wings.  The  type  of  this 
group  is  the  English  hobby  (F.  subbuteo),  a  bird  of  great  power 
of  flight,  chiefly  shown  in  the  capture  of  insects,  which  form  its 

1  French,  £mtrillon ;   Icelandic,  Smirtil. 


140 


FALCONE— FALCONER,  W. 


ordinary  food.  It  is  a  summer  visitant  to  most  parts  of  Europe, 
including  the  British  Islands,  and  is  most  wantonly  and  need- 
lessly destroyed  by  gamekeepers.  A  second  European  species 
of  the  group  is  the  beautiful  F.  eleonorae,  which  hardly  comes 
farther  north  than  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean, 
and,  though  in  some  places  abundant,  is  an  extremely  local  bird. 
The  largest  species  of  this  section  seems  to  be  the  Neotropical 
F.  femoralis,  for  F.  diroleucus  though  often  ranked  here,  is  now 
supposed  to  belong  to  the  group  of  typical  falcons.  (A.  N.) 

FALCONE,  ANIELLO  (1600-1665),  Italian  battle-painter,  was 
the  son  of  a  tradesman,  and  was  born  in  Naples.  He  showed  his 
artistic  tendency  at  an  early  age,  received  some  instruction  from 
a  relative,  and  then  studied  under  Ribera  (Lo  Spagnoletto),  of 
whom  he  ranks  as  the  most  eminent  pupil.  Besides  battle- 
pictures,  large  and  small,  taken  from  biblical  as  well  as  secular 
history,  he  painted  various  religious  subjects,  which,  however, 
count  for  little  in  his  general  reputation.  He  became,  as  a  battle- 
painter,  almost  as  celebrated  as  Borgognone  (Courtois),  and  was 
named  "  L'OracolodelleBattaglie."  His  works  have  animation, 
variety,  truth  to  nature,  and  careful  colour.  Falcone  was  bold, 
generous,  used  to  arms,  and  an  excellent  fencer.  In  the  insur- 
rection of  Masaniello  (1647)  he  resolved  to  be  bloodily  avenged 
for  the  death,  at  the  hands  of  two  Spaniards,  of  a  nephew 
and  of  a  pupil  in  the  school  of  art  which  he  had  established  in 
Naples.  He  and  many  of  his  scholars,  including  Salvator  Rosa 
and  Carlo  Coppola,  formed  an  armed  band  named  the  Compagnia 
delta  Morte  ("  Company  of  Death  ";  see  ROSA,  SALVATOR). 
They  scoured  the  streets  by  day,  exulting  in  slaughter;  at  night 
they  were  painters  again,  and  handled  the  brush  with  impetuous 
zeal.  Peace  being  restored,  they  had  to  decamp.  Falcone  and 
Rosa  made  off  to  Rome;  here  Borgognone  noticed  the  works  of 
Falcone,  and  became  his  friend,  and  a  French  gentleman  induced 
him  to  go  to  France,  where  Louis  XIV.  became  one  of  his  patrons. 
Ultimately  Colbert  obtained  permission  for  the  painter  to  return 
to  Naples,  and  there  he  died  in  1665.  Two  of  his  battle-pieces 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  Louvre  and  in  the  Naples  museum;  he 
painted  a  portrait  of  Masaniello,  and  engraved  a  few  plates. 
Among  his  principal  scholars,  besides  Rosa  and  Coppola  (whose 
works  are  sometimes  ascribed  to  Falcone  himself) ,  were  Domenico 
Gargiuolo  (named  Micco  Spadaro),  Paolo  Porpora  and  Andrea 
di  Lione. 

FALCONER,  HUGH  (1808-1865),  British  palaeontologist  and 
botanist,  descended  from  an  old  Scottish  family,  was  born  at 
Forres  on  the  2pth  of  February  1808.  In  1826  he  graduated  at 
Aberdeen,  where  he  manifested  a  taste  for  the  study  of  natural 
history.  He  afterwards  studied  medicine  in  the  university  of 
Edinburgh,  taking  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1829;  during  this 
period  he  zealously  attended  the  botanical  classes  of  Prof.  R. 
Graham  (1786-1845),  and  those  on  geology  by  Prof.  R.  Jameson. 
Proceeding  to  India  in  1830  as  assistant-surgeon  on  the  Bengal 
establishment  of  the  East  India  Company,  he  made  on  his 
arrival  an  examination  of  the  fossil  bones  from  Ava  in  the 
possession  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  and  his  description 
of  the  collection,  published  soon  afterwards,  gave  him  a  recog- 
nized position  among  the  scientists  of  India.  Early  in  1831  he 
was  appointed  to  the  army  station  at  Meerut,  in  the  North- 
Western  Provinces,  but  in  the  same  year  he  was  asked  to  officiate 
as  superintendent  of  the  botanic  garden  of  Saharanpur,  during 
the  ill-health  and  absence  of  Dr  J.  F.  Royle;  and  in  1832  he 
succeeded  to  this  post.  He  was  thus  placed  in  a  district  that 
proved  to  be  rich  in  palaeontological  remains;  and  he  set  to 
work  to  investigate  its  natural  history  and  geology.  In  1834  he 
published  a  geological  description  of  the  Siwalik  hills,  in  the 
Tertiary  strata  of  which  he  had  in  1831  discovered  bones  of 
crocodiles,  tortoises  and  other  animals;  and  subsequently,  with 
conjoint  labourers,  he  brought  to  light  a  sub-tropical  fossil 
fauna  of  unexampled  extent  and  richness,  including  remains  of 
Mastodon,  the  colossal  ruminant  Sivatherium,  and  the  enormous 
tortoise  Colossochelys  Alias.  For  these  valuable  discoveries  he 
and  Captain  (afterwards  Sir  Proby  T.)  Cautley  (1802-1871) 
received  in  1837  the  Wollaston  medal  in  duplicate  from  the 
Geological  Society  of  London.  In  1834  Falconer  was  appointed 


to  inquire  into  the  fitness  of  India  for  the  growth  of  the  tea- 
plant,  and  it  was  on  his  recommendation  that  it  was  introduced 
into  that  country. 

He  was  compelled  by  illness  to  leave  India  in  1842,  and 
during  his  stay  in  England  he  occupied  himself  with  the  classifica- 
tion and  arrangement  of  the  Indian  fossils  presented  to  the 
British  Museum  and  East  India  House,  chiefly  by  himself  and 
Sir  Proby  T.  Cautley.  He  then  set  to  work  to  edit  the  great 
memoir  by  Cautley  and  himself,  entitled  Fauna  Antigua  Siva- 
lensis,  of  which  Part  I.  text  was  issued  in  1846,  and  a  series  of 
107  plates  during  the  years  1846-1849.  Unfortunately  the 
work,  owing  partly  to  Dr  Falconer's  absence  from  England  and 
partly  to  ill-health,  was  never  completed.  He  was  elected  F.  R.  S. 
in  1845.  In  1847  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the 
Calcutta  botanical  garden,  and  professor  of  botany  in  the 
medical  college;  and  on  entering  on  his  duties  in  the  following 
year  he  was  at  once  employed  by  the  Indian  government  and  the 
Agricultural  and  Horticultural  Society  as  their  adviser  on  all 
matters  connected  with  the  vegetable  products  of  India.  He 
prepared  an  important  report  on  the  teak  forests  of  Tenasserim, 
and  this  was  the  means  of  saving  them  from  destruction  by 
reckless  felling;  and  through  his  recommendation  the  cultivation 
of  the  cinchona  bark  was  introduced  into  the  Indian  empire. 
Being  compelled  by  the  state  of  his  health  to  leave  India  in 
1855,  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  chiefly  in  examining 
fossil  species  in  England  and  the  Continent  corresponding  to 
those  which  he  had  discovered  in  India,  notably  the  species  of 
mastodon,  elephant  and  rhinoceros;  he  also  described  some  new 
mammalia  from  the  Purbeck  strata,  and  he  reported  on  the 
bone-caves  of  Sicily,  Gibraltar,  Gower  and  Brixham.  In  the 
course  of  his  researches  he  became  interested  in  the  question  of 
the  antiquity  of  the  human  race,  and  actually  commenced  a  work 
on  "  Primeval  Man,"  which,  however,  he  did  not  live  to  finish. 
He  died  on  the  3ist  of  January  1865.  Shortly  after  his  death  a 
committee  was  formed  for  the  promotion  of  a  "  Falconer 
Memorial."  This  took  the  shape  of  a  marble  bust,  which  was 
placed  in  the  rooms  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  of  a 
Falconer  scholarship  of  the  annual  value  of  £100,  open  for 
competition  to  graduates  in  science  or  medicine  of  the  university 
of  Edinburgh. 

Dr  Falconer's  botanical  notes,  with  450  coloured  drawings  of 
Kashmir  and  Indian  plants,  have  been  deposited  in  the  library  at 
Kew  Gardens,  and  his  Palaeontological  Memoirs  and  Notes,  com- 
prising all  his  papers  read  before  learned  societies,  have  been  edited, 
with  a  biographical  sketch,  by  Charles  Murchison,  M.D.  (London, 
1868).  Many  reminiscences  of  Dr  Falconer,  and  a  portrait  of  him, 
were  published  by  his  niece,  Grace,  Lady  Prestwich,  in  her  Essays 
descriptive  and  biographical  (1901). 

FALCONER,  WILLIAM  (1732-1769),  British  poet,  was  born 
in  Edinburgh  on  the  nth  of  February  1732.  His  father  was  a 
wig-maker,  and  carried  on  business  in  one  of  the  small  shops 
with  wooden  fronts  at  the  Netherbow  Port,  an  antique  castellated 
structure  which  remained  till  1764,  dividing  High  Street  from 
the  Canongate.  The  old  man  became  bankrupt,  then  tried 
business  as  a  grocer,  and  finally  died  in  extreme  poverty. 
William,  the  son,  having  received  a  scanty  education,  was  put 
to  sea.  He  served  on  board  a  Leith  merchant  vessel,  and  in  his 
eighteenth  year  obtained  the  appointment  of  second  mate  of  the 
"  Britannia,"  a  vessel  employed  in  the  Levant  trade,  and 
sailed  from  Alexandria  for  Venice.  The  "Britannia"  was  over- 
taken by  a  dreadful  storm  off  Cape  Colonna  and  was  wrecked, 
only  three  of  the  crew  being  saved.  Falconer  was  happily  one 
of  the  three,  and  the  incidents  of  the  voyage  and  its  disastrous 
termination  formed  the  subject  of  his  poem  of  The  Shipwreck 
(1762).  Meanwhile,  on  his  return  to  England,  Falconer,  in  his 
nineteenth  year,  printed  at  Edinburgh  an  elegy  on  Frederick, 
prince  of  Wales,  and  afterwards  contributed  short  pieces  to  the 
Gentleman's  Magazine.  Some  of  these  descriptive  and  lyrical 
effusions  possess  merit.  The  fine  naval  song  of  "  The  Storm  " 
("  Cease,  rude  Boreas  "),  reputed  to  be  by  George  Alexander 
Stevens,  the  dramatic  writer  and  lecturer,  has  been  ascribed  to 
Falconer,  but  apparently  on  no  authority.  The  duke  of  York, 
to  whom  The  Shipwreck  had  been  dedicated,  advised  Falconer 


FALCONET— FALCONRY 


141 


to  enter  the  royal  navy,  and  before  the  end  of  1762  the  poet* 
sailor  was  rated  as  a  midshipman  on  board  the  "  Royal  George." 
But  as  this  ship  was  paid  off  at  the  peace  of  1763,  Falconer 
received  an  appointment  as  purser  of  the  "  Glory  "  frigate,  a 
situation  which  he  held  until  that  vessel  was  laid  up  on  ordinary 
at  Chatham.  In  1764  he  published  a  new  and  enlarged  edition 
of  The  Shipwreck,  and  in  the  same  year  a  rhymed  political  tirade 
against  John  Wilkes  and  Charles  Churchill,  entitled  The  Dema- 
gogue. In  1769  appeared  his  Universal  Marine  Dictionary,  in 
which  retreat  is  denned  as  a  French  manoeuvre,  "  not  properly 
a  term  of  the  British  marine."  While  engaged  on  this  dictionary, 
J.  Murray,  a  bookseller  in  Fleet  Street,  father  of  Byron's  munifi- 
cent publisher  and  correspondent,  wished  him  to  join  him  as  a 
partner  in  business.  The  poet  declined  the  offer,  and  became 
purser  of  the  "  Aurora  "  frigate,  which  had  been  commissioned  to 
carry  out  to  India  certain  supervisors  or  superintendents  of  the 
East  India  Company.  Besides  his  nomination  as  purser,  Falconer 
was  promised  the  post  of  private  secretary  to  the  commissioners. 
Before  sailing  he  published  a  third  edition  of  his  Shipwreck, 
which  had  again  undergone  "  correction,"  but  not  improvement. 
The  poet  sailed  in  the  "  Aurora  "  from  S  pithead  on  the  zoth  of 
September  1769.  The  vessel  arrived  safely  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  left  on  the  27th  of  December.  She  was  never  more 
heard  of,  having,  as  is  supposed,  foundered  at  sea.  The  Ship- 
wreck, the  poem  with  which  Falconer's  name  is  connected,  had 
a  great  reputation  at  one  time,  but  the  fine  passages  which 
pleased  the  earlier  critics  have  not  saved  it  from  general  oblivion. 
See  his  Poetical  Works  in  the  "  Aldine  Edition  "  (1836),  with  a  life 
by  J.  Mitford. 

FALCONET,  ETIENNE  MAURICE  (1716-1791),  French 
sculptor,  was  born  in  Paris.  His  parents  were  poor,  and  he  was 
at  first  apprenticed  to  a  carpenter,  but  some  of  his  clay-figures, 
with  the  making  of  which  he  occupied  his  leisure  hours,  attracted 
the  notice  of  the  sculptor  Lemoine,  who  made  him  his  pupil. 
He  found  time  to  study  Greek  and  Latin,  and  also  wrote  several 
brochures  on  art.  His  artistic  productions  are  characterized  by 
the  same  defects  as  his  writings,  for  though  manifesting  consider- 
able cleverness  and  some  power  of  imagination,  they  display  in 
many  cases  a  false  and  fantastic  taste,  the  result,  most  probably, 
of  an  excessive  striving  after  originality.  One  of  his  most 
successful  statues  was  one  of  Milo  of  Crotona,  which  secured  his 
admission  to  the  membership  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in 
1754.  At  the  invitation  of  the  empress  Catherine  he  went  in 
1766  to  St  Petersburg,  where  he  executed  a  colossal  statue  of 
Peter  the  Great  in  bronze.  In  1788  he  became  director  of  the 
French  Academy  of  Painting.  Many  of  Falconet's  works,  being 
placed  in  churches,  were  destroyed  at  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution.  His  "  Nymphe  descendant  au  bain  "  is  in  the  Louvre. 

Among  his  writings  are  Reflexions  sur  la  sculpture  (Paris,  1768), 
and  Observations  sur  la  statue,  de  Marc-Auriile  (Paris,  1771).  The 
whole  were  collected  under  the  title  of  (Euvres  litteraires  (6  vols., 
Lausanne,  1781-1782;  3  vols.,  Paris,  1787). 

FALCONRY  (Fr.  fauconnerie,  from  Late  Lat.  falco,  falcon), 
the  art  of  employing  falcons  and  hawks  in  the  chase,  often  termed 
Hawking.  Falconry  was  for  many  ages  one  of  the  principal 
sports  of  the  richer  classes,  and,  since  many  more  efficacious 
methods  and  appliances  for  the  capture  of  game  undoubtedly 
existed,  it  is  probable  that  it  has  always  been  carried  on  as  a 
pure  sport.  The  antiquity  of  falconry  is  very  great.  There 
appears  to  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  practised  in  Asia  at  a  very 
remote  period,  for  which  we  have  the  concurrent  testimony  of 
various  Chinese  and  Japanese  works,  some  of  the  latter  being 
most  quaintly  and  yet  spiritedly  illustrated.  It  appears  to 
have  been  known  in  China  some  2000  years  B.C.,  and  the  records 
of  a  king  Wen  Wang,  who  reigned  over  a  province  of  that  country 
689  B.C.,  prove  that  the  art  was  at  that  time  in  very  high  favour. 
In  Japan  it  appears  to  have  been  known  at  least  600  years  B.C., 
and  probably  at  an  equally  early  date  in  India,  Arabia,  Persia 
and  Syria.  Sir  A.  H.  Layard,  in  his  Nineveh  and  Babylon, 
considered  that  in  a  bas-relief  found  by  him  in  the  ruins  of 
Khorsabad  "  there  appeared  to  be  a  falconer  bearing  a  hawk 
on  his  wrist,"  from  which  it  would  appear  to  have  been  known 


there  some  1 700  years  B.C.  In  all  the  above-mentioned  countries 
of  Asia  it  is  practised  at  the  present  day. 

Little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  falconry  in  Africa, 
but  from  very  ancient  Egyptian  carvings  and  drawings  it  seems 
to  have  been  known  there  many  ages  ago.  It  was  probably  also 
in  vogue  in  the  countries  of  Morocco,  Oran,  Algiers,  Tunis  and 
Egypt,  at  the  same  time  as  in  Europe.  The  older  writers  on 
falconry,  English  and  continental,  often  mention  Barbary  and 
Tunisian  falcons.  It  is  still  practised  in  Egypt. 

Perhaps  the  oldest  records  of  falconry  in  Europe  are  supplied 
by  the  writings  of  Pliny,  Aristotle  and  Martial.  Although  their 
notices  of  the  sport  are  slight  and  somewhat  vague,  yet  they  are 
quite  sufficient  to  show  clearly  that  it  was  practised  in  their 
days — between  the  years  384  B.C.  and  A.D.  40.  It  was  probably 
introduced  into  England  from  the  continent  about  A.D.  860, 
and  from  that  time  down  to  the  middle  of  the  17th  century 
falconry  was  followed  with  an  ardour  that  perhaps  no  English 
sport  has  ever  called  forth,  not  even  fox-hunting.  Stringent 
laws  and  enactments,  notably  in  the  reigns  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  Edward  III.,  Henry  VIII.  and  Elizabeth,  were 
passed  from  time  to  time  in  its  interest.  Falcons  and  hawks 
were  allotted  to  degrees  and  orders  of  men  according  to  rank  and 
station — for  instance,  to  the  emperor  the  eagle  and  vulture, 
to  royalty  the  jerfalcons,  to  an  earl  the  peregrine,  to  a  yeoman  the 
goshawk,  to  a  priest  the  sparrow-hawk,  and  to  a  knave  or  servant 
the  useless  kestrel.  The  writings  of  Shakespeare  furnish  ample 
testimony  to  the  high  and  universal  estimation  in  which  it  was 
held  in  his  days.  About  the  middle  of  the  i7th  century  falconry 
began  to  decline  in  England,  to  revive  somewhat  at  the  Restora- 
tion. It  never,  however,  completely  recovered  its  former  favour, 
a  variety  of  causes  operating  against  it,  such  as  enclosure  of 
waste  lands,  agricultural  improvements,  and  the  introduction  of 
fire-arms  into  the  sporting  field,  till  it  fell,  as  a  national  sport, 
almost  into  oblivion.  Yet  it  has  never  been  even  temporarily 
extinct,  and  it  is  successfully  practised  even  at  the  present  day. 

In  Europe  the  game  or  "  quarry  "  at  which  hawks  are  flown 
consists  of  grouse  (confined  to  the  British  Isles),  black-game, 
pheasants,  partridges,  quails,  landrails,  ducks,  teal,  woodcocks, 
snipes,  herons,  rooks,  crows,  gulls,  magpies,  jays,  blackbirds, 
thrushes,  larks,  hares  and  rabbits.  In  former  days  geese,  cranes, 
kites,  ravens  and  bustards  were  also  flown  at.  Old  German 
works  make  much  mention  of  the  use  of  the  Iceland  falcon  for 
taking  the  great  bustard,  a  flight  scarcely  alluded  to  by  English 
writers.  In  Asia  the  list  of  quarry  is  longer,  and,  in  addition 
to  all  the  foregoing,  or  their  Asiatic  representatives,  various 
kinds  of  bustards,  sand  grouse,  storks,  ibises,  spoonbills,  pea-fowl, 
jungle-fowl,  kites,  vultures  and  gazelles  are  captured  by  trained 
hawks.  In  Mongolia  and  Chinese  Tartary,  and  among  the  nomad 
tribes  of  central  Asia,  the  sport  still  flourishes;  and  though  some 
late  accounts  are  not  satisfactory  either  to  the  falconer  or  the 
naturalist,  yet  they  leave  no  doubt  that  a  species  of  eagle  is  still 
trained  in  those  regions  to  take  large  game,  as  antelopes  and 
wolves.  Mr  Atkinson,  in  his  account  of  his  travels  in  the  country 
of  the  Amur,  makes  particular  mention  of  the  sport,  as  does  also 
Mr  Shaw  in  his  work  on  Yarkand;  and  in  a  letter  from  the 
Yarkand  embassy,  under  Mr  Forsyth,  C.B.,  dated  Camp  near 
Yarkand,  Nov.  27,  1873,  the  following  passage  occurs: — 
"  Hawking  appears  also  to  be  a  favourite  amusement,  the  golden 
eagle  taking  the  place  of  the  falcon  or  hawk.  This  novel  sport 
seemed  very  successful."  It  is  questionable  whether  the  bird 
here  spoken  of  is  the  golden  eagle.  In  Africa  gazelles  are  taken, 
and  also  partridges  and  wildfowl. 

The  hawks  used  in  England  are  the  three  great  northern 
falcons,  viz.  the  Greenland,  Iceland  and  Norway  falcons,  the 
peregrine  falcon,  the  hobby,  the  merlin,  the  goshawk  and  the 
sparrow-hawk.  In  former  days  the  saker,  the  lanner  and  the 
Barbary  or  Tunisian  falcon  were  also  employed.  (See  FALCON.) 

Of  the  foregoing  the  easiest  to  keep,  most  efficient  in  the  field, 
and  most  suitable  for  general  use  are  the  peregrine  falcon  and 
the  goshawk. 

In  all  hawks,  the  female  is  larger  and  more  powerful  than  the 
male. 


142 


FALCONRY 


Hawks  are  divided  by  falconers  all  over  the  world  into  two 
great  classes.  The  first  class  comprises  "  falcons,"  i.e.  "  long- 
winged  hawks,"  or  "  hawks  of  the  lure,"  distinguished  by 
Eastern  falconers  as  "  dark-eyed  hawks."  In  these  the  wings 
are  pointed,  the  second  feather  in  the  wing  is  the  longest,  and  the 
iris  is  of  a  deep,  dark-brown  hue.  Merlins  must,  however,  be 
excepted;  and  here  it  would  seem  that  the  Eastern  distinction 
is  the  better,  for  though  merlins  are  much  more  falcons  than  they 
are  hawks,  they  differ  from  falcons  in  having  the  third  feather 
in  the  wing  the  longest,  while  they  are  certainly  "  dark-eyed 
hawks." 

The  second  class  is  that  of  "  hawks,"  i.e.  "  short-winged 
hawks,"  or  "  hawks  of  the  fist,"  called  by  Eastern  falconers 
"  yellow  (or  rose)  eyed  hawks."  In  these  the  wings  are  rounded, 
the  fourth  feather  is  the  longest  in  the  wing,  and  the  iris  is 
yellow,  orange  or  deep-orange. 

The  following  glossary  of  the  principal  terms  used  in  falconry 
may  assist  the  reader  in  perusing  this  notice  of  the  practice  of 
the  art.  Useless  or  obsolete  terms  are  omitted: — 

Austringan. — A  falconer. 

Bate. — A  hawk  is  said  to  "  bate  "  when  she  flutters  off  from  the  fist, 

perch  or  block,  whether  from  wildness,  or  for  exercise,  or  in 

the  attempt  to  chase. 
Bewits. — Straps  of  leather  by  which  the  bells  are  fastened  to  a 

hawk's  legs. 
Bind. — A  hawk  is  said  to  "  bind  "  when  she  seizes  a  bird  in  the 

air  and  clings  to  it. 

Block. — The  conical  piece  of  wood,  of  the  form  of  an  inverted  flower- 
pot, used  for  hawks  to  sit  upon;    for  a  peregrine  it  should  be 

about  10  to  12  in.  high,  5  to.6  in  diameter  at  top,  and  8  to  9  in 

diameter  at  base. 
Brail. — A  thong  of  soft  leather  used  to  secure,  when  desirable,  the 

wing  of  a  hawk.     It  has  a  slit  to  admit  the  pinion  joint,  and  the 

ends  are  tied  together. 
Cadge. — The  wooden  frame  on  which  hawks,  when  numerous,  are 

carried  to  the  field. 

Cadger. — The  person  who  carries  the  cadge. 
Calling   off. —Luring   a   hawk    (see   Lure)   from   the   hand   of   an 

assistant. 
Carry. — -A  hawk  is  said  to  "  carry  "  when  she  flies  away  with  the 

quarry  on  the  approach  of  the  falconer. 
Cast. — Two  hawks  which  may  be  used  for  flying  together  are  called 

a  "  cast,"  not  necessarily  a  pair. 
Casting. — The  oblong  or  egg-shaped  ball,  consisting  of  feathers, 

bones,  &c.,  which  all  hawks  (and  insectivorous  birds)  throw 

up  after  the  nutritious  part  of  their  food  has  been  digested. 

Also  the  fur  or  feathers  given  them  to  assist  the  process. 
Cere. — -The  naked  wax-like  skin  above  the  beak. 
Check. — A  hawk  is  said  tc  fly  at  "  check  "  when  she  flies  at  a  bird 

other  than  the  intended  object  of  pursuit. 
Clutching. — Taking  the  quarry  in  the  feet  as  the  short-winged  hawks 

do.     Falcons  occasionally  "  clutch." 
Come  to. — A.  hawk  is  said  to  "  come  to  "  when  she  begins  to  get 

tame. 

Coping. — Cutting  the  beak  or  talo.ns  of  a  hawk. 
Crab. — To  fight. 
Creance. — A  long  line  or  string. 
Crop,  to  put  away. — A  hawk  is  said  to  "  put  away  her  crop  "  when 

the  food  passes  out  of  the  crop  into  the  stomach. 
Deck  feathers. — The  two  centre  tail-feathers. 
Eyas. — A  hawk  which  has  been  brought  up  from  the  nest  (nyas, 

from  Fr.  niais). 
Eyry. — The  nest  of  a  hawk. 
Foot. — A  hawk  is  said  to  "  foot  "  well  or  to  be  a  "  good  footer  " 

when  she  is  successful  in  killing.     Many  hawks  are  very  fine 

fliers  without  being  "  good  footers." 
Frounce. — A  disease  in  the  mouth  and  throat  of  hawks. 
Get  in. — To  go  up  to  a  hawk  when  she  has  killed  her  quarry. 
Hack. — The  state  of  partial  liberty  in  which  young  hawks  must 

always  at  first  be  kept. 

Haggard. — A  wild-caught  hawk  in  the  adult  plumage. 
Hood. — (See  fig.) 
Hoodshy. — A  hawk  is  said  to  be  "  hoodshy  "  when  she  is  afraid  of, 

or  resists,  having  her  hood  put  on. 
Hunger  trace. — A  mark,  and  a  defect,  in  the  tail  feathers,  denoting 

a  weak  point;     generally  due  to  temporary  starvation  as  a 

nestling. 
Imping. — The  process  of  mending  broken  feathers  iscalled  "  imping." 

(See  fig.) 
Imping  needle. — A  piece  of  tough  soft  iron  wire  from  about  i\  to 

2i  in.  long,  rough  filed  so  as  to  be  three-sided  and  tapering 

from  the  middle  to  the  ends.     (See  fig.) 

Intermewed. — A  hawk  moulted  in  confinement  is  said  to  be  "  inter- 
mewed." 


Jack. — Mate  of  the  merHn. 

Jerkin. — Mate  of  the  jerfalcon. 

Jesses. — Strips  of  light  but  very  tough  leather,  some  6  to  8  in.  long, 

which  always  remain  on  a  hawk's  legs — one  on  each  leg.     (See 

fig-) 

Jonk. — To  sleep. 
Leash. — A  strong  leathern  thong,  some  2!  or  3  ft.  long,  with  a  knot 

or  button  at  one  end,  used  to  secure  a  hawk.     (See  fig.) 
Lure. — The  instrument  used  for  calling  long-winged  hawks — a  dead 

pigeon,  or  an  artificial  lure  made  of  leather  and  feathers  or  wings 

of  birds,  tied  to  a  string,  with  meat  attached  to  it. 
Mail. — The  breast  feathers. 
Make  hawk. — A   hawk   is   called  a  "  make    hawk  "    when,   as   a 

thoroughly  trained  and  steady  hawk,  she  is  flown  with  young 

ones  to  teach  them  their  work. 
Man  a  hawk. — To  tame  a  hawk  and  accustom  her  to  strangers. 


IWTU(Ml   SIZE 


Implements  used  in  Falconry. 

1.  Hood.  the  upper  ring   of   swivel  is 

2.  Back  view  of  hood,  showing  attached. 

braces  a,  a,  b,  b ;  by  drawing  6.  Hawk's  leg  with  bell  a,  bewit 

the  braces  b,   b,  the    hood,  b,  jess  c. 

now  open,  is  closed.  7.  Jesses,  swivel  and  leash. 

3.  Rufter  hood.  8.  Portion  of  first  wing-feather 

4.  Imping- needle.  of    male    peregrine    falcon, 

5.  Jess;    d  is  the  space  for  the  "  tiercel,"  half  natural  size, 

hawk's  leg;    the  point   and  in    process    of    imping;     a, 

slit  a,  a  are  brought  round  the    living    hawk's    feather; 

the  leg,  and  passed  through  b,   piece   supplied   from  an- 

slit  j6,  after  which  the  point  other  tiercel,  with  the  imp- 

c  and   slit  c,  and  also  the  ing  needle  c  pushed   half  its 

whole   remaining    length    of  length   into   it  and  ready  to 

jess,  are  pulled  through  slits  be   pushed    home   into    the 

a  and  b;  c  is  the  slit  to  which  living  bird's  feather. 

Mantle. — A  hawk  is  said  to  "  mantle  "  when  she  stretches  out  a  leg 
and  a  wing  simultaneously,  a  common  action  of  hawks  when 
at  ease;  also  when  she  spreads  out  her  wings  and  feathers  to 
hide  any  quarry  or  food  she  may  have  seized  from  another 
hawk,  or  from  man.  In  the  last  case  it  is  a  fault. 

Mew. — A  hawk  is  said  to'  "  mew  "  when  she  moults.  The  place 
where  a  hawk  was  kept  to  moult  was  in  olden  times  called 
her  "  mew."  Buildings  where  establishments  of.  hawks  were 
kept  were  called  "  mews." 

Musket. — Male  of  the  sparrow-hawk. 

Mutes  (mutings). — Excrement  of  hawk. 

Pannel. — The  stomach  of  a  hawk,  correpponding  with  the  gizzard 
of  a  fowl,  is  called  her  pannel.  In  it  the  casting  is  formed. 

Passage. — The  line  herons  take  over  a  tract  of  country  on  their  way 
to  and  from  the  heronry  when  procuring  food  in  the  breeding 
season. 

Passage  hawks. — Hawks  captured  when  on  their  passage  or 
migration. 

Pelt. — The  dead  body  of  any  quarry  the  hawk  has  killed. 

Pitch.— The  height  to  which  a  hawk,  when  waiting  for  game  to  be 
flushed,  rises  in  the  air. 


FALCONRY 


Plume. — A  hawk  is  said  to  "  plume  "  a  bird  when  she  pulls  off  the 

feathers. 
Point. — A  hawk  "  makes  her  point  "  when  she  rises  in  the  air  over 

the  spot  where  quarry  has  saved  itself  from  capture  by  dashing 

into  a  hedge,  or  has  otherwise  secreted  itself. 
Pounces. — A  hawk's  claws. 
Pull  through  the  hood. — A  hawk  is  said  to  pull  through  the  hood 

when  she  eats  with  it  on. 
Put  in. — A  bird  is  said  to  "  put  in  "  when  it  saves  itself  from  the 

hawk  by  dashing  into  covert  or  other  place  of  security. 
Quarry. — The  bird  or  beast  flown  at. 
Rake  out. — A  hawk  is  said  to  "  rake  out  "  when  she  flies,  while 

"  waiting  on  "  (see  Wait  on),  too  far  and  wide  from  her  master. 
Ramage. — Wild. 
Red  hawk. — Hawks  of  the  first  year,  in  the  young  plumage,  are 

called  "  red  hawks." 

Ringing. — A  bird  is  said  to  "  ring  "  when  it  rises  spirally  in  the  air. 
Rufter  hood. — An  easy  fitting  hood,  not,  however,  convenient  for 

hooding    and    unhooding — used    only    for    hawks    when    first 

captured.     (See  fig.) 
Sails. — The  wings  of  a  hawk. 
Seeling. — Closing  the  eyes  by  a  fine  thread  drawn  through  the  lid 

of  each  eye,  the  threads  being  then  twisted  together  above  the 

head — a  practice  long  disused  in  England. 
Serving  a  hawk. — Driving  out  quarry  which  has  taken  refuge,  or 

has  "  put  in." 

Stoop. — The  hawk's  rapid  plunge  upon  the  quarry. 
Take  the  air. — A  bird  is  said  to  "  take  the  air  "  when  it  seeks  to 

escape  by  trying  to  rise  higher  than  the  falcon. 
Tiercel. — The  male  of  various  falcons,  particularly  of  the  peregrine, 

also  tarcell,  tassell  or  tercel ;  the  term  is  also  applied  to  the  male 

of  the  goshawk. 
Trussing. — A  hawk  is  said  to  "  truss  "  a  bird  when  she  catches  it 

in  the  air,  and  comes  to  the  ground  with  it  in  her  talons  •  this 

term  is  not  applied  to  large  quarry.  (See  Bind.) 
Varvels. — Small  rings,  generally  of  silver,  fastened  to  the  end  of  the 

jesses,  and  engraved  with  the  owner's  name. 
Wait  on. — A  hawk  is  said  to  "  wait  on  "  when  she  flies  above  her 

master  waiting  till  game  is  sprung. 
Weathering. — Hawks  are  "  weathered  "  by  being  placed  unhooded 

in  the  open  air.     Passage   hawks  which  are  not  sufficiently 

reclaimed  to  be  left  out  by  themselves  unhooded  on  blocks  are 

"  weathered  "  by  being  put  out  for  an  hour  or  two  under  the 

falconer's  eye. 
Yarak. — An    Eastern    term,    generally    applied    to    short-winged 

hawks.     When  a  hawk  is  keen,  and  in  hunting  condition,  she 

is  said  to  be  "  in  yarak." 

The  training  of  hawks  affords  much  scope  for  judgment, 
experience  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  falconer,  who  must  care- 
fully observe  the  temper  and  disposition  as  well  as  the  constitu- 
tion of  each  bird.  It  is  through  the  appetite  principally  that 
hawks,  like  most  wild  animals,  are  tamed;  but  to  fit  them  for  use 
in  the  field  much  patience,  gentleness  and  care  must  be  used. 
Slovenly  taming  necessitates  starving,  and  low  condition  and 
weakness  are  the  result.  The  aim  of  the  falconer  must  be 
to  have  his  hav.'ks  always  keen,  and  the  appetite  when  they  are 
brought  into  the  field  should  be  such  as  would  induce  the  bird 
in  a  state  of  nature  to  put  forth  its  full  powers  to  obtain  its  food, 
with,  as  near  as  possible,  a  corresponding  condition  as  to  flesh. 
The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  process  of  training  hawks, 
beginning  with  the  management  of  a  wild-caught  peregrine 
falcon.  When  first  taken,  a  rufter  hood  should  be  put  on  her 
head,  and  she  must  be  furnished  with  jesses,  swivel,  leash  and 
bell.  A  thick  glove  or  rather  gauntlet  must  be  worn  on  the  left 
hand  (Eastern  falconers  always  carry  a  hawk  on  the  right), 
and  she  must  be  carried  about  as  much  as  possible,  late  into 
the  night,  every  day,  being  constantly  stroked  with  a  bird's 
wing  or  feather,  very  lightly  at  first.  At  night  she  should  be 
tied  to  a  perch  in  a  room  with  the  window  darkened,  so  that  no 
light  can  enter  in  the  morning.  The  perch  should  be  a  padded 
pole  placed  across  the  room,  about  45  ft.  from  the  ground, 
with  a  canvas  screen  underneath.  She  will  easily  be  induced 
to  feed  in  most  cases  by  drawing  a  piece  of  beefsteak  over  her 
feet,  brushing  her  legs  at  the  time  with  a  wing,  and  now  and 
then,  as  she  snaps,  slipping  a  morsel  into  her  mouth.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  make  a  peculiar  sound  with  the  lips  or  tongue,  or  to 
use  a  low  whistle  as  she  is  in  the  act  of  swallowing;  she  will  very 
soon  learn  to  associate  this  sound  with  feeding,  and  it  will  be 
found  that  directly  she  hears  it,  she  will  gripe  with  her  talons, 
and  bend  down  to  feel  for  food.  When  the  falconer  perceives 
this  and  other  signs  of  her  "  coming  to,"  that  she  no  longer 


starts  at  the  voice  or  touch,  and  steps  quietly  up  from  the  perch 
when  the  hand  is  placed  under  her  feet,  it  will  be  time  to  change 
her  rufter  hood  for  the  ordinary  hood.  This  latter  should  be  very 
carefully  chosen — an  easy  fitting  one,  in  which  the  braces  draw 
closely  and  yet  easily  and  without  jerking.  An  old  one  previously 
worn  is  to  be  recommended.  The  hawk  should  be  taken  into  a 
very  dark  room — one  absolutely  dark  is  best — and  the  change 
should  be  made  if  possible  in  total  darkness.  After  this  she 
must  be  brought  to  feed  with  her  hood  off;  at  first  she  must  be 
fed  every  day  in  a  darkened  room,  a  gleam  of  light  being  admitted. 
The  first  day,  the  hawk  having  seized  the  food  and  begun  to 
pull  at  it  freely,  the  hood  must  be  gently  slipped  off,  and  after 
she  has  eaten  a  moderate  quantity,  it  must  be  replaced  as  slowly 
and  gently  as  possible,  and  she  should  be  allowed  to  finish  her 
meal  through  the  hood.  Next  day  the  hood  may  be  twice  re- 
moved, and  so  on;  day  by  day  the  practice  should  be  continued, 
and  more  light  gradually  admitted,  until  the  hawk  will  feed 
freely  in  broad  daylight,  and  suffer  the  hood  to  be  taken  off  and 
replaced  without  opposition.  Next  she  must  be  accustomed  to 
see  and  feed  in  the  presence  of  strangers  and  dogs,  &c.  A  good 
plan  is  to  carry  her  in  the  streets  of  a  town  at  night,  at  first 
where  the  gas-light  is  not  strong,  and  where  persons  passing  by 
are  few,  unhooding  and  hooding  her  from  time  to  time,  but  not 
letting  her  get  frightened.  Up  to  this  time  she  should  be  fed 
on  lean  beefsteak  with  no  castings,  but  as  soon  as  she  is  tolerably 
tame  and  submits  well  to  the  hood,  she  must  occasionally  be 
fed  with  pigeons  and  other  birds.  This  should  be  done  not  later 
than  3  or  4  P.M.,  and  when  she  is  placed  on  her  perch  for  the 
night  in  the  dark  room,  she  must  be  unhooded  and  left  so,  of 
course  being  carefully  tied  up.  The  falconer  should  enter  the 
room  about  7  or  8  A.M.  next  day,  admitting  as  little  light  as 
possible,  or  using  a  candle.  He  should  first  observe  if  she  has 
thrown  her  casting;  if  so,  he  will  at  once  take  her  to  the  fist, 
giving  her  a  bite  of  food,  and  re-hood  her.  If  her  casting  is  not 
thrown  it  is  better  for  him  to  retire,  leaving  the  room  quite  dark, 
and  come  in  again  later.  She  must  now  be  taught  to  know  the 
voice — the  shout  that  is  used  to  call  her  in  the  field — and  to 
jump  to  the  fist  for  food,  the  voice  being  used  every  time  she  is 
fed.  When  she  comes  freely  to  the  fist  she  must  be  made  ac- 
quainted with  the  lure.  Kneeling  down  with  the  hawk  on  his 
fist,  and  gently  unhooding  her,  the  falconer  casts  out  a  lure, 
which  may  be  either  a  dead  pigeon  or  an  artificial  lure  garnished 
with  beefsteak  tied  to  a  string,  to  a  distance  of  a  couple  or  three 
feet  in  front  of  her.  When  she  jumps  down  to  it,  she  should  be 
allowed  to  eat  a  little  on  it — the  voice  being  used — the  while 
receiving  morsels  from  the  falconer's  hand;  and  before  her  meal 
is  finished  she  must  be  taken  off  to  the  hand,  being  induced  to 
forsake  the  lure  for  the  hand  by  a  tempting  piece  of  meat. 
This  treatment  will  help  to  check  her  inclination  hereafter  to 
carry  her  quarry.  This  lesson  is  to  be  continued  till  the  falcon 
feeds  very  boldly  on  the  lure  on  the  ground,  in  the  falconer's 
presence — till  she  will  suffer  him  to  walk  round  her  while  she  is 
feeding.  All  this  time  she  will  have  been  held  by  the  leash  only, 
but  in  the  next  step  a  strong,  but  light  creance  must  be  made 
fast  to  the  leash,  and  an  assistant  holding  the  hawk  should 
unhood  her,  as  the  falconer,  standing  at  a  distance  of  5  to  10  yds., 
calls  her  by  shouting  and  casting  out  the  lure.  Gradually  day 
after  day  the  distance  is  increased,  till  the  hawk  will  come  30  yds. 
or  so  without  hesitation;  then  she  may  be  trusted  to  fly  to  the 
lure  at  liberty,  and  by  degrees  from  any  distance,  say  1000  yds. 
This  accomplished,  she  should  learn  to  stoop  at  the  lure.  Instead 
of  allowing  the  hawk  to  seize  upon  it  as  she  comes  up,  the  falconer 
should  snatch  the  lure  away  and  let  her  pass  by,  and  immediately 
put  it  out  that  she  may  readily  seize  it  when  she  turns  round  to 
look  for  it.  This  should  be  done  at  first  only  once,  and  then> 
progressively  until  she  will  stoop  backwards  and  forwards  at  the 
lure  as  often  as  desired.  Next  she  should  be  entered  at  her 
quarry.  Should  she  be  intended  for  rooks  or  herons,  two  or  three 
of  these  birds  should  be  procured.  One  should  be  given  her 
from  the  hand,  then  one  should  be  released  close  to  her,  and  a 
third  at  a  considerable  distance.  If  she  take  these  keenly,  she 
may  be  flown  at  a  wild  bird.  Care  must,  however,  be  taken  to 


144 


FALCONRY 


let  her  have  every  possible  advantage  in  her  first  flights — wind 
and  weather,  and  the  position  of  the  quarry  with  regard  to  the 
surrounding  country,  must  be  considered. 

Young  hawks,  on  being  received  by  the  falconer  before  they 
can  fly,  must  be  put  into  a  sheltered  place,  such  as  an  outhouse 
or  shed.  Their  basket  or  hamper  should  be  filled  with  straw. 
A  hamper  is  best,  with  the  lid  so  placed  as  to  form  a  platform 
for  the  young  hawks  to  come  out  upon  to  feed.  This  should 
be  fastened  to  a  beam  or  prop  a  few  feet  from  the  ground. 
The  young  hawks  must  be  most  plentifully  fed  on  the  best  fresh 
food  obtainable — good  beefsteak  and  fresh-killed  birds;  the 
falconer  when  feeding  them  should  use  his  voice  as  in  luring. 
As  they  grow  old  enough  they  will  come  out,  and  perch  about  the 
roof  of  their  shed,  by  degrees  extending  their  flights  to  neighbour- 
ing buildings  or  trees,  never  failing  to  come  at  feeding  time  to 
the  place  where  they  are  fed.  Soon  they  will  be  continually 
on  the  wing,  playing  or  fighting  with  one  another,  and  later  the 
falconer  will  observe  them  chasing  other  birds,  as  pigeons  and 
rooks,  which  may  be  passing  by.  As  soon  as  one  fails  to  come 
for  a  meal,  it  must  be  at  once  caught  with  a  bow  net  or  a  snare 
the  first  time  it  comes  back,  or  it  will  be  lost.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  longer  hawks  can  be  left  at  hack  the  better  they 
are  likely  to  be  for  use  in  the  field — those  hawks  being  always 
the  best  which  have  preyed  a  few  times  for  themselves  before 
being  caught.  Of  course  there  is  great  risk  of  losing  hawks  when 
they  begin  to  prey  for  themselves.  When  a  hawk  is  so  caught 
she  is  said  to  be  "  taken  up  "  from  hack.  She  will  not  require  a 
rufter  hood,  but  a  good  deal  of  the  management  described  for 
the  passage  falcon  will  be  necessary.  She  must  be  carefully 
tamed  and  broken  to  the  hood  in  the  same  manner,  and  so 
taught  to  know  the  lure;  but,  as  might  be  expected,  very  much 
less  difficulty  will  be  experienced.  As  soon  as  the  eyas  knows  the 
lure  sufficiently  well  to  come  to  it  sharp  and  straight  from  a 
distance,  she  must  be  taught  to  "  wait  on."  This  is  effected 
by  letting  the  hawk  loose  in  an  open  place,  such  as  a  down. 
It  will  be  found  that  she  will  circle  round  the  falconer  looking 
for  the  lure  she  has  been  accustomed  to  see — perhaps  mount  a 
little  in  the  air,  and  advantage  must  be  taken  of  a  favourable 
moment  when  the  hawk  is  at  a  little  height,  her  head  being  turned 
in  towards  the  falconer,  to  let  go  a  pigeon  which  she  can  easily 
catch.  When  the  hawk  has  taken  two  or  three  pigeons  in  this 
way,  and  mounts  immediately  in  expectation,  in  short,  begins 
to  wait  on,  she  should  see  no  more  pigeons,  but  be  tried  at  game 
as  soon  as  possible.  Young  peregrines  should  be  flown  at 
grouse  first  in  preference  to  partridges,  not  only  because  the 
season  commences  earlier,  but  because,  grouse  being  the  heavier 
birds,  they  are  not  so  much  tempted  to  "  carry "  as  with 
partridges. 

The  training  of  the  great  northern  falcons,  as  well  as  that  of 
merlins  and  hobbies,  is  conducted  much  on  the  above  principles, 
but  the  jerfalcons  (gerfalcons  or  gyrfalcons)  will  seldom  wait  on 
well,  and  merlins  will  not  do  it  at  all. 

The  training  of  short-winged  hawks  is  a  simpler  process. 
They  must,  like  falcons,  be  provided  with  jesses,  swivel,  leash  and 
bell.  In  these  hawks  a  bell  is  sometimes  fastened  to  the  tail. 
Sparrow-hawks  can,  however,  scarcely  carry  a  bell  big  enough  to 
be  of  any  service.  The  hood  is  seldom  used  for  short-winged 
hawks — never  in  the  field.  They  must  be  made  as  tame  as 
possible  by  carriage  on  the  fist  and  the  society  of  man,  and  taught 
to  come  to  the  fist  freely  when  required — at  first  to  jump  to  it  in  a 
room,  and  then  out  of  doors.  When  the  goshawk  comes  freely 
and  without  hesitation  from  short  distances,  she  ought  to  be 
called  from  long  distances  from  the  hand  of  an  assistant,  but  not 
oftener  than  twice  in  each  meal,  until  she  will  come  at  least 
1000  yds.,  on  each  occasion  being  well  rewarded  with  some  food 
she  likes  very  much,  as  a  fresh-killed  bird,  warm.  When  she 
does  this  freely,  and  endures  the  presence  of  strangers,  dogs,  &c., 
a  few  bagged  rabbits  should  be  given  to  her,  and  she  will  be  ready 
to  take  the  field.  Some  accustom  the  goshawk  to  the  use  of  the 
lure,  for  the  purpose  of  taking  her  if  she  will  not  come  to  the 
fist  in  the  field  when  she  has  taken  stand  in  a  tree  after  being 
baulked  of  her  quarry,  but  it  ought  not  to  be  necessary  to  use  it. 


Falcons  or  long-winged  hawks  are  either  "  flown  out  of  the 
hood,"  i.e.  unhooded  and  slipped  when  the  quarry  is  in  sight, 
or  they  are  made  to  "  wait  on  "  till  game  is  flushed.  Herons  and 
rooks  are  always  taken  by  the  former  method.  Passage  hawks 
are  generally  employed  for  flying  at  these  birds,  though  some- 
times good  eyases  are  quite  equal  to  the  work.  For  heron- 
hawking  a  well-stocked  heronry  is  in  the  first  place  necessary. 
Next  an  open  country  which  can  be  ridden  over — over  which 
herons  are  in  the  constant  habit  of  passing  to  and  from  their 
heronry  on  their  fishing  excursions,  or  making  their  "  passage." 
A  heron  found  at  his  feeding-place  at  a  brook  or  pond  affords  no 
sport  whatever.  If  there  be  little  water  any  peregrine  falcon 
that  will  go  straight  at  him  will  seize  him  soon  after  he  rises. 
It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  fly  a  young  falcon  at  a  heron  so 
found,  but  it  should  not  be  repeated.  If  there  be  much  water 
the  heron  will  neither  show  sport  nor  be  captured.  It  is  quite  a 
different  affair  when  he  is  sighted  winging  his  way  at  a  height 
in  the  air  over  an  open  tract  of  country  free  from  water.  Though 
he  has  no  chance  whatever  of  competing  with  a  falcon  in  straight- 
forward flight,  the  heron  has  large  concave  wings,  a  very  light 
body  proportionately,  and  air-cells  in  his  bones,  and  can  rise  with 
astonishing  rapidity,  more  perpendicularly,  or,  in  other  words, 
in  smaller  rings,  than  the  falcon  can,  with  very  little  effort. 
As  soon  as  he  sees  the  approach  of  the  falcon,  which  he  usually 
does  almost  directly  she  is  cast  off,  he  makes  play  for  the  upper 
regions.  Then  the  falcon  commences  to  climb  too  to  get  above 
him,  but  in  a  very  different  style.  She  makes  very  large  circles 
or  rings,  travelling  at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  due  to  her  strength  and 
weight  and  power  of  flying,  till  she  rises  above  the  heron.  Then 
she  makes  her  attack  by  stooping  with  great  force  at  the  quarry, 
sometimes  falling  so  far  below  it  as  the  blow  is  evaded  that  she 
cannot  spring  up  to  the  proper  pitch  for  the  next  stoop,  and  has 
to  make  another  ring  to  regain  her  lost  command  over  the  heron, 
which  is  ever  rising,  and  so  on — the  "  field  "  meanwhile  galloping 
down  wind  in  the  direction  the  flight  is  taking  till  she  seizes 
the  heron  aloft,  "  binds  "  to  him,  and  both  come  down  together. 
Absurd  stories  have  been  told  and  pictures  drawn  of  the  heron 
receiving  the  falcon  on  its  beak  in  the  air.  It  is,  however, 
well  known  to  all  practical  falconers  that  the  heron  has  no  power 
or  inclination  to  fight  with-  a  falcon  in  the  air;  so  long  as  he 
is  flying  he  seeks  safety  solely  from  his  wings.  When  on  the 
ground,  however,  should  the  falcon  be  deficient  in  skill  or 
strength,  or  have  been  mutilated  by  the  coping  of  her  beak  and 
talons,  as  was  sometimes  formerly  done  in  Holland  with  a  view 
to  saving  the  heron's  life,  the  heron  may  use  his  dagger-like  bill 
with  dangerous  effect,  though  it  is  very  rare  for  a  falcon  to  be 
injured.  It  is  never  safe  to  fly  the  goshawk  at  a  heron  of  any 
description.  Short-winged  hawks  do  not  immediately  kill  their 
quarry  as  falcons  do,  nor  do  they  seem  to  know  .where  the  life 
lies,  and  seldom  shift  their  hold  once  taken  even  to  defend 
themselves;  and  they  are  therefore  easily  stabbed  by  a  heron. 
Rooks  are  flown  in  the  same  manner  as  herons,  but  the  flight 
is  generally  inferior.  Although  rooks  "fly  very  well,  they  seek 
shelter  in  trees  or  bushes  as  soon  as  possible. 

For  game-hawking  eyases  are  generally  used,  though  un- 
doubtedly passage  or  wild-caught  hawks  are  to  be  preferred. 
The  best  game  hawks  we  have  seen  have  been  passage  hawks, 
but  there  are  difficulties  attending  the  use  of  them.  It  may 
perhaps  be  fairly  said  that  it  is  easy  to  make  all  passage  hawks 
"  wait  on  "  in  grand  style,  but  until  they  have  got  over  a  season 
or  two  they  are  very  liable  to  be  lost.  Among  the  advantages 
attending  the  use  of  eyases  are  the  following:  they  are  easier 
to  obtain  and  to  train  and  keep;  they  also  moult  far  better 
and  quicker  than  passage  hawks,  while  if  lost  in  the  field  they 
will  often  go  home  by  themselves,  or  remain  about  the  spot 
where  they  were  liberated.  Experience,  and,  we  must  add, 
some  good  fortune  also,  are  requisite  to  make  eyases  good  for 
waiting  on  for  game.  Slight  mistakes  on  the  part  of  the  falconer, 
false  points  from  dogs,  or  bad  luck  in  serving,  will  cause  a  young 
hawk  to  acquire  bad  habits,  such  as  sitting  down  on  the  ground, 
taking  stand  in  a  tree^  raking  out  wide,  skimming  the  ground, 
or  lazily  flying  about  at  no  height.  A  good  game  hawk  in  proper 


FALCONRY 


flying  order  goes  up  at  once  to  a  good  pitch  in  the  air — the 
higher  she  flies  the  better — and  follows  her  master  from  field  to 
field,  always  ready  for  a  stoop  when  the  quarry  is  sprung. 
Hawks  that  have  been  successfully  broken  and  judiciously 
worked  become  wonderfully  clever,  and  soon  learn  to  regulate 
their  flight  by  the  movements  of  their  master.  Eyases  were  not 
held  in  esteem  by  the  old  falconers,  and  it  is  evident  from  their 
writings  that  these  hawks  have  been  very  much  better  understood 
and  managed  in  the  igth  century  than  in  the  middle  ages. 
It  is  probable  that  the  old  falconers  procured  their  passage 
and  wild-caught  hawks  with  such  facility,  having  at  the  same 
time  more  scope  for  their  use  in  days  when  quarry  was  more 
abundant  and  there  was  more  waste  land  than  there  now  is, 
that  they  did  not  find  it  necessary  to  trouble  themselves  about 
eyases.  Here  may  be  quoted  a  few  lines  from  one  of  the  best 
of  the  old  writers,  which  may  be  taken  as  giving  a  fair  account 
of  the  estimation  in  which  eyases  were  generally  held,  and  from 
which  it  is  evident  that  the  old  falconers  did  not  understand 
flying  hawks  at  hack.  Simon  Latham,  writing  in  1633,  says  of 
eyases  : 

They  will  be  verie  easily  brought  to  familiaritie  with  the  man, 
not  in  the  house  only,  but  also  abroad,  hooded  or  unhooded;  nay, 
many  of  them  will  be  more  gentle  and  quiet  when  unhooded  than 
when  hooded,  for  if  a  man  doe  but  stirre  or  speake  in  their  hearing, 
they  will  crie  and  bate  as  though  they  did  desire  to  see  the  man. 
Likewise  some  of  them  being  unhooded,  when  they  see  the  man 
will  cowre  and  crie,  shewing  thereby  their  exceeding  fondness  and 
fawning  love  towards  him  .  .  . 

.  .  .  These  kind  of  hawks  be  all  (for  the  most  part)  taken  out 
of  the  nest  while  verie  young,  even  in  the  downe,  from  whence 
they  are  put  into  a  close  house,  whereas  they  be  alwaies  fed  and 
familiarly  brought  up  by  the  man,  untill  they  bee  able  to  flie,  when 
as  the  summer  approaching  verie  suddenly  they  are  continued 
and  trained  up  in  the  same,  the  weather  being  alwaies  warm  and 
temperate;  thus  they  are  still  inured  to  familiaritie  with  the  man, 
not  knowing  from  whence  besides  to  fetch  their  relief  or  sustenance. 
When  the  summer  is  ended  they  bee  commonly  put  up  into  a  house 
again,  or  else  kept  in  some  warm  place,  for  they  cannot  endure  the 
cold  wind  to  blow  upon  them.  .  .  .  But  leaving  to  speak  of  these 
kind  of  scratching  hawks  that  I  never  did  love  should  come  too 
neere  my  fingers,  and  to  return  unto  the  faire  conditioned  haggard 
faulcon.  .  .  . 

The  author  here  describes  with  accuracy  the  condition  of 
unhacked  eyases,  which  no  modern  falconer  would  trouble 
himself  to  keep.  Many  English  falconers  in  modern  times  have 
had  eyases  which  have  killed  grouse,  ducks  and  other  quarry  in  a 
style  almost  equalling  that  of  passage  hawks.  Rooks  also  have 
been  most  successfully  flown,  and  some  herons  on  passage  have 
been  taken  by  eyases.  No  sport  is  to  be  had  at  game  without 
hawks  that  wait  on  well.  Moors,  downs,  open  country  where 
the  hedges  are  low  and  weak  are  best  suited  to  game  hawking. 
Pointers  or  setters  may  be  used  to  find  game,  or  the  hawk  may  be 
let  go  on  coming  to  the  ground  where  game  is  known  to  lie, 
and  suffered,  if  an  experienced  one,  to  "  wait  on  "  till  game  is 
flushed.  However,  the  best  plan  with  most  hawks,  young  ones 
especially,  is  to  use  a  dog,  and  to  let  the  hawk  go  when  the  dog 
points,  and  to  flush  the  birds  as  soon  as  the  hawk  is  at  her  pitch. 
It  is  not  by  any  means  necessary  that  the  hawk  should  be  near 
the  birds  when  they  rise,  provided  she  is  at  a  good  height,  and 
that  she  is  watching;  she  will  come  at  once  with  a  rush  out  of 
the  air  at  great  speed,  and  either  cut  one  down  with  the  stoop, 
or  the  bird  will  save  itself  by  putting  in,  when  every  exertion 
must  be  made,  especially  if  the  hawk  be  young  and  inexperienced, 
to  "  serve  "  her  as  soon  as  possible  by  driving  out  the  bird  again 
while  she  waits  overhead.  If  this  be  successfully  done  she  is 
nearly  certain  to  kill  it  at  the  second  flight.  Perhaps  falcons 
are  best  for  grouse  and  tiercels  for  partridges. 

Magpies  afford  much  sport.  Only  tiercels  should  be  used  for 
hunting  magpies.  A  field  is  necessary — at  the  very  least  4  or  5 
runners  to  beat  the  magpie  out,  and  perhaps  the  presence  of  a 
horseman  is  an  advantage.  Of  course  in  open  flight  a  magpie 
would  be  almost  immediately  caught  by  a  tiercel  peregrine, 
and  there  would  be  no  sport,  but  the  magpie  makes  up  for  his 
want  of  power  of  wing  by  his  cunning  and  shiftiness;  and  he  is, 
moreover,  never  to  be  found  except  where  he  has  shelter  under 
his  lee  for  security  from  a  passing  peregrine.  Once  in  a  hedge 


or  tree  he  is  perfectly  safe  from  the  wild  falcon,  but  the  case  is 
otherwise  when  the  falconer  approaches  with  his  trained  tiercel, 
perhaps  a  cast  of  tiercels,  waiting  on  in  the  air,  with  some 
active  runners  in  his  field.  Then  driven  from  hedge  to  hedge, 
from  one  kind  of  shelter  to  another,  stooped  at  every  instant 
when  he  shows  himself  ever  so  little  away  from  cover  by  the 
watchful  tiercels  overhead,  his  egg-stealing  days  are  brought  to 
an  end  by  a  fatal  stroke — sometimes  not  before  the  field  is  pretty 
well  exhausted  with  running  and  shouting.  The  magpie  always 
manoeuvres  towards  some  thick  wood,  from  which  it  is  the  aim 
of  the  field  to  cut  him  off.  At  first  hawks  must  be  flown  in 
easy  country,  but  when  they  understand  their  work  well  they 
will  kill  magpies  in  very  enclosed  country — with  a  smart  active 
field  a  magpie  may  even  be  pushed  through  a  small  wood. 
Magpie  hawking  affords  excellent  exercise,  not  only  for  those  who 
run  to  serve  the  hawks,  but  for  the  hawks  also;  they  get  a  great 
deal  of  flying,  and  learn  to  hunt  in  company  with  men — any 
number  of  people  may  be  present.  Blackbirds  may  be  hunted 
with  tiercels  in  the  same  way.  Woodcock  afford  capital  sport 
where  the  country  is  tolerably  open.  It  will  generally  be  found 
that  after  a  hawk  has  made  one  stoop  at  a  woodcock,  the  cock 
will  at  first  try  to  escape  by  taking  the  air,  and  will  show  a  very 
fine  flight.  When  beaten  in  the  air  it  will  try  to  get  back  to 
covert  again,  but  when  once  a  hawk  has  outflown  a  woodcock, 
he  is  pretty  sure  to  kill  it.  Hawks  seem  to  pursue  woodcock 
with  great  keenness;  something  in  the  flight  of  the  cock  tempts 
them  to  exertion.  The  laziest  and  most  useless  hawks — hawks 
that  will  scarcely  follow  a  slow  pigeon — will  do  their  best  at 
woodcock,  and  will  very  soon,  if  the  sport  is  continued,  be  im- 
proved in  their  style  of  flying.  Snipe  may  be  killed  by  first-class 
tiercels  in  favourable  localities.  Wild  duck  and  teal  are  only  to 
be  flown  at  when  they  can  be  found  in  small  pools  or  brooks 
at  a  distance  from  much  water — where  the  fowl  can  be  suddenly 
flushed  by  men  or  dogs  while  the  falcon  is  flying  at  her  pitch 
overhead.  For  duck,  falcons  should  be  used;  tiercels  will  kill 
teal  well. 

The  merlin  is  used  for  flying  at  larks,  and  there  does  not  seem 
to  be  any  other  use  to  which  this  pretty  little  falcon  may  fairly 
be  put.  It  is  very  active,  but  far  from  being,  as  some  authors 
have  stated,  the  swiftest  of  all  hawks.  Its  flight  is  greatly 
inferior  in  speed  and  power  to  that  of  the  peregrine.  Perhaps 
its  diminutive  size,  causing  it  to  be,  soon  lost  to  view,  and  a 
limited  acquaintance  with  the  flight  of  the  wild  peregrine  falcon, 
have  led  to  the  mistake. 

The  hobby  is  far  swifter  than  the  merlin,  but  cannot  be  said 
to  be  efficient  in  the  field;  it  may  be  trained  to  wait  on  beauti- 
fully, and  will  sometimes  take  larks;  it  is  very  much  given  to 
the  fault  of  "  carrying." 

The  three  great  northern  falcons  are  not  easy  to  procure  in 
proper  condition  for  training.  They  are  very  difficult  to  break 
to  the  hood  and  to  manage  in  the  field.  They  are  flown,  like  the 
peregrine,  at  herons  and  rooks,  and  in  former  days  were  used 
for  kites  and  hares.  Their  style  of  flight  is  magnificent;  they 
are  considerably  swifter  than  the  peregrine,  and  are  a  most  deadly 
"  footers."  They  seem,  however,  to  lack  somewhat  of  the  spirit 
and  dash  of  the  peregrine. 

For  the  short-winged  hawks  an  open  country  is  not  required; 
indeed  they  may  be  flown  in  a  wood.  Goshawks  are  flown  at 
hares,  rabbits,  pheasants,  partridges  and  wild-fowl.  Only 
very  strong  females  are  able  to  take  hares;  rabbits  are  easy 
quarry  for  any  female  goshawk,  and  a  little  too  strong  for  the 
male.  A  good  female  goshawk  may  Idll  from  10  to  15  rabbits 
in  a  day,  or  more.  For  pheasants  the  male  is  to  be  preferred, 
certainly  for  partridges;  either  sex  will  take  duck  and  teal, 
but  the  falconer  must  get  close  to  them  before  they  are  flushed, 
or  the  goshawk  will  stand  a  poor  chance  of  killing.  Rabbit 
hawking  may  be  practised  by  ferreting,  and  flying  the  hawk 
as  the  rabbits  bolt,  but  care  must  be  taken  or  the  hawk  will 
kill  the  ferret.  Where  rabbits  sit  out  on  grass  or  in  turnip  fields, 
a  goshawk  may  be  used  with  success,  even  in  a  wood  when  the 
holes  are  not  too  near.  From  various  causes  it  is  impossible,  or 
nearly  so,  to  have  goshawks  in  England  in  the  perfection  to  which 


140 


FALCONRY 


they  are  brought  in  the  East.  In  India,  for  instance,  there  is  a 
far  greater  variety  of  quarry  suited  to  them,  and  wild  birds  are 
much  more  approachable;  moreover,  there  are  advantages  for 
training  which  do  not  exist  in  England.  Unmolested — and 
scarcely  noticed  except  perhaps  by  others  of  his  calling  or  tastes — 
the  Eastern  falconer  carries  his  hawk  by  day  and  night  in  the 
crowded  bazaars,  till  the  bird  becomes  perfectly  indifferent  to 
men,  horses,  dogs,  carriages,  and,  in  short,  becomes  as  tame  as 
the  domestic  animals. 

The  management  of  sparrow-hawks  is  much  the  same  as  that 
of  goshawks,  but  they  are  far  more  delicate  than  the  latter. 
They  are  flown  in  England  at  blackbirds,  thrushes  and  other 
small  birds;  good  ones  will  take  partridges  well  till  the  birds 
get  too  wild  and  strong  with  the  advancing  season.  In  the  East 
large  numbers  of  quail  are  taken  with  sparrow-hawks. 

It  is  of  course  important  that  hawks  from  which  work  in  the 
field  is  expected  should  be  kept  in  the  highest  health,  and  they 
must  be  carefully  fed;  no  bad  or  tainted  meat  must  on  any 
account  be  given  to  them — at  any  rate  to  hawks  of  the  species 
used  in  England.  Peregrines  and  the  great  northern  falcons 
are  best  kept  on  beefsteak,  with  a  frequent  change  in  the  shape 
of  fresh-killed  pigeons  and  other  birds.  The  smaller  falcons, 
the  merlin  and  the  hobby,  require  a  great  number  of  small  birds 
to  keep  them  in  good  health  for  any  length  of  time.  Goshawks 
should  be  fed  like  peregrines,  but  rats  and  rabbits  are  very  good 
as  change  of  food  for  them.  The  sparrow-hawk,  like  the  small 
falcons,  requires  small  birds.  All  hawks  require  castings  fre- 
quently. It  is  true  that  hawks  will  exist,  and  often  appear  to 
thrive,  on  good  food  without  castings,  but  the  seeds  of  probable 
injury  to  their  health  are  being  sown  the  whole  time  they  are  so 
kept.  If  there  is  difficulty  in  procuring  birds,  and  it  is  more  con- 
venient to  feed  the  hawks  on  beefsteak,  they  should  frequently 
get  the  wings  and  heads  and  necks  of  game  and  poultry.  In 
addition  to  the  castings  which  they  swallow,  tearing  these  is 
good  exercise  for  them,  and  biting  the  bones  prevents  the  beaks 
from  overgrowing.  Most  hawks,  peregrines  especially,  require 
the  bath.  The  end  of  a  cask,  sawn  off  to  give  a  depth  of  about 
6  in.,  makes  a  very  good  bath.  Peregrines  which  are  used  for 
waiting  on  require  a  bath  at  least  twice  a  week.  If  this  be 
neglected,  they  will  not  wait  long  before  going  off  in  search 
of  water  to  bathe,  however  hungry  they  may  be. 

The  most  agreeable  and  the  best  way,  where  practicable, 
of  keeping  hawks  is  to  have  them  on  blocks  on  the  lawn.  Each 
hawk's  block  should  stand  in  a  circular  bed  of  sand — about  8  ft. 
in  diameter;  this  will  be  found  very  convenient  for  keeping 
them  clean.  Goshawks  are  generally  placed  on  bow  perches, 
which  ought  not  to  be  more  than  8  or  9  in.  high  at  the  highest 
part  of  the  arc.  It  will  be  several  months  before  passage  or  wild- 
caught  falcons  can  be  kept  out  of  doors;  they  must  be  fastened 
to  a  perch  in  a  darkened  room,  hooded,  but  by  degrees  as  they 
get  thoroughly  tame  may  be  brought  to  sit  on  the  lawn.  In 
England  (especially  in  the  south)  peregrines,  the  northern  falcons 
and  goshawks  may  be  kept  out  of  doors  all  day  and  night  in  a 
sheltered  situation.  In  very  wild  boisterous  weather,  or  in  snow 
or  sharp  frost,  it  will  be  advisable  to  move  them  to  the  shelter 
of  a  shed,  the  floor  of  which  should  be  laid  with  sand  to  a  depth  of 
3  or  4  in.  Merlins  and  hobbies  are  too  tender  to  be  kept  much 
out  of  doors.  An  eastern  aspect  is  to  be  preferred — all  birds 
enjoy  the  morning  sun,  and  it  is  very  beneficial  to  them.  The 
more  hawks  confined  to  blocks  out  of  doors  see  of  persons,  dogs, 
horses,  &c.,  moving  about  the  better,  but  of  course  only  when 
there  is  no  danger  of  their  being  frightened  or  molested,  or  of 
food  being  given  to  them  by  strangers.  Those  who  have  only 
seen  wretched  ill-fed  hawks  in  cages  as  in  zoological  gardens  or 
menageries,  pining  for  exercise,  with  battered  plumage,  torn 
shoulders  and  bleeding  ceres,  from  dashing  against  their  prison 
bars,  and  overgrown  beaks  from  never  getting  bones  to  break, 
can  have  little  idea  of  the  beautiful  and  striking-looking  birds 
to  be  seen  pluming  their  feathers  and  stretching  their  wings  at 
their  ease  at  their  blocks  on  the  falconer's  lawn,  watching  with 
their  .large  bright  keen  eyes  everything  that  moves  in  the  sky 
and  everywhere  else  within  the  limits  of  their  view.  Contrary 


to  the  prevailing  notion,  hawks  show  a  good  deal  of  attachment 
when  they  have  been  properly  handled.  It  is  true  that  by 
hunger  they  are  in  a  great  measure  tamed  and  controlled,  and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  all  undomesticated  and  many  domesti- 
cated animals.  And  instinct  prompts  all  wild  creatures  when 
away  from  man's  control  to  return  to  their  former  shyness, 
but  hawks  certainly  retain  their  lameness  for  a  long  time,  and 
their  memory  is  remarkably  retentive.  Wild-caught  hawks  have 
been  retaken,  either  by  their  coming  to  the  lure  or  upon  quarry, 
from  2  to  7  days  after  they  had  been  lost,  and  eyases  after  3 
weeks.  As  one  instance  of  retentiveness  of  memory  displayed  by 
hawks  we  may  mention  the  case  of  a  wild-caught  falcon  which 
was  recaptured  after  being  at  liberty  more  than  3  years,  still 
bearing  the  jesses  which  were  cut  short  close  to  the  leg  at  the  time 
she  was  released;  in  five  days  she  was  flying  at  the  lure  again 
at  liberty,  and  was  found  to  retain  the  peculiar  ways  and  habits 
she  was  observed  to  have  in  her  former  existence  as  a  trained 
hawk.  It  is  useless  to  bring  a  hawk  into  the  field  unless  she  has 
a  keen  appetite;  if  she  has  not,  she  will  neither  hunt  effectually 
nor  follow  her  master.  Even  wild-caught  falcons,  however, 
may  sometimes  be  seen  so  attached  to  their  owner  that,  when 
sitting  on  their  blocks  on  a  lawn  with  food  in  their  crops,  they 
will  on  his  coming  out  of  the  house  bate  hard  to  get  to  him,  till 
he  either  go  up  to  them  and  allow  them  to  jump  up  to  his  hand 
or  withdraw  from  their  sight.  Goshawks  are  also  known  to 
evince  attachment  to  their  owner.  Another  prevailing  error 
regarding  hawks  is  that  they  are  supposed  to  be  lazy  birds, 
requiring  the  stimulus  of  hunger  to  stir  them  to  action.  The 
reverse  is  the  truth;  they  are  birds  of  very  active  habits,  and 
exceedingly  restless,  and  the  notion  of  their  being  lazy  has  been 
propagated  by  those  who  have  seen  little  or  nothing  of  hawks 
in  their  wild  state.  The  wild  falcon  requires  an  immense  deal 
of  exercise,  and  to  be  in  wind,  in  order  to  exert  the  speed  and 
power  of  flight  necessary  to  capture  her  prey  when  hungry; 
and  to  this  end  instinct  prompts  her  to  spend  hours  daily  on  the 
wing,  soaring  and  playing  about  in  the  air  in  all  weathers, 
often  chasing  birds  merely  for  play  or  exercise.  Sometimes  she 
takes  a  siesta  when  much  gorged,  but  unless  she  fills  her  crop 
late  in  the  evening  she  is  soon  moving  again — before  half  her 
crop  is  put  over.  Goshawks  and  sparrow-hawks,  too,  habitually 
soar  in  the  air  at  about  9  or  10  A.M.,  and  remain  aloft  a  consider- 
able time,  but  these  birds  are  net  of  such  active  habits  as  the 
falcons.  The  frequent  bating  of  thoroughly  tame  hawks  from 
their  blocks,  even  when  not  hungry  or  frightened,  proves  their 
restlessness  and  impatience  of  repose.  So  does  the  wretched 
condition  of  the  caged  falcon  (before  alluded  to) ,  while  the  really 
lazy  buzzards  and  kites,  which  do  not  in  a  wild  state  depend  on 
activity  or  power  of  wing  for  their  sustenance,  maintain  them- 
selves for  years,  even  during  confinement  if  properly  fed,  in  good 
case  and  plumage.  Such  being  the  habits  of  the  falcon  in  a 
state  of  nature,  the  falconer  should  endeavour  to  give  the  hawks 
under  his  care  as  much  flying  as  possible,  and  he  should  avoid 
the  very  common  mistake  of  keeping  too  many  hawks.  In  this 
case  a  favoured  few  are  sure  to  get  all  the  work,  and  the  others, 
possibly  equally  good  if  they  had  fair  play,  are  spoiled  for  want 
of  exercise. 

The  larger  hawks  may  be  kept  in  health  and  working  order 
for  several  years — 15  or  20 — barring  accidents.  The  writer  has 
known  peregrines,  shaheens  and  goshawks  to  reach  ages  between 
15  and  20  years.  Goshawks,  however,  never  fly  well  after  4  or 
5  seasons,  when  they  will  no  longer  take  difficult  quarry;  they 
may  be  used  at  rabbits  as  long  as  they  live.  Shaheens  may  be 
seen  in  the  East  at  an  advanced  age,  killing  wild-fowl  beautifully. 
The  shabeen  is  a  falcon  of  the  peregrine  type,  which  does  not 
travel,  like  the  peregrine,  all  over  the  world.  It  appears  that 
the  jerfalcons  also  may  be  worked  to  a  good  age.  Old  Simon 
Latham  tells  us  of  these  birds — "  I  myself  have  known  one 
of  them  an  excellent  Hearnor  (killer  of  herons) ,  and  to  continue 
her  goodnesse  very  near  twentie  yeeres,  or  full  out  that  time." 

AUTHORITIES. — Schlegel's  Traite  de  fauconnerie  contains  a  veiy 
large  list  of  works  on  falconry  in  the  languages  of  all  the  principal 
countries  of  the  Old  World.  Bibliotheca  accipitraria,  by  J.«E. 


FALDSTOOL— FALGUIERE 


Harting  (1891),  gives  a  complete  bibliography.  See  Coursing  and 
Falconry  in  the  Badminton  Library;  and  The  Art  and  Practice  of 
Hawking,  by  E.  B.  Michell  (1900),  the  best  modern  book  on  the 
subject.  Perhaps  the  most  useful  of  the  old  works  are  The  Booke 
of  Faulconrie  or  Hawking,  by  George  Turberville  (1575),  and  The 
Faulcon's  Lure  and  Cure,  by  Simon  Latham  (1633).  (E.  D.  R.) 

FALDSTOOL  (from  the  O.K.  Ger.  falden  or  fallen,  to  fold, 
and  stud,  Mod.  Ger.  Stuhl,  a  stool;  from  the  medieval  Latin 
faldistolium  is  derived,  through  the  old  form  faudesteuil,  the 
Mod.  Fr.  fauleuil),  properly  a  folding  seat  for  the  use  of  a  bishop 
when  not  occupying  the  throne  in  his  own  cathedral,  or  when 
officiating  in  a  cathedral  or  church  other  than  his  own;  hence 
any  movable  folding  stool  used  for  kneeling  in  divine  service. 
The  small  desk  or  stand  from  which  the  Litany  is  read  is  some- 
times called  a  faldstool,  and  a  similar  stool  is  provided  for  the 
use  of  the  sovereign  at  his  coronation. 

FALERII  [mod.  Civita  Castellana  (q.v.)],  one  of  the  twelve 
chief  cities  of  Etruria,  situated  about  i  m.  W.  of  the  ancient 
Via  Flaminia,1  32  m.  N.  of  Rome.  According  to  the  legend,  it 
was  of  Argive  origin;  and  Strabo's  assertion  that  the  population, 
the  Falisci  (q.v.),  were  of  a  different  race  from  the  Etruscans  is 
proved  by  the  language  of  the  earliest  inscriptions  which  have 
been  found  here.  Wars  between  Rome  and  the  Falisci  appear 
to  have  been  frequent.  To  one  of  the  first  of  them  belongs  the 
story  of  the  schoolmaster  who  wished  to  betray  his  boys  to 
Camillus;  the  latter  refused  his  offer,  and  the  inhabitants 
thereupon  surrendered  the  city.  At  the  end  of  the  First  Punic 
War,  the  Falisci  rose  in  rebellion,  but  were  soon  conquered 
(241  B.C.)  and  lost  half  their  territory.  Zonaras  (viii.  18)  tells 
us  that  the  ancient  city,  built  upon  a  precipitous  hill,  was 
destroyed  and  another  built  on  a  more  accessible  site  on  the  plain. 
The  description  of  the  two  sites  agrees  well  with  the  usual 
theory  that  the  original  city  occupied  the  site  of  the  present 
Civita  Castellana,  and  that  the  ruins  of  Falleri  (as  the  place  is 
now  called)  are  those  of  the  Roman  town  which  was  thus  trans- 
ferred 3  m.  to  the  north-west.  After  this  time  Falerii  hardly 
appears  in  history.  It  became  a  colony  (Junonia  Faliscorum) 
perhaps  under  Augustus,  though  according  to  the  inscriptions 
apparently  not  until  the  time  of  Gallienus.  There  were  bishops 
of  Falerii  up  till  1033,  when  the  desertion  of  the  place  in  favour 
of  the  present  site  began,  and  the  last  mention  of  it  dates  from 
A.D.  1064. 

The  site  of  the  original  Falerii  is  a  plateau,  about  noo  yds. 
by  400,  not  higher  than  the  surrounding  country  (475  ft.)  but 
separated  from  it  by  gorges  over  200  ft.  in  depth,  and  only 
connected  with  it  on  the  western  side,  which  was  strongly 
fortified  with  a  mound  and  ditch;  the  rest  of  the  city  was 
defended  by  walls  constructed  of  rectangular  blocks  of  tufa,  of 
which  some  remains  still  exist.  Remains  of  a  temple  were 
found  at  Lo  Scasato,  at  the  highest  point  of  the  ancient  town, 
in  1888,  and  others  have  been  excavated  in  the  outskirts.  The 
attribution  of  one  of  these  to  Juno  Quiritis  is  uncertain.  These 
buildings  were  of  wood,  with  fine  decorations  of  coloured  terra- 
cotta (Notizie  degli  scam,  1887,  p.  92;  1888,  p.  414).  Numerous 
tombs  hewn  in  the  rock  are  visible  on  all  sides  of  the  town, 
and  important  discoveries  have  been  made  in  them;  many 
objects,  both  from  the  temples  and  from  the  tombs,  are  in  the 
Museo  di  Villa  Giulia  at  Rome.  Similar  finds  have  also  been 
made  at  Calcata,  6  m.  S.,  and  Corchiano,  5  m.  N.W.  The  site 
of  the  Roman  Falerii  is  now  entirely  abandoned.  It  lay  upon  a 
road  which  may  have  been  (see  H.  Nissen,  Italische  Landeskunde 
ii.  361)  the  Via  Annia,  a  by-road  of  the  Via  Cassia;  this  roac 
approached  it  from  the  south  passing  through  Nepet,  while  its 
prolongation  to  the  north  certainly  bore  the  name  Via  Amerina 
The  circuit  of  the  city  is  about  2250  yds.,  its  shape  roughly 
triangular,  and  the  walls  are  a  remarkably  fine  and  well-preservec 
specimen  of  Roman  military  architecture.  They  are  constructed 
1  The  Roman  town  lay  3  m.  farther  N.W.  on  the  Via  Annia.  The 
Via  Flaminia,  which  did  not  traverse  the  Etruscan  city,  had  two 
post-stations  near  it,  Aquaviva,  some  2j  m.  S.E.,  and  Aequum 
Faliscum,  4!  m.  N.N.E. ;  the  latter  is  very  possibly  identical  witl 
the  Etruscan  site  which  G.  Dennis  (Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria 
London,  1883,  i.  121)  identified  with  Fescennium  (q.v.).  Se< 
O.  Cuntz  in  Jahreshefte  des  osterr.  arch.  Inst.  ii.  (1899),  87. 


}f  rectangular  blocks  of  tufa  two  Roman  ft.  in  height;  the 
walls  themselves  reach  in  places  a  height  of  56  ft.  and  are  7  to 
9  ft.  thick.  There  were  about  80  towers,  some  50  of  which  are 

till  preserved.  Two  of  the  gates  also,  of  which  there  were  eight, 
are  noteworthy.  Of  the  buildings  within  the  walls  hardly  any- 

hing  is  preserved  above  ground,  though  the  forum  and  theatre 

as  also  the  amphitheatre,  the  arena  of  which  measured  180  by 
108  ft.  outside  the  walls)  were  all  excavated  in  the  I9th  century. 
Almost  the  only  edifice  now  standing  is  the  12th-century  abbey 
church  of  S.  Maria.  Recent  excavations  have  shown  that  the 
plan  of  the  whole  city  could  easily  be  recovered,  though  the 

>uilding3  have  suffered  considerable  devastation  (Notizie  degli 

scavi,  1903,  14). 

See  G.  Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria  (London,  1883),  i. 
97 ;  for  philology  and  ethnology  see  FALISCI.   •  (T.  As.) 

FALERIO  (mod.  Falerone),  an  ancient  town  of  Picenum,  Italy, 
about  10  m.  S.E.  of  Urbs  Salvia.  We  know  almost  nothing  of 
:he  place  except  from  inscriptions,  from  which,  and  from  the 
remains  of  its  buildings,  it  appears  to  have  been  of  some  import- 
ance. It  was  probably  founded  as  a  colony  by  Augustus  after 
lis  victory  at  Actium.  A  question  arose  in  the  time  of  Domitian 
Detween  the  inhabitants  of  Falerio  and  Firmum  as  to  land  ' 
which  had  been  taken  out  of  the  territory  of  the  latter  (which 
was  recolonized  by  the  triumvirs),  and,  though  not  distributed 
to  the  new  settlers,  had  not  been  given  back  again  to  the  people 
of  Firmum.  The  emperor,  by  a  rescript,  a  copy  of  which  in 
bronze  was  found  at  Falerio,  decided  in  favour  of  the  people  of 
Falerio,  that  the  occupiers  of  this  land  should  remain  in  possession 
of  it  (Th.  Mommsen  in  Corp.  Inscr.  Latin,  ix.,  Berlin,  1883, 
No.  S,  420).  Considerable  remains  of  a  theatre  in  concrete 
faced  with  brickwork,  erected,  according  to  an  inscription, 
in  43  B.C.,  and  161  ft.  in  diameter,  were  excavated  in  1838 
and  are  still  visible;  and  an  amphitheatre,  less  well  preserved, 
also  exists,  the  arena  of  which  measures  about  180  by  150  ft. 
Between  the  two  is  a  water  reservoir  (called  Bagno  della  Regina) 
connected  with  remains  of  baths. 

See  G.  de  Minicis  in  Giornale  Arcadico,  Iv.  (1832),  160     seq.; 
Annali  dell'  Istituto  (1839),  5  seq.  (T.  As.) 

FALGUIERE,  JEAN  ALEXANDRE  JOSEPH  (1831-1900), 
French  sculptor  and  painter,  was  born  at  Toulouse.  A  pupil  of 
the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  he  won  the  Prix  de  Rome  in  1859;  he 
was  awarded  the  medal  of  honour  at  the  Salon  in  1868  and  was 
appointed  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1878.  His  first 
bronze  statue  of  importance  was  the  "  Victor  of  the  Cock-Fight  " 
(1864),  and  "  Tarcisus  the  Christian  Boy-Martyr  "  followed  in 
1867;  both  are  now  in  the  Luxembourg  Museum.  His  more 
important  monuments  are  those  to  Admiral  Courbet  (1890)  at 
Abbeville  and  the  famous  "  Joan  of  Arc."  Among  more  ideal 
work  are  "  Eve  "  (1880),  "  Diana  "  (1882  and  1891),  "  Woman 
and  Peacock,"  and  "  The  Poet,"  astride  his  Pegasus  spreading 
wings  for  flight.  His  "  Triumph  of  the  Republic  "  (1881-1886), 
a  vast  quadriga  for  the  Arc  de  Triomphe,  Paris,  is  perhaps  more 
amazingly  full  of  life  than  others  of  his  works,  all  of  which 
reveal  this  quality  of  vitality  in  superlative  degree.  To  these 
works  should  be  added  his  monuments  to  "  Cardinal  Lavigerie  " 
and  "  General  de  La  Fayette  "  (the  latter  in  Washington), 
and  his  statues  of  "  Lamartine  "  (1876)  and  "  St  Vincent  de 
Paul  "  (1879),  as  well  as  the  "  Balzac,"  which  he  executed  for  the 
Societe  des  gens  de  leltres  on  the  rejection  of  that  by  Rodin; 
and  the  busts  of  "  Carolus-Duran  "  and  "  Coquelin  cadet  " 
(1896). 

Falguiere  was  a  painter  as  well  as  a  sculptor,  but  somewhat 
inferior  in  merit.  He  displays  a  fine  sense  of  colour  and  tone, 
added  to  the  qualities  of  life  and  vigour  that  he  instils  into  his 
plastic  work.  His  "  Wrestlers  "  (1875)  and  "  Fan  and  Dagger  " 
(1882;  a  defiant  Spanish  woman)  are  in  the  Luxembourg,  and 
other  pictures  of  importance  are  "  The  Beheading  of  St  John 
the  Baptist  "  (1877),  "  The  Sphinx  "  (1883),  "  Acis  and  Galatea  " 
(1885),  "Old  Woman  and  Child"  (1886)  and  "In  the  Bull 
Slaughter-House."  He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute 
(Academic  des  Beaux-Arts)  in  1882.  He  died  in  1000. 

See  Leonce  Benedite,  Alexandre  Falguiere,  Librairie  de  lart 
(Paris). 


148 


FALIERO— FALK 


FALIERO  (or  FALIER),  MARINO  (1279-1355),  doge  of  Venice, 
belonged  to  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  illustrious  Venetian 
families  and  had  served  the  republic  with  distinction  in  various 
capacities.  In  1346  he  commanded  the  Venetian  land  forces 
at  the  siege  of  Zara,  where  he  was  attacked  by  the  Hungarians 
under  King  Louis  the  Great  and  totally  defeated  them;  this 
victory  led  to  the  surrender  of  the  city.  In  September  1354, 
while  absent  on  a  mission  to  Pope  Innocent  IV.  at  Avignon, 
Faliero  was  elected  doge,  an  honour  which  apparently  he  had 
not  sought.  His  reign  began,  as  it  was  to  end,  in  disaster,  for 
very  soon  after  his  election  the  Venetian  fleet  was  completely 
destroyed  by  the  Genoese  off  the  island  of  Sapienza,  while  plague 
and  a  declining  commerce  aggravated  the  situation.  Although  a 
capable  commander  and  a  good  statesman,  Faliero  possessed  a 
violent  temper,  and  after  his  election  developed  great  ambition. 
The  constitutional  restrictions  of  the  ducal  power,  which  had  been 
further  curtailed  just  before  his  election,  and  the  insolence  of 
the  nobility  aroused  in  him  a  desire  to  free  Himself  from  all 
control,  and  the  discontent  of  the  arsenal  hands  at  their  treat- 
ment by  the  nobles  offered  him  his  opportunity.  In  concert,  with 
a  sea-captain  named  Bertuccio  Ixarella  (who  had  received  a 
blow  from  the  noble  Giovanni  Dandolo),  Filippo  Calendario,  a 
stonemason,  and  others,  a  plot  was  laid  to  murder  the  chief 
patricians  on  the  isth  of  April  and  proclaim  Faliero  prince  of 
Venice.  But  there  was  much  ferment  in  the  city  and  disorders 
broke  out  before  the  appointed  time;  some  of  the  conspirators 
having  made  revelations,  the  Council  of  Ten  proceeded  to  arrest 
the  ringleaders  and  to  place  armed  guards  all  over  the  town. 
Several  of  the.  conspirators  were  condemned  to  death  and  others 
to  various  terms  of  imprisonment.  The  doge's  complicity 
having  been  discovered,  he  was  himself  arrested;  at  the  trial 
he  confessed  everything  and  was  condemned  and  executed  on 
the  lyth  of  April  1355. 

The  story  of  the  insult  written  by  Michele  Steno  on  the  doge's 
chair  is  a  legend  of  which  no  record  is  found  in  any  contemporary 
authority.  The  motives  of  Faliero  are  not  altogether  clear,  as 
his  past  record,  even  in  the  judgment  of  the  poet  Petrarch, 
showed  him  as  a  wise,  clear-headed  man  of  no  unusual  ambition. 
But  possibly  the  attitude  of  the  aristocracy  and  th'e  example 
offered  by  the  tyrants  of  neighbouring  cities  may  have  induced 
him  to  attempt  a  similar  policy.  The  only  result  of  the  plot 
was  to  consolidate  the  power  of  the  Council  of  Ten. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — An  account  of  Marino  Faliero's  reign  is  given 
in  S.  Romania's  Storia  documentata  di  Venezia,  lib.  ix.  cap.  ii.  (Venice, 
1855) ;  M.  Sanudo,  Le  Vile  dei  Dogi  in  new  edition  of  Muratori  fasc., 
3,  4,  5  (Citta  di  Castello,  1900).  For  special  works  see  V.  Lazzerini's 

Genealogia  d.  M.  Faliero  "  in  the  Archivio  Veneto  of  1892;  "  M. 
Faliero  avanti  il  Dogado,"  ibid.  (1893),  and  his  exhaustive  study 
"  M.Faliero,laCongiura,"i6i(i.  (1897).  The  jnost  recent  essay  on  the 
subject  is  contained  in  Horatio  Brown's  Studies  in  Venetian  History 
(London,  1907),  wherein  all  the  authorities  are  set  forth.  (L.  V.*) 

FALISCI,  a  tribe  of  Sabine  origin  or  connexions,  but  speaking 
a  dialect  closely  akin  to  Latin,  who  inhabited  the  town  of  Falerii 
(q.ii.),  as  well  as  a  considerable  tract  of  the  surrounding  country, 
probably  reaching  as  far  south  as  to  include  the  small  town  of 
Capena.  But  at  the  beginning  of  the  historical  period,  i.e.  from 
the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  B.C.,  and  no  doubt  earlier, 
the  dominant  element  in  the  town  was  Etruscan;  and  all  through 
the  wars  of  the  following  centuries  the  town  was  counted  a 
member,  and  sometimes  a  leading  member,  of  the  Etruscan 
league  (cf.  Livy  iv.  23,  v.  17,  vii.  17). 

In  spite  of  the  Etruscan  domination,  the  Faliscans  preserved 
many  traces  of  their  Italic  origin,  such  as  the  worship  of  the 
deities  Juno  Quiritis  (Ovid,  Fasti,  vi.  49)  and  Feronia  (Livy 
xxvi.  n),  the  cult  of  Dit  Soranus  by  the  Hirpi  or  fire-leaping 
priests  on  Mount  Soracte  (Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  vii.  2,  19;  Servius, 
ad  Aen.  xi.  785,  787),  above  all  their  language.  This  is  preserved 
for  us  in  some  36  short  inscriptions,  dating  from  the  3rd  and  2nd 
centuries  B.C.,  and  is  written  in  a  peculiar  alphabet  derived 
from  the  Etruscan,  and  written  from  right  to  left;  but  showing 
some  traces  of  the  influence  of  the  Latin  alphabet.  Its  most 
characteristic  signs  are — 


I 


As  a  specimen  of  the  dialect  may  be  quoted  the  words  written 
round  the  edge  of  a  picture  on  a  patera,  the  genuineness  of  which 
is  established  by  the  fact  that  they  were  written  before  the  glaze 
was  put  on:  "  foied  vino  pipafo,  era  carefo,"  i.e.  in  Latin  "  hodie 
vinum  bibam,  eras  carebo "  (R.  S.  Conway,  Italic  Dialects,  p. 
312,  b).  This  shows  some  of  the  phonetic  characteristics  of  the 
Faliscan  dialect,  viz.: — 

1.  The  retention  of  medial  f  which  in  Latin  became  b; 

2.  The  representation  of  an  initial  Ind.-Eur.  gh  by/  (joied,  contrast 
Latin  hodie) ; 

3.  The  palatalization  of  d-\-  consonant  i  into  some  sound  denoted 
merely  by  i—  the  central  sound  of  foied,  from  fa-died; 

4.  The  loss  of  final  s,  at  all  events  before  certain  following  sounds 
(era  beside  Latin  eras) ; 

Other  characteristics,  appearing  elsewhere,  are : 

5.  The  retention  of  the  velars  (Fal.  cuando  =  Latin  quando ;  contrast 
LJmbrian  pan(n?u) ; 

6.  The  assimilation  of  some  final  consonants  to  the  initial  letter 
of  the  next  word:     "  pretod  de  zenatuo  sententiad  (Conway,  lib. 
cit.  321),  i.e.  "  praetor  de  senatus  sententia  "  (zenatuo  for  senaiuos., 
an  archaic  genitive).   For  further  details  see  Conway,  ib.  pp.  370  ff., 
especially  pp.  384-385,  where  the  relation  of  the  names  Falisci,  Falerii 
to  the  local  hero  Halaesus  (e.g.  Ovid,  Fasti,  iv.  73)  is  discussed,  and 
where  reason  is  given  for  thinking  that  the  change  of  initial  /  (from 
an  original  bh  or  dh)  into  an  initial  h  was  a  genuine  mark  of  Faliscan 
dialect. 

It  seems  probable'  that  the  dialect  lasted  on,  though  being 
gradually  permeated  with  Latin,  till  at  least  150  B.C. 

In  addition  to  the  remains  found  in  the  graves  (see  FALERII), 
which  belong  mainly  to  the  period  of  Etruscan  domination  and 
give  ample  evidence  of  material  prosperity  and  refinement, 
the  earlier  strata  have  yielded  more  primitive  remains  from  the 
Italic  epoch.  A  large  number  of  inscriptions  consisting  mainly 
of  proper  names  may  be  regarded  as  Etruscan  rather  than 
Faliscan,  and  they  have  been  disregarded  in  the  account  of  the 
dialect  just  given.  It  should  perhaps  be  mentioned  that  there 
was  a  town  Feronia  in  Sardinia,  named  probably  after  their 
native  goddess  by  Faliscan  settlers,  from  some  of  whom  we  have  a 
votive  inscription  found  at  S.  Maria  di  Falleri(Conway,  ib.  p.  335). 

Further  information  may  be  sought  from  W.  Deecke,  Die  Falisker 
(a  useful  but  somewhat  uncritical  collection  of  the  evidence  access- 
ible in  1888);  E.  Bormann,  in  C.I.L.  xi.  pp.  465  ff.,  and  Conway, 
op.  cit.  (R.  S.  C.) 

FALK,  JOHANN  DANIEL  (1768-1826),  German  author  and 
philanthropist,  was  born  at  Danzig  on  the  28th  of  October  1768. 
After  attending  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  town,  he  entered  the 
university  of  Halle  with  the  view  of  studying  theology,  but 
preferring  a  non-professional  life,  gave  up  his  theological  studies 
and  went  to  live  at  Weimar.  There  he  published  a  volume  of 
satires  which  procured  him  the  notice  and  friendship  of  Wieland, 
and  admission  into  literary  circles.  After  the  battle  of  Jena, 
Falk,  on  the  recommendation  of  Wieland,  was  appointed  to  a 
civil  post  under  the  French  official  authorities  and  rendered  his 
townsmen  such  good  service  that  the  duke  of  Weimar  created 
him  a  counsellor  of  legation.  In  1813  he  established  a  society 
for  friends  in  necessity  (Gesellschaft  der  Freunde  in  der  Not), 
and  about  the  same  time  founded  an  institute  for  the  care  and 
education  of  neglected  and  orphan  children,  which,  in  1829,  was 
taken  over  by  the  state  and  still  exists  as  the  Falksches  Institul. 
The  first  literary  efforts  of  Falk  took  the  form  chiefly  of  satirical 
poetry,  and  gave  promise  of  greater  future  excellence  than  was 
ever  completely  fulfilled;  his  later  pieces,  directed  more  against 
individuals  than  the  general  vices  and  defects  of  society,  gradu- 
ally degenerated  in  quality.  In  1806  Falk  founded  a  critical 
journal  under  the  title  of  Elysium  und  Tartarus.  He  also 
contributed  largely  to  contemporary  journals.  He  enjoyed  the 
acquaintance  and  intimate  friendship  of  Goethe,  and  his  account 
of  their  intercourse  was  posthumously  published'  under  the 
title  Goethe  aus  naherem  personlichen  Umgange  dargestellt  (1832) 
(English  by  S.  Austin).  Falk  died  on  the  i4th  of  February  1826. 

Falk's  Satirische  Werke  appeared  in  7  vols.  (1817  and  1826);  his 
Auserlesene  Schriften  (3  vols.,  1819).  See  Johannes  Falk:  Erinnerungs- 
blatter  aus  Briefen  und  Tagebiichern,  gesammelt  von  dessen  Tochter 
Rosalie  Falk  (1868);  Heinzelmann,  Johannes  Falk  und  die  Gesell- 
schaft  der  Freunde  in  der  Not  (1879);  A.  Stein,  J.  Falk  (1881); 
S.  Schultze,  Falk  und  Goethe  (1900). 


FALK— FALKLAND 


149 


FALK,  PAUL  LUDWIG  ADALBERT  (1827-1900),  German 
politician,  was  born  at  Matschkau,  Silesia,  on  the  loth  of  August 
1827.  In  1847  he  entered  the  Prussian  state  service,  and  in 
1853  became  public  prosecutor  at  Lyck.  In  1858  he  was  elected 
a  deputy,  joining  the  Old  Liberal  party.  In  1868  he  became  a 
privy-councillor  in  the  ministry  of  justice.  In  1872  he  was  made 
minister  of  education,  and  in  connexion  with  Bismarck's  policy 
of  the  Kultur-kampf  he  was  responsible  for  the  famous  May 
Laws  against  the  Catholics  (see  GERMANY:  History).  In  1879 
his  position  became  untenable,  owing  to  the  death  of  Pius  IX. 
and  the  change  of  German  policy  with  regard  to  the  Vatican, 
and  he  resigned  his  office,  but  retained  his  seat  in  the  Reichstag 
till  1882.  He  was  then  made  president  of  the  supreme  court  of 
justice  at  Hamm,  where  he  died  in  1900. 

FALKE,  JOHANN  FRIEDRICH  GOTTLIEB  (1823-1876), 
German  historian,  was  born  at  Ratzeburg  on  the  2oth  of  April 
1823.  Entering  the  university  of  Erlangen  in  1843,  he  soon 
began  to  devote  his  attention  to  the  history  of  the  German 
language  and  literature,  and  in  1848  went  to  Munich,  where  he 
remained  five  years,  and  diligently  availed  himself  of  the  use 
of  the  government  library  for  the  purpose  of  prosecuting  his 
historical  studies.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
German  museum  at  Nuremberg,  and  in  1859  keeper  of  the  manu- 
scripts. With  the  aid  of  the  manuscript  collections  in  the 
museum  he  now  turned  his  attention  chiefly  to  political  history, 
and,  with  Johann  H.  Miiller,  established  an  historical  journal 
under  the  name  of  Zeitschrift  fiir  deutsche  Kulturgeschichte  (4  vols., 
Nuremberg,  1856-1859).  To  this  journal  he  contributed  a  history 
of  German  taxation  and  commerce.  On  the  latter  subject  he 
pubh'shed  separately  Geschichle  des  deutschen  Har.dels  (2  vols., 
Leipzig,  1850-1860)  and  Die  Hansa  ah  deutsche  See-und  Handels- 
machl  (Berlin,  1862).  In  1862  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
state  archives  at  Dresden,  and,  a  little  later,  keeper.  He  there 
began  the  study  of  Saxon  history,  still  devoting  his  attention 
chiefly  to  the  history  of  commerce  and  economy,  and  published 
Die  Geschichte  des  Kurfursten  August  von  Sachsen  in  volks- 
ivirthschaftlicher  Beziehung  (Leipzig,  1868)  and  Geschichte  des 
deutschen  Zollwesens  (Leipzig,  1869).  He  died  at  Dresden  on  the 
2nd  of  March  1876. 

FALKIRK,  a  municipal  and  police  burgh  of  Stirlingshire, 
Scotland.  Pop.  (1891)  19,769;  (1901)  29,280.  It  is  situated 
on  high  ground  overlooking  the  fertile  Carse  of  Falkirk,  n  m. 
S.E.  of  Stirling,  and  about  midway  between  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow.  Grangemouth,  its  port,  lies  3  m.  to  the  N.E.,  and  the 
Forth  &  Clyde  Canal  passes  to  the  north,  and  the  Union  Canal 
to  the  south  of  the  town.  Falkirk  now  comprises  the  suburbs 
of  Laurieston  (E.),  Grahamston  and  Bainsford  (N.),  and  Camelon 
(W.).  The  principal  structures  include  the  burgh  and  county 
buildings,  town  hall,  the  Dollar  free  library  and  Camelon  fever 
hospital.  The  present  church,  with  a  steeple  146  ft.  high,  dates 
only  from  181 1.  In  the  churchyard  are  buried  Sir  John  Graham, 
Sir  John  Stewart  who  fell  in  the  battle  of  1298,  and  Sir  Robert 
Munro  and  his  brother,  Dr  Duncan  Munro,  killed  in  the  battle 
of  1746.  The  town  is  under  the  control  of  a  council  with  provost 
and  bailies,  and  combines  with  Airdrie,  Hamilton,  Lanark  and 
Linlithgow  (the  Falkirk  group  of  burghs)  to  return  a  member  to 
parliament.  The  district  is  rich  in  coal  and  iron,  which  supply 
the  predominant  industries,  Falkirk  being  the  chief  seat  of  the 
light  casting  trade  in  Scotland;  but  tanning,  flour-milling, 
brewing,  distilling  and  the  manufacture  of  explosives  (Nobel's) 
and  chemicals  are  also  carried  on.  Trysts  or  sales  of  cattle, 
sheep  and  horses  are  held  thrice  a  year  (August,  September  and 
October)  on  Stenhousemuir,  3  m.  N.W.  They  were  transferred 
hither  from  Crieff  in  1770,  and  were  formerly  the  most  important 
in  the  kingdom,  but  have  to  a  great  extent  been  replaced  by 
the  local  weekly  auction  marts.  Carron,  2  m.  N.N.W.,  is  famous 
for  the  iron- works  established  in  1760  by  Dr  John  Roebuck 
(1718-1794),  whose  advising  engineers  were  successively  John 
Smeaton  and  James  Watt.  The  short  iron  guns  of  large  calibre 
designed  by  General  Robert  Melville,  and  first  cast  in  1779, 
were  called  carronades  from  this  their  place  of  manufacture. 

Falkirk  is  a  town  of  considerable  antiquity.     Its  original  name 


was  the  Gaelic  Eaglais  breac,  "  church  of  speckled  or  mottled 
stone,"  which  Simeon  of  Durham  (fl.  1130)  transliterated  as 
Egglesbreth.  By  the  end  of  the  i3th  century  appears  the  form 
Faukirke  (the  present  local  pronunciation),  which  is  merely  a 
translation  of  the  Gaelic  fau  orfaw,  meaning  "  dun,"  "  pale  red." 
The  first  church  was  built  by  Malcolm  Canmore  (d.  1093). 
Falkirk  was  made  a  burgh  of  barony  in  1600  and  a  burgh  of 
regality  in  1646,  but  on  the  forfeiture  of  the  earl  of  Linlithgow 
in  1715,  its  superiority  was  vested  in  the  crown.  Callender 
House,  immediately  to  the  S.,  was  the  seat  of  the  earl  and  his 
ancestors.  The  mansion  was  visited  by  Queen  Mary,  captured 
by  Cromwell,  and  occupied  by  Generals  Monk  and  Hawley.  The 
wall  of  Antoninus  ran  through  the  grounds,  and  the  district  is 
rich  in  Roman  remains,  Camelon,  about  2  m.  W.,  being  the 
site  of  a  Roman  settlement;  Merchiston  Hall,  to  the  N.W., 
was  the  birthplace  of  Admiral  Sir  Charles  Napier.  The  eastern 
suburb  of  Laurieston  was  first  called  Langtoune,  then  Merchis- 
town,  and  received  its  present  name  after  Sir  Lawrence  Dundas 
of  Kerse,  who  had  promoted  its  welfare.  At  Polmont,  farther 
east,  which  gives  the  title  of  baron  to  the  duke  of  Hamilton, 
is  the  school  of  Blair  Lodge,  besides  coal-mines  and  other 
industries. 

Bailies  of  Falkirk. — The  battle  of  the  22nd  of  July  1298  was 
fought  between  the  forces  of  King  Edward  I.  of  England  and 
those  of  the  Scottish  national  party  under  Sir  William  Wallace. 
The  latter,  after  long  baffling  the  king's  attempts  to  bring  him  to 
battle,  had  taken  up  a  strong  position  south  of  the  town  behind 
a  morass.  They  were  formed  in  four  deep  and  close  masses 
("  schiltrons  ")  of  pikemen,  the  light  troops  screening  the  front 
and  flanks  and  a  body  of  men-at-arms  standing  in  reserve.  It 
was  perhaps  hoped  that  the  English  cavalry  would  plunge  into 
the  morass,  for  no  serious  precautions  were  taken  as  to  the 
flanks,  but  in  any  case  Wallace  desired  no  more  than  to  receive 
an  attack  at  the  halt,  trusting  wholly  to  his  massed  pikes.  The 
English  right  wing  first  appeared,  tried  the  morass  in  vain,  and 
then  set  out  to  turn  it  by  a  long  detour;  the  main  battle  under  the 
king  halted  in  front  of  it,  while  the  left  wing  under  Antony  Bee, 
bishop  of  Durham,  was  able  to  reach  the  head  of  the  marsh 
without  much  delay.  Once  on  the  enemy's  side  of  the  obstacle 
the  bishop  halted  to  wait  for  Edward,  who  was  now  following  him, 
but  his  undisciplined  barons,  shouting  "  'Tis  not  for  thee,  bishop, 
to  teach  us  war.  Go  say  mass  !  "  drove  off  the  Scottish  archers 
and  men-at-arms  and  charged  the  nearest  square  of  pikes, 
which  repulsed  them  with  heavy  losses.  On  the  other  flank  the 
right  wing,  its  flank  march  completed,  charged  with  the  same 
result.  But  Edward,  who  had  now  joined  the  bishop  with  the 
centre  or  "main  battle,"  peremptorily  ordered  the  cavalry  to 
stand  fast,  and,  taught  by  his  experience  in  the  Welsh  wars, 
brought  up  his  archers.  The  longbow  here  scored  its  first  victory 
in  a  pitched  battle.  Before  long  gaps  appeared  in  the  close  ranks 
of  pike  heads,  and  after  sufficient  preparation  Edward  again 
launched  his  men-at-arms  to  the  charge.  The  shaken  masses 
then  gave  way  one  after  the  other,  and  the  Scots  fled  in  all 
directions. 

The  second  battle  of  Falkirk,  fought  on  the  I7th  of  January 
1746  between  the  Highlanders  under  Prince  Charles  and  the 
British  forces  under  General  Hawley,  resulted  in  the  defeat 
of  the  latter.  It  is  remarkable  only  for  the  bad  conduct  of  the 
British  dragoons  and  the  steadiness  of  the  infantry.  Hawley 
retreated  to  Linlithgow,  leaving  all  his  baggage,  700  prisoners 
and  seven  guns  in  the  enemy's  hands. 

FALKLAND,  LUCIUS  CARY,  2nd  VISCOUNT  (c.  1610-1643), 
son  of  Sir  Henry  Gary,  afterwards  ist  Viscount  Falkland  (d. 
1633),  a  member  of  an  ancient  Devonshire  family,  who  was  lord 
deputy  of  Ireland  from  1622  to  1629,  and  of  Elizabeth  (1585- 
1639),  only  daughter  of  Sir  Lawrence  Tanfield,  chief  baron  of 
the  exchequer,  was  born  either  in  1609  or  1610,  and  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  In  1625  he  inherited  from  his 
grandfather  the  manors  of  Great  Tew  and  Burford  in  Oxford- 
shire, and,  about  the  age  of  21,  married  Lettice,  daughter  of 
Sir  Richard  Morrison,  of  Tooley  Park  in  Leicestershire.  Involved 
in  a  quarrel  with  his  father,  whom  he  failed  to  propitiate  by 


FALKLAND 


offering  to  hand  over  to  him  his  estate,  he  left  England  to  take 
service  in  the  Dutch  army,  but  soon  returned.  In  1633,  by  the 
death  of  his  father,  he  became  Viscount  Falkland.  His  mother 
had  embraced  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  to  which  it  was  now 
sought  to  attract  Falkland  himself,  but  his  studies  and  reflections 
led  him,  under  the  influence  of  Chillingworth,  to  the  interpreta- 
;  tion  of  religious  problems  rather  by  reason  than  by  tradition 
or  authority.  At  Great  Tew  he  enjoyed  a  short  but  happy 
period  of  study,  and  he  assembled  round  him  many  gifted  and 
learned  men,  whom  the  near  neighbourhood  of  the  university 
and  his  own  brilliant  qualities  attracted  to  his  house.  He  was 
the  friend  of  Hales  and  Chillingworth,  was  celebrated  by  Jonson, 
Suckling,  Cowley  and  Waller  in  verse,  and  in  prose  by  Clarendon, 
who  is  eloquent  in  describing  the  virtues  and  genius  of  the 
"  incomparable  "  Falkland,  and  draws  a  delightful  picture  of 
his  society  and  hospitality. 

Falkland's  intellectual  pleasures,  however,  were  soon  inter- 
rupted by  war  and  politics.  He  felt  it  his  duty  to  take  part  on 
the  king's  side  as  a  volunteer  under  Essex  in  the  campaign  of 
1639  against  the  Scots.  In  1640  he  was  returned  for  Newport 
in  the  Isle  of  Wight  to  the  Short  and  Long  Parliaments,  and  took 
an  active  part  on  the  side  of  the  opposition.  He  spoke  against 
the  exaction  of  shipmoney  on  the  7th  of  December  1640,  denoun- 
cing the  servile  conduct  of  Lord  Keeper  Finch  and  the  judges.1 
He  supported  the  prosecution  of  Strafford,  at  the  same  time 
endeavouring  on  more  than  one  occasion  to  moderate  the 
measures  of  the  Commons  in  the  interests  of  justice,  and  voted 
for  the  third  reading  of  the  attainder  on  the  2ist  of  April  1641. 
On  the  great  question  of  the  church  he  urged,  in  the  debate  of 
the  8th  of  February  1641,  that  the  interference  of  the  clergy  in 
secular  matters,  the  encroachments  in  jurisdiction  of  the  spiritual 
courts,  and  the  imposition  by  authority  of  unnecessary  cere- 
monies, should  be  prohibited.  On  the  other  hand,  though  he 
denied  that  episcopacy  existed  jure  divino,  he  was  opposed  to  its 
abolition;  fearing  the  establishment  of  the  Presbyterian  system, 
which  in  Scotland  had  proved  equally  tyrannical.  Triennial 
parliaments  would  be  sufficient  to  control  the  bishops,  if  they 
meditated  any  further  attacks  upon  the  national  liberties,  and 
he  urged  that  "  where  it  is  not  necessary  to  change,  it  is  necessary 
not  to  change."  Even  Hampden  still  believed  that  a  compromise 
with  the  episcopal  principle  was  possible,  and  assured  Falkland 
that  if  the  bill  taken  up  to  the  Lords  on  the  ist  of  May  1641, 
excluding  the  bishops  from  the  Lords  and  the  clergy  from  secular 
offices,  were  passed,  "  there  would  be  nothing  more  attempted 
to  the  prejudice  of  the  church."  Accordingly  the  bill  was 
supported  by  Falkland.  The  times,  however,  were  not  favourable 
to  compromise.  The  bill  was  lost  in  the  Lords,  and  on  the  2;th 
of  May  the  Root  and  Branch  Bill,  for  the  total  abolition  of 
episcopacy,  was  introduced  in  the  House  of  Commons.  This 
measure  Falkland  opposed,  as  well  as  the  second  bill  for  excluding 
the  bishops,  introduced  on  the  2ist  of  October.  In  the  discussion 
on  the  Grand  Remonstrance  he  took  the  part  of  the  bishops  and 
the  Arminians.  He  was  now  opposed  to  the  whole  policy  of  the 
opposition,  and,  being  reproached  by  Hampden  with  his  change 
of  attitude,  replied  "  that  he  had  formerly  been  persuaded  by 
that  worthy  gentleman  to  believe  many  things  which  he  had 
since  found  to  be  untrue,  and  therefore  he  had  changed  his 
opinion  in  many  particulars  as  well  as  to  things  as  to  persons."2 

On  the  ist  of  January  1642,  immediately  before  the  attempted 
arrest  of  the  five  members,  of  which,  however,  he  was  not 
cognizant,  he  was  offered  by  the  king  the  secretaryship  of  state, 
and  was  persuaded  by  Hyde  to  accept  it,  thus  becoming  involved 
directly  in  the  king's  policy,  though  evidently  possessing  little 
influence  in  his  counsels.  He  was  one  of  the  peers  who  signed 
the  protestation  against  making  war,  at  York  on  the  i  sth  of  June 
1642.  On  the  5th  of  September  he  carried  Charles's  overtures 
for  peace  to  the  parliament,  when  he  informed  the  leaders  of  the 
opposition  that  the  king  consented  to  a  thorough  reformation 
of  religion.  The  secret  correspondence  connected  with  the 
Waller  plot  passed  through  his  hands.  He  was  present  with  the 

1  His  speeches  are  in  the  Thomason  Tracts,  E  196  (9),  (26),  (36). 
*  Clarendon's  Hist.  iv.  94,  note. 


king  at  Edgehill  and  at  the  siege  of  Gloucester.  By  this  time 
the  hopelessness  of  the  situation  had  completely  overwhelmed 
him.  The  aims  and  principles  of  neither  party  in  the  conflict 
could  satisfy  a  man  of  Falkland's  high  ideals  and  intellectual 
vision.  His  royalism  could  not  suffer  the  substitution,  as  the 
controlling  power  in  the  state,  of  a  parliament  for  the  monarchy, 
nor  his  conservatism  the  revolutionary  changes  in  church  and 
state  now  insisted  upon  by  the  opposite  faction.  The  fatal 
character  and  policy  of  the  king,  the  most  incapable  of  men 
and  yet  the  man  upon  whom  all  depended,  must  have  been  by 
now  thoroughly  understood  by  Falkland.  Compromise  had  long 
been  out  of  the  question.  The  victory  of  either  side  could  only 
bring  misery;  and  the  prolongation  of  the  war  was  a  prospect 
equally  unhappy.  Nor  could  Falkland  find  any  support  or 
consolation  in  his  own  inward  convictions  or  principles.  His 
ideals  and  hopes  were  now  destroyed,  and  he  had  no  definite 
political  convictions  such  as  inspired  and  strengthened  Strafford 
and  Pym.  In  fact  his  sensitive  nature  shrank  from  contact 
with  the  practical  politics  of  the  day  and  prevented  his  rise  to 
the  place  of  a  leader  or  a  statesman.  Clarendon  has  recorded 
his  final  relapse  into  despair.  "  Sitting  amongst  his  friends, 
often,  after  a  deep  silence  and  frequent  sighs  (he)  would  with  a 
shrill  and  sad  accent  ingeminate  the  word  Peace,  Peace,  and 
would  passionately  profess  that  the  very  agony  of  the  war, 
and  the  view  of  the  calamities  and  desolation  the  kingdom  did 
and  must  endure,  took  his  sleep  from  him  and  would  shortly 
break  his  heart."  At  Gloucester  he  had  in  vain  exposed  himself 
to  risks.  On  the  morning  of  the  battle  of  Newbury,  on  the  2oth 
of  September  1643,  he  declared  to  his  friends,  who  would  have 
dissuaded  him  from  taking  part  in  the  fight,  that  "  he  was  weary 
of  the  times  and  foresaw  much  misery  to  his  own  Country  and 
did  believe  he  should  be  out  of  it  ere  night."3  He  served  during 
the  engagement  as  a  volunteer  under  Sir  John  Byron,  and, 
riding  alone  at  a  gap  in  a  hedge  commanded  by  the  enemy's  fire, 
was  immediately  killed. 

His  death  took  place  at  the  early  age  of  33,  which  should  be 
borne  in  mind  in  every  estimate  of  his  career  and  character. 
He  was  succeeded  in  the  title  by  his  eldest  son  Lucius,  3rd 
Viscount  Falkland,  his  male  descent  becoming  extinct  in  the 
person  of  Anthony,  5th  viscount,  in  1694,  when  the  viscounty 
passed  to  Lucius  Henry  (1687-1730),  a  descendant  of  the  first 
viscount,  and  the  present  peer  is  his  direct  descendant. 

Falkland  wrote  a  Discourse  of  Infallibility,  published  in  1646 
(Thomason  Tracts,  E  361  [i]),  reprinted  in  1650,  in  1651  (E  634 
[i])  ed.  by  Triplet  with  replies,  and  in  1660  with  the  addition 
of  two  discourses  on  episcopacy  by  Falkland.  This  is  a  work 
of  some  importance  in  theological  controversy,  the  general  argu- 
ment being  that  "  to  those  who  follow  their  reason  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Scriptures  God  will  either  give  his  grace  for 
assistance  to  find  the  truth  or  his  pardon  if  they  miss  it.  And 
then  this  supposed  necessity  of  an  infallible  guide  (with  the 
supposed  damnation  for  the  want  of  it)  fall  together  to  the 
ground."  Also  A  Letter  ...  jo  Sept.  1642  concerning  the  late 
conflict  before  Worcester  (1642);  and  Poems,  in  which  he  shows 
himself  a  follower  of  Ben  Jonson,  edited  by  A.  B.  Grosart  in 
Miscellanies  of  the  Fuller  Worthies  Library,  vol.  iii.  (1871). 

The  chief  interest  in  Falkland  does  not  lie  in  his  writings  or  in 
the  incidents  of  his  career,  but  in  his  character  and  the  distinction 
of  his  intellectual  position,  in  his  isolation  from  his  contemporaries 
seeking  reformation  in  the  inward  and  spiritual  life  of  the  church 
and  state  and  not  in  its  outward  and  material  form,  and  as  the 
leader  and  chief  of  rationalism  in  an  age  dominated  by  violent 
intolerance  and  narrow  dogmatism.  His  personal  appearance, 
according  to  Clarendon,  was  insignificant,  "  in  no  degree  attrac- 
tive or  promising.  His  stature  was  low  and  smaller  than  most 
men;  his  motion  not  graceful  ...  but  that  little  person  and 
small  stature  was  quickly  found  to  contain  a  great  heart.  .  . 
all  mankind  could  not  but  admire  and  love  him."4 

AUTHORITIES. — There  is  a  Life  and  Times  by  T.  A.  R.  Marriott 
(1907);  see  also  S.  R.  Gardiner's  Hist,  of  England;  Hist,  of  the 
Civil  War;  the  same  author's  article  in  the  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biography 


3  Whitelocke,  p.  73. 


« Life,  i.  37. 


FALKLAND— FALKLAND  ISLANDS 


and  references  there  given;  Clarendon's  Hist,  of  the  Rebellion, 
passim  and  esp.  vii.  217-234;  Clarendon's  Life;  Rational  Theology 
...  in  the  i^th  Century,  by  John  Tulloch  (1874),  '•  7^;  Life  of 
Lady  Falkland  from  a  MS.  in  the  imperial  library  at  Lille  (1861); 
Life  of  the  same  by  Lady  Georgiana  Fullerton  (1883) ;  Jonson's  Ode 
Pindaric  to  the  memory  and  friendship  of  .  .  .  Sir  Lucius  Gary  and 
Sir  Henry  Morrison;  W.  J.  Courthope,  History  of  English  Poetry 
(1903),  iii.  291;  Life  of  Falkland,  by  W.  H.  Trale  in  the  English- 
man's Library,  vol.  22  (1842);  D.  Lloyd,  Memoires  (1668),  -531; 
and  the  Life  of  Falkland,  by  Lady  M.  T.  Lewis  in  Lives  of  the 
Friends  .  .  .  of  Lord  Chancellor  Clarendon,  vol.  i.  p.  3.  John 
Duncan's  account  of  Lettice,  Lady  Falkland,  was  edited  in  1908  by 
M.  F.  Howard.  (P.  C.  Y.) 

FALKLAND,  a  royal  and  police  burgh  of  Fifeshire,  Scotland. 
Pop.  (1901)  809.  It  is  situated  at  the  northern  base  of  the 
hill  of  East  Lomond  (1471  ft.  high),  25  m.  from  Falkland 
Road  station  (with  which  there  is  communication  by  'bus),  on 
the  North  British  railway  company's  main  line  to  Dundee, 
21  m.  N.  of  Edinburgh  as  the  crow  flies.  It  is  an  old-world- 
looking  place,  many  of  the  ancient  houses  still  standing.  Its 
industries  are  chiefly  concerned  with  the  weaving  of  linen  and 
the  brewing  of  ale,  for  which  it  was  once  specially  noted;  and 
it  has  few  public  buildings  save  the  town  hall.  The  palace  of 
the  Stuarts,  however — more  beautiful  than  Holyrood  and  quite 
as  romantic — lends  the  spot  its  fame  and  charm.  The  older 
edifice  that  occupied  this  site  was  a  hunting-tower  of  the  Mac- 
duffs,  earls  of  Fife,  and  was  transferred  with  the  earldom  in  1371 
to  Robert  Stewart,  earl  of  Fife  and  Menteith,  afterwards  duke 
of  Albany,  second  son  of  Robert  II.  Because  of  his  father's 
long  illness  and  the  incapacity  of  Robert  III.,  his  brother  Albany 
was  during  many  years  virtual  ruler  of  Scotland,  and,  in  the  hope 
of  securing  the  crown,  caused  the  heir-apparent — David,  duke 
of  Rothesay — to  be  conveyed  to  the  castle  by  force  and  there 
starved  to  death,  in  1402.  The  conversion  of  the  Thane's  tower 
into  the  existing  palace  was  begun  by  James  III.  and  completed 
in  1538.  The  western  part  had  two  round  towers,  similar  to 
those  at  Holyrood,  which  were  also  built  by  James  V.,  and  the 
southern  elevation  was  ornamented  with  niches  and  statues, 
giving  it  a  close  resemblance  to  the  Perpendicular  style  of  the 
semi-ecclesiastical  architecture  of  England.  The  palace  soon 
became  the  favourite  summer  residence  of  the  Stuarts.  From  it 
James  V.  when  a  boy  fled  to  Stirling  by  night  from  the  custody 
of  the  earl  of  Angus,  and  in  it  he  died  in  1542. 

Here,  too,  Queen  Mary  spent  some  of  her  happiest  days, 
playing  the  country  girl  in  its  parks  and  woods.  When  the  court 
was  held  at  Falkland  the  Green  was  the  daily  scene  of  revelry 
and  dance,  and  "  To  be  Falkland  bred  "  was  a  proverb  that  then 
came  into  vogue  to  designate  a  courtier.  James  VI.  delighted 
in  the  palace  and  especially  in  the  deer.  He  upset  the  schemes 
of  the  Gowrie  conspirators  by  escaping  from  Falkland  to  St 
Andrews,  and  it  was  while  His  Majesty  was  residing  in  the 
palace  that  the  fifth  earl  of  Bothwell,  in  1592,  attempted  to 
kidnap  him.  In  September  1 596  an  intensely  dramatic  interview 
took  place  in  the  palace  between  the  king  and  Andrew  Melville 
and  other  Presbyterian  ministers  sent  by  the  general  assembly 
at  Cupar  to  remonstrate  with  him  on  allowing  the  Roman 
Catholic  lords  to  return  to  Scotland.  In  1654  the  eastern  wing 
was  accidentally  destroyed  by  fire,  during  its  tenancy  by  the 
soldiers  of  Cromwell,  by  whose  orders  the  fine  old  oaks  in  the 
park  were  cut  down  for  the  building  of  a  fort  at  Perth.  Even 
in  its  neglected  state  the  mansion  impressed  Defoe,  who  declared 
the  Scottish  kings  owned  more  palaces  than  their  English 
brothers.  In  1715  Rob  Roy  garrisoned  the  palace  and  failed 
not  to  levy  dues  on  the  burgh  and  neighbourhood.  Signs  of 
decay  were  more  evident  when  Thomas  Carlyle  saw  it,  for  he 
likened  it  to  "a  black  old  bit  of  coffin  or  protrusive  shin-bone 
striking  through  the  soil  of  the  dead  past."  But  a  munificent 
protector  at  length  appeared  in  the  person  of  the  third  marquess 
of  Bute,  who  acquired  the  estate  and  buildings  in  1888,  and  forth- 
with undertook  the  restoration  of  the  palace. 

Falkland  became  a  royal  burgh  in  1458  and  its  charter  was 
renewed  in  1595,  and  before  the  earlier  date  it  had  been  a  seat 
of  the  Templars.  It  gives  the  title  of  viscount  to  the  English  family 
of  Gary,  the  patent  having  been  granted  in  1620  by  James  VI. 


The  town's  most  distinguished  native  was  Richard  Cameron, 
the  Covenanter.  His  house — a  three-storeyed  structure  with 
yellow  harled  front  and  thatched  roof — still  stands  on  the  south 
side  of  the  square  in  the  main  street.  The  Hackstons  of  Rathillet 
also  had  a  house  in  Falkland. 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS  (Fr.  Malouines;  Span.  Malmnas),  a 
group  of  islands  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,  belonging  to 
Britain,  and  lying  about  250  m.  E.  of  the  nearest  point  in  the 
mainland  of  South  America,  between  51°  and  53°  S.,  and  57°  40' 
and  61°  25'  W.  With  the  uninhabited  dependency  of  South 
Georgia  Island,  to  the  E.S.E.,  they  form  the  most  southerly 
colony  of  the  British  empire.  The  islands,  inclusive  of  rocks  and 
reefs,  exceed  100  in  number  and  have  a  total  area  of  6500 
sq.  m.  ;  but  only  two  are  of  considerable  size;  the  largest  of 
these,  East  Falkland,  is  95  m.  in  extreme  length,  with  an  average 
width  of  40  m.,  and  the  smaller,  West  Falkland,  is  80  m.  long 
and  about  25  m.  wide.  The  area  of  East  Falkland  is  about  3000 
sq.  m.,  and  that  of  West  Falkland  2300.  Most  of  the  others 
are  mere  islets,  the  largest  16  m.  long  by  8  m.  wide.  The  two 
principal  islands  are  separated  by  Falkland  Sound,  a  narrow 
strait  from  18  to  25  m.  in  width,  running  nearly  N.E.  and  S.W. 
The  general  appearance  of  the  islands  is  not  unlike  that  of  one 
of  the  outer  Hebrides.  The  general  colouring,  a  faded  brown, 
is  somewhat  dreary,  but  the  mountain  heights  and  promontories 
of  the  west  display  some  grandeur  of  outline.  The  coast -line 
of  both  main  islands  is  deeply  indented  and  many  of  the  bays 
and  inlets  form  secure  and  well-protected  harbours,  some  of 
which,  however,  are  difficult  of  access  to  sailing  ships. 

East  Falkland  is  almost  bisected  by  two  deep  fjords,  Choiseul 
and  Brenton  Sounds,  which  leave  the  northern  and  southern 
portions  connected  only  by  an  isthmus  a  mile  and  a  half  wide. 
The  northern  portion  is  hilly,  and  is  crossed  by  a  rugged  range, 
the  Wickham  Heights,  running  east  and  west,  and  rising  in  some 
places  to  a  height  of  nearly  2000  ft.  The  remainder  of  the  island 
consists  chiefly  of  low  undulating  ground,  a  mixture  of  pasture 
and  morass,  with  many  shallow  freshwater  tarns,  and  small 
streams  running  in  the  valleys.  Two  fine  inlets,  Berkeley 
Sound  and  Port  William,  run  far  into  the  land  at  the  north- 
eastern extremity  of  the  island.  Port  Louis,  formerly  the  seat 
of  government,  is  at  the  head  of  Berkeley  Sound,  but  the 
anchorage  there  having  been  found  rather  too  exposed,  about 
the  year  1844  a  town  was  laid  out,  and  the  necessary  public 
buildings  were  erected  on  Stanley  Harbour,  a  sheltered  recess 
within  Port  William.  West  Falkland  is  more  hilly  near  the 
east  island;  the  principal  mountain  range,  the  Hornby  Hills, 
runs  north  and  south  parallel  with  Falkland  Sound.  Mount 
Adam,  the  highest  hill  in  the  islands,  is  2315  ft.  high. 

The  little  town  of  Stanley  is  built  along  the  south  shore  of 
Stanley  harbour  and  stretches  a  short  way  up  the  slope;  it 
has  a  population  of  little  more  than  900.  The  houses,  mostly 
white  with  coloured  roofs,  are  generally  built  of  wood  and  iron, 
and  have  glazed  porches,  gay  with  fuchsias  and  pelargoniums. 
Government  House,  grey,  stone-built  and  slated,  calls  to  mind 
a  manse  in  Shetland  or  Orkney.  The  government  barrack  is  a 
rather  imposing  structure  in  the  middle  of  the  town,  as  is  the 
cathedral  church  to  the  east,  built  of  stone  and  buttressed  with 
brick.  Next  to  Stanley  the  most  important  place  on  East 
Falkland  is  Darwin  on  Choiseul  Sound — a  village  of  Scottish 
shepherds  and  a  station  of  the  Falkland  Island  Company. 

The  Falkland  Islands  consist  entirely,  so  far  as  is  known,  of 
the  older  Palaeozoic  rocks,  Lower  Devonian  or  Upper  Silurian, 
slightly  metamorphosed  and  a  good  deal  crumpled  and  distorted, 
in  the  low  grounds  clay  slate  and  soft  sandstone,  and  on  the 
ridges  hardened  sandstone  passing  into  the  conspicuous  white 
quartzites.  There  do  not  seem  to  be  any  minerals  of  value, 
and  the  rocks  are  not  such  as  to  indicate  any  probability  of  their 
discovery.  Galena  is  found  in  small  quantity,  and  in  some  places 
it  contains  a  large  percentage  of  silver.  The  dark  bituminous 
layers  of  clay  slate,  which  occur  intercalated  among  the  quartzites, 
have  led,  here  as  elsewhere,  to  the  hope  of  coming  upon  a  seam 
of  coal,  but  it  is  contrary  to  experience  that  coal  of  any  value 
should  be  found  in  rocks  of  that  age. 


FALKLAND  ISLANDS 


Many  of  the  valleys  in  the  Falklands  are  occupied  by  pale 
glistening  masses  which  at  a  little  distance  much  resemble  small 
glaciers.  Examined  more  closely  these  are  found  to  be  vast 
accumulations  of  blocks  of  quartzite,  irregular  in  form,  but  having 
a  tendency  to  a  rude  diamond  shape,  from  2  to  20  ft.  in  length, 
and  half  as  much  in  width,  and  of  a  thickness  corresponding 
with  that  of  the  quartzite  ridges  on  the  hills  above.  The  blocks 
are  angular,  and  rest  irregularly  one  upon  another,  supported 
in  all  positions  by  the  angles  and  edges  of  those  beneath.  The 
whole  mass  looks  as  if  it  were,  as  it  is,  slowly  sliding  down  the 
valley  to  the  sea.  These  "  stone  runs  "  are  looked  upon  with 
great  wonder  by  the  shifting  population  of  the  Falklands,  and 
they  are  shown  to  visitors  with  many  strange  speculations  as 
to  their  mode  of  formation.  Their  origin  is  attributed  by  some 
to  the  moraine  formation  of  former  glaciers.  Another  out  of 
many  theories 1  is  that  the  hard  beds  of  quartzite  are  denuded 
by  the  disintegration  of  the  softer  layers.  Their  support  being 
removed  they  break  away  in  the  direction  of  natural  joints,  and 
the  fragments  fall  down  the  slope  upon  the  vegetable  soil. 
This  soil  is  spongy,  and,  undergoing  alternate  contraction  and 
expansion  from  being  alternately  comparatively  dry  and  satur- 
ated with  moisture,  allows  the  heavy  blocks  to  slip  down  by  their 
own  weight  into  the  valley,  where  they  become  piled  up,  the 
valley  stream  afterwards  removing  the  soil  from  among  and  over 
them. 

The  Falkland  Islands  correspond  very  nearly  in  latitude  in 
the  southern  hemisphere  with  London  in  the  northern,  but 
the  climatic  influences  are  very  different.  The  temperature  is 
equable,  the  average  of  the  two  midsummer  months  being  about 
47°  Fahr.,  and  that  of  the  two  midwinter  months  37°  Fahr.  The 
extreme  frosts  and  heats  of  the  English  climate  are  unknown, 
but  occasional  heavy  snow-falls  occur,  and  the  sea  in  shallow 
inlets  is  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  ice.  The  sky  is  almost 
constantly  overcast,  and  rain  falls,  mostly  in  a  drizzle  and  in 
frequent  showers,  on  about  250  days  in  the  year.  The  rainfall  is 
not  great,  only  about  20  in.,  but  the  mean  humidity  for  the  year 
is  80,  saturation  being  100.  November  is  considered  the  only 
dry  month.  The  prevalent  winds  from  the  west,  south-west  and 
south  blow  continuously,  at  times  approaching  the  force  of  a 
hurricane.  "  A  region  more  exposed  to  storms  both  in  summer 
and  winter  it  would  be  difficult  to  mention  "  (Fitzroy,  Voyages 
of"  Adventure  "  and  "  Beagle,"  ii.  228).  The  fragments  of  many 
wrecks  emphasize  the  dangers  of  navigation,  which  are  increased 
by  the  absence  of  beacons,  the  only  lighthouse  being  that 
maintained  by  the  Board  of  Trade  on  Cape  Pembroke  near  the 
principal  settlement.  Kelp  is  a  natural  danger-signal,  and  the 
sunken  rock,  "  Uranie,"  is  reputed  to  be  the  only  one  not  buoyed 
by  the  giant  seaweed. 

Of  aboriginal  human  inhabitants  there  is  no  trace  in  the  Falk- 
lands, and  the  land  fauna  is  very  scanty.  A  small  wolf,  the 
loup-renard  of  de  Bougainville,  is  extinct,  the  last  having  been 
seen  about  1875  on  the  West  Falkland.  Some  herds  of  cattle 
and  horses  run  wild;  but  these  were,  of  course,  introduced,  as 
were  also  the  wild  hogs,  the  numerous  rabbits  and  the  less 
common  hares.  All  these  have  greatly  declined  in  numbers, 
being  profitably  replaced  by  sheep.  Land-birds  are  few  in  kind, 
and  are  mostly  strays  from  South  America.  They  include, 
however,  the  snipe  and  military  starling,  which  on  account  of 
its  scarlet  breast  is  locally  known  as  the  robin.  Sea-birds  are 
abundant,  and,  probably  from  the  islands  having  been  com- 
paratively lately  peopled,  they  are  singularly  tame.  Gulls  and 
amphibious  birds  abound  in  large  variety;  three  kinds  of 
penguin  have  their  rookeries  and  breed  here,  migrating  yearly 
for  some  months  to  the  South  American  mainland.  Stray 
specimens  of  the  great  king  penguin  have  been  observed,  and 
there  are  also  mollymauks  (a  kind  of  albatross),  Cape  pigeons 
and  many  carrion  birds.  Kelp  and  upland  geese  abound,  the 
latter  being  edible;  and  their  shooting  affords  some  sport. 

The  Falkland  Islands  form  essentially  a  part  of  Patagonia, 
with  which  they  are  connected  by  an  elevated  submarine  plateau, 

1  See  B  Stechele,  in'Munchener  geographische  Studien,  xx.(igo6), 
and  Geographical  Journal  (December  1907). 


and  their  flora  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  Antarctic  South 
America.  The  trees  which  form  dense  forest  and  scrub  in 
southern  Patagonia  and  in  Fuegia  are  absent,  and  one  of  the 
largest  plants  on  the  islands  is  a  gigantic  woolly  ragweed  (Senecio 
candicans)  which  attains  in  some  places  a  height  of  3  to  4  ft. 
A  half -shrubby  veronica  (V.  decussata)  is  found  in  some  parts, 
and  has.  also  received  cultivation.  The  greater  part  of  the 
"  camp  "  (the  open  country)  is  formed  of  peat,  which  in  some 
places  is  of  great  age  and  depth,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  bed 
very  dense  and  bituminous.  The  peat  is  different  in  character 
from  that  of  northern  Europe:  cellular  plants  enter  but  little 
into  its  composition,  and  it  is  formed  almost  entirely  of  the  roots 
and  stems  of  Empetrum  rubrum,  a  variety  of  the  common  crow- 
berry  of  the  Scottish  hills  with  red  berries,  called  by  the  Falk- 
landers  the  "  diddle-dee  "  berry  ;  of  Myrtus  nummularia,  a 
little  creeping  myrtle  whose  leaves  are  used  by  the  shepherds 
as  a  substitute  for  tea;  of  Calt/ia  appendiculata,  a  dwarf  species 
of  marsh-marigold;  and  of  some  sedges  and  sedge-like  plants, 
such  as  A  stelia  pumila,  Gaimardia  australis  and  Bostkoma 
grandiflora.  Peat  is  largely  used  as  fuel,  coal  being  obtained 
only  at  a  cost  of  £3  a  ton. 

Two  vegetable  products,  the  "  balsam  bog  "  (Bolar  glebaria) 
and  the  "  tussock  grass  "  (Dactylis  caespitosa]  have  been  objects 
of  curiosity  and  interest  ever  since  the  first  accounts  of  the  islands 
were  given.  The  first  is  a  huge  mass  of  a  bright  green  colour, 
living  to  a  great  age,  and  when  dead  becoming  of  a  grey  and 
stony  appearance.  When  cut  open,  it  displays  an  infinity  of  tiny 
leaf-buds  and  stems,  and  at  intervals  there  exudes  from  it  an 
aromatic  resin,  which  from  its  astringent  properties  is  used  by 
the  shepherds  as  a  vulnerary,  but  has  not  been  converted  to  any 
commercial  purpose.  The  "  tussock  grass  "  is  a  wonderful  and 
most  valuable  natural  production,  which,  owing  to  the  intro- 
duction of  stock,  has  become  extinct  in  the  two  main  islands,  but 
still  flourishes  elsewhere  in  the  group.  It  is  a  reed-like  grass, 
which  grows  in  dense  tufts  from  6  to  10  ft.  high  from  stool-like 
root-crowns.  It  forms  excellent  fodder  for  cattle,  and  is  regularly 
gathered  for  that  purpose.  It  is  of  beautiful  appearance,  and 
the  almost  tropical  profusion  of  its  growth  may  have  led  to  the 
early  erroneous  reports  of  the  densely-wooded  nature  of  these 
islands. 

The  population  slightly  exceeds  2000.  The  large  majority  of 
the  inhabitants  live  in  the  East  Island,  and  the  predominating 
element  is  Scottish — Scottish  shepherds  having  superseded  the 
South  American  Gauchos.  In  1867  there  were  no  settlers  on 
the  west  island,  and  the  government  issued  a  proclamation 
offering  leases  of  grazing  stations  on  very  moderate  terms.  In 
1868  all  the  available  land  was  occupied.  These  lands  are  fairly 
healthy,  the  principal  drawback  being  the  virulent  form  assumed 
by  simple  epidemic  maladies.  The  occupation  of  the  inhabitants 
is  almost  entirely  pastoral,  and  the  principal  industry  is  sheep- 
farming.  Wool  forms  by  far  the  largest  export,  and  tallow,  hides, 
bones  and  frozen  mutton  are  also  exported.  Trade  is  carried  on 
almost  entirely  with  the  United  Kingdom;  the  approximate 
annual  value  of  exports  is  £i  20,000,  and  of  imports  a  little  more 
than  half  that  sum.  The  Falkland  Islands  Company,  having  its 
headquarters  at  Stanley  and  an  important  station  in  the  camp 
at  Darwin,  carries  on  an  extensive  business  in  sheep-farming 
and  the  dependent  industries,  and  in  the  general  import  trade. 
The  development  of  this  undertaking  necessitated  the  establish- 
ment of  stores  and  workshops  at  Stanley,  and  ships  can  be 
repaired  and  provided  in  every  way  ;  a  matter  of  importance 
since  not  a  few  vessels,  after  suffering  injury  during  heavy 
weather  off  Cape  Horn,  call  on  the  Falklands  in  distress.  The 
maintenance  of  the  requisite  plant  and  the  high  wages  current 
render  such  repairs  somewhat  costly.  A  former  trade  in  oil  and 
sealskin  has  decayed,  owing  to  the  smaller  number  of  whales 
and  seals  remaining  about  the  islands.  Communications  are 
maintained  on  horseback  and  by  water,  and  there  are  no  roads 
except  at  Stanley.  There  is  a  monthly  mail  to  and  from  England , 
the  passage  occupying  about  four  weeks. 

The  Falkland  Islands  are  a  crown  colony,  with  a  governor 
and  executive  and  legislative  councils.  The  legislative  council 


FALLACY 


153 


consists  of  the  governor  and  three  official  and  two  unofficial 
nominated  members,  and  the  executive  of  the  same,  with  the 
exception  that  there  is  only  one  unofficial  member.  The  colony 
is  self-supporting,  the  revenue  being  largely  derived  from  the 
drink  duties,  and  there  is  no  public  debt.  The  Falklands  are 
the  seat  of  a  colonial  bishop.  Education  is  compulsory.  The 
government  maintains  schools  and  travelling  teachers;  the 
Falkland  Islands  Company  also  maintains  a  school  at  Darwin, 
and  there  is  one  for  those  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  in  Stanley. 
There  is  also  on  Keppel  Island  a  Protestant  missionary  settlement 
for  the  training  in  agriculture  of  imported  Fuegians.  Stanley 
was  for  some  years  a  naval  station,  but  ceased  to  be  so  in 
1904. 

The  Falkland  Islands  were  first  seen  by  Davis  in  the  year  1592, 
and  Sir  Richard  Hawkins  sailed  along  their  north  shore  in  1 594. 
The  claims  of  Amerigo  Vespucci  to  a  previous  discovery  are 
doubtful.  In  1598  Sebald  de  Wert,  a  Dutchman,  visited  them, 
and  called  them  the  Sebald  Islands,  a  name  which  they  bear  on 
some  Dutch  maps.  Captain  Strong  sailed  through  between  the 
two  principal  islands  in  1690,  landed  upon  one  of  them,  and 
called  the  passage  Falkland  Sound,  and  from  this  the  group 
afterwards  took  its  English  name.  In  1764  the  French  explorer 
De  Bougainville  took  possession  of  the  islands  on  behalf  of  his 
country,  and  established  a  colony  at  Port  Louis  on  Berkeley 
Sound.  But  in  1767  France  ceded  the  islands  to  Spain,  De 
Bougainville  being  employed  as  intermediary.  Meanwhile  in 
1765  Commodore  Byron  had  taken  possession  on  the  part  of 
England  on  the  ground  of  prior  discovery,  and  had  formed  a 
settlement  at  Port  Egmont  on  the  small  island  of  Saunders. 
The  Spanish  and  English  settlers  remained  in  ignorance,  real  or 
assumed,  of  each  other's  presence  until  1769-1770,  when  Byron's 
action  was  nearly  the  cause  of  a  war  between  England  and  Spain, 
both  countries  having  armed  fleets  to  contest  the  barren  sover- 
eignty. In  1771,  however,  Spain  yielded  the  islands  to  Great 
Britain  by  convention.  As  they  had  not  been  actually  colonized 
by  England,  the  republic  of  Buenos  Aires  claimed  the  group  in 
1820,  and  subsequently  entered  into  a  dispute  with  the  United 
States  of  America  concerning  the  rights  to  the  products  of  these 
islands.  On  the  representations  of  Great  Britain  the  Buenos 
Aireans  withdrew,  and  the  British  flag  was  once  more  hoisted 
at  Port  Louis  in  1833,  and  since  that  time  the  Falkland  Islands 
have  been  a  regular  British  colony. 

In  1845  Mr  S.  Lafone,  a  wealthy  cattle  and  hide  merchant 
on  the  river  Plate,  obtained  from  government  a  grant  of  the 
southern  portion  of  the  island,  a  peninsula  600,000  acres  in 
extent,  and  possession  of  all  the  wild  cattle  on  the  island  for  a 
period  of  six  years,  for  a  payment  of  £10,000  down,  and  £20,000 
in  ten  years  from  January  i,  1852.  In  1851  Mr  Lafone's  interest 
in  Lafonia,  as  the  peninsula  came  to  be  called,  was  purchased 
for  £30,000  by  the  Falkland  Islands  Company,  which  had  been 
incorporated  by  charter  in  the  same  year. 

See  Pernety,  Journal  historique  d'une  voyage  faite  aux  ties  Ma- 
louines  en  1763  et  1764  (Berlin,  1767);  S.  Johnson,  Thoughts  on  the 
late  Transactions  respecting  Falkland's  Islands  (1771);  L.  A.  de 
Bougainville,  Voyage  autour  du  monde  (1771);  T.  Falkner,  Des- 
cription of  Patagonia  and  the  Falkland  Islands  (1774);  B.  Penrose, 
Account  of  the  last  Expedition  to  Port  Egmont  in  the  Falkland  Islands 
(1775);  Observations  on  the  Forcible  Occupation  of  Mahinas  by  the 
British  Government  in  1833  (Buenos  Ayres,  1833);  Reclamation  del 
Gobierno  de  las  provincial  Unidas  de  la  Plata  contra  el  de  S.M. 
Britanica  sobre  la  soverania  y  possesion  de  las  Islas  Mahinas  (Lon- 
don, 1841);  Fitzroy,  Narrative  of  the  Surveying  Voyage  of  H.M.S. 
"  Adventure  "  and  "  Beagle  "  (1839);  Darwin,  Voyage  of  a  Naturalist 
round  the  World  (1845);  S.  B.  Sullivan,  Description  of  the  Falkland 
Islands  (1849);  W.  Hadfield,  Brazil,  the  Falkland  Islands,  &c. 
(1854);  Wi  Parker  Snow,  Two  Years'  Cruise  off  the  Tierra.del  Fuego, 
the  Falkland  Islands,  &c.  (1857);  Sir  C.  Wyville  Thomson,  Voyage 
of  the  "  Challenger"  (1877);  C.  P.  Lucas,  Historical  Geography  of 
the  British  Colonies,  vol.  ii.  "  The  West  Indies  "  (Oxford,  1890) ; 
Colonial  Reports  Annual;  MS.  Sloane,  3295. 

FALLACY  (Lat.  fall-ax,  apt  to  mislead),  the  term  given 
generally  to  any  mistaken  statement  used  in  argument;  in 
Logic,  technically,  an  argument  which  violates  the  laws  of 
correct  demonstration.  An  argument  may  be  fallacious  in 
matter  (i.e.  misstatement  of  facts),  in  wording  (i.e.  wrong  use  of 


words),  or  in  the  process  of  inference.  Fallacies  have,  therefore, 
been  classified  as:  I.  Material,  II.  Verbal,  III.  Logical  or 
Formal;  II.  and  III.  are  often  included  under  the  general 
description  Logical,  and  in  scholastic  phraseology,  following 
Aristotle,  are  called  fallacies  in  dictione  or  in  tioce,  as  opposed 
to  material  fallacies  in  re  or  extra  diclionem. 

I.  Material. — The  classification  widely  adopted  by  modern 
logicians  and  based  on  that  of  Aristotle,  Organon  (Sophistici 
elenchi),   is  as  follows: — (i)   Fallacy  of  Accident,  i.e.  arguing 
erroneously  from  a  general  rule  to  a  particular  case,  without 
proper  regard  to  particular  conditions  which  vitiate  the  applica- 
tion of  the  general  rule;  e.g.  if  manhood  suffrage  be  the  law, 
arguing  that  a  criminal  or  a  lunatic  must,  therefore,  have  a  vote; 
(2)  Converse  Fallacy  of  Accident,  i.e.  arguing  from  a  special  case 
to  a  general  rule;  (3)  Irrelevant  Conclusion,  or  Ignoratio  Elenchi, 
wherein,  instead  of  proving  the  fact  in  dispute,  the  arguer  seeks 
to  gain  his  point  by  diverting  attention  to  some  extraneous 
fact  (as  in  the  legal  story  of  "  No  case.     Abuse  the  plaintiff's 
attorney").     Under  this  head  come  the  so-called  argumentum 
(a)  ad  hominem,  (b)  adpopulum,  (c)  adbaculum,  (d)  adverecundiam, 
common  in  platform  oratory,  in  which  the  speaker  obscures  the 
real  'issue  by  appealing  to  his  audience  on  the  grounds  of  (a) 
purely  personal  considerations,  (b)  popular  sentiment,  (c)  fear, 
(d)  conventional  propriety.     This  fallacy  has  been  illustrated 
by  ethical  or  theological  arguments  wherein  the  fear  of  punish- 
ment is  subtly  substituted  for  abstract  right  as  the  sanction  of 
moral  obligation.    (4)  Petitio  principii  (begging  the  question)  or 
Circulus  in  probando  (arguing  in  a  circle),  which  consists  in 
demonstrating  a  conclusion  by  means  of  premises  which  pre- 
suppose that  conclusion.     Jeremy  Bentham  points  out  that  this 
fallacy  may  lurk  in  a  single  word,  especially  in  an  epithet,  e.g. 
if  a  measure  were  condemned  simply  on  the  ground  that  it  is 
alleged  to  be  "  un-English  ";  (5)  Fallacy  of  the  Consequent,  really 
a  species  of  (3),  wherein  a  conclusion  is  drawn  from  premises 
which  do  not  really  support  it;  (6)  Fallacy  of  False  Cause,  or 
Non  Sequitur  ("  it  does  not  follow  "),  wherein  one  thing  is  in- 
correctly assumed  as  the  cause  of  another,  as  when  the  ancients 
attributed   a  public   calamity   to  a   meteorological   phenome- 
non; (7)  Fallacy  of  Many  Questions  (Plurium  Inlerrogationum) , 
wherein  several  questions  are  improperly  grouped  in  the  form  of 
one,  and  a  direct  categorical  answer  is  demanded,  e.g.  if  a  prosecut- 
ing counsel  asked  the  prisoner  "  What  time  was  it  when  you  met 
this  man?  "  with  the  intention  of  eliciting  the  tacit  admission 
that  such  a  meeting  had  taken  place. 

II.  Verbal  Fallacies  are  those  in  which  a  false  conclusion 
is  obtained  by  improper  or  ambiguous  use  of  words.     They 
are  generally  classified  as  follows,     (i)  Equivocation  consists  in 
employing  the  same  word  in  two  or  more  senses,  e.g.  in  a  syllogism, 
the  middle  term  being  used  in  one  sense  in  the  major  and  another 
in  the  minor  premise,  so  that  in  fact  there  are  four  not  three 
terms  ("  All  fair  things  are  honourable;     This  woman  is  fair; 
therefore  this  woman  is  honourable,"  the  second  "  fair  "  being  in 
reference  to  complexion).     (2)    Amphibology  is  the  result  of 
ambiguity  of  grammatical  structure,  e.g.  of  the  position  of  the 
adverb  "  only  "  in  careless  writers  ("  He  only  said  that,"  in 
which   sentence,   as   experience   shows,    the  adverb   has   been 
intended  to  qualify  any  one  of  the  other  three  words).     (3)  Com- 
position, a  species  of  (i),  which  results  from  the  confused  use  of 
collective  terms  ("  The  angles  of  a  triangle  are  less  than  two  right 
angles  "  might  refer  to  the  angles  separately  or  added  together). 
(4)  Division,  the  converse  of  the  preceding,  which  consists  in 
employing  the  middle  term  distributively  in  the  minor  and 
collectively  in  the  major  premise.     (5)  Accent,  which  occurs  only 
in  speaking  and  consists  of  emphasizing  the  wrong  word  in  a 
sentence  ("  He  is  a  fairly  good  pianist,"  according  to  the  emphasis 
on  the  words,  may  imply  praise  of  a  beginner's  progress,  or  an 
expert's  depreciation  of  a  popular  hero,  or  it  may  imply  that 
the  person  in  question  is  a  deplorable  violinist).   (6)  Figure  of 
Speech,  the  confusion  between  the  metaphorical  and  ordinary 
uses  of  a  word  or  phrase. 

III.  The  purely  Logical  or  Formal  fallacies  consist  in  the 
violation  of  the  formal  rules  of  the  Syllogism  (q.v.).     They  are 


154 


FALLIERES— FALLMERAYER 


(a)  fallacy  of  Four  Terms  (Quaternio  terminorum) ;  (b)  of  Un- 
distributed Middle;  (c)  of  Illicit  process  of  the  major  or  the 
minor  term;  (d)  of  Negative  Premises. 

Of  other  classifications  of  Fallacies  in  general  the  most  famous 
are  those  of  Francis  Bacon  and  J.  S.  Mill.  Bacon  (Noiium 
organum,  Aph.  i.  33,  38  sqq.)  divided  fallacies  into  four  Idola 
(Idols,  i.e.  False  Appearances),  which  summarize  the  various 
kinds  of  mistakes  to  which  the  human  intellect  is  prone  (see 
BACON,  FRANCIS).  With  these  should  be  compared  the  Ojfendicula 
of  Roger  Bacon,  contained  in  the  Opus  maius,  pt.  i.  (see  BACON, 
ROGER).  J.  S.  Mill  discussed  the  subject  in  book  v.  of  his  Logic, 
and  Jeremy  Bentham's  Book  of  Fallacies  (1824)  contains  valuable 
remarks. 

See  Rd.  Whateley's  Logic,  bk.  v. ;  A.  de  Morgan,  Formal  Logic 
(1847) ;  A.  Sidgwick,  Fallacies  (1883)  and  other  text-books.  See 
also  article  LOGIC,  and  for  fallacies  of  Induction,  see  INDUCTION. 

FALLIERES,  CLEMENT  ARM  AND  (1841-  ),  president  of 
the  French  republic,  was  born  at  Mezin  in  the  department  of 
Lot-et-Garonne,  where  his  father  was  clerk  of  the  peace.  He 
studied  law  and  became  an  advocate  at  Nerac,  beginning  his 
public  career  there  as  municipal  councillor  (1868),  afterwards 
mayor  (1871),  and  as  councillor-general  of  the  department  of 
Lot-et-Garonne  (1871).  Being  an  ardent  Republican,  he  lost 
this  position  in  May  1873  upon  the  fall  of  Thiers,  but  in  February 
1876  was  elected  deputy  for  Nerac.  In  the  chamber  he  sat  with 
the  Republican  Left,  signed  the  protestation  of  the  i8th  of  May 
1877,  and  was  re-elected  in  October  by  his  constituency.  In  1880 
he  became  under-secretary  of  state  in  the  department  of  the 
interior  in  the  Jules  Ferry  ministry  (May  1880  to  November  1881). 
From  the  7th  of  August  1882  to  the  2oth  of  February  1883  he 
was  minister  of  the  interior,  and  for  a  month  (from  the  29th 
of  January  1883)  was  premier.  His  ministry  had  to  face  the 
question  of  the  expulsion  of  the  pretenders  to  the  throne  of 
France,  owing  to  the  proclamation  by  Prince  Jerome  Napoleon 
(January  1883),  and  M.  Fallieres,  who  was  ill  at  the  time,  was 
not  able  to  face  the  storm  of  opposition,  and  resigned  when  the 
senate  rejected  his  project.  In  the  following  November,  how- 
ever, he  was  chosen  as  minister  of  public  instruction  by  Jules 
Ferry,  and  carried  out  various  reforms  in  the  school  system. 
He  resigned  with  the  ministry  in  March  1885.  Again  becoming 
minister  of  the  interior  in  the  Rouvier  cabinet  in  May  1887, 
he  exchanged  his  portfolio  in  December  for  that  of  justice.  He 
returned  to  the  ministry  of  the  interior  in  February  1889,  and 
finally  took  the  department  of  justice  from  March  1890  to 
February  1892.  In  June  1890  his  department  (Lot-et-Garonne) 
elected  him  to  the  senate  by  417  votes  to  23.  There  M.  Fallieres 
remained  somewhat  apart  from  party  struggles,  although  main- 
taining his  influence  among  the  Republicans.  In  March  1899 
he  was  elected  president  of  the  senate,  and  retained  that  position 
until  January  1906,  when  he  was  chosen  by  a  union  of  the  groups 
of  the  Left  in  both  chambers  as  candidate  for  the  presidency  of 
the  republic.  He  was  elected  on  the  first  ballot  by  449  votes 
againt  371  for  his  opponent,  Paul  Doumer. 

FALL-LINE,  in  American  geology,  a  line  marking  the  junction 
between  the  hard  rocks  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and 
the  softer  deposits  of  the  coastal  plain.  The  pre-Cambrian  and 
metamorphic  rocks  of  the  mountain  mass  form  a  continuous 
ledge  parallel  to  the  east  coast,  where  they  are  subject  to  denuda- 
tion and  form  a  series  of  "  falls  "  and  rapids  in  the  river  courses 
all  along  this  line.  The  relief  of  the  land  below  the  falls  is  very 
slight,  and  this  low  country  rarely  rises  to  a  height  of  200  ft., 
so  that  the  rivers  are  navigable  up  to  the  falls,  while  the  falls 
themselves  are  a  valuable  source  of  power.  A  line  of  cities  may 
be  traced  upon  the  map  whose  position  will  thus  be  readily 
understood  in  relation  to  the  economic  importance  of  the  fall-line. 
They  are  Trenton  on  the  Delaware,  Philadelphia  on  the  Schuyl- 
kill,  Georgetown  on  the  Potomac,  Richmond  on  the  James,  and 
Augusta  on  the  Savannah.  It  will  be  readily  understood  that 
the  softer  and  more  recent  rocks  of  the  coastal  plain  have  been 
more  easily  washed  away,  while  the  harder  rocks  of  the  moun- 
tains, owing  to  differential  denudation,  are  left  standing  high 
above  them,  and  that  the  trend  of  the  edge  of  this  great  lenticular 


mass  of  ancient  rock  is  roughly  parallel  to  that  of  the  Appalachian 
system. 

FALLMERAYER,  JAKOB  PHILIPP  (1790-1861),  German 
traveller  and  historical  investigator,  best  known  for  his  opinions 
in  regard  to  the  ethnology  of  the  modern  Greeks,  was  born, 
the  son  of  a  poor  peasant,  at  Tschotsch,  near  Brixen  in  Tirol, 
on  the  loth  of  December  1790.  In  1809  he  absconded  from  the 
cathedral  choir  school  at  Brixen  and  made  his  way  to  Salzburg, 
where  he  supported  himself  by  private  teaching  while  he  studied 
theology,  the  Semitic  languages,  and  history.  After  a  year's 
study  he  sought  to  assure  to  himself  the  peace  and  quiet  necessary 
for  a  student's  life  by  entering  the  abbey  of  Kremsmunster,  but 
difficulties  put  in  his  way  by  the  Bavarian  officials  prevented 
the  accomplishment  of  this  intention.  At  the  university  of 
Landshut,  to  which  he  removed  in  1812,  he  first  applied  himself 
to  jurisprudence,  but  soon  devoted  his  attention  exclusively 
to  history  and  philology.  His  immediate  necessities  were  pro- 
vided for  by  a  rich  patron.  During  the  Napoleonic  wars  he 
joined  the  Bavarian  infantry  as  a  subaltern  in  1813,  fought  at 
Hanau  (3oth  October  1813),  and  served  throughout  the  campaign 
in  France.  He  remained  in  the  army  of  occupation  on  the  banks 
of  the  Rhine  until  Waterloo,  when  he  spent  six  months  at 
Orleans  as  adjutant  to  General  von  Spreti.  Two  years  of  garrison 
life  at  Lindau  on  Lake  Constance  after  the  peace  were  spent  in 
the  study  of  modern  Greek,  Persian  and  Turkish. 

Resigning  his-commission  in  1818,  he  was  successively  engaged 
as  teacher  in  the  gymnasium  at  Augsburg  and  in  the  pro- 
gymnasium  and  lyceum  at  Landshut.  In  1827  he  won  the  gold 
medal  offered  by  the  university  of  Copenhagen  with  his  Geschichte 
des  Kaisertums  von  Trapezunt,  based  on  patient  investigation 
of  Greek  and  oriental  MSS.  at  Venice  and  Vienna.  The  strictures 
on  priestcraft  contained  in  the  preface  to  this  book  gave  offence 
to  the  authorities,  and  his  position  was  not  improved  by  the 
liberal  views  expressed  in  his  Geschichte  der  Halbinsel  Morea 
•wdhrend  des  Mittelalters  (Stuttgart,  1830-1836,  2  pts.).  The 
three  years  from  1831  to  1834  he  spent  in  travel  with  the  Russian 
count  Ostermann  Tolstoy,  visiting  Egypt,  Palestine,  Syria, 
Cyprus,  Rhodes,  Constantinople,  Greece  and  Naples.  On  his 
return  he  was  elected  in  1835  a  member  of  the  Royal  Bavarian 
Academy  of  Sciences,  but  he  soon  after  left  the  country  again  on 
account  of  political  troubles,  and  spent  the  greater  part  of  the 
next  four  years  in  travel,  spending  the  winter  of  1839-1840  with 
Count  Tolstoy  at  Geneva.  Constantinople,  Trebizond,  Athos, 
Macedonia,  Thessaly  and  Greece  were  visited  by  him  during 
1840-1841;  and  after  some  years'  residence  in  Munich  he 
returned  in  1847  t°  the  East,  and  travelled  in  Palestine,  Syria 
and  Asia  Minor.  The  authorities  continued  to  regard  him  with 
suspicion,  and  university  students  were  forbidden  to  attend  the 
lectures  he  delivered  at  Munich.  He  entered,  however,  into 
friendly  relations  with  the  crown  prince  Maximilian,  but  this 
intimacy  was  destroyed  by  the  events  following  on  1848.  At 
that  period  he  was  appointed  professor  of  history  in  the  Munich 
University,  and  made  a  member  of  the  national  congress  at 
Frankfort-on-Main.  He  there  joined  the  left  or  opposition  party, 
and  in  the  following  year  he  accompanied  the  rump-parlia- 
ment to  Stuttgart,  a  course  of  action  which  led  to  his  expulsion 
from  his  professorate.  During  the  winter  of  1849-1850  he 
was  an  exile  in  Switzerland,  but  the  amnesty  of  April  1850 
enabled  him  to  return  to  Munich.  He  died  on  the  26th  of 
April  1861. 

His  contributions  to  the  medieval  history  of  Greece  are  of 
great  value,  and  though  his  theory  that  the  Greeks  of  the  present 
day  are  of  Albanian  and  Slav  descent,  with  hardly  a  drop  of  true 
Greek  blood  in  their  veins,  has  not  been  accepted  in  its  entirety 
by  other  investigators,  it  has  served  to  modify  the  opinions  of 
even  his  greatest  opponents.  A  criticism  of  his  views  will  be 
found  in  Hopf's  Geschichte  Griechenlands  (reprinted  from  Ersch 
and  Gruber's  Encykl.)  and  in  Finlay's  History  of  Greece  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  Another  theory  which  he  propounded  and 
defended  with  great  vigour  was  that  the  capture  of  Constanti- 
nople by  Russia  was  inevitable,  and  would  lead  to  the  absorption 
by  the  Russian  empire  of  the  whole  of  the  Balkan  and  Grecian 


FALLOPIUS— FALL  RIVER 


peninsula;  and  that  this  extended  empire  would  constitute  a 
standing  menace  to  the  western  Germanic  nations.  These  views 
he  expressed  in  a  series  of  brilliant  articles  in  German  journals. 
His  most  important  contribution  to  learning  remains  his  history 
of  the  empire  of  Trebizond.  Prior  to  his  discovery  of  the  chronicle 
of  Michael  Panaretos,  covering  the  dominion  of  Alexus  Comnenus 
and  his  successors  from  1204  to  1426,  the  history  of  this  medieval 
empire  was  practically  unknown. 

His  works  are^Geschichte  des  Kaiserthums  Trapezunt  (Munich, 
1827-1848) ;  Geschichte  der  Halbinsel  Morea  im  Mittelalter  (Stuttgart, 
1830-1836);  Uber  die  Entstehung  der  Neugriechen  (Stuttgart,  1835); 
"  Originalfragmente,  Chroniken,  u.s.w.,  zur  Geschichte  des  K. 
Trapezunts  "  (Munich,  1843),  in  Abhandl.  der  hist.  Classe  der  K. 
Bayerisch.  Akad.  v.  Wiss, ;  Fragments  aus  dem  Orient  (Stuttgart, 
1845);  Denkschrift  iiber  Golgotha,  und  das  heilige  Grab  (Munich, 
1852),  and  Das  Todte  Meer  (1853) — both  of  which  had  appeared  in 
the  Abhandlungen  of  the  Academy;  Das  albanesische  Element  in 
Griechenland,  iii.  parts,  in  the  Abhandl.  for  1860-1866.  After  his 
death  there  appeared  at  Leipzig  in  1861,  under  the  editorship 
of  G.  M.  Thomas,  three  volumes  of  Gesammelte  Werke,  containing 
Neue  Fragrmnte  aus  dem  Orient,  Kritische  Versuche,  and  Studien 
und  Erinnerungen  aus  meinem  Leben.  A  sketch  of  his  life  will  also 
be  found  in  L.  Steub,  Herbsttage  in  Tyrol  (Munich,  1867). 

FALLOPIUS  (or  FALLOPIO),  GABRIELLO  (1523-1562),  Italian 
anatomist,  was  born  about  1523  at  Modena,  where  he  became 
a  canon  of  the  cathedral.  He  studied  medicine  at  Ferrara,  and, 
after  a  European  tour,  became  teacher  of  anatomy  in  that  city. 
He  thence  removed  to  Pisa,  and  from  Pisa,  at  the  instance  of 
Cosmo  I.,  grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  to  Padua,  where,  besides  the 
chairs  of  anatomy  and  surgery  and  of  botany,  he  held  the  office 
of  superintendent  of  the  new  botanical  garden.  He  died  at 
Padua  on  the  gib.  of  October  1562.  Only  one  treatise  by 
Fallopius  appeared  during  his  lifetime,  namely  the  Obseriiationes 
anatomicae  (Venice,  1561).  His  collected  works,  Opera  genuina 
omnia,  were  published  at  Venice  in  1584.  (See  ANATOMY.) 

FALLOUX,  FREDERIC  ALFRED  PIERRE,  COMTE  DE  (1811- 
1886),  French  politician  and  author,  was  born  at  Angers  on 
the  nth  of  May  1811.  His  father  had  been  ennobled  by 
Charles  X.,  and  Falloux  began  his  career  as  a  Legitimist  and 
clerical  journalist  under  the  influence  of  Mme  Swetchine.  In 
1846  he  entered  the  legislature  as  deputy  for  Maine-et-Loire, 
and  with  many  other  ultra-Catholics  he  gave  real  or  pretended 
support  to  the  revolution  of  1848.  Louis  Napoleon  made  him 
minister  of  education  in  1849,  but  disagreements  with  the 
president  led  to  his  resignation  within  a  year.  He  had  neverthe- 
less secured  the  passage  of  the  Loi  Falloux  (March  15,  1850) 
for  the  organization  of  primary  and  secondary  education.  This 
law  provided  that  the  clergy  and  members  of  ecclesiastical 
orders,  male  and  female,  might  exercise  the  profession  of  teaching 
without  producing  any  further  qualification.  This  exemption 
was  extended  even  to  priests  who  taught  in  secondary  schools, 
where  a  university  degree  was  exacted  from  lay  teachers.  The 
primary  schools  were  put  under  the  management  of  the  cures. 
Falloux  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1856.  His  failure 
to  secure  re-election  to  the  legislature  in  1866,  1869,  1870  and 
1871  was  due  to  the  opposition  of  the  stricter  Legitimists,  who 
viewed  with  suspicion  his  attempts  to  reconcile  the  Orleans 
princes  with  Henri,  comte  de  Chambord.  In  spite  of  his  failure 
to  enter  the  National  Assembly  his  influence  was  very  great, 
and  was  increased  by  the  intimacy  of  his  personal  relations  with 
Thiers.  B  ut  in  1 8  7  2  he  offended  both  sections  of  the  monarchical 
party  at  a  conference  arranged  in  the  hope  of  effecting  a  fusion 
between  the  partisans  of  the  comte  de  Chambord  and  of  the 
Orleans  princes,  divided  on  the  vexed  question  of  the  flag.  He 
suggested  that  the  comte  de  Chambord  might  recede  from  his 
position  with  dignity  at  the  desire  of  the  National  Assembly, 
and  not  content  with  this  encroachment  on  royalist  principles, 
he  insinuated  the  possibility  of  a  transitional  stage  with  the  due 
d'Aumale  as  president  of  the  republic.  His  disgrace  was  so 
complete  that  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  bishop  of  Angers 
in  1876.  He  died  on  the  i6th  of  January  1886. 

Of  his  numerous  works  the  best  known  are  his  Histoire  de 
Louis  XVI  (1840);  Histoire  de  Saint  Pie  (1845);  De  la  contre- 
revolution  (1876);  and  the  posthumous  Memoires  d'un  royahste 
(2  vols.,  1888). 


FALLOW,  land  ploughed  and  tilled,  but  left  unsown,  usually 
for  a  year,  in  order,  on  the  one  hand,  to  disintegrate,  aerate 
and  free  it  from  weeds,  and,  on  the  other,  to  allow  it  to  re- 
cuperate. The  word  was  probably  early  confused  with  "  fallow  " 
(from  O.  Eng.  fealu,  probably  cognate  with  Gr.  iroXtos,  grey), 
of  a  pale-brown  or  yellow  colour,  often  applied  to  soil  left  untilled 
and  unsown,  but  chiefly  seen  in  the  name  of  the  "  fallow  deer." 
The  true  derivation  is  from  the  O.  Eng.  fealga,  only  found  in  the 
plural,  a  harrow,  and  the  ultimate  origin  is  a  Teutonic  root 
meaning  "  to  plough,"  cf.  the  German  falgen.  The  recognition 
that  continuous  growing  of  wheat  on  the  same  area  of  land  robs 
the  soil  of  its  fertility  was  universal  among  ancient  peoples,  and 
the  practice  of  "  fallowing  "  or  resting  the  soil  is  as  old  as 
agriculture  itself.  The  "  Sabbath  rest  "  ordered  to  be  given 
every  seventh  year  to  the  land  by  the  Mosaic  law  is  a  classical 
instance  of  the  "  fallow."  Improvements  in  crop  rotations  and 
manuring  have  diminished  the  necessity  of  the  "  bare  fallow," 
which  is  uneconomical  because  the  land  is  left  unproductive, 
and  because  the  nitrates  in  the  soil  unintercepted  by  the  roots  of 
plants  are  washed  away  in  the  drainage  waters.  At  the  present 
time  bare  fallowing  is,  in  general,  only  advisable  on  stiff  soils 
and  in  dry  climates.  A  "  green  fallow  "  is  land  planted  with 
turnips,  potatoes  or  some  similar  crop  in  rows,  the  space  between 
which  may  be  cleared  of  weeds  by  hoeing.  The  "  bastard 
fallow  "  is  a  modification  of  the  bare  fallow,  effected  by  the 
growth  of  rye,  vetches,  or  some  other  rapidly  growing  crop, 
sown  in  autumn  and  fed  off  in  spring,  the  land  then  undergoing 
the  processes  of  ploughing,  grubbing  and  harrowing  usual  in  the 
bare  fallow. 

FALLOW-DEER  (that  is,  DUN  DEER,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  red  deer,  Cervus  [Dama]  damn),  a  medium-sized  repre- 
sentative of  the  family  Ceruidae,  characterized  by  its  expanded 
or  palmated  antlers,  which  generally  have  no  bez-tine,  rather 
long  tail  (black  above  and  white  below),  and  a  coat  spotted  with 
white  in  summer  but  uniformly  coloured  in  winter.  The  shoulder 
height  is  about  3  fi.  The  species  is  semi-domesticated  in  British 
parks,  and  occurs  wild  in  western  Asia,  North  Africa,  the  south 
of  Europe  and  Sardinia.  In  prehistoric  times  it  occurred 
throughout  northern  and  central  Europe.  One  park-breed  has 
no  spots.  Bucks  and  does  live  apart  except  during  the  pairing- 
season;  and  the  doe  produces  one  or  two,  and  sometimes  three 
fawns  at  a  birth.  These  deer  are  particularly  fond  of  horse- 
chestnuts,  which  the  stags  are  said  to  endeavour  to  procure  by 
striking  at  the  branches  with  their  antlers.  The  Persian  fallow- 
deer  (C.  [D.]  mesopotamicus),  a  native  of  the  mountains  of 
Luristan,  is  larger  than  the  typical  species,  and  has  a  brighter 
coat,  differing  in  some  details  of  colouring.  The  antlers  have 
the  trez-tine  near  the  small  brow-tine,  and  the  palmation 
beginning  near  the  former.  Here  may  be  mentioned  the  gigantic 
fossil  deer  commonly  known  as  the  Irish  elk,  which  is  perhaps  a 
giant  type  of  fallow-deer,  and  if  so  should  be  known  as  Cervus 
(Dama)  giganteus.  If  a  distinct  type,  its  title  should  be  C. 
(Megaceros)  giganteus.  This  deer  inhabited  Ireland,  Great  Britain, 
central  and  northern  Europe,  and  western  Asia  in  Pleistocene 
and  prehistoric  times;  and  must  have  stood  6  ft.  high  at  the 
shoulder.  The  antlers  are  greatly  palmated  and  of  enormous 
size,  fine  specimens  measuring  as  much  as  1 1  ft.  between  the  tips. 

FALL  RIVER,  a  city  of  Bristol  county,  Massachusetts,  U.S.A., 
situated  on  Mount  Hope  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Taunton  river, 
49  m.S.  of  Boston.  Pop.  (1890)74,3985(1900)  104,863;  (estimated, 
1906)  105,942;*  (1910  census)  119,295.  It  is  the  third  city  in 
size  of  the  commonwealth.  Of  the  population  in  1900,  50,042, 
or  47-7%,  were  foreign-born,  90,244  were  of  foreign  parentage 
(i.e.  either  one  or  both  parents  were  foreign),  and  of  these  81,721 
had  both  foreign  father  and  foreign  mother.  Of  the  foreign-born, 
20,172  were  French  Canadians,  2329  were  English  Canadians, 
12,268  were  from  England,  1045  were  from  Scotland,  7317  were 
from  Ireland,  2805  were  from  Portugal,  and  1095  were  from 
Russia,  various  other  countries  being  represented  by  smaller 

1  The  small  increase  between  1900  and  1906  was  due  in  large  part 
to  the  emigration  of  many  of  the  inhabitants  during  the  great  strike 
of  1904-1905. 


i56 


FALMOUTH 


numbers.  Fall  River  is  served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  & 
Hartford  railway,  and  has  good  steamer  connexions  with  Pro- 
vidence, Newport  and  New  York,  notably  by  the  "  Fall  River 
Line,"  which  is  much  used,  in  connexion  with  the  N.Y.,  N.H.& 
H.  railway,  by  travellers  between  New  York  and  Boston.  The 
harbour  is  large,  deep  and  easy  of  access.  The  city  lies  on  a 
plateau  and  on  slopes  that  rise  rather  steeply  from  the  river, 
and  is  irregularly  laid  out.  Granite  underlying  the  city  furnishes 
excellent  building  material;  among  the  principal  buildings 
are  the  state  armoury,  the  county  court  house,  the  B.M.C. 
Durfee  high  school,  the  custom  house,  Notre  Dame  College,  the 
church  of  Notre  Dame,  the  church  of  St  Anne,  the  Central 
Congregational  church  and  the  public  library.  The  common- 
wealth aids  in  maintaining  a  textile  school  (the  Bradford  Durfee 
textile  school),  opened  in  1904.  The  city  library  contained  in 
1908  about  78,500  volumes.  There  is  considerable  commerce, 
but  it  is  as  a  manufacturing  centre  that  Fall  River  is  best  known. 
Above  the  city,  on  the  plateau,  about  2  m.  from  the  bay,  are  the 
Watuppa  Lakes,  7  m.  long  and  on  an  average  three-fourths  of  a 
mile  wide,  and  from  them  runs  the  Fall  (Quequechan)  river, 
with  a  constant  flow  and  descending  near  its  mouth  through 
127  ft.  in  less  than  half  a  mile.  The  conjunction  of  water 
transportation  and  water  power  is  thus  remarkable,  and  accounts 
in  great  part  for  the  city's  rapid  growth.  The  waters  of  the 
North  Watuppa  Lake  (which  is  fed  by  springs  and  drains  out 
a  very  small  area)  are  also  exceptionally  pure  and  furnish  an 
excellent  water-supply.  The  Fall  river  runs  directly  through  the 
city  (passing  beneath  the  city  hall),  and  along  its  banks  are  long 
rows  of  cotton  mills;  formerly  many  of  these  were  run  by  water 
power,  and  their  wheels  were  placed  directly  in  the  stream  bed, 
but  steam  power  is  now  used  almost  exclusively.  According  to 
the  special  census  of  manufactures  of  1905,  the  value  of  all 
factory  products  for  the  calendar  year  1904  was  $43,473,105, 
of  which  amount  $35,442,581,  or  81-5%,  consisted  of  cotton 
goods  and  dyeing  and  finishing,  making  Fall  River  the  largest 
producer  of  cotton  goods  among  American  cities.1  A  large  hat 
manufactory  (the  Marshall  Brothers'  factory)  furnishes  the 
United  States  army  with  hats.  Until  forced  by  the  competition 
of  mills  in  the  Southern  states  to  direct  attention  to  finer  pro- 
ducts, the  cotton  manufacturers  of  Fall  River  devoted  themselves 
almost  exclusively  to  the  making  of  print  cloth,  in  which  respect 
the  city  was  long  distinguished  from  Lawrence  and  Lowell, 
whose  products  were  more  varied  and  of  higher  grade.  The 
number  of  spindles  increased  from  265,328  in  1865  to  1,269,043 
in  1875,  3,000,000  in  1900,  and  to  about  3,500,000  in  1906. 
Excellent  drainage  and  sewerage  systems  contribute  to  the  city's 
health.  The  birth-rate  was  in  1900  the  highest  (38-75)  of  any 
city  in  the  country  of  above  30,000  inhabitants  (three  of  the  four 
next  highest  being  Massachusetts  towns).  The  social  conditions 
and  labour  problems  of  Fall  River  have  long  been  exceptional. 
The  mills  supplement  the  public  schools  in  the  mingling  of  races 
and  the  work  for  Americanization,  and  labour  disturbances, 
for  which  Fall  River  was  once  conspicuous,  have  become  less 
frequent  and  less  bitter,  the  great  strike  of  1904-1905 — perhaps 
the  greatest  in  the  history  of  the  textile  industry  in  the  United 
States — being  marked  by  little  or  no  violence.  Fall  River  has 
become  a  "  city  of  homes,"  and  tenements  are  giving  way  to 
dwellings  for  one  or  two  families.  The  lists  of  the  city's  corpora- 
tion stockholders  show  more  than  10,000  names.  The  municipal 
police  is  controlled  (as  nowhere  else  in  the  state  save  in  Boston) 
by  a  state  board;  this  arrangement  is  generally  regarded  as 
having  worked  for  better  order.  Lowell  was  about  three  times 
as  large  as  Fall  River  in  1850,  and  Lawrence  was  larger  until  after 
1870.  Fall  River  was  originally  a  part  of  Freetown;  it  was 
incorporated  as  a  township  in  1803  (being  known  as  "  Troy  " 
in  1804-1834),  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1854.  In  1861 
it  was  increased  by  certain  territory  secured  from  Rhode  Island, 

1  The  above  figures  do  not  show  adequately  the  full  importance 
of  Fall  River  as  a  cotton  manufacturing  centre,  for  during  six 
months  of  the  census  year  the  great  strike  was  in  progress;  this 
strike,  caused  by  a  reduction  in  wages,  lasted  from  the  25th  of  July 
1904  to  the  i8th  of  January  1905. 


the  city  having  spread  across  the  state  boundary  and  become 
subject  to  a  divided  jurisdiction.  In  1902  the  city  received  a 
new  charter.  Its  manufactures  amounted  to  little  before  the 
War  of  1812.  A  disastrous  fire  occurred  in  1843  (loss  above 
$500,000).  In  1904  Fall  River  became  the  see  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  diocese  of  that  name. 

See  H.  H.  Earl,  Centennial  History  of  Fall  River  .  .  .  1656-1876 
(New  York,  1877);  and  the  report  of  Carroll  D.  Wright  on  Fall 
River,  Lawellpnd  Lawrence,  in  I3th  annual  report  of  the  Massachusetts 
Bureau  of  Statistics  of  Labor  (1882),  which,  however,  was  regarded 
as  unjust  and  partial  by  the  manufacturers  of  Fall  River. 

FALMOUTH,  a  municipal  and  contributary  parliamentary 
borough  and  seaport  of  Cornwall,  England,  306  m.  W.S.W.  of 
London,  on  a  branch  of  the  Great  Western  railway.  Pop.  (1901) 
11,789.  It  is  finely  situated  on  the  west  shore  of  the  largest  of 
the  many  estuaries  which  open  upon  the  south  coast  of  the 
county.  This  is  entered  by  several  streams,  of  which  the  largest 
is  the  Fal.  Falmouth  harbour  lies  within  Pendennis  Point,  which 
shelters  the  estuary  from  the  more  open  Falmouth  Bay.  The 
Penryn  river,  coming  in  from  the  north-west,  forms  one  of  several 
shallow,  winding  arms  of  the  estuary,  the  main  channel  of  which 
is  known  as  Carrick  Roads.  To  the  east  Pendennis  Castle  stands 
on  its  lofty  promontory,  while  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  roads 
the  picturesque  inlet  of  the  Porthcuel  river  opens  between  Castle 
Point  on  the  north,  with  St  Mawes'  Castle,  and  St  Anthony  Head 
and  Zoze  Point  on  the  south.  The  shores  of  the  estuary  as  a 
rule  slope  sharply  up  to  about  250  ft.,  and  are  beautifully  wooded. 
The  entrance  is  i  m.  across,  and  the  roads  form  one  of  the 
best  refuges  for  shipping  on  the  south  coast,  being  accessible  at 
all  times  by  the  largest  vessels.  Among  the  principal  buildings 
and  institutions  in  Falmouth  are  the  town  hall,  market-house, 
hall  of  the  Cornwall  Polytechnic  Society,  a  meteorological  and 
magnetic  observatory,  and  a  submarine  mining  establishment. 
The  Royal  Cornwall  Yacht  Club  has  its  headquarters  here,  and 
in  the  annual  regatta  the  principal  prize  is  a  cup  given  by  the 
prince  of  Wales  as  duke  of  Cornwall.  Engineering,  shipbuilding, 
brewing  and  the  manufacture  of  manure  are  carried  on,  and 
there  are  oyster  and  trawl  fisheries,  especially  for  pilchard.  The 
inner  harbour,  under  the  jurisdiction  partly  of  commissioners  and 
partly  of  a  dock  company,  is  enclosed  between  two  breakwaters, 
of  which  the  eastern  has  23  ft.  of  water  at  lowest  tides  alongside. 
The  area  of  the  harbour  is  42  acres,  with  nearly  700  lineal  yards 
of  quayage.  There  are  two  graving  docks,  and  repairing  yards. 
Grain,  timber,  coal  and  guano  and  other  manures  are  imported, 
and  granite,  china  clay,  copper  ore,  ropes  and  fish  exported. 
Falmouth  is  also  in  favour  as  a  watering-place.  The  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  Penryn  and  Falmouth  returns  one  member. 
The  municipal  borough  is  under  a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and  12 
councillors.  Area,  790  acres. 

Falmouth  (Falemuth)  as  a  haven  and  port  has  had  a  place 
in  the  maritime  history  of  Cornwall  from  very  early  times.  The 
site  of  the  town,  which  is  comparatively  modern,  was  formerly 
known  as  Smithick  and  Pennycomequick  and  formed  part  of 
the  manor  of  Arwenack  held  by  the  family  of  Killigrew.  The 
corporations  of  Penryn,  Truro  and  Helston  opposed  the  under- 
taking, but  the  lords  in  council,  to  whom  the  matter  was  referred, 
decided  in  Killigrew's  favour.  In  1652  the  House  of  Commons 
considered  that  it  would  be  advantageous  to  the  Commonwealth 
to  grant  a  Thursday  market  to  Smithick.  This  market  was 
confirmed  to  Sir  Peter  Killigrew  in  1660  together  with  two  fairs, 
on  the  3oth  of  October  and  the  27th  of  July,  and  also  a  ferry 
between  Smithick  and  Flushing.  By  the  charter  of  incorporation 
granted  in  the  following  year  the  name  was  changed  to  Falmouth, 
and  a  mayor,  recorder,  7  aldermen  and  12  burgesses  constituted 
a  common  council  with  the  usual  rights  and  privileges.  Three 
years  later  an  act  creating  the  borough  a  separate  ecclesiastical 
parish  empowered  the  mayor  and  aldermen  to  assess  all  buildings 
within  the  town  at  the  rate  of  sixteen  pence  in  the  pound  for 
the  support  of  the  rector.  This  rector's  rate  occasioned  much 
ill-feeling  in  modern  times,  and  by  act  of  parliament  in  1896 
was  taken  over  by  the  corporation,  and  provision  made  for  its 
eventual  extinction.  The  disfranchisement  of  Penryn,  which 


FALSE  POINT— FALUN 


had  long  been  a  subject  of  debate  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
was  settled  in  1832,  by  uniting  Penryn  with  Falmouth  for  parlia- 
mentary purposes  and  assigning  two  members  to  the  united 
boroughs.  By  the  Redistribution  of  Seats  Act  1885,  the  number 
of  members  was  reduced  to  one.  The  fairs  granted  in  1660  are 
no  longer  held,  and  a  Saturday  market  has  superseded  the 
chartered  market.  In  the  i;th  and  i8th  centuries  Falmouth 
grew  in  importance  owing  to  its  being  a  station  of  the  Packet 
Service  for  the  conveyance  of  mails. 

FALSE  POINT,  a  landlocked  harbour  in  the  Cuttack  district 
of  Bengal,  India.  It  was  reported  by  the  famine  commissioners 
in  1867  to  be  the  best  harbour  on  the  coast  of  India  from  the 
Hugli  to  Bombay.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  circumstance 
that  vessels  proceeding  up  the  Bay  of  Bengal  frequently  mistook 
it  for  Point  Palmyras,  a  degree  farther  north.  The  anchorage 
is  safe,  roomy  and  completely  landlocked,  but  large  vessels  are 
obliged  to  lie  out  at  some  distance  from  its  mouth  in  an  exposed 
roadstead.  The  capabilities  of  False  Point  as  a  harbour  remained 
long  unknown,  and  it  was  only  in  1860  that  the  port  was  opened. 
It  was  rapidly  developed,  owing  to  the  construction  of  the  Orissa 
canals.  Two  navigable  channels  lead  inland  across  the  Maha- 
nadi  delta,  and  connect  the  port  with  Cuttack  city.  The 
trade  of  False  Point  is  chiefly  with  other  Indian  harbours,  but 
a  large  export  trade  in  rice  and  oil-seeds  has  sprung  up  with 
Mauritius,  the  French  colonies  and  France.  False  Point  is  now 
a  regular  port  of  call  for  Anglo-Indian  coasting  steamers.  Its 
capabilities  were  first  appreciated  during  the  Orissa  famine  of 
1866,  when  it  afforded  almost  the  only  means  by  which  supplies 
of  rice  could  be  thrown  into  the  province.  A  lighthouse  is 
situated  a  little  to  the  south  of  the  anchorage,  on  the  point  which 
screens  it  from  the  southern  monsoon. 

FALSE  PRETENCES,  in  English  law,  the  obtaining  from  any 
other  person  by  any  false  pretence  any  chattel,  money  or  valuable 
security,  with  intent  to  defraud.  It  is  an  indictable  misde- 
meanour under  the  Larceny  Act  of  1861.  The  broad  distinction 
between  this  offence  and  larceny  is  that  in  the  former  the  owner 
intends  to  part  with  his  property,  in  the  latter  he  does  not. 
This  offence  dates  as  a  statutory  crime  practically  from  1756. 
At  common  law  the  only  remedy  originally  available  for  an  owner 
who  had  been  deprived  of  his  goods  by  fraud  was  an  indictment 
for  the  crime  of  cheating,  or  a  civil  action  for  deceit.  These 
remedies  were  insufficient  to  cover  all  cases  where  money  or  other 
properties  had  been  obtained  by  false  pretences,  and  the  offence 
was  first  partially  created  by  a  statute  of  Henry  VIII.  (1541), 
which  enacted  that  if  any  person  should  falsely  and  deceitfully 
obtain  any  money,  goods,  &c.,  by  means  of  any  false  token  or 
counterfeit  letter  made  in  any  other  man's  name,  the  offender 
should  suffer  any  punishment  other  than  death,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  judge.  The  scope  of  the  offence  was  enlarged  to  include 
practically  all  false  pretences  by  the  act  of  1756,  the  provisions 
of  which  were  embodied  in  the  Larceny  Act  1861. 

The  principal  points  to  notice  are  that  the  pretence  must 
be  a  false  pretence  of  some  existing  fact,  made  for  the  purpose 
of  inducing  the  prosecutor  to  part  with  his  property  (e.g.  it  was 
held  not  to  be  a  false  pretence  to  promise  to  pay  for  goods  on 
delivery),  and  it  may  be  by  either  words  or  conduct.  The 
property,  too,  must  have  been  actually  obtained  by  the  false 
pretence.  The  owner  must  be  induced  by  the  pretence  to  make 
over  the  absolute  and  immediate  ownership  of  the  goods,  other- 
wise it  is  "  larceny  by  means  of  a  trick."  It  is  not  always  easy, 
however,  to  draw  a  distinction  between  the  various  classes  of 
offences.  In  the  case  where  a  man  goes  into  a  restaurant  and 
orders  a  meal,  and,  after  consuming  it,  says  that  he  has  no 
means  of  paying  for  it,  it  was  usual  to  convict  for  obtaining  food 
by  false  pretences.  But  R.  v.  Jones,  1898,  L.R.  i  Q.B.  119 
decided  that  it  is  neither  larceny  nor  false  pretences,  but  an 
offence  under  the  Debtors  Act  1869,  of  obtaining  credit  by 
fraud.  (See  also  CHEATING;  FRAUD;  LARCENY.) 

United  States. — American  statutes  on  this  subject  are  mainly 
copied  from  the  English  statutes,  and  the  courts  there  in  a  general 
way  follow  the  English  interpretations.  The  statutes  of  each 
state  must  be  consulted.  There  is  no  Federal  statute,  though 


there  are  Federal  laws  providing  penalties  for  false  personation 
of  the  lawful  owner  of  public  stocks,  &c.,  or  of  persons  entitled 
to  pensions,  prize  money,  &c.  (U.S.  Rev.  Stats.  §  5435),  or  the 
false  making  of  any  order  purporting  to  be  a  money  order 
(id.  §  5463). 

In  Arizona,  obtaining  money  or  property  by  falsely  personating 
another  is  punishable  as  for  larceny  (Penal  Code,  1901,  §  479). 
Obtaining  credit  by  false  pretences  as  to  wealth  and  mercantile 
character  is  punishable  by  six  months'  imprisonment  and  a 
fine  not  exceeding  three  times  the  value  of  the  money  or  property 
obtained  (id.  §  481). 

In  Illinois,  whoever  by  any  false  representation  or  writing 
signed  by  him,  of  his  own  respectability,  wealth  or  mercantile 
correspondence  or  connexions,  obtains  credit  and  thereby  de- 
frauds any  person  of  money,  goods,  chattels  or  any  valuable  thing, 
or  who  procures  another  to  make  a  false  report  of  his  honesty, 
wealth,  &c.,  shall  return  the  money,  goods,  &c.,  and  be  fined  and 
imprisoned  for  a  term  not  exceeding  one  year  (Crim.  Code,  1903, 
ch.  xxxviii.  §§  96,  97).  Obtaining  money  or  property  by  bogus 
cheques,  the  "  confidence  game  "  (Dorr  v.  People,  1907,  §  228, 
111.  216),  or  "  three  card  monte,"  sleight  of  hand,  fortune-telling, 
&c.,  is  punishable  by  imprisonment  for  from  one  to  ten  years 
(id.  §§  98,  100).  Obtaining  goods  from  warehouse,  mill  or  wharf 
by  fraudulent  receipt  wrongly  stating  amount  of  goods  de- 
posited— by  imprisonment  for  not  less  than  one  nor  more  than 
ten  years  (id.  §  124).  Fraudulent  use  of  railroad  passes  is  a 
misdemeanour  (id.  1250). 

In  Massachusetts  it  is  simple  larceny  to  obtain  by  false  pre- 
tences the  money  or  personal  chattel  of  another  (Rev.  Laws, 
1902,  ch.  ccviii.  §  26).  Obtaining  by  a  false  pretence  with  intent 
to  defraud  the  signature  of  a  person  to  a  written  instrument, 
the  false  making  whereof  would  be  forgery,  is  punishable  by 
imprisonment  in  a  state  prison  or  by  fine  (id.  §  27). 

In  New  York,  obtaining  property  by  false  pretences,  felonious 
breach  of  trust  and  embezzlement  are  included  in  the  term 
"  larceny  "  (Penal  Code,  §  528;  Paul  v.  Dumar,  106  N.Y.  508; 
People  v.  Tattlekan,  1907,  104  N.Y.  Suppl.  805),  but  the  methods 
of  proof  required  to  establish  each  crime  remain  as  before  the 
code.  Obtaining  lodging  and  food  on  credit  at  hotel  or  lodging 
house  with  intent  to  defraud  is  a  misdemeanour  (Pen.  Code, 
§  382).  Purchase  of  property  by  false  pretences  as  to  person's 
means  or  ability  to  pay  is  not  criminal  when  in  writing  signed  by 
the  party  to  be  charged  (Pen.  Code,  §  544). 

FALTICHENI  (Falti$enf) ,  the  capital  of  the  department  of 
Suceava,  Rumania,  situated  on  a  small  right-hand  tributary  of 
the  Sereth,  among  the  hills  of  north-west  Moldavia,  and  2  m. 
S.E.  of  the  frontier  of  Bukovina.  Pop.  (1900)  9643,  about  half 
being  Jews.  A  branch  railway  runs  for  15  m.  to  join  the  main 
line  between  Czernowitz  in  Bukovina,  and  Galatz.  The  Suceava 
department  (named  after  Suceava  or  Suciava,  its  former  capital, 
now  Suczawa  in  Bukowina)  is  densely  forested;  its  considerable 
timber  trade  centres  in  Falticheni.  For  five  weeks,  from  the 
aoth  July  onwards,  Russians  and  Austro-Hungarians,  as  well  as 
Rumans,  attend  the  fair  which  is  held  at  Falticheni,  chiefly  for 
the  sale  of  horses,  carriages  and  cattle. 

FALUN,  a  town  of  Sweden,  capital  of  the  district  (liin)  of 
Kopparberg,  153  m.  N.W.  of  Stockholm  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900) 
9606.  It  is  situated  in  a  bare  and  rocky  country  near  the 
western  shore  of  lake  Runn.  Here  are  the  oldest  and  most 
celebrated  copper  mines  in  Europe.  Their  produce  has  gradually 
decreased  since  the  i7th  century,  and  is  now  unimportant,  but 
sulphate  of  copper,  iron  pyrites,  and  some  gold,  silver,  sulphur 
and  sulphuric  acid,  and  red  ochre  are  also  produced.  The  mines 
belong  to  the  Kopparberg  Mining  Company  (Stora  Kopparbergs 
Bergs/ags  Aktiebolag,  formerly  Kopparbergslagen).  This  is  the 
oldest  industrial  corporation  in  Sweden,  and  perhaps  the  oldest 
still  existing  in  the  world;  it  is  known  to  have  been  established 
before  1347.  Since  its  reorganization  as  a  joint-stock  company 
in  1890  many  of  the  shares  have  been  held  by  the  crown,  philan- 
thropic institutions  and  other  public  bodies.  The  company  also 
owns  iron  mines,  limestone  and  quartz  quarries,  large  iron-works 
at  Domnarfvet  and  elsewhere,  a  great  extent  of  forests  and 


i58 


FAMA— FAMILY 


saw-mills,  and  besides  the  output  of  the  copper  mines  it  pro- 
duces manufactured  iron  and  steel,  timber,  wood-pulp,  bricks 
and  charcoal.  Falun  has  also  railway  rolling-stock  factories. 
There  are  museums  of  mineralogy  and  geology,  a  lower  school 
of  mining,  model  room  and  scientific  library.  The  so-called 
"  Gothenburg  System  "  of  municipal  control  over  the  sale  of 
spirits  was  actually  devised  at  Falun  as  early  as  1850. 

FAMA  (Gr.  «ftj/w;,  "CWa),  in  classical  mythology,  the  personi- 
fication of  Rumour.  The  Homeric  equivalent  Ossa  (Iliad,  ii.  93) 
is  represented  as  the  messenger  of  Zeus,  who  spreads  reports 
with  the  rapidity  of  a  conflagration.  Homer  does  not  personify 
Pheme,  which  is  merely  a  presage  drawn  from  human  utterances, 
whereas  Ossa  (until  later  times)  is  associated  with  the  idea  of 
divine  origin.  A  more  definite  character  is  given  to  Pheme  by 
Hesiod  (Works  and  Days,  764),  who  calls  her  a  goddess;  in 
Sophocles  (Oed.  Tyr.  158)  she  is  the  immortal  daughter  of  golden 
Hope  and  is  styled  by  the  orator  Aeschines  (Contra  Timarchum, 
§  1 28)  one  of  the  mightiest  of  goddesses.  According  to  Pausanias 
(i.  17.  i)  there  was  a  temple  of  Pheme  at  Athens,  and  at  Smyrna 
(ib.  ix.  n,  7),  whose  inhabitants  were  especially  fond  of  seeking 
the  aid  of  divination,  there  was  a  sanctuary  of  Cledones  (sounds 
or  rumours  supposed  to  convey  omens). 

There  does  not  seem  to  have  been  any  cult  of  Fama  among  the 
Romans,  by  whom  she  was  regarded  merely  as  "a  figure  of 
poetical  religion."  The  Temple  of  Fame  and  Omen  (Pheme  and 
Cledon)  mentioned  by  Plutarch  {M  or  alia,  p.  319)  is  due  to  a  con- 
fusion with  Aius  Locutius,  the  divinity  who  warned  the  Romans 
of  the  coming  attack  of  the  Gauls.  There  are  well-known 
descriptions  of  Fame  in  Virgil  (Aeneid,  iv.  173)  and  Ovid  (Metam. 
xii.  39);  see  also  Valerius  Flaccus  (ii.  116),  Statius  (Thebais,  iii. 
425).  An  unfavourable  idea  gradually  became  attached  to  the 
name;  thus  Ennius  speaks  of  Fama  as  the  personification  of 
"  evil  "  reputation  and  the  opposite  of  Gloria  (cp.  the  adjective 
famosus,  which  is  not  used  in  a  good  sense  till  the  post-Augustan 
age).  Chaucer  in  his  House  of  Fame  is  obviously  imitating 
Virgil  and  Ovid,  although  he  is  also  indebted  to  Dante's 
Divina  Commedia. 

FAMAGUSTA  (Gr.  Ammochoslos) ,  a  town  and  harbour  on 
the  east  cost  of  Cyprus,  25  m.  S.  of  the  ruins  of  Salamis.  The 
population  in  1901  was  818,  nearly  all  being  Moslems  who  live 
within  the  walls  of  the  fortress;  the  Christian  population  has 
migrated  to  a  suburb  called  Varosia  (pop.  2948).  The  foundation 
of  Salamis  (q.v.)  was  ascribed  to  Teucer:  it  was  probably  the 
most  important  town  in  early  Cyprus.  The  revolt  of  the  Jews 
under  Trajan,  and  earthquakes  in  the  time  of  Constantius  and 
Constantine  the  Great  helped  in  turn  to  destroy  it.  It  was 
restored  by  Fl.  Constantius  II.  (A.D.  337-361)  as  Constantia. 
Another  town  a  little  to  the  south,  built  by  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus  in  274  B.C.,  and  called  Arsinoe  in  honour  of  his  sister, 
received  the  refugees  driven  from  Constantia  by  the  Arabs  under 
Mu'awiyah,  became  the  seat  of  the  orthodox  archbishopric, 
and  was  eventually  known  as  Famagusta.  It  received  a  large 
accession  of  population  at  the  fall  of  Acre  in  1291;  was  annexed 
by  the  Genoese  in  1376;  reunited  to  the  throne  of  Cyprus  in 
1464;  and  surrendered,  after  an  investment  of  nearly  a  year, 
to  the  Turks  in  1571.  The  fortifications,  remodelled  by  the 
Venetians  after  1489,  the  castle,  the  grand  cathedral  church  of 
St  Nicolas,  and  the  remains  of  the  palace  and  many  other 
churches  make  Famagusta  a  place  of  unique  interest.  Acts  ii. 
and  v.  of  Shakespeare's  Othello  pass  there.  In  1903  measures 
were  taken  to  develop  the  fine  natural  harbour  of  Famagusta. 
Basins  were  dredged  to  give  depths  of  15  and  24  ft.  respectively  at 
ordinary  low  tides,  and  commodious  jetties  and  quays  were 
constructed. 

FAMILIAR  (through  the  Fr.  familier,  from  Lat.  familiaris, 
of  or  belonging  to  the  familia,  family),  an  adjective,  properly 
meaning  belonging  to  the  family  or  household,  but  in  this  sense 
the  word  is  rare.  The  more  usual  meanings  are:  friendly, 
intimate,  well  known;  and  from  its  application  to  the  easy 
relations  of  intimate  friends  the  term  may  be  used  in  an  invidious 
sense  of  "  free  and  easy  "  conduct  on  the  part  of  any  one  not 
justified  by  any  close  relationship,  friendship  or  intimacy. 


"  Familiar"  is,  however,  also  used  as  a  substantive,  especially 
of  the  spirit  or  demon  which  attended  on  a  wizard  or  magician, 
and  was  summoned  to  execute  his  master's  wishes.  The  idea 
underlies  the  notion  of  the  Christian  guardian  angel  and  of 
the  Roman  genius  natalis  (see  DEMONOLOGY;  WITCHCRAFT). 
In  the  Roman  Church  the  term  is  applied  to  persons  attached  to 
the  household  of  the  pope  or  of  bishops.  These  must  actually 
do  some  domestic  service.  They  are  supported  by  their  patron, 
and  enjoy  privileges  which  in  the  case  of  the  papal  familiars 
are  considerable.  "  Familiars  of  the  Holy  Office  "  were  lay 
officers  of  the  Inquisition,  whose  functions  were  chiefly  those  of 
police,  in  making  arrests,  &c.,  of  persons  charged. 

FAMILISTS,  a  term  of  English  origin  (later  adopted  in  other 
languages)  to  denote  the  members  of  the  Familia  Caritatis  (Hus 
der  Lief  ten;  Huis  der  Liefde;  Haus  der  Liebe;  "  Family  of 
Love  "),  founded  by  Hendrik  Niclaes  (born  on  the  gth  or  icth 
of  January  1501  or  1502,  probably  at  Miinster;  died  after  1570, 
not  later  than  1581,  probably  in  1580).  His  calling  was  that  of 
a  merchant,  in  which  he  and  his  son  Franz  prospered,  becoming 
ultimately  wealthy.  Not  till  1540  did  he  appear  in  the  character 
of  one  divinely  endowed  with  "the  spirit  of  the  true  love  of 
Jesus  Christ."  For  twenty  years  (1540-1560)  Emden  was  the 
headquarters  at  once  of  his  merchandise  and  of  his  propaganda; 
but  he  travelled  in  both  interests  to  various  countries,  visiting 
England  in  1552  or  1553.  To  this  period  belong  most  of  his 
writings.  His  primary  work  was  Den  Spegel  der  Gherechticheit 
dorch  den  Geist  der  Lie/den  unde  den  vergodeden  Mensch  H.N. 
uth  de  hemmelische  Warheit  beliiget.  It  appeared  in  an  English 
form  with  the  author's  revision,  as  An  Introduction  to  the  holy 
Understanding  of  the  Glasse  of  Righteousness  (i 57 5? ;  reprinted 
in  1649).  None  of  his  works  bear  his  name  in  full;  his  initials 
were  mystically  interpreted  as  standing  for  Homo  Novus.  His 
"  glass  of  righteousness  "  is  the  spirit  of  Christ  as  .interpreted 
by  him.  The  remarkable  fact  was  brought  out  by  G.  Arnold 
(and  more  fully  by  F.  Nippold  in  1862)  that  the  printer  of 
Niclaes's  works  was  Christopher  Plantin,  of  Antwerp,  a  specially 
privileged  printer  of  Roman  Catholic  theology  and  liturgy,  yet 
secretly  a  steadfast  adherent  of  Niclaes.  It  is  true  that  Niclaes 
claimed  to  hold  an  impartial  attitude  towards  all  existing  religious 
parties,  and  his  mysticism,  derived  from  David  Joris,  was 
undogmatic.  Yet  he  admitted  his  followers  by  the  rite  of  adult 
baptism,  and  set  up  a  hierarchy  among  them  on  the  Roman 
model  (see  his  Evangelium  Regni,  in  English  A  Joyfull  Message 
of  the  Kingdom,  1574?;  reprinted,  1652).  His  pantheism  had 
an  antinomian  drift;  for  himself  and  his  officials  he  claimed 
impeccability;  but,  whatever  truth  there  may  be  in  the  charge 
that  among  his  followers  were  those  who  interpreted  "  love  " 
as  licence,  no  such  charge  can  be  sustained  against  the  morals 
of  Niclaes  and  the  other  leaders  of  the  sect.  His  chief  apostle 
in  England  was  Christopher  Vitel,  a  native  of  Delft,  an  "  illumi- 
nate elder,"  living  at  Colchester  and  Southwark,  who  ultimately 
recanted.  The  society  spread  in  the  eastern  counties,  in  spite 
of  repressive  measures;  it  revived  under  the  Commonwealth, 
and  lingered  into  the  early  years  of  the  i8th  century;  the  lead- 
ing idea  of  its  "  service  of  love  "  was  a  reliance  on  sympathy 
and  tenderness  for  the  moral  and  spiritual  edification  of  its 
members.  Thus,  in  an  age  of  strife  and  polemics,  it  seemed 
to  afford  a  refuge  for  quiet,  gentle  spirits,  and  meditative 
temperaments. 

See  F.  Nippold,  "  H.  Niclaes  u.  das  Haus  der  Liebe,"  in  Zeitschrtft 
fur  die  histpr.  Theol.  (1862);  article  "  H.  Niclaes"  in  A.  J.  van 
der  Aa,  Biog.  Woordenboek  der  Nederlanden  (1868);  article  "  H. 
Nicholas,"  by  C.  Fell  Smith,  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  (1894);  article 
"  Familisten,  '  by  Loofs,  in  Herzog-Hauck's  Realencyklopadie 
(1898).  .  (A.  Go.*) 

FAMILY,  a'  word  of  which  the  etymology  but  partially 
illustrates  the  meaning.  The  Roman  familia,  derived  from  the 
Oscan  famel  (serous),  originally  signified  the  servile  property, 
the  thralls,  of  a  master.  Next,  the  term  denoted  other  domestic 
property,  in  things  as  well  as  in  persons.  Thus,  in  the  fifth  of 
the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  the  rules  are  laid  down:  Si- 

INTESTATO  •  MORITUR  •  CUI  •  STJTJS  •  HERES  •  NEC  •  SIT  •  ADGNATUS  • 


FAMILY 


theory. 


PROXIMTJS  •  FAMILIAM  •  HABETO,   and   SI  •  AGNATUS  •  NEC  •  ESCIT  • 

GENTILIS-FAMILIAM-NANCITOR;  that  is,  if  a  man  die  intestate, 
leaving  no  natural  heir  who  had  been  under  his  potestas,  the 
nearest  agnate,  or  relative  tracing  his  connexion  with  the 
deceased  exclusively  through  males,  is  to  inherit  the  famtiia, 
or  family  fortune  of  every  sort.  Failing  an  agnate,  a  member 
of  the  gens  of  the  .dead  man  is  to  inherit.  In  a  third  sense, 
familia  was  applied  to  all  the  persons  who  could  prove  themselves 
to  be  descended  from  the  same  ancestor,  and  thus  the  word 
almost  corresponded  to  our  own  use  of  it  in  the  widest  meaning, 
as  when  we  say  that  a  person  is  "  of  a  good  family  "  (Ulpian, 
Dig.  50,  16,  195  fin.). 

1.  Leaving  for  awhile  the  Roman  terms,  to  which  it  will  be 
necessary  to  return,  we  may  provisionally  define  Family,  in  the 

modern  sense,  as  the  small  community  formed  by 
^e  union  of  one  man  with  one  woman,  and  by  the 
increase  of  children  born  to  them.  These  in  modern 
times,  and  in  most  European  countries,  constitute  the  household, 
and  it  has  been  almost  universally  supposed  that  little  natural 
associations  of  this  sort  are  the  germ-cell  of  early  society.  The 
Bible  presents  the  growth  of  the  Jewish  nation  from  the  one 
household  of  Abraham.  His  patriarchal  family  differed  from  the 
modern  family  in  being  polygamous,  but,  as  female  chastity 
was  one  of  the  conditions  of  the  patriarchal  family,  and  as 
descent  through  males  was  therefore  recognized  as  certain, 
the  plurality  of  wives  makes  no  real  difference  to  the  argument. 
In  the  same  way  the  earliest  formal  records  of  Indian,  Greek  and 
Roman  society  present  the  family  as  firmly  established,  and 
generally  regarded  as  the  most  primitive  of  human  associations. 
Thus,  Aristotle  derives  the  first  household  (ot/aa  TTPOJTTJ)  from 
the  combination  of  man's  possession  of  property  —  in  the  slave 
or  in  domesticated  animals  —  with  man's  relation  to  woman, 
and  he  quotes  Hesiod:  OLKOV  fj.lv  xpuiriora  7w<uK<x  re  fiovv  r' 
aporrjpa  (Politics,  i.  2.  5).  The  village,  again,  with  him  is  a 
colony  or  offshoot  of  the  household,  and  monarchical  government 
in  states  is  derived  from  the  monarchy  of  the  eldest  male  member 
of  the  family.  Now,  though  certain  ancient  terms,  introduced 
by  Aristotle  in  the  chapters  to  which  we  refer,  might  have  led 
him  to  imagine  a  very  different  origin  of  society,  his  theory  is,  on 
the  face  of  it,  natural  and  plausible,  and  it  has  been  almost 
universally  accepted.  The  beginning  of  society,  it  has  been  said 
a  thousand  times,  is  the  family,  a  natural  association  of  kindred 
by  blood,  composed  of  father,  mother  and  their  descendants. 
In  this  family,  the  father  is  absolute  master  of  his  wife,  his 
children  and  the  goods  of  the  little  community;  at  his  death 
his  eldest  son  succeeds  him;  and  in  course  of  time  this  associa- 
tion of  kindred,  by  natural  increase  and  by  adoption,  develops 
into  the  clan,  gens,  or  yfvos.  As  generations  multiply,  the  more 
distant  relations  split  off  into  other  clans,  and  these  clans,  which 
have  not  lost  the  sense  of  primitive  kinship,  unite  once  more 
into  tribes.  The  tribes  again,  as  civilization  advances,  ac- 
knowledge themselves  to  be  subjects  of  a  king,  in  whose  veins 
the  blood  of  the  original  family  runs  purest.  This,  or  something 
like  this,  is  the  common  theory  of  the  growth  of  society. 

2.  It  was  between  1866  and  1880  that  the  common  opinion 
began  to  be  seriously  opposed.    John  Ferguson  McLennan,  in  his 

Primitive  Marriage  and  his  essays  on  The  Worship  of 
criticism.  Flints  and  Animals  (see  his  Studies  in  Ancient  History, 

second  series),  drew  attention  to  the  wide  prevalence  of 
the  custom  of  inheriting  the  kinship  name  through  mothers, 
not  fathers;  and  to  the  law  of  "  Exogamy  "  (q.v.).  The  former 
usage  he  attributed  to  archaic  uncertainty  as  to  fatherhood; 
the  natural  result  of  absolute  sexual  promiscuity,  or  of  Polyandry 
(q.v.).  Either  practice  is  inconsistent,  prima  facie,  with  the 
primitive  existence  of  the  Family,  whether  polygamous  or 
monogamous,  whether  patriarchal  or  modern.  The  custom  of 
Exogamy,  again,  —  here  taken  to  mean  the  unwritten  law  which 
makes  it  incest,  and  a  capital  offence,  to  marry  within  the  real 
or  supposed  kin  denoted  by  the  common  name  of  the  kinship,  — 
pointed  to  an  archaic  condition  of  family  affairs  all  unlike  our 
Table  of  prohibited  degrees.  This  law  of  Exogamy  was  found, 
among  many  savage  races,  associated  with  Totems,  that  is  plants, 


•animals  and  other  natural  objects  which  give  names  to  the 
various  kinships,  and  are  themselves,  in  various  degrees,  rever- 
enced by  members  of  the  kinships.  (See  TOTEM  AND  TOTEMISM.) 
Traces  of  such  kinships,  and  of  Totemism,  also  of  alleged  promis- 
cuity in  ancient  times,  were  detected  by  McLennan  in  the  legends, 
folk-lore  and  institutions  of  Greece,  Rome  and  India.  Later, 
Prof.  Robertson  Smith  found  similar  survivals,  or  possible 
survivals,  among  the  Semitic  races  (Kinship  in  Early  Arabia). 
Others,  have  followed  the  same  trail  among  the  Celts  (S.  Reinach, 
Cultes,  mythes  et  religions,  1904). 

If  arguments  founded  on  these  alleged  survivals  be  valid, 
it  may  be  that  the  most  civilized  races  have  passed  through  the 
stages  of  Exogamy,  Totemism  and  reckoning  descent  in  the 
female  line.  McLennan  explained  Exogamy  as  a  result  of 
scarcity  of  women,  due  to  female  infanticide.  Women  being 
scarce,  the  men  of  a  group  would  steal  them  from  other  groups, 
and  it  would  become  shameful,  and  finally  a  deadly  sin,  for  a  man 
to  marry  within  his  own  group-name,  or  name  of  kinship,  say 
Wolf  or  Raven.  Meanwhile,  owing  to  scarcity  of  women,  one 
woman  would  be  the  mate  of  many  husbands  (polyandry); 
hence,  paternity  being  undetermined,  descent  would  be  reckoned 
through  mothers. 

Such  are  the  outlines  of  McLennan's  theory,  which,  as  a 
whole,  has  been  attacked  by  many  writers,  and  is  now,  perhaps, 
accepted  by  none.  McLennan's  was  the  most  brilliant 
pioneer  work;  but  his  supply  of  facts  was  relatively  ^^"aaa  s 
scanty,  and  his  friend  CharlesDarwin  stated  objections 
which  to  many  seem  final,  as  regards  the  past  existence  of  a  stage 
of  sexual  promiscuity.  C.  N.  Starcke  (The  Primitive  Family, 
1889),  Edward  Alexander  Westermarck  (History  of  Human 
Marriage,  1891),  Ernest  Crawley  (The  Mystic  Rose),  Herbert 
Spencer,  Emile  Durkheim,  Lord  Avebury  and  many  others, 
have  criticized  McLennan,  who,  however,  in  coining  trie  term 
Exogamy,  and  drawing  scientific  attention  to  Totemism,  and 
reckoning  of  kin  through  mothers,  founded  the  study  of  early 
society.  Here  it  must  be  observed  that  "  Matriarchate  "  (q.v.) 
is  a  misleading  term,  as  is  "  Gynaecocracy,"  for  the  custom  of 
deducing  descent  on  the  spindle  side.  Women  among  totemistic 
and  exogamous  savages  are  in  a  degraded  position,  nor  does  the 
deriving  and  inheriting  of  the  kinship  name,  or  anything  else, 
on  the  spindle  side,  imply  any  ignorance  of  paternal  relations; 
even  where,  as  among  Central  Australian  tribes,  the  facts  of 
reproduction  are  said  to  be  unknown. 

3.  Simultaneous  with  McLennan's  researches  and  speculations 
were  the  works  of  Lewis  H.  Morgan.  He  was  the  discoverer  of  a 
custom  very  important  in  its  bearing  on  the  history  of 
society.  In  about  two-thirds  of  the  globe,  persons  ^"rgan. 
in  addressing  a  kinsman  do  not  discriminate  between 
grades  of  relationship.  All  these  grades  are  merged  in  large 
categories.  Thus,  in  what  Morgan  calls  the  "  Malayan  system," 
"  all  consanguinei,  near  or  far,  fall  within  one  of  these  relation- 
ships— grandparent,  parent,  brother,  sister,  child  and  grand- 
child." No  other  blood-relationships  are  recognized  (Ancient 
Society).  This  at  once  reminds  us  of  the  Platonic  Republic. 
"  We  devised  means  that  no  one  should  ever  be  able  to  know  his 
own  child,  but  that  all  should  imagine  themselves  to  be  of  one 
family,  and  should  regard  as  brothers  and  sisters  those  who 
were  within  a  certain  limit  of  age;  and  those  who  were  of  an  elder 
generation  they  were  to  regard  as  parents  and  grandparents, 
and  those  who  were  of  a  younger  generation  as  children  and 
grandchildren  "  (Timaeus,  18,  Jowett's  translation,  first  edition, 
vol.  ii.,  1871).  This  system  prevails  in  the  Polynesian  groups 
and  in  New  Zealand.  Next  comes  what  Morgan  chooses  to  call 
the  Turanian  system.  "  It  was  universal  among  the  North 
American  aborigines,"  whom  he  styles  Ganowanians.  "  Traces 
of  it  have  been  found  in  parts  of  Africa  "  (Ancient  Society), 
and  "  it  still  prevails  in  South  India  among  the  Hindus,  who 
speak  the  Dravidian  language,"  and  also  in  North  India,  among 
other  Hindus.  The  system,  Morgan  says,  "  is  simply  stu- 
pendous." It  is  not  exactly  the  same  among  all  his  miscellaneous 
"  Turanians,"  but,  on  the  whole,  assumes  the  following  shapes. 
Suppose  the  speaker  to  be  a  male,  he  will  style  his  nephew  and 


i6o 


FAMILY 


niece  in  the  male  line,  his  brother's  children,  "  son "  and- 
"  daughter,"  and  his  grand-nephews  and  grand-nieces  in  the  male 
line,  "grandson"  and  "granddaughter."  Here  the  Turanian 
and  the  Malayan  systems  agree.  But  change  the  sex;  let  the 
male  speaker  address  his  nephews  and  nieces  in  the  female  line, — 
the  children  of  his  sister, — he  salutes  them  as  "nephew"  and 
"niece, '  and  they  hail  him  as  "uncle."  Now,  in  the  Malay 
system,  nephews  and  nieces  on  both  sides,  brother's  children  or 
sisters,  are  alike  named  "  children  "  of  the  uncle.  If  the  speaker 
be  a  female,  using  the  Turanian  style,  these  terms  are  reversed. 
Her  sister's  sons  and  daughters  are  saluted  by  her  as  "  son  " 
and  "  daughter,"  her  brother's  children  she  calls  "  nephew  " 
and  "  niece."  Yet  the  children  of  the  persons  thus  styled 
"  nephew  "  and  "  niece  "  are  not  recognized  in  conversation  as 
"  grand-nephew  "  and  "  grand-niece,"  but  as  "  grandson  "  and 
"granddaughter."  It  is  impossible  here  to  do  more  than 
indicate  these  features  of  the  classificatory  nomenclature,  from 
which  the  others  may  be  inferred.  The  reader  is  referred  for 
particulars  to  Morgan's  Systems  of  Consanguinity  and  Affinity  of 
tkt  Human  Race. 

The  existence  of  the  classificatory  system  is  not  an  entirely 
novel  discovery.  Nicolaus  Damascenus,  one  of  the  inquirers 
into  early  society,  who  lived  in  the  first  century  of  our  era, 
noticed  this  mode  of  address  among  the  Galactophagi.  Lafitau 
found  it  among  the  Iroquois.  To  Morgan's  perception  of  the 
importance  of  the  facts,  and  to  his  energetic  collection  of  reports, 
we  owe  our  knowledge  of  the  wide  prevalence  of  the  system. 
From  an  examination  of  the  degrees  of  kindred  which  seem 
to  be  indicated  by  the  "  Malayan  "  and  "  Turanian  "  modes  of 
address,  he  has  worked  out  a  theory  of  the  evolution  of  the  modern 
family.  A  brief  comparison  of  this  with  other  modern  theories 
will  close  our  account  of  the  family.  The  main  points  of  the 
theory  are  shortly  stated  in  Systems  of  Consanguinity,  &c.,  and 
in  Ancient  Society.  From  the  latter  work  we  quote  the  following 
description  of  the  five  different  and  successive  forms  of  the 
family: —  « 

"  I.  The  Consanguine  Family. — It  was  founded  upon  the  inter- 
marriage of  brothers  and  sisters,  own  and  collateral,  in  a  group. 

"II.  The  Punaluan  Family. — It  was  founded  upon  the  inter- 
marriage of  several  sisters,  own  and  collateral,  with  each  others' 
husbands,  in  a  group — the  joint  husbands  not  being  necessarily 
kinsmen  of  each  other;  also,  on  the  intermarriage  of  several 
brothers,  own  and  collateral,  with  each  others'  wives  in  a  group — 
these  wives  not  being  necessarily  of  kin  to  each  other,  although 
often  the  case  in  both  instances  (sic).  In  each  case  the  group  of 
men  were  conjointly  married  to  the  group  of  women. 

"  III.  The  Syndyasmian  or  Pairing  Family. — It  was  founded  upon 
marriage  between  single  pairs,  but  without  an  exclusive  cohabita- 
tion. The  marriage  continued  during  the  pleasure  of  the  parties. 

"  IV.  The  Patriarchal  Family. — It  was  founded  upon  the  marriage 
of  one  man  with  several  wives,  followed  in  general  by  the  seclusion 
of  the  wives. 

"  V.  The  Monogamian  Family. — It  was  founded  upon  marriage 
between  single  pairs  with  an  exclusive  cohabitation. 

"  Three  of  these  forms,  namely,  the  first,  second,  and  fifth,  were 
radical,  because  they  were  sufficiently  general  and  influential  to 
create  three  distinct  systems  of  consanguinity,  all  of  which  still 
exist  in  living  forms.  Conversely,  these  systems  are  sufficient 
of  themselves  to  prove  the  antecedent  existence  of  the  forms  of 
the  family  and  of  marriage  with  which  they  severally  stand 
connected." 

Morgan  makes  the  systems  of  nomenclature  proofs  of  the 
existence  of  the  Consanguine  and  Punaluan  fa  milies.  Unhappily, 
there  is  no  other  proof,  and  the  same  systems  have  been  explained 
on  a  very  different  principle  (McLennan,  Studies  in  Ancient 
History).  Looking  at  facts,  we  find  the  Consanguine  family 
nowhere,  and  cannot  easily  imagine  how  early  groups  abstained 
from  infringing  on  each  other,  and  created  a  systematic  marriage 
of  brothers  and  sisters.  St  Augustine,  however  (De  civ.  Dei, 
xv.  1 6),  and  Archinus  in  his  Thessalica  (Odyssey,  xi.  7,  scholia 
B,  Q)  agree  more  or  less  with  Morgan.  Next,  how  did  the 
Consanguine  family  change  into  the  Punaluan  ?  Morgan  says 
(Ancient  Society)  brothers  ceased  to  marry  their  sisters,  because 
"the  evils  of  it  could  not  for  ever  escape  human  observation." 
Thus  the  Punaluan  family  was  hit  upon,  and  "  created  a  distinct 
system  of  consanguinity "  (Ancient  Society),  the  Turanian. 


Again,  "  marriages  in  Punaluan  groups  explain  the  relationships 
in  the  system."  But  Morgan  provides  himself  with  another 
explanation,  "  the  Turanian  system  owes  its  origin  to  marriage 
in  the  group  and  to  the  gentile  organization."  He  calls  exogamy 
"  the  gentile  organization,"  though,  in  point  of  fact,  the  only 
gentes  we  know,  the  Roman  gentes,  show  scarcely  a  trace  of 
exogamy.  Again,  "  the  change  of  relationships  which  resulted 
from  substituting  Punaluar.  in  the  place  of  Consanguine  marriage 
turns  the  Malayan  into  the  Turanian  system."  On  the  same 
page  Morgan  attributes  the  change  to  the  "  gentile  organization," 
and,  still  on  the  same  page,  uses  both  factors  in  his  working  out 
of  the  problem.  Now,  if  the  Punaluan  marriage  is  a  sufficient 
explanation,  we  do  not  need  the  "  gentile  organization."  Both, 
in  Morgan's  opinion,  were  efforts  of  conscious  moral  reform. 
In  Systems  of  Consanguinity  the  gentile  organization  (there 
called  tribal),  that  is,  exogamy,  is  said  to  have  been  "  designed 
to  work  out  a  reformation  in  the  intermarriage  of  brothers  and 
sisters."  But  the  Punaluan  marriage  had  done  that,  otherwise 
it  would  not  have  produced  (as  Morgan  says  it  did)  the  change 
from  the  Malayan  to  the  Turanian  system,  the  difference  in  the 
two  systems,  as  exemplified  in  Seneca  and  Tamil,  being  "  in  the 
relationships  which  depended  on  the  intermarriage  or  non- 
intermarriage  of  brothers  and  sisters  "  (Ancient  Society).  Yet  the 
Punaluan  family,  though  itself  a  reform  in  morals  and  in  "  breed- 
ing," "did  not  furnish  adequate  motives  to  reform  the  Malay 
system,"  which,  as  we  have  seen,  it  did  reform.  The  Punaluan 
family,  it  is  suspected,  "  frequently  involved  own  brothers  and 
sisters  ";  had  it  not  been  so,  there  would  have  been  no  need  of  a 
fresh  moral  reformation, — "  the  gentile  organization."  Yet  even 
in  the  Punaluan  family  (Ancient  Society)  "  brothers  ceased  to 
marry  their  own  sisters. "  What,  then,  did  the  "  gentile  organiza- 
tion "  do  for  men  ?  As  they  had  already  ceased  to  marry  their 
own  sisters,  and  as,  under  the  gentile  organization,  they  were 
still  able  to  marry  their  half-sisters,  the  reformatory  "  ingenuity  " 
of  the  inventors  of  the  organizations  was  at  once  superfluous  and 
useless.  It  is  impossible  to  understand  the  Punaluan  system. 
Its  existence  is  inferred  from  a  system  of  nomenclature  which  it 
does  (and  does  not)  produce;  it  admits  (and  excludes)  own 
brothers  and  sisters.  Morgan  has  intended,  apparently,  to 
represent  the  Punaluan  marriage  as  a  long  transition  to  the 
definite  custom  of  exogamy,  but  it  will  be  seen  that  his  language 
is  not  very  clear  nor  his  positions  assured.  He  does  not  adduce 
sufficient  proof  that  the  Punaluan  family  ever  existed  as  an 
institution,  even  in  Hawaii.  There  is,  if  possible,  a  greater 
absence  of  historical  testimony  to  the  existence  of  the  Con- 
sanguine family.  It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  exogamy  was  a 
conscious  moral  and  social  reformation,  because,  ex  hypolhesi,  the 
savages  had  no  moral  data,  nothing  to  cause  disgust  at  relations 
which  seem  revolting  to  us.  It  is  as  improbable  that  they  dis- 
covered the  supposed  physical  evils  of  breeding  in  and  in.  That 
discovery  could  only  have  been  made  after  a  long  experience,  and 
in  the  Consanguine  family  that  experience  was  impossible.  Thus, 
setting  moral  reform  aside  as  inconceivable,  we  cannot  understand 
how  the  Consanguine  families  ever  broke  up.  Morgan's  ingenious 
speculations  as  to  a  transitional  step  towards  the  gens  (as  he  calls 
what  we  style  the  totem-kindred),  supposed  to  be  found  in  the 
"  classes  "  and  marriage  laws  of  the  Kamilaroi,  are  vitiated  by 
the  weakness  and  contradictory  nature  of  the  evidence  (see 
Pritchard;  J.  D.  Lang's  Queensland,  Appendix;  Proceedings  of 
American  Academy  of  Arts,  &c.,  vol.  viii.  412;  Nature,  October 
29, 1874).  Further,  though  Morgan  calls  the  Australian  "gentile 
organization  "  "  incipient,"  he  admits  (Ancient  Society)  that  the 
Narrinyeri  have  totem  groups,  in  which  "  the  children  are  of  the 
clan  of  the  father."  Far  from  being  "  incipient,"  the  gens  of  the 
Narrinyeri  is  on  the  footing  of  the  ghotra  of  Hindu  custom. 
Lastly,  though  Morgan  frequently  declares  that  the  Polynesians 
have  not  the  gens  (for  he  thinks  them  not  sufficiently  advanced) , 
W.  W.  Gill  (Myths  and  Songs  from  the  South  Pacific,  London, 
1876)  has  shown  that  unmistakable  traces  of  the  totem  survive  in 
Polynesian  mythology. 

4.  Morgan's  theory  was  opposed  by  McLennan  (Studies  in 
Ancient  History,   1876),  who  maintained  that  the  names  for 


FAMILY 


161 


relationships,  in  the  "  classificatory  system,"  were  merely  terms 
of  address,  as  among  ourselves  when  a  preacher  calls  any  adult 
male  "  brother,"  when  an  old  woman  is  addressed  as 
theories.  "  m°ther,"  when  an  elder  man  calls  a  junior  "  my 
son."  He  also  showed  that  his  own  system  accounted 
for  the  terms.  The  controversy  is  still  alive;  one  set  of  writers 
regarding  the  savage  terms  of  relationship  as  indicating  a  state  of 
things  in  which  human  beings  dwelt  in  a  "  horde,"  with  pro- 
miscuous intercourse;  another  set  holding  that  the  terms  do  not 
indicate  consanguineous  kinship,  but  degrees  of  age,  status,  and 
reciprocal  obligations  in  a  local  tribe,  and  therefore  that  they  do 
not  yield  any  presumption  that  there  was  a  past  of  promiscuity  or 
of  what  is  called  "  group  marriage."  On  Morgan's  side  (not  of 
course  accepting  all  his  details)  a.re  L.  Fison  and  A.  W.  Howitt, 
and  Baldwin  Spencer  and  F.  J.  Gillen.  Against  him  are  Starcke, 
Westermarck,  A.  Lang,  Dr  Durkheim,  apparently,  Crawley  and 
many  others. 

5.  A  second  presumption  in  favour  of  original  promiscuity  has 
been  drawn  by  the  eminent  Australian  students,  Baldwin 
Evidence  Spencer  and  F.  J.  Gillen,  and  by  A.  W.  Howitt,  from 
of  original  the  customs  of  some  Australian  aborigines.  In  each 
promis-  tribe,  owing  to  customary  laws  which  are  to  be 
examined  later,  only  men  and  women  of  a  given  status 
are  intermarriageable  (nupa,  noa,  unaiva)  with  each  other. 
Though  child-betrothals  are  usual,  and  though  the  woman  is 
specialized  to  one  man,  who  protects  and  nourishes  her  and  all 
her  children,  and  though  their  union  is  immediately  preceded  by 
an  extended  jus  primae  noctis  (such  as  Herodotus  describes  among 
the  Nasamones),  yet,  among  certain  tribes,  the  following  custom 
prevails.  At  great  meetings  the  tribal  leaders  assign  a  woman  as 
paramour  (with  what  amount  of  permanence  remains  obscure)  to 
a  man  (pirrauru)  ;  one  woman  may  have  several  pirrauru  men, 
one  man  several  pirrauru  women,  in  addition  to  the.'*  regularly 
betrothed  (lippa  malku)  wives  and  husbands.  The  husband 
occasionally  shows  fight,  and  bitter  jealousies  prevail,  but,  at 
the  great  ceremonial  meetings,  complaisance  is  enforced  under 
penalty  of  strangling.  Thenceforth,  if  the  husband  permits,  the 
male  pirrauru  has  matrimonial  rights  over  the  other  man's 
iippa  malku  wife  when  they  meet.  A  symbolic  ceremony  of 
union  precedes  the  junction  of  the  pirrauru  people.  This  institu- 
tion, as  far  as  reported,  is  peculiar  to  a  group  of  tribes  near  Lake 
Eyre,  the  Dieri,  Urabunna,  and  their  congeners,  —  or  perhaps  to 
all  who  have  the  same  "  phratry  "  names  as  the  Dieri  and 
Urabunna  (Kiraru  and  Matlera,  in  various  dialectic  forms). 

Elsewhere  the  pirrauru  custom  is  not  known:  but  almost 
everywhere  there  are  licentious  festivals,  in  which  all  marriage 
rules  except  those  which  forbid  incest  (in  our  sense  of  the  word, 
namely  between  the  closest  relations)  are  thrown  to  the  winds. 
Also  a  native  travelling  among  alien  tribes  is  lent  women  of  the 
status  into  which  he  may  legally  marry. 

Baldwin  Spencer  and  F.  J.  Gillen,  and  A.  W.  Howitt,  regard 
pirrauru  as  "  group  marriage  "  and  as  a  proof  that,  at  one  time, 
all  intermarriageable  people  were  actually  husbands 
an^  wives,  while  the  other  examples  of  licence  are  also 
survivals,  in  a  later  stage  of  decay,  of  promiscuity,  and 
"  group  marriage."  To  this  it  is  replied  that  "  group  marriage  " 
is  a  misnomer;  that  if  pirrauru  be  in  a  sense  marriage  it  is 
status,  not  group  marriage.  Again,  it  is  urged,  pirrauru  is  a 
modification  of  tippa  malku,  which  comes  first;  a  woman  is 
"  specialized  "  to  a  man  before  she  can  be  made  pirrauru  to 
another,  and  her  lippa  malku  husband  continues  to  support  her, 
and  to  recognize  her  children  as  his  own,  after  she  has  become 
pirrauru  to  another  man  or  other  men.  Without  the  foregoing 
tippa  malku  union,  the  pirrauru  unions  are  not  conceivable; 
they  are  mere  legalized  paramourships,  modifying  the  lippa 
malku  marriage  (like  the  Italian  cicisbeism),  procuring  a  protector 
for  a  woman  in  her  husband's  absence,  and  supplying  legal  loves 
for  bachelors.  The  custom  is  peculiar  to  a  given  set  of  kindred 
tribes.  The  festivals  are  the  legalized,  restricted  and  more  or 
less  permanent  modification  of  the  casual  orgies  of  feasts  of 
licence,  or  Saturnalia,  which  have  their  analogies  among  many 
people,  ancient  and  modern.  Pirrauru  is  no  more  a  survival 

x.  6 


marriage. 


of  and  a  proof  of  primitive  promiscuity,  than  is  the  legalized  incest 
of  ancient  Egypt  or  ancient  Peru.  If  these  views  be  correct  the 
argument  for  primitive  promiscuity  derived  from  pirrauru  falls 
to  the  ground. 

6.  The  questions  at  issue  obviously  are,  was  mankind  originally 
promiscuous,  with  no  objections  to  marriage  between  persons  of 
the  nearest  kin;  and  was  the  first  step  in  advance 

the  prohibition  of  marriage  (or  of  amatory  intercourse)  J/sforfca/ 
between  brothers  and  sisters;  or  did  mankind  origin-  problem. 
ally  live  in  very  small  groups,  under  a  jealous  sire, 
who  imposed  restrictions  on  intercourse  between  the  young 
males,  his  sons,  and  all  the  females  of  the  "  hearth-circle,"  who 
constituted  his  harem  ?  The  problem  has  been  studied,  first, 
in  the  institutions  of  savages,  notably  of  the  most  backward 
savages,  the  black  natives  of  Australia;  and  next,  in  the  light 
of  the  habits  of  the  higher  mammalia. 

As  regards  Australian  matrimonial  institutions,  it  has  been 
known  since  the  date  of  the  Journals  of  two  Expeditions  of 
Discovery,  by  Sir  George  Grey  (1837-1839),  that  they  are  very 
complex  and  peculiar,  in  points  strongly  resembling  the  customary 
laws  of  the  more  backward  Red  Indian  tribes  of  North  America. 
Information  came  in,  while  McLennan  was  working,  from 
G.  Taplin  (The  Narrinyeri,  1874),  from  A.  W.  Howitt  and  L. 
Fison,  and  many  other  inquirers  (in  Brough  Smyth's  Aborigines 
of  Victoria,  1878),  from  Howitt  and  Fison  again  (in  Kamilaroi 
and  Kurnai,  1880) ,  and  many  essays  by  these  authors,  and  finally, 
in  Native  Tribes  of  Central  Australia  (1899)  and  Northern  Tribes 
of  Central  Australia  (1904),  by  Baldwin  Spencer  and  F.  J.  Gillen; 
and  in  Howitt's  Native  Tribes  of  South-East  Australia  (1904), 
with  R.  Roth's  North-West  Central  Queensland  Aborigines  (1897). 
All  of  these  are  works  of  very  high  merit.  Knowledge  is  now 
much  more  wide,  minute  and  securely  based  than  it  was  when 
McLennan 's  Studies  in  Ancient  History,  second  series,  was 
posthumously  published  (1896).  We  know  with  certainty  that 
in  Australia,  among  archaic  savages  who  have  neither  metals, 
agriculture,  pottery  nor  domesticated  animals,  a  graduated 
scale  of  matrimonial  institutions  exists.  First  there  are  local 
tribes,  each  tribe  having  its  own  dialect;  holding  a  recognized 
area  of  territory;  and  living  on  friendly  terms  with  neighbouring 
tribes.  Territorial  conquest  is  never  attempted.  In  many  cases 
a  knot  of  tribes  of  allied  dialects  and  kindred  rites  may  be,  or  at 
least  is,  spoken  of  as  a  "  nation  "  by  our  authorities. 

7.  Customary  law  is  administered  by  the  Seniors,  the  wise, 
the  magically  skilled,  who  in  many  cases  are  "  headmen  "  of 
local  groups  or  of  sets  of  kindred.     As  to  marriage,    Primitive 
persons  may  wed  within  the  local  tribe,  or  into  a    restric- 
neighbouring  local  tribe,  at  will,  provided  that  they    a°a*  °" 
obey  the  restrictions  of  customary  law.     The  local    marr/a*e- 
tribe  is  neither  exogamous  nor  endogamous,  any  more  than  is  an 
English  county.     The  restrictions,  except  where  they  have  become 
obsolete,  fall  into  six  main  categories: — 

(i)  In  the  most  primitive,  each  tribe  consists  of  two  inter- 
marrying and  exogamous  divisions,  which  are  often  styled 
phratries.  Each  such  division  has  a  name,  which,  when  it  can 
be  translated,  is  the  name  of  an  animal:  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  however,  the  meaning  of  the  phratry  name  is  lost.  In  one 
instance,  that  of  the  Euahlayi  tribe  of  north-west  New  South 
Wales,  the  phratry  names  are  said  (by  Mrs  Langloh  Parker)  to 
mean  "  Light  Blood  "  and  "  Dark  Blood."  This,  as  in  the  theory 
of  the  Rev.  J.  Mathews,  Eagle  and  Crow,  might  be  taken  to 
indicate  a  blending  of  two  distinct  races. 

Taking,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  tribes  whose  phratry  names 
mean  "  Crow  "  and  "  Eagle  Hawk,"  every  member  of  the  tribe 
belongs  either  to  Eagle  Hawk  phratry  or  to  Crow  phratry:  if  to 
Crow,  the  man  or  woman  can  only  marry  an  Eagle  Hawk,  if  to 
Eagle  Hawk,  can  only  marry  a  Crow.  The  children  invariably 
belong  to  the  phratry  of  the  mother,  in  this  most  primitive  type. 
Within  Eagle  Hawk  phratry  is  one  set  of  totem  kins,  named 
usually  after  various  species  of  animals  and  plants;  within 
Crow  phratry  is  another  set  of  totem  kins,  named  always  (except 
in  one  region  of  Central  Australia)  after  a  di/erent  set  of  plants 
and  animals.  With  the  exception  mentioned  (that  of  the  Arunta 


162 


FAMILY 


"  nation  "),  in  no  tribe  does  the  same  totem  ever  occur  in  both 
phratries.  Totems  an4  'totem  names  are  inherited  by  the 
children  from  the  mother,  in  this  primitive  type.  Thus  a  man, 
Eagle  Hawk  by  phratry,  Snipe  by  totem,  marries  a  woman  Crow 
by  phratry,  Black  Duck  by  totem.  His  children  by  her  are  of 
phratry  Crow,  of  totem  Black  Duck.  Obviously  no  person  can 
marry  another  of  his  or  her  own  totem,  because,  in  the  phratry 
into  which  he  or  she  must  marry,  no  man  or  woman  of  his  or  her 
totem  exists.  The  prohibition  extends  to  members  of  alien  and 
remote  tribes,  if  of  the  same  totem  name. 

The  same  rules  exist  in  the  more  primitive  North  American 
tribes,  but  as  the  phratry  there  has  generally,  though  not  always, 
decayed,  the  rule,  where  this  has  occurred,  merely  forbids 
marriage  within  the  totem  km. 

(2)  We  find  this  type  of  organization,  where  the  child  inherits 
phratry  and  totem  from  the  father,  not  from  the  mother. 

(3)  We  find  tribes  in  which  phratry  and  totem  are  inherited 
from  the  mother,  but  an  additional  rule  prevails:  the  rule  of 
"  Matrimonial  Classes."     By  this  device,  in  phratry  "  Dilbi," 
there   are   two   classes,    "  Muri  "   and   "  Kubi."    In   phratry 
"  Kupathin  "  are  two  classes,  "  Ipai  "  and  "  Kumbo  "  (all  these 
names  are  of  unknown  meaning)  .   Each  child  inherits  its  mother's 
phratry  name  and  totem  name,  and  also  the  name  of  that  class 
of  the  two  in  the  mother's  phratry  to  which  the  mother  does  not 
belong.      No  person  may  marry  into  his  or  her  own  class- 
practically  into  his  or  her  own  generation:  the  rule  makes 
parental  and  filial  marriages  impossible,  —  but  these  never  occur 
even  among  more  primitive  tribes  which  have  not  the  institution 
of  classes.     Suppose  that  the  class  names  are  really  names  of 
animals  and  other  objects  in  nature  —  as  in  a  few  cases  they 
actually  are.     Then  the  rules,  where  classes  exist,  would  amount 
to  this:  no  person  may  marry  another  who,  by  phratry,  totem  or 
generation,  owns  the  same  hereditary  animal  name  as  himself 
or  herself.     In  practice,  where  phratries  exist,  a  man  who  knows 
a  woman's  phratry  name  knows  whether  or  not  he  may  marry 
her.     Where  class  names  exist  (even  though  the  phratry  name  be 
lost),  a  man  who  knows  a  woman's  class  name  knows  whether 
or  not  he  may  marry  her.     Nothing  can  be  simpler  in  practice. 

(4)  The  same  rules  as  under  (3)  exist,  but  the  phratry,  totem 
and  class  are  inherited  through  the  father:  the  class  of  the  child 
of  course  not  being  the  father's,  but  the  linked  class  in  his 
phratry. 

(5)  In  the  fifth  category  (Central  North  Australia),  while 
phratry  name  (if  not  lost)  and  totem  name  are  inherited  from 
the  father,  by  a  refinement  of  law  which  is  spreading  southwards 
there  are  four  classes  in  each  phratry  (or  main  exogamous 
division  unnamed),  and  the  choice  of  a  partner  in  life  is  thus 
more  restricted  than  in  more  primitive  tribes. 

(6)  Finally  we  reach  the  institutions  of  the  group  of  tribes 
called,  from  the  name  of  the  most  powerful  tribe  in  the  set, 

"  the  Arunta  nation."  They  occupy  the  Macdonnell 
Ranges  and  other  territory  in  the  very  centre  of 
Australia.  The  Arunta  reckon  kinship  in  the  male  line  : 
their  phratry  names  they  have  forgotten,  in  place  of  phratries 
eight  matrimonial  classes  regulate  marriage.  In  these  respects 
they  resemble  most  of  the  central  and  northern  tribes,  but  present 
this  unique  peculiarity,  that  the  same  totems  may  and  do  exist 
in  both  of  the  opposed  intermarrying  exogamous  divisions  con- 
sisting of  four  classes  each.  It  thus  results  that  a  man,  in  the 
Arunta  tribe,  may  marry  a  woman  of  his  own  totem,  if  she  be 
in  the  class  with  which  he  may  intermarry.  This  licence  is  un- 
known in  every  other  part  of  the  totemic  world,  and  even  in  the 
Kaitish  tribe  of  the  Arunta  nation  intertotemic  marriages,  in 
practice,  almost  never  occur. 

Among  the  Arunta  the  totems  are  only  prominent  in  magical 
ceremonies,  unknown  in  South-Eastern  Australia.  At  these 
ceremonies  (Intichiuma)  the  men  of  the  totem  do  co-operative 
magic  for  the  benefit  of  their  plant  or  animal,  as  part  of  the 
tribal  food-supply.  The  members  of  the  totem  taste  it  sparingly 
on  these  occasions,  apparently  under  the  belief  that  to  do  so 
increases  their  magical  power:  the  rest  of  the  tribe  eat  freely. 
But,  as  far  as  denoting  kinship  or  regulating  marriage  is  con- 


cerned, the  totems,  among  the  Arunta,  have  no  legally  important 
existence.  Men  and  women  of  the  same  totem  may  intermarry, 
their  children  need  not  belong  to  the  totem  of  either  father  or 
mother. 

The  process  by  which  Arunta  totems  came  thus  to  differ  from 
those  of  all  other  savages  is  easily  understood.  Like  the  other 
tribes  from  the  centre  to  the  north  (including  the  Urabunna 
nation,  which  reckons  descent  through  women),  the  Arunta 
believe  that  the  souls  of  the  primal  semi-bestial  ancestors  of  the 
Alcheringa  or  "  dream  time "  are  perpetually  reincarnated. 
This  opinion  does  not  affect  by  itself  the  usual  exogamous 
character  of  totemism  among  the  other  tribes.  The  Arunta 
nation,  however,  cultivates  an  additional  myth,  namely  that  the 
primal  ancestors,  when  they  sank  into  the  ground,  left  behind 
them  certain  oval  stone  slabs,  with  archaic  markings,  called 
churinga  nanja,  or  "  sacred  things  of  the  nanja."  The  nanja, 
again,  is  a  tree  or  rock,  fabled  to  have  risen  up  to  mark  the  spot 
where  a  group  of  primal  ancestors,  all  of  one  and  the  same  totem 
in  each  case  (Cats  here,  Grubs  there,  Ducks  elsewhere),  "  went 
into  the  ground."  The  souls  of  these  ancestors  haunt  such  spots, 
especially  they  haunt  the  nanja  tree  or  rock,  and  the  stone 
churinga  nanja.  Each  district,  therefore,  has  its  own  oknanikilla 
(or  local  totem  centre  of  the  ghosts),  Cat  ghosts,  Grub  ghosts, 
Hakea  flower  ghosts  and  so  on.  These  spirits  enter  into  women 
and  are  reborn  as  children.  When  a  child  comes  to  birth,  the 
mother  names  the  oknanikilla  in  which  she  conceived  it,  and, 
whatever  the  ghost  totem  of  that  place  may  be,  it  is  the  child's 
totem.  Its  mother  may  be  a  Grub,  its  father  may  be  a  Crow, 
but  if  the  child  was  conceived  in  a  Duck,  or  Cat,  or  Opossum  or 
Kangaroo  locality,  it  is,  by  totem,  a  Cat,  Opossum,  Duck  or 
Kangaroo.  The  churinga  nanja  of  its  primal  ancestor  is  sought 
for  at  the  place  of  the  child's  conception,  and  is  put  into  the 
sacred  repository  of  such  objects. 

Thus  the  child  does  not  inherit  its  totem  from  father,  or  from 
mother,  as  everywhere  else,  but  does  inherit  the  right  to  do 
ceremonies  for  the  paternal  totem:  a  proof  that,  of  old,  totems 
were  inherited,  as  elsewhere,  and  that  in  the  male  line.  If  totems 
among  the  Arunta,  as  everywhere  else,  were  once  arranged  on 
the  plan  that  the  same  totem  never  occurs  in  both  exogamous 
moieties,  that  arrangement  has  been  destroyed,  as  was  in- 
evitable, by  the  existing  method  of  allotting  totems  to  children, — 
not  by  inheritance, — but  at  haphazard.  By  this  means  (a 
consequence  of  the  unique  Arunta  belief  about  churinga  nanja) 
the  same  totems  have  got  into  both  exogamous  moieties,  so  that 
persons  of  the  same  totem,  but  of  appropriate  matrimonial 
classes,  may  marry.  This  licence  is  absolutely  confined  to  the 
limited  region  in  which  stone  churinga  nanja  occur. 

The  whole  system  is  impossible  except  where  descent  is 
reckoned  in  the  male  line,  for  there  alone  is  local  totemism 
possible,  and  the  Arunta  system  is  based  on  local  totemism, 
plus  the  churinga  nanja  and  reincarnation  beliefs.  With  reckon- 
ing of  descent  in  the  female  line,  no  locality  can  possibly  have 
its  local  totem:  all  the  totems  indiscriminately  distributed 
everywhere:  and  thus  no  woman  can  say  in  what  totemic 
locality  her  child  was  conceived,  for  there  is  not  and  cannot  be, 
with  female  descent,  any  totemic  locality.  Now  it  is  admitted 
that  reckoning  by  female  descent  is  the  earlier  method,  and  it  is 
granted  that  in  rites  and  ceremonies  the  Arunta  are  of  a  relatively 
advanced  and  highly  organized  pattern.  Their  social  organiza- 
tion is  local,  and  they  have  a  kind  of  local  magistracies,  hereditary 
in  the  male  line. 

In  spite  of  these  facts,  Spencer  and  Gillen  conceive  that  the 
peculiar  totemism  of  the  Arunta  is  the  most  primitive  type 
extant  (cp.  Spencer,  J.A.I.  (N.S.),  vol.  i.  275-281;  and  Frazer, 
ibid.  281-288).  It  is  not  easy  to  understand  this  position,  as, 
without  male  kinship  and  consequent  local  totemism  (which  are 
not  primitive),  and  without  the  churinga  nanja  (which  exist  only 
in  a  strictly  limited  area),  the  Arunta  system  of  non-exogamous 
totems  cannot  possibly  exist.  Again,  the  other  tribes  cannot  have 
passed  through  the  Arunta  stage,  for,  if  they  had,  their  totems 
would  have  existed,  as  among  the  Arunta,  in  both  exogamous 
moieties,  and  would  there  remain  when  they  came  to  be  inherited; 


FAMILY 


163 


so  that  the  totems  of  all  these  tribes  would  still  benon-exogamous, 
like  those  of  the  Arunta.  But  this  is  not  the  case.  Once  more, 
it  is  clear  that  the  Arunta  system  has  but  recently  reached  their 
neighbours,  the  Kaitish,  for  though  they  have  the  churinga  nanja 
belief,  and  the  haphazard  method  of  acquiring  totems  by  local 
accident,  these  things  have  not  yet  overcome  the  old  traditional 
reluctance  to  marry  within  the  totem  name.  It  is  not  unlawful 
among  the  Kaitish;  but  it  is  hardly  ever  done. 

Despite  these  objections,  however,  Spencer  and  Gillen  hold, 
as  we  have  said,  that,  originally,  there  were  no  restrictions  (or 
no  known  restrictions)  on  marriage.  Totems  were  merely  the 
result  of  the  formation  of  co-operative  magical  societies,  in  the 
interest  of  the  tribal  food  supply.  Then,  in  some  unknown  way, 
regulations  as  to  marriage  were  introduced  for  some  unknown 
purpose,  or  were  involved  in  some  manner  not  understood. 
"  The  traditions  of  the  Arunta,"  says  Spencer,  "  point  to  a  very 
definite  introduction  of  an  exogamous  system  long  after  the 
totemic  groups  were  fully  developed,  and,  further,  they  point 
very  clearly  to  the  fact  that  the  introduction  was  due  to  the 
deliberate  action  of  certain  ancestors.  Our  knowledge  of  the 
natives  leads  us  to  the  opinion  that  it  is  quite  possible  that  this 
really  took  place,  that  the  exogamic  groups  were  deliberately 
introduced  so  as  to  regulate  marital  relations." 

Thus  the  wisdom  of  men  living  promiscuously  as  regards 
marriage,  but  organized  in  magical  societies  for  the  benefit  of 
the  common  food  supply  of  the  local  tribe  (a  complex  institution 
postulated  as  already  in  being  at  this  early  stage),  induced  them 
to  institute  exogamy.  Why  they  did  this,  what  harm  they  saw 
in  their  promiscuity,  we  are  not  informed.  Spencer  goes  on, 
"  by  this  we  do  not  mean  that  the  regulations  had  anything 
whatever  to  do  with  the  idea  of  incest,  or  of  any  harm  accruing 
from  the  union  of  individuals  who  were  regarded  as  too  nearly 
related.  .  .  .  There  was  felt  the  need  of  some  kind  of  organiza- 
tion, and  this  gradually  resulted  in  the  development  of  exogamous 
groups."  But  as  "  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  exogamous  groups 
were  deliberately  introduced  to  regulate  marital  relations,"  and 
as  they  could  only  do  so  by  introducing  exogamy,  we  do  not 
see  how  that  system  can  be  the  result  of  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  an  organization  quelconque, — of  unknown  nature.  A 
magical  organization  already  existed  (Journal  of  the  Anthropo- 
logical Institute,  New  Series,  i.  pp.  284-285). 

The  traditions  of  the  Arunta  seem  here  to  be  first  accepted: 
"  quite  possibly  "  they  are  correct  in  stating  that  an  exogamic 
system  was  purposefully  introduced,  long  after  totemic  groups 
had  arisen,  by  "  the  deliberate  action  of  certain  ancestors," 
and  then  that  myth  is  rejected,  in  favour  of  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  exogamy,  "  out  of  some  form  of  organization,"  unknown. 

People  who,  like  the  Arunta,  have  lost  memory  of  the  very 
names  of  the  phratries,  cannot  conceivably  remember  the 
nature  of  the  origin  of  exogamy.  Accustomed  as  they  now  are  to 
tribal  councils  which  introduce  new  rules,  they  fancy  that,  in  the 
beginning,  new  rules  were  thus  introduced. 

Meanwhile  the  working  of  magic  for  the  behoof  of  the  totem 
animals  and  plants,  or  rather  for  the  name-giving  animals  of 
Conclusion  maS'cal  societies,  is  not  known  to  Howitt  among  the 
as  to  tribes  of  primitive  social  organization,  while  it  is  well 
Spencer's  known  among  agricultural  natives  of  the  Torres 
tbesi*  Strait  Islands  and  among  the  advanced  Sioux  and 
Omaha  of  North  America.  The  practice  seems  to 
belong  rather  to  the  decadence  than  to  the  dawn  of  totemism. 
On  the  whole,  then,  there  seem  to  be  insuperable  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  Spencer's  hypothesis  that  mankind  were  pro- 
miscuous, as  regards  marriage,  but  were  organized  into  co- 
operative magical  groups,  athwart  which  came,  in  some  un- 
explained way,  the  rule  of  exogamy;  while,  when  it  did  come, 
all  savages  except  the  Arunta  arranged  matters  so  that  totem 
kins  were  exogamous.  The  reverse  was  probably  the  case, 
totem  kins  were  originally  exogamous,  and  ceased  to  be  so, 
and  even  to  be  kins  among  the  Arunta,  in  consequence  of  the 
churinga  nanja  creed,  becoming  co-operative  magical  societies 
(Hartland,  Marett,  Durkheim  and  others). 

8.  Spencer  and  Gillen  leave  the  origin  of  exogamy  an  open 


question.     Howitt  supposes  that,  in  the  shape  of  the  phratriac 
division  of  the  tribe  into  two  exogamous  moieties, 
the  scheme  may  have  been  introduced  to  the  tribal    <0^fln 
headmen  by  a  medicine  man  "  announcing  to  his    exogamy. 
fellow  headman  a  command  received  from  some  super- 
natural being  .  .  ."  (Natives  of  South- East  Australia,  pp.  89,  90). 
The  Council,  so  to  speak,  of  "  headmen  "  accept  the  divine 
decree,  and  the  assembled  tribe  pass  the  Act.     But  this  explana- 
tion explains  nothing.     Why  did  the  prophet  wish  to  introduce 
exogamy?     Why  were  names  of  animals  given,  in  so  many  cases, 
to  the  two  exogamous  divisions  ?     As  Howitt  asks  (op.  cit.  p.  153), 
"  How  was  it  that  men  assumed  the  names  of  objects,  which  in 
fact  must  have  been  the  commencement  of  totemism  ?  " 

It  is  apparent  that  any  theory  which  begins  by  postulating 
the  existence  of  early  mankind  in  promiscuous  groups  or  hordes, 
into  which  exogamous  moieties  are  introduced  by  tribal  decree, 
takes  for  granted  that  the  tribe,  with  its  headman,  councils  and 
great  meetings  (not  to  mention  its  inspired  prophet,  with  the 
tribal  "  All  Father  "  who  inspires  him),  existed  before  any  rules 
regulating  "  marital  relations  "  were  evolved.  Even  if  all  this 
were  probable,  we  are  not  told  why  a  promiscuous  tribe  thought 
good  to  establish  exogamous  divisions.  Some  native  myths 
attribute  the  institution  to  certain  wise  ancestors;  some  to  the 
supernatural  "  All  Father,"  say  Baiame;  some  to  a  treaty 
between  Eagle  Hawk  and  Crow,  beings  of  cosmogonic  legend, 
who  give  names  to  the  phratries.  Such  myths  are  mere  hypo- 
theses. It  is  impossible  to  imagine  how  early  savages,  ex  hypo- 
thesi  promiscuous,  saw  anything  to  reform  in  their  state  of 
promiscuity.  They  now  think  certain  unions  wrong,  because 
they  are  forbidden:  they  were  not  forbidden,  originally,  because 
they  were  thought  wrong. 

Westermarck  has  endeavoured  to  escape  the  difficulty  thus: 
"  Among  the  ancestors  of  man,  as  among  other  animals,  there 
was  no  doubt  a  time  when  blood  relationship  was  no 
bar  to  sexual  intercourse.  But  variations  here,  as 
elsewhere,  would  naturally  present  themselves,  and 
those  of  our  ancestors  who  avoided  in  and  in  breeding  would 
survive,"  while  the  others  would  die  out.  This  appears  to  be 
orthodox  evolutionary  language,  but  it  carries  us  no  further. 
Human  societies  are  not  animals  or  plants,  in  whose  structure 
various  favourable  "  accidents  "  occur,  producing  better  types, 
which  survive.  We  ask  why  in  human  society  did  "  variations 
present  themselves  ";  why  did  certain  sets  of  human  beings 
"  avoid  in  and  in  breeding  "  ?  We  are  merely  told  that  some 
of  our  ancestors  became  exogamous  and  survived,  while  others 
remained  promiscuous  and  perished.  No  light  is  thrown  on  the 
problem, — wherefore  did  some  of  our  ancestors  avoid  in  and  in 
breeding,  and  become  exogamous  ?  Nothing  is  gained  by  saying 
"  thus  an  instinct  would  be  developed  which  would  be  powerful 
enough,  as  a  rule,  to  prevent  injurious  unions."  There  is  no 
"  instinct,"  there  is  a  tribal  law  of  exogamy.  If  there  had  been 
an  "  instinct,"  it  might  account  for  the  avoidance  of  "  in  and  in 
breeding  " — that  is,  it  might  account  for  exogamy,  ab  initio. 
But  that  is  left  unaccounted  for  by  the  theory  which,  after 
maintaining  that  the  avoidance  produced  the  instinct,  seems  to 
argue  that  the  instinct  produced  the  avoidance.  Westermarck 
goes  on  to  say  that  "  exogamy,  as  a  natural  extension  of  the 
instinct,  would  arise  when  single  families  united  in  small  hordes." 
But,  if  the  single  families  already  had  the  "  instinct,"  they  would 
not  marry  within  the  family:  they  would  be  exogamous, — 
marrying  only  into  other  families, — before  they  "  united  in  small 
hordes."  The  difficulty  of  accounting  for  exogamy  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  overcome,  and  no  attempt  is  made  to  explain 
the  animal  names  of  totem  kins  and  phratries.  Westermarck, 
however,  says  that  "  there  is  no  reason  why  we  should  assume, 
as  so  many  anthropologists  have  done,  that  primitive  men 
lived  in  small  endogamous  groups,  practising  incest  in  every 
degree,"  although,  as  he  also  says,  "  there  was  no  doubt  a  time 
when  blood  relationship  was  no  bar  to  sexual  intercourse." 
If  there  was  no  bar,  people  would  "  practise  incest  in  every 
degree," — what  was  there  to  prevent  them?  (History  of  Human 
Marriage,  pp.  352,  353  (1891)). 


164 


FAMILY 


So  far  we  have  seen  no  luminous  and  consistent  account  of 
how  mankind  became  exogamous,  if  they  began  by  being 
promiscuous.  The  theories  rest  on  the  idea  that  man, 
m'  dwelling  in  an  "  undivided  horde  "  (except  so  far  as 
it  was  divided  into  co-operative  magical  societies),  bisected  it 
into  two  exogamous  intermarrying  moieties.  Durkheim  has  put 
forward  a  theory  which  is  not  at  all  points  easily  understood. 
He  supposes  that,  "  at  the  beginning  of  societies  of  men,  incest 
was  not  prohibited  .  .  .  before  each  horde  (peuplade)  divided 
itself  into  two  primitive  '  clans  '  at  least  "  (L  Annie  sociologique, 
i.  pp.  62,  63).  Each  of  the  two  "  clans  "  claimed  descent  from  a 
different  animal,  which  was  its  totem,  and  its  "god."  The  two 
clans  were  exogamous, — out  of  respect  to  the  blood  of  their 
totem  (with  which  every  member  of  the  clan  is  mystically  one), 
and,  being  hostile,  the  two  clans  raided  each  other  for  women. 
Each  clan  threw  off  colonies,  which  took  new  totems,  new  "gods," 
though  still  owning  some  regard  to  their  original  clan,  from 
which  they  had  seceded,  while  abandoning  its  "  god."  When  the 
two  "primary  clans  "  made  alliance  and  connubium,  they  became 
the  phratries  in  the  local  tribe,  and  their  colonies  became  the 
totem  kins  within  the  phratries. 

We  are  not  told  why  the  original  horde  was  disrupted  into  two 
hostile  and  intermarrying  "clans":  we  especially  wonder  why 
the  horde,  if  it  wanted  an  animal  god,  did  not  choose  one  animal 
for  the  whole  community;  and  we  may  suspect  that  a  difference 
of  taste  in  animal  "  gods  "  caused  the  hostility  of  the  two  clans. 
Nor  do  we  see  why,  if  things  occurred  thus,  the  totem  kins 
should  not  represent  twenty  or  thirty  differences  of  religious 
taste,  in  the  original  horde,  as  to  the  choice  of  animal  gods. 
If  the  horde  was  going  to  vary  in  opinion,  it  is  unlikely  that  only 
two  factions  put  forward  animal  candidates  for  divinity.  Again, 
a  "  clan  "  (a  totem  kin,  with  exogamy  and  descent  derived 
through  mothers)  cannot  overflow  its  territorial  area  and  be 
therefore  obliged  to  send  out  colonies,  for  such  a  clan  (as  Durkheim 
himself  remarks)  has  no  territorial  area  to  overflow.  It  is  not  a 
local  institution  at  all. 

While  these  objections  cannot  but  occur,  Durkheim  does 
provide  a  valid  reason  for  the  existence  of  exogamy.  When  once 
the  groups  (however  they  got  them)  had  totems,  with  the  usual 
taboos  on  any  sort  of  use  of  the  totem  by  his  human  kinsfolk, 
the  women  of  the  kin  would  be  tabooed  to  the  men  of  the  same 
kin.  In  marrying  a  maiden  of  his  own  totem,  a  man  inevitably 
violates  the  sanctity  of  the  blood  of  the  totem  (L' Annie  socio- 
logique, i.  pp.  47-57.  Cf.  Reinach,  Cultes,  mythes  et  religions, 
vol.  i.  pp.  162-166). 

Here  at  last  we  have  a  theory  which  accounts  for  the  "  religious 
horror  "  that  attaches  to  the  violation  of  the  rule  of  totemic 
exogamy:  a  mysterious  entity,  the  totem,  is  hereby  offended. 
But  how  did  totems,  animals,  plants  and  so  on,  come  to  be 
mystically  solidaires  with  their  human  namesakes  and  kinsmen? 
We  do  not  observe  that  Dr  Durkheim  ever  explains  why  two 
divisions  of  one  horde  chose  each  a  different  animal  god,  or  why 
the  supposed  colonies  thrown  off  by  these  primary  clans  deserted 
their  animal  gods  for  others,  or  why,  and  on  what  principle, 
they  all  chose  new  "  gods," — fresh  animals,  plants  and  other 
objects.  His  hereditary  totem  is,  in  practice,  the  last  thing 
that  a  savage  changes.  The  only  case  of  change  on  record  is  a 
recent  attempt  to  increase  the  range  of  legal  marriages  in  a 
waning  Australian  tribe,  on  whose  lands  certain  species  of 
animals  are  perishing. 

Theories  based  on  a  supposed  primal  state  of  promiscuity 
certainly  encounter,  when  explaining  the  social  oganization 
of  Australian  savages,  difficulties  which  they  do  not 
solution,  surmount.  But  Howitt  has  provided  (apparently 
without  fully  realizing  the  merit  of  his  own  suggestions) 
a  way  out  of  the  perplexities  caused  by  the  conception  of  early 
mankind  dwelling  promiscuously  in  "  undivided  communes." 
The  way  out  is  practically  to  say  that,  in  everyday  life,  they 
lived  in  nothing  of  the  sort.  Howitt  writes  (Native  Tribes  of 
South-East  Australia,  p.  173):  "A  study  of  the  evidence  .  .  . 
has  led  me  to  the  conclusion  that  the  state  of  society  among 
the  early  Australians  was  that  of  an '  Undivided  Commune.'.  .  . 


It  is,  however,  well  to  guard  this  expression.  I  do  not  desire 
to  imply  necessarily  the  existence  of  complete  and  continuous 
communism  between  the  sexes.  The  character  of  the  country, 
the  necessity  of  moving  from  one  point  to  another  in  search  of 
game  and  vegetable  food,  would  cause  any  Undivided  Commune, 
when  it  assumed  dimensions  greater  than  the  immediate  locality 
could  provide  with  food,  to  break  up  into  two  or  more  Communes 
of  the  same  character.  In  addition  to  this  it  is  clear  .  .  .  that 
in  the  past  as  now,  individual  likes  and  dislikes  must  have 
existed,  so  that,  admitting  the  existence  of  common  rights  • 
between  the  members  of  the  Commune,  these  rights  would  remain 
in  abeyance,  so  far  as  the  separated  parts  of  the  Commune  were 
concerned.  But  at  certain  gatherings  ...  or  on  great  cere- 
monial occasions,  all  the  segments  of  the  original  Commune 
would  reunite,"  and  would  behave  in  the  fashion  now  common  in 
great  licentious  festive  meetings. 

In  the  eaily  ages  contemplated,  how  can  we  postulate  "  great 
ceremonial  occasions "  or  even  peaceful  assemblies  at  fruit- 
bearing  spots?  How  can  we  postulate  a  surviving  Prlmltive 
sense  of  solidarity  among  the  scattered  segments  of  promiscuity 
the  Commune,  obviously  very  small,  owing  to  lack  of  faprob- 
supplies,  and  perpetually  disintegrated?  But,  taking  aWe' 
the  original  groups,  as  very  small,  and  as  ruled  by  likes  and 
dislikes,  by  affection  and  jealousy,  we  are  no  longer  concerned 
with  a  promiscuous  horde,  but  with  a  little  knot  of  human  beings, 
in  whom  love,  parental  affection  and  the  jealousy  of  sires,  would 
promptly  make  discriminations  between  this  person  and  that 
person,  as  regards  sexual  privileges.  Thus  we  have  edged  away 
from  the  hypothesis  of  the  promiscuous  indiscriminating  horde 
to  the  opinion  of  Darwin.  "  We  may  conclude,"  he  says,  "  from 
what  we  know  of  the  jealousy  of  all  male  quadrupeds,  armed  as 
many  of  them  are  with  special  weapons  for  battling  with  their 
rivals,  that  promiscuous  intercourse  in  a  state  of  Nature  is 
extremely  improbable.  .  .  .  The  most  probable  view  is  that  Man 
originally  lived  in  small  communities,  each  (man)  with  a  single 
wife,  or,  if  powerful,  with  several,  whom  he  jealously  guarded 
against  all  other  men."  But,  in  a  community  of  this  early  type, 
to  guard  women  jealously  would  mean  constant  battle,  at  least 
when  Man  became  an  animal  who  makes  love  all  the  year  round. 
So  Darwin  adds:  "  Or  man  may  not  have  been  a  social  animal, 
and  yet  have  lived  with  several  wives,  like  the  Gorilla, — for  all 
the  natives  agree  that  but  one  adult  male  is  seen  in  a  band; 
when  the  young  male  grows  up  a  contest  takes  place  for  the  y 
mastery,  and  the  strongest,  by  killing  or  driving  out  the  others, 
establishes  himself  as  head  of  the  Community.  Younger  males, 
being  thus  expelled  and  wandering  about,  would,  when  at  last 
successful  in  finding  a  partner,  prevent  too  close  interbreeding 
within  the  limits  of  the  same  family  "  (Descent  of  Man,  ii.  pp. 
361,  363  (1871)). 

Here,  then,  we  have  practical  Exogamy,  as  regards  unions  of 
brothers  and  sisters,  among  man  still  brutish,  while  the  Sire  is 
husband  of  the  whole  harem  of  females,  probably  unchecked  as 
regards  his  daughters. 

On  this  Darwinian  text  J.  J.  Atkinson  builds  his  theory  of  the 
evolution  of  exogamy  and  of  savage  society  in  his  Primal  Law 
(Social  Origins  and  Primal  Law,  by  Lang  and  Atkinson, 
1903).  Paternal  jealousy  "gave  birth  to  Primal  Law, 
prohibitory  of  marriage  between  certain  members  of  a 
family  or  local  group,  and  thus,  in  natural  sequence,  led  to  forced 
connubial  selection  beyond  its  circle,  that  is,  led  to  Exogamy  .  .  . 
as  a  habit,  not  as  an  expressed  law.  .  .  ."  The  "  expressed  law  " 
was  necessarily  a  later  development;  conditioned  by  the  circum- 
stances which  produced  totemism,  and  sanctioned,  as  on  Durk- 
heim's  scheme,  by  the  totemic  taboo.  Atkinson  worked  out  his 
theory  by  a  minute  study  of  customs  of  avoidance  between  near 
kin  by  blood  or  affinity;  by  observations  on  the  customs  of 
animals,  and  by  hypotheses  as  to  the  very  gradual  evolution  of 
human  restrictions  through  many  modifications.  He  also  gave 
a  theory  of  the  "  classificatory  "  system  of  names  for  relation- 
ships opposed  to  that  of  Morgan.  The  names  are  based  merely 
"  on  reference  to  relativity  of  age  of  a  class  in  relation  to  the 
group."  The  exogamous  moieties  of  a  tribe  (phratries)  are  not 


FAMILY 


165 


the  result  of  a  reformatory  legislative  bisection  of  the  tribe, 
but  of  the  existence  of  "  two  intermarrying  totem  clan  groups." 
The  whole  treatise,  allowing  for  defects  caused  by  the  author's 
death  before  the  book  was  printed,  is  highly  original  and  in- 
genious. The  author,  however,  did  not  touch  on  the  evolution  of 
totemism. 

9.  The  following  system,  as  a  means  of  making  intelligible  the 
evolution  of  Australian  totemic  society,  is  proposed  by  the 
present  writer.  We  may  suggest  that  men  originally 
lived  in  the  state  of  "  the  Cyclopean  family  "  of 
Atkinson;  that  is,  in  Darwin's  "  family  group,"  con- 
taining but  one  adult  male,  with  the  females,  the  adolescent 
males  being  driven  out,  to  find  each  a  female  mate,  or  mates, 
elsewhere  if  they  can.  With  increase  of  skill,  improvements  in 
implements  and  mitigation  of  ferocity,  such  groups  may  become 
larger,  in  a  given  area,  but  men  may  retain  the  habit  of  seeking 
mates  outside  the  limits  of  the  group  of  contiguity;  the  "  avoid- 
ance "  of  brothers  and  sisters  may  already  have  arisen.  Among 
the  advanced  Arunta,  now,  a  man  may  speak  freely  to  his  elder 
sisters;  to  younger  sisters,  or  "tribal  sisters,"  he  may  not  speak, 
"  or  only  at  such  a  distance  that  the  features  are  indistinguish- 
able." This  archaic  rule  of  avoidance  would  be  a  step  facilitating 
the  permission  to  adult  males  to  dwell  in  their  paternal  group, 
avoiding  their  sisters.  Such  groups,  whether  habitually  exoga- 
mous  or  not,  will  require  names  for  each  other,  and  various 
reasons  would  yield  a  preference  to  names  derived  from  animals. 
These  are  easily  signalled  in  gesture  language;  are  easily 
presented  in  pictographs  and  tattooing;  are  even  now,  among 
savages  and  boys,  the  most  usual  sort  of  personal  nicknames; 
and  are  widely  employed  as  group  names  of  villagers  in  European 
folk-lore.  Among  European  rustics  such  group  sobriquets  are 
usual,  but  are  resented.  The  savage,  with  his  ideas  of  the  equality 
or  superiority  of  animals  to  himself,  sees  nothing  to  resent  in  an 
animal  sobriquet,  and  the  names,  originally  group  sobriquets, 
would  not  find  more  difficulty  in  being  accepted  than  "  Whig," 
"  Tory,"  "  Huguenot,"  "  Cavalier,"  "  Christian,"  "  Cameronian," 
— all  of  them  originally  nicknames  given  from  without.  Again, 
"  Wry  Nose  "  and  "  Crooked  Mouth  "  are  derisive  nicknames, 
but  they  are  the  translations  of  the  ancient  Celtic  clan  names 
Cameron  and  Campbell.  The  nicknames  "  Naked  Dogs," 
"  Liars,"  "  Buffalo  Dung,"  "  Men  who  do  not  laugh,"  "  Big 
Topknots,"  have  been  thoroughly  accepted  by  the  "  gentes  " 
of  the  Blackfoot  Indians,  now  passing  out  of  Totemism  (Grinnell, 
Blackfoot  Lodge  Tales,  pp.  208-225). 

As  Howitt  writes,  "  the  assumption  of  the  names  of  objects 
by  men  must  in  fact  have  been  the  origin  of  totemism."  Howitt 
does  not  admit  the  theory  that  the  totem  names  came  to  arise 
in  this  way,  but  this  way  is  a  vera  causa.  Names  must  be  given 
either  from  within  or  from  without.  A  group,  in  savagery, 
has  no  need  of  a  name  for  itself;  "  we  "  are  "  we,"  or  are 
"  The  Men  ";  for  all  other  adjacent  groups  names  are  needed. 
The  name  of  one  totem,  Thaballa,  "  The  Laughing  Boy  "  totem, 
among  the  Warramunga  and  another  tribe,  is  quite  trans- 
parently a  nickname,  as  is  Karti, "  The  Grown-up  Men  "  (Spencer 
and  Gillen,  Northern  Tribes  of  Central  Australia,  p.  207). 

There  is  nothing,  prima  facie,  which  renders  this  origin  of 
animal,  plant  and  other  such  names  for  early  savage  groups 
at  all  improbable.  They  would  not  even  be  resented,  as  now  are 
the  animal  names  for  villagers  in  the  Orkneys,  the  Channel 
Islands,  France,  Cornwall  and  in  ancient  Israel  (for  examples 
see  Social  Origins,  pp.  295-301).  The  names  once  accepted, 
and  their  origin  forgotten,  would  be  inevitably  regarded  as 
implying  a  mystic  rapport  between  the  bestial  and  the  human 
namesakes,  Crow,  Eagle  Hawk,  Grub,  Bandicoot,  Opossum, 
Emu,  Kangaroo  and  so  on  (see  NAME).  On  this  subject  it  is 
enough  to  cite  J.  G.  Frazer,  in  The  Golden  Bough  (2nd  ed., 
vol.  i.  pp.  404-446).  Here  will  be  found  a  rich  and  satisfactory 
collection  of  proof  that  community  of  name  implies  mystic 
rapport.  Professor  Rhys  is  quoted  for  the  statement  that 
probably  "  the  whole  Aryan  race  believed  at  one  time  not  only 
that  the  name  was  a  part  of  the  man,  but  that  it  was  that  part 
of  him  which  is  termed  the  soul."  In  such  a  mental  stage  the 


men  "  Crows  "  identify  themselves  with  the  actual  Crow  species: 
the  birds  are  now  "  of  their  flesh,"  are  fabled  to  be  their  ancestors, 
or  the  men  have  been  evolved  out  of  the  birds.  The  Crow  is 
sacro-sanct,  a  friend  and  protector,  and  a  centre  of  taboos, 
one  of  which  is  the  prohibition  preventing  a  Crow  man  from 
intercourse  with  a  Crow  woman,  "  however  far  apart  their 
hunting  grounds  may  have  been."  All  men  and  women  Crows 
are  recognized  as  brothers  and  sisters  in  the  Crow,  and  are  not 
intermarriageable. 

On  these  lines  the  prohibition  to  infringe  the  totem  taboo 
by  marriage  within  the  totem  name  is  intelligible,  but  the 
system  of  phratries  has  yet  to  be  accounted  for.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  names  could  only  have  been  given  originally  to  local 
groups:  the  people  who  held  this  or  that  local  habitation 
received  the  name.  Suppose  that  the  rule  of  each  such  group, 
or  heart  circle,  had  been  "  no  marriage  within  the  local  group 
or  camp,"  as  in  Atkinson's  scheme.  When  the  groups  accept 
their  new  names,  the  rule  becomes,  "  no  marriage  within  local 
group  Eagle  Hawk,  group  Crow,"  and  so  on.  So  far  the  animal 
giving  the  group  name  may  not  yet  have  become  a  revered 
totem.  The  result  of  the  rule  would  inevitably  be,  in  three  or 
four  generations,  that  in  groups  Crow  or  Eagle  Hawk,  there  were 
no  Crows  or  Eagle  Hawks  by  descent,  if  the  children  took  the 
names  of  descent  from  their  mothers;  for  the  sake  of  differentia- 
tion: the  Ant  woman's  children  in  local  group  Crow  being  Ants, 
the  Grub  woman's  children  being  Grubs,  the  Eagle  Hawk 
woman's  children  being  Eagle  Hawks, — all  in  local  group  Crow, 
and  inheriting  the  names  of  the  local  groups  whence  their  mothers 
were  brought  into  local  group  Crow. 

By  this  means  (indicated  first  by  McLennan)  each  member  of  a 
local  group  would  have  a  local  group  name,  say  Eagle  Hawk, 
and  a  name  by  female  descent,  say  Kangaroo,  in  addition,  as  now, 
to  his  or  her  personal  name.  In  this  way,  all  members  of  each 
local  group  would  find,  in  any  other  local  group,  people  of  his 
name  of  descent,  and,  as  the  totem  belief  grew  to  maturity, 
kinsmen  of  his  in  the  totem.  When  this  fact  was  realized,  it 
would  inevitably  make  for  peace  among  all  contiguous  groups. 
In  place  of  taking  women  by  force,  at  the  risk  of  shedding 
kindred  blood,  peaceful  betrothals  between  men  and  women  of 
different  local  group  names  and  of  different  names  by  descent 
could  be  arranged.  Say  that  local  groups  Eagle  Hawk  and  Crow 
took  the  lead  in  this  arrangement  of  alliance  and  connubium, 
and  that  (as  they  would  naturally  flourish  in  the  strength  con- 
ferred by  union)  the  other  local  groups  came  into  it,  ranging 
themselves  under  Eagle  Hawk  and  Crow,  we  should  have  the 
existing  primitive  type  of  organization:  Local  Groups  Eagle 
Hawk  (Mukwara)  and  Crow  (Kilpara)  would  have  become  the 
widely  diffused  phratries,  Mukwara  and  Kilpara,  with  all  the 
totem  kins  within  them. 

But,  on  these  lines,  some  members  of  any  totem  kin,  say  Cat, 
would  be  in  phratry  Eagle  Hawk,  some  would  be  in  phratry 
Kilpara  as  now  (for  the  different  reason  already  indicated) 
among  the  Arunta.  Such  persons  were  in  a  quandary.  By 
phratry  law,  as  being  in  opposite  phratries,  a  Cat  in  Eagle  Hawk 
phratry  could  marry  a  Cat  in  Crow  phratry.  But,  by  totem  law, 
this  was  impossible.  To  avoid  the  clash  of  law,  all  Cats  had  to 
go  into  one  phratry  or  the  other,  either  into  Eagle  Hawk  or 
into  Crow. 

Two  whole  totem  kins  were  in  the  same  unhappy  position. 
The  persons  who  were  Eagle  Hawks  by  descent  could  not  be  in 
Eagle  Hawk  local  group,  now  phratry,  as  we  have  already  shown. 
They  were  in  Crow  phratry,  they  could  not,  by  phratry  law, 
marry  in  their  own  phratry,  and  to  marry  in  Eagle  Hawk  was 
to  break  the  old  law,  "  no  marriage  within  the  local  group  name." 
Their  only  chance  was  to  return  to  Eagle  Hawk  phratry,  while 
Crow  totem  kin  went  into  Crow  phratry,  and  thus  we  often  find, 
in  fact,  that  in  Australian  phratries  Mukwara  (Eagle  Hawk) 
there  is  a  totem  kin  Eagle  Hawk,  and  in  Kilpara  phratry  (Crow) 
there  is  a  totem  kin  Crow.  This  arrangement — the  totem  kin 
within  the  phratry  of  its  own  name — has  long  been  known  to 
exist  in  America.  The  Thlinkets  have  Raven  phratry,  with 
totem  kins  Raven,  Frog,  Goose,  &c.,  and  Wolf  phratry,  with 


i66 


FAMINE 


totem  kins  Wolf,  Bear,  Eagle,  &c.  (Frazer,  Totemism,  pp.  61,  62 
(1887)).  In  Australia  the  fact  has  hitherto  escaped  observa- 
tion, because  so  many  phratry  names  are  not  translated,  while, 
though  Mukwara  and  Kilpara  are  translated,  the  Eagle  Hawk 
and  Crow  totem  kins  within  them  bear  other  names  for  the  same 
birds,  more  recent  names,  or  tribal  native  names,  such  as  Biliari 
and  Waa,  while  Mukwara  and  Kilpara  may  have  been  names 
borrowed,  within  the  institution  of  phratries,  from  some  alien 
tribe  now  perhaps  extinct. 

We  have  now  sketched  a  scheme  explanatory  of  the  most 
primitive  type  of  social  organization  in  Australia.  The  tendency 
is  for  phratries  first  to  lose  the  meanings  of  their  names,  and, 
next,  for  their  names  to  lapse  into  oblivion,  as  among  the  Arunta; 
the  work  of  regulating  marriage  being  done  by  the  opposed 
Matrimonial  Classes. 

These  classes  are  obviously  an  artificial  arrangement,  intended 
to  restrict  marriage  to  persons  on  the  same  level  as  generations. 
The  meanings  of  the  class  names  are  only  known  with  certainty 
in  two  cases,  and  then  are  names  of  animals,  while  there  is 
reason  to  suspect  that  animal  names  occur  in  four  or  five  of 
the  eight  class-names  which,  in  different  dialect  forms,  prevail 
in  central  and  northern  Australia.  Conceivably  the  new  class 
regulations  made  use  of  the  old  totemic  machinery  of  nomen- 
clature. But  until  Australian  philologists  can  trace  the  original 
meanings  of  Class  names,  further  speculation  is  premature. 

10.  Much  might  be  said  about  the  way  out  of  totemism. 
When  once  descent  and  inheritance  are  traced  through  males, 
the  social  side  of  totemism  begins  to  break  up.  One 
Breaking  way  out  js  tjje  Arunta  way,  where  totems  no  longer 
"otemisrn.  designate  kinships.  In  parts  of  America  totems  are 
simply  fading  into  heraldry,  or  into  magical  societies, 
while  the  "  gentes,"  once  totemic,  have  acquired  new  names, 
often  local,  as  among  the  Sioux,  or  mere  sobriquets,  as  among 
the  Blackfeet.  In  Melanesia  the  phratries,  whether  named  or 
nameless,  have  survived,  while  the  totems  have  left  but  a  few 
traces  which  some  consider  disputable  (Social  Origins,  pp.  176- 
184).  Among  the  Bantu  of  South  Africa  the  tribes  have  sacred 
animals  (Siboko),  which  may  be  survivals  of  the  totems  of  the 
chief  local  totem  group,  with  male  descent  in  the  tribe,  the  whole 
of  which  now  bears  the  name  of  the  sacred  animal.  Even  in 
Australia,  among  tribes  where  there  is  reckoning  of  descent 
in  the  male  line,  and  where  there  are  no  matrimonial  classes, 
the  tendency  is  for  totems  to  dwindle,  while  exogamy  becomes 
local,  the  rule  being  to  marry  out  of  the  district,  not  out  of  the 
kin  (Howitt,  Native  Tribes  of  South- East  Australia,  pp.  270-272; 
cf.  pp.  i35-J37)- 

The  problem  as  to  why,  among  savages  all  on  the  same  low 
level  of  material  culture,  one  tribe  derives  descent  through 
women,  while  its  nearest  neighbouring  tribe,  with  ceremonies, 
rites,  beliefs  and  myths  like  its  own,  and  occupying  lands  of 
similar  character  in  a  similar  climate,  traces  descent  through 
men,  seems  totally  insoluble.  Again,  we  find  that  the  civilized 
Lycians,  as  described  by  Herodotus  (book  i.  ch.  173),  reckoned 
lineage  in  the  female  line,  while  the  naked  savages  of  north 
and  central  Australia  reckon  in  the  male  line.  Our  knowledge 
does  not  enable  us  to  explain  the  change  from  female  to  male 
tracing  of  lineage.  Yet  the  change  was  essential  for  the  formation 
of  the  family  system  of  civilized  life.  The  change  may  be  observed 
taking  place  in  the  region  of  North-West  America  peopled  by  the 
Thlinket,  Haida  and  Salish  tribes;  the  first  are  pure  totemists, 
the  last  have  arrived,  practically,  in  the  south,  at  the  modern 
family,  while  a  curious  intermediate  stage  pervades  the  inter- 
jacent region. 

The  best  authority  on  the  Family  developed  in  different  shapes 
in  North-West  America  is  Charles  Hill-Tout  (cf.  "  Origin  of  the 
Totemism  of  the  Aborigines  of  British  Columbia,"  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada,  vol.  vii.  sect,  n,  1901).  He, 
like  many  American  and  some  English  and  continental  students, 
applies  the  term  "  totem  "  not  only  to  the  hereditary  totem  of 
the  exogamous  kin,  but  to  the  animal  familiars  of  individual 
men  or  women,  called  tnanitus,  naguals,  nyarongs  and  yunbeai, 
among  North  American  Indians,  in  South  America,  in  Borneo 


and  in  the  Euahlayi  tribe  of  New  South  Wales.  These  animal 
familiars  are  chosen  by  individuals,  obeying  the  monition  of 
dreams,  or  are  assigned  to  them  at  birth,  or  at  puberty,  by  the 
tribal  magicians.  It  has  often  been  suggested  that  totemism 
arose  when  the  familiar  of  an  individual  became  hereditary 
among  his  descendants.  This  could  not  occur  under  a  system 
of  reckoning  descent  and  inheriting  the  kin  name  through 
women,  but  as  a  Tsimshian  myth  says  that  a  man's  sister 
adopted  his  animal  familiar,  the  bear,  and  transmitted  it  to  her 
offspring,  Hill-Tout  supposes  that  this  may  have  been  the  origin 
of  totemism  in  tribes  with  reckoning  of  descent  in  the  female 
line.  Instances,  however,  are  not  known  to  exist  in  practice, 
and  myths  are  mere  baseless  savage  hypotheses. 

Exogamy,  in  his  opinion,  is  the  result  of  treaties  of  political 
alliance  with  exclusive  interccmnubium  between  two  sets  of  kins- 
folk by  blood,  totemism  being  a  mere  accidental  concomitant. 
This  theory  evades  the  difficulties  raised  by  the  hypothesis  of 
deliberate  reformatory  legislation  introducing  the  bisection  of 
the  tribe  into  exogamous  societies. 

AUTHORITIES. — The  study  of  the  History  of  the  Family  has  been 
subject  to  great  fluctuation  of  opinion,  as  unexpected  evidence  has 
kept  pouring  in  from  many  quarters.  The  theory  of  primal  promis- 
cuity, which  in  1870  succeeded  to  Sir  Henry  Maine's  patriarchal 
theory,  has  endured  many  attacks,  and  there  is  a  tendency  to  return, 
not  precisely  to  the  "  patriarchal  theory,"  but  to  the  view  that  the 
jealousy  of  the  Sire  of  the  "  Cyclopean  family,"  or  "Gorilla  family" 
indicated  by  Darwin,  has  had  much  to  do  with  laying  the  bases  of 
"  primal  law."  The  whole  subject  has  been  especially  studied  by 
English-speaking  writers,  as  the  English  and  Americans  are  brought 
most  into  contact  with  the  most  archaic  savage  societies.  Among 
foreigners,  in  addition  to  Starcke,  Westermarck  and  Durkheim, 
already  cited,  may  be  mentioned  Professor  J.  Kohler,  Zur  Ur- 
geschichte  der  Ehe  (Stuttgart,  1897).  Professor  Kohler  is  in  favour 
of  a  remote  past  of  "collective  marriage,"  indicated,  as  in  Morgan's 
hypothesis,  by  the  existing  savage  names  of  relationships,  which  are 
expressive  of  relations  of  consanguinity.  E.  S.  Hartland  (Primi- 
tive Paternity,  1910)  discusses  myths  of  supernatural  birth  in 
relation  to  the  history  of  the  Family. 

A  careful  and  well-reasoned  work  by  Herr  Cunow  (Die  Verwandt- 
schafts  Organisationen  der  Australneger,  Stuttgart,  1894)  deals  with 
the  Matrimonial  Classes  of  Australian  tribes.  Cunow  supposes  that 
descent  was  originally  reckoned  in  the  male  line,  and  that  tribes 
with  this  organization  (such  as  the  Narrinyeri)  are  the  more  primitive. 
In  this  opinion  he  has  few  allies:  and  on  the  origin  of  Exogamy  he 
seems  to  possess  no  definite  ideas.  Pikler's  Ur sprung  des  Totemismus 
(Berlin,  1900)  explains  Totemism  as  arising  from  the  need  of  names 
for  early  groups  of  nien:  names  which  could  be  expressed  in  picto- 
graphs  and  tattooing,  to  which  we  may  add  "  gesture  language." 
This  is  much  akin  to  the  theory  which  we  have  already  suggested, 
though  Pikler  seems  to  think  that  the  pictograph  (say  of  a  Crow  or  an 
Eagle  Hawk)  was  prior  to  the  group  name.  But,  he  remarks,  like 
Howitt,  "  the  germ  of  Totemism  is  the  naming  "  ;  and  the  com- 
munity of  name  between  the  animal  species  and  the  human  group 
led  to  the  belief  that  there  was  an  important  connexion  between  the 
men  and  their  name-giving  animal. 

Other  useful  sources  of  information  are  the  annual  Reports  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ethnology  (Washington),  the  Journal  of  the  Institute  of 
the  Anthropological  Society,  Folk  Lore  (the  organ  of  the  Folk  Lore 
Society),  and  Durkheim's  L'Annee  sociologique.  Tabou  et  totemisme 
a  Madagascar,  by  M.  A.  van  Gennep  (Leroux,  Paris,  1904)  is  a 
valuable  contribution  to  knowledge. 

For  India,  where  vestiges  of  totemism  linger  in  the  hill  tribes, 
see  Risley  and  Crooke,  Tribes  and  Castes,  vols.  i.,  ii.,  iii.,iv. ;  and 
Crooke,  Popular  Religion;  also  Crooke  in  J.A.I.  (N.S.),  vol.  i. 
pp.  232-244.  (A.  L.) 

FAMINE  (Lat.  fames,  hunger),  extreme  and  general  scarcity  of 
food,  causing  distress  and  deaths  from  starvation  among  the 
population  of  a  district  or  country.  Famines  have  caused  wide- 
spread suffering  in  all  countries  and  ages.  A  list  of  the  chief 
famines  recorded  by  history  is  given  farther  on.  The  causes  of 
famine  are  partly  natural  and  partly  artificial.  Among  the 
natural  causes  may  be  classed  all  failures  of  crops  due  to  excess 
or  defect  of  rainfall  and  other  meteorological  phenomena,  or 
to  the  ravages  of  insects  and  vermin.  Among  the  artificial 
causes  may  be  classed  war  and  economic  errors  in  the  production, 
transport  and  sale  of  food-stuffs. 

The  natural  causes  of  famine  are  still  mainly  outside  our 
control,  though  science  enables  agriculturists  to  combat  them 
more  successfully,  and  the  improvement  in  means  of  transport 
allows  a  rich  harvest  in  one  land  to  supplement  the  defective 


FAMINE 


167 


crops  in  another.  In  tropical  countries  drought  is  the  commonest 
cause  of  a  failure  in  the  harvest,  and  where  great  droughts 
are  not  uncommon — as  in  parts  of  India  and  Australia — the 
hydraulic  engineer  comes  to  the  rescue  by  devising  systems  of 
water-storage  and  irrigation.  It  is  less  easy  to  provide  against 
the  evils  of  excessive  rainfall  and  of  frost,  hail  and  the  like. 
The  experience  of  the  French  in  Algiers  shows  that  it  is  possible 
to  stamp  out  a  plague  of  locusts,  such  as  is  the  greatest  danger  to 
the  farmer  in  many  parts  of  Argentina.  But  the  ease  with  which 
food  can  nowadays  be  transported  from  one  part  of  the  world  to 
another  minimizes  the  danger  of  famine  from  natural  causes,  as 
we  can  hardly  conceive  that  the  whole  food-producing  area  of 
the  world  should  be  thus  affected  at  once. 

The  artificial  causes  of  famine  have  mostly  ceased  to  be 
operative  on  any  large  scale.  Chief  among  them  is  war,  which 
may  cause  a  shortage  of  food  -  supplies,  either  by  its  direct 
ravages  or  by  depleting  the  supply  of  agricultural  labour.  But 
only  local  famines  are  likely  to  arise  from  this  cause.  Legislative 
interference  with  agricultural  operations  or  with  the  distribution 
of  food-supplies,  currency  restrictions  and  failure  of  transport, 
which  have  all  caused  famines  in  the  past,  are  unlikely  thus  to 
operate  again;  nor  is  it  probable  that  the  modern  speculators 
who  attempt  to  make  "  corners  "  in  wheat  could  produce  the 
evil  effects  contemplated  in  the  old  statutes  against  forestallers 
and  regrators. 

Such  local  famines  as  may  occur  in  the  2oth  century  will 
probably  be  attributable  to  natural  causes.  It  is  impossible  to 
regulate  the  rainfall  of  any  district,  or  wholly  to  supply  its 
failure  by  any  system  of  water-storage.  Irrigation  is  better 
able  to  bring  fertility  to  a  naturally  arid  district  than  to  avert 
the  failure  of  crops  in  one  which  is  naturally  fertile.  The  true 
palliative  of  famine  is  to  be  found  in  the  improvement  of  methods 
of  transport,  which  make  it  possible  rapidly  to  convey  food  from 
one  district  to  another.  But  the  efficiency  of  this  preventive 
stops  short  at  the  point  of  saving  human  life.  It  cannot  prevent 
a  rise  in  prices,  with  the  consequent  suffering  among  the  poor. 
Still,  every  year  makes  it  less  likely  that  the  world  will  see  a 
renewal  of  the  great  famines  of  the  past,  and  it  is  only  the 
countries  where  civilization  is  still  backward  that  are  in  much 
danger  of  even  a  local  famine. 

Great  Famines. — Amongst  the  great  famines  of  history  may  be 
named  the  following: — 
n.c.  436  Famine   at    Rome,    when    thousands    of    starving 

people  threw  themselves  into  the  Tiber. 
A. 0.42  Great  famine  in  Egypt. 

650  Famine  throughout  India. 

879  Universal  famine. 

941,   1022   Great  famines  in  India,  in  which  entire  provinces 

and  1033  were  depopulated  and  man  was  driven  to  canni- 
balism. 

1005  Famine  in  England. 

1016  Famine  throughout  Europe. 

1064—1072  Seven  years'  famine  in  Egypt. 

1148—1159  Eleven  years'  famine  in  India. 

1162  Universal  famine. 

1344-1345  Great  famine  in  India,  when  the  Mogul  emperor 
was  unable  to  obtain  the  necessaries  for  his  house- 
hold. The  famine  continued  for  years  and 
thousands  upon  thousands  of  people  perished  of 
want. 

1396—1407  The  Durga  Devi  famine  in  India,  lasting  twelve 
years. 

1 586  Famine  in  England  which  gave  rise  to  the  Poor  Law 

system. 

1661  Famine  in  India,  when  not  a  drop  of  rain  fell  for 

two  years. 

1769-1770  Great  famine  in  Bengal,  when  a  third  of  the  popu- 
lation (10,000,000  persons)  perished. 

1783  The  Chalisa  famine  in  India,  which  extended  from 

the   eastern   edge   of   the   Benares   province   to 
Lahore  and  Jammu. 

1790-1792  The  Doji  Bara,  or  skull  famine,  in  India,  so-called 
because  the  people  died  in  such  numbers  that 
they  could  not  be  buried.  According  to  tradition 
this  was  one  of  the  severest  famines  ever  known. 
It  extended  over  the  whole  of  Bombay  into 
Hyderabad  and  affected  the  northern  districts  of 
Madras.  Relief  works  were  first  opened  during 
this  famine  in  Madras. 


A.D.  1838  Intense  famine  in  North-West  Provinces  (United 

Provinces)  of  India;   800,000  perished. 

1846-1847  Famine  in  Ireland,  due  to  the  failure  of  the  potato- 
crop.  Grants  were  made  by  parliament  amount- 
ing to  £10,000,000. 

1861  Famine  in  North-West  India. 

1866  Famine  in  Bengal  and  Orissa ;  one  million  perished. 

1869  Intense  famine  in  Rajputana;    one  million  and  a 

half    perished.     The    government    initiated    the 
policy  of  saving  life. 

1874  Famine   in    Behar,    India.     Government   relief   in 

excess  of  the  needs  of  the  people. 

1876-1878  Famine  in  Bombay,  Madras  and  Mysore;  five 
millions  perish.  Relief  insufficient. 

1877-1878  Severe  famine  in  north  China.  Nine  and  a  half 
millions  said  to  have  perished. 

1887-1889  Famine  in  China. 

1891—1892  Famine  in  Russia. 

1897  Famine  in  India.     Government  policy  of  saving'  life 

successful.     Mansion  House  fund  £550,000. 

1899—1901  Famine  in  India.  One  million  people  perished. 
Estimated  loss  to  India  £50,000,000.  The  govern- 
ment spent  £10,000,000  on  relief,  and  at  one  time 
there  were  4,500,000  people  on  the  relief  works. 

1905  Famine  in  Russia. 

Famines  in  India. — Owing  to  its  tropical  situation  and  its 
almost  entire  dependence  upon  the  monsoon  rains,  India  is 
more  liable  than  any  other  country  in  the  world  to  crop  failures, 
which  upon  occasion  deepen  into  famine.  Every  year  sufficient 
rain  falls  in  India  to  secure  an  abundant  harvest  if  it  were 
evenly  distributed  over  the  whole  country;  but  as  a  matter  of 
fact  the  distribution  is  so  uneven  and  so  uncertain  that  every 
year  some  district  suffers  from  insufficient  rainfall.  In  fact, 
famine  is,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  endemic  in  India,  and  is  a 
problem  to  reckon  with  every  year  in  some  portion  of  that  vast 
area.  The  people  depend  so  entirely  upon  agriculture,  and  the 
harvest  is  so  entirely  destroyed  by  a  single  monsoon  failure, 
that  wherever  a  total  failure  occurs  the  landless  labourer  is 
immediately  thrown  out  of  work  and  remains  out  of  work  for 
the  whole  year.  The  question  is  thus  one  of  lack  of  employment, 
rather  than  lack  of  food.  The  food  is  there,  perhaps  at  a  slightly 
enhanced  price,  but  the  unemployed  labourer  has  no  money  to 
buy  it.  The  problem  is  very  much  the  same  as  that  met  by  the 
British  Poor  Law  system.  Every  year  in  England  a  poor  rate 
of  some  £22,000,000  is  expended  for  a  population  of  40  millions; 
while  it  is  only  in  an  exceptional  year  in  India  that  £10,000,000 
are  spent  on  a  population  of  300  millions. 

Famines  seem  to  recur  in  India  at  periodical  intervals,  which 
have  been  held  to  be  in  some  way  dependent  on  the  sun-spot 
period.  Every  five  or  ten  years  the  annual  scarcity  widens 
its  area  and  becomes  a  recognized  famine;  every  fifty  or  a 
hundred  years  whole  provinces  are  involved,  loss  of  life  becomes 
widespread,  and  a  great  famine  is  recorded.  In  the  140  years 
since  Warren  Hastings  initiated  British  rule  in  India,  there  have 
been  nineteen  famines  and  five  severe  scarcities.  For  the  period 
preceding  British  rule  the  records  have  not  been  so  well  pre- 
served, but  there  is  ample  evidence  to  show  that  famine  was  just 
as  frequent  in  its  incidence  and  infinitely  more  deadly  in  its 
effects  under  the  native  rulers  of  India.  In  the  great  Bengal 
famine  of  1769-1770,  which  occurred  shortly  after  the  foundation 
of  British  rule,  but  while  the  native  officials  were  still  in  power, 
a  third  of  the  population,  or  ten  millions  out  of  thirty  millions, 
perished.  From  this  it  may  be  guessed  what  occurred  in  the 
centuries  under  Mogul  rule,  when  for  years  there  was  no  rain, 
when  famine  lasted  for  three,  four  or  twelve  years,  and  entire 
cities  were  left  without  an  inhabitant.  In  the  famine  of  1901, 
the  worst  of  recent  years,  the  loss  of  life  in  British  districts  was 
3%  of  the  population  affected,  as  against  33%  in  the  Bengal 
famine  of  1770. 

The  native  rulers  of  India  seem  to  have  made  no  effort  to 
relieve  the  sufferings  of  their  subjects  in  times  of  famine;  and 
even  down  to  1866  the  British  government  had  no  settled 
famine  policy.  In  that  year  the  Orissa  famine  awakened  the 
public  conscience,  and  the  commission  presided  over  by  Sir 
George  Campbell  laid  down  the  lines  upon  which  subsequent 
famine-relief  was  organized.  In  the  Rajputana  famine  of  1869 
the  humane  principle  of  saving  every  possible  life  was  first 


i68 


FAN 


enunciated.  In  the  Behar  famine  of  1874  this  principle  was  even 
carried  to  an  extreme,  the  cost  was  enormous,  and  the  people 
were  in  danger  of  being  pauperized.  The  resulting  reaction 
caused  a  regrettable  loss  of  life  in  the  Madras  and  Bombay 
famine  of  1876-1878;  and  the  Famine  Commission  of  1880, 
followed  by  those  of  1898  and  1901,  laid  down  the  principle  that 
every  possible  life  must  be  saved,  but  that  the  wages  on  relief 
works  must  be  so  regulated  in  relation  to  the  market  rate  of 
wages  as  not  to  undermine  the  independence  of  the  people.  The 
experience  gained  in  the  great  famines  of  1898  and  1901  has  been 
garnered  by  these  commissions,  and  stored  up  in  the  "  famine 
codes  "  of  each  separate  province,  where  rules  are  provided  for 
the  treatment  of  famine  directly  a  crop  failure  is  seen  to  be 
probable.  The  first  step  is  to  open  test  works;  and  directly 
they  show  the  necessity,  regular  relief  works  are  established, 
in  which  the  people  may  earn  enough  to  keep  them  from  starva- 
tion, until  the  time  comes  to  sow  the  next  crop. 

As  a  result  of  the  severe  famine  of  1878-1879,  Lord  Lytton's 
government  instituted  a  form  of  insurance  against  famine  known 
as  the  Famine  Insurance  Grant.  A  sum  of  Rs.  1,500,000  was 
to  be  yearly  set  aside  for  purposes  of  famine  relief.  This  scheme 
has  been  widely  misunderstood;  it  has  been  assumed  that  an 
entirely  separate  fund  was  created,  and  that  in  years  when 
the  specified  sum  was  not  paid  into  this  fund,  the  purpose  of  the 
government  was  not  carried  out.  But  Sir  John  Strachey, 
the  author  of  the  scheme,  explains  in  his  book  on  India  that 
the  original  intention  was  nothing  more  than  the  annual  applica- 
tion of  surplus  revenue,  of  the  indicated  amount,  to  purposes 
of  famine  relief;  and  that  when  the  country  was  free  from 
famine,  this  sum  should  be  regularly  devoted  to  the  discharge 
of  debt,  or  to  the  prevention  of  debt  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  incurred  for  the  construction  of  railways  and  canals. 
The  sum  of  ij  crores  is  regularly  set  aside  for  this  purpose, 
and  is  devoted  as  a  rule  to  the  construction  of  protective  irriga- 
tion works,  and  for  investigating  and  preparing  new  projects 
falling  under  the  head  of  protective  works. 

The  measures  by  which  the  government  of  India  chiefly 
endeavours  to  reduce  the  liability  of  the  country  to  famine  are 
the  promotion  of  railways;  the  extension  of  canal  and  well 
irrigation;  the  reclamation  of  waste  lands,  with  the  establish- 
ment of  fuel  and  fodder  reserves;  the  introduction  of  agricultural 
improvements;  the  multiplication  of  industries;  emigration; 
and  finally  the  improvement  where  necessary  of  the  revenue  and 
rent  systems.  In  times  of  famine  the  function  of  the  railways 
in  distributing  the  grain  is  just  as  important  as  the  function  of  the 
irrigation-canals  in  increasing  the  amount  grown.  There  is 
always  enough  grain  within  the  boundaries  of  India  for  the  needs 
of  the  people;  the  only  difficulty  is  to  transport  it  to  the  tract 
where  it  is  required  at  a  particular  moment.  Owing  to  the  ex- 
tension of  railways,  in  the  famines  of  1898  and  1901  there  was 
never  any  dearth  of  food  in  any  famine-stricken  tract;  and  the 
only  difficulty  was  to  find  enough  rolling-stock  to  cope  with  the 
demand.  Irrigation  protects  large  tracts  against  famine,  and 
has  immensely  increased  the  wheat  output  of  the  Punjab;  the 
Irrigation  Commission  of  1903  recommended  the  addition  of  65 
million  acres  to  the  irrigated  area  of  India,  and  that  recommenda- 
tion is  being  carried  out  at  an  annual  cost  of  ij  millions  sterling 
for  twenty  years,  but  at  the  end  of  that  time  the  list  of  works 
that  will  return  a  lucrative  interest  on  capital  will  be  practically 
exhausted.  Local  conditions  do  not  make  irrigation  everywhere 
possible. 

As  five-sixths  of  the  whole  population  of  India  are  dependent 
upon  the  land,  any  failure  of  agriculture  becomes  a  national 
calamity.  If  there  were  more  industries  and  manufactures  in 
India,  the  dependence  on  the  land  would  not  be  so  great  and  the 
liability  to  lack  of  occupation  would  not  be  so  uniform  in  any 
particular  district.  The  remedy  for  this  is  the  extension  of 
factories  and  home  industries;  but  European  capital  is  difficult 
to  obtain  in  India,  and  the  native  capitalist  prefers  to  hoard  his 
rupees.  The  extension  of  industries,  therefore,  is  a  work  of  time. 

It  is  sometimes  alleged  by  native  Indian  politicians  that  famines 
are  growing  worse  under  British  rule,  because  India  is  becoming 


exhausted  by  an  excessive  land  revenue,  a  civil  service  too 
expensive  for  her  needs,  military  expenditure  on  imperial  objects, 
and  the  annual  drain  of  some  £15,000,000  for  "  home  charges." 
The  reply  to  this  indictment  is  that  the  British  land  revenue  is 
£16,000,000  annually,  whereas  Aurangzeb's  over  a  smaller  area, 
allowing  for  the  difference  in  the  value  of  the  rupee,  was 
£110,000,000;  though  the  Indian  Civil  Service  is  expensive, 
its  cost  is  more  than  covered  by  the  fact  that  India,  under 
British  guarantee,  obtains  her  loans  at  3j%  as  against  10% 
or  more  paid  by  native  rulers;  though  India  has  a  heavy  military 
burden,  she  pays  no  contribution  to  the  British  navy,  which 
protects  her  seaboard  from  invasion;  the  drain  of  the  home 
charges  cannot  be  very  great,  as  India  annually  absorbs  6  millions 
sterling  of  the  precious  metals;  in  1899-1900,  a  year  of  famine, 
the  net  imports  of  gold  and  silver  were  130  millions.  Finally, 
it  is  estimated  by  the  census  commissioners  that  in  the  famine  of 
1901  three  million  people  died  in  the  native  states  and  only  one 
million  in  British  territory. 

See  Cornelius  Walford,  "  On  the  Famines  of  the  World,  Past  and 
Present"  (Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society,  1878-1879);  Romesh 
C.  Dutt,  Famines  in  India  (1900);  Robert  Wallace,  Famine  in 
India  (1900);  George  Campbell,  Famines  in  India  (1769-1788); 
Chronological  List  of  Famines  for  all  India  (Madras  Administration 
Report,  1885);  J.  C.  Geddes,  Administrative  Experience  in  Former 
Famines  (1874) ;  Statistical  Atlas  of  India  (1895) ;  F.  H.  S.  Mere- 
wether,  Through  the  Famine  Districts  of  India  (1898) ;  G.  W.  Forrest, 
The  Famine  in  India  (1898);  E.  A.  B.  Hodgetts,  In  the  Track  of  the 
Russian  Famine  (1892);  W.  B.  Steveni,  Through  Famine-stricken 
Russia  (1892);  Vaughan  Nash,  The  Great  Famine  (1900);  Lady 
Hope,  Sir  Arthur  Cotton  (1900);  Lord  Curzon  in  India  (1905); 
T.  W.  Holderness,  Narrative  of  the  Famine  of  1896-1897  (c.  8812  of 
1898);  the  Indian  Famine  Commission  reports  of  1880,  1898  and 
1900;  report  of  the  Indian  Irrigation  Commission  (1901-1903); 
C.  W.  McMinn,  Famine  Truths,  Half-Truths,  Untruths  (1902); 
Theodore  Morison,  Indian  Industrial  Organization  (1906). 

FAN  (Lat.  vannus;  Fr.  iventaif),  in  its  usually  restricted 
meaning,  a  light  implement  used  for  giving  motion  to  the  air 
in  order  to  produce  coolness  to  the  face;  the  word  is,  however, 
also  applied  to  the  winnowing  fan,  for  separating  chaff  from 
grain,  and  to  various  engineering  appliances  for  ventilation,  &c. 
Ventilabrum  and  flabellum  are  names  under  which  ecclesiastical 
fans  are  mentioned  in  old  inventories.  Fans  for  cooling  the  face 
have  been  in  use  in  hot  climates  from  remote  ages.  A  bas-relief 
in  the  British  Museum  represents  Sennacherib  with  female 
figures  carrying  feather  fans.  They  were  attributes  of  royalty 
along  with  horse-hair  fly-flappers  and  umbrellas.  Examples 
may  be  seen  in  plates  of  the  Egyptian  sculptures  at  Thebes 
and  other  places,  and  also  in  the  ruins  of  Persepolis.  In  the 
museum  of  Boulak,  near  Cairo,  a  wooden  fan  handle  showing 
holes  for  feathers  is  still  preserved.  It  is  from  the  tomb  of  Amen- 
hotep,  of  the  i8th  dynasty,  I7th  century  B.C.  In  India  fans 
were  also  attributes  of  men  in  authority,  and  sometimes  sacred 
emblems.  A  heart-shaped  fan,  with  an  ivory  handle,  of  unknown 
age,  and  held  in  great  veneration  by  the  Hindus,  was  given  to 
King  Edward  VII.  when  prince  of  Wales.  Large  punkahs  or 
screens,  moved  by  a  servant  who  does  nothing  else,  are  in 
common  use  in  hot  countries,  and  particularly  India. 

Fans  were  used  in  the  early  middle  ages  to  keep  flies  from  the 
sacred  elements  during  the  celebrations  of  the  Christian  mysteries. 
Sometimes  they  were  round,  with  bells  attached — of  silver  or 
silver  gilt.  Notices  of  such  fans  in  the  ancient  records  of  St 
Paul's,  London,  Salisbury  cathedral  and  many  other  churches 
exist  still.  For  these  purposes  they  are  no  longer  used  in  the 
Western  church,  though  they  are  retained  in  some  Oriental  rites. 
The  large  feather  fans,  however,  are  still  carried  in  the  state 
processions  of  the  supreme  pontiff  in  Rome,  though  not  used 
during  the  celebration  of  the  mass.  The  fan  of  Queen  Theodo- 
linda  (7th  century)  is  still  preserved  in  the  treasury  of  the 
cathedral  of  Monza.  Fans  made  part  of  the  bridal  outfit,  or 
mundus  muliebris,  of  Roman  ladies. 

Folding  fans  had  their  origin  in  Japan,  and  were  imported 
thence  to  China.  They  were  in  the  shape  still  used— a  segment 
of  a  circle  of  paper  pasted  on  a  light  radiating  framework  of 
bamboo,  and  variously  decorated,  some  in  colours,  others  of 
white  paper  on  which  verses  or  sentences  are  written.  It  is  a 


FANCY— FANG 


169 


compliment  in  China  to  invite  a  friend  or  distinguished  guest 
to  write  some  sentiment  on  your  fan  as  a  memento  of  any  special 
occasion,  and  this  practice  has  continued.  A  fan  that  has  some 
celebrity  in  France  was  presented  by  the  Chinese  ambassador  to 
the  comtesse  de  Clauzel  at  the  coronation  of  Napoleon  I.  in 
1804.  When  a  site  was  given  in  1635,  on  an  artificial  island, 
for  the  settlement  of  Portuguese  merchants  in  Nippo  in  Japan, 
the  space  was  laid  out  in  the  form  of  a  fan  as  emblematic  of  an 
object  agreeable  for  general  use.  Men  and  women  of  every  rank 
both  in  China  and  Japan  carry  fans,  even  artisans  using  them 
with  one  hand  while  working  with  the  other.  In  China  they  are 
often  made  of  carved  ivory,  the  sticks  being  plates  very  thin  and 
sometimes  carved  on  both  sides,  the  intervals  between  the  carved 
parts  pierced  with  astonishing  delicacy,  and  the  plates  held 
together  by  a  ribbon.  The  Japanese  make  the  two  outer  guards 
of  the  stick,  which  cover  the  others,  occasionally  of  beaten  iron, 
extremely  thin  and  light,  damascened  with  gold  and  other  metals. 

Fans  were  used  by  Portuguese  ladies  in  the  I4th  century, 
and  were  well  known  in  England  before  the  close  of  the  reign 
of  Richard  II.  In  France  the  inventory  of  Charles  V.  at  the  end 
of  the  i4th  century  mentions  a  folding  ivory  fan.  They  were 
brought  into  general  use  in  that  country  by  Catherine  de' 
*  Medici,  probably  from  Italy,  then  in  advance  of  other  countries 
in  all  matters  of  personal  luxury.  The  court  ladies  of  Henry 
VIII. 's  reign  in  England  were  used  to  handling  fans.  A  lady  in 
the  "Dance  of  Death"  by  Holbein  holds  a  fan.  Queen  Elizabeth 
is  painted  with  a  round  feather  fan  in  her  portrait  at  Gorham- 
bury;  and  as  many  as  twenty-seven  are  enumerated  in  her 
inventory  (1606).  Coryat,  the  English  traveller,  in  1608  describes 
them  as  common  in  Italy.  They  also  became  of  general  use 
from  that  time  in  Spain.  In  Italy,  France  and  Spain  fans  had 
special  conventional  uses,  and  various  actions  in  handling  them 
grew  into  a  code  of  signals,  by  which  ladies  were  supposed  to 
convey  hints  or  signals  to  admirers  or  to  rivals  in  society.  A 
paper  in  the  Spectator  humorously  proposes  to  establish  a 
regular  drill  for  these  purposes. 

The  chief  seat  of  the  European  manufacture  of  fans  during 
the  1 7th  century  was  Paris,  where  the  sticks  or  frames,  whether 
of  wood  or  ivory,  were  made,  and  the  decorations  painted  on 
mounts  of  very  carefully  prepared  vellum  (incorrectly  called 
chicken  skin) — a  material  stronger  and  tougher  than  paper, 
which  breaks  at  the  folds.  Paris  makers  exported  fans  unpainted 
to  Madrid  and  other  Spanish  cities,  where  they  were  decorated 
by  native  artists.  Many  were  exported  complete;  of  old  fans 
called  Spanish  a  great  number  were  in  fact  made  in  France. 
Louis  XIV.  issued  edicts  at  various  times  to  regulate  the  manu- 
facture. Besides  fans  mounted  with  parchment,  Dutch  fans  of 
ivory  were  imported  into  Paris,  and  decorated  by  the  heraldic 
painters  in  the  process  called  "  Vernis  Martin,"  after  a  famous 
carriage  painter  and  inventor  of  colourless  lac  varnish.  Fans  of 
this  kind  belonging  to  Queen  Victoria  and  the  baroness  de 
Rothschild  were  exhibited  in  1870  at  Kensington.  A  fan  of  the 
date  of  1660,  representing  sacred  subjects,  is  attributed  to 
Philippe  de  Champagne,  another  to  Peter  Oliver  in  England  in 
the  i  yth  century.  Cano  de  Arevalo,  a  Spanish  painter  of  the 
1 7th  century,  devoted  himself  to  fan  painting.  Some  harsh 
expressions  of  Queen  Christina  to  the  young  ladies  of  the  French 
court  are  said  to  have  caused  an  increased  ostentation  in  the 
splendour  of  their  fans,  which  were  set  with  jewels  and  mounted 
in  gold.  Rosalba  Camera  was  the  name  of  a  fan  painter  of 
celebrity  in  the  i7th  century.  Le  Brun  and  Romanelli  were 
much  employed  during  the  same  period.  Klingstet,  a  Dutch 
artist,  enjoyed  a  considerable  reputation  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  i7th  and  the  first  thirty  years  of  the  i8th  century. 

The  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  drove  many  fan-makers 
out  of  France  to  Holland  and  England.  The  trade  in  England 
was  well  established  under  the  Stuart  sovereigns.  Petitions 
were  addressed  by  the  fan-makers  to  Charles  II.  against  the  im- 
portation of  fans  from  India,  and  a  duty  was  levied  upon  such 
fans  in  consequence.  This  importation  of  Indian  fans,  according 
to  Savary,  extended  also  to  France.  During  the  reign  of  Louis 
XV.  carved  Indian  and  China  fans  displaced  to  some  extent  those 


formerly  imported  from  Italy,  which  had  been  painted  on 
swanskin  parchment  prepared  with  various  perfumes. 

During  the  i8th  century  all  the  luxurious  ornamentation  of 
the  day  was  bestowed  on  fans  as  far  as  they  could  display  it. 
The  sticks  were  made  of  mother-of-pearl  or  ivory,  carved  with 
extraordinary  skill  in  France,  Italy,  England  and  other  countries. 
They  were  painted  from  designs  of  Boucher,  Watteau,  Lancret 
and  other  "  genre "  painters;  Hebert,  Rau,  Chevalier,  Jean 
Boquet,  Mme.  Verite,  are  known  as  fan-painters.  These  fashions 
were  followed  in  most  countries  of  Europe,  with  certain  national 
differences.  Taffeta  and  silk,  as  well  as  fine  parchment,  were 
used  for  the  mounts.  Little  circles  of  glass  were  let  into  the 
stick  to  be  looked  through,  and  small  telescopic  glasses  were 
sometimes  contrived  at  the  pivot  of  the  stick.  They  were 
occasionally  mounted  with  the  finest  point  lace.  An  interesting 
fan  (belonging  to  Madame  de  Thiac  in  France),  the  work  of  Le 
Flamand,  was  presented  by  the  municipality  of  Dieppe  to  Marie 
Antoinette  on  the  birth  of  her  son  the  dauphin.  From  the  time 
of  the  Revolution  the  old  luxury  expended  on  fans  died  out. 
Fine  examples  ceased  to  be  exported  to  England  and  other 
countries.  The  painting  on  them  represented  scenes  or  per- 
sonages connected  with  political  events.  At  a  later  period  fan 
mounts  were  often  prints  coloured  by  hand.  The  events  of  the 
day  mark  the  date  of  many  examples  found  in  modern  collections. 
Among  the  fan-makers  of  modern  days  the  names  of  Alexandre, 
Duvelleroy,  Fayet,  Vanier  became  well  known  in  Paris;  and 
the  designs  of  Charles  Conder  (1868-1909)  have  brought  his 
name  to  the  front  in  this  art.  Painters  of  distinction  often 
design  and  paint  the  mounts,  the  best  designs  being  figure 
subjects.  A  great  impulse  was  given  to  the  manufacture  and 
painting  of  fans  in  England  after  the  exhibition  which  took  place 
at  South  Kensington  in  1870.  Modern  collections  of  fans  take 
their  date  from  the  emigration  of  many  noble  families  from 
France  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution.  Such  objects  were  given 
as  souvenirs,  and  occasionally  sold  by  families  in  straitened 
circumstances.  A  large  number  of  fans  of  all  sorts,  principally 
those  of  the  i8th  century,  French,  English,  German,  Italian, 
Spanish,  &c.,  have  been  bequeathed  to  the  South  Kensington 
(Victoria  and  Albert)  Museum. 

The  sticks  of  folding  fans  are  called  in  French  brins,  the  two 
outer  guards  panaches,  and  the  mount  feuille. 

See  also  Blondel,  Histoire  des  eventails  (1875);  Octave  Uzanne, 
L'evenlail  (1882);  and  especially  G.  Wooliscroft  Rhead,  History  of 
the  Fan  (1909).  (J.  H.  P.*) 

FANCY  (a  shortened  form,  dating  from  the  i.5th  century,  of 
"  fantasy,"  which  is  derived  through  the  O.  Fr.fantasie,  modern 
fantaisie.  from  the  Latinized  form  of  the  Gr.  <t>a.VTaaia,  <t>a.vra.£tiv , 
<t>aiveiv,  to  show),  display,  showing  forth,  as  a  philosophical 
term,  the  presentative  power  of  the  mind.  The  word  "  fancy  " 
and  the  older  form  "  fantasy,"  which  is  now  chiefly  used  poetic- 
ally, was  in  its  early  application  synonymous  with  imagination, 
the  mental  faculty  of  creating  representations  or  images  of 
things  not  present  to  the  senses;  it  is  more  usually,  in  this  sense, 
applied  to  the  lighter  forms  of  the  imagination.  "  Fancy  "  also 
commonly  means  inclination,  whim,  caprice.  The  more  learned 
form  "  phantasy,"  as  also  such  words  as  "  phantom  "  and 
"  phantasm,"  is  chiefly  confined  to  visionary  imaginings. 

FANG  (FAN,  FANWE,  PANWE,  PAHOUIN,  PAOUEN,  MPANGWE), 
a  powerful  African  people  occupying  the  Gabun  district  north 
of  the  Ogowe  river  in  French  Congo.  Their  name  means  "  men." 
They  call  themselves  Panwe,  Fa"we  and  Fan  with  highly 
nasalized  n.  They  are  a  finely-made  race  of  chocolate  colour; 
some  few  are  very  dark,  but  these  are  of  slave  origin.  They  have 
bright  expressive  oval  faces  with  prominent  cheek-bones.  Many 
of  them  file  their  teeth  to  points.  Their  hair,  which  is  woolly,  is 
worn  by  the  women  long,  reaching  below  the  nape  of  the  neck. 
The  men  wear  it  in  a  variety  of  shapes,  often  building  it  up  over' 
a  wooden  base.  The  growth  of  the  hair  appears  abundant,  but 
that  on  the  face  is  usually  removed.  Little  clothing  is  worn; 
the  men  wear  a  bark  waist-cloth,  the  women  a  plantain  girdle, 
sometimes  with  a  bustle  of  dried  grass.  A  chief  wears  a  leopard's 
skin  round  the  shoulders.  Both  sexes  tattoo  and  paint  the  body, 


170 


FANO— FANSHAWE 


and  delight  in  ornaments  of  every  kind.  The  men,  whose  sole 
occupations  are  fighting  and  hunting,  all  carry  arms— muskets, 
spears  ior  throwing  and  stabbing,  and  curious  throwing-knives 
with  blades  broader  than  they  are  long.  Instead  of  bows  and 
arrows  they  use  crossbows  made  of  ebony,  with  which  they  hunt 
apes  and  birds.  In  battle  the  Fang  used  to  carry  elephant  hide 
shields;  these  have  apparently  been  discarded. 

When  first  met  by  T.  E.  Bowdich  (1815)  the  Paamways,  as  he 
calls  the  Fang,  were  an  inland  people  inhabiting  the  hilly  plateaus 
north  of  the  Ogowe  affluents.  Now  they  have  become  the 
neighbours  of  the  Mpongwe  (q.v.)  of  Glass  and  Libreville  on  the 
Komo  river,  while  south  of  the  Gabun  they  have  reached  the  sea 
at  several  points.  Their  original  home  is  probably  to  be  placed 
somewhere  near  the  Congo.  Their  language,  according  to  Sir 
R.  Burton,  is  soft  and  sweet  and  a  contrast  to  their  harsh  voices, 
and  the  vocabularies  collected  prove  it  to  be  of  the  Bantu- 
Negroid  linguistic  family.  W.  Winwood  Reade  (Sketch  Book,  i. 
p.  108)  states  that  "  it  is  like  Mpongwe  (a  pure  Bantu  idiom) 
cut  in  half;  for  instance,  njina  (gorilla)  in  Mpongwe  is  nji  in 
Fan."  The  plural  of  the  tribal  name  is  formed  in  the  usual 
Bantu  way,  Ba-Fang. 

Morally  the  Fang  are  superior  to  the  negro.  Mary  Kingsley 
writes:  "  The  Fan  is  full  of  fire,  temper,  intelligence  and  go,  very 
teachable,  rather  difficult  to  manage,  quick  to  take  offence,  and 
utterly  indifferent  to  human  life."  This  latter  characteristic 
has  made  the  Fang  dreaded  by  all  their  neighbours.  They  are 
noted  cannibals,  and  ferocious  in  nature.  Prisoners  are  badly 
treated  and  are  often  allowed  to  starve.  The  Fang  are  always 
fighting,  but  the  battles  are  not  bloody.  After  the  fall  of  two 
or  three  warriors  the  bodies  are  dragged  off  to  be  devoured,  and 
their  friends  disperse.  Burton  says  that  their  cannibalism  is 
limited  to  the  consumption  of  slain  enemies;  that  the  sick  are 
not  devoured;  and  that  the  dead  are  decently  buried,  except 
slaves,  whose  bodies  are  thrown  into  the  forest.  Mary  Kingsley, 
on  the  other  hand,  believed  their  cannibalism  was  not  limited. 
She  writes:  "  The  Fan  is  not  a  cannibal  for  sacrificial  motives, 
like  the  negro.  He  will  eat  his  next  door  neighbour's  relation  and 
sell  his  own  deceased  to  his  next  door  neighbour  in  return,  but 
he  does  not  buy  slaves  and  fatten  them  up  for  his  table  as  some 
of  the  middle  Congo  tribes  do.  He  has  no  slaves,  no  prisoners 
of  war,  no  cemeteries,  so  you  must  draw  your  own  conclusions." 
Among  certain  tribes  the  aged  alone  are  permitted  to  eat  human 
flesh,  which  is  taboo  for  all  others.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
cannibalism  of  the  Fang  is  diminishing  before  the  advance  of 
civilization.  Apart  from  their  ferocity,  the  Fang  are  an  agreeable 
and  industrious  people.  They  are  skilful  workers  in  iron  and 
have  a  curious  coinage  called  bikii,  little  iron  imitation  axeheads 
tied  up  in  bundles  called  ntet,  ten  to  a  bundle;  these  are  used 
chiefly  in  the  purchase  of  wives.  They  are  energetic  traders  and 
are  skilled  in  pottery  and  in  gardening.  Their  religion  appears 
to  be  a  combination  of  primitive  animism  and  ancestor  worship, 
with  a  belief  in  sympathetic  magic. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Paul  du  Chaillu,  Explorations  in  Equatorial 
Africa  (1861) ;  Sir  R.  Burton,  "  A  Day  with  the  Fans,"  Transactions 
of  Ethnological  Society,  new  series,  vols.  3-4;  Mary  Kingsley,  Travels 
in  West  Africa  (1897);  Oscar  Lenz,  Skizzen  aus  West  Africa  (1878); 
R.  E.  Dennett,  Notes  on  the  Folklore  of  the  Fjort  (1898);  William 
Winwood  Reade,  The  African  Sketch  Book  (1873);  and  (chiefly) 
A.  L.  Bennett,  "  Ethnographical  Notes  on  the  Fang,"  Journ.  Anthr. 
Inst.  N.S.,  ii.  p.  66,  and  L.  Martron  in  Anthropos,  t.  i.  (1906),  fasc.  4. 

FANO  (anc.  Fanum  Forlunae,  q.v.),  a  town  and  episcopal  see 
of  the  Marches,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Pesaro  and  Urbino, 
8  m.  S.E.  of  the  former  by  rail,  and  46  ft.  above  sea-level,  on 
the  N.E.  coast  of  Italy.  Pop.  (1901),  town  10,535,  commune 
24,730.  The  cathedral  has  a  i3th  century  portal,  but  the  interior 
is  unimportant.  The  vestibule  of  S.  Francesco  contains  the 
tombs  of  some  members  of  the  Malatesta  family.  S.  Croce  and 
3.  Maria  Nuova  contain  works  by  Giovanni  Santi,  the  father  of 
Raphael;  the  latter  has  also  two  works  by  Perugino,  the  predella 
of  one  of  which  is  attributed  to  Raphael.  S.  Agostino  contains 
a  painting  of  S.  Angelo  Custode  ("  the  Guardian  Angel  "),  which 
is  the  subject  of  a  poem  by  Robert  Browning.  The  fine  Gothic 
Palazzo  della  Ragione  (1299)  has  been  converted  into  a  theatre. 


The  palace  of  the  Malatesta,  with  fine  porticos  and  Gothic 
windows,  was  much  damaged  by  an  earthquake  in  1874.  S. 
Michele,  built  against  the  arch  of  Augustus,  is  an  early  Renais- 
sance building  (1475-1490),  probably  by  Matteo  Nuzio  of  Fano, 
with  an  ornate  portal.  The  facade  has  an  interesting  relief 
showing  the  colonnade  added  by  Constantine  as  an  upper  storey 
to  the  arch  of  Augustus  and  removed  in  1463. 

Fano  in  the  middle  ages  passed  through  various  political 
vicissitudes,  and  in  the  i4th  century  became  subject  to  the 
Malatesta.  In  1458  Pius  II.  added  it  to  the  states  of  the  Church. 
Julius  II.  established  here  in  1514  the  first  printing  press  with 
movable  Arabic  type.  The  harbour  was  restored  by  Paul  V. 
but  is  now  unimportant. 

FANSHAWE,  SIR  RICHARD,  Bart.  (1608-1666),  English  poet 
and  ambassador,  son  of  Sir  Henry  Fanshawe,  remembrancer  of 
the  exchequer,  of  Ware  Park,  Hertfordshire,  and  of  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Thomas  Smith  or  Smythe,  was  born  early  in  June 
1608,  and  was  educated  in  Cripplegate  by  the  famous  school- 
master, Thomas  Farnaby.  In  November  1623  he  was  admitted 
fellow-commoner  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  January 
1626  he  entered  the  Inner  Temple;  but  the  study  of  the  law 
being  distasteful  to  him,  he  travelled  in  France  and  Spain. 
On  his  return,  an  accomplished  linguist,  in  1635,  he  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  English  embassy  at  Madrid  under  Lord  Aston. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  joined  the  king,  and  while  at 
Oxford  in  1644  married  Anne,  daughter  of  Sir  John  Harrison  of 
Balls,  Hertfordshire.  About  the  same  time  he  was  appointed 
secretary  at  war  to  the  prince  of  Wales,  with  whom  he  set  out 
in  1645  for  the  western  counties,  Scilly,  and  afterwards  Jersey. 
He  compounded  in  1646  with  the  parliamentary  authorities, 
and  was  allowed  to  live  in  London  till  October  1647,  visiting 
Charles  I.  at  Hampton  Court.  In  1647  he  published  his  transla- 
tion of  the  Pastor  Fido  of  Guarini,  which  he  reissued  in  1648 
with  the  addition  of  several  other  poems,  original  and  translated. 
In  1648  he  was  appointed  treasurer  to  the  navy  under  Prince 
Rupert.  In  November  of  this  year  he  was  in  Ireland,  where  he 
actively  engaged  in  the  royalist  cause  till  the  spring  of  1650, 
when  he  was  despatched  by  Charles  II.  on  a  mission  to  obtain 
help  from  Spain.  This  was  refused,  and  he  joined  Charles  in 
Scotland  as  secretary.  On  the  and  of  September  1650  he  had 
been  created  a  baronet.  He  accompanied  Charles  in  the  expedi- 
tion into  England,  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Worcester  on  the  3rd  of  September  1651.  After  a  confinement 
of  some  weeks  at  Whitehall,  he  was  allowed,  with  restrictions, 
and  under  the  supervision  of  the  authorities,  to  choose  his  own 
place  of  residence.  He  published  in  1652  his  Selected  Parts  of 
Horace,  a  translation  remarkable  for  its  fidelity,  felicity  and 
elegance.  In  1654  he  completed  translations  of  two  of  the 
comedies  of  the  Spanish  poet  Antonio  de  Mendoza,  which  were 
published  after  his  death,  Querer  per  solo  querer:  To  Love  only 
for  Love's  Sake,  in  1670,  and  Fiestas  de  Aranjuez  in  1671.  But 
the  great  labour  of  his  retirement  was  the  translation  of  the 
Lusiad,  by  Camoens,  published  in  1655.  It  is  in  ottava  rima, 
with  the  translation  prefixed  to  it  of  the  Latin  poem  Furor 
Petroniensis.  In  1658  he  published  a  Latin  version  of  the 
Faithful  Shepherdess  of  Fletcher. 

In  April  1659  Fanshawe  left  England  for  Paris,  re-entered 
Charles's  service  'and  accompanied  him  to  England  at  the 
Restoration,  but  was  not  offered  any  place  in  the  administration. 
In  1661  he  was  returned  to  parliament  for  the  university  of 
Cambridge,  and  the  same  year  was  sent  to  Portugal  to  negotiate 
the  marriage  between  Charles  II.  and  the  infanta.  In  January 
1662  he  was  made  a  privy  councillor  of  Ireland,  and  was  appointed 
ambassador  again  to  Portugal  in  August,  where  he  remained  till 
August  1663.  He  was  sworn  a  privy  councillor  of  England  on 
the  ist  of  October.  In  January  1664  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Spain,  and  arrived  at  Cadiz  in  February  of  that  year.  He 
signed  the  first  draft  of  a  treaty  on  the  1 7th  of  December,  which 
offered  advantageous  concessions  to  English  trade,  but  of  which 
one  condition  was  that  it  should  be  confirmed  by  his  government 
before  a  certain  date.  In  January  1666  Fanshawe  went  to  Lisbon 
to  procure  the  adherence  of  Portugal  to  this  agreement.  He 


FANTAN— FANTI 


171 


returned  to  Madrid,  having  failed  in  his  mission,  and  was  almost 
immediately  recalled  by  Clarendon  on  the  plea  that  he  had 
exceeded  his  instructions.  He  died  very  shortly  afterwards 
before  leaving  Madrid,  on  the  26th  of  June  1666.  He  had  a 
family  of  fourteen  children,  of  whom  five  only  survived  him, 
Richard,  the  youngest,  succeeding  as  second  baronet  and  dying 
unmarried  in  1694. 

As  a  translator,  whether  from  the  Italian,  Latin,  Portuguese 
or  Spanish,  Fanshawe  has  a  considerable  reputation.  His 
Pastor  Fido  and  his  Lusiad  have  not  been  superseded  by  later 
scholars,  and  his  rendering  of  the  latter  is  praised  by  Southey 
and  Sir  Richard  Burton.  As  an  original  poet  also  the  few  verses 
he  has  left  are  sufficient  evidence  of  exceptional  literary  talent. 

AUTHORITIES. — Memoirs  of  Lady  Fanshawe,  written  in  1676  and 
published  1829  (from  an  inaccurate  transcript);  these  were  re- 
printed from  the  original  manuscript  and  edited  by  H.  C.  Fanshawe 
(London,  1907) ;  article  in  the  Diet.  of  Nat.  Biography  and  authorities 
there  quoted;  Biographia  Brit.  (Kippis);  Original  Letters  of  Sir 
R.  F.  (2  vols.,  1724),  the  earlier  edition  of  1702  with  portrait  being 
only  vol.  i.  of  this  edition ;  Notes  Genealogical  and  Historical  of  the 
Fanshawe  Family  (1868-1872);  funeral  sermon  by  H.  Bagshaw; 
Nicholas  Papers  (Camden  Society) ;  Quarterly  Review,  xxvii.  I ; 
Macmillan's  Mag.  Ivii.  279;  Camoen's  Life  and  Lusiads,  by  Sir  F. 
Burton,  i.  135;  Clarendon's  State  Papers,  Calendars  of  State  Papers, 
Autobiography  and  Hist,  of  the  Rebellion;  Athenaeum  (1883),  i.  12 1 ; 
Add.  MSS.  British  Museum,  15,228  (poems);  Harl.  MSS.  Brit. 
Mus.  7010  (letters).  (P.  C.  Y.) 

FANTAN,  a  form  of  gambling  highly  popular  among  the 
Chinese.  The  game  is  simple.  A  square  is  marked  in  the  centre 
of  an  ordinary  table,  or  a  square  piece  of  metal  is  laid  on  it, 
the  sides  being  marked  i,  2,  3  and  4.  The  banker  puts  on  the 
table  a  double  handful  of  small  coins — in  China  "  cash  " — or 
similar  articles,  which  he  covers  with  a  metal  bowl.  The  players 
bet  on  the  numbers,  setting  their  stakes  on  the  side  of  the  square 
which  bears  the  number  selected.  When  all  have  staked,  the 
bowl  is  removed,  and  the  banker  or  croupier  with  a  small  stick 
removes  coins  from  the  heap,  four  at  a  time,  till  the  final  batch 
is  reached.  If  it  contains  four  coins,  the  backer  of  No.  4  wins; 
if  three,  the  backer  of  No.  3  wins,  and  so  on.  Twenty-five  per 
cent  is  deducted  from  the  stake  by  the  banker,  and  the  winner 
receives  five  times  the  amount  of  his  stake  thus  reduced.  In 
Macao,  the  Monte  Carlo  of  China,  play  goes  on  day  and  night, 
every  day  of  the  week,  and  bets  can  be  made  from  5  cents  to 
500  dollars,  which  are  the  limits. 

Fantan  is  also  the  name  of  a  card  game,  played  with  an 
ordinary  pack,  by  any  number  of  players  up  to  eight.  The 
deal  decided,  the  cards  are  dealt  singly,  any  that  are  left  over 
forming  a  stock,  and  being  placed  face  downwards  on  the  table. 
Each  player  contributes  a  fixed  stake  or  "  ante."  The  first 
player  can  enter  if  he  has  an  ace;  if  he  has  not  he  pays  an  "  ante  " 
and  takes  a  card  from  the  stock;  the  second  player  is  then 
called  upon  and  acts  similarly  till  an  ace  is  played.  This  (and 
the  other  aces  when  played)  is  put  face  upwards  on  the  table, 
and  the  piles  are  built  up  from  the  ace  to  the  king.  The  pool 
goes  to  the  player  who  first  gets  rid  of  all  his  cards.  If  a  player 
fails  to  play,  having  a  playable  card,  he  is  fined  the  amount 
of  the  ante  for  every  card  in  the  other  players'  hands. 

FANTASIA  (Italian  for  "  fantasy,"  a  causing  to  be  seen, 
from  Greek,  </><HWC,  to  show),  a  name  in  music  sometimes  loosely 
used  for  a  composition  which  has  little  structural  form,  and 
appears  to  be  an  improvization;  and  also  for  a  combination  or 
medley  of  familiar  airs  connected  together  with  original  passages 
of  more  or  less  brilliance.  The  word,  however,  was  originally 
applied  to  more  formal  compositions,  based  on  the  madrigal, 
for  several  instruments.  Fantasias  appear  as  distinct  com- 
positions in  Bach's  works,  and  also  joined  to  a  fugue,  as  iri  the 
"  Great  Fantasia  and  Fugue  "  in  A  minor,  and  the  "  Fantasia 
cromatica  "  in  D  minor.  Brahms  used  the  name  for  his  shorter 
piano  pieces.  It  is  also  applied  to  orchestral  compositions  "  not 
long  enough  to  be  called  symphonic  poems  and  not  formal 
enough  to  be  called  overtures  "  (Sir  C.  Hubert  Parry,  in  Grove's 
Dictionary  of  Music,  ed.  1906).  The  Italian  word  is  still  used  in 
Tunis,  Algeria  and  Morocco,  with  the  meaning  of  "  showing 
off,"  for  an  acrobatic  exhibition  of  horsemanship  by  the  Arabs. 


The  riders  fire  their  guns,  throw  them  and  their  lances  into  the 
air,  and  catch  them  again,  standing  or  kneeling  in  the  saddle, 
all  at  a  full  gallop. 

FANTI,  MANFREDO  (1806-1865),  Italian  general,  was  born 
at  Carpi  and  educated  at  the  military  college  of  Modena.  In 
1831  he  was  implicated  in  the  revolutionary  movement  organized 
by  Giro  Menotti  (see  FRANCIS  IV.,  of  Modena),  and  was  con- 
demned to  death  and  hanged  in  effigy,  but  escaped  to  France, 
where  he  was  given  an  appointment  in  the  French  corps  of 
engineers.  In  1833  he  took  part  in  Mazzini's  abortive  attempt 
to  invade  Savoy,  and  in  1835  he  went  to  Spain  to  serve  in  Queen 
Christina's  army  against  the  Carlists.  There  he  remained  for 
thirteen  years,  distinguishing  himself  in  battle  and  rising  to  a 
high  staff  appointment.  But  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  between 
Piedmont  and  Austria  in  1848  he  hurried  back  to  Italy,  and 
although  at  first  his  services  were  rejected  both  by  the  Pied- 
montese  government  and  the  Lombard  provisional  government, 
he  was  afterwards  given  the  command  of  a  Lombard  brigade. 
In  the  general  confusion  following  on  Charles  Albert's  defeat 
on  the  Mincio  and  his  retreat  to  Milan,  where  the  people  rose 
against  the  unhappy  king,  Fanti's  courage  and  tact  saved  the 
situation.  He  was  elected  member  of  the  Piedmontese  chamber 
in  1849,  and  on  the  renewal  of  the  campaign  he  again  commanded 
a  Lombard  brigade  under  General  Ramorino.  After  the  Pied- 
montese defeat  at  Novara  (23rd  of  March)  peace  was  made, 
but  a  rising  broke  out  at  Genoa,  and  Fanti  with  great  difficulty 
restrained  his  Lombards  from  taking  part  in  it.  But  he  was 
suspected  as  a  Mazzinian  and  a  soldier  of  fortune  by  the  higher 
Piedmontese  officers,  and  they  insisted  on  his  being  court- 
martialled  for  his  operations  under  Ramorino  (who  had  been 
jtried  and  shot).  Although  honourably  acquitted,  he  was  not 
employed  again  until  the  Crimean  expedition  of  1855.  In  the 
second  Austrian  war  in  1859  Fanti  commanded  the  and  division, 
and  contributed  to  the  victories  of  Palestro,  Magenta  and  San 
Martino.  After  the  peace  of  Villafranca  he  was  sent  to  organize 
the  army  of  the  Central  Italian  League  (composed  of  the  pro- 
visional governments  of  Tuscany,  Modena,  Parma  and  Romagna) , 
and  converted  it  in  a  few  months  into  a  well-drilled  body  of 
45,000  men,  whose  function  was  to  be  ready  to  intervene  in  the 
papal  states  on  the  outbreak  of  a  revolution.  He  showed 
statesmanlike  qualities  in  steering  a  clear  course  between 
the  exaggerated  prudence  of  Baron  Ricasoli,  who  wished  to 
recall  the  troops  from  the  frontier,  and  the  impetuosity  of 
Garibaldi,  his  second-in-command,  who  was  anxious  to  invade 
Romagna  prematurely,  even  at  the  risk  of  Austrian  intervention. 
Fanti's  firmness  led  to  Garibaldi's  resignation.  In  January 
1860  Fanti  became  minister  of  war  and  marine  under  Cavour, 
and  incorporated  the  League's  army  in  that  of  Piedmont.  In 
the  meanwhile  Garibaldi  had  invaded  Sicily  with  his  Thousand, 
and  King  Victor  Emmanuel  decided  at  last  that  he  too  must 
intervene;  Fanti  was  given  the  chief  command  of  a  strong 
Italian  force  which  invaded  the  papal  states,  seized  Ancona 
and  other  fortresses,  and  defeated  the  papal  army  at  Castel- 
fidardo,  where  the  enemy's  commander,  General  Lamoriciere, 
was  captured.  In  three  weeks  Fanti  had  conquered  the  Marche 
and  Umbria  and  taken  28,000  prisoners.  When  the  army  entered 
Neapolitan  territory  the  king  took  the  chief  command,  with 
Fanti  as  chief  of  the  staff.  After  defeating  a  large  Neapolitan 
force  at  Mola  and  organizing  the  siege  operations  round  Gaeta, 
Fanti  returned  to  the  war  office  at  Turin  to  carry  out  important 
army  reforms.  His  attitude  in  opposing  the  admission  of 
Garibaldi's  7000  officers  into  the  regular  army  with  their  own 
grades  made  him  the  object  of  great  unpopularity  for  a  time, 
and  led  to  a  severe  reprimand  from  Cavour.  On  the  death  of 
the  latter  (7th  of  June  1861)  he  resigned  office  and  took  command 
of  the  VII.  army  corps.  But  his  health  had  now  broken  down, 
and  after  four  years'  suffering  he  died  in  Florence  on  the  5th  of 
April  1865.  His  lose  was  greatly  felt  in  the  war  of  1866. 

See  Carandini,  Vita  di  M.  Fanti  (Verona,    1872) ;  A.  Di  Giorgio, 
II  Generate  M.  Fanti  (Florence,  1906).  (L.V.*) 

FANTI,  a  nation  of  Negroes,  inhabiting  part  of  the  seaboard 
of  the  Gold  Coast  colony,  British  West  Africa,  and  about  20^000 


172 


FANTIN-LATOUR— FARABI 


sq.  m.  of  the  interior.  They  number  about  a  million.  They  have 
many  traditions  of  early  migrations.  It  seems  probable  that  the 
Fanti  and  Ashanti  were  originally  one  race,  driven  from  the 
north-east  towards  the  sea  by  more  powerful  races,  possibly  the 
ancestors  of  Fula  and  Hausa.  There  are  many  words  in  Fanti 
for  plants  and  animals  not  now  existing  in  the  country,  but 
which  abound  in  the  Gurunsi  and  Moshi  countries  farther  north. 
These  regions  have  been  always  haunted  by  slave-raiders,  and 
possibly  these  latter  may  have  influenced  the  exodus.  At  any 
rate,  the  Fanti  were  early  driven  into  the  forests  from  the  open 
plains  and  slopes  of  the  hills.  The  name  Fanti,  an  English  version 
of  Mfantsi,  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  fan,  a  wild  cabbage, 
and  ti,  di  or  dz,  to  eat;  the  story  being  that  upon  the  exile  of  the 
tribe  the  only  available  food  was  some  such  plant.  They  are 
divided  into  seven  tribes,  obviously  totemic,  and  with  rules  as 
to  exogamy  still  in  force,  (i)  Kwonna,  buffalo;  (2)  Elchwi, 
leopard;  (3)  Eso,  bush-cat;  (4)  Nitchwa,  dog;  (5)  Nnuna, 
parrot;  (6)  Ebradzi,  lion;  and  (7)  Abrutu,  corn-stalk;  these 
names  are  obsolete,  though  the  meanings  are  known.  The  tribal 
marks  are  three  gashes  in  front  of  the  ear  on  each  side  in  a  line 
parallel  to  the  jaw-bone.  The  Fanti  language  has  been  associated 
by  A.  B.  Ellis  with  the  Ashanti  speech  as  the  principal  descendant 
of  an  original  language,  possibly  the  Tshi  (pronounced  Tchwi), 
which  is  generally  considered  as  the  parent  of  Ashanti,  Fanti, 
Akim,  Akwapim  and  modern  Tshi. 

The  average  Fanti  is  of  a  dull  brown  colour,  of  medium  height, 
with  negroid  features.  Some  of  the  women,  when  young,  are 
quite  pretty.  The  women  use  various  perfumes,  one  of  the  most 
usual  being  prepared  from  the  excrement  of  snakes.  There  are 
no  special  initiatory  rites  for  the  youthful  Fanti,  only  a  short 
seclusion  for  girls  when  they  reach  the  marriageable  age% 
Marriage  is  a  mere  matter  of  sale,  and  the  maidens  are  tricked 
out  in  all  the  family  finery  and  walk  round  the  village  to  indicate 
that  they  are  ready  for  husbands.  The  marriages  frequently 
end  in  divorce.  Polygamy  is  universally  practised.  The  care  of 
the  children  is  left  exclusively  to  the  mothers,  who  are  regarded 
by  the  Fanti  with  deep  veneration,  while  little  attention  is  paid 
to  the  fathers.  Wives  never  eat  with  their  husbands,  but  always 
with  the  children.  The  rightful  heir  in  native  law  is  the  eldest 
nephew,  i.e.  the  eldest  sister's  eldest  son,  who  invariably  inherits 
wives,  children  and  all  property.  As  to  tenure  of  land,  the  source 
of  ownership  of  land  is  derived  from  the  possession  of  the  chief's 
"  stool,"  which  is,  like  the  throne  of  a  king,  the  symbol  of 
authority,  and  not  even  the  chief  can  alienate  the  land  from  the 
stool.  Females  may  succeed  to  property,  but  generally  only 
when  the. acquisition  of  such  property  is  the  result  of  their 
succeeding  to  the  stool  of  a  chief.  The  Fanti  are  not  permanent 
cultivators  of  the  soil.  Three  or  at  most  five  years  will  cover 
the  period  during  which  land  is  continuously  cultivated.  The 
commonest  native  dishes  are  palm-oil  chop,  a  bowl  of  palm  oil, 
produced  by  boiling  freshly  ground  palm  nuts,  in  which  a  fowl 
or  fish  is  then  cooked;  and  fufu,  "  white,"  a  boiled  mash  of 
yams  or  plantains.  The  Fanti  have  a  taste  for  shark-flesh, 
called  locally  "  stink-fish."  It  is  sliced  up  and  partly  sun-dried, 
and  is  eaten  in  a  putrid  state.  The  Fanti  are  skilful  sailors 
and  fishermen,  build  excellent  canoes,  and  are  expert  weavers. 
Pottery  and  goldsmithery  are  trades  also  followed.  Their 
religion  is  fetishism,  every  Fanti  having  his  own  "  fetish  "  or 
familiar  spirit,  but  there  is  a  belief  in  a  beneficent  Creative  Being. 
Food  is  offered  the  dead,  and  a  ceremony  of  purification  is  said 
to  be  indulged  in  at  funerals,  the  bearers  and  mourners  plunging 
into  the  sea  or  river  after  the  interment. 

See  Journal  of  Anthropological  Institute  of  Great  Britain,  vol.  26, 
pp.  128  et  seq.;  A.  B.  Ellis,  The  Tshi-speaking  Peoples  of  the  Gold 
Coast  (London,  1887). 

FANTIN-LATOUR,     IGNACE     HENRI     JEAN     THEODORE 

(1836-1904),  French  artist,  was  born  at  Grenoble  on  the  i4th  of 
January  1836.  He  studied  first  with  his  father,  a  pastel  painter, 
and  then  at  the  drawing  school  of  Lecoq  de  Boisbaudran,  and 
later  under  Couture.  He  was  the  friend  of  Ingres,  Dalacroix, 
'Corot,  Courbet  and  others.  He  exhibited  in  the  Salon  of  1861, 
and  many  of  his  more  important  canvases  appeared  on  its  walls 


in  later  years,  though  1863  found  him  with  Harpignies,  Manet, 
Legros  and  Whistler  in  the  Salon  des  Refuses.  Whistler  intro- 
duced him  to  English  artistic  circles,  and  he  lived  for  some  time 
in  England,  many  of  his  portraits  and  flower  pieces  being  in 
English  galleries.  He  died  on  the  28th  of  August  1904.  His 
portrait  groups,  arranged  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the 
Dutch  masters,  are  as  interesting  from  their  subjects  as  they  are 
from  the  artistic  point  of  view.  "  Hommaged  Delacroix  "  showed 
portraits  of  Whistler  and  Legros,  Baudelaire,  Champfleury  and 
himself;  "  Un  Atelier  a  Batignolles  "  gave  portraits  of  Monet, 
Manet,  Zola  and  Renoir,  and  is  now  in  the  Luxembourg;  "  Un 
Coin  de  table  "  presented  Verlaine,  Rimbaud,  Camille  Peladan 
and  others;  and  "  Autour  du  Piano  "  contained  portraits  of 
Chabrier,  DTndy  and  other  musicians.  His  paintings  of  flowers 
are  perfect  examples  of  the  art,  and  form  perhaps  the  most 
famous  section  of  his  work  in  England.  In  his  later  years  he 
devoted  much  attention  to  lithography,  which  had  occupied 
him  as  early  as  1862,  but  his  examples  were  then  considered  so 
revolutionary,  with  their  strong  lights  and  black  shadows,  that 
the  printer  refused  to  execute  them.  After  "  L' Anniversaire  " 
in  honour  of  Berlioz  in  the  Salon  of  1876,  he  regularly  exhibited 
lithographs,  some  of  which  were  excellent  examples  of  delicate 
portraiture,  others  being  elusive  and  imaginative  drawings 
illustrative  of  the  music  of  Wagner  (whose  cause  he  championed 
in  Paris  as  early  as  1864),  Berlioz,  Brahms  and  other  composers. 
He  illustrated  Adolphe  Jullien's  Wagner  (1886)  and  Berlioz 
(1888).  There  are  excellent  collections  of  his  lithographic  work 
at  Dresden,  in  the  British  Museum,  and  a  practically  complete 
set  given  by  his  widow  to  the  Louvre.  Some  were  also  exhibited 
at  South  Kensington  in  1898-1899,  and  at  the  Dutch  gallery 
in  1904. 

A  catalogue  of  the  lithographs  of  Fantin-Latour  was  drawn  up 
by  Germain  Hediard  in  Les  Mattres  de  la  lithographic  (1898-1899). 
A  volume  of  reproductions,  in  a  limited  edition,  was  published 
(Paris,  1907)  as  L'(Euvre  lithographique  de  Fantin-Latour.  See  A. 
Jullien,  Fantin-Latour,  sa  vie  et  ses  amities  (Paris,  1909). 

FANUM  FORTUNAE  (mod.  Fano),  an  ancient  town  of  Umbria, 
Italy,  at  the  point  where  the  Via  Flaminia  reaches  the  N.E. 
coast  of  Italy.  Its  name  shows  that  it  was  of  Roman  origin, 
but  of  its  foundation  we  know  nothing.  It  is  first  mentioned, 
with  Pisaurum  and  Ancona,  as  held  by  Julius  Caesar  in  49  B.C. 
Augustus  planted  a  colony  there,  and  round  it  constructed  a 
wall  (of  which  some  remains  exist),  as  is  recorded  in  the  inscrip- 
tion on  the  triple  arch  erected  in  his  honour  at  the  entrance  to 
the  town  (A.D.  o/-io),  which  is  still  standing.  Vitruvius  tells 
us  that  there  was,  during  Augustus's  lifetime,  a  temple  in  his 
honour  and  a  temple  of  Jupiter,  and  describes  a  basilica  of  which 
he  himself  was  the  architect.  The  arch  of  Augustus  bears  a 
subsequent  inscription  in  honour  of  Constantine,  added  after 
his  death  by  L.  Turcius  Secundus,  corrector  Flaminiae  et  Piceni, 
who  also  constructed  a  colonnade  above  the  arch.  Several 
Roman  statues  and  heads,  attributable  to  members  of  the  Julio- 
Claudian  dynasty,  were  found  in  the  convent  of  S.  Filippo  in 
1899.  These  and  other  objects  are  now  in  the  municipal  museum 
(E.  Brizio  in  Notizie  degli  scavi,  1899,  249  seq.).  Of  the  temple 
of  Fortune  from  which  the  town  took  its  name  no  traces  have 
been  discovered.  (T.  As.) 

FAN  VAULT,  in  architecture,  a  method  of  vaulting  used  in  the 
Perpendicular  style,  of  which  the  earliest  example  is  found  in 
the  cloisters  of  Gloucester  cathedral,  built  towards  the  close  of 
the  1 4th  century.  The  ribs  are  all  of  one  curve  and  equidistant, 
and  their  divergency,  resembling  that  of  an  open  fan,  has 
suggested  the  name.  One  of  the  finest  examples,  though  of  later 
date  (1640),  is  the  vault  over  the  staircase  of  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  For  the  origin  of  its  development  see  VAULT. 

FARABI  [Abu  Nasr  Muhammad  ibn  Tarkhan  ul-Farabi]  (ca. 
870-950),  Arabian  philosopher,  was  born  of  Turkish  stock  at 
Farab  in  Turkestan,  where  also  he  spent  his  youth.  Thence  he 
journeyed  to  Bagdad,  where  he  learned  Arabic  and  gave  himself 
to  the  study  of  mathematics,  medicine  and  philosophy,  especially 
the  works  of  Aristotle.  Later  he  went  to  the  court  of  the 
Hamdanid  Saif  addaula,  from  whom  he  received  a  warm  welcome 
and  a  small  pension.  Here  he  lived  a  quiet  if  not  an  ascetic  life. 


FARADAY 


He  died  in  Damascus,  whither  he  had  gone  with  his  patron. 
His  works  are  very  clear  in  style,  though  aphoristic  rather  than 
systematic  in  the  treatment  of  subjects.  Unfortunately  the 
success  of  Avicenna  seems  to  have  led  to  the  neglect  of  much 
of  his  work.  In  Europe  his  compendium  of  Aristotle's  Rhetoric 
was  published  at  Venice,  1484.  Two  of  his  smaller  works  appear 
in  Alpharabii  opera  omnia  (Paris,  1638),  and  two  are  translated 
in  F.  A.  Schmolders'  Documenta  philosophiae  Arabum  (Bonn, 
1836).  More  recently  Fr.  Dieterici  has  published  at  Leiden: 
Alfarabi's  philosophische  Abhandlungen  (1890;  German  trans. 
1892);  Alfarabi's  Abhandlung  des  Muslerstaats  (1895;  German 
trans,  with  an  essay  "  Uber  den  Zusammenhang  der  arabischen 
und  griechischen  Philosophic,"  190x3);  Die  Staatsleitung  von 
Alfarabi  in  German,  with  an  essay  on  "  Das  Wesen  der  arabischen 
Philosophic  "  (1904). 

For  Farabi's  life  see  McG.  de  Slane's  translation  of  Ibn  Khallikan 
(vol.  3,  pp.  307  ff.) ;  and  for  further  information  as  to  his  works 
M.  Steinschneider's  article  in  the  Memoires  de  V Academic  (St  Peters- 
burg, serie  7,  torn.  13,  No.  4,  1869);  and  C.  Brockelmann's  Gesch. 
der  arab.  Litteratur,  vol.  i.  (Weimar,  1 898) ,  pp.  210-213.  (G.  W.  T.) 

FARADAY,  MICHAEL  (1791-1867),  English  chemist  and 
physicist,  was  born  at  Newington,  Surrey,  on  the  22nd  of  Sep- 
tember 1791.  His  parents  had  migrated  from  Yorkshire  to 
London,  where  his  father  worked  as  a  blacksmith.  Faraday  him- 
self became  apprenticed  to  a  bookbinder.  The  letters  written 
to  his  friend  Benjamin  Abbott  at  this  time  give  a  lucid  account 
of  his  aims  in  life,  and  of  his  methods  of  self-culture,  when  his 
mind  was  beginning  to  turn  to  the  experimental  study  of  nature. 
In  1812  Mr  Dance,  a  customer  of  his  master,  took  him  to  hear 
four  lectures  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy.  Faraday  took  notes  of 
these  lectures,  and  afterwards  wrote  them  out  in  a  fuller  form. 
Under  the  encouragement  of  Mr  Dance,  he  wrote  to  Sir  H.  Davy, 
enclosing  these  notes.  "  The  reply  was  immediate,  kind  and 
favourable."  He  continued  to  work  as  a  journeyman  bookbinder 
till  the  ist  of  March  1813,  when  he  was  appointed  assistant  in 
the  laboratory  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain  on  the 
recommendation  of  Davy,  whom  he  accompanied  on  a  tour 
through  France,  Italy  and  Switzerland  from  October  1813  to 
April  1815.  He  was  appointed  director  of  the  laboratory  in 
1825;  and  in  1833  he  was  appointed  Fullerian  professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  institution  for  life,  without  the  obligation  to 
deliver  lectures.  He  thus  remained  in  the  institution  for  fifty- 
four  years.  He  died  at  Hampton  Court  on  the  2$th  of  August 
1867. 

Faraday's  earliest  chemical  work  was  in  the  paths  opened  by 
Davy,  to  whom  he  acted  as  assistant.  He  made  a  special  study 
of  chlorine,  and  discovered  two  new  chlorides  of  carbon.  He 
also  made  the  first  rough  experiments  on  the  diffusion  of  gases, 
a  phenomenon  first  pointed  out  by  John  Dalton,  the  physical 
importance  of  which  was  more  fully  brought  to  light  by  Thomas 
Graham  and  Joseph  Loschmidt.  He  succeeded  in  liquefying 
several  gases;  he  investigated  the  alloys  of  steel,  and  produced 
several  new  kinds  of  glass  intended  for  optical  purposes.  A 
specimen  of  one  of  these  heavy  glasses  afterwards  became 
historically  important  as  the  substance  in  which  Faraday 
detected  the  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarization  of  light  when  the 
glass  was  placed  in  the  magnetic  field,  and  also  as  the  substance 
which  was  first  repelled  by  the  poles  of  the  magnet.  He  also 
endeavoured  with  some  success  to  make  the  general  methods 
of  chemistry,  as  distinguished  from  its  results,  the  subject  of 
special  study  and  of  popular  exposition.  See  his  work  on 
Chemical  Manipulation. 

But  Faraday's  chemical  work,  however  important  in  itself, 
was  soon  completely  overshadowed  by  his  electrical  discoveries. 
The  first  experiment  which  he  has  recorded  was  the  construction 
of  a  voltaic  pile  with  seven  halfpence,  seven  disks  of  sheet  zinc, 
and  six  pieces  of  paper  moistened  with  salt  water.  With  this 
pile  he  decomposed  sulphate  of  magnesia  (first  letter  to  Abbott, 
July  12,  1812).  Henceforward,  whatever  other  subjects  might 
from  time  to  time  claim  his  attention,  it  was  from  among  electrical 
phenomena  that  he  selected  those  problems  to  which  he  applied 
.the  full  force  of  his  mind,  and  which  he  kept  persistently  in  view, 


even  when  year  after  year  his  attempts  to  solve  them  had  been 
baffled. 

His  first  notable  discovery  was  the  production  of  the  con- 
tinuous rotation  of  magnets  and  of  wires  conducting  the  electric 
current  round  each  other.  The  consequences  deducible  from 
the  great  discovery  of  H.  C.  Oersted  (2ist  July  1820)  were  still 
in  1821  apprehended  in  a  somewhat  confused  manner  even  by 
the  foremost  men  of  science.  Dr  W.  H.  Wollaston  indeed  had 
formed  the  expectation  that  he  could  make  the  conducting  wire 
rotate  on  its  own  axis,  and  in  April  1821  he  came  with  Sir  H. 
Davy  to  the  laboratory  of  the  Royal  Institution  to  make  an 
experiment.  Faraday  was  not  there  at  the  time,  but  coming  in 
afterwards  he  heard  the  conversation  on  the  expected  rotation 
of  the  wire. 

In  July,  August  and  September  of  that  year  Faraday,  at  the 
request  of  R.  Phillips,  the  editor  of  the  Annals  of  Philosophy, 
wrote  for  that  journal  an  historical  sketch  of  electro-magnetism, 
and  he  repeated  almost  all  the  experiments  he  described.  This 
led  him  in  the  beginning  of  September  to  discover  the  method 
of  producing  the  continuous  rotation  of  the  wire  round  the 
magnet,  and  of  the  magnet  round  the  wire.  He  did  not  succeed 
in  making  the  wire  or  the  magnet  revolve  on  its  own  axis.  This 
first  success  of  Faraday  in  electro-magnetic  research  became  the 
occasion  of  the  most  painful,  though  unfounded,  imputations 
against  his  honour.  Into  these  we  shall  not  enter,  referring  the 
reader  to  the  Life  of  Faraday,  by  Dr  Bence  Jones. 

We  may  remark,  however,  that  although  the  fact  of  the  tan- 
gential force  between  an  electric  current  and  a  magnetic  pole 
was  clearly  stated  by  Oersted,  and  clearly  apprehended  by 
A.  M.  Ampere,  Wollaston  and  others,  the  realization  of  the 
continuous  rotation  of  the  wire  and  the  magnet  round  each  other 
was  a  scientific  puzzle  requiring  no  mean  ingenuity  for  its  original 
solution.  For  on  the  one  hand  the  electric  current  always  forms 
a  closed  circuit,  and  on  the  other  the  two  poles  of  the  magnet  have 
equal  but  opposite  properties,  and  are  inseparably  connected, 
so  that  whatever  tendency  there  is  for  one  pole  to  circulate 
round  the  current  in  one  direction  is  opposed  by  the  equal 
tendency  of  the  other  pole  to  go  round  the  other  way,  and  thus 
the  one  pole  can  neither  drag  the  other  round  and  round  the  wire 
nor  yet  leave  it  behind.  The  thing  cannot  be  done  unless  we 
adopt  in  some  form  Faraday's  ingenious  solution,  by  causing 
the  current,  in  some  part  of  its  course,  to  divide  into  two  channels, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  magnet,  in  such  a  way  that  during  the 
revolution  of  the  magnet  the  current  is  transferred  from  the 
channel  in  front  of  the  magnet  to  the  channel  behind  it,  so  that 
the  middle  of  the  magnet  can  pass  across  the  current  without 
stopping  it,  just  as  Cyrus  caused  his  army  to  pass  dryshod  over 
the  Gyndes  by  diverting  the  river  into  a  channel  cut  for  it  in 
his  rear. 

We  must  now  go  on  to  the  crowning  discovery  of  the  induction 
of  electric  currents. 

In  December  1824  he  had  attempted  to  obtain  an  electric 
current  by  means  of  a  magnet,  and  on  three  occasions  he  had 
made  elaborate  but  unsuccessful  attempts  to  produce  a  current 
in  one  wire  by  means  of  a  current  in  another  wire  or  by  a  magnet. 
He  still  persevered,  and  on  the  2gth  of  August  1831  he  obtained 
the  first  evidence  that  an  electric  current  can  induce  another 
in  a  different  circuit.  On  the  23rd  of  September  he  writes  to 
his  friend  R.  Phillips:  "  I  am  busy  just  now  again  on  electro- 
magnetism,  and  think  I  have  got  hold  of  a  good  thing,  but  can't 
say.  It  may  be  a  weed  instead  of  a  fish  that,  after  all  my  labour, 
I  may  at  last  pull  up."  This  was  his  first  successful  experiment. 
In  nine  more  days  of  experimenting  he  had  arrived  at  the  results 
described  in  his  first  series  of  "  Experimental  Researches  "  read 
to  the  Royal  Society  on  the  24th  of  November  1841.  By  the 
intense  application  of  his  mind  he  had  thus  brought  the  new 
idea,  in  less  than  three  months  from  its  first  development,  to  a 
state  of  perfect  maturity. 

During  his  first  period  of  discovery,  besides  the  induction  of 
electric  currents,  Faraday  established  the  identity  of  the  electri- 
fication produced  in  different  ways;  the  law  of  the  definite 
electrolytic  action  of  the  current;  and  the  fact,  upon  which  he 


FARADAY 


laid  great  stress,  that  every  unit  of  positive  electrification  is 
related  in  a  definite  manner  to  a  unit  of  negative  electrification 
so  that  it  is  impossible  to  produce  what  Faraday  called  "  an 
absolute  charge  of  electricity  "  of  one  kind  not  related  to  an 
equal  charge  of  the  opposite  kind.  He  also  discovered  the 
difference  of  the  capacities  of  different  substances  for  taking 
part  in  electric  induction.  Henry  Cavendish  had  before  1773 
discovered  that  glass,  wax,  rosin  and  shellac  have  higher  specific 
inductive  capacities  than  air,  and  had  actually  determined  the 
numerical  ratios  of  these  capacities,  but  this  was  unknown  both 
to  Faraday  and  to  all  other  electricians  of  his  time,  since  Caven- 
dish's Electrical  Researches  remained  unpublished  till  1879. 

The  first  period  of  Faraday's  electrical  discoveries  lasted  ten 
years.  In  1841  he  found  that  he  required  rest,  and  it  was  not  til] 
1845  that  he  entered  on  his  second  great  period  of  research,  in 
which  he  discovered  the  effect  of  magnetism  on  polarized  light, 
and  the  phenomena  of  diamagnetism. 

Faraday  had  for  a  long  time  kept  in  view  the  possibility  of 
using  a  ray  of  polarized  light  as  a  means  of  investigating  the 
condition  of  transparent  bodies  when  acted  on  by  electric  and 
magnetic  forces.  Dr  Bence  Jones  (Life  of  Faraday,  vol.  i.  p.  362) 
gives  the  following  note  from  his  laboratory  book  on  the  loth  of 
September  1822 : — 

"  Polarized  a  ray  of  lamplight  by  reflection,  and  endeavoured  to 
ascertain  whether  any  depolarizing  action  (was)  exerted  on  it  by 
water  placed  between  the  poles  of  a  voltaic  battery  in  a  glass  cistern ; 
one  Wollaston's  trough  used;  the  fluids  decomposed  were  pure 
water,  weak  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda,  and  strong  sulphuric  acid ; 
none  of  them  had  any  effect  on  the  polarized  light,  either  when 
out  of  or  in  the  voltaic  circuit,  so  that  no  particular  arrangement 
of  particles  could  be  ascertained  in  this  way." 

Eleven  years  afterwards  we  find  another  entry  in  his  notebook 
on  the  2nd  of  May  1833  (Life,  by  Dr  Bence  Jones,  vol.  ii.  p.  29). 
He  then  tried  not  only  the  effect  of  a  steady  current,  but  the 
effect  on  making  and  breaking  contact. 

"  I  do  not  think,  therefore,  that  decomposing  solutions  or  sub- 
stances will  be  found  to  have  (as  a  consequence  of  decomposition  or 
arrangement  for  the  time)  any  effect  on  the  polarized  ray.  Should 
now  try  non-decomposing  bodies,  as  solid  nitre,  nitrate  of  silver, 
borax,  glass,  &c.,  whilst  solid,  to  see  if  any  internal  state  induced, 
which  by  decomposition  is  destroyed,  i.e.  whether,  when  they  can- 
not decompose,  any  state  of  electrical  tension  is  present.  My  borate 
of  glass  good,  and  common  electricity  better  than  voltaic." 

On  the  6th  of  May  he  makes  further  experiments,  and  con- 
cludes: "  Hence  I  see  no  reason  to  expect  that  any  kind  of 
structure  or  tension  can  be  rendered  evident,  either  in  decom- 
posing or  non-decomposing  bodies,  in  insulating  or  conducting 
states." 

At  last,  in  1845,  Faraday  attacked  the  old  problem,  but  this 
time  with  complete  success.  Before  we  describe  this  result  we 
may  mention  that  in  1862  he  made  the  relation  between  magnet- 
ism and  light  the  subject  of  his  very  last  experimental  work. 
He  endeavoured,  but  in  vain,  to  detect  any  change  in  the  lines 
of  the  spectrum  of  a  flame  when  the  flame  was  acted  on  by  a 
powerful  magnet. 

This  long  series  of  researches  is  an  instance  of  his  persistence. 
His  energy  is  shown  in  the  way  in  which  he  followed  up  his 
discovery  in  the  single  instance  in  which  he  was  successful. 
The  first  evidence  which  he  obtained  of  the  rotation  of  the  plane 
of  polarization  of  light  under  the  action  of  magnetism  was  on 
the  i3th  of  September  1845,  the  transparent  substance  being 
his  own  heavy  glass.  He  began  to  work  on  the  aoth  of  August 
1845  on  polarized  light  passing  through  electrolytes.  After 
three  days  he  worked  with  common  electricity,  trying  glass, 
heavy  optical  glass,  quartz,  Iceland  spar,  all  without  effect,  as  on 
former  trials.  On  the  i3th  of  September  he  worked  with  lines 
of  magnetic  force.  Air,  flint,  glass,  rock-crystal,  calcareous  spar 
were  examined,  but  without  effect. 

"  Heavy  glass  was  experimented  with.  It  gave  no  effects  when 
the  same  magnetic  poles  or  the  contrary  poles  were  on  opposite  sides 
(as  respects  the  course  of  the  polarized  ray),  nor  when  the  same 
poles  were  on  the  same  side  either  with  the  constant  or  intermitting 
current.  But  when  contrary  magnetic  poles  were  on  the  same  side 
there  was  an  effect  produced  on  the  polarized  ray,  and  thus  magnetic 
force  and  light  were  proved  to  have  relations  to  each  other.  This 


fact  will  most  likely  prove  exceedingly  fertile,  and  of  great  value  in 
the  investigation  of  the  conditions  of  natural  force." 
^  He  immediately  goes  on  to  examine  other  substances,  but  with 
"  no  effect,"  and  he  ends  by  saying,  "  Have  got  enough  for 
to-day."  On  the  i8th  of  September  he  "  does  an  excellent  day's 
work."  During  September  he  had  four  days  of  work,  and  in 
October  six,  and  on  the  6th  of  November  he  sent  in  to  the  Royal 
Society  the  nineteenth  series  of  his  "  Experimental  Researches," 
in  which  the  whole  conditions  of  the  phenomena  are  fully  speci- 
fied. The  negative  rotation  in  ferro-magnetic  media  is  the  only 
fact  of  importance  which  remained  to  be  discovered  afterwards 
(by  M.  E.  Verdet  in  1856). 

But  his  work  for  the  year  was  not  yet  over.  On  the  3rd  of 
November  a  new  horseshoe  magnet  came  home,  and  Faraday 
immediately  began  to  experiment  on  the  action  in  the  polarized 
ray  through  gases,  but  with  no  effect.  The  following  day  he 
repeated  an  experiment  which  had  given  no  result  on  the  6th  of 
October.  A  bar  of  heavy  glass  was  suspended  by  silk  between 
the  poles  of  the  new  magnet.  "  When  it  was  arranged,  and  had 
come  to  rest,  I  found  I  could  affect  it  by  the  magnetic  forces 
and  give  it  position."  By  the  6th  of  December  he  had  sent 
in  to  the  Royal  Society  the  twentieth,  and  on  the  24th  of 
December  the  twenty-first,  series  of  his  "  Researches,"  in  which 
the  properties  of  diamagnetic  bodies  are  fully  described.  Thus- 
these  two  great  discoveries  were  elaborated,  like  his  earlier  one, 
in  about  three  months. 

The  discovery  of  the  magnetic  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarized 
light,  though  it  did  not  lead  to  such  important  practical  applica- 
tions as  some  of  Faraday's  earlier  discoveries,  has  been  of  the 
highest  value  to  science,  as  furnishing  complete  dynamical 
evidence  that  wherever  magnetic  force  exists  there  is  matter, 
small  portions  of  which  are  rotating  about  axes  parallel  to  the 
direction  of  that  force. 

We  have  given  a  few  examples  of  the  concentration  of  his 
efforts  in  seeking  to  identify  the  apparently  different  forces  of 
nature,  of  his  far-sightedness  in  selecting  subjects  for  investiga- 
tion, of  his  persistence  in  the  pursuit  of  what  he  set  before  him, 
of  his  energy  in  working  out  the  results  of  his  discoveries,  and 
of  the  accuracy  and  completeness  with  which  he  made  his  final 
statement  of  the  laws  of  the  phenomenon. 

These  characteristics  of  his  scientific  spirit  lie  on  the  surface 
of  his  work,  and  are  manifest  to  all  who  read  his  writings.  But 
there  was  another  side  of  his  character,  to  the  cultivation  of 
which  he  paid  at  least  as  much  attention,  and  which  was  reserved 
for  his  friends,  his  family  and  his  church.  His  letters  and  his 
conversation  were  always  full  of  whatever  could  awaken  a 
healthy  interest,  and  free  from  anything  that  might  rouse  ill- 
feeling.  When,  on  rare  occasions,  he  was  forced  out  of  the  region 
of  science  into  that  of  controversy,  he  stated  the  facts  and  let 
them  make  their  own  way.  He  was  entirely  free  from  pride 
and  undue  self-assertion.  During  the  growth  of  his  powers  he 
always  thankfully  accepted  a  correction,  and  made  use  of  every 
expedient,  however  humble,  which  would  make  his  work  more 
effective  in  every  detail.  When  at  length  he  found  his  memory 
failing  and  his  mental  powers  declining,  he  gave  up,  without 
ostentation  or  complaint,  whatever  parts  of  his  work  he  could 
no  longer  carry  on  according  'to  his  own  standard  of  efficiency. 
When  he  was  no  longer  able  to  apply  his  mind  to  science,  he 
remained  content  and  happy  in  the  exercise  of  those  kindly 
feelings  and  warm  affections  which  he  had  cultivated  no  less 
carefully  than  his  scientific  powers. 

The  parents  of  Faraday  belonged  to  the  very  small  and  isolated 
Jhristian  sect  which  is  commonly  called  after  Robert  Sandeman. 
Faraday  himself  attended  the  meetings  from  childhood;  at  the 
age  of  thirty  he  made  public  profession  of  his  faith,  and  during 
two  different  periods  he  discharged  the  office  of  elder.  His 
opinion  with  respect  to  the  relation  between  his  science  and  his 
religion  is  expressed  in  a  lecture  on  mental  education  delivered 
in  1854,  and  printed  at  the  end  of  his  Researches  in  Chemistry 
and  Physics. 

"  Before  entering  upon  the  subject,  I  must  make  one  distinction 
which,  however  it  may  appear  to  others,  is  to  me  of  the  utmost 
mportance.  High  as  man  is  placed  above  the  creatures  around 


FARAH— FAREHAM 


175 


him,  there  is  a  higher  and  far  more  exalted  position  within  his 
view;  and  the  ways  are  infinite  in  which  he  occupies  his  thoughts 
about  the  fears,  or  hopes,  or  expectations  of  a  future  life.  I  believe 
that  the  truth  of  that  future  cannot  be  brought  to  his  knowledge 
by  any  exertion  of  his  mental  powers,  however  exalted  they  may 
be;  that  it  is  made  known  to  him  by  other  teaching  than  his  own, 
and  is  received  through  simple  belief  of  the  testimony  given.  Let 
no  one  suppose  for  an  instant  that  the  self-education  I  am  about  to 
commend,  in  respect  of  the  things  of  this  life,  extends  to  any  con- 
siderations of  the  hope  set  before  us,  as  if  man  by  reasoning  could 
find  out  God.  It  would  be  improper  here  to  enter  upon  this  sub- 
ject further  than  to  claim  an  absolute  distinction  between  religious 
and  ordinary  belief.  I  shall  be  reproached  with  the  weakness  of 
refusing  to  apply  those  mental  operations  which  I  think  good  in 
respect  of  high  things  to  the  very  highest.  I  am  content  to  bear 
the  reproach.  Yet  even  in  earthly  matters  I  believe  that  '  the  in- 
visible things  of  Him  from  the  creation  of  the  world  are  clearly 
seen,  being  understood  by  the  things  that  are  made,  even  His 
eternal  power  and  Godhead';  and  I  have  never  seen  anything 
incompatible  between  those  things  of  man  which  can  be  known  by 
the  spirit  of  man  which  is  within  him  and  those  higher  things  con- 
cerning his  future,  which  he  cannot  know  by  that  spirit." 

Faraday  gives  the  following  note  as  to  this  lecture: — 
"  These  observations  were  delivered  as  a  lecture  before  His  Royal 
Highness  the  Prince  Consort  and  the  members  of  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution on  the  6th  of  May  1854.  They  are  so  immediately  connected 
in  their  nature  and  origin  witn  my  own  experimental  life,  considered 
either  as  cause  or  consequence,  that  I  have  thought  the  close  of 
this  volume  not  an  unfit  place  for  their  reproduction." 

As  Dr  Bence  Jones  concludes — 

"  His  standard  of  duty  was  supernatural.  It  was  not  founded  on 
any  intuitive  ideas  of  right  and  wrong,  nor  was  it  fashioned  upon 
any  outward  experiences  of  time  and  place,  but  it  was  formed 
entirely  on  what  he  held  to  be  the  revelation  of  the  will  of  God  in 
the  written  word,  and  throughout  all  his  life  his  faith  led  him  to 
act  up  to  the  very  letter  of  it." 

Published  Works. — Chemical  Manipulation,  being  Instructions  to 
Students  in  Chemistry  (i  vol.,  John  Murray,  1st  ed.  1827,  and  1830, 
3rd  1842);  Experimental  Researches  in  Electricity,  vols.  i.  and  ii., 
Richard  and  John  Edward  Taylor,  vols.  i.  and  ii.  (1844  and  1847) ; 
vol.  iii.  (1844) ;  vol.  iii.  Richard  Taylor  and  William  Francis  (1855) ; 
Experimental  Researches  in  Chemistry  and  Physics,  Taylor  and 
Francis  (1859) ;  Lectures  on  the  Chemical  History  of  a  Candle  (edited 
by  W.  Crookes)  (Griffin,  Bohn  &  Co.,  1861);  On  the  Various  Forces 
in  Nature  (edited  by  W.  Crookes)  (Chatto  &  Windus,  no  date). 

BIOGRAPHIES. — Faraday  as  a  Discoverer,  by  John  Tyndall  (Long- 
mans, 1st  ed.  1868,  2nd  ed.  1870) ;  The  Life  and  Letters  o/  Faraday, 
by  Dr  Bence  Jones,  secretary  of  the  Royal  Institution,  in  2  vols. 
(Longmans,  1870);  Michael  Faraday,  by  J.  H.  Gladstone,  Ph.D., 
(Macmillan,  1872);  Michael  Faraday;  his  Life  and  Work, 


F.R. 

by  S.  P.  Thompson  (1898). 


G-  C.  M.) 


FARAH,  a  river  of  Afghanistan.  It  rises  in  the  southern 
slopes  of  Siah-Koh,  which  forms  the  southern  wall  of  the  valley 
of  Herat,  and  after  a  south-westerly  course  of  about  200  m.  falls 
into  the  Seistan  Hamun.  At  the  town  of  Farah  it  has  a  width 
of  1 50  yds.  in  the  dry  season  with  2  ft.  of  water  and  a  clear  swift 
stream.  It  is  liable  to  floods,  when  it  becomes  impassable  for 
weeks.  The  lower  valley  of  the  Farah  Rud  is  fertile  and  well 
cultivated. 

FARAH,  a  town  of  Afghanistan.  It  is  situated  on  the  river 
that  bears  its  name  on  the  main  road  between  Herat  and 
Kandahar,  160  m.  S.  of  Herat  and  225  m.  W.  of  Kandahar. 
It  is  a  place  of  some  strategical  importance,  as  it  commands  the 
approaches  to  India  and  Seistan  from  Herat.  The  town  (2460  ft. 
above  sea-level)  is  a  square  walled  enclosure  standing  in  the 
middle  of  the  plain,  surrounded  with  a  walled  rampart.  Owing 
to  its  unhealthiness  it  is  now  almost  deserted,  being  only  occupied 
by  the  Afghan  regiment  quartered  there.  It  is  a  place  of  great 
antiquity,  being  probably  the  Phra  mentioned  by  Isidore  of 
Charax  in  the  ist  century  A.D.  It  was  sacked  by  the  armies  of 
Jenghiz  Khan,  and  the  survivors  transported  to  a  position 
farther  north,  where  there  are  still  great  ruins.  The  population 
returned  to  the  original  site  after  the  destruction  of  the  medieval 
city  by  Shah  Abbas,  and  the  city  prospered  again  until  its  bloody 
siege  by  Nadir  Shah.  Subsequently  under  constant  attacks  it 
declined,  and  in  1837  the  population  amounting  to  6000  was 
carried  off  to  Kandahar.  The  sole  industry  of  the  town  at 
present  is  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  In  the  districts  east 
of  Farah  are  to  be  found  the  most  fanatical  of  the  Durani  Afghan 
tribes. 


FARAZDAQ  [Hammam  ibn  Ghalib  ibn  Sa'sa',  known  as 
al-Farazdaq]  (ca.  64i-c<z.  728),  Arabian  poet,  was  born  at  Basra. 
He  was  of  the  Darim,  one  of  the  most  respected  divisions  of 
the  bani  Tamlm,  and  his  mother  was  of  the  tribe  of  Dabba. 
His  grandfather  Sa'sa'  was  a  Bedouin  of  great  repute,  his  father 
Ghalib  followed  the  same  manner  of  life  until  Basra  was  founded, 
and  was  famous  for  his  generosity  and  hospitality.  At  the  age 
of  fifteen  Farazdaq  was  known  as  a  poet,  and  though  checked  for 
a  short  time  by  the  advice  of  the  caliph  Ali  to  devote  his  attention 
to  the  study  of  the  Koran,  he  soon  returned  to  making  verse. 
In  the  true  Bedouin  spirit  he  devoted  his  talent  largely  to  satire 
and  attacked  the  bani  Nahshal  and  the  bani  Fuqaim.  When 
Ziyad,  a  member  of  the  latter  tribe,  became  governor  of  Basra, 
the  poet  was  compelled  to  flee,  first  to  Kufa,  and  then,  as  he 
was  still  too  near  Ziyad,  to  Medina,  where  he  was  well  received 
by  Sa'ld  ibn  ul-AsI.  Here  he  remained  about  ten  years,  writing 
satires  on  Bedouin  tribes,  but  avoiding  city  politics.  But  he 
lived  a  prodigal  life,  and  his  amorous  verses  led  to  his  expulsion 
by  the  caliph  Merwan  I.  Just  at  that  time  he  learned  of  the 
death  of  Ziyad  and  returned  to  Basra,  where  he  secured  the 
favour  of  Ziyad's  successor  'Obaidallah  ibn  Ziyad.  Much  of  his 
poetry  was  now  devoted  to  his  matrimonial  affairs.  He  had 
taken  advantage  of  his  position  as  guardian  and  married  his 
cousin  Nawar  against  her  will.  She  sought  help  in  vain  from 
the  court  of  Basra  and  from  various  tribes.  All  feared  the  poet's 
satires.  At  last  she  fled  to  Mecca  and  appealed  to  the  pretender 
"Abdallah  ibn  Zobair,  who,  however,  succeeded  in  inducing  her 
to  consent  to  a  confirmation  of  the  marriage.  Quarrels  soon 
arose  again.  Farazdaq  took  a  second  wife,  and  after  her  death 
a  third,  to  annoy  Nawar.  Finally  he  consented  to  a  divorce 
pronounced  by  Hasan  al-Basrl.  Another  subject  occasioned  a 
long  series  of  verses,  namely  his  feud  with  his  rival  Jarir  (q.v.) 
and  his  tribe  the  bani  Kulaib.  These  poems  are  published  as 
the  Naka'id  of  Jarir  and  al-Farazdaq  (ed.  A.  A.  Sevan,  Leiden, 
1906  ff.).  In  political  life  Farazdaq  was  prevented  by  fear  from 
taking  a  large  part.  He  seems,  however,  to  have  been  attached 
to  the  house  of  Ah'.  During  the  reign  of  Moawiya  I.  he  avoided 
politics,  but  later  gave  his  allegiance  to  'Abdallah  ibn  Zobair. 

The  fullest  account  of  his  life  is  contained  in  J.  Hell's  Das  Leben 
Farazdaq  nach  seinen  Gedichten  (Leipzig,  1903) ;  Arabian  stories  of 
him  in  the  Kitab  ul-Aghani  and  in  Ibn  Khallikan.  A  portion  of  his 
poems  was  edited  with  French  translation  by  R.  Boucher  (Paris, 
1870);  the  remainder  have  been  published  by  J.  Hell  (Munich, 
1900).  (G.  W.  T.) 

FARCE,  a  form  of  the  comic  in  dramatic  art,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  excite  laughter  by  ridiculous  situations  and  incidents 
rather  than  by  imitation  with  intent  to  ridicule,  which  is  the 
province  of  burlesque,  or  by  the  deh'neation  of  the  play  of 
character  upon  character,  which  is  that  of  comedy.  The  history 
of  the  word  is  interesting.  Its  ultimate  origin  is  the  Latin/oraVe, 
to  stuff,  and  with  the  meaning  of  "  stuffing  "  or  forcemeat  it 
appears  in  old  cookery  books  in  English.  In  medieval  Latin 
farsa  and  farsia  were  applied  to  the  expansion  of  the  Kyrie 
eleison  in  litanies,  &c.,  by  interpolating  words  and  phrases  be- 
tween those  two  words;  later,  to  words,  phrases  and  rhymed 
verses,  sometimes  in  the  vernacular,  also  interpolated  in  various 
parts  of  the  service.  The  French  farce,  the  form  to  which  we 
owe  our  word,  was  originally  the  "  gag  "  that  the  actors  in  the 
medieval  drama  inserted  into  their  parts,  generaUy  to  meet 
the  popular  demand  for  a  lightening  of  humour  or  buffoonery. 
It  has  thus  been  used  for  the  lighter  form  of  comic  drama  (see 
DRAMA),  and  also  figuratively  for  a  piece  of  idle  buffoonery, 
sham,  or  mockery. 

FAREHAM,  a  market  town  in  the  Fareham  parliamentary 
division  of  Hampshire,  England,  76  m.  S.W.  from  London  by  the 
London  &  South  Western  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (IQOI) 
8246.  It  lies  at  the  head  of  a  creek  opening  into  the  north- 
western corner  of  Portsmouth  harbour.  The  principal  industries 
are  the  manufacture  of  sackings,  ropes,  bricks,  coarse  earthen- 
ware, terra-cotta,  tobacco-pipes  and  leather.  Fareham  has  a 
considerable  trade  in  corn,  timber  and  coal;  the  creek  being 
accessible  to  vessels  of  300  tons.  Three  miles  E.  of  Fareham, 
on  Portsmouth  harbour,  are  the  interesting  ruins  of  Porchester 


FAREL— FAREY 


Castle,  an  extensive  walled  enclosure  retaining  its  Norman  keep, 
and  exhibiting  in  its  outer  walls  considerable  evidence  of  Roman 
workmanship;  Professor  Haverfield,  however,  denies  that  it 
occupies  the  site  of  the  Roman  Portus  Magnus.  The  church  of 
St  Mary  has  some  fine  Norman  portions.  It  belonged  to  an 
Augustinian  priory  founded  by  Henry  I.  At  Titchfield,  3  m. 
W.  of  Fareham,  are  ruins  of  the  beautiful  Tudor  mansion,  Place 
House,  built  on  the  site  of  a  Premonstratensian  abbey  of  the 
1 3th  century,  of  which  there  are  also  fragments. 

The  fact  that  Fareham  (Fernham,  Ferham)  formed  part  of 
the  original  endowment  of  the  see  of  Winchester  fixes  its  existence 
certainly  as  early  as  the  9th  century.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
Domesday  Survey  as  subject  to  a  reduced  assessment  on  account 
of  its  exposed  position  and  liability  to  Danish  attacks.  There 
is  evidence  to  show  that  Fareham  had  become  a  borough  before 
1 264,  but  no  charter  can  be  found.  It  was  a  mesne  borough  held 
of  the  bishop  of  Winchester,  but  it  is  probable  that  during  the 
1 8th  century  the  privileges  of  the  burgesses  were  allowed  to  lapse, 
as  by  1835  it  had  ceased  to  be  a  borough.  Fareham  returned  two 
members  to  the  parliament  of  1306,  but  two  years  later  it  peti- 
tioned against  representation  on  the  ground  of  expense.  A  fair 
on  the  3ist  of  October  and  the  two  following  days  was  held  under 
grant  of  Henry  III.  The  day  appears  to  have  been  afterwards 
changed  to  the  2gth  of  June,  and  in  the  i8th  century  was  mainly 
important  for  the  sale  of  toys.  It  was  abolished  in  1871.  Fare- 
ham  owed  its  importance  in  medieval  times  to  its  facilities  for 
commerce.  It  was  a  free  port  and  had  a  considerable  trade  in 
wool  and  wine.  Later  its  shipping  declined  and  in  the  i6th 
century  it  was  little  more  than  a  fishing  village.  Its  commercial 
prosperity  in  modern  times  is  due  to  its  nearness  to  Portsmouth. 

FAREL,  GUILLAUME  (1480-1565),  French  reformer,  was 
born  of  a  noble  family  near  Gap  in  Dauphinfi  in  1489.  His 
parents  meant  him  for  the  military  profession,  but  his  bent 
being  for  study  he  was  allowed  to  enter  the  university  of  Paris. 
Here  he  came  under  the  influence  of  Jacobus  Faber  (Stapulensis), 
on  whose  recommendation  he  was  appointed  professor  in  the 
college  of  Cardinal  Lemoine.  In  1521,  on  the  invitation  of 
Bishop  Briconnet,  he  repaired  to  Meaux,  and  took  part  in 
efforts  of  reform  within  the  Roman  communion.  The  persecuting 
measures  of  1523,  from  which  Faber  found  a  refuge  at  Meaux, 
determined  Farel  to  leave  France.  Oecolampadius  welcomed 
him  to  Basel,  where  in  1524  he  put  forth  thirteen  theses  sharply 
antagonizing  Roman  doctrine.  These  he  defended  with  great 
ability,  but  with  so  much  heat  that  Erasmus  joined  in  demanding 
his  expulsion  from  the  city.  He  thought  of  going  to  Wittenberg, 
but  his  first  halt  was  at  Strassburg,  where  Bucer  and  Capito 
received  him  kindly.  At  the  call  of  Duke  Ulrich  of  Wurttemberg 
he  went  as  preacher  to  Montbeliard.  Displaying  the  same 
qualities  which  had  driven  him  from  Basel,  he  was  forced  to 
leave  Montbeliard  in  the  spring  of  1525. 

He  retraced  his  steps  to  Strassburg  and  Basel;  and,  at  the  end 
of  1526,  obtained  a  preacher's  post  at  Aigle,  then  a  dependency 
of  Bern.  Deeming  it  wise  to  suppress  his  name,  he  adopted  the 
pseudonym  Ursinus,  with  reference  to  his  protection  by  Bern. 
Despite  strenuous  opposition  by  the  monastic  orders,  he  obtained 
in  1528  a  licence  from  the  authorities  to  preach  anywhere  within 
the  canton  of  Bern.  He  extended  his  labours  to  the  cantons 
of  Neuchatel  and  Vaud.  His  vehement  missionary  addresses 
were  met  by  mob  violence,  but  he  persevered  with  undaunted 
zeal.  In  October  1530  he  broke  into  the  church  of  Neuchatel 
with  an  iconoclastic  mob,  thus  planting  the  Reformation  in  that 
city.  In  1532  he  visited  the  Waldenses.  On  the  return  journey 
he  halted  at  Geneva,  then  at  a  crisis  of  political  and  religious 
strife.  On  the  3Oth  of  June  1532  the  council  of  two  hundred 
had  ordained  that  in  every  church  and  cloister  of  the  city  "  the 
pure  Gospel  "  should  be  preached;  against  this  order  the  bishop's 
vicar  led  the  opposition.  Reaching  Geneva  in  October  1532, 
Farel  (described  in  a  contemporary  monastic  chronicle  as  "  un 
ch6tif  malheureux  predicant,  nomme  maistre  Guillaume  ")  at 
once  began  to  preach  in  a  room  of  his  lodging,  and  soon  attracted 
"  un  grand  nombre  de  gens  qui  estoient  advertis  de  sa  venue  et 
deja  infects  de  son  heresie."  Summoned  before  the  bishop's 


vicar,  his  trial  was  a  scene  of  insult  and  clamour,  ending  in  his 
being  violently  thrust  from  the  court  and  bidden  to  leave  the 
city  within  three  hours.  He  escaped  with  difficulty  to  Orbe  by 
boat.  Through  the  intervention  of  the  government  of  Bern, 
liberty  of  worship  was  granted  on  the  28th  of  March  1533  to  the 
Reformation  party  in  Geneva.  Farel,  returning,  achieved  in  a 
couple  of  years  a  complete  supremacy  for  his  followers.  On 
New  Year's  Day  1534  the  bishop  interdicted  all  preaching  un- 
authorized by  himself,  and  ordered  the  burning  of  all  Protestant 
Bibles.  This  was  the  signal  for  public  disputations  in  which 
Farel  took  the  leading  part  on  the  Reformation  side,  with  the 
result  that  by  decree  of  the  27th  of  August  1535  the  mass  was 
suppressed  and  the  reformed  religion  established.  Calvin,  on 
his  way  to  Basel  for  a  life  of  study,  touched  at  Geneva,  and 
by  the  importunity  of  Farel  was  there  detained  to  become  the 
leader  of  the  Genevan  Reformation.  The  severity  of  the  discip- 
linary measures  which  followed  procured  a  reaction  under  which 
Farel  and  Calvin  were  banished  the  city  in  1538.  Farel  was 
called  to  Neuchatel  in  July  1538,  but  his  position  there  was 
made  untenable,  though  he  remained  at  his  post  during  a  visita- 
tion of  the  plague.  When  (1541)  Calvin  was  recalled  to  Geneva, 
Farel  also  returned;  but  in  1542  he  went  to  Metz  to  support 
the  Reformation  there.  It  is  said  that  when  he  preached  in  the 
Dominican  church  of  Metz,  the  bells  were  rung  to  drown  his 
voice,  but  his  voice  outdid  the  bells,  and  on  the  next  occasion 
he  had  three  thousand  hearers.  His  work  was  checked  by  the 
active  hostility  of  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  and  in  1544  he  returned 
to  Neuchatel.  No  one  was  more  frequently  and  confidentially 
consulted  by  Calvin.  When  the  trial  of  Servetus  was  in  progress 
(I553)i  Calvin  was  anxious  for  Farel's  presence,  but  he  did  not 
arrive  till  sentence  had  been  passed.  He  accompanied  Servetus 
to  the  stake,  vainly  urging  him  to  a  recantation  at  the  last 
moment.  A  coolness  with  Calvin  was  created  by  Farel's  marriage , 
at  the  age  of  sixty-nine,  with  a  refugee  widow  from  Rouen,  of 
unsuitable  age.  By  her,  six  years  later,  he  had  one  son,  who 
died  in  infancy.  The  vigour  and  fervency  of  his  preaching  were 
unabated  by  length  of  years.  Calvin's  death,  in  1564,  affected 
him  deeply.  Yet  in  his  last  year  he  revisited  Metz,  preaching 
amid  great  enthusiasm,  with  all  his  wonted  fire.  The  effort  was 
too  much  for  him;  he  left  the  church  exhausted,  took  to  his 
bed,  and  died  at  Metz  on  the  i3th  of  September  1565. 

Farel  wrote  much,  but  usually  in  haste,  and  for  an  immediate 
purpose.  He  takes  no  rank  as  a  scientific  theologian,  being  a 
man  of  activity  rather  than  of  speculation  or  of  much  insight. 
His  Sommaire  was  re-edited  from  the  edition  of  1534  by  J.  G. 
Baum  in  1867.  Others  of  his  works  (all  in  French)  were  his 
treatise  on  purgatory  (1534),  on  the  Lord's  Prayer  (1543),  on  the 
Supper  (1555).  He  "  was  remarkable  for  boldness  and  energy 
both  in  preaching  and  prayer  "  (M.  Young,  Life  of  Pahario). 
As  an  orator,  he  was  denunciatory  rather  than  suasive;  thus 
while  on  the  one  hand  he  powerfully  impressed,  on  the  other 
hand  he  stimulated  opposition.  A  monument  to  him  was 
unveiled  at  Neuchatel  on  the  4th  of  May  1876. 

Lives  of  Farel  are  numerous;  it  may  suffice  to  mention  C.  Ancillon, 
Vie  de  G.  Farel  (1691);  the  article  in  Bayle;  M.  Kirchhofer,  Das 
Leben  W.  Farels  (1831-1833);  Ch.  Schmidt,  fcludes  sur  Farel  (1834); 
F.  Bevan,  W.  Farel  (1893) ;  J.  J.  Herzog,  in  Herzog-Hauck's  Realency- 
klopddie  (1898).  (A.  Go.*) 

FAREY,  JOHN  (1766-1826),  English  geologist,  was  born  at 
Woburn  in  Bedfordshire  in  1766.  He  was  educated  at  Halifax 
in  Yorkshire,  and  showed  such  aptitude  in  mathematics,  drawing 
and  surveying,  that  he  was  brought  under  the  notice  of  John 
Smeaton  (1724-1792).  In  1792  he  was  appointed  agent  to  the 
duke  of  Bedford  for  his  Woburn  estates.  After  the  decease  of 
the  duke,  Farey  in  1802  removed  to  London,  and  settled  there 
as  a  consulting  surveyor  and  geologist.  That  he  was  enabled 
to  take  this  step  was  due  largely  to  his  acquaintance  with 
William  Smith  (q.v.),  who  in  1801  had  been  employed  by  the 
duke  of  Bedford  in  works  of  draining  and  irrigation.  The  duke, 
appreciating  Smith's  knowledge  of  the  strata,  commissioned 
him  in  1802  to  explore  the  margin  of  the  chalk-hills  south  of 
Woburn  in  order  to  determine  the  true  succession  of  the  strata; 
and  he  instructed  Farey  to  accompany  him.  Farey  has  remarked 


FARGO— FARIBAULT 


177 


that  Smith  was  his  "  Master  and  Instructor  in  Mineral  Survey- 
ing," and  his  subsequent  publications  show  how  well  he  had 
profited  by  the  teachings  he  received.  Farey  prepared  the 
General  View  of  the  Agriculture  and  Minerals  of  Derbyshire  in 
twovols.  (1811-1813)  for  the  Board  of  Agriculture.  In  the  first 
of  these  volumes  (1811)  he  gave  an  able  account  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  British  series  of  strata,  and  a  masterly  exposition  of 
the  Carboniferous  and  other  strata  of  Derbyshire.  In  this  classic 
work,  and  in  a  paper  published  in  the  Phil.  Mag.  vol.  li.  1818, 
p.  173,  on  "  Mr  Smith's  Geological  Claims  stated,"  he  zealously 
called  attention  to  the  importance  of  the  discoveries  of  William 
Smith.  Farey  died  in  London  on  the  6th  of  January  1826. 

See  Biographical  Notice,  by  W.  S.  Mitchell,  in  Geol.  Mag.  1873, 
P-25- 

FARGO,  WILLIAM  GEORGE  (1818-1881),  pioneer  American 
expressman,  was  born  in  Pompey,  New  York,  on  the  2oth  of 
May  1818.  From  the  age  of  thirteen  he  had  to  support  himself, 
obtaining  little  schooling,  and  for  several  years  he  was  a  clerk 
in  grocery  stores  in  Syracuse.  He  became  a  freight  agent  for 
the  Auburn  &  Syracuse  railway  company  at  Auburn  in  1841, 
an  express  messenger  between  Albany  and  Buffalo  a  year  later, 
and  in  1843  a  resident  agent  in  Buffalo.  In  1844  he  organized, 
with  Henry  Wells  (1805-1878)  and  Daniel  Dunning,  the  first 
express  company  (Wells  &  Co. ;  after  1845  Livingston  &  Fargo) 
to  engage  in  the  carrying  business  west  of  Buffalo.  The  lines 
of  this  company  (which  first  operated  only  to  Detroit,  via 
Cleveland)  were  rapidly  extended  to  Chicago,  St  Louis,  and  other 
western  points.  In  March  1850,  when  through  a  consolidation 
of  competing  lines  the  American  Express  Company  was  organized, 
Wells  became  president  and  Fargo  secretary.  In  1851,  with 
Wells  and  others,  he  organized  the  firm  of  Wells,  Fargo  & 
Company  to  conduct  an  express  business  between  New  York  and 
San  Francisco  by  way  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  where  it  long  had  a  virtual  monopoly.  In  1861 
Wells,  Fargo  &  Co.  bought  and  reorganized  the  Overland  Mail 
Co.,  which  had  been  formed  in  1857  to  carry  the  United  States 
mails,  and  of  which  Fargo  had  been  one  of  the  original  promoters. 
From  1862  to  1866  he  was  mayor  of  Buffalo,  and  from  1868  to  his 
death,  in  Buffalo,  on  the  3rd  of  August  1881,  he  was  president 
of  the  American  Express  Company,  with  which  in  1868  the  Mer- 
chants Union  Express  Co.  was  consolidated.  He  was  a  director 
of  the  New  York  Central  and  of  the  Northern  Pacific  railways. 

FARGO,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Cass  county,  North 
Dakota,  U.S.A.,  about  254  m.  W.  of  Duluth,  Minnesota.  Pop. 
(1890)  5664;  (1900)  9589,  of  whom  2564  were  foreign-born; 
(1910  census)  14,331.  It  is  served  by  the  Northern  Pacific, 
the  Great  Northern,  and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St  Paul 
railways.  The  city  is  situated  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Red  river 
of  the  North,  which  in  1909  had  a  navigable  depth  of  only 
about  2  ft.  from  Fargo  to  Grank  Forks,  and  the  navigation  of 
which  was  obstructed  at  various  places  by  fixed  bridges.  In 
the  city  are  Island  and  Oakgrove  parks,  the  former  of  which 
contains  a  statue  (erected  by  Norwegians  in  1908)  of  Henrik 
Arnold  Wergeland,  the  Norwegian  poet.  Fargo  is  the  seat  of  the 
North  Dakota  agricultural  college  (coeducational),  founded  in 
1890  under  the  provisions  of  the  Federal  "  Morrill  Act  "  of 
1862;  it  receives  both  Federal  and  state  support  (the  former 
under  the  Morrill  Act  of  1890),  and  in  connexion  with  it 
a  United  States  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  is  main- 
tained. In  1907-1908  the  college  had  988  students  in  the 
regular  courses  (including  the  students  in  the  Academy),  117 
in  the  summer  course  in  steam  engineering,  and  68  in  corre- 
spondence courses.  At  Fargo,  also,  are  Fargo  College  (non- 
sectarian,  1887;  founded  by  Congregationalists) ,  which  has  a 
college  department,  a  preparatory  department,  and  a  conserva- 
tory of  music,  and  in  1908  had  310  students,  of  whom  211 
were  in  the  conservatory  of  music;  the  Oak  Grove  Lutheran 
ladies'  seminary  (1906)  and  the  Sacred  Heart  Academy  (Roman 
Catholic).  The  city  is  the  see  of  both  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop 
and  a  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop;  and  it  is  the  centre  of 
masonic  interests  in  the  state,  having  a  fine  masonic  temple. 
There  are  a  public  library  and  a  large  Y.M.C.A.  building.  St 


John's  hospital  is  controlled  by  Roman  Catholic  sisters,  and 
St  Luke's  hospital  by  the  Lutheran  Church.  Fargo  is  in  a 
rich  agricultural  (especially  wheat)  region,  is  a  busy  grain-trading 
and  jobbing  centre,  is  one  of  the  most  important  wholesale 
distributing  centres  for  agricultural  implements  and  machinery 
in  the  United  States,  and  has  a  number  of  manufactures,  notably 
flour.  The  total  value  of  the  city's  factory  products  in  1905 
was  $1,160,832.  Fargo,  named  in  honour  of  W.  G.  Fargo  of 
the  Wells  Fargo  Express  Company,  was  first  settled  as  a  tent 
city  in  1871,  when  the  Red  river  was  crossed  by  the  Northern 
Pacific,  but  was  not  permanently  settled  until  after  the  extinction 
in  1873  of  the  Indian  title  to  the  reservation  on  which  it  was 
situated.  It  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1875.  The  Milwaukee 
railway  was  completed  to  Fargo  in  1884.  In  June  1893  a  large 
part  of  the  city  was  destroyed  by  fire,  the  loss  being  more  than 
$3,000,000. 

FARIA  Y  SOUSA,  MANUEL  DE  (1590-1649),  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  historian  and  poet,  was  born  of  an  ancient  Portuguese 
family,  probably  at  Pombeiro,  on  the  i8th  of  March  1590, 
attended  the  university  of  Braga  for  some  years,  and  when  about 
fourteen  entered  the  service  of  the  bishop  of  Oporto.  With  the 
exception  of  about  four  years  from  1631  to  1634,  during  which 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Portuguese  embassy  in  Rome,  the  greater 
part  of  his  later  life  was  spent  at  Madrid,  and  there  he  died,  after 
much  suffering,  on  the  3rd  of  June  1649.  He  was  a  laborious, 
peaceful  man;  and  a  happy  marriage  with  Catharina  Machado, 
the  Albania  of  his  poems,  enabled  him  to  lead  a  studious  domestic 
life,  dividing  his  cares  and  affections  between  his  children  and 
his  books.  His  first  important  work,  an  Epitome  de  las  historias 
Portuguezas  (Madrid,  1628),  was  favourably  received;  but  some 
passages  in  his  enormous  commentary  upon  Os  Lusiadas,  the 
poem  of  Luis  de  Camoens,  excited  the  suspicion  of  the  inquisitors, 
caused  his  temporary  incarceration,  and  led  to  the  permanent 
loss  of  his  official  salary.  In  spite  of  the  enthusiasm  which  is 
said  to  have  prescribed  to  him  the  daily  task  of  twelve  foh'o 
pages,  death  overtook  him  before  he  had  completed  his  greatest 
enterprise,  a  history  of  the  Portuguese  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Several  portions  of  the  work  appeared  at  Lisbon  after  his  death, 
under  the  editorship  of  Captain  Faria  y  Sousa: — Europa  Portu- 
gueza  (1667,  3  vols.);  Asia  Portugueza  (1666-1675,  3  vols.); 
Africa  Portugueza  (1681).  As  a  poet  Faria  y  Sousa  was  nearly 
as  prolific;  but  his  poems  are  vitiated  by  the  prevailing  Gon- 
gorism  of  his  time.  They  were  for  the  most  part  collected  in  the 
Noches  claras  (Madrid,  1624-1626),  and  the  Fuente  de  Aganipe, 
of  which  four  volumes  were  published  at  Madrid  in  1644-1646. 
He  also  wrote,  from  information  supplied  by  P.  A.  Semmedo, 
Imperio  de  China  i  cultura  evangelica  en  il  (Madrid,  1642);  and 
translated  and  completed  the  NobUiario  of  the  count  of 
Barcellos. 

There  are  English  translations  by  J.  Stevens  of  the  History  of 
Portugal  (London,  1698),  and  of  Portuguese  Asia  (London,  1695). 

FARIBAULT,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Rice  county, 
Minnesota,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Cannon  river,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Straight  river,  about  45  m.  S.  of  St  Paul.  (Pop.  1890)  6520; 
(1900)  7868,  of  whom  1586  were  foreign-born;  (1905)  8279; 
(1910)  9001.  Faribault  is  served  by  the  Chicago  Great  Western, 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St  Paul,  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
&  Pacific  railways.  The  city  is  attractively  situated  near  a  lake 
region  widely  known  for  its  summer  resorts.  Faribault  is  the 
seat  of  the  Minnesota  institute  for  defectives,  embracing  the 
state  school  for  the  deaf  (1863),  the  state  school  for  the  blind 
(1874),  and  the  state  school  for  the  feeble-minded  (1879);  of 
three  institutions  under  control  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church — the  Seabury  divinity  school  (incorporated  1860), 
the  Shattuck  school  (1867;  incorporated  in  1905),  a  military 
school  for  boys,  and  St  Mary's  hall  (1866),  a  school  for  girls, 
founded  by  Bishop  Whipple;  and  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
(Dominican)  Bethlehem  Academy  for  girls.  In  the  city  are 
the  cathedral  of  our  Merciful  Saviour  (1868-1869),  the  first 
Protestant  Episcopal  church  in  the  United  States  built  and  used 
as  a  cathedral  from  its  opening;  and  the  hospital  and  nurses' 
training  school  of  the  Minnesota  District  of  the  Evangelical 


178 


FARIDKOT— FARID  UD-DIN  'ATTAR 


Synod.  The  city  has  a  public  library,  and  owns  and  operates 
its  own  water-supply  system.  There  is  a  good  water  power, 
and  among  the  city's  manufactures  are  flour,  beer,  shoes, 
furniture,  rattan-ware,  warehouse  trucks,  canned  goods,  cane 
syrup,  waggons  and  carriages,  gasolene  engines,  wind-mills, 
pianos  and  woollen  goods.  Faribault,  named  in  honour  of  Jean 
Baptiste  Faribault,  a  French  fur-trader  and  pioneer  who  made 
his  headquarters  in  the  region  in  the  latter  part  of  the  i8th 
century,  was  permanently  settled  about  1848,  and  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1872.  A  French  millwright,  N.  La  Croix,  introduced 
here,  about  1860,  a  new  process  of  making  flour,  which  revolu- 
tionized the  industry  in  the  United  States,  but  his  mill  was  soon 
destroyed  by  flood  and  he  removed  to  Minneapolis,  where  the 
process  was  first  successful  on  a  large  scale.  Faribault  was  for 
many  years  the  home  of  Bishop  Henry  Benjamin  Whipple 
(1822-1901),  the  pioneer  bishop  (1859-1901)  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  Minnesota,  famous  for  his  missionary  work 
among  the  Indians. 

FARIDKOT,  a  native  state  of  India  in  the  Punjab.  It  ranks 
as  one  of  the  Cis-Sutlej  states,  which  came  under  British  influence 
in  1809.  Its  area  is  642  sq.  m.,  and  its  population  in  1901  was 
124,912.  It  is  bounded  on  the  W.  and  N.E.  by  the  British  district 
of  Ferozepore,  and  on  the  S.  by  Nabha  state.  During  the  Sikh 
wars  in  1845  the  chief,  Raja  Pahar  Singh,  exerted  himself  in  the 
British  cause,  and  was  rewarded  with  an  increase  of  territory. 
In  the  Mutiny  of  1857,  too,  his  son  and  successor,  Wazir  Singh, 
did  good  service  by  guarding  the  Sutlej  ferries,  and  in  attacking 
a  notorious  rebel,  whose  stronghold  he  destroyed.  The  esti- 
mated gross  revenue  is  £28,300;  there  is  no  tribute.  The 
territory  is  traversed  by  the  Rewari-Ferozepore  railway,  and  also 
crossed  by  the  Fazilka  line,  which  starts  from  Kotkapura,  the 
old  capital.  It  is  irrigated  by  a  branch  of  the  Sirhind  canal. 
The  town  of  Faridkot  has  a  railway  station,  84  m.  from 
Lahore. 

FARIDPUR,  or  FURREEDPORE,  a  town  and  district  of  British 
India,  in  the  Dacca  division  of  eastern  Bengal  and  Assam. 
The  town,  which  has  a  railway  station,  stands  on  an  old  channel 
of  the  Ganges.  Pop.  (1901)  11,649.  There  are  a  Baptist  mission 
and  a  government  high  school.  The  district  comprises  an  area 
of  2281  sq.  m.  The  general  aspect  is  flat,  tame  and  uninteresting, 
although  in  the  northern  tract  the  land  is  comparatively  high, 
with  a  light  sandy  soil,  covered  with  water  during  the  rainy 
season,  but  dry  during  the  cold  and  hot  weather.  From  the 
town  of  Faridpur  the  ground  slopes,  until  in  the  south,  on  the 
confines  of  Backergunje,  it  becomes  one  immense  swamp,  never 
entirely  dry.  During  the  height  of  the  inundations  the  whole 
district  may  be  said  to  be  under  water.  The  villages  are  built 
on  artificially  raised  sites,  or  the  high  banks  of  the  deltaic  streams. 
Along  many  of  the  larger  rivers  the  line  of  hamlets  is  unbroken 
for  miles  together,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  where  one  ends 
and  another  begins.  The  huts,  however,  except  in  markets  and 
bazaars,  are  seldom  close  together,  but  are  scattered  amidst  small 
garden  plots,  and  groves  of  mango,  date  and  betel-nut  trees. 
The  plains  between  the  villages  are  almost  invariably  more  or 
less  depressed  towards  the  centre,  where  usually  a  marsh,  or 
lake,  or  deep  lagoon  is  found.  These  marshes,  however,  are 
gradually  filling  up  by  the  silt  deposited  from  the  rivers;  in 
the  north  of  the  district  there  now  only  remain  two  or  three 
large  swamps,  and  in  them  the  process  may  be  seen  going  on. 
The  climate  of  Faridpur  is  damp,  like  that  of  the  other  districts 
of  eastern  Bengal;  the  average  annual  rainfall  is  66  in.  and  the 
average  mean  temperature  76-9°  F. 

The  principal  rivers  of  Faridpur  are  the  Ganges,  the  Arial 
Khan  and  the  Haringhata.  The  Ganges,  or  Padma  as  it  is 
locally  called,  touches  the  extreme  north-west  corner  of  the 
district,  flows  along  its  northern  boundary  as  far  as  Goalanda, 
where  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Jamuna  or  main  stream  of  the 
Brahmaputra,  and  whence  the  united  stream  turns  southwards 
and  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  district.  The  river  is 
navigable  by  large  cargo  boats  throughout  the  year,  and  has  an 
average  breadth  during  the  rainy  season  of  1600  yds.  Rice  is 
the  great  crop  of  the  district.  In  1901  the  population  was 


1,937,646,  showing  an  increase  of  6%  in  the  decade.  The  north 
of  the  district  is  crossed  by  the  line  of  the  Eastern  Bengal  railway 
to  Goalanda,  the  port  of  the  Brahmaputra  steamers,  and  a 
branch  runs  to  Faridpur  town.  But  most  of  the  trade  is  con- 
ducted by  river. 

FARlD  UD-DiN  'ATTAR,  or  FERID  EDDIN-ATHAR  (1119- 
1229),  Persian  poet  and  mystic,  was  born  at  Nishapur,  513  A.H. 
(1119  A.D.),  and  was  put  to  death  627  A.H.  (1229  A.D.),  thus  having 
reached  the  age  of  no  years.  The  date  of  his  death  is,  however, 
variously  given  between  the  years  1193  and  1235,  although 
the  majority  of  authorities  support  1229;  it  is  also  probable 
that  he  was  born  later  than  1119,  but  before  1150.  His  real  name 
was  Abu  Talib  (or  Abu  Hamid)  Mahommed  ben  Ibrahim,  and 
Farid  ud-dln  was  simply  an  honourable  title  equivalent  to  Pearl 
of  Religion.  He  followed  for  a  time  his  father's  profession  of 
druggist  or  perfumer,  and  hence  the  name  'Attar  (one  who  sold 
'itr,  otto  of  roses;  hence,  simply,  dealer  in  drugs),  which  he 
afterwards  employed  as  his  poetical  designation.  According  to 
the  account  of  Dawlatshah,  his  interest  in  the  great  mystery 
of  the  higher  life  of  man  was  awakened  in  the  following  way. 
One  day  a  wandering  fakir  gazed  sadly  into  his  shop,  and, 
when  ordered  to  be  gone,  replied:  "It  is  nothing  for  me  to  go; 
but  I  grieve  for  thee,  O  druggist,  for  how  wilt  thou  be  able  to 
think  of  death,  and  leave  all  these  goods  of  thine  behind  thee?  " 
The  word  was  in  season;  and  Mahommed  ben  Ibrahim  the 
druggist  soon  gave  up  his  shop  and  began  to  study  the  mystic 
theosophy  of  the  Sufis  under  Sheik  Rukneddin.  So  thoroughly 
did  he  enter,  into  the  spirit  of  that  religion  that  he  was  before 
long  recognized  as  one  of  its  principal  representatives.  He 
travelled  extensively,  visited  Mecca,  Egypt,  Damascus  and  India, 
and  on  his' return  was  invested  with  the  Sufi  mantle  by  Sheik 
Majd-ud-din  of  Bagdad.  The  greater  portion  of  his  life  was  spent 
in  the  town  of  Shadyakh,  but  he  is  not  unfrequently  named 
Nishapuri,  after  the  city  of  his  boyhood  and  youth.  The  story 
of  his  death  is  a  strange  one.  Captured  by  a  soldier  of  Jenghiz 
Khan,  he  was  about  to  be  sold  for  a  thousand  dirhems,  when  he 
advised  his  captor  to  keep  him,  as  doubtless  a  larger  offer  would 
yet  be  made;  but  when  the  second  bidder  said  he  would  give 
a  bag  of  horse  fodder  for  the  old  man,  he  asserted  that  he  was 
worth  no  more,  and  had  better  be  sold.  The  soldier,  irritated 
at  the  loss  of  the  first  offer,  immediately  slew  him.  A  noble  tomb 
was  erected  over  his  grave,  and  the  spot  acquired  a  reputation 
for  sanctity.  Farid  was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  left  no  fewer 
than  120,000  couplets  of  poetry,  though  in  his  later  years  he 
carried  his  asceticism  so  far  as  to  deny  himself  the  pleasures  of 
poetical  composition.  His  most  famous  work  is  the  Mantik 
uttair,  or  language  of  birds,  an  allegorical  poem  containing  a 
complete  survey  of  the  life  and  doctrine  of  the  Sufis.  It  is  ex- 
tremely popular  among  Mahommedans  both  of  the  Sunnite  and 
Shiite  sects,  and  the  manuscript  copies  are  consequently  very 
numerous.  The  birds,  according  to  the  poet,  were  tired  of  a 
republican  constitution,  and  longed  for  a  king.  As  the  lapwing, 
having  guided  Solomon  through  the  desert,  best  knew  what 
a  king  should  be,  he  was  asked  whom  they  should  choose.  The 
Simorg  in  the  Caucasus,  was  his  reply.  But  the  way  to  the 
Caucasus  was  long  and  dangerous,  and  most  of  the  birds  excused 
themselves  from  the  enterprise.  A  few,  however,  set  out; 
but  by  the  time  they  reached  the  great  king's  court,  their 
number  was  reduced  to  thirty.  The  thirty  birds  (si  morg),  wing- 
weary  and  hunger-stricken,  at  length  gained  access  to  their 
chosen  monarch  the  Si  morg;  but  only  to  find  that  they  strangely 
lost  their  identity  in  his  presence — that  they  are  he,  and  he  is 
they.  In  such  strange  fashion  does  the  poet  image  forth  the 
search  of  the  human  soul  after  absorption  into  the  divine. 

The  text  of  the  Mantifi  uttair  was  published  by  Garcin  de  Tassy  in 
1857,  a  summary  of  its  contents  having  already  appeared  as  La 
Poesie  philosophique  et  religieuse  chez  les  Persons  in  1856;  this  was 
succeeded  by  a  complete  translation  in  1863.  Among  Farid  ud-dln's 
other  works  may  be  mentioned  his  Pandndma  (Book  of  Counsel),  of 
which  a  translation  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy  appeared  in  1819;  Bulbul 
Nama  (Book  of  the  Nightingale) ;  Wasalet  Nama  (Book  of  Con- 
junctions); Khusru  va  Gul  (The  King  and  the  Rose);  and  Tadh- 
kiratu  I  Awliya  (Memoirs  of  the  Saints)  (ed.  R.  A.  Nicholson  in 


FARINA— FARINI 


179 


Persian  Historical  Texts') .  See  Sir  Gore  Ouseley ,  Biographical  Notices 
of  Persian  Poets  (1846),  p.  236;  Von  Hammer  Purgstall,  Geschichte 
der  schonen  Redekunste  Persiens  (Vienna,  1818),  p.  140;  the  Oriental 
Collections,  ii.  (London,  1798),  pp.  84,  124,  containing  translations 
of  part  of  the  Pandndma;  E.  H.  Palmer,  Oriental  Mysticism  (1867); 
E.  G.  Browne,  Literary  History  of  Persia  (1906). 

FARINA,  SALVATORE  (1846-  ),  Italian  novelist,  was 
born  in  Sardinia,  and  after  studying  law  at  Turin  and  Pavia 
devoted  himself  to  a  literary  life  at  Milan.  Farina  has  often 
been  compared  as  a  sentimental  humorist  with  Dickens,  and  his 
style  of  writing  has  given  him  a  special  place  in  modern  Italian 
fiction.  His  masterpiece  is  //  Signer  lo  (1880),  a  delightful 
portrait  of  an  egoist;  Don  Chisciottino,  Amore  bendato,  Capelli 
biondi,  Oro  nascoslo,  II  Tesoro  di  Donnina,  Amore  a  cent'  occhi, 
Mio  figlio,  II  numero  ij,  are  some  of  his  other  volumes. 

FARINATO,  PAOLO  (1522-1606),  Italian  painter  and  archi- 
tect, was  a  native  of  Verona.  He  is  sometimes  named  Farinato 
degli  Uberti,  as  he  came  from  the  ancient  Florentine  stock  to 
which  the  Ghibelline  leader  Farinata  degli  Uberti,  celebrated  in 
Dante's  Commedia,  belonged.  He  flourished  at  the  same  time 
that  the  art  of  Verona  obtained  its  greatest  lustre  in  the  works 
of  Paolo  Cagliari  (Paul  Veronese),  succeeded  by  other  members 
of  the  Cagliari  family,  of  whom  most  or  all  were  outlived  by 
Farinato.  He  was  instructed  by  Niccolo  Giolfino,  and  probably 
by  Antonio  Badile  and  Domenico  del  Riccio  (Brusasorci). 
Proceeding  to  Venice,  he  formed  his  style  partly  on  Titian  and 
Giorgione,  though  he  was  never  conspicuous  as  a  colourist,  and 
in  form  he  learned  more  from  the  works  of  Giulio  Romano.  His 
nude  figures  show  knowledge  of  the  antique;  he  affected  a 
bronzed  tone  in  the  complexions,  harmonizing  with  the  general 
gravity  of  his  colour,  which  is  more  laudable  in  fresco  than  in 
oil-painting.  Vasari  praised  his  thronged  compositions  and 
merit  of  draughtsmanship.  His  works  are  to  be  found  not  only 
in  Venice  and  principally  in  Verona,  but  also  in  Mantua,  Padua 
and  other  towns  belonging  or  adjacent  to  the  Venetian  territory. 
He  was  a  prosperous  and  light-hearted  man,  and  continually 
progressed  in  his  art,  passing  from  a  comparatively  dry  manner 
into  a  larger  and  bolder  one,  with  much  attraction  of  drapery 
and  of  landscape.  The  "  Miracle  of  the  Loaves  and  Fishes," 
painted  in  the  church  of  S.  Giorgio  in  Verona,  is  accounted  his 
masterpiece;  it  was  executed  at  the  advanced  age  of  seventy- 
nine,  and  is  of  course  replete  with  figures,  comprising  those  of 
the  painter's  own  family.  A  saloon  was  painted  by  him  in 
S.  Maria  in  Organo,  in  the  same  city,  with  the  subjects  of 
"  Michael  expelling  Lucifer  "  and  the  "Massacre  of  the  Inno- 
cents ";  in  Piacenza  is  a  "  St  Sixtus  ";  in  Berlin  a  "  Presenta- 
tion in  the  Temple  ";  and  in  the  communal  gallery  of  Verona  one 
of  his  prime  works,  the  "  Marriage  of  St  Catherine."  Farinato 
executed  some  sculptures,  and  various  etchings  of  sacred  and 
mythologic  subjects;  his  works  of  all  kinds  were  much  in 
request,  including  the  wax  models  which  he  wrought  as  studies 
for  his  painted  figures.  He  is  said  to  have  died  at  the  same  hour 
as  his  wife.  His  son  Orazio  was  also  a  painter  of  merit. 

FARINELLI  (1705-1782),  whose  real  name  was  CARLO 
BROSCHI,  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  singers  that  ever  lived, 
was  born  on  the  24th  of  January  1705,  at  Naples.  He  was  the 
nephew  of  Cristiano  Farinelli,  the  composer  and  violinist,  whose 
name  he  took.  Having  been  prepared  for  the  career  of  a  soprano, 
he  soon  acquired,  under  the  instruction  of  N.  A.  Porpora,  a 
voice  of  marvellous  beauty,  and  became  famous  throughout 
southern  Italy  as  il  ragazzo  (the  boy).  In  1722  he  made  his  first 
appearance  at  Rome  in  his  master's  Eumene,  creating  the 
greatest  enthusiasm  by  surpassing  a  popular  German  trumpet- 
player,  for  whom  Porpora  had  written  an  obligate  to  one  of  the 
boy's  songs,  in  holding  and  swelling  a  note  of  prodigious  length, 
purity  and  power,  and  in  the  variations,  roulades  and  trills  which 
he  introduced  into  the  air.  In  1724  he  appeared  at  Vienna,  and 
at  Venice  in  the  following  year,  returning  to  Naples  shortly 
afterwards.  He  sang  at  Milan  in  1726,  and  at  Bologna  in  1727, 
where  he  first  met  and  acknowledged  himself  vanquished  by 
the  singer  Antonio  Bernacchi  (b.  1700),  to  whose  instruction  he 
was  much  indebted.  With  ever-increasing  success  and  fame 
Farinelli  appeared  in  nearly  all  the  great  cities  of  Italy;  and 


returned  a  third  time  to  Vienna  in  1731.  He  now  modified  his 
style,  it  is  said  on  the  advice  of  Charles  VI.,  from  mere  bravura 
of  the  Porpora  school  to  one  of  pathos  and  simplicity.  He 
visited  London  in  1734,  arriving  in  time  to  lend  his  powerful 
support  to  the  faction  which  in  opposition  to  Handel  had  set 
up  a  rival  opera  with  Porpora  as  composer  and  Senesino  as 
principal  singer.  But  not  even  his  aid  could  make  the  under- 
taking successful.  His  first  appearance  at  the  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields  theatre  was  in  Arlaserse,  much  of  the  music  of  which  was 
by  his  brother,  Riccardo  Broschi.  His  success  was  instantaneous, 
and  the  prince  of  Wales  and  the  court  loaded  him  with  favours 
and  presents.  Having  spent  three  years  in  England,  Farinelli 
set  out  for  Spain,  staying  a  few  months  on  the  way  in  France, 
where  he  sang  before  Louis  XV.  In  Spain,  where  he  had  only 
meant  to  stay  a  few  months,  he  ended  by  passing  nearly  twenty- 
five  years.  His  voice,  employed  by  the  queen  to  cure  Philip  V. 
of  his  melancholy  madness,  acquired  for  him  an  influence  with 
that  prince  which  gave  him  eventually  the  power,  if  not  the 
name,  of  prime  minister.  This  power  he  was  wise  and  modest 
enough  to  use  discreetly.  For  ten  years,  night  after  night,  he 
had  to  sing  to  the  king  the  same  six  songs,  and  never  anything 
else.  Under  Ferdinand  VI.  he  held  a  similar  position,  and  was 
decorated  (1750)  with  the  cross  of  Calatrava.  He  utilized  his 
ascendancy  over  this  king  by  persuading  him  to  establish 
an  Italian  opera.  After  the  accession  of  Charles  III.  Farinelli 
retired  with  the  fortune  he  had  amassed  to  Bologna,  and  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  days  there  in  melancholy  splendour,  dying 
on  the  i5th  of  July  1782.  His  voice  was  of  large  compass, 
possessing  seven  or  eight  notes  more  than  those  of  ordinary 
singers,  and  was  sonorous,  equal  and  clear;  he  also  possessed  a 
great  knowledge  of  music. 

FARINGDON,  properly  GREAT  FARINGDON,  a  market  town 
in  the  Abingdon  parliamentary  division  of  Berkshire,  England, 
17  m.  W.S.W.  of  Oxford  by  road.  Pop.  (1901)  2900.  It  lies  on 
the  slope  of  a  low  range  of  hills  which  borders  the  valley  of  the 
Thames  on  the  south.  It  is  the  terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  Great 
Western  railway  from  Uffington.  The  church  of  All  Saints  is  a 
large  cruciform  building  with  low  central  tower.  Its  period  is 
mainly  Transitional  Norman  and  Early  English,  and  though 
considerably  altered  by  restoration  it  contains  some  good  details, 
with  many  monuments  and  brasses.  Faringdon  House,  close  to 
the  church,  was  built  by  Henry  James  Pye  (1745-1813),  poet 
laureate  from  1790  to  1813,  who  also  caused  to  be  planted  the 
conspicuous  group  of  fir-trees  on  the  hill  east  of  the  town  called 
Faringdon  Clump,  or  locally  (like  other  similar  groups)  the 
Folly.  The  trade  of  Faringdon  is  agricultural. 

FARINI,  LUIGI  CARLO  (1812-1866),  Italian  statesman  and 
historian,  was  born  at  Russi,  near  Ravenna,  on  the  22nd  of 
October  1812.  After  completing  a  brilliant  university  course 
at  Bologna,  which  he  interrupted  to  take  part  in  the  revolution 
of  1831  (see  CARBONARI),  he  practised  as  a  physician  at  Russi 
and  at  Ravenna.  He  acquired  a  considerable  reputation,  but 
in  1843  his  political  opinions  brought  him  under  the  suspicion 
of  the  police  and  caused  his  expulsion  from  the  papal  states. 
He  resided  successively  in  Florence  and  Paris,  and  travelled 
about  Europe  as  private  physician  to  Prince  Jerome  Bonaparte, 
but  when  Pius  IX.  was  elected  to  the  Holy  See  and  began  his 
reign  with  apparently  Liberal  and  nationalist  tendencies,  Farini 
returned  to  Italy  and  was  appointed  secretary-general  to  G. 
Recchi,  the  minister  of  the  interior  (March  1848).  But  he  held 
office  for  little  more  than  a  month,  since  like  all  the  other  Italian 
Liberals  he  disapproved  of  the  pope's  change  of  front  in  refusing 
to  allow  his  troops  to  fight  against  Austria,  and  resigned  with  the 
rest  of  the  ministry  on  the  2pth  of  April.  Pius,  wishing  to 
counteract  the  effect  of  this  policy,  sent  Farini  to  Charles  Albert, 
king  of  Sardinia,  to  hand  over  the  command  of  the  papal  con- 
tingent to  him.  Elected  member  of  parliament  for  Faenza,  he 
was  again  appointed  secretary  to  the  ministry  of  the  interior  in 
the  Mamiani  cabinet,  and  later  director-general  of  the  public 
health  department.  He  resigned  office  on  the  proclamation  of 
the  republic  after  the  flight  of  the  pope  to  Gaeta  in  1849,  resumed 
it  for  a  while  when  Pius  returned  to  Rome  with  the  protection 


i8o 


FARM— FARM-BUILDINGS 


of  French  arms,  but  when  a  reactionary  and  priestly  policy  was 
instituted,  he  went  into  exile  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Turin. 
There  he  became  convinced  that  it  was  only  through  the  House 
of  Savoy  that  Italy  could  be  liberated,  and  he  expounded  his 
views  in  Cavour's  paper  //  Risorgimento,  in  La  Frusta  and  // 
Piemonte,  of  which  latter  he  was  at  one  time  editor.  He  also 
wrote  his  chief  historical  work,  Lo  Slato  Romano  dal  1815  al  1850, 
in  four  volumes  (Turin,  1 850) .  In  1 85 1  he  was  appointed  minister 
of  public  instruction  in  the  D'Azeglio  cabinet,  an  office  which  he 
held  till  May  1852.  As  a  member  of  the  Sardinian  parliament 
and  as  a  journalist  Farini  was  one  of  the  staunchest  supporters 
of  Cavour  (q.v.),  and  strongly  favoured  the  proposal  that  Pied- 
mont should  participate  in  the  Cimean  War,  if  indeed  he  was 
not  actually  the  first  to  suggest  that  policy  (see  G.  B.  Ercolani's 
letter  in  E.  Parri's  memoir  of  Farini).  In  1856  and  1857  he  pub- 
lished two  letters  to  Mr  Gladstone  on  Italian  affairs,  which  created 
a  sensation,  while  he  continued  to  propagate  his  views  in  the 
Italian  press.  When  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  1859 
Francis  V.,  duke  of  Modena,  was  expelled  and  a  provisional 
government  set  up,  Farini  was  sent  as  Piedmontese  commissioner 
to  that  city;  but  although  recalled  after  the  peace  of  Villafranca 
he  was  determined  on  the  annexation  of  central  Italy  to  Pied- 
mont and  remained  behind,  becoming  a  Modenese  citizen  and 
dictator  of  the  state.  He  negotiated  an  alliance  with  Parma, 
Romagna  and  Tuscany,  when  other  provisional  governments 
had  been  established,  and  entrusted  the  task  of  organizing  an 
army  for  this  central  Italian  league  to  General  Fanti  (q.v.). 
Annexation  to  Piedmont  having  been  voted  by  plebiscite  and  the 
opposition  of  Napoleon  III.  having  been  overcome,  Farini 
returned  to  Turin,  when  the  king  conferred  on  him  the  order  of 
the  Annunziata  and  Cavour  appointed  him  minister  of  the 
interior  (June  1860),  and  subsequently  viceroy  of  Naples;  but 
he  soon  resigned  on  the  score  of  ill-health.  Cavour  died  in  1861, 
and  the  following  year  Farini  succeeded  Rattazzi  as  premier, 
in  which  office  he  endeavoured  to  carry  out  Cavour's  policy. 
Over-exertion,  however,  brought  on  softening  of  the  brain,  which 
compelled  him  to  resign  office  on  the  24th  of  March  1863,  and 
ultimately  resulted  in  his  death  on  the  ist  of  August  1866.  He 
was  buried  at  Turin,  but  in  1878  his  remains  were  removed  to 
his  native  village  of  Russi. 

His  son  Domenico  Farini  had  a  distinguished  political  career 
and  was  at  one  time  president  of  the  chamber. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Several  letters  from  Farini  to  Mr  Gladstone  and 
Lord  John  Russell  were  reprinted  in  a  Memoire  sur  les  affaires  d' Italic 
('859),  and  a  collection  of  his  political  correspondence  was  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  Lettres  sur  les  affaires  d' Italic  (Paris,  1860). 
His  historical  work  was  translated  into  English  in  part  by  Mr  Glad- 
stone and  in  part  under  his  superintendence.  See  E.  Parri,  Luigi 
Carlo  Farini  (Rome,  1878);  L.  Carpi  in  II  Riforgimento  Italiano, 
vol.  iv.  (Milan,  1888);  and  G.  Finali  s  article,  "  II  27  Aprile  1859," 
in  the  Nuova  Antologia  for  the  i6th  of  May  1903.  (L.  V.*) 

FARM,  in  the  most  generally  used  sense,  a  portion  of  land 
leased  or  held  for  the  purpose  of  agriculture;  hence  "  farming  " 
is  equivalent  to  the  pursuit  of  agriculture,  and  "  farmer  "  to 
an  agriculturist.  This  meaning  is  comparatively  modern.  The 
origin  of  the  word  has  perhaps  been  complicated  by  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  feorm,  meaning  provisions  or  food  supply,  and  more 
particularly  a  payment  of  provisions  for  the  sustenance  of  the 
king,  the  cyninges  feorm.  In  Domesday  this  appears  as  a  food 
rent:  firma  unius  noctis  or  diet.  According  to  the  New  English 
Dictionary  there  is  no  satisfactory  Teutonic  origin  for  the  word. 
It  has,  however,  been  sometimes  connected  with  a  word  which 
appears  in  the  older  forms  of  some  Teutonic  languages,  meaning 
"  life."  The  present  form  "  farm "  certainly  comes,  through 
the  French  ferme,  from  the  medieval  Lat.  firma  (firmus,  fixed), 
a  fixed  or  certain  payment  in  money  or  kind.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
feorm  may  be  not  an  original  Teutonic  word  but  an  early  adapta- 
tion of  the  Latin.  The  feorm,  originally  a  tax,  seems,  as  the  king 
"  booked  "  his  land,  to  have  become  a  rent  (see  F.  W.  Maitland, 
Domesday  Book  and  After,  1897,  p.  236  ff.,  and  J.  H.  Round, 
Feudal  England,  1895,  p.  109  ff.).  The  word  firma  is  thus  used 
of  the  composition  paid  by  the  sheriff  in  respect  of  the  dues 
to  be  collected  from  the  shire.  From  the  use  of  the  word  for  the 


fixed  sum  paid  as  rent  for  a  portion  of  land  leased  for  cultivation, 
"  farm  "  was  applied  to  the  land  itself,  whether  held  on  lease  or 
otherwise,  and  always  with  the  meaning  of  agricultural  land. 
The  aspect  of  the  fixity  of  the  sum  paid  leads  to  a  secondary 
meaning,  that  of  a  certain  sum  paid  by  a  taxable  person,  com- 
munity, state,  &c.,  in  respect  of  the  taxes  or  dues  that  will  be 
imposed,  or  to  such  a  sum  paid  as  a  rent  by  a  contractor  for  the 
right  of  collecting  such  taxes.  This  method  of  indirect  collection 
of  the  revenue  by  contractors  instead  of  directly  by  the  officials 
of  the  state  is  that  known  as  "  farming  the  taxes."  The  system 
is  best  known  through  the  publicani  of  Rome,  who  formed 
companies  or  syndicates  to  farm  not  only  the  indirect  taxation 
of  the  state,  but  also  other  sources  of  the  state  revenues,  such 
as  mines,  fisheries,  &c.  (see  PUBLICANI). 

In  monarchical  Europe,  which  grew  out  of  the  ruins  of  the 
Roman  empire,  the  revenue  was  almost  universally  farmed, 
but  the  system  was  gradually  narrowed  down  until  only  indirect 
taxes  became  the  subject  of  farming.  France  from  the  i6th  to 
the  1 8th  centuries  is  the  most  interesting  modern  example. 
Owing  to  the  hopeless  condition  of  its  revenues,  the  French 
government  was  continually  in  a  state  of  anticipating  its  resources, 
and  was  thus  entirely  in  the  hands  of  financiers.  In  1681  the 
indirect  taxes  were  farmed  collectively  to  a  single  company  of 
forty  capitalists  (ferme  generate),  increased  to  sixty  in  1755,  and 
reduced  to  the  original  number  in  1780.  These  farmers-general 
were  appointed  by  the  king  for  six  years,  and  paid  an  annual  fixed 
sum  every  year  in  advance.  The  taxes  which  theyj  collected 
were  the  customs  (douanes  or  traites),  the  gabelle  or  salt  tax, 
local  taxes  or  octrois  (entrees,  &c.),  and  various  smaller  taxes. 
They  were  under  the  management  of  a  controller-general,  who 
had  a  central  office  in  Paris.  The  office  of  farmer-general  was 
the  object  of  keen  competition,  notwithstanding  that  the 
successful  candidates  had  to  share  a  considerable  part  of  the 
profits  of  the  post  with  ministers,  courtiers,  favourites,  and 
even  the  sovereign,  in  the  shape  of  gifts  (croupes)  and  pensions. 
The  rapacity  of  the  farmers-general  was  proverbial,  and  the  loss 
to  the  revenue  by  the  system  was  great,  while  very  considerable 
hardships  were  inflicted  on  the  poorer  contributors  by  the 
unscrupulous  methods  of  collection  practised  by  the  underlings 
of  the  farmers.  In  addition,  the  unpopular  nature  of  the  taxes 
caused  deep  discontent,  and  the  detestation  in  which  the  farmers- 
general  were  held  culminated  in  the  execution  of  thirty-two  of 
them  during  the  French  Revolution  and  the  sweeping  away 
of  the  system. 

See  also  AGRICULTURE,  DAIRY  AND  DAIRY-FARMING,  FRUIT  AND 
FLOWER  FARMING,  &c. 

FARM  BUILDINGS.  The  best  laying  out  of  a  farm,  and  the 
construction  of  its  buildings,  are  matters  which,  from  the  variety 
of  needs  and  circumstances,  involve  practical  considerations 
and  expert  knowledge,  too  detailed  in  their  nature  for  more  than 
a  brief  reference  in  this  work.  It  may  be  said  generally  that  the 
best  aspect  for  farm  buildings  is  S.  or  S.S.E.,  and  with  a  view  to 
easy  disposal  of  drainage  they  should  be  built  on  a  slight  slope. 
The  supply  of  water,  whether  it  be  provided  from  wells  by  engine 
or  windmill  power,  by  hydraulic  rams  or  other  means,  is  a  prime 
consideration,  and  it  should  if  possible  be  laid  on  at  different 
suitable  points  or  at  any  rate  the  central  source  of  supply  should 
be  in  the  most  accessible  and  convenient  place  as  regards  stables 
and  cow-sheds.  The  buildings  should  be  constructed  on  or  within 
easy  distance  of  the  public  road,  in  order  to  save  the  upkeep 
of  private  roads,  and  should  be  as  near  as  possible  to  the  centre 
of  the  farm.  On  mixed  farms  of  ordinary  size  (200  to  500 
acres)  the  building  may  be  advantageously  planned  in  one 
rectangular  block,  the  stock-yards  being  placed  in  the  centre 
separated  by  the  cow-sheds,  and  surrounded  by  the  cart -sheds, 
stables,  stores  and  barn,  cattle-boxes,  piggeries  and  minor 
buildings.  On  farms  of  larger  size  and  on  dairy  farms  special 
needs  must  be  taken  into  account,  while  in  all  cases  the  local 
methods  of  farming  must  influence  the  grouping  and  arrangement 
of  the  steading. 

For  a  more  detailed  treatment  of  the  subject  reference  may  be 
made  to  the  following  works: — S.  Taylor,  Modern  Homesteads: 


FARMER— FARMERS'  MOVEMENT 


181 


a  Treatise  on  the  Designing  of  Farm  Buildings  (London,  1905) ;  A.  D. 
Clarke,  Modern  Farm  Buildings  (London,  1899);  P.  Roberts,  The 
Farmstead,  in  the  "  Rural  Science  Series  "  (New  York,  1900),  and 
articles  in  the  Standard  Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture,  vol.  3,  and  in  the 
Cyclopaedia  of  American  Agriculture,  vol.  I. 

FARMER,  RICHARD  (1735-1797),  Shakespearian  com- 
mentator, the  son  of  a  rich  maltster,  was  born  at  Leicester  on 
the  28th  of  August  1735.  He  was  educated  at  the  free  grammar 
school  of  his  native  town,  and  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge. 
He  graduated  in  1757  a  senior  optime;  three  years  later  he 
proceeded  M.A.  and  became  classical  tutor,  and  in  1775  master 
of  his  college,  in  succession  to  William  Richardson,  the  bio- 
grapher of  the  English  bishops.  In  the  latter  year  also  he  was 
appointed  vice-chancellor,  and  three  years  afterwards  chief 
librarian  of  the  university.  In  1780  he  was  appointed  to  a 
prebendal  stall  in  Lichfield,  and  two  years  later  to  one  at  Canter- 
bury; but  the  second  office  he  exchanged  in  1788  for  that  of  a 
canon  residentiary  of  St  Paul's.  Cambridge,  where  he  usually 
resided,  was  indebted  to  him  for  improvements  in  lighting, 
paving  and  watching;  but  perhaps  London  and  the  nation  have 
less  reason  to  be  grateful  for  his  zealous  advocacy  of  the  custom 
of  erecting  monuments  to  departed  worthies  in  St  Paul's.  In 
1765  he  issued  a  prospectus  for  a  history  of  the  town  of  Leicester; 
but  this  work,  based  on  materials  collected  by  Thomas  Staveley, 
he  never  even  began;  it  was  carried  out  by  the  learned  printer 
John  Nichols.  In  1766  he  published  his  famous  Essay  on  the 
Learning  of  Shakespeare,  in  which  he  proved  that  the  poet's 
acquaintance  with  ancient  and  modern  Continental  literature 
was  exclusively  derived  from  translations,  of  which  he  copied 
even  the  blunders.  "  Shakespeare,"  he  said,  "  wanted  not  the 
stilts  of  language  to  raise  him  above  all  other  men."  "  He  came 
out  of  nature's  hand,  like  Pallas  out  of  Jove's  head,  at  full 
growth  and  mature."  "  One  might,"  he  said — by  way  of  ridicul- 
ing the  Shakespearian  criticism  of  the  day — "  with  equal  wisdom, 
study. the  Talmud  for  an  exposition  of  Tristram  Shandy."  The 
essay  fully  justifies  the  author's  description  of  himself  in  the 
preface  to  the  second  edition:  "  I  may  consider  myself  as  the 
pioneer  of  the  commentators;  I  have  removed  a  deal  of  learned 
rubbish,  and  pointed  out  to  them  Shakespeare's  track  in  the 
very  pleasant  paths  of  nature."  Farmer  died  at  Cambridge 
,  on  the  8th  of  September  1797.  He  was,  it  appears,  twice  offered 
a  bishopric  by  Pitt,  but  declined  the  preferment.  Farmer  was 
immensely  popular  in  his  own  college,  and  loved,  it  was  said, 
above  all  other  things,  old  port,  old  clothes  and  ok|  books. 

FARMERS'  MOVEMENT,  in  American  political  history,  the 
general  name  for  a  movement  between  1867  and  1896  remarkable 
for  a  radical  socio-economic  propaganda  that  came  from  what 
was  considered  the  most  conservative  class  of  American  society. 
In  this  movement  there  were  three  periods,  popularly  known  as 
Granger,  Alliance  and  Populist. 

The  GRANGE,  or  Order  of  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry  (the  latter 
the  official  name  of  the  national  organization,  while  the  former 
was  the  name  of  local  chapters,  including  a  supervisory  National 
Grange  at  Washington),  was  a  secret  order  founded  in  1867  to 
advance  the  social  needs  and  combat  the  economic  backwardness 
of  farm  life.  It  grew  remarkably  in  1873-1874,  and  in  the  latter 
year  attained  a  membership  of  perhaps  800,000.  In  the  causes 
of  its  growth — much  broader  than  those  that  issued  in  the 
financial  crisis  of  1873 — a  high  tariff,  railway  freight-rates  and 
other  grievances  were  mingled  with  agricultural  troubles  like 
the  fall  of  wheat  prices  and  the  increase  of  mortgages.  The 
condition  of  the  farmer  seemed  desperate.  The  original  objects 
of  the  Grange  were  primarily  educational,  but  these  were  soon 
overborne  by  an  anti-middleman,  co-operative  movement. 
Grange  agents  bought  everything  from  farm  machinery  to 
women's  dresses;  hundreds  of  grain  elevators  and  cotton  and 
tobacco  warehouses  were  bought,  and  even  steamboat  lines; 
mutual  insurance  companies  were  formed  and  joint-stock  stores. 
Nor  was  co-operation  limited  to  distributive  processes;  crop- 
reports  were  circulated,  co-operative  dairies  multiplied,  flour- 
mills  were  operated,  and  patents  were  purchased,  that  the  Grange 
might  manufacture  farm  machinery.  The  outcome  in  some 


states  was  ruin,  and  the  name  Grange  became  a  reproach. 
Nevertheless  these  efforts  in  co-operation  were  exceedingly 
important  both  for  the  results  obtained  and  for  their  wider 
significance.  Nor  could  politics  be  excluded,  though  officially 
tatooed;  for  economics  must  be  considered  by  social  idealists, 
and  economics  everywhere  ran  into  politics.  Thus  it  was  with 
the  railway  question.  Railways  had  been  extended  into  frontier 
states;  there  were  heavy  crops  in  sparsely  settled  regions  where 
freight-rates  were  high,  so  that — given  the  existing  distributive 
system — there  were  "  over  production  "  and  waste;  there  was 
notorious  stock  manipulation  and  discrimination  in  rates;  and 
the  farmers  regarded  "  absentee  ownership  "  of  railways  by 
New  York  capitalists  much  as  absentee  ownership  of  land  has 
been  regarded  in  Ireland.  The  Grange  officially  disclaimed 
enmity  to  railways;  but  though  the  organization  did  not  attack 
them,  the  Grangers — through  political  "farmers'  clubs"  and 
the  like — did.  About  1867  began  the  efforts  to  establish 
regulation  of  the  railways,  as  common-carriers,  by  the  states. 
Such  laws  were  known  as  "  Granger  laws,"  and  their  general 
principles,  soon  endorsed  (1876)  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States,  have  become  an  important  chapter  in  the  laws 
of  the  land.  In  a  declaration  of  principles  in  1874  Grangers 
were  declared  to  be  "  not  enemies  of  railroads,"  and  their  cause 
to  stand  for  "  no  communism,  no  agrarianism."  To  conserva- 
tives, however,  co-operation  seemed  communism,  and  "  Grange 
laws"  agrarianism;  and  thus  in  1873-1874  the  growth' of  the 
movement  aroused  extraordinary  interest  and  much  uneasiness. 
In  1874  the  order  was  reorganized,  membership  being  limited  to 
persons  directly  interested  in  the  farmers'  cause  (there  had  been 
a  millionaire  manufacturers'  Grange  on  Broadway),  and  after 
this  there  were  constant  quarrels  in  the  order;  moreover,  in 
1875  the  National  Grange  largely  lost  control  of  the  state  Granges, 
which  discredited  the  organization  by  their  disastrous  co-opera- 
tion ventures.  Thus  by  1876  it  had  already  ceased  to  be  of 
national  political  importance.  About  1880  a  renascence  began, 
particularly  in  the  Middle  States  and  New  England;  this 
revival  was  marked  by  a  recurrence  to  the  original  social  and 
educational  objects.  The  national  Grange  and  state  Granges 
(in  all,  or  nearly  all,  of  the  states)  were  still  active  in  1909, 
especially  in  the  old  cultural  movement  and  in  such  economic 
movements — notably  the  improvement  of  highways — as  most 
directly  concern  the  farmers.  The  initiative  and-  referendum, 
and  other  proposals  of  reform  politics  in  the  direction  of  a 
democratic  advance,  also  enter  in  a  measure  into  their 
propaganda. 

The  ALLIANCE  carried  the  movement  farther  into  economics. 
The  "  National  Farmers'  Alliance  and  Industrial  Union,"  formed 
in  1889,  embraced  several  originally  independent  organizations 
formed  from  1873  onwards;  it  was  largely  confined  to  the  South 
and  was  secret.  The  "  National  Farmers'  Alliance,"  formed  in 
1880,  went  back  similarly  to  1877,  was  much  smaller,  Northern 
and  non-secret.  The  "  Colored  Farmers'  National  Alliance  and 
Co-operative  Union "  (formed  1888,  merged  in  the  above 
"  Southern  "  Alliance  in  1890)  was  the  second  greatest  organiza- 
tion. With  these  three  were  associated  many  others,  state  and 
national,  including  an  annual,  non-partisan,  deliberative  and 
advisory  Farmers'  National  Congress.  The  Alliance  movement 
reached  its  greatest  power  about  1890,  in  which  year  twelve 
national  farmers'  organizations  were  represented  in  conventions 
in  St  Louis,  and  the  six  leading  ones  alone  probably  had  a 
membership  of  5,ooo,ooo.1 

As  with  the  Grange,  so  in  the  ends  and  declarations  of  the 
whole  later  movement,  concrete  remedial  legislation  for  agri- 
cultural or  economic  ills  was  mingled  with  principles  of  vague 
radical  tendency  and  with  lofty  idealism.2  Among  the  principles 

1  Membership  usually  included  males  or  females  above  16  years 
of  age. 

2  Thus,  the  "  Southern  "  Alliance  in  1890  (the  chief  platforms  were 
the  one  at  Ocala,  Florida,  and  that  of  1889  at  St  Louis,  in  con- 
junction with  the  Knights  of  Labor)  declared  its  principles  to  be: 
"  (i)  To  labour  for  the  education  of  the  agricultural  classes  in  the 
science  of  economical  government  in  a  strictly  non-partisan  way, 
and  to  bring  about  a  more  perfect  union  of  such  classes.     (2)  To 


182 


FARNABY— FARNBOROUGH 


advocated  about  1890,  practically  all  the  great  organizations 
demanded  the  abolition  of  national  banks,  the  free  coinage  of 
silver,  a  "  sufficient  "  issue  of  government  paper  money,  tariff 
revision,  and  a  secret  ballot  (the  last  was  soon  realized);  only 
less  commonly  demanded  were  an  income  tax,  taxation  of 
evidence  of  debt,  and  government  loans  on  lands.  All  of  these 
were  principles  of  the  two  great  Alliances  (the  Northern  and  the 
Southern),  as  were  also  pure  food  legislation,  abolition  of  land- 
holding  by  aliens,  reclamation  of  unused  or  unearned  land  grants 
(to  railways,  e.g.),  and  either  rigid  federal  regulation  of  railways 
and  other  means  of  communication  or  government  ownership 
thereof.  The  "  Southern  "  Alliance  put  in  the  forefront  a  "  sub- 
treasury  "  scheme  according  to  which  cheap  loans  should  be 
made  by  government  from  local  sub-treasuries  on  non-perishable 
farm  products  (such  as  grain  and  cotton)  stored  in  government 
warehouses;  while  the  "  Northern  "  Alliance  demanded  restric- 
tion of  the  liquor  traffic  and  (for  a  short  time)  woman  suffrage. 
Still  other  issues  were  a  modification  of  the  patent  laws  (e.g.  to 
prevent  the  purchase  of  patents  to  stifle  competition),  postal 
currency  exchange,  the  eight-hour  day,  inequitable  taxation, 
the  single-tax  on  land,  "  trusts,"  educational  qualification  for 
suffrage,  direct  popular  election  of  federal  judges,  of  senators, 
and  of  the  president,  special-interest  lobbying,  &c. 

In  1880-1890  the  political  (non-partisan)  movement  developed 
astonishing  strength;  it  captured  the  Republican  stronghold  of 
Kansas,  brought  the  Democratic  Party  to  vassalage  in  South 
Carolina,  revolutionized  legislatures  even  in  conservative  states 
like  Massachusetts,  and  seemed  likely  completely  to  dominate 
the  South  and  West.  All  its  work  in  the  South  was  accomplished 
within  the  old-party  organizations,  but  in  1890  the  demand 
became  strong  for  an  independent  third  party,  for  which  various 
consolidations  since  1887  had  prepared  the  way,  and  by  1892 
a  large  part  of  the  strength  of  the  farmers'  organizations,  with 
that  of  various  industrial  and  radical  orders,  was  united  in  the 
People's  Party  (perhaps  more  generally  known  as  the  POPULIST 
Party),  which  had  its  beginnings  in  Kansas  in  1890,  and  received 
national  organization  in  1892.  This  party  emphasized  free 
silver,  the  income  tax,  eight-hour  day,  reclamation  of  land 
grants,  government  ownership  of  railways,  telephones  and 
telegraphs,  popular  election  of  federal  senators,  and  the  initiative 
and  referendum.  In  the  presidential  election  of  1892  it  cast 
1,041,021  votes  (in  a  total  of  12,036,089),  and  elected  22  presi- 
dential electors,  the  first  chosen  by  any  third  party  since  1856. 
In  1896  the  People's  Party  "  fused  "  with  the  Democratic  Party 
(q.v.)  in  the  presidential  campaign,  and  again  in  1900;  during 
this  period,  indeed,  the  greatest  part  of  the  People's  Party  was 
reabsorbed  into  the  two  great  parties  from  which  its  membership 
had  originally  been  drawn; — in  some  northern  states  apparently 
largely  into  the  Republican  ranks,  but  mainly  into  the  Democratic 
Party,  to  which  it  gave  a  powerful  radical  impulse. 

The  Farmers'  movement  was  much  misunderstood,  abused 
and  ridiculed.  It  accomplished  a  vast  amount  of  good.  The 
movement — and  especially  the  Grange,  for  on  most  important 
points  the  later  movements  only  followed  where  it  had  led — 
contributed  the  initial  impulse  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
establishment  of  travelling  and  local  rural  libraries,  reading 
courses,  lyceums,  farmers'  institutes  (a  steadily  increasing  in- 
fluence) and  rural  free  mail  delivery  (inaugurated  experimentally 
in  1896  and  adopted  as  part  of  the  permanent  postal  system  of 
the  country  in  1902);  for  agricultural  exhibits  and  an  improved 
agricultural  press;  for  encouragement  to  and  increased  profit 
from  the  work  of  agricultural  colleges,  the  establishment  (1885) 
and  great  services  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
demand  equal  rights  to  all,  and  special  privileges  to  none.  (3)  To 
endorse  the  motto:  '  In  things  essential,  unity;  in  all  things, 
charity.'  (4)  To  develop  a  better  state,  mentally,  morally,  socially 
and  financially.  .  .  .  (6)  To  suppress  personal,  local,  sectional  and 
national  prejudices."  For  the  Southern  farmer  a  chief  concrete  evil 
was  the  pre-crop  mortgages  by  which  cotton  farmers  remained  in 
debt  to  country  merchants;  in  the  North  the  farmer  attacked  a 
wide  range  of  "  capitalistic  "  legislation  that  hurt  him,  he  believed, 
for  the  benefit  of  other  classes — notably  legislation  sought  by 
railways. 


culture, — in  short,  for  an  extraordinary  lessening  of  rural  isolation 
and  betterment  of  the  farmers'  opportunities;  for  the  irrigation 
of  the  semi-arid  West,  adopted  as  a  national  policy  in  1902,  the 
pure-food  laws  of  1906,  the  interstate-commerce  law  of  1887,  the 
railway-rate  laws  of  1903  and  1906,  even  the  great  Bureau  of 
Commerce-and-Labor  law  of  1903,  and  the  Anti-trust  laws  of 
1903  and  later.  The  Alliance  and  Populist  movements  were 
bottomed  on  the  idea  of  "  ethical  gains  through  legislation." 
In  its  local  manifestations  the  whole  movement  was  often 
marked  by  eccentric  ideas,  narrow  prejudices  and  weaknesses 
in  economic  reasoning.  It  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  owing 
to  the  movement  of  the  frontier  the  United  States  has  always 
been  "  at  once  a  developed  country  and  a  primitive  one.  The 
same  political  questions  have  been  put  to  a  society  advanced 
in  some  regions  and  undeveloped  in  others.  ...  On  specific 
political  questions  each  economic  area  has  reflected  its  peculiar 
interests"  (Prof.  F.  J.  Turner).  That  this  idea  must  not, 
however,  be  over-emphasized,  is  admirably  enforced  by  observing 
the  great  mass  of  farmer  radicalism  that  has,  since  about  1896, 
become  an  accepted  Democratic  and  Republican  principle  over 
the  whole  country.  The  Farmers'  movement  was  the  beginning 
of  widespread,  effective  protest  against  "  the  menace  of  privilege" 
in  the  United  States. 

American  periodicals,  especially  in  1890-1892,  are  particularly 
informing  on  the  growth  of  the  movement;  see  F.  M.  Drew  in 
Political  Science  Quarterly  (1891),  vi.  p.  282;  C.  W.  Pierson  in 
Popular  Science  Monthly  (1888),  xxxii.  pp.  199,  368;  C.  S.  Walker 
and  F.  J.  Foster  in  Annals  of  American  Academy  (1894),  iv.  p.  790; 
Senator  W.  A.  Peffer  in  Cosmopolitan  (1890),  x.  p.  694;  and  on 
agricultural  discontent,  Political  Science  Quarterly,  iv.  (1889),  p.  433, 
by  W.  F.  Mappin;  v.  (1890),  p.  65,  by  J.  P.  Dunn;  xi.  (1896),  pp.  433, 
601,  xii.  (1897),  p.  93,  and  xiv.  (1899),  p.  444,  by  C.  F.  Emenck; 
Prof.  E.  W.  Bemis  in  Journal  of  Political  Economy  (1893),  i.  p.  193; 
A.  H.  Peters  in  Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics  (1890),  iv.  p.  18; 
C.  W.  Davis  in  Forum  (1890),  ix.  pp.  231,  291,  348. 

FARNABY  (or  FARNABIE),  THOMAS  (c.  1575-1647),  English 
grammarian,  was  the  son  of  a  London  carpenter;  his  grandfather, 
it  is  said,  had  been  mayor  of  Truro,  his  great-grandfather  an 
Italian  musician.  Between  1590  and  1595  he  appears  succes- 
sively as  a  student  of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  a  pupil  in  a  Jesuit 
college  in  Spain,  and  a  follower  of  Drake  and  Hawkins.  After 
some  military  service  in  the  Low  Countries  "  he  made  shift," 
says  Wood,  "  to  be  set  on  shore  in  the  western  part  of  England; 
where,  after  some  wandering  to  and  fro  under  the  name  of  Tho. 
Bainrafe,  the  anagram  of  his  sirname,  he  settled  at  Martock, 
in  Somersetshire,  and  taught  the  grammar  school  there  for  some 
time  with  success.  After  he  had  gotten  some  feathers  at  Martock, 
he  took  his  flight  to  London,"  and  opened  a  school  in  Goldsmiths' 
Rents,  Cripplegate.  From  this  school,  which  had  as  many  as 
300  pupils,  there  issued,  says  Wood,  "  more  churchmen  and 
statesmen  than  from  any  school  taught  by  one  man  in  England." 
In  the  course  of  his  London  career  "  he  was  made  master  of  arts 
of  Cambridge,  and  soon  after  incorporated  at  Oxon."  Such  was 
his  success  that  he  was  enabled  to  buy  an  estate  at  Otford  near 
Sevenoaks,  Kent,  to  which  he  retired  from  London  in  1636,  still, 
however,  carrying  on  his  profession  of  schoolmaster.  In  course 
of  time  he  added  to  his  Otford  estate  and  bought  another  near 
Horsham  in  Sussex.  In  politics  he  was  a  royalist;  and,  suspected 
of  participation  in  the  rising  near  Tunbridge,  1643,  he  was 
imprisoned  in  Ely  House,  Holborn.  He  died  at  Sevenoaks  on 
the  1 2th  of  June  1647. 

The  details  of  his  life  were  derived  by  Anthony  a  Wood  from 
Francis,  Farnaby's  son  by  a  second  marriage  (see  Wood's  Alhenae 
Oxonienses,  ed.  Bliss,  iii.  213).  His  works  chiefly  consisted  of  anno- 
tated editions  of  Latin  authors — Juvenal,  Persius,  Seneca,  Martial, 
Lucan,  Virgil,  Ovid  and  Terence,  which  enjoyed  extraordinary 
popularity.  His  Systema  grammaticum  was  published  in  London 
in  1641.  On  the  6th  of  April  1632,  Farnaby  was  presented  with  a 
royal  patent  granting  him,  for  the  space  of  twenty-one  years,  the 
sole  right  of  printing  and  publishing  certain  of  his  works. 

FARNBOROUGH,  THOMAS  ERSKINE  MAY,  BARON  (1815- 
1886),  English  Constitutional  historian,  was  born  in  London 
on  the  8th  of  February  1815  and  educated  at  Bedford  grammar 
school.  In  1831  he  was  nominated  by  Manners  Sutton,  speaker 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  to  the  post  of  assistant  librarian,  so 
that  his  long  connexion  with  parliament  began  in  his  youth. 


FARNBOROUGH— FARNESE 


183 


He  studied  for  the  bar,  and  was  called  at  the  Middle  Temple  in 
1838.  In  1844  he  published  the  first  edition  of  his  Treatise  on 
the  Law,  Privilege,  Proceedings  and  Usage  of  Parliament.  This 
work,  which  has  passed  through  many  editions,  is  not  only  an 
invaluable  mine  of  information  for  the  historical  student,  but  it  is 
known  as  the  text -book  of  the  law  by  which  parliament  governs 
its  proceedings.  In  1846  Erskine  May  was  appointed  examiner 
of  petitions  for  private  bills,  and  the  following  year  taxing- 
master  of  the  House  of  Commons.  He  published  his  Remarks 
to  Facilitate  Public  Business  in  Parliament  in  1849;  a  work 
On  the  Consolidation  of  Election  Laws  in  1850;  and  his  Rules, 
Orders  and  Forms  of  the  House  of  Commons  was  printed  by 
command  of  the  House  in  1854.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  clerk 
assistant  at  the  table  of  the  House  of  Commons.  He  received 
the  companionship  of  the  Bath  in  1860  for  his  parliamentary 
services,  and  became  a  knight  commander  in  1866.  His  im- 
portant work,  The  Constitutional  History  of  England  since  the 
Accession  of  George  III.  (1760-1860),  was  published  in  1861- 
1863,  and  it  received  frequent  additions  in  subsequent  editions. 
In  1871  Sir  Erskine  May  was  appointed  clerk  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  His  Democracy  in  Europe:  a  History  appeared  in 
1877,  but  it  failed  to  take  the  same  rank  in  critical  esteem  as  his 
Constitutional  History.  He  retired  from  the  post  of  clerk  to  the 
House  of  Commons  in  April  1886,  having  for  fifteen  years 
discharged  the  onerous  duties  of  the  office  with  as  much  know- 
ledge and  energy  as  unfailing  tact  and  courtesy.  Shortly  after 
his  retirement  from  office  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  under  the 
title  of  Baron  Farnborough  of  Farnborough,  in  the  county  of 
Southampton,  but  he  only  survived  to  enjoy  the  dignity  for  a 
few  days.  He  died  in  London  on  the  1 7th  of  May  1886,  and  as  he 
left  no  issue  the  title  became  extinct. 

FARNBOROUGH,  an  urban  district  in  the  Basingstoke 
parliamentary  division  of  Hampshire,  England,  33  m.  S.W.  by  W. 
from  London,  on  the  London  &  South  Western  and  the  South 
Eastern  &  Chatham  railways.  Pop.  (1901)  11,500  (including 
5070  military) .  The  church  of  St  Peter  ranges  from  Early  English 
to  Perpendicular  in  style.  St  Michael's  Catholic  memorial 
church,  erected  in  1887  by  the  ex-empress  Eugenie,  contains  the 
remains  of  Napoleon  III.  and  the  prince  imperial.  An  adjoining 
abbey  is  occupied  by  Benedictine  fathers  of  the  French  congrega- 
tion; the  convent  is  a  ladies'  boarding-school.  Aldershot  North 
Camp  is  within  the  parish. 

FARNE  ISLANDS  [also  FEARNE,  FERN,  or  THE  STAPLES],  a 
group  of  rocky  islands  and  reefs  off  the  coast  of  Northumberland, 
England,  included  in  that  county.  In  1901  they  had  only  eleven 
inhabitants.  They  extend  in  a  line  of  some  6  m.  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  from  the  coast,  on  which  the  nearest  villages 
are  Bamborough  and  North  Sunderland.  The  Fairway,  15  m. 
across,  separates  the  largest  island,  Fame,  or  House,  from  the 
mainland.  Fame  is  16  acres  in  area,  and  has  precipitous  cliffs 
up  to  80  ft.  in  height  on  the  east,  but  the  shore  is  otherwise  low. 
The  other  principal  islets  are  Staple,  Brownsman,  North  and 
South  Wamses,  Longstone  and  Big  Harcar.  On  Farne  is  a  small 
ancient  chapel,  with  a  square  tower  near  it  built  for  purposes  of 
defence  in  the  isth  century.  The  chapel  is  believed  to  occupy 
the  site  of  St  Cuthbert's  hermitage,  whither  he  retired  from  the 
priory  on  the  neighbouring  Holy  Island  or  Lindisfarne.  He 
was  with  difficulty  persuaded  to  leave  it  on  his  elevation  to  the 
bishopric  of  Lindisfarne,  and  returned  to  it  to  die  (687).  Long- 
stone  rock,  with  its  lighthouse,  is  famous  as  the  scene  of  the 
bravery  of  Grace  Darling  in  rescuing  some  of  the  survivors  of 
the  wreck  of  the  "  Forfarshire  "  (1838).  The  rocks  abound  in 
sea-birds,  including  eider  duck. 

FARNESE,  the  name  of  one  of  the  most  illustrious  and  powerful 
Italian  families,  which  besides  including  eminent  prelates, 
statesmen  and  warriors  among  its  members,  ruled  the  duchy 
of  Parma  for  two  centuries.  The  early  history  of  the  family  is 
involved  in  obscurity,  but  they  are  first  heard  of  as  lords  of 
Farneto  or  Farnese,  a  castle  near  the  lake  of  Bolsena,  and  they 
played  an  important  part  as  consuls  and  signori  of  Orvieto. 
They  seem  to  have  always  been  Guelphs,  and  in  the  civil 
broils  of  Orvieto  they  sided  with  the  Monaldeschi  faction  against 


the  Ghibelline  Filippeschi.  One  Pietro  Farnese  commanded 
the  papal  armies  under  Paschal  II.  (1090-1118);  another 
Pietro  led  the  Florentines  to  victory  against  the  Pisans  in  1363. 
Ranuccio  Farnese  served  Eugene  IV.  so  well  that  the  pope 
endowed  him  with  large  fiefs,  and  is  reported  to  have  said,  "  The 
Church  is  ours  because  Farnese  has  given  it  back  to  us." 

The  family  derived  further  advantages  at  the  time  of  Pope 
Alexander  VI.,  who  was  the  lover  of  the  beautiful  Giulia  Farnese, 
known  as  Giulia  Bella,  and  created  her  brother  Alessandro 
a  cardinal  (1493).  The  latter  was  elected  pope  as  Paul  III.  in 
1534,  and  it  is  from  that  moment  that  the  great  importance  of 
the  family  dates.  An  unblushing  nepotist,  he  alienated  immense 
fiefs  belonging  to  the  Holy  See  in  favour  of  his  natural  children. 
Of  these  the  most  famous  was  Pierluigi  Farnese  (1503-1547), 
who  served  in  the  papal  army  in  various  compaigns,  but  also 
took  part  in  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1527.  On  his  father's  elevation 
to  the  papacy  he  was  made  captain-general  of  the  Church,  and 
received  the  duchy  of  Castro  in  the  Maremma,  besides  Frascati, 
Nepi,  Montalto  and  other  fiefs.  A  shameless  rake  and  a  man 
of  uncontrollable  temper,  his  massacre  of  the  people  of  Perugia 
after  a  rebellion  in  1540  and  the  unspeakable  outrage  he  com- 
mitted on  the  bishop  of  Fano  are  typical  of  his  character.  In 
1545  his  father  conferred  on  him  the  duchy  of  Parma  and 
Piacenza,  which  likewise  belonged  to  the  Holy  See,  and  his  rule 
proved  cruel  and  tyrannical.  He  deprived  the  nobles  of  their 
privileges,  and  forced  them  to  dwell  in  the  towns,  but  to  some 
extent  he  improved  the  conditions  of  the  lower  classes.  Pierluigi 
being  an  uncompromising  opponent  of  the  emperor  Charles  V., 
Don  Ferrante  Gonzaga,  the  imperial  governor  of  Milan,  was 
ever  on  the  watch  for  a  pretext  to  deprive  him  of  Piacenza, 
which  the  emperor  greatly  coveted.  When  the  duke  proceeded 
to  build  a  castle  in  that  town  in  order  to  overawe  its  inhabitants, 
the  nobles  were  furiously  indignant,  and  a  plot  to  murder  him 
was  organized  by  the  marquis  Anguissola  and  others  with  the 
support  both  of  Gonzaga  and  of  Andrea  Doria  (?.».),  Charles's 
admiral,  who  wished  to  be  revenged  on  Pierluigi  for  the  part  he 
had  played  in  the  Fiesco  conspiracy  (see  FIESCO).  The  deed 
was  done  while  the  duke  was  superintending  the  building  of  the 
above-mentioned  citadel,  and  his  corpse  was  flung  into  the  street 
(December  zoth,  1 547) .  Piacenza  was  thereupon  occupied  by  the 
imperialists. 

Pierluigi  had  several  children,  for  all  of  whom  Paul  made 
generous  provision.  One  of  them,  Alessandro  (1520-1589),  was 
created  cardinal  at  the  age  of  fourteen;  he  was  a  man  of  learning 
and  artistic  tastes,  and  lived  with  great  splendour  surrounded 
by  scholars  and  artists,  among  whom  were  Annibal  Caro,  Paolo 
Giovio,  Mons.  Delia  Casa,  Bembo,  Vasari,  &c.  It  was  he  who 
completed  the  magnificent  Farnese  palace  in  Rome.  He  dis- 
played diplomatic  ability  on  various  missions  to  foreign  courts, 
but  failed  to  get  elected  to  the  papacy. 

Orazio,  Pierluigi's  third  son,  was  made  duke  of  Castro  when 
his  father  became  duke  of  Parma,  and  married  Diane,  a  natural 
daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  France.  Ottavio,  the  second  son  (1521- 
1586),  married  Margaret,  the  natural  daughter  of  Charles  V.  and 
widow  of  Alessandro  de'  Medici,  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  she  being 
a  year  older;  at  first  she  disliked  her  youthful  bridegroom,  but 
when  he  returned  wounded  from  the  expedition  to  Algiers  in 
1541  her  aversion  was  turned  to  affection  (see  MARGARET  OF 
AUSTRIA).  Ottavio  had  been  made  lord  of  Camerino  in  1540, 
but  he  gave  up  that  fief  when  his  father  became  duke  of  Parma. 
When,  on  the  murder  of  the  latter  in  1547,  Piacenza  was  occupied 
by  the  imperialists,  Paul  determined  to  make  an  effort  to  regain 
the  city;  he  set  aside  Ottavio's  claims  to  the  succession  of 
Parma,  where  he  appointed  a  papal  legate,  giving  him  back 
Camerino  in  exchange,  and  then  claimed  Piacenza  of  the  emperor, 
not  for  the  Farnesi,  but  for  the  Church.  But  Ottavio  would  not 
be  put  off;  he  attempted  to  seize  Parma  by  force,  and  having 
failed,  entered  into  negotiations  with  Gonzaga.  This  unnatural 
rebellion  on  the  part  of  one  grandson,  combined  with  the  fact 
that  it  was  supported  by  the  other  grandson,  Cardinal  Alessandro, 
hastened  the  pope's  death,  which  occurred  on  the  loth  of 
November  1 549.  During  the  interregnum  that  followed  Ottavio 


184 


FARNESE,  ALEXANDER 


again  tried  to  induce  the  governor  of  Parma  to  give  up  the  city 
to  him,  but  met  with  no  better  success;  however,  on  the  election 
of  Giovan  Maria  Ciocchi  (Julius  III.)  the  duchy  was  conferred 
on  him  (1551).  This  did  not  end  his  quarrel  with  the  emperor, 
for  Gonzaga  refused  to  give  up  Piacenza  and  even  threatened 
to  occupy  Parma,  so  that  Ottavio  was  driven  into  the  arms  of 
France.  Julius,  who  was  anxious  to  be  on  good  terms  with 
Charles  on  account  of  the  council  of  Trent  which  was  then  sitting, 
ordered  Farnese  to  hand  Parma  over  to  the  papal  authorities 
once  more,  and  on  his  refusal  hurled  censures  and  admonitions 
at  his  head,  and  deprived  him  of  his  Roman  fiefs,  while  Charles 
did  the  same  with  regard  to  those  in  Lombardy.  A  French  army 
came  to  protect  Parma,  war  broke  out,  and  Gonzaga  at  once  laid 
siege  to  the  city.  But  the  duke  came  to  an  arrangement  with  his 
father-in-law,  by  which  he  regained  Piacenza  and  his  other  fiefs 
The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  quietly  at  home,  where  the  modera- 
tion and  wisdom  of  his  rule  won  for  him  the  affection  of  his  people. 
At  his  death  in  1586  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alessandro 
Farnese  (1545-1592),  the  famous  general  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
who  spent  the  whole  of  his  reign  in  the  Flemish  wars. 

The  first  years  of  the  reign  of  his  son  and  successor  Ranuccio  I. 
(1569-1622),  who  had  shown  much  spirit  in  a  controversy  with 
Pope  Sixtus  V.,  were  uneventful,  but  in  1611  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  against  him  by  a  group  of  discontented  nobles  supported 
by  the  dukes  of  Modena  and  Mantua.  The  plot  was  discovered 
and  the  conspirators  were  barbarously  punished,  many  being 
tortured  and  put  to  death,  and  their  estates  confiscated. 
Ranuccio  was  a  reserved  and  gloomy  bigot;  he  instituted  savage 
persecutions  against  supposed  witches  and  heretics,  and  lived 
in  perpetual  terror  of  plots.  His  eldest  son  Alessandro  being 
deaf  and  dumb,  the  succession  devolved  on  his  second  son 
Odoardo  (1612-1646),  who  fought  on  the  French  side  in  the  war 
against  Spain.  His  failure  to  pay  the  interest  of  the  money 
borrowed  in  Rome,  and  the  desire  of  Urban  VIII.  to  obtain 
Castro  for  his  relatives  the  Barberini  (<?.».),  resulted  in  a  war 
between  that  pope  and  Odoardo.  His  son  and  successor  Ra- 
nuccio II.  (1630-1694)  also  had  a  war  with  the  Holy  See  about 
Castro,  which  was  eventually  razed  to  the  ground.  His  son 
Francesco  Maria  (1678-1727)  suffered  from  the  wars  between 
Spain  and  Austria,  the  latter's  troops  devastating  his  territory; 
but  although  this  obliged  him  to  levy  some  burdensome  taxes, 
he  was  a  good  ruler  and  practised  economy  in  his  administration. 
Having  no  children,  the  succession  devolved  at  his  death  on 
his  brother  Antonio  (1670-1731),  who  was  also  childless.  The 
powers  had  agreed  that  at  the  death  of  the  latter  the  duchy 
should  pass  to  Don  Carlos  of  Bourbon,  son  of  King  Philip  V. 
of  Spain  by  Elisabetta  Farnese  (1692-1766),  granddaughter  of 
Ranuccio  II.  Antonio  died  in  1731,  and  with  him  the  line  of 
Farnese  came  to  an  end. 

The  Palazzo  Farnese  in  Rome,  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of 
Roman  Renaissance  architecture,  was  begun  under  Paul  III., 
while  he  was  cardinal,  by  Antonio  da  San  Gallo,  and  completed 
by  his  nephew  Cardinal  Alessandro  under  the  direction  of 
Michelangelo  (1526).  It  was  inherited  by  Don  Carlos,  afterwards 
king  of  Naples  and  Spain,  and  most  of  the  pictures  were  removed 
to  Naples.  It  now  contains  the  French  embassy  to  the  Italian 
court,  as  well  as  the  French  school  of  Rome. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F.  Odorici  gives  a  detailed  history  of  the  family 
in  P.  Litta's  Famiglie  celebri  italiane,  vol.  x.  (Milan,  1868),  to  which 
an  elaborate  bibliography  is  appended,  including  manuscript 
sources;  a  more  recent  bibliography  is  S.  Lottici  and  G.  Sitti, 
Bibliografia  generate  per  la  storia  parmense  (Parma,  1904) ;  much 
information  will  be  found  in  A.  von  Reumont's  Geschichte  der  Stadt 
Rom,  vol.  iii.  (Berlin,  1868),  and  in  F.  Gregorovius's  Geschichte  der 
Stadt  Rom  (Stuttgart,  1872).  (L.  V.*) 

FARNESE,  ALEXANDER  (1545-1592),  duke  of  Parma, 
general,  statesman  and  diplomatist,  governor-general  of  the 
Netherlands  under  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  was  born  at  Rome  on  the 
27th  of  August  1545,  and  died  at  the  abbey  of  St  Waast,  near 
Arras,  on  the  3rd  of  December  1592.  He  was  the  son  of  Ottavio 
Farnese,  duke  of  Parma,  and  Margaret  of  Austria,  natural 
daughter  of  Charles  V.  He  accompanied  his  mother  to  Brussels 
when  she  was  appointed  governor  of  the  Netherlands,  and  in 


1565  his  marriage  with  the  princess  Maria  of  Portugal  was  cele- 
brated in  Brussels  with  great  splendour.  Alexander  Farnese  had 
been  brought  up  in  Spain  with  his  cousin,  the  ill-fated  Don 
Carlos,  and  his  uncle  Don  John  of  Austria,  both  of  whom  were 
about  the  same  age  as  himself,  and  after  his  marriage  he  took 
up  his  residence  at  once  at  the  court  of  Madrid.  He  fought  with 
much  personal  distinction  under  the  command  of  Don  John  in 
1571  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto.  It  was  seven  years,  however, 
before  he  had  again  an  opportunity  for  the  display  of  his  great 
military  talents.  In  the  meantime  the  provinces  of  the  Nether- 
lands had  revolted  against  the  arbitrary  and  oppressive  Spanish 
rule,  and  Don  John  of  Austria,  who  had  been  sent  as  governor- 
general  to  restore  order,  had  found  himself  helpless  in  face  of 
the  superior  talent  and  personal  influence  of  the  prince  of  Orange, 
who  had  succeeded  in  uniting  all  the  provinces  in  common 
resistance  to  the  civil  and  religious  tyranny  of  Philip.  In  the 
autumn  of  1577  Farnese  was  sent  to  join  Don  John  at  the  head 
of  reinforcements,  and  it  was  mainly  his  prompt  decision  at  a 
critical  moment  that  won  the  battle  of  Gemblours  (1578). 
Shortly  afterwards  Don  John,  whose  health  had  broken  down 
through  disappointment  and  ill-health,  died,  and  Farnese  was 
appointed  to  take  his  place. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  exaggerate  the  difficulties  with  which 
he  found  himself  confronted,  but  he  proved  himself  more  than 
equal  to  the  task.  In  military  ability  the  prince  of  Parma  was 
inferior  to  none  of  his  contemporaries,  as  a  skilful  diplomatist 
he  was  the  match  even  of  his  great  antagonist  William  the  Silent, 
and,  like  most  of  the  leading  statesmen  of  his  day,  was  un- 
scrupulous as  to  the  means  he  employed  so  long  as  he  achieved 
his  ends.  Perceiving  that  there  were  divisions  and  jealousies 
in  the  ranks  of  his  opponents  between  Catholic  and  Protestant, 
Fleming  and  Walloon,  he  set  to  work  by  persuasion,  address  and 
bribery,  to  foment  the  growing  discord,  and  bring  back  the 
Walloon  provinces  to  the  allegiance  of  the  king.  He  was  success- 
ful, and  by  the  treaty  of  Arras,  January  1579,  he  was  able  to 
secure  the  support  of  the  "  Malcontents,"  as  the  Catholic  nobles 
of  the  south  were  styled,  to  the  royal  cause.  The  reply  to  the 
treaty  of  Arras  was  the  Union  of  Utrecht,  concluded  a  few  weeks 
later  between  the  seven  northern  provinces,  who  abjured  the 
sovereignty  of  King  Philip  and  bound  themselves  to  use  all  their 
resources  to  maintain  their  independence  of  Spanish  rule. 

Farnese,  as  soon  as  he  had  obtained  a  secure  basis  of  operations 
in  Hainaut  and  Artois,  set  himself  in  earnest  to  the  task  of  re- 
conquering Brabant  and  Flanders  by  force  of  arms.  Town 
after  town  fell  into  his  power.  Tournai,  Maastricht,  Breda, 
Bruges  and  Ghent  opened  their  gates,  and  finally  he  laid  siege 
to  the  great  seaport  of  Antwerp.  The  town  was  open  to  the 
sea,  was  strongly  fortified,  and  was  defended  with  resolute 
determination  and  courage  by  the  citizens.  They  were  led  by 
the  famous  Philip  de  Marnix,  lord  of  St  Aldegonde,  and  had  the 
assistance  of  an  ingenious  Italian  engineer,  by  name  Gianibelli. 
The  siege  began  in  1584  and  called  forth  all  the  resources  of 
Farnese's  military  genius.  He  cut  off  all  access  to  Antwerp 
from  the  sea  by  constructing  a  bridge  of  boats  across  the  Scheldt 
from  Calloo  to  Oordam,  in  spite  of  the  desperate  efforts  of  the 
besieged  to  prevent  its  completion.  At  last,  on  the  isth  of 
August  1585,  Antwerp  was  compelled  by  famine  to  capitulate. 
Favourable  conditions  were  granted,  but  all  Protestants  were 
required  to  leave  the  town  within  two  years.  With  the  fall  of 
Antwerp,  for  Malines  and  Brussels  were  already  in  the  hands 
of  Farnese,  the  whole  of  the  southern  Netherlands  was  brought 
once  more  to  recognize  the  authority  of  Philip.  But  Holland 
and  Zeeland,  whose  geographical  position  made  them  unassailable 
except  by  water,  were  by  the  courage  and  skill  of  their  hardy 
seafaring  population,  with  the  help  of  English  auxiliaries  sent  by 
Queen  Elizabeth,  able  to  defy  his  further  advance. 

In  1586  Alexander  Farnese  became  duke  of  Parma  by  the 
death  of  his  father.  He  applied  for  leave  to  visit  his  paternal 
territory,  but  Philip  would  not  permit  him.  He  could  not  replace 
him  in  the  Netherlands;  but  while  retaining  him  in  his  command 
at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army,  the  king  would  not  give  his 
sanction  to  his  great  general's  desire  to  use  it  for  the  reconquest 


FARNESE,  ELIZABETH— FARNHAM 


185 


of  the  Northern  Provinces.  Never  was  there  a  better  opportunity 
than  the  end  of  1586  for  an  invading  army  to  march  through 
the  country  almost  without  opposition.  The  misgovernment 
and  lack  of  high  statesmanship  of  the  earl  of  Leicester  had 
caused  faction  to  be  rampant  in  the  United  Provinces;  and  on 
his  return  to  England  he  left  the  country  without  organized 
forces  or  experienced  generals  to  oppose  an  advance  of  a  veteran 
army  under  the  greatest  commander  of  his  time.  But  Philip's 
whole  thoughts  and  energies  were  already  directed  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  an  Invincible  Armada  for  the  conquest  of  England, 
and  Parma  was  ordered  to  collect  an  enormous  flotilla  of  trans- 
ports and  to  keep  his  army  concentrated  and  trained  for  the 
projected  invasion  of  the  island  realm  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Thus  the  critical  period  passed  by  unused,  and  when  the  tempests 
had  finally  dispersed  the  defeated  remnants  of  the  Great  Armada 
the  Dutch  had  found  a  general,  in  the  youthful  Maurice  of 
Nassau,  worthy  to  be  the  rival  in  military  genius  even  of  Alexander 
of  Parma.  Moreover,  the  accession  to  the  throne  of  France  of 
Henry  of  Navarre  had  altogether  altered  the  situation  of 
affairs,  and  relieved  the  pressure  upon  the  Dutch  by  creating  a 
diversion,  and  placing  Parma  and  his  army  between  hostile 
forces.  The  ruinous  expenditure  upon  the  Great  Armada  had 
also  depleted  the  Spanish  treasury  and  Philip  found  himself 
virtually  bankrupt.  In  1590  the  condition  of  the  Spanish 
troops  had  become  intolerable.  Farnese  could  get  no  regular 
supplies  of  money  from  the  king  for  the  payment  of  the  soldiery, 
and  he  had  to  pledge  his  own  jewels  to  meet  the  demand.  A 
mutiny  broke  out,  but  was  suppressed.  In  the  midst  of  these 
difficulties  Parma  received  orders  to  abandon  the  task  on  which 
he  had  spent  himself  for  so  many  years,  and  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Paris,  which  was  blockaded  by  Henry  IV.  He  left  the  Nether- 
lands on  the  3rd  of  August  1590  at  the  head  of  15,000  troops. 
By  brilliant  generalship  he  outwitted  Henry  and  succeeded 
in  relieving  Paris;  but  owing  to  lack  of  money  and  supplies  he 
was  compelled  immediately  to  retreat  to  the  Netherlands, 
abandoning  on  the  march  many  stragglers  and  wounded,  who 
were  killed  by  the  peasantry,  and  leaving  all  the  positions  he  had 
taken  to  be  recaptured  by  Henry. 

Again  in  1 59 1 ,  in  the  very  midst  of  a  campaign  against  Maurice 
of  Nassau,  sorely  against  his  will,  the  duke  of  Parma  was  obliged 
to  give  up  the  engrossing  struggle  and  march  to  relieve  Rouen. 
He  was  again  successful  in  his  object,  but  was  wounded  in  the 
arm  before  Caudebec,  and  was  finally  compelled  to  withdraw 
his  army  with  considerable  losses  through  the  privations  the 
troops  had  to  undergo.  He  himself  was  shattered  in  health  by 
so  many  years  of  continuous  campaigning  and  exposure,  and 
by  the  cares  and  disappointments  which  had  befallen  him. 
He  died  at  Arras  on  the  3rd  of  December  1592,  in  the  forty- 
seventh  year  of  his  age.  The  feeling  that  his  immense  services 
had  not  won  for  him  either  the  gratitude  or  confidence  of  his 
sovereign  hastened  his  end.  He  was  honoured  by  a  splendid 
funeral  at  Brussels,  but  his  body  was  interred  at  his  own  capital 
city  of  Parma.  He  left  two  sons,  Ranuce,  who  succeeded  him, 
and  Edward,  who  was  created  a  cardinal  in  1591  by  Pope 
Gregory  XIV.  His  daughter  Margaret  married  Vincent,  duke 
of  Mantua. 

See  L.  P.  Gachard,  Correspondence  d'Alexandre  Farnese,  Prince  de 
Parme,  gouverneur  general  des  Pays-Bas,  avec  Philippe  II,  1578- 
J579  (Brussels,  1850);  Fra  Pietro,  Alessandro  Farnese,  duca  di 
Parma  (Rome,  1836). 

FARNESE,  ELIZABETH  (1692-1766),  queen  of  Spain,  born 
on  the  25th  of  October  1692,  was  the  only  daughter  of  Odoardo 
II.,  prince  of  Parma.  Her  mother  educated  her  in  strict  seclusion, 
but  seclusion  altogether  failed  to  tame  her  imperious  and  am- 
bitious temper.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  ( 1 7 1 4)  she  was  married 
by  proxy  at  Parma  to  Philip  V.  of  Spain.  The  marriage  was 
arranged  by  Cardinal  Alberoni  (q.v.),  with  the  concurrence  of 
the  Princess  des  Ursins,  the  Camerara  Mayor.  On  arriving  at 
the  borders  of  Spain,  Elizabeth  was  met  by  the  Princess  des 
Ursins,  but  received  her  sternly,  and,  perhaps  in  accordance 
with  a  plan  previously  concerted  with  the  king,  at  once  ordered 
her  to  be  removed  from  her  presence  and  from  Spain.  Over  the 


weak  king  Elizabeth  quickly  obtained  complete  influence.  This 
influence  was  exerted  altogether  in  support  of  the  policy  of 
Alberoni,  one  chief  aim  of  which  was  to  recover  the  ancient 
Italian  possessions  of  Spain,  and  which  actually  resulted  in  the 
seizure  of  Sardinia  and  Sicily.  So  vigorously  did  she  enter  into 
this  policy  that,  when  the  French  forces  advanced  to  the  Pyrenees, 
she  placed  herself  at  the  head  of  one  division  of  the  Spanish  army. 
But  Elizabeth's  ambition  was  grievously  disappointed.  The 
Triple  Alliance  thwarted  her  plans,  and  at  length  in  1720  the 
allies  made  the  banishment  of  Alberoni  a  condition  of  peace. 
Sicily  also  had  to  be  evacuated.  And  finally,  all  her  entreaties 
failed  to  prevent  the  abdication  of  Philip,  who  in  1724  gave  up 
the  throne  to  his  heir,  and  retired  to  the  palace  of  La  Granja. 
Seven  months  later,  however,  the  death  of  the  young  king  recalled 
him  to  the  throne.  During  his  later  years,  when  he  was  nearly 
imbecile,  she  directed  the  whole  policy  of  Spain  so  as  to  secure 
thrones  in  Italy  for  her  sons.  In  1736  she  had  the  satisfaction 
of  seeing  her  favourite  scheme  realized  in  the  accession  of  her 
son  Don  Carlos  (afterwards  Charles  III.  of  Spain)  to  the  throne 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  and  his  recognition  by  the  powers  in  the  treaty 
of  Vienna.  Her  second  son,  Philip,  became  duke  of  Parma. 
Elizabeth  survived  her  husband  twenty  years,  dying  in  1766. 

See  Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  d'Espagne  sous  le  regne  de 
Philippe  V,  by  the  Marquis  de  St  Philippe,  translated  by  Maudave 
(Paris,  1756);  Memoirs  of  Elizabeth  Farnese  (London,  1746);  and 
E.  Armstrong,  Elizabeth  Farnese,  the  Termagant  of  Spain  (1892). 

FARNHAM,  a  market  town  in  the  Guildford  parliamentary 
division  of  Surrey,  England,  375  m.  S.W.  by  W.  from  London 
by  the  London  &  South  Western  railway.  Pop.  of  urban 
district  (1901)  6124.  It  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Wey, 
on  the  southern  slope  of  a  hill  rising  about  700  ft.  above  the 
sea-level.  The  church  of  St  Andrew  is  a  spacious  transitional 
Norman  and  Early  English  building,  with  later  additions,  and 
was  formerly  a  chapel  of  ease  to  Waverley  Abbey,  of  which  a 
crypt  and  fragmentary  remains,  of  Early  English  date,  stand  in 
the  park  attached  to  a  modern  residence  of  the  same  name. 
This  was  the  earliest  Cistercian  house  in  England,  founded  in 
1128  by  William  Gifford,  bishop  of  Winchester.  The  Annales 
Waverlienses,  published  by  Gale  in  his  Scriptores  and  afterwards 
in  the  Record  series  of  Chronicles,  are  believed  to  have  suggested 
to  Sir  Walter  Scott  the  name  of  his  first  novel.  Farnham  Castle, 
on  a  hill  north  of  the  town,  the  seat  of  the  bishops  of  Winchester, 
was  first  built  by  Henry  de  Blois,  bishop  of  Winchester,  and 
brother  of  King  Stephen;  but  it  was  razed  by  Henry  III.  It 
was  rebuilt  and  garrisoned  for  Charles  I.  by  Denham,  from 
whom  it  was  taken  in  1642  by  Sir  W.  Waller;  and  having  been 
dismantled,  it  was  restored  by  George  Morley,  bishop  of  Win- 
chester (1662-1684).  Farnham  has  a  town  hall  and  exchange 
in  Italian  style  (1866),  a  grammar  school  of  early  foundation, 
and  a  school  of  science  and  art.  It  was  formerly  noted  for  its 
cloth  manufacture.  Hops  of  fine  quality  are  grown  in  the 
vicinity.  William  Cobbett  was  born  in  the  parish  (1766),  and  is 
buried  in  the  churchyard  of  St  Andrew's.  The  neighbouring 
mansion  of  Moor  Park  was  the  residence  of  Sir  William  Temple 
(d.  1699),  and  Swift  worked  here  as  his  secretary.  Hester 
Johnson,  Swift's  "  Stella,"  was  the  daughter  of  Temple's  steward, 
whose  cottage  still  stands.  The  town  has  grown  in  favour  as 
a  residential  centre  from  the  proximity  of  Aldershot  Camp 
(3  m.  N.E.). 

Though  there  is  evidence  of  an  early  settlement  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, the  town  of  Farnham  (Ferneham)  seems  to  have  grown 
up  round  the  castle  of  the  bishops  of  Winchester,  who  possessed 
the  manor  at  the  Domesday  Survey.  Its  position  at  the  junction 
of  the  Pilgrim's  Way  and  the  road  from  Southampton  to  London 
was  important.  In  1205  Farnham  had  bailiffs,  and  in  1207  it 
was  definitely  a  mesne  borough  under  the  bishops  of  Winchester. 
In  1247  the  bishop  granted  the  first  charter,  giving,  among  other 
privileges,  a  fair  on  All  Saints'  Day.  The  burgesses  surrendered 
the  proceeds  of  the  borough  court  and  other  rights  in  1365  in 
return  for  respite  of  the  fee  farm  rent;  these  were  recovered 
in  1405  and  rent  again  paid.  Bishop  Waynflete  is  said  to  have 
confirmed  the  original  charter  in  1452,  and  in  1566  Bishop  Home 


i86 


FARNWORTH— FARQUHAR 


granted  a  new  charter  by  which  the  burgesses  elected  2  bailiffs 
and  12  burgesses  annually  and  did  service  at  their  own  courts 
every  three  weeks,  the  court  leet  being  held  twice  a  year.  In 
resisting  an  attack  made  by  the  bishop  in  1660  on  their  right  of 
toll,  the  burgesses  could  only  claim  Farnham  as  a  borough  by 
prescription  as  their  charters  had  been  mislaid,  but  the  charters 
were  subsequently  found,  and  after  some  litigation  their  rights 
were  established.  In.  the  i8th  century  the  corporation,  a  close 
body,  declined,  its  duties  being  performed  by  the  vestry,  and  in 
1789  the  one  survivor  resigned  and  handed  over  the  town  papers 
to  the  bishop.  Farnham  sent  representatives  to  parliament  in 
1311  and  1460,  on  both  occasions  being  practically  the  bishop's 
pocket  borough.  In  accordance  with  the  grant  of  1247  a  fair 
was  held  on  All  Saints'  day  and  also  on  Holy  Thursday;  the 
former  was  afterwards  held  on  All  Souls'  Day.  Farnham  was 
early  a  market  of  importance,  and  in  1216  a  royal  grant  changed 
the  market  day  from  Sunday  to  Thursday  in  each  week.  It  was 
famous  in  the  early  i7th  century  for  wheat  and  oats;  hop- 
growing  began  in  1597. 

FARNWORTH,  an  urban  district  in  the  Radcliffe-cum- 
Farnworth  parliamentary  division  of  Lancashire,  England,  on 
the  Irwell,  3  m.  S.E.  of  Bolton  by  the  Lancashire  &  Yorkshire 
railway.  Pop.  (1901)  25,925.  Cotton  mills,  iron  foundries, 
brick  and  tile  works,  and  collieries  employ  the  large  industrial 
population. 

FARO,  the  capital  of  a  district  bearing  the  same  name,  in 
southern  Portugal;  at  the  terminus  of  the  Lisbon-Faro  railway, 
and  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Pop.  (1900)  11,789.  Faro  is  an 
episcopal  see,  with  a  Renaissance  cathedral  of  great  size,  an 
ecclesiastical  seminary,  and  a  ruined  castle  surrounded  by 
Moorish  fortifications.  Its  broad  but  shallow  harbour  is  pro- 
tected on  the  south  by  the  long  island  of  Caes,  and  a  number  of 
sandy  islets,  which,  being  constantly  enlarged  by  silt  from  the 
small  river  Fermoso,  render  the  entrance  of  large  vessels  im- 
possible. Fishing  is  an  important  industry,  and  fish,  with  wine, 
fruit,  cork,  baskets  and  sumach,  are  the  principal  articles  of 
export.  Little  has  been  done  to  develop  the  mineral  resources 
of  the  district,  which  include  tin,  lead,  antimony  and  auriferous 
quartz.  Faro  was  taken  from  the  Moors  by  Alphonso  III.  of 
Portugal  (1248-1279).  It  was  sacked  by  the  English  in  1596, 
and  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1755. 

The  administrative  district  of  Faro  coincides  with  the  ancient 
kingdom  and  province  of  Algarve  (q.v.);  pop.  (1900)  255,191; 
area,  1937  sq.  m. 

FARO  (from  Pharaoh,  a  picture  of  the  Egyptian  king  appearing 
on  a  card  of  the  old  French  pack),  a  game  of  cards,  played  with 
a  full  pack.  Originally  the  pack  was  held  in  the  dealer's  left 
hand,  but  nowadays  very  elaborate  and  expensive  implements 
are  used.  The  dealer  places  the  pack,  after  shuffling  and  cutting, 
in  a  dealing-box  face  upwards,  and  the  cards  are  taken  from  the 
top  of  the  box  in  couples  through  a  slit  in  the  side.  The  exposed 
card  on  top  is  called  soda,  and  the  last  card  left  in  the  box  is 
in  hoc.  The  implements  include  counters  of  various  colours 
and  values,  a  dealing-box,  a  case  or  frame  manipulated  by  a 
"  case-keeper, "upon  which  the  cards  already  played  are  arranged 
in  sight,  a  shuffling-board,  and  score-sheets  for  the  players. 
Upon  the  table  is  the  "  lay-out,"  a  complete  suit  of  spades 
enamelled  on  green  cloth,  upon  or  near  which  to  place  the  stakes. 
The  dealer  takes  two  cards  from  the  box,  placing  the  first  one 
near  it  and  the  second  close  beside  it.  Each  deal  of  two  cards 
is  called  a  turn,  and  there  are  twenty-five  such,  soda  and  hoc 
not  counting.  The  players  stake  upon  any  card  they  please,  or 
in  such  manner  as  to  take  in  several  cards,  reducing  the  amount, 
but  increasing  the  chances,  of  winning,  as  at  roulette.  The 
dealer,  having  waved  the  hand,  after  which  no  more  bets  may 
be  made,  deals  the  turn,  and  then  proceeds  to  gather  in  the 
stakes  won  by  him,  and  to  pay  those  he  has  lost.  The  chances 
as  between  dealer  and  punters,  or  players,  are  equal,  except 
that  the  banker  wins  half  the  money  staked  on  the  cards  of  a 
turn  should  they  chance  to  be  alike.  Faro  is  played  considerably 
in  parts  of  the  United  States,  whither  it  is  said  to  have  been 
taken  from  France,  where  it  had  a  great  vogue  during  the  reign 


of  Louis  XIV.  Owing  to  the  dishonest  methods  of  many 
gambling  "  clubs  "  the  game  is  in  disrepute. 

FARQUHAR,  GEORGE  (1677-1707),  British  dramatist,  son  of 
William  Farquhar,  a  clergyman,  was  born  in  Londonderry, 
Ireland,  in  1677.  When  he  was  seventeen  he  was  entered  as 
a  sizar  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  under  the  patronage  of  Dr 
Wiseman,  bishop  of  Dromore.  He  did  not  long  continue  his 
studies,  being,  according  to  one  account,  expelled  for  a  profane 
joke.  Thomas  Wilkes,  however,  states  that  the  abrupt  termina- 
tion of  his  studies  was  due  to  the  death  of  his  patron.  He  became 
an  actor  on  the  Dublin  stage,  but  in  a  fencing  scene  in  Dryden's 
Indian  Emperor  he  forgot  to  exchange  his  sword  for  a  foil,  with 
results  which  narrowly  escaped  being  fatal  to  a  fellow-actor. 
After  this  accident  he  never  appeared  on  the  boards.  He  had 
met  Robert  Wilks,  the  famous  comedian,  in  Dublin.  Though 
he  did  not,  as  generally  stated,  go  to  London  with  Wilks,  it  was 
at  his  suggestion  that  he  wrote  his  first  play,  Love  and  a  Bottle, 
which  was  performed  at  Drury  Lane,  perhaps  through  Wilks's 
interest,  in  1698.  He  received  from  the  earl  of  Orrery  a  lieuten- 
ancy in  his  regiment,  then  in  Ireland,  but  in  two  letters  of  his 
dated  from  Holland  in  1700  he  says  nothing  of  military  service. 
His  second  comedy,  The  Constant  Couple:  or  a  Trip  to  the 
Jubilee  (1699),  ridiculing  the  preparations  for  the  pilgrimage 
to  Rome  in  the  Jubilee  year,  met  with  an  enthusiastic  reception. 
Wilks  as  Sir  Harry  Wildair  contributed  substantially  to  its 
success.  In  1701  Farquhar  wrote  a  sequel,  Sir  Harry  Wildair. 
Leigh  Hunt  says  that  Mrs  Oldfield,  like  Wilks,  played  admirably 
well  in  it,  but  the  original  Lady  Lurewell  was  Mrs  Verbruggen. 
Mrs  Oldfield  is  said  to  have  been  the  "  Penelope  "  of  Farquhar's 
letters.  In  1702  Farquhar  published  a  slight  volume  of  mis- 
cellanies— Love  and  Business;  in  a  Collection  of  Occasionary 
Verse  and  Epistolary  Prose — containing,  among  other  things,  "  A 
Discourse  on  Comedy  in  reference  to  the  English  Stage,"  in 
which  he  defends  the  English  neglect  of  the  dramatic  unities. 
"  The  rules  of  English  comedy,"  he  says,  "  don't  lie  in  the  com- 
pass of  Aristotle  or  his  followers,  but  in  the  pit,  box  and  galleries." 
In  1702  he  borrowed  from  Fletcher's  Wild  Govse  Chase,  The 
Inconstant,  or  the  Way  to  win  Him,  in  which  he  followed  his  original 
fairly  closely  except  in  the  last  act.  In  1703  he  married,  in  the 
expectation  of  a  fortune,  but  found  too  late  that  he  was  deceived. 
It  is  said  that  he  never  reproached  his  wife,  although  the  marriage 
increased  his  liabilities  and  the  rest  of  his  life  was  a  constant 
struggle  against  poverty.  His  other  plays  are:  The  Stage  Coach 
(1704),  a  one-act  farce  adapted  from  the  French  of  Jean  de  la 
Chapelle  in  conjunction  with  Peter  Motteux;  The  Twin  Rivals 
(Drury  Lane,  1702);  The  Recruiting  Officer  (Drury  Lane,  1706); 
and  The  Beaux'  Stratagem  (Haymarket,  1707).  The  Recruiting 
Officer  was  suggested  to  him  by  a  recruiting  expedition  (1705) 
in  Shropshire,  and  is  dedicated  to  his  "  friends  round  the  Wrekin." 
The  Beaux'  Stratagem  is  the  best  of  all  his  plays,  and  long  kept 
the  stage.  Genest  notes  nineteen  revivals  up  to  1828.  Two 
embarrassed  gentlemen  travel  in  the  country  disguised  as  master 
and  servant  in  the  hope  of  mending  their  fortune.  The  play  gives 
vivid  pictures  of  the  Lichfield  inn  with  its  rascally  landlord, 
and  of  the  domestic  affairs  of  the  Sullens.  Archer,  the  supposed 
valet,  whose  adventurous  spirit  secures  full  play,  was  one  of 
Garrick's  best  parts. 

Meanwhile  one  of  his  patrons,  said  to  have  been  the  duke  of 
Ormond,  had  advised  Farquhar  to  sell  out  of  his  regiment,  and 
had  promised  to  give  him  a  captaincy  in  his  own.  Farquhar  sold 
his  commission,  but  the  duke's  promise  remained  unfulfilled. 
Before  he  had  finished  the  second  act  of  The  Beaux'  Stratagem 
he  knew  that  he  was  stricken  with  a  mortal  illness,  but  it  was 
necessary  to  persevere  and  to  be  "  consumedly  lively  to  the  end." 
He  had  received  in  advance  £30  for  the  copyright  from  Lintot 
the  bookseller.  The  play  was  staged  on  the  8th  of  March,  and 
Farquhar  lived  to  have  his  third  night,  and  there  was  an  extra 
benefit  on  the  29th  of  April,  the  day  of  his  death.  He  left  his 
two  children  to  the  care  of  his  friend  Wilks.  Wilks  obtained  a 
benefit  at  the  theatre  for  the  dramatist's  widow,  but  he  seems 
to  have  done  little  for  the  daughters.  They  were  apprenticed 
to  a  mantua-maker,  and  one  of  them  was,  as  late  as  1764,  in 


FARR— FARRAGUT 


187 


receipt  of  a  pension  of  £20  solicited  for  her  by  Edmund  Chaloner, 
a  patron  of  Farquhar.  She  was  then  described  as  a  maidservant 
and  possessed  of  sentiments  "  fitted  to  her  humble  situation." 

The  plots  of  Farquhar's  comedies  are  ingenious  in  conception 
and  skilfully  conducted.  He  has  no  pretensions  to  the  brilliance 
of  Congreve,  but  his  amusing  dialogue  arises  naturally  out  of  the 
situation,  and  its  wit  is  never  strained.  Sergeant  Kite  in  the 
Recruiting  Officer,  Scrub,  Archer  and  Boniface  in  The  Beaux' 
Stratagem  are  distinct,  original  characters  which  had  a  great 
success  on  the  boards,  and  the  unexpected  incidents  and  adven- 
tures in  which  they  are  mixed  up  are  represented  in  an  irresistibly 
comic  manner  by  a  man  who  thoroughly  understood  the  resources 
of  the  stage.  The  spontaneity  and  verve  with  which  his  ad- 
venturous heroes  are  drawn  have  suggested  that  in  his  favourite 
type  he  was  describing  himself.  His  own  disposition  seems  to 
have  been  most  lovable,  and  he  was  apparently  a  much  gayer 
person  than  the  reader  might  be  led  to  suppose  from  the  "  Portrait 
of  Himself  "  quoted  by  Leigh  Hunt.  The  code  of  morals  followed 
by  these  characters  is  open  to  criticism,  but  they  are  human  and 
genial  in  their  roguery,  and  compare  far  from  unfavourably 
with  the  cynical  creations  of  contemporary  drama.  The  advance 
which  he  made  on  his  immediate  predecessors  in  dramatic  con- 
struction and  in  general  moral  tone  is  more  striking  when  it  is 
remembered  that  he  died  before  he  was  thirty. 

Farquhar's  dramatic  works  were  published  in  1728,  1742  and 
1772,  and  by  Thomas  Wilkes  with  a  biography  in  1775.  They  were 
included  in  the  Dramatic  Works  of  Wycherley,  Congreve,  Vanbrugh 
and  Farquhar  (1849),  with  biographical  and  critical  notices,  by  Leigh 
Hunt.  See  also  The  Dramatic  Works  of  George  Farquhar,  with  Life 
and  Notes,  by  A.  C.  Ewald  (2  vols.,  1892) ;  The  Best  Plays  of  George 
Farquhar  (Mermaid  series,  1906),  with  biographical  and  critical 
introductions,  by  William  Archer;  The  Beaux  Stratagem,  edited 
(1898)  by  H.  Macaulay  Fitzgibbon  for  "  The  Temple  Dramatists  "; 
and  D.  Schmid,  "  George  Farquhar,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Original- 
Dramen  "  (1904)  in  Wiener  Beitrdge  zur  engl.  Philol, 

FARR,  WILLIAM  (1807-1883),  English  statistician,  was  born 
at  Kenley,  in  Shropshire,  on  the  soth  of  November  1807.  When 
nineteen  he  became  the  pupil  of  a  doctor  in  Shrewsbury,  also 
acting  as  dresser  in  the  infirmary  there.  He  then  went  to  Paris 
to  study  medicine,  but  after  two  years  returned  to  London, 
where,  in  1832,  he  qualified  as  L.S.A.  Next  year  he  began  to 
practise,  but  without  very  brilliant  results,  for  five  years  later  he 
definitely  abandoned  the  exercise  of  his  profession  on  accepting 
the  post  of  compiler  of  abstracts  in  the  registrar-general's  office. 
The  commissioners  for  the  1841  census  consulted  him  on  several 
points,  but  did  not  in  every  case  follow  his  advice.  For  the  next 
two  decennial  censuses  he  acted  as  assistant-commissioner; 
for  that  of  1871  he  was  a  commissioner,  and  he  wrote  the  greater 
part  of  the  reports  of  all.  He  had  an  ambition  to  become 
registrar-general;  and  when  that  post  became  vacant  in  1879, 
he  was  so  disappointed  at  the  selection  of  Sir  Brydges  Henniker 
instead  of  himself,  that  he  refused  to  stay  any  longer  in  the 
registrar's  office.  He  died  of  paralysis  of  the  brain  a  year  or  two 
later,  on  the  I4th  of  April  1883.  A  great  part  of  Farr's  literary 
production  is  to  be  found  in  the  papers  which,  from  1839  to 
1880,  he  wrote  for  each  annual  report  of  the  registrar-general 
on  the  cause  of  the  year's  deaths  in  England.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  many  papers  on  general  statistics  and  on  life-tables 
for  insurance,  some  read  before  the  Royal  Statistical  Society, 
of  which  he  was  president  in  1871  and  1872,  some  contributed  to 
the  Lancet  and  other  periodicals.  A  selection  from  his  statistical 
writings  was  published  in  1885  under  the  editorship  of  Mr  Noel 
Humphreys. 

FARRAGUT,  DAVID  GLASGOW  (1801-1870),  first  admiral 
of  the  United  States  navy,  was  the  son  of  Major  George  Farragut, 
a  Catalan  by  descent,  a  Minorquin  by  birth,  who  had  emigrated 
to  America  in  1776,  and,  after  the  peace,  had  married  a  lady 
of  Scottish  family  and  settled  near  Knoxville,  in  Tennessee; 
there  Farragut  was  born  on  the  sth  of  July  1801.  At  the  early 
age  of  nine  he  entered  the  navy,  under  the  protection  of  his 
name-father,  Captain  David  Porter,  with  whom  he  served  in  the 
"  Essex  "  during  her  cruise  in  the  Altantic  in  1812,  and  afterwards 
in  the  Pacific,  until  her  capture  by  the  "  Phoebe,"  in  Valparaiso 


Bay,  on  the  28th  of  March  1814.  He  afterwards  served  on  board 
the  "  Washington  "  (74)  carrying  the  broad  pennant  of  Com- 
modore Chauncey  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  pursued  his  pro- 
fessional and  other  studies  under  the  instruction  of  the  chaplain, 
Charles  Folsom,  with  whom  he  contracted  a  lifelong  friendship. 
Folsom  was  appointed  from  the  "  Washington  "  as  U.S.  consul 
at  Tunis,  and  obtained  leave  for  his  pupil  to  pay  him  a  lengthened 
visit,  during  which  he  studied  not  only  mathematics,  but  also 
French  and  Italian,  ajid  acquired  a  familiar  knowledge  of  Arabic 
and  Turkish.  He  is  said  to  have  had  a  great  natural  aptitude  for 
languages  and  in  after  years  to  have  spoken  several  fluently. 

After  more  than  four  years  in  the  Mediterranean,  Farragut 
returned  to  the  States  in  November  1820.  He  then  passed  his 
examination,  and  in  1822  was  appointed  for  service  in  what  was 
called  the  "  mosquito  "  fleet,  against  the  pirates,  who  then 
infested  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  service  was  one  of  great  exposure 
and  privation;  for  two  years  and  a  half,  Farragut  wrote,  he 
never  owned  a  bed,  but  lay  down  to  rest  wherever  he  found  the 
most  comfortable  berth.  By  the  end  of  that  time  the  joint  action 
of  the  British  and  American  navies  had  driven  the  pirates  off 
the  sea,  and  when  they  took  to  marauding  on  shore  the  Spanish 
governors  did  the  rest.  In  1825  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant,  whilst  serving  in  the  navy  yard  at  Norfolk,  where, 
with  some  breaks  in  sea-going  ships,  he  continued  till  1832; 
he  then  served  for  a  commission  on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and  was 
again  appointed  to  the  yard  at  Norfolk. 

It  is  needless  to  trace  the  ordinary  routine  of  his  service  step  by 
step.  The  officers  of  the  U.S. navy  have  one  great  advantage  which 
British  officers  are  without;  when  on  shore  they  are  not  neces- 
sarily parted  from  the  service,  but  are  employed  in  their  several 
ranks  in  the  differentdockyards,escaping  thus  not  only  the  private 
grievance  and  pecuniary  difficulties  of  a  very  narrow  half-pay,  but 
also,  what  from  a  public  point  of  view  is  much  more  important,  the 
loss  of  professional  aptitude,  and  of  that  skill  which  comes  from 
unceasing  practice.  On  the  Sth  of  September  1841  Farragut 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commander,  and  on  the  I4th  of 
September  1855  to  that  of  captain.*  At  this  time  he  was  in 
charge  of  the  navy  yard,  Mare  Island,  California,  from  which 
post  he  was  recalled  in  1858,  and  appointed  to  the  "  Brooklyn  " 
frigate,  the  command  of  which  he  held  for  the  next  two  years. 
When  the  war  of  secession  broke  out  in  1861,  he  was  "  waiting 
orders  "  at  Norfolk.  By  birth  and  marriage  he  was  a  Southerner, 
and  the  citizens  of  Norfolk  counted  on  his  throwing  in  his  lot 
with  them;  but  professional  pride,  and  affection  for  the  flag 
under  which  he  had  served  for  more  than  fifty  years,  held  him 
true  to  his  allegiance;  he  passionately  rejected  the  proposals 
of  his  fellow-townsmen,  and  as  it  was  more  than  hinted  to  him 
that  his  longer  stay  in  Norfolk  might  be  dangerous,  he  hastily 
quitted  that  place,  and  offered  his  services  to  the  government 
at  Washington.  These  were  at  once  accepted;  he  was  requested 
to  sit  on  the  Naval  Retiring  Board — a  board  then  specially 
constituted  for  clearing  the  navy  of  unfit  or  disloyal  officers 
— arid  a  few  months  later  was  appointed  to  the  command,  of 
the  "  Western  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,"  with  the  rank  of 
flag-officer,  and  ordered  to  proceed  forthwith,  in  the  "  Hartford," 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  to  collect  such  vessels  as  could  be  spared 
from  the  blockade,  to  proceed  up  the  Mississippi,  to  reduce  the 
defences  which  guarded  the  approaches  to  New  Orleans,  and  to 
take  and  hold  the  city.  All  this  Farragut  executed  to  the  letter, 
with  a  skill  and  caution  that  won  for  him  the  love  of  his  followers, 
and  with  a  dash  and  boldness  that  gained  him  the  admiration 
of  the  public  and  the  popular  name  of  "Old  Salamander." 
The  passage  of  the  Mississippi  was  forced  on  the  24th  of  April 
1862,  and  New  Orleans  surrendered  on  the  26th;  this  was 
immediately  followed  by  the  operations  against  Vicksburg,  from 
which,  however,  Farragut  was  compelled  to  withdraw,  having 
relearnt  the  old  lesson  that  against  heavy  earthworks,  crowning 
hills  of  sufficient  height,  a  purely  naval  attack  is  unavailing; 
it  was  not  till  the  following  summer,  and  after  a  long  siege,  that 
Vicksburg  surrendered  to  a  land  force  under  General  Grant. 
During  this  time  the  service  on  the  Mississippi  continued  both 
difficult  and  irksome;  nor  until  the  river  was  cleared  could 


i88 


FARRANT— FARREN,  ELIZABETH 


Farragut  seriously  plan  operations  against  Mobile,  a  port  to  which 
the  fall  of  New  Orleans  had  given  increased  importance.  Even 
then  he  was  long  delayed  by  the  want  of  monitors  with  which 
to  oppose  the  ironclad  vessels  of  the  enemy.  It  was  the  end  of 
July  1864  before  he  was  joined  by  these  monitors;  and  on  the 
5th  of  August,  undismayed  by  the  loss  of  his  leading  ship,  the 
monitor  "  Tecumseh,"  sunk  by  a  torpedo,  he  forced  the  passage 
into  the  bay,  destroyed  or  captured  the  enemy's  ships,  including 
the  ram  "  Tennessee  "  bearing  Admiral  Buchanan's  flag,  and 
took  possession  of  the  forts.  The  town  was  not  occupied  till  the 
following  April,  but  with  the  loss  of  its  harbour  it  ceased  to  have 
any  political  or  strategical  importance. 

With  this  Farragut's  active  service  came  to  an  end;  for 
though  in  September  1864  he  was  offered  the  command  of  the 
force  intended  for  the  reduction  of  Wilmington,  the  state  of  his 
health,  after  the  labours  and  anxieties  of  the  past  three  years, 
in  a  trying  climate,  compelled  him  to  decline  it  and  to  ask  to 
be  recalled.  He  accordingly  returned  to  New  York  in  December, 
and  was  received  with  the  wildest  display  of  popular  enthusiasm. 
It  was  then  that  the  Government  instituted  the  rank  of  vice- 
admiral,  previously  unknown  in  the  American  service.  Farragut 
was  promoted  to  it,  and  in  July  1866  was  further  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  admiral.  In  1867,  with  his  flag  flying  in  the 
"  Franklin,"  he  visited  Europe.  The  appointment  was  an 
honourable  distinction  without  political  or  naval  import: 
the  "  Franklin  "  was,  to  all  intents,  for  the  time  being,  a  yacht 
at  Farragut's  disposal;  and  her  arrival  in  the  different  ports 
was  the  signal  for  international  courtesies,  entertainments  and 
social  gaiety.  She  returned  to  America  in  1868,  and  Farragut 
retired  into  private  life.  Two  years  later,  on  the  i4th  of  August 
1870,  he  died  at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire. 

Farragut  was  twice  married,  and  left,  by  his  second  wife,  a  son, 
Loyall  Farragut,  who,  in  1878,  published  a  Life  of  his  father  "  em- 
bodying his  Journal  and  Letters."  Another  Life  (1892),  by  Captain 
A.  T.  Mahan,  though  shorter,  has  a  greater  value  from  the  pro- 
fessional point  of  view,  by  reason  of  the  critical  appreciation  of 
Farragut's  services.  (J.  K.  L.) 

FARRANT,  RICHARD,  composer  of  English  church  music, 
flourished  during  the  i6th  century.  Very  little  is  known  about 
him.  Fetis  gives  1530  as  the  date  of  his  birth,  but  on  what 
authority  does  not  appear.  He  became  a  gentleman  of  the 
Chapel  Royal  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  but  resigned  his  post 
in  1564  on  being  appointed  master  of  the  children  of  St  George's 
chapel,  Windsor.  In  this  capacity  he  presented  a  play  before  the 
queen  at  Shrovetide  1568,  and  again  at  Christmas  of  the  same 
year,  receiving  on  each  occasion  the  sum  of  £6:  13:  4d.  In 
November  1569  he  was  reinstated  as  gentleman  of  the  Chapel 
Royal.  It  is  stated  by  Hawkins  (History  of  Music,  vol.  iii.  279) 
that  Farrant  was  also  one  of  the  clerks  and  organists  of  St 
George's  chapel,  Windsor,  and  that  he  retained  these  posts  till 
his  death.  Many  of  his  compositions  are  printed  in  the  collections 
of  Barnard  and  Boyce.  Among  the  most  admired  of  them  are 
a  service  in  G  minor,  and'  the  anthems  "  Call  to  remembrance  " 
and  "  Hide  not  thou  thy  face."  It  is  doubtful  whether  Farrant 
is  entitled  to  the  credit  of  the  authorship  of  the  beautiful  anthem 
"  Lord,  for  thy  tender  mercies'  sake."  No  copy  of  the  music 
under  his  name  appeared  in  print  till  1800,  although  it  had  been 
earlier  attributed  to  him.  Some  writers  have  named  John  Hilton, 
and  others  Thomas  Tallis,  as  the  composer.  From  entries 
in  the  Old  Check  Book  of  the  Chapel  Royal  (edited  for  the 
Camden  Society  by  Dr  Rimbault)  it  appears  that  Farrant  died, 
not  in  1585,  as  Hawkins  states,  but  on  the  3oth  of  November 
1580  or  1581. 

FARRAR,  FREDERIC  WILLIAM  (1831-1003),  English  divine, 
was  born  on  the  7th  of  August  1831,  in  the  Fort  of  Bombay, 
where  his  father,  afterwards  vicar  of  Sidcup,  Kent,  was  then  a 
missionary.  His  early  education  was  received  in  King  William's 
College,  Castletown,  Isle  of  Man,  a  school  whose  external  sur- 
roundings are  reproduced  in  his  popular  schoolboy  tale,  Eric; 
or,  Little  by  Little.  In  1847  he  entered  King's  College,  London. 
Through  the  influence  of  F.D.  Maurice  he  was  led  to  the  study 
of  Coleridge,  whose  writings  had  a  profound  influence  upon  his 
faith  and  opinions.  He  proceeded  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 


in  October  1851,  and  in  the  following  year  took  the  degree  of 
B.A.  at  the  university  of  London.  In  1854  he  took  his  degree 
as  fourth  j  unior  optime,  and  fourth  in  the  first  class  of  the  classical 
tripos.  In  addition  to  other  college  prizes  he  gained  the  chan- 
cellor's medal  for  the  English  prize  poem  on  the  search  for  Sir 
John  Franklin  in  1852,  the  Le  Bas  prize  and  the  Norrisian  prize. 
He  was  elected  fellow  of  Trinity  College  in  1856. 

On  leaving  the  university  Farrar  became  an  assistant-master 
under  G.  E.  L.  Cotton  at  Marlborough  College.  In  November 
1855  he  was  appointed  an  assistant-master  at  Harrow,  where  he 
remained  for  fifteen  years.  He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1864,  university  preacher  in  1868,  honorary  chaplain 
to  the  queen  in  1869  and  Hulsean  lecturer  in  1870.  In  1871  he 
was  appointed  headmaster  of  Marlborough  College,  and  in  the 
following  year  he  became  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  the  queen. 
In  1876  he  was  appointed  canon  of  Westminster  and  rector  of 
St  Margaret's,  Westminster.  He  took  his  D.D.  degree  in  1874, 
the  first  under  the  new  regulations  at  Cambridge.  Farrar  began 
his  literary  labours  with  the  publication  of  his  schoolboy  story 
Eric  in  1858,  succeeded  in  the  following  year  by  Julian  Home 
and  Lyrics  of  Life,  and  in  1862  by  St  Winifred's;  or  the  World 
of  School.  He  had  already  published  a  work  on  The  Origin  of 
Language,  and  followed  it  up  by  a  series  of  works  on  grammar 
and  scholastic  philology,  including  Chapters  on  Language  (1865); 
Greek  Grammar  Rules  (1865);  Greek  Syntax  (1866);  and 
Families  of  Speech  (1869).  He  edited  Essays  on  a  Liberal 
Education  in  1868;  and  published  Seekers  after  God  in  the 
Sunday  Library  (1869).  It  was  by  his  theological  works,  how- 
ever, that  Farrar  attained  his  greatest  popularity.  His  Hulsean 
lectures  were  published  in  1870  under  the  title  of  The  Witness  of 
History  to  Christ.  The  Life  of  Christ,  which  was  published  in 
1874,  speedily  passed  through  a  great  number  of  editions, 
and  is  still  in  much  demand.  It  reveals  considerable  powers  of 
imagination  and  eloquence,  and  was  partly  inspired  by  a  personal 
knowledge  of  the  sacred  localities  depicted.  In  1877  appeared 
In  the  Days  of  My  Youth,  sermons  preached  in  the  chapel  of 
Marlborough  College;  and  during  the  same  year  his  volume  of 
sermons  on  Eternal  Hope — in  which  he  called  in  question  the 
dogma  of  everlasting  punishment — caused  much  controversy 
in  religious  circles  and  did  much  to  mollify  the  harsh  theology 
of  an  earlier  age.  There  is  little  doubt  that  his  boldness  and 
liberality  of  thought  barred  his  elevation  to  the  episcopate. 
In  1879  appeared  The  Life  and  Works  of  St  Paul,  and  this  was 
succeeded  in  1882  by  The  Early  Days  of  Christianity.  Then  came 
in  order  of  publication  the  following  works:  Everyday  Christian 
Life;  or,  Sermons  by  the  Way  (1887);  Lives  of  the  Fathers 
(1888);  Sketches  of  Church  History  (1889);  Darkness  and  Dawn, 
a  story  of  the  Neronic  persecution  (1891);  The  Voice  from  Sinai 
(1892);  The  Life  of  Christ  as  Represented  in  Art  (1894);  a  work 
on  Daniel  (1895);  Gathering  Clouds,  a  tale  of  the  days  of 
Chrysostom  (1896);  and  The  Bible,  its  Meaning  and  Supremacy 
(1896).  Farrar  was  a  copious  contributor  of  articles  to  various 
magazines,  encyclopaedias  and  theological  commentaries.  In 
1883  he  was  made  archdeacon  of  Westminster  and  rural  dean; 
in  1885  he  was  appointed  Bampton  lecturer  at  Oxford,  and  took 
for  his  subject  "  The  History  of  Interpretation."  He  was 
appointed  dean  of  Canterbury  in  1895.  From  1890  to  1895  he 
was  chaplain  to  the  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  in 
1894  he  was  appointed  deputy-clerk  of  the  closet  to  Queen 
Victoria.  He  died  at  Canterbury  on  the  22nd  of  March  1903. 

As  a  theologian  Farrar  occupied  a  position  midway  between  the 
Evangelical  party  and  the  Broad  Church;  while  as  a  somewhat 
rhetorical  preacher  and  writer  he  exerted  a  commanding  influence 
over  wide  circles  of  readers.  He  was  an  ardent  temperance  and 
social  reformer,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  institution 
known  as  the  Anglican  Brotherhood,  a  religious  band  with 
modern  aims  and  objects. 

See  his  Life,  by  his  son  R.  Farrar  (1904). 

FARREN,  ELIZABETH  (c.  1759-1829),  English  actress,  was 
the  daughter  of  George  Farren,  an  actor.  Her  first  London 
appearance  was  in  1777  as  Miss  Hardcastle  in  She  Stoops  to 
Conquer.  Subsequent  successes  established  her  reputation 


FARREN,  WILLIAM— PARS 


189 


and  she  became  the  natural  successor  to  Mrs  Abington  when  the 
latter  left  Drury  Lane  in  1782.  The  parts  of  Hermione,  Olivia, 
Portia  and  Juliet  were  in  her  repertory,  but  her  Lady  Betty 
Modish,  Lady  Townly,  Lady  Fanciful,  Lady  Teazle  and  similar 
parts  were  her  favourites.  In  1797  she  married  Edward,  i2th 
earl  of  Derby  (1752-1834). 

FARREN,  WILLIAM  (1786-1861),  English  actor,  was  born  on 
the  i3th  of  May  1786,  the  son  of  an  actor  (b.  1725)  of  the  same 
name,  who  played  leading  r61es  from  1784  to  1795  at  Covent 
Garden.  His  first  appearance  on  the  stage  was  at  Plymouth  at 
the  Theatre  Royal,  then  under  the  management  of  his  brother, 
in  Love  a  la  mode.  His  first  London  appearance  was  in  1818  at 
Covent  Garden  as  Sir  Peter  Teazle,  a  part  with  which  his  name 
is  always  associated.  He  played  at  Covent  Garden  every  winter 
until  1828,  and  began  in  1824  a  series  of  summer  engagements 
at  the  Haymarket  which  also  lasted  some  years.  At  these  two 
theatres  he  played  an  immense  variety  of  comedy  characters. 
From  1828  until  1837  he  was  at  Drury  Lane,  where  he  essayed  a 
wider  range,  including  Polonius  and  Caesar.  He  was  again  at 
Covent  Garden  for  a  few  years,  and  next  joined  Benjamin 
Webster  at  the  Haymarket,  as  stage-manager  as  well  as  actor. 
In  1843  at  the  close  of  his  performance  of  the  title-part  in  Mark 
Lemon's  Old  Parr,  he  was  stricken  with  paralysis  on  the  stage. 
He  was,  however,  able  to  reappear  the  following  year,  and  he 
remained  at  the  Haymarket  ten  years  more,  though  his  acting 
never  again  reached  its  former  level.  For  a  time  he  managed 
the  Strand,  and,  1850-1853,  was  lessee  of  the  Olympic.  During 
his  later  years  he  confined  himself  to  old  men  parts,  in  which 
he  was  unrivalled.  In  1855  he  made  his  final  appearance  at  the 
Haymarket,  as  Lord  Ogleby  in  a  scene  from  the  Clandestine 
Marriage.  He  died  in  London  on  the  24th  of  September  1861. 
In  1825  he  had  married  the  actress  Mrs  Faucit,  mother  of 
Miss  Helena  Saville  Faucit  (Lady  Martin),  and  he  left  two 
sons,  Henry  (1826-1860)  and  William  (1825-1908),  both  actors. 
The  former  was  the  father  of  Ellen  [Nellie]  Farren  (1848-1904), 
long  famous  for  boy's  parts  in  Gaiety  musical  burlesques,  in  the 
days  of  Edward  Terry  and  Fred  Leslie.  As  Jack  Sheppard,  and 
in  similar  r&les,  she  had  a  unique  position  at  the  Gaiety,  and 
was  an  unrivalled  public  favourite.  From  1892  her  health  failed, 
and  her  retirement,  coupled  with  Fred  Leslie's  death,  brought 
to  an  end  the  type  of  Gaiety  burlesque  associated  with  them. 

FARRER,  THOMAS  HENRY  FARRER,  IST  BARON(i8i9-i899), 
English  civil  servant  and  statistician,  was  the  son  of  Thomas 
Farrer,  a  solicitor  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields.  Born  in  London  on 
the  24th  of  June  1819,  he  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1840.  He  was  called  to 
the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1844,  but  retired  from  practice  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years.  He  entered  the  public  service  in  1850  as 
secretary  to  the  naval  (renamed  in  1853  the  marine)  department 
of  the  Board  of  Trade.  In  1865  he  was  promoted  to  be  one  of 
the  joint  secretaries  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  in  1867  became 
permanent  secretary.  His  tenure  of  this  office,  which  he  held 
for  upwards  of  twenty  years,  was  marked  by  many  reforms 
and  an  energetic  administration.  Not  only  was  he  an  advanced 
Liberal  in  politics,  but  an  uncompromising  Free-trader  of  the 
strictest  school.  He  was  created  a  baronet  for  his  services  at  the 
Board  of  Trade  in  1883,  and  in  1886  he  retired  from  office. 
During  the  same  year  he  published  a  work  entitled  Free  Trade 
versus  Fair  Trade,  in  which  he  dealt  with  an  economic  contro- 
versy then  greatly  agitating  the  public  mind.  He  had  already, 
in  1883,  written  a  volume  on  Tlte  State  in  its  Relation  to  Trade. 
In  1889  he  was  co-opted  by  the  Progressives  an  alderman  of  the 
London  County  Council,  of  which  he  became  vice-chairman  in 
1890.  His  efficiency  and  ability  in  this  capacity  were  warmly 
recognized;  but  in  the  course  of  time  divergencies  arose 
between  his  personal  views  and  those  of  many  of  his  colleagues. 
The  tendency  towards  socialistic  legislation  which  became 
apparent  was  quite  at  variance  with  his  principles  of  individual 
enterprise  and  responsibility.  He  consequently  resigned  his 
position.  In  1893  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  From  this  time 
forward  he  devoted  much  of  his  energy  and  leisure  to  advocating 
his  views  at  the  Cobden  Club,  the  Political  Economy  Club, 


on  the  platform,  and  in  the  public  press.  Especially  were  his 
efforts  directed  against  the  opinions  of  the  Fair  Trade  League, 
and  upon  this  and  other  controversies  on  economic  questions 
he  wrote  able,  clear,  and  uncompromising  letters,  which  left  no 
doubt  that  he  still  adhered  to  the  doctrines  of  free  trade  as 
advocated  by  its  earliest  exponents.  In  1898  he  published  his 
Studies  in  Currency.  He  died  at  Abinger  Hall,  Dorking,  on  the 
1 1  th  of  October  1 899.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  title  by  his  eldest 
son  Thomas  Cecil  (b.  1859). 

FARRIER,  and  FARRIERY  (from  Lat.  ferrarius,  a  black- 
smith, ferrum,  iron).  Farrier  is  the  name  given  generally  either 
to  the  professional  shoer  of  horses  or  in  a  more  extended  sense 
to  a  practitioner  of  the  veterinary  art;  and  farriery  is  the  term 
for  his  business.  Primarily  the  art  of  farriery  is  identical  with 
that  of  the  blacksmith,  in  so  far  as  he  makes  and  fixes  shoes  on 
horses  (see  HORSE-SHOES);  he  is  liable  in  law  for  negligence, 
as  one  who  holds  himself  out  as  skilled;  and  he  has  a  lien  on  the 
animal  for  his  expenses.  William  the  Conqueror  is  supposed  to 
have  introduced  horse-shoeing  into  England,  and  the  art  had 
an  important  place  through  the  middle  ages,  the  days  of  chivalry, 
and  the  later  developments  of  equitation.  In  modern  times  it 
has  been  closely  allied  with  the  general  progress  in  veterinary 
science,  and  in  the  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology 
of  the  horse's  foot  and  hoof. 

See  Fisher,  The  Farrier  (1893);  Lungwitz,  Text-Book  of  Horse- 
shoeing (Eng.  trans.,  1898).  ^ 

PARS  (the  name  Farsistan  is  not  used),  one  of  the  five  mam- 
likats  (great  provinces)  of  Persia,  extending  along  the  northern 
shore  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  bounded  on  the  west  by  Arabistan, 
on  the  north  by  Isfahan  and  on  the  east  by  Kerman.  It  lies 
between  49°  30'  and  56°  10'  E.  and  26°  20'  and  31°  45'  N.  and 
has  an  area  of  nearly  60,000  sq.  m.  Fars  is  the  same  word  as  the 
Greek  Persis,  and,  originally  the  name  of  only  a  part  of  the 
Persian  empire  (Iran),  has  become  the  name  which  Europeans 
have  applied  to  the  whole  (see  PERSIS).  The  province  is 
popularly,  but  not  for  administrative  purposes,  divided  according 
to  climate  into  germsir  and  sardslr,  or  the  warm  and  cold  regions. 
The  former  extends  from  the  sea  to  the  central  chain  of  hills 
and  contains  all  the  lowlands  and  many  mountainous  districts, 
some  of  the  latter  rising  to  an  elevation  of  between  3000  and 
4000  ft.  and  the  sardsir  comprises  the  remaining  and  northern 
districts  of  the  province. 

In  Arrian's  relation  of  the  voyage  of  Nearchus  (Indica,  40), 
these  two  regions  are  well  described.  "  The  first  part  of  Persis 
which  lies  along  the  Persian  Gulf  is  hot,  sandy  and  barren  and 
only  the  date  palm  thrives  there.  The  other  part  comprehends 
inner  Persis  lying  northwards;  it  enjoys  a  pleasant  climate  and 
has  fertile  and  well- watered  plains,  gardens  with  trees  of  all  kinds, 
rich  pasturages  and  forests  abounding  with  game;  with  the 
exception  of  the  olive  all  fruits  are  produced  in  profusion, 
particularly  the  vine.  Horses  and  other  draught  animals  are 
reared  in  the  province,  and  there  are  several  lakes  frequented 
by  water-fowl,  and  streams  of  clear  water  flow  through  it,  as 
for  instance  the  Kyros  (Kur)  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Medos 
and  Araxes." 

The  mountains  of  Fars  may  be  considered  as  a  continuation 
of  the  Zagros  and  run  parallel  to  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
They  comprise  several  ranges  which  the  roads  from  the  sea  to 
the  interior  have  to  cross  at  right  angles,  thereby  rendering 
communication  and  transport  very  difficult.  The  highest  of 
the  mountains  of  Fars  (14,000  ft.)  is  the  Kuh  Dina  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  province.  Of  the  rivers  of  Fars  only  three 
important  ones  flow  into  the  sea:  (i)  the  Mand  (Arrian's  Sitakos), 
Karaaghach  in  its  upper  course;  (2)  the  Shapur  or  Khisht 
river  (Granis);  (3)  the  Tab  (Oroatis).  Some  rivers,  notably 
the  Kur  (Kyros,  Araxes)  which  flows  into  the  Bakhtegan  lake 
east  of  Shiraz,  drain  into  inland  depressions  or  lakes. 

The  capital  of  the  province  is  Shiraz,  and  the  subdivision 
in  districts,  the  chief  places  of  the  districts  and  their  estimated 
population,  and  the  number  of  inhabited  villages  in  each  as  they 
appear  in  lists  dated  1884  and  1905  are  shown  on  the  following 
page. 


FARS 


Name  of  District. 

Chief  Place  or  Seat  of 
Government. 

lumber  of 
inhabited 
Villages  in 
District. 

Name. 

Popula- 
tion. 

I 

Abadeh  Iklid  . 

Abadeh 

4,000 

33 

2 

Abadeh-Tashk       .      . 

Tashk 

600 

8 

3 

Abarj    

Dashtek 

2,000 

6 

4 

Abbasi 

(i)  Bander  Abbasi  l 

and  villages     . 

Bander  Abbasi 

10,000 

J4 

(2)  Issln  and  Tazian 

Issin 

6 

(3)  Shamil     . 

Shamil 

1,000 

18 

(4)  Moghistan     . 

Ziarat 

10 

(5)  Minab     . 

Minab 

4,000 

23 

5 

Afzar     

NImdeh 

12 

6 

"Alemrud    .... 

Sabzpushan 

1,000 

16 

7 

Arb'ah  (the  four) 

(i)  Deh  Rud            1 

(2)  Deh  Ram             1 

Deh  Ram 

1,500 

19 

(3)  Hengam 

(4)  Rudbal               J 

8 

Ardakan     .... 

Ardakan 

5,000 

10 

9 

Arsinjan     .... 

Arsinjan 

5,000 

25 

10 

Asir       

Asir 

500 

IO 

ii 

Baiza    

Baiza 

2,000 

55 

12 

Bidshahr  and  Juvim  . 

Bidshahr 

3,000 

23 

13 

Bovanat     .... 

Surian 

500 

23 

14 

Darab  

Darab 

5,000 

62 

15 

Dashti 

(i)  Bardistan 

Bander  Dair 

1,000 

28 

(2)  Buluk      .      .      . 

Bushgan 

18 

(3)  Mandistan    . 

Kaki 

1,500 

40 

(4)  Tassuj 

Tang  Bagh 

500 

ii 

(5)  Shumbeh.     .      . 

Shumbeh 

15 

16 

Dashtistan 

(i)  Angali     .      .      . 

Haftjush 

10 

(2)  Ahrom     . 

Ahrom 

1,500 

5 

(3)  Borazjan. 

Borazjan 

4,000 

19 

(4)  Bushire1  .      .      . 

Bushire 

25,000 

20 

(5)  Daliki      .      .      . 

Daliki 

1,500 

7 

(6)  Gonavah. 

Gonavah 

1,000 

12 

(7)  Hayat  Daud      . 

Bander  Rig 

1,000 

6 

(8)  Khurmuj 

Khurmuj 

1,000 

5 

(9)  Rud  Hillah  .      . 

Kelat  Sukhteh 

IO 

(10)  Shaban  Kareh. 

Deh  Kohneh 

27 

(n)  Tangistan   . 

Tangistan 

1,000 

31 

(12)  Zengeneh    . 

Samal 

750 

4 

(13)  Zirah      .      .      . 

Zirah 

6 

17 

Dizkurd      .... 

Cherkes 

500 

6 

18 

Famur  

Pagah 

300 

3 

19 

Ferrashband    . 

Ferrashband 

1,000 

M 

20 

Fessa     

Fessa 

5,000 

40 

21 

Firuzabad  .... 

Firuzabad 

4,000 

20 

22 

Gillehdar    .... 

Gillehdar 

1,000 

43 

23 

Humeh  of  Shiraz  . 

Zerkan 

1,000 

89 

24 

Istahbanat 

Istahbanat 

10,000 

12 

25 

Jahrum       .... 

Jahrum 

10,000 

33 

26 

Tireh     

Ishfayikan 

23 

27 

Kamfiruz    .... 

Palangeri 

34 

28 

Kamin  

Kalilek 

ii 

29 

Kazerun     .... 

Kazerun 

8,000 

46 

3° 

Kavar 

Kavar 

26 

31 

Kir  and  Karzin     . 

Kir 

1,000 

23 

32 

Khafr    

Khafr 

1,000 

41 

33 

Khajeh  

Zanjiran 

500 

15 

34 

Khisht  

Khisht 

2,500 

25 

35 

Khunj  

Khunj 

1,500 

27 

36 

Kongan       .... 

Bander  Kongan 

12 

37 

Kuh    Gilu    and    Beh- 

bahan       .... 

Behbahan 

10,000 

182 

38 

Kurbal  

Gavkan 

600 

67 

39 

Kuh  i  Marreh  Shikeft 

Shikeft 

41 

40 

Kunkuri     .... 

Kazian 

29 

41 

Laristan 

(i)  Lar    .      .      .      . 

Lar 

8,000 

34 

(2)  Bikhah  Ihsham. 

Bairam 

ii 

(3)  Bikhah  Fal  .       . 

Ishkenan 

10 

(4)  Jehangiriyeh 
(5)  Shib  Kuh      .      . 

Bastak 
Bander  Charak 

4,000 

30 

36 

(6)  Fumistan  or  Gav- 

bandi    . 

Gavbandi 

13 

(7)  Kauristan     . 

Kauristan 

4 

(8)  Lingah  '  .      .      . 

Bander  Lingah 

10,000 

ii 

(9)  Mazayijan    . 

Mazayijan 

6 

42 

Mahur  Milati  . 

Jemalgird 

5 

1  Are  forming  separate  administrative  division  of 
Ports." 


Persian  Gulf 


Name  of  District. 

Chief  Place  or  S 
Governmen 

eat  of 
t. 

Number  of 
inhabited 

Name. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Villages  in 
District. 

43 

Maimand  .... 

Maimand 

5,ooo 

'4 

44 

Maliki  .      .            .      . 

Bander  Assalu 

1,000 

21; 

45 

Mamasenni  (Shulistan) 

j 

(i)  Bekesh                1 

8 

(2)  Javldior  Javi 

6 

(3)  Dushmanziaris    1 

16 

(4)  Rustami 

Kal'ah  Sand 

26 

(5)  Fahlian 

7 

(6)  Kakan 

46 

Mayin 

Mayin 

Q 

t^\j 
47 

Mervast  and  Herat    • 

Mervast 

H 

48 

Mervdasht 

(i)  Upper  Khafrek  1 

H 

(2)  Lower  Khafrek    X 

Fathabad 

1,250 

16 

(3)  Mervdasht           J 

22 

49 

M  eshhedMaderSuliman 

Murghab 

800 

6 

50 

Niriz     

Niriz 

9,000 

24 

51 

Ramjird      .... 

Jashian 

36 

52 

Rudan  and  Ahmedi    . 

Dehbariz 

21 

53 

Sab'ah  (the  seven) 

(i)  Blvunj  (Bivanej) 

Durz 

H 

(2)  Hasanabad    . 

Hasanabad 

7 

(3)  Tarom     .      .      . 

Tarun 

2,000 

15 

(4)  Faraghan      .      . 

Faraghan 

1,500 

13 

(5)  Forg  .... 

Forg 

3,000 

18 

(6)  Fin  and  Guhrah. 

Fin 

13 

(7)  Gileh  Gah  (aban- 

Ziaret 

1,000 

ii 

doned) 

54 

Sarchahan 

55 

Sarhad  Chahar  Dungeh 

(i)  Dasht  Uian           1 

(2)  Dasht  Khosro  va 

Shirin 
(3)  Dasht  Khungasht 
(4)  Dasht  KushkZardj 

Kushk  Zard 

31 

56 

Sarhad  Shesh  Nahiyeh 

(i)  Padina    (foot    of 

Mount  Dina). 

Khur                -i 

(2)  Henna     . 

Henna 

(3)  Samiram. 

Samiram 

(4)  Felard      .      .      . 

Felard 

24 

(5)  Vardasht.     .      . 

Germabad 

(6)Vank.      .      .      . 

Vank                J 

57 

Sarvistan    .... 

Sarvistan 

4,500 

23 

58 

Shiraz  (town)  in  1884 

53,607" 

59 

Siyakh  

Darinjan 

i.3 

60 

Simkan       .... 

Duzeh 

28 

The  above  sixty  districts  are  grouped  into  eighteen  sub- 
provinces  under  governors  appointed  by  the  governor-general 
of  Fars,  but  the  towns  of  Bushire,  Lingah  and  Bander  Abbasi, 
together  with  the  villages  in  their  immediate  neighbourhood, 
form  a  separate  government  known  as  that  of  the  "  Persian 
Gulf  Ports  "  (Benadir  i  Khali  j  i  Fars),  under  a  governor  appointed 
from  Teheran.  The  population  of  the  province  has  been  esti- 
mated at  750,000  and  the  yearly  revenue  it  pays  to  the  state 
amounts  to  about  £150,000.  Many  districts  are  fertile,  but 
some,  particularly  those  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  province, 
do  not  produce  sufficient  grain  for  the  requirements  of  the  sparse 
population.  In  consequence  of  droughts,  ravages  of  locusts 
and  misgovernment  by  local  governors  the  province  has  been 
much  impoverished  and  hundreds  of  villages  are  in  ruins  and 
deserted.  About  a  third  of  the  population  is  composed  of 
turbulent  and  lawless  nomads  who,  when  on  the  march  between 
their  winter  and  summer  camping  grounds,  frequently  render 
the  roads  insecure  and  occasionally  plunder  whole  districts, 
leaving  the  inhabitants  without  means  of  subsistence. 

The  province  produces  much  wheat,  barley,  rice,  millet,  cotton, 
but  the  authorities  every  now  and  then  prohibiting  the  export 
of  cereals,  the  people  generally  sow  just  as  much  as  they  think 
will  suffice  for  their  own  wants.  Much  tobacco  of  excellent 
quality,  principally  for  consumption  in  Persia,  is  also  grown 
(especially  in  Fessa,  Darab  and  Jahrom)  and  a  considerable 
quantity  of  opium,  much  of  it  for  export  to  China,  is  produced. 
Salt,  lime  and  gypsum  are  abundant.  There  are  also  some  oil 

1  Persian  census  in  1884;  25,284  males,  28,323  females. 


FARTHING— FASCIA 


191 


wells  at  Daliki,  near  Bushire,  but  several  attempts  to  tap  the  oil 
have  been  unsuccessful.  There  are  no  valuable  oyster-banks  in 
Persian  waters,  and  all  the  Persian  Gulf  pearls  are  obtained  from 
banks  on  the  coast  of  Arabia  and  near  Bahrein.  (A.  H.-S.) 

FARTHING  (A.S.  fedrtha,  fourth,  +ing,  diminutive),  the 
smallest  English  coin,  equal  to  the  fourth  of  a  penny.  It 
became  a  regular  part  of  the  coinage  from  the  reign  of  Edward  I., 
and  was,  up  to  the  reign  of  Mary,  a  silver  coin.  No  farthing  was 
struck  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  but  a  silver  three-farthing  piece 
was  issued  in  that  reign,  with  a  profile  bust  of  the  queen  crowned, 
with  a  rose  behind  her  head,  and  inscribed  "  E.D.G.  Rosa  sine 
spina."  The  copper  farthing  was  first  introduced  in  the  reign 
of  James  I.,  a  patent  being  given  to  Lord  Harington  of  Exton 
in  1613  for  the  issue  of  copper  tokens  of  this  denomination.  It 
was  nominally  of  six  grains'  weight,  but  was  usually  heavier. 
Properly,  however,  the  copper  farthing  dates  from  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.,  in  whose  reign  also  was  issued  a  tin  farthing,  with 
a  small  copper  plug  in  the  centre,  and  an  inscription  on  the  edge, 
"  Nummorum  famulus  1684."  No  farthings  were  actually  issued 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  though  a  number  of  patterns  were 
prepared  (see  NUMISMATICS:  medieval  section,  England).  In 
1860  the  copper  farthing  was  superseded  by  one  struck  in  bronze. 
In  1842  a  proclamation  was  issued  giving  currency  to  half- 
farthings,  and  there  were  several  issues,  but  they  were  de- 
monetized in  1869.  In  1897  the  practice  was  adopted  of  darken- 
ing farthings  before  issue,  to  prevent  their  being  mistaken  for 
half-sovereigns. 

FARTHINGALE  (from  the  O.  Fr.  verdagalle,  or  vertugalle,  a 
corruption  of  the  Spanish  name  of  the  article,  verdagado,  from 
verdago,  a  rod  or  stick),  a  case  or  hoop,  originally  of  bent  rods, 
but  afterwards  made  of  whalebone,  upon  which  were  hung  the 
voluminous  skirts  of  a  woman's  dress.  The  fashion  was  intro- 
duced into  England  from  Spain  in  the  i6th  century.  In  its  most 
exaggerated  shape,  at  the  beginning  of  the  lyth  century,  the 
top  of  the  farthingale  formed  a  flat  circular  surface  projecting 
at  right  angles  to  the  bodice  (see  COSTUME). 

FARUKHABAD,  FARRAKHABAD,  or  FURRUCKABAD,  a  city  and 
district  of  British  India  in  the  Agra  division  of  the  United 
Provinces.  The  city  is  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  87  m. 
by  rail  from  Cawnpore.  It  forms  a  joint  municipality  with 
Fatehgarh,  the  civil  headquarters  of  the  district  with  a  military 
cantonment.  Pop.  (1901)  67,338.  At  Fatehgarh  is  the  govern- 
ment gun-carriage  factory;  and  other  industries  include  cotton- 
printing  and  the  manufacture  of  gold  lace,  metal  vessels  and 
tents. 

The  DISTRICT  OF  FARUKHABAD  has  an  area  of  1685  sq.  m. 
It  is  a  flat  alluvial  plain  in  the  middle  Doab.  The  principal  rivers 
are:  the  Ganges,  which  has  a  course  of  87  m.  either  bordering 
on  or  passing  through  the  district,  but  is  not  at  all  times  navigable 
by  large  boats  throughout  its  entire  course;  the  Kali-nadi  (84  m.) 
and  the  Isan-nadi  (42  m.),  both  tributaries  of  the  Ganges;  and 
the  Arind-nadi,  which,  after  a  course  of  20  m.  in  the  south  of  the 
district,  passes  into  Cawnpore.  The  principal  products  are  rice, 
wheat,  barley,  millets,  pulses,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  potatoes,  &c. 
The  grain  crops,  however,  are  insufficient  for  local  wants,  and 
grain  is  largely  imported  from  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand.  The 
district  is,  therefore,  liable  to  famine,  and  it  was  severely  visited 
by  this  calamity  six  times  during  the  igth  century — in  1803- 
1804,  1815-1816,  1825-1826,  1837-1838,  1868-1869  and  1899- 
1900.  Farukhabad  is  one  of  the  healthiest  districts  in  the  Doab, 
but  fevers  are  prevalent  during  August  and  September.  The 
average  annual  mean  temperature  is  almost  80°  F. ;  the  average 
annual  rainfall,  29-4  in. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  century,  when  the  Mogul  empire 
was  breaking  up,  Mahommed  Khan,  a  Bangash  Afghan  from 
a  village  near  Kaimganj,  governor  of  Allahabad  and  later  of 
Malwa,  established  a  considerable  state  of  which  the  present 
district  of  Farukhabad  was  the  nucleus,  founding  the  city  of 
Farukhabad  in  1714.  After  his  death  in  1743,  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor Kaim  Khan  was  embroiled  by  Safdar  Jang,  the  nawab 
wazir  of  Oudh,  with  the  Rohillas,  in  battle  with  whom  he  lost 
his  life  in  1749.  In  1750  his  brother,  Ahmad  Khan,  recovered 


the  Farukhabad  territories;  but  Safdar  Jang  called  in  the 
Mahrattas,  and  a  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  country 
began,  which  ended  in  1771,  on  the  death  of  Ahmad  Khan,  by 
its  becoming  tributary  to  Oudh.  In  1801  the  nawab  wazir  ceded 
to  the  British  his  lands  in  this  district,  with  the  tribute  due  from 
the  nawab  of  Farukhabad,  who  gave  up  his  sovereign  rights  in 
1802.  In  1804  the  Mahrattas,  under  Holkar,  ravaged  this  tract, 
but  were  utterly  routed  by  Lord  Lake  at  the  town  of  Farukhabad. 
During  the  mutiny  Farukhabad  shared  the  fate  of  other  districts, 
and  passed  entirely  out  of  British  hands  for  a  time.  The  native 
troops,  who  had  for  some  time  previously  evinced  a  seditious 
spirit,  finally  broke  into  rebellion  on  the  i8th  of  June  1857, 
and  placed  the  titular  nawab  of  Farukhabad  on  the  throne. 
The  English  military  residents  took  shelter  in  the  fort,  which 
they  held  until  the  4th  of  July,  when,  the  fort  being  undermined, 
they  endeavoured  to  escape  by  the  river.  One  boat  succeeded  in 
reaching  Cawnpore,  but  only  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  Nana. 
Its  occupants  were  made  prisoners,  and  perished  in  the  massacre 
of  the  icth  of  July.  The  other  boat  was  stopped  on  its  progress 
down  the  river,  and  all  those  in  it  were  captured  or  killed,  except 
four  who  escaped.  The  prisoners  were  conveyed  back  to  Fateh- 
garh, and  murdered  there  by  the  nawab  on  the  igth  of  July. 
The  rebels  were  defeated  in  several  engagements,  and  on  the 
3rd  of  January  1858  the  English  troops  recaptured  Fatehgarh 
fort;  but  it  was  not  till  May  that  order  was  thoroughly  re- 
established. In  1901  the  population  was  925,812,  showing 
an  increase  of  8  %  in  one  decade.  Part  of  the  district  is  watered 
by  distributaries  of  the  Ganges  canal;  it  is  traversed  throughout 
its  length  by  the  Agra-Cawnpore  line  of  the  Rajputana  railway, 
and  is  also  served  by  a  branch  of  the  East  Indian  system. 
Tobacco,  opium,  potatoes  and  fruit,  cotton-prints,  scent  and 
saltpetre  are  among  the  principal  exports. 

FASCES,  in  Roman  antiquities,  bundles  of  elm  or  birch  rods 
from  which  the  head  of  an  axe  projected,  fastened  together  by  a 
red  strap.  Nothing  is  known  of  their  origin,  the  tradition  that 
represents  them  as  borrowed  by  one  of  the  kings  from  Etruria 
resting  on  insufficient  grounds.  As  the  emblem  of  official 
authority,  they  were  carried  by  the  lictors,  in  the  left  hand 
and  on  the  left  shoulder,  before  the  higher  Roman  magistrates; 
at  the  funeral  of  a  deceased  magistrate  they  were  carried  behind 
the  bier.  The  lictors  and  the  fasces  were  so  inseparably  connected 
that  they  came  to  be  used  as  synonymous  terms.  The  fasces 
originally  represented  the  power  over  life  and  limb  possessed  by 
the  kings,  and  after  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy,  the  consuls, 
like  the  kings,  were  preceded  by  twelve  fasces.  Within  the 
precincts  of  the  city  the  axe  was  removed,  in  recognition  of  the 
right  of  appeal  (prowcatid)  to  the  people  in  a  matter  of  life 
and  death;  outside  Rome,  however,  each  consul  retained  the 
axe,  and  was  preceded  by  his  own  lictors,  not  merely  by  a  single 
accensus  (supernumerary),  as  was  originally  the  case  within  the 
city  when  he  was  not  officiating.  Later,  the  lictors  preceded  the 
officiating  consul,  and  walked  behind  the  other.  Valerius 
Publicola,  the  champion  of  popular  rights,  further  established 
the  custom  that  the  fasces  should  be  lowered  before  the  people, 
as  the  real  representatives  of  sovereignty  (Livy  ii.  7;  Florus 
i.  9;  Plutarch,  Publicola,  10);  lowering  the  fasces  was  also  the 
manner  in  which  an  inferior  saluted  a  superior  magistrate.  A 
dictator,  as  taking  the  place  of  the  two  consuls,  had  24  fasces 
(including  the  axe  even  within  the  city) ;  most  of  the  other 
magistrates  had  fasces  varying  in  number,  with  the  exception 
of  the  censors,  who,  as  possessing  no  executive  authority,  had 
none.  Fasces  were  given  to  the  Flamen  Dialis  and  (after  42  B.C.) 
even  to  the  Vestals.  During  the  times  of  the  republic,  a  victorious 
general,  who  had  been  saluted  by  the  title  of  imperator  by  his 
soldiers,  had  his  fasces  crowned  with  laurel  (Cicero,  Pro  Ligario, 
3).  Later,  under  the  empire,  when  the  emperor  received  the 
title  for  life  on  his  accession,  it  became  restricted  to  him,  and  the 
laurel  was  regarded  as  distinctive  of  the  imperial  fasces  (see 
Mommsen,  Romisches  Staatsrecht,  i.,  1887,  p.  373). 

FASCIA  (Latin  for  a  bandage  or  fillet) ,  a  term  used  for  many 
objects  which  resemble  a  band  in  shape;  thus  in  anatomy  it  is 
applied  to  the  layers  of  fibrous  connective  tissue  which  sheathe 


FASCINATION— FASTI 


the  muscles  or  cover  various  parts  or  organs  in  the  body,  and  in 
zoology,  and  particularly  in  ornithology,  to  bands  or  stripes  of 
colour.  In  architecture  the  word  is  used  of  the  bands  into 
which  the  architrave  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders  is 
subdivided;  their  origin  would  seem  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  superimposing  of  two  or  more  beams  of  timber  to  span  the 
opening  between  columns  and  to  support  a  superincumbent 
weight;  the  upper  beam  projected  slightly  in  front  of  the  lower, 
and  similar  projections  were  continued  in  the  stone  or  marble 
beam  though  in  one  block.  In  the  Roman  Corinthian  order  the 
fasciae,  still  projecting  one  in  front  of  the  other,  were  subdivided 
by  small  mouldings  sometimes  carved.  The  several  bands  are 
known  as  the  first  or  upper  fascia,  the  second  or  middle  fascia 
and  the  third  or  lower  fascia.  The  term  is  sometimes  applied 
to  flat  projecting  bands  in  Renaissance  architecture  when  em- 
ployed as  string  courses.  It  is  also  used,  though  more  commonly 
in  the  form  "  facia,"  of  the  band  or  plate  over  a  shop-front, 
on  which  the  name  and  occupation  of  the  tradesman  is  written. 

FASCINATION  (from  Lat.  fascinare,  to  bewitch,  probably 
connected  with  the  Gr.  (JaerKaiveLV,  to  speak  ill  of,  to  bewitch), 
the  art  of  enchantfng  or  bewitching,  especially  through  the 
influence  of  the  "  evil  eye,"  and  so  properly  of  the  exercise  of  an 
evil  influence  over  the  reason  or  will.  The  word  is  thus  used 
of  the  supposed  paralysing  attraction  exercised  by  some  reptiles 
on  their  victims.  It  is  also  applied  to  a  particular  hypnotic 
condition,  marked  by  muscular  contraction,  but  with  conscious- 
ness and  power  of  remembrance  left.  In  a  quite  general  sense, 
fascination  means  the  exercise  of  any  charm  or  strong  attraction. 

FASCINE  (from  the  Lat.  fascina,  fastis,  a  bundle  of  sticks), 
a  large  faggot  of  brushwood  used  in  the  revetments  of  earthworks 
and  for  other  purposes  of  military  engineering.  The  British 
service  pattern  of  fascine  is  18  ft.  long;  it  is  tied  as  tightly  as 
possible  at  short  intervals,  and  the  usual  diameter  is  9  in.  Similar 
bundles  of  wood  formed  part  of  the  foundations  of  the  early 
lake-dwellings,  and  in  modern  engineering  fascines  are  used  in 
making  rough  roads  over  marshy  ground  and  in  building  river 
and  sea  walls  and  breakwaters. 

FASHION  (adapted  from  Fr.  fafon,  Lat.  factio,  making,  facere, 
to  do  or  make),  the  action  of  making,  hence  the  shape  or  form 
which  anything  takes  in  the  process  of  making.  It  is  thus  used 
in  the  sense  of  the  pattern,  kind,  sort,  manner  or  mode  in  which 
a  thing  is  done.  It  is  particularly  used  of  the  common  or 
customary  way  in  which  a  thing  is  done,  and  so  is  applied  to 
the  manner  or  custom  prevalent  at  or  characteristic  of  a  particular 
period,  especially  of  the  manner  of  dress,  &c.,  current  at  a 
particular  period  in  any  rank  of  society,  for  which  the  French 
term  is  modes  (see  COSTUME). 

FASHODA  (renamed,  1004,  KODOK),  a  post  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Upper  Nile,  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  in  9°  53'  N.,  32°  8'  E., 
459  m.  S.,  by  river,  of  Khartum.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
mudiria  (province)  of  the  Upper  Nile.  The  station  is  built  on  a 
flat  peninsula  connected  by  a  narrow  strip  of  land  with  a  ridge 
which  runs  parallel  with  the  river.  The  surrounding  country  is 
mostly  deep  swamp  and  the  station  is  most  unhealthy;  mosquitoes 
are  present  in  millions.  The  climate  is  always  damp  and  the 
temperature  rarely  below  98°  in  the  shade.  The  government 
offices  are  well-built  brick  structures.  In  front  of  the  station 
is  a  long  low  island,  and  when  the  Nile  is  at  its  lowest  this  channel 
becomes  dry.  Several  roads  from  Kordofan  converge  on  the 
Nile  at  this  point,  and  near  the  station  is  the  residence  of  the 
mek,  or  king,  of  the  Shilluk  tribe,  whose  designation  of  the  post 
was  adopted  when  it  was  decided  to  abandon  the  use  of  Fashoda. 
At  Lul,  1 8  m.  farther  up  stream,  is  an  Austrian  Roman  Catholic 
mission  station. 

An  Egyptian  military  post  was  established  at  Fashoda  in  1865. 
It  was  then  a  trading  station  of  some  importance,  slaves  being 
the  chief  commodity  dealt  in.  In  1883-1884  the  place  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Mahdists.  On  the  loth  of  July  1898  it  was 
occupied  by  a  French  force  from  the  Congo  under  Commandant 
J.  B.  Marchand,  a  circumstance  which  gave  rise  to  a  state  of 
great  tension  between  Great  Britain  and  France.  On  the  i  ith  of 
December  following  the  French  force  withdrew,  returning  home 


via  Abyssinia  (see  AFRICA,  §  5,  and  EGYPT:  History,  and  Military 
Operations). 

FAST  AND  LOOSE,  a  cheating  game  played  at  fairs  by 
sharpers.  A  strap,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  belt,  is  rolled  or 
doubled  up  with  a  loop  in  the  centre,  and  laid  edgewise  on  a 
table.  The  swindler  then  bets  that  the  loop  cannot  be  caught 
with  a  stick  or  skewer  as  he  unrolls  the  belt.  As  this  looks  to 
be  easy  to  do  the  bet  is  often  taken,  but  the  sharper  unrolls  the 
belt  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  the  catching  of  the  loop 
practically  impossible.  Centuries  ago  it  was  much  practised  by 
gipsies,  a  circumstance  alluded  to  by  Shakespeare  in  Anthony 
and  Cleopatra  (iv.  12) : 

"  Like  a  right  gipsy,  hath,  at  fast  and  loose, 
Beguiled  me  to  the  very  heart  of  loss." 

From  this  game  is  taken  the  colloquial  expression  "  to  play  fast 
and  loose."  At  the  present  day  it  is  called  "  prick  the  garter  " 
or  "  prick  the  loop." 

FASTI,  in  Roman  antiquities,  plural  of  the  Latin  adjective 
fastus,  but  more  commonly  used  as  a  substantive,  derived  from 
fas,  meaning  what  is  binding,  or  allowable,  by  divine  law,  as 
opposed  to  jus,  or  human  law.  Fasti  dies  thus  came  to  mean 
the  days  on  which  law  business  might  be  transacted  without 
impiety,  corresponding  to  our  own  "  lawful  days  ";  the  opposite 
of  the  dies  fasti  were  the  dies  nefasli,  on  which,  on  various 
religious  grounds,  the  courts  could  not  sit.  The  word  fasti  itself 
then  came  to  be  used  to  denote  lists  or  registers  of  various  kinds, 
which  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes. 

1.  Fasti  Diurni,  divided  into  urbani  and  rustici,  a  kind  of 
official  year-book,  with  dates  and  directions  for  religious  cere- 
monies, court-days,  market-days,  divisions  of  the  month,  and 
the  like.     Until  304  B.C.  the  lore  of  the  calendaria  remained  the 
exclusive  and  lucrative  monopoly  of  the  priesthood;  but  in  that 
year   Gnaeus   Flavius,   a   pontifical  secretary,   introduced  the 
custom  of  publishing  in  the  forum  tables  containing  the  requisite 
information,    besides   brief   references   to   victories,   triumphs, 
prodigies,  &c.     This  list  was  the  origin  of  the  public  Roman 
calendar,  in  which  the  days  were  divided  into  weeks  of  eight 
days  each,  and  indicated  by  the  letters  A-H.     Each  day  was 
marked  by  a  certain  letter  to  show  its  nature;  thus  the  letters 
F.,  N.,  N.P.,  P.P.,  Q.  Rex  C.F.,  C.,  EN.,  stood  for  fastus, 
nefastus,    nefastus   in  some   unexplained  sense,  faslus   priore, 
quando  rex  (sacrorum)  comitiavit  fastus,  comitialis  and  intercisus. 
The  dies  intercisi  were  partly  fasti  and  partly  nefasti.     Ovid's 
Fasti  is  a  poetical  description  of  the  Roman  festivals  of  the  first 
six  months,  written  to  illustrate  the  Fasti  published  by  Julius 
Caesar    after    he    remodelled    the    Roman    year.      Upon    the 
cultivators   fewer  feasts,   sacrifices,   ceremonies   and   holidays 
were  enjoined  than  on  the  inhabitants  of  cities;  and  the  rustic 
fasti  contained  little  more  than  the  ceremonies  of  the  calends, 
nones  and  ides,  the  fairs,  signs  of  zodiac,  increase  and  decrease 
of  the  days,  the  tutelary  gods  of  each  month,  and  certain  direc- 
tions for  rustic  labours  to  be  performed  each  month. 

2.  Fasti  Magistrates,  Annales  or  Historici,  were  concerned 
with  the  several  feasts,  and  everything  relating  to  the  gods, 
religion  and  the  magistrates;  to  the  emperors,  their  birthdays, 
offices,  days  consecrated  to  them,  with  feasts  and  ceremonies 
established  in  their  honour  or  for  their  prosperity.     They  came 
to  be  denominated  magni,  by  way  of  distinction  from  the  bare 
calendar,  or  fasti  diurni.     Of  this  class,  the  fasti  consulares,  for 
example,  were  a  chronicle  or  register  of  time,  in  which  the  several 
years  were  denoted  by  the  respective  consuls,  with  the  principal 
events    which   happened   during   their   consulates.     The  fasti 
triumphales  and  sacerdotales  contained  a  list  in  chronological 
order  of  persons  who  had  obtained  a  triumph,  together  with 
the  name  of  the  conquered  people,  and  of  the  priests.     The  word 
fasti  thus  came  to  be  used  in  the  general  sense  of  "  annals  " 
or  "  historical  records."     A  famous  specimen  of  the  same  class 
are  the  fasti  Capitolini,  so  called  because  they  were  deposited 
in  the  Capitol  by  Alexander  Farnese,  after  their  excavation  from 
the  Roman  forum  in  1547.     They  are  chiefly  a  nominal  list  of 
statesmen,  victories,  triumphs,  &c.,  from  the  expulsion  of  the 
kings  to  the  death  of  Augustus.     A  considerable  number  of  fasti 


FASTING 


of  the  first  class  have  also  been  discovered;  but  none  of  them 
appear  to  be  older  than  the  time  of  Augustus.  The  Praenestine 
calendar,  discovered  in  1770,  arranged  by  the  famous  gram- 
marian Verrius  Flaccus,  contains  the  months  of  January,  March, 
April  and  December,  and  a  portion  of  February.  The  tablets 
give  an  account  of  festivals,  as  also  of  the  triumphs  of  Augustus 
and  Tiberius.  There  are  still  two  complete  calendars  in  existence, 
an  official  list  by  Furius  Dionysius  Philocalus  (A.D.  354),  and  a 
Christian  version  of  the  official  calendar,  made  by  Polemius 
Silvius  (A.D.  448).  But  some  kinds  of  fasti  included  under  the 
second  general  head  were,  from  the  very  beginning,  written 
for  publication.  The  Annales  Pontificum — different  from  the 
calendaria  properly  so  called — were  "  annually  exhibited  in 
public  on  a  white  table,  on  which  the  memorable  events  of  the 
year,  with  special  mention  of  the  prodigies,  were  set  down  in 
the  briefest  possible  manner."  Any  one  was  allowed  to  copy 
them.  Like  the  pontifices,  the  augurs  also  had  their  books, 
libri  augurales.  In  fact,  all  the  state  offices  had  their  fasti 
corresponding  in  character  to  the  consular  fasti  named  above. 

For  the  best  text  and  account  of  the  fragments  of  the  Fasti  see 
Corpus  Inscriptionum  Latinarum,  i.  (2nd  ed.);  on  the  subject  gener- 
ally, Teuffel-Schwabe,  Hist,  of  Roman  Literature,  §§  74,  75,  and 
article  by  Bouche-Leclercq  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio,  Dictionnaire 
des  antiquites. 

FASTING  (from  "  fast,"  derived  from  old  Teutonic  fastejan; 
synonyms  being  the  Gr.  vrianvfiv,  late  Lat.  jejunarc),  an 
act  which  is  most  accurately  defined  as  an  abstention  from 
meat,  drink  and  all  natural  food  for  a  determined  period.  So 
it  is  defined  by  the  Church  of  England,  in  the  i6th  homily,  on 
the  authority  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  *  and  of  the  primitive 
church  generally.  In  a  looser  sense  the  word  is  employed  to 
denote  abstinence  from  certain  kinds  of  food  merely;  and  this 
meaning,  which  in  ordinary  usage  is  probably  the  more  prevalent, 
seems  also  to  be  at  least  tolerated  by  the  Church  of  England 
when  it  speaks  of  "  fast  or  abstinence  days,"  as  if  fasting  and 
abstinence  were  synonymous.2  More  vaguely  still,  the  word 
is  occasionally  used  as  an  equivalent  for  moral  self-restraint 
generally.  This  secondary  and  metaphorical  sense  (cijoreueic 
KCUOTIJTOS)  occurs  in  one  of  the  fragments  of  Empedocles. 
For  the  physiology  of  fasting,  see  DIETETICS;  NUTRITION; 
also  CORPULENCE. 

Starvation  itself  (see  also  HUNGER  AND  THIRST)  is  of  the  nature 
of  a  disease  which  may  be  prevented  by  diet;  nevertheless 
there  are  connected  with  it  a  few  peculiarities  of  scientific  and 
practical  interest.  "Inedia,"  as  it  is  called  in  the  nomenclature 
of  diseases  by  the  London  College  of  Physicians,  is  of  two  kinds, 
arising  from  want  of  food  and  from  want  of  water.  When  entirely 
deprived  of  nutriment  the  human  body  is  ordinarily  capable 
of  supporting  life  under  ordinary  circumstances  for  little  more 
than  a  week.  In  the  spring  of  1869  this  was  tried  on  the  person 
of  a  "  fasting  girl  "  in  South  Wales.  The  parents  made  a  show 
of  their  child,  decking  her  out  like  a  bride  on  a  bed,  and  asserting 
that  she  had  eaten  no  food  for  two  years.  Some  reckless  en- 
thusiasts for  truth  set  four  trustworthy  hospital  nurses  to  watch 
her;  the  Celtic  obstinacy  of  the  parents  was  roused,  and  in 
defence  of  their  imposture  they  allowed  death  to  take  place  in 
eight  days.  Their  trial  and  conviction  for  manslaughter  may 
be  found  in  the  daily  periodicals  of  the  date;  but,  strange  to 
say,  the  experimental  physiologists  and  nurses  escaped  scot-free. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  in  this  instance  the  unnatural  quietude, 
the  grave-like  silence,  and  the  dim  religious  light  in  which  the 
victim  was  kept  contributed  to  defer  death. 

One  thing  which  remarkably  prolongs  life  is  a  supply  of  water. 

"  The  Fathers  assembled  there  .  .  .  decreed  in  that  council  that 
every  person,  as  well  in  his  private  as  public  fast,  should  continue  all 
the  day  without  meat  and  drink,  till  after  the  evening  prayer.  And 
whosoever  did  eat  or  drink  before  the  evening  prayer  was  ended 
should  be  accounted  and  reputed  not  to  consider  the  purity  of  his 
fast.  This  canon  teacheth  so  evidently  how  fasting  was  used  in  the 
primitive  church  as  by  words  it  cannot  be  more  plainly  expressed  " 
(Of  Good  Works;  and  first,  of  Fasting.) 

1  As  indeed  they  are,  etymologically ;  but,  prior  to  the  Reforma- 
tion, a  conventional  distinction  between  abslinentia  and  jejunium 
naturale  had  long  been  recognized.  "  Exceptio  eduliorum  quo- 
rundam  portionale  jejunium  est  "  (Tertullian). 

X.  7 


Dogs  furnished  with  as  much  as  they  wished  to  drink  were  found 
by  M.  Chossat  (Sur  I'inanition,  Paris,  1843)  to  live  three  times  as 
long  as  those  who  were  deprived  of  solids  and  liquids  at  the  same 
time.  Even  wetting  the  skin  with  sea-water  has  been  found 
useful  by  shipwrecked  sailors.  Four  men  and  a  boy  of  fourteen 
who  got  shut  in  the  Tynewydd  mine  near  Forth,  in  South  Wales, 
in  the  winter  of  1876-1877  for  ten  days  without  food,  were  not  only 
alive  when  released,  but  several  of  them  were  able  to  walk,  and 
all  subsequently  recovered.  The  thorough  saturation  of  the 
narrow  space  with  aqueous  vapour,  and  the  presence  of  drain 
water  in  the  cutting,  were  probably  their  chief  preservatives — 
assisted  by  the  high  even  temperature  always  found  in  the 
deeper  headings  of  coal  mines,  and  by  the  enormous  compres- 
sion of  the  confined  air.  This  doubtless  prevented  evaporation, 
and  retarded  vital  processes  dependent  upon  oxidation.  The 
accumulation  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  breathed  air  would  also  have 
a  similar  arrestive  power  over  destructive  assimilation.  These 
prisoners  do  not  seem  to  have  felt  any  of  the  severer  pangs  of 
hunger,  for  they  were  not  tempted  to  eat  their  candles.  With 
the  instinctive  feeling  that  darkness  adds  a  horror  to  death, 
they  preferred  to  use  them  for  light.  At  the  wreck  of  the 
"  Medusa  "  frigate  in  1876,  fifteen  people  survived  on  a  raft 
for  thirteen  days  without  food. 

It  is  a  paradoxical  fact,  that  the  supply  of  the  stomach  even 
from  the  substance  of  the  starving  individual's  body  should  tend 
to  prolong  life.  In  April  1874  a  case  was  recorded  of  exposure 
in  an  open  boat  for  32  days  of  three  men  and  two  boys,  with 
only  ten  days'  provisions,  exclusive  of  old  boots  and  jelly-fish. 
They  had  a  fight  in  their  delirium,  and  one  was  severely  wounded. 
As  the  blood  gushed  out  he  lapped  it  up;  and  instead  of  suffering 
the  fatal  weakness  which  might  have  been  expected  from  the 
haemorrhage,  he  seems  to  have  done  well.  Experiments  were 
performed  by  a  French  physiologist,  M.  Anselmier  (Archives 
gin.  de  medecine,  1860,  vol.  i.  p.  169),  with  the  object  of  trying 
to  preserve  the  lives  of  dogs  by  what  he  calls  "  artificial  auto- 
phagy."  He  fed  them  on  the  blood  taken  from  their  own  veins 
daily,  depriving  them  of  all  other  food,  and  he  found  that  the 
fatal  cooling  incident  to  starvation  was  thus  postponed,  and 
existence  prolonged.  Life  lasted  till  the  emaciation  had  pro- 
ceeded to  six- tenths  of  the  animal's  weight,  as  in  Chossat 's 
experiments,  extending  to  the  fourteenth  day,  instead  of  ending 
on  the  tenth  day,  as  was  the  case  with  other  dogs  which  were 
not  bled. 

Various  people  have  tried,  generally  for  exhibition  purposes, 
how  long  they  could  fast  from  food  with  the  aid  merely  of  water 
or  some  medicinal  preparation ;  but  these  exhibitions  cannot  be 
held  to  have  proved  anything  of  importance.  A  man  named 
Jacques  in  this  way  fasted  at  Edinburgh  for  thirty  days  in  1888, 
and  in  London  for  forty-two  days  in  1890,  and  for  fifty  days  in 
1891;  and  an  Italian  named  Succi  fasted  for  forty  days  in  1890. 

Religious  Fasts. — Fasting  is  of  special  interest  when  considered 
as  a  discipline  voluntarily  submitted  to  for  moral  and  religious 
ends.  As  such  it  is  very  widely  diffused.  Its  modes  and  motives 
vary  considerably  according  to  climate,  race,  civilization  and 
other  circumstances;  but  it  would  be  difficult  to  name  any 
religious  system  of  any  description  in  which  it  is  wholly  un- 
recognized.3 The  origin  of  the  practice  is  very  obscure.4  In  his 
Principles  of  Sociology  Herbert  Spencer  collected,  from  the 
accounts  we  have  of  various  savage  tribes  in  widely  separated 

8  Confucianism  ought  perhaps  to  be  named  as  one.  Zoroastrian- 
ism  is  frequently  given  as  another,  but  hardly  corrrectly.  In  the  Liber 
Sad-der,  indeed  (Porta  xxv.),  we  read,  "  Cavendum  est  tibi  a  jejunio; 
nam  a  mane  ad  vesperam  nihil  comedere  non  est  bonum  in  religione 
nostra  ";  but  according  to  the  Pere  de  Chinon  (Lyons,  1671)  the 
Parsee  religion  enjoins,  upon  the  priesthood  at  least,  no  fewer  than 
five  yearly  fasts.  See  Hyde,  Veterum  Persarum  religio,  pp  449,  548 
(ed.  1700). 

4  During  the  middle  ages  the  prevalent  notion  was  that  it  had  its 
origin  in  paradise.  The  germ  at  least  of  this  idea  is  to  be  found  in 
Tertullian,  who  says:  "  Acceperat  Adam  a  Deo  legem  non  gustandi 
de  arbore  agnitionis  boni  et  mali,  moriturus  si  gustasset;  verum 
et  ipse  tune  in  psychicum  reversus  .  .  .  facilius  ventri  quam  Deo 
cessit,  pabulo  potius  quam  praecepto  annuit,  salutem  gula  vendidit, 
manducavit  denique  et  periit,  salvus  alioquin  si  uni  arbusculae 
jejunare  maluisset  "  (De  jejuniis,  c.  3). 


FASTING 


parts  of  the  globe,  a  considerable  body  of  evidence,  from  which 
he  suggested  that  it  may  have  arisen  out  of  the  custom  of 
providing  refreshments  for  the  dead,  either  by  actually  feeding 
the  corpse,  or  by  leaving  eatables  and  drinkables  for  its  use. 
It  is  suggested  that  the  fasting  which  was  at  first  the  natural 
and  inevitable  result  of  such  sacrifice  on  behalf  of  the  dead 
may  eventually  have  come  to  be  regarded  as  an  indispensable 
concomitant  of  all  sacrifice,  and  so  have  survived  as  a  well- 
established  usage  long  after  the  original  cause  had  ceased  to 
operate.1  But  this  theory  is  repudiated  by  the  best  authorities; 
indeed  its  extreme  precariousness  at  once  becomes  evident  when 
it  is  remembered  that,  now  at  least,  it  is  usual  for  religious  fasts 
to  precede  rather  than  to  follow  sacrificial  and  funeral  feasts, 
if  observed  at  all  in  connexion  with  these.  Spencer  himself 
(p.  284)  admits  that  "  probably  the  practice  arises  in  more  ways 
than  one,"  and  proceeds  to  supplement  the  theory  already 
given  by  another— that  adopted  by  E.  B.  Tylor — to  the  effect 
that  it  originated  in  the  desire  of  the  primitive  man  to  bring  on 
at  will  certain  abnormal  nervous  conditions  favourable  to  the 
seeing  of  those  visions  and  the  dreaming  of  those  dreams  which 
are  supposed  to  give  the  soul  direct  access  to  the  objective 
realities  of  the  spiritual  world.2  Probably,  if  we  leave  out  of 
sight  the  very  numerous  and  obvious  cases  in  which  fasting, 
originally  the  natural  reflex  result  of  grief,  fear  or  other  strong 
emotion,  has  come  to  be  the  usual  conventional  symbol  of  these, 
we  shall  find  that  the  practice  is  generally  resorted  to,  either  as 
a  means  of  somehow  exalting  the  higher  faculties  at  the  expense 
of  the  lower,  or  as  an  act  of  homage  to  some  object  of  worship. 
The  axiom  of  the  Amazulu,  that  "  the  continually  stuffed  body 
cannot  see  secret  things,"  meets  even  now  with  pretty  general 
acceptance;  and  if  the  notion  that  it  is  precisely  the  food  which 
the  worshipper  foregoes  that  makes  the  deity  more  vigorous  to 
do  battle  for  his  human  friend  be  confined  only  to  a  few  scattered 
tribes  of  savages,  the  general  proposition  that  "  fasting  is  a  work 
of  reverence  toward  God  "  may  be  said  to  be  an  article  of  the 
Catholic  faith.3 

Although  fasting  as  a  religious  rite  is  to  be  met  with  almost 
everywhere,  there  are  comparatively  few  religions,  and  those  only 
of  the  more  developed  kind,  which  appoint  definite  public  fasts, 
and  make  them  binding  at  fixed  seasons  upon  all  the  faithful. 
Brahmanism,  for  example,  does  not  appear  to  enforce  any  stated 
fast  upon  the  laity.4  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  fasting 
seems  to  have  been  associated  with  many  religious  festivals, 
notably  with  that  of  Isis  (Herod,  ii.  40),  but  it  does  not  appear 
that,  so  far  as  the  common  people  were  concerned,  the  observance 
of  these  festivals  (which  were  purely  local)  was  compulsory. 
The  VTjortia  on  the  third  day  of  the  Thesmophoria  at  Athens 
was  observed  only  by  the  women  attending  the  festival  (who 
were  permitted  to  eat  cakes  made  of  sesame  and  honey).  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  fast  mentioned  by  Livy  (xxxvi.  37)  was 
intended  to  be  general  or  sacerdotal  merely. 

Jewish  Fasts. — While  remarkable  for  the  cheerful,  non-ascetic 
character  of  their  worship,  the  Jews  were  no  less  distinguished 
from  all  the  nations  of  antiquity  by  their  annual  solemn  fast 
appointed  to  be  observed  on  the  loth  day  of  the  7th  month 
(Tisri),  the  penalty  of  disobedience  being  death.  The  rules,  as 
laid  down  in  Lev.  xvi.  29-34,  xxiii.  27-32  and  Numb.  xxix.  7-11, 
include  a  special  injunction  of  strict  abstinence  ("  ye  shall  afflict 
your  souls  " 6)  from  evening  to  evening.  This  fast  was  intimately 
associated  with  the  chief  feast  of  the  year.  Before  that  feast 

1  Principles  of  Sociology,  i.  pp.  170, 284,  285.  Compare  the  passage 
in  the  appendix  from  Hanusch,  Slavischer  Mythus,  p.  408. 

1  Spencer,  Prin.  of  Sociology,  i.  256,  &c. ;  E.  B.  Tylor,  Primitive 
Culture,  i.  277,  402;  ii.  372,  &c. 

3  Hooker,  E.P.  v.  72.     In  the  Westminster  Assembly's  Larger 
Catechism  fasting  is  mentioned  among  the  duties  required  by  the 
second  commandment. 

4  The  Brahrnans  themselves  on  the  eleventh  day  after  the  full 
moon  and  the  eleventh  day  after  the  new  "  abstain  for  sixty  hours 
from  every  kind  of  sustenance  " ;  and  some  have  a  special  fast  every 
Monday  in  November.    See  Picart,  The  Religion  and  Manners  of  the 
Brahmins. 

5  E>?}  is  here  to  be  taken  as  substantially  equivalent  to  "  desire," 
"  appetite." 


could  be  entered  upon,  the  sins  of  the  people  had  to  be  confessed 
and  (sacramentally)  expiated.  The  fast  was  a  suitable  con- 
comitant of  that  contrition  which  befitted  the  occasion.  The 
practice  of  stated  fasting  was  not  in  any  other  case  enjoined 
by  the  law;  and  it  is  generally  understood  to  have  been  forbidden 
on  Sabbath.6  At  the  same  time,  private  and  occasional  fasting, 
being  regarded  as  a  natural  and  legitimate  instinct,  was  regulated 
rather  than  repressed.  The  only  other  provision  about  fasting 
in  the  Pentateuch  is  of  a  regulative  nature,  Numb.  xxx.  14  (13), 
to  the  effect  that  a  vow  made  by  a  woman  "  to  afflict  the  soul  " 
may  in  certain  circumstances  be  cancelled  by  her  husband. 

The  history  of  Israel  from  Moses  to  Ezra  furnishes  a  large 
number  of  instances  in  which  the  fasting  instinct  was  obeyed 
both  publicly  and  privately,  locally  and  nationally,  under  the 
influence  of  sorrow,  or_  fear,  or  passionate  desire.  See,  for 
example,  Judg.  xx.  26;  i  Sam.  vii.  6  (where  the  national  fast 
was  conjoined  with  the  ceremony  of  pouring  out  water  before 
the  Lord);  Jer.  xxxvi.  6,  9;  and  2  Sam.  xii.  16.'  Sometimes  the 
observance  of  such  fasts  extended  over  a  considerable  period  of 
time,  during  which,  of  course,  the  stricter  jejunium  was  conjoined 
with  abstinentia  (Dan.  x.  2).  Sometimes  they  lasted  only  for  a 
day.  In  Jonah  iii.  6,  7,  we  have  an  illustrative  example  of  the 
rigour  with  which  a  strict  fast  might  be  observed;  and  such 
passages  as  Joel  ii.  and  Isa.  Iviii.  5  enable  us  to  picture  with 
some  vividness  the  outward  accompaniments  of  a  Jewish  fast 
day  before  the  exile. 

During  the  exile  many  occasional  fasts  were  doubtless  observed 
by  the  scattered  communities,  in  sorrowful  commemoration  of 
the  various  sad  events  which  had  issued  in  the  downfall  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah.  Of  these,  four  appear  to  have  passed  into 
general  use — the  fasts  of  the  loth,  4th,  sth  and  7th  months — 
commemorating  the  beginning  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  the 
capture  of  the  city,  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  the  assassina- 
tion of  Gedaliah.  As  time  rolled  on  they  became  invested  with 
increasing  sanctity;  and  though  the  prophet  Zechariah,  when 
consulted  about  them  at  the  close  of  the  exile  (Zech.  viii.  19), 
had  by  no  means  encouraged  the  observance  of  them,  the  re- 
building of  the  temple  does  not  appear  to  have  been  considered 
an  achievement  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  their  dis- 
continuance. It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  Ezekiel's  prophetic 
legislation  contains  no  reference  to  any  fast  day;  the  book  of 
Esther  (ix.  31),  on  the  other  hand,  records  the  institution  of  a 
new  fast  on  the  i3th  of  the  i2th  month. 

In  the  post-exile  period  private  fasting  was  much  practised 
by  the  pious,  and  encouraged  by  the  religious  sentiment  of  the 
time  (see  Judith  viii.  6;  Tob.  xii.  8,  and  context;  Sirach  xxxiv. 
26;  Luke  ii.  37  and  xviii.  12).  The  last  reference  contains  an 
allusion  to  the  weekly  fasts  which  were  observed  on  the  2nd 
and  5th  days  of  each  week,  in  commemoration,  it  was  said,  of 
the  ascent  and  descent  of  Moses  at  Sinai.  The  real  origin  of 
these  fasts  and  the  date  of  their  introduction  are  alike  uncertain; 
it  is  manifest,  however,  that  the  observance  of  them  was  volun- 
tary, and  never  made  a  matter  of  universal  obligation.  It  is 
probable  that  the  Sadducees,  if  not  also  the  Essenes,  wholly 
neglected  them.  The  second  book  (Seder  Moed)  of  the  Mishna 
contains  two  tractates  bearing  upon  the  subject  of  fasting. 
One  (Yoma,  "  the  day  ")  deals  exclusively  with  the  rites  which 
were  to  be  observed  on  the  great  day  of  expiation  or  atonement; 
the  other  (Taanilh,  "  fast  ")  is  devoted  to  the  other  fasts,  and 

6  See  Judith  viii.  6.     "  And  yet  it  may  be  a  question  whether  they 
(the  Jews)  did  not  always  fast  upon  Sabbath,  '  says  Hooker  (E.P. 
v.  72,  7),  who  gives  a  curious  array  of  evidence  pointing  in  this 
direction.     He  even  makes  use  of  Neh.  viii.  9-12,  which  might  be 
thought   to   tell    the    other   way.     Justinian's    phrase,    "  Sabbata 
Judaeorum  a  Mose  in  omne  aevum  jeiunio  dicata  "  (1.  xxxvi.  c.  2; 
comp.  Suetonius,  Augustus,  76)  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  the  day  of  atonement  is  called  Sabbat  Sabbat6n  ("  a  perfect 
Sabbath  "). 

7  There  is,  as  Graf  (Gesch.  Biicher  des  A.T.  p.  41)  has  pointed  out, 
no  direct  evidence  that  the  fast  on  the  loth  of  the  7th  month  was  ever 
observed  before  the  exile.     But  the  inference  which  he  draws  from 
this  silence  of  the  historical  books  is  manifestly  a  precarious  one  at 
best.     Bleek  calls  Lev.  xvi.   "  ein  deutliches  Beispiel  Mosa'ischer 
Abfassung  "  (Einleitung,  p.  31,  ed.  1878). 


FASTING 


deals  especially  with  the  manner  in  which  occasional  fasting  is 
to  be  gone  about  if  no  rain  shall  have  fallen  on  or  before  the  i7th 
day  of  Marcheschwan.  It  is  enacted  that  in  such  a  case  the 
rabbis  shall  begin  with  a  light  fast  of  three  days  (Monday, 
Thursday,  Monday),  i.e.  a  fast  during  which  it  is  lawful  to  work, 
and  also  to  wash  and  anoint  the  person.  Then,  in  the  event  of  a 
continued  drought,  fasts  of  increasing  intensity  are  ordered; 
and  as  a  last  resort  the  ark  is  to  be  brought  into  the  street  and 
sprinkled  with  ashes,  the  heads  of  the  Nasi  and  Ab-beth-din  being 
at  the  same  time  similarly  sprinkled.1  In  no  case  was  any 
fast  to  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  new-moon  or  other  fixed 
festival.  Another  institution  treated  with  considerable  fulness 
in  the  treatise  Taanith  is  that  of  the  loyo  •»:«  (viri  slationis), 
who  are  represented  as  having  been  laymen  severally  represent- 
ing the  twenty-four  classes  or  families  into  which  the  whole 
commonwealth  of  the  laity  was  divided.  They  used  to  attend 
the  temple  in  rotation,  and  be  present  at  the  sacrifices;  and  as 
this  duty  fell  to  each  in  his  turn,  the  men  of  the  class  or  family 
which  he  represented  were  expected  in  their  several  cities  and 
places  of  abode  to  engage  themselves  in  religious  exercises, 
and  especially  in  fasting.  The  suggestion  will  readily  occur  that 
here  may  be  the  origin  of  the  Christian  staliones.  But  neither 
Tertullian  nor  any  other  of  the  fathers  seems  to  have  been 
aware  of  the  existence  of  any  such  institution  among  the  Jews; 
and  very  probably  the  story  about  it  may  have  been  a  com- 
paratively late  invention.  It  ought  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
Aramaic  portion  of  the  Megillath  Taanith  (a  document  consider- 
ably older  than  the  treatises  in  the  Mishna)  gives  a  catalogue 
only  of  the  days  on  which  fasting  was  forbidden.  The  Hebrew 
part  (commented  on  by  Maimonides),  in  which  numerous  fasts 
are  recommended,  is  of  considerably  later  date.  See  Reland, 
Antiq.  Hebr.  p.  iv.  c.  10;  Derenbourg,  Hist,  de  Palestine,  p.  439. 
Practice  of  the  Early  Christian  Church. — Jesus  Himself  did  not 
inculcate  asceticism  in  His  teaching,  and  the  absence  of  that 
distinctive  element  from  His  practice  was  sometimes  a  subject 
of  hostile  remark  (Matt.  xi.  19).  We  read,  indeed,  that  on  one 
occasion  He  fasted  forty  days  and  forty  nights;  but  the  ex- 
pression, which  is  an  obscure  one,  possibly  means  nothing  more 
than  that  He  endured  the  privations  ordinarily  involved  in  a 
stay  in  the  wilderness.  While  we  have  no  reason  to  doubt  that 
He  observed  the  one  great  national  fast  prescribed  in  the  written 
law  of  Moses,  we  have  express  notice  that  neither  He  nor  His 
disciples  were  in  the  habit  of  observing  the  other  fasts  which 
custom  and  tradition  had  established.  See  Mark  ii.  18,  where 
the  correct  reading  appears  to  be — "  The  disciples  of  John,  and 
the  Pharisees,  were  fasting  "  (some  customary  fast).  He  never 
formally  forbade  fasting,  but  neither  did  He  ever  enjoin  it. 
He  assumed  that,  in  certain  circumstances  of  sorrow  and  need, 
the  fasting  instinct  would  sometimes  be  felt  by  the  community 
and  the  individual;  what  He  was  chiefly  concerned  about  was 
to  warn  His  followers  against  the  mistaken  aims  which  His 
contemporaries  were  so  apt  to  contemplate  in  their  fasting 
(Matt.vi.  16-18).  In  one  passage,  indeed,  He  has  been  understood 
as  practically  commanding  resort  to  the  practice  in  certain 
circumstances.  It  ought  to  be  noted,  however,  that  Matt, 
xvii.  21  is  probably  spurious;  and  that  in  Mark  ix.  29  the 
words  "  and  fasting  "  are  omitted  by  Westcott  and  Hort  as 
well  as  by  Tischendorf  on  the  evidence  of  the  Cod.  Sinaiticus 
(first  hand)  and  Cod.  Vaticanus.2  The  reference  to  "  the  fast  " 
in  Acts  xxvii.  9  has  generally  been  held  to  indicate  that  the 
apostles  continued  to  observe  the  yearly  Jewish  fast.  But  this 
inference  is  by  no  means  a  necessary  one.  According  to  Acts 
xiii.  2,  3,  xiv.  23,  they  conjoined  fasting  with  prayer  at  ordina- 
tions, and  doubtless  also  on  some  other  solemn  occasions;  but 
at  the  same  time  the  liberty  of  the  Christian  "  in  respect  of  an 
holiday,  or  of  the  new  moon,  or  of  the  Sabbath  "  was  strongly 
insisted  on,  by  one  of  them  at  least,  who  declared  that  meat 
whether  taken  or  abstained  from  commendeth  not  to  God  (Col. 

1  The  allusion  to  the  ark  warns  us  to  be  cautious  in  assuming  the 
laws  of  the  Mishna  to  have  been  ever  in  force. 

2  The  idea,  however,  is  found  in.  the  Clementine  Homilies,  ix.  9. 
Compare  Tertullian  De  jejuniis,  c.   8:    "  Docuit  etiam   adversus 
diriora  daemonia  jejuniis  praeliandum." 


ii.  16-23;  i  Cor.  viii.  8  ;  Rom.  xiv.  14-22  ;  i  Tim.  iv.  3-5). 
The  fastings  to  which  the  apostle  Paul  alludes  in  2  Cor.  vi.  5, 
xi.  27,  were  rather  of  the  nature  of  inevitable  hardships  cheerfully 
endured  in  the  discharge  of  his  sacred  calling.  The  words 
which  appear  to  encourage  fasting  in  i  Cor.  vii.  5  are  absent 
from  all  the  oldest  manuscripts  and  are  now  omitted  by  all 
critics;3 and  on  the  whole  the  precept  and  practice  of  the  New 
Testament,  while  recognizing  the  propriety  of  occasional  and 
extraordinary  fasts,  seem  to  be  decidedly  hostile  to  the  imposition 
of  any  of  a  stated,  obligatory  and  general  kind. 

The  usage  of  the  Christian  church  during  the  earlier  centuries 
was  in  this,  as  in  so  many  other  matters,  influenced  by  traditional 
Jewish  feeling,  and  by  the  force  of  old  habit,  quite  as  much  as 
by  any  direct  apostolic  authority  or  supposed  divine  command. 
Habitual  temperance  was  of  course  in  all  cases  regarded  as  an 
absolute  duty;  and  "  the  bridegroom  "  being  absent,  the  present 
life  was  regarded  as  being  in  a  sense  one  continual  "  fast." 
Fasting  in  the  stricter  sense  was  not  unknown;  but  it  is  certain 
that  it  did  not  at  first  occupy  nearly  so  prominent  a  place  in 
Christian  ritual  as  that  to  which  it  afterwards  attained.  There 
are  early  traces  of  the  customary  observance  of  the  Wednesday 
and  Friday  fasts — the  dies  stationum  (Clem.  Alex.  Strom,  vii. 
877),  and  also  of  a  "  quadragesimal  "  fast  before  Easter.  But 
the  very  passage  which  proves  the  early  origin  of  "  quadra- 
gesima,"  conclusively  shows  how  uncertain  it  was  in  its  character, 
and  how  unlike  the  Catholic  "  Lent."  Irenaeus,  quoted  by 
Eusebius  (v.  24),  informs  us  with  reference  to  the  customary 
yearly  celebration  of  the  mystery  of  the  resurrection  of  our  Lord, 
that  disputes  prevailed  not  only  with  respect  to  the  day,  but 
also  with  respect  to  the  manner  of  fasting  in  connexion  with  it. 
"  For  some  think  that  they  ought  to  fast  only  one  day,  some 
two,  some  more  days  ;  some  compute  their  day  as  consisting  of 
forty  hours  night  and  day  ;  and  this  diversity  existing  among 
those  that  observe  it  is  not  a  matter  that  has  just  sprung  up  in 
our  times,  but  long  ago  among  those  before  us."  It  was  not 
pretended  that  the  apostles  had  legislated  on  the  matter,  but 
the  general  and  natural  feeling  that  the  anniversaries  of  the 
crucifixion  and  the  resurrection  of  Christ  ought  to  be  celebrated 
by  Christians  took  expression  in  a  variety  of  ways  according  to 
the  differing  tastes  of  individuals.  No  other  stated  fasts,  besides 
those  already  mentioned,  can  be  adduced  from  the  time  before 
Irenaeus  ;  but  there  was  also  a  tendency — not  unnatural  in 
itself,  and  already  sanctioned  by  Jewish  practice — to  fast  by 
way  of  preparation  for  any  season  of  peculiar  privilege.  Thus, 
according  to  Justin  Martyr  (Apol.  ii.  93),  catechumens  were 
accustomed  to  fast  before  baptism,  and  the  church  fasted  with 
them.  To  the  same  feeling  the  quadragesimal  fast  which  (as 
already  stated)  preceded  the  joyful  feast  of  the  resurrection, 
is  to  be,  in  part  at  least,  attributed.  As  early  as  the  time  of 
Tertullian  it  was  also  usual  for  communicants  to  prepare  them- 
selves by  fasting  for  receiving  the  eucharist.  But  that  Christian 
fasts  had  not  yet  attained  to  the  exaggerated  importance  which 
they  afterwards  assumed  is  strikingly  shown  in  the  well-known 
Shepherd  of  Hermas  (lib.  iii.  sim.  v.),  where  it  is  declared  that 
"  with  merely  outward  fasting  nothing  is  done  for  true  virtue  "  ; 
the  believer  is  exhorted  chiefly  to  abstain  from  evil  and  seek  to 
cleanse  himself  from  feelings  of  covetousness,  and  impurity,  and 
revenge  :  "  on  the  day  that  thou  fastest  content  thyself  with 
bread,  vegetables  and  water,  and  thank  God  for  these.  But 
reckon  up  on  this  day  what  thy  meal  would  otherwise  have  cost 
thee,  and  give  the  amount  that  it  comes  to  to  some  poor  widow 
or  orphan,  or  to  the  poor."  The  right  of  bishops  to  ordain  special 
fasts,  "ex  aliqua  sollicitudinis  ecclesiasticae  causa  "  (Tertullian), 
was  also  recognized. 

Later  Practice  of  the  Church. — According  to  an  expression 
preserved  by  Eusebius  (H.E.  v.  18),  Montanus  was  the  first  to 
give  laws  (to  the  church)  on  fasting.  Such  language,  though 
rhetorical  in  form,  is  substantially  correct.  The  treatise  of  Ter- 
tullian,— Concerning  Fasting  :  against  the  Carnal, — written  as 

3  On  the  manuscript  evidence  the  words  "  I  was  fasting,"  in  Acts  x. 
30,  must  also  be  regarded  as  doubtful.  They  are  rejected  by  Lach- 
mann,  Tregelles  and  Tischendorf. 


196 


FASTING 


it  was  under  Montanistic  influence,  is  doubly  interesting,  first 
as  showing  how  free  the  practice  of  the  church  down  to  that  time 
had  been,  and  then  as  foreshadowing  the  burdensome  legislation 
which  was  destined  to  succeed.  In  that  treatise  (c.  15)  he 
approves  indeed  of  the  church  practice  of  not  fasting  on  Saturdays 
and  Sundays  (as  elsewhere,  De  corona,  c.  3,  he  had  expressed 
his  concurrence  in  the  other  practice  of  observing  the  entire 
period  between  Easter  and  Pentecost  as  a  season  of  joy)  ;  but 
otherwise  he  evinces  great  dissatisfaction  with  the  indifference 
of  the  church  as  to  the  number,  duration  and  severity  of  her 
fasts.1  The  church  thus  came  to  be  more  and  more  involved  in 
discussions  as  to  the  number  of  days  to  be  observed,  especially 
in  "  Lent,"  as  fast  days,  as  to  the  hour  at  which  a  fast  ought  to 
terminate  (whether  at  the  3rd  or  at  the  9th  hour),  as  to  the 
rigour  with  which  each  fast  ought  to  be  observed  (whether  by 
abstinence  from  flesh  merely,  abstinentia,  or  by  abstinence  from 
lacticinia,  xerophagia,  or  by  literal  jejunium),  and  as  to  the 
penalties  by  which  the  laws  of  fasting  ought  to  be  enforced. 
Almost  a  century,  however,  elapsed  between  the  composition 
of  the  treatise  of  Tertullian  (dr.  212)  and  the  first  recorded 
instances  of  ecclesiastical  legislation  on  the  subject.  These,  while 
far  from  indicating  that  the  church  had  attained  unanimity 
on  the  points  at  issue,  show  progress  in  the  direction  of  the  later 
practice  of  Catholicism.  About  the  year  306  the  synod  of 
Illiberis  in  its  26th  canon  decided  in  favour  of  the  observance 
of  the  Saturday  fast.2  The  council  of  Ancyra  in  3 14,  on  the  other 
hand,  found  it  necessary  to  legislate  in  a  somewhat  different 
direction, — by  its  i4th  canon  enjoining  its  priests  and  clerks 
at  least  to  taste  meat  at  the  love  feasts.3  The  synod  of  Laodicea 
framed  several  rules  with  regard  to  the  observance  of  "  Lent," 
such  as  that  "  during  Lent  the  bread  shall  not  be  offered  except 
on  Saturday  and  Sunday  "  (can.  49),  that  "  the  fast  shall  not  be 
relaxed  on  the  Thursday  of  the  last  week  of  Lent,  thus  dishonour- 
ing the  whole  season;  but  the  fast  shall  be  kept  throughout  the 
whole  period  "  (can.  50),  that  "  during  the  fast  no  feasts  of  the 
martyrs  shall  be  celebrated  "  (can.  51),  and  that  "  no  wedding 
or  birthday  feasts  shall  be  celebrated  during  Lent  "  (can.  52). 
The  synod  of  Hippo  (393  A.D.)  enacted  that  the  sacrament  of 
the  altar  should  always  be  taken  fasting,  except  on  the  Thursday 
before  Easter.  Protests  in  favour  of  freedom  were  occasionally 
raised,  not  always  in  a  very  wise  manner,  or  on  very  wise  grounds, 
by  various  individuals  such  as  Eustathius  of  Sebaste  (c.  350), 
Aerius  of  Pontus  (c.  375),  and  Jovinian,  a  Roman  monk  (c.  388). 
Of  the  Eustathians,  for  example  (whose  connexion  with  Eusta- 
thius can  hardly  be  doubted),  the  complaint  was  made  that "  they 
fast  on  Sundays,  but  eat  on  the  fast-days  of  the  church."  They 
were  condemned  by  the  synod  of  Gangra  in  Paphlagonia  in  the 
following  canons: — Can.  19,  "  If  any  one  fast  on  Sunday,  let 
him  be  anathema."  4  Can.  20,  "  If  any  one  do  not  keep  the  fasts 
universally  commanded  and  observed  by  the  whole  church,  let 
him  be  anathema."  Jovinian  was  very  moderate.  He  "  did  not 
allow  himself  to  be  hurried  on  by  an  inconsiderate  zeal  to  con- 
demn fasting,  the  life  of  celibacy,  monachism,  considered  purely 
in  themselves.  .  .  .  He  merely  sought  to  show  that  men  were 

1  Quinam  isti   (adversarii)  sint,  semel  nominabo:    exteriores  et 
interioresbotulipsychicorum  .   .   .  Arguunt  nos  quod  jejunia  propria 
custodiamus,  quod  stationes  plerumque  in  vesperam  producamus, 
quod  etiam  xerophagias  observemus,  siccantes  cibum  ab  omni  carne 
et  omni  jurulentia  et  uvidioribusquibusque  pomis,  nee  quid  vinositatis 
vel  edamus  vel  potemus;  lavacri  quoque  abstinentiam  congruentem 
arido  victui. 

2  The  language  of  the  canon  is  ambiguous;  but  this  interpretation 
seems  to  be  preferable,  especially  in  view  of  canon  23,  which  enacts 
that  jejunii  superpositiones  are  to  be  observed  in  all  months  except 
July  and  August.     See  Hefele,  Councils,  i.  148  (Engl.  trs.). 

3  Compare  the  52nd  [5ist]  of  the  Apostolical  canons.     "  If  any 
bishop  or  presbyter  or  deacon,  or  indeed  any  one  of  the  sacerdotal 
catalogue,  abstains  from  flesh  and  wine,  not  for  his  own  exercise 
but  out  of  hatred  of  the  things,  forgetting  that  all  things  were  very 
good  .   .   .  either  let  him  reform,  or  let  him  be  deprived  and  be  cast 
out  of  the  church.     So  also  a  layman."     To  this  particular  canon 
Hefele  is  disposed  to  assign  a  very  early  date. 

4  Compare  canon  64  of  the  (supposed)  fourth  synod  of  Carthage: 
"  He  who  fasts  on  Sunday  is  not  accounted  a  Catholic  "  (Hefele,  ii. 
415). 


wrong  in  recommending  so  highly  and  indiscriminately  the  life 
of  celibacy  and  fasting,  though  he  was  ready  to  admit  that  both 
under  certain  circumstances  might  be  good  and  useful " 
(Neander).  He  was  nevertheless  condemned  (390)  both  by  Pope 
Siricius  at  a  synod  in  Rome,  and  by  Ambrose  at  another  in  Milan. 
The  views  of  Aerius,  according  to  the  representations  of  his 
bitter  opponent  Epiphanius  (Haer.  75,  "  Adv.  Aerium  "),  seem 
on  this  head  at  least,  though  unpopular,  to  have  been  character- 
ized by  great  wisdom  and  sobriety.  He  did  not  condemn 
fasting  altogether,  but  thought  that  it  ought  to  be  resorted  to 
in  the  spirit  of  gospel  freedom  according  as  each  occasion  should 
arise.  He  found  fault  with  the  church  for  having  substituted 
for  Christian  liberty  a  yoke  of  Jewish  bondage.6 

Towards  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  we  find  Socrates 
(439)  enumerating  (H.E.  v.  22)  a  long  catalogue  of  the  different 
fasting  practices  of  the  church.  The  Romans  fasted  three  weeks 
continuously  before  Easter  (Saturdays  and  Sundays  excepted). 
In  Illyria,  Achaia  and  Alexandria  the  quadragesimal  fast  lasted 
six  weeks.  Others  (the  Constantinopolitans)  began  their  fasts 
seven  weeks  before  Easter,  but  fasted  only  on  alternate  weeks, 
five  days  at  a  time.  Corresponding  differences  as  to  the  manner 
of  abstinence  occurred.  Some  abstained  from  all  living  creatures ; 
others  ate  fish  ;  others  fish  and  fowl.  Some  abstained  from  eggs 
and  fruit;  some  confined  themselves  to  bread;  some  would  not 
take  even  that.  Some  fasted  till  three  in  the  afternoon,  and 
then  took  whatever  they  pleased.  "  Other  nations,"  adds  the 
historian,  "  observe  other  customs  in  their  fasts,  and  that  for 
various  reasons.  And  since  no  one  can  show  any  written  rule 
about  this,  it  is  plain  the  apostles  left  this  matter  free  to  every 
one's  liberty  and  choice,  that  no  one  should  be  compelled  to  do 
a  good  thing  out  of  necessity  and  fear."  When  Leo  the  Great 
became  pope  in  440,  a  period  of  more  rigid  uniformity  began. 
The  imperial  authority  of  Valentinian  helped  to  bring  the  whole 
West  at  least  into  submission  to  the  see  of  Rome  ;  and  ecclesi- 
astical enactments  had,  more  than  formerly,  the  support  of  the 
civil  power.  Though  the  introduction  of  the  four  Ember  seasons 
was  not  entirely  due  to  him,  as  has  sometimes  been  asserted, 
it  is  certain  that  their  widespread  observance  was  due  to  his 
influence,  and  to  that  of  his  successors,  especially  of  Gregory  the 
Great.  The  tendency  to  increased  rigour  may  be  discerned  in 
the  2nd  canon  of  the  synod  of  Orleans  (541),  which  declares  that 
every  Christian  is  bound  to  observe  the  fast  of  Lent,  and,  in  case 
of  failure  to  do  so,  is  to  be  punished  according  to  the  laws  of  the 
church  by  his  spiritual  superior;  in  the  gth  canon  of  the  synod 
of  Toledo  (653),  which  declares  the  eating  of  flesh  during  Lent 
to  be  a  mortal  sin;  in  Charlemagne's  law  for  the  newly  con- 
quered Saxony,  which  attaches  the  penalty  of  death  to  wanton 
disregard  of  the  holy  season.6  Baronius  mentions  that  in  the 
nth  century  those  who  ate  flesh  during  Lent  were  liable  to  have 
their  teeth  knocked  out.  But  it  ought  to  be  remembered  that 
this  severity  of  the  law  early  began  to  be  tempered  by  the  power 
to  grant  dispensations.  The  so-called  Butter  Towers  (Tours  de 
beurre)  of  Rouen,  1485-1507,  Bourges  and  other  cities,  are  said 
to  have  been  built  with  money  raised  by  sale  of  dispensations 
to  eat  lacticinia  on  fast  days. 

It  is  probable  that  the  apparent  severity  of  the  medieval 
Latin  Church  on  this  subject  was  largely  due  to  the  real  strictness 
of  the  Greek  Church,  which,  under  the  patriarch  Photius  in  864, 
had  taken  what  was  virtually  a  new  departure  in  its  fasting 
praxis.  The  rigour  of  the  fasts  of  the  modern  Greek  Church  is 
well  known;  and  it  can  on  the  whole  be  traced  back  to  that 
comparatively  early  date.  Of  the  nine  fundamental  laws  of  that 

6  Priscillian,  whose  widespread  heresy  evoked  from  the  synod  of 
Saragossa  (418)  the  canon,  "  No  one  shall  fast  on  Sunday,  nor  may 
any  one  absent  himself  from  church  during  Lent  and  hold  a  fes- 
tival of  his  own,"  appears,  on  the  question  of  fasting,  not  to  have 
differed  from  the  Encratites  and  various  other  sects  of  Manichean 
tendency  (c.  406). 

8  Cap.  iii.  pro  partib.  Saxoniae:  "  Si  quis  sanctum  quadragesimale 
jejunium  pro  despectu  Christianitatis  contempserit  et  carnem 
comederit,  morte  moriatur.  Sed  tamen  consideretur  a  sacerdote  ne 
forte  causa  necessitatis  hoc  cuilibet  proveniat,  ut  carnem  comedat." 
See  August!,  Christliclie  Archiiologie,  x.  p.  374. 


FASTING 


197 


church  (kvvka.  irapa.'yytktj.a.Ta.  rfjs  l/CKXrjoias)  two  are  concerned 
with  fasting.  Besides  fasts  of  an  occasional  and  extraordinary 
nature,  the  following  are  recognized  as  of  stated  and  universal 
obligation: — (i)  The  Wednesday  and  Friday  fasts  throughout 
the  year  (with  the  exception  of  the  period  between  Christmas 
and  Epiphany,  the  Easter  week,  the  week  after  Whitsunday, 
the  third  week  after  Epiphany);  (2)  The  great  yearly  fasts,  viz. 
that  of  Lent,  lasting  48  days,  from  the  Monday  of  Sexagesima 
to  Easter  eve;  that  of  Advent,  39  days,  from  November  15  to 
Christmas  eve;  that  of  the  Theotokos  (v^anla  TTJS  Qeoronov) , 
from  August  i  to  August  15;  that  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  last- 
ing a  variable  number  of  days  from  the  Monday  after  Trinity; 
(3)  The  minor  yearly  fasts  before  Epiphany,  before  Whitsunday, 
before  the  feasts  of  the  transfiguration,  the  invention  of  the  cross, 
the  beheading  of  John  the  Baptist.  During  even  the  least  rigid 
of  these  the  use  of  flesh  and  lacticinia  is  strictly  forbidden; 
fish,  oil  and  wine  are  occasionally  conceded,  but  not  before  two 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The  practice  of  the  Coptic  church  is 
almost  identical  with  this.  A  week  before  the  Great  Fast  (Lent) , 
a  fast  of  three  days  is  observed  in  commemoration  of  that  of  the 
Ninevites,  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Jonah.  Some  of  the  Copts 
are  said  to  observe  it  by  total  abstinence  during  the  whole 
period.  The  Great  Fast  continues  fifty-five  days;  nothing  is 
eaten  except  bread  and  vegetables,  and  that  only  in  the  afternoon, 
when  church  prayers  are  over.  The  Fast  of  the  Nativity  lasts 
for  twenty-eight  days  before  Christmas;  that  of  the  Apostles 
for  a  variable  number  of  days  from  the  Feast  of  the  Ascension; 
and  that  of  the  Virgin  for  fifteen  days  before  the  Assumption. 
All  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  are  also  fast  days  except  those  that 
occur  in  the  period  between  Easter  and  Whitsunday.  The 
Armenians  are  equally  strict;  but  (adds  Rycaut)  "  the  times 
seem  so  confused  and  without  rule  that  they  can  scarce  be  re- 
counted, unless  by  those  who  live  amongst  them,  and  strictly 
observe  them,  it  being  the  chief  care  of  the  priest,  whose  learning 
principally  consists  in  knowing  the  appointed  times  of  fasting 
and  feasting,  the  which  they  never  omit  on  Sundays  to  publish 
unto  the  people."  * 

At  the  council  of  Trent  no  more  than  a  passing  allusion  was 
made  to  the  subject  of  fasting.  The  faithful  were  simply  en- 
joined to  submit  themselves  to  church  authority  on  the  subject; 
and  the  clergy  were  exhorted  to  urge  their  flocks  to  the  observance 
of  frequent  jejunia,  as  conducive  to  the  mortification  of  the  flesh, 
and  as  assuredly  securing  the  divine  favour.  R.  F.  R.  Bellarmine 
(De  jejunio)  distinguishes  jejunium  spirituale  (abstinentia  a 
vitiis),  jejunium  morale  (parsimonia  et  temperantia  cibi  et  potus), 
jejunium  naturale  (abstinentia  ab  omni  prorsus  cibo  et  potu, 
quacunque  ratione  sumplo),  and  jejunium  ecclesiasticum.  The 
last  he  defines  simply  as  an  abstinence  from  food  in  conformity 
with  the  rule  of  the  church.  It  may  be  either  voluntary  or 
compulsory;  and  compulsory  either  because  of  a  vow  or  because 
of  a  command.  But  the  definition  given  by  Alexander  Halensis, 
which  is  much  fuller,  still  retains  its  authority: — "  Jejunium 
est  abstinentia  a  cibo  et  potu  secundum  formam  ecclesiae,  intuitu 
satisfaciendi  pro  peccato  et  acquirendi  vitam  aeternam."  It 
was  to  this  last  clause  that  the  Reformers  most  seriously  objected. 
They  did  not  deny  that  fasting  might  be  a  good  thing,  nor  did 
they  maintain  that  the  church  or  the  authority  might  not  ordain 
fasts,  though  they  deprecated  the  imposition  of  needless  burdens 
on  the  conscience.  What  they  protested  against  was  the  theory 
of  the  opus  operatum  et  meritorium  as  applied  to  fasting.  As 
matter  of  fact,  the  Reformed  churches  in  no  case  g"ave  up  the 
custom  of  observing  fast  days,  though  by  some  churches  the 
number  of  such  days  was  greatly  reduced.  In  many  parts  of 
Germany  the  seasons  of  Lent  and  Advent  are  still  marked  by 
the  use  of  emblems  of  mourning  in  the  churches,  by  the  frequency 
of  certain  phrases  (Kyrie  eleison,  Agnus  Dei)  and  the  absence  of 
others  (Hallelujah,  Gloria  in  excelsis)  in  the  liturgical  services, 
by  abstinence  from  some  of  the  usual  social  festivities,  and  by 
the  non-celebration  of  marriages.  And  occasional  fasts  are  more 

1  See  Fink's  article  "  Fasten  "  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Encydopddie; 
Lane,  Modern  Egyptians;  and  Rycaut,  Present  State  of  the  Armenian 
Church. 


or  less  familiar.  The  Church  of  England  has  retained  a  con- 
siderable list  of  fasts;  though  Hooker  (E.P.  v.  72)  had  to  con- 
tend with  some  who,  while  approving  of  fastings  undertaken 
"  of  men's  own  free  and  voluntary  accord  as  their  particular 
devotion  doth  move  them  thereunto,"  yet  "yearly  or  weekly 
fasts  such  as  ours  in  the  Church  of  England  they  allow  no  further 
than  as  the  temporal  state  of  the  land  doth  require  the  same 
for  the  maintenance  of  seafaring  men  and  preservation  of  cattle; 
because  the  decay  of  the  one  and  the  waste  of  the  other  could  not 
well  be  prevented  but  by  a  politic  order  appointing  some  such 
usual  change  of  diet  as  ours  is." 

In  the  practice  of  modern  Roman  Catholicism  the  following 
are  recognized  as  fasting  days,  that  is  to  say,  days  on  which  one 
meal  only,  and  that  not  of  flesh,  may  be  taken  in  the  course  of 
twenty-four  hours: — The  forty  days  of  Lent  (Sundays  excepted), 
all  the  Ember  days,  the  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  in  Advent, 
and  the  vigils  of  certain  feasts,  namely,  those  of  Whitsuntide, 
of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul,  of  the  Assumption  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  of  All  Saints  and  of  Christmas  day.  The  following  are 
simply  days  of  abstinence,  that  is  to  say,  days  on  which  flesh  at 
all  events  must  not  be  eaten: — The  Sundays  in  Lent,  the  three 
Rogation  days,  the  feast  of  St  Mark  (unless  it  falls  in  Easter 
week),  and  all  Fridays  which  are  not  days  of  fasting.  In  the 
Anglican  Church,  the  "  days  of  fasting  or  abstinence  "  are  the 
forty  days  of  Lent,  the  Ember  days,  the  Rogation  days,  and  all 
the  Fridays  in  the  year,  except  Christmas  day.  The  evens  or 
vigils  before  Christmas,  the  Purification  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  the  Annunciation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Easter  day, 
Ascension  day,  Pentecost,  St  Matthias,  the  Nativity  of  St  John 
Baptist,  St  Peter,  St  James,  St  Bartholomew,  St  Matthew,  St 
Simon  and  St  Jude,  St  Andrew,  St  Thomas,  and  All  Saints  are 
also  recognized  as  "  fast  days."  By  the  64th  canon  it  is  enacted 
that  "  every  parson,  vicar  or  curate,  shall  in  his  several  charge 
declare  to  the  people  every  Sunday  at  the  time  appointed  in  the 
communion-book  [which  is,  after  the  Nicene  creed  has  been 
repeated]  whether  there  be  any  holy-days  or  fast-days  the  week 
following."  The  ?2nd  canon  ordains  that  "  no  minister  or 
ministers  shall,  without  licence  and  direction  of  the  bishop 
under  hand  and  seal,  appoint  or  keep  any  solemn  fasts,  either 
publicly  or  in  any  private  houses,  other  than  such  as  by  law 
are  or  by  public  authority  shall  be  appointed,  nor  shall  be 
wittingly  present  at  any  of  them  under  pain  of  suspension  for 
the  first  fault,  of  excommunication  for  the  second,  and  of 
deposition  from  the  ministry  for  the  third."  While  strongly 
discouraging  the  arbitrary  multiplication  of  public  or  private 
fasts,  the  English  Church  seems  to  leave  to  the  discretion  of  the 
individual  conscience  every  question  as  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  fasts  she  formally  enjoins  are  to  be  observed.  In  this 
connexion  the  homily  Of  Fasting  may  be  again  referred  to. 
By  a  statute  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  it  was  enacted  that 
none  should  eat  flesh  on  "  fish  days  "  (the  Wednesdays,  Fridays 
and  Saturdays  throughout  the  year)  without  a  licence,  under  a 
penalty.  In  the  Scottish  Presbyterian  churches  days  of  "  fast- 
ing, humiliation  and  prayer "  are  observed  by  ecclesiastical 
appointment  in  each  parish  once  or  twice  every  year  on  some  day 
of  the  week  preceding  the  Sunday  fixed  for  the  administration 
of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  some  of  the  New 
England  States,  it  has  been  usual  for  the  governor  to  appoint 
by  proclamation  at  some  time  in  spring  a  day  of  fasting,  when 
religious  services  are  conducted  in  the  churches.  National  fasts 
have  more  than  once  been  observed  on  special  occasions  both  in 
this  country  and  in  the  United  States  of  America. 

On  the  subject  of  fasting  the  views  of  Aerius  are  to  a  large 
extent  shared  by  modern  Protestant  moralists.  R.  Rothe,  for 
example,  who  on  this  point  may  be  regarded  as  a  representative 
thinker,  rejects  the  idea  that  fasting  is  a  thing  meritorious  in 
itself,  and  is  very  doubtful  of  its  value  even  as  an  aid  to  devotional 
feeling.  Of  course  when  bodily  health  and  other  circumstances 
require  it,  it  becomes  a  duty;  and  as  a  means  of  self-discipline 
it  may  be  used  with  due  regard  to  the  claims  of  other  duties, 
and  to  the  fitness  of  things.  In  this  last  aspect,  however, 
habitual  temperance  will  generally  be  found  to  be  much  more 


198 


FASTOLF— FATALISM 


beneficial  than  occasional  fasting.  It  is  extremely  questionable, 
in  particular,  whether  fasting  be  so  efficient  as  it  is  sometimes 
supposed  to  be  in  protecting  against  temptation  to  fleshly  sin. 
The  practice  has  a  well-ascertained  tendency  to  excite  the 
imagination;  and  in  so  far  as  it  disturbs  that  healthy  and  well- 
balanced  interaction  of  body  and  mind  which  is  the  best  or  at 
least  the  normal  condition  for  the  practice  of  virtue,  it  is  to 
be  deprecated  rather  than  encouraged  (Theologische  Elhik,  sec. 

873-875)- 

Mahommedan  Fasts. — Among  the  Mahommedans,  the  month 
Ramadan,  in  which  the  first  part  of  the  Koran  is  said  to  have 
been  received,  is  by  command  of  the  prophet  observed  as  a  fast 
with  extraordinary  rigour.  No  food  or  drink  of  any  kind  is 
permitted  to  be  taken  from  daybreak  until  the  appearance  of 
the  stars  at  nightfall.  Extending  as  it  does  over  the  whole 
"  month  of  raging  heat,"  such  a  fast  manifestly  involves  con- 
siderable self-denial;  and  it  is  absolutely  binding  upon  all  the 
faithful  whether  at  home  or  abroad.  Should  its  observance  at 
the  appointed  time  be  interfered  with  by  sickness  or  any  other 
cause,  the  fast  must  be  kept  as  soon  afterwards  as  possible  for 
a  like  number  of  days.  It  is  the  only  one  which  Mahommedanism 
enjoins;  but  the  doctors  of  the  law  recommend  a  considerable 
number  of  voluntary  fasts,  as  for  example  on  the  tenth  day  of 
the  month  Moharram.  This  day,  called  the  "  Yom  Ashoora," 
is  held  sacred  on  many  accounts: — "  because  it  is  believed  to  be 
the  day  on  which  the  first  meeting  of  Adam  and  Eve  took  place 
after  they  were  cast  out  of  paradise;  and  that  on  which  Noah 
went  out  from  the  ark;  also  because  several  other  great  events 
are  said  to  have  happened  on  this  day;  and  because  the  ancient 
Arabs,  before  the  time  of  the  prophet,  observed  it  by  fasting. 
But  what,  in  the  opinion  of  most  modern  Moslems,  and  especially 
the  Persians,  confers  the  greatest  sanctity  on  the  day  of  Ashoora 
is  the  fact  of  its  being  that  on  which  El-Hoseyn,  the  prophet's 
grandson,  was  slain  a  martyr  at  the  battle  of  the  plain  of  Karbala." 
It  is  the  practice  of  many  Moslems  to  fast  on  this  day,  and  some 
do  so  on  the  preceding  day  also.  Mahomet  himself  called  fasting 
the  "  gate  of  religion,"  and  forbade  it  only  on  the  two  great 
festivals,  namely,  on  that  which  immediately  follows  Ramadan 
and  on  that  which  succeeds  ihe  pilgrimage.  (See  Lane,  Modern 
Egyptians,  chaps,  iii.,  xxiv.) 

FASTOLF,  SIR  JOHN  (d.  1459),  English  soldier,  has  enjoyed  a 
more  lasting  reputation  as  in  some  part  the  prototype  of  Shake- 
speare's Falstaff.  He  was  son  of  a  Norfolk  gentleman,  John 
Fastolf  of  Caister,  is  said  to  have  been  squire  to  ThomasMowbray, 
duke  of  Norfolk,  before  1398,  served  with  Thomas  of  Lancaster 
in  Ireland  during  1405  and  1406,  and  in  1408  made  a  fortunate 
marriage  with  Millicent,  widow  of  Sir  Stephen  Scrope  of  Castle 
Combe  in  Wiltshire.  In  1413  he  was  serving  in  Gascony,  and 
took  part  in  all  the  subsequent  campaigns  of  Henry  V.  in  France. 
He  must  have  earned  a  good  repute  as  a  soldier,  for  in  1423  he 
was  made  governor  of  Maine  and  Anjou,  and  in  February  1426 
created  a  knight  of  the  Garter.  But  later  in  this  year  he  was 
superseded  in  his  command  by  John  Talbot.  After  a  visit  to 
England  in  1428,  he  returned  to  the  war,  and  on  the  i2th  of 
February  1429  when  in  charge  of  the  convoy  for  the  English 
army  before  Orleans  defeated  the  French  and  Scots  at  the 
"  battle  of  herrings."  On  the  i8th  of  June  of  the  same  year 
an  English  force  under  the  command  of  Fastolf  and  Talbot 
suffered  a  serious  defeat  at  Patay.  According  to  the  French 
historian  Waurin,  who  was  present,  the  disaster  was  due  to 
Talbot's  rashness,  and  Fastolf  only  fled  when  resistance  was 
hopeless.  Other  accounts  charge  him  with  cowardice,  and  it  is 
true  that  John  of  Bedford  at  first  deprived  him  of  the  Garter, 
though  after  inquiry  he  was  honourably  reinstated.  This 
incident  was  made  unfavourable  use  of  by  Shakespeare  in  Henry 
VI.  (pt.  i.  act  iv.  sc.  i.).  Fastolf  continued  to  serve  with  honour 
in  France,  and  was  trusted  both  by  Bedford  and  by  Richard  of 
York.  He  only  came  home  finally  in  1440,  when  past  sixty  years 
of  age.  But  the  scandal  against  him  continued,  and  during 
Cade's  rebellion  in  1451  he  was  charged  with  having  been  the 
cause  of  the  English  disasters  through  minishing  the  garrisons 
of  Normandy.  It  is  suggested  that  he  had  made  much  money 


in  the  war  by  the  hire  of  troops,  and  in  his  later  days  he  showed 
himself  a  grasping  man  of  business.  A  servant  wrote  of  him  : — 
"  cruel  and  vengible  he  hath  been  ever,  and  for  the  most  part 
without  pity  and  mercy  "  (Paston  Letters,  i.  389).  Besides  his 
share  in  his  wife's  property  he  had  large  estates  in  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk,  and  a  house  at  Southwark,  where  he  also  owned  the 
Boar's  Head  Inn.  He  died  at  Caister  on  the  sth  of  November 
1459.  There  is  some  reason  to  suppose  that  Fastolf  favoured 
Lollardry,  and  this  circumstance  with  the  tradition  of  his 
braggart  cowardice  may  have  suggested  the  use  of  his  name  for 
the  boon  companion  of  Prince  Hal,  when  Shakespeare  found 
it  expedient  to  drop  that  of  Oldcastle.  In  the  first  two  folios 
the  name  of  the  historical  character  in  the  first  part  of  Henry  VI. 
is  given  as  "  Falstaffe  "  not  Fastolf.  Other  points  of  resemblance 
between  the  historic  Fastolf  and  the  Falstaff  of  the  dramatist 
are  to  be  found  in  their  service  under  Thomas  Mowbray,  and 
association  with  a  Boar's  Head  Inn.  But  Falstaff  is  in  no  true 
sense  a  dramatization  of  the  real  soldier. 

The  facts  of  Fastolf's  early  career  are  to  be  found  chiefly  in  the 
chronicles  of  Monstrelet  and  Waurin.  For  his  later  life  there  is  much 
material,  including  a  number  of  his  own  letters,  in  the  Paston  Letters. 
There  is  a  full  life  by  W.  Oldys  in  the  Biographia  Britannica  (ist  ed., 
enjarged  by  Gough  in  Kippis's  edition).  See  also  Dawson  Turner's 
History  of  Caister  Castle,  Scrape's  History  of  Castle  Combe,  J.  Gairdner's 
essay  On  the  Historical  Element  in  Shakespeare's  Falstaff,  ap.  Studies 
in  English  History,  Sidney  Lee's  article  in  the  Dictionary  of  National 
Biography,  and  D.  W.  Duthie,  The  Case  of  Sir  John  Fastojf  and  other 
Historical  Studies  (1907).  (C.  L.  K.) 

FAT  (O.E.  fdelt;  the  word  is  common  to  Teutonic  languages, 
cf.  Dutch  vet,  Ger.  Fell,  &c.,  and  may  be  ultimately  related  to 
Greek  ir'uav  and  luapos,  and  Sanskrit  pivan),  the  name  given 
to  certain  animal  and  vegetable  products  which  are  oily  solids 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  are  chemically  distinguished 
as  being  the  glyceryl  esters  of  various  fatty  acids,  of  which  the 
most  important  are  stearic,  palmitic,  and  oleic;  it  is  to  be 
noticed  that  they  are  non-nitrogenous.  Fat  is  a  normal  con- 
stituent of  animal  tissue,  being  found  even  before  birth;  it 
occurs  especially  in  the  intra-muscular,  the  abdominal  and 
the  subcutaneous  connective  tissues.  In  the  vegetable  kingdom 
fats  especially  occur  in  the  seeds  and  fruits,  and  sometimes  in 
the  roots.  Physiological  subjects- concerned  with  the  part  played 
by  fats  in  living  animals  are  treated  in  the  articles  CONNECTIVE 
TISSUES;  NUTRITION;  CORPULENCE;  METABOLIC  DISEASES. 
The  fats  are  chemically  similar  to  the  fixed  oils,  from  which  they 
are  roughly  distinguished  by  being  solids  and  not  liquids  (see 
OILS).  While  all  fats  have  received  industrial  applications, 
foremost  importance  must  be  accorded  to  the  fats  of  the  domestic 
animals — the  sheep,  cow,  ox  and  calf.  These,  which  are  extracted 
from  the  bones  and  skins  in  the  first  operation  in  the  manu- 
facture of  glue,  are  the  raw  materials  of  the  soap,  candle  and 
glycerin  industries. 

FATALISM  (Lat.  fatum,  that  which  is  spoken,  decreed), 
strictly  the  doctrine  that  all  things  happen  according  to  a  pre- 
arranged fate,  necessity  or  inexorable  decree.  It  has  frequently 
been  confused  with  determinism  (q.v.),  which,  however,  differs 
from  it  categorically  in  assigning  a  certain  function  to  the  will. 
The  essence  of  the  fatalistic  doctrine  is  that  it  assigns  no  place 
at  all  to  the  initiative  of  the  individual,  or  to  rational  sequence 
of  events.  Thus  an  oriental  may  believe  that  he  is  fated  to  die 
on  a  particular  day;  he  believes  that,  whatever  he  does  and  in 
spite  of  all  precautions  he  may  take,  nothing  can  avert  the 
disaster.  The  idea  of  an  omnipotent  fate  overruling  all  affairs 
of  men  is  present  in  various  forms  in  practically  all  religious 
systems.  Thus  Homer  assumes  a  single  fate  (Molpa),  an 
impersonal  power  which  makes  all  human  concerns  subject  to 
the  gods:  it  is  not  powerful  over  the  gods,  however,  for  Zeus 
is  spoken  of  as  weighing  out  the  fate  of  men  (II.  xxii.  209,  viii. 
69).  Hesiod  has  three  Fates  (MoTpai),  daughters  of  Night, 
Clotho,  Lachesis  and  Atropos.  In  Aeschylus  fate  is  powerful 
even  over  the  gods.  The  Epicureans  regarded  fate  as  blind 
chance,  while  to  the  Stoics  everything  is  subject  to  an  absolute 
rational  law. 

The  doctrine  of  fate  appears  also  in  what  are  known  as  the 
higher  religions,  e.g.  Christianity  and  Mahommedanism.  In  the 


FATE— FATHER 


199 


former  the  ideas  of  personality  and  infinite  power  have  vanished, 
all  power  being  conceived  as  inherent  in  God.  It  is  recognized 
that  the  moral  individual  must  have  some  kind  of  initiative, 
and  yet  since  God  is  omnipotent  and  omniscient  man  must  be 
conceived  as  in  some  sense  foreordained  to  a  certain  moral, 
mental  and  physical  development.  In  the  history  of  theChristian 
church  emphasis  has  from  time  to  time  been  laid  specially  on  the 
latter  aspect  of  human  life  (cf.  the  doctrines  of  election,  fore- 
ordination,  determinism).  Even  those  theologians,  however, 
who  have  laid  special  stress  on  the  limitations  of  the  human  will 
have  repudiated  the  strictly  fatalistic  doctrine  which  is  character- 
istic of  Oriental  thought  and  is  the  negation  of  all  human  initiative 
(see  PREDESTINATION;  AUGUSTINE,  SAINT;  WILL).  In  Islam 
fate  is  an  absolute  power,  known  as  Kismet,  or  Nasib,  which  is 
conceived  as  inexorable  and  transcending'  all  the  physical  laws 
of  the  universe.  The  most  striking  feature  of  the  Oriental 
fatalism  is  its  complete  indifference  to  material  circumstances: 
men  accept  prosperity  and  misfortune  with  calmness  as  the  decree 
of  fate. 

FATE,  in  Roman  mythology,  the  spoken  word  (fatum)  of 
Jupiter,  the  unalterable  will  of  heaven.  The  plural  (Fata,  the 
Fates)  was  used  for  the  "  destinies  "  of  individuals  or  cities, 
and  then  for  the  three  goddesses  who  controlled  them.  Thus, 
Fata  Scribunda  were  the  goddesses  who  wrote  down  a  man's 
destiny  at  his  birth.  In  this  connexion,  however,  Fata  may  be 
singular,  the  masculine  and  feminine  Fatus,  Fata,  being  the  usual 
forms  in  popular  and  ceremonial  language.  The  Fates  were 
also  called  Parcae,  the  attributes  of  both  being  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Greek  Moerae. 

FATEHPUR,  FATHIPUR  or  FUTTEHPOOR,  a  town  and  district 
of  British  India,  in  the  Allahabad  division  of  the  United  Provinces. 
The  town  is  73  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  Allahabad.  Pop.  (1901)  19,281. 
The  district  has  an  area  of  1618  sq.  m.  It  is  situated  in  the 
extreme  south-eastern  corner  of  the  Doab  or  tract  of  country 
between  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna,  which  respectively  mark  its 
northern  and  southern  boundaries.  The  whole  district  consists 
of  an  alluvial  plain  formed  by  the  deposits  of  the  two  great  rivers. 
The  central  part  is  almost  perfectly  level,  and  consists  of  highly 
cultivated  land  interspersed  with  jungle  and  with  tracts  im- 
pregnated with  saltpetre  (usar).  A  ridge  of  higher  land,  forming 
the  watershed  of  the  district,  runs  along  it  from  east  to  west  at 
an  average  distance  of  about  5  m.  from  the  Ganges.  Fatehpur 
therefore  consists  of  two  inclined  planes,  the  one  5  m.  broad, 
sloping  down  rapidly  to  the  Ganges,  and  the  other  from  1 5  to  20 
m.  broad,  falling  gradually  to  the  Jumna.  The  country  near  the 
banks  of  the  two  rivers  is  cut  up  into  ravines  and  nullahs  running 
in  all  directions,  and  is  almost  entirely  uncultivable.  Besides 
the  Ganges  and  Jumna  the  only  rivers  of  importance  are  the 
Pandu,  a  tributary  of  the  Ganges,  and  the  Arind  and  Nun, 
which  both  fall  into  the  Jumna.  The  climate  is  more  humid 
than  in  the  other  districts  of  the  Doab,  and  although  fevers  are 
common,  it  is  not  considered  an  unhealthy  district.  The  average 
annual  rainfall  is  34  in. 

The  tract  in  which  this  district  is  comprised  was  conquered 
in  1194  by  the  Pathans;  but  subsequently,  after  a  desperate 
resistance,  it  was  wrested  from  them  by  the  Moguls.  In  the  i8th 
century  it  formed  a  part  of  the  subah  of  Korah,  and  was  under 
the  government  of  the  wazir  of  Oudh.  In  1736  it  was  overrun 
by  the  Mahrattas,  who  retained  possession  of  it  until,  in  1750, 
they  were  ousted  by  the  Pathans  of  Fatehpur.  In  1753  it  was 
reconquered  by  the  nawab  of  Oudh.  In  1 765,  by  a  treaty  between 
the  East  India  Company  and  the  nawab,  Korah  was  made 
over  to  the  Delhi  emperor,  who  retained  it  till  1774,  when  it 
was  again  restored  to  the  nawab  wazir's  dominions.  Finally  in 
1 80 1,  the  nawab,  by  treaty,  reconveyed  it  to  the  Company  in 
commutation  of  the  amount  which  he  had  stipulated  to  pay  in 
return  for  the  defence  of  his  country.  In  June  1857  the  district 
rose  in  rebellion,  and  the  usual  murders  of  Europeans  took  place. 
Order  was  established  after  the  fall  of  Lucknow,  on  the  return  of 
Lord  Clyde's  army  to  Cawnpore.  In  1901  the  population  was 
686,391,  showing  a  decrease  of  2  %  in  the  decade.  The  district 
is  traversed  by  the  main  line  of  the  East  Indian  railway  from 


Allahabad  to  Cawnpore.  Trade  is  mainly  agricultural,  but  the 
town  of  Fatehpur  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  ornamental 
whips,  and  Jafarganj  for  artistic  curtains,  &c. 

FATEHPUR  SIKRI,  a  town  in  the  Agra  district  in  the  United 
Provinces  of  India,  on  the  road  from  Agra  to  Jaipur.  Pop.  (1901) 
7 147.  It  is  a  ruined  city,  and  is  interesting  only  from  an  archaeo- 
logical point  of  view.  It  was  founded  by  Akbar  in  1569  as  a 
thank-offering  for  the  birth  of  a  son,  Selim,  afterwards  the 
emperor  Jahangir,  foretold  by  Selim  Chisti,  a  famous  Mahom- 
medan  saint.  The  principal  building  is  the  great  mosque,  which 
is  said  by  Fergusson  to  be  hardly  surpassed  by  any  in  India. 
"  It  measures  550  ft.  east  and  west  by  470  ft.  north  and  south, 
over  all.  The  mosque  itself,  250  ft.  by  80  ft.,  is  crowned  by  three 
domes.  In  its  courtyard,  which  measures  350  ft.  by  440  ft., 
stand  two  tombs.  One  is  that  of  Selim  Chisti,  built  of  white 
marble,  and  the  windows  with  pierced  tracery  of  the  most 
exquisite  geometrical  patterns.  It  possesses  besides  a  deep 
cornice  of  marble,  supported  by  brackets  of  the  most  elaborate 
design.  The  other  tomb,  that  of  Nawab  Islam  Khan,  is  soberer 
and  in  excellent  taste,  but  quite  eclipsed  by  its  surroundings. 
Even  these  parts,  however,  are  surpassed  in  magnificence  by 
the  southern  gateway.  As  it  stands  on  a  rising  ground,  when 
looked  at  from  below  its  appearance  is  noble  beyond  that  of 
any  portal  attached  to  any  mosque  in  India,  perhaps  in  the  whole 
world."  Among  other  more  noteworthy  buildings  the  following 
may  be  mentioned.  The  palace  of  Jodh  Bai,  the  Rajput  wife  of 
Akbar,  consists  of  a  courtyard  surrounded  by  a  gallery,  above 
which  rise  buildings  roofed  with  blue  enamel.  A  rich  gateway 
gives  access  to  a  terrace  on  which  are  the  "  houses  of  Birbal  and 
Miriam  ";  and  beyond  these  is  another  courtyard,  where  are 
Akbar's  private  apartments  and  the  exquisite  palace  of  the 
Turkish  sultana.  Here  are  also  the  Panch  Mahal  or  five-storeyed 
building,  consisting  of  five  galleries  in  tiers,  and  the  audience 
chamber.  The  special  feature  in  the  architecture  of  the  city  is 
the  softness  of  the  red  sandstone,  which  could  be  carved  almost 
as  easily  as  wood,  and  so  lent  itself  readily  to  the  elaborate 
Hindu  embellishment.  Fatehpur  Sikri  was  a  favourite  residence 
of  Akbar  throughout  his  reign,  and  his  establishment  here  was 
of  great  magnificence.  After  Akbar's  death  Fatehpur  Sikri 
was  deserted  within  50  years  of  its  foundation.  The  reason  for 
this  was  that  frequent  cause  in  the  East,  lack  of  water.  The 
only  water  obtainable  was  so  brackish  and  corroding  as  to  cause 
great  mortality  among  the  inhabitants.  The  buildings  are 
situated  within  an  enclosure,  walled  on  three  sides  and  about 
7  m.  in  circumference.  They  are  all  now  more  or  less  in  ruins, 
and  their  elaborate  painting  and  other  decoration  has  largely 
perished,  but  some  modern  restoration  has  been  effected. 

See  E.  B.  Havell,  A  Handbook  to  Agra  and  the  Taj,  Sikandra, 
Fatehpur  Sikri,  &c.  (1904). 

FATHER,  the  begetter  of  a  child,  the  male  parent.  The 
word  is  common  to  Teutonic  languages,  and,  like  the  other 
words  for  close  family  relationship,  mother,  brother,  son,  sister, 
daughter,  appears  in  most  Indo  -  European  languages.  The 
O.  Eng.  form  is  feeder,  and  it  appears  in  Ger.  Voter,  Dutch  vader, 
Gr.  Tranjp,  Lat.  pater,  whence  Romanic  Fr.  pere,  Span,  padre,  &c. 
The  word  is  used  of  male  ancestors  more  remote  than  the  actual 
male  parent,  and  of  ancestors  in  general.  It  is  applied  to  God, 
as  the  Father  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  as  the  Creator  of  the  world, 
and  is  thus  the  orthodox  term  for  the  First  Person  of  the  Trinity. 
Of  the  transferred  uses  of  the  word  many  have  religious  reference; 
thus  it  is  used  of  the  Christian  writers,  usually  confined  to  those 
of  the  first  five  centuries,  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  (see  below), 
of  whom  those  who  flourished  at  the  end  of,  or  just  after  the  age 
of,  the  apostles  are  known  as  the  Apostolic  Fathers.  One  who 
stands  as  a  spiritual  parent  to  another  is  his  "  father,"  e.g.  god- 
father, or  in  the  title  of  bishops  or  archbishops,  Right  or  Most 
Reverend  Father  in  God.  The  pope  is,  in  the  Roman  Church, 
the  Holy  Father.  In  the  Roman  Church,  father  is  strictly  applied 
to  a  "  regular,"  a  member  of  one  of  the  religious  orders,  and  so 
always  in  Europe,  in  English  usage,  often  applied  to  a  confessor, 
whether  regular  or  secular,  and  to  any  Roman  priest,  and 
sometimes  used  of  sub-members  of  a  religious  society  or  fraternity 


200 


FATHERS  OF  THE  CHURCH 


in  the  English  Church.  •  Of  transferred  uses,  other  than  religious, 
may  be  mentioned  the  application  to  the  first  founders  of  an 
institution,  constitution,  epoch,  &c.  Thus  the  earliest  settlers 
of  North  America  are  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  and  the  framers  of 
the  United  States  constitution  are  the  Fathers  of  the  Constitution. 
In  ancient  Rome  the  members  of  the  senate  are  the  Patres 
conscripti,  the  "  Conscript  fathers."  The  senior  member  or 
doyen  of  a  society  is  often  called  the  father.  Thus  the  member 
of  the  English  House  of  Commons,  and  similarly,  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  in  the  United  States,  America,  who  has  sat 
for  the  longest  period  uninterruptedly,  is  the  Father  of  the 
House. 

FATHERS  OF  THE  CHURCH.  The  use  of  the  word  "  father  " 
as  a  title  of  respect  is  found  in  the  Old  Testament,  where  it  is 
applied  to  patriarchs  (Gen.  1.  24  (Septuagint) ;  Exod.  iii.  13,  15; 
Deut.  i.  8),  priests  (Judg.  xvii.  10,  xviii.  19),  prophets  (2  Kings  ii. 

12,  vi.  21,  xiii.  14),  and  distinguished  ancestors  (Ecclus.  xliv.  i). 
In  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  scribes  claimed  the  name  with  an 
arrogance  which  He  disapproved  (Matt,  xxiii.  9) ;  in  the  rabbinic 
literature  "  the  fathers  "  are  the  more  eminent  of  the  earlier 
rabbis  whose  sayings  were  handed  down  for  the  guidance  of 
posterity.1    The  Christian  Church,  warned  perhaps  by  the  words 
of  Christ,  appears  at  first  to  have  avoided  a  similar  use  of  the 
term,   while  St  Paul,   St  Peter  and  St  John  speak  of  their 
converts  as  spiritual  children  (i  Cor.  iv.  14  f.,  Gal.  iv.  19,  i  Pet.  v. 

13,  i  John  ii.  12);  they  did  not  assume,  so  far  as  we  know,  the 
official  style  of  "  fathers  in  God."     Nor  is  this  title  found  in  the 
age  which  succeeded  to  that  of  the  apostles.     When  Polycarp, 
bishop  of  Smyrna,  was  martyred  (A.D.  155),  the  crowd  shouted, 
"  This  is  the  father  of  the  Christians  "2 ;  but  the  words  were 
probably  prompted  by  the  Jews,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  martyrdom,  and  who  naturally  viewed  Polycarp  in  the 
light  of  a  great  Christian  rabbi,  and  gave  him  the  title  which  their 
own  teachers  bore.     In  the  next  century  members  of  the  episcopal 
order  were  sometimes  addressed  in  this  manner:  thus  Cyprian 
is  styled  papas  or  papa  by  his  Roman  correspondents.3    The 
bishops  who  sat  in  the  great  councils  of  the  4th  century  were 
known  as  "the  318  fathers"  of  Nicaea,  and  "the  150  fathers" 
of  Constantinople.     Meanwhile  the  custom  was  growing  up  of 
appealing  to  eminent  Church  writers  of  a  past  generation  under 
this  name.     Thus  Athanasius  writes  (ad  Afros  vi.):  "  We  have 
the  testimony  of  fathers  (the  two  Dionysii,  bishops  of  Alexandria 
and  Rome,  who  wrote  in  the  previous  century)  for  the  use  of 
the  word   6/iooixnos."     Such    quotations    were    multiplied,    as 
theologians  learnt  to  depend  increasingly  upon  their  predecessors, 
until  the  testimony  of  "  our  holy  father  "  Athanasius,  or  Gregory 
the  Divine,  or  John  the  Golden-mouthed,  came  to  be  regarded 
as  decisive  in  reference  to  controverted  points  of  faith  and 
practice. 

In  the  narrower  sense  thus  indicated  the  "  fathers  "  of  the 
Church  are  the  great  bishops  and  other  eminent  Christian 
teachers  of  the  earlier  centuries,  who  were  conspicuous  for 
soundness  of  judgment  and  sanctity  of  life,  and  whose  writings 
remained  as  a  court  of  appeal  for  their  successors.  A  list  of  fathers 
drawn  up  on  this  principle  will  begin  with  the  Christian  writers 
of  the  ist  century  whose  writings  are  not  included  in  the  New 
Testament:  where  it  ought  to  end  is  a  more  difficult  point  to 
determine.  Perhaps  the  balance  of  opinion  is  in  favour  of 
regarding  Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604)  as  the  last  of  the  Latin 
fathers,  and  John  of  Damascus  (d.  c.  760)  as  the  last  of  the  fathers 
of  the  Greek  Church.  A  more  liberal  estimate  might  include 
John  Scotus  Erigena  or -even  Anselm  or  Bernard  of  Clairvaux 
in  the  West  and  Photius  in  the  East.  The  abbe  Migne  carried 
his  Latin  patrology  down  to  the  time  of  Innocent  III.  (d.  1216), 
and  his  Greek  patrology  to  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (1453); 
but,  while  this  large  extension  of  the  field  is  much  to  the  advan- 
tage of  his  readers,  it  undoubtedly  stretches  the  meaning  of 
patrologia  far  beyond  its  natural  limits.  For  ordinary  purposes 
it  is  best  to  make  the  patristic  period  conterminous  with  the  life 

1  See  Buxtorf,  s.v.  Abh,  and  cf.  the  title  of  the  tract  Pirke  Aboth 
(ed.  Taylor,  p.  3). 

2  Polyc.  Marl.  8.  '  Stadia  biblica,  iv.  p.  273. 


of  the  ancient  Catholic  Church.  In  the  West  the  Church  enters 
the  medieval  stage  of  its  history  with  the  death  of  Gregory, 
while  in  the  East  even  John  of  Damascus  is  rather  a  compiler 
of  patristic  teaching  than  a  true  "father." 

A  further  question  arises.  Are  all  the  Christian  writers  of  a 
given  period  to  be  included  among  the  "  fathers,"  or  those  only 
who  wrote  on  religious  subjects,  and  of  whose  orthodoxy  there 
is  no  doubt  ?  Migne,  following  the  example  of  the  editors  of 
bibliothecae  patrum  who  preceded  him,  swept  into  his  great 
collection  all  the  Christian  writings  which  fell  within  his  period ; 
but  he  is  careful  to  state  upon  his  title-page  that  his  patrologies 
include  the  ecclesiastical  writers  as  well  as  the  fathers  and  doctors 
of  the  Church.  For  a  comprehensive  use  of  the  term  "  ecclesi- 
astical writers  "  he  has  the  authority  of  Jerome,  who  enumerates 
among  them4  such  heresiarchs  or  leaders  of  schism  as  Tatian, 
Bardaisan,  Novatus,  Donatus,  Photinus  and  Eunomius.  This 
may  not  be  logical,  but  long  usage  has  made  it  permissible  or 
even  necessary.  It  is  often  difficult,  if  not  impracticable,  to 
draw  the  line  between  orthodox  writers  and  heterodox;  on 
which  side,  it  might  be  asked,  is  Origen  to  be  placed  ?  and  in  the 
case  of  a  writer  like  Tertullian  who  left  the  Church  in  middle 
life,  are  we  to  admit  certain  of  his  works  into  our  patrology  and 
refuse  a  place  to  others  ?  It  is  clear  that  in  the  circumstances 
the  terms  "  father,"  "  patristic,"  "  patrology  "  must  be  used 
with  much  elasticity,  since  it  is  now  too  late  to  substitute  for 
them  any  more  comprehensive  terms. 

By  the  "  fathers,"  then,  we  understand  the  whole  of  extant 
Christian  literature  from  the  time  of  the  apostles  to  the  rise  of 
scholasticism  or  the  beginning  of  the  middle  ages.  However  we 
may  interpret  the  lower  limit  of  this  period,  the  literature  which 
it  embraces  is  immense.  Some  method  of  subdivision  is  necessary, 
and  the  simplest  and  most  obvious  is  that  which  breaks  the  whole 
into  two  great  parts,  the  ante-Nicene  and  the  post-Nicene. 
This  is  not  an  arbitrary  cleavage;  the  Council  of  Nicaea  (A.D. 
325)  is  the  watershed  which  actually  separates  two  great  tracts 
of  Christian  literature.  The  ante-Nicene  age  yields  priceless 
records  of  the  early  struggles  of  Christianity;  from  it  we  have 
received  specimens  of  the  early  apologetic  and  the  early  polemic 
of  the  Church,  the  first  essays  of  Christian  philosophy,  Christian 
correspondence,  Christian  biblical  interpretation:  we  owe  to  it 
the  works  of  Justin,  Irenaeus,  the  Alexandrian  Clement,  Origen, 
Tertullian,  Cyprian.  In  these  products  of  the  2nd  and  3rd 
centuries  there  is  much  which  in  its  own  way  was  not  surpassed 
by  any  of  the  later  patristic  writings.  Yet  the  post-Nicene 
literature,  considered  as  literature,  reaches  a  far  higher  level. 
Both  in  East  and  West,  the  4th  and  5th  centuries  form  the  golden 
age  of  dogmatic  theology,  of  homiletic  preaching,  of  exposition, 
of  letter-writing,  of  Church  history,  of  religious  poetry.  Two 
causes  may  be  assigned  for  this  fact.  The  conversion  of  the 
empire  gave  the  members  of  the  Church  leisure  and  opportunities 
for  the  cultivation  of  literary  taste,  and  gradually  drew  the 
educated  classes  within  the  pale  of  the  Christian  society.  More- 
over, the  great  Christological  controversies  of  the  age  tended  to 
encourage  in  Christian  writers  and  preachers  an  intellectual 
acuteness  and  an  accuracy  of  thought  and  expression  of  which 
the  earlier  centuries  had  not  felt  the  need. 

The  ante-Nicene  period  of  patristic  literature  opens  with  the 
"  apostolic  fathers," 6  i.e.  the  Church  writers  who  flourished 
toward  the  end  of  the  apostolic  age  and  during  the  half  century 
that  followed  it,  including  Clement  of  Rome,  Ignatius  of  Antioch, 
Polycarp  of  Smyrna  and  the  author  known  as  "Barnabas." 
Their  writings,  like  those  of  the  apostles,  are  epistolary;  but 
editions  of  the  apostolic  fathers  now  usually  admit  also  the  early 
Church  order  known  as  the  Didache,  the  allegory  entitled  the 
Shepherd,  and  a  short  anonymous  apology  addressed  to  one 
Diognetus.  A  second  group,  known  as  the  "  Greek  Apologists," 
embraces  Aristides,  Justin,  Tatian,  Athenagoras  and  Theophilus; 
and  a  third  consists  of  the  early  polemical  writers,  Irenaeus  and 

4  In  his  book  De  viris  illustribus. 

6  The  term  patres  apostolici  is  due  to  the  patristic  scholars  of  the 
1 7th  century:  see  Lightfoot,  St  Clement  of  Rome,  i.  p.  3.  "  Sub- 
apostolic  "  is  perhaps  a  more  accurate  designation. 


FATHOM 


2OI 


Hippolytus.  Next  come  the  great  Alexandrians,  Clement, 
Origen,  Dionysius;  the  Carthaginians,  Tertullian  and  Cyprian; 
the  Romans,  Minucius  Felix  and  Novatian;  the  last  four  laid 
the  foundations  of  a  Latin  Christian  literature.  Even  the  stormy 
days  of  the  last  persecution  yielded  seme  considerable  writers, 
such  as  Methodius  in  the  East  and  Lactantius  in  the  West.  This 
list  is  far  from  complete;  the  principal  collections  of  the  ante- 
Nicene  fathers  include  not  a  few  minor  and  anonymous  writers, 
and  the  fragments  of  many  others  whose  works  as  a  whole  have 
perished. 

In  the  post-Nicene  period  the  literary  output  of  the  Church 
was  greater.  Only  the  more  representative  names  can  be  men- 
tioned here.  From  Alexandria  we  get  Athanasius,  Didyrnus  and 
Cyril;  from  Cyrene,  Synesius;  from  Antioch,  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,  John  Chrysostom  and  Theodoret;  from  Palestine, 
Eusebius  of  Caesarea  and  Cyril  of  Jerusalem;  from  Cappadocia, 
Basil,  Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  Gregory  of  Nazianzus.  The  Latin 
West  was  scarcely  less  productive;  it  is  enough  to  mention 
Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Ambrose  of  Milan,  Augustine  of  Hippo,  Leo  of 
Rome,  Jerome,  Rufinus,  and  a  father  lately  restored  to  his  place 
in  patristic  literature,  Niceta  of  Remesiana.1  Gaul  alone  has  a 
goodly  list  of  Christian  authors  to  show:  John  Cassian,  Vincent 
of  Lerins,  Hilary  of  Aries,  Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  Salvian  of 
Marseilles,  Sidonius  Apollinaris  of  Auvergne,  Caesarius  of  Aries, 
Gregory  of  Tours.  The  period  ends  in  the  West  with  two  great 
Italian  names,  Cassiodorus  and  Pope  Gregory  I.,  after  Leo  the 
greatest  of  papal  theologians. 

The  reader  to  whom  the  study  is  new  will  gain  some  idea  of  the 
bulk  of  the  extant  patristic  literature,  if  we  add  that  in  Migne's 
collection  ninety-six  large  volumes  are  occupied  with  the  Greek 
fathers  from  Clement  of  Rome  to  John  of  Damascus,  and  seventy- 
six  with  the  Latin  fathers  from  Tertullian  to  Gregory  the 
Great.2 

For  a  discussion  of  the  more  important  fathers  the  student  is 
referred  to  the  articles  which  deal  with  them  separately.  In  this 
place  it  is  enough  to  consider  the  general  influence  of  the  patristic 
writings  upon  Christian  doctrine  and  biblical  interpretation. 
Can  any  authority  be  claimed  for  their  teaching  or  their  exegesis, 
other  than  that  which  belongs  to  the  best  writers  of  every  age. 
The  decree  of  the  council  of  Trent3  (ut  nemo  .  .  .  contra  un- 
animum  consensum  patrum  ipsam  scripturam  sacram  interprelari 
audeat)  is  studiously  moderate,  and  yet  it  seems  to  rule  that 
under  certain  circumstances  it  is  not  permitted  to  the  Church  of 
later  times  to  carry  the  science  of  biblical  interpretation  beyond 
the  point  which  it  had  reached  at  the  end  of  the  patristic  period. 
Roman  Catholic  writers,4  however,  have  explained  the  prohibition 
to  apply  to  matters  of  faith  only,  and  in  that  case  the  Tridentine 
decree  is  little  else  than  another  form  of  the  Vincentian  canon 
which  has  been  widely  accepted  in  the  Anglican  communion: 
curandum  est  ut  id  leneamus  quod  ubique,  quod  semper,  quod  ab 
omnibus  creditum  est.  The  fathers  of  the  first  six  or  seven 
centuries,  so  far  as  they  agree,  may  be  fairly  taken  to  represent 
the  main  stream  of  Christian  tradition  and  belief  during  the 
period  when  the  apostolic  teaching  took  shape  in  the  great  creeds 
and  dogmatic  decisions  of  Christendom.  The  English  reformers 
realized  this  fact;  and  notwithstanding  their  insistence  on  the 
unique  authority  of  the  canon  of  Scripture,  their  appeal  to  the 
fathers  as  representatives  of  the  teaching  of  the  undivided 
Church  was  as  wholehearted  as  that  of  the  Tridentine  divines. 
Thus  the  English  canon  of  1571  directs  preachers  "  to  take  heed 
that  they  do  not  teach  anything  in  their  sermons  as  though 
they  would  have  it  completely  held  and  believed  by  the  people, 
save  what  is  agreeable  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  and  what  the  Catholic  Fathers  and  ancient  Bishops 
have  gathered  from  that  doctrine."  Depreciation  of  the  fathers 
was  characteristic,  not  of  the  Anglican  reformation,  but  of  the 

1  The  editio  princeps  of  Niceta's  works  was  published  by  Dr  A.  E. 
Burn  in  1905. 

2  The  Greek  patrology  contains,  however,  besides  the  text,  a 
Latin  translation,  and  in  both  patrologies  there  is  much  editorial 
matter. 

'    Scss.  iv» 

4    E.  G.  Mohler,  Symbolism  (E.  tr.)§42. 


revolt  against  some  of  its  fundamental  principles  which  was  led 
by  the  Puritan  reaction.5 

Now  that  the  smoke  of  these  controversies  has  passed  away, 
it  is  possible  to  form  a  clearer  judgment  upon  the  merits  of  the 
patristic  writings.  They  are  no  longer  used  as  an  armoury 
from  which  opposite  sides  may  draw  effective  weapons,  offensive 
or  defensive;  nor  on  the  other  hand  are  they  cast  aside  as  the 
rubbish  of  an  ignorant  and  superstitious  age.  All  patristic 
students  now  recognize  the  great  inequality  of  these  authors, 
and  admit  that  they  are  not  free  from  the  faults  of  their  times; 
it  is  not  denied  that  much  of  their  exegesis  is  untenable,  or  that 
their  logic  is  often  feeble  and  their  rhetoric  offensive  to  modern 
taste.  But  against  these  disadvantages  may  be  set  the  unique 
services  which  the  fathers  still  render  to  Christian  scholars. 
Their  works  comprise  the  whole  literature  of  our  faith  during 
the  decisive  centuries  which  followed  the  apostolic  age.  They 
are  important  witnesses  "to  the  text  of  the  New  Testament,  to 
the  history  of  the  canon,  and  to  the  history  of  interpretation. 
It  is  to  their  pages  that  we  owe  nearly  all  that  we  know  of  the 
life  of  ancient  Christianity.  We  see  in  them  the  thought  of  the 
ancient  Church  taking  shape  in  the  minds  of  her  bishops  and 
doctors;  and  in  many  cases  they  express  the  results  of  the  great 
doctrinal  controversies  of  their  age  in  language  which  leaves 
little  to  be  desired.6 

AUTHORITIES. — The  earliest  writer  on  patristics  was  Jerome, 
whose  book  De  viris  illustribus  gives  a  brief  account  of  one  hundred 
and  thirty-five  Church  writers,  beginning  with  St  Peter  and  ending 
with  himself.  Jerome's  work  was  continued  successively  by 
Gennadius  of  Marseilles,  Isidore  of  Seville,  and  Ildefonsus  of  Toledo; 
the  last-named  writer  brings  the  list  down  to  the  middle  of  the  7th 
century.  Since  the  revival  of  learning  books  on  the  fathers  have 
been  numerous;  among  the  more  recent  and  most  accessible  of  these 
we  may  mention  Smith  and  Wace's  Dictionary  of  Christian  Bio- 
graphy, Hauck-Herzog's  Reakncyklppddie,  Bardenhewer's  Patrologie 
and  Geschichte  der  altkirchlichen  Litteratur,  Harnack's  Geschichte  der 
altchristlichen  Litteratur  bei  Eusebius  and  Ehrard's  Die  allchristliche 
Litteratur^  und  ihre  Erforschung.  A  record  of  patristic  collections 
and  editions  down  to  1839  may  be  found  in  Dowling's  Notitia 
Scriptorum  SS.  Patrum.  The  contents  of  the  volumes  of  Migne's 
patrologies  are  given  in  the  Catalogue  general  des  livres  de  I'abbe 
Migne,  and  a  useful  list  in  alphabetical  order  of  the  writers  in  the 
Greek  Patrologia  has  been  compiled  by  Dr  J.  B.  Pearson  (Cambridge, 
1882).  Migne's  texts  are  not  always  satisfactory,  but  since  the 
completion  of  his  great  undertaking  two  important  collections  have 
been  begun  on  critical  lines — the  Vienna  edition  of  the  Latin  Church 
writers,7  and  the  Berlin  edition  of  the  Greek  writers  of  the  ante-Nicene 
period.8 

For  English  readers  there  are  three  series  of  translations  from  the 
fathers,  which  cover  much  of  the  ground;  the  Oxford  Library  of 
the  Fathers,  the  Ante  Nicene  Christian  Library  and  the  Select  Library 
of  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers.  Satisfactory  lexicons  of  patristic 
Greek  and  Latin  are  still  a  desideratum:  but  assistance  may  be 
obtained  in  the  study  of  the  Greek  fathers  from  Suicer's  Thesaurus, 
the  Lexicon  of  Byzantine  Greek  by  E.  A.  Sophocles,  and  the  Lexicon 
Graecum  suppletorium  et  dialecticum  of  Van  Herwerden;  whilst  the 
new  great  Latin  Lexicon,  published  by  the  Berlin  Academy,  is  calcu- 
lated to  meet  the  needs  of  students  of  Latin  patristic  literature.  For 
a  fuller  list  of  books  useful  to  the  reader  of  the  Greek  and  Latin'fathers 
see  H.  B.  Swete's  Patristic  Study  (2nd  ed.,  1902).  (H.  B.  S.) 

FATHOM  (a  word  common,  in  various  forms,  to  Scandinavian 
and  Teutonic  languages;  cf.  Danish  favn,  Dutch  warn  and 
Ger.  Faden,  and  meaning  "the  arms  extended  ";  the  ultimate 
origin  is  a  root  pet,  seen  in  the  Gr.  Treravv vvai,  to  spread),  a 
measure  of  length,  being  the  distance  from  the  tip  of  one  middle 
finger  to  the  tip  of  the  other,  when  the  arms  are  stretched  out 
to  their  widest  extent.  This  length  has  been  standardized  to 
a  measure  of  6  ft.,  and  as  such  is  used  mainly  in  soundings  as 
a  unit  for  measuring  the  depth  of  the  sea.  "  Fathom  "  is  also 
used  in  the  measurement  of  timber,  when  it  is  equivalent  to  6  ft. 
sq.;  similarly,  in  mining,  a  fathom  is  a  portion  of  ground 
running  the  whole  thickness  of  the  vein  of  ore,  and  is  6  ft.  in 
breadth  and  thickness.  The  verb  "  to  fathom,"  i.e.  to  sound 
or  measure  with  a  fathom-line,  is  used  figuratively,  meaning  to 
go  into  a  subject  deeply,  to  penetrate,  or  to  explore  thoroughly. 

6  See  T.  J.  Blunt,  Right  Use  of  the  Fathers,  p.  15  ff. 

6  See  Stanton,  Place  of  Authority  in  Religion,  p.  165  f. 

7  Corpus  scriptorum  ecclesiaslicorum  Latinorum. 

8  Griechischen  christlichen  Schriftstellern  der  ersten  drei  Jahrhunderte. 


202 


FATIMITES 


FATIMITES,  or  FATIMIDES,  the  name  of  a  dynasty  called  after 
Fatima,  daughter  of  the  prophet  Mahomet,  from  whom  and  her 
husband  the  caliph  Ali,  son  of  Abu  Talib,  they  claimed  descent. 
The  dynasty  is  also  called  'Obaidi  (UbaidI)  after  'Obaidallah, 
the  first  sovereign,  and  'Alawi,  a  title  which  it  shares  with 
other  dynasties  claiming  the  same  ancestry.  For  a  list  of 
sovereigns  see  EGYPT,  section  History  (Mahommedan  period); 
three,  however,  must  be  prefixed  who  reigned  in  north-western 
Africa  before  the  annexation  of  Egypt:  al-Mahdi  'Obaidallah 
297  (909);  al-Qa'im  Mahommed  322  (934);  al-Mansur  Isma'll 

334  (945)- 

The  dynasty  owed  its  rise  to  the  attachment  to  the  family  of 
the  prophet  which  was  widespread  in  the  Moslem  world,  and 
the  belief  that  the  sovereignty  was  the  right  of  one  of  its  members. 
Owing,  however,  to  the  absence  of  the  principle  of  primogeniture 
there  was  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  person  whose  claim 
should  be  enforced,  and  a  number  of  sects  arose  maintaining  the 
rights  of  different  branches  of  the  family.  The  Fatimites  were 
supported  by  those  who  regarded  the  sovereignty  as  vested  in 
Isma'll,  son  of  Ja'far  al-Sadiq,  great-great-grandson  of  All, 
through  his  second  son  Hosain  (Husain).  Of  this  Isma'll  the 
first  Fatimite  caliph  was  supposed  to  be  the  great-grandson. 
The  line  of  ancestors  between  him  and  Isma'll  is,  however, 
variously  given,  even  his  father's  name  being  quite  uncertain, 
and  in  some  of  the  pedigrees  even  Isma'll  does  not  figure. 
Apparently  when  the  family  first  became  of  political  importance 
their  Alid  descent  was  not  disputed  at  Bagdad,  and  the  poet 
al-Sharif  al-Radi  (d.  A.H.  406:  A.D.  1015),  in  whose  family  the 
office  of  Naqlb  (registrar  of  the  Alids)  was  hereditary,  appears 
to  have  acknowledged  it  (Diwan,  ed.  Beirut,  p.  972).  When 
their  success  became  a  menace  to  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad,  genealo- 
gists were  employed  to  demonstrate  the  falsity  of  the  claim, 
and  a  considerable  literature,  both  official  and  unofficial,  rose  in 
consequence.  The  founder  of  the  dynasty  was  made  out  to  be 
a  scion  of  a  family  of  heretics  from  whom  the  terrible  Carmathian 
sect  had  originated:  later  on  (perhaps  owing  to  the  r61e  played 
by  Jacob,  son  of  Killis,  in  bringing  the  Fatimites  to  Egypt), 
the  founder  was  made  out  to  have  been  a  Jew,  either  as  having 
been  adopted  by  the  heretic  supposed  to  be  his  father,  or  as 
having  been  made  to  personate  the  real  'Obaidallah,  who  had 
been  killed  in  captivity.  While  the  stories  that  make  him  of 
either  Jewish  or  Carmathian  origin  may  be  neglected,  as  the 
product  of  malice,  the  uncertainty  of  the  genealogies  offered  by 
their  partisans  renders  any  positive  solution  of  the  problem 
impossible.  What  seems  to  be  clear  is  that  secretly  within  the 
Abbasid  empire  propaganda  was  carried  on  in  favour  of  one  or 
other  Alid  aspirant,  and  the  danger  which  any  such  aspirant 
incurred  by  coming  forward  openly  led  to  his  whereabouts  being 
concealed  except  from  a  very  few  adherents.  What  is  known 
then  is  that  towards  the  end  of  the  3rd  Islamic  century  the  leader 
of  the  sect  of  Isma'ilites  (Assassins,  q.v.)  who  afterwards  mounted 
a  throne,  lived  at  Salamia,  near  Emesa  (Horns),  having  agents 
spread  over  Arabia,  Persia  and  Syria,  and  frequently  receiving 
visits  from  pious  adherents,  who  had  been  on  pilgrimage  to  the 
grave  of  Hosain  (Husain).  Such  visitors  received  directions 
and  orders  such  as  are  usual  in  secret  societies.  One  of  these 
agents,  Abu  Abdallah  al-Hosain  called  al-Shi'I,  said  to  have 
filled  the  office  of  censor  (muhtasib)  at  Basra,  received  orders 
to  carry  on  a  mission  in  Arabia,  and  at  Mecca  is  said  to  have 
made  the  acquaintance  of  some  members  of  the  Berber  tribe 
Kutama,  south  of  the  bay  of  Bougie.  These  persons  persuaded 
him  to  travel  home  with  them  in  the  character  of  teacher  of  the 
Koran,  but  according  to  some  authorities  the  ground  had  already 
been  prepared  there  for  a  political  mission.  He  arrived  in  the 
Kutama  country  in  June  893,  and  appears  very  soon  to  have 
been  made  chief,  thereby  exciting  the  suspicion  of  the  Aghlabite 
ruler  of  Kairawan,  Ibrahim  b.  Ahmad,  which,  however,  was 
soon  allayed.  His  success  provoked  a  civil  war  among  the 
Berbers,  but  he  was  protected  by  a  chief  named  IJasan  b.  Harun, 
and  displayed  sufficient  military  ability  to  win  respect.  Nine 
years  after  his  arrival  he  made  use  of  the  unrest  following  on  the 
death  of  the  Aghlabite  Ibrahim  to  attack  the  town  of  Mila, 


which  he  took  by  treachery,  and  turned  into  his  capital;  the  son 
and  successor  of  Ibrahim,  Abu'l-' Abbas  'Abdallah,  sent  bis  son 
al-Ahwal  to  deal  with  the  new  power,  and  he  defeated  al-Shi'I 
in  some  battles,  but  in  903  al-Ahwal  was  recalled  by  his  brother 
Ziyadatallah,  who  had  usurped  the  throne,  and  put  to  death. 

At  some  time  after  his  first  successes  al-Shi'i  sent  a  messenger 
(apparently  his  brother)  to  the  head  of  his  sect  at  Salamia, 
bidding  him  come  to  the  Kutama  country,  and  place  himself  at 
the  head  of  affairs,  since  al-Shl'i's  followers  had  been  taught  to 
pay  homage  to  a  Mahdi  who  would  at  some  time  be  shown  them. 
It  is  said  that  'Obaidallah,  who  now  held  this  post,  was  known 
to  the  court  at  Bagdad,  and  that  on  the  news  of  his  departure 
orders  were  sent  to  the  governor  of  Egypt  to  arrest  him :  but  by 
skilful  simulation  'Obaidallah  succeeded  in  escaping  this  danger, 
and  with  his  escort  reached  Tripoli  safely.  Instructions  had  by 
this  time  reached  the  Aghlabite  Ziyadatallah  to  be  on  the  watch 
for  the  Mahdi,  who  was  finally  arrested  at  Sijilmasa  (Tafilalt)  in 
the  year  A.H.  292  (A.D.  905);  his  companion,  al-Shi'i's  brother, 
had  been  arrested  at  an  earlier  point,  and  the  Mahdi's  journey 
to  the  south-west  must  have  been  to  elude  pursuit. 

The  invitation  to  the  Mahdi  turned  out  to  have  been  prema- 
ture; for  Ziyadatallah  had  sent  a  powerful  army  to  oppose 
al-Shi'I,  which,  making  Constantine  its  headquarters,  had  driven 
al-Shi'I  into  the  mountains:  after  six  months  al-Shfl  secured 
an  opportunity  for  attacking  it,  and  won  a  complete  victory. 
Early  in  906  another  army  was  sent  to  deal  with  al-Shi'i,  and 
an  earnest  appeal  came  from  the  caliph  Muqtafl  (Moktafi), 
addressed  to  all  the  Moslems  of  Africa,  to  aid  Ziyadatallah 
against  the  usurper.  The  operations  of  the  Aghlabite  prince 
were  unproductive  of  any  decided  result,  and  by  September 
906  al-Shi'i  had  got  possession  of  the  important  fortress  Tubna 
and  some  others.  Further  forces  were  immediately  sent  to  the 
front  by  Ziyadatallah,  but  these  were  defeated  by  al-Shi'I  and 
his  officers,  to  whom  other  towns  capitulated,  till  Ziyadatallah 
found  it  prudent  to  retire  from  Al-Urbus  or  Laribus,  which  had 
been  his  headquarters,  and  entrench  himself  in  Raqqada,  one 
of  the  two  capitals  of  his  kingdom,  Kairawan  being  the  other. 
Ziyadatallah  is  charged  by  the  chroniclers  with  dissoluteness  and 
levity,  and  even  cowardice:  after  his  retreat  the  fortresses  and 
towns  in  what  now  constitute  the  department  of  Constantine 
and  in  Tunisia  fell  fast  into  al-Shl'I's  hands,  and  he  was  soon 
able  to  threaten  Raqqada  itself. 

By  March  909  Raqqada  had  become  untenable,  and  Ziyadat- 
allah resolved  to  flee  from  his  kingdom;  taking  with  him  his 
chief  possessions,  he  made  for  Egypt,  and  thence  to  'Irak:  his 
final  fate  is  uncertain.  The  cities  Raqqada  and  Kairawan  were 
immediately  occupied  by  Al-Shi'i,  who  proceeded  to  send 
governors  to  the  other  places  of  importance  in  what  had  been 
the  Aghlabite  kingdom,  and  to  strike  new  coins,  which,  however, 
bore  no  sovereign's  name.  Orders  were  given  that  the  Shi'ite 
peculiarities  should  be  introduced  into  public  worship. 

In  May  909  al-Shi'I  led  a  tremendous  army  westwards  to  the 
kingdom  of  Tahert,  where  he  put  an  end  to  the  Rustamite 
dynasty,  and  appointed  a  governor  of  his  own:  he  thence 
proceeded  to  Sijilmasa  where  'Obaidallah  lay  imprisoned,  with 
the  intention  of  releasing  him  and  placing  him  on  the  throne. 
After  a  brief  attempt  at  resistance,  the  governor  fled,  and 
al-Shi'I  entered  the  city,  released  'Obaidallah  and  presented 
him  to  the  army  as  the  long-promised  Imam.  The  day  is  given 
as  the  26th  of  August  909.  'Obaidallah  had  been  in  prison 
more  than  three  years.  Whether  his  identity  with  the  Mahdi 
for  whom  al-Shi'I  had  been  fighting  was  known  to  the  governor 
of  Sijilmasa  is  uncertain.  If  it  was,  the  governor  and  his  master 
the  Aghlabite  sovereign  might  have  been  expected  to  make  use 
of  their  knowledge  and  outwit  al-Shi'I  by  putting  his  Mahdi 
to  death.  Opponents  of  the  Fatimites  assert  that  this  was 
actually  done,  and  that  the  Mahdi  presented  to  the  army  was 
not  the  real  'Obaidallah,  but  (as  usual)  a  Jewish  captive,  who 
had  been  suborned  to  play  the  r61e. 

The  chief  command  was  now  assumed  by  'Obaidallah,  who  took 
the  title  "  al-Mahdi,  Commander  of  the  Faithful,"  thereby 
claiming  the  headship  of  the  whole  Moslem  world:  Raqqada 


FATIMITES 


203 


was  at  the  first  made  the  seat  of  the  court,  and  the  Shl'ite 
doctrines  were  enforced  on  the  inhabitants,  not  without  en- 
countering some  opposition.  Revolts  which  arose  in  different 
parts  of  the  Aghlabite  kingdom  were,  however,  speedily  quelled. 

The  course  followed  by  'Obaidallah  in  governing  independently 
of  al-Shl'I  soon  led  to  dissatisfaction  on  the  part  of  the  latter, 
who,  urged  on  it  is  said  by  his  brother,  decided  to  dethrone 
their  Mahdl,  and  on  the  occasion  of  an  expedition  to  T6nes, 
which  al-Shl'I  commanded,  organized  a  conspiracy  with  that 
end.  The  conspiracy  was  betrayed  to  'Obaidallah,  who  took 
steps  to  defeat  it,  and  on  the  last  day  of  July  911  contrived 
to  assassinate  both  al-Shf  I  and  his  brother.  Thus  the  procedure 
which  had  characterized  the  accession  of  the  'Abbasid  dynasty 
was  repeated.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  these  assassina- 
tions lost  the  Fatimites  the  support  of  the  organization  that 
continued  to  exist  in  the  East,  whence  the  Carmathians  figure  as 
an  independent  and  even  hostile  community,  though  they  appear 
to  have  been  amenable  to  the  influence  of  the  African  caliph. 

'Obaidallah  had  now  to  face  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  tribes 
whose  allegiance  al-Shl'I  had  won,  especially  the  Kutama, 
Zenata  and  Lawata:  the  uprising  of  the  first  assumed  formidable 
proportions,  and  they  even  elected  a  Mahdi  of  their  own,  one 
Kadu  b.  Mu'arik  al-Mawati,  who  promulgated  a  new  revelation 
for  their  guidance.  They  were  finally  defeated  by  'Obaidallah's 
son  Abu'l-Qasim  Mahommed,  who  took  Constantine,  and 
succeeded  in  capturing  the  new  Mahdl,  whom  he  brought  to 
Raqqada.  Other  opponents  were  got  rid  of  by  'Obaidallah  by 
ruthless  executions.  By  the  middle  of  the  year  913  by  his  own 
and  his  son's  efforts  he  had  brought  his  kingdom  into  order. 
After  the  style  of  most  founders  of  dynasties  he  then  selected 
a  site  for  a  new  capital,  to  be  called  after  his  title  Mahdia  (q.v.), 
on  a  peninsula  called  Hamma  (Cape  Africa)  S.S.E.  of  Kairawan. 
Eight  years  were  spent  in  fortifying  this  place,  which  in  921 
was  made  the  capital  of  the  empire. 

After  defeating  internal  enemies  'Obaidallah  turned  his 
attention  to  the  remaining  'Abbasid  possessions  in  Africa,  and 
his  general  Habasah  b.  Yusuf  in  the  year  913  advanced  along 
the  northern  coast,  taking  various  places,  including  the  important 
town  of  Barca,  his  progress,  it  is  said,  being  marked  by  great 
cruelty.  He  then  advanced  towards  Egypt,  and  towards  the 
end  of  July  914,  being  reinforced  by  Abu'l-Qasim,  afterwards 
al-Qa'im,  entered  Alexandria.  The  danger  led  to  measures  of 
unusual  energy  being  taken  by  the  Bagdad  caliph  Moqtadir, 
an  army  being  sent  to  Egypt  under  Mu'nis,  and  a  special  post 
being  organized  between  that  country  and  Bagdad  to  convey 
messages  uninterruptedly.  The  Fatimite  forces  were  defeated, 
partly  owing  to  the  insubordination  of  the  general  Habasah, 
in  the  winter  of  914,  and  returned  to  Barca  and  Kairawan  with 
great  loss. 

A  second  expedition  was  undertaken  against  Egypt  in  the 
year  919,  and  on  the  loth  of  July  Alexandria  was  entered  by 
Abu'l-Qasim,  who  then  advanced  southward,  seizing  the  Fayum 
and  Ushmunain  (Eshmunain).  He  was  presently  reinforced  by 
a  fleet,  which,  however,  was  defeated  at  Rosetta  in  March  of 
the  year  920  by  a  fleet  despatched  from  Tarsus  by  the  'Abbasid 
caliph  Moqtadir,  most  of  the  vessels  being  burned.  Through 
the  energetic  measures  of  the  caliph,  who  sent  repeated  rein- 
forcements to  Fostat,  Abu'l-Qasim  was  compelled  in  the  spring 
of  921  to  evacuate  the  places  which  he  had  seized,  and  return 
to  the  west  with  the  remains  of  his  army,  which  had  suffered 
much  from  plague  as  well  as  defeat  on  the  field.  On  his  return 
he  found  that  the  court  had  migrated  from  Raqqada  to  the  new 
capital  Mahdia  (<?.».).  Meanwhile  other  expeditions  had  been 
despatched  by  'Obaidallah  towards  the  west,  and  Nekor  (Nakur) 
and  Fez  had  been  forced  to  acknowledge  his  sovereignty. 

The  remaining  years  of  'Obaidallah's  reign  were  largely 
spent  in  dealing  with  uprisings  in  various  parts  of  his  dominions, 
the  success  of  which  at  times  reduced  the  territory  in  which  he 
was  recognized  to  a  small  area. 

'Obaidallah  died  on  the  4th  of  March  933,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Abu'l-Qasim,  who  took  the  title  al-Qa'im  biamr  allah.  He 
immediately  after  his  accession  occupied  himself  with  the 


reconquest  of  Fez  and  Nekor,  which  had  revolted  during  the  last 
years  of  the  former  caliph.  He  also  despatched  a  fleet  under 
Ya'qiib  b.  Ishaq,  which  ravaged  the  coast  of  France,  took 
Genoa,  and  plundered  the  coast  of  Calabria  before  returning 
to  Africa.  A  third  attempt  made  by  him  to  take  Egypt  resulted 
in  a  disastrous  defeat  at  Dhat  al-Human,  after  which  the  remains 
of  the  expedition  retreated  in  disorder  to  Barca. 

The  later  years  of  the  reign  of  Qa'im  were  troubled  by  the 
uprising  of  Abu  Yazld  Makhlad  al-Zenati,  a  leader  who  during 
the  former  reign  had  acquired  a  following  among  the  tribes 
inhabiting  the  Jebel  Aures,  including  adherents  of  the  'Ibadl 
sect.  After  having  fled  for  a  time  to  Mecca,  this  person  returned 
in  937  to  Tauzar  (Touzer),  the  original  seat  of  his  operations, 
and  was  imprisoned  by  Qa'im's  order.  His  sons,  aided  by  the 
powerful  tribe  Zenata,  succeeded  in  forcing  the  prison,  and 
releasing  their  father,  who  continued  to  organize  a  conspiracy 
on  a  vast  scale,  and  by  the  end  of  943  was  strong  enough  to  take 
the  field  against  the  Fatimite  sovereign,  whom  he  drove  out  of 
Kairawan.  Abu  Yazld  proclaimed  himself  a  champion  of  Sunni 
doctrine  against  the  Shl'is,  and  ordered  the  legal  system  of 
Malik  to  be  restored  in  place  of  that  introduced  by  the  Fatimites. 
Apparently  the  doctrines  of  the  latter  has  as  yet  won  little 
popularity,  and  Abu  Yazld  won  an  enormous  following,  except 
among  the  Kutama,  who  remained  faithful  to  Qa'im.  On  the 
last  day  of  October  944,  an  engagement  was  fought  between 
Kairawan  and  Mahdia  at  a  place  called  al-Akhawan,  which 
resulted  in  the  rout  of  Qa'im's  forces,  and  the  caliph's  being 
shortly  after  shut  up  in  his  capital,  the  suburbs  of  which  he 
defended  by  a  trench.  Abu  Yazid's  forces  were  ill-suited  to 
maintain  a  protracted  siege,  and  since,  owing  to  the  former 
caliph's  forethought,  the  capital  was  in  a  condition  to  hold  out 
for  a  long  time,  many  of  them  deserted  and  the  besiegers  gained 
no  permanent  advantage.  After  the  siege  had  lasted  some 
ten  months  Abu  Yazld  was  compelled  to  raise  it  (September 
945);  the  struggle,  however,  did  not  end  with  that  event,  and 
for  a  time  the  caliph  and  Abu  Yazld  continued  to  fight  with 
varying  fortune,  while  anarchy  prevailed  over  most  of  the 
caliph's  dominions.  On  the  I3th  of  January  946,  Abu  Yazld 
shut  up  Qa'im's  forces  in  Susa  which  he  began  to  besiege,  and 
attempted  to  take  by  storm. 

On  the  i8th  of  May  945,  while  Abu  Yazld  was  besieging  Susa, 
the  caliph  ai-Qa'im  died  at  Mahdia,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Isma'll,  who  took  the  title  Mansur.  He  almost  immediately 
relieved  Susa  by  sending  a  fleet,  which  joining  with  the  garrison 
inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on  Abu  Yazld,  who  had  to  evacuate 
Kairawan  also;  but  though  the  cities  were  mainly  in  the  hands 
of  Fatimite  prefects,  Abu  Yazld  was  able  to  maintain  the  field 
for  more  than  two  years  longer,  while  his  followers  were  steadily 
decreasing  in  numbers,  and  he  was  repeatedly  driven  into  fast- 
nesses of  the  Sahara.  In  August  947  his  last  stronghold  was 
taken,  and  he  died  of  wounds  received  in  defending  it.  His 
sons  carried  on  some  desultory  warfare  against  Man§ur  after 
their  father's  death.  A  town  called  Mansura  or  Sabra  was 
built  adjoining  Kairawan  to  celebrate  the  decisive  victory  over 
Abu  Yazld,  which,  however,  did  not  long  preserve  its  name. 
The  exhausted  condition  of  north-west  Africa  due  to  the  pro- 
tracted civil  war  required  some  years  of  peace  for  recuperation, 
and  further  exploits  are  not  recorded  for  Mansur,  who  died  on 
the  igth  of  March  952. 

His  son,  Abu  Tamlm  Ma'add,  was  twenty-two  years  of  age  at 
the  time,  and  succeeded  his  father  with  the  title  Mo'izz  lidin 
allah.  His  authority  was  acknowledged  over  the  greater  part 
of  the  region  now  constituting  Morocco,  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  as 
well  as  Sicily,  and  he  appears  to  have  had  serious  thoughts  of 
endeavouring  to  annex  Spain.  At  an  early  period  in  his  reign  he 
made  Jauhar,  who  had  been  secretary  under  the  former  caliph, 
commander  of  the  forces,  and  the  services  rendered  by  this 
person  to  the  dynasty  made  him  count  as  its  second  founder 
after  al-Shl'I.  In  the  years  958  and  959  he  was  sent  westwards  to 
reduce  Fez  and  other  places  where  the  authority  of  the  Fatimite 
caliph  had  been  repudiated,  and  after  a  successful  expedition 
advanced  as  far  as  the  Atlantic.  As  early  as  966  the  plan  of 


204 


FAUBOURG— FAUCHER 


.  attempting  a  fresh  invasion  of  Egypt  was  conceived,  and  pre- 
parations made  for  its  execution;  but  it  was  delayed,  it  is  said 
at  the  request  of  the  caliph's  mother,  who  wished  to  make  a 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca  first;  and  her  honourable  treatment  by 
Kafur  when  she  passed  through  Egypt  induced  the  caliph  to 
postpone  the  invasion  till  that  sovereign's  death. 

In  August  972  Mo'izz  resolved  to  follow  Jauhar's  pressing 
invitation  to  enter  his  new  capital  Cairo.  With  his  arrival  there 
the  centre  of  the  Fatimite  power  was  transferred  from  Mahdia 
and  Kairawan  to  Egypt,  and  their  original  dominion  became 
a  province  called  al-Maghrib,  which  immediately  fell  into  the 
hands  of  a  hereditary  dynasty,  the  Zeirids,  acknowledging 
Fatimite  suzerainty.  The  first  sovereign  was  Bulukkin,  also 
called  Abu'l-Futuh  Yusuf,  appointed  by  Mo'izz  as  his  viceroy 
on  the  occasion  of  his  departure  for  Egypt:  separate  prefects 
were  appointed  for  Sicily  and  Tripoli;  and  at  the  first  the 
minister  of  finance  was  to  be  an  official  independent  of  the 
governor  of  the  Maghrib.  On  the  death  of  Bulukkin  in  984  he 
was  succeeded  by  a  son  who  took  the  royal  title  al-Mansur,  under 
whose  rule  an  attempt  was  made  by  the  Kutama,  instigated  by 
the  caliph,  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  the  Zeirids,  who  originated 
from  the  Sanhaja  tribe.  This  attempt  was  defeated  by  the  energy 
of  Mans.ur  in  988;  and  the  sovereignty  of  the  Fatimites  in  the 
Maghrib  became  more  and  more  confined  to  recognition  in  public 
prayer  and  on  coins,  and  the  payment  of  tribute  and  the  giving 
of  presents  to  the  viziers  at  Cairo.  The  fourth  ruler  of  the 
Zeirid  dynasty,  called  Mo'izz,  endeavoured  to  substitute  '  Abbasid 
suzerainty  for  Fatimite:  his  land  was  invaded  by  Arab  colonies 
sent  by  the  Fatimite  caliph,  with  whom  in  1051  Mo'izz  fought  a 
decisive  engagement,  after  which  the  dominion  of  the  Zeirids 
was  restricted  to  the  territory  adjoining  Mahdia;  a  number  of 
smaller  kingdoms  rising  up  around  them.  The  Zeirids  were  finally 
overthrown  by  Roger  II.  of  Sicily  in  1 148. 

After  the  death  of  al-Adid,  the  last  Fatimite  caliph  in  Egypt, 
some  attempts  were  made  to  place  on  the  throne  a  member  of 
the  family,  and  at  one  time  there  seemed  a  chance  of  the  Assassins, 
who  formed  a  branch  of  the  Fatimite  sect,  assisting  in  this  project. 
In  1174  a  conspiracy  for  the  restoration  of  the  dynasty  was 
organized  by  "Umarah  of  Yemen,  a  court  poet,  with  the  aid  of 
eight  officials  of  the  government:  it  was  discovered  and  those 
who  were  implicated  were  executed.  Two  persons  claiming 
Fatimite  descent  took  the  royal  titles  al-Mo'tasim  biljah  and 
al-Hamid  lillah  in  the  years  1175  and  1176  respectively;  and 
as  late  as  1192  we  hear  of  pretenders  in  Egypt.  Some  members 
of  the  family  are  traceable  till  near  the  end  of  the  7th  century 
of  Islam. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Fatimites  as  a  sect,  apart  from  their 
claim  to  the  sovereignty  in  Islam,  are  little  known,  and  we 
are  not  justified  in  identifying  them  with  those  of  the  Assassins, 
the  Carmathians  or  the  Druses,  though  all  these  sects  are 
connected  with  them  in  origin.  A  famous  account  is  given  by 
Maqrizi  of  a  system  of  education  by  which  the  neophyte  had 
doubts  gently  instilled  into  his  mind  till  he  was  prepared  to 
have  the  allegorical  meaning  of  the  Koran  set  before  him,  and  to 
substitute  some  form  of  natural  for  revealed  religion.  In  most 
accounts  of  the  early  days  of  the  community  it  is  stated  that  the 
permission  of  wine-drinking  and  h'centiousness,  and  the  com- 
munity of  wives  and  property  formed  part  of  its  tenets.  There 
is  little  in  the  recorded  practice  of  the  Fatimite  state  to  confirm 
or  justify  these  assertions;  and  they  appear  to  have  differed 
from  orthodox  Moslems  rather  in  small  details  of  ritual  and  law 
than  in  deep  matters  of  doctrine. 

AUTHORITIES.— F.  Wiistenfeld,  Geschichte  der  Fatimiden  Chalifen 
(Gottingen,  1881);  E.  Mercier,  Histoire  de  I'Afrique  Septentrionale 
(Paris,  1888) ;  M.  J.  de  Goeje,  Memoirs  sur  Us  Carmathes  de  Bahrain 
et  Us  Fatimides  (2nd  ed.,  Leiden,  1886);  P.  Casanova,  "  Memoire 
sur  les  derniers  Fatimides,"  Mem.  Miss,  archeologique  au  Caire, 
vol.  vi. ;  for  the  lives  of  'Obaidallah  and  Abu  Yazid,  Cherbonneau  in 
the  Journal  Asiatique,  ser.  iv.  vol.  20,  and  ser.  v.  vol.  5.  See  also 
EGYPT:  History,  sect.  Mahommedan.  (D.  S.  M.*) 

FAUBOURG,  the  French  name  for  a  portion  of  a  town  which 
lies  outside  the  walls,  hence  properly  a  suburb.  The  name 
survives  in  certain  parts  of  Paris,  such  as  the  Faubourg  St 


Antoine,  and  the  Faubourg  St  Germain,  &c.,  which  have  long 
since  ceased  to  be  suburbs  and  have  become  portions  of  the 
town  itself.  The  origin  of  the  word  is  doubtful.  The  earlier 
spelling  faux-bourg,  and  the  occurrence  in  medieval  Latin  of 
jalsus-burgus  (see  Ducange,  Glossarium,  s.v.  "  Falsus-Burgus  "), 
was  taken  as  showing  its  obvious  origin  and  meaning,  the  sham 
or  quasi-borough.  The  generally  accepted  derivation  is  from 
fors,  outside  (Lat.  foris,  outside  the  gates),  and  bourg.  It  is 
suggested  that  the  word  is  the  French  adaptation  of  the  Ger. 
Pfahlburger,  the  burghers  of  the  pale,  i.a.  outside  the  walls 
but  within  the  pale. 

FAUCES  (a  Latin  plural  word  for  "  throat  ";  the  singular 
faux  is  rarely  found),  in  anatomy,  the  hinder  part  of  the  mouth, 
which  leads  into  the  pharynx;  also  an  architectural  term  given 
by  Vitruvius  to  narrow  passages  on  either  side  of  the  tablinum, 
through  which  access  could  be  obtained  from  the  atrium  to  the 
peristylar  court  in  the  rear. 

FAUCHER,  LEONARD  JOSEPH  [LEON]  (1803-1854),  French 
politician  and  economist,  was  born  at  Limoges  on  the  8th  of 
September  1803.  When  he  was  nine  years  old  the  family 
removed  to  Toulouse,  -where  the  boy  was  sent  to  school.  His 
parents  were  separated  in  1816,  and  Leon  Faucher,  who  resisted 
his  father's  attempts  to  put  him  to  a  trade,  helped  to  support 
himself  and  his  mother  during  the  rest  of  his  school  career  by 
designing  embroidery  and  needlework.  As  a  private  tutor  in 
Paris  he  continued  his  studies  in  the  direction  of  archaeology 
and  history,  but  with  the  revolution  of  1830  he  was  drawn  into 
active  political  journalism  on  the  Liberal  side.  He  was  on  the 
staff  of  the  Temps  from  1830  to  1833,  when  he  became  editor 
of  the  Constitutionnel  for  a  short  time.  A  Sunday  journal  of 
his  own,  Le  Bien  public,  proved  a  disastrous  financial  failure; 
and  his  poh'tical  independence  having  caused  his  retirement 
from  the  Constitutionnel,  he  joined  in  1834  the  Courrier  fran^ais, 
of  which  he  was  editor  from  1839  until  1842,  when  the  paper 
changed  hands.  Faucher  belonged  in  policy  to  the  dynastic 
Left,  and  consistently  preached  moderation  to  the  more  ardent 
Liberals.  On  resigning  his  connexion  with  the  Courrier  franc.ais 
he  gave  his  attention  chiefly  to  economic  questions.  He  advo- 
cated a  customs  union  between  the  Latin  countries  to  counter- 
balance the  German  Zollverein,  and  in  view  of  the  impractic- 
ability of  such  a  measure  narrowed  his  proposal  in  1842  to  a 
customs  union  between  France  and  Belgium.  In  1843  he  visited 
England  to  study  the  English  social  system,  publishing  the 
results  of  his  investigations  in  a  famous  series  of  Etudes  sur 
I'Angleterre  (2  vols.,  1845),  published  originally  in  the  Revue 
des  deux  mondes.  He  helped  to  organize  the  Bordeaux  associa- 
tion for  free-trade  propaganda,  and  it  was  as  an  advocate  of 
free  trade  that  he  was  elected  in  1847  to  the  chamber  of  deputies 
for  Reims.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  entered  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  for  the  department  of  Marne,  where  he 
opposed  many  Republican  measures — the  limitation  of  the  hours 
of  labour,  the  creation  of  the  national  relief  works  in  Paris, 
the  abolition  of  the  death  penalty  and  others.  Under  the 
presidency  of  Louis  Napoleon  he  became  minister  of  public 
works,  and  then  minister  of  the  interior,  but  his  action  in  seeking 
to  influence  the  coming  elections  by  a  circular  letter  addressed 
to  the  prefects  was  censured  by  the  Constituent  Assembly, 
and  he  was  compelled  to  resign  office  on  the  i4th  of  May  1849. 
In  1851  he  was  again  minister  of  the  interior  until  Napoleon 
declared  his  intention  of  resorting  to  universal  suffrage.  After 
the  coup  d'etat  of  December  he  refused  a  seat  in  the  consultative 
commission  instituted  by  Napoleon.  He  had  been  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Science  in  1849, 
and  his  retirement  from  politics  permitted  a  return  to  his  writings 
on  economics.  He  had  been  to  Italy  in  search  of  health  in  1854, 
and  was  returning  to  Paris  on  business  when  he  was  seized  by 
typhoid  at  Marseilles,  where  he  died  on  the  i4th  of  December 
1854. 

His  miscellaneous  writings  were  collected  (2  vols.,  1856)  as 
Melanges  d'economie  politique  et  de  finance,  and  his  speeches  in  the 
legislature  are  printed  in  vol.  ii.  of  Leon  Faucher,  biographic  et 
correspondance  (2  vols.,  2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1875). 


FAUCHET— FAUJAS  DE  SAINT-FOND 


205 


FAUCHET,  CLAUDE  (1530-1601),  French  historian  and 
antiquary,  was  born  at  Paris  on  the  3rd  of  July  1530.  Of  his 
early  life  few  particulars  are  known.  He  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  early  French  chroniclers,  and  proposed  to  publish 
extracts  which  would  throw  light  on  the  first  periods  of  the 
monarchy.  During  the  civil  wars  he  lost  a  large  part  of  his 
books  and  manuscripts  in  a  riot,  and  was  compelled  to  leave 
Paris.  He  then  settled  at  Marseilles.  Attaching  himself  after- 
wards to  Cardinal  de  Tournon,  he  accompanied  him  in  1554 
to  Italy,  whence  he  was  several  times  sent  on  embassies  to  the 
king,  with  reports  on  the  siege  of  Siena.  His  services  at  length 
procured  him  the  post  of  president  of  the  chambre  des  monnaies, 
and  thus  enabled  him  to  resume  his  literary  studies.  Having 
become  embarrassed  with  debt,  he  found  it  necessary,  at  the 
age  of  seventy,  to  sell  his  office;  but  the  king,  amused  with  an 
epigram,  gave  him  a  pension,  with  the  title  of  historiographer 
of  France.  Fauchet  has  the  reputation  of  an  impartial  and 
scrupulously  accurate  writer;  and  in  his  works  are  to  be  found 
important  facts  not  easily  accessible  elsewhere.  He  was, however, 
entirely  uncritical,  and  his  style  is  singularly  inelegant.  His 
principal  works  (1579,  1599)  treat  of  Gaulish  and  French  anti- 
quities, of  the  dignities  and  magistrates  of  France,  of  the 
origin  of  the  French  language  and  poetry,  of  the  liberties  of  the 
Gallican  church,  &c.  A  collected  edition  was  published  in  1610. 
Fauchet  took  part  in  a  translation  of  the  Annals  of  Tacitus 
(1582).  He  died  at  Paris  about  the  close  of  1601. 

FAUCHET,  CLAUDE  (1744-1793),  French  revolutionary 
bishop,  was  born  at  Domes  (Nievre)  on  the  22nd  of  September 
1744.  He  was  a  curate  of  the  church  of  St  Roch,  Paris,  when 
he  was  engaged  as  tutor  to  the  children  of  the  marquis  of  Choiseul, 
brother  of  Louis  XV. 's  minister,  an  appointment  which  proved 
to  be  the  first  step  to  fortune.  He  was  successively  grand  vicar 
to  the  archbishop  of  Bourges,  preacher  to  the  king,  and  abbot 
of  Montfort-Lacarre.  The  "  philosophic  "  tone  of  his  sermons 
caused  his  dismissal  from  court  in  1788  before  he  became  a 
popular  speaker  in  the  Parisian  sections.  He  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  attack  on  the  Bastille,  and  on  the  5th  of  August 
1789  he  delivered  an  eloquent  discourse  by  way  of  funeral 
sermon  for  the  citizens  slain  on  the  i4th  of  July,  taking  as  his 
text  the  words  of  St  Paul,  "  Ye  have  been  called  to  liberty." 
He  blessed  the  tricolour  flag  for  the  National  Guard,  and  in 
September  was  elected  to  the  Commune,  from  which  he  retired 
in  October  1790.  During  the  next  winter  he  organized  within 
the  Palais  Royal  the  "  Social  Club  of  the  Society  of  the  Friends 
of  Truth,"  presiding  over  crowded  meetings  under  the  self- 
assumed  title  of  procureur  general  de  la  verite.  Nevertheless, 
events  were  marching  faster  than  his  opinions,  and  the  last 
occasion  on  which  he  carried  his  public  with  him  was  in  a  sermon 
preached  at  Notre  Dame  on  the  i4th  of  February  1791.  In 
May  he  became  constitutional  bishop  of  Calvados,  and  was 
presently  returned  by  the  department  to  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  and  afterwards  to  the  Convention.  At  the  king's 
trial  he  voted  for  the  appeal  to  the  people  and  for  the  penalty 
of  imprisonment.  He  protested  against  the  execution  of  Louis 
XVI.  in  the  Journal  des  amis  (January  26,  1793),  and  next 
month  was  denounced  to  the  Convention  for  prohibiting  married 
priests  from  the  exercise  of  the  priesthood  in  his  diocese.  He 
remained  secretary  to  the  Convention  until  the  accusation  of 
the  Girondists  in  May  1 793.  In  July  he  was  imprisoned  on  the 
charge  of  supporting  the  federalist  movement  at  Caen,  and  of 
complicity  with  Charlotte  Corday,  whom  he  had  taken  to  see 
a  sitting  of  the  Convention  on  her  arrival  in  Paris.  Of  the 
second  of  these  charges  he  was  certainly  innocent.  With  the 
Girondist  deputies  he  was  brought  before  the  revolutionary 
tribunal  on  the  3Oth  of  October,  and  was  guillotined  on  the 
following  day. 

See  Memoires  .  .  .  ou  Lettres  de  Claude  Fauchet  (sth  ed.,  1793) ; 
Notes  sur  Claude  Fauchet  (Caen,  1842). 

FAUCIT,  HELENA  SAVILLE  (1817-1898),  English  actress, 
the  daughter  of  John  Saville  Faucit,  an  actor,  was  born  in  London. 
Her  first  London  appearance  was  made  on  the  sth  of  January 
1836  at  Covent  Garden  as  Julia  in  The  Hunchback.  Her  success 


in  this  was  so  definitely  confirmed  by  her  subsequent  acting 
of  Juliet,  Lady  Teazle,  Beatrice,  Imogen  and  Hermione,  that 
within  eighteen  months  she  was  engaged  by  Macready  as  leading 
lady  at  Covent  Garden.  There,  besides  appearing  in  several 
Shakespearian  characters,  she  created  the  heroine's  part  in 
Lytton's  Duchess  de  la  Valliere  (1836),  Lady  of  Lyons  (1838), 
Richelieu  (1839),  The  Sea  Captain  (1839),  Money  (1840),  and 
Browning's  Slrajford  (1837).  After  a  visit  to  Paris  and  a  short 
season  at  the  Haymarket,  she  joined  the  Drury  Lane  company 
under  Macready  early  in  1842.  There  she  played  Lady  Macbeth, 
Constance  in  King  John,  Desdemona  and  Imogen,  and  took 
part  in  the  first  production  of  Westland  Marston's  Patrician's 
Daughter  (1842)  and  Browning's  Blot  on  t/te  Scutclieon  (1843). 
Among  her  successful  tours  was  included  a  visit  to  Paris  in  1844- 
1845,  where  she  acted  with  Macready  in  several  Shakespearian 
plays.  In  1851  she  was  married  to  Mr  (afterwards  Sir)  Theodore 
Martin,  but  still  acted  occasionally  for  charity.  One  of  her  last 
appearances  was  as  Beatrice,  on  the  opening  of  the  Shakespeare 
Memorial  at  Stratford-on-Avon  on  the  23rd  of  April  1879. 
In  i88r  there  appeared  in  Blackwood's  Magazine  the  first  of  her 
Letters  on  some,  of  Shakespeare's  Heroines,  which  were  published 
in  book  form  as  On  Some  of  Shakespeare's  Female  Characters 
(1885).  Lady  Martin  died  at  her  home  near  Llangollen  in  Wales 
on  the  3ist  of  October  1898.  There  is  a  tablet  to  her  in  the 
Shakespeare  Memorial  with  a  portrait  figure,  and  the  marble 
pulpit  in  the  Shakespeare  church — with  her  portrait  as  Saint 
Helena — was  given  in  her  memory  by  her  husband. 
See  Sir  Theodore  Martin's  Helena  Faucit  (1900). 

FAUJAS  DE  SAINT-FOND,  BARTH^LEMY  (1741-1819), 
French  geologist  and  traveller,  was  born  at  Montelimart  on  the 
I7th  of  May  T74i.  He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuits'  College  at 
Lyons;  afterwards  he  went  to  Grenoble,  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  law,  and  was  admitted  advocate  to  the  parliament. 
He  rose  to  be  president  of  the  seneschal's  court  (1765),  a  post 
which  he  honourably  filled,  but  the  duties  of  which  became 
irksome,  as  he  had  early  developed  a  love  of  nature  and  his 
favourite  relaxation  was  found  in  visits  to  the  Alps.  There  he 
began  to  study  the  forms,  structure,  composition  and  super- 
position of  rocks.  In  1775  he  discovered  in  the  Velay  a  rich 
deposit  of  pozzuolana,  which  in  due  course  was  worked  by  the 
government.  In  1776  he  put  himself  in  communication  with 
Buffon,  who  was  not  slow  to  perceive  the  value  of  his  labours. 
Invited  by  Buffon  to  Paris,  he  quitted  the  law,  and  was  appointed 
by  Louis  XVI.  assistant  naturalist  to  the  museum,  to  which  office 
was  added  some  years  later  (1785,  1788)  that  of  royal  commis- 
sioner for  mines.  One  of  the  most  important  of  his  works  was  the 
Recherches  sur  les  volcans  eteints  du  Vivarais  et  du  Velay,  which 
appeared  in  1778.  In  this  work,  rich  in  facts  and  observations, 
he  developed  his  theory  of  the  origin  of  volcanoes.  In  his 
capacity  of  commissioner  for  mines  Faujas  travelled  in  almost 
all  the  countries  of  Europe,  everywhere  devoting  attention  to 
the  nature  and  constituents  of  the  rocks.  It  was  he  who  first 
recognized  the  volcanic  nature  of  the  basaltic  columns  of  the 
cave  of  Fingal  (Staffa),  although  the  island  was  visited  in  1772 
by  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  who  remarked  that  the  stone  "  is  a  coarse 
kind  of  Basalles,  very  much  resembling  the  Giants'  Causeway 
in  Ireland  "  (Pennant's  Tour  in  Scotland  and  Voyage  to  the 
Hebrides).  Faujas's  Voyage  en  Angleterre,  en  £,cosse  et  aux  lies 
Hebrides  (1797)  is  full  of  interest — containing  anecdotes  of  Sir 
Joseph  Banks  and  Dr  John  Whitehurst,  and  an  amusing  account 
of  "  The  Dinner  of  an  Academic  Club  "  (the  Royal  Society),  and 
has  been  translated  into  English  (2  vols.,  1799).  Having  been 
nominated  in  1 793  professor  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  he  held 
this  post  till  he  was  nearly  eighty  years  of  age,  retiring  in  1818 
to  his  estate  of  Saint-Fond  in  Dauphine.  Faujas  took  a  warm 
interest  in  the  balloon  experiments  of  the  brothers  Montgolfier, 
and  published  a  very  complete  Description  des  experiences  de  la 
machine  aerostalique  de  MM.  Montgolfier,  &c.  (1783,  1784). 
He  contributed  many  scientific  memoirs  to  the  Annales  and  the 
Memoires  of  the  museum  of  natural  history.  Among  his  separate 
works,  in  addition  to  those  already  named  are — Histoire  naturelle 
de  la  province  de  Dauphine  (1781,  1782);  Mineralogie  des  volcans 


206 


FAULT 


(1784);  and  Essai  de  geologic  (1803-1809).  Faujas  died  on  the 
i8th  of  July  1819. 

FAULT  (Mid.  Eng.faule,  through  the  French,  from  the  popular 
Latin  use  oifallere,  to  fail;  the  original  /of  the  Latin  being  replaced 
in  English  in  the  i5th  century),  a  failing,  mistake  or  defect. 

In  geology,  the  term  is  given  to  a  plane  of  dislocation  in  a 
portion  of  the  earth's  crust;  synonyms  used  in  mining  are 
"  trouble,"  "  throw  "  and  "  heave  ";  the  German  equivalent 
is  Verwerfung,  and  the  French  faille.  Faults  on  a  small  scale  are 

sometimes       sharply- 
defined  planes,1  as  if 
the    rocks    had    been 
sliced    through      and 
together   again 
being     shifted 
i).       In     such 
however,     the 
harder  portions  of  the 
dislocated    rocks    will 
usually  be    found 
"slickensided."   More 
frequently   some   dis- 

FIG.  L-Section  of  clean-cut  fault.          turbance  has  occurred 

on  one  or  both  sides 

of  the  fault.  Sometimes  in  a  series  of  strata  the  beds  on  the  side 
which  has  been  pushed  up'  are  bent  down  against  the  fault,  while 
those  on  the  opposite  side  are  bent  up  (fig.  2).  Most  commonly 


fitted 
after 

(fig- 
cases, 


FIG.  2. — Section  of  strata,  bent  at  a  line  of  fault. 

the  rocks  on  both  sides  are  considerably  broken,  jumbled  and 
crumpled,  so  that  the  line  of  fracture  is  marked  by  a  belt  or  wall- 
like  mass  of  fragmentary  rock,  fault-rock,  which  may  be  several 
yards  in  breadth.  Faults  are  to  be  distinguished  from  joints 
and  fissures  by  the  fact  that  there  must  have  been  a  movement 
of  the  rock  on  one  side  of  the  fault-plane  relatively  to  that  on  the 
other  side.  The  trace  of  a  fault-plane  at  the  surface  of  the  earth 
is  a  line  (or  belt  of  fault-rock),  which  in  geological  mapping  is 
often  spoken  of  as  a  "  fault-line  "  or  "  line  of  fault."  Fig.  3 


FIG.  3. — Plan  of  simple  fault. 

represents  the  plan  of  a  simple  fault;  quite  frequently,  however, 
the  main  fault  subdivides  at  the  extremities  into  a  number  of 
minor  faults  (fig.  4),  or  the  main  fault  may  be  accompanied  by 


FIG.  4. — Plan  of  a  fault  splitting  into  minor  faults. 

lateral  subordinate  faults  (fig.  5),  some  varieties  of  which  have 
been  termed  flaws  or  Blatts. 

"  Fault-planes  "are  sometimes  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  but 
more  usually  they  are  inclined  at  a  greater  or  lesser  angle.  The 
angle  made  by  the  fault-plane  with  the  vertical  is  the  hade  of  the 

1  The  fault-plane  is  not  a  plane  surface  in  the  mathematical  sense; 
it  may  curve  irregularly  in  more  than  one  direction. 


fault  (if  the  angle  of  inclination  were  measured  from  the  horizon, 
as  in  determining  the  "  dip  "  of  strata,  this  would  be  expressed 
as  the  "  dip  of  the  fault  ").  In  figs,  i  and  2  the  faults  are  hading 


FIG.  5. — Plan  of  main  fault,  with  branches. 

towards  the  right  of  the  reader.  The  amount  of  dislocation  as 
measured  along  a  fault-plane  is  the  displacement  of  the  fault 
(for  an  illustration  of  these  terms  see  fig.  18,  where  they  are 
applied  to  a  thrust  fault) ;  the  vertical  displacement  is  the  throw 
(Fr.  rejet)  •  the  horizontal  displacement,  which  even  with  vertical 
movement  must  arise  in  all  cases  where  the  faults  are  not  per- 
pendicular to  the  horizon  and  the  strata  are  not  horizontal, 
is  known  as  the  heave.  In  fig.  6  the  displacement  is  equal  to  the 
throw  in  the  fault  A;  in  the  fault  B  the  displacement  is  more  than 


FIG.  6.— Section  of  a  vertical  and  inclined  fault. 

twice  as  great  as  in  A,  while  the  throw  is  the  same  in  both;  the 
fault  A  has  no  heave,  in  B  it  is  considerable.  The  rock  on  that 
side  of  a  fault  which  has  dropped  relatively  to  the  rock  on  the 
other  is  said  to  be  upon  the  downthrow  side  of  the  fault;  con- 
versely, the  relatively  uplifted  portion  is  the  upthrow  side. 
The  two  fault  faces  are  known  as  the  "  hanging-wall  "  and  the 
"  foot- wall." 

The  relationship  that  exists  between  the  hade  and  the  direction 
of  throw  has  led  to  the  classification  of  faults  into  "  normal 
faults,"  which  hade  under  the  downthrow  side,  or  in  other 
words,  those  in  which  the  hanging- wall  has  dropped;  and 
"  reversed  faults,"  which  hade  beneath  the  upthrow  side,  that 
is  to  say,  the  foot-wall  exhibits  a  relative  sinking.  Normal 
faults  are  exemplified  in  figs,  i,  2,  and  6;  in  the  latter  the 
masses  A  and  B  are  on  the  downthrow  sides,  C  is  upthrown. 
Fig.  7  represents  a  small  reversed  fault.  Normal  faults  are 


FIG.  7. — Reversed  fault,  Liddesdale. 

so  called  because  they  are  more  generally  prevalent  than  the  other 
type;  they  are  sometimes  designated  "  drop  "  or  "  gravity  " 
faults,  but  these  are  misleading  expressions  and  should  be 
discountenanced.  Normal  faults  are  regarded  as  the  result  of 
stretching  of  the  crust,  hence  they  have  been  called  "  tension  " 
faults  as  distinguished  from  reversed  faults,  which  are  assumed 
to  be  due  to  pressure.  It  is  needful,  however,  to  exercise  great 
caution  in  accepting  this  view  except  in  a  restricted  and  localized 
sense,  for  there  are  many  instances  in  which  the  two  forms  are 
intimately  associated  (see  fig.  8),  and  a  whole  complex  system 
of  faults  may  be  the  result  of  horizontal  (tangential)  pressure 
alone  or  even  of  direct  vertical  uplift.  It  is  often  tacitly  assumed 


FAULT 


207 


that  most  normal  and  reversed  faults  are  due  to  simple  vertical 
movements  of  the  fractured  crust-blocks;  but  this  is  by  no  means 
the  case.  What  is  actually  observed  in  examining  a  fault  is 
the  apparent  direction  of  motion;  but  the  present  position  of 
the  dislocated  masses  is  the  result  of  real  motion  or  series  of 


FIG.  8. — Diagram  of  gently  undulating  strata  cut  by  a  fault, 
with  alternate  throw  in  opposite  directions. 

motions,  which  have  taken  place  along  the  fault-plane  at  various 
angles  from  horizontal  to  vertical;  frequently  it  can  be  shown 
that  these  movements  have  been  extremely  complicated.  The 
striations  and  "  slickensides  "  on  the  faces  of  a  fault  indicate 
only  the  direction  of  the  last  movement. 


FIG.  9. — Section  of  strata  cut  by  step  faults. 

A  broad  monoclinal  fold  is  sometimes  observed  to  pass  into 
a  fault  of  gradually  increasing  throw;  such  a  fault  is  occasionally 
regarded  as  pivoted  at  one  end.  Again,  -a  faulted  mass  may  be 
on  the  downthrow  side  towards  one  end,  and  on  the  upthrow 
side  towards  the  other,  the  movement  having  taken  place  about 


FIG.   10. — Trough  faults. 

an  axis  approximately  normal  to  the  fault-plane,  the  "  pivot  " 
in  this  case  being  near  the  centre.  From  an  example  of  this 
kind  it  is  evident  that  the  same  fault  may  at  the  same  time  be 
both  "  normal  "  and  "  reversed  "  (see  fig.  8).  When  the  principal 
movement  along  a  highly  inclined  fault-plane  has  been  approxi- 


VarfA, 


South 

FIG.  11. — Plan  of  a  strike  fault. 

mately  horizontal,  the  fault  has  been  variously  styled  a  lateral- 
shift,  transcurrent  fault,  transverse  thrust  or  a  heave  fault.  The 
horizontal  component  in  faulting  movements  is  more  common 
than  is  often  supposed. 


A  single  normal  fault  of  large  throw  is  sometimes  replaced 
by  a  series  of  close  parallel  faults,  each  throwing  a  small  amount 
in  the  same  direction;  if  these  subordinate  faults  occur  within 
a  narrow  width  of  ground  they  are  known  as  distribution  faults; 
if  they  are  more  widely  separated  they  are  called  step  faults 
(fig.   9).     Occasionally 
two  normal  faults 
hade   towards    one 
another  and  intersect, 
and    the    rock    mass 
between  them   hass 
been  let  down;  this  is' 
described   as  a  trough' 
fault  (fig.  10).    A  fault 
running     parallel     to 
the   strike   of   bedded 
rocks  is  a  strike  fault; 
one  which  runs  along 
the    direction    of    the  FIG.  12. — Sectionacrosstheplan.fig.il. 
dip  is  a  dip  fault;  a 

so-called  diagonal  fault  takes  a  direction  intermediate  between 
these  two  directions.  Although  the  effects  of  these  types  of 
fault  upon  the  outcrops  of  strata  differ,  there  are  no  intrinsic 
differences  between  the  faults  themselves. 

The  effect  of  normal  faults  upon  the  outcrop  may  be  thus 
briefly  summarized: — a  strike  fault  that  hades  with  the  direction 
of  the  dip  may  cause  beds  to  be  cut  out  at  the  surface  on  the 

~B 


FIG.  13. — Plan  of  strata  cut  by  a  dip  fault. 

upthrow  side;  if  it  hades  against  the  dip  direction  it  may  repeat 
some  of  the  beds  on  the  upthrow  side  (figs,  n  and  12).  With 
dip  faults  the  crop  is  carried  forward  (down  the  dip)  on  the 
upthrow  side.  The  perpendicular  distance  between  the  crop 
of  the  bed  (dike  or  vein)  on  opposite  sides  of  the  fault  is  the 
"  offset."  The  offset  decreases  with  increasing  angle  of  dip 
and  increases  with  increase  in  the  throw  of  the  fault  (fig.  13). 


FIG.  14. — Plan  of  strata  traversed  by  a  diminishing  strike  fault. 

Faults  which  run  obliquely  across  the  direction  of  dip,  if  they 
hade  with  the  dip  of  the  strata,  will  produce  offset  with  "  gap  " 
between  the  outcrops;  if  they  hade  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  the  dip,  offset  with  "  overlap  "  is  caused:  in  the  latter  case 
the  crop  moves  forward  (down  dip)  on  the  denuded  upthrow 
side,  in  the  former  it  moves  backward.  The  effect  of  a  strike 
fault  of  diminishing  throw  is  seen  in  fig.  14.  Faults  crossing 
folded  strata  cause  the  outcrops  to  approach  on  the  upthrow 
side  of  a  syncline  and  tend  to  separate  the  outcrops  of  an  anti- 
cline (figs.  15,  16,  17). 

In  the  majority  of  cases  the  upthrown  side  of  a  fault  has  been 
so  reduced  by  denudation  as  to  leave  no  sharp  upstanding 
ridge;  but  examples  are  known  where  the  upthrown  side  still 


208 


FAULT 


exists  as  a  prominent  cliff -like  face  of  rock,  a  "fault-scarp"; 
familiar  instances  occur  in  the  Basin  ranges  of  Utah,  Nevada,  &c., 
and  many  smaller  examples  have  been  observed  in  the  areas 
affected  by  recent  earthquakes  in  Japan,  San  Francisco  and 
other  places.  But  although  there  may  be  no  sharp  cliff,  the 
effect  of  faulting  upon  topographic  forms  is  abundantly  evident 

wherever       a       harder 
series  of  strata  has  been 

__  brought    in    juxtaposi- 

• -V_-s  tion  to  softer  rocks. 

By    certain     French 
s  writers,  the  upstanding 

side  of  a  faulted  piece 
..   of    ground    is    said    to 
--•,.-''  have  a  regard,  thus  the 

'"  faults   of   the    Jura 

A  Mountains   have    a 
"  regard  franfais,"  and 


so-    li 

t 


t"' 
i  // 


L 


FIG.  15. — Plan  of  an  anticline  (A)  and 
syncline  (S),  dislocated  by  a  fault. 


in  the  same  region  it 
has  been  observed  that 
in  curved  faults  the 
convexity  is  directed 
the  same  way  as  the 
regard.  Occasionally 
one  or  more  parallel 

faults  have  let  down  an  intervening  strip  of  rock,  thereby  form- 
ing "fault  valleys"  or  Graben  (Grabensenken) ;  the  Great  Rift 
Valley  is  a  striking  example.  On  the  other  hand,  a  large  area  of 
rock  is  sometimes  lifted  up,  or  surrounded  by  a  system  of  faults, 

which  have  let  down  the 

/'.Vx>  encircling   ground;    such 

/  /    \  \  a   fault-block    is    known 

.  //          <V»NA  a'so   as   a   horst;   a  con- 

\          **•'•'       A      \  V«*         siderable  area  of  Green- 

**••  u      ;'  .•'         u         '»  \     «      land   stands   up   in   this 

manner. 

Faults  have  often  an 
important  influence  upon 
water-supply  by  bringing 
impervious  beds  up 
against  pervious  ones  or 

vice  versa,  thus  forming  underground  dams  or  reservoirs,  or 
allowing  water  to  flow  away  that  would  otherwise  be  conserved. 
Springs  often  rise  along  the  outcrop  of  a  fault.  In  coal  and  metal 


FIG.  16. — Section  along  the  upcast  side 
of  the  fault  in  fig.  15. 


mining  it  is  evident  from  what  has  already  been  said  that  faults 
must  act  sometimes  beneficially,  sometimes  the  reverse.  It  is  a 
common  occurrence  for  fault-fissures  and  fault-rock  to  appear 
as  valuable  mineral  lodes  through  the  infilling  or  impregnation 
of  the  spaces  and  broken  ground  with  mineral  ores. 

In  certain  regions  which  have  been  subjected  to  very  great 
crustal    disturbance   a 
type  of  fault  is  found 
which  possesses  a  very 

low    hade — sometimes    i. 

only    a    few    degrees 
from  the  horizontal — 


rf 


FIG.  17. — Section  along  the  downcast 
side  of  same  fault. 


and,    like    a    reversed 

fault,    hades    beneath 

the    upthrown    mass; 

these    are    termed 

thrusts,   overthrusts ,   or 

overthrust  faults   (Fr.   recouvrements,  failles   de   chevauchement, 

charriages;  Ger.  (jberschiebungen,  Ubersprunge,  Wechsel,  Fallen- 

•oerwerfungen) .     Thrusts  should  not  be  confused  with  reversed 

faults,  which  have  a  strong  hade.     Thrusts  play  a  very  important 


FIG.   1 8. — Diagram  to  illustrate  the  terminology  of  faults 
and  thrusts. 

part  in  the  N.W.  highlands  of  Scotland,  the  Scandinavian  high- 
lands, the  western  Alps,  the  Appalachians,  the  Belgian  coal  region, 
&c.  By  the  action  of  thrusts  enormous  masses  of  rock  have  been 
pushed  almost  horizontally  over  underlying  rocks,  in  some  cases 
for  several  miles.  One  of  the  largest  of  the  Scandinavian  thrust 


N.W. 


Damn 


Sangomort 


***  /-.... 


Kylt  ofPuntett 


Meall  Meadhonach 


,-F 


Scale,  i  inch  =  1)4  miles 
F«  Hornal  fault 


***£•& 
FIG.   19. — Section  of  a  very  large  thrust  in  the  Durness  Eriboll  district,  Scotland. 


FAUNA— FAURE 


209 


masses  is  1120  m.  long,  80  m.  broad,  and  5000  ft.  thick. 
In  Scotland  three  grades  of  thrusts  are  recognized,  maximum, 
major,  and  minor  thrusts;  the  last  have  very  generally  been 
truncated  by  those  of  greater  magnitude.  Some  of  these  great 
thrusts  have  received  distinguishing  names,  e.g.  the  Moine 
thrust  (fig.  19)  and  the  Ben  More  thrust;  similarly  in  the  coal 
basin  of  Mons  and  Valenciennes  we  find  the  faille  de  Boussu 
and  the  Grande  faille  du  midi.  Overturned  folds  are  frequently 
seen  passing  into  thrusts.  Bayley  Willis  has  classified  thrusts 
as  (i)  Shear  thrusts,  (2)  Break  thrusts,  (3)  Stretch  thrusts,  and 
(4)  Erosion  thrusts. 

Dr  J.  E.  Marr  ("  Notes  on  the  Geology  of  the  English  Lake 
District,"  Proc.  Geol.  Assoc.,  1900)  has  described  a  type  of  fault 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  converse  of  a  thrust  fault.  If 
we  consider  a  series  of  rock  masses  A,  B,  C — of  which  A  is  the 
oldest  and  undermost — undergoing  thrusting,  say  from  south 
to  north,  should  the  mass  C  be  prevented  from  moving  forward 
as  rapidly  as  B,  a  low-hading  fault  may  form  between  C  and  B 
and  the  mass  C  may  lag  behind;  similarly  the  mass  B  may  lag 
behind  A.  Such  faults  Dr  Marr  calls  "lag  faults."  A  mass  of 
rock  suffering  thrusting  or  lagging  may  yield  unequally  in  its 
several  parts,  and  those  portions  tending  to  travel  more  rapidly 
than  the  adjoining  masses  in  the  same  sheet  may  be  cut  off  by 
fractures.  Thus  the  faster-moving  blocks  will  be  separated  from 
the  slower  ones  by  faults  approximately  normal  to  the  plane 
of  movement:  these  are  described  as  "  tear  faults." 

Faults  may  occur  in  rocks  of  all  ages;  small  local  dislocations 
are  observable  even  in  glacial  deposits,  alluvium  and  loess. 
A  region  of  faulting  may  continue  to  be  so  through  more  than  one 
geological  period.  Little  is  known  of  the  mechanism  of  faulting 
or  of  the  causes  that  produce  it;  the  majority  of  the  text-book 
explanations  will  not  bear  scrutiny,  and  there  is  room  for  ex- 
tended observation  and  research.  The  sudden  yielding  of  the 
strata  along  a  plane  of  faulting  is  a  familiar  cause  of  earthquakes. 

See  E.  de  Margerie  and  A.  Heim,  Les  Dislocations  de  I'ecorce  terrestre 
(Zurich,  1888);  A.  Rothpletz,  Geotektonische  Probleme  (Stuttgart, 
1894);  B.  Willis,  "  The  Mechanics  of  Appalachian  Structure,"  ijth 
Ann.  Rep.  U.S.  Geol.  Survey  (1891-1892,  pub.  1893).  A  prolonged 
discussion  of  the  subject  is  given  in  Economic  Geology,  Lancaster,  Pa., 
U.S.A.,  vols.  i.  and  ii.  (1906,  1907).  (A.  GE.;  J.  A.  H.) 

FAUNA,  the  name,  in  Roman  mythology,  of  a  country  goddess 
of  the  fields  and  cattle,  known  sometimes  as  the  sister,  some- 
times as  the  wife  of  the  god  Faunus;  hence  the  term  is  used 
collectively  for  all  the  animals  in  any  given  geographical  area 
or  geological  period,  or  for  an  enumeration  of  the  same.  It  thus 
corresponds  to  the  term  "  flora  "  in  respect  to  plant  life. 

FAUNTLEROY,  HENRY  (1785-1824),  English  banker  and 
forger,  was  born  in  1785.  After  seven  years  as  a  clerk  in  the 
London  bank  of  Marsh,  Sibbald  &  Co.,  of  which  his  father  was 
one  of  the  founders,  he  was  taken  into  partnership,  and  the  whole 
business  of  the  firm  was  left  in  his  hands.  In  1824  the  bank 
suspended  payment.  Fauntleroy  was  arrested  on  the  charge  of 
appropriating  trust  funds  by  forging  the  trustees'  signatures, 
and  was  committed  for  trial,  it  being  freely  rumoured  that  he 
had  appropriated  £250,000,  which  he  had  squandered  in  de- 
bauchery. He  was  tried  at  the  Old  Bailey,  and,  the  case  against 
him  having  been  proved,  he  admitted  his  guilt,  but  pleaded  that 
he  had  used  the  misappropriated  funds  to  pay  his  firm's  debts. 
He  was  found  guilty  ard  sentenced  to  be  hanged.  Seventeen 
merchants  and  bankers  gave  evidence  as  to  his  general  integrity 
at  the  trial,  and  after  his  conviction  powerful  influence  was 
brought  to  bear  on  his  behalf,  and  his  case  was  twice  argued 
before  judges  on  points  of  law.  An  Italian  named  Angelini 
even  offered  to  take  Fauntleroy's  place  on  the  scaffold.  The 
efforts  of  his  many  friends  were,  however,  unavailing,  and  he 
was  executed  on  the  3oth  of  November  1824.  A  wholly 
unfounded  rumour  was  widely  credited  for  some  time  subse- 
quently to  the  effect  that  he  had  escaped  strangulation  by 
inserting  a  silver  tube  in  his  throat,  and  was  living  comfortably 
abroad. 

See  A.  Griffith's  Chronicles  of  Newgate,  ii.  294-300,  and  Pierce 
Egan's  Account  of  the  Trial  of  Mr  Fauntleroy. 


FAUNUS  (i.e.  the  "  kindly,"  from  La.t.favere,  or  the  "  speaker," 
from  /art),  an  old  Italian  rural  deity,  the  bestower  of  fruitfulness 
on  fields  and  cattle.  As  such  he  is  akin  to  or  identical  with 
Inuus  ("  fructifier  ")  and  Lupercus  (see  LUPERCALIA).  Faunus 
also  revealed  the  secrets  of  the  future  by  strange  sounds  from 
the  woods,  or  by  visions  communicated  to  those  who  slept  within 
his  precincts  in  the  skin  of  sacrificed  lambs;  he  was  then  called 
Fatuus,  and  with  him  was  associated  his  wife  or  daughter  Fatua. 
Under  Greek  influence  he  was  identified  with  Pan,  and  just  as 
there  was  supposed  to  be  a  number  of  Panisci,  so  the  existence 
of  many  Fauni  was  assumed — misshapen  and  mischievous 
goblins  of  the  forest,  with  pointed  ears,  tails  and  goat's  feet, 
who  loved  to  torment  sleepers  with  hideous  nightmares.  In 
poetical  tradition  Faunus  is  an  old  king  of  Latium,  the  son  of 
Picus  (Mars)  and  father  of  Latinus,  the  teacher  of  agriculture  and 
cattle-breeding,  and  the  introducer  of  the  religious  system  of  the 
country,  honoured  after  death  as  a  tutelary  divinity.  Two 
festivals  called  Faunalia  were  celebrated  in  honour  of  Faunus, 
one  on  the  i3th  of  February  in  his  temple  on  the  island  in  the 
Tiber,  the  other  in  the  country  on  the  5th  of  December  (Ovid, 
Fasti,  ii.  193;  Horace,  Odes,  iii.  18.  10).  At  these  goats  were 
sacrificed  to  him  with  libations  of  wine  and  milk,  and  he  was  im- 
plored to  bepropitious  to  fields  and  flocks.  The  peasants  and  slaves 
at  the  same  time  amused  themselves  with  dancing  in  the  meadows. 

FAURE,  FRANCOIS  FELIX  (1841-1899),  President  of  the 
French  Republic,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  3oth  of  January  1841, 
being  the  son  of  a  small  furniture  maker.  Having  started  as 
a  tanner  and  merchant  at  Havre,  he  acquired  considerable 
wealth,  was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly  on  the  2ist  of 
August  1881,  and  took  his  seat  as  a  member  of  the  Left,  interest- 
ing himself  chiefly  in  matters  concerning  economics,  railways 
and  the  navy.  In  November  1882  he  became  under-secretary 
for  the  colonies  in  M.  Ferry's  ministry,  and  retained  the  post 
till  1885.  He  held  the  same  post  in  M.  Tirard's  ministry  in  1888, 
and  in  1893  was  made  vice-president  of  the  chamber.  In  1894. 
he  obtained  cabinet  rank  as  minister  of  marine  in  the  administra- 
tion of  M .  Dupuy.  In  the  January  following  he  was  unexpectedly 
elected  president  of  the  Republic  upon  the  resignation  of  M. 
Casimir-Perier.  The  principal  cause  of  his  elevation  was  the 
determination  of  the  various  sections  of  the  moderate  republican 
party  to  exclude  M.  Brisson,  who  had  had  a  majority  of  votes 
on  the  first  ballot,  but  had  failed  to  obtain  an  absolute  majority. 
To  accomplish  this  end  it  was  necessary  to  unite  among  them- 
selves, and  union  could  only  be  secured  by  the  nomination  of 
some  one  who  offended  nobody.  M.  Faure  answered  perfectly 
to  this  description.  His  fine  presence  and  his  tact  on  ceremonial 
occasions  rendered  the  state  some  service  when  in  1896  he  re- 
ceived the  Tsar  of  Russia  at  Paris,  and  in  1897  returned  his 
visit,  after  which  meeting  the  momentous  Franco-Russian 
alliance  was  publicly  announced.  The  latter  days  of  M.  Faure's 
presidency  were  embittered  by  the  Dreyfus  affair,  which  he  was 
determined  to  regard  as  chose  jugee.  But  at  a  critical  moment 
in  the  proceedings  his  death  occurred  suddenly,  from  apoplexy, 
on  the  i6th  of  February  1899.  With  all  his  faults,  and  in  spite 
of  no  slight  amount  of  personal  vanity,  President  Faure  was 
a  shrewd  political  observer  and  a  good  man  of  business.  After 
his  death,  some  alleged  extracts  from  his  private  journals, 
dealing  with  French  policy,  were  published  in  the  Paris  press. 

See  E.  Maillard,  Le  President  F.  Faure  (Paris,  1897);  P.  Bluysen, 
Felix  Faure  intime  (1898) ;  and  F.  Martin-Ginouvier,  F.  Faure  devant 
Ihistoire  (1895). 

FAUR&  GABRIEL  (1845-  ),  French  musical  composer, 
was  born  at  Pamiers  on  the  i3th  of  May  1845.  He  studied  at 
the  school  of  sacred  music  directed  by  Niedermeyer,  first  under 
Dietsch,  and  subsequently  under  Saint-Saens.  He  became 
"  maitre  de  chapelle  "  at  the  church  of  the  Madeleine  in  1877, 
and  organist  in  1896.  His  works  include  a  symphony  in  D 
minor  (Op.  40),  two  quartets  for  piano  and  strings  (Opp.  15  and 
45),  a  suite  for  orchestra  (Op.  12),  sonata  for  violin  and  piano 
(Op.  13),  concerto  for  violin  (Op.  14),  berceuse  for  violin,  elegie 
for  violoncello,  pavane  for  orchestra,  incidental  music  for 
Alexandre  Dumas'  Caligula  and  De  Haraucourt's  Shylock, 


210 


FAURIEL— FAUST 


a  requiem,  a  cantata,  The  Birth  of  Venus,  produced  at  the  Leeds 
festival  in  1898,  a  quantity  of  piano  music,  and  a  large  number 
of  songs.  Faure  occupies  a  place  by  himself  among  modern 
French  composers.  He  delights  in  the  imprevu,  and  loves  to 
wander  through  labyrinthine  harmonies.  There  can  be  no 
denying  the  intense  fascination  and  remarkable  originality  of 
his  music.  His  muse  is  essentially  aristocratic,  and  suggests 
the  surroundings  of  the  boudoir  and  the  perfume  of  the  hot- 
house. 

FAURIEL,  CLAUDE  CHARLES  (1772-1844),  French  historian, 
philologist  and  critic,  was  born  at  St  Etienne  on  the  2ist  of 
October  1772.  Though  the  son  of  a  poor  joiner,  he  received  a 
good  education  in  the  Oratorian  colleges  of  Tournon  and  Lyons. 
He  was  twice  in  the  army — at  Perpignan  in  1793,  and  in  1796- 
1797  at  Briancon,  as  private  secretary  to  General  J.  Servan  de 
Gerbey  (1741-1808);  but  he  preferred  the  civil  service  and  the 
companionship  of  his  friends  and  his  books.  In  1 794  he  returned 
to  St  Etienne,  where,  but  only  for  a  short  period,  he  filled  a 
municipal  office;  and  from  1797  to  1799  he  devoted  himself 
to  strenuous  study,  more  especially  of  the  literature  and  history, 
both  ancient  and  modern,  of  Greece  and  Italy.  Having  paid  a 
visit  to  Paris  in  1799,  he  was  introduced  to  Fouche,  minister  of 
police,  who  i  nduced  him  to  become  his  private  secretary.  Though 
he  discharged  the  duties  of  this  office  to  Fouche's  satisfaction, 
his  strength  was  overtasked  by  his  continued  application  to 
study,  and  he  found  it  necessary  in  1801  to  recruit  his  health 
by  a  three  months'  trip  in  the  south.  In  resigning  his  office  in  the 
following  year  he  was  actuated  as  much  by  these  considerations 
as  by  the  scruples  he  put  forward  in  serving  longer  under 
Napoleon,  when  the  latter,  in  violation  of  strict  republican  prin- 
ciples, became  consul  for  life.  This  is  clearly  shown  by  the  frag- 
ments of  Memoirs  discovered  by  Ludovic  Lalanne  and  published 
in  1886. 

Some  articles  which  Fauriel  published  in  the  Dicade  pkilo- 
sophique  (1800)  on  a  work  of  Madame  de  Stael's — De  la  litttrature 
considerie  dans  ses  rapports  avec  les  institutions  sociales — led  to  an 
intimate  friendship  with  her.  About  1802  he  contracted  with 
Madame  de  Condorcet  a  liaison  which  lasted  till  her  death  (1822). 
It  was  said  of  him  at  the  time  that  he  gave  up  all  his  energies 
to  love,  friendship  and  learning.  The  salon  of  Mme  de  Condorcet 
was  throughout  the  Consulate  and  the  first  Empire  a  rallying 
point  for  the  dissentient  republicans.  Fauriel  was  introduced 
by  Madame  de  Stael  to  the  literary  circle  of  Auteuil,  which 
gathered  round  Destutt  de  Tracy.  Those  who  enjoyed  his  closest 
intimacy  were  the  physiologist  Cabanis  (Madame  de  Condorcet's 
brother-in-law),  the  poet  Manzoni,  the  publicist  Benjamin 
Constant,  and  Guizot.  Later  Tracy  introduced  to  him  Aug. 
Thierry  (1821)  and  perhaps  Thiers  and  Mignet.  During  his 
connexion  with  Auteuil,  Fauriel's  attention  was  naturally 
turned  to  philosophy,  and  for  some  years  he  was  engaged  on  a 
history  of  Stoicism,  which  was  never  completed,  all  the  papers 
connected  with  it  having  accidentally  perished  in  1814.  He  also 
studied  Arabic,  Sanskrit  and  the  old  South  French  dialects.  He 
published  in  1810  a  translation  of  the  Parthenais  of  the  Danish 
poet  Baggesen,  with  a  preface  on  the  various  kinds  of  poetry; 
in  1823  translations  of  two  tragedies  of  Manzoni,  with  a  preface 
"  Surlatheoriederartdramatique  ";  andin  1824-1825  his  transla- 
tion of  the  popular  songs  of  modern  Greece,  with  a  "  Discours 
preliminaire  "  on  popular  poetry. 

The  Revolution  of  July,  which  put  his  friends  in  power,  opened 
to  him  the  career  of  higher  education.  In  1830  he  became 
professor  of  foreign  literature  at  the  Sorbonne.  The  Hisloire  de  la 
Guide  meridionale  sous  la  domination  des  conquerants  germains 
(4  vols.,  1836)  was  the  only  completed  section  of  a  general  history 
of  southern  Gaul  which  he  had  projected.  In  1 836  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  in  1837  he  pub- 
lished (with  an  introduction  the  conclusions  of  which  would  not 
now  all  be  endorsed)  a  translation  of  a  Provencal  poem  on  the 
Albigensian  war.  He  died  on  the  isth  of  July  1844.  After  his 
death  his  friend  Mary  Clarke  (afterwards  Madame  J.  Mohl) 
published  his  Hisloire  de  la  literature  proven$ale  (3  vols.,  1846) — 
his  lectures  for  1831-1832.  Fauriel  was  biased  in  this  work  by 


his  preconceived  and  somewhat  fanciful  theory  that  Provence  was 
the  cradle  of  the  chansons  de  geste  and  even  of  the  Round  Table 
romances;  but  he  gave  a  great  stimulus  to  the  scientific  study  of 
Old  French  and  Provencal.  Dante  et  les  origines  de  la  langue  et  de 
la  litter ature  italiennes  (2  vols.)  was  published  in  1854. 

Fauriel's  Memoires,  found  with  Condorcet's  papers,  are  in  the 
Institute  library.  They  were  written  at  latest  in  1804,  and  include 
some  interesting  fragments  on  the  close  of  the  consulate,  Moreau,  &c. 
Though  anonymous,  Lalanne,  who  published  them  (Les  Derniers 
Jours  du  Consulat,  1886),  proved  them  to  be  in  the  same  handwriting 
as  a  letter  of  Fauriel's  in  1803.  The  same  library  has  Fauriel's  corre- 
spondence, catalogued  by  Ad.  Regnier  (1900).  Benjamin  Constant's 
letters  (1802-1823)  were  published  by  Victor  Glachant  in  1906. 
For  Fauriel's  correspondence  with  Guizot  see  Nouvelle  Rev.  (Dec.  I, 
1901,  by  V.  Glachant),  and  for  his  love-letters  to  Miss  Clarke  (1822- 
1844.)  the  Revue  des  deux  mondes  (1908-1909)  by  E.  Rod.)  See 
further  Sainte-Beuve,  Portraits  contemporains,  ii. ;  Antoine  Guillois, 
Le  Salon  de  Mme  Helvetius  (1894)  and  La  Marquise  de  Condorcet 
(1897);  O'Meara,  Un  Salon  a  Paris:  Mme  Mohl  (undated);  and 
J.  B.  Galley,  Claude  Fauriel  (1909). 

FAUST,  or  FAUSTUS,  the  name  of  a  magician  and  charlatan 
of  the  1 6th  century,  famous  in  legend  and  in  literature.  The 
historical  Faust  forms  little  more  than  the  nucleus  round  which 
a  great  mass  of  legendary  and  imaginative  material  gradually 
accumulated.  That  such  a  person  existed  there  is,  however, 
sufficient  proof.1  He  is  first  mentioned  in  a  letter,  dated  August 
20,  1507,  of  the  learned  Benedictine  Johann  Tritheim  or  Trithe 
mius  (1462-1516),  abbot  of  Spanheim,  to  the  mathematiciaii 
and  astrologer  Johann  Windung,  at  Hasfurt,  who  had  apparently 
written  about  him.  Trithemius,  himself  reputed  a  magician,  and 
the  author  of  a  mystical  work  (published  at  Darmstadt  in  1621 
under  the  title  of  Steganographica  and  burnt  by  order  of  the 
Spanish  Inquisition),  speaks  contemptuously  of  Faust,  who 
called  himself  Magister  Georgius  Sabellicus  Faustus  Junior,  as 
a  fool  rather  than  a  philosopher  (fatuum  non  philosophum) ,  a 
vain  babbler,  vagabond  and  mountebank  who  ought  to  be 
whipped,  and  who  had  fled  from  the  city  rather  than  confront 
him.  The  insane  conceit  of  the  man  was  proved  by  his  boast  that, 
were  all  the  works  of  Aristotle  and  Plato  blotted  from  the 
memory  of  men,  he  could  restore  them  with  greater  elegance,  and 
that  Christ's  miracles  were  nothing  to  marvel  at,  since  he  could 
do  the  like  whenever  and  as  often  as  he  pleased;  his  debased 
character  by  the  fact  that  he  had  been  forced  to  flee  from  the 
school  of  which  he  had  been  appointed  master  by  the  discovery 
of  his  unnatural  crimes.  The  same  unflattering  estimate  is  con- 
tained in  the  second  extant  notice  of  Faust,  in  a  letter  of  the 
jurist  and  canon  Konrad  Mudt  (Mutianus  Rufus),  of  the  3rd  of 
October  1513,  to  Heinrich  Urbanus.  Mudt,  like  Trithemius, 
simply  regards  Faust  as  a  charlatan.  Similar  is  the  judgment  of 
another  contemporary,  Philipp  Begardi,  who  in  the  fourth 
chapter  of  his  Index  sanitatis  (Worms,  1539)  ranks  Faust,  with 
Theophrastus  Paracelsus,  among  the  "  wicked,  cheating,  useless 
and  unlearned  doctors." 

It  was  Johann  Cast  (d.  1572),  a  worthy  Protestant  pastor 
of  Basel,  who  like  Mudt  claims  to  have  come  into  personal 
contact  with  Faust,  who  in  his  Sermones  conviiiales  (Basel,  1543) 
first  credited  the  magician  with  genuine  supernatural  qualities. 
Cast,  a  man  of  some  learning  and  much  superstition,  believed 
Faust  to  be  in  league  with  the  devil,  by  whom  about  1525  he 
was  ultimately  carried  off,  and  declared  the  performing  horse  and 
dog  by  which  the  necromancer  was  accompanied  to  be  familiar 
and  evil  spirits.  Further  information  was  given  to  the  world 
by  Johann  Mannel  or  Manlius  (d.  1560),  councillor  and  historian 
to  the  emperor  Maximilian  II.,  in  his  Locorum  communium 
collectanea  (Basel,  undated).  Manlius  reports  a  conversation 
of  Melanchthon,  which  there  is  no  reason  to  suspect  of  being  other 
than  genuine,  in  which  the  Reformer  speaks  of  Faust  as  "  a 
disgraceful  beast  and  sewer  of  many  devils,"  as  having  been 
born  at  Kundling  (Kundlingen  or  Knittlingen),  a  little  town 
near  his  own  native  town  (of  Bretten),  and  as  having  studied 
magic  at  Cracow.  The  rest  of  the  information  given  can  hardly 
be  regarded  as  historical,  though  Melanchthon,  who,  like  Luther, 

1  The  opinion,  long  maintained  by  some,  that  he  was  identical 
with  Johann  Fust,  the  printer,  is  now  universally  rejected. 


FAUST 


211 


was  no  whit  less  superstitious  than  most  people  of  his  time, 
evidently  believed  it  to  be  so.  According  to  him,  among  other 
marvels,  Faust  was  killed  by  the  devil  wringing  his  neck.  While 
he  lived  he  had  taken  about  with  him  a  dog,  which  was  really 
a  devil.  A  similar  opinion  would  seem  to  have  been  held  of 
Faust  by  Luther  also,  who  in  Widmann's  Faust-book  is  men- 
tioned as  having  declared  that,  by  God's  help,  he  had  been  able 
to  ward  off  the  evils  which  Faust  with  his  sorceries  had  sought  to 
put  upon  him.  The  passage,  with  the  omission  of  Faust's  name, 
occurs  word  for  word  in  Luther's  Table-talk(ed.C.E.F6rstemann, 
vol.  i.  p.  50).  It  is  not  improbable,  then,  that  Widmann,  in 
supplying  the  name  of  the  necromancer  omitted  in  the  Table- 
talk,  may  be  giving  a  fuller  account  of  the  conversation. 
Bullinger  also,  in  his  Theatrum  de  beneficiis  (Frankf.,  1569) 
mentions  Faust  as  one  of  those  "  of  whom  the  Scriptures  speak, 
in  various  places,  calling  them  magi."  Lastly  Johann  Weiher, 
Wierus  or  Piscinarius  (1515-1588) — a  pupil  of  Cornelius  Agrippa, 
body  physician  to  the  duke  of  Cleves  and  a  man  of  enlighten- 
ment, who  opposed  the  persecution  of  witches — in  his  De  prae- 
stigiis  daemonum  (Basel,  1563,  &c.),  speaks  of  Faust  as  a  drunken 
vagabond  who  had  studied  magic  at  Cracow,  and  before  1540 
had  practised  "  this  beautiful  art  shamelessly  up  and  down 
Germany,  with  unspeakable  deceit,  many  lies  and  great  effect." 
He  goes  on  to  tell  how  the  magician  had  revenged  himself  on 
an  unhappy  parish  priest,  who  had  refused  to  supply  him  any 
longer  with  drink,  by  giving  him  a  depilatory  which  removed 
not  only  the  beard  but  the  skin,  and  further,  how  he  had  insulted 
a  poor  wretch,  for  no  better  reason  than  that  he  had  a  black 
beard,  by  greeting  him  as  his  cousin  the  devil.  Of  his  super- 
human powers  Weiher  evidently  believes  nothing,  but  he  tells 
the  tale  of  his  being  found  dead  with  his  neck  wrung,  after  the 
whole  house  had  been  shaken  by  a  terrific  din. 

The  sources  above  mentioned,  which  were  but  the  first  of 
numerous  works  on  Faust,  of  more  or  less  value,  appearing 
throughout  the  next  two  centuries,  give  a  sufficient  picture  of 
the  man  as  he  appeared  to  his  contemporaries:  a  wandering 
charlatan  who  lived  by  his  wits,  cheiromantist,  astrologer, 
diviner,  spiritualist  medium,  alchemist,  or,  to  the  more  credulous, 
a  necromancer  whose  supernatural  gifts  were  the  outcome  of  a 
foul  pact  with  the  enemy  of  mankind.  Whatever  his  character, 
his  efforts  to  secure  a  widespread  notoriety  had,  by  the  time  of 
his  death,  certainly  succeeded.  By  the  latter  part  of  the  i6th 
century  he  had  become  the  necromancer  par  excellence,  and  all 
that  legend  had  to  tell  about  the  great  wizards  of  the  middle  ages, 
Virgil,  Pope  Silvester,  Roger  Bacon,  Michael  Scot,  or  the  mythic 
Klingsor,  had  become  for  ever  associated  with  his  name.  When 
in  1587,  the  oldest  Faust-book  was  published,  the  Faust  legend 
was,  in  all  essential  particulars,  already  complete. 

The  origin  of  the  main  elements  of  the  legend  must  be  sought 
far  back  in  the  middle  ages  and  beyond.  The  idea  of  a  compact 
with  the  devil,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  superhuman  power 
or  knowledge,  is  of  Jewish  origin,  dating  from  the  centuries 
immediately  before  and  after  the  Christian  era  which  produced 
the  Talmud,  the  Kabbalah  and  such  magical  books  as  that  of 
Enoch.  In  the  mystical  rites — in  which  blood,  as  the  seat  of  life, 
played  a  great  part — that  accompanied  the  incantations  with 
which  the  Jewish  magicians  evoked  the  Satanim — the  lowest 
grade  of  those  elemental  spirits  (shedim)  who  have  their  existence 
beyond  the  dimensions  of  time  and  space — we  have  the  proto- 
types and  originals  of  all  the  ceremonies  which  occupy  the  books 
of  magic  down  to  the  various  versions  of  the  Hollenzivang  ascribed 
to  Faust.  The  other  principle  underlying  the  Faust  legend, 
the  belief  in  the  essentially  evil  character  of  purely  human 
learning,  has  existed  ever  since  the  triumph  of  Christianity  set 
divine  revelation  above  human  science.  The  legend  of  Theo- 
philus — a  Cilician  archdeacon  of  the  6th  century,  who  sold  his 
soul  to  Satan  for  no  better  reason  than  to  clear  himself  of  a  false 
charge  brought  against  him  by  his  bishop — was  immensely 
popular  throughout  the  middle  ages,  and  in  the  8th  century 
formed  the  theme  of  a  poem  in  Latin  hexameters  by  the  nun 
Hroswitha  of  Gandersheim,  who,  especially  in  her  description  of 
the  ritual  of  Satan's  court,  displays  a  sufficiently  lively  and 


original  imagination.  Equally  widespread  were  the  legends 
which  gathered  round  the  great  name  of  Gerbert  (Pope  Silvester 
II.).  Gerbert's  vast  erudition,  like  Roger  Bacon's  so  far  in 
advance  of  his  age,  naturally  cast  upon  him  the  suspicion  of 
traffic  with  the  infernal  powers;  and  in  due  course  the  suspicion 
developed  into  the  tale,  embellished  with  circumstantial  and 
harrowing  details,  of  a  compact  with  the  arch-fiend,  by  which 
the  scholar  had  obtained  the  summit  of  earthly  ambition  at  the 
cost  of  his  immortal  soul.  These  are  but  the  two  most  notable 
of  many  similar  stories,1  and,  in  an  age  when  the  belief  in  witch- 
craft and  the  ubiquitous  activity  of  devils  was  still  universal, 
it  is  natural  that  they  should  have  been  retold  in  all  good  faith 
of  a  notorious  wizard  who  was  himself  at  no  pains  to  deny  their 
essential  truth.  The  Faust  legend,  however,  owes  something  of 
its  peculiar  significance  also  to  the  special  conditions  of  the  age 
which  gave  it  birth:  the  age  of  the  Renaissance  and  the  Refor- 
mation. The  opinion  that  the  religious  reformers  were  the 
champions  of  liberty  of  thought  against  the  obscurantism  of 
Rome  is  the  outgrowth  of  later  experience.  To  themselves  they 
were  the  protagonists  of  "  the  pure  Word  of  God  "  against  the 
corruptions  of  a  church  defiled  by  the  world  and  the  devil,  and 
the  sceptical  spirit  of  Italian  humanism  was  as  abhorrent  to  them 
as  to  the  Catholic  reactionaries  by  whom  it  was  again  trampled 
under  foot.  If  then,  in  Goethe's  drama,  Faust  ultimately  de- 
velops into  the  type  of  the  unsatisfied  yearning  of  the  human 
intellect  for  "  more  than  earthly  meat  and  drink,"  this  was 
because  the  great  German  humanist  deliberately  infused  into  the 
old  story  a  spirit  absolutely  opposed  to  that  by  which  it  had 
originally  been  inspired.  The  Faust  of  the  early  Faust-books, 
of  the  ballads,  the  dramas^  and  the  puppet-plays  innumerable 
which  grew  out  of  them, 'is  irrevocably  damned  because  he 
deliberately  prefers  human  to  "  divine  "  knowledge;  "  he  laid 
the  Holy  Scriptures  behind  the  door  and  under  the  bench, 
refused  to  be  called  doctor  of  Theology,  but  preferred  to  be  styled 
doctor  of  Medicine."  The  orthodox  moral  of  the  earliest  versions 
is  preserved  to  the  last  in  the  puppet-plays.  The  Voice  to  the 
right  cries:  "  Faust!  Faust!  desist  from  this  proposal!  Go 
on  with  the  study  of  Theology,  and  you  will  be  the  happiest 
of  mortals."  The  Voice  to  the  left  answers:  "  Faust!  Faust! 
leave  the  study  of  Theology.  Betake  you  to  Necromancy,  and 
you  will  be  the  happiest  of  mortals!  "  The  Faust  legend  was, 
in  fact,  the  creation  of  orthodox  Protestantism;  its  moral, 
the  inevitable  doom  which  follows  the  wilful  revolt  of  the  in- 
tellect against  divine  authority  as  represented  by  the  Holy 
Scriptures  and  its  accredited  interpreters.  Faust,  the  contemner 
of  Holy  Writ,  is  set  up  as  a  foil  to  Luther,  the  champion  of  the 
new  orthodoxy,  who  with  well-directed  inkpot  worsted  the  devil 
when  he  sought  to  interrupt  the  sacred  work  of  rendering  the 
Bible  into  the  vulgar  tongue. 

It  was  doubtless  this  orthodox  and  Protestant  character  of 
the  Faust  story  which  contributed  to  its  immense  and  immediate 
popularity  in  the  Protestant  countries.  The  first  edition  of  the 
Historia  von  D.  Johann  Fausten,  by  an  unknown  compiler, 
published  by  Johann  Spies  at  Frankfort  in  1587,  sold  out  at 
once.  Though  only  placed  on  the  market  in  the  autumn,  before 
the  year  was  out  it  had  been  reprinted  in  four  pirated  editions. 
In  the  following  year  a  rhymed  version  was  printed  at  Tubingen, 
a  second  edition  was  published  by  Spies  at  Frankfort  and  a 
version  in  low  German  by  J.  J.  Balhorn  at  Liibeck.  Reprints 
and  amended  versions  continued  to  appear  in  Germany  every 
year,  till  they  culminated  in  the  pedantic  compilation  of  Georg 
Rudolf  Widmann,  who  obscured  the  dramatic  interest  of  the 
story  by  an  excessive  display  of  erudition  and  by  his  well-meant 
efforts  to  elaborate  the  orthodox  moral.  Widmann's  version  of 
1599  formed  the  basis  of  that  of  Johann  Nicholaus  Pfitzer, 
published  at  Nuremberg  in  1674,  which  passed  through  six 
editions,  the  last  appearing  in  1726.  Like  Widmann,  Pfitzer 
was  more  zealous  for  imparting  information  than  for  perfecting 
a  work  of  art,  though  he  had  the  good  taste  to  restore  the  episode 
of  the  evocation  of  Helen,  which  Widmann  had  expunged  as 
unfit  for  Christian  readers.  Lastly  there  appeared,  about 
i  Many  are  given  in  Kiesewetter's  Faust,  p.  112,  &c. 


212 


FAUST 


1712,  what  was  to  prove  the  most  popular  of  all  the  Faust-books: 
The  League  with  the  Devil  established  by  the  •world-famous  Arch- 
necromancer  and  Wizard  Dr  Johann  Faust.  By  a  Christian 
Believer  (Christlich  Meynenden}.  This  version,  which  bore  the 
obviously  false  date  of  1525,  passed  through  many  editions, 
and  was  circulated  at  all  the  fairs  in  Germany.  Abroad  the 
success  of  the  story  was  scarcely  less  striking.  A  Danish  version 
appeared  in  1588;  in  England  the  History  of  the  Damnable 
Life  and  Deserved  Death  of  Dr  John  Fauslus  was  published  some 
time  between  1588  and  1594;  in  France  the  translation  of 
Victor  Palma  Cayet  was  published  at  Paris  in  1 592  and,  in  the 
course  of  the  next  two  hundred  years,  went  through  fifteen 
editions;  the  oldest  Dutch  and  Flemish  versions  are  dated 
1592;  and  in  1612  a  Czech  translation  was  published  at  Prague. 

Besides  the  popular  histories  of  Faust,  all  more  or  less  founded 
on  the  original  edition  of  Spies,  numerous  ballads  on  the  same 
subject  were  also  soon  in  circulation.  Of  these  the  most  interest- 
ing for  the  English  reader  is  A  Ballad  of  the  life  and  death  of  Dr 
Faustus  the  great  congerer,  published  in  1588  with  the  imprimatur 
of  the  learned  Aylmer,  bishop  of  London.  This  ballad  is  supposed 
to  have  preceded  the  English  version  of  Spies's  Faust-book, 
mentioned  above,  on  which  Marlowe's  drama  was  founded. 

To  Christopher  Marlowe,  it  would  appear,  belongs  the  honour 
of  first  realizing  the  great  dramatic  possibilities  of  the  Faust 
legend.  The  Tragicall  History  of  D.  Faustus  as  it  hath  bene 
acted  by  the  Right  Honourable  the  Earle  of  Nottingham  his  servants 
was  first  published  by  Thomas  Bushall  at  London  in  1604.  As 
Marlowe  died  in  1593,  the  play  must  have  been  written  shortly 
after  the  appearance  of  the  English  version  of  the  Faust  story 
on  which  it  was  based.  The  first  recorded  performance  was  on 
the  30th  of  September  1594. 

As  Marlowe's  Faustus  is  the  first,  so  it  is  {incomparably  the 
finest  of  the  Faust  dramas  which  preceded  Goethe's  masterpiece. 
Like  most  of  Marlowe's  work  it  is,  indeed,  very  unequal.  At 
certain  moments  the  poet  seems  to  realize  the  great  possibilities 
of  the  story,  only  to  sacrifice  them  to  the  necessity  for  humouring 
the  prevailing  public  taste  of  the  age.  Faustus,  who  in  one 
scene  turns  disillusioned  from  the  ordinary  fountains  of  know- 
ledge, or  flies  in  a  dragon-drawn  chariot  through  the  Empyrean 
to  search  out  the  mysteries  of  the  heavens,  in  another  is  made 
to  use  his  superhuman  powers  to  satisfy  the  taste  of  the  ground- 
lings for  senseless  buffoonery,  to  swindle  a  horse-dealer,  or  cheat 
an  ale-wife  of  her  score;  while  Protestant  orthodoxy  is  concili- 
ated by  irrelevant  insults  to  the  Roman  Church  and  by  the  final 
catastrophe,  when  Faustus  pays  for  his  revolt  against  the  Word 
of  God  by  the  forfeit  of  his  soul.  This  conception,  which  followed 
that  of  the  popular  Faust  histories,  underlay  all  further  develop- 
ments of  the  Faust  drama  for  nearly  two  hundred  years.  Of 
the  serious  stage  plays  founded  on  this  theme,  Marlowe's  Faustus 
remains  the  sole  authentic  example  until  near  the  end  of  the 
i8th  century;  but  there  is  plenty  of  evidence  to  prove  that 
in  Germany  the  Comedy  of  Dr  Faust,  in  one  form  or  another, 
was  and  continued  to  be  a  popular  item  in  the  repertories  of 
theatrical  companies  until  far  into  the  i8th  century.  It  is 
supposed,  with  good  reason,  that  the  German  versions  were 
based  on  those  introduced  into  the  country  by  English  strolling 
players  early  in  the  I7th  century.  However  this  may  be,  the 
dramatic  versions  of  the  Faust  legend  followed  much  the  same 
course  as  the  prose  histories.  Just  as  these  gradually  degener- 
ated into  chap-books  hawked  at  fairs,  so  the  dramas  were  replaced 
by  puppet-plays,  handed  down  by  tradition  through  genera- 
tions of  showmen,  retaining  their  original  broad  characteristics, 
but  subject  to  infinite  modification  in  detail.  In  this  way,  in 
the  puppet-shows,  the  traditional  Faust  story  retained  its  popu- 
larity until  far  into  the  igth  century,  long  after,  in  the  sphere  of 
literature,  Goethe  had  for  ever  raised  it  to  quite  another  plane. 

It  was  natural  that  during  the  literary  revival  in  Germany 
in  the  i8th  century,  when  German  writers  were  eagerly  on  the 
look-out  for  subjects  to  form  the  material  of  a  truly  national 
literature,  the  Faust  legend  should  have  attracted  their  attention. 
Lessing  was  the  first  to  point  out  its  great  possibilities;  *  and 
1  In  the  Literaturbrief  of  Feb.  16,  1759. 


he  himself  wrote  a  Faust  drama,  of  which  unfortunately  only  a 
fragment  remains,  the  MS.  of  the  completed  work  having  been 
lost  in  the  author's  lifetime.  None  the  less,  to  Lessing,  not  to 
Goethe,  is  due  the  new  point  of  view  from  which  the  story  was 
approached  by  most  of  those  who,  after  about  the  year  1770, 
attempted  to  tell  it.  The  traditional  Faust  legend  represented 
the  sternly  orthodox  attitude  of  the  Protestant  reformers. 
Even  the  mitigating  elements  which  the  middle  ages  had  per- 
mitted had  been  banished  by  the  stern  logic  of  the  theologians 
of  the  New  Religion.  Theophilus  had  been  saved  in  the  end  by 
the  intervention  of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  Pope  Silvester,  according 
to  one  version  of  the  legend,  had  likewise  been  snatched  from 
the  jaws  of  hell  at  the  last  moment.  Faust  was  irrevocably 
damned,  since  the  attractions  of  the  studium  theologicum 
proved  insufficient  to  counteract  the  fascinations  of  the  classic 
Helen.  But  if  he  was  to  become,  in  the  i8th  century,  the  type 
of  the  human  intellect  face  to  face  with  the  deep  problems  of 
human  life,  it  was  intolerable  that  his  struggles  should  issue 
in  eternal  reprobation.  Error  and  heresy  had  ceased  to  be 
regarded  as  crimes;  and  stereotyped  orthodoxy,  to  the  age  of 
the  Encyclopaedists,  represented  nothing  more  than  the  atrophy 
of  the  human  intellect.  Es  irrt  der  Mensch  so  lang  er  strebt, 
which  sums  up  in  one  pregnant  line  the  spirit  of  Goethe's  Faust, 
sums  up  also  the  spirit  of  the  age  which  killed  with  ridicule  the 
last  efforts  of  persecuting  piety,  and  saw  the  birth  of  modern 
science.  Lessing,  in  short,  proclaimed  that  the  final  end  of  Faust 
must  be,  not  his  damnation,  but  his  salvation.  This  revolution- 
ary conception  is  the  measure  of  Goethe's  debt  to  Lessing. 
The  essential  change  which  Goethe  himself  introduced  into  the 
story  is  in  the  nature  of  the  pact  between  Faust  and  Mephis- 
topheles,  and  in  the  character  of  Mephistopheles  himself. 
The  Mephistopheles  of  Marlowe,  as  of  the  old  Faust-books,  for 
all  his  brave  buffoonery,  is  a  melancholy  devil,  with  a  soul  above 
the  unsavoury  hell  in  which  he  is  forced  to  pass  a  hopeless 
existence.  "  Tell  me,"  says  Faust,  in  the  puppet-play,  to 
Mephistopheles,  "  what  would  you  do  if  you  could  attain  to 
everlasting  salvation?  "  And  the  devil  answers,  "  Hear  and 
despair!  Were  I  able  to  attain  everlasting  salvation,  I  would 
mount  to  heaven  on  a  ladder,  though  every  rung  were  a  razor 
edge  !"  Goethe's  Mephistopheles  would  have  made  no  such 
reply.  There  is  nothing  of  the  fallen  angel  about  him;  he  is 
perfectly  content  with  his  past,  his  present  and  his  future; 
and  he  appears  before  the  throne  of  God  with  the  same  easy 
insolence  as  he  exhibits  in  Dame  Martha's  back-garden.  He 
is,  in  fact,  according  to  his  own  definition,  the  Spirit  of  Denial, 
the  impersonation  of  that  utter  scepticism  which  can  see  no 
distinction  between  high  and  low,  between  good  and  bad,  and 
is  therefore  without  aspiration  because  it  knows  no  "  divine 
discontent."  And  the  compact  which  Faust  makes  with  this 
spirit  is  from  the  first  doomed  to  be  void.  Faustus  had  bartered 
away  his  soul  for  a  definite  period  of  pleasure  and  power.  The 
conception  that  underlies  the  compact  of  Faust  with  Mephis- 
topheles is  far  more  subtle.  He  had  sought  happiness  vainly 
in  the  higher  intellectual  and  spiritual  pursuits;  he  is  content 
to  seek  it  on  a  lower  plane  since  Mephistopheles  gives  him  the 
chance;  but  he  is  confident  that  nothing  that  "  such  a  poor 
devil  "  can  offer  him  could  give  him  that  moment  of  supreme 
satisfaction  for  which  he  craves.  He  goes  through  the  traditional 
mummery  of  signing  the  bond  with  scornful  submission;  for 
he  knows  that  his  damnation  will  not  be  the  outcome  of  any 
formal  compact,  but  will  follow  inevitably,  and  only  then,  when 
his  soul  has  grown  to  be  satisfied  with  what  Mephistopheles  can 
purvey  him. 

"  Canst  thou  with  lying  flattery  rule  me 
Until  self-pleased  myself  I  see, 

Canst  thou  with  pleasure  mock  and  fool  me, 
Let  that  hour  be  the  last  for  me! 

When  thus  I  hail  the  moment  flying: 
'  Ah,  still  delay,  thou  art  so  fair!" 

Then  bind  me  in  thy  chains  undying, 
My  final  ruin  then  declare!"2 

It  is  because  Mephistopheles  fails  to  give  him  this  self-satisfaction 
2  Bayard  Taylor's  trans. 


FAUSTINA— FAVERSHAM 


213 


or  to  absorb  his  being  in  the  pleasures  he  provides,  that  the 
compact  comes  to  nothing.  When,  at  last,  Faust  cries  to  the 
passing  moment  to  remain,  it  is  because  he  has  forgotten  self  in 
enthusiasm  for  a  great  and  beneficent  work,  in  a  state  of  mind  the 
very  antithesis  of  all  that  Mephistopheles  represents.  In  the 
old  Faust-books,  Faust  had  been  given  plenty  of  opportunity 
for  repentance,  but  the  inducements  had  been  no  higher  than 
the  exhibition  of  a  throne  in  heaven  on  the  one  hand  and  the  tor- 
tures of  hell  on  the  other.  Goethe's  Faust,  for  all  its  Christian 
setting,  departs  widely  from  this  orthodox  standpoint.  Faust 
shows  no  signs  of  "  repentance  ";  he  simply  emerges  by  the 
innate  force  of  his  character  from  a  lower  into  a  higher  state. 
The  triumph,  foretold  by  "  the  Lord  "  in  the  opening  scene, 
was  inevitable  from  the  first,  since,  though 

"  '  Man  errs  so  long  as  he  is  striving, 
A  good  man  through  obscurest  aspiration 
Is  ever  conscious  of  the  one  true  way.'  " 

A  man,  in  short,  must  be  judged  not  by  the  sins  and  follies  which 
may  be  but  accidents  of  his  career,  but  by  the  character  which  is 
its  essential  outcome. 

This  idea,  which  inspired  also  the  kindred  theme  of  Browning's 
Paracelsus,  is  the  main  development  introduced  by  Goethe 
into  the  Faust  legend.  The  episode  of  Gretchen,  for  all  its  tragic 
interest,  does  not  belong  to  the  legend  at  all;  and  it  is  difficult 
to  deny  the  pertinency  of  Charles  Lamb's  criticism,  "  What  has 
Margaret  to  do  with  Faust?"  Yet  in  spite  of  all  that  may  be 
said  of  the  irrelevancies,  and  of  the  discussions  of  themes  of 
merely  ephemeral  interest,  with  which  Goethe  overloaded 
especially  the  second  part  of  the  poem,  his  Faust  remains  for  the 
modern  world  the  final  form  of  the  legend  out  of  which  it  grew, 
the  magnificent  expression  of  the  broad  humanism  which,  even 
in  spheres  accounted  orthodox,  has  tended  to  replace  the  peculiar 
studium  theologicum  which  inspired  the  early  Faust-books. 

See  Karl  Engel,  Zusammenstellung  der  Faust-Schriften  vom  16. 
Jahrhundert  bis  Mitte  1884 — a  second  edition  of  the  Bibliotheca 
Faustiana  (1874) — (Oldenburg,  1885),  a  complete  bibliography  of  all 
published  matter  concerned,  even  somewhat  remotely,  with  Faust; 
Goethe's  Faust,  with  introduction  and  notes  by  K.  J.  Schroer 
(2nd  ed.,  Heilbronn,  1886) ;  Carl  Kiesewetter,  Faust  in  der  Geschichte 
und  Tradition  (Leipzig,  1893).  The  last  book,  besides  being  a  critical 
study  of  the  material  for  the  historical  and  legendary  story  of 
Faust,  aims  at  estimating  the  relation  of  the  Faust-legend  to  the 
whole  subject  of  occultism,  ancient  and  modern.  It  is  a  mine  of 
information  on  necromancy  and  its  kindred  subjects,  as  well 
as  on  eminent  theurgists,  wizards,  crystal-gazers  and  the  like  of 
all  ages.  (W.  A.  P.) 

FAUSTINA,  ANNIA  GALERIA,  the  younger,  daughter  of 
Antoninus  Pius,  and  wife  of  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus.  She 
is  accused  by  Dio  Cassius  and  Capitolinus  of  gross  profligacy, 
and  was  reputed  to  have  instigated  the  revolt  of  Avidius  Cassius 
against  her  husband.  She  died  in  175  or  176  (so  Clinton,  Fast: 
rom.)  at  Halala,  near  Mount  Taurus,  in  Cappadocia,  whither  she 
had  accompanied  Aurelius.  Charitable  schools  for  orphan  girls 
(hence  called  Faustinianae)  were  founded  in  her  honour,  like 
those  established  by  her  father  Antoninus  in  honour  of  his  wife 
the  elder  Faustina.  Her  statue  was  placed  in  the  temple  ol 
Venus,  and  she  was  numbered  among  the  tutelary  deities  of  Rome 
From  the  fact  that  Aurelius  was  always  devoted  to  her  and  was 
heartbroken  at  her  death,  it  has  been  inferred  that  the  unfavour- 
able estimate  of  the  historians  is  prejudiced  or  at  least  mistaken. 
See  Capitolinus,  Marcus  Aurelius;  Dio  Cassius  Ixxi.  22,  Ixxiv.  3 
E.  Rerian,  in  Melanges  d'histoire  et  des  voyages,  169-195. 

FAVARA,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Girgenti,  5  m.  E 
of  Girgenti  by  road.     Pop.    (1901)  20,398.     It  possesses  a  fine 
castle  of  the  Chiaramonte  family,  erected  in  1280.     The  town 
has  a  considerable  agricultural  trade,  and  there  are  sulphur  anc 
other  mines  in  the  neighbourhood. 

FAVART,  CHARLES  SIMON  (1710-1792),  French  dramatist 
was  born  in  Paris  on  the  i3th  of  November  1710,  the  son  of  a 
pastry-cook.  He  was  educated  at  the  college  of  Louis-le-Grand 
and  after  his  father's  death  carried  on  the  business  for  a  time 
His  first  success  in  literature  was  La  France  delivree  par  la 
Pucelle  d' Orleans,  a  poem  which  obtained  a  prize  of  the  Academic 
des  Jeux  Flor  ux.  After  the  production  of  his  first  vaudeville 
Les  Deux  Jumellei  (i  734) ,  circumstances  enabled  him  to  relinquish 


usiness  and  devote  himself  entirely  to  the  drama.  He  provided 
many  pieces  anonymously  for  the  lesser  theatres,  and  first  put 
lis  name  to  La  Chercheuse  d' esprit,  which  was  produced  in  1741. 
Among  his  most  succeesful  works  were  Annette  et  Lubin,  Le 
l.oq  du  village  (1743),  Ninette  d  la  cour  (1753),  Les  Trois  Sultanes 
1761)  and  L'Anglaisd  Bordeaux  (1763).  Favart  became  director 
>f  the  Opera  Comique,  and  in  1745  married  MARIE  JUSTINE 
JENOITE  DURONCERAY  (1727-1772),  a  beautiful  young  dancer, 
inger  and  actress,  who  as  "  Mile  Chantilly  "  had  made  a  success- 
ul  debut  the  year  before.  By  their  united  talents  and  labours 
he  Opera  Comique  rose  to  such  a  height  of  success  that  it  aroused 
he  jealousy  of  the  rival  Comedie  Italienne  and  was  suppressed, 
"avart,  left  thus  without  resources,  accepted  the  proposal  of 
Maurice  de  Saxe,  and  undertook  the  direction  of  a  troupe  of 
comedians  which  was  to  accompany  his  army  into  Flanders. 
It  was  part  of  his  duty  to  compose  from  time  to  time  impromptu 
verses  on  the  events  of  the  campaign,  amusing  and  stimulating 
the  spirits  of  the  men.  So  popular  were  Favart  and  his  troupe 
.hat  the  enemy  became  desirous  of  hearing  his  company  and  shar- 
ng  his  services,  and  permission  was  given  to  gratify  them,  battles 
and  comedies  thus  curiously  alternating  with  each  other.  But 
the  marshal,  who  was  an  admirer  of  Mme  Favart,  began  to  perse- 
cute her  with  his  attentions.  To  escape  him  she  went  to  Paris, 
and  the  wrath  of  Saxe  fell  upon  the  husband.  A  lettre  de  cachet 
was  issued  against  him,  but  he  fled  to  Strassburg  and  found 
concealment  in  a  cellar.  Mme  Favart  meanwhile  had  been 
istablished  by  the  marshal  in  a  house  at  Vaugirard;  but  as  she 
proved  a  fickle  mistress  she  was  suddenly  arrested  and  confined 
in  a  convent,  where  she  was  brought  to  unconditional  surrender 
in  the  beginning  of  1750.  Before  the  year  was  out  the  marshal 
died,  and  Mme  Favart  reappeared  at  the  Comedie  Italienne, 
where  for  twenty  years  she  was  the  favourite  actress.  To  her  is 
largely  due  the  beginnings  of  the  change  in  this  theatre  to  perform- 
ances of  a  lyric  type  adapted  from  Italian  models,  which  developed 
later  into  the  genuine  French  comic  opera.  She  was  also  a  bold 
reformer  in  matters  of  stage  costume,  playing  the  peasant  with 
bare  arms,  in  wooden  shoes  and  linen  dress,  and  not,  as  heretofore, 
in  court  costume  with  enormous  hoops,  diamonds  and  long  white 
kid  gloves.  With  her  husband,  and  other  authors,  she  collabor- 
ated in  a  number  of  successful  pieces,  and  one — La  Fille  mal  gardee 
— she  produced  alone. 

Favart  survived  his  wife  twenty  years.  After  the  marshal's 
death  in  1750  he  had  returned  to  Paris,  and  resumed  his  pursuits 
as  a  dramatist.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  abbe  de  Voisenon 
became  intimate  with  him  and  took  part  in  his  labours,  to  what 
extent  is  uncertain.  He  had  grown  nearly  blind  in  his  last 
days,  and  died  in  Paris  on  the  i2th  of  May  1792.  His  plays 
have  been  several  times  republished  in  various  editions  and 
selections  (1763-1772,  12  vols.;  1810,  3  vols.;  1813;  1853). 
His  correspondence  (1759-1763)  with  Count  Durazzo,  director 
of  theatres  at  Vienna,  was  published  in  1808  as  Memoires  et 
correspondance  litteraire,  dramatique  el  anecdotique  de  C.  S.  Favart. 
It  furnishes  valuable  information  on  the  state  of  the  literary  and 
theatrical  worlds  in  the  i8th  century. 

Favart's  second  son,  CHARLES  NICOLAS  JOSEPH  JUSTIN  FAVART 
(1749-1806),  was  an  actor  of  moderate  talent  at  the  Comedie 
Franchise  for  fifteen  years.  He  wrote  a  number  of  successful 
plays: — -Le  Diable  boiteux  (i'j&2),LeMariagesingulier  (1787)  and, 
with  his  father,  La  Vieillesse  d' Annette  (1791).  His  son  Antoine 
Pierre  Charles  Favart  (1780-1867)  was  in  the  diplomatic  service, 
and  assisted  in  editing  his  grandfather's  memoirs;  he  was  a 
playwright  and  painter  as  well. 

FAVERSHAM,  a  market  town  and  river-port,  member  of  the 
Cinque  Port  of  Dover,  and  municipal  borough  in  the  Faversham 
parliamentary  division  of  Kent,  England,  on  a  creek  of  the  Swale, 
9  m.  W.N.W.  of  Canterbury  on  the  South-Eastern  &  Chatham 
railway.  Pop.(i9oi)  11,290.  Thechurchof  St  Maryof  Charity, 
restored  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  in  1874,  is  of  Early  English  archi- 
tecture, and  has  some  remains  on  one  of  the  columns  of  frescoes 
of  the  same  period,  while  the  14th-century  paintings  in  the 
chancel  are  in  better  preservation.  Some  of  the  brasses  are  very 
fine,  and  there  is  one  commemorating  King  Stephen,  as  well  as 


214 


FAVORINUS— FAVRE 


a  tomb  said  to  be  his.  He  was  buried  at  the  abbey  he  founded 
here,  of  which  only  a  wall  and  the  foundations  below  ground 
remain.  At  Davington,  close  to  Faversham,  there  are  remains, 
incorporated  in  a  residence,  of  the  cloisters  and  other  parts  of 
a  Benedictine  priory  founded  in  1153.  Faversham  has  a  free 
grammar  school  founded  in  1527  and  removed  to  its  present 
site  in  1877.  Faversham  Creek  is  navigable  up  to  the  town  for 
vessels  of  200  tons.  The  shipping  trade  is  considerable,  chiefly 
in  coal,  timber  and  agricultural  produce.  The  oyster  fisheries 
are  important,  and  are  managed  by  a  very  ancient  gild,  the  Com- 
pany of  Free  Dredgermen  of  the  Hundred  and  Manor  of  Faver- 
sham. Brewing,  brickmaking  and  the  manufacture  of  cement 
are  also  carried  on,  and  there  are  several  large  powder  mills  in 
the  vicinity.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  4  aldermen 
and  12  councillors.  Area,  686  acres. 

There  was  a  Romano-British  village  on  the  site  of  Faversham. 
The  town  (Fauresfeld,  Faveresham)  owed  its  early  importance 
to  its  situation  as  a  port  on  the  Swale,  to  the  fertile  country 
surrounding  it,  and  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Watling  Street. 
In  8n  it  was  called  the  king's  town,  arid  a  witenagemot  was 
held  here  under  /Ethelstan.  In  1086  it  was  assessed  as  royal 
demesne,  and  a  market  was  held  here  at  this  date.  An  abbey 
was  built  by  Stephen  in  1147,  in  which  he  and  Matilda  were 
buried.  They  had  endowed  it  with  the  manor  and  hundred  of 
Faversham;  this  grant  caused  many  disputes  between  the  abbot 
and  men  of  Faversham  concerning  the  abbot's  jurisdiction. 
Faversham  was  probably  a  member  of  Dover  from  the  earliest 
association  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  certainly  as  early  as  Henry  III., 
who  in  1252  granted  among  other  liberties  of  the  Cinque  Ports 
that  the  barons  of  Faversham  should  plead  only  in  Shepway 
Court,  but  ten  years  later  transferred  certain  pleas  to  the  abbot's 
court.  In  this  reign  also  the  abbot  appointed  the  mayor,  but 
from  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  he  was  elected  by  the  freemen  and 
then  installed  by  the  abbot.  The  corporation  was  prescriptive, 
and  a  hallmote  held  in  1293  was  attended  by  a  mayor  and 
twelve  jurats.  All  the  liberties  of  the  Cinque  Ports  were  granted 
to  the  barons  of  Faversham  by  Edward  I.  in  1302,  and  confirmed 
by  Edward  III.  in  1365,  and  by  later  monarchs.  The  governing 
charter  till  1835  was  that  of  Henry  VIII.,  granted  in  1545  and 
confirmed  by  Edward  VI. 

FAVORINUS  (2nd  century  A.D.),  Greek  sophist  and  philosopher, 
flourished  during  the  reign  of  Hadrian.  A  Gaul  by  birth,  he  was 
a  native  of  Arelate  (Aries) ,  but  at  an  early  age  began  his  lifelong 
travels  through  Greece,  Italy  and  the  East.  His  extensive 
knowledge,  combined  with  great  oratorical  powers,  raised  him 
to  eminence  both  in  Athens  and  in  Rome.  With  Plutarch,  who 
dedicated  to  him  his  treatise  Ilepi  TOV  irpcorov  \ftv\pov,  with 
Herodes  Atticus,  to  whom  he  bequeathed  his  library  at  Rome, 
with  Demetrius  the  Cynic,  Cornelius  Fronto,  Aulus  Gellius, 
and  with  Hadrian  himself,  he  lived  on  intimate  terms;  his  great 
rival,  whom  he  violently  attacked  in  his  later  years,  was  Polemon 
of  Smyrna.  It  was  Favorinus  who,  on  being  silenced  by  Hadrian 
in  an  argument  in  which  the  sophist  might  easily  have  refuted 
his  adversary,  subsequently  explained  that  it  was  foolish  to 
criticize  the  logic  of  the  master  of  thirty  legions.  When  the 
servile  Athenians,  feigning  to  share  the  emperor's  displeasure 
with  the  sophist,  pulled  down  a  statue  which  they  had  erected 
to  him,  Favorinus  remarked  that  if  only  Socrates  also  had  had  a 
statue  at  Athens,  he  might  have  been  spared  the  hemlock.  Of 
the  very  numerous  works  of  Favorinus,  we  possess  only  a  few 
fragments  (unless  the  ~K.opiv8ia.Kfa  Xcryos  attributed  to  his 
tutor  Dio  Chrysostom  is  by  him),  preserved  by  Aulus  Gellius, 
Diogenes  Laertius,  Philostratus,  and  Suidas,  the  second  of 
whom  borrows  from  his  Havrooairfi  ioropia  (miscellaneous 
history)  and  his  'Kwoiun\tU)vtvna.T a  (memoirs).  As  a  philosopher, 
Favorinus  belonged  to  the  sceptical  school;  his  most  important 
work  in  this  connexion  appears  to  have  been  Hvppuvttoi  rpfriroi 
(the  Pyrrhonean  Tropes)  in  ten  books,  in  which  he  endeavours 
to  show  that  the  methods  of  Pyrrho  were  useful  to  those  who 
intended  to  practise  in  the  law  courts. 

See  Philostratus,  Vitae  sophistarum,  i.  8;  Suidas,  *.».;  frags. 
in  C.  W.  Muller,  Frag.  Hist.  Graec.  iii.  4;  monographs  by  L.  Legre 
(1900),  T.  Colardeau  (1903). 


FAVRAS,  THOMAS  DE  MAHY,  MARQUIS  DE  (1744-1790), 
French  royalist,  was  born  on  the  26th  of  March  1744,  at  Blois. 
He  belonged  to  a  poor  family  whose  nobility  dated  from  the 
1 2th  century.  At  seventeen  he  was  a  captain  of  dragoons, 
and  saw  some  service  in  the  closing  campaign  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  In  1772  he  became  first  lieutenant  of  the  Swiss 
guards  of  the  count  of  Provence  (afterwards  Louis  XVIII.). 
Unable  to  meet  the  expenses  of  his  rank,  which  was  equivalent 
to  the  grade  of  colonel  in  the  army,  he  retired  in  1775.  He 
married  in  1776  Victoria  Hedwig  Caroline,  princess  of  Anhalt- 
Bernburg-Schaumburg,  whose  mother,  deserted  by  her  husband 
Prince  Carl  Ludwig  in  1749,  had  found  refuge  with  her  daughter 
in  the  house  of  Marshal  Soubise.  After  his  marriage  he  went  to 
Vienna  to  press  the  restitution  of  his  wife's  rights,  and  spent 
some  time  in  Warsaw.  In  1787  he  was  authorized  to  raise  a 
patriotic  legion  to  help  the  Dutch  against  the  stadtholder 
William  IV.  and  his  Prussian  allies.  Returning  to  Paris  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  he  became  implicated  in  schemes 
for  the  escape  of  Louis  XVI.  from  Paris  and  the  dominance  of 
the  National  Assembly.  He  was  commissioned  by  the  count 
of  Provence  through  one  of  his  gentlemen,  the  comte  de  la 
Chatre,  to  negotiate  a  loan  of  two  million  francs  from  the  bankers 
Schaumel  and  Sartorius.  Favras  took  into  his  confidence 
certain  officers  by  whom  he  was  betrayed;  and,  with  his  wife, 
he  was  arrested  on  Christmas  Eve  1789  and  imprisoned  in  the 
Abbaye.  A  fortnight  later  they  were  separated,  Favras  being 
removed  to  the  Chatelet.  It  was  stated  in  a  leaflet  circulated 
throughout  Paris  that  Favras  had  organized  a  plot  of  which 
the  count  of  Provence  was  the  moving  spirit.  A  force  of  30,000 
was  to  be  raised,  La  Fayette  and  Bailly,  the-  mayor  of  Paris, 
were  to  be  assassinated,  and  Paris  was  to  be  starved  into  sub- 
mission by  cutting  off  supplies.  The  count  hastened  publicly 
to  disavow  Favras  in  a  speech  delivered  before  the  commune  of 
Paris  and  in  a  letter  to  the  National  Assembly,  although  there  is 
no  reasonable  doubt  of  his  complicity  in  the  plot  that  did  exist. 
In  the  course  of  a  trial  of  nearly  two  months'  duration  the 
witnesses  disagreed,  and  even  the  editor  of  the  Revolutions  de 
Paris  (No.  30)  admitted  that  the  evidence  was  insufficient; 
but  an  armed  attempt  of  the  Royalists  on  the  Chatelet  on  the 
26th  of  January,  which  was  defeated  by  La  Fayette,  roused  the 
suspicious  temper  of  the  Parisians  to  fury,  and  on  the  i8th  of 
February  1790,  in  spite  of  the  courageous  defence  of  his  counsel, 
Favras  was  condemned  to  be  hanged.  He  refused  to  give  any 
information  of  the  alleged  plot,  and  the  sentence  was  carried  out 
on  the  Place  de  Greve  the  next  day,  to  the  delight  of  the  populace, 
since  it  was  the  first  instance  when  no  distinction  in  the  mode 
of  execution  was  allowed  between  noble  and  commoner.  Favras 
was  generally  regarded  as  a  martyr  to  his  refusal  to  implicate 
the  count  of  Provence,  and  Madame  de  Favras  was  pensioned 
by  Louis  XVI.  She  left  France,  and  her  son  Charles  de  Favras 
served  in  the  Austrian  and  the  Russian  armies.  He  received  an 
allowance  from  Louis  XVIII.  Her  daughter  Caroline  married 
Riidiger,  Freiherr  von  Stillfried  Ratenic,  in  1805. 

The  official  dossier  of  Favras's  trial  for  high  treason  against 
the  nation  disappeared  from  the  Chatelet,  but  its  substance 
is  preserved  in  the  papers  of  a  clerk. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For  particulars  see  A.  Tuetey,  Repertoire  general 
des  sources  manuscrites  de  I'histoire  de  Paris  pendant  la  Revolution 
Fran$aise  (vol.  i.,  1890,  pp.  175-177);  M.Tourneux,  Bibl.  del'histoire 
de  Paris  pendant  la  Revolution  Fran^aise  (vol.  i.  pp.  196-198,  1890). 
His  brother,  M.  Mahy  de  Cormere,  published  a  Memoirejustificatifin 
1790  and  a  Justification  in  1791.  See  also  a  memoir  by  Eduard, 
Freiherr  v.  Stillfried  Ratenic  (Vienna,  1881),  and  an  article  by  Alexis 
de  Valon  in  the  Revue  des  deux  mondes  (isth  June  1851). 

FAVRE,  JEAN  ALPHONSE  (1815-1890),  Swiss  geologist, 
was  born  at  Geneva  on  the  3ist  of  March  1815.  He  was  for 
many  years  professor  of  geology  in  the  academy  at  Geneva,  and 
afterwards  president  of  the  Federal  Commission  with  charge 
of  the  geological  map  of  Switzerland.  One  of  his  earliest  papers 
was  On  the  Anthracites  of  the  Alps  (1841),  and  later  he  gave 
special  attention  to  the  geology  of  Savoy  and  of  Mont  Blanc, 
and  to  the  ancient  glacial  phenomena  of  those  Alpine  regions. 
His  elucidation  of  the  geological  structure  demonstrated  that 


FAVRE— FAWCETT,  HENRY 


215 


certain  anomalous  occurrences  of  fossils  were  due  to  repeated 
interfoldings  of  the  strata  and  to  complicated  overthrust  faults. 
In  1867  he  published  Rechetches  geologiques  dans  les  parties 
de  la  Savoie,  du  Piemont  et  de  la  Suisse  voisines  du  Mont  Blanc. 
He  died  at  Geneva  in  June  1890. 

His  son  ERNEST  FAVRE  (b.  1843)  has  written  on  the  palaeon- 
tology and  geology  of  Galicia,  Savoy  and  the  Fribourg  Alps, 
and  of  the  Caucasus  and  Crimea. 

FAVRE,  JULES  CLAUDE  GABRIEL  (1809-1880),  French 
statesman,  was  born  at  Lyons  on  the  aist  of  March  1809,  and 
began  his  career  as  an  advocate.  From  the  time  of  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830  he  openly  declared  himself  a  republican,  and  in 
political  trials  he  seized  the  opportunity  to  express  his  opinions. 
After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was  elected  deputy  for  Lyons 
to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  where  he  sat  among  the  moderate 
republicans,  voting  against  the  socialists.  When  Louis  Napoleon 
was  elected  President  of  France,  Favre  made  himself  conspicuous 
by  his  opposition,  and  on  the  2nd  of  December  1851  he  tried  with 
Victor  Hugo  and  others  to  organize  an  armed  resistance  in  the 
streets  of  Paris.  After  the  coup  d'ltat  he  withdrew  from  politics, 
resumed  his  profession,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  defence 
of  Felice  Orsini,  the  perpetrator  of  the  attack  against  the  life 
of  Napoleon  III.  In  1858  he  was  elected  deputy  for  Paris,  and 
was  one  of  the  "  Five  "  who  gave  the  signal  for  the  republican 
opposition  to  the  Empire.  In  1863  he  became  the  head  of  his 
party,  and  delivered  a  number  of  addresses  denouncing  the  Mexi- 
can expedition  and  the  occupation  of  Rome.  These  addresses, 
eloquent,  clear  and  incisive,  won  him  a  seat  in  the  French 
Academy  in  1867.  With  Thiers  he  opposed  the  declaration  of 
war  against  Prussia  in  1870,  and  at  the  news  of  the  defeat  of 
Napoleon  III.  at  Sedan  he  demanded  from  the  Legislative 
Assembly  the  deposition  of  the  emperor.  In  the  government  of 
National  Defence  he  became  vice-president  under  General  Trochu, 
and  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  with  the  onerous  task  of  negotiat- 
ing peace  with  victorious  Germany.  He  proved  to  be  less  adroit 
as  a  diplomat  than  he  had  been  as  an  orator,  and  committed 
several  irreparable  blunders.  His  famous  statement  on  the 
6th  of  September  1870  that  he  "  would  not  yield  to  Germany 
an  inch  of  territory  nor  a  single  stone  of  the  fortresses  "  was  a 
piece  of  oratory  which  Bismarck  met  on  the  igth  by  his  declara- 
tion to  Favre  that  the  cession  of  Alsace  and  of  Lorraine  was  the 
indispensable  condition  of  peace.  He  also  made  the  mistake 
of  not  having  an  assembly  elected  which  would  have  more  regular 
powers  than  the  government  of  National  Defence,  and  of  opposing 
the  removal  of  the  government  from  Paris  during  the  siege.  In 
the  peace  negotiations  he  allowed  Bismarck  to  get  the  better 
of  him,  and  arranged  for  the  armistice  of  the  28th  of  June  1871 
without  knowing!  the  situation  of  the  armies,  and  without 
consulting  the  government  at  Bordeaux.  By  a  grave  oversight 
he  neglected  to  inform  Gambetta  that  the  army  of  the  East 
(80,000  men)  was  not  included  in  the  armistice,  and  it  was  thus 
obliged  to  retreat  to  neutral  territory.  He  gave  no  proof  what- 
ever of  diplomatic  skill  in  the  negotiations  for  the  treaty  of  Frank- 
fort, and  it  was  Bismarck  who  imposed  all  the  conditions.  He 
withdrew  from  the  ministry,  discredited,  on  the  2nd  of  August 
1871,  but  remained  in  the  chamber  of  deputies.  Elected  senator 
on  the  30th  of  January  1876,  he  continued  to  support  the  govern- 
ment of  the  republic  against  the  reactionary  opposition,  until  his 
death  on  the  2oth  of  January  1880. 

His  works  include  many  speeches  and  addresses,  notably 
La  Liberte  de  la  Presse  (1849),  Defense  de  F.  Orsini  (1866), 
Discours  de  reception  a  I' Academic  fran^aise  (1868),  Discours  sur 
la  liberte  interieure  (1869).  In  Le  Gouvernement  de  la  Defense 
Nationale,  3  vols.,  1871-1875,  he  explained  his  r61e  in  1870-1871. 
After  his  death  his  family  published  his  speeches  in  8  volumes. 

See  G.  Hanotaux,  Histoire  de  la  France  contemporaine  (1903,  &c.) ; 
also  E.  Benoit-Levy,  Jules  Favre  (1884). 

FAVUS  (Lat.  for  honeycomb),  a  disease  of  the  scalp,  but  occur- 
ring occasionally  on  any  part  of  the  skin,  and  even  at  times  on 
mucous  membranes.  The  uncomplicated  appearance  is  that 
of  a  number  of  yellowish,  circular,  cup-shaped  crusts  (scutula) 
grouped  in  patches  like  a  piece  of  honeycomb,  each  about  the 


size  of  a  split  pea,  with  a  hair  projecting  in  the  centre.  These 
increase  in  size  and  become  crusted  over,  so  that  the  character- 
istic lesion  can  only  be  seen  round  the  edge  of  the  scab.  Growth 
continues  to  take  place  for  several  months,  when  scab  and 
scutulum  come  away,  leaving  a  shining  bare  patch  destitute 
of  hair.  The  disease  is  essentially  chronic,  lasting  from  ten  to 
twenty  years.  It  is  caused  by  the  growth  of  a  fungus,  and 
pathologically  is  the  reaction  of  the  tissues  to  the  growth.  It 
was  the  first  disease  in  which  a  fungus  was  discovered — by 
J.  L.  Schonlein  in  1839;  the  discovery  was  published  in  a  brief 
note  of  twenty  lines  in  Mutters  Archiv  for  that  year  (p.  82), 
the  fungus  having  been  subsequently  named  by  R.  Remak 
Achorion  Schonleinii  after  its  discoverer.  The  achorion  consists 
of  slender,  mycelial  threads  matted  together,  bearing  oval, 
nucleated  gonidia  either  free  or  jointed.  The  spores  would 
appear  to  enter  through  the  unbroken  cutaneous  surface,  and 
to  germinate  mostly  in  and  around  the  hair-follicle  and  some- 
times in  the  shaft  of  the  hair.  In  1892  two  other  species  of  the 
fungus  were  described  by  P.  G.  Unna  and  Frank,  the  Favus 
griseus,  giving  rise  to  greyish-yellow  scutula,  and  the  Favus 
sulphureus  celerior,  causing  sulphur-yellow  scutula  of  a  rapid 
growth.  Favus  is  commonest  among  the  poorer  Jews  of  Russia, 
Poland,  Hungary,  Galicia  and  the  East,  and  among  the 
same  class  of  Mahommedans  in  Turkey,  Asia  Minor,  Syria, 
Persia,  Egypt,  Algiers,  &c.  It  is  not  rare  in  the  southern  depart- 
ments of  France,  in  some  parts  of  Italy,  and  in  Scotland.  It 
is  spread  by  contagion,  usually  from  cats,  often,  however,  from 
mice,  fowls  or  dogs.  Lack  of  personal  cleanliness  is  an  almost 
necessary  factor  in  its  development,  but  any  one  in  delicate 
health,  especially  if  suffering  from  phthisis,  seems  especially 
liable  to  contract  it.  Before  treatment  can  be  begun  the  scabs 
must  be  removed  by  means  of  carbolized  oil,  and  the  head 
thoroughly  cleansed  with  soft  soap.  The  cure  is  then  brought 
about  by  the  judicious  use  of  parasiticides.  If  the  nails  are 
affected,  avulsion  will  probably  be  needed  before  the  disease  can 
be  reached. 

FAWCETT,  HENRY  (1833-1884),  English  politician  and 
economist,  was  born  at  Salisbury  on  the  25th  of  August  1833. 
His  father,  William  Fawcett,  a  native  of  Kirkby  Lonsdale,  in 
Westmorland,  started  life  as  a  draper's  assistant  at  Salisbury, 
opened  a  draper's  shop  on  his  own  account  in  the  market-place 
there  in  1825,  married  a  solicitor's  daughter  of  the  city,  became 
a  prominent  local  man,  took  a  farm,  developed  his  north-country 
sporting  instincts,  and  displayed  his  shrewdness  by  successful 
speculations  in  Cornish  mining.  His  second  son,  Henry,  inherited 
a  full  measure  of  his  shrewdness,  along  with  his  masculine  energy, 
his  straightforwardness,  his  perseverance  and  his  fondness  for 
fishing.  The  father  was  active  in  electioneering  matters,  and  his 
wife  was  an  ardent  reformer.  Henry  Fawcett  was  educated 
locally  and  at  King's  College  school,  London,  and  proceeded 
to  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  in  October  1852,  migrating  in  1853 
to  Trinity  Hall.  He  was  seventh  wrangler  in  1856,  and  was 
elected  to  a  fellowship  at  his  college. 

He  had  already  attained  some  prominence  as  an  orator  at 
the  Cambridge  Union.  Before  he  left  school  he  had  formed 
the  ambition  of  entering  parliament,  and,  being  a  poor  man,  he 
resolved  to  approach  the  House  of  Commons  through  a  career 
at  the  bar.  He  had  already  entered  Lincoln's  Inn.  His  prospects, 
however,  were  shattered  by  a  calamity  which  befell  him  in 
September  1858,  when  two  stray  pellets  from  his  father's  fowling- 
piece  passed  through  the  glasses  he  was  wearing  and  blinded 
him  for  life.  Within  ten  minutes  after  his  accident  he  had  made 
up  his  mind  "  to  stick  to  his  old  pursuits  as  much  as  possible." 
He  kept  up  all  recreations  contributing  to  the  enjoyment  of  life; 
he  fished,  rowed,  skated,  took  abundant  walking  and  horse 
exercise,  and  learnt  to  play  cards  with  marked  packs.  Soon 
after  his  accident  he  established  his  headquarters  at  Trinity 
Hall,  Cambridge,  entered  cordially  into  the  social  life  of  the 
college,  and  came  to  be  regarded  by  many  as  a  typical  Cambridge 
man.  He  gave  up  mathematics  (for  which  he  had  little  aptitude) , 
and  specialized  in  political  economy.  He  paid  comparatively 
little  attention  to  economic  history,  but  he  was  in  the  main  a 


216 


FAWCETT,  HENRY 


devout  believer  in  economic  theory,  as  represented  by  Ricardo 
and  his  school.  The  later  philosophy  of  the  subject  he  believed 
to  be  summed  up  in  one  book,  Mill's  Principles  of  Political 
Economy,  which  he  regarded  as  the  indispensable  "  vade  mecum  " 
of  every  politician.  He  was  not  a  great  reader,  and  Mill  probably 
never  had  a  serious  rival  in  his  regard,  though  he  was  much 
impressed  by  Buckle's  History  of  Civilization  and  Darwin's 
Origin  of  Species  when  they  severally  appeared.  He  made  a 
great  impression  in  1859  with  a  paper  at  the  British  Association, 
and  he  soon  became  a  familiar  figure  there  and  at  various  lecture 
halls  in  the  north  as  an  exponent  of  orthodox  economic  theory. 
Of  the  sincerity  of  his  faith  he  gave  the  strongest  evidence 
by  his  desire  at  all  times  to  give  a  practical  application  to  his 
views  and  submit  them  to  the  test  of  experiment.  Among 
Mill's  disciples  he  was,  no  doubt,  far  inferior  as  an  economic 
thinker  to  Cairnes,  but  as  a  popularizer  of  the  system  and  a 
demonstrator  of  its  principles  by  concrete  examples  he  had  no 
rival.  His  power  of  exposition  was  illustrated  in  his  Manual  of 
Political  Economy  (1863),  of  which  in  twenty  years  as  many  as 
20,000  copies  were  sold.  Alexander  Macmillan  had  suggested 
the  book,  and  it  appeared  just  in  time  to  serve  as  a  credential, 
when,  in  the  autumn  of  1863,  Fawcett  stood  and  was  elected 
for  the  Chair  of  Political  Economy  at  Cambridge.  The  appoint- 
ment attached  him  permanently  to  Cambridge,  gave  him  an 
income,  and  showed  that  he  was  competent  to  discharge  duties 
from  which  a  blind  man  is  often  considered  to  be  debarred. 
He  was  already  a  member  of  the  Political  Economy  Club,  and 
was  becoming  well  known  in  political  circles  as  an  advanced 
Radical.  In  January  1863,  after  a  spirited  though  abortive 
attempt  in  Southwark,  he  was  only  narrowly  beaten  for  the 
borough  of  Cambridge.  Early  in  1864  he  was  adopted  as  one 
of  the  Liberal  candidates  at  Brighton,  and  at  the  general  election 
of  1865  he  was  elected  by  a  large  majority.  Shortly  after  his 
election  he  became  engaged  to  Millicent,  daughter  of  Mr  Newson 
Garrett  of  Aldeburgh,  Suffolk,  and  in  1867  he  was  married. 
Mrs  Fawcett  (b.  1847)  became  well  known  for  her  social  and 
literary  work,  and  especially  as  an  advocate,  in  the  press  and 
on  the  platform,  of  women's  suffrage  and  the  higher  education 
and  independent  employment  of  women.  And  after  her  husband's 
death,  as  well  as  during  his  lifetime,  she  was  a  prominent  leader 
in  these  movements. 

Fawcett  entered  parliament  just  in  time  to  see  the  close  of 
Palmerston's  career  and  to  hail  the  adoption  by  Gladstone  of 
a  programme  of  reform  to  which  most  of  the  laissez-faire 
economists  gave  assent.  He  was  soon  known  as  a  forcible 
speaker,  and  quickly  overcame  the  imputation  that  he  was 
academic  and  doctrinaire,  though  it  is  true  that  a  certain 
monotony  in  delivery  often  gave  a  slightly  too  didactic  tone  to 
his  discourses.  But  it  was  as  the  uncompromising  critic  of  the 
political  shifts  and  expedients  of  his  leaders  that  he  attracted 
most  attention.  He  constantly  insisted  upon  the  right  of 
exercising  private  judgment,  and  he  especially  devoted  himself 
to  the  defence  of  causes  which,  as  he  thought,  were  neglected 
both  by  his  official  leaders  and  by  his  Radical  comrades.  Re- 
elected  for  Brighton  to  the  parliament  of  1868-1874,  he  greatly 
hampered  the  government  by  his  persistence  in  urging  the 
abolition  of  clerical  fellowships  and  the  payment  of  election 
expenses  out  of  the  rates,  and  by  opposing  the  "  permissive 
compulsion  "  clauses  of  the  Elementary  Education  Bill,  and  the 
exclusion  of  agricultural  children  from  the  scope  of  the  act. 
His  hatred  of  weak  concessions  made  him  the  terror  of  parlia- 
mentary wirepullers,  and  in  1871  he  was  not  undeservedly  spoken 
of  in  The  Times  as  the  most  "thorough  Radical  now  in  the  House." 
His  liberal  ideals  were  further  shocked  by  the  methods  by 
which  Gladstone  achieved  the  abolition  of  Army  Purchase. 
His  disgust  at  the  supineness  of  the  cabinet  in  dealing  with  the 
problems  of  Indian  finance  and  the  growing  evil  of  Commons 
Enclosures  were  added  to  the  catalogue  of  grievances  which 
Fawcett  drew  up  in  a  powerful  article,  "  On  the  Present  Position 
of  the  Government,"  in  the  Fortnightly  Review  for  November 
1871.  In  1867  he  had  opposed  the  expenses  of  a  ball  given  to 
the  sultan  at  the  India  office  being  charged  upon  the  Indian 


budget.  In  1870  he  similarly  opposed  the  taxation  of  the 
Indian  revenue  with  the  cost  of  presents  distributed  by  the  duke 
of  Edinburgh  in  India.  In  1871  he  went  alone  into  the  lobby 
to  vote  against  the  dowry  granted  to  the  princess  Louise.  The 
soundness  of  his  principles  was  not  impeached,  but  his  leaders 
looked  askance  at  him,  and  from  1871  he  was  severely  shunned 
by  the  government  whips.  Their  suspicion  was  justified  when 
in  1873  Fawcett  took  a  leading  share  in  opposing  Gladstone's 
scheme  for  university  education  in  Ireland  as  too  denominational, 
and  so  contributed  largely  to  a  conclusive  defeat  of  the  Gladstone 
ministry. 

From  1869  to  1880  Fawcett  concentrated  his  energies  upon 
two  important  subjects  which  had  not  hitherto  been  deemed 
worthy  of  serious  parliamentary  attention.  The  first  of  these 
was  the  preservation  of  commons,  especially  those  near  large 
towns;  and  the  second  was  the  responsibility  of  the  British 
government  for  the  amendment  of  Indian  finance.  In  both 
cases  the  success  which  he  obtained  exhibited  the  sterling  sense 
and  shrewdness  which  made  up  such  a  great  part  of  Fawcett's 
character.  In  the  first  case  Fawcett's  great  triumph  was  the 
enforcement  of  the  general  principle  that  each  annual  Enclosure 
Act  must  be  scrutinized  by  parliament  and  judged  in  the  light 
of  its  conformity  to  the  interests  of  the  community  at  large. 
Probably  no  one  did  more  than  he  did  to  prevent  the  disafforesta- 
tion  of  Epping  Forest  and  of  the  New  Forest.  From  1869  he 
regularly  attended  the  meetings  of  the  Commons  Preservation 
Society,  and  he  remained  to  the  end  one  of  its  staunchest  sup- 
porters. His  intervention  in  the  matter  of  Indian  finance, 
which  gained  him  the  sobriquet  of  the  "  member  for  India," 
led  to  no  definite  legislative  achievements,  but  it  called  forth 
the  best  energies  of  his  mind  and  helped  to  rouse  an  apathetic 
and  ignorant  public  to  its  duties  and  responsibilities.  Fawcett 
was  defeated  at  Brighton  in  February  1874.  Two  months 
later,  however,  he  was  elected  for  Hackney,  and  retained  the 
seat  during  his  life.  He  was  promptly  replaced  on  the  Indian 
Finance  Committee,  and  continued  his  searching  inquiries  with 
a  view  to  promote  a  stricter  economy  in  the  Indian  budget,  and 
a  more  effective  responsibility  in  the  management  of  Indian 
accounts. 

As  an  opponent  of  the  Disraeli  government  (1874-1880) 
Fawcett  came  more  into  line  with  the  Liberal  leaders.  In  foreign 
politics  he  gave  a  general  adhesion  to  Gladstone's  views,  but  he 
continued  to  devote  much  attention  to  Indian  matters,  and  it 
was  during  this  period  that  he  produced  two  of  his  best  publica- 
tions. His  Free  Trade  and  Protection  (1878)  illustrated  his 
continued  loyalty  to  Cobdenite  ideas.  At  the  same  time  his 
admiration  for  Palmerston  and  his  repugnance  to  schemes  of 
Home  Rule  show  that  he  was  not  by  any  means  a  peace-at-any- 
price  man.  He  thought  that  the  Cobdenites  had  deserved  well 
of  their  country,  but  he  always  maintained  that  their  foreign 
politics  were  biased  to  excess  by  purely  commercial  considera- 
tions. As  befitted  a  writer  whose  linguistic  gifts  were  of  the 
slenderest,  Fawcett's  English  was  a  sound  homespun,  clear  and 
unpretentious.  In  a  vigorous  employment  of  the  vernacular 
he  approached  Cobbett,  whose  writing  he  justly  admired. 
The  second  publication  was  his  Indian  Finance  (1880),  three 
essays  reprinted  from  the  Nineteenth  Century,  with  an  intro- 
duction and  appendix.  When  the  Liberal  party  returned  to 
power  in  1880  Gladstone  offered  Fawcett  a  place  in  the  new 
government  as  postmaster-general  (without  a  seat  in  the  cabinet). 
On  Egyptian  and  other  questions  of  foreign  policy  Fawcett  was 
often  far  from  being  in  full  harmony  with  his  leaders,  but  his 
position  in  the  government  naturally  enforced  reserve.  He  was, 
moreover,  fully  absorbed  by  his  new  administrative  functions. 
He  gained  the  sympathy  of  a  class  which  he  had  hitherto  done 
little  to  conciliate,  that  of  public  officials,  and  he  showed  himself 
a  most  capable  head  of  a  public  department.  To  his  readiness 
in  adopting  suggestions,  and  his  determination  to  push  business 
through  instead  of  allowing  it  to  remain  permanently  in  the 
stage  of  preparation  and  circumlocution,  the  public  is  mainly 
indebted  for  five  substantial  postal  reforms: — (i)  The  parcels 
post,  (2)  postal  orders,  (3)  sixpenny  telegrams,  (4)  the  banking 


FAWCETT,  J.— FAWKES,  GUY 


of  small  savings  by  means  of  stamps,  (5)  increased  facilities  for 
life  insurance  and  annuities.  In  connexion  with  these  last  two 
improvements  Fawcett,  in  1880,  with  the  assistance  of  Mr  James 
Cardin,  took  great  pains  in  drawing  up  a  small  pamphlet  called 
Aids  to  Thrift,  of  which  over  a  million  copies  were  circulated 
gratis.  A  very  useful  minor  innovation  of  his  provided  for  the 
announcement  on  every  pillar-box  of  the  time  of  the  "  next 
collection."  In  the  post  office,  as  elsewhere,  he  was  a  strong 
advocate  of  the  employment  of  women.  Proportional  representa- 
tion and  the  extension  of  franchise  to  women  were  both  political 
doctrines  which  he  adopted  very  early  in  his  career,  and  never 
abandoned.  Honours  were  showered  upon  him  during  his  later 
years.  He  was  made  an  honorary  D.C.L.  of  Oxford,  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  was  in  1883  elected  lord  rector  of 
Glasgow  University.  But  the  stress  of  departmental  work  soon 
began  to  tell  upon  his  health.  In  the  autumn  of  1882  he  had  a 
sharp  attack  of  diphtheria  complicated  by  typhoid,  from  which 
he  never  properly  recovered.  He  resumed  his  activities,  but  on 
the  6th  of  November  1884  he  succumbed  at  Cambridge  to  an 
attack  of  congestion  of  the  lungs.  He  was  buried  in  Trump- 
ington  churchyard,  near  Cambridge,  and  to  his  memory  were 
erected  a  monument  in  Westminster  Abbey,  a  statue  in  Salis- 
bury market-place,  and  a  drinking  fountain  on  the  Thames  em- 
bankment. 

In  economic  matters  Fawcett's  position  can  best  be  described 
as  transitional.  He  believed  in  co-operation  almost  as  a  panacea. 
In  other  matters  he  clung  to  the  old  laissez-faire  theorists,  and 
was  a  strong  anti-socialist,  with  serious  doubts  about  free 
education,  though  he  supported  the  Factory  Acts  and  wished 
their  extension  to  agriculture.  Apparent  inconsistencies  were 
harmonized  to  a  great  extent  by  his  dominating  anxiety  to 
increase  the  well-being  of  the  poor.  One  of  his  noblest  traits 
was  his  kindliness  and  genuine  affection  for  the  humble  and 
oppressed,  country  labourers  and  the  like,  for  whom  his  sympathies 
seemed  always  on  the  increase.  Another  was  his  disposition  to 
interest  himself  in  and  to  befriend  younger  men.  In  the  great 
affliction  of  his  youth  Fawcett  bore  himself  with  a  fortitude 
which  it  would  be  difficult  to  parallel.  The  effect  of  his  blindness 
was,  as  the  event  proved,  the  reverse  of  calamitous.  It  brought 
the  great  aim  and  purpose  of  his  life  to  maturity  at  an  earlier 
date  than  would  otherwise  have  been  possible,  and  it  had  a 
mellowing  influence  upon  his  character  of  an  exceptional  and 
beneficent  kind.  As  a  youth  he  was  rough  and  canny,  with  a 
suspicion  of  harshness.  The' kindness  evoked  by  his  misfortune, 
a  strongly  reciprocated  family  affection,  a  growing  capacity  for 
making  and  keeping  friends — these  and  other  causes  tended  to 
ripen  all  that  was  best,  and  apparently  that  only,  in  a  strong 
but  somewhat  stern  character.  His  acerbity  passed  away,  and 
in  later  life  was  reserved  exclusively  for  official  witnesses  before 
parliamentary  committees.  Frank,  helpful,  conscientious  to  a 
fault,  a  shrewd  gossip,  and  a  staunch  friend,  he  was  a  man 
whom  no  one  could  help  liking.  Several  of  his  letters  to  his  father 
and  mother  at  different  periods  of  his  career  are  preserved  in 
Leslie  Stephen's  admirable  Life  (1885),  and  show  a  goodness 
of  heart,  together  with  a  homely  simplicity  of  nature,  which 
is  most  touching.  In  appearance  Fawcett  was  gaunt  and 
tall,  over  6  ft.  3  in.  in  height,  large  of  bone,  and  massive 
in  limb.  (T.  SE.) 

FAWCETT,  JOHN  (1768-1837),  English  actor  and  playwright, 
was  born  on  the  29th  of  August  1768,  the  son  of  an  actor  of  the 
same  name  (d.  1793).  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  ran  away  from 
school  and  appeared  at  Margate  as  Courtall  in  The  Belle's 
Stratagem;  afterwards  he  joined  Tate  Wilkinson's  company 
and  turned  from  tragedy  to  low  comedy  parts.  In  1791  he 
appeared  at  Covent  Garden,  and  in  1794  at  the  Haymarket. 
Colman,  then  manager  of  that  house,  wrote  a  number  of  parts 
designed  to  suit  his  talents,  and  two  of  Fawcett's  greatest 
successes  were  as  Dr.  Pangloss  in  The  Heir  at  Law  (1797)  and  as 
Dr  Ollapod  in  The  Poor  Gentleman  (1798).  He  retired  from 
the  stage  in  1830. 

FAWKES,  FRANCIS  (1720-1777),  English  poet  and  divine, 
was  born  at  Warmsworth,  near  Doncaster,  Yorkshire,  where 


217 

his  father  was  rector,  and  was  baptized  on  the  4th  of  April  1720. 
After  studying  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
M.A.  in  1745,  he  took  holy  orders,  and  was  successively  curate 
of  Bramham,  curate  of  Croydon,  vicar  of  Orpington,  and  rector 
of  Hayes,  and  finally  was  made  one  of  the  chaplains  to  the  princess 
of  Wales.  His  first  publication  is  said  to  have  been  Bramham 
Park,  a  Poem,  in  1745;  a  volume  of  poems  and  translations 
appeared  in  1761;  and  Partridge  Shooting,  an  eclogue,  in  1764. 
His  translations  of  the  minor  Greek  poets — Anacreon,  Sappho, 
Bion  and  Moschus,  Musaeus,  Theocritus  and  Apollonius — ac- 
quired for  him  considerable  fame,  but  they  are  less  likely  to  be 
remembered  than  his  fine  song,  "  Dear  Tom,  this  brown  jug, 
that  now  foams  with  mild  ale."  Fawkes  died  on  the  26th  of 
August  1777. 

FAWKES,  GUY  (1570-1606),  English  "gunpowder  plot" 
conspirator,  son  of  Edward  Fawkes  of  York,  a  member  of  a 
good  Yorkshire  family  and  advocate  of  the  archbishop  of  York's 
consistory  court,  was  baptized  at  St  Michael  le  Belfrey  at  York 
on  the  1 6th  of  April  1570.  His  parents  were  Protestants,  and 
he  was  educated  at  the  free  school  at  York,  where,  it  is  said, 
John  and  Christopher  Wright  and  the  Jesuit  Tesimond  alias 
Greenway,  afterwards  implicated  in  the  conspiracy,  were  his 
schoolfellows.  On  his  father's  death  in  1579  he  inherited  his 
property.  Soon  afterwards  his  mother  married,  as  her  second 
husband,  Dionis  Baynbrigge  of  Scotton  in  Yorkshire,  to  which 
place  the  family  removed.  Fawkes's  stepfather  was  connected 
with  many  Roman  Catholic  families,  and  was  probably  a  Roman 
Catholic  himself,  and  Fawkes  himself  became  a  zealous  adherent 
of  the  old  faith.  Soon  after  he  had  come  of  age  he  disposed  of 
his  property,  and  in  1593  went  to  Flanders  and  enlisted  in  the 
Spanish  army,  assisting  at  the  capture  of  Calais  by  the  Spanish 
in  1596  and  gaining  some  military  reputation.  According  to 
Father  Greenway  he  was  "  a  man  of  great  piety,  of  exemplary 
temperance,  of  mild  and  cheerful  demeanour,  an  enemy  of 
broils  and  disputes,  a  faithful  friend  and  remarkable  for  his 
punctual  attendance  upon  religious  observances,"  while  his 
society  was  "  sought  by  all  the  most  distinguished  in  the  arch- 
duke's camp  for  nobility  and  virtue."  He  is  described  as  "  tall, 
with  brown  hair  and  auburn  beard." 

In  1604  Thomas  Winter,  at  the  instance  of  Catesby,  in  whose 
mind  the  gunpowder  plot  had  now  taken  definite  shape,  intro- 
duced himself  to  Fawkes  in  Fianders,  and  as  "  a  confident 
gentleman,"  "  best  able  for  this  business,"  brought  him  on  to 
England  as  assistant  in  the  conspiracy.  Shortly  afterwards 
he  was  initiated  into  the  plot,  after  taking  an  oath  of  secrecy, 
meeting  Catesby,  Thomas  Winter,  Thomas  Percy  and  John 
Wright  at  a  house  behind  St  Clement's  (see  GUNPOWDER  PLOT 
and  CATESBY,  ROBERT).  Owing  to  the  fact  of  his  being  unknown 
in  London,  to  his  exceptional  courage  and  coolness,  and  probably 
to  his  experience  in  the  wars  and  at  sieges,  the  actual  accomplish- 
ment of  the  design  was  entrusted  to  Fawkes,  and  when  the  house 
adjoining  the  parliament  house  was  hired  in  Percy's  name,  he 
took  charge  of  it  as  Percy's  servant,  under  the  name  of  Johnson. 
He  acted  as  sentinel  while  the  others  worked  at  the  mine  in 
December  1604,  probably  directing  their  operations,  and  on 
the  discovery  of  the  adjoining  cellar,  situated  immediately 
beneath  the  House  of  Lords,  he  arranged  in  it  the  barrels  of  gun- 
powder, which  he  covered  over  with  firewood  and  coals  and  with 
iron  bars  to  increase  the  force  of  the  explosion.  When  all  was 
ready  in  May  1605  Fawkes  was  despatched  to  Flanders  to 
acquaint  Sir  William  Stanley,  the  betrayer  of  Deventer,  and  the 
intriguer  Owen  with  the  plot.  He  returned  in  August  and  brought 
fresh  gunpowder  into  the  cellars  to  replace  any  which  might 
be  spoilt  by  damp.  A  slow  match  was  prepared  which  would 
give  him  a  quarter  of  an  hour  in  which  to  escape  from  the  ex- 
plosion. On  Saturday,  the  26th  of  October,  Lord  Monteagle 
(q.v.)  received  the  mysterious  letter  which  revealed  the  con- 
spiracy and  of  which  the  conspirators  received  information 
the  following  day.  They,  nevertheless,  after  some  hesitation, 
hoping  that  the  government  would  despise  the  warning,  deter- 
mined to  proceed  with  their  plans,  and  were  encouraged  in  their 
resolution  by  Fawkes,  who  visited  the  cellar  on  the  3Oth  and 


218 


FAY— FAYETTEVILLE 


reported  that  nothing  had  been  moved  or  touched.  He  returned 
accordingly  to  his  lonely  and  perilous  vigil  on  the  4th  of 
November.  On  that  day  the  earl  of  Suffolk,  as  lord  chamberlain, 
visited  the  vault,  accompanied  by  Monteagle,  remarked  the 
quantity  of  faggots,  and  asked  Fawkes,  now  described  as  "  a  very 
tall  and  desperate  fellow,"  who  it  was  that  rented  the  cellar. 
Percy's  name,  which  Fawkes  gave,  aroused  fresh  suspicions 
and  they  retired  to  inform  the  king.  At  about  ten  o'  clock  Robert 
Keyes  brought  Fawkes  from  Percy  a  watch,  that  he  might 
know  how  the  anxious  hours  were  passing,  and  very  shortly 
afterwards  he  was  arrested,  and  the  gunpowder  discovered,  by 
Thomas  Knyvett,  a  Westminster  magistrate.  Fawkes  was 
brought  into  the  king's  bedchamber,  where  the  ministers  had 
hastily  assembled,  at  one  o'clock.  He  maintained  an  attitude 
of  defiance  and  of  "  Roman  resolution,"  smiled  scornfully  at 
his  questioners,  making  no  secret  of  his  intentions,  replied 
to  the  king,  who  asked  why  he  would  kill  him,  that  the  pope 
had  excommunicated  him,  that  "  dangerous  diseases  require  a 
desperate  remedy,"  adding  fiercely  to  the  Scottish  courtiers 
who  surrounded  him  that  "  one  of  his  objects  was  to  blow  back 
the  Scots  into  Scotland."  His  only  regret  was  the  failure  of 
the  scheme.  "  He  carrieth  himself,"  writes  Salisbury  to  Sir 
Charles  Cornwallis,  ambassador  at  Madrid,  "  without  any  feare 
or  perturbation  .  .  .  ;  under  all  this  action  he  is  noe  more 
dismayed,  nay  scarce  any  more  troubled  than  if  he  was  taken  for 
a  poor  robbery  upon  the  highway,"  declaring  "  that  he  is  ready 
to  die,  and  rather  wisheth  10,000  deaths,  than  willingly  to  accuse 
his  master  or  any  other."  He  refused  stubbornly  on  the  following 
days  to  give  information  concerning  his  accomplices;  on  the 
8th  he  gave  a  narrative  of  the  plot,  but  it  was  not  till  the  gth, 
when  the  fugitive  conspirators  had  been  taken  at  Holbeche, 
that  torture  could  wring  from  him  their  names.  His  imperfect 
signature  to  his  confession  of  this  date,  consisting  only  of  his 
Christian  name  and  written  in  a  faint  and  trembling  hand,  is 
probably  a  ghastly  testimony  to  the  severity  of  the  torture 
("per  gradus  ad  ima  ")  which  James  had  ordered  to  be  applied 
if  he  would  not  otherwise  confess  and  the  "  gentler  tortures  " 
were  unavailing, — a  horrible  practice  unrecognized  by  the  law 
of  England,  but  usually  employed  and  justified  at  this  time  in 
cases  of  treason  to  obtain  information.  He  was  tried,  together 
with  the  two  Winters,  John  Grant,  Ambrose  Rokewood,  Robert 
Keyes  and  Thomas  Bates,  before  a  special  commission  in  West- 
minster Hall  on  the  27th  of  January  1606.  In  this  case  there 
could  be  no  defence  and  he  was  found  guilty.  He  suffered 
death  in  company  with  Thomas  Winter,  Rokewood  and  Keyes 
on  the  3ist,  being  drawn  on  a  hurdle  from  the  Tower  to  the 
Parliament  House,  opposite  which  he  was  executed.  He  made 
a  short  speech  on  the  scaffold,  expressing  his  repentance,  and 
mounted  the  ladder  last  and  with  assistance,  being  weak  from 
torture  and  illness.  The  usual  barbarities  practised  upon  him 
after  he  had  been  cut  down  from  the  gallows  were  inflicted  on  a 
body  from  which  all  life  had  already  fled. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Hist,  of  England,  by  S.  R.  Gardiner,  vol.  i. ; 
and  the  same  author's  What  Gunpowder  Plot  was  (1897) ;  What  was 
the  Gunpowder  Plot?  by  J.  Gerard  (1897);  -^The  Gunpowder  Plot,  by 
D.  Jardine  (1857) ;  Calendar  of  State  Pap.  Dom.  1603-1610;  State 
Trials,  vol.  ii.;  Archaeologia,  xii.  200;  R.  Winwood's  Memorials; 
Notes  and  Queries,  vi.  ser.  vii.  233,  viii.  136;  The  Fawkeses  of  York 
in  the  i6th  Century,  by  R.  Davies  (1850);  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.  and 
authorities  cited  there.  The  official  account  (untrustworthy  in 
details)  is  the  True  and  Perfect  Relation  of  the  Whole  Proceedings 
against  the  late  most  Barbarous  Traitors  (1606),  reprinted  by  Bishop 
Barlow  of  Lincoln  as  The  Gunpowder  Treason  (1679).  See  also 
GUNPOWDER  PLOT. 

The  lantern  said  to  be  Guy  Fawkes's  is  in  the  Bodleian  library  at 
Oxford.  (P.  C.  Y.) 

FAY,  ANDRAS  (1786-1864),  Hungarian  poet  and  author, 
was  born  on  the  3Oth  of  May  1786,  at  Kohany  in  the  county  of 
Zemplin,  and  was  educated  for  the  law  at  the  Protestant  college 
of  Sarospatak.  His  Mesek  (Fables),  the  first  edition  of  which 
appeared  at  Vienna  in  1820,  evinced  his  powers  of  satire  and 
invention,  and  won  him  the  well-merited  applause  of  his  country- 
men. These  fables,  which,  on  account  of  their  originality  and 
simplicity,  caused  Fay  to  be  regarded  as  the  Hungarian  Aesop, 


were  translated  into  German  by  Petz  (Raab,  1825),  and  partly 
into  English  by  E.  D.  Butler,  Hungarian  Poems  and  Fables 
(London,  1877).  Fay  wrote  also  numerous  poems,  the  chief  of 
which  are  to  be  found  in  the  collections  Bokreta  (Nosegay)  (Pest, 
1807),  and  Fris  Bokreta  (Fresh  Nosegay)  (Pest,  1818).  He  also 
composed  plays  and  romances  and  tales.  In  1833  Fay  was 
elected  to  the  Hungarian  diet,  and  was  for  a  time  the  leader 
of  the  opposition  party.  It  is  to  him  that  the  Pest  Savings 
Bank  owes  its  origin,  and  he  was  one  of  the  chief  founders 
of  the  Hungarian  National  theatre.  He  died  on  the  26th  of 
July  1864.  His  earlier  works  were  collected  at  Pest  (1843- 
1844,  8  yols.).  The  most  noteworthy  of  his  later  works  is  a 
humorous  novel  entitled  Jdiior  orvos  is  Bakator  Ambrus  szolgdia 
(Jdvor  the  Doctor  and  his  servant  Ambrose  Bakator),  (Pest  1855, 

2     VOls.). 

FAYAL  (Paid),  a  Portuguese  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
forming  part  of  the  Azores  archipelago.  Pop.  (1900)  22,262; 
area,  63  sq.  m.  Fayal,  i.e.  "  the  beech  wood,"  was  so  called 
from  the  former  abundance  of  the  Myrica  faya,  which  its  dis- 
coverers mistook  for  beech  trees.  It  is  one  of  the  most  frequented 
of  the  Azores,  for  it  lies  directly  in  the  track  of  vessels  crossing 
the  Atlantic,  and  has  an  excellent  harbour  at  Horta  (q.v.),  a 
town  of  6574  inhabitants.  Cedros  (3278)  and  Feteira  (2002) 
are  the  other  chief  towns.  The  so-called  "  Fayal  wine,"  which 
was  largely  exported  from  the  Azores  in  the  igth  century,  was 
really  the  produce  of  Pico,  a  larger  island  lying  to  the  east. 
The  women  of  Fayal  manufacture  fine  lace  from  the  agave 
thread.  They  also  execute  carvings  in  snow-white  fig-tree 
pith,  and  carry  on  the  finer  kinds  of  basket-making.  A  small 
valley,  called  Flemengos,  perpetuates  the  name  of  the  Flemish 
settlers,  who  have  left  their  mark  on  the  physical  appearance 
of  the  inhabitants.  (See  AZORES.) 

FAYETTEVILLE,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Washington 
county,  Arkansas, -U.S.A.,  about  150  m.  N.W.  of  Little  Rock. 
Pop.  (1890)  2942;  (1900)  4061;  (1910)  4471.  It  is  served  by  the 
St  Louis  &  San  Francisco  railway.  The  city  lies  about  1400  ft. 
above  the  sea,  in  the  Ozark  Mountain  region.  There  is  much 
fine  scenery  in  the  neighbourhood,  there  are  mineral  springs 
near  by,  and  the  place  has  become  known  as  a  summer  resort. 
Fayetteville  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  Arkansas  (incor- 
porated 1871;  opened  1872;  co-educational),  which  includes 
the  following  departments:  at  Fayetteville,  a  college  of  liberal 
arts,  science  and  engineering,  a  conservatory  of  music  and  art, 
a  preparatory  school,  and  an  agricultural  college  and  agricultural 
experiment  station;  at  Little  Rock,  a  medical  school  and  a  law 
school,  and  at  Pine  Bluff,  the  Branch  Normal  College  for  negroes. 
In  1908  the  university  had  122  instructors  and  a  total  enrolment 
of  1725  students.  In  Fayetteville  there  are  a  National  cemetery 
with  1236  soldiers'  graves  (782  "  unknown  ")  and  a  Confederate 
cemetery  with  725  graves  and  a  memorial  monument.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Fayetteville  there  are  deposits  of  coal;  and  the  city 
is  in  a  fine  fruit-growing  region,  apples  being  the  principal  crop. 
Much  of  the  surrounding  country  is  still  covered  with  timber. 
Among  manufactures  are  lumber,  spokes,  handles,  waggons,  lime, 
evaporated  fruit  and  flour. 

The  first  settlement  on  the  site  of  what  is  now  Fayetteville 
was  made  between  1820  and  1825;  when  Washington  county 
was  created  in  1828  the  place  became  the  county-seat,  and  it 
was  called  Washington  Court-house  until  1829,  when  it  received 
its  present  name.  The  citizens  of  Fayetteville  were  mainly 
Confederate  sympathizers;  Fayetteville  was  raided  by  Federal 
cavalry  on  the  i4th  of  July  1862,  and  was  permanently  occupied 
by  Federal  troops  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year.  Con- 
federate cavalry  under  Brigadier- General  William  Lewis  Cabell 
attacked  the  city  on  the  i8th  of  April  1863,  but  were  driven  off. 
The  town  was  burned  in  August  1863,  and  shelled  on  the  3rd  of 
November  1864,  after  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  by  a  detachment 
of  General  Price's  army.  Fayetteville  was  incorporated  as  a 
town  in  1841,  and  in  1859  received  a  city  charter,  which  was 
abolished  by  act  of  the  Legislature  in  1867;  under  a  general  law 
of  1869  the  town  was  re-incorporated;  and  in  1906  it  became  a 
city  of  the  first  class. 


FAYETTEVILLE— FAZOGLI 


219 


FAYETTEVILLE,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Cumberland 
county,  North  Carolina,  U.S.A.,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Cape  Fear 
river  (at  the  head  of  steamboat  navigation),  about  80  m.  N.W. 
of  Wilmington.  Pop.  (1890)  4222;  (1900)  4670,  including  2221 
negroes;  (1910)  7045.  It  is  served  by  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line 
•  railway  and  the  short  Raleigh  &  Southport  railway,  and  by 
steamboat  lines  to  Wilmington.  A  scheme  was  set  on  foot  for 
the  improvement  by  canalization  of  the  Cape  Fear  river  above 
Wilmington  under  a  Federal  project  of  1902,  which  provided  for 
a  channel  8  ft.  deep  at  low  water  from  Wilmington  to  Fayetteville. 
Below  Wilmington  the  improvement  of  the  river  channel,  270  ft. 
wide  and  16  ft.  deep,  was  completed  in  1889,  and  the  project 
of  1889  provided  for  an  increase  in  depth  to  20  ft.  Pine  forests 
surround  the  town,  and  oaks  and  elms  of  more  than  a  century's 
growth  shade  its  streets.  Fayetteville  has  two  hospitals  (each 
with  a  training  school  for  nurses) ,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  state  coloured 
normal  school  and  of  the  Donaldson  military  school.  Several 
creeks  and  the  upper  Cape  Fear  river  furnish  considerable  water- 
power,  and  in  or  near  Fayetteville  are  manufactories  of  cotton 
goods,  silk,  lumber,  wooden-ware,  turpentine,  carriages,  wagons, 
ploughs,  edge  tools  and  flour.  In  the  earlier  half  of  the  igth 
century  Fayetteville  was  a  great  inland  market  for  the  western 
part  of  the  state,  for  eastern  Tennessee  and  for  south-western 
Virginia.  There  is  a  large  vineyard  in  the  vicinity;  truck- 
gardening  is  an  important  industry  in  the  surrounding  country; 
and  Fayetteville  is  a  shipping  centre  for  small  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, especially  lettuce,  melons  and  berries.  The  municipality 
owns  its  water-works  and  its  electric-lighting  plant.  The  vicinity 
was  settled  between  1729  and  1747  by  Highlanders,  the  settle- 
ment called  Cross  Creek  lying  within  the  present  limits  of  Fayette- 
ville. In  1762,  by  an  act  of  the  assembly,  a  town  was  laid  out 
including  Cross  Creek,  and  was  named  Campbelltown  (or  "  Camp- 
beltown");  but  in  1784,  when  Lafayette  visited  the  town,  its 
name  was  changed  in  his  honour  to  Fayetteville,  though  the 
name  Cross  Creek  continued  to  be  used  locally  for  many  years. 
Flora  McDonald,  the  famous  Scottish  heroine,  came  to  Campbell- 
town  in  April  1775  with  her  husband  and  children,  and  here  she 
seems  to  have  lived  during  the  remainder  of  that  year.  The 
general  assembly  of  the  state  met  at  Fayetteville  in  1787,  1788 
and  1789  (Newbern,  Tarboro,  Hillsboro  and  Fayetteville  all 
being  rivals  at  this  time  for  the  honour  of  becoming  the  permanent 
capital);  and  in  1789  the  Federal  constitution  was  here  ratified 
for  North  Carolina.  In  1831  most  of  the  town  was  burned. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  the  state  authorities  seized  the 
United  States  Arsenal  at  Fayetteville,  which  contained  37,000 
muskets  and  a  complete  equipment  for  a  battery  of  light  artillery. 
In  March  1865  General  W.  T.  Sherman  and  his  army  took 
possession  of  the  town,  destroyed  the  arsenal,  and  did  consider- 
able damage  to  property.  Fayetteville  was  chartered  as  a  city 
in  1893.  A  serious  flood  occurred  in  August  1908. 

FAYRER,  SIR  JOSEPH,  Bart.  (1824-1907),  English  physician, 
was  born  at  Plymouth  on  the  6th  of  December  1824.  After 
studying  medicine  at  Charing  Cross  hospital,  London,  he  was 
in  1847  appointed  medical  officer  of  H.M.S.  "  Victory,"  and 
soon  afterwards  accompanied  the  3rd  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe  on 
a  tour  through  Europe,  in  the  course  of  which  he  saw  fighting 
at  Palmero  and  Rome.  Appointed  an  assistant  surgeon  in 
Bengal  in  1850,  he  went  through  the  Burmese  campaign  of  1852 
and  was  political  assistant  and  Residency  surgeon  at  Lucknow 
during  the  Mutiny.  From  1859  to  1872  he  was  professor  of 
surgery  at  the  Medical  College  of  Calcutta,  and  when  the  prince 
of  Wales  made  his  tour  in  India  he  was  appointed  to  accompany 
him  as  physician.  Returning  from  India,  he  acted  as  president 
of  the  Medical  Board  of  the  India  office  from  1874  to  1895,  and  in 
1896  he  was  created  a  baronet.  Sir  Joseph  Fayrer,  who  became 
a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1877,  wrote  much  on  subjects 
connected  with  the  practice  of  medicine  in  India,  and  was 
especially  known  for  his  studies  on  the  poisonous  snakes 
of  that  country  and  on  the  physiological  effects  produced  by 
their  virus  (Thanatophidia  of  India,  1872).  In  1900  appeared 
his  Recollections  of  my  Life.  He  died  at  Falmouth  on  the  2ist 
of  May  1907. 


FAYUM,  a  mudiria  (province)  of  Upper  Egypt,  having  an  area 
of  490  sq.  m.  and  a  population  (1907)  of  441,583.  The  capital, 
Medinet-el-Fayum,  is8i  m.  S.S.W.  of  Cairo  by  rail.  The  Fayum 
proper  is  an  oasis  in  the  Libyan  Desert,  its  eastern  border  being 
about  15  m.  west  of  the  Nile.  It  is  connected  with  that  river 
by  the  Bahr  Yusuf,  which  reaches  the  oasis  through  a  gap  in 
the  hills  separating  the  province  from  the  Nile  Valley.  South- 
west of  the  Fayum,  and  forming  part  of  the  mudiria,  is  the 
Gharak  depression.  Another  depression,  entirely  barren,  the 
Wadi  Rayan,  covering  280  sq.  m.,  lies  west  of  the  Gharak.  The 
whole  region  is  below  sea-level,  and  save  for  the  gap  mentioned 
is  encircled  by  the  Libyan  hills.  The  lowest  part  of  the  province, 
the  north-west  end,  is  occupied  by  the  Birket  el  Kerun,  or  Lake 
of  the  Horns,  whose  surface  level  is  140  ft.  below  that  of  the  sea. 
The  lake  covers  about  78  sq.  m. 

Differing  from  the  typical  oasis,  whose  fertility  depends  on 
water  obtained  from  springs,  the  cultivated  land  in  the  Fayum 
is  formed  of  Nile  mud  brought  down  by  the  Bahr  Yusuf.  From 
this  channel,  15  m.  in  length  from  Lahun,  at  the  entrance  of 
the  gap  in  the  hills,  to  Medina,  several  canals  branch  off  and  by 
these  the  province  is  irrigated,  the  drainage  water  flowing  into 
the  Birket  el  Kerun.  Over  400  sq.  m.  of  the  Fayum  is  cultivated, 
the  chief  crops  being  cereals  and  cotton.  The  completion  of 
the  Assuan  dam  by  ensuring  a  fuller  supply  of  water  enabled 
20,000  acres  of  land,  previously  unirrigated  and  untaxed,  to  be 
brought  under  cultivation  in  the  three  years  1903-1905.  Three 
crops  are  obtained  in  twenty  months.  The  province  is  noted  for 
its  figs  and  grapes,  the  figs  being  of  exceptionally  good  quality. 
Olives  are  also  cultivated.  Rose  trees  are  very  numerous 
and  most  of  the  attar  of  roses  of  Egypt  is  manufactured  in 
the  province.  The  Fayum  also  possesses  an  excellent  breed 
of  sheep.  Lake  Kerun  abounds  in  fish,  notably  the  bulti  (Nile 
carp),  of  which  considerable  quantities  are  sent  to  Cairo. 

Medinet  el-Fayum  (or  Medina),  the  capital  of  the  province, 
is  a  great  agricultural  centre,  with  a  population  which  increased 
from  26,000  in  1882  to  37,320  in  1907,  and  has  several  large 
bazaars,  mosques,  baths  and  a  much-frequented  weekly  market. 
The  Bahr  Yusuf  runs  through  the  town,  its  banks  lined  with 
houses.  There  are  two  bridges  over  the  stream:  one  of  three 
arches,  which  carries  the  main  street  and  bazaar,  and  one  of  two 
arches  over  which  is  built  the  Kait  Bey  mosque.  Mounds  north 
of  the  town  mark  the  site  of  Arsinoe,  earlier  Crocodilopolis, 
where  was  worshipped  the  sacred  crocodile  kept  in  the  Lake 
of  Moeris.  Besides  Medina  there  are  several  other  towns  in  the 
province,  among  them  Senuris  and  Tomia  to  the  north  of  Medina 
and  Senaru  and  Abuksa  on  the  road  to  the  lake,  all  served  by  rail- 
ways. There  are  also,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
lake,  many  ruins  of  ancient  villages  and  cities.  The  Fayum 
is  the  site  of  the  Lake  of  Moeris  (q.v.)  of  the  ancient  Egyptians — 
a  lake  of  which  Birket  el  Kerun  is  the  shrunken  remnant. 

See  The  Fayum  and  Lake  Moeris,  by  Major  (Sir)  R.  H.  Brown,  R.E. 
(London,  1892),  a  valuable  contribution  as  to  the  condition  of  the 
province  at  that  date,  its  connexion  with  Lake  Moeris  and  its  possi- 
bilities in  the  future;  The  Assuan  Reservoir  and  Lake  Moeris  (London, 
1904),  by  Sir  William  Willcpcks — with  text  in  English,  French  and 
Arabic — a  consideration  of  irrigation  possibilities;  The  Topography 
and  Geology  of  the  Fayum  Province  of  Egypt,  by  H.  J.  L.  Beadnell 
(Cairo,  1905). 

FAZOGLI,  or  FAZOKL,  a  district  of  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan, 
cut  by  1 1°  N.  and  bounded  E.  and  S.  by  Abyssinia.  It  forms  part 
of  the  foot-hills  of  the  Abyssinian  plateau  and  is  traversed  by 
the  Blue  Nile  and  its  affluent  the  Tumat.  Immediately  south  is 
the  auriferous  Beni  Shangul  country.  The  chief  gold-washings 
lie  (in  Abyssinian  territory)  on  the  west  slope  of  the  hills  draining 
to  the  White  Nile.  Here  is  the  steep  Jebel-Dul,  which  appears 
to  contain  rich  gold-bearing  reefs,  as  gold  is  found  in  all  the 
ravines  on  its  flanks.  The  auriferous  region  extends  into  Sudanese 
territory,  gold  dust  being  found  in  all  the  khors  coming  from 
Jebel  Faronge  on  the  S.E.  frontier.  The  inhabitants  of  Fazogli, 
who  are  governed,  under  the  Sudan  administration,  by  their 
own  meks  or  kings,  are  Berta  and  other  Shangalla  tribes  with 
an  admixture  of  Funj  blood,  the  country  having  been  con- 
quered by  the  Funj  rulers  of  Sennar  at  the  close  of  the  isth 


220 


FEA— FEASTS  AND  FESTIVALS 


century.  There  are  also  Arab  settlements.  Fazogli,  the  residence 
of  the  principal  mek,  is  a  straggling  town  built  some  800  yds. 
from  the  left  bank  of  the  Blue  Nile  near  the  Tumat  confluence, 
434  m.  by  river  above  Khartum  and  opposite  Famaka,  the 
headquarters  of  the  Egyptians  in  this  region  between  1839  and 
1883.  Above  Famaka  and  near  the  Abyssinian  frontier  is  the 
prosperous  town  of  Kiri,  while  Abu  Shaneina  on  the  Nile  below 
Fazogli  is  the  spot  where  the  trade  route  from  Beni  Shangul 
strikes  the  river.  The  chief  imports  from  Abyssinia  are  coffee, 
cattle,  transport  animals  and  gold.  Durra  and  tobacco  are  the 
principal  crops.  The  local  currency  includes  rings  of  gold,  specially 
made  as  a  circulating  medium. 

FEA,  CARLO  (1753-1836),  Italian  archaeologist,  was  born 
at  Pigna  in  Piedmont  on  the  2nd  of  February  1753,  and  studied 
law  in  Rome.  He  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  from 
the  university  of  La  Sapienza,  but  archaeology  gradually  ab- 
sorbed his  attention,  and  with  the  view  of  obtaining  better 
opportunities  for  his  researches  in  1798  he  took  orders.  For 
political  reasons  he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Florence; 
on  his  return  in  1799  he  was  imprisoned  by  the  Neapolitans,  at 
that  time  in  occupation  of  Rome,  as  a  Jacobin,  but  shortly 
afterwards  liberated  and  appointed  Commissario  delle  Antichita 
and  librarian  to  Prince  Chigi.  He  died  at  Rome  on  the  i8th  of 
March  1836. 

Fea  revised,  with  notes,  an  Italian  translation  of  J.  J.  Winckel- 
mann's  Geschichte  der  Kunst,  and  also  added  notes  to  some  of  G.  L. 
Rianconi's  works.  Among  his  original  writings  the  principal  are: — 
Miscellanea,  filologica,  crilica,  e  antiquaria ;  L'Inlegrita  del  Panteone 
rivendicala  a  M.  Agrippa;  Frammenti  di  fasti  consolari;  Iscrizioni 
di  monumenti  pubblichi;  and  Descrizione  di  Roma. 

FEARNE,  CHARLES  (1742-1794),  English  jurist,  son  of 
Charles  Fearne,  judge-advocate  of  the  admiralty,  was  born  in 
London  in  1742,  and  was  educated  at  Westminster  school. 
He  adopted  the  legal  profession,  but,  though  well  fitted  by  his 
talents  to  succeed  as  a  barrister,  he  neglected  his  profession  and 
devoted  most  of  his  attention  and  his  patrimony  to  the  prosecu- 
tion of  scientific  experiments,  with  the  vain  hope  of  achieving 
discoveries  which  would  reward  him  for  his  pains  and  expense. 
He  died  in  1794,  leaving  his  widow  and  family  in  necessitous 
circumstances.  His  Essay  on  the  Learning  of  Contingent  Re- 
mainders and  Executory  Devises,  the  work  which  has  made 
his  reputation  as  a  legal  authority,  and  which  has  passed  through 
numerous  editions,  was  called  forth  by  a  decision  of  Lord  Mans- 
field in  the  case  of  Perrin  v.  Blake,  and  had  the  effect  of  reversing 
that  decision. 

A  volume  entitled  Fearne's  Posthumous  Works  was  published  by 
subscription  in  1797  for  the  benefit  of  his  widow. 

FEASTS  AND  FESTIVALS.  A  festival  or  feast1  is  a  day  or 
series  of  days  specially  and  publicly  set  apart  for  religious  observ- 
ances. Whether  its  occurrence  be  casual  or  periodic,  whether 
its  ritual  be  grave  or  gay,  carnal  as  the  orgies  of  Baal  and  Astarte, 
or  spiritual  as  the  worship  of  a  Puritan  Sabbath,  it  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  festival  or  "  holy  day"  as  long  as  it  is  professedly 
held  in  the  name  of  religion. 

To  trace  the  festivals  of  the  world  through  all  their  variations 
would  be  to  trace  the  entire  history  of  human  religion  and  human 
civilization.  Where  no  religion  is,  there  can  of  course  be  no 
feasts;  and  without  civilization  any  attempt  at  festival-keeping 
must  necessarily  be  fitful  and  comparatively  futile.  But  as 
religion  develops,  festivals  develop  with  it,  and  assume  their 
distinctive  character;  and  an  advancing  civilization,  at  least  in 
its  earlier  stages,  will  generally  be  found  to  increase  their  number, 
enrich  their  ritual,  fix  more  precisely  the  time  and  order  of  their 
recurrence,  and  widen  the  area  of  their  observance. 

Some  uncivilized  tribes,  such  as  the  Juangs  of  Bengal,-  the 
Fuegians  and  the  Andamanese,  have  been  described  as  having 
no  word  for  God,  no  idea  of  a  future  state,  and  consequently 
no  religious  ceremonies  of  any  kind  whatever.  But  such  cases, 
doubtful  at  the  best,  are  confessedly  exceptional.  In  the  vast 
majority  of  instances  observed  and  recorded,  the  religiosity 

1  "  To  feast  "  is  simply  to  keep  a  festum  or  festival.  The  ety- 
mology of  the  word  is  uncertain ;  but  probably  it  has  no  connexion 
with  the  Gr.  tmar. 


of  the  savage  is  conspicuous.  Even  when  incapable  of  higher 
manifestations,  it  can  at  least  take  the  form  of  reverence  for  the 
dead;  the  grave-heap  can  became  an  altar  on  which  offerings 
of  food  for  the  departed  may  be  placed,  and  where  in  acts  of 
public  and  private  worship  the  gifts  of  survivors  may  be  accom- 
panied with  praises  and  with  prayers.  That  the  custom  of  ghost- 
propitiation  by  some  sort  of  sacrifice  is  even  now  very  widely 
diffused  among  the  lower  races  at  least,  and  that  there  are  also 
many  curious  "  survivals  "  of  such  a  habit  to  be  traced  among 
highly  civilized  modern  nations,  has  been  abundantly  shown 
of  late  by  numerous  collectors  of  folk-lore  and  students  of 
sociology;  and  indications  of  the  same  phenomena  can  be  readily 
pointed  out  in  the  Rig- Veda,  the  Zend-Avesta  and  the  Pentateuch, 
as  well  as  in  the  known  usages  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Greeks 
and  Romans.2  In  many  cases  the  ceremonial  observed  is  of 
the  simplest;  but  it  ever  tends  to  become  more  elaborate;  and 
above  all  it  calls  for  repetition,  and  repetition,  too,  at  regular 
intervals.  Whenever  this  last  demand  has  made  itself  felt,  a 
calendar  begins  to  take  shape.  The  simplest  calendar  is  obviously 
the  lunar.  "  The  Naga  tribes  of  Assam  celebrate  their  funeral 
feasts  month  by  month,  laying  food  and  drink  on  the  graves 
of  the  departed."  But  it  soon  comes  to  be  combined  with  the 
solar.  Thus  the  Karens,  "  while  habitually  making  oblations, 
have  also  annual  feasts  for  the  dead,  at  which  they  ask  the 
spirits  to  eat  and  drink."  The  natives  of  the  Mexican  valley 
in  November  lay  animals,  edibles  and  flowers  on  the  graves 
of  their  dead  relatives  and  friends.  The  common  people  in 
China  have  a  similar  custom  on  the  arrival  of  the  winter  solstice. 
The  ancient  Peruvians  had  the  custom  of  periodically  assembling 
the  embalmed  bodies  of  their  dead  emperors  in  the  great'  square 
of  the  capital  to  be  feasted  in  company  with  the  people.  The 
Athenians  had  their  annual  Ne/cixria  or  Ne/ie<r«a  and  the  Romans 
their  Feralia  and  Lemuralia.  The  Egyptians  observed  their 
three  "  festivals  of  the  seasons,"  twelve  "  festivals  of  the  month," 
and  twelve  "  festivals  of  the  half  month,"  in  honour  of  their 
dead.  The  Parsees,  too,  were  required  to  render  their  afringans 
(blessings  which  were  to  be  recited  over  a  meal  to  which  an 
angel  or  the  spirit  of  a  deceased  person  was  invited)  at  each  of 
the  six  seasons  of  the  year,  and  also  on  certain  other  days.3 

In  the  majority  of  recorded  instances,  the  religious  feeling 
of  the  savage  has  been  found  to  express  itself  in  other  forms 
besides  that  of  reverence  towards  the  dead.  The  oldest  litera- 
tures of  the  world,  at  all  events,  whether  Aryan  or  Semitic, 
embody  a  religion  of  a  much  higher  type  than  ancestor  worship. 
The  hymns  of  the  Rig-Veda,  for  example,  while  not  without 
traces  of  the  other,  yet  indicate  chiefly  a  worship  of  the  powers 
of  nature,  connected  with  the  regular  recurrence  of  the  seasons. 
Thus  in  iv.  57  we  have  a  hymn  designed  for  use  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  ploughing  time;4  and  in  the  Aitareya-Brahmana, 
the  earliest  treatise  on  Hindu  ceremonial,  we  already  find  a 
complete  series  of  sattras  or  sacrificial  sessions  exactly  following 
the  course  of  the  solar  year.  They  are  divided  into  two  distinct 
sections,  each  consisting  of  six  months  of  thirty  days  each.  The 
sacrifices  are  allowed  to  commence  only  at  certain  lucky  con- 
stellations and  in  certain  months.  So,  for  instance,  as  a  rule,  no 
great  sacrifice  can  commence  during  the  sun's  southern  progress. 
The  great  sacrifices  generally  take  place  in  spring,  in  the  months 
of  April  and  May.5  In  the  Parsee  Scriptures  6  the  year  is  divided 
into  six  seasons  or  gahanbars  of  two  months  each,  concluding 
with  February,  the  season  at  which  "  great  expiatory  sacrifices 
were  offered  for  the  growth  of  the  whole  creation  in  the  last  two 
months  of  the  year."  We  have  no  means  of  knowing  precisely 
what  were  the  arrangements  of  the  Phoenician  calendar,  but  it 

2  See  Spencer,  Principles  of  Sociology,  i.  170,  280,  306. 

3  Haug,  Parsis,  224,  225. 

4  "  May  the  heavens,  the  waters,  the  firmament,  be  kind  to  us;  may 
the  lord  of  the  field  be  gracious  to  us  ....   May  the  oxen  (draw) 
happily,  the  men  labour  happily ;  may  the  traces  bind  happily,  wield 
the  goad  happily  "  (Wilson's  translation,  iii.  224). 

'See  Haugs  Aitareya-brahmanam  of  the  Rig-Veda;  Max  Miiller's 
Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  i.  115. 

6  Visperad.  See  Haug,  Parsis,  192;  Richardson's  Dissertation  on 
the  Language,  &c.,  of  Eastern  Nations,  p.  184;  Morier's  Journey 
through  Persia. 


FEASTS  AND  FESTIVALS 


221 


is  generally  admitted  that  the  worship  was  solar,  the  principal 
festivals  taking  place  in  spring  and  in  autumn.  Among  the 
most  characteristic  celebrations  of  the  Egyptians  were  those 
which  took  place  at  the  a.4>avurfi6s  or  disappearance  of  Osiris 
in  October  or  November,  at  the  search  for  his  remains,  and  their 
discovery  about  the  winter  solstice,  and  at  the  date  of  his  sup- 
posed entrance  into  the  moon  at  the  beginning  of  spring.  The 
Phrygian  festivals  were  also  arranged  on  the  theory  that  the 
deity  was  asleep  during  the  winter  and  awake  during  the  summer; 
in  the  autumn  they  celebrated  his  retiring  to  rest,  and  in  spring 
with  mirth  and  revelry  they  roused  him  from  his  slumbers.1 
The  seasonal  character  of  the  Teutonic  Ostern,  the  Celtic  Beltein 
and  the  Scandinavian  Yule  is  obvious.  Nor  was  the  habit  of 
observing  such  festivals  peculiar  to  the  Aryan  or  the  Semitic 
race.  The  Mexicans,  who  were  remarkable  for  the  perfection 
of  their  calendar,  in  addition  to  this  had  an  elaborate  system 
of  movable  and  immovable  feasts  distributed  over  the  entire 
year;  the  principal  festivals,  however,  in  honour  of  their  chief 
gods,  Tezcatlipoca,  Huitzilopochtli  and  Tlaloc,  were  held  in 
May,  June  and  December.  Still  more  plainly  connected  with 
the  revolutions  of  the  seasons  was  the  public  worship  of  the 
ancient  Peruvians,  who,  besides  the  ordinary  feast  at  each  new 
moon,  observed  four  solar  festivals  annually.  Of  these  the 
most  important  was  the  Yntip-Raymi  (Sun-feast),  which, 
preceded  by  a  three  days'  fast,  began  with  the  summer  solstice, 
and  lasted  for  nine  days.  Its  ceremonies  have  been  often 
described.  A  similar  but  less  important  festival  was  held  at  the 
winter  solstice.  The  Cusqui-Raymi,  held  after  seedtime,  as 
the  maize  began  to  appear,  was  celebrated  with  sacrifices  and 
banquets,  music  and  dancing.  A  fourth  great  festival,  called 
Citua,  held  on  the  first  new  moon  after  the  autumnal  equinox, 
was  preceded  by  a  strict  fast  and  special  observances  intended 
for  purposes  of  purification  and  expiation,  after  which  the 
festivities  lasted  until  the  moon  entered  her  second  quarter. 

Greek  Festivals. — Perhaps  the  annual  Attic  festival  in  honour 
of  Erechtheus  alluded  to  in  the  Iliad  (ii. 550)  ought  to  be  regarded 
as  an  instance  of  ancestor- worship;  but  the  seasonal  character 
of  the  toprri  or  new-moon  feast  in  Od.  xx.  156,  and  of  the 
6a.\vaia  or  harvest-festival  in  II.  ix.  533,  is  generally  acknow- 
ledged. The  older  Homeric  poems,  however,  give  'no  such 
express  indications  of  a  fully-developed  system  of  festivals  as 
are  to  be  met  with  in  the  so-called  "  Homeric  "  hymns,  in  the 
Works  and  Days  of  Hesiod,  in  the  pages  of  Herodotus,  and  so 
abundantly  in  most  authors  of  the  subsequent  period;  and  it  is 
manifest  that  the  calendar  of  Homer  or  even  of  Herodotus 
must  have  been  a  much  simpler  matter  than  that  of  the  Taren- 
tines,  for  example,  came  to  be,  of  whom  we  are  told  by  Strabo 
that  their  holidays  were  in  excess  of  their  working  days.  Each 
demos  of  ancient  Greece  during  the  historical  period  had  its 
own  local  festivals  (eopral  drjiJoriKai) ,  often  largely  attended 
and  splendidly  solemnized,  the  usages  of  which,  though  essentially 
alike,  differed  very  considerably  in  details.  These  details  have 
in  many  cases  been  wholly  lost,  and  in  others  have  reached  us 
only  in  a  very  fragmentary  state.  But  with  regard  to  the 
Athenian  calendar,  the  most  interesting  of  all,  our  means  of 
information  are  fortunately  very  copious.  It  included  some 
50  or  60  days  on  which  all  business,  and  especially  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  was  by  order  of  the  magistrates  suspended. 
Among  these  Upofjnr)vitu  were  included — in  Gamelion  (January), 
the  Lenaea  or  festival  of  vats  in  honour  of  Dionysus;  in 
Anthesterion  (February),  the  Anthesteria,  also  in  honour  of 
Dionysus,  lasting  three  days  (Pithoigia,  Choes  and  Chytri); 
the  Diasia  in  honour  of  Zeus,  and  the  lesser  Eleusinia;  in 
Elaphebolion  (March),  the  Pandia  (?  of  Zeus),  the  Elaphebolia 
of  Artemis,  and  the  greater  Dionysia;  in  Munychion,  the 
Munychia  of  Artemis  as  the  moon  goddess  (JAovvvxio-)  and  the 
Delphinia  of  Apollo;  in  Thargelion  (May),  the  Thargelia  of 
Apollo  and  the  Plynteria  and  Callynteria  of  Athena;  in  Sciro- 
phorion  (June),  the  Diipolia.  of  Zeus  and  the  Sdrophoria  of 
Athena;  in  Hekatombaion,  hecatombs  were  offered  to  Apollo 
the  summer-god,  and  the  Crania  of  Cronus  and  the  Panathenaea 
1  Plutarch,  De  Iside  et  Osiride;  Macrobius,  Saturnalia,  i.  21. 


of  Athena  were  held;  in  Metageitnion,  the  Metageitnia  of 
Apollo;  in  Boedromion,  the  Boedromia  of  Apollo  the  helper,2 
the  Nekusia  or  Nemeseia  (the  festival  of  the  dead),  and  the 
greater  Eleusinia;  in  Pyanepsion,  the  Pyanepsia  of  Apollo,  the 
Oschophoria  of  Dionysus  (probably),  the  Chalkeia  or  Athenaea  of 
Athena,  the  Thesmophoria  of  Demeter,  and  the  Apaturia;  in 
Maimacterion,  the  Maimacteria  of  Zeus;  and  in  Poseideon 
(December),  the  lesser  Dionysia. 

Of  these  some  are  commemorative  of  historical  events,  and 
one  at  least  may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  a  relic  of  ancestor- 
worship;  but  the  great  majority  are  nature-festivals,  associating 
themselves  in  the  manner  that  has  already  been  indicated  with 
the  phenomena  of  the  seasons,  the  equinoxes  and  the  solstices.5 
In  addition  to  their  numerous  public  festivals,  the  Greeks  held 
various  family  celebrations,  also  called  toprai,  in  connexion  with 
weddings,  births  and  similar  domestic  occurrences.  For  the 
great  national  vav.jyvpea — Olympian,  Pythian,  Nemean  and 
Isthmian — see  the  article  GAMES,  CLASSICAL. 

Roman  Festivals. — For  the  purpose  of  holding  comitia  and 
administering  justice,  the  days  of  the  Roman  year  were  regarded 
as  being  either  dies  fasti  or  dies  nefasti — the  dies  fasti  being  the 
days  on  which  it  was  lawful  for  the  praetors  to  administer 
justice  in  the  public  courts,  while  on  the  dies  nefasti  neither 
courts  of  justice  nor  meetings  of  comitia  were  allowed  to  be  held. 
Some  days  were  fasti  during  one  portion  and  nefasti  during 
another;  these  were  called  dies  intcrcisi.  For  the  purposes  of 
religion  a  different  division  of  the  year  was  made;  the  days 
were  treated  asfesti  or  as  profesli, — the  former  being  consecrated 
to  acts  of  public  worship,  such  as  sacrifices,  banquets  and  games, 
while  the  latter  (whether  fasti  or  nefasti)  were  not  specially 
claimed  for  religious  purposes.  The  dies  festi  or  feriae  publicae 4 
were  either  stativae,  conceptivae  or  impcrativae.  The  stalivae 
were  such  as  were  observed  regularly,  each  on  a  definite  day; 
the  conceptivae  were  observed  annually  on  days  fixed  by  the 
authorities  for  the  time  being;  the  imperativae  were  publicly 
appointed  as  occasion  called  for  them.  In  the  Augustan  age  the 
feriae  stalivae  were  very  numerous,  as  may  be  seen  from  what 
we  possess  of  the  Fasti  of  Ovid.  The  number  was  somewhat 
fluctuating.  Festivals  frequently  fell  into  desuetude  or  were 
revived,  were  increased  or  diminished,  were  shortened  or  pro- 
longed at  the  will  of  the  emperor,  or  under  the  caprice  of  the 
popular  taste.  Thus  Augustus  restored  the  Compitalia  and 
Lupercalia;  while  Marcus  Antoninus  in  his  turn  found  it  ex- 
pedient to  diminish  the  number  of  holidays. 

The  following  is  an  enumeration  of  the  stated  festivals  as 
given  by  Ovid  and  contemporary  writers.  The  first  day  of 
January  was  observed  somewhat  as  is  the  modern  New  Year's 
day:  clients  sent  presents  to  their  patrons,  slaves  to  their 
masters,  friends  and  relatives  to  one  another.  On  the  pth  the 
Agonalia  were  held,  apparently  in  honour  of  Janus.  On  the 
nth  the  Carmentalia  were  kept  as  a  half-holiday,  but  principally 
by  women;  so  also  on  the  isth.  On  the  i3th  of  February  were 
the  Faunalia,  on  the  isth  the  Lupercalia,  on  the  i7th  the 
Quirinalia,  on  the  i8th  the  Feralia,  on  the  23rd  (at  one  time  the 
last  day  of  the  Roman  year)  the  Terminalia,  on  the  24th  the 
Regifugium  or  Fugalia,  and  on  the  2;th  the  Equiria  (of  Mars). 
On  the  ist  of  March  were  the  Malronalia,  on  the  I4th  a  repetition 
of  the  Equiria,  on  the  isth  the  festival  of  Anna  Perenna,  on  the 
1 7th  the  Liber  alia  or  Agonalia,  and  from  the  ipth  to  the  23rd 
the  Quinquatria  (of  Minerva).  On  the  4th  of  April  were  the 
Megalesia  (of  Cybele),  on  the  i2th  the  Cerealia,  on  the  2ist  the 
Pa/ilia,  on  the  23rd  the  Vinalia,  on  the  2sth  the  Robigalia, 
and  on  the  28th  the  Floralia.  The  ist  of  May  was  the  festival 
of  the  Lares  Praeslites;  on  the  gth,  nth  and  i3th  the  Lemuria 
were  celebrated;  on  the  1 2th  the  Ludi  Marliales,  and  on  the  isth 
those  of  Mercury.  June  5  was  sacred  to  Semo  Sancus;  the 
Vestalia  occurred  on  the  pth,  the  Matralia  on  the  nth,  and  the 

J  In  this  month  the  anniversaries  of  the  battle  of  Marathon,  and 
of  the  downfall  of  the  thirty  tyrants,  were  also  publicly  celebrated. 

8  See  Schoemann,  Griechische  Allertumer,  ii.  439  seq.;  Mommsen, 
Heortologie. 

*  Feriae  privatae,  such  as  anniversaries  of  births,  deaths  and  the 
like,  were  observed  by  separate  clans,  families  or  individuals. 


222 


FEASTS  AND  FESTIVALS 


Quinquatrus  Minusculae  on  the  I3th.  The  Ludi  Apollinares 
were  on  the  5th,  and  the  Neptunalia  on  the  23rd  of  July.  On 
the  i3th  of  August  were  the  Nemoralia,  in  honour  of  Diana; 
on  the  i8th  the  Consualia,  on  the  igth  the  Vinalia  Rustica,  and 
on  the  23rd  the  Vulcanalia.  The  Ludi  Magni,  in  honour  of 
Jupiter,  Juno  and  Minerva,  began  on  September  4.  The  Medi- 
trinalia  (new  wine)  were  on  the  nth  of  October,  the  Faunalia 
on  the  i3th,  and  the  Equiria  on  the  isth.  The  Epulum  Jovis 
was  on  I3th  November.  The  December  festivals  were — on  the  sth 
Faunalia,  and  towards  the  close  Opalia,  Saturnalia,  Larentalia. 

The  calendar  as  it  stood  at  the  Augustan  age  was  known 
to  contain  many  comparatively  recent  accessions,  brought 
in  under  the  influence  of  two  "  closely  allied  powers,  the  foreign 
priest  and  the  foreign  cook  "  (Mommsen).  The  Megalesia,  for 
example,  had  been  introduced  204  B.C.  The  Ludi  Apollinares 
could  not  be  traced  farther  back  than  208  B.C.  The  Floralia 
and  Cerealia  had  not  come  in  much  earlier.  Among  the  oldest 
feasts  were  undoubtedly  the  Lupercalia,  in  honour  of  Lupercus, 
the  god  of  fertility;  the  Equiria,  in  honour  of  Mars;  the  Palilia; 
the  great  September  festival;  and  the  Saturnalia. 

Among  the  feriae  conceptivae  were  the  very  ancient  feriae 
Latinae,  held  in  honour  of  Jupiter  on  the  Alban  Mount,  and 
attended  by  all  the  higher  magistrates  and  the  whole  body  of 
the  senate.  The  time  of  their  celebration  greatly  depended 
on  the  state  of  affairs  at  Rome,  as  the  consuls  were  not  allowed 
to  take  the  field  until  they  had  held  the  Latinae,  which  were 
regarded  as  days  of  a  sacred  truce.  The  feriae  sementivae 
were  held  in  the  spring,  and  the  Ambaroalia  in  autumn,  both 
in  honour  of  Ceres.  The  Paganalia  of  each  pagus,  and  the 
Compitalia  of  each  vicus  were  also  conceptivae.  Of  feriae 
imperativae, — that  is  to  say,  festivals  appointed  by  the  senate, 
or  magistrates,  or  higher  priests  to  commemorate  some  great 
event  or  avert  some  threatened  disaster, — the  best  known  is 
the  Novendiale,  which  used  to  be  celebrated  as  often  as  stones 
fell  from  heaven  (Livy  xxi.  62,  xxv.  7,  &c.).  In  addition  to 
all  those  already  mentioned,  there  occasionally  occurred  ludi 
volivi,  which  were  celebrated  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  ;  ludi 
funebres,  sometimes  given  by  private  persons;  and  ludi  secular  es, 
to  celebrate  certain  periods  marked  off  in  the  Etrusco-Roman 
religion. 

Feasts  of  the  Jews. — By  Old  Testament  writers  a  festival  or 
feast  is  generally  called  either  w  (compare  the  Arabic  Hadj),  from 
jjri  to  rejoice,  or  nyto,  from  is-,,  to  appoint.  The  words  njp  and 
jhj)  H-ipp  are  also  occasionally  used.  In  the  Talmud  the  three 
principal  feasts  are  called  D^J-I,  after  Exod.  xxiii.  14.  Of  the 
Jewish  feasts  which  are  usually  traced  to  a  pre-Mosaic  origin 
the  most  important  and  characteristic  was  the  weekly  Sabbath, 
but  special  importance  was  also  attached  from  a  very  early  date 
to  the  lunar  periods.  It  is  probable  that  other  festivals  also,  of 
a  seasonal  character,  were  observed  (see  Exod.  v.  i ) .  In  common 
with  most  others,  the  Mosaic  system  of  annual  feasts  groups 
itself  readily  around  the  vernal  and  autumnal  equinoxes.  In 
Lev.  xxiii.,  where  the  list  is  most  fully  given,  they  seem  to  be 
arranged  with  a  conscious  reference  to  the  sacred  number  seven 
(compare  Numb,  xxviii.).  Those  belonging  to  the  vernal  equinox 
are  three  in  number  ;  a  preparatory  day,  that  of  the  Passover, 
leads  up  to  the  principal  festival,  that  of  unleavened  bread, 
which  again  is  followed  by  an  after-feast,  that  of  Pentecost  (see 
PASSOVER,  PENTECOST).  Those  of  the  autumnal  equinox  are 
four;  a  preparatory  day  on  the  new  moon  of  the  seventh  month 
(the  Feast  of  Trumpets)  is  followed  by  a  great  day  of  rest,  the 
day  of  Atonement  (which,  however,  was  hardly  a  festival  in  the 
stricter  sense  of  the  word),  by  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  and  by 
a  great  concluding  day  (Lev.  xxiii.  36;  John  vii.  37).  If  the 
feast  of  the  Passover  be  excepted,  it  will  be  seen  that  all  these 
celebrations  or  commemorations  associate  themselves  more 
readily  with  natural  than  with  historical  events.1  There  was 

1  In  the  "  parallel  "  passages,  there  is  considerable  variety  in  the 
designation  and  arrangement  of  these  feasts.  While'Ex.  xii.  approxi- 
mates most  closely  to  Lev.  xxiii.  and  Num.  xxviii.,  Ex.  xxiii.  has 
stronger  affinities  with  Deut.  xvi.  The  relations  of  these  passages  are 
largely  discussed  by  Graf,  Die  geschichtlichen  Bticher  des  A.  T.,  pp. 
34-41 ,  and  by  other  recent  critics. 


also  a  considerable  number  of  post-Mosaic  festivals,  of  which 
the  principal  were  that  of  the  Dedication  (described  in  i  Mace, 
iv.  52-59;  comp.  John  x.  22)  and  that  of  Purim,  the  origin  of 
which  is  given  in  the  book  of  Esther  (ix.  20  seq.) .  It  has  probably 
no  connexion  with  the  Persian  festival  Furdigan  (see  ESTHER).2 

Earlier  Christian  Festivals. — While  making  it  abundantly 
manifest  that  Christ  and  his  disciples  observed  the  appointed 
Jewish  feasts,  the  New  Testament  nowhere  records  the  formal 
institution  of  any  distinctively  Christian  festival.  But  we  have 
unambiguous  evidence  of  the  actual  observance,  from  a  very 
early  period,  of  the  first  day  of  the  week  as  a  holy  day  (John 
xx.  19,  26;  i  Cor.  xvi.  2;  Acts  xx.  7;  Rev.  i.  10).  Pliny  in 
his  letter  to  Trajan  describes  the  Christians  of  Bithynia  as  meeting 
for  religious  purposes  on  a  set  day;  that  this  day  was  Sunday  is 
put  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt  by  such  a  passage  as  that  in  the 
Apology  of  Justin  Martyr,  where  he  says  that  "  on  Sunday 
(rfj  TOV  fi\lov  \eyontvrj  ifcw)  all  the  Christians  living  either  in  the 
city  or  the  country  met  together."  The  Jewish  element,  in  some 
churches  at  least,  and  especially  in  the  East,  was  strong  enough 
to  secure  that,  along  with  the  dies  dominica,  the  seventh  day 
should  continue  to  be  kept  holy.  Thus  in  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions (ii.  59)  we  find  the  Saturday  specially  mentioned  along 
with  the  Sunday  as  a  day  for  the  assembling  of  the  church; 
in  v.  15  it  is  ordained  that  there  shall  be  no  fasting  on  Saturday, 
while  in  viii.  33  it  is  added  that  both  on  Saturday  and  Sunday 
slaves  are  to  have  rest  from  their  labours.  The  i6th  canon  of 
the  council  of  Laodicea  almost  certainly  means  that  solemn 
public  service  was  to  be  held  on  Saturday  as  well  as  on  Sunday. 
In  other  quarters,  however,  the  tendency  to  regard  both  days  as 
equally  sacred  met  with  considerable  resistance.  The  36th 
canon  of  the  council  of  Illiberis,  for  example,  deciding  that 
Saturday  should  be  observed  as  a  fast-day,  was  doubtless  intended 
to  enforce  the  distinction  between  Saturday  and  Sunday.  At 
Milan  in  Ambrose's  time  Saturday  was  observed  as  a  [festival; 
but  Pope  Innocent  is  found  writing  to  the  bishop  of  Eugubium 
to  urge  that  it  should  be  kept  as  a  fast.  Ultimately  the  Christian 
church  came  to  recognize  but  one  weekly  festival. 

The  numerous  yearly  festivals  of  the  later  Christian  church, 
when  historically  investigated,  can  be  traced  to  very,  small 
beginnings.  Indeed,  while  it  appears  to  be  tolerably  certain  that 
Jewish  Christians  for  the  most  part  retained  all  the  festivals 
which  had  been  instituted  under  the  old  dispensation,  it  is  not 
at  all  probable  that  either  they  or  their  Gentile  brethren  recog- 
nized any  yearly  feasts  as  of  distinctively  Christian  origin  or 
obligation.  It  cannot  be  doubted,  however,  that  gradually, 
in  the  course  of  the  2nd  century,  the  universal  church  came  to 
observe  the  anniversaries  of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Christ — 
the  Trdaxo,  aravptixrifiov  and  the  iraaxa  avaaraaiijov,  as  they 
were  respectively  called  (see  EASTER  and  GOOD  FRIDAY).  Not 
long  afterwards  Whitsunday  also  came  to  be  fixed  in  the  usage 
of  Christendom  as  a  great  annual  festival.  Even  Origen  (in  the 
Sth  book  Against  Celsus)  enumerates  as  Christian  festivals  the 
Sunday,  the  irapaaicevri,  the  Passover  with  the  feast  of  the 
Resurrection,  and  Pentecost;  under  which  latter  term,  however, 
he  includes  the  whole  period  between  Easter  and  Whitsuntide. 
About  Cyprian's  time  we  find  individual  Christians  commemorat- 
ing their  departed  friends,  and  whole  churches  commemorating 
their  martyrs;  in  particular,  there  are  traces  of  a  local  and 
partial  observance  of  the  feast  of  the  Innocents.  Christmas  day 
and  Epiphany  were  among  the  later  introductions,  the  feast  of 
the  Epiphany  being  somewhat  the  earlier  of  the  two.  Both  are 
alluded  to  indeed  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus  (i.  340),  but  only 
in  a  way  which  indicates  that  even  in  his  time  the  precise  date 
of  Christ's  birth  was  unknown,  that  its  anniversary  was  not 
usually  observed,  and  that  the  day  of  his  baptism  was  kept  as 
a  festival  only  by  the  followers  of  Basilides  (see  EPIPHANY). 

When  we  come  down  to  the  4th  century  we  find  that,  among 
the  50  days  between  Easter  and  Pentecost,  Ascension  Day  has 

1  On  the  whole  subject  of  Jewish  festivals  see  Reland,  Antiq.  Hebr. ; 
Knobel,  Leviticus  (c.  23);  George,  Die  judischen  Fes'te;  Edersheim, 
The  Temple;  its  Ministry  and  Services;  Ewald,  Altertumer  des 
Volkes  Israel;  articles  in  Bible  dictionaries. 


FEASTS  AND  FESTIVALS 


223 


come  into  new  prominence.  Augustine,  for  example,  enumerates 
as  anniversaries  celebrated  by  the  whole  church  those  of  Christ's 
passion,  resurrection  and  ascension,  along  with  that  of  the  out- 
pouring of  the  Holy  Ghost,  while  he  is  silent  with  regard  to 
Christmas  and  Epiphany.  The  general  tendency  of  this  and  the 
following  centuries  was  largely  to  increase  the  festivals  of  the 
Church,  and  by  legislation  to  make  them  more  fixed  and  uniform. 
Many  passages,  indeed,  could  be  quoted  from  Chrysostom, 
Jerome  and  Augustine  to  show  that  these  fathers  had  not  by 
any  means  forgotten  that  comparative  freedom  with  regard 
to  outward  observances  was  one  of  the  distinctive  excellences 
of  Christianity  as  contrasted  with  Judaism  and  the  various 
heathen  systems  (compare  Socrates,  H.E.  v.  22).  But  there 
were  many  special  circumstances  which  seemed  to  the  leaders 
of  the  Church  at  that  time  to  necessitate  the  permission  and  even 
legislative  sanction  of  a  large  number  of  new  feasts.  The  innova- 
tions of  heretics  sometimes  seemed  to  call  for  rectification  by 
the  institution  of  more  orthodox  observances;  in  other  instances 
the  propensity  of  rude  and  uneducated  converts  from  paganism 
to  cling  to  the  festal  rites  of  their  forefathers  proved  to  be  in- 
vincible, so  that  it  was  seen  to  be  necessary  to  seek  to  adapt 
the  old  usages  to  the  new  worship  rather  than  to  abolish 
them  altogether;1  moreover,  although  the  empire  had  become 
Christian,  it  was  manifestly  expedient  that  the  old  holidays 
should  be  recognized  as  much  as  possible  in  the  new  arrange- 
ments of  the  calendar.  Constantine  soon  after  his  conversion 
enacted  that  on  the  dies  dominica  there  should  be  no  suits  or 
trials  in  law;  Theodosius  the  Great  added  a  prohibition  of  all 
public  shows  on  that  day,  and  Theodosius  the  younger  extended 
the  prohibition  to  Epiphany  and  the  anniversaries  of  martyrdoms, 
which  at  that  time  included  the  festivals  of  St  Stephen,  and  of  St 
Peter  and  St  Paul,  as  also  that  of  the  Maccabees.  In  the  zist 
canon  of  the  council  of  Agde  (506),  besides  Easter,  Christmas, 
Epiphany,  Ascension  and  Pentecost,  we  find  the  Nativity  of 
John  the  Baptist  already  mentioned  as  one  of  the  more  important 
festivals  on  which  attendance  at  church  was  regarded  as  obli- 
gatory. To  these  were  added,  in  the  centuries  immediately 
following,  the  feasts  of  the  Annunciation,  the  Purification,  and 
the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  ;  as  well  as  those  of  the  Circum- 
cision, of  St  Michael  and  of  All  Saints. 

Festivals  were  in  practice  distinguished  from  ordinary  days 
in  the  following  ways:  all  public  and  judicial  business  was 
suspended,2  as  well  as  every  kind  of  game  or  amusement  which 
might  interfere  with  devotion;  the  churches  were  specially 
decorated;  Christians  were  expected  to  attend  public  worship, 
attired  in  their  best  dress;  love  feasts  were  celebrated,  and  the 
rich  were  accustomed  to  show  special  kindness  to  the  poor; 
fasting  was  strictly  forbidden,  and  public  prayers  were  said  in  a 
standing  posture. 

Later  Practice. — In  the  present  calendar  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  the  number  of  feast  days  is  very  large.  Each  is  cele- 
brated by  an  appropriate  office,  which,  according  to  its  character, 
is  either  duplex,  semi-duplex  or  simplex.  A  duplex  again  may 
be  either  of  the  first  class  or  of  the  second,  or  a  major  or  a  minor. 
The  distinctions  of  ritual  for  each  of  these  are  given  with  great 
minuteness  in  the  general  rubrics  of  the  breviary;  they  turn 
chiefly  on  the  number  of  Psalms  to  be  sung  and  of  lessons  to  be 
read,  on  the  manner  in  which  the  antiphons  are  to  be  given  and 
on  similar  details.  The  duplicia  of  the  first  class  are  the  Nativity, 
the  Epiphany,  Easter  with  the  three  preceding  and  two  following 
days,  the  Ascension,  Whitsunday  and  the  two  following  days, 
Corpus  Christi,  the  Nativity  of  John  Baptist,  Saints  Peter  and 
Paul,  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  All  Saints,  and,  for  each 
church,  the  feast  proper  to  its  patron  or  title  and  the  feast  of  its 
dedication.  The  duplicia  of  the  second  class  are  the  Circum- 
cision, the  feast  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus,  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 
and  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood  of  Christ,  the  feasts  of  the  Purifica- 

1  As,  at  a  later  period  (601),  Gregory  the  Great  instructed  his 
Anglo-Saxon  missionaries  so  to  Christianize  the  temples,  festivals, 
&c.,  of  the  heathen  "  ut  durae  mentes  gradibus  vel  passibus,  non 
autem  saltibus,  eleventur." 

2  Manumission,  however,  was  lawful  on  any  day. 


tion,  Annunciation,  Visitation,  Nativity  and  Conception  of  the 
Virgin,  the  Natalitia  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  the  feasts  of  the 
Evangelists,  of  St  Stephen,  of  the  Holy  Innocents,  of  St  Joseph 
and  of  the  Patrocinium  of  Joseph,  of  St  Lawrence,  of  the  Inven- 
tion of  the  Cross  and  of  the  Dedication  of  St  Michael.  The 
Dominicae  majores  of  the  first  class  are  the  first  Sunday  in 
Advent,  the  first  in  Lent,  Passion  Sunday,  Palm  Sunday,  Easter 
Sunday,  Dominica  in  Albis,  Whitsunday  and  Trinity  Sunday  ; 
the  Dominicae  majores  of  the  second  class  are  the  second,  third 
and  fourth  in  Advent,  Septuagesima,  Sexagesima  and  Quinqua- 
gesima  Sundays,  and  the  second,  third  and  fourth  Sundays  in 
Lent. 

In  the  canons  and  decrees  of  the  council  of  Trent  repeated 
allusions  are  made  to  the  feast  days,  and  their  fitness,  when 
properly  observed,  to  promote  piety.  Those  entrusted  with  the 
cure  of  souls  are  urged  to  see  that  the  feasts  of  the  Church  be 
devoutly  and  religiously  observed,  the  faithful  are  enjoined 
to  attend  public  worship  on  Sundays  and  on  the  greater  festivals 
at  least,  and  parish  priests  are  bidden  to  expound  to  the  people 
on  such  days  some  of  the  things  which  have  been  read  in  the 
office  for  the  day.  Since  the  council  of  Trent  the  practice  of  the 
Church  with  respect  to  the  prohibition  of  servile  work  on  holidays 
has  varied  considerably  in  different  Catholic  countries,  and  even 
in  the  same  country  at  different  times.  Thus  in  1577,  in  the 
diocese  of  Lyons,  there  were  almost  forty  annual  festivals  of  a 
compulsory  character.  By  the  concordat  of  1802  the  number  of 
such  festivals  was  for  France  reduced  to  four,  namely,  Christmas 
.day,  Ascension  day,  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  and  All  Saints 
day. 

The  calendar  of  the  Greek  Church  is  even  fuller  than  that 
of  the  Latin,  especially  as  regards  the  eoprcu  TWV  ay&v.  Thus  on 
the  last  Sunday  in  Advent  the  feast  of  All  Saints  of  the  Old 
Covenant  is  celebrated;  while  Adam  and  Eve,  Job,  Elijah, 
Isaiah,  &c.,  have  separate  days.  The  distinctions  of  ritual  are 
analogous  to  those  in  the  Western  Church.  In  the  Coptic  Church 
there  are  seven  great  festivals,  Christmas,  Epiphany,  the 
Annunciation,  Palm  Sunday,  Easter  Sunday,  Ascension  and 
Whitsunday,  on  all  of  which  the  Copts  "  wear  new  clothes  (or 
the  best  they  have),  feast  and  give  alms  "  (Lane).  They  also 
observe,  as  minor  festivals,  Maundy  Thursday,  Holy  Saturday, 
the  feast  of  the  Apostles  (nth  July),  and  that  of  the  Discovery 
of  the  Cross. 

In  common  with  most  of  the  churches  of  the  Reformation, 
the  Church  of  England  retained  a  certain  number  of  feasts 
besides  all  Sundays  in  the  year.  They  are,  besides  Monday  and 
Tuesday  both  in  Easter- week  and  Whitsun-week,  as  follows  : 
the  Circumcision,  the  Epiphany,  the  Conversion  of  St  Paul,  the 
Purification  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  St  Matthias  the  Apostle,  the 
Annunciation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  St  Mark  the  Evangelist,  St 
Philip  and  St  James  (Apostles),  the  Ascension,  St  Barnabas, 
the  Nativity  of  St  John  Baptist,  St  Peter  the  Apostle,  St 
James  the  Apostle,  St  Bartholomew,  St  Matthew,  St  Michael  and 
all  Angels,  St  Luke  the  Evangelist,  St  Simon  and  St  Jude,  All 
Saints,  St  Andrew,  St  Thomas,  Christmas,  St  Stephen,  St  John 
the  Evangelist,  the  Holy  Innocents.  The  i3th  canon  enjoins 
that  all  manner  of  persons  within  the  Church  of  England  shall 
from  henceforth  celebrate  and  keep  the  Lord's  day,  commonly 
called  Sunday,  and  other  holy  days,  according  to  God's  holy  will 
and  pleasure,  and  the  orders  of  the  Church  of  England  prescribed 
in  that  behalf,  that  is,  in  hearing  the  Word  of  God  read  and 
taught,  in  private  and  public  prayers,  in  acknowledging  their 
offences  to  God  and  amendment  of  the  same,  in  reconciling  them- 
selves charitably  to  their  neighbours  where  displeasure  hath  been, 
in  oftentimes  receiving  the  communion  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ,  in  visiting  of  the  poor  and  sick,  using  all  godly  and  sober 
conversation.  (Compare  Hooker,  E.P.  v.  70.)  In  the  Directory 
for  the  Public  Worship  of  God  which  was  drawn  up  by  the  West- 
minster Assembly,  and  accepted  by  the  Church  of  Scotland  in 
1645,  there  is  an  appendix  which  declares  that  there  is  no  day 
commanded  in  Scripture  to  be  kept  holy  under  the  gospel  but 
the  Lord's  day,  which  is  the  Christian  Sabbath;  festival  days, 
vulgarly  called  holy-days,  having  no  warrant  in  the  Word  of  God, 


224 


FEATHER 


are  not  to  be  continued;  nevertheless  it  is  lawful  and  neces- 
sary, upon  special  emergent  occasions,  to  separate  a  day  or  days 
for  public  fasting  or  thanksgiving,  as  the  several  eminent  and 
extraordinary  dispensations  of  God's  providence  shall  administer 
cause  and  opportunity  to  his  people. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  at  various  times  in  western 
Europe  to  reorganize  the  festival  system  on  some  other  scheme 
than  the  Christian.  Thus  at  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution, 
during  the  period  of  Robespierre's  ascendancy,  it  was  proposed 
to  substitute  a  tenth  day  (Decadi)  for  the  weekly  rest,  and  to 
introduce  the  following  new  festivals:  that  of  the  Supreme 
Being  and  of  Nature,  of  the  Human  Race,  of  the  French  people, 
of  the  Benefactors  of  Mankind,  of  Freedom  and  Equality,  of  the 
Martyrs  of  Freedom,  of  the  Republic,  of  the  Freedom  of  the 
World,  of  Patriotism,  of  Hatred  of  Tyrants  and  Traitors,  of 
Truth,  of  Justice,  of  Modesty,  of  Fame  and  Immortality,  of 
Friendship,  of  Temperance,  of  Heroism,  of  Fidelity,  of  Unselfish- 
ness, of  Stoicism,  of  Love,  of  Conjugal  Fidelity,  of  Filial  Affection, 
of  Childhood,  of  Youth,  of  Manhood,  of  Old  Age,  of  Misfortune, 
of  Agriculture,  of  Industry,  of  our  Forefathers,  of  Posterity  and 
Felicity.  The  proposal,  however,  was  never  fully  carried  out, 
and  soon  fell  into  oblivion. 

Mahommedan  Festivals. — These  are  chiefly  two — the  'Eed 
es-Sagheer  (or  minor  festival)  and  the  'Eed  el-Kebeer  (or  great 
festival),  sometimes  called  'Eed  el-Kurban.  The  former,  which 
lasts  for  three  days,  immediately  follows  the  month  Ramadan, 
and  is  generally  the  more  joyful  of  the  two;  the  latter  begins 
on  the  tenth  of  Zu-1-Heggeh  (the  last  month  of  the  Mahommedan 
year),  and  lasts  for  three  or  four  days.  Besides  these  festivals' 
they  usually  keep  holy  the  first  ten  days  of  Moharram  (the  first 
month  of  the  year),  especially  the  tenth  day,  called  Yom  Ashoora; 
the  birthday  of  the  prophet,  on  the  twelfth  day  of  the  third 
month;  the  birthday  of  El-Hoseyn,  in  the  fourth  month;  the 
anniversary  of  the  prophet's  miraculous  ascension  into  heaven, 
in  the  seventh  month;  and  one  or  two  other  anniversaries. 
Friday,  called  the  day  of  El-Gumah  (the  assembly),  is  a  day 
of  public  worship;  but  it  is  not  usual  to  abstain  from  public 
business  on  that  day  except  during  the  time  of  prayer. 

Hindu  and  Buddhist  Festivals. — In  modern  India  the  leading 
popular  festivals  are  the  Holi,  v/hich  is  held  in  March  or  April 
and  lasts  for  five  days,  and  the  Dasahara,  which  occurs  in  October. 
Although  in  its  origin  Buddhism  was  a  deliberate  reaction 
against  all  ceremonial,  it  does  not  now  refuse  to  observe  festivals. 
By  Buddhists  in  China,  for  example,  three  days  in  the  year  are 
especially  observed  in  honour  of  the  Buddha, — the  eighth  day 
of  the  second  month,  when  he  left  his  home;  the  eighth  day  of 
the  fourth  month,  the  anniversary  of  his  birthday;  and  the 
eighth  of  the  twelfth,  when  he  attained  to  perfection  and  entered 
Nirvana.  In  Siam  the  eighth  and  fifteenth  days  of  every  month 
are  considered  holy,  and  are  observed  as  days  for  rest  and 
worship.  At  Trut,  the  festival  of  the  close  of  the  year,  visiting 
and  play-going  are  universal.  The  new  year  (January)  is  cele- 
brated for  three  days;  in  February  is  another  holiday;  in  April 
is  a  sort  of  Lent,  ushering  in  the  rainy  season;  on  the  last  day 
of  June  presents  are  made  of  cakes  of  the  new  rice;  in  August  is 
the  festival  of  the  angel  of  the  river,  "  whose  forgiveness  is 
then  asked  for  every  act  by  which  the  waters  of  the  Meinam 
have  been  rendered  impure."  See  Bowring's  Siam  and  Game's 
Travels  in  Indo-China  and  the  Chinese  Empire.  Copious  details 
of  the  elaborate  festival-system  of  the  Chinese  may  be  found  in 
Doolittle's  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese. 

LITERATURE. — For  Christian  feasts  see  K.  A.  H.  Kellner,  Heorto- 
logie  (Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  1906) ;  Hippolyte  Delehaye,  Les 
Legendes  hagiographiques  (Brussels,  1905) ;  j.  Rendel  Harris,  The 
Cult  of  the  Heavenly  Twins  (Cambridge,  1906);  de  Rossi-Duchesne, 
Martyrologium  Hieronymianum. 

FEATHER  (O.  Eng.  fether,  Ger.  Feder,  from  an  Indo- 
European  root  seen  also  in  Gr.  irrtpbv,  and  irerfaOai,  to  fly), 
a  horny  outgrowth  of  the  skin  of  birds  homologous  with  the 
scale  of  the  reptile.  The  body-covering  of  birds  is,  without 
exception,  comprised  of  feathers,  and  by  this  character  alone 
birds  may  be  distinguished  from  all  other  animals. 

The  most  perfect  form  of  feather  is  made  up  of  a  long,  tapering 


rod,  fringed  on  either  side,  for  the  greater  part  of  its  length,  by  a 
secondary  ssries  of  slender  and  tapering  rods  fprming  a  more 
or  less  acute  angle  with  the  central  axis.  This  fringe  is  known 
as  the  vexillum  cr  "  vane  "  (fig.  i  a).  The  central  axis  is  divisible 
into  two  distinct  parts, — a  hollow,  cylindrical,  transparent 
calamus,  or  "  quill,"  the  base  of  which  is  inserted  into  the  skin, 
and  a  solid,  quadrangular  rhachis  or  "  shaft  "  which  supports 
the  vane.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  quill  is  a  small  hole — the 
lower  umbilicus — through  which  the  nutritive  pulp  passes  during 
the  growth  of  the  feather:  while  at  the  upper  end,  where  it 
passes  into  the  shaft,  a  similar  hole  will  be  found, — the  upper 
umbilicus — and  from  this  the  last  remains  of  the  capsules  which 
contained  the  nutritive  pulp  may  sometimes  be  seen  protruding. 
If  the  quill  is  cut  open  a  series  of  these  capsules  will  be  found 
fitting  one  into  the  other  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the 
tubular  chamber. 


FlG.  I . — Diagrams 
Outline  of  a  feather  showing 
the  relation  of  the  barbs  and 
barbules  to  the  central  axis 
or  shaft. 

Section  across  two  of  the  barbs 
shown  in  a,  highly  magni- 
fied. 

Two  barbules  of  the  posterior 
series — seen  only  in  cross- 
section  in  b. 


of  Feather-Barbs. 

d,  A   barbule     of   the   anterior 

series. 

e,  Section  across  the  base  of  three 

anterior  barbules  showing 
attachment  to  barb. 
/,  A  portion  of  the  booklet  of  the 
anterior  series  showing  the 
method  of  interlocking  with 
the  barbules  of  the  posterior 


The  rods  comprising  the  lateral  fringe,  or  vane,  are  known 
as  the  rami  or  the  "  barbs,"  and  will  be  found,  on  microscopic 
examination,  to  be  lath-shaped  and  to  taper  to  a  point.  Further, 
each  barb  supports  a  double  series  of  smaller  outgrowths  known 
as  the  radii,  or  "  barbules  ";  so  that  each  barb  may  be  likened 
to  a  feather  in  miniature.  These  "  barbules,"  however,  differ 
markedly  in  structure  on  the  two  sides  of  the  barb,  those 
pointing  towards  the  tip  of  the  feather — the  "  anterior  barbules  " 
— being  ribbon-shaped  from  the  base  outwards  for  about  half 
their  length,  when  they  become  cut  up  to  form  a  series  of  long 
and  very  delicate  booklets  (fig.  id).  On  the  opposite  side  of  the 
barb  the  barbules  are  also  ribbon-shaped  for  about  half  their 
length,  but  the  ribbon  is  curved  trough-fashion,  so  that  the 
whole  series  of  posterior  barbules  forms  a  number  of  deep 
valleys,  and  into  these  the  booklets  are  thrust  so  as  to  catch 
hold  of  the  upper  edges  of  the  troughs,  which  are  set  so  that  the 


FEATHER 


225 


upper  edge  is  towards  the  upper,  and  the  lower  edge  towards 
the  under  surface  of  the  feather.  The  manner  in  which  this 
beautiful  mechanism  works  may  be  seen  in  fig.  i  b. 

In  one  of  the  primary  or  "  quill  "  feathers  of  the  wing  of  a 
crane,  each  barb  of  the  inner  side  of  the  vane  was  found  to  bear 
about  600  pairs  of  barbules,  which  would  make  about  800,000 
barbules  for  the  inner  web  of  the  vane  alone,  or  more  than  a 
million  for  the  whole  feather  (H.  F.  Gadow).  It  is  to  the  agency 
of  these  booklets  alone  that  the  closely-knit,  elastic  vanes  of  the 
flight  feathers  and  the  body  feathers  are  due.  Where  these 
booklets  are  wanting  the  barbs  do  not  adhere  together,  resulting 
in  a  loose  "  discontinuous  "  vane  such  as,  for  example,  is  found 
in  the  plumes  of  the  ostrich. 

Many  feathers,  in  addition  to  the  main  axis,  bear  a  second, 
generally  much  shorter  axis,  supporting  a  loose  discontinuous 
vane;  this  shorter  branch  is  known  as  the  "  aftershaft  "  and 
arises  from  the  under  surface  of  the  feather.  Only  in  the  casso- 
wary and  emu  among  adult  birds  is  the  aftershaft  as  large  as 
the  main  shaft. 

There  are  several  different  kinds  of  feathers — contour  feathers, 
semiplumes,  down-feathers,  filoplumes  and  powder-down. 
Contour  feathers,  as  their  name  implies,  are  those  which  form  the 
contour  or  outline  of  the  body,  and  are  all  that  can  generally 
be  seen.  Those  which  form  the  "  flight  feathers  "  of  the  wing, 
and  the  tail  feathers,  are  the  most  perfectly  developed.  Semi- 
plumes  are  degenerate  contour  feathers.  The  down-feathers 
are  generally  completely  hidden  by  the  contour  feathers:  they 
form  in  many  birds,  such  as  gulls  and  ducks,  a  thick  under- 
clothing comparable  to  the  under-fur  of  mammals  such  as  the 
seals.  In  all  cases  they  are  of  a  loose,  soft,  "  fluffy  "  structure, 
the  barbs  being  of  great  length  and  slenderness,  while  the 
barbules  are  often  long  and  provided  with  knob-like  thickenings 
answering  to  the  booklets  of  the  more  perfectly  developed 
contour  feathers;  these  thickenings  help  to  "  felt  "  the  separate 
down-feathers  together,  the  barbs  of  one  down-feather  inter- 
locking with  those  of  its  neighbour.  Down-feathers  differ  from 
semiplumes  both  in  their  relation  to  contour  feathers  and  in 
that  they  do  not  possess  a  main  axis,  all  the  barbs  arising  from 
a.  common  centre. 

Filoplumes  are  degenerate  structures  having  a  superficial 
resemblance  to  hairs,  but  they  always  bear  a  minute  vane  at 
the  tip.  They  occur  in  all  birds,  in  clusters  of  varying  number, 
about  the  bases  of  contour  feathers.  In  some  birds  they  attain 
a  great  length,  and  may  project  beyond  the  contour  feathers, 
sometimes  forming  conspicuous  white  patches,  as  for  example 
in  the  necks  of  cormorants.  In  their  early  stages  of  development 
they  often  possess  a  large  aftershaft  made  up  of  a  number  of 
barbs,  but  these  quickly  disappear,  leaving  only  the  degenerate 
main  shaft.  The  eyelashes  and  bristles  round  the  mouth  found 
in  many  birds  appear  to  be  akin  to  filoplumes. 

Powder-down  feathers  are  degenerate  down-feathers  which 
appear  to  secrete  a  dry,  waxy  kind  of  powder.  This  powder 
rapidly  disintegrates  and  becomes  distributed  over  the  plumage, 
adding  thereto  a  quite  peculiar  bloom.  In  birds  of  the  heron 
tribe  powder-down  feathers  have  reached  a  high  degree  of 
development,  forming  large  patches  in  the  breast  and  thighs, 
while  in  some  hawks,  and  in  the  parrots,  these  mysterious 
feathers  are  scattered  singly  over  the  greater  part  of  the  body. 

The  nature  of  the  covering  of  nestling  birds  is  of  a  more 

complex  character  than  has  hitherto   been   suspected.      The 

majority  of  young  birds,  as  is  well  known,   either 

down.         emerge  from  the  egg  clothed  in  down-feathers,  or  they 

develop  these  within  a  day  or  two  afterwards.     But 

this  covering,   though   superficially  similar  in  all,   may,  as  a 

matter  of  fact,  differ  widely  in  its  constitution,  even  in  closely 

related  forms,  while  only  in  a  very  few  species  can  the  complete 

history  of  these  feathers  be  made  out. 

The  brown  or  tawny  owl  (Syrnium  oluco)  is  one  of  these. 
At  hatching,  the  young  of  this  species  is  thickly  clad  in  white, 
woolly  down-feathers,  of  the  character  known  as  umbelliform — 
that  is  to  say,  the  central  axis  or  main  shaft  is  wanting,  so  that 
the  barbs  all  start  from  a  common  centre.  These  feathers 

x.  8 


occupy  the  position  of  the  ultimate  contour  feathers.  They  are 
shortly  replaced  by  a  second  down-like  covering,  superficially 
resembling,  and  generally  regarded  as,  true  down.  But  they 
differ  in  that  their  barbs  spring  from  a  central  axis  as  in  typical 
contour  feathers.  Feathers  of  this  last  description  indeed  have 
now  made  their  appearance  in  the  shape  of  the  "  flight  "  or  quill 
feathers  (remiges)  and  of  the  tail  feathers.  This  plumage  is 
worn  until  the  autumn,  when  the  downy  feathers  give  place  to 
the  characteristic  adult  plumage.  The  down  feathers  which 
appear  at  hatching-time  are  known  as  pre-pennae,  or  pre-plumulae, 
as  the  case  may  be;  the  first  generation  of  pre-pennae,  in  the 
case  of  the  tawny  owl  for  example,  is  made  up  of  protoptyles, 
while  the  succeeding  plumage  is  made  up  of  mesoptyles,  and 
these  in  turn  give  place  to  the  teleoptyles  or  adult  feathers.  The 
two  forms  of  nestling  plumage — pre-pennae  and  pre-plumulae — 
may  be  collectively  called  "  neossoptyles,"  a  term  coined  by 
H.  F.  Gadow  to  distinguish  the  plumage  of  the  nestling  from 
that  of  the  adult — the  "  teleoptyle  "  plumage. 

As  a  rule  the  nestling  develops  but  one  of  these  generations 
of  neossoptyles,  and  this  generally  answers  to  the  mesoptyle 
plumage,  though  this  is  of  a  degenerate  type.  In  some  birds, 
as  in  the  Megapodes,  the  "  protoptyle  "  or  first  of  these  two 
generations  of  pre-pennae  is  developed  and  shed  while  the  chick 
is  yet  in  the  shell,  so  that  at  hatching  the  mesoptyle  plumage 
is  well  developed.  But  in  the  majority  of  birds,  probably,  the 
mesoptyle  plumage  only  is  developed,  while  the  earlier,  and 
apparently  more  degenerate,  dress  is  suppressed.  In  the  penguins 
both  of  these  nestling  plumages  are  developed,  but  the  mesoptyle 
dress  has  degenerated  so  that  umbelliform  feathers  now  take  the 
place  of  feathers  having  a  central  axis. 

The  Anatidae  show  traces  of  the  earlier,  first  generation  of 
feathers  in  one  or  two  species  only,  e.g.  Clo'ephaga  rubidiceps. 
In  all  the  remaining  species  mesoptyles  only  occur.  And  this 
is  true  also  of  the  game-birds.  In  both  the  Tinamous,  the  duck- 
tribe  and  the  game-birds  this  mesoptyle  plumage  shows,  in 
different  species,  every  gradation  between  feathers  having  a 
well-developed  main  shaft  and  aftershaft,  and  those  which  are 
mere  umbelliform  tufts. 

As  development  proceeds  and  the  contour  feathers  make  their 
appearance  they  thrust  the  mesoptyle  feathers  out  of  their 
follicles — the  pockets  in  the  skin  in  which  they  were  rooted — 
and  these  will  often  be  found  adhering  to  the  tips  of  the  contour 
feathers  for  many  weeks  after  the  bird  has  left  the  nest.  This 
occurs  because  the  development  of  the  contour  feather  begins 
before  that  of  the  mesoptyles  has  completed. 

The  plumage  in  nestling  birds  is  still  futher  complicated  by  the 
fact  that  it  may  be  almost,  or  entirely,  composed  of  pre-plumulae ; 
that  is  to  say,  of  down-feathers  which  are  later  succeeded  by 
adult  down-leathers.  This  is  the  case  among  the  accipitrine 
birds  for  example,  and  thereby  it  differs  entirely  from  that  of 
the  owls,  which  develop  neither  pre-plumulae  nor  adult  down. 
The  cormorants  are,  so  far  as  is  known,  the  only  birds  which 
have  a  nestling  plumage  composed  entirely  of  pre-plumulae. 

In  variety  and  brilliancy  the  colours  of  birds  are  not  surpassed 
by  those  of  any  other  group  of  animals.    Yet  the  pigments  to 
which  these  colours  are  due  are  but  few  in  number, 
while  a  large  number  of  the  most  resplendent  hues    The 

,          ,      ,  i-      ...  f       ,         colours  of 

are    produced     by   structural   peculiarities    of    tne    feathers. 
colourless  horny  surface  of  the  feathers,  and  hence 
are  known  as  subjective  or  optical  colours. 

The  principal  colour  pigments  are  (a)  melanin  pigments, 
derived  possibly  from  the  haemoglobin  of  the  blood,  but  more 
probably  from  the  blood  plasma,  and  (I)  lipochrome  or  "  fat  " 
pigments,  which  are  regarded  as  reserve  products;  though  in  the 
case  of  birds  it  is  exceedingly  doubtful  whether  they  have  this 
significance. 

The  melanin  pigments  (zoomelaniri)  occur  in  the  form  of 
granules  and  give  rise  to  the  black,  brown  and  grey  tones; 
or  they  may  combine  with  those  of  the  lipochrome  series. 

The  lipochrome  pigments  (zoonerythrin  and  zooxanthin)  tend 
to  be  diffused  throughout  the  substance  of  the  feather,  and  give 
rise  respectively  to  the  red  and  yellow  colours. 


226 


FEATHER 


In  addition  to  these  must  be  reckoned  turacin,  a  reddish- 
purple  pigment  consisting  of  the  same  elements  as  zoomelanin, 
but  remarkable  for  the  fact  that  it  contains  from  5  to  8%  of 
copper,  which  can  be  extracted  by  a  weak  alkaline  solution,  such 
as  ammonia,  and  with  the  addition  of  acetic  acid  it  can  be 
filtered  off  as  a  metallic  red  or  blue  powder.  The  presence  of 
metallic  copper  is  indicated  by  the  green  flame  of  these  red 
feathers  when  burnt.  Turacin  was  discovered  by  Sir  A.  H.  Church 
in  the  quill-feathers  of  the  wings  of  Touracoes  or  "  plantain 
eaters."  These  feathers,  he  showed,  lose  their  colour  after  they 
have  become  wet,  but  regain  it  on  drying.  But  turacin  is  not, 
as  was  supposed,  confined  to  the  feathers  of  the  plantain  eaters, 
since  it  has  been  obtained  from  a  cuckoo,  Dasyiophus  superciliosus. 

What  effect  food  may  have  on  colour  in  birds  in  a  wild  state 
we  have  no  means  of  knowing,  but  it  is  significant  that  flamingoes 
and  linnets  in  confinement  never  regain  their  bright  hues  after 
their  first  moult  in  captivity.  If  cayenne  pepper  be  mixed  with 
the  food  of  certain  strains  of  canaries,  from  the  time  the  birds 
are  hatched  onwards,  the  yellow  colour  of  the  feathers  becomes 
intensified,  till  it  takes  on  a  deep  orange  hue.  Bullfinches,  if  fed 
on  hemp-seed,  turn  black.  According  to  Darwin,  the  natives  of 
the  Amazonian  region  feed  the  common  green  parrot  on  the  fat 
of  large  Siluroid  fishes,  and  as  a  result  the  feathers  become  beauti- 
fully variegated  with  red  and  yellow.  Similarly,  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  the  natives  of  GUolo  change  the  colours  of  another 
parrot. 

With  but  rare  exceptions  bright  colours  are  confined  to  the 
exposed  portions  of  the  plumage,  but  in  some  of  the  Bustards  the 
down  is  of  a  bright  pink  colour. 

Structural  colours  include  all  metallic  or  prismatic  colours, 
blue,  green,  white,  some  yellows,  and,  in  part,  glossy  black. 
In  metallic  feathers  the  radii  (barbules)  are  modified 
colours  *n  vari°us  ways,  frequently  to  form  flattened,  over- 
lapping plates  or  tiles,  while  the  surfaces  of  the  plates 
are  either  smooth,  finely  striated  or  pitted.  But,  save  only 
in  the  case  of  white  feathers,  beneath  this  colourless,  glazed  outer 
coat  there  is  always  a  layer  of  pigment. 

The  only  green  pigment  known  to  occur  in  feathers  is  tura- 
coverdin,  found  in  the  feathers  of  the  plantain  eaters;  it  contains 
a  relatively  large  amount  of  iron,  but  no  copper.  In  all  other 
cases  the  green  colour  of  feathers  is  due  to  yellow,  orange  or 
greyish-brown  pigment  occurring  with  a  special  superstructure 
consisting  of  narrow  ridges,  as  in  some  parrots  and  pittas  (ant- 
thrushes),  or  the  surface  of  the  barbs  and  barbules  is  smooth  and 
transparent,  while  between  it  and  the  pigment  there  exists  a 
layer  of  small  polygonal,  colourless  bodies  having  highly  re- 
fractory, and  often  striated,  surfaces. 

Blue  is  unknown  as  a  pigment  in  feathers.  Blue  feathers 
contain  only  orange  or  brownish  pigment  (Gadow),  the  blue 
colour  being  caused  by  the  combination  of  pigment  corpuscles 
and  colourless  striated  polygonal  bodies,  as  in  green  feathers. 

While  in  many  birds  the  coloration  takes  the  form  either  of 
a  uniform  hue  or  of  bands  and  patches  of  colour  more  or  less 
brilliant,  in  others  the  coloration  is  sombre,  and  made  up  of 
dark  longitudinal  stripes  or_transverse  bars  on  a  lighter  ground. 
The  latter  is  the  more  primitive,  and  there  seems  good  reason 
to  believe  that  longitudinal  stripes  preceded  transverse  bars. 
This  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  nestlings  of  the  more 
primitive  groups  are  longitudinally  striped,  and  that  young 
hawks  in  their  first  plumage  are  so  striped,  while  the  adults  are 
barred. 

There  is  also  evidence  to  show  that  the  evolution  of  brilliant 
plumage  began  with  the  males,  and  has,  in  many  cases,  been  more 
or  less  perfectly  acquired  by  the  females,  and  also  by  the  young, 
as  for  example  in  the  kingfishers,  where  parents  and  offspring 
wear  the  same  livery.  Often,  where  the  parents  are  alike  in 
plumage,  the  young  wear  a  different  and  duller  livery,  as  in  the 
ease  of  the  common  starling  (Sturnus  ifulgaris).  But  where  the 
female  differs  from  the  male  in  coloration  the  young  resemble 
the  female  parent. 

The  physiological  explanation  of  complete  disappearance  of 
pigment  in  adult  life,  e.g.  gannet,  is  not  yet  apparent. 


At  least  once  annually  birds  renew  their  feathers  completely 
by  a  process  known  as  a  moult.    Until  the  new  feathers  have 
attained  at  least  half  their  full  length  they  are  invested    Moulao 
in  a  soft  sheath,  and,  as  development  proceeds,  the 
sheath  breaks  up  from  the  tip  of  the  feather  downwards,  so  that 
for  a  time  the  new  feathers  have  almost  a  brush-like  appearance. 
Generally  this  replacement  takes  place  gradually,  new  and  old 
feathers  occurring  side  by  side,  and  on  this  account  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  see  whether  a  moult  is  proceeding  without 
raising  the  old  feathers. 

The  "  quill  "  feathers  of  the  wing  and  tail  are  renewed  in  pairs, 
so  that  flight  is  little,  if  at  all,  impaired,  the  change  taking 
place  in  the  wing  from  the  region  of  the  wrist  inwards,  as  to  the 
primaries,  and  from  the  body  outwards,  towards  the  tip  of  the 
wing,  as  to  the  secondaries.  In  certain  birds,  however,  as  in 
the  duck  tribe  and  the  rails,  for  example,  all  the  quill-feathers 
of  the  wing  are  shed  at  once,  so  that  for  some  time  flight  is 
impossible. 

In  the  penguins  this  simultaneous  method  of  moulting  is 
carried  still  further.  That  is  to  say,  the  old  feathers  covering 
the  body  are  not  replaced  gradually,  but  en  masse.  This  method 
of  ecdysis  is,  however,  still  further  remarkable  in  that  the  old 
feathers  do  not  drop  out,  to  be  succeeded  by  spine-like  stumps 
which,  later,  split  at  the  tip,  liberating  the  barbs  of  the  new 
feathers.  They  are,  on  the  contrary,  thrust  out  upon  the  tips 
of  the  new  feathers,  the  barbs  of  which  are  never  enclosed  within 
an  envelope  such  as  that  just  describ3d.  When  their  growth 
has  practically  completed,  and  not  till  then,  the  old  feathers  are 
removed  in  large  patches  by  the  aid  of  the  bird's  beak;  ex- 
posing thereby  a  perfectly  developed  plumage.  In  the  cassowary, 
and  emeu,  the  old  feathers  similarly  adhere  for  a  time  to  the  tips 
of  the  new;  but  in  these  birds  the  feathers  are  moulted  singly 
as  in  other  birds. 

Some  birds  moult  twice  within  the  year,  the  additional  moult 
taking  place  in  the  spring,  as  in  the  case  of  the  "  warblers  " 
(Sylviidae)  and  Limicolae,  for  example.  But  when  this  is  the 
case  the  spring  moult  is  only  partial,  since  the  quill  feathers 
of  the  wings  and  the  tail  feathers  are  not  renewed. 

At  this  spring  moult  a  special  "  nuptial  "  plumage  is  often 
assumed,  as  for  example  in  many  of  the  Limicolae,  e.g.  godwits, 
knots,  dunlin,  ruff. 

The  sequel  to  this  habit  of  assuming  a  nuptial  dress  is  an 
interesting  one.  Briefly,  this  plumage,  at  first  assumed  at  the 
mating  period  by  the  males  only,  and  doffed  soon  after  the  young 
appear,  has  become  retained  for  longer  and  longer  periods, 
so  that  the  succeeding  plumage,  often  conspicuously  dull  com- 
pared with  the  nuptial  dress,  is  worn  only  for  a  few  weeks,  instead 
of  many  months,  as  in  the  case  of  many  of  the  ducks,  for  example; 
wherein  the  males,  as  soon  as  the  young  are  hatched,  assume 
what  C.  Waterton  has  aptly  called  an  "  eclipse  "  dress.  This, 
instead  of  being  worn  till  the  following  spring,  as  in  the  waders, 
is  shed  again  in  the  autumn  and  replaced  by  what  answers  to 
the  waders'  "  nuptial  "  dress.  In  the  game-birds  but  a  trace 
of  this  "  eclipse  "  plumage  remains;  and  this,  apparently,  only 
in  jungle-fowl,  the  common  grey  partridge  (Perdix  cinerea)  and 
the  blackcock  (Lyrurus),  in  whose  case  the  head  and  neck  for 
a  short  period  following  the  breeding  season  are  clothed  only 
by  dull  feathers.  Further,  this  more  highly  developed  plumage 
becomes  transferred,  first  to  the  female,  then  to  the  young,  so 
that,  in  many  groups,  the  dull  phase  of  plumage  is  entirely 
eliminated. 

But  the  assumption  at  the  breeding  season  of  a  conspicuously 
brilliant  plumage  is  not  always  due  to  a  moult.  In  many  birds, 
notably  many  Passerines,  this  change  is  brought  about  by 
shedding  the  tips  of  the  feathers,  which  are  of  a  duller  hue  than 
the  rest  of  the  feather.  In  this  way  the  bright  rose  pink  of  the 
linnet's  breast,  the  blue  and  black  head  of  the  chaffinch,  and  the 
black  throat  and  chestnut-and-black  markings  of  the  back  of 
the  sparrow,  are  assumed — to  mention  but  a  few  instances. 
These  birds  moult  but  once  a  year,  in  the  autumn,  when  the 
new  feathers  have  broad  brown  fringes;  as  the  spring  advances 
these  drop  off,  and  with  them  the  barbicels  from  the  barbules 


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227 


of  the  upper  surface  of  the  feather,  thus  revealing  the  hidden 
tints. 

According  to  some  authorities,  however,  some  birds  acquire 
a  change  of  colour  without  a  moult  by  the  ascent  of  pigment 
from  the  base  of  the  feather.  The  black  head  assumed  by  many 
gulls  in  the  spring  is,  for  example,  said  to  be  gained  in  this  way. 
There  is,  however,  not  only  no  good  evidence  in  support  of  the 
contention,  but  the  whole  structure  of  the  feather  is  against 
the  probability  of  any  such  change  taking  place. 

Feathers  correspond  with  the  scales  of  reptiles  rather  than  with 

the  hairs  of  mammals,  as  is  shown  by  their  development.     They 

make  their  first  appearance  in  the  developing  chick  at 

i  t  about  t*16  sixth  day  of  incubation,  in  the  shape  of  small 

,?p"[  papillae.  In  section  each  papilla  is  found  to  be  made  up 
ers-  of  a  cluster  of  dermal  cells— that  is  to  say,  of  cells  of  the 
deeper  layer  of  the  skin-^-capped  by  cells  of  the  epidermis.  These 
last  form  a  single  superficial  layer  of  flattened  cells — the  epitrichium — 
overlaying  the  cells  of  the  Malpighian  layer,  which  are  cylindrical 
in  shape  and  rapidly  increase  to  form  several  layers.  As  develop- 
ment proceeds  the  papillae  assume  a  cone-shape  with  its  apex 
directed  backwards,  while  the  base  of  this  cone  sinks  down  into  the 
skin,  or  rather  is  carried  down  by  the  growth  of  the  Malpighian  cells, 
so  that  the  cone  is  now  sunk  in  a  deep  pit.  Thereby  these  Malpighian 
cells  become  divided  into  two  portions:  (i)  those  taking  part  in  the 
formation  of  the  walls  of  the  pit  or  "  feather  follicle,"  and  (2)  those 
enclosed  within  the  cone.  These  last  surround  the  central  mass  or 
core  formed  by  the  dermis.  This  mass  constitutes  the  nutritive 
pulp  for  the  development  of  the  growing  feather,  and  is  highly 
vascular.  The  cells  of  the  Malpighian  layer  within  the  cone  now 
become  differentiated  into  three  layers,  (i)  An  inner,  extremely 
thin,  forming  a  delicate  sheath  for  the  pulp,  and  found  in  the  fully 
developed  feather  in  the  form  of  a  series  of  hollow,  transparent  caps 
enclosed  within  the  calamus;  (2)  a  thick  layer  which  forms  the 
feather  itself;  and  (3)  a  thin  layer  which  forms  the  investing  sheath 
of  the  feather.  It  is  this  sheath  which  gives  the  curious  spine- 
covered  character  to  many  nestling  birds  and  birds  in  moult.  As 
growth  proceeds  the  cells  of  this  middle  layer  arrange  themselves  in 
longitudinal  rows  to  form  the  barbs,  while  the  barbules  are  formed 
by  a  secondary  splitting.  At  their  bases  these  rudimentary  barbs 
meet  to  form  the  calamus.  Finally  the  tips  of  the  barbs  break 
through  the  investing  sheath  and  the  fully  formed  down-feather 
emerges. 

A  part  of  the  pulp  and  Malpighian  cells  remains  over  after  the 
complete  growth  of  the  down-feather,  and  from  this  succeeding 
generations  of  feathers  are  developed.  The  process  of  this  develop- 
ment differs  from  that  just  outlined  chiefly  in  this:  that  of  the 
longitudinal  rows  which  in  the  down-feather  form  the  barbs,  two 
on  the  dorsal  and  two  on  the  ventral  aspect  of  the  interior  of  the 
cylinder  become  stronger  than  the  rest,  combining  to  form  the  main- 
and  after-shaft  respectively.  The  remainder  of  the  rods  form  the 
barbs  and  barbules  as  in  the  down-feather. 

The  reproductive  power  of  the  feather  follicle  appears  to  be  almost 
inexhaustible,  since  it  is  not  diminished  appreciably  by  age,  nor 
restricted  to  definite  moulting  periods,  as  is  shown  by  the  cruel  and 
now  obsolete  custom  of  plucking  geese  alive,  no  less  than  three  times 
annually,  for  the  sake  of  their  feathers.  The  growth  of  the  feathers 
is,  however,  certainly  affected  by  the  general  health  of  the  bird, 
mal-nutrition  causing  the  appearance  of  peculiar  transverse  V- 
shaped  grooves,  at  more  or  less  regular  intervals,  along  the  whole 
length  of  the  feather.  These  are  known  as  "hunger-marks,"  a 
name  given  by  falconers,  to  whom  this  defect  was  well  known. 

It  would  seem  that  while  the  feather  germ  may  be  artificially 
stimulated  to  produce  three  successive  generations  of  feathers  within 
a  year,  it  may,  on  the  other  hand,  be  induced  artificially  to  maintain 
a  continuous  activity  extending  over  long  periods.  That  is  to  say, 
the  normal  quiescent  period,  and  periodic  moult,  may  be  suspended, 
so  that  the  feather  maintains  a  steady  and  continuous  growth  till  it 
attains  a  length  of  several  feet.  The  only  known  instance  of  this 
kind  is  that  furnished  by  a  domesticated  breed  of  jungle-fowl  known 
as  the  "  Japanese  long-tailed  fowls  "  or  as  "  Yokohamas."  In  this 
breed  the  upper  tail  coverts  are  in  some  way,  as  yet  unknown  to 
Europeans,  induced  to  go  on  growing  until  they  have  attained  a 
length  of  from  12  to  18  or  even  20  ft. !  In  this  abnormal  growth  the 
"  hackles  "of  the  lower  part  of  the  back  also  share,  though  they 
do  not  attain  a  similar  length. 

The  feathers  of  birds  are  not  uniformly  distributed  over  the 
body,  but  grow  only  along  certain  definite  tracts  known  as  pterylae, 
leaving  bare  spaces  or  apteria.  These  pterylae  differ  considerably 
in  their  conformation  in  different  groups  of  birds,  and  hence  are  of 
service  in  systematic  ornithology. 

The  principal  pterylae  are  as  follows: — 

(1)  The  head  tract  (pt.  capitis),  which  embraces  the  head  only. 

(2)  The  spinal  tract  (pt.  spinalis),  which  extends  the  whole  length 
of  the  vertical  column.   It  is  one  of  the  most  variable  in  its  modifica- 
tions, especially  in  so  far  as  the  region  from  the  base  of  the  neck  to 
the  tail  is  concerned.     In  its  simplest  form  it  runs  down  the  back 
in  the  form  of  a  band  of  almost  uniform  width,  but  generally  it 


FIG.  2. — Pterylosis  of  the  plover. 


expands  considerably  in  the  lumbar  region,  as  in  Passeres.  Fre- 
quently it  is  divided  into  two  portions;  an  upper,  terminating  in 
the  region  of  the  middle  of  the  back  in  a  fork,  and  a  lower,  which 
commences  either  as  a  fork,  e.g.  plover,  barbet,  or  as  a  median  band, 
e.g.  swallow.  Very  commonly  the  dorsal  region  of  this  tract  encloses 
a  more  or  less  extensive  featherless  space  (apterion),  e.g.  swift,  auk. 
While,  as  a  rule,  the  dorsal  region  of  this  tract  is  relatively  narrow, 
it  is  in  some  of  great  breadth,  e.g.  grebe,  pigeon,  coly. 

(3)  The  ventral  tract   (pt.  ventmlis),  which  presents  almost  as 
many  variations  as  the  spinal  tract. 

In  its  simplest  form  it  runs  from  the  throat  backwards  in  the 
form  of  a  median  band  as  far  as  the  base  of  the  neck  where  it  divides, 
sending  a  branch  to  each  side 
of  the  breast.  This  branch 
commonly  again  divides  into 
a  short,  broad  outer  branch 
which  lodges  the  "  flank  " 
feathers,  and  a  long,  narrow, 
inner  branch  which  runs 
backwards  to  join  its  fellow 
of  the  opposite  side  in  front 
of  the  cloacal  aperture.  This 
branch  lodges  the  abdominal 
feathers.  The  median  space 
which  divides  the  inner 
branches  of  the  tract  may  be 
continued  forwards  as  far  as 
the  middle  of  the  neck,  or  even 
up  to  the  throat,  e.g.  plover. 
Only  in  a  few  cases  is  the 
neck  continuously  covered  by 
the  fusion  of  the  dorsal  and 
ventral  tracts,  e.g.  flamingo,  Anseres,  Ciconidae,  Pygopodes. 

For  convenience  sake  the  cervical  portions  of  the  spinal  and 
ventral  tracts  are  generally  regarded  as  separate  tracts,  the  pt.  colli 
dorsalis  and  pt.  cotti  ventralis  respectively. 

(4)  The  humeral  tract  (pt.  humeralis),  which  gives  rise  to  the 
"  scapular  "  feathers. 

(5)  The  femoral  tract  (pt.  femoralts),  which  forms  an  oblique  band 
across  the  thigh. 

(6)  The  crural  tract  (pt.  cruralis),  which  clothes  the  rest  of  the  leg. 

(7)  The  tail  tract  (pt.  caudalis),  including  the  tail  feathers  and 
their  coverts;   and 

(8)  The  wing  tract  (pt.  alaris).     The  wing  tract  presents  many 
peculiar  features.     Each  segment — arm,  forearm  and  hand — bears 
feathers  essential  to  flight,  and  these  are  divided  into  remiges,  or 
"  quill  "  feathers,  and  tectrices,  or  "  coverts." 

The  remiges  of  the  arm,  more  commonly  described  as  "  tertiaries," 
are,  technically,  collectively  known  as  the  parapteron  and  hypopteron, 
and  are  composed  respectively  of  long,  quill-like  feathers  forming  a 
double  series,  the  former  arranged  along  the  upper,  and  the  latter 
along  the  lower  aspect  of  the  humerus.  They  serve  to  fill  up  the 

§ap  which,  in  long-winged  birds,  would  otherwise  occur  during  flight 
etween  the  quill-feathers  of  the  forearm  and  the  body,  a  gap  which 
would  make  night  impossible.   In  short- winged  birds  these  two  series 
are  extremely  reduced. 

The  remiges  range  in  number  from  16,  as  in  humming-birds,  to  48 
as  in  the  albatross,  according,  in  short,  to  the  length  of  the  wing. 
But  these  numerical  differences  depend,  in  flying  birds,  rather  upon 
the  length  of  the  forearm,  since  the  quills  of  the  hand  never  exceed 
12  and  never  fall  below  10,  though  the  tenth  may  be  reduced  to  a 
mere  vestige. 

The  quills  of  the  forearm  are  known  as  "  secondaries,"  those  of  the 
hand  as  "  primaries."  The  former  are  attached  by  their  bases  at 
relatively  wide  distances  apart  to  the  ulna,  while  the  primaries  are 
crowded  close  together  and  attached  to  the  skeleton  of  the  hand. 
The  six  or  seven  which  rest  upon  the  fused  metacarpals  II.-III.  are 
known  as  "  metacarpals."  The  next  succeeding  feather  is  borne  by 
the  phalanx  of  digit  III.  and  hence  is  known  as  the  addigital. 
Phalanx  i.  of  digit  1 1.  always  supports  two  quills,  the  "  middigitals," 
while  the  remaining  feathers — one  or  two — are  borne  by  the  last 
phalanx  of  digit  II.  and  are  known  as  pre-digitals,  while  the  whole 
series  of  primaries  are  known  as  the  metacarpo-digitals. 

In  their  relation  one  to  another  the  remiges,  it  must  be  noted, 
are  always  so  placed  that  they  overlap  one  another,  the  free  edge  of 
each,  when  the  wing  is  seen  from  its  upper  surface,  being  turned 
'towards  the  tip  of  the  wing.  Thus,  in  flight,  the  air  passes  through 
the  wing  as  it  is  raised,  while  in  the  downstroke  the  feathers  are  forced 
together  to  form  a  homogeneous  surface. 

Birds  which  fly  much  have  the  outer  primaries  of  great  length, 

fiving  the  wing  a  pointed  shape,  as  in  swifts,  while  in  species  which 
y  but  little,  or  frequent  thickets,  the  outer  primaries  are  very  short, 
giving  the  wing  a  rounded  appearance.     This  adaptation  to  environ- 
ment is  commonly  lost  sight  of  by  taxonomers,  who  not  infrequently 
use  the  form  of  the  wing  as  a  factor  in  classification. 

The  tectrices,  or  covert  feathers  of  the  wing,  are  arranged  in 
several  series,  decreasing  in  size  from  behind  forwards.  The  number 
of  rows  on  the  dorsal  aspect  and  the  method  of  their  overlap,  afford 
characters  of  general  importance  in  classification. 


228 


FEATHER 


The  first  row  of  the  series  is  formed  by  the  major  coverts;  these, 
like  the  primaries,  have  their  free-edges  directed  towards  the  tip  of 
the  wing,  and  hence  are  said  to  have  a  distal  overlap.  The  next  row 
is  formed  by  the  median  coverts.  These,  on  the  forearm,  commonly 
overlap  as  to  the  outer  half  of  the  row  distally,  and  as  to  the  inner 
half  proximally.  On  the  hand  this  series  is  incomplete.  Beyond  the 
median  are  four  or  five  rows  of  coverts  known  as  the  minor  coverts. 
These  may  have  either  a  proximal  or  a  distal  overlap.  The  remaining 
rows  of  small  feathers  are  known  as  the  marginal  coverts,  and  they 
always  have  a  distal  overlap. 

The  three  or  four  large  quill-like  feathers  borne  by  the  thumb 
form  what  is  known  as  the  "bastard-wing,"  ala  spuria. 

The  coverts  of  the  under  follow  an  arrangement  similar  to  that  of 
the  upper  surface,  but  the  minor  coverts  are  commonly  but  feebly 
developed,  leaving  a  more  or  less  bare  space  which  is  covered  by  the 
great  elongation  of  the  marginal  series. 

One  noteworthy  fact  about  the  coverts  of  the  under  side  of  the 
wing  is  that  all  save  the  major  and  median  coverts  have  what  answers 
to  the  dorsal  surfaces  of  the  feather  turned  towards  the  body,  and 
what  answers  to  the  ventral  surface  of  the  feather  turned  towards 
the  under  surface  of  the  wing.  In  the  major  and  median  coverts, 
however,  the  ventral  surfaces  of  these  feathers  are  turned  ventral- 
wards,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  extended  wing  they,  like  the  remiges, 
have  the  ventral  surfaces  turned  downwards  or  towards  the  body 
in  the  closed  wing. 

But  the  most  remarkable  fact  in  connexion  with  the  pterylosis 
of  the  wing  is  the  fact  that  in  all,  save  the  Passerine  and  Galliform 
types,  and  some  few  other  isolated  exceptions,  the  secondary  series 
of  remiges  appears  always  to  lack  the  fifth  remex,  counting  from  the 
wrist  inwards,  inasmuch  as,  when  such  wings  are  examined,  there  is 
always  found,  in  the  place  of  the  fifth  remex,  a  pair  of  major  coverts 
only,  while  throughout  the  rest  of  the  series  each  such  pair  of  coverts 
embraces  a  quill. 

This  extraordinary  fact  was  first  _discovered  by  the  French 
naturalist  Z.  Gerbe,  and  was  later  rediscovered  by  R.  S.  Wray. 
Neither  of  these,  however,  was  able  to  offer  any  explanation  thereof. 
This,  however,  has  since  been  attempted,  simultaneously,  by  P.  C. 
Mitchell  and  W.  P.  Pycraft.  The  former  has  aptly  coined  the  word 
diastataxic  to  denote  the  gap  in  the  series,  and  eutaxic  to  denote 
such  wings  as  have  an  uninterrupted  series  of  quills.  While  both 
authors  agree  that  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  loss  in  the  number 
of  the  quills  in  diastataxic  wings,  they  differ  in  the  interpretation 
as  to  which  of  the  two  conditions  is  the  more  primitive  and  the 
means  by  which  the  gap  has  been  brought  about. 

According  to  Mitchell  the  diastataxic  is  the  more  primitive 
condition,  and  he  has  conclusively  shown  a  way  in  which  diastataxic 
wings  may  become  eutaxic.  Pycraft  on  the  other  hand  contends 
that  the  diastataxic  wing  has  been  derived  from  the  eutaxic  type, 
and  has  produced  evidence  showing,  on  the  one  hand,  the  method 
by  which  this  transition  is  effected,  and  on  the  other  that  by  which 
the  diastataxic  wing  may  again  recover  the  eutaxic  condition, 
though  in  this  last  particular  the  evidence  adduced  by  Mitchell  is 
much  more  complete.  The  matter  is,  however,  one  of  considerable 
difficulty,  but  is  well  worth  further  investigation. 

The  wings  of  struthious  birds  differ  from  those  of  the  Carinatae, 
just  described,  in  many  ways.  All  are  degenerate  and  quite  useless 
as  organs  of  flight.  In  some  cases  indeed  they  have  become  reduced 
to  mere  vestiges. 

Those  of  the  ostrich  and  Rhea  are  the  least  degraded. 

In  the  ostrich  ankylosis  has  prevented  the  flexion  of  the  hand  at 
the  wrist  joint  so  that  the  quills — primaries  and  secondaries — form 
an  unbroken  series  of  about  forty  in  number.  Of  these  sixteen 
belong  to  the  primary  or  metacarpo-digital  series,  a  number  exceeding 
that  of  any  other  bird.  What  the  significance  of  this  may  be  with 
regard  to  the  primitive  wing  it  is  impossible  to  say  at  present.  The 
coverts,  in  their  disposition,  bear  a  general  resemblance  to  those  of 
Carinate  wings;  but  they  differ  on  account  of  the  great  length  of  the 
feathers  and  the  absence  of  any  definite  overlap. 

The  wing  of  the  South  American  Rhea  more  nearly  resembles 
that  of  flying  birds  since  the  hand  can  be  flexed  at  the  wrist  joint, 
and  the  primaries  are  twelve  in  number,  as  in  grebes,  and  some  storks, 
for  example. 

The  coverts,  as  in  the  African  ostrich,  are  remarkable  for  their 
great  length,  those  representing  the  major  series  being  as  long  as  the 
remiges,  a  fact  probably  due  to  the  shortening  of  the  latter.  They 
are  not,  however,  arranged  in  quincunx,  as  is  the  rule  among  the 
Carinatae,  but  in  parallel,  transverse  rows,  in  which  respect  they 
resemble  the  owls. 

In  both  ostrich  and  Rhea,  as  well  as  in  all  the  other  struthious 
birds,  the  under  surface  of  the  wing  is  entirely  bare. 

The  wing  of  the  cassowary,  emeu  and  apteryx  has  undergone 
complete  degeneration;  so  much  so  that  only  a  vestige  of  the  hand 
remains. 

Remiges  in  the  cassowary  are  represented  by  a  few  spine-like 
shafts — three  primaries  and  two  secondaries.  These  are  really 
hypertrophied  calami.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  the  nestling 
these  remiges  have  a  normal  calamus,  rhachis  and  vane;  but  as 
development  proceeds  the  rhachis  with  its  vane  sloughs  off,  while  the 
calamus  becomes  enormously  lengthened  and  solid. 

In  the  emeu  the  wing  is  less  atrophied  than  in  the  cassowary, 


but  is  not  yet  completely  degenerate.  Altogether  seventeen  remiges 
are  represented,  of  which  seven  correspond  to  primaries.  Since, 
however,  these  feathers  have  each  an  aftershaft  as  long  as  the  main 
shaft — like  the  rest  of  the  body  feathers — it  may  be  that  they  answer 
not  to  remiges,  but  to  major  coverts. 

The  wing  of  apteryx,  like  that  of  the  cassowary,  has  become 
extremely  reduced.  The  remiges  are  thirteen  in  number,  four  of 
which  answer  to  primaries.  These  feathers  are  specially  interesting, 
inasmuch  as  they  retain  throughout  life  a  stage  corresponding  to 
that  seen  in  the  very  young  cassowary,  the  calamus  being  greatly 
swollen,  and  supporting  a  very  degenerate  rhachis  and  vane. 

The  penguins  afford  another  object-lesson  in  degeneration  of  this 
kind.  Here  the  wing  has  become  transformed  into  a  paddle,  clothed 
on  both  sides  with  a  covering  of  small,  close-set  feathers.  A  pollex 
is  wanting,  as  in  the  cassowary,  emeu  and  apteryx,  while  it  is 
impossible  to  say  whether  remiges  are  represented  or  not. 

AUTHORITIES. — The  following  authors  should  be  consulted  for 
further  details  on  this  subject: — 

For  General  Reference  as  to  Structure,  Colour,  Development  and 
Pterylosis. — H.  Gadow,  in  Newton's  Dictionary  of  Birds  (1896); 
W.  P.  Pycraft,  "  The  Interlocking  of  the  Barbs  of  Feathers,"  Natural 
Science  (1893). 

On  the  Colours  of  Feathers. — J.  L.  Bonhote,  "  On  Moult  and  Colour 
Change  in  Birds,"  Ibis  (1900);  A.  H.  Church,  "Researches  on 
Turacin,  an  Animal  Pigment  containing  Copper,"  Phil.  Trans. 
clix.  (1870),  pt.  ii. ;  H.  Gadow,  "  The  Coloration  of  Feathers  as  affected 
by  Structure,"  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  (1882);  Newbegin,  Colour  in  Nature 
(1898);  R.  M.  Strong,  "  The  Development  of  Color  in  the  Definitive 
Feather,"  Bull.  Mus.  Zool.  Harvard  College,  vol.  xl. 

On  Moulting. — J.  Dwight,  "  The  Sequences  of  Plumage  and 
Moults  of  the  Passerine  Birds  of  New  York,"  Annals  N.  Y.Acad.  Set., 
vol.  xiii.  (1900);  W.  E.  De  Winton,  "  On  the  Moulting  of  the  King 
Penguin,"  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  (1898-1899);  W.  P.  Pycraft,  "  On  some 
Points  in  the  Anatomy  of  the  Emperor  and  Adelie  Penguins," Report 
National  Antarctic  Expedition,  vol.  ii.  (1907). 

On  Development  of  Embryonic,  Nestling  and  Adult  Feathers. — T.  H. 
Studer,  "  Die  Entwicklung  der  Federn,"  Inaug.-Diss.  (Bern,  1873); 
"  Beitrage  zur  Entwickl.  der  Feder,"  Zeitsch.f.  wiss.  Zool.,  Bd.  xxx. ; 
J.  T.  Cunningham,  "  Observations  and  Experiments  on  Japanese 
Long-tailed  Fowls,"  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  (1903) ;  H.  R.  Davies,  "  Beitrag 
zur  Entwicklung  der  Feder,"  Mprph.  Jahrb.  xiv.  (1888),  xv.  (1889); 
W.  P.  Pycraft,  "  A  Contribution  towards  our  Knowledge  of  the 
Morphology  of  the  Owls,"  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  (1898) ;  W.  P.  Pycraft, 
"  A  Contribution  towards  our  Knowledge  of  the  Pterytography  of 
the  Megapodii,"  Report  Willey's  Zoological  Results,  pt.  iv.  U9Oo) ; 
W.  P.  Pycraft,  "  Nestling  Birds  and  some  of  the  Problems  they 
Present,  British  Birds  (1907). 

On  Pterylosis. — H.  Gadow,  "  Remarks  on  the  Numbers  and  on  the 
Phylogenetic  Development  of  the  Remiges  of  Birds,"  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 
(1888);  Z.  Gerbe,  "  Sur  les  plumes  du  vol  et  leur  mue,"  Bull.  Soc. 
Zool.  France,  vol.  ii.  (1877) ;  J.  G.  Goodchild,  "  The  Cubital  Coverts 
of  the  Euornithae  in  relation  to  Taxonomy,"  Proc.  Roy.  Phys. 
Edinb.  vol.  x.  (1890-1891);  Meijere,  "  Uber  die  Federn  der  Vogel," 
Morphol.  Jahrb.  xxiii.  (1895) ;  P.  C.  Mitchell,  "  On  so-called  '  Quinto- 
cubitalism  '  in  the  Wing  of  Birds,"  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  Zool.  vol. 
xxvii.  (1899);  "On  the  Anatomy  of  the  Kingfishers,  with  special 
reference  to  the  Conditions  known  as  Eutaxy  and  Diastataxy," 
Ibis  (1901);  C.  L.  Nitzsch,  "Pterytography,"  Ray  Soc.  (1867); 
W.  P.  Pycraft,  "  Some  Facts  concerning  the  so-called  '  Aquintp- 
cubitalism  '  of  the  Bird's  Wing,"  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  vol.  xxvii.; 
C.  J.  Sundevall,  "  On  the  Wings  of  Birds,"  Ibis  (1886) ;  R.  S.  Wray, 
"  On  some  Points  in  the  Morphology  of  the  Wings  of  Birds,"  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.  (1887).  (W.  P.  P.) 

Commercial  Applications  of  Feathers. — The  chief  purposes  for 
which  feathers  become  commercially  valuable  may  be  compre- 
hended under  four  divisions: — (i)  bed  and  upholstery  feathers ; 
(2)  quills  for  writing;  (3)  ornamental  feathers;  and  (4)  mis- 
cellaneous uses  of  feathers. 

Bed  and  Upholstery  Feathers. — The  qualities  which  render 
feathers  available  for  stuffing  beds,  cushions,  &c.,  are  lightness, 
elasticity,  freedom  from  matting  and  softness.  These  are 
combined  in  the  most  satisfactory  degree  in  the  feathers  of  the 
goose  and  of  several  other  allied  aquatic  birds,  whose  bodies 
are  protected  with  a  warm  downy  covering.  Goose  feathers 
and  down,  when  plucked  in  spring  from  the  living  bird,  are  most 
esteemed,  being  at  once  more  elastic,  cleaner  and  less  liable  to 
taint  than  those  obtained  from  the  bodies  of  killed  geese.  The 
down  of  the  eider  duck,  Anas  mollissima,  is  valued  above  all 
other  substances  for  lightness,  softness  and  elasticity  ;  but  it 
has  some  tendency  to  mat,  and  is  consequently  more  used  for 
quilts  and  in  articles  of  clothing  than  unmixed  for  stuffing  beds. 
The  feathers  of  swans,  ducks  and  of  the  common  domestic  fowl 
are  also  largely  employed  for  beds  ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  latter 
bird,  which  is  of  course  non-aquatic,  the  feathers  are  harsher 


FEATHERSTONE— FEATLEY 


229 


and  less  downy  than  are  those  of  the  natatorial  birds  generally. 
Feathers  which  possess  strong  or  stiff  shafts  cannot  without 
some  preliminary  preparation  be  used  for  stuffing  purposes,  as 
the  stiff  points  they  present  would  not  only  be  highly  uncomfort- 
able, but  would  also  pierce  and  cause  the  escape  of  the  feathers 
from  any  covering  in  which  they  might  be  enclosed.  The  barbs 
are  therefore  stripped  or  cut  from  these  feathers,  and  when  so 
prepared  they,  in  common  with  soft  feathers  and  downs,  undergo 
a  careful  process  of  drying  and  cleaning,  without  which  they 
would  acquire  an  offensive  smell,  readily  attract  damp,  and 
harbour  vermin.  The  drying  is  generally  done  in  highly  heated 
apartments  or  stoves,  and  subsequently  the  feathers  are  smartly 
beaten  with  a  stick,  and  shaken  in  a  sieve  to  separate  all  dust 
and  small  debris. 

Quills  for  Writing. — The  earliest  period  at  which  the  use  of 
quill  feathers  for  writing  purposes  is  recorded  is  the  6th  century; 
and  from  that  time  till  the  introduction  of  steel  pens  in  the  early 
part  of  the  ipth  century  they  formed  the  principal  writing 
implements  of  civilized  communities.  It  has  always  been 
from  the  goose  that  quills  have  been  chiefly  obtained,  although 
the  swan,  crow,  eagle,  owl,  hawk  and  turkey  all  have  more  or 
less  been  laid  under  contribution.  Swan  quills,  indeed  are 
better  and  more  costly  than  are  those  from  the  goose,  and  for 
fine  lines  crow  quills  have  been  much  employed.  Only  the 
five  outer  wing  feathers  of  the  goose  are  useful  for  writing,  and 
of  these  the  second  and  third  are  the  best,  while  left-wing  quills 
are  also  generally  more  esteemed  than  those  of  the  right  wing, 
from  the  fact  that  they  curve  outward  and  away  from  the 
writer  using  them.  Quills  obtained  in  spring,  by  plucking  or 
otherwise,  from  living  birds  are  by  far  the  best,  those  taken 
from  dead  geese,  more  especially  if  fattened,  being  comparatively 
worthless.  To  take  away  the  natural  greasiness  to  remove  the 
superficial  and  internal  pellicles  of  skin,  and  to  give  the  necessary 
qualities  of  hardness  and  elasticity,  quills  require  to  undergo 
some  processes  of  preparation.  The  essential  operation  consists 
in  heating  them,  generally  in  a  fine  sand-bath,  to  from  130°  to 
180°  F.  according  to  circumstances,  and  scraping  them  under 
pressure  while  still  soft  from  heat,  whereby  the  outer  skin  is 
removed  and  the  inner  shrivelled  up.  If  the  heating  has  been 
properly  effected,  the  quills  are  found  on  cooling  to  have  become 
hard,  elastic  and  somewhat  brittle.  While  the  quills  are  soft 
and  hot,  lozenge-shaped  patterns,  ornamental  designs,  and  names 
are  easily  and  permanently  impressed  on  them  by  pressure 
with  suitable  instruments  or  designs  in  metal  stamps. 

Ornamental  Feathers. — Feathers  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
much  used,  in  Europe  at  least,  for  ornamental  purposes  till  the 
close  of  the  i3th  century.  They  are  found  in  the  conical  caps 
worn  in  England  during  the  reigns  of  Edward  III.  and  Richard 
II.;  but  not  till  the  period  of  Henry  V.  did  they  take  their 
place  as  a  part  of  military  costume.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
1 5th  century  the  fashion  of  wearing  feathers  in  both  civil  and 
military  life  was  carried  to  an  almost  ludicrous  excess.  In  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII.  they  first  appeared  in  the  bonnets  of  ladies; 
and  during  Elizabeth's  reign  feathers  began  to  occupy  an  impor- 
tant place  as  head-dress  ornaments  of  women.  From  that 
time  down  to  the  present,  feathers  of  endless  variety  have  con- 
tinued to  be  leading  articles  of  ornamentation  in  female  head- 
attire;  but,  except  for  military  plumes,  they  have  long  ceased 
to  be  worn  in  ordinary  male  costume.  At  the  present  day,  the 
feathers  of  numerous  birds  are,  in  one  way  or  another,  turned 
to  account  by  ladies  for  the  purpose  of  personal  ornament. 
Ostrich  feathers,  however,  hold,  as  they  have  always  held,  a 
pre-eminent  position  among  ornamental  feathers;  and  the 
ostrich  is  the  only  bird  which  may  be  said  to  be  reared  exclusively 
for  the  sake  of  its  feathers.  Ostrich  farming  is  one  of  the  estab- 
lished industries  of  South  Africa,  and  is  also  practised  in  Kordofan 
and  other  semi-desert  regions  of  North  Africa,  in  Argentina, 
and  in  Arizona  and  California  in  North  America.  The  feathers 
are  generally  plucked  from  the  living  animal — a  process  which 
does  not  appear  to  cause  any  great  inconvenience.  In  the  male 
bird,  the  long  feathers  of  the  rump  and  wings  are  white,  and  the 
short  feathers  of  the  body  are  jet  black;  while  the  rump  and 


wing  feathers  of  the  female  are  white  tinged  with  a  dusky  grey, 
the  general  body  colour  being  the  latter  hue.  The  feathers 
of  the  male  are  consequently  much  more  valuable  than  those 
of  the  female,  and  they  are  separately  classified  in  commerce. 
The  art  of  the  plumassier  embraces  the  cleaning,  bleaching, 
dyeing,  curling  and  making  up  of  ostrich  and  other  plumes  and 
feathers.  White  feathers  are  simply  washed  in  bundles  in  hot 
soapy  water,  run  through  pure  warm  water,  exposed  to  sulphurous 
fumes  for  bleaching,  thereafter  blued  with  indigo  solution, 
rinsed  in  pure  cold  water,  and  hung  up  to  dry.  When  dry  the 
shafts  are  pared  or  scraped  down  to  give  the  feathers  greater 
flexibility,  and  the  barbs  are  curled  by  drawing  them  singly 
over  the  face  of  a  blunt  knife  or  by  the  cautious  application  of  a 
heated  iron.  Dull-coloured  feathers  are  usually  dyed  black. 
Feathers  which  are  dyed  light  colours  are  first  bleached  by 
exposure  in  the  open  air.  Much  ingenuity  is  displayed  in  the 
making  up  of  plumes,  with  the  general  result  of  producing 
the  appearance  of  full,  rich,  and  long  feathers  from  inferior 
varieties  and  from  scraps  and  fragments  of  ostrich  feathers; 
and  so  dexterously  can  factitious  plumes  be  prepared  that 
only  an  experienced  person  is  able  to  detect  the  fabrication. 

In  addition  to  those  of  the  ostrich,  the  feathers  of  certain 
other  birds  form  articles  of  steady  commercial  demand.  Among 
these  are  the  feathers  of  the  South  American  ostrich,  Rhea 
americana,  the  marabout  feathers  of  India  obtained  from 
Leptoptilos  argala  and  L.  javanica,  the  aigrettes  of  the  heron, 
the  feathers  of  the  various  species  of  birds  of  paradise,  and  of 
numerous  species  of  humming-birds.  Swan-down  and  the  skins 
of  various  penguins  and  grebes  and  of  the  albatross  are  used, 
like  fur,  for  muffs  and  collarettes. 

The  Chinese  excel  in  the  preparation  of  artificial  flowers  and 
other  ornaments  from  bright  natural-coloured  or  dyed  feathers; 
and  the  French  also  skilfully  work  fragments  of  feathers  into 
bouquets  of  artificial  flowers,  imitation  butterflies,  &c. 

Miscellaneous  Applications  of  Feathers.— Quills  of  various 
sizes  are  extensively  employed  as  holders  for  the  sable  and 
camel  hair  brushes  used  by  artists,  &c.  Feather  brushes  and 
dusters  are  made  from  the  wing-feathers  of  the  domestic  fowl 
and  other  birds;  those  of  a  superior  quality,  under  the  name 
of  vulture  dusters,  being  really  made  of  American  ostrich 
feathers.  A  minor  application  of  feathers  is  found  in  the  dress- 
ing of  artificial  fly-hooks  for  fishing.  As  steel  pens  came  into 
general  use  it  became  an  object  of  considerable  importance 
to  find  applications  for  the  supplanted  goose-quills,  and  a  large 
field  of  employment  for  them  was  found  in  the  preparation  of 
toothpicks.  (J.  PA;  W.  P.  P.) 

FEATHERSTONE,  an  urban  district  in  the  Osgoldcross 
parliamentary  division  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England, 
6  m.  E.  of  Wakefield  on  the  Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  railway. 
Pop.  (1901)  12,093.  The  industrial  population  is  employed  in 
large  collieries  in  the  vicinity;  and  here,  on  the  7th  of  September 
1893,  serious  riots  during  a  strike  resulted  in  the  destruction 
of  some  of  the  colliery  works  belonging  to  Lord  Masham,  and 
were  not  quelled  without  military  intervention  and  some  blood- 
shed. 

FEATLEY  (or  FAIRCLOUGH)  DANIEL  (1582-1645),  English 
divine,  was  born  at  Charlton,  Oxfordshire,  on  the  isth  of  March 
1582.  He  was  a  scholar  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  and 
probationer  fellow  in  1602,  after  which  he  went  to  France  as 
chaplain  to  the  English  ambassador.  For  some  years  he  was 
domestic  chaplain  to  George  Abbot,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  held  also  the  rectories  of  Lambeth  (1619),  Allhallows,  Bread 
Street  (c.  1622),  and  Acton  (1627),  this  last  after  leaving  the 
archbishop's  service  in  1625.  His  varied  activities  included  a 
"  scholastick  duel  "  with  James  I.  in  1625,  and  the  publication 
of  (i)  the  report  of  a  conference  with  some  Jesuits  in  1624,  (2) 
a  devotional  manual  entitled  Ancilla  Pietatis  (1626),  (3)  Mystica 
Clavis,  a  Key  opening  divers  Difficult  Texts  of  Scripture  in  fo 
Sermons  (1636).  He  was  appointed  provost  of  Chelsea  College 
in  1630,  and  in  1641  was  one  of  the  sub-committee  "  to  settle 
religion."  In  the  course  of  this  work  he  had  a  disputation  with 
four  Baptists  at  Southwark  which  he  commemorated  in  his  book 


230 


FEBRONIANISM 


Karairrurroi,  The  Dippers  dipt  or  the  Anabaptists 
duckt  and  plunged  over  head  and  ears  (1645).  He  sat  in  the 
Westminster  Assembly  1643,  and  was  the  last  of  the  Episcopal 
members  to  remain.  For  revealing  its  proceedings  he  was 
expelled  and  imprisoned.  He  died  at  Chelsea  on  the  I7th  of 
April  1645. 

FEBRONIANISM,  the  name  given  to  a  powerful  movement 
within  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Germany,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  i8th  century,  directed  towards  the  "  nationalizing  " 
of  Catholicism,  the  restriction  of  the  monarchical  power  usurped 
by  the  papacy  at  the  expense  of  the  episcopate,  and  the  reunion 
of  the  dissident  churches  with  Catholic  Christendom.  It  was 
thus,  in  its  main  tendencies,  the  equivalent  of  what  in  France 
is  known  as  Gallicanism  (q.v.).  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  pseudonym  of  "  Justinus  Febronius  "  adopted  by  Johann 
Nikolaus  von  Hontheim  (q.v.),  coadjutor  bishop  of  Treves  (Trier) , 
in  publishing  his  work  De  statu  ecclesiae  et  legilima  poteslate 
Romani  pontificis.  This  book,  which  roused  a  vast  amount  of 
excitement  and  controversy  at  the  time,  exercised  an  immense 
influence  on  opinion  within  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  the 
principles  it  proclaimed  were  put  into  practice  by  the  rulers  of 
that  Church  in  various  countries  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
1 8th  and  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century. 

The  main  propositions  defended  by  "  Febronius  "  were  as 
follows.  The  constitution  of  the  Church  is  not,  by  Christ's 
institution,  monarchical,  and  the  pope,  though  entitled  to  a 
certain  primacy,  is  subordinate  to  the  universal  Church.  Though 
as  the  "  centre  of  unity  "  he  may  be  regarded  as  the  guardian 
and  champion  of  the  ecclesiastical  law,  and  though  he  may 
propose  laws,  and  send  legates  on  the  affairs  of  his  primacy,  his 
sovereignty  (principatus)  over  the  Church  is  not  one  of  jurisdic- 
tion, but  of  order  and  collaboration  (ordinis  et  consociationis). 
The  Roman  (ultramontane)  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility  is  not 
accepted  "  by  the  other  Catholic  Churches  "  and,  moreover, 
"  has  no  practical  utility."  The  Church  is  based  on  the  one 
episcopacy  common  to  all  bishops,  the  pope  being  only  primus 
inter  pares.  It  follows  that  the  pope  is  subject  to  general  councils, 
in  which  the  bishops  are  his  colleagues  (conjudices) ,  not  merely 
his  consul  tors;  nor  has  he  the  exclusive  right  to  summon  such 
councils.  The  decrees  of  general  councils  need  not  be  confirmed 
by  the  pope  nor  can  they  be  altered  by  him;  on  the  other  hand, 
appeal  may  be  made  from  papal  decisions  to  a  general  council. 
As  for  the  rights  of  the  popes  in  such  matters  as  appeals,  reserva- 
tions, the  confirmation,  translation  and  deposition  of  bishops, 
these  belong  properly  to  the  bishops  in  provincial  synods,  and 
were  usurped  by  the  papacy  gradually  as  the  result  of  a  variety  of 
causes,  notably  of  the  False  Decretals.  For  the  health  of  the 
Church  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  restore  matters  to  their  condi- 
tion before  the  False  Decretals,  and  to  give  to  the  episcopate  its 
due  authority.  The  main  obstacle  to  this  is  not  the  pope  himself, 
but  the  Curia,  and  this  must  be  fought  by  all  possible  means, 
especially  by  thorough  popular  education  (primum  adversus 
abusum  ecdesiasticae  potestatis  remedium),  and  by  the  assembling 
of  national  and  provincial  synods,  the  neglect  of  which  is  the 
main  cause  of  the  Church's  woes.  If  the  pope  will  not  move 
in  the  matter,  the  princes,  and  notably  the  emperor,  must  act  in 
co-operation  with  the  bishops,  summon  national  councils  even 
against  the  pope's  will,  defy  his  excommunication,  and  in  the 
last  resort  refuse  obedience  in  those  matters  over  which  the 
papacy  has  usurped  jurisdiction. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  views  of  Febronius  had  but  little 
originality.  In  the  main  they  were  those  that  predominated 
in  the  great  general  councils  of  Constance  and  Basel  in  the  i5th 
century;  but  they  were  backed  by  him  with  such  a  wealth  of 
learning,  and  they  fitted  so  well  into  the  intellectual  and  political 
conditions  of  the  time,  that  they  found  a  widespread  acceptance. 
The  book,  indeed,  was  at  once  condemned  at  Rome  (February 
1764),  and  by  a  brief  of  the  aist  of  May  the  pope  commanded 
all  the  bishops  of  Germany  to  suppress  it.  The  papal  condemna- 
tion met  with  a  very  mixed  reception;  in  some  dioceses  the  order 
to  prohibit  the  book  was  ignored,  in  others  action  upon  it  was 
postponed  pending  an  independent  examination,  in  yet  others 


(nine  in  all)  it  was  at  once  obeyed  "  for  political  reasons," 
though  even  in  these  the  forbidden  book  became  the  "  breviary 
of  the  governments."  The  Febronian  doctrine,  in  fact,  exactly 
fitted  the  views  of  the  German  bishops,  which  were  by  no  means 
disinterested.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  bishops  were 
at  this  time  great  secular  princes  rather  than  Catholic  prelates; 
with  rare  exceptions,  they  made  no  pretence  of  carrying  out 
their  spiritual  duties;  they  shared  to  the  full  in  the  somewhat 
shallow  "enlightenment"  of  the  age.  As  princes  of  the  Empire 
they  had  asserted  their  practical  independence  of  the  emperor; 
they  were  irked  by  what  they  considered  the  unjustifiable 
interference  of  the  Curia  with  their  sovereign  prerogatives,  and 
wished  to  establish  their  independence  of  the  pope  also.  In 
the  ranks  of  the  hierarchy,  then,  selfish  motives  combined 
with  others  more  respectable  to  secure  the  acceptance  of  the 
Febronian  position.  Among  secular  rulers  the  welcome  given 
to  it  was  even  less  equivocal.  Even  so  devout  a  sovereign  as 
Maria  Theresa  refused  to  allow  "  Febronius  "  to  be  forbidden 
in  the  Habsburg  dominions;  her  son,  the  emperor  Joseph  II., 
applied  the  Febronian  principles  with  remorseless  thoroughness. 
In  Venice,  in  Tuscany,  in  Naples,  in  Portugal,  they  inspired 
the  vigorous  efforts  of  "  enlightened  despots  "  to  reform  the 
Church  from  above;  and  they  gave  a  fresh  impetus  to  the  move- 
ment against  the  Jesuits,  which,  under  pressure  of  the  secular 
governments,  culminated  in  the  suppression  of  the  Society 
by  Pope  Clement  XIV.  in  1773.  "Febronius,"  too,  inspired 
the  proceedings  of  two  notable  ecclesiastical  assemblies,  both 
held  in  the  year  1786.  The  reforming  synod  which  met  at 
Pistoia  under  the  presidency  of  the  bishop,  Scipione  de'  Ricci, 
is  dealt  with  elsewhere  (see  PISTOIA).  The  other  was  the  so- 
called  congress  of  Ems,  a  meeting  of  the  delegates  of  the  four 
German  archbishops,  which  resulted,  on  the  25th  of  August, 
in  the  celebrated  "Punctation  of  Ems,"  subsequently  ratified 
and  issued  by  the  archbishops.  This  document  was  the  outcome 
of  several  years  of  controversy  between  the  archbishops  and 
the  papal  nuncios,  aroused  by  what  was  considered  the  un- 
justifiable interference  of  the  latter  in  the  affairs  of  the  German 
dioceses.  In  1769  the  three  archbishop-electors  of  Mainz, 
Cologne  and  Treves  (Trier)  had  drawn  up  in  thirty  articles 
their  complaints  against  the  Curia,  and  after  submitting  them 
to  the  emperor  Joseph  II.,  had  forwarded  them  to  the  new 
pope,  Clement  XIV.  These  articles,  though  "  Febronius  "  was 
prohibited  in  the  archdioceses,  were  wholly  Febronian  in  tone; 
and,  indeed,  Bishop  von  Hontheim  himself  took  an  active  part 
in  the  diplomatic  negotiations  which  were  their  outcome.  In 
drawing  up  the  "  Punctation  "  he  took  no  active  part,  but  it 
was  wholly  inspired  by  his  principles.  It  consisted  of  XXIII. 
articles,  which  may  be  summarized  as  follows.  Bishops  have, 
in  virtue  of  their  God-given  powers,  full  authority  within  their 
dioceses  in  all  matters  of  dispensation,  patronage  and  the  like; 
papal  bulls,  briefs,  &c.,  and  the  decrees  of  the  Roman  Congrega- 
tions are  only  of  binding  force  in  each  diocese  when  sanctioned 
by  the  bishop;  nunciatures,  as  hitherto  conceived,  are  to  cease; 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  pope  demanded  of  bishops  since 
Gregory  VII. 's  time  is  to  be  altered  so  as  to  bring  it  into 
conformity  with  episcopal  rights;  annates  and  the  fees  payable 
for  the  pallium  and  confirmation  are  to  be  lowered  and,  in  the 
event  of  the  pallium  or  confirmation  being  refused,  German 
archbishops  and  bishops  are  to  be  free  to  exercise  their  office 
under  the  protection  of  the  emperor;  with  the  Church  tribunals 
of  first  and  second  instance  (episcopal  and  metropolitan)  the 
nuncios  are  not  to  interfere,  and,  though  appeal  to  Rome  is 
allowed  under  certain  "  national  "  safe-guards,  the  opinion  is 
expressed  that  it  would  be  better  to  set  up  in  each  archdiocese 
a  final  court  of  appeal  representing  the  provincial  synod;  finally 
the  emperor  is  prayed  to  use  his  influence  with  the  pope  to  secure 
the  assembly  of  a  national  council  in  order  to  remove  the  griev- 
ances left  unredressed  by  the  council  of  Trent. 

Whether  this  manifesto  would  have  led  to  a  reconstitution 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  on  permanently  Febronian  lines 
must  for  ever  remain  doubtful. '  The  French  Revolution  inter- 
vened; the  German  Church  went  down  in  the  storm;  and  in 


FEBRUARY— FECHNER 


231 


1803  the  secularizations  carried  out  by  order  of  the  First  Consul 
put  an  end  to  the  temporal  ambitions  of  its  prelates.  Febronianism 
indeed,  survived.  Karl  Theodor  von  Dalberg,  prince  primate  of 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  upheld  its  principles  throughout 
the  Napoleonic  epoch  and  hoped  to  establish  them  in  the  new 
Germany  to  be  created  by  the  congress  of  Vienna.  He  sent 
to  this  assembly,  as  representative  of  the  German  Church, 
Bishop  von  Wessenberg,  who  in  his  diocese  of  Constance  had 
not  hesitated  to  apply  Febronian  principles  in  reforming,  on 
his  own  authority,  the  services  and  discipline  of  the  Church. 
But  the  times  were  not  favourable  for  such  experiments.  The 
tide  of  reaction  after  the  Revolutionary  turmoil  was  setting 
strongly  in  the  direction  of  traditional  authority,  in  religion  as 
in  politics;  and  that  ultramontane  movement  which,  before 
the  century  was  ended,  was  to  dominate  the  Church,  was  already 
showing  signs  of  vigorous  life.  Moreover,  the  great  national 
German  Church  of  which  Dalberg  had  a  vision — with  himself 
as  primate — did  not  appeal  to  the  German  princes,  tenacious 
of  their  newly  acquired  status  as  European  powers.  One  by 
one  these  entered  into  concordats  with  Rome,  and  Febronianism 
from  an  aggressive  policy  subsided  into  a  speculative  opinion. 
As  such  it  survived  strongly,  especially  in  the  universities  (Bonn 
especially  had  been,  from  its  foundation  in  1774,  very  Febronian), 
and  it  reasserted  itself  vigorously  in  the  attitude  of  many  of 
the  most  learned  German  prelates  and  professors  towards  the 
question  of  the  definition  of  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility  in 
1870.  It  was,  in  fact,  against  the  Febronian  position  that  the 
decrees  of  the  Vatican  Council  were  deliberately  directed,  and 
their  promulgation  marked  the  triumph  of  the  ultramontane 
view  (see  VATICAN  COUNCIL,  ULTRAMONTANISM,  PAPACY).  In 
Germany,  indeed,  the  struggle  against  the  papal  monarchy  was 
carried  on  for  a  while  by  the  governments  on  the  so-called 
Kulturkampf,  the  Old  Catholics  representing  militant  Febronian- 
ism. The  latter,  however,  since  Bismarck  "  went  to  Canossa," 
have  sunk  into  a  respectable  but  comparatively  obscure  sect,  and 
Febronianism,  though  it  still  has  some  hold  on  opinion  within  the 
Church  in  the  chapters  and  universities  of  the  Rhine  provinces,  is 
practically  extinct  in  Germany.  Its  revival  under  the  guise  of  so- 
called  Modernism  drew  from  Pope  Pius  X.  in  1908  the  scathing 
condemnation  embodied  in  the  encyclical  Pascendi  gregis. 

AUTHORITIES. — See  Justinus  Febronius,  De  stat-u  ecclesiae  et 
legitima  potestae  Romani  pontificis  (Bullioni,  1765),  second  and 
enlarged  edition,  with  new  prefaces  addressed  to  Pope  Clement 
XIII.,  to  Christian  kings  and  princes,  to  the  bishops  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  to  doctors  of  theology  and  canon  law;  three  additional 
volumes,  published  in  1770,  1772  and  1774  at  Frankfort,  are  devoted 
to  vindications  of  the  original  work  against  the  critics.  In  the 
Revue  des  deux  mondes  for  July  1903  (tome  xvi.  p.  266)  is  an  interest- 
ing article  under  the  title  of  "  L'Allemagne  Catholique,"  from  the 
papal  point  of  view,  by  Georges  Goyau.  For  the  congress  of  Ems 
see  Herzog-Hauck,  Rcalencyklopadie  (Leipzig,  1898),  s.v.  "  Emser 
Kongress."  Further  references  are  given  in  the  article  on  Hontheim 
(q.v.).  (W.  A.  P.) 

FEBRUARY,  the  second  month  of  the  modern  calendar. 
In  ordinary  years  it  contains  28  days;  but  in  bissextile  or  leap 
year,  by  the  addition  of  the  intercalary  day,  it  consists  of  29  days. 
This  month  was  not  in  the  Romulian  calendar.  In  the  reign  of 
Numa  two  months  were  added  to  the  year,  namely,  January 
at  the  beginning,  and  February  at  the  end;  and  this  arrange- 
ment was  continued  until  452  B.C.,  when  the  decemvirs  placed 
February  after  January.  The  ancient  name  of  Februarius  was 
derived  from  februare,  to  purify,  or  from  Februa,  the  Roman 
festival  of  general  expiation  and  lustration,  which  was  celebrated 
during  the  latter  part  of  this  month.  In  February  also  the 
Lupercalia  were  held,  and  women  were  purified  by  the  priests 
of  Pan  Lyceus  at  that  festival.  The  Anglo-Saxons  called  this 
month  Sprout-Kale  from  the  sprouting  of  the  cabbage  at  this 
season.  Later  it  was  known  as  Solmonath,  because  of  the  return 
of  the  sun  from  the  low  latitudes.  The  most  generally  noted  days 
of  February  are  the  following: — the  2nd,  Candlemas  day,  one 
of  the  fixed  quarter  days  used  in  Scotland;  the  i4th,  St  Valen- 
tine's day;  and  the  24th,  St  Matthias".  The  church  festival  of 
St  Matthias  was  formerly  observed  on  the  25th  of  February  in 
bissextile  years,  but  it  is  now  invariably  celebrated  on  the  24th. 


FEBVRE,  ALEXANDRE  FREDERIC  (1835-  ),  French 
actor,  was  born  in  Paris,  and  after  the  usual  apprenticeship  in 
the  provinces  and  in  several  Parisian  theatres  in  small  parts, 
was  called  to  the  Comedie  Francaise  in  1866,  where  he  made  his 
debut  as  Philip  II.  in  Don  Juan  d'Autriche.  He  soon  became 
the  most  popular  leading  man  in  Paris,  not  only  in  the  classical 
repertoire,  but  in  contemporary  novelties.  In  1894  he  toured 
the  principal  cities  of  Europe,  and,  in  1895,  of  America.  He 
was  also  a  composer  of  light  music  for  the  piano,  and  published 
several  books  of  varying  merit.  He  married  Mdlle  Harville, 
daughter  of  one  of  his  predecessors  at  the  Comedie  Franchise, 
herself  a  well-known  actress. 

FECAMP,  a  seaport  and  bathing  resort  of  northern  France, 
in  the  department  of  Seine-Inferieure,  28  m.  N.N.E.  of  Havre 
on  the  Western  railway.  Pop.  (1906)  15,872.  The  town,  which 
is  situated  on  the  English  Channel  at  the  mouth  of  the  small 
river  Fecamp,  consists  almost  entirely  of  one  street  upwards  of 
2  m.  in  length.  t  It  occupies  the  bottom  and  sides  of  a  narrow 
valley  opening  out  towards  the  sea  between  high  cliffs.  The  most 
important  building  is  the  abbey  church  of  La  Trinite,  dating 
for  the  most  part  from  1175  to  1225.  The  central  tower  and 
the  south  portal  (i3th  century)  are  the  chief  features  of  its 
simple  exterior;  in  the  interior,  the  decorative  work,  notably 
the  chapel-screens  and  some  fine  stained  glass,  is  remarkable. 
The  hotel-de-ville  with  a  municipal  museum  and  library  occupy 
the  remains  of  the  abbey  buildings  (i8th  century).  The  church 
of  St  Etienne  (i6th  century)  and  the  Benedictine  liqueur 
distillery,1  a  modern  building  which  also  contains  a  museum,  are 
of  some  interest.  A  tribunal  and  chamber  of  commerce,  a  board 
of  trade-arbitrators  and  a  nautical  school,  are  among  the  public 
institutions.  The  port  consists  of  an  entrance  channel  nearly 
400  yds.  long  leading  to  a  tidal  harbour  and  docks  capable  of 
receiving  ships  drawing  26  ft.  at  spring-tide,  19  ft.  at  neap-tide. 
Fishing  for  herring  and  mackerel  is  carried  on  and  the  town 
equips  a  large  fleet  for  the  codbanks  of  Newfoundland  and 
Iceland.  The  chief  exports  are  oil-cake,  flint,  cod  and  Benedic- 
tine liqueur.  Imports  include  coal, timber,  tar  and  hemp.  Steam 
sawing,  metal-founding,  fish-salting,  shipbuilding  and  repairing, 
and  the  manufacture  of  ship's-biscuits  and  fishing-nets  are  among 
the  industries. 

The  town  of  Fecamp  grew  up  round  the  nunnery  founded  in 
658  to  guard  the  relic  of  the  True  Blood  which,  according  to  the 
legend,  was  found  in  the  trunk  of  a  fig-tree  drifted  from  Palestine 
to  this  spot,  and  which  still  remains  the  most  precious  treasure 
of  the  church.  The  original  convent  was  destroyed  by  the  North- 
men, but  was  re-established  by  Duke  William  Longsword  as  a 
house  of  canons  regular,  which  shortly  afterwards  was  converted 
into  a  Benedictine  monastery.  King  Richard  I.  greatly  enlarged 
this,  and  rebuilt  the  church.  The  town  achieved  some  prosperity 
under  the  dukes  of  Normandy,  who  improved  its  harbour,  but 
after  the  annexation  of  Normandy  to  France  it  was  overshadowed 
by  the  rising  port  of  Havre. 

FECHNER,  GUSTAV  THEODOR  (1801-1887),  German  experi- 
mental psychologist,  was  born  on  the  igth  of  April  1801  at 
Gross-Sarchen,  near  Muskau,  in  Lower  Lusatia,  where  his  father 
was  pastor.  He  was  educated  at  Sorau  and  Dresden  and  at  the 
university  of  Leipzig,  in  which  city  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life. 
In  1834  he  was  appointed  professor  of  physics,  but  in  1839 
contracted  an  affection  of  the  eyes  while  studying  the  phenomena 
of  colour  and  vision,  and,  after  much  suffering,  resigned.  Subse- 
quently recovering,  he  turned  to  the  study  of  mind  and  the 
relations  between  body  and  mind,  giving  public  lectures  on  the 
subjects  of  which  his  books  treat.  He  died  at  Leipzig  on  the  i8th 
of  November  1887.  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned: 
Das  Biichlein  wm  Leben  nach  dem  Tode  (1836,  sth  ed.,  1903), 
which  has  been  translated  into  English;  Nanna,  oder  tiber  das 
Seelenleben  der  Pflanzen  (1848,  3rd  ed.,  1903);  Zendavesla,  oder 

1  The  liqueur  is  said  to  have  been  manufactured  by  the  Benedictine 
monks  of  the  abbey  as  far  back  as  1510;  since  the  Revolution 
it  has  been  produced  commercially  by  a  secular  company.  The 
familiar  legend  D.  O.  M.(Deo  Optimo  Maximo)  on  the  bottles  preserves 
the  memory  of  its  original  makers. 


232 


FECHTER— FECKENHAM 


iiber  die  Dinge  des  Himmels  und  des  Jenseits  (1851,  2nd  ed. 
by  Lasswitz,  1901);  Uber  die  physikalische  und  philosophische 
Atomenlehre  (1853,  2nd  ed.,  1864);  Elemente  der  Psychophysik 
(1860,  2nd  ed.,  1889);  Vorschule  der  Asthetik  (1876,  2nd  ed., 
1898);  Die  Tagesansicht  gegeniiber  der  N achtansicht  (1879). 
He  also  published  chemical  and  physical  papers,  and  translated 
chemical  works  by  J.  B.  Biot  and  L.  J.  Thenard  from  the  French. 
A  different  but  essential  side  of  his  character  is  seen  in  his 
poems  and  humorous  pieces,  such  as  the  Vergleichende  Anatomic 
der  Engel  (1825),  written  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Dr  Mises." 
Fechner's  epoch-making  work  was  his  Elemente  der  Psychophysik 
(1860).  He  starts  from  the  Spinozistic-  thought  that  bodily 
facts  and  conscious  facts,  though  not  reducible  one  to  the  other, 
are  different  sides  of  one  reality.  His  originality  lies  in  trying 
to  discover  an  exact  mathematical  relation  between  them. 
The  most  famous  outcome  of  his  inquiries  is  the  law  known 
as  Weber's  or  Fechner's  law  which  may  be  expressed  as  follows: — 
"  In  order  that  the  intensity  of  a  sensation  may  increase  in  arith- 
metical progression,  the  stimulus  must  increase  in  geometrical 
progression."  Though  holding  good  within  certain  limits  only, 
the  law  has  been  found  immensely  useful.  Unfortunately,  from 
the  tenable  theory  that  the  intensity  of  a  sensation  increases  by 
definite  additions  of  stimulus,  Fechner  was  led  on  to  postulate 
a  unit  of  sensation,  so  that  any  sensation  s  might  be  regarded 
as  composed  of  «  units.  Sensations,  he  argued,  thus  being 
represeutable  by  numbers,  psychology  may  become  an  "  exact  " 
science,  susceptible  of  mathematical  treatment.  His  general 
formula  for  getting  at  the  number  of  units  in  any  sensation  is 
s  =  c  log  R,  where  s  stands  for  the  sensation,  R  for  the  stimulus 
numerically  estimated,  and  c  for  a  constant  that  must  be  separ- 
ately determined  by  experiment  in  each  particular  order  of  sensi- 
bility. This  reasoning  of  Fechner's  has  given  rise  to  a  great  mass 
of  controversy,  but  the  fundamental  mistake  in  it  is  simple. 
Though  stimuli  are  composite,  sensations  are  not.  "  Every 
sensation,"  says  Professor  James, "  presents  itself  as  an  indivisible 
unit;  and  it  is  quite  impossible  to  read  any  clear  meaning  into 
the  notion  that  they  are  masses  of  units  combined."  Still,  the 
idea  of  the  exact  measurement  of  sensation  has  been  a  fruitful 
one,  and  mainly  through  his  influence  on  Wundt,  Fechner  was 
the  father  of  that  "  new  "  psychology  of  laboratories  which 
investigates  human  faculties  with  the  aid  of  exact  scientific 
apparatus.  Though  he  has  had  a  vast  influence  in  this  special 
department,  the  disciples  of  his  general  philosophy  are  few.  His 
world-conception  is  highly  animistic.  He  feels  the  thrill  of  life 
everywhere,  in  plants,  earth,  stars,  the  total  universe.  Man 
stands  midway  between  the  souls  of  plants  and  the  souls  of  stars, 
who  are  angels.  God,  the  soul  of  the  universe,  must  be  conceived 
as  having  an  existence  analogous  to  men.  Natural  laws  are 
just  the  modes  of  the  unfolding  of  God's  perfection.  In  his  last 
work  Fechner,  aged  but  full  of  hope,  contrasts  this  joyous 
"  daylight  view  "  of  the  world  with  the  dead,  dreary  "  night 
view  "  of  materialism.  Fechner's  work  in  aesthetics  is  also 
important.  He  conducted  experiments  to  show  that  certain 
abstract  forms  and  proportions  are  naturally  pleasing  to  our 
senses,  and  gave  some  new  illustrations  of  the  working  of  aesthetic 
association.  Fechner's  position  in  reference  to  predecessors 
and  contemporaries  is  not  very  sharply  defined.  He  was 
remotely  a  disciple  of  Schelling,  learnt  much  from  Herbart 
and  Weisse,  and  decidedly  rejected  Hegel  and  the  monadism 
of  Lotze. 

See  W.  Wundt,  G.  Th.  Fechner  (Leipzig,  1901);  A.  Elsas,  "  Zum 
Andenken  G.  Th.  Fechners,"  in  Grenzbote,  1888;  J.  E.  Kuntze, 
G.  Th.  Fechner  (Leipzig,  1892);  Karl  Lasswitz,  G.  Th.  Fechner 
(Stuttgart,  1896  and  1902);  E.  ,B-  Titchener,  Experimental  Psy- 
chology (New  York,  1905);  G.  F.  Stout,  Manual  of  Psychology 
(1898),  bk.  ii.  ch.  vii.;  R.  Falckenberg,  Hist,  of  Mod.  Phil.  (Eng. 
.trans.,  1895),  pp.  601  foil.;  H.  Hoffding,  Hist,  of  Mod.  Phil.  (Eng. 
trans.,  1900),  vol.  ii.  pp.  524  foil.;  Liebe,  Fechners  Metaphysik,  im 
Umriss  dargestellt  (1903).  (H.  ST.) 

FECHTER,  CHARLES  ALBERT  (1824-1879),  Anglo-French 
actor,  was  born,  probably  in  London,  on  the  23rd  of  October 
1824,  of  French  parents,  although  his  mother  was  of  Piedmontese 
and  his  father  of  German  extraction.  The  boy  would  probably 


have  devoted  himself  to  a  sculptor's  life  but  for  the  accident 
of  a  striking  success  made  in  some  private  theatricals.  The 
result  was  an  engagement  in  1841  to  play  in  a  travelling  company 
that  was  going  to  Italy.  The  tour  was  a  failure,  and  the  com- 
pany broke  up;  whereupon  Fechter  returned  home  and  worked 
assiduously  at  sculpture.  At  the  same  time  he  attended  classes 
at  the  Conservatoire  with  the  view  of  gaining  admission  to  the 
Comedie  Francaise.  Late  in  1844  he  won  the  grand  medal  of 
the  Academic  des  Beaux- Arts  with  a  piece  of  sculpture,  and  was 
admitted  to  make  his  debut  at  the  Comedie  Francaise  as  Seide 
in  Voltaire's  Mahomet  and  Valere  in  Moliere's  Tartuffe.  He 
acquitted  himself  with  credit;  but,  tired  of  the  small  parts  he 
found  himself  condemned  to  play,  returned  again  to  his  sculptor's 
studio  in  1846.  In  that  year  he  accepted  an  engagement  to 
play  with  a  French  company  in  Berlin,  where  he  made  his  first 
decisive  success  as  an  actor.  On  his  return  to  Paris  in  the 
following  year  he  married  the  actress  Eleonore  Rabut  (d.  1895). 
Previously  he  had  appeared  for  some  months  in  London,  in  a 
season  of  French  classical  plays  given  at  the  St  James's  theatre. 
In  Paris  for  the  next  ten  years  he  fulfilled  a  series  of  successful 
engagements  at  various  theatres,  his  chief  triumph  being  his 
creation  at  the  Vaudeville  on  the  2nd  of  February  1852  of  the 
part  of  Armand  Duval  in  La  Dame  aux  camelias.  For  nearly 
two  years  (1857-1858)  Fechter  was  manager  of  the  Odeon, 
where  he  produced  Tarluffe  and  other  classical  plays.  Having 
received  tempting  offers  to  act  in  English  at  the  Princess's 
theatre,  London,  he  made  a  diligent  study  of  the  language,  and 
appeared  there  on  the  27th  of  October  1860  in  an  English 
version  of  Victor  Hugo's  Ruy  Bias.  This  was  followed  by  The 
Corsican  Brothers  and  Don  Cesar  de  Bazan;  and  on  the  2oth  of 
March  1861  he  first  attempted  Hamlet.  The  result  was  an 
extraordinary  triumph,  the  play  running  for  115  nights.  This 
was  followed  by  Othello,  in  which  he  played  alternately  the  Moor 
and  lago.  In  1863  he  became  lessee  of  the  Lyceum  theatre, 
which  he  opened  with  The  Duke's  Motto;  this  was  followed 
by  The  King's  Butterfly,  The  Mountebank  (in  which  his  son  Paul, 
a  boy  of  seven,  appeared),  The  Roadside  Inn,  The  Master  of 
Ravenswood,  The  Corsican  Brothers  (in  the  original  French  version, 
in  which  he  had  created  the  parts  of  Louis  and  Fabian  dei 
Franchi)  and  The  Lady  of  Lyons.  After  this  he  appeared  at 
the  Adelphi  (1868)  as  Obenreizer  in  No  Thoroughfare,  by  Charles 
Dickens  and  Wilkie  Collins,  as  Edmond  Dantes  in  Monte  Cristo, 
and  as  Count  de  Leyrac  in  Black  and  White,  a  play  in  which  the 
actor  himself  collaborated  with  Wilkie  Collins.  In  1870  he 
visited  the  United  States,  where  (with  the  exception  of  a  visit 
to  London  in  1872)  he  remained  till  his  death.  His  first  appear- 
ance in  New  York  was  at  Niblo's  Garden  in  the  title  r61e  of 
Ruy  Bias.  He  played  in  the  United  States  between  1870  and 
1876  in  most  of  the  parts  in  which  he  had  won  his  chief  triumphs 
in  England,  making  at  various  times  attempts  at  management, 
rarely  successful,  owing  to  his  ungovernable  temper.  The  last 
three  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  seclusion  on  a  farm  which 
he  had  bought  at  Rockland  Centre,  near  Quakertown,  Pennsyl- 
vania, where  he  died  on  the  5th  of  August  1879.  A  bust  of  the 
actor  by  himself  is  in  the  Garrick  Club,  London. 

FECKENHAM,  JOHN  (c.  1515-1584),  English  ecclesiastic, 
last  abbot  of  Westminster,  was  born  at  Feckenham,  Worcester- 
shire,of  ancestors  who, by  theirwills,  seem  to  have  been  substantial 
yeomen.  The  family  name  was  Howman,  but,  according  to 
the  English  custom,  Feckenham,  on  monastic  profession,  changed 
it  for  the  territorial  name  by  which  he  is  always  known.  Learn- 
ing his  letters  first  from  the  parish  priest,  he  was  sent  at  an 
early  age  to  the  claustral  school  at  Evesham  and  thence,  in  his 
eighteenth  year,  to  Gloucester  Hall,  Oxford,  as  a  Benedictine 
student.  After  taking  his  degree  in  arts,  he  returned  to  the 
abbey,  where  he  was  professed;  but  he  was  at  the  university 
again  in  1537  and  took  his  B.D.  on  the  nth  of  June  1539. 
Returning  to  Evesham  he  was  there  when  the  abbey  was  sur- 
rendered to  the  king  (27th  of  January  1540) ;  and  then,  with  a 
pension  of  £10  a  year,  he  once  more  went  back  to  Oxford,  but 
soon  after  became  chaplain  to  Bishop  Bell  of  Worcester  and 
then  served  Bonner  in  that  same  capacity  from  1543  to  1549- 


FEDCHENKO— FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT 


233 


In  1 544  Bonner  gave  him  the  living  of  Solihull ;  and  Feckenham 
established  a  reputation  as  a  preacher  and  a  disputant  of  keen 
intellect  but  unvarying  charity.  About  1549  Cranmer  sent 
him  to  the  Tower  of  London,  and  while  there  "  he  was  borrowed 
out  of  prison  "  to  take  part  in  seven  public  disputations  against 
Hooper,  Jewel  and  others.  Released  by  Queen  Mary  (sth  of 
September  1553),  he  returned  to  Bonner  and  became  prebendary 
of  St  Paul's,  rector  of  Finchley,  then  of  Greenford  Magna, 
chaplain  and  confessor  to  the  queen,  and  dean  of  St  Paul's 
(loth  of  March  1554).  He  took  part,  with  much  charity  and 
mildness,  in  the  Oxford  disputes  against  Cranmer,  Latimer  and 
Ridley;  but  he  had  no  liking  for  the  fierce  bigotry  and  bloody 
measures  then  in  force  against  Protestants.  Feckenham  used 
all  his  influence  with  Mary  "  to  procure  pardon  of  the  faults  or 
mitigation  of  the  punishment  for  poor  Protestants"  (Fuller), 
and  he  was  sent  by  the  queen  to  prepare  Lady  Jane  Grey  for 
death.  When  Elizabeth  was  sent  to  the  Tower  (i8th  of  March 
1554),  Feckenham  interceded  for  her  life  and  liberty,  even  at 
the  cost  of  displeasing  the  queen. 

The  royal  abbey  of  Westminster  having  been  restored  to  its 
primitive  use,  Feckenham  was  appointed  abbot,  and  the  old 
life  began  again  within  its  hallowed  walls  on  the  2  ist  of  November 
1556.  The  abbey  school  was  reopened  and  the  shrine  of  St 
Edward  restored.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  Feckenham 
consistently  opposed  all  the  legislation  for  changes  in  religion, 
and,  when  the  hour  of  trial  came,  he  refused  the  oath  of 
supremacy,  rejecting  also  Elizabeth's  offer  to  remain  with  his 
monks  at  Westminster  if  he  would  conform  to  the  new  laws. 
The  abbey  was  dissolved  (i2th  of  July  1559),  and  within  a  year 
Feckenham  was  sent  by  Archbishop  Parker  to  the  Tower  (2oth 
of  May  1560),  according  to  Jewel,  "  for  having  obstinately  refused 
attendance  on  public  worship  and  everywhere  declaiming  and 
railing  against  that  religion  which  we  now  profess  "  (Parker 
Society,  first  series,  p.  79).  Henceforth,  except  for  some  brief 
periods  when  he  was  a  prisoner  at  large,  Feckenham  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  confinement  either  in  some  recognized  prison, 
or  in  the  more  distasteful  and  equally  rigorous  keeping  of  the 
bishops  of  Winchester  and  Ely.  After  fourteen  years'  confine- 
ment, he  was  released  on  bail  and  lived  in  Holborn,  where  his 
benevolence  was  shown  by  all  manner  of  works  of  charity. 
"  He  relieved  the  poor  wheresoever  he  came,  so  that  flies  flock 
not  thicker  to  spilt  honey  than  beggars  constantly  crowd  about 
him  "  (Fuller).  He  set  up  a  public  aqueduct  in  Holborn,  and  a 
hospice  for  the  poor  at  Bath;  he  distributed  every  day  to  the 
sick  the  milk  of  twelve  cows,  took  care  of  orphans,  and  encouraged 
manly  sports  on  Sundays  among  the  youth  of  London  by  giving 
prizes.  In  1577  he  was  committed  to  the  care  of  Cox  of  Ely 
with  strict  rules  for  his  treatment;  and  the  bishop  (1578)  could 
find  no  fault  with  him  except  that  "  he  was  a  gentle  person 
but  in  the  popish  religion  too,  too  obstinate."  In  1580  he  was 
removed  to  Wisbeach  Castle,  and  there  exercised  such  an  influence 
of  charity  and  peace  among  his  fellow-prisoners  that  was  re- 
membered when,  in  after  years,  the  notorious  Wisbeach  Stirs 
broke  out  under  the  Jesuit  Weston.  Even  here  Feckenham 
found  a  means  of  doing  public  good;  at  his  own  cost  he  repaired 
the  road  and  set  up  a  market  cross  in  the  town.  After  twenty- 
four  years  of  suffering  for  his  conscience  he  died  in  prison  and 
was  buried  in  an  unknown  grave  in  the  parish  church  at  Wis- 
beach on  the  1 6th  of  October  1584. 

The  fullest  account  of  Feckenham  is  to  be  found  in  E.  Taunton's 
English  Black  Monks  of  St  Benedict  (London,  1897),  vol.  i.  pp. 
160-222.  (E.  TN.) 

FEDCHENKO,  ALEXIS  PAVLOVICH  (1844-1873),  Russian 
naturalist  and  traveller,  well  known  for  his  explorations  in 
central  Asia,  was  born  at  Irkutsk,  in  Siberia,  on  the  7th  of 
February  1844;  and,  after  attending  the  gymnasium  of  his 
native  town,  proceeded  to  the  university  of  Moscow,  for  the 
study  more  especially  of  zoology  and  geology.  In  1868  he 
travelled  through  Turkestan,  the  district  of  the  lower  Syr-Darya 
and  Samarkand;  and  shortly  after  his  return  he  set  out  for 
Khokand,  where  he  visited  a  large  portion  of  territory  till  then 
unknown.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Europe  he  perished  on  Mont 


Blanc  while  engaged  in  an  exploring  tour  in  Switzerland,  on  the 
i5th  of  September  1873. 

Accounts  of  the  explorations  and  discoveries  of  Fedchenko  have 
>een  published  by  the  Russian  government, — his  Journeys  in 
Turkestan  in  1874,  In  the  Khanat  of  Khokand  in  1875,  and  Botanical 
Discoveries  in  1876.  See  Petermann's  Mittheilungen  (1872-1874). 

FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT  (Lat.  foedus,  a  league),  a  form  of 
government  of  which  the  essential  principle  is  that  there  is  a 
union  of  two  or  more  states  under  one  central  body  for  certain 
permanent  common  objects.  In  the  most  perfect  form  of 
federation  the  states  agree  to  delegate  to  a  supreme  federal 
government  certain  powers  or  functions  inherent  in  themselves 
in  their  sovereign  or  separate  capacity,  and  the  federal  govern- 
ment, in  turn,  in  the  exercise  of  those  specific  powers  acts  directly, 
not  only  on  the  communities  making  up  the  federation,  but  on 
each  individual  citizen.  So  far  as  concerns  the  residue  of  powers 
unallotted  to  the  central  or  federal  authority,  the  separate  states 
retain  unimpaired  their  individual  sovereignty,  and  the  citizens 
of  a  federation  consequently  owe  a  double  allegiance,  one  to 
the  state,  and  the  other  to  the  federal  government.  They  live 
under  two  sets  of  laws,  .the  laws  of  the  state  and  the  laws  of  the 
federal  government  (J.  Bryce,  Studies  in  History  and  Juris- 
prudence, ii.  490).  The  word  "confederation,"  as  distinct  from 
"  federation "  has  been  sometimes,  though  not  universally, 
used  to  distinguish  from  such  a  federal  state  (Bundesstaat) 
a  mere  union  of  states  (Staatenbund)  for  mutual  aid,  and  the 
promotion  of  interests  common  to  all  (see  CONFEDERATION). 

The  history  of  federal  government  practically  begins  with 
Greece.  This,  however,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Greek  federa- 
tions are  the  only  ones  of  which  we  have  any  detailed  information. 
The  obvious  importance,  especially  to  scattered  villages  or  tribes, 
of  systematic  joint  action  in  the  face  of  a  common  danger  makes 
it  reasonable  to  infer  that  federation  in  its  elementary  forms 
was  a  widespread  device.  This  view  is  strengthened  by  what  we 
can  gather  of  the  conditions  obtaining  in  such  districts  as  Aetolia, 
Acarnania  and  Samnium,  as  in  modern  times  among  primitive 
peoples  and  tribes.  The  relatively  detailed  information  which 
we  possess  concerning  the  federal  governments  of  Greece  makes 
it  necessary  to  pay  special  attention  to  them. 

In  ancient  Greece  the  most  striking  tendency  of  political 
development  was  the  maintenance  of  separate  city  states,  each 
striving  for  absolute  autonomy,  though  all  spoke  practically 
the  same  language  and  shared  to  some  extent  in  the  same 
traditions,  interests  and  dangers.  This  centrifugal  tendency  is 
most  marked  in  the  cases  of  the  more  important  states,  Athens, 
Sparta,  Argos,  Corinth,  but  Greek  history  is  full  of  examples  of 
small  states  deliberately  sacrificing  what  must  have  been  obvious 
commercial  advantage  for  the  sake  of  a  precarious  autonomy. 
Such  examples  as  existed  of  even  semi-federal  union  were  very 
loose  in  structure,  and  the  selfishness  of  the  component  units 
was  the  predominant  feature.  Thus  the  Spartan  hegemony  in 
the  Peloponnese  was  not  really  a  federation  except  in  the  broadest 
sense.  The  states  did,  it  is  true,  meet  occasionally  for  discussion, 
but  their  relation,  which  had  no  real  existence  save  in  cases  of 
immediate  common  danger,  was  really  that  between  a  paramount 
leader  and  unwilling  and  suspicious  allies.  The  Athenian  empire 
again  was  a  thinly  disguised  autocracy.  The  synod  (see  DELIAN 
LEAGUE)  of  the  "  allies  "  soon  degenerated  into  a  mere  form; 
of  comprehensive  united  policy  there  was  none,  at  all  events  after 
the  League  had  achieved  its  original  purpose  of  expelling  the 
Persians  from  Europe. 

None  the  less  it  is  possible,  even  in  the  early  days  of  political 
development  in  Greece,  to  find  some  traces  of  a  tendency  towards 
united  action.  Thus  the  unions  of  individual  villages,  known  as 
synoecisms,  such  as  took  place  in  Attica  and  Elis  in  early  times 
were  partly  of  a  federal  character:  they  resulted  in  the  establish- 
ment of  a  common  administration,  and  no  doubt  in  some  degree 
of  commercial  and  military  unity.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  likely 
that  these  unions  lacked  the  characteristic  of  federation  in  that 
the  units  could  hardly  be  described  as  having  any  sovereign 
power:  at  the  most  they  had  some  municipal  autonomy  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Cleisthenic  demes.  The  union  was  rather  national 
than  federal.  Again  the  Amphictyonic  unions  had  one  of  the 


234 


FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT 


characteristic  elements  of  federation,  namely  that  they  were  free 
sovereign  states  combining  for  a  particular  purpose  with  an 
elaborate  system  of  representation  (see  AMPHICTYONY).  But 
these  unions,  at  all  events  in  historic  times,  were  mainly  concerned 
with  religion,  and  the  authority  of  the  councils  did  not  seriously 
affect  the  autonomy  of  the  individual  states. 

Thus  among  the  city-states  as  well  as  among  scattered  villages 
the  principle  of  cohesion  was  not  unknown.  On  the  other  hand 
the  golden  mean  between  an  easily  dissoluble  relationship,  more 
like  an  alliance  than  a  federation,  and  a  natiorial  system  resulting 
from  synoecism  was  practically  never  attained  in  early  Greek 
history.  There  are,  however,  examples  in  Greece  proper,  and 
one,  Lycia  in  Asia  Minor,  of  real  federal  unions.  The  chief 
Greek  federations  were  those  of  Thessaly,  Boeotia,  Acarnania, 
Olynthus,  Arcadia,  Aetolia,  Achaea,  the  most  important  as  well 
as  the  most  complete  in  respect  of  organization  being  the  Aetolian 
League  and  the  Achaean  League. 

1.  The  Thessalian  League  originated  in  the  deliberate  choice 
by  village  aristocracies  of  a  single  monarch  who  belonged  from 
time  to  time  to  several  of  the  so-called  Heracleid  families.     Soon 
after  the  Persian  War  this  monarchy  (dynasty  of  the  Aleuadae, 
Herod,  v.  63  and  vii.  6)  disappeared,  and  in  424  we  find  Athens 
in  alliance  with  a  sort  of  democratic  federal  council  representing 
r6  Kowbv  GtTTo.Xcoj'  (cf.  Thuc.  i.  102,  ii.  22,  iv.  78),  and  probably 
composed  of  delegates  from  the  towns.     The  local  feudal  nobles, 
however,  seem  to  have  put  an  end  to  this  government  by  council, 
and  a  dictator  (lagus)  was  appointed,  with  authority  over  the 
whole  military  force  of  the  federation.     Three  such  officers, 
Lycophron,  Jason  and  Alexander,  all  of  Pherae,  endeavoured 
vainly  to  administer  the  collective  affairs  of  the  federation,  the 
last  by  means  of  a  revived  republican  council.     The  final  failure 
of  this  scheme  coincided  with  the  disappearance  of  Thessaly 
as  a  sovereign  state  (see  THESSALY). 

2.  The  form  and   the    history   of   the    Boeotian   federation 
are  treated  fully  under  Boeotia  (q.v.).     It  may  probably  have 
originated  in  religious   associations,    but    the    guiding   power 
throughout  was  the  imperial  policy  of  Thebes,  especially  during 
its  short-lived  supremacy  after  379  B.C. 

3.  The  federation  of  Acarnania  is  of  peculiar  interest  as  being 
formed  by  scattered  villages  or  tribes,  without  settled,  still  less 
fortified,  habitation.     In  the  early  part  of  the  4th  century  a 
Koivbv  TU>V  'A.Kapvhv<j)v  met  at  Stratus  (Xen.  Hell.  iv.  6.  4).    Late 
in  the  same  century  towns  began  to  form,  without,  however, 
disturbing  the  federation,  which  existed  as  late  as  the  2nd  century 
B.C.,  governed  by  a  representative  council  (/3ouAa),  and  a  common 
assembly  (KOIVOV)  at  which  any  citizen  might  be  present. 

4.  The  foundation  of  the  Olynthian  federation  was  due  to 
the  need  of  protection  against  the  northern  invaders  (see  OLYN- 
THUS).    It  was  in  many  respects  based  on  liberal  principles,  but 
Olynthus  did  not  hesitate  to  exercise  force  against  recalcitrants 
such  as  Acanthus. 

5.  The  4th  century  Arcadian  league,  which  was  no  doubt  a 
revival  of  an  older  federation,  was  the  result  of  the  struggle  for 
supremacy  between  Thebes  and  Sparta.     The  defeat  of  Sparta 
at  Leuctra  removed  the  pressure  which  had  kept  separate  the 
Arcadian  tribes,  and  ri>  KOIV&V  ruv  'A.pKaowv  was  established  in 
the  new  city,  Megalopolis  (q.v.,  also  ARCADIA). 

6  and  7.  The  Aetolian  and  Achaean  leagues  (see  AETOLIA, 
and  ACHAEAN  LEAGUE)  were  in  all  respects  more  important  than 
the  preceding  and  constitute  a  new  epoch  in  European  politics. 
Both  belong  to  a  period  in  Greek  history  when  the  great  city 
states  had  exhausted  themselves  in  the  futile  struggle  against 
Macedon  and  Rome,  and  both  represent  a  conscious  popular 
determination  in  the  direction  of  systematic  government.  This 
characteristic  is  curious  in  the  Aetolian  tribes  which  were  famous 
in  all  time  for  habitual  brigandage;  there  was,  however,  among 
them  the  strong  link  of  a  racial  feeling.  The  governing  council 
(ri>  Koivfa'  T&V  AtrajXaij')  was  the  permanent  representative 
body;  there  was  also  a  popular  assembly  (irapeurwXuc&O , 
partly  of  a  primary,  partly  of  a  representative  kind,  any  one 
being  free  to  attend,  but  each  state  having  only  one  official 
representative  and  one  vote.  Of  all  the  federal  governments  of 


Greece,  this  league  was  the  most  certainly  democratic  in  constitu- 
tion. There  was  a  complete  system  of  federal  officers;  at  the  head 
of  whom  was  a  Strategus  entrusted  with  powers  both  military 
and  civil.  This  officer  was  annually  elected,  and,  though  the  chief 
executive  authority,  was  strictly  limited  in  the  federal  delibera- 
tions to  presidential  functions  (cf.  Livy  xxxv.  25,  "  ne  praetor, 
quum  de  bello  consuluisset,  ipse  sententiam  diceret  ").  The 
Achaean  League  was  likewise  highly  organized;  joint  action 
was  strictly  limited,  and  the  individual  cities  had  sovereign 
power  over  internal  affairs.  There  were  federal  officers,  all  the 
military  forces  of  the  cities  were  controlled  by  the  league,  and 
federal  finance  was  quite  separate  from  city  finance. 

8.  Of  the  Lycian  federation,  its  origin  and  duration,  practically 
nothing  is  known.  We  know  of  it  in  188-168  B.C.  as  dependent  on 
Rhodes,  and,  from  168  till  the  time  when  the  emperor  Claudius 
absorbed  it  in  the  provincial  system,  as  an  independent  state 
under  Roman  protection.  The  federation  was  a  remarkable 
example  of  a  typical  Hellenic  development  among  a  non-Hellenic 
people.  Strabo  (p.  665)  informs  us  that  the  federation,  composed 
of  twenty-three  cities,  was  governed  by  a  council  (KOW&V 
avvtdpiov)  which  assembled  from  time  to  time  at  that  city  which 
was  most  convenient  for  the  purpose  in  hand.  The  cities  were 
represented  according  to  size  by  one,  two  or  three  delegates, 
and  bore  proportionate  shares  in  financial  responsibility.  The 
Lycian  league  was,  therefore,  in  this  respect  rather  national  than 
federal. 

Of  ancient  federal  government  outside  Greece  we  know  very 
little.  The  history  of  Italy  supplies  a  few  examples,  of  which  the 
chief  is  perhaps  the  league  of  the  cities  of  Latium  (<?.».;  see  also 
ETRURIA). 

See  E.  A.  Freeman,  Federal  Government  in  Greece  and  Rome  (2nd 
ed.,  1893,  J-  B.  Bury),  and  works  quoted  in  the  special  articles. 

Among  the  later  European  confederations  the  Swiss  republic 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting.  As  now  constituted  it  consists 
of  twenty-two  sovereign  states  or  cantons.  The  government 
is  vested  in  two  legislative  chambers,  a  senate  or  council  of 
state  (Standerat) ,  and  a  national  council  (Nationalrat),  consti- 
tuting unitedly  the  federal  assembly.  The  executive  council 
(Bundesrat)  of  seven  members  elects  the  president  and  vice- 
president  for  a  term  of  three  years  (see  SWITZERLAND:  Govern- 
ment). Before  the  French  Revolution  the  German  empire  was  a 
complex  confederation,  with  the  states  divided  into  electoral 
colleges,  consisting — (i)  of  the  ecclesiastical  electors  and  of  the 
secular  electors,  including  the  king  of  Bohemia;  (2)  of  the 
spiritual  and  temporal  princes  of  the  empire  next  in  rank  to  the 
electors;  and  (3)  of  the  free  imperial  cities.  The  emperor  was 
elected  by  the  first  college  alone.  This  imposing  confederation 
came  to  an  end  by  the  conquests  of  Napoleon;  and  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine  was  established  in  1806  with  the  French 
emperor  as  protector.  B-ut  in  1815  the  Germanic  confederation 
(Deutscher  Bund)  was  established  by  the  congress  of  Vienna, 
which  in  its  turn  has  been  displaced  by  the  present  German 
empire.  This,  in  its  new  organization,  conferred  on  Germany  the 
long-coveted  unity  and  coherence  the  lack  of  which  had  been  a 
source  of  weakness.  The  constitution  dates,  in  its  latest  form, 
from  the  treaties  entered  into  at  Versailles  in  1 87 1 .  A  federation 
was  then  organized  with  the  king  of  Prussia  as  president,  under 
the  hereditary  title  of  German  emperor.  Delegates  of  the  various 
federated  governments  form  the  Bundesrath;  the  Reichstag,  or 
popular  assembly,  is  directly  chosen  by  the  people  by  universal 
suffrage;  and  the  two  assemblies  constitute  the  federal  parlia- 
ment. This  body  has  power  to  legislate  for  the  whole  empire  in 
reference  to  all  matters  connected  with  the  army,  navy,  postal 
service,  customs,  coinage,  &c.,  all  political  laws  affecting  citizens, 
and  all  general  questions  of  commerce,  navigation,  passports,  &c. 
The  emperor  represents  the  federation  in  all  international 
relations,  with  the  chancellor  as  first  minister  of  the  empire,  and 
has  power,  with  consent  of  the  Bundesrath,  to  declare  war  in 
name  of  the  empire. 

The  United  States  of  America  more  nearly  resembles  the  Swiss 
confederacy,  though  retaining  marks  of  its  English  origin.  The 
original  thirteen  states  were  colonies  wholly  independent  of  each 


FEDERALIST  PARTY 


235 


other.  By  the  Articles  of  Confederation  and  Perpetual  Union 
adopted  by  the  Continental  Congress  in  1777,  and  in  effect  in 
1781-1789,  the  states  bound  themselves  in  a  league  of  common 
defence.  By  the  written  Constitution,  drafted  in  1787  and  in 
operation  since  1789,  a  stronger  and  more  centralized  union  was 
established — in  theory  a  federal  republic  formed  by  the  voluntary 
combination  of  sovereign  states.  A  common  citizenship  was 
recognized  for  the  whole  union;  but  the  federal  government  was 
to  exercise  only  such  powers  as  were  expressly  delegated  to  it 
(Amendment  of  1791).  The  powers  of  the  central  government 
are  entrusted  to  three  distinct  authorities — executive,  legislative 
and  judicial.  The  president,  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years  by 
electors  chosen  for  that  purpose  by  each  state,  is  the  executive 
head  of  the  republic.  The  vice-president,  ex  officio  president 
of  the  Senate,  assumes  the  presidency  in  case  of  resignation  or 
death.  Legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  Congress,  consisting  of 
two  Houses:  a  Senate,  composed  of  two  members  elected  by  each 
state  for  a  term  of  six  years;  and  a  House  of  Representatives, 
consisting  of  representatives  in  numbers  proportionate  to  the 
population  of  each  state,  holding  their  seats  for  two  years.  The 
supreme  judicial  authority  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court,  which 
consists  of  a  chief  justice  and  eight  associate  justices,  all  appointed 
for  life  by  the  president,  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  Senate. 

The  extension  of  responsible  constitutional  government  by 
Great  Britain  to  her  chief  colonies,  under  a  governor  or  viceregal 
representative  of  the  crown,  has  been  followed  in  British  North 
America  by  the  union  of  the  Canadian,  maritime  and  Pacific 
provinces  under  a  federal  government — with  a  senate,  the 
members  of  which  are  nominated  by  the  crown,  and  a  house  of 
commons  elected  by  the  different  provinces  according  to  their 
relative  population.  The  governor-general  is  appointed  by  the 
crown  for  a  term  of  five  years,  and  represents  the  sovereign  in  all 
matters  of  federal  government.  The  lieutenant-governors  of  the 
provinces  are  nominated  by  him;  and  all  local  legislation  is 
carried  on  by  the  provincial  parliaments.  The  remarkable 
federation  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  which  was  thus  originated 
presented  the  unique  feature  of  a  federal  union  of  provinces 
practically  exercising  sovereign  rights  in  relation  to  all  local 
self-government,  'and  sustaining  a  constitutional  autonomy, 
while  cherishing  the  colonial  relationship  to  Great  Britain. 

The  Commonwealth  of  Australia  (q.v.),  proclaimed  in  1901,  is 
another  interesting  example  of  self-governing  states  federating 
into  a  united  whole.  There  is,  however,  a  striking  difference  to  be 
observed  in  the  powers  of  the  federal  governments  of  Canada  and 
Australia.  The  federal  parliament  of  Canada  has  jurisdiction 
over  all  matters  not  specially  assigned  to  the  local  legislatures, 
while  the  federal  parliament  of  Australia  has  only  such  juris- 
diction as  is  expressly  vested  in  it  or  is  not  expressly  withdrawn 
from  the  local  legislatures.  This  jurisdiction  is  undoubtedly 
extensive,  comprising  among  others,  power  to  legislate  concerning 
trade  and  industry,  criminal  law,  taxation,  quarantine,  marriage 
and  divorce,  weights  and  measures,  legal  tender,  copyrights  and 
patents,  and  naturalization  and  aliens.  There  was  also  an  early 
attempt  to  federate  the  South  African  colonies,  and  an  act  was 
passed  for  that  purpose  (South  African  Act  1877),  but  it  expired 
on  the  i8th  of  August  1882,  without  having  been  brought  into 
effect  by  the  sovereign  in  council;  in  1908,  however,  the  Closer 
Union  movement  (see  SOUTH  AFRICA)  ripened,  and  in  1909  a 
federating  Act  was  successfully  passed. 

See  also  Bluntschli,  The  Theory  of  the  State;  W.  Wilson,  The  State; 
Wheaton,  Internationa,  Law. 

FEDERALIST  PARTY,  in  American  politics,  the  party  that 
organized  the  national  government  of  the  United  States  under 
the  constitution  of  1787.  It  may  be  regarded  as,  in  various 
important  respects,  the  lineal  predecessor  of  the  American  Whig 
and  Republican  parties.  The  name  Federalists  (see  ANTI- 
FEDERALISTS)  was  first  given  to  those  who  championed  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution.  They  brought  to  the  support  of 
that  instrument.  "  the  areas  of  intercourse  and  wealth  "  (Libby), 
the  influence  of  the  commercial  towns,  the  greater  planters,  the 
army  officers,  creditors  and  property-holders  generally, — in  short, 
of  interests  that  had  felt  the  evils  of  the  weak  government  of  the 


Confederation, — and  also  of  some  few  true  nationalists  (few, 
because  there  was  as  yet  no  general  national  feeling),  actuated  by 
political  principles  of  centralization  independently  of  motives  of 
expediency  and  self-interest.  Most  of  the  Federalists  of  1787- 
1 788  became  members  of  the  later  Federalist  Party. 

The  Federalist  Party,  which  may  be  regarded  as  definitely 
organized  practically  from  1791,  was  led,  leaving  Washington 
aside,  by  Alexander  Hamilton  (q.v.)  and  John  Adams.  A 
nationalization  of  the  new  central  government  to  the  full  extent 
warranted  by  a  broad  construction  of  the  powers  granted  to  it  by 
the  constitution,  and  a  correspondingly  strict  construction  of  the 
powers  reserved  to  the  states  and  the  citizens,  were  the  basic 
principles  of  Hamilton's  policy.  The  friends  of  individual  liberty 
and  local  government  naturally  found  in  the  assumption  by  the 
central  government  of  even  the  minimum  of  its  granted  powers 
constant  stimulus  to  their  fears  (see  DEMOCRATIC  PARTY); 
while  the  financial  measures  of  Hamilton — whose  wish  for 
extreme  centralization  was  nowise  satisfied  by  the  government 
actually  created  in  1787 — were  calculated  to  force  an  immediate 
and  firm  assumption  by  that  government,  to  the  limit,  of  every 
power  it  could  be  held  to  possess.  To  the  Republicans  (Demo- 
cratic Republicans)  they  seemed  intended  to  cause  a  usurpation 
of  powers  ungranted.  Hence  these  measures  became  the  issues 
on  which  the  first  American  parties  were  formed.  Their  effect 
was  supplemented  by  the  division  into  French  and  British 
sympathizers;  the  Republicans  approving  the  aims  and  condon- 
ing the  excesses  of  the  French  Revolution,  the  Federalists  siding 
with  B  ritish  reaction  against  French  democracy.  The  Federalists 
controlled  the  government  until  1801.  They,  having  the  great 
opportunity  of  initiative,  organized  it  in  all  its  branches,  giving 
it  an  administrative  machinery  that  in  the  main  endures  to-day; 
established  the  doctrine  of  national  neutrality  toward  European 
conflicts  (although  the  variance  of  Federalist  and  Republican 
opinion  on  this  point  was  largely  factitious);  and  fixed  the 
practice  of  a  liberal  construction  of  the  Constitution,1 — not  only 
by  Congress,  but  above  all  by  the  United  States  Supreme  Court, 
which,  under  the  lead  of  John  Marshall  (who  had  been  appointed 
chief -justice  by  Pres.  John  Adams),  impressed  enduringly  on  the 
national  system  large  portions  of  the  Federalist  doctrine.  These 
are  the  great  claims  of  the  party  to  memory.  After  1801  it 
never  regained  power.  In  attempts  to  do  so,  alike  in  national 
and  in  state  politics,  it  impaired  its  morale  by  internal  dissension, 
by  intrigues,and  by  inconsistent  factious  opposition  to  Democratic 
measures  on  grounds  of  ultra-strict  construction.  It  took  up, 
too,  the  Democratic  weapon  of  states'  rights,  and  in  New  England 
carried  sectionalism  dangerously  near  secession  in  1808,  and  in 
i8i2-i8i4,during  the  movement,  in  opposition  to  the  war  of  1812, 
which  culminated  in  the  Hartford  Convention  (see  HARTFORD). 
It  lost,  more  and  more,  its  influence  and  usefulness,  and  by  1817 
was  practically  dead  as  a  national  party,  although  in  Massa- 
chusetts it  lingered  in  power  until  1823.  It  is  sometimes  said  that 
Federalism  died  because  the  Republicans  took  over  its  principles 
of  nationality.  Rather  it  fell  because  its  great  leaders,  John 
Adams  and  Alexander  Hamilton,  became  bitter  enemies; 
because  neither  was  even  distantly  comparable  to  Jefferson  as  a 
party  leader;  because  the  party  could  not  hold  the  support  of 
its  original  commercial,  manufacturing  and  general  business 
elements;  because  the  party  opposed  sectionalism  to  a 'growing 
nationalism  on  the  issues  that  ended  in  the  war  of  1812;  and, 
above  all,  because  the  principles  of  the  party's  leaders  (e.g.  of 
Hamilton)  were  out  of  harmony,  in  various  respects,  with 
American  ideals.  Their  conservatism  became  increasingly  a 
reactionary  fear  of  democracy;  indeed,  it  is  not  a  strained 
construction  of  the  times  to  regard  the  entire  Federalist  period 
from  the  American  point  of  view  as  reactionary — a  reaction 
against  the  doctrines  of  natural  rights,  individualism,  and  states' 
rights,  and  the  financial  looseness  of  the  period  of  the  War  of 
Independence  and  the  succeeding  years  of  the  Confederation. 
The  Federalists  were  charged  by  the  Republicans  with  being 
aristocrats  and  monarchists,  and  it  is  certain  that  their  leaders 

1  Even  the  Democratic  party  has  generally  been  liberal ;  although 
less  so  in  theory  (hardly  less  so  in  practice)  than  its  opponents. 


236 


FEDERICI— FEHMIC  COURTS 


(who  were  really  a  very  remarkable  body  of  men)  distrusted 
democratic  government;  that  their  Sedition  Law  was  outrageous 
in  itself,  and  (as  well  as  the  Alien  Law)  bad  as  a  party  measure; 
that  in  disputes  with  Great  Britain  they  were  true  English  Tories 
when  contrasted  with  the  friendly  attitude  toward  America  held 
by  many  English  Liberals;  and  that  they  persisted  in  New 
England  as  a  pro-British,  aristocratic  social-cult  long  after  they 
lost  effective  political  influence.  In  short,  the  country  was  already 
thoroughly  democratic  in  spirit,  while  Federalism  stood  for 
obsolescent  social  ideas  and  was  infected  with  political  "Tory- 
ism "  fatally  against  the  times. 

Besides  the  standard  general  histories  see  0.  G.  Libby,  Geographical 
Distribution  of  the  Vote  of  the  Thirteen  States  on  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion, 1787-1788  (Madison,  Wis.,  1894)  I  the  Memoirs  of  Oliver 
Wolcott  (ed.  by  Gibbs);  C.  D.  Hazen,  Contemporary  American 
Opinion  of  the  French  Revolution  ("  J.H.U.  Studies,"  Baltimore,  1897) ; 
Henry  Adams,  Documents  relating  to  New  England  Federalism,  1800- 
1815  (Boston,  1878) ;  A.  E.  Morse,  The  Federalist  Party  in  Massa- 
chusetts (Princeton,  N.J.,  1909) ;  and  the  biographies  and  writings 
of  George  Cabot,  Fisher  Ames,  Gouverneur  Morris,  John  Jay,  Rufus 
King,  Timothy  Pickering,  Theodore  Sedgwick,  C.  C.  Pinckney  and 
J.  A.  Bayard. 

FEDERICI,  CAMILLO  (1740-1802),  Italian  dramatist  and 
actor,  was  born  at  Garessio,  a  small  town  in  Piedmont,  on  the 
9th  of  April  1749.  His  real  name  was  Giovanni  Battista  Viassolo, 
and  that  by  which  he  is  now  known  and  which  he  transmitted 
to  his  children  was  taken  from  the  title  of  one  of  his  first  pieces, 
Camilla  e  Federico.  He  was  educated  at  Turin,  and  showed 
at  an  early  age  a  great  fondness  for  literature  and  especially 
for  the  theatre.  The  praises  bestowed  on  his  early  attempts 
determined  his  choice  of  a  career,  and  he  obtained  engagements 
with  several  companies  both  as  writer  and  actor.  He  made  a 
happy  marriage  in  1777,  and  soon  after  left  the  stage  and 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  composition.  He  settled  at  Padua, 
and  the  reputation  of  his  numerous  comedies  rapidly  spread  in 
Italy,  and  for  a  time  seemed  to  eclipse  that  of  his  predecessors. 
Most  of  his  pieces  were  of  the  melodramatic  class,  and  he  too 
often  resorted  to  the  same  means  of  exciting  interest  and  curiosity. 
He  caught,  however,  something  of  the  new  spirit  which  was 
manifesting  itself  in  German  dramatic  literature  in  the  works 
of  Schiller,  Iffland  and  Kotzebue,  and  the  moral  tone  of  his 
plays  is  generally  healthy.  Fortune  did  not  smile  upon  him; 
but  he  found  a  helpful  friend  in  a  wealthy  merchant  of  Padua, 
Francis  Barisan,  for  whose  private  theatre  he  wrote  many  pieces. 
He  was  attacked  in  1791  with  a  dangerous  malady  which  dis- 
abled him  for  several  years;  and  he  had  the  misfortune  to  see 
his  works,  in  the  absence  of  any  copyright  law,  published  by 
others  without  his  permission.  At  length,  in  1802,  he  undertook 
to  prepare  a  collected  edition;  but  of  this  four  volumes  only 
were  completed  when  he  was  again  attacked  with  illness,  and 
died  at  Padua  (December  23). 

The  publication  of  his  works  was  completed  in  14  volumes  in  1816. 
Another  edition  in  26  volumes  was  published  at  Florence  in  1826- 
1827.  A  biographical  memoir  of  Federici  by  Neymar  appeared  at 
Venice  in  1838. 

FEE,  an  estate  in  land  held  of  a  superior  lord  on  condition 
of  the  performance  of  homage  or  service  (see  FEUDALISM).  In 
English  law  "  fee  "  signifies  an  estate  of  inheritance  (i.e.  an 
estate  descendable  to  the  heirs  of  the  grantee  so  long  as  there 
are  any  in  existence)  as  opposed  to  an  estate  for  life.  It  is 
divisible  into  three  species:  (i)  fee  simple;  (a)  conditional  fee; 
(3)  fee  tail.  (See  ESTATE.)  A  fee  farm  rent  is  the  rent  reserved 
on  granting  a  fee  farm,  i.e.  land  in  fee  simple,  to  be  held  by  the 
tenant  and  his  heirs  at  a  yearly  rent.  It  is  generally  at  least 
one-fourth  of  the  value  of  the  land  at  the  time  of  its  reservation. 
(See  RENT.) 

The  word  "  fee  "  has  also  the  sense  of  remuneration  for  services, 
especially  the  honorarium  paid  to  a  doctor,  lawyer  or  member 
of  any  other  profession.  It  is  also  used  of  a  fixed  sum  paid  for 
the  right  to  enter  for  an  examination,  or  on  admission  to  member- 
ship of  a  university  or  other  society.  This  sense  of  the  word  is 
taken  by  the  New  English  Dictionary  to  be  due  to  a  use  of  "  fee  " 
in  its  feudal  sense,  and  to  represent  a  sum  paid  to  the  holder 
of  an  office  "  in  fee." 


The  etymology  of  the  Med.  Lat.  feudum,  feodum  or  feum,  of 
its  French  equivalent  fief,  and  English  "  fee,"  in  Scots  law  "  feu  " 
(q.v,),  is  extremely  obscure.  (See  the  New  English  Dictionary, 
s.v.  "  Fee.")  There  is  a  common  Teutonic  word  represented 
in  Old  English  as  feoh  or  feo,  in  Old  High  German  as  fehu, 
meaning  property  in  the  shape  of  cattle  (cf.  modern  Ger.  Vieh, 
Dutch  vee).  The  old  Aryan  peku  gives  Sanskrit  pac.u,  Lat. 
pecus,  cattle,  whence  pecunia,  money.  The  O.  Eng.  feoh,  in 
the  sense  of  money,  possibly  survives  in  "  fee,"  honorarium, 
though  this  is  not  the  view  of  the  New  English  Dictionary.  The 
common  explanation  of  the  Med.  Lat.  feudum  or  feodum,  of 
which  Ducange  (Glossarium,  s.v.)  gives  an  example  from  a 
constitution  of  the  emperor  Charles  the  Fat  of  the  year  884,  is 
that  it  is  formed  from  the  Teutonic  fehu,  property,  and  6d, 
wealth  (cf.  ALLODIUM  and  UDAL).  This  would  apparently 
restrict  the  original  meaning  to  movable  property,  while  the 
early  applications  of  feudum  are  to  the  enjoyment  of  something 
granted  in  return  for  service  (beneficium) .  Another  theory 
takes  the  origin  to  be  fehu  alone,  in  a  particular  sense  of  wages, 
payment  for  services.  This  leaves  the  d-  of  feudum  unexplained. 
Some  have  taken  the  origin  to  be  a  verbal  form  feudare=feum 
dare.  Another  theory  finds  the  source  in  the  O.  High  GeT.fehdn, 
to  eat,  feed  upon,  "  take  for  one's  enjoyment." 

FEHLING,  HERMANN  VON  (1812-1885),  German  chemist, 
was  born  at  Liibeck  on  the  9th  of  June  1885.  With  the  intention 
of  taking  up  pharmacy  he  entered  Heidelberg  University  about 
1835,  and  after  graduating  went  to  Giessen  as  preparateur  to 
Liebig,  with  whom  he  elucidated  the  composition  of  paraldehyde 
and  metaldehyde.  In  1839  on  Liebig's  recommendation  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the  polytechnic  at  Stutt- 
gart, and  held  it  till  within  three  years  of  his  death,  which 
happened  at  Stuttgart  on  the  ist  of  July  1885.  His  earlier 
work  included  an  investigation  of  succinic  acid,  and  the  pre- 
paration of  phenyl  cyanide  (benzonitrile),  the  simplest  nitrile 
of  the  aromatic  series;  but  later  his  time  was  mainly  occupied 
with  questions  of  technology  and  public  health  rather  than  with 
pure  chemistry.  Among  the  analytical  methods  worked  up  by 
him  the  best  known  is  that  for  the  estimation  of  sugars  by 
"  Fehling's  solution,"  which  consists  of  a  solution  of  cupric 
sulphate  mixed  with  alkali  and  potassium-sodium  tartrate 
(Rochelle  salt).  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  Handworterbuch 
of  Liebig,  Wohler  and  Poggendorff,  and  to  the  Graham-Otto 
Textbook  of  Chemistry,  and  for  many  years  was  a  member  of  the 
committee  of  revision  of  the  Pharmacopoeia  Germanica. 

FEHMARN,  an  island  of  Germany,  belonging  to  the  Prussian 
province  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  in  the  Baltic,  separated  from 
the  north-east  corner  of  Holstein  by  a  strait  known  as  the 
Fehmarn-Sund,  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  breadth.  It  is 
a  gently  undulating  tract  of  country,  about  120  sq.  m.  in  area, 
bare  of  forest  but  containing  excellent  pasture-land,  and  rears 
cattle  in  considerable  numbers.  Pop.  10,000. 

FEHMIC  COURTS  (Ger.  Femgerichte,  or  Vehmgerichte,  of 
disputed  origin,  but  probably,  according  to  J.  Grimm,  from 
O.  High  GeT.feme  or  feime,  a  court  of  justice),  certain  tribunals 
which,  during  the  middle  ages,  exercised  a  powerful  and  some- 
times sinister  jurisdiction  in  Germany,  and  more  especially  in 
Westphalia.  Their  origin  is  uncertain,  but  is  traceable  to  the 
time  of  Charlemagne  and  in  all  probability  to  the  old  Teutonic 
free  courts.  They  were,  indeed,  also  known  as  free  courts 
(Freigerickte),  a  name  due  to  the  fact  that  all  free-born  men 
were  eligible  for  membership  and  also  to  the  fact  that  they 
claimed  certain  exceptional  liberties.  Their  jurisdiction  they 
owed  to  the  emperor,  from  whom  they  received  the  power  of 
life  and  death  (Blutbann)  which  they  exerc.'sed  in  his  name. 
The  sessions  were  often  held  in  secret,  whence  the  names  of 
secret  court  (heimliches  Gericht,  Stillgericht,  &c.);  arid  these 
the  uninitiated  were  forbidden  to  attend,  on  pain  of  death, 
which  led  to  the  designation  forbidden  courts  (verbotene  Gerichte). 
Legend  and  romance  have  combined  to  exaggerate  the  sinister 
reputation  of  the  Fehmic  courts;  but  modern  historical  research 
has  largely  discounted  this,  proving  that  they  never  employed 
torture,  that  their  sittings  were  only  sometimes  secret,  and  that 


FEHRBELLIN— FEIJOO  Y  MONTENEGRO 


237 


their  meeting-places  were  always  well  known.  They  were,  in 
fact,  a  survival  of  an  ancient  and  venerable  German  institution; 
and  if,  during  a  certain  period,  they  exercised  something  like  a 
reign  of  terror  over  a  great  part  of  Germany,  the  cause  of  this 
lay  in  the  sickness  of  the  times,  which  called  for  some  powerful 
organization  to  combat  the  growing  feudal  anarchy.  Such  an 
organization  the  Westphalian  free  courts,  with  their  discipline 
of  terror  and  elaborate  system  of  secret  service,  were  well  cal- 
culated to  supply.  Everywhere  else  the  power  of  life  and  death, 
originally  reserved  to  the  emperor  alone,  had  been  usurped  by 
the  territorial  nobles;  only  in  Westphalia,  called  "  the  Red 
Earth  "  because  here  the  imperial  blood-ban  was  still  valid, 
were  capital  sentences  passed  and  executed  by  the  Fehmic  courts 
in  the  emperor's  name  alone. 

The  system,  though  ancient,  began  to  become  of  importance 
only  after  the  division  of  the  duchy  of  Saxony  on  the  fall  of 
Henry  the  Lion,  when  the  archbishop  of  Cologne,  duke  of  West- 
phalia from  1180  onwards,  placed  himself  as  representative  of 
the  emperor  at  the  head  of  the  Fehme.  The  organization  now 
rapidly  spread.  Every  free  man,  born  in  lawful  wedlock,  and 
neither  excommunicate  nor  outlaw,  was  eligible  for  membership. 
Princes  and  nobles  were  initiated;  and  in  1429  even  the  emperor 
Sigismund  himself  became  "  a  true  and  proper  Freischofe  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire."  By  the  middle  of  the  i4th  century  these 
Freischoffen  (Latin  scabini),  sworn  associates  of  the  Fehme,  were 
scattered  in  thousands  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of 
Germany,  known  to  each  other  by  secret  signs  and  pass-words, 
and  all  of  them  pledged  to  serve  the  summons  of  the  secret 
courts  and  to  execute  their  judgment. 

The  organization  of  the  Fehme  was  elaborate.  The  head  of 
each  centre  of  jurisdiction  (Freistuhl),  often  a  secular  or  spiritual 
prince,  sometimes  a  civic  community,  was  known  as  the  Stuhl- 
herr,  the  archbishop  of  Cologne  being,  as  stated  above,  supreme 
over  all  (Oberststuhlherr) .  The  actual  president  of  the  court  was 
the  Freigraf  (free  count)  chosen  for  life  by  the  Stuhlherr  from 
among  the  Freischofen,  who  formed  the  great  body  of  the 
initiated.  Of  these  the  lowest  rank  were  the  Fronboten  or  Frei- 
fronen,  charged  with  the  maintenance  of  order  in  the  courts  and 
the  duty  of  carrying  out  the  commands  of  the  Freigraf.  The 
immense  development  of  the  Fehme  is  explained  by  the  privileges 
of  the  Freischo/en;  for  they  were  subject  to  no  jurisdiction  but 
those  of  the  Westphalian  courts,  whether  as  accused  or  accuser 
they  had  access  to  the  secret  sessions,  and  they  shared  in  the 
discussions  of  the  general  chapter  as  to  the  policy  of  the  society. 
At  their  initiation  these  swore  to  support  the  Fehme  with  all  their 
powers,  to  guard  its  secrets,  and  to  bring  before  its  tribunal 
anything  within  its  competence  that  they  might  discover. 
They  were  then  initiated  into  the  secret  signs  by  which  members 
recognized  each  other,  and  were  presented  with  a  rope  and  with 
a  knife  on  which  were  engraved  the  mystic  letters  S.S.G.G., 
supposed  to  mean  Strick,  Stein,  Gras,  Griin  (rope,  stone,  grass, 
green). 

The  procedure  of  the  Fehmic  courts  was  practically  that  of 
the  ancient  German  courts  generally.  The  place  of  session, 
known  as  the  Freistuhl  (free  seat),  was  usually  a  hillock,  or 
some  other  well-known  and  accessible  spot.  The  Freigraf  and 
Scho/en  occupied  the  bench,  before  which  a  table,  with  a  sword 
and  rope  upon  it,  was  placed.  The  court  was  held  by  day  and, 
unless  the  session  was  declared  secret,  all  freemen,  whether 
initiated  or  not,  were  admitted.  The  accusation  was  in  the  old 
German  form;  but  only  a  Freischo/e  could  act  as  accuser, 
If  the  offence  came  under  the  competence  of  the  court,  i.e.  was 
punishable  by  death,  a  summons  to  the  accused  was  issued  under 
the  seal  of  the  Freigraf.  This  was  not  usually  served  on  him 
personally,  but  was  nailed  to  his  door,  or  to  some  convenient 
place  where  he  was  certain  to  pass.  Six  weeks  and  three  days' 
grace  were  allowed,  according  to  the  old  Saxon  law,  and  the 
summons  was  thrice  repeated.  If  the  accused  appeared,  the 
accuser  stated  the  case,  and  the  investigation  proceeded  by  the 
examination  of  witnesses  as  in  an  ordinary  court  of  law.  The 
judgment  was  put  into  execution  on  the  spot  if  that  was  possible 
The  secret  court,  from  whose  procedure  the  whole  institution 


las  acquired  its  evil  reputation,  was  closed  to  all  but  the  initiated, 
although  these  were  so  numerous  as  to  secure  quasi-publicity; 
any  one  not  a  member  on  being  discovered  was  instantly  put 
to  death,  and  the  members  present  were  bound  under  the  same 
jenalty  not  to  disclose  what  took  place.  Crimes  of  a  serious 
nature,  and  especially  those  that  were  deemed  unfit  for  ordinary 
udicial  investigation — such  as  heresy  and  witchcraft — fell 
within  its  jurisdiction,  as  also  did  appeals  by  persons  condemned 
n  the  open  courts,  and  likewise  the  cases  before  those  tribunals 
!n  which  the  accused  had  not  appeared.  The  accused  if  a 
member  could  clear  himself  by  his  own  oath,  unless  he  had  re- 
vealed the  secrets  of  the  Fehme.  If  he  were  one  of  the  uninitiated 
t  was  necessary  for  him  to  bring  forward  witnesses  to  his  inno- 
cence from  among  the  initiated,  whose  number  varied  according 
to  the  number  on  the  side  of  the  accuser,  but  twenty-one  in  favour 
of  innocence  necessarily  secured  an  acquittal.  The  only  punish- 
ment which  the  secret  court  could  inflict  was  death.  If  the 
accused  appeared,  the  sentence  was  carried  into  execution  at 
once;  if  he  did  not  appear,  it  was  quickly  made  known  to  the 
whole  body,  and  the  Freischoffe  who  was  the  first  to  meet  the 
condemned  was  bound  to  put  him  to  death.  This  was  usually 
done  by  hanging,  the  nearest  tree  serving  for  gallows.  A  knife 
with  the  cabalistic  letters  was  left  beside  the  corpse  to  show  that 
the  deed  was  not  a  murder. 

That  an  organization  of  this  character  should  have  outlived 
its  usefulness  and  issued  in  intolerable  abuses  was  inevitable. 
With  the  growing  power  of  the  territorial  sovereigns  and  the 
gradual  improvement  of  the  ordinary  process  of  justice,  the 
functions  of  the  Fehmic  courts  were  superseded.  By  the  action 
of  the  emperor  Maximilian  and  of  other  German  princes  they 
were,  in  the  i6th  century,  once  more  restricted  to  Westphalia, 
and  here,  too,  they  were  brought  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
ordinary  courts,  and  finally  confined  to  mere  police  duties. 
With  these  functions,  however,  but  with  the  old  forms  long 
since  robbed  of  their  impressiveness,  they  survived  into  the 
i  gth  century.  They  were  finally  abolished  by  order  of  Jerome 
Bonaparte,  king  of  Westphalia,  in  1811.  The  last  Freigraf  died 

in  1835. 

AUTHORITIES. — P.  Wigand,  Das  Femgericht  Westfalens  (Hamm, 
1825,  2nd  ed.,  Halle,  1893);  L.  Tross,  Sammlung  merkwiirdiger 
Urkunden  fur  die  Geschichte  der  Femgerichte  (Hanover,  1826) ;  F.  P. 
Usener,  Die  frei-  und  heimlichen  Gerichte  Westfalens  (Frankfort, 
1832) ;  K.  G.  von  Wachter,  Beitrdge  zur  deutschen  Gesch.,  insbesendere 
.  .  .  des  deutschen  Strafrechts  (Tubingen,  1845);  O.  Wachter, 
Femgerichte  und  Hexenprozesse  in  Deutschland  (Stuttgart.  1882); 
T.  Lindner,  Die  Feme  (Munster  and  Paderborn,  1888);  F.  Thudi- 
chum,  Femgericht  und  Inquisition  (Giessen,  1889)  whose  theory 
concerning  the  origin  of  the  Fehme  is  combated  in  T.  Lindner's 
Der  angebliche  Ursprung  der  Femgerichte  aus  der  Inquisition  (Pader- 
born, 1890).  For  works  on  individual  aspects  see  further  Dahlmann- 
Waitz,  Quellenkunde  (ed.  Leipzig,  1906),  p.  401 ;  also  ib.  supple- 
mentary vol.  (1907),  p.  78. 

FEHRBELLIN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Prussia, 
on  the  Rhine,  40  m.  N.W.  from  Berlin  on  the  railway  to  Neu- 
Ruppin.  Pop.  (1905)  1602.  It  has  a  Protestant  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  church  and  some  small  industries,  among  them  that 
of  wooden  shoes.  Fehrbellin  is  memorable  in  history  as  the  scene 
of  the  famous  victory  gained,  on  the  i8th  of  June  1675,  by  the 
great  elector,  Frederick  William  of  Prussia,  over  the  Swedes 
under  Field-Marshal  Wrangel.  A  monument  was  erected  in 
1879  on  the  field  of  battle,  near  the  village  of  Hakenberg,  to 
commemorate  this  great  feat  of  arms. 

See  A.  von  Witzleben  and  P.  Hassel,  Zum  2oo-j&hrigen  Gedenktag 
von  Fehrbellin  (Berlin,  1875);  G.  Sello,  "Fehrbellin,'  in  Deutsche 
Zeitschrift  fur  Geschichtswissenschaften,  vii.;  M.  Jahns,  "  Der  Grosse 
Kurfiirst  bei  Fehrbellin,  &c.,"  in  Hohenzollern  Jahrbuch,  i.j 

FEIJ60  Y  MONTENEGRO,  BENITO  JER6NIMO  (1676-1764), 
Spanish  monk  and  scholar  was  born  at  Santa  Maria  de  Melias, 
near  Orense,  on  the  8th  of  October  1676.  At  the  age  of  twelve 
he  entered  the  Benedictine  order,  devoted  himself  to  study, 
and  waged  war  against  the  superstition  and  ignorance  of  his 
countrymen  in  the  Teatro  crltico  (1726-1739)  and  the  Cartas 
eruditas  (1742-1760).  These  exposures  of  a  retrograde  system 
called  forth  embittered  protests  from  narrow-minded  patriots 
like  Salvador  Jose  Maner,  and  others;  but  the  opposition  was 


238 


FEITH— FELIX  (POPES) 


futile,  and  Feij6o's  services  to  the  cause  of  knowledge  were 
universally  recognized  long  before  his  death,  which  took  place 
at  Oviedo  on  the  26th  of  September  1764.  He  was  not  a  great 
genius,  nor  a  writer  of  transcendent  merit;  his  name  is  con- 
nected with  no  important  discovery,  and  his  style  is  undis- 
tinguished. But  he  uprooted  many  popular  errors,  awakened  an 
interest  in  scientific  methods,  and  is  justly  regarded  as  the 
initiator  of  educational  reform  in  Spain. 

FEITH,  RHIJNVIS  (1753-1824),  Dutch  poet,  was  born  of  an 
aristocratic  family  at  Zwolle,  the  capital  of  the  province  Over- 
ijssel,  on  the  7th  of  February  1753.  He  was  educated  at  Harder- 
wijk  and  at  the  university  of  Leiden,  where  he  took  his  degree  in 
1770.  In  1772  he  settled  at  his  birthplace,  and  married.  In  1780, 
in  his  twenty-seventh  year,  he  became  burgomaster  of  Zwolle. 
He  built  a  luxurious  villa,  which  he  named  Boschwijk,  in  the  out- 
skirts of  the  town,  and  there  he  lived  in  the  greatest  comfort. 
His  first  important  production  was  Julia,  in  1783,  a  novel  written 
in  emulation  of  Werther,  and  steeped  in  Weltschmerz  and  despair. 
This  was  followed  by  the  tragedy  of  Thirsa  (1784);  Ferdinand 
and  Conslantia  (1785),  another  Werther  novel;  and  The  Patriots 
(1784),  a  tragedy.  Bilderdijk  and  other  writers  attacked  his 
morbid  melancholy,  and  Johannes  Kinker  (1764-1845)  parodied 
his  novels,  but  his  vogue  continued.  In  1791  he  published  a 
tragedy  of  Lady  Jane  Grey-;  in  1792  a  didactic  poem,  The  Grave, 
in  four  cantos;  in  1793  Inez  de  Castro;  in  1796  to  1814  five 
volumes  of  Odes  and  Miscellaneous  Poems;  and  in  1802  Old  Age, 
in  six  cantos.  He  died  at  Zwolle  on  the  8th  of  February  1824. 

His  works  were  collected  (Rotterdam,  n  vols.)  in  1824,  with  a 
biographical  notice  by  N.  G.  van  Kampen. 

FEJER,  GYORGY  (1766-1851),  Hungarian  author,  was  born  on 
the  23rd  of  April  1766,  at  Keszthely,  in  the  county  of  Zala.  He 
studied  philosophy  at  Pest,  and  theology  at  Pressburg;  eventu- 
ally, in  1808,  he  obtained  a  theological  professorship  at  Pest 
University.  Ten  years  later  (1818)  he  became  chief  director  of  the 
educational  circle  of  Raab,  and  in  1824  was  appointed  librarian 
to  the  university  of  Pest.  .  FejeVs  works,  which  are  nearly  all 
written  either  in  Latin  or  Hungarian,  exceed  one  hundred  and 
eighty  in  number.  His  most  important  work,  Codex  diplomalicus 
Hungariae  ecclesiasticus  ac  civilis,  published  from  1829  to  1844, 
in  eleven  so-called  tomes,  really  exceeds  forty  volumes.  It 
consists  of  old  documents  and  charters  from  A.D.  104  to  the  end 
of  1439,  and  forms  an  extraordinary  monument  of  patient  in- 
dustry. This  work  and  many  others  relating  to  Hungarian 
national  history  have  placed  Fejer  in  the  foremost  rank  of  Hun- 
garian historians.  He  died  on  the  2nd  of  July  1851.  His  latest 
works  were  A  Kunok  eredete  (The  Origin  of  the  Huns),  and  A 
politikai  forradalmak  okai  ( The  Causes  of  Political  Revolutions) , 
both  published  in  1850.  The  latter  production,  on  account  of 
its  liberal  tendencies,  was  suppressed  by  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment. 

See  Magyar  Irak:  £letrajz-gyujtemeny  (Pest,  1856),  and  A  magyar 
nemzeti  irodalomtorlenet  vdzlata  (Pest,  1861). 

FELANITX,  or  FELANICHE,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  south-east 
of  the  island  of  Majorca,  Balearic  Islands;  about  5  m.  inland 
from  its  harbour,  Puerto  Colon.  Pop.  (1900)  11,294.  A  range 
of  low  hills  intervenes  between  Felanitx  and  the  Mediterranean; 
upon  one  summit,  the  Puig  de  San  Sebastian,  stands  a  Moorish 
castle  with  a  remarkable  series  of  subterranean  vaults.  From 
the  3rd  century  B.C.,  and  possibly  for  a  longer  period,  eartkenware 
water-coolers  and  other  pottery  have  been  manufactured  in  the 
town,  and  many  of  the  vessels  produced  are  noteworthy  for  their 
beauty  of  form  and  antiquity  of  design.  There  is  a  thriving 
trade  in  wine,  fruit,  wheat,  cattle,  brandy,  chalk  and  soap. 

FELDKIRCH,  a  small  town  in  the  Austrian  province  of  the 
Vorarlberg,  some  20  m.  S.  of  the  S.  end  of  the  Lake  of  Constance. 
It  is  situated  in  a  green  hollow,  on  the  111  river,  between  the  two 
narrow  rocky  gorges  through  which  it  flows  out  into  the  broad 
valley  of  the  Rhine.  Hence,  though  containing  only  about 
4000  inhabitants  (German-speaking  and  Romanist),  the  town 
is  of  great  military  importance,  since  it  commands  the  entrance 
into  Tirol  from  the  west,  over  the  Arlberg  Pass  (5912  ft.),  and 
has  been  the  scene  of  many  conflicts,  the  last  in  1799,  when  the 


|  French,  under  Oudinot  and  Massena,  were  driven  back  by  the 
Austrians  under  Hotze  and  Jellachich.  It  is  a  picturesque  little 
town,  overshadowed  by  the  old  castle  of  Schattenburg  (now  a 
poor-house),  built  about  1200  by  the  count  of  Montfort,  whose 
descendant  in  1375  sold  it  to  the  Habsburgs.  The  town  contains 
many  administrative  offices,  and  is  the  residence  of  a  suffragan 
bishop,  who  acts  as  vicar-general  of  the  diocesan,  the  bishop  of 
Brixen.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the  parish  church, 
dating  from  1487,  and  possessing  a  "  Descent  from  the  Cross  " 
(1521),  which  has  been  attributed  to  Holbein,  the  great  Jesuit 
educational  establishment  called  "  Stella  Matutina,"  and  a 
Capuchin  convent  and  church.  There  is  a  considerable  amount 
of  transit  trade  at  Feldkirch,  which  by  rail  is  n  m.  from  Buchs 
(Switzerland),  through  the  principality  of  .Liechtenstein,  24  m. 
from  Bregenz,  and  993  m.  from  Innsbruck  by  tunnel  beneath 
the  Arlberg  Pass.  The  town  also  possesses  numerous  industrial 
establishments,  such  as  factories  for  cotton-spinning,  weaving, 
bell-founding,  dyeing,  &c.  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

FELIBIEN,  ANDRE  (1619-1695),  sieur  des  Avaux  et  de  Javercy, 
French  architect  and  historiographer,  was  born  at  Chaitres  in 
May  1619.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  went  to  Paris  to  continue 
his  studies;  and  in  1647  he  was  sent  to  Rome  in  the  capacity 
of  secretary  of  embassy  to  the  Marquis  de  Marueil.  His  resi- 
dence at  Rome  he  turned  to  good  account  by  diligent  study  of  its 
ancient  monuments,  by  examination  of  the  literary  treasures  of 
its  libraries,  and  by  cultivating  the  acquaintance  of  men  eminent 
in  literature  and  in  art,  with  whom  he  was  brought  into  contact 
through  his  translation  of  Cardinal  Barberini's  Life  of  Pius  V. 
Among  his  friends  was  Nicholas  Poussin,  whose  counsels  were 
of  great  value  to  him.  On  his  return  to  France  he  married,  and 
was  ultimately  induced,  in  the  hope  of  employment  and  honours, 
to  settle  in  Paris.  Both  Fouquet  and  Colbert  in  their  turn  recog- 
nized his  abilities;  and  he  was  one  of  the  first  members  (1663)  of 
the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  Three  years  later  Colbert  procured 
him  the  appointment  of  historiographer  to  the  king.  In  1671 
he  was  named  secretary  to  the  newly-founded  Academy  of 
Architecture,  and  in  1673  keeper  of  the  cabinet  of  antiques  in 
the  palace  of  Brion.  To  these  offices  was  afterwards  added  by 
Louvois  that  of  deputy  controller-general  of  roads  and  bridges. 
Felibien  found  time  in  the  midst  of  his  official  duties  for  study 
and  research,  and  produced  many  literary  works.  Among  these 
the  best  and  the  most  generally  known  is  the  Entreliens  sur  les 
vies  et  sur  les  outrages  des  plus  excellents  peintres  anciens  et 
modernes,  which  appeared  in  successive  livraisons,  the  first  in 
1666,  and  the  fifth  in  1688.  It  was  republished  with  several 
additions  at  Amsterdam  in  1706,  and  again  at  Trevoux  in  1725. 
Felibien  wrote  also  Origine  de  la  peinture  (1660),  Principes  de 
r architecture,  de  la  sculpture,  de  la  peinture,  &c.  (1676-1690), 
and  descriptions  of  Versailles,  of  La  Trappe,  and  of  the  pictures 
and  statues  of  the  royal  residences.  Among  other  literary  works, 
he  edited  the  Conferences  of  the  Academy  of  Painting,  and  trans- 
lated the  Castle  of  the  Soul  from  the  Spanish  of  St  Theresa.  His 
personal  character  commanded  the  highest  esteem,  agreeing 
with  the  motto  which  he  adopted — Bene  facere  et  vera  dicere. 
He  died  in  Paris  on  the  nth  of  June  1695. 

His  son,  Jean  Francois  Felibien  (c.  1658-1733),  was  also  an 
architect  who  left  a  number  of  works  on  his  subject;  and  a 
younger  son,  Michel  Felibien  (c.  1666-1719),  was  a  Benedictine 
of  Saint  Germain-des-Pres  whose  fame  rests  on  his  Histoire  de 
I'abbaye  royale  de  S.  Denys  en  France,  and  also  his  L'Hisloire 
de  la  mile  de  Paris  in  5  vols.,  a  work  indispensable  to  the  student 
of  Paris. 

FELIX,  the  name  of  five  popes. 

FELIX  I.,  pope  from  January  269  until  his  death  in  January  274. 
He  has  been  claimed  as  a  martyr,  and  as  such  his  name  is  given  in 
the  Roman  calendar  and  elsewhere,  but  his  title  to  this  honour  is 
by  no  means  proved,  and  he  has  been  probably  confused  with 
another  bishop  of  the  same  name.  He  appears  in  connexion  with 
the  dispute  in  the  church  of  Antioch  between  Paul  of  Samosata, 
who  had  been  deprived  of  his  bishopric  by  a  council  of  bishops  for 
heresy,  and  his  successor  Domnus.  Paul  refused  to  give  way,  and 
in  272  the  emperor  Aurelian  was  asked  to  decide  between  the 


FELIX— FELIXSTOWE 


239 


rivals.  He  ordered  the  church  building  to  be  given  to  the  bishop 
who  was  "  recognized  by  the  bishops  of  Italy  and  of  the  city  of 
Rome  "  (Felix).  See  Eusebius,  Hist.  Ecc.  vii.  30. 

FELIX  II.,  antipope,  was  in  356  raised  from  the  archdeaconate 
of  Rome  to  the  papal  chair,  when  Liberius  was  banished  by  the 
emperor  Constantius  for  refusing  to  subscribe  the  sentence  of 
condemnation  against  Athanasius.  His  election  was  contrary  to 
the  wishes  both  of  the  clergy  and  of  the  people,  and  the  consecra- 
tion ceremony  was  performed  by  certain  prelates  belonging  to  the 
court.  In  357  Constantius,  at  the  urgent  request  of  an  influential 
deputation  of  Roman  ladies,  agreed  to  the  release  of  Liberius  on 
condition  that  he  signed  the  semi-Arian  creed.  Constantius  also 
issued  an  edict  to  the  effect  that  the  two  bishops  should  rule 
conjointly,  but  Liberius,  on  his  entrance  into  Rome  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  was  received  by  all  classes  with  so  much  enthusiasm 
that  Felix  found  it  necessary  to  retire  at  once  from  Rome. 
Regarding  the  remainder  of  his  life  little  is  known,  and  the 
accounts  handed  down  are  contradictory,  but  he  appears  to  have 
spent  the  most  of  it  in  retirement  at  his  estate  near  Porto.  He 
died  in  365. 

FELIX  III.,  pope,  was  descended  from  one  of  the  most  in- 
fluential families  of  Rome,  and  was  a  direct  ancestor  of  Gregory 
the  Great.  He  succeeded  Simplicius  in  the  papal  chair  on  the 
2nd  of  March  483.  His  first  act  was  to  repudiate  the  Henoticon, 
a  deed  of  union,  originating,  it  is  supposed,  with  Acacius, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  published  by  the  emperor  Zeno 
with  the  view  of  allaying  the  strife  between  the  Monophysites 
and  their  opponents  in  the  Eastern  church.  He  also  addressed  a 
letter  of  remonstrance  to  Acacius;  but  the  latter  proved  re- 
fractory, and  sentence  of  deposition  was  passed  against  him.  As 
Acacius,  however,  had  the  support  of  the  emperor,  a  schism 
arose  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  which  lasted 
for  34  years.  Felix  died  in  492. 

FELIX  IV.,  pope,  a  native  of  Beneventum,  was,  on  the  death  of 
John  in  526,  raised  to  the  papal  chair  by  the  emperor  Theodoric 
in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the  clergy  and  people.  His  election 
was  followed  by  serious  riots.  To  prevent  a  recrudescence  of 
these,  Felix,  on  his  death -bed,  thought  it  advisable  to  nominate 
his  own  successor.  His  choice  fell  upon  the  archdeacon  Boniface 
(pope  as  Boniface  II.).  But  this  proceeding  was  contrary  to  all 
tradition  and  roused  very  serious  opposition.  Out  of  two  old 
buildings  adapted  by  him  to  Christian  worship,  Felix  made  the 
church  of  SS.  Cosimo  and  Damiano,  near  the  Via  Sacra.  He  died 
in  September  530. 

FELIX  V.,  the  name  taken  by  Amadeus  (1383-1451),  duke  of 
Savoy,  when  he  was  elected  pope  in  opposition  to  Eugenius  IV.  in 
1439.  Amadeus  was  born  at  Chambery  on  the  4th  of  December 
1383,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Amadeus  VII.,  as  count  of  Savoy 
in  1391.  Having  added  largely  to  his  patrimonial  possessions  he 
became  very  powerful,  and  in  1416  the  German  king  Sigismund 
erected  Savoy  into  a  duchy;  after  this  elevation  Amadeus  added 
Piedmont  to  his  dominions.  •  Then  suddenly,  in  1434,  the  duke 
retired  to  a  hermitage  at  Ripaille,  near  Thonon,  resigning  his 
duchy  to  his  son  Louis  (d.  1465),  although  he  seems  to  have  taken 
some  part  in  its  subsequent  administration.  It  is  said,  but  some 
historians  doubt  the  story,  that,  instead  of  leading  a  life  of 
asceticism,  he  spent  his  revenues  in  furthering  his  own  luxury 
and  enjoyment.  In  1439,  when  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  was  deposed 
by  the  council  of  Basel,  Amadeus,  although  not  in  orders,  was 
chosen  as  his  successor,  and  was  crowned  in  the  following  year  as 
Felix  V.  In  the  stormy  conflict  between  the  rival  popes  which 
followed,  the  German  king,  Frederick  IV.,  after  some  hesitation 
sided  with  Eugenius,  and  having  steadily  lost  ground  Felix 
renounced  his  claim  to  the  pontificate  in  1449  in  favour  of 
Nicholas  V.,  who  had  been  elected  on  the  death  of  Eugenius. 
He  induced  Nicholas,  however,  to  appoint  him  as  apostolic 
vicar-general  in  Savoy,  Piedmont  and  other  parts  of  his  own 
dominions,  and  to  make  him  a  cardinal.  Amadeus  died  at 
Geneva  on  the  7th  of  January  1451. 

FELIX,  a  missionary  bishop  from  Burgundy,  sent  into  East 
Anglia  by  Honorius  of  Canterbury  (630-631).  Under  King 
Sigebert  his  mission  was  successful,  and  he  became  first  bishop  of 


East  Anglia,  with  a  see  at  Dunwich,  where  he  died  and  was 
surfed,  647-648.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  Irish  monk  Furseus 
Dreached  in  East  Anglia  at  the  same  time,  and  Bede  notices  the 
admiration  of  Felix  for  Aidan. 

See  Bede,  Hist.  Eccl.  (Plummer),  ii.  15,  Hi.  18,  20,  25;  Saxon 
Chronicle  (Earle  and  Plummer),  s.a.  636. 

FELIX,  of  Urgella  (fl.  8th  century),  Spanish  bishop,  the  friend  of 
Elipandus  and  the  propagator  of  his  views  in  the  great  Adoptian 
Controversy  (see  ADOPTIANISM). 

FELIX,  of  Valois  (1127-1212),  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
monastic  order  of  Trinitarians  or  Redemptionists,  was  born  in 
the  district  of  Valois,  France,  on  the  i9th  of  April  1 1 27.  In  early 
manhood  he  became  a  hermit  in  the  forest  of  Galeresse,  where  he 
remained  till  his  sixty-first  year,  when  his  disciple  Jean  de  Matha 
(1160-1213)  suggested  to  him  the  idea  of  establishing  an  order  of 
monks  who  should  devote  their  lives  to  the  redemption  of  Chris- 
tian captives  from  the  Saracens.  They  journeyed  to  Rome  about 
the  end  of  1197,  obtained  the  sanction  of  the  pope,  and  on  their 
return  to  France  founded  the  monastery  of  Cerfroi  in  Picardy. 
Felix  remained  to  govern  and  propagate  the  order,  while  Jean 
de  Matha  superintended  the  foreign  journeys.  A  subordinate 
establishment  was  also  founded  by  Felix  in  Paris  near  a  chapel 
dedicated  to  St  Mathurin,  on  which  account  his  monks  were  also 
called  St  Mathurins.  He  died  at  Cerfroi  on  the  4th  of  November 
1 21 2,  and  was  canonized. 

FELIX,  ANTONIUS,  Roman  procurator  of  Judaea  (A.D.  52-60), 
in  succession  to  Ventidius  Cumanus.  He  was  a  freedman  either 
of  the  emperor  Claudius — according  to  which  theory  Josephus 
(Antiq.  xx.  7)  calls  him  Claudius  Felix — or  more  probably  of  the 
empress  Antonia.  On  entering  his  province  he  induced  Drusilla, 
wife  of  Azizus  of  Horns  (Emesa),  to  leave  her  husband  and  live 
with  him  as  his  wife.  His  cruelty  and  licentiousness,  coupled 
with  his  accessibility  to  bribes,  led  to  a  great  increase  of  crime  in 
Judaea.  To  put  down  the  Zealots  he  favoured  an  even  more 
violent  sect,  the  Sicarii  ("  Dagger-men  "),  by  whose  aid  he 
contrived  the  murder  of  the  high-priest  Jonathan.  The  period  of 
his  rule  was  marked  by  internal  feuds  and  disturbances,  which  he 
put  down  with  severity.  The  apostle  Paul,  after  being  appre- 
hended in  Jerusalem,  was  sent  to  be  judged  before  Felix  at 
Caesarea,  and  kept  in  custody  for  two  years  (Acts  xxiv.).  On 
returning  to  Rome,  Felix  was  accused  of  having  taken  advantage 
of  a  dispute  between  the  Jews  and  Syrians  of  Caesarea  to  slay  and 
plunder  the  inhabitants,  but  through  the  intercession  of  his 
brother,  the  freedman  Pallas,  who  had  great  influence  with  the 
emperor  Nero,  he  escaped  unpunished. 

See  Tacitus,  Annals,  xx.  54,  Hist.  v.  9;  Suetonius,  Claudius,  28; 
E.  Schurer,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  (1890-1891);  article  in 
Hastings'  Diet,  of  the  Bible  (A.  Robertson) ;  commentaries  on  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles;  Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay,  St  Paul  the  Traveller; 
Carl  v.  Weizsacker,  Apostolic  Age  (Eng.  trans.,  1894);  art.  JEWS. 

FELIX,  LIA  (1830-  ),  French  actress,  was  the  third 
sister  and  the  pupil  of  the  great  Rachel.  She  had  hardly  been 
given  any  trial  when,  by  chance,  she  was  called  on  to  create  the 
leading  woman's  part  in  Lamartine's  Toussaint  Louverture  at 
the  Porte  St  Martin  on  the  6th  of  April  1850.  The  play  did  not 
make  a  hit,  but  the  young  actress  was  favourably  noticed,  and 
several  important  parts  were  immediately  entrusted  to  her. 
She  soon  came  to  be  recognized  as  one  of  the  best  comediennes 
in  Paris.  Rachel  took  Lia  to  America  with  her  to  play  second 
parts,  and  on  returning  to  Paris  she  played  at  several  of  the 
principal  theatres,  although  her  health  compelled  her  to  retire 
for  several  years.  When  she  reappeared  at  the  Gaiete  in  the 
title-role  of  Jules  Barbier's  Jeanne  d'Arc  she  had  an  enormous 
success. 

FELIXSTOWE,  a  seaside  resort  of  Suffolk,  England;  fronting 
both  to  the  North  Sea  and  to  the  estuary  of  the  Orwell,  where 
there  are  piers.  Pop.  of  urban  district  of  Felixstowe  and  Walton 
(1901),  5815.  It  is  85  m.  N.E.  by  E.  from  London  by  a  branch 
line  from  Ipswich  of  the  Great  Eastern  railway;  and  is  in 
the  Woodbridge  parliamentary  division  of  the  county.  It 
has  good  golf  links,  and  is  much  frequented  by  visitors  for  its 
bracing  climate  and  sea-bathing.  There  is  a  small  dock,  and 
phosphate  of  lime  is  extensively  dug  in  the  neighbourhood  and 


240 


FELL,  JOHN 


exported  for  use  as  manure.  The  neighbouring  village  of  Walton, 
a  short  distance  inland,  receives  many  visitors.  The  vicinity 
has  yielded  numerous  Roman  remains,  and  there  was  a  Roman 
fort  in  the  neighbourhood  (now  destroyed  by  the  sea),  forming  part 
of  the  coast  defence  of  the  Litus  Saxonicum  in  the  4th  century. 
FELL,  JOHN  (1625-1686),  English  divine,  son  of  Samuel  Fell, 
dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  was  born  at  Longworth  in  Berk- 
shire and  received  his  first  education  at  thefreeschoolatThamein 
Oxfordshire.  In  1636  he  obtained  a  studentship  at  Christ  Church, 
and  in  1640  he  was  specially  allowed  by  Archbishop  Laud  on 
account  of  his  "  known  desert,"  when  wanting  one  term's  resi- 
dence, to  proceed  to  his  degree  of  B.  A.  He  obtained  his  M.A.  in 
1643  and  took  holy  orders  (deacon  1647,  priest  1649).  During 
the  Civil  War  he  bore  arms  for  the  king  and  held  a  commission 
as  ensign.  In  1648  he  was  deprived  of  his  studentship  by  the  par- 
liamentary visitors,  and  during  the  next  few  years  he  resided 
chiefly  at  Oxford  with  his  brother-in-law,  Dr  T.  Willis,  at 
whose  house  opposite  Merton  College  he  and  his  friends  Allestree 
and  Dolben  kept  up  the  service  of  the  Church  of  England 
through  the  Commonwealth. 

At  the  Restoration  Fell  was  made  prebendary  of  Chichester, 
canon  of  Christ  Church  (July  27,  1660),  dean  (Nov.  30),  master 
of  St  Oswald's  hospital,  Worcester,  chaplain  to  the  king,  and 
D.D.  He  filled  the  office  of  vice-chancellor  from  1666  to  1669, 
and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Oxford,  in  1676,  retaining  his 
deanery  in  commendam.  Some  years  later  he  declined  the 
primacy  of  Ireland.  Fell  showed  himself  a  most  capable  and 
vigorous  administrator  in  his  various  high  employments,  and 
a  worthy  disciple  of  Archbishop  Laud.  He  restored  in  the 
university  the  good  order  instituted  by  the  archbishop,  which 
in  the  Commonwealth  had  given  place  to  anarchy  and  a  general 
disregard  of  authority.  He  ejected  the  intruders  from  his 
college  or  else  "  fixed  them  in  loyal  principles."  "  He  was  the 
most  zealous  man  of  his  time  for  the  Church  of  England,"  says 
Wood,  "  and  none  that  I  yet  know  of  did  go  beyond  him  in  the 
performance  of  the  rules  belonging  thereunto."  He  attended 
chapel  four  times  a  day,  restored  to  the  services,  not  without  some 
opposition,  the  organ  and  surplice,  and  insisted  on  the  proper 
academical  dress  which  had  fallen  into  disuse.  He  was  active 
in  recovering  church  property,  and  by  his  directions  a  children's 
catechism  was  drawn  up  by  Thomas  Marshall  for  use  in  his 
diocese.  "  As  he  was  among  the  first  of  our  clergy,"  says 
Burnet,  "  that  apprehended  the  design  of  bringing  in  popery, 
so  he  was  one  of  the  most  zealous  against  it."  He  was  forward 
in  making  converts  from  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Noncon- 
formists. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  recorded  to  his  honour  that 
he  opposed  successfully  the  incorporation  of  Titus  Gates  as 
D.D.  in  the  university  in  October  1679;  and  according  to  the 
testimony  of  William  Nichols,  his  secretary,  he  disapproved 
of  the  Exclusion  Bill.  He  excluded  the  undergraduates,  whose 
presence  had  been  irregularly  permitted,  from  convocation. 
He  obliged  the  students  to  attend  lectures,  instituted  reforms 
in  the  performances  of  the  public  exercises  in  the  schools,  kept 
the  examiners  up  to  their  duties,  and  himself  attended  the 
examinations.  He  encouraged  the  students  to  act  plays.  He 
entirely  suppressed  "  coursing,"  i.e.  disputations  in  which  the 
rival  parties  "  ran  down  opponents  in  arguments,"  and  which 
commonly  ended  in  blows  and  disturbances.  He  was  an  excellent 
disciplinarian  and  possessed  a  special  talent  for  the  education  of 
young  men,  many  of  whom  he  received  into  his  own  family  and 
watched  over  their  progress  with  paternal  care.  Tom  Browne, 
author  of  the  Dialogues  of  the  Dead,  about  to  be  expelled  from 
Oxford  for  some  offence,  was  pardoned  by  Fell  on  the  condition 
of  his  translating  extempore  the  33rd  epigram  from  Martial: — 
"  Non  amo  te,  Sabidi,  nee  possum  dicere  quare ; 

Hoc  tantum  possum  dicere,  non  amo  te. 

To  which  he  immediately  replied  with  the  well-known  lines: — 
"  I  do  not  love  you,  Dr  Fell, 

But  why,  I  cannot  tell, 

But  this  I  know  full  well, 

I  do  not  love  you,  Dr  Fell."  l 

1  J.  T.  Browne,  Works  feth  ed.  by  J.  Drake),  iv.  99-100;  T.  Forde, 
Virtus  rediviva  (1661),  106. 


Delinquents,  however,  were  not  always  treated  thus  mildly 
by  Fell,  and  Acton  Cremer,  for  the  crime  of  courting  a  wife 
while  only  a  bachelor  of  arts,  was  set  as  an  imposition  the 
translation  into  English  of  the  whole  of  Scheffer's  history  of 
Lapland.  As  vice-chancellor,  Fell  himself  visited  the  drinking 
taverns  and  ordered  out  the  students.  In  the  university  elec- 
tions he  showed  great  energy  in  suppressing  corruption. 

Fell's  building  operations  almost  rivalled  the  plans  of  the 
great  ecclesiastical  architects  of  the  middle  ages.  In  his  own 
college  he  completed  in  1665  the  north  side  of  Wolsey's  great 
quadrangle,  already  begun  by  his  father  but  abandoned  during 
the  Commonwealth;  he  rebuilt  in  1672  the  east  side  of  the 
Chaplain's  quadrangle  "  with  a  straight  passage  under  it  leading 
from  the  cloister  into  the  field,"  occupied  now  by  the  new 
Meadow  Buildings;  the  lodgings  of  the  canon  of  the  3rd  stall 
in  the  passage  uniting  the  Tom  and  Peckwater  quadrangles 
(c.  1674);  a  long  building  joining  the  Chaplain's  quadrangle 
on  the  east  side  in  1677-1678;  and  lastly  the  great  tower  gate, 
begun  in  June  1681  on  the  foundation  laid  by  Wolsey  and 
finished  in  November  1682,  to  which  the  bell  "  great  Tom," 
after  being  recast,  was  transferred  from  the  cathedral  in  1683. 
In  1670  he  planted  and  laid  out  the  Broad  Walk.  He  spent  large 
sums  of  his  own  on  these  works,  gave  £500  for  the  restoration 
of  Banbury  church,  erected  a  church  at  St  Oswald's,  Worcester, 
and  the  parsonage  house  at  Woodstock  at  his  own  expense,  and 
rebuilt  Cuddesdon  palace.  Fell  disapproved  of  the  use  of  St 
Mary's  church  for  secular  purposes,  and  promoted  the  building 
of  the  Sheldonian  theatre  by  Archbishop  Sheldon.  He  was 
treasurer  during  its  construction,  presided  at  the  formal  opening 
on  the  pth  of  July  1669,  and  was  nominated  with  Wren  curator 
in  July  1670.  In  the  theatre  was  placed  the  University  Press, 
the  establishment  of  which  had  been  a  favourite  project  of  Laud, 
which  now  engaged  a  large  share  of  Fell's  energy  and  attention, 
and  which  as  curator  he  practically  controlled.  "  Were  it  not 
you  ken  Mr  Dean  extraordinarily  well,"  writes  Sir  L.  Jenkins 
to  J.  Williamson  in  1672,  "  it  were  impossible  to  imagine  how 
assiduous  and  drudging  he  is  about  his  press."'  He  sent  for 
type  and  printers  from  Holland,  declaring  that  "  the  foundation 
of  all  success  must  be  laid  in  doing  things  well,  which  I  am  sure 
will  not  be  done  with  English  letters."  Many  works,  including 
a  Bible,  editions  of  the  classics  and  of  the  early  fathers,  were 
produced  under  his  direction  and  editing,  and  his  press  became 
noted  not  only  in  England  but  abroad.  He  published  annually 
one  work,  generally  a  classical  author  annotated  by  himself, 
which  he  distributed  to  all  the  students  of  his  college  on  New 
Year's  day.  On  one  occasion  he  surprised  the  Press  in  printing 
surreptitiously  Aretino's  Postures,  when  he  seized  and  destroyed 
the  plates  and  impressions.  Ever  "  an  eager  defender  and 
maintainer  of  the  university  and  its  privileges,"  he  was  hostile 
to  the  Royal  Society,  which  he  regarded  as  a  possible  rival,  and 
in  1686  he  gave  an  absolute  refusal  to  Obadiah  Walker,  after- 
wards the  Roman  Catholic  master  of  University  College,  though 
licensed  by  James  II.,  to  print  books,  declaring  he  would  as  soon 
"  part  with  his  bed  from  under  him  "  as  his  press.  He  conducted 
it  on  strict  business  principles,  and  to  the  criticism  that  more 
great  works  were  not  produced  replied  that  they  would  not  sell. 
He  was,  however,  not  free  from  fads,  and  his  new  spelling  (of 
which  one  feature  was  the  substitution  of  i  for  y  in  such  words 
as  eies,  daies,  maiest)  met  with  great  disapproval. 

Fell  also  did  much  to  encourage  learning  in  the  university. 
While  still  a  young  man  at  Christ  Church  he  had  shown  both  his 
zeal  and  his  charity  by  reading  gratuitously  with  the  poor  and 
neglected  students  of  the  college.  He  bore  himself  a  high 
reputation  as  a  Grecian,  a  Latinist  and  a  philologist,  and  he  found 
time,  in  spite  of  his  great  public  employments,  to  bring  out  with 
the  collaboration  of  others  his  great  edition  of  St  Cyprian  in 
1682,  an  English  translation  of  The  Unity  of  the  Church  in  1681, 
editions  of  Nemesius  of  Emesa  (1671),  of  Aralus  and  of  Erato- 
sthenes (1672),  Theocritus  (1676),  Alcinous  on  Plato  (1677), 
St  Clement's  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  (1677),  Athenagoras  (1682), 
Clemens  Alexandrinus  (1683),  St  Theophilus  of  Antioch  (1684), 
1  Cal.  of  Stale  Pap.  Dom.,  1672,  p.  478,  and  1670,  p.  26. 


FELL,  JOHN 


Grammatica  rationis  si-se  institutiones  logicae  (1673  and  1685), 
and  a  critical  edition  of  the  New  Testament  in  1675.  The  first 
volumes  of  Rerum  Anglicarum  scriptores  and  of  Historiae 
Britannicae,  &c.  were  compiled  under  his  patronage  in  1684. 
He  had  the  MSS.  of  St.  Augustine  in  the  Bodleian  and  other 
libraries  at  Oxford  generously  collated  for  the  use  of  the  Bene- 
dictines at  Paris,  then  preparing  a  new  edition  of  the  father. 

Fell  spent  such  large  sums  in  his  building,  in  his  noble  patron- 
age of  learning,  and  in  charities,  that  sometimes  there  was  little 
left  for  his  private  use.  Occasionally  in  his  schemes  he  showed 
greater  zeal  than  prudence.  He  was  the  originator  of  a  mission 
to  India  which  was  warmly  taken  up  by  the  East  India  Company. 
He  undertook  himself  to  train  as  missionaries  four  scholars  at 
Oxford,  procured  a  set  of  Arabic  types,  and  issued  from  these 
the  Gospels  and  Acts  in  the  Malay  language  in  1677.  But  this 
was  scarcely  the  best  method  of  communicating  the  gospel  to 
the  natives  of  India,  and  the  mission  collapsed.  He  affected 
to  despise  public  opinion,  and  was  masterful  and  despotic  in 
his  dealings  with  others,  especially  with  those  upon  whom  he 
was  conferring  favours.  Having  generously  undertaken  at  his 
own  charge  to  publish  a  Latin  version  of  Wood's  History  and 
Antiquities  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  with  the  object  of  present- 
ing the  history  of  the  university  in  a  manner  worthy  of  the  great 
subject  to  European  readers,  and  of  extending  its  fame  abroad, 
he  arrogated  to  himself  the  right  of  editing  the  work.  "  He 
would  correct,  alter,  dash  out  what  he  pleased.  .  .  .He  was  a 
great  man  and  carried  all  things  at  his  pleasure."  In  particular 
he  struck  out  all  the  passages  which  Wood  had  inserted  in  praise 
of  Hobbes,  and  substituted  some  disparaging  epithets.  He 
called  the  philosopher's  Leviathan  "  monstrosissimus "  and 
"  publico  damno  notissimus."  To  the  printed  remonstrance  of 
Hobbes,  Fell  inserted  an  insulting  reply  in  the  History  to  "  irri- 
tabile  illud  et  vanissimum  Malmesburiense  animal,"  and  to  the 
complaint  of  Wood  at  this  usage  answered  only  that  Hobbes 
"  was  an  old  man,  had  one  foot  in  the  grave;  that  he  should  mind 
his  latter  end,  and  not  trouble  the  world  any  more  with  his 
papers."  In  small  things  as  in  great  he  loved  to  rule  and  direct. 
"  Let  not  Fell,"  writes  R.  South  to  R.  Bathurst,  "  have  the 
fingering  and  altering  of  them  (i.e.  his  Latin  verses),  for  I  think 
that,  bating  the  want  of  siquidems  and  quinetiams,  they  are  as 
good  as  his  Worship  can  make."  Wood  styles  him  "  a  valde  vult 
person."  He  was  not  content  with  ruling  his  own  college,  but 
desired  to  govern  the  whole  university.  He  prevented  Gilbert 
Ironside,  who  "  was  not  pliable  to  his  humour,"  from  holding 
the  office  of  vice-chancellor.  He  "endeavoured  to  carry  all 
things  by  a  high  hand;  scorn'd  in  the  least  to  court  the  Masters 
when  he  had  to  have  anything  pass'd  the  convocation.  Severe 
to  other  colleges,  blind  as  to  his  own,  very  partiall  and  with 
good  words,  and  flatterers  and  tell-tales  could  get  anything  out 
of  him."  According  to  Bishop  Burnet,  who  praises  his  char- 
acter and  his  administration,  Fell  was  "  a  little  too  much  heated 
in  the  matter  of  our  disputes  with  the  dissenters."  "  He  had 
much  zeal  for  reforming  abuses,  and  managed  it  perhaps  with 
too  much  heat  and  in  too  peremptory  a  way."  "  But,"  he  adds, 
"  we  have  so  little  of  that  among  us  that  no  wonder  if  such  men 
are  censured  by  those  who  love  not  such  patterns  nor  such  severe 
task-masters."  And  Wood,  whose  adverse  criticism  must  be 
discounted  a  little  on  account  of  the  personal  dispute,— after 
declaring  that  Fell  "  was  exceeding  partial  in  his  government 
even  to  corruption;  went  thro'  thick  and  thin;  grasped  at  all 
yet  did  nothing  perfect  or  effectually;  cared  not  what  people 
said  of  him,  was  in  many  things  very  rude  and  in  most  pedantic 
and  pedagogical," — concludes  with  the  acknowledgment,  "  yet 
still  aimed  at  the  public  good."  Roger  North,  who  paid  Fell 
a  visit  at  Oxford,  speaks  of  him  in  terms  of  enthusiasm: — 
"  The  great  Dr  Fell,  who  was  truly  great  in  all  his  circumstances, 
capacities,  undertakings  and  learning,  and  above  all  for  his 
superabundant  public  spirit  and  goodwill.  .  .  .O  the  felicity  of 
that  age  and  place  when  his  authority  swayed  !  " 

In  November  1684,  at  the  command  of  the  king,  Fell  deprived 
Locke,  who  had  incurred  the  royal  displeasure  by  his  friendship 
with  Shaftesbury,  and  was  suspected  as  the  author  of  certain 


241 

seditious  pamphlets,  of  his  studentship  at  Christ  Church,  sum- 
marily and  without  hearing  his  defence.  Fell  had  in  former 
years  cultivated  Locke's  friendship,  had  kept  up  a  correspond- 
ence with  him,  and  in  1663  had  written  a  testimonial  in  his 
favour;  and  the  ready  compliance  of  one  who  could  on  occasion 
offer  a  stout  resistance  to  any  invasion  of  the  privileges  of  the 
university  has  been  severely  criticised.  It  must,  however,  be 
remembered  in  extenuation  that  the  legal  status  of  a  person  on 
the  foundation  of  a  collegiate  body  had  not  then  been  decided 
in  the  law-courts.  With  regard  to  the  justice  of  the  proceeding 
Fell  had  evidently  some  doubts,  and  he  afterwards  expressed 
his  regret  for  the  step  which  he  was  now  compelled  to  take. 
But  such  scruples,  however  strong,  would,  with  a  man  of  Fell's 
political  and  religious  opinions,  yield  immediately  to  an  order 
from  the  sovereign,  who  possessed  special  authority  in  this  case 
as  a  visitor  to  the  college;  and  such  subservience,  however 
strange  to  modern  notions,  would  probably  only  be  considered 
natural  and  proper  at  that  period. 

Fell,  who  had  never  married,  died  on  the  loth  of  July  1686, 
worn  out,  according  to  Wood,  by  his  overwhelming  public 
duties.  He  was  buried  in  the  divinity  chapel  in  the  cathedral, 
below  the  seat  which  he  had  so  often  occupied  when  living,  where 
a  monument  and  an  epitaph,  now  moved  elsewhere,  were  placed 
to  his  memory.  "His  death,"  writes  John  Evelyn,  "was  an 
extraordinary  losse  to  the  poore  church  at  this  time";  but  for 
himself  Fell  was  fortunate  in  the  time  of  his  departure;  for  a 
few  months  more  of  life  would  have  necessitated  a  choice,  most 
painful  to  a  man  of  his  character  and  creed,  between  fidelity 
to  his  sovereign  and  to  his  church.  With  all  his  faults,  which 
were  the  defects  which  often  attend  eminent  qualities  such  as 
his,  Fell  was  a  great  man,  "  the  greatest  governor,"  according 
to  Speaker  Onslow,  "  that  has  ever  been  since  his  time  in  either 
of  the  universities,"  and  of  his  own  college,  to  which  he  left 
several  exhibitions  for  the  maintenance  of  poor  scholars,  he 
was  a  second  founder.  He  was  a  worthy  upholder  of  the  Laudian 
tradition  at  Oxford,  an  enlightened  and  untiring  patron  of 
learning,  and  a  man  of  exemplary  morals  and  great  piety  which 
remained  unsullied  in  the  midst  of  a  busy  life  and  much  contact 
with  the  world.  A  sum  of  money  was  left  by  John  Cross  to 
perpetuate  Fell's  memory  by  an  annual  speech  in  his  praise,  but 
the  Felii  laudes  have  been  discontinued  since  1866.  There  are 
two  interesting  pictures  of  Fell  at  Christ  Church,  one  where  he 
is  represented  with  his  two  friends  Allestree  and  Dolben,  and 
another  by  Vandyck.  The  statue  placed  on  the  N.E.  angle  of 
the  Great  Quadrangle  bears  no  likeness  to  the  bishop,  who  is 
described  by  Hearne  as  a  "  thin  grave  man." 

Besides  the  learned  works  already  mentioned  Fell  wrote  the 
lives  of  his  friends  Dr  Henry  Hammond  (1661),  Richard  Allestree, 
prefixed  to  his  edition  of  the  latter's  sermons  (1684),  and  Dr 
Thomas  Willis,  in  Latin.  His  Seasonable  advice  to  Protestants 
showing  the  necessity  of  maintaining  the  Established  Religion  in 
opposition  to  Popery  was  published  in  1688.  Some  of  his  sermons, 
which  Evelyn  found  dull,  were  printed,  including  Character  of 
the  Last  Daies,  preached  before  the  king,  1675,  and  a  Sermon 
preached  before  the  House  of  Peers  Dec.  22,  1680.  The  Interest 
of  England  stated  (1659),  advocating  the  restoration  of  the  king,1 
and  The  Vanity  of  Scoffing  (1674),  are  also  attributed  to  him. 
Fell  probably  had  some  share  in  the  composition  of  The  Whole 
Duty  of  Man,  and  in  the  subsequent  works  published  under  the 
name  of  the  author  of  The  Whole  Duty,  which  included  Reasons 
of  the  Decay  of  Christian  Piety,  The  Ladies  Calling,  The  Gentle- 
man's Calling,  The  Government  of  the  Tongue,  The  Art  of  Content- 
ment, and  The  Lively  Oracles  given  us,  all  of  which  were  published 
in  one  volume  with  notes  and  a  preface  by  Fell  in  1684. 

AUTHORITIES. — Wood's  Athenae  Oxonienses  and  Fasti  (ed.  Bliss); 
Wood's  Life  and  Times,  ed.  by  A.  Clark ;  Burnet's  Hist,  of  His  Own 
Time,  ed.  1833;  J.  Welch,  Alumni  Westmonasterienses;  Thomas 
Hearne,  Collections,  ed.  by  C.  E.  Doble  and  others;  History  of  the 
Univ.  of  Oxford  (1814);  Christ  Church,  by  Rev.  H.  L.  Thompson; 
Fortnightly  Review,  hx.  689  (May  1896);  Macmillan's  Magazine 
(Aug.  1875)  J  ^  Specimen  of  the  several  sorts  of  Letter  given  to  the 


1  F.  Maseres,  Tracts  of  the  Civil  War,  ii.  673. 


242 


FELL— FELLER 


University  by  Dr  J.  F(ell)  (1695) ;  Netes  and  Queries,  ser.  vi.  2,  and 
ser.  vii.  166;  Calendars  of  State  Papers,  Dom.  Series  (1660-1675). 
Fell's  books  and  papers  were  bequeathed  by  his  nephew  Henry  Jones 
to  the  Bodleian  library.  A  few  of  his  letters  are  to  be  found  in 
Add.  MSS.  Brit.  Mus.  11046,  and  some  are  printed  in  Life  of 
James  II.,  by  Ch.  J.  Fox,  Appendix;  Gent.  Mag.  77,  p.  633; 
Academy,  8,  p.  14!;  Athenaeum  for  1887  (2),  p.  311;  J.  Gutch, 
Collectanea  Curiosa,  i.  269;  and  in  Cat.  of  State  Papers,  Dom. 
Series.  (P.  C.  Y.) 

FELL,  (i)  (Through  the  O.  Fr.fel,  from  Low  Lut.fello,  felon) , 
savage,  ruthless,  deadly;  only  used  now  in  poetry.  (2)  (Of 
Scandinavian  origin,  cf.  Danish  fjeld,  probably  connected  with 
a  Teutonic  root  appearing  in  German  fels,  rock),  a  hill,  as  in 
the  names  of  mountains  in  the  Lake  District  in  England,  e.g. 
Scawfell;  also  a  lofty  moorland  down.  (3)  (A  word  common 
to  Teutonic  languages,  cf .  Ger.  fell,  and  Dutch  vel,  cognate  with 
Lat.  pellis,  skin),  the  pelt  or  hide  of  an  animal,  with  the  hair 
or  wool  and  skin;  also  used  of  any  thick  shaggy  covering,  like 
a  matted  fleece.  (4)  To  cause  to  "  fall,"  a  word  common  to 
Teutonic  languages  and  akin  to  the  root  of  the  Lat.  fallere  and 
Gr.  ff<j>6.\\fiv,  to  cause  to  stumble,  to  deceive.  As  a  substantive 
"  fell  "  is  used  of  a  flat  seam  laid  level  with  the  surface  of  the 
fabric;  also,  in  weaving,  of  the  end  of  the  web. 

FELLAH  (pi.  Fellahin),  Arabic  for  "  ploughman  "  or  "  tiller," 
the  word  used  in  Arabic-speaking  countries  to  designate 
peasantry.  It  is  employed  especially  of  the  peasantry  of  Egypt, 
"  Fellahin  "  in  modern  English  usage  being  almost  equivalent 
to  "  Egyptians."  In  Egypt  the  name  is  applied  to  the  peasantry 
as  opposed  to  the  Arabs  of  the  desert  (and  even  those  who  have 
settled  on  the  land),  the  Turks  and  the  townsfolk.  Fellah  is 
used  by  the  Arabs  as  a  term  of  reproach,  somewhat  like  the 
English  "  boor,"  but  rather  implying  a  slavish  disposition; 
the  fellahin,  however,  are  not  ashamed  of  the  name  and  may 
pride  themselves  on  being  of  good  fellah  descent,  as  a  "  fellah 
of  a  fellah."  They  may  be  classified  as  Hamito-Semites,  and 
preserve  to  some  extent  the  blood  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
They  form  the  bulk  of  the  population  of  Egypt  and  are  mainly 
Mahommedan,  though  some  villages  in  Upper  Egypt  are  almost 
exclusively  Copt  (Christian).  Their  hybridism  is  well  shown  by 
their  great  divergence  of  colour,  fellahin  in  the  Delta  being 
sometimes  lighter  than  Arabs,  while  in  Upper  Egypt  the  pre- 
vailing complexion  is  dark  brown.  The  average  fellah  is  some- 
what above  medium  height,  big-boned,  of  clumsy  but  powerful 
build,  with  head  and  face  of  fine  oval  shape,  cheek-bones  high, 
forehead  broad,  short  flattish  nose  with  wide  nostrils,  and  black 
but  not  woolly  hair.  The  eyebrows  are  always  straight  and 
smooth,  never  bushy.  The  mouth  is  thick-lipped  and  large  but 
well  formed.  The  eyes  are  large  and  black,  and  are  remarkable 
for  the  closeness  of  the  eyelashes.  The  women  and  girls  are 
particularly  noted  for  their  graceful  and  slender  figures  and 
their  fine  carriage,  due  to  the  custom  of  carrying  burdens,  especi- 
ally water-jars,  on  their  heads.  The  men's  heads  are  usually 
shaved.  The  women  are  not  as  a  rule  closely  veiled:  they 
generally  paint  the  lips  a  deep  blue,  and  tattoo  a  floral  device 
on  the  chin,  sometimes  on  the  forehead  and  other  parts  of  the 
body.  All  but  the  poorest  wear  necklaces  of  cheap  pearls, 
coins  or  gilt  disks.  The  men  wear  a  blue  or  brown  cotton  shirt, 
linen  drawers  and  a  plain  skull-cap,  or  on  occasion  the  tarbush 
or  fez,  round  which  sometimes  a  turban  is  wound;  the  women 
wear  a  single  cotton  smock.  The  common  fellah's  home  is  a 
mere  mud  hut,  roofed  with  durra  straw.  Inside  are  a  few  mats, 
a  sheepskin,  baskets  and  some  earthenware  and  wooden  vessels. 
He  lives  almost  entirely  on  vegetables,  millet  bread,  beans, 
lentils,  dates  and  onions.  But  some  of  the  sheikhs  are  wealthy, 
and  have  large  houses  built  of  crude  brick  and  whitewashed  with 
lime,  with  courtyard,  many  apartments  and  good  furniture. 
The  fellah  is  laborious  in  the  fields,  and  abominates  absence  from 
his  occupations,  which  generally  means  loss  of  money  to  him. 
Military  service  on  the  old  oriental  plan  was  both  ruinous  and 
distasteful  to  him;  hence  voluntary  mutilations  to  avoid  con- 
scription were  formerly  common  and  the  ingrained  prejudice 
against  military  service  remains.  Trained  by  British  officers' 
the  fellahin  make,  however,  excellent  soldiers,  as  was  proved  in 


the  Sudan  campaigns  of  1896-08.  The  fellah  is  intelligent,  cheer- 
ful and  sober,  and  as  hospitable  as  his  poverty  allows.  (See 
COPTS  and  EGYPT.) 

FELLENBERG,  PHILIPP  EMANUEL  VON  (1771-1844), 
Swiss  educationist,  was  born  on  the  27th  of  June  1771  at  Bern, 
in  Switzerland.  His  father  was  of  patrician  family,  and  a  man 
of  importance  in  his  canton,  and  his  mother  was  a  grand- 
daughter of  the  Dutch  admiral  Van  Tromp.  From  his  mother 
and  from  Pfeffel,  the  blind  poet  of  Colmar,  he  received  a  better 
education  than  falls  to  the  lot  of  most  boys,  while  the  intimacy 
of  his  father  with  Pestalozzi  gave  to  his  mind  that  bent  which 
it  afterwards  followed.  In  1790  he  entered  the  university  of 
Tubingen,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  rapid  progress 
in  legal  studies.  On  account  of  his  health  he  afterwards  under- 
took a  walking  tour  in  Switzerland  and  the  adjoining  portions 
of  France,  Swabia  and  Tirol,  visiting  the  hamlets  and  farm- 
houses, mingling  in  the  labours  and  occupations  of  the  peasants 
and  mechanics,  and  partaking  of  their  rude  fare  and  lodging. 
After  the  downfall  of  Robespierre,  he  went  to  Paris  and  remained 
there  long  enough  to  be  assured  of  the  storm  impending  over 
his  native  country.  This  he  did  his  best  to  avert,  but  his  warn- 
ings were  disregarded,  and  Switzerland  was  lost  before  any 
efficient  means  could  be  taken  for  its  safety.  Fellenberg,  who 
had  hastily  raised  a  levy  en  masse,  was  proscribed;  a  price  was 
set  upon  his  head,  and  he  was  compelled  to  fly  into  Germany. 
Shortly  afterwards,  however,  he  was  recalled  by  his  countrymen, 
and  sent  on  a  mission  to  Paris  to  remonstrate  against  the  rapacity 
and  cruelty  of  the  agents  of  the  French  republic.  But  in  this 
and  other  diplomatic  offices  which  he  held  for  a  short  time,  he 
was  witness  to  so  much  corruption  and  intrigue  that  his  mind 
revolted  from  the  idea  of  a  political  life,  and  he  returned  home 
with  the  intention  of  devoting  himself  wholly  to  the  education 
of  the  young.  With  this  resolution  he  purchased  in  1799  the 
estate  of  Hofwyl,  near  Bern,  intending  to  make  agriculture  the 
basis  of  a  new  system  which  he  had  projected,  for  elevating  the 
lower  and  rightly  training  the  higher  orders  of  the  state,  and 
welding  them  together  in  a  closer  union  than  had  hitherto  been 
deemed  attainable.  For  some  time  he  carried  on  his  labours  in 
conjunction  with  Pestalozzi,  but  incompatibility  of  disposition 
soon  induced  them  to  separate.  The  scheme  of  Fellenberg  at 
first  excited  a  large  amount  of  ridicule,  but  gradually  it  began 
to  attract  the  notice  of  foreign  countries;  and  pupils,  some  of 
them  of  the  highest  rank,  began  to  flock  to  him  from  every 
country  in  Europe,  both  for  the  purpose  of  studying  agri- 
culture and  to  profit  by  the  high  moral  training  which  he 
associated  with  his  educational  system.  For  forty-five  years 
Fellenberg,  assisted  by  his  wife,  continued  his  educational 
labours,  and  finally  raised  his  institution  to  the  highest  point 
of  prosperity  and  usefulness.  He  died  on  the  2ist  of  November 
1844. 

See  Hamm,  Fellenberg' 's  Leben  und  Wirken  (Bern,  1845);  and 
Schoni,  Der  Stifler  von  Hofwyl,  leben  und  Wirken  Fellenberg' s. 

FELLER,  FRANCOIS  XAVIER  DE  (1735-1802),  Belgian 
author,  was  born  at  Brussels  on  the  i8th  of  August  1735.  In 
1752  he  entered  a  school  of  the  Jesuits  at  Reims,  where  he 
manifested  a  great  aptitude  for  mathematics  and  physical 
science.  He  commenced  his  novitiate  two  years  afterwards, 
and  in  testimony  of  his  admiration  for  the  apostle  of  India  added 
Xavier  to  his  surname.  On  the  expiry  of  his  novitiate  he  became 
professor  at  Luxembourg,  and  afterwards  at  Liege.  In  1764  he 
was  appointed  to  the  professorship  of  theology  at  Tyrnau  in 
Hungary,  but  in  1771  he  returned  to  Belgium  and  continued  to 
discharge  his  professorial  duties  at  Liege  till  the  suppression  of 
the  Jesuitsin  1773.  The  remainder  of  his  life  he  devoted  to  study, 
travel  and  literature.  On  the  invasion  of  Belgium  by  the  French 
in  1794  he  went  to  Paderborn,  and  remained  there  two  years, 
after  which  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Ratisbon,  where  he  died 
on  the  23rd  of  May  1802. 

Feller's  works  exceed  120  volumes.  In  1773  he  published,  under 
the  assumed  name  Flexier  de  Reyal  (an  anagram  of  Xavier  de 
Feller),  his  Catechisme  philosophique;  and  his  principal  work, 
Dictionnaire  historique  et  litteraire  (published  in  1781  at  Liege  in  8 
volumes,  and  afterwards  several  times  reprinted  and  continued 


FELLING— FELONY 


243 


down  to  1848),  appeared  under  the  same  name.  Among  his  other 
works  the  most  important  are  Cours  de  morale  chretienne  el  de  littera- 
ture  religiev.se  and  his  Coup  d'ceil  sur  congres  d'Ems.  The  Journal 
histcrique  et  litteraire,  published  at  Luxembourg  and  Liege  from 
1774  to  1794  in  70  volumes,  was  edited  and  in  great  part  written  by 
him. 

FELLING,  an  urban  district  in  the  Jarrow  parliamentary 
division  of  Durham,  England,  forming  an  eastern  suburb  of 
Gateshead.  Pop.  (1901)  22,467.  Its  large  industrial  population 
is  employed  in  the  neighbouring  collieries  and  the  various 
attendant  manufactures. 

FELLOE,  the  outer  rim  of  a  wheel,  to  which  the  spokes  are 
attached.  The  word  is  sometimes  spelled  and  usually  pronounced 
"  felly."  It  is  a  Teutonic  word,  in  O.  Eng.  felg,  cognate  with 
Dutch  velge,  Ger.  Felge;  the  original  Teutonic  root  from  which 
these  are  derived  probably  meant  "  to  fit  together." 

FELLOW,  properly  and  by  origin  a  partner  or  associate,  hence 
a  companion,  comrade  or  mate,  as  in  "  fellow-man,"  "  fellow- 
countryman,"  &c.  The  word  from  the  isth  century  has  also 
been  applied,  generally  and  colloquially,  to  any  male  person, 
often  in  a  contemptuous  or  pitying  sense.  The  Old  English 
feolage  meant  a  partner  in  a  business,  i.e.  one  who  lays  (lag) 
money  or  property  (feoh,  fee)  together  for  a  common  purpose. 
The  word  was,  therefore,  the  natural  equivalent  for  socius,  a 
member  of  the  foundation  of  an  incorporated  college,  as  Eton,  or 
a  college  at  a  university.  In  the  earlier  history  of  universities 
both  the  senior  and  junior  members  of  a  college  were  known  as 
"  scholars,"  but  later,  as  now,  "  scholar  "  was  restricted  to  those 
members  of  the  foundation  still  in  slatu  pupillari,  and  "  fellow  " 
to  those  senior  graduate  members  who  have  been  elected  to  the 
foundation  by  the  corporate  body,  sharing  in  the  government  and 
receiving  a  fixed  emolument  out  of  the  revenues  of  the  college. 
It  is  in  this  sense  that  "  fellow  "  is  used  at  the  universities  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  and  Trinity,  Dublin.  At  these  universities 
the  college  teaching  is  performed  by  those  fellows  who  are  also 
"  tutors."  At  other  universities  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
members  of  the  governing  body  or  to  the  holders  of  certain  sums 
of  money  for  a  fixed  number  of  years  to  be  devoted  to  special 
study  or  research.  By  analogy  the  word  is  also  used  of  the 
members  of  various  learned  societies  and  institutions. 

FELLOWS,  SIR  CHARLES  (1790-1860),  British  archaeologist, 
was  born  in  August  1799  at  Nottingham,  where  his  family  had 
an  estate.  When  fourteen  he  drew  sketches  to  illustrate  a  trip  to 
the  ruins  of  Newstead  Abbey,  which  afterwards  appeared  on  the 
title-page  of  Moore's  Life  of  Lord  Byron.  In  1820  he  settled  in 
London,  where  he  became  an  active  member  of  the  British 
Association.  In  1827  he  discovered  the  modern  ascent  of  Mont 
Blanc.  After  the  death  of  his  mother  in  1832  he  passed  the 
greater  portion  of  his  time  in  Italy,  Greece  and  the  Levant. 
The  numerous  sketches  he  executed  were  largely  used  in  illustrat- 
ing Childe  Harold.  In  1838  he  went  to  Asia  Minor,  making 
Smyrna  his  headquarters.  His  explorations  in  the  interior  and 
the  south  led  him  to  districts  practically  unknown  to  Europeans, 
and  he  thus  discovered  ruins  of  a  number  of  ancient  cities.  He 
entered  Lycia  and  explored  the  Xanthus  from  the  mouth  at 
Patara  upwards.  Nine  miles  from  Patara  he  discovered  the  ruins 
of  Xanthus,  the  ancient  capital  of  Lycia,  finely  situated  on  hills, 
and  abounding  in  magnificent  remains.  About  ism.  farther  up 
he  came  upon  the  ruins  of  Tlos.  After  taking  sketches  of  the 
most  interesting  objects  and  copying  a  number  of  inscriptions,  he 
returned  to  Smyrna  through  Caria  and  Lydia.  The  publication 
of  A  Journal  written  during  an  Excursion  in  Asia  Minor  (London, 
1839)  roused  such  interest  that  Lord  Palmerston,  at  the  request 
of  the  British  Museum  authorities,  asked  the  British  consul  at 
Constantinople  to  get  leave  from  the  sultan  to  ship  a  number 
of  the  Lycian  works  of  art.  Late  in  1839  Fellows,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  British  Museum,  again  set  out  for  Lycia,  accom- 
panied by  George  Scharf,  who  assisted  him  in  sketching.  This 
second  visit  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  thirteen  ancient  cities, 
and  in  1841  appeared  An  Account  of  Discoveries  in  Lycia,  being 
a  Journal  kept  during  a  Second  Excursion  in  Asia  Minor.  A 
third  visit  was  made  late  in  1841,  after  Fellows  had  obtained 
&  firman  by  personal  application  at  Constantinople.  He  shipped 


a  number  of  works  of  art  for  England,  and  in  the  fourth  and 
most  famous  expedition  (1844)  twenty-seven  cases  of  marbles 
were  despatched  to  the  British  Museum.  His  chief  discoveries 
were  at  Xanthus,  Pinara,  Patara,  Tlos,  Myra  and  Olympus.  In 
1844  he  presented  to  the  British  Museum  his  portfolios,  accounts 
of  his  expeditions,  and  specimens  of  natural  history  illustrative 
of  Lycia.  In  1845  he  was  knighted  "  as  an  acknowledgment 
of  his  services  in  the  removal  of  the  Xanthian  antiquities  to 
this  country."  He  paid  his  own  expenses  in  all  his  journeys  and 
received  no  public  reward.  Fellows  was  twice  married.  He 
died  in  London  on  the  8th  of  November  1860. 

In  addition  to  the  works  above  mentioned,  Fellows  published  the 
following:  The  Xanthian  Marbles;  their  Acquisition  and  Trans- 
mission to  England  (1843),  a  refutation  of  false  statements  that  had 
been  published ;  An  Account  of  the  Ionic  Trophy  Monument  excavated 
at  Xanthus  (1848);  a  cheap  edition  of  his  two  Journals,  entitled 
Travels  and  Researches  in  Asia  Minor,  particularly  in  the  Province 
of  Lycia  (1852) ;  and  Coins  of  Ancient  Lycia  before  the  Reign  of 
Alexander;  with  an  Essay  on  the  Relative  Dates  of  the  Lycian  Monu- 
ments in  the  British  Museum  (1855).  See  C.  Brown's  Lives  of  Notting- 
hamshire Worthies  (1882),  pp.  352-353,  and  Journ.  of  Roy.  Geog. 
Soc.,  1861.  | 

FELO  DE  SE  (M,L.  a  felon,  i.e.  murderer,  of  himself),  one  who 
commits  murder  upon  himself.  The  technical  conditions  of 
murder  apply  to  this  crime;  e.g.,  "  if  one  commits  any  unlawful 
malicious  act,  the  consequence  of  which  is  his  own  death,  as  if 
attempting  to  kill  another  he  runs  upon  his  antagonist's  sword, 
or  shooting  at  another  the  gun  bursts  and  kills  himself,"  he  is  a 
felo  de  se.  The  horror  inspired  by  this  crime  led  to  the  revolting 
punishment  of  an  "  ignominious  burial  on  the  highway,  with  a 
stake  driven  through  the  body."  This  was  abolished  by  an  act  of 
1823,  which  ordered  the  burial  of  the  body  of  a  person  found  to  be 
felo  de  se  within  24  hours  after  the  coroner's  inquest,  between  the 
hours  of  9  and  1 2  at  night,  and  without  Christian  rites  of  sepulture. 
This  act  was  again  superseded  in  1882  by  the  Interments  (Felo 
de  se)  Act,  which  permits  the  interment  of  any  felo  de  se  in  the 
churchyard  or  other  burial  ground  of  the  parish  or  place  in 
which  by  the  law  or  custom  of  England  he  might  have  been 
interred  but  for  the  verdict.  The  interment  is  carried  out  in 
accordance  with  the  Burial  Laws  Amendment  Act  1880  (see 
BURIAL  AND  BURIAL  ACTS).  The  act  does  not  authorize  the 
performance  of  any  of  the  rites  of  Christian  burial,  but  a  special 
form  of  service  may  be  used.  Formerly  the  goods  and  chattels, 
but  not  the  land,  of  a  felo  de  se  were  forfeited  to  the  crown,  but 
such  forfeitures  were  abolished  by  the  Forfeiture  Act  1870. 
(See  also  SUICIDE.) 

FELONY  (O.  Fr.felonie,  horn  felon,  a  word  meaning  "  wicked," 
common  to  Romanic  languages,  cf.  Italian  fello,  fellone,  the 
ultimate  origin  of  which  is  obscure,  but  is  possibly  connected 
either  with  Lat.  fel,  gall,  or  fallere,  to  deceive.  The  English 
"  fell  "  cruel  or  fierce,  is  also  connected;  and  the  Greek  <j>fi\vs, 
an  impostor,  has  also  been  suggested) .  Legal  writers  have  sought 
to  throw  light  on  the  nature  of  felony  by  examining  the  supposed 
etymology  of  the  word.  Coke  says  it  is  crimen  animo  felleo  per- 
petratum  [a  crime  committed  with  malicious  or  evil  intent  (fee 
lohn)}.  Spelman  connects  it  with  the  word  fee,  signifying  fief 
or  feud;  and  felony  in  this  way  would  be  equivalent  to  pretium 
feudi,  an  act  for  which  a  man  lost  or  gave  up  his  fee  (see  Stephen's 
Commentaries,  vol.  iv.  p.  7) .  And  acts  involving  forfeiture  were 
styled  felonies  in  feudal  law,  although  they  had  nothing  of  a 
criminal  character  about  them.  A  breach  of  duty  on  the  part 
of  the  vassal,  neglect  of  service,  delay  in  seeking  investiture, 
and  the  like  were  felonies:  so  were  injuries  by  the  lord  against 
the  vassal.  Modern  writers  are  now  disposed  to  accept  Coke's 
definition.  In  English  law,  crimes  are  usually  classified  as 
treason,  felony,  misdemeanour  and  summary  offence.  Some 
writers — and  with  some  justice — treat  treason  merely  as  a  grave 
form  of  felony  and  it  is  so  dealt  with  in  the  Juries  Detention  Act 
1897.  But  owing  to  legislation  in  and  since  the  time  of  William 
and  Mary,  the  procedure  for  the  trial  of  most  forms  of  treason 
differs  from  that  of  felony.  The  expression  summary  offence 
is  ambiguous.  Many  offences  which  are  at  common  law  or  by 
statute  felonies,  or  misdemeanours  indictable  at  common  law 
or  by  statute,  may  under  certain  conditions  be  tried  by  a  court 


244 


FELSITE 


of  summary  jurisdiction  (q.v.),  and  many  merely  statutory 
offences  which  would  ordinarily  be  punishable  summarily  may 
at  the  election  of  the  accused  be  tried  by  a  jury  on  indictment 
(Summary  Jurisdiction  Act  1879,  s.  17). 

The  question  whether  a  particular  offence  is  felony  or  mis- 
demeanour can  be  answered  only  by  reference  to  the  history 
of  the  offence  and  not  by  any  logical  test.  For  instance,  killing 
a  horse  in  an  unlicensed  place  is  still  felony  under  a  statute  of 
1786.  But  most  crimes  described  as  felonies  are  or  have  been 
capital  offences  at  common  law  or  by  statute,  and  have  also 
entailed  on  the  offender  attaint  and  forfeiture  of  goods.  A  few 
felonies  were  not  punishable  by  death,  e.g.  petty  larceny  and 
mayhem.  Where  an  offence  is  declared  a  felony  by  statute, 
the  common  law  punishments  and  incidents  of  trial  attach, 
unless  other  statutory  provision  is  made  (Blackstone,  Com- 
mentaries, iv.  94). 

The  chief  common  law  felonies  are:  homicide,  rape,  larceny 
(i.e.  in  ordinary  language,  theft),  robbery  (i.e.  theft  with  violence), 
burglary  and  kindred  offences.  Counterfeiting  the  coin  has 
been  made  a  felony  instead  of  being  treason;  and  forgery  of 
most  documents  has  been  made  a  felony  instead  of  being,  as  it 
was  at  common  law,  a  misdemeanour.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century  felony  was  almost  equivalent  to  capital  crime; 
but  during  that  century  capital  punishment  was  abolished  as  to 
all  felonies,  except  wilful  murder,  piracy  with  violence  (7  W.  IV. 
&  i  Viet.  c.  88,  s.  2)  and  offences  against  the  Dockyards, 
&c.,  Protection  Act  1772;  and  by  the  Forfeiture  Act  1870,  a 
felon  no  longer  forfeits  land  or  goods  on  conviction,  though 
forfeiture  on  outlawry  is  not  abolished.  The  usual  punishment 
for  felony  under  the  present  law  is  penal  servitude  or  imprison- 
ment with  or  without  hard  labour.  "  Every  person  convicted 
of  any  felony  for  which  no  punishment  is  specially  provided  by 
the  law  in  force  for  the  time  being  is  liable  upon  conviction 
thereof  to  be  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  for  any  period  not 
exceeding  seven  years,  or  to  be  imprisoned  with  or  without- 
hard  labour  for  any  term  not  exceeding  two  years  "  (Stephen, 
Dig.  Cr.  Law  (6th  ed.),  art  18,  Penal  Servitude  Act  1891).  A 
felon  may  not  be  fined  or  whipped  on  conviction  nor  put  under 
recognizance  to  keep  the  peace  or  be  of  good  behaviour  except 
under  statutory  provision.  (See  Offences  against  the  Person  Act 
1861,  ss.  5.  71.) 

The  result  of  legislative  changes  is  that  at  the  present  time 
the  only  practical  distinctions  between  felony  and  misdemeanour 
are: — 

1.  That  a  private  person  may  arrest  a  felon  without  judicial 
authority  and  that  bail  on  arrest  is  granted  as  a  matter  of  discre- 
tion and  not  as  of  right.     Any  one  who  has  obtained  a  drove 
of  oxen  or  a  flock  of  sheep  by  false  pretences  may  go  quietly 
on  his  way  and  no  one,  not  even  a  peace  officer,  can  apprehend 
him  without  a  warrant,  but  if  a  man  offers  to  sell  another  a  bit 
of  dead  fence  supposed  to  have  been  stolen,  he  not  only  may 
but  is  required  to  be  apprehended  by  that  person  (Greaves, 
Criminal  Law  Consolidation  Acts).     (See  ARREST,  BAIL.) 

2.  That  on  an  indictment  for  felony  counts  may  not  be  joined 
for  different  felonies  unless  they  form  part  of  the  same  transaction. 
(See  INDICTMENT.) 

3.  That  on  a  trial  for  felony  the  accused  has  a  right  peremp- 
torily to  challenge,  or  object  to,  the  jurors  called  to  try  him,  up 
to  the  number  of  twenty.     (See  JURY.) 

4.  That  a  felon  cannot  be  tried  in  absentia,  and  that  the  jury 
who  try  him  may  not  separate  during  the  trial  without  leave  of 
the  court,  which  may  not  be  given  in  cases  of  murder. 

5.  That  a  special  jury  cannot  be  empanelled  to  try  a  felony. 

6.  That  peers  charged  with  felony  are  tried  in  a  special  manner. 
(See  PEERAGE.) 

7.  That  the  costs  of  prosecuting  all  felonies  (except  treason 
felony)  are  paid  out  of  public  funds:  and  that  a  felon  may  be 
condemned  to  pay  the  costs  of  his  prosecution  and  to  compen- 
sate up  to  £100  for  any  loss  of  property  suffered  by  any  person 
through  or  by  means  of  the  felony.     In  the  Criminal  Code  Bills 
of  1878-1880  it  was  proposed  to  abolish  the  term  felony  alto- 
gether: and  in  the  Queensland  Criminal  Code  1899  the  term 


"  crime  "  is  substituted,  and  within  its  connotation  are  included 
not  only  treason  and  piracy  but  also  perjury. 

8.  That  a  sentence  of  a  felon  to  death,  or  to  penal  servitude 
or  imprisonment  with  hard  labour  or  for  over  twelve  months, 
involves  loss  of  and  disqualification  for  certain  offices  until  the 
sentence  has  been  served  or  a  free  pardon  obtained.  (Forfeiture 
Act  1870.) 

It  is  a  misdemeanour  (i.)  to  compound  a  felony  or  to  agree 
for  valuable  consideration  not  to  prosecute  or  to  show  favour 
in  such  prosecution;  (ii.)  to  omit  to  inform  the  authorities  of  a 
felony  known  to  have  been  committed  (see  MISPRISION),  and, 
(iii.)  not  to  assist  in  the  arrest  of  a  felon  at  the  call  of  an  officer 
of  the  law.  (See  CRIMINAL  LAW;  MISDEMEANOUR;  MISPRISION.) 

FELSITE,  in  petrology,  a  term  which  has  long  been  generally 
used  by  geologists,  especially  in  England,  to  designate  fine- 
grained igneous  rocks  of  acid  (or  subacid)  composition.  As  a 
rule  their  ingredients  are  not  determinable  by  the  unaided  eye, 
but  they  are  principally  felspar  and  quartz  as  very  minute 
particles.  The  rocks  are  pale-coloured  (yellowish  or  reddish  as 
a  rule),  hard,  splintery,  much  jointed  and  occasionally  nodular. 
Many  felsites  contain  porphyritic  crystals  of  clear  quartz  in 
rounded  blebs,  more  or  less  idiomorphic  felspar,  and  occasionally 
biotite.  Others  are  entirely  fine-grained  and  micro-  or  crypto- 
crystalline.  Occasionally  they  show  a  fluxional  banding;  they 
may  also  be  spherulitic  or  vesicular.  Those  which  carry  porphy- 
ritic quartz  are  known  as  quartz-felsites;  the  term  soda-felsites 
has  been  applied  to  similar  fine-grained  rocks  rich  in  soda-felspar. 

Although  there  are  few  objections  to  the  employment  of 
felsite  as  a  field  designation  for  rocks  having  the  above  char- 
acters, it  lacks  definiteness,  and  has  been  discarded  by  many 
petrologists  as  unsuited  for  the  exact  description  of  rocks, 
especially  when  their  microscopic  characters  are  taken  into  con- 
sideration. The  felsites  accordingly  are  broken  up  into  "granite- 
porphyries,"  "  orthophyres  "  and  "  orthoclase-porphyries," 
"  felsitic-rhyolites,"  "  keratophyres,"  "  granophyres,"  "  micro- 
granites,"  &c.  But  felsite  or  microfelsite  is  still  the  generally 
accepted  designation  for  that  very  fine-grained,  almost  crypto- 
crystalline  substance  which  forms  the  ground-mass  of  so  many 
rhyolites,  dacites  and  porphyries. 

In  the  hand  specimen  it  is  a  dull,  lustreless,  stony-looking 
aggregate.  Under  the  microscope  even  with  high  powers  and 
the  very  thinnest  modern  sections,  it  often  cannot  be  resolved 
into  its  components.  In  places  it  may  contain  determinable 
minute  crystals  of  quartz;  less  commonly  it  may  show  grains 
which  can  be  proved  to  be  felspar,  but  usually  it  consists  of  an 
ultra-microscopic  aggregate  of  fibres,  threads  and  grains,  which 
react  to  polarized  light  in  a  feeble  and  indefinite  manner. 
Spherulitic,  spotted,  streaky  and  fluidal  structures  may  appear 
in  it,  and  many  different  varieties  have  been  established  on  such 
characters  as  these  but  without  much  validity. 

Its  association  with  the  acid  rocks,  its  hardness,  method  of 
weathering  and  chemical  composition,  indicate  that  it  is  an 
intermixture  of  quartz  and  acid  felspar,  and  the  occasional 
presence  of  these  two  minerals  in  well-defined  grains  confirms 
this.  Moreover,  in  many  dikes,  while  the  ground-mass  is 
microcrystalline  and  consists  of  quartz  and  felspar  near  the  centre 
of  the  mass,  towards  the  margins,  where  it  has  been  rapidly 
chilled  by  contact  with  the  cold  surrounding  rocks,  it  is  felsitic. 
The  very  great  viscosity  of  acid  magmas  prevents  their  molecules, 
especially  when  cooling  takes  place  suddenly,  from  arranging 
themselves  to  form  discrete  crystals,  and  is  the  principal  cause 
of  the  production  of  felsitic  ground-masses.  In  extreme  cases 
these  conditions  hinder  crystallization  altogether,  and  glassy 
rocks  result.  Some  rocks  are  felsitic  in  parts  but  elsewhere 
glassy;  and  it  is  not  always  clear  whether  the  felsite  is  an  original 
substance  or  has  arisen  by  the  devitrification  of  primary  glass. 
The  presence  of  perlitic  structure  in  some  of  these  felsites  points 
to  the  latter  conclusion,  and  the  results  of  an  examination  of 
ancient  glasses  and  of  artificial  glass  which  has  been  slowly 
cooled  are  in  accordance  with  this  view.  It  has  been  argued  that 
felsite  is  a  eutectic  mixture  of  quartz  and  felspar,  such  that  when 
solidification  takes  place  and  the  excess  of  felspar  (or  quartz)  has 


FELSPAR— FELT 


245 


crystallized  out  it  remains  liquid  till  the  temperature  has  fallen 
to  its  freezing  point,  and  then  consolidates  simultaneously. 
This  may  be  so,  but  analyses  show  that  it  has  not  always  the 
same  composition  and  consequently  that  the  conditions  which 
determine  its  formation  are  not  quite  simple.  Felsitic  rocks  are 
sometimes  silicified  and  have  their  matrix  replaced  by  granular 
aggregates  of  cloudy  quartz.  (J.  S.  F.) 

FELSPAR,  or  FELDSPAR,  a  name  applied  to  a  group  of  mineral 
silicates  of  much  importance  as  rock-constituents.  The  name, 
taken  from  the  Ger.  Feldspath,  was  originally  written  with  a 
"  d  "  but  in  1794  it  was  written  "  felspar  "  by  R.  Kirwan,  on  the 
assumption  that  it  denoted  a  mineral  of  the  "  fels  "  rather  than 
of  the  "  field,"  and  this  corrupted  form  is  now  in  common  use  in 
England.  By  some  of  the  earlier  mineralogists  it  was  written 
"  feltspar,"  from  the  Swedish  form  jaltspat. 

The  felspar  -  group  is  divided  into  two  subgroups  according 
to  the  symmetry  of  the  crystals.  Although  the  crystals  of  all 
felspars  present  a  general  resemblance  in  habit,  they  are  usually 
regarded  as  belonging  to  two  systems,  some  felspars  being  mono- 
clinic  and  others  anorthic.  Figures  of  the  crystals  are  given  in 
the  articles  on  the  different  species.  Two  cleavages  are  gener- 
ally well  marked.  In  the  monoclinic  or  monosymmetric  fel- 
spars these,  being  parallel  to  the  basal  pinacoid  and  clino- 
pinacoid,  necessarily  make  an  angle  of  90°,  whence  the  name 
orthoclase  applied  to  these  minerals;  whilst  in  the  anorthic 
or  asymmetric  felspars  the  corresponding  angle  is  never  exactly 
90°,  and  from  this  obliquity  of  the  principal  cleavages  they  are 
termed  plagioclase  (see  ORTHOCLASE  and  PLAGIOCLASE).  There 
are  consequently  two  series  of  felspars,  one  termed  orthoclastic 
or  orthotomoUs,  and  the  other  plagioclastic  or  clinotomous. 
F.  E.  Mallard  suggested  that  all  felspars  are  really  asymmetric, 
and  that  orthoclase  presents  only  a  pseudo-monosymmetric 
habit,  due  to  twinning.  Twin-crystals  are  very  common  in  all 
the  felspars,  as  explained  under  their  respective  headings. 

The  two  divisions  of  the  felspar-group  founded  on  differences 
of  crystalline  symmetry  are  subdivided  according  to  chemical 
composition.  All  the  felspars  are  silicates  containing  aluminium 
with  some  other  metallic  base  or  bases,  generally  potassium, 
sodium  or  calcium,  rarely  barium,  but  never  magnesium  or  iron. 
The  monoclinic  series  includes  common  potash-felspar  or  ortho- 
clase (KAlSisOs)  and  hyalophane,  a  rare  felspar  containing 
barium  (KJBaAliSisOM).  The  anorthic  series  includes  at  one 
end  the  soda-felspar  albite  (NaAlSi3O8)  and  at  the  other  ex- 
tremity the  lime-felspar  anorthite  (CaAlnSijOg).  It  was  sug- 
gested by  G.  Tschermak  in  1864  that  the  other  plagioclastic 
felspars  are  isomorphous  mixtures  in  various  proportion  of  albite 
(Ab)  and  anorthite  (An).  These  intermediate  members  are  the 
lime-soda  felspars  known  as  oligoclase,  andesine,  labradorite  and 
bytownite.  There  are  also  placed  in  the  anorthic  class  a  potash- 
felspar  called  microcline,  and  a  rare  soda-potash-felspar  known 
as  anorthoclase. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  felspars  has  been  shown  by  G. 
Tschermak  and  V.  Geldschmidt  to  vary  according  to  their 
chemical  composition,  rising  steadily  from  2-57  in  orthoclase  to 
2-75  in  anorthite.  All  the  felspars  have  a  hardness  of  6  to  6-5, 
being  therefore  rather  less  hard  than  quartz.  Pure  felspar  is 
colourless,  but  the  mineral  is  usually  white,  yellow,  red  or  green. 
Certain  felspars  are  used  as  ornamental  stones  on  account  of 
their  colour  (see  AMAZON  STONE).  Other  felspars  are  prized  for 
their  pearly  opalescence  (see  MOONSTONE),  or  for  their  play  of 
iridescent  colours  (see  LABRADORITE),  or  for  their  spangled 
appearance,  like  aventurine  (see  SUN-STONE). 

Felspar  is  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  by  reason 
of  its  fusibility.  In  England  the  material  employed  is  mostly 
orthoclase  from  Scandinavia,  often  known  as  "  Swedish  spar." 
The  high  translucency  of  "  ivory  porcelain  "  depends  on  the 
large  proportion  of  felspar  in  the  body.  The  mineral  is  also 
an  important  constituent  of  most  ceramic  glazes.  The  melting 
points  of  felspars  have  been  investigated  by  Prof.  J.  Joly,  Prof.  C. 
A.  Doelter  y  Cisterich  and  especially  by  A.  L.  Day  and  E.  T. 
Allen  in  the  Geophysical  Laboratory  of  the  Carnegie  Institute  at 
Washington. 


Among  the  applications  of  felspar  is  that  of  pure  orthoclase 
in  the  manufacture  of  artificial  teeth. 

Felspar  readily  suffers  chemical  alteration,  yielding  kaolin  (q.v;). 
The  turbidity  of  orthoclase  is  usually  due  to  partial  kaolinization. 
Secondary  mica  is  also  a  common  result  of  alteration,  and  among 
other  products  are  pinite,  epidote,  saussurite,  chlorite,  wollas- 
tonite  and  various  zeolites. 

See  ALBITE,  AMAZON  STONE,  ANDESINE,  ANORTHITE,  BYTOWNITE, 
LABRADORITE, MICROCLINE,MOONSTONE,OLIGOCLASE,ORTHOCLASE, 
PLAGIOCLASE,  SUN-STONE. 

FELSTED,  or  FELSTEAD,  a  village  of  Essex,  England,  between 
Dunmow  and  Braintree,  and  10  m.  from  Chelmsford;  with  a 
station  on  the  Great  Eastern  railway.  Felsted  is  only  note- 
worthy by  reason  of  its  important  public  school,  dating  back  to 
its  foundation  as  a  grammar  school  in  1564  by  Richard  ist 
Baron  Rich,  who  as  lord  chancellor  and  chancellor  of  the  court 
of  augmentations  had  enriched  himself  with  the  spoil  of  the 
adjoining  abbey  and  priory  of  Little  Leez  at  the  dissolution 
of  the  monasteries.  It  became  a  notable  educational  centre  for 
Puritan  families  in  the  I7th  century,  numbering  a  hundred  or 
more  pupils,  under  Martin  Holbeach  (1600-1670),  headmaster 
from  1627-1649,  and  his  successors  C.  Glasscock  (from  1650  to 
1690),  and  Simon  Lydiatt  (1690  to  1702).  John  Wallis  and 
Isaac  Barrow  were  educated  here,  and  also  four  sons  of  Oliver 
Cromwell,  Robert,  Oliver,  Richard  (the  Protector),  and  Henry. 
Another  era  of  prosperity  set  in  under  the  headmastership  of 
William  Trivett  (1745-1830)  between  1778  and  1794;  but  under 
his  successors  W.  J.  Carless  (from  1794  to  1813)  and  E.  Squire 
(from  1813  to  1829)  the  numbers  dwindled.  As  the  result  of  the 
discovery  by  T.  Surridge  (headmaster  1835-1850),  from  research 
among  the  records,  that  a  larger  income  was  really  due  to  the 
foundation,  a  reorganization  took  place  by  act  of  parliament, 
and  in  1851,  under  the  headmastership  of  Rev.  A.  H.  Wratislaw, 
the  school  was  put  under  a  new  governing  body  (a  revised  scheme 
coming  into  operation  in  1876).  The  result  under  Rev.  W.  S. 
Grignon  (1823-1907),  the  headmaster  from  1856  to  1875,  who 
may  be  considered  almost  the  second  founder,  was  the  rapid 
development  of  Felsted  into  one  of  the  regular  public  schools 
of  the  modern  English  type.  New  buildings  on  an  elaborate 
scale  arose,  the  numbers  increased  to  more  than  200,  and  a 
complete  transformation  took  place,  which  was  carried  on  under 
his  successors  D.  S.  Ingram  (from  1875  to  1890),  H.  A.  Dalton 
(to  1906),  and  F.  Stephenson,  under  whom  large  extensions  to 
the  buildings  and  playing-fields  were  made. 

See  John  Sargeaunt,  History  of  Felsted  School  (1889) ;  and  Alumni 
Felstedienses,  by  R.  J.  Beevor,  E.  T.  Roberts  and  others  (1903). 

FELT  (cognate  with  Ger.  Filz,  Du.vilt,  Swed.  and  Dan.  fill; 
the  root  is  unknown;  the  word  has  given  Med.  Lat.  filtrum, 
"  filter  "),  a  fabric  produced  by  the  "  matting  "  or  "  felting  " 
together  of  fibrous  materials  such  as  wools,  hairs,  furs,  &c.  Most 
textile  fibres  (see  FIBRES)  possess  the  quality  of  matting  to  some 
extent,  but  wools,  furs  and  some  few  hairs  -are  the  only  fibres 
which  can  be  felted  satisfactorily.  It  is  probable  that  the  quality 
of  felting  must  be  attributed  to  the  scale  structure  and  waviness 
of  the  wools,  furs  and  hairs  referred  to.  When  it  is  desired 
to  incorporate  non-felting  fibres  in  felt  cloths,  wool  must  be 
employed  to  "  carry  "  them. 

There  are  two  distinct  classes  of  felts,  viz.  woven  or  "  thread- 
structure  "  felts,  and  "  fibre  "  or  true  felts.  In  the  manufacture 
of  thread-structure  felts,  wools  possessing  the  quality  of  felting 
in  a  high  degree  are  naturally  selected,  carefully  scoured  so  that 
the  felting  quality  is  not  seriously  damaged,  spun  into  woollen 
yarn  possessing  the  necessary  fibre  arrangement  and  twist, 
woven  into  cloth  of  such  a  character  that  subsequently  satis- 
factory shrinking  or  felting  may  be  effected,  and  finally  scoured, 
milled  in  the  stocks  of  machine  of  both,  dyed  and  finished  on  the 
lines  of  an  ordinary  woven  fabric.  The  lighter  styles  of  woven 
felts  may  be  composed  of  a  single  cloth  only,  but  for  the  heavier 
styles  two  or  more  cloths  are  woven,  one  on  top  of  the  other, 
at  one  and  the  same  time,  arrangements  being  made  to  stitch 
the  cloths  together  during  the  weaving  operation. 

Fibre  felts  are  exceedingly  interesting  from  the  historical 
point  of  view.  It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  art  of 


246 


FELTHAM— FELTON 


weaving  preceded  that  of  spinning,  and  it  must  further  be  con- 
ceded that  the  art  of  felting  preceded  that  of  weaving,  so  that  the 
felt  fabric  is  probably  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  various  styles  of 
recognized  fabrics.  The  inhabitants  of  the  middle  and  northern 
regions  of  Asia  seem  to  have  employed  felt  from  time  immemorial, 
as  clothing  and  also  as  a  covering  for  their  habitations.  Most 
of  the  classical  writers  refer  to  it  and  some  of  them  actually 
describe  its  manufacture.  Felt  was  also  largely  employed  by 
the  ancients  for  their  hats,  outer  garments,  and  sometimes  as 
a  species  of  armour. 

Fibre  felts  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  viz.  ordinary 
felts;  hat  felts;  and  impregnated  felts.  As  all  felts  are  based 
upon  the  ordinary  felt,  the  process  of  manufacture  of  this  will 
first  be  described.  Of  the  wools  employed  the  principal  are: — 
East  Indian,  German  or  mid-European,  New  Zealand  cross- 
breds,  and  Australian,  Cape  and  Buenos  Aires  merinos.  Vege- 
table fibres  and  silk  are  also  employed,  but  wool  must  be  used  to 
"  carry  "  them;  thus  a  good  felting  wool  may  be  made  to  carry 
its  own  weight  of  cotton,  hemp,  &c.  Hairs  and  furs  are  princi- 
pally used  in  the  hat  felts.  The  average  loss  upon  the  wool  from 
the  raw  state  to  the  finished  felt  is  40  to  50%.  The  order  of 
the  manufacturing  processes  is  as  follows: — mixing,  willowing, 
teasing,  scribbling  and  carding.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
it  is  not  usual  to  scour  felting  wools.  This  is  not  because  they 
are  really  clean — some  are  dirty — but  because  the  felting  pro- 
perty is  liable  to  be  interfered  with  in  the  scouring  operation. 
Some  wools,  however,  must  be  scoured  to  ensure  satisfactory 
working  in  the  machines.  From  the  card  the  wool  is  delivered 
as  a  gossamer-like  film  from  50  to  60  in.  wide  on  to  an  endless 
sheet  from  30  to  60  yds.  long,  upon  which  the  felt  is  built  up 
film  upon  film  until  the  required  thickness — perhaps  4  in. —  is 
obtained.  To  harden  this  somewhat  tender  sheet  of  felt  it  is 
now  passed  through  an  ironing  process,  effected  by  either  steam- 
heated  rollers — to  which  a  rotatory  and  vibratory  motion  is  given 
— playing  upon  the  continually  drawn-through  cloth;  or  a  huge 
vibrating  flat-iron,  to  which  the  cloth  is  automatically  fed,  held 
in  position  and  then  wound  up  while  the  following  length  to  be 
treated  is  drawn  under  the  iron.  Soaping,  fulling  or  "  felting  " 
and  the  ordinary  finishing  operations — including  dyeing  and 
printing  if  desirable — now  follow,  so  that  ultimately  a  strong 
firm  fabric  is  turned  out.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that 
the  strength  is  much  greater  lengthwise  than  cross-wise,  owing 
to  the  parallelization  of  the  fibres  induced  in  the  scribbling  and 
carding  operations.  Of  course,  the  true  felting  or  contraction 
occurs  in  the  fulling  or  felting  stock,  the  fabric  being  perpetually 
"  hammered  "  in  the  presence  of  fulling  agents  such  as  soap, 
fuller's  earth,  &c.,  for  a  considerable  time.  The  reduction  in 
width,  length  and  thickness  is  remarkable.  This  may  be  con- 
trolled within  certain  limits.  The  principal  styles  of  ordinary 
fibre-felts  are— linings  for  coats,  furniture  and  rubber  shoes; 
saddlery;  seating*  for  carriages  and  pews;  carpets,  surrounds 
and  under-felts  for  carpets;  mantles,  dresses  and  table-cloths; 
felt-slippers;  mattress  felts;  chest-preservers,  and  shoulder- 
pads;  steam-engine  packing,  motor-car  and  an ti- vibration 
felts,  shipbuilding  felts;  drawing-roller  felts  and  gun- wad 
felts. 

Hat  felts  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  viz.  those  made  from 
wool  and  fur  respectively.  Wool  "  bodies  "  used  for  the  lower 
quality  hats  are  manufactured  in  the  same  way  as  ordinary  felts, 
but  the  "  shape  "  upon  which  the  film  issuing  from  the  carder  is 
built  up  takes  the  form  of  a  double  cone  and  thus  approximates 
to  the  shape  of  the  two  hats  ultimately  formed.  The  shape  is 
further  controlled  and  developed  in  the  fulling  or  felting  opera- 
tion. In  the  fur  hat  felts  an  air-blast  is  employed  to  carry  the 
finely  separated  fibres  on  to  the  shape  required,  upon  which 
shape  the  fibres  are  held  in  position  by  suction  until  the  required 
thickness  is  obtained.  The  structure  is  then  further  developed 
and  "  stiffened,"  i.e.  impregnated  with  certain  stiffening  agents 
according  to  requirements.  If  desirable  the  exterior  fibres  blown 
on  to  any  shape  may  be  of  a  different  material  from  the  body 
fabric. 

Impregnated  felts  are  simply  felts  made  in  the  ordinary  way 


but  subsequently  impregnated  with  certain  agents  which  give 
a  special  quality  to  the  fabric.  Messrs  McNeill  &  Co.,  of  London, 
were  the  originators  of  "  asphalted-felt  "  for  roofing  and,  among 
other  styles,  place  on  the  market  sheathing  felt,  inodorous  felt, 
dry  hair  felt,  foundation  felt,  &c.,  &c.  A  later  development, 
however,  is  the  impregnated  iron-felt  manufactured  by  Messrs 
Mitchells,  Ashworth,  Stansfield  &  Co.,  of  Waterfoot,  near  Man- 
chester, who  not  only  produce  from  70  to  80  %  of  the  ordinary 
felts  manufactured  in  Great  Britain,  but  also  place  on  the 
market  several  specialties  of  which  this  "  iron-felt  "  is  largely 
used  in  the  construction  of  bridges,  &c.,  and  as  a  substitute  for 
rubber,  it  being  apparently  more  durable.  (A.  F.  B.) 

FELTHAM,  or  FELLTHAM,  OWEN  (d.  1668),  English  moralist, 
was  the  son  of  Thomas  Feltham  or  Felltham  of  Mutford  in  Suffolk. 
The  date  of  his  birth  is  given  variously  as  1602  and  1609.  Hs  is 
famous  chiefly  as  the  author  of  a  volume  entitled  Resolves,  Divine, 
Moral  and  Political,  containing  one  hundred  short  and  pithy 
essays.  To  later  issues  of  the  Resolves  Feltham  appended 
Lusoria,  a  collection  of  forty  poems.  Hardly  anything  is  known 
of  his  life  except  that  T.  Randolph,  the  adopted  "  son  "  of  Ben 
Jonson,  addressed  a  poem  of  compliment  to  him,  and  became  his 
friend,  and  that  Feltham  attacked  Ben  Jonson  in  an  ode  shortly 
before  the  aged  poet's  death,  but  contributed  a  flattering  elegy  to 
the  Jonsonus  Virbius  in  1638.  Early  in  life  Feltham  visited 
Flanders,  and  published  observations  in  1652  under  the  title  of 
A  Brief  Character  of  the  Low  Countries.  He  was  a  strict  high- 
churchman  and  a  royalist;  he  even  described  Charles  I.  as 
"  Christ  the  Second."  Hallam  stigmatized  Feltham  as  one  of 
our  worst  writers.  He  has  not,  indeed,  the  elegance  of  Bacon, 
whom  he  emulated,  and  he  is  often  obscure  and  affected;  but 
his  copious  imagery  and  genuine  penetration  give  his  reflections 
a  certain  charm.  To  the  middle  classes  of  the  lyth  century 
he  seemed  a  heaven-sent  philosopher  and  guide,  and  was  only 
less  popular  than  Francis  Quarles  the  poet. 

Ejeven  editions  of  the  Resolves  appeared  before  1700.  Later 
editions  by  James  Gumming  (London,  1806;  much  garbled;  has 
account  of  Feltham's  life  and  writings),  and  O.  Smeaton  in  "  Temple 
Classics  "  series  (London,  1904). 

FELTON,  CORNELIUS  CONWAY  (1807-1862),  American 
classical  scholar,  was  born  on  the  6th  of  November  1807,  in  West 
Newbury,  Massachusetts.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1827,  having  taught  school  in  the  winter  vacations  of  his  sopho- 
more and  junior  years.  After  teaching  in  the  Livingstone  high 
school  of  Geneseo,  New  York,  for  two  years,  he  became  tutor  at 
Harvard  in  1829,  university  professor  of  Greek  in  1832,  and 
Eliot  professor  of  Greek  literature  in  1834.  In  1860  he  succeeded 
James  Walker  as  president  of  Harvard,  which  position  he  held 
until  his  death,  at  Chester,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  26th  of  February 
1862.  Dr  Felton  edited  many  classical  texts.  His  annotations 
on  Wolf's  text  of  the  Iliad  (1833)  are  especially  valuable. 
Greece,  Ancient  and  Modern  (2  vols.,  1867),  forty-nine  lectures 
before  the  Lowell  Institute,  is  scholarly,  able  and  suggestive  of 
the  author's  personality.  Among  his  miscellaneous  publications 
are  the  American  edition  of  Sir  William  Smith's  History  of 
Greece  (1855) ;  translations  of  Menzel's  German  Literature  (1840), 
of  Munk's  Metresoflhe  Greeks  and  Romans  (1844),  and  of  Guyot's 
Earth  and  Man  (1849) ;  and  Familiar  Letters  from  Europe  (1865). 

FELTON,  JOHN  (c.  1595-1628),  assassin  of  the  ist  duke  of 
Buckingham,  was  a  member  of  an  old  Suffolk  family  established 
at  Playford.  The  date  of  his  birth  and  the  name  of  his  father  are 
unknown,  but  his  mother  was  Eleanor,  daughter  of  William 
Wright,  mayor  of  Durham.  He  entered  the  army,  and  served 
as  lieutenant  in  the  expedition  to  Caciz  commanded  by  Sir 
Edward  Cecil  in  1625.  His  career  seems  to  have  been  ill-starred 
and  unfortunate  from  the  beginning.  His  left  hand  was  early 
disabled  by  a  wound,  and  a  morose  temper  rendered  him  un- 
popular and  prevented  his  advancement.  Every  application  made 
to  Buckingham  for  his  promotion  was  reftsed,  on  account  of  an 
enmity,  according  to  Sir  Simonds  D'Ewes,  which  existed  between 
Felton  and  Sir  Henry  Hungate,  a  favourite  of  Buckingham.  To 
his  personal  application  that  he  could  not  live  without  a  captaincy 
Buckingham  replied  harshly  "  that  he  might  hang."  Whether  he 


FELTRE,  MORTO  DA— FENCING 


247 


took  part  in  the  expedition  to  Rhe  in  1627  is  uncertain,  but  there 
is  no  doubt  that  he  continued  to  be  refused  promotion,  and 
that  even  his  scanty  pay  earned  during  the  Cadiz  adventure  was 
not  received.  Exasperated  by  his  ill-treatment,  his  discontent 
sharpened  by  poverty,  and  his  hatred  of  Buckingham  intensified 
by  a  study  of  the  Commons  "  Remonstrances  "  of  the  previous 
June,  and  by  a  work  published  by  Eglesham,  the  physician  of 
James  I.,  in  which  Buckingham  was  accused  of  poisoning  the  king, 
Felton  determined  to  effect  his  assassination.  He  bought  a 
tenpenny  knife  on  Tower  Hill,  and  on  his  way  through  Fleet 
Street  he  left  his  name  in  a  church  to  be  prayed  for  as  "  a  man 
much  discontented  in  mind."  He  arrived  at  Portsmouth  at 
9  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  23rd  of  August  1628,  and  immedi- 
ately proceeded  to  No.  10  High  Street,  where  Buckingham  was 
lodged.  Here  mingling  with  the  crowd  of  applicants  and  un- 
noticed he  stabbed  the  duke,  who  immediately  fell  dead.  Though 
escape  would  have  been  easy  he  confessed  the  deed  and  was 
seized  and  conveyed  to  the  Tower,  his  journey  thither,  such  was 
the  unpopularity  of  the  duke,  being  accompanied  by  cries  of 
"  God  bless  thee  "  from  the  people.  Charles  and  Laud  desired  he 
should  be  racked,  but  the  illegal  torture  was  prevented  by  the 
judges.  He  was  tried  before  the  king's  bench  on  the  27th  of 
November,  pleaded  guilty,  and  was  hanged  the  next  day,  his 
body  being  exposed  in  chains  subsequently  at  Portsmouth. 

FELTRE,  MORTO  DA,  Italian  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
who  worked  at  the  close  of  the  1 5th  century  and  beginning  of  the 
1 6th.  His  real  name  appears  to  have  been  Pietro  Luzzo;  he  is  also 
known  by  the  name  Zarato  or  Zarotto,  either  from  the  place  of  his 
death  or  because  his  father,  a  surgeon,  was  in  Zara  during  the 
son's  childhood:  whether  he  was  termed  Morto  (dead)  from  his 
joyless  temperament  is  a  disputed  point.  He  may  probably 
have  studied  painting  first  in  Venice,  but  under  what  master  is 
uncertain.  At  an  early  age  he  went  to  Rome,  and  investigated 
the  ancient,  especially  the  subterranean  remains,  and  thence  to 
Pozzuoli,  where  he  painted  from  the  decorations  of  antique  crypts 
or  "  grotte."  The  style  of  fanciful  arabesque  which  he  formed  for 
himself  from  these  studies  gained  the  name  of  "  grottesche," 
whence  comes  the  term  "grotesque";  not,  indeed,  that  Morto 
was  the  first  painter  of  arabesque  in  the  Italian  Renaissance,  for 
art  of  this  kind  had,  apart  from  his  influence,  been  fully  developed, 
both  in  painting  and  in  sculpture,  towards  1480,  but  he  may  have 
powerfully  aided  its  diffusion  southwards.  His  works  were 
received  with  much  favour  in  Rome.  He  afterwards  went  to 
Florence,  and  painted  some  fine  grotesques  in  the  Palazzo 
Pubblico.  Returning  to  Venice  towards  1505,  he  assisted 
Giorgione  in  painting  the  Fondaco  dei  Tedeschi,  and  seems  to 
have  remained  with  him  till  1511.  If  we  may  trust  Ridolfi, 
Morto  eloped  with  the  mistress  of  Giorgione,  whose  grief  at  this 
transaction  brought  him  to  the  grave;  the  allegation,  however, 
is  hardly  reconcilable  with  other  accounts.  It  may  have  been 
in  1515  that  Morto  returned  to  his  native  Feltre,  then  in  a  very 
ruinous  condition  from  the  ravages  of  war  in  1509.  There  he 
executed  various  works,  including  some  frescoes,  still  partly 
extant,  and  considered  to  be  almost  worthy  of  the  hand  of 
Raphael,  in  the  loggia  beside  San  Stefano.  Towards  the  age  of 
forty-five,  Morto,  unquiet  and  dissatisfied,  abandoned  painting 
and  took  to  soldiering  in  the  service  of  the  Venetian  republic. 
He  was  made  captain  of  a  tvoop  of  two  hundred  men;  and  fighting 
valorously,  he  is  said  to  have  died  at  Zara  in  Dalmatia,  in  1519. 
This  story,  and  especially  the  date  of  it,  are  questionable:  there 
is  some  reason  to  think  that  Morto  was  painting  as  late  as  1522. 
One  of  his  pictures  is  in  the  Berlin  museum,  an  allegorical  subject 
of  "  Peace  and  War."  Andrea  Feltrini  was  his  pupil  and  assistant 
as  a  decorative  painter. 

FELTRE  (anc.  Fcllria),  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Venetia, 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Belluno,  20  m.  W.S.W.  of  it  by  rail, 
situated  on  an  isolated  hill,  885  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1901) 
5468  (town),  15,243  (commune).  The  cathedral  has  a  fine  poly- 
gonal apse  of  the  i6th  century.  The  Palazzo  del  Consiglio,  now 
a  theatre,  is  attributed  to  Palladio.  At  one  end  of  the  chief 
square  of  the  town,  the  Piazza.  Maggiore,  is  the  cistern  by  which 
the  town  is  supplied  with  water,  and  a  large  fountain.  There 


are  some  remains  of  the  medieval  castle.  The  ancient  Feltria, 
which  lay  on  the  road  (Via  Claudia)  from  Opitergium  to  Triden- 
tum,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  a  place  of  any  importance  under 
the  Romans.  Vittorino  dei  Rambaldoni  da  Feltre  (1378-1446) 
was  a  famous  educator  and  philosopher  of  his  time. 

FELUCCA  (an  Italian  word;  in  forms  like  the  Span,  faluca, 
Fr.  feloitque,  it  appears  in  other  languages;  it  is  probably  of 
Arabic  origin,  cf.  fulk,  a  ship,  and  falaka,  to  be  round;  the 
modern  Arabic  form  is  falukaK),  a  type  of  vessel  used  in  the 
Mediterranean  for  coasters  or  fishing-boats.  It  is  a  long,  low 
and  narrow  undecked  vessel,  built  for  speed,  and  propelled  by 
oars  or  sails.  The  sails  are  lateen-shaped  and  carried  on  one  or 
two  masts  placed  far  forward  (see  BOAT). 

FEMALE,  the  correlative  of  "  male,"  the  sex  which  performs 
the  function  of  conceiving  and  bearing  as  opposed  to  the  beget- 
ting of  young.  The  word  in  Middle  English  isfemelle,  adopted 
from  the  French  from  the  Lat.  femella,  which  is  a  diminutive, 
and  in  classical  Latin  used  strictly  as  such,  of  femina,  a  woman. 
The  present  termination  in  English  is  due  to  a  connexion  in 
ideas  with  "  male."  In  various  mechanical  devices,  where  two 
corresponding  parts  work  within  the  other,  the  receiving  part  is 
often  known  as  the  "  female,"  as  for  example  in  the  "  male  " 
and  "  female  screw."  The  O.  Fr.  feme,  modern  femme,  occurs  in 
legal  phraseology  in  feme  covert,  a  married  woman,  i.e.  one 
protected  or  covered  by  a  husband,  and  in  feme  sole,  one  not  so 
protected,  a  widow  or  spinster  (see  WOMEN  and  HUSBAND  AND 
WIFE). 

FEMERELL,  properly  FUMERELL  (from  O.  Fr.  fumeraille, 
Lat.  fumus,  smoke),  the  old  English  term  given  to  the  lantern 
in  the  ridge  of  a  hall  roof  for  the  purpose  of  letting  out  the  smoke 
of  the  fire  kindled  on  a  central  hearth. 

FENCING.  If  by  "  fencing  "—the  art  of  fence,  i.e.  of  defence 
or  offence — were  meant  generally  the  dexterous  use  of  the  sword, 
the  subject  would  be  wide  indeed;  as  wide,  in  fact,  as  the  liistory 
of  the  sword  (q.v.)  itself.  But,  in  its  modern  acceptation,  the 
meaning  of  the  word  has  become  considerably  restricted.  The 
scope  of  investigation  must  therefore  be  confined  to  one  kind  of 
swordsmanship  only:  to  that  which  depends  on  the  regulated, 
artificial  conditions  of  "  single  combat."  It  is  indeed  this  play, 
hemmed  in  by  many  restrictions,  which  we  have  come  to  mean 
more  specially  by  "  fencing."  It  differs,  of  course,  in  many 
respects,  from  what  may  be  called  the  art  of  fighting  in  the  light 
of  nature.  But  as  its  restrictions  are  among  the  very  elements 
which  work  to  the  perfection  of  the  play,  it  is  undoubtedly  in 
the  history  of  swordsmanship  as  applied  to  duelling  (see  DUEL) 
that  we  shall  trace  the  higher  development  of  the  art. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  history  of  fencing,  therefore,  would  be 
tantamount  to  the  history  of  private  duelling.  Now,  this  is  an 
ethical  subject;  one,  again,  which  would  carry  the  investigation 
too  far;  and  it  need  not  be  taken  up  farther  back  than  the 
middle  of  the  i6th  century,  when,  on  the  disuse  of  the  medieval 
wager  of  battle,  the  practice  of  private  duelling  began  to  take 
an  assured  footing  in  a  warlike  society.  It  is  curious  to  mark 
that  the  first  cultivation  of  refined  cunning  in  fence  dates  from 
that  period,  which  corresponds  chronologically  with  the  general 
disuse  of  armour,  both  in  battle  and  in  more  private  encounters. 
It  is  still  more  curious  to  note  that,  in  order  to  fit  himself  to 
meet  what  was  an  illegal  but  aristocratic  obligation,  the  gallant 
of  those  days  had  to  appeal  to  a  class  of  men  hitherto  little 
considered:  to  those  plebeian  adepts,  in  fact,  who  for  generations 
had  cultivated  skill  in  the  use  of  hand  weapons,  on  foot  and 
without  armour.  Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  the  earliest  masters 
of  fence  in  all  countries,  namely,  the  masters  of  the  art  of  con- 
ducting skilfully  what  was  essentially  considered  as  an  honourable 
encounter,  were  almost  invariably  to  be  found  among  a  some- 
what dishonoured  gentry — gladiators,  free  companions,  pro-' 
fessional  champions,  more  or  less  openly  recognized,  or  bravoes 
of  the  most  uncompromising  character. 

In  Germany,  which  may  be  considered  the  cradle  of  systematic 
swordsmanship,  these  teachers  of  the  sword  had,  as  early  as  the 
1 5th  century,  formed  themselves  into  gilds;  among  which  the 
best  known  were  the  Marxbruder,  or  the  Associates  of  St  Marcus 


248 


FENCING 


of  Lowenberg,  who  had  their  headquarters  at  Frankfort,  and 
branches  in  all  the  more  important  towns.  Similarly,  in  Spain 
and  in  northern  Italy,  professional  swordsmen  were  at  various 
times  allowed  to  form  themselves  into  recognized  or  at  least 
tolerated  associations. 

In  England  "  swordmen  "  had  been  looked  upon  with  especial 
disfavour  by  the  powers  that  were,  until  Henry  VIII.,  who 
was  a  great  lover  of  all  manly  exercises,  found  it  likewise 
advisable  to  turn  their  obnoxious  existence  to  a  disciplined  and 
profitable  channel  by  regularizing  their  position.  The  most  re- 
doubtable masters  were  allowed  to  form  themselves  into  a 
company,  with  powers  to  increase  their  numbers  with  suitable 
and  duly  tried  men,  in  imitation  of  the  world-famed  German 
Marxbriider  or  Marcusbruder.  Under  these  conditions  they 
were  granted  the  lucrative  monopoly  of  teaching  the  art  of  fight 
in  England.  The  enormous  privileges  that  the  king,  in  course  of 
time,  conferred  on  his  Corporation  of  Masters  of  Defence  very 
soon  enabled  it  to  put  down  or  absorb  all  the  more  ferocious  of 
independent  swashbucklers,  and  thereby  to  impart  to  the  pro- 
fession a  moderate  degree  of  respectability  under  the  coat  of 
arms  granted  by  the  royal  heralds:  gules  a  sword  pendant 
argent. 

It  was  in  the  midst  of  such  corporations  and  in  the  fighting 
dens  of  independent  swordsmen,  therefore,  that  sprouted  the 
first  buds  of  systematic  swordsmanship.  Among  the  pro- 
fessional fencers,  curiously  and  happily  for  the  historian,  there 
seem  to  have  been  a  few  with  a  literary  turn  of  mind. 

The  oldest  manuscripts  of  fence  belong  to  Italy  and  Germany. 
They  deal  with  the  methods  of  carrying  out  single  combats  on 
foot,  with  any  of  the  most  generally  accepted  weapons — long 
sword  and  short  sword,  dagger  and  every  kind  of  knives,  mace, 
long  and  short  staff,  axes,  &c., — and  with  the  tricks  of  wrestling 
recommendable  therefor.  Among  the  most  comprehensive  in 
their  scope  may  be  mentioned  //  Fior  di  batlaglia  di  Maestro  Fiore 
dei  Liberi  da  Premariaco;  a  work  which,  although  illustrated 
with  truly  Italian  taste  and  grace,  shows,  as  far  as  its  fighting 
style  is  concerned,  unmistakable  marks  of  German  influence. 
The  text  of  the  MS.  bears  the  date  1410,  but  the  writer  was  known 
to  be  flourishing  as  a  master  of  fence  as  early  as  1383.  A  reprint 
of  this  invaluable  codex  has  been  published,  under  the  care  of 
Francesco  Donati,  by  the  Islituto  Italiano  d'  Arti  Grafiche. 
Another  is  the  better  known  Thalhofer's  Fecht  Buck,  gerichtliche 
und  andere  Zweykampfe  darstellend  (1467),  a  reprint  of  which, 
with  its  268  plates  in  facsimile,  was  brought  out  by  Gustave 
Hergsell  in  Prague.  The  oldest  printed  book  is  likewise  German: 
Ergriindung  der  ritterlicher  Kunst  der  Fechterei,  von  Andreas 
Paurnfeindt,  Freifechter  zu  Wien  (1516).  This  work,  which  is 
exceedingly  rare,  is  a  very  complete  exponent  of  the  ways  of 
wielding  long  and  short  blades  to  the  utmost  of  their  lethal 
capacity.  It  was  reproduced  (under  various  titles,  very  confus- 
ing to  the  bibliographer)  in  Frankfort,  Augsburg,  Strassburg, 
and  finally  done  into  French  under  the  name  of  La  Noble  science 
des  joueurs  d'epSe,  published  in  Paris  and  Antwerp,  1535. 

Following  the  Germans,  the  oldest  printed  books  of  fence  are 
Italian.  The  first  French  book  on  the  sword  is  known  to  be  a 
translation  from  the  German.  Curiously  enough,  the  second,  and 
one  of  the  most  notable,  Le  Traite  de  I'epee  seule,  mere  de  toutes 
armes,  of  the  Sieur  de  St  Didier,  published  in  Paris  in  1573,  can 
be  shown  to  be  a  transparent  adaptation  of  two  Italian  treatises, 
the  Trattalo  di  scienza  d'  arme  of  Camillo  Agrippa,  and  Grassi's 
Ragione  di  adoperar  sicuramente  I' arme,  &c. 

It  is  about  this  time,  namely,  the  latter  half  of  the  1 6th  century, 
that  swordsmanship  pure  and  simple  may  be  said  to  find  its 
origin;  for  then  a  great  change  is  perceptible  in  the  nature  and 
tendency  of  fence  books:  they  dissociate  themselves  from 
indecorous  wrestling  tricks,  and  approximate  more  and  more 
to  the  consideration  of  what  we  understand  by  swordsmanship. 
The  older  works  expounded  the  art  of  fighting  generally;  taught 
the  reader  a  number  of  valuable,  if  not  "  gentlemanlike," 
dodges  for  overcoming  an  adversary  at  all  manner  of  weapons: 
now  the  lucubrations  of  fence-masters  deal  almost  exclusively 
with  the  walking  sword,  that  is,  the  duelling  weapon — with  the 


rapier   in   fact,    both    with   and   without   its   lieutenant,    the 
dagger. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  at  this  period  private  duelling 
and  cavalier  quarrelsomeness  amounted  to  a  perfect  mania. 
The  fencing  master  was  no  longer  merely  a  teacher  of  efficacious, 
if  rascally,  tricks;  he  was  becoming  a  model  of  gallant  deport- 
ment; in  many  cases  he  was  even  a  recognized  arbiter  on 
matters  of  honour.  He  was  often  a  gentleman  himself:  at  all 
events  he  posed  as  such. 

Although  the  Germans  were  always  redoubtable  adepts  at 
the  rougher  games  of  swordsmanship,  it  is  in  Italy  that  is  to  be 
found  development  of  that  nimbler,  more  regulated,  more 
cunning,  better  controlled,  kind  of  play  which  we  have  learned 
to  associate  with  the  term  "  fencing."  It  was  from  Italy  that 
the  art  of  fence  first  spread  over  Europe:  not  from  Spain,  as 
it  has  been  asserted  by  many  writers.  The  Italians — if  we  take 
their  early  books  as  evidence,  and  the  fact  that  their  phraseology 
was  adopted  by  all  Europe — were  the  first  to  perceive  (as  soon 
as  the  problem  of  armour-breaking  ceased  to  be  the  most  im- 
portant one  in  fight)  the  superior  efficiency  of  the  point.  They 
accordingly  reduced  the  breadth  of  their  sword,  modified  the 
hilt  portion  thereof  to  admit  of  readier  thrust  action,  and 
relegated  the  cut  to  quite  a  secondary  position  in  their  system. 
With  this  lighter  weapon  they  devised  in  course  of  time  that 
brilliant  cunning  play  known  as  rapier  fence. 

The  rapier  was  ultimately  adopted  everywhere  by  men  of 
courtly  habit;  but,  in  England  at  least,  it  was  not  accepted 
without  murmur  and  vituperation  from  the  older  fighting  class  of 
swordsmen,  especially  from  the  members  and  admirers  of  the 
Engh'sh  Corporation  of  Defence  Masters.  As  a  body  Englishmen 
were  as  conservative  then  as  they  are  now.  They  knew  the 
value  of  what  they  had  as  their  own,  and  distrusted  innovations, 
especially  from  foreign  quarters.  The  old  sword  and  the  buckler 
were  reckoned  as  your  true  English  weapons:  they  always  went 
together — in  fact  sword  and  buckler  play  in  the  i6th  century  was 
evidently  held  to  be  as  national  a  game  as  boxing  came  to  be  in  a 
later  age.  Many  are  the  allusions  in  contemporary  dramatic 
literature  to  this  characteristic  national  distrust  of  continental 
innovations.  There  is  the  well-known  passage  in  Porter's  play, 
The  Two  Angry  Women  of  Abingdon,  for  instance:  "  Sword  and 
buckler  fight,"  says  a  sturdy  Briton  (in  much  the  same  tone  of 
disgust  as  a  British  lover  of  fisticuffs  might  now  assume  when 
talking  of  a  French  "  Mounseer's  "  foil  play),  "  begins  to  grow 
out  of  use.  I  am  sorry  for  it.  I  shall  never  see  good  manhood 
again.  If  it  be  once  gone,  this  poking  fight  with  rapier  and  dagger 
will  come  up.  Then  the  tall  man  (that  is,  a  courageous  man  and 
a  good  sword-and-buckler  man)  will  be  spitted  like  a  cat  or  a 
rabbit!"  The  long-sword,  that  is,  the  two-hander,  was  also  an 
essentially  national  weapon.  It  was  a  right-down  pleasing  and 
sturdy  implement,  recalling  in  good  steel  the  vernacular  quarter- 
staff  of  old.  It  required  thews  and  sinews,  and,  incidentally, 
much  beef  and  ale.  The  long-sword  man  looked  perhaps  with 
even  greater  disfavour  than  the  smaller  swashbuckler  upon  the 
new-fangled  "  bird-spit."  "  Tut,  man,"  says  Justice  Shallow, 
typical  laudator  of  the  good  bygone  days,  on  hearing  of  the 
ridiculous  Frenchman's  skill  with  his  rapier,  "  I  could  have  told 
you  more.  In  these  times  you  stand  on  distance,  your  passes, 
stoccadoes,  and  I  know  not  what;  'tis  the  heart,  Master  Page; 
'tis  here,  'tis  here.  I  have  seen  the  time,  with  my  long-sword,  I 
would  have  made  you  four  tall  fellows  skip  like  rats." 

Now,  sword-and-buckler  and  long-sword  play  was  no  doubt  a 
manly  pursuit  and  a  useful.  But,  as  an  every-day  companion, 
the  long-sword  was  incongruous  to  a  fastidious  cavalier;  and, 
again,  the  buckler,  indispensable  adjunct  to  the  broad  swashing 
blade  of  home  production,  was  hardly  more  suitable.  In 
Elizabethan  days  it  soon  became  obvious  that  the  buckler  was 
inadmissible  as  an  item  of  gentlemanly  attire.  It  was  accordingly 
left  to  the  body  attendant;  and  the  gallant  took  kindly  to  the 
fine  rapier  of  Milanese  or  Toledan  make.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
not  difficult  to  understand  the  rapid  popularity  gained  among  the 
gentry  by  this  nimble  rapier,  so  much  reviled  by  the  older  fighting 
men.  The  rapier,  in  fact,  came  in  with  the  taste  for  "  cavalfero  " 


FENCING 


249 


style,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  its  fit  outward  symbol  already 
in  the  days  of  Queen  Mary.  In  Elizabeth's  reign  it  was  firmly 
established  as  your  only  gentlemanlike  weapon. 

The  rapier  was  decidedly  a  foreigner;  yet  it  suited  the 
Elizabethan  age,  for  it  was  decorative  as  well  as  practical.  Its 
play  was  picturesque,  fantastic — almost  euphuistic,  one  might 
say — in  ccmparison  with  the  matter-of-fact  hanger  of  older  days. 
Its  phraseology  had  a  quaint,  rich,  southern  smack,  which 
connoted  outlandish  experience  and  gave  those  conversant  with 
its  intricate  distinctions  that  marvellous  character,  at  once 
precious  and  ruffling,  which  was  so  highly  appreciated  by  the 
cavalier  youth  of  the  time.  The  rapier  in  its  heyday  was  an 
admirable  weapon  to  look  at,  a  delicious  one  to  wield.  And, 
besides,  in  proper  hands,  it  was  undoubtedly  one  that  was  most 
conclusive.  It  was,  in  short,  as  elegant  and  deadly  as  its  prede- 
cessors were  sturdy  and  brutal. 

By  the  time  that  the  most  perfect,  namely,  the  Italian,  rapier 
fence  came  to  be  generally  taught  in  England — that  is,  during  the 
last  third  of  Elizabeth's  reign — the  theory  of  swordsmanship,  as 
applied  to  a  single  combat,  after  having  passed  through  many 
phases  of  imperfection,  was  already  tolerably  simple  and  practical. 
(The  exact  story  of  its  evolution  may  be  found  in  a  work  now 
included  in  Bonn's  Libraries,  Schools  and  Masters  of  Fence) 
What  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  cardinal  actions  of  regu- 
lated sword-play  on  foot,  namely,  the  lunge,  had  already  been 
discovered.  Although  a  great  many  movements  which,  according 
to  modern  notions,  would  be  considered  not  only  unnecessary  but 
actually  pernicious,  still  formed  part  of  the  system,  it  may  be 
doubted  whether,  considering  the  character  of  the  weapon, 
anything  very  much  better  could  be  devised,  even  in  our  present 
state  of  knowledge. 

For  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  evolution  of  the  forms  of 
the  sword  and  of  the  theories  concerning  its  most  efficient  use 
are  closely  connected.  It  is,  in  fact,  sometimes  difficult  to 
decide  whether  the  change  in  the  shape  of  the  weapon  was  the 
result  of  a  development  of  a  theory;  or  whether  new  theories 
were  elaborated  to  fit  alterations  in  these  shapes  due  to  fashion  or 
any  other  reason. 

When  systematic  fence  came  over  to  England  it  was  already 
much  simplified  (it  should  be  noted  that  improvement  in  the 
art,  from  its  earliest  days  down  to  the  present  time,  seems  always 
to  have  been  in  the  direction  of  simplification) ;  yet,  for  more 
than  a  century  from  the  appearance  of  the  first  real  treatise, 
simplification  never  reached  that  point  which  would  render 
impossible  a  belief  in  the  undoubted  efficacy  of  those  "  secret 
thrusts,"  of  that  "  universal  parry,"  of  those  ineluctable  passes, 
which  every  master  professed  to  teach.  These  precious  secrets 
remain  long,  among  a  certain  shady  class  of  swordsmen,  an  object 
of  untiring  study,  carried  on  with  much  the  same  faith  and  zest 
as  the  quest  of  the  alchemist  for  his  powder  of  projection,  or  of  the 
Merchant  Adventurer  for  El  Dorado.  There  can,  of  course,  be  no 
such  thing  as  an  insuperable  pass,  a  secret  thrust  or  parry;  every 
attack  can  be  parried,  every  parry  can  be  deceived  by  suitable 
movements.  Yet  there  was  some  justification  for  the  belief  in 
the  existence  of  secrets  of  swordsmanship  in  days  when,  as  a  rule, 
lessons  of  fence  were  given  in  jealous  privacy;  constant  practice 
at  one  particular  pass,  especially  with  the  long  rapier,  which 
required  a  great  deal  of  muscular  strength,  might  render  any 
peculiarly  fierce,  sudden  and  audacious  stroke  excessively 
dangerous  to  one  who  did  not  happen  to  have  opposed  that  stroke 
before.  Undoubtedly  there  was  little  in  Elizabethan  fencing- 
schools  of  what  we  understand  in  modern  days  by  loose-play 
between  the  pupils;  practice  was  almost  invariably  conducted 
between  scholar  and  teacher  in  private;  and  thus  the 
opportunities  for  watching  or  testing  any  particular  fencer's  play 
were  few.  Such  an  opportunity  would,  as  a  rule,  only  occur  on 
occasions  of  an  earnest  fight;  and  the  possessor  of  a  specially 
handy  thrust  (if  it  came  off  at  all)  would  of  course  take  good  care 
that  his  opponent  should  not  live  to  ponder  over  the  secret. 
The  secret,  such  as  it  was,  remained.  In  this  guise  it  was 
inevitable  that  an  almost  superstitious  belief  in  "  secret  foynes," 
in  the  botle  secrete  of  certain  practised  duellists,  should  arise. 


Be  that  as  it  may,  there  is  no  doubt  that  towards  the  end  of 
the  1 6th  century  there  were  many  free-lances  in  the  field  of  arms 
who  professed  to  teach,  in  exchange  for  much  gold,  strokes  that 
were  not  to  be  parried.  From  one  truculent  personage,  whom 
Brant&me  mentions,  Tappa  the  Milanese,  you  could  learn  how  to 
cut  (if  it  so  took  your  fancy)  both  eyes  out  of  your  adversary's 
face  with  a  rinverso  tondo,  or  circular  "  reverse  of  the  point." 
From  Caizo,  another  Italian  teacher,  at  one  time  much  favoured 
by  the  French  court,  lessons  were  to  be  had  in  the  special  art  of 
ham-stringing.  Caizo's  botle  secrete  seems  to  have  been  nothing 
more  nor  less  than  a  j also  manco,  that  is,  a  left-handed  drawing 
cut,  at  the  inside  of  the  knee.  But,  as  practised  and  taught  by 
him,  it  was  infallible.  This  stroke  has  come  down  to  us  as  le 
coup  de  Jarnac — a  stroke,  be  it  said,  which,  notwithstanding  its 
bad  name,  was  quite  as  fair  as  any  in  rapier  fence.  One  Le 
Flamand,  a  French  master  in  Paris,  was  reputed  the  inventor  of  a 
jerky  time-thrust  at  the  adversary's  brows,  which  was  a  certainty. 
This  special  foyne,  which  was  merely  an  imbrocata  at  the  head, 
has  become  legendary  in  the  fencing  world  as  la  botle  de  Nevers. 
English  fencers  have  their  own  legends  about  "  the  very  butcher 
of  a  silk  button,"  and  this  brings  us  to  the  first  writer  on  the 
rapier  in  England,  Vincenzio  Saviolo,  the  great  expounder  of  that 
Italianated  fence  which  was  so  obnoxious  to  the  old  masters, 
withal  so  much  admired  of  Elizabethan  courtiers;  the  man,  in 
short,  who — there  seems  to  be  much  internal  evidence  to  show  it 
— was  Shakespeare's  fencing  master. 

Vincenzio  was  not  the  only  foreign  master  of  note  established 
in  London  during  the  latter  part  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  One, 
Signer  Rocco,  had,  we  hear,  a  very  gorgeously  appointed 
academy  in  Warwick  Lane,  near  St  Paul's,  where  he  coined 
money  rapidly  at  the  expense  of  gulls  and  gallants  alike.  But 
this  man  came  to  grief  ultimately  in  an  encounter  with  the  long- 
sword  with  an  old-fashioned  English  master  of  defence.  Another 
popular  teacher  was  a  certain  "  Geronimo  " ;  but  he  also  met 
with  a  melancholy  and  premature  end  by  the  hands  of  one  Cheef  e, 
"  a  tall  man  in  his  fight  and  natural  English,"  says  George  Silver, 
the  champion  of  the  Corporation  of  Masters  of  Defence.  Saviolo, 
however,  seems  to  have  remained  unconquered.  In  his  work 
( Vincentio  Saviolo,  his  practise,  in  two  bookes,  the  first  intreating 
of  the  use  of  the  Rapier  and  Dagger,  the  second  of  Honor  and 
honorable  quarrels.  London.  Printed  by  John  Wolfe,  1595) 
are  expounded  in  a  most  typical  manner  the  principles  of  rapier 
play. 

The  fencing  phraseology  of  Elizabethan  times  is  highly 
picturesque,  but  with  difficulty  intelligible  in  the  absence  of 
practical  demonstration.  Without  going  into  technical  details 
it  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  long  Elizabethan  rapier,  however 
admirably  balanced  it  might  otherwise  be,  was  still  too  heavy  to 
admit  of  quick  parries  with  the  blade  itself.  Thrusts,  as  a  rule, 
had  to  be  avoided  by  body  movements,  by  ducking,  or  by  a 
vault  aside  (incartata),  or  beaten  away  with  the  left  hand,  the 
hand  being  protected  with  a  gauntlet  or  armed  with  a  dagger. 
In  fact,  one  may  say  that  the  chief  characteristic  of  Elizabethan 
sword-play  was  the  concerted  action  of  the  left  hand  parrying 
while  the  right  delivered  the  attack.  Benvolio's  description  of 
Tybalt's  fight  is  graphic: — 

"  With  piercing  steel  he  tilts  at  bold  Mercutio's  breast, 
Who,  ail  as  hot,  turns  deadly  point  to  point, 
And  with  a  martial  scorn,  with  one  hand  beats 
Cold  death  aside,  and  with  the  other 
Sends  it  back  to  Tybalt,  whose  dexterity 
Retorts  it  .  .  ." 

Of  these  body  movements,  in  Saviolo's  days,  the  most  approved 
were:  the  incartata,  just  mentioned;  the  pass  (the  "  passado," 
in  the  ruffling  Anglo-Italian  jargon),  that  is,  passing  of  one 
foot  in  front  of  the  other  whilst  delivering  the  attack;  the  botta 
litnga,  or  lunge;  and  the  caricado,  which  was  a  far-reaching 
combination  of  the  two.  Of  systematic  sword  movements  there 
were  six:  stocata,  a  thrust  delivered  with  nails  up  wards;  imbrocata, 
with  nails  down;  punta-reversa,  any  thrust  delivered  from  the 
left  side  of  the  body;  mandrilto,  a  cut  from  the  right;  rinverso, 
one  from  the  left;  slramazone,  a  right-down  blow  with  the  point 
of  the  sword. 


25° 


FENCING 


The  new  art  of  fence,  as  systematized  by  the  principles  of 
rapier  play,  was  on  the  whole  already  accepted  in  England 
during  the  last  decade  of  the  i6th  century,  and  was,  as  we  know, 
destined  to  endure.  Nevertheless,  there  were  still  many  partisans 
of  the  older  school:  lovers  of  the  national  short-sword  and  the 
buckler.  Their  tenets  are  to  be  found  embodied,  in  very  strenu- 
ous language,  by  the  George  Silver  mentioned  above,  a  member, 
it  would  seem,  of  the  now  dwindling  company  of  Masters  of 
Defence,  in  his  small  work:  Paradoxe  of  Defence,  wherein  is 
proved  the  true  ground  of  fight  to  be  in  the  short  ancient  weapons,  etc. 
Printed  in  London,  1599.  (The  work  has  been  reprinted  by 
Messrs  George  Bell  &  Sons.) 

The  Italians  were  undoubtedly  the  leaders  in  sword-play; 
but,  towards  the  beginning  of  the  I7th  century,  the  Spaniards 
developed  a  peculiar  school  of  their  own,  which  for  a  short  while 
was  all  the  mode  in  England  as  well  as  in  France.  The  last  trace, 
be  it  stated,  of  that  school  is  now  extinct.  Yet  the  Spaniard  of 
cavalier  days  was  undoubtedly  a  formidable  duellist;  that  was 
no  doubt  owing  to  the  quality  of  the  man,  not  of  his  art.  The 
Italian's  fence  was  artistic;  the  Spaniard's  dexterity  was  essen- 
tially scientific.  In  Spain  were  to  be  found  typically  those 
"  Captains  of  Complements,"  who  not  only  understood  in  their 
most  intricate  mazes  the  proper  "  dependencies  "  for  the  cartel, 
but  also  the  mathematical  certainties  for  the  "  reason  demon- 
strative." These  Spanish  books  are  marvellously  pedantic; 
one  may  as  well  say  it,  frankly  ridiculous.  Spanish  masters  in- 
structed their  scholars  on  mathematical  lines,  with  the  help  of 
diagrams  drawn  on  the  floor  within  a  circle,  the  radius  of  which 
bore  certain  cryptic  proportions  to  length  of  human  arms  and 
Spanish  swords.  The  circle  was  inscribed  in  squares  and  inter- 
sected by  sundry  chords  bearing  occult  but,  it  was  held,  incon- 
trovertible relations  to  probabilities  of  strokes  and  parries. 
The  scholar  was  to  step  from  certain  intersections  to  certain 
others.  If  this  stepping  was  correctly  done  the  result  was  a  fore- 
gone victory.  "  A  villain,"  exclaims  Mercutio,  indignantly, 
"  who  fights  by  the  book  of  arithmetic."  Elizabethan  comedies 
bring  us  many  an  echo  of  its  great  expounder  of  mathematical 
swordsmanship,  the  magnificent  Carranza,  the  primer  inventor 
de  la  Ciencia  de  las  Armas,  the  writer  of  treatises  so  abstruse  on 
"  the  first  and  second  cause,"  in  questions  of  honour  and  sword- 
ing,  that  they  have  never  been  quite  understood  to  this  day. 

Perhaps  the  most  curious  matter  in  connexion  with  the 
Spanish  fence  is  that  the  most  splendid  treatise  of  the  sword 
published  in  the  French  language  is  in  reality  purely  Spanish 
(we  have  seen  that  the  first  was  German,  and  the  second  an 
adaptation  of  Italian  treatises).  This  third  work,  Academic  de 
I'  epee  de  Girard  Thibault,  d'Anvers,  etc.,  is  indeed  a  monument; 
one  of  the  biggest  books  ever  printed,  and  beyond  compare  the 
biggest  book  of  fence.  It  was  issued  in  1628  by  the  Leiden 
Elzevirs,  and  took  fifteen  years  to  complete.  Nine  reigning 
princes  and  a  vast  number  of  private  gentlemen  subscribed  to 
meet  its  stupendous  expenses. 

This  work  was  spoken  of  as  a  "  monument."  It  may,  in  some 
respects,  be  looked  upon  as  the  funeral  monument  of  the  old 
rapier  fence;  for  soon  after  that  period  rose  an  entirely  new 
school,  one  adapted  to  the  use  of  a  less  portentous  weapon,  the 
small-sword  of  French  pattern;  a  school  destined  to  endure, 
and  to  lead  to  the  perfection  of  our  modern  escrime. 

The  evolution  of  this  new  school  is  an  instance  of  the  influence 
of  fashion  upon  the  shape  of  the  sword,  and  hence  upon  theories 
concerning  its  use.  The  French  school  of  fencing  may  be  said 
to  owe  its  origin  to  the  adoption,  under  Louis  XIV.,  of  the  short 
court -sword  in  place  of  the  over-long  wide-hiked  rapier  of  the 
older  style.  With  a  weapon  of  such  reduced  dimensions,  of  such 
reduced  weight,  the  advantage  of  the  dagger  as  a  fencing  adjunct 
at  once  ceased  to  be  felt.  The  dagger,  last  Gothic  remnant, 
disappeared  accordingly;  and  there  arose  rapidly  a  new  system 
of  play,  in  which  most  of  the  defensive  actions  were  performed 
by  the  blade  alone;  in  which,  at  the  same  time  (the  reduction 
in  the  size  and  weight  of  the  weapon  rendering  the  efficiency  of 
the  edge  almost  nugatory  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  point), 
all  cutting  action  was  ultimately  discarded. 


It  is  from  that  date,  namely,  from  the  last  third  of  the  I7th 
century,  that  the  sword,  as  a  fighting  implement,  becomes 
differentiated  into  two  very  different  directions.  The  military 
weapon  becomes  the  back-sword  or  sabre;  the  walking  com- 
panion and  duelling  weapon  becomes  what  we  now  understand 
by  the  small-sword.  Two  utterly  different  kinds  of  fence  are 
practised:  one,  that  of  the  back-sword;  the  other,  what  we 
would  now  call  foil-play. 

The  magnificent  old  cut  and  thrust  rapier  still  flourished,  it 
is  true,  in  parts  of  Italy  and  Spain;  but  by  the  end  of  the  iyth 
century  it  had  already  become  an  object  of  ridicule  in  the 
eyes  of  all  persons  addicted  to  ban  ton — and  it  must  be 
remembered  that  ban  ton,  on  the  Continent  everywhere  and 
even  in  England,  at  that  time,  was  French  ton.  The  walking 
sword,  fit  for  a  gentleman's  side,  was  therefore  the  small-sword 
of  Versailles  pattern.  Its  use  had  to  be  learnt  from  French 
masters  of  deportment;  the  old  magniloquent  Italo-Spanish 
rapier  jargon  was  forgotten;  French  terms,  barbarized  into 
carte,  tierce,  sagoon,  flanquonade,  and  so  forth,  were  alone  under- 
stood. In  fact,  French  fencing  became  as  indispensable  an 
accomplishment  to  the  Georgian  gentlemen  as  the  fine  Italianated 
foyning  had  been  to  the  Elizabethan. 

The  new  French  sword-play  was,  it  must  be  owned,  very  neat, 
quiet,  precise,  and,  if  anything,  even  more  deadly  than  the  old 
fence.  It  was  perfect  as  a  decorous  mode  of  fight,  and  as  well 
suited  to  the  lace  ruffles,  to  the  high  perruque  and  the  red  heels 
of  the  "  beau  "  as  the  long  cup-hilted  rapier  had  been  to  the 
booted  and  spurred  "  cavalier."  The  essence  of  its  play  was 
nimbleness  of  wrist;  it  required  quickness  of  spirit  rather  than 
muscular  vigour.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  same  sort 
of  popular  opposition  met  the  invasion  of  French  fencing,  in 
post-Restoration  days,  that  had  been  offered  to  the  new-fangled 
Italian  rapier  a  century  earlier.  During  the  Parliamentary 
period  the  rapier  and  its  attendant  dagger  had  practically  dis- 
appeared; they  were  not  true  warlike  weapons,  their  chief 
virtue  was  for  duelling  or  sudden  encounters.  But  the  stout 
English  back-sword  survived;  and  with  it  a  very  definite  school 
of  back-sword  play.  Under  Charles  II.,  the  amusement  of  stage 
o»  prize-fighting  with  swords  had  become  a  la  mode.  Courteous 
assaults  at  many  weapons,  of  course  rebated,  had  been  frequent 
functions  under  the  auspices  of  the  Corporation  of  Masters  of 
Defence  during  the  second  half  of  the  i6th  century;  it  is  (be  it 
remarked)  in  such  sword-matches  on  the  scaffold  that  we  find 
the  origin  of  our  modern  prize-fights  at  fisticuffs.  The  first 
instance  known  of  a  challenge  at  sharps  on  the  fighting  stage  is 
seen  in  a  cartel  sent  by  George  Silver  and  Toby  his  son,  as 
champions  of  the  Corporation  of  Masters  of  Defence,  to  the  ob- 
noxious "  Signers  "  Saviolo  and  Geronimo.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  latter,  having  apparently  no  wish  to  improve  their  excellent 
social  position  or  to  risk  forfeiting  it,  declined  this  invitation  to 
a  public  trial  of  skill.  But  the  idea  was  right  martial  and  pleasing 
to  the  English  mind,  and  the  fashion  of  prize-fighting  took  the 
firm  hold  it  retained  on  English  minds  till  stringent  legislation, 
not  so  very  long  ago,  was  brought  to  bear  upon  it.  Be  it  as  it 
may,  this  prize-fighting  with  swords  endured  until  middle 
Georgian  days;  when,  under  the  impetus  given  to  fistic  displays 
then  by  the  renowned  Figg  (who  was  at  one  and  the  same  time 
the  most  formidable  of  English  fencers  and  the  first  on  the  long 
list  of  English  pugilistic  champions),  back-swording  became 
relegated  to  the  provinces,  and  ultimately  dwindled  into  our 
bastard  "  single-stick." 

Fencing,  in  its  restricted  sense  of  purely  thrusting  play,  was 
always  an  "  academic  "  art  in  England.  The  first  great  advocate 
and  exponent  of  the  new  small-sword  fence,  as  taught  by  the  new 
French  school,  was  Sir  William  Hope  of  Balcomy,  at  6ne  time 
deputy  governor  of  Edinburgh  Castle,  who  wrote  a  great  number 
of  quaint  treatises  of  great  interest  to  the  "  operative  "  as  well  as 
to  the  "speculative"  fencer.  Yet,  oddly  enough,  Sir  William 
Hope  was  instrumental  in  endeavouring  to  push  through  parlia- 
ment a  bill  for  the  establishment  of  a  court  of  honour,  the  office 
of  which  was  to  have  been  the  deciding  of  honourable  quarrels, 
whenever  possible,  without  appeal  to  fencing  skill.  The  House, 


FENCING 


251 


however,  being  at  the  time  excited  and  busy  on  the  question 
of  the  union  of  Scotland  and  England,  the  bill  never  became  act. 
To  resume:  since  it  began  to  be  practised  as  a  regulated  art 
one  may  say  broadly  that  sword  play  has  already  passed  through 
four  main  phases.  The  first  belongs  to  the  early  Tudor  days 
of  sword  and  buckler  encounters,  whereof,  if  the  best  theoretical 
treatises  appeared  in  Italy,  the  sturdiest  practical  exponents 
were  most  probably  found  in  the  British  Isles.  Then  came  the 
age  of  the  rapier,  coeval  with  the  general  disuse  of  the  buckler. 
There  may  be  discerned  the  dawn  of  fencing  proper,  which  will 
fully  arise  when,  in  Caroline  times,  the  outrageous  length  of 
the  tucke  will  at  last  be  sufficiently  reduced  no  longer  to  require 
the  dagger  as  a  helpmate.  The  third  was  the  age  of  the  small- 
sword. With  its  light,  elegant  and  deadly  practice  we  enter  a 
new  atmosphere,  so  to  speak,  on  fencing  ground.  Suppleness  of 
wrist  and  precision  of  fingering  replace  the  ramping  and  traver- 
sing, the  heavy  forcing  play,  of  the  Elizabethan.  If  the  rapier 
age  was  well  exemplified  by  Vincent  Saviolo,  this  one  was 
typified,  albeit  perhaps  at  a  time  when  it  was  already  somewhat 
on  the  wane,  by  the  admirable  Angelo  Tremamondo  Malevolti. 
In  the  early  days  of  the  small-sword  age  men  still  fenced  in 
play  as  they  fought  in  earnest.  But  presently  there  appeared 
on  the  scene  (during  the  last  years  of  the  i8th  century)  an  imple- 
ment destined  to  revolutionize  the  art  and  hopelessly  to  divide 
the  practice  of  the  school  from  that  of  the  field:  that  was  the 
fencing  mask.  Before  this  invention,  small-sword  play  in  the 
master's  room  was  perforce  comparatively  cautious,  correct, 
sure  and  above  all  deliberate.  The  long,  excited,  argumentative 
phrases  of  modern  assaults  were  unknown;  and  so  was  the 
almost  inevitably  consequent  scrimmage.  But  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  fencing  mask  a  new  school  of  foil-play  was  evolved, 
one  in  which  swiftness  and  inveteracy  of  attack  and  parry,  of 
riposte,  remise,  counter-riposte  and  reprise,  assumed  an  all-im- 
portant character.  With  the  new  style  began  to  assert  itself 
that  utter  recklessness  of  "  chance  hits  "  which  in  our  days  so 
markedly  differentiates  foil-practice  from  actual  duelling.  And 
this  brings  us  to  the  fourth  phase,  the  fencing  art,  to  what  may 
be  called  the  age  of  the  foil. 

If  anything  were  required  to  demonstrate  that  foil-play  has 
nowadays  passed  into  the  state  of  what  may  be  called  fine  art 
in  athleticism,  it  would  be  found  in  the  rise  of  the  method  which 
French  masters  particularize  as  lejeu  du  terrain,  as  duelling  play 
in  fact;  a  play  which  differs  as  completely  from  academic  foil- 
fencing  as  cross-country  riding  in  an  unknown  district  from 
the  haute  tcole  of  horsemanship  in  the  manege.  By  fencing, 
nowadays,  that  is  by  foil-play,  we  have  come  to  mean  not  simply 
fighting  for  hits,  but  a  strictly  regulated  game  which,  being  quite 
conventional,  does  not  take  accidental  hits  into  consideration 
at  all.  This  game  requires  for  its  perfect  display  a  combination 
of  artificial  circumstances,  such  as  even  floors,  featherweight 
weapons,  and  an  unconditional  acceptance  of  a  number  of 
traditional  conventions.  Now,  for  the  more  utilitarian  purposes 
of  duelling,  the  major  part  of  the  foil  fencer's  special  achievement 
and  brilliancy  has  to  be  uncompromisingly  sacrificed  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  brutal  fact  that  thrusts  in  the  face,  or  below  the  waist, 
do  count,  insomuch  as  they  may  kill;  that  accidental  hits  in  the 
arm  or  the  leg  cannot  be  disregarded,  for  they  may,  and  generally 
do,  put  a  premature  stop  to  the  bout.  The  "  rub  on  the  green  " 
must  be  accepted,  perforce,  and  indeed  often  plays  as  important 
a  part  in  the  issue  of  the  game  as  the  player's  skill.  The  fact, 
however,  that  in  earnest  encounters  all  conventionalities  which 
determine  the  value  of  a  hit  vanish,  does  not  in  any  way  justify 
the  notion,  prevalent  among  many,  that  a  successful  hit  justifies 
any  method  of  planting  the  same;  and  that  the  mere  discarding 
of  all  convention  in  practical  sword-play  is  sufficient  to  convert 
a  bad  fencer  into  a  dangerous  duellist. 

It  is  the  recognition  of  this  fact  (which,  oddly  enough,  only 
came  to  be  generally  admitted,  and  not  without  reluctance, 
by  the  masters  of  the  art  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  ipih 
century)  which  has  led  to  the  elaboration  of  the  modified  system 
of  small-sword  fence  now  known  as  epee  play.  The  new  system, 
after  passing  through  various  rather  extravagant  phases  of  its 


own,  gradually  returned  to  the  main  principle  of  sound  foil-play, 
but  shorn  of  all  futile  conventions  as  to  the  relative  values  of  hits. 
In  epte  play  a  hit  is  a  hit,  whether  correctly  delivered  or  reckless, 
whether  intentional  or  the  result  of  mere  chance,  and  must,  at 
the  cost  of  much  caution  and  patience,  be  guarded  against. 

Per  contra  the  elaboration  by  the  devotees  of  the  epee  of  a  really 
practical  system  of  fence,  that  is,  one  applicable  to  trials  in 
earnest,  has  reacted  upon  the  teaching  of  foil-play  by  the  best 
masters  of  the  present  day — a  teaching  which,  without  ceasing 
to  be  academical  up  to  a  certain  point,  takes  now  cognisance  of 
the  necessity  of  defending  every  part  of  the  body  as  sedulously 
as  the  target  of  the  breast,  and,  moreover,  of  warding  the  many 
possibilities  of  chance  hits  in  contretemps. 

In  both  plays — in  the  highly  refined,  complicated  and  brilliant 
fence  of  the  first-class  "  foil,"  as  well  as  in  the  simpler  and  more 
cautious  operations  of  the  practised  duellist — the  one  golden  rule 
remains,  that  one  so  quaintly  expressed  by  M.  Jourdain's 
maitre  d'armes  in  Moliere's  comedy:  "  Tout  le  secret  des  armes  ne 
consiste  qu'en  deux  choses,  a  donner  et  a  ne  point  recevoir." 

The  point  most  usually  lost  sight  of  by  sanguine  and  self- 
reliant  scorners  of  conventionalities  is  that,  although  with  the 
sword  it  may  be  comparatively  easy  at  any  time  "  to  give,"  it  is 
by  no  means  easy  to  make  sure  of  "  giving  without  receiving." 
The  mutual  simultaneous  hit — the  coup-double — is,  in  fact,  the 
dread  pitfall  of  all  sword-play.  For  this  reason,  in  courteous 
bouts,  a  hit  has  no  real  value,  not  only  when  it  is  actually 
cancelled  by  a  counter,  but  when  it  is  delivered  in  such  a  way  as 
to  admit  of  a  counter.  In  short,  the  experience  of  ages  and  the 
careful  consideration  of  probabilities  have  given  birth  to  the 
various  make-believes  and  restrictions  that  go  to  make  sound 
foil-play.  These  restrictions  are  destined  to  act  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  warning  presence  of  a  sharp  point  instead  of  a 
button;  and  thus,  as  far  as  possible,  to  prevent  those  mutual 
hits — the  contretemps  of  the  old  masters — which  mar  the  greater 
number  of  assaults.  The  proper  observance  of  those  conventions, 
other  things  being  equal,  distinguishes  the  good  from  the  in- 
different swordsman,  the  man  who  uses  his  head  from  him  who 
rushes  blindly  where  angels  fear  to  tread.  So  much  for  foil- 
play. 

In  modern  sword-play,  on  the  other  hand,  is  seen  the  usual 
tendency  of  arts  which  have  reached  their  climax  of  complication 
to  return  to  comparative  simplicity.  With  reference  to  actual 
duelling,  it  is  a  recognized  thing  that  it  would  be  the  height  of 
folly  to  attempt,  sword  in  hand,  the  complex  attacks,  the  full- 
length  lunges,  the  neat  but  somewhat  weak  parries  of  the  foil;  so 
much  so,  that  many  have  been  led  to  assert  that,  for  its  ultimate 
practical  purpose  (which  logically  is  that  of  duelling),  the 
refined  art  of  the  foil,  requiring  so  many  years  of  assiduous  and 
methodical  work,  is  next  to  useless.  It  is  alleged,  as  a  proof,  that 
many  successful  duellists  have  happened  to  be  indifferent 
performers  on  the  fencing  floor.  Some  even  maintain  that  a  few 
weeks'  special  work  in  that  restricted — very  restricted — play, 
which  alone  cdn  be  considered  safe  on  the  field  of  honour,  will 
produce  as  good  a  practical  swordsman  as  any  who  have  walked 
the  schools  for  years.  Nothing  can  be  further  from  the  truth: 
were  it  but  on  the  ground  that  the  greater  includes  the  less;  that 
the  foil-fencer  of  standing  who  can  perform  with  ease  and 
accuracy  all  the  intricate  movements  of  the  assault,  who  has 
trained  his  hand  and  eye  to  the  lightning  speed  of  the  well- 
handled  foil,  must  logically  prove  more  than  a  match  for  the  more 
purely  practical  but  less  trained  devotees  of  the  epee  de  combat. 
The  only  difference  for  him  in  the  two  plays  is  that  the  latter  is 
incomparably  slower  in  action,  simpler;  that  it  demands  above 
all  things  patience  and  caution;  and  especially  that,  instead  of 
protecting  his  breast  only,  the  epee  fencer  must  beware  of  the 
wily  attack,  or  the  chance  hit,  at  every  part  of  his  body,  especially 
at  his  sword-hand. 

The  difference  which  still  exists  between  the  French  and 
Italian  schools  of  small-sword  fence — by  no  means  so  wide,  in 
point  of  theory,  as  popularly  supposed — is  mainly  due  to  the 
dissimilarity  of  the  weapons  favoured  by  the  two  countries. 
The  quillons,  which  are  retained  to  this  day  in  the  Italian 


252 


FENDER— FENELON 


fioretto  and  spada,  conduce  to  a  freer  use  of  wrist-play  and  a 
straight  arm.  The  French,  on  the  other  hand,  having  long  ago 
adopted  the  plain  grip  both  for  fleuret  and  epee,  have  come  to 
rely  more  upon  finger-play  and  a  semi-bent  arm.  Both  schools 
have  long  laid  claims  to  an  overwhelming  superiority,  on  theo- 
retical ground,  over  their  rivals — claims  which  were  unwarrant- 
able. Indeed,  of  later  days,  especially  since  the  evolution  of  a 
special "  duelling  play,"  the  two  schools  show  a  decided  tendency, 
notwithstanding  the  difference  in  the  grip  of  the  weapons,  towards 
a  mutual  assimilation  of  principles. 

As  a  duelling  weapon — as  one,  that  is  to  say,  the  practice  of 
which  under  the  restrictive  influence  of  conventions  could 
become  elaborated  into  an  art — the  sabre  (see  SABRE-FENCING) 
returned  to  favour  in  some  countries  at  the  close  of  the 
Napoleonic  wars.  Considered  from  the  historical  point  of  view, 
the  modern  sabre,  albeit  now  a  very  distant  cousin  of  the  small- 
sword, is  as  direct  a  descendant  as  the  latter  itself  of  the  old  cut- 
and-thrust  rapier.  It  is  curious,  therefore,  to  note  that,  just  as 
the  practice  of  the  "  small  "  or  thrusting  sword  gave  rise  to  two 
rival  schools,  the  French  and  the  Italian,  that  of  the  sabre  or 
cutting  sword  (it  can  hardly  be  called  the  broadsword,  the  blade, 
for  the  purposes  of  duelling  play,  having  been  reduced  to 
slenderest  proportions)  became  split  up  into  two  main  systems, 
Italian  and  German.  And  further  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
leading  characteristics  of  the  latter  should  still  be,  in  a  manner, 
"  severity  "  and  steadfastness;  and  that  the  former,  the  Italian, 
should  rely,  as  of  yore,  specially  upon  agility  and  insidious 
cunning.  .__ 

Concerning  the  latter-day  evolution  of  that  special  and  still 
more  conventional  system  of  fence,  the  SMager  or  Hau-rapier 
play  favoured  by  the  German  student,  from  that  of  the  ancestral 
rapier,  the  curious  will  find  a  critical  account  in  an  article 
entitled  "  SMager ei  "  which  appeared  in  the  Saturday  Review, 
5th  of  December  1885. 

See  also  the  separate  articles  on  CANE-FENCING  (canne); 
EPEE-DE-COMBAT;  FOIL-FENCING;  SABRE-FENCING;  and 
SINGLE-STICK. 

AUTHORITIES. — The  bibliography  of  fencing  is  a  copious  subject ; 
but  it  has  been  very  completely  dealt  with  in  the  following  works: 
Bibliotheca  dimicatoria,  in  the  "  Fencing,  Boxing  and  Wrestling  " 
volume  of  the  Badminton  library  (Longmans) ;  A  Bibliography  of 
Fencing  and  Duelling,  by  Carl  A.  Thimm  (John  Lane).  For  French 
works  more  especially:  La  Bibliographic  de  I'escrime,  by  Vigeant 
(Paris,  Motteroz) ;  and  Ma  Collection  d'escrime,  by  the  same  (Paris, 
Quantin).  For  Italian  books:  Bibliografia  generale  della  scherma, 
by  Gelli  (Firenza,  Niccolai).  For  Spain  and  Portugal:  Libros 
de  esgrima  espanoles  y  Portugueses,  by  Leguina  (Madrid,  Los 
Huerfanos).  Both  M.  Vigeant's  and  Cav.  Gelli's  works  deal  with 
the  subject  generally;  but  their  entries  are  only  critical,  or  even 
tolerably  accurate,  in  the  case  of  books  belonging  to  their  own 
countries.  Concerning  the  history  of  the  art,  Egerton  Castle's 
Schools  and  Masters  of  Fence  (George  Bell) ;  Hutton's  The  Sword 
and  the  Centuries  (Grant  Richards) ;  and  Letainturier-Fradin's  Les 
Joueurs  d'epee  d  travers  les  Ages  (Paris,  Flammarion)  cover  the  ground, 
technically  and  ethically.  As  typical  exponents  of  the  French  and 
Italian  schools  respectively  may  be  mentioned  here:  La  Theorie  de 
I'escrime,  by  Prevost  (Paris,  de  Brunhof)  (this  is  the  work  which  was 
adopted  in  the  Badminton  volume  on  Fencing),  and  Trattato  teorico- 
pratico  della  scherma,  by  Parise  (Rome,  Voghera).  (E.  CA.) 

FENDER,  a  metal  guard  or  defence  (whence  the  name)  for  a 
fire-place.  When  the  open  hearth  with  its  logs  burning  upon  dogs 
or  andirons  was  replaced  by  the  closed  grate,  the  fender  was 
devised  as  a  finish  to  the  smaller  fire-places,  and  as  a  safeguard 
against  the  dropping  of  cinders  upon  the  wooden  floor,  which  was 
now  much  nearer  to  the  fire.  Fenders  are  usually  of  steel,  brass 
or  iron,  solid  or  pierced.  Those  made  of  brass  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  1 8th  and  the  earlier  part  of  the  ipth  centuries  are  by  far  the 
most  elegant  and  artistic.  They  usually  had  three  claw  feet,  and 
the  pierced  varieties  were  often  cut  into  arabesques  or  con- 
ventional patterns.  The  lyre  and  other  motives  of  the  Empire 
style  were  much  used  during  the  prevalence  of  that  fashion.  The 
modern  fender  is  much  lower  and  is  often  little  more  than  a  kerb; 
it  is  now  not  infrequently  of  stone  or  marble,  fixed  to  the  floor. 

FlJNELON,  BERTRAND  DE  SALIGNAC,  seigneur  de  la  Mothe 
(1523-1589),  French  diplomatist,  came  of  an  old  family  of 
P6rigord.  After  serving  in  the  army  he  was  sent  ambassador  to 


England  in  1568.  At  the  request  of  Charles  IX.  he  endeavoured 
to  excuse  to  Elizabeth  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  as  a 
necessity  caused  by  a  plot  which  had  been  laid  against  the  life  of 
the  king  of  France.  For  some  time  after  the  death  of  Charles  IX. 
F6nelon  was  continued  in  his  office,  but  he  was  recalled  in  1575 
when  Catherine  de'  Medici  wished  to  bring  about  a  marriage 
between  Elizabeth  and  the  duke  of  Alencon,  and  thought  that 
another  ambassador  would  have  a  better  chance  of  success  in  the 
negotiation.  In  1 582  Fenelon  was  charged  with  a  new  mission  to 
England,  then  to  Scotland,  and  returned  to  France  in  1583.  He 
opposed  the  Protestants  until  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  III., 
but  espoused  the  cause  of  Henry  IV.  He  died  in  1589.  His 
nephew  in  the  sixth  degree  was  the  celebrated  archbishop  of 
Cambrai. 

Fenelon  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  writings,  among  which 
those  of  general  importance  are  Memoires  touchant  I'Angleterre  et 
la  Suisse,  on  Sommaire  de  la  negociation  faite  en  Angleterre,  fan 
7577  (containing  a  number  of  the  letters  of  Charles  and  his  mother, 
relating  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  Queen  Mary  and  the  Bartholomew 
massacre),  published  in  the  Memoires  of  Castelnau  (Paris,  1659); 
Negociations  de  la  Mothe  Fenelon  et  de  Michel,  sieur  de  Mauiiissiere,  en 
A  ngleterre ;  and  Depdches  de  M.  de  la  Mothe  Fenelon,  Instructions  au 
sieur  de  la  Mauiiissiere,  both  contained  in  the  edition  of  Castelnau's 
Memoires,  published  at  Brussels  in  1731.  The  correspondence  of 
Fenelon  was  published  at  Paris  in  1838-1841,  in  7  vols.  8vo. 

See  "  Lettres  de  Catherine  de'  Medicis,'  edited  by  Hector  de  la 
Ferriere  (1880  seq.)  in  the  Collection  de  documents  inedits  sur  I'histoire 
de  France. 

FENELON,  FRANCOIS  DE  SALIGNAC  DE  LA  MOTHE  (1651- 
1715),  French  writer  and  archbishop  of  Cambrai,  was  born  at 
the  chateau  of  Fenelon  in  Perigord  on  the  6th  of  August  1651. 
His  father,  Pons,  comte  de  Fenelon,  was  a  country  gentleman  of 
ancient  lineage,  large  family  and  small  estate.  Owing  to  his 
delicate  health  the  boy's  early  education  was  carried  on  at  home; 
though  he  was  able  to  spend  some  time  at  the  neighbouring 
university  of  Cahors.  In  1666  he  came  to  Paris,  undercharge 
of  his  father's  brother,  Antoine,  marquis  de  Fenelon,  a  retired 
soldier  of  distinction,  well  known  for  his  religious  zeal.  Three 
years  later  he  entered  the  famous  theological  college  of  Saint 
Sulpice.  Here,  while  imbibing  the  somewhat  mystical  piety 
of  the  house,  he  had  an  excellent  chance  of  carrying  on  his 
beloved  classical  studies;  indeed,  at  one  time  he  proposed  to 
couple  sacred  and  profane  together,  and  go  on  a  missionary 
journey  to  the  Levant.  "  There  I  shall  once  more  make  the 
Apostle's  voice  heard  in  the  Church  of  Corinth.  I  shall  stand 
on  that  Areopagus  where  St.  Paul  preached  to  the  sages  of  this 
world  an  unknown  God.  But  I  do  not  scorn  to  descend  thence 
to  the  Piraeus,  where  Socrates  sketched  the  plan  of  his  republic. 
I  shall  mount  to  the  double  summit  of  Parnassus;  I  shall  revel 
in  the  joys  of  Tempe."  Family  opposition,  however,  put  an  end 
to  this  attractive  prospect.  F6nelon  remained  at  Saint  Sulpice 
till  1679,  when  he  was  made  "  superior  "  of  a  "  New  Catholic  " 
sisterhood  in  Paris — an  institution  devoted  to  the  conversion  of 
Huguenot  ladies.  Of  his  work  here  nothing  is  known  for  certain. 
Presumably  it  was  successful;  since  in  the  winter  of  1685,  just 
after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  Fenelon  was  put 
at  the  head  of  a  number  of  priests,  and  sent  on  a  mission  to  the 
Protestants  of  Saintonge,  the  district  immediately  around  the 
famous  Huguenot  citadel  of  La  Rochelle.  To  Ffoelon  such 
employment  was  clearly  uncongenial;  and  if  he  was  rather 
too  ready  to  employ  unsavoury  methods — such  as  bribery  and 
espionage — among  his  proselytes,  his  general  conduct  was  kindly 
and  statesmanlike  in  no  slight  degree.  But  neither  in  his  actions 
nor  in  his  writings  is  there  the  least  trace  of  that  belief  in  liberty 
of  conscience  ascribed  to  him  by  18th-century  philosophers. 
Tender-hearted  he  might  be  in  practice;  but  toleration  he  declares 
synonymous  with  "  cowardly  indulgence  and  false  compasssion." 

Meanwhile  the  marquis  de  Fenelon  had  introduced  his  nephew 
into  the  devout  section  of  the  court,  dominated  by  Mme  de 
Maintenon.  He  became  a  favourite  disciple  of  Bossuet,  and  at 
the  bishop's  instance  undertook  to  refute  certain  metaphysical 
errors  of  Father  Malebranche.  Followed  thereon  an  independent 
philsophical  Treatise  on  the  Existence  of  God,  wherein  F6nelon 
rewrote  Descartes  in  the  spirit  of  St  Augustine.  More  important 


FENELON 


253 


were  his  Dialogues  on  Eloquence,  wherein  he  entered  an  eloquent 
plea  for  greater  simplicity  and  naturalness  in  the  pulpit,  and 
urged  preachers  to  take  the  scriptural,  natural  style  of  Bossuet 
as  their  model,  rather  than  the  coldly  analytic  eloquence  of  his 
great  rival,  Bourdaloue.  Still  more  important  was  his  Treatise 
on  the  Education  of  Girls,  being  the  first  systematic  attempt 
ever  made  to  deal  with  that  subject  as  a  whole.  Hence  it  was 
probably  the  most  influential  of  all  Fenelon's  books,  and  guided 
French  ideas  on  the  question  all  through  the  i8th  century.  It 
holds  a  most  judicious  balance  between  the  two  opposing  parties 
of  the  time.  On  the  one  side  were  the  prScieuses,  enthusiasts 
for  the  "  higher  "  education  of  their  sex;  on  the  other  were 
the  heavy  Philistines,  so  often  portrayed  by  Moliere,  who 
thought  that  the  less  girls  knew  the  better  they  were  likely  to 
be.  Fenelon  sums  up  in  favour  of  the  cultivated  house- wife; 
his  first  object  was  to  persuade  the  mothers  to  take  charge  of 
their  girls  themselves,  and  fit  them  to  become  wives  and  mothers 
in  their  turn. 

The  book  brought  its  author  more  than  literary  glory.  In 
1689  Fenelon  was  gazetted  tutor  to  the  duke  of  Burgundy, 
eldest  son  of  the  dauphin,  and  eventual  heir  to  the  crown.  The 
character  of  this  strange  prince  has  been  drawn  once  for  all  by 
Saint-Simon.  Shortly  it  may  be  said  that  he  was  essentially  a 
mass  of  contradictions — brilliant,  passionate  to  the  point  of  mania, 
but  utterly  weak  and  unstable,  capable  of  developing  into  a 
saint  or  a  monster,  but  quite  incapable  of  becoming  an  ordinary 
human  being.  Fenelon  assailed  him  on  the  religious  side,  and 
managed  to  transform  him  into  a  devotee,  exceedingly  affection- 
ate, earnest  and  religious,  but  woefully  lacking  in  tact  and 
common  sense.  In  justice,  however,  it  should  be  added  that 
his  health  was  being  steadily  undermined  by  a  mysterious 
internal  complaint,  and  that  Fenelon's  tutorship  came  to  an  end 
on  his  disgrace  in  1697,  before  the  pupil  was  fifteen.  The  abiding 
result  xsf  his  tutorship  is  a  code  of  carefully  graduated  moral 
lessons — the  Fables,  the  Dialogues  of  the  Dead  (a  series  of  imagin- 
ary conversations  between  departed  heroes),  and  finally  Tele- 
maque,  where  the  adventures  of  the  son  of  Ulysses  in  search  of 
a  father  are  made  into  a  political  novel  with  a  purpose.  Not, 
indeed,  that  Fenelon  meant  his  book  to  be  the  literal  paper 
Constitution  some  of  his  contemporaries  thought  it.  Like  other 
Utopias,  it  is  an  easy-going  compromise  between  dreams  and 
possibilities.  Its  one  object  was  to  broaden  Burgundy's  mind, 
and  ever  keep  before  his  eyes  the  "  great  and  holy  maxim  that 
kings  exist  for  the  sake  of  their  subjects,  not  subjects  for  the  sake 
of  kings."  Here  and  there  Fenelon  carries  his  philanthropy  to 
lengths  curiously  prophetic  of  the  age  of  Rousseau — fervid 
denunciation  of  war,  belief  in  nature  and  fraternity  of  nations. 
And  he  has  a  truly  iSth-century  belief  in  the  all-efficiency  of 
institutions.  Mentor  proposes  to  "  change  the  tastes  and  habits 
of  the  whole  people,  and  build  up  again  from  the  very  found^ 
ations."  Fenelon  is  on  firmer  ground  when  he  leads  a  reaction 
against  the  "  mercantile  system  "  of  Colbert,  with  its  crushing 
restrictions  on  trade;  or  when  he  sings  the  praises  of  agriculture, 
in  the  hope  of  bringing  back  labour  to  the  land,  and  thereby 
ensuring  the  physical  efficiency  of  the  race.  Valuable  and  far- 
sighted  as  were  these  ideas,  they  fitted  but  ill  into  the  scheme 
of  a  romance.  Seldom  was  Voltaire  wider  of  the  mark  than  when 
he  called  Telemaque  a  Greek  poem  in  French  prose.  It  is  too 
motive,  too  full  of  ingenious  contrivances,  to  be  really  Greek. 
As,  in  Fenelon's  own  opinion,  the  great  merit  of  Homer  was  his 
"  amiable  simplicity,"  so  the  great  merit  of  Telemaque  is  the  art 
that  gives  to  each  adventure  its  hidden  moral,  to  each  scene 
some  sly  reflection  on  Versailles.  Under  stress  of  these  pre- 
occupations, however,  organic  unity  of  structure  went  very  much 
to  the  wall,  and  Telemaque  is  a  grievous  offender  against  its 
author's  own  canons  of  literary  taste.  Not  that  it  altogether 
lost  thereby.  There  is  a  curious  richness  in  this  prose,  so  full 
of  rhythm  and  harmony,  that  breaks  at  every  moment  into 
verse,  as  it  drags  itself  along  its  slow  and  weary  way,  half- 
fainting  under  an  overload  of  epithets.  And  although  no  single 
feature  of  the  book  is  Greek,  there  hangs  round  it  a  moral 
fragrance  only  to  be  called  forth  by  one  who  had  fulfilled  the 


vow  of  his  youth,  and  learnt  to  breathe,  as  purely  as  on  "  the 
double  summit  of  Parnassus,"  the  very  essence  of  the  antique. 

Telemaque  was  published  in  1699.  Four  years  before,  Fenelon 
had  been  appointed  archbishop  of  Cambrai,  one  of  the  richest 
benefices  in  France.  Very  soon  afterwards,  however,  came  the 
great  calamity  of  his  life.  In  the  early  days  of  his  tutorship  he 
had  met  the  Quietist  apostle,  Mme  Guyon  (q.v.},  and  had  been 
much  struck  by  some  of  her  ideas.  These  he  developed  along  lines 
of  his  own,  where  Christian  Neoplatonism  curiously  mingles  with 
theories  of  chivalry  and  disinterestedness,  borrowed  from  the 
precieuses  of  his  own  time.  His  mystical  principles  are  set  out 
at  length  in  his  Maxims  of  the  Saints,  published  in  1697  (see 
QUIETISM).  Here  he  argues  that  the  more  love  we  have  for 
ourselves,  the  less  we  can  spare  for  our  Maker.  Perfection  lies 
in  getting  rid  of  self-hood  altogether — in  never  thinking  of  our- 
selves, or  even  of  the  relation  in  which  God  stands  to  us.  The 
saint  does  not  love  Christ  as  his  Redeemer,  but  only  as  the 
Redeemer  of  the  human  race.  Bossuet  (q.v.)  attacked  this  position 
as  inconsistent  with  Christianity.  Fenelon  promptly  appealed 
to  Rome,  and  after  two  years  of  bitter  controversy  his  book  was 
condemned  by  Innocent  XII.  in  1699.  As  to  the  merits  of  the 
controversy  opinion  will  always  be  divided.  On  the  point  of 
doctrine  all  good  judges  agree  that  Fenelon-  was  wrong;  though 
many  still  welcome  the  obiter  dictum  of  Pope  Innocent,  that 
Fenelon  erred  by  loving  God  too  much,  and  Bossuet  by  loving 
his  neighbour  too  little.  Of  late  years,  however,  Bossuet  has 
found  powerful  defenders;  and  if  they  have  not  cleared  his 
character  from  reproach,  they  have  certainly  managed  to  prove 
that  Fenelon's  methods  of  controversy  were  not  much  better 
than  his.  One  of  the  results  of  the  quarrel  was  Fenelon's  banish- 
ment from  court;  for  Louis  XIV.  had  ardently  taken  Bossuet's 
side,  and  brought  all  the  batteries  of  French  influence  to  bear  on 
the  pope.  Immediately  on  the  outbreak  of  the  controversy, 
Fenelon  was  exiled  to  his  diocese,  and  during  the  last  eighteen 
years  of  his  life  he  was  only  once  allowed  to  leave  it. 

To  Cambrai,  accordingly,  all  his  energies  were  now  directed. 
Even  Saint-Simon  allows  that  his  episcopal  duties  were  perfectly 
performed.  Tours  of  inspection,  repeated  several  times  a  year, 
brought  him  into  touch  with  every  corner  of  his>  diocese.  It  was 
administered  with  great  strictness,  and  yet  on  broad  and  liberal 
lines.  There  was  no  bureaucratic  fussiness,  no  seeking  after 
popularity;  but  every  man,  whether  great  or  small,  was  treated 
exactly  as  became  his  station  in  the  world.  And  Saint-Simon 
bears  the  same  witness  to  his  government  of  his  palace.  There  he 
lived  with  all  the  piety  of  a  true  pastor,  yet  with  all  the  dignity  of  a 
great  nobleman,  who  was  still  on  excellent  terms  with  the  world. 
But  his  magnificence  made  no  one  angry,  for  it  was  kept  up 
chiefly  for  the  sake  of  others,  and  was  exactly  proportionate  to 
his  place.  With  all  its  luxuries  and  courtly  ease,  his  house 
remained  a  true  bishop's  palace,  breathing  the  strictest  discipline 
and  restraint.  And  of  all  this  chastened  dignity  the  archbishop 
was  himself  the  ever-present,  ever-inimitable  model — in  all  that 
he  did  the  perfect  churchman,  in  all  the  high-bred  noble,  in  all 
things,  also,  the  author  of  Telemaque. 

The  one  great  blot  on  this  ideal  existence  was  his  persecution  of 
the  Jansenists  (see  JANSENISM).  His  theories  of  life  were  very 
different  from  theirs;  and  they  had  taken  a  strong  line  against 
his  Maxims  of  the  Saints,  holding  that  visionary  theories  of 
perfection  were  ill-fitted  for  a  world  where  even  the  holiest  could 
scarce  be  saved.  To  suppress  them,  and  to  gain  a  better  market 
for  his  own  ideas,  he  was  even  ready  to  strike  up  an  alliance  with 
the  Jesuits,  and  force  on  a  reluctant  France  the  doctrine  of  papal 
infallibility.  His  time  was  much  better  employed  in  fitting  his 
old  pupil,  Burgundy,  for  a  kingship  that  never  came.  Louis  XIV. 
seldom  allowed  them  to  meet,  but  for  years  they  corresponded; 
and  nothing  is  more  admirable  than  the  mingled  tact  and  firmness 
with  which  Fenelon  spoke  his  mind  about  the  prince's  faults. 
This  exchange  of  letters  became  still  more  frequent  in  1711, 
when  the  wretched  dauphin  died  and  left  Burgundy  heir- 
apparent  to  the  throne.  Fenelon  now  wrote  a  series  of  memorable 
criticisms  on  the  government  of  Louis  XIV.,  accompanied  by 
projects  of  reform,  not  always  quite  so  wise.  For  his  practical 


254 


FENESTELLA— FENIANS 


political  service  was  to  act  as  an  alarm-bell.  Much  more  clearly 
than  most  men,  he  saw  that  the  Bourbons  were  tottering  to  their 
fall,  but  how  to  prevent  that  fall  he  did  not  know. 

Not  that  any  amount  of  knowledge  would  have  availed.  In 
1712  Burgundy  died,  and  with  him  died  all  his  tutor's  hopes  of 
reform.  From  this  moment  his  health  began  to  fail,  though  he 
mustered  strength  enough  to  write  a  remarkable  Letter  to  the 
French  Academy  in  the  autumn  of  1714.  This  is  really  a  series  of 
general  reflections  on  the  literary  movement  of  his  time.  As  in 
his  political  theories,  the  critical  element  is  much  stronger  than 
the  constructive.  Fenelon  was  feeling  his  way  away  from  the 
rigid  standards  of  Boileau  to  "  a  Sublime  so  simple  and  familiar 
that  all  may  understand  it."  But  some  of  his  methods  were 
remarkably  erratic;  he  was  anxious,  for  instance,  to  abolish 
verse,  as  unsuited  to  the  genius  of  the  French.  In  other  respects, 
however,  he  was  far  before  his  age.  The  1 7th  century  has  treated 
literature  as  it  treated  politics  and  religion;  each  of  the  three 
was  cooped  up  in  a  water-tight  compartment  by  itself.  Fenelon 
was  one  of  the  first  to  break  down  these  partition-walls,  and 
insist  on  viewing  all  three  as  products  of  a  single  spirit,  seen  at 
different  angles. 

A  few  weeks  after  the  Letter  was  written,  Fenelon  met  with  a 
carriage-accident,  and  the  shock  proved  too  much  for  his  en- 
feebled frame.  On  the  7th  of  January  1715  he  died  at  the  age  of 
63.  Ever  since,  his  character  has  been  a  much-discussed  enigma. 
Bossuet  can  only  be  thought  of  as  the  high-priest  of  authority 
and  common-sense;  but  Fenelon  has  been  made  by  turns  into  a 
sentimentalist,  a  mystical  saint,  an  iSth-century  philosophe, 
an  ultramontane  churchman  and  a  hysterical  hypocrite.  And 
each  of  these  views,  except  the  last,  contains  an  element  of  truth. 
More  than  most  men,  Fenelon  "  wanders  between  two  worlds — 
one  dead,  the  other  powerless  to  be  born."  He  came  just  at  a 
time  when  the  characteristic  ideas  of  the  i?th  century — the  ideas 
of  Louis  XIV.,  of  Bossuet  and  Boileau — had  lost  their  savour, 
and  before  another  creed  could  arise  to  take  their  place.  Hence, 
like  most  of  those  who  break  away  from  an  established  order,  he 
seems  by  turns  a  revolutionist  and  a  reactionary.  Such  a  man 
expresses  his  ideas  much  better  by  word  of  mouth  than  in  the 
cold  formality  of  print;  and  Fenelon's  contemporaries  thought 
far  more  highly  of  his  conversation  than  his  books.  That 
downright,  gossiping  German  princess,  the  duchess  of  Orleans, 
cared  little  for  the  Maxims;  but  she  was  enraptured  by  their 
author,  and  his  "  ugly  face,  all  skin  and  bone,  though  he  laughed 
and  talked  quite  unaffectedly  and  easily."  An  observer  of  very 
different  mettle,  the  great  lawyer  d'Aguesseau,  dwells  on  the 
"noble  singularity,  that  gave  him  an  almost  prophetic  air.  Yet 
he  was  neither  passionate  nor  masterful.  Though  in  reality  he 
governed  others,  it  was  always  by  seeming  to  give  way;  and  he 
reigned  in  society  as  much  by  the  attraction  of  his  manners  as 
by  the  superior  virtue  of  his  parts.  Under  his  hand  the  most 
trifling  subjects  gained  a  new  importance;  yet  he  treated  the 
gravest  with  a  touch  so  light  that  he  seemed  to  have  invented  the 
sciences  rather  than  learnt  them,  for  he  was  always  a  creator, 
always  original,  and  himself  was  imitable  of  none."  Still  better  is 
Saint-Simon's  portrait  of  Fenelon  as  he  appeared  about  the  time 
of  his  appointment  to  Cambrai — tall,  thin,  well-built,  exceedingly 
pale,  with  a  great  nose,  eyes  from  which  fire  and  genius  poured  in 
torrents,  a  face  curious  and  unlike  any  other,  yet  so  striking  and 
attractive  that,  once  seen,  it  could  not  be  forgotten.  There  were 
to  be  found  the  most  contradictory  qualities  in  perfect  agreement 
with  each  other— gravity  and  courtliness,  earnestness  and  gaiety, 
the  man  of  learning,  the  noble  and  the  bishop.  But  all  centred  in 
an  air  of  high-bred  dignity,  of  graceful,  polished  seemliness  and 
wit — it  cost  an  effort  to  turn  away  one's  eyes. 

AUTHORITIES. — The  best  complete  edition  of  Fenelon  was  brought 
out  by  the  abbe  Gosselin  of  Saint  Sulpice  (10  vols.,  Paris,  1851). 
Gosselin  also  edited  the  Histoire  de  tendon,  by  Cardinal  Bausset 
(4  vols.,  Paris,  1850).  Modern  authorities  are  Fenelon  a  Cambrai 
(Paris,  1885),  by  Emmanuel  de  Broglie;  Fenelon,  by  Paul  Janet 
(Paris,  1892) ;  Bossuet  et  Fenelon,  by  L.  Crousle  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1894) ; 
J.Lemaitre,  Fenelon(igio) .  In  English  there  are:  Fenelon,  his  Friends 
and  Enemies,  by  E.  K.  Sanders  (1901);  and  Francois  de  Fenelon, 
by  Lord  St  Cyres  (1906) ;  see  also  the  Quarterly  Review  for  January 
1902,  and  M.  Masson,  Fenelon  et  Madame  Guyon  (1907).  (St.  C.) 


(' 

i 
//. 


FENESTELLA,  Roman  historian  and  encyclopaedic  writer, 
flourished  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  If  the  notice  in  Jerome  be 
correct,  he  lived  from  52  B.C.  to  A.D.  19  (according  to  others  3  5  B.C.- 
A.D.  36).  Taking  Varro  for  his  model,  Fenestella  was  one  of  the 
chief  representatives  of  the  new  style  of  historical  writing  which, 
in  the  place  of  the  brilliant  descriptive  pictures  of  Livy,  discussed 
curious  and  out-of-the-way  incidents  and  customs  of  political  and 
social  life,  including  literary  history.  He  was  the  author  of  an 
Annales,  probably  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  his  own  days. 
The  fragments  indicate  the  great  variety  of  subjects  discussed: 
the  origin  of. the  appeal  to  the  people  (prowcalio);  the  use  of 
elephants  in  the  circ.us  games;  the  wearing  of  gold  rings;  the 
introduction  of  the  olive  tree;  the  material  for  making  the  toga; 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil;  certain  details  as  to  the  lives  of  Cicero 
and  Terence.  The  work  was  very  much  used  (mention  is  made  of 
an  abridged  edition)  by  Pliny  the  elder,  Asconius  Pedianus  (the 
commentator  on  Cicero),  Nonius,  and  the  philologists. 

Fragments  in  H.  Peter,  Historicorum  Romanorum  fragmenta 
1883);  see  also  monographs  by  L.  Mercklin  (1844)  and  J.  Poeth 
1849);  M.  Schanz,  Geschichte  der  rom.  Litt.  ed.  2  (1901);  Teuffel, 
list,  of  Roman  Literature,  p.  259.  A  work  published  under  the  name  of 
L.  Fenestella  (De  magistratibus  et  sacerdotiis  Romanorum,  1510)  is 
really  by  A.  D.  Fiocchi,  canon  and  papal  secretary,  and  was  subse- 
quently published  as  by  him  (under  the  latinized  form  of  his  name, 
Floccus),  edited  by  Aegidius  Witsius  (1561). 

FENESTRATION  (from  O.  Fr.  fenestre,  modern  fenetre,  Lat. 
fenestra,  a  window,  connected  with  Gr.  $a.ivta>,  to  show),  an 
architectural  term  applied  to  the  arrangement  of  windows  on  the 
front  of  a  building,  more  especially  when,  in  the  absence  of 
columns  or  pilasters  separating  them,  they  constitute  its  chief 
architectural  embellishment.  The  term  "  fenestral  "  is  given  to  a 
frame  or  "  chassis  "  on  which  oiled  paper  or  thin  cloth  was 
strained  to  keep  out  wind  and  rain  when  the  windows  were  not 
glazed. 

FENIANS,  or  FENIAN  BROTHERHOOD,  the  name  of  a  modern 
Irish- American  revolutionary  secret  society,  founded  in  America 
by  John  O'Mahony  (1816-1877)  in  1858.  The  name  was  derived 
from  an  anglicized  version  of  fiann,  feinne,  the  legendary  band 
of  warriors  in  Ireland  led  by  the  hero  Find  Mac  Cumaifl  (see 
FINN  MAC  COOL;  and  CELT:  Celtic  Literature:  Irish);  and  it 
was  given  to  his  organization  of  conspirators  by  O'Mahony,  who 
was  a  Celtic  scholar  and  had  translated  Keating's  History  of 
Ireland  in  1857.  After  the  collapse  of  William  Smith  O'Brien's 
attempted  rising  in  1848,  O'Mahony,  who  was  concerned  in  it, 
escaped  abroad,  and  since  1852  had  been  living  in  New  York. 
James  Stephens,  another  of  the  "  men  of  1848,"  had  established 
himself  in  Paris,  and  was  in  correspondence  with  O'Mahony 
and  other  disaffected  Irishmen  at  home  and  abroad.  A  club 
called  the  Phoenix  National  and  Literary  Society,  with  Jeremiah 
Donovan  (afterwards  known  as  O'Donovan  Rossa)  among  its 
more  prominent  members,  had  recently  been  formed  at  Skib- 
bereen;  and  under  the  influence  of  Stephens,  who  visited  it  in 
May  1858,  it  became  the  centre  of  preparations  for  armed  re- 
bellion. About  the  same  time  O'Mahony  in  the  United  States 
established  the  "  Fenian  Brotherhood,"  whose  members  bound 
themselves  by  an  oath  of  "  allegiance  to  the  Irish  Republic,  now 
virtually  established,"  and  swore  to  take  up  arms  when  called 
upon  and  to  yield  implicit  obedience  to  the  commands  of  their 
superior  officers.  The  object  of  Stephens,  O'Mahony  and  other 
leaders  of  the  movement  was  to  form  a  great  league  of  Irishmen 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  against  British  rule  in  Ireland.  The 
organization  was  modelled  on  that  of  the  French  Jacobins  at  the 
Revolution;  there  was  a  "  Committee  of  Public  Safety "  in 
Paris,  with  a  number  of  subsidiary  committees,  and  affiliated 
clubs;  its  operations  were  conducted  secretly  by  unknown  and 
irresponsible  leaders;  and  it  had  ramifications  in  every  part  of 
the  world,  the  "  Fenians,"  as  they  soon  came  to  be  generally 
called,  being  found  in  Australia,  South  America,  Canada,  and 
above  all  in  the  United  States,  as  well  as  in  the  large  centres 
of  population  in  Great  Britain  such  as  London,  Manchester 
and  Glasgow.  It  is,  however,  noteworthy  that  Fenianism 
never  gained  much  hold  on  the  tenant-farmers  or  agricultural 
labourers  in  Ireland,  although  the  scurrilous  press  by  which  it 


FENIANS 


255 


was  supported  preached  a  savage  vendetta  against  the  land- 
owners, who  were  to  be  shot  down  "  as  we  shoot  robbers  and 
rats."1  The  movement  was  denounced  by  the  priests  of  the 
Catholic  Church. 

It  was,  however,  some  few  years  after  the  foundation  of  the 
Fenian  Brotherhood  before  it  made  much  headway,  or  at  all 
events  before  much  was  heard  of  it  outside  the  organization 
itself,  though  it  is  probable  that  large  numbers  of  recruits  had 
enrolled  themselves  in  its  "  circles."  The  Phoenix  Club  con- 
spiracy in  Kerry  was  easily  crushed  by  the  government,  who 
had  accurate  knowledge  from  an  informer  of  what  was  going  on. 
Some  twenty  ringleaders  were  put  on  trial,  including  Donovan, 
and  when  they  pleaded  guilty  were,  with  a  single  exception, 
treated  with  conspicuous  leniency.  But  after  a  convention  held 
at  Chicago  under  O'Mahony's  presidency  in  November  1863 
the  movement  began  to  show  signs  of  life.  About  the  same  time 
the  Irish  People,  a  revolutionary  journal  of  extreme  violence,  was 
started  in  Dublin  by  Stephens,  and  for  two  years  was  allowed 
without  molestation  by  the  government  to  advocate  armed 
rebellion,  and  to  appeal  for  aid  to  Irishmen  who  had  had  military 
training  in  the  American  Civil  War.  At  the  close  of  that  war  in 
1865  numbers  of  Irish  who  had  borne  arms  flocked  to  Ireland, 
and  the  plans  for  a  rising  matured.  The  government,  well  served 
as  usual  by  informers,  now  took  action.  In  September  1865  the 
Irish  People  was  suppressed,  and  several  of  the  more  prominent 
Fenians  were  sentenced  to  terms  of  penal  servitude;  Stephens, 
through  the  connivance  of  a  prison  warder,  escaped  to  France. 
The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  was  suspended  in  the  beginning  of  1866, 
and  a  considerable  number  of  persons  were  arrested.  Stephens 
issued  a  bombastic  proclamation  in  America  announcing  an 
imminent  general  rising  in  Ireland;  but  he  was  himself  soon 
afterwards  deposed  by  his  confederates,  among  whom  dissension 
had  broken  out.  A  few  Irish-American  officers,  who  landed  at 
Cork  in  the  expectation  of  commanding  an  army  against  England, 
were  locked  up  in  gaol;  some  petty  disturbances  in  Limerick 
and  Kerry  were  easily  suppressed  by  the  police. 

In  the  United  States,  however,  the  Fenian  Brotherhood,  now 
under  the  presidency  of  W.  R.  Roberts,  continued  plotting. 
They  raised  money  by  the  issue  of  bonds  in  the  name  of  the 
"  Irish  Republic,"  which  were  bought  by  the  credulous  in  the 
expectation  of  their  being  honoured  when  Ireland  should  be 
"  a  nation  once  again."  A  large  quantity  of  arms  was  purchased, 
and  preparations  were  openly  made  for  a  raid  into  Canada,  which 
the  United  States  government  took  no  steps  to  prevent.  It  was 
indeed  believed  that  President  Andrew  Johnson  was  not  indis- 
posed to  turn  the  movement  to  account  in  the  settlement  of  the 
Alabama  claims.  The  Fenian  "  secretary  for  war  "  was  General 
T.  W.  Sweeny  (1820-1892),  who  temporarily  (Jan.  i865-Nov. 
1 066)  was  struck  off  the  American  army  list.  The  command 
of  the  expedition  was  entrusted  to  John  O'Neill,  who  crossed  the 
Niagara  river  at  the  head  of  some  800  men  on  the  ist  of  June 
1866,  and  captured  Fort  Erie.  But  large  numbers  of  his  men 
deserted,  and  at  Ridgeway  the  Fenians  were  routed  by  a  battalion 
of  Canadian  volunteers.  On  the  3rd  of  June  the  remnant  sur- 
rendered to  the  American  warship  "  Michigan  ";  and  the  tardy 
issue  of  President  Johnson's  proclamation  enforcing  the  laws 
of  neutrality  brought  the  raid  to  an  ignominious  end;  the 
prisoners  were  released,  and  the  arms  taken  from  the  raiders 
were,  according  to  Henri  Le  Caron,  "  returned  to  the  Fenian 
organization,  only  to  be  used  for  the  same  purpose  some  four 
years  later."  In  December  1867,  John  O'Neill  became  president 
of  the  Brotherhood  in  America,  which  in  the  following  year  held 
a  great  convention  in  Philadelphia  attended  by  over  400  properly 
accredited  delegates,  while  6000  Fenian  soldiers,  armed  and  in 
uniform,  paraded  the  streets.  At  this  convention  a  second  in- 
vasion of  Canada  was  determined  upon;  while  the  news  of  the 
Clerkenwell  explosion  in  London  (see  below)  was  a  strong  in- 
centive to  a  vigorous  policy.  Le  Caron  (q.v.) ,  who,  while  acting 
as  a  secret  agent  of  the  English  government,  held  the  position 
of  "  inspector-general  of  the  Irish  Republican  Army,"  asserts 
that  he  "  distributed  fifteen  thousand  stands  of  arms  and  almost 
1  William  O'Connor  Morris,  Ireland  1708-1898,  p.  195. 


three  million  rounds  of  ammunition  in  the  care  of  the  many 
trusted  men  stationed  between  Ogdensburg  and  St  Albans,"  in 
preparation  for  the  intended  raid.  It  took  place  in  April  1870, 
and  proved  a  failure  not  less  rapid  or  complete  than  the  attempt 
of  1866.  The  Fenians  under  O'Neill's  command  crossed  the 
Canadian  frontier  near  Franklin,  Vt.,  but  were  dispersed  by  a 
single  volley  from  Canadian  volunteers;  while  O'Neill  himself 
was  promptly  arrested  by  the  United  States  authorities  acting 
under  the  orders  of  President  Grant. 

Meantime  in  Ireland,  after  the  suppression  of  the  Irish  People, 
disaffection  had  continued  to  smoulder,  and  during  the  latter 
part  of  1866  Stephens  endeavoured  to  raise  funds  in  America 
for  a  fresh  rising  planned  for  the  following  year.  A  bold  move 
on  the  part  of  the  Fenian  "  circles  "  in  Lancashire  had  been 
concerted  in  co-operation  with  the  movement  in  Ireland.  An 
attack  was  to  be  made  on  Chester,  the  arms  stored  in  the  castle 
were  to  be  seized,  the  telegraph  wires  cut,  the  rolling  stock  on 
the  railway  to  be  appropriated  for  transport  to  Holyhead,  where 
shipping  was  to  be  seized  and  a  descent  made  on  Dublin  before  the 
authorities  should  have  time  to  interfere.  This  scheme  was 
frustrated  by  information  given  to  the  government  by  the  in- 
former John  Joseph  Corydon,  one  of  Stephens's  most  trusted 
agents.  Some  insignificant  outbreaks  in  the  south  and  west  of 
Ireland  brought  "  the  rebellion  of  1867  "  to  an  ignominious  close. 
Most  of  the  ringleaders  were  arrested,  but  although  some  of  them 
were  sentenced  to  death  none  was  executed.  On  the  nth  of 
September  1867,  Colonel  Thomas  J.  Kelly,  "  deputy  central 
organizer  of  the  Irish  Republic,"  one  of  the  most  dangerous  of 
the  Fenian  conspirators,  was  arrested  in  Manchester,  whither 
he  had  gone  from  Dublin  to  attend  a  council  of  the  English 
"  centres,"  together  with  a  companion,  Captain  Deasy.  A  plot 
to  effect  the  rescue  of  these  prisoners  was  hatched  by  Edward 
O'Meaher  Condon  with  other  Manchester  Fenians;  and  on  the 
1 8th  of  September,  while  Kelly  and  Deasy  were  being  conveyed 
through  the  city  from  the  court-house,  the  prison  van  was 
attacked  by  Fenians  armed  with  revolvers,  and  in  the  scuffle 
police-sergeant  Brett,  who  was  seated  inside  the  van,  was  shot 
dead.  Condon,  Allen,  Larkin,  Maguire  and  O'Brien,  who  had 
taken  a  prominent  part  in  the  rescue,  were  arrested.  All  five 
were  sentenced  to  death;  but  Condon,  who  was  an  American 
citizen,  was  respited  at  the  request  of  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, his  sentence  being  commuted  to  penal  servitude  for  life, 
and  Maguire  was  granted  a  pardon.  Allen,  Larkin,  and  O'Brien 
were  hanged  on  the  23rd  of  November  for  the  murder  of  Brett. 
Attempts  were  made  at  the  time,  and  have  since  been  repeated, 
to  show  that  these  men  were  unjustly  sentenced,  the  contention 
of  their  sympathizers  being,  first,  that  as  "  political  offenders  " 
they  should  not  have  been  treated  as  ordinary  murderers;  and, 
secondly,  that  as  they  had  no  deliberate  intention  to  kill  the 
police-sergeant,  the  shot  that  caused  his  death  having  been  fired 
for  the  purpose  of  breaking  open  the  lock  of  the  van,  the  crime 
was  at  worst  that  of  manslaughter.  But  even  if  these  pleas  rest 
on  a  correct  statement  of  the  facts  they  have  no  legal  validity, 
and  they  afford  no  warrant  for  the  title  of  the  "  Manchester 
martyrs  "  by  which  these  criminals  are  remembered  among  the 
more  extreme  nationalists  in  Ireland  and  America.  Kelly  and 
Deasy  escaped  to  the  United  States,  where  the  former  obtained 
employment  in  the  New  York  custom-house. 

In  the  same  month,  November  1867,  one  Richard  Burke,  who 
had  been  employed  by  the  Fenians  to  purchase  arms  in  Birming- 
ham, was  arrested  and  lodged  in  Clerkenwell  prison  in  London. 
While  he  was  awaiting  trial  a  wall  of  the  prison  was  blown  down 
by  gunpowder,  the  explosion  causing  the  death  of  twelve  persons, 
and  the  maiming  of  some  hundred  and  twenty  others.  This 
outrage,  for  which  Michael  Barrett  suffered  the  death  penalty, 
powerfully  influenced  W.  E.  Gladstone  in  deciding  that  the 
Protestant  Church  of  Ireland  should  be  disestablished  as  a  con- 
cession to  Irish  disaffection.  In  1870,  Michael  Davitt  (q.v.)  was 
sentenced  to  fifteen  years'  penal  servitude  for  participation  in 
the  Fenian  conspiracy;  and  before  he  was  released  on  ticket  of 
leave  the  name  Fenian  had  become  practically  obsolete,  though 
the  "  Irish  Republican  Brotherhood  "  and  other  organizations 


256 


FENNEL— FENS 


In  Ireland  and  abroad  carried  on  the  same  tradition  and  pursued 
the  same  policy  in  later  years.  In  1879,  John  Devoy,  a  member 
'of  the  Fenian  Brotherhood,  promoted  a  "new  departure"  in 
America,  by  which  the  "  physical  force  party  "  allied  itself  with 
the  "  constitutional  movement  "  under  the  leadership  of  C.  S. 
Parnell  (q.v.);  and  the  political  conspiracy  of  the  Fenians  was 
combined  with  the  agrarian  revolution  inaugurated  by  the  Land 
League. 

See  William  O'Connor  Morris,  Ireland  from  if  98  to  1898  (London, 
1898) ;  Two  Centuries  of  Irish  History,  1691-1876,  edited  by  R.  Barry 
O'Brien  (London,  1907) ;  Henri  Le  Caron,  Twenty-five  Years  in  the 
Secret  Service  (London,  1892);  PatrickJ.  P.Tynan,  The  Irish  National 
Invincible*  and  their  Times  (London,  1896);  Justin  M'Carthy,  A 
History  of  our  own  Times  (4  vols.,  London,  1880).  (R.  J.  M.) 

FENNEL,  Foeniculum  vulgare  (also  known  as  F.  cap  iliac  eum) , 
a  perennial  plant  of  the  natural  order  Umbelliferae,  from  2  to 
3  or  (when  cultivated)  4  ft.  in  height,  having  leaves  three  or  four 
times  pinnate,  with  numerous  linear  or  awl-shaped  segments, 
and  glaucous  compound  umbels  of  about  15  or  20  rays,  with 
no  involucres,  and  small  yellow  flowers,  the  petals  incurved  at 
the  tip.  The  fruit  is  laterally  compressed,  five-ridged,  and  has  a 
large  single  resin-canal  or  "  vitta  "  under  each  furrow.  The  plant 
appears  to  be  of  south  European  origin,  but  is  now  met  with  in 
various  parts  of  Britain  and  the  rest  of  temperate  Europe,  and 
in  the  west  of  Asia.  The  dried  fruits  of  cultivated  plants  from 
Malta  have  an  aromatic  taste  and  odour,  and  are  used  for  the 
preparation  of  fennel  water,  valued  for  its  carminative  properties. 
It  is  given  in  doses  of  i  to  2  oz.,  the  active  principle  being  a 
volatile  oil  which  is  probably  the  same  as  oil  of  anise.  The 
shoots  of  fennel  are  eaten  blanched,  and  the  seeds  are  used  for 
flavouring.  The  fennel  seeds  of  commerce  are  of  several  sorts. 
Sweet  or  Roman  fennel  seeds  are  the  produce  of  a  tall  perennial 
plant,  with  umbels  of  25-30  rays,  which  is  cultivated  near  Nismes 
in  the  south  of  France;  they  are  elliptical  and  arched  in  form, 
about  £  in.  long  and  a  quarter  as  broad,  and  are  smooth  exter- 
nally, and  of  a  colour  approaching  a  pale  green.  Shorter  and 
straighter  fruits  are  obtained  from  the  annual  variety  of  F. 
vulgare  known  as  F.  Panmorium  (Panmuhuri)  or  Indian  fennel, 
and  are  employed  in  India  in  curries,  and  for  medicinal  purposes. 
Other  kinds  are  the  German  or  Saxon  fruits,  brownish-green  in 
colour,  and  between  £  and  j  in.  in  length,  and  the  broader  but 
smaller  fruits  of  the  wild  or  bitter  fennel  of  the  south  of  France. 
A  variety  of  fennel,  F.  duke,  having  the  stem  compressed  at  the 
base,  and  the  umbel  6-8  rayed,  is  grown  in  kitchen-gardens  for 
the  sake  of  its  leaves. 

Giant  fennel  is  the  name  applied  to  the  plant  Ferula  communis, 
a  member  of  the  same  natural  order,  and  a  fine  herbaceous  plant, 
native  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  where  the  pith  of  the  stem 
is  used  as  tinder.  Hog's  or  sow  fennel  is  the  species  Peucedanum 
officinale,  another  member  of  the  Umbelliferae. 

FENNER,  DUDLEY  (c.  1558-1587),  English  puritan  divine, 
was  born  in  Kent  and  educated  at  Cambridge  University. 
There  he  became  an  adherent  of  Thomas  Cartwright  (1535-1603), 
and  publicly  expounded  his  presbyterian  views,  with  the  result 
that  he  was  obliged  to  leave  Cambridge  without  taking  his  degree. 
For  some  months  he  seems  to  have  assisted  the  vicar  of  Cran- 
brook,  Kent,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  received  ordination. 
He  next  followed  Cartwright  to  Antwerp,  and,  having  received 
ordination  according  to  rite  of  the  Reformed  church,  assisted 
Cartwright  for  several  years  in  preaching  to  the  English  con- 
gregation there.  The  leniency  shown  by  Archbishop  Grindal  to 
puritans  encouraged  him  to  return  to  England,  and  he  became 
curate  of  Cranbrook  in  1583.  In  the  same  year,  however,  he  was 
one  of  seventeen  Kentish  ministers  suspended  for  refusing  to  sign 
an  acknowledgment  of  the  queen's  supremacy  and  of  the  authority 
of  the  Prayer  Book  and  articles.  He  was  imprisoned  for  a  time, 
but  eventually  regained  his  liberty  and  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life  as  chaplain  in  the  Reformed  church  at  Middleburgh. 

A  list  of  his  authentic  works  is  given  in  Cooper's  Athenae  Canta- 
brigienses  (Cambridge,  1858-1861).  They  rank  among  the  best 
expositions  of  the  principles  of  puritanism. 

FENNY  STRATFORD,  a  market  town  in  the  Buckingham 
parliamentary  division  of  Buckinghamshire,  England,  48  m. 


N.W.  by  N.  of  London  on  a'  branch  of  the  London  &  North- 
Western  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901),  4799.  It  lies 
in  an  open  valley  on  the  west  (left)  bank  of  the  Ouzel,  where  the 
great  north-western  road  from  London,  the  Roman  Watling 
Street,  crosses  the  stream,  and  is  i  m.  E.  of  Bletchley,  an  im- 
portant junction  on  the  main  line  of  the  North- Western  railway. 
The  church  of  St  Martin  was  built  (c.  1730)  on  the  site  of  an  older 
church  at  the  instance  of  Dr  Browne  Willis,  an  eminent  antiquary 
(d.  1760),  buried  here;  but  the  building  has  been  greatly  enlarged. 
A  custom  instituted  by  Willis  on  St  Martin's  Day  (November 
nth)  includes  a  service  in  the  church,  the  firing  of  some  small 
cannon  called  the  "  Fenny  Poppers,"  and  other  celebrations. 
The  trade  of  the  town  is  mainly  agricultural. 

FENRIR,  or  FENRIS,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  a  water- 
demon  in  the  shape  of  a  huge  wolf.  He  was  the  offspring  of  Loki 
and  the  giantess  Angurboda,  who  bore  two  other  children, 
Midgard  the  serpent,  and  Hel  the  goddess  of  death.  Fenrir  grew 
so  large  that  the  gods  were  afraid  of  him  and  had  him  chained  up. 
But  he  broke  the  first  two  chains.  The  third,  however,  was 
made  of  the  sound  of  a  cat's  footsteps,  a  man's  beard,  the  roots 
of  a  mountain,  a  fish's  breath  and  a  bird's  spittle.  This  magic 
bond  was  too  strong  for  him  until  Ragnarok  (Judgment  Day), 
when  he  escaped  and  swallowed  Odin  and  was  in  turn  slain  by 
Vidar,  the  latter's  son. 

FENS,1  a  district  in  the  east  of  England,  possessing  a  distinctive 
history  and  peculiar  characteristics.  It  lies  west  and  south  of 
the  Wash,  in  Lincolnshire,  Huntingdonshire,  Cambridgeshire  and 
Norfolk,  and  extends  over  more  than  70  m.  in  length  (Lincoln  to 
Cambridge)  and  some  35  m.  in  maximum  breadth  (Stamford  to 
Brandon  in  Suffolk),  its  area  being  considerably  over  half  a 
million  acres.  Although  low  and  flat,  and  seamed  by  innumerable 
water-courses,  the  entire  region  is  not,  as  the  Roman  name  of 
M etaris  Aestuarium  would  imply,  a  river  estuary,  but  a  bay  of  the 
North  Sea,  silted  up,  of  which  the  Wash  is  the  last  remaining 
portion.  Hydrographically,  the  Fens  embrace  the  lower  parts 
of  the  drainage-basins  of  the  rivers  Witham,  Welland,  Nene 
and  Great  Ouse;  and  against  these  streams,  as  against  the 
ocean,  they  are  protected  by  earthen  embankments,  10  to  15  ft. 
high.  As  a  rule  the  drainage  water  is  lifted  off  the  Fens  into 
the  rivers  by  means  of  steam-pumps,  formerly  by  windmills. 

General  History. — According  to  fairly  credible  tradition,  the 
first  systematic  attempt  to  drain  the  Fens  was  made  by  the 
Romans.  They  dug  a  catchwater  drain  (as  the  artificial  fenland 
water-courses  are  called),  the  Caer  or  Car  Dyke,  from  Lincoln  to 
Ramsey  (or,  according  to  Stukeley,  as  far  as  Cambridge),  along 
the  western  edge  of  the  Fens,  to  carry  off  the  precipitation  of  the 
higher  districts  which  border  the  fenland,  and  constructed 
alongside  the  Welland  and  on  the  seashore  earthen  embankments, 
of  which  some  150  m.  survive.  Mr  S.  H.  Miller  is  disposed  to 
credit  the  native  British  inhabitants  of  the  Fens  with  having 
executed  certain  of  these  works.  The  Romans  also  carried 
causeways  over  the  country.  After  their  departure  from 
Britain  in  the  first  half  of  the  5th  century  the  Fens  fell  into 
neglect;  and  despite  the  preservation  of  the  woodlands  for  the 
purposes  of  the  chase  by  the  Norman  and  early  Plantagenet 
kings,  and  the  unsuccessful  attempt  which  Richard  de  Rulos, 
chamberlain  of  William  the  Conqueror,  made  to  drain  Deeping 
Fen,  the  fenland  region  became  almost  everywhere  waterlogged, 
and  relapsed  to  a  great  extent  into  a  state  of  nature.  In  addition 
to  this  it  was  ravaged  by  serious  inundations  of  the  sea,  for 
example,  in  the  years  1178,  1248  (or  1250),  1288,  1322,  1335, 
1467,  1571.  Yet  the  fenland  was  not  altogether  a  wilderness  of 
reed-grown  marsh  and  watery  swamp.  At  various  spots,  more 
particularly  in  the  north  and  in  the  south,  there  existed  islands  of 
firmer  and  higher  ground,  resting  generally  on  the  boulder  clays  of 
the  Glacial  epochs  and  on  the  inter-  Glacial  gravels  of  the  Palaeo- 
ithic  age.  In  these  isolated  localities  members  of  the  monastic 

1  The  word  "  fen,"  a  general  term  for  low  marshy  land  or  bog,  is 
common  to  Teutonic  languages,  cf.  Dutch  ven  or  veen,  Ger.  Fenne, 
Fehn,  Goth.fani,  mud;  the  Indo-European  root  is  seen  in  Gr.  iriJXoj, 
mud,  Lat.  palus,  marsh.  The  word  "  bog  "  is  from  the  Irish  or 
Gaelic  bogach,  formed  from  Celtic  bog,  soft,  and  meaning  therefore 
soft,  swampy  ground. 


FENS 


257 


orders  (especially  at  a  later  date  the  Cistercians)  began  to  settle 
after  about  the  middle  of  the  7th  century.  At  Medeshampstead 
(i.e.  Peterborough),  Ely,  Crowland,  Ramsey,  Thorney,  Spald- 
ing,  Peakirk,  Swineshead,  Tattershall,  Kirkstead,  Bardney, 
Sempringham,  Bourne  and  numerous  other  places,  they  made 
settlements  and  built  churches,  monasteries  and  abbeys.  In 
spite  of  the  incursions  of  the  predatory  Northmen  and  Danes  in 
the  pth  and  loth  centuries,  and  of  the  disturbances  consequent 
upon  the  establishment  of  the  Camp  of  Refuge  by  Hereward  the 
Wake  in  the  fens  of  the  Isle  of  Ely  in  the  nth  century,  these 
scattered  outposts  continued  to  shed  rays  of  civilization  across 
the  lonely  Fenland  down  to  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Then  they,  too,  were  partly  overtaken 
by  the  fate  which  befell  the  rest  of  the  Fens;  and  it  was  only  in 
the  end  of  the  i8th  and  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century  that  the 
complete  drainage  and  reclamation  of  the  Fen  region  was  finally 
effected.  Attempts  on  a  considerable  scale  were  indeed  made  to 
reclaim  them  in  the  i7th  century,  and  the  work  as  a  whole  forms 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  chapters  of  the  industrial  history  of 
England.  Thus,  the  reclamation  of  the  Witham  Fens  was  taken 
up  by  Sir  Anthony  Thomas,  the  earl  of  Lindsey,  Sir  William 
Killigrew,  King  Charles  I.,  and  others  in  1631  and  succeeding 
years;  and  that  of  the  Deeping  or  Welland  Fens  in  1638  by  Sir 
W.  Ayloff,  Sir  Anthony  Thomas  and  other  "  adventurers,"  after 
one  Thomas  Lovell  had  ruined  himself  in  a  similar  attempt  in  the 
reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  earl  of  Lindsey  received  24,000 
acres  for  his  work.  Charles  I.,  declaring  himself  the  "  under- 
taker "  of  the  Holland  Fen,  claimed  8000  out  of  its  22,000  acres 
as  his  share. 

A  larger  work  than  these,  however,  was  the  drainage  of  the 
fens  of  the  Nene  and  the  Great  Ouse,  comprehending  the  wide 
tract  known  as  the  Bedford  level.  This  district  took  name  from 
the  agreement  of  Francis,  earl  of  Bedford,  the  principal  land- 
holder, and  thirteen  other  adventurers,  with  Charles  I.  m  1634,  to 
drain  the  level,  on  condition  of  receiving  95,000  acres  of  the 
reclaimed  land.  A  partial  attempt  at  drainage  had  been  made 
(1478-1490)  by  John  Morton,  when  bishop  of  Ely,  who  constructed 
Morton's  Learn,  from  Peterborough  to  the  sea,  to  carry  the 
waters  of  the  Nene,  but  this  also  proved  a  failure.  An  act  was 
passed,  moreover,  in  1602  for  effecting  its  reclamation;  and  Lord 
Chief-Justice  Popham  (whose  name  is  preserved  in  Popham's 
Eau,  S.E.  of  Wisbech)  and  a  company  of  Londoners  began  the 
work  in  1605;  but  the  first  effectual  attempt  was  that  of  1634. 
The  work  was  largely  directed  by  the  Dutch  engineer  Cornelius 
Vermuyden;  who  had  begun  work  in  the  Fens  in  1621,  and  was 
knighted  in  1628. 

Three  years  after  the  agreement  of  the  earl  of  Bedford  and  his 
partners  with  the  king,  after  an  outlay  of  £100,000  on  the 
part  of  the  company,  the  contract  was  annulled,  on  the  fraudu- 
lent plea  that  the  works  were  insufficient;  and  an  offer  was 
made  by  King  Charles  to  undertake  its  completion  on  condition 
of  receiving -57,000  acres  in  addition  to  the  amount  originally 
agreed  on.  This  unjust  attempt  was  frustrated  by  the  breaking 
out  of  the  civil  war;  and  no  further  attempt  at  drainage  was 
made  until  1649,  when  the  parliament  reinstated  the  earl  of 
Bedford's  successor  in  his  father's  rights.  After  an  additional 
outlay  of  £300,000,  the  adventurers  received  95,000  acres  of 
reclaimed  land,  according  to  the  contract,  which,  however,  fell 
far  short  of  repaying  the  expense  of  the  undertaking.  In  1664  a 
royal  charter  was  obtained  to  incorporate  the  company,  which 
still  exists,  and  carries  on  the  concern  under  a  governor,  6 
bailiffs,  20  conservators,  and  a  commonalty,  each  of  whom  must 
possess  100  acres  of  land  in  the  level,  and  has  a  voice  in  the  election 
of  officers.  The  conservators  must  each  possess  not  less  than  280 
acres,  the  governor  and  bailiffs  each  400  acres.  The  original 
adventurers  had  allotments  of  land  according  to  their  interest  of 
the  original  95,000  acres;  but  Charles  II.,  on  granting  the 
charter,  took  care  to  secure  to  the  crown  a  lot  of  12,000  acres  out 
of  the  95,000,  which,  however,  is  held  under  the  directors, 
whereas  the  allotments  are  not  held  in  common,  though  subject 
to  the  laws  of  the  corporation.  The  level  was  divided  in  1697  into 
three  parts,  called  the  North,  Middle,  and  South  Levels — the 

x-o 


second  being  separated  from  the  others  by  the  Nene  and  Old 
Bedford  rivers. 

These  attempts  failed  owing  to  the  determined  opposition  of 
the  native  fenmen  ("  stilt-walkers  "),  whom  the  drainage  and 
appropriation  of  the  unenclosed  fenlands  would  deprive  of 
valuable  and  long-enjoyed  rights  of  commonage,  turbary  (turf- 
cutting),  fishing,  fowling,  &c.  Oliver  Cromwell  is  said  to  have  put 
himself  at  their  head  and  succeeded  in  stopping  all  the  operations. 
When  he  became  Protector,  however,  he  sanctioned  Vermuyden's 
plans,  and  Scottish  prisoners  taken  at  Dunbar,  and  Dutch 
prisoners  taken  by  Blake  in  his  victory  over  Van  Tromp,  were 
employed  as  the  workers.  Vermuyden's  system,  however,  was 
exclusively  Dutch;  and  while  perfectly  suited  to  Holland  it  did 
not  meet  all  the  necessities  of  East  Anglia.  He  confined  his 
attention  almost  exclusively  to  the  inland  draining  and  embank- 
ments, and  did  not  provide  sufficient  outlet  for  the  waters  them- 
selves into  the  sea. 

Holland  and  other  Fens  on  the  west  side  of  the  Witham  were 
finally  drained  in  1767,  although  not  without  much  rioting  and 
lawlessness;  and  a  striking  account  of  the  wonderful  improve- 
ments effected  by  a  generation  later  is  recorded  in  Arthur  Young's 
General  View  of  the  Agriculture  of  the  County  of  Lincoln  (London, 
1 799) .  The  East,  West  and  Wildmore  Fens  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Witham  were  drained  in  1801-1807  by  John  Rennie,  who  carried 
off  the  precipitation  which  fell  on  the  higher  grounds  by  catch- 
water  drains,  on  the  principle  of  the  Roman  Car  Dyke,  and 
improved  the  outfall  of  the  river,  so  that  it  might  the  more  easily 
discharge  the  Fen  water  which  flowed  or  was  pumped  into  it. 
The  Welland  or  Deeping  Fens  were  drained  in  1794,  1801,  1824, 
1837  and  other  years.  Almost  the  only  portion  of  the  original 
wild  Fens  now  remaining  is  Wicken  Fen,  which  lies  east  of  the 
river  Cam  and  south-east  of  the  Isle  of  Ely. 

The  Fen  Rivers. — The  preservation  of  the  Fens  depends  in  an 
intimate  and  essential  manner  upon  the  preservation  of  the 
rivers,  and  especially  of  their  banks.  The  Witham,  known 
originally  as  the  Grant  Avon,  also  called  the  Lindis  by  Leyland 
(Itinerary,  vol.  vii.  p.  41),  and  in  Jean  Ingelow's  High  Tide  on  the 
Lincolnshire  Coast,  is  some  80  m.  long,  and  drains  an  area  of  1079 
sq.  m.  It  owes  its  present  condition  to  engineering  works  carried 
out  in  the  years  1762-1764,  1865,  1881,  and  especially  in  1880- 
1884.  In  1500  the  river  was  dammed  immediately  above  Boston 
by  a  large  sluice,  the  effect  of  which  was  not  only  to  hinder  free 
navigation  up  to  Lincoln  (to  which  city  sea-going  vessels  used  to 
penetrate  in  the  I4th  and  I5th  centuries),  but  also  to  choke  the 
channel  below  Boston  with  sedimentary  matter.  The  sluice,  or 
rather  a  new  structure  made  in  1764-1766,  remains;  but  the 
river  below  Boston  has  been  materially  improved  (1880-1884), 
first  by  the  construction  of  a  new  outfall,  3  m.  in  length,  whereby 
the  channel  was  not  only  straightened,  but  its  current  carried 
directly  into  deep  water,  without  having  to  battle  against  the 
often  shifting  sandbanks  of  the  Wash;  and  secondly,  by  the 
deepening  and  regulation  of  the  river-bed  up  to  Boston.  The 
Welland,  which  is  about  70  m.  long,  and  drains  an  area  of  760  sq. 
m.,  was  made  to  assume  its  present  shape  and  direction  in  1620, 
1638,  1650,  1794,  and  1835  and  following  years.  The  most 
radical  alteration  took  place  in  1794,  when  a  new  outfall  was 
made  from  the  confluence  of  the  Glen  (30  m.  long)  to  the  Wash,  a 
distance  of  nearly  3  m.  The  Nene,  90  m.  long,  and  draining  an 
area  of  some  1077  sq.  m.,  was  first  regulated  by  Bishop  Morton, 
and  it  was  further  improved  in  1631,  1721,  and  especially,  under 
plans  by  Rennie  and  Telford,  in  1827-1830  and  1832.  The  work 
done  from  1721  onward  consisted  in  straightening  the  lower 
reaches  of  the  stream  and  in  directing  and  deepening  the  outfall. 
The  Ouse  (q.v.)  or  Great  Ouse,  the  largest  of  the  fenland  rivers, 
seems  to  have  been  deflected,  at  some  unknown  period,  from  a 
former  channel  connecting  via  the  Old  Croft  river  with  the  Nene, 
into  the  Little  Ouse  below  Littleport;  and  the  courses  of  the  two 
streams  are  now  linked  together  by  an  elaborate  network  of 
artificial  drains,  the  results  of  the  great  engineering  works 
carried  out  in  the  Bedford  Level  in  the  I7th  century.  The  old 
channel,  starting  from  Earith,  and  known  as  the  Old  West  river, 
carries  only  a  small  stream  until,  at  a  point  above  Ely,  it  joins  the 


258 


FENS 


Cam.  The  salient  features  of  the  plan  executed  by  Vermuyden1 
for  the  earl  of  Bedford  in  the  years  1632-1653  were  as  follows: 
taking  the  division  of  the  area  made  in  1697-1698  into  (i.)  the 
North  Level,  between  the  river  Welland  and  the  river  Nene;  (ii.) 
the  Middle  Level,  between  the  Nene  and  the  Old  Bedford  river 
(which  was  made  at  this  time,  i.e.  1630);  and  (iii.)  the  South 
Level,  from  the  Old  Bedford  river  to  the  south-eastern  border  of 
the  fenland.  In  the  North  Level  the  Welland  was  embanked,  the 
New  South  Eau,  Peakirk  Drain,  and  Shire  Drain  made,  and  the 
existing  main  drains  deepened  and  regulated.  In  the  Middle 
Level  the  Nene  was  embanked  from  Peterborough  to  Guyhirn, 


Map  of  the  Fens. 


also  the  Ouse  from  Earith  to  Over,  both  places  at  the  south-west 
edge  of  the  fenland;  the  New  Bedford  river  was  made  from 
Earith  to  Denver,  and  the  north  side  of  the  Old  Bedford  river  and 
the  south  side  of  the  New  Bedford  river  were  embanked,  a  long 
narrow  "  wash,"  or  overflow  basin,  being  left  between  them; 
several  large  feeding-drains  were  dug,  including  the  Forty  Foot  or 
Vermuyden's  Drain,  the  Sixteen  Foot  river,  Bevill's  river ;  and  the 
Twenty  Foot  river;  and  a  new  outfall  was  made  for  the  Nene, 
and  Denver  sluice  (to  dam  the  old  circuitous  Ouse)  constructed. 
In  the  South  Level  Sam's  Cut  was  dug  and  the  rivers  were 
embanked.  Since  that  period  the  mouth  of  the  Ouse  has  been 
straightened  above  and  below  King's  Lynn  (1795-1821),  a  new 
straight  cut  made  between  Ely  and  Littleport,  the  North  Level 
Main  Drain  and  the  Middle  Level  Drain  constructed,  and  the 

1  The  principles  upon  which  he  proceeded  are  set  forth  in  his 
Discourse  touching  the  Draining  of  the  Great  Fennes  (1642),  reprinted 
in  Fenland  Notes  and  Queries  (1898),  pp.  26-38  and  81-87. 


meres  of  Ramsey,  Whittlesey  (1851-1852),  &c.,  drained  and 
brought  under  cultivation.  A  considerable  barge  traffic  is 
maintained  on  the  Ouse  below  St  Ives,  on  the  Cam  up  to  Cam- 
bridge, the  Lark  and  Little  Ouse,  and  the  network  of  navigable 
cuts  between  the  New  Bedford  river  and  Peterborough.  The 
Nene,  though  locked  up  to  Northampton,  and  connected  from 
that  point  with  the  Grand  Junction  canal,  is  practically  unused 
above  Wansford,  and  traffic  is  small  except  below  Wisbech. 

The  effect  of  the  drainage  schemes  has  been  to  lower  the  level 
of  the  fenlands  generally  by  some  18  in.,  owing  to  the  shrinkage  of 
the  peat  consequent  upon  the  extraction  of  so  much  of  its 
contained  water;  and  this  again  has  tended,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  diminish  the  speed  and  erosive  power  of  the 
fenland  rivers,  and,  on  the  other,  to  choke  up  their 
respective  outfalls  with  the  sedimentary  matters  which 
they  themselves  sluggishly  roll  seawards. 

The  Wash. — From  this  it  will  be  plain  that  the  Wash 
(q.v.)  is  being  silted  up  by  riverine  detritus.  The  forma- 
tion of  new  dry  land,  known  at  first  as  "  marsh,"  goes 
on,  however,  but  slowly.  During  the  centuries  since 
the  Romans  are  believed  to  have  constructed  the  sea- 
banks  which  shut  out  the  ocean,  it  is  computed  that 
an  area  of  not  more  than  60,000  to  70,000  acres  has 
been  won  from  the  Wash,  embanked,  drained  and 
brought  more  or  less  under  cultivation.  The  greatest 
gain  has  been  at  the  direct  head  of  the  bay,  between 
the  Welland  and  the  Great  Ouse,  where  the  average 
annual  accretion  is  estimated  at  10  to  u  lineal  feet. 
On  the  Lincolnshire  coast,  farther  north,  the  average 
annual  gain  has  been  not  quite  2  ft.;  whilst  on  the 
opposite  Norfolk  coast  it  has  been  little  more  than  6  in. 
annually.  On  the  whole,  some  3  5 ,000  acres  were  enclosed 
in  the  I7th  century,  about  19,000  acres  during  the  i8th, 
and  about  10,000  acres  during  the  igth  century. 

The  first  comprehensive  scheme  for  regulating  the 
outfall  channels  and  controlling  the  currents  of  the 
Fen  rivers  seems  to  be  that  proposed  by  Nathaniel 
Kinderley  in  1751.  His  idea2  was  to  link  the  Nene  with 
the  Ouse  by  means  of  a  new  cut  to  be  made  through  the 
marshland,  and  guide  the  united  stream  through  a 
further  new  cut  "  under  Wotten  and  Wolverton 
through  the  Marshes  till  over  against  Inglesthorp  or 
Snetsham,  and  there  discharge  itself  immediately  into 
the  Deeps  of  Lyn  Channel."  In  a  similar  way  the 
Witham,  "  when  it  has  received  the  Welland  from 
Spalding,"  was  to  be  carried  "  to  some  convenient  place 
over  against  Wrangle  or  Friskney,  where  it  may  be  dis- 
charged into  Boston  Deeps."  This  scheme  was  still 
further  improved  upon  by  Sir  John  Rennie,  who,  in  a 
report  which  he  drew  up  in  1839,  recommended  that  the 
outfalls  of  all  four  rivers  should  be  directed  by  means 
of  fascined  channels  into  one  common  outfall,  and  that 
the  land  lying  between  them  should  be  enclosed  as 
rapidly  as  it  consolidated.  By  this  means  he  esti- 
mated that  150,000  acres  would  be  won  to  cultivation. 
But  beyond  one  or  two  abortive  or  half-hearted  attempts, 
e.g.  by  the  Lincolnshire  Estuary  Company  in  1851,  and  in 
1876  and  subsequent  years  by  the  Norfolk  Estuary  Company, 
no  serious  effort  has  ever  been  made  to  execute  either  of  these 
schemes. 

Climate. — The  annual  mean  temperature,  as  observed  at  Boston, 
in  the  period  1864-1885,  is  48-7°  F.;  January,  36-5°;  July, 
62-8°;  and  as  observed  at  Wisbech,  for  the  period  1861-1875, 
49-1°.  The  average  mean  rainfall  for  the  seventy-one  years 
1830-1900,  at  Boston,  was  22-9  in.;  at  Wisbech  for  the  fifteen 
years  1860-1875,  24-2  in.,  and  for  the  fifteen  years  1866-1880, 
26-7  in.;  and  at  Maxey  near  Peterborough,  21-7  for  the  nine- 
teen years  1882-1900.  Previous  to  the  drainage  of  the  Fens, 
ague,  rheumatism,  and  other  ailments  incidental  to  a  damp 

1  Set  forth  in  The  Present  State  of  the  Navigation  of  the  Towns  of 
Lyn,  Wisbeach,  Spalding  and  Boston  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1851),  pp.  82 
seq. 


FENTON,  EDWARD— FENTON,  ELIJAH 


climate  were  widely  prevalent,  but  at  the  present  day  the  Fen 
country  is  as  healthy  as  the  rest  of  England;  indeed,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  it  is  conducive  to  longevity. 

Historical  Notes. — The  earliest  inhabitants  of  this  region  of 
whom  we  have  record  were  the  British  tribes  of  the  Iceni  con- 
federation; the  Romans,  who  subdued  them,  called  them 
Coriceni  or  Coritani.  In  Saxon  times  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Fens  were  known  (e.g.  to  Bede)  as  Gyrvii,  and  are  described  as 
traversing  the  country  on  stilts.  Macaulay,  writing  of  the  year 
1689,  gives  to  them  the  name  of  Breedlings,  and  describes  them 
as  "  a  half-savage  population  .  .  .  who  led  an  amphibious  life, 
sometimes  wading,  sometimes  rowing,  from  one  islet  of  firm 
ground  to  another."  In  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  those  who 
dwelt  in  the  remoter  parts  were  scarcely  more  civilized,  being 
known  to  their  neighbours  by  the  expressive  term  of  "  Slodgers." 
These  rude  fen-dwellers  have  in  all  ages  been  animated  by  a 
tenacious  love  of  liberty.  Boadicea,  queen  of  the  Iceni,  the 
•worthy  foe  of  the  Romans;  Hereward  the  Saxon,  who  defied 
William  the  Conqueror;  Cromwell  and  his  Ironsides,  are  repre- 
sentative of  the  fenman's  spirit  at  its  best.  The  fen  peasantry 
showed  a  stubborn  defence  of  their  rights,  not  only  when  they 
resisted  the  encroachments  and  selfish  appropriations  of  the 
"  adventurers  "  in  the  i7th  century,  in  the  Bedford  Level,  in 
Deeping  Fen,  and  in  the  Witham  Fens,  and  again  in  the  i8th 
century,  when  Holland  Fen  was  finally  enclosed,  but  also  in  the 
Peasants'  Rising  of  1381,  and  in  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  So  long  as  the  Fens  were  unenclosed  and 
thickly  studded  with  immense  "  forests  "  of  reeds,  and  innumer- 
able marshy  pools  and  "  rows  "  (channels  connecting  the  pools), 
they  abounded  in  wild  fowl,  being  regularly  frequented  by  various 
species  of  wild  duck  and  geese,  garganies,  polchards,  shovelers, 
teals,  widgeons,  peewits,  terns,  grebes,  coots,  water-hens,  water- 
rails,  red-shanks,  lapwings,  god-wits,  whimbrels,  cranes,  bitterns, 
herons,  swans,  ruffs  and  reeves.  Vast  numbers  of  these  were 
taken  in  decoys1  and  sent  to  the  London  markets.  At  the  same 
time  equally  vast  quantities  of  tame  geese  were  reared  in  the 
Fens,  and  driven  by  road2  to  London  to  be  killed  at  Michaelmas. 
Their  down,  feathers  and  quills  (for  pens)  were  also  a  considerable 
source  of  profit.  The  Fen  waters,  too,  abounded  in  fresh-water 
fish,  especially  pike,  perch,  bream,  tench,  rud,  dace,  roach,  eels 
and  sticklebacks.  The  Witham,  on  whose  banks  so  many 
monasteries  stood,  was  particularly  famous  for  its  pike;  as 
•were  certain  of  the  monastic  waters  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
Fens  for  their  eels.  The  soil  of  the  reclaimed  Fens  is  of  excep- 
tional fertility,  being  almost  everywhere  rich  in  humus,  which  is 
capable  not  only  of  producing  very  heavy  crops  of  wheat  and 
other  corn,  but  also  of  fattening  live-stock  with  peculiar  ease. 
Lincolnshire  oxen  were  famous  in  Elizabeth's  time,  and  are 
specially  singled  out  by  Arthur  Young,3  the  breed  being  the 
shorthorn.  Of  the  crops  peculiar  to  the  region  it  must  suffice  to 
mention  the  old  British  dye-plant  woad,  which  is  still  grown  on  a 
small  scale  in  two  or  three  parishes  immediately  south  of  Boston; 
hemp,  which  was  extensively  grown  in  the  i8th  century,  but  is 
not  now  planted;  and  peppermint,  which  is  occasionally  grown, 
e.g.  at  Deeping  and  Wisbech.  In  the  second  half  of  the  igth 
century  the  Fen  country  acquired  a  certain  celebrity  in  the  world 
of  sport  from  the  encouragement  it  gave  to  speed  skating. 
Whenever  practicable,  championship  and  other  racing  meetings 
are  held,  chiefly  at  Littleport  and  Spalding.  The  little  village 
of  Welney,  between  Ely  and  Wisbech,  has  produced  some  of  the 
most  notable  of  the  typical  Fen  skaters,  e.g.  "  Turkey  "  Smart 
and  "  Fish  "  Smart. 

Apart  from  fragmentary  ruins  of  the  former  monastic  buildings 
of  Crowland,  Kirkstead  and  other  places,  the  Fen  country  of 
Lincolnshire  (division  of  Holland)  is  especially  remarkable  for 
the  size  and  beauty  of  its  parish  churches,  mostly  built  of 
Barnack  rag  from  Northamptonshire.  Moreover,  in  the  posses- 

1  For  descriptions  of  these  see  Oldfield,  Appendix,  pp.  2-4,  of 
A  Topographical  and  Historical  Account  of  Wainfleet  (London,  1829) ; 
and  Miller  and  Skertchly,  The  Fenland,  pp.  369-375. 

1  See  De  Foe's  account  in  A  Tour  through  the  Eastern  Counties, 
1722  (1724-1725). 

1  General  View,  pp.  174-194  and  288-304. 


259 

sion  of  such  buildings  as  Ely  cathedral  and  the  parish  church 
of  King's  Lynn,  other  parts  of  the  Fens  must  be  considered 
only  less  rich  in  ecclesiastical  architecture.  Using  these  fine 
opportunities,  the  Fen  folk  have  long  cultivated  the  science 
of  campanology. 

Dialect. — Owing  to  the  comparative  remoteness  of  their 
geographical  situation,  and  the  relatively  late  period  at  which 
the  Fens  were  definitely  enclosed,  the  Fenmen  have  preserved 
several  dialectal  features  of  a  distinctive  character,  not  the  least 
interesting  being  their  close  kinship  with  the  classical  English 
of  the  present  day.  Professor  E.  E.  Freeman  (Longman's 
Magazine,  1875)  reminded  modern  Englishmen  that  it  was  a 
native  of  the  Fens,  "  a  Bourne  man,  who  gave  the  English 
language  its  present  shape."  This  was  Robert  Manning,  or 
Robert  of  Brunne,  who  in  or  about  1303  wrote  The  Handlynge 
Synne.  Tennyson's  dialect  poems,  The  Northern  Farmer,  &c., 
do  not  reproduce  the  pure  Fen  dialect,  but  rather  the  dialect  of 
the  Wold  district  of  mid  Lincolnshire. 

AUTHORITIES. — Sir  William  Dugdale,  History  of  Imbanking  and 
Draining  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1772);  W.  Elstobb,  A  Historical  Account 
of  the  Great  Level  (Lynn,  1793);  W.  Chapman,  Facts  and  Remarks 
relative  to  the  Witham  and  the  Wetland  (Boston,  1800);  S.  Wells, 
History  and  Drainage  of  the  Great  Level  of  the  Fens  (2  vols.,  London, 
1828  and  1830);  P.  Thompson,  History  of  Boston  (Boston,  1856); 
Baldwin  Latham,  Papers  on  the  Drainage  of  the  Fens,  read  before  the 
Society  of  Engineers,  3rd  November  1862;  N.  and  A.  Goodman, 
Handbook  of  Fen  Skating  (London,  1882);  Moore,  Associated 
Architectural  Societies'  Reports  and  Papers  (1893);  Fenland  Notes 
and  Queries,  and  Lincolnshire  Notes  and  Queries,  passim;  W.  H. 
Wheeler,  A  History  of  the  Fens  of  South  Lincolnshire,  pp.  223  et  seq. 
(2nd  ed.,  Boston,  1897).  Various  phases  of  Fen  life,  mostly  of  the 
past,  are  described  in  Charles  Kingsley's  Hereward  the  Wake  (Cam- 
bridge, 1866);  Baring  Gould's  Cheap-Jack  Zita  (London,  1893); 
Manville  Fenn's  Dick  o'  the  Fens  (London,  1887) ;  and  J.  T.  Bealby's 
A  Daughter  of  the  Fen  (London,  1896).  Q.  T.  BE.) 

FENTON,  EDWARD  (d.  1603),  English  navigator,  son  of 
Henry  Fenton  and  brother  of  Sir  Geoffrey  Fenton  (<?.».),  was  a 
native  of  Nottinghamshire.  In  1577  he  sailed,  in  command  of 
the  "  Gabriel,"  with  Sir  Martin  Frobisher's  second  expedition 
for  the  discovery  of  the  north-west  passage,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  took  part  as  second  in  command  in  Frobisher's  third 
expedition,  his  ship  being  the  "  Judith."  He  was  then  employed 
in  Ireland  for  a  time,  but  in  1582  he  was  put  in  charge  of  an 
expedition  which  was  to  sail  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the 
Moluccas  and  China,  his  instructions  being  to  obtain  any  know- 
ledge of  the  north-west  passage  that  was  possible  without 
hindrance  to  his  trade.  On  this  unsuccessful  voyage  he  got 
no  farther  than  Brazil,  and  throughout  he  was  engaged  in 
quarrelling  with  his  officers,  and  especially  with  his  lieutenant, 
William  Hawkins,  the  nephew  of  Sir  John  Hawkins,  whom  he  had 
in  irons  when  he  arrived  back  in  the  Thames.  In  1588  he  had 
command  of  the  "  Mary  Rose,"  one  of  the  ships  of  the  fleet  that 
was  formed  to  oppose  the  Armada.  He  died  fifteen  years  after- 
wards. 

FENTON,  ELIJAH  (1683-1730),  English  poet,  was  born  at 
Shelton  near  Newcastle-under-Lyme,  of  an  old  Staffordshire 
family,  on  the  25th  of  May  1683.  He  graduated  from  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1704,  but  was  prevented  by  religious 
scruples  from  taking  orders.  He  accompanied  the  earl  of  Orrery 
to  Flanders  as  private  secretary,  and  on  returning  to  England 
became  assistant  in  a  school  at  Headley,  Surrey,  being  soon 
afterwards  appointed  master  of  the  free  grammar  school  at 
Sevenoaks  in  Kent.  In  1710  he  resigned  his  appointment  in  the 
expectation  of  a  place  from  Lord  Bolingbroke,  but  was  dis- 
appointed. He  then  became  tutor  to  Lord  Broghill,  son  of  his 
patron  Orrery.  Fenton  is  remembered  as  the  coadjutor  of 
Alexander  Pope  in  his  translation  of  the  Odyssey.  He  was  re- 
sponsible for  the  first,  fourth,  nineteenth  and  twentieth  books,  for 
which  he  received  £30x3.  He  died  at  East  Hampstead,  Berkshire, 
on  the  i6th  of  July  1730.  He  was  buried  in  the  parish  church, 
and  his  epitaph  was  written  by  Pope. 

Fenton  also  published  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Miscellany  Poems 
(1707);  Miscellaneous  Poems  (1717);  Mariamne,  a  tragedy  (1723); 
an  edition  (1725)  of  Milton's  poems,  and  one  of  Waller  (1729)  with 
elaborate  notes.  See  W.  W.  Lloyd,  Elijah  Fenton,  his  Poetry  and 
Friends  (1894). 


260 


FENTON,  SIR  GEOFFREY— FEOFFMENT 


FENTON,  SIR  GEOFFREY  (c.  1539-1608),  English  writer  and 
politician,  was  the  son  of  Henry  Fenton,  of  Nottinghamshire. 
He  was  brother  of  Edward  Fenton  the  navigator.  He  is  said 
to  have  visited  Spain  and  Italy  in  his  youth;  possibly  he  went 
to  Paris  in  Sir  Thomas  Hoby's  train  in  1566,  for  he  was  living 
there  in  1567,  when  he  wrote  Certaine  tragicall  discourses  written 
oute  of  Frenche  and  Latin.  This  book  is  a  free  translation  of 
Francois  de  Belleforest's  French  rendering  of  Matteo  Bandello's 
Novelle.  Till  1579  Fenton  continued  his  literary  labours, 
publishing  Monophylo  in  1572,  Golden  epistles  gathered  out  of 
Guevarae's  workes  as  other  authors  .  .  .  1575,  and  various  re- 
ligious tracts  of  strong  protestant  tendencies.  In  1 579  appeared 
the  Historie  of  Guicciardini,  translated  out  of  French  by  G.  F. 
and  dedicated  to  Elizabeth.  Through  Lord  Burghley  he  ob- 
tained, in  1580,  the  post  of  secretary  to  the  new  lord  deputy  of 
Ireland,  Lord  Grey  de  Wilton,  and  thus  became  a  fellow  worker 
with  the  poet,  Edmund  Spenser.  From  this  time  Fenton 
abandoned  literature  and  became  a  faithful  if  somewhat  un- 
scrupulous servant  of  the  crown.  He  was  a  bigoted  protestant, 
longing  to  use  the  rack  against  "  the  diabolicall  secte  of  Rome," 
and  even  advocating  the  assassination  of  the  queen's  most 
dangerous  subjects.  He  won  Elizabeth's  confidence,  and  the 
hatred  of  all  his  fellow-workers,  by  keeping  her  informed  of 
every  one's  doings  in  Ireland.  In  1587  Sir  John  Perrot  arrested 
Fenton,  but  the  queen  instantly  ordered  his  release.  Fenton 
was  knighted  in  1589,  and  in  1590-1591  he  was  in  London  as 
commissioner  on  the  impeachment  of  Perrot.  Full  of  dislike 
of  the  Scots  and  of  James  VI.  (which  he  did  not  scruple  to  utter), 
on  the  latter's  accession  Fenton's  post  of  secretary  was  in  danger, 
but  Burghley  exerted  himself  in  his  favour,  and  in  1604  it  was 
confirmed  to  him  for  life,  though  he  had  to  share  it  with  Sir 
Richard  Coke.  Fenton  died  in  Dublin  on  the  I9th  of  October 
1608,  and  was  buried  in  St  Patrick's  cathedral.  He  married  in 
June  1585,  Alice,  daughter  of  Dr  Robert  Weston,  formerly 
lord  chancellor  of  Ireland,  and  widow  of  Dr  Hugh  Brady,  bishop 
of  Meath,  by  whom  he  had  two  children,  a  son,  Sir  William  Fenton, 
and  a  daughter,  Catherine,  who  in  1603  married  Richard  Boyle, 
ist  earl  of  Cork. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Harl.  Soc.  publications,  vol.  iv.,  Visitation  of 
Nottinghamshire,  1871;  Roy.  Hist.  MSS.  Comm.  (particularly 
Hatfield  collection);  Calendar  of  State  papers,  Ireland  (very  full), 
domestic,  Carew  papers;  Lismore  papers,  ed.  A.  B.  Grosart  (1886— 
1888) ;  Certaine  tragicall  Discourses,  ed.  R.  L.  Douglas  (2  vols., 
1898),  Tudor  Translation  series,  vols.  xix.,  xx.  (introd.). 

FENTON,  LAVINIA  (1708-1760),  English  actress,  was  prob- 
ably the  daughter  cf  a  naval  lieutenant  named  Beswick,  but 
she  bore  the  name  of  her  mother's  husband.  Her  first  appear- 
ance was  as  Monimia  in  Otway's  Orphans,  in  1726  at  the  Hay- 
market.  She  then  joined  the  company  of  players  at  the  theatre 
in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  where  her  success  and  beauty  made  her 
the  toast  of  the  beaux.  It  was  in  Gay's  Beggar's  Opera,  as  Polly 
Peachum,  that  Miss  Fenton  made  her  greatest  success.  Her 
pictures  were  in  great  demand,  verses  were  written  to  her  and 
books  published  about  her,  and  she  was  the  most  talked-of  person 
in  London.  Hogarth's  picture  shows  her  in  one  of  the  scenes, 
with  the  duke  of  Bolton  in  a  box.  After  appearing  in  several 
comedies,  and  then  in  numerous  repetitions  of  the  Beggar's  Opera, 
she  ran  away  with  her  lover  Charles  Paulet,  3rd  duke  of  Bolton, 
a  man  much  older  than  herself,  who,  after  the  death  of  his  wife 
in  1751,  married  her.  Their  three  children  all  died  young.  The 
duchess  survived  her  husband  and  died  on  the  24th  of  January 
1760. 

FENTON,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  England,  on  the.  North 
Staffordshire  railway,  adjoining  the  east  side  of  Stoke-on-Trent, 
in  which  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough  it  is  included. 
Pop.  (1891)  16,998;  (1901)  22,742.  The  manufacture  of  earthen- 
ware common  to  the  district  (the  Potteries)  employs  the  bulk 
of  the  large  industrial  population. 

FENUGREEK,  in  botany,  Trigonella  Foenum-graecum  (so 
called  from  the  name  given  to  it  by  the  ancients,  who  used  it  as 
fodder  for  cattle),  a  member  of  a  genus  of  leguminous  herbs  very 
similar  in  habit  and  in  most  of  their  characters  to  the  species  of 
the  genus  Medicago.  The  leaves  are  formed  of  three  obovate 


leaflets,  the  middle  one  of  which  is  stalked;  the  flowers  are 
solitary,  or  in  clusters  of  two  or  three,  and  have  a  campanulate, 
5-cleft  calyx;  and  the  pods  are  many-seeded,  cylindrical  or 
flattened,  and  straight  or  only  slightly  curved.  The  genus  is 
widely  diffused  over  the  south  of  Europe,  West  and  Central 
Asia,  and  the  north  of  Africa,  and  is  represented  by  several 
species  in  Australia.  Fenugreek  is  indigenous  to  south-eastern 
Europe  and  western  Asia,  and  is  cultivated  in  the  Mediterranean 
region,  parts  of  central  Europe,  and  in  Morocco,  and  largely 
in  Egypt  and  in  India.  It  bears  a  sickle-shaped  pod,  containing 
from  10  to  20  seeds,  from  which  6%  of  a  fetid,  fatty  and  bitter 
oil  can  be  extracted  by  ether.  In  India  the  fresh  plant  is  em- 
ployed as  an  esculent.  The  seed  is  an  ingredient  in  curry 
powders,  and  is  used  for  flavouring  cattle  foods.  It  was  formerly 
much  esteemed  as  a  medicine,  and  is  still  in  repute  in  veterinary 
practice. 

FENWICK,  SIR  JOHN  (c.  1645-1697),  English  conspirator, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  William  Fenwick,  or  Fenwicke,  a 
member  of  an  old  Northumberland  family.  He  entered  the  army, 
becoming  major-general  in  1688,  but  before  this  date  he  had  been 
returned  in  succession  to  his  father  as  one  of  the  members  of 
parliament  for  Northumberland,  which  county  he  represented 
from  1677  to  1687.  He  was  a  strong  partisan  of  King  James  II., 
and  in  1685  was  one  of  the  principal  supporters  of  the  act  of 
attainder  against  the  duke  of  Monmouth;  but  he  remained  in 
England  when  William  III.  ascended  the  throne  three  years 
later.  He  began  at  once  to  plot  against  the  new  king,  for  which 
he  underwent  a  short  imprisonment  in  1689.  Renewing  his 
plots  on  his  release,  he  publicly  insulted  Queen  Mary  in  1691, 
and  it  is  practically  certain  that  he  was  implicated  in  the  schemes 
for  assassinating  William  which  came  to  light  in  1695  and  1696. 
After  the  seizure  of  his  fellow-conspirators,  Robert  Charnock 
and  others,  he  remained  in  hiding  until  the  imprudent  conduct 
of  his  friends  in  attempting  to  induce  one  of  the  witnesses  against 
him  to  leave  the  country  led  to  his  arrest  in  June  in  1696.  To 
save  himself  he  offered  to  reveal  all  he  knew  about  the  Jacobite 
conspiracies;  but  his  confession  was  a  farce,  being  confined  to 
charges  against  some  of  the  leading  Whig  noblemen,  which  were 
damaging,  but  not  conclusive.  By  this  time  his  friends  had 
succeeded  in  removing  one  of  the  two  witnesses,  and  in  these 
circumstances  it  was  thought  that  the  charge  of  treason  must 
fail.  The  government,  however,  overcame  this  difficulty  by 
introducing  a  bill  of  attainder,  which  after  a  long  and  acrimonious 
discussion  passed  through  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  His  wife 
persevered  in  her  attempts  to  save  his  life,  but  her  efforts  were 
fruitless,  and  Fenwick  was  beheaded  in  London  on  the  28th  of 
January  1697,  with  the  same  formalities  as  were  usually  observed 
at  the  execution  of  a  peer.  By  his  wife,  Mary  (d.  1 708) ,  daughter 
of  Charles  Howard,  ist  earl  of  Carlisle,  he  had  three  sons  and  one 
daughter.  Macaulay  says  that  "  of  all  the  Jacobites,  the  most 
desperate  characters  not  excepted,  he  (Fenwick)  was  the  only 
one  for  whom  William  felt  an  intense  personal  aversion  ";  and 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  Fenwick's  hatred  of  the  king  is  said 
to  date  from  the  time  when  he  was  serving  in  Holland,  and  was 
reprimanded  by  William,  then  prince  of  Orange. 

FEOFFMENT,  in  English  law,  during  the  feudal  period,  the 
usual  method  of  granting  or  conveying  a  freehold  or  fee.  For  the 
derivation  of  the  word  see  FIEF  and  FEE.  The  essential  elements 
were  livery  of  seisin  (delivery  of  possession),  which  consisted  in 
formally  giving  to  the  feoffee  on  the  land  a  clod  or  turf,  or  a 
growing  twig,  as  a  symbol  of  the  transfer  of  the  land,  and  words  by 
the  feoffor  declaratory  of  his  intent  to  deliver  possession  to  the 
feoffee  with  a  "  limitation  "  of  the  estate  intended  to  be  trans- 
ferred. This  was  called  livery  in  deed.  Livery  in  law  was  made 
not  on  but  in  sight  of  this  land,  the  feoffor  saying  to  the  feoffee, 
"  I  give  you  that  land;  enter  and  take  possession."  Livery  in 
law,  in  order  to  pass  the  estate,  had  to  be  perfected  by  entry  by 
the  feoffee  during  the  joint  lives  of  himself  and  the  feoffor.  It 
was  usual  to  evidence  the  feoffment  by  writing  in  a  charter  or 
deed  of  feoffment;  but  writing  was  not  essential  until  the 
Statute  of  Frauds;  now,  by  the  Real  Property  Act  1845,  a 
conveyance  of  real  property  is  void  unless  evidenced  by  deed,  and 


FERDINAND 


261 


thus  feoffments  have  been  rendered  unnecessary  and  superfluous. 
All  corporeal  hereditaments  were  by  that  act  declared  to  be  in 
grant  as  well  as  livery,  i.e.  they  could  be  granted  by  deed  without 
livery.  A  feoffment  might  be  a  tortious  conveyance,  i.e.  if  a 
person  attempted  to  give  to  the  feoffee  a  greater  estate  than  he 
himself  had  in  the  land,  he  forfeited  the  estate  of  which  he  was 
seised.  (See  CONVEYANCING;  REAL  PROPERTY.) 

FERDINAND  (Span.  Fernando  or  Hernando;  Ital.  Ferdi- 
nando  or  Ferrante;  in  O.  H.  Ger.  Herinand,  i.e.  "  brave  in  the 
host, "from  O.  H.  G.  Heri,  '"army,"  A. S.  here, Mod. Ger. Heer,a.nd 
the  Goth.  nan]>jan,  "  to  dare  "),  a  name  borne  at  various  times  by 
many  European  sovereigns  and  princes,  the  more  important  of 
whom  are  noticed  below  in  the  following  order:  emperors,  kings 
of  Naples,  Portugal,  Spain  (Castile,  Leon  and  Aragon)  and  the 
two  Sicilies;  then  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  the  prince  of 
Bulgaria,  the  duke  of  Brunswick  and  the  elector  of  Cologne. 

FERDINAND  I.  (1503-1564),  Roman  emperor,  was  born  at 
Alcala  de  Henares  on  the  loth  of  March  1503,  his  father  being 
Philip  the  Handsome,  son  of  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.,  and  his 
mother  Joanna,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  king  and 
queen  of  Castile  and  Aragon.  Philip  died  in  1506  and  Ferdinand, 
educated  in  Spain,  was  regarded  with  especial  favour  by  his 
maternal  grandfather  who  wished  to  form  a  Spanish-Italian 
kingdom  for  his  namesake.  This  plan  came  to  nothing,  and  the 
same  fate  attended  a  suggestion  made  after  the  death  of  Maxi- 
milian in  1519  that  Ferdinand,  and  not  his  elder  brother  Charles, 
afterwards  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  should  succeed  to  the  imperial 
throne.  Charles,  however,  secured  the  Empire  and  the  whole  of 
the  lands  of  Maximilian  and  Ferdinand,  while  the  younger 
brother  was  perforce  content  with  a  subordinate  position.  Yet 
some  provision  must  be  made  for  Ferdinand.  In  April  1521  the 
emperor  granted  to  him  the  archduchies  and  duchies  of  upper 
and  lower  Austria,  Carinthia,  Styria  and  Carniola,  adding  soon 
afterwards  the  county  of 'Tirol  and  the  hereditary  possessions  of 
the  Habsburgs  in  south-western  Germany.  About  the  same  time 
the  archduke  was  appointed  to  govern  the  duchy  of  Wurttemberg, 
which  had  come  into  the  possession  of  Charles  V.  ;  and  in  May 
1521  he  was  married  at  Linz  to  Anna  (d.  1547),  a  daughter  of 
Ladislaus,  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  a  union  which  had  been 
arranged  some  years  before  by  the  emperor  Maximilian.  In  1521 
also. he  was  made  president  of  the  council  of  regency  (Reichs- 
regiment),  appointed  to  govern  Germany  during  the  emperor's 
absence,  and  the  next  five  years  were  occupied  with  imperial 
business,  in  which  he  acted  as  his  brother's  representative,  and  in 
the  government  of  the  Austrian  lands. 

In  Austria  and  the  neighbouring  duchies  Ferdinand  sought  at 
first  to  suppress  the  reformers  and  their  teaching,  and  this  was 
possibly  one  reason  why  he  had  some  difficulty  in  quelling 
risings  in  the  districts  under  his  rule  after  the  Peasants'  War 
broke  out  in  1524.  But  a  new  field  was  soon  opened  for  his 
ambition.  In  August  1526  his  childless  brother-in-law,  Louis  II., 
king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Mohacs,  and  the  archduke  at  once  claimed  both  kingdoms,  both 
by  treaty  and  by  right  of  his  wife.  Taking  advantage  of  the 
divisions  among  his  opponents,  he  was  chosen  king  of  Bohemia  in 
October  1526,  and  crowned  at  Prague  in  the  following  February, 
but  in  Hungary  he  was  less  successful.  John  Zapolya,  supported 
by  the  national  party  and  soon  afterwards  by  the  Turks,  offered 
a  sturdy  resistance,  and  although  Ferdinand  was  chosen  king  at 
Pressburg  in  December  1526,  and  after  defeating  Zapolya  at 
Tokay  was  crowned  at  Stuhlweissenburg  in  November  1527,  he 
was  unable  to  take  possession  of  the  kingdom.  The  Bavarian 
Wittelsbachs,  incensed  at  not  securing  the  Bohemian  throne,  were 
secretly  intriguing  with  his  foes;  the  French,  after  assisting 
spasmodically,  made  a  formal  alliance  with  Turkey  in  1535;  and 
Zapolya  was  a  very  useful  centre  round  which  the  enemies  of  the 
Habsburgs  were  not  slow  to  gather.  A  truce  made  in  1 533  was 
soon  broken,  and  the  war  dragged  on  until  1538,  when  by  the 
treaty  of  Gross wardein,  Hungary  was  divided  between  the 
claimants.  The  kingly  title  was  given  to  Zapolya,  but  Ferdinand 
was  to  follow  him  on  the  throne.  Before  this,  in  January  1531,  he 
had  been  chosen  king  of  the  Romans,  or  German  king,  at  Cologne, 


and  his  coronation  took  place  a  few  days  later  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
He  had  thoroughly  earned  this  honour  by  his  loyalty  to  his 
brother,  whom  he  had  represented  at  several  diets.  In  religious 
matters  the  king  was  now  inclined,  probably  owing  to  the  Turkish 
danger,  to  steer  a  middle  course  between  the  contending  parties, 
and  in  1532  he  agreed  to  the  religious  peace  of  Nuremberg, 
receiving  in  return  from  the  Protestants  some  assistance  for  the 
war  against  the  Turks.  In  1534,  however,  his  prestige  suffered  a 
severe  rebuff.  Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  his  associates  had 
succeeded  in  conquering  Wurttemberg  on  behalf  of  its  exiled 
duke,  Ulrich  (q.v.),  and,  otherwise  engaged,  neither  Charles  nor 
Ferdinand  could  send  much  help  to  their  lieutenants.  They 
were  consequently  obliged  to  consent  to  the  treaty  of  Cadan, 
made  in  June  1534,  by  which  the  German  king  recognized 
Ulrich  as  duke  of  Wurttemberg,  on  condition  that  he  held  his 
duchy  under  Austrian  suzerainty. 

In  Hungary  the  peace  of  1538  was  not  permanent.  When 
Zapolya  died  in  July  1540  a  powerful  faction  refused  to  admit 
the  right  of  Ferdinand  to  succeed  him,  and  put  forward  his  young 
son  John  Sigismund  as  a  candidate  for  the  throne.  The  cause  of 
John  Sigismund  was  espoused  by  the  Turks  and  by  Ferdinand's 
other  enemies,  and,  unable  to  get  any  serious  assistance  from  the 
imperial  diet,  the  king  repeatedly  sought  to  make  peace  with  the 
sultan,  but  his  envoys  were  haughtily  repulsed.  In  1544, 
however,  a  short  truce  was  made.  This  was  followed  by  others, 
and  in  1547  one  was  concluded  for  five  years,  but  only  on  con- 
dition that  Ferdinand  paid  tribute  for  the  small  part  of  Hungary 
which  remained  in  his  hands.  The  struggle  was  renewed  in  1551 
and  was  continued  in  the  same  desultory  fashion  until  1562,  when 
a  truce  was  made  which  lasted  during  theremainderof  Ferdinand's 
lifetime.  During  the  war  of  the  league  of  Schmalkalden  in  1546 
and  1547  the  king  had  taken  the  field  primarily  to  protect 
Bohemia,  and  after  the  conclusion  of  the  war  he  put  down  a 
rising  in  this  country  with  some  'rigour.  He  appears  during 
these  years  to  have  governed  his  lands  with  vigour  and  success, 
but  in  imperial  politics  he  was  merely  the  representative  and 
spokesman  of  the  emperor.  About  1546,  however,  he  began  to 
take  up  a  more  independent  position.  Although  Charles  had 
crushed  the  league  of  Schmalkalden  he  had  refused  to  restore 
Wurttemberg  to  Ferdinand;  and  he  gave  further  offence  by 
seeking  to  secure  the  succession  of  his  son  Philip,  afterwards  king 
of  Spain,  to  the  imperial  throne.  Ferdinand  naturally  objected, 
but  in  1 5  5 1  his  reluctant  consent  was  obtained  to  the  plan  that,  on 
the  proposed  abdication  of  Charles,  Philip  should  be  chosen  king 
of  the  Romans,  and  should  succeed  Ferdinand  himself  as  emperor. 
Subsequent  events  caused  the  scheme  to  be  dropped,  but  it  had  a 
somewhat  unfortunate  sequel  for  Charles,  as  during  the  short  war 
between  the  emperor  and  Maurice,  elector  of  Saxony,  in  1552 
Ferdinand's  attitude  was  rather  that  of  a  spectator  and  mediator 
than  of  a  partisan.  There  seems,  however,  to  be  no  truth  in  the 
suggestion  that  he  acted  treacherously  towards  his  brother,  and 
was  in  alliance  with  his  foes.  On  behalf  of  Charles  he  negotiated 
the  treaty  of  Passau  with  Maurice  in  1552,  and  in  1555  after  the 
conduct  of  imperial  business  had  virtually  been  made  over  to  him, 
and  harmony  had  been  restored  between  the  brothers,  he  was 
responsible  for  the  religious  peace  of  Augsburg.  Early  in  1558 
Charles  carried  out  his  intention  to  abdicate  the  imperial  throne, 
and  on  the  24th  of  March  Ferdinand  was  crowned  as  bis  successor 
at  Frankfort.  Pope  Paul  IV.  would  not  recognize  the  new 
emperor,  but  his  successor  Pius  IV.  did  so  in  1559  through  the 
mediation  of  Philip  of  Spain.  The  emperor's  short  reign  was 
mainly  spent  in  seeking  to  settle  the  religious  differences  of 
Germany,  and  in  efforts  to  prosecute  the  Turkish  war  more 
vigorously.  His  hopes  at  one  time  centred  roun<J  the  council  of 
Trent  which  resumed  its  sittings  in  1562,  but  he  was  unable  to 
induce  the  Protestants  to  be  represented.  Although  he  held 
firmly  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  he  sought  to  obtain 
tangible  concessions  to  her  opponents;  but  he  refused  to 
conciliate  the  Protestants  by  abrogating  the  clause  concerning 
ecclesiastical  reservation  in  the  peace  of  Augsburg,  and  all  his 
efforts  to  bring  about  reunion  were  futile.  He  did  indeed  secure 
the  privilege  of  communion  in  both  kinds  from  Pius  IV.  for  the 


262 


FERDINAND  II.,  ROMAN  EMPEROR 


laity  in  Bohemia  and  in  various  parts  of  Germany,  but  the  hearty 
support  which  he  gave  the  Jesuits  shows  that  he  had  no  sympathy 
with  Protestantism,  and  was  only  anxious  to  restore  union  in  the 
Church.  In  November  1562  he  obtained  the  election  of  his  son 
Maximilian  as  king  of  the  Romans,  and  having  arranged  a 
partition  of  his  lands  among  his  three  surviving  sons,  died  in 
Vienna  on  the  2Sth  of  July  1564.  His  family  had  consisted  of 
six  sons  and  nine  daughters. 

In  spite  of  constant  and  harassing  engagements  Ferdinand  was 
fairly  successful  both  as  king  and  emperor.  He  sought  to 
consolidate  his  Austrian  lands,  reformed  the  monetary  system  in 
Germany,  and  reorganized  the  AuliQ  council  (Reichshofrat). 
Less  masterful  but  more  popular  than  his  brother,  whose 
character  overshadows  his  own,  he  was  just  and  tolerant,  a  good 
Catholic  and  a  conscientious  ruler. 

See  the  article  on  CHARLES  V.  and  the  bibliography  appended 
thereto.  Also,  A.  Ulloa,  Vita  del  potentissimo  e  christianissimo 
imperatpre  Ferdinando  primo  (Venice,  1565);  S.  Schard,  Epitome 
return  in  variis  orbis  partibus  a  confirmaiione  Ferdinandi  I.  (Basel, 
1574);  F.  B.  von  Bucholtz,  Geschichte  der  Regierung  Ferdinands 
des  Ersten  (Vienna,  1831-1838) ;  K.  Oberleitner,  Osterreichs  Finanzen 
und  Kriegswesen  unter  Ferdinand  I.  (Vienna,  1859);  A.  Rezek, 
Geschichte  der  Regierung  Ferdinands  I.  in  Bohmen  (Prague,  1878); 
E.  Rosenthal,  Die  Behordenorganisation  Kaiser  Ferdinands  I. 
(Vienna,  1887);  and  W.  Bauer,  Die  Anfange  Ferdinands  I.  (Vienna, 
1907). 

FERDINAND  II.  (1578-1637),  Roman  emperor,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Charles,  archduke  of  Styria  (d.  1590),  and  his  wife  Maria, 
daughter  of  Albert  IV.,  duke  of  Bavaria  and  a  grandson  of  the 
emperor  Ferdinand  I.  Born  at  Gratz  on  the  9th  of  July  1578,  he 
was  trained  by  the  Jesuits,  finishing  his  education  at  the  university 
of  Ingolstadt,  and  became  the  pattern  prince  of  the  counter- 
reformation.  In  1596  he  undertook  the  government  of  Styria, 
Carinthia  and  Carniola,  and  after  a  visit  to  Italy  began  an 
organized  attack  on  Protestantism  which  under  his  father's  rule 
had  made  great  progress  in  these  archduchies;  and  although 
hampered  by  the  inroads  of  the  Turks,  he  showed  his  indifference 
to  the  material  welfare  of  his  dominions  by  compelling  many  of 
his  Protestant  subjects  to  choose  between  exile  and  conversion, 
and  by  entirely  suppressing  Protestant  worship.  He  was  not, 
however,  unmindful  of  the  larger  interest  of  his  family,  or  of  the 
Empire  which  the  Habsburgs  regarded  as  belonging  to  them  by 
hereditary  right.  In  1606  he  joined  his  kinsmen  in  recognizing 
his  cousin  Matthias  as  the  head  of  the  family  in  place  of  the 
lethargic  Rudolph  II.;  but  he  shrank  from  any  proceedings 
which  might  lead  to  the  deposition  of  the  emperor,  whom  he 
represented  at  the  diet  of  Regensburg  in  1608;  and  his  conduct 
was  somewhat  ambiguous  during  the  subsequent  quarrel  between 
Rudolph  and  Matthias. 

In  the  first  decade  of  the  i7th  century  the  house  of  Habsburg 
seemed  overtaken  by  senile  decay,  and  the  great  inheritance  of 
Charles  V.  and  Ferdinand  I.  to  be  threatened  with  disintegration 
and  collapse.  The  reigning  emperor,  Rudolph  II.,  was  inert  and 
childless;  his  surviving  brothers,  the  archduke  Matthias  (after- 
wards emperor),  Maximilian  (1558-1618)  and  Albert  (1559-1621), 
all  men  of  mature  age,  were  also  without  direct  heirs;  the  racial 
differences  among  its  subjects  were  increased  by  their  religious 
animosities;  and  it  appeared  probable  that  the  numerous 
enemies  of  the  Habsburgs  had  only  to  wait  a  few  years  and  then  to 
divide  the  spoil.  In  spite  of  the  recent  murder  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  this  issue  seemed  still  more  likely  when  Matthias  suc- 
ceeded Rudolph  as  emperor  in  1612.  The  Habsburgs,  however, 
were  not  indifferent  to  the  danger,  and  about  1615  it  was  agreed 
that  Ferdinand,  who  already  had  two  sons  by  his  marriage  with 
his  cousin  Maria  Anna  (d.  1616),  daughter  of  William  V.,  duke  of 
Bavaria,  should  be  the  next  emperor,  and  should  succeed  Matthias 
in  the  elective  kingdoms  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  The  obstacles 
which  impeded  the  progress  of  the  scheme  were  gradually  over- 
come by  the  energy  of  the  archduke  Maximilian.  The  elder 
archdukes  renounced  their  rights  in  the  succession;  the  claims  of 
Philip  III.  and  the  Spanish  Habsburgs  were  bought  off  by  a 
promise  of  Alsace;  and  the  emperor  consented  to  his  super- 
cession  in  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  In  1617  Ferdinand,  who  was 
just  concluding  a  war  with  Venice,  was  chosen  king  of  Bohemia, 


and  in  1618  king  of  Hungary;  but  his  election  as  German  king, 
or  king  of  the  Romans,  delayed  owing  to  the  anxiety  of  Melchior 
Klesl  (q.v.)  to  conciliate  the  protestant  princes,  had  not  been 
accomplished  when  Matthias  died  in  March  1619.  Before  this 
event,  however,  an  important  movement  had  begun  in  Bohemia. 
Having  been  surprised  into  choosing  a  devoted  Roman  Catholic  as 
their  king,  the  Bohemian  Protestants  suddenly  realized  that  their 
religious,  and  possibly  their  civil  liberties,  were  seriously  menaced, 
and  deeds  of  aggression  on  the  part  of  Ferdinand's  representatives 
showed  that  this  was  no  idle  fear.  Gaining  the  upper  hand  they 
declared  Ferdinand  deposed,  and  elected  the  elector  palatine  of 
the  Rhine,  Frederick  V.,  in  his  stead;  and  the  struggle  between 
the  rivals  was  the  beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  At  the 
same  time  other  difficulties  confronted  Ferdinand,  who  had  not 
yet  secured  the  imperial  throne.  Bethlen  Gabor,  prince  of 
Transylvania,  invaded  Hungary,  while  the  Austrians  rose  and 
joined  the  Bohemians;  but  having  seen  his  foes  retreat  from 
Vienna,  Ferdinand  hurried  to  Frankfort,  where  he  was  chosen 
emperor  on  the  28th  of  August  1619. 

To  deal  with  the  elector  palatine  and  his  allies  the  new  emperor 
allied  himself  with  Maximilian  I.,  duke  of  Bavaria,  and  the 
Catholic  League,  who  drove  Frederick  from  Bohemia  in  1620, 
while  Ferdinand's  Spanish  allies  devastated  the  Palatinate. 
Peace  having  been  made  with  Bethlen  Gabor  in  December  1621, 
the  first  period  of  the  war  ended  in  a  satisfactory  fashion  for  the 
emperor,  and  he  could  turn  his  attention  to  completing  the  work 
of  crushing  the  Protestants,  which  had  already  begun  in  his 
archduchies  and  in  Bohemia.  In  1623  the  Protestant  clergy 
were  expelled  from  Bohemia;  in  1624  all  worship  save  that  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  was  forbidden;  and  in  1627  an  order 
of  banishment  against  all  Protestants  was  issued.  A  new  con- 
stitution made  the  kingdom  hereditary  in  the  house  of  Habsburg, 
gave  larger  powers  to  the  sovereign,  and  aimed  at  destroying  the 
nationality  of  the  Bohemians.  Similar  measures  in  Austria 
led  to  a  fresh  rising  which  was  put  down  by  the  aid  of  the 
Bavarians  in  1627,  and  Ferdinand  could  fairly  claim  that  in 
his  hereditary  lands  at  least  he  had  rendered  Protestantism 
innocuous. 

The  renewal  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  in  1625  was  caused 
mainly  by  the  emperor's  vigorous  championship  of  the  cause 
of  the  counter-reformation  in  northern  and  north-eastern 
Germany.  Again  the  imperial  forces  were  victorious,  chiefly 
owing  to  the  genius  of  Wallenstein,  who  raised  and  led  an  army 
in  this  service,  although  the  great  scheme  of  securing  the 
southern  coast  of  the  Baltic  for  the  Habsburgs  was  foiled  partly 
by  the  resistance  of  Stralsund.  In  March  1629  Ferdinand  and 
his  advisers  felt  themselves  strong  enough  to  take  the  important 
step  towards  which  their  policy  in  the  Empire  had  been  steadily 
tending.  Issuing  the  famous  edict  of  restitution,  the  emperor 
ordered  that  all  lands  which  had  been  secularized  since  1552,  the 
date  of  the  peace  of  Passau,  should  be  restored  to  the  church, 
and  prompt  measures  were  taken  to  enforce  this  decree.  Many 
and  powerful  interests  were  vitally  affected  by  this  proceeding, 
and]  the  result  was  the  outbreak  of  the  third  period  of  the  war, 
which  was  less  favourable  to  the  imperial  arms  than  the  preced- 
ing ones.  This  comparative  failure  was  due,  in  the  initial 
stages  of  the  campaign,  to  Ferdinand's  weakness  in  assenting 
in  1630  to  the  demand  of  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  that  Wallen- 
stein should  be  deprived  of  his  command,  and  also  to  the  genius 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus;  and  in  its  later  stages  to  his  insistence 
on  the  second  removal  of  Wallenstein,  and  to  his  complicity  in 
the  assassination  of  the  general.  This  deed  was  followed  by  the 
peace  of  Prague,  concluded  in  1635,  primarily  with  John 
George  I.,  elector  of  Saxony,  but  soon  assented  to  by  other 
princes;  and  this  treaty,  which  made  extensive  concessions  to 
the  Protestants,  marks  the  definite  failure  of  Ferdinand  to  crush 
Protestantism  in  the  Empire,  as  he  had  already  done  in  Austria 
and  Bohemia.  It  is  noteworthy,  however,  that  the  emperor 
refused  to  allow  the  inhabitants  of  his  hereditary  dominions  to 
share  in  the  benefits  of  the  peace.  During  these  years  Ferdinand 
had  also  been  menaced  by  the  secret  or  open  hostility  of  France. 
A  dispute  over  the  duchies  of  Mantua  and  Monferrato  was 


FERDINAND  III.— FERDINAND  I.  OF  NAPLES 


263 


ended  by  the  treaty  of  Cherasco  in  1631,  but  the  influence  of 
France  was  employed  at  the  imperial  diets  and  elsewhere  in 
thwarting  the  plans  of  Ferdinand  and  in  weakening  the  power 
of  the  Ilabsburgs.  The  last  important  act  of  the  emperor  was 
to  secure  the  election  of  his  son  Ferdinand  as  king  of  the  Romans. 
An  attempt  in  1630  to  attain  this  end  had  failed,  but  in  December 
1636  the  princes,  meeting  at  Regensburg,  bestowed  the  coveted 
dignity  upon  the  younger  Ferdinand.  A  few  weeks  afterwards, 
on  the  1 5th  of  February  1637,  the  emperor  died  at  Vienna, 
leaving,  in  addition  to  the  king  of  the  Romans,  a  son  Leopold 
William  (1614-1662),  bishop  of  Passau  and  Strassburg.  Fer- 
dinand's reign  was  so  occupied  with  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and 
the  struggle  with  the  Protestants  that  he  had  little  time  or 
inclination  for  other  business.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  however, 
that  this  orthodox  and  Catholic  emperor  was  constantly  at 
variance  with  Pope  Urban  VIII.  The  quarrel  was  due  princi- 
pally, but  not  entirely,  to  events  in  Italy,  where  the  pope  sided 
with  France  in  the  dispute  over  the  succession  to  Mantua  and 
Monferrato.  The  succession  question  was  settled,  but  the 
enmity  remained;  Urban  showing  his  hostility  by  preventing 
the  election  of  the  younger  Ferdinand  as  king  of  the  Romans 
in  1630,  and  by  turning  a  deaf  ear  to  the  emperor's  repeated 
requests  for  assistance  to  prosecute  the  war  against  the  heretics. 
Ferdinand's  character  has  neither  individuality  nor  interest, 
but  he  ruled  the  Empire  during  a  critical  and  important  period. 
Kind  and  generous  to  his  dependents,  his  private  life  was  simple 
and  blameless,  but  he  was  to  a  great  extent  under  the  influence 
of  his  confessors. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  chief  authorities  for  Ferdinand's  life  and 
reign  are  F.  C.  Khevenhiller,  Annales  Ferdinandei  (Regensburg, 
1640-1646);  F.  van  Hurter,  Geschichte  Kaiser  Ferdinands  II. 
(Schaffhausen,  1850-1855);  Korrespondenz  Kaiser  Ferdinands  II. 
mil  P.  Becanus  und  P.  W.  Lamormaini,  edited  by  B.  Dudik  (Vienna, 
1848  fol.) ;  and  F.  Stieve,  in  the  Allegmeine  deutsche  Biographie, 
Bandvi.  (Leipzig,  1877).  See  also  the  elaborate  bibliography  in  the 
Cambridge  Modern  History,  vol.  iv.  (Cambridge,  1906). 

FERDINAND  III.  (1608-1657),  Roman  emperor,  was  the 
elder  son  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  and  was  born  at  Gratz 
on  the  i3th  of  July  1608.  Educated  by  the  Jesuits,  he  was 
crowned  king  of  Hungary  in  December  1625,  and  king  of  Bohemia 
two  years  later,  and  soon  began  to  take  part  in  imperial  business. 
Wallenstein,  however,  refused  to  allow  him  to  hold  a  command 
in  the  imperial  army;  and  henceforward  reckoned  among  his 
enemies,  the  young  king  was  appointed  the  successor  of  the 
famous  general  when  he  was  deposed  in  1634;  and  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  imperial  troops  he  was  nominally  responsible  for 
the  capture  of  Regensburg  and  Donauworth,  and  the  defeat  of 
the  Swedes  at  Nordlingen.  Having  been  elected  king  of  the 
Romans,  or  German  king,  at  Regensburg  in  December  1636, 
Ferdinand  became  emperor  on  his  father's  death  in  the  following 
February,  and  showed  himself  anxious  to  put  an  end  to  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  He  persuaded  one  or  two  princes  to  assent 
to  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Prague;  but  a  general  peace  was 
delayed  by  his  reluctance  to  grant  religious  liberty  to  the 
Protestants,  and  by  his  anxiety  to  act  in  unison  with  Spain. 
In  1640  he  had  refused  to  entertain  the  idea  of  a  general  amnesty 
suggested  by  the  diet  at  Regensburg;  but  negotiations  for 
peace  were  soon  begun,  and  in  1648  the  emperor  assented  to  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia.  This  event  belongs  rather  to  the  general 
history  of  Europe,  but  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  owing 
to  Ferdinand's  insistence  the  Protestants  in  his  hereditary 
dominions  did  not  obtain  religious  liberty  at  this  settlement. 
After  1648  the  emperor  was  engaged  in  carrying  out  the  terms 
of  the  treaty  and  ridding  Germany  of  the  foreign  soldiery.  In 
1656  he  sent  an  army  into  Italy  to  assist  Spain  in  her  struggle 
with  France,  and  he  had  just  concluded  an  alliance  with  Poland 
to  check  the  aggressions  of  Charles  X.  of  Sweden  when  he  died 
on  the  2nd  of  April  1657.  Ferdinand  was  a  scholarly  and  cul- 
tured man,  an  excellent  linguist  and  a  composer  of  music. 
Industrious  and  popular  in  public  life,  his  private  life  was 
blameless;  and  although  a  strong  Roman  Catholic  he  was  less 
fanatical  than  his  father.  His  first  wife  was  Maria  Anna  (d. 
1646),  daughter  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain,  by  whom  he  had  three 


sons:  Ferdinand,  who  was  chosen  king  of  the  Romans  in  1653, 
and  who  died  in  the  following  year;  Leopold,  who  succeeded 
his  father  on  the  imperial  throne;  and  Charles  Joseph  (d.  1664), 
bishop  of  Passau  and  Breslau,  and  grand-master  of  the  Teutonic 
order.  The  emperor's  second  wife  was  his  cousin  Maria  (d.  1 649) , 
daughter  of  the  archduke  Leopold;  and  his  third  wife  was 
Eleanora  of  Mantua  (d.  1686).  His  musical  works,  together  with 
those  of  the  emperors  Leopold  -I.  and  Joseph  I.,  have  been 
published  by  G.  Adler  (Vienna,  1892-1893). 

See  M.  Koch,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Reiches  unter  der  Reeierune 
Ferdinands  III.  (Vienna,  1865-1866). 

FERDINAND  I.  (1793-1875),  emperor  of  Austria,  eldest  son 
of  Francis  I.  and  of  Maria  Theresa  of  Naples,  was  born  at  Vienna 
on  the  igth  of  April  1793.  In  his  boyhood  he  suffered  from 
epileptic  fits,  and  could  therefore  not  receive  a  regular  education. 
As  his  health  improved  with  his  growth  and  with  travel,  he  was 
not  set  aside  from  the  succession.  In  1830  his  father  caused  him 
to  be  crowned  king  of  Hungary,  a  pure  formality,  which  gave 
him  no  power,  and  was  designed  to  avoid  possible  trouble  in  the 
future.  In  1831  he  was  married  to  Anna,  daughter  of  Victor 
Emmanuel  I.  of  Sardinia.  The  marriage  was  barren.  When 
Francis  I.  died  on  the  znd  of  March  1835,  Ferdinand  was  recog- 
nized as  his  successor.  But  his  incapacity  was  so  notorious  that 
the  conduct  of  affairs  was  entrusted  to  a  council  of  state,  consist- 
ing of  Prince  Metternich  (q.v.)  with  other  ministers,  and  two 
archdukes,  Louis  and  Francis  Charles.  They  composed  the 
Staatsconferenz,  the  ill-constructed  and  informal  regency  which 
led  the  Austrian  dominions  to  the  revolutionary  outbreaks  of 
1846-1849.  (See  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.)  The  emperor,  who  was 
subject  to  fits  of  actual  insanity,  and  in  his  lucid  intervals  was 
weak  and  confused  in  mind,  was  a  political  nullity.  His  personal 
amiability  earned  him  the  affectionate  pity  of  his  subjects,  and 
he  became  the  hero  of  popular  stories  which  did  not  tend  to  main- 
tain the  dignity  of  the  crown.  It  was  commonly  said  that  'having 
taken  refuge  on  a  rainy  day  in  a  farmhouse  he  was  so  tempted 
by  the  smell  of  the  dumplings  which  the  farmer  and  his  family 
were  eating  for  dinner,  that  he  insisted  on  having  one.  His 
doctor,  who  knew  them  to  be  indigestible,  objected,  and  there- 
upon Ferdinand,  in  an  imperial  rage,  made  the  answer: — 
"  Kaiser  bin  i',  und  Kntidel  muss  i'  haben  "  (I  am  emperor,  and 
will  have  the  dumpling) — which  has  become  a  Viennese  proverb. 
His  popular  name  of  Der  Giilige  (the  good  sort  of  man)  expressed 
as  much  derision  as  affection.  Ferdinand  had  good  taste  for 
art  and  music.  Some  modification  of  the  tight-handed  rule  of 
his  father  was  made  by  the  Slaatsconferenz  during  his  reign.  In 
the  presence  of  the  revolutionary  troubles,  which  began  with 
agrarian  riots  in  Galicia  in  1846,  and  then  spread  over  the  whole 
empire,  he  was  personally  helpless.  He  was  compelled  to  escape 
from  the  disorders  of  Vienna  to  Innsbruck  on  the  I7th  of  May 
1848.  He  came  back  on  the  invitation  of  the  diet  on  the  I2th 
of  August,  but  soon  had  to  escape  once  more  from  the  mob  of 
students  and  workmen  who  were  in  possession  of  the  city.  On 
the  2nd  of  December  he  abdicated  at  Olmtitz  in  favour  of  his 
nephew,  Francis  Joseph.  He  lived  under  supervision  by  doctors 
and  guardians  at  Prague  till  his  death  on  the  2gth  of  June 

1875- 

See  Krones  von  Marchland,  Grundriss  der  osterreichischen 
Geschichte  (Vienna,  1882),  which  gives  an  ample  bibliography; 
Count  F.  Hartig,  Genesis  der  Revolution  in  Osterreich  (Leipzig, 
1850), — an  enlarged  English  translation  will  be  found  in  the  4th 
volume  of  W.  Coxe's  House  of  Austria  (London,  1862). 

FERDINAND  I.  (1423-1494),  also  called  Don  Ferrante,  king 
of  Naples,  the  natural  son  of  Alphonso  V.  of  Aragon  and  I.  of 
Sicily  and  Naples,  was  born  in  1423.  In  accordance  with  his 
father's  will,  he  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  of  Naples  in  1458, 
but  Pope  Calixtus  III.  declared  the  line  of  Aragon  extinct  and 
the  kingdom  a  fief  of  the  church.  But  although  he  died  before 
he  could  make  good  his  claim  (August  1458),  and  the  new  Pope 
Pius  II.  recognized  Ferdinand,  John  of  Anjou,  profiting  by  the 
discontent  of  the  Neapolitan  barons,  decided  to  try  to  regain 
the  throne  conquered  by  his  ancestors,  and  invaded  Naples. 
Ferdinand  was  severely  defeated  by  the  Angevins  and  the  rebels 
at  Sarno  in  July  1460,  but  with  the  help  of  Alessandro  Sforza 


264 


FERDINAND  II.  AND  IV.   (NAPLES) 


and  of  the  Albanian  chief,  Skanderbeg,  who  chivalrously  came 
to  the  aid  of  the  prince  whose  father  had  aided  him,  he  triumphed 
over  bis  enemies,  and  by  1464  had  re-established  his  authority 
in  the  kingdom.  In  1478  he  allied  himself  with  Pope  Sixtus  IV. 
against  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  but  the  latter  journeyed  alone  to 
Naples  when  he  succeeded  in  negotiating  an  honourable  peace 
with  Ferdinand.  In  1480  the  Turks  captured  Otranto,  and 
massacred  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants,  but  in  the  following 
year  it  was  retaken  by  his  son  Alphonso,  duke  of  Calabria.  His 
oppressive  government  led  in  1485  to  an  attempt  at  revolt  on 
the  part  of  the  nobles,  led  by  Francesca  Coppola  and  Antonello 
Sanseverino  and  supported  by  Pope  Innocent  VIII.;  the  rising 
having  been  crushed,  many  of  the  nobles,  notwithstanding 
Ferdinand's  promise  of  a  general  amnesty,  were  afterwards 
treacherously  murdered  at  his  express  command.  In  1493 
Charles  VIII.  of  France  was  preparing  to  invade  Italy  for  the 
conquest  of  Naples,  and  Ferdinand  realized  that  this  was  a  greater 
danger  than  any  he  had  yet  faced.  With  almost  prophetic 
instinct  he  warned  the  Italian  princes  of  the  calamities  in  store 
for  them,  but  his  negotiations  with  Pope  Alexander  VI.  and 
Ludovico  il  Moro,  lord  of  M  Ian,  having  failed,  he  died  in 
January  1494,  worn  out  with  anxiety.  Ferdinand  was  gifted 
with  great  courage  and  real  political  ability,  but  his  method  of 
government  was  vicious  and  disastrous.  His  financial  adminis- 
tration was  based  on  oppressive  and  dishonest  monopolies,  and 
he  was  mercilessly  severe  and  utterly  treacherous  towards  his 
enemies. 

AUTHORITIES.— Codice  Aragonese,  edited  by  F.  Trinchera  (Naples, 
1866-1874);  P-  Giannone,  Istoria  Civile  del  Regno  di  Napoli;  I. 
Alvini,  De  gestis  regum  Neapol.  ab  Aragonia  (Naples,  1588);  S.  de 
Sismondi,  Histoire  des  republiques  italiennes,  vols.  v.  and  vi.  (Brussels, 
1838) ;  P.  Villari,  Machiavelli,  pp.  60-64  (Engl.  transl..  London,  1892) ; 
for  the  revolt  of  the  nobles  in  1485  see  Camillo  Porzio,  La  Congiura 
dei  Baroni  (first  published  Rome,  1565;  many  subsequent  editions), 
written  in  the  Royalist  interest.  (L.  V.  *) 

/FERDINAND  II.  (1469-1496),  king  of  Naples,  was  the  grand- 
son of  the  preceding,  and  son  of  Alphonso  II.  Alphonso  finding 
his  tenure  of  the  throne  uncertain  on  account  of  the  approaching 
invasion  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France  and  the  general  dissatis- 
faction of  his  subjects,  abdicated  in  his  son's  favour  in  1495,  but 
notwithstanding  this  the  treason  of  a  party  in  Naples  rendered 
it  impossible  to  defend  the  city  against  the  approach  of 
Charles  VIII.  Ferdinand  fled  to  Ischia;  but  when  the  French 
king  left  Naples  with  most  of  his  army,  in  consequence  of  the 
formation  of  an  Italian  league  against  him,  he  returned,  defeated 
the  French  garrisons,  and  the  Neapolitans,  irritated  by  the 
conduct  of  their  conquerors  during  the  occupation  of  the  city, 
received  him  back  with  enthusiasm;  with  the  aid  of  the  great 
Spanish  general  Gonzalo  de  Cordova  he  was  able  completely  to 
rid  his  state  of  its  invaders  shortly  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  on  the  7th  of  September  1496. 

For  authorities  see  under  FERDINAND  I.  of  Naples;  for  the 
exploits  of  Gonzalo  de  Cordova  see  H.  P.  del  Pulear,  Cronica  del 
gran  capitano  don  Gonzalo  de  Cordoba  (new  ed.,  Madrid,  1834). 

FERDINAND  IV.  (1751-1825),  king  of  Naples  (III.  of  Sicily, 
and  I.  of  the  Two  Sicilies),  third  son  of  Don  Carlos  of  Bourbon, 
king  of  Naples  and  Sicily  (afterwards  Charles  III.  of  Spain), 
was  born  in  Naples  on  the  i2th  of  January  1751.  When  his 
father  ascended  the  Spanish  throne  in  1759  Ferdinand,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  treaties  forbidding  the  union  of  the  two  crowns, 
succeeded  him  as  king  of  Naples,  under  a  regency  presided  over 
by  the  Tuscan  Bernardo  Tanucci.  The  latter,  an  able,  ambitious 
man,  wishing  to  keep  the  government  as  much  as  possible  in  his 
own  hands,  purposely  neglected  the  young  king's  education, 
and  encouraged  him  in  his  love  of  pleasure,  his  idleness  and  his 
excessive  devotion  to  outdoor  sports.  Ferdinand  grew  up 
athletic,  but  ignorant,  ill-bred,  addicted  to  the  lowest  amuse- 
ments; he  delighted  in  the  company  of  the  lazzaroni  (the  most 
degraded  class  of  the  Neapolitan  people),  whose  dialect  and 
habits  he  affected,  and  he  even  sold  fish  in  the  market,  haggling 
over  the  price. 

His  minority  ended  in  1767,  and  his  first  act  was  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits.  The  following  year  he  married  Maria  Carolina, 
daughter  of  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  By  the  marriage  con- 


tract the  queen  was  to  have  a  voice  in  the  council  of  state  after 
the  birth  of  her  first  son,  and  she  was  not  slow  to  avail  herself 
of  this  means  of  political  influence.  Beautiful,  clever  and 
proud,  like  her  mother,  but  cruel  and  treacherous,  her  ambition 
was  to  raise  the  kingdom  of  Naples  to  the  position  of  a  great 
power;  she  soon  came  to  exercise  complete  sway  over  her  stupid 
and  idle  husband,  and  was  the  real  ruler  of  the  kingdom.  Tanucci, 
who  attempted  to  thwart  her,  was  dismissed  in  1777,  and  the 
Englishman  Sir  John  Acton  (1736),  who  in  1779  was  appointed 
director  of  marine,  succeeded  in  so  completely  winning  the 
favour  of  Maria  Carolina,  by  supporting  her  in  her  scheme  to 
free  Naples  from  Spanish  influence  and  securing  a  rapprochement 
with  Austria  and  England,  that  he  became  practically  and  after- 
wards actually  prime  minister.  Although  not  a  mere  grasping 
adventurer,  he  was  largely  responsible  for  reducing  the  internal 
administration  of  the  country  to  an  abominable  system  of 
espionage,  corruption  and  cruelty.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  Revolution  the  Neapolitan  court  was  not  hostile  to  the 
movement,  and  the  queen  even  sympathized  with  the  revolu- 
tionary ideas  of  the  day.  But  when  the  French  monarchy  was 
abolished  and  the  royal  pair  beheaded,  Ferdinand  and  Carolina 
were  seized  with  a  feeling  of  fear  and  horror  and  joined  the  first 
coalition  against  France  in  1793.  Although  peace  was  made 
with  France  in  1796, 'the  demands  of  the  French  Directory, 
whose  troops  occupied  Rome,  alarmed  the  king  once  more,  and 
at  his  wife's  instigation  he  took  advantage  of  Napoleon's  absence 
in  Egypt  and  of  Nelson's  victories  to  go  to  war.  He  marched 
with  his  army  against  the  French  and  entered  Rome  (29th  of 
November),  but  on  the  defeat  of  some  of  his  columns  he  hurried 
back  to  Naples,  and  on  the  approach  of  the  French,  fled  on  board 
Nelson's  ship  the  "  Vanguard  "  to  Sicily,  leaving  his  capital  in 
a  state  of  anarchy.  The  French  entered  the  city  in  spite  of  the 
fierce  resistance  of  the  lazzaroni,  who  were  devoted  to  the  king, 
and  with  the  aid  of  the  nobles  and  bourgeois  established  the 
Parthenopaean  Republic  (January  1799).  When  a  few  weeks 
later  the  French  troops  were  recalled  to  the  north  of  Italy, 
Ferdinand  sent  an  expedition  composed  of  Calabrians,  brigands 
and  gaol-birds,  under  Cardinal  Ruffo,  a  man  of  real  ability, 
great  devotion  to  the  king,  and  by  no  means  so  bad  as  he  has 
been  painted,  to  reconquer  the  mainland  kingdom.  Ruffo  was 
completely  successful,  and  reached  Naples  in  May.  His  army 
and  the  lazzaroni  committed  nameless  atrocities,  which  he 
honestly  tried  to  prevent,  and  the  Parthenopaean  Republic 
collapsed. 

The  savage  punishment  of  the  Neapolitan  Republicans  is 
dealt  with  in  more  detail  under  NAPLES,  NELSON  and  CARACCIOLO, 
but  it  is  necessary  to  say  here  that  the  king,  and  above  all  the 
queen,  were  particularly  anxious  that  no  mercy  should  be  shown 
to  the  rebels,  and  Maria  Carolina  made  use  of  Lady  Hamilton, 
Nelson's  mistress,  to  induce  him  to  execute  her  own  spiteful 
vengeance.  Her  only  excuse  is  that  as  a  sister  of  Marie  Antoin- 
ette the  very  name  of  Republican  or  Jacobin  filled  her  with 
loathing.  The  king  returned  to  Naples  soon  afterwards,  and 
ordered  wholesale  arrests  and  executions  of  supposed  Liberals, 
which  continued  until  the  French  successes  forced  him  to  agree 
to  a  treaty  in  which  amnesty  for  members  of  the  French  party 
was  included.  When  war  broke  out  between  France  and  Austria 
in  1805,  Ferdinand  signed  a  treaty  of  neutrality  with  the  former, 
but  a  few  days  later  he  allied  himself  with  Austria  and  allowed 
an  Anglo-Russian  force  to  land  at  Naples.  The  French  victory 
at  Austerlitz  enabled  Napoleon  to  despatch  an  army  to  southern 
Italy.  Ferdinand  with  his  usual  precipitation  fled  to  Palermo 
(23rd  of  January  1806),  followed  soon  after  by  his  wife  and  son, 
and  on  the  I4th  of  February  the  French  again  entered  Naples. 
Napoleon  declared  that  the  Bourbon  dynasty  had  forfeited  the 
crown,  and  proclaimed  his  brother  Joseph  king  of  Naples  and 
Sicily.  But  Ferdinand  continued  to  reign  over  the  latter  king- 
dom under  British  protection.  Parliamentary  institutions  of  a 
feudal  type  had  long  existed  in  the  island,  and  Lord  William 
Bentinck  (g.f.),  the  British  minister,  insisted  on  a  reform  of  the 
constitution  on  English  and  French  lines.  The  king  indeed 
practically  abdicated  his  power,  appointing  his  son  Francis 


FERDINAND  I.   (PORTUGAL)— FERDINAND  I.   (CASTILE)    265 


regent,  and  the  queen,  at  Bentinck's  instance,  was  exiled  to 
Austria,  where  she  died  in  1814. 

After  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  Joachim  Murat,  who  had  succeeded 
Joseph  Bonaparte  as  king  of  Naples  in  1808,  was  dethroned,  and 
Ferdinand  returned  to  Naples.  By  a  secret  treaty  he  had  bound 
himself  not  to  advance  further  in  a  constitutional  direction  than 
Austria  should  at  any  time  approve;  but,  though  on  the  whole 
he  acted  in  accordance  with  Metternich's  policy  of  preserving 
the  status  quo,  and  maintained  with  but  slight  change  Murat's 
laws  and  administrative  system,  he  took  advantage  of  the 
situation  to  abolish  the  Sicilian  constitution,  in  violation  of  his 
oath,  and  to  proclaim  the  union  of  the  two  states  into  the  king- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicilies  (December  I2th,  1816).  He  was  now 
completely  subservient  to  Austria,  an  Austrian,  Count  Nugent, 
being  even  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  army;  and  for  four 
years  he  reigned  as  a  despot,  every  tentative  effort  at  the  ex- 
pression of  liberal  opinion  being  ruthlessly  suppressed.  The 
result  was  an  alarming  spread  of  the  influence  and  activity  of 
the  secret  society  of  the  Carbonari  (q.v.),  which  in  time  affected 
a  large  part  of  the  army.  In  July  1820  a  military  revolt  broke 
out  under  General  Pepe,  and  Ferdinand  was  terrorized  into 
subscribing  a  constitution  on  the  model  of  the  impracticable 
Spanish  constitution  of  1812.  On  the  other  hand,  a  revolt  in 
Sicily,  in  favour  of  the  recovery  of  its  independence,  was  sup- 
pressed by  Neapolitan  troops. 

The  success  of  the  military  revolution  at  Naples  seriously 
alarmed  the  powers  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  who  feared  that  it 
might  spread  to  other  Italian  states  and  so  lead  to  that  general 
European  conflagration  which  it  was  their  main  preoccupation 
to  avoid  (see  EUROPE:  History).  After  long  diplomatic  negotia- 
tions, it  was  decided  to  hold  a  congress  ad  hoc  at  Troppau 
(October  1820).  The  main  results  of  this  congress  were  the  issue 
of  the  famous  Troppau  Protocol,  signed  by  Austria,  Prussia 
and  Russia  only,  and  an  invitation  to  King  Ferdinand  to  attend 
the  adjourned  congress  at  Laibach  (1821),  an  invitation  of 
which  Great  Britain  approved  "  as  implying  negotiation  "  (see 
TROPPAU,  LAIBACH,  Congresses  of).  At  Laibach  Ferdinand 
played  so  sorry  a  part  as  to  provoke  the  contempt  of  those  whose 
policy  it  was  to  re-establish  him  in  absolute  power.  He  had 
twice  sworn,  with  gratuitous  solemnity,  to  maintain  the  new 
constitution;  but  he  was  hardly  out  of  Naples  before  he  re- 
pudiated his  oaths  and,  in  letters  addressed  to  all  the  sovereigns 
of  Europe,  declared  his  acts  to  have  been  null  and  void.  An 
attitude  so  indecent  threatened  to  defeat  the  very  objects  of  the 
reactionary  powers,  and  Gentz  congratulated  the  congress  that 
these  sorry  protests  would  be  buried  in  the  archives,  offering 
at  the  same  time  to  write  for  the  king  a  dignified  letter  in  which 
he  should  express  his  reluctance  at  having  to  violate  his  oaths 
in  the  face  of  irresistible  force !  But,  under  these  circumstances, 
Metternich  had  no  difficulty  in  persuading  the  king  to  allow  an 
Austrian  army  to  march  into  Naples  "  to  restore  order." 

The  campaign  that  followed  did  little  credit  either  to  the 
Austrians  or  the  Neapolitans.  The  latter,  commanded  by 
General  Pepe  (q.v.),  who  made  no  attempt  to  defend  the  difficult 
defiles  of  the  Abruzzi,  were  defeated,  after  a  half-hearted  struggle 
at  Rieti  (March  7th,  1821),  and  the  Austrians  entered  Naples. 
The  parliament  was  now  dismissed,  and  Ferdinand  inaugurated 
an  era  of  savage  persecution,  supported  by  spies  and  informers, 
against  the  Liberals  and  Carbonari,  the  Austrian  commandant 
in  vain  protesting  against  the  savagery  which  his  presence  alone 
rendered  possible. 

Ferdinand  died  on  the  4th  of  January  1825.  Few  sovereigns 
have  left  behind  so  odious  a  memory.  His  whole  career  is  one 
long  record  of  perjury,  vengeance  and  meanness,  unredeemed  by 
a  single  generous  act,  and  his  wife  was  a  worthy  helpmeet  and 
actively  co-operated  in  his  tyranny. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  standard  authority  on  Ferdinand's  reign  is 
Pietro  Colletta's  Storia  del  Reame  di  Napoli  (2nd  ed.,  Florence,  1848), 
which,  although  heavily  written  and  not  free  from  party  passion, 
is  reliable  and  accurate ;  L.  Conforti,  Napcli  net  1700  (Naples,  1886) ; 
G.  Pepe,  Memorie  (Paris,  1847),  a  most  valuable  book;  C.  Auriol, 
La  France,  I'Angleterre,  et  Naples  (Paris,  1906);  for  the  Sicilian 
period  and  the  British  occupation,  G.  Bianco,  La  Sicilia  durante 


I'occupazione  Inglese  (Palermo,  1902),  which  contains  many  new. 
documents  of  importance;  Freiherr  A.  von  Helfert  has  attempted 
the  impossible  task  of  whitewashing  Queen  Carolina  in  his  Konigin 
Karolina  von  Neapel  und  Sicilien  (Vienna,  1878),  and  Maria  Karolina 
•von  Oesterreich  (Vienna,  1884);  he  has  also  written  a  useful  life  of 
Fabrizio  Ruffo  (Italian  edit.,  Florence,  1885);  for  the  Sicilian 
revolution  of  1820  see  G.  Bianco's  La  Rivoluzione  in  Sicilia  del  1820 
(Florence,  1905), and M.  Amari's  Carteggio  (Turin,  1896),  (L.  V.*) 

FERDINAND  I.,  king  of  Portugal  (1345-1383),  sometimes 
referred  to  as  el  Gentil  (the  Gentleman),  son  of  Pedro  I.  of 
Portugal  (who  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  his  Spanish  con- 
temporary Pedro  the  Cruel),  succeeded  his  father  in  1367.  On 
the  death  of  Pedro  of  Castile  in  1369,  Ferdinand,  as  great- 
grandson  of  Sancho  IV.  by  the  female  line,  laid  claim  to  the 
vacant  throne,  for  which  the  kings  of  Aragon  and  Navarre,  and. 
afterwards  the  duke  of  Lancaster  (married  in  1370  to  Constance, 
the  eldest  daughter  of  Pedro),  also  became  competitors.  Mean- 
while Henry  of  Trastamara,  the  brother  (illegitimate)  and  con- 
queror of  Pedro,  had  assumed  the  crown  and  taken  the  field. 
After  one  or  two  indecisive  campaigns,  all  parties  were  ready  to 
accept  the  mediation  of  Pope  Gregory  XI.  The  conditions  of  the 
treaty,  ratified  in  1371,  included  a  marriage  between  Ferdinand 
and  Leonora  of  Castile.  But  before  the  union  could  take  place 
the  former  had  become  passionately  attached  to  Leonora  Tellez, 
the  wife  of  one  of  his  own  courtiers,  and  having  procured  a 
dissolution  of  her  previous  marriage,  he  lost  no  time  in  making 
her  his  queen.  This  strange  conduct,  although  it  raised  a  serious 
insurrection  in  Portugal,  did  not  at  once  result  in  a  war  with 
Henry;  but  the  outward  concord  was  soon  disturbed  by  the 
intrigues  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  who  prevailed  on  Ferdinand 
to  enter  into  a  secret  treaty  for  the  expulsion  of  Henry  from  his 
throne.  The  war  which  followed  was  unsuccessful;  and  peace 
was  again  made  in  1373.  On  the  death  of  Henry  in  1379,  the 
duke  of  Lancaster  once  more  put  forward  his  claims,  and  again 
found  an  ally  in  Portugal;  but,  according  to  the  Continental 
annalists,  the  English  proved  as  offensive  to  their  companions 
in  arms  as  to  their  enemies  in  the  field;  and  Ferdinand  made 
a  peace  for  himself  at  Badajoz  in  1382,  it  being  stipulated  that 
Beatrix,  the  heiress  of  Ferdinand,  should  marry  King  John 
of  Castile,  and  thus  secure  the  ultimate  union  of  the  crowns. 
Ferdinand  left  no  male  issue  when  he  died  on  the  22nd  of  October 
1383,  and  the  direct  Burgundian  line,  which  had  been  in  possession 
of  the  throne  since  the  days  of  Count  Henry  (about  1112),  became 
extinct.  The  stipulations  of  the  treaty  of  Badajoz  were  set 
aside,  and  John,  grand-master  of  the  order  of  Aviz,  Ferdinand's 
illegitimate  brother,  was  proclaimed.  This  led  to  a  war  which 
lasted  for  several  years. 

FERDINAND  I.,  El  Magno  or  "  the  Great,"  king  of  Castile 
(d.  1065),  son  of  Sancho  of  Navarre,  was  put  in  possession  of 
Castile  in  1028,  on  the  murder  of  the  last  count,  as  the  heir  of  his 
mother  Elvira,  daughter  of  a  previous  count  of  Castile.  He 
reigned  with  the  title  of  king.  He  married  Sancha,  sister  and 
heiress  of  Bermudo,  king  of  Leon.  In  1038  Bermudo  was  killed 
in  battle  with  Ferdinand  at  Tamaron,  and  Ferdinand  then  took 
possession  of  Leon  by  right  of  his  wife,  and  was  recognized  in 
Spain  as  emperor.  The  use  of  the  title  was  resented  by  the 
emperor  Henry  IV.  and  by  Pope  Victor  II.  in  1055,  as  implying 
a  claim  to  the  headship  of  Christendom,  and  as  a  usurpation 
on  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  It  did  not,  however,  mean  more 
than  that  Spain  was  independent  of  the  Empire,  and  that  the 
sovereign  of  Leon  was  the  chief  of  the  princes  of  the  peninsula. 
Although  Ferdinand  had  grown  in  power  by  a  fratricidal  strife 
with  Bermudo  of  Leon,  and  though  at  a  later  date  he  defeated 
and  killed  his  brother  Garcia  of  Navarre,  be  ranks  high  among 
the  kings  of  Spain  who  have  been  counted  religious.  To  a  large 
extent  he  may  have  owed  his  reputation  to  the  victories  over 
the  Mahommedans,  with  which  he  began  the  period  of  the  great 
reconquest.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Ferdinand  was 
profoundly  pious.  Towards  the  close  of  his  reign  he  sent  a  special 
embassy  to  Seville  to  bring  back  the  body  of  Santa  Justa.  The 
then  king  of  Seville,  Motadhid,  one  of  the  small  princes  who 
had  divided  the  caliphate  of  Cordova,  was  himself  a  sceptic  and 
poisoner,  but  he  stood  in  wholesome  awe  of  the  power  of  the 


266 


FERDINAND  II.-V.  (SPAIN) 


Christian  king.  He  favoured  the  embassy  in  every  way,  and 
when  the  body  of  Santa  Justa  could  not  be  found,  helped  the 
envoys  who  were  also  aided  by  a  vision  seen  by  one  of  them  in 
a  dream,  to  discover  the  body  of  Saint  Isidore,  which  was 
reverently  carried  away  to  Leon.  Ferdinand  died  on  the  feast 
of  Saint  John  the  Evangelist,  the  24th  of  June  1065,  in  Leon, 
with  many  manifestations  of  ardent  piety — having  laid  aside 
his  crown  and  royal  mantle,  dressed  in  the  frock  of  a  monk  and 
lying  on  a  bier,  covered  with  ashes,  which  was  placed  before  the 
altar  of  the  church  of  Saint  Isidore. 

FERDINAND  II.,  king  of  Leon  only  (d.  1188),  was  the  son 
of  Alphonso  VII.  and  of  Berenguela,  of  the  house  of  the  counts 
of  Barcelona.  On  the  division  of  the  kingdoms  which  had 
obeyed  his  father,  he  received  Leon.  His  reign  of  thirty  years 
was  one  of  strife  marked  by  no  signal  success  or  reverse.  He 
had  to  contend  with  his  unruly  nobles,  several  of  whom  he  put 
to  death.  During  the  minority  of  his  nephew  Alphonso  VIII.  of 
Castile  he  endeavoured  to  impose  himself  on  the  kingdom  as 
regent.  On  the  west  he  was  in  more  or  less  constant  strife  with 
Portugal,  which  was  in  process  of  becoming  an  independent 
kingdom.  His  relations  to  the  Portuguese  house  must  have 
suffered  by  his  repudiation  of  his  wife  Urraca,  daughter  of 
Alphonso  I.  of  Portugal.  Though  he  took  the  king  of  Portugal 
prisoner  in  1180,  he  made  no  political  use  of  his  success.  He 
extended  his  dominions  southward  in  Estremadura  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Moors.  Ferdinand,  who  died  in  1188,  left  the 
reputation  of  a  good  knight  and  hard  fighter,  but  did  not  display 
political  or  organizing  faculty. 

FERDINAND  III.,  El  Santo  or  "the  Saint,"  king  of  Castile 
(1199-1252),  son  of  Alphonso  IX.  of  Leon,  and  of  Berengaria, 
daughter  of  Alphonso  VIII.  of  Castile,  ranks  among  the  greatest 
of  the  Spanish  kings.  The  marriage  of  his  parents,  who  were 
second  cousins,  was  dissolved  as  unlawful  by  the  pope,  but  the 
legitimacy  of  the  children  was  recognized.  Till  1217  he  lived 
with  his  father  in  Leon.  In  that  year  the  young  king  of  Castile, 
Henry,  was  killed  by  accident.  Berengaria  sent  for  her  son 
with  such  speed  that  her  messenger  reached  Leon  before  the  news 
of  the  death  of  the  king  of  Castile,  and  when  he  came  to  her  she 
renounced  the  crown  in  his  favour.  Alphonso  of  Leon  considered 
himself  tricked,  and  the  young  king  had  to  begin  his  reign  by  a 
war  against  his  father  and  a  faction  of  the  Castilian  nobles. 
His  own  ability  and  the  remarkable  capacity  of  his  mother 
proved  too  much  for  the  king  of  Leon  and  his  Castilian  allies. 
Ferdinand,  who  showed  himself  docile  to  the  influence  of  Beren- 
garia, so  long  as  she  lived,  married  the  wife  she  found  for  him, 
Beatrice,  daughter  of  the  emperor  Philip  (of  Hohenstaufen) ,  and 
followed  her  advice  both  in  prosecuting  the  war  against  the  Moors 
and  in  the  steps  which  she  took  to  secure  his  peaceful  succession 
to  Leon  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1231.  After  the  union  of 
Castile  and  Leon  in  that  year  he  began  the  series  of  campaigns 
which  ended  by  reducing  the  Mahommedan  dominions  in  Spain 
to  Granada.  Cordova  fell  in  1236,  and  Seville  in  1248.  The 
king  of  Granada  did  homage  to  Ferdinand,  and  undertook  to 
attend  the  cortes  when  summoned.  The  king  was  a  severe 
persecutor  of  the  Albigenses,  and  his  formal  canonization  was 
due  as  much  to  his  orthodoxy  as  to  his  crusading  by  Pope 
Clement  X.  in  1671.  He  revived  the  university  first  founded 
by  his  grandfather  Alphonso  VIII.,  and  placed  it  at  Salamanca. 
By  his  second  marriage  with  Joan  (d.  1279),  daughter  of  Simon, 
of  Dammartin,  count  of  Ponthieu,  by  right  of  his  wife  Marie, 
Ferdinand  was  the  father  of  Eleanor,  the  wife  of  Edward  I.  of 
England. 

FERDINAND  IV.,  El  Emplazado  or  "  the  Summoned,"  king 
of  Castile  (d.  1312),  son  of  Sancho  El  Bravo,  and  his  wife 
Maria  de  Molina,  is  a  figure  of  small  note  in  Spanish  history. 
His  strange  title  is  given  him  in  the  chronicles  on  the  strength 
of  a  story  that  he  put  two  brothers  of  the  name  of  Carvajal  to 
death  tyrannically,  and  was  given  a  time,  a  plazo,  by  them  in 
which  to  answer  for  his  crime  in  the  next  world.  But  the  tale 
is  not  contemporary,  and  is  an  obvious  copy  of  the  story  told 
of  Jacques  de  Molay,  grand-master  of  the  Temple,  and  Philippe 
Le  Bel.  Ferdinand  IV.  succeeded  to  the  throne  when  a  boy  of 


six.  His  minority  was  a  time  of  anarchy.  He  owed  his  escape 
from  the  violence  of  competitors  and  nobles,  partly  to  the  tact 
and  undaunted  bravery  of  his  mother  Maria  de  Molina,  and 
partly  to  the  loyalty  of  the  citizens  of  Avila,  who  gave  him 
refuge  within  their  walls.  As  a  king  he  proved  ungrateful  to  his 
mother,  and  weak  as  a  ruler.  He  died  suddenly  in  his  tent  at 
Jaen  when  preparing  for  a  raid  into  the  Moorish  territory  of 
Granada,  on  the  7th  of  September  1312. 

FERDINAND  I.,  king  of  Aragon  (1373-1416),  called  "of 
Antequera,"  was  the  son  of  John  I.  of  Castile  by  his  wife  Eleanor, 
daughter  of  the  third  marriage  of  Peter  IV.  of  Aragon.  His 
surname  "  of  Antequera  "  was  given  him  because  he  was  besieg- 
ing that  town,  then  in  the  hands  of  the  Moors,  when  he  was  told 
that  the  cortes  of  Aragon  had  elected  him  king  in  succession  to  his 
uncle  Martin,  the  last  male  of  the  old  line  of  Wilfred  the  Hairy. 
As  infante  of  Castile  Ferdinand  had  played  an  honourable  part. 
When  his  brother  Henry  III.  died  at  Toledo,  in  1406,  the  cortes 
was  sitting,  and  theinobles  offered  to  make  him  king  in  preference 
to  his  nephew  John.  Ferdinand  refused  to  despoil  his  brother's 
infant  son,  and  even  if  he  did  not  act  on  the  moral  ground  he 
alleged,  his  sagacity  must  have  shown  him  that  he  would  be  at 
the  mercy  of  the  men  who  had  chosen  him  in  such  circumstances. 
As  co-regent  of  the  kingdom  with  Catherine,  widow  of  Henry  III. 
and  daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt  by  his  marriage  with  Constance, 
daughter  of  Peter  the  Cruel  and  Maria  de  Padilla,  Ferdinand 
proved  a  good  ruler.  He  restrained  the  follies  of  his  sister-in-law, 
and  kept  the  realm  quiet,  by  firm  government,  and  by  prosecuting 
the  war  with  the  Moors.  As  king  of  Aragon  his  short  reign  of 
two  years  left  him  little  time  to  make  his  mark.  Having  been 
bred  in  Castile,  where  the  royal  authority  was,  at  least  in  theory, 
absolute,  he  showed  himself  impatient  under  the  checks  imposed 
on  him  by  the  fueros,  the  chartered  rights  of  Aragon  and  Cata- 
lonia. He  particularly  resented  the  obstinacy  of  the  Barcelonese, 
who  compelled  the  members  of  his  household  to  pay  municipal 
taxes.  His  most  signal  act  as  king  was  to  aid  in  closing  the 
Great  Schism  in  the  Church  by  agreeing  to  the  deposition  of  the 
antipope  Benedict  XIV.,  an  Aragonese.  He  died  at  Ygualada 
in  Catalonia  on  the  2nd  of  April  1416. 

FERDINAND  V.  of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  II.  of  Aragon 
(1452-1516),  was  the  son  of  John  I.  of  Aragon  by  his  second 
marriage  with  Joanna  Henriquez,  of  the  family  of  the  hereditary 
grand  admirals  of  Castile,  and  was  born  at  Sos  in  Aragon  on  the 
i6th  of  March  1452.  Under  the  name  of  "the  Catholic"  and 
as  the  husband  of  Isabella,  queen  of  Castile,  he  played  a  great 
part  in  Europe.  His  share  in  establishing  the  royal  authority 
in  all  parts  of  Spain,  in  expelling  the  Moors  from  Granada,  in  the 
conquest  of  Navarre,  in  forwarding  the  voyages  of  Columbus, 
and  in  contending  with  France  for  the  supremacy  in  Italy,  is 
dealt  with  elsewhere  (see  SPAIN:  History).  In  personal  char- 
acter he  had  none  of  the  attractive  qualities  of  his  wife.  It  may 
fairly  be  said  of  him  that  he  was  purely  a  politician.  His  marri- 
age in  1469  to  his  cousin  Isabella  of  Castile  was  dictated  by  the 
desire  to  unite  his  own  claims  to  the  crown,  as  the  head  of  the 
younger  branch  of  the  same  family,  with  hers,  in  case  Henry  IV. 
should  die  childless.  When  the  king  died  in  1474  he  made  an 
ungenerous  attempt  to  procure  his  own  proclamation  as  king 
without  recognition  of  the  rights  of  his  wife.  Isabella  asserted 
her  claims  firmly,  and  at  all  times  insisted  on  a  voice  in  the 
government  of  Castile.  But  though  Ferdinand  had  sought  a 
selfish  political  advantage  at  his  wife's  expense,  he  was  well  aware 
of  her  ability  and  high  character.  Their  married  life  was  dignified 
and  harmonious;  for  Ferdinand  had  no  common  vices,  and 
their  views  in  government  were  identical.  The  king  cared  for 
nothing  but  dominion  and  political  power.  His  character 
explains  the  most  ungracious  acts  of  his  life,  such  as  his  breach 
of  his  promises  to  Columbus,  his  distrust  of  Ximenez  and  of  the 
Great  Captain.  He  had  given  wide  privileges  to  Columbus  on 
the  supposition  that  the  discoverer  would  reach  powerful  king- 
doms. When  islands  inhabited  by  feeble  savages  were  dis- 
covered, Ferdinand  appreciated  the  risk  that  they  might  become 
the  seat  of  a  power  too  strong  to  be  controlled,  and  took 
measures  to  avert  the  danger.  He  feared  that  Ximinez  and  the 


FERDINAND  VI.— VII.   (SPAIN) 


267 


Great  Captain  would  become  too  independent,  and  watched 
them  in  the  interest  of  the  royal  authority.  Whether  he  ever 
boasted,  as  he  is  said  to  have  boasted,  that  he  had  deceived 
Louis  XII.  of  France  twelve  times,  is  very  doubtful;  but  it  is 
certain  that  when  Ferdinand  made  a  treaty,  or  came  to  an 
understanding  with  any  one,  the  contract  was  generally  found 
to  contain  implied  meanings  favourable  to  himself  which  the 
other  contracting  party  had  not  expected.  The  worst  of  his 
character  was  prominently  shown  after  the  death  of  Isabella 
in  1504.  He  endeavoured  to  lay  hands  on  the  regency  of  Castile 
in  the  name  of  his  insane  daughter  Joanna,  and  without  regard 
to  the  claims  of  her  husband  Philip  of  Habsburg.  The  hostility 
of  the  Castilian  nobles,  by  whom  he  was  disliked,  baffled  him 
for  a  time,  but  on  Philip's  early  death  he  reasserted  his  authority. 
His  second  marriage  with  Germaine  of  Foix  in  1505  was  appar- 
ently contracted  in  the  hope  that  by  securing  an  heir  male  he 
might  punish  his  Habsburg  son-in-law.  Aragon  did  not  recog- 
nize the  right  of  women  to  reign,  and  would  have  been  detached 
together  with  Catalonia,  Valencia  and  the  Italian  states  if  he 
had  had  a  son.  This  was  the  only  occasion  on  which  Ferdinand 
allowed  passion  to  obscure  his  political  sense,  and  lead  him  into 
acts  which  tended  to  undo  his  work  of  national  unification.  As 
king  of  Aragon  he  abstained  from  inroads  on  the  liberties  of  his 
subjects  which  might  have  provoked  rebellion.  A  few  acts  of 
illegal  violence  are  recorded  of  him — as  when  heinvited  a  notorious 
demagogue  of  Saragossa  to  visit  him  in  the  palace,  and  caused 
the  man  to  be  executed  without  form  of  trial.  Once  when  presid- 
ing over  the  Aragonese  cortes  he  found  himself  sitting  in  a 
thorough  draught  and  ordered  the  window  to  be  shut,  adding 
in  a  lower  voice,  "  If  it  is  not  against  thefueros."  But  his  ill-will 
did  not  go  beyond  such  sneers.  He  was  too  intent  on  building 
up  a  great  state  to  complicate  his  difficulties  by  internal  troubles. 
His  arrangement  of  the  convention  of  Guadalupe,  which  ended 
the  fierce  Agrarian  conflicts  of  Catalonia,  was  wise  and  profitable 
to  the  country,  though  it  was  probably  dictated  mainly  by  a  wish 
to  weaken  the  landowners  by  taking  away  their  feudal  rights. 
Ferdinand  died  at  Madrigalejo  in  Estremadura  on  the  23rd  of 
February  1516. 

The  lives  of  the  kings  of  this  name  before  Ferdinand  V.  are  con- 
tained in  the  chronicles,  and  in  the  Anales  de  Aragon  of  Zurita,  and 
the  History  of  Spain  by  Mariana.  Both  deal  at  length  with  the 
life  of  Ferdinand  V.  Prescott's  History  of  the  Reign  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  in  any  of  its  numerous  editions,  gives  a  full  life  of  him 
with  copious  references  to  authorities. 

FERDINAND  VI.,  king  of  Spain  (1713-1759),  second  son  of 
Philip  V.,  founder  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  by  his  first  marriage 
with  Maria  Louisa  of  Savoy,  was  born  at  Madrid  on  the  23rd 
of  September  1713.  His  youth  was  depressed.  His  father's 
second  wife,  Elizabeth  Farnese,  was  a  managing  woman,  who 
had  no  affection  except  for  her  own  children,  and  who  looked 
upon  her  stepson  as  an  obstacle  to  their  fortunes.  The  hypo- 
chondria of  his  father  left  Elizabeth  mistress  of  the  palace. 
Ferdinand  was  married  in  1729  to  Maria  Magdalena  Barbara, 
daughter  of  John  V.  of  Portugal.  The  very  homely  looks  of  his 
wife  were  thought  by  observers  to  cause  the  prince  a  visible 
shock  when  he  was  first  presented  to  her.  Yet  he  became  deeply 
attached  to  his  wife,  and  proved  in  fact  nearly  as  uxorious  as  his 
father.  Ferdinand  was  by  temperament  melancholy,  shy  and 
distrustful  of  his  own  abilities.  When  complimented  on  his 
shooting,  he  replied,  "  It  would  be  hard  if  there  were  not  some- 
thing I  could  do."  As  king  he  followed  a  steady  policy  of  neu- 
trality between  France  and  England,  and  refused  to  be  tempted 
by  the  offers  of  either  into  declaring  war  on  the  other.  In  his 
life  he  was  orderly  and  retiring,  averse  from  taking  decisions, 
though  not  incapable  of  acting  firmly,  as  when  he  cut  short  the 
dangerous  intrigues  of  his  able  minister  Ensenada  by  dismiss- 
ing and  imprisoning  him.  Shooting  and  music  were  his  only 
pleasures,  and  he  was  the  generous  patron  of  the  famous  singer 
Farinelli  (q.v.),  whose  voice  soothed  his  melancholy.  The  death 
of  his  wife  Barbara,  who  had  been  devoted  to  him,  and  who  care- 
fully abstained  from  political  intrigue,  broke  his  heart.  Between 
the  date  of  her  death  in  1758  and  his  own  on  the  roth  of  August 
1759  he  fell  into  a  state  of  prostration  in  which  he  would  not 


even  dress,  but  wandered  unshaven,  unwashed  and  in  a  night- 
gown about  his  park.  The  memoirs  of  the  count  of  Fernan 
Nunez  give  a  shocking  picture  of  his  death-bed. 

A  good  account  of  the  reign  and  character  of  Ferdinand  VI.  will 
be  found  in  vol.  iv.  of  Coxe  s  Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the 
House  of  Bourbon  (London,  1815).  See  also  Vida  de  Carlos  III.,  by 
the  count  of  Fernan  Nunez,  ed.  M.  Morel  Fatio  and  Don  A.  Paz  y 
Melia  (1898). 

FERDINAND  VII.,  king  of  Spain  (1784-1833),  the  eldest  son 
of  Charles  IV.,  king  of  Spain,  and  of  his  wife  Maria  Louisa  of 
Parma,  was  born  at  the  palace  of  San  Ildefonso  near  Balsain  in 
the  Somosierra  hills,  on  the  I4th  of  October  1784.  The  events 
with  which  he  was  connected  were  many,  tragic  and  of  the  widest 
European  interest.  In  his  youth  he  occupied  the  painful  position 
of  an  heir  apparent  who  was  carefully  excluded  from  all  share  in 
government  by  the  jealousy  of  his  parents,  and  the  prevalence 
of  a  royal  favourite.  National  discontent  with  a  feeble  govern- 
ment produced  a  revolution  in  1808  by  which  he  passed  to  the 
throne  by  the  forced  abdication  of  his  father.  Then  he  spent 
years  as  the  prisoner  of  Napoleon,  and  returned  in  1814  to  find 
that  while  Spain  was  fighting  for  independence  in  his  name  a  new 
world  had  been  born  of  foreign  invasion  and  domestic  revolution. 
He  came  back  to  assert  the  ancient  doctrine  that  the  sovereign 
authority  resided  in  his  person  only.  Acting  on  this  principle  he 
ruled  frivolously,  and  with  a  wanton  indulgence  of  whims.  In 
1820  his  misrule  provoked  a  revolt,  and  he  remained  in  the  hands 
of  insurgents  till  he  was  released  by  foreign  intervention  in  1823. 
When  free,  he  revenged  himself  with  a  ferocity  which  disgusted 
his  allies.  In  his  last  years  he  prepared  a  change  in  the  order  of 
succession  established  by  his  dynasty  in  Spain,  which  angered 
a  large  part  of  the  nation,  and  made  a  civil  war  inevitable. 
We  have  to  distinguish  the  part  of  Ferdinand  VII.  in  all  these 
transactions,  in  which  other  and  better  men  were  concerned. 
It  can  confidently  be  said  to  have  been  uniformly  base.  He  had 
perhaps  no  right  to  complain  that  he  was  kept  aloof  from  all 
share  in  government  while  only  heir  apparent,  for  this  was  the 
traditional  practice  of  his  family.  But  as  heir  to  the  throne 
he  had  a  right  to  resent  the  degradation  of  the  crown  he  was  to 
inherit,  and  the  power  of  a  favourite  who  was 'his  mother's  lover. 
If  he  had  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  popular  rising  he  would 
have  been  followed,  and  would  have  had  a  good  excuse.  His 
course'  was  to  enter  on  dim  intrigues  at  the  instigation  of  his  first 
wife,  Maria  Antonietta  of  Naples.  After  her  death  in  1806  he 
was  drawn  into  other  intrigues  by  flatterers,  and,  in  October 
1807,  was  arrested  for  the  conspiracy  of  the  Escorial.  The 
conspiracy  aimed  at  securing  the  help  of  the  emperor  Napoleon. 
When  detected,  Ferdinand  betrayed  his  associates,  and  grovelled 
to  his  parents.  When  his  father's  abdication  was  extorted  by  a 
popular  riot  at  Aranjuez  in  March  1808,  he  ascended  the  throne — 
not  to  lead  his  people  manfully,  but  to  throw  himself  into  the 
hands  of  Napoleon,  in  the  fatuous  hope  that  the  emperor  would 
support  him.  He  was  in  his  turn  forced  to  make  an  abdication 
and  imprisoned  in  France,  while  Spain,  with  the  help  of  England, 
fought  for  its  life.  At  Valanjay,  where  he  was  sent  as  a  prisoner 
of  state,  he  sank  contentedly  into  vulgar  vice,  and  did  not  scruple 
to  applaud  the  French  victories  over  the  people  who  were  suffer- 
ing unutterable  misery  in  his  cause.  When  restored  in  March 
1814,  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  he  had  just  cause  to  repudiate  the 
impracticable  constitution  made  by  the  cortes  without  his 
consent.  He  did  so,  and  then  governed  like  an  evil-disposed 
boy — indulging  the  merest  animal  passions,  listening  to  a  small 
camarilla  of  low-born  favourites,  changing  his  ministers  every 
three  months,  and  acting  on  the  impulse  of  whims  which  were 
sometimes  mere  buffoonery,  but  were  at  times  lubricous,  or 
ferocious.  The  autocratic  powers  of  the  Grand  Alliance,  though 
forced  to  support  him  as  the  representative  of  legitimacy  in  Spain, 
watched  his  proceedings  with  disgust  and  alarm.  "  The  king," 
wrote  Gentz  to  the  hospodar  Caradja  on  the  ist  of  December 
1814,  "himself  enters  the  houses  of  his  first  ministers,  arrests 
them,  and  hands  them  over  to  their  cruel  enemies  ";  and  again, 
on  the  i4th  of  January  1815,  "  The  king  has  so  debased  himself 
that  he  has  become  no  more  than  the  leading  police  agent  and 
gaoler  of  his  country."  When  at  last  the  inevitable  revolt  came 


268     FERDINAND  II.  (SICILY)— FERDINAND  III.  (TUSCANY) 


in  1 820  he  grovelled  to  the  insurgents  as  he  had  done  to  his  parents, 
descending  to  the  meanest  submissions  while  fear  was  on  him, 
then  intriguing  and,  when  detected,  grovelling  again.  When  at 
the  beginning  of  1823,  as  a  result  of  the  congress  of  Verona,  the 
French  invaded  Spain,1  "  invoking  the  God  of  St  Louis,  for  the 
sake  of  preserving  the  throne  of  Spain  to  a  descendant  of  Henry 
IV.,  and  of  reconciling  that  fine  kingdom  with  Europe,"  and  in 
May  the  revolutionary  party  carried  Ferdinand  to  Cadiz,  he 
continued  to  make  promises  of  amendment  till  he  was  free. 
Then,  in  violation  of  his  oath  to  grant  an  amnesty,  he  revenged 
himself  for  three  years  of  coercion  by  killing  on  a  scale  which 
revolted  his  "  rescuers,"  and  against  which  the  duke  of 
Angouleme,  powerless  to  interfere,  protested  by  refusing  the 
Spanish  decorations  offered  him  for  his  services.  During  his 
last  years  Ferdinand's  energy  was  abated.  He  no  longer  changed 
ministers  every  few  months  as  a  sport,  and  he  allowed  some  of 
them  to  conduct  the  current  business  of  government.  His  habits 
of  life  were  telling  on  him.  He  became  torpid,  bloated  and 
horrible  to  look  at.  After  his  fourth  marriage  in  1829  with  Maria 
Christina  of  Naples,  he  was  persuaded  by  his  wife  to  set  aside 
the  law  of  succession  of  Philip  V.,  which  gave  a  preference  to  all 
the  males  of  the  family  in  Spain  over  the  females.  His  marriage 
had  brought  him  only  two  daughters.  When  well,  he  consented 
to  the  change  under  the  influence  of  his  wife.  When  ill,  he  was 
terrified  by  priestly  advisers,  who  were  partisans  of  his  brother 
Don  Carlos.  What  his  final  decision  was  is  perhaps  doubtful. 
His  wife  was  mistress  by  his  death-bed,  and  she  could  put  the 
words  she  chose  into  the  mouth  of  a  dead  man — and  could  move 
the  dead  hand  at  her  will.  Ferdinand  died  on  the  2pth  of  Sep- 
tember 1833.  It  had  been  a  frequent  saying  with  the  more  zealous 
royalists  of  Spain  that  a  king  must  be  wiser  than  his  ministers, 
for  he  was  placed  on  the  throne  and  directed  by  God.  Since 
the  reign  of  Ferdinand  VII.  no  one  has  maintained  this  un- 
qualified version  of  the  great  doctrine  of  divine  right. 

King  Ferdinand  VII.   kept  a  diary  during  the  troubled  years 
1820-1823,  which  has  been  published  by  the  count  de  Casa  Valencia. 

FERDINAND  II.  (1810-1859),  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  son  of 
Francis  I.,  was  born  at  Palermo  on  the  I2th  of  January  1810. 
In  his  early  years  he  was  credited  with  Liberal  ideas  and  he  was 
fairly  popular,  his  free  and  easy  manners  having  endeared  him 
to  the  lazzaroni.  On  succeeding  his  father  in  1830,  he  published 
an  edict  in  which  he  promised  to  "  give  his  most  anxious  atten- 
tion to  the  impartial  administration  of  justice,"  to  reform  the 
finances,  and  to  "  use  every  effort  to  heal  the  wounds  which  had 
afflicted  the  kingdom  for  so  many  years  ";  but  these  promises 
seem  to  have  been  meant  only  to  lull  discontent  to  sleep,  for 
although  he  did.  something  for  the  economic  development  of 
the  kingdom,  the  existing  burden  of  taxation  was  only  slightly 
lightened,  corruption  continued  to  flourish  in  all  departments 
of  the  administration,  and  an  absolutism  was  finally  established 
harsher  than  that  of  all  his  predecessors,  and  supported  by  even 
more  extensive  and  arbitrary  arrests.  Ferdinand  was  naturally 
shrewd,  but  badly  educated,  grossly  superstitious  and  possessed 
of  inordinate  self-esteem.  Though  he  kept  the  machinery  of 
his  kingdom  fairly  efficient,  and  was  a  patriot  to  the  extent  of 
brooking  no  foreign  interference,  he  made  little  account  of  the 
wishes  or  welfare  of  his  subjects.  In  1832  he  married  Cristina, 
daughter  of  Victor  Emmanuel  I.,  king  of  Sardinia,  and  shortly 
after  her  death  in  1836  he  took  for  a  second  wife  Maria  Theresa, 
daughter  of  archduke  Charles  of  Austria.  After  his  Austrian 
alliance  the  bonds  of  despotism  were  more  closely  tightened,  and 
the  increasing  discontent  of  his  subjects  was  manifested  by 
various  abortive  attempts  at  insurrection;' in  1837  there  was  a 
rising  in  Sicily  in  consequence  of  the  outbreak  of  cholera,  and  in 
1843  the  Young  Italy  Society  tried  to  organize  a  general  rising, 
which,  however,  only  manifested  itself  in  a  series  of  isolated  out- 
breaks. The  expedition  of  the  Bandiera  brothers  (q.v.)  in  1844, 
although  it  had  no  practical  result,  aroused  great  ill-feeling  owing 
to  the  cruel  sentences  passed  on  the  rebels.  In  January  1848 
a  rising  in  Sicily  was  the  signal  for  revolutions  all  over  Italy  and 
Europe;  it  was  followed  by  a  movement  in  Naples,  and  the  king 
1  Louis  XVIII. 's  speech  from  the  throne,  Jan.  28,  1823. 


granted  a  constitution  which  he  swore  to  observe.  A  dispute, 
however,  arose  as  to  the  nature  of  the  oath  which  should  be  taken 
by  the  members  of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  as  neither  the 
king  nor  the  deputies  would  yield,  serious  disturbances  broke 
out  in  the  streets  of  Naples  on  the  isth  of  May;  so  the  king, 
making  these  an  excuse  for  withdrawing  his  promise,  dissolved 
the  national  parliament  on  the  i3th  of  March  1849.  He  retired 
to  Gaeta  to  confer  with  various  deposed  despots,  and  when  the 
news  of  the  Austrian  victory  at  Novara  (March  1849)  reached 
him,  he  determined  to  return  to  a  reactionary  policy.  Sicily, 
whence  the  Royalists  had  been  expelled,  was  subjugated  by 
General  Filangieri  (q.v.),  and  the  chief  cities  were  bombarded, 
an  expedient  which  won  for  Ferdinand  the  epithet  of  "  King 
Bomba."  During  the  last  years  of  his  reign  espionage  and 
arbitrary  arrests  prevented  all  serious  manifestations  of  dis- 
content among  his  subjects.  In  1851  the  political  prisoners  of 
Naples  were  calculated  by  Mr  Gladstone  in  his  letters  to  Lord 
Aberdeen  (1851)  to  number  15,000  (probably  the  real  figure  was 
nearer  40,000),  and  so  great  was  the  scandal  created  by  the  pre- 
vailing reign  of  terror,  and  the  abominable  treatment  to  which 
the  prisoners  were  subjected,  that  in  1856  France  and  England 
made  diplomatic  representations  to  induce  the  king  to  mitigate 
his  rigour  and  proclaim  a  general  amnesty,  but  without  success. 
An  attempt  was  made  by  a  soldier  to  assassinate  Ferdinand  in 
1856.  He  died  on  the  22nd  of  May  1856,  just  after  the  declara- 
tion of  war  by  France  and  Piedmont  against  Austria,  which  was 
to  result  in  the  collapse  of  his  kingdom  and  his  dynasty.  He 
was  bigoted,  cruel,  mean,  treacherous,  though  not  without  a 
certain  bonhomie;  the  only  excuse  that  can  -be  made  for  him 
is  that  with  his  heredity  and  education  a  different  result  could 
scarcely  be  expected. 

See  Correspondence  respecting  the  Affairs  of  Naples  and.  Sicily, 
1848-1849,  presented  to  both  Houses  of  Parliament  by  Command  of 
Her  Majesty,  4th  May  1849;  Two  Letters  to  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  by 
the  Right  Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone,  1st  ed.,  1851  (an  edition  published 
in  1852  and  the  subsequent  editions  contain  an  Examination  of  the 
Official  Reply  of  the  Neapolitan  Government) ;  N.  Nisco,  Ferdinando  II. 
il  suo  regno  (Naples,  1884) ;  H.  Remsen  Whitehouse,  The  Collapse  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Naples  (New  York,  1899) ;  R.  de  Cesare,  La  Caduta 
d'  un  Regno,  vol.  i.  (Citta  di  Castello,  1900),  which  contains  a  great 
deal  of  fresh  information,  but  is  badly  arranged  and  not  always 
reliable.  (L.  V.*) 

FERDINAND  III.  (1769-1824),  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  and 
archduke  of  Austria,  second  son  of  the  emperor  Leopold  II., 
was  born  on  the  6th  of  May  1769.  On  his  father  becoming 
emperor  in  1790,  he  succeeded  him  as  grand  duke  of  Tuscany. 
Ferdinand  was  one  of  the  first  sovereigns  to  enter  into  diplomatic 
relations  with  the  French  republic  (1793);  and  although,  a  few 
months  later,  he  was  compelled  by  England  and  Russia  to  join 
the  coalition  against  France,  he  concluded  peace  with  that 
power  in  1795,  and  by  observing  a  strict  neutrality  saved  his 
dominions  from  invasion  by  the  French,  except  for  a  temporary 
occupation  of  Livorno,  till  1799,  when  he  was  compelled  to  vacate 
his  throne,  and  a  provisional  Republican  government  was  estab- 
lished at  Florence.  Shortly  afterwards  the  French  arms  suffered 
severe  reverses  in  Italy,  and  Ferdinand  was  restored  to  his 
territories;  but  in  1801,  by  the  peace  of  Luneville,  Tuscany 
was  converted  into  the  kingdom  of  Etruria,  and  he  was  again 
compelled  to  return  to  Vienna.  In  lieu  of  the  sovereignty  of 
Tuscany,  he  obtained  in  1802  the  electorship  of  Salzburg,  which 
he  exchanged  by  the  peace  of  Pressburg  in  1805  for  that  of  Wiirz- 
burg.  In  1806  he  was  admitted  as  grand  duke  of  Wurzburg  to  the 
confederation  of  the  Rhine.  He  was  restored  to  the  throne  of 
Tuscany  after  the  abdication  of  Napoleon  in  1814  and  was  re- 
ceived with  enthusiasm  by  the  people,  but  had  again  to  vacate 
his  capital  for  a  short  time  in  1815,  when  Murat  proclaimed  war 
against  Austria.  The  final  overthrow  of  the  French  supremacy 
at  the  battle  of  Waterloo  secured  him,  however,  in  the  un- 
disturbed possession  of  his  grand  duchy  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  The  restoration  in  Tuscany  was  not  accompanied  by 
the  reactionary  excesses  which  characterized  it  elsewhere,  and 
a  large  part  of  the  French  legislation  was  retained.  His 
prime  minister  was  Count  V.  Fossombroni  (q.v.).  The  mild 
rule  of  Ferdinand,  his  solicitude  for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects, 


FERDINAND  (BULGARIA)— FERDINAND  (COLOGNE)        269 


his  enlightened  patronage  of  art  and  science,  his  encouragement 
of  commerce,  and  his  toleration  render  him  an  honourable  ex- 
ception to  the  generality  of  Italian  princes.  At  the  same  time 
his  paternal  despotism  tended  to  emasculate  the  Tuscan  char- 
acter. He  died  in  June  1824,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Leopold  II.  (q.v.). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A.  von  Reumont,  Geschichte  Toscanas  (Gotha, 
1877);  and  "  Federico  Manfredini  e  la  politica  Toscana  nei  primi 
anni  di  Ferdinando  III."  (in  the  Archivio  Slorico  Italiano,  1877); 
Emmer,  Erzherzog  Ferdinand  III.,  Grossherzog  von  Toskana  (Salz- 
burg, 1871) ;  C.  Tivaroni,  L'  Italia  durante  il  dominio  francese ,  ii.  1-44 
(Turin,  1889),  and  L'  Italia  durante  il  dominio  austriaco,  ii.  I-l8 
(Turin,  1893).  See  also  under  FOSSOMBRONI;  VITTORIO;  and 
CAPPONI,  GINO. 

FERDINAND,     MAXIMILIAN     KARL     LEOPOLD     MARIA, 

king  of  Bulgaria  (1861-  ),  fifth  and  youngest  son  of  Prince 
Augustus  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha,  was  born  on  the  26th  of 
February  1861.  Great  care  was  exercised  in  his  education,  and 
every  encouragement  given  to  the  taste  for  natural  history  which 
he  exhibited  at  an  early  age.  In  1879  he  travelled  with  his 
brother  Augustus  to  Brazil,  and  the  results  of  their  botanical 
observations  were  published  at  Vienna,  1883-1888,  under  the 
title  of  Itinera  Principum  S.  Coburgi.  Having  been  appointed 
to  a  lieutenancy  in  the  2nd  regiment  of  Austrian  hussars,  he 
was  holding  this  rank  when,  by  unanimous  vote  of  the  National 
Assembly,  he  was  elected  prince  of  Bulgaria,  on  the  7th  of  July 
1887,  in  succession  to  Prince  Alexander,  who  had  abdicated  on 
the  7th  of  September  preceding.  He  assumed  the  government 
on  the  I4th  of  August  1887,  for  Russia  for  a  long  time  refused 
to  acknowledge  the  election,  and  he  was  accordingly  exposed  to 
frequent  military  conspiracies,  due  to  the  influence  or  attitude 
of  that  power.  The  firmness  and  vigour  with  which  he  met  all 
attempts  at  revolution  were  at  length  rewarded,  and  his  election 
was  confirmed  in  March  1896  by  the  Porte  and  the  great  powers. 
On  the  aoth  of  April  1893  he  married  Marie  Louise  de  Bourbon 
(d.  1899),  eldest  daughter  of  Duke  Robert  of  Parma,  and  in  May 
following  the  Grand  Sobranye  confirmed  the  title  of  Royal  High- 
ness to  the  prince  and  his  heir.  The  prince  adhered  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith,  but  his  son  and  heir,  the  young  Prince 
Boris,  was  received  into  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church  on  the 
I4th  of  February  1896.  Prince  Boris,  to  whom  the  tsar 
Nicholas  III.  became  godfather,  accompanied  his  father  to 
Russia  in  1898,  when  Prince  Ferdinand  visited  St  Petersburg 
and  Moscow,  and  still  further  strengthened  the  bond  already 
existing  between  Russia  and  Bulgaria.  In  1908  Ferdinand 
married  Eleanor  (b.  1860),  a  princess  of  the  house  of  Reuss. 
Later  in  the  year,  in  connexion  with  the  Austrian  annexation 
of  Bosnia-Herzegovina  and  the  crisis  with  Turkey,  he  proclaimed 
the  independence  of  Bulgaria,  and  took  the  title  of  king  or  tsar. 
(See  BULGARIA,  and  EUROPE:  History.) 

FERDINAND,  duke  of  Brunswick  (1721-1792),  Prussian 
general  field  marshal,  was  the  fourth  son  of  Ferdinand  Albert, 
duke  of  Brunswick,  and  was  born  at  Wolfenbiittel  on  the  i2th 
of  January  1721.  He  was  carefully  educated  with  a  view  to  a 
military  career,  and  in  his  twentieth  year  he  was  made  chief  of  a 
newly-raised  Brunswick  regiment  in  the  Prussian  service.  He 
was  present  in  the  battles  of  Mollwitz  and  Chotusitz.  In  suc- 
cession to  Margrave  Wilhelm  of  Brandenburg,  killed  at  Prague 
(1744),  Ferdinand  received  the  command  of  Frederick  the 
Great's  Leibgarde  battalion,  and  at  Sohr  (1745)  he  distinguished 
himself  so  greatly  at  the  head  of  his  brigade  that  Frederick 
wrote  of  him,  "  le  Prince  Ferdinand  s'est  surpasse."  The  height 
which  he  captured  was  defended  by  his  brother  Ludwig  as  an 
officer  of  the  Austrian  service,  and  another  brother  of  Duke 
Ferdinand  was  killed  by  his  side  in  the  charge.  During  the  ten 
years'  peace  he  was  in  the  closest  touch  with  the  military  work 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  who  supervised  the  instruction  of  the 
guard  battalion,  and  sought  to  make  it  a  model  of  the  whole 
Prussian  army.  Ferdinand  was,  moreover,  one  of  the  most 
intimate  friends  of  the  king,  and  thus  he  was  peculiarly  fitted 
for  the  tasks  which  afterwards  fell  to  his  lot.  In  this  time  he 
became  successively  major-general  and  lieutenant-general.  In 
the  first  campaign  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  Ferdinand  com- 


manded one  of  the  Prussian  columns  which  converged  upon 
Dresden,  and  in  the  operations  which  led  up  to  the  surrender  of 
the  Saxon  army  at  Pirna  (1756),  and  at  the  battle  of  Lobositz, 
he  led  the  right  wing  of  the  Prussian  infantry.  In  1757  he  was 
present,  and  distinguished  himself,  at  Prague,  and  he  served  also 
in  the  campaign  of  Rossbach.  Shortly  after  this  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  allied  forces  which  were  being  organized 
for  the  war  in  western  Germany.  He  found  this  army  dejected 
by  a  reverse  and  a  capitulation,  yet  within  a  week  of  his  taking 
up  the  command  he  assumed  the  offensive,  and  thus  began  the 
career  of  victory  which  made  his  European  reputation  as  a 
soldier.  His  conduct  of  the  five  campaigns  which  followed  (see 
SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR)  was  naturally  influenced  by  the  teachings 
of  Frederick,  whose  pupil  the  duke  had  been  for  so  many  years. 
Ferdinand,  indeed,  approximated  more  closely  to  Frederick  in 
his  method  of  making  war  than  any  other  general  of  the  time. 
Yet  his  task  was  in  many  respects  far  more  difficult  than  that  of 
the  king.  Frederick  was  the  absolute  master  of  his  own  homo- 
geneous army,  Ferdinand  merely  the  commander  of  a  group  of 
contingents,  and  answerable  to  several  princes  for  the  troops 
placed  under  his  control.  The  French  were  by  no  means  despi- 
cable opponents  in  the  field,  and  their  leaders,  if  not  of  the  first  » 
grade,  were  cool  and  experienced  veterans.  In  1758  he  fought 
and  won  the  battle  of  Crefeld,  several  marches  beyond  the 
Rhine;  but  so  advanced  a  position  he  could  not  well  maintain, 
and  he  fell  back  to  the  Lippe.  He  resumed  a  bold  offensive  in 
1759,  only  to  be  repulsed  at  Bergen  (near  Frankfort-on-Main). 
On  the  ist  of  August  of  this  year  Ferdinand  won  the  brilliant 
victory  of  Minden  (q.v.).  Vellinghausen.  Wilhelmsthal,  War- 
burg and  other  victories  attested  the  increasing  power  of  Ferdi- 
nand in  the  following  campaigns,  and  Frederick,  hard  pressed  in 
the  eastern  theatre  of  war,  owed  much  of  his  success  in  an  almost 
hopeless  task  to  the  continued  pressure  exerted  by  Ferdinand  in 
the  west.  In  promoting  him  to  be  a  field  marshal  (November 
1758)  Frederick  acknowledged  his  debt  in  the  words,  "  Je  n'ai 
fait  que  ce  que  je  dois,  mon  cher  Ferdinand."  After  Minden, 
King  George  II.  gave  the  duke  the  order  of  the  Garter,  and  the 
thanks  of  the  British  parliament  w.ere  voted  on  the  same  occasion 
to  the  "  Victor  of  Minden."  After  the  war  he  was  honoured  by 
other  sovereigns,  and  he  received  the  rank  of  field  marshal  and 
a  regiment  from  the  Austrians.  During  the  War  of  American 
Independence  there  was  a  suggestion,  which  came  to  nothing,  of 
offering  him  the  command  of  the  British  forces.  He  exerted 
himself  to  compensate  those  who  had  suffered  by  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  devoting  to  this  purpose  most  of  the  small  income  he 
received  from  his  various  offices  and  the  rewards  given  to  him 
by  the  allied  princes.  The  estrangement  of  Frederick  and 
Ferdinand  in  1766  led  to  the  duke's  retirement  from  Prussian 
service,  but  there  was  no  open  breach  between  the  old  friends, 
and  Ferdinand  visited  the  king  in  1772,  1777,  1779  and  1782. 
After  1766  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  at  his  castle  of 
Veschelde,  where  he  occupied  himself  in  building  and  other  im- 
provements, and  became  a  patron  of  learning  and  art,  and  a 
great  benefactor  of  the  poor.  He  died  on  the  3rd  of  July  1792. 
The  merits,  civil  and  military,  of  the  prince  were  recognized  by 
memorials  not  only  in  Prussia  and  Hanover,  but  also  in  Denmark, 
the  states  of  western  Germany  and  England.  The  Prussian 
memorials  include  an  equestrian  statue  at  Berlin  (1863). 

See  E.  v.  L.  Knesebeck,  Ferdinand,  Herzog  von  Braunschweig  und 
Liineburg,  wdhrend  des  Siebenjdhrigen  Kriegs  (2  vols.,  Hanover, 
1857-1858);  Von  Westphalen,  Geschichte  der  Feldziige  des  Herzogs 
Ferdinands  von  Braunschweig-Liineburg  (5  vols.,  Berlin,  1859-1872); 
v.  d. Osten,  Tagebuch  desHerzogl.  Gen.  Adjutantenv. Reden  (Hamburg, 
1805);  v.  Schafer,  Vie  militaire  du  marechal  Prince  Ferdinand 
(Magdeburg,  1796;  Nuremberg,  1798) ;  also  the  CEuvres  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  passim,  and  authorities  for  the  SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR. 

FERDINAND  (1577-1650),  elector  and  archbishop  of  Cologne, 
son  of  William  V.,  duke  of  Bavaria,  was  born  on  the  7th  of 
October  1577.  Intended  for  the  church,  he  was  educated  by  the 
Jesuits  at  the  university  of  Ingolstadt,  and  in  1595  became 
coadjutor  archbishop  of  Cologne.  He  became  elector  and  arch- 
bishop in  1612  on  the  death  of  his  uncle  Ernest,  whom  he  also 
succeeded  as  bishop  of  Liege,  Munster  and  Hildesheim.  He 


270 


FERENTINO— FERGHANA 


endeavoured  resolutely  to  root  out  heresy  in  the  lands  under  his 
rule,  and  favoured  the  teaching  of  the  Jesuits  in  every  possible 
way.  He  supported  the  league  founded  by  his  brother  Maxi- 
milian I.,  duke  of  Bavaria,  and  wished  to  involve  the  leaguers 
in  a  general  attack  on  the  Protestants  of  north  Germany.  The 
cool  political  sagacity  of  the  duke  formed  a  sharp  contrast  to 
the  impetuosity  of  the  archbishop,  and  he  refused  to  accede  to 
his  brother's  wish;  but,  in  spite  of  these  temporary  differences, 
Ferdinand  sent  troops  and  money  to  the  assistance  of  the  league 
when  the  Thirty  Years'  War  broke  out  in  1619.  The  elector's 
alliance  with  the  Spaniards  secured  his  territories  to  a  great 
extent  from  the  depredations  of  the  war  until  the  arrival  of 
the  Swedes  in  Germany  in  1630,  when  the  extension  of  the  area 
of  the  struggle  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Cologne  induced  him 
to  enter  into  negotiations  for  peace.  Nothing  came  of  these 
attempts  until  1647,  when  he  joined  his  brother  Maximilian  in 
concluding  an  armistice  with  France  and  Sweden  at  Ulm.  The 
elector's  later  years  were  marked  by  a  conflict  with  the  citizens 
of  Li6ge;  and  when  the  peace  of  Westphalia  freed  him  from  his 
enemies,  he  was  able  to  crush  the  citizens  and  deprive  them  of 
many  privileges.  Ferdinand,  who  had  held  the  bishopric  of 
Paderborn  since  1618,  died  at  Arnsberg  on  the  I3th  of  September 
1650,  and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  at  Cologne. 

See  L.  Ennen,  Frankreich  und  der  Niederrhein  oder  Geschichte  von 
Stadt  und  Kurstadt  Koln  seit  demjojahrigen  Kriege,  Band  i.  (Cologne, 
1855-1856). 

FERENTINO  (anc.  Ferentinum,  to  be  distinguished  from 
Ferentum  or  Ferentinum  in  Etruria),  a  town  and  episcopal  see 
of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Rome,  from  which  it  is  48  m. 
E.S.E.  by  rail.  Pop.  (1901)  7957  (town),  12,279  (commune).  It 
is  picturesquely  situated  on  a  hill  1290  ft.  above  sea-level,  and 
still  possesses  considerable  remains  of  ancient  fortifications. 
The  lower  portion  of  the  outer  walls,  which  probably  did  not 
stand  free,  is  built  of  roughly  hewn  blocks  of  a  limestone  which 
naturally  splits  into  horizontal  layers;  above  this  in  places  is 
walling  of  rectangular  blocks  of  tufa.  Two  gates,  the  Porta 
Sanguinaria  (with  an  arch  with  tufa  voussoirs),  and  the  Porta 
S.  Maria,  a  double  gate  constructed  entirely  of  rectangular  blocks 
of  tufa,  are  preserved.  Outside  this  gate  is  the  tomb  of  A. 
Quinctilius  Priscus,  a  citizen  of  Ferentinum,  with  a  long  inscrip- 
tion cut  in  the  rock.  See  Th.  Mommsen  in  Corp.  Inscrip.  Lat.  x. 
(Berlin,  1883),  No.  5853. 

The  highest  part  of  the  town,  the  acropolis,  is  fortified  also; 
it  has  massive  retaining  walls  similar  to  those  of  the  lower  town. 
At  the  eastern  corner,  under  the  present  episcopal  palace,  the 
construction  is  somewhat  more  careful.  A  projecting  rectan- 
gular terrace  has  been  erected,  supported  by  walls  of  quadri- 
lateral blocks  of  limestone  arranged  almost  horizontally;  while 
upon  the  level  thus  formed  a  building  of  rectangular  blocks  of 
local  travertine  was  raised.  The  projecting  cornice  of  this 
building  bears  two  inscriptions  of  the  period  of  Sulla,  recording 
its  construction  by  two  censors  (local  officials);  and  in  the  in- 
terior, which  contains  several  chambers,  there  is  an  inscription 
of  the  same  censors  over  one  of  the  doors,  and  another  over  a 
smaller  external  side  door.  The  windows  lighting  these  chambers 
come  immediately  above  the  cornice,  and  the  wall  continues 
above  them  again.  The  whole  of  this  construction  probably 
belongs  to  one  period  (Mommsen,  op.  cit.  No.  5837  seq.).  The 
cathedral  occupies  a  part  of  the  level  top  of  the  ancient  acropolis; 
it  was  reconstructed  on  the  site  of  an  older  church  in  1099-1118; 
the  interior  was  modernized  in  1693,  but  was  restored  to  its 
original  form  in  1902.  It  contains  a  fine  canopy  in  the  "  Cosma- 
tesque  "  style  (see  Relazione  dei  laiiori  eseguiti  doll'  ufficio  tecnico 
per  la  conservazione  dei  monumenti  di  Rome  a  provincia,  Rome, 
I9°3, !  75  seq.).  The  Gothic  church  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  in  the 
lower  town  (i3th-i4th  century),  has  a  very  fine  exterior;  the 
interior,  the  plan  of  which  is  a  perfect  rectangle,  has  been  spoilt 
by  restoration.  There  are  several  other  Gothic  churches  in  the 
town. 

Ferentinum  was  the  chief  town  of  the  Hernici;  it  was  captured 
from  them  by  the  Romans  in  364  B.C.  and  took  no  part  in  the 
rising  of  306  B.C.  The  inhabitants  became  Roman  citizens  after 


195  B.C.,  and  the  place  later  became  a  municipium.  It  lay  just 
above  the  Via  Latina  and,  being  a  strong  place,  served  for  the 
detention  of  hostages.  Horace  praises  its  quietness,  and  it  does 
not  appear  much  in  later  history.  (T.  As.) 

See  further  Ashby,  Rom.  Mitteil.  xxiv.  (1909). 

FERENTUM,  or  FERENTINUM,  an  ancient  town  of  Etruria, 
about  6  m.  N.  of  Viterbo  (the  ancient  name  of  which  is  unknown) 
and  3^  m.  E.  of  the  Via  Cassia.  It  was  the  birthplace  (32  A.D.)  of 
the  emperor  Otho,  was  destroyed  in  the  1 1  th  century,  and  is  now 
entirely  deserted,  though  it  retains  its  ancient  name.  It  occupied 
a  ridge  running  from  east  to  west,  with  deep  ravines  on  three 
sides.  There  are  some  remains  of  the  city  walls,  and  of  various 
Roman  structures,  but  the  most  important  ruin  is  that  of  the 
theatre.  The  stage  front  is  still  standing;  it  is  pierced  by  seven 
openings  with  flat  arches,  and  shows  traces  of  reconstruction. 
Thejiecropolis  was  on  the  hill  called  Talone  on  the  north-east. 

See  G.  Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria  (London,  1883), 
i.  156;  Nolizie  degli  scavi,  1900,  401;  1902,  84;  1905,  31. 

FERETORY  (from  Lat.  feretrum,  a  bier,  from  ferre,  to  bear), 
in  architecture,  the  enclosure  or  chapel  within  which  the 
"  fereter  "  shrine,  or  tomb  (as  in  Henry  VII. 's  chapel),  was 
placed. 

FERGHANA,  or  FERGANA,  a  province  of  Russian  Turkestan, 
formed  in  1876  out  of  the  former  khanate  of  Khokand.  It  is 
bounded  by  the  provinces  of  Syr-darya  on  the  N.  and  N.W., 
Samarkand  on  the  W.,  and  Semiryechensk  on  the  N.E.,  by 
Chinese  Turkestan  (Kashgaria)  on  the  E.,  and  by  Bokhara  and 
Afghanistan  on  the  S.  Its  southern  limits,  on  the  Pamirs,  were 
fixed  by  an  Anglo-Russian  commission  in  1885,  from  Zor-kul 
(Victoria  Lake)  to  the  Chinese  frontier;  and  Shignan,  Roshan 
and  Wakhan  were  assigned  to  Bokhara  in  exchange  for  part  of 
Darvaz  (on  the  left  bank  of  the  Panj),  which  was  given  to- 
Afghanistan.  The  area  amounts  to  some  53,000  sq.  m.,  of  which. 
17,600  sq.  m.  are  on  the  Pamirs.  The  most  important  part  of 
the  province  is  a  rich  and  fertile  valley  (1200-1500  ft.),  opening 
towards  the  S.W.  Thence  the  province  stretches  northwards 
across  the  mountains  of  the  Tian-shan  system  and  southwards 
across  the  Alai  and  Trans- Alai  Mts.,  which  reach  their  highest 
point  in  Peak  Kaufmann  (23,000  ft.),  in  the  latter  range.  The 
valley  owes  its  fertility  to  two  rivers,  the  Naryn  and  the  Kara- 
darya,  which  unite  within  its  confines,  near  Namangan,  to  form 
the  Syr-darya  or  Jaxartes.  These  streams,  and  their  numerous 
mountain  affluents,  not  only  supply  water  for  irrigation,  but 
also  bring  down  vast  quantities  of  sand,  which  is  deposited 
alongside  their  courses,  more  especially  alongside  the  Syr-darya 
where  it  cuts  its  way  through  the  Khojent-Ajar  ridge,  forming 
there  the  Karakchikum.  This  expanse  of  moving  sands,  cover- 
ing an  area  of  750  sq.  m.,  under  the  influence  of  south-west  winds, 
encroaches  upon  the  agricultural  districts.  The  climate  of  this 
valley  is  dry  and  warm.  In  March  the  temperature  reaches 
68°  F.,  and  then  rapidly  rises  to  95°  in  June,  July  and  August. 
During  the  five  months  following  April  no  rain  falls,  but  it  begins 
again  in  October.  Snow  and  frost  (down  to  —4°  F.)  occur  in 
December  and  January. 

Out  of  some  3,000,000  acres  of  cultivated  land,  about  two- 
thirds  are  under  constant  irrigation  and  the  remaining  third 
under  partial  irrigation.  The  soil  is  admirably  cultivated,  the 
principal  crops  being  wheat,  rice,  barley,  maize,  millet,  lucerne, 
tobacco,  vegetables  and  fruit.  Gardening  is  conducted  with  a 
high  degree  of  skill  and  success.  Large  numbers  of  horses, 
cattle  and  sheep  are  kept,  and  a  good  many  camels  are  bred. 
Over  17,000  acres  are  planted  with  vines,  and  some  350,000 
acres  are  under  cotton.  Nearly  1,000,000  acres  are  covered  with 
forests.  The  government  maintains  a  forestry  farm  a  tMarghelan, 
from  which  120,000  to  200,000  young  trees  are  distributed  free 
every  year  amongst  the  inhabitants  of  the  province. 

Silkworm  breeding,  formerly  a  prosperous  industry,  has 
decayed,  despite  the  encouragement  of  a  state  farm  at  New 
Marghelan.  Coal,  iron,  sulphur,  gypsum,  rock-salt,  lacustrine 
salt  and  naphtha  are  all  known  to  exist,  but  only  the  last  two 
are  extracted.  Some  seventy  or  eighty  factories  are  engaged 
in  cotton  cleaning;  while  leather,  saddlery,  paper  and  cutlery 


FERGUS  FALLS— FERGUSON,  ADAM 


are  the  principal  products  of  the  domestic  industries.  A  con- 
siderable trade  is  carried  on  with  Russia;  raw  cotton,  raw  silk, 
tobacco,  hides,  sheepskins,  fruit^and  cotton  and  leather  goods  are 
exported,  and  manufactured  wares,  textiles,  tea  and  sugar  are 
imported  and  in  part  re-exported  to  Kashgaria  and  Bokhara. 
The  total  trade  of  Ferghana  reaches  an  annual  value  of  nearly 
£3,500,000.  A  new  impulse  was  given  to  trade  by  the  extension 
(1899)  of  the  Transcaspian  railway  into  Ferghana  and  by  the 
opening  of  the  Orenburg-Tashkent  railway  (1906).  The  routes 
to  Kashgaria  and  the  Pamirs  are  mere  bridle-paths  over  the 
mountains,  crossing  them  by  lofty  passes.  For  instance,  the 
passes  of  Kara-kazyk  (14,400  ft.)  and  Tenghiz-bai  (11,200  ft.), 
both  passable  all  the  year  round,  lead  from  Marghelan  to  Kara- 
teghin  and  the  Pamirs,  while  Kashgar  is  reached  via  Osh  and 
Gulcha,  and  then  over  the  passes  of  Terek-davan  (12,205  ft.; 
open  all  the  year  round) ,  Taldyk  ( 1 1 , 500  f t.) ,  Archat  ( 1 1 ,600  f t.) , 
and  Shart-davan  (14,000  ft.).  Other  passes  leading  out  of  the 
valley  are  the  Jiptyk  (12,460  ft.),  S.  of  Khokand;  the  Isfairam 
(12,000  ft.),  leading  to  the  glen  of  the  Surkhab,  and  the  Kavuk 
(13,000  ft.),  across  the  Alai  Mts. 

The  population  numbered  1,571, 243  in  1 897 , and  of  that  number 
707,132  were  women  and  286,369  were  urban.  In  1906  it  was 
estimated  at  1,796,500.  Two-thirds  of  the  total  are  Sarts  and 
Uzbegs  (of  Turkic  origin).  They  live  mostly  in  the  valley; 
while  the  mountain  slopes  above  it  are  occupied  by  Kirghiz, 
partly  nomad  and  pastoral,  partly  agricultural  and  settled. 
The  other  races  are  Tajiks,  Kashgarians,  Kipchaks,  Jews  and 
Gypsies.  The  governing  classes  are  of  course  Russians,  who 
constitute  also  the  merchant  and  artizan  classes.  But  the 
merchants  of  West  Turkestan  are  called  all  over  central  Asia 
Andijanis,  from  the  town  of  Andijan  in  Ferghana.  The  great 
mass  of  the  population  are  Mussulmans  (1,039,115  in  1897). 
The  province  is  divided  into  five  districts,  the  chief  towns  of 
which  are  New  Marghelan,  capital  of  the  province  (8977  in- 
habitants in  1897),  Andijan  (49,682  in  1900),  Khokand  (86,704 
in  1900),  Namangan  (61,906  in  1897),  and  Osh  (37,397  in 
1900);  but  Old  Marghelan  (42,855  in  1900)  and  Chust  (13,686 
in  1897)  are  also  towns  of  importance.  For  the  history,  see 
KHOKAND.  (P.A.K.;  J.T.BE.) 

FERGUS  FALLS,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Otter  Tail 
county,  Minnesota,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Red  river,  170  m.  N.W.  of 
Minneapolis.  Pop.  (1890)  3772;  (1900)  6072,  of  whom  2131 
were  foreign-born;  (1905)  6692;  (1910)  6887.  A  large  part 
of  the  population  is  of  Scandinavian  birth  or  descent.  Fergus 
Falls  is  served  by  the  Great  Northern  and  the  Northern  Pacific 
railways.  Situated  in  the  celebrated  "  park  region  "  of  the  state, 
the  city  possesses  great  natural  beauty,  which  has  been  enhanced 
by  a  system  of  boulevards  and  well-kept  private  lawns.  Lake 
Alice,  in  the  residential  district,  adds  to  the  city's  attractions. 
The  city  has  a  public  library,  a  county  court  house,  St  Luke's 
hospital,  the  G.  B.  Wright  memorial  hospital,  and  a  city  hall. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  state  hospital  for  the  insane  (1887)  with  about 
1600  patients,  of  a  business  college,  of  the  Park  Region  Luther 
College  (Norwegian  Lutheran,  1892),  and  of  the  North-western 
College  (Swedish  Lutheran;  opened  in  1901).  It  has  one  of 
the  finest  water-powers  in  the  state.  Flour  is  the  principal 
product;  among  others  are  woollen  goods,  foundry  and  machine- 
shop  products,  wooden  ware,  sash,  doors  and  blinds,  caskets, 
shirts,  wagons  and  packed  meats.  The  city  owns  and  operates 
its  water-works  and  its  electric-lighting  plant.  Fergus  Falls  was 
settled  about  1859  and  was  incorporated  in  1863. 

FERGUSON,  ADAM  (1723-1816),  Scottish  philosopher  and 
historian,  was  born  on  the  2oth  of  June  1723,  at  Logierait, 
Perthshire.  He  was  educated  at  Perth  grammar  school  and  the 
university  of  St  Andrews.  In  1745,  owing  to  his  knowledge  of 
Gaelic,  he  was  appointed  deputy  chaplain  of  the  43rd  (afterwards 
the  42nd)  regiment  (the  Black  Watch),  the  licence  to  preach 
being  granted  him  by  special  dispensation,  although  he  had  not 
completed  the  required  six  years  of  theological  study.  At  the 
battle  of  Fontenoy  (1745)  Ferguson  fought  in  the  ranks  through- 
out the  day,  and  refused  to  leave  the  field,  though  ordered  to 
do  so  by  his  colonel.  He  continued  attached  to  the  regiment  till 


271 

1754,  when,  disappointed  at  not  obtaining  a  living,  he  abandoned 
the  clerical  profession  and  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  literary 
pursuits.  In  January  1757  he  succeeded  David  Hume  as 
librarian  to  the  faculty  of  advocates,  but  soon  relinquished  this 
office  on  becoming  tutor  in  the  family  of  Lord  Bute. 

In  1759  Ferguson  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  philo- 
sophy in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1764  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  chair  of  "  pneumatics  "  (mental  philosophy)  "  and 
moral  philosophy."  In  i767,againstHume'sadvice,hepublished 
his  Essay  on  the  History  of  Civil  Society,  which  was  well  received 
and  translated  into  several  European  languages.  In  1776 
appeared  his  (anonymous)  pamphlet  on  the  American  revolution 
in  opposition  to  Dr  Price's  Observations  on  the  Nature  of  Civil 
Liberty,  in  which  he  sympathized  with  the  views  of  the  British 
legislature.  In  1778  Ferguson  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
commission  which  endeavoured,  but  without  success,  to 
negotiate  an  arrangement  with  the  revolted  colonies.  In  1783 
appeared  his  History  of  the  Progress  and  Termination  of  the 
Roman  Republic;  it  was  very  popular,  and  went  through  several 
editions.  Ferguson  was  led  to  undertake  this  work  from  a  con- 
viction that  the  history  of  the  Romans  during  the  period  of  their 
greatness  was  a  practical  illustration  of  those  ethical  and  political 
doctrines  which  were  the  object  of  his  special  study.  The  history 
is  written  in  an  agreeable  style  and  a  spirit  of  impartiality,  arid 
gives  evidence  of  a  conscientious  use  of  authorities.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  author's  military  experience  shows  itself  in  certain 
portions  of  the  narrative.  Finding  himself  unequal  to  the  labour 
of  teaching,  he  resigned  his  professorship  in  1785,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  revision  of  his  lectures,  which  he  published  (1792) 
under  the  title  of  Principles  of  Moral  and  Political  Science. 

When  in  his  seventieth  year,  Ferguson,  intending  to  prepare 
a  new  edition  of  the  history,  visited  Italy  and  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of  Europe,  where  he  was  received  with  honour  by 
learned  societies.  From  1795  he  resided  successively  at  the  old 
castle  of  Neidpath  near  Peebles,  at  Hallyards  on  Manor  Water 
and  at  St  Andrews,  where  he  died  on  the  22nd  of  February  1816. 

In  his  ethical  system  Ferguson  treats  man  throughout  as  a 
social  being,  and  illustrates  his  doctrines  by  political  examples. 
As  a  believer  in  the  progression  of  the  human  race,  he  placed  the 
principle  of  moral  approbation  in  the  attainment  of  perfection. 
His  speculations  were  carefully  criticized  by  Cousin  (see  his 
Cours  d'histoire  de  la  philosophic  morale  au  dix-huitieme  siecle, 
pt.  ii.,  1839-1840): — "  We  find  in  his  method  the  wisdom  and 
circumspection  of  the  Scottish  school,  with  something  more 
masculine  and  decisive  in  the  results.  The  principle  of  perfection 
is  a  new  one,  at  once  more  rational  and  comprehensive  than 
benevolence  and  sympathy,  which  in  our  view  places  Ferguson 
as  a  moralist  above  all  his  predecessors."  By  this  principle 
Ferguson  endeavours  to  reconcile  all  moral  systems.  With 
Hobbes  and  Hume  he  admits  the  power  of  self-interest  or  utility, 
and  makes  it  enter  into  morals  as  the  law  of  self-preservation. 
Hutcheson's  theory  of  universal  benevolence  and  Smith's  idea 
of  sympathy  he  combines  under  the  law  of  society.  But,  as  these 
laws  are  the  means  rather  than  the  end  of  human  destiny,  they 
are  subordinate  to  a  supreme  end,  and  this  supreme  end  is  per- 
fection. In  the  political  part  of  his  system  Ferguson  follows 
Montesquieu,  and  pleads  the  cause  of  well-regulated  liberty  and 
free  government.  His  contemporaries,  with  the  exception  of 
Hume,  regarded  his  writings  as  of  great  importance;  in  point  of 
fact  they  are  superficial.  The  facility  of  their  style  and  the 
frequent  occurrence  of  would-be  weighty  epigrams  blinded  his 
critics  to  the  fact  that,  in  spite  of  his  recognition  of  the  import- 
ance of  observation,  he  made  no  real  contribution  to  political 
theory  (see  Sir  Leslie  Stephen,  English  Thought  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  x.  89-90). 

The  chief  authority  for  Ferguson's  life  is  the  Biographical  Sketch 
by  John  Small  (1864);  see  also  Public  Characters  (1799-1800); 
Gentleman's  Magazine,!.  (l8i6supp.);  W.  R.  Chambers's  Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen ;  memoir  by  Principal  Lee  in  early 
editions  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica ;  J.  McCosh,  The  Scottish 
Philosophy  (1875) ;  articles  in  Dictionary  of  National  Biography  and 
Edinburgh  Review  (January  1867) ;  Lord  Henry  Cockburn,  Memorials 
of  his  Time  (1856). 


FERGUSON,  J.— FERGUSON,  SIR  S. 


272 

FERGUSON,  JAMES  (1710-1776),  Scottish  mechanician  and 
astronomer,  was  born  near  Rothiemay  in  Banffshire  on  the  25th 
of  April  1710,  of  parents  in  very  humble  circumstances.  He 
first  learned  to  read  by  overhearing  his  father  teach  his  elder 
brother,  and  with  the  help  of  an  old  woman  was  "  able,"  he  says 
in  his  autobiography,  "  to  read  tolerably  well  before  his  father 
thought  of  teaching  him."  After  receiving  further  instruction 
in  reading  from  his  father,  who  also  taught  him  to  write,  he  was 
sent  at  the  age  of  seven  for  three  months  to  the  grammar  school 
at  Keith.  His  taste  for  mechanics  was  about  this  time  accident- 
ally awakened  on  seeing  his  father  making  use  of  a  lever  to 
raise  a  part  of  the  roof  of  his  house— an  exhibition  of  seeming 
strength  which  at  first  "  excited  his  terror  as  well  as  wonder." 
In  1720  he  was  sent  to  a  neighbouring  farm  to  keep  sheep,  where 
in  the  daytime  he  amused  himself  by  making  models  of  mills 
and  other  machines,  and  at  night  in  studying  the  stars.  After- 
wards, as  a  servant  with  a  miller,  and  then  with  a  doctor,  he  met 
with  hardships  which  rendered  his  constitution  feeble  through 
life.  Being  compelled  by  his  weak  health  to  return  home,  he 
there  amused  himself  with  making  a  clock  having  wooden  wheels 
and  a  whalebone  spring.  When  slightly  recovered  he  showed 
this  and  some  other  inventions  to  a  neighbouring  gentleman, 
who  engaged  him  to  clean  his  clocks,  and  also  desired  him  to 
make  his  house  his  home.  He  there  began  to  draw  patterns  for 
needlework,  and  his  success  in  this  art  led  him  to  think  of 
becoming  a  painter.  In  1734  he  went  to  Edinburgh,  where  he 
began  to  take  portraits  in  miniature,  by  which  means,  while 
engaged  in  his  scientific  studies,  he  supported  himself  and  his 
family  for  many  years.  Subsequently  he  settled  at  Inverness, 
where  he  drew  up  his  Astronomical  Rotula  for  showing  the 
motions  of  the  planets,  places  of  the  sun  and  moon,  &c.,  and  in 
1743  went  to  London,  which  was  his  home  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
He  wrote  various  papers  for  the  Royal  Society,  of  which  he 
became  a  fellow  in  1763,  devised  astronomical  and  mechanical 
models,  and  in  1 748  began  to  give  public  lectures  on  experimental 
philosophy.  These  he  repeated  in  most  of  the  principal  towns 
in  England.  His  deep  interest  in  his  subject,  his  clear  explana- 
tions, his  ingeniously  constructed  diagrams,  and  his  mechanical 
apparatus  rendered  him  one  of  the  most  successful  of  popular 
lecturers  on  scientific  subjects.  It  is,  however,  as  the  inventor 
and  improver  of  astronomical  and  other  scientific  apparatus, 
and  as  a  striking  instance  of  self-education,  that  he  claims  a 
place  among  the  most  remarkable  men  of  science  of  his  country. 
During  the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  was  in  receipt  of  a  pension 
of  £50  from  the  privy  purse.  He  died  in  London  on  the  I7th  of 
November  1776. 

Ferguson's  principal  publications  are  Astronomical  Tables  (1763); 
Lectures  on  Select  Subjects  (isted.,  1761,  edited  by  Sir  David  Brewster 
in  1805) ;  Astronomy  explained  upon  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Principles 
(1756,  edited  by  Sir  David  Brewster  in  1811) ;  and  Select  Mechanical 
Exercises,  with  a  Short  Account  of  the  Life  of  the  Author,  written 
by  himself  (1773).  This  autobiography  is  included  in  a  Life  by  E. 
Henderson,  LL.D.  (ist  ed.,  1867;  2nd,  1870),  which  also  containsa  full 
description  of  Ferguson's  principal  inventions,  accompanied  with 
illustrations.  See  also  The  Story  of  the  Peasant-Boy  Philosopher,  by 
Henry  Mayhew  (1857). 

FERGUSON,  ROBERT  (c.  1637-1714),  British  conspirator 
and  pamphleteer,  called  the  "  Plotter,"  was  a  son  of  William 
Ferguson  (d.  1699)  of  Badifurrow,  Aberdeenshire,  and  after 
receiving  a  good  education,  probably  at  the  university  of  Aber- 
deen, became  a  Presbyterian  minister.  According  to  Bishop 
Burnet  he  was  cast  out  by  the  Presbyterians;  but  whether  this 
be  so  or  net,  he  soon  made  his  way  to  England  and  became  vicar 
of  Godmersham,  Kent,  from  which  living  he  was  expelled  by 
the  Act  of  Uniformity  in  1662.  Some  years  later,  having  gained 
meanwhile  a  reputation  as  a  theological  controversialist  and 
become  a  person  of  importance  among  the  Nonconformists,  he 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  earl  of  Shaftesbury  and  the  party 
which  favoured  the  exclusion  of  the  duke  of  York  (afterwards 
King  James  II.)  from  the  throne,  and  he  began  to  write  political 
pamphlets  just  at  the  time  when  the  feeling  against  the  Roman 
Catholics  was  at  its  height.  In  1680  he  wrote  "  A  Letter  to  a 
Person  of  Honour  concerning  the  '  Black  Box,'  "  in  which  he 


supported  the  claim  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth  to  the  crown 
against  that  of  the  duke  of  York;  returning  to  the  subject  after 
Charles  II.  had  solemnly  denied  the  existence  of  a  marriage 
between  himself  and  Lucy  Waters.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  controversy  over  the  Exclusion  Bill,  and  claimed  to  be  the 
author  of  the  whole  of  the  pamphlet  "  No  Protestant  Plot  " 
(1681),  parts  of  which  are  usually  ascribed  to  Shaftesbury. 
Ferguson  was  deeply  implicated  in  the  Rye  House  Plot,  although 
he  asserted  that  he  had  frustrated  both  this  and  a  subsequent 
attempt  to  assassinate  the  king,  and  he  fled  to  Holland  with 
Shaftesbury  in  1682,  returning  to  England  early  in  1683.  For 
his  share  in  another  plot  against  Charles  II.  he  was  declared  an 
outlaw,  after  which  he  entered  into  communication  with  Argyll, 
Monmouth  and  other  malcontents.  Ferguson  then  took  a  leading 
part  in  organizing  the  rising  of  1685.  Having  overcome  Mon- 
mouth's  reluctance  to  take  part  in  this  movement,  he  accom- 
panied the  duke  to  the  west  of  England  and  drew  up  the  manifesto 
against  James  II.,  escaping  to  Holland  after  the  battle  of  Sedge- 
moor.  He  landed  in  England  with  William  of  Orange  in  1688, 
and  aided  William's  cause  with  his  pen;  but  William  and  his 
advisers  did  not  regard  him  as  a  person  of  importance,  although 
his  services  were  rewarded  with  a  sinecure  appointment  in  the 
Excise.  Chagrined  at  this  treatment,  Ferguson  was  soon  in 
correspondence  with  the  exiled  Jacobites.  He  shared  in  all  the 
plots  against  the  life  of  William,  and  after  his  removal  from 
the  Excise  in  1692  wrote  violent  pamphlets  against  the  govern- 
ment. Although  he  was  several  times  arrested  on  suspicion,  he 
was  never  brought  to  trial.  He  died  in  great  poverty  in  1714, 
leaving  behind  him  a  great  and  deserved  reputation  for  treachery. 
It  has  been  thought  by  Macaulay  and  others  that  Ferguson  led 
the  English  government  to  believe  that  he  was  a  spy  in  their 
interests,  and  that  his  frequent  escapes  from  justice  were  due 
to  official  connivance.  In  a  proclamation  issued  for  his  arrest 
in  1683  he  is  described  as  "  a  tall  lean  man,  dark  brown  hair, 
a  great  Roman  nose,  thin- jawed,  heat  in  his  face,  speaks  in  the 
Scotch  tone,  a  sharp  piercing  eye,  stoops  a  little  in  the  shoulders." 
Besides  numerous  pamphlets  Ferguson  wrote:  History  of  the 
Revolution  (1706);  Qualifications  requisite  in  a  Minister  of  Stale 
(1710);  and  part  of  the  History  of  all  the  Mobs,  Tumults  and 
Insurrections  in  Great  Britain  (London,  1715). 

See  James  Ferguson,  Robert  Ferguson,  the  Plotter  (Edinburgh,  1887), 
which  gives  a  favourable  account  of  Ferguson. 

FERGUSON,  SIR  SAMUEL  (1810-1886),  Irish  poet  and  anti- 
quary, was  born  at  Belfast,  on  the  loth  of  March  1810.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  was  called  to  the  Irish 
bar  in  1838,  and  was  made  Q.C.  in  1859,  but  in  1867  retired 
from  practice  upon  his  appointment  as  deputy-keeper  of  the 
Irish  records,  then  in  a  much  neglected  condition.  He  was 
an  excellent  civil  servant,  and  was  knighted  in  1878  for  his 
services  to  the  department.  His  spare  time  was  given  to  general 
literature,  and  in  particular  to  poetry.  He  had  long  been  a 
leading  contributor  to  the  Dublin  University  Magazine  and  to 
Blackwood,  where  he  had  published  his  two  literary  master- 
pieces, "  The  Forging  of  the  Anchor,"  one  of  the  finest  of  modern 
ballads,  and  the  humorous  prose  extravaganza  of  "  Father  Tom 
and  the  Pope."  He  published  Lays  of  the  Western  Gael  in  1865, 
Poems  in  1880,  and  in  1872  Congal,  a  metrical  narrative  of  the 
heroic  age  of  Ireland,  and,  though  far  from  ideal  perfection, 
perhaps  the  most  successful  attempt  yet  made  by  a  modern  Irish 
poet  to  revivify  the  spirit  of  the  past  in  a  poem  of  epic  propor- 
tions. Lyrics  have  succeeded  better  in  other  hands;  many  of 
Ferguson's  pieces  on  modern  themes,  notably  his  "  Lament  for 
Thomas  Davis  "  (1845),  are,  nevertheless,  excellent.  He  was  an 
extensive  contributor  on  antiquarian  subjects  to  the  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  and  was  elected  its  president  in 
1882.  His  manners  were  delightful,  and  his  hospitality  was 
boundless.  He  died  at  Howth  on  the  gth  of  August  1886.  His 
most  important  antiquarian  work,  Ogham  Inscriptions  in  Ireland, 
Wales,  Scotland,  was  published  in  the  year  after  his  death. 

See  Sir  Samuel  Ferguson  in  the  Ireland  of  his  Day  (1896),  by  his 
wife,  Mary  C.  Ferguson ;  also  an  article  by  A.  P.  Graves  in  A  Treasury 
of  Irish  Peetry  in  the  English  Tongue  (1900),  edited  by  Stopford 
Brooke  and  T.  W.  Rolleston. 


FERGUSSON,  J,— FERGUSSON,  SIR  W. 


FERGUSSON,  JAMES  (1808-1886),  Scottish  writer  on  archi- 
tecture, was  born  at  Ayr  on  the  22nd  of  January  1808.  His 
father  was  an  army  surgeon.  After  being  educated  first  at  the 
Edinburgh  high  school,  and  afterwards  at  a  private  school  at 
Hounslow,  James  went  to  Calcutta  as  partner  in  a  mercantile 
house.  Here  he  was  attracted  by  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
architecture  of  India,  little  known  or  understood  at  that  time. 
The  successful  conduct  of  an  indigo  factory,  as  he  states  in  his 
own  account,  enabled  him  in  about  ten  years  to  retire  from 
business  and  settle  in  London.  The  observations  made  on 
Indian  architecture  were  first  embodied  in  his  book  on  The 
Rock-cut  Temples  of  India,  published  in  1 845.  The  task  of  analys- 
ing the  historic  and  aesthetic  relations  of  this  type  of  ancient 
buildings  led  him  further  to  undertake  a  historical  and  critical 
comparative  survey  of  the  whole  subject  of  architecture  in  The 
Handbook  of  Architecture,  a  work  which  first  appeared  in  1855. 
This  did  not  satisfy  him,  and  the  work  was  reissued  ten  years 
later  in  a  much  more  extended  form  under  the  title  of  The  History 
of  Architecture.  The  chapters  on  Indian  architecture,  which  had 
been  considered  at  rather  disproportionate  length  in  the  Hand- 
book, were  removed  from  the  general  History,  and  the  whole  of 
this  subject  treated  more  fully  in  a  separate  volume,  The  History 
of  Indian  and  Eastern  Architecture,  which  appeared  in  1876,  and, 
although  complete  in  itself,  formed  a  kind  of  appendix  to  The 
History  of  Architecture.  Previously  to  this,  in  1862,  he  issued 
his  History  of  Modern  Architecture,  in  which  the  subject  was 
continued  from  the  Renaissance  to  the  present  day,  the  period 
of  "  modern  architecture  "  being  distinguished  as  that  of  re- 
vivals and  imitations  of  ancient  styles,  which  began  with  the 
Renaissance.  The  essential  difference  between  this  and  the 
spontaneously  evolved  architecture  of  preceding  ages  Fergusson 
was  the  first  clearly  to  point  out  and  characterize.  His  treatise 
on  The  True  Principles  of  Beauty  in  Art,  an  early  publication, 
is  a  most  thoughtful  metaphysical  study.  Some  of  his  essays 
on  special  points  in  archaeology,  such  as  the  treatise  on  The 
Mode  in  which  Light  was  introduced  into  Greek  Temples,  included 
theories  which  have  not  received  general  acceptance.  His  real 
monument  is  his  History  of  Architecture  (later  edition  revised  by 
R.  Phene  Spiers),  which,  for  grasp  of  the  whole  subject,  compre- 
hensiveness of  plan,  and  thoughtful  critical  analysis,  sta.nds 
quite  alone  in  architectural  literature.  He  received  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects  in  1871. 
Among  his  works,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  are:  A 
Proposed  New  System  of  Fortification  (1849),  Palaces  of  Nineveh 
and  Persepolis  restored  (1851),  Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus 
restored  (1862),  Tree  and  Serpent  Wotship  (1868),  Rude  Stone 
Monuments  in  all  Countries  (1872),  and  The  Temples  of  the  Jews 
and  the  other  Buildings  in  the  Haram  Area  at  Jerusalem  (1878). 
The  sessional  papers  of  the  Institute  of  British  Architects  in- 
clude papers  by  him  on  The  History  of  the  Pointed  Arch, 
Architecture  of  Southern  India,  Architectural  Splendour  of  the 
City  of  Beejapore,  On  the  Erechlheum  and  on  the  Temple  of 
Diana  at  Ephesus. 

Although  Fergusson  never  practised  architecture  he  took  a 
keen  interest  in  all  the  professional  work  of  his  time.  He  was 
adviser  with  Austen  Layard  in  the  scheme  of  decoration  for  the 
Assyrian  court  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  and  indeed  assumed  in 
1856  the  duties  of  general  manager  to  the  Palace  Company,  a 
post  which  he  held  for  two  years.  In  1847  Fergusson  had  pub- 
lished an  "  Essay  on  the  Ancient  Topography  of  Jerusalem,"  in 
which  he  had  contended  that  the  "  Mosque  of  Omar  "  was  the 
identical  church  built  by  Constantine  the  Great  over  the  tomb 
of  our  Lord  at  Jerusalem,  and  that  it,  and  not  the  present  church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  was  the  genuine  burial-place  of  Jesus. 
The  burden  of  this  contention  was  further  explained  by  the 
publication  in  1860  of  his  Notes  on  the  Site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
at  Jerusalem;  and  The  Temples  of  the  Jews  and  the  other  Buildings 
in  the  Haram  Area  at  Jerusalem,  published  in  1878,  was  a  still 
completer  elaboration  of  these  theories,  which  are  said  to  have 
been  the  origin  of  the  establishment  of  the  Palestine  Exploration 
fund.  His  manifold  activities  continued  till  his  death,  which 
took  place  in  London  on  the  pth  of  January  1886. 


273 

FERGUSSON,  ROBERT  (1750-1774),  Scottish  poet,  son  of  Sir 
William  Fergusson,  a  clerk  in  the  British  Linen  Company,  was 
born  at  Edinburgh  on  the  5th  of  September  1750.  Robert  was 
educated  at  the  grammar  school  of  Dundee,  and  at  the  university 
of  St  Andrews,  where  he  matriculated  in  1765.  His  father  died 
while  he  was  still  at  college;  but  a  bursary  enabled  him  to  com- 
plete his  four  years  of  study.  He  refused  to  study  for  the  church, 
and  was  too  nervous  to  study  medicine  as  his  friends  wished. 
He  quarrelled  with  his  uncle,  John  Forbes  of  Round  Lichnot, 
Aberdeenshife,  and  went  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  obtained 
employment  as  copying  clerk  in  a  lawyer's  office.  In  this  humble 
occupation  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life.  While  at  college 
he  had  written  a  clever  elegy  on  Dr  David  Gregory,  and  in  1771 
he  began  to  contribute  verses  regularly  to  Ruddiman's  Weekly 
Magazine.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Cape  Club,  celebrated  by  him 
in  his  poem  of  "  Auld  Reekie."  "  The  Knights  of  the  Cape  " 
assembled  at  a  tavern  in  Craig's  Close,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Cross;  each  member  had  a  name  and  character  assigned  to  him, 
which  he  was  required  to  maintain  at  all  gatherings  of  the  order. 
David  Herd  (1732-1810),  the  collector  of  the  classic  edition  of 
Ancient  and  Modern  Scottish  Songs  (1776),  was  sovereign  of  the 
Cape  (in  which  he  was  known  as  "  Sir  Scrape  ")  when  Fergusson 
was  dubbed  a  knight  of  the  order,  with  the  title  of  "  Sir  Pre- 
centor," in  allusion  to  his  fine  voice.  Alexander  Runciman,  the 
historical  painter,  his  pupil  Jacob  More,  and  Sir  Henry  Raeburn 
were  all  members.  The  old  minute  books  of  the  club  abound 
with  pencilled  sketches  by  them,  one  of  the  most  interesting  of 
which,  ascribed  to  Runciman's  pencil,  is  a  sketch  of  Fergusson 
in  his  character  of  "  Sir  Precentor." 

Fergusson's  gaiety  and  wit  made  him  an  entertaining  com- 
panion, and  he  indulged  too  freely  in  the  convivial  habits  of  the 
time.  After  a  meeting  with  John  Brown  of  Haddington  he 
became,  however,  very  serious,  and  would  read  nothing  but  his 
Bible.  A  fall  by  which  his  head  was  severely  injured  aggravated 
symptoms  of  mental  aberration  which  had  begun  to  show 
themselves;  and  after  about  two  months'  confinement  in  the 
old  Darien  House — then  the  only  public  asylum  in  Edinburgh — 
the  poet  died  on  the  i6th  of  October  1774. 

Fergussons'  poems  were  collected  in  the  year  before  his  death. 
The  influence  of  his  writings  on  Robert  Burns  is  undoubted. 
His  "  Leith  Races  "  unquestionably  supplied  the  model  for  the 
"  Holy  Fair."  Not  only  is  the  stanza  the  same,  but  the  Mirth 
who  plays  the  part  of  conductor  to  Fergusson,  and  the  Fun  who 
renders  a  like  service  to  Burns,  are  manifestly  conceived  on  the 
same  model.  "  The  Mutual  Complaint  of  Plainstanes  and 
Causey  "  probably  suggested  "  The  Brigs  of  Ayr  ";  "  On  seeing 
a  Butterfly  in  the  Street  "  has  reflections  in  it  which  strikingly 
correspond  with  "  To  a  Mouse  ";  nor  will  a  comparison  of  "  The 
Farmer's  Ingle  "  of  the  elder  poet  with  "  The  Cottar's  Saturday 
Night  "  admit  of  a  doubt  as  to  the  influence  of  the  city-bred 
poet's  muse  on  that  exquisite  picturing  of  homely  peasant  life. 
Burns  was  himself  the  first  to  render  a  generous  tribute  to  the 
merits  of  Fergusson;  on  his  visit  to  Edinburgh  in  1787  he  sought 
out  the  poet's  grave,  and  petkioned  the  authorities  of  the 
Canongate  burying-ground  for  permission  to  erect  the  memorial 
stone  which  is  preserved  in  the  existing  monument.  The  date 
there  assigned  for  his  birth  differs  from  the  one  given  above, 
which  rests  on  the  authority  of  his  younger  sister  Margaret. 

The  first  edition  of  Fergusson's  poems  was  published  by  Ruddiman 
at  Edinburgh  in  1773,  and  a  supplement  containing  additional  poems, 
in  1 779.  A  second  edition  appeared  in  1 785.  There  are  later  editions, 
by  Robert  Chambers  (1850)  and  Dr  A.  B.  Grpsart  (1851).  A  life  of 
Fergusson  is  included  in  Dr  David  Irving's  Lives  of  the  Scottish  Poets, 
and  in  Robert  Chambers's  Lives  of  Illustrious  and  Distinguished 
Scotsmen. 

FERGUSSON,  SIR  WILLIAM,  Bart.  (1808-1877),  British 
surgeon,  the  son  of  James  Fergusson  of  Lochmaben,  Dumfries- 
shire, was  born  at  Prestonpans,  East  Lothian,  on  the  zoth  of 
March  1808.  After  receiving  his  early  education  at  Lochmaben 
and  the  high  school  of  Edinburgh,  he  entered  the  university 
of  Edinburgh  with  the  view  of  studying  law,  but  soon  after- 
wards abandoned  his  intention  and  became  a  pupil  of  the 
anatomist  Robert  Knox  (1791-1862),  whose  demonstrator  he  was 


274 


FERINGHI— FERMANAGH 


appointed  at  the  age  of  twenty.  In  1836  he  succeeded  Robert 
Listen  as  surgeon  to  the  Edinburgh  Royal  Infirmary,  and  coming 
to  London  in  1840  as  professor  of  surgery  in  King's  College, 
and  surgeon  to  King's  College  Hospital,  he  acquired  a  command- 
ing position  among  the  surgeons  of  the  metropolis.  He  revived 
the  operation  for  cleft-palate,  which  for  many  years  had  fallen 
into  disrepute,  and  invented  a  special  mouth-gag  for  the  same. 
He  also  devised  many  other  surgical  instruments,  chief  among 
which,  and  still  in  use  to-day,  are  his  bone  forceps,  lion  forceps 
and  vaginal  speculum.  In  1866  he  was  created  a  baronet. 
He  died  in  London  on  the  loth  of  February  1877.  As  a  surgeon 
Fergusson's  greatest  merit  is  that  of  having  introduced  the 
practice  of  "  conservative  surgery,"  by  which  he  meant  the 
excision  of  a  joint  rather  than  the  amputation  of  a  limb.  He 
made  his  diagnosis  with  almost  intuitive  certainty;  as  an 
operator  he  was  characterized  by  self-possession  in  the  most 
critical  circumstances,  by  minute  attention  to  details  and  by 
great  refinement  of  touch,  and  he  relied  more  on  his  mechanical 
dexterity  than  on  complicated  instruments.  He  was  the  author 
of  The  Progress  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery  in  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(1867),  and  of  a  System  of  Practical  Surgery  (1842),  which  went 
through  several  editions. 

FERINGHI,  or  FERINGHEE,  a  Frank  (Persian,  Farangi).  This 
term  for  a  European  is  very  old  in  Asia,  and  was  originally  used 
in  a  purely  geographical  sense,  but  now  generally  carries  a  hostile 
or  contemptuous  significance.  The  combatants  on  either  side 
during  the  Indian  Mutiny  called  each  other  Feringhies  and 
Pandies. 

FERISHTA,  MAHOMMED  KASIM  (c.  i57o-c.  1611),  Persian 
historian,  was  born  at  Astrabad,  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.  While  he  was  still  a  child  his  father  was  summoned  away 
from  his  native  country  into  Hindostan,  where  he  held  high  office 
in  the  Deccan;  and  by  his  influence  the  young  Ferishta  received 
court  promotion.  In  1589  Ferishta  removed  to  Bijapur,  where 
he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  under  the  immediate  protection 
of  the  shah  Ibrahim  Adil  II.,  who  engaged  him  to  write  a  history 
of  India.  At  the  court  of  this  monarch  he  died  about  1611.  In 
the  introduction  to  his  work  a  resume  is  given  of  the  history  of 
Hindostan  prior  to  the  times  of  the  Mahommedan  conquest,  and 
also  of  the  victorious  progress  of  the  Arabs  through  the  East. 
The  first  ten  books  are  each  occupied  with  a  history  of  the  kings 
of  one  of  the  provinces;  the  eleventh  book  gives  an  account  of 
the  Mussulmans  of  Malabar;  the  twelfth  a  history  of  the  Mussul- 
man saints  of  India;  and  the  conclusion  treats  of  the  geography 
and  climate  of  India.  Ferishta  is  reputed  one  of  the  most  trust- 
worthy of  the  Oriental  historians,  and  his  work  still  maintains 
a  high  place  as  an  authority.  Several  portions  of  it  have  been 
translated  into  English;  but  the  best  as  well  as  the  most  com- 
plete translation  is  that  published  by  General  J.  Briggs  under 
the  title  of  The  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Mahometan  Power  in 
India  (London,  1829,  4  vols.  8vo).  Several  additions  were 
made  by  Briggs  to  the  original  work  of  Ferishta,  but  he  omitted 
the  whole  of  the  twelfth  book,  and  various  other  passages  which 
had  been  omitted  in  the  copy  from  which  he  translated. 

FERMANAGH,  a  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Ulster, 
bounded  N.W.  by  Donegal,  N.E.  by  Tyrone,  E.  by  Monaghan 
and  S.W.  by  Cavan  and  Leitrim.  The  area  is  457,369  acres  or 
about  715  sq.  m.  The  county  is  situated  mostly  in  the  basin 
of  the  Erne,  which  divides  the  county  into  two  nearly  equal 
sections.  Its  surface  is  hilly,  and  its  appearance  (in  many  parts) 
somewhat  sterile,  though  in  the  main,  and  especially  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Lough  Erne,  it  is  picturesque  and  attractive. 
The  climate,  though  moist,  is  healthy,  and  the  people  are  gener- 
ally tall  and  robust.  The  chief  mountains  are  Cuilcagh  (2188  ft.), 
partly  in  Leitrim  and  Cavan,  Belmore  (1312),  Glenkeel  (1223), 
North  Shean  (1135),  Tappahan  (mo),  Carnmore  (1034). 
Tossett  or  Toppid  and  Turaw  mountains  command  extensive 
prospects,  and  form  striking  features  in  the  scenery  of  the  county. 
But  the  most  distinguishing  features  of  Fermanagh  are  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Loughs  Erne,  which  occupy  a  great  extent  of 
its  surface,  stretching  for  about  45  m.  from  S.E.  to  N.W.  These 
lakes  are  expansions  of  the  river  Erne,  which  enters  the  county 


from  Cavan  at  Wattle  Bridge.  It  passes  Belturbet,  the  Loughs 
Erne,  Enniskillen  and  Belleek,  on  its  way  to  the  Atlantic,  into 
which  it  descends  at  Ballyshannon.  At  Belleek  it  forms  a  con- 
siderable waterfall  and  is  here  well  known  to  sportsmen  for  its 
good  salmon  fishing.  Trout  are  taken  in  most  of  the  loughs, 
and  pike  of  great  size  in  the  Loughs  Erne.  There  are  several 
mineral  springs  in  the  county,  some  of  them  chalybeate,  others 
sulphurous.  At  Belcoo,  near  Enniskillen,  there  is  a  famous  well 
called  Daragh  Phadric,  held  in  repute  by  the  peasantry  for  its 
cure  of  paralytic  and  other  diseases;  and  4  m.  N.W.  of  the  same 
town,  at  a  place  called  "  the  Daughton,"  are  natural  caves  of 
considerable  size. 

This  county  includes  in  the  north  an  area  of  the  gneiss  that  is 
discussed  under  county  Donegal,  and,  west  of  Omagh,  a  meta- 
morphic  region  that  stretches  in  from  the  central  axis  of  Tyrone. 
A  fault  divides  the  latter  from  the  mass  of  red-brown  Old  Red 
Sandstone  that  spreads  south  nearly  to  Enniskillen.  Lower 
Carboniferous  sandstone  and  h'mestone  occur  on  the  north  of 
Lower  Lough  Erne.  The  limestone  forms  fine  scarps  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  lake,  capped  by  beds  regarded  as  the 
Yoredale  series.  The  scenery  about  the  two  Loughs  Macnean 
is  carved  out  in  similarly  scarped  hills,  rising  to  2188  ft.  in  Cuil- 
cagh on  the  south.  The  "  Marble  Arch  "  cave  near  Florence- 
court,  with  its  emerging  river,  is  a  characteristic  example  of 
the  subterranean  waterways  in  the  limestone.  Upper  Lough 
Erne  is  a  typical  meandering  lake  of  the  limestone  lowland,  with 
outliers  of  higher  Carboniferous  strata  forming  highlands  north- 
east and  south-west  of  it. 

With  the  exception  of  the  pottery  works  at  Belleek,  where 
iridescent  ware  of  good  quality  is  produced,  Fermanagh  has  no 
distinguishing  manufactures.  It  is  chiefly  an  agricultural 
county.  The  proportion  of  tillage  to  pasture  is  roughly  as  i  to 
z\.  Cattle  and  poultry  are  the  principal  classes  of  live  stock. 
Oats  and  potatoes  are  the  crops  most  extensively  cultivated. 
The  north-western  division  of  the  Great  Northern  railway  passes 
through  the  most  populous  portion  of  the  county,  one  branch 
connecting  Enniskillen  with  Clones,  another  connecting  Ennis- 
killen with  Londonderry  via  Omagh,  and  a  third  connecting 
Bundoran  Junction  with  Bundoran,  in  county  Donegal.  The 
Sligo,  Leitrim  &  Northern  Counties  railway  connects  with  the 
Great  Northern  at  Enniskillen,  and  the  Clogher  Valley  light 
railway  connects  southern  county  Tyrone  with  the  Great 
Northern  at  Maguiresbridge. 

The  population  (74,170  in  1891;  65,430  in  1901;  almost 
wholly  rural)  shows  a  decrease  among  the  most  serious  of  the 
county  populations  of  Ireland.  It  includes  55%  of  Roman 
Catholics  and  about  35%  of  Protestant  Episcopalians.  Ennis- 
killen (the  county  town,  pop.  5412)  is  the  only  town  of  import- 
ance, the  rest  being  little  more  than  villages.  The  principal  are 
Lisnaskea,Irvinestown(f  ormerly  Lowtherstown) , Maguiresbridge, 
Tempo,  Newtownbutler,  Belleek,  Derrygonnelly  and  Kesh,  at 
which  fairs  are  held.  Garrison,  a  fishing  station  on  the  wild 
Lough  Melvin,  and  Pettigo,  near  to  the  lower  Lough  Erne,  are 
market  villages.  Fermanagh  returns  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment, one  each  for  the  north  and  south  divisions.  It  comprises 
eight  baronies  and  nineteen  civil  parishes.  The  assizes  are  held 
at  Enniskillen,  quarter  sessions  at  Enniskillen  and  Newtown- 
butler. The  headquarters  of  the  constabulary  are  at  Enniskillen. 
Ecclesiastically  it  belongs  to  the  Protestant  and  Roman 
Catholic  dioceses  of  Clogher  and  Kilmore. 

By  the  ancient  Irish  the  district  was  called  Feor-magh-Eanagh, 
or  the  "  country  of  the  lakes  "  (lit.  "  the  mountain-valley  marsh 
district  ");  and  also  Magh-uire,  or  "  the  country  of  the  waters." 
A  large  portion  was  occupied  by  the  Guarii,  the  ancestors  of  the 
MacGuires  or  Maguires,  a  name  still  common  in  the  district. 
This  family  was  so  influential  that  for  centuries  the  county  was 
called  after  it  Maguire's  Country,  and  one  of  the  towns  still 
existing  bears  its  name,  Maguiresbridge.  Fermanagh  was 
formed  into  a  county  on  the  shiring  of  Ulster  in  1585  by  Sir 
John  Perrot,  and  was  included  in  the  well-known  scheme  of 
colonization  of  James  I.,  the  Plantation  of  Ulster.  In  1689 
battles  were  fought  between  William  III.'s  army  and  the  Irish 


FERMAT— FERMENTATION 


275 


under  Macarthy  (for  James  II.),  Lisnaskea  (26th  July)  and 
Newtownbutler  (soth  July).  The  chief  place  of  interest  to  the 
antiquary  is  Devenish  Island  in  Lough  Erne,  about  2^  m.  N.W. 
from  Enniskillen  (q.v.),  with  its  ruined  abbey,  round  tower  and 
cross.  In  various  places  throughout  the  county  may  be  seen  the 
ruins  of  several  ancient  castles,  Danish  raths  or  encampments, 
and  tumuli,  in  the  last  of  which  urns  and  stone  coffins  have 
sometimes  been  found.  The  round  tower  on  Devenish  Island 
is  one  of  the  finest  examples  in  the  country. 

FERMAT,  PIERRE  DE  (1601-1665),  French  mathematician, 
was  born  on  the  I7th  of  August  1601,  at  Beaumont-de-Lomagne 
near  Montauban.  While  still  young,  he,  along  with  Blaise 
Pascal,  made  some  discoveries  in  regard  to  the  properties  of 
numbers,  on  which  he  afterwards  built  his  method  of  calculating 
probabilities.  He  discovered  a  simpler  method  of  quadrating 
parabolas  than  that  of  Archimedes,  and  a  method  of  finding  the 
greatest  and  the  smallest  ordinates  of  curved  lines  analogous 
to  that  of  the  then  unknown  differential  calculus.  His  great 
work  De  maximis  et  minimis  brought  him  into  conflict  with  Ren6 
Descartes,  but  the  dispute  was  chiefly  due  to  a  want  of  ex- 
plicitness  in  the  statement  of  Fermat  (see  INFINITESIMAL  CAL- 
CULUS). His  brilliant  researches  in  the  theory  of  numbers  entitle 
him  to  rank  as  the  founder  of  the  modern  theory.  They  origin- 
ally took  the  form  of  marginal  notes  in  a  copy  of  Sachet's 
Diophanlus,  and  were  published  in  1670  by  his  son  Samuel,  who 
incorporated  them  in  a  new  edition  of  this  Greek  writer.  Other 
theorems  were  published  in  his  Opera  Varia,  and  in  John  Wallis's 
Commercium  epislolicum  (1658).  He  died  in  the  belief  that  he  had 
found  a  relation  which  every  prime  number  must  satisfy,  namely 
22n-f-i  =  a  prime.  This  was  afterwards  disproved  by  Leonhard 
Euler  for  the  case  when  #=5.  Fermat' s  Theorem,  if  p  is  prime 
and  a  is  prime  to  p  then  a  *~*-i  is  divisible  by  p,  was  first  given 
in  a  letter  of  1640.  Fermat's  Problem  is  that  x"-\-yn=zn  is  im- 
possible for  integral  values  of  x,  y  and  z  when  n  is  greater  than  2. 

Fermat  was  for  some  time  councillor  for  the  parliament  of 
Toulouse,  and  in  the  discharge  of  the  duties  of  that  office  he  was 
distinguished  both  for  legal  knowledge  and  for  strict  integrity 
of  conduct.  Though  the  sciences  were  the  principal  objects  of 
his  private  studies,  he  was  also  an  accomplished  general  scholar 
and  an  excellent  linguist.  He  died  at  Toulouse  on  the  I2th  of 
January  1665.  He  left  a  son,  Samuel  de  Fermat  (1630-1690) 
who  published  translations  of  several  Greek  authors  and  wrote 
certain  books  on  law  in  addition  to  editing  his  father's  works. 

The  Opera  mathematica  of  Fermat  were  published  at  Toulouse,  in 
2  vols.  folio,  1670  and  1679.  The  first  contains  the  "  Arithmetic 
of  Diophantus,"  with  notes  and  additions.  The  second  includes  a 
"  Method  for  the  Quadrature  of  Parabolas,"  and  a  treatise  "  on 
Maxima  and  Minima,  on  Tangents,  and  on  Centres  of  Gravity," 
containing  the  same  solutions  of  a  variety  of  problems  as  were  after- 
wards incorporated  into  the  more  extensive  method  of  fluxions  by 
Newton  and  Leibnitz.  In  the  same  volume  are  treatises  on  "Geo- 
metric Loci,  or  Spherical  Tangencies,"  and  on  the  "  Rectification  of 
Curves,"  besides  a  restoration  of  "  Apollonius's  Plane  Loci,"  together 
with  the  author's  correspondence  addressed  to  Descartes,  Pascal, 
Roberval,  Huygens  and  others.  The  CEuvres  of  Fermat  have  been 
re-edited  by  P.  Tannery  and  C.  Henry  (Paris,  1891-1894). 

See  Paul  Tannery,  "  Sur  la  date  des  principales  decouvertes  de 
Fermat,"  in  the  Bulletin  Darboux  (1883);  and  "  Les  Manuscrits  de 
Fermat,"  in  the  Annales  de  la  faculte  des  lettres  de  Bordeaux. 

FERMENTATION.  The  process  of  fermentation  in  the  pre- 
paration of  wine,  vinegar,  beer  and  bread  was  known  and 
practised  in  prehistoric  times.  The  alchemists  used  the  terms 
fermentation,  digestion  and  putrefaction  indiscriminately;  any 
reaction  in  which  chemical  energy  was  displayed  in  some  form 
or  other — such,  for  instance,  as  the  effervescence  occasioned  by 
the  addition  of.  an  acid  to  an  alkaline  solution — was  described 
as  a  fermentation  (Lat.  fervere,  to  boil);  and  the  idea  of  the 
"  Philosopher's  Stone  "  setting  up  a  fermentation  in  the  common 
metals  and  developing  the  essence  or  germ,  which  should  trans- 
mute them  into  silver  or  gold,  further  complicated  the  concep- 
tion of  fermentation.  As  an  outcome  of  this  alchemical  doctrine 
the  process  of  fermentation  was  supposed  to  have  a  purifying  and 
elevating  effect  on  the  bodies  which  had  been  submitted  to  its 
influence.  Basil  Valentine  wrote  that  when  yeast  was  added  to 
wort  "  an  internal  inflammation  is  communicated  to  the  liquid, 


so  that  it  raises  in  itself,  and  thus  the  segregation  and  separation 
of  the  feculent  from  the  clear  takes  place."  Johann  Becher, 
in  1669,  first  found  that  alcohol  was  formed  during  the  fermenta- 
tion of  solutions  of  sugar;  he  distinguished  also  between 
fermentation  and  putrefaction.  In  1697  Georg  Stahl  admitted 
that  fermentation  and  putrefaction  were  analogous  processes, 
but  that  the  former  was  a  particular  case  of  the  latter. 

The  beginning  of  definite  knowledge  on  the  phenomenon  of 
fermentation  may  be  dated  from  the  time  of  Antony  Leeuwen- 
hoek,  who  in  1680  designed  a  microscope  sufficiently  powerful 
to  render  yeast  cells  and  bacteria  visible;  and  a  description  of 
these  organisms,  accompanied  by  diagrams,  was  sent  to  the 
Royal  Society  of  London.  This  investigator  just  missed  a  great 
discovery,  for  he  did  not  consider  the  spherical  forms  to  be  living 
organisms  but  compared  them  with  starch  granules.  It  was  not 
until  1803  that  L.  J.  Thenard  stated  that  yeast  was  the  cause  of 
fermentation,  and  held  it  to  be  of  an  animal  nature,  since  it  con- 
tained nitrogen  and  yielded  ammonia  on  distillation,  nor  was 
it  conclusively  proved  that  the  yeast  cell  was  the  originator  of 
fermentation  until  the  researches  of  C.  Cagniard  de  la  Tour, 
T.  Schwann  and  F.  Kutzing  from  1836  to  1839  settled  the  point. 
These  investigators  regarded  yeast  as  a  plant,  and  Meyer  gave 
to  the  germs  the  systematic  name  of  "  Saccharomyces  "  (sugar 
fungus).  In  1830-1840  J.  von  Liebig  attacked  the  doctrine  that 
fermentation  was  caused  by  micro-organisms,  and  enunciated 
his  theory  of  mechanical  decomposition.  He  held  that  every 
fermentation  consisted  of  molecular  motion  which  is  transmitted 
from  a  substance  in  a  state  of  chemical  motion — that  is,  of  de- 
composition— to  other  substances,  the  elements  of  which  are 
loosely  held  together.  It  is  clear  from  Liebig's  publications 
that  he  first  regarded  yeast  as  a  lifeless,  albuminoid  mass;  but, 
although  later  he  considered  they  were  living  cells,  he  would 
never  admit  that  fermentation  was  a  physiological  process,  the 
chemical  aspect  being  paramount  in  the  mind  of  this  distinguished 
investigator. 

In  1857  Pasteur  decisively  proved  that  fermentation  was  a  phy- 
siological process,  for  he  showed  that  the  yeast  which  produced 
fermentation  was  no  dead  mass,  as  assumed  by  Liebig,  but 
consisted  of  living  organisms  capable  of  growth  and  multiplica- 
tion. His  own  words  are:  "  The  chemical  action  of  fermenta- 
tion is  essentially  a  correlative  phenomenon  of  a  vital  act, 
beginning  and  ending  with  it.  I  think  that  there  is  never  any 
alcoholic  fermentation  without  there  being  at  the  same  time 
organization,  development  and  multiplication  of  globules,  or 
the  continued  consecutive  life  of  globules  already  formed." 
Fermentation,  according  to  Pasteur,  was  caused  by  the  growth 
and  multiplication  of  unicellular  organisms  out  of  contact  with 
free  oxygen,  under  which  circumstance  they  acquire  tie  power 
of  taking  oxygen  from  chemical  compounds  in  the  medium  in 
which  they  are  growing.  In  other  words  "  fermentation  is  life 
without  air,  or  life  without  oxygen."  This  theory  of  fermenta- 
tion was  materially  modified  in  1892  and  1894  by  A.  J.  Brown, 
who  described  experiments  which  were  in  disagreement  with 
Pasteur's  dictum.  A.  J.  Brown  writes:  "  If  for  the  theory 
'  life  without  air  '  is  substituted  the  consideration  that  yeast  cells 
can  use  oxygen  in  the  manner  of  ordinary  aerobic  fungi,  and 
probably  do  require  it  for  the  full  completion  of  their  life- 
history,  but  that  the  exhibition  of  their  fermentative  functions 
is  independent  of  their  environment  with  regard  to  free 
oxygen,  it  will  be  found  that  there  is  nothing  contradictory 
in  Pasteur's  experiments  to  such  a  hypothesis." 

Liebig  and  Pasteur  were  in  agreement  on  the  point  that  fer- 
mentation is  intimately  connected  with  the  presence  of  yeast 
in  the  fermenting  liquid,  but  their  explanations  concerning  the 
mechanism  of  fermentation  were  quite  opposed.  According  to 
M.  Traube  (1858),  the  active  cause  of  fermentation  is  due  to  the 
action  of  different  enzymes  contained  in  yeast  and  not  to  the 
yeast  cell  itself.  As  will  be  seen  later  this  theory  was  confirmed 
by  subsequent  researches  of  E.  Fischer  and  E.  Buchner. 

In  1879  C.  Nageli  formulated  his  well-known  molecular- 
physical  theory,  which  supported  Liebig's  chemical  theory  on 
the  one  hand  and  Pasteur's  physiological  hypothesis  on  the 


276 


FERMENTATION 


other:  "  Fermentation  is  the  transference  of  the  condition  of 
motion  of  the  molecules,  atomic  groups  and  atoms  of  the  various 
compounds  constituting  the  living  plasma,  to  the  fermenting 
material,  in  consequence  of  which  equilibrium  in  the  molecules 
of  the  latter  is  destroyed,  the  result  being  their  disintegration." 
He  agreed  with  Pasteur  that  the  presence  of  living  cells  is  essen- 
tial to  the  transformation  of  sugar  into  alcohol,  but  dissented 
from  the  view  that  the  process  occurs  within  the  cell.  This 
investigator  held  that  the  decomposition  of  the  sugar  molecules 
takes  place  outside  the  cell  wall.  In  1894  and  1895,  Fischer,  in  a 
remarkable  series  of  papers  on  the  influence  of  molecular  structure 
upon  the  action  of  the  enzyme,  showed  that  various  species  of 
yeast  behave  very  differently  towards  solutions  of  sugars.  For 
example,  some  species  hydrolyse  came  sugar  and  maltose,  and 
then  carry  on  fermentation  at  the  expense  of  the  simple  sugars 
(hexoses)  so  formed.  Saccharomyces  Marxianus  will  not  hydro- 
lyse maltose,  but  it  does  attack  cane  sugar  and  ferment  the  pro- 
ducts of  hydrolysis.  Fischer  next  suggested  that  enzymes  can 
only  hydrolyse  those  sugars  which  possess  a  molecular  structure 
in  harmony  with  their  own,  or  to  use  his  ingenious3  analogy, 
"  the  one  may  be  said  to  fit  into  the  other  as  a  key  fits  into  a 
lock."  The  preference  exhibited  by  yeast  cells  for  sugar  mole- 
cules is  shared  by  mould  fungi  and  soluble  enzymes  in  their 
fermentative  actions.  Thus,  Pasteur  showed  that  PenicUlium 
glaucum,  when  grown  in  an  aqueous  solution  of  ammonium 
racemate,  decomposed  the  dextro-tartrate,  leaving  the  laevo- 
tartrate,  and  the  solution  which  was  originally  inactive  to 
polarized  light  became  dextro-rotatory.  Fischer  found  that 
the  enzyme  "  invertase,"  which  is  present  in  yeast,  attacks 
methyl-rf-glucoside  but  not  methyl-J-glucoside. 

In  1897  Buchner  submitted  yeast  to  great  pressure,  and 
isolated  a  nitrogenous  substance,  enzymic  in  character,  which 
he  termed  "  zymase."  This  body  is  being  continually  formed 
in  the  yeast  cell,  and  decomposes  the  sugar  which  has  diffused 
into  the  cell.  The  freshly-expressed  yeast  juice  causes  concen- 
trated solutions  of  cane  sugar,  glucose,  laevulose  and  maltose  to 
ferment  with  the  production  of  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide,  but 
not  milk-sugar  and  mannose.  In  this  respect  the  plasma 
behaves  in  a  similar  manner  towards  the  sugars  as  does  the 
living  yeast  cell.  Pasteur  found  that,  when  cane  sugar  was 
fermented  by  yeast,  49-4%  of  carbonic  acid  and  51-1%  of 
alcohol  were  produced;  with  expressed  yeast  juice  cane  sugar 
yields  47  %  of  carbonic  acid  and  47-7%  of  alcohol.  According 
to  Buchner  the  fermentative  activity  of  yeast-cell  juice  is  not 
due  to  the  presence  of  living  yeast  cells,  or  to  the  action  of  living 
yeast  protoplasm,  but  it  is  caused  by  a  soluble  enzyme.  A. 
Macfadyen,  G.  H.  Morris  and  S.  Rowland,  in  repeating  Buchner's 
experiments,  found  that  zymase  possessed  properties  differing 
from  all  other  enzymes,  thus:  dilution  with  twice  its  volume 
of  water  practically  destroys  the  fermentative  power  of  the  yeast 
juice.  These  investigators  considered  that  differences  of  this 
nature  cannot  be  explained  by  the  theory  that  it  is  a  soluble 
enzyme,  which  brings  about  the  alcoholic  fermentation  of  sugar. 
The  remarkable  discoveries  of  Fischer  and  Buchner  to  a  great 
extent  confirm  Traube's  views,  and  reconcile  Liebig's  and 
Pasteur's  theories.  Although  the  action  of  zymase  may  be 
regarded  as  mechanical,  the  enzyme  cannot  be  produced  by 
any  other  than  living  protoplasm. 

Pasteur's  important  researches  mark  an  epoch  in  the  technical 
aspect  of  fermentation.  His  investigations  on  vinegar-making 
revolutionized  that  industry,  and  he  showed  how,  instead  of 
waiting  two  or  three  months  for  the  elaboration  of  the  process, 
the  vinegar  could  be  made  in  eight  or  ten  days  by  exposing  the 
vats  containing  the  mixture  of  wine  and  vinegar  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  20°  to  25°  C.,  and  sowing  with  a  small  quantity  of  the 
acetic  organism.  To  the  study  of  the  life-history  of  the  butyric 
and  acetic  organisms  we  owe  the  terms  "  anaerobic "  and 
"  aerobic."  His  researches  from  1860  and  onwards  on  the 
then  vexed  question  of  spontaneous  generation  proved  that, 
in  all  cases  where  spontaneous  generation  appeared  to  have 
taken  place,  some  defect  or  other  was  in  the  experiment.  Al- 
though the  direct  object  of  Pasteur  was  to  prove  a  negative, 


yet  it  was  on  these  experiments  that  sterilization  as  known  to 
us  was  developed.  It  is  only  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the  great 
part  played  by  sterilization  in  the  laboratory,  and  pasteuriza- 
tion on  the  fermentation  industries  and  in  the  preservation 
of  food  materials.  Pasteur  first  formulated  the  idea  that  bacteria 
are  responsible  for  the  diseases  of  fermented  liquids;  the  corol- 
lary of  this  was  a  demand  for  pure  yeast.  He  recommended  that 
yeast  should  be  purified  by  cultivating  it  in  a  solution  of  sugar 
containing  tartaric  acid,  or,  in  wort  containing  a  small  quantity 
of  phenol.  It  was  not  recognized  that  many  of  the  diseases  of 
fermented  liquids  are  occasioned  by  foreign  yeasts;  moreover, 
this  process,  as  was  shown  later  by  Hansen,  favours  the  develop- 
ment of  foreign  yeasts  at  the  expense  of  the  good  yeast. 

About  this  time  Hansen,  who  had  long  been  engaged  in  re- 
searches on  the  biology  of  the  fungi  of  fermentation,  demon- 
strated that  yeast  free  from  bacteria  could  nevertheless  occasion 
diseases  in  beer.  This  discovery  was  of  great  importance  to  the 
zymo-technical  industries,  for  it  showed  that  bacteria  are  not 
the  only  undesirable  organisms  which  may  occur  in  yeast. 
Hansen  set  himself  the  task  of  studying  the  properties  of  the 
varieties  of  yeast,  and  to  do  this  he  had  to  cultivate  each  variety 
in  a  pure  state.  Having  found  that  some  of  the  commonest 
diseases  of  beer,  such  as  yeast  turbidity  and  the  objectionable 
changes  in  flavour,  were  caused  not  by  bacteria  but  by  certain 
species  of  yeast,  and,  further,  that  different  species  of  good 
brewery  yeast  would  produce  beers  of  different  character,  Hansen 
argued  that  the  pitching  yeast  should  consist  only  of  a  single 
species — namely,  that  best  suited  to  the  brewery  in  question. 
These  views  met  with  considerable  opposition,  but  in  1890 
Professor  E.  Duclaux  stated  that  the  yeast  question  as  regards 
low  fermentation  has  been  solved  by  Hansen's  investigations. 
He  emphasized  the  opinion  that  yeast  derived  from  one  cell  was 
of  no  good  for  top  fermentation,  and  advocated  Pasteur's 
method  of  purification.  But  in  the  course  of  time,  notwith- 
standing many  criticisms  and  objections,  the  reform  spread  from 
bottom  fermentation  to  top  fermentation  breweries  on  the 
continent  and  in  America.  In  the  United  Kingdom  the  employ- 
ment of  brewery  yeasts  selected  from  a  single  cell  has  not  come 
into  general  use;  it  may  probably  be  accounted  for  in  a  great 
measure  by  conservatism  and  the  wrong  application  of  Hansen's 
theories. 

Pure  Citltivalion  of  Yeasts. — The  methods  which  were  first 
adopted  by  Hansen  for  obtaining  pure  cultures  of  yeast  were 
similar  in  principle  to  one  devised  by  J.  Lister  for  isolating  a 
pure  culture  of  lactic  acid  bacterium.  Lister  determined  the 
number  of  bacteria  present  in  a  drop  of  the  liquid  under  examina- 
tion by  counting,  and  then  diluted  this  with  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  sterilized  water  so  that  each  drop  of  the  mixture  should  con- 
tain, on  an  average,  less  than  one  bacterium.  A  number  of  flasks 
containing  a  nutrient  medium  were  each  inoculated  with  one 
drop  of  this  mixture;  it  was  found  that  some  remained  sterile, 
and  Lister  assumed  that  the  remaining  flasks  each  contained 
a  pure  culture.  This  method  did  not  give  very  certain  results, 
for  it  could  not  be  guaranteed  that  the  growth  in  the  inoculated 
flask  was  necessarily  derived  from  a  single  bacterium.  Hansen 
counted  the  number  of  yeast  cells  suspended  in  a  drop  of  liquid 
diluted  with  sterilized  water.  A  volume  of  the  diluted  yeast 
was  introduced  into  flasks  containing  sterilized  wort,  the  degree 
of  dilution  being  such  that  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  flasks 
became  infected.  The  flasks  were  then  well  shaken,  and  the  yeast 
cell  or  cells  settled  to  the  bottom,  and  gave  rise  to  a  separate 
yeast  speck.  Only  those  cultures  which  contained  a  single  yeast 
speck  were  assumed  to  be  pure  cultivations.  "By  this  method 
several  races  of  Saccharomycetes  and  brewery  yeasts  were 
isolated  and  described. 

The  next  important  advance  was  the  substitution  of  solid  for 
liquid  media;  due  originally  to  Schroter.  R.  Koch  subsequently 
improved  the  method.  He  introduced  bacteria  into  liquid 
sterile,  nutrient  gelatin.  After  being  well  shaken,  the  liquid 
was  poured  into  a  sterile  glass  Petrie  dish  and  covered  with  a 
moist  and  sterile  bell-jar.  It  was  assumed  that  each  separate 
speck  contained  a  pure  culture.  Hansen  pointed  out  that  this 


FERMENTATION 


277 


was  by  no  means  the  case,  for  it  is  more  difficult  to  separate  the 
cells  from  each  other  in  the  gelatin  than  in  the  liquid.  To  obtain 
an  absolutely  pure  culture  with  certainty  it  is  necessary,  even 
when  the  gelatin  method  is  employed,  to  start  from  a  single  cell. 
To  effect  this  some  of  the  nutrient  gelatin  containing  yeast  cells 
is  placed  on  the  under-surface  of  the  cover-glass  of  the  moist 
chamber.  Those  cells  are  accurately  marked,  the  position  of 
which  is  such  that  the  colonies,  to  which  they  give  rise,  can  grow 
to  their  full  size  without  coming  into  contact  with  other  colonies. 
The  growth  of  the  marked  cells  is  kept  under  observation  for 
three  or  four  days,  by  which  time  the  colonies  will  be  large 
enough  to  be  taken  out  of  the  chamber  and  placed  in  flasks. 
The  contents  of  the  flasks  can  then  be  introduced  into  larger 
flasks,  and  finally  into  an  apparatus  suitable  for  making  enough 
yeast  for  technical  purposes.  Such,  in  brief,  are  the  methods 
devised  by  that  brilliant  investigator  Hansen;  and  these 
methods  have  not  only  been  the  basis  on  which  our  modern 
knowledge  of  the  Saccharomycetes  is  founded,  but  are  the  only 
means  of  attack  which  the  present-day  observer  has  at  his 
disposal. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  the  term  fermentation 
has  now  a  much  wider  significance  than  when  it  was  applied 
to  such  changes  as  the  decomposition  of  must  or  wort  with  the 
production  of  carbon  dioxide  and  alcohol.  Fermentation  now 
includes  all  changes  in  organic  compounds  brought  about  by 
ferments  elaborated  in  the  living  animal  or  vegetable  cell.  There 
are  two  distinct  types  of  fermentation:  (i)  those  brought  about 
by  living  organisms  (organized  ferments),  and  (2)  those  brought 
about  by  non-living  or  unorganized  ferments  (enzymes).  The 
first  class  include  such  changes  as  the  alcoholic  fermentation 
of  sugar  solutions,  the  acetic  acid  fermentation  of  alcohol,  the 
lactic  acid  fermentation  of  milk  sugar,  and  the  putrefaction  of 
animal  and  vegetable  nitrogenous  matter.  The  second  class 
include  all  changes  brought  about  by  the  agency  of  enzymes, 
such  as  the  action  of  diastase  on  starch,  invertase  on  cane  sugar, 
glucase  on  maltose,  &c.  The  actions  are  essentially  hydrolytic. 

Biological  Aspect  of  Yeast. — The  Saccharomycetes  belong  to 
that  division  of  the  Thallophyta  called  the  Hyphomycetes  or 
Fungi  (q.v.).  Two  great  divisions  are  recognized  in  the  Fungi: 
(i.)  the  Phy corny cetes  or  Algal  Fungi,  which  retain  a  definitely 
sexual  method  of  reproduction  as  well  as  asexual  (vegetative) 
methods,  and  (ii.)  the  My  corny  cetes,  characterized  by  extremely 
reduced  or  very  doubtful  sexual  reproduction.  The  Mycomy- 
cetes  may  be  divided  as  follows:  (A)  forms  bearing  both 
sporangia  and  conidia  (see  FUNGI),  (B)  forms  bearing  conidia 
only,  e.g.  the  common  mushroom.  Division  A  comprises  (a) 
the  true  Ascomyceles,  of  which  the  moulds  Eurotium  and  Peni- 
cillium  are  examples,  and  (6)  the  Hemiasci,  which  includes  the 
yeasts.  The  gradual  disappearance  of  the  sexual  method  of 
reproduction,  as  we  pass  upwards  in  the  fungi  from  the  points 
of  their  departure  from  the  Algae,  is  an  important  fact,  the  last 
traces  of  sexuality  apparently  disappearing  in  the  ascomycetes. 

With  certain  rare  exceptions  the  Saccharomycetes  have  three 
methods  of  asexual  reproduction: — 

1.  The  most  common. — The  formation  of  buds  which  separate 
to  form  new  cells.     A  portion  of  the  nucleus  of  the  parent  cell 
makes  its  way  through  the  extremely  narrow  neck  into  the 
daughter  cell.     This  method  obtains  when  yeast  is  vigorously 
fermenting  a  saccharine  solution. 

2.  A    division    by  fission    followed    by    Endogenous    spore 
formation,  characteristic  of  the  Schizosaccharomycetes.     Some 
species  show  fermentative  power. 

3.  Endospore  formation,   the   conditions  for  which    are  as 
follows:    (i)    suitable    temperature,    (2)    presence   of   air,    (3) 
presence  of  moisture,  (4)  young  and  vigorous  cells,  (5)  a  food 
supply  in  the  case  of  one  species  at  least  is  necessary,  and  is  in 
no  case  prejudicial.     In  some  cases  a  sexual  act  would  appear 
to  precede  spore  formation.     In  most  cases  four  spores  are  formed 
within  the  cell  by    free    formation.     These    may   readily   be 
seen  after  appropriate  staining. 

In  some  of  the  true  Ascomycetes,  such  as  Penicillium  giaucum, 
the  conidia  if  grown  in  saccharine  solutions,  which  they  have 


the  power  of  fermenting,  develop  single  cell  yeast-like  forms, 
and  do  not — at  any  rate  for  a  time — produce  again  the  char- 
acteristic branching  mycelium.  This  is  known  as  the  Torula 
condition.  It  is  supposed  by  some  that  Saccharomyces  is  a  very 
degraded  Ascomycete,  in  which  the  Torula  condition  has  become 
fixed. 

The  yeast  plant  and  its  allies  are  saprophytes  and  form  no 
chlorophyll.  Their  extreme  reduction  in  form  and  loss  of 
sexuality  may  be  correlated  with  the  saprophytic  habit,  the 
proteids  and  other  organic  material  required  for  the  growth  and 
reproduction  being  appropriated  ready  synthesized,  the  plant 
having  entirely  lost  the  power  of  forming  them  for  itself,  as 
evidenced  by  the  absence  of  chlorophyll.  The  beer  yeast 
5.  cerevisiae,  is  never  found  wild,  but  the  wine  yeasts  occur 
abundantly  in  the  soil  of  vineyards,  and  so  are  always  present  on 
the  fruit,  ready  to  ferment  the  expressed  juice. 

Chemical  Aspect  of  Alcoholic  Fermentation. — Lavoisier  was 
the  first  investigator  to  study  fermentation  from  a  quantitative 
standpoint.  He  determined  the  percentages  of  carbon,  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  in  the  sugar  and  in  the  products  of  fermentation,  and 
concluded  that  sugar  in  fermenting  breaks  up  into  alcohol, 
carbonic  acid  and  acetic  acid.  The  elementary  composition  of 
sugar  and  alcohol  was  fixed  in  1815  by  analyses  made  by  Gay- 
Lussac,  Thenard  and  de  Saussure.  The  first-mentioned  chemist 
proposed  the  following  formula  to  represent  the  change  which 
takes  place  when  sugar  is  fermented : — 

C6H12O6         =        2CO2        +        2C2H6O. 
Sugar.  Carbon  dioxide.  Alcohol. 

This  formula  substantially  holds  good  to  the  present  day, 
although  a  number  of  definite  bodies  other  than  carbon  dioxide 
and  alcohol  occur  in  small  and  varying  quantities,  according 
to  the  conditions  of  the  fermentation  and  the  medium  fermented. 
Prominent  among  these  are  glycerin  and  succinic  acid.  In  this 
connexion  Pasteur  showed  that  100  parts  of  cane  sugar  on  in- 
version gave  105-4  parts  of  invert  sugar,  which,  when  fermented, 
yielded  51-1  parts  alcohol,  49-4  carbonic  acid,  0-7  succinic  acid, 
3-2  glycerin  and  i-o  unestimated.  A.  Bechamp  and  E.  Duclaux 
found  that  acetic  acid  is  formed  in  small  quantities  during 
fermentation;  aldehyde  has  also  been  detected.  The  higher 
alcohols  such  as  propyl,  isobutyl,  amyl,  capryl,  oenanthyl  and 
caproyl,  have  been  identified;  and  the  amount  of  these  vary 
according  to  the  different  conditions  of  the  fermentation.  A 
number  of  esters  are  also  produced.  The  characteristic  flavour 
and  odour  of  wines  and  spirits  is  dependent  on  the  proportion  of 
higher  alcohols,  aldehydes  and  esters  which  may  be  produced. 

Certain  yeasts  exercise  a  reducing  action,  forming  sulphur- 
etted hydrogen,  when  sulphur  is  present.  The  "  stinking  fer- 
mentations "  occasionally  experienced  in  breweries  probably 
arise  from  this,  the  free  sulphur  being  derived  from  the  hops. 
Other  yeasts  are  stated  to  form  sulphurous  acid  in  must  and 
wort.  Another  fact  of  considerable  technical  importance  is, 
that  the  various  races  of  yeast  show  considerable  differences  in 
the  amount  and  proportion  of  fermentation  products  other  than 
ethyl  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  which  they  produce.  From 
these  remarks  it  will  be  clear  that  to  employ  the  most  suitable 
kind  of  yeast  for  a  given  alcoholic  fermentation  is  of  funda- 
mental importance  in  certain  industries.  It  is  beyond  the  scope 
of  the  present  article  to  attempt  to  describe  the  different  forms 
of  budding  fungi  (Saccharomyces),  mould  fungi  and  bacteria 
which  are  capable  of  fermenting  sugar  solutions.  Thus,  six 
species  isolated  by  Hansen,  Saccharomyces  cerevisiae,  S.  Pas- 
teurianus  I.,1  II.,  III.,  and  5.  ellipsoideus,  contained  invertase 
and  maltase,  and  can  invert  and  subsequently  ferment  cane  sugar 
and  maltose.  S.  exiguus  and  S.  Ludwigii  contain  only  invertase 
and  not  maltase,  and  therefore  ferment  cane  sugar  but  not 
maltose.  5.  apiculatus  (a  common  wine  yeast)  contains  neither 
of  these  enzymes,  and  only  ferments  solutions  of  glucose  or 
laevulose. 

Previously  to  Hansen's  work  the  only  way  of  differentiating 

1  Hansen  found  there  were  three  species  of  spore-bearing  Saccharo- 
mycetes and  that  these  could  be  subdivided  into  varieties.  Thus, 
5.  cerevisia.e  1.,  S.  cerevisiae  II.,  S.  Pasteurianus  I.,  &c. 


278 


FERMO— FERNANDEZ,  A. 


yeasts  was  by  studying  morphological  differences  with  the  aid 
of  the  microscope.  Max  Reess  distinguished  the  species  accord- 
ing to  the  appearance  of  the  cells  thus,  the  ellipsoidal  cells  were 
designated  Saccharomyces  ellipsoideus,  the  sausage-shaped 
Saccharomyces  Pasteurianus,  and  so  on.  It  was  found  by 
Hansen  that  the  same  species  of  yeast  can  assume  different 
shapes;  and  it  therefore  became  necessary  to  determine  how 
the  different  varieties  of  yeast  could  be  distinguished  with 
certainty.  The  formation  of  spores  in  yeast  (first  discovered 
by  T.  Schwann  in  1839)  was  studied  by  Hansen,  who  found  that 
each  species  only  developed  spores  between  certain  definite 
temperatures.  The  time  taken  for  spore  formation  varies  greatly ; 
thus,  at  52°  F.,  5.  cerevisiae  takes  10,  S.  Pasteurianus  I.  and  II. 
about  4,  5.  Pasteurianus  III.  about  7,  and  S.  ellipsoideus  about 
4^  days.  The  formation  of  spores  is  used  as  an  analytical 
method  for  determining  whether  a  yeast  is  contaminated  with 
another  species,— for  example:  a  sample  of  yeast  is  placed  on  a 
gypsum  or  porcelain  block  saturated  with  water;  if  in  ten  days 
at  a  temperature  of  52°  F.  no  spores  make  their  appearance,  the 
yeast  in  question  may  be  regarded  as  5.  cerevisiae,  and  not 
associated  with  5.  Pasteurianus  or  5.  ellipsoideus. 

The  formation  of  films  on  fermented  liquids  is  a  well-known 
phenomenon  and  common  to  all  micro-organisms.  A  free  still 
surface  with  a  direct  access  of  air  are  the  necessary  conditions. 
Hansen  showed  that  the  microscopic  appearance  of  film  cells 
of  the  same  species  of  Saccharomycetes  varies  according  to  the 
temperature  of  growth;  the  limiting  temperatures  of  film  for- 
mation, as  well  as  the  time  of  its  appearance  for  the  different 
species,  also  vary. 

In  the  zymo-technical  industries  the  various  species  of  yeast 
exhibit  different  actions  during  fermentations.  A  well-known 
instance  of  this  is  the  "  top  "  and  "  bottom  "  brewery  fermen- 
tations (see  BREWING).  In  a  top  fermentation — typical  of 
English  breweries — the  yeast  rises,  in  a  bottom  fermentation, 
as  the  phrase  implies,  it  settles  in  the  vessel.  Sometimes  a 
bottom  yeast  may  for  a  time  exhibit  signs  of  a  top  fermentation. 
It  has  not,  however,  been  possible  to  transform  a  typical  top  yeast 
into  a  permanent  typical  bottom  yeast.  There  appear  to  be 
no  true  distinctive  characteristics  for  these  two  types.  Their 
selection  for  a  particular  purpose  depends  upon  some  special 
quality  which  they  possess;  thus  for  brewing  certain  essentials 
are  demanded  as  regards  stability,  clarification,  taste  and  smell; 
whereas,  in  distilleries,  the  production  of  alcohol  and  a  high 
multiplying  power  in  the  yeast  are  required.  Culture  yeasts 
have  also  been  successfully  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  wine 
and  cider.  By  the  judicious  selection  of  a  type  of  yeast  it  is 
possible  to  improve  the  bouquet,  and  from  an  inferior  must 
obtain  a  better  wine  or  cider  than  would  otherwise  be  produced. 

Certain  acid  fermentations  are  of  common  occurrence.  The 
Bacterium  acidi  lacti  described  by  Pasteur  decomposes  milk 
sugar  into  lactic  acid.  Bacillus  amylobacler  usually  accom- 
panies the  lactic  acid  organism,  and  decomposes  lactic  and  other 
higher  acids  with  formation  of  butyric  acid.  Moulds  have  been 
isolated  which  occasion  the  formation  of  citric  acid  from  glucose. 
The  production  of  acetic  acid  from  alcohol  has  received  much 
attention  at  the  hands  of  investigators,  and  it  has  an  important 
technical  aspect  in  the  manufacture  of  vinegar.  The  pheno- 
menon of  nitrification  (see  BACTERIOLOGY,  AGRICULTURE  and 
MANURE),  i.e.  the  formation  of  nitrites  and  nitrates  from  am- 
monia and  its  compounds  in  the  soil,  was  formerly  held  to  be  a 
purely  chemical  process,  until  Schloesing  and  Miintz  suggested 
in  1877  that  it  was  biological.  It  is  now  known  that  the  action 
takes  place  in  two  stages;  the  ammonium  salt  is  first  oxidized 
to  the  nitrite  stage  and  subsequently  to  the  nitrate.  (J.  L.  B.) 

FERMO  (anc.  Fir  mum  Picenum),  a  town  and  archiepiscopal 
see  of  the  Marches,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Ascoli  Piceno,  on  a 
hill  with  a  fine  view,  1046  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  a  branch  from 
Porto  S.  Giorgio  on  the  Adriatic  coast  railway.  Pop.  (1901) 
town,  16,577,  commune  20,542.  The  summit  of  the  hill  was 
occupied  by  the  citadel  until  1446.  It  is  crowned  by  the 
cathedral,  reconstructed  in  1227  by  Giorgio  da  Como;  the  fine 
facade  and  campanile  of  this  period  still  remain,  and  the  side 


portal  is  good;  the  beautiful  rose- window  over  the  main  door 
dates  from  1348.  In  the  porch  are  several  good  tombs,  including 
one  of  1366  by  Tura  da  Imola,  and  also  the  modern  monument 
of  Giuseppe  Colucci,  a  famous  writer  on  the  antiquities  of 
Picenum.  The  interior  has  been  modernized.  The  building  is 
now  surrounded  by  a  garden,  with  a  splendid  view.  Against  the 
side  of  the  hill  was  built  the  Roman  theatre;  scanty  traces  of 
an  amphitheatre  also  exist.  Remains  of  the  city  wall,  of  rect- 
angular blocks  of  hard  limestone,  may  be  seen  just  outside  the 
Porta  S.  Francesco;  whether  the  walling  under  the  Casa  Porti 
belongs  to  them  is  doubtful.  The  medieval  battlemented  walls 
superposed  on  it  are  picturesque.  The  church  of  S.  Francesco 
has  a  good  tower  and  choir  in  brickwork  of  1 240,  the  rest  having 
been  restored  hi  the  i?th  century.  Under  the  Dominican 
monastery  is  a  very  large  Roman  reservoir  in  two  storeys,  belong- 
ing to  the  imperial  period,  divided  into  many  chambers,  at  least 
24  on  each  level,  each  30  by  20  ft.,  for  filtration  (see  G.  de  Minicis 
in  A  nnali  dell'  Istituto,  1 846,  p.  46 ;  1 8  58 ,  p.  1 2  5) .  The  piazza  con- 
tains the  Palazzo  Comunale,  restored  in  1446,  with  a  statue  of 
Pope  Sixtus  V.  in  front  of  it.  TheBiblioteca  Comunale  contains 
a  collection  of  inscriptions  and  antiquities.  Porto  S.  Giorgio 
has  a  fine  castle  of  1269,  blocking  the  valley  which  leads  to 
Fermo. 

The  ancient  Firmum  Picenum  was  founded  as  a  Latin  colony 
in  264  B.C.,  after  the  conquest  of  the  Picentes,  as  the  local  head- 
quarters of  the  Roman  power,  to  which  it  remained  faithful. 
It  was  originally  governed  by  five  quaestors.  It  was  made  a 
colony  with  full  rights  after  the  battle  of  Philippi,  the  4th  legion 
being  settled  there.  It  lay  at  the  junction  of  roads  to  Pausulae, 
Urbs  Salvia  and  Asculum,  being  connected  with  the  coast  road  by 
a  short  branch  road  from  Castellum  Firmanum  (Porto  S.  Giorgio). 
In  the  loth  century  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Marchia  Firmana. 
In  1199  it  became  a  free  city,  and  remained  independent  until 
1550,  when  it  became  subject  to  the  papacy.  (T.  As.) 

FERMOY,  a  market  town  in  the  east  riding  of  Co.  Cork, 
Ireland,  in  the  north-east  parliamentary  division,  21  m.  by 
road  N.E.  of  Cork,  and  14  m.  E.  of  Mallow  by  a  branch  of  the 
Great  Southern  &  Western  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district 
(1901)  6126.  It  is  situated  on  the  river  Blackwater,  which 
divides  the  town  into  two  parts,  the  larger  of  which  is  on  the 
southern  bank,  and  there  the  trade  of  the  town,  which  is  chiefly 
in  flour  and  agricultural  produce,  is  mainly  carried  on.  The 
town  has  several  good  streets  and  some  noteworthy  buildings. 
Of  the  latter,  the  most  prominent  are  the  military  barracks  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  river,  the  Protestant  church,  the  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral  and  St  Colman's  Roman  Catholic  college. 
Fermoy  rose  to  importance  only  at  the  beginning  of  the  igth 
century,  owing  entirely  to  the  devotion  of  John  Anderson,  a 
citizen,  on  becoming  landlord.  The  town  is  a  centre  for  salmon 
and  trout  fishing  on  the  Blackwater  and  its  tributary  the 
Funshion.  The  neighbouring  scenery  is  attractive,  especially 
in  the  Glen  of  Araglin,  once  famed  for  its  ironworks. 

FERN  (from  O.  Eng.  fearn,  a  word  common  to  Teutonic 
languages,  cf.  Dutch  varen,  and  Ger.  Farn;  the  Indo-European 
root,  seen  in  the  Sanskrit  parna,  a  feather,  shows  the  primary 
meaning;  cf.  Gr.  irrepov,  feather,  irrtpls,  fern),  a  name  often 
used  to  denote  the  whole  botanical  class  of  Pteridophytes, 
including  both  the  true  ferns,  Filicales,  by  far  the  largest  group 
of  this  class  in  the  existing  flora,  and  the  fern-like  plants, 
Equisetales,  Sphenophyllales,  Lycopodiales  (see  PTERIDOPHYTA). 

FERNANDEZ,  ALVARO,  one  of  the  leading  Portuguese  ex- 
plorers of  the  earlier  isth  century,  the  age  of  Henry  the  Navi- 
gator. He  was  brought  up  (as  a  page  or  esquire)  in  the  household 
of  Prince  Henry,  and  while  still  "  young  and  audacious  "  took 
an  important  part  in  the  discovery  of  "  Guinea."  He  was  a 
nephew  of  Joao  Gonjalvez  Zarco,  who  had  rediscovered  the 
Madeira  group  in  Henry's  service  (1418-1420),  and  had  become 
part-governor  of  Madeira  and  commander  of  Funchal;  when 
the  great  expedition  of  1445  sailed  for  West  Africa  he  was 
entrusted  by  his  uncle  with  a  specially  fine  caravel,  under  par- 
ticular injunctions  to  devote  himself  to  discovery,  the  most 
cherished  object  of  his  princely  master,  so  constantly  thwarted. 


FERNANDEZ,  D.— FERNANDINA 


279 


Fernandez,as  a  pioneer,  outstripped  all  otherservantsof  the  prince 
at  this  time.  After  visiting  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal,  rounding 
Cape  Verde,  and  landing  in  Goree  (?),  he  pushed  on  to  the  "  Cape 
of  Masts  "  (Cabo  dos  Matos,  or  Mastos,  so  called  from  its  tall 
spindle-palms),  probably  between  Cape  Verde  and  the  Gambia, 
the  most  southerly  point  till  then  attained.  Next  year  (1446)  he 
returned,  and  coasted  on  much  farther,  to  a  bay  one  hundred 
and  ten  leagues  "  south  "  (i.e.  S.S.E.)  of  Cape  Verde,  perhaps 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Konakry  and  the  Los  Islands,  and  but 
little  short  of  Sierra  Leone.  This  record  was  not  broken  till 
1461,  when  Sierra  Leone  was  sighted  and  named.  A  wound, 
received  from  a  poisoned  arrow  in  an  encounter  with  natives, 
now  compelled  Fernandez  to  return  to  Portugal,  where  he  was 
received  with  distinguished  honour  and  reward  by  Prince  Henry 
and  the  regent  of  the  kingdom,  Henry's  brother  Pedro. 

See  Gomes  Eannes  de  Azurara,  Chronica  de  .  .  .  Guine,  chs. 
Ixxv.,  Ixxxvii. ;  Joao  de  Barros,  Asia,  Decade  I.,  bk.  i.  chs.  xiii,,  xiv. 

FERNANDEZ,  DIEGO,  a  Spanish  adventurer  and  historian 
of  the  1 6th  century.  Born  at  Palencia,  he  was  educated  for  the 
church,  but  about  1545  he  embarked  for  Peru,  where  he  served 
in  the  royal  army  under  Alonzo  de  Alvarado.  Andres  Hurtado 
de  Mendoza,  marquess  of  Canete,  who  became  viceroy  of  Peru  in 
1655,  bestowed  on  Fernandez  the  office  of  chronicler  of  Peru; 
and  in  this  capacity  he  wrote'  a  narrative  of  the  insurrection  of 
Francisco  Hernandez  Giron,  of  the  rebellion  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro, 
and  of  the  administration  of  Pedro  de  la  Gasca.  The  whole  work, 
under  the  title  Primera  y  segunda  parte  de  la  Historia  del  Piru, 
was  published  at  Seville  in  1571  and  was  dedicated  to  King 
Philip  II.  It  is  written  in  a  clear  and  intelligible  style,  and  with 
more  art  than  is  usual  in  the  compositions  of  the  time.  It  gives 
copious  details,  and,  as  he  had  access  to  the  correspondence 
and  official  documents  of  the  Spanish  leaders,  it  is,  although 
necessarily  possessing  bias,  the  fullest  and  most  authentic  record 
existing  of  the  events  it  relates.  • 

A  notice  of  the  work  will  be  found  in  W.  H.  Prescott's  History  of 
the  Conquest  of  Peru  (new  ed.,  London,  1902). 

FERNANDEZ,  JOHN  (Joao,  Joam),  Portuguese  traveller  of  the 
1 5th  century.  He  was  perhaps  the  earliest  of  modern  explorers 
in  the  upland  of  West  Africa,  and  a  pioneer  of  the  European 
slave-  and  gold-trade  of  Guinea.  We  first  hear  of  him  (before 
1445)  as  a  captive  of  the  Barbary  Moors  in  the  western  Medi- 
terranean; while  among  these  he  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
Arabic,  and  probably  conceived  the  design  of  exploration  in  the 
interior  of  the  continent  whose  coasts  the  Portuguese  were  now 
unveiling.  In  1445  he  volunteered  to  stay  in  Guinea  and  gather 
what  information  he  could  for  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator; 
with  this  object  he  accompanied  An  tarn  Goncalvez  to  the 
"  River  of  Gold  "  (Rio  d'Ouro,  Rio  de  Oro)  in  23°  40'  N.,  where 
he  landed  and  went  inland  with  some  native  shepherds.  He 
stayed  seven  months  in  the  country,  which  lay  just  within 
Moslem  Africa,  slightly  north  of  Pagan  Negroland  (W.  Sudan) ; 
he  was  taken  off  again  by  An  tarn  Goncalvez  at  a  point  farther 
down  the  coast,  near  the  "  Cape  of  Ransom  "  (Cape  Mirik),  in 
19°  22'  14";  and  his  account  of  his  experiences  proved  of  great 
interest  and  value,  not  only  as  to  the  natural  features,  climate, 
fauna  and  flora  of  the  south-western  Sahara,  but  also  as  to  the 
racial  affinities,  language,  script,  religion,  nomad  habits,  and 
trade  of  its  inhabitants.  These  people — though  Mahommedans, 
maintaining  a  certain  trade  in  slaves,  gold,  &c.,  with  the  Bar- 
bary coast  (especially  with  Tunis),  and  classed  as  "  Arabs," 
"  Berbers,"  and  "  Tawny  Moors  " — did  not  then  write  or  speak 
Arabic.  In  1446  and  1447  John  Fernandez  accompanied  other 
expeditions  to  the  Rio  d'Ouro  and  other  parts  of  West  Africa 
in  the  service  of  Prince  Henry.  He  was  personally  known  to 
Gomes  Eannes  de  Azurara,  the  historian  of  this  early  period  of 
Portuguese  expansion;  and  from  Azurara's  language  it  is  clear 
that  Fernandez'  revelation  of  unknown  lands  and  races  was  fully 
appreciated  at  home. 

See  Azurara,  Chronica  de  .  .  .  Guine,  chs.  xxix.,  xxxii.,  xxxiv., 
xxxv.,  Ixxvii.,  Ixxviii.,  xc.,  xci.,  xciii. 

FERNANDEZ,  JUAN  (fl.  c.  1570),  Spanish  navigator  and  dis- 
coverer. While  navigating  the  coasts  of  South  America  it 
occurred  to  him  that  the  south  winds  constantly  prevailing 


near  the  shore,  and  retarding  voyages  between  Peru  and  Chile, 
might  not  exist  farther  out  at  sea.  His  idea  proved  correct,  and 
by  the  help  of  the  trade  winds  and  some  currents  at  a  distance 
from  the  coast  he  sailed  with  such  rapidity  (thirty  days)  from 
Callao  to  Chile  that  he  was  apprehended  on  a  charge  of  sorcery. 
His  inquisitors,  however,  accepted  his  natural  explanation  of 
the  marvel.  During  one  of  his  voyages  in  1563  (from  Lima  to 
Valdivia)  Fernandez  discovered  the  islands  which  now  bear  his 
name.  He  was  so  enchanted  with  their  beauty  and  fertility  that 
he  solicited  the  concession  of  them  from  the  Spanish  government. 
It  was  granted  in  1572,  but  a  colony  which  he  endeavoured  to 
establish  at  the  largest  of  them  (Isla  Mas-a-Tierra)  soon  broke 
up,  leaving  behind  the  goats,  whose  progeny  were  hunted  by 
Alexander  Selkirk.  In  1574  Fernandez  discovered  St  Felix  and 
St  Ambrose  islands  (in  27°  S.,  82°  7'  W.);  and  in  1576,  while 
voyaging  in  the"  southern  ocean,  he  is  said  to  have  sighted  not 
only  Easter  Island,  but  also  a  continent,  which  was  probably 
Australia  or  New  Zealand  if  the  story  (rejected  by  most  critics, 
but  with  reservations  as  to  Easter  Island)  is  to  be  accepted. 

See  J.  L.  Arias,  Memoir  recommending  to  the  king  the  conversion 
of  the  new  discovered  islands  (in  Spanish,  1609;  Eng.  trans.,  1773); 
Ulloa,  Relacion  del  Viaje,  bk.  ii.  ch.  iv. ;  Alexander  Dalrymple,  An 
Historical  Collection  of  the  several  Voyages  and  Discoveries  in  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean  (London,  1769-1771);  Freville,  Voyages  de  la 
Mer  du  Sud  par  les  Espagnols. 

FERNANDEZ,  LUCAS,  Spanish  dramatist,  was  born  at  Sala- 
manca about  the  middle  of  the  1 5th  century.  Nothing  is  known 
of  his  life,  and  he  is  represented  by  a  single  volume  of  plays, 
Farsas  y  tglogas  al  modo  y  estilo  pastoril  (1514).  In  his  secular 
pieces — a  comedia  and  twofarsas — he  introduces  few  personages, 
employs  the  simplest  possible  action,  and  burlesques  the  lan- 
guage of  the  uneducated  class;  the  secular  and  devout  elements 
are  skilfully  intermingled  in  his  two  Farsas  del  nascimiento  de 
Nuestro  Senor  Jesucristo.  But  the  best  of  his  dramatic  essays 
is  the  Auto  de  la  Pasion,  a  devout  play  intended  to  be  given  on 
Maundy  Thursday.  It  is  written  in  the  manner  of  Encina,  with 
less  spontaneity,  but  with  a  sombre  force  to  which  Encina 
scarcely  attained. 

Fernandez'  plays  were  reprinted  by  the  Spanish  Academy  in  1867. 

FERNANDINA,  a  city,  a  port  of  entry,  and  the  county-seat  of 
Nassau  ccunty,  Florida,  U.S.A.,  a  winter  and  summer  resort, 
in  the  N.E.  part  of  the  state,  36  m.  N.E.  of  Jacksonville,  on 
Amelia  Island  (about  22  m.  long  and  from  £  m.  to  i£  m.  wide), 
which  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  an  arm  of  the  sea,  known 
as  Amelia  river  and  bay.  Pop.  (1900)  3245;  (1905,  state  census), 
4959  (2957  negroes);  (1910)  3482.  Fernandina  is  served  by  the 
Seaboard  Air  Line  railway,  and  by  steamship  lines  connecting 
with  domestic  and  foreign  ports;  its  harbour,  which  has  the 
deepest  water  on  the  E.  coast  of  Florida,  opens  on  the  N.  to 
Cumberland  Sound,  which  was  improved  by  the  Federal  govern- 
ment, beginning  in  1879,  reducing  freight  rates  at  Fernandina 
by  25  to  40%.  Under  an  act  of  1907  the  channel  of  Fernandina 
harbour,  1300  ft.  wide  at  the  entrance  and  about  2  m.  long,  was 
dredged  to  a  depth  of  20  to  24  ft.  at  mean  low  water  with  a 
width  of  400  to  600  ft.  The  "  inside  "  water-route  between 
Savannah,  Georgia  and  Fernandina  is  improved  by  the  Federal 
government  (1892  sqq.)  and  has  a  7-ft.  channel.  The  principal 
places  of  interest  are  "  Amelia  Beach,"  more  than  20  m.  long 
and  200  ft.  wide,  connected  with  the  city  by  a  compact  shell  road 
nearly  2  m.  long  and  by  electric  line;  the  Amelia  Island  light- 
house, in  the  N.  end  of  the  island,  established  in  1836  and  re- 
built in  1880;  Fort  Clinch,  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbour; 
Cumberland  Island,  in  Georgia,  N.  of  Amelia  Island,  where  land 
was  granted  to  General  Nathanael  Greene  after  the  War  of 
American  Independence  by  the  state  of  Georgia;  and  Dunge- 
ness,  the  estate  of  the  Carnegie  family.  Ocean  City,  on  Amelia 
Beach,  is  a  popular  pleasure  resort.  The  principal  industries 
are  the  manufacture  of  lumber,  cotton,  palmetto  fibres,  and 
cigars,  the  canning  of  oysters,  and  the  building  and  repair  of 
railway  cars.  The  foreign  exports,  chiefly  lumber,  railway  ties, 
cotton,  phosphate  rock,  and  naval  stores,  were  valued  at 
$9,346,704  in  1907;  and  the  imports  in  1907  at  $116,514. 

The  harbour  of  Fernandina  was  known  to  the  early  explorers 


280 


FERNANDO  DE  NORONHA — FERNANDO  PO 


of  Florida,  and  it  was  here  that  Dominic  de  Gourgues  landed 
when  he  made  his  expedition  against  the  Spanish  at  San  Mateo 
in  1568.  An  Indian  mission  was  established  by  Spanish  priests 
later  in  the  same  century,  but  it  was  not  successful.  When 
Georgia  was  founded,  General  James  Oglethorpe  placed  a  military 
guard  on  Amelia  Island  to  prevent  sudden  attack  upon  his 
colony  by  the  Spanish,  and  the  first  blood  shed  in  the  petty 
warfare  between  Georgia  and  Florida  was  the  murder  of  two 
unarmed  members  of  the  guard  by  a  troop  of  Spanish  soldiers 
and  Indians  in  1739.  The  first  permanent  settlement  was  made 
by  the  Spanish  in  1808,  at  what  is  now  the  village  of  Old  Fernan- 
dina,  about  i  m.  from  the  city.  The  island  was  a  centre  for 
smuggling  during  the  period  of  the  embargo  and  non-importation 
acts  preceding  the  war  of  1812.  This  was  the  pretext  for  General 
George  Matthews  (1738-1812)  to  gather  a  band  of  adventurers 
at  St  Mary's,  Georgia,  invade  the  island,  and  capture  Fernandina 
in  1812.  In  the  following  year  the  American  forces  were  with- 
drawn. In  1817  Gregor  MacGregor,  a  filibuster  who  had  aided 
the  Spanish  provinces  of  South  America  in  their  revolt  against 
Spain,  fitted  out  an  expedition  in  Baltimore  and  seized  Fer- 
nandina, but  departed  soon  after.  Later  in  the  same  year 
Louis  Aury,  another  adventurer,  appeared  with  a  small  force 
from  Texas,  and  took  possession  of  the  place  in  the  name  of  the 
Republic  of  Mexico.  In  the  following  year  Aury  was  expelled 
by  United  States  troops,  who  held  Fernandina  in  trust  for 
Spain  until  Florida  was  finally  ceded  to  the  United  States  in 
1821.  Fernandina  was  first  incorporated  in  1859.  In  1861 
Fort  Clinch  was  seized  by  the  Confederates,  and  Fernandina 
harbour  was  a  centre  of  blockade  running  in  the  first  two  years 
of  the  Civil  War.  In  1862  the  place  was  captured  by  a  Federal 
naval  force  from  Port  Royal,  South  Carolina,  commanded  by 
Commodore  S.  F.  Du  Pont. 

FERNANDO  DE  NORONHA  [Fernao  de  N.],  an  island  in  the 
South  Atlantic,  125  m.  from  the  coast  of  Brazil,  to  which  country 
it  belongs,  in  3°  50'  S.,  32°  25'  W.  It  is  about  7  m.  long  and  i^ 
wide,  and  some  other  islets  lie  adjacent  to  it.  Its  surface  is 
rugged,  and  it  contains  a  number  of  rocky  hills  from  500  to 
700  ft.  high,  and  one  peak  towering  to  the  height  of  1089  ft.  It 
is  formed  of  basalt,  trachyte  and  phonolite,  and  the  soil  is  very 
fertile.  The  climate  is  healthy.  It  is  defended  by  forts,  and 
serves  as  a  place  of  banishment  for  criminals  from  Brazil.  The 
next  largest  island  of  the  group  is  about  a  mile  in  circumference, 
and  the  others  are  small  barren  rocks.  The  population  is  about 
2000,  all  males,  including  some  1400  criminals,  .and  a  garrison 
of  1 50.  Communication  is  maintained  by  steamer  with  Pernam- 
buco.  The  island  takes  name  from  its  Portuguese  discoverer 
(1503),  the  count  of  Noronha. 

FERNANDO  PO,  or  FERNANDO  Poo,  a  Spanish  island  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  in  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  about  20  m.  from 
the  mainland,  in  3°  12'  N.  and  8°  48'  E.  It  is  of  volcanic  origin, 
related  to  the  Cameroon  system  of  the  adjacent  mainland,  is  the 
largest  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  is  44  m.  long  from  N.N.E. 
to  S.S.W.,  about  20  m.  broad,  and  has  an  area  of  about  780  sq.  m. 
Fernando  Po  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  aspect,  seeming  from  a 
short  distance  to  be  a  single  mountain  rising  from  the  sea,  its 
sides  covered  with  luxuriant  vegetation.  The  shores  are  steep 
and  rocky  and  the  coast  plain  narrow.  This  plain  is  succeeded 
by  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  which  occupy  the  rest  of  the 
island  and  culminate  in  the  magnificent  cone  of  Clarence  Peak 
or  Pico  de  Santa  Isabel  (native  name  Owassa).  Clarence  Peak, 
about  10,000  ft.  high,1  is  in  the  north-central  part  of  the  island. 
In  the  south  Musolo  Mt.  attains  a  height  of  7400  ft.  There  are 
numerous  other  peaks  between  4000  and  6000  ft.  high.  The 
mountains  contain  craters  and  crater  lakes,  and  are  covered,  most 
of  them  to  their  summits,  with  forests.  Down  the  narrow  inter- 
vening valleys  rush  torrential  streams  which  have  cut  deep  beds 
through  the  coast  plains.  The  trees  most  characteristic  of  the 
forest  are  oil  palms  and  tree  ferns,  but  there  are  many  varieties, 
including  ebony,  mahogany  and  the  African  oak.  The  under- 
growth is  very  dense;  it  includes  the  sugar-cane  and  cotton 
and  indigo  plants.  The  fauna  includes  antelopes,  monkeys, 
1  The  heights  given  by  explorers  vary  from  9200  to  10,800  ft. 


lemurs,  the  civet  cat,  porcupine,  pythons  and  green  tree-snakes, 
crocodiles  and  turtles.  The  climate  is  very  unhealthy  in  the 
lower  districts,  where  malarial  fever  is  common.  The  mean 
temperature  on  the  coast  is  78°  Fahr.  and  varies  little,  but  in 
the  higher  altitudes  there  is  considerable  daily  variation.  The 
rainfall  is  very  heavy  except  during  November-January,  which 
is  considered  the  dry  season. 

The  inhabitants  number  about  25,000.  In  addition  to  about 
500  Europeans,  mostly  Spaniards  and  Cubans,  they  are  of  two 
classes,  the  Bubis  or  Bube  (formerly  also  called  Ediya),  who 
occupy  the  interior,  and  the  coast  dwellers,  a  mixed  Negro  race, 
largely  descended  from  slave  ancestors  with  an  admixture  of 
Portuguese  and  Spanish  blood,  and  known  to  the  Bubis  as 
"  Portos  " — a  corruption  of  Portuguese.  The  Bubis  are  of 
Bantu  stock  and  early  immigrants  from  the  mainland.  Physic- 
ally they  are  a  finely  developed  race,  extremely  jealous  of  their 
independence  and  unwilling  to  take  service  of  any  kind  with 
Europeans.  They  go  unclothed,  smearing  their  bodies  with  a 
kind  of  pomatum.  They  stick  pieces  of  wood  in  the  lobes  of  their 
ears,  wear  numerous  armlets  made  of  ivory,  beads  or  grass,  and 
always  wear  hats,  generally  made  of  palm  leaves.  Their  weapons 
are  mainly  of  wood;  stone  axes  and  knives  were  in  use  as  late 
as  1858.  They  have  no  knowledge  of  working  iron.  Their 
villages  are  built  in  the  densest  parts  of  the  forest,  and  care  is 
taken  to  conceal  the  approach  to  them.  The  Bubis  are  sports- 
men and  fishermen  rather  than  agriculturists.  The  staple  foods 
of  the  islanders  generally  are  millet,  rice,  yams  and  bananas. 
Alcohol  is  distilled  from  the  sugar-cane.  The  natives  possess 
numbers  of  sheep,  goats  and  fowls. 

The  principal  settlement  is  Port  Clarence  (pop.  1500),  called 
by  the  Spaniards  Santa  Isabel,  a  safe  and  commodious  harbour 
on  the  north  coast.  In  its  graveyard  are  buried  Richard  Lander 
and  several  other  explorers  of  West  Africa.  Port  Clarence  is 
unhealthy,  and  the  seat  of  government  has  been  removed  to 
Basile,  a  small  town  5  m.  from  Port  Clarence  and  over  1000  ft. 
above  the  sea.  On  the  west  coast  are  the  bay  and  port  of  San 
Carlos,  on  the  east  coast  Concepcion  Bay  and  town.  The  chief 
industry  until  the  close  of  the  igth  century  was  the  collection  of 
palm-oil,  but  the  Spaniards  have  since  developed  plantations 
of  cocoa,  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  vanilla  and  other  tropical  plants. 
The  kola  nut  is  also  cultivated.  The  cocoa  plantations  are  of 
most  importance.  The  amount  of  cocoa  exported  in  1905  was 
1800  tons,  being  370  tons  above  the  average  export  for  the  pre- 
ceding five  years.  The  total  value  of  the  trade  of  the  island 
(1900-1905)  was  about  £250,000  a  year. 

History.— The  island  was  discovered  towards  the  close  of  the 
1 5th  century  by  a  Portuguese  navigator  called  Fernao  do  Po,  who, 
struck  by  its  beauty,  named  it  Formosa,  but  it  soon  came  to  be 
called  by  the  name  of  its  discoverer.3  A  Portuguese  colony  was 
established  in  the  island,  which  together  with  Annobon  was 
ceded  to  Spain  in  1778.  The  first  attempts  of  Spain  to  develop 
the  island  ended  disastrously,  and  in  1827,  with  the  consent  of 
Spain,  the  administration  of  the  island  was  taken  over  by  Great 
Britain,  the  British  "  superintendent  "  having  a  Spanish  com- 
mission as  governor.  By  the  British  Fernando  Po  was  used  as 
a  naval  station  for  the  ships  engaged  in  the  suppression  of  the 
slave  trade.  The  British  headquarters  were  named  Port  Clarence 
and  the  adjacent  promontory  Cape  William,  in  honour  of  the 
duke  of  Clarence  (William  IV.).  In  1844  the  Spaniards  reclaimed 
the  island,  refusing  to  sell  their  rights  to  Great  Britain.  They 
did  no  more  at  that  time,  however,  than  hoist  the  Spanish  flag, 
appointing  a  British  resident,  John  Beecroft,  governor.  Beecroft, 
who  was  made  British  consul  in  1849,  died  in  1854.  During  the 
British  occupation  a  considerable  number  of  Sierra  Leonians, 
West  Indians  and  freed  slaves  settled  in  the  island,  and  English 
became  and  remains  the  common  speech  of  the  coast  peoples. 
In  1858  a  Spanish  governor  was  sent  out,  and  the  Baptist 
missionaries  who  had  laboured  in  the  island  since  1843  were 
compelled  to  withdraw.  They  settled  in  Ambas  Bay  on  the 

"Some  authorities  maintain  that  another  Portuguese  seaman, 
Lopes  Gonsalves,  was  the  discoverer  of  the  island.  The  years  1469, 
147 1  and  1486  are  variously  given  as  those  of  the  date  of  the  discovery. 


FERNEL— FEROZEPUR 


281 


neighbouring  mainland  (see  CAMEROON).  The  Jesuits  who  suc- 
ceeded the  Baptists  were  also  expelled,  but  mission  and  educa- 
tional work  is  now  carried  on  by  other  Roman  Catholic  agencies, 
and  (since  1870)  by  the  Primitive  Methodists.  In  1879  the 
Spanish  government  recalled  its  officials,  but  a  few  years  later, 
when  the  partition  of  Africa  was  being  effected,  they  were  re- 
placed and  a  number  of  Cuban  political  prisoners  were  deported 
thither.  Very  little  was  done  to  develop  the  resources  of  the 
island  until  after  the  loss  of  the  Spanish  colonies  in  the  West 
Indies  and  the  Pacific,  when  Spain  turned  her  attention  to  her 
African  possessions.  Stimulated  by  the  success  of  the  Portu- 
guese cocoa  plantations  in  the  neighbouring  island  of  St  Thomas, 
the  Spaniards  started  similar  plantations,  with  some  measure  of 
success.  The  strategical  importance  and  commercial  possi- 
bilities of  the  island  caused  Germany  and  other  powers  to  ap- 
proach Spain  with  a  view  to  its  acquisition,  and  in  1900  the 
Spaniards  gave  France,  in  return  for  territorial  concessions  on 
the  mainland,  the  right  of  pre-emption  over  the  island  and  her 
other  West  African  possessions. 

The  administration  of  the  island  is  in  the  hands  of  a  governor- 
general,  assisted  by  a  council,  and  responsible  to  the  ministry 
of  foreign  affairs  at  Madrid.  The  governor-general  has  under  his 
authority  the  sub-governors  of  the  other  Spanish  possessions 
in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  namely,  the  Muni  River  Settlement, 
Corisco  and  Annobon  (see  those  articles).  None  of  these 
possessions  is  self-supporting. 

See  E.  d'Almonte,  "  Someras  Notas  .  .  .  de  la  isla  de  Fernando 
Poo  y  de  la  Guinea  continental  espanola,"  in  Bol.  Real.  Soc.  Ceog.  of 
Madrid  (1902) ;  and  a  further  article  in  the  Riv.  Geog.  Col.  of  Madrid 
(1908);  E.  L.  Vilches,  "Fernando  Poo  y  la  Guinea  espanola,"  in 
the  Bol.  Real.  Soc.  Geog.  (1901);  San  Javier,  Tres  Anas  en  Fernando 
Poo  (Madrid,  1875);  O.  Baumann,  Eine  africanische  Tropeninsel: 
Fernando  Poo  und  die  Bube  (Vienna,  1888);  Sir  H.  H.  Johnston, 
George  Grenfell  and  the  Congo  .  .  .  and  Notes  on  Fernando  Po 
(London,  1908) ;  Mary  H.  Kingsley,  Travels  in  West  Africa,  ch.  iii. 
(London,  1897);  T.  J.  Hutchinson,  sometime  British  Consul  at 
Fernando  Po,  Impressions  of  Western  Africa,  chs.  xii.  and  xiii. 
(London,  1858),  and  Ten  Years'  Wanderings  among  the  Ethiopians, 
chs.  xvii.  and  xviii.  (London,  1861).  For  the  Bubi  language  see 
J.  Clarke,  The  Adeeyah  Vocabulary  (1841),  and  Introduction  to  the 
Fernandian  Tongue  (184.8).  Consult  also  Wanderings  in  West  Africa 
(1863)  and  other  books  written  by  Sir  Richard  Burton  as  the  result 
of  his  consulship  at  Fernando  Po,  1861-1865,  and  the  works  cited 
under  MUNI  RIVER  SETTLEMENTS. 

FERNEL,  JEAN  FRANCOIS  (1497-1558),  French  physician, 
was  born  at  Clermont  in  1497,  and  after  receiving  his  early 
education  at  his  native  town,  entered  the  college  of  Sainte-Barbe, 
Paris.  At  first  he  devoted  himself  to  mathematical  and  astro- 
nomical studies;  his  Cosmotheoria  (1528)  records  a  determination 
of  a  degree  of  the  meridian,  which  he  made  by  counting  the  re- 
volutions of  his  carriage  wheels  on  a  journey  between  Paris  and 
Amiens.  But  from  1534  he  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  medicine, 
in  which  he  graduated  in  1530.  His  extraordinary  general 
erudition,  and  the  skill  and  success  with  which  he  sought  to 
revive  the  study  of  the  old  Greek  physicians,  gained  him  a  great 
reputation,  and  ultimately  the  office  of  physician  to  the  court. 
He  practised  with  great  success,  and  at  his  death  in  1558  left 
behind  him  an  immense  fortune.  He  also  wrote  Monalo- 
sphaerium,  sive  astrolabii  genus,  generalis  horarii  structura  et 
usus  (1526);  De  proportionibus  (1528);  De  evacuandi  ratione 
(1545);  De  abditis  rerum  causis  (1548);  and  Medicina  ad 
Henricum  II.  (1554). 

FERNIE,  an  important  city  in  the  east  Kootenay  district  of 
British  Columbia.  Pop.  about  4000.  It  is  situated  on  the  Crow's 
Nest  branch  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway,  at  the  junction  of 
Coal  Creek  with  the  Elk  river,  and  owes  its  importance  to  the 
extensive  coal  mines  in  its  vicinity.  There  are  about  500  coke 
ovens  in  operation  at  Fernie,  which  supply  most  of  the  smelting 
plants  in  southern  British  Columbia  with  fuel. 

FERNOW,  KARL  LUDW1G  (1763-1808),  German  art-critic 
and  archaeologist,  was  born  in  Pomerania  on  the  igth  of 
November  1763.  His  father  was  a  servant  in  the  household  of 
the  lord  of  Blumenhagen.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  became 
clerk  to  a  notary,  and  was  afterwards  apprenticed  to  a  druggist. 
While  serving  his  time  he  had  the  misfortune  accidentally  to 


shoot  a  young  man  who  came  to  visit  him;  and  although  through 
the  intercession  of  his  master  he  escaped  prosecution,  the  un- 
toward event  weighed  heavily  on  his  mind,  and  led  him  at  the 
close  of  his  apprenticeship  to  quit  his  native  place.  He  obtained 
a  situation  at  Liibeck,  where  he  had  leisure  to  cultivate  his 
natural  taste  for  drawing  and  poetry.  Having  formed  an 
acquaintance  with  the  painter  Carstens,  whose  influence  was  an 
important  stimulus  and  help  to  him,  he  renounced  his  trade  of 
druggist,  and  set  up  as  a  portrait-painter  and  drawing-master. 
At  Ludwigslust  he  fell  in  love  with  a  young  girl,  and  followed 
her  to  Weimar;  but  failing  in  his  suit,  he  went  next  to  Jena. 
There  he  was  introduced  to  Professor  Reinhold,  and  in  his  house 
met  the  Danish  poet  Baggesen.  The  latter  invited  him  to  accom- 
pany him  to  Switzerland  and  Italy,  a  proposal  which  he  eagerly 
accepted  (1794)  for  the  sake  of  the  opportunity  of  furthering  his 
studies  in  the  fine  arts.  On  Baggesen's  return  to  Denmark, 
Fernow,  assisted  by  some  of  his  friends,  visited  Rome  and  made 
some  stay  there.  He  now  renewed  his  intercourse  with  Carstens, 
who  had  settled  at  Rome,  and  applied  himself  to  the  study  of 
the  history  and  theory  of  the  fine  arts  and  of  the  Italian  language 
and  literature.  Making  rapid  progress,  he  was  soon  qualified  to 
give  a  course  of  lectures  on  archaeology,  which  was  attended 
by  the  principal  artists  then  at  Rome.  Having  married  a  Roman 
lady,  he  returned  in  1802  to  Germany,  and  was  appointed  in  the 
following  year  professor  extraordinary  of  Italian  literature  at 
Jena.  In  1804  he  accepted  the  post  of  librarian  to  Amelia, 
duchess-dowager  of  Weimar,  which  gave  him  the  leisure  he 
desired  for  the  purpose  of  turning  to  account  the  literary  and 
archaeological  researches  in  which  he  had  engaged  at  Rome. 
His  most  valuable  work,  the  Romische  Sludien,  appeared  in  3 
vols.  (1806-1808).  Among  his  other  works  are — Das  Leben 
des  Kiinstlers  Carstens  (1806),  Ariosto's  Lebenslauf  (1809),  and 
Francesco  Pelrarca  (1818).  Fernow  diedat  Weimar,  December, 
1808. 

A  memoir  of  his  life  by  Johanna  Schopenhauer,  mother  of  the 
philosopher,  Arthur  Schopenhauer,  appeared  in  1810,  and  a  complete 
edition  of  his  works  in  1829. 

FEROZEPUR,  or  FIROZPUR,  a  town  and  district  of  British 
India,  in  the  Jullundur  division  of  the  Punjab.  The  town  is  a 
railway  junction  connecting  the  North- Western  and  Rajputana 
railways,  and  is  situated  about  4  m.  from  the  present  south 
bank  of  the  Sutlej.  Pop.  (1901)  49,341.  The  arsenal  is  the 
largest  in  India,  and  Ferozepur  is  the  headquarters  of  a  brigade 
in  the  3rd  division  of  the  northern  army  corps.  British  rule  was 
first  established  at  Ferozepur  in  1835,  when,  on  the  failure  of 
heirs  to  the  Sikh  family  who  possessed  it,  a  small  territory  86  m. 
in  extent  became  an  escheat  to  the  British  government,  and  the 
present  district  has  been  gradually  formed  around  this  nucleus. 
The  strategic  importance  of  Ferozepur  was  at  this  time  very 
great;  and  when,  in  1839,  Captain  (afterwards  Sir  Henry) 
Lawrence  took  charge  of  the  station  as  political  officer,  it  was  the 
outpost  of  British  India  in  the  direction  of  the  Sikh  power. 
Ferozepur  accordingly  became  the  scene  of  operations  during  the 
first  Sikh  War.  The  Sikhs  crossed  the  Sutlej  in  December  1845, 
and  were  defeated  successively  at  Mudki,  Ferozepur,  Aliwal  and 
Sobraon;  after  which  they  withdrew  into  their  own  territory, 
and  peace  was  concluded  at  Lahore.  At  the  time  of  the  mutiny 
Ferozepur  cantonments  contained  two  regiments  of  native 
infantry  and  a  regiment  of  native  cavalry,  together  with  the  6ist 
Foot  and  two  companies  of  European  artillery.  One  of  the 
native  regiments,  the  57th,  was  disarmed;  but  the  other,  the 
45th,  broke  into  mutiny,  and,  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  seize  the  magazine,  which  was  held  by  the  Europeans,  pro- 
ceeded to  join  the  rebel  forces  in  Delhi.  Throughout  the  mutiny 
Ferozepur  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  English. 

Ferozepur  has  rapidly  advanced  in  material  prosperity  of  late 
years,  and  is  now  a  very  important  seat  of  commerce,  trade  being 
mainly  in  grain.  The  main  streets  of  the  city  are  wide  and  well 
paved,  and  the  whole  is  enclosed  by  a  low  brick  wall.  Great  im- 
provements have  been  made  in  the  surroundings  of  the  city. 
The  cantonment  lies  2  m.  to  the  south  of  the  city,  and  is  con- 
nected with  it  by  a  good  metalled  road. 


282 


FEROZESHAH— FERRAR 


The  DISTRICT  OF  FEROZEPUR  comprises  an  area  of  4302  sq.  m. 
The  surface  is  level,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  sand-hills  in  the 
south  and  south-east.  The  country  consists  of  two  distinct  tracts, 
that  liable  to  annual  fertilizing  inundations  from  the  Sutlej, 
known  as  the  bhet,  and  the  rohi  or  upland  tract.  The  only  river 
is  the  Sutlej,  which  runs  along  the  north-western  boundary. 
The  principal  crops  are  wheat,  barley,  millet,  gram,  pulses,  oil- 
seeds, cotton,  tobacco,  &c.  The  manufactures  are  of  the 
humblest  kind,  consisting  chiefly  of  cotton  and  wool-weaving, 
and  are  confined  entirely  to  the  supply  of  local  wants.  The 
Lahore  and  Ludhiana  road  runs  for  51  m.  through  the  district, 
and  forms  an  important  trade  route.  The  North-Western,  the 
Southern  Punjab,  and  a  branch  of  the  Rajputana-Malwa  rail- 
ways serve  the  district.  The  other  important  towns  and  seats 
of  commerce  are  Fazilka  (pop.  8505),  Dharmkot  (6731),  Moga 
(6725),  and  Muktsar  (6389).  Owing  principally  to  the  dryness 
of  its  climate,  Ferozepur  has  the  reputation  of  being  an  excep- 
tionally healthy  district.  In  September  and  October,  however, 
after  the  annual  rains,  the  people  suffer  a  good  deal  from  remit- 
tent fever.  In  1901  the  population  was  958,072.  Distributaries 
of  the  Sirhind  canal  water  the  whole  district. 

FEROZESHAH,  a  village  in  the  Punjab,  India,  notable  as  the 
scene  of  one  of  the  chief  battles  in  the  first  Sikh  War.  The  battle 
immediately  succeeded  that  of  Mudki,  and  was  fought  on  the 
2ist  and  22nd  of  December  1845.  During  its  course  Sir  Hugh 
Gough,  the  British  commander,  was  overruled  by  the  governor- 
general,  Lord  Hardirige,  who  was  acting  as  his  second  in  com- 
mand (see  SIKH  WARS).  At  the  end  of  the  first  day's  fighting 
the  British  had  occupied  the  Sikh  position,  but  had  not  gained 
an  undisputed  victory.  On  the  following  morning  the  battle 
was  resumed,  and  the  Sikhs  were  reinforced  by  a  second  army 
under  Tej  Singh;  but  through  cowardice  or  treachery  Tej  Singh 
withdrew  at  the  critical  moment,  leaving  the  field  to  the  British. 
In  the  course  of  the  fight  the  British  lost  694  killed  and  1721 
wounded,  the  vast  majority  being  British  troops,  while  the  Sikhs 
lost  100  guns  and  about  5000  killed  and  wounded. 

FERRAND,  ANTOINE  FRANCOIS  CLAUDE,  COMTE  (1751- 
1825),  French  statesman  and  political  writer,  was  born  in  Paris 
on  the  4th  of  July  1751,  and  became  a  member  of  the  paflement 
of  Paris  at  eighteen.  He  left  France  with  the  first  party  of 
emigrants,  and  attached  himself  to  the  prince  of  Conde;  later 
he  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  regency  formed  by  the  comte 
de  Provence  after  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  He  lived  at  Regens- 
burg  until  1801,  when  he  returned  to  France,  though  he  still 
sought  to  serve  the  royalist  cause.  In  1814  Ferrand  was  made 
minister  of  state  and  postmaster-general.  He  countersigned 
the  act  of  sequestration  of  Napoleon's  property,  and  introduced 
a  bill  for  the  restoration  of  the  property  of  the  emigrants, 
establishing  a  distinction,  since  become  famous,  between  royalists 
of  la  ligne  droile  and  those  of  la  ligne  courbe.  At  the  second 
restoration  Ferrand  was  again  for  a  short  time  postmaster- 
general.  He  was  also  made  a  peer  of  France,  member  of  the 
privy  council,  grand-officer  and  secretary  of  the  orders  of  Saint 
Michel  and  the  Saint  Esprit,  and  in  1816  member  of  the  Academy, 
He  continued  his  active  support  of  ultra-royalist  views  until  his 
death,  which  took  place  in  Paris  on  the  I7th  of  January  1825. 

Besides  a  large  number  of  political  pamphlets,  Ferrand  is  the 
author  of  L' Esprit  de  Vhistoire,  ou  Lettres  d'un  pere  a  son  fils  sur  la 
maniere  d'etudier  Vhistoire  (4  vols.,  1802),  which  reached  seven 
editions,  the  last  number  in  1826  having  prefixed  to  it  a  biographical 
sketch  of  the  author  by  his  nephew  Hericart  de  Thury;  Eloge 
historique  de  Madame  Elisabeth  de  France  (1814);  CEuvres  drama- 
tiques  (1817);  Theorie  des  revolutions  rapprochee  des  eaenements  qui 
en  ont  ete  Vorigine,  le  developpement,  ou  la  suite  (4  vols.,  1817);  and 
Histoire  des  trois  demembrements  de  la  Pologne,  pour  faire  suite  d 
VHistoire  de  I' anarchic  de  Pologne  par  Rulhiere  (3  vols.,  1820). 

FERRAR,  NICHOLAS  (1592-1637),  English  theologian,  was 
born  in  London  in  1592  and  educated  at  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge, 
graduating  in  1610.  He  was  obliged  for  some  years  to  travel  for 
his  health,  but  on  returning  to  England  in  1618  became  actively 
connected  with  the  Virginia  Company.  When  this  company 
was  deprived  of  its  patent  in  1623  Ferrar  turned  his  attention 
to  politics,  and  was  elected  to  parliament.  But  he  soon  decided 


to  devote  himself  to  a  religious  life;  he  purchased  the  manor 
of  Little  Gidding  in  Huntingdonshire,  where  he  organized  a 
small  religious  community.  Here,  in  1626,  he  was  ordained  a 
deacon  by  Laud,  and  declining  preferment,  he  lived  an  austere, 
almost  monastic  life  of  study  and  good  works.  He  died  on  the 
4th  of  December  1637,  and  the  house  was  despoiled  and  the 
community  broken  up  ten  years  later.  There  are  extant  a 
number  of  "  harmonies  "  of  the  Gospel,  printed  and  bound  by 
the  community,  two  of  them  by-  Ferrar  himself.  One  of  the 
latter  was  made  for  Charles  I.  on  his  request,  after  a  visit  in 
1633  to  see  the  "  Arminian  Nunnery  at  Little  Gidding,  "  which 
had  been  the  subject  of  some  scandalous— and  undeserved— 
criticism. 

FERRAR,  ROBERT  (d.  1555),  bishop  of  St  David's  and 
martyr,  born  about  the  end  of  the  isth  century  of  a  Yorkshire 
family,  is  said  to  have  been  educated  at  Cambridge,  whence  he 
proceeded  to  Oxford  and  became  a  canon  regular  of  St  Augustine. 
He  came  under  the  influence  of  Thomas  Gerrard  and  Lutheran 
theology,  and  was  compelled  to  bear  a  faggot  with  Anthony 
Dalaber  and  others  in  1528.  He  graduated  B.D.  in  1533,  accom- 
panied Bishop  Barlow  on  his  embassy  to  Scotland  in  1535,  and 
was  made  prior  of  St  Oswald's  at  Nostell  near  Pontefract.  At 
the  dissolution  he  surrendered  his  priory  without  compunction 
to  the  crown,  and  received  a  liberal  pension.  For  the  rest  of 
Henry's  reign  his  career  is  obscure;  perhaps  he  fled  abroad  on 
the  enactment  of  the  Six  Articles.  He  certainly  married,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  made  Cranmer's  chaplain,  and  bishop  of 
Sodor  and  Man;  but  he  was  never  consecrated  to  that  see. 

After  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.,  Ferrar  was,  probably 
through  the  influence  of  Bishop  Barlow,  appointed  chaplain  to 
Protector  Somerset,  a  royal  visitor,  and  bishop  of  St  David's 
on  Barlow's  translation  to  Bath  and  Wells  in  1548.  He  was 
the  first  bishop  appointed  by  letters  patent  under  the  act  passed 
in  1547  without  the  form  of  capitular  election;  and  the  service 
performed  at  his  consecration  was  also  novel,  being  in  English; 
he  also  preached  at  St  Paul's  on  the  nth  of  November  clad 
only  as  a  priest  and  not  as  a  bishop,  and  inveighed  against  vest- 
ments and  altars.  At  St  David's  he  had  trouble  at  once  with  his 
singularly  turbulent  chapter,  who,  finding  that  he  was  out  of 
favour  at  court  since  Somerset's  fall  in  1549,  brought  a  long  list  of 
fantastic  charges  against  him.  He  had  taught  his  child  to  whistle, 
dined  with  his  servants,  talked  of  "  worldly  things  such  as  bak- 
ing, brewing,  enclosing,  ploughing  and  mining,"  preferred  walking 
to  riding,  and  denounced  the  debasement  of  the  coinage.  He 
seems  to  have  been  a  kindly,  homely,  somewhat  feckless  person 
like  many  an  excellent  parish  priest,  who  did  not  conceal  his 
indignation  at  some  of  Northumberland's  deeds.  He  had  voted 
against  the  act  of  November  1 549  for  a  reform  of  the  canon  law, 
and  on  a  later  occasion  his  nonconformity  brought  him  into 
conflict  with  the  Council;  he  was  also  the  only  bishop  who 
satisfied  Hooper's  test  of  sacramental  orthodoxy.  The  Council 
accordingly  listened  to  the  accusations  of  Ferrar's  chapter,  and 
in  1552  he  was  summoned  to  London  and  imprisoned  on  a  charge 
of  praemunire  incurred  by  omitting  the  king's  authority  in  a 
commission  which  he  issued  for  the  visitation  of  his  diocese. 

Imprisonment  on  such  a  charge  under  Northumberland  might 
have  been  expected  to  lead  to  liberation  under  Mary.  But  Ferrar 
had  been  a  monk  and  was  married.  Even  so,  it  is  difficult  to  see 
on  what  legal  ground  he  was  kept  in  the  queen's  bench  prison 
after  July  1553;  for  Mary  herself  was  repudiating  the  royal 
authority  in  religion.  Ferrar's  marriage  accounts  for  the  loss 
of  his  bishopric  in  March  1554,  and  his  opinions  for  his  further 
punishment.  As  soon  as  the  heresy  laws  and  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  had  been  re-established,  Ferrar  was  examined  by 
Gardiner,  and  then  with  signal  indecency  sent  down  to  be  tried 
by  Morgan,  his  successor  in  the  bishopric  of  St  David's.  He 
appealed  from  Morgan's  sentence  to  Pole  as  papal  legate,  but  in 
vain,  and  was  burnt  at  Caermarthen  on  the  3oth  of  March  1555. 
It  was  perhaps  the  most  wanton  of  all  Mary's  acts  of  persecution; 
Ferrar  had  been  no  such  protagonist  of  the  Reformation  as 
Cranmer,  Ridley,  Hooper  and  Latimer;  he  had  had  nothing 
to  do  with  Northumberland's  or  Wyatt's  conspiracy.  He  had 


FERRARA— FERRARA-FLORENCE,  COUNCIL  OF 


283 


taken  no  part  in  politics,  and,  so  far  as  is  known,  had  not  said  a 
word  or  raised  a  hand  against  Mary.  He  was  burnt  simply 
because  he  could  not  change  his  religion  with  the  law  and  would 
not  pretend  that  he  could;  and  his  execution  is  a  complete 
refutation  of  the  idea  that  Mary  only  persecuted  heretics  because 
and  when  they  were  traitors. 

See  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  xviii.  380-382,  and  authorities 
there  cited.     Also  Acts  of  the  Privy  Council  (1550-1554.);  H.  A.  L. 


Fisher,  Political  History  of  England,  vol.  vi. 


(A.  F.  P.) 


FERRARA,  a  city  and  archiepiscopal  see  of  Emilia,  Italy, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Ferrara,  30  m.  N.N.E.  of  Bologna, 
situated  30  ft.  above  sea-level  on  the  Po  di  Vomano,  a  branch 
channel  of  the  main  stream  of  the  Po,  which  is  35  m.  N.  Pop. 
(1901)  32,968  (town),  86,392  (commune).  The  town  has  broad 
streets  and  numerous  palaces,  which  date  from  the  i6th  century, 
when  it  was  the  seat  of  the  court  of  the  house  of  Este,  and  had, 
it  is  said,  100,000  inhabitants. 

The  most  prominent  building  is  the  square  castle  of  the  house 
of  Este,  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  a  brick  building  surrounded 
by  a  moat,  with  four  towers.  It  was  built  after  1385  and  partly 
restored  in  1554;  the  pavilions  on  the  top  of  the  towers  date 
from  the  latter  year.  Near  it  is  the  hospital  of  S.  Anna,  where 
Tasso  was  confined  during  his  attack  of  insanity  (1579-1586). 
The  Palazzo  del  Municipio,  rebuilt  in  the  i8th  century,  was  the 
earlier  residence  of  the  Este  family.  Close  by  is  the  cathedral 
of  S.  Giorgio,  consecrated  in  1135,  when  the  Romanesque  lower 
part  of  the  main  facade  and  the  side  facades  were  completed. 
It  was  built  by  Guglielmo  degli  Adelardi  (d.  1146),  who  is  buried 
in  it.  The  upper  part  of  the  main  facade,  with  arcades  of  pointed 
arches,  dates  from  the  I3th  century,  and  the  portal  has  recum- 
bent lions  and  elaborate  sculptures  above.  The  interior  was 
restored  in  the  baroque  style  in  1712.  The  campanile,  in  the 
Renaissance  style,  dates  from  1451-1493,  but  the  last  storey  was 
added  at  the  end  of  the  i6th  century.  Opposite  the  cathedral 
is  the  Gothic  Palazzo  della  Ragione,  in  brick  (1315-1326),  now 
the  law-courts.  A  little  way  off  is  the  university,  which  has 
faculties  of  law,  medicine  and  natural  science  (hardly  100 
students  in  all);  the  library  has  valuable  MSS.,  including  part 
of  that  of  the  Orlando  Furioso  and  letters  by  Tasso.  The  other 
churches  are  of  less  interest  than  the  cathedral,  though  S. 
Francesco,  S.  Benedetto,  S.  Maria  in  Vado  and  S.  Cristoforo  are 
all  good  early  Renaissance  buildings.  The  numerous  early  Re- 
naissance palaces,  often  with  good  terra-cotta  decorations,  form 
quite  a  feature  of  Ferrara;  few  towns  of  Italy  have  so  many 
of  them  proportionately,  though  they  are  mostly  comparatively 
small  in  size.  Among  them  may  be  noted  those  in  the  N. 
quarter  (especially  the  four  at  the  intersection  of  its  two  main 
streets),  which  was  added  by  Ercole  (Hercules)  I.  in  1492-1505, 
from  the  plans  of  Biagio  Rossetti,  and  hence  called  the  "  Addizione 
Erculea."  The  finest  of  these  is  the  Palazzo  de'  Diamanti,  so 
called  from  the  diamond  points  into  which  the  blocks  of  stone 
with  which  it  is  faced  are  cut.  It  contains  the  municipal  picture 
gallery,  with  a  large  number  of  pictures  of  artists  of  the  school 
of  Ferrara.  This  did  not  require  prominence  until  the  latter 
half  of  the  isth  century,  when  its  best  masters  were  Cosimo 
Tura  (1432-1495),  Francesco  Cossa  (d.  1480)  and  Ercole  dei 
Roberti  (d.  r496).  To  this  period  are  due  famous  frescoes  in  the 
Palazzo  Schifanoia,  which  was  built  by  the  Este  family;  those  of 
the  lower  row  depict  the  life  of  Borso  of  Este,  in  the  central 
row  are  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  and  in  the  upper  are  allegorical 
representations  of  the  months.  The  vestibule  was  decorated 
with  stucco  mouldings  by  Domenico  di  Paris  of  Padua.  The 
building  also  contains  fine  choir-books  with  miniatures,  and  a 
collection  of  coins  and  Renaissance  medals.  The  simple  house 
of  Ariosto,  erected  by  himself  after  1526,  in  which  he  died  in 
1532,  lies  farther  west.  The  best  Ferrarese  masters  of  the  i6th 
century  of  the  Ferrara  school  were  Lorenzo  Costa  (1460-1535), 
and  Dosso  Dossi  (1479-1542),  the  most  eminent  of  all,  while 
Benvenuto  Tisi  (Garofalo,  1481-1559)  is  somewhat  monotonous 
and  insipid. 

The  origin  of  Ferrara  is  uncertain,  and  probabilities  are  against 
the  supposition  that  it  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Forum 


Alieni.  It  was  probably  a  settlement  formed  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  lagoons  at  the  mouth  of  the  Po.  It  appears  first  in  a 
document  of  Aistulf  of  753  or  754  as  a  city  forming  part  of  the 
exarchate  of  Ravenna.  After  984  we  find  it  a  fief  of  Tedaldo, 
count  of  Modena  and  Canossa,  nephew  of  the  emperor  Otho  I. 
It  afterwards  made  itself  independent,  and  in  1101  was  taken 
by  siege  by  the  countess  Matilda.  At  this  time  it  was  mainly 
dominated  by  several  great  families,  among  them  the  Adelardi. 

In  1146  Guglielmo,  the  last  of  the  Adelardi,  died,  and  his 
property  passed,  as  the  dowry  of  his  niece  Marchesella,  to 
Azzolino  d'  Este.  There  was  considerable  hostility  between  the 
newly  entered  family  and  the  Salinguerra,  but  after  considerable 
struggles  Azzo  Novello  was  nominated  perpetual  podesta  in 
1242;  in  1259  he  took  Ezzelino  of  Verona  prisoner  in  battle. 
His  grandson,  Obizzo  II.  (1264-1293),  succeeded  him,  and  the 
pope  nominated  him  captain-general  and  defender  of  the  states 
of  the  Church;  and  the  house  of  Este  was  from  henceforth 
settled  in  Ferrara.  Niccolo  III.  (1393-1441)  received  several 
popes  with  great  magnificence,  especially  Eugene  IV.,  who  held 
a  council  here  in  1438.  His  son  Borso  received  the  fiefs  of 
Modena  and  Reggio  from  the  emperor  Frederick  III.  as  first 
duke  in  1452  (in  which  year  Girolamo  Savonarola  was  born  here), 
and  in  1470  was  made  duke  of  Ferrara  by  Pope  Paul  II.  Ercole  I. 
(1471-1505)  carried  on  a  war  with  Venice  and  increased  the 
magnificence  of  the  city.  His  son  Alphonso  I.  married  Lucrezia 
Borgia,  and  continued  the  war  with  Venice  with  success.  In 
1509  he  was  excommunicated  by  Julius  II.,  and  attacked  the 
pontifical  army  in  1 5 1 2  outside  Ravenna,  which  he  took.  Gaston 
de  Foix  fell  in  the  battle,  in  which  he  was  supporting  Alphonso. 
With  the  succeeding  popes  he  was  able  to  make  peace.  He  was 
the  patron  of  Ariosto  from  1518  onwards.  His  son  Ercole  II. 
married  Renata,  daughter  of  Louis  XII.  of  France;  he  too 
embellished  Ferrara  during  his  reign  (1534-1559)-  His  son 
Alphonso  II.  married  Barbara,  sister  of  the  emperor  Maxi- 
milian II.  He  raised  the  gloiy  of  Ferrara  to  its  highest  point, 
and  was  the  patron  of  Tasso  and  Guarini,  favouring,  as  the 
princes  of  his  house  had  always  done,  the  arts  and  sciences.  He 
had  no  legitimate  male  heir,  and  in  1597  Ferrara  was  claimed  as 
a  vacant  fief  by  Pope  Clement  VIII.,  as  was  also  Comacchio. 
A  fortress  was  constructed  by  him  on  the  site  of  the  castle  of 
Tedaldo,  at  the  W.  angle  of  the  town.  The  town  remained  a 
part  of  the  states  of  the  Church,  the  fortress  being  occupied  by 
an  Austrian  garrison  from  1832  until  1859,  when  it  became  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

A  considerable  area  within  the  walls  of  Ferrara  is  unoccupied 
by  buildings,  especially  on  the  north,  where  the  handsome 
Renaissance  church  of  S.  Cristoforo,  with  the  cemetery, 
stands;  but  modern  times  have  brought  a  renewal  of  industrial 
activity.  Ferrara  is  on  the  main  line  from  Bologna  to  Padua 
and  Venice,  and  has  branches  to  Ravenna  and  Poggio  Rusco 
(for  Suzzara). 

See  G.  Agnelli,  Ferrara  e  Pomposa  (Bergamo,  1902) ;  E.  G.  Gardner, 
Dukes  and  Poets  of  Ferrara  (London,  1904). 

FERRARA-FLORENCE,  COUNCIL  OF  (1438  ff.).  The  council 
of  Ferrara  and  Florence  was  the  culmination  of  a  series  of  futile 
medieval  attempts  to  reunite  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches. 
The  emperor,  John  VI.  Palaeologus,  had  been  advised  by  his 
experienced  father  to  avoid  all  serious  negotiations,  as  they  had 
invariably  resulted  in  increased  bitterness;  but  John,  in  view 
of  the  rapid  dismemberment  of  his  empire  by  the  Turks,  felt 
constrained  to  seek  a  union.  The  situation  was,  however,  com- 
plicated by  the  strife  which  broke  out  between  the  pope  (Eugenius 
IV.)  and  the  oecumenical  council  of  Basel.  Both  sides  sent 
embassies  to  the  emperor  at  Constantinople,  as  both  saw  the 
importance  of  gaining  the  recognition  and  support  of  the  East, 
for  on  this  practically  depended  the  victory  in  the  struggle 
between  papacy  and  council  for  the  supreme  jurisdiction  over 
the  church  (see  COUNCILS).  The  Greeks,  fearing  the  domination 
of  the  papacy,  were  at  first  more  favourably  inclined  toward 
the  conciliar  party;  but  the  astute  diplomacy  of  the  Roman 
representatives,  who  have  been  charged  by  certain  Greek  writers 
with  the  skilful  use  of  money  and  of  lies,  won  over  the  emperor. 


284 


FERRARI,  GAUDENZIO 


With  a  retinue  of  about  700  persons,  entertained  in  Italy  at  the 
pope's  expense,  he  reached  Ferrara  early  in  March  1438.  Here 
a  council  had  been  formally  opened  in  January  by  the  papal 
party,  a  bull  of  the  previous  year  having  promptly  taken  advan- 
tage of  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Sigismund  by  ordering  the 
removal  of  the  council  of  Basel  to  Ferrara;  and  one  of  the  first 
acts  of  the  assemblage  at  Ferrara  had  been  to  excommunicate 
the  remnant  at  Basel.  A  month  after  the  coming  of  the  Greeks, 
the  Union  Synod  was  solemnly  inaugurated  on  the  pth  of  April 
1438.  After  six  months  of  negotiation,  the  first  formal  session 
was  held  on  the  8th  of  October,  and  o'n  the  I4th  the  real 
issues  were  reached.  The  time-honoured  question  of  the  filioque 
was  still  in  the  foreground  when  it  seemed  for  several  reasons 
advisable  to  transfer  the  council  to  Florence:  Ferrara  was 
threatened  by  condottieri,  the  pest  was  raging;  Florence 
promised  a  welcome  subvention,  and  a  situation  further  inland 
would  make  it  more  difficult  for  uneasy  Greek  bishops  to  flee 
the  synod. 

The  first  session  at  Florence  and  the  seventeenth  of  the  union 
council  took  place  on  the  26th  of  February  1439;  there  ensued 
long  debates  and  negotiations  on  the  filioque,  in  which  Markos 
Eugenikos,  archbishop  of  Ephesus,  spoke  for  the  irreconcilables; 
but  the  Greeks  under  the  leadership  of  Bessarion,  archbishop 
of  Nicaea,  and  Isidor,  metropolitan  of  Kiev,  at  length  made  a 
declaration  on  the  filioque  (4th  of  June),  to  which  all  save  Markos 
Eugenikos  subscribed.  On  the  next  topic  of  importance,  the 
primacy  of  the  pope,  the  project  of  union  nearly  suffered  ship- 
wreck; but  here  a  vague  formula  was  finally  constructed  which, 
while  acknowledging  the  pope's  right  to  govern  the  church, 
attempted  to  safeguard  as  well  the  rights  of  the  patriarchs. 
On  the  basis  of  the  above-mentioned  agreements,  as  well  as  of 
minor  discussions  as  to  purgatory  and  the  Eucharist,  the  decree 
of  union  was  drawn  up  in  Latin  and  in  Greek,  and  signed  on  the 
5th  of  July  by  the  pope  and  the  Greek  emperor,  and  all  the 
members  of  the  synod  save  Eugenikos  and  one  Greek  bishop 
who  had  fled;  and  on  the  following  day  it  was  solemnly  pub- 
lished in  the  cathedral  of  Florence.  The  decree  explains  the 
filioque  in  a  manner  acceptable  to  the  Greeks,  but  does  not 
require  them  to  insert  the  term  in  their  symbol;  it  demands 
that  celebrants  follow  the  custom  of  their  own  church  as  to  the 
employment  of  leavened  or  unleavened  bread  in  the  Eucharist. 
It  states  essentially  the  Roman  doctrine  of  purgatory,  and  asserts 
the  world- wide  primacy  of  the  pope  as  the  "  true  vicar  of  Christ 
and  the  head  of  the  whole  Church,  the  Father  and  teacher  of  all 
Christians  ";  but,  to  satisfy  the  Greeks,  inconsistently  adds  that 
all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Oriental  patriarchs  are  to  be 
maintained  unimpaired.  After  the  consummation  of  the  union 
the  Greeks  remained  in  Florence  for  several  weeks,  discussing 
matters  such  as  the  liturgy,  the  administration  of  the  sacraments, 
and  divorce;  and  they  sailed  from  Venice  to  Constantinople 
in  October. 

The  council,  however,  desirous  of  negotiating  unions  with  the 
minor  churches  of  the  East,  remained  in  session  for  several  years, 
and  seems  never  to  have  reached  a  formal  adjournment.  The 
decree  for  the  Armenians  was  published  on  the  22nd  of  November 
1439;  they  accepted  the  filioque  and  the  Athanasian  creed, 
rejected  Monophysitism  and  Monothelitism,  agreed  to  the  de- 
veloped scholastic  doctrine  concerning  the  seven  sacraments, 
and  conformed  their  calendar  to  the  Western  in  certain  points. 
On  the  26th  of  April  1441  the  pope  announced  that  the  synod 
would  be  transferred  to  the  Lateran;  but  before  leaving  Florence 
a  union  was  negotiated  with  the  Oriental  Christians  known  as 
Jacobites,  through  a  monk  named  Andreas,  who,  at  least  as 
regards  Abyssinia,  acted  in  excess  of  his  powers.  The  Decretum 
pro  Jacobitis,  published  on  the  4th  of  February  1442,  is,  like 
that  for  the  Armenians,  of  high  dogmatic  interest,  as  it  summar- 
izes the  doctrine  of  the  great  medieval  scholastics  on  the  points 
in  controversy.  The  decree  for  the  Syrians,  published  at  the 
Lateran  on  the  soth  of  September  1444,  and  those  for  the 
Chaldeans  (Nestorians)  and  the  Maronites  (Monothelites),  pub- 
lished at  the  last  known  session  of  the  council  on  the  7th  of 
August  1445,  added  nothing  of  doctrinal  importance.  Though 


the  direct  results  of  these  unions  were  the  restoration  of  prestige 
to  the  absolutist  papacy  and  the  bringing  of  Byzantine  men  of 
letters,  like  Bessarion,  to  the  West,  the  outcome  was  on  the 
whole  disappointing.  Of  the  complicated  history  of  the 
"  United  "  churches  of  the  East  it  suffices  to  say  that  Rome 
succeeded  in  securing  but  fragments,  though  important  frag- 
ments, of  the  greater  organizations.  As  for  the  Greeks,  the  union 
met  with  much  opposition,  particularly  from  the  monks,  and  was 
rejected  by  three  Oriental  patriarchs  at  a  synod  of  Jerusalem  in 
1443;  and  after  various  ineffective  attempts  to  enforce  it,  the 
fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453  put  an  end  to  the  endeavour.  As 
Turkish  interests  demanded  the  isolation  of  the  Oriental 
Christians  from  their  western  brethren,  and  as  the  orthodox 
Greek  nationalists  feared  Latinization  more  than  Mahommedan 
rule,  a  patriarch  hostile  to  the  union  was  chosen,  and  a  synod 
of  Constantinople  in  1472  formally  rejected  the  decisions  of 
Florence. 

AUTHORITIES, — Hardouin,  vol.  9;  Mansi,  vols.  31  A,  31  B,  35; 
Sylvester  Sguropulus  (properly  Syropulus),  Vera  historia  Unionis, 
transl.  R.  Creyghton  (Hague,  1660) ;  Cecconi,  Studi  storici  sul 
concilia  di  Firenze  (Florence,  1869),  (appendix);  J.  Zhishman,  Die 
Unionsverhandlungen  .  .  .  bis  zum  Condi  von  Ferrara  (Vienna, 
1858);  Gorski,  of  Moscow,  1847,  The  History  of  the  Council  of 
Florence,  trans,  from  the  Russian  by  Basil  Pppoff,  ed.  by  J.  M. 
Neale  (London,  1861);  C.  J.  von  Hefele,  Conciliengeschichte,  vol.  7 
(Freiburg  i.  B.,  1874),  659-761,  793  ff.,  814  ff. ;  H.  Vast,  Le  Cardinal 
Bessarion  (Paris,  1878),  53-113;  A.  Warschauer,  Vber  die  Quellen 
zur  Geschichte  des  Flprentiner  Concils  (Breslau,  1881),  (Dissertation); 
M.  Creighton,  A  History  of  the  Papacy  during  the  Period  of  the  Refor- 
mation, vol.  2  (London,  1882),  173-194  (vivid);  Knopfler,  in  Wetzer 
and  Welte's  Kirchenlexikon,  vol.  4  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg  i.  B.,  1885), 
1363-1380  (instructive);  L.  Pastor,  History  of  the  Popes,  vol.  I 
(London,  1891),  315  ff. ;  F.  Kattenbusch,  Lchrbuch  der  vergleichenden 
Confessionskunde,  vol.  I  (Freiburg  i.  B.,  1892),  128  ff. ;  N.  Kalogeras, 
archbishop  of  Patras,  "  Die  Verhandlungen  zwischen  der  orthodox- 
katholischen  Kirche  und  dem  Konzil  von  Basel  fiber  die  Wieder- 
vereinigung  der  Kirchen  "  (Internationale  Theologische  Zeitschrift), 
vol.  i  (Bern,  1893,  39-57) ;  P.  Tschackert,  in  Herzog-Hauck,  Real- 
encyklopddie,  vol.  6  (3rd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1899),  45-48  (good  biblio- 
graphy); Walter  Norden,  Das  Papsttum  und  Byzanz:  Die  Trennung 
der  beiden  Machte  und  das  Problem  ihrer  Wiedervereinigune  bis  1453 
(Berlin,  1903),  712  ff.  (W.  W.  R.*) 

FERRARI,  GAUDENZIO  (1484-1549),  Italian  painter  and 
sculptor,  of  the  Milanese,  or  more  strictly  the  Piedmontese, 
school,  was  born  at  Valduggia,  Piedmont,  and  is  said  (very 
dubiously)  to  have  learned  the  elements  of  painting  at  Vercelli 
from  Girolamo  Giovenone.  He  next  studied  in  Milan,  in  the 
school  of  Scotto,  and  some  say  of  Luini;  towards  1504  he 
proceeded  to  Florence,  and  afterwards  (it  used  to  be  alleged)  to 
Rome.  His  pictorial  style  may  be  considered  as  derived  mainly 
from  the  old  Milanese  school,  with  a  considerable  tinge  of  the 
influence  of  Da  Vinci,  and  later  on  of  Raphael;  in  his  personal 
manner  there  was  something  of  the  demonstrative  and  fantastic. 
The  gentler  qualities  diminished,  and  the  stronger  intensified, 
as  he  progressed.  By  1524  he  was  at  Varallo  in  Piedmont,  and 
here,  in  the  chapel  of  the  Sacro  Monte,  the  sanctuary  of  the 
Piedmontese  pilgrims,  he  executed  his  most  memorable  work. 
This  is  a  fresco  of  the  Crucifixion,  with  a  multitude  of  figures, 
no  less  than  twenty-six  of  them  being  modelled  in  actual  relief, 
and  coloured;  on  the  vaulted  ceiling  are  eighteen  lamenting 
angels,  powerful  in  expression.  Other  leading  examples  are  the 
following.  In  the  Royal  Gallery,  Turin,  a  "  Pieta,"  an  able  early 
work.  In  the  Brera  Gallery,  Milan,  "  St  Katharine  miraculously 
preserved  from  the  Torture  of  the  Wheel,"  a  very  characteristic 
example,  hard  and  forcible  in  colour,  thronged  in  composition, 
turbulent  in  emotion;  also  several  frescoes,  chiefly  from  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Pace,  three  of  them  being  from  the 
history  of  Joachim  and  Anna.  In  the  cathedral  of  Vercelli,  the 
choir,  the  "  Virgin  with  Angels  and  Saints  under  an  Orange 
Tree."  In  the  refectory  of  San  Paolo,  the  "  Last  Supper."  In 
the  church  of  San  Cristoforo,  the  transept  (in  1532-1535),  a 
series  of  paintings  in  which  Ferrari's  scholar  Lanini  assisted  him; 
by  Ferrari  himself  are  the  "  Birth  of  the  Virgin,"  the  "  Annun- 
ciation," the  "  Visitation,"  the  "  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds 
and  Kings,"  the  "  Crucifixion,"  the  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin," 
all  full  of  life  and  decided  character,  though  somewhat  mannered. 


FERRARI,  GIUSEPPE— FERREIRA 


285 


In  the  Louvre,  "  St  Paul  Meditating."  IrrVarallo,  convent  of  the 
Minorites  (1507),  a  "  Presentation  in  the  Temple,"  and  "  Christ 
among  the  Doctors,"  and  (after  1510)  the  "  History  of  Christ," 
in  twenty-one  subjects;  also  an  ancona  in  six  compartments, 
named  the  "  Ancona  di  San  Gaudenzio."  In  Santa  Maria  di 
Loreto,  near  Varallo  (after  1527),  an  "  Adoration."  In  the 
church  of  Saronno,  near  Milan,  the  cupola  (1535),  a  "  Glory  of 
Angels,"  in  which  the  beauty  of  the  school  of  Da  Vinci  alternates 
with  bravura  of  foreshortenings  in  the  mode  of  Correggio.  In 
Milan,  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie  (1542),  the  "  Scourging  of  Christ," 
an  "  Ecce  Homo  "  and  a  "  Crucifixion."  The  "  Scourging,"  or 
else  a  "  Last  Supper,"  in  the  Passione  of  Milan  (unfinished),  is 
regarded  as  Ferrari's  latest  work.  He  was  a  very  prolific  painter, 
distinguished  by  strong  expression,  animation  and  fulness  of 
composition,  and  abundant  invention;  he  was  skilful  in  painting 
horses,  and  his  decisive  rather  hard  colour  is  marked  by  a 
partiality  for  shot  tints  in  drapery.  In  general  character,  his 
work  appertains  more  to  the  isth  than  the  i6th  century.  His 
subjects  were  always  of  the  sacred  order.  Ferrari's  death  took 
place  in  Milan.  Besides  Lanini,  already  mentioned,  Andrea 
Solario,  Giambattista  della  Cerva  and  Fermo  Stella  were  three 
of  his  principal  scholars.  He  is  represented  to  us  as  a  good  man, 
attached  to  his  country  and  his  art,  jovial  and  sometimes 
facetious,  but  an  enemy  cf  scandal.  The  reputation  which  he 
enjoyed  soon  after  his  death  was  very  great,  but  it  has  not  fully 
stood  the  test  of  time.  Lomazzo  went  so  far  as  to  place  him 
seventh  among  the  seven  prime  painters  of  Italy. 

See  G.  Bordiga,  two  works  concerning  Gaudenzio  Ferrari  (1821  and 
1835);  G.  Colombo,  Vita  ed  opere  di  Gaudenzio  Ferrari  (1881); 
Ethel  Halsey,  Gaudenzio  Ferrari  (in  the  series  Great  Masters,  1904). 

There  was  another  painter  nearly  contemporary  with  Gaudenzio, 
Difendente  Ferrari,  also  of  the  Lombard  school.  His  celebrity  is  by 
no  means  equal  to  that  of  Gaudenzio;  but  Kugler  (1887,  as  edited 
by  Layard)  pronounced  him  to  be  "a  good  and  original  colourist, 
and  the  best  artist  that  Piedmont  has  produced."  (W.  M.  R.) 

FERRARI,  GIUSEPPE  (1812-1876),  Italian  philosopher, 
historian  and  politician*,  was  born  at  Milan  on  the  7th  of  March 
1812,  and  died  in  Rome  on  the  2nd  of  July  1876.  He  studied  law 
at  Pa  via,  and  took  the  degree  of  doctor  in  1831.  A  follower  of 
Romagnosi  (d.  1835)  and  Giovan  Battista  Vico  (q.v.),  his  first 
works  were  an  article  in  the  Biblioteca  Italiana  entitled  "  Mente 
di  Gian  Domenico  Romagnosi  "  (1835),  and  a  complete  edition 
of  the  works  of  Vico,  prefaced  by  an  appreciation  (1835).  Find- 
ing Italy  uncongenial  to  his  ideas,  he  went  to  France  and,  in 
1839,  produced  in  Paris  his  Vico  et  I' Italic,  followed  by  La 
Nouvelle  Religion  de  Campanella  and  La  Theorie  de  I'erreur. 
On  account  of  these  works  he  was  made  Docteur-es-lettres  of  the 
Sorbonne  and  professor  of  philosophy  at  Rochefort  (1840).  His 
views,  however,  provoked  antagonism,  and  in  1842  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Strassburg.  After  fresh 
trouble  with  the  clergy,  he  returned  to  Paris  and  published  a 
defence  of  his  theories  in  a  work  entitled  Idees  sur  la  politique 
de  Platon  et  d'Aristole.  After  a  short  connexion  with  the  college 
at  Bourges,  he  devoted  himself  from  1849  to  1858  exclusively  to 
writing.  The  works  of  this  period  are  Les  Philosophes  Salaries, 
Machiavel  juge  des  revolutions  de  noire  temps  (1849),  La  Federa- 
zione  repubblicana  (1851),  La  Filosofia  della  rivoluzione  (1851), 
L'  Italia  dopo  il  colpo  di  Stato  (1852),  Histoire  des  revolutions,  ou 
Guelfes  et  Gibelins  (1858;  Italian  trans.,  1871-1873).  In  1850 
he  returned  to  Italy,  where  he  opposed  Cavour,  and  upheld 
federalism  against  the  policy  of  a  single  Italian  monarchy.  In 
spite  of  this  opposition,  he  held  chairs  of  philosophy  at  Turin, 
Milan  and  Rome  in  succession,  and  during  several  administrations 
represented  the  college  of  Gavirate  in  the  chamber.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  council  of  education  and  was  made  senator  on  the 
1 5th  of  May  1876.  Amongst  other  works  may  be  mentioned 
Hisloire  de  la  raison  d'etat,  La  China  et  I'  Europa,  Corso  d'  istoria 
degli  scrittori  politici  italiani.  A  sceptic  in  philosophy  and  a 
revolutionist  in  politics,  rejoicing  in  controversy  of  all  kinds,  he 
was  admired  as  a  man,  as  an  orator,  and  as  a  writer. 

See  Marro  Macchi,  Annuario  istorico  italiano  (Milan,  1877); 
Mazzoleni,  Giuseppe  Ferrari;  Werner,  Die  ital.  Philosophic  des  IQ. 
Jahrh.  vol.  3  (Vienna,  1885);  Uberweg,  History  of  Philosophy  (Eng. 
trans,  ii.  461  foil.). 


FERRARI,  PAOLO  (1822-1889),  Italian  dramatist,  was  born 
at  Modena.  After  producing  some  minor  pieces,  in  1852  he 
made  his  reputation  as  a  playwright  with  Goldoni  e  le  sue  sedici 
commedie.  Among  numerous  later  plays  his  comedy  Parini  e 
la  salira  (1857)  had  considerable  success.  Ferrari  may  be 
regarded  as  a  follower  of  Goldoni,  modelling  himself  on  the 
French  theatrical  methods.  His  collected  plays  were  published 
in  1877-1880. 

FERREIRA,  ANTONIO  (1528-1569),  Portuguese  poet,  was  a 
native  of  Lisbon ;  his  father  held  the  post  of  escrivao  de  fazenda 
in  the  house  of  the  duke  of  Coimbra  at  Setubal,  so  that  he  must 
there  have  met  the  great  adventurer  Mendes  Pinto.  In  1547- 
1548  he  went  to  the  university  of  Coirnbra,  and  on  the  i6th  of 
July  1551  took  his  bachelor's  degree.  The  Sonnets  forming  the 
First  Book  in  his  collected  works  date  from  1552  and  contain  the 
history  of  his  early  love  for  an  unknown  lady.  They  seem  to 
have  been  written  in  Coimbra  or  during  vacations  in  Lisbon; 
and  if  some  are  dry  and  stilted,  others,  like  the  admirable 
No.  45,  are  full  of  feeling  and  tears.  The  Sonnets  in  the  Second 
Book  were  inspired  by  D.  Maria  Pimentel,  whom  he  afterwards 
married,  and  they  are  marked  by  that  chastity  of  sentiment, 
seriousness  and  ardent  patriotism  which  characterized  the  man 
and  the  writer.  Ferreira's  ideal,  as  a  poet,  was  to  win  "  the 
applause  of  the  good,"  and,  in  the  preface  to  his  poems,  he  says, 
"  I  am  content  with  this  glory,  that  I  have  loved  my  land  and 
my  people."  He  was  intimate  with  princes,  nobles  and  the  most 
distinguished  literary  men  of  the  time,  such  as  the  scholarly 
Diogo  de  Teive  and  the  poets  Bernardes,  Caminha  and  Corte- 
Real,  as  well  as  with  the  aged  Sa  de  Miranda,  the  founder  of  the 
classical  school  of  which  Ferreira  became  the  foremost  repre- 
sentative. 

The  death  in  1554  of  Prince  John,  the  heir  to  the  throne,  drew 
from  him,  as  from  Camoens,  Bernardes  and  Caminha,  a  poetical 
lament,  which  consisted  of  an  elegy  and  two  eclogues,  imitative 
of  Virgil  and  Horace,  and  devoid  of  interest.  On  the  i4th  of 
July  1555  he  took  his  doctor's  degree,  an  event  which  was  cele- 
brated, according  to  custom,  by  a  sort  of  Roman  triumph,  and 
he  stayed  on  as  a  professor,  finding  Coimbra  with  its  picturesque 
environs  congenial  to  his  poetical  tastes  and  love  of  a  country 
life.  The  year  1557  produced  his  sixth  elegy,  addressed  to  the 
son  of  the  great  Albuquerque,  a  poem  of  noble  patriotism 
expressed  in  eloquent  and  sonorous  verse,  and  in  the  next  year 
he  married.  After  a  short  and  happy  married  life,  his  wife  died, 
and  the  ninth  sonnet  of  Book  2  describes  her  end  in  moving 
words.  This  loss  lent  Ferreira's  verse  an  added  austerity,  and 
the  independence  of  his  muse  is  remarkable  when  he  addresses 
King  Sebastian  and  reminds  him  of  his  duties  as  well  as  his 
rights.  On  the  i4th  of  October  1567  he  became  Disembargador 
da  Casa  do  Civel,  and  had  to  leave  the  quiet  of  Coimbra  for  Lisbon. 
His  verses  tell  how  he  disliked  the  change,  and  how  the  bustle  of 
the  capital,  then  a  great  commercial  emporium,  made  him  sad 
and  almost  tongue-tied  for  poetry.  The  intrigues  and  moral 
twists  of  the  courtiers  and  traders,  among  whom  he  was  forced 
to  live,  hurt  his  fine  sense  of  honour,  and  he  felt  his  mental 
isolation  the  more,  because  his  friends  were  few  and  scattered 
in  that  great  city  which  the  discoveries  and  conquests  of  the 
Portuguese  had  made  the  centre  of  a  world  empire.  In  1 569  a 
terrible  epidemic  of  carbunculous  fever  broke  out  and  carried 
off  50,000  inhabitants  of  Lisbon,  and,  on  the  29th  of  November, 
Ferreira,  who  had  stayed  there  doing  his  duty  when  others  fled, 
fell  a  victim. 

Horace  was  his  favourite  poet,  erudition  his  muse,  and  his 
admiration  of  the  classics  made  him  disdain  the  popular  poetry 
of  the  Old  School  (Escola  Velha)  represented  by  Gil  Vicente. 
His  national  feeling  would  not  allow  him  to  write  in  Latin  or 
Spanish,  like  most  of  his  contemporaries,  but  his  Portuguese  is 
as  Latinized  as  he  could  make  it,  and  he  even  calls  his  poetical 
works  Poemas  Lusitanos.  Si  de  Miranda  had  philosophized  in 
the  familiar  redondilha,  introduced  the  epistls  and  founded  the 
comedy  of  learning.  It  was  the  beginning  of  a  revolution,  which 
Ferreira  completed  by  abandoning  the  hendecasyllable  for  the 
Italian  decasyllabic,  and  by  composing  the  noble  and  austere 


286 


FERREL'S  LAW— FERRERS,  HOUSE  OF 


Roman  poetry  of  his  letters,  odes  and  elegies.  It  was  all  done 
of  set  purpose,  for  he  was  a  reformer  conscious  of  his  mission 
and  resolved  to  carry  it  out.  The  gross  realism  of  the  popular 
poetry,  its  lack  of  culture  and  its  carelessness  of  form,  offended 
his  educated  taste,  and  its  picturesqueness  and  ingenuity  made 
no  appeal  to  him.  It  is  not  surprising,  however,  that  though 
he  earned  the  applause  of  men  of  letters  he  failed  to  touch  the 
hearts  of  his  countrymen.  Ferreira  wrote  the  Terentian  prose 
comedy  Bristo,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  (1553),  and  dedicated 
it  to  Prince  John  in  the  name  of  the  university.  It  is  neither 
a  comedy  of  character  nor  manners,  but  its  vis  comica  lies  in  its 
plot  and  situations.  The  Cioso,  a  later  product,  may  almost 
be  called  a  comedy  of  character.  Castro  is  Ferreira's  most  con- 
siderable work,  and,  in  date,  is  the  first  tragedy  in  Portuguese, 
and  the  second  in  modern  European  literature.  Though 
fashioned  on  the  great  models  of  the  ancients,  it  has  little  plot  or 
action,  and  the  characters,  except  that  of  the  prince,  are  ill- 
designed.  It  is  really  a  splendid  poem,  with  a  chorus  which 
sings  the  sad  fate  of  Ignez  in  musical  odes,  rich  in  feeling  and 
grandeur  of  expression.  Her  love  is  the  chaste,  timid  affection 
of  a  wife  and  a  vassal  rather  than  the  strong  passion  of  a  mistress, 
but  Pedro  is  really  the  man  history  describes,  the  love-fettered 
prince  whom  the  tragedy  of  Ignez's  death  converted  into  the  cruel 
tyrant.  King  Alfonso  is  little  more  than  a  shadow,  and  only 
meets  Ignez  once,  his  son  never;  while,  stranger  still,  Pedro  and 
Ignez  never  come  on  the  stage  together,  and  their  love  is  merely 
narrated.  Nevertheless,  Ferreira  merits  all  praise  for  choosing 
one  of  the  most  dramatic  episodes  in  Portuguese  history  for  his 
subject,  and  though  it  has  since  been  handled  by  poets  of  renown 
in  many  differenc  languages,  none  has  been  able  to  surpass  the 
old  master. 

The  Castro  was  first  printed  in  Lisbon  in  1587,  and  it  is  included  in 
Ferreira's  Poemas,  published  in  1598  by  his  son.  It  has  been  trans- 
lated by  Musgrave  (London,  1825),  and  the  chorus  of  Act  I.  appeared 
again  in  English  in  the  Savoy  for  July  1896.  It  has  also  been  done 
into  French  and  German.  The  Bristo  and  Cioso  first  appeared 
with  the  comedies  of  Sa  de  Miranda  in  Lisbon  in  1622.  There  is 
a  good  modern  edition  of  the  Complete  Works  of  Ferreira  (2 
vols.,  Paris,  1865).  See  Castilho's  Antonio  Ferreira  (3  vols.,  Rio, 
1865),  which  contains  a  full  biographical  and  critical  study  with 
extracts.  (E.  PR.) 

FERREL'S  LAW,  in  physical  geography.  "  If  a  body  moves 
in  any  direction  on  the  earth's  surface,  there  is  a  deflecting  force 
arising  from  the  earth's  rotation,  which  deflects  it  to  the  right 
in  the  northern  hemisphere  and  to  the  left  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere." This  law  applies  to  every  body  that  is  set  in  motion 
upon  the  surface  of  the  rotating  earth,  but  usually  the  duration 
of  the  motion  of  any  body  due  to  a  single  impulse  is  so  brief, 
and  there  are  so  many  frictional  disturbances,  that  it  is  not  easy 
to  observe  the  results  of  this  deflecting  force.  The  movements 
of  the  atmosphere,  however,  are  upon  a  scale  large  enough  to 
make  this  observation  easy,  and  the  simplest  evidence  is  obtained 
from  a  study  of  the  direction  of  the  air  movements  in  the  great 
wind  systems  of  the  globe.  (See  METEOROLOGY.) 

FERRERS,  the  name  of  a  great  Norman-English  feudal  house, 
derived  from  Ferrieres-St-Hilaire,  to  the  south  of  Bernay,  in 
Normandy.  Its  ancestor  Walkelin  was  slain  in  a  feud  during 
the  Conqueror's  minority,  leaving  a  son  Henry,  who  took  part 
in  the  Conquest.  At  the  time  of  the  Domesday  survey  his  fief 
extended  into  fourteen  counties,  but  the  great  bulk  of  it  was  in 
Derbyshire  and  Leicestershire,  especially  the  former.  He  him- 
self occurs  in  Worcestershire  as  one  of  the  royal  commissioners 
for  the  survey.  He  established  his  chief  seat  at  Tutbury  Castle, 
Staffordshire,  on  the  Derbyshire  border,  and  founded  there  a 
Cluniac  priory.  As  was  the  usual  practice  with  the  great  Norman 
houses,  his  eldest  son  succeeded  to  Ferrieres,  and,  according  to 
Stapleton,  he  was  ancestor  of  the  Oakham  house  of  Ferrers, 
whose  memory  is  preserved  by  the  horseshoes  hanging  in  the  hall 
of  their  castle.  Robert,  a  younger  son  of  Henry,  inherited  his 
vast  English  fief,  and,  for  his  services  at  the  battle  of  the  Standard 
(1138),  was  created  earl  of  Derby  by  Stephen.  He  appears  to 
have  died  a  year  after. 

Both  the  title  and  the  arms  of  the  earls  have  been  the  subject 


of  much  discussion,  and  they  seem  to  have  been  styled  indiffer- 
ently earls  of  Derby  or  Nottingham  (both  counties  then  forming 
one  shrievalty)  or  of  Tutbury,  or  simply  (de)  Ferrers.  Robert, 
the  2nd  earl,  who  founded  Merevale  Abbey,  was  father  of  William, 
the  3rd  earl,  who  began  the  opposition  of  his  house  to  the  crown 
by  joining  in  the  great  revolt  of  1173,  when  he  fortified  his  castles 
of  Tutbury  and  Duffield  and  plundered  Nottingham,  which  was 
held  for  the  king.  On  his  subsequent  submission  his  castles 
were  razed.  Dying  at  the  siege  of  Acre,  1190,  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  William,  who  attacked  Nottingham  on  Richard's 
behalf  in  1194,  but  whom  King  John  favoured  and  confirmed 
in  the  earldom  of  Derby,  1199.  A  claim  that  he  was  heir  to  the 
honour  of  Peveral  of  Nottingham,  which  has  puzzled  genealo- 
gists, was  compromised  with  the  king,  whom  the  earl  thenceforth 
stoutly  supported,  being  with  him  at  his  death  and  witnessing 
his  will,  with  his  brother-in-law  the  earl  of  Chester,  and  with 
William  Marshal,  earl  of  Pembroke,  whose  daughter  married 
his  son.  With  them  also  he  acted  in  securing  the  succession 
of  the  young  Henry,  joining  in  the  siege  of  Mountsorrel  and  the 
battle  of  Lincoln.  But  he  was  one  of  those  great  nobles  who 
looked  with  jealousy  on  the  rising  power  of  the  king's  favourites. 
In  1227  he  was  one  of  the  earls  who  rose  against  him  on  behalf 
of  his  brother  Richard  and  made  him  restore  the  forest  charters, 
and  in  1237  he  was  one  of  the  three  counsellors  forced  on  the  king 
by  the  barons.  His  influence  had  by  this  time  been  further 
increased  by  the  death,  in  1232,  of  the  earl  of  Chester,  whose 
sister,  his  wife,  inherited  a  vast  estate  between  the  Ribble  and 
the  Mersey.  On  his  death  in  1247,  his  son  William  succeeded 
as  sth  earl,  and  inherited  through  his  wife  her  share  of  the  great 
possessions  of  the  Marshals,  earls  of  Pembroke.  By  his  second 
wife,  a  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Winchester,  he  was  father  of 
Robert,  6th  and  last  earl.  Succeeding  as  a  minor  in  1254, 
Robert  had  been  secured  by  the  king,  as  early  as  1249,  as  a 
husband  for  his  wife's  niece,  Marie,  daughter  of  Hugh,  count  of 
Angouleme,  but,  in  spite  of  this,  he  joined  the  opposition  in 
1263  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  violence.  He  was  one 
of  the  five  earls  summoned  to  Simon  de  Montfort's  parliament, 
though,  on  taking  the  earl  of  Gloucester's  part,  he  was  arrested 
by  Simon.  In  spite  of  this  he  was  compelled  on  the  king's 
triumph  to  forfeit  his  castles  and  seven  years'  revenues.  In 
1266  he  broke  out  again  in  revolt  on  his  own  estates  in  Derby- 
shire, but  was  utterly  defeated  at  Chesterfield  by  Henry  "  of 
Almain,"  deprived  of  his  earldom  and  lands  and  imprisoned. 
Eventually,  in  1269,  he  agreed  to  pay  £50,000  for  restoration, 
and  to  pledge  all  his  lands  save  Chartley  and  Holbrook  for  its 
payment.  As  he  was  not  able  to  find  the  money,  the  lands  passed 
to  the  king's  son,  Edmund,  to  whom  they  had  been  granted  on 
his  forfeiture. 

The  earl's  son  John  succeeded  to  Chartley,  a  Staffordshire 
estate  long  famous  for  the  wild  cattle  in  its  chase,  and  was  sum- 
moned as  a  baron  in  1299,  though  he  had  joined  the  baronial 
opposition  in  1297.  On  the  death,  in  1450,  of  the  last  Ferrers 
lord  of  Chartley,  the  barony  passed  with  his  daughter  to  the 
Devereux  family  and  then  to  the  Shirleys,  one  of  whom  was 
created  Earl  Ferrers  in  1711.  The  barony  has  been  in  abeyance 
since  1855. 

The  line  of  Ferrers  of  Groby  was  founded  by  William,  younger 
brother  of  the  last  earl,  who  inherited  from  his  mother  Margaret 
de  Quinci  her  estate  of  Groby  in  Leicestershire,  and  some  Ferrers 
manors  from  his  father.  His  son  was  summoned  as  a  baron  in 
1300,  but  on  the  death  of  his  descendant,  William,  Lord  Ferrers 
of  Groby,  in  1445,  the  barony  passed  with  his  granddaughter 
to  the  Grey  family  and  was  forfeited  with  the  dukedom  of  Suffolk 
in  1554.  A  younger  son  of  William,  the  last  lord,  married  the 
heiress  of  Tamworth  Castle,  and  his  line  was  seated  at  Tamworth 
till  1680,  when  an  heiress  carried  it  to  a  son  of  the  first  Earl 
Ferrers.  From  Sir  Henry,  a  younger  son  of  the  first  Ferrers  of 
Tamworth,  descended  Ferrers  of  Baddesley  Clinton,  seated  there 
in  the  male  line  till  towards  the  end  of  the  igth  century.  The 
line  of  Ferrers  of  Wemme  was  founded  by  a  younger  son  of 
Lord  Ferrers  of  Chartley,  who  married  the  heiress  of  Wemme, 
Co.  Salop,  and  was  summoned  as  a  baron  in  her  right;  but  it 


FERRERS,  EARL— FERRIER,  J.  F. 


287 


ended  with  their  son.  There  are  doubtless  male  descendants 
of  this  great  Norman  house  still  in  existence. 

Higham  Ferrers,  Northants,  and  Woodham  Ferrers,  Essex, 
take  their  names  from  this  family.  It  has  been  alleged  that  they 
bore  horseshoes  for  their  arms  in  allusion  to  Ferrieres  (i.e.  iron- 
works); but  when  and  why  they  were  added  to  their  coat  is  a 
moot  point. 

See  Dugdale's  Baronage;  ].  R.  Planche's  The  Conqueror  and  his 
Companions;  G.  E.  C(okayne)'s  Complete  Peerage;  Chronicles 
and  Memorials  (Rolls  Series) ;  T.  Stapleton's  Rotuli  Scaccarii  Nor- 
mannie,  (J.  H.  R.) 

FERRERS,  LAURENCE  SHIRLEY,  4111  EARL  (1720-1760), 
the  last  nobleman  in  England  to  suffer  a  felon's  death,  was  born 
on  the  1 8th  of  August  1720.  There  was  insanity  in  his  family, 
and  from  an  early  age  his  behaviour  seems  to  have  been  eccentric, 
and  his  temper  violent,  though  he  was  quite  capable  of  manag- 
ing his  business  affairs.  In  1758  his  wife  obtained  a  separation 
from  him  for  cruelty.  The  Ferrers  estates  were  then  vested 
in  trustees,  the  Earl  Ferrers  secured  the  appointment  of  an  old 
family  steward,  Johnson,  as  receiver  of  rents.  This  man  faith- 
fully performed  his  duty  as  a  servant  to  the  trustees,  and  did 
not  prove  amenable  to  Ferrer's  personal  wishes.  On  the  i8th 
of  January  1760,  Johnson  called  at  the  earl's  mansion  at  Staunton 
Harold,  Leicestershire,  by  appointment,  and  was  directed  to  his 
lordship's  study.  Here,  after  some  business  conversation,  Lord 
Ferrers  shot  him.  In  the  following  April  Ferrers  was  tried  for 
murder  by  his  peers  in  Westminster  Hall.  His  defence,  which 
he  conducted  in  person  with  great  ability,  was  a  plea  of  insanity, 
and  it  was  supported  by  considerable  evidence,  but  he  was  found 
guilty.  He  subsequently  said  that  he  had  only  pleaded  insanity 
to  oblige  his  family,  and  that  he  had  himself  always  been  ashamed 
of  such  a  defence.  On  the  5th  of  May  1760,  dressed  in  a  light- 
coloured  suit,  embroidered  with  silver,  he  was  taken  in  his  own 
carriage  from  the  Tower  of  London  to  Tyburn  and  there  hanged. 
It  has  been  said  that  as  a  concession  to  his  order  the  rope  used 
was  of  silk. 

See  Peter  Burke,  Celebrated  Trials  connected  with  the  Aristocracy 
in  the  Relations  of  Private  Life  (London,  1849);  Edward  Walford, 
Tales  of  our  Great  Families  (London,  1877) ;  Howell's  State  Trials 
(1816),  xix.  885-980. 

FERRET,  a  domesticated,  and  frequently  albino  breed  of 
quadruped,  derived  from  the  wild  polecat  (Putorius  foetidus, 
or  P.  putorius),  which  it  closely  resembles  in  size,  form,  and 
habits,  and  with  which  it  interbreeds.  It  differs  in  the  colour  of 
its  fur,  which  is  usually  yellowish-white,  and  of  its  eyes,  which 
are  pinky-red.  The  "  polecat-ferret  "  is  a  brown  breed,  appar- 
ently the  product  of  the  above-mentioned  cross.  The  ferret 
attains  a  length  of  about  14  in.,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which 
measures  5  in.  Although  exhibiting  considerable  lameness,  it 
seems  incapable  of  attachment,  and  when  not  properly  fed,  or 
when  irritated,  is  apt  to  give  painful  evidence  of  its  ferocity. 
It  is  chiefly  employed  in  destroying  rats  and  other  vermin,  and 
in  driving  rabbits  from  their  burrows.  The  ferret  is  remarkably 
prolific,  the  female  bringing  forth  two  broods  annually,  each 
numbering  from  six  to  nine  young.  It  is  said  to  occasionally 
devour  its  young  immediately  after  birth,  and  in  this  case 
produces  another  brood  soon  after.  The  ferret  was  well  known 
to  the  Romans,  Strabo  stating  that  it  was  brought  from  Africa 
into  Spain,  and  Pliny  that  it  was  employed  in  his  time  in  rabbit- 
hunting,  under  the  name  Viverra;  the  English  name  is  not 
derived  from  this,  but  from  Fr.  furet,  Late  Lat.  furo,  robber. 
The  date  of  its  introduction  into  Great  Britain  is  uncertain, 
but  it  has  been  known  in  England  for  at  least  600  years. 

The  ferret  should  be  kept  in  dry,  clean,  well-ventilated  hutches, 
and  fed  twice  daily  on  bread,  milk,  and  meat,  such  as  rabbits' 
and  fowls'  livers.  When  used  to  hunt  rabbits  it  is  provided  with 
a  muzzle,  or,  better  and  more  usual,  a  cope,  made  by  looping 
and  knotting  twine  about  the  head  and  snout,  in  order  to  prevent 
it  killing  its  quarry,  in  which  case  it  would  gorge  itself  and  go 
to  sleep  in  the  hole.  As  the  ferret  enters  the  hole  the  rabbits 
flee  before  it,  and  are  shot  or  caught  by  dogs  as  they  break 
ground.  A  ferret's  hold  on  its  quarry  is  as  obstinate  as  that  of 
a  bulldog,  but  can  easily  be  broken  by  a  strong  pressure  of 


the  thumb  just  above  the  eyes.  Only  full-grown  ferrets  are 
"  worked  to  "  rats.  Several  are  generally  used  at  a  time  and 
without  copes,  as  rats  are  fierce  fighters. 

See  Ferrets,  by  Nicholas  Everitt  (London,  1897). 

FERRI,  GIRO  (1634-1689),  Roman  painter,  the  chief  disciple 
and  successor  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  He  was  born  in  the  Roman 
territory,  studied  under  Pietro,  to  whom  he  became  warmly 
attached,  and,  at  an  age  a  little  past  thirty,  completed  the  paint- 
ing of  the  ceilings  and  other  internal  decorations  begun  by  his 
instructor  in  the  Pitti  palace,  Florence.  He  also  co-operated 
in  or  finished  several  other  works  by  Pietro,  both  in  Florence 
and  in  Rome,  approaching  near  to  his  style  and  his  particular 
merits,  but  with  less  grace  of  design  and  native  vigour,  and  in 
especial  falling  short  of  him  in  colour.  Of  his  own  independent 
productions,  the  chief  is  an  extensive  series  of  scriptural  frescoes 
in  the  church  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore  in  Bergamo;  also  a  painting 
(rated  as  Ferri's  best  work)  of  St  Ambrose  healing  a  sick  person, 
the  principal  altarpiece  in  the  church  of  S.  AmbrogiodellaMassima 
in  Rome.  The  paintings  of  the  cupola  of  S.  Agnese  in  the  same 
capital  might  rank  even  higher  than  these;  but  this  labour 
remained  uncompleted  at  the  death  of  Ferri,  and  was  marred  by 
the  performances  of  his  successor  Corbellini.  He  executed  also 
a  large  amount  of  miscellaneous  designs,  such  as  etchings  and 
frontispieces  for  books;  and  he  was  an  architect  besides.  Ferri 
was  appointed  to  direct  the  Florentine  students  in  Rome,  and 
Gabbiani  was  one  of  his  leading  pupils.  As  regards  style,  Ferri 
ranks  as  chief  of  the  so-called  Machinists,  as  opposed  to  the 
school  founded  by  Sacchi,  and  continued  by  Carlo  Maratta. 
He  died  in  Rome — his  end  being  hastened,  as  it  is  said,  by 
mortification  at  his  recognized  inferiority  to  Bacciccia  in  colour. 

FERRI,  LUIGI  (1826-1895),  Italian  philosopher,  was  born  at 
Bologna  on  the  isth  of  June  1826.  His  education  was  obtained 
mainly  at  the  Ecole  Normale  in  Paris,  where  his  father,  a  painter 
and  architect,  was  engaged  in  the  construction  of  the  Theatre 
Italien.  From  his  twenty-fifth  year  he  began  to  lecture  in  the 
colleges  of  Evreux,  Dieppe,  Blois  and  Toulouse.  Later,  he  was 
lecturer  at  Annecy  and  Casal-Montferrat,  and  became  head  of 
the  education  department  under  Mamiani  in  1860.  Three  years 
later  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  the  Istituto 
di  Perfezionamento  at  Florence,  and,  in  1871,  was  made  professor 
of  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Rome.  On  the  death  of 
Mamiani  in  1885  he  became  editor  of  the  Filosofia  delle  scuole 
italiane,  the  title  of  which  he  changed  to  Rivista  italiana  di 
filosofia.  He  wrote  both  on  psychology  and  on  metaphysics,  but 
is  known  especially  as  a  historian  of  philosophy.  His  original 
work  is  eclectic,  combining  the  psychology  of  his  teachers,  Jules 
Simon,  Saisset  and  Mamiani,  with  the  idealism  of  Rosmini  and 
Gioberti.  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  Studii  sulla 
coscienza;  II  Fenomeno  nelle  sue  relazioni  con  la  sensazione; 
Delia  idea  del  vero;  Delia  filosofia  del  diritto  presso  Aristotile 
(1885);  II  Genio  di  Aristotile;  La  Psicologia  di  Pietro  Pomponazzi 
(1877),  and,  most  important,  Essai  sur  I'histoire  de  la  philosophic 
en  Italic  au  XIX'  siecle  (Paris,  1869),  and  La  Psychologic  de 
I' association  depuis  Hobbes  jusqu'a  nos  jours. 

FERRIER,  ARNAUD  DU  (c.  1508-1585),  French  jurisconsult 
and  diplomatist,  was  born  at  Toulouse  about  1508,  and  practised 
as  a  lawyer  first  at  Bourges,  afterwards  at  Toulouse.  Councillor 
to  the  parlement  of  the  latter  town,  and  then  to  that  of  Rennes, 
he  later  became  president  of  the  parlement  of  Paris.  He  repre- 
sented Charles  IX.,  king  of  France,  at  the  council  of  Trent  in 
1562,  but  had  to  retire  in  consequence  of  the  attitude  he  had 
adopted,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Venice,  where  he 
remained  till  1567,  returning  again  in  1570.  On  his  return  to 
France  he  came  into  touch  with  the  Calvinists  whose  tenets 
he  probably  embraced,  and  consequently  lost  his  place  in  the 
privy  council  and  part  of  his  fortune.  As  compensation,  Henry, 
king  of  Navarre,  appointed  him  his  chancellor.  He  died  in  the 
end  of  October  1585. 

See  also  E.  Fremy,  Un  Ambassadeur  liberal  sous  Charles  IX  et 
Henri  III,  Arnaud  du  Ferrier  (Paris,  1880). 

FERRIER,  JAMES  FREDERICK  (1808-1864),  Scottish 
metaphysical  writer,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  i6th  of 


288 


FERRIER,  P.— FERRIER,  S.  E. 


June  1808,  the  son  of  John  Ferrier,  writer  to  the  signet.  His 
mother  was  a  sister  of  John  Wilson  (Christopher  North).  He  was 
educated  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh  and  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  and  subsequently,  his  metaphysical  tastes  having 
been  fostered  by  his  intimate  friend,  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
spent  some  time  at  Heidelberg  studying  German  philosophy. 
In  1842  he  was  appointed  professor  of  civil  history  in  Edinburgh 
University,  and  in  1845  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  political 
economy  at  St  Andrews.  He  was  twice  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  chairs  in  Edinburgh,  for  that  of  moral  philosophy  on  Wilson's 
resignation  in  1852,  and  for  that  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in 
1856,  after  Hamilton's  death.  He  remained  at  St  Andrews  till 
his  death  on  the  nth  of  June  1864.  He  married  his  cousin, 
Margaret  Anne,  daughter  of  John  Wilson.  He  had  five  children, 
one  of  whom  became  the  wife  of  Sir  Alexander  Grant. 

Ferrier's  first  contribution  to  metaphysics  was  a  series  of 
articles  in  Blackwood's  Magazine  (1838-1839),  entitled  An 
Introduction  to  the  Philosophy  of  Consciousness.  In  these  he 
condemns  previous  philosophers  for  ignoring  in  their  psycho- 
logical investigations  the  fact  of  consciousness,  which  is  the 
distinctive  feature  of  man,  and  confining  their  observation 
to  the  so-called  "  states  of  the  mind."  Consciousness  comes 
into  manifestation  only  when  the  man  has  used  the  word  "  I  " 
with  full  knowledge  of  what  it  means.  This  notion  he  must 
originate  within  himself.  Consciousness  cannot  spring  from 
the  states  which  are  its  object,  for  it  is  in  antagonism  to  them. 
It  originates  in  the  will,  which  in  the  act  of  consciousness  puts 
the  "  I  "  in  the  place  of  our  sensations.  Morality,  conscience, 
and  responsibility  are  necessary  results  of  consciousness.  These 
articles  were  succeeded  by  a  number  of  others,  of  which  the 
most  important  were  The  Crisis  of  Modern  Speculation  (1841), 
Berkeley  and  Idealism  (1842),  and  an  important  examination 
of  Hamilton's  edition  of  Reid  (1847),  which  contains  a  vigorous 
attack  on  the  philosophy  of  common  sense.  The  perception  of 
matter  is  pronounced  to  be  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  thought,  and 
Reid,  for  presuming  to  analyse  it,  is  declared  to  be  a  representa- 
tionist  in  fact,  although  he  professed  to  be  an  intuitionist.  A 
distinction  is  made  between  the  "  perception  of  matter  "  and 
"  our  apprehension  of  the  perception  of  matter."  Psychology 
vainly  tries  to  analyse  the  former.  Metaphysic  shows  the 
latter  alone  to  be  analysable,  and  separates  the  subjective 
element,  "  our  apprehension,"  from  the  objective  element, 
"  the  perception  of  matter," — not  matter  per  se,  but  the  percep- 
tion of  matter  is  the  existence  independent  of  the  individual's 
thought.  It  cannot,  however,  be  independent  of  thought.  It 
must  belong  to  some  mind,  and  is  therefore  the  property  of  the 
Divine  Mind.  There,  he  thinks,  is  an  indestructible  foundation 
for  the  a  priori  argument  for  the  existence  of  God. 

Ferrier's  matured  philosophical  doctrines  find  expression  in 
the  Institutes  of  Metaphysics  (1854),  in  which  he  claims  to  have 
met  the  twofold  obligation  resting  on  every  system  of  philosophy, 
that  it  should  be  reasoned  and  true.  His  method  is  that  of 
Spinoza,  strict  demonstration,  or  at  least  an  attempt  at  it. 
All  the  errors  of  natural  thinking  and  psychology  must  fall  under 
one  or  other  of  three  topics: — Knowing  and  the  Known,  Ignor- 
ance, and  Being.  These  are  all-comprehensive,  and  are  therefore 
the  departments  into  which  philosophy  is  divided,  for  the  sole 
end  of  philosophy  is  to  correct  the  inadvertencies  of  ordinary 
thinking. 

The  problems  of  knowing  and  the  known  are  treated  in  the 
"  Epistemology  or  Theory  of  Knowing."  The  truth  that  "  along 
with  whatever  any  intelligence  knows  it  must,  as  the  ground 
or  condition  of  its  knowledge,  have  some  cognizance  of  itself," 
is  the  basis  of  the  whole  philosophical  system.  Object+subject, 
thing-)- me,  is  the  only  possible  knowable.  This  leads  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  only  independent  universe  which  any  mind 
can  think  of  is  the  universe  in  synthesis  with  some  other  mind 
or  ego. 

The  leading  contradiction  which  is  corrected  in  the  "  Agnoi- 
ology  or  Theory  of  Ignorance  "  is  this:  that  there  can  be  an 
ignorance  of  that  of  which  there  can  be  no  knowledge.  Ignorance 
is  a  defect.  But  there  is  no  defect  in  not  knowing  what  cannot 


be  known  by  any  intelligence  (e.g.  that  two  and  two  make  five), 
and  therefore  there  can  be  an  ignorance  only  of  that  of  which 
there  can  be  a  knowledge,  i.e.  of  some-object-^/ws-some-subject. 
The  knowable  alone  is  the  ignorable.  Ferrier  lays  special  claim 
to  originality  for  this  division  of  the  Institutes. 

The  "  Ontology  or  Theory  of  Being  "  forms  the  third  and 
final  division.  It  contains  a  discussion  of  the  origin  of  knowledge, 
in  which  Ferrier  traces  all  the  perplexities  and  errors  of  philo- 
sophers to  the  assumption  of  the  absolute  existence  of  matter. 
The  conclusion  arrived  at  is  that  the  only  true  real  and  inde- 
pendent existences  are  minds-together-with-that-which-they- 
apprehend,  and  that  the  one  strictly  necessary  absolute  existence 
is  a  supreme  and  infinite  and  everlasting  mind  in  synthesis  with 
all  things. 

Ferrier's  works  are  remarkable  for  an  unusual  charm  and  sim- 
plicity of  style.  These  qualities  are  especially  noticeable  in  the 
Lectures  on  Creek  Philosophy,  one  of  the  best  introductions  on  the 
subject  in  the  English  language.  A  complete  edition  of  his  philo- 
sophical writings  was  published  in  1875,  with  a  memoir  by  E.  L. 
Lushington ;  see  also  monograph  by  E.  S.  Haldane  in  the  Famous 
Scots  Series. 

FERRIER,  PAUL  (1843-  ),  French  dramatist,  was  born 
at  Montpellier  on  the  2gth  of  March  1843.  He  had  already 
produced  several  comedies  when  in  1873  be  secured  real  success 
with  two  short  pieces,  Chez  I'avocat  and  Les  Incendies  de  Massou- 
lard.  Others  of  his  numerous  plays  are  Les  Compensations  (1876); 
L'Art  de  tromper  les  femmes  (1890),  with  M.  Najac.  One  of 
Ferrier's  greatest  triumphs  was  the  production  with  Fabrice 
Carre  of  Josephine  vendue  par  ses  saurs  (1886),  an  opera  bouffe 
with  music  by  Victor  Roger.  His  opera  libretti  include  La 
Marocaine  (1879),  music  of  J.  Offenbach;  Le  Chevalier  d'Har- 
menlal  (1896)  after  the  play  of  Dumas  pere,  for  the  music  of 
A.  Messager;  La  Fille  de  Tabarin  (1901),  with  Victorien  Sardou, 
music  of  Gabriel  Pierne. 

FERRIER,  SUSAN  EDMONSTONE  (1782-1854),  Scottish 
novelist,  born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  7th  of  September  1782,  was 
the  daughter  of  James  Ferrier,  for  some  years  factor  to  the  duke 
of  Argyll,  and  at  one  time  one  of  the  clerks  of  the  court  of  session 
with  Sir  Walter  Scott.  Her  mother  was  a  Miss  Coutts,  the 
beautiful  daughter  of  a  Forfarshire  farmer.  James  Frederick 
Ferrier,  noticed  above,  was  Susan  Ferrier's  nephew. 

Miss  Ferrier's  first  novel,  Marriage,  was  begun  in  concert  with 
a  friend,  Miss  Clavering,  a  niece  of  the  duke  of  Argyll;  but  this 
lady  only  wrote  a  few  pages,  and  Marriage,  completed  by  Miss 
Ferrier  as  early  as  1810,  appeared  in  1818.  It  was  followed  in 
1824  by  The  Inheritance,  a  better  constructed  and  more  mature 
work;  and  the  last  and  perhaps  best  of  her  novels,  Destiny, 
dedicated  to  Sir  Walter  Scott  (who  himself  undertook  to  strike 
the  bargain  with  the  publisher  Cadell),  appeared  in  1831.  All 
these  novels  were  published  anonymously;  but,  with  their 
clever  portraiture  of  contemporary  Scottish  life  and  manners, 
and  even  recognizable  caricatures  of  some  social  celebrities  of 
the  day,  they  could  not  fail  to  become  popular  north  of  the  Tweed. 
"  Lady  MacLaughlan  "  represents  Mrs  Seymour  Darner  in  dress 
and  Lady  Frederick  Campbell,  whose  husband,  Lord  Ferrier, 
was  executed  in  1760,  in  manners.  Mary,  Lady  Clark,  well 
known  in  Edinburgh,  figured  as  "  Mrs  Fox  "  and  the  three  maiden 
aunts  were  the  Misses  Edmonstone.  Many  were  the  conjectures 
as  to  the  authorship  of  the  novels.  In  the  Nodes  Ambrosianae 
(November  1826),  James  Hogg  is  made  to  mention  The  In- 
heritance, and  adds,  "  which  I  aye  thought  was  written  by 
Sir  Walter,  as  weel's  Marriage,  till  it  spunked  out  that  it  was 
written  by  a  leddy."  Scott  himself  gave  Miss  Ferrier  a  very 
high  place  indeed  among  the  novelists  of  the  day.  In  his  diary 
(March  27,  1826),  criticizing  a  new  work  which  he  had  been 
reading,  he  says,  "  The  women  do  this  better.  Edgeworth, 
Ferrier,  Austen,  have  all  given  portraits  of  real  society  far 
superior  to  anything  man,  vain  man,  has  produced  of  the  like 
nature."  Another  friendly  recognition  of  Miss  Ferrier  is  to  be 
found  at  the  conclusion  of  his  Tales  of  my  Landlord,  where  Scott 
calls  her  his  "  sister  shadow,"  the  still  anonymous  author  of 
"  the  very  lively  work  entitled  Marriage."  Lively,  indeed,  all 
Miss  Ferrier's  works  are, — written  in  clear,  brisk  English,  and 


FERROL— FERRULE 


289 


with  an  inexhaustible  fund  of  humour.  It  is  true  her  books 
portray  the  eccentricities,  the  follies,  and  foibles  of  the  society  in 
which  she  lived,  caricaturing  with  terrible  exactness  its  hypocrisy, 
boastfulness,  greed,  affectation,  and  undue  subservience  to  public 
opinion.  Yet  Miss  Ferrier  wrote'less  to  reform  than  to  amuse. 
In  this  she  is  less  like  Miss  Edgeworth  than  Miss  Austen.  Miss 
Edge  worth  was  more  of  a  moralist;  her  wit  is  not  so  involuntary, 
her  caricatures  not  always  so  good-natured.  But  Miss  Austen 
and  Miss  Ferrier  were  genuine  humorists,  and  with  Miss  Ferrier 
especially  a  keen  sense  of  the  ludicrous  was  always  dominant. 
Her  humorous  characters  are  always  her  best.  It  was  no  doubt 
because  she  felt  this  that  in  the  last  year  of  her  life  she  regretted 
not  having  devoted  her  talents  more  exclusively  to  the  service  of 
religion.  But  if  she  was  not  a  moralist,  neither  was  she  a  cynic; 
and  her  wit,  even  where  it  is  most  caustic,  is  never  uncharitable. 

Miss  Ferrier's  mother  died  in  1797,  and  from  that  date  she 
kept  house  for  her  father  until  his  death  in  1829.  She  lived 
quietly  at  Morningside  House  and  in  Edinburgh  for  more  than 
twenty  years  after  the  publication  of  her  last  work.  The 
pleasantest  picture  that  we  have  of  her  is  in  Lockhart's  de- 
scription of  her  visit  to  Scott  in  May  1831.  She  was  asked  there 
to  help  to  amuse  the  dying  master  of  Abbotsford,  who,  when 
he  was  not  writing  Count  Robert  of  Paris,  would  talk  as  brilliantly 
as  ever.  Only  sometimes,  before  he  had  reached  the  point  in  a 
narrative,  "  it  would  seem  as  if  some  internal  spring  had  given 
way."  He  would  pause,  and  gaze  blankly  and  anxiously  round 
him.  "  I  noticed,"  says  Lockhart,  "  the  delicacy  of  Miss  Ferrier 
on  such  occasions.  Her  sight  was  bad,  and  she  took  care  not  to 
use  her  glasses  when  he  was  speaking;  and  she  affected  to  be  also 
troubled  with  deafness,  and  would  say,  '  Well,  I  am  getting  as 
dull  as  a  post;  I  have  not  heard  a  word  since  you  said  so-and- 
so,' — being  sure  to  mention  a  circumstance  behind  that  at  which 
he  had  really  halted.  He  then  took  up  the  thread  with  his 
habitual  smile  of  courtesy — as  if  forgetting  his  case  entirely  in 
the  consideration  of  the  lady's  infirmity." 

Miss  Ferrier  died  on  the  5th  of  November  1854,  at  her  brother's 
house  in  Edinburgh.  She  left  among  her  papers  a  short  un- 
published article,  entitled  "  Recollections  of  Visits  to  Ashestiel 
and  Abbotsford."  This  is  her  own  very  interesting  account  of 
her  long  friendship  with  Sir  Walter  Scott,  from  the  date  of  her 
first  visit  to  him  and  Lady  Scott  at  Ashestiel,  where  she  went 
with  her  father  in  the  autumn  of  1811,  to  her  last  sad  visit 
to  Abbotsford  in  1831.  It  contains  some  impromptu  verses 
written  by  Scott  in  her  album  at  Ashestiel. 

Miss  Ferrier's  letters  to  her  sister,  which  contained  much  interesting 
biographical  matter,  were  destroyed  at  her  particular  request,  but  a 
volume  of  her  correspondence  with  a  memoir  by  her  grand-nephew, 
John  Ferrier,  was  published  in  1898. 

FERROL  [El  Ferrol\,  a  seaport  of  north-western  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Corunna;  situated  12  m.  N.E.  of  the  city  of 
Corunna,  and  on  the  Bay  of  Ferrol,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Pop.  (1900)  25,281.  Together  with  San  Fernando,  near  Cadiz, 
and  Cartagena,  Ferrol  is  governed  by  an  admiral,  with  the 
special  title  of  captain-general;  and  it  ranks  beside  these  two 
ports  as  one  of  the  principal  naval  stations  of  Spain.  The  town 
is  beautifully  situated  on  a  headland  overlooking  the  bay,  and 
is  surrounded  by  rocky  hills  which  render  it  invisible  from  the 
sea.  Its  harbour,  naturally  one  of  the  best  in  Europe,  and  the 
largest  in  Spain  except  those  of  Vigo  and  Corunna,  is  deep, 
capacious  and  secure;  but  the  entrance  is  a  narrow  strait  about 
2  m.  long,  which  admits  only  one  vessel  at  a  time,  and  is  com- 
manded by  modern  and  powerfully  armed  forts,  while  the  neigh- 
bouring heights  are  also  crowned  by  defensive  works.  Ferrol  is 
provided  with  extensive  dockyards,  quays,  warehouses  and 
an  arsenal;  most  of  these,  with  the  palace  of  the  captain-general, 
the  bull-ring,  theatres,  and  other  principal  buildings,  were  built 
or  modernized  between  1875  and  1905.  The  local  industries  are 
mainly  connected  with  the  shipping  trade,  or  the  refitting  of 
warships.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  railway  communication,  and 
the  competition  of  Corunna  at  so  short  a  distance,  Ferrol  is  not 
a  first-class  commercial  port;  and  in  the  early  years  of  the  2oth 
century  its  trade,  already  injured  by  the  loss  to  Spain  of  Cuba 

x.  19 


and  Porto  Rico  in  1898,  showed  little  prospect  of  improvement. 
The  exports  are  insignificant,  and  consist  chiefly  of  wooden 
staves  and  beams  for  use  as  pit-props;  the  chief  imports  are 
coal,  cement,  timber,  iron  and  machinery.  In  1904,  282  vessels 
of  155,881  tons  entered  the  harbour.  In  the  same  year  the  con- 
struction of  a  railway  to  the  neighbouring  town  of  Betanzos 
was  undertaken,  and  in  1909  important  shipbuilding  operations 
were  begun. 

Ferrol  was  a  mere  fishing  village  until  1752,  when  Ferdinand  VI. 
began  to  fit  it  for  becoming  an  arsenal.  In  1799  the  British 
made  a  fruitless  attempt  to  capture  it,  but  on  the  4th  of 
November  1805  they  defeated  the  French  fleet  in  front  of  the 
town,  which  they  compelled  to  surrender.  On  the  27th  of 
January  1809  it  was  through  treachery  delivered  over  to  the 
French,  but  it  was  vacated  by  them  on  the  22nd  of  July.  On 
the  1 5th  of  July  1823  another  blockade  was  begun  by  the  French, 
and  Ferrol  surrendered  to  them  on  the  27th  of  August. 

FERRUCCIO,  or  FERRUCCI,  FRANCESCO  (1480-1530), 
Florentine  captain.  After  spending  a  few  years  as  a  merchant's 
clerk  he  took  to  soldiering  at  an  early  age,  and  served  in  the 
Bande  Nere  in  various  parts  of  Italy,  earning  a  reputation  as  a 
daring  fighter  and  somewhat  of  a  swashbuckler.  When  Pope 
Clement  VII.  and  the  emperor  Charles  V.  decided  to  reinstate 
the  Medici  in  Florence,  they  made  war  on  the  Florentine  republic/ 
and  Ferruccio  was  appointed  Florentine  military  commissioner 
at  Empoli,  where  he  showed  great  daring  and  resource  by  his 
rapid  marches  and  sudden  attacks  on  the  Imperialists.  Early 
in  1530  Volterra  had  thrown  off  Florentine  allegiance  and 
had  been  occupied  by  an  Imperialist  garrison,  but  Ferruccio 
surprised  and  recaptured  the  city.  During  his  absence,  however, 
the  Imperialists  captured  Empoli  by  treachery,  thus  cutting 
off  one  of  the  chief  avenues  of  approach  to  Florence.  Ferruccio 
proposed  to  the  government  of  the  republic  that  he  should 
march  on  Rome  and  terrorize  the  pope  by  the  threat  of  a  sack 
into  making  peace  with  Florence  on  favourable  terms,  but 
although  the  Var  committee  appointed  him  commissioner- 
general  for  the  operations  outside  the  city,  they  rejected  his 
scheme  as  too  audacious.  Ferruccio  then  decided  to  attempt 
a  diversion  by  attacking  the  Imperialists  in  the  rear  and  started 
from  Volterra  for  the  Apennines.  But  at  Pisa  he  was  laid  up 
for  a  month  with  a  fever — a  misfortune  which  enabled  the  enemy 
to  get  wind  of  his  plan  and  to  prepare  for  his  attack.  At  the  end 
of  July  Ferruccio  left  Pisa  at  the  head  of  about  4000  men,  and 
although  the  besieged  in  Florence,  knowing  that  a  large  part 
of  the  Imperialists  under  the  prince  of  Orange  had  gone  to  meet 
Ferruccio,  wished  to  co-operate  with  the  latter  by  [means  of  a 
sortie,  they  were  prevented  from  doing  so  by  their  own  traitorous 
commander-in-chief,  Malatesta  Baglioni.  Ferruccio  encountered 
a  much  larger  force  of  the  enemy  on  the  3rd  of  August  at  Gavi- 
nana;  a  desperate  battle  ensued,  and  at  first  the  Imperialists 
were  driven  back  by  Ferruccio's  fierce  onslaught  and  the  prince 
of  Orange  himself  was  killed,  but  reinforcements  under  Fabrizio 
Maramaldo  having  arrived,  the  Florentines  were  almost  annihil- 
ated and  Ferruccio  was  wounded  and  captured.  Maramaldo 
out  of  personal  spite  despatched  the  wounded  man  with  his  own 
hand.  This  defeat  sealed  the  fate  of  the  republic,  and  nine  days 
later  Florence  surrendered.  Ferruccio  was  one  of  the  great 
soldiers  of  the  age,  and  his  enterprise  is  the  finest  episode  of  the 
last  days  of  the  Florentine  republic.  See  also  under  FLORENCE 
and  MEDICI. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F.  Sassetti,  Vita  di  Francesco  Ferrucci,  written 
in  the  l6th  century  and  published  in  the  Archivio  storico,  vol.  iv. 
pt.  ii.  (Florence,  1853),  with  an  introduction  by  C.  Monzani;  E. 
Aloisi,  La  Battaglia  di  Gavinana  (Bologna,  1881);  cf.  P.  yillari's 
criticism  of  the  latter  work,  "  Ferruccio  e  Maramaldo,"  in  his  Arte, 
storia,  e  filosofia  (Florence,  1884) ;  Gino  Capponi,  Storia  della  re- 
pubblica  di  Firenze,  vol.  ii.  (Florence,  1875). 

FERRULE,  a  small  metal  cap  or  ring  used  for  holding  parts 
of  a  rod,  &c.,  together,  and  for  giving  strength  to  weakened 
materials,  or  especially,  when  attached  to  the  end  of  a  stick, 
umbrella,  &c.,  for  preventing  wearing  or  splitting.  The  word 
is  properly  verrel  or  verril,  in  which  form  it  was  used  till  the 
1 8th  century,  and  is  derived  through  the  O.  Fr.  virelle,  modern 


290 

virole,  from  a  Latin  diminutive  viriola  of  viriae,  bracelets.  The 
form  in  which  the  word  is  now  known  is  due  to  the  influence 
of  Latin  ferrum,  iron.  "  Ferrule  "  must  be  distinguished  from 
"  ferule  "  or  "  ferula,"  properly  the  Latin  name  of  the  "  giant 
fennel."  From  the  use  of  the  stalk  of  this  plant  as  a  cane  or 
rod  for  punishment,  comes  the  application  of  the  word  to  many 
instruments  used  in  chastisement,  more  particularly  a  short 
flat  piece  of  wood  or  leather  shaped  somewhat  like  the  sole  of  a 
boot,  and  applied  to  the  palms  of  the  hand.  It  is  the  common 
form  of  disciplinary  instrument  in  Roman  Catholic  schools; 
the  pain  inflicted  is  exceedingly  sharp  and  immediate,  but  the 
effects  are  momentary  and  leave  no  chance  for  any  dangerous 
results.  The  word  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  ordinary  cane  as 
used  by  schoolmasters. 

FERRY,  JULES  FRANCOIS  CAMILLE  (1832-1893),  French 
statesman,  was  born  at  Saint  Die  (Vosges)  on  the  5th  of  April 
1832.  He  studied  law,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Paris,  but 
soon  went  into  politics,  contributing  to  various  newspapers, 
particularly  to  the  Temps.  He  attacked  the  Empire  with  great 
violence,  directing  his  opposition  especially  against  Baron 
Haussmann,  prefect  of  the  Seine.  Elected  republican  deputy 
for  Paris  in  1869,  he  protested  against  the  declaration  of  war 
with  Germany,  and  on  the  6th  of  September  1870  was  appointed 
prefect  of  the  Seine  by  the  government  of  national  defence. 
In  this  position  he  had  the  difficult  task  of  administering  Paris 
during  the  siege,  and  after  the  Commune  was  obliged  to  resign 
(5th  of  June  1871).  From  1872-1873  he  was  sent  by  Thiers 
as  minister  to  Athens,  but  returned  to  the  chamber  as  deputy 
for  the  Vosges,  and  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  republican 
party.  When  the  first  republican  ministry  was  formed  under 
W.  H.  Waddington  on  the  4th  of  February  1879,  he  was  one  of 
its  members,  and  continued  in  the  ministry  until  the  3oth  of 
March  1885,  except  for  two  short  interruptions  (from  the  loth  of 
November  1881  to  the  3oth  of  January  1882,  and  from  the  agth 
of  July  1882  to  the  2ist  of  February  1883),  first  as  minister 
of  education  and  then  as  minister  of  foreign  aTffairs.  He  was 
twice  premier  (1880-1881  and  1883-1885).  Two  important 
works  are  associated  with  his  administration,  the  non-clerical 
organization  of  public  education,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
colonial  expansion  of  France.  Following  the  republican 
programme  he  proposed  to  destroy  the  influence  of  the  clergy 
in  the  university.  He  reorganized  the  committee  of  public 
education  (law  of  the  27th  of  February  1880),  and  proposed 
a  regulation  for  the  conferring  of  university  degrees,  which, 
though  rejected,  aroused  violent  polemics  because  the  7th 
article  took  away  from  the  unauthorized  religious  orders  the  right 
to  teach.  He  finally  succeeded  in  passing  the  great  law  of  the 
28th  of  March  1882,  which  made  primary  education  in  France 
free,  non-clerical  and  obligatory.  In  higher  education  the 
number  of  professors  doubled  under  his  ministry.  After  the 
military  defeat  of  France  by  Germany  in  1870,  he  formed  the 
idea  of  acquiring  a  great  colonial  empire,  not  to  colonize  it,  but 
for  the  sake  of  economic  exploitation.  He  directed  the  negotia- 
tions which  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  French  protectorate 
in  Tunis  (1881),  prepared  the  treaty  of  the  i7th  of  December 
1885  for  the  occupation  of  Madagascar;  directed  the  exploration 
of  the  Congo  and  of  the  Niger  region;  and  above  all  he  organized 
the  conquest  of  Indo-China.  The  excitement  caused  at  Paris 
by  an  unimportant  reverse  of  the  French  troops  at  Lang-son 
caused  his  downfall  (3oth  of  March  1885),  but  the  treaty  of 
peace  with  China  (gth  of  June  1885)  was  his  work.  He  still 
remained  an  influential  member  of  the  moderate  republican 
party,  and  directed  the  opposition  to  General  Boulanger.  After 
the  resignation  of  President  Grevy  (2nd  of  December  1887), 
he  was  a  candidate  for  the  presidency  of  the  republic,  but  the 
radicals  refused  to  support  him,  and  he  withdrew  in  favour  of 
Sadi  Carnot.  The  violent  polemics  aroused  against  him  at  this 
time  caused  a  madman  to  attack  him  with  a  revolver,  and  he 
died  from  the  wound,  on  the  i7th  of  March  1893.  The  chamber 
of  deputies  voted  him  a  state  funeral. 

See  Fxlg.  Zevort,  fiisloire  de  la  troisilme  Republique;  A.  Rambaud, 
Jules  Ferry  (Paris,  1903). 


FERRY,  JULES— FERSEN,  F.  A. 


FERRY  (from  the  same  root  as  that  of  the  verb  "  to  fare," 
to  journey  or  travel,  common  to  Teutonic  languages,  cf.  Ger. 
fahren;  it  is  connected  with  the  root  of  Gr.  iropos,  way,  and 
Lat.  portare,  to  carry),  a  place  where  boats  ply  regularly  across 
a  river  or  arm  of  the  sea  for  the  conveyance  of  goods  and  persons. 
The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  boats  employed  (ferry  boats). 
In  a  car-ferry  or  train-ferry  railway  cars  or  complete  trains  are 
conveyed  across  a  piece  of  water  in  vessels  which  have  railway 
lines  laid  on  their  decks,  so  that  the  vehicles  run  on  and  off  them 
on  their  own  wheels.  In  law  the  right  of  ferrying  persons  or 
goods  across  a  particular  river  or  strait,  and  of  exacting  a  reason- 
able toll  for  the  service,  belongs,  like  the  right  of  fair  and  market, 
to  the  class  of  rights  known  as  franchises.  Its  origin  must  be 
by  statute,  royal  grant,  or  prescription.  It  is  wholly  unconnected 
with  the  ownership  or  occupation  of  land,  so  that  the  owner 
of  the  ferry  need  not  be  proprietor  of  the  soil  on  either  side  of 
the  water  over  which  the  right  is  exercised.  He  is  bound  to 
maintain  safe  and  suitable  boats  ready  for  the  use  of  the  public, 
and  to  employ  fit  persons  as  ferrymen.  As  a  correlative  of 
this  duty  he  has  a  right  of  action,  not  only  against  those  who 
evade  or  refuse  payment  of  toll  when  it  is  due,  but  also  against 
those  who  disturb  his  franchise  by  setting  up  a  new  ferry,  so 
as  to  diminish  his  custom,  unless  a  change  of  circumstances,  such 
as  an  increase  of  population  near  the  ferry,  justify  other  means 
of  passage,  whether  of  the  same  kind  or  not.  See  also  WATER 
RIGHTS. 

FERSEN,  FREDRIK  AXEL,  COUNT  VON  (1719-1794), 
Swedish  politician,  was  a  son  of  Lieutenant-General  Hans 
Reinhold  Fersen  and  entered  the  Swedish  Life  Guards  in  1740, 
and  from  1743  to  1748  was  in  the  French  service  (Royal-Suldois) , 
where  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier.  In  the  Seven  Years'  War 
Fersen  distinguished  himself  during  the  operations  round  Use- 
dom  and  Wollin  (1759),  when  he  inflicted  serious  loss  on  the 
Prussians.  But  it  is  as  a  politician  that  he  is  best  known.  At 
the  diet  of  1755-1756  he  was  elected  landtmarskalk,  or  marshal 
of  the  diet,  and  from  henceforth,  till  the  revolution  of  1772, 
led  the  Hat  party  (see  SWEDEN:  History).  In  1756  he  defeated 
the  projects  of  the  court  for  increasing  the  royal  power;  but, 
after  the  disasters  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  gravitated  towards 
the  court  again  and  contributed,  by  his  energy  and  eloquence,  to 
uphold  the  tottering  Hats  for  several  years.  On  the  accession  of 
the  Caps  to  power  in  1766,  Fersen  assisted  the  court  in  its 
struggle  with  them  by  refusing  to  employ  the  Guards  to  keep 
order  in  the  capital  when  King  Adolphus  Frederick,  driven  to 
desperation  by  the  demands  of  the  Caps,  publicly  abdicated,  and 
a  seven  days'  interregnum  ensued.  At  the  ensuing  diet  of  1769, 
when  the  Hats  returned  to  power,  Fersen  was  again  elected 
marshal  of  the  diet;  but  he  made  no  attempt  to  redeem  his 
pledges  to  the  crown  prince  Gustavus,  as  to  a  very  necessary 
reform  of  the  constitution,  which  he  had  made  before  the  elec- 
tions, and  thus  involuntarily  contributed  to  the  subsequent 
establishment  of  absolutism.  When  Gustavus  III.  ascended 
the  throne  in  1772,  and  attempted  to  reconcile  the  two  factions 
by  a  composition  which  aimed  at  dividing  all  political  power 
between  them,  Fersen  said  he  despaired  of  bringing  back,  in  a 
moment,  to  the  path  of  virtue  and  patriotism  a  people  who 
had  been  running  riot  for  more  than  half  a  century  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  political  licence  and  corruption.  Nevertheless  he  con- 
sented to  open  negotiations  with  the  Caps,  and  was  the  principal 
Hat  representative  on  the  abortive  composition  committee. 
During  the  revolution  of  August  1772,  Fersen  remained  a  passive 
spectator  of  the  overthrow  of  the  constitution,  and  was  one  of 
the  first  whom  Gustavus  summoned  to  his  side  after  his  triumph. 
Ye*  his  relations  with  the  king  were  never  cordial.  The  old 
party-leader  could  never  forget  that  he  had  once  been  a  power 
in  the  state,  and  it  is  evident,  from  his  Historiska  Skrifter,  how 
jealous  he  was  of  Gustavus's  personal  qualities.  There  was  a 
slight  collision  between  them  as  early  as  the  diet  of  1778;  but 
at  the  diet  of  1786  Fersen  boldly  led  the  opposition  against  the 
king's  financial  measures  (see  GUSTAVUS  III.)  which  were  conse- 
quently rejected;  while  in  private  interviews,  if  his  own  account 
of  them  is  to  be  trusted,  he  addressed  his  sovereign  with 


FERSEN,  H.  A. 


291 


outrageous  insolence.  At  the  diet  of  1789  Fersen  marshalled  the 
nobility  around  him  for  a  combat  d  oulrance  against  the  throne 
and  that,  too,  at  a  time  when  Sweden  was  involved  in  two 
dangerous  foreign  wars,  and  national  unity  was  absolutely 
indispensable.  This  tactical  blunder  cost  him  his  popularity 
and  materially  assisted  the  secret  operations  of  the  king.  Ob- 
struction was  Fersen's  chief  weapon,  and  he  continued  to  post- 
pone the  granting  of  subsidies  by  the  house  of  nobles  for  some 
weeks.  But  after  frequent  stormy  scenes  in  the  diet,  which  were 
only  prevented  from  becoming  melees  by  Fersen's  moderation, 
or  hesitation,  at  the  critical  moment,  he  and  twenty  of  his  friends 
of  the  nobility  were  arrested  (i?th  February  1789)  and  the 
opposition  collapsed.  Fersen  was  speedily  released,  but  hence- 
forth kept  aloof  from  politics,  surviving  the  king  two  years. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  natural  talent,  with  an  imposing  presence, 
and  he  always  bore  himself  like  the  aristocrat  he  was.  But  his 
haughtiness  and  love  of  power  are  undeniable,  and  he  was  perhaps 
too  great  a  party-leader  to  be  a  great  statesman.  Yet  for  seven- 
teen years,  with  very  brief  intervals,  he  controlled  the  destinies 
of  Sweden,  and  his  influence  in  France  was  for  some  time  pretty 
considerable.  His  Historiska  Skrifter,  which  are  a  record  of 
Swedish  history,  mainly  autobiographical,  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  i8th  century,  is  excellent  as  literature,  but  somewhat 
unreliable  as  an  historical  document,  especially  in  the  later 
parts. 

See  C.  G.  Malmstrom,  Sveriges  politiska  Historia  (Stockholm, 
1855-1865);  R.  N.  Bain,  Gustavus  III.  (London,  1895);  C.  T. 
Odhner,  Sveriges  politiska  Historia  under  Gustaf  III.'s  Regering 
(Stockholm,  1885,  &c.) ;  F.  A.  Fersen,  Historiska  Skrifter  (Stockholm, 
1867-1872).  (R.  N.  B.) 

FERSEN,  HANS  AXEL,  COUNT  VON  (1755-1810),  Swedish 
statesman,  was  carefully  educated  at  home,  at  the  Carolinum 
at  Brunswick  and  at  Turin.  In  1779  he  entered  the  French 
military  service  (Royal-Baviere),  accompanied  General  Rocham- 
beau  to  America  as  his  adjutant,  distinguished  himself  during 
the  war  with  England,  notably  at  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  1781, 
and  in  1785  was  promoted  to  be  colonel  proprietaire  of  the 
regiment  Royal-Suedois.  The  young  nobleman  was,  from  the 
first,  a  prime  favourite  at  the  French  court,  owing,  partly  to 
the  recollection  of  his  father's  devotion  to  France,  but  princi- 
pally because  of  his  own  amiable  and  brilliant  qualities.  The 
queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  was  especially  attracted  by  the  grace 
and  wit  of  le  beau  Fersen,  who  had  inherited  his  full  share 
of  the  striking  handsomeness  which  was  hereditary  in  the 
family. 

It  is  possible  that  Fersen  would  have  spent  most  of  his  life  at 
Versailles,  but  for  a  hint  from  his  own  sovereign,  then  at  Pisa, 
that  he  desired  him  to  join  his  suite.  He  accompanied  Gustavus 
III.  in  his  Italian  tour  and  returned  home  with  him  in  1784. 
When  the  war  with  Russia  broke  out,  in  1788,  Fersen  accom- 
panied his  regiment  to  Finland,  but  in  the  autumn  of  the  same 
year  was  sent  to  France,  where  the  political  horizon  was  already 
darkening.  It  was  necessary  for  Gustavus  to  have  an  agent 
thoroughly  in  the  confidence  of  the  French  royal  family,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  sufficiently  able  and  audacious  to  help  them  in 
their  desperate  straits,  especially  as  he  had  lost  all  confidence 
in  his  accredited  minister,  the  baron  de  Stael.  With  his  usual 
acumen,  he  fixed  upon  Fersen,  who  was  at  his  post  early  in  1790. 
Before  the  end  of  the  year  he  was  forced  to  admit  that  the  cause 
of  the  French  monarchy  was  hopeless  so  long  as  the  king  and 
queen  of  France  were  nothing  but  captives  in  their  own  capital, 
at  the  mercy  of  an  irresponsible  mob.  He  took  a  leading  part 
in  the  flight  to  Varennes.  He  found  most  of  the  requisite  funds 
at  the  last  moment.  He  ordered  the  construction  of  the  famous 
carriage  for  six,  in  the  name  of  the  baroness  von  Korff,  and  kept 
it  in  his  hotel  grounds,  rue  Matignon,  that  all  Paris  might  get 
accustomed  to  the  sight  of  it.  He  was  the  coachman  of  the  fiacre 
which  drove  the  royal  family  from  the  Carrousel  to  the  Porte 
Saint-Martin.  He  accompanied  them  to  Bondy,  the  first  stage 
of  their  journey. 

In  August  1791,  Fersen  was  sent  to  Vienna  to  induce  the  em- 
peror Leopold  to  accede  to  a  new  coalition  against  revolutionary 


France,  but  he  soon  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Austrian 
court  meant  to  do  nothing  at  all.  At  his  own  request,  therefore, 
he  was  transferred  to  Brussels,  where  he  could  be  of  more  service 
to  the  queen  of  France.  In  February  1792,  at  his  own 
mortal  peril,  he  once  more  succeeded  in  reaching  Paris  with 
counterfeit  credentials  as  minister  plenipotentiary  to  Portugal. 
On  the  i3th  he  arrived,  and  the  same  evening  contrived  to  steal 
an  interview  with  the  queen  unobserved.  On  the  following  day 
he  was  with  the  royal  family  from  six  o'clock  in  the  evening  till 
six  o'clock  the  next  morning,  and  convinced  himself  that  a  second 
flight  was  physically  impossible.  On  the  afternoon  of  the  2ist 
he  succeeded  in  paying  a  third  visit  to  the  Tuileries,  stayed 
there  till  midnight  and  succeeded,  with  great  difficulty,  in 
regaining  Brussels  on  the  27th.  This  perilous  expedition,  a 
monumental  instance  of  courage  and  loyalty,  had  no  substantial 
result.  In  1797  Fersen  was  sent  to  the  congress  of  Rastatt  as 
the  Swedish  delegate,  but  in  consequence  of  a  protest  from  the 
French  government,  was  not  permitted  to  take  part  in  it. 

During  the  regency  of  the  duke  of  Sudermania  (1792-1796) 
Fersen,  like  all  the  other  Gustavians,  was  in  disgrace;  but,  on 
Gustavus  IV.  attaining  his  majority  in  1796,  he  was  welcomed 
back  to  court  with  open  arms,  and  reinstated  in  all  his  offices 
and  dignities.  In  1801  he  was  appointed  Riksmarskalk  (  =  earl- 
marshal).  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Napoleon,  Fersen 
accompanied  Gustavus  IV.  to  Germany  to  assist  him  in  gaining 
fresh  allies.  He  prevented  Gustavus  from  invading  Prussia  in 
revenge  for  the  refusal  of  the  king  of  Prussia  to  declare  war 
against  France,  and  during  the  rest  of  the  reign  was  in  semi- 
disgrace,  though  generally  a  member  of  the  government  when 
the  king  was  abroad. 

Fersen  stood  quite  aloof  from  the  revolution  of  1809.  (See 
SWEDEN:  History.)  His  sympathies  were  entirely  with  Prince 
Gustavus,  son  of  the  unfortunate  Gustavus  IV.,  and  he  was 
generally  credited  with  the  desire  to  see  him  king.  When  the 
newly  elected  successor  to  the  throne,  the  highly  popular  prince 
Christian  Augustus  of  Augustenburg,  died  suddenly  in  Skine 
in  May  1810,  the  report  spread  that  he  had  been  poisoned,  and 
that  Fersen  and  his  sister,  the  countess  Piper,  were  accessories. 
The  source  of  this  equally  absurd  and  infamous  libel  has  never 
been  discovered.  But  it  was  eagerly  taken  up  by  the  anti- 
Gustavian  press,  and  popular  suspicion  was  especially  aroused 
by  a  fable  called  "  The  Foxes  "  directed  against  the  Fersens, 
which  appeared  in  Nya  Fasten.  When,  then,  on  the  2oth  of 
June  1810,  the  prince's  body  was  conveyed  to  Stockholm,  and 
Fersen,  in  his  official  capacity  as  Riksmarskalk,  received  it  at  the 
barrier  and  led  the  funeral  cortege  into  the  city,  his  fine  carriage 
and  his  splendid  robes  seemed  to  the  people  an  open  derision 
of  the  general  grief.  The  crowd  began  to  murmur  and  presently 
to  fling  stones  and  cry  "  murderer ! "  He  sought  refuge  in  a 
house  in  the  Riddarhus  Square,  but  the  mob  rushed  after  him, 
brutally  maltreated  him  and  tore  his  robes  to  pieces.  To  quiet 
the  people  and  save  the  unhappy  victim,  two  officers  volunteered 
to  conduct  him  to  the  senate  house  and  there  place  him  in  arrest. 
But  he  had  no  sooner  mounted  the  steps  leading  to  the  entrance 
than  the  crowd,  which  had  followed  him  all  the  way  beating  him 
with  sticks  and  umbrellas,  made  a  rush  at  him,  knocked  him  down, 
and  kicked  and  trampled  him  to  death.  This  horrible  outrage, 
which  lasted  more  than  an  hour,  happened,  too,  in  the  presence 
of  numerous  troops,  drawn  up  in  the  Riddarhus  Square,  who 
made  not  the  slightest  effort  to  rescue  the  Riksmarskalk  from 
his  tormentors.  In  the  circumstances,  one  must  needs  adopt 
the  opinion  of  Fersen's  contemporary,  Baron  Gustavus  Armfelt, 
"  One  is  almost  tempted  to  say  that  the  government  wanted  to 
give  the  people  a  victim  to  play  with,  just  as  when  one  throws 
something  to  an  irritated  wild  beast  to  distract  its  attention. 
The  more  I  consider  it  all,  the  more  I  am  certain  that  the  mob 
had  the  least  to  do  with  it.  ...  But  in  God's  name  what  were 
the  troops  about?  How  could  such  a  thing  happen  in  broad 
daylight  during  a  procession,  when  troops  and  a  military  escort 
were  actually  present  ? "  The  responsibility  certainly  rests 
with  the  government  of  Charles  XIII.,  which  apparently  in- 
tended to  intimidate  the  Gustavians  by  the  removal  of  one  of 


292 


FESCA— FESCH 


their  principal  leaders.     Armfelt  escaped  in  time,  so  Fersen  fell 

the  victim. 

See  R.  M.  Klinckowstrom,  Le  Comte  de  Fersen  et  la  cour  de  France 
(Paris,  1877;  Eng.  ed.,  London,  1902);  Historia  om  Axel  von 
Fersens  mord  (Stockholm,  1844) ;  R.  N.  Bain,  Gustavus  III.,  vol.  ii. 
(London,  1895) ;  P.  Gaulot,  Un  Ami  de  la  reine  (Paris,  1892) ;  F.  F. 
Flach,  Grefve  Hans  Axel  von  Fersen  (Stockholm,  1896) ;  E.  Tegner, 
Gustaf  Mauritz  Armfelt,  vol.  iii.  (Stockholm,  1883-1887).  (R.  N.  B.) 

FESCA,  FREDERIC  ERNEST  (1789-1826),  German  violinist 
and  composer  of  instrumental  music,  was  born  on  the  isth  of 
February  1789  at  Magdeburg,  where  he  received  his  early  musical 
education.  He  completed  his  studies  at  Leipzig  under  Eberhard 
Miiller,  and  at  the  early  age  of  fifteen  appeared  before  the  public 
with  several  concert!  for  the  violin,  which  were  received  with 
general  applause,  and  resulted  in  his  being  appointed  leading 
violinist  of  the  Leipzig  orchestra.  This  position  he  occupied  till 
1806,  when  he  became  concert-master  to  the  duke  of  Oldenburg. 
In  1808  he  was  appointed  solo- violinist  by  King  Jerome  of  West- 
phalia at  Cassel,  and  there  he  remained  till  the  end  of  the  French 
occupation  (1814),  when  he  went  to  Vienna,  and  soon  afterwards 
to  Carlsruhe,  having  been  appointed  concert-master  to  the  grand- 
duke  of  Baden.  His  failing  health  prevented  him  from  enjoying 
the  numerous  and  well-deserved  triumphs  he  owed  to  his  art, 
and  in  1826  he  died  of  consumption  at  the  early  age  of  thirty- 
seven.  As  a  virtuoso  Fesca  ranks  amongst  the  best  masters 
of  the  German  school  of  violinists,  the  school  subsequently  of 
Spohr  and  of  Joachim.  Especially  as  leader  of  a  quartet  he  is 
said  to  have  been  unrivalled  with  regard  to  classic  dignity  and 
simplicity  of  style.  Amongst  his  compositions,  his  quartets  for 
stringed  instruments  and  other  pieces  of  chamber  music  are  the 
most  remarkable.  His  two  operas,  Canlemira  and  Omar  and  Leila, 
were  less  successful,  lacking  dramatic  power  and  originality. 
He  also  wrote  some  sacred  compositions,  and  numerous  songs 
and  vocal  quartets. 

FESCENNIA,  an  ancient  city  of  Etruria,  which  is  probably 
to  be  placed  immediately  to  the  N.  of  the  modern  Corchiano, 
6  m.  N.W.  of  Civita  Castellana  (see  FALERII).  The  Via  Amerina 
traverses  it.  G.  Dennis  (Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria,  London, 
1883,  i.  115  proposed  to  place  it  at  the  Riserva  S.  Silvestro, 
3  m.  E.  of  Corchiano,  nearer  the  Tiber,  where  remains  of  Etruscan 
walls  exist.  At  Corchiano  itself,  however,  similar  walls  may  be 
traced,  and  the  site  is  a  strong  and  characteristic  one — a  triangle 
between  two  deep  ravines,  with  the  third  (west)  side  cut  off  by 
a  ditch.  Here,  too,  remains  of  two  bridges  may  be  seen,  and 
several  rich  tombs  have  been  excavated. 

See  A.  Buglione,  "  Conte  di  Monale,"  in  Romische  Mitteilungen 
(1887),  p.  21  seq. 

FESCENNINE  VERSES  (Fescennina  carmina),  one  of  the 
earliest  kinds  of  Italian  poetry,  subsequently  developed  into 
the  Satura  and  the  Roman  comic  drama.  Originally  sung  at 
village  harvest-home  rejoicings,  they  made  their  way  into  the 
towns,  and  became  the  fashion  at  religious  festivals  and  private 
gatherings — especially  weddings,  to  which  in  later  times  they 
were  practically  restricted.  They  were  usually  in  the  Saturnian 
metre  and  took  the  form  of  a  dialogue,  consisting  of  an  inter- 
change of  extemporaneous  raillery.  Those  who  took  part  in  them 
wore  masks  made  of  the  bark  of  trees.  At  first  harmless  and 
good-humoured,  if  somewhat  coarse,  these  songs  gradually  out- 
stripped the  bounds  of  decency;  malicious  attacks  were  made 
upon  both  gods  and  men,  and  the  matter  became  so  serious  that 
the  law  intervened  and  scurrilous  personalities  were  forbidden 
by  the  Twelve  Tables  (Cicero,  De  re  publica,  iv.  10).  Specimens 
of  the  Fescennines  used  at  weddings  are  the  Epithalamium  of 
Manlius  (Catullus,  Ixi.  122)  and  the  four  poems  of  Claudian  in 
honour  of  the  marriage  of  Honorius  and  Maria;  the  first,  how- 
ever, is  distinguished  by  a  licentiousness  which  is  absent  in  the 
latter.  Ausonius  in  his  Cento  nuptialis  mentions  the  Fescennines 
of  Annianus  Faliscus,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Hadrian.  Various 
derivations  have  been  proposed  for  Fescennine.  According  to 
Festus,  they  were  introduced  from  Fescennia  in  Etruria,  but 
there  is  no  reason  to  assume  that  any  particular  town  was 
specially  devoted  to  the  use  of  such  songs.  As  an  alternative 
Festus  suggests  a  connexion  with  fascinum,  either  because  the 


Fescennina  were  regarded  as  a  protection  against  evil  influences 
(see  Munro,  Criticisms  and  Elucidations  of  Catullus,  p.  76)  or 
because  fascinum  (  =  phallus),  as  the  symbol  of  fertility,  would 
from  early  times  have  been  naturally  associated  with  harvest 
festivals.  H.  Nettleship,  in  an  article  on  "  The  Earliest  Italian 
Literature "  (Journal  of  Philology,  xi.  1882),  in  support  of 
Munro's  view,  translates  the  expression  "  verses  used  by 
charmers,"  assuming  a  uounfescennus,  connected  with  fas  fari. 

The  locus  classicus  in  ancient  literature  is  Horace,  Epistles,  ii. 
I.  139;  see  also  Virgil,  Georgics,  ii.  385;  Tibullus  ii.  I.  55;  E. 
Hoffmann,  "  Die  Fescenninen,"  in  Rheinisches  Museum,  Ii.  p.  320 
(1896) ;  art.  LATIN  LITERATURE. 

FESCH,  JOSEPH  (1763-1839),  cardinal,  was  born  at  Ajaccio 
on  the  3rd  of  January  1763.  His  father,  a  Swiss  officer  in  the 
service  of  the  Genoese  Republic,  had  married  the  mother  of 
Laetitia  Bonaparte,  after  the  decease  of  her  first  husband. 
Fesch  therefore  stood  almost  in  the  relation  of  an  uncle  to  the 
young  Bonapartes,  and  after  the  death  of  Lucien  Bonaparte, 
archdeacon  of  Ajaccio,  he  became  for  a  time  the  protector  and 
patron  of  the  family.  In  the  year  1789,  when  the  French 
Revolution  broke  out,  he  was  archdeacon  of  Ajaccio,  and,  like 
the  majority  of  the  Corsicans,  he  felt  repugnance  for  many  of 
the  acts  of  the  French  government  during  that  period;  in  parti- 
cular he  protested  against  the  application  to  Corsica  of  the  act 
known  as  the  "  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy  "  (July  1790). 
As  provost  of  the  "  chapter  "  in  that  city  he  directly  felt  the 
pressure  of  events;  for  on  the  suppression  of  religious  orders 
and  corporations,  he  was  constrained  to  retire  into  private  life. 

Thereafter  he  shared  the  fortunes  of  the  Bonaparte  family 
in  the  intrigues  and  strifes  which  ensued.  Drawn  gradually 
by  that  family  into  espousing  the  French  cause  against  Paoli 
and  the  Anglophiles,  he  was  forced  to  leave  Corsica  and  to 
proceed  with  Laetitia  and  her  son  to  Toulon,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  autumn  of  1793.  Failing  to  find  clerical  duties  at  that 
time  (the  period  of  the  Terror),  he  entered  civil  life,  and  served 
in  various  capacities,  until  on  the  appointment  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  to  the  command  of  the  French  ."  Army  of  Italy  " 
he  became  a  commissary  attached  to  that  army.  This  part  of 
his  career  is  obscure  and  without  importance.  His  fortunes 
rose  rapidly  on  the  attainment  of  the.  dignity  of  First  Consul 
by  his  former  charge,  Napoleon,  after  the  coup  d'etat  of  Brumaire 
(November  1799).  Thereafter,  when  the  restoration  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  was  in  the  mind  of  the  First  Consul, 
Fesch  resumed  his  clerical  vocation  and  took  an  active  part 
in  the  complex  negotiations  which  led  to  the  signing  of  the 
Concordat  with  the  Holy  See  on  the  isth  of  July  1801.  His 
reward  came  in  the  prize  of  the  archbishopric  of  Lyons,  on  the 
duties  of  which  he  entered  in  August  1802.  Six  months  later 
he  received  a  still  more  signal  reward  for  his  past  services,  being 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal. 

In  1804  on  the  retirement  of  Cacault  from  the  position  of 
French  ambassador  at  Rome,  Fesch  received  that  important 
appointment.  He  was  assisted  by  Chateaubriand,  but  soon 
sharply  differed  with  him  on  many  questions.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  year  1804  Napoleon  entrusted  to  Fesch  the  difficult 
task  of  securing  the  presence  of  Pope  Pius  VII.  at  the  forth- 
coming coronation  of  the  emperor  at  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (Dec. 
2nd,  1804).  His  tact  in  overcoming  the  reluctance  of  the  pope 
to  be  present  at  the  coronation  (it  was  only  eight  months  after 
the  execution  of  the  due  d'Enghien)  received  further  recognition. 
He  received  the  grand  cordon  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  became 
grand-almoner  of  the  empire  and  had  a  seat  in  the  French 
senate.  He  was  to  receive  further  honours.  In  1806  one  of  the 
most  influential  of  the  German  clerics,  Karl  von  Dalberg,  then 
prince  bishop  of  Regensburg,  chose  him  to  be  his  coadjutor 
and  designated  him  as  his  successor. 

Events,  however,  now  occurred  which  overclouded  his  pros- 
pects. In  the  course  of  the  years  1806-1807  Napoleon  came 
into  sharp  collision  with  the  pope  on  various  matters  both 
political  and  religious.  Fesch  sought  in  vain  to  reconcile  the 
two  potentates.  Napoleon  was  inexorable  in  his  demands, 
and  Pius  VII.  refused  to  give  way  where  the  discipline  and 


FESSA— FESSLER 


293 


vital  interests  of  the  church  seemed  to  be  threatened.  The 
emperor  on  several  occasions  sharply  rebuked  Fesch  for  what 
he  thought  to  be  weakness  and  ingratitude.  It  is  clear,  however, 
that  the  cardinal  went  as  far  as  possible  in  counselling  the 
submission  of  the  spiritual  to  the  civil  power.  For  a  time  he 
was  not  on  speaking  terms  with  the  pope;  and  Napoleon  re- 
called him  from  Rome. 

Affairs  came  to  a  crisis  in  the  year  1809,  when  Napoleon 
issued  at  Vienna  the  decree  of  the  xyth  of  May,  ordering  the 
annexation  of  the  papal  states  to  the  French  empire.  In  that 
year  Napoleon  conferred  on  Fesch  the  archbishopric  of  Paris, 
but  he  refused  the  honour.  He,  however,  consented  to  take 
part  in  an  ecclesiastical  commission  formed  by  the  emperor 
from  among  the  dignitaries  of  the  Gallican  Church,  but  in  1810 
the  commission  was  dissolved.  The  hopes  of  Fesch  with  respect 
to  Regensburg  were  also  damped  by  an  arrangement  of  the  year 
1810  whereby  Regensburg  was  absorbed  in  Bavaria. 

In  the  year  1811  the  emperor  convoked  a  national  council 
of  Gallican  clerics  for  the  discussion  of  church  affairs,  and 
Fesch  was  appointed  to  preside  over  their  deliberations.  Here 
again,  however,  he  failed  to  satisfy  the  inflexible  emperor  and 
was  dismissed  to  his  diocese.  The  friction  between  uncle  and 
nephew  became  more  acute  in  the  following  year.  In  June 
1812,  Pius  VII.  was  brought  from  his  first  place  of  detention, 
Savona,  to  Fontainebleau,  where  he  was  kept  under  surveillance 
in  the  hope  that  he  would  give  way  in  certain  matters  relating 
to  the  Concordat  and  in  other  clerical  affairs.  Fesch  ventured 
to  write  to  the  aged  pontiff  a  letter  which  came  into  the  hands 
of  the  emperor.  His  anger  against  Fesch  was  such  that  he 
stopped  the  sum  of  150,000  florins  which  had  been  accorded 
to  him.  The  disasters  of  the  years  1812-1813  brought  Napoleon 
to  treat  Pius  VII.  with  more  lenity  and  the  position  of  Fesch 
thus  became  for  a  time  less  difficult.  On  the  first  abdication 
of  Napoleon  (April  nth,  1814)  and  the  restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons, he,  however,  retired  to  Rome  where  he  received  a  welcome. 
The  events  of  the  Hundred  Days  (March-June,  1815)  brought 
him  back  to  France;  he  resumed  his  archiepiscopal  duties  at 
Lyons  and  was  further  named  a  member  of  the  senate.  On 
the  second  abdication  of  the  emperor  (June  22nd,  1815)  Fesch 
retired  to  Rome,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  in  dignified 
ease,  surrounded  by  numerous  masterpieces  of  art,  many  of 
which  he  bequeathed  to  the  city  of  Lyons.  He  died  at  Rome 
on  the  i3th  of  May  1839. 

See  J.  B.  Monseigneur  Lyonnet,  Le  Cardinal  Fesch  (2  vols.,  Lyons, 
1841);  Ricard,  Le  Cardinal  Fesch  (Paris,  1893);  H.  Welschinger, 
Le  Pape  et  I'empereur  (Paris,  1905);  F.  Masson,  Napoleon  et  sa 
famille  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1897-1900). 

FESSA,  a  town  and  district  of  Persia  in  the  province  of  Fars. 
The  town  is  situated  in  a  fertile  plain  in  29°  N.  and  90  m.  from 
Shiraz,  and  has  a  population  of  about  5000.  The  district  has 
forty  villages  and  extends  about  40  m.  north-south  from  Runiz 
to  Nasslrabad  and  16  m.  east-west  from  Vasilabad  to  Deh 
Dasteh  (Dastajah);  it  produces  much  grain,  dates,  tobacco, 
opium  and  good  fruit, 

FESSENDEN,  WILLIAM  PITT  (1806-1869),  American  states- 
man and  financier,  was  born  in  Boscawen,  New  Hampshire, 
on  the  1 6th  of  October  1806.  After  graduating  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  1823,  he  studied  law,  and  in  1827  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  .eventually  settling  in  Portland,  Maine,  where  for  two 
years  he  was  associated  in  practice  with  his  father,  Samuel 
Fessenden  (1784-1869),  a  prominent  lawyer  and  anti-slavery 
leader.  In  1832  and  in  1840  Fessenden  was  a  representative  in 
the  Maine  legislature,  and  in  1841-1843  was  a  Whig  member  of 
the  national  House  of  Representatives.  When  his  term  in  this 
capacity  was  over,  he  devoted  himself  unremittingly  and  with 
great  success  to  the  law.  He  became  well  known,  also,  as  an 
eloquent  advocate  of  slavery  restriction.  In  1845-1846  and 
1853-1854  he  again  served  in  the  state  House  of  Representatives, 
and  in  1854  was  chosen  by  the  combined  votes  of  Whigs 
and  Anti-Slavery  Democrats  to  the  United  States  Senate. 
Within  a  fortnight  after  taking  his  seat  he  delivered  a  speech 
in  opposition  to  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  which  at  once 


made  him  a  force  in  the  congressional  anti-slavery  contest. 
From  then  on  he  was  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  frequent 
debaters  among  his  colleagues,  and  in  1859,  almost  without 
opposition,  he  was  re-elected  to  the  Senate  as  a  member  of  the 
Republican  party,  in  the  organization  of  which  he  had  taken 
an  influential  part.  He  was  a  delegate  in  1861  to  the  Peace 
Congress,  but  after  the  actual  outbreak  of  hostilities  he  insisted 
that  the  war  should  be  prosecuted  vigorously.  As  chairman 
of  the  Senate  Committee  on  Finance,  his  services  were  second 
in  value  only  to  those  of  President  Lincoln  and  Secretary  Salmon 
P.  Chase  in  efforts  to  provide  funds  for  the  defence  of  the  Union; 
and  in  July  1864  Fessenden  succeeded  Chase  as  secretary  of 
the  treasury.  The  finances  of  the  country  in  the  early  summer 
of  1864  were  in  a  critical  condition;  a  few  days  before  leaving 
office  Secretary  Chase  had  been  compelled  to  withdraw  from 
the  market  $32,000,000  of  6%  bonds,  on  account  of  the  lack 
of  acceptable  bids;  gold  had  reached  285  and  was  fluctuating 
between  225  and  250,  while  the  value  of  the  paper  dollar  had 
sunk  as  low  as  34  cents.  It  was  Secretary  Fessenden's  policy 
to  avoid  a  further  increase  of  the  circulating  medium,  and  to 
redeem  or  consolidate  the  temporary  •  obligations  outstanding. 
In  spite  of  powerful  pressure  the  paper  currency  was  not  increased 
a  dollar  during  his  tenure  of  the  office.  As  the  sales  of  bonds  and 
treasury  notes  were  not  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  Treasury, 
interest-bearing  certificates  of  indebtedness  were  issued  to 
cover  the  deficits;  but  when  these  began  to  depreciate  the 
secretary,  following  the  example  of  his  predecessors,  engaged 
the  services  of  the  Philadelphia  banker  Jay  Cooke  (q.v.)  and 
secured  the  consent  of  Congress  to  raise  the  balance  of  the 
$400,000,000  loan  authorized  on  the  3oth  of  June  1864  by  the 
sale  of  the  so-called  "  seven-thirty  "  treasury  notes  (i.e.  notes 
bearing  interest  at  7-3%  payable  in  currency  in  three  years  or 
convertible  at  the  option  of  the  holder  into  6%  5-20  year  gold 
bonds).  Through  Cooke's  activities  the  sales  became  enormous; 
the  notes,  issued  in  denominations  as  low  as  $50,  appealed  to 
the  patriotic  impulses  of  the  people  who  could  not  subscribe 
for  bonds  of  a  higher  denomination.  In  the  spring  of  1865 
Congress  authorized  an  additional  loan  of  $600,000,000  to  be 
raised  in  the  same  manner,  and  for  the  first  time  in  four  years 
the  Treasury  was  able  to  meet  all  its  obligations.  After  thus 
securing  ample  funds  for  the  enormous  expenditures  of  the 
war,  Fessenden  resigned  the  treasury  portfolio  in  March  1865, 
and  again  took  his  seat  in  the  Senate,  serving  till  his  death. 
In  the  Senate  he  again  became  chairman  of  the  finance  com- 
mittee, and  also  of  the  joint  committee  on  reconstruction. 
He  was  the  author  of  the  report  of  this  last  committee  (1866), 
in  which  the  Congressional  plan  of  reconstruction  was  set  forth 
and  which  has  been  considered  a  state  paper  of  remarkable 
power  and  cogency.  He  was  not,  however,  entirely  in  accord 
with  the  more  radical  members  of  his  own  party,  and  this 
difference  was  exemplified  in  his  opposition  to  the  impeachment 
of  President  Johnson  and  subsequently  in  his  voting  for  Johnson's 
acquittal.  He  bore  with  calmness  the  storm  of  reproach  from 
his  party  associates  which  followed,  and  lived  to  regain  the 
esteem  of  those  who  had  attacked  him.  He  died  at  Portland, 
Maine,  on  the  6th  of  September  1869. 

See  Francis  Fessenden,  Life  and  Public  Services  of  William  Pitt 
Fessenden  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1907). 

FESSLER,  IGNAZ  AURELIUS  (1756-1839),  Hungarian 
ecclesiastic,  historian  and  freemason,  was  born  on  the  i8th  of 
May  1756  at  the  village  of  Zurany  in  the  county  of  Moson. 
In  1773  he  joined  the  order  of  Capuchins,  and  in  1779  was 
ordained  priest.  He  had  meanwhile  continued  his  classical 
and  philological  studies,  and  his  liberal  views  brought  him  into 
frequent  conflict  with  his  superiors.  In  1784,  while  at  the 
monastery  of  Modling,  near  Vienna,  he  wrote  to  the  emperor 
Joseph  II.,  making  suggestions  for  the  better  education  of  the 
clergy  and  drawing  his  attention  to  the  irregularities  of  the 
monasteries.  The  searching  investigation  which  followed 
raised  up  against  him  many  implacable  enemies.  In  1784  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Oriental  languages  and  hermeneutics 
in  the  university  of  Lemberg,  when  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor 


294 


FESTA— FETIS 


of  divinity;  and  shortly  afterwards  he  was  released  from  his 
monastic  vows  on  the  intervention  of  the  emperor.  In  1788  he 
brought  out  his  tragedy  of  Sidney,  an  expose  of  the  tyranny  of 
James  II.  and  of  the  fanaticism  of  the  papists  in  England.  This 
was  attacked  so  violently  as  profane  and  revolutionary  that  he 
was  compelled  to  resign  his  office  and  seek  refuge  in  Silesia. 
In  Breslau  he  met  with  a  cordial  reception  from  G.  W.  Korn 
the  publisher,  and  was,  moreover,  subsequently  employed  by 
the  prince  of  Carolath-Schonaich  as  tutor  to  his  sons.  In  1791 
Fessler  was  converted  to  Lutheranism  and  next  year  contracted 
an  unhappy  marriage,  which  was  dissolved  in  1802,  when  he 
married  again.  In  1796  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  founded 
a  humanitarian  society,  and  was  commissioned  by  the  free- 
masons of  that  city  to  assist  Fichte  in  reforming  the  statutes 
and  ritual  of  their  lodge.  He  soon  after  this  obtained  a  govern- 
ment appointment  in  connexion  with  the  newly-acquired 
Polish  provinces,  but  in  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Jena  (1806) 
he  lost  this  office,  and  remained  in  very  needy  circumstances 
until  1809,  when  he  was  summoned  to  St  Petersburg  by  Alexander 
I.,  to  fill  the  post  of  court  councillor,  and  the  professorship  of 
oriental  languages  and  philosophy  at  the  Alexander-Nevski 
Academy.  This  office,  however,  he  was  soon  obliged  to  resign, 
owing  to  his  alleged  atheistic  tendencies,  but  he  was  subsequently 
nominated  a  member  of  the  legislative  commission.  In  1815 
he  went  with  his  family  to  Sarepta,  where  he  joined  the  Moravian 
community  and  again  became  strongly  orthodox.  This  cost 
him  the  loss  of  his  salary,  but  it  was  restored  to  him  in  1817. 
In  November  1820  he  was  appointed  consistorial  president  of 
the  evangelical  communities  at  Saratov  and  subsequently 
became  chief  superintendent  of  the  Lutheran  communities  in 
St  Petersburg.  Fessler's  numerous  works  are  all  written  in 
German.  In  recognition  of  his  important  services  to  Hungary 
as  a  historian,  he  was  in  1831  elected  a  corresponding  member 
of  the  Hungarian  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  died  at  St  Petersburg 
on  the  1 5th  of  December  1839. 

Fessler  was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  during  his  life  exercised 
great  influence;  but,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  history 
of  Hungary,  none  of  his  books  has  any  value  now.  He  did  not 
pretend  to  any  critical  treatment  of  his  materials,  and  most 
of  his  historical  works  are  practically  historical  novels.  He  did 
much,  however,  to  make  the  study  of  history  popular.  His 
most  important  works  are — Die  Geschichten  der  Ungarn  und 
ihrer  Landsassen  (10  vols.  Leipzig,  1815-1825);  Marcus 
Aurelius  (3  vols.,  Breslau,  1700-1792;  3rd  edition,  4  vols.,  1799); 
Aristides  und  Themislokles  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1792;  3rd  edition, 
1818);  Atttta,  Konig  der  Hunnen  (Breslau,  1794);  Mathias 
Corvinus  (2  vols.,  Breslau,  1793-1794);  and  Die  drei  grossen 
Konige  der  Hungarn  aus  dem  Arpadischen  Stamme  (Breslau, 
1808). 

See  Fessler's  Riickblicke  auf  seine  siebzigjahrige  Pilgerschaft 
(Breslau,  1824;  2nd  edition,  Leipzig,  1851). 

FESTA,  CONST ANZO  (c.  1495-1545),  Italian  singer  and 
musical  composer,  became  a  member  of  the  Pontifical  choir  in 
Rome  in  1517,  and  soon  afterwards  maestro  at  the  Vatican. 
His  motets  and  madrigals  (the  first  book  of  which  appeared  in 
1537)  excited  Dr  Burney's  warm  praise  in  his  History  of  Music; 
and,  among  other  church  music,  his  Te  Deum  (published  in 
1596)  is  still  sung  at  important  services  in  Rome.  His  madrigal, 
called  in  English  "  Down  in  a  flow'ry  vale,"  is  well  known. 

FESTINIOG  (or  FFESTINIOG),  a  town  of  Merionethshire, 
North  Wales,  at  the  head  of  the  Festiniog  valley,  600  ft.  above 
the  sea,  in  the  midst  of  rugged  scenery,  near  the  stream  Dwyryd, 
31  m.'  from  Conway.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901),  n,43S- 
There  are  many  large  slate  quarries  in  this  parish,  especially 
at  Blaenau  Festiniog,  the  junction  of  three  railways,  London  & 
North  Western,  Great  Western  and  Festiniog,  a  narrow-gauge 
line  between  Portmadoc  and  Duffws.  This  light  railway  runs 
at  a  considerable  elevation  (some  700  ft.),  commanding  a  view 
across  the  valley  and  lake  of  Tan  y  Bwlch.  Lord  Lyttelton's 
letter  to  Mr  Bower  is  a  well-known  panegyric  on  Festiniog. 
Thousands  of  workmen  are  employed  in  the  slate  quarries. 
The  Cynfael  falls  are  famous.  Near  are  Beddau  gwyr  Ardudwy 


(the  graves  of  the  men  of  Ardudwy),  memorials  of  a  fight  to 
recover  women  of  the  Clwyd  valley  from  the  men  of  Ardudwy. 
Near,  too,  is  a  rock  named  "  Hugh  Lloyd's  pulpit  "  (Lloyd  lived 
in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  Cromwell  and  Charles  II.). 

FESTOON  (from  Yr.feston,  Ital.  festone,  from  a  Late  Lat./w/o, 
originally  a  "  festal  garland,"  Lat.  feslum,  feast),  a  wreath  or 
garland,  and  so  in  architecture  a  conventional  arrangement  of 
flowers,  foliage  or  fruit  bound  together  and  suspended  by  ribbons, 
either  from  a  decorated  knot,  or  held  in  the  mouths  of  lions, 
or  suspended  across  the  bank  of  bulls'  heads  as  in  the  Temple 
of  Vesta  at  Tivoli.  The  "  motif"  is  sometimes  known  as  a  "  swag." 
It  was  largely  employed  both  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  and 
formed  the  principal  decoration  of  altars,  friezes  and  panels. 
The  ends  of  the  ribbons  are  sometimes  formed  into  bows  or 
twisted  curves;  when  in  addition  a  group  of  foliage  or  flowers 
is  suspended  it  is  called  a  "  drop."  Its  origin  is  probably  due 
to  the  representation  in  stone  of  the  garlands  of  natural  flowers, 
&c.,  which  were  hung  up  over  an  entrance  doorway  on  ffite  days, 
or  suspended  round  the  altar. 

FESTUS  (?  RUFUS  or  Rurrus),  one  of  the  Roman  writers  of 
breviaria  (epitomes  of  Roman  history).  The  reference  to  the 
defeat  of  the  Goths  at  Noviodunum  (A.D.  369)  by  the  emperor 
Valens,  and  the  fact  that  the  author  is  unaware  of  the  constitution 
of  Valentia  as  a  province  (which  took  place  in  the  same  year) 
are  sufficient  indication  to  fix  the  date  of  composition.  Mommsen 
identifies  the  author  with  Rufius  Festus,  proconsul  of  Achaea 
(366),  and  both  with  Rufius  Festus  Avienus  (q.v.),  the  translator 
of  Aratus.  But  the  absence  of  the  name  Rufius  in  the  best  MSS. 
is  against  this.  Others  take  him  to  be  Festus  of  Tridentum, 
magister  memoriae  (secretary)  to  Valens  and  proconsul  of  Asia, 
where  he  was  sent  to  punish  those  implicated  in  the  conspiracy 
of  Theodorus,  a  commission  which  he  executed  with  such 
merciless  severity  that  his  name  became  a  byword.  The  work 
itself  {Breviarium  rerum  gestarum  populi  Romani)  is  divided 
into  two  parts — one  geographical,  the  other  historical.  The 
chief  authorities  used  are  Livy,,  iEutropius  and  Florus.  It  is 
extremely  meagre,  but  the  fact  that  the  last  part  is  based  on  the 
writer's  personal  recollections  makes  it  of  some  value  for  the 
history  of  the  4th  century. 

Editions  by  W.  Forster  (Vienna,  1873)  and  C.  Wagener  (Prague, 
1886) ;  see  also  R.  Jacobi,  De  Festi  breviarii  fontibus  (Bonn,  1874), 
and  H.  Peter,  Die  geschichtliche  Lilt,  iiber  die  romische  Kaiserzeit,  ii. 
p.  133  (1897),  where  the  epitomes  of  Festus,  Aurelius  Victor  and 
Eutropius  are  compared. 

FESTUS,  SEXTUS  POMPEIUS,  Roman  grammarian,  probably 
flourished  in  the  2nd  century  A.D.  He  made  an  epitome  of  the 
celebrated  work  De  verborum  significalu,  a  valuable  treatise 
alphabetically  arranged,  written  by  M.  Verrius  Flaccus,  a 
freedman  and  celebrated  grammarian  who  flourished  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus.  Festus  gives  the  etymology  as  well  as  the 
meaning  of  every  word;  and  his  work  throws  considerable  light 
on  the  language,  mythology  and  antiquities  of  ancient  Rome. 
He  made  a  few  alterations,  and  inserted  some  critical  remarks 
of  his  own.  He  also  omitted  such  ancient  Latin  words  as  had 
long  been  obsolete;  these  he  discussed  in  a  separate  work  now  lost, 
entitled  Priscorum  verborum  cum  exemplis.  Of  Flaccus's  work 
only  a  few  fragments  remain,  and  of  Festus's  epitome  only  one 
original  copy  is  in  existence.  This  MS.,  the  Codex  Festi  Farne- 
sianus  at  Naples,  only  contains  the  second  half  of  the  work 
(M-V)  and  that  not  in  a  perfect  condition.  It  has  been  published 
in  facsimile  by  Thewrewk  de  Ponor  (1890).  At  the  close  of 
the  8th  century  Paulus  Diaconus  abridged  the  abridgment. 
From  his  work  and  the  solitary  copy  of  the  original  attempts 
have  been  made  with  the  aid  of  conjecture  to  reconstruct  the 
treatise  of  Festus. 

Of  the  early  editions  the  best  are  those  of  J.  Scaliger  (1565)  and 
Fulvius  Ursinus  (1581);  in  modern  times,  those  of  C.  O.  Muller 
(1839,  reprinted  1880)  and  de  Ponor  (1889);  see  J.  E.  Sandys, 
History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  vol.  i.  (1906). 

FETIS,  FRANQOIS  JOSEPH  (1784-1871),  Belgian  composer 
and  writer  on  music,  was  born  at  Mons  in  Belgium  on  the  25th 
of  March  1784,  and  was  trained  as  a  musician  by  his  father,  who 
followed  the  same  calling.  His  talent  for  composition  manifested 


FETISHISM 


295 


itself  at  the  age  of  seven,  and  at  nine  years  old  he  was  an  organist 
at  Sainte-Waudru.  In  1800  he  went  to  Paris  and  completed  his 
studies  at  the  conservatoire  under  such  masters  as  Boieldieu, 
Rey  and  Pradher.  In  1806  he  undertook  the  revision  of  the 
Roman  liturgical  chants  in  the  hope  of  discovering  and  estab- 
lishing their  original  form.  In  this  year  he  married  the  grand- 
daughter of  the  Chevalier  de  Keralio,  and  also  began  his 
Biographic  universelle  des  musiciens,  the  most  important  of  his 
works,  which  did  not  appear  until  1834.  In  1821  he  was 
appointed  professor  at  the  conservatoire.  In  1827  he  founded 
the  Revue  musicale,  the  first  serious  paper  in  France  devoted 
exclusively  to  musical  matters.  Fetis  remained  in  the  French 
capital  till  in  1833,  at  the  request  of  Leopold  I.,  he  became 
director  of  the  conservatoire  of  Brussels  and  the  king's  chapel- 
master.  He  also  was  the  founder,  and,  till  his  death,  the  con- 
ductor of  the  celebrated  concerts  attached  to  the  conservatoire 
of  Brussels,  and  he  inaugurated  a  free  series  of  lectures  on 
musical  history  and  philosophy.  He  produced  a  large  quantity 
of  original  compositions,  from  the  opera  and  the  oratorio  down 
to  the  simple  chanson.  But  all  these  are  doomed  to  oblivion. 
Although  not  without  traces  of  scholarship  and  technical  ability, 
they  show  total  absence  of  genius.  More  important  are  his 
writings  on  music.  They  are  partly  historical,  such  as  the 
Curiosites  historiques  dela  musique  (Paris,  1850),  and  the  Histoire 
universelle  de  musique  (Paris,  1869-1876);  partly  theoretical, 
such  as  the  Methode  des  melhodes  de  piano  (Paris,  1837),  written 
in  conjunction  with  Moscheles.  Fetis  died  at  Brussels  on  the 
26th  of  March  1871.  His  valuable  library  was  purchased  by 
the  Belgian  government  and  presented  to  the  Brussels  con- 
servatoire. His  work  as  a  musical  historian  was  prodigious 
in  quantity,  and,  in  spite  of  many  inaccuracies  and  some  pre- 
judice revealed  in  it,  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  its  value  for 
the  student. 

FETISHISM,  an  ill-defined  term,  used  in  many  different 
senses:  (a)  the  worship  of  inanimate  objects,  often  regarded 
as  peculiarly  African;  (b)  negro  religion  in  general;  (c)  the 
worship  of  inanimate  objects  conceived  as  the  residence  of  spirits 
not  inseparably  bound  up  with,  nor  originally  connected  with, 
such  objects;  (d)  the  doctrine  of  spirits  embodied  in,  or  attached 
to,  or  conveying  influence  through,  certain  material  objects 
(Tylor);  (e)  the  use  of  charms,  which  are  not  worshipped,  but 
derive  their  magical  power  from  a  god  or  spirit;  (/)  the  use  as 
charms  of  objects  regarded  as  magically  potent  in  themselves. 
A  further  extension  is  given  by  some  writers,  who  use  the  term 
as  synonymous  with  the  religions  of  primitive  peoples,  including 
under  it  not  only  the  worship  of  inanimate  objects,  such  as  the 
sun,  moon  or  stars,  but  even  such  phases  of  primitive  philosophy 
as  totemism.  Comte  applied  the  term  to  denominate  the  view 
of  nature  more  commonly  termed  animism. 

Derivation. — The  word  fetish  (or  fetich)  was  first  used  in 
connexion  with  Africa  by  the  Portuguese  discoverers  of  the  last 
half  of  the  isth  century;  relics  of  saints,  rosaries  and  images 
were  then  abundant  all  over  Europe  and  were  regarded  as 
possessing  magical  virtue;  they  were  termed  by  the  Portuguese 
feiticos  (i.e.  charms).  Early  voyagers  to  West  Africa  applied 
this  term  to  the  wooden  figures,  stones,  &c.,  regarded  as  the 
temporary  residence  of  gods  or  spirits,  and  to  charms.  There 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  v/ordfeitico  was  applied  either  to 
an  animal  or  to  the  local  spirit  of  a  river,  hill  or  forest.  Feitico 
is  sometimes  interpreted  to  mean  artificial,  made  by  man,  but 
the  original  sense  is  more  probably  "  magically  active  or  artful." 
The  word  was  probably  brought  into  general  use  by  C.  de  Brosses, 
author  of  Du  culte  des  dieux  fetiches  (1760),  but  it  is  frequently 
used  by  W.  Bosnian  in  his  Description  of  Guinea  (1705),  in  the 
sense  of  "  the  false  god,  Bossum"  or  "  Bohsum,"  properly  a 
tutelary  deity  of  an  individual. 

Definition. — The  term  fetish  is  commonly  understood  to  mean 
the  worship  of  or  respect  for  material,  inanimate  objects,  con- 
ceived as  magically  active  from  a  virtue  inherent  in  them, 
temporarily  or  permanently,  which  does  not  arise  from  the  fact 
that  a  god  or  spirit  is  believed  to  reside  in  them  or  communicate 
virtue  to  them.  Taken  in  this  sense  fetishism  is  probably  a 


mark  of  decadence.  There  is  no  evidence  of  any  such  belief  in 
Africa  or  elsewhere  among  primitive  peoples.  It  is  only  after 
a  certain  grade  of  culture  has  been  attained  that  the  belief  in 
luck  appears;  the  fetish  is  essentially  a  mascot  or  object  carried 
for  luck. 

Ordinary  Usage. — In  the  sense  in  which  Dr  Tylor  uses  the 
term  the  fetish  is  (i)  a  "  god-house  "  or  (2)  a  charm  derived  from 
a  tutelary  deity  or  spirit,  and  magically  active  in  virtue  of  its 
association  with  such  deity  or  spirit.  In  the  first  of  these  senses 
the  word  is  applied  to  objects  ranging  from  the  unworked  stone 
to  the  pot  or  the  wooden  figure,  and  is  thus  hardly  distinguishable 
from  idolatry,  (a)  The  bohsum  or  tutelary  deity  of  a  particular 
section  of  the  community  is  derived  from  the  local  gods  through 
the  priests  by  the  performance  of  a  certain  series  of  rites.  The 
priest  indicates  into  what  object  the  bohsum  will  enter  and 
proceeds  to  the  abode  of  the  local  god  to  procure  the  object  in 
question.  After  making  an  offering  the  object  is  carried  to  an 
appropriate  spot  and  a  "  fetish  "  tree  set  up  as  a  shade  for  it, 
which  is  sacred  so  long  as  the  bohsum  remains  beneath  it.  The 
fall  of  the  tree  is  believed  to  mark  the  departure  of  the  spirit. 
A  bohsum  may  also  be  procured  through  a  dream ;  but  in  this 
case,  too,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  to  the  priest  to  decide  whether 
the  dream  was  veridical,  (b)  The  suhman  or  tutelary  deity  of 
an  individual  is  not  an  object  selected  at  random  to  be  the 
residence  of  the  spirit.  It  is  only  procurable  at  the  residence 
of  a  Sasabonsum,  a  malicious  non-human  being.  Various 
ceremonies  are  performed,  and  a  spirit  connected  with  the 
Sasabonsum  is  finally  asked  to  enter  an  object.  This  is  then 
kept  for  three  days;  if  no  good  fortune  results  it  is  concluded 
either  that  the  spirit  did  not  enter  the  object  selected,  or  that 
it  is  disinclined  to  extend  its  protection.  In  either  case  the 
ceremonies  must  be  commenced  afresh.  Otherwise  offerings  and 
even  human  sacrifices  in  exceptional  cases  are  made  to  the  suhman. 
It  is  commonly  believed  that  the  negro  claims  the  power  of 
coercing  his  tutelary  deity.  This  is  denied  by  Colonel  Ellis. 
It  is  certain  that  coercion  of  deities  is  not  unknown,  but  further 
evidence  is  required  that  the  negro  uses  it  when  his  deity  is 
refractory. 

The  suhman  can,  it  is  believed,  communicate  a  part  of  his 
powers  to  various  objects  in  which  he  does  not  dwell;  these  are 
also  termed  suhman  by  the  natives  and  may  have  given  rise  to 
the  belief  that  the  practices  commonly  termed  fetishism  are  not 
animistic.  These  charms  are  many  in  number;  offerings  of 
food  and  drink  are  made,  i.e.  to  the  portion  of  the  power  of  the 
suhman  which  resides  in  them.  These  charms  can  only  be  made 
by  the  possessor  of  the  suhman. 

On  the  Guinea  Coast  the  spirit  implanted  in  the  object  is 
usually,  if  not  invariably,  non-human.  Farther  south  on  the 
Congo  the  "  fetish  "  is  inhabited  by  human  souls  also.  The 
priest  goes  into  the  forest  and  cuts  an  image;  when  a  party 
enters  a  wood  for  this  purpose  they  may  not  mention  the  namt 
of  any  living  being  unless  they  wish  him  to  die  and  his  soul  to 
enter  the  fetish.  The  right  person  having  been  selected,  his  name 
is  mentioned;  and  he  is  believed  to  die  within  ten  days,  his 
soul  passing  into  the  nkissi.  It  is  into  these  figures  that  the  nails 
are  driven,  in  order  to  procure  the  vengeance  of  the  indwelling 
spirit  on  some  enemy. 

In  many  cases  the  fetish  spirit  is  believed  to  leave  the  "  god- 
house  "  and  pass  for  the  time  being  into  the  body  of  the  priest, 
who  manifests  the  phenomena  of  possession  (q.v.).  It  is  a 
common  error  to  suppose  that  the  whole  of  African  religion  is 
embraced  in  the  practices  connected  with  these  tutelary  deities; 
so  far  from  this  being  the  case,  belief  in  higher  gods,  not  neces- 
sarily accompanied  with  worship  or  propitiation,  is  common 
in  many  parts  of  Africa,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
it  had  been  derived  in  every  case,  perhaps  not  in  any  case,  from 
Christian  or  Mahommedan  missionaries. 

See  A.  B.  Ellis,  Tshi-speaking  Peoples,  chs.  vii.,  viii.  and  xii.; 
Waitz,  Anthropologie  der  Naturvolker,  ii.  174;  R.  E.  Dennett  in 
Folklore,  vol.  xyi. ;  R.  H.  Nassau,  Fetichism  in  West  Africa  (1904); 
also  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture,  ii.  143,  and  M.  H.  Kingsley,  Wat 
African  Studies  (and  ed.,  1901),  where  the  term  is  used  in  a  more 
extended  sense.  (N.  W.  T.) 


296 


FETTERCAIRN— FEUCHTERSLEBEN 


FETTERCAIRN,  a  burgh  of  barony  of  Kincardineshire, 
Scotland,  4!  m.  N.W.  of  Laurencekirk.  Pop.  of  parish  (1901) 
1390.  The  chief  structures  include  a  public  hall,  library  and 
reading-room,  and  the  arch  built  to  commemorate  the  visit 
of  Queen  Victoria  in  1861.  The  most  interesting  relic,  however, 
is  the  market  cross,  which  originally  belonged  to  the  extinct 
town  of  Kincardine.  To  the  S.W.  is  Balbegno  Castle,  dating 
from  1509,  and  planned  on  a  scale  that  threatened  to  ruin  its 
projector.  It  contains  a  lofty  hall  of  fine  proportions.  Two 
miles  N.  is  Fasque,  the  estate  of  the  Gladstones,  which  was 
acquired  in  1831  by  Sir  John  Gladstone  (1764-1851),  the  father 
of  W.  E.  Gladstone.  The  castle,  which  stands  in  beautiful 
grounds,  was  built  in  1809.  Sir  John  Gladstone's  tomb  is  in  the 
Episcopal  church  of  St  Andrew,  which  he  erected  and  endowed. 
In  the  immediate  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  the  royal  castle  of 
Kincardine,  where,  according  to  tradition,  Kenneth  III.  was 
assassinated  in  1005,  although  he  is  more  generally  said  to  have 
been  slain  in  battle  at  Monzievaird,  near  Crieff  in  Perthshire. 

FETTERS  AND  HANDCUFFS,  instruments  for  securing  the 
feet  and  hands  of  prisoners  under  arrest,  or  as  a  means  of  punish- 
ment. The  old  names  were  manacles,  shackbolts  or  shackles, 
gyves  and  swivels.  Until  within  recent  times  handcuffs  were  of 
two  kinds,  the  figure-8  ones  which  confined  the  hands  close 
together  either  in  front  or  behind  the  prisoner,  or  the  rings  from 
the  wrists  were  connected  by  a  short  chain  much  on  the  model 
of  the  handcuffs  in  use  by  the  police  forces  of  to-day.  Much 
improvement  has  been  made  in  handcuffs  of  late.  They  are  much 
lighter  and  they  are  adjustable,  fitting  any  wrist,  and  thus  the 
one  pair  will  serve  a  police  officer  for  any  prisoner.  For  the 
removal  of  gangs  of  convicts  an  arrangement  of  handcuffs  con- 
nected by  a  light  chain  is  used,  the  chain  running  through  a  ring 
on  each  fetter  and  made  fast  at  both  ends  by  what  are  known 
as  end-locks.  Several  recently  invented  appliances  are  used  as 
handcuffs,  e.g.  snaps,  nippers,  twisters.  They  differ  from 
handcuffs  in  being  intended  for  one  wrist  only,  the  other  portion 
being  held  by  the  captor.  In  the  snap  the  smaller  circlet  is 
snapped  to  on  the  prisoner's  wrist.  The  nippers  can  be  instantly 
fastened  on  the  wrist.  The  twister,  not  now  used  in  England  as 
being  liable  to  injure  prisoners  seriously,  is  a  chain  attached  to 
two  handles;  the  chain  is  put  round  the  wrist  and  the  two 
handles  twisted  till  the  chain  is  tight  enough. 

Leg-irons  are  anklets  of  steel  connected  by  light  chains  long 
enough  to  permit  of  the  wearer  walking  with  short  steps.  An 
obsolete  form  was  an  anklet  and  chain  to  the  end  of  which  was 
attached  a  heavy  weight,  usually  a  round  shot.  The  Spanish 
'  used  to  secure  prisoners  in  bilboes,  shackles  round  the  ankles 
secured  by  a  long  bar  of  iron.  This  form  of  leg-iron  was  adopted 
in  England,  and  was  much  employed  in  the  services  during  the 
1 7th  and  i8th  centuries.  An  ancient  example  is  preserved  in 
the  Tower  of  London.  The  French  marine  still  use  a  kind  of 
leg-iron  of  the  bilbo  type. 

FEU,  in  Scotland,  the  commonest  mode  of  land  tenure.  The 
word  is  the  Scots  variant  of  "  fee  "  (q.v.).  The  relics  of  the 
feudal  system  still  dominate  Scots  conveyancing.  That  system 
has  recognized  as  many  as  seven  forms  of  tenure — ward,  socage, 
mortification,  feu,  blench,  burgage,  booking.  Ward,  the  original 
military  holding,  was  abolished  in  1747  (20  G.  II.  c.  20),  as  an 
effect  of  the  rising  of  1745.  Socage  and  mortification  have  long 
since  disappeared.  Booking  is  a  conveyance  peculiar  to  the 
borough  of  Paisley,  but  does  not  differ  essentially  from  feu. 
Burgage  is  the  system  by  which  land  is  held  in  royal  boroughs. 
Blench  holding  is  by  a  nominal  payment,  as  of  a  penny  Scots,  or 
a  red  rose,  often  only  to  be  rendered  upon  demand.  In  feu 
holding  there  is  a  substantial  annual  payment  in  money  or  in 
kind  in  return  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  land.  The  crown  is  the 
first  overlord  or  superior,  and  land  is  held  of  it  by  crown  vassals, 
but  they  in  their  turn  may  "  feu  "  their  land,  as  it  is  called,  to 
others  who  become  their  vassals,  whilst  they  themselves  are 
mediate  overlords  or  superiors;  and  this  process  of  sub-infeuda- 
tion  may  be  repeated  to  an  indefinite  extent.  The  Conveyancing 
Act  of  1874  renders  any  clause  in  a  disposition  against  sub- 
infeudation  null  and  void.  In  England  on  the  other  hand,  since 


1290,  when  the  statute  Quid  Emptores  was  passed,  sub-infeuda- 
tion  is  impossible,  as  the  new  holder  simply  effaces  the  grantor, 
holding  by  the  same  title  as  the  grantor  himself.  Casualties, 
which  are  a  feature  of  land  held  in  feu,  are  certain  payments 
made  to  the  superior,  contingent  on  the  happening  of  certain 
events.  The  most  important  was  the  payment  of  an  amount 
equal  to  one  year's  feu-duty  by  a  new  holder,  whether  heir  or 
purchaser  of  the  feu.  The  Conveyancing  Act  of  1874  abolished 
casualties  in  all  feus  after  that  date,  and  power  was  given  to 
redeem  this  burden  on  feus  already  existing.  If  the  vassal  does 
not  pay  the  feu-duty  for  two  years,  the  superior,  among  other 
remedies,  may  obtain  by  legal  process  a  decree  of  irritancy, 
whereupon  tinsel  or  forfeiture  of  the  feu  follows.  Previously  to 
1832  only  the  vassals  of  the  crown  had  votes  in  parliamentary 
elections  for  the  Scots  counties,  and  this  made  in  favour  of  sub- 
infeudation  as  against  sale  outright.  In  Orkney  and  Shetland 
land  is  still  largely  possessed  as  udal  property,  a  holding  derived 
or  handed  down  from  the  time  when  these  islands  belonged 
to  Norway.  Such  lands  may  be  converted  into  feus  at  the  will 
of  the  proprietor  and  held  from  the  crown  or  Lord  Dundas.  At 
one  time  the  system  of  conveyancing  by  which  the  transfer 
of  feus  was  effected  was  curious  and  complicated,  requiring  the 
presence  of  parties  on  the  land  itself  and  the  symbolical  handing 
over  of  the  property,  together  with  the  registration  of  various 
documents.  But  legislation  since  the  middle  of  the  igth  century 
has  changed  all  that.  The  system  of  feuing  in  Scotland,  as 
contrasted  with  that  of  long  leaseholds  in  England,  has  tended 
to  secure  greater  solidity  and  firmness  in  the  average  buildings 
of  the  northern  country. 

See  Erskine's  Principles;  Bell's  Principles;  Rankine,  Law  of 
Landowner  ship  in  Scotland. 

FEUCHERES,  SOPHIE,  BARONNE  DE  (1795-1840),  Anglo- 
French  adventuress,  was  born  at  St  Helens,  Isle  of  Wight,  in 
1795,  the  daughter  of  a  drunken  fisherman  named  Dawes. 
She  grew  up  in  the  workhouse,  went  up  to  London  as  a  servant, 
and  became  the  mistress  of  the  due  de  Bourbon,  afterwards 
prince  de  Conde.  She  was  ambitious,  and  he  had  her  well 
educated  not  only  in  modern  languages  but,  as  her  exercise 
books — still  extant — show,  in  Greek  and  Latin.  He  took  her 
to  Paris  and,  to  prevent  scandal  and  to  qualify  her  to  be  received 
at  court,  had  her  married  in  1818  to  Adrien  Victor  de  Feucheres, 
a  major  in  the  Royal  Guards.  The  prince  provided  her  dowry, 
made  her  husband  his  aide-de-camp  and  a  baron.  The  baroness, 
pretty  and  clever,  became  a  person  of  consequence  at  the  court 
of  Louis  XVIII.  De  Feucheres,  however,  finally  discovered 
the  relations  between  his  wife  and  Conde,  whom  he  had  been 
assured  was  her  father,  left  her — he  obtained  a  legal  separation 
in  1827 — and  told  the  king,  who  thereupon  forbade  her  appear- 
ance at  court.  Thanks  to  her  influence,  however,  Conde  was 
induced  in  1829  to  sign  a  will  bequeathing  about  ten  million 
francs  to  her,  and  the  rest  of  his  estate — more  than  sixty-six 
millions — to  the  due  d'Aumale,  fourth  son  of  Louis  Philippe. 
Again  she  was  in  high  favour.  Charles  X.  received  her  at  court, 
Talleyrand  visited  her,  her  niece  married  a  marquis  and  her 
nephew  was  made  a  baron.  Conde,  wearied  by  his  mistress's 
importunities,  and  but  half  pleased  by  the  advances  made  him 
by  the  government  of  July,  had  made  up  his  mind  to  leave 
France  secretly.  When  on  the  27th  of  August  1830  he  was 
found  hanging  dead  from  his  window,  the  baroness  was  suspected 
and  an  inquiry  was  held,  but  the  evidence  of  death  being  the 
result  of  any  crime  appearing  insufficient,  she  was  not  prosecuted. 
Hated  as  she  was  alike  by  legitimatists  and  republicans,  life 
in  Paris  was  no  longer  agreeable  for  her,  and  she  returned  to 
London,  where  she  died  in  December  1840. 

FEUCHTERSLEBEN,  ERNST,  FREIHERR  VON  (1806-1849), 
Austrian  physician,  poet  and  philosopher,  was  born  in  Vienna 
on  the  2gth  of  April  1806;  of  an  old  Saxon  noble  family.  He 
attended  the  "  Theresian  Academy  "  in  his  native  city,  and  in 
1825  entered  its  university  as  a  student  of  medicine.  In  1833 
he  obtained  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine,  settled  in  Vienna  as 
a  practising  surgeon,  and  in  1834  married.  The  young  doctor 
kept  up  his  connexion  with  the  university,  where  he  lectured,  and 


FEUD— FEUDALISM 


297 


in  1844  was  appointed  dean  of  the  faculty  of  medicine.  He 
cultivated  the  acquaintance  of  Franz  Grillparzer,  Heinrich 
Laube,  and  other  intellectual  lights  of  the  Viennese  world, 
interested  himself  greatly  in  educational  matters,  and  in  1848, 
while  refusing  the  presidency  of  the  ministry  of  education, 
accepted  the  appointment  of  under  secretary  of  state  in  that 
department.  His  health,  however,  gave  way,  and  he  died  at 
Vienna  on  the  3rd  of  September  1849.  He  was  not  only  a 
clever  physician,  but  a  poet  of  fine  aesthetical  taste  and  a 
philosopher.  Among  his  medical  works  may  be  mentioned:  Uber 
das  Hippokratische  erste  Buck  von  der  Dial  (Vienna,  1835), 
Arzte  und  Publicum  (Vienna,  1848)  and  Lehrbuch  der  drztlichen 
Seelenkunde  (1845).  His  poetical  works  include  Gedichte  (Stutt. 
1836),  among  which  is  the  well-known  beautiful  hymn,  which 
Mendelssohn  set  to  music.  "  Es  ist  bestimmt  in  Gottes  Rat." 
As  a  philosopher  he  is  best  known  by  his  Zur  Diiitetik  der  Seelc 
[Dietetics  of  the  soul]  (Vienna,  1838),  which  attained  great 
popularity,  and  the  tendency  of  which,  in  contrast  to  Hufeland's 
Makrobiotik  (On  the  Art  of  Prolonging  Life),  is  to  show  the  true 
way  of  rendering  life  harmonious  and  lovely.  This  work  had 
by  1906  gone  into  fifty  editions.  Noteworthy  also  is  his  Beitrage 
zur  Litteratur-,  Kunst- und Lebenstheorie  (Vienna,  1837-1841),  and 
an  anthology,  Geist  der  deutschen  Klassiker  (Vienna,  1851; 
3rd  ed.  1865-1866). 

His  collected  works  (wkh  the  exception  of  the  purely  medical  ones) 
were  published  in  7  vols.  by  Fr.  Hebbel  (Vienna,  1851-1853).  See 
M.  Necker,  "  Ernst  von  Feuchtersleben,  der  Freund  Grillparzers, " 
in  the  Jahrbuch  der  Grillparzer  Gesellschaft,  vol.  iii.  (Vienna,  1893). 

FEUD,  animosity,  hatred,  especially  a  permanent  condition  of 
hostilities  between  persons,  and  hence  applied  to  a  state  of  private 
warfare  between  tribes,  clans  or  families,  a  "  vendetta."  The  word 
appears  in  Mid.  Eng.  as  fede,  which  came  through  the  O.  Fr. 
from  the  O.  High  Ger.  fehida,  modern  Fehde.  The  O.  Teutonic 
faiho,  an  adjective,  the  source  of  fehida,  gives  the  0.  Eng.  fah, 
foe.  "  Fiend,"  originally  an  enemy  (cf.  Ger.  Feind),  hence  the 
enemy  of  mankind,  the  devil,  and  so  any  evil  spirit,  is  probably 
connected  with  the  same  source.  The  word  fede  was  of  Scottish 
usage,  but  in  the  i6th  century  took  the  formfoode,fewd  in  English. 
The  New  English  Dictionary  points  out  that  "  feud,  fee  (Lat. 
feudum)  could  not  have  influenced  the  change,  for  it  appears 
fifty  years  later  than  the  first  instances  of  foode,  &c.,  and  was 
only  used  by  writers  on  feudalism."  For  the  etymology  of 
"  feud  "  (feudum)  see  FEE,  and  for  its  history  see  FEUDALISM. 

FEUDALISM  (from  Late  Lat.  feodum  or  feudum,  a  fee  or 
fiel;  see  FEE).  In  every  case  of  institutional  growth  in  history 
two  things  are  to  be  clearly  distinguished  from  the  beginning 
for  a  correct  understanding  of  the  process  and  its  results.  One 
of  these  is  the  change  of  conditions  in  the  political  or  social 
environment  which  made  growth  necessary.  The  other  is  the 
already  existing  institutions  which  began  to  be  transformed  to 
meet  the  new  needs.  In  studying  the  origin  and  growth  of 
political  feudalism,  the  distinction  is  easy  to  make.  The  all- 
prevailing  need  of  the  later  Roman  and  early  medieval  society 
was  protection — protection  against  the  sudden  attacks  of 
invading  tribes  or  revolted  peasants,  against  oppressive  neigh- 
bours, against  the  unwarranted  demands  of  government  officers, 
or  even  against  the  legal  but  too  heavy  exactions  of  the  govern- 
ment itself.  In  the  days  of  the  decaying  empire  and  of  the 
chaotic  German  settlement,  the  weak  freeman,  the  small  land- 
owner, was  exposed  to  attack  in  almost  every  relation  of  life 
and  on  every  side.  The  protection  which  normally  it  is  the 
business  of  government  to  furnish  he  could  no  longer  obtain. 
He  must  seek  protection  elsewhere  wherever  he  could  get  it, 
and  pay  the  price  demanded  for  it.  This  is  the  great  social  fact — 
the  failure  of  government  to  perform  one  of  its  most  primary 
duties,  the  necessity  of  finding  some  substitute  in  private  life — 
extending  in  greater  or  less  degree  through  the  whole  formative 
period  of  feudalism,  which  explains  the  transformation  of 
institutions  that  brought  it  into  existence.  Similar  conditions 
have  produced  an  organization  which  may  be  called  feudal,  in 
various  countries,  and  in  widely  separated  periods  of  history. 
While  these  different  feudal  systems  have  shown  a  general 


similarity  of  organization,  there  has  been  also  great  variation 
in  their  details,  because  they  have  started  from  different  institu- 
tions and  developed  in  different  ways.  The  feudal  system 
with  which  history  most  concerns  itself  is  that  of  medieval 
western  Europe,  and  it  is  that  which  will  be  here  described. 

The  institutions  which  the  need  of  protection  seized  upon 
when  it  first  began  to  turn  away  from  the  state  were  twofold. 
They  had  both  long  existed  in  the  private,  not  public, 
relations  of  the  Romans,  and  they  had  up  to  this  time  ori"las 
shown  no  tendency  to  grow.  One  of  them  related  to 
the  person,  to  the  man  himself,  without  reference  to  property, 
the  other  related  to  land.  There  are  thus  distinguished  at  the 
beginning  those  two  great  sides  of  feudalism  which  remained  to 
the  end  of  its  history  more  or  less  distinct,  the  personal  relation 
and  the  land  relation.  The  personal  institution  needs  little 
description.  It  was  the  Roman  patron  and  client  relationship 
which  had  remained  in  existence  into  the  days  of  the  empire, 
in  later  times  less  important  perhaps  legally  than  socially,  and 
which  had  been  reinforced  in  Gaul  by  very  similar  practices  in 
use  among  the  Celts  before  their  conquest.  The  description  of 
this  institution  which  has  come  down  to  us  from  Roman  sources 
of  the  days  when  feudalism  was  beginning  is  not  so  detailed 
as  we  could  wish,  but  we  can  see  plainly  enough  that  it  met  a 
frequent  need,  that  it  was  called  by  a  new  name,  the  patrocinium, 
and  that  it  was  firmly  enough  entrenched  in  usage  to  survive 
the  German  conquest,  and  to  be  taken  up  and  continued  by 
the  conquerors.  In  its  new  use,  alike  in  the  later  Roman  and  the 
early  German  state,  the  landless  freeman  who  could  not  support 
himself  went  to  some  powerful  man,  stated  his  need,  and  offered 
his  services,  those  proper  to  a  freeman,  in  return  for  shelter  and 
support .  This  transaction ,  which  was  called  commendation ,  gave 
rise  in  the  German  state  to  a  written  contract  which  related  the 
facts  and  provided  a  penalty  for  its  violation.  It  created  a 
relationship  of  protection  and  support  on  one  side,  and  of  free 
service  on  the  other. 

The  other  institution,  relating  to  land,  was  that  known  to  the 
Roman  law  as  the  precarium,  a  name  derived  from  one  of  its 
essential  features  through  all  its  history,  the  prayer  of  the 
suppliant  by  which  the  relationship  was  begun.  The  precarium 
was  a  form  of  renting  land  not  intended  primarily  for  income, 
but  for  use  when  the  lease  was  made  from  friendship  for  example, 
or  as  a  reward,  or  to  secure  a  debt.  Legally  its  characteristic 
feature  was  that  the  lessee  had  no  right  of  any  kind  against 
the  grantor.  The  owner  could  call  in  his  land  and  terminate 
the  relation  at  any  time,  for  any  reason,  or  for  none  at  all. 
Even  a  definite  understanding  at  the  outset  that  the  lease  might 
be  enjoyed  to  a  specified  date  was  no  protection.1  It  followed 
of  course  that  the  heir  had  no  right  in  the  land  which  his  father 
held  in  this  way,  nor  was  the  heir  of  the  donor  bound  by  his  father's 
act.  The  legal  character  of  this  transaction  is  summed  up  in  a 
well-known  passage  in  the  Digest  : — Interdictum  de  precariis 
merilo  introductum  est,  quia  nulla  eo  nomine  juris  civilis  actio 
esset,  magis  enim  ad  donationes  et  beneficii  causam,  quam  ad 
negotii  contracti  special  precarii  conditio?  This  may  be  para- 
phrased as  follows:— The  precarium  tenant  may  employ  the 
interdict  against  a  third  party,  because  he  cannot  use  the 
ordinary  civil  action,  his  holding  being  not  a  matter  of  business 
but  rather  of  favour  and  kindness.  It  should  be  noted  that  from 
its  very  beginning  the  land  relationship  of  feudalism  was  not 
created  primarily  for  the  grantor's  income,  but  that  it  emphasized 
in  the  most  striking  way  his  continued  ownership. 

As  used  for  protection  in  later  Roman  days  the  precarium 
gave  rise  to  what  was  called  the  commendation  of  lands,  patro- 
cinium fundorum.  The  poor  landowner,  likely  to  lose  all  that 
he  had  from  one  kind  of  oppression  or  another,  went  to  the  great 
landowner,  his  neighbour,  whose  position  gave  him  immunity 
from  attack  or  the  power  to  prevent  official  abuses,  and  begged 
to  be  protected.  The  rich  man  answered,  I  can  only  protect  my 
own.  Of  necessity  the  poor  man  must  surrender  to  his  powerful 
neighbour  the  ownership  of  his  lands,  which  he  then  received 
back  as  a  precarium — gaining  protection  during  his  lifetime 
1  Digest,  xliii.  26.  12.  *  Ibid,  xliii.  26.  14,  and  cf.  17. 


298 


FEUDALISM 


at  the  cost  of  his  children,  who  were  left  without  legal  claim  and 
compelled  to  make  the  best  terms  they  could.1  Applied  to  this 
use  the  precarium  found  extensive  employment  in  the  last  age 
of  the  empire.  The  government  looked  on  the  practice  with 
great  disfavour,  because  it  transferred  large  areas  from  the  easy 
access  of  the  state  to  an  ownership  beyond  its  reach.  The  laws 
repeatedly  forbade  it  under  increasing  penalties,  but  clearly 
it  could  not  be  stopped.  The  motive  was  too  strong  on  both 
sides — the  need  of  protection  on  one  side,  the  natural  desire  to 
increase  large  possessions  and  means  of  self-defence  on  the  other. 

These  practices  the  Prankish  conquerors  of  Gaul  found  in 
full  possession  of  society  when  they  entered  into  that  province. 
They  seem  to  have  understood  them  at  once,  and,  like 
much  else  Roman,  to  have  made  them  their  own  with- 
mea  out  material  change.  The  patrocinium  they  were  made 

ready  to  understand  by  the  existence  of  a  somewhat 
similar  institution  among  themselves,  the  comitatus,  described 
by  Tacitus.  In  this  institution  the  chief  of  the  tribe,  or  of  some 
plainly  marked  division  of  the  tribe,  gathered  about  himself  a 
band  of  chosen  warriors,  who  formed  a  kind  of  private  military 
force  and  body-guard.  The  special  features  of  the  institution 
were  the  strong  tie  of  faith  and  service  which  bound  the  man, 
the  support  and  rewards  given  by  the  lord,  and  the  pride  of 
both  in  the  relationship.  The  patrocinium  might  well  seem  to 
the  German  only  a  form  of  the  comitalus,  but  it  was  a  form  which 
presented  certain  advantages  in  his  actual  situation.  The  chief 
of  these  was  perhaps  the  fact  that  it  was  not  confined  to  king  or 
tribal  chief,  but  that  every  noble  was  able  in  the  Roman  practice 
to  surround  himself  with  his  organized  private  army.  Probably 
this  fact,  together  with  the  more  general  fact  of  the  absorption 
in  most  things  of  the  German  in  the  Roman,  accounts  for  the 
substitution  of  the  patrocinium  for  the  comitatus  which  took 
place  under  the  Merovingians. 

This  change  did  not  occur,  however,  without  some  modification 
of  the  Roman  customs.  The  comitatus  made  contributions  of 
its  own  to  future  feudalism,  to  some  extent  to  its  institutional 
side,  largely  to  the  ideas  and  spirit  which  ruled  in  it.  Probably 
the  ceremony  which  grew  into  feudal  homage,  and  the  oath  of 
fealty,  certainly  the  honourable  position  of  the  vassal  and  his 
pride  in  the  relationship,  the  strong  tie  which  bound  lord  and 
man  together,  and  the  idea  that  faith  and  service  were  due  on 
both  sides  in  equal  measure,  we  may  trace  to  German  sources. 
But  we  must  not  forget  that  the  origin  of  the  vassal  relationship, 
as  an  institution,  is  to  be  found  on  Roman  and  not  on  German 
soil.  The  comitatus  developed  and  modified,  it  did  not  originate. 
Nor  was  the  feudal  system  established  in  any  sense  by  the  settle- 
ment of  the  comitatus  group  on  the  conquered  land.  The  uniting 
of  the  personal  and  the  land  sides  of  feudalism  came  long  after 
the  conquest,  and  in  a  different  way. 

To  the  precarium  German  institutions  offered  no  close  parallel. 
The  advantages,  however,  which  it  afforded  were  obvious,  and 
this  side  of  feudalism  developed  as  rapidly  after  the  conquest 
as  the  personal.  The  new  German  noble  was  as  eager  to  extend 
the  size  of  his  lands  and  to  increase  the  numbers  of  his  dependants 
as  the  Roman  had  been.  The  new  German  government  furnished 
no  better  protection  from  local  violence,  nor  was  it  able  any  more 
effectively  to  check  the  practices  which  were  creating  feudalism; 
indeed  for  a  long  time  it  made  no  attempt  to  do  so.  Precarium 
and  patrocinium  easily  passed  from  the  Roman  empire  to  the 
Prankish  kingdom,  and  became  as  firmly  rooted  in  the  new 
society  as  they  had  ever  been  in  the  old.  Up  to  this  point  we 
have  seen  only  the  small  landowner  and  the  landless  man  enter- 
ing into  these  relations.  Feudalism  could  not  be  established, 
however,  until  the  great  of  the  land  had  adopted  them  for 
themselves,  and  had  begun  to  enter  the  clientage  of  others  and 
to  hold  lands  by  the  precarium  tenure.  The  first  step  towards 
this  result  was  easily  and  quickly  taken.  The  same  class  con- 
tinued to  furnish  the  king's  men,  and  to  form  his  household  and 
body-guard  whether  the  relation  was  that  of  the  patrocinium  or 
the  comitatus,  and  to  be  made  noble  by  entering  into  it.  It  was 
later  that  they  became  clients  of  one  another,  and  in  part  at 
1  Salvian,  De  gub.  Dei,  v.  8,  ed.  Halm,  p.  62. 


least  as  a  result  of  their  adoption  of  the  precarium  tenure.  In 
this  latter  step  the  influence  of  the  Church  rather  than  of  the  king 
seems  to  have  been  effective.  The  large  estates  which  pious 
intentions  had  bestowed  on  the  Church  it  was  not  allowed  to 
alienate.  It  could  most  easily  make  them  useful  to  gain  the 
influence  and  support  which  it  needed,  and  to  provide  for  the 
public  functions  which  fell  to  its  share,  by  employing  the  pre- 
carium tenure.  On  the  other  side,  the  great  men  coveted  the 
wide  estates  of  bishop  and  abbot,  and  were  ready  without 
persuasion  to  annex  portions  of  them  to  their  own  on  the  easy 
terms  of  this  tenure,  not  always  indeed  observed  by  the  holder, 
or  able  to  be  enforced  by  the  Church.  The  employment  of  the 
precarium  by  the  Church  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  surest 
means  by  which  this  form  of  landholding  was  carried  over 
from  the  Romans  to  the  Prankish  period  and  developed  into 
new  forms.  It  came  to  be  made  by  degrees  the  subject  of 
written  contract,  by  which  the  rights  of  the  holder  were  more 
definitely  defined  and  protected  than  had  been  the  case  in 
Roman  law.  The  length  of  time  for  which  the  holding  should 
last  came  to  be  specified,  at  first  for  a  term  of  years  and  then  for 
life,  and  some  payment  to  the  grantor  was  provided  for,  not 
pretending  to  represent  the  economic  value  of  the  land,  but  only 
to  serve  as  a  mark  of  his  continued  ownership. 

These  changes  characterize  the  Merovingian  age  of  Prankish 
history.  That  period  had  practically  ended,  however,  before 
these  two  institutions  showed  any  tendency  to  join  together 
as  they  were  joined  in  later  feudalism.  Nor  had  the  king  up 
to  that  time  exerted  any  apparent  influence  on  the  processes 
that  were  going  forward.  Grants  of  land  of  the  Merovingian 
kings  had  carried  with  them  ownership  and  not  a  limited  right, 
and  the  king's  patrocinium  had  not  widened  in  extent  in  the 
direction  of  the  later  vassal  relation.  It  was  the  advent  of  the 
Carolingian  princes  and  the  difficulties  which  they  had  to  over- 
come that  carried  these  institutions  a  stage  further  forward. 
Making  their  way  up  from  a  position  among  the  nobility  to 
be  the  rulers  of  the  land,  and  finally  to  supplant  the  kings,  the 
Carolingians  had  especial  need  of  resources  from  which  to 
purchase  and  reward  faithful  support.  This  need  was  greatly  in- 
creased when  the  Arab  attack  on  southern  Gaul  forced  them  to 
transform  a  large  part  of  the  old  Prankish  foot  army  into  cavalry.2 
The  fundamental  principle  of  the  Prankish  military  system,  that 
the  man  served  at  his  own  expense,  was  still  unchanged.  It 
had  indeed  begun  to  break  down  under  the  strain  of  frequent 
and  distant  campaigns,  but  it  was  long  before  it  was  changed  as 
the  recognized  rule  of  medieval  service.  If  now,  in  addition 
to  his  own  expenses,  the  soldier  must  provide  a  horse  and  its 
keeping,  the  system  was  likely  to  break  down  altogether.  It 
was  this  problem  which  led  to  the  next  step.  To  solve  it  the 
early  Carolingian  princes,  especially  Charles  Martel,  who  found 
the  royal  domains  exhausted  and  their  own  inadequate,  grasped 
at  the  land  of  the  Church.  Here  was  enough  to  endow  an  army, 
if  some  means  could  be  devised  to  permit  its  use.  This  means 
was  found  in  the  precarium  tenure.  Keeping  alive,  as  it  did,  the 
fact  of  the  grantor's  ownership,  it  did  not  in  form  deprive  the 
Church  of  the  land.  Recognizing  that  ownership  by  a  small 
payment  only,  not  corresponding  to  the  value  of  the  land,  it 
left  the  larger  part  of  the  income  to  meet  the  need  which  had 
arisen.  At  the  same  time  undoubtedly  the  new  holder  of  the 
land,  if  not  already  the  vassal  of  the  prince,  was  obliged  to 
become  so  and  to  assume  an  obligation  of  service  with  a  mounted 
force  when  called  upon.3  This  expedient  seems  to  have  solved 
'the  problem.  It  gave  rise  to  the  numerous  precariae  verbo  regis, 
of  the  Church  records,  and  to  the  condemnation  of  Charles 
Martel  in  the  visions  of  the  clergy  to  worse  difficulties  in  the 
future  life  than  he  had  overcome  in  this.  The  most  important 
consequences  of  the  expedient,  however,  were  not  intended  or 
perceived  at  the  time.  It  brought  together  the  two  sides  of 
feudalism,  vassalage  and  benefice,  as  they  were  now  commonly 
called,  and  from  this  age  their  union  into  what  is  really  a  single 

1  H.  Brunner,  Zeitschr.  der  sav.  Stiff,  fur  Rechtsgeschichte,   Germ 
Abth.  viii.  1-38  (1887).     Also  in  his  Forschungen,  39-74  (1894). 
1  See  P.  Dahn,  Konige  der  Germanen,  viii.  2,  90  ff. 


FEUDALISM 


299 


institution  was  rapid;1  it  emphasized  military  service  as  an 
essential  obligation  of  the  vassal;  and  it  spread  the  vassal 
relation  between  individual  proprietors  and  the  sovereign  widely 
over  the  state. 

In  the  period  that  followed,  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  and  the 
later  Carolingian  age,  continued  necessities,  military  and  civil, 
forced  the  kings  to  recognize  these  new  institutions  more  fully, 
even  when  standing  in  a  position  between  the  government 
and  the  subject,  intercepting  the  public  duties  of  the  latter. 
The  incipient  feudal  baron  had  not  been  slow  to  take  advantage 
of  the  break-down  of  the  old  German  military  system.  As  in 
the  last  days  of  the  Roman  empire  the  poor  landowner  had  found 
his  only  refuge  from  the  exactions  of  the  government  in  the 
protection  of  the  senator,  who  could  in  some  way  obtain  exemp- 
tions, so  the  poor  Frank  could  escape  the  ruinous  demands  of 
military  service  only  by  submitting  himself  and  his  lands  to  the 
count,  who  did  not  hesitate  on  his  side  to  force  such  submission. 
Charlemagne  legislated  with  vigour  against  this  tendency,  trying 
to  make  it  easier  for  the  poor  freeman  to  fulfil  his  military  duties 
directly  to  the  state,  and  to  forbid  the  misuse  of  power  by  the 
rich,  but  he  was  not  more  successful  than  the  Roman  government 
had  been  in  a  like  attempt.  Finally  the  king  found  himself 
compelled  to  recognize  existing  facts,  to  lay  upon  the  lord  the 
duty  of  producing  his  men  in  the  field  and  to  allow  him  to 
appear  as  their  commander.  This  solved  the  difficulty  of  military 
service  apparently,  but  with  decisive  consequences.  Itcompleted 
the  transformation  of  the  army  into  a  vassal  army;  it  com- 
pleted the  recognition  of  feudalism  by  the  state,  as  a  legitimate 
relation  between  different  ranks  of  the  people;  and  it  recognized 
the  transformation  in  a  great  number  of  cases  of  a  public  duty 
into  a  private  obligation. 

In  the  meantime  another  institution  had  grown  up  in  this 
Franco-Roman  society,  which  probably  began  and  certainly 
assisted  in  another  transformation  of  the  same  kind.  This 
is  the  immunity.  Suggested  probably  by  Roman  practices, 
possibly  developed  directly  from  them,  it  received  a  great 
extension  in  the  Merovingian  period,  at  first  and  especially  in 
the  interest  of  the  Church,  but  soon  of  lay  land-holders.  By  the 
grant  of  an  immunity  to  a  proprietor  the  royal  officers,  the  count 
and  his  representatives,  were  forbidden  to  enter  his  lands  to 
exercise  any  public  function  there.  The  duties  which  the  count 
should  perform  passed  to  the  proprietor,  who  now  represented 
the  government  for  all  his  tenants  free  and  unfree.  Apparently 
no  modification  of  the  royal  rights  was  intended  by  this 
arrangement,  but  the  beginning  of  a  great  change  had  really 
been  made.  The  king  might  still  receive  the  same  revenues 
and  the  same  services  from  the  district  held  by  the  lord  as 
formerly,  but  for  their  payment  a  private  person  in  his  capacity 
as  overlord  was  now  responsible.  In  the  course  of  a  long 
period  characterized  by  a  weak  central  government,  it  was 
not  difficult  to  enlarge  the  rights  which  the  lord  thus 
obtained,  to  exclude  even  the  king's  personal  authority  from  the 
immunity,  and  to  translate  the  duties  and  payments  which  the 
tenant  had  once  owed  to  the  state  into  obligations  which  he 
owed  to  his  lord,  even  finally  into  incidents  of  his  tenure.  The 
most  important  public  function  whose  transformation  into  a 
private  possession  was  assisted  by  the  growth  of  the  immunity 
was  the  judicial.  This  process  had  probably  already  begun  in  a 
small  way  in  the  growth  of  institutions  which  belong  to  the 
economic  side  of  feudalism,  the  organization  of  agriculture 
on  the  great  estates.  Even  in  Roman  days  the  proprietor  had 
exercised  a  jurisdiction  over  the  disputes  of  his  unfree  tenants. 
Whether  this  could  by  its  own  growth  have  been  extended  over 
his  free  tenants  and  carried  so  far  as  to  absorb  a  local  court, 
like  that  of  the  hundred,  into  private  possession,  is  not  certain. 
It  seems  probable  that  it  could.  But  in  any  case,  the  immunity 
easily  carried  the  development  of  private  jurisdiction  through 
these  stages.  The  lord's  court  took  the  place  of  the  public 
court  in  civil,  and  even  by  degrees  in  criminal  cases.  The 
plaintiff,  even  if  he  were  under  another  lord,  was  obliged  to  sue 
in  the  court  of  the  defendant's  lord,  and  the  portion  of  the  fine 
1  F.  Dahn,  Konige  der  Germanen,  viii.  2,  197. 


for  a  breach  of  the  peace  which  should  have  gone  to  the  state 
went  in  the  end  to  the  lord. 

The  transfer  of  the  judicial  process,  and  of  the  financial  and 
administrative  sides  of  the  government  as  well,  into  private 
possession,  was  not,  however,  accomplished  entirely  by  the  road 
of  the  immunity.  As  government  weakened  after  the  strong 
days  of  Charlemagne,  and  disorder,  invasion,  and  the  difficulty 
of  intercommunication  tended  to  throw  the  locality  more  and 
more  upon  its  own  resources,  the  officer  who  had  once  been  the 
means  of  centralization,  the  count,  found  success  in  the  effort 
for  independence  which  even  Charlemagne  had  scarcely  overcome. 
He  was  able  to  throw  off  responsibility  to  any  central  authority, 
and  to  exercise  the  powers  which  had  been  committed  to  him  as 
an  agent  of  the  king,  as  if  they  were  his  own  private  possession. 
Nor  was  the  king's  aid  lacking  to  this  method  of  dividing  up  the 
royal  authority,  any  more  than  to  the  immunity,  for  it  became 
a  frequent  practice  to  make  the  administrative  office  into  a 
fief,  and  to  grant  it  to  be  held  in  that  form  of  property  by  the 
count.  In  this  way  the  feudal  county,  or  duchy,  formed  itself, 
corresponding  in  most  cases  only  roughly  to  the  old  administra- 
tive divisions  of  the  state,  for  within  the  bounds  of  the  county 
there  had  often  formed  private  feudal  possessions  too  powerful 
to  be  forced  into  dependence  upon  the  count,  sometimes  the 
vice-comes  had  followed  the  count's  example,  and  often,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  count  had  attached  to  his  county  like  private 
possessions  of  his  own  lying  outside  its  boundaries.  In  time 
the  private  lord,  who  had  never  been  an  officer  of  the  state, 
assumed  the  old  administrative  titles  and  called  himself  count 
or  viscount,  and  perhaps  with  some  sort  of  right,  for  his  position 
in  his  territories,  through  the  development  of  the  immunity, 
did  not  differ  from  that  now  held  by  the  man  who  had  been 
originally  a  count. 

In  these  two  ways  then  the  feudal  system  was  formed,  and 
took  possession  of  the  state  territorially,  and  of  its  functions  in 
government.  Its  earliest  stage  of  growth  was  that  of  the  private 
possession  only.  Under  a  government  too  weak  to  preserve 
order,  the  great  landowner  formed  his  estate  into  a  little  territory 
which  could  defend  itself.  His  smaller  neighbours  who  needed 
protection  came  to  him  for  it.  He  forced  them  to  become  his 
dependants  in  return  under  a  great  variety  of  forms,  but  especially 
developing  thereby  the  precarium  land  tenure  and  the  patrocinium 
personal  service,  and  organizing  a  private  jurisdiction  over  his 
tenants,  and  a  private  army  for  defence.  Finally  he  secured 
from  the  king  an  immunity  which  excluded  the  royal  officers 
from  his  lands  and  made  him  a  quasi-representative  of  the  state. 
In  the  meantime  his  neighbour  the  count  had  been  following 
a  similar  process,  and  in  addition  he  had  enjoyed  considerable 
advantages  of  his  own.  His  right  to  exact  military,  financial 
and  judicial  duties  for  the  state  he  had  used  to  force  men  to 
become  his  dependants,  and  then  he  had  stood  between  them 
and  the  state,  freeing  them  from  burdens  which  he  threw  with 
increased  weight  upon  those  who  still  stood  outside  his  personal 
protection.  In  ignorance  of  their  danger,  and  later  in  despair 
of  getting  public  services  adequately  performed  in  any  other 
way,  the  kings  first  adopted  for  themselves  some  of  the  forms 
and  practices  which  had  thus  grown  up,  and  by  degrees  recog- 
nized them  as  legally  proper  for  all  classes.  It  proved  to  be 
easier  to  hold  the  lord  responsible  for  the  public  duties  of  all 
his  dependants  because  he  was  the  king's  vassal  and  by  attaching 
them  as  conditions  to  the  benefices  which  he  held,  than  to 
enforce  them  directly  upon  every  subject. 

When  this  stage  was  reached  the  formative  age  of  feudalism 
may  be  considered  at  an  end.  When  the  government  of  the 
state  had  entered  into  feudalism,  and  the  king  was  as  much 
senior  as  king;  when  the  vassal  relationship  was  recognized 
as  a  proper  and  legal  foundation  of  public  duties;  when  the  two 
separate  sides  of  early  feudalism  were  united  as  the  almost 
universal  rule,  so  that  a  man  received  a  fief  because  he  owed  a 
vassal's  duties,  or  looked  at  in  the  other  and  finally  prevailing 
way,  that  he  owed  a  vassal's  duties  because  he  had  received  a 
fief;  and  finally,  when  the  old  idea  of  the  temporary  character 
of  the  precarium  tenure  was  lost  sight  of,  and  the  right  of  the 


300 

vassal's  heir  to  receive  his  father's  holding  was  recognized  as  the 
general  rule — then  the  feudal  system  may  be  called  full  grown. 
Not  that  the  age  of  growth  was  really  over.  Feudal  history 
was  always  a  becoming,  always  a  gradual  passing  from  one  stage 
to  another,  so  long  as  feudalism  continued  to  form  the  main 
organization  of  society.  But  we  may  say  that  the  formative 
age  was  over  when  these  features  of  the  system  had  combined 
to  be  its  characteristic  marks.  What  follows  is  rather  a  perfection 
of  details  in  the  direction  of  logical  completeness.  To  assign 
any  specific  date  to  the  end  of  this  formative  age  is  of  course 
impossible,  but  meaning  by  the  end  what  has  just  been  stated, 
we  shall  not  be  far  wrong  if  we  place  it  somewhere  near  the 
beginning  of  the  roth  century. 

Before  we  leave  the  history  of  feudal  origins  another  word  is 
necessary.  We  have  traced  a  definite  line  of  descent  for  feudal 
institutions  from  Roman  days  through  the  Merovingian  and 
Carolingian  ages  to  the  loth  century.  That  line  of  descent  can 
be  made  out  with  convincing  clearness  and  with  no  particular 
difficulty  from  epoch  to  epoch,  from  the  precarium  and  the 
patrocinium,  through  the  benefice  and  commendation,  to  the 
fief  and  vassalage.  But  the  definiteness  of  this  line  should  not 
cause  us  to  overlook  the  fact  that  there  was  during  these  centuries 
much  confusion  of  custom  and  practice.  All  round  and  about 
this  line  of  descent  there  was  a  crowd  of  varying  forms  branching 
off  more  or  less  widely  from  the  main  stem,  different  kinds  of 
commendation,  different  forms  of  precarium,  some  of  which 
varied  greatly  from  that  through  which  the  fief  descends,  and 
some  of  which  survived  in  much  the  old  character  and  under  the 
old  name  for  a  long  time  after  later  feudalism  was  definitely 
established.1  The  variety  and  seeming  confusion  which  reign 
in  feudal  society,  under  uniform  controlling  principles,  rule  also 
in  the  ages  of  beginning.  It  is  easy  to  lose  one's  bearings  by 
over-emphasizing  the  importance  of  variation  and  exception. 
It  is  indeed  true  that  what  was  the  exception,  the  temporary 
offshoot,  might  have  become  the  main  line.  It  would  then  have 
produced  a  system  which  would  have  been  feudal,  in  the  wide 
sense  of  the  term,  but  it  would  have  been  marked  by  different 
characteristics,  it  would  have  operated  in  a  somewhat  different 
way.  The  crowd  of  varying  forms  should  not  prevent  us  from 
seeing  that  we  can  trace  through  their  confusion  the  line  along 
which  the  characteristic  traits  and  institutions  of  European 
feudalism,  as  it  actually  was,  were  growing  constantly  more 
distinct.2  That  is  the  line  of  the  origin  of  the  feudal  system. 
(See  also  FRANCE:  Law  and  Institutions.) 

The  growth  which  we  have  traced  took  place  within  the 
Frantish  empire.  When  we  turn  to  Anglo-Saxon  England  we 
find  a  different  situation  and  a  different  result.  There 
England"  precarium  and  patrocinium  were  lacking.  Certain 
forms  of  personal  commendation  did  develop,  certain 
forms  of  dependent  land  tenure  came  into  use.  These  do  not 
show,  however,  the  characteristic  marks  of  the  actual  line  of 
feudal  descent.  They  belong  rather  in  the  varying  forms  around 
that  line.  Scholars  are  not  yet  agreed  as  to  what  would  have 
been  their  result  if  their  natural  development  had  not  been  cut 
off  by  the  violent  introduction  of  Frankish  feudalism  with  the 
Norman  conquest,  whether  the  historical  feudal  system,  or  a 
feudal  system  in  the  general  sense.  To  the  writer  it  seems  clear 
that  the  latter  is  the  most  that  can  be  asserted.  They  were  forms 
which  may  rightly  be  called  feudal,  but  only  in  the  wider  meaning 
in  which  we  speak  of  the  feudalism  of  Japan,  or  of  Central  Africa, 
not  in  the  sense  of  12th-century  European  feudalism;  Saxon 
commendation  may  rightly  be  called  vassalage,  but  only  as 
looking  back  to  the  early  Frankish  use  of  the  term  for  many 
varying  forms  of  practice,  not  as  looking  forward  to  the  later 
and  more  definite  usage  of  completed  feudalism;  and  such  use 
of  the  terms  feudal  and  vassalage  is  sure  to  be  misleading.  It 
is  better  to  say  that  European  feudalism  is  not  to  be  found  in 
England  before  the  Conquest,  not  even  in  its  beginnings.  If 

1  G.  Waitz,  Deutsche  Verfassungsgeschichte,  vi.  112  ff.  (1896). 
Most  fully  described  in  G.  Seeliger,  Die  soziale  u.  politische  Bedeutung 
d.  Grundherrschaft  im  fruheren  Mittelalter  (1903). 

*  F.  Dahn,  Konige,  viii.  2,  89-90;  95. 


FEUDALISM 


these  had  really  been  in  existence  it  would  require  no  argument 
to  show  the  fact.  There  is  no  trace  of  the  distinctive  marks  of 
Frankish  feudalism  in  Saxon  England,  not  where  military 
service  may  be  thought  to  rest  upon  the  land,  nor  even  in  the 
rare  cases  where  the  tenant  seems  to  some  to  be  made  responsible 
for  it;  for  between  these  cases  as  they  are  described  in  the  original 
accounts,  legally  interpreted,  and  the  feudal  conception  of  the 
vassal's  military  service,  there  is  a  great  gulf. 

In  turning  from  the  origin  of  feudalism  to  a  description  of  the 
completed  system  one  is  inevitably  reminded  of  the  words  with 
which  de  Quincey  opens  the  second  part  of  his  essay 
on  style.  He  says:  "  It  is  a  natural  resource  that  The 
whatsoever  we  find  it  difficult  to  investigate  as  a 
result,  we  endeavour  to  follow  as  a  growth.  Failing 
analytically  to  probe  its  nature,  historically  we  seek  relief  to  our 
perplexities  by  tracing  its  origin.  .  .  .  Thus  for  instance  when 
any  feudal  institution  (be  it  Gothic,  Norman,  or  Anglo-Saxon) 
eludes  our  deciphering  faculty  from  the  imperfect  records  of  its 
use  and  operation,  then  we  endeavour  conjecturally  to  amend 
our  knowledge  by  watching  the  circumstances  in  which  that 
institution  arose."  The  temptation  to  use  the  larger  part  of  any 
space  allotted  to  the  history  of  feudalism  for  a  discussion  of 
origins  does  not  arise  alone  from  greater  interest  in  that  phase  of 
the  subject.  It  is  almost  impossible  even  with  the  most  dis- 
criminating care  to  give  a  brief  account  of  completed  feudalism 
and  convey  no  wrong  impression.  We  use  the  term  "  feudal 
system  "  for  convenience  sake,  but  with  a  degree  of  impropriety 
if  it  conveys  the  meaning  "  systematic."  Feudalism  in  its  most 
flourishing  age  was  anything  but  systematic.  It  was  confusion 
roughly  organized.  Great  diversity  prevailed  everywhere, 
and  we  should  not  be  surprised  to  find  some  different  fact  or 
custom  in  every  lordship.  Anglo-Norman  feudalism  attained  a 
logical  completeness  and  a  uniformity  of  practice  which,  in  the 
feudal  age  proper,  can  hardly  be  found  elsewhere  through  so 
large  a  territory;  but  in  Anglo-Norman  feudalism  the  exception 
holds  perhaps  as  large  a  place  as  the  regular,  and  the  uniformity 
itself  was  due  to  the  most  serious  of  exceptions  from  the  feudal 
point  of  view — centralization  under  a  powerful  monarchy. 

But  too  great  emphasis  upon  variation  conveys  also  a  wrong 
impression.  Underlying  all  the  apparent  confusion  of  fact  and 
practice  were  certain  fundamental  principles  and  relationships, 
which  were  alike  everywhere,  and  which  really  gave  shape  to 
everything  that  was  feudal,  no  matter  what  its  form  might  be. 
The  chief  of  these  are  the  following:  the  relation  of  vassal  and 
lord;  the  principle  that  every  holder  of  land  is  a  tenant  and  not 
an  owner,  until  the  highest  rank  is  reached,  sometimes  even  the 
conception  rules  in  that  rank;  that  the  tenure  by  which  a  thing 
of  value  is  held  is  one  of  honourable  service,  not  intended  to  be 
economic,  but  moral  and  political  in  character;  the  principle 
of  mutual  obligations  of  loyalty,  protection  and  service  binding 
together  all  the  ranks  of  this  society  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest;  and  the  principle  of  contract  between  lord  and  tenant, 
as  determining  all  rights,  controlling  their  modification,  and 
forming  the  foundation  of  all  law.  There  was  actually  in  fact 
and  practice  a  larger  uniformity  than  this  short  list  implies, 
because  these  principles  tended  to  express  themselves  in  similar 
forms,  and  because  historical  derivation  from  a  common  source 
in  Frankish  feudalism  tended  to  preserve  some  degree  of  uni- 
formity in  the  more  important  usages. 

The  foundation  of  the  feudal  relationship  proper  was  the  fief, 
which  was  usually  land,  but  might  be  any  desirable  thing,  as  an 
office,  a  levenue  in  money  or  kind,  the  right  to  collect  a  toll, 
or  operate  a  mill.  In  return  for  the  fief,  the  man  became  the 
vassal  of  his  lord;  he  knelt  before  him,  and,  with  his  hands 
between  his  lord's  hands,  promised  him  fealty  and  service;  he 
rose  to  his  feet  and  took  the  oath  of  fealty  which  bound  him  to 
the  obligations  he  had  assumed  in  homage;  he  received  from 
his  lord  ceremonial  investiture  with  the  fief.  The  faithful 
performance  of  all  the  duties  he  had  assumed  in  homage  con- 
stituted the  vassal's  right  and  title  to  his  fief.  So  long  as  they 
were  fulfilled,  he,  and  his  heir  after  him,  held  the  fief  as  his 
property,  practically  and  in  relation  to  all  under  tenants  as  if 


FEUDALISM 


301 


he  were  the  owner.  In  the  ceremony  of  homage  and  investiture, 
which  is  the  creative  contract  of  feudalism,  the  obligations 
assumed  by  the  two  parties  were,  as  a  rule,  not  specified  in 
exact  terms.  They  were  determined  by  local  custom.  What 
they  were,  however,  was  as  well  known,  as  capable  of  proof, 
and  as  adequate  a  check  on  innovation  by  either  party,  as  if 
Committed  to  writing.  In  many  points  of  detail  the  vassal's 
services  differed  widely  in  different  parts  of  the  feudal  world. 
We  may  say,  however,  that  they  fall  into  two  classes,  general 
and  specific.  The  general  included  all  that  might  come  under 
the  idea  of  loyalty,  seeking  the  lord's  interests,  keeping  his 
secrets,  betraying  the  plans  of  his  enemies,  protecting  his  family, 
&c.  The  specific  services  are  capable  of  more  definite  statement, 
and  they  usually  received  exact  definition  in  custom  and  some- 
times in  written  documents.  The  most  characteristic  of  these 
was  the  military  service,  which  included  appearance  in  the 
field  on  summons  with  a  certain  force,  often  armed  in  a  specified 
way,  and  remaining  a  specified  length  of  time.  It  often  included 
also  the  duty  of  guarding  the  lord's  castle,  and  of  holding  one's 
own  castle  subject  to  the  plans  of  the  lord  for  the  defence  of  his 
fief.  Hardly  less  characteristic  was  court  service,  which  included 
the  duty  of  helping  to  form  the  court  on  summons,  of  taking 
one's  own  cases  to  that  court  instead  of  to  some  other,  and  of 
submitting  to  its  judgments.  The  duty  of  giving  the  lord  advice 
was  often  demanded  and  fulfilled  in  sessions  of  the  court,  and 
in  these  feudal  courts  the  obligations  of  lord  and  vassal  were 
enforced,  with  an  ultimate  appeal  to  war.  Under  this  head 
may  be  enumerated  also  the  financial  duties  of  the  vassal, 
though  these  were  not  regarded  by  the  feudal  law  as  of  the  nature 
of  the  tenure,  i.e.  failure  to  pay  them  did  not  lead  to  confiscation, 
but  they  were  collected  by  suit  and  distraint  like  any  debt. 
They  did  not  have  their  origin  in  economic  considerations,  but 
were  either  intended  to  mark  the  vassal's  tenant  relation,  like 
the  relief,  or  to  be  a  part  of  his  service,  like  the  aid,  that  is,  he 
was  held  to  come  to  the  aid  of  his  lord  in  a  case  of  financial  as 
of  military  necessity.  The  relief  was  a  sum  paid  by  the  heir 
for  the  lord's  recognition  of  his  succession.  The  aids  were  paid 
on  a  few  occasions,  determined  by  custom,  where  the  lord  was 
put  to  unusual  expense,  as  for  his  ransom  when  captured  by  the 
enemy,  or  for  the  knighting  of  his  eldest  son.  There  was  great 
variety  regarding  the  occasion  and  amount  of  these  payments, 
and  in  some  parts  of  the  feudal  world  they  did  not  exist  at  all. 
The  most  lucrative  of  the  lord's  rights  were  wardship  and 
marriage,  but  the  feudal  theory  of  these  also  was  non-economic. 
The  fief  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  lord,  and  he  enjoyed  its  revenues 
during  the  minority  of  the  heir,  because  the  minor  could  not 
perform  the  duties  by  which  it  was  held.  The  heiress  must 
marry  as  the  lord  wished,  because  he  had  a  right  to  know  that 
the  holder  of  the  fief  could  meet  the  obligations  resting  upon 
it.  Both  wardship  and  marriage  were,  however,  valuable  rights 
which  the  lord  could  exercise  himself  or  sell  to  others.  These 
were  by  no  means  the  only  rights  and  duties  which  could  be 
described  as  existing  in  feudalism,  but  they  are  the  most  char- 
acteristic, and  on  them,  or  some  of  them,  as  a  foundation,  the 
whole  structure  of  feudal  obligation  was  built,  however  detailed. 
Ideally  regarded,  feudalism  covered  Europe  with  a  network 
of  these  fiefs,  rising  in  graded  ranks  one  above  the  other  from 
the  smallest,  the  knight's  fee,  at  the  bottom,  to  the  king  at  the 
top,  who  was  the  supreme  landowner,  or  who  held  the  kingdom 
from  God.  Actually  not  even  in  the  most  regular  of  feudal 
countries,  like  England  or  Germany,  was  there  any  fixed  grada- 
tion of  rank,  titles  or  size.  A  knight  might  hold  directly  of  the 
king,  a  count  of  a  viscount,  a  bishop  of  an  abbot,  or  the  king 
himself  of  one  of  his  own  vassals,  or  even  of  a  vassal's  vassal, 
and  in  return  his  vassal's  vassal  might  hold  another  fief  directly 
of  him.  The  case  of  the  count  of  Champagne,  one  of  the  peers 
of  France,  is  a  famous  example.  His  great  territory  was  held 
only  in  small  part  of  the  king  of  France.  He  held  a  portion  of 
a  foreign  sovereign,  the  emperor,  and  other  portions  of  the  duke 
of  Burgundy,  of  two  archbishops,  of  four  bishops,  and  of  the  abbot 
of  St  Denis.  Frequently  did  great  lay  lords,  as  in  this  case, 
hold  lands  by  feudal  tenure  of  ecclesiastics. 


It  is  now  possible  perhaps  to  get  some  idea  of  the  way  in  which 
the  government  of  a  feudal  country  was  operated.  The  early 
German  governments  whose  chief  functions,  military,  judicial, 
financial,  legislative,  were  carried  on  by  the  freemen  of  the  nation 
because  they  were  members  of  the  body  politic,  and  were  per- 
formed as  duties  owed  to  the  community  for  its  defence  and 
sustenance,  no  longer  existed.  New  forms  of  organization  had 
arisen  in  which  indeed  these  conceptions  had  not  entirely 
disappeared,  but  in  which  the  vast  majority  of  cases  a  wholly 
different  idea  of  the  ground  of  service  and  obligation  prevailed. 
Superficially,  for  example,  the  feudal  court  differed  but  little 
from  its  Teutonic  predecessor.  It  was  still  an  assembly  court. 
Its  procedure  was  almost  the  same  as  the  earlier.  It  often 
included  the  same  classes  of  men.  Saxon  Witenagemot  and 
Norman  Curia  regis  seem  very  much  alike.  But  the  members 
of  the  feudal  court  met,  not  to  fulfil  a  duty  owed  to  the  com- 
munity, but  a  private  obligation  which  they  had  assumed  in 
return  for  the  fiefs  they  held,  and  in  the  history  of  institutions 
it  is  differences  of  this  sort  which  are  the  determining  principles. 
The  feudal  state  was  one  in  which,  as  it  has  been  said,  private 
law  had  usflrped  the  place  of  public  law.  Public  duty  had  become 
private  obligation.  To  understand  the  feudal  state  it  is  essential 
to  make  clear  to  one's  mind  that  all  sorts  of  services,  which  men 
ordinarily  owe  to  the  public  or  to  one  another,  were  translated 
into  a  form  of  rent  paid  for  the  use  of  land,  and  defined  and 
enforced  by  a  private  contract.  In  every  feudal  country,  however, 
something  of  the  earlier  conception  survived.  A  general  military 
levy  was  occasionally  made.  Something  like  taxation  occasionally 
occurred,  though  the  government  was  usually  sustained  by  the 
scanty  feudal  payments,  by  the  proceeds  of  justice  and  by  the 
income  of  domain  manors.  About  the  office  of  king  more  of 
this  earlier  conception  gathered  than  elsewhere  in  the  state, 
and  gradually  grew,  aided  not  merely  by  traditional  ideas,  but 
by  the  active  influence  of  the  Bible,  and  soon  of  the  Roman  law. 
The  kingship  formed  the  nucleus  of  new  governments  as  the 
feudal  system  passed  away. 

Actual  government  in  the  feudal  age  was  primitive  and  un- 
differentiated.  Its  chief  and  almost  only  organ,  for  kingdom 
and  barony  alike,  was  the  curia — a  court  formed  of  the  vassals. 
This  acted  at  once  and  without  any  consciousness  of  difference 
of  function,  as  judiciary,  as  legislature,  in  so  far  as  there  was 
any  in  the  feudal  period,  and  as  council,  and  it  exercised  final 
supervision  and  control  over  revenue  and  administration. 
Almost  all  the  institutions  of  modern  states  go  back  to  the 
curia  regis,  branching  off  from  it  at  different  dates  as  the  growing 
complexity  of  business  forced  differentiation  of  function  and 
personnel.  In  action  it  was  an  assembly  court,  deciding  all 
questions  by  discussion  and  the  weight  of  opinion,  though  its 
decisions  obtained  their  legal  validity  by  the  formal  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  presiding  member,  i.e.  of  the  lord  whose  court  it  was. 
It  can  readily  be  seen  that  in  a  government  of  this  kind  the 
essential  operative  element  was  the  baron.  So  long  as  the 
government  remained  dependent  on  the  baron,  it  remained 
feudal  in  its  character.  When  conditions  so  changed  that  govern- 
ment could  free  itself  from  its  dependence  on  the  baron,  feudalism 
disappeared  as  the  organization  of  society;  when  a  professional 
class  arose  to  form  the  judiciary,  when  the  increased  circulation 
of  money  made  regular  taxation  possible  and  enabled  the  govern- 
ment to  buy  military  and  other  services,  and  when  better  means 
of  intercommunication  and  the  growth  of  common  ideas  made 
a  wide  centralization  possible  and  likely  to  be  permanent. 
Feudalism  had  performed  a  great  service,  during  an  age  of 
disintegration,  by  maintaining  a  general  framework  of  govern- 
ment, while  allowing  the  locality  to  protect  and  care  for  itself. 
When  the  function  of  protection  and  local  supervision  could  be 
resumed  by  the  general  government  the  feudal  age  ended.  In 
nearly  all  the  states  of  Europe  this  end  was  reached  during,  or 
by  the  close  of,  the  i3th  century. 

At  the  moment,  however,  when  feudalism  was  disappearing 
as  the  organization  of  society,  it  gave  rise  to  results  which  in  a 
sense  continued  it  into  after  ages  and  even  to  our  own  day. 
One  of  these  results  was  the  system  of  law  which  it  created. 


302 


FEUERBACH,  A.— FEUERBACH,  L.  A. 


As  feudalism  passed  from  its  age  of  supremacy  into  its  age 
of  decline,  its  customs  tended  to  crystallize  into  fixed  forms. 
At  the  same  time  a  class  of  men  arose  interested  in 
Decline  these  forms  for  their  own  sake,  professional  lawyers 
Murv/vais.  or  Judges,  who  wrote  down  for  their  own  and  others' 
use  the  feudal  usages  with  which  they  were  familiar. 
The  great  age  of  these  codes  was  the  i3th  century,  and  especially 
the  second  half  of  it.  The  codes  in  their  turn  tended  still  further 
to  harden  these  usages  into  fixed  forms,  and  we  may  date  from 
the  end  of  the  i3th  century  an  age  of  feudal  law  regulating 
especially  the  holding  and  transfer  of  land,  and  much  more 
uniform  in  character  than  the  law  of  the  feudal  age  proper. 
This  was  particularly  the  case  in  parts  of  France  and  Germany 
where  feudalism  continued  to  regulate  the  property  relations 
of  lords  and  vassals  longer  than  elsewhere,  and  where  the  under- 
lying economic  feudalism  remained  in  large  part  unchanged. 
In  this  later  pseudo-feudalism,  however,  the  political  had  given 
way  to  the  economic,  and  customs  which  had  once  had  no 
economic  significance  came  to  have  that  only. 

Feudalism  formed  the  starting-point  also  of  the  later  social 
nobilities  of  Europe.  They  drew  from  it  their  titles"  and  ranks 
and  many  of  their  regulative  ideas,  though  these  were  formed 
into  more  definite  and  regular  systems  than  ever  existed  in 
feudalism  proper.  It  was  often  the  policy  of  kings  to  increase 
the  social  privileges  and  legal  exemptions  of  the  nobility  while 
taking  away  all  political  power,  so  that  it  is  necessary  in  the 
history  of  institutions  to  distinguish  sharply  between  these 
nobilities  and  the  feudal  baronage  proper.  It  is  only  in  certain 
backward  parts  of  Europe  that  the  terms  feudal  and  baronage 
in  any  technical  sense  can  be  used  of  the  nobility  of  the  isth 
century.  (G.  B.  A.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For  more  detailed  information  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  articles  ENGLISH  LAW;  FRANCE:  French  Law 
and  Institutions,  VILLENAGE;  MANOR;  SCUTAGE;  KNIGHT 
SERVICE  ;  HIDE.  For  a  general  sketch  of  Feudalism  the  chapters  in 
tome  ii.  of  the  Histoire  generate  of  Lavisse  and  Rambaud  should  be 
consulted.  Other  general  works  are  J.  T.  Abdy,  Feudalism  (1890) ; 
Paul  Roth,  Feudalitdt  und  Unterthanverband  (Weimar,  1863) ;  and 
Geschichte  des  Beneficialwesens  (1850) ;  M.  M.  Kovalevsky,  Okono- 
mische  Entwickelung  Europas  (1002);  E.  de  Laveleye,  De  la  pro- 
priete  et  de  ses  formes  primitives  (1891);  and  The  Origin  of  Property 
in  Land,  a  translation  by  M.  Ashley  from  the  works  of  N.  D.  Fustel  de 
Coulanges,  with  an  introductory  chapter  by  Professor  W.  J.  Ashley. 
Two  other  works  of  value  are  Sir  H.  S.  Maine,  Village  Communities  in 
the  East  and  West  (1876) ;  and  Leon  Gautier,  La  Chevalerie  (Paris, 
1884;  Eng.  trans,  by  Henry  Frith,  Chivalry,  London,  1891).  . 

For  feudalism  in  England  see  the  various  constitutional  histories, 
especially  W.  Stubbs,  Constitutional  History  of  England,  vol.  i.  (ed. 
1897).  Very  valuable  also  are  the  writings  of  Mr  J.  H.  Round,  of 
Professor  F.  W.  Maitland  and  of  Professor  P.  Vinogradoff.  Among 
Round's  works  may  be  mentioned  Feudal  England  (1895);  Geoffrey 
de  Mandeville  (1892) ;  and  Studies  on  the  Red  Book  of  the  Exchequer 
(1898).  Maitland's  Domesday  Book  and  Beyond  (Cambridge,  1897) 
is  indispensahle;  and  the  same  remark  applies  to  his  History  of 

i  illumin- 

_  ,--_. his  English 

Society  in  the  nth  century  (1908).  See  also  J.  F.  Baldwin,  The 
Scutage  and  Knight  Service  in  England  (Chicago,  1897);  Rudolf 
Gneist,  Adel  und  Rittersckaft  in  England  (1853) ;  and  F.  Seebohm, 
The  English  Village  Community  (1883). 

For  feudalism  in  France  see  N.  D.  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  Histoire  des 
institutions  politiques  de  I'ancienne  France  (Les  Origines  du  systeme 
feodal,  1890;  Les  Transformations  de  la  royaute  pendant  Vepoque 
carolingienne,  1892);  A.  Luchaire,  Histoire  des  institutions  monar- 
chiques  de  la  France  sous  les  premiers  Capetiens,  987-1180  (2nd  ed., 
1890);  and  Manuel  des  institutions  franfaises:  periode  des  Capetiens 
directs  (1892);  J.  Flach,  Les  Origines  de  I'ancienne  France  (1886- 
1893) ;  Paul  Viollet,  Droit  public:  Histoires  des  institutions  politiques 
et  administrates  de  la  France  (1890-1898);  and  Henri  See,  Les 
classes  rurales  et  le  regime  domanial  (1901). 

For  Germany  see  G.  Waitz,  Deutsche  Verfassungsgeschichte  (Kiel 
and  Berlin,  1844  foil.);  H.  Brunner,  Grundzuge  der  deutschen 
Rechtsgeschichte  (Leipzig,  1901);  V.  Menzel,  Die  Entstehung  des 
Lebenswesens  (Berlin,  1890);  and  G.  L.  von  Maurer's  works  on  the 
early  institutions  of  the  Germans. 

FEUERBACH,  ANSELM  (1829-1880),  German  painter,  born 
at  Spires,  the  son  of  a  well-known  archaeologist,  was  the  leading 
classicist  painter  of  the  German  19th-century  school.  He  was 
the  first  to  realize  the  danger  arising  from  contempt  of  technique, 
that  mastery  of  craftsmanship  was  needed  to  express  even  the 


loftiest  ideas,  and  that  an  ill-drawn  coloured  cartoon  can  never 
be  the  supreme  achievement  in  art.  After  having  passed  through 
the  art  schools  of  Diisseldorf  and  Munich,  he  went  to  Antwerp- 
and  subsequently  to  Paris,  where  he  benefited  by  the  teaching 
of  Couture,  and  produced  his  first  masterpiece,  "  Hafiz  at  the 
Fountain  "  in  1852.  He  subsequently  worked  at  Karlsruhe, 
Venice  (where  he  fell  under  the  spell  of  the  greatest  school  of 
colourists),  Rome  and  Vienna.  He  was  steeped  in  classic 
knowledge,  and  his  figure  compositions  have  the  statuesque 
dignity  and  simplicity  of  Greek  art.  Disappointed  with  the 
reception  given  in  Vienna  to  his  design  of  "  The  Fall  of  the 
Titans  "  for  the  ceiling  of  the  Museum  of  Modelling,  he  went  to 
live  in  Venice,  where  he  died  in  1880.  His  works  are  to  be  found 
at  the  leading  public  galleries  of  Germany;  Stuttgart  has  his. 
"Iphigenia";  Karlsruhe,  the  "Dante  at  Ravenna";  Munich, 
the  "  Medea  ";  and  Berlin,  "  The  Concert,"  his  last  important 
picture.  Among  his  chief  works  are  also  "  The  Battle  of  the 
Amazons,"  "  Pieta,"  "  The  Symposium  of  Plato,"  "  Orpheus 
and  Eurydice  "  and  "  Ariosto  in  the  Park  of  Ferrara." 

FEUERBACH,  LUDWIG  ANDREAS  (1804-1872),  German 
philosopher,  fourth  son  of  the  eminent  jurist  (see  below),  was  born 
at  Landshut  in  Bavaria  on  the  28th  of  July  1804.  He  matricu- 
lated at  Heidelberg  with  the  intention  of  pursuing  an  ecclesiastical 
career.  Through  the  influence  of  Prof.  Daub  he  was  led  lo- 
an interest  in  the  then  predominant  philosophy  of  Hegel  and, 
in  spite  of  his  father's  opposition,  went  to  Berlin  to  study  under 
the  master  himself.  After  two  years'  discipleship  the  Hegelian 
influence  began  to  slacken.  "  Theology,"  he  wrote  to  a  friend, 
"  I  can  bring  myself  to  study  no  more.  I  long  to  take  nature 
to  my  heart,  that  nature  before  whose  depth  the  faint-hearted 
theologian  shrinks  back;  and  with  nature  man,  man  in  his 
entire  quality."  These  words  are  a  key  to  Feuerbach's  develop- 
ment. He  completed  his  education  at  Erlangen  with  the  study 
of  natural  science.  His  first  book,  published  anonymously, 
Gedanken  iiber  Tod  und  Unsterblithkeit  (1830,  3rd  ed.  1876), 
contains  an  attack  upon  personal  immortality  and  an  advocacy 
of  the  Spinozistic  immortality  of  reabsorption  in  nature.  These 
principles,  combined  with  his  embarrassed  manner  of  public 
speaking,  debarred  him  from  academic  advancement.  After 
some  years  of  struggling,  during  which  he  published  his  Geschichte 
der  neueren  Philosophic  (2  vols.,  1833-1837,  2nd  ed.  1844),  and 
Abalard  und  Heloise  (1834,  3rd  ed.  1877),  he  married  in  1837 
and  lived  a  rural  existence  at  Bruckberg  near  Nuremberg, 
supported  by  his  wife's  share  in  a  small  porcelain  factory.  In 
two  works  of  this  period,  Pierre  Bayle  (1838)  and  Philosophic 
und  Christentum  (1839),  which  deal  largely  with  theology,  he 
held  that  he  had  proved  "  that  Christianity  has  in  fact  long 
vanished  not  only  from  the  reason  but  from  the  life  of  mankind, 
that  it  is  nothing  more  than  a  fixed  idea  "  in  flagrant  contra- 
diction to  the  distinctive  features  of  contemporary  civilization. 
This  attack  is  followed  up  in  his  most  important  work,  Das 
Wesen  des  Christentums  (1841),  which  was  translated  into 
English  (The  Essence  of  Religion,  by  George  Eliot,  1853,  2nd  ed. 
1881),  French  and  Russian.  Its  aim  may  be  described  shortly 
as  an  effort  to  humanize  theology.  He  lays  it  down  that  man, 
so  far  as  he  is  rational,  is  to  himself  his  own  object  of  thought. 
Religion  is  consciousness  of  the  infinite.  Religion  therefore 
is  "  nothing  else  than  the  consciousness  of  the  infinity  of  the 
consciousness;  or,  in  the  consciousness  of  the  infinite,  the 
conscious  subject  has  for  his  object  the  infinity  of  his  own 
nature."  Thus  God  is  nothing  else  than  man:  he  is,  so  to  speak, 
the  outward  projection  of  man's  inward  nature.  In  part  i  of 
his  book  he  develops  what  he  calls  the  "  true  or  anthropological 
essence  of  religion."  Treating  of  God  in  his  various  aspects 
"  as  a  being  of  the  understanding,"  "  as  a  moral  being  or  law," 
"  as  love  "  and  so  on,  Feuerbach  shows  that  in  every  aspect  God 
corresponds  to  some  feature  or  need  of  human  nature.  "  If 
man  is  to  find  contentment  in  God,  he  must  find  himself  in  God." 
In  part  2  he  discusses  the  "  false  or  theological  essence  of  religion," 
i.e.  the  view  which  regards  God  as  having  a  separate  existence 
over  against  man.  Hence  arise  various  mistaken  beliefs,  such 
as  the  belief  in  revelation  which  not  only  injures  the  moral 


FEUERBACH,  P.  J.  A. 


303 


sence,  but  also  "  poisons,  nay  destroys,  the  divinest  feeling  in 
man,  the  sense  of  truth,"  and  the  belief -in  sacraments  such  as 
the  Lord's  Supper,  a  piece  of  religious  materialism  of  which  "  the 
necessary  consequences  are  superstition  and  immorality." 
In  spite  of  many  admirable  qualities  both- of  style  and  matter 
the  Essence  of  Christianity  has  never  made  much  impression 
upon  British  thought.  To  treat  the  actual  forms  of  religion 
as  expressions  of  our  various  human  needs  is  a  fruitful  idea 
which  deserves  fuller  development  than  it  has  yet  received; 
but  Feuerbach's  treatment  of  it  is  fatally  vitiated  by  his  sub- 
jectivism. Feuerbach  denied  that  he  was  rightly  called  an 
atheist,  but  the  denial  is  merely  verbal:  what  he  calls  "  theism  " 
is  atheism  in  the  ordinary  sense.  Feuerbach  labours  under  the 
same  difficulty  as  Fichte;  both  thinkers  strive  in  vain  to  re- 
concile the  religious  consciousness  with  subjectivism. 

During  the  troubles  of  1848-1849  Feuerbach's  attack  upon 
orthodoxy  made  him  something  of  a  hero  with  the  revolutionary 
party;  but  he  never  threw  himself  into  the  political  movement, 
and  indeed  had  not  the  qualities  of  a  popular  leader.  During  the 
period  of  the  diet  of  Frankfort  he  had  given  public  lectures  on 
religion  at  Heidelberg.  When  the  diet  closed  he  withdrew  to 
Bruckberg  and  occupied  himself  partly  with  scientific  study, 
partly  with  the  composition  of  his  Theogonie  (1857).  In  1860  he 
was  compelled  by  the  failure  of  the  porcelain  factory  to  leave 
Bruckberg,  and  he  would  have  suffered  the  extremity  of  want 
but  for  the  assistance  of  friends  supplemented  by  a  public 
subscription.  His  last  book,  Goltheit,  Freiheit  und  Unsterblichkeit, 
appeared  in  1866  (2nd  ed.,  1890).  After  a  long  period  of  decay  he 
died  on  the  I3th  of  September  1872. 

Feuerbach's  influence  has  been  greatest  upon  the  anti- 
Christian  theologians  such  as  D.  F.  Strauss,  the  author  of  the 
Leben  Jesu,  and  Bruno  Bauer,  who  like  Feuerbach  himself  had 
passed  over  from  Hegelianism  to  a  form  of  naturalism.  But 
many  of  his  ideas  were  taken  up  by  those  who,  like  Arnold  Ruge, 
had  entered  into  the  struggle  between  church  and  state  in 
Germany,  and  those  who,  like  F.  Engels  and  Karl  Marx,  were 
leaders  in  the  revolt  of  labour  against  the  power  of  capital.  His 
work  was  too  deliberately  unsystematic  ("keine  Philosophic  ist 
meine  Philosophic  ")  ever  to  make  him  a  power  in  philosophy. 
He  expressed  in  an  eager,  disjointed,  but  condensed  and  laboured 
fashion,  certain  deep-lying  convictions — that  philosophy  must 
come  back  from  unsubstantial  metaphysics  to  the  solid  facts  of 
human  nature  and  natural  science,  that  the  human  body  was  no 
less  important  than  the  human  spirit  ("  Der  Mensch  ist  was  er 
isst  ")  and  that  Christianity  was  utterly  out  of  harmony  with  the 
age.  His  convictions  gained  weight  from  the  simplicity,  upright- 
ness and  diligence  of  his  character;  but  they  need  a  more 
effective  justification  than  he  was  able  to  give  them. 

His  works  appeared  in  10  yols.  (Leipzig,  1846-1866) ;  his  corre- 
spondence has  been  edited  with  an  indifferent  biography  by  Karl 
Grun  (1874).  See  A.  Levy,  La  Philosophic  de  Feuerbach  (1904); 
M.  Meyer,  L.  Feuerbach's  Moralphilosophie  (Berlin,  1899);  E.  v. 
Hartmann,  Ceschichte  d.  Metaphysik  (Leipzig,  1899-1900),  ii.  437- 
444;  F'.  Engels,  L.  Feuerbach  und  d.  Ausgangd.  class,  deutsch.  Philos. 
(2nd  ed.,  1895).  (H.  ST.) 

FEUERBACH,  PAUL  JOB  ANN  ANSELM,  RITTER  VON  (1775- 
!833),  German  jurist  and  writer  on  criminal  law,  was  born  at 
Hainichen  near  Jena  on  the  i4thof  November  1775.  He  received 
his  early  education  at  Frankfort  on  Main,  whither  his  family  had 
removed  soon  after  his  birth.  At  the  age  of  sixteen,  however, 
he  ran  away  from  home,  and,  going  to  Jena,  was  helped  by 
relations  there  to  study  at  the  university.  In  spite  of  poor  health 
and  the  most  desperate  poverty,  he  made  rapid  progress.  He 
attended  the  lectures  of  Karl  Leonhard  Reinhold  and  Gottlieb 
Hufeland,  and  soon  published  some  literary  essays  of  more  than 
ordinary  merit.  In  1795  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  in  philo- 
sophy, and  in  the  same  year,  though  he  only  possessed  150 
thalers  (£22  :  ios.),  he  married.  It  was  this  step  which  led  him 
to  success  and  fame,  by  forcing  him  to  turn  from  his  favourite 
studies  of  philosophy  and  history  to  that  of  law,  which  was 
repugnant  to  him,  but  which  offered  a  prospect  of  more  rapid 
advancement.  His  success  in  this  new  and  uncongenial  sphere 
was  soon  assured.  In  1796  he  published  Kritik  des  natiirlichen 


Rechts  ah  Propadeutik  zu  einer  Wissenschaft  der  natiirlichen 
Reekie,  which  was  followed,  in  1798,  by  Anti-Hobbes,  oder  iiber  die 
Grenzen  der  biirgerlichen  Gewa.lt,  a  dissertation  on  the  limits  of  the 
civil  power  and  the  right  of  resistance  on  the  part  of  subjects 
against  their  rulers,  and  by  Philosophische,  juristische  Unter- 
suchungen  iiber  das  Verbrechen  des  Hochverralhs.  In  1799  he 
obtained  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws.  Feuerbach,  as  the  founder 
of  a  new  theory  of  penal  law,  the  so-called  "  psychological- 
coercive  or  intimidation  theory,"  occupied  a  prominent  place  in 
the  history  of  criminal  science.  His  views,  which  he  first  made 
known  in  his  Revision  der  Grundsdtze  und  Grundbegriffe  des 
positiven  peinlichen  Rechts  (1799),  were  further  elucidated  and 
expounded  in  the  Bibliothek  fur  die  peinliche  Rechlswissenschaft 
(1800-1801),  an  encyclopaedic  work  produced  in  conjunction  with 
Karl  L.  W.  G.  Grolmann  and  Ludwig  Harscher  von  Almendingen, 
and  in  his  famous  Lehrbuch  des  gemeinen  in  Deutschland  geltenden 
peinlichen  Rechts  (1801).  These  works  were  a  powerful  protest 
against  vindictive  punishment,  and  did  much  towards  the 
reformation  of  the  German  criminal  law.  The  Carolina  (the 
penal  code  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.)  had  long  since  ceased  to  be 
respected.  What  in  1 532  was  an  inestimable  blessing,  as  a  check 
upon  the  arbitrariness  and  violence  of  the  effete  German  pro- 
cedure, had  in  the  course  of  time  outlived  its  usefulness  and 
become  a  source  of  evils  similar  to  these  it  was  enacted  to 
combat.  It  availed  nothing  that,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
1 8th  century,  a  freer  and  more  scientific  spirit  had  been  breathed 
into  Roman  law;  it  failed  to  reach  the  criminal  law.  The 
administration  of  justice  was,  before  Feuerbach's  time,  especi- 
ally distinguished  by  two  characteristics:  the  superiority  of  the 
judge  to  all  law,  and  the  blending  of  the  judicial  and  executive 
offices,  with  the  result  that  the  individual  was  practically  at  the 
mercy  of  his  prosecutors.  This  state  of  things  Feuerbach  set 
himself  to  reform,  and  using  as  his  chief  weapon  the  Revision  der 
Grundbegriffe  above  referred  to,  was  successful  in  his  task.  His 
achievement  in  the  struggle  may  be  summed  up  as:  nullum 
crimen,  nulla  poena  sine  lege  (no  wrong  and  no  punishment 
without  a  remedy).  In  1801  Feuerbach  was  appointed  extra- 
ordinary professor  of  law  without  salary,  at  the  university  of 
Jena,  and  in  the  following  year  accepted  a  chair  at  Kiel,  where  he 
remained  two  years.  In  1804  he  removed  to  the  university  of 
Landshut;  but  on  being  commanded  by  King  Maximilian 
Joseph  to  draft  a  penal  code  for  Bavaria  (Strafgesetzbuch  fur 
das  Konigreich  Bayern),  he  removed  in  1805  to  Munich,  where  he 
was  given  a  high  appointment  in  the  ministry  of  justice  and  was 
ennobled  in  1808.  Meanwhile  the  practical  reform  of  penal 
legislation  in  Bavaria  was  begun  under  his  influence  in  1806  by 
the  abolition  of  torture.  In  1808  appeared  the  first  volume  of  his 
Merkwiirdige  Criminalfalle,  completed  in  1811 — a  work  of  deep 
interest  for  its  application  of  psychological  considerations  to  cases 
of  crime,  and  intended  to  illustrate  the  inevitable  imperfection  of 
human  laws  in  their  application  to  individuals.  In  his  Belrach- 
iungen  iiber  das  Geschworenengericht  (1811)  Feuerbach  declared 
against  trial  by  jury,  maintaining  that  the  verdict  of  a  jury  was 
not  adequate  legal  proof  of  a  crime.  Much  controversy  was 
aroused  on  the  subject,  and  the  author's  view  was  subsequently 
to  some  extent  modified.  The  result  of  his  labours  was  promul- 
gated in  1813  as  the  Bavarian  penal  code.  The  influence  of  this 
code,  the  embodiment  of  Feuerbach's  enlightened  views,  was 
immense.-  It  was  at  once  made  the  basis  for  new  codes  in 
Wiirttemberg  and  Saxe- Weimar;  it  was  adopted  in  its  entirety 
in  the  grand-duchy  of  Oldenburg;  and  it  was  translated  into 
Swedish  by  order  of  the  king.  Several  of  the  Swiss  cantons 
reformed  their  codes  in  conformity  with  it.  Feuerbach  had  also 
undertaken  to  prepare  a  civil  code  for  Bavaria,  to  be  founded  on 
the  Code  Napoleon.  This  was  afterwards  set  aside,  and  the 
Codex  Maximilianus  adopted  as  a  basis.  But  the  project  did  not 
become  law.  During  the  war  of  liberation  (1813-1814)  Feuerbach 
showed  himself  an  ardent  patriot,  and  published  several  political 
brochures  which,  from  tne  writer's  position,  had  almost  the 
weight  of  state  manifestoes.  One  of  these  is  entitled  Uber 
deutsche  Freiheit  und  Vertrelung  deutsche  Volker  durch  Land- 
stdnde  (1814).  In  1814  Feuerbach  was  appointed  second  presi- 


304 


FEUILLANTS— FEUILLET,  OCTAVE 


dent  of  the  court  of  appeal  at  Bamberg,  and  three  years  later  he 
became  first  president  of  the  court  of  appeal  at  Anspach.  In 
1821  he  was  deputed  by  the  government  to  visit  France, 
Belgium,  and  the  Rhine  provinces  for  the  purpose  of  investigat- 
ing their  juridical  institutions.  As  the  fruit  of  this  visit,  he 
published  his  treatises  Betrachtungen  iiber  Offentlichkeit  und 
Mttndigkeit  der  Gerechtigkeitspflege  (1821)  and  Uber  die  Gerichts- 
verfassung  und  das  gerichtliche  Verfahren  Frankreichs  (1825).  In 
these  he  pleaded  unconditionally  for  publicity  in  all  legal  pro- 
ceedings. In  his  later  years  he  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  fate  of 
the  strange  foundling  Kaspar  Hauser  ($.».),  which  had  excited  so 
much  attention  in  Europe;  and  he  was  the  first  to  publish  a 
critical  summary  of  the  ascertained  facts,  under  the  title  of 
Kaspar  Hauser,  ein  Beispiel  eines  Verbrechens  am  Seelenleben 
(1832).  Shortly  before  his  death  appeared  a  collection  of  his 
Kleine  Schriften  (1833).  Feuerbach,  still  in  the  full  enjoyment  of 
his  intellectual  powers,  died  suddenly  at  Frankfort,  while  on  his 
way  to  the  baths  of  Schwalbach,  on  the  29th  of  May  1833.  In 
1853  was  published  the  Leben  und  Wirken  Ans.  wn  Feuerbachs, 
2  vols.,  consisting  of  a  selection  of  his  letters  and  journals,  with 
occasional  notes  by  his  fourth  son  Ludwig,  the  distinguished 
philosopher. 

See  also,  for  an  estimate  of  Feuerbach's  life  and  work,  Mar- 
quardtsen,  in  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographie,  vol.  vi. ;  and  an  "  in 
memoriam  "  notice  in  Die  allgemeine  Zeitung  (Augsburg),  I5th  Nov. 
1875,  by  Professor  Dr  Karl  Binding  of  Leipzig  University. 

FEUILLANTS,  CLUB  OF  THE,  a  political  association  which 
played  a  prominent  part  during  the  French  Revolution.  It 
was  founded  on  the  i6th  of  July  1791  by  several  members  of 
the  Jacobin  Club,  who  refused  to  sign  a  petition  presented  by 
this  body,  demanding  the  deposition  of  Louis  XVI.  Among  the 
dissident  members  were  B.  Barere  and  E.  J.  Sieyes,  who  were 
later  joined  by  other  politicians,  among  them  being  Dupont  de 
Nemours.  The  name  of  Feuillants  was  popularly  given  to  this 
group  of  men,  because  they  met  in  the  fine  buildings  which  had 
been  occupied  by  the  religious  order  bearing  this  name,  in  the  rue 
Saint-Honore,  near  the  Place  Vend&me,  in  Paris.  The  members 
of  the  club  preserved  the  title  of  Amis  de  la  Constitution,  as  being  a 
sufficient  indication  of  the  line  they  intended  to  pursue.  This  con- 
sisted in  opposing  everything  not  contained  in  the  Constitution; 
in  their  opinion,  the  latter  was  in  need  of  no  modification,  and 
they  hated  alike  all  those  who  were  opposed  to  it,  whether  emigres 
or  Jacobins;  they  affected  to  avoid  all  political  discussion,  and 
called  themselves  merely  a  "  conservative  assembly." 

This  attitude  they  maintained  after  the  Constituent  Assembly 
had  been  succeeded  by  the  Legislative,  but  not  many  of  the  new 
deputies  became  members  of  the  dub.  With  the  rapid  growth  of 
extreme  democratic  ideas  the  Feuillants  soon  began  to  be  looked 
upon  as  reactionaries,  and  to  be  classed  with  "  aristocrats." 
They  did,  indeed,  represent  the  aristocracy  of  wealth,  for  they 
had  to  pay  a  subscription  of  four  louis,  a  large  sum  at  that  time, 
besides  six  livres  for  attendance.  Moreover,  the  luxury  with 
which  they  surrounded  themselves,  and  the  restaurant  which 
they  had  annexed  to  their  club,  seemed  to  mock  the  misery  of  the 
half-starved  proletariat,  and  added  to  the  suspicion  with  which 
they  were  viewed,  especially  after  the  popular  triumphs  of  the 
2oth  of  June  and  the  loth  of  August  1792  (see  FRENCH 
REVOLUTION).  A  few  days  after  the  insurrection  of  the  loth  of 
August,  the  papers  of  the  Feuillants  were  seized,  and  a  list  was 
published  containing  the  names  of  841  members  proclaimed  as 
suspects.  This  was  the  death-blow  of  the  club.  It  had  made  an 
attempt,  though  a  weak  one,  to  oppose  the  forward  march  of  the 
Revolution,  but,  unlike  the  Jacobins,  had  never  sent  out  branches 
into  the  provinces.  The  name  of  Feuillants,  as  a  party  designa- 
tion, survived  the  club.  It  was  applied  to  those  wl  3  advocated 
a  policy  of  "  cowardly  moderation,"  and  feuillantisme  was 
associated  with  aristocratie  in  the  mouths  of  the  sansculottes. 

The  act  of  separation  of  the  Feuillants  from  the  Jacobins  was 
published  in  a  pamphlet  dated  the  i6th  of  July  1791,  beginning  with 
the  words,  Les  Membres  de  I'assemblee  national*  .  .  .  (Peris,  1791). 
The  statutes  of  the  club  were  also  published  in  Paris.  See  also 
A.  Aulard,  Histoire  politique  de  la  Revolution  franfaise  (Paris, 
1903),  2nd  ed.,  p.  153. 


FEUILLET,  OCTAVE  (1821-1890),  French  novelist  and 
dramatist,  was  born  at- Saint- L6,  Manche,  on  the  nth  of  August 
1821.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Norman  gentleman  of  learning  and 
distinction,  who  would  have  played  a  great  part  in  politics  "  sans 
ses  diables  de  nerfs,"  as  Guizot  said.  This  nervous  excitability 
was  inherited,  though  not  to  the  same  excess,  by  Octave,  whose 
mother  died  in  his  infancy  and  left  him  to  the  care  of  the  hyper- 
sensitive invalid.  The  boy  was  sent  to  the  lycee  Louis-le  Grand, 
in  Paris,  where  he  achieved  high  distinction,  and  was  destined  for 
the  diplomatic  service.  In  1840  he  appeared  before  his  father 
at  Saint-L6,  and  announced  that  he  had  determined  to  adopt 
the  profession  of  literature.  There  was  a  stormy  scene,  and  the 
elder  Feuillet  cut  off  his  son,  who  returned  to  Paris  and  lived  as 
best  he  could  by  a  scanty  journalism.  In  company  with  Paul 
Bocage  he  began  to  write  for  the  stage,  and  not  without  success; 
at  all  events,  he  continued  to  exist  until,  three  years  after  the 
quarrel,  his  father  consented  to  forgive  him.  Enjoying  a  liberal 
allowance,  he  now  lived  in  Paris  in  comfort  and  independence, 
and  he  published  his  early  novels,  none  of  which  is  quite  of 
sufficient  value  to  retain  the  modern  reader.  The  health  and 
spirits  of  the  elder  M.  Feuillet,  however,  having  still  further 
declined,  he  summoned  his  son  to  leave  Paris  and  bury  himself 
as  his  constant  attendant  in  the  melancholy  chateau  at  Saint-L6. 
This  was  to  demand  a  great  sacrifice,  but  Octave  Feuillet  cheer- 
fully obeyed  the  summons.  In  1851  he  married  his  cousin, 
Mile  Valerie  Feuillet,  who  helped  him  to  endure  the  mournful 
captivity  to  which  his  filial  duty  bound  him.  Strangely  enough, 
in  this  exile — rendered  still  more  irksome  by  his  father's  mania 
for  solitude  and  by  his  tyrannical  temper — the  genius  of  Octave 
Feuillet  developed.  His  first  definite  success  was  gained  in  the 
year  1852,  when  he  published  the  novel  Bellah  and  produced  the 
comedy  La  Crise.  Both  were  reprinted  from  the  Revue  des  deux 
mondes,  where  many  of  his  later  novels  also  appeared.  He 
wrote  books  which  have  long  held  their  place,  La  Petite  Comtesse 
(1857),  Dalila  (1857),  and  in  particular  that  universal  favourite, 
Le  Roman  d'un  jeune  homme  pauvre  (1858).  He  himself  fell 
into  a  nervous  state  in  his  "  prison,"  but  he  was  sustained  by 
the  devotion  and  intelligence  of  his  wife  and  her  mother.  In 
1857,  having  been  persuaded  to  make  a  play  of  the  novel  of 
Dalila,  he  brought  out  this  piece  at  the  Vaudeville,  and  enjoyed 
a  brilliant  success;  on  this  occasion  he  positively  broke  through 
the  consigne  and  went  up  to  Paris  to  see  his  play  rehearsed. 
His  father  bore  the  shock  of  his  temporary  absence,  and  the 
following  year  Octave  ventured  to  make  the  same  experiment 
on  occasion  of  the  performance  of  Un  Jeune  Homme  pauvre. 
To  his  infinite  chagrin,  during  this  brief  absence  his  father  died. 
Octave  was  now,  however,  free,  and  the  family  immediately 
moved  to  Paris,  where  they  took  part  in  the  splendid  social 
existence  of  the  Second  Empire.  The  elegant  and  distinguished 
young  novelist  became  a  favourite  at  court;  his  pieces  were 
performed  at  Compiegne  before  they  were  given  to  the  public, 
and  on  one  occasion  the  empress  Eug6nie  deigned  to  play  the 
part  of  Mme  de  Pons  in  Les  Portraits  de  la  Marquise.  Feuillet 
did  not  abandon  the  novel,  and  in  1862  he  achieved  a  great 
success  with  Sibylle.  His  health,  however,  had  by  this  time 
begun  to  decline,  affected  by  the  sad  death  of  his  eldest  son. 
He  determined  to  quit  Paris,  where  the  life  was  far  too  exciting 
for  his  nerves,  and  to  regain  the  quietude  of  Normandy.  The 
old  chateau  of  the  family  had  been  sold,  but  he  bought  a  house 
called  "  Les  Paillers  "  in  the  suburbs  of  Saint-L6,  and  there  he 
lived,  buried  in  his  roses,  for  fifteen  years.  He  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy  in  1862,  and  in  1868  he  was  made  librarian 
of  Fontainebleau  palace,  where  he  had  to  reside  for  a  month 
or  two  in  each  year.  In  1867  he  produced  his  masterpiece  of 
Monsieur  de  Camors,  and  in  1872  he  wrote  Julia  de  Trecaur, 
which  is  hardly  less  admirable.  His  last  years,  after  the  sale 
of  "  Les  Paillers,"  were  passed  in  a  ceaseless  wandering,  the 
result  of  the  agitation  of  his  nerves.  He  was  broken  by  sorrow 
and  by  ill-health,  and  when  he  passed  away  in  Paris  on  the  29th 
of  December  1890,  his  death  was  a  release.  His  last  book  was 
Honneur  d'arliste  (1890).  Among  the  too-numerous  writings 
of  Feuillet,  the  novels  have  lasted  longer  than  the  dramas; 


FEUILLETON— FEVER 


305 


of  the  former  three  or  four  seem  destined  to  retain  their  charm 
as  classics.  He  holds  a  place  midway  between  the  romanticists 
and  the  realists,  with  a  distinguished  and  lucid  portraiture  of 
life  which  is  entirely  his  own.  He  drew  the  women  of  the  world 
whom  he  saw  around  him  with  dignity,  with  indulgence,  with 
extraordinary  penetration  and  clairvoyance.  There  is  little 
description  in  his  novels,  which  sometimes  seem  to  move  on  an 
almost  bare  and  colourless  stage,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
analysis  of  motives,  of  emotions,  and  of  "  the  fine  shades  "  has 
rarely  been  carried  further.  Few  have  written  French  with 
greater  purity  than  Feuillet,  and  his  style,  reserved  in  form  and 
never  excessive  in  ornament,  but  full  of  wit  and  delicate  anima- 
tion, is  in  admirable  uniformity  with  his  subjects  and  his  treat- 
ment. It  is  probably  in  Sibylle  and  in  Julia  de  Trecozur  that  he 
can  now  be  studied  to  most  advantage,  though  Monsieur  de 
Cantors  gives  a  greater  sense  of  power,  and  though  Le  Roman 
d'un  jeune  homme  pauvre  still  preserves  its  popularity. 

See  also  Sainte-Beuve,  Nouveaux  Lundis,  vol.  v. ;  F.  Brunetiere, 
Nouveaux  Essais  sur  la  litterature  contemporaine  (1895).  (E.  G.) 

FEUILLETON  (a  diminutive  of  the  Fr.  feuillet,  the  leaf  of  a 
book),  originally  a  kind  of  supplement  attached  to  the  political 
portion  of  French  newspapers.  Its  inventor  was  Berlin  the 
elder,  editor  of  the  Debuts.  It  was  not  usually  printed  on  a 
separate  sheet,  but  merely  separated  from  the  political  part  of  the 
newspaper  by  a  line,  and  printed  in  smaller  type.  In  French 
newspapers  it  consists  chiefly  of  non-political  news  and  gossip, 
literature  and  art  criticism,  a  chronicle  of  the  fashions,  and 
epigrams,  charades  and  other  literary  trifles;  and  its  general 
characteristics  are  lightness,  grace  and  sparkle.  The  feuilleton  in 
its  French  sense  has  never  been  adopted  by  English  newspapers, 
though  in  various  modern  journals  (in  the  United  States  especi- 
ally) the  sort  of  matter  represented  by  it  is  now  included.  But 
the  term  itself  has  come  into  English  use  to  indicate  the  instal- 
ment of  a  serial  story  printed  in  one  part  of  a  newspaper. 

FEUQUIERES,  ISAAC  MANASSES  DE  PAS,  MARQUIS  DE 
(1590-1640),  French  soldier,  came  of  a  distinguished  family  of 
which  many  members  held  high  command  in  the  civil  wars  of 
the  1 6th  century.  He  entered  the  Royal  army  at  the  age  of 
thirty,  and  soon  achieved  distinction.  In  1626  he  served  in  the 
Valtelline,  and  in  1628-1629  at  the  celebrated  siege  of  La  Rochelle, 
where  he  was  taken  prisoner.  In  1629  he  was  made  Marechal 
de  Camp,  and  served  in  the  fighting  on  the  southern  frontiers 
of  France.  After  occupying  various  military  positions  in 
Lorraine,  he  was  sent  as  an  ambassador  into  Germany,  where 
he  rendered  important  services  in  negotiations  with  Wallenstein. 
In  1636  he  commanded  the  French  corps  operating  with  the 
duke  of  Weimar's  forces  (afterwards  Turenne's  "  Army  of 
Weimar  ").  With  these  troops  he  served  in  the  campaigns  of 
1637  (in  which  he  became  lieutenant-general),  1638  and  1639. 
At  the  siege  of  Thionville  (Diedenhofen)  he  received  a  mortal 
wound.  His  lettres  inedites  appeared  (ed.  Gallois)  in  Paris  in 
1845. 

His  son  ANTOINE  MANASSES  DE  PAS,  Marquis  de  Feuquieres 
(1648-1711),  was  born  at  Paris  in  1648,  and  entered  the  army 
at  the  age  of  eighteen.  His  conduct  at  the  siege  of  Lille  in  1667, 
where  he  was  wounded,  won  him  promotion  to  the  rank  of 
captain.  In  the  campaigns  of  1672  and  1673  he  served  on  the 
staff  of  Marshal  Luxemburg,  and  at  the  siege  of  Oudenarde 
in  the  following  year  the  king  gave  him  command  of  the  Royal 
Marine  regiment,  which  he  held  until  he  obtained  a  regiment 
of  his  own  in  1676.  In  1688  he  served  as  a  brigadier  at  the  siege 
of  Philipsburg,  and  afterwards  led  a  ravaging  expedition  into 
south  Germany,  where  he  acquired  much  booty.  Promoted 
Marechal  de  Camp,  he  served  under  Catinat  against  the 
Waldenses,  and  in  the  course  of  the  war  won  the  nickname  of 
the  "  Wizard."  In  1692  he  made  a  brilliant  defence  of  Speierbach 
against  greatly  superior  forces,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-general.  He  .bore  a  distinguished  part  in  Luxem- 
burg's great  victory  of  Neerwinden  or  Landen  in  1693.  Marshal 
Villeroi  impressed  him  less  favourably  than  his  old  commander 
Luxemburg,  and  the  resumption  of  war  in  1701  found  him  in 
disfavour  in  consequence.  The  rest  of  his  life,  embittered  by 


the  refusal  of  the  marshal's  baton,  he  spent  in  compiling  his 
celebrated  memoirs,  which,  coloured  as  they  were  by  the  personal 
animosities  of  the  writer,  were  yet  considered  by  Frederick  the 
Great  and  the  soldiers  of  the  i8th  century  as  the  standard  work 
on  the  art  of  war  as  a  whole.  He  died  in  1711.  The  Memoires 
sur  la  guerre  appeared  in  the  same  year  and  new  editions  were 
frequently  published  (Paris  1711,  1725,  1735,  &c.,  London  1736, 
Amsterdam  subsequently) .  An  English  version  appeared  in 
London  1737,  under  the  title  Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  de  Feu- 
quieres, and  a  German  translation  (Feuquieres  geheime  Nach- 
richten)  at  Leipzig  1732,  1738,  and  Berlin  1786.  They  deal  in 
detail  with  every  branch  of  the  art  of  war  and  of  military  service. 

FEVAL,  PAUL  HENRI  CORENTIN  (1817-1887),  French 
novelist  and  dramatist,  was  born  on  the  27th  of  September  1817, 
at  Rennes  in  Brittany,  and  much  of  his  best  work  deals  with  the 
history  of  his  native  province.  He  was  educated  for  the  bar, 
but  after  his  first  brief  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  gained  a  footing 
by  the  publication  of  his  "  CluD  des  phoques  "  (1841)  in  the 
Revue  de  Paris.  The  Mysteres  de  Londres  (1844),  in  which  an 
Irishman  tries  to  avenge  the  wrongs  of  his  countrymen  by 
seeking  the  annihilation  of  England,  was  published  under  the 
ingenious  pseudonym  "  Sir  Francis  Trolopp."  Others  of  his 
novels  are:  Le  Fils  du  diable  (1846) ;  Les  Compagnons  du  silence 
(1857);  Le  Bossu  (1858);  Le  Poisson  d'or  (1863);  Les  Habits 
noirs  (1863);  Jean  le  diable  (1868),  and  Les  Compagnons  du 
tresor  (1872).  Some  of  his  novels  were  dramatized,  Le  Bossu 
(1863),  in  which  he  had  M.  Victorien  Sardou  for  a  collaborator, 
being  especially  successful  in  dramatic  form.  His  chronicles 
of  crime  exercised  an  evil  influence,  eventually  recognized  by 
the  author  himself.  In  his  later  years  he  became  an  ardent 
Catholic,  and  occupied  himself  in  revising  his  earlier  works  from 
his  new  standpoint  and  in  writing  religious  pamphlets.  Reverses 
of  fortune  and  consequent  overwork  undermined  his  mental 
and  bodily  health,  and  he  died  of  paralysis  in  the  monastery  of 
the  Brothers  of  Saint  John  in  Paris  on  the  8th  of  March  1887. 

His  son,  PAUL  FEVAL  (1860-  ),  became  well  known  as  a 
novelist  and  dramatist.  Among  his  works  are  Nouvelles  (1890), 
Maria  Laura  (1891),  and  Chantepie  (1896). 

'FEVER  (Lat.  febris,  connected  with  fervere,  to  burn),  a  term 
generally  used  to  include  all  conditions  in  which  the  normal 
temperature  of  the  animal  body  is  markedly  exceeded  for  any 
length  of  time.  When  the  temperature  reaches  as  high  a  point 
as  106°  F.  the  term  hyperpyrexia  (excessive  fever)  is  applied, 
and  is  regarded  as  indicating  a  condition  of  danger;  while,  if 
it  exceeds  107°  or  108°  for  any  length  of  time,  death  almost 
always  results.  The  diseases  which  are  called  specific  fevers, 
because  of  its  being  a  predominant  factor  in  them,  are  discussed 
separately  under  their  ordinary  names.  Occasionally  in  certain 
specific  fevers  and  febrile  diseases  the  temperature  may  attain 
the  elevation  of  iio°-ii2°  prior  to  the  fatal  issue.  For  the 
treatment  of  fever  in  general,  see  THERAPEUTICS. 

Pathology. — Every  rise  of  temperature  is  due  to  a  disturbance 
in  the  heat-regulating  mechanism,  the  chief  variable  in  which 
is  the  action  of  the  skin  in  eliminating  heat. (see  ANIMAL  HEAT). 
Although  for  all  practical  purposes  this  mechanism  works  satis- 
factorily, it  is  not  by  any  means  perfect,  and  many  physiological 
conditions  cause  a  transient  rise  of  temperature;  e.g.  severe 
muscular  exercise,  in  which  the  cutaneous  eliminating  mechanism 
is  unable  at  once  to  dispose  of  the  increased  amount  of  heat 
produced  in  the  muscles.  Pathologically,  the  heat-regulating 
mechanism  may  be  disturbed  in  three  different  ways:  ist,  by 
mechanical  interference  with  the  nervous  system;  2nd,  by 
interference  with  heat  elimination;  3rd,  by  the  action  of  various 
poisons. 

i.  In  the  human  subject,  fever  the  result  of  mechanical  inter- 
ference with  the  nervous  system  rarely  occurs,  but  it  can  readily 
be  produced  in  the  lower  animals  by  stimulating  certain  parts  of 
the  great  brain,  e.g.  the  anterior  portion  of  the  corpus  striatum. 
This  leads  to  a  rise  of  temperature  with  increased  heat  production. 
The  high  temperature  seems  to  cause  distintegration  of  cell  • 
protoplasm  and  increased  excretion  of  nitrogen  and  of  carbonic 
acid.  Possibly  some  of  the  cases  of  high  temperature  recorded 


306 


FEYDEAU— FEZ 


after  injuries  to  the  nervous  system  may  be  caused  in  this  way; 
but  some  may  also  be  due  to  stimulation  of  vaso-constrictor 
fibres  to  the  cutaneous  vessels  diminishing  heat  elimination. 
So  far  the  pathology  of  this  condition  has  not  been  studied  with 
the  same  care  that  has  been  devoted  to  the  investigation  of  the 
third  type  of  fever. 

2.  Fever  may  readily  be  produced  by  interference  with  heat 
elimination.      This  has  been  done  by  submitting  dogs  to  a 
temperature  slightly  below  that  of  the  rectum,  and  it  is  seen  in 
man  in  Sunstroke.     The  typical  nervous  symptoms  of  fever 
are  thus  produced,  and  the  rate  of  chemical  change  in  the  tissues 
is  accelerated,  as  is  shown  by  the  increased  excretion  of  carbonic 
acid.     The  protoplasm  is  also  injured  and  the  proteids  are  broken 
down,  and  thus  an  increased  excretion  of  nitrogen  is  produced  ( 
and  the  cells  undergo  degenerative  changes. 

3.  The  products  of  various  micro-organisms  have  a  toxic 
action  on  the  protoplasm  of  a  large  number  of  animals,  and 
among  the  symptoms  of  this  toxic  action  one  of  the  most  frequent 
is  a  rise  in  temperature.     While  this  is  by  no  means  a  necessary 
accompaniment,  its  occurrence  is  so  general  that  the  term  Fever 
has  been  applied  to  the  general  reaction  of  the  organism  to  the 
microbial  poison.     Toxins  which  cause  a  marked  rise  of  tempera- 
ture in  men  may  cause  a  fall  in  other  animals.     It  is  not  the 
alteration  of  temperature  which  is  the  great  index  of  the  severity 
of  the  struggle  between  the  host  and  the  parasite,  but  the  death 
and  removal  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent  of  the  protoplasm  of 
the  host.     In  this  respect  fever  resembles  poisoning  with  phos- 
phorus and  arsenic  and  other  similar  substances.     The  true 
measure  of  the  intensity  of  a  fever  is  the  extent  of  disintegration 
of  protoplasm,  and  this  may  be  estimated  by  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  excreted  in  the  urine.     The  increased  disintegration 
of  protoplasm  is  also  indicated  by  the  rise  in  the  excretion  of 
sulphur  and  phosphorus  and  by  the  appearance  in  the  urine  of 
acetone,  aceto-acetic  and  (3-oxybutyric  acids  (see  NUTRITION). 
Since  the  temperature  is  generally  proportionate  to  the  intensity 
of  the  toxic  action,  its  height  is  usually  proportionate  to  the 
excretion  of  nitrogen.     But  sometimes  the  rise  of  temperature 
is  not  marked,  while  the  excretion  of  nitrogen  is  very  decidedly 
increased.     When  the  temperature  is  sufficiently  elevated,  the 
heat  has  of  itself  an  injurious  action  on  the  protoplasm,  and 
tends  to  increase  disintegration  just  as  when  heat  elimination 
is  experimentally  retarded.     But  the  increase  due  to  rise  of 
temperature  is  small  compared  to  that  produced  by  the  de- 
structive action  of  the  microbial  products.     In  the  beginning 
of  a  fever  the  activity  of  the  metabolism  is  not  increased  to  any 
marked  extent,  and  any  increase  is  necessarily  largely  due  to 
the  greater  activity  of  the  muscles  of  the  heart  and  respiratory 
mechanism,  and  to  the  muscular  contractions  which  produce 
the  initial  rigors.     Thus  the  excretion  of  carbon  dioxide — the 
great  measure  of  the  activity  of  metabolism — is  not  usually 
increased,  and  there  is  no  evidence  of  an  increased  combustion. 
In  the  later  stages  the  increased  temperature  may  bring  about 
an  acceleration  in  the  rate  of  chemical  change;    but  this  is 
comparatively  slight,  less  in  fact  than  the  increase  observed  on 
taking  muscular  exercise  after  rest.     The  rise  of  temperature 
is    primarily    due     to    diminished    heat    elimination.     This 
diminished  giving  off  of  heat  was  demonstrated  by  means  of 
the  calorimeter  by  I.  Rosenthal,  while  E.  Maragliano  showed 
that  the  cutaneous  vessels  are  contracted.     Even  in  the  later 
stages,  until  defervescence  occurs,  heat  elimination  is  inadequate 
to  get  rid  of  the  heat  produced. 

The  toxic  action  is  manifested  not  only  by  the  increased 
disintegration  of  protoplasm,  but  also  by  disturbances  in  the 
functions  of  the  various  organs.  The  activity  of  the  digestive 
glands  is  diminished  and  appetite  is  lost.  Food  is  therefore  not 
taken,  although  when  taken  it  appears  to  be  absorbed  in  un- 
diminished  quantities.  As  a  result  of  this  the  patient  suffers 
from  inanition,  and  lives  largely  on  his  own  fats  and  proteids, 
and  for  this  reason  rapidly  emaciates.  The  functions  of  the 
liver  are  also  diminished  in  activity.  Glycogen  is  not  stored 
in  the  cells,  and  the  bile  secretion  is  modified,  the  essential 
constituents  disappearing  almost  entirely  in  some  cases.  The 


production  of  urea  is  also  interfered  with,  and  the  proportion 
of  nitrogen  in  the  urine  not  in  the  urea  increases.  This  is  in  part 
due  to  the  increased  disintegration  of  proteids  setting  free 
sulphur  and  phosphorus,  which,  oxidized  into  sulphuric  and 
phosphoric  acids,  combine  with  the  ammonia  which  would  other- 
wise have  been  changed  to  urea.  Thus  the  proportion  of  ammonia 
in  the  urine  is  increased.  Concurrently  with  these  alterations 
in  the  functions  of  the  liver-cells,  a  condition  of  granular  degenera- 
tion and  probably  a  state  of  fatty  degeneration  makes  its  ap- 
pearance. That  the  functional  activity  of  the  kidneys  is  modified, 
is  shown  by  the  frequent  appearance  of  proteoses  or  of  albumen 
and  globulin  in  the  urine.  Frequently  the  toxin  acts  very 
markedly  on  the  protoplasm  of  the  kidney  epithelium,  and 
causes  a  shedding  of  the  cells  and  sometimes  inflammatory 
reaction.  The  muscles  are  weakened,  but  so  far  no  satisfactory 
study  has  been  made  of  the  influence  of  microbial  poisons  on 
muscular  contraction.  A  granular  and  fatty  degeneration  super- 
venes, and  the  fibres  waste.  The  nervous  structures,  especially 
the  nerve-cells,  are  acted  upon,  and  not  only  is  their  functional 
activity  modified,  but  they  also  undergo  structural  changes  of  a 
chromatoly tic  nature.  The  blood  shows  two  important  changes — 
first,  a  fall  in  the  alkalinity  due  to  the  products  of  disintegration 
of  protoplasm;  and,  secondly,  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
leucocytes,  and  chiefly  in  the  polymorpho-nuclear  variety.  This 
is  best  marked  in  pneumonia,  where  the  normal  number  is  often 
increased  twofold  and  sometimes  more  than  tenfold,  while  it  is 
altogether  absent  in  enteric  fever. 

An  interesting  general  modification  in  the  metabolism  is  the 
enormous  fall  in  the  excretion  of  chlorine,  a  fall  far  in  excess 
of  what  could  be  accounted  for  by  inanition,  and  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  fall  in  the  sodium  and  potassium  with  which 
the  chlorine  is  usually  combined  in  the  urine.  The  fevered 
animal  in  fact  stores  chlorine  in  its  tissues,  though  in  what 
manner  and  for  what  reason  is  not  at  present  known. 

AUTHORITIES. — Von  Noorden,  Lehrbuch  der  Pathologic  des  Stoff- 
wechsels  (Berlin,  1893);  Metabolism  and  Practical  Medicine,  vol.  u., 
article  "  Fever"  by  F.  Kraus  (1907);  Dr  A.  Rabe,  Die  modernen 
Fiebertheorien  (Berlin,  1894);  Dr  G.  B.  Ughetti,  Das  Fieber,  trans, 
by  Dr  R.  Teuscher  (jena,  1895);  Dr  M.  Loyit,  "  Die  Lehre  von 
Fieber,"  Vorlesungen  tiber  allgemeine  Pathologic,  erstes  Heft  (Jena, 
1897);  Louis  Gumon,  "  De  la  fievre,"  in  Bouchard's  Traite  de 
pathologic  generate,  t.  iii.  and  partie  (Paris,  1899);  Sir  J.  B.  Sander- 
son, "  The  Doctrine  of  Fever,  in  Allbutt's  System  of  Medicine,  vol.  i. 
p.  139  (London,  1896).  (D.  N.  P.) 

FEYDEAU,  ERNEST-AIM^  (1821-1873),  French  author,  was 
born  in  Paris,  on  the  i6th  of  March  1821.  He  began  his  literary 
career  in  1844,  by  the  publication  of  a  volume  of  poetry,  Les 
Nationales.  Either  the  partial  failure  of  this  literary  effort,  or 
his  marriage  soon  afterwards  to  a  daughter  of  the  economist 
Blanqui,  caused  him  to  devote  himself  to  finance  and  to 
archaeology.  He  gained  a  great  success  with  his  novel  Fanny 
(1858),  a  success  due  chiefly  to  the  cleverness  with  which  it 
depicted  and  excused  the  corrupt  manners  of  a  certain  portion 
of  French  society.  This  was  followed  in  rapid  succession  by  a 
series  of  fictions,  similar  in  character,  but  wanting  the  attraction 
of  novelty;  none  of  them  enjoyed  the  same  vogue  as  Fanny. 
Besides  his  novels  Feydeau  wrote  several  plays,  and  he  is  also 
the  author  of  Histoire  generale  des  usages  funebres  et  des  sepultures 
des  peuples  anciens  (3  vols.,  1857-1861);  Le  Secret  du  bonheur 
(sketches  of  Algerian  life)  (2  vols.,  1864);  and  L'Allemagne  en 
1871  (1872),  a  clever  caricature  of  German  life  and  manners.  He 
died  in  Paris  on  the  27th  of  October  1873. 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries  du  lundi,  vol.  xiv.,  and  Barbey 
d'Aurevilly,  Les  CEuvres  et  les  hommes  au  XIX'  siecle. 

FEZ  (Fas),  the  chief  city  of  Morocco,  into  which  empire  it 
was  incorporated  in  1548.  It  lies  in  34°  6'  3*  N.,  4°  38'  15*  W., 
about  230  m.  N.E.  of  Marrakesh,  100  m.  E.  from  the  Atlantic 
and  85  m.  S.  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  beautifully  situated 
in  a  deep  valley  on  the  Wad  Fas,  an  affluent  of  the  Wad  Sebu, 
which  divides  the  town  into  two  parts — the  ancient  town,  Fas 
el  Bali,  on  the  right  bank,  and  the  new,  Fas  el  Jadid,  on  the  left. 

Like  many  other  Oriental  cities,  Fez  from  a  distance  appears 
a  very  attractive  place.  It  stretches  out  between  low  hills, 
crowned  by  the  ruins  of  ancient  fortresses,  and  though  there 


FEZZAN 


307 


is  nothing  imposing,  there  is  something  particularly  impressive 
in  the  sight  of  that  white-roofed  conglomeration  of  habitations, 
broken  only  by  occasional  mosque  towers  or,  on  the  outskirts, 
by  luxuriant  foliage.  Except  on  the  south  side  the  city  is  sur- 
rounded by  hills,  interspersed  with  groves  of  orange,  pomegranate 
and  other  fruit  trees,  and  large  olive  gardens. 

From  its  peculiar  situation  Fez  has  a  drainage  superior  to  that 
of  most  Moorish  towns.  When  the  town  becomes  very  dirty,  the 
water  is  allowed  to  run  down  the  streets  by  opening  lids  for  the 
purpose  in  the  conduits  and  closing  the  ordinary  exits,  so  that 
it  overflows  and  cleanses  the  pavements.  The  Fasis  as  a  rule 
prefer  to  drink  the  muddy  river  water  rather  than  that  of  the 
pure  springs  which  abound  in  certain  quarters  of  the  town.  But 
the  assertion  that  the  supply  and  drainage  system  are  one  is  a 
libel,  since  the  drainage  system  lies  below  the  level  of  the  fresh 
river  water,  and  was  organized  by  a  French  renegade,  under 
Mohammed  XVI.,  about  the  close  of  the  i8th  century.  The 
general  dampness  of  the  town  renders  it  unhealthy,  however, 
as  the  pallid  faces  of  the  inhabitants  betoken,  but  this  is  con- 
sidered a  mark  of  distinction  and  is  jealously  guarded. 

Most  of  the  streets  are  exceedingly  narrow,  and  as  the  houses 
are  high  and  built  in  many  cases  over  the  thoroughfares  these 
are  often  very  dark  and  gloomy,  though,  since  wooden  beams, 
rough  stones  and  mortar  are  used  in  building,  there  is  less  of 
that  ruined,  half-decayed  appearance  so  common  in  other 
Moorish  towns  where  mud  concrete  is  the  material  employed. 

As  a  commercial  town  Fez  is  a  great  depot  for  the  trade  of 
Barbary  and  wares  brought  from  the  east  and  south  by  caravans. 
The  manufactures  still  carried  on  are  those  of  yellow  slippers 
of  the  famous  Morocco  leather,  fine  white  woollen  and  silk  haiks, 
of  which  it  is  justly  proud,  women's  embroidered  sashes,  various 
coarse  woollen  cloths  and  blankets,  cotton  and  silk  handkerchiefs, 
silk  cords  and  braids,  swords  and  guns,  saddlery,  brass  trays, 
Moorish  musical  instruments,  rude  painted  pottery  and  coloured 
tiles.  Until  recent  times  the  city  had  a  monopoly  of  the  manu- 
facture of  Fez  caps,  for  it  was  supposed  that  the  dye  which 
imparts  the  dull  crimson  hue  of  these  caps  could  not  be  procured 
elsewhere;  they  are  now,  however,  made  both  in  France  and 
Turkey.  The  dye  is  obtained  from  the  juice  of  a  berry  which 
grows  in  large  quantities  near  the  town,  and  is  also  used  in  the 
dyeing  of  leather.  Some  gold  ornaments  are  made,  the  gold 
being  brought  from  the  interior  by  caravans  which  trade  regularly 
with  Timbuktu. 

As  in  other  capitals  each  trade  has  a  district  or  street  devoted 
chiefly  to  its  activities.  Old  Fez  is  the  business  portion  of  the 
town,  new  Fez  being  occupied  principally  by  government 
quarters  and  the  Jews'  mellah.  The  tradesman  usually  sits 
cross-legged  in  a  corner  of  his  shop  with  his  goods  so  arranged 
that  he  can  reach  most  of  them  without  moving. 

In  the  early  days  of  Mahommedan  rule  in  Morocco,  Fez  was 
the  seat  of  learning  and  the  empire's  pride.  Its  schools  of 
religion,  philosophy  and  astronomy  enjoyed  a  great  reputation 
in  Africa  and  also  in  southern  Europe,  and  were  even  attended 
by  Christians.  On  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain, 
refugees  of  all  kinds  flocked  to  Fez,  and  brought  with  them 
some  knowledge  of  arts,  sciences  and  manufactures,  and  thither 
flocked  students  to  make  use  of  its  extensive  libraries.  But 
its  glories  were  brief,  and  though  still  "  the  university  town  " 
of  Morocco,  it  retains  but  a  shadow  of  its  greatness.  Its  library, 
estimated  by  Gerhard  Rohlfs  in  1861  to  contain  5000  volumes, 
is  open  on  Fridays,  and  any  Moor  of  known  respectability  may 
borrow  volumes  on  getting  an  order  and  signing  a  receipt  for 
them.  There  are  about  1 500  students  who  read  at  the  Karucein. 
They  pay  no  rents,  but  buy  the  keys  of  the  rooms  from  the 
last  occupants,  selling  them  again  on  leaving. 

The  Karueein  is  celebrated  as  the  largest  mosque  in  Africa, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  the  most  magnificent.  On  account  of 
the  vast  area  covered,  the  roof,  supported  by  three  hundred 
and  sixty-six  pillars  of  stone,  appears  very  low.  The  side  chapel 
for  services  for  the  dead  contains  twenty-four  pillars.  All 
these  columns  support  horse-shoe  arches,  on  which  the  roof 
is  built,  long  vistas  of  arches  being  seen  from  each  of  the  eighteen 


doors  of  the  mosque.  The  large  lamp  is  stated  to  weigh  1763  ft> 
and  to  have  509  lights,  but  it  is  very  seldom  lit.  The  total 
number  of  lights  in  the  Karueein  is  given  as  seventeen 
hundred,  and  they  are  said  to  require  35  cwt.  of  oil  for  one 
filling.  The  mosque  of  Mulai  Idris,  built  by  the  founder  of  Fez 
about  the  year  810,  is  considered  so  sacred  that  the  streets 
which  approach  its  entrance  are  forbidden  to  Jews,  Christians 
or  four-footed  beasts.  The  sanctity  of  the  shrine  in  particular 
is  esteemed  very  great,  and  this  accounts  for  the  crowds  which 
daily  flock  to  it.  The  Tumiat  door  leading  to  it  was  once  very 
fine,  but  is  now  much  faded.  Opposite  to  it  is  a  refuge  for  friend- 
less sharifas — the  female  descendants  of  Mahomet — built  by 
Mohammed  XVII. 

It  is  believed  that  the  foundation  stone  of  Fez  was  laid  in 
808  by  Idris  II.  Since  then  its  history  has  been  chequered, 
as  it  was  successfully  besieged  no  fewer  than  eight  times  in  the 
first  five  hundred  years  of  its  existence,  yet  only  once  knew 
foreign  masters,  when  in  1554  the  Turks  took  possession  of  it 
without  a  siege  and  held  it  for  a  short  time.  Fez  became  the 
chief  residence  of  the  Filali  dynasty,  who  obtained  possession 
of  the  town  in  1649  (see  further  MOROCCO:  History). 

The  population  has  been  very  varyingly  estimated;  probably 
the  inhabitants  number  under  one  hundred  thousand,  even  when 
the  court  is  in  residence. 

See  H.  Gaillard,  Une  Ville  de  I' Islam.  Fes  (Paris,  1905) ;  C.  Rene- 
Leclerc,  "  Le  commerce  et  1'industrie  a  Fez  "  in  Renseignements  col. 
comite  afrique  frangaise  (1905). 

FEZZAN  (the  ancient  Phazania,  or  country  of  the  Gara- 
mantes),  a  region  of  the  Sahara,  forming  a  "  kaimakamlik  " 
of  the  Ottoman  vilayet  of  Tripoli  (q.v.).  Its  frontiers,  ill-defined, 
run  from  Bonjem,  within  50  m.  of  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
north,  south-westward  to  the  Akakus  range  of  hills,  which 
separates  Fezzan  from  Ghat,  thence  eastward  for  over  400  m.> 
and  then  turn  north  and  west  to  Bonjem  again,  embracing  an 
area  of  about  156,000  sq.  m. 

Physical  Features. — The  general  form  of  the  country  is 
determined  by  the  ranges  of  hills,  including  the  Jebel-es-Suda 
(highest  peak  about  4000  ft.),  the  Haruj-el-Aswad  and  the 
Haruj-el-Abiad,  which  between  14°  and  19°  E.  and  27°  and  29°  N. 
form  the  northern  edge  of  a  broad  desert  plateau,  and  shut  off 
the  northern  region  draining  to  the  Mediterranean  from  the 
depressions  in  which  lie  the  oases  of  Fezzan  proper  in  the  south. 
The  central  depression  of  Hofra  ("  ditch  "),  as  it  is  called,  lies 
in  about  26°  N.  It  does  not  form  a  continuous  fertile  tract, 
but  consists  of  a  monotonous  sandy  expanse  somewhat  more 
thickly  studded  with  oases  than  the  surrounding  wastes.  The 
Hofra  at  its  lowest  part  is  not  more  than  600  ft.  above  the  sea- 
level,  and  in  this  hollow  is  situated  the  capital  Murzuk.  It  has 
a  general  east  to  west  direction.  North-west  of  the  Hofra  is 
a  long  narrow  valley,  the  Wadi-el-Gharbi,  which  trends  north- 
east and  is  the  most  fertile  district  of  Fezzan.  It  contains  several 
perennial  springs  and  lake-like  basins.  One  of  these  basins,  the 
saline  Bahr-el-Dud  ("  Sea  of  Worms  "),  has  an  extent  of  600 
sq.  m.,  and  is  in  places  26  ft.  deep.  Southwards  the  Hofra  rises 
to  a  height  of  2000  ft.,  and  in  this  direction  lies  the  oasis  of 
Gatron,  followed  by  Tejerri  on  the  verge  of  the  desert,  which 
marks  the  southern  limit  of  the  date  and  the  northern  of  the  dum 
palm.  Beyond  Tejerri  the  Saharan  plateau  rises  continuously 
to  the  Tibesti  highlands.  (See  further  TRIPOLI.) 

Climate. — The  average  temperature  of  Murzuk  was  found 
by  Rohlfs  to  be  70°  F.  Frost  is  not  uncommon  in  the  winter 
months.  The  climate  is  a  very  regular  one,  and  is  in  general 
healthy,  the  dryness  of  the  air  in  summer  making  the  heat  more 
bearable  than  on  the  sea  coast.  An  almost  perpetual  blue 
sky  overhangs  the  desert,  and  the  people  of  Fezzan  are  so 
unaccustomed  to  and  so  ill-prepared  for  wet  weather  that, 
as  in  Tuat  and  Tidikelt,  they  pray  to  be  spared  from  rain. 
Water  is  found  almost  everywhere  at  small  depths. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — The  date-palm  is  the  characteristic  tree 
of  Fezzan,  and  constitutes  the  chief  wealth  of  the  land.  Many 
different  kinds  of  date-palms  are  found  in  the  oases:  in  that 
of  Murzuk  alone  more  than  30  varieties  are  counted,  the  most 


3o8 


FEZZAN 


esteemea  being  named  the  Tillis,  Tuati  and  Auregh.  In  all 
Fezzan  the  date  is  the  staple  food,  not  only  for  men,  but  for 
camels,  horses  and  dogs.  Even  the  stones  of  the  fruit  are 
softened  and  given  to  the  cattle.  The  huts  of  the  poorer  classes 
are  entirely  made  of  date-palm  leaves,  and  the  more  substantial 
habitations  consist  chiefly  of  the  same  material.  The  produce 
of  the  tree  is  small,  100  full-grown  trees  yielding  only  about 
40  cwt.  of  dates.  Besides  the  date  there  are  numerous  olive, 
fig  and  almond  trees.  Various  grains  are  cultivated.  Wheat 
and  barley  are  sown  in  winter,  and  in  spring,  summer  and  autumn 
several  kinds  of  durra,  especially  ksob  and  gafoli.  Cotton 
flourishes,  is  perennial  for  six  or  seven  years,  and  gives  large  pods 
of  moderate  length  of  staple. 

There  are  no  large  carnivora  in  Fezzan.  In  the  uninhabited 
oases  gazelles  and  antelopes  are  occasionally  found.  The  most 
important  animal  is  the  camel,  of  which  there  are  two  varieties, 
the  Tebu  or  Sudan  camel  and  the  Arabian,  differing  very  much 
in  size,  form  and  capabilities.  Horses  and  cattle  are  not 
numerous.  Among  birds  are  ostriches,  falcons,  vultures, 
swallows  and  ravens;  in  summer  wild  pigeons  and  ducks  are 
numerous,  but  in  winter  they  seek  a  warmer  climate.  There  are 
no  remarkable  insects  or  snakes.  A  species  of  Artemia  or  brine 
shrimp,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  of  a  colour 
resembling  the  bright  hue  of  the  gold  fish,  is  fished  for  with 
cotton  nets  in  the  "  Sea  of  Worms,"  and  mixed  with  dates  and 
kneaded  into  a  paste,  which  has  the  taste  and  smell  of  salt 
herring,  is  considered  a  luxury  by  the  people  of  Fezzan. 

Inhabitants.— The  total  population  is  estimated  at  between 
50,000  and  80,000.  The  inhabitants  are  a  mixed  people,  derived 
from  the  surrounding  Teda  and  Bornu  on  the  south,  Tuareg  of 
the  plateaus  on  the  west,  Berbers  and  Arabs  from  the  north. 
The  primitive  inhabitants,  called  by  their  Arab  conquerors 
Berauna,  are  believed  to  have  been  of  Negro  origin.  They  no 
longer  persist  as  a  distinct  people.  In  colour  the  present 
inhabitants  vary  from  black  to  white,  but  the  prevailing  hue  of 
skin  is  a  Malay-like  yellow,  the  features  and  woolly  hair  being 
Negro.  The  chief  languages  are  the  Kanuri  or  Bornu  language 
and  Arabic.  Many  understand  Targish,  the  Teda  and  the  Hausa 
tongues.  If  among  such  a  mixed  people  there  can  be  said  to  be 
any  national  language,  it  is  that  of  Bornu,  which  is  most  widely 
understood  and  spoken.  The  people  of  Sokna,  north  of  the  Jebel- 
es-Suda,  have  a  peculiar  Berber  dialect  which  Rohlfs  found  to 
be  very  closely  allied  to  that  of  Ghadames.  The  men  wear  a  haik 
or  barakan  like  those  of  Tripoli,  and  a  fez;  short  hose,  and  a 
large  loose  shirt  called  mansaria,  with  red  or  yellow  slippers, 
complete  their  toilet.  Yet  one  often  sees  the  large  blue  or  white 
lobe  of  Bornu,  and  the  litham  or  shawl-muffler  of  the  Tuareg, 
wound  round  the  mouth  to  keep  out  the  blown  sand  of  the 
desert.  The  women,  who  so  long  as  they  are  young  have  very 
plump  forms,  and  who  are  generally  small,  are  more  simply 
dressed,  as  a  rule,  in  the  barakan,  wound  round  their  bodies; 
they  seldom  wear  shoes,  but  generally  have  sandals  made  of 
palm  leaf.  Like  the  Arab  women  they  load  arms  and  legs  with 
heavy  metal  rings,  which  are  of  silver  among  the  more  wealthy. 
The  hair,  thickly  greased  with  butter,  soon  catching  the  dust 
which  forms  a  crust  over  it,  is  done  up  in  numberless  little  plaits 
round  the  head,  in  the  same  fashion  as  in  Bornu  and  the  Hausa 
countries.  Children  run  about  naked  until  they  attain  the  age 
of  puberty,  which  comes  very  early,  for  mothers  of  ten  or  twelve 
years  of  age  are  not  uncommon.  The  Fezzani  are  of  a  gay 
disposition,  much  given  to  music  and  dancing. 

Towns  and  Trade. — Murzuk,  the  present  capital,  which  is 
in  telegraphic  communication  with  the  town. of  Tripoli,  lies  in 
the  western  corner  of  the  Hofra  depression,  in  25°  55'  N.  and  14° 
10'  E.  It  was  founded  about  1310,  about  which  time  the  kasbah 
or  citadel  was  built.  The  Turks  repaired  it,  as  well  as  the  town- 
wall,  which  has,  however,  again  fallen  into  a  ruinous  condition. 
Murzuk,  which  had  in  1906  some  3000  inhabitants,  is  cut  in  two 
by  a  wide  street,  the  dendal.  The  citadel  and  most  of  the  houses 
are  built  of  salt-saturated  dried  mud.  Sokna,  about  midway 
between  Tripoli  and  Murzuk,  situated  on  a  great  gravel  plain 
north  of  the  Suda  range,  has  a  population  of  about  2500. 


Garama  (Jerma-el-Kedima),  the  capital  under  the  Garamantes 
and  the  Romans,  was  in  the  Wadi-el-Gharbi.  It  was  a  flourishing 
town  at  the  time  of  the  Arab  conquest  but  is  now  deserted. 
Among  the  ryins  is  a  well-preserved  stone  monument  marking 
the  southern  limit  of  the  Roman  dominions  in  this  part  of  Africa. 
The  modern  Jerma  is  a  small  place  a  little  north  of  the  site  of 
Garama.  Zuila,  the  capital  under  the  Arabs,  lies  in  a  depression 
called  the  Sherguia  east  of  Murzuk  on  the  most  direct  caravan 
route  to  Barca  and  Egypt.  Of  Traghen,  the  capital  under  the 
Nesur  dynasty,  which  was  on  the  same  caravan  route  and 
between  Zuila  and  Murzuk,  little  besides  the  ruined  kasbah 
remains. 

Placed  roughly  midway  between  the  countries  of  the  central 
Sudan  and  Tripoli,  Fezzan  serves  as  a  depot  for  caravans  crossing 
the  Sahara;  its  commerce  is  unimportant.  Its  most  important 
export  is  that  of  dates.  Slave  dealing,  formerly  the  most  lucrative 
occupation  of  the  people,  is  moribund  owing  to  the  stoppage  of 
slave  raiding  by  the  European  governments  in  their  Sudan 
territories. 

History. — The  country  formed  part  of  the  territory  of  the 
Garamantes,  described  by  Herodotus  as  a  very  powerful  people. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  identify  the  Garamantes  with  the 
Berauna  of  the  Arabs  of  the  7th  century,  and  to  the  period  of 
the  Garamantes  Duveyrier  assigns  the  remains  of  remarkable 
hydraulic  works,  and  certain  tombs  and  rock  sculptures — 
indications,  it  is  held,  of  a  Negro  civilization  of  ancient  date 
which  existed  in  the  northern  Sahara.  The  Garamantes,  whether 
of  Libyan  or  Negro  origin,  had  certainly  a  considerable  degree 
of  civilization  when  in  the  year  19  B.C.  they  were  conquered  by 
the  proconsul  L.  Cornelius  Balbus  Minor  and  their  country  added 
to  the  Roman  empire.  By  the  Romans  it  was  called  Phazania, 
whence  the  present  name  Fezzan.  After  the  Vandal  invasion 
Phazania  appears  to  have  regained  independence  and  to  have 
been  ruled  by  a  Berauna  dynasty.  At  this  time  the  people  were 
Christians,  but  in  666  the  Arabs  conquered  the  country  and  all 
traces  of  Christianity  seem  speedily  to  have  disappeared.  Subject 
at  first  to  the  caliphs,  an  independent  Arab  dynasty,  that  of  the 
Beni  Khattab,  obtained  power  early  in  the  loth  century.  In 
the  i3th  century  the  country  came  under  the  rule  of  the  king  of 
Kanem  (Bornu),  but  soon  afterwards  the  Nesur,  said  to  have 
been  a  native  or  Berauna  dynasty,  were  in  power.  More  probably 
the  Nesur  were  hereditary  governors  originally  appointed  by 
the  rulers  of  Kanem.  In  the  I4th  century  the  Nesur  were 
conquered  and  dethroned  by  an  Arab  tribe,  that  of  Khorman, 
who  reduced  the  people  of  Fezzan  to  a  state  of  slavery,  a  position 
from  which  they  were  rescued  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century  by  a  sherif  of  Morocco,  Montasir-b.-Mahommed,  who 
founded  the  dynasty  of  Beni  Mahommed.  This  dynasty,  which 
came  into  frequent  conflict  with  the  Turks,  who  had  about  the 
same  time  that  Montasir  secured  Fezzan  established  themselves 
in  Tripoli,  gradually  extended  its  borders  as  far  as  Sokna  in  the 
north.  It  was  the  Beni  Mahommed  who  chose  Murzuk  as  their 
capital.  They  became  intermittently  tributary  to  the  pasha 
of  Tripoli,  but  within  Fezzan  the  power  of  the  sultans  was 
absolute.  They  maintained  a  bodyguard  of  mamelukes,  mostly 
Europeans — Greeks,  Genoese,  or  their  immediate  descendants. 
The  annual  tribute  was  paid  to  the  pasha  either  in  money  or 
in  gold,  senna  or  slaves.  The  last  of  the  Beni  Mahommed  sultans 
was  killed  in  the  vicinity  of  Traghen  in  1811  by  El-Mukkeni, 
one  of  the  lieutenants  of  Yusef  Pasha,  the  last  sovereign  but  one 
of  the  independent  Karamanli  dynasty  of  Tripoli.  El-Mukkeni 
now  made  himself  sultan  of  Fezzan,  and  became  notorious  by 
his  slaving  expeditions  into  the  central  Sudan,  in  which  he 
advanced  as  far  as  Bagirmi.  In  1831,  Abd-el-Jelil,  a  chief  of  the 
Walid-Sliman  Arabs,  usurped  the  sovereign  authority.  After  a 
troublous  reign  of  ten  years  he  was  slain  in  battle  by  a  Turkish 
force  under  Bakir  Bey,  and  Fezzan  was  added  to  the  Turkish 
empire.  Towards  the  end  of  the  igth  century  the  Turks,  alarmed 
at  the  increase  of  French  influence  in  the  neighbouring  countries, 
reinforced  their  garrison  in  Fezzan.  The  kaimakamlik  is  said 
to  yield  an  annual  revenue  of  £6000  only  to  the  Tripolitan 
treasury. 


FIACRE,  SAINT— FIBRES 


309 


AUTHORITIES. — The  most  notable  of  the  European  travellers  who 
have  visited  Fezzan,  and  to  whose  works  reference  should  be  made 
for  more  detailed  information  regarding  it,  are,  taking  them  in  the 
order  of  date,  as  follows:  F.  Hornemann,  1798;  G.  F.  Lyon,  1819; 
D.  Denham,  H.  Clapperton  and  W.  Oudney,  1822;  J.  Richardson, 
1845;  H.  Earth,  1850-1855;  E.  Vogel,  1854;  H.  Duveyrier,  1859- 
1861;  M.  von  Beurmann,  1862;  G.  Rohlfs,  1865;  p.  Nachtigal, 
1869;  P.  L.  Monteil,  1892;  H.  Vischer,  1906.  Nachtigal's  Sahara 
und  Sudan,  vol.  i.  (Berlin,  1879),  gathers  up  much  of  the  information 
in  earlier  works,  and  a  list  of  the  Beni  Mahommed  sovereigns  is 
giveikin  A.  M.  H.  J.  Stokvis,  Manuel  d'histoire,  vol.  i.  (Leiden,  1888), 
p.  471.  Miss  Tinne  (q.v.),  who  travelled  with  Nachtigal  as  far  as 
Murzuk,  was  shortly  afterwards  murdered  at  the  Sharaba  wells 
on  the  road  to  Ghat. 

FIACRE,  SAINT  (Celt.  Fiachra) ,  a.n  anchorite  of  the  7th  century, 
of  noble  Irish  descent.  We  have  no  information  concerning  his 
life  in  his  native  country.  His  Acta,  which  have  scarcely  any 
historical  value,  relate  that  he  left  Ireland,  and  came  to  France 
with  his  companions.  He  approached  St  Faro,  the  bishop  of 
Meaux,  to  whom  he  made  known  his  desire  to  live  a  life  of 
solitude  in  the  forest.  St  Faro  assigned  him  a  spot  called 
Prodilus  (Brodolium),  the  modern  Breuil,  in  the  province  of  Brie. 
There  St  Fiacre  built  a  monastery  in  honour  of  the  Holy  Virgin, 
and  to  it  added  a  small  house  for  guests,  to  which  he  himself 
withdrew.  Here  he  received  St  Chillen  (?  Killian),  who  was 
returning  from  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  and  here  he  remained  until 
his  death,  having  acquired  a  great  reputation  for  miracles. 
His  remains  rested  for  a  long  time  in  the  place  which  he  had 
sanctified.  In  1568,  at  the  time  of  the  religious  troubles,  they 
were  transferred  to  the  cathedral  of  Meaux,  where  his  shrine 
may  still  be  seen  in  the  sacristy.  Various  relics  of  St  Fiacre  were 
given  to  princes  and  great  personages.  His  festival  is  celebrated 
on  the  3oth  of  August.  He  is  the  patron  of  Brie,  and  gardeners 
invoke  him  as  their  protector.  French  hackney-coaches  received 
the  name  of  fiacre  from  the  Hotel  St  Fiacre,  in  the  rue  St  Martin, 
Paris,  where  one  Sauvage,  who  was  the  first  to  provide  cabs  for 
hire,  kept  his  vehicles. 

See  Acta  Sanctorum,  August!  vi.  598-620;  J.  O'Hanlon,  Lives  of 
the  Irish  Saints,  viii.  421-447  (Dublin,  1875-1904);  J.  C.  O'Meagher, 
"  Saint  Fiacre  de  la  Brie,"  in  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy, 
3rd  series,  ii.  173-176.  (H.  DE.) 

FIARS  PRICES,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  the  average  prices  of 
each  of  the  different  sorts  of  grain  grown  in  each  county,  as 
fixed  annually  by  the  sheriff,  usually  after  the  verdict  of  a  jury; 
they  serve  as  a  rule  for  ascertaining  the  value  of  the  grain  due  to 
feudal  superiors,  to  the  clergy  or  to  lay  proprietors  of  teinds,  to 
landlords  as  a  part  or  the  whole  of  their  rents  and  in  all  cases 
where  the  price  of  grain  has  not  been  fixed  by  the  parties.  It  is 
not  known  when  or  how  the  practice  of  "  striking  the  fiars,"  as  it 
is  called,  originated.  It  probably  was  first  used  to  determine  the 
value  of  the  grain  rents  and  duties  payable  to  the  crown.  In 
confirmation  of  this  view  it  seems  that  at  first  the  duty  of  the 
sheriffs  was  merely  to  make  a  return  to  the  court  of  exchequer  of 
the  prices  of  grain  within  their  counties,  the  court  itself  striking 
the  fiars;  and  from  an  old  case  it  appears  that  the  fiars  were 
struck  above  the  true  prices,  being  regarded  rather  as  punish- 
ments to  force  the  king's  tenants  to  pay  their  rents  than  as  the 
proper  equivalent  of  the  grain  they  had  to  pay.  Co-existent, 
however,  with  these  fiars,  which  were  termed  sheriffs'  fiars,  there 
was  at  an  early  period  another  class  called  commissaries'  fiars,  by 
which  the  values  of  teinds  were  regulated.  They  have  been 
traced  back  to  the  Reformation,  and  were  under  the  management 
of  the  commissary  or  consistorial  courts,  which  then  took  the 
place  of  the  bishops  and  their  officials.  They  have  now  been  long 
out  of  use,  but  they  were  perhaps  of  greater  antiquity  than  the 
sheriffs'  fiars,  and  the  model  upon  which  these  were  instituted. 
In  1723  the  court  of  session  passed  an  Act  of  Sederunt  for  the 
purpose  of  regulating  the  procedure  in  fiars  courts.  Down  to 
that  date  the  practice  of  striking  the  fiars  was  by  no  means 
universal  over  Scotland;  and  even  in  those  counties  into  which 
it  had  been  introduced,  there  was,  as  the  preamble  of  the  act  puts 
it,  "  a  general  complaint  that  the  said  fiars  are  struck  and  given 
out  by  the  sheriffs  without  due  care  and  inquiry  into  the  current 
and  just  prices."  The  act  in  consequence  provided  that  all 
sheriffs  should  summon  annually,  between  the  4th  and  the  aoth 


of  February,  a  competent  number  of  persons,  living  in  the  shire,  of 
experience  in  the  prices  of  grain  within  its  bounds,  and  that  from 
these  they  should  choose  a  jury  of  fifteen,  of  whom  at  least  eight 
were  to  be  heritors;  that  witnesses  and  other  evidence  as  to  the 
price  of  grain  grown  in  the  county,  especially  since  the  ist  of 
November  preceding  until  the  day  of  inquiry,  were  to  be  brought 
before  the  jury,  who  might  also  proceed  on  "  their  own  proper 
knowledge ";  that  the  verdict  was  to  be  returned  and  the 
sentence  of  the  sheriff  pronounced  by  the  ist  of  March;  and 
further,  where  custom  or  expediency  recommended  it,  the  sheriff 
was  empowered  to  fix  fiars  of  different  values  according  to  the 
different  qualities  of  the  grain.  It  cannot  be  said  that  this  act 
has  remedied  all  the  evils  of  which  it  complained.  The  propriety 
of  some  of  its  provisions  has  been  questioned,  and  the  competency 
of  the  court  to  pass  it  has  been  doubted,  even  by  the  court  itself. 
Its  authority  has  been  entirely  disregarded  in  one  county — 
Haddingtonshire — where  the  fiars  are  struck  by  the  sheriff  alone, 
without  a  jury;  and  when  this  practice  was  called  in  question  the 
court  declined  to  interfere,  observing  that  the  fiars  were  better 
struck  in  Haddingtonshire  than  anywhere  else.  The  other 
sheriffs  have  in  the  main  followed  the  act,  but  with  much  variety 
of  detail,  and  in  many  instances  on  principles  the  least  calculated 
to  reach  the  true  average  prices.  Thus  in  some  counties  the 
averages  are  taken  on  the  number  of  transactions,  without  regard 
to  the  quantities  sold.  In  one  case,  in  1838,  the  evidence  was  so 
carelessly  collected  that  the  second  or  inferior  barley  fiars  were 
2s.  4d.  higher  than  the  first.  Formerly  the  price  was  struck  by 
the  boll,  commonly  the  Linlithgowshire  boll;  now  the  imperial 
quarter  is  always  used. 

The  origin  of  the  plural  word  fiars  (feors,  feers,  fiers)  is  uncertain. 
Jamieson,  in  his  Dictionary,  says  that  it  comes  from  the  Icelandic 
fe,  wealth;  Paterson  derives  it  from  an  old  French  word  feur,  an 
average;  others  connect  it  with  the  Latin  forum  (i.e.  market). 
The  New  English  Dictionary  accepts  the  two  latter  connexions.  On 
the  general  subject  of  fiars  prices  see  Paterson's  Historical  Account 
of  the  Fiars  in  Scotland  (Edin.,  1852);  Connell,  On  Tithes;  Hunter's 
Landlord  and  Tenant. 

FIBRES  (or  FIBERS,  in  American  spelling;  from  Lat.  fibra, 
apparently  connected  either  with  filum,  thread,  or  findere,  to 
split),  the  general  term  for  certain  structural  components  of 
animal  and  vegetable  tissue  utilized  in  manufactures,  and  in 
respect  of  such  uses,  divided  for  the  sake  of  classification  into 
textile,  paper-making,  brush  and  miscellaneous  fibres. 

I.  Textile  Fibres  are  mostly  products  of  the  organic  world, 
elaborated  in  their  elongated  form  to  subserve  protective  functions 
in  animal  life  (as  wool  and  epidermal  hairs,  &c.)  or  as  structural 
components  of  vegetable  tissues  (flax,  hemp  and  wood  cells). 
It  may  be  noted  that  the  inorganic  world  provides  an  exception  to 
this  general  statement  in  the  fibrous  mineral  asbestos  (q.v.), 
which  is  spun  or  twisted  into  coarse  textiles.  Other  silicates  are 
also  transformed  by  artificial  processes  into  fibrous  forms,  such 
as  "  glass,"  which  is  fused  and  drawn  or  spun  to  a  continuous 
fibre,  and  various  "  slags  "  which,  in  the  fused  state,  are  trans- 
formed into  "  slag  wool."  Lastly,  we  note  that  a  number  of 
metals  are  drawn  down  to  the  finest  dimensions,  in  continuous 
lengths,  and  these  are  woven  into  cloth  or  gauze,  such  metallic 
cloths  finding  valuable  applications  in  the  arts.  Certain  metals 
in  the  form  of  fine  wire  are  woven  into  textile  fabrics  used  as 
dress  materials.  Such  exceptional  applications  are  of  insignifi- 
cant importance,  and  will  not  be  further  considered  in  this  article. 

The  common  characteristics  of  the  various  forms  of  matter 
comprised  in  the  widely  diversified  groups  of  textile  fibres  are 
those  of  the  colloids.  Colloidal  matter  is  intrinsically  devoid  of 
structure,  and  in  the  mass  may  be  regarded  as  homogeneous; 
whereas  crystalline  matter  in  its  proximate  forms  assumes 
definite  and  specific  shapes  which  express  a  complex  of  internal 
stresses.  The  properties  of  matter  which  condition  its  adaptation 
to  structural  functions,  first  as  a  constituent  of  a  living  individual, 
and  afterwards  as  a  textile  fibre,  are  homogeneous  continuity  of 
substance,  with  a  high  degree  of  interior  cohesion,  and  associated 
with  an  irreducible  minimum  of  elasticity  or  extensibility.  The 
colloids  show  an  infinite  diversity  of  variations  in  these  essential 
properties:  certain  of  them,  and  notably  cellulose  (q.v.),  maintain 


310 


FIBRES 


these  characteristics  throughout  a  cycle  of  transformations 
such  as  permit  of  their  being  brought  into  a  soluble  plastic  form, 
in  which  condition  they  may  be  drawn  into  filaments  in  con- 
tinuous length.  The  artificial  silks  or  lustra-celluloses  are 
produced  in  this  way,  and  have  already  taken  an  established 
position  as  staple  textiles.  For  a  more  detailed  account  of  these 
products  see  CELLULOSE. 

The  animal  fibres  are  composed  of  nitrogenous  colloids  of 
which  the  typical  representatives  are  the  albumens,  fibrines  and 
gelatines.  They  are  of  highly  complex  constitution  and  their 
characteristics  have  only  been  generally  investigated.  The 
vegetable  fibre  substances  are  celluloses  and  derivatives  of 
celluloses,  also  typically  colloidal  bodies.  The  broad  distinction 
between  the  two  groups  is  chiefly  evident  in  their  relationship  to 
alkalis.  The  former  group  are  attacked,  resolved  and  finally 
dissolved,  under  conditions  of  action  by  no  means  severe.  The 
celluloses,  on  the  other  hand,  and  therefore  the  vegetable  fibres, 
are  extraordinarily  resistant  to  the  action  of  alkalis. 

The  animal  fibres  are  relatively  few  in  number  but  of  great 
industrial  importance.  They  occur  as  detached  units  and  are  of 
varying  dimensions;  sheep's  wool  having  lengths  up  to  36  in., 
the  fleeces  being  shorn  for  textile  uses  at  lengths  of  2  to  16  in.; 
horse  hair  is  used  in  lengths  of  4  to  24  in.,  whereas  the  silks 
may  be  considered  as  being  produced  in  continuous  length, 
"  reeled  silks  "  having  lengths  measured  in  hundreds  of  yards, 
but  "  spun  silks  "  are  composed  of  silk  fibres  purposely  broken 
up  into  short  lengths. 

The  vegetable  fibres  are  extremely  numerous  and  of  very 
diversified  characteristics.  They  are  individualized  units  only  in 
the  case  of  seed  hairs,  of  which  cotton  is  by  far  the  most  important ; 
with  this  exception  they  are  elaborated  as  more  or  less  complex 
aggregates.  The  bast  tissues  of  dicotyledonous  annuals  furnish 
such  staple  materials  as  flax,  hemp,  rhea  or  ramie  and  jute.  The 
bast  occurs  in  a  peripheral  zone,  external  to  the  wood  and 
beneath  the  cortex,  and  is  mechanically  separated  from  the  stem, 
usually  after  steeping,  followed  by  drying. 

The  commercial  forms  of  these  fibres  are  elongated  filaments 
composed  of  the  elementary  bast  cells  (ultimate  fibres)  aggregated 
into  bundles.  The  number  of  these  as  any  part  of  the  filament 
may  vary  from  3  to  20  (see  figs.).  In  the  processes  of  refinement 
preparatory  to  the  spinning  (hackling,  scutching)  and  in  the 
spinning  process  itself,  the  fibre-bundles  are  more  or  less  sub- 
divided, and  the  divisibility  of  the  bundles  is  an  element  in  the 
textile  value  of  the  raw  material.  But  the  value  of  the  material 
is  rather  determined  by  the  length  of  the  ultimate  fibres  (for, 
although  not  the  spinning  unit,  the  tensile  strength  of  the  yarn  is 
ultimately  limited  by  the  cohesion  of  these  fibres),  qualified  by 
the  important  factor  of  uniformity. 

Thus,  the  ultimate  fibre  of  flax  has  a  length  of  25  to  35  mm. ;  jute, 
on  the  other  hand,  2  to  3  mm.;  and  this  disparity  is  an  essential 
condition  of  the  difference  of  values  of  these  fibres.  Rhea  or 
ramie,  to  cite  another  typical  instance,  has  an  ultimate  fibre  of 
extraordinary  length,  but  of  equally  conspicuous  variability, 
viz.  from  50  to  200  mm.  The  variability  is  a  serious  impediment 
in  the  preparation  of  the  material  for  spinning,  and  this  defect, 
together  with  low  drawing  or  spinning  quality,  limits  the  applica- 
tions of  this  fibre  to  the  lower  counts  or  grades  of  yarn. 

The  monocotyledons  yield  still  more  complex  fibre  aggregates, 
which  are  the  fibro-vascular  bundles  of  leaves  and  stems.  These 
complex  structures  as  a  class  do  not  yield  to  the  mechanical 
treatment  by  which  the  bast  fibres  are  subdivided,  nor  is  there 
any  true  spinning  quality  such  as  is  conditioned  by  bringing  the 
ultimate  fibres  into  play  under  the  drawing  process,  which 
immediately  precedes  the  twisting  into  yarn.  Such  materials  are 
therefore  only  used  for  the  coarsest  textiles,  such  as  string  or 
rope.  An  exception  to  be  noted  in  passing  is  to  be  found  in  the 
pine  apple  (Ananassa  Saliva)  the  fibres  of  which  are  worked  into 
yarns  and  cloth  of  the  finest  quality.  The  more  important  fibres 
of  this  class  are  manila,  sisal,  phormium.  A  heterogeneous  mass 
of  still  more  complex  fibre  aggregates,  in  many  cases  the  entire 
stem  (cereal  straws,  esparto),  in  addition  to  being  used  in  plaited 
form,  e.g.  in  hats,  chairs,  mats,  constitute  the  staple  raw  material 


for  paper  manufacturers,  requiring  a  severe  chemical  treatment 
for  the  separation  of  the  ultimate  fibres. 

In  this  class  we  must  include  the  woods  which  furnish  wood 
pulps  of  various  classes  and  grades.  Chemical  processes  of  two- 
types,  (a)  acid  and  (b)  alkaline,  are  also  employed  in  resolving 
the  wood,  and  the  resolution  not  only  effects  a  complete  isolation 
of  the  wood  cells,  but,  by  attacking  the  hydrolysable  constituents 
of  the  wood  substance  (lignocellulose) ,  the  cells  are  obtained 
in  the  form  of  cellulose.  These  cellulose  pulps  are  known  in 
commerce  as  "  sulphite  pulps  "  and  "  soda  pulps  "  respectively. 
In  addition  to  these  raw  materials  or  "  half  stuffs  "  the  paper- 
maker  employs  the  rejecta  of  the  vegetable  and  textile  industries, 
scutching,  spinning  and  cloth  wastes  of  all  kinds,  which  are 
treated  by  chemical  (boiling)  and  mechanical  means  (beating) 
to  separate  the  ultimate  fibres  and  reduce  them  to  the  suitable 
dimensions  (0-5-2-0  mm.).  These  papermaking  fibres  have  alsa 
to  be  reckoned  with  as  textile  raw  materials,  in  view  of  a  new 
and  growing  industry  in  "  pulp  yarns  "  (Papiersto/garn),  a 
coarse  textile  obtained  by  treating  paper  as  delivered  in  narrow 
strips  from  the  paper  machine;  the  strips  are  reeled,  dried  to- 
retain  30-40%  moisture,  and  in  this  condition  subjected  to  the 
twisting  operation,  which  confers  the  cylindrical  form  and  adds 
considerably  to  the  strength  of  the  fibrous  strip.  The  following 
are  the  essential  characteristics  of  the  economically  important 
fibres. 

Animal. — A.  Silk,  (a)  The  true  silks  are  produced  by  the 
Bombyx  Mori,  the  worm  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry. 
The  fibre  is  extruded  as  a  viscous  liquid  from  the  glands  of  the 
worm,  and  solidifies  to  a  cylindrical  thread.  The  cohesion  of 
these  threads  in  pairs  gives  to  raw  silk  the  form  of  a  dual  cylinder 
(Plate  I.  fig.  2).  For  textile  purposes  the  thread  is  reeled  from 
the  cocoon,  and  several  units,  five  and  upwards,  are  brought 
together  and  suitably  twisted,  (b)  The  "  Wild  "  silks  are  pro- 
duced by  a  large  variety  of  insects,  of  which  the  most  important 
are  the  various  species  of  Antherea,  which  yield  the  Tussore 
silks.  These  silks  differ  in  form  and  composition  from  the  true 
silks.  While  they  consist  of  a  "  dual  "  thread,  each  unit  of 
these  is  complex,  being  made  up  of  a  number  of  fibrillae.  This 
unit  thread  is  quadrangular  in  section,  and  of  larger  diameter 
than  the  true  silk,  the  mean  breadth  being  0-052  mm.,  as  com- 
pared with  0-018,  the  mean  diameter  of  the  true  silks.  The 
variations  in  structure  as  well  as  in  dimensions  are,  however, 
very  considerable. 

B.  Epidermal  hairs.  Of  these  (a)  wool,  the  epidermal 
protective  covering  of  sheep,  is  the  most  important.  The 
varying  species  of  the  animal  produce  wools  of  characteristic 
qualities,  varying  considerably  in  fineness,  in  length  of  staple,  in 
composition  and  in  spinning  quality.  Hence  the  classing  of 
the  fleeces  or  raw  wool  followed  by  the  elaborate  processes 
of  selection,  i.e.  "  sorting  "  and  preparation,  which  precede  the 
actual  spinning  or  twisting  of  the  yarn.  These  consist  in  entirely 
freeing  the  fibres  and  sorting  them  mechanically  (combing,  &c.)r 
thereafter  forming  them  into  continuous  lengths  of  parallelized 
units.  This  is  followed  by  the  spinning  process  which  consists 
in  a  simultaneous  drawing  and  twisting,  and  a  continuous  produc- 
tion of  the  yarn  with  the  structural  characteristics  of  worsted 
yarns.  The  shorter  staple — from  5  to  25%  of  average  fleeces — 
is  prepared  by  the  "  carding  "  process  for  the  spinning  opera- 
tion, in  which  drawing  and  twisting  are  simultaneous,  the 
length  spun  being  then  wound  up,  and  the  process  being  conse- 
quently intermittent.  This  section  of  the  industry  is  known 
as  "  woollen  spinning  "  in  contrast  to  the  former  or  "  worsted 
spinning." 

(b)  An  important  group  of  raw  material  closely  allied  to  the 
wools  are  the  epidermal  hairs  of  the  Angora  goat  (mohair), 
the  llama,  alpaca.     Owing  to  their  form  and  the  nature  of  the 
substance   of   which   they   are   composed,   they   possess   more 
lustre  than  the  wools.     They    present    structural  differences 
from  sheep  wools  which  influence  the  processes  by  which  they 
are  prepared  or  spun,  and  the  character  of  the  yarns;  but  the 
differences  are  only  of  subordinate  moment. 

(c)  Various  animal  hairs,  such  as  those  of   the  cow,  camel 


FIBRES 


PLATE  I. 


FIG.  i. — RAW   SILK.     Bombyx  mori.     Filament  of  have, 
viewed  in  length,     x  no. 


FIG.  2. — RAW  SILK.     Bombyx  mori.    Single  fibres  in  transverse 
section  showing  each  fibre  or  "  bave  "  as  dual  cylinder,     x  235. 


FIG.  3. — ARTIFICIAL  "SILK."  Lustra-cellulose  viscose  process, 
single  fibres  in  transverse  section,  x  235.  Normal  type — 
polygon  of  5  sides — with  concave  sides  due  to  contact  of  the 
component  units  of  textile  filament. 


FIG.  4.— WOOL  FIBRES.  Australian  merino  viewed  in  length, 
•<  235.  Surface  imbrications — the  structural  cause  of  true 
felting  properties. 


FIG.  5. — FLAX  STEM.  Linum  usitatissimum,  tranverse  section 
of  stem,  x  235,  showing  the  bast  fibres  occupying  the  central 
zone  between  wood  and  exterior  cortex. 


FIG.  6. — RAMIE.  Section  of  bast  region,  X  235  Showing  bast 
fibres  bundles  but  only  slightly  occurring  as  individuals  and  as 
coherent. 


PLATE  II. 


FIBRES 


FIG.  7. — JUTE.  Bast  bundles.  Section  of  bast  region,  x  235, 
showing  agglomerated  bundles  of  bast  fibre,  each  bundle  re- 
presenting a  spinning  unit  or  filament. 


FIG.  8. — MAIZE   STEM.     Zea  mais.     Fibro-vascular  bundle  in 
section,  x  no,  typical  of  monocotyledonous  structure. 


Ramie.  jute 

FIG.  9— COTTON.  FLAX.  RAMIE.  JUTE.  Ultimate  fibres  in 
the  length,  X  no.  Portions  selected  to  show  typical  structural 
characteristics. 


Jute.  Flax. 

FIG.  io.— COTTON.  FLAX.  RAMIE.  JUTE.  Ultimate  fibres 
— transverse  section,  x  l  io.  Note  similarity  of  ramie  to  cotton 
and  jute  to  flax.  Jute  "fibre,"  a  filament  formed  of  compact 
agglomerate  of  ultimate  fibres,  contrasts  with  flax,  in  which 
ultimate  fibres  only  slightly  adherent — hence  its  divisibility  and 
"drawing"  quality  under  hackling  and  spinning  treatments. 


FIG  II. — ESPARTO.  Cellulose.  Ultimate  fibres  of  paper  making 
pulp.  Typical  fusiform  bast  fibres,  with  scattered  serrated  cells 
of  cortex  and  hairs,  x  65. 


FIG.  12.— SECTION  OF  HAND-MADE  PAPER,  x  up.  Ultimate 
component  fibres  disposed  in  every  plane.  Proportion  lying  at 
right  angles  and  showing  therefore  normal  transverse  section. 


FIBRES 


and  rabbit,  are  also  employed;  the  latter  is  largely  worked 
into  the  class  of  fabrics  known  as  felts.  In  these  the  hairs  are 
compacted  together  by  taking  advantage  of  the  peculiarity  of 
structure  which  causes  the  imbrications  of  the  surface. 

(d)  Horse  hair  is  employed  in  its  natural  form  as  an  individual 
filament  or  monofil.1 

Vegetable  Fibres. — The  subjoined  scheme  of  classification  sets 
out  the  morphological  structural  characteristics  of  the  vegetable 
fibres: — 

Produced  from 
Dicotyledons.  Monocotyledons. 

A.  Seed  hairs.  D.  Fibro-vascular  bundles. 

B.  Bast  fibres.  E.  Entire  leaves  and  stems. 

C.  Bast  aggregates. 

In  the  list  of  the  more  important  fibrous  raw  materials  subjoined, 
the  capital  letter  immediately  following  the  name  refers  the 
individual  to  its  position  in  this  classification.  In  reference  to 
the  important  question  of  chemical  composition  and  the  actual 
nature  of  the  fibre  substance,  it  may  be  premised  that  the 
vegetable  fibres  are  composed  of  cellulose,  an  important  repre- 
sentative of  the  group  of  carbohydrates,  of  which  the  cotton 
fibre  substance  is  the  chemical  prototype,  mixed  and  combined 
with  various  derivatives  belonging  to  the  subgroups,  (a) 
Carbohydrates.  (b)  Unsaturated  compounds  of  benzenoid  and 
furfuroid  constitutions,  (c)  "  Fat  and  wax  "  derivatives,  i.e. 
groups  belonging  to  the  fatty  series,  and  of  higher  molecular 
dimensions — of  such  compound  celluloses  the  following  are  the 
prototypes: — 

(a)  Cellulose   combined   and  mixed  with   "  pectic "   bodies 
(i.e.  pecto-celluloses),  flax,  rhea. 

(b)  Cellulose  combined  with  unsaturated  groups  or  ligno- 
celluloses,  jute  and  the  woods. 

(c)  Cellulose  combined  and  mixed  with  higher  fatty  acids, 
alcohols,    ethers,    cuto-celluloses,    protective    epidermal 
covering  of  leaves. 

The  letters  a,  b,  c  in  the  table  below  and  following  the  capitals, 
which  have  reference  to  the  structural  basis  of  classification, 


indicate  the  main  characteristics  of  the  fibre  substances.  (See 
also  CELLULOSE.) 

Miscellaneous. — Various  species  of  the  family  Palmaceae 
yield  fibrous  products  of  value,  of  which  mention  must  be  made 
of  the  following.  Raffia,  epidermal  strips  of  the  leaves  of 
Raphia  ruffia  (Madagascar),  R.  taedigera  (Japan),  largely  em- 
ployed as  binder  twine  in  horticulture,  replacing  the  "  bast  " 
(linden)  formerly  employed.  Coir,  the  fibrous  envelope  of  the 
fruit  of  the  Cocos  nucifera,  extensively  used  for  matting  and 
other  coarse  textiles.  Carludovica  palmata  (Central  America) 
yields  the  raw  material  for  Panama  hats,  the  Corypha  australis 
(Australia)  yields  a  similar  product.  The  leaves  of  the  date 
palm,  Phoenix  dactylifera,  are  employed  locally  in  making  baskets 
and  mats,  and  the  fibro- vascular  bundles  are  isolated  for  working 
up  into  coarse  twine  and  rope;  similarly,  the  leaves  of  the 
Elaeis  guineensis,  the  fruit  of  which  yields  the  "  palm  oil  "  of 
commerce,  yield  a  fibre  which  finds  employment  locally  (Africa) 
for  special  purposes.  Chamaerops  humilis,  the  dwarf  palm, 
yields  the  well-known  "  Crin  d'Afrique."  Locally  (Algiers) 
it  is  twisted  into  ropes,  but  its  more  general  use,  in  Europe, 
is  in  upholstery  as  a  stuffing  material.  The  cereal  straws  are 
used  in  the  form  of  plait  in  the  making  of  hats  and  mats.  Esparto 
grass  is  also  used  in  the  making  of  coarse  mats. 

The  processes  by  which  the  fibres  are  transformed  into  textile 
fabrics  are  in  the  main  determined  by  their  structural  features. 
The  following  are  the  distinctive  types  of  treatment. 

A.  The  fibre  is  in  virtually  continuous  lengths.     The  textile 
yarn  is  produced  by  assembling  together  the  unit  threads,  which 
are  wound  together  aud  suitably  twisted  (silk;  artificial  silk). 

B.  The  fibres  in  the  form  of  units  of  variable  short  dimensions 
are  treated  by  more  or  less  elaborate  processes  of  scutching, 
hackling,  combing,  with  the  aim  of  producing  a.  mass  of  free 
parallelized  units  of  uniform  dimensions;  these  are  then  laid 
together  and  drawn  into  continuous  bands  of  sliver  and  roving, 
which  are  finally  drawn  and  twisted  into  yarns.     In  this  group 
are  comprised  the  larger  number  of  textile  products,  such  as 


Botanical  Identity. 
Genus  and  Order. 

Country  of  Origin. 

Dimensions  of  Ultimate. 

Textile  Uses. 

Cotton,  A.a   . 

Gossypium 

Tropical      and      subtropical 

12-40    mm.  0-019-0-025. 

Universal.      Also  as  a  raw  material 

Malvaceae 

countries 

Av.  28  mm. 

in  chemical    industries,   notably 

explosives,  celluloid. 

Flax,  B.a  .      .      . 

Linum 

Temperate  (and  subtropical) 

6-60     mm.     0-011-0-025. 

General.      Special  effects  in  lustre 

Linaceae 

countries,  chiefly  European 

Av.  28  mm. 

damasks.     In  India  and  America 

plants  grown  for  seed  (linseed). 

Hemp,  B.a     . 

Cannabis 

Temperate  countries,  chiefly 

5-55  mm.    0-016-0-050. 

Coarser  textiles,  sail-cloth,  rope  and 

Cannabineae 

Europe 

Av.  22.  mm.  Av.  0-022 

twine. 

Ramie,  B.a    . 

Boehmeria 

Tropical      countries      (some 

60-200  mm.     0-03-0-08. 

Coarse  textiles.   Cost  of  preparation 

Jute,  B.6  .      .     . 

Urticaceae 
Corchorus 

temperate) 
Tropical     countries,     chiefly 

Av.  120  mm.  Av.  0-050 
1-5-5  mm.    0-020-0-025. 

for  fine  textiles  prohibitive. 
Coarse  textiles,  chiefly  "  Hessians  " 

Tiliaceae 

India 

Av.  2-5  mm.  Av.  0-022 

and  sacking.     '  '  Line  '  '  spun  yarns 

used   in  cretonne  and  furniture 

textiles. 

B.6   .      .      . 

Crotalaria 

India 

4-0-12-0.      0-025-0-050. 

Twine  and  rope.     Coarse  textiles. 

Leguminosae 

Av.  7-5.    Av.  0-022 

Hibiscus,  B.6 

Hibiscus 

Tropical,  chiefly  India 

2-6  mm.     0-014-0-033. 

Coarse  textiles.    H.  Elams  has  been 

Av.  4  mm.   Av.  0-021 

extensively  used  in  making  mats. 

Sida,  B.6  .      .      . 

Sida 

Tropical  and  subtropical 

I  -5-4  mm.    0-013-0-02. 

Coarse  textiles.    Appears  capable  of 

Malvaceae 

Av.  2  mm.    Av.  0-015 

substituting  jute. 

Lime   or   Linden, 

Tilia 

European    countries,    chiefly 

1-5  mm.     0-014-0-020. 

Matting  and  binder  twine. 

C.6 

Tiliaceae 

Russia 

Av.  2  mm.     Av.  0-016 

Mulberry,  C  . 

Broussonetia 

Far  East 

5-31  mm.    0-02-0-04. 

Paper  and  paper  cloths. 

Moraceae 

Av.  15  mm.    Av.  0-03 

Monocotyledons- 

Manila,  D   . 

Musa 

Tropical     countries,     chiefly 

3-12  mm.     0-016-0-032. 

Twine  and  ropes.   Produces  papers 

M  usaceae 

Philippine  Islands 

Av.  6  mm.    Av.  0-024 

of  special  quality. 

Sisal,  D      .      . 

Agave 

Tropical     countries,     chiefly 

i  -5-4  mm.    0-020-0-032. 

Twine  and  ropes. 

Amaryllideae 

Central  America 

Av.  2-5.     Av.  0-024 

Yucca 

do. 

0-5-6  mm.    0-01-0-02. 

do. 

Liliaceae 

Sansevieria 

East    Indies,    Ceylon,  '  East 

1-5-6  mm.   0-015-0-026. 

do. 

Liliaceae 

Africa 

Av.  3  mm.    Av.  0-020 

Phormium,  D  . 

Phormium  tenax 

New  Zealand 

5-0-15  mm.  0-010-0-020. 

Twine  and  ropes.    Distinguished  by 

Liliaceae 

Av.  9  mm.   Av.  0-016 

high  yield  of  fibre  from  green  leaf. 

Pine-apple,  D   . 

Ananassa 

Tropical     East     and     West 

3-0-9-0  mm.  0-004-0-008. 

Textiles    of    remarkable    fineness. 

Bromeliaceae 

Indies 

Av.  5.   Av.  0-006 

Exceptional  fineness  of  ultimate 

fibre. 

1  See  also  ALPACA,  FELT,  MOHAIR,  SHODDY  and  WOOL. 


312 


FIBRES 


cotton,  wool,  flax  and  jute,  and  it  also  includes  at  the  other 
extreme  the  production  of  coarse  textiles,  such  as  twine  and  rope. 

C.  The  fibres  of  still  shorter  dimensions  are  treated  in  various 
ways  for  the  production  of  a  fabric  in  continuous  length. 

The  distinction  of  type  of  manufacturing  processes  in  which 
the  relatively  short  fibres  are  utilized,  either  as  disintegrated 
units  or  comminuted  long  fibres,  follows  the  lines  of  division 
into  long  and  short  fibres;  the  long  fibres  are  worked  into  yarns 
by  various  processes,  whereas  the  shorter  fibres  are  agglomerated 
by  both  dry  and  wet  processes  to  felted  tissues  or  felts.  It  is 
obvious,  however,  that  these  distinctions  do  not  constitute  rigid 
dividing  lines.  Thus  the  principles  involved  in  felting  are  also 
applied  in  the  manipulation  of  long  fibre  fabrics.  For  instance, 
woollen  goods  are  closed  or  shrunk  by  milling,  the  web  being 
subjected  to  a  beating  or  hammering  treatment  in  an  apparatus 
known  as  "  the  Stocks,"  or  is  continuously  run  through  squeezing 
rollers,  in  weak  alkaline  liquids.  Flax  goods  are  "  closed  "  by 
the  process  of  beetling,  a  long-continued  process  of  hammering, 
under  which  the  ultimate  fibres  are  more  or  less  subdivided,  and 
at  the  same  time  welded  or  incorporated  together.  As  already 
indicated,  paper,  which  is  a  web  composed  of  units  of  short 
dimensions  produced  by  deposition  from  suspension  in  water 
and  agglomerated  by  the  interlacing  of  the  component  fibres  in 
all  planes  within  the  mass,  is  a  species  of  textile.  Further, 
whereas  the  silks  are  mostly  worked  up  in  the  extreme  lengths 
of  the  cocoon,  there  are  various  systems  of  spinning  silk  wastes 
of  variable  short  lengths,  which  are  similar  to  those  required  for 
spinning  the  fibres  which  occur  naturally  in  the  shorter  lengths. 

The  fibres  thus  enumerated  as  commercially  and  industrially 
important  have  established  themselves  as  the  result  of  a  struggle 
for  survival,  and  each  embodies  typical  features  of  ultility.  There 
are  innumerable  vegetable  fibres,  many  of  which  are  utilized  in 
the  locality  or  region  of  their  production,  but  are  not  available 
for  the  highly  specialized  applications  of  modern  competitive 
industry  to  qualify  for  which  a  very  complex  range  of  require- 
ments has  to  be  met.  These  include  primarily  the  factors  of 
production  and  transport  summed  up  in  cost  of  production, 
together  with  the  question  of  regularity  of  supply;  structural 
characteristics,  form  and  dimensions,  including  uniformity  of 
ultimate  unit  and  adaptability  to  standard  methods  of  preparing 
and  spinning,  together  with  tenacity  and  elasticity,  lustre. 
Lastly,  composition,  which  determines  the  degree  of  resistance  to 
chemical  disintegrating  influences  as  well  as  subsidiary  questions 
of  colour  and  relationship  to  colouring  matters.  The  quest  for 
new  fibres,  as  well  as  modified  methods  of  production  of  those 
already  known,  require  critical  investigation  from  the  point  of 
view  of  established  practice.  The  present  perspective  outline 
of  the  group  will  be  found  to  contain  the  elements  of  a  grammar 
of  the  subject.  But  those  who  wish  to  pursue  the  matter  will 
require  to  amplify  this  outlined  picture  by  a  study  of  the  special 
treatises  which  deal  with  general  principles,  as  well  as  the  separate 
articles  on  the  various  fibres. 

Analysis  and  Identification. — For  the  analysis  of  textile  fabrics 
and  the  identification  of  component  fibre,  a  special  treatise  must 
be  consulted.  The  following  general  facts  are  to  be  noted  as  of 
importance. 

All  animal  fibres  are  effectively  dissolved  by  10%  solution 
of  caustic  potash  or  soda.  The  fabric  or  material  is  boiled  in 
this  solution  for  10  minutes  and  exhaustively  washed.  Any 
residue  will  be  vegetable  or  cellulose  fibre.  It  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  the  chemical  properties  of  the  fibre  substances  are 
modified  more  or  less  by  association  in  combination  with  colour- 
ing matters  and  mordants.  These  may,  in  many  cases,  be 
removed  by  treatments  which  do  not  seriously  modify  the  fibre 
substances. 

Wool  is  distinguished  from  silk  by  its  relative  resistance  to  the 
action  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  cold  concentrated  acid  rapidly 
dissolves  silk  as  well  as  the  vegetable  fibres.  The  attack  on  wool 
is  slow,  and  the  epidermal  scales  of  wool  make  their  appearance. 
The  true  silks  are  distinguished  from  the  wild  silks  by  the  action 
of  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  in  the  cold,  which  reagent 
dissolves  the  former,  but  has  only  a  slight  effect  on  Tussore 


silk.  After  preliminary  resolution  by  these  group  reagents, 
the  fabric  is  subjected  to  microscopical  analysis  for  the  final 
identification  of  its  component  fibres  (see  H.  Schlichter,  Journal 
Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  1890,  p.  241). 

A  scheme  for  the  commercial  analysis  or  assay  of  vegetable 
fibres,  originally  proposed  by  the  author,1  and  now  generally 
adopted,  includes  the  following  operations: — 

1.  Determination  of  moisture. 

2.  Determination  of  ash  left  after  complete  ignition. 

3.  Hydrolysis: 

(a)  loss  of  weight  after  boiling  the  raw  fibre  with  a  I  % 
caustic  soda  solution  for  five  minutes; 

(b)  loss  after  boiling  for  one  hour. 

4.  Determination  of  cellulose:  the  white  residue  after 

(a)  boiling  for  five  minutes  with  i  %  caustic  soda, 

(b)  exposure  to  chlorine  gas  for  one  hour, 

(c)  boiling  with  basic  sodium  sulphite  solution. 

5.  Mercerizing:   the  loss  of   weight  after    digestion    with  a 

20  %  solution  of  sodium  hydrate  for  one  hour  in  the  cold. 

6.  Nitration:     the    weight    of    the   product    obtained    after 

digestion  with  a  mixture  of  equal  volumes  of  sulphuric 
and  nitric  acids  for  one  hour  in  the  cold. 

7.  Acid  purification:    treatment  of  the  raw  fibre  with  20% 

acetic  acid  for  one  minute,  the  product  being  washed 
with  water  and  alcohol,  and  then  dried. 

8.  Determination  of  the  total  carbon  by  combustion. 

II.  Papermaking. — The  papermaking  industry  (see  PAPER) 
employs  as  raw  materials  a  large  proportion  of  the  vegetable 
fibre  products  already  enumerated,  and,  for  the  reasons  incident- 
ally mentioned,  they  may  be,  and  are,  employed  in  a  large  variety 
of  forms:  in  fact  any  fibrous  material  containing  over  30% 
"  cellulose  "  and  yielding  ultimate  fibres  of  a  length  exceeding 
i  mm.  can  be  used  in  this  industry.     Most  important  staples  are 
cotton  and  flax;  these  are  known  to  the  paper-maker  as  "  rag  " 
fibres,  rags,  i.e.  cuttings  of  textile  fabrics,  new  and  old,  being 
their  main  source  of  supply.     These  are  used  for  writing  and 
drawing  papers.     In  the  class  of  "  printings  "  two  of  the  most 
important  staples  are  wood  pulp,  prepared  by  chemical  treatment 
from  both  pine  and  foliage  woods,  and  in  England  esparto  cellur 
lose,  the  cellulose  obtained  from  esparto  grass  by  alkali  treat- 
ment; the  cereal  straws  are  also  used  and  are  resolved  into 
cellulose  by  alkaline  boiling  followed  by  bleaching.     In  the  class 
of  "  wrappings  "  and  miscellaneous  papers  a  large  number  of 
other  materials  find  use,  such  as  various  residues  of  manufactur- 
ing and  preparing  processes,  scutching  wastes,  ends  of  rovings 
and  yarns,  flax,  hemp  and  manila  rope  waste,  adansonia  bast, 
and  jute  wastes,  raw  (cuttings)  and  manufactured  (bagging). 
Other  materials  have  been  experimentally  tried,  and  would  no 
doubt  come  into  use  on  their  papermaking  merits,  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  the  actually  suitable  raw  materials  are  comprised  in  the 
list  above  enumerated,  and  are  limited  in  number,  through  the 
influence  of  a  number  of  factors  of  value  or  utility. 

III.  Brush  Fibres,  &•<:. — In  addition  to  the  textile  industries 
there  are  manufactures  which  utilize  fibres  of  both  animal  and 
vegetable  character.     The  most  important  of  these  is  brush- 
making.     The  familiar  brushes  of  everyday  use  are  extremely 
diversified  in  form  and  texture.     The  supplies  of  animal  fibres 
are  mainly  drawn  from  the  badger,  hog,  bear,  sable,  squirrel  and 
horse.     These  fibres  and  bristles  cover  a  large  range  of  effects. 
Brushes  required  for  cleansing  purposes  are  composed  of  fibres 
of  a  more  or  less  hard  and  resilient  character,  such  as  horse  hairs, 
and  other  tail  hairs  and  bristles.     For  painting  work  brushes 
of  soft  quality  are  employed,  graduating  for  fine  work  into  the 
extreme  softness  of  the  "  camel  hair  "  pencil.     Of  vegetable 
fibres  the  following  are  used  in  this  industry.     The  Caryota  urens 
furnishes  the  Kittul  fibre,  obtained  from  the  base  of  the  leaf 
stalks.     Piassava  is  obtained  from  the  Attaleafunifera,also  from 
the   Leopoldina  piassaba    (Brazil).  Palmyra   fibre  is   obtained 
from  the  Borassus  flabellifer.     These  are  all  members  of  the 
natural  order  of  the  Palmaceae.     Mexican  fibre,  or  Istle,  is 
obtained  from  the  agave.     The  fibre  known  as  Whisk,  largely 

1  Col.  Ind.  Exhibition,  1886,  Miscellaneous  Reports. 


FIBRIN— FICHTE,  J.  G. 


used  for  dusting  brushes,  is  obtained  from  various  species 
of  the  Gramineae;  the  "  Mexican  Whisk  "  from  Epicampeas 
macroura;  and  "  Italian  Whisk  "  from  Andropogon.  The  coir 
fibre  mentioned  above  in  connexion  with  coarse  textiles  is  also 
extensively  used  in  brush-making.  Aloe  and  Agave  fibres  in  their 
.softer  forms  are  also  used  for  plasterers's  brushes.  Many  of  the 
whitewashes  and  cleansing  solutions  used  in  house  decoration 
are  alkaline  in  character,  and  for  such  uses  advantage  is  taken 
of  the  specially  resistant  character  of  the  cellulose  group  of 
materials. 

Stuffing  and  Upholstery. — Another  important  use  for  fibrous 
materials  is  for  filling  or  stuffing  in  connexion  with  the  seats  and 
cushions  in  upholstery.  In  the  large  range  of  effects  required, 
a  corresponding  number  and  variety  of  products  find  employ- 
ment. One  of  the  most  important  is  the  floss  or  seed-hair  of  the 
Eriodendron  anfractuosum,  known  as  Kapok,  the  use  of  which 
in  Europe  was  created  by  the  Dutch  merchants  who  drew  their 
supplies  from  Java.  The  fibre  is  soft,  silky  and  elastic,  and 
maintains  its  elasticity  in  use.  Many  fibres  when  used  in  the 
mass  show,  on  the  other  hand,  a  tendency  to  become  matted 
and  compressed  in  use,  and  to  restore  them  to  their  original 
state  the  fibre  requires  to  be  removed  and  subjected  to  a  teasing 
or  carding  process.  This  defect  limits  the  use  of  other  "  flosses  " 
or  seed  hairs  in  competition  with  Kapok.  Horse  hair  is  exten- 
sively used  in  this  industry,  as  are  also  wool  flocks  and  other 
short  animal  hairs  and  wastes. 

Hats  and  Matting. — For  these  manufactures  a  large  range 
of  the  fibrous  products  above  described  are  employed,  chiefly 
in  their  natural  or  raw  state. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  list  of  works  appended  comprises  only  a 
small  fraction  of  the  standard  literature  of  the  subject,  but  they  are 
sufficiently  representative  to  enable  the  specialist,  by  referring  to 
them,  to  cover  the  subject-matter.  F.  H.  Bowman,  The  Structure 
of  the  Wood  Fibre  (1885),  The  Structure  of  Cotton  Fibre  (1882) ;  Cross, 
Bevan  and  King,  Indian  Fibres  and  Fibrous  Substances  (London, 
1887);  C.  F.  Cross,  Report  on  Miscellaneous.  Fibres,  Colonial  Indian 
Exhibition,  1886  (London,  1887) ;  Cross  and  Bevan,  Cellulose, 
Researches  on  Cellulose,  i.  and  ii.  (London,  1895-1905) ;  C.  R.  Dodge, 
A  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  Useful  Fibre  Plants  of  the  World  (Report 
No.  9,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  1897);  yon  Hohmel, 
Die  Mikroskopie  der  technisch  verwendeten  Faserstoffe  (Leipzig,  1905); 
1.  J.  Hummel,  The  Dyeing  of  Textile  Fabrics  (London,  1885) ;  J.  M. 
Matthews,  The  Textile  Fibres,  their  Physical,  Microscopical  and 
Chemical  Properties  (New  York,  1904) ;  H.  Miiller,  Die  Pflanzenfaser 
(Braunschweig,  1877) ;  H.  Schlichter,  "  The  Examination  of  Textile 
Fibres  and  Fabrics"  (Jour.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  1890,  241) ;  M.  Vetillart, 
Etudes  sur  les  fibres  vegetales  textiles  (Paris,  1876);  Sir  T.  H. 
Wardle,  Silk  and  Wild  Silks,  original  memoirs  in  connexion  with 
Col.  Ind.  Ex.,  1886,  Jubilee  Ex.  Manchester,  1887;  Sir  G.  Watt, 
Dictionary  of  Economic  Products  of  India  (London,  1891);  Wiesner, 
Die  Rohstoffe  des  Pflanzenreichs  (Leipzig,  1873);  O.  N.  Witt,  Che- 
mische  Technologie  der  Gespinnstfasern  (Braunschweig,  1888);  Kew 
Bulletin ;  The  Journal  of  the  Imperial  Institute ;  The  Journal  of  the 
Society  of  Arts;  W.  I.  Hannam,  The  Textile  Fibres  of  Commerce 
(London,  1902);  J.  Jackson,  Commercial  Botany;  J.  Zipser,  Die 
Textilen  Rohmaterialien  (Wien,  1895);  F.  Zetzsche,  Die  wichtigsten 
Faserstoffe  der  europdischen  Industrie  (Leipzig,  1895).  (C.  F.  C.) 

FIBRIN,  or  FIBRINE,  a  protein  formed  by  the  action  of  the 
so-called  fibrin-ferment  on  fibrinogen,  a  constituent  of  the  blood- 
plasma  of  all  vertebrates.  This  change  takes  place  when  blood 
leaves  the  arteries,  and  the  fibrin  thus  formed  occasions  the 
clotting  which  ensues  (see  BLOOD).  To  obtain  pure  coagulated 
fibrin  it  is  best  to  heat  blood-plasma  (preferably  that  of  the  horse) 
to  56°  C.  The  usual  method  of  beating  a  blood-clot  with  twigs 
and  removing  the  filamentous  fibrin  which  attaches  itself  to 
them  yields  a  very  impure  product  containing  haemoglobin  and 
much  globulin;  moreover,  it  is  very  difficult  to  purify.  Fibrin 
is  a  very  voluminous,  tough,  strongly  elastic,  jelly-like  substance; 
when  denaturalized  by  heat,  alcohol  or  salts,  it  behaves  as  any 
other  coagulated  albumin. 

FICHTE,  IMMANUEL  HERMANN  (originally  HARTMANN) 
VON  (1797-1879),  German  philosopher,  son  of  J.  G.  Fichte, 
was  born  at  Jena  on  the  i8th  of  July  1797.  Having  held  educa- 
tional posts  at  Saarbriicken  and  Diisseldorf,  in  1836  he  became 
extraordinary  professor  of  philosophy  at  Bonn,  and  in  1840  full 
professor.  In  1842  he  received  a  call  to  Tubingen,  retired  in 
1867,  and  died  at  Stuttgart  on  the  8th  of  August  1879.  The 


most  important  of  his  comprehensive  writings  are:  System  der 
Ethik  (1850-1853),  Anthropologie  (1856, 3rd  ed.  1876),  Psychologic 
(1864-1873),  Die  theistische  Weltansicht  (1873).  In  1837  he  had 
founded  the  Zeitschrift  fur  Philosophic  as  an  organ  of  his  views, 
more  especially  on  the  subject  of  the  philosophy  of  religion, 
where  he  was  in  alliance  with  C.  H.  Weisse;  but,  whereas  Weisse 
thought  that  the  Hegelian  structure  was  sound  in  the  main,  and 
that  its  imperfections  might  be  mended,  Fichte  held  it  to  be 
incurably  defective,  and  spoke  of  it  as  a  "  masterpiece  of 
erroneous  consistency  or  consistent  error."  Fichte's  general 
views  on  philosophy  seem  to  have  changed  considerably  as  he 
advanced  in  years,  and  his  influence  has  been  impaired  by  certain 
inconsistencies  and  an  appearance  of  eclecticism,  which  is 
strengthened  by  his  predominantly  historical  treatment  of 
problems,  his  desire  to  include  divergent  systems  within  his  own, 
and  his  conciliatory  tone.  His  philosophy  is  an  attempt  to 
reconcile  monism  (Hegel)  and  individualism  (Herbart)  by  means 
of  theism  (Leibnitz).  He  attacks  Hegelianism  for  its  pantheism, 
its  lowering  of  human  personality,  and  imperfect  recognition  of 
the  demands  of  the  moral  consciousness.  God,  he  says,  is  to  be 
regarded  not  as  an  absolute  but  as  an  Infinite  Person,  whose 
nature  it  is  that  he  should  realize  himself  in  finite  persons. 
These  persons  are  objects  of  God's  love,  and  he  arranges  the 
world  for  their  good.  The  direct  connecting  link  between  God 
and  man  is  the  "  genius,"  a  higher  spiritual  individuality  existing 
in  man  by  the  side  of  his  lower,  earthly  individuality.  Fichte, 
in  short,  advocates  an  ethical  theism,  and  his  arguments  might 
easily  be  turned  to  account  by  the  apologist  of  Christianity.  In 
his  conception  of  finite  personality  he  recurs  to  something  like 
the  monadism  of  Leibnitz.  His  insistence  on  moral  experience 
is  connected  with  his  insistence  on  personality.  One  of  the  tests 
by  which  Fichte  discriminates  the  value  of  previous  systems  is 
the  adequateness  with  which  they  interpret  moral  experience. 
The  same  reason  that  made  him  depreciate  Hegel  made  him 
praise  Krause  (panentheism)  and  SchJeiermacher,  and  speak 
respectfully  of  English  philosophy.  It  is  characteristic  of  Fichte's 
almost  excessive  receptiveness  that  in  his  latest  published  work, 
Der  neuere  Spiritualismus  (1878),  he  supports  his  position  by 
arguments  of  a  somewhat  occult  or  theosophical  cast,  not  unlike 
those  adopted  by  F.  W.  H.  Myers.  He  also  edited  the  complete 
works  and  literary  correspondence  of  his  father,  including  his 
life. 

See  R.  Eucken,  "  Zur  Erinnerung  I.  H.  F.,"  in  Zeitschrift  fur 
Philosophic,  ex.  (1897);  C.  C.  Scherer,  Die  Gptteslehre  von  I.  H.  F. 
(1902) ;  article  by  Karl  Hartmann  in  Allegemeine  deulsche  Biographic 
xlviii.  (1904^).  Some  of  his  works  were  translated  by  J.  D.  Morell 
under  the  title  of  Contributions  to  Mental  Philosophy  (1860). 

FICHTE,  JOHANN  GOTTLIEB  (1762-1814),  German  philo- 
sopher, was  born  at  Rammenau  in  Upper  Lusatia  on  the  igth 
of  May  1762.  His  father,  a  ribbon-weaver,  was  a  descendant  of 
a  Swedish  soldier  who  (in  the  service  of  Gustavus  Adolphus) 
was  left  wounded  at  Rammenau  and  settled  there.  The  family 
was  distinguished  for  piety,  uprightness,  and  solidity  of  character. 
With  these  qualities  Fichte  himself  combined  a  certain  im- 
petuosity and  impatience  probably  derived  from  his  mother, 
a  woman  of  a  somewhat  querulous  and  jealous  disposition. 

At  a  very  early  age  the  boy  showed  remarkable  mental  vigour 
and  moral  independence.  A  fortunate  accident  which  brought 
him  under  the  notice  of. a  neighbouring  nobleman,  Freiherr  von 
Miltitz,  was  the  means  of  procuring  him  a  more  excellent  educa- 
tion than  his  father's  circumstances  would  have  allowed.  He 
was  placed  under  the  care  of  Pastor  Krebel  at  Niederau.  After 
a  short  stay  at  Meissen  he  was  entered  at  the  celebrated 
school  at  Pforta,  near  Naumburg.  In  1780  he  entered  the 
university  of  Jena  as  a  student  of  theology.  He  supported 
himself  mainly  by  private  teaching,  and  during  the  years  1784- 
1 787  acted  as  tutor  in  various  families  of  Saxony.  In  1 787,  after 
an  unsuccessful  application  to  the  consistory  for  pecuniary  assist- 
ance, he  seems  to  have  been  driven  to  miscellaneous  literary  work. 
A  tutorship  at  Zurich  was,  however,  obtained  in  the  spring  of 
1788,  and  Fichte  spent  in  Switzerland  two  of  the  happiest 
years  of  his  life.  He  made  several  valuable  acquaintances, 


FICHTE,  J.  G. 


among  others  Lavater  and  his  brother-in-law  Hartmann  Rahn, 
to  whose  daughter,  Johanna  Maria,  he  became  engaged. 

Settling  at  Leipzig,  still  without  any  fixed  means  of  livelihood, 
he  was  again  reduced  to  literary  drudgery.  In  the  midst  of 
this  work  occurred  the  most  important  event  of  his  life,  his 
introduction  to  the  philosophy  of  Kant.  At  Schulpforta  he  had 
read  with  delight  Lessing's  Anti-Goeze,  and  during  his  Jena  days 
had  studied  the  relation  between  philosophy  and  religion.  The 
outcome  of  his  speculations,  Aphorismen  uber  Religion  und 
Deismus  (unpublished,  date  1790;  Werke,  i.  1-8),  was  a  species 
of  Spinozistic  determinism,  regarded,  however,  as  lying  alto- 
gether outside  the  boundary  of  religion.  It  is  remarkable  that 
even  for  a  time  fatalism  should  have  been  predominant  in  his 
reasoning,  for  in  character  he  was  opposed  to  such  a  view,  and, 
as  he  has  said,  "  according  to  the  man,  so  is  the  system  of 
philosophy  he  adopts." 

Fichte's  Letters  of  this  period  attest  the  influence  exercised 
on  him  by  the  study  of  Kant.  It  effected  a  revolution  in  his 
mode  of  thinking;  so  completely  did  the  Kantian  doctrine  of 
the  inherent  moral  worth  of  man  harmonize  with  his  own 
character,  that  his  life  becomes  one  effort  to  perfect  a  true 
philosophy,  and  to  make  its  principles  practical  maxims.  At 
first  he  seems  to  have  thought  that  the  best  method  for  accom- 
plishing his  object  would  be  to  expound  Kantianism  in  a  popular, 
intelligible  form.  He  rightly  felt  that  the  reception  of  Kant's 
doctrines  was  impeded  by  their  phraseology.  An  abridgment 
of  the  Krilik  der  Urtheilskrajt  was  begun,  but  was  left  unfinished. 

Fichte's  circumstances  had  not  improved.  It  had  been 
arranged  that  he  should  return  to  Zurich  and  be  married  to 
Johanna  Rahn,  but  the  plan  was  overthrown  by  a  commercial 
disaster  which  affected  the  fortunes  of  the  Rahn  family.  Fichte 
accepted  a  post  as  private  tutor  in  Warsaw,  and  proceeded  on 
foot  to  that  town.  The  situation  proved  unsuitable;  the  lady, 
as  Kuno  Fischer  says,  "  required  greater  submission  and  better 
French  "  than  Fichte  could  yield,  and  after  a  fortnight's  stay 
Fichte  set  out  for  Konigsberg  to  see  Kant.  His  first  interview 
was  disappointing;  the  coldness  and  formality  of  the  aged 
philosopher  checked  the  enthusiasm  of  the  young  disciple, 
though  it  did  not  diminish  his  reverence.  He  resolved  to  bring 
himself  before  Kant's  notice  by  submitting  to  him  a  work  in  which 
the  principles  of  the  Kantian  philosophy  should  be  applied. 
Such  was  the  origin  of  the  work,  written  in  four  weeks,  the 
Versuch  einer  Kritik  oiler  O/enbarung  (Essay  towards  a  Critique 
of  all  Revelation).  The  problem  which  Fichte  dealt  with  in 
this  essay  was  one  not  yet  handled  by  Kant  himself,  the  relations 
of  which  to  the  critical  philosophy  furnished  matter  for  surmise. 
Indirectly,  indeed,  Kant  had  indicated  a  very  definite  opinion 
on  theology:  from  the  Critique  of  Pure  Reason  it  was  clear  that 
for  him  speculative  theology  must  be  purely  negative,  while  the 
Critique  of  Practical  Reason  as  clearly  indicated  the  view  that 
the  moral  law  is  the  absolute  content  or  substance  of  any  religion. 
A  critical  investigation  of  the  conditions  under  which  religious 
belief  was  possible  was  still  wanting.  Fichte  sent  his  essay  to 
Kant,  who  approved  it  highly,  extended  to  the  author  a  warm 
reception,  and  exerted  his  influence  to  procure  a  publisher. 
After  some  delay,  consequent  on  the  scruples  of  the  theological 
censor  of  Halle,  who  did  not  like  to  see  miracles  rejected,  the 
book  appeared  (Easter,  1792).  By  an  oversight  Fichte's  name 
did  not  appear  on  the  title-page,  nor  was  the  preface  given,  in 
which  the  author  spoke  of  himself  as  a  beginner  in  philosophy. 
Outsiders,  not  unnaturally,  ascribed  the  work  to  Kant.  The 
Allgemeine  Liter atur-Zeitung  went  so  far  as  to  say  that  no  one 
who  had  read  a  line  of  Kant's  writings  could  fail  to  recognize 
the  eminent  author  of  this  new  work.  Kant  himself  corrected 
the  mistake,  at  the  same  time  highly  commending  the  work. 
Fichte's  reputation  was  thus  secured  at  a  stroke. 

The  Critique  of  Revelation  marks  the  culminating  point  of 
Fichte's  Kantian  period.  The  exposition  of  the  conditions  under 
which  revealed  religion  is  possible  turns  upon  the  absolute 
requirements  of  the  moral  law  in  human  nature.  Religion  itself 
is  the  belief  in  this  moral  law  as  divine,  and  such  belief  is  a 
practical  postulate,  necessary  in  order  to  add  force  to  the  law. 


It  follows  that  no  revealed  religion,  so  far  as  matter  or  substance 
is  concerned,  can  contain  anything  beyond  this  law;  nor  can 
any  fact  in  the  world  of  experience  be  recognized  by  us  as  super- 
natural. The  supernatural  element  in  religion  can  only  be  the 
divine  character  of  the  moral  law.  Now,  the  revelation  of  this 
divine  character  of  morality  is  possible  only  to  a  being  in  whom 
the  lower  impulses  have  been,  or  are,  successful  in  overcoming 
reverence  for  the  law.  In  such  a  case  it  is  conceivable  that  a 
revelation  might  be  given  in  order  to  add  strength  to  the  moral 
law.  Religion  ultimately  then  rests  upon  the  practical  reason, 
and  expresses  some  demand  or  want  of  the  pure  ego.  In  this 
conclusion  we  can  trace  the  prominence  assigned  by  Fichte  to 
the  practical  element,  and  the  tendency  to  make  the  requirements 
of  the  ego  the  ground  for  all  judgment  on  reality.  It  was  not 
possible  that  having  reached  this  point  he  should  not  press 
forward  and  leave  the  Kantian  position. 

This  success  was  coincident  with  an  improvement  in  the 
fortunes  of  the  Rahn  family,  and  the  marriage  took  place  at 
Zurich  in  October  1793.  The  remainder  of  the  year  he  spent 
at  Zurich,  slowly  perfecting  his  thoughts  on  the  fundamental 
problems  left  for  solution  in  the  Kantian  philosophy.  During 
this  period  he  published  anonymously  two  remarkable  political 
works,  Zuruckforderung  der  Denkfreiheit  von  den  Fiirsten  Europas 
and  Beitrage  zur  Berichtigung  der  Urtheile  des  Publicums  iiber  die 
franzosische  Revolution.  Of  these  the  latter  is  much  the  more 
important.  The  French  Revolution  seemed  to  many  earnest 
thinkers  the  one  great  outcry  of  modern  times  for  the  liberty 
of  thought  and  action  which  is  the  eternal  heritage  of  every 
human  being.  Unfortunately  the  political  condition  of  Germany 
was  unfavourable  to  the  formation  of  an  unbiassed  opinion  on 
the  great  movement.  The  principles  involved  in  it  were  lost 
sight  of  under  the  mass  of  spurious  maxims  on  social  order 
which  had  slowly  grown  up  and  stiffened  into  system.  To 
direct  attention  to  the  true  nature  of  revolution,  to  demonstrate 
how  inextricably  the  right  of  liberty  is  interwoven  with  the  very 
existence  of  man  as  an  intelligent  agent,  to  point  out  the  inherent 
progressiveness  of  state  arrangements,  and  the  consequent 
necessity  of  reform  or  amendment,  such  are  the  main  objects 
of  the  Beitrage;  and  although,  as  is  often  the  case  with  Fichte, 
the  arguments  are  too  formal  and  the  distinctions  too  wire- 
drawn, yet  the  general  idea  is  nobly  conceived  and  carried  out. 
As  in  the  Critique  of  Revelation  so  here  the  rational  nature  of 
man  and  the  conditions  necessary  for  its  manifestation  or  realiza- 
tion become  the  standard  for  critical  judgment. 

Towards  the  close  of  1793  Fichte  received  an  invitation  to 
succeed  K.  L.  Reinhold  as  extraordinary  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Jena.  This  chair,  not  in  the  ordinary  faculty,  had  become, 
through  Reinhold,  the  most  important  in  the  university,  and 
great  deliberation  was  exercised  in  selecting  his  successor.  It 
was  desired  to  secure  an  exponent  of  Kantianism,  and  none 
seemed  so  highly  qualified  as  the  author  of  the  Critique  of  Revela- 
tion. Fichte,  while  accepting  the  call,  desired  to  spend  a  year 
in  preparation;  but  as  this  was  deemed  inexpedient  he  rapidly 
drew  out  for  his  students  an  introductory  outline  of  his  system, 
and  began  his  lectures  in  May  1 794.  His  success  was  instantaneous 
and  complete.  The  fame  of  his  predecessor  was  altogether 
eclipsed.  Much  of  this  success  was  due  to  Fichte's  rare  power 
as  a  lecturer.  In  oral  exposition  the  vigour  of  thought  and 
moral  intensity  of  the  man  were  most  of  all  apparent,  while 
his  practical  earnestness  completely  captivated  his  hearers. 
He  lectured  not  only  to  his  own  class,  but  on  general  moral 
subjects  to  all  students  of  the  university.  These  general 
addresses,  published  under  the  title  Beslimmung  des  Gelekrlen 
(Vocation  of  the  Scholar),  were  on  a  subject  dear  to  Fichte's 
heart,  the  supreme  importance  of  the  highest  intellectual  culture 
and  the  duties  incumbent  on  those  who  had  received  it.  Their 
tone  is  stimulating  and  lofty. 

The  years  spent  at  Jena  were  unusually  productive;  indeed, 
the  completed  Fichtean  philosophy  is  contained  in  the  writings 
of  this  period.  A  general  introduction  to  the  system  is  given 
in  the  tractate  Uber  den  Begriff  der  Wissenschaftslehre  (On  the 
Notion  of  the  Theory  of  Science),  1794,  and  the  theoretical 


FICHTE,  J.  G. 


portion  is  worked  out  in  the  Grundlage  der  gesammten  Wissen- 
schaftslehre (Foundation  of  the  whole  Theory  of  Science,  1794) 
and  Grundriss  des  Eigenthiimlichen  d.  Wissenschaftslehre  (Outline 
•of  what  is  peculiar  in  the  Theory  of  Science,  1794).  To  these 
were  added  in  1797  a  First  and  a  Second  Introduction  to  the 
Theory  of  Science,  and  an  Essay  towards  a  new  Exposition  of  the 
Theory  of  Science.  The  Introductions  are  masterly  expositions. 
The  practical  philosophy  was  given  in  the  Grundlage  des 
Naturrechts  (1796)  and  System  der  Sittenlehre  (1798).  The  last 
is  probably  the  most  important  of  all  Fichte's  works;  apart 
from  it,  his  theoretical  philosophy  is  unintelligible. 

During  this  period  Fichte's  academic  career  had  been  troubled 
by  various  storms,  the  last  so  violent  as  to  put  a  close  to  his 
professorate  at  Jena.  The  first  of  them,  a  complaint  against  the 
•delivery  of  his  general  addresses  on  Sundays,  was  easily  settled. 
The  second,  arising  from  Fichte's  strong  desire  to  suppress  the 
Landsmannschaften  (students'  orders),  which  were  productive 
of  much  harm,  was  more  serious.  Some  misunderstanding 
caused  an  outburst  of  ignorant  ill-feeling  on  the  part  of  the 
students,  who  proceeded  to  such  lengths  that  Fichte  was  com- 
pelled to  reside  out  of  Jena.  The  third  storm,  however,  was 
the  most  violent.  In  1798  Fichte,  who,  with  F.  I.  Niethammer 
(1766-1848),  had  edited  the  Philosophical  Journal  since  1795, 
received  from  his  friend  F.  K.  Forberg  (1770-1848)  an  essay 
on  the  "  Development  of  the  Idea  of  Religion."  With  much 
of  the  essay  he  entirely  agreed,  but  he  thought  the  exposition 
in  so  many  ways  defective  and  calculated  to  create  an  erroneous 
impression,  that  he  prefaced  it  with  a  short  paper  On  the  Grounds 
of  our  Belief  in  a  Divine  Government  of  the  Universe,  in  which 
God  is  defined  as  the  moral  order  of  the  universe,  the  eternal 
law  of  right  which  is  the  foundation  of  all  our  being.  The  cry 
of  atheism  was  raised,  and  the  electoral  government  of  Saxony, 
followed  by  all  the  German  states  except  Prussia,  suppressed 
the  Journal  and  confiscated  the  copies  found  in  their  universities. 
Pressure  was  put  by  the  German  powers  on  Charles  Augustus, 
grand-duke  of  Saxe- Weimar,  in  whose  dominions  Jena  university 
was  situated,  to  reprove  and  dismiss  the  offenders.  Fichte's 
defences  (Appellation  an  das  Publicum  gegen  die  Anklage  des 
Atheismus,  and  Gerichlliche  Verantwortung  der  Herausgeber  der 
phil.  Zeitschrifl,  1799),  though  masterly,  did  not  make  it  easier 
for  the  liberal-minded  grand-duke  to  pass  the  matter  over,  and 
an  unfortunate  letter,  in  which  he  threatened  to  resign  in  case 
of  reprimand,  turned  the  scale  against  him.  The  grand-duke 
accepted  his  threat  as  a  request  to  resign,  passed  censure,  and 
extended  to  him  permission  to  withdraw  from  his  chair  at  Jena; 
nor  would  he  alter  his  decision,  even  though  Fichte  himself 
endeavoured  to  explain  away  the  unfortunate  letter. 

Berlin  was  the  only  town  in  Germany  open  to  him.  His 
residence  there  from  1799  to  1806  was  unbroken  save  for  a 
course  of  lectures  during  the  summer  of  1805  at  Erlangen,  where 
he  had  been  named  professor.  Surrounded  by  friends,  including 
Schlegel  and  Schleiermacher,  he  continued  his  literary  work, 
perfecting  the  Wissenschaftslehre.  The  most  remarkable  of  the 
works  from  this  period  are — (i)  the  Bestimmung  des  Menschen 
(Vocation  of  Man,  1800),  a  book  which,  for  beauty  of  style, 
richness  of  content,  and  elevation  of  thought,  may  be  ranked 
with  the  Meditations  of  Descartes;  (2)  Der  geschlossene  Handels- 
staat,  1800  (The  Exclusive  or  Isolated  Commercial  State),  a  very 
remarkable  treatise,  intensely  socialist  in  tone,  and  inculcating 
organized  protection;  (3)  Sonnenklarer  Bericht  an  das  grossere 
Publicum  iiber  die  neueste  Philosophic,  1801.  In  1801  was  also 
written  the  Darstellung  der  Wissenschaftslehre,  which  was  not 
published  till  after  his  death.  In  1804  a  set  of  lectures  on  the 
Wissenschaftslehre  was  given  at  Berlin,  the  notes  of  which  were 
published  in  the  N  achgelassene  Werke,  vol.  ii.  In  1804  were 
also  delivered  the  noble  lectures  entitled  Grundzuge  des  gegen- 
•wartigen  Zeitalters  (Characteristics  of  the  Present  Age,  1804), 
containing  a  most  admirable  analysis  of  the  Aufklarung,  tracing 
the  position  of  such  a  movement  of  thought  in  the  natural 
evolution  of  the  general  human  consciousness,  pointing  out 
its  inherent  defects,  and  indicating  as  the  ultimate,  goal  of  progress 
the  life  of  reason  in  its  highest  aspect  as  a  belief  in  the  divine 


order  of  the  universe.  The  philosophy  of  history  sketched  in 
this  work  has  something  of  value  with  much  that  is  fantastic. 
In  1805  and  1806  appeared  the  Wesen  des  Gelehrten  (Nature  of 
the  Scholar)  and  the  Anweisung zum  seligen  Leben  oder  Religions- 
lehre  (Way  to  a  Blessed  Life),  the  latter  the  most  important 
work  of  this  Berlin  period.  In  it  the  union  between  the  finite 
self-consciousness  and  the  infinite  ego  or  God  is  handled  in  an 
almost  mystical  manner.  The  knowledge  and  love  of  God  is 
the  end  of  life;  by  this  means  only  can  we  attain  blessedness 
(Seligkeit) ,  for  in  God  alone  have  we  a  permanent,  enduring  object 
of  desire.  The  infinite  God  is  the  all;  the  world  of  independent 
objects  is  the  result  of  reflection  or  self-consciousness,  by  which 
the  infinite  unity  is  broken  up.  God  is  thus  over  and  above  the 
distinction  of  subject  and  object;  our  knowledge  is  but  a  reflex 
or  picture  of  the  infinite  essence.  Being  is  not  thought. 

The  diasters  of  Prussia  in  1806  drove  Fichte  from  Berlin. 
He  retired  first  to  Stargard,  then  to  Konigsberg  (where  he 
lectured  for  a  time),  then  to  Copenhagen,  whence  he  returned 
to  the  capital  in  August  1807.  From  this  time  his  published 
writings  are  practical  in  character;  not  till  after  the  appearance 
of  the  N achgelassene  Werke  was  it  known  in  what  shape  his  final 
speculations  had  been  thrown  out.  We  may  here  note  the  order 
of  these  posthumous  writings  as  being  of  importance  for  tracing 
the  development  of  Fichte's  thought.  From  the  year  1806  we 
have  the  remarkable  Bericht  iiber  die  Wissenschaftslehre  (Werke, 
vol.  viii.),  with  its  sharp  critique  of  Schelling;  from  1810  we 
have  the  Thatsachen  des  Bewusslseyns,  published  in  1817,  of 
which  another  treatment  is  given  in  lectures  of  1813  (Nachgel. 
Werke,  vol.  i.).  Of  the  Wissenschaftslehre  we  have,  in  181 2-1813, 
four  separate  treatments  contained  in  the  Nachgel.  Werke.  As 
these  consist  mainly  of  notes  for  lectures,  couched  in  uncouth 
phraseology,  they  cannot  be  held  to  throw  much  light  on  Fichte's 
views.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  are  the  lectures  of  1812 
on  Transcendental  Logic  (Nach.  Werke,  i.  106-400). 

From  181 2  we  have  notes  of  two  courses  on  practical  philosophy, 
Rechtslehre  (Nach.  Werke,  vol.  ii.)  and  Sittenlehre  (ib.  vol.  iii.). 
A  finished  work  in  the  same  department  is  the  Staatslehre, 
published  in  1820.  This  gives  the  Fichtean  Utopia  organized 
on  principles  of  pure  reason;  in  too  many  cases  the  proposals 
are  identical  with  principles  of  pure  despotism. 

During  these  years,  however,  Fichte  was  mainly  occupied 
with  public  affairs.  In  1807  he  drew  up  an  elaborate  and 
minute  plan  for  the  proposed  new  university  of  Berlin.  In 
1807-1808  he  delivered  at  Berlin,  amidst  danger  and  discourage- 
ment, his  noble  addresses  to  the  German  people  (Reden  an  die 
deutsche  Nation).  Even  if  we  think  that  in  these  pure  reason 
is  sometimes  overshadowed  by  patriotism,  we  cannot  but  recog- 
nize the  immense  practical  value  of  what  he  recommended  as 
the  only  true  foundation  for  national  prosperity. 

In  1810  he  was  elected  rector  of  the  new  university  founded 
in  the  previous  year.  This  post  he  resigned  in  1812,  mainly  on 
account  of  the  difficulties  he  experienced  in  his  endeavour  to 
reform  the  student  life  of  the  university. 

In  1813  began  the  great  effort  of  Germany  for  national  in- 
dependence. Debarred  from  taking  an  active  part,  Fichte 
made  his  contribution  by  way  of  lectures.  The  addresses  on 
the  idea  of  a  true  war  (Uber  den  Begriff  eines  wahrhaften  Kriegs, 
forming  part  of  the  Staatslehre)  contain  a  very  subtle  contrast 
between  the  positions  of  France  and  Germany  in  the  war. 

In  the  autumn  of  1813  the  hospitals  of  Berlin  were  filled  with 
sick  and  wounded  from  the  campaign.  Among  the  most  devoted 
in  her  exertions  was  Fichte's  wife,  who,  in  January  1814,  was 
attacked  with  a  virulent  hospital  fever.  On  the  day  after  she 
was  pronounced  out  of  danger  Fichte  was  struck  down.  He 
lingered  for  some  days  in  an  almost  unconscious  state,  and  died 
on  the  27th  of  January  1814. 

The  philosophy  of  Fichte,  worked  out  in  a  series  of  writings, 
and  falling  chronologically  into  two  distinct  periods,  that  of  Jena 
and  that  of  Berlin,  seemed  in  the  course  of  its  development  to 
undergo  a  change  so  fundamental  that  many  critics  have  sharply 
separated  and  opposed  to  one  another  an  earlier  and  a  later  phase. 
The  ground  of  the  modification,  further,  has  been  sought  and 
apparently  found  in  quite  external  influences,  principally  that  of 


316 


FICHTE,  J.  G. 


Schelling's  Naturphilosophit,  to  some  extent  that  of  Schleiermacher. 
But  as  a  rule  most  of  those  who  have  adopted  this  view  have  done 
so  without  the  full  and  patient  examination  which  the  matter 
demands;  they  have  been  misled  by  the  difference  in  tone  and 
style  between  the  earlier  and  later  writings,  and  have  concluded  that 
underlying  this  was  a  fundamental  difference  of  philosophic  con- 
ception. One  only,  Erdmann,  in  his  Entwicklung  d.  deut.  Spek. 
seit  Kant,  §  29,  seems  to  give  full  references  to  justify  his  opinion, 
and  even  he,  in  his  later  work,  Grundriss  der  Gesch.  der  Philos. 
(ed.  3),  §  311,  admits  that  the  difference  is  much  less  than  he  had 
at  the  first  imagined.  He  certainly  retains  his  former  opinion, 
but  mainly  on  the  ground,  in  itself  intelligible  and  legitimate,  that,  so 
far  as  Fichte's  philosophical  reputation  and  influence  are  concerned, 
attention  may  be  limited  to  the  earlier  doctrines  of  the  Wissen- 
schaftslehre. This  may  be  so,  but  it  can  be  admitted  neither  that 
Fichte's  views  underwent  radical  change,  nor  that  the  Wissenschafts- 
lehre  was  ever  regarded  as  in  itself  complete,  nor  that  Fichte  was 
unconscious  of  the  apparent  difference  between  his  earlier  and  later 
utterances.  It  is  demonstrable  by  various  passages  in  the  works 
and  letters  that  he  never  looked  upon  the  Wissenschaftslehre  as  con- 
ta'ining  the  whole  system;  it  is  clear  from  the  chronology  of  his 
writings  that  the  modifications  supposed  to  be  due  to  other  thinkers 
were  from  the  first  implicit  in  his  theory;  and  if  one  fairly  traces 
the  course  of  thought  in  the  early  writings,  one  can  see  how  he 
was  inevitably  led  on  to  the  statement  of  the  later  and,  at  first  sight, 
divergent  views.  On  only  one  point,  the  position  assigned  in  the 
Wissenschaftslehre  to  the  absolute  ego,  is  there  any  obscurity;  but 
the  relative  passages  are  far  from  decisive,  and  from  the  early  work, 
Neue  Darslellung  der  Wissenchaftslehre,  unquestionably  to  be  in- 
sluded  in  the  Jena  period,  one  can  see  that  from  the  outset  the 
doctrine  of  the  absolute  ego  was  held  in  a  form  differing  only  in 
statement  from  the  later  theory. 

Fichte's  system  cannot  be  compressed  with  intelligibility.  We 
shall  here  note  only  three  points: — (a)  the  origin  in  Kant;  (b)  the 
fundamental  principle  and  method  of  the  Wissenschaftslehre;  (c)  the 
connexion  with  the  later  writings.  The  most  important  works  for 
(a)  are  the  "  Review  of  Aenesidemus,"  and  the  Second  Introduction 
to  the  Wissenschaftslehre;  for  (6)  the  great  treatises  of  the  Jena 
period;  for  (c)  the  Thatsachen  des  Bewusstseyns  of  1810. 

(a)  The  Kantian  system  had  for  the  first  time  opened  up  a  truly 
fruitful   line   of   philosophic   speculation,   the   transcendental   con- 
sideration of  knowledge,  or  the  analysis  of  the  conditions  under 
which  cognition  is  possible.     To  Kant  the  fundamental  condition 
was  given  in  the  synthetical  unity  of  consciousness.    The  primitive 
fact  under  which  might  be  gathered  the  special  conditions  of  that 
synthesis  which  we  call  cognition  was  this  unity.     But  by  Kant 
there  was  no  attempt  made  to  show  that  the  said  special  conditions 
were  necessary  from  the  very  nature  of  consciousness  itself.    Their 
necessity  was  discovered  and  proved  in  a  manner  which  might  be 
called  empirical.     Moreover,  while  Kant  in  a  quite  similar  manner 
pointed  out  that  intuition  had  special  conditions,  space  and  time, 
he  did  not  show  any  link  of  connexion  between  these  and  the  primi- 
tive conditions  of  pure  cognition.     Closely  connected   with   this 
remarkable  defect  in  the  Kantian  view — lying,  indeed,  at  the  founda- 
tion of  it — was  the  doctrine  that  the  matter  of  cognition  is  altogether 
given,   or  thrown  into  the  form  of  cognition   from  without.     So 
strongly  was  this  doctrine  emphasized  by  Kant,  that  he  seemed  to 
refer  the  matter  of  knowledge  to  the  action  upon  us  of  a  non-ego 
or  Ding-an-sich,   absolutely   beyond   consciousness.      While   these 
hints  towards  a  completely  intelligible  account  of  cognition  were 
given  by  Kant,  they  were  not  reduced  to  system,  and  from  the  way 
in  which  the  elements  of  cognition  were  related,  could  not  be  so 
reduced.    Only  in  the  sphere  of  practical  reason,  where  the  intelligible 
nature  prescribed  to  itself  its  own  laws,  was  there  the  possibility  of 
systematic  deduction  from  a  single  principle. 

The  peculiar  position  in  which  Kant  had  left  the  theory  of  cog- 
nition was  assailed  from  many  different  sides  and  by  many  writers, 
specially  by  Schultze  (Aenesidemus)  and  Maimon.  To  the  criticisms 
of  the  latter,  in  particular,  Fichte  owed  much,  but  his  own  activity 
went  far  beyond  what  they  supplied  to  him.  To  complete  Kant's 
work,  to  demonstrate  that  all  the  necessary  conditions  of  knowledge 
can  be  deduced  from  a  single  principle,  and  consequently  to  expound 
the  complete  system  of  reason,  that  is  the  business  of  the  Wissen- 
schaftslehre. By  it  the  theoretical  and  practical  reason  shall  be 
shown  to  coincide ;  for  while  .the  categories  of  cognition  and  the 
whole  system  of  pure  thought  can  be  expounded  from  one  principle, 
the  ground  of  this  principle  is  scientifically,  or  to  cognition,  in- 
explicable, and  is  made  conceivable  only  in  the  practical  philosophy. 
The  ultimate  basis  for  the  activity  of  cognition  is  given  by  the  will. 
Even  in  the  practical  sphere,  however,  Fichte  found  that  the  contra- 
diction, insoluble  to  cognition,  was  not  completely  suppressed, 
and  he  was  thus  driven  to  the  higher  view,  which  is  explicitly  stated 
in  the  later  writings  though  not,  it  must  be  confessed,  with  the 
precision  and  scientific  clearness  of  the  Wissenschaftslehre. 

(b)  What,  then,  is  this  single  principle,  and  how  does  it  work 
itself  out  into  system?     To  answer  this  one  must  bear  in  mind 
what  Fichte  intended  by  designating  all  philosophy  Wissenschafts- 
lehre, or  theory  of  science.     Philosophy  is  to  him  the  rethinking  of 
actuaj  cognition,  the  theory  of  knowledge,  the  complete,  systematic 
exposition  of  the  principles  which  lie  at  the  basis  of  all  reasoned 


cognition.  It  traces  the  necessary  acts  by  which  the  cognitive 
consciousness  comes  to  be  what  it  is,  both  in  form  and  in  content. 
Not  that  it  is  a  natural  history,  or  even  a  phenomenology  of  con- 
sciousness; only  in  the  later  writings  did  Fichte  adopt  even  the 
genetic  method  of  exposition ;  it  is  the  complete  statement  of  the 
pure  principles  of  the  understanding  in  their  rational  or  necessary 
order.  But  if  complete,  this  Wissenschaftslehre  must  be  able  to 
deduce  the  whole  organism  of  cognition  from  certain  fundamental 
axioms,  themselves  unproved  and  incapable  of  proof;  only  thus 
can  we  have  a  system  of  reason.  From  these  primary  axioms  the 
whole  body  of  necessary  thoughts  must  be  developed,  and,  as 
Socrates  would  say,  the  argument  itself  will  indicate  the  path  of 
the  development. 

Of  such  primitive  principles,  the  absolutely  necessary  conditions 
of  possible  cognition,  only  three  are  thinkable — one  perfectly  un- 
conditioned both  in  form  and  matter;  a  second,  unconditioned  in 
form  but  not  in  matter;  a  third,  unconditioned  in  matter  but  not 
in  form.  Of  these,  evidently  the  first  must  be  the  fundamental ;  to 
some  extent  it  conditions  the  other  two,  though  these  cannot  be 
deduced  from  it  or  proved  by  it.  The  statement  of  these  principles 
forms  the  introduction  to  Wissenschaftslehre. 

The  method  which  Fichte  first  adopted  for  stating  these  axioms 
is  not  calculated  to  throw  full  light  upon  them,  and  tends  to  ex- 
aggerate the  apparent  airiness  and  unsubstantiality  of  his  deduction. 
They  may  be  explained  thus.  The  primitive  condition  of  all  in- 
telligence is  that  the  ego  shall  posit,  affirm  or  be  aware  of  itself. 
The  ego  is  the  ego;  such  is  the  first  pure  act  of  conscious  intelligence, 
that  by  which  alone  consciousness  can  come  to  be  what  it  is.  It 
is  what  Fichte  called  a  Deed-act  (Thathandlung) ;  we  cannot  be 
aware  of  the  process, — the  ego  is  not  until  it  has  affirmed  itself, — 
but  we  are  aware  of  the  result,  and  can  see  the  necessity  of  the  act 
by  which  it  is  brought  about.  The  ego  then  posits  itself  as  real. 
What  the  ego  posits  is  real.  But  in  consciousness  there  is  equally 
given  a  primitive  act  of  op-positing,  or  contra-positing,  formally 
distinct  from  the  act  of  position,  but  materially  determined,  in  so 
far  as  what  is  op-posited  must  be  the  negative  of  that  which  was 
posited.  The  non-ego — not,  be  it  noticed,  the  world  as  we  know 
it — is  op-posed  in  consciousness  to  the  ego.  The  ego  is  not  the 
non-ego.  How  this  act  of  op-positing  is  possible  and  necessary, 
only  becomes  clear  in  the  practical  philosophy,  and  even  there  the 
inherent  difficulty  leads  to  a  higher  view.  But  third,  we  have  now 
an  absolute  antithesis  to  our  original  thesis.  Only  the  ego  is  real, 
but  the  non-ego  is  posited  in  the  ego.  The  contradiction  is  solved 
in  a  higher  synthesis,  which  takes  up  into  itself  the  two  opposites. 
The  ego  and  non-ego  limit  one  another,  or  determine  one  another; 
and,  as  limitation  is  negation  of  part  of  a  divisible  quantum,  in  this 
third  act,  the  divisible  ego  is  op-posed  to  a  divisible  non-ego. 

From  this  point  onwards  the  course  proceeds  by  the  method 
already  made  clear.  We  progress  by  making  explicit  the  oppositions 
contained  in  the  fundamental  synthesis,  by  uniting  these  opposites, 
analysing  the  new  synthesis,  and  so  on,  until  we  reach  an  ultimate 
pair.  Now,  in  the  synthesis  of  the  third  act  two  principles  may  be 
distinguished: — (i)  the  non-ego  determines  the  ego;  (2)  the  ego 
determines  the  non-ego.  As  determined  the  ego  is  theoretical,  as 
determining  it  is  practical;  ultimately  the  opposed  principles  must 
be  united  by  showing  how  the  ego  is  bothdeterminingand  determined. 

It  is  impossible  to  enter  here  on  the  steps  by  which  the  theo- 
retical ego  is  shown  to  develop  into  the  complete  system  of  cognitive 
categories,  or  to  trace  the  deduction  of  the  processes  (productive 
imagination,  intuition,  sensation,  understanding,  judgment,  reason) 
by  which  the  quite  indefinite  non-ego  comes  to  assume  the  appear- 
ance of  definite  objects  in  the  forms  of  time  and  space.  All  this 
evolution  is  the  necessary  consequence  of  the  determination  of 
the  ego  by  the  non-ego.  But  it  is  clear  that  the  non-ego  cannot 
really  determine  the  ego.  There  is  no  reality  beyond  the  ego  itself. 
The  contradiction  can  only  be  suppressed  if  the  ego  itself  opposes 
to  itself  the  non-ego,  places  it  as  an  Anstoss  or  plane  on  which  its 
own  activity  breaks  and  from  which  it  is  reflected.  Now,  this  op- 
positing  of  the  Anstoss  is  the  necessary  condition  of  the  practical  ego, 
of  the  will.  If  the  ego  be  a  striving  power,  then  of  necessity  a 
limit  must  be  set  by  which  its  striving  is  manifest.  But  how  can 
the  infinitely  active  ego  posit  a  limit  to  its  own  activity?  Here 
we  come  to  the  crux  of  Fichte's  system,  which  is  only  partly  cleared 
up  in  the  Rechtslehre  and  Siltenlehre.  If  the  ego  be  pure  activity, 
free  activity,  it  can  only  become  aware  of  itself  by  positing  some 
limit.  We  cannot  possibly  have  any  cognition  of  how  such  an  act 
is  possible.  But  as  it  is  a  free  act,  the  ego  cannot  be  determined 
to  it  by  anything  beyond  itself ;  it  cannot  be  aware  of  its  own  free' 
dom  otherwise  than  as  determined  by  other  free  egos.  Thus  in  the 
Rechtslehre  and  Sittenlehre,  the  multiplicity  of  egos  is  deduced,  and 
with  this  deduction  the  first  form  of  the  Wissenschaftslehre  appeared 
to  end. 

(c)  But  in  fact  deeper  questions  remained.  We  have  spoken  of 
the  ego  as  becoming  aware  of  its  own  freedom,  and  have  shown  how 
the  existence  of  other  egos  and  of  a  world  in  which  these  egos  may 
act  are  the  necessary  conditions  of  consciousness  of  freedom.  But 
all  this  is  the  work  of  the  ego.  All  that  has  been  expounded  follows 
if  the  ego  comes  to  consciousness.  We  have  therefore  to  consider  that 
the  absolute  ego,  from  which  spring  all  the  individual  egos,  is  not 
subject  to  these  conditions,  but  freely  determines  itself  to  them. 


FICHTELGEBIRGE— FICINO 


How  is  this  absolute  ego  to  be  conceived?  As  early  as  1797  Fichte 
had  begun  to  see  that  the  ultimate  basis  of  his  system  was  the 
absolute  ego,  in  which  is  no  difference  of  subject  and  object ;  in  1800 
the  Bestimmung  des  Menschen  defined  this  absolute  ego  as  the 
infinite  moral  will  of  the  universe,  God,  in  whom  are  all  the  in- 
dividual egos,  from  whom  they  have  sprung.  It  lay  in  the  nature 
of  the  thing  that  more  precise  utterances  should  be  given  on  this 
subject,  and  these  we  find  in  the  Thatsachen  des  Bewusslseyns  and  in 
all  the  later  lectures.  God  in  them  is  the  absolute  Life,  the  absolute 
One,  who  becomes  conscious  of  himself  by  self-diremption  into  the 
individual  egos.  The  individual  ego  is  only  possible  as  opposed  to  a 
non-ego,  to  a  world  of  the  senses;  thus  God,  the  infinite  will,  mani- 
fests himself  in  the  individual,  and  the  individual  has  over  against 
him  the  non-ego  or  thing.  "  The  individuals  do  not  make  part  of 
the  being  of  the  one  life,  but  are  a  pure  form  of  its  absolute  freedom." 
"  The  individual  is  not  conscious  of  himself,  but  the  Life  is  conscious 
of  itself  in  individual  form  and  as  an  individual."  In  order  that 
the  Life  may  act,  though  it  is  not  necessary  that  it  should  act,  in- 
dividualization  is  necessary.  "  Thus,"  says  Fichte,  "  we  reach  a 
final  conclusion.  Knowledge  is  not  mere  knowledge  of  itself,  but 
of  being,  and  of  the  one  being  that  truly  is,  viz.  God. .  .  .This  one 
possible  object  of  knowledge  is  never  known  in  its  purity,  but  ever 
broken  into  the  various  forms  of  knowledge  which  are  and  can  be 
shown  to  be  necessary.  The  demonstration  of  the  necessity  of  these 
forms  is  philosophy  or  Wissenschaftslehre  "  (Thats.  des  Bewuss. 
Werke,  ii.  685).  This  ultimate  view  is  expressed  throughout  the 
lectures  (in  the  Nachgel.  Werke)  in  uncouth  and  mystical  language. 

It  will  escape  no  one  (i)  how  the  idea  and  method  of  the  Wissen- 
schaftslehre prepare  the  way  for  the  later  Hegelian  dialectic,  and 
(2)  how  completely  the  whole  philosophy  of  Schopenhauer  is  con- 
tained in  the  later  writings  of  Fichte.  It  is  not  to  the  credit  of 
historians  that  Schopenhauer's  debt  should  have  been  allowed  to 
pass  with  so  little  notice. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Fichte's  complete  works  were  published  by  his 
son  J.  H.  Fichte,  Sdmmtliche  Werke  (8  vols.,  Berlin,  1845-1846), 
with  Nachgelassene  Werke  (3  vols.,  Bonn,  1834-1835);  also  Leben 
und  Briefwechsel  (2  vols.,  1830,  ed.  1862).  Among  translations  are 
those  of  William  Smith,  Popular  Writings  of  Fichte,  with  Memoir 
(2  vols.,  London,  1848-1849,  4th  ed.  1889);  A.  E.  Kroeger,  portions 
of  the  Wissenschaftslehre  (Science  of  Knowledge,  Philadelphia,  1868; 
ed.  London,  1889),  the  Naturrecht  (Science  of  Rights,  1870;  ed, 
London,  1889);  of  the  Vorlesungen  u.  d.  Bestimmung  d.  (jelehrten 
(The  Vocation  of  the  Scholar,  by  W.  Smith,  1847) ;  Destination  of  Man, 
by  Mrs  P.  Sinnett;  Discours  a  la  nation  allemande,  French  by  Leon 
Philippe  (1895),  with  preface  by  F.  Pica  vet,  and  a  biographical 
memoir. 

The  number  of  critical  works  is  very  large.  Besides  the  histories 
of  post-Kantian  philosophy  by  Erdmann,  Fortlage  (whose  account 
is  remarkably  good),  Michelet,  Biedermann  and  others,  see  Wm. 
Busse,  Fichte  und  seine  Beziehung  zur  Gegenwart  des  deutschen  Volkes 
(Halle,  1848-1849);  J.  H.  Lowe,  Die  Philosophie  Fichtes  (Stuttgart, 
1862);  Kuno  Fischer,  Geschichte  d.  neueren  Philosophie  (1869,  1884, 
1890) ;  Ludwig  Noack,  Fichte  nach  seinem  Leben,  Lehren  und  Wirken 
(Leipzig,  1862);  R.  Adamson,  Fichte  (1881,  in  Knight's  "Philo- 
sophical Classics  ") ;  Oscar  Benzow,  Zu  Fichtes  Lekre  von  Nicht-Ich 
(Bern,  1898) ;  E.  O.  Burmann,  Die  Transcendentalphilosophie 
Fichtes  und  Schellings  (Upsala,  1890-1892);  M.  Carriere,  Fichtes 
Geistesentwickelung  in  die  Reden  iiber  d.  Bestimmung  des  Gelehrten 
(1894) ;  C.  C.  Everett,  Fichte's  Science  of  Knowledge  (Chicago,  1884) ; 
O.  Pfleiderer,  /.  G.  Fichtes  Lebensbild  eines  deutschen  Denkers  und 
Patrioten  (Stuttgart,  1877);  T.  Wotschke,  Fichte  und  Erigena 
(1896);  W.  Kabitz,  Studien  zur  Entwickelungsgeschickte  der  Fichte- 
'schen  Wissenschaftslehre  aus  der  Kantischen  Fhilosophie  (1902) ; 
E.  Lask,  Fichtes  Idealismus  und  die  Geschichte  (1902) ;  X.  Leon, 
La  Philos.  de  Fichte  (1902);  M.  Wiener,  /.  G.  Fichtes  Lehre  vom 
Wesen  und  Inhalt  der  Geschichte  (1906). 

On  Fichte's  social  philosophy  see,  e.g.,  F.  Schmidt-Warneck, 
Die  Sociologie  Fichtes  (Berlin,  1884);  W.  Windelband,  Fichtes  Idee 
des  deutschen  Staates  (1890) ;  M.  Weber,  Fichtes  Sozialismus  und  sein 
Verhdltnis  zur  Marx'schen  Doctrin  (1900);  S.  H.  Gutman,  J.  G. 
Fichtes  Sozialpadogogik  (1907) ;  H.  Lindau,  Johann  G.  Fichte  und  der 
neuere  Socialismus  (1900).  (R.  AD.  ;  X.) 

FICHTELGEBIRGE,  a  mountain  group  of  Bavaria,  forming 
the  centre  from  which  various  mountain  ranges  proceed, — the 
Elstergebirge,  linking  it  to  the  Erzgebirge,  in  a  N.E.,  the  Franken- 
wald  in  a  N.W.,  and  the  Bohmerwald  in  a  S.E.  direction.  The 
streams  to  which  it  gives  rise  flow  towards  the  four  cardinal 
points, — e.g.  the  Eger  eastward  and  the  Saale  northward,  both 
to  the  Elbe;  the  Weisser  Main  westward  to  the  Rhine,  and  the 
Naab  southward  to  the  Danube.  The  chief  points  of  the  mass 
are  the  Schneeberg  and  the  Ochsenkopf,  the  former  having  a 
height  of  3^48,  and  the  latter  of  3356  ft.  The  whole 'district 
is  pretty  thickly  populated,  and  there  is  great  abundance  of 
wood,  as  well  as  of  iron,  vitriol,  sulphur,  copper,  lead  and  many 
kinds  of  marble.  The  inhabitants  are  employed  chiefly  in  the 


iron  mines,  at  forges  and  blast  furnaces,  and  in  charcoal  burning 
and  the  manufacture  of  blacking  from  firewood.  Although 
surrounded  by  railways  and  crossed  by  the  lines  Nuremberg- 
Eger  and  Regensburg-Oberkotzau,  the  Fichtelgebirge,  owing 
principally  to  its  raw  climate  and  bleakness,  is  not  much  visited 
by  strangers,  the  only  important  points  of  interest  being  Alex- 
andersbad  (a  delightfully  situated  watering-place)  and  the 
granite  labyrinth  of  Luisenburg. 

See  A.  Schmidt,  Fiihrer  durch  das  Fichtelgebirge  (1899);  Daniel, 
Deutschland;  and  Meyer,  Conver -sations-Lexikon  (1904).' 

FICINO,  MARSILIO  (1433-1499),  Italian  philosopher  and 
writer,  was  born  at  Figline,  in  the  upper  Arno  valley,  in  the  year 
1433.  His  father,  a  physician  of  some  eminence,  settled  in 
Florence,  and  attached  himself  to  the  person  of  Cosimo  de' 
Medici.  Here  the  young  Marsilio  received  his  elementary 
education  in  grammar  and  Latin  literature  at  the  high  school 
or  studio  pubblico.  While  still  a  boy,  he  showed  promise  of 
rare  literary  gifts,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  facility  in 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  Not  only  literature,  but  the 
physical  sciences,  as  then  taught,  had  a  charm  for  him;  and  he 
is  said  to  have  made  considerable  progress  in  medicine  under 
the  tuition  of  his  father.  He  was  of  a  tranquil  temperament, 
sensitive  to  music  and  poetry,  and  debarred  by  weak  health 
from  joining  in  the  more  active  pleasures  of  his  fellow-students. 
When  he  had  attained  the  age  of  eighteen  or  nineteen  years, 
Cosimo  received  him  into  his  household,  and  determined  to  make 
use  of  his  rare  disposition  fpr  scholarship  in  the  development 
of  a  long-cherished  project.  During  the  session  of  the  council 
for  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  at  Florence  in 
1439,  Cosimo  had  made  acquaintance  with  Gemistos  Plethon, 
the  Neo-Platonic  sage  of  Mistra,  whose  discourses  upon  Plato 
and  the  Alexandrian  mystics  so  fascinated  the  learned  society 
of  Florence  that  they  named  him  the  second  Plato.  It  had  been 
the  dream  of  this  man's  whole  life  to  supersede  both  forms  of 
Christianity  by  a  semi-pagan  theosophy  deduced  from  the 
writings  of  the  later  Pythagoreans  and  Platonists.  When, 
therefore,  he  perceived  the  impression  he  had  made  upon  the 
first  citizen  of  Florence,  Gemistos  suggested  that  the  capital 
of  modern  culture  would  be  a  fit  place  for  the  resuscitation  of  the 
once  so  famous  Academy  of  Athens.  Cosimo  took  this  hint. 
The  second  half  of  the  isth  century  was  destined  to  be  the  age 
of  academies  in  Italy,  and  the  regnant  passion  for  antiquity 
satisfied  itself  with  any  imitation,  however  grotesque,  of  Greek 
or  Roman  institutions.  In  order  to  found  his  new  academy 
upon  a  firm  basis  Cosimo  resolved  not  only  to  assemble  men  of 
letters  for  the  purpose  of  Platonic  disputation  at  certain  regular 
intervals,  but  also  to  appoint  a  hierophant  and  official  expositor 
of  Platonic  doctrine.  He  hoped  by  these  means  to  give  a  certain 
stability  to  his  projected  institution,  and  to  avoid  the  super- 
ficiality of  mere  enthusiasm.  The  plan  was  good;  and  with 
the  rare  instinct  for  character  which  distinguished  him,  he 
made  choice  of  the  right  man  for  his  purpose  in  the  young 
Marsilio. 

Before  he  had  begun  to  learn  Greek,  Marsilio  entered  upon  the 
task  of  studying  and  elucidating  Plato.  It  is  known  that  at 
this  early  period  of  his  life,  while  he  was  yet  a  novice,  he  wrote 
voluminous  treatises  on  the  great  philosopher,  which  he  after- 
wards, however,  gave  to  the  flames.  In  the  year  1459  John 
Argyropoulos  was  lecturing  on  the  Greek  language  and  literature 
at  Florence,  and  Marsilio  became  his  pupil.  He  was  then  about 
twenty-three  years  of  age.  Seven  years  later  he  felt  himself  a 
sufficiently  ripe  Greek  scholar  to  begin  the  translation  of  Plato, 
by  which  his  name  is  famous  in  the  history  of  scholarship,  and 
which  is  still  the  best  translation  of  that  author  Italy  can  boast. 
The  MSS.  on  which  he  worked  were  supplied  by  his  patron 
Cosimo  de'  Medici  and  by  Amerigo  Benci.  While  the  translation 
was  still  in  progress  Ficino  from  time  to  time  submitted  its 
pages  to  the  scholars,  Angelo  Poliziano,  Cristoforo  Landino, 
Demetrios  Chalchondylas  and  others;  and  since  these  men 
were  all  members  of  the  Platonic  Academy,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  discussions  raised  upon  the  text  and  Latin 
version  greatly  served  to  promote  the  purpose  of  Cosimo's 


3i8 


FICINO 


foundation.  At  last  the  book  appeared  in  1482,  the  expenses  of 
the  press  being  defrayed  by  the  noble  Florentine,  Filippo  Valori. 
About  the  same  time  Marsilio  completed  and  published  his  treatise 
on  the  Platonic  doctrine  of  immortality  (Theologia  Platonica 
de  immortalilate  animae),  the  work  by  which  his  claims  to  take 
rank  as  a  philosopher  must  be  estimated.  This  was  shortly 
followed  by  the  translation  of  Plotinus  into  Latin,  and  by  a 
voluminous  commentary,  the  former  finished  in  1486,  the  latter 
in  1491,  and  both  published  at  the  cost  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici 
just  one  month  after  his  death.  As  a  supplement  to  these 
labours  in  the  field  of  Platonic  and  Alexandrian  philosophy, 
Marsilio  next  devoted  his  energies  to  the  translation  of  Dionysius 
the  Areopagite,  whose  work  on  the  celestial  hierarchy,  though 
recognized  as  spurious  by  the  Neapolitan  humanist,  Lorenzo 
Valla,  had  supreme  attraction  for  the  mystic  and  uncritical 
intellect  of  Ficino. 

It  is  not  easy  to  value  the  services  of  Marsilio  Ficino  at  their 
proper  worth.  As  a  philosopher,  he  can  advance  no  claim  to 
originality,  his  laborious  treatise  on  Platonic  theology  being 
little  better  than  a  mass  of  ill-digested  erudition.  As  a  scholar, 
he  failed  to  recognize  the  distinctions  between  different  periods 
of  antiquity  and  various  schools  of  thought.  As  an  exponent 
of  Plato  he  suffered  from  the  fatal  error  of  confounding  Plato 
with  the  later  Platonists.  It  is  true  that  in  this  respect  he  did 
not  differ  widely  from  the  mass  of  his  contemporaries.  Lorenzo 
Valla  and  Angelo  Poliziano,  almost  alone  among  the  scholars  of 
that  age,  showed  a  true  critical  perception.  For  the  rest,  it  was 
enough  that  an  author  should  be  ancient  to  secure  their  admira- 
tion. The  whole  of  antiquity  seemed  precious  in  the  eyes  of  its 
discoverers;  and  even  a  thinker  so  acute  as  Pico  di  Mirandola 
dreamed  of  the  possibility  of  extracting  the  essence  of  philo- 
sophical truth  by  indiscriminate  collation  of  the  most  divergent 
doctrines.  Ficino  was,  moreover,  a  firm  believer  in  planetary 
influences.  He  could  not  separate  his  philosophical  from  his 
astrological  studies,  and  caught  eagerly  at  any  fragment  of 
antiquity  which  seemed  to  support  his  cherished  delusions. 
It  may  here  be  incidentally  mentioned  that  this  superstition 
brought  him  into  trouble  with  the  Roman  Church.  In  1489 
he  was  accused  of  magic  before  Pope  Innocent  VIII.,  and  had  to 
secure  the  good  offices  of  Francesco  Soderini,  Ermolao  Barbaro, 
and  the  archbishop  Rinaldo  Orsini,  in  order  to  purge  himself  of 
a  most  perilous  imputation.  What  Ficino  achieved  of  really  solid, 
was  his  translation.  The  value  of  that  work  cannot  be  denied; 
the  impulse  which  it  gave  to  Platonic  studies  in  Italy,  and  through 
them  to  the  formation  of  the  new  philosophy  in  Europe,  is 
indisputable.  Ficino  differed  from  the  majority  of  his  contempor- 
aries in  this  that,  while  he  felt  the  influence  of  antiquity  no  less 
strongly  than  they  did,  he  never  lost  his  faith  in  Christianity, 
or  contaminated  his  morals  by  contact  with  paganism.  For  him, 
as  for  Petrarch,  St  Augustine  was  the  model  of  a  Christian  student. 
The  cardinal  point  of  his  doctrine  was  the  identity  of  religion  and 
philosophy.  He  held  that  philosophy  consists  in  the  study  of 
truth  and  wisdom,  and  that  God  alone  is  truth  and  wisdom, — 
so  that  philosophy  is  but  religion,  and  true  religion  is  genuine 
philosophy.  Religion,  indeed,  is  common  to  all  men,  but  its 
pure  form  is  that  revealed  through  Christ;  and  the  teaching 
of  Christ  is  sufficient  to  a  man  in  all  circumstances  of  life.  Yet 
it  cannot  be  expected  that  every  man  should  accept  the  faith 
without  reasoning;  and  here  Ficino  found  a  place  for  Platonism. 
He  maintained  that  the  Platonic  doctrine  was  providentially 
made  to  harmonize  with  Christianity,  in  order  that  by  its  means 
speculative  intellects  might  be  led  to  Christ.  The  transition 
from  this  point  of  view  to  an  almost  superstitious  adoration 
of  Plato  was  natural;  and  Ficino,  we  know,  joined  in  the  hymns 
and  celebrations  with  which  the  Florentine  Academy  honoured 
their  great  master  on  the  day  of  his  birth  and  death.  Those 
famous  festivals  in  which  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  delighted  had 
indeed  a  pagan  tone  appropriate  to  .the  sentiment  of  the  Re- 
naissance; nor  were  all  the  worshippers  of  the  Athenian  sage  so 
true  to  Christianity  as  his  devoted  student. 

Of  Ficino's  personal  life  there  is  but  little  to  be  said.  In  order 
that  he  might  have  leisure  for  uninterrupted  study,  Cosimo  de' 


Medici  gave  him  a  house  near  S.  Maria  Nuova  in  Florence,  and 
a  little  farm  at  Montevecchio,  not  far  from  the  villa  of  Careggi. 
Ficino,  like  nearly  all  the  scholars  of  that  age  in  Italy,  delighted 
in  country  Ife.  At  Montevecchio  he  lived  contentedly  among 
his  books,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  his  two  friends,  Pico  at 
Querceto,  and  Poliziano  at  Fiesole,  cheering  his  solitude  by 
playing  on  the  lute,  and  corresponding  with  the  most  illustrious 
men  of  Italy.  His  letters,  extending  over  the  years  1474-1494, 
have  been  published,  both  separately  and  in  his  collected  works. 
From  these  it  may  be  gathered  that  nearly  every  living  scholar 
of  note  was  included  in  the  list  of  his  friends,  and  that  the 
subjects  which  interested  him  were  by  no  means  confined  to 
his  Platonic  sudies.  As  instances  of  his  close  intimacy  with 
illustrious  Florentine  families,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  he 
held  the  young  Francesco  Guicciardini  at  the  font,  and  that 
he  helped  to  cast  the  horoscope  of  the  Casa  Strozzi  in  the  Via 
Tornabuoni. 

At  the  age  of  forty  Ficino  took  orders,  and  was  honoured 
with  a  canonry  of  S.  Lorenzo.  He  was  henceforth  assiduous 
in  the  performance  of  his  duties,  preaching  in  his  cure  of  Novoli, 
and  also  in  the  cathedral  and  the  church  of  the  Angeli  at  Florence. 
He  used  to  say  that  no  man  was  better  than  a  good  priest,  and 
none  worse  than  a  bad  one.  His  life  corresponded  in  all  points 
to  his  principles.  It  was  the  life  of  a  sincere  Christian  and  a  real 
sage, — of  one  who  found  the  best  fruits  of  philosophy  in  the 
practice  of  the  Christian  virtues.  A  more  amiable  and  a  more 
harmless  man  never  lived;  and  this  was  much  in  that  age  of 
discordant  passions  and  lawless  licence.  In  spite  of  his  weak 
health,  he  was  indefatigably  industrious.  His  tastes  were  of  the 
simplest;  and  while  scholars  like  Filelfo  were  intent  on  ex- 
tracting money  from  their  patrons  by  flattery  and  threats,  he 
remained  so  poor-  that  he  owed  the  publication  of  all  his  many 
works  to  private  munificence.  For  his  old  patrons  of  the  house 
of  Medici  Ficino  always  cherished  sentiments  of  the  liveliest 
gratitude.  Cosimo  he  called  his  second  father,  saying  that  Ficino 
had  given  him  life,  but  Cosimo  new  birth, — the  one  h?-d  devoted 
him  to  Galen,  the  other  to  the  divine  Plato, — the  one  was  physician 
of  the  body,  the  other  of  the  soul.  With  Lorenzo  he  lived  on 
terms  of  familiar,  affectionate,  almost  parental  intimacy.  He  had 
seen  the  young  prince  grow  up  in  the  palace  of  the  Via  Larga, 
and  had  helped  in  the  development  of  his  rare  intellect.  In  later 
years  he  did  not  shrink  from  uttering  a  word  of  warning  and 
advice,  when  he  thought  that  the  master  of  the  Florentine 
republic  was  too  much  inclined  to  yield  to  pleasure.  A  character- 
istic proof  of  his  attachment -to  the  house  of  Medici  was  furnished 
by  a  yearly  custom  which  he  practised  at  his  farm  at  Monte- 
vecchio. He  used  to  invite  the  contadini  who  had  served 
Cosimo  to  a  banquet  on  the  day  of  Saints  Cosimo  and  Damiano 
(the  patron  saints  of  the  Medici),  and  entertained  them  with 
music  and  singing.  This  affection  was  amply  returned.  Cosimo 
employed  almost  the  last  hours  of  his  life  in  listening  to  Ficino's 
reading  of  a  treatise  on  the  highest  good;  while  Lorenzo,  in 
a  poem  on  true  happiness,  described  him  as  the  mirror  of  the 
world,  the  nursling  of  sacred  muses,  the  harmonizer  of  wisdom 
and  beauty  in  complete  accord.  Ficino  died  at  Florence  in 
1499. 

Besides  the  works  already  noticed,  Ficino  composed  a  treatise 
on  the  Christian  religion,  which  was  first  given  to  the  world  in 
1476,  a  translation  into  Italian  of  Dante's  De  monarchia,  a  life 
of  Plato,  and  numerous  essays  on  ethical  and  semi-philosophical 
subjects.  Vigour  of  reasoning  and  originality  of  view  were  not 
his  characteristics  as  a  writer;  nor  will  the  student  who  has 
raked  these  dust-heaps  of  miscellaneous  learning  and  old- 
fashioned  mysticism  discover  more  than  a  few  sentences  of 
genuine  enthusiasm  and  simple-hearted  aspiration  to  repay  his 
trouble  and  reward  his  patience.  Only  in  familiar  letters, 
prolegomena,  and  prefaces  do  we  find  the  man  Ficino,  and  learn 
to  know  his  thoughts  and  sentiments  unclouded  by  a  mist  of 
citations;  these  minor  compositions  have  therefore  a  certain 
permanent  value,  and  will  continually  be  studied  for  the  light 
they  throw  upon  the  learned  circle  gathered  round  Lorenzo  in 
the  golden  age  of  humanism. 


FICKSBURG— FICTIONS 


3*9 


The  student  may  be  referred  for  further  information  to  the  follow- 
ing works: — Marsilii  Ficini  opera  (Basileae,  1576);  Marsilii  Ficini 
vita,  auctore  Corsio  (ed.  Bandini,  Pisa,  1771) ;  Roscoe's  Life  of 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici ;  Pasquale  Villari,  La  Storia  di  Girolame  Savo- 
narola (Firenze,  Le  Monnier,  1859);  Von  Reumont,  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici  (Leipzig,  1874).  U-  A.  S.) 

FICKSBURG,  a  town  of  Orange  Free  State  no  m.  by  rail 
E.  by  N.  of  Bloemfontein.  Pop.  (1904)  1954,  of  whom  1021^  were 
whites.  The  town  is  situated  near  the  north  bank  of  the  Caledon 
river  and  is  the  capital  of  one  of  the  finest  agricultural  and  stock- 
raising  regions  of  the  province.  It  has  direct  railway  communica- 
tion with  Natal  and  an  extensive  trade.  In  the  neighbourhood 
are  petroleum  wells  and  a  diamond  mine.  In  the  fossilized  ooze 
of  the  Wonderkop,  a  table  mountain  of  the  adjacent  Wittebergen, 
are  quantities  of  petrified  fish. 

FICTIONS,  or  legal  fictions,  in  law,  the  term  used  for  false 
averments,  the  truth  of  which  is  not  permitted  to  be  called  in 
question.  English  law  as  well  as  Roman  law  abounds  in  fictions. 
Sometimes  they  are  merely  the  condensed  expression  of  a  rule 
of  law, — e.g.,  the  fiction  of  English  law  that  husband  and  wife 
were  one  person,  and  the  fiction  of  Roman  law  that  the  wife 
was  the  daughter  of  the  husband.  Sometimes  they  must  be 
regarded  as  reasons  invented  in  order  to  justify  a  rule  of  law 
according  to  an  implied  ethical  standard.  Of  this  sort  seems  to  be 
the  fiction  or  presumption  that  every  one  knows  the  law,  which 
reconciles  the  rule  that  ignorance  is  no  excuse  for  crime  with 
the  moral  commonplace  that  it  is  unfair  to  punish  a  man  for 
violating  a  law  of  whose  existence  he  was  unaware.  Again, 
some  fictions  are  deliberate  falsehoods,  adopted  as  true  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  a  remedy  not  otherwise  attainable.  Of 
this  sort  are  the  numerous  fictions  of  English  law  by  which  the 
different  courts  obtained  jurisdiction  in  private  business,  removed 
inconvenient  restrictions  in  the  law  relating  to  land,  &c. 

What  to  the  scientific  jurist  is  a  stumbling-block  is  to  the  older 

writers  on  English  law  a  beautiful  device  for  reconciling  the  strict 

letter  of  the  law  with  common  sense  and  justice.     Blackstone, 

in  noticing  the  well-known  fiction  by  which  the  court  of  king's 

bench  established  its  jurisdiction  in  common  pleas  (viz.  that  the 

defendant  was  in  custody  of  the  marshal  of  the  court),  says, 

"  These  fictions  of  law,  though  at  first  they  may  startle  the 

student,  he  will  find  upon  further  consideration  to  be  highly 

beneficial  and  useful;  especially  as  this  maxim  is  ever  invariably 

observed,  that  no  fiction  shall  extend  to  work  an  injury;  its 

proper  operation  being  to  prevent  a  mischief  or  remedy  an 

inconvenience  that  might  result  from  the  general  rule  of  law. 

So  true  it  is  that  in  fictiom  juris  semper  subsistU  aequitas." 

Austin,  on  the  other  hand,  while  correctly  assigning  as  the 

cause  of  many  fictions  the  desire  to  combine  the  necessary 

reform  with  some  show  of  respect  for  the  abrogated  law,  makes 

the  following  harsh  criticism  as  to  others: — "  Why  the  plain 

meanings  which  I  have  now  stated  should  be  obscured  by  the 

fictions  to  which  I  have  just  adverted  I  cannot  conjecture. 

A  wish  on  the  part  of  the  authors  of  the  fictions  to  render  the  law 

as  uncognoscible  as  may  be  is  probably   the  cause  which  Mr 

Bentham  would  assign.     I  judge  not,  I  confess,  so  uncharitably 

I  rather  impute  such  fictions  to  the  sheer  imbecility  (or,  if  you 

will,  to  the  active  and  sportive  fancies)  of  their  grave  and  vene 

rable  authors,  than  to  any  deliberate  design,  good  or  evil.' 

Bentham,  of  course,  saw  in  fictions  the  instrument  by  which 

the  great  object  of  his  abhorrence,  judiciary  law,  was  produced 

It  was  the  means  by  which  judges  usurped  the  functions  o 

legislators.     "  A  fiction  of  law,"  he  says,  "  may  be  defined  as 

a  wilful  falsehood,  having  for  its  object  the  stealing  legislative 

powers  by  and  for  hands  which  could  not  or  durst  not  openly 

claim  it,  and  but  for  the  delusion  thus  produced  could  no 

exercise  it."     A  partnership,  he  says,  was  formed  between  the 

kings   and   the   judges   against   the   interests   of   the   people 

"  Monarchs  found  force,  lawyers  fraud;  thus  was  the  capita 

found  "  (Historical  Preface  to  the  second  edition  of  the  Frogmen 

on  Government)  .* 

1  In  the  same  essay  Bentham  notices  the  comparative  rarity  o 
fictions  in  Scots  law.     As  to  fiction  in  particular,  compared  with  th 


Sir  H.  Maine  (Ancient  Law)  supplies  the  historical  element 
vhich  is  always  lacking  in  the  explanations  of  Austin  and 
$entham.  Fictions  form  one  of  the  agencies  by  which,  in  pro- 
ressive  societies,  positive  law  is  brought  into  harmony  with 
public  opinion.  The  others  are  equity  and  statutes.  Fictions 
n  this  sense  include,  not  merely  the  obvious  falsities  of  the 
English  and  Roman  systems,  but  any  assumption  which  conceals 
change  of  law  by  retaining  the  old  formula  after  the  change  has 
seen  made. .  It  thus  includes  both  the  case  law  of  the  English  and 
he  Responsa  Prudentum  of  the  Romans.  "  At  a  particular  stage 
jf  social  progress  they  are  invaluable  expedients  for  overcom- 
ng  the  rigidity  of  law;  and,  indeed,  without  one  of  them,  the 
iction  of  adoption,  which  permits  the  family  tie  to  be  artificially 
reated,  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  society  would  ever  have 
scaped  from  its  swaddling  clothes,  and  taken  its  first  steps 
owards  civilization." 

The  bolder  remedial  fictions  of  English  law  have  been  to  a 
arge  extent  removed  by  legislation,  and  one  great  obstacle  to 
any  reconstruction  of  the  legal  system  has  thus  been  partially 
emoved.     Where  the  real  remedy  stood  in  glaring  contrast  to 
he  nominal  rule,  it  has  been  openly  ratified  by  statute.     In 
ejectment  cases  the  mysterious  sham  litigants  have  disappeared. 
The  bond  of  entail  can  be  broken  without  having  recourse  to 
.he  collusive  proceedings  of  fine  and  recovery.     Fictions  have 
>een   almost   entirely   banished   from    the    procedure   of   the 
courts.     The  action  for  damages  en  account  of  seduction,  which 
s   still   nominally   an   action   by   the   father   for   loss   of  his 
daughter's  services,  is  perhaps  the  only  fictitious  action  now 
remaining. 

Fictions  which  appear  in  the  form  of  principles  are  not  so 
easily  dealt  with  by  legislation.  To  expel  them  formally  from 
the  system  would  require  the  re-enactment  of  vast  portions  of 
aw.  A  change  in  legal  modes  of  speech  and  thought  would  be 
more  effective.  The  legal  mind  instinctively  seizes  upon  concrete 
aids  to  abstract  reasoning.  Many  hard  and  revolting  fictions 
must  have  begun  their  career  as  metaphors.  In  some  cases  the 
history  of  the  change  may  still  almost  be  traced.  The  conception 
that  a  man-of-war  is  a  floating  island,  or  that  an  ambassador's 
house  is  beyond  the  territorial  limits  of  the  country  in  which  he 
resides,  was  originally  a  figure  of  speech  designed  to  set  a  rule 
of  law  in  a  striking  light.  It  is  then  gravely  accepted  as  true 
in  fact,  and  other  rules  of  law  are  deduced  from  it.  Its  beginning 
is  to  be  compared  with  such  phrases  as  "  an  Englishman's  house 
is  his  castle,"  which  have  had  no  legal  offshoots  and  still  remain 
mere  figures  of  speech. 

Constitutional  law  is  of  course  honeycombed  with  fictions. 
Here  there  is  hardly  ever  anything  like  direct  legislative  change, 
and  yet  real  change  is  incessant.  The  rules  defining  the  sovereign 
power  and  fixing  the  authority  of  its  various  members  are  in  most 
points  the  same  as  they  were  at  the  last  revolution, — in  many 
points  they  have  been  the  same  since  the  beginning  of  parlia- 
mentary government.  But  they  have  long  ceased  to  be  true  in 
fact;  and  it  would  hardly  be  too  much  to  say  that  the  entire 
series  of  formal  propositions  called  the  constitution  is  merely  a 
series  of  fictions.  The  legal  attributes  of  the  king,  and  even  of 
the  House  of  Lords,  are  fictions.  If  we  could  suppose  that  the 
effects  of  the  Reform  Acts  had  been  brought  about,  not  by  legisla- 
tion, but  by  the  decisions  of  law  courts  and  the  practice  of  House 
of  Commons  committees— by  such  assumptions  as  that  freeholder 
includes  lease-holder  and  that  ten  means  twenty — we  should 
have  in  the  legal  constitution  of  the  House  of  Commons  the  same 
kind  of  fictions  that  we  find  in  the  legal  statement  cf  the  attributes 
of  the  crown  and  the  House  of  Lords.  Here,  too,  fictions  have 
been  largely  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  particular 

work  done  by  it  in  English  law,  the  use  made  of  it  by  the  Scottish 
lawyers  is  next  to  nothing.  No  need  have  they  had  of  any  such 
clumsy  instrument.  They  have  two  others  "  of  their  own  making, 
by  which  things  of  the  same  sort  have  been  done  with  much  less 
trouble.  Nobile  officium  gives  them  the  creative  power  of  legislation ; 
this  and  the  word  desuetude  together  the  anmhilative."  And  he 
notices  aptly  enough  that,  while  the  English  lawyers  declared  that 
James  II.  had  abdicated  the  throne  (which  everybody  knew  to  be 
false),  the  Scottish  lawyers  boldly  said  he  had  forfeited  it. 


320 


FIDDES— FIELD,  C.  W. 


theories, — popular  or  monarchical, — and  such  have  flourished 
even  more  vigorously  than  purely  legal  fictions. 

FIDDES,  RICHARD  (1671-1725),  English  divine  and  historian, 
was  born  at  Hunmanby  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  took 
orders,  and  obtained  the  living  of  Halsham  in  Holderness  in 
1696.  Owing  to  ill-health  he  applied  for  leave  to  reside  at 
Wickham,  and  in  1712  he  removed  to  London  on  the  plea  of 
poverty,  intending  to  pursue  a  literary  career.  In  London  he 
met  Swift,  who  procured  him  a  chaplaincy  at  Hull.  He  also 
became  chaplain  to  the  earl  of  Oxford.  After  losing  the  Hull 
chaplaincy  through  a  change  of  ministry  in  1714,  he  devoted 
himself  to  writing.  His  best  book  is  a  Life  of  Cardinal  Wolsey 
(London,  1724),  containing  documents  which  are  still  valuable 
for  reference;  of  his  other  writings  the  Prefatory  Epistle  contain- 
ing some  remarks  to  be  published  on  Homer's  Iliad  (London,  1714), 
was  occasioned  by  Pope's  proposed  translation  of  the  Iliad, 
and  his  Theologia  speculativa  (London,  1718),  earned  him  the 
degree  of  D.D.  at  Oxford.  In  his  own  day  he  had  a  considerable 
reputation  as  an  author  and  man  of  learning. 

FIDDLE  (O.  Eng.  fithde,  fidel,  &c.,  Fr.  viele,  viole,  violon; 
M.  H.  Ger.  videle,  mod.  Ger.  Fiedel),  a  popular  term  for  the  violin, 
derived  from  the  names  of  certain  of  its  ancestors.  The  word 
fiddle  antedates  the  appearance  of  the  violin  by  several  centuries., 
and  in  England  did  not  always  represent  an  instrument  of  the  same 
type.  The  word  has  first  been  traced  in  1 205  in  Layamon's  Brut 
(7002),  "  of  harpe,  of  salteriun,  of  fithele  and  of  coriun."  In 
Chaucer's  time  the  fiddle  was  evidently  a  well-known  instrument : 

"  For  him  was  lever  have  at  his  beddes  hed 
A  twenty  bokes,  clothed  in  black  or  red, 
Of  Aristotle  and  his  Philosophic, 
Than  robes  riche  or  fidel  or  sautrie." 

(Prologue,  v.  298.) 

The  origin  of  the  fiddle  is  of  the  greatest  interest;  it  will  be 
found  inseparable  from  that  of  the  violin  both  as  regards  the 
instruments  and  the  etymology  of  the  words;  the  remote 
common  ancestor  is  the  ketharah  of  the  Assyrians,  the  parent  of 
the  Greek  cithara.  The  Romans  are  responsible  for  the  word 
fiddle,  having  bestowed  upon  a  kind  of  cithara — probably  then 
in  its  first  transition — the  name  oifidiculae  (more  rarely  fidicula), 
a  diminutive  form  of  fides.  In  Alain  de  Lille's  De  planctu 
naturae  against  the  word  lira  stands  as  equivalent  vioel,  with 
the  definition  "  Lira  est  quoddam  genue  citharae  vel  fitola 
alioquin  de  reot.  Hoc  instrumentum  est  multum  vulgare." 
This  is  a  marginal  note  in  writing  of  the  i3th  century.1 

Some  of  the  transitions  from  fidicula  to  fiddle  are  made  evident 
in  the  accompanying  table: 


Latin  . 

Medieval  Latin 

French 

Provengal  .. 

Spanish 

Old  High  German 

Middle  High  German 

German 

Italian 

Dutch 

Danish 

Anglo-Saxon 

Old  English 


fidiculae 

vitula,  fitola. 

viele,  vielle,  viole. 

viula. 

viguela,  vihuela,  vigolo. 

fidula. 

videle. 

fiedel,  violine. 

viola,  violino. 

vedel. 

fiddel. 

fithele. 

fithele,  fythal,  fithel, 

fythylle,  fidel, 

fidylle,  (south)  vithele. 


For  the  descent  of  the  guitar-fiddle,  the  first  bowed  ancestor 
of  the  violin,  through  many  transitions  from  the  cithara,  see 
CITHARA,  GUITAR  and  GUITAR-FIDDLE. 

In  the  minnesinger  and  troubadour  fiddles,  of  which  evidences 
abound  during  the  izth,  I3th  and  i4th  centuries,  are  to  be 
observed  the  structural  characteristics  of  the  violin  and  its 
ancestors  in  the  course  of  evolution.  The  principal  of  these  are 
first  of  all  the  shallow  sound-chest,  composed  of  belly  and  back, 
almost  flat,  connected  by  ribs  (also  present  in  the  cithara), 
with  incurvations  more  or  less  pronounced,  an  arched  bridge, 
a  finger-board  and  strings  (vary  ing  in  number),  vibrated  by  means 

1  See  C.  E..  H.  de  Coussemaker,  Memoire  sur  Hucbald  (Paris,  1841). 


From  Julius  Ruhlmann's  Gcschichlc  der 
Bogrninslrumente. 

Minnesinger  Fiddle.  Germany, 
1 3th  Century,  from  the  Manesse 
MSS. 


of  a  bow.  The  central  rose  sound-holes  of  stringed  instruments 
whose  strings  are  plucked  by  fingers  or  plectrum  have  given 
place  to  smaller  lateral  sound- 
holes  placed  on  each  side  of 
the  strings.  It  is  in  Germany,1 
where  contemporary  drawings 
of  fiddles  of  the  I3th  and  I4th 
centuries  furnish  an  authorita- 
tive clue,  and  in  France,  that 
the  development  may  best  be 
followed.  The  German  minne- 
singer fiddle  with  sloping 
shoulders  was  the  prototype  of 
the  viols,  whereas  the  guitar- 
fiddle  produced  the  violin 
through  the  intermediary  of  the 
Italian  bowed  Lyra. 

The  fiddle  of  the  Carolingian 
epoch, — such,   for  instance,    as 

that  mentioned  by  Otfrid  of  Weissenburg2  in  his  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels  (c.  868), 

"  Sih  thar  ouch  al  ruarit 

This  prgano  fuarit 

Lira  joh  fidula,"  &c., — 

was  in  all  probability  still  an  instrument  whose  strings  were 
plucked  by  the  fingers,  a  cithara  in  transition.  (K.  S.) 

FIDENAE,  an  ancient  town  of  Latium,  situated  about  5  m. 
N.  of  Rome  on  the  Via  Salaria,  which  ran  between  it  and  the 
Tiber.  It  was  for  some  while  the  frontier  of  the  Roman  territory 
and  was  often  in  the  hands  of  Veii.  It  appears  to  have  fallen 
under  the  Roman  sway  after  the  capture  of  this  town,  and  is 
spoken  of  by  classical  authors  as  a  place  almost  deserted  in  their 
time.  It  seems,  however,  to  have  had  some  importance  as  a  post 
station.  The  site  of  the  arx  of  the  ancient  town  is  probably  to  be 
sought  on  the  hill  on  which  lies  the  Villa  Spada,  though  no  traces 
of  early  buildings  or  defences  are  to  be  seen:  pre-Roman  tombs 
are  to  be  found  in  the  cliffs  to  the  north.  The  later  village  lay  at 
the  foot  of  the  hill  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  high-road,  and 
its  curia,  with  a  dedicatory  inscription  to  M.  Aurelius  by  the 
Senatus  Fidenatium,  was  excavated  in  1889.  Remains  of  other 
buildings  may  also  be  seen. 

See  T.  Ashby  in  Papers  of  the  British  School  at  Rome,  iii.  17. 

FIDUCIARY  (Lat.  fiduciarius,  one  in  whom  trust,  fiducia,  is 
reposed),  of  or  belonging  to  a  position  of  trust,  especially  of  one 
who  stands  in  a  particular  relationship  of  confidence  to  another. 
Such  relationships  are,  in  law,  those  of  parent  and  child,  guardian 
and  ward,  trustee  and  cestui  que  trust,  legal  adviser  and  client, 
spiritual  adviser,  doctor  and  patient,  &c.  In  many  of  these  the 
law  has  attached  special  obligations  in  the  case  of  gifts  made  to  the 
"  fiduciary,"  on  whom  is  laid  the  onus  of  proving  that  no  "  undue 
influence "  has  been  exercised.  (See  CONTRACT;  CHILDREN, 
LAW  RELATING  TO;  INFANT;  TRUST.) 

FIEF,  a  feudal  estate  in  land,  land  held  from  a  superior  (see 
FEUDALISM).  The  word  is  the  French  form,  which  is  represented 
in  Medieval  Latin  asfeudum  orfeodum,  and  in  English  as  "  fee  " 
or  "  feu  "  (see  FEE).  The  A.Fr.  feojfer,  to  invest  with  a  fief  or  fee, 
has  given  the  English  law  terms"  feoffee  "and"feoffment"(g.».). 

FIELD,  CYRUS  WEST  (1819-1892),  American  capitalist, 
projector  of  the  first  Atlantic  cable,  was  born  at  Stockbridge, 
Massachusetts,  on  the  3Oth  of  November  1819.  He  was  a  brother 
of  David  Dudley  Field.  At  fifteen  he  became  a  clerk  in  the  store 
of  A.  T.  Stewart  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  and  stayed  there  three 
years;  then  worked  for  two  years  with  his  brother,  Matthew 
Dickinson  Field,  in  a  paper-mill  at  Lee,  Massachusetts;  and  in 
1840  went  into  the  paper  business  for  himself  at  Westfield, 
Massachusetts,  but  almost  immediately  became  a  partner  in 
E.  Root  &  Co.,  wholesale  paper  dealers  in  New  York  City,  who 
failed  in  the  following  year.  Field  soon  afterwards  formed  with  a 

1  See  the  Manesse  MSS.  reproduced  in  part  by  F.  H.  von  der 
Hagen,   Heldenbilder    (Leipzig   and    Berlin,    1855)   and   Bildersoal. 
The  fiddles  are  reproduced  in  J.  Ruhlmann's  Geschichte  der  Bogen- 
instrumente  (Brunswick,  1882),  plates. 

2  See  Schiller's  Thesaurus  anttq.  Teut.  vol.  i.  p.  379. 


FIELD,  D.  D.— FIELD,  F. 


321 


brother-in-law  the  firm  of  Cyrus  W.  Field  &  Co.,  and  in  1853  had 
accumulated  $250,000,  paid  off  the  debts  of  the  Root  company 
and  retired  from  active  business,  leaving  his  name  and  $100,000 
with  the  concern.  In  the  same  year  he  travelled  with  Frederick 
E.  Church,  the  artist,  through  South  America.  In  1854  he 
became  interested,  through  his  brother  Matthew,  a  civil  engineer, 
in  the  project  of  Frederick  Newton  Gisborne  (1824-1892)  for  a 
telegraph  across  Newfoundland;  and  he  was  attracted  by  the 
idea  of  a  trans-Atlantic  telegraphic  cable,  as  to  which  he  con- 
sulted S.  F.  B.  Morse  and  Matthew  F.  Maury,  head  of  the  National 
Observatory  at  Washington.  With  Peter  Cooper,  Moses  Taylor 
(1806-1882),  Marshall  Owen  Roberts  (1814-1880)  and  Chandler 
White,  he  formed  the  New  York,  Newfoundland  &  London 
Telegraph  Company,  which  procured  a  more  favourable  charter 
than  Gisborne's,  and  had  a  capital  of  $1,500,000.  Having 
secured  all  the  practicable  landing  rights  on  the  American  side 
of  the  ocean,  he  and  John  W.  Brett,  who  was  now  his  principal 
colleague,  approached  Sir  Charles  Bright  (q.v.)  in  London,  and  in 
December  1856  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  Company  was  organized 
by  them  in  Great  Britain,  a  government  grant  being  secured  of 
£14,000  annually  for  government  messages,  to  be  reduced  to 
£10,000  annually  when  the  cable  should  pay  a  6%  yearly 
dividend;  similar  grants  were  made  by  the  United  States 
government.  Unsuccessful  attempts  to  lay  the  cable  were  made 
in  August  1857  and  in  June  1858,  but  the  complete  cable  was 
laid  between  the  7th  of  July  and  the  5th  of  August  1858;  for  a 
time  messages  were  transmitted,  but  in  October  the  cable  became 
useless,  owing  to  the  failure  of  its  electrical  insulation.  Field, 
however,  did  not  abandon  the  enterprise,  and  finally  in  July 
1866,  after  a  futile  attempt  in  the  previous  year,  a  cable  was 
laid  and  brought  successfully  into  use.  From  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  he  received  a  gold  medal  and  a  vote  of  thanks,  and  he 
received  manyotherhonoursbothathomeandabroad.  In  1877  he 
bought  a  controlling  interest  in  the  New  York  Elevated  Railroad 
Company,  controlling  the  Third  and  Ninth  Avenue  lines,  of 
which  he  was  president  in  1877-1880.  He  worked  with  Jay 
Gould  for  the  completion  of  the  Wabash  railway,  and  at  the  time  of 
his  greatest  stock  activity  bought  The  New  York  Evening  Express 
and  The  Mail  and  combined  them  as  The  Mail  and  Express, 
which  he  controlled  for  six  years.  In  1879  Field  suffered 
financially  by  Samuel  J.  Tilden's  heavy  sales  (during  Field's 
absence  in  Europe)  of  "  Elevated  "  stock,  which  forced  the  price 
down  from  200  to  164;  but  Field  lost  much  more  in 'the  great 
"  Manhattan  squeeze  "  of  the  24th  of  June  1887,  when  Jay 
Gould  and  Russell  Sage,  who  had  been  supposed  to  be  his 
backers  in  an  attempt  to  bring  the  Elevated  stock  to  200, 
forsook  him,  and  the  price  fell  from  1565  to  114  in  half  an  hour. 
Field  died  in  New  York  on  the  I2th  of  July  1892. 

See  the  biography  by  his  daughter,  Isabella  (Field)  Judson,  Cyrus 
W.  Field,  His  Life  and  Work  (New  York,  1896) ;  H.  M.  Field,  History 
of  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  (New  York,  1866);  and  Charles  Bright, 
The  Story  of  the  Atlantic  Cable  (New  York,  1903). 

FIELD,  DAVID  DUDLEY  (1805-1894),  American  lawyer  and 
law  reformer,  was  born  in  Haddam,  Connecticut,  on  the  i3th 
of  February  1805.  He  was  the  oldest  of  the  four  sons  of  the 
Rev.  David  Dudley  Field  (1781-1867),  a  well-known  American 
clergyman  and  author.  He  graduated  at  Williams  College  in 
1825,  and  settled  in  New  York  City,  where  he  studied  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1828,  and  rapidly  won  a  high  position  in 
his  profession.  Becoming  convinced  that  the  common  law  in 
America,  and  particularly  in  New  York  state,  needed  radical 
changes  in  respect  to  the  unification  and  simplification  of  its 
procedure,  he  visited  Europe  in  1836  and  thoroughly  investigated 
the  courts,  procedure  and  codes  of  England,  France  and  other 
countries,  and  then  applied  himself  to  the  task  of  bringing  about 
in  the  United  States  a  codification  of  the  common  law  procedure. 
For  more  than  forty  years  every  moment  that  he  could  spare  from 
his  extensive  practice  was  devoted  to  this  end.  He  entered  upon 
his  great  work  by  a  systematic  publication  of  pamphlets  and 
articles  in  journals  and  magazines  in  behalf  of  his  reform,  but 
for  some  years  he  met  with  a  discouraging  lack  of  interest.  He 
appeared  personally  before  successive  legislative  committees,  and 

X.  II 


in  1846  published  a  pamphlet,  "  The  Reorganization  of  the 
Judiciary,"  which  had  its  influence  in  persuading  the  New  York 
State  Constitutional  Convention  of  that  year  to  report  in  favour  of 
a  codification  of  the  laws.  Finally  in  1847  he  was  appointed  as  the 
head  of  a  state  commission  to  revise  the  practice  and  procedure. 
The  first  part  of  the  commission's  work,  consisting  of  a  code  of 
civil  procedure,  was  reported  and  enacted  in  1848,  and  by  the  ist 
of  January  1850  the  complete  code  of  civil  and  criminal  procedure 
was  completed,  and  was  subsequently  enacted  by  the  legislature. 
The  basis  of  the  new  system;  which  was  almost  entirely  Field's 
work,  was  the  abolition  of  the  existing  distinction  in  forms  of  pro- 
cedure between  suits  in  law  and  equity  requiring  separate  actions, 
and  their  unification  and  simplification  in  a  single  action.  Eventu- 
ally the  civil  code  with  some  changes  was  adopted  in  twenty-four 
states,  and  the  criminal  code  in  eighteen,  and  the  whole  formed 
a  basis  of  the  reform  in  procedure  in  England  and  several  of  her 
colonies.  In  1857  Field  became  chairman  of  a  state  commission 
for  the  reduction  into  a  written  and  systematic  code  of  the 
whole  body  of  law  of  the  state,  excepting  those  portions  already 
reported  upon  by  the  Commissioners  of  Practice  and  Pleadings. 
In  this  work  he  personally  prepared  almost  the  whole  of  the 
political  and  civil  codes.  The  codification,  which  was  completed 
in  February  1865,  was  adopted  only  in  small  part  by  the  state, 
but  it  has  served  as  a  model  after  which  most  of  the  law  codes  of 
the  United  States  have  been  constructed.  In  1866  he  proposed 
to  the  British  National  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Social 
Science  a  revision  and  codification  of  the  laws  of  all  nations.  For 
an  international  commission  of  lawyers  he  prepared  Draft  Out- 
lines of  an  International  Code  (1872),  the  submission  of  which 
resulted  in  the  organization  of  the  international  Association  for 
the  Reform  and  Codification  of  the  Laws  of  Nations,  of  which  he 
became  president.  In  politics  Field  was  originally  an  anti-slavery 
Democrat,  and  he  supported  Van  Buren  in  the  Free  Soil  campaign 
of  1848.  He  gave  his  support  to  the  Republican  party  in  1856  and 
to  the  Lincoln  administration  throughout  the  Civil  War.  After 
1876,  however,  he  returned  to  the  Democratic  party,  and  from 
January  to  March  1877  served  out  in  Congress  the  unexpired  term 
of  Smith  Ely,  elected  mayor  of  New  York  City.  During  his 
brief  Congressional  career  he  delivered  six  speeches,  all  of  which 
attracted  attention,  introduced  a  bill  in  regard  to  the  presidential 
succession,  and  appeared  before  the  Electoral  Commission  in 
Tilden's  interest.  He  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  i3th  of 
April  1894. 

Part  of  his  numerous  pamphlets  and  addresses  were  collected  in 
his  Speeches,  Arguments  and  Miscellaneous  Papers  (3  vols.,  1884- 
1890).  See  also  the  Life  of  David  Dudley  Field  (New  York,  1898), 
by  Rev.  Henry  Martyn  Field. 

FIELD,  EUGENE  (1850-1895),  American  poet,  was  born  at 
St  Louis,  Missouri,  on  the  2nd  of  September  1850.  He  spent 
his  boyhood  in  Vermont  and  Massachusetts;  studied  for  short 
periods  at  Williams  and  Knox  Colleges  and  the  University  of 
Missouri,  but  without  taking  a  degree;  and  worked  as  a  jour- 
nalist on  various  papers,  finally  becoming  connected  with  the 
Chicago  News.  A  Little  Book  of  Profitable  Tales  appeared  in 
Chicago  in  1889  and  in  New  York  the  next  year;  but  Field's 
place  in  later  American  literature  chiefly  depends  upon  his  poems 
of  Christmas-time  and  childhood  (of  which  "  Little  Boy  Blue  " 
and  "  A  Dutch  Lullaby  "  are  most  widely  known),  because  of 
their  union  of  obvious  sentiment  with  fluent  lyrical  form.  His 
principal  collections  of  poems  are:  A  Little  Book  of  Western 
Verse  (1889);  A  Second  Book  of  Verse  (1892);  With  Trumpet 
and  Drum  (1892);  and  Love  Songs  of  Childhood  (1894).  Field 
died  at  Chicago  on  the  4th  of  November  1895. 

His  works  were  collected  in  ten  volumes  (1896),  at  New  York. 
His  prose  Love-affairs  of  a  Bibliomaniac  (1896)  contains  a  Memoir 
by  his  brother  Roswell  Martin  Field  (b.  1851).  See  also  Slason 
Thompson,  Eugene  Field:  a  study  in  heredity  and  contradictions 
(2  vols.,  New  York,  1901). 

FIELD,  FREDERICK  (1801-1885),  English  divine  and  biblical 
scholar,  was  born  in  London  and  educated  at  Christ's  hospital 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  obtained  a  fellowship 
in  1824.  He  took  orders  in  1828,  and  began  a  close  study  of 
patristic  theology.  Eventually  he  published  an  emended  and 


322 

annotated  text  of  Chrysostom's  Homiliae  in  Matthaeum  (Cam- 
bridge, 1839),  and  some  years  later  he  contributed  to  Pusey's 
Bibliotheca  Patrum  (Oxford,  1838-1870),  a  similarly  treated  text 
of  Chrysostom's  homilies  on  Paul's  epistles.  The  scholarship 
displayed  in  both  of  these  critical  editions  is  of  a  very  high  order. 
In  1839  he  had  accepted  the  living  of  Great  Saxham,  in  Suffolk, 
and  in  1842  he  was  presented  by  his  college  to  the  rectory  of 
Reepham  in  Norfolk.  He  resigned  in  1863,  and  settled  at 
Norwich,  in  order  to  devote  his  whole  time  to  study.  Twelve 
years  later  he  completed  the  Origenis  Hexaplorum  quae  supersunt 
(Oxford,  1867-1875),  now  well  known  as  Field's  Hexapla,  a  text 
reconstructed  from  the  extant  fragments  of  Origen's  work  of 
that  name,  together  with  materials  drawn  from  the  Syro-hexaplar 
version  and  the  Septuagint  of  Holmes  and  Parsons  (Oxford, 
1798-1827).  Field  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment revision  company  in  1870. 

FIELD,  HENRY  MARTYN  (1822-1907),  American  author 
and  clergyman,  brother  of  Cyrus  Field,  was  born  at  Stockbridge, 
Massachusetts,  on  the  3rd  of  April  1822;  he  graduated  at 
Williams  College  in  1838,  and  was  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
church  in  St  Louis,  Missouri,  from  1842  to  1847,  and  of  a  Con- 
gregational church  in  West  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  from 
1850  to  1854.  The  interval  between  his  two  pastorates  he  spent 
in  Europe.  From  1854  to  1898  he  was  editor  and  for  many  years 
he  was  also  sole  proprietor  of  The  Evangelist,  a  New  York 
periodical  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  Presbyterian  church. 
He  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  retirement  at  Stock- 
bridge,  Mass.,  where  he  died  on  the  26th  of  January  1907. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  series  of  books  of  travel,  which  achieved 
unusual  popularity.  His  two  volumes  descriptive  of  a  trip 
round  the  world  in  1875-1876,  entitled  From  the  Lakes  of  Kil- 
larney  to  the  Golden  Horn  (1876)  and  From  Egypt  to  Japan  (1877), 
are  almost  classic  in  their  way,  and  have  passed  through  more 
than  twenty  editions.  Among  his  other  publications  are  The 
Irish  Confederates  and  the  Rebellion  of  1798  (1850),  The 
History  of  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  (1866),  Faith  or  Agnosticism? 
the  Field-Ingersoll  Discussion  (1888),  Old  Spain  and  New  Spain 
(1888),  and  Life  of  David  Dudley  Field  (1898). 

He  is  not  to  be  confused  with  another  HENRY  MARTYN  FIELD, 
the  gynaecologist,  who  was  born  in  1837  at  Brighton,  Mass.,  and 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1859  and  at  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  in  New  York  City  in  1862;  he  was  professor  of 
Materia  Medica  and  therapeutics  at  Dartmouth  from  1871  to 
1887  and  of  therapeutics  from  1887  to  1893. 

FIELD,  JOHN  (1782-1837),  English  musical  composer  and 
pianist,  was  born  at  Dublin  in  1782.  He  came  of  a  musical 
family,  his  father  being  a  violinist,  and  his  grandfather  the 
organist  in  one  of  the  churches  of  Dublin.  From  the  latter  the 
boy  received  his  first  musical  education.  When  a  few  years 
later  the  family  settled  in  London,  Field  became  the  favourite 
pupil  of  the  celebrated  Clementi,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
Paris,  and  later,  in  1 802 ,  on  his  great  concert  tour  through  France, 
Germany  and  Russia.  Under  the  auspices  of  his  master  Field 
appeared  in  public  in  most  of  the  great  European  capitals, 
especially  in  St  Petersburg,  and  in  that  city  he  remained  when 
Clementi  returned  to  England.  During  his  stay  with  the  great 
pianist  Field  had  to  suffer  many  privations  owing  to  dementi's 
all  but  unexampled  parsimony;  but  when  the  latter  left  Russia 
his  splendid  connexion  amongst  the  highest  circles  of  the  capital 
became  Field's  inheritance.  His  marriage  with  a  French  lady 
of  the  name  of  Charpentier  was  anything  but  happy,  and  had 
soon  to  be  dissolved.  Field  made  frequent  concert  tours  to  the 
chief  cities  of  Russia,  and  in  1820  settled  permanently  in  Moscow. 
In  1831  he  came  to  England  for  a  short  time,  and  for  the  next 
four  years  led  a  migratory  life  in  France,  Germany  and  Italy, 
exciting  the  admiration  of  amateurs  wherever  he  appeared  in 
public.  In  Naples  he  fell  seriously  ill,  and  lay  several  months  in 
the  hospital,  till  a  Russian  family  discovered  him  and  brought 
him  back  to  Moscow.  There  he  lingered  for  several  years  till 
his  death  on  the  nth  of  January  1837.  Field's  training  and  the 
cast  of  his  genius  were  not  of  a  kind  to  enable  him  to  excel  in 
the  larger  forms  of  instrumental  music,  and  his  seven  concerti 


FIELD,  H.  M.— FIELD,  S.  J. 


for  the  pianoforte  are  now  forgotten.  Neither  do  his  quartets 
for  strings  and  pianoforte  hold  their  own  by  the  side  of  those 
of  the  great  masters.  But  his  "nocturnes,"  a  form  of  music 
highly  developed  if  not  actually  created  by  him,  remain  all  but 
unrivalled  for  their  tenderness  and  dreaminess  of  conception, 
combined  with  a  continuous  flow  of  beautiful  melody.  They 
were  indeed  Chopin's  models.  Field's  execution  on  the  pianoforte 
was  nearly  allied  to  the  nature  of  his  compositions,  beauty  and 
poetical  charm  of  touch  being  one  of  the  chief  characteristics 
of  his  style.  Moscheles,  who  heard  Field  in  1831,  speaks  of  his 
"  enchanting  legato,  his  tenderness  and  elegance  and  his  beautiful 
touch." 

FIELD,  MARSHALL  (1835-1906),  American  merchant,  was 
born  at  Conway,  Massachusetts,  on  the  i8th  of  August  1835. 
Reared  on  a  farm,  he  obtained  a  common  school  and  academy 
education,  and  at  the  age  of  seventeen  became  a  clerk  in  a  dry 
goods  store  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.  In  1856  he  removed  to  Chicago, 
where  he  became  a  clerk  in  the  large  mercantile  establishment 
of  Cooley,  Wadsworth  &  Company.  In  1860  the  firm  was  re- 
organized as  Cooley,  Farwell  &  Company,  and  he  was  admitted 
to  a  junior  partnership.  In  1865,  with  Potter  Palmer  (1826- 
1902)  and  Levi  Z.  Leiter  (1834-1904),  he  organized  the  firm  of 
Field,  Palmer  &  Leiter,  which  subsequently  became  Field, 
Leiter  &  Company,  and  in  1881  on  the  retirement  of  Leiter 
became  Marshall  Field  &  Company.  Under  Field's  management 
the  annual  business  of  the  firm  increased  from  $12,000,000  in 
1871  to  more  than  $40,000,000  in  1895,  when  it  ranked  as  one  of 
the  two  or  three  largest  mercantile  establishments  in  the  world. 
He  died  in  New  York  city  on  the  i6th  of  January  1906.  He  had 
married,  for  the  second  time,  in  the  previous  year.  Field's 
public  benefactions  were  numerous;  notable  among  them  being 
his  gift  of  land  valued  at  $300,000  and  of  $100,000  in  cash  to  the 
University  of  Chicago,  an  endowment  fund  of  $1,000,000  to 
support  the  Field  Columbian  Museum  at  Chicago,  and  a  bequest 
of  $8,000,000  to  this  museum. 

FIELD,  NATHAN  (1587-1633),  English  dramatist  and  actor, 
was  baptized  on  the  I7th  of  October  1587.  His  father,  the 
rector  of  Cripplegate,  was  a  Puritan  divine,  author  of  a  Godly 
Exhortation  directed  against  play-acting,  and  his  brother 
Theophilus  became  bishop  of  Hereford.  Nat.  Field  early 
became  one  of  the  children  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  chapel,  and  in 
that  capacity  he  played  leading  parts  in  Ben  Jonson's  Cynthia's 
Revels  (in  1600),  in  the  Poetaster  (in  1601),  and  in  Epicoene  (in 
1608),  and  the  title  role  in  Chapman's  Bussy  d' Ambois  (in  1606). 
Ben  Jonson  was  his  dramatic  model,  and  may  have  helped  his 
career.  The  two  plays  of  which  he  was  author  were  probably 
both  written  before  1611.  They  are  boisterous,  but  well-con- 
structed comedies  of  contemporary  London  life  ;  the  earlier 
one,  A  Woman  is  a  Weathercock  (printed  1612),  dealing  with  the 
inconstancy  of  woman,  while  the  second,  Amends  for  Ladies 
(printed  1618),  was  written  with  the  intention,  as  the  title 
indicates,  of  retracting  the  charge.  From  Henslowe's  papers 
it  appears  that  Field  collaborated  with  Robert  Daborne  and 
with  Philip  Massinger,  one  letter  from  all  three  authors  being  a 
joint  appeal  for  money  to  free  them  from  prison.  In  1614 
Field  received  £10  for  playing  before  the  king  in  Bartholomew 
Fair,  a  play  in  which  Jonson  records  his  reputation  as  an  actor 
in  the  words  "which  is  your  Burbadge  now?.  .  .  Your  best 
actor,  your  Field?"  He  joined  the  King's  Players  some  time 
before  1619,  and  his  name  comes  seventeenth  on  the  list  prefixed 
to  the  Shakespeare  folio  of  1623  of  the  "  principal  actors  in  all 
these  plays."  He  retired  from  the  stage  before  1625,  and  died 
on  the  zoth  of  February  1633.  Field  was  part  author  with 
Massinger  in  the  Fatal  Dowry  (printed  1632),  and  he  prefixed 
commendatory  verses  to  Fletcher's  Faithful  Shepherdess. 

His  two  plays  were  reprinted  in  J.  P.  Collier's  Five  Old  Plays  (1833), 
in  Hazlitt's  edition  of  Dodsley's  Old  Plays,  and  in  Nero  and  other 
Plays  (Mermaid  series,  1888),  with  an  introduction  by  Mr  A.  W. 
Verity. 

FIELD,  STEPHEN  JOHNSON  (1816-1899),  American  jurist, 
was  born  at  Haddam,  Connecticut,  on  the  4th  of  November 
1816.  He  was  the  brother  of  David  Dudley  Field,  Cyrus  W. 


FIELD,  W.  V.— FIELD 


Field  and  Henry  M.  Field.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  accom- 
panied his  sister  Emilia  and  her  husband  the  Rev.  Josiah  Brewer 
(the  parents  of  the  distinguished  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
David  J.  Brewer)  to  Smyrna,  Turkey,  for  the  purpose  of  studying 
Oriental  languages,  but  after  three  years  he  returned  to  the 
United  States,  and  in  1837  graduated  at  Williams  College  at  the 
head  of  his  class.  He  then  studied  law  in  his  elder  brother's 
office,  and  in  1841  he  was  admitted  to  the  New  York  bar.  He 
was  associated  in  practice  there  with  his  brother  until  1848, 
and  early  in  1849  removed  to  California,  settling  soon  afterward 
at  Marysville,  of  which  place,  in  1850,  he  became  the  first  alcalde 
or  mayor.  In  the  same  year  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  first 
state  legislature  of  California,  in  which  he  drew  up  and  secured 
the  enactment  of  two  bodies  of  law  known  as  the  Civil  and 
Criminal  Practices  Acts,  based  on  the  similar  codes  prepared 
by  his  brother  David  Dudley  for  New  York.  In  the  former 
act  he  embodied  a  provision  regulating  and  giving  authority 
to  the  peculiar  customs,  usages,  and  regulations  voluntarily 
adopted  by  the  miners  in  various  districts  of  the  state  for  the 
adjudication  of  disputed  mining  claims.  This,  as  Judge  Field 
truly  says,  "  was  the  foundation  of  the  jurisprudence  respecting 
mines  in  the  country,"  having  greatly  influenced  legislation  upon 
this  subject  in  other  states  and  in  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States.  He  was  elected,  in  1857,  a  justice  of  the  California 
Supreme  Court,  of  which  he  became  chief  justice  in  1859,  on  the 
resignation  of  Judge  David  S.  Terry  to  fight  the  duel  with  the 
United  States  senator  David  C.  Broderick  which  ended  fatally 
for  the  latter.  Field  held  this  position  until  1863,  when  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Lincoln  a  justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court.  In  this  capacity  he  was  conspicuous  for  fearless 
independence  of  thought  and  action  in  his  opinion  in  the  test 
oath  case,  and  in  his  dissenting  opinions  in  the  legal  tender, 
conscription  and  "  slaughter  house  "  cases,  which  displayed  un- 
usual legal  learning,  and  gave  powerful  expression  to  his  strict 
constructionist  theory  of  the  implied  powers  of  the  Federal 
constitution.  Originally  a  Democrat,  and  always  a  believer 
in  states'  rights,  his  strong  Union  sentiments  caused  him  never- 
theless to  accept  Lincoln's  doctrine  of  coercion,  and  that,  together 
with  his  anti-slavery  sympathies,  led  him  to  act  with  the  Re- 
publican party  during  the  period  of  the  Civil  War.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  commission  which  revised  the  California  code 
in  1873  and  of  the  Electoral  Commission  in  1877,  voting  in  favour 
of  Tilden.  In  1880  he  received  sixty-five  votes  on  the  first 
ballot  for  the  presidential  nomination  at  the  Democratic  National 
Convention  at  Cincinnati.  In  August  1889,  as  a  result  of  a  ruling 
in  the  course  of  the  Sharon-Hill  litigation,  a  notorious  conspiracy 
case,  he  was  assaulted  in  a  California  railway  station  by  Judge 
David  S.  Terry,  who  in  turn  was  shot  and  killed  by  a  United 
States  deputy  marshall  appointed  to  defend  Justice  Field  against 
the  carrying  out  of  Terry's  often-expressed  threats.  He  retired 
from  the  Supreme  Court  on  the  ist  of  December  1897  after  a 
service  of  thirty-four  years  and  six  months,  the  longest  in  the 
court's  history,  and  died  in  Washington  on  the  gth  of  April  1899. 
His  Personal  Reminiscences  of  Early  Days  in  California,  originally 
privately  printed  in  1878,  was  republished  in  1893  with  George  C. 
Gorham's  Story  of  the  Attempted  Assassination  of  Justice  Field. 

FIELD,  WILLIAM  VENTRIS  FIELD,  BARON  (1813-1907), 
English  judge,  second  son  of  Thomas  Flint  Field,  of  Fielden, 
Bedfordshire,  was  born  on  the  aist  of  August  1813.  He  was 
educated  at  King's  school,  Bruton,  Somersetshire,  and  entered 
the  legal  profession  as  a  solicitor.  In  1843,  however,  he  ceased 
to  practise  as  such,  and  entered  at  the  Inner  Temple,  being  called 
to  the  bar  in  1850,  after  having  practised  for  some  time  as  a 
special  pleader.  He  joined  the  Western  circuit,  but  soon  ex- 
changed it  for  the  Midland.  He  obtained  a  large  business  as  a 
junior,  and  became  a  queen's  counsel  and  bencher  of  his  inn  in 
1864.  As  a  Q.C.  he  had  a  very  extensive  common  law  practice, 
and  had  for  some  time  been  the  leader  of  the  Midland  circuit, 
when  in  February  1875,  on  the  retirement  of  Mr  Justice  Keating, 
he  was  raised  to  the  bench  as  a  justice  of  the  queen's  bench. 
Mr  Justice  Field  was  an  excellent  puisne  judge  of  the  type  that 
attracts  but  little  public  attention.  He  was  a  first-rate  lawyer, 


*    323 

had  a  good  knowledge  of  commercial  matters,  great  shrewdness 
and  a  quick  intellect,  while  he  was  also  painstaking  and  scrupu- 
lously fair.  When  the  rules  of  the  Supreme  Court  1883  came 
into  force  in  the  autumn  of  that  year,  Mr  Justice  Field  was  so 
well  recognized  an  authority  upon  all  questions  of  practice  that 
the  lord  chancellor  selected  him  to  sit  continuously  at  Judges' 
Chambers,  in  order  that  a  consistent  practice  under  the  new 
rules  might  as  far  as  possible  be  established.  This  he  did  for 
nearly  a  year,  and  his  name  will  always,  to  a  large  extent,  be 
associated  with  the  settling  of  the  details  of  the  new  procedure, 
which  finally  did  away  with  the  former  elaborate  system  of 
"  special  pleading."  In  1890  he  retired  from  the  bench  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Field  of  Bakeham,  becoming  at 
the  same  time  a  member  of  the  privy  council.  In  the  House  of 
Lords  he  at  first  took  part,  not  infrequently,  in  the  hearing  of 
appeals,  and  notably  delivered  a  carefully-reasoned  judgment 
in  the  case  of  the  Bank  of  England  \.  Vagliano  Brothers  (sth  of 
March  1891),  in  which,  with  Lord  B  ram  well,  he  differed  from  the 
majority  of  his  brother  peers.  Before  long,  however,  deafness 
and  advancing  years  rendered  his  attendances  less  frequent. 
Lord  Field  died  at  Bognor  on  the  23rd  of  January  1907,  and  as 
he  left  no  issue  the  peerage  became  extinct. 

FIELD  (a  word  common  to  many  West  German  languages,  cf. 
Ger.  Feld,  Dutch  veld,  possibly  cognate  with  O.E,.folde,  the  earth, 
and  ultimately  with  root  of  the  Gr.  irXaros,  broad),  open  country 
as  opposed  to  woodland  or  to  the  town,  and  particularly  land  for 
cultivation  divided  up  into  separate  portions  by  hedges,  banks, 
stone  walls,  &c. ;  also  used  in  combination  with  words  denoting 
the  crop  grown  on  such  a  portion  of  land,  such  as  corn-field, 
turnip-field,  &c.  The  word  is  similarly  applied  to  a  region  with 
particular  reference  to  its  products,  as  oil-field,  gold-field,  &c. 
For  the  "  open  "  or  "  common  field  "  system  of  agriculture  in 
village  communities  see  COMMONS.  Generally  with  a  reference  to 
their  "  wild  "  as  opposed  to  their  "  domestic  "  nature  "  field  "  is 
applied  to  many  animals,  such  as  the  "  field-mouse."  There  are 
many  applications  of  the  word ;  thus  from  the  use  of  the  term  for 
the  place  where  a  battle  is  fought,  and  widely  of  the  whole 
theatre  of  war,  come  such  phrases  as  to  "  take  the  field  "  for  the 
opening  of  a  campaign,  "  in  the  field  "  of  troops  that  are  engaged 
in  the  operations  of  a  campaign.  It  is  frequently  used  figura- 
tively in  this  sense,  of  the  subject  matter  of  a  controversy,  and 
also  appears  in  military  usage,  in  field-fortification,  field-day  and 
the  like.  A  "  field-officer"  is  one  who  ranks  above  a  captain  and 
below  a  general  (see  OFFICERS);  a  field  marshal  is  the  highest 
rank  of  general  officer  in  the  British  and  many  European  armies 
(see  MARSHAL).  "  Field"  is  used  in  many  games,  partly  with  the 
idea  of  an  enclosed  space,  partly  with  the  idea  of  the  ground  of 
military  operations,  for  the  ground  in  which  such  games  as 
cricket,  football,  baseball  and  the  like  are  played.  Hence  it  is 
applied  to  those  players  in  cricket  and  baseball  who  are  not  "  in," 
and  "  to  field  "  is  to  perform  the  functions  of  such  a  player — to 
stop  or  catch  the  ball  played  by  the  "  in  "  side.  "  The  field  "  is 
used  in  hunting,  &c.,  for  those  taking  part  in  the  sport,  and  in 
racing  for  all  the  horses  entered  for  a  race,  and,  in  such  ex- 
pressions as  "  to  back  the  field,"  is  confined  to  all  the  horses  with 
the  exception  of  the  "  favourite."  A  common  application  of  the 
word  is  to  a  surface,  more  or  less  wide,  as  of  the  sky  or  sea,  or  of 
such  physical  phenomena  as  ice  or  snow,  and  particularly  of  the 
ground,  of  a  special  "  tincture,"  on  which  armorial  bearings  are 
displayed  (see  HERALDRY);  it  is  thus  used  also  of  the  "  ground  " 
of  a  flag,  thus  the  white  ensign  of  the  British  navy  has  a  redSt 
George's  cross  on  a  white  "  field."  In  scientific  usage  the  word  is 
also  used  of  the  sphere  of  observation  or  of  operations,  and  has 
come  to  be  almost  equivalent  to  a  department  of  knowledge.  In 
physics,  a  particular  application  is  that  to  the  area  which  is 
influenced  by  some  agent,  as  in  the  magnetic  or  electric  field. 
The  field  of  observation  or  view  is  the  area  within  which  objects 
can  be  seen  through  any  optical  instrument  at  any  one  position. 
A  "  field-glass  "  is  the  name  given  to  a  binocular  glass  used  in  the 
field  (see  BINOCULAR  INSTRUMENT)  ;  the  older  form  of  field-glass 
was  a  small  achromatic  telescope  with  joints.  This  terms  is  also 
applied,  in  an  astronomical  telescope  or  compound  microscope,  to 


324 


FIELDFARE— FIELDING 


that  one  of  the  two  lenses  of  the  "  eye-piece  "  which  is  next  to  the 
object-glass;  the  other  is  called  the  "  eye-glass." 

FIELDFARE  (O.E.  /ea/o-/or  =  fallow-farer),  a  large  species  of 
thrush,  the  Turdus  pilaris  of  Linnaeus — well  known  as  a  regular 
and  common  autumnal  visitor  throughout  the  British  Islands  and 
a  great  part  of  Europe,  besides  western  Asia,  and  even  reaching 
northern  Africa.  It  is  the  Veldjakker  and  \eld-lyste.r  of  the  Dutch, 
the  Wachholderdrossel  and  Kramtsvogel  of  Germans,  the  Litorne  of 
the  French,  and  the  Cesena  of  Italians.  This  bird  is  of  all 
thrushes  the  most  gregarious  in  habit,  not  only  migrating  in  large 
bands  and  keeping  in  flocks  during  the  winter,  but  even  commonly 
breeding  in  society — 200  nests  or  more  having  been  seen  within  a 
very  small  space.  The  birch-forests  of  Norway,  Sweden  and 
Russia  are  its  chief  resorts  in  summer,  but  it  is  known  also  to 
breed  sparingly  in  some  districts  of  Germany.  Though  its  nest 
has  been  many  times  reported  to  have  been  found  in  Scotland, 
there  is  perhaps  no  record  of  such  an  incident  that  is  not  open  to 
doubt;  and  unquestionably  the  missel-thrush  (T.  viscivorus)  has 
been  often  mistaken  for  the  fieldfare  by  indifferent  observers. 
The  head,  neck,  upper  part  of  the  back  and  the  rump  are  grey; 
the  wings,  wing-coverts  and  middle  of  the  back  are  rich  hazel- 
brown;  the  throat  is  ochraceous;  and  the  breast  reddish-brown — 
both  being  streaked  or  spotted  with  black,  while  the  belly  and 
lower  wing-coverts  are  white,  and  the  legs  and  toes  very  dark- 
brown.  The  nest  and  eggs  resemble  those  of  the  blackbird 
(T.  merula),  but  the  former  is  usually  built  high  up  in  a  tree. 
The  fieldfare's  call-note  is  harsh  and  loud,  sounding  like  t'chat- 
t'chat:  its  song  is  low,  twittering  and  poor.  It  usually  arrives  in 
Britain  about  the  middle  or  end  of  October,  but  sometimes  earlier, 
and  often  remains  till  the  middle  of  May  before  departing  for  its 
northern  breeding-places.  In  hard  weather  it  throngs  to  the 
berry-bearing  bushes  which  then  afford  it  sustenance,  but  in  open 
winters  the  flocks  spread  over  the  fields  in  search  of  animal  food — 
worms,  slugs  and  the  larvae  of  insects.  In  very  severe  seasons  it. 
will  altogether  leave  the  country,  and  then  return  for  a  shorter 
or  longer  time  as  spring  approaches.  From  William  of  Palerne 
(translated  from  the  French  c.  1350)  to  the  writers  of  ourownday 
the  fieldfare  has  occasionally  been  noticed  by  British  poets  with 
varying  propriety.  Thus  Chaucer's  association  of  its  name  with 
frost  is  as  happy  as  true,  while  Scott  was  more  than  unlucky  in  his 
well-known  reference  to  its  "  lowly  nest  "  in  the  Highlands. 

Structurally  very  like  the  fieldfare,  but  differing  greatly  in 
many  other  respects,  is  the  bird  known  in  North  America  as  the 
"  robin  " — its  ruddy  breast  and  familiar  habits  reminding  the 
early  British  settlers  in  the  New  World  of  the  household  favourite 
of  their  former  homes.  This  bird,  the  Turdus  migratorius  of 
Linnaeus,  has  a  wide  geographical  range,  extending  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  from  Greenland  to  Guatemala,  and, 
except  at  its  extreme  limits,  is  almost  everywhere  a  very  abundant 
species.  As  its  scientific  name  imports,  it  is  essentially  a  migrant, 
and  gathers  in  flocks  to  pass  the  winter  in  the  south,  though  a  few 
remain  in  New  England  throughout  the  year.  Yet  its  social 
instincts  point  rather  in  the  direction  of  man  than  of  its  own  kind, 
and  it  is  not  known  to  breed  in  companies,  while  it  affects  the 
homesteads,  villages  and  even  the  parks  and  gardens  of  the  large 
cities,  where  its  fine  song,  its  attractive  plumage,  and  its  great 
services  as  a  destroyer  of  noxious  insects,  combine  to  make  it 
justly  popular.  (A.  N.) 

FIELDING,  ANTHONY  VANDYKE  COPLEY  (1787-1855), 
commonly  called  Copley  Fielding,  English  landscape  painter  (son 
of  a  portrait  painter),  became  at  an  early  age  a  pupil  of  John 
Varley.  He  took  to  water-colour  painting,  and  to  this  he  con- 
fined himself  almost  exclusively.  In  1810  he  became  an  associate 
exhibitor  in  the  Water-colour  Society,  in  1813  a  full  member,  and 
in  1831  president  of  that  body.  He  also  engaged  largely  in 
teaching  the  art,  and  made  ample  profits.  His  death  took  place  at 
Worthing  in  March  1855.  Copley  Fielding  was  a  painter  of  much 
elegance,  taste  and  accomplishment,  and  has  always  been  highly 
popular  with  purchasers,  without  reaching  very  high  in  originality 
of  purpose  or  of  style:  he  painted  in  vast  number  all  sorts  of 
views  (occasionally  in  oil-colour)  including  marine  subjects  in 
large  proportion.  Specimens  of  his  work  are  to  be  seen  in  the 


water-colour  gallery  of  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  of  dates 
ranging  from  1829  to  1850.  Among  the  engraved  specimens  of 
his  art  is  the  Annual  of  British  Landscape  Scenery,  published 
in  1839.  (W.  M.  R.) 

FIELDING,  HENRY  (1707-1754),  English  novelist  and  play- 
wright, was  born  at  Sharpham  Park,  near  Glastonbury,  Somerset, 
on  the  22nd  of  April  1707.  His  father  was  Lieutenant  Edmund 
Fielding,  third  son  of  John  Fielding,  who  was  canon  of  Salisbury 
and  fifth  son  of  the  earl  of  Desmond.  The  earl  of  Desmond 
belonged  to  the  younger  branch  of  the  Denbigh  family,  who, 
until  lately,  were  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the  Habsburgs. 
To  this  claim,  now  discredited  by  the  researches  of  Mr  J.  Horace 
Round  (Studies  in  Peerage,  1901,  pp.  216-249),  is  to  be  attributed 
the  famous  passage  in  Gibbon's  Autobiography  which  predicts  for 
Tom  Jones — "  that  exquisite  picture  of  human  manners  " — 
a  diuturnity  exceeding  that  of  the  house  of  Austria.  Henry 
Fielding's  mother  was  Sarah  Gould,  daughter  of  Sir  Henry 
Gould,  a  judge  of  the  king's  bench.  It  is  probable  that  the 
marriage  was  not  approved  by  her  father,  since,  though  she 
remained  at  Sharpham  Park  for  some  time  after  that  event, 
his  will  provided  that  her  husband  should  have  nothing  to  do 
with  a  legacy  of  £3000  left  her  in  1710.  About  this  date  the 
Fieldings  moved  to  East  Stour  in  Dorset.  Two  girls,  Catherine 
and  Ursula,  had  apparently  been  born  at  Sharpham  Park; 
and  three  more,  together  with  a  son,  Edmund,  followed  at  East 
Stour.  Sarah,  the  third  of  the  daughters,  born  November 
1710,  and  afterwards  the  author  of  David  Simple  and  other 
works,  survived  her  brother. 

Fielding's  education  up  to  his  mother's  death,  which  took 
place  in  April  1718  at  East  Stour,  seems  to  have  been  entrusted 
to  a  neighbouring  clergyman,  Mr  Oliver  of  Motcombe,  in  whom 
tradition  traces  the  uncouth  lineaments  of  "  Parson  Trulliber  " 
in  Joseph  Andrews.  But  he  must  have  contrived,  nevertheless, 
to  prepare  his  pupil  for  Eton,  tc  which  place  Fielding  went  about 
this  date,  probably  as  an  oppidan.  Little  is  known  of  his  school- 
days. There  is  no  record  of  his  name  in  the  college  lists;  but, 
if  we  may  believe  his  first  biographer,  Arthur  Murphy,  by  no 
means  an  unimpeachable  authority,  he  left  "  uncommonly 
versed  in  the  Greek  authors,  and  an  early  master  of  the  Latin 
classics," — a  statement  which  should  perhaps  be  qualified  by 
his  own  words  to  Sir  Robert  Walpole  in  1730: — 

"  Tuscan  and  French  are  in  my  head ; 
Latin  I  write,  and  Greek — I  read." 

But  he  certainly  made  friends  among  his  class-fellows — some  of 
whom  continued  friends  for  life.  Winnington  and  Hanbury- 
Williams  were  among  these.  The  chief,  however,  and  the  most 
faithful,  was  George,  afterwards  Sir  George,  and  later  Baron 
Lyttelton  of  Frankley. 

When  Fielding  left  Eton  is  unknown.  But  in  November  1725 
we  hear  of  him  definitely  in  what  seems  like  a  characteristic 
escapade.  He  was  staying  at  Lyme  (in  company  with  a  trusty 
retainer,  ready  to  "  beat,  maim  or  kill  "  in  his  young  master's 
behalf),  and  apparently  bent  on  carrying  off,  if  necessary  by  force, 
a  local  heiress,  Miss  Sarah  Andrew,  whose  fluttered  guardians 
promptly  hurried  her  away,  and  married  her  to  some  one  else 
(Athenaeum,  2nd  June  1883).  Her  baffled  admirer  consoled 
himself  by  translating  part  of  Juvenal's  sixth  satire  into  verse 
as  "  all  the  Revenge  taken  by  an  injured  Lover."  After  this 
he  must  have  lived  the  usual  life  of  a  young  man  about  town, 
and  probably  at  this  date  improved  the  acquaintance  of  his 
second  cousin,  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu,  to  whom  he  in- 
scribed his  first  comedy,  Love  in  Several  Masques,  produced  at 
Drury  Lane  in  February  1728.  The  moment  was  not  particularly 
favourable,  since  it  succeeded  Gibber's  Provok'd  Husband,  and 
was  contemporary  with  Gay's  popular  Beggar's  Opera.  Almost 
immediately  afterwards  (March  i6th)  Fielding  entered  himself 
as  "  Stud.  Lit."  at  Leiden  University.  He  was  still  there  in 
February  1729.  But  he  had  apparently  left  before  the  annual 
registration  of  February  1730,  when  his  name  is  absent  from 
the  books  (Macmillan's  Magazine,  April  1907);  and  in  January 
1730  he  brought  out  a  second  comedy  at  the  newly-opened 
theatre  in  Goodman's  Fields.  Like  its  predecessor,  the  Templt 


FIELDING 


325 


Beau  was  an  essay  in  the  vein  of  Congreve  and  Wycherley, 
though,  in  a  measure,  an  advance  on  Love  in  Several  Masques. 

With  the  Temple  Beau  Fielding's  dramatic  career  definitely 
begins.  His  father  had  married  again;  and  his  Leiden  career 
had  been  interrupted  for  lack  of  funds.  Nominally,  he  was 
entitled  to  an  allowance  of  £200  a  year;  but  this  (he  was 
accustomed  to  say)  "any  body  might  pay  that  would."  Young, 
handsome,  ardent  and  fond  of  pleasure,  he  began  that  career  as 
a  hand-to-mouth  playwright  around  which  so  much  legend  has 
gathered — and  gathers.  Having — in  his  own  words — no  choice 
but  to  be  a  hackney  coachman  or  a  hackney  writer,  he  chose  the 
pen;  and  his  inclinations,  as  well  as  his  opportunities,  led  him 
to  the  stage.  From  1 730  to  1 736  he  rapidly  brought  out  a  large 
number  of  pieces,  most  of  which  had  merit  enough  to  secure  their 
being  acted,  but  not  sufficient  to  earn  a  lasting  reputation  for 
their  author.  His  chief  successes,  from  a  critical  point  of  view, 
the  Author's  Farce  (1730)  and  Tom  Thumb  (1730,  1731),  were 
burlesques;  and  he  also  was  fortunate  in  two  translations  from 
Moliere,  the  Mock  Doctor  (1732)  and  the  Miser  (1733).  Of  the 
rest  (with  one  or  two  exceptions,  to  be  mentioned  presently) 
the  names  need  only  be  recorded.  They  are  The  Coffee-House 
Politician,  a  comedy  (1730);  The  Letter  Writers,  a  farce  (1731); 
The  Grub-Street  Opera,  a  burlesque  (1731);  The  Lottery,  a  farce 
(1732);  The  Modern  Husband,  a  comedy  (1732);  The  Covent 
Garden  Tragedy,  a  burlesque  (1732);  The  Old  Debauchees,  a 
comedy  (1732);  Deborah;  or,  a  Wife  for  you  all,  an  after-piece 
(!733);  The  Intriguing  Chambermaid  (from  Regnard),  a  two-act 
comedy  (1734);  and  Don  Quixote  in  England,  a  comedy,  which 
had  been  partly  sketched  at  Leiden. 

Don  Quixote  was  produced  in  1734,  and  the  list  of  plays  may 
be  here  interrupted  by  an  event  of  which  the  date  has  only 
recently  been  ascertained,  namely,  Fielding's  first  marriage. 
This  took  place  on  the  28th  of  November  1734  at  St  Mary, 
Charlcombe,  near  Bath  (Macmillan's  Magazine,  April  1907), 
the  lady  being  a  Salisbury  beauty,  Miss  Charlotte  Cradock,  of 
whom  he  had  been  an  admirer,  if  not  a  suitor,  as  far  back  as 
1730.  This  is  a  fact  which  should  be  taken  into  consideration 
in  estimating  the  exact  Bohemianism  of  his  London  life,  for 
there  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  devotedly  attached  to  her.  After 
a  fresh  farce  entitled  An  Old  Man  taught  Wisdom,  and  the  com- 
parative failure  of  a  new  comedy,  The  Universal  Gallant,  both 
produced  early  in  1735,  he  seems  for  a  time  to  have  retired  with 
his  bride,  who  came  into  £1500,  to  his  old  home  at  East  Stour. 
Around  this  rural  seclusion  fiction  has  freely  accreted.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  for  three  years  on  the  footing  of  a  typical 
18th-century  country  gentleman;  to  have  kept  a  pack  of 
hounds;  to  have  put  his  servants  into  impossible  yellow  liveries; 
and  generally,  by  profuse  hospitality  and  reckless  expenditure, 
to  have  made  rapid  duck  and  drake  of  Mrs  Fielding's  modest 
legacy.  Something  of  this  is  demonstrably  false;  much, 
grossly  exaggerated.  In  any  case,  he  was  in  London  as  late  as 
February  1735  (the  date  of  the  "Preface"  to  The  Universal 
Gallant) ;  and  early  in  March  1 736  he  was  back  again  managing 
the  Haymarket  theatre  with  a  so-called  "Great  Mogul's  Company 
of  English  Comedians." 

Upon  this  new  enterprise  fortune,  at  the  outset,  seemed  to 
smile.  The  first  piece  (produced  on  the  sth  of  March)  was 
Pasquin,  a  Dramatick  Satire  on  the  Times  (a  piece  akin  in  its 
plan  to  Buckingham's  Rehearsal),  which- contained,  in  addition 
to  much  admirable  burlesque,  a  good  deal  of  very  direct  criticism 
of  the  shameless  political  corruption  of  the  Walpole  era.  Its 
success  was  unmistakable;  and  when,  after  bringing  out  the 
remarkable  Fatal  Curiosity  of  George  Lillo,  its  author  followed 
up  Pasquin  by  the  Historical  Register  for  the  Year  1736,  of  which 
the  effrontery  was  even  more  daring  than  that  of  its  predecessor, 
the  ministry  began  to  bethink  themselves  that  matters  were 
going  too  far.  How  they  actually  effected  their  object  is  obscure: 
but  grounds  were  speedily  concocted  for  the  Licensing  Act  of 
I737>  which  restricted  the  number  of  theatres,  rendered  the  lord 
chamberlain's  licence  an  indispensable  preliminary  to  stage 
representation,  and — in  a  word — effectually  put  an  end  to 
Fielding's  career  as  a  dramatist. 


Whether,  had  that  career  been  prolonged  to  its  maturity, 
the  result  would  have  enriched  the  theatrical  repertoire  with 
a  new  species  of  burlesque,  or  reinforced  it  with  fresh  variations 
on  the  "  wit-traps  "  of  Wycherley  and  Congreve,  is  one  of  those 
inquiries  that  are  more  academic  than  profitable.  What  may 
be  affirmed  is,  that  Fielding's  plays,  as  we  have  them,  exhibit 
abundant  invention  and  ingenuity;  that  they  are  full  of  humour 
and  high  spirits;  that,  though  they  may  have  been  hastily 
written,  they  were  by  no  means  thoughtlessly  constructed; 
and  that,  in  composing  them,  their  author  attentively  considered 
either  managerial  hints,  or  the  conditions  of  the  market.  Against 
this,  one  must  set  the  fact  that  they  are  often  immodest;  and 
that,  whatever  their  intrinsic  merit,  they  have  failed  to  rival 
in  permanent  popularity  the  work  of  inferior  men.  Fielding's 
own  conclusion  was,  "  that  he  left  off  writing  for  the  stage,  when 
he  ought  to  have  begun  " — which  can  only  mean  that  he  himself 
regarded  his  plays  as  the  outcome  of  imitation  rather  than 
experience.  They  probably  taught  him  how  to  construct  Tom 
Jones;  but  whether  he  could  ever  have  written  a  comedy  at 
the  level  of  that  novel,  can  only  be  established  by  a  comparison 
which  it  is  impossible  to  make,  namely,  a  comparison  with 
Tom  Jones  of  a  comedy  written  at  the  same  age,  and  in  similar 
circumstances. 

Tumble-Down  Dick;  or,  Phaeton  in  the  Suds,  Eurydice  and 
Eurydice  hissed  are  the  names  of  three  occasional  pieces  which 
belong  to  the  last  months  of  Fielding's  career  as  a  Haymarket 
manager.  By  this  date  he  was  thirty,  with  a  wife  and  daughter. 
As  a  means  of  support,  he  reverted  to  the  profession  of  his 
maternal  grandfather;  and,  in  November  1737,  he  entered  the 
Middle  Temple,  being  described  in  the  books  of  the  society  as 
"  of  East  Stour  in  Dorset."  That  he  set  himself  strenuously  to 
master  his  new  profession,  is  admitted;  though  it  is  unlikely 
that  he  had  entirely  discarded  the  irregular  habits  which  had 
grown  upon  him  in  his  irresponsible  bachelorhood.  He  also 
did  a  good  deal  of  literary  work,  the  best  known  of  which  is 
contained  in  the  Champion,  a  "  News- Journal  "  of  the  Spectator 
type  undertaken  with  James  Ralph,  whose  poem  of  "  Night  " 
is  made  notorious  in  the  Dunciad.  That  the  Champion  was  not 
without  merit  is  undoubted;  but  the  essay- type  was  for  the 
moment  out-worn,  and  neither  Fielding  nor  his  coadjutor  could 
lend  it  fresh  vitality.  Fielding  contributed  papers  from  the 
ijth  of  November  1739  to  the  igth  of  June  1740.  On  the  aoth 
of  June  he  was  called  to  the  bar,  and  occupied  chambers  in 
Pump  Court.  It  is  further  related  that,  in  the  diligent  pursuit 
of  his  calling,  he  travelled  the  Western  Circuit,  and  attended 
the  Wiltshire  sessions. 

Although,  with  the  Champion,  he  professed,  for  the  time, 
to  have  relinquished  periodical  literature,  he  still  wrote  at 
intervals,  a  fact  which,  taken  in  connexion  with  his  past  reputa- 
tion as  an  effective  satirist,  probably  led  to  his  being  "  unjustly 
censured  "  for  much  that  he  never  produced.  But  he  certainly 
wrote  a  poem  "  Of  True  Greatness  "  (1741);  a  first  book  of  a 
burlesque  epic,  the  Vernoniad,  prompted  by  Vernon's  expedition 
of  1739;  a  vision  called  the  Opposition,  and,  perhaps,  a  political 
sermon  entitled  the  Crisis  (1741).  Another  piece,  now  known 
to  have  been  attributed  to  him  by  his  contemporaries  (Hist. 
MSS.  Comm.,  Rept.  12,  App.  Pt.  ix.,  p.  204),  is  the  pamphlet 
entitled  An  Apology  for  the  Life  of  Mrs  Shamela  Andrews,  a  clever 
but  coarse  attack  upon  the  prurient  side  of  Richardson's  Pamela, 
which  had  been  issued  in  1740,  and  was  at  the  height  of  its 
popularity.  Shamela  followed  early  in  1741.  Richardson,  who 
was  well  acquainted  with  Fielding's  four  sisters,  at  that  date 
his  neighbours  at  Hammersmith,  confidently  attributed  it  to 
Fielding  (Corr.  1804,  iv.  286,  and  unpublished  letter  at  South 
Kensington) ;  and  there  are  suggestive  points  of  internal  evidence 
(such  as  the  transformation  of  Pamela's  "MrB."  into  "Mr 
Booby  ")  which  tend  to  connect  it  with  the  future  Joseph 
Andrews.  Fielding,  however,  never  acknowledged  it,  or  referred 
to  it;  and  a  great  deal  has  been  laid  to  his  charge  that  he  never 
deserved  ("  Preface  "  to  Miscellanies,  1743). 

But  whatever  may  be  decided  in  regard  to  the  authorship  of 
Shamela,  it  is  quite  possible  that  it  prompted  the  more  memorable 


326 


FIELDING 


Joseph  Andrews,  which  made  its  appearance  in  February  1742, 
and  concerning  which  there  is  no  question.  Professing,  on  his 
title-page,  to  imitate  Cervantes,  Fielding  set  out  to  cover  Pamela 
with  Homeric  ridicule  by  transferring  the  heroine's  embarrass- 
ments to  a  hero,  supposed  to  be  her  brother.  Allied  to  this 
purpose  was  a  collateral  attack  upon  the  slipshod  Apology  of  the 
playwright  Colley  Gibber,  with  whom,  for  obscure  reasons, 
Fielding  had  long  been  at  war.  But  the  avowed  object  of  the 
book  fell  speedily  into  the  background  as  its  author  warmed 
to  his  theme.  His  secondary  speedily  became  his  primary 
characters,  and  Lady  Booby  and  Joseph  Andrews  do  not  interest 
us  now  as  much  as  Mrs  Slipslop  and  Parson  Adams — the  latter 
an  invention  that  ranges  in  literature  with  Sterne's  "  Uncle 
Toby  "  and  Goldsmith's  "  Vicar."  Yet  more  than  these  and 
others  equally  admirable  in  their  round  veracity,  is  the  writer's 
penetrating  outlook  upon  the  frailties  and  failures  of  human 
nature.  By  the  time  he  had  reached  his  second  volume,  he  had 
convinced  himself  that  he  had  inaugurated  a  new  fashion  of 
fiction;  and  in  a  "  Preface  "  of  exceptional  ability,  he  announced 
his  discovery.  Postulating  that  the  epic  might  be  "  comic  " 
or  "  tragic,"  prose  or  verse,  he  claimed  to  have  achieved  what 
he  termed  the  "  Comic  Epos  in  Prose,"  of  which  the  action  was 
"  ludicrous "  rather  than  "  sublime,"  and  the  personages 
selected  from  society  at  large,  rather  than  the  restricted  ranks 
of  conventional  high  life.  His  plan,  it  will  be  observed,  was 
happily  adapted  to  his  gifts  of  humour,  satire,  and  above  all, 
irony.  That  it  was  matured  when  it  began  may  perhaps  be 
doubted,  but  it  was  certainly  matured  when  it  ended.  Indeed, 
except  for  the  plot,  which,  in  his  picaresque  first  idea,  had  not 
preceded  the  conception,  Joseph  Andrews  has  all  the  character- 
istics of  Tom  Jones,  even  (in  part)  to  the  initial  chapters. 

Joseph  Andrews  had  considerable  success,  and  the  exact  sum 
paid  for  it  by  Andrew  Millar,  the  publisher,  according  to  the 
assignment  now  at  South  Kensington,  was  £183 :  us.,  one  of 
the  witnesses  being  the  author's  friend,  William  Young,  popularly 
supposed  to  be  the  original  of  Parson  Adams.  It  was  with  Young 
that  Fielding  undertook  what,  with  exception  of  "  a  very  small 
share  "  in  the  farce  of  Miss  Lucy  in  Town  (1742), "constituted 
his  next  work,  a  translation  of  the  Plutus  of  Aristophanes, 
which  never  seems  to  have  justified  any  similar  experiments. 
Another  of  his  minor  works  was  a  Vindication  of  the  Dowager 
D^^chess  of  Marlborough  (1742),  then  much  before  the  public 
by  reason  of  the  Account  of  her  Life  which  she  had  recently  put 
forth.  Later  in  the  same  year,  Garrick  applied  to  Fielding 
for  a  play;  and  a  very  early  effort,  The  Wedding  Day,  was 
hastily  patched  together,  and  produced  at  Drury  Lane  in 
February  1743  with  no  great  success.  It  was,  however,  included 
in  Fielding's  next  important  publication,  the  three  volumes  of 
Miscellanies  issued  by  subscription  in  the  succeeding  April. 
These  also  comprised  some  early  poems,  some  essays,  a  Lucianic 
fragment  entitled  a  Journey  from  this  World  to  the  Next,  and, 
last  but  not  least,  occupying  the  entire  final  volume,  the  remark- 
able performance  entitled  the  History  of  the  Life  of  the  late  Mr 
Jonathan  Wild  the  Great. 

It  is  probable  that,  in  its  composition,  Jonathan  Wild  preceded 
Joseph  Andrews.  At  all  events  it  seems  unlikely  that  Fielding 
would  have  followed  up  a  success  in  a  new  line  by  an  effort  so 
entirely  different  in  character.  Taking  for  his  ostensible  hero 
a  well-known  thief-taker,  who  had  been  hanged  in  1725,  he 
proceeds  to  illustrate,  by  a  mock-heroic  account  of  his  progress 
to  Tyburn,  the  general  proposition  that  greatness  without 
goodness  is  no  better  than  badness.  He  will  not  go  so  far  as  to 
say  that  all  "  Human  Nature  is  Newgate  with  the  Mask  on  "; 
but  he  evidently  regards  the  description  as  fairly  applicable  to 
a  good  many  so-called  great  people.  Irony  (and  especially  Irony 
neat)  is  not  a  popular  form  of  rhetoric;  and  the  remorseless 
pertinacity  with  which  Fielding  pursues  his  demonstration  is 
to  many  readers  discomforting  and  even  distasteful.  Yet — in 
spite  of  Scott — Jonathan  Wild  has  its  softer  pages;  and  as  a 
purely  intellectual  conception  it  is  not  surpassed  by  any  of  the 
author's  works. 

His  actual  biography,  both  before  and  after  Jonathan  Wild, 


is  obscure.  There  are  evidences  that  he  laboured  diligently 
at  his  profession;  there  are  also  evidences  of  sickness  and 
embarrassment.  He  had  become  early  a_martyr  to  the  malady 
of  his  century — gout,  and  the  uncertainties  of  a  precarious 
livelihood  told  grievously  upon  his  beautiful  wife,  who  eventually 
died  of  fever  in  his  arms,  leaving  him  for  the  time  so  stunned  and 
bewildered  by  grief  that  his  friends  feared  for  his  reason.  For 
some  years  his  published  productions  were  unimportant.  He 
wrote  "  Prefaces  "  to  the  David  Simple  of  his  sister  Sarah  in 
1744  and  1747;  and,  in  1745-1746  and  1747-1748,  produced 
two  newspapers  in  the  ministerial  interest,  the  True  Patriot 
and  the  Jacobite's  Journal,  both  of  which  are  connected  with, 
or  derive  from,  the  rebellion  of  1745,  and  were  doubtless,  when 
they  ceased,  the  pretext  of  a  pension  from  the  public  service 
money  (Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  Lisbon,  "  Introduction  ").  In 
November  1747  he  married  his  wife's  maid,  Mary  Daniel,  at  St 
Bene't's,  Paul's  Wharf;  and  in  December  1748,  by  the  interest 
of  his  old  school-fellow,  Lyttelton,  he  was  made  a  principal  justice 
of  peace  for  Middlesex  and  Westminster,  an  office  which  put  him 
in  possession  of  a  house  in  Bow  Street,  and  £300  per  annum 
"  of  the  dirtiest  money  upon  earth  "  (ibid.),  which  might  have 
been  more  had  he  condescended  to  become  what  was  known  as 
a  "  trading  "  magistrate. 

For  some  time  previously,  while  at  Bath,  Salisbury,  Twicken- 
ham and  other  temporary  resting-places,  he  had  intermittently 
occupied  himself  in  composing  his  second  great  novel,  Tom  Jones; 
or,  the  History  of  a  Foundling.  For  this,  in  June  1 748,  Millar  had 
paid  him  £600,  to  which  he  added  £100  more  in  1749.  In  the 
February  of  the  latter  year  it  was  published  with  a  dedication 
to  Lyttelton,  to  whose  pecuniary  assistance  to  the  author  during 
the  composition  it  plainly  bears  witness.  In  Tom  Jones  Fielding 
systematically  developed  the  "  new  Province  of  Writing  "  he 
had  discovered  incidentally  in  Joseph  Andrews.  He  paid  closer 
attention  to  the  construction  and  evolution  of  the  plot;  he 
elaborated  the  initial  essays  to  each  book  which  he  had  partly 
employed  before,  and  he  compressed  into  his  work  the  flower 
and  fruit  of  his  forty  years'  experience  of  life.  He  has,  indeed, 
no  character  quite  up  to  the  level  of  Parson  Adams,  but  his 
Westerns  and  Partridges,  his  Allworthys  and  Blifils,  have  the 
inestimable  gift  of  life.  He  makes  no  pretence  to  produce ' '  models 
of  perfection,"  but  pictures  of  ordinary  humanity,  rather  perhaps 
in  the  rough  than  the  polished,  the  natural  than  the  artificial, 
and  his  desire  is  to  do  this  with  absolute  truthfulness,  neither 
extenuating  nor  disguising  defects  and  shortcomings.  One  of  the 
results  of  this  unvarnished  naturalism  has  been  to  attract  more 
attention  to  certain  of  the  episodes  than  their  inventor  ever 
intended.  But  that,  in  the  manners  of  his  time,  he  had  chapter 
and  verse  for  everything  he  drew  is  clear.  His  sincere  purpose 
was,  he  declared,  "to  recommend  goodness  and  innocence," 
and  his  obvious  aversions  are  vanity  and  hypocrisy.  The 
methods  of  fiction  have  grown  more  sophisticated  since  his  day, 
and  other  forms  of  literary  egotism  have  taken  the  place  of  his 
once  famous  introductory  essays,  but  the  traces  of  Tom  Jones 
are  still  discernible  in  most  of  our  manlier  modern  fiction. 

Meanwhile,  its  author  was  showing  considerable  activity 
in  his  magisterial  duties.  In  May  1749,  he  was  chosen  chairman 
of  quarter  sessions  for  Westminster;  and  in  June  he  delivered 
himself  of  a  weighty  charge  to  the  grand  jury.  Besides  other 
pamphlets,  he  produced  a  careful  and  still  readable  Enquiry  into 
the  Causes  of  the  late  Increase  of  Robbers,  &c.  (1751),  which,  among 
its  other  merits,  was  not  ineffectual  in  helping  on  the  famous 
Gin  Act  of  that  year,  a  practical  result  to  which  the  "  Gin  Lane  " 
and  "  Beer  Street  "  of  his  friend  Hogarth  also  materially  con- 
tributed. These  duties  and  preoccupations  left  their  mark  on 
his  next  fiction,  Amelia  (1752),  which  is  rather  more  taken  up 
with  social  problems  and  popular  grievances  than  its  forerunners. 
But  the  leading  personage,  in  whom,  as  in  the  Sophia  Western 
of  Tom  Jones,  he  reproduced  the  traits  of  his  first  wife,  is  certainly, 
as  even  Johnson  admitted,  "  the  most  pleasing  heroine  of  all  the 
romances."  The  minor  characters,  too,  especially  Dr  Harrison 
and  Colonel  Bath,  are  equal  to  any  in  Tom  Jones.  The  book 
nevertheless  shows  signs,  not  of  failure  but  of  fatigue,  perhaps 


FIELDING— FIELDS 


327 


of  haste — a  circumstance  heightened  by  the  absence  of  those 
"  prolegomenous  "  chapters  over  which  the  author  had  lingerec 
so  lovingly  in  Tom  Jones.  In  1749  he  had  been  dangerously 
ill,  and  his  health  was  visibly  breaking.  The  £1000  which  Millar 
is  said  to  have  given  for  Amelia  must  have  been  painfully 
earned. 

Early  in  1752  his  still  indomitable  energy  prompted  him  to 
start  a  third  newspaper,  the  Covent  Garden  Journal,  which  ran 
from  the  4th  of  January  to  the  25th  of  November.  It  is  an  in- 
teresting contemporary  record,  and  throws  a  good  deal  of  light 
on  his  Bow  Street  duties.  But  it  has  no  great  literary  value, 
and  it  unhappily  involved  him.  in  harassing  and  undignified 
hostilities  with  Smollett,  Dr  John  Hill,  Bonnell  Thornton 
and  other  of  his  contemporaries.  To  the  following  year  belong 
pamphlets  on  "  Provision  for  the  Poor,"  and  the  case  of  the 
strange  impostor,  Elizabeth  Canning  (I734-I773).1  By  1754 
his  own  case,  as  regards  health,  had  grown  desperate;  and  he 
made  matters  worse  by  a  gallant  and  successful  attempt  to  break 
up  a  "  gang  of  villains  and  cut-throats,"  who  had  become  the 
terror  of  the  metropolis.  This  accomplished,  he  resigned  his 
office  to  his  half-brother  John  (afterwards  Sir  John)  Fielding. 
But  it  was  now  too  late.  After  fruitless  essay  both  of  Dr  Ward's 
specifics  and  the  tar-water  of  Bishop  Berkeley,  it  was  felt  that 
his  sole  chance  of  prolonging  life  lay  in  removal  to  a  warmer 
climate.  On  the  26th  of  June  1754  he  accordingly  left  his  little 
country  house  at  Fordhook,  Baling,  for  Lisbon,  in  the  "  Queen 
of  Portugal,"  Richard  Veal  master.  The  ship,  as  often,  was 
tediously  wind-bound,  and  the  protracted  discomforts  of  the  sick 
man  and  his  family  are  narrated  at  length  in  the  touching 
posthumous  tract  entitled  the  Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  Lisbon, 
which,  with  a  fragment  of  a  comment  on  Bolingbroke's  then 
recently  issued  essays,  was  published  in  February  1755  "  for  the 
Benefit  of  his  [Fielding's]  Wife  and  Children."  Reaching  Lisbon 
at  last  in  August  1754,  he  died  there  two  months  later  (8th 
October),  and  was  buried  in  the  English  cemetery,  where  a 
monument  was  erected  to  him  in  1830.  Luget  Britannia  gremio 
non  darifovere  nalum  is  inscribed  upon  it. 

His  estate,  including  the  proceeds  of  a  fair  library,  only 
covered  his  just  debts  (Athenaeum,  25th  Nov.  1905);  but  his 
family,  a  daughter  by  his  first,  and  two  boys  and  a  girl  by  his 
second  wife,  were  faithfully  cared  for  by  his  brother  John,  and 
by  his  friend  Ralph  Allen  of  Prior  Park,  Bath,  the  Squire 
Allworthy  of  Tom  Jones.  His  will  (undated)  was  printed  in 
the  Athenaeum  for  the  ist  of  February  1890.  There  is  but  one 
absolutely  authentic  portrait  of  him,  a  familiar  outline  by 
Hogarth,  executed  from  memory  for  Andrew  Millar's  edition 
of  his  works  in  1762.  It  is  the  likeness  of  a  man  broken  by  ill- 
health,  and  affords  but  faint  indication  of  the  handsome  Harry 
Fielding  who  in  his  salad  days  "  warmed  both  hands  before 
the  fire  of  life."  Far  too  much  stress,  it  is  now  held,  has  been  laid 
by  his  first  biographers  upon  the  unworshipful  side  of  his  early 
career.  That  he  was  always  profuse,  sanguine  and  more  or  less 
improvident,  is  as  probable  as  that  he  was  always  manly,  generous 
and  sympathetic.  But  it  is  also  plain  that,  in  his  later  years, 
he  did  much,  as  father,  friend  and  magistrate,  to  redeem  the 
errors,  real  and  imputed,  of  a  too-youthful  youth. 

As  a  playwright  and  essayist  his  rank  is  not  elevated.  But 
as  a  novelist  his  place  is  a  definite  one.  If  the  Spectator  is  to  be 
credited  with  foreshadowing  the  characters  of  the  novel,  Defoe 
with  its  earliest  form,  and  Richardson  with  its  first  experiments 
in  sentimental  analysis,  it  is  to  Henry  Fielding  that  we  owe  its 
first  accurate  delineation  of  contemporary  manners.  Neglecting, 
or  practically  neglecting,  sentiment  as  unmanly,  and  relying 
chiefly  on  humour  and  ridicule,  he  set  out  to  draw  life  pre- 
cisely as  he  saw  it  around  him,  without  blanks  or  dashes. 
He  was,  it  may  be,  for  a  judicial  moralist,  too  indulgent  to  some 
of  its  frailties,  but  he  was  merciless  to  its  meaner  vices.  For 
reasons  which  have  been  already  given,  his  high-water  mark  is 
Tom  Jones,  which  has  remained,  and  remains,  a  model  in  its  way 
of  the  kind  he  inaugurated. 

1  For  a  full  account  of  this  celebrated  case  see  Howell,  State  Trials 
(1813),  vol.  xix. 


An  essay  on  Fielding's  life  and  writings  is  prefixed  to  Arthur 
Murphy's  edition  of  his  works  (1762),  and  short  biographies  have 
been  written  by  Walter  Scott  and  William  Roscoe.  There  are  also 
lives  by  Watson  (1807),  Lawrence  (1855),  Austin  Dobson  ("  Men  of 
Letters,"  1883,  1907)  and  G.  M.  Godden  (1909).  An  annotated 
edition  of  the  Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  Lisbon  is  included  in  the 
"  World's  Classics  "  (1907).  (A.  D.) 

FIELDING,  WILLIAM  STEVENS  (1848-  ),  Canadian 
journalist  and  statesman,  was  born  in  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  on 
the  24th  of  November  1848.  From  1864  to  1884  he  was  one  of 
the  staff  of  the  Morning  Chronicle,  the  chief  Liberal  paper  of  the 
province,  and  worked  at  all  departments  of  newspaper  life.  In 
1882  he  entered  the  local  legislature  as  Liberal  member  for 
Halifax,  and  from  1884  to  1896  was  premier  and  provincial 
secretary  of  the  province,  but  in  the  latter  year  became  finance 
minister  in  the  Dominion  administration  of  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier, 
and  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Commons  for  Shelburne  and 
Queen's  county.  He  opposed  Confederation  in  1864-1867,  and  as 
late  as  1886  won  a  provincial  election  on  the  promise  to  advocate 
the  repeal  of  the  British  North  America  Act.  His  administration 
as  finance  minister  of  Canada  was  important,  since  in  1897  he 
introduced  a  new  tariff,  granting  to  the  manufactures  of  Great 
Britain  a  preference,  subsequently  increased;  and  later  he 
imposed  a  special  surtax  on  German  imports  owing  to  unfriendly 
tariff  legislation  by  that  country.  In  1 902  he  represented  Canada 
at  the  Colonial  Conference  in  London. 

FIELD-MOUSE,  the  popular  designation  of  such  mouse-like 
British  rodents  as  are  not  true  or  "  house  "  mice.  The  term 
thus  includes  the  long-tailed  field  mouse,  Mus  (Micromys) 
sylvaticus,  easily  recognized  by  its  white  belly,  and  sometimes 
called  the  wood-mouse;  and  the  two  species  of  short-tailed 
field-mice,  Microtus  agrestis  and  Evolomys  glareolus,  together  with 
their  representatives  in  Skomer  island  and  the  Orkneys  (see 
MOUSE  and  VOLE). 

FIELD  OF  THE  CLOTH  OF  GOLD,  the  French  Camp  du  drop 
d'or,  the  name  given  to  the  place  between  Guines  and  Ardres 
where  Henry  VIII.  of  England  met  Francis  I.  of  France  in  June 
1520.  The  most  elaborate  arrangements  were  made  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  two  monarchs  and  their  large  retinues; 
and  on  Henry's  part  especially  no  efforts  were  spared  to  make  a 
great  impression  in  Europe  by  this  meeting.  Before  the  castle  of 
Guines  a  temporary  palace,  covering  an  area  of  nearly  12,000 
sq.  yds.,  was  erected  for  the  reception  of  the  English  king.  It 
was  decorated  in  the  most  sumptuous  fashion,  and  like  the 
chapel,  served  by  thirty-five  priests,  was  furnished  with  a 
profusion  of  golden  ornaments.  Some  idea  of  the  size  of  Henry's 
following  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in  one  month 
2200  sheep  and  other  viands  in  a  similar  proportion  were  con- 
sumed. In  the  fields  beyond  the  castle,  tents  to  the  number  of 
2800  were  erected  for  less  distinguished  visitors,  and  the  whole 
scene  was  one  of  the  greatest  animation.  Ladies  gorgeously 
clad,  and  knights,  showing  by  their  dress  and  bearing  their 
anxiety  to  revive  the  glories  and  the  follies  of  the  age  of  chivalry, 
:ostled  mountebanks,  mendicants  and  vendors  of  all  kinds. 

Journeying  from  Calais  Henry  reached  his  headquarters  at 
uines  on  the  4th  of  June  1 520,  and  Francis  took  up  his  residence 
at  Ardres.  After  Cardinal  Wolsey,  with  a  splendid  train  had 
visited  the  French  king,  the  two  monarchs  met  at  the  Val  Dore,  a 
spot  midway  between  the  two  places,  on  the  7th.  The  following 
days  were  take  up  with  tournaments,  in  which  both  kings  took 
>art,  banquets  and  other  entertainments,  and  after  Wolsey  had 
said  mass  the  two  sovereigns  separated  on  the  24th.  This 
meeting  made  a  great  impression  on  contemporaries,  but  its 
political  results  were  very  small. 

The  Ordonnance  for  the  Field  is  printed  by  J.  S.  Brewer  in  the 
Calendar  of  State  Papers,  Henry  VIII.  vol.  iii.  (1867).  See  also 
'.  S.  Brewer,  Reign  oj  Henry  VIII.  (1884). 

FIELDS,  JAMES  THOMAS  (1817-1881),  American  publisher 
and  author,  was  born  in  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  on  the 
jist  of  December  1817.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  went  to 
Joston  as  clerk  in  a  bookseller's  shop.  Afterwards  he  wrote 
or  the  newspapers,  and  in  1835  he  read  an  anniversary  poem 
entitled  "  Commerce  "  before  the  Boston  Mercantile  Library 


328 


FIENNES— FIESCHI 


Association.  In  1839  he  became  junior  partner  in  the  publishing 
and  bookselling  firm  known  after  1846  as  Ticknor  &  Fields,  and 
after  1868  as  Fields,  Osgood  &  Company.  He  was  the  publisher 
of  the  foremost  contemporary  American  writers,  with  whom  he 
was  on  terms  of  close  personal  friendship,  and  he  was  the 
American  publisher  of  some  of  the  best-known  British  writers  of 
his  time,  some  of  whom,  also,  he  knew  intimately.  The  first 
collected  edition  of  De  Quincey's  works  (20  vols.,  1850-1855)  was 
published  by  his  firm.  As  a  publisher  he  was  characterized  by  a 
somewhat  rare  combination  of  keen  business  acumen  and  sound, 
discriminating  literary  taste,  and  as  a  man  he  was  known  for  his 
geniality  and  charm  of  manner.  In  1862-1870,  as  the  successor 
of  James  Russell  Lowell,  he  edited  the  Atlantic  M onthly.  In  1871 
Fields  retired  from  business  and  from  his  editorial  duties,  and 
devoted  himself  to  lecturing  and  to  writing.  Of  his  books  the 
chief  were  the  collection  of  sketches  and  essays  entitled  Under- 
brush (1877)  and  the  chapters  of  reminiscence  composing  Yester- 
days with  Authors  (1871),  in  which  he  recorded  his  personal 
friendship  with  Wordsworth,  Thackeray,  Dickens,  Hawthorne 
and  others.  He  died  in  Boston  on  the  24th  of  April  1881. 

His  second  wife,  ANNIE  ADAMS  FIELDS  (b.  1834),  whom 
he  married  in  1854,  published  Under  the  Olive  (1880),  a  book 
of  verses;  James  T.  Fields:  Biographical  Notes  and  Personal 
Sketches  (1882);  Authors  and  Friends  (1896);  The  Life  and 
Letters  of  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  (1897);  and  Orpheus  (1900). 

FIENNES,  NATHANIEL  (c.  1608-1669)  English  politician, 
second  son  of  William,  ist  Viscount  Saye  and  Sele,  by  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  John  Temple,  of  Stow  in  Buckinghamshire,  was  born 
in  1607  or  1608,  and  educated  at  Winchester  and  at  New  College, 
Oxford,  where  as  founder's  kin  he  was  admitted  a  perpetual 
fellow  in  1624.  After  about  five  years'  residence  he  left  without 
taking  a  degree,  travelled  abroad,  and  in  Switzerland  imbibed  or 
strengthened  those  religious  principles  and  that  hostility  to  the 
Laudian  church  which  were  to  be  the  chief  motive  in  his  future 
political  career.  He  returned  to  Scotland  in  1639,  and  established 
communications  with  the  Covenanters  and  the  Opposition  in 
England,  and  as  member  for  Banbury  in  both  the  Short  and 
Long  Parliaments  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  attacks  upon 
the  church.  He  spoke  against  the  illegal  canons  on  the  I4th  of 
December  1640,  and  again  on  the  9th  of  February  1641  on  the 
occasion  of  the  reception  of  the  London  petition,  when  he  argued 
against  episcopacy  as  constituting  a  political  as  well  as  a  religious 
danger  and  made  a  great  impression  on  the  House,  his  name  being 
added  immediately  to  the  committee  appointed  to  deal  with 
church  affairs.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  examination  into 
the  army  plot;  was  one  of  the  commissioners  appointed  to  attend 
the  king  to  Scotland  in  August  1641;  and  was  nominated  one 
of  the  committee  of  safety  in  July  1642.  On  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities  he  took  arms  immediately,  commanded  a  troop  of 
horse  in  the  army  of  Lord  Essex,  was  present  at  the  relief  of 
Coventry  in  August,  and  at  the  fight  at  Worcester  in  September, 
where  he  distinguished  himself,  and  subsequently  at  Edgehill. 
Of  the  last  two  engagements  he  wrote  accounts,  viz.  True  and 
Exact  Relation  of  both  the  Battles  fought  by  .  .  .  Earl  of  Essex  .  .  . 
against  the  Bloudy  Cavaliers  (1642).  (See  also  A  Narrative  of  the 
Late  Battle  before  Worcester  taken  by  a  Gentleman  of  the  Inns  of 
Court  from  the  mouth  of  Master  Fiennes,  1642).  In  February 
1643  Fiennes  was  sent  down  to  Bristol,  arrested  Colonel  Essex 
the  governor,  executed  the  two  leaders  of  a  plot  to  deliver  up  the 
city,  and  received  a  commission  himself  as  governor  on  the  ist 
of  May  1643.  On  the  arrival,  however,  of  Prince  Rupert  on  the 
22nd  of  July  the  place  was  in  no  condition  to  resist  an  attack, 
and  Fiennes  capitulated.  He  addressed  to  Essex  a  letter  in  his 
defence  (Thomason  Tracts  E.  65,  26),  drew  up  for  the  parliament 
a  Relation  concerning  the  Surrender  .  .  .  (1643),  answered  by 
Prynne  and  Clement  Walker  accusing  him  of  treachery  and 
cowardice,  to  which  he  opposed  Col.  Fiennes  his  Reply.  .  .  .  He 
was  tried  at  St  Albans  by  the  council  of  war  in  December,  was 
pronounced  guilty  of  having  surrendered  the  place  improperly, 
and  sentenced  to  death.  He  was,  however,  pardoned,  and  the 
.facility  with  which  Bristol  subsequently  capitulated  to  the 
parliamentary  army  induced  Cromwell  and  the  generals  to 


exonerate  him  completely.  His  military  career  nevertheless  now 
came  to  an  end.  He  went  abroad,  and  it  was  some  time  before  he 
reappeared  on  the  political  scene.  In  September  1647  he  was 
included  in  the  army  committee,  and  on  the  3rd  of  January  1648 
he  became  a  member  of  the  committee  of  safety.  He  was, 
however,  in  favour  of  accepting  the  king's  terms  at  Newport  in 
December,  and  in  consequence  was  excluded  from  the  House  by 
Pride's  Purge.  An  opponent  of  church  government  in  any  form, 
he  was  no  friend  to  the  rigid  and  tyrannical  Presbyterianism  of 
the  day,  and  inclined  to  Independency  and  Cromwell's  party. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  state  in  1654,  and  in  June 
1655  he  received  the  strange  appointment  of  commissioner  for 
the  custody  of  the  great  seal,  for  which  he  was  certainly  in  no  way 
fitted.  In  the  parliament  of  1654  he  was  returned  for  Oxford 
county  and  in  that  of  1656  for  the  university,  while  in  January 
1658  he  was  included  in  Cromwell's  House  of  Lords.  He  was  in 
favour  of  the  Protector's  assumption  of  the  royal  title  and  urged 
his  acceptance  of  it  on  several  occasions.  His  public  career 
closes  with  addresses  delivered  in  his  capacity  as  chief  com- 
missioner of  the  great  seal  at  the  beginning  of  the  sessions  of 
January  20,  1658,  and  January  2,  1659,  in  which  the  religious 
basis  of  Cromwell's  government  is  especially  insisted  upon,  the 
feature  to  which  Fiennes  throughout  his  career  had  attached  most 
value.  On  the  reassembling  of  the  Long  Parliament  he  was 
superseded;  he  took  no  part  in  the  Restoration,  and  died  at 
Newton  Tony  in  Wiltshire  on  the  i6th  of  December  1669. 
Fiennes  married  (i),  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  the  famous  parlia- 
mentarian Sir  John  Eliot,  by  whom  he  had  one  son,  afterwards 
3rd  Viscount  Saye  and  Sele;  and  (2),  Frances,  daughter  of 
Richard  Whitehead  of  Tuderley,  Hants,  by  whom  he  had  three 
daughters. 

Besides  the  pamphlets  already  cited,  a  number  of  his  speeches  and 
other  political  tracts  were  published  (see  Gen.  Catalogue,  British 
Museum).  Wood  also  attributed  to  him  Monarchy  Asserted  (1660) 
(reprinted  in  Somers  Tracts,  vi.  346  [ed.  Scott]),  but  there  seems  no 
reason  to  ascribe  to  him  with  Clement  Walker  the  authorship  of 
Sprigge's  Anglia  Rediviva. 

FIERI  FACIAS,  usually  abbreviated  fi.  fa.  (Lat.  "  that  you 
cause  to  be  made  "),  in  English  law,  a  writ  of  execution  after 
judgment  obtained  in  action  of  debt  or  damages.  It  is  addressed 
to  the  sheriff,  and  commands  him  to  make  good  the  amount 
out  of  the  goods  of  the  person  against  whom  judgment  has  been 
obtained.  (See  EXECUTION.) 

FIESCHI,  GIUSEPPE  MARCO  (1790-1836),  the  chief  con- 
spirator in  the  attempt  on  the  life  of  Louis  Philippe  in  July 
1835,  was  a  native  of  Murato  in  Corsica.  He  served  under 
Murat,  then  returned  to  Corsica,  where  he  was  condemned  to 
ten  years'  imprisonment  and  perpetual  surveillance  by  the 
police  for  theft  and  forgery.  After  a  period  of  vagabondage  he 
eluded  the  police  and  obtained  a  small  post  in  Paris  by  means 
of  forged  papers;  but  losing  it  on  account  of  his  suspicious 
manner  of  living,  he  resolved  to  revenge  himself  on  society. 
He  took  lodgings  on  the  Boulevard  du  Temple,  and  there,  with 
two  members  of  the  Societe  des  Droits  de  I'Homme,  Morey  and 
Pepin  by  name,  contrived  an  "  infernal  machine,"  constructed 
with  twenty  gun  barrels,  to  be  fired  simultaneously.  On  the 
z8th  of  July  1835,  as  Louis  Philippe  was  passing  along  the  boule- 
vard to  the  Bastille,  accompanied  by  his  three  sons  and  a 
numerous  staff,  the  machine  was  exploded.  A  ball  grazed  the 
king's  forehead,  and  his  horse,  with  those  of  the  duke  of  Nemours 
and  of  the  prince  de  Joinville,  was  shot;  Marshal  Mortier  was 
killed,  with  seventeen  other  persons,  and  many  were  wounded; 
but  the  king  and  the  princes  escaped  as  if  by  miracle.  Fieschi 
himself  was  severely  wounded  by  the  discharge  of  his  machine, 
and  vainly  attempted  to  escape.  The  attentions  of  the  most 
skilful  physicians  were  lavished  upon  him,  and  his  Me  was  saved 
for  the  stroke  of  justice.  On  his  trial  he  named  his  accomplices, 
displayed  much  bravado,  and  expected  or  pretended  to  expect 
ultimate  pardon.  He  was  condemned  to  death,  and  was  guillo- 
tined on  the  igth  of  February  1836.  Morey  and  Pepin  were 
also  executed,  another  accomplice  was  sentenced  to  twenty 
years'  imprisonment  and  one  was  acquitted.  No  less  than 
seven  plots  against  the  life  of  Louis  Philippe  had  been  discovered 


FIESCO— FIFE 


329 


by  the  police  within  the  year,  and  apologists  were  not  wanting 
in  the  revolutionary  press  for  the  crime  of  Fieschi. 

See  Proces  de  Fieschi,  precede  de  sa  vie  privee,  so.  condamnation  par 
la  Cour  des  Pairs  el  celles  de  ses  complices  (2  vols.,  1836);  also  P. 
Thureau-Dangin,  Hist,  de  la  monarchic  de  Juillet  (vol.  iv.  ch.  xii., 
1884). 

FIESCO  (DE'  FIESCHI),  GIOVANNI  LUIGI  (c.  1523-1547), 
count  of  Lavagna,  was  descended  from  one  of  the  greatest 
families  of  Liguria,  first  mentioned  in  the  loth  century.  Among 
his  ancestors  were  two  popes  (Innocent  IV.  and  Adrian  V.), 
many  cardinals,  a  king  of  Sicily,  three  saints,  and  many  generals 
and  admirals  of  Genoa  and  other  states.  Sinibaldo  Fiesco, 
his  father,  had  been  a  close  friend  of  Andrea  Doria  (q.v.),  and 
had  rendered  many  important  services  to  the  Genoese  republic. 
On  his  death  in  1532  Giovanni  found  himself  at  the  age  of 
nine  the  head  of  the  family  and  possessor  of  immense  estates. 
He  grew  up  to  be  a  handsome,  intelligent  youth,  of  attrac- 
tive manners  and  very  ambitious.  He  married  Eleonora  Cibo, 
marchioness  of  Massa,  in  1540,  a  woman  of  great  beauty  and 
family  influence.  There  were  many  reasons  which  inspired  his 
hatred  of  the  Doria  family;  the  almost  absolute  power  wielded 
by  the  aged  admiral  and  the  insolence  of  his  nephew  and  heir 
Giannettino  Doria,  the  commander  of  the  galleys,  were  galling 
to  him  as  to  many  other  Genoese,  and  it  is  said  that  Giannettino 
was  the  lover  of  Fiesco's  wife.  Moreover,  the  Fiesco  belonged 
to  the  French  or  popular  party,  while  the  Doria  were  aristocrats 
and  Imperialists.  When  Fiesco  determined  to  conspire  against 
Doria  he  found  friends  in  many  quarters.  Pope  Paul  III.  was 
the  first  to  encourage  him,  while  both  Pier  Luigi  Farnese,  duke 
of  Parma,  and  Francis  I.  of  France  gave  him  much  assistance 
and  promised  him  many  advantages.  Among  his  associates  in 
Genoa  were  his  brothers  Girolamo  and  Ottobuono,  Verrina 
and  R.  Sacco.  A  number  of  armed  men  from  the  Fiesco  fiefs 
were  secretly  brought  to  Genoa,  and  it  was  agreed  that  on  the 
2nd  of  January  1547,  during  the  interregnum  before  the  election 
of  the  new  doge,  the  galleys  in  the  port  should  be  seized  and  the 
city  gates  held.  The  first  part  of  the  programme  was  easily 
carried  out,  and  Giannettino  Doria,  aroused  by  the  tumult, 
rushed  down  to  the  port  and  was  killed,  but  Andrea  escaped 
from  the  city  in  time.  The  conspirators  attempted  to  gain 
possession  of  the  government,  but  unfortunately  for  them 
Giovanni  Luigi,  while  crossing  a  plank  from  the  quay  to  one 
of  the  galleys,  fell  into  the  water  and  was  drowned.  The  news 
spread  consternation  among  the  Fiesco  faction,  and  Girolamo 
Fiesco  found  few  adherents.  They  came  to  terms  with  the 
senate  and  were  granted  a  general  amnesty.  Doria  returned 
to  Genoa  on  the  4th  thirsting  for  revenge,  and  in  spite  of  the 
amnesty  he  confiscated  the  Fiesco  estates;  Girolamo  had  shut 
himself  up,  with  Verrina  and  Sacco  and  other  conspirators,  in 
his  castle  of  Montobbia,  which  the  Genoese  at  Doria's  instiga- 
tion besieged  and  captured.  Girolamo  Fiesco  and  Verrina  were 
tried,  tortured  and  executed;  all  their  estates  were  seized,  some 
of  which,  including  Torriglia,  Doria  obtained  for  himself.  Otto- 
buono Fiesco,  who  had  escaped,  was  captured  eight  years  after- 
wards and  put  to  death  by  Doria's  orders. 

There  are  many  accounts  of  the  conspiracy,  of  which  perhaps  the 
best  is  contained  in  E.  Petit's  Andre  Doria  (Paris,  1887),  chs.  xi. 
and  xii.,  where  all  the  chief  authorities  are  quoted ;  see  also  Calligari, 
La  Congiura  del  Fiesco  (Venice,  1892),  and  Gavazzo,  Nuovi  documenti 
sulla  congiura  delconte  Fiesco  (Genoa,  1886) ;  E.  Bernabo-Brea,  in  his 
Sulla  congiura  di  Giovanni  Luigi  Fieschi,  publishes  many  important 
documents,  while  L.  Capelloni's  Congiura  del  Fiesco,  edited  by 
Olivier!,  and  A.  Mascardi's  Congiura  del  conte  Giovanni  Luigi  de' 
Fieschi  (Antwerp,  1629)  may  be  commended  among  the  earlier 
works.  The  Fiesco  conspiracy  has  been  the  subject  of  many  poems 
and  dramas,  of  which  the  most  famous  is  that  by  Schiller.  See  also 
under  DORIA,  ANDREA;  FARNESE.  (L.  V.*) 

FIESOLE  (anc.  Faesulae,  q.v.},  a  town  and  episcopal  see 
of  Tuscany,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Florence,  from  which  it 
is  3  m.  N.E.  by  electric  tramway.  Pop.  (1901)  town  4951, 
commune  16,816.  It  is  situated  on  a  hill  970  ft.  above  sea-level, 
and  commands  a  fine  view.  The  cathedral  of  S.  Romolo  is  an 
early  and  simple  example  of  the  Tuscan  Romanesque  style; 
it  is  a  small  basilica,  begun  in  1028  and  restored  in  1256.  The 
picturesque  battlemented  campanile  ,  belongs  to  1213.  The 


tomb  of  the  bishop  Leonardo  Salutati  (d.  1466).  with  a  beautiful 
portrait  bust  by  the  sculptor  Mino  da  Fiesole  (1431-1484), 
is  fine.  The  13th-century  Palazzo  Pretorio  contains  a  small 
museum  of  antiquities.  The  Franciscan  monastery  commands 
a  fine  view.  The  church  of  S.  Maria  Primerana  has  some  works 
of  art,  and  S.  Alessandro,  which  is  attributed  to  the  6th  century, 
contains  fifteen  ancient  columns  of  cipollino.  The  inhabitants 
of  Fiesole  are  largely  engaged  in  straw-plaiting. 

Below  Fiesole,  between  it  and  Florence,  lies  San  Domenico 
di  Fiesole  (485  ft.);  in  the  Dominican  monastery  the  painter, 
Fra  Giovanni  Angelico  da  Fiesole  (1387-1455),  lived  until  he 
went  to  S.  Marco  at  Florence.  Here,  too,  is  the  Badia  di  Fiesole, 
founded  in  1028  and  re-erected  about  1456-1466  by  a  follower 
of  Brunelleschi.  It  is  an  irregular  pile  of  buildings,  in  fine  and 
simple  early  Renaissance  style;  a  small  part  of  the  original 
facade  of  1028  in  black  and  white  marble  is  preserved.  The 
interior  of  the  Church  is  decorated  with  sculptures  by  pupils  of 
Desiderio  da  Settignano.  The  slopes  of  the  hill  on  which  Fiesole 
stands  are  covered  with  fine  villas.  To  the  S.E.  of  Fiesole  lies 
Monte  Ceceri  (1453  ft.),  with  quarries  of  grey  pietra  serena, 
largely  used  in  Florence  for  building.  To  the  E.  of  this  lies  the 
14th-century  castle  of  Vincigliata  restored  and  fitted  up  in  the 
medieval  style. 

FIFE,  an  eastern  county  of  Scotland,  bounded  N.  by  the 
Firth  of  Tay,  E.  by  the  North  Sea,  S.  by  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
and  W.  by  the  shires  of  Perth,  Kinross  and  Clackmannan.  The 
Isle  of  May,  Inchkeith,  Inchcolm,  Inchgarvie  and  the  islet  of 
Oxcar  belong  to  the  shire.  It  has  an  area  of  322,844,  acres  or 
504  sq.  m.  Its  coast-line  measure  108  m.  The  Lomond  Hills 
to  the  S.  and  S.W.  of  Falkland,  of  which  West  Lomond  is  1713  ft. 
high  and  East  Lomond  1471  ft.,  Saline  Hill  (1178  ft.)  to  the  N.W. 
of  Dunfermline,  and  Benarty  (1131  ft.)  on  the  confines  of  Kinross 
are  the  chief  heights.  Of  the  rivers  the  Eden  is  the  longest; 
formed  on  the  borders  of  Kinross-shire  by  the  confluence  of 
Beattie  Burn  and  Carmore  Burn,  it  pursues  a  wandering  course 
for  25  m.  N.E.,  partly  through  the  Howe,  or  Hollow  of  Fife,  and 
empties  into  the  North  Sea.  There  is  good  trout  fishing  in  its 
upper  waters,  but  weirs  prevent  salmon  from  ascending  it. 
The  Leven  drains  the  loch  of  that  name  and  enters  the  Forth 
at  the  town  of  Leven  after  flowing  eastward  for  ism.  There 
are  numerous  factories  at  various  points  on  its  banks.  The 
Ore,  rising  not  far  from  Roscobie  Hills  to  the  north  of  Dunferm- 
line, follows  a  mainly  north-easterly  course  for  15  m.  till  it  joins 
the  Leven  at  Windygates.  The  old  loch  of  Ore  which  was  an 
expansion  of  its  water  was  long  ago  reclaimed.  Motray  Water 
finds  its  source  in  the  parish  of  Kilmany,  a  few  miles  W.  by  N. 
of  Cupar,  makes  a  bold  sweep  towards  the  north-east,  and  then, 
taking  a  southerly  turn,  enters  the  head-waters  of  St  Andrews 
Bay,  after  a  course  of  12  m.  The  principal  lochs  are  Loch 
Fitly,  Loch  Gelly,  Loch  Glow  and  Loch  Lindores;  they  are 
small  but  afford  some  sport  for  trout,  perch  and  pike.  "  Fresh- 
water mussels  "  occur  in  Loch  Fitty.  There  are  no  glens,  and  the 
only  large  valley  is  the  fertile  Stratheden,  which  supplies  part 
of  the  title  of  the  combined  baronies  of  Stratheden  (created 
1836)  and  Campbell  (created  1841). 

Geology. — Between  Damhead  and  Tayport  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  low-lying  Howe  of  Fife  the  higher  ground  is  formed  of  Lower  Old 
Red  Sandstone  volcanic  rocks,  consisting  of  red  and  purple  por- 
phvrites  and  andesites  and  some  coarse  agglomerates,  which,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Auchtermuchty,  are  rounded  and  conglomeratic. 
These  rocks  have  a  gentle  dip  towards  the  S.S.E.  They  are  overlaid 
unconformably  by  the  soft  red  sandstones  of  the  Upper  Old  Red 
series  which  underlie  the  Howe  of  Fife  from  Loch  Leven  to  the 
coast.  The  quarries  in  these  rocks  in  Dura  Den  are  famous  for 
fossil  fishes.  Following  the  Old  Red  rocks  conformably  are  the 
Carboniferous  formations  which  occupy  the  remainder  of  the  county, 
and  are  well  exposed  on  the  coast  and  in  the  numerous  quarries. 
The  Carboniferous  rocks  include,  at  the  base,  the  Calciferous  Sand- 
stone series  of  dark  shales  with  thin  limestones,  sandstones  and  coals. 
They  are  best  developed  around  Fife  Ness,  between  St  Andrews  and 
Elie,  and  again  around  Burntisland  between  Kirkcaldy  and  Inver- 
keithing  Bay.  In  the  Carboniferous  Limestone  series,  which  comes 
next  in  upward  succession,  are  the  valuable  gas-coals  and  ironstones 
worked  in  the  coal-fields  of  Dunfermline,  Saline,  Oakley,  Torryburn, 
Kirkcaldy  and  Markinch.  The  true  Coal  Measures  lie  in  the  district 
around  Dysart  and  Leven,  East  Wemyss  and  Kinglassie,  and  they 


330 


FIFE 


are  separated  from  the  coal-bearing  Carboniferous  Limestone  series 
by  the  sandstones  and  conglomerates  of  the  Millstone  Grit.  Fourteen 
seams  of  coal  are  found  in  the  Dysart  Coal  Measures,  associated 
with  sandstones,  shales  and  clay  ironstones.  Fife  is  remarkably  rich 
in  evidences  of  former  volcanic  activity.  Besides  the  Old  Red 
Sandstone  volcanic  rocks  previously  mentioned,  there  are  many  beds 
of  contemporaneous  basaltic  lavas  and  tuffs  in  the  Carboniferous 
rocks;  Saline  Hill  and  Knock  Hill  were  the  sites  of  vents,  which  at 
that  time  threw  out  ashes ;  these  interbedded  rocks  are  well  exposed 
on  the  shore  between  Burntisland  and  Seafield  Tower.  There  were 
also  many  intrusive  sheets  of  dolerite  and  basalt  forced  into  tne 
lower  Carboniferous  rocks,  and  these  now  play  an  important  part 
in  the  scenery  of  the  county.  They  form  the  summits  of  the  Lomond 
Hills  and  Benarty,  and  they  may  be  followed  from  Cult  Hill  by  the 
Cleish  Hills  to  Blairadam ;  and  again  near  Dunfermline,  Burntisland, 
Torryburn,  Auchtertool  and  St  Andrews.  Later,  in  Permian  times, 
eastern  Fife  was  the  seat  of  further  volcanic  action, and.grcat  numbers 
of  "  necks  "  or  vents  pierce  the  Carboniferous  rocks;  Largo  Law  is  a 
striking  example.  In  one  of  these  necks  on  the  shore  at  Kincraig 
Point  is  a  fine  example  of  columnar  basalt ;  the"  Rock  and  Spindle  " 
near  St  Andrews  is  another.  Last  of  all  in  Tertiary  times,  east  and 
west  rifts  in  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  were  filled  by  basalt  dikes. 
Glacial  deposits,  ridges  of  gravel  and  sand,  boulder  clay,  &c.,  brought 
from  the  N.  W.,  cover  much  of  the  older  rocks,  and  traces  of  old 
raised  beaches  are  found  round  the  coast  and  in  the  Howe  of  Fife. 
In  the  25-ft.  beach  in  the  East  Neuk  of  Fife  is  an  island  sea-cliff  with 
small  caves. 

Climate  and  Agriculture. — Since  the  higher  hills  all  lie  in  the 
west,  most  of  the  county  is  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  east 
winds  from  the  North  Sea,  which  often,  save  in  the  more  sheltered 
areas,  check  the  progress  of  vegetation.  At  an  elevation  of  500  or 
600  ft.  above  the  sea  harvests  are  three  or  four  weeks  later  than 
in  the  valleys  and  low-lying  coast-land.  The  climate,  on  the 
whole,  is  mild,  proximity  to  the  sea  qualifying  the  heat  in  summer 
and  the  cold  in  winter.  The  average  annual  rainfall  is  31  in., 
rather  less  in  the  East  Neuk  district  and  around  St  Andrews, 
somewhat  more  as  the  hills  are  approached,  late  summer  and 
autumn  being  the  wet  season.  The  average  temperature  for 
January  is  38°  F.,  for  July  59-5°,  and  for  the  year  47-6°.  Four- 
fifths  of  the  total  area  is  under  cultivation,  and  though  the 
acreage  under  grain  is  smaller  than  it  was,  the  yield  of  each  crop 
is  still  extraordinarily  good,  oats,  barley,  wheat  being  the  order 
of  acreage.  Of  the  green  crops  most  attention  is  given  to  turnips. 
Potatoes  also  do  well.  The  acreage  under  permanent  pasture 
and  wood  is  very  considerable.  Cattle  are  mainly  kept  for  feed- 
ing purposes,  and  dairy  farming,  though  attracting  more  notice, 
has  never  been  followed  more  than  to  supply  local  markets. 
Sheep-farming,  however,  is  on  the  increase,  and  the  raising  of 
horses,  especially  farm  horses,  is  an  important  pursuit.  They 
are  strong,  active  and  hardy,  with  a  large  admixture,  or  purely, 
of  Clydesdale  blood.  The  ponies,  hunters  and  carriage  horses  so 
bred  are  highly  esteemed.  The  strain  of  pigs  has  been  improved 
by  the  introduction  of  Berkshires.  North  of  the  Eden  the  soil, 
though  generally  thin,  is  fertile,  but  the  sandy  waste  of  Tents 
Moor  is  beyond  redemption.  From  St  Andrews  southwards  all 
along  the  coast  the  land  is  very  productive.  That  adjacent  to 
the  East  Neuk  consists  chiefly  of  clay  and  rich  loam.  From 
Leven  to  Inverkeithing  it  varies  from  a  light  sand  to  a  rich 
clayey  loam.  Excepting  Stratheden  and  Strathleven,  which  are 
mostly  rich,  fertile  loam,  the  interior  is  principally  cold  and  stiff 
clay  or  thin  loam  with  strong  clayey  subsoil.  Part  of  the  Howe  of 
Fife  is  light  and  shingly  and  covered  with  heather.  Some  small 
peat  mosses  still  exist,  and  near  Lochgelly  there  is  a  tract  of 
waste,  partly  moss  and  partly  heath.  The  character  of  the  farm 
management  may  be  judged  by  its  results.  The  best  methods  are 
pursued,  and  houses,  steadings  and  cottages  are  all  in  good  order, 
commodious  and  comfortable.  Rabbits,  hares,  pheasants  and 
partridges  are  common  in  certain  districts;  roe  deer  are  occasion- 
ally seen;  wild  geese,  ducks  and  teal  haunt  the  lochs;  pigeon- 
houses  are  fairly  numerous;  and  grouse  and  blackcock  are 
plentiful  on  the  Lomond  moors.  The  shire  is  well  suited  for 
fox-hunting,  and  there  are  packs  in  both  the  eastern  and  the 
western  division  of  Fife. 

Mining. — Next  to  Lanarkshire,  Fife  is  the  largest  coal- 
producing  county  in  Scotland.  The  coal-field  may  roughly  be 
divided  into  the  Dunfermline  basin  (including  Halbeath,  Loch- 
gelly and  Kelty),  where  the  principal  house  coals  are  found,  and 


the  Wemyss  or  Dysart  basin  (including  Methil  and  the  hinter- 
land), where  gas-coal  of  the  best  quality  is  obtained.  Coal  is  also 
extensively  worked  at  Culross,  Carnock,  Falfield,  Donibristle, 
Ladybank,  Kilconquhar  and  elsewhere.  Beds  of  ironstone, 
limestone,  sandstone  and  shale  lie  in  many  places  contiguous  to 
the  coal.  Blackband  ironstone  is  worked  at  Lochgelly  and 
Oakley,  where  there  are  large  smelting  furnaces.  Oil  shale  is 
worked  at  Burntisland  and  Airdrie  near  Crail.  Among  the 
principal  limestone  quarries  are  those  at  Charlestown,  Burnt- 
island  and  Cults.  Freestone  of  superior  quality  is  quarried  at 
Strathmiglo,  Burntisland  and  Dunfermline.  Whinstone  of 
unusual  hardness  and  durability  is  obtained  in  nearly  every 
district.  Lead  has  been  worked  in  the  Lomond  Hills  and  copper 
and  zinc  have  been  met  with,  though  not  in  paying  quantities. 
It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  in  the  trap  tufa  at  Elie  there  have 
been  found  pyropes  (a  variety  of  dark-red  garnet),  which  are 
regarded  as  the  most  valuable  of  Scottish  precious  stones  and 
are  sold  under  the  name  of  Elie  rubies. 

Other  Industries. — The  staple  manufacture  is  linen,  ranging 
from  the  finest  damasks  to  the  coarsest  ducks  and  sackings.  Its 
chief  seats  are  at  Kirkcaldyand  Dunfermline, but  it  is  carried  on  at 
many  of  the  inland  towns  and  villages,  especially  those  situated 
near  the  Eden  and  Leven,  on  the  banks  of  which  rivers,  as  well  as 
at  Kirkcaldy,  Dunfermline  and  Ceres,  are  found  the  bleaching- 
greens.  Kirkcaldy  is  famous  for  its  oil-cloth  and  linoleum. 
Most  of  the  leading  towns  possess  breweries  and  tanneries,  and 
the  largest  distilleries  are  at  Cameron  Bridge  and  Burntisland. 
Woollen  cloth  is  made  to  a  small  extent  in  several  towns,  and 
fishing-net  at  Kirkcaldy,  Largo  and  West  Wemyss.  Paper  is 
manufactured  at  Guardbridge,  Markinch  and  Leslie;  earthen- 
ware at  Kirkcaldy;  tobacco  at  Dunfermline  and  Kirkcaldy; 
engineering'works  and  iron  foundries  are  found  at  Kirkcaldy  and 
Dunfermline;  and  shipbuilding  is  carried  on  at  Kinghorn, 
Dysart,  Burntisland,  Inverkeithing  and  Tayport.  From  Inver- 
keithing all  the  way  round  the  coast  to  Newburgh  there  are 
harbours  at  different  points.  They  are  mostly  of  moderate 
dimensions,  the  principal  port  being  Kirkcaldy.  The  largest 
salmon  fisheries  are  conducted  at  Newburgh  and  the  chief  seat  of 
the  herring  fishery  is  Anstruther,  but  most  of  the  coast  towns 
take  some  part  in  the  fishing  either  off  the  shore,  or  at  stations 
farther  north,  or  in  the  deep  sea. 

Communications. — The  North  British  railway  possesses  a 
monopoly  in  the  shire.  From  the  Forth  Bridge  the  main  line 
follows  the  coast  as  far  as  Dysart  and  then  turns  northwards  to 
Ladybank,  where  it  diverges  to  the  north-east  for  Cupar  and  the 
Tay  Bridge,  From  Thornton  Junction  a  branch  runs  to  Dun- 
fermline and  another  to  Methil,  and  here  begins  also  the  coast 
line  for  Leven,  Crail  and  St  Andrews  which  touches  the  main  line 
again  at  Leuchars  Junction;  at  Markinch  a  branch  runs  to 
Leslie;  at  Ladybank  there  are  branches  to  Mawcarse  Junction, 
and  to  Newburgh  and  Perth;  and  at  Leuchars  Junction  a  loop 
line  runs  to  Tayport  and  Newport,  joining  the  main  at  Wormit. 
From  the  Forth  Bridge  the  system  also  connects,  via  Dunferm- 
line, with  Alloa  and  Stirling  in  the  W.  and  with  Kinross  and 
Perth  in  the  N.  From  Dunfermline  there  is  a  branch  to  Charles- 
town,  which  on  that  account  is  sometimes  called  the  port  of 
Dunfermline. 

Population  and  Government. — The  population  was  190,365 
in  1891,  and  218,840  in  1901,  when  844  persons  spoke  Gaelic 
and  English  and  3  Gaelic  only.  The  chief  towns  are  the 
Anstruthers  (pop.  in  1.901,  4233),  Buckhaven  (8828),  Burntisland 
(4846),  Cowdenbeath(79o8), Cupar  (4511), Dunfermline(25,2so), 
Dysart  (3562),  Kelty  (3986),  Kirkcaldy  (34,079),  Leslie  (3587), 
Leven  (5577),  Lochgelly  (5472),  Lumphinnans  (2071),  Newport 
(2869),  St  Andrews  (7621),  Tayport  (3325)  and  Wemyss  (2522). 
For  parliamentary  purposes  Fife  is  divided  into  an  eastern 
and  a  western  division,  each  returning  one  member.  It  also 
includes  the  Kirkcaldy  district  of  parliamentary  burghs  (com- 
prising Burntisland,  Dysart,  Kinghorn  and  Kirkcaldy),  and  the 
St  Andrews  district  (the  two  Anstruthers,  Crail,  Cupar,  Kilrenny, 
Pittenweem  and  St  Andrews);  while  Culross,  Dunfermline 
and  Inverkeithing  are  grouped  with  the  Stirling  district.  As 


FIFE— FIFTH  MONARCHY  MEN 


regards  education  the  county  is  under  school-board  jurisdiction, 
and  in  respect  of  higher  education  its  equipment  is  effective. 
St  Andrews  contains  several  excellent  schools;  at  Cupar  there  is 
the  Bell-Baxter  school;  at  Dunfermline  and  Kirkclady  there  are 
high  schools  and  at  Anstruther  there  is  the  Waid  Academy. 

History. — In  remote  times  the  term  Fife  was  applied  to  the 
peninsula  lying  between  the  estuaries  of  the  Tay  and  Forth 
and  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  mainland  by  the  Ochil  Hills. 
Its  earliest  inhabitants  were  Picts  of  the  northern  branch  and 
their  country  was  long  known  as  Pictavia.  Doubtless  it  was 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  territory  was  long  subject  to  the  rule 
of  an  independent  king  that  Fife  itself  came  to  be  called  distinct- 
ively The  Kingdom,  a  name  of  which  the  natives  are  still  proud. 
The  Romans  effected  no  settlement  in  the  province,  though  it  is 
probable  that  they  temporarily  occupied  points  here  and  there. 
In  any  case  the  Romans  left  no  impression  on  the  civilization  of 
the  natives.  With  the  arrival  of  the  missionaries — especially 
St  Serf,  St  Kenneth,  St  Rule,  St  Adrian,  St  Moran  and  St  Fillan — 
and  conversion  of  the  Picts  went  on  apace.  Interesting  memorials 
of  these  devout  missionaries  exist  in  the  numerous  coast  caves 
between  Dysart  and  St  Andrews  and  in  the  crosses  and  sculptured 
stones,  some  doubtless  of  pre-Christian  origin,  to  be  seen  at  various 
places.  The  word  Fife,  according  to  Skene,  seems  to  be  identical 
with  the  Jutland  Fibh  (pronounced  Fife)  meaning  "  forest," 
and  was  probably  first  used  by  the  Frisians  to  describe  the  country 
behind  the  coasts  of  the  Forth  and  Tay,  where  Frisian  tribes  are 
supposed  to  have  settled  at  the  close  of  the  4th  century.  The 
next  immigration  was  Danish,  which  left  lasting  traces  in  many 
place-names  (such  as  the  frequent  use  of  law  for  hill).  An 
ancient  division  of  the  Kingdom  into  Fife  and  Fothrif  survived 
for  a  period  for  ecclesiastical  purposes.  The  line  of  demarcation 
ran  from  Leven  to  the  east  of  Cults,  thence  to  the  west  of  Collessie 
and  thence  to  the  east  of  Auchtermuchty.  To  the  east  of  this 
line  lay  Fife  proper.  In  1426  the  first  shire  of  Kinross  was 
formed,  consisting  of  Kinross  and  Orwell,  and  was  enlarged  to 
its  present  dimensions  by  the  transference  from  Fife  of  the 
parishes  of  Portmoak,  Cleish  and  Tullicbole.  Although  the 
county  has  lain  outside  of  the  main  stream  of  Scottish  history, 
its  records  are  far  from  dull  or  unimportant.  During  the  reigns 
of  the  earlier  Stuarts,  Dunfermline,  Falkland  and  St  Andrews 
were  often  the  scene  of  solemn  pageantry  and  romantic  episodes. 
Out  of  the  seventy  royal  burghs  in  Scotland  no  fewer  than 
eighteen  are  situated  in  the  shire.  However,  notwithstanding 
the  marked  preference  of  the  Stuarts,  the  Kingdom  did  not 
hesitate  to  play  the  leading  part  in  the  momentous  dramas  of 
the  Reformation  and  the  Covenant,  and  by  the  i8th  century  the 
people  had  ceased  to  regard  the  old  royal  line  with  any  but 
sentimental  interest,  and  the  Jacobite  risings  of  1715  and  1745 
evoked  only  the  most  lukewarm  support. 

See  Sir  Robert  Sibbald,  History  of  the  Sheriff doms  of  Fife  and 
Kinross;  Rev.  J.  W.  Taylor,  Historical  Antiquities  of  Fife  (1875); 
A.  H.  Millar,  Fife,  Pictorial  and  Historical  (Cupar,  1895);  Sheriff 
Aeneas  Mackay,  sketch  of  the  History  of  Fife  (Edinburgh,  1890); 
History  of  Fife  and  Kinross  (Scottish  County  History  series)  (Edin- 
burgh, 1896) ;  John  Geddie,  The  Fringe  of  Fife  (Edinburgh,  1894). 

FIFE  (Fr.  fifre;  Med.  Ger.  Schweizerpfeif,  Feldpfeif;  Ital. 
ottamno),  originally  the  small  primitive  cylindrical  transverse 
flute,  now  the  small  Bb  military  flute,  usually  conoidal  in  bore, 
used  in  a  drum  and  fife  band.  The  pitch  of  the  fife  lies  between 
that  of  the  concert  flute  and  piccolo.  The  fife,  like  the  flute,  is 
an  open  pipe,  for  although  the  upper  end  is  stopped  by  means 
of  a  cork,  an  outlet  is  provided  by  the  embouchure  which  is 
never  entirely  closed  by  the  lips.  The  six  finger-holes  of  the 
primitive  flute,  with  the  open  end  of  the  tube  for  a  key-note, 
gave  the  diatonic  scale  of  the  fundamental  octave;  the  second 
octave  was  produced  by  overblowing  the  notes  of  the  funda- 
mental scale  an  octave  higher;  part  of  a  third  octave  was 
obtained  by  means  of  the  higher  harmonics  produced  by  using 
certain  of  the  finger-holes  as  vent-holes.  The  modern  fife  has, 
in  addition  to  the  six  finger-holes,  4,  5  or  6  keys.  Mersenne 
describes  and  figures  the  fife,  which  had  in  his  day  the  compass 
of  a  fifteenth.1  The  fife,  which,  he  states,  differed  from  the 

1  Harmonie  universelle  (Paris,  1636),  bk.  v.  prop.  9,  pp.  241-244. 


German  flute  only  in  having  a  louder  and  more  brilliant  tone  and 
a  shorter  and  narrower  bore,  was  the  instrument  used  by  the 
Swiss  with  the  drum.  The  sackbut,  or  serpent,  was  used  as  its 
bass,  for,  as  Mersenne  explains,  the  bass  instrument  could  not 
be  made  long  enough,  nor  could  the  hands  reach  the  holes, 
although  some  flutes  were  actually  made  with  keys  and  had  the 
tube  doubled  back  as  in  the  bassoon.2 

The  words  fife  and  the  Fr.  fifre  were  undoubtedly  derived  from 
the  Ger.  Pfeiff,  the  fife  being  called  by  Praetorius.3  Schweizerpfeiff 
and  Feldpfeif,  while  Martin  Agricola,4  writing  a  century  earlier 
(1529),  mentions  the  transverse  flute  by  the  names  of  Querchpfeiff 
or  Schweizerpfeiff,  which  Sebastian  Virdung6  writes  Zwerchpfeiff. 
The  Old  English  spelling  was  phife,  phiphe  orffyffe.  The  fife  was  in 
use  in  England  in  the  middle  of  the  l6th  century,  for  at  a  muster  of 
the  citizens  of  London  in  1540,  droumes  and  ffyffes  are  mentioned. 
At  the  battle  of  St  Quentin  (1557)  the  list  of  the  English  army6 
employed  states  that  one  trumpet  was  allowed  to  each  cavalry  troop 
of  100  men,  and  a  drum  and  fife  to  each  hundred  of  foot.  A  drumme 
and  phife  were  also  employed  at  one  shilling  per  diem  for  the  "  Trayne 
of  Artillery."7  This  was  the  nucleus  of  the  modern  military  band, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  step  in  its  formation.  In  England 
the  adoption  of  the  fife  as  a  military  instrument  was  due  to  the 
initiative  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  sent  to  Vienna  for  ten  good  drums 
and  as  many  fifers.8  Ralph  Smith9  gives  rules  for  drummers  and 
fifers  who,  in  addition  to  the  duty  of  giving  signals  in  peace  and  war 
to  the  company,  were  expected  to  be  brave,  secret  and  ingenious, 
and  masters  of  several  languages,  for  they  were  oft  sent  to  parley 
with  the  enemy  and  were  entrusted  with  honourable  but  dangerous 
missions.  In  1585  the  drum  and  fife  formed  part  of  the  furniture 
for  war  among  the  companies  of  the  city  of  London.10  Queen 
Elizabeth  (according  to  Michaud,  Biogr.  universelle.  tome  xiii.  p.  60) 
had  a  peculiar  taste  for  noisy  music,  and  during  meals  had  a  concert 
of  twelve  trumpets,  two  kettledrums,  with  files  and  drums.  The 
fife  became  such  a  favourite  military  instrument  during  the  i6th 
and  1 7th  centuries  in  England  that  it  displaced  the  bagpipe;  it 
was,  however,  in  turn  superseded  early  in  the  i8th  century  by  the 
hautboy  (see  OBOE),  introduced  from  France.  In  the  middle  of  the 
1 8th  century  the  fife  was  reintroduced  into  the  British  army  band 
by  the  duke  of  Cumberland  u  in  the  Guards  in  1745,  commemorated 
by  William  Hogarth's  picture  of  the  "  March  of  the  Guards  towards 
Scotland  in  1745,"  in  which  are  seen  a  drummer  and  fifer;  and  by 
Colonel  Bedford  into  the  royal  regiment  of  artillery  in  1748,  at  the 
end  of  the  war,  when  a  Hanoverian  fifer,  John  Ulrich,  was  brought 
over  from  Flanders  as  instructor.12  In  1747  the  igth  regiment, 
known  as  Green  Howards,  also  had  the  advantage  of  a  Hanoverian 
fifer  as  teacher,  a  youth  presented  by  his  colonel  to  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Williams  commanding  the  regiment  at  Bois-le-Duc.  Drum 
and  fife  bands  in  a  short  time  became  common  in  all  infantry  regi- 
ments, while  among  the  cavalry  the  trumpet  prevailed. 

For  the  acoustics,  construction  and  origin  of  the  fife  see  FLUTE. 
Illustrations  of  the  fife  may  be  seen  in  Cowdray's  picture  of  an  en- 
campment at  Portsmouth  in  1548;  in  Sandford's  "  Coronation 
Procession  of  James  II.,"  and  in  C.  R.  Day's  Descriptive  Catalogue, 
pi.  i.  (F)  (description  No.  42,  p.  27).  (K.  S.) 

FIFTH  MONARCHY  MEN,  the  name  of  a  Puritan  sect  in 
England  which  for  a  time  supported  the  government  of  Oliver 
Cromwell  in  the  belief  that  it  was  a  preparation  for  the  "  fifth 
monarchy,"  that  is  for  the  monarchy  which  should  succeed  the 
Assyrian,  the  Persian,  the  Greek  and  the  Roman,  and  during 
which  Christ  should  reign  on  earth  with  His  saints  for  a  thousand 
years.  These  sectaries  aimed  at  bringing  about  the  entire  aboli- 
tion of  the  existing  laws  and  institutions,  and  the  substitution 
of  a  simpler  code  based  upon  the  law  of  Moses.  Disappointed 
at  the  delay  in  the  fulfilment  of  their  hopes,  they  soon  began 
to  agitate  against  the  government  and  to  vilify  Cromwell;  but 
the  arrest  of  their  leaders  and  preachers,  Christopher  Feake, 
John  Rogers  and  others,  cooled  their  ardour,  and  they  were, 
perforce,  content  to  cherish  their  hopes  in  secret  until  after  the 
Restoration.  Then,  on  the  6th  of  January  1661,  a  band  of  fifth 
monarchy  men,  headed  by  a  cooper  named  Thomas  Venner, 

2  For  an  illustration  of  one  of  these  bass  flutes  see  article  FLUTE, 
fig.  2. 

3  Syntagma  musicum  (Wolfenbuttel,  1618),  pp.  40-41  of  Reprint. 

4  Musica  instrumental  (Wittenberg,  1529). 

5  Musica  getutscht  und  auszgezogen  (Basel,  1511). 

6  See  Sir  S.  D.  Scott,  The  British  Army,  vol.  ii.  p.  396. 

7  See  H.  G.  Farmer,  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Artillery  Band  (London, 
1904). 

8  Id.  »  Id.  10  Stowe's  Chronicles,  p.  702. 

11  Grose,  Military  Antiquities  (London,  1801),  vol.  ii. 

12  See  Colonel  P.  Forbes  Macbean,  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Regiment  oj 
A  rtillery. 


332 


FIG 


who  was  one  of  their  preachers,  made  an  attempt  to  obtain 
possession  of  London.  Most  of  them  were  either  killed  or  taken 
prisoners,  and  on  the  igth  and  2ist  of  January  Venner  and  ten 
others  were  executed  for  high  treason.  From  that  time  the 
special  doctrines  of  the  sect  either  died  out,  or  became  merged 
in  a  milder  form  of  millenarianism,  similar  to  that  which  exists 
at  the  present  day. 

For  the  proceedings  of  the  sect  see  S.  R.  Gardiner,  History  of 
the  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate,  passim  (London,  1894-1901); 
and  for  an  account  of  the  rising  of  1661  see  Sir  John  Reresby, 
Memoirs,  1634-1689,  edited  by  J.  J.  Cartwright  (London,  1875). 

FIG,  the  popular  name  given  to  plants  of  the  genus  Ficus,  an 
extensive  group,  included  in  the  natural  order  Moraceae,  and 
characterized  by  a  remarkable  development  of  the  pear-shaped 
receptacle,  the  edge  of  which  curves  inwards,  so  as  to  form  a 
nearly  closed  cavity,  bearing  the  numerous  fertile  and  sterile 
flowers  mingled  on  its  surface.  The  figs  vary  greatly  in  habit, — 
some  being  low  trailing  shrubs,  others  gigantic  trees,  among  the 


FIGURE  I.  —  Fruiting  Branch  of  Fig,  Ficus  Carica  ;  about  f  nat.  size. 
i.  Unripe  fruit  cut  lengthwise;     about  i  nat.  size.     2.  Female 


flower  taken  from  I  ;  enlarged. 
|  nat.  size. 


3.  Ripe  fruit  cut  lengthwise;  about 


most  striking  forms  of  those  tropical  forests  to  which  they  are 
chiefly  indigenous.  They  have  alternate  leaves,  and  abound  in  a 
milky  juice,  usually  acrid,  though  in  a  few  instances  sufficiently 
mild  to  be  used  for  allaying  thirst.  This  juice  contains  caout- 
chouc in  large  quantity. 

Ficus  Carica  (figure  i),  which  yields  the  well-known  figs  of 
commerce,  is  a  bush  or  small  tree  —  rarely  more  than  18  or  20  ft. 
high,  —  with  broad,  rough,  deciduous  leaves,  very  deeply  lobed  in 
the  cultivated  varieties,  but  in  the  wild  plant  sometimes  nearly 
entire.  The  green,  rough  branches  bear  the  solitary,  nearly 
sessile  receptacles  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  male  flowers  are 
placed  chiefly  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cavity,  and  in  most 
varieties  are  few  in  number.  As  it  ripens,  the  receptacle  enlarges 
greatly,  and  the  numerous  single-seeded  pericarps  or  true  fruits 
become  imbedded  in  it.  The  fruit  of  the  wild  fig  never  acquires 
the  succulence  of  the  cultivated  kinds.  The  fig  seems  to  be 
indigenous  to  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  but  now  occurs  in  a  wild 
state  in  most  of  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean.  From 
the  ease  with  which  the  nutritious  fruit  can  be  preserved,  it 
was  probably  one  of  the  earliest  objects  of  cultivation,  as  may 
be  inferred  from  the  frequent  allusions  to  it  in  the  Hebrew 


Scriptures.1  From  a  passage  in  Herodotus  the  fig  would  seem  to 
have  been  unknown  to  the  Persians  in  the  days  of  the  first  Cyrus; 
but  it  must  have  spread  in  remote  ages  over  all  the  districts 
around  the  Aegean  and  Levant.  The  Greeks  are  said  to  have 
received  it  from  Caria  (hence  the  specific  name) ;  but  the  fruit  so 
improved  under  Hellenic  culture  that  Attic  figs  became  celebrated 
throughout  the  East,  and  special  laws  were  made  to  regulate 
their  exportation.  From  the  contemptuous  name  given  to  in- 
formers against  the  violation  of  those  enactments,  owo^dcrat 
(awov,  (^cupo)),  our  word  sycophant  is  usually  derived.  The 
fig4  was  one  of  the  principal  articles  of  sustenance  among  the 
Greeks;  the  Spartans  especially  used  it  largely  at  their  public 
tables.  From  Hellas,  at  some  prehistoric  period,  it  was  trans- 
planted to  Italy  and  the  adjacent  islands.  Pliny  enumerates 
many  varieties,  and  alludes  to  those  from  Ebusus  (the  modern 
Iviza)  as  most  esteemed  by  Roman  epicures;  while  he  describes 
those  of  home  growth  as  furnishing  a  large  portion  of  the  food  of 
the  slaves,  particularly  those  employed  in  agriculture,  by  whom 
great  quantities  were  eaten  in  the  fresh  state  at  the  periods  of 
fig-harvest.  In  Latin  myths  the  plant  plays  an  important  part. 
Held  sacred  to  Bacchus,  it  was  employed  in  religious  ceremonies; 
and  the  fig-tree  that  overshadowed  the  twin  founders  of  Rome  in 
the  wolf's  cave,  as  an  emblem  of  the  future  prosperity  of  the  race, 
testified  to  the  high  value  set  upon  the  fruit  by  the  nations  of 
antiquity.  The  tree  is  now  cultivated  in  all  the  Mediterranean 
countries,  but  the  larger  portion  of  our  supply  of  figs  comes  from 
Asia  Minor,  the  Spanish  Peninsula  and  the  south  of  France. 
Those  of  Asiatic  Turkey  are  considered  the  best.  The  varieties 
are  extremely  numerous,  and  the  fruit  is  of  various  colours,  from 
deep  purple  to  yellow,  or  nearly  white.  The  trees  usually  bear 
two  crops, — one  in  the  early  summer  from  the  buds  of  the  last 
year,  the  other  in  the  autumn  from  those  on  the  spring  growth; 
the  latter  forms  the  chief  harvest.  Many  of  the  immature 
receptacles  drop  offjrom  imperfect  fertilization,  which  circum- 
stance has  led,  from  very  ancient  times,  to  the  practice  of 
caprification?  Branches  of  the  wild  fig  in  flower  are  placed  over 
the  cultivated  bushes.  Certain  hymenopterous  insects,  of  the 
genera  Blastophaga  and  Sycophaga,  which  frequent  the  wild  fig, 
enter  the  minute  orifice  of  the  receptacle,  apparently  to  deposit 
their  eggs;  conveying  thus  the  pollen  more  completely  to  the 
stigmas,  they  ensure  the  fertilization  and  consequent  ripening  of 
the  fruit.  By  some  the  nature  of  the  process  has  been  questioned, 
and  the  better  maturation  of  the  fruit  attributed  merely  to  the 
stimulus  given  by  the  puncture  of  the  insect,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
apple;  but  the  arrangement  of  the  unisexual  flowers  in  the  fig 
renders  the  first  theory  the  more  probable.  In  some  districts  a 
straw  or  small  twig  is  thrust  into  the  receptacle  with  a  similar 
object.  When  ripe  the  figs  are  picked,  and  spread  out  to  dry  in 
the  sun, — those  of  better  quality  being  much  pulled  and  extended 
by  hand  during  the  process.  Thus  prepared,  the  fruit  is  packed 
closely  in  barrels,  rush  baskets,  or  wooden  boxes,  for  commerce. 
The  best  kind,  known  as  elemi,  are  shipped  at  Smyrna,  where  the 

1  Of  these  the  case  of  the  Barren  Fig-tree  (Mark.  xi.  12-14,  20-21 : 
compare  Matt.  xxi.  18-20),  which  Jesus  cursed  and  which  then 
withered  away,  has  been  much  discussed  among  theologians.  The 
difficulty  is  in  Mark  xi.  13:  "  And  seeing  a  fig-tree  afar  off  having 
leaves,  he  came,  if  haply  he  might  find  anything  thereon ;  and  when 
he  came  to  it  he  found  nothing  but  leaves,  for  the  time  of  figs  was 
not  yet."  These  last  words  obviously  raise  the  question  whether 
the  expectation  of  Jesus  of  finding  figs,  and  his  cursing  of  the  tree 
on  finding  none,  were  not  unreasonable.  Many  ingenious  solutions 
have  been  propounded,  by  suggested  emendations  of  the  text  and 
otherwise,  for  which  consult  M'Clintock  and  Strong's  Cyclopaedia 
of  Biblical  Literature  (sub  "  Fig  ")  and  the  Encyclopaedia  Biblica 
("Fig-tree");  the  former  demurs  to  the  unreasonableness,  and 
contends  that  the  appearance  of  the  leaves  at  this  season  (March) 
indicated  a  pretentious  precocity  in  this  particular  fig-tree,  so  that 
Jesus  was  entitled  to  expect  that  it  would  also  have  fruit,  even 
though  the  season  had  not  arrived ;  the  Ency.  Biblica,  on  the  other 
hand,  supposes  that  some  "  early  Christian,"  confounding  parable 
with  history,  has  misunderstood  the  parable  in  Luke  xiii.  6-9,  and, 
forgetting  that  the  season  was  not  one  for  figs,  has  transformed  it 
here  into  the  narrative  of  an  act  of  Jesus.  The  probability  seems  to 
be  that  the  words  "  for  the  time  of  figs  was  not  yet  "  are  an  un- 
intelligent gloss  by  an  early  reader,  which  has  made  its  way  into  the 
text.  For  authorities  see  the  works  mentioned  above. 

1  From  Lat.  caprificus,  a  wild  fig;     O.  Eng.  caprifig. 


FIG 


333 


pulling  and  packing  of  figs  form  one  of  the  most  important 
industries  of  the  people. 

This  fruit  still  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  the  natives 
of  western  Asia  and  southern  Europe,  both  in  the  fresh  and  dried 
state.  A  sort  of  cake  made  by  mashing  up  the  inferior  kinds 
serves  in  parts  of  the  Archipelago  as  a  substitute  for  bread. 
Alcohol  is  obtained  from  fermented  figs  in  some  southern 
countries;  and  a  kind  of  wine,  still  made  from  the  ripe  fruit, 
was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  mentioned  by  Pliny  under  the 
name  of  sycites.  Medicinally  the  fig  is  employed  as  a  gentle 
laxative,  when  eaten  abundantly  often  proving  useful  in 
chronic  constipation;  it  forms  a  part  of  the  well-known  "con- 
fection of  senna."  The  milky  juice  of  the  stems  and  leaves  is 
very  acrid,  and  has  been  used  in  some  countries  for  raising 
blisters.  The  wood  is  porous  and  of  little  value;  though  a  piece, 
saturated  with  oil  and  spread  with  emery,  is  in  France  a  common 
substitute  for  a  hone. 

The  fig  is  grown  for  its  fresh  fruit  (eaten  as  an  article  of  dessert) 
in  all  the  milder  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States,  with 
protection  in  winter,  succeeds  as  far  north  as  Pennsylvania. 
The  fig  was  introduced  into  England  by  Cardinal  Pole,  from 
Italy,  early  in  the  i6th  century.  It  lives  to  a  great  age,  and 
along  the  southern  coast  of  England  bears  fruit  abundantly  as  a 
standard;  but  in  Scotland  and  in  many  parts  of  England  a  south 
wall  is  indispensable  for  its  successful  cultivation  out  of  doors. 

Fig  trees  are  propagated  by  cuttings,  which  should  be  put  into 
pots,  and  placed  in  a  gentle  hotbed.  They  may  be  obtained  more 
speedily  from  layers,  which  should  consist  of  two  or  three  years  old 
shoots,  and  these,  when  rooted,  will  form  plants  ready  to  bear  fruit 
the  first  or  second  year  after  planting.  The  best  soil  for  a  fig  border 
is  a  friable  loam,  not  too  rich,  but  well  drained;  a  chalky  subsoil 
is  congenial  to  the  tree,  and,  to  correct  the  tendency  to  over-luxuri- 
ance of  growth,  the  roots  should  be  confined  within  spaces  surrounded 
by  a  wall  enclosing  an  area  of  about  a  square  yard.  The  sandy  soil 
of  Argenteuil,  near  Paris,  suits  the  fig  remarkably  well ;  but  the  best 
trees  are  those  which  grow  in  old  quarries,  where  their  roots  are  free 
from  stagnant  water,  and  where  they  are  sheltered  from  cold,  while 
exposed  to  a  very  hot  sun,  which  ripens  the  fruit  perfectly.  The  fig 
succeeds  well  planted  in  a  paved  court  against  a  building  with  a 
south  aspect. 

The  fig  tree  naturally  produces  two  sets  of  shoots  and  two  crops 
of  fruit  in  the  season.  The  first  shoots  generally  show  young  figs 
in  July  and  August,  but  these  in  the  climate  of  England  very  seldom 
ripen,  and  should  therefore  be  rubbed  off.  The  late  or  midsummer 
shoots  likewise  put  forth  fruit-buds,  which,  however,  do  not  develop 
themselves  till  the  following  spring;  and  these  form  the  only  crop  of 
figs  on  which  the  British  gardener  can  depend. 

The  fig  tree  grown  as  a  standard  should  get  very  little  pruning, 
the  effect  of  cutting  being  to  stimulate  the  buds  to  push  shoots  too 
vigorous  for  bearing.  When  grown  against  a  wall,  it  has  been 
recommended  that  a  single  stem  should  be  trained  to  the  height  of 
a  foot.  Above  this  a  shoot  should  be  trained  to  the  right,  and 
another  to  the  left;  from  these  principals  two  other  subdivisions 
should  be  encouraged,  and  trained  15  in.  apart;  and  along  these 
branches,  at  distances  of  about  8  in.,  shoots  for  bearing,  as  nearly 
as  possible  of  equal  vigour,  should  be  encouraged.  The  bearing  shoots 
produced  along  the  leading  branches  should  be  trained  in  at  full 
length,  and  in  autumn  every  alternate  one  should  be  cut  back  to 
one  eye.  In  the  following  summer  the  trained  shoots  should  bear 
and  ripen  fruit,  and  then  be  cut  back  in  autumn  to  one  eye,  while 
shoots  from  the  bases  of  those  cut  back  the  previous  autumn  should 
be  trained  for  succession.  In  this  way  every  leading  branch  will 
be  furnished  alternately  with  bearing  and  successional  shoots. 

When  protection  is  -necessary,  as  it  may  be  in  severe  winters, 
though  it  is  too  often  provided  in  excess,  spruce  branches  have  been 
found  to  answer  the  purpose  exceedingly  well,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  their  leaves  drop  off  gradually  when  the  weather  beco/nes 
milder  in  spring,  and  when  the  trees  require  less  protection  and 
more  light  and  air.  The  principal  part  requiring  protection  is  the 
main  stem,  which  is  more  tender  than  the  young  wood. 

In  forcing,  the  fig  requires  more  heat  than  the  vine  to  bring  it 
into  leaf.  It  may  be  subjected  to  a  temperature  of  50°  at  night, 
and  from  60°  to  65°  in  the  day,  and  this  should  afterwards  be  in- 
creased to  6o°-and  65°  by  night,  and  70°  to  75°  by  day,  or  even 
higher  by  sun  heat,  giving  plenty  of  air  at  the  same  time.  In  this 
temperature  the  evaporation  from  the  leaves  is  very  great,  and  this 
must  be  replaced  and  the  wants  of  the  swelling  fruit  supplied  by 
daily  watering,  by  syringing  the  foliage,  and  by  moistening  the 
floor,  this  atmospheric  moisture  being  also  necessary  to  keep  down 
the  red  spider.  When  the  crop  begins  to  ripen,  a  moderately  dry 
atmosphere  should  be  maintained,  with  abundant  ventilation  when 
the  weather  permits. 

The  fig  tree  is  easily  cultivated  in  pots,  and  by  introducing  the 


plants  into  heat  in  succession  the  fruiting  season  may  be  consider- 
ably extended.  The  plants  should  be  potted  in  turfy  loam  mixed 
with  charcoal  and  old  mortar  rubbish,  and  in  summer  top-dressings 
of  rotten  manure,  with  manure  water  two  or  three  times  a  week, 
will  be  beneficial.  While  the  fruit  is  swelling,  the  pots  should  be 
plunged  in  a  bed  of  fermenting  leaves. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  best  figs;  those  marked  F.  are  good 
forcing  sorts,  and  those  marked  W.  suitable  for  walls: — 

Agen:  brownish-green,  turbinate. 

Brown  Ischia,  F. :  chestnut-coloured,  roundish-turbinate. 

Brown  Turkey  (Lee's  Perpetual),  F.,  W. :  purplish-brown,  tur- 
binate. 

Brunswick,  W. :  brownish-green,  pyriform. 

Col  di  Signora  Blanca,  F. :  greenish-yellow,  pyriform. 

Col  di  Signora  Nero :  dark  chocolate,  pyriform. 

Early  Violet,  F. :  brownish-purple,  roundish. 

Grizzly  Bourjassotte:  chocolate,  round. 

Grosse  Monstreuse  de  Lipari :  pale  chestnut,  turbinate. 

Negro  Largo,  F. :  black,  long  pyriform. 

White  Ischia,  F.  :  greenish-yellow,  roundish-obovate. 

White  Marseilles,  F.,  W.  :  pale  green,  roundish-obovate. 

The  sycamore  fig,  Ficus  Sycomorus,  is  a  tree  of  large  size,  with 
heart-shaped  leaves,  which,  from  their  fancied  resemblance  to 
those  of  the  mulberry,  gave  origin  to  the  name  SuKo^iopos.  From 
the  deep  shade  cast  by  its  spreading  branches,  it  is  a  favourite 
tree  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  being  often  planted  along  roads  and 
near  houses.  It  bears  a  sweet  edible  fruit,  somewhat  like  that  of 
the  common  fig,  but  produced  in  racemes  on  the  older  boughs. 
The  apex  of  the  fruit  is  sometimes  removed,  or  an  incision  made 


FIGURE  2. — India-rubber  Tree,   Ficus  elastica,  showing  spreading 
woody  roots. 

in  it,  to  induce  earlier  ripening.  The  ancients,  after  soaking  it  in 
water,  preserved  it  like  the  common  fig.  The  porous  wood  is  only 
fit  for  fuel. 

The  sacred  fig,  peepul,  or  bo,  Ficus  religiose.,  a  large  tree  with 
heart-shaped,  long-pointed  leaves  on  slender  footstalks,  is  much 
grown  in  southern  Asia.  The  leaves  are  used  for  tanning,  and 
afford  lac,  and  a  gum  resembling  caoutchouc  is  obtained  from  the 
juice;  but  in  India  it  is  chiefly  planted  with  a  religious  object, 
being  regarded  as  sacred  by  both  Brahmans  and  Buddhists. 
The  former  believe  that  the  last  avatar  of  Vishnu  took  place 
beneath  its  shade.  A  gigantic  bo,  described  by  Sir  J.  Emerson 
Tennent  as  growing  near  Anarajapoora,  in  Ceylon,  is,  if  tradition 
may  be  trusted,  one  of  the  oldest  trees  in  the  world.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  a  branch  of  the  tree  under  which  Gautama  Buddha 
became  endued  with  his  divine  powers,  and  has  always  been  held 
in  the  greatest  veneration.  The  figs,  however,  hold  as  important 
a  place  in  the  religious  fables  of  the  East  as  the  ash  in  the  myths 
of  Scandinavia. 

Ficus  elastica,  the  India-rubber  tree  (figure  2),  the  large, 
oblong,  glossy  leaves,  and  pink  buds  of  which  are  so  familiar  in 
our  greenhouses,  furnishes  most  of  the  caoutchouc  obtained 
from  the  East  Indies.  It  grows  to  a  large  size,  and  is  remarkable 


334 


FIGARO— FIGULUS 


for  the  snake-like  roots  that  extend  in  contorted  masses  around 
the  base  of  the  trunk.  The  small  fruit  is  unfit  for  food. 

Ficus  bengalensis,  or  the  Banyan,  wild  in  parts  of  northern 
India,  but  generally  planted  throughout  the  country,  has  a  woody 
stem,  branching  to  a  height  of  70  to  100  ft.  and  of  vast  extent 
with  heart-shaped  entire  leaves  terminating  in  acute  points. 
Every  branch  from  the  main  body  throws  out  its  own  roots,  at 
first  in  small  tender  fibres,  several  yards  from  the  ground;  but 
these  continually  grow  thicker  until  they  reach  the  surface, 
when  they  strike  in,  increase  to  large  trunks,  and  become  parent 
trees,  shooting  out  new  branches  from  the  top,  which  again 
in  time  suspend  their  roots,  and  these,  swelling  into  trunks, 
produce  other  branches,  the  growth  continuing  as  long  as  the 
earth  contributes  her  sustenance.  On  the  banks  of  the  Nerbudda 
stood  a  celebrated  tree  of  this  kind,  which  is  supposed  to  be  that 
described  by  Nearchus,  the  admiral  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
This  tree  once  covered  an  area  so  immense,  that  it  was  known 
to  shelter  no  fewer  than  7000  men,  and  though  much  reduced  in 
size  by  the  destructive  power  of  the  floods,  the  remainder  was 
described  by  James  Forbes  (1749-1819),  in  his  Oriental  Memoirs 
(1813-1815)  as  nearly  2000  ft.  in  circumference,  while  the  trunks 
large  and  small  exceeded  3000  in  number.  The  tree  usually 
grows  from  seeds  dropped  by  birds  on  other  trees.  The  leaf -axil 
of  a  palm  forms  a  frequent  receptacle  for  their  growth,  the  palm 
becoming  ultimately  strangled  by  the  growth  of  the  fig,  which 
by  this  time  has  developed  numerous  daughter  stems  which 
continue  to  expand  and  cover  ultimately  a  large  area.  The 
famous  tree  in  the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Calcutta,  began  its 
growth  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  on  a  sacred  date-palm. 
In  1907  it  had  nearly  250  aerial  roots,  the  parent  trunk  was 
42  ft.  in  girth,  and  its  leafy  crown  had  a  circumference  of  857  ft.; 
and  it  was  still  growing  vigorously.  Both  this  tree  and  F.  religiosa 
cause  destruction  to  buildings,  especially  in  Bengal,  from  seeds 
dropped  by  birds  germinating  on  the  walls.  The  tree  yields  an 
inferior  rubber,  and  a  coarse  rope  is  prepared  from  the  bark  and 
from  the  aerial  roots. 

FIGARO,  a  famous  dramatic  character  first  introduced  on  the 
stage  by  Beaumarchais  in  the  Barbier  de  Seville,  the  Mariage 
de  Figaro,  and  the  Folk  Journee.  The  name  is  said  to  be  an  old 
Spanish  and  Italian  word  for  a  wigmaker,  connected  with  the 
verb  cigarrar,  to  roll  in  paper.  Many  of  the  traits  of  the  character 
are  to  be  found  in  earlier  comic  types  of  the  Roman  and  Italian 
stage,  but  as  a  whole  the  conception  was  marked  by  great 
originality;  and  Figaro  soon  seized  the  popular  imagination, 
and  became  the  recognized  representative  of  daring,  clever  and 
nonchalant  roguery  and  intrigue.  Almost  immediately  after  its 
appearance,  Mozart  chose  the  Marriage  of  Figaro  as  the  subject 
of  an  opera,  and  the  Barber  of  Seville  was  treated  first  by  Paisiello, 
and  afterwards  in  1816  by  Rossini.  In  1826  the  name  of  the 
witty  rogue  was  taken  by  a  journal  which  continued  till  1833 
to  be  one  of  the  principal  Parisian  periodicals,  numbering  among 
its  contributors  such  men  as  Jules  Janin,  Paul  Lacroix,  Leon 
Gozlan,  Alphonse  Karr,  Dr  Veron,  Jules  Sandeau  and  George 
Sand.  Various  abortive  attempts  were  made  to  restore  the 
Figaro  during  the  next  twenty  years;  and  in  1854  the  efforts  of 
M.  de  Villemessant  were  crowned  with  success  (see  NEWSPAPERS: 
France). 

See  Marc  Monnier,  Les  Aieux  de  Figaro  (1868) ;  H.  de  Villemessant, 
Memoires  d'un  journaliste  (1867). 

FIGEAC,  a  town  of  south-western  France,  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Lot,  47  m.  E.  N.  E.  of 
Cahors  on  the  Orleans  railway.  Pop.  (1906)  4330.  It  is  enclosed 
by  an  amphitheatre  of  wooded  and  vine-clad  hills,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Cele,  which  is  here  crossed  by  an  old  bridge.  It  is 
ill-built  and  the  streets  are  narrow  and  dirty;  on  the  outskirts 
shady  boulevards  have  taken  the  place  of  the  ramparts  by  which 
it  was  surrounded.  The  town  is  very  rich  in  old  houses  of  the 
I3th  and  i4th  centuries;  among  them  may  be  mentioned 
the  H6tel  de  Balene,  of  the  i4th  century,  used  as  a  prison. 
Another  house,  dating  from  the  i  sth  century,  was  the  birthplace 
of  the  Egyptologist  J.  F.  Champollion,  in  memory  of  whom  the 
town  has  erected  an  obelisk.  The  principal  church  is  that  of 


St  Sauveur,  which  once  belonged  to  the  abbey  of  Figeac.  It 
was  built  at  the  beginning  of  the  I2th  century,  but  restored 
later;  the  facade  in  particular  is  modern.  Notre-Dame  du  Puy, 
in  the  highest  part  of  the  town,  belongs  to  the  i2th  and  i3th 
centuries.  It  has  no  transept  and  its  aisles  extend  completely 
round  the  interior.  The  altar-screen  is  a  fine  example  of  carved 
woodwork  of  the  end  of  the  i7th  century.  Of  the  four  obelisks 
which  used  to  mark  the  limits  of  the  authority  of  the  abbots 
of  Figeac,  those  to  the  south  and  the  west  of  the  town  remain. 
Figeac  is  the  seat  of  a  subprefect  and  has  a  tribunal  of  first  in- 
stance, and  a  communal  college.  Brewing,  tanning,  printing, 
cloth-weaving  and  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements 
are  among  the  industries.  Trade  is  in  cattle,  leather,  wool,  plums, 
walnuts  and  grain,  and  there  are  zinc  mines  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. 

Figeac  grew  up  round  an  abbey  founded  by  Pippin  the  Short 
in  the  Sth  century,  and  throughout  the  middle  ages  it  was  the 
property  of  the  monks.  At  the  end  of  the  i6th  century  the  lord- 
ship was  acquired  by  King  Henry  IV. 's  minister,  the  duke  of 
Sully,  who  sold  it  to  Louis  XIII.  in  1622. 

FIGUEIRA  DA  FOZ,  or  FIGUEIRA,  a  seaport  of  central 
Portugal,  in  the  district  of  Coimbra,  formerly  included  in  the 
province  of  Beira;  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  Mondego, 
at  its  mouth,  and  at  the  terminus  of  the  Lisbon-Figueira  and 
Guarda-Figueira  railways.  Pop.  (1900)  6221.  Figueira  da  Foz 
is  an  important  fishing-station,  and  one  of  the  headquarters  of 
the  coasting  trade  in  grain,  fruit,  wine,  olive  oil,  cork  and  coal; 
but  owing  to  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mondego  large  ships 
cannot  enter.  Glass  is  manufactured,  and  the  city  attracts  many 
visitors  by  its  excellent  climate  and  sea-bathing.  A  residential 
suburb,  the  Bairro  Novo,  exists  chiefly  for  their  accommodation, 
to  the  north-west  of  the  old  town.  Figueira  is  connected  by 
a  tramway  running  4  m.  N.  W.  with  Buarcos  (pop.  5033)  and 
with  the  coal-mines  of  Cape  Mondego.  Lavos  (pop.  7939),  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Mondego,  was  the  principal  landing-place 
of  the  British  troops  which  came,  in  1808,  to  take  part  in  the 
Peninsular  War.  Figueira  da  Foz  received  the  title  and  privileges 
of  city  by  a  decree  dated  the  2oth  of  September  1882. 

FIGUERAS,  a  town  of  north-eastern  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Gerona,  14  m.  S.  of  the  French  frontier,  on  the  Barcelona- 
Perpignan  railway.  Pop.  (1900)  10,714.  Figueras  is  built  at 
the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  on  the  northern  edge  of  El 
Ampurdan,  a  fertile  and  well-irrigated  plain,which  produces  wine, 
olives  and  rice,and  derives  its  name  from  the  seaport  of  Ampurias, 
the  ancient  Emporiae.  The  castle  of  San  Fernando,  i  m.N.W.,  is 
an  irregular  pentagonal  structure,  built  by  order  of  Ferdinand  VI. 
(1746-1759),  on  the  site  of  a  Capuchin  convent.  Owing  to  its 
situation,  and  the  rocky  nature  of  the  ground  over  which  a 
besieger  must  advance,  it  is  still  serviceable  as  the  key  to  the 
frontier.  It  affords  accommodation  for  16,000  men  and  is  well 
provided  with  bomb-proof  cover.  In  1794  Figueras  was  sur- 
rendered to  the  French,  but  it  was  regained  in  1795.  During 
the  Peninsular  War  it  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1808,  re- 
captured by  the  Spaniards  in  1811,  and  retaken  by  the  French 
in  the  same  year.  In  1823,  after  a  long  defence,  it  was  once  more 
captured  by  the  French.  An  annual  pilgrimage  from  Figueras 
to  the  chapel  of  Nuestra  Senora  de  Requesens,  15  m.  N.,  com- 
memorates the  deliverance  of  the  town  from  a  severe  epidemic 
of  fever  in  1612. 

FIGULUS,  PUBLIUS  NIGIDIUS  (c.  98-45  B.C.),  Roman 
savant,  next  to  Varro  the  most  learned  Roman  of  the  age.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Cicero,  to  whom  he  gave  his  support  at  the  time 
of  the  Catilinarian  conspiracy  (Plutarch,  Cicero,  20;  Cicero, 
Pro  Sulla,  xiv.  42).  In  58  he  was  praetor,  sided  with  Pompey 
in  the  Civil  War,  and  after  his  defeat  was  banished  by  Caesar, 
and  died  in  exile.  According  to  Cicero  (Timaeus,  i),  Figulus 
endeavoured  with  some  success  to  revive  the  doctrines  of  Pytha- 
goreanism.  With  this  was  included  mathematics,  astronomy 
and  astrology,  and  even  the  magic  arts.  According  to  Suetonius 
(Augustus,  94)  he  foretold  the  greatness  of  the  future  emperor 
on  the  day  of  his  birth,  and  Apuleius  (Apologia,  42)  records 
that,  by  the  employment  of  "  magic  boys  "  (magici  pueri),  he 


FIGURATE  NUMBERS— FIJI 


335 


helped  to  find  a  sum  of  money  that  had  been  lost.  Jerome  (the 
authority  for  the  date  of  his  death)  calls  him  Pythagoricus  et 
magus.  The  abstruse  nature  of  his  studies,  the  mystical  character 
of  his  writings,  and  the  general  indifference  of  the  Romans  to 
such  subjects,  caused  his  works  to  be  soon  forgotten.  Amongst 
his  scientific,  theological  and  grammatical  works  mention  may 
be  made  of  De  diis,  containing  an  examination  of  various  cults 
and  ceremonials;  treatises  on  divination  and  the  interpretation 
of  dreams;  on  the  sphere,  the  winds  and  animals.  His  Commen- 
tarii  grammalici  in  at  least  29  books  was  an  ill-arranged  collection 
of  linguistic,  grammatical  and  antiquarian  notes.  In  these  he 
expressed  the  opinion  that  the  meaning  of  words  was  natural, 
not  fixed  by  man.  He  paid  especial  attention  to  orthography, 
and  sought  to  differentiate  the  meanings  of  cases  of  like  ending  by 
distinctive  marks  (the  apex  to  indicate  a  long  vowel  is  attributed 
to  him).  In  etymology  he  endeavoured  to  find  a  Roman  ex- 
planation of  words  where  possible  (according  to  him  {rater  was 
=fere  alter).  Quintilian  (Instil,  oral.  xi.  3.  143)  speaks  of  a 
rhetorical  treatise  De  gestu  by  him. 

See  Cicero,  Ad  Fam.  iv.  13;  scholiast  on  Lucan  i.  639;  several 
references  in  Aulus  Gellius;  Teuffel,  Hist. of  Roman  Literature,  170; 
M.  Hertz,  De  N.  F.  studiis  atque  operibus  (1845);  Quaestiones 
Nigidianae  (1890), and  edition  of  the  fragments  (1889)  byA.Swoboda. 

FIGURATE  NUMBERS,  in  mathematics.  If  we  take  the  sum 
of  n  terms  of  the  series  1  +  1  +  1+  •  •  •,  i-e.  w,as  the  nth  term  of 
a  new  series,  we  obtain  the  series  1+2+3+  •  •  •>  the  sum 
of  n  terms  of  which  is  5  n  .  w+i.  Taking  this  sum  as  the  nth 
term,  we  obtain  the  series  1+3+6+10+  .  .  .,  which  has 
for  the  sum  of  n  terms  n  (w+i)  (w+z)/^!1  This  sum  is  taken  as 
the  wth  term  of  the  next  series,  and  proceeding  in  this  way  we 
obtain  series  having  the  following  wth  terms: — 
i,  n,n(n+i)/2\,  n(n+i)  («+2)/3!,...w(w+i)... 
The  numbers  obtained  by  giving  n  any  value  in  these  expressions 
are  of  the  first,  second,  third,  ...  or  rth  order  of  figurate 
numbers. 

Pascal  treated  these  numbers  in  his  Traite  du  triangle  arilh- 
melique  (1665),  using  them  to  develop  a  theory  of  combinations 

and  to  solve  problems  in  proba- 
bility. His  table  is  here  shown 
in  its  simplest  form.  It  is  to  be 
noticed  that  each  number  is  the 
sum  of  the  numbers  immediately 
above  and  to  the  left  of  it;  and 
that  the  numbers  along  a  line, 
termed  a  base,  which  cuts  off  an 
equal  number  of  units  along  the 
top  row  and  column  are  the  co- 
efficients in  the  binomial  ex- 
pansion of  (i+as)1"1,  where  r  represents  the  number  of  units 
cut  off. 

FIJI  (Viti),  a  British  colony  consisting  of  an  archipelago  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  most  important  in  Polynesia,  between 
15°  and  20°  S.,  and  on  and  about  the  meridian  of  180°.  The 
islands  number  about  250,  of  which  some  80  are  inhabited. 
The  total  land  area  is  7435  sq.  m.  (thus  roughly  equalling  that 
of  Wales),  and  the  population  is  about  121, coo.  The  principal 
island  is  Viti  Levu,  98  m.  in  length  (E.  to  W.)  and  67  in  extreme 
breadth,  with  an  area  of  4112  sq.  m.  Forty  miles  N.E.  lies 
Vanua  Levu,  measuring  117  m.  by  30,  with  an  area  of  2432  sq.  m. 
Close  off  the  south-eastern  shore  of  Vanua  Levu  is  Taviuni, 
26  m.  in  length  by  10  in  breadth;  Kandavu  or  Kadavu,  36  m. 
long  and  very  narrow,  is  41  m.  S.  of  Viti  Levu,  and  the  three 
other  main  islands,  lying  east  of  Viti  Levu  in  the  Koro  Sea,  are 
Koro,  Ngau  or  Gau,  and  Ovalau.  South-east  from  Vanua  Levu 
a  loop  of  islets  extends  nearly  to  20°  S.,  enclosing  the  Koro  Sea. 
North-west  of  Viti  Levu  lies  another  chain,  the  Yasawa  or 
western  group;  and,  finally,  the  colony  includes  the  island  of 
Rotumah  (q.v.) ,  300  m.  N.  W.  by  N.  of  Vanua  Levu. 

The  formation  of  the  larger  islands  is  volcanic,  their  surface 
rugged,  their  vegetation  luxuriant,  and  their  appearance  very 

1  The  notation  n\  denotes  the  product  1.2.3 n>  and  is  termed 

"  factorial  n." 


beautiful;  their  hills  rise  often  above  3000,  and,  in  the  case  of  a 
few  summits,  above  4000  ft.,  and  they  contrast  strongly  with  the 
low  coral  formation  of  the  smaller  members  of  the  group.  There 
is  not  much  level  Country,  except  in  the  coral  islets,  and  certain 
rich  tracts  along  the  coasts  of  the  two  large  islands,  especially 
near  the  mouths  of  the  rivers.  The  large  islands  have  a  con- 
siderable extent  of  undulating  country,  dry  and  open  on  their 
lee  sides.  Streams  and  rivers  are  abundant,  the  latter  very 
large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  islands,  affording  a  waterway 
to  the  rich  districts  along  their  banks.  These  and  the  extensive 
mud  flats  and  deltas  at  their  mouths  are  often  flooded,  by  which 
their  fertility  is  increased,  though  at  a  heavy  cost  to  the  culti- 
vator. The  Rewa,  debouching  through  a  wide  delta  at  the 
south-east  of  Viti  Levu,  is  navigable  for  small  vessels  for  40  m. 
There  are  also  in  this  island  the  Navua  and  Sigatoka  (flowing  S.), 
the  Nandi  (W.),  and  the  Ba  (N.W.).  The  Dreketi,  flowing  W., 


'Group 

»'**    %f  f""*"' 
•/»«» 


fcniety  W*lkcf  40. 


is  the  chief  stream  of  Vanua  Levu.  It  breaches  the  mountains 
in  a  fine  valley;  for  this  island  consists  practically  of  one  long 
range,  whereas  the  main  valleys  and  ranges  separating  them  in 
Viti  Levu  radiate  for  the  most  part  from  a  common  centre. 
With  few  exceptions  the  islands  are  surrounded  by  barriers 
of  coral,  broken  by  openings  opposite  the  mouths  of  streams. 
Viti  Levu  is  the  most  important  island  not  only  from  its  size, 
but  from  its  fertility,  variety  of  surface,  and  population,  which 
is  over  one-third  of  that  of  the  whole  group.  The  town  of  Suva 
lies  on  an  excellent  harbour  at  the  south-east  of  the  island,  and 
has  been  the  capital  of  the  colony  since  1882,  containing  the 
government  buildings  and  other  offices.  Vanua  Levu  is  less 
fertile  than  Viti  Levu;  it  has  good  anchorages  along  its  entire 
southern  coast.  Of  the  other  islands,  Taviuni,  remarkable  for 
a  lake  (presumably  a  crater-lake)  at  the  top  of  its  lofty  central 
ridge,  is  fertile,  but  exceptionally  devoid  of  harbours;  whereas 
the  well-timbered  island  of  Kandavu  has  an  excellent  one.  On 
the  eastern  shore  of  Ovalau,  an  island  which  contains  in  a  small 
area  a  remarkable  series  of  gorge-like  valleys  between  command- 
ing hills,  is  the  town  of  Levuka,  the  capital  until  1882.  It  stands 
partly  upon  the  narrow  shore,  and  partly  climbs  the  rocky  slope 
behind.  The  chief  islands  on  the  west  of  the  chain  enclosing 
the  Koro  Sea  are  Koro,  Ngau,  Moala  and  Totoya,  all  productive, 
affording  good  anchorage,  elevated  and  picturesque.  The 
eastern  islands  of  the  chain  are  smaller  and  more  numerous, 
Vanua  Batevu  (one  of  the  Exploring  Group)  being  a  centre  of 
trade.  Among  others,  Mago  is  remarkable  for  a  subterranean 
outlet  of  the  waters  of  the  fertile  valley  in  its  midst. 

The  land  is  of  recent  geological  formation,  the  principal 
ranges  being  composed  of  igneous  rock,  and  showing  traces  of 
much  volcanic  disturbance.  There  are  boiling  springs  in  Vanua 


33^ 


FIJI 


Levu  and  Ngau,  and  slight  shocks  of  earthquake  are  occasionally 
felt.  The  tops  of  many  of  the  mountains,  from  Kandavu  in  the 
S.W.,  through  Nairai  and  Koro,  to  the  Ringgold  group  in  the 
N.E.,  have  distinct  craters,  but  their  activity  has  long  ceased. 
The  various  decomposing  volcanic  rocks — tufas,  conglomerates 
and  basalts — mingled  with  decayed  vegetable  matter,  and 
abundantly  watered,  form  a  very  fertile  soil.  Most  of  the  high 
peaks  on  the  larger  islands  are  basaltic,  and  the  rocks  generally 
are  igneous,  with  occasional  upheaved  coral  found  sometimes 
over  1000  ft.  above  the  sea;  but  certain  sedimentary  rocks 
observed  on  Viti  Levu  seem  to  imply  a  nucleus  of  land  of  con- 
siderable age.  Volcanic  activity  in  the  neighbourhood  is  further 
shown  by  the  quantities  of  pumice-stone  drifted  on  to  the  south 
coasts  of  Kandavu  and  Viti  Levu;  malachite,  antimony  and 
graphite,  gold  in  small  quantities,  and  specular  iron-sand  occur. 

Climate. — The  colony  is  beyond  the  limits  of  the  perpetual 
S.E.  trades,  while  not  within  the  range  of  the  N.W.  monsoons. 
From  April  to  November  the  winds  are  steady  between  S.E.  and 
E.N.E.,  and  the  climate  is  cool  and  dry,  after  which  the  weather 
becomes  uncertain  and  the  winds  often  northerly,  this  being  the 
wet  warm  season.  In  February  and  March  heavy  gales  are 
frequent,  and  hurricanes  sometimes  occur,  causing  scarcity  by 
destroying  the  crops.  The  rainfall  is  much  greater  on  the  wind- 
ward than  on  the  lee  sides  of  the  islands  (about  no  in.  at  Suva), 
but  the  mean  temperature  is  much  the  same,  viz.,  about  80°  F. 
In  the  hills  the  temperature  sometimes  falls  below  50°.  The 
climate,  especially  from  November  to  April,  is  somewhat  enervat- 
ing to  the  Englishman,  but  not  unhealthy.  Fevers  are  hardly 
known.  Dysentery,  which  is  common,  and  the  most  serious 
disease  in  the  islands,  is  said  to  have  been  unknown  before  the 
advent  of  Europeans. 

Fauna. — Besides  the  dog  and  the  pig,  which  (with  the  domestic 
fowl)  must  have  been  introduced  in  early  times,  the  only  land 
mammals  are  certain  species  of  rats  and  bats.  Insects  are  numerous, 
but  the  species  few.  Bees  have  been  introduced.  The  avifauna  is 
not  remarkable.  Birds  of  prey  are  few ;  the  parrot  and  pigeon  tribes 
are  better  represented.  Fishes,  of  an  Indo-Malay  type,  are  numerous 
and  varied;  Mollusca,  especially  marine,  and  Crustaceae  are  also 
very  numerous.  These  three  form  an  important  element  in  the  food 
supply. 

-  Flora. — The  vegetation  is  mostly  of  a  tropical  Indo-Malayan 
character — thick  jungle  with  great  trees  covered  with  creepers  and 
epiphytes.  The  lee  sides  of  the  larger  islands,  however,  have  grassy 
plains  suitable  for  grazing,  with  scattered  trees,  chiefly  Pandanus, 
and  ferns.  The  flora  has  also  some  Australian  and  New  Zealand 
affinities  (resembling  in  this  respect  the  New  Caledonia  and  New 
Hebrides  groups),  shown  especially  in  these  western  districts  by  the 
Pandanus,  by  certain  acacias  and  others.  At  an  elevation  of  about 
2000  ft.  the  vegetation  assumes  a  more  mountainous  type.  Among 
the  many  valuable  timber  trees  are  the  vesi  (Afzelia  bijuga) ;  the 
dilo  (Calophyllum  Inophyllum),  the  oil  from  its  seeds  being  much 
used  in  the  islands,  as  in  India,  in  the  treatment  of  rheumatism; 
the  dakua  (Dammara  Vitiensis),  allied  to  the  New  Zealand  kauri, 
and  others.  The  dakua  or  Fiji  pine,  however,  has  become  scarce. 
Most  of  the  fruit  trees  are  also  valuable  as  timber.  The  native  cloth 
(ntasi)  is  beaten  out  from  the  bark  of  the  paper  mulberry  cultivated 
for  the  purpose.  Of  the  palms  the  cocoanut  is  by  far  the  most 
important.  The  yasi  or  sandal-wood  was  formerly  a  valuable 
product,  but  is  now  rarely  found.  There  are  various  useful  drugs, 
spices  and  perfumes;  and  many  plants  are  cultivated  for  their 
beauty,  to  which  the  natives  are  keenly  alive.  Among  the  plants 
used  as  pot-herbs  are  several  ferns,  and  two  or  three  Solanums, 
one  of  which,  5.  anthropophagorum,  was  one  of  certain  plants  always 
cooked  with  human  flesh,  which  was  said  to  be  otherwise  difficult  of 
digestion.  The  use  of  the  kava  root,  here  called  yanggona,  from 
which  the  well-known  national  beverage  is  made,  is  said  to  have  been 
introduced  from  Tonga.  Of  fruit  trees,  besides  the  cocoanut,  there 
may  be  mentioned  the  many  varieties  of  the  bread-fruit,  of  bananas 
and  plantains,  of  sugar-cane  and  of  lemon ;  the  wi  (  Spondias  dulcis), 
the  kavika  (Eugenia  malaccensis) ,  the  ivi  or  Tahitian  chestnut 
(Inocarpus  edulis),  the  pine-apple  and  others  introduced  in  modern 
times.  Edible  roots  are  especially  abundant.  The  chief  staple  of 
life  is  the  yam,  the  names  of  several  months  in  the  calendar  haying 
reference  to  its  cultivation  and  ripening.  The  natives  use  no  grain  or 
pulse,  but  make  a  kind  of  bread  (mandrai)  from  this,  the  taro,  and  other 
roots,  as  well  as  from  the  banana  (which  is  the  best),  the  bread-fruit, 
the  ivi,  the  kavika,  the  arrowroot,  and  in  times  of  scarcity  the 
mangrove.  This  bread  is  made  by  burying  the  materials  for  months, 
till  the  mass  is  thoroughly  fermented  and  homogeneous,  when  it  is 
dug  up  and  cooked  by  baking  or  steaming.  This  simple  process, 
applicable  to  such  a  variety  of  substances,  is  a  valuable  security 
against  famine. 


People. — The  Fijians  are  a  people  of  Melanesian  (Papuan) 
stock  much  crossed  with  Polynesians  (Tongans  and  Samoans). 
They  occupy  the  extreme  east  limits  of  Papuan  territory  and 
are  usually  classified  as  Melanesians;  but  they  are  physically 
superior  to  the  pure  examples  of  that  race,  combining  their  dark 
colour,  harsh  hirsute  skin,  crisp  hair,  which  is  bleached  with  lime 
and  worn  in  an  elaborately  trained  mop,  and  muscular  limbs, 
with  the  handsome  features  and  well  proportioned  bodies  of  the 
Polynesians.  They  are  tall  and  well  built.  The  features  are 
strongly  marked,  but  not  unpleasant,  the  eyes  deep  set,  the  beard 
thick  and  bushy.  The  chiefs  are  fairer,  much  better-looking,  and 
of  a  less  negroid  type  of  face  than  the  people.  This  negroid  type 
is  especially  marked  on  the  west  coasts,  and  still  more  in  the 
interior  of  Viti  Levu.  The  Fijians  have  other  characteristics  of 
both  Pacific  races,  e.g.  the  quick  intellect  of  the  fairer,  and  the 
savagery  and  suspicion  of  the  dark.  They  wear  a  minimum  of 
covering,  but,  unlike  the  Melanesians,  are  strictly  decent,  while 
they  are  more  moral  than  the  Polynesians.  They  are  cleanly  and 
particular  about  their  personal  appearance,  though,  unlike  other 
Melanesians,  they  care  little  for  ornament,  and  only  the  women 
are  tattooed.  A  partial  circumcision  is  practised,  which  is 
exceptional  with  the  Melanesians,  nor  have  these  usually  an 
elaborate  political  and  social  system  like  that  of  Fiji.  The  status 
of  the  women  is  also  somewhat  better,  those  of  the  upper  class 
having  considerable  freedom  and  influence.  If  less  readily 
amenable  to  civilizing  influences  than  their  neighbours  to  the 
eastward,  the  Fijians  show  greater  force  of  character  and  in- 
genuity. Possessing  the  arts  of  both  races  they  practise  them 
with  greater  skill  than  either.  They  understand  the  principle  of 
division  of  labour  and  production,  and  thus  of  commerce.  They 
are  skilful  cultivators  and  good  boat-builders,  the  carpenters 
being  an  hereditary  caste;  there  are  also  tribes  of  fishermen  and 
sailors;  their  mats,  baskets,  nets,  cordage  and  other  fabrics 
are  substantial  and  tasteful;  their  pottery,  made,  like  many  of 
the  above  articles,  by  women,  is  far  superior  to  any  other  in 
the  South  Seas;  but  many  native  manufactures  have  been 
supplanted  by  European  goods. 

The  Fijians  were  formerly  notorious  for  cannibalism,  which 
may  have  had  its  origin  in  religion,  but  long  before  the  first 
contact  with  Europeans  had  degenerated  into  gluttony.  The 
Fijian's  chief  table  luxury  was  human  flesh,  euphemistically 
called  by  him  "  long  pig,"  and  to  satisfy  his  appetite  he  would 
sacrifice  even  friends  and  relatives.  The  Fijians  combined  with 
this  greediness  a  savage  and  merciless  natures.  Human  sacrifices 
were  of  daily  occurrence.  On  a  chief's  death  wives  and  slaves 
were  buried  alive  with  him.  When  building  a  chief's  house  a 
slave  was  buried  alive  in  the  hole  dug  for  each  foundation  post. 
At  the  launching  of  a  war-canoe  living  men  were  tied  hand  and 
foot  between  two  plantain  stems  making  a  human  ladder  over 
which  the  vessel  was  pushed  down  into  the  water.  The  people 
acquiesced  in  these  brutal  customs,  and  willingly  met  their  deaths. 
Affection  and  a  firm  belief  in  a  future  state,  in  which  the  exact 
condition  of  the  dying  is  continued,  are  the  Fijians' own  explana- 
tions of  the  custom,  once  universal,  of  killing  sick  or  aged 
relatives.  Yet  in  spite  of  this  savagery  the  Fijians  have  always 
been  remarkable  for  their  hospitality,  open-handedness  and 
courtesy.  They  are  a  sensitive,  proud,  if  vindictive,  and  boastful 
people,  with  good  conversational  and  reasoning  powers,  much 
sense  of  humour,  tact  and  perception  of  character.  Their  code  of 
social  etiquette  is  minute  and  elaborate,  and  the  graduations  of 
rank  well  marked.  These  are  (i)  chiefs,  greater  and  lesser;  (2) 
priests;  (3)  Mala  ni  Vanua  (lit.,  eyes  of  the  land),  employes, 
messengers  or  counsellors;  (4)  distinguished  warriors  of  low 
birth;  (5)  common  people;  (6)  slaves. 

The  family  is  the  unit  of  political  society.  The  families  are 
grouped  in  townships  or  otherwise  (qali)  under  the  lesser  chiefs, 
who  again  owe  allegiance  to  the  supreme  chief  of  the  matanitu  or 
tribe.  The  chiefs  are  a  real  aristocracy,  excelling  the  people  in 
physique,  skill,  intellect  and  acquirements  of  all  sorts;  and  the 
reverence  felt  for  them,  now  gradually  diminishing,  was  very 
great,  and  had  something  of  a  religious  character.  All  that  a  man 
had  belonged  to  his  chief.  On  the  other  hand,  the  chief's  property 


practically  belonged  to  his  people,  and  they  were  as  ready  to  give 
as  to  take.  In  a  time  of  famine,  a  chief  would  declare  the 
contents  of  the  plantations  to  be  common  property.  A  system 
of  feudal  service-tenures  (lala)  is  the  institution  on  which  their 
social  and  political  fabric  mainly  depended.  It  allowed  the  chief 
to  call  for  the  labour  of  any  district,  and  to  employ  it  in  planting, 
house  or  canoe-building,supplying  food  on  the  occasion  of  another 
chief's  visit,  &c.  This  power  was  often  used  with  much  discern- 
ment; thus  an  unpopular  chief  would  redeem  his  character  by 
calling  for  some  customary  service  and  rewarding  it  liberally,  or  a 
district  would  be  called  on  to  supply  labour  or  produce  as  a 
punishment.  The  privilege  might,  of  course,  be  abused  by  needy 
or  unscrupulous  chiefs,  though  they  generally  deferred  somewhat 
to  public  opinion;  it  has  now,  with  similar  customary  exactions 
of  cloth,  mats,  salt,  pottery,  &c.  been  reduced  within  definite 
limits.  An  allied  custom,  solevu,  enabled  a  district  in  want  of  any 
particular  article  to  call  on  its  neighbours  to  supply  it,  giving 
labour  or  something  else  in  exchange.  Although,  then,  the  chief 
is  lord  of  the  soil,  the  inferior  chiefs  and  individual  families  have 
equally  distinct  rights  in  it,  subject  to  payment  of  certain  dues; 
and  the  idea  of  permanent  alienation  of  land  by  purchase  was 
never  perhaps  clearly  realized.  Another  curious  custom  was  that 
of  vasu  (lit.  nephew) .  The  son  of  a  chief  by  a  woman  of  rank  had 
almost  unlimited  rights  over  the  property  of  his  mother's  family, 
or  of  her  people.  In  time  of  war  the  chief  claimed  absolute 
control  over  life  and  property.  Warfare  was  carried  on  with 
many  courteous  formalities,  and  considerable  skill  was  shown  in 
the  fortifications.  There  were  well-defined  degrees  of  dependence 
among  the  different  tribes  or  districts:  the  first  of  these,  bati,  is 
an  alliance  between  two  nearly  equal  tribes,  but  implying  a  sort 
of  inferiority  on  one  side,  acknowledged  by  military  service;  the 
second,  qali,  implies  greater  subjection,  and  payment  of  tribute. 
Thus  A,  being  bati  to  B,  might  hold  C  in  qali,  in  which  case  C  was 
also  reckoned  subject  to  B,  or  might  be  protected  by  B  for 
political  purposes. 

The  former  religion  of  the  Fijians  was  a  sort  of  ancestor- 
worship,  had  much  in  common  with  the  creeds  of  Polynesia,  and 
included  a  belief  in  a  future  existence.  There  were  two  classes  of 
gods — the  first  immortal,  of  whom  Ndengei  is  the  greatest,  said 
to  exist  eternally  in  the  form  of  a  serpent,  but  troubling  himself 
little  with  human  or  other  affairs,  and  the  others  had  usually  only 
a  local  recognition.  The  second  rank  (who,  though  far  above 
mortals,  are  subject  to  their  passions,  and  even  to  death)  com- 
prised the  spirits  of  chiefs,  heroes  and  other  ancestors.  The 
gods  entered  and  spoke  through  their  priests,  who  thus  pro- 
nounced on  the  issue  of  every  enterprise,  but  they  were  not 
represented  by  idols;  certain  groves  and  trees  were  held  sacred, 
and  stones  which  suggest  phallic  associations.  The  priesthood 
usually  was  hereditary,  and  their  influence  great,  and  they  had 
generally  a  good  understanding  with  the  chief.  The  institution 
of  Taboo  existed  in  full  force.  The  mbure  or  temple  was  also  the 
council  chamber  and  place  of  assemblage  for  various  purposes. 

The  weapons  of  the  Fijians  are  spears,  slings,  throwing  clubs 
and  bows  and  arrows.  Their  houses,  of  which  the  framework  is 
timber  and  the  rest  lattice  and  thatch,  are  ingeniously  con- 
structed, with  great  taste  in  ornamentation,  and  are  well 
furnished  with  mats,  mosquito-curtains,  baskets,  fans,  nets  and 
cooking  and  other  utensils.  Their  canoes,  sometimes  more  than 
100  ft.  long,  are  well  built.  Ever  excellent  agriculturists,  their 
implements  were  formerly  digging  sticks  and  hoes  of  turtlebone 
or  flat  oyster-shells.  In  irrigation  they  showed  skill,  draining 
their  fields  with  built  watercourses  and  bamboo  pipes.  Tobacco, 
maize,  sweet  potatoes,  yams,  kava,  taro,  beans  and  pumpkins, 
are  the  principal  crops. 

Fijians  are  fond  of  amusements.  They  have  various  games, 
and  dancing,  story-telling  and  songs  are  especially  popular. 
Their  poetry  has  well-defined  metres,  and  a  sort  of  rhyme. 
Their  music  is  rude,  and  is  said  to  be  always  in  the  major  key. 
They  are  clever  cooks,  and  for  their  feasts  preparations  are  some- 
times made  months  in  advance,  and  enormous  waste  results 
from  them.  Mourning  is  expressed  by  fasting,  by  shaving  the 
head  and  face,  or  by  cutting  off  the  little  finger.  This  last  is 


FIJI  337 

sometimes  done  at  the  death  of  a  rich  man  in  the  hope  that  his 
family  will  reward  the  compliment;  sometimes  it  is  done  vicari- 
ously, as  when  one  chief  cuts  off  the  little  finger  of  his  dependent 
in  regret  or  in  atonement  for  the  death  of  another. 

A  steady,  if  not  a  very  rapid,  decrease  in  the  native  population 
set  in  after  1875.  A  terrible  epidemic  of  measles  in  that  year 
swept  away  40,000,  or  about  one-third  of  the  Fijians.  Sub- 
sequent epidemics  have  not  been  attended  by  anything  like  this 
mortality,  but  there  has,  however,  been  a  steady  decrease, 
principally  among  young  children,  owing  to  whooping-cough, 
tuberculosis  and  croup.  Every  Fijian  child  seems  to  contract 
yaws  at  some  time  in  its  life,  a  mistaken  notion  existing  on  the 
part  of  the  parents  that  it  strengthens  the  child's  physique. 
Elephantiasis,  influenza,  rheumatism,  and  a  skin  disease,  thokot 
also  occur.  One  per  cent  of  the  natives  are  lepers.  A  commission 
appointed  in  1891  to  inquire  into  the  causes  of  the  native  de- 
crease collected  much  interesting  anthropological  information- 
regarding  native  customs,  and  provincial  inspectors  and  medical 
officers  were  specially  appointed  to  compel  the  natives  to  carry 
out  the  sanitary  reforms  recommended  by  the  commission. 
A  considerable  sum  was  also  spent  in  laying  on  good  water  to  the 
native  villages.  The  Fijians  show  no  disposition  to  intermarry 
with  the  Indian  coolies.  The  European  half-castes  are  not 
prolific  inter  se,  and  they  are  subject  to  a  scrofulous  taint.  The 
most  robust  cross  in  the  islands  is  the  offspring  of  the  African 
negro  and  the  Fijian.  Miscegenation  with  the  Micronesians, 
the  only  race  in  the  Pacific  which  is  rapidly  increasing,  is  regarded 
as  the  most  hopeful  manner  of  preserving  the  native  Fijian 
population.  There  is  a  large  Indian  immigrant  population. 

Trade,  Administration,  &c. — The  principal  industries  are  the 
cultivation  of  sugar  and  fruits  and  the  manufacture  of  sugar  and 
copra,  and  these  three  are  the  chief  articles  of  export  trade, 
which  is  carried  on  almost  entirely  with  Australia  and  New 
Zealand.  The  fruits  chiefly  exported  are  bananas  and  pine- 
apples. There  are  also  exported  maize,  vanilla  and  a  variety 
of  fruits  in  small  quantities;  pearl  and  other  shells  and  beche- 
de-mer.  There  is  a  manufacture  of  soap  from  coconut  oil;  a  fair 
quantity  of  tobacco  is  grown,  and  among  other  industries  may 
be  included  boat-building  and  saw-milling.  Regular  steamship 
communications  are  maintained  with  Sydney,  Auckland  and 
Vancouver.  Good  bridle-tracks  exist  in  all  the  larger  islands, 
and  there  are  some  macadamized  roads,  principally  in  Viti  Levu. 
There  is  an  overland  mail  service  by  native  runners.  The  export 
trade  is  valued  at  nearly  £600,000  annually,  and  the  imports  at 
£500,000.  The  annual  revenue  of  the  colony  is  about  £140,000- 
and  the  expenditure  about  £125,000.  The  currency  and  weights 
and  measures  are  British.  Besides  the  customs  and  stamp 
duties,  some  £18,000  of  the  annual  revenue  is  raised  from  native 
taxation.  The  seventeen  provinces  of  the  colony  (at  the  head  of 
which  is  either  a  European  or  a  roko  tui  or  native  official)  are 
assessed  annually  by  the  legislative  council  for  a  fixed  tax  in  kind. 
The  tax  on  each  province  is  distributed  among  districts  under 
officials  called  bulis,  and  further  among  villages  within  these 
districts.  Any  surplus  of  produce  over  the  assessment  is  sold  to- 
contractors,  and  the  money  received  is  returned  to  the  natives. 

Under  a  reconstruction  made  in  1904  there  is  an  executive 
council  consisting  of  the  governor  and  four  official  members. 
The  legislative  council  consists  of  the  governor,  ten  official,  six: 
elected  and  two  native  members.  The  native  chiefs  and  pro- 
vincial representatives  meet  annually  under  the  presidency  of 
the  governor,  and  their  recommendations  are  submitted  for 
sanction  to  the  legislative  council.  Suva  and  Levuka  have  each 
a  municipal  government,  and  there  are  native  district  and 
village  councils.  There  is  an  armed  native  constabulary;  and 
a  volunteer  and  cadet  corps  in  Suva  and  Levuka. 

The  majority  of  the  natives  are  Wesleyan  Methodists.  The 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries  have  about  3000  adherents;  the 
Church  of  England  is  confined  to  the  Europeans  and  kanakas 
in  the  towns;  the  Indian  coolies  are  divided  between  Mahom- 
medans  and  Hindus.  There  are  public  schools  for  Europeans, 
and  half-castes  in  the  towns,  but  there  is  no  provision  for  the 
education  of  the  children  of  settlers  in  the  out-districts.  By  an 


33» 


FILANDER— FILANGIERI,  CARLO 


ordinance  of  1890  provision  was  made  for  the  constitution  of 
school  boards,  and  the  principle  was  first  applied  in  Suva  and 
Levuka.  The  missions  have  established  schools  in  every  native 
village,  and  most  natives  are  able  to  read  and  write  their  own 
language.  The  government  has  established  a  native  technical 
school  for  the  teaching  of  useful  handicrafts.  The  natives  show 
themselves  very  slow  in  adopting  European  habits  in  food, 
clothing  and  house-building. 

History. — A  few  islands  in  the  north-east  of  the  group  were 
first  seen  by  Abel  Tasman  in  1643.  The  southernmost  of  the 
group,  Turtle  Island,  was  discovered  by  Cook  in  1 773.  Lieutenant 
Bligh,  approaching  them  in  the  launch  of  the  "Bounty,"  1789, 
had  a  hostile  encounter  with  natives.  In  1827  Dumont  d'Urville 
in  the  "  Astrolabe  "  surveyed  them  much  more  accurately,  but 
the  first  thorough  survey  was  that  of  the  United  States  exploring 
expedition  in  1840.  Up  to  this  time,  owing  to  the  evil  reputation 
of  the  islanders,  European  intercourse  was  very  limited.  The 
labours  of  the  Wesleyan  missionaries,  however,  must  always  have 
a  prominent  place  in  any  history  of  Fiji.  They  came  from  Tonga 
in  1835  and  naturally  settled  first  in  the  eastern  islands,  where 
the  Tongan  element,  already  familiar  to  them,  preponderated. 
They  perhaps  identified  themselves  too  closely  with  their  Tongan 
friends,  whose  dissolute,  lawless,  tyrannical  conduct  led  to  much 
mischief;  but  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  their  position  was 
difficult,  and  it  was  mainly  through  their  efforts  that  many 
terrible  heathen  practices  were  stamped  out. 

About  1804  some  escaped  convicts  from  Australia  and  runaway 
sailors  established  themselves  around  the  east  part  of  Viti  Levu, 
and  by  lending  their  services  to  the  neighbouring  chiefs  probably 
led  to  their  preponderance  over  the  rest  of  the  group.  Na 
Ulivau,  chief  of  the  small  island  of  Mbau,  established  before 
his  death  in  1829  a  sort  of  supremacy,  which  was  extended  by 
his  brother  Tanoa,  and  by  Tanoa's  son  Thakombau,  a  ruler 
of  considerable  capacity.  In  his  time,  however,  difficulties 
thickened.  The  Tongans,  who  had  long  frequented  Fiji  (especi- 
ally for  canoe-building,  their  own  islands  being  deficient  in 
timber),  now  came  in  larger  numbers,  led  by  an  able  and  am- 
bitious chief,  Maafu,  who,  by  adroitly  taking  part  in  Fijian 
quarrels,  made  himself  chief  in  the  Windward  group,  threatening 
Thakombau's  supremacy.  He  was  harassed,  too,  by  an  arbitrary 
demand  for  £9000  from  the  American  government,  for  alleged 
injuries  to  their  consul.  Several  chiefs  who  disputed  his  authority 
were  crushed  by  the  aid  of  King  George  of  Tonga,  who  (1855) 
had  opportunely  arrived  on  a  visit;  but  he  afterwards,  taking 
some  offence,  demanded  £12,000  for  his  services.  At  last 
Thakombau,  disappointed  in  the  hope  that  his  acceptance 
of  Christianity  (1854)  would  improve  his  position,  offered  the 
sovereignty  to  Great  Britain  (1859)  with  the  fee  simple  of  100,000 
acres,  on  condition  of  her  paying  the  American  claims.  Colonel 
Smythe,  R.A.,  was  sent  out  to  report  on  the  question,  and 
decided  against  annexation,  but  advised  that  the  British  consul 
should  be  invested  with  full  magisterial  powers  over  his  country- 
men, a  step  which  would  have  averted  much  subsequent  difficulty. 

Meanwhile  Dr  B.  Seemann's  favourable  report  on  the 
capabilities  of  the  islands,  followed  by  a  time  of  depression  in 
Australia  and  New  Zealand,  led  to  a  rapid  increase  of  settlers — 
from  200  in  1860  to  1800  in  1869.  This  produced  fresh  complica- 
tions, and  an  increasing  desire  among  the  respectable  settlers 
for  a  competent  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction.  Attempts 
were  made  at  self-government,  and  the  sovereignty  was  again 
offered,  conditionally,  to  England,  and  to  the  United  States. 
Finally,  in  1871,  a  "  constitutional  government  "  was  formed 
by  certain  Englishmen  under  King  Thakombau;  but  this, 
after  incurring  heavy  debt,  and  promoting  the  welfare  of  neither 
whites  nor  natives,  came  after  three  years  to  a  deadlock,  and 
the  British  government  felt  obliged,  in  the  interest  of  all  parties, 
to  accept  the  unconditional  cession  now  offered  (1874).  It  had 
besides  long  been  thought  desirable  to  possess  a  station  on  the 
route  between  Australia  and  Panama;  it  was  also  felt  that  the 
Polynesian  labour  traffic,  the  abuses  in  which  had  caused  much 
indignation,  could  only  be  effectually  regulated  from  a  point 
contiguous  to  the  recruiting  field,  and  the  locality  where  that 


labour  was  extensively  employed.  To  this  end  the  governor  of 
Fiji  was  also  created  "  high  commissioner  for  the  western 
Pacific."  Rotumah  (q.v.)  was  annexed  in  1881. 

At  the  time  of  the  British  annexation  the  islands  were  suffering 
from  commercial  depression,  following  a  fall  in  the  price  of  cotton 
after  the  American  Civil  War.  Coffee,  tea,  cinchona  and  sugar 
were  tried  in  turn,  with  limited  success.  The  coffee  was  attacked 
by  the  leaf  disease;  the  tea  could  not  compete  with  that  grown 
by  the  cheap  labour  of  the  East;  the  sugar  machinery  was  too 
antiquated  to  withstand  the  fall  in  prices  consequent  on  the 
European  sugar  bounties.  In  1878  the  first  coolies  were  im- 
ported from  India  and  the  cultivation  of  sugar  began  to  pass 
into  the  hands  of  large  companies  working  with  modern 
machinery.  With  the  introduction  of  coolies  the  Fijians  began 
to  fall  behind  in  the  development  of  their  country.  Many  of  the 
coolies  chose  to  remain  in  the  colony  after  the  termination  of 
their  indentures,  and  began  to  displace  the  European  country 
traders.  With  a  regular  and  plentiful  supply  of  Indian  coolies, 
the  recruiting  of  kanaka  labourers  practically  ceased.  The 
settlement  of  European  land  claims,  and  the  measures  taken 
for  the  protection  of  native  institutions,  caused  lively  dissatisfac- 
tion among  the  colonists,  who  laid  the  blame  of  the  commercial 
depression  at  the  door  of  the  government;  but  with  returning 
prosperity  this  feeHng  began  to  disappear.  In  1900  the  govern- 
ment of  New  Zealand  made  overtures  to  absorb  Fiji.  The 
Aborigines  Society  protested  to  the  colonial  office,  and  the 
imperial  government  refused  to  sanction  the  proposal. 

See  Smyth,  Ten  Months  in  the  Fiji  Islands  (London,  1864) ; 
B.  Seemann,  Flora  Vitiensis  (London,  1865);  and  Viti:  Account  of 
a  Government  Mission  in  the  Vitian  or  Fijian  Islands  (1860-1861); 
W.  T.  Pritchard,  Polynesian  Reminiscences  (London,  1866);  H. 
Forbes,  Two  Years  in  Fiji  (London,  1875) ;  Commodore  Goodenough, 
Journal  (London,  1876) ;  H.  N.  Moseley,  Notes  of  a  Naturalist  in  the 
"  Challenger  "  (London,  1879);  Sir  A.  H.  Gordon,  Story  of  a  Little 
War  (Edinburgh,  privately  printed,  1879);  J.  W.  Anderson,  Fiji 
and  New  Caledonia  (London,  1880);  C.  F.  Gordon-Gumming,  At 
Home  in  Fiji  (Edinburgh,  1881);  John  Home,  A  Year  in  Fiji 
(London,  1881);  H.  S.  Cooper,  Our  New  Colony,  Fiji  (London, 
1882) ;  S.  E.  Scholes,  Fiji  and  the  Friendly  Islands  (London,  1882) : 
Princes  Albert  Victor  and  George  of  Wales,  Cruise  of  H.  M.  S.  "  Bac- 
chante "  (London,  1886) ;  A.  Agassiz,  The  Islands  and  Coral  Reefs  of 
Fiji  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  U.S.,  1899);  H.  B.  Guppy,  Observations  of 
a  Naturalist  in  the  Pacific  (1896-1899),  vol.  i.;  Vanua  Levu,  Fiji 
(Phys.  Geoa.  and  Geology)  (London,  1903);  Lorimer  Fison,  Tales 
from  Old  fiji  (folk-lore,  &c.)  (London,  1904);  B.  Thomson,  The 
Fijians  (London,  1908). 

FILANDER,  the  name  by  which  the  Aru  Island  wallaby 
(Macropus  brunii)  was  first  described.  It  occurs  in  a  translation 
of  C.  de  Bruyn's  Travels  (ii.  101)  published  in  1737. 

FILANGIERI,  CARLO  (1784-1867),  prince  of  Satriano, 
Neapolitan  soldier  and  statesman,  was  the  son  of  Gaetano 
Filangieri  (1752-1788),  a  celebrated  philosopher  and  jurist. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  decided  on  a  military  career,  and  having 
obtained  an  introduction  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  first 
consul,  was  admitted  to  the  Military  Academy  at  Paris.  In 
1803  he  received  a  commission  in  an  infantry  regiment,  and 
took  part  in  the  campaign  of  1805  under  General  Davoust,  first 
in  the  Low  Countries,  and  later  at  Ulm,  Maria  Zell  and  Austerlitz, 
where  he  fought  with  distinction,  was  wounded  several  times 
and  promoted.  He  returned  to  Naples  as  captain  on  Massena's 
staff  to  fight  the  Bourbons  and  the  Austrians  in  1806,  and 
subsequently  went  to  Spain,  where  he  followed  Jerome  Bona- 
parte in  his  retreat  from  Madrid.  In  consequence  of  a  fatal 
duel  he  was  sent  back  to  Naples ;  there  he  served  under  Joachim 
Murat  with  the  rank  of  general,  and  fought  against  the  Anglo- 
Sicilian  forces  in  Calabria  and  at  Messina.  On  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  he  took  part  in  Murat's  campaign  against  Eugene 
Beauharnais,  and  later  in  that  against  Austria,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  the  Panaro  (1815).  On  the  restoration 
of  the  Bourbon  king  Ferdinand  IV.  (I.),  Filangieri  retained  his 
rank  and  command,  but  found  the  army  utterly  disorganized 
and  impregnated  with  Carbonarism.  In  the  disturbances  of 
1820  he  adhered  to  the  Constitutionalist  party,  and  fought 
under  General  Pepe  (q.v.)  against  the  Austrians.  On  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  autocracy  he  was  dismissed  from  the 


FILANGIERI,  GAETANO— FILE 


339 


service,  and  retired  to  Calabria  where  he  had  inherited  the 
princely  title  and  estates  of  Satriano.  In  1831  he  was  recalled 
by  Ferdinand  II.  and  entrusted  with  various  military  reforms. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  troubles  of  1848  Filangieri  advised  the 
king  to  grant  the  constitution,  which  he  did  in  February  1848, 
but  when  the  Sicilians  formally  seceded  from  the  Neapolitan 
kingdom  Filangieri  was  given  the  command  of  an  armed  force 
with  which  to  reduce  the  island  to  obedience.  On  the  3rd  of 
September  he  landed  near  Messina,  and  after  very  severe  fighting 
captured  the  city.  He  then  advanced  southwards,  besieged 
and  took  Catania,  where  his  troops  committed  many  atrocities, 
and  by  May  1849  he  had  conquered  the  whole  of  Sicily,  though 
not  without  much  bloodshed.  He  remained  in  Sicily  as  governor 
until  1855,  when  he  retired  into  private  life,  as  he  could  not 
carry  out  the  reforms  he  desired  owing  to  the  hostility  of  Giovanni 
Cassisi,  the  minister  for  Sicily.  On  the  death  of  Ferdinand  II. 
(22nd  of  May  1859)  the  new  king  Francis  II.  appointed  Filangieri 
premier  and  minister  of  war.  He  promoted  good  relations 
with  France,  then  fighting  with  Piedmont  against  the  Austrians 
in  Lombardy,  and  strongly  urged  on  the  king  the  necessity  of 
an  alliance  with  Piedmont  and  a  constitution  as  the  only  means 
whereby  the  dynasty  might  be  saved.  These  proposals  being 
rejected,  Filangieri  resigned  office.  In  May  1860,  Francis  at 
last  promulgated  the  constitution,  but  it  was  too  late,  for  Gari- 
baldi was  in  Sicily  and  Naples  was  seething  with  rebellion. 
On  the  advice  of  Liborio  Romano,  the  new  prefect  of  police, 
Filangieri  was  ordered  to  leave  Naples.  He  went  to  Marseilles 
with  his  wife  and  subsequently  to  Florence,  where  at  the  instance 
of  General  La  Marmora  he  undertook  to  write  an  account  of 
the  Italian  army.  Although  he  adhered  to  the  new  government 
he  refused  to  accept  any  dignity  at  its  hands,  and  died  at  his 
villa  of  San  Giorgio  a  Cremano  near  Naples  on  the  9th  of  October 
1867. 

Filangieri  was  a  very  distinguished  soldier,  and  a  man  of 
great  ability;  although  he  changed  sides  several  times  he 
became  really  attached  to  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  which  he  hoped 
to  save  by  freeing  it  from  its  reactionary  tendencies  and  infusing 
a  new  spirit  into  it.  His  conduct  in  Sicily  was  severe  and  harsh, 
but  he  was  not  without  feelings  of  humanity,  and  he  was  an 
honest  man  and  a  good  administrator. 

His  biography  has  been  written  by  his  daughter  Teresa  Filangieri 
Fieschi-Ravaschieri,  //  Generale  Carlo  Filangieri  (Milan,  1902),  an 
interesting,  although  somewhat  top  laudatory  volume  based  on  the 
general's  own  unpublished  memoirs;  for  the  Sicilian  expedition  see 
V.  Finpcchiaro,  La  Rivoluzione  siciliana  del  1848-49  (Catania,  1906, 
with  bibliography),  in  which  Filangieri  is  bitterly  attacked;  see  also 
under  NAPLES;  FERDINAND  IV.;  FRANCIS  I.;  FERDINAND  II.; 
FRANCIS  II.  (L.  V.*) 

FILANGIERI,  GAETANO  (1752-1788),  Italian  publicist,  was 
born  at  Naples  on  the  i8th  of  August  1752.  His  father,  Caesar, 
prince  of  Arianiello,  intended  him  for  a  military  career,  which  he 
commenced  at  the  early  age  of  seven,  but  soon  abandoned  for  the 
study  of  the  law.  At  the  bar  his  knowledge  and  eloquence  early 
secured  his  success,  while  his  defence  of  a  royal  decree  reforming 
abuses  in  the  administration  of  justice  gained  him  the  favour  of 
the  king,  Charles,  afterwards  Charles  III.  of  Spain,  and  led  to 
several  honourable  appointments  at  court.  The  first  two  books  of 
his  great  work,  La  Scienza  delta  legislazione,  appeared  in  1780. 
The  first  book  contained  an  exposition  of  the  rules  on  which 
legislation  in  general  ought  to  proceed,  while  the  second  was 
devoted  to  economic  questions.  These  two  books  showed  him  an 
ardent  reformer,  and  vehement  in  denouncing  the  abuses  of  his 
time.  He  insisted  on  unlimited  free  trade,  and  the  abolition  of  the 
medieval  institutions  which  impeded  production  and  national 
well-being.  Its  success  was  great  and  immediate  not  only  in 
Italy,  but  throughout  Europe  at  large.  In  1783  he  married,  re- 
signed his  appointments  at  court,  and  retiring  to  Cava,  devoted 
himself  steadily  to  the  completion  of  his  work.  In  the  same  year 
appeared  the  third  book,  relating  entirely  to  the  principles  of 
criminal  jurisprudence.  The  suggestion  which  he  made  in  it  as  to 
the  need  for  reform  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church  brought  upon 
him  the  censure  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  it  was 
condemned  by  the  congregation  of  the  Index  in  1 784.  In  1 785  he 


published  three  additional  volumes,  making  the  fourth  book  of 
the  projected  work,  and  dealing  with  education  and  morals.  In 
1787  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  supreme  treasury  council 
by  Ferdinand  IV.,  but  his  health,  impaired  by  close  study  and 
over-work  in  his  new  office,  compelled  his  withdrawal  to  the 
country  at  Vico  Equense.  He  died  somewhat  suddenly  on  the 
zist  of  July  1788,  having  just  completed  the  first  part  of  the 
fifth  book  of  his  Scienza.  He  left  an  outline  of  the  remainder  of 
the  work,  which  was  to  have  been  completed  in  six  books. 

La  Scienza  della  legislazione  has  gone  through  many  editions,  and 
has  been  translated  into  most  of  the  languages  of  Europe.  The 
best  Italian  edition  is  in  5  vols.  8vo.  (1807).  The  Milan  edition  (1822) 
contains  the  Opusculi  scelti  and  a  life  by  Donato  Tommasi.  A  French 
translation  appeared  in  Paris  in  7  vols.  8vo  (1786-1798);  it  was 
republished  in  1822-1824,  with  the  addition  of  the  Opusdes  and 
notes  by  Benjamin  Constant.  The  Science  of  Legislation  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Sir  R.  Clayton  (London,  1806). 

FILARIASIS,  the  name  of  a  disease  due  to  the  nematode 
Filaria  sanguinis  hominis.  A  milky  appearance  of  the  urine,  due 
to  the  presence  of  a  substance  like  chyle,  which  forms  a  clot,  had 
been  observed  from  time  to  time,  especially  in  tropical  and 
subtropical  countries;  and  it  was  proved  by  Dr  Wucherer  of 
Bahia,  and  by  Dr  Timothy  Lewis,  that  this  peculiar  condition  is 
uniformly  associated  with  the  presence  in  the  blood  of  minute 
eel-like  worms,  visible  only  under  the  microscope,  being  the 
embryo  forms  of  a  Filaria  (see  NEMATODA).  Sometimes  the 
discharge  of  lymph  takes  place  at  one  or  more  points  of  the 
surface  of  the  body,  and  there  is  in  other  cases  a  condition  of 
naevoid  elephantiasis  of  the  scrotum,  or  lymph-scrotum.  More 
or  less  of  blood  may  occur  along  with  the  chylous  fluid  in  the 
urine.  Both  the  chyluria  and  the  presence  of  filariae  in  the  blood 
are  curiously  intermittent;  it  may  happen  that  not  a  single 
filaria  is  to  be  seen  during  the  daytime,  while  they  swarm  in  the 
blood  at  night,  and  it  has  been  ingeniously  shown  by  Dr  S. 
Mackenzie  that  they  may  be  made  to  disappear  if  the  patient  sits 
up  all  night,  reappearing  while  he  sleeps  through  the  day. 

Sir  P.  Manson  proved  that  mosquitoes  imbibe  the  embryo 
filariae  from  the  blood  of  man;  and  that  many  of  these  reach  full 
development  within  the  mosquito,  acquiring  their  freedom  when 
the  latter  resorts  to  water,  where  it  dies  after  depositing  its  eggs. 
Mosquitoes  would  thus  be  the  intermediate  host  of  the  filariae, 
and  their  introduction  into  the  human  body  would  be  through  the 
medium  of  water  (see  PARASITIC  DISEASES). 

FILDES,  SIR  LUKE  (1844-  ),  English  painter,  was  born  at 
Liverpool,  and  trained  in  the  South  Kensington  and  Royal 
Academy  schools.  At  first  a  highly  successful  illustrator,  he  took 
rank  later  among  the  ablest  English  painters,  with  "  The  Casual 
Ward  "  (1874),  "  The  Widower  "  (1876),"  The  Village  Wedding  " 
(1883),  "An  Al-fresco  Toilette"  (1889);  and  "The  Doctor" 
(1891),  now  in  the  National  Gallery  of  British  Art.  He  also 
painted  a  number  of  pictures  of  Venetian  life  and  many  notable 
portraits,  among  them  the  coronation  portraits  of  King  Edward 
VII.  and  Queen  Alexandra.  He  was  elected  an  associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1879,  and  academician  in  1887;  and  was. 
knighted  in  1906. 

See  David  Croal  Thomson,  The  Life  and  Work  of  Luke  Fildes.  R.A. 
(i895). 

FILE.  i.  A  bar  of  steel  having  sharp  teeth  on  its  surface,  and 
used  for  abrading orsmoothing  hard  surfaces.  (The  0.  Eng.  word 
is  Jeol,  and  cognate  forms  appear  in  Dutch  vijl,  Ger.  Feile,  &c. ; 
the  ultimate  source  is  usually  taken  to  be  an  Indo-European  root 
meaning  to  mark  or  scratch,  and  seen  in  the  Lat.  pingere,  to 
paint.)  Some  uncivilized  tribes  polish  their  weapons  with  such 
things  as  rough  stones,  pieces  of  shark  skin  or  fishes'  teeth. 
The  operation  of  filing  is  recorded  in  i  Sam.  xiii.  21;  and,  among 
other  facts,  the  similarity  of  the  name  for  the  filing  instrument 
among  various  European  peoples  points  to  an  early  practice  of 
the  art.  A  file  differs  from  a  rasp  (which  is  chiefly  used  for 
working  wood,  horn  and  the  like)  in  having  its  teeth  cut  with  a 
chisel  whose  straight  edge  extends  across  its  surface,  while  the 
teeth  of  the  rasp  are  formed  by  solitary  indentations  of  a  pointed 
chisel.  According  to  the  form  of  their  teeth,  files  may  be  single- 
cut  or  double-cut;  the  former  have  only  one  set  of  parallel  ridges. 


340 


FILE-FISH 


(either  at  right  angles  or  at  some  other  angle  with  the  length) ; 
the  latter  (and  more  common)  have  a  second  set  cut  at  an  angle 
with  the  first.  The  double-cut  file  presents  sharp  angles  to  the 
filed  surface,  and  is  better  suited  for  hard  metals.  Files  are 
classed  according  to  the  fineness  of  their  teeth  (see  TOOL),  and 
their  shapes  present  almost  endless  varieties.  Common  forms 
are — the  flat  file,  of  parallelogram  section,  with  uniform  breadth 
and  thickness,  or  tapering,  or  "  bellied  ";  the  four-square  file,  of 
square  section,  sometimes  with  one  side  "  safe,"  or  left  smooth; 
and  the  so-called  three-square  file,  having  its  cross  section  an 
equilateral  triangle,  the  half-round  file,  a  segment  of  a  circle,  the 
round  or  rat-tail  file,  a  circle,  which  are  generally  tapered.  The 
float  file  is  like  the  flat,  but  single-cut.  There  are  many  others. 
Files  vary  in  length  from  three-quarters  of  an  inch  (watchmakers') 
to  2  or  3  ft.  and  upwards  (engineers').  The  length  is  reckoned 
exclusively  of  the  spike  or  tang  which  enters  the  handle.  Most 
files  are  tapered;  the  blunt  are  nearly  parallel,  with  larger  section 
near  the  middle;  a  few  are  parallel.  The  rifflers  of  sculptors  and 
a  few  other  files  are  curvilinear  in  their  central  line. 

In  manufacturing  files,  steel  blanks  are  forged  from  bars  which 
have  been  sheared  or  rolled  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  sections 
required,  and  after  being  carefully  annealed  are  straightened,  if 
necessary,  and  then  rendered  clean  and  accurate  by  grinding  or 
filing.  The  process  of  cutting  them  used  to  be  largely  performed 
by  hand,  but  machines  are  now  widely  employed.  The  hand- 
cutter,  holding  in  his  left  hand  a  short  chisel  (the  edge  of  which  is 
wider  than  the  width  of  the  file),  places  it  on  the  blank  with  an 
inclination  from  the  perpendicular  of  12°  or  14°,  and  beginning 
near  the  farther  end  (the  blank  is  placed  with  the  tang  or  handle 
end  towards  him)  strikes  it  sharply  with  a  hammer.  An  indenta- 
tion is  thus  made,  and  the  steel,  slightly  thrown  up  on  the  side 
next  the  tang,  forms  a  ridge.  The  chisel  is  then  transferred  to  the 
uncut  surface  and  slid  away  from  the  operator  till  it  encounters 
the  ridge  just  made;  the  position  of  the  next  cut  being  thus 
determined,  the  chisel  is  again  struck,  and  so  on.  The  workman 
seeks  to  strike  the  blows  as  uniformly  as  possible,  and  he  will 
make  60  or  80  cuts  a  minute.  If  the  file  is  to  be  single-cut,  it  is 
now  ready  to  be  hardened,  but  if  it  is  to  be  double-cut  he  pro- 
ceeds to  make  the  second  series  or  course  of  cuts,  which  are 
generally  somewhat  finer  than  the  first.  Thus  the  surface  is 
covered  with  teeth  inclined  towards  the  point  of  the  file.  If  the 
file  is  flat  and  is  to  be  cut  on  the  other  side,  it  is  turned  over,  and  a 
thin  plate  of  pewter  placed  below  it  to  protect  the  teeth.  Tri- 
angular and  other  files  are  supported  in  grooves  in  lead.  In 
cutting  round  and  half-round  files,  a  straight  chisel  is  applied  as 
tangent  to  the  curve.  The  round  face  of  a  half-round  file  requires 
eight,  ten  or  more  courses  to  complete  it.  Numerous  attempts 
were  made,  even  so  far  back  as  the  i8th  century,  to  invent 
machinery  for  cutting  files,  but  little  success  was  attained  till  the 
latter  part  of  the  ipth  century.  In  most  of  the  machines  the 
idea  was  to  arrange  a  metal  arm  and  hand  to  hold  the  chisel  with 
a  hammer  to  strike  the  blow,  and  so  to  imitate  the  manual 
process  as  closely  as  possible.  The  general  principle  on  which  the 
successful  forms  are  constructed  is  that  the  blanks,  laid  on  a 
moving  table,  are  slowly  traversed  forward  under  a  rapidly 
reciprocating  chisel  or  knife. 

The  filing  of  a  flat  surface  perfectly  true  is  the  test  of  a  good 
filer;  and  this  is  no  easy  matter  to  the  beginner.  The  piece  to  be 
operated  upon  is  generally  fixed  about  the  level  of  the  elbow, 
the  operator  standing,  and,  except  in  the  case  of  small  files, 
grasping  the  file  with  both  hands,  the  handle  with  the  right, 
the  farther  end  with  the  left.  The  great  point  is  to  be  able  to 
move  the  file  forward  with  pressure  in  horizontal  straight  lines; 
from  the  tendency  of  the  hands  to  move  in  arcs  of  circles,  the  heel 
and  point  of  the  file  are  apt  to  be  alternately  raised.  This  is 
partially  compensated  by  the  bellied  form  given  to  many  files 
(which  also  counteracts  the  frequent  warping  effect  of  the  harden- 
ing process,  by  which  one  side  of  a  flat  file  may  be  rendered 
concave  and  useless).  In  bringing  back  the  file  for  the  next 
thrust  it  is  nearly  lifted  off  the  work.  Further,  much  delicacy 
and  skill  are  required  in  adapting  the  pressure  and  velocity, 
ascertaining  if  foreign  matters  or  filings  remain  interposed 


between  the  file  and  the  work,  &c.  Files  can  be  cleaned  with 
a  piece  of  the  so-called  cotton-card  (used  in  combing  cotton  wool) 
nailed  to  a  piece  of  wood.  In  draw-filing,  which  is  sometimes 
resorted  to  to  give  a  neat  finish,  the  file  is  drawn  sideways  to 
and  fro  over  the  work.  New  files  are  generally  used  for  a  time 
on  brass  or  cast-iron,  and  when  partially  worn  they  are  still 
available  for  filing  wrought  iron  and  steel. 

2.  A  string  or  thread  (through  the  Fr.  fil  and  file,  from  Lat. 
filum,  a  thread) ;  hence  used  of  a  device,  originally  a  cord,  wire 
or  spike  on  which  letters,  receipts,  papers,  &c.,  may  be  strung 
for  convenient  reference.  The  term  has  been  extended  to 
embrace  various  methods  for  the  preservation  of  papers  in  a 
particular  order,  such  as  expanding  books,  cabinets,  and  in- 
genious improvements  on  the  simple  wire  file  which  enable  any 
single  document  to  be  readily  found  and  withdrawn  without 
removing  the  whole  series.  From  the  devices  used  for  filing  the 
word  is  transferred  to  the  documents  filed,  and  thus  is  used  of  a 
catalogue,  list,  or  collection  of  papers,  &c.  File  is  also  employed 
to  denote  a  row  of  persons  or  objects  arranged  one  behind  the 
other.  In  military  usage  a  "  file  "  is  the  opposite  of  a  "  rank," 
that  is,  it  is  composed  of  a  (variable)  number  of  men  aligned  from 
front  to  rear  one  behind  the  other,  while  a  rank  contains  a  number 
of  men  aligned  from  right  to  left  abreast.  Thus  a  British  infantry 
company,  in  line  two  deep,  one  hundred  strong,  has  two  ranks 
of  fifty  men  each,  and  fifty  "  files  "  of  two  men  each.  Up  to 
about  1600  infantry  companies  or  battalions  were  often  sixteen 
deep,  one  front  rank  man  and  the  fifteen  "  coverers  "  forming  a 
file.  The  number  of  ranks  and,  therefore,  of  men  in  the  file 
diminished  first  to  ten  (1600),  then  to  six  (1630),  then  to  three 
(1700),  and  finally  to  two  (about  1808  in  the  British  army,  1888 
in  the  German).  Denser  formations  when  employed  have  been 
formed,  not  by  altering  the  order  of  men  within  the  unit,  but  by 
placing  several  units,  one  closely  behind  the  other  ("  doubling  " 
and  "  trebling  "  the  line  of  battle,  as  it  used  to  be  called).  In 
the  i7th  century  a  file  formed  a  small  command  under  the  "  file 
leader,"  the  whole  of  the  front  rank  consisting  therefore  of  old 
soldiers  or  non-commissioned  officers.  This  use  of  the  word  to 
express  a  unit  of  command  gave  rise  to  the  old-fashioned  term 
"  file  firing,"  to  imply  a  species  of  fire  (equivalent  to  the  modern 
"  independent  ")  in  which  each  man  in  the  file  fired  in  succession 
after  the  file  leader,  and  to-day  a  corpora!  or  sergeant  is  still 
ordered  to  take  one  or  more  files  under  his  charge  for  independent 
work.  In  the  above  it  is  to  be  understood  that  the  men  are  facing 
to  the  front  or  rear.  If  they  are  turned  to  the  right  or  left  so 
that  the  company  now  stands  two  men  broad  and  fifty  deep,  it 
is  spoken  of  as  being  "  in  file."  From  this  come  such  phrases  as 
"  single  file  "  or  "  Indian  file  "  (one  man  leading  and  the  rest 
following  singly  behind  him).1  The  use  of  verbs  "  to  file  "  and 
"  to  defile,"  implying  the  passage  from  fighting  to  marching 
formation,  is  to  be  derived  from  this  rather  than  from  the  re- 
semblance of  a  marching  column  to  a  long  flexible  thread,  for 
in  the  days  when  the  word  was  first  used  the  infantry  company 
whether  in  battle  or  on  the  march  was  a  solid  rectangle  of  men, 
a  file  often  containing  even  more  men  than  a  rank. 

FILE-FISH,  or  TRIGGER-FISH,  the  names  given  to  fishes 
of  the  genus  Balistes  (and  Monacanthus)  inhabiting  all  tropical 
and  subtropical  seas.  Their  body  is  compressed  and  not  covered 
with  ordinary  scales,  but  with  small  juxtaposed  scutes.  Their 
other  principal  characteristics  consist  in  the  structure  of  their 
first  dorsal  fin  (which  consists  of  three  spines)  and  in  their  peculiar 
dentition.  The  first  of  the  three  dorsal  spines  is  very  strong, 
roughened  in  front  like  a  file,  and  hollowed  out  behind  to  receive 
the  second  much  smaller  spine,  which,  besides,  has  a  projection 
in  front,  at  its  base,  fitting  into  a  notch  of  the  first.  Thus  these 
two  spines  can  only  be  raised  or  depressed  simultaneously,  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  first  cannot  be  forced  down  unless  the 
second  has  been  previously  depressed.  The  latter  has  been  com- 
pared to  a  trigger,  hence  the  name  of  Trigger-fish.  Also  the 

1  This  may  also  be  understood  as  meaning  simply  "  a  single  file," 
but  the  explanation  given  above  is  more  probable,  as  it  is  essentially 
a  marching  and  not  a  fighting  formation  that  is  expressed  by  the 
phrase. 


FILELFO 


generic  name  Balistes  and  the  Italian  name  of  "  Pesce  balistra" 
refer  to  this  structure.  Both  jaws  are  armed  with  eight  strong 
incisor-like  and  sometimes  pointed  teeth,  by  which  these  fishes  are 
enabled,  not  only  to  break  off  pieces  of  madrepores  and  other 
corals  on  which  they  feed,  but  also  to  chisel  a  hole  into  the  hard 
shells  of  Mollusca,  in  order  to  extract  the  soft  parts.  In  this  way 
they  destroy  an  immense  number  of  molluscs,  and  become  most 
injurious  to  the  pearl-fisheries.  The  gradual  failure  of  those 


Balistes  vidua. 

fisheries  in  Ceylon  has  been  ascribed  to  this  cause,  although 
evidently  other  agencies  must  have  been  at  work  at  the  same 
time.  The  Monacanthi  are  distinguished  from  the  Balistes  in 
having  only  one  dorsal  spine  and  a  velvety  covering  of  the  skin. 
Some  30  different  species  are  known  of  Balistes  and  about  50 
of  Monacanthus.  Two  species  (B.  macvlatus  and  capriscus), 
common  in  the  Atlantic,  sometimes  wander  to  the  British 
coasts. 

FILELFO,  FRANCESCO  (1398-1481),  Italian  humanist,  was 
born  in  1398  at  Tolentino,  in  the  March  of  Ancona.  When  he 
appeared  upon  the  scene  of  human  life,  Petrarch  and  the  students 
of  Florence  had  already  brought  the  first  act  in  the  recovery  of 
classic  culture  to  conclusion.  They  had  created  an  eager  appetite 
for  the  antique,  had  disinterred  many  important  Roman 
authors,  and  had  freed  Latin  scholarship  to  some  extent  from 
the  barbarism  of  the  middle  ages.  Filelfo  was  destined  to  carry 
on  their  work  in  the  field  of  Latin  literature,  and  to  be  an  im- 
portant agent  in  the  still  unaccomplished  recovery  of  Greek 
culture.  His  earliest  studies  in  grammar,  rhetoric  and  the  Latin 
language  were  conducted  at  Padua,  where  he  acquired  so  great 
a  reputation  for  learning  that  in  1417  he  was  invited  to  teach 
eloquence  and  moral  philosophy  at  Venice.  According  to  the 
custom  of  that  age  in  Italy,  it  now  became  his  duty  to  explain  the 
language,  and  to  illustrate  the  beauties  of  the  principal  Latin 
authors,  Cicero  and  Virgil  being  considered  the  chief  masters  of 
moral  science  and  of  elegant  diction.  Filelfo  made  his  mark 
at  once  in  Venice.  He  was  admitted  to  the  society  of  the  first 
scholars  and  the  most  eminent  nobles  of  that  city;  and  in  1419 
he  received  an  appointment  from  the  state,  which  enabled  him 
to  reside  as  secretary  to  the  consul-general (baylo)  of  the  Venetians 
in  Constantinople.  This  appointment  was  not  only  honourable 
to  Filelfo  as  a  man  of  trust  and  general  ability,  but  it  also  gave 
him  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  the  most  coveted  of  all  posses- 
sions at  that  moment  for  a  scholar — a  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
language.  Immediately  after  his  arrival  in  Constantinople, 
Filelfo  placed  himself  under  the  tuition  of  John  Chrysoloras, 
whose  name  was  already  well  known  in  Italy  as  relative  of  Manuel, 
the  first  Greek  to  profess  the  literature  of  his  ancestors  in  Florence. 
At  the  recommendation  of  Chrysoloras  he  was  employed  in  several 
diplomatic  missions  by  the  emperor  John  Palaeologus.  Before 
very  long  the  friendship  between  Filelfo  and  his  tutor  was 
cemented  by  the  marriage  of  the  former  to  Theodora,  the 
daughter  of  John  Chrysoloras.  He  had  now  acquired  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  language,  and  had  formed  a  large 
collection  of  Greek  manuscripts.  There  was  no  reason  why  he 
should  not  return  to  his  native  country.  Accordingly,  in  1427  he 
accepted  an  invitation  from  the  republic  of  Venice,  and  set  sail  for 
Italy,  intending  to  resume  his  professorial  career.  From  this 


time  forward  until  the  date  of  his  death,  Filelfo's  history  consists 
of  a  record  of  the  various  towns  in  which  he  lectured,  the  masters 
whom  he  served,  the  books  he  wrote,  the  authors  he  illustrated, 
the  friendships  he  contracted,  and  the  wars  he  waged  with  rival 
scholars.  He  was  a  man  of  vast  physical  energy,  of  inexhaustible 
mental  activity,  of  quick  passions  and  violent  appetites;  vain, 
restless,  greedy  of  gold  and  pleasure  and  fame;  unable  to  stay 
quiet  in  one  place,  and  perpetually  engaged  in  quarrels  with  his 
compeers. 

When  Filelfo  arrived  at  Venice  with  his  family  in  1427,  he 
found  that  the  city  had  almost  been  emptied  by  the  plague, 
and  that  his  scholars  would  be  few.  He  therefore  removed  to 
Bologna;  but  here  also  he  was  met  with  drawbacks.  The 
city  was  too  much  disturbed  with  political  dissensions  to  attend 
to  him;  so  Filelfo  crossed  the  Apennines  and  settled  in  Florence. 
At  Florence  began  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  eventful  periods 
of  his  life.  During  the  week  he  lectured  to  large  audiences  of 
young  and  old  on  the  principal  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  and  on 
Sundays  he  explained  Dante  to  the  people  in  the  Duomo.  In 
addition  to  these  labours  of  the  chair,  he  found  time  to  translate 
portions  of  Aristotle,  Plutarch,  Xenophon  and  Lysias  from  the 
Greek.  Nor  was  he  dead  to  the  claims  of  society.  At  first  he 
seems  to  have  lived  with  the  Florentine  scholars  on  tolerably 
good  terms;  but  his  temper  was  so  arrogant  that  Cosimo  de' 
Medici's  friends  were  not  long  able  to  put  up  with  him.  Filelfo 
hereupon  broke  out  into  open  and  violent  animosity;  and  when 
Cosimo  was  exiled  by  the  Albizzi  party  in  1433,  he  urged  the 
signoria  of  Florence  to  pronounce  upon  him  the  sentence  of 
death.  On  the  return  of  Cosimo  to  Florence,  Filelfo's  position 
in  that  city  was  no  longer  tenable.  His  life,  he  asserted,  had 
been  already  once  attempted  by  a  cut-throat  in  the  pay  of  the 
Medici;  and  now  he  readily  accepted  an  invitation  from  the 
state  of  Siena.  In  Siena,  however,  he  was  not  destined  to  remain 
more  than  four  years.  His  fame  as  a  professor  had  grown  great 
in  Italy,  and  he  daily  received  tempting  offers  from  princes  and 
republics.  The  most  alluring  of  these,  made  him  by  the  duke 
of  Milan,  Filippo  Maria  Visconti,  he  decided  on  accepting;  and 
in  1440  he  was  received  with  honour  by  his  new  master  in  the 
capital  of  Lombardy. 

Filelfo's  life  at  Milan  curiously  illustrates  the  multifarious 
importance  of  the  scholars  of  that  age  in  Italy.  It  was  his  duty 
to  celebrate  his  princely  patrons  in  panegyrics  and  epics,  to 
abuse  their  enemies  in  libels  and  invectives,  to  salute  them  with 
encomiastic  odes  on.  their  birthdays,  and  to  compose  poems  on 
their  favourite  themes.  For  their  courtiers  he  wrote  epithalamial 
and  funeral  orations;  ambassadors  and  visitors  from  foreign 
states  he  greeted  with  the  rhetorical  lucubrations  then  so  much 
in  vogue.  The  students  of  the  university  he  taught  in  daily 
lectures,  passing  in  review  the  weightiest  and  lightest  authors 
of  antiquity,  and  pouring  forth  a  flood  of  miscellaneous  erudition. 
No  satisfied  with  these  outlets  for  his  mental  energy,  Filelfo 
went  on  translating  from  the  Greek,  and  prosecuted  a  paper 
warfare  with  his  enemies  in  Florence.  He  wrote,  moreover, 
political  pamphlets  on  the  great  events  of  Italian  history;  and 
when  Constantinople  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  he  procured  the 
liberation  of  his  wife's  mother  by  a  message  addressed  in  his  own 
name  to  the  sultan.  In  addition  to  a  fixed  stipend  of  some 
700  golden  florins  yearly,  he  was  continually  in  receipt  of  special 
payments  for  the  orations  and  poems  he  produced;  so  that, 
had  he  been  a  man  of  frugal  habits  or  of  moderate  economy, 
he  might  have  amassed  a  considerable  fortune.  As  it  was,  he 
spent  his  money  as  fast  as  he  received  it,  living  in  a  style  of 
splendour  ill  befitting  a  simple  scholar,  and  indulging  his  taste 
for  pleasure  in  more  than  questionable  amusements.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  prodigality,  he  was  always  poor.  His  letters 
and  his  poems  abound  in  impudent  demands  for  money  from 
patrons,  some  of  them  couched  in  language  of  the  lowest  adula- 
tion, and  others  savouring  of  literary  brigandage. 

During  the  second  year  of  his  Milanese  residence  Filelfo  lost 
his  first  wife,  Theodora.  He  soon  married  again;  and  this  time 
he  chose  for  his  bride  a  young  lady  of  good  Lombard  family, 
called  Orsina  Osnaga.  When  she  died  he  took  in  wedlock  for 


342 


FILEY— FILICAJA 


the  third  time  a  woman  of  Lombard  birth,  Laura  Magiolini.  To 
all  his  three  wives,  in  spite  of  numerous  infidelities,  he  seems 
to  have  been  warmly  attached;  and  this  is  perhaps  the  best 
trait  in  a  character  otherwise  more  remarkable  for  arrogance 
and  heat  than  for  any  amiable  qualities. 

On  the  death  of  Filippo  Maria  Visconti,  Filelfo,  after  a  short 
hesitation,  transferred  his  allegiance  to  Francesco  Sforza,  the 
new  duke  of  Milan;  and  in  order  to  curry  favour  with  this 
parvenu,  he  began  his  ponderous  epic,  the  Sforziad,  of  which 
1 2,800  lines'were  written,  but  which  was  never  published.  When 
Francesco  Sforza  died,  Filelfo  turned  his  thoughts  towards 
Rome.  He  was  now  an  old  man  of  seventy-seven  years,  honoured 
with  the  friendship  of  princes,  recognized  as  the  most  distin- 
guished of  Italian  humanists,  courted  by  pontiffs,  and  decorated 
with  the  laurel  wreath  and  the  order  of  knighthood  by  kings. 
Crossing  the  Apennines  and  passing  through  Florence,  he  reached 
Rome  in  the  second  week  of  1475.  The  terrible  Sixtus  IV.  now 
ruled  in  the  Vatican;  and  from  this  pope  Filelfo  had  received 
an  invitation  to  occupy  the  chair  of  rhetoric  with  good  emolu- 
ments. At  first  he  was  vastly  pleased  with  the  city  and  court 
of  Rome;  but  his  satisfaction  ere  long  turned  to  discontent, 
and  he  gave  vent  to  his  ill-humour  in  a  venomous  satire  on  the 
pope's  treasurer,  Milliardo  Cicala.  Sixtus  himself  soon  fell 
under  the  ban  of  his  displeasure;  and  when  a  year  had  passed 
he  left  Rome  never  to  return.  Filelfo  reached  Milan  to  find  that 
his  wife  had  died  of  the  plague  in  his  absence,  and  was  already 
buried.  His  own  death  followed  speedily.  For  some  time  past 
he  had  been  desirous  of  displaying  his  abilities  and  adding  to 
his  fame  in  Florence.  Years  had  healed  the  breach  between 
him  and  the  Medicean  family;  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  Pazzi 
conspiracy  against  the  life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  he  had  sent 
violent  letters  of  abuse  to  his  papal  patron  Sixtus,  denouncing 
his  participation  in  a  plot  so  dangerous  to  the  security  of  Italy. 
Lorenzo  now  invited  him  to  profess  Greek  at  Florence,  and 
thither  Filelfo  journeyed  in  1481.  But  two  weeks  after  his 
arrival  he  succumbed  to  dysentery,  and  was  buried  at  the  age 
of  eighty-three  in  the  church  of  the  Annunziata. 

Filelfo  deserves  commemoration  among  the  greatest  humanists 
of  the  Kalian  Renaissance,  not  for  the  beauty  of  his  style,  not 
for  the  elevation  of  his  genius,  not  for  the  accuracy  of  his  learning, 
but  for  his  energy,  and  for  his  complete  adaptation  to  the  times 
in  which  he  lived.  His  erudition  was  large  but  ill-digested; 
his  knowledge  of  the  ancient  authors,  if  extensive,  was  superficial ; 
his  style  was  vulgar;  he  had  no  brilliancy  of  imagination,  no 
pungency  of  epigram,  no  grandeur  of  rhetoric.  Therefore  he 
has  left  nothing  to  posterity  which  the  world  would  not  very 
willingly  let  die.  But  in  his  own  days  he  did  excellent  service 
to  learning  by  his  untiring  activity,  and  by  the  facility  with 
which  he  used  his  stores  of  knowledge.  It  was  an  age  of  accumula- 
tion and  preparation,  when  the  world  was  still  amassing  and 
cataloguing  the  fragments  rescued  from  the  wrecks  of  Greece 
and  Rome.  Men  had  to  receive  the  very  rudiments  of  culture 
before  they  could  appreciate  its  niceties.  And  in  this  work  of 
collection  and  instruction  Filelfo  excelled,  passing  rapidly  from 
place  to  place,  stirring  up  the  zeal  for  learning  by  the  passion 
of  his  own  enthusiastic  temperament,  and  acting  as  a  pioneer 
for  men  like  Poliziano  and  Erasmus. 

All  that  is  worth  knowing  about  Filelfo  is  contained  in  Carlo  de' 
Rosmini's  admirable  Vita  di  Filelfo  (Milan,  1808) ;  see  also  W. 
Roscoe's  Life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  Vespasiano's  Vite  di  uomini 
illustri,  and  J.  A.  Symonds's  Renaissance  in  Italy  (1877). 

(J.  A.  S.) 

A  complete  edition  of  Filelfo's  Greek  letters  (based  on  the  Codex 
Trevulzianus)  was  published  for  the  first  time,  with  French  transla- 
tion, notes  and  commentaries,  by  E.  Legrand  in  1892  at  Paris  (C.  xii. 
of  Publications  de  I'ecole  des  lang.  orient.).  For  further  references, 
especially  to  monographs,  &c.,  on  Filelfo's  life  and  work,  see  Ulysse 
Chevalier,  Repertoire  des  sources  hist.,  bio-bibliographie  (Paris,  1905), 
s.  v.  Philelphe,  Francois. 

FILEY,  a  seaside  •  resort  in  the  Buckrose  parliamentary 
division  of  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  9^  m.  S.E.  of 
Scarborough  by  a  branch  of  the  North  Eastern  railway.  Pop.  of 
urban  district  (1901)  3003.  It  stands  upon  the  slope  and 
summit  of  the  cliffs  above  Filey  Bay,  which  is  fringed  by  a  fine 


sandy  beach.  The  northern  horn  of  the  bay  is  formed  by  Filey 
Brigg,  a  narrow  and  abrupt  promontory,  continued  seaward  by 
dangerous  reefs.  The  coast-line  sweeps  hence  south-eastward  to 
the  finer  promontory  of  Flamborough  Head,  beyond  which  is  the 
watering-place  of  Bridlington.  The  church  of  St  Oswald  at 
F.;ley  is  a  fine  cruciform  building  with  central  tower,  Transitional 
Norman  and  Early  English  in  date.  There  are  pleasant 
promenades  and  good  golf  links,  also  a  small  spa  which  has  fallen 
into  disuse.  Filey  is  in  favour  with  visitors  who  desire  a  quiet 
resort  without  the  accompaniment  of  entertainment  common  to 
the  larger  watering-places.  Roman  remains  have  been  dis- 
covered on  the  cliff  north  of  the  town;  the  site  was  probably 
important,  but  nothing  is  certainly  known  about  it. 

FILIBUSTER,  a  name  originally  given  to  the  buccaneers 
(q.v.).  The  term  is  derived  most  probably  from  the  Dutch  my 
butter,  Ger.  Freibeuter,  Eng.  freebooter,  the  word  changing  first  into 
fribustier,  and  then  into  Fr.  flibustier,  Span,  filibustero.  Fli- 
bustier  has  passed  into  the  French  language,  and  filibustero  into 
the  Spanish  language,  as  a  general  name  for  a  pirate.  The  term 
"  filibuster "  was  revived  in  America  to  designate  those 
adventurers  who,  after  the  termination  of  the  war  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States,  organized  expeditions  within  the 
United  States  to  take  part  in  West  Indian  and  Central  American 
revolutions.  From  this  has  sprung  the  modern  use  of  the  word 
to  imply  one  who  engages  in  private,  unauthorized  and  irregular 
warfare  against  any  state.  In  the  United  States  it  is  colloquially 
applied  to  legislators  who  practise  obstruction. 

FILICAJA,  VINCENZO  DA  (1642-1707),  Italian  poet,  sprung 
from  an  ancient  and  noble  family  of  Florence,  was  born  in  that 
city  on  the  3oth  of  December  1642.  From  an  incidental  notice 
in  one  of  his  letters,  stating  the  amount  of  house  rent  paid  during 
his  childhood,  his  parents  must  have  been  in  easy  circumstances, 
and  the  supposition  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  he  enjoyed  all 
the  advantages  of  a  liberal  education,  first  under  the  Jesuits  of 
Florence,  and  then  in  the  university  of  Pisa. 

At  Pisa  his  mind  became  stored,  not  only  with  the  results  of 
patient  study  in  various  branches  of  letters,  but  with  the  great 
historical  associations  linked  with  the  former  glory  of  the  Pisan 
republic,  and  with  one  remarkable  institution  of  which  Pisa  was 
the  seat.  To  the  tourist  who  now  visits  Pisa  the  banners  and 
emblems  of  the  order  of  St  Stephen  are  mere  matter  of  curiosity, 
but  they  had  a  serious  significance  two  hundred  years  ago  to  the 
young  Tuscan,  who  knew  that  these  naval  crusaders  formed  the 
main  defence  of  his  country  and  commerce  against  the  Turkish, 
Algerine  and  Tunisian  corsairs.  After  a  five  years'  residence  in 
Pisa  he  returned  to  Florence,  where  he  married  Anna,  daughter  of 
the  senator  and  marquis  Scipione  Capponi,  and  withdrew  to  a 
small  villa  at  Figline,  not  far  from  the  city.  Abjuring  the  thought 
of  writing  amatory  poetry  in  consequence  of  the  premature  death 
of  a  young  lady  to  whom  he  had  been  attached,  he  occupied 
himself  chiefly  with  literary  pursuits,  above  all  the  composition  of 
Italian  and  Latin  poetry.  His  own  literary  eminence,  the 
opportunities  enjoyed  by  him  as  a  member  of  the  celebrated 
Academy  Delia  Crusca  for  making  known  his  critical  taste  and 
classical  knowledge,  and  the  social  relations  within  the  reach  of  a 
noble  Florentine  so  closely  allied  with  the  great  house  of  Capponi, 
sufficiently  explain  the  intimate  terms  on  which  he  stood  with 
such  eminent  men  of  letters  as  Magalotti,  Menzini,  Gori  and  Redi. 
The  last-named,  the  author  of  Bacchus  in  Tuscany,  was  not  only 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  poets  of  his  time,  and  a  safe  literary 
adviser;  he  was  the  court  physician,  and  his  court  influence  was 
employed  with  zeal  and  effect  in  his  friend's  favour.  Filicaja's 
rural  seclusion  was  owing  even  more  to  his  straitened  means  than 
to  his  rural  tastes.  If  he  ceased  at  length  to  pine  in  obscurity,  the 
change  was  owing  not  merely  to  the  fact  that  his  poetical  genius, 
fired  by  the  deliverance  of  Vienna  from  the  Turks  in  1683,  poured 
forth  the  right  strains  at  the  right  time,  but  also  to  the  influence  of 
Redi,  who  not  only  laid  Filicaja's  verses  before  his  own  sovereign, 
but  had  them  transmitted  with  the  least  possible  delay  to  the 
foreign  princes  whose  noble  deeds  they  sung.  The  first  recom- 
pense came,  however,  not  from  those  princes,  but  from  Christina, 
the  ex-queen  of  Sweden,  who,  from  her  circle  of  savants  and 


FILIGREE 


343 


courtiers  at  Rome,  spontaneously  and  generously  announced  to 
Filicaja  her  wish  to  bear  the  expense  of  educating  his  two  sons, 
enhancing  her  kindness  by  the  delicate  request  that  it  should 
remain  a  secret. 

The  tide  of  Filicaja's  fortunes  now  turned.  The  grand-duke  of 
Tuscany,  Cosmo  III.,  conferred  on  him  an  important  office,  the 
commissionership  of  official  balloting.  He  was  named  governor 
of  Volterra  in  1696,  where  he  strenuously  exerted  himself  to  raise 
the  tone  of  public  morality.  Both  there  and  at  Pisa,  where  he 
was  subsequently  governor  in  1700,  his  popularity  was  so  great 
that  on  his  removal  the  inhabitants  of  both  cities  petitioned  for 
his  recall.  He  passed  the  close  of  his  life  at  Florence;  the  grand- 
duke  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  senator,  and  he  died  in  that  city  on 
the  24th  of  September  1707.  He  was  buried  in  the  family  vault  in 
the  church  of  St  Peter,  and  a  monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory  by  his  sole  surviving  son  Scipione  Filicaja.  In  the  six 
celebrated  odes  inspired  by  the  great  victory  of  Sobieski,  Filicaja 
took  a  lyrical  flight  which  has  placed  him  at  moments  on  a  level 
with  the  greatest  Italian  poets.  They  are,  however,  unequal, 
like  all  his  poetry,  reflecting  in  some  passages  the  native  vigour  of 
his  genius  and  purest  inspirations  of  his  tastes,  whilst  in  others 
they  are  deformed  by  the  affectations  of  the  Seicentisti.  When 
thoroughly  natural  and  spontaneous — as  in  the  two  sonnets 
"  Italia,  Italia,  o  tu  cui  feo  la  sorte  "  and  "  Dov'  e,  Italia,  il  tuo 
braccio?  e  a  che  ti  serve;"  in  the  verses  "  Alia beata  Vergine," 
"Al  divino  amore;"  in  the  sonnet  "Sulla  fede  nelle  disgrazie" 
— the  truth  and  beauty  of  thought  and  language  recall  the  verse 
of  Petrarch. 

Besides  the  poems  published  in  the  complete  Venice  edition  of 
1762,  several  other  pieces  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  the  small 
Florence  edition  brought  out  by  Barbera  in  1864. 

FILIGREE  (formerly  written  filigrain  or  filigrane;  the  Ital. 
filigrana,  Fr.  filigrane,  Span,  filigrana,  Ger.  Drahtgejlecht), 
jewel  work  of  a  delicate  kind  made  with  twisted  threads  usually 
of  gold  and  silver.  The  word,  which  is  usually  derived  from  the 
Lat.  filum,  thread,  and  granum,  grain,  is  not  found  in  Ducange, 
and  is  indeed  of  modern  origin.  According  to  Prof.  Skeat  it  is 
derived  from  the  Spun,  filigrana,  from  "filar,  to  spin,  and  grano, 
the  grain  or  principal  fibre  of  the  material."  Though  filigree  has 
become  a  special  branch  of  jewel  work  in  modern  times  it  was 
anciently  part  of  the  ordinary  work  of  the  jeweller.  Signer  A. 
Castellani  states,  in  his  Memoir  on  the  Jewellery  of  the  Ancients 
(1861),  that  all  the  jewelry  of  the  Etruscans  and  Greeks  (other 
than  that  intended  for  the  grave,  and  therefore  of  an  unsub- 
stantial character)  was  made  by  soldering  together  and  so  building 
up  the  gold  rather  than  by  chiselling  or  engraving  the  material. 

The  art  may  be  said  to  consist  in  curling,  twisting  and  plaiting 
fine  pliable  threads  of  metal,  and  uniting  them  at  their  points  of 
contact  with  each  other,  and  with  the  ground,  by  means  of  gold 
or  silver  solder  and  borax,  by  the  help  of  the  blowpipe.  Small 
grains  or  beads  of  the  same  metals  are  often  set  in  the  eyes  of 
volutes,  on  the  junctions,  or  at  intervals  at  which  they  will  set 
off  the  wire-work  effectively.  The  more  delicate  work  is  generally 
protected  by  framework  of  stouter  wire.  Brooches,  crosses, 
earrings  and  other  personal  ornaments  of  modern  filigree  are 
generally  surrounded  and  subdivided  by  bands  of  square  or  flat 
metal,  giving  consistency  to  the  filling  up,  which  would  not  other- 
wise keep  its  proper  shape.  Some  writers  of  repute  have  laid  equal 
stress  on  the  filum  and  the  granum,  and  have  extended  the  use  of 
the  term  filigree  to  include  the  granulated  work  of  the  ancients, 
even  where  the  twisted  wire-work  is  entirely  wanting.  Such  a 
wide  application  of  the  term  is  not  approved  by  current  usage, 
according  to  which  the  presence  of  the  twisted  threads  is  the 
predominant  fact. 

The  Egyptian  jewellers  employed  wire,  both  to  lay  down  on  a 
background  and  to  plait  or  otherwise  arrange  a  jour.  But,  with 
the  exception  of  chains,  it  cannot  be  said  that  filigree  work  was 
much  practised  by  them.  Their  strength  lay  rather  in  their 
cloisonne  work  and  their  moulded  ornaments.  Many  examples, 
however,  remain  of  round  plaited  gold  chains  of  fine  wire,  such 
as  are  still  made  by  the  filigree  workers  of  India,  and  known 
as  Trichinopoly  chains.  From  some  of  these  are  hung  smaller 


chains  of  finer  wire  with  minute  fishes  and  other  pendants 
fastened  to  them.  In  ornaments  derived  from  Phoenician  sites, 
such  as  Cyprus  and  Sardinia,  patterns  of  gold  wire  are  laid 
down  with  great  delicacy  on  a  gold  ground,  but  the  art  was 
advanced  to  its  highest  perfection  in  the  Greek  and  Etruscan 
filigree  of  the  6th  to  the  3rd  centuries  B.C.  A  number  of  earrings 
and  other  personal  ornaments  found  in  central  Italy  are  pre- 
served in  the  Louvre  and  in  the  British  Museum.  Almost  all 
of  them  are  made  of  filigree  work.  Some  earrings  are  in  the 
form  of  flowers  of  geometric  design,  bordered  by  one  or  more 
rims  each  made  up  of  minute  volutes  of  gold  wire,  and  this  kind 
of  ornament  is  varied  by  slight  differences  in  the  way  of  disposing 
the  number  or  arrangement  of  the  volutes.  But  the  feathers 
and  petals  of  modern  Italian  filigree  are  not  seen  in  these  ancient 
designs.  Instances  occur,  but  only  rarely,  in  which  filigree 
devices  in  wire  are  self-supporting  and  not  applied  to  metal 
plates.  The  museum  of  the  Hermitage  at  St  Petersburg  contains 
an  amazingly  rich  collection  of  jewelry  from  the  tombs  of  the 
Crimea.  Many  bracelets  and  necklaces  in  that  collection  are 
made  of  twisted  wire,  some  in  as  many  as  seven  rows  of  plaiting, 
with  clasps  in  the  shape  of  heads  of  animals  of  beaten  work. 
Others  are  strings  of  large  beads  of  gold,  decorated  with  volutes, 
knots  and  other  patterns  of  wire  soldered  over  the  surfaces. 
(See  the  Antiquilis  du  Bosphore  Cimmerien,  by  Gille,  1854; 
reissued  by  S.  Reinach,  1892,  in  which  will  be  found  careful 
engravings  of  these  objects.)  In  the  British  Museum  a  sceptre, 
probably  that  of  a  Greek  priestess,  is  covered  with  plaited  and 
netted  gold  wire,  finished  with  a  sort  of  Corinthian  capital  and 
a  boss  of  green  glass. 

It  is  probable  that  in  India  and  various  parts  of  central  Asia 
filigree  has  been  worked  from  the  most  remote  period  without 
any  change  in  the  designs.  Whether  the  Asiatic  jewellers  were 
influenced  by  the  Greeks  settled  on  that  continent,  or  merely 
trained  under  traditions  held  in  common  with  them,  it  is  certain 
that  the  Indian  filigree  workers  retain  the  same  patterns  as  those 
of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  work  them  in  the  same  way,  down  to 
the  present  day.  Wandering  workmen  are  given  so  much  gold, 
coined  or  rough,  which  is  weighed,  heated  in  a  pan  of  charcoal, 
beaten  into  wire,  and  then  worked  in  the  courtyard  or  verandah 
of  the  employer's  house  according  to  the  designs  of  the  artist, 
who  weighs  the  complete  work  on  restoring  it  and  is  paid  at  a 
specified  rate  for  his  labour.  Very  fine  grains  or  beads  and 
spines  of  gold,  scarcely  thicker  than  coarse  hair,  projecting 
from  plates  of  gold  are  methods  of  ornamentation  still  used. 

Passing  to  later  times  we  may  notice  in  many  collections  of 
medieval  jewel  work  (such  as  that  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum)  reliquaries,  covers  for  the  gospels,  &c.,  made  either 
in  Constantinople  from  the  6th  to  the  i2th  centuries,  or  in 
monasteries  in  Europe,  in  which  Byzantine  goldsmiths'  work 
was  studied  and  imitated.  These  objects,  besides  being  enriched 
with  precious  stones,  polished,  but  not  cut  into  facets,  and  with 
enamel,  are  often  decorated  with  filigree.  Large  surfaces  of  gold 
are  sometimes  covered  with  scrolls  of  filigree  soldered  on;  and 
corner  pieces  of  the  borders  of  book  covers,  or  the  panels  of 
reliquaries,  are  not  unfrequently  made  up  of  complicated  pieces 
of  plaited  work  alternating  with  spaces  encrusted  with  enamel. 
Byzantine  filigree  work  occasionally  has  small  stones  set  amongst 
the  curves  or  knots.  Examples  of  such  decoration  can  be  seen 
in  the  South  Kensington  and  British  Museums. 

In  the  north  of  Europe  the  Saxons,  Britons  and  Celts  were 
from  an  early  period  skilful  in  several  kinds  of  goldsmiths'  work. 
Admirable  examples  of  filigree  patterns  laid  down  in  wire  on 
gold,  from  Anglo-Saxon  tombs,  may  be  seen  in  the  British 
Museum — notably  a  brooch  from  Dover,  and  a  sword-hilt  from 
Cumberland. 

The  Irish  filigree  work  is  more  thoughtful  in  design  and  more 
varied  in  pattern  than  that  of  any  period  or  country  that  could 
be  named.  Its  highest  perfection  must  be  placed  in  the  loth 
and  nth  centuries.  The  Royal  Irish  Academy  in  Dublin 
contains  a  number  of  reliquaries  and  personal  jewels,  of  which 
filigree  is  the  general  and  most  remarkable  ornament.  The 
"  Tara  "  brooch  has  been  copied  and  imitated,  and  the  shape  and 


344 


FILLAN,  SAINT— FILLMORE 


decoration  of  it  are  well  known.  Instead  of  fine  curls  or  volutes 
of  gold  thread,  the  Irish  filigree  is  varied  by  numerous  designs 
in  which  one  thread  can  be  traced  through  curious  knots  and 
complications,  which,  disposed  over  large  surfaces,  balance  one 
another,  but  always  with  special  varieties  and  arrangements 
difficult  to  trace  with  the  eye.  The  long  thread  appears  and 
disappears  without  breach  of  continuity,  the  two  ends  generally 
worked  into  the  head  and  the  tail  of  a  serpent  or  a  monster. 
The  reliquary  containing  the  "  Bell  of  St  Patrick  "  is  covered 
with  knotted  work  in  many  varieties.  A  two-handled  chalice, 
called  the  "  Ardagh  cup,"  found  near  Limerick  in  1868,  is 
ornamented  with  work  of  this  kind  of  extraordinary  fineness. 
Twelve  plaques  on  a  band  round  the  body  of  the  vase,  plaques 
on  each  handle  and  round  the  foot  of  the  vase  have  a  series  of 
different  designs  of  characteristic  patterns,  in  fine  filigree  wire 
work  wrought  on  the  front  of  the  repousse  ground.  (See  a  paper 
by  the  3rd  earl  of  Dunraven  in  Transactions  of  Royal  Irish 
Academy,  xxiv.  pt.  iii.  1873.) 

Much  of  the  medieval  jewel  work  all  over  Europe  down  to 
the  isth  century,  on  reliquaries,  crosses,  croziers  and  other 
ecclesiastical  goldsmiths'  work,  is  set  off  with  bosses  and  borders 
of  filigree.  Filigree  work  in  silver  was  practised  by  the  Moors 
of  Spain  during  the  middle  ages  with  great  skill,  and  was  intro- 
duced by  them  and  established  all  over  the  Peninsula,  whence 
it  was  carried  to  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America.  The  Spanish 
filigree  work  of  the  i7th  and  i8th  centuries  is  of  extraordinary 
complexity  (examples  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum),  and 
silver  filigree  jewelry  of  delicate  and  artistic  design  is  still  made 
in  considerable  quantities  throughout  the  country.  The  manu- 
facture spread  over  the  Balearic  Islands,  and  among  the  popula- 
tions that  border  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  still  made  all  over 
Italy,  and  in  Malta,  Albania,  the  Ionian  Islands  and  many 
other  parts  of  Greece.  That  of  the  Greeks  is  sometimes  on  a 
large  scale,  with  several  thicknesses  of  wires  alternating  with 
larger  and  smaller  bosses  and  beads,  sometimes  set  with 
turquoises,  &c.,  and  mounted  on  convex  plates,  making  rich 
ornamental  headpieces,  belts  and  breast  ornaments.  Filigree 
silver  buttons  of  wire-work  and  small  bosses  are  worn  by  the 
peasants  in  most  of  the  countries  that  produce  this  kind  of 
jewelry.  Silver  filigree  brooches  and  buttons  are  also  made 
in  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden.  Little  chains  and  pendants 
are  added  to  much  of  this  northern  work. 

Some  very  curious  filigree  work  was  brought  from  Abyssinia 
after  the  capture  of  Magdala — arm-guards,  slippers,  cups,  &c., 
some  of  which  are  now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  They 
are  made  of  thin  plates  of  silver,  over  which  the  wire-work  is 
soldered.  The  filigree  is  subdivided  by  narrow  borders  of  simple 
pattern,  and  the  intervening  spaces  are  made  up  of  many 
patterns,  some  with  grains  set  at  intervals. 

A  few  words  must  be  added  as  to  the  granulated  work  which, 
as  stated  above,  some  writers  have  classed  under  the  term  of 
filigree,  although  the  twisted  wires  may  be  altogether  wanting. 
Such  decoration  consists  of  minute  globules  of  gold,  soldered 
to  form  patterns  on  a  metal  surface.  Its  use  is  rare  in  Egypt. 
(See  J.  de  Morgan,  Fouilles  a  Dahchour,  1894-1895,  pi.  xii.) 
It  occurs  in  Cyprus  at  an  early  period,  as  for  instance  on  a  gold 
pendant  in  the  British  Museum  from  Enkomi  in  Cyprus  (loth 
century  B.C.).  The  pendant  is  in  the  form  of  a  pomegranate, 
and  has  upon  it  a  pattern  of  triangles,  formed  by  more  than 
3000  minute  globules  separately  soldered  on.  It  also  occurs  on 
ornaments  of  the  7th  century  B.C.  from  Camirus  in  Rhodes. 
But  these  globules  are  large,  compared  with  those  which  are 
found  on  Etruscan  jewelry.  Signer  Castellani,  who  had  made 
the  antique  jewelry  of  the  Etruscans  and  Greeks  his  special 
study,  with  the  intention  of  reproducing  the  ancient  models, 
found  it  for  a  long  time  impossible  to  revive  this  particular 
process  of  delicate  soldering.  He  overcame  the  difficulty  at 
last,  by  the  discovery  of  a  traditional  school  of  craftsmen  at 
St  Angelo  in  Vado,  by  whose  help  his  well-known  reproductions 
were  executed. 

For  examples  of  antique  work  the  student  should  examine  the 
gold  ornament  rooms  of  the  British  Museum,  the  Louvre  and  the 


collection  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.  The  last  contains  a 
large  and  very  varied  assortment  of  modern  Italian,  Spanish,  Greek 
and  other  jewelry  made  for  the  peasants  of  various  countries.  It 
also  possesses  interesting  examples  of  the  modern  work  in  granulated 
gold  by  Castellani  and  Giuliano.  The  Celtic  work  is  well  represented 
in  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  in  Dublin. 

FILLAN,  SAINT,  or  FAELAN,  the  name  of  the  two  Scottish 
saints;  of  Irish  origin,  whose  lives  are  of  a  purely  legendary 
character  The  St  Fillan  whose  feast  is  kept  on  the  2oth  of  June 
had  churches  dedicated  to  his  honour  at  Ballyheyland,  Queen's 
county,  Ireland,  and  at  Loch  Earn,  Perthshire.  The  other, 
who  is  commemorated  on  the  9th  of  January,  was  specially 
venerated  at  Cluain  Mavscua,  Co.  Westmeath,  Ireland,  and  so- 
early  as  the  8th  or  gth  century  at  Strathfillan,Perthshire,  Scotland, 
where  there  was  an  ancient  monastery  dedicated  to  him,  which, 
like  most  of  the  religious  houses  of  early  times,  was  afterwards, 
secularized.  The  lay-abbot,  who  was  its  superior  in  the  reign 
of  William  the  Lion,  held  high  rank  in  the  Scottish  kingdom. 
This  monastery  was  restored  in  the  reign  of  Robert  Bruce,  and 
became  a  cell  of  the  abbey  of  canons  regular  at  Inchaffray. 
The  new  foundation  received  a  grant  from  King  Robert,  in  grati- 
tude for  the  aid  which  he  was  supposed  to  have  obtained  from  a 
relic  of  the  saint  on  the  eve  of  the  great  victory  of  Bannockburn. 
Another  relic  was  the  saint's  staff  or  crozier,  which  became 
known  as  the  coygerach  or  quigrich,  and  was  long  in  the  posses- 
sion of  a  family  of  the  name  of  Jore  or  Dewar,  who  were  its 
hereditary  guardians.  They  certainly  had  it  in  their  custody 
in  the  year  1428,  and  their  right  was  formally  recognized  by 
King  James  III.  in  1487.  The  head  of  the  crozier,  which  is  of 
silver-gilt  with  a  smaller  crozier  of  bronze  inclosed  within  it,  is 
now  deposited  in  the  National  Museum  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries of  Scotland. 

The  legend  of  the  second  of  these  saints  is  given  in  the  Bollandist 
Acta  SS.  (1643),  9th  of  January,  i.  594-595;  A.  P.  Forbes,  Kalendars 
of  Scottish  Saints  (Edinburgh,  1872),  pp.  341-346;  D.  O'Hanlon's 
Lives  of  Irish  Saints  (Dublin),  n.d.  pp.  134-144.  See  also  Historical 
Notices  of  St  Fillan' s  Crozier,  by  Dr  John  Stuart  (Aberdeen,  1877). 

FILLET  (through  Fr.  filet,  from  the  med.  Lat.  filettum,  diminu- 
tive olfilum,  a  thread),  a  band  or  ribbon  used  for  tying  the  hair, 
the  Lat.  villa,  w"hich  was  used  as  a  sacrificial  emblem,  and  also 
worn  by  vestal  virgins,  brides  and  poets.  The  word  is  thus 
applied  to  anything  in  the  shape  of  a  band  or  strip,  as,  in  coining, 
to  the  metal  ribbon  from  which  the  blanks  are  punched.  In 
architecture,  a  "  fillet  "  is  a  narrow  fla't  band,  sometimes  called 
a  "  listel,"  which  is  used  to  separate  mouldings  one  from  the  other, 
or  to  terminate  a  suite  of  mouldings  as  at  the  top  of  a  cornice. 
In  the  fluted  column  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Orders  the  fillet 
is  employed  between  the  flutes.  It  is  a  very  important  feature 
in  Gothic  work,  being  frequently  worked  on  large  mouldings;, 
when  placed  on  the  front  and  sides  of  the  moulding  of  a  rib  it 
has  been  termed  the  "  keel  and  wings  "  of  the  rib. 

In  cooking,  "  fillet  "  is  used  of  the  "  undercut  "  of  a  sirloin  of 
beef,  or  of  a. thick  slice  of  fish  or  meat;  more  particularly  of  a 
boned  and  rolled  piece  of  veal  or  other  meat,  tied  by  a  "  fillet  n 
or  string. 

FILLMORE,  MILLARD  (1800-1874),  thirteenth  president  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  came  of  a  family  of  English  stock, 
which  had  early  settled  in  New  England.  His  father,  Nathaniel, 
in  1795,  made  a  clearing  within  the  limits  of  what  is  now  the  town 
of  Summerhill,  Cayuga  county.  New  York,  and  there  Millard 
Fillmore  was  born,  on  the  7th  of  February  1800.  Until  he  was 
fifteen  he  could  have  acquired  only  the  simplest  rudiments  of 
education,  and  those  chiefly  from  his  parents.  At  that  age  he 
was  apprenticed  to  a  fuller  and  clothier,  to  card  wool,  and  to  dye 
and  dress  the  cloth.  Two  years  before  the  close  of  his  term,  with 
a  promissory  note  for  thirty  dollars,  he  bought  the  remainder 
of  his  time  from  his  master,  and  at  the  age  of  nineteen  began  to 
study  law.  In  1820  he  made  his  way  to  Buffalo,  then  only 
a  village,  and  supported  himself  by  teaching  school  and  aiding, 
the  postmaster  while  continuing  his  studies. 

In  1823  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  began  practice  at 
Aurora,  New  York,  to  which  place  his  father  had  removed. 
Hard  study,  temperance  and  integrity  gave  him  a  good  reputa- 
tion and  moderate  success,  and  in  1827  he  was  made  an  attorney 


FILMER— FILON 


345 


and,  in  1829,  counsellor  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  state. 
Returning  to  Buffalo  in  1830  he  formed,  in  1832,  a  partnership 
with  Nathan  K.  Hall  (1810-1874),  later  a  member  of  Congress 
and  postmaster-general  in  his  cabinet.  Solomon  G.  Haven  (1810- 
1861),  member  of  Congress  from  1851  to  1857,  joined  them  in 
1836.  The  firm  met  with  great  success.  From  1829  to  1832 
Fillmore  served  in  the  state  assembly,  and,  in  the  single  term 
of  1833-1835,  in  the  national  House  of  Representatives,  coming 
in  as  anti-Jackson,  or  in  opposition  to  the  administration.  From 
1837  to  1843,  when  he  declined  further  service,  he  again  repre- 
sented his  district  in  the  House,  this  time  as  a  member  of  the 
Whig  party.  In  Congress  he  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas 
as  slave  territory,  was  an  advocate  of  internal  improvements  and 
a  protective  tariff,  supported  J.  Q.  Adams  in  maintaining  the 
right  of  offering  anti-slavery  petitions,  advocated  the  prohibition 
by  Congress  of  the  slave  trade  between  the  states,  and  favoured 
the  exclusion  of  slavery  from  the  District  of  Columbia.  His 
speech  and  tone,  however,  were  moderate  on  these  exciting 
subjects,  and  he  claimed  the  right  to  stand  .free  of  pledges,  and 
to  adjust  his  opinions  and  his  course  by  the  development  of 
circumstances.  The  Whigs  having  the  ascendancy  in  the  Twenty- 
Seventh  Congress,  he  was  made  chairman  of  the  House  Com- 
mittee of  Ways  and  Means.  Against  a  strong  opposition  he 
carried  an  appropriation  of  $30,000  to  Morse's  telegraph, 
and  reported  from  his  committee  the  Tariff  Bill  of  1842.  In 
1844  he  was  the  Whig  candidate  for  the  governorship  of  New 
York,  but  was  defeated.  In  November  1847  he  was  elected 
comptroller  of  the  state  of  New  York,  and  in  1848  he  was 
elected  vice-president  of  the  United  States  on  the  ticket  with 
Zachary  Taylor  as  president.  Fillmore  presided  over  the  senate 
during  the  exciting  debates  on  the  "  Compromise  Measures  of 
1850." 

President  Taylor  died  on  the  gth  of  July  1850,  and  on  the  next 
day  Fillmore  took  the  oath  of  office  as  his  successor.  The  cabinet 
which  he  called  around  him  contained  Daniel  Webster,  Thomas 
Corwin  and  John  J.  Crittenden.  On  the  death  of  Webster  in 
1852,  Edward  Everett  became  secretary  of  state.  Unlike  Taylor, 
Fillmore  favoured  the  "  Compromise  Measures,"  and  his  signing 
one  of  them,  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  in  spite  of  the  vigorous 
protests  of  anti-slavery  men,  lost  him  much  of  his  popularity 
in  the  North.  Few  of  his  opponents,  however,  questioned  his 
own  full  persuasion  that  the  Compromise  Measures  were  vitally 
necessary  to  pacify  the  nation.  In  1851  he  interposed  promptly 
but  ineffectively  in  thwarting  the  projects  of  the  "  filibusters," 
under  Narciso  Lopez  for  the  invasion  of  Cuba.  Commodore 
Matthew  Calbraith  Perry's  expedition,  which  opened  up  diplo- 
matic relations  with  Japan,  and  the  exploration  of  the  valley 
of  the  Amazon  by  Lieutenants  William  L.  Herndon  (1813-1857) 
and  Lardner  Gibbon  also  occurred  during  his  term.  In  the 
autumn  of  1852  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  nomination 
for  the  presidency  by  the  Whig  National  Convention,  and  he  went 
out  of  office  on  the  4th  of  March  1853.  In  February  1856,  while 
he  was  travelling  abroad,  he  was  nominated  for  the  presidency 
by  the  American  or  Know  Nothing  party,  and  later  this  nomina- 
tion was  also  accepted  by  the  Whigs;  but  in  the  ensuing  pre- 
sidential election,  the  last  in  which  the  Know  Nothings  and  the 
Whigs  as  such  took  any  part,  he  received  the  electoral  votes  of 
only  one  state,  Maryland.  Thereafter  he  took  no  public  share 
in  political  affairs.  Fillmore  was  twice  married:  in  1826  to 
Abigail  Powers  (who  died  in  1853,  leaving  him  with  a  son  and 
daughter),  and  in  1858  to  Mrs.  Caroline  C.  Mclntosh.  He  died 
at  Buffalo  on  the  8th  of  March  1874. 

In  1907  the  Buffalo  Historical  Society,  of  which  Fillmore  was  one 
of  the  founders  and  the  first  president,  published  the  Millard  Fillmore 
Papers  (2  vols.,  vol.  x.  and  xi.  of  the  Society's  publications;  edited 
by  F.  H.  Severance),  containing  miscellaneous  writings  and  speeches, 
and  official  and  private  correspondence.  Most  of  his  correspondence, 
however,  was  destroyed  in  pursuance  of  a  direction  in  his  son's  will. 

FILMER,  SIR  ROBERT  (d.  1653),  English  political  writer,  was 
the  son  of  Sir  Edward  Filmer  of  East  Sutton  in  Kent.  He 
studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  matriculated  in 
1604.  Knighted  by  Charles  I.  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  he 


was  an  ardent  supporter  of  the  king's  cause,  and  his  house  is  said 
to  have  been  plundered  by  the  parliamentarians  ten  times.  He 
died  on  the  26th  of  May  1653. 

Filmer  was  already  a  middle-aged  man  when  the  great  contro- 
versy between  the  king  and  the  Commons  roused  him  into  literary 
activity.  His  writings  afford  an  exceedingly  curious  example  of 
the  doctrines  held  by  the  most  extreme  section  of  the  Divine 
Right  party.  Filmer's  theory  is  founded  upon  the  statement  that 
the  government  of  a  family  by  the  father  is  the  true  original  and 
model  of  all  government.  In  the  beginning  of  the  world  God  gave 
authority  to  Adam,  who  had  complete  control  over  his  descend- 
ants, even  as  to  life  and  death.  From  Adam  this  authority  was 
inherited  by  Noah;  and  Filmer  quotes  as  not  unlikely  the 
tradition  that  Noah  sailed  up  the  Mediterranean  and  allotted  the 
three  continents  of  the  Old  World  to  the  rule  of  his  three  sons. 
From  Shem,  Ham  and  Japheth  the  patriarchs  inherited  the 
absolute  power  which  they  exercised  over  their  families  and 
servants;  and  from  the  patriarchs  all  kings  and  governors 
(whether  a  single  monarch  or  a  governing  assembly)  derive  their 
authority,  which  is  therefore  absolute,  and  founded  upon  divine 
right.  The  difficulty  that  a  man  "  by  the  secret  will  of  God  may 
unjustly"  attain  to  power  which  he  has  not  inherited  appeared  to 
Filmer  in  no  way  to  alter  the  nature  of  the  power  so  obtained, 
for  "  there  is,  and  always  shall  be  continued  to  the  end  of  the 
world,  a  natural  right  of  a  supreme  father  over  every  multitude." 
The  king  is  perfectly  free  from  all  human  control.  He  cannot  be 
bound  by  the  acts  of  his  predecessors,  for  which  he  is  not  re- 
sponsible; nor  by  his  own,  for  "  impossible  it  is  in  nature  that  a 
man  should  give  a  law  unto  himself  " — a  law  must  be  imposed  by 
another  than  the  person  bound  by  it.  With  regard  to  the  English 
constitution,  he  asserted,  in  his  Freeholder's  Grand  Inquest 
touching  our  Sovereign  Lord  the  King  and  his  Parliament  (1648), 
that  the  Lords  only  give  counsel  to  the  king,  the  Commons  only 
"  perform  and  consent  to  the  ordinances  of  parliament,"  and  the 
king  alone  is  the  maker  of  laws,  which  proceed  purely  from  his 
will.  It  is  monstrous  that  the  people  should  judge  or  depose 
their  king,  for  they  would  then  be  judges  in  their  own  cause. 

The  most  complete  expression  of  Filmer's  opinions  is  given  in 
the  Patriarcha,  which  was  published  in  1680,  many  years  after  his 
death.  His  position,  however,  was  sufficiently  indicated  by  the 
works  which  he  published  during  his  lifetime:  the  Anarchy  of  a 
Limited  and  Mixed  Monarchy  (1648),  an  attack  upon  a  treatise  on 
monarchy  by  Philip  Hunton  (1604  ?-i682),  who  maintained  that 
the  king's  prerogative  is  not  superior  to  the  authority  of  the 
houses  of  parliament;  the  pamphlet  entitled  The  Power  of  Kings, 
and  in  particular  of  the  King  of  England  (1648),  first  published 
in  1680;  and  his  Observations  upon  Mr  Hobbes's  Leviathan,  Mr 
Milton  against  Salmasius,  and  H.  Grolius  De  jure  belli  el  pads, 
concerning  the  Originall  of  Government  (1652).  Filmer's  theory, 
owing  to  the  circumstances  of  the  time,  obtained  a  recognition 
which  it  is  now  difficult  to  understand.  Nine  years  after  the 
publication  of  the  Patriarcha,  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution  which 
banished  the  Stuarts  from  the  throne,  Locke  singled  out  Filmer 
as  the  most  remarkable  of  the  advocates  of  Divine  Right,  and 
thought  it  worth  while  to  attack  him  expressly  in  the  first  part  of 
the  Treatise  on  Government,  going  into  all  his  arguments  seriatim, 
and  especially  pointing  out  that  even  if  the  first  steps  of  his 
argument  be  granted,  the  rights  of  the  eldest  born  have  been  so 
often  set  aside  that  modern  kings  can  claim  no  such  inheritance  of 
authority  as  he  asserted. 

FILMY  FERNS,  a  general  name  for  a  group  of  ferns  with 
delicate  much-divided  leaves  and  often  moss-like  growth, 
belonging  to  the  genera  Hymenophyttum,  Todea  and  Trichomanes. 
They  require  to  be  kept  in  close  cases  in  a  cool  fernery,  and  the 
stones  and  moss  amongst  which  they  are  grown  must  be  kept 
continually  moist  so  that  the  evaporated  water  condenses  on  the 
very  numerous  divisions  of  the  leaves. 

FILON,  PIERRE  MARIE  AUGUSTIN  (1841-  ),  French  man 
of  letters,  son  of  the  historian  Charles  Auguste  Desire  Filon 
(1800-1875),  was  born  in  Paris  in  1841.  His  father  became 
professor  of  history  at  Douai,  and  eventually  "  inspecleur 
d'academie  "  in  Paris;  his  principal  works  were  Hisloire  comparee 


346 


FILOSA— FILTER 


de  France  el  de  I' Angleterre  (1832),  Histoire  de  I'Europe  au 
XVI'  siecle  (1838),  La  Diplomatic  franc.aise  sous  Louis  XV 
(1843),  Histoire  de  I' Italic  meridionale  (1849),  Histoire  du  senat 
romain  (1850),  Histoire  de  la  dimocratie  athenienne  (1854). 
Educated  at  the  Ecole  normale,  Augustin  Filon  was  appointed 
tutor  to  the  prince  imperial  and  accompanied  him  to  England, 
where  he  remained  for  some  years.  He  is  the  author  of  Guy 
Patin,  sa  vie,  sa  correspondance  (1862);  Nos  grands-peres  (1887); 
Prosper  Merimee  (1894);  Sous  la  tyrannic  (1900).  On  English 
subjects  he  has  written  chiefly  under  the  pseudonym  of  Pierre 
Sandrie,  Les  Manages  de  Londres  (1875) ;  Histoire  de  la  liMralure 
anglaise  (1883);  Le  Thedtre  anglais  (1896),  and  La  Caricature 
en  Angleterre  (1902). 

FILOSA  (A.  Lang),  one  of  the  two  divisions  of  Rhizopoda, 
characterized  by  protoplasm  granular  at  the  surface,  and  fine 
pseudopodia  branching  and  usually  acutely  pointed  at  the  tips. 

FILTER  (a  word  common  in  various  forms  to  most  European 
languages,  adapted  from  the  medieval  Lat.  filtrum,  felt,  a 
material  used  as  a  filtering  agent),  an  arrangement  for  separating 
solid  matter  from  liquids.  In  some  cases  the  operation  of 
filtration  is  performed  for  the  sake  of  removing  impurities  from 
the  filtrate  or  liquid  filtered,  as  in  the  purification  of  water  for 
drinking  purposes;  in  others  the  aim  is  to  recover  and  collect 
the  solid  matter,  as  when  the  chemist  filters  off  a  precipitate  from 
the  liquid  in  which  it  is  suspended. 

In  regard  to  the  purification  of  water,  filtration  was  long  looked 
upon  as  merely  a  mechanical  process  of  straining  out  the  solid 
particles,  whereby  a  turbid  water  could  be  rendered  clear.  In 
the  course  of  time  it  was  noticed  that  certain  materials,  such  as 
charcoal,  had  the  power  to  some  extent  also  of  softening  hard 
water  and  of  removing  organic  matter,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
the  igth  century  charcoal,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  came  into 
use  for  filtering  purposes.  Porous  carbon  blocks,  made  by 
strongly  heating  a  mixture  of  powdered  charcoal  with  oil,  resin, 
&c.,  were  introduced  about  a  generation  later,  and  subsequently 
various  preparations  of  iron  (spongy  iron,  magnetic  oxide)  found 
favour.  Innumerable  forms  of  filters  made  with  these  and  other 
materials  were  put  on  the  market,  and  were  extolled  as  removing 
impurities  of  every  kind  from  water,  and  as  affording  complete 
protection  against  the  communication  of  disease.  But  whatever 
merits  they  had  as  clarifiers  of  turbid  water,  the  advent  of 
bacteriology,  and  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  bacteria  of 
certain  diseases  may  be  water-borne,  introduced  a  new  criterion 
of  effectiveness,  and  it  was  perceived  that  the  removal  of  solid 
particles,  or  even  of  organic  impurities  (which  were  realized  to  be 
important  not  so  much  because  they  are  dangerous  to  health 
per  se  as  because  their  presence  affords  grounds  for  suspecting 
that  the  water  in  which  they  occur  has  been  exposed  to  circum- 
stances permitting  contamination  with  infective  disease),  was  not 
sufficient;  the  filter  must  also  prevent  the  passage  of  pathogenic 
organisms,  and  so  render  the  water  sterile  bacteriologically. 
Examined  from  this  point  of  view  the  majority  of  domestic 
filters  were  found  to  be  gravely  defective,  and  even  to  be  worse 
than  useless,  since  unless  they  were  frequently  and  thoroughly 
cleansed,  they  were  liable  to  become  favourable  breeding-places  for 
microbes.  The  first  filter  which  was  more  or  less  completely 
impermeable  to  bacteria  was  the  Pasteur-Chamberland,  which 
was  devised  in  Pasteur's  laboratory,  and  is  made  of  dense  biscuit 
porcelain.  The  filtering  medium  in  this,  as  in  other  filters  of  the 
same  kind,  takes  the  form  of  a  hollow  cylinder  or  "  candle," 
through  the  walls  of  which  the  water  has  to  pass  from  the  outside 
to  the  inside,  the  candles  often  being  arranged  so  that  they  may 
be  directly  attached  to  a  tap,  whereby  the  rate  of  flow,  which  is 
apt  to  be  slow,  is  accelerated  by  the  pressure  of  the  main.  But 
even  filters  of  this  type,  if  they  are  to  be  fully  relied  upon,  must  be 
frequently  cleaned  and  sterilized,  and  great  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  joints  and  connexions  are  watertight,  and  that  the 
candles  are  without  cracks  or  flaws.  In  cases  where  the  water 
supply  is  known  to  be  infected,  or  even  where  it  is  merely 
doubtful,  it  is  wise  to  have  recourse  to  sterilization  by  boiling, 
rather  than  trust  to  any  filter.  Various  machines  have  been 
constructed  to  perform  this  operation,  some  of  them  specially 


designed  for  the  use  of  troops  in  the  field;  those  in  which 
economy  of  fuel  is  studied  have  an  exchange-heater,  by  means  of 
which  the  incoming  cold  water  receives  heat  from  the  outgoing 
hot  water,  which  thus  arrives  at  the  point  of  outflow  at  a 
temperature  nearly  as  low  as  that  of  the  supply.  Chemical 
methods  of  sterilization  have  also  been  suggested,  depending  on 
the  use  of  iodine,  chlorine,  bromine,  ozone,  potassium  per- 
manganate, copper  sulphate  or  chloride  and  other  substances. 
For  the  sand-filtration  of  water  on  a  large  scale,  in  which  the 
presence  of  a  surface  film  containing  zooglaea  of  bacteria  is  an 
essential  feature,  see  WATER  SUPPLY. 

Filtration  in  the  chemical  laboratory  is  commonly  effected 
by  the  aid  of  a  special  kind  of  unsized  paper,  which  in  the  more 
expensive  varieties  is  practically  pure  cellulose,  impurities  like 
feric  oxide,  alumina,  lime,  magnesia  and  silica  having  been  re- 
moved by  treatment  with  hydrochloric  and  hydrofluoric  acids. 
A  circular  piece  of  this  paper  is  folded  twice  upon  itself  so  as  to 
form  a  quadrant,  one  of  the  folds  is  pulled  out,  and  the  cone  thus 
obtained  is  supported  in  a  glass  or  porcelain  funnel  having  an 
apical  angle  of  60°.  The  liquid  to  be  filtered  is  poured  into  the 
cone,  preferably  down  a  glass  rod  upon  the  sides  of  the  funnel 
to  prevent  splashing  and  to  preserve  the  apex  of  the  filter-paper, 
and  passes  through  the  paper,  upon  which  the  solid  matter  is 
retained.  In  the  case  of  liquids  containing  strong  acids  or 
alkalis,  which  the  paper  cannot  withstand,  a  plug  of  carefully 
purified  asbestos  or  glass-wool  (spun  glass)  is  often  employed, 
contained  in  a  bulb  blown  as  an  enlargement  on  a  narrow  "  filter- 
tube."  To  accelerate  the  rate  of  filtration  various  devices  are 
resorted  to,  such  as  lengthening  the  tube  below  the  filtering 
material,  increasing  the  pressure  on  the  liquid  being  filtered, 
or  decreasing  it  in  the  receiver  of  the  filtrate.  R.  W.  Bunsen  may 
be  regarded  as  the  originator  of  the  second  method,  and  it  was  he 
who  devised  the  small  cone  of  platinum  foil,  sometimes  replaced 
by  a  cone  of  parchment  perforated  with  pinholes,  arranged,  at 
the  apex  of  the  funnel  to  serve  as  a  support  for  the  paper,  which 
is  apt  to  burst  under  the  pressure  differences.  In  the  so-called 
"  Buchner  funnel,"  the  filtering  vessel  is  cylindrical,  and  the 
paper  receives  support  by  being  laid  upon  its  flat  perforated 
bottom.  In  filtering  into  a  vacuum  the  flask  receiving  the  filtrate 
should  be  connected  to  the  exhaust  through  a  second  flask. 
The  suction  may  be  derived  from  any  form  of  air-pump;  a  form 
often  employed  where  water  at  fair  pressure  is  available  is 
the  jet-pump,  which  in  consequence  is  known  as  a  filter-pump. 
Another  method  of  filtering  into  a  vacuum  is  to  immerse  a  porous 
jar  ("  Pukall  cell  ")  in  the  liquid  to  be  filtered,  and  attach  a 
suction-pipe  to  its  interior.  A  filtering  arrangement  devised 
by  F.  C.  Gooch,  which  has  come  into  common  use  in  quantitative 
analysis  where  the  solid  matter  has  to  be  submitted  to  heating 
or  ignition,  consists  of  a  crucible  having  a  perforated  bottom. 
By  means  of  a  piece  of  stretched  rubber  tubing,  this  crucible 
is  supported  in  the  mouth  of  an  ordinary  funnel  which  is  con- 
nected with  an  exhausting  apparatus;  and  water  holding  in 
suspension  fine  scrapings  of  asbestos,  purified  by  boiling  with 
strong  hydrochloric  acid  and  washing  with  water,  is  run  through 
it,  so  that  the  perforated  bottom  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  felted 
asbestos.  The  crucible  is  then  removed  from  the  rubber  support, 
weighed  and  replaced;  the  liquid  is  filtered  through  in  the 
ordinary  way;  and  the  crucible  with  its  contents  is  again  removed, 
dried,  ignited  and  weighed.  A  perforated  cone,  similarly  coated 
with  asbestos  and  fitted  into  a  conical  funnel,  is  sometimes 
employed. 

In  many  processes  of  chemical  technology  filtration  plays  an 
important  part.  A  crude  method  consists  of  straining  the  liquid 
through  cotton  or  other  cloth,  either  stretched  on  wooden  frames 
or  formed  into  long  narrow  bags  ("  bag-filters  ").  Occasionally 
filtration  into  a  vacuum  is  practised,  but  more  often,  as  in  filter- 
presses,  the  liquid  is  forced  under  pressure,  either  hydrostatic 
or  obtained  from  a  force-pump  or  compressed  air,  into  a  series  of 
chambers  partitioned  off  by  cloth,  which  arrests  the  solids,  but 
permits  the  passage  of  the  liquid  portions.  For  separating 
liquids  from  solids  of  a  fibrous  or  crystalline  character  "  hydro- 
extractors  "  or  "  centrifugals  "  are  frequently  employed.  The 


FIMBRIA— FINANCE 


347 


material  is  placed  in  a  perforated  cage  or  "  basket,"  which 
is  enclosed  in  an  outer  casing,  and  when  the  cage  is  rapidly 
rotated  by  suitable  gearing,  the  liquid  portions  are  forced  out 
into  the  external  casing. 

FIMBRIA,  GAIUS  FLAVIUS  (d.  84  B.C.),  Roman  soldier  and 
a  violent  partisan  of  Marius.  He  was  sent  to  Asia  in  86  B.C. 
as  legate  to  L.  Valerius  Flaccus,  but  quarrelled  with  him  and  was 
dismissed.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence  of  Flaccus  at 
Chalcedon  and  the  discontent  aroused  by  his  avarice  and  severity, 
Fimbria  stirred  up  a  revolt  and  slew  Flaccus  at  Nicomedia. 
He  then  assumed  the  command  of  the  army  and  obtained  several 
successes  against  Mithradates,  whom  he  shut  up  in  Pitane  on 
the  coast  of  Aeolis,  and  would  undoubtedly  have  captured  him 
had  Lucullus  co-operated  with  the  fleet.  Fimbria  treated  most 
cruelly  all  the  people  of  Asia  who  had  revolted  from  Rome  or 
sided  with  Sulla.  Having  gained  admission  to  Ilium  by  declaring 
that,  as  a  Roman,  he  was  friendly,  he  massacred  the  inhabitants 
and  burnt  the  place  to  the  ground.  But  in  84  Sulla  crossed  over 
from  Greece  to  Asia,  made  peace  with  Mithradates,  and  turned 
his  arms  against  Fimbria,  who,  seeing  that  there  was  no  chance 
of  escape,  committed  suicide.  His  troops  were  made  to  serve  in 
Asia  till  the  end  of  the  third  Mithradatic  War. 

See  ROME:  History;  and  arts,  on  SULLA  and  MARIUS. 

FIMBRIATE  (from  Lat.  fimbriae,  fringe),  a  zoological  and 
botanical  term,  meaning  fringed.  In  heraldry,  "  fimbriate  " 
or  "  fimbriated  "  refers  to  a  narrow  edge  or  border  running  round 
a  bearing. 

FINALE  (Ital.  for  "  end  "),  a  term  in  music  for  the  concluding 
movement  in  an  instrumental  composition,  whether  symphony, 
concerto  or  sonata,  and,  in  dramatic  music,  the  concerted  piece 
which  ends  each  act.  Of  instrumental  finales,  the  great  choral 
finale  to  Beethoven's  Qth  symphony,  and  of  operatic  finales, 
that  of  Mozart's  Nozze  di  Figaro,  to  the  second  act,  and  to  the 
last  act  of  Verdi's  Falstaff  may  be  mentioned.  In  the  Wagnerian 
opera  the  finale  has  no  place. 

FINANCE.  The  term  "  finance,"  which  comes  into  English 
through  French,  in  its  original  meaning  denoted  a  payment 
(finalio).  In  the  later  middle  ages,  especially  in  Germany,  it 
acquired  the  sense  of  usurious  or  oppressive  dealing  with  money 
and  capital.  The  specialized  use  of  the  word  as  equivalent  to 
the  management  of  the  public  expenditure  and  receipts  first 
became  prominent  in  France  during  the  i6th  century  and  quickly 
spread  to  other  countries.  The  plural  form  (Les  Finances)  was 
particularly  reserved  for  this  application,  while  the  singular 
came  to  denote  business  activity  in  respect  to  monetary  dealings 
(as  in  the  expression  la  haute  finance).  For  the  Germans  the 
phrase  "  science  of  finance "  (Finanzwissenschaft)  refers  ex- 
clusively to  the  economy  of  the  state.  English  and  American 
writers  are  less  definite  in  their  employment  of  the  term,  which 
varies  with  the  convenience  of  the  author. 

A  work  on  "  finance  "  may  deal  with  the  Money  Market  or  the 
Stock  Exchange;  it  may  treat  of  banking  and  credit  organiza- 
tion, or  it  may  be  devoted  to  state  revenue  and  expenditure, 
which  is  on  the  whole  the  prevailing  sense.  The  expressions 
"  science  of  finance  "  and  "  public  finance  "  have  been  suggested  as 
suitable  to  delimit  the  last  mentioned  application.  At  all  events, 
the  broad  sense  is  quite  intelligible.  "  Financial  "  means  what  is 
concerned  with  business,  and  the  idea  of  a  balance  between 
effort  and  return  is  also  prominent.  In  the  present  article 
attention  will  be  directed  to  "  public  finance  ";  for  the  other 
aspects  of  the  subject  reference  may  be  made  (inter  alia}  to  the 
following: — BANKS  AND  BANKING;  COMPANY;  EXCHANGE; 
MARKET;  STOCK  EXCHANGE.  See  also  ENGLISH  FINANCE, 
and  the  sections  on  finance  under  headings  of  countries. 

Finance,  regarded  as  state  house-keeping,  or  "  political 
economy  "  (see  ECONOMICS)  in  the  older  sense  of  the  term,  deals 
with  (i)  the  expenditure  of  the  state;  (2)  state  revenues;  (3) 
the  balance  between  expenditure  and  receipts;  (4)  the  organiza- 
tion which  collects  and  applies  the  public  funds.  Each  of  these 
large  divisions  presents  a  series  of  problems  of  which  the  practical 
treatment  is  illustrated  in  the  financial  history  of  the  great  nations 
of  the  world.  Thus  the  amount  and  character  of  public  ex- 


penditure necessarily  depends  on  the  functions  that  the  state 
undertakes  to  perform — national  defence,  the  maintenance  of 
internal  order,  and  the  efficient  equipment  of  the  state  organiza- 
tion; such  are  the  tasks  that  all  governments  have  to  discharge, 
and  for  their  cost  due  provision  has  to  be  made.  The  widening 
sphere  of  state  activity,  so  marked  a  characteristic  of  modern 
civilization,  involves  outlay  for  what  may  be  best  described 
as  "  developmental  "  services.  Education,  relief  of  distress, 
regulation  of  labour  and  trade,  are  duties  now  in  great  part 
performed  by  public  agencies,  and  their  increasing  prominence 
involves  augmented  expense.  The  first  problem  on  this  side  of 
expenditure  is  the  due  balancing  of  outlay  by  income.  The 
financier  has  to  "  cover  "  his  outlay.  There  is,  further,  the  duty 
of  establishing  a  proper  proportion  between  the  several  forms  of 
expenditure.  Not  only  has  there  to  be  a  strict  control  over  the 
total  national  expense;  supervision  has  to  be  carried  into  each 
department  of  the  state.  No  one  branch  of  public  activity  is 
entitled  to  make  unlimited  calls  on  the  state's  revenue.  The 
claims  of  the  "  expert  "  require  to  be  carefully  scrutinized.  The 
great  financiers  have  made  their  reputation  quite  as  much  by 
rigorous  control  over  extravagance  in  expenditure  as  by  dexterity 
in  devising  new  forms  of  revenue.  Unfortunately  they  have  not 
been  able  to  reduce  their  methods  to  rule.  As  yet  no  more  definite 
principle  has  been  discovered  than  the  somewhat  obvious  one  of 
measuring  the  proposed  items  of  outlay  (i)  against  each  other, 
(2)  against  the  sacrifice  that  additional  taxation  involves.  Of 
almost  equal  importance  is  the  rule  that  the  utmost  return  is  to 
be  obtained  for  the  given  outlay.  The  canon  of  economy  is  as 
fundamental  in  regard  to  public  expenditure  as  it  will  appear, 
later,  to  be  in  respect  to  revenue.  Just  application  of  the  outlay 
of  the  state,  so  that  no  class  receives  undue  advantage,  and  the 
use  of  public  funds  for  "  reproductive,"  in  preference  to  "  un- 
productive "  objects,  are  evident  general  principles  whose 
difficulty  lies  in  their  application  to  the  circumstances  of  each 
particular  case. 

Far  greater  progress  has  been  made  in  the  formulation  of 
general  canons  as  to  the  nature,  growth  and  treatment  of  the 
public  revenues.  Historically,  there  is,  first,  the  tendency 
towards  increase  in  state  income  to  balance  the  advance  in  outlay. 
A  second  general  feature  is  the  relative  decline  of  the  receipts 
from  state  property  and  industries  in  contrast  to  the  expansion 
of  taxation.  Regarded  as  an  organized  system,  the  body  of 
receipts  has  to  be  made  conformable  to  certain  general  conditions. 
Thus  there  should  be  revenue  sufficient  to  meet  the  public  re- 
quirements. Otherwise  the  financial  organization  has  failed  in 
one  of  its  essential  purposes.  In  order  continuously  to  attain 
this  end,  the  revenue  must  be  flexible,  or,  as  is  often  said,  elastic 
enough  to  vary  in  response  to  pressure.  Frequently  recurring 
deficits  are,  in  themselves,  a  condemnation  of  the  methods 
under  which  they  are  found.  Again,  the  rule  of  "  economy  " 
in  raising  revenue,  or,  in  other  words,  taking  as  little  as  possible 
from  the  contributors  over  and  above  what  the  state  receives, 
holds  good  for  the  whole  and  for  each  part  of  public  revenue. 
In  like  manner  the  principle  of  formal  justice  has  the  same  claim 
in  respect  to  revenue  as  to  expenditure.  No  class  of  person  should 
bear  more  than  his  or  its  proper  share.  In  fact  the  special  maxims 
usually  placed  under  the  head  of  taxation  have  really  a  wider 
scope  as  governing  the  whole  financial  system.  The  recognition 
of  even  the  most  elementary  rules  has  been  a  very  slow  process, 
as  the  course  of  financial  history  abundantly  proves.  Until  the 
i8th  century  no  scientific  treatment  of  financial  problems  was 
attained,  though  there  had  been  great  advances  on  the  admini- 
strative side. 

A  brief  description  of  the  historical  evolution  of  the  earlier 
financial  forms  will  be  the  most  effective  illustration  of  this 
statement.  The  theory  of  well-organized  public  finance  is  also 
discussed  under  TAXATION  and  NATIONAL  DEBT. 

The  earliest  forms  of  public  revenue  are  those  obtained 
from  the  property  of  the  chief  or  ruler.  Land,  cattle  and  slaves 
are  the  principal  kinds  of  wealth,  and  they  are  all  constituents 
of  the  king's  revenue;  enforced  work  contributed  by  members  of 
the  community,  and  the  furnishing  commodities  on  requisition, 


348 


FINANCE 


further  aid  in  the  maintenance  of  the  primitive  state.  Financial 
organization  makes  its  earliest  appearance  in  the  great  Eastern 
monarchies,  in  which  tribute  was  regularly  collected  and  the 
oldest  and  most  general  form  of  taxation — that  levied  on  the 
produce  of  land — was  established.  In  its  normal  shape  this 
impost  consisted  in  a  given  proportion  of  the  yield,  or  of  certain 
portions  of  the  yield,  of  the  soil;  one-fourth  as  in  India,  one- 
fifth  as  in  Egypt,  or  two  separate  levies  of  a  tenth  as  in  Palestine, 
are  examples  of  what  may  from  the  last  instance  be  called  the 
"  tithe  "  system.  Dues  of  various  kinds  were  gradually  added 
to  the  land  revenue,  until,  as  in  the  later  Egyptian  monarchy, 
the  forms  of  revenue  reached  a  bewildering  complexity.  But 
no  Eastern  state  advanced  beyond  the  condition  generally 
characterized  as  the  "  patrimonial,"  i.e.  an  organization  on  the 
model  of  the  household.  The  part  played  by  money  economy 
was  small,  and  it  is  noticeable  that  the  revenues  were  collected 
by  the  monarch's  servants,  the  farming  out  of  taxes  being 
completely  unknown.  Tribute,  however,  was  paid  by  subject 
communities  as  a  whole,  and  was  collected  by  them  for  trans- 
mission to  the  conquerors. 

A  much  higher  stage  was  reached  in  the  financial  methods 
of  the  Greek  states,  or  more  correctly  speaking  of  Athens,  the 
best-known  specimen  of  the  class.  Instead  of  the 
comparatively  simple  expedients  of  the  barbarian 
monarchies,  as  indicated  above,  the  Athenian  city 
state  by  degrees  developed  a  rather  complex  revenue  system. 
Some  of  the  older  forms  are  retained.  The  city  owned  public 
land  which  was  let  on  lease  and  the  rents  were  farmed  out  by 
auction.  A  specially  valuable  property  of  Athens  was  the 
possession  of  the  silver  mines  at  Laurium,  which  were  worked  on 
lease  by  slave  labour.  The  produce,  at  first  distributed  amongst 
the  citizens,  was  later  a  part  of  the  state  income,  and  forms  the 
subject  of  some  of  the  suggestions  respecting  the  revenue  in 
the  treatise  formerly  ascribed  to  Xenophon.  The  reverence 
that  attached  to  the  precious  metals  caused  undue  exaltation 
of  the  services  rendered  by  this  property. 

One  of  the  characteristics  of  the  ancient  state  was  its  extensive 
control  over  the  persons  and  property  of  its  citizens.  In  respect 
to  finance  this  authority  was  strikingly  manifested  in  the 
burdens  imposed  on  wealthy  citizens  by  the  requirements  of  the 
"  liturgies  "  (Keirovpyiai.) ,  which  consisted  in  the  provision  of 
a  chorus  for  theatrical  performances,  or  defraying  the  expenses 
of  the  public  games,  or,  finally,  the  equipment  of  a  ship,  "  the 
trierarchy,"  which  was  economically  and  politically  the  most 
important.  Athenian  statesmanship  in  the  time  of  Demosthenes 
was  gravely  exercised  to  make  this  form  of  contribution  more 
effective.  The  grouping  into  classes  and  the  privilege  of  exchang- 
ing property,  granted  to  the  contributor  against  any  one  whom 
he  believed  entitled  to  take  his  place,  are  marks  of  the  defective 
economic  and  financial  organization  of  the  age. 

Amongst  taxes  strictly  so  called  were  the  market  dues  or  tolls, 
which  in  some  cases  approximated  to  excise  duties,  though  in 
their  actual  mode  of  levy  they  were  closely  similar  to  the  octrois 
of  modern  times.  Of  greater  importance  were  the  customs 
duties  on  imports  and  exports.  These  at  the  great  period  of 
Athenian  history  were  only  2%.  The  prohibition  of  export 
of  corn  was  an  economic  rather  than  a  financial  provision.  In 
the  treatment  of  her  subject  allies  Athens  was  more  rigorous, 
general  import  and  export  duties  of  5  %  being  imposed  on  their 
trade.  The  high  cost  of  carriage,  and  the  need  of  encouraging 
commerce  in  a  community  relying  on  external  sources  for  its 
food  supply,  help  to  explain  the  comparatively  low  rates  adopted. 
Neither  as  financial  nor  as  protective  expedients  were  the  custom 
duties  of  classical  societies  of  much  importance. 

Direct  taxation  received  much  greater  expansion.  A  special 
levy  on  the  class  of  resident  aliens  (titTo'uaov) ,  probably 
paralleled  by  a  duty  on  slaves,  was  in  force.  A  far  more  important 
source  of  revenue  was  the  general  tax  on  property  (fia<jx>pa) , 
which  according  to  one  view  existed  as  early  as  the  time  of  Solon, 
who  made  it  a  part  of  his  constitutional  system.  Modern 
inquiry,  however,  tends  towards  the  conclusion  that  it  was  under 
the  stress  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  'that  this  impost  was  intro- 


duced (428  B.C.).  At  first  it  was  only  levied  at  irregular  intervals; 
afterwards,  in  378  B.C.,  it  became  a  permanent  tax  based  on 
elaborate  valuation  under  which  the  richer  members  paid  on  a 
larger  quota  of  their  capital;  in  the  case  of •  the  wealthiest  class 
the  taxable  quota  was  taken  as  one-fifth,  smaller  fractions  being 
adopted  for  those  belonging  to  the  other  divisions.  The  assess- 
ment (ripj/ici)  included  all  the  property  of  the  contributor, 
whose  accuracy  in  making  full  returns  was  safeguarded  by  the 
right  given  to  other  citizens  to  proceed  against  him  for  fraudulent 
under-valuation.  A  further  support  was  provided  in  the  reform 
of  378  B.C.  by  the  establishment  of  the  symmories,  or  groups 
of  tax-paying  citizens;  the  wealthier  members  of  each  group 
being  responsible  for  the  tax  payments  of  all  the  members. 

The  scanty  and  obscure  references  to  finance,  and  to  economic 
matters  generally,  in  classical  literature  do  not  elucidate  all  the 
details  of  the  system;  but  the  analogies  of  other  countries,  e.g. 
the  mode  of  levying  the  tattle  in  i8th  century  France  and  the 
"  tenth  and  fifteenth  "  in  medieval  England,  make  it  tolerably 
plain  that  in  the  4th  century  B.C.  the  Athenian  state  had  developed 
a  mode  of  taxation  on  property  which  raised  those  questions  of 
just  distribution  and  effective  valuation  that  present  themselves 
in  the  latest  tax  systems  of  the  modern  world.  Taken  together 
with  the  liturgies,  the  "  eisphora  "  placed  a  very  heavy  burden 
on  the  wealthier  citizens,  and  this  financial  pressure  accounts 
in  great  part  for  the  hostility  of  the  rich  towards  the  democratic 
constitution  that  facilitated  the  imposition  of  graduated  taxation 
and  super-taxes — to  use  modern  terms — on  the  larger  incomes. 
The  normal  yield  of  the  property  tax  is  reported  as  60  talents 
(£14,400);  but  on  special  occasions  it  reached  200  talents 
(£48,000),  or  about  one-sixth  of  the  total  receipts. 

On  the  administrative  side  also  remarkable  advances  were 
made  by  the  entrusting  of  military  expenditure  to  the  "  generals," 
and  in  the  4th  century  B.C.  by  the  appointment  of  an  admini- 
strator whose  duty  it  was  to  distribute  the  revenue  of  the  state 
under  the  directions  of  the  assembly.  The  absence  of  settled 
public  law  and  the  influence  of  direct  democracy  made  a  complete 
ministry  of  finance  impossible. 

The  Athenian  "  hegemony  "  j£  its  earlier  and  later  phases 
had  an  important  financial  side.  The  confederacy  of  Delos 
made  provision  for  the  collection  of  a  revenue  (<>6pos)  from  the 
members  of  the  league,  which  was  employed  at  first  for  defence 
against  Persian  aggression,  but  afterwards  was  at  the  disposal 
of  Athens  as  the  ruling  state.  The  annual  collection  of  460 
talents  (£110,400)  shows  sufficiently  the  magnitude  of  the  league. 

Too  little  is  known  of  the  financial  methods  of  the  other 
Greek  states  and  of  the  Macedonian  kingdoms  to  allow  of  any 
definite  account  of  their  position.  In  the  latter,  particularly 
in  Egypt,  the  methods  of  the  earlier  rulers  probably  survived. 
Their  finance,  like  their  social  life  generally,  exhibited  a  blending 
of  Hellenic  and  barbarian  elements.  The  older  land-taxes  were 
probably  accompanied  by  import  dues  and  taxes  on  property. 

In  the  infancy  of  the  Roman  republic  its  revenues  were  of 
the  kind  usual  in  such  communities.  The  public  land  yielded 
receipts  which  may  indifferently  be  regarded  as  rents  Roman. 
or  taxes;  the  citizens  contributed  their  services  or 
commodities,  and  dues  were  raised  on  certain  articles  coming 
to  market.  With  the  progress  of  the'  Roman  dominion  the 
financial  organization  grew  in  extent.  In  order  to  meet  the 
cost  of  the  early  wars  a  special  contribution  from  property 
(tributum  ex  censu)  was  levied  at  times  of  emergency,  though  it 
was  in  some  cases  regarded  as  an  advance  to  be  repaid  when 
the  occasion  of  expense  was  over.  Owing  to  the  great  military 
successes,  and  the  consequent  increase  of  the  other  sources  of 
revenue,  it  became  feasible  to  suspend  the  tributum  in  167  B.C., 
and  it  was  not  again  levied  till  after  the  death  of  Julius  Caesar. 
From  this  date  the  expenses  of  the  Roman  state  "  were  un- 
disguisedly  supported  by  the  taxation  of  the  provinces." 
Neither  the  state  monopolies  nor  the  public  land  in  Italy  afforded 
any  appreciable  revenue.  The  other  charges  that  affected  Italy 
were  the  5%  duty  on  manumissions,  and  customs  dues  on  sea- 
borne imports.  But  with  the  acquisition  of  the  important 
provinces  of  Sicily,  Spain  and  Africa,  the  formation  of  a  tar 


FINANCE 


349 


system  based  on  the  tributes  of  the  dependencies  became  possible. 
To  a  great  extent  the  pre-existing  forms  of  revenue  were  retained, 
but  were  gradually  systematized.  In  legal  theory  the  land  of 
conquered  communities  passed  into  the  ownership  of  the  Roman 
state;  in  practice  a  revenue  was  obtained  through  land  taxes 
in  the  form  of  either  tithes  (decumae)  or  money  payments 
(stipendia) .  To  the  latter  were  adjoined  capitation  and  trade 
taxes  (the  tributum  capitis).  For  pasture  land  a  special  rent 
was  paid.  In  some  provinces  (e.g.  Sicily)  payment  in  produce 
was  preferred,  as  affording  the  supply  needed  for  the  free 
distribution  of  corn  at  Rome. 

The  great  form  of  indirect  taxation  consisted  in  the  customs 
dues  (portoria),  which  were  collected  at  the  provincial  boundaries 
and  varied  in  amount,  though  the  maximum  did  not  exceed  5  %. 
Under  the  same  head  were  included  the  town  dues  (or  octrois). 
Further,  the  local  administration  was  charged  on  the  district 
concerned,  and  requisitions  for  the  public  service  were  frequently 
made  on  the  provincial  communities.  Supplies  of  grain,  ships 
and  timber  for  military  use  were  often  demanded. 

The  methods  of  levy  may  be  regarded  as  an  additional  tax. 
"  Vexation,"  as  Adam  Smith  remarks,  "  though  not  strictly 
speaking  expense,  is  certainly  equivalent  to  the  expense  at  which 
every  man  would  be  willing  to  redeem  himself  from  it  ";  and 
the  Roman  system  was  extraordinarily  vexatious.  From  an 
early  date  the  collection  of  the  taxes  had  been  farmed  out  to 
companies  of  contractors  (socielates  vectigales),  who  became  a 
by-word  for  rapacity.  Being  bound  to  pay  a  stated  sum  to  the 
public  authorities  these  publicani  naturally  aimed  at  extracting 
the  largest  possible  amount  from  the  unfortunate  provincials, 
and,  as  they  belonged  to  the  Roman  capitalist  class,  they  were 
able  to  influence  the  provincial  governors.  Undue  claims  on  the 
part  of  the  tax  collectors  were  aggravated  by  the  extortion  of 
the  public  officials.  The  defects  of  the  financial  organization 
were  a  serious  influence  in  the  complex  of  causes  that  brought 
about  the  fall  of  the  Republic. 

One  of  the  reasons  that  induced  the  subject  populations 
to  accept  with  pleasure  the  establishment  of  the  Empire  was  the 
improvement  in  financial  treatment  that  it  secured.  The  corrupt 
and  uneconomical  method  of  farming  out  the  collection  of  the 
revenue  was,  to  a  great  extent,  replaced  by  collection  through 
the  officials  of  the  imperial  household.  The  earlier  Roman 
treasury  (aerarium)  was  formally  retained  for  the  receipt  of 
revenue  from  the  senatorial  provinces,  but  the  officials  were 
appointed  by  the  Princeps  and  became  gradually  mere  municipal 
officers.  The  real  centre  of  finance  was  the  fiscus  or  imperial 
treasury,  which  was  under  the  exclusive  control  of  the  ruler 
("  res  fiscales,"  says  Ulpian,  "  quasi  propriae  et  privatae  principis 
sunt  "),  and  was  administered  by  officials  of  his  household. 
Under  the  Republic  the  Senate  had  been  the  financial  authority, 
with  the  Censors  as  finance  ministers  and  the  Quaestors  as 
secretaries  of  the  treasury.  Never  very  precise,  this  system  in 
the  ist  century  B.C.  fell  into  extreme  decay.  By  means  of  his 
freedmen  the  emperor  introduced  the  more  rigorous  economy 
of  the  Roman  household  into  public  finance.  The  census  as  a 
method  of  valuation  was  revived;  the  important  and  productive 
land  taxes  were  placed  on  a  more  definite  footing;  while,  above 
all,  the  substitution  of  direct  collection  by  state  officials  for  the 
letting  out  by  auction,  of  the  tax-collection  to  the  companies 
of  publicani  was  made  general.  Thus  some  of  the  most  valuable 
lessons  as  to  the  normal  evolution  of  a  system  of  finance  are  to 
be  learned  in  this  connexion.  Of  equal,  or  even  greater  moment 
is  the  failure  of  the  administrative  reforms  of  the  Empire  to 
secure  lasting  improvement,  a  result  due  to  the  absence  of 
constitutional  guarantees.  The  close  relation  between  finance 
and  general  policy  is  most  impressively  illustrated  in  this  failure 
of  benevolent  autocracy. 

Viewed  broadly,  the  financial  resources  of  the  earlier  Empire 
were  obtained  from  (i)  the  public  land  alike  of  the  state  and  the 
Princeps;  (2)  the  monopolies,  principally  of  minerals;  (3)  the 
land  tax;  (4)  the  customs;  (5)  the  taxes  on  inheritances,  on 
sales  and  on  the  purchase  of  slaves  (vectigalia) .  One  result 
of  the  establishment  of  the  Principate  was  the  consolidation  of 


the  public  domain.  The  old  "  public  land  "  in  Italy  had  nearly 
disappeared;  but  the  royal  possessions  in  the  conquered  provinces 
and  the  private  properties  of  the  emperor  became  ultimately 
a  part  of  the  property  of  the  Fiscus.  Such  land  was  let  either 
on  five-year  leases  or  in  perpetuity  to  coloni.  Mines  were  also 
taken  over  for  public  use  and  worked  by  slaves  or,  in  later  times, 
by  convict  labour.  The  tendency  towards  state  monopoly 
became  more  marked  in  the  closing  days  of  the  Empire,  the  4th 
and  5th  centuries  A.D.  Perhaps  the  most  comprehensive  of  the 
fiscal  reforms  of  the  Empire  was  the  reconstruction  of  the  land 
tax,  based  on  a  census  or  (to  use  the  French  term)  cadastre,  in 
which  the  area,  the  modes  of  cultivation  and  the  estimated 
productiveness  of  each  holding  were  stated,  the  average  of  ten 
preceding  years  being  taken  as  the  standard.  After  the  recon- 
struction under  Diocletian  at  the  end  of  the  3rd  century  A.D., 
fifteen  years  (the  indictio) — though  probably  used  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Hadrian — was  recognized  as  the  period  for  revalua- 
tion. With  the  growing  needs  of  the  state  this  taxation  became 
more  rigorous  and  was  one  of  the  great  grievances  of  the  popula- 
tion, especially  of  the  sections  that  were  declining  in  status  and 
passing  into  the  condition  of  villenage.  The  portoria,  or  customs, 
received  a  better  organization,  though  the  varying  rates  for 
different  provinces  continued.  By  degrees  the  older  maximum 
of  5%  was  exceeded,  until  in  the  4th  century  125%  was  in 
some  cases  levied.  Even  at  this  higher  rate  the  facilities  for 
trade  were  greater  than  in  medieval  or  (until  the  revolution  in 
transport)  modern  times.  In  spite  of  certain  prejudices  against 
the  import  of  luxuries  and  the  export  of  gold,  there  is  little 
indication  of  the  influence  of  mercantilist  or  protectionist  ideas. 
The  nearest  approach  to  excise  was  the  duty  of  i  %  on  all  sales, 
a  tax  that  in  Gibbon's  words  "  has  ever  been  the  occasion  of 
clamour  and  discontent."  The  higher  charge  of  4%  on  the 
purchase  of  slaves,  and  the  still  heavier  5  %  on  successions  after 
death,  were  likewise  established  at  the  beginning  of  the  Empire 
and  specially  applied  to  the  full  citizens.  Escheats  and  lapsed 
legacies  (caduca)  were  further  miscellaneous  sources  of  gair  to 
the  state. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  financial  system  of  Imperial  Rome 
shows  a  very  high  elaboration  in  form.  The  patrimonium, 
the  tributa  and  the  iiectigalia  are  divisions  parallel  to  the  domaine, 
the  contributions  directes  and  the  contributions  indirectes  of 
modern  French  administration;  or  the  English  "  non-tax " 
revenue,  inland  revenue  and  "  customs  and  excise."  The 
careful  regulations  given  in  the  Codes  and  the  Digest  show  the 
observance  of  technical  conditions  as  to  assessment  and  account- 
ing. In  substance  and  spirit,  however,  Roman  finance  was 
essentially  backward.  Without  altogether  accepting  Merivale's 
judgment  that  "  their  principles  of  finance  were  to  the  last  rude 
and  unphilosophiral,"  it  may  be  granted  that  Roman  states- 
men never  seriously  faced  the  questions  of  just  distribution  and 
maximum  productiveness  in  the  tax  system.  Still  less  did  they 
perceive  the  connexion  between  these  two  aspects  of  finance. 
Mechanical  uniformity  and  minute  regulation  are  inadequate 
substitutes  for  observance  of  the  canons  of  equality,  certainty 
and  economy  in  the  operation  of  the  tax  system.  Whether 
(as  has  been  suggested)  an  Adam  Smith  in  power  could  have 
saved  the  Empire  is  doubtful;  but  he  would  certainly  have 
remodelled  its  finance.  The  most  glaring  fault  was  plainly 
the  undue  and  increasing  pressure  on  the  productive  classes. 
Each  century  saw  heavier  burdens  imposed  on  the  actual  workers 
and  on  their  employers,  while  expenditure  was  chiefly  devoted 
to  unproductive  purposes.  The  distribution  was  also  unfair  as 
between  the  different  territorial  divisions.  The  capital  and 
certain  provincial  towns  were  favoured  at  the  expense  of  the 
provinces  and  the  country  districts.  Again,  the  cost  of  collection, 
though  less  than  under  the  farming-out  system,  was  far  too 
great.  Some  alleviation  was  indeed  obtained  by  the  apportion- 
ment of  contributions  amongst  the  districts  liable,  leaving  to 
the  community  to  decide  as  it  thought  best  between  its  members. 
The  allotment  of  the  land-tax  to  units  (juga)  of  equal  value 
whatever  might  be  the  area,  was  a  contrivance  similar  in 
character. 


35° 


FINANCE 


The  gradual  way  in  which  the  several  provinces  were  brought 
under  the  general  tax  system,  and  the  equally  gradual  extension 
of  Roman  citizenship,  account  further  for  the  irregularity  and 
increased  weight  of  the  taxes;  as  the  absence  of  publicity  and 
the  growth  of  autocracy  explain  the  sense  of  oppression  and  the 
hopelessness  of  resistance  so  vividly  indicated  in  the  literature 
of  the  later  Empire.  Exemptions  at  first  granted  to  the 
citizens  were  removed,  while  the  cost  of  local  government  which 
continually  increased  was  placed  on  the  middle-class  of  the 
towns  as  represented  by  the  decuriones,  or  members  of  the 
municipalities. 

The  fact  that  no  ingenuity  of  modern  research  has  been  able 
to  construct  a  real  budget  of  expenditure  and  receipt  for  any 
part  of  the  long  centuries  of  the  Empire  is  significant  as  to  the 
secrecy  that  surrounded  the  finances,  especially  in  the  later 
period.  For  at  the  beginning  of  the  principate  Augustus  seems 
to  have  aimed  at  a  complete  estimate  of  the  financial  situation, 
though  this  may  be  regarded  as  due  to  the  influence  of  the  freer 
republican  traditions  which  the  reverence  that  soon  attached 
to  the  emperor's  dignity  completely  extinguished. 

In  addition  to  its  value  as  illustrating  the  difficulties  and 
defects  that  beset  the  development  of  a  complex  financial 
organization  from  the  simpler  forms  of  the  city  and  the  province, 
Roman  finance  is  of  special  importance  in  consequence  of  its 
place  as  supplying  a  model  or  rather  a  guide  for  the  administra- 
tion of  the  states  that  arose  on  its  ruins.  The  barbarian  invaders, 
though  they  were  accustomed  to  contributions  to  their  chiefs 
and  to  the  payment  of  commodities  as  tributes  or  as  penalties, 
had  no  acquaintance  with  the  working  of  a  regular  system  of 
taxation.  The  more  astute  rulers  utilized  the  machinery  that 
they  inherited  from  the  Roman  government.  Under  the  Franks 
the  land  tax  and  the  provincial  customs  continued  as  forms  of 
revenue,  while  beside  them  the  gifts  and  court  fees  of  Teutonic 
origin  took  their  place.  Similar  conditions  appear  in  Theodoric's 
administration  of  Italy.  The  maintenance  of  Roman  forms  and 
terms  is  prominent  in  fiscal  administration.  But  institutions 
that  have  lost  their  life  and  animating  spirit  can  hardly  be 
preserved  for  any  length  of  time.  All  over  western  Europe  the 
elaborate  devices  of  the  census  and  the  stations  for  the  collection 
of  customs  crumbled  away;  taxation  as  such  disappeared, 
through  the  hostility  of  the  clergy  and  the  exemptions  accorded 
to  powerful  subjects.  This  process  of  disintegration  spread  out 
over  centuries.  The  efforts  made  from  time  to  time  by  vigorous 
rulers  to  enforce  the  charges  that  remained  legally  due,  proved 
quite  ineffectual  to  restore  the  older  fiscal  system.  The  final 
result  was  a  complete  transformation  of  the  ingredients  of 
revenue.  The  character  of  the  change  may  be  best  indicated 
as  a  substitution  of  private  claims  for  public  rights.  Thus,  the 
land-tax  disappears  in  the  ;th  century  and  only  comes  into 
notice  in  the  gth  century  in  the  shape  of  private  customary 
dues.  The  customs  duties  become  the  tolls  and  transit  charges 
levied  by  local  potentates  on  the  diminishing  trade  of  the  earlier 
middle  ages.  This  revolution  is  in  accordance  with — indeed  it 
is  one  side  of — the  movement  towards  feudalism  which  was  the 
great  feature  of  this  period.  Finance  is  essentially  a  part  of  public 
law  and  administration.  It  could,  therefore,  hold  no  prominent 
place  in  a  condition  of  society  which  hardly  recognized  the  state, 
as  distinct  from  the  members  of  the  community,  united  by  feudal 
ties.  The  same  conception  may  be  expressed  in  another  way, 
viz.  by  the  statement  that  the  kingdoms  which  succeeded  the 
Roman  Empire  were  organized  on  the  patrimonial  basis  (i.e.  the 
re  venues  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  king  or,  rather,  his  domestic 
officials),  and  thus  in  fact  returned  to  the  condition  of  pre- 
classical  times.  Notwithstanding  the  differing  features  in  the 
several  countries,  retrogression  is  the  common  characteristic 
of  European  history  from  the  5th  to  the  loth  century,  and  it 
was  from  the  ruder  state  that  this  decline  created  that  the  re- 
building of  social  and  political  organization  had  to  be  accom- 
plished. On  the  financial  side  the  work,  as  already  suggested, 
was  aided  by  the  ideas  and  institutions  inherited  from  the  Roman 
Empire.  This  influence  was  common  to  all  the  continental  states 
and  indirectly  was  felt  even  in  England.  Each  of  the  great  realms 


has,  however,  worked  out  its  financial  system  on  lines  suitable 
to  its  own  particular  conditions,  which  are  best  considered  in 
connexion  with  the  separate  national,  histories. 

Running  through  the  different  national  systems  there  are 
some  common  elements  the  result  not  of  inheritance  merely  but 
still  more  of  necessity,  or  at  the  lowest  of  similarity  in  environ- 
ment. Over  and  above  the  details  of  financial  development 
there  is  a  thread  of  connexion  which  requires  treatment  under 
Finance  taken  as  a  whole.  As  the  great  aim  of  this  side  of  public 
activity  is  to  secure  funds  for  the  maintenance  of  the  state's  life 
and  working,  the  administration  which  operates  for  this  end  is  the 
true  nucleus  of  all  national  finance.  The  first  sign  of  revival 
from  the  catastrophe  of  the  invasions  is  the  reprganization  of  the 
Imperial  household  under  Charlemagne  with  the  intention  of 
establishing  a  more  exact  collection  of  revenue.  The  later 
German  empire  of  Otto  and  the  Frederics;  the  French  Capetian 
monarchy  and,  in  a  somewhat  different  sphere,  the  medieval 
Italian  and  German  cities  show  the  same  movement.  The 
treasury  is  the  centre  towards  which  the  special  receipts  of  the 
ruler  or  rulers  should  be  brought,  and  from  it  the  public  wants 
should  be  supplied.  Feudalism,  as  the  antithesis  of  this  orderly 
treatment,  had  to  be  overthrown  before  national  finance  could 
become  established.  The  development  can  be  traced  in  the 
financial  history  of  England,  France  and  the  German  states; 
but  the  advance  in  the  French  financial  organization  of  the  isth 
and  1 6th  centuries  affords  the  best  illustration.  The  gradual 
unification  operates  on  all  the  branches  of  finance, — expenditure, 
revenue,  debt  and  methods  of  control.  In  respect  to  the  first 
head  there  is  a  well-marked  "  integration  "  of  the  modes  for 
meeting  the  cost  of  the  public  services.  What  were  semi-private 
duties  become  public  tasks,  which,  with  the  growing  importance 
of  "  money-economy,"  have  to  be  defrayed  by  state  payments. 
Thus,  the  creation  of  the  standing  army  in  France  by  Charles  VII. 
marks  a  financial  change  of  the  first  order.  The  English  navy, 
though  more  gradually  developed,  is  an  equally  good  illustration 
of  the  movement.  All  outlay  by  the  state  is  brought  into  due 
co-ordination,  and  it  becomes  possible  for  constitutional  govern- 
ment to  supervise  and  direct  it.  This  improvement,  due  to 
English  initiative,  has  been  adopted  amongst  the  essential  forms 
of  financial  administration  on  the  continent.  The  immense  im- 
portance of  this  view  of  public  expenditure  as  representing  the 
consumption  of  the  state  in  its  unified  condition  is  obvious; 
it  has  affected,  for  the  most  part  unconsciously,  the  conception  of 
all  modern  peoples  as  to  the  functions  of  the  state  and  the  right 
of  the  people  to  direct  them. 

On  the  side  of  receipts  a  similar  unifying  process  has  been 
accomplished.  The  almost  universal  separation  between 
"  ordinary  "  and  "  extraordinary  "  receipts,  taxation  being  put 
under  the  latter  head,  has  completely  ceased.  It  was,  how- 
ever, the  fundamental  division  for  the  early  French  writers  on 
finance,  and  it  survives  for  England  as  late  as  Blackstone's  Com- 
mentaries. The  idea  that  the  ruler  possessed  a  normal  income 
in  certain  rents  and  dues  of  a  quasi-private  character,  which  on 
emergency  he  might  supplement  by  calls  on  the  revenues  of  his 
subjects,  was  a  bequest  of  feudalism  which  gave  way  before  the 
increasing  power  of  the  state.  In  order  to  meet  the  unified 
public  wants,  an  equally  unified  public  fund  was  requisite.  The 
great  economic  changes  which  depreciated  the  value  of  the 
king's  domain  contributed  towards  the  result.  Only  by  well- 
adjusted  taxation  was  it  possible  to  meet  the  public  necessities. 
In  respect  to  taxation  also  there  has  been  a  like  course  of  re- 
adjustment. Separate  charges,  assigned  for  distinct  purposes, 
have  been  taken  into  the  national  exchequer  and  come  to  form 
a  part  of  the  general  revenue.  There  has  been — taking  long 
periods — a  steady  absorption  of  special  taxes  into  more  general 
categories.  The  replacement  of  the  four  direct  taxes  by  the 
income  tax  in  France,  as  proposed  in  1909,  is  a  very  recent 
example.  Equally  important  is  the  growth  of  "  direct  "  taxa- 
tion. As  tax  contributions  have  taken  the  places  of  the  revenue 
from  land  and  fees,  so,  it  would  seem,  are  the  taxes  on  com- 
modities likely  to  be  replaced  or  at  least  exceeded  by  the  imposts 
levied  on  income  as  such,  in  the  shape  either  of  income  taxes 


FINANCE 


proper  or  of  charges  on  accumulated  wealth.  The  recent  history 
of  the  several  financial  systems  of  the  world  is  decisive  on  this 
point.  A  clearer  perception  of  the  conditions  under  which  the 
effective  attainment  of  revenue  is  possible  is  another  outcome  of 
financial  development.  Security,  and  in  particular  the  absence 
of  arbitrary  impositions,  combined  with  convenient  modes  of 
collection,  have  come  to  be  recognized  as  indispensable  auxiliaries 
in  financial  administration  which  further  aims  at  the  selection  of 
really  productive  forms  of  charge.  Unproductiveness  is,  accord- 
ing to  modern  standard,  the  cardinal  fault  of  any  particular  tax. 
How  great  has  been  the  progress  in  these  aspects  is  best  illustrated 
in  the  case  of  English  finance,  but  both  French  and  German 
fiscal  history  can  supply  many  instructive  examples. 

In  a  third  direction  the  co-ordination  of  finance  has  been  just 
as  remarkable.  Financial  adjustment  implies  the  conception  of 
a  balance,  and  this  should  be  found  in  the  relation  of  outlay  and 
income.  Under  the  pressure  of  war  and  other  emergencies  it  has 
been  found  impossible  to  maintain  this  desirable  equilibrium. 
But  the  use  of  the  system  of  credit,  and  the  general  establishment 
of  constitutional  government,  have  enabled  the  difficulty  to  be 
surmounted  by  the  creation  on  a  vast  scale  of  national  debts. 
Apart  from  the  special  problems  that  this  system  of  borrowing 
raises,  there  is  the  general  one  of  its  aid  in  making  national 
finance  continuous  and  orderly.  Deficits  can  be  transferred  to 
the  capital  account,  and  the  country's  resources  employed  most 
usefully  by  repaying  liabilities  contracted  in  times  of  extreme 
need.  The  growth  of  this  department,  parallel  with  the  general 
progress  of  finance,  is  significant  of  its  function. 

Finally,  in  all  countries  though  with  diversities  due  to  national 
peculiarities,  the  modes  of  account  and  control  have  been  brought 
into  a  more  effective  condition.  Previous  legislative  sanction  for 
both  expenditure  and  receipts  in  all  their  particular  forms  is 
absolutely  necessary;  so  is  thorough  scrutiny  of  the  actual 
application  of  the  funds  provided.  Either  by  administrative 
survey  or  by  judicial  examination  care  is  taken  to  see  that  there 
has  been  no  improper  diversion  from  the  designed  purposes.  It 
is  only  when  the  varied  systems  of  financial  organization  are 
studied  in  their  general  bearing,  and  with  regard  to  what  may  be 
called  their  frame-work,  that  their  essential  resemblance  is 
thoroughly  realized.  Such  a  real  underlying  unity  is  the  reason 
and  justification  for  regarding  "  public  finance  "  as  a  distinct 
subject  of  study  and  as  an  independent  division  of  political 
science. 

Local  Finance. — One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of 
modern  financial  development  has  been  the  growth  of  the  com- 
plementary system  of  local  finance,  which  in  extent  and  complica- 
tion bids  to  rival  that  of  the  central  authority.  Under  the 
constraining  power  of  the  Roman  Empire  the  older  city  states 
were  reduced  to  the  position  of  municipalities,  and  their  financial 
administration  became  dependent  on  the  control  of  the  Emperor 
— as  is  abundantly  illustrated  in  the  correspondence  of  Pliny  and 
Trajan.  After  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire,  a  partial  revival 
of  city  life,  particularly  in  Italy  and  Germany,  gave  some  scope 
for  a  return  to  the  type  of  finance  presented  by  the  Athenian 
state.  Florence  affords  an  instructive  specimen;  but  the 
passage  from  feudalism  to  the  national  state  under  the  authority 
of  monarchy  made  the  cities  and  country  districts  parts  of  a 
larger  whole.  It  is  in  this  condition  of  subordination  that  the 
finance  of  localities  has  been  framed  and  effectively  organized. 
Though  each  great  state  has  adopted  its  own  methods,  influenced 
by  historical  circumstances  and  by  ideas  of  policy,  there  are 
general  resemblances  that  furnish  material  for  scientific  treat- 
ment and  allow  of  important  generalizations  being  made. 

Amongst  these  the  first  to  be  noticed  is  the  essential  subordina- 
tion of  local  finance.  Alike  in  expenditure,  in  forms  of  receipt, 
and  in  methods  of  administration  the  central  government  has 
the  right  of  directing  and  supervising  the  work  of  municipal  and 
provincial  agencies.  The  modes  employed  are  various,  but  they 
all  rest  on  the  sovereignty  of  the  state,  whether  exercised  by  the 
central  officials  or  by  the  courts.  A  second  characteristic  is  the 
predominance  of  the  economic  element  in  the  several  tasks  that 
local  administrations  have  to  perform,  and  the  consequent 


tendency  to  treat  the  charges  of  local  finance  as  payments  for 
services  rendered,  or,  in  the  usual  phrase,  to  apply  the  "  benefits" 
principle,  in  contrast  to  that  of  "  ability,"  which  rightly  prevails 
in  national  finance.  Over  a  great  part  of  municipal  administra- 
tion— particularly  that  engaged  in  supplying  the  needs  of  the 
individual  citizens — the  finance  may  be  assimilated  to  that  of  the 
joint-stock  company,  with  of  course  the  necessary  differences, 
viz.  that  the  association  is  compulsory;  and  that  dividends  are 
paid,  not  in  money,  but  in  social  advantage.  The  great  expansion 
in  recent  years  of  what  is  known  as  Municipal  Trading  has 
brought  this  aspect  of  local  finance  into  prominence.  Water 
supply,  transport  and  lighting  have  become  public  services, 
requiring  careful  financial  management,  and  still  retaining  traces 
of  their  earlier  private  character. 

Corresponding  to  the  mainly  economic  nature  of  local  ex- 
penditure there  is  the  further  limitation  imposed  on  the  side  of 
revenue.  Unlike  the  state  in  this,  localities  are  limited  in  respect 
to  the  amount  and  form  of  their  taxation.  Several  distinct 
influences  combine  to  produce  this  result.  The  needs  of  the 
central  government  lead  to  its  retention  of  the  more  profitable 
modes  of  procuring  revenue.  No  modern  country  can  surrender 
the  chief  direct  and  indirect  taxes  to  the  local  administrations. 
Another  limiting  condition  is  found  in  the  practical  impossibility 
of  levying  by  local  agencies  such  imposts  as  the  customs  and  the 
income-tax  in  their  modern  forms.  The  elaborate  machinery 
that  is  requisite  for  covering  the  national  area  and  securing  the 
revenue  against  loss  can  only  be  provided  by  an  authority  that 
can  deal  with  the  whole  territory.  Hence  the  very  general 
limitation  of  local  revenues  to  certain  typical  forms.  Though  in 
some  cases  municipal  taxation  is  imposed  on  commodities  in  the 
form  of  octrois  or  entry  duties — as  is  notably  the  case  in  France — 
yet  the  prevailing  tendency  is  towards  the  levy  of  direct  charges 
on  immovable  property,  which  cannot  escape  by  removal  outside 
the  tax  jurisdiction.  In  addition  to  these  "  land  "  and  "  house  " 
taxes,  the  employment  of  licence  duties  on  trades,  particularly 
those  that  are  in  special  need  of  supervision,  is  a  favourite 
method.  Closely  akin  are  the  payments  demanded  for  privileges 
to  industrial  undertakings  given  as  "  franchises,"  very  often  in 
connexion  with  monopolies,  e.g.  gas-works  and  tramways. 
Over  and  above  the  peculiar  revenues  of  local  bodies  there  is  the 
further  resource — which  emphasizes  the  subordinate  position  of 
local  finance — of  obtaining  supplemental  revenue  from  the 
central  treasury,  either  by  taxes  additional  to  the  charges  of  the 
state,  and  collected  at  the  same  time;  or  by  donations  from  its 
funds,  in  the  shape  of  grants  for  special  services,  or  assignments  of 
certain  parts  of  the  state's  receipts.  Great  Britain,  France  and 
Prussia  furnish  good  examples  of  these  different  modes  of 
preserving  local  administration  from  financial  collapse. 

The  broad  resemblance  between  the  two  parts  of  the  entire 
system  of  public  finance  is  seen  in  another  direction.  To  national 
debts  there  has  been  added  a  great  mass  of  municipal  and  local 
indebtedness,  which  seems  likely  to  equal,  or  even  exceed  in 
magnitude  the  liabilities  of  the  central  governments.  But  here 
also  the  essential  limitations  of  the  newer  form  are  easily  per- 
ceptible. The  sovereignty  of  the  state  enables  it  to  deal  as  it 
thinks  best  with  the  public  creditor.  In  its  methods  of  borrowing, 
in  its  plans  for  repayment,  or,  in  extremity,  in  its  power  of 
repudiation  it  is  independent  of  external  control.  Local  debt  on 
the  other  hand  can  only  be  contracted  under  the  sanction  of  the 
appropriate  administrative  organ  of  the  state.  The  creditor  has 
the  right  of  claiming  the  aid  of  the  law  against  the  defaulting 
municipality;  and  the  amounts,  the  terms,  and  the  time  of 
duration  of  local  debt  are  supervised  in  order  to  prevent  injustice 
to  particular  persons  or  improvidence  with  regard  to  the  revenue 
and  property  of  the  local  units.  The  chief  reason  for  contracting 
local  debt  being  the  establishment  of  works  that  are,  directly  or 
indirectly,  reproductive,  the  governing  conditions  are  evidently 
to  be  found  in  the  character  and  probable  yield  of  those  businesses. 
The  principles  of  company  investments  are  fully  applicable:  the 
creation  of  sinking-funds,  the  fixing  the  term  of  each  loan  to  the 
time  at  which  the  return  from  its  employment  ceases,  and  the 
avoidance  of  the  formation  of  fictitious  capital,  become  guiding 


FINCH,  FINCH-HATTON— FINCH 


352 

rules  from  this  part  of  finance,  and  indicate  the  connexion  with 
what  the  commercial  world  calls  "  financial  operations." 

Finally,  there  is  the  same  set  of  problems  in  respect  to  account- 
ing and  control  in  local  as  in  central  finance.  Though  the 
materials  are  simpler,  the  need  for  a  well-prepared  budget  is 
existent  in  the  case  of  the  city,  county  or  department,  if  there  is 
to  be  clear  and  accurate  financial  management.  Perhaps  the 
greatest  weakness  of  local  finance  lies  in  this  direction.  The 
public  opinion  that  affects  the  national  budget  is  unfortunately 
too  often  lacking  in  the  most  important  towns,  not  excluding 
those  in  which  political  life  is  highly  developed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  English  literature  on  finance  is  rather  un- 
satisfactory; for  public  finance  the  available  text-books  are: 
Adams,  Science  of  Finance  (New  York,  1898);  Bastable,  Public 
Finance  (London,  1892;  3rd  ed.,  1903);  Daniels,  Public  Finance 
(New  York,  1899),  and  Plehn,  Public  Finance  (yd  ed.,  New  York, 
1909).  In  French,  Leroy-Beaulieu,  Traite  de  la  science  des  finances 
(1877 ;  3rd  ed.,  1908),  is  the  standard  work.  The  German  literature 
is  abundant.  Roscher,  5th  ed.  (edited  by  Gerlach),  1901 ;  Wagner 
(4  vols.),  incomplete;  Cohn  (1889)  and  Eheberg  (gth  ed.,  1908) 
have  published  works  entitled  Finanzwissenschaft,  dealing  with 
all  the  aspects  of  state  finance.  For  Greek  financial  history  Boekh, 
Staatshaushaltung  der  Athenen  (ed.  Frankel,  1887),  is  still  a  standard 
work.  For  Rome,  Marquardt,  Romische  Staatsverwaltung,  vol.  ii., 
and  Humbert,  Les  Finances  et  la  comptabilite  publique  chez  les  Remains, 
are  valuable.  Clamageran,  Histoire  de  I'impot  en  France  (1876), 
gives  the  earlier  development  of  French  finance.  R.  H.  Patterson, 
Science  of  Finance  (London,  1868),  C.  S.  Meade,  Trust  Finance  (1903), 
and  E.  Carroll,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Finance,  deal  with  finance 
in  the  wider  sense  of  business  transactions.  (C.  F.  B.) 

FINCH,  FINCH-HATTON.  This  old  English  family  has  had 
many  notable  members,  and  has  contributed  in  no  small  degree 
to  the  peerage.  Sir  Thomas  Finch  (d.  1563),  who  was  knighted 
for  his  share  in  suppressing  Sir  T.  Wyatt's  insurrection  against 
Queen  Mary,  was  a  soldier  of  note,  and  was  the  son  and  heir  of 
Sir  William  Finch,  who  was  knighted  in  1513.  He  was  the 
father  of  Sir  Moyle  Finch  (d.  1614),  who  was  created  a  baronet 
in  1611,  and  whose  widow  Elizabeth  (daughter  of  Sir  Thomas 
Heneage)  was  created  a  peeress  as  countess  of  Maidstone  in  1623 
and  countess  of  Winchilsea  in  1628;  and  also  of  Sir  Henry 
Finch  (1558-1625),  whose  son  John,  Baron  Finch  of  Fordwich 
(1584-1660),  is  separately  noticed.  Thomas,  eldest  son  of  Sir 
Moyle,  succeeded  his  mother  as  first  earl  of  Winchilsea;  and 
Sir  Heneage,  the  fourth  son  (d.  1631),  was  the  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  whose  son  Heneage  (1621-1682),  lord 
chancellor,  was  created  earl  of  Nottingham  in  1675.  The  latter's 
second  son  Heneage  (1640-1719)  was  created  earl  of  Aylesford 
in  1714.  The  earldoms  of  Winchilsea  and  Nottingham  became 
united  in  1729,  when  the  fifth  earl  of  Winchilsea  died,  leaving 
no  son,  and  the  title  passed  to  his  cousin  the  second  earl  of 
Nottingham,  the  earldom  of  Nottingham  having  since  then  been 
held  by  the  earl  of  Winchilsea.  In  1826,  on  the  death  of  the  ninth 
earl  of  Winchilsea  and  fifth  of  Nottingham,  his  cousin  George 
William  Finch-Hatton  succeeded  to  the  titles,  the  additional 
surname  of  Hatton  (since  held  in  this  line)  having  been  assumed 
in  1764  by  his  father  under  the  will  of  an  aunt,  a  daughter  of 
Christopher,  Viscount  Hatton  (1632-1706),  whose  father  was 
related  to  the  famous  Sir  Christopher  Hatton. 

FINCH  OF  FORDWICH,  JOHN  FINCH,  BARON  (1584-1660), 
generally  known  as  Sir  John  Finch,  English  judge,  a  member 
of  the  old  family  of  Finch,  was  born  on  the  i7th  of  September 
1584,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1611.  He  was  returned  to 
parliament  for  Canterbury  in  1614,  and  became  recorder  of  the 
same  place  in  1617.  Having  attracted  the  notice  of  Charles  I., 
who  visited  Canterbury  in  1625,  and  was  received  with  an  address 
by  Finch  in  his  capacity  as  recorder,  he  was  the  following  year 
appointed  king's  counsel  and  attorney-general  to  the  queen  and 
was  knighted.  In  1628  he  was  elected  speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  a  post  which  he  retained  till  its  dissolution  in  1629. 
He  was  the  speaker  who  was  held  down  in  his  chair  by  Holies 
and  others  on  the  occasion  of  Sir  John  Eliot's  resolution  on 
tonnage  and  poundage.  In  1 634  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of 
the  court  of  common  pleas,  and  distinguished  himself  by  the  active 
zeal  with  which  he  upheld  the  king's  prerogative.  Notable 
also  was  the  brutality  which  characterized  his  conduct  as  chief 


justice,  particularly  in  the  cases  of  William  Prynne  and  John 
Langton.  He  presided  over  the  trial  of  John  Hampden,  who 
resisted  the  payment  of  ship-money,  and  he  was  chiefly  re- 
sponsible for  the  decision  of  the  judges  that  ship-money  was 
constitutional.  As  a  reward  for  his  services  he  was,  in  1640, 
appointed  'lord  keeper,  and  was  also  created  Baron  Finch  of 
Fordwich.  He  had,  however,  become  so  unpopular  that  one  of 
the  first  acts  of  the  Long  Parliament,  which  met  in  the  same 
year  was  his  impeachment.  He  took  refuge  in  Holland,  but  had 
to  suffer  the  sequestration  of  his  estates.  When  he  was  allowed 
to  return  to  England  is  uncertain,  but  in  1660  he  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  for  the  trial  of  the  regicides,  though  he  does  not 
appear  to  have  taken  much  part  in  the  proceedings.  He  died 
on  the  27th  ol  November  1660  and  was  buried  in  St  Martin's 
church  near  Canterbury,  his  peerage  becoming  extinct. 

See  Foss,  Lives  of  the  Judges ;  Campbell,  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices. 

FINCH  (Ger.  Fink,  Lat.  Fringilla),  a  name  applied  (but 
almost  always  in  composition — as  bullfinch,  chaffinch,  goldfinch, 
hawfinch,  &c.)  to  a  great  many  small  birds  of  the  order  Passeres, 
and  now  pretty  generally  accepted  as  that  of  a  group  or  family — 
the  Fringillidae  of  most  ornithologists.  Yet  it  is  one  the  extent 
of  which  must  be  regarded  as  being  uncertain.  Many  writers 
have  included  in  it  the  buntings  (Emberizidae) ,  though  these 
seem  to  be  quite  distinct,  as  well  as  the  larks  (Alaudidae) ,  the 
tanagers  (Tanagridae) ,  and  the  weaver-birds  (Ploceidae). 
Others  have  separated  from  it  the  crossbills,  under  the  title  of 
Loxiidae,  but  without  due  cause.  The  difficulty  which  at  this 
time  presents  itself  in  regard  to  the  limits  of  the  Fringillidae 
arises  from  our  ignorance  of  the  anatomical  features,  especially 
those  of  the  head,  possessed  by  many  exotic  forms. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  finches,  concerning  which  no  reasonable 
doubt  can  exist,  are  not  only  little  birds  with  a  hard  bill,  adapted 
in  most  cases  for  shelling  and  eating  the  various  seeds  that  form 
the  chief  portion  of  their  diet  when  adult,  but  they  appear  to  be 
mainly  forms  which  predominate  in  and  are  highly  characteristic 
of  the  Palaearctic  Region;  moreover,  though  some  are  found 
elsewhere  on  the  globe,  the  existence  of  but  very  few  in  the 
Notogaean  hemisphere  can  as  yet  be  regarded  as  certain. 

But  even  with  this  limitation,  the  separation  of  the  undoubted 
Fringillidae  *  into  groups  is  a  difficult  task.  Were  we  merely 
to  consider  the  superficial  character  of  the  form  of  the  bill,  the 
genus  Loxia  (in  its  modern  sense)  would  be  easily  divided  not 
only  from  the  other  finches,  but  from  all  other  birds.  The  birds 
of  this  genus — the  crossbills — when  their  other  characters  are 
taken  into  account,  prove  to  be  intimately  allied  on  the  one  hand 
to  the  grosbeaks  (Pinicola)  and  on  the  other  through  the  redpolls 
(Aegiothuf)  to  the  linnets  (Linota) — if  indeed  these  two  can  be 
properly  separated.  The  linnets,  through  the  genus  Leucosticle, 
lead  to  the  mountain-finches  (Montifringilla),  and  the  redpolls 
through  the  siskins  (Chrysomitris)  to  the  goldfinches  (Carduelis) ; 
and  these  last  again  to  the  hawfinches,  one  group  of  which 
(Coccothraustes)  is  apparently  not  far  distant  from  the  chaffinches 
(Fringilla  proper),  and  the  other  (Hesperiphona)  seems  to  be 
allied  to  the  greenfinches  (Ligurinus).  Then  there  is  the  group 
of  serins  (Serinus),  to  which  the  canary  belongs,  that  one  is  in 
doubt  whether  to  refer  to  the  vicinity  of  the  greenfinches  or  that 
of  the  redpolls.  The  mountain-finches  may  be  regarded  as 
pointing  first  to  the  rock-sparrows  (Petronia)  and  then  to  the 
true  sparrows  (Passer);  while  the  grosbeaks  pass  into  many 
varied  forms  and  throw  out  a  very  well  marked  form — the 
bullfinches  (Pyrrhula).  Some  of  the  modifications  of  the  family 
are  very  gradual,  and  therefore  conclusions  founded  on  them 
are  likely  to  be  correct;  others  are  further  apart,  and  the  links 
which  connect  them,  if  not  altogether  missing,  can  but  be 
surmised.  To  avoid  as  much  as  possible  prejudicing  the  case, 
we  shall  therefore  take  the  different  groups  of  Fringillidae  which 
it  is  convenient  to  consider  in  this  article  in  an  alphabetical 
arrangement. 

Of  the  Bullfinches  the  best  known  is  the  familiar  bird  (Pyrrhula 

1  About  200  species  of  these  have  been  described,  and  perhaps  150 
may  really  exist. 


FINCHLEY— FINCK,   HEINRICH 


353 


europaea).  The  varied  plumage  of  the  cock — his  bright  red 
breast  and  his  grey  back,  set  off  by  his  coal-black  head  and  quills 
— is  naturally  attractive;  while  the  facility  with  which  he 
is  tamed,  with  his  engaging  disposition  in  confinement,  makes 
him  a  popular  cage-bird, — to  say  nothing  of  the  fact  (which 
in  the  opinion  of  so  many  adds  to  his  charms)  of  his  readily 
learning  to  "  pipe  "  a  tune,  or  some  bars  of  one.  By  gardeners 
the  bullfinch  has  long  been  regarded  as  a  deadly  enemy,  from  its 
undoubted  destruction  of  the  buds  of  fruit-trees  in  spring-time, 
though  whether  the  destruction  is  really  so  much  of  a  detriment 
is  by  no  means  so  undoubted.  Northern  and  eastern  Europe 
is  inhabited  by  a  larger  form  (P.  major),  which  differs  in  nothing 
but  size  and  more  vivid  tints  from  that  which  is  common  in  the 
British  Isles  and  western  Europe.  A  very  distinct  species  (P. 
murina),  remarkable  for  its  dull  coloration,  is  peculiar  to  the 
Azores,  and  several  others  are  found  in  Asia  from  the  Himalayas 
to  Japan.  A  bullfinch  (P.  cassini)  has  been  discovered  in  Alaska, 
being  the  first  recognition  of  this  genus  in  the  New  World. 

The  Canary  (Serinus  canarius)  is  indigenous  to  the  islands 
whence  it  takes  its  name,  as  well,  apparently,  as  to  the  neighbour- 
ing groups  of  the  Madeiras  and  Azores,  in  all  of  which  it  abounds. 
It  seems  to  have  been  imported  into  Europe  at  least  as  early 
as  the  first  half  of  the  i6th  century,1  and  has  since  become  the 
commonest  of  cage-birds.  The  wild  stock  is  of  an  olive-green, 
mottled  with  dark  brown  above,  and  greenish-yellow  beneath. 
All  the  bright-hued  examples  we  now  see  in  captivity  have  been 
induced  by  carefully  breeding  from  any  chance  varieties  that 
have  shown  themselves;  and  not  only  the  colour,  but  the  build 
and  stature  of  the  bird  have  in  this  manner  been  greatly  modified. 
The  ingenuity  of  "  the  fancy,"  which  might  seem  to  have  ex- 
hausted itself  in  the  production  of  topknots,  feathered  feet, 
and  so  forth,  has  brought  about  a  still  further  change  from  the 
original  type.  It  has  been  found  that  by  a  particular  treatment, 
in  which  the  mixing  of  large  quantities  of  vegetable  colouring 
agents  with  the  food  plays  an  important  part,  the  ordinary 
"  canary  yellow  "  may  be  intensified  so  as  to  verge  upon  a 
more  or  less  brilliant  flame  colour.2 

Very  nearly  resembling  the  canary,  but  smaller  in  size,  is  the 
Serin  (Serinus  hortulanus),  a  species  which  not  long  since  was 
very  local  in  Europe,  and  chiefly  known  to  inhabit  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  has  pushed  its  way  towards 
the  north,  and  has  even  been  several  times  taken  in  England 
(Yarrell's  Brit.  Birds,  ed.  4,  ii.  pp.  m-ii6).  A  closely  allied 
species  (S.  canonicus)  is  peculiar  to  Palestine. 

The  Chaffinches  are  regarded  as  the  type-form  of  Fringillidae. 
The  handsome  and  sprightly  Fringilla  coelebs 3  is  common 
throughout  the  whole  of  Europe.  Conspicuous  by  his  variegated 
plumage,  his  peculiar  call  note  4  and  his  glad  song,  the  cock  is 
almost  everywhere  a  favourite.  In  Algeria  the  British  chaffinch 
is  replaced  by  a  closely-allied  species  (F.  spodogenia),  while  in 
the  Atlantic  Islands  it  is  represented  by  two  others  (F.  tintillon 
and  F.  teydea) — all  of  which,  while  possessing  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  European  bird,  are  clothed  in  soberer  tints.5  Another 

1  The  earliest  published  description  seems  to  be  that  of  Gesner  in 
1555  (Orn.  p.  234),  but  he  had  not  seen  the  bird,  an  account  of  which 
was  communicated  to  him  by  Raphael  Seller  of  Augsburg,  under  the 
name  of  Suckeruogele. 

s  See  also  The  Canary  Book,  by  Robert  L.  Wallace ;  Canaries  and 
Cage  Birds,  by  W.  A.  Blackston;  and  Darwin's  Animals  and  Plants 
under  Domestication,  vol.  i.  p.  295.  An  excellent  monograph  on  the 
wild  bird  is  that  by  Dr  Carl  Bolle  (Journ.filr  Orn.,  1858,  pp.  125-151). 

3  This  fanciful  trivial  name  was  given  by  Linnaeus  on  the  sup- 
position (which  later  observations  dp  not  entirely  confirm)  that  in 
Sweden  the  hens  of  the  species  migrated  southward  in  autumn, 
leaving  the  cocks  to  lead  a  celibate  life  till  spring.     It  is  certain, 
however,  that  in  some  localities  the  sexes  live  apart  during  the 
winter. 

4  This  call-note,   which  to  many  ears  sounds  like   "  pink  "   or 
"  spink,"  not  only  gives  the  bird  a  name  in  many  parts  of  Britain, 
but  is  also  obviously  the  origin  of  the  German  Fink  and  the  English 
Finch.     The  similar  Celtic  form  Pine  is  said  to  have  given  rise  to  the 
Low  Latin  Pincio,  and  thence  come  the  Italian  Pincione,  the  Spanish 
Pinzon,  and  the  French  Pinson. 

6  This  is  especially  the  case  with  F.  teydea  of  the  Canary  Islands, 
which  from  its  dark  colouring  and  large  size  forms  a  kind  of  parallel 
to  the  Azorean  Pyrrhula  murina. 

X.  12 


species  of  true  Fringilla  is  the  brambling  (F.  montifringilla) , 
which  has  its  home  in  the  birch  forests  of  northern  Europe  and 
Asia,  whence  it  yearly  proceeds,  often  in  flocks  of  thousands, 
to  pass  the  winter  in  more  southern  countries.  This  bird  is 
still  more  beautifully  coloured  than  the  chaffinch — especially 
in  summer,  when,  the  brown  edges  of  the  feathers  being  shed,  it 
presents  a  rich  combination  of  black,  white  and  orange.  Even 
in  winter,  however,  its  diversified  plumage  is  sufficiently  striking. 

With  the  exception  of  the  single  species  of  bullfinch  already 
noticed  as  occurring  in  Alaska,  all  the  above  forms  of  finches 
are  peculiar  to  the  Palaearctic  Region.  (A.  N.) 

FINCHLEY,  an  urban  district  in  the  Hornsey  parliamentary 
division  of  Middlesex,  England,  7  m.  N.W.  of  St  Paul's  cathedral, 
London,  on  a  branch  of  the  Great  Northern  railway.  Pop. 
(1891)  16,647;  (I9°I)  22,126.  A  part,  adjoining  Highgate  on 
the  north,  lies  at  an  elevation  between  300  and  400  ft.,  while  a 
portion  in  the  Church  End  district  lies  lower,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Dollis  Brook.  The  pleasant,  healthy  situation  has  caused 
Finchley  to  become  a  populous  residential  district.  Finchley 
Common  was  formerly  one  of  the  most  notorious  resorts  of  high- 
waymen near  London;  the  Great  North  Road  crossed  it,  and 
it  was  a  haunt  of  Dick  Turpin  and  Jack  Sheppard,  and  was 
still  dangerous  to  cross  at  night  at  the  close  of  the  i8th  century. 
Sheppard  was  captured  in  this  neighbourhood  in  1724.  The 
Common  has  not  been  preserved  from  the  builder.  In  1660 
George  Monk,  marching  on  London  immediately  before  the 
Restoration,  made  his  camp  on  the  Common,  and  in  1745  a 
regular  and  volunteer  force  encamped  here,  prepared  to  resist 
the  Pretender,  who  was  at  Derby.  The  gathering  of  this  force 
inspired  Hogarth's  famous  picture,  the  "  March  of  the  Guards 
to  Finchley." 

FINCK,  FRIEDRICH  AUGUST  VON  (1718-1766),  Prussian 
soldier,  was  born  at  Strelitz  in  1718.  He  first  saw  active  service 
in  1734  on  the  Rhine,  as  a  member  of  the  suite  of  Duke  Anton 
Ulrich  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel.  Soon  after  this  he  trans- 
ferred to  the  Austrian  service,  and  thence  went  to  Russia,  where 
he  served  until  the  fall  of  his  patron  Marshal  Miinnich  put  an  end 
to  his  prospects  of  advancement.  In  1742  he  went  to  Berlin,  and 
Frederick  the  Great  made  him  his  aide-de-camp,  with  the  rank  of 
major.  Good  service  brought  him  rapid  promotion  in  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  After  the  battle  of  Kolin  (June  i8th,  1757)  he  was 
made  colonel,  and  at  the  end  of  1757  major-general.  At  the 
beginning  of  1759  Finck  became  lieutenant-general,  and  in  this 
rank  commanded  a  corps  at  the  disastrous  battle  of  Kunersdorf , 
where  he  did  good  service  both  on  the  field  of  battle  and 
(Frederick  having  in  despair  handed  over  to  him  the  command) 
in  the  rallying  of  the  beaten  Prussians.  Later  in  the  year  he 
fought  in  concert  with  General  Wunsch  a  widespread  combat, 
called  the  action  of  Korbitz  (Sept.  2ist)  in  which  the  Austrians  and 
the  contingents  of  the  minor  states  of  the  Empire  were  sharply 
defeated.  For  this  action  Frederick  gave  Finck  the  Black  Eagle 
(Seyfarth,  Beilagen,  ii.  621-630).  But  the  subsequent  catastrophe 
of  Maxen  (see  SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR)  abruptly  put  an  end  to  Finck's 
active  career.  Dangerously  exposed,  and  with  inadequate  forces, 
Finck  received  the  king's  positive  order  to  march  upon  Maxen 
(a  village  in  the  Pirna  region  of  Saxony).  Unfortunately  for 
himself  the  general  dared  not  disobey  his  master,  and,  cut  off  by 
greatly  superior  numbers,  was  forced  to  surrender  with  some 
11,000  men  (2ist  Nov.  1759).  After  the  peace,  Frederick  sent 
him  before  a  court-martial,  which  sentenced  him  to  be  cashiered 
and  to  suffer  a  term  of  imprisonment  in  a  fortress.  At  the  expiry 
of  this  term  Finck  entered  the  Danish  service  as  general  of 
infantry.  He  died  at  Copenhagen  in  1766. 

He  left  a  work  called  Gedanken  iiber  militdrische  Gegenstdnde 
(Berlin,  1788).  See  Denkwilrdigkeiten  der  militdrischen  Gesellschaft, 
vol.  ii.  (Berlin,  1802-1805),  and  the  report  of  the  Finck  court-martial 
in  Zeitschrift  fur  Kunst,  Wissenschaft  und  Geschichte  des  Krieges,  pt. 
81  (Berlin,  1851).  There  is  a  life  of  Finck  in  MS.  in  the  library 
of  the  Great  General  Staff. 

FINCK,  HEINRICH  (d.  c.  1519),  German  musical  composer, 
was  probably  born  at  Bamberg,  but  nothing  is  certainly  known 
either  of  the  place  or  date  of  his  birth.  Between  1492  and  1506 
he  was  a  musician  in,  and  later  possibly  conductor  of  the  court 


354 

orchestra  of  successive  kings  of  Poland  at  Warsaw.  He  held  the 
post  of  conductor  at  Stuttgart  from  1510  till  about  1519,  in 
which  year  he  probably  died.  His  works,  mostly  part  songs  and 
other  vocal  compositions,  show  great  musical  knowledge,  and 
amongst  the  early  masters  of  the  German  school  he  holds  a  high 
position.  They  are  found  scattered  amongst  ancient  and  modern 
collections  of  songs  and  other  musical  pieces  (see  R.  Eitner, 
Bibl.  der  Musiksammelwerke  des  16.  und  77.  Jahrh.,  Berlin,  1877). 
The  library  of  Zwickau  possesses  a  work  containing  a  collection  of 
fifty-five  songs  by  Finck,  printed  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century. 

FINCK,  HERMANN  (1527-1558),  German  composer,  the 
great-nephew  of  Heinrich  Finck,  was  born  on  the  2ist  of  March 
1527  in  Pirna,  and  died  at  Wittenberg  on  the  28th  of  December 
1558.  After  1553  he  lived  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  was  organist, 
and  there,  in  1555,  was  published  his  collection  of  "wedding 
songs."  Few  details  of  his  life  have  been  preserved.  His 
theoretical  writing  was  good,  particularly  his  observations  on  the 
art  of  singing  and  of  making  ornamentations  in  song.  His  most 
celebrated  work  is  entitled  Practica  musica,  exempla  variorum 
signorum,  proportion-urn,  et  canonum,judicium  de  tonis  ac  quaedam 
de  arte  suaviter  et  artificiose  cantandi  continens  (Wittenberg, 
1556).  It  is  of  great  historic  value,  but  very  rare. 

FINDEN,  WILLIAM  (1787-1852),  English  line  engraver,  was 
born  in  1 787.  He  served  his  apprenticeship  to  one  James  Milan, 
but  appears  to  have  owed  far  more  to  the  influence  of  James 
Heath,  whose  works  he  privately  and  earnestly  studied.  His 
first  employment  on  his  own  account  was  engraving  illustrations 
for  books,  and  among  the  most  noteworthy  of  these  early  plates 
were  Smirke's  illustrations  to  Don  Quixote.  His  neat  style  and 
smooth  finish  made  his  pictures  very  attractive  and  popular,  and 
although  he  executed  several  large  plates,  his  chief  work  through- 
out his  life  was  book  illustration.  His  younger  brother,  Edward 
Finden,  worked  in  conjunction  with  him,  and  so  much  demand 
arose  for  their  productions  that  ultimately  a  company  of 
assistants  was  engaged,  and  plates  were  produced  in  increasing 
numbers,  their  quality  as  works  of  art  declining  as  their  quantity 
rose.  The  largest  plate  executed  by  William  Finden  was  the 
portrait  of  King  George  IV.  seated  on  a  sofa,after  the  painting  by 
Sir  Thomas  Lawrence.  For  this  work  he  received  two  thousand 
guineas,  a  sum  larger  than  had  ever  before  been  paid  for  an 
engraved  portrait.  Finden's  next  and  happiest  works  on  a  large 
scale  were  the  "  Highlander's  Return  "  and  the  "Village  Festival," 
after  Wilkie.  Later  in  life  he  undertook,  in  co-operation  with  his 
brother,  aided  by  their  numerous  staff,  the  publication  as  well  as 
the  production  of  various  galleries  of  engravings.  The  first  of 
these,  a  series  of  landscape  and  portrait  illustrations  to  the  life 
and  works  of  Byron,  appeared  in  1833  and  following  years,  and 
was  very  successful.  But  by  his  Gallery  of  British  Art  (in  fifteen 
parts,  1838-1840),  the  most  costly  and  best  of  these  ventures,  he 
lost  the  fruits  of  all  his  former  success.  Finden's  last  undertaking 
was  an  engraving  on  a  large  scale  of  Hilton's  "  Crucifixion."  The 
plate  was  bought  by  the  Art  Union  for  £1470.  He  died  in  London 
on  the  aoth  of  September  1852. 

FINDLATER,  ANDREW  (1810-1885),  Scottish  editor,  was 
born  in  1810  near  Aberdour,  Aberdeenshire,  the  son  of  a  small 
farmer.  By  hard  study  in  the  evening,  after  his  day's  work  on 
the  farm  was  finished,  he  qualified  himself  for  entrance  at 
Aberdeen  University,  and  after  graduating  as  M.A.  he  attended 
the  Divinity  classes  with  the  idea  of  entering  the  ministry.  In 
1853  he  began  that  connexion  with  the  firm  of  W.  &  R.  Chambers 
which  gave  direction  to  his  subsequent  activity.  His  first 
engagement  was  the  editing  of  a  revised  edition  of  their  Informa- 
tion for  the  People  (1857).  In  this  capacity  he  gave  evidence  of 
qualities  and  acquirements  that  marked  him  as  a  suitable  editor 
for  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia,  then  projected,  and  his  was  the 
directing  mind  that  gave  it  its  character.  Many  of  the  more 
important  articles  were  written  by  him.  This  work  occupied  him 
till  1868,  and  he  afterwards  edited  a  revised  edition  (1874).  He 
also  had  charge  of  other  publications  for  the  same  firm,  and  wrote 
regularly  for  the  Scotsman.  In  1864  he  was  made  LL.D.  of 
Aberdeen  University.  In  1877  he  gave  up  active  work  for 


FINCK,  HERMANN— FINDLAY 


Chambers,  but  his  services  were  retained  as  consulting  editor. 
He  died  in  Edinburgh  on  the  ist  of  January  1885. 

FINDLAY,  SIR  GEORGE  (1829-1893),  English  railway 
manager,  was  of  pure  Scottish  descent,  and  was  born  at  Rainhill, 
in  Lancashire,  on  the  i8th  of  May  1829.  For  some  time  he 
attended  Halifax  grammar  school,  but  left  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
and  began  to  learn  practical  masonry  on  the  Halifax  railway, 
upon  which  his  father  was  then  employed.  Two  years  later  he 
obtained  a  situation  on  the  Trent  Valley  railway  works,  and 
when  that  line  was  finished  in  1847  went  up  to  London.  There 
he  was  for  a  short  time  among  the  men  employed  in  building 
locomotive  sheds  for  the  London  &  North- Western  railway  at 
Camden  Town,  and  years  afterwards,  when  he  had  become 
general  manager  of  that  railway,  he  was  able  to  point  out  stones 
which  he  had  dressed  with  his  own  hands.  For  the  next  two  or 
three  years  he  was  engaged  in  a  higher  capacity  as  supervisor 
of  the  mining  and  brickwork  of  the  Harecastle  tunnel  on  the 
North  Staffordshire  line,  and  of  the  Walton  tunnel  on  the 
Birkenhead,  Lancashire  &  Cheshire  Junction  railway.  In  1850 
the  charge  of  the  construction  of  a  section  of  the  Shrewsbury 
&  Hereford  line  was  entrusted  to  him,  and  when  the  line  was 
opened  for  traffic  T.  Brassey,  the  contractor,  having  determined 
to  work  it  himself,  installed  him  as  manager.  In  the  course 
of  his  duties  he  was  brought  for  the  first  time  into  official  relations 
with  the  London  &  North-Western  railway,  which  had  under- 
taken to  work  the  Newport,  Abergavenny  &  Hereford  line, 
and  he  ultimately  passed  into  the  service  of  that  company,  when 
in  1862,  jointly  with  the  Great  Western,  it  leased  the  railway 
of  which  he  was  manager.  In  1864  he  was  moved  to  Euston  as 
general  goods  manager,  in  1872  he  became  chief  traffic  manager, 
and  in  1880  he  was  appointed  full  general  manager;  this  last 
post  he  retained  until  his  death,  which  occurred  on  the  26th 
of  March  1893  at  Edgware,  Middlesex.  He  was  knighted  in 
1892.  Sir  George  Findlay  was  the  author  of  a  book  on  the 
Working  and  Management  of  an  English  Railway  (London,  1889), 
which  contains  a  great  deal  of  information,  some  of  it  not  easily 
accessible  to  the  general  public,  as  to  English  railway  practice 
about  the  year  1890. 

FINDLAY,  JOHN  RITCHIE  (1824-1898),  Scottish  newspaper 
owner  and  philanthropist,  was  born  at  Arbroath  on  the  2ist  of 
October  1824,  and  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  University. 
He  entered  first  the  publishing  office  and  then  the  editorial 
department  of  the  Scotsman,  became  a  partner  in  the  paper 
in  1868,  and  in  1870  inherited  the  greater  part  of  the  property 
from  his  great  uncle,  John  Ritchie,  the  founder.  The  large 
increase  in  the  influence  and  circulation  of  the  paper  was  in 
a  great  measure  due  to  his  activity  and  direction,  and  it  brought 
him  a  fortune,  which  he  spent  during  his  lifetime  in  public 
benefaction.  He  presented  to  the  nation  the  Scottish  National 
Portrait  Gallery,  opened  in  Edinburgh  in  1889,  and  costing 
over  £70,000;  and  he  contributed  largely  to  the  collections  of 
the  Scottish  National  Gallery.  He  held  numerous  offices  in 
antiquarian,  educational  and  charitable  societies,  showing  his 
keen  interest  in  these  matters,  but  he  avoided  political  office 
and  refused  the  offer  of  a  baronetcy.  The  freedom  of  Edinburgh 
was  given  him  in  1896.  He  died  at  Aberlour,  Banff  shire,  on  the 
i6th  of  October  1898. 

FINDLAY,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Hancock  county, 
Ohio,  U.S.A.,  on  Blanchard's  Fork  of  the  Auglaize  river,  about 
42  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Toledo.  Pop.  (1890)  18,553;  (1900)  17,613 
(1051  foreign-born) ;  (1910)  14,858.  It  is  served  by  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St  Louis,  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton  & 
Dayton,  the  Lake  Erie  &  Western,  and  the  Ohio  Central  railways, 
and  by  three  interurban  electric  railways.  Findlay  lies  about 
780  ft.  above  sea-level  on  gently  rolling  ground.  The  city  is  the 
seat  of  Findlay  College  (co-educational),  an  institution  of  the 
Church  of  God,  chartered  in  1882  and  opened  in  1886;  it  has 
collegiate,  preparatory,  normal,  commercial  and  theological 
departments,  a  school  of  expression,  and  a  conservatory  of 
music,  and  in  1907  had  588  students,  the  majority  of  whom  were 
in  the  conservatory  of  music.  Findlay  is  the  centre  of  the 
Ohio  natural  gas  and  oil  region,  and  lime  and  building  stone 


FINE— FINE  ARTS 


355 


abound  in  the  vicinity.  Among  manufactures  are  refined 
petroleum,  flour  and  grist-mill  products,  glass,  boilers,  bricks, 
tile,  pottery,  bridges,  ditching  machines,  carriages  and  furniture. 
The  total  value  of  the  factory  product  in  1905  was  $2,925,309,  an 
increase  of  73-6  %  since  1900.  The  municipality  owns  and 
operates  the  water-works.  Findlay  was  laid  out  as  a  town  in 
1821,  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1838,  and  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1890.  The  city  was  named  in  honour  of  Colonel 
James  Findlay  (c.  1775-1835),  who  built  a  fort  here  during  the 
war  of  1812;  he  served  in  this  war  under  General  William 
Hull,  and  from  1825  to  1833  was  a  Democratic  representative 
in  Congress. 

FINE,  a  word  which  in  all  its  senses  goes  back  to  the  Lat. 
finire,  to  bring  to  an  end  (finis).  Thus  in  the  common 
adjectival  meanings  of  elegant,  thin,  subtle,  excellent,  reduced 
in  size,  &c.,  it  is  in  origin  equivalent  to  "  finished."  In  the 
various  substantival  meanings  in  law,  with  which  this  article 
deals,  the  common  idea  underlying  them  is  an  end  or  final 
settlement  of  a  matter. 

A  fine,  in  the  ordinary  sense,  is  a  pecuniary  penalty  inflicted 
for  the  less  serious  offences.  Fines  are  necessarily  discretionary 
as  to  amount;  but  a  maximum  is  generally  fixed  when  the 
penalty  is  imposed  by  statute.  And  it  is  an  old  constitutional 
maxim  that  fines  must  not  be  unreasonable.  In  Magna  Carta, 
c.  in,  it  is  ordained  "  Liber  homo  non  amercietur  pro  parvo 
delicto  nisi  secundum  modum  ipsius  delicti,  et  pro  magno  delicto 
secundum  magnitudinem  delicti." 

The  term  is  also  applied  to  payments  made  to  the  lord  of  a 
manor  on  the  alienation  of  land  held  according  to  the  custom 
of  the  manor,  to  payments  made  by  a  lessee  on  a  renewal  of  a 
lease,  and  to  other  similar  payments. 

Fine  also  denotes  a  fictitious  suit  at  law,  which  played  the 
part  of  a  conveyance  of  landed  property.  "  A  fine,"  says 
Blackstone,  "  may  be  described  to  be  an  amicable  composition 
or  agreement  of  a  suit,  either  actual  or  fictitious,  by  leave  of 
the  king  or  his  justices,  whereby  the  lands  in  question  become 
or  are  acknowledged  to  be  the  right  of  one  of  the  parties.  In 
its  original  it  was  founded  on  an  actual  suit  commenced  at  law 
for  the  recovery  of  the  possession  of  land  or  other  hereditaments; 
and  the  possession  thus  gained  by  such  composition  was  found 
to  be  so  sure  and  effectual  that  fictitious  actions  were  and 
continue  to  be  every  day  commenced  for  the  sake  of  obtaining 
the  same  security."  Freehold  estates  could  thus  be  transferred 
from  one  person  to  another  without  the  formal  delivery  of 
possession  which  was  generally  necessary  to  a  feoffment.  This 
is  one  of  the  oldest  devices  of  the  law.  A  statute  of  18  Edward 
I.  describes  it  as  the  most  solemn  and  satisfactory  of  securities, 
and  gives  a  reason  for  its  name — "  Qui  quidem  finis  sic  vocatur, 
eo  quod  finis  et  consummatio  omnium  placitorum  esse  debet, 
et  hac  de  causa  providebatur."  The  action  was  supposed  to 
be  founded  on  a  breach  of  covenant:  the  defendant,  owning 
himself  in  the  wrong,1  makes  overtures  of  compromise,  which 
are  authorized  by  the  licentia  concordandi;  then  followed  the 
concord,  or  the  compromise  itself.  These,  then  were  the  essential 
parts  of  the  peformance,  which  became  efficient  as  soon  as 
they  were  complete;  the  formal  parts  were  the  notes,  or  abstract 
of  the  proceedings,  and  the  foot  of  the  fine,  which  recited  the 
final  agreement.  Fines  were  said  to  be  of  four  kinds,  according 
to  the  purpose  they  had  in  view,  as,  for  instance,  to  convey  lands 
in  pursuance  of  a  covenant,  to  grant  revisionary  interest  only, 
&c.  In  addition  to  the  formal  record  of  the  proceedings,  various 
statutes  required  other  solemnities  to  be  observed,  the  great 
object  of  which  was  to  give  publicity  to  the  transaction.  Thus 
by  statutes  of  Richard  III.  and  Henry  VII.  the  fine  had  to  be 
openly  read  and  proclaimed  in  court  no  less  than  sixteen  times. 
A  statute  of  Elizabeth  required  a  list  of  fines  to  be  exposed  in  the 
court  of  common  pleas  and  at  assizes.  The  reason  for  these 
formalities  was  the  high  and  important  nature  of  the  conveyance, 
which,  according  to  the  act  of  Edward  I.  above  mentioned, 
"  precludes  not  only  those  which  are  parties  and  privies  to  the 

1  Hence  called  cognizor ;  the  other  party,  the  purchaser,  is  the 
cognizes. 


fine  and  their  heirs,  but  all  other  persons  in  the  world  who  are 
of  full  age,  out  of  prison,  of  sound  memory,  and  within  the  four 
seas,  the  day  of  the  fine  levied,  unless  they  put  in  their  claim 
on  the  foot  of  the  fine  within  a  year  and  a  day."  This  barring 
by  non-claim  was  abolished  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  but 
restored  with  an  extension  of  the  time  to  five  years  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII.  The  effect  of  this  statute,  intentional  according 
to  Blackstone,  unintended  and  brought  about  by  judicial 
construction  according  to  others,  was  that  a  tenant-in-tail 
could  bar  his  issue  by  a  fine.  A  statute  of  Henry  VIII.  expressly 
declares  this  to  be  the  law.  Fines,  along  with  the  kindred 
fiction  of  recoveries,  were  abolished  by  the  Fines  and  Recoveries 
Act  1833,  which  substituted  a  deed  enrolled  in  the  court  of 
chancery. 

Fines  are  so  generally  associated  in  legal  phraseology  with 
recoveries  that  it  may  not  be  inconvenient  to  describe  the 
latter  in  the  present  place.  A  recovery  was  employed  as  a  means 
for  evading  the  strict  law  of  entail.  The  purchaser  or  alienee 
brought  an  action  against  the  tenant-in-tail,  alleging  that  he  had 
no  legal  title  to  the  land.  The  tenant-in-tail  brought  a  third 
person  into  court,  declaring  that  he  had  warranted  his  title, 
and  praying  that  he  might  be  ordered  to  defend  the  action. 
This  person  was  called  the  vouchee,  and  he,  after  having  appeared 
to  defend  the  action,  takes  himself  out  of  the  way.  Judgment 
for  the  lands  is  given  in  favour  of  the  plaintiff;  and  judgment  to 
recover  lands  of  equal  value  from  the  vouchee  was  given  to  the 
defendant,  the  tenant-in-tail.  In  real  action,  such  lands  when 
recovered  would  have  fallen  under  the  settlement  of  entail; 
but  in  the  fictitious  recovery  the  vouchee  was  a  man  of  straw, 
and  nothing  was  really  recovered  from  him,  while  the  lands 
of  the  tenant-in-tail  were  effectually  conveyed  to  the  successful 
plaintiff.  A  recovery  differed  from  a  fine,  as  to  form,  in  being 
an  action  carried  through  to  the  end,  while  a  fine  was  settled 
by  compromise,  and  as  to  effect,  by  barring  all  reversions  and 
remainders  in  estates  tail,  while  a  fine  barred  the  issue  only  of 
the  tenant.  (See  also  EJECTMENT;  PROCLAMATION.) 

FINE  ARTS,  the  name  given  to  a  whole  group  of  human 
activities,  which  have  for  their  result  what  is  collectively  known 
as  Fine  Art.  The  arts  which  constitute  the  group  are  the 
five  greater  arts  of  architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  music  and 
poetry,  with  a  number  of  minor  or  subsidiary  arts,  of  which 
dancing  and  the  drama  are  among  the  most  ancient  and  universal. 
In  antiquity  the  fine  arts  were  not  explicitly  named,  nor  even 
distinctly  recognized,  as  a  separate  class.  In  other  modern 
languages  besides  English  they  are  called  by  the  equivalent 
name  of  the  beautiful  arts  (belle  arti,  beaux  arts,  schone  Kiinste). 
The  fine  or  beautiful  arts  then,  it  is  usually  said,  are  those  among 
the  arts  of  man  which  minister,  not  primarily  to  his  material 
necessities  or  conveniences,  but  to  his  love  of  beauty;  and  if 
any  art  fulfils  both  these  purposes  at  once,  still  as  fulfilling  the 
latter  only  is  it  called  a  fine  art.  Thus  architecture,  in  so  far  as 
it  provides  shelter  and  accommodation,  is  one  of  the  useful  or 
mechanical  arts,  and  one  of  the  fine  arts  only  in  so  far  as  its 
structures  impress  or  give  pleasure  by  the  aspect  of  strength, 
fitness,  harmony  and  proportion  of  parts,  by  disposition  and 
contrast  of  light  and  shade,  by  colour  and  enrichment,  by  variety 
and  relation  of  contours,  surfaces  and  intervals.  But  this, 
the  commonly  accepted  account  of  the  matter,  does  not  really 
cover  the  ground.  The  idea  conveyed  by  the  words  "  love  of 
beauty,"  even  stretched  to  its  widest,  can  hardly  be  made  to 
include  the  love  of  caricature  and  the  grotesque;  and  these  are 
admittedly  modes  of  fine  art.  Even  the  terrible,  the  painful, 
the  squalid,  the  degraded,  in  a  word  every  variety  of  the  signifi- 
cant, can  be  so  handled  and  interpreted  as  to  be  brought  within 
the  province  of  fine  art.  A  juster  and  more  inclusive,  although 
clumsier,  account  of  the  matter  might  put  it  that  the  fine  arts 
are  those  among  the  arts  of  man  which  spring  from  his  impulse 
to  do  or  make  certain  things  in  certain  ways  for  the  sake,  first, 
of  a  special  kind  of  pleasure,  independent  of  direct  utility,  which 
it  gives  him  so  to  do  or  make  them,  and  next  for  the  sake  of  the 
kindred  pleasure  which  he  derives  from  witnessing  or  contem- 
plating them  when  they  are  so  done  or  made  by  others. 


356 


FINE  ARTS 


[GENERAL  DEFINITION 


The  nature  of  this  impulse,  and  the  several  grounds  of  these 
pleasures,  are  subjects  which  have  given  rise  to  a  formidable 
body  of  speculation  and  discussion,  the  chief  phases  of  which 
will  be  found  summarized  under  the  heading  AESTHETICS. 
In  the  present  article  we  have  only  to  attend  to  the  concrete 
processes  and  results  of  the  artistic  activities  of  man;  in  other 
words,  we  shall  submit  (i)  a  definition  of  fine  art  in  general, 
(2)  a  definition  and  classification  of  the  principal  fine  arts 
severally,  (3)  some  observations  on  their  historical  development. 

I.  Of  Fine  Art  in  General. 

According  to  the  popular  and  established  distinction  between 
art  and  nature,  the  idea  of  Art  (q.v.)  only  includes  phenomena 
Premeai-  °l  which  man  is  deliberately  the  cause;  while  the 
tation  idea  of  Nature  includes  all  phenomena,  both  in  man 
essential  and  jn  the  world  outside  him,  which  take  place  without 

forethought  or  studied  initiative  of  his  own.  Art, 
accordingly,  means  every  regulated  operation  or  dexterity  where- 
by we  pursue  ends  which  we  know  beforehand;  and  it  means 
nothing  but  such  operations  and  dexterities.  What  is  true  of 
art  generally  is  of  course  also  true  of  the  special  group  of  the 
fine  arts.  One  of  the  essential  qualities  of  all  art  is  premedita- 
tion; and  when  Shelley  talks  of  the  skylark's  profuse  strains 
of  "  unpremeditated  art,"  he  in  effect  lays  emphasis  on  the 
fact  that  it  is  only  by  a  metaphor  that  he  uses  the  word  art  in 
this  case  at  all;  he  calls  attention  to  that  which  (if  the  songs  of 
birds  are  as  instinctive  as  we  suppose)  precisely  makes  the 
difference  between  the  skylark's  outpourings  and  his  own.  We  a  re 
slow  to  allow  the  title  of  fine  art  to  natural  eloquence,  to  charm 
or  dignity  of  manner,  to  delicacy  and  tact  in  social  intercourse, 
and  other  such  graces  of  life  and  conduct,  since,  although  in  any 
given  case  they  may  have  been  deliberately  cultivated  in  early 
life,  or  even  through  ancestral  generations,  they  do  not  produce, 
their  full  effect  until  they  are  so  ingrained  as  to  have  become 
unreflecting  and  spontaneous.  When  the  exigencies  of  a  philo- 
sophic scheme  lead  some  writers  on  aesthetics  to  include  such 
acts  or  traits  of  beautiful  and  expressive  behaviour  among 
the  deliberate  artistic  activities  of  mankind,  we  feel  that  an 
essential  distinction  is  being  sacrificed  to  the  exigencies  of  a 
system.  That  distinction  common  parlance  very  justly  observes, 
with  its  opposition  of  "  art  "  to  "  nature  "  and  its  phrase  of 
"  second  nature  "  for  those  graces  which  have  become  so  habitual 
as  to  seem  instinctive,  whether  originally  the  result  of  discipline 
or  not.  When  we  see  a  person  in  all  whose  ordinary  movements 
there  are  freedom  and  beauty,  we  put  down  the  charm  of  these 
with  good  reason  to  inherited  and  inbred  aptitudes  of  which 
the  person  has  never  thought  or  long  since  ceased  to  think,  and 
could  not  still  be  thinking  without  spoiling  the  charm  by  self- 
consciousness;  and  we  call  the  result  a  gift  of  nature.  But 
when  we  go  on  to  notice  that  the  same  person  is  beautifully 
and  appropriately  dressed,  since  we  know  that  it  is  impossible 
to  dress  without  thinking  of  it,  we  put  down  the  charm  of  this 
to  judicious  forethought  and  calculation  and  call  the  result  a 
work  of  art. 

The  processes  then  of  fine  art,  like  those  of-  all  arts  properly 
so  called,  are  premeditated,  and  the  property  of  every  fine  art 
The  active  *s  to  &ve  to  t-he  person  exercising  it  a  special  kind  of 
ana  the  active  pleasure,  and  a  special  kind  of  passive  or 
passive  receptive  pleasure  to  the  person  witnessing  the  results 
o^fioelrt.  of  sucn  exercise-  This  latter  statement  seems  to  imply 

that  there  exist  in  human  societies  a  separate  class 
producing  works  of  fine  art  and  another  class  enjoying  them. 
Such  an  implication,  in  regard  to  advanced  societies,  is  near 
enough  the  truth  to  be  theoretically  admitted  (like  the  analogous  I 
assumption  in  political  economy  that  there  exist  separate  ' 
classes  of  producers  and  consumers).  In  developed  communities 
the  gifts  and  calling  of  the  artist  constitute  in  fact  a  separate 
profession  of  the  creators  or  purveyors  of  fine  art,  while  the  rest 
of  the  community  are  its  enjoyers  or  recipients.  In  the  most 
primitive  societies,  apparently,  this  cannot  have  been  so,  and  we 
can  go  back  to  an  original  or  rudimentary  stage  of  almost  every 
fine  art  at  which  the  separation  between  a  class  of  producers 


or  performers  and  a  class  of  recipients  hardly  exists.  Such  an 
original  or  rudimentary  stage  of  the  dramatic  art  is  presented 
by  children,  who  will  occupy  themselves  for  ever  with  mimicry 
and  make-believe  for  their  own  satisfaction,  with  small  regard 
or  none  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  witnesses.  The  original 
or  rudimentary  type  of  the  profession  of  imitative  sculptors  or 
painters  is  the  cave-dweller  of  prehistoric  ages,  who,  when  he 
rested  from  his  day's  hunting,  first  took  up  the  bone  handle  of 
his  weapon,  and  with  a  flint  either  carved  it  into  the  shape, 
or  on  its  surface  scratched  the  outlines,  of  the  animals  of  the 
chase.  The  original  or  rudimentary  type  of  the  architect,  con- 
sidered not  as  a  mere  builder  but  as  an  artist,  is  the  savage 
who,  when  his  tribe  had  taken  to  live  in  tents  or  huts  instead 
of  caves,  first  arranged  the  skins  and  timbers  of  his  tent  or  hut 
in  one  way  because  it  pleased  his  eye,  rather  than  in  some  other 
way  which  was  as  good  for  shelter.  The  original  type  of  the 
artificer  or  adorner  of  implements,  considered  in  the  same  light, 
was  the  other  savage  who  first  took  it  into  his  head  to  fashion 
his  club  or  spear  in  one  way  rather  than  another  for  the  pleasure 
of  the  eye  only  and  not  for  any  practical  reason,  and  to  ornament 
it  with  tufts  or  markings.  In  none  of  these  cases,  it  would 
seem,  can  the  primitive  artist  have  had  much  reason  for  pleas- 
ing anybody  but  himself.  Again,  the  original  or  rudimentary 
type  of  lyric  song  and  dancing  arose  when  the  first  reveller 
clapped  hands  and  stamped  or  shouted  in  time,  in  honour  of  his 
god,  in  commemoration  of  a  victory,  or  in  mere  obedience  to  the 
blind  stirring  of  a  rhythmic  impulse  within  him.  To  some  very 
remote  and  solitary  ancestral  savage  the  presence  or  absence 
of  witnesses  at  such  a  display  may  in  like  manner  have  been 
indifferent;  but  very  early  in  the  history  of  the  race  the  primitive 
dancer  and  singer  joined  hands  and  voices  with  others  of  his 
tribe,  while  others  again  sat  apart  and  looked  on  at  the  perform- 
ance, and  the  rite  thus  became  both  choral  and  social.  A 
primitive  type  of  the  instrumental  musician  is  the  shepherd  who 
first  notched  a  reed  and  drew  sounds  from  it  while  his  sheep 
were  cropping.  The  father  of  all  artists  in  dress  and  personal 
adornment  was  the  first  wild  man  who  tattooed  himself  or  be- 
decked himself  with  shells  and  plumes.  In  both  of  these  latter 
instances,  it  may  be  taken  as  certain,  the  primitive  artist  had  the 
motive  of  pleasing  not  himself  only,  but  his  mate,  or  the  female 
whom  he  desired  to  be  his  mate,  and  in  the  last  instance  of  all 
the  further  motive  of  impressing  his  fellow-tribesmen  and  striking 
awe  or  envy  into  his  enemies.  The  tendency  of  recent  specula- 
tion and  research  concerning  the  origins  of  art  has  been  to 
ascribe  the  primitive  artistic  activities  of  man  less  and  less  to 
individual  and  solitary  impulse,  and  more  and  more  to  social 
impulse  and  the  desire  of  sharing  and  communicating  pleasure. 
(The  writer  who  has  gone  furthest  in  developing  this  view, 
and  on  grounds  of  the  most  careful  study  of  evidence,  has 
been  Dr  Yrjo  Hirn  of  Helsingfors.)  Whatever  relative  parts  the 
individual  and  the  social  impulses  may  have  in  fact  played  at 
the  outset,  it  is  clear  that  what  any  one  can  enjoy  or  admire  by 
himself,  whether  in  the  way  of  mimicry,  of  rhythmical  movements 
or  utterances,  of  imitative  or  ornamental  carving  and  drawing, 
of  the  disposition  and  adornment  of  dwelling-places  and  utensils 
— the  same  things,  it  is  clear,  others  are  able  also  to  enjoy  or 
admire  with  him.  And  so,  with  the  growth  of  societies,  it  came 
about  that  one  class  of  persons  separated  themselves  and  became 
the  ministers  or  producers  of  this  kind  of  pleasures,  while  the  rest 
became  the  persons  ministered  to,  the  participators  in  or  recipi- . 
ents  of  the  pleasures.  Artists  are  those  members  of  a  society 
who  are  so  constituted  as  to  feel  more  acutely  than  the  rest 
certain  classes  of  pleasures  which  all  can  feel  in  their  degree. 
By  this  fact  of  their  constitution  they  are  impelled  to  devote 
their  active  powers  to  the  production  of  such  pleasures,  to  the 
making  or  doing  of  some  of  those  things  which  they  enjoy  so 
keenly  when  they  are  made  and  done  by  others.  At  the  same 
time  the  artist  does  not,  by  assuming  these  ministering  or 
creative  functions,  surrender  his  enjoying  or  receptive  functions. 
He  continues  to  participate  in  the  pleasures  of  which  he  is 
himself  the  cause,  and  remains  a  conscious  member  of  his  own 
public.  The  architect,  sculptor,  painter,  are  able  respectively 


GENERAL  DEFINITION] 


FINE  ARTS 


357 


to  stand  off  from  and  appreciate  the  results  of  their  own  labours; 
the  singer  enjoys  the  sound  of  his  own  voice,  and  the  musician 
of  his  own  instrument;  the  poet,  according  to  his  temperament, 
furnishes  the  most  enthusiastic  or  the  most  fastidious  reader 
for  his  own  stanzas.  Neither,  on  the  other  hand,  does  the  person 
who  is  a  habitual  recipient  from  others  of  the  pleasures  of  fine 
art  forfeit  the  privilege  of  producing  them  according  to  his 
capabilities,  and  of  becoming,  if  he  has  the  power,  an  amateur 
or  occasional  artist. 

Most  of  the  common  properties  which  have  been  recognized 
by  consent  as  peculiar  to  the  group  of  fine  arts  will  be  found  on 
Pleasures  examination  to  be  implied  in,  or  deducible  from, 
offiaeart  the  one  fundamental  character  generally  claimed  for 
<"*•  them,  namely,  that  they  exist  independently  of  direct 

'  practical  necessity  or  utility.  Let  us  take,  first,  a 
point  relating  to  the  frame  of  mind  of  the  recipient,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  producer,  of  the  pleasures  of  fine  art.  It  is 
an  observation  as  old  as  Aristotle  that  such  pleasures  differ 
from  most  other  pleasures  of  experience  in  that  they  are  dis- 
interested, in  the  sense  that  they  are  not  such  as  nourish  a  man's 
body  nor  add  to  his  riches;  they  are  not  such  as  can  gratify 
him,  when  he  receives  them,  by  the  sense  of  advantage  or 
superiority  over  his  fellow-creatures;  they  are  not  such  as  one 
human  being  can  in  any  sense  receive  exclusively  from  the 
object  which  bestows  them.  Thus  it  is  evidently  characteristic 
of  a  beautiful  building  that  its  beauty  cannot  be  monopolized, 
but  can  be  seen  and  admired  by  the  inhabitants  of  a  whole  city 
and  by  all  visitors  for  all  generations.  The  same  thing  is  true 
of  a  picture  or  a  statue,  except  in  so  far  as  an  individual  possessor 
may  choose  to  keep  such  a  possession  to  himself,  in  which  case 
his  pride  in  exclusive  ownership  is  a  sentiment  wholly  independent 
of  his  pleasure  in  artistic  contemplation.  Similarly,  music  is 
composed  to  be  sung  or  played  for  the  enjoyment  of  many  at  a 
time,  and  for  such  enjoyment  a  hundred  years  hence  as  much  as 
to-day.  Poetry  is  written  to  be  read  by  all  readers  for  ever 
who  care  for  the  ideas  and  feelings  of  the  poet,  and  can  apprehend 
the  meaning  and  melody  of  his  language.  Hence,  though  we 
can  speak  of  a  class  of  the  producers  of  fine  art,  we  cannot 
speak  of  a  class  of  its  consumers,  only  of  its  recipients  or 
enjoyers.  If  we  consider  other  pleasures  which  might  seem  to  be 
analogous  to  those  of  fine  art,  but  to  which  common  consent 
yet  declines  to  allow  that  character,  we  shall  see  that  one  reason 
is  that  such  pleasures  are  not  in  their  nature  thus  disinterested. 
Thus  the  sense  of  smell  and  taste  have  pleasures  of  their  own 
like  the  senses  of  sight  and  hearing,  and  pleasures  neither  less 
poignant  nor  very  much  less  capable  of  fine  graduation  and 
discrimination  than  those.  Why,  then,  is  the  title  of  fine  art  not 
claimed  for  any  skill  in  arranging  and  combining  them?  Why 
are  there  no  recognized  arts  of  savours  and  scents  corresponding 
in  rank  to  the  arts  of  forms,  colours  and  sounds — or  at  least 
none  among  Western  nations,  for  in  Japan,  it  seems,  there  is  a 
recognized  and  finely  regulated  social  art  of  the  combination 
and  succession  of  perfumes?  An  answer  commonly  given  is 
that  sight  and  hearing  are  intellectual  and  therefore  higher 
senses,  that  through  them  we  have  our  avenues  to  all  knowledge 
and  all  ideas  of  things  outside  us;  while  taste  and  smell  are 
unintellectual  and  therefore  lower  senses,  through  which  few 
such  impressions  find  their  way  to  us  as  help  to  build  up  our 
knowledge  and  our  ideas.  Perhaps  a  more  satisfactory  reason 
why  there  are  no  fine  arts  of  taste  and  smell — or  let  us  in  deference 
to  Japanese  modes  leave  out  smell,  and  say  of  taste  only — is  this, 
that  savours  yield  only  private  pleasures,  which  it  is  not  possible 
to  build  up  into  separate  and  durable  schemes  such  that  every 
one  may  have  the  benefit  of  them,  and  such  as  cannot  be  mono- 
polized or  used  up.  If  against  this  it  is  contended  that  what  the 
programme  of  a  performance  is  in  the  musical  art,  the  same  is 
a  menu  in  the  culinary,  and  that  practically  it  is  no  less  possible 
to  serve  up  a  thousand  times  and  to  a  thousand  different  com- 
panies the  same  dinner  than  the  same  symphony,  we  must  fall 
back  upon  that  still  more  fundamental  form  of  the  distinction 
between  the  aesthetic  and  non-aesthetic  bodily  senses,  upon 
which  the  physiological  psychologists  of  the  English  school  lay 


stress.  We  must  say  that  the  pleasures  of  taste  cannot  be 
pleasures  of  fine  art,  because  their  enjoyment  is  too  closely 
associated  with  the  most  indispensable  and  the  most  strictly 
personal  of  utilities,  eating  and  drinking.  To  pass  from  these 
lower  pleasures  to  the  highest;  consider  the  nature  of  the  delight 
derived  from  the  contemplation,  by  the  person  who  is  their 
object,  of  the  signs  and  manifestations  of  love.  That  at  least 
is  a  beautiful  experience;  why  is  the  pleasure  which  it  affords 
not  an  artistic  pleasure  either?  Why,  in  order  to  receive  an 
artistic  pleasure  from  human  signs  and  manifestations  of  this 
kind,  are  we  compelled  to  go  to  the  theatre  and  see  them  exhibited 
in  favour  of  a  third  person  who  is  not  really  their  object  any 
more  than  ourselves?  This  is  so,  for  one  reason,  evidently, 
because  of  the  difference  between  art  and  nature.  Not  to  art, 
but  to  nature  and  life,  belongs  love  where  it  is  really  felt,  with  its 
attendant  train  of  vivid  hopes,  fears,  passions  and  contingencies. 
To  art  belongs  love  displayed  where  it  is  not  really  felt;  and  in 
this  sphere,  along  with  reality  and  spontaneousness  of  the 
display,  and  along  with  its  momentous  bearings,  there  disappear 
all  those  elements  of  pleasure  in  its  contemplation  which  are 
not  disinterested — the  elements  of  personal  exultation  and 
self-congratulation,  the  pride  of  exclusive  possession  or  accept- 
ance, all  these  emotions,  in  short,  which  are  summed  up  in  the 
lover's  triumphant  monosyllable,  "  Mine."  Thus,  from  the 
lowest  point  of  the  scale  to  the  highest,  we  may  observe  that 
the  element  of  personal  advantage  or  monopoly  in  human  grati- 
fications seems  to  exclude  them  from  the  kingdom  of  fine  art. 
The  pleasures  of  fine  art,  so  far  as  concerns  their  passive  or 
receptive  part,  seem  to  define  themselves  as  pleasures  of  gratified 
contemplation,  but  of  such  contemplation  only  when  it  is 
disinterested — which  is  simply  another  way  of  saying,  when  it  is 
unconcerned  with  ideas  of  utility. 

Modern  speculation  has  tended  in  some  degree  to  modify  and 
obscure  this  old  and  established  view  of  the  pleasures  of  fine 
art  by  urging  that  the  hearer  or  spectator  is  not  after  Ao 
all  so  free  from  self-interest  as  he  seems;  that  in  the  objection 
act  of  artistic  contemplation  he  experiences  an  enhance-  aad  lts 
ment  or  expansion  of  his  being  which  is  in  truth  a  *aswer- 
gain  of  the  egoistic  kind;  that  in  witnessing  a  play,  for  instance, 
a  large  part  of  his  enjoyment  consists  in  sympathetically  identify- 
ing himself  with  the  successful  lover  or  the  virtuous  hero.  All 
this  may  be  true,  but  does  not  really  affect  the  argument,  since 
at  the  same  time  he  is  well  aware  that  every  other  spectator 
or  auditor  present  may  be  similarly  engaged  with  himself.  At 
most  the  objection  only  requires  us  to  define  a  little  more 
closely,  and  to  say  that  the  satisfactions  of  the  ego  excluded 
from  among  the  pleasures  of  fine  art  are  not  these  ideal,  sym- 
pathetic, indirect  satisfactions,  which  every  one  can  share 
together,  but  only  those  which  arise  from  direct,  private  and 
incommunicable  advantage  to  the  individual. 

Next,  let  us  consider  another  generally  accepted  observation 
concerning  the  nature  of  the  fine  arts,  and  one,  this  time,  relating 
to  the  disposition  and  state  of  mind  of  the  practising 
artist  himself.  While  for  success  in  other  arts  it  is  only 
necessary  to  learn  their  rules  and  to  apply  them  until  practised 
practice  gives  facility,  in  the  fine  arts,  it  is  commonly  by  rule 
and  justly  said,  rules  and  their  application  will  carry 
but  a  little  way  towards  success.  All  that  can  depend 
on  rules,  on  knowledge,  and  on  the  application  of  knowledge 
by  practice,  the  artist  must  indeed  acquire,  and  the  acquisition 
is  often  very  complicated  and  laborious.  But  outside  of  and 
beyond  such  acquisitions  he  must  trust  to  what  is  called  genius 
or  imagination,  that  is,  to  the  spontaneous  working  together 
of  an  incalculably  complex  group  of  faculties,  reminiscences, 
preferences,  emotions,  instincts  in  his  constitution.  This  char- 
acteristic of  the  activities  of  the  artist  is  a  direct  consequence 
or  corollary  of  the  fundamental  fact  that  the  art  he  practices 
is  independent  of  utility.  A  utilitarian  end  is  necessarily  a 
determinate  and  prescribed  end,  and  to  every  end  which  is 
determinate  and  prescribed  there  must  be  one  road  which  is 
the  best.  Skill  in  any  useful  art  means  knowing  practically,  by 
rules  and  the  application  of  rules,  the  best  road  to  the  particular 


and 
precept. 


358 


FINE  ARTS 


[GENERAL  DEFINITION 


ends  of  that  art.  Thus  the  farmer,  the  engineer,  the  carpenter, 
the  builder  so  far  as  he  is  not  concerned  with  the  look  of  his 
buildings,  the  weaver  so  far  as  he  is  not  concerned  with  the 
designing  of  the  patterns  which  he  weaves,  possesses  each  his 
peculiar  skill,  but  a  skill  to  which  fixed  problems  are  set,  and 
which,  if  it  indulges  in  new  inventions  and  combinations  at  all, 
can  indulge  them  only  for  the  sake  of  an  improved  solution  of 
those  particular  problems.  The  solution  once  found,  the  inven- 
tion once  made,  its  rules  can  be  written  down,  or  at  any  rate 
its  practice  can  be  imparted  to  others  who  will  apply  it  in  their 
turn.  Whereas  no  man  can  write  down,  in  a  way  that  others 
can  act  upon,  how  Beethoven  conquered  unknown  kingdoms 
in  the  world  of  harmony,  or  how  Rembrandt  turned  the  aspects 
of  gloom,  squalor  and  affliction  into  pictures  as  worthy  of  con- 
templation as  those  into  which  the  Italians  before  him  had 
turned  the  aspects  of  spiritual  exaltation  and  shadowless  day. 
The  reason  why  the  operations  of  the  artist  thus  differ  from  the 
operations  of  the  ordinary  craftsman  or  artificer  is  that  his  ends, 
being  ends  other  than  useful,  are  not  determinate  nor  fixed  as 
theirs  are.  He  has  large  liberty  to  choose  his  own  problems,  and 
may  solve  each  of  them  in  a  thousand  different  ways  according 
to  the  prompting  of  his  own  ordering  or  creating  instincts. 
The  musical  composer  has  the  largest  liberty  of  all.  Having 
learned  what  is  learnable  in  his  art,  having  mastered  the  compli- 
cated and  laborious  rules  of  musical  form,  having  next  deter- 
mined the  particular  class  of  the  work  which  he  is  about  to 
compose,  he  has  then  before  him  the  whole  inexhaustible  world 
of  appropriate  successions  and  combinations  of  emotional  sound. 
He  is  merely  directed  and  not  fettered,  in  the  case  of  song, 
cantata,  oratorio  or  opera,  by  the  sense  of  the  words  which  he 
has  to  set.  The  value  of  the  result  depends  absolutely  on  his 
possessing  or  failing  to  possess  powers  which  can  neither  be 
trained  in  nor  communicated  to  any  man.  And  this  double 
freedom,  alike  from  practical  service  and  from  the  representation 
of  definite  objects,  is  what  makes  music  in  a  certain  sense  the 
typical  fine  art,  or  art  of  arts.  Architecture  shares  one-half  of 
this  freedom.  It  has  not  to  copy  or  represent  natural  objects; 
for  this  service  it  calls  in  sculpture  to  its  aid;  but  architecture 
is  without  the  other  half  of  freedom  altogether.  The  architect 
has  a  sphere  of  liberty  in  the  disposition  of  his  masses,  lines, 
colours,  alternations  of  light  and  shadow,  of  plain  and  orna- 
mented surface,  and  the  rest ;  but  upon  this  sphere  he  can  only 
enter  on  condition  that  he  at  the  same  time  fulfils  the  strict 
practical  task  of  supplying  the  required  accommodation,  and 
obeys  the  strict  mechanical  necessities  imposed  by  the  laws  of 
weight,  thrust,  support,  resistance  and  other  properties  of 
solid  matter.  The  sculptor  again,  the  painter,  the  poet,  has 
each  in  like  manner  his  sphere  of  necessary  facts,  rules  and 
conditions  corresponding  to  the  nature  of  his  task.  The  sculptor 
must  be  intimately  versed  both  in  the  surface  aspects  and  the 
inner  mechanism  of  the  human  frame  alike  in  rest  and  motion, 
and  in  the  rules  and  conditions  for  its  representation  in  solid 
form;  the  painter  in  a  much  more  extended  range  of  natural 
facts  and  appearances,  and  the  rules  and  conditions  for  repre- 
senting them  on  a  plane  surface ;  the  poet's  art  of  words  has  its 
own  not  inconsiderable  basis  of  positive  and  disciplined  acquisi- 
tion. So  far  as  rules,  precepts,  formulas  and  other  communicable 
laws  or  secrets  can  carry  the  artist,  so  far  also  the  spectator 
can  account  for,  analyse,  and,  so  to  speak,  tabulate  the  effects 
of  his  art.  But  the  essential  character  of  the  artist's  operation, 
its  very  bloom  and  virtue,  lies  in  those  parts  of  it  which  fall 
outside  this  range  of  regulation  on  the  one  hand  and  analysis 
on  the  other.  His  merit  varies  according  to  the  felicity  with 
which  he  is  able,  in  that  region,  to  exercise  his  free  choice  and 
frame  his  individual  ideal,  and  according  to  the  tenacity  with 
which  he  strives  to  grasp  and  realize  his  choice,  or  to  attain 
perfection  according  to  that  ideal. 

In  this  connexion  the  question  naturally  arises,  In  what  way 
do  the  progress  and  expansion  of  mechanical  art  affect  the  power 
and  province  of  fine  art?  The  great  practical  movement  of 
the  world  in  our  age  is  a  movement  for  the  development  of 
mechanical  inventions  and  multiplication  of  mechanical  pro- 


ducts. So  far  as  these  inventions  are  applied  to  purposes  purely 
useful,  and  so  far  as  their  products  to  not  profess  to  offer  any- 
thing delightful  to  contemplation,  this  movement  in  Flaearls 
no  way  concerns  our  argument.  But  there  is  a  vast  aaa 
multitude  of  products  which  do  profess  qualities  of  machin- 
pleasantness,  and  upon  which  the  ornaments  intended  ery:  "  art 
to  make  them  pleasurable  are  bestowed  by  machinery;  ^"uns." 
and  in  speaking  of  these  we  are  accustomed  to  the 
phrases  art-industry,  industrial  art,  art  manufactures  and  the 
like.  In  these  cases  the  industry  or  ingenuity  which  directs  the 
machine  is  not  fine  art  at  all,  since  the  object  of  the  machine 
is  simply  to  multiply  as  easily  and  as  perfectly  as  possible  a 
definite  and  prescribed  impress  or  pattern.  This  is  equally 
true  whether  the  machine  is  a  simple  one,  like  the  engraver's 
press,  for  producing  and  multiplying  impressions  from  an 
engraved  plate,  or  a  highly  complex  one,  like  the  loom,  in  which 
elaborate  patterns  of  carpet  or  curtain  are  set  for  weaving.  In 
both  cases  there  exists  behind  the  mechanical  industry  an 
industry  which  is  one  of  fine  art  in  its  degree.  In  the  case  of  the 
engraver's  press,  there  exists  behind  the  industry  of  the  printer 
the  art  of  the  engraver,  which,  if  the  engraver  is  also  the  free 
inventor  of  the  design,  is  then  a  fine  art,  or,  if  he  is  but  the 
interpreter  of  the  invention  of  another,  is  then  in  its  turn  a 
semi-mechanical  skill  applied  in  aid  of  the  fine  art  of  the  first 
inventor.  In  the  case  of  the  weaver's  loom  there  is,  behind  the 
mechanical  industry  which  directs  the  loom  at  its  given  task,  the 
fine  art,  or  what  ought  to  be  the  fine  art,  of  the  designer  who  has 
contrived  the  pattern.  In  the  case  of  the  engraving,  the  mechani- 
cal industry  of  printing  only  exists  for  the  sake  of  bringing  out 
and  disseminating  abroad  the  fine  art  employed  upon  the  design. 
In  the  case  of  the  carpet  or  curtain,  the  fine  art  is  often  only 
called  in  to  make  the  product  of  the  useful  or  mechanical  industry 
of  the  loom  acceptable,  since  the  eye  of  man  is  so  constituted 
as  to  receive  pleasure  or  the  reverse  of  pleasure  from  whatever 
it  rests  upon,  and  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  manufacturer  to 
have  his  product  so  made  as  to  give  pleasure  if  it  can.  Whether 
the  machine  is  thus  a  humble  servant  to  the  artist,  or  the  artist 
a  kind  of  humble  purveyor  to  the  machine,  the  fine  art  in  the 
result  is  due  to  the  former  alone;  and  in  any  case  it  reaches 
the  recipient  at  second-hand,  having  been  put  in  circulation  by 
a  medium  not  artistic  but  mechanical. 

Again,  with  reference  not  to  the  application  of  mechanical 
contrivances  but  to  their  invention;  is  not,  it  may  be  inquired, 
the  title  of  artist  due  to  the  inventor  of  some  of  the  pbrferterf 
astonishingly    complex    and    astonishingly    efficient   machines: 
machines  of  modern  times?     Does  he  not  spend  as  are  they 
much   thought,   labour,   genius  as  any  sculptor  or   J^^*/ 
musician  in  perfecting  his  construction  according  to 
his  ideal,  and  is  not  the  construction  when  it  is  done — so  finished, 
so  responsive  in  all  its  parts,  so  almost  human — is  not  that 
worthy  to  be  called  a  work  of  fine  art?     The  answer  is  that  the 
inventor  has  a  definite  and  practical  end  before  him;  his  ideal 
is  not  free;  he  deserves  all  credit  as  the  perfector  of  a  particular 
instrument  for  a  prescribed  function,  but  an  artist,  a  free  follower 
of  the  fine  arts,  he  is  not;   although  we  may  perhaps  have  to 
concede  him  a  narrow  sphere  for  the  play  of  something  like  an 
artistic  sense  when  he  contrives  the  proportion,  arrangement, 
form  or  finish  of  the  several  parts  of  his  machine  in  one  way 
rather  than  another,  not  because  they  work  better  so  but  simply 
because  their  look  pleases  him  better. 

Returning  from  this  digression,  let  us  consider  one  common 
observation  more  on  the  nature  of  the  fine  arts.     They  are 
activities,  it  is  said,  which  were  put  forth  not  because     f/ae  arts 
they  need  but  because  they  like.       They  have  the     called  a 
activity  to  spare,  and  to  put  it  forthin  this  way  pleases     u°a ol 
them.     Fine  art  is  to  mankind  what  play  is  to  the     pay' 
individual,  a  free  and  arbitrary  vent  for  energy  which  is  not 
needed  to  be  spent  upon  tasks  concerned  with  the  conservation, 
perpetuation  or  protection  of  life.     To  insist  on  the  superfluous 
or  optional  character  of  the  fine  arts,  to  call  them  the  play  or 
pastime  of  the  human  race  as  distinguished  from  its  inevitable 
and  sterner  tasks,  is  obviously  only  to  reiterate  our  fundamental 


GENERAL  DEFINITION] 


FINE  ARTS 


359 


assocla- 
tloalsts. 


distinction  between  the  fine  arts  and  the  useful  or  necessary. 
But  the  distinction,  as  expressed  in  this  particular  form,  has  been 
interpreted  in  a  great  variety  of  ways  find  followed  out  to  an 
infinity  of  conclusions,  conclusions  regarding  both  the  nature 
of  the  activities  themselves  and  the  character  and  value  of  their 
results. 

For  instance,  starting  from  this  saying  that  the  aesthetic 
activities  are  a  kind  of  play,  the  English  psychology  of  association 
goes  back  to  the  spontaneous  cries  and  movements 
Wea 'as*  °^  cn'^ren'  ln  which  their  superfluous  energies  find  a 
worked  out  vent.  It  then  enumerates  pleasures  of  which  the 
by  the  human  constitution  is  capable  apart  from  direct 
English  advantage  or  utility.  Such  are  the  primitive  or 
organic  pleasures  of  sight  and  hearing,  and  the  second- 
ary or.  derivative  pleasures  of  association  or  unconscious 
reminiscence  and  inference  that  soon  become  mixed  up  with 
these.  Such  are  also  the  pleasures  derived  from  following  any 
kind  of  mimicry,  or  representation  of  things  real  or  like  reality. 
The  association  psychology  describes  the  grouping  within  the 
mind  of  predilections  based  upon  these  pleasures;  it  shows 
how  the  growing  organism  learns  to  govern  its  play,  or  direct 
its  superfluous  energies,  in  obedience  to  such  predilections, 
till  in  mature  individuals,  and  still  more  in  mature  societies,  a 
highly  regulated  and  accomplished  group  of  leisure  activities  are 
habitually  employed  in  supplying  to  a  not  less  highly  cultivated 
group  of  disinterested  sensibilities  their  appropriate  artistic 
pleasures.  It  is  by  Herbert  Spencer  that  this  view  has  been 
most  fully  and  systematically  worked  out. 

Again,  in  the  views  of  an  ancient  philosopher,  Plato,  and  a 
modern  poet,  Schiller,  the  consideration  that  the  artistic  activities 
are  in  the  nature  of  play,  and  the  manifestations  in 
which  theyresult  independent  of  realities  and  utilities, 
has  led  to  judgments  so  differing  as  the  following.  Plato  held 
that  the  daily  realities  of  things  in  experience  are  not  realities, 
indeed,  but  only  far-off  shows  or  reflections  of  the  true  realities, 
that  is,  of  certain  ideal  or  essential  forms  which  can  be  appre- 
hended as  existing  by  the  mind.  Holding  this,  Plato  saw  in 
the  works  of  fine  art  but  the  reflections  of  reflections,  the  shows 
of  shows,  and  depreciated  them  according  to  their  degree  of 
remoteness  from  the  ideal,  typical  or  sense-transcending  exist- 
ences. He  sets  the  arts  of  medicine,  agriculture,  shoemaking 
and  the  rest  above  the  fine  arts,  inasmuch  as  they  produce 
something  serious  or  useful  (o-irovSalov  TL)  .  Fine  art,  he  says,  pro- 
duces nothing  useful,  and  makes  only  semblances  (eiiwXoTrou/oj) , 
whereas  what  mechanical  art  produces  are  utilities,  and  even  in 
the  ordinary  sense  realities  (avroiroa]Tixif). 

In  another  age,  and  thinking  according  to  another  system, 
Schiller,  so  far  from  holding  thus  cheap  the  kingdom  of  play 
and  show,  regarded  his  sovereignty  over  that  kingdom 
ScJWtfer  as  t^ie  n°blest  prerogative  of  man.  Schiller  wrote  his 
famous  Letters  on  the  Aesthetic  Education  of  Man  in 
order  to  throw  into  popular  currency,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  modify  and  follow  up  in  a  particular  direction,  certain  meta- 
physical doctrines  which  had  lately  been  launched  upon  the 
schools  by  Kant.  The  spirit  of  man,  said  Schiller  after  Kant, 
is  placed  between  two  worlds,  the  physical  world  or  world  of 
sense,  and  the  moral  world  or  world  of  will.  Both  of  these  are 
worlds  of  constraint  or  necessity.  In  the  sensible  world,  the 
spirit  of  man  submits  to  constraint  from  without;  in  the  moral 
world,  it  imposes  constraint  from  within.  So  far  as  man  yields 
to  the  importunities  of  sense,  in  so  far  he  is  bound  and  passive, 
the  subject  of  outward  shocks  and  victim  of  irrational  forces. 
So  far  as  he  asserts  himself  by  the  exercise  of  will,  imposing  upon 
sense  and  outward  things  the  dominion  of  the  moral  law  within 
him,  in  so  far  he  is  free  and  active,  the  rational  lord  of  nature 
and  not  her  slave.  Corresponding  to  these  two  worlds,  he  has 
within  him  two  conflicting  impulses  or  impulsions  of  his  nature, 
the  one  driving  him  towards  one  way  of  living,  the  other  towards 
another.  The  one,  or  sense-impulsion  (Staff trieb),  Schiller 
thinks  of  as  that  which  enslaves  the  spirit  of  man  as  the  victim 
of  matter,  the  other  or  moral  impulsion  (Formtrieb)  as  that 
which  enthrones  it  as  the  dictator  of  form.  Between  the  two 


the  conflict  at  first  seems  inveterate.  The  kingdom  of  brute 
nature  and  sense,  the  sphere  of  man's  subjection  and  passivity, 
wages  war  against  the  kingdom  of  will  and  moral  law,  the  sphere 
of  his  activity  and  control,  and  every  conquest  of  the  one  is  an 
encroachment  upon  the  other.  Is  there,  then,  no  hope  of  truce 
between  the  two  kingdoms,  no  ground  where  the  two  contending 
impulses  can  be  reconciled  ?  Nay,  the  answer  comes,  there  is 
such  a  hope;  such  a  neutral  territory  there  exists.  Between 
the  passive  kingdom  of  matter  and  sense,  where  man  is  compelled 
blindly  to  feel  and  be,  and  the  active  kingdom  of  law  and  reason, 
where  he  is  compelled  sternly  to  will  and  act,  there  is  a  kingdom 
where  both  sense  and  will  may  have  their  way,  and  where  man 
may  give  the  rein  to  all  his  powers.  But  this  middle  kingdom 
does  not  lie  in  the  sphere  of  practical  life  and  conduct.  It  lies 
in  the  sphere  of  those  activities  which  neither  subserve  any 
necessity  of  nature  nor  fulfil  any  moral  duty.  Towards  activities 
of  this  kind  we  are  driven  by  a  third  impulsion  of  our  nature  not 
less  essential  to  it  than  the  other  two,  the  impulsion,  as  Schiller 
calls  it,  of  Play  (Spiellrieb).  Relatively  to  real  life  and  conduct, 
play  is  a  kind  of  harmless  show;  it  is  that  which  we  are  free  to 
do  or  leave  undone  as  we  please,  and  which  lies  alike  outside  the 
sphere  of  needs  and  duties.  In  play  we  may  do  as  we  like,  and 
no  mischief  will  come  of  it.  In  this  sphere  man  may  put  forth 
all  his  powers  without  risk  of  conflict,  and  may  invent  activities 
which  will  give  a  complete  ideal  satisfaction  to  the  contending 
faculties  of  sense  and  will  at  once,  to  the  impulses  which  bid  him 
feel  and  enjoy  the  shocks  of  physical  and  outward  things,  and 
the  impulse  which  bids  him  master  such  things,  control  and 
regulate  them.  In  play  you  may  impose  upon  Matter  what 
Form  you  choose,  and  the  two  will  not  interfere  with  one  another 
or  clash.  The  kingdom  of  Matter  and  the  kingdom  of  Form 
thus  harmonized,  thus  reconciled  by  the  activities  of  play  and 
show,  will  in  other  words  be  the  kingdom  of  the  Beautiful. 
Follow  the  impulsion  of  play,  and  to  the  beautiful  you  will  find 
your  road;  the  activities  you  will  find  yourself  putting  forth 
will  be  the  activities  of  aesthetic  creation — you  will  have  dis- 
covered or  invented  the  fine  arts.  "  Midway  " — these  are  Schiller's 
own  words — "  midway  between  the  formidable  kingdom  of 
natural  forces  and  the  hallowed  kingdom  of  moral  laws,  the 
impulse  of  aesthetic  creation  builds  up  a  third  kingdom  un- 
perceived,  the  gladsome  kingdom  of  play  and  show,  wherein  it 
emancipates  man  from  all  compulsion  alike  of  physical  and  of 
moral  forces."  Schiller,  the  poet  and  enthusiast,  thus  making 
his  own  application  of  the  Kantian  metaphysics,  goes  on  to  set 
forth  how  the  fine  arts,  or  activities  of  play  and  show,  are  for 
him  the  typical,  the  ideal  activities  of  the  race,  since  in  them 
alone  is  it  possible  for  man  to  put  forth  his  whole,  that  is  his  ideal 
self.  "  Only  when  he  plays  is  man  really  and  truly  man." 
"  Man  ought  only  to  play  with  the  beautiful,  and  he  ought  to 
play  with  the  beautiful  only."  "  Education  in  taste  and  beauty 
has  for  its  object  to  train  up  in  the  utmost  attainable  harmony 
the  whole  sum  of  the  powers  jboth  of  sense  and  spirit."  And  the 
rest  of  Schiller's  argument  is  addressed  to  show  how  the  activities 
of  artistic  creation,  once  invented,  react  upon  other  departments 
of  human  life,  how  the  exercise  of  the  play  impulse  prepares 
men  for  an  existence  in  which  the  inevitable  collision  of  the  two 
other  impulses  shall  be  softened  or  averted  more  and  more. 
That  harmony  of  the  powers  which  clash  so  violently  in  man's 
primitive  nature,  having  first  been  found  possible  in  the  sphere 
of  the  fine  arts,  reflects  itself,  in  his  judgment,  upon  the  whole 
composition  of  man,  and  attunes  him,  as  an  aesthetic  being,  into 
new  capabilities  for  the  conduct  of  his  social  existence. 

Our  reasons  for  dwelling  on  this  wide  and  enthusiastic  formula 
of  Schiller's  are  both  its  importance  in  the  history  of  reflection — 
it  remained,  indeed,  for  nearly  a  century  a  formula     _A 
almost  classical — and  the  measure  of  positive  value     strong 
which  it  still  retains.     The   notion  of   a  sphere   of     points  of 
voluntary  activity  for  the  human  spirit,  in    which,     ^"/er>s 
under  no  compulsion  of  necessity  or  conscience,  we 
order  matters  as  we  like  them  apart  from  any  practical  end, 
seems  coextensive  with  the  widest  conception  of  fine  art  and  the 
fine  arts  as  they  exist  in  civilized  and  developed  communities. 


36° 


FINE  ARTS 


[GENERAL  DEFINITION 


It  insists  on  and  brings  into  the  light  the  free  or  optional  character 
of  these  activities,  as  distinguished  from  others  to  which  we  are 
compelled  by  necessity  or  duty,  as  well  as  the  fact  that  these 
activities,  superfluous  as  they  may  be  from  the  points  of  view  of 
necessity  and  of  duty,  spring  nevertheless  from  an  imperious 
and  a  saving  instinct  of  our  nature.  It  does  justice  to  the  part 
which  is,  or  at  any  rate  may  be,  filled  in  the  world  by  pleasures 
which  are  apart  from  profit,  and  by  delights  for  the  enjoyment 
of  which  men  cannot  quarrel.  It  claims  the  dignity  they  deserve 
for  those  shows  and  pastimes  in  which  we  have  found  a  way  to 
make  permanent  all  the  transitory  delights  of  life  and  nature, 
to  turn  even  our  griefs  and  yearnings,  by  their  artistic  utterance, 
into  sources  of  appeasing  joy,  to  make  amends  to  ourselves  for 
the  confusion  and  imperfection  of  reality  by  conceiving  and 
imaging  forth  the  semblances  of  things  clearer  and  more  complete, 
since  in  contriving  them  we  incorporate  with  the  experiences 
we  have  had  the  better  experiences  we  have  dreamed  of  and 
longed  for. 

One  manifestly  weak  point  of  Schiller's  theory  is  that  though 
it  asserts  that  man  ought  only  to  play  with  the  beautiful,  and 

that  he  is  his  best  or  ideal  self  only  when  he  does  so, 
points'  vet  'l  does  not  sufficiently  indicate  what  kinds  of 

play  are  beautiful  nor  why  we  are  moved  to  adopt 
them.  It  does  not  show  how  the  delights  of  the  eye  and  spirit 
in  contemplating  forms,  colours  and  movements,  of  the  ear  and 
spirit  in  apprehending  musical  and  verbal  sounds,  or  of  the  whole 
mind  at  once  in  following  the  comprehensive  current  of  images 
called  up  by  poetry — it  does  not  clearly  show  how  delights 
like  these  differ  from  those  yielded  by  other  kinds  of  play  or 
pastime,  which  are  by  common  consent  excluded  from  the 
sphere  of  fine  art. 

The  chase,  for  instance,  is  a  play  or  pastime  which  gives  scope 
for  any  amount  of  premeditated  skill;  it  has  pleasures,  for 
Kinds  of  those  wno  take  part  in  it,  which  are  in  some  degree 
play  analogous  to  the  pleasures  of  the  artist;  we  all  know 

which  the  claims  made  on  behalf  of  the  noble  art  of  venerie 
flHe^art.  (following  true  medieval  precedent)  by  the  knights 

and  woodmen  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  romances.  It  is  an 
obvious  reply  to  say  that  though  the  chase  is  play  to  us,  who  in 
civilized  communities  follow  it  on  no  plea  of  necessity,  yet  to  a 
not  remote  ancestry  it  was  earnest;  in  primitive  societies 
hunting  does  not  belong  to  the  class  of  optional  activities  at  all, 
but  is  among  the  most  pressing  of  utilitarian  needs.  But  this 
reply  loses  much  of  its  force  since  we  have  learnt  how  many  of 
the  fine  arts,  however  emancipated  from  direct  utility  now, 
have  as  a  matter  of  history  been  evolved  out  of  activities 
primarily  utilitarian.  It  would  be  more  to  the  point  to  remark 
that  the  pleasures  of  the  sportsman  are  the  only  pleasures 
arising  from  the  chase;  his  exertions  afford  pain  to  the  victim, 
and  no  satisfaction  to  any  class  of  recipients  but  himself;  or 
at  least  the  sympathetic  pleasures  of  the  lookers-on  at  a  hunt 
or  at  a  battle  are  hardly  to  be  counted  as  pleasures  of  artistic 
contemplation.  The  issue  which  they  witness  is  a  real  issue; 
the  skilled  endeavours  with  which  they  sympathize  are  put 
forth  for  a  definite  practical  result,  and  a  result  disastrous  to  one 
of  the  parties  concerned. 

What  then,  it  may  be  asked,  about  athletic  games  and  sports, 
which  hurt  nobody,  have  no  connexion  with  the  chase,  and 
give  pleasure  to  thousands  of  spectators  ?•  Here  the  difference 
is,  that  the  event  which  excites  the  spectator's  interest  and 
pleasure  at  a  race  or  match  or  athletic  contest  is  not  a  wholly 
unreal  or  simulated  event;  it  is  less  real  than  life,  but  it  is  more 
real  than  art.  The  contest  has  no  momentous  practical  conse- 
quences, but  it  is  a  contest,  an  aflXos,  all  the  same,  in  which 
competitors  put  forth  real  strength,  and  one  really  wins  and 
others  are  defeated.  Such  a  struggle,  in  which  the  exertions 
are  real  and  the  issue  uncertain,  we  follow  with  an  excitement 
and  a  suspense  different  in  kind  from  the  feelings  with  which 
we  contemplate  a  fictitious  representation.  For  example,  let 
the  reader  recall  the  feelings  with  which  he  may  have  watched 
a  real  fencing  bout,  and  compare  them  with  those  with  which 
he  watches  the  simulated  fencing  bout  in  Shakespeare's  Hamlet. 


The  instance  is  a  crucial  one,  because  in  the  fictitious  case  the 
excitement  is  heightened  by  the  introduction  of  the  poisoned 
foil,  and  by  the  tremendous  consequences  which  we  are  aware 
will  turn,  in  the  representation,  on  the  issue.  Yet  because  the 
fencing  scene  in  Hamlet  is  a  representation,  and  not  real,  we  find 
ourselves  watching  it  in  a  mood  quite  different  from  that  in 
which  we  watch  the  most  ordinary  real  fencing-match  with 
vizors  and  blunt  foils;  a  mood  more  exalted,  if  the  representa- 
tion is  good,  but  amid  the  aesthetic  emotions  of  which  the 
fluctuations  of  strained,  if  trivial,  suspense  and  the  eagerness  of 
sympathetic  participation  find  no  place.  "  The  delight  of  tragedy," 
says  Johnson,  "proceeds  from  our  consciousness  of  fiction; 
if  we  thought  murders  and  treasons  real,  they  would  please  no 
more."  So  does  the  peculiar  quality  of  our  pleasure  in  watching 
the  fencing-match  in  Hamlet,  or  the  wrestling-match  in  As  You 
Like  It,  depend  on  our  consciousness  of  fiction:  if  we  thought 
the  matches  real  they  might  please  us  still,  but  please  us  in  a 
different  way.  Again,  of  athletics  in  general,  they  are  pursuits 
to  a  considerable  degree  definitely  utilitarian,  having  for  their 
specific  end  the  training  and  strengthening  of  individual  human 
bodies.  Nevertheless,  in  some  systems  the  title  of  fine  arts 
has  been  consistently  claimed,  if  not  for  athletics  technically 
so  called,  and  involving  the  idea  of  competition  and  defeat,  at 
any  rate  for  gymnastics,  regarded  simply  as  a  display  of  the 
physical  frame  of  man  cultivated  by  exercise — as,  for  instance, 
it  was  cultivated  by  the  ancient  Greeks — to  an  ideal  perfection 
of  beauty  and  strength. 

But  apart  from  criticisms  like  these  on  the  theory  of  Schiller, 
the  Kantian  doctrine  of  a  metaphysical  opposition  between 
the  senses  and  the  reason  has  for  most  minds  of  to-day 
lost  its  validity,  and  with  it  falls  away  Schiller's 
derivative  theory  of  a  Slojftrieb  and  a  Formtrieb  the  light 
contending  like  enemies  for  dominion  over  the  human  ofaathro- 
spirit,  with  a  neutral  or  reconciling  Spieltrieb  standing 
between  them.  Even  taking  the  existence  of  the 
Spieltrieb,  or  play-impulse,  by  itself  as  a  plain  and  in- 
dubitable fact  in  human  nature,  the  theory  that  this  impulse 
is  the  general  or  universal  source  of  the  artistic  activities  of  the 
race,  which  seemed  adequate  to  thinkers  so  far  apart  as  Schiller 
and  Herbert  Spencer,  is  found  no  longer  to  hold  water.  The 
tendency  of  recent  thought  and  study  on  these  subjects  has  been 
to  abandon  the  abstract  or  dialectical  method  in  favour  of  the 
methods  of  historical  and  anthropological  inquiry.  In  the 
light  of  these  methods  it  is  claimed  that  the  artistic  activities 
of  the  race  spring  in  point  of  fact  from  no  single  source  but  from 
a  number  of  different  sources.  It  is  admitted  that  the  play- 
impulse  is  one  of  these,  and  the  allied  and  overlapping,  but  not 
identical,  impulse  of  mimicry  or  imitation  another.  But  it  is 
urged  at  the  same  time  that  these  twin  impulses,  rooted  as  they 
both  are  among  the  primordial  faculties  both  of  men  and  animals, 
are  far  from  existing  merely  to  provide  a  vent  whereby  the 
superfluous  energies  of  sentient  beings  may  discharge  themselves 
at  pleasure,  but  are  indispensable  utilitarian  instincts,  by  which 
the  young  are  led  to  practise  and  rehearse  in  sport  those  activities 
the  exercise  of  which  in  earnest  will  be  necessary  to  their  pre- 
servation in  the  adult  state.  (The  researches  of  Professor  Karl 
Groos  in  this  field  seem  to  be  conclusive.)  A  third  impulse 
innate  in  man,  though  scarcely  so  primordial  as  the  other  two, 
and  one  which  the  animals  cannot  share  with  him,  is  the  impulse 
of  record  or  commemoration.  Man  instinctively  desires,  alike 
for  safety,  use  and  pleasure,  to  perpetuate  and  hand  on  the 
memory  of  his  deeds  and  experiences  whether  by  words  or  by 
works  of  his  hands  contrived  for  permanence.  This  impulse 
of  record  is  the  most  stimulating  ally  of  the  impulse  of  mimicry 
or  imitation,  and  perhaps  a  large  part  of  the  arts  usually  put 
down  as  springing  from  the  love  of  imitation  ought  rather  to 
be  put  down  as  springing  from  the  commemorative  or  recording 
impulse,  using  imitation  as  its  necessary  means.  Granting  the 
existence  in  primitive  man  of  these  three  allied  impulses  of  play, 
of  mimicry,  and  of  record,  it  is  urged  that  they  are  so  many 
distinct  though  contiguous  sources  from  which  whole  groups  of 
the  fine  arts  have  sprung,  and  that  all  three  in  their  origin 


GENERAL  DEFINITION] 


FINE  ARTS 


361 


served  ends  primarily  or  in  great  part  utilitarian.  Examining 
any  of  the  rudimentary  artistic  activities  of  primitive  man  already 
mentioned:  the  decoration  of  the  person  with  tattooings  or 
strings  of  shells  or  teeth  or  feathers  had  primarily  the  object 
of  attracting  or  impressing  the  opposite  sex,  or  terrifying  an 
enemy,  or  indicating  the  tribal  relations  of  the  person  so  adorned ; 
some  of  the  same  purposes  were  served  by  the  scratches  and 
tufts  and  markings  on  weapons  or  utensils;  the  graffiti  or  outline 
drawings  of  animals  incised  by  cave-dwellers  on  bones  are 
surmised  to  have  sprung  in  like  manner  from  the  desire  of  con- 
veying information,  combined,  probably,  sometimes  with  that  of 
obtaining  magic  power  over  the  things  represented;  the  erection 
of  memorial  shrines  and  images  of  all  kinds,  from  the  rudest 
upwards,  had  among  other  purposes  the  highly  practical  one  of 
propitiating  the  spirits  of  the  departed;  and  so  on  through  the 
whole  range  of  kindred  activities.  It  is  contended,  next,  that 
such  activities  only  take  on  the  character  of  rudimentary  fine 
arts  at  a  certain  stage  of  their  evolution.  Before  they  can 
assume  that  character,  they  must  come  under  the  influence 
and  control  of  yet  another  rooted  and  imperious  impulse  in 
mankind.  That  is  the  impulse  of  emotional  self-expression, 
the  instinct  which  compels  us  to  seek  relief  under  the  stimulus 
of  pent-up  feeling;  an  instinct,  it  is  added,  second  only  in 
power  to  those  which  drive  us  to  seek  food,  shelter,  protection 
from  enemies,  and  satisfaction  for  sexual  desires.  According 
to  a  law  of  our  constitution,  the  argument  goes  on,  this  need  for 
emotional  self-expression  finds  itself  fully  satisfied  only  by 
certain  modes  of  activity;  those,  namely,  which  either  have 
in  themselves,  or  impress  on  their  products,  the  property  of 
rhythm,  that  is,  of  regular  interval  and  recurrence,  flow,  order 
and  proportion.  Leaping,  shouting,  and  clapping  hands  is  the 
human  animal's  most  primitive  way  of  seeking  relief  under  the 
pressure  of  emotion;  so  soon  as  one  such  animal  found  out 
that  he  both  expressed  and  relieved  his  emotions  best,  and 
communicated  them  best  to  his  fellows,  when  he  moved  in  regular 
rhythm  and  shouted  in  regular  time  and  with  regular  changes 
of  pitch-  he  ceased  to  be  a  mere  excited  savage  and  became  a 
primitive  dancer,  singer,  musician — in  a  word,  artist.  So  soon 
as  another  found  himself  taking  pleasure  in  certain  qualities  of 
regular  interval,  pattern  and  arrangement  of  lines,  shapes 
and  colours,  apart  from  all  questions  of  purpose  or  utility, 
in  his  tattooings  and  self-adornments,  his  decoration  of  tools 
or  weapons  or  structures  for  shelter  or  commemoration,  he  in 
like  manner  became  a  primitive  artist  in  ornamental  and 
imitative  design. 

The  special  qualities  of  pleasure  felt  and  communicated  by 
doing  things  in  one  way  rather  than  another,  independently 
of  direct  utility,  which  we  indicated  at  the  outset  as  characteristic 
of  the  whole  range  of  the  fine  arts,  appear  on  this  showing  to 
be  dependent  primarily  on  the  response  of  our  organic  sensibilities 
of  nerve  and  muscle,  eye,  ear  and  brain  to  the  stimulus  of  rhythm 
(using  the  word  in  its  widest  sense)  imparted  either  to  our  own 
actions  and  utterances  or  to  the  works  of  our  hands.  Such 
pleasures  would  seem  to  have  been  first  experienced  by  man 
directly,  in  the  endeavour  to  find  relief  with  limbs  and  voice 
from  states  of  emotional  tension,  and  then  incidentally,  as  a 
kind  of  by-product  arising  and  affording  similar  relief  in  the 
development  of  a  wide  range  of  utilitarian  activities.  Into  the 
nature  of  those  organic  sensibilities,  and  the  grounds  of  the 
relief  they  afford  us  when  gratified,  it  is  the  province  of  physio- 
logical and  psychological  aesthetics  to  inquire:  our  business 
here  is  only  with  the  activities  directed  towards  their  satisfaction 
and  the  results  of  those  acti\rties  in  the  works  of  fine  art.  On 
the  whole  the  account  of  the  matter  yielded  by  the  method  of 
anthropological  research,  and  here  very  briefly  summarized, 
may  be  accepted  as  answering  more  closely  to  the  complex 
nature  of  the  facts  than  any  of  the  accounts  hitherto  current; 
and  so  we  may  expand  our  first  tentative  suggestion  of  a  defini- 
tion into  one  more  complete,  which  from  the  nature  of  the  case 
cannot  be  very  brief  or  simple  and  must  run  somehow  thus: 
Fine  art  is  everything  which  man  does  or  makes  in  one  way  rather 
than  another,  freely  and  with  premeditation,  in  order  to  express 


and  arouse  emotion,  in  obedience  to  laws  of  rhythmic  movement 
or  utterance  or  regulated  design,  and  with  results  independent  of 
direct  utility  and  capable  of  affording  to  many  permanent  and 
disinterested  delight. 

II.     Of  the  Fine  Arts  severally. 

Architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  music  and  poetry  are  by 
common  consent,  as  has  been  said  at  the  outset,  the  five  principal 
or  greater  fine  arts  practised  among  developed  com- 
munities of  men.  It  is  possible  in  thought  to  group  'J^f"/" 
these  five  arts  in  as  many  different  orders  as  there  are  //Ke 
among  them  different  kinds  of  relation  or  affinity,  greater 
One  thinker  fixes  his  attention  upon  one  kind  of  rela-  arts  have 
tions  as  the  most  important,  and  arranges  his  group  classified. 
accordingly;  another  upon  another;  and  each,  when 
he  has  done  so,  is  very  prone  to  claim  for  his  arrangement  the 
virtue  of  being  the  sole  essentially  and  fundamentally  true. 
For  example,  we  may  ascertain  one  kind  of  relations  between 
the  arts  by  inquiring  which  is  the  simplest  or  most  limited  in 
its  effects,  which  next  simplest,  which  another  degree  less 
simple,  which  least  simple  or  most  complex  of  them  all.  This, 
the  relation  of  progressive  complexity  or  comprehensiveness 
between  the  fine  arts,  is  the  relation  upon  which  Auguste  Comte 
fixed  his  attention,  and  it  yields  in  his  judgment  the  following 
order: — Architecture  lowest  in  complexity,  because  both  of  the 
kinds  of  effects  which  it  produces  and  of  the  material  conditions 
and  limitations  under  which  it  works;  sculpture  next;  painting 
third;  then  music;  and  poetry  highest,  as  the  most  complex 
or  comprehensive  art  of  all,  both  in  its  own  special  effects  and 
in  its  resources  for  ideally  calling  up  the  effects  of  all  the  other 
arts  as  well  as  all  the  phenomena  of  nature  and  experiences  of 
life.  A  somewhat  similar  grouping  was  adopted,  though  from 
the  consideration  of  a  wholly  different  set  of  relations,  by  Hegel. 
Hegel  fixed  his  attention  on  the  varying  relations  borne  by  the 
idea,  or  spiritual  element,  to  the  embodiment  of  the  idea,  or 
material  element,  in  each  art.  Leaving  aside  that  part  of  his 
doctrine  which  concerns,  not  the  phenomena  of  the  arts  thprn- 
selves,  but  their  place  in  the  dialectical  world-plan  or  scheme  of 
the  universe,  Hegel  said  in  effect  something  like  this.  In  certain 
ages  and  among  certain  races,  as  in  Egypt  and  Assyria,  and 
again  in  the  Gothic  age  of  Europe,  mankind  has  only  dim  ideas 
for  art  to  express,  ideas  insufficiently  disengaged  and  realized, 
of  which  the  expression  cannot  be  complete  or  lucid,  but  only 
adumbrated  and  imperfect;  the  characteristic  art  of  those 
ages  is  a  symbolic  art,  with  its  material  element  predominating 
over  and  keeping  down  its  spiritual;  and  such  a  symbolic  art 
is  architecture.  In  other  ages,  as  in  the  Greek  age,  the  ideas 
of  men  have  come  to  be  definite,  disengaged,  and  clear;  the 
characteristic  art  of  such  an  age  will  be  one  in  which  the  spiritual 
and  material  elements  are  in  equilibrium,  and  neither  predomi- 
nates over  nor  keeps  down  the  other,  but  a  thoroughly  realized 
idea  is  expressed  in  a  thoroughly  adequate  and  lucid  form; 
this  is  the  mode  of  expression  called  classic,  and  the  classic  art 
is  sculpture.  In  other  ages,  again,  and  such  are  the  modern 
ages  of  Europe,  the  idea  grows  in  power  and  becomes  importunate; 
the  spiritual  and  material  elements  are  no  longer  in  equilibrium, 
but  the  spiritual  element  predominates;  the  characteristic 
arts  of  such  an  age  will  be  those  in  which  thought,  passion, 
sentiment,  aspiration,  emotion,  emerge  in  freedom,  dealing  with 
material  form  as  masters  or  declining  its  shackles  altogether; 
this  is  the  romantic  mode  of  expression,  and  the  romantic  arts 
are  painting,  music  and  poetry.  A  later  systematizer,  Lotze, 
fixed  his  attention  on  the  relative  degrees  of  freedom  or  independ- 
ence which  the  several  arts  enjoy — their  freedom,  that  is,  from 
the  necessity  of  either  imitating  given  facts  of  nature  or  minister- 
ing; as  part  of  their  task,  to  given  practical  uses.  In  his  grouping, 
instead  of  the  order  architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  music, 
poetry,  music  comes  first,  because  it  has  neither  to  imitate  any 
natural  facts  nor  to  serve  any  practical  end;  architecture  next, 
because,  though  it  is  tied  to  useful  ends  and  material  conditions, 
yet  it  is  free  from  the  task  of  imitation,  and  pleases  the  eye  in 
its  degree,  by  pure  form,  light  and  shade,  and  the  rest,  as  music 


362 


FINE  ARTS 


[CLASSIFICATION 


pleases  the  ear  by  pure  sound;  then,  as  arts  all  tied  to  the  t'ask 
of  imitation,  sculpture,  painting  and  poetry,  taken  in  progressive 
order  according  to  the  progressing  comprehensiveness  of  their 
several  resources. 

The  thinker  on  these  subjects  has,  moreover,  to  consider  the 
enumeration  and  classification  of  the  lesser  or  subordinate  fine 
Place  of  arts-  Whole  clusters  or  families  of  these  occur  to  the 
the  minor  mind  at  once;  such  as  dancing,  an  art  subordinate 
or  sub-  to  music,  but  quite  different  in  kind;  acting,  an  art 
flnearfs  auxiliary  to  poetry,  from  which  in  kind  it  differs  no 
less;  eloquence  in  all  kinds,  so  far  as  it  is  studied  and 
not  merely  spontaneous;  and  among  the  arts  which  fashion  or 
dispose  material  objects,  embroidery  and  the  weaving  of  patterns, 
pottery,  glassmaking,  goldsmith's  work  -and  jewelry,  joiner's  work, 
gardening  (according  to  the  claim  of  some),  and  a  score  of  other 
dexterities  and  industries  which  are  more  than  mere  dexterities 
and  industries  because  they  add  elements  of  beauty  and  pleasure 
to  elements  of  serviceableness  and  use.  To  decide  whether  any 
given  one  of  these  has  a  right  to  the  title  of  fine  art,  and,  if  so, 
to  which  of  the  greater  fine  arts  it  should  be  thought  of  as 
appended  and  subordinate,  or  between  which  two  of  them 
intermediate,  is  often  no  easy  task. 

The  weak  point  of  all  classifications  of  the  kind  of  which 
we  have  above  given  examples  is  that  each  is  intended  to  be 
No  one  final>  and  to  serve  instead  of  any  other.  The  truth 
classifies-  is»  that  the  relations  between  the  several  fine  arts  are 
tion  final  much  too  complex  for  any  single  classification  to  bear 

or._  this  character.     Every  classification  of  the  fine  arts 

sufficient,  .11  ...  , . 

must   necessarily   be  provisional,   according   to   the 

particular  class  of  relations  which  it  keeps  in  view.  And  for 
practical  purposes  it  is  requisite  to  bear  in  mind  not  one  classifica- 
tion but  several.  Fixing  our  attention,  not  upon  comph'cated 
or  problematical  relations  between  the  various  arts,  but  only 
upon  their  simple  and  undisputed  relations,  and  giving  the  first 
place  in  our  consideration  to  the  five  greater  arts  of  architecture, 
sculpture,  painting,  music  and  poetry,  we  shall  find  at  least 
three  principal  modes  in  which  every  fine  art  either  resembles 
or  differs  from  the  rest. 

i.  The  Shaping  and  the  Speaking  Arts  (or  Arts  of  Form  and  Arts  of 
Utterance,  or  Arts  of  Space  and  Arts  of  Time). — Each  of  the  greater 

arts  either  makes  something  or  not  which  can  be  seen  and 
I  lfl  handled.  The  arts  which  make  something  which  can  be 

seen  and  handled  are  architecture,  sculpture  and  painting. 

.    ' .  In  the  products  or  results  of  all  these  arts  external  matter 

and  the        's  'n  .some  waV  or  another  manually  put  together,  fashioned 

speaking     or  disposed.     But  music  and  poetry  do  not  produce  any 

art&  results  of  this  kind.     What  music  produces  is  something 

that  can  be  heard,  and  what  poetry  produces  is  something 
that  can  be  either  heard  or  read — which  last  is  a  kind  of  ideal  hearing, 
haying  for  its  avenue  the  eye  instead  of  the  ear,  and  for  its  material, 
written  signs  for  words  instead  of  the  spoken  words  themselves. 
Now  what  the  eye  sees  from  any  one  point  of  view,  it  sees  all  at  once; 
in  other  words,  the  parts  of  anything  we  see  fill  or  occupy  not  time 
but  space,  and  reach  us  from  various  points  in  space  at  a  single 
simultaneous  perception.  If  we  are  at  the  proper  distance  we  see 
at  one  glance  a  house  from  the  ground  to  the  chimneys,  a  statue  from 
head  to  foot,  and  in  a  picture  at  once  the  foreground  and  background, 
and  everything  that  is  within  the  four  corners  of  the  frame.  There 
is,  indeed,  this  distinction  to  be  drawn,  that  in  walking  round  or 
through  a  temple,  church,  house  or  any  other  building,  new  parts 
and  proportions  of  the  building  unfold  themselves  to  view;  and  the 
same  thing  happens  in  walking  round  a  statue  or  turning  it  on  a  turn- 
table: so  that  the  spectator,  by  his  own  motions  and  the  time  it 
takes  to  effect  them,  can  impart  to  architecture  and  sculpture 
something  of  the  character  of  time  arts.  But  their  products,  as 
contemplated  from  any  one  point  of  view,  are  in  themselves  solid, 
stationary  and  permanent  in  space.  Whereas  the  parts  of  anything 
we  hear,  or,  reading,  can  imagine  that  we  hear,  fill  or  occupy  not 
space  at  all  but  time,  and  can  only  reach  us  from  various  points  in 
time  through  a  continuous  series  of  perceptions,  or,  in  the  case  of 
reading,  of  images  raised  by  words  in  the  mind.  We  have  to  wait, 
in  music,  while  one  note  follows  another  in  a  theme,  and  one  theme 
another  in  a  movement;  and  in  poetry,  while  one  line  with  its 
images  follows  another  in  a  stanza,  and  one  stanza  another  in  a 
canto,  and  so  on.  It  is  a  convenient  form  of  expressing  both  aspects 
of  this  difference  between  the  two  groups  of  arts,  to  say  that  archi- 
tecture, sculpture  and  painting  are  arts  which  give  shape  to  things 
in  space,  or,  more  briefly,  shaping  arts ;  and  music  and  poetry  arts 
which  give  utterance  to  things  in  time,  or,  more  briefly,  speaking 
arts.  These  simple  terms  of  the  shaping  and  the  speaking  arts  (the 


equivalent  of  the  Ger.  bildende  und  redende  Kiinste)  are  not  usual 
in  English;  but  they  seem  appropriate  and  clear;  the  simplest 
alternatives  for  their  use  is  to  speak  of  the  manual  and  the  vocal 
arts,  or  the  arts  of  space  and  the  arts  of  time.  This  is  practically, 
if  not  logically,  the  most  substantial  and  vital  distinction  upon  which 
a  classification  of  the  fine  arts  can  be  based.  The  arts  which  surround 
us  in  space  with  stationary  effects  for  the  eye,  as  the  house  we  live 
in,  the  pictures  on  the  walls,  the  marble  figure  in  the  vestibule,  are 
stationary,  hold  a  different  kind  of  place  in  our  experience — not  a 
greater  or  a  higher  place,  but  essentially  a  different  place — from  the 
arts  which  provide  us  with  transitory  effects  in  time,  effects  capable 
of  being  awakened  for  the  ear  or  mind  at  any  moment,  as  a  symphony 
is  awakened  by  playing  and  an  ode  by  reading,  but  lying  in  abeyance 
until  we  bid  that  moment  come,  and  passing  away  when  the  perform- 
ance or  the  reading  is  over.  Such,  indeed,  is  the  practical  force  of  the 
distinction  that  in  modern  usage  the  expression  fine  art,  or  even  art, 
is  often  used  by  itself  in  a  sense  which  tacitly  excludes  music  and 
poetry,  and  signifies  the  group  of  manual  or  shaping  arts  alone. 

As  between  three  of  the  five  greater  arts  and  the  other  two,  the 
distinction  on  which  we  are  now  dwelling  is  complete.     Buildings, 
statues,  pictures,  belong  strictly  to  sight  and  space;  to 
time  and  to  hearing,  real  through  the  ear,  or  ideal  through         " '  *£ ' 
the  mind  in  reading,  belong  music  and  poetry.     Among       ™e   *  ef 
the  lesser  or  subordinate  arts,  however,  there  are  several  .      . 

in  which  this  distinction  finds  no  place,  and  which  produce,  motion 
in  space  and  time  at  once,  effects  midway  between  the 
stationary  or  stable,  and  the  transitory  or  fleeting.  Such  is  the 
dramatic  art,  in  which  the  actor  makes  with  his  actions  and  gestures, 
or  several  actors  make  with  the  combination  of  their  different 
actions  and  gestures,  a  kind  of  shifting  picture,  which  appeals  to  the 
eyes  of  the  witnesses  while  the  sung  or  spoken  words  of  the  drama 
appeal  to  their  ears;  thus  making  of  them  spectators  and  auditors 
at  once,  and  associating  with  the  pure  time  art  of  words  the  mixed 
time-and-space  art  of  bodily  movements.  As  all  movement  whatso- 
ever is  necessarily  movement  through  space,  and  takes  time  to 
happen,  so  every  other  fine  art  which  is  wholly  or  in  part  an  act  of 
movement  partakes  in  like  manner  of  this  double  character.  Along 
with  acting  thus  comes  dancing.  Dancing,  when  it  is  of  the  mimic 
character,  may  itself  be  a  kind  of  acting;  historically,  indeed,  the 
dancer's  art  was  the  parent  of  the  actor's;  whether  apart  from  or  in 
conjunction  with  the  mimic  element,  dancing  is  an  art  in  which 
bodily  movements  obey,  accompany,  and,  as  it  were,  express  or 
accentuate  in  space  the  time  effects  of  music.  Eloquence  or  oratory 
in  like  manner,  so  far  as  its  power  depends  on  studied  and  pre- 
meditated gesture,  is  also  an  art  which  to  some  extent  enforces  its 
primary  appeal  through  the  ear  in  time  by  a  secondary  appeal 
through  the  eye  in  space.  So  much  for  the  first  distinction,  that 
between  the  shaping  or  space  arts  and  the  speaking  or  time  arts, 
with  the  intermediate  and  subordinate  class  of  arts  which,  like 
acting,  dancing,  oratory,  add  to  the  pure  time  element  a  mixed 
'time-and-space  element.  These  last  can  hardly  be  called  shaping 
arts,  because  it  is  his  own  person,  and  not  anything  outside  himself, 
which  the  actor,  the  dancer,  the  orator  disposes  or  adjusts;  they 
may  perhaps  best  be  called  arts  of  motion,  or  moving  arts. 

2.   Tlie  Imitative  and  the_  Non-Imitative  Arts. — Each  art  either  does 
or  does  not  represent  or  imitate  something  which  exists  already  in 
nature.     Of  the  five  greater  fine  arts,  those  which  thus 
represent  objects  existing  in  nature  are  sculpture,  painting    *       "!? 
and  poetry.     Those  which  do  not  represent  anything  so    J^*s.  the' 
existing  are  music  and  architecture.     On  this  principle  we    imn'at\ve 
get  a  new  grouping.     Two  shaping  or  space  arts  and  one    aalj  non- 
speaking  or  time  art  now  form  the  imitative  group  of    tmitatlve 
sculpture,  painting  and  poetry;  while  one  space  art  and    gji^, 
one  time  art  form  the  non-imitative  group  of  music  and 
architecture.     The  mixed  space-and-time  arts  of  the  actor,  and  of  the 
dancer,  so  far  as  he  or  she  is  also  a  mimic,  belong,  of  course,  by  their 
very  name  and  nature,  to  the  imitative  class. 

It  was  the  imitative  character  of  the   fine  arts  which  chiefly 
occupied  the  attention  of  Aristotle.     But  in  order  to  understand  the 
art  theories  of  Aristotle  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind 
the  very  different  meanings  which  the  idea  of  imitation         e 
bore  to  his  mind  and  bears  to  ours.     For  Aristotle  the     lm  °. 
idea  of  imitation  or  representation  (mimesis)  was  extended        .  aft 
so  as  to  denote  the  expressing,  evoking  or  making  manifest     according 
of  anything  whatever,  whether  material  objects  or  ideas     to  ^r/s. 
or  feelings.     Music  and  dancing,  by  which  utterance  or     totle. 
expression  is  given  to  emotions  that  may  be  quite  detached 
from  all  definite  ideas  or  images,  are  thus  for  him  varieties  of  imita- 
.tion.     He  says,  indeed,  most  music  ^nd  dancing,  as  if  he  was  aware 
that  there  were  exceptions,  but  he  does  not  indicate  what  the  ex- 
ceptions are;  and  under  the  head  of  imitative  music,  he.  distinctly 
reckons  some  kinds  of  instrumental  music  without  words.     But  in 
our  own  more  restricted  usage,  to  imitate  means  to  copy,  mimic  or 
represent    some    existing    phenomenon,    some    definite    reality    of 
experience;  and  we  can  only  call  those  imitative  arts  which  bring 
before  us  such  things,  either  directly  by  showing  us  their  actual 
likeness,  as  sculpture  does  in  solid  form,  and  as  painting  does  by 
means  of  lines  and  colours  on  a  plane  surface,  or  else  indirectly,  by 
calling  up  ideas  or  images  of  them  in  the  mind,  as  poetry  and  litera- 
ture do  by  means  of  words.     It  is  by  a  stretch  of  ordinary  usage 


CLASSIFICATION] 


FINE  ARTS 


363 


that  we  apply  the  word  imitation  even  to  this  last  way  of  representing 
things;  since  words  are  no  true  likeness  of,  but  only  customary  signs 
for,  the  thing  they  represent.  And  those  arts  we  cannot  call 
imitative  at  all,  which  by  combinations  of  abstract  sound  or  form 
express  and  arouse  emotions  unattended  by  the  recognizable  likeness, 
idea  or  image  of  any  definite  thing. 

Now  the  emotions  of  music  when  music  goes  along  with  words, 
whether  in  the  shape  of  actual  song  or  even  of  the  instrumental 

accompaniment  of  song,  are  no  doubt  in  a  certain  sense 

i"~  .         attended  with  definite  ideas;  those,  namely,  which  are 

heir     exPressed  by  the  words  themselves.     But  the  same  ideas 

' f1  '  sic.      wou'd  be  conveyed  to  the  mind  equally  well  by  the  same 

words  if  they  were  simply  spoken.  What  the  music 
contributes  is  a  special  element  of  its  own,  an  element  of  pure 
emotion,  aroused  through  the  sense  of  hearing,  which  heightens  the 
effect  of  the  words  upon  the  feelings  without  helping  to  elucidate 
them  for  the  understanding.  Nay,  it  is  well  known  that  a  song  well 
sung  produces  its  intended  effect  upon  the  feelings  almost  as  fully 
though  we  fail  to  catch  the  words  or  are  ignorant  of  the  language 
to  which  they  belong.  Thus  the  view  of  Aristotle  cannot  be  defended 
on  the  ground  that  he  was  familiar  with  music  only  in  an  elementary 
form,  and  principally  as  the  direct  accompaniment  of  words,  and 
that  in  his  day  the  modern  development  of  the  art,  as  an  art  for 
building  up  constructions  of  independent  sound,  vast  and  intricate 
fabrics  of  melody  and  harmony  detached  from  words,  was  a  thing 
not  yet  imagined.  That  is  perfectly  true;  the  immense  technical 
and  intellectual  development  of  music,  both  in  its  resources  and  its 
capacities,  is  an  achievement  of  the  modern  world ;  but  the  essential 
character  of  musical  sound  is  the  same  in  its  most  elementary  as  in 
its  most  complicated  stage.  Its  privilege  is  to  give  delight,  not  by 
communicating  definite  ideas,  or  calling  up  particular  images,  but 
by  appealing  to  certain  organic  sensibilities  in  our  nerves  of  hearing, 
and  through  such  appeal  expressing  on  the  one  part  and  arousing 
on  the  other  a  unique  kind  of  emotion.  The  emotion  caused  by 
music  may  be  altogether  independent  of  any  ideas  conveyable  by 
words.  Or  it  may  serve  to  intensify  and  enforce  other  emotions 
arising  at  the  same  time  in  connexion  with  the  ideas  conveyed  by 
words;  and  it  was  one  of  the  contentions  of  Richard  Wagner  that 
in  the  former  phase  the  art  is  now  exhausted,  and  that  only  in  the 
latter  are  new  conquests  in  store  for  it.  But  in  either  case  the  music 
is  the  music,  and  is  like  nothing  else;  it  is  no  representation  or 
similitude  of  anything  whatsoever. 

But  does  not  instrumental  music,  it  will  be  said,  sometimes  really 
imitate  the  sounds  of  nature,  as  the  piping  of  birds,  the  whispering 

of  woods,  the  moaning  of  storms  or  explosion  of  thunder; 
An  objec-  or  (joes  jt  not>  at  any  rat6|  SUggest  these  things  by  rescin- 
d/on a  blances  so  close  that  they  almost  amount  in  the  strict 
r'  sense  to  imitation?  Occasionally,  it  is  true,  music  does 
allow  itself  these  playful  excursions  into  a  region  of  quasi-imitation 
or  mimicry.  It  modifies  the  character  of  its  abstract  sounds  into 
something,  so  to  speak,  more  concrete,  and,  instead  of  sensations 
which  are  like  nothing  else,  affords  us  sensations  which  recognizably 
resemble  those  we  receive  from  some  of  the  sounds  of  nature.  But 
such  excursions  are  hazardous,  and  to  make  them  often  is  the  surest 
proof  of  vulgarity  in  a  musician.  Neither  are  the  successful  effects 
of  the  great  composers  in  evoking  ideas  of  particular  natural  pheno- 
mena generally  in  the  nature  of  real  imitations  or  representations; 
although  passages  such  as  the  notes  of  the  dove  and  nightingale  in 
Haydn's  Creation,  and  of  the  cuckoo  in  Beethoven's  Pastoral  Sym- 
phony, the  bleating  of  the  sheep  in  the  Don  Quixote  symphony  of 
Richard  Strauss,  must  be  acknowledged  to  be  exceptions.  Again, 
it  is  a  recognized  fact  concerning  the  effect  of  instrumental  music 
on  those  of  its  hearers  who  try  to  translate  such  effect  into  words, 
that  they  will  all  find  themselves  in  tolerable  agreement  as  to  the 
meaning  of  any  passage  so  long  as  they  only  attempt  to  describe 
it  in  terms  of  vague  emotion,  and  to  say  such  and  such  a  passage 
expresses,  as  the  case  may  be,  dejection  or  triumph,  effort  or  the 
relaxation  of  effort,  eagerness  or  languor,  suspense  or  fruition, 
anguish  or  glee.  But  their  agreement  comes  to  an  end  the  moment 
they  begin  to  associate,  in  their  interpretation,  definite  ideas  with 
these  vague  emotions;  then  we  find  that  what  suggests  in  idea  to 
one  hearer  the  vicissitudes  of  war  will  suggest  to  another,  or  to  the 
same  at  another  time,  the  vicissitudes  of  love,  to  another  those  of 
spiritual  yearning  and  aspiration,  to  another,  it  may  be,  those  of 
changeful  travel  by  forest,  field  and  ocean,  to  another  those  of 
life's  practical  struggle  and  ambition.  The  infinite  variety  of  ideas 
which  may  thus  be  called  up  in  different  minds  by  the  same  strain 
of  music  is  proof  enough  that  the  music  is  not  like  any  particular 
thing.  The  torrent  of  varied  and  entrancing  emotion  which  it  pours 
along  the  heart,  emotion  latent  and  undivined  until  the  spell  of 
sound  begins,  that  is  music's  achievement  and  its  secret.  It  is  this 
effect,  whether  coupled  or  not  with  a  trained  intellectual  recognition 
of  the  highly  abstract  and  elaborate  nature  of  the  laws  of  the  relation, 
succession  and  combinations  of  sounds  on  which  the  effect  depends, 
that  has  caused  some  thinkers,  with  Schopenhauer  at  their  head,  to 
find  in  music  the  nearest  approach  we  have  to  a  voice  from  behind 
the  veil,  a  universal  voice  expressing  the  central  purpose  and 
deepest  essence  of  things,  unconfused  by  fleeting  actualities  or  by  the 
distracting  duty  of  calling  up  images  of  particular  and  perishable 
phenomena.  "  Music,"  in  Schopenhauer's  own  words,  "  reveals  the 


innermost  essential  being  of  the  world,  and  expresses  the  highest 
wisdom  in  a  language  the  reason  does  not  understand." 

Aristotle  endeavoured  to  frame  a  classification  of  the  arts,  in  their 
several  applications  and  developments,  on  two  grounds — the  nature 
of  the  objects  imitated  by  each,  and  the  means  or  instru-  _  „  ... 
ments  employed  in  the  imitation.  But  in  the  case  of  f 
music,  as  it  exists  in  the  modern  world,  the  first  part  of  ' 
this  endeavour  falls  to  the  ground,  because  the  object  imitated  has, 
in  the  sense  in  which  we  now  use  the  word  imitation,  no  existence. 
The  means  employed  by  music  are  successions  and  combinations  of 
vocal  or  instrumental  sounds  regulated  according  to  the  three 
conditions  of  time  and  pitch  (which  together  make  up  melody)  and 
harmony,  or  the  relations  of  different  strains  of  time  and  tone  co- 
operant  but  not  parallel.  With  these  means,  music  either  creates 
her  independent  constructions,  or  else  accompanies,  adorns,  enforces 
the  imitative  art  of  speech — but  herself  imitates  not;  and  may  be 
best  defined  simply  as  a  speaking  or  time  art,  of  which  the  business  is  to 
express  and  arouse  emotion  by  successions  and  combinations  of  regulated 
sound. 

That  which  music  is  thus  among  the  speaking  or    time-arts, 
architecture  is  among  the  shaping  or  space-arts.    As  music  appeals 
to   our   faculties   for   taking   pleasure   in   non-imitative     .„ 
combinations  of  transitory  sound,  so  architecture  appeals     ift'tl 
to   our   faculties   for   taking   pleasure   in   non-imitative      "!      Jf 
combinations  of  stationary  mass.     Corresponding  to  the     0faKhl- 
system  of  ear-effects  or  combinations  of  time,  tone  and     tecture 
harmony  with  which  music  works,  architecture  works 
with  a  system  of  eye-effects  or  combinations  of  mass,  contour,  light 
and  shade,  colour,  proportion,  interval,  alternation  of  plain  and 
decorated   parts,   regularity   and   variety   in   regularity,   apparent 
stability,  vastness,  appropriateness  and  the  rest.    Only  the  materials 
of  architecture  are  not  volatile  and  intangible  like  sound,  but  solid 
timber,  brick,  stone,  metal  and  mortar,  and  the  laws  of  weight  and 
force  according  to  which  these  materials  have  to  be  combined  are 
much  more  severe  and  cramping  than  the  laws  of  melody  and  harmony 
which  regulate  the  combinations  of  music.    The  architect  is  further 
subject,  unlike  the  musician,  to  the  dictates  and  precise  prescriptions 
of  utility.     Even  in  structures  raised  for  purposes  not  of  everyday 
use  and  necessity,  but  of  commemoration  or  worship,  the  rules  for 
such  commemoration  and  such  worship  have  prescribed  a  more  or 
less  fixed  arrangement  and  proportion  of  the  parts  or  members, 
whether  in  the  Egyptian  temple  or  temple-tomb,  the  Greek  temple 
or  heroon,  or  in  the  churches  of  the  middle  ages  and  Renaissance  in 
the  West. 

Hence  the  effects  of  architecture  are  necessarily  less  full  of  various, 
rapturous  and  unforeseen  enchantment  than  the  effects  of  music. 
Yet  for  those  who  possess  sensibility  to  the  pleasures  of  the  jna/OJ,/es 
eye  and  the  perfections  of  shaping  art,  the  architecture  ofarcj,i. 
of  the  great  ages  has  yielded  combinations  which,  so  far  tecture  aaa 
as  comparison  is  permissible  between  things  unlike  in  their  music. 
materials,  fall  little  short  of  the  achievements  of  music 
in  those  kinds  of  excellence  which  are  common  to  them  both.     In 
the  virtues  of  lucidity,  of  just  proportion  and  organic  interdependence 
of  the  several  parts  or  members,  in  the  mathematic  subtlety  of  their 
mutual  relations,  and  of  the  transitions  from  one  part  or  member  to 
another,  in  purity  and  finish  of  individual  forms,  in  the  character 
of  one  thing  growing  naturally  out  of  another  and  everything  serving 
to  complete  the  whole-^in  these  qualities,  no  musical  combination 
can  well  surpass  a  typical  Doric  temple  such  as  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens.    None,  again,  can  well  surpass  some  of  the  great  cathedrals 
of  the  middle  ages  in  the  qualities  of  sublimity,  of  complexity,  in  the 
power  both  of  expressing  and  suggesting  spiritual  aspiration,  in  the 
invention  of  intricate  developments  and  ramifications  about  a  central 
plan,  in  the  union  of  majesty  in  the  main  conception  with  fertility 
of  adornment  in  detail.      In  fancifulness,   in  the  unexpected,   in 
capricious  and  far-sought  opulence,  in  filling  the  mind  with  mingled 
enchantments  of  east  and  west  and  south  and  north,  music  can 
hardly  dp  more  than  a  building  like  St  Mark's  at  Venice  does  with 
its  blending  of  Byzantine  elements,  Italian  elements,  Gothic  elements, 
each  carried  to  the  utmost  pitch  of  elaboration  and  each  enriched 
with  a  hundred  caprices  of  ornament,  but  all  working  together,  all  in 
obedience  to  a  law,  and  "  all  beginning  and  ending  with  the  Cross." 
In  the  case  of  architecture,  however,  as  in  the  case  of  music,  the 
non-imitative  character  must  not  be  stated  quite  without  exception 
or  reserve.     There  have  been  styles  of  architecture  in 
which  forms  suggesting  or  imitating   natural  or  other   Bxcep- 
phenomena  have  held  a  place  among  the  abstract  forms    * 
proper  to  the  art.     Often  the  mode  of  such  suggestions   * 
is  rather  symbolical  to  the  mind  than  really  imitative  to 
the  eye ;  as  when  the  number  and  relations  of  the  heavenly      yOI. 
planets  were  imaged  by  that  race  of  astronomers,  the  Baby-    la  arclll. 
lonians,  in  the  seven  concentric  walls  of  their  great  temple,    tecture. ' 
and  in  many  other  architectural  constructions;  or  as  when 
the  shape  of  the  cross  was  adopted,  with  innumerable  slight  varieties 
and  modifications,  for  the  ground  plan  of  the  churches  of  Christen- 
dom.    Passing  to  examples  of  imitation  more  properly  so  called, 
it  may  be  true,  and  was,  at  any  rate,  long  believed,  that  the  aisles 
of  Gothic  churches,  when  once  the  use  of  the  pointed  arch  had  been 
evolved  as  a  principle  of  construction,  were  partly  designed  to  evoke 
the  idea  of  the  natural  aisles  of  the  forest,  and  that  the  upsoaring 


364 


FINE  ARTS 


[CLASSIFICATION 


forest  trunks  and  meeting  branches  were  more  or  less  consciously 
imaged  in  their  piers  and  vaultings.  In  the  temple-palaces  of 
Egypt,  one  of  the  regular  architectural  members,  the  sustaining  pier, 
is  often  systematically  wrought  in  the  actual  likeness  of  a  con- 
ventionalized cluster  of  lotus  stems,  with  lotus  flowers  for  the  capital. 
When  we  come  to  the  fashion,  not  rare  in  Greek  architecture,  of 
carving  this  same  sustaining  member,  the  column,  in  complete  human 
likeness,  and  employing  caryatids,  canephori,  atlases  or  the  like, 
to  support  the  entablature  of  a  building,  it  then  becomes  difficult 
to  say  whether  we  have  to  do  with  a  work  of  architecture  or  of 
sculpture.  The  case,  at  any  rate,  is  different  from  that  in  which 
the  sculptor  is  called  in  to  supply  surface  decoration  to  the  various 
members  of  a  building,  or  to  fill  with  the  products  of  his  own  art 
spaces  in  the  building  specially  contrived  and  left  vacant  for  that 
purpose.  When  the  imitative  feature  is  in  itself  an  indispensable 
member  of  the  architectural  construction,  to  architecture  rather 
than  sculpture  we  shall  probably  do  best  to  assign  it. 

Defining  architecture,  then  (apart  from  its  utility,  which  for  the 
present  we  leave  out  of  consideration),  as  a  shaping  art,  of  -which  the 
function  is  to  express  and  arouse  emotion  by  combinations 
Definition  Oj  orforea  ana  decorated  mass,  we  pass  from  the  character- 
ofarchl-  ist;cs  of  the  non-imitative  to  those  of  the  imitative  group 
lecture.  Qj  ^  name]y  sculpture,  painting  and  poetry. 

If  we  keep  in  mind  the  source  and  origin  of  these  arts,  we  must 
remember  what  has  already  been  observed,  that  they  spring  by  no 
means  from  man's  love  of  imitation  alone,  but  from  his 
The  Italia-  desire  to  record  and  commemorate  experience,  using  the 
live  arts  faculty  pf  imitation  as  his  means.  Mnemosyne  (Memory) 
are  arts  of  was  ;n  Greek  tradition  the  mother  of  the  Muses  ;  imitation, 
record  in  the  sense  above  defined,  is  but  their  instrument.  Hence 
"sl"g..  we  might  think  "  arts  of  record  "  a  better  name  for  this 
tmitatit  group  than  arts  of  imitation.  The  answer  is  —  but  a  large 
part  of  purs  architecture  is  also  commemorative;  from 
the  pyramids  and  obelisks  of  Egypt  down  there  are  many 
monuments  in  which  the  impulse  of  men  to  perpetuate  their  own  or 
others'  memories  has  worked  without  any  aid  of  imitation.  Hence 
as  the  definition  of  a  class  of  arts  contrasted  with  architecture  and 
music  the  name  "  arts  of  record  "  would  fail;  and  we  have  to  fall 
back  on  the  current  and  established  name  of  the  "  imitative  arts." 
In  considering  them  we  cannot  do  better  than  follow  that  Aristotelian 
division  which  describes  each  art  according,  first,  to  the  objects 
which  it  imitates,  and,  secondly,  to  the  means  it  employs. 

Taking  sculpture  first,  as  imitating  a  smaller  range  of  objects  than 
the  other  two,  and  imitating  them  more  completely  :  sculpture  may 
have  for  the  objects  of  its  imitation  the  shapes  of  whatever 
Sculpture  tj,;ngs  pOsseSs  length,  breadth  and  magnitude.  For  its 
as  an  imi-  means  or  instruments  it  has  solid  form,  which  the  sculptor 
'  either  carves  out  of  a  hard  substance,  as  in  the  case  of 
wood  and  stone,  or  models  in  a  yielding  substance,  as  in  the  case  of 
clay  and  wax,  or  casts  in  a  dissolved  or  molten  substance,  as  in  the 
case  of  plaster  and  of  metal  in  certain  uses,  or  beats,  draws  or  chases 
in  a  malleable  and  ductile  substance,  as  in  the  case  of  metal  in  other 
uses,  or  stamps  from  dies  or  moulds,  a  method  sometimes  used  in 
all  soft  or  fusible  materials.  Thus  a  statue  or  statuette  may  either 
be  carved  straight  out  of  a  block  of  stone  or  wood,  or  first  modelled 
in  clay  or  wax,  then  moulded  in  plaster  or  some  equivalent  material, 
and  then  carved  in  stone  or  cast  in  bronze.  A  gem  is  wrought  in 
stone  by  cutting  and  grinding.  Figures  in  jeweller's  work  are 
wrought  by  beating  and  chasing;  a  medatlion  t>y  beating  and 
chasing  or  else  by  stamping  irom  a  die;  a  coin  by  stamping  from  a 
die  ;  and  so  forth.  The  process  of  modelling  (Gr.  n-\drT«c)  in  a  soft 
substance  being  regarded  as  the  typical  process  of  the  sculptor,  the 
name  plastic  art  has  been  given  to  his  operations  in  general. 

In  general  terms,  the  task  of  sculpture  is  to  imitate  solid  form  with 
solid  form.     But  sculptured  form  may  be  either  completely  or  in- 
.  completely  solid.     Sculpture  in  completely  solid  form 

exactly  reproduces,  whether  on  the  original  or  on  a  different 
round  scale,  the  relations  or  proportions  of  the  object  imitated 
*n  *^e  three  dimensions  of  length,  breadth  and  depth  or 
thickness.  Sculpture  in  incompletely  solid  form  re- 
produces the  proportions  of  the  objects  with  exactness 
only  so  far  as  concerns  two  of  its  dimensions,  namely,  those  of 
length  and  breadth;  while  the  third  dimension,  that  of  depth 
or  thickness,  it  reproduces  in  a  diminished  proportion,  leaving  it 
to  the  eye  to  infer,  from  the  partial  degree  of  projection  given  to 
the  work,  the  full  projection  of  the  object  imitated.  The  former,  or 
completely  solid  kino;  of  sculpture,  is  called  sculpture  in  the  round  ; 
its  works  stand  free,  and  can  be  walked  round  and  seen  from  all 
points.  The  latter,  or  incompletely  solid  kind  of  sculpture,  is  called 
sculpture  in  relief;  its  works  do  not  stand  free,  but  are  engaged  in  or 
attached  to  a  background,  and  can  only  be  seen  from  in  front. 
According,  in  the  latter  kind  of  sculpture,  to  its  degree  of  projection 
from  the  background,  a  work  is  said  to  be  in  high  or  in  low  relief. 
Sculpture  in  the  round  and  sculpture  in  relief  are  alike  in  this,  that 
the  properties  of  objects  which  they  imitate  are  their  external  forms 
as  defined  by  their  outlines  —  that  is,  by  the  boundaries  and  circum- 
scriptions of  their  masses  —  and  their  light  and  shade  —  the  lights  and 
shadows,  that  is,  which  diversify  the  curved  surfaces  of  the  masses 
in  consequence  of  their  alternations  and  gradations  of  projection  and 
recession.  But  the  two  kinds  of  sculpture  differ  in  this.  A  work 


and  in 
relief. 


Pr°Perfe 
"" 


of  sculpture  in  the  round  imitates  the  whole  of  the  outlines  by 
which  the  object  imitated  is  circumscribed  in  the  three  dimensions 
of  space,  and  presents  to  the  eye,  as  the  object  itself  would  do, 
a  new  outline  succeeding  the  last  every  moment  as  you  walk  round  it. 
Whereas  a  work  of  sculpture  in  relief  imitates  only  one  outline  of 
any  object;  it  takes,  so  to  speak,  a  section  of  the  object  as  seen 
from  a  particular  point,  and  traces  on  the  background  the  boundary- 
line  of  that  particular  section;  merely  suggesting,  by  modelling  the 
surface  within  such  boundary  according  to  a  regular,  but  a  dimin- 
ished, ratio  of  projection,  the  other  outlines  which  the  object  would 
present  if  seen  from  all  sides  successively. 

As  sculpture  in  the  round  reproduces  the  real  relations  of  a  solid 
object  in  space,  it  follows  that  the  only  kind  of  object  which  it  can 
reproduce  with  pleasurable  effect  according  to  the  laws  ..«„* 
of  regulated  or  rhythmical  design  must  be  one  not  too  ' 
vast  or  complicated,  one  that  can  afford  to  be  detached 
and  isolated  from  its  surroundings,  and  of  which  all  the 
parts  can  easily  be  perceived  and  apprehended  in  their 
organic  relations.  Further,  it  will  need  to  be  an  object 
interesting  enough  to  mankind  in  general  to  make  them  take 
delight  in  seeing  it  reproduced  with  all  its  parts  in  complete 
imitation.  And  again,  it  must  be  such  that  some  considerable 
part  of  the  interest  lies  in  those  particular  properties  of  outline, 
play  of  surface,  and  light  and  shade  which  it  is  the  special  function 
of  sculpture  to  reproduce.  Thus  a  sculptured  representation  in 
the  round,  say,  of  a  mountain  with  cities  on  it,  would  hardly  be  a 
sculpture  at  all;  it  could  only  be  a  model,  and  as  a  model  might 
have  value;  but  value  as  a  work  of  fine  art  it  could  not  have,  because 
the  object  imitated  would  lack  organic  definiteness  and  complete- 
ness; it  would  lack  universality  of  interest,  and  of  the  interest 
which  it  did  possess,  a  very  inconsiderable  part  would  depend  upon 
its  properties  of  outline,  surface,  and  light  and  shade.  Obviously 
there  is  no  kind  of  object  in  the  world  that  so  well  unites  the  required 
conditions  for  pleasurable  imitation  in  sculpture  as  the  human  body. 
It  is  at«once  the  most  complete  of  organisms,  and  the  shape  of  all 
others  the  most  subtle  as  well  as  the  most  intelligible  in  its  outlines; 
the  most  habitually  detached  in  active  or  stationary  freedom; 
the  most  interesting  to  mankind,  because  its  own;  the  richest  in 
those  particular  effects,  contours  and  modulations,  contrasts, 
harmonies  and  transitions  of  modelled  surface  and  circumscribing 
line,  which  it  is  the  prerogative  of  sculpture  to  imitate.  Accordingly 
the  object  of  imitation  for  this  art  is  pre-eminently  the  body  of  man 
or  woman.  That  it  has  not  been  for  the  sake  of  representing  men  and 
women  as  such,  but  for  the  sake  of  representing  gods  in  the  likeness 
of  men  and  women,  that  the  human  form  has  been  most  enthusiastic- 
ally studied,  does  not  affect  this  fact  in  the  theory  of  the  art,  though 
it  is  a  consideration  of  great  importance  in  its  history.  Besides  the 
human  form,  sculpture  may  imitate  the  forms  of  those  of  the  lower 
animals  whose  physical  endowments  have  something  of  a  kindred 
perfection,  with  other  natural  or  artificial  objects  as  may  be  needed 
merely  by  way  of  accessory  or  symbol.  The  body  must  for  the 
purposes  of  this  art  be  divested  of  covering,  or  covered  only  with 
such  tissues  as  reveal,  translate  or  play  about  without  concealing 
it.  Chiefly  in  lands  and  ages  where  climate  and  social  use  have 
given  the  sculptor  the  opportunity  of  studying  human  forms  so 
draped  or  undraped  has  this  art  attained  perfection,  and  become 
exemplary  and  enviable  to  that  of  other  races. 

Relief  sculpture  is  more  closely  connected  with  architecture  than 
the  other  kind,  and  indeed  is  commonly  used  in  subordination  to  it. 
But  if  its  task  is  thus  somewhat  different  from  that  of 
sculpture  in  the  round,  its  principal  objects  of  imitation  * 
are  the  same.  The  human  body  remains  the  principal  P™!*" 
theme  of  the  sculptor  in  relief;  but  the  nature  of  his  art 
allows,  and  sometimes  compels,  him  to  include  other 
objects  in  the  range  of  his  imitation.  As  he  has  not  to 
represent  the  real  depth  or  projection  of  things,  but  only 
to  suggest  them  according  to  a  ratio  which  he  may  fix  himself,  so 
he  can  introduce  into  the  third  or  depth  dimension,  thus  arbitrarily 
reduced,  a  multitude  of  objects  for  which  the  sculptor  in  the  round, 
having  to  observe  the  real  ratio  of  the  three  dimensions,  has  no  room. 
He  can  place  one  figure  in  slightly  raised  outline  emerging  from 
behind  the  more  fully  raised  outline  of  another,  and  by  the  same 
system  can  add  to  his  representation  rocks,  trees,  nay  mountains 
and  cities  and  birds  on  the  wing.  But  the  more  he  uses  this  liberty 
the  less  will  he  be  truly  a  sculptor.  Solid  modelling,  and  real  light 
and  shade,  are  the  special  means  or  instruments  of  effect  which  the 
sculptor  alone  among  imitative  artists  enjoys.  Single  outlines  and 
contours,  the  choice  of  one  particular  section  and  the  tracing  of  its 
circumscription,  are  means  which  the  sculptor  enjoys  in  common 
with  the  painter  or  draughtsman.  And  indeed,  when  we  consider 
works  executed  wholly  or  in  part  in  very  low  relief,  whether  Assyrian 
battle-pieces  and  hunting-pieces  in  alabaster  or  bronze,  or  the 
backgrounds  carved  in  bronze,  marble  or  wood  by  the  Italian 
sculptors  who  followed  the  example  set  by  Ghiberti  at  the  Renais- 
sance, we  shall  see  that  the  principle  of  such  work  is  not  the  principle 
of  sculpture  at  all.  Its  effect  depends  little  on  qualities  of  surface- 
light  and  shadow,  and  mainly  on  qualities  of  contour,  as  traced  by  a 
slight  line  of  shadow  on  the  side  away  from  the  light,  and  a  slight 
line  of  light  on  the  side  next  to  it.  And  we  may  fairly  hesitate 
whether  we  shall  rank  the  artist  who  works  on  this  principle,  which 


sculpture 
la  relief. 


CLASSIFICATION] 


FINE  ARTS 


365 


is  properly  a  graphic  rather  than  a  plastic  principle,  among  sculptors 
or  among  draughtsmen.  The  above  are  cases  in  which  the  relief 
sculptor  exercises  his  liberty  in  the  introduction  of  other  objects 
besides  human  figures  into  his  sculptured  compositions.  But  there  is 
another  kind  of  relief  sculpture  in  which  the  artist  has  less  choice. 
That  is,  the  kind  in  which  the  sculptor  is  called  in  to  decorate  with 
carved  work  parts  of  an  architectural  construction  which  are  not 
adapted  for  the  introduction  of  figure  subjects,  or  for  their  introduc- 
tion only  as  features  in  a  scheme  of  ornament  that  comprises  many 
other  elements.  To  this  head  belongs  most  of  the  carving  of  capitals, 
moujdings,  friezes  (except  the  friezes  of  Greek  temples),  bands, 
cornices,  and,  in  the  Gothic  style,  of  doorway  arches,  niches,  canopies, 
pinnacles,  brackets,  spandrels  and  the  thousand  members  and  parts 
of  members  which  that  style  so  exquisitely  adorned  with  true  or 
conventionalized  imitations  of  natural  forms.  This  is  no  doubt  a 
subordinate  function  of  the  art ;  and  it  is  impossible,  as  we  have  seen 
already,  to  find  a  precise  line  of  demarcation  between  carving,  in  this 
decorative  use,  which  is  properly  sculpture,  and  that  which  belongs 
properly  to  architecture. 

Leaving  such  discussions,  we  may  content  ourselves  with  the 
definition  of  sculpture  as  a  shaping  art,  of  which  the  business  is  to 
D  fl  HI  express  and  arouse  emotion  by  the  imitation  of  natural 

objects,  and  principally  the  human  body,  in  solid  form, 
sculoture  reproducing  either  their  true  proportions  in  three  dimensions, 

or  their  proportions  in  the  two  dimensions  of  length  and 
breadth  only,  with  a  diminished  proportion  in  the  third  dimension  of 
depth  or  thickness. 

In  considering  bas-relief  as  a  form  of  sculpture,  we  have  found 
ourselves  approaching  the  confines  of  the  second  of  the  shaping 
„  imitative  arts,  the  graphic  art  or  art  of  painting.  Painting, 

n"g  as  to  its  means  or  instruments  of  imitation,  dispenses 
Imit  tl  with  the  third  dimension  altogether.  It  imitates  natural 
grt  objects  by  representing  them  as  they  are  represented  on 

the  retina  of  the  eye  itself,  simply  as  an  assemblage  of 
variously  shaped  and  variously  shaded  patches  of  colour  on  a  flat 
surface.  Painting  does  not  reproduce  the  third  dimension  of  reality 
by  any  third  dimension  of  its  own  whatever;  but  leaves  the  eye  to 
infer  the  solidity  of  objects,  their  recession  and  projection,  their 
nearness  and  remoteness,  by  the  same  perspective  signs  by  which 
it  also  infers  those  facts  in  nature,  namely,  by  the  direction  of  their 
several  boundary  lines,  the  incidence  and  distribution  of  their  lights 
and  shadows,  the  strength  or  faintness  of  their  tones  of  colour. 

Hence  this  art  has  an  infinitely  greater  range  and  freedom  than 
any  form  of  sculpture.  Near  and  far  is  all  the  same  to  it,  and 
_  .  whatever  comes  into  the  field  of  vision  can  come  also 

oWeSs  'nto  *^e  ^e'^  °^  a  picture;  trees  as  well  as  persons,  and 
linkable  by  c'ou^s  as  we"  as  trees,  and  stars  as  well  as  clouds;  the 
paintinjr  remotest  mountain  snows,  as  well  as  the  violet  of  the 

foreground,  and  far-off  multitudes  of  people  as  well  as 
one  or  two  near  the  eye.  Whatever  any  man  has  seen,  or  can  imagine 
himself  as  seeing,  that  he  can  also  fix  by  painting,  subject  only  to 
one  great  limitation, — that  of  the  range  of  brightness  which  he  is 
able  to  attain  in  imitating  natural  colour  illuminated  by  light. 
In  this  particular  his  art  can  but  correspond  according  to  a  greatly 
diminished  ratio  with  the  effects  of  nature.  But  excepting  this  it 
can  do  for  the  eye  almost  all  that  nature  herself  does;  or  at  least 
ajl  that  nature  would  do  if  man  had  only  one  eye  since  the  three 
dimensions  of  space  produce  upon  our  binocular  machinery  of  vision 
a  particular  stereoscopic  effect  of  which  a  picture,  with  its  two 
dimensions  only,  is  incapable.  The  range  of  the  art  being  thus  almost 
unbounded,  its  selections  have  naturally  been  dictated  by  the  varying 
interest  felt  in  this  or  that  subject  of  representation  by  the  societies 
among  whom  the  art  has  at  various  times  been  practised.  As  in 
sculpture,  so  in  painting,  the  human  form  has  always  held  the  first 
place.  For  the  painter,  the  intervention  of  costume  between  man 
and  his  environment  is  not  a  misfortune  in  the  same  degree  as  it  is 
for  the  sculptor.  For  him,  clothes  of  whatever  fashion  or  amplitude 
have  their  own  charm;  they  serve  to  diversify  the  aspect  of  the 
world,  and  to  express  the  characters  and  stations,  if  not  the  physical 
frames,  of  his  personages;  and  he  is  as  happy  or  happier  among  the 
brocades  of  Venice  as  among  the  bare  limbs  of  the  Spartan  palaestra. 
Along  with  man,  there  come  into  painting  all  animals  and  vegetation, 
all  man's  furniture  and  belongings,  his  dwelling-places,  fields  and 
landscape;  and  in  modern  times  also  landscape  and  nature  for  their 
own  sakes,  skies,  seas,  mountains  and  wildernesses  apart  from  man. 
Besides  the  two  questions  about  any  art,  what  objects  does  it 
imitate,  and  by  the  use  of  what  means  or  instruments,  Aristotle 
The  chl  f  Pr°P°ses  (in  the  case  of  poetry)  the  further  question, 
forms  or  w.mcl1  °f  several  possible  forms  does  the  imitation  in  any 
modes  of  f?'ven  case  assume?  We  may  transfer  very  nearly  the 
palntinz-  ^T16  incluiry  to  painting,  and  may  ask,  concerning  any 
line  llziit  painter,  according  to  which  of  three  possible  systems  he 
ana-shade  works.  The  three  possible  systems  are  (l)  that  which 
and  colour,  attends  principally  to  the  configuration  and  relations  of 

natural  objects  as  indicated  by  the  direction  of  their 
boundaries,  for  defining  which  there  is  a  convention  in  universal 
use,  the  convention,  that  is,  of  line;  this  may  be  called  for  short 
the  system  of  line;  (2)  that  which  attends  chiefly  to  their  configura- 
tion and  relations  as  indicated  by  the  incidence  and  distribution 
of  their  lights  and  shadows — this  is  the  system  of  light-and- shade  or 


Technical 
varieties 
of  the 
painter's 
craft. 


chiaroscuro;  and  (3)  that  which  attends  chiefly,  not  to  their  con- 
figuration at  all,  but  to  the  distribution,  qualities  and  relations  of 
local  colours  upon  their  surface  —  this  is  the  system  of  colour.  It  is 
not  possible  for  a  painter  to  imitate  natural  objects  to  the  eye  at  all 
without  either  denning  their  boundaries  by  outlines,  or  suggesting 
the  shape  of  their  masses  by  juxtapositions  of  light  and  dark  or  of 
local  colours.  In  the  complete  art  of  painting,  of  course,  all  three 
methods  are  employed  at  once.  But  in  what  is  known  as  outline 
drawing  and  outline  engraving,  one  of  the  three  methods  only  is 
employed,  line;  in  monochrome  pictures,  and  in  shaded  drawings 
and  engravings,  two  only,  line  with  light-and-shade;  and  in  the 
various  shadeless  forms  of  decorative  painting  and  colour-printing, 
two  only,  line  with  colour.  Even  in  the  most  accomplished  examples 
of  the  complete  art  of  painting,  as  was  pointed  out  by  Ruskin,  we 
find  that  there  almost  always  prevails  a  predilection  for  some  one 
of  these  three  parts  of  painting  over  the  other  two.  Thus  among 
the  mature  Italians  of  the  Renaissance,  Titian  is  above  all  things  a 
painter  in  colour,  Michelangelo  in  line,  Leonardo  in  light-and-shade. 
Many  academic  painters  in  their  day  tried  to  combine  the  three 
methods  in  equal  balance;  to  the  impetuous  spirit  of  the  great 
Venetian,  Tintoretto,  it  was  alone  given  to  make  the  attempt  with  a 
great  measure  of  success.  A  great  part  of  the  effort  of  modern 
painting  has  been  to  get  rid  of  the  linear  convention  altogether,  to 
banish  line  and  develop  the  resources  of  the  oil  medium  in  imitating 
on  canvas,  more  strictly  than  the  early  masters  attempted,  the  actual 
appearance  of  things  on  the  retina  as  an  assemblage  of  coloured 
streaks  and  patches  modified  and  toned  in  the  play  of  light-and-shade 
and  atmosphere. 

It  remains  to  consider,  for  the  purpose  of  our  classification,  what 
are  the  technical  varieties  of  the  painter's  craft.  Since  we  gave  the 
generic  name  of  painting  to  all  imitation  of  natural  objects 
by  the  assemblage  of  lines,  colours  and  lights  and  darks 
on  a  single  plane,  we  must  logically  include  as  varieties  of 
painting  not  only  the  ordinary  crafts  of  spreading  or 
laying  pictures  on  an  opaque  surface  in  fresco,  oil,  .dis- 
temper or  water-colour,  but  also  the  craft  of  arranging  a 
picture  to  be  seen  by  the  transmission  of  light  through  a  transparent 
substance,  in  glass  painting;  the  craft  of  fitting  together  a  multitude 
of  solid  cubes  or  cylinders  so  that  their  united  surface  forms  a 
picture  to  the  eye,  as  in  mosaic;  the  craft  of  spreading  vitreous 
colours  in  a  state  of  fusion  so  that  they  form  a  picture  when  hardened, 
as  in  enamel  ;  and  even,  it  would  seem,  the  crafts  of  weaving,  tapestry, 
and  embroidery,  since  these  also  yield  to  the  eye  a  plane  surface 
figured  in  imitation  of  nature.  As  drawing  we  must  also  count 
incised  or  engraved  work  of  all  kinds  representing  merely  the  out- 
lines of  objects  and  not  their  modellings,  as  for  instance  the  graffiti 
on  Greek  and  Etruscan  mirror-backs  and  dressing-cases;  while 
raised  work  in  low  relief,  in  which  outlines  are  plainly  marked  and 
modellings  neglected,  furnishes,  as  we  have  seen,  a  doubtful  class 
between  sculpture  and  painting.  In  all  figures  that  are  first  modelled 
in  the  solid  and  then  variously  coloured,  sculpture  and  painting 
bear  a  common  share;  and  by  far  the  greater  part  both  of  ancient 
and  medieval  statuary  was  in  fact  tinted  so  as  to  imitate  or  at  least 
suggest  the  colours  of  life.  But  as  the  special  characteristic  of 
sculpture,  solidity  in  the  third  dimension,  is  in  these  cases  present, 
it  is  to  that  art  and  not  to  painting  that  we  shall  still  ascribe  the 
resulting  work. 

With  these  indications  we  may  leave  the  art  of  painting  defined 
in  general  terms  as  a  shaping  or  space  art,  of  which  the  business  is  to 
express  and  arouse  emotion  by  the  imitation  of  all  kinds  of    „  ,.   ... 
natural  objects,  reproducing  on  a  plane  surface  the  relations      f  ' 
of  their  boundary  lines,  lights  and  shadows,  or  colours,  or    painting. 
all  three  of  these  appearances  together. 

The  next  and  last  of  the  imitative  arts  is  the  speaking  art  of  poetry. 
The  transition  from  sculpture  and  painting  to  poetry  is,  from  the 
point  of  view  not  of  our  present  but  of  our  first  division  _ 
among  the  fine  arts,  abrupt  and  absolute.  It  is  a  transition  ia,lta- 
from  space  into  time,  from  the  sphere  of  material  forms  tf  nrL  ' 
to  the  sphere  of  immaterial  images.  Following  Aristotle's 
method,  we  may  define  the  objects  of  poetry's  imitation  or  evocation, 
as  everything  of  which  the  idea  or  image  can  be  called  up  by  words, 
that  is,  every  force  and  phenomenon  of  nature,  every  operation  and 
result  of  art,  every  fact  of  life  and  history,  or  every  imagination  of 
such  a  fact,  every  thought  and  feeling  of  the  human  spirit,  for  which 
mankind  in  the  course  of  its  long  evolution  has  been  able  to  create 
in  speech  an  explicit  and  appropriate  sign.  The  means  or  instru- 
ments of  poetry's  imitation  are  these  verbal  signs  or  words,  arranged 
in  lines,  strophes  or  stanzas,  so  that  their  sounds  have  some  of  the 
regulated  qualities  and  direct  emotional  effect  of  music. 

The  three  chief  modes  or  forms  of  the  imitation  may  still  be 
defined  as  they  were  defined  by  Aristotle  himself.  First  comes  the 
epic  or  narrative  form,  in  which  the  poet  speaks  alternately 
for  himself  and  his  characters,  now  describing  their 
situations  and  feelings  in  his  own  words,  and  anon  making 
each  of  them  speak  in  the  first  person  for  himself.  Second 
comes  the  lyric  form,  in  which  the  poet  speaks  in  his  own 
name  exclusively,  and  gives  expression  to  sentiments  which  are 
purely  personal.  Third  comes  the  dramatic  form,  in  which  the  poet 
does  not  speak  for  himself  at  all,  but  only  puts  into  the  mouths  of 
each  of  his  personages  successively  such  discourse  as  he  thinks 


.  .  . 


i<jgs 


366 


FINE  ARTS 


[CLASSIFICATION 


Relation 
of  poetry 
a*  aa  Imi- 
tative art 
to  paint- 
Ing  and 
sculpture. 


appropriate  to  the  part.  The  last  of  these  three  forms  of  poetry, 
the  dramatic,  calls,  if  it  is  merely  read,  on  the  imagination  of  the 
reader  to  fill  up  those  circumstances  of  situation,  action  and  the  rest, 
which  in  the  first  or  epic  form  are  supplied  by  the  narrative  between 
the  speeches,  and  for  which  in  the  lyric  or  personal  form  there  is  no 
occasion.  To  avoid  making  this  call  upon  the  imagination,  to  bring 
home  its  effects  with  full  vividness,  dramatic  poetry  has  to  call  in 
the  aid  of  several  subordinate  arts,  the  shaping  or  space  art  of  the 
scene-painter,  the  mixed  time  and  space  arts  of  the  actor  and  the 
dancer.  Occasionally  also,  or  in  the  case  of  opera  throughout, 
dramatic  poetry  heightens  the  emotional  effect  of  its  words  with 
music.  A  play  or  drama  is  thus,  as  performed  upon  the  theatre, 
not  a  poem  merely,  but  a  poem  accompanied,  interpreted,  completed 
and  brought  several  degrees  nearer  to  reality  by  a  combination  of 
auxiliary  effects  of  the  other  arts.  Besides  the  narrative,  the  lyric 
and  dramatic  forms  of  poetry,  the  didactic,  that  is  the  teaching  or 
expository  form,  has  usually  been  recognized  as  a  fourth.  Aristotle 
refused  so  to  recognize  it,  regarding  a  didactic  poem  in  the  light 
not  so  much  of  a  poem  as  of  a  useful  treatise.  But  from  the  Works 
and  Days  down  to  the  Loves  of  the  Plants  there  has  been  too  much 
literature  produced  in  this  form  for  us  to  follow  Aristotle  here.  We 
shall  do  better  to  regard  didactic  poetry  as  a  variety  corresponding, 
among  the  speaking  arts,  to  architecture  and  the  other  manual 
arts  of  which  the  first  purpose  is  use,  but  which  are  capable  of 
accompanying  and  adorning  use  by  a  pleasurable  appeal  to  the 
emotions. 

We  shall  hardly  make  our  definition  of  poetry,  considered  as  an 
imitative  art,  too  extended  if  we  say  that  it  is  a  speaking  or  time  art, 
of  which  the  business  is  to  express  and  arouse  emotion  by 
Definition  imitating  or  evoking  all  or  any  of  the  phenomena  of  life  and 
of  poetry.  nature  by  means  of  words  arranged  with  musical  regularity. 
Neither  the  varieties  of  poetical  form,  however,  nor  the  modes  in 
which  the  several  forms  have  been  mixed  up  and  interchanged — as 
such  mixture  and  interchange  are  implied,  for  instance, 
by  the  very  title  of  a  group  of  Robert  Browning's  poems, 
the  Dramatic  Lyrics, — the  observation  of  neither  of  these 
things  concerns  us  here  so  much  as  the  observation  of  the 
relations  of  poetry  in  general,  as  an  art  of  representation 
or  imitation,  to  the  other  arts  of  imitation,  painting  and 
sculpture.  Verbal  signs  have  been  invented  for  in- 
numerable things  which  cannot  be  imitated  or  represented 
at  all  either  in  solid  form  or  upon  a  coloured  surface.  You  cannot 
carve  or  paint  a  sigh,  or  the  feeling  which  finds  utterance  in  a  sigh ; 
you  can  only  suggest  the  idea  of  the  feeling,  and  that  in  a  somewhat 
imperfect  and  uncertain  way,  by  representing  the  physical  aspect  of  a 
person  in  the  act  of  breathing  the  sigh.  Similarly  you  cannot  carve 
or  paint  any  movement,  but  only  figures  or  groups  in  which  the 
movement  is  represented  as  arrested  in  some  particular  point  of  time ; 
nor  any  abstract  idea,  but  only  figures  or  groups  in  which  the 
abstract  idea,  as  for  example  release,  captivity,  mercy,  is  symbolized 
in  the  concrete  shape  of  allegorical  or  illustrative  figures.  The  whole 
field  of  thought,  of  propositions,  arguments,  injunctions  and  ex- 
hortations is  open  to  poetry  but  closed  to  sculpture  and  painting. 
Poetry,  by  its  command  over  the  regions  of  the  understanding,  of 
abstraction,  of  the  movement  and  succession  of  things  in  time,  by 
its  power  of  instantaneously  associating  one  image  with  another 
from  the  remotest  regions  of  the  mind,  by  its  names  for  every  shade 
of  feeling  and  experience,  exercises  a  sovereignty  a  hundred  times 
more  extended  than  that  of  either  of  the  two  arts  of  manual  imitation. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  words  do  not  as  a  rule  bear  any  sensible 
resemblance  to  the  things  of  which  they  are  the  signs.  There  are  few 
things  that  words  do  not  stand  for  or  cannot  call  up ;  but  they  stand 
for  things  symbolically  and  at  second  hand,  and  call  them  up  only 
in  idea,  and  not  in  actual  presentment  to  the  senses.  In  strictness, 
the  business  of  poetry  should  not  be  called  imitation  at  all,  but  rather 
evocation.  The  strength  of  painting  and  sculpture  lies  in  this,  that 
though  there  are  countless  phenomena  which  they  cannot  represent 
at  all,  and  countless  more  which  they  can  only  represent  by  symbolism 
and  suggestion  more  or  less  ambiguous,  yet  there  are  a  few  which 
each  can  represent  more  fully  and  directly  than  poetry  can  represent 
any  thing  at  all.  These  are,  for  sculpture,  the  forms  or  configurations 
of  things,  which  that  art  represents  directly  to  the  senses  both  of 
sight  and  touch;  and  for  painting  the  forms  and  colours  of  things 
and  their  relations  to  each  other  in  space,  air  and  light,  which  the 
art  represents  to  the  sense  of  sight,  directly  so  far  as  regards  surface 
appearance,  and  indirectly  so  far  as  regards  solidity.  For  many 
delicate  qualities  and  differences  in  these  visible  relations  of  things 
there  are  no  words  at  all — the  vocabulary  of  colours,  for  instance, 
is  in  all  languages  surprisingly  scanty  and  primitive.  And  those 
visible  qualities  for  which  words  exist,  the  words  still  call  up  in- 
distinctly and  at  second  hand.  Poetry  is  almost  as  powerless  to 
bring  before  the  mind's  eye  with  precision  a  particular  shade  of  red 
or  blue,  a  particular  linear  arrangement  or  harmony  of  colour-tones, 
as  sculpture  is  to  relate  a  continuous  experience,  or  painting  to  en- 
force an  exhortation  or  embellish  an  abstract  proposition.  The 
wise  poet,  as  has  been  justly  remarked,  when  he  wants  to  produce  a 
vivid  impression  of  a  visible  thing,  does  not  attempt  to  catalogue  or 
describe  its  stationary  beauties.  Shakespeare,  when  he  wants  to 
make  us  realize  the  perfections  of  Perdita,  puts  into  the  mouth  of 
Florizel,  not,  as  a  bad  poet  would  have  done,  a  description  of  her 


Oeneral 


weans  and 


arts: 
sculpture. 


lilies  and  carnations,  and  the  other  charms  which  a  painter  could 
make  us  realize  better,  but  the  praises  of  her  ways  and  movements ; 
and  with  the  final  touch, 

"  When  you  do  dance,  I  wish  you 

A  wave  o'  the  sea,  that  you  might  ever  do 

Nothing  but  that," 

he  evokes  a  twofold  image  of  beauty  in  motion,  of  which  one  half 
might  be  the  despair  of  those  painters  who  designed  the  dancing 
maidens  of  the  walls  of  Herculaneum,  and  the  other  half  the  despair 
of  all  artists  who  in  modern  times,  have  tried  to  fix  upon  their  canvas, 
the  buoyancy  and  grace  of  dancing  waves.  In  representing  the 
perfections  of  form  in  a  bride's  slender  foot,  the  speaking  art,  poetry, 
would  find  itself  distanced  by  either  of  the  shaping  arts,  painting  or 
sculpture.  Suckling  calls  up  the  charm  of  such  a  foot  by  describing 
it  not  at  rest  but  in  motion,  and  in  the  feet  which 

"  Beneath  the  petticoat, 
Like  little  mice,  went  in  and  out," 

leaves  us  an  image  which  baffles  the  power  of  the  other  arts.  Keatsr 
when  he  tells  of  Madeline  unclasping  her  jewels  on  St  Agnes's  Eve, 
does  not  attempt  to  conjure  up  their  lustre  to  the  eye,  as  a  painter 
would  have  done,  and  a  less  poetical  poet  might  have  tried  to  do, 
but  in  the  words  "  her  warmed  jewels  "  evoked  instead  a  quality, 
breathing  of  the  very  life  of  the  wearer,  which  painting  could  not 
even  have  remotely  suggested. 

The  differences  between  the  means  and  capacities  of  representation 
proper  to  the  shaping  arts  of  sculpture  and  painting  and  those 
proper  to  the  speaking  art  of  poetry  were  for  a  long  while 
overlooked  or  misunderstood.  The  maxim  of  Simonides, 
that  poetry  is  a  kind  of  articulate  painting,  and  painting 
a  kind  of  mute  poetry,  was  vaguely  accepted  until  the 
days  of  Lessing,  and  first  overthrown  by  the  famous 
treatise  of  that  writer  on  the  Laocoon.  Following  in  the  ^J^jJ^  e 
main  the  lines  laid  down  by  Lessing,  other  writers  have  severai 
worked  out  the  conditions  of  representation  or  imitation  /n,/^,^/^ 
proper  not  only  to  sculpture  and  painting  as  distinguished 
from  poetry,  but  to  sculpture  as  distinguished  from 
painting.  The  chief  points  established  may  really  all  be 
condensed  under  one  simple  law,  that  the  more  direct  and  complete 
the  imitation  effected  by  any  art,  the  less  is  the  range  and  number  of 
phenomena  which  that  art  can  imitate.  Thus  sculpture  in  the  round 
imitates  its  objects  much  more  completely  and  directly  than  any  other 
single  art,  reproducing  one  whole  set  of  their  relations  which  no 
other  art  attempts  to  reproduce  at  all,  namely,  their  solid  relations 
in  space.  Precisely  for  this  reason,  such  sculpture  is  limited  to  a 
narrow  class  of  objects.  As  we  have  seen,  it  must  represent  human 
or  animal  figures ;  nothing  else  has  enough  either  of  universal  interest 
or  of  organic  beauty  and  perfection.  Sculpture  in  the  round  must 
represent  such  figures  standing  free  in  full  clearness  and  detachment, 
in  combinations  and  with  accessories  comparatively  simple,  on  pain 
of  teasing  the  eye  with  a  complexity  and  entanglement  of  masses  and 
lights  and  shadows;  and  in  attitudes  comparatively  quiet,  on  pain 
of  violating,  or  appearing  to  violate,  the  conditions  of  mechanical 
stability.  Being  a  stationary  or  space-art,  it  can  only  represent  a 
single  action,  which  it  fixes  and  perpetuates  for  ever;  and  it  must 
therefore  choose  for  that  action  one  as  significant  and  full  of  interest 
as  is  consistent  with  due  observation  of  the  above  laws  of  simplicity 
and  stability.  Such  actions,  and  the  facial  expressions  accompanying 
them,  should  not  be  those  of  sharp  crisis  or  transition,  because  sudden 
movement  or  flitting  expression,  thus  arrested  and  perpetuated  in 
full  and  solid  imitation  by  bronze  or  marble,  would  be  displeasing 
and  not  pleasing  to  the  spectator.  They  must  be  actions  and  ex- 
pressions in  some  degree  settled,  collected  and  capable  of  continuance, 
and  in  their  collectedness  must  at  the  same  time  suggest  to  the 
spectator  as  much  as  possible  of  the  circumstances  which  have  led 
up  to  them  and  those  which  will  next  ensue.  These  conditions  evi- 
dently bring  within  a  very  narrow  range  the  phenomena  with  which 
this  art  can  deal,  and  explain  why,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  greater 
number  of  statues  represent  simply  a  single  figure  in  repose,  with  the 
addition  of  one  or  two  symbolic  or  customary  attributes.  Paint  a 
statue  (as  the  greater  part  both  of  Greek  and  Gothic  statuary  was 
in  fact  painted),  and  you  bring  it  to  a  still  further  point  of  imitative 
completeness  to  the  eye;  but  you  do  not  thereby  lighten  the  restric- 
tions laid  upon  the  art  by  its  material,  so  long  as  it  undertakes  to 
reproduce  in  full  the  third  or  solid  dimension  of  bodies.  You  only 
begin  to  lighten  its  restrictions  when  you  begin  to  relieve  it  of  that 
duty.  We  have  traced  how  sculpture  in  relief,  which  is  satisfied 
with  only  a  partial  reproduction  of  the  third  dimension,  is  free  to 
introduce  a  larger  range  of  objects,  bringing  forward  secondary 
figures  and  accessories,  indicating  distant  planes,  indulging  even  in 
considerable  violence  and  complexity  of  motion,  since  limbs  attached 
to  a  background  do  not  alarm  the  spectator  by  any  idea  of  danger  of 
fragility.  But  sculpture  in  the  round  has  not  this  licence.  It  is  true 
that  the  art  has  at  various  periods  made  efforts  to  escape  from  its 
natural  limitations.  Several  of  the  later  schools  of  antiquity, 
especially  that  of  Pergamus  in  the  3rd  and  2nd  centuries  B.C.,  strove 
hard  both  for  violence  of  expression  and  complexity  of  design,  not 
only  in  relief-sculptures,  like  the  great  altar-friezes  now  at  Berlin, 
but  in  detached  groups,  such  as  (pace  Lessing)  the  Laocoon  itself. 
Many  modern  virtuosi  of  sculpture  since  Bernini  have  misspent  their 


CLASSIFICATION] 


FINE  ARTS 


367 


of  paint 
tag. 


skill  in  trying  to  fix  in  marble  both  the  restlessness  of  momentary 
actions  and  the  flimsiness  of  fluttering  tissues.  In  latter  days 
Auguste  Rodin,  an  innovating  master  with  a  real  genius  for  his  art, 
has  attacked  many  problems  of  complicated  grouping,  more  or  less 
in  the  nature  of  the  Greek  symplegmata,  but  keeps  these  interlocked 
or  contorted  actions  circumscribed  within  strict  limiting  lines,  so 
that  they  do  not  by  jutting  or  straggling  suggest  a  kind  of  acrobatic 
challenge  to  the  laws  of  gravity.  The  same  artist  and  others  inspired 
by  him  have  further  sought  to  emancipate  sculpture  from  the 
necessity  of  rendering  form  in  clear  and  complete  definition,  and  to 
enrich  it  with  a  new  power  of  mysterious  suggestion,  by  leaving  his 
figures  wrought  in  part  to  the  highast  finish  and  vitality  of  surface, 
while  other  parts  (according  to  a  precedent  set  in  some  unfinished 
works  of  Michelangelo)  remain  scarcely  emergent  from  the  rough- 
hewn  or  unhewn  block.  But  it  may  be  doubted  whether  such  ex- 
periments and  expedients  can  permanently  do  much  to  enlarge 
the  scope  of  the  art. 

Next  we  arrive  at  painting,  in  which  the  third  dimension  is  dis- 
missed altogether,  and  nothing  is  actually  reproduced,  in  full  or 
partially,  except  the  effect  made  by  the  appearance  of 
"«/  natural  objects  upon  the  retina  of  the  eye.  The  conse- 
'  quence  is  that  this  art  can  range  over  distance  and 
multitude,  can  represent  complicated  relations  between  its 
various  figures  and  groups  of  figures,  extensive  back- 
grounds, and  all  those  infinite  subtleties  of  appearance  in  natural 
things  which  depend  upon  local  colours  and  their  modification  in 
the  play  of  light  and  shade  and  enveloping  atmosphere.  These  last 
phenomena  of  natural  things  are  in  our  experience  subject  to  change 
in  a  sense  in  which  the  substantial  or  solid  properties  of  things  are 
not  so  subject.  Colours,  shadows  and  atmospheric  effects  are 
naturally  associated  with  ideas  of  transition,  mystery  and  evanes- 
cence. Hence  painting  is  able  to  extend  its  range  to  .another  kind 
of  facts  over  which  sculpture  has  no  power.  It  can  suggest  and 
perpetuate  in  its  imitation,  without  breach  of  its  true  laws,  many 
classes  of  facts  which  are  themselves  fugitive  and  transitory,  as  a 
smile,  the  glance  of  an  eye,  a  gesture  of  horror  or  of  passion,  the 
waving  of  hair  in  the  wind,  the  rush  of  horses,  the  strife  of  mobs, 
the  whole  drama  of  the  clouds,  the  toss  and  gathering  of  ocean  waves, 
even  the  flashing  of  lightning  across  the  sky.  Still,  any  long  or 
continuous  series  of  changes,  actions  or  movements  is  quite  beyond 
the  means  of  this  art  to  represent.  Painting  remains,  in  spite  of  its 
comparative  width  of  range,  tied  down  to  the  inevitable  conditions 
of  a  space-art :  that  is  to  say,  it  has  to  delight  the  mind  by  a  har- 
monious variety  in  its  effects,  but  by  a  variety  apprehended  not 
through  various  points  of  time  successively,  but  from  various  points 
in  space  at  the  same  moment.  The  old  convention  which  allowed 
painters  to  indicate  sequence  in  time  by  means  of  distribution  in 
space,  dispersing  the  successive  episodes  of  a  story  about  the  different 
parts  of  a  single  picture,  has  been  abandoned  since  the  early  Renais- 
sance; and  Wordsworth  sums  up  our  modern  view  of  the  matter 
when  he  says  that  it  is  the  business  of  painting 

"  to  give 

To  one  blest  moment  snatched  from  fleeting  time 
The  appropriate  calm  of  blest  eternity." 

Lastly,  a  really  unfettered  range  is  only  attained  by  the  art  which 
does  not  give  a  full  and  complete  reproduction  of  any  natural  fact 

at  all,  but  evokes  or  brings  natural  facts  before  the  mind 
Means  ana  mereiy  j,y  tne  ;mages  which  words  convey.  The  whole 
capacities  wori(j  of  movement,  of  continuity,  of  cause  and  effect, 
of  poetry.  QJ  tke  success;onS)  alternations  and  interaction  of  events, 
characters  and  passions  of  everything  that  takes  time  to  happen  and 
time  to  declare,  is  open  to  poetry  as  it  is  open  to  no  other  art.  As 
an  imitative  or,  more  properly  speaking,  an  evocative  art,  then, 
poetry  is  subject  to  no  limitations  except  those  which  spring  from 
the  poverty  of  human  language,  and  from  the  fact  that  its  means  of 
imitation  are  indirect.  Poetry's  account  of  the  visible  properties  of 
things  is  from  these  causes  much  less  full,  accurate  and  efficient  than 
the  reproduction  or  delineation  of  the  same  properties  by  sculpture 
and  painting.  And  this  is  the  sum  of  the  conditions  concerning  the 
respective  functions  of  the  three  arts  of  imitation  which  had  been 
overlooked,  in  theory  at  least,  until  the  time  of  Lessing. 

To  the  above  law,  in  the  form  in  which  we  have  expressed  it, 
it  may  perhaps  be  objected  that  the  acted  drama  is  at  once  the  most 

full  and  complete  reproduction  of  nature  which  we  owe 

he  acted    to  ^  fine  arts  ancj  ^1  at  the  same  time  the  number  of 

drama  no     factg  over  wn;ch   its  imitation  ranges  is  the   greatest. 

..         The  answer  is  that  our  law  applies  to  the  several  arts 

JfJJJr         only  >n  tnat  which  we  may  call  their  pure  or  unmixed 

-•        state.     Dramatic  poetry  is  in  that  state  only  when  it  is 

k™  read  or  spoken  like  any  other  kind  of  verse.    When  it  is 

witnessed  on  the  stage,  it  is  in  a  mixed  or  impure  state; 
the  art  of  the  actor  has  been  called  in  to  give  actual  reproduction 
to  the  gestures  and  utterances  of  the  personages,  that  of  the  costumier 
to  their  appearances  and  attire,  that  of  the  stage-decorator  to  their 
furniture  and  surroundings,  that  of  the  scene-painter  to  imitate  to 
the  eye  the  dwelling-places  and  landscapes  among  which  they 
move;  and  only  by  the  combination  of  all  these  subordinate  arts 
does  the  drama  gain  its  character  of  imitative  completeness  or 
reality. 


shadowed 
forth  by 
imitation 
of  things 
known. 


Imitation 
by  art 
neces- 
sarily an 
Idealized 
Imitation. 


Throughout  the  above  account  of  the  imitative  and  non-imitative 
groups  of  fine  arts,  we  have  so  far  followed  Aristotle  as  to  allow  the 
name  of  imitation  to  all  recognizable  representation  or 
evocation  of  realities, — using  the  word  "  realities  "  in  no  Thl''Ss 
metaphysical  sense,  but  to  signify  the  myriad  phenomena  * 
of  life  and  experience,  whether  as  they  actually  and 
literally  exist  to-day,  or  as  they  may  have  existed  in  the 
past,  or  may  be  conceived  to  exist  in  some  other  world 
not  too  unlike  our  own  for  us  to  conceive  and  realize  in 
thought.  When  we  find  among  the  ruins  of  a  Greek 
temple  the  statue  of  a  beautiful  young  man  at  rest,  or  above 
the  altar  of  a  Christian  church  the  painting  of  one  transfixed 
with  arrows,  we  know  that  the  statue  is  intended  to  bring  to  our 
minds  no  mortal  youth,  but  the  god  Hermes  or  Apollo,  the  trans- 
fixed victim  no  simple  captive,  but  Sebastian  the  holy  saint.  At 
the  same  time  we  none  the  less  know  that  the  figures  in  either 
case  have  been  studied  by  the  artist  from  living  models  before  his 
eyes.  In  like  manner,  in  all  the  representations  alike  of  sculpture, 
painting  and  poetry  the  things  and  persons  represented  may  bear 
symbolic  meanings  and  imaginary  names  and  characters;  they  may 
be  set  in  a  land  of  dreams,  and  grouped  in  relations  and  circumstances 
upon  which  the  sun  of  this  world  never  shone;  in  point  of  fact, 
through  many  ages  of  history  they  have  been  chiefly  used  to  embody 
human  ideas  of  supernatural  powers;  but  it  is  from  real  things 
and  persons  that  their  lineaments  and  characters  have  been  taken 
in  the  first  instance,  in  order  to  be  attributed  by  the  imagination  to 
another  and  more  exalted  order  of  existences. 

The  law  which  we  have  last  laid  down  is  a  law  defining  the  relations 
of  sculpture,  painting  and  poetry,  considered  simply  as  arts  having 
their  foundations  at  any  rate  in  reality,  and  drawing  from 
the  imitation  of  reality  their  indispensable  elements  and 
materials.  It  is  a  law  defining  the  range  and  character 
of  those  elements  or  materials  in  nature  which  each  art  is 
best  fitted,  by  its  special  means  and  resources,  to  imitate. 
But  we  must  remember  that,  even  in  this  fundamental 
part  of  its  operations,  none  of  these  arts  proceeds  by 
imitation  or  evocation  pure  and  simple.  None  of  them  con- 
tents itself  with  seeking  to  represent  realities,  however  literally 
taken,  exactly  as  those  realities  are.  A  portrait  in  sculpture  or 
painting,  a  landscape  in  painting,  a  passage  of  local  description  in 
poetry,  may  be  representations  of  known  things  taken  literally  or 
for  their  own  sakes,  and  not  for  the  sake  of  carrying  out  thoughts 
to  the  unknown ;  but  none  of  them  ought  to  be,  or  indeed  can  possibly 
be,  a  representation  of  all  the  observed  parts  and  details  of  such  a 
reality  on  equal  terms  and  without  omissions.  Such  a  representation, 
were  it  possible,  would  be  a  mechanical  inventory  and  not  a  work  of 
fine  art. 

Hence  the  value  of  a  pictorial  imitation  is  by  no  means  necessarily 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  facts  which  it  records.  Many  accom- 
plished pictures,  in  which  all  the  resources  of  line,  colour 
and  light-and-shade  have  been  used  to  the  utmost  of  ComPlete- 
the  artist's  power  for  the  imitation  of  all  that  he  could  see  ' 
in  nature,  are  dead  and  worthless  in  comparison  with  a 
few  faintly  touched  outlines  or  lightly  laid  shadows  or 
tints  of  another  artist  who  could  see  nature  more  vitally 
and  better.  Unless  the  painter  knows  how  to  choose  and 
combine  the  elements  of  his  finished  work  so  that  it 
shall  contain  in  every  part  suggestions  and  delights  over  and 
above  the  mere  imitation,  it  will  fall  short,  in  that  which 
is  the  essential  charm  of  fine  art,  not  only  of  any  scrap 
of  a  great  master's  handiwork,  such  as  an  outline  sketch  of 
a  child  by  Raphael  or  a  colour  sketch  of  a  boat  or  a  mackerel  by 
Turner,  but  even  of  any  scrap  of  the  merest  journeyman's  handiwork 
produced  by  an  artistic  race,  such  as  the  first  Japanese  drawing  in 
which  a  water-flag  and  kingfisher,  or  a  spray  of  peach  or  almond 
blossom  across  the  sky,  is  dashed  in  with  a  mere  hint  of  colour, 
but  a  hint  that  tells  a  whole  tale  to  the  imagination.  That  only,  we 
know,  is  fine  art  which  affords  keen  and  permanent  delight  to  con- 
templation. Such  delight  the  artist  can  never  communicate  by  the 
display  of  a  callous  and  pedantic  impartiality  in  presence  of  the 
facts  of  life  and  nature.  His  representation  of  realities  will  only 
strike  or  impress  others  in  so  far  as  it  concentrates  their  attention  on 
things  by  which  he  has  been  struck  and  impressed  himself.  To 
arouse  emotion,  he  must  have  felt  emotion ;  and  emotion  is  impos- 
sible without  partiality.  The  artist  is  one  who  instinctively  tends  to 
modify  and  work  upon  every  reality  before  him  in  conformity  with 
some  poignant  and  sensitive  principle  of  preference  or  selection  in  his 
mind.  He  instinctively  adds  something  to  nature  in  one  direction 
and  takes  away  something  in  another,  overlooking  this  kind  of  fact 
and  insisting  on  that,  suppressing  many  particulars  which  he  holds 
irrelevant  in  order  to  insist  on  and  bring  into  prominence  others  by 
which  he  is  attracted  and  arrested. 

The  instinct  by  which  an  artist  thus  prefers,  selects  and  brings  into 
light  one  order  of  facts  or  aspects  in  the  thing  before  him  rather 
than  the  rest,  is  part  of  what  is  called  the  idealizing  or  ideal 
faculty.  Interminable  discussion  has  been  spent  on  the 
questions, — What  is  the  ideal,  and  how  do  we  idealize? 
The  answer  has  been  given  in  one  form  by  those  thinkers 
(e.g.  Vischer  and  Lotze)  who  have  pointed  out  that  the 
process  of  aesthetic  idealization  carried  on  by  the  artist  is  only  the 


ness  not 
the  test 
of  value 
in  a 

pictorial 
imitation. 


Nature 

%~  „  , 

"  "x 
p 


368 


FINE  ARTS 


[CLASSIFICATION 


Subjec- 
tive and 
objective 
ideals. 


higher  development  of  a  process  carried  on  in  an  elementary  fashion 
by  all  men,  from  the  very  nature  of  their  constitution.  The  physical 
organs  of  sense  themselves  do  not  retain  or  put  on  record  all  the 
impressions  made  upon  them.  When  the  nerves  of  the  eye  receive 
a  multitude  of  different  stimulations  at  once  from  different  points  in 
space,  the  sense  of  eyesight,  instead  of  being  aware  of  all  these 
stimulations  singly,  only  abstracts  and  retains  a  total  impression 
of  them  together.  In  like  manner  we  are  not  made  aware  by  the 
sense  of  hearing  of  all  the  several  waves  of  sound  that  strike  in  a 
momentary  succession  upon  the  nerves  of  the  ear;  that  sense  only 
abstracts  and  retains  a  total  impression  from  the  combined  effect 
of  a  number  of  such  waves.  And  the  office  which  each  sense  thus 
performs  singly  for  its  own  impressions,  the  mind  performs  in  a 
higher  degree  for  the  impressions  of  all  the  senses  equally,  and  for 
all  the  other  parts  of  our  experience.  We  are  always  dismissing  or 
neglecting  a  great  part  of  our  impressions,  and  abstracting  and 
combining  among  those  which  we  retain.  The  ordinary  human 
consciousness  works  like  an  artist  up  to  this  point;  and  when  we 
speak  of  the  ordinary  or  inartistic  man  as  being  impartial  in  the 
retention  or  registry  of  his  daily  impressions,  we  mean,  of  course, 
in  the  retention  or  registry  of  his  impressions  as  already  thus  far 
abstracted  and  assorted  in  consciousness.  The  artistic  man,  whose 
impressions  affect  him  much  more  strongly,  has  the  faculty  of 
carrying  much  farther  these  same  processes  of  abstraction,  com- 
bination and  selection  among  his  impressions. 

The  possession  of  this  faculty  is  the  artist's  most  essential  gift. 
To  attempt  to  carry  farther  the  psychological  analysis  of  the  gift  is 
outside  our  present  object ;  but  it  is  worth  while  to  con- 
sider somewhat  closely  its  modes  of  practical  operation. 
One  mode  is  this :  the  artist  grows  up  with  certain  innate 
or  acquired  predilections  which  become  a  part  of  his 
constitution  whether  he  will  or  no, — predilections,  say, 
if  he  is  a  dramatic  poet,  for  certain  types  of  plot,  character  and 
situation;  if  he  is  a  sculptor,  for  certain  proportions  and  a  certain 
habitual  carriage  and  disposition  of  the  limbs;  if  he  is  a  figure 
painter,  for  certain  schemes  of  composition  and  moulds  of  figure 
and  airs  and  expressions  of  countenance;  if  a  landscape  painter, 
for  a  certain  class  of  local  character,  sentiment  and  pictorial  effect  in 
natural  scenery.  To  such  predilections  he  cannot  choose  but  make 
his  representations  of  reality  in  large  measure  conform.  This  is  one 
part  of  the  transmuting  process  which  the  data  of  life  and  experience 
have  to  undergo  at  the  hands  of  artists,  and  may  be  called  the 
subjective  or  purely  personal  mode  of  idealization.  But  there  is 
another  part  of  that  work  which  springs  from  an  impulse  in  the 
artistic  constitution  not  less  imperious  than  the  last  named,  and  in  a 
certain  sense  contrary  to  it.  As  an  imitator  or  evoker  of  the  facts 
of  life  and  nature,  >.he  artist  must  recognize  and  accept  the  character 
of  those  facts  with  which  he  has  in  any  given  case  to  deal.  All  facts 
cannot  be  of  the  cast  he  prefers,  and  in  so  far  as  he  undertakes  to 
deal  with  those  of  an  opposite  cast  he  must  submit  to  them;  he 
must  study  them  as  they  actually  are,  must  apprehend,  enforce  and 
bring  into  prominence  their  own  dominant  tendencies.  If  he  cannot 
find  in  them  what  is  most  pleasing  to  himself,  he  will  still  be  led 
by  the  abstracting  and  discriminating  powers  of  his  observation  to 
discern  what  is  most  expressive  and  significant  in  them,  he  will 
emphasize  and  put  on  record  this,  idealizing  the  facts  before  him  not 
in  his  direction  but  in  their  own.  This  is  the  second  or  objective 
half  of  the  artist's  task  of  idealization.  It  is  this  half  upon  which 
Taine  dwelt  almost  exclusively,  and  on  the  whole  with  a  just  insight 
into  the  principles  of  the  operation,  in  his  well-known  treatise  On 
the  Ideal  in  Art,  Both  these  modes  of  idealization  are  legitimate; 
that  which  springs  from  inborn  and  overmastering  personal  preference 
in  the  artist  for  particular  aspects  of  life  and  nature,  and  that  which 
springs  from  his  insight  into  the  dominant  and  significant  character 
of  the  phenomena  actually  before  him,  and  his  desire  to  emphasize 
and  disengage  them.  But  there  is  a  third  mode  of  idealizing  which 
is  less  vital  and  genuine  than  either  of  these,  and  therefore  less 
legitimate,  though  unfortunately  far  more  common.  This  mode 
consists  in  making  things  conform  to  a  borrowed  and  conventional 
standard  of  beauty  and  taste,  which  corresponds  neither  to  any 
strong  inward  predilection  of  the  artist  nor  to  any  vital  characteristic 
in  the  objects  of  his  representation.  Since  the  rediscovery  of  Greek 
and  Roman  sculpture  in  the  Renaissance,  a  great  part  of  the  efforts 
of  artists  have  been  spent  in  falsifying  their  natural  instincts  and 
misrepresenting  the  facts  of  nature  in  pursuit  of  a  conventional  ideal 
of  abstract  and  generalized  beauty  framed  on  a  false  conception 
and  a  shallow  knowledge  of  the  antique.  School  after  school  from 
the  i6th  century  downwards  has  been  confirmed  in  this  practice  by 
academic  criticism  and  theory,  with  resulting  insipidities  and  in- 
sincerities of  performance  which  have  commonly  been  acclaimed  in 
their  day,  but  from  which  later  generations  have  sooner  or  later 
turned  away  with  a  wholesome  reaction  of  distaste. 

The  two  genuine  modes  of  idealization,  the  subjective  land  the 
objective,  are  not  always  easy  to  be  reconciled.  The  greatest  artist 
is  no  doubt  he  who  can  combine  the  strongest  personal  instincts 
of  preference  with  the  keenest  power  of  observing  characteristics  as 
they  are.  yet  in  fact  we  find  few  in  whom  both  these  elements  of  the 
ideal  faculty  have  been  equally  developed.  To  take  an  example 
among  Florentine  painters,  Sandro  Botticelli  is  usually  thought  of  as 
one  who  could  never  escape  from  the  dictation  of  his  own  personal 


ideals,  in  obedience  to  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  invested  all  the 
creations  of  his  art  with  nearly  the  same  conformation  of  brows, 
lips,  cheeks  and  chin,  nearly  the  same  looks  of  wistful 
yearning  and  dejection.  There  is  some  truth  in  this  Examples 
impression,  though  it  is  largely  based  on  the  works  not  of  °'"la 
the  master  himself,  but  of  pupils  who  exaggerated  his  two. 
mannerisms.  Leonardo  da  Vinci  was  strong  in  both  m°^saaa 
directions;  haunted  in  much  of  his  work  by  a  particular  otlKelr 
human  ideal  of  intellectual  sweetness  and  alluring  J^J 
mystery,  he  has  yet  left  us  a  vast  number  of  exercises 
which  show  him  as  an  indefatigable  student  of  objective  character- 
istics and  psychological  expressions  of  an  order  the  most  opposed  to 
this.  And  in  this  case  again  followers  have  over-emphasized  the 
master's  predilections,  Luini,  Sodoma  and  the  rest  borrowing  and 
repeating  the  mysterious  smile  of  Leonardo  till  it  becomes  in  their 
work  an  affectation  cloying  however  lovely.  Among  latter-day 
painters,  Burne-Jones  will  occur  to  every  reader  as  the  type  of  an 
artist  always  haunted  and  dominated  by  ideals  of  an  intensely 
personal  cast  partly  engendered  in  his  imagination  by  sympathy 
with  the  early  Florentines.  If  we  seek  for  examples  of  the  opposite 
principle,  of  that  idealism  which  idealizes  above  all  things  objectively, 
and  seeks  to  disengage  the  very  inmost  and  individual  characters 
of  the  thing  or  person  before  it,  we  think  naturally  of  certain  great 
masters  of  the  northern  schools,  as  Diirer,  Holbein  and  Rembrandt. 
Diirer's  endeavour  to  express  such  characters  by  the  most  searching 
intensity  of  linear  definition  was,  however,  hampered  and  conditioned 
by  his  inherited  national  and  Gothic  predilection  for  the  strained  in 
gesture  and  the  knotted  and  the  gnarled  in  structure,  against  which 
his  deliberate  scholarly  ambition  to  establish  a  canon  of  ideal 
proportion  contended  for  the  most  part  in  vain.  And  Rembrandt's 
profound  spiritual  insight  into  human  character  and  personality 
did  not  prevent  him  from  plunging  his  subjects,  ever  deeper  and 
deeper  as  his  life  advanced,  into  a  mysterious  shadow-world  of  his 
own  imagination,  whereall  local  colours  were  brokenupand  crumbled, 
and  where  amid  the  struggle  of  gloom  and  gleam  he  could  make  his 
intensely  individualized  men  and  women  breathe  more  livingly  than 
in  plain  human  daylight. 

It  is  by  the  second  mode  of  operation  chiefly,  that  is  by  imagina- 
tively discerning,  disengaging  and  forcing  into   prominence   their 
inherent  significance,  that  the  idealizing  faculty  brings 
into  the  sphere  of  fine  art  deformities  and  degeneracies    Car'ca<«"* 
to  which  the  name  beautiful  or  sublime  can  by  no  stretch    aaa  *** 
of  usage  be  applied.     Hence  arise  creations  like  the  Stryge   f°tes1ae 
of  Notre-  Dame  and  a  thousand  other  grotesques  of  Gothic    "*  modes 
architectural  carving.    Hence,  although  on  a  lower  plane    °.    f 
and  interpreted  with  a  less  transmuting  intensity  of  in-       ea  ' 
sight    and    emphasis,    the    snarling    or    jovial    grossness    of    the 
peasants  of  Adrian  Brauwer  and  the  best  of  his  Dutch  compeers. 
Hence  Shakespeare's  Caliban  and  figures  like  those  of  Quilp  and 
Quasimodo  in  the  romances  of  Dickens  and  Hugo;  hence  the  cynic 
grimness  of  Goya's  Caprices  and  the  profound  and  bitter  impres- 
siveness  of   Daumier's  caricatures  of   Parisian   bourgeois  life;   or 
again,  in  an  angrier  and  more  insulting  and  therefore  less  under- 
standing temper,  the  brutal  energy  of  the  political  drawings  of 
Gilray. 

Sculpture,  painting  and  poetry,  then,  are  among  the  greater  fine 
arts  those  which  express  and  arouse  emotion  by  imitating  or  evoking 
real  and  known  things,  either  for  their  own  sakes  literally, 
or  for  the  sake  of  shadowing  forth  things  not  known  but     ' 
imagined.     In  either  case  they  represent  their  originals,      "'  , 
not  indiscriminately  as  they  are,  but  sifted,  simplified,     fia°^ 
enforced  and  enhanced  to  our  apprehensions  partly  by 
the    artist's    power   of    making    things   conform    to    his   own    in- 
stincts and  preferences,  partly  by  his  other  power  of  interpreting 
and  emphasizing  the  significant  characters  of  the  facts  before  him. 
Any  imitation  that  does  not  do  one  or  other  or  both  of  these  things 
in  full  measure  fails  in  the  quality  of  emotional  expression  and 
emotional  appeal,  and  in  so  failing  falls  short,  taken  merely  as 
imitation,  of  the  standard  of  fine  art. 

But  we  must  remember  that  idealized  imitation,  as  such,  is  not  the 
whole  task  of  these  arts  nor  their  only  means  of  appeal.  There  is 
another  part  of  their  task,  logically  though  not  practically 
independent  of  the  relations  borne  by  their  imitations  f 
to  the  original  phenomena  of  nature,  and  dependent  on  °  e 
the  appeal  made  through  the  eye  and  ear  to  our  primal  £  ™ 
organic  sensibilities  by  the  properties  of  rhythm,  pattern 
and  regulated  design  in  the  arrangement  of  sounds,  lines,  non 
masses,  colours  and  light-and-shade.  That  appeal  we  /„, 
noted  as  lying  at  the  root  of  the  art  impulse  in  its  most  eiemeats. 
elementary  stage.  In  its  most  developed  stage  every 
fine  art  is  bound  still  to  play  upon  the  same  sensibilities. 
In  a  work  of  sculpture  the  contours  and  interchanges  of 
light  and  shadow  are  bound  to  be  such  as  would  please  the  eye, 
whether  the  statue  or  relief  represented  the  figure  of  anything  real 
in  the  world  or  not.  The  flow  and  balance  of  line,  and  the  distribution 
of  colours  and  light-and-shade,  in  a  picture  are  bound  to  be  such  as 
would  make  an  agreeable  pattern  although  they  bore  no  resemblance 
to  natural  fact  (as,  indeed,  many  subordinate  applications  of  this 
art,  in  decorative  painting  and  geometrical  and  other  ornaments, 
do,  we  know,  give  pleasure  though  they  represent  nothing).  The 


CLASSIFICATION] 


FINE  ARTS 


369 


Necessity 
of  due 
balance 
between 


nlque: 
the  nan- 
imitative 
arts  and 
their 
technique. 


sound  of  a  line  or  verse  in  poetry  is  bound  to  be  such  as  would  thrill 
the  physical  ear  in  hearing,  or  the  mental  ear  in  reading,  with  a 
delightful  excitement  even  though  the  meaning  went  for  nothing. 
If  the  imitative  arts  are  to  touch  and  elevate  the  emotions,  if  they 
are  to  afford  permanent  delight  of  the  due  pitch  and  volume,  it  is 
not  a  more  essential  law  that  their  imitation,  merely  as  such,  should 
be  of  the  order  which  we  have  denned  as  ideal,  than  that  they  should 
at  the  same  time  exhibit  these  independent  effects  which  they  share 
with  the  non-imitative  group. 

So  far  we  have  assumed,  without  asserting,  the  necessity  that 
the  artist  in  whatever  kind  should  possess  a  power  of  execution, 
or  technique  as  it  is  called  in  modern  phrase,  adequate 
to  the  task  of  embodying  and  giving  shape  to  his  ideals. 
In  thought  it  is  possible  to  separate  the  conception  of  a 
work  of  art  from  its  execution;  in  practice  it  is  not 
possible,  and  half  the  errors  in  criticism  and  speculation 
about  the  fine  arts  spring  from  failing  to  realize  that  an 
artistic  conception  can  only  be  brought  home  to  us  through 
and  by  its  appropriate  embodiment.  Whatever  the  artist's 
cast  of  imagination  or  degree  of  sensibility  may  be  in 
presence  of  the  materials  of  life,  it  is  essential  that  he 
should  be  able  to  express  himself  appropriately  in  the 
material  of  his  particular  art.  To  quote  the  writer 
(R.  A.  M.  Stevenson)  who  has  enforced  this  point  most 
clearly  and  vividly,  perhaps  with  some  pardonable  measure 
of  over-statement:  "  It  is  a  sensitiveness  to  the  special  qualities 
of  some  visible  or  audible  medium  of  art  which  distinguishes  the 
species  artist  from  the  genus  man."  And  again:"  There  are  as  many 
separate  faculties  of  imagination  as  there  are  separate  mediums  in 
which  to  conceive  an  image — clay,  words,  paint,  notes  of  music." 
..."  Technique  differs  as  the  material  of  each  art  differs — differs 
as  marble,  pigments,  musical  notes  and  words  differ."  The  artist 
who  does  not  enjoy  and  has  not  with  delighted  labour  mastered 
the  effects  of  his  own  chosen  medium  will  never  be  a  master;  the 
hearer,  reader  or  spectator  who  cannot  appreciate  the  qualities  of 
skill,  vitality  and  charm  in  the  handling  of  the  given  material,  or 
who  fails  to  feel  their  absence  when  they  are  lacking,  or  who  looks 
in  one  material  primarily  for  the  qualities  appropriate  to  another, 
will  never  make  a  critic.  The  technique  of  the  space-arts  differs 
radically  from  that  of  the  time-arts.  So  again  do  those  of  the  imita- 
tive and  the  non-imitative  arts  differ  among  themselves.  The  non- 
imitative  arts  of  music  and  architecture  are  in  a  certain  degree 
alike  in  this,  that  the  artist  is  in  neither  case  his  own  executant 
(this  at  least  is  true  of  music  so  far  as  concerns  its  modern  con- 
certed and  orchestral  developments) ;  the  musical  composer  and  the 
architect  each  imagines  and  composes  a  design  in  the  medium  of 
his  own  art  which  it  is  left  for  others  to  carry  out  under  his  direction. 
The  technique  in  each  case  consists  not  in  mastery  of  an  instrument 
(though  the  musical  composer  may  be,  and  often  is,  a  master  of 
some  one  of  the  instruments  whose  effects  he  in  his  mind's  ear 
co-ordinates  and  combines);  it  lies  in  the  power  of  knowing  and 
conjuring  up  all  the  emotional  resources  and  effects  of  the  various 
materials  at  his  command,  and  of  conceiving  and  designing  to  their 
last  detail  vast  and  ordered  structures,  to  be  raised  by  subordinate 
executants  from  those  materials,  which  shall  adequately  express  his 
temperament  and  embody  his  ideals. 

In  the  imitative  arts,  on  the  other  hand,  the  sculptor,  unless  he 
is  a  fraud,  must  be  wholly  his  own  executant  in  the  original  task 
°f  modelling  his  design  in  the  soft  material  of  clay  or 
11"a"  wax,  though  he  must  accept  the  aid  of  assistants  whether 
"Vrfffc*f  '"  tne  cast'ng  °f  hig  worl<  m  bronze  or  in  first  roughing 
it  out  from  the  block  in  marble.  Too  many  sculptors 
'  have  been  inclined  further  to  trust  to  trained  mechanical 
!nd iscflo  helP  in  finishing  their  work  with  the  chisel;  with  the 
ture  p~  result  that  the  surface  loses  the  touch  which  is  the  ex- 
pression of  personal  temperament  and  personal  feeling 
for  the  relations  of  his  material  to  nature.  The  artist  in 
love  with  the  vital  qualities  of  form,  or  those  of  his  own 
handiwork  in  expressing  such  qualities  in  modelling-clay,  will 
never  stop  until  he  learns  how  to  translate  them  for  himself  in 
marble.  Proceeding  to  that  imitative  art  which  leaves  out  the  third 
dimension  of  nature,  and  by  so  doing  enormously  increases  the  range 
of  objects  and  effects  which  come  within  its  power— proceeding  to 
the  art  of  painting,  the  painter  is  in  theory  exclusively  his  own 
executant,  and  in  practice  mainly  so,  though  in  certain  schools  and 
periods  the  great  artists  have  been  accustomed  to  surround  themselves 
with  pupils  to  whom  they  have  imparted  their  methods  and  who 
have  helped  them  ii  i  the  subordinate  and  preparatory  parts  of  their 
work.  But  the  painter  fit  to  teach  and  lead  can  by  no  means  escape 
the  necessity  of  being  himself  a  master  of  his  material,  and  his 
handling  of  it  must  needs  bear  the  immediate  impress  of  his  tempera- 
ment. His  emotional  preferences  among  the  visible  facts  of  nature, 
his  feeling  for  the  relative  importance  and  charm  of  line,  colour, 
light  and  shade,  used  whether  for  the  interpretation  and  heightening 
of  natural  fact  or  for  producing  a  pattern  in  itself  harmonious  and 
suggestive  to  the  eye,  his  sense  of  the  special  modes  of  handling  most 
effective  for  communicating  the  impression  he  desires,  all  these 
together  inevitably  appear  in,  and  constitute,  his  style  and  technique. 
If  he  is  careless  or  inexpert  or  conventional,  or  cold  or  without  delight, 
in  technique,  though  he  may  be  animated  by  the  noblest  purposes 


and  the  loftiest  ideas,  he  is  a  failure  as  a  painter.  At  certain  periods 
in  the  history  of  painting,  as  in  the  I3th  and  I4th  centuries  in  Italy, 
the  technique  seems  indeed  to  modern  eyes  wholly  immature; 
but  that  was  because  there  were  many  aspects  of  visible  things  which 
the  art  had  not  yet  attempted  or  desired  to  portray,  not  because  it 
did  not  put  forth  with  delight  its  best  traditional  or  newly  acquired 
skill  in  portraying  the  special  aspects  with  which  it  had  so  far 
attempted  to  grapple.  At  certain  other  periods,  as  in  the  later 
l6th  and  1 7th  centuries  in  the  same  country,  the  elements  of  inherited 
technical  facility  and  academic  pride  of  skill  outweigh  the  sincerity 
and  freshness  of  interest  taken  in  the  aspects  of  things  to  be  portrayed, 
and  the  true  balance  is  lost.  At  other  times,  as  in  much  of  the  work 
of  the  igth  century,  especially  in  England,  painters  have  been 
diverted  from  their  true  task,  and  lost  hold  of  intelligent  and  living 
technique  altogether,  in  trying  to  please  a  public  blind  to  the  special 
qualities  of  their  art,  and  prone  to  seek  in  it  the  effects,  frivolous  or 
serious,  which  are  appropriate  not  to  paint  and  canvas  but  to 
literature. 

Lastly,  the  poet  and  literary  artist  must  obviously  be  the  exclusive 
master  of  his  own  technique.    No  one  can  help  him :  all  depends  on 
the  keenness  of  his  double  sensibility  to  the  thrill  of  life    _    .. 
and  to  that  of  words,  and  to  his  power  of  maintaining  a    .  £ 
just  balance  between  the  two.    If  he  is  truly  and  organic-    Jjf>jjfa''fc 

ally  sensitive  to  words  alone,  and  has  learnt  life  only      , 

i  «       i     •  i  •  •         Je    of  w  arils, 

through  their  medium  and  not  through  the  energies  of 

his  own  imagination,  nor  through  personal  sensibility  to  the  impact 
of  things  and  thoughts  and  passions  and  experience,  then  his  work 
may  be  a  miracle  of  accomplished  verbal  music,  and  may  entrance 
the  ear  for  the  moment,  but  will  never  live  to  illuminate  and  sustain 
and  console.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  has  imagination  and  sensibility 
in  full  measure,  and  lacks  the  inborn  love  of  and  gift  for  words 
and  their  magic,  he  will  be  but  a  dumb  or  stammering  poet  all  his 
days.  There  is  no  better  witness  on  this  point  than  Wordsworth. 
His  own  prolonged  lapses  from  verbal  felicity,  and  continual  habit 
of  solemn  meditation  on  themes  not  always  inspiring,  might  make  us 
hesitate  to  choose  him  as  an  example  of  that  particular  love  and  gift. 
But  Wordsworth  could  never  have  risen  to  his  best  and  greatest  self 
had  he  not  truly  possessed  the  sensibilities  which  he  attributes  to 
himself  in  the  Prelude : 

"  Twice  five  years 

Or  less  I  might  have  seen,  when  first  my  mind 
With  conscious  pleasure  opened  to  the  charm 
Of  words  in  tuneful  order,  found  them  sweet 
For  their  own  sakes,  a  passion,  and  a  power; 
And  phrases  pleased  me  chosen  for  delight, 
For  pomp,  or  love." 

And  again,  expressing  better  than  any  one  else  the  relation  which 
words  in  true  poetry  hold  to  things,  he  writes: 

"  Visionary  power 

Attends  the  motions  of  the  viewless  winds, 
Embodied  in  the  mystery  of  words; 
There  darkness  makes  abode,  and  all  the  host 
Of  shadowy  things  work  endless  changes, — there, 
As  in  a  mansion  Tike  their  proper  home, 
Even  forms  and  substances  are  circumfused 
By  that  transparent  veil  with  light  divine, 
And,  through  the  turnings  intricate  of  verse, 
Present  themselves  as  objects  recognized, 
In  flashes,  and  with  glory  not  their  own." 

3.  The  Serviceable  and  the  Non-Serviceable  Arts. — It  has  been 
established  from  the  outset  that,  though  the  essential  distinction  of 
fine  art  as  such  is  to  minister  not  to  material  necessity  or 
practical  use,  but  to  delight,  yet  there  are  some  among  the  .  lfk 
arts  of  men  which  do  both  these  things  at  once  and  are  J/**?' £*' 
arts  of  direct  use  and  of  beauty  or  emotional  appeal  s°niceable 
together.  Under  this  classification  a  survey  of  the  field  sna  the 
of  art  at  different  periods  of  history  would  yield  different  000m 
results.  In  ruder  times,  we  have  seen,  the  utilitarian  aim 
was  still  the  predominant  aim  of  art,  and  most  of  what 
we  now  call  fine  arts  served  in  the  beginning  to  fulfil  the 
practical  needs  of  individual  and  social  life ;  and  this  not  only  among 
primitive  or  savage  races.  In  ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria  the  primary 
purpose  of  the  relief-sculptures  on  palace  and  temple  walls  was  the 
practical  one  of  historical  record  and  commemoration.  Even  as  late 
as  the  middle  ages  and  early  Renaissance  the  primary  business  of 
the  painter  was  to  give  instruction  to  the  unlearned  in  Bible  history 
and  in  the  lives  of  the  saints,  and  to  rouse  him  to'  moods  of  religious 
and  ethical  exaltation.  The  pleasures  of  fine  art  proper  among  the 
manual-imitative  group — the  pleasures,  namely,  of  producing  and 
contemplating  certain  arrangements  rather  than  others  of  design, 
proportion,  pattern,  colour  and  light  and  shade,  and  of  putting  forth 
and  appreciating  certain  qualities  of  skill,  truth  and  significance  in 
idealized  imitation, — these  were,  historically  speaking,  by-products 
that  arose  gradually  in  the  course  of  practice  and  development. 
As  time  went  on,  the  conscious  aim  of  ministering  to  such  pleasures 
displaced  and  threw  into  the  background  the  utilitarian  ends  for 
which  the  arts  had  originally  been  practised,  and  the  pleasures 
became  ends  in  themselves. 

But  even  in  advanced  societies  the  double  qualities  of  use  and 


370 


FINE  ARTS 


[HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT 


beauty  still  remain  inseparable,  among  the  five  greater  arts,  in 
architecture.     We  build  in  the  first  instance  for  the  sake  of 
Among  the  necessary  shelter  and  accommodation,  or  for  the  corn- 
greater        memoration,  propitiation  or  worship  of  spiritual  powers  on 
whom  we  believe  our  welfare  to  depend.     By  and  by  we 
hnd  out  that  the  aspect  of  our  constructions  is  pleasurable 
e    or  the  reverse.     Architecture  is  the  art  of  building  at  once 

Irii  as  we  need  and  as  we  like'  and  a  Practical  treatise  on 
pnmaniy  archjtecture  must  treat  the  beauty  and  the  utility  of 
senlce  buildings  as  bound  up  together.  But  for  our  present 
purpose  it  has  been  proper  to  take  into  account  one  half 
only  of  the  vocation  of  architecture,  the  half  by  which  it  im- 
presses, gives  delight  and  belongs  to  that  which  is  the  subject  of 
our  study,  to  fine  art ;  and  to  neglect  the  other  half  of  its  vocation, 
by  which  it  belongs  to  what  is  not  the  subject  of  our  study,  to  useful 
or  mechanical  art.  It  is  plain,  however,  that  the  presence  or  absence 
of  this  foreign  element,  the  element  of  practical  utility,  constitutes 
a  fair  ground  for  a  new  and  separate  classification  of  the  fine  arts. 
If  we  took  the  five  greater  arts  as  they  exist  in  modern  times  by 
themselves,  architecture  would  on  this  ground  stand  alone  in  one 
division,  as  the  directly  useful  or  serviceable  fine  art ;  with  sculpture, 
painting,  music  and  poetry  together  in  the  other  division,  as  fine 
arts  unassociated  with  such  use  or  service.  Not  that  the  divi- 
sions would,  even  thus,  be  quite  sharply  and  absolutely  separated. 
Didactic  poetry,  we  have  already  acknowledged,  is  a  branch  of  the 
poetic  art  which  aims  at  practice  and  utility.  Again,  the  hortatory 
and  patriotic  kinds  of  lyric  poetry,  from  the  strains  of  Tyrtaeus  to 
those  of  Arndt  or  Rouget  de  Lisle  or  Wordsworth's  sonnets  written 
in  war-time,  may  fairly  be  said  to  belong  to  a  phase  of  fine  art  which 
aims  directly  at  one  of  the  highest  utilities,  the  stimulation  of 
patriotic  feeling  and  self-devotion.  So  may  the  strains  of  music 
which  accompany  such  poetry.  The  same  practical  character,  as 
stimulating  and  attuning  the  mind  to  definite  ends  and  actions, 
might  indeed  have  been  claimed  for  the  greater  part  of  the  whole  art 
of  music  as  that  art  was  practised  in  antiquity,  when  each  of  several 
prescribed  and  highly  elaborated  moods,  or  modes,  of  melody  was 
supposed  to  have  a  known  effect  upon  the  courage  and  moral  temper 
of  the  hearer.  Compare  Milton,  when  he  tells  of  the  Dorian  mood  of 
flutes  and  soft  recorders  which  assuaged  the  suffering^  and  renewed 
the  courage  of  Satan  and  his  legions  as  they  marched  through  hell. 
In  modern  music,  .of  which  the  elements,  much  more  complex  in 
themselves  than  tliose  of  ancient  music,  have  the  effect  of  stirring 
our  fibres  to  moods  of  rapturous  contemplation  rather  than  of 
action,  military  strains  in  march  time  are  in  truth  the  only  purely 
instrumental  variety  of  the  art  which  may  still  be  said  to  retain 
this  character. 

To  reinforce,  however,  the  serviceable  or  useful  division  of  fine 
arts  in  our  present  classification,  it  is  not  among  the  greater  arts 
that  we  must  look.  We  must  look  among  the  lesser  or 
otherand  auxiijarv  arts  of  the  manual  or  shaping  group.  The 
"/  'tee*  weaver-  the  joiner,  the  potter,  the  smith,  the  goldsmith, 
the  glass-maker,  these  and  a  hundred  artificers  who  pro- 
"rdinjitf  duce  wares  primarily  for  use,  produce  them  in  a  form  or 
with  embellishments  that  have  the  secondary  virtue  of 
tecture  '  givmg  pleasure  both  to  the  producer  and  the  user.  Much 
ingenuity  has  been  spent  to  little  purpose  in  attempting  to 
group  and  classify  these  lesser  shaping  arts  under  one  or  other  of 
the  greater  shaping  arts,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  means 
employed  in  each.  Thus  the  potter's  art  has  been  classed  under 
sculpture,  because  he  moulds  in  solid  form  the  shapes  of  his  cups, 
plates  and  ewers;  the  art  of  the  joiner  under  that  of  the  architect, 
because  his  tables,  seats  and  cupboards  are  fitted  and  framed  together, 
like  the  houses  they  furnish,  out  of  solid  materials  previously  pre- 
pared and  cut ;  and  the  weaver  and  embroiderer,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  effects  produced  by  their  art,  among  painters.  But  the 
truth  is,  that  each  one  of  these  auxiliary  handicrafts  has  its  own 
materials  and  technical  procedure,  which  cannot,  without  forcing 
and  confusion,  be  described  by  the  name  proper  to  the  materials 
and  technical  procedure  of  any  of  the  greater  arts.  The  only  satis- 
factory classification  of  these  handicrafts  is  that  now  before  us, 
according  to  which  we  think  of  them  all  together  in  the  same  group 
with  architecture,  not  because  any  one  or  more  of  them  may  be 
technically  allied  to  that  art,  but  because,  like  it,  they  all  yield 
products  capable  of  being  practically  useful  and  beautiful  at  the 
same  time.  Architecture  is  the  art  which  fits  and  frames  together, 
of  stone,  brick,  mortar,  timber  or  iron,  the  abiding  and  assembling 
places  of  man,  all  his  houses,  palaces,  temples,  monuments,  museums, 
workshops,  roofed  places  of  meeting  and  exchange,  theatres  for 
spectacle,  fortresses  of  defence,  bridges,  aqueducts,  and  ships  for 
seafaring.  The  wise  architect  having  fashioned  any  one  of  these 
great  constructions  at  once  for  service  and  beauty  in  the  highest 
degree,  the  lesser  or  auxiliary  manual  arts  (commonly  called  "  in- 
dustrial "  or  "  applied  "  arts)  come  in  to  fill,  furnish  and  adorn  it 
with  things  of  service  and  beauty  in  a  lower  degree,  each  according 
to  its  own  technical  laws  and  capabilities;  some,  like  pottery, 
delighting  the  user  at  once  by  beauty  of  form,  delicacy  of  substance, 
and  pleasantness  of  imitative  or  non-imitative  ornament ;  some,  like 
embroidery,  by  richness  of  tissue,  and  by  the  same  twofold  pleasant- 
ness of  ornament;  some,  like  goldsmith's  work,  by  exquisiteness 
of  fancy  and  workmanship  proportionate  to  the  exquisiteness  of  the 


Current 
enera/- 


material. To  this  vast  group  of  workmen,  whose  work  is  at  the  same 
time  useful  and  fine  in  its  degree,  the  ancient  Greek  gave  the  place 
which  is  most  just  and  convenient  for  thought,  when  he  classed 
them  all  together  under  the  name  of  Tinroj-es,  or  artificers,  and  called 
the  builder  by  the  name  of  6.p\iTiKTuv,  arch-artificer  or  artificer-in- 
chief.  Modern  usage  has  adopted  the  phrase  "  arts  and  crafts  " 
as  a  convenient  general  name  for  their  pursuits. 

III.  Of  the  History  of  the  Fine  Arts. 

Students  of  human  culture  have  concentrated  a  great  deal 
of  attentive  thought  upon  the  history  of  fine  art,  and  have  put 
forth  various  comprehensive  generalizations  intended 
at  once  to  sum  up  and  to  account  for  the  phases  and 
vicissitudes  of  that  history.   The  most  famous  formulae 
are  those  of  Hegel,  who  regarded  particular  arts  as  being    on  the 
characteristic  of  and  appropriate  to  particular  forms    h'story  °r 

r    •    •]•      i-  1  ci.-  t  T?      i_-  flneart: 

of  civilization  and  particular  ages  of  history.  For  mm,  Hegei. 
architecture  was  the  symbolic  art  appropriate  to  ages  of 
obscure  and  struggling  ideas,  and  characteristic  of  the  Egyptian 
and  the  Asiatic  races  of  old  and  of  the  medieval  age  in  Europe. 
Sculpture  was  the  classical  art  appropriate  to  ages  of  lucid  and 
self-possessed  ideas,  and  characteristic  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
period.  Painting,  music  and  poetry  were  the  romantic  arts, 
appropriate  to  the  ages  of  complicated  and  overmastering  ideas, 
and  characteristic  of  modern  humanity  in  general.  In  the 
working  out  of  these  generalizations  Hegel  brought  together 
a  mass  of  judicious  and  striking  observations;  and  that  they 
contain  on  the  whole  a  preponderance  of  truth  may  be  admitted. 
It  has  been  objected  against  them,  from  the  philosophical 
point  of  view,  that  they  too  much  mix  up  the  definition  of  what 
the  several  arts  theoretically  are  with  considerations  of  what 
in  various  historical  circumstances  they  have  practically  been. 
From  the  historical  point  of  view  there  can  be  taken  what 
seems  a  more  valid  objection,  that  these  formulae  of  Hegel 
tend  too  much  to  fix  the  attention  of  the  student  upon  the  one 
dominant  art  chosen  as  characteristic  of  any  period,  and  to 
give  him  false  ideas  of  the  proportions  and  relations  of  the  several 
arts  at  the  same  period — of  the  proportions  and  relations  which 
poetry,  say,  really  bore  to  sculpture  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  or  sculpture  to  architecture  among  the  Christian  nations 
of  the  middle  age.  The  truth  is,  that  the  historic  survey  gained 
over  any  field  of  human  activity  from  the  height  of  generaliza- 
tions so  vast  in  scope  as  these  are  must  needs,  in  the  complexity 
of  earthly  affairs,  be  a  survey  too  distant  to  give  much  guidance 
until  its  omissions  are  filled  up  by  a  great  deal  of  nearer  study; 
and  such  nearer  study  is  apt  to  compel  the  student  in  the  long 
run  to  qualify  the  theories  with  which  he  has  started  until  they 
are  in  danger  of  disappearing  altogether. 

Another  systematic  exponent  of  the  universe,  whose  system 
is  very  different  from  that  of  Hegel,  Herbert  Spencer,  brought 
the  doctrine  of  evolution  to  bear,  not  without  interest-  Wertert 
ing  results,  upon  the  history  of  the  fine  arts  and  their  spencer 
development.  Herbert  Spencer  set  forth  how  the  and  the 
manual  group  of  fine  arts,  architecture,  sculpture 
and  painting,  were  in  their  first  rudiments  bound  up 
together,  and  how  each  of  them  in  the  course  of  history  has 
liberated  itself  from  the  rest  by  a  gradual  process  of  separation. 
These  arts  did  not  at  first  exist  in  the  distinct  and  developed 
forms  in  which  we  have  above  described  them.  There  were  no 
statues  in  the  round,  and  no  painted  panels  or  canvases  hung 
upon  the  wall.  Only  the  rudiments  of  sculpture  and  painting 
existed,  and  that  only  as  ornaments  applied  to  architecture, 
in  the  shape  of  tiers  of  tinted  reliefs,  representing  in  a  kind  of 
picture-writing  the  exploits  of  kings  upon  the  walls  of  their 
temple-palaces.  Gradually  sculpture  took  greater  salience 
and  roundness,  and  tended  to  disengage  itself  from  the  wall, 
while  painting  found  out  how  to  represent  solidity  by  means  of 
its  own,  and  dispensed  with  the  raised  surface  upon  which  it 
was  first  applied.  But  the  old  mixture  and  union  of  the  three 
arts,  with  an  undeveloped  art  of  painting  and  an  undeveloped 
art  of  sculpture  still  engaged  in  or  applied  to  the  works  of  archi- 
tecture, continued  on  the  whole  to  prevail  through  the  long 
cycles  of  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  history.  In  the  Egyptian 


HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT] 


FINE  ARTS 


371 


palace-temple  we  find  a  monument  at  once  political  and  religious, 
upon  the  production  of  which  were  concentrated  all  the  energies 
and  faculties  of  all  the  artificers  of  the  race.  With  its  incised 
and  pictured  walls,  its  half-detached  colossi,  its  open  and  its 
colonnaded  chambers,  the  forms  of  the  columns  and  their 
capitals  recalling  the  stems  and  blossoms  of  the  lotus  and  papyrus, 
with  its  architecture  everywhere  taking  on  the  characters  and 
covering  itself  with  the  adornments  of  immature  sculpture  and 
painting — this  structure  exhibits  within  its  single  fabric  the 
origins  of  the  whole  subsequent  group  of  shaping  arts.  From 
hence  it  is  a  long  way  to  the  innumerable  artistic  surroundings 
of  later  Greek  and  Roman  life,  the  many  temples  with  their 
detached  and  their  engaged  statues,  the  theatres,  the  porticoes, 
the  baths,  the  training-schools,  the  stadiums,  with  free  and 
separate  statues  both  of  gods  and  men  adorning  every  building 
and  public  place,  the  frescoes  upon  the  walls,  the  panel  pictures 
hung  in  temples  and  public  and  private  galleries.  In  the  terms 
of  the  Spencerian  theory  of  evolution,  the  advance  from  the 
early  Egyptian  to  the  later  Greek  stage  is  an  advance  from  the 
one  to  the  manifold,  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the 
homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous,  and  affords  a  striking 
instance  of  that  vast  and  ceaseless  process  of  differentiation  and 
integration  which  it  is  the  law  of  all  things  to  undergo.  In  the 
Christian  monuments  of  the  early  middle  age,  again,  the  arts, 
owing  to  the  political  and  social  cataclysm  in  which  Roman 
civilization  went  down,  have  gone  back  to  the  rudimentary 
stage,  and  are  once  more  attached  to  and  combined  with  each 
other.  The  single  monument,  the  one  great  birth  of  art,  in  that 
age,  is  the  Gothic  church.  In  this  we  find  the  art  of  applied 
sculpture  exercised  in  fashions  infinitely  rich  and  various,  but 
entirely  in  the  service  and  for  the  adornment  of  the  architecture ; 
we  find  painting  exercised  in  fashions  more  rudimentary  still, 
principally  in  the  forms  of  translucent  imagery  in  the  chancel 
windows  and  tinted  decorations  on  the  walls  and  vaultings. 
From  this  stage  again  the  process  of  the  differentiation  of  the 
arts  is  repeated.  It  is  by  a  new  evolution  or  unfolding,  and 
by  one  carried  to  much  further  and  more  complicated  stages 
than  the  last  had  reached,  that  the  arts  since  the  middle  age 
have  come  to  the  point  where  we  find  them  to-day;  when 
architecture  is  applied  to  a  hundred  secular  and  civil  uses  with 
not  less  magnificence,  or  at  least  not  less  desire  of  magnificence, 
than  that  with  which  it  fulfilled  its  two  only  uses  in  the  middle 
age,  the  uses  of  worship  and  of  defence;  when  detached  sculptures 
adorn,  or  are  intended  to  adorn,  all  our  streets  and  commemorate 
all  our  likenesses;  when  the  subjects  of  painting  have  been 
extended  from  religion  to  all  life  and  nature,  until  this  one  art 
has  been  divided  into  the  dozen  branches  of  history,  landscape, 
still  life,  genre,  anecdote  and  the  rest.  Such  being  in  brief  the 
successive  stages,  and  such  the  reiterated  processes,  of  evolution 
among  the  shaping  or  space  arts,  the  action  of  the  same  law 
can  be  traced,  it  is  urged,  in  the  growth  of  the  speaking  or  time 
arts  also.  Originally  poetry  and  music,  the  two  great  speaking 
arts,  were  not  separated  from  each  other  and  from  the  art  of 
bodily  motion,  dancing.  The  father  of  song,  music  and  dancing, 
all  three,  was  that  primitive  man  of  whom  so  much  has  already 
been  said,  he  who  first  clapped  hands  and  leapt  and  shouted  in 
time  at  some  festival  of  his  tribe.  From  the  clapping,  or  rudi- 
mentary rhythmical  noise,  has  been  evolved  the  whole  art  of 
instrumental  music,  down  to  the  entrancing  complexity  of  the 
modern  symphony.  From  the  shout,  or  rudimentary  emotional 
utterance,  has  proceeded  by  a  kindred  evolution  the  whole  art 
of  vocal  music  down  to  the  modern  opera  or  oratorio.  From 
the  leap,  or  rudimentary  expression  of  emotion  by  rhythmical 
movements  of  the  body,  has  descended  every  variety  of  dancing, 
from  the  stately  figures  of  the  tragic  chorus  of  the  Greeks  to 
the  kordax  of  their  comedy  or  the  complexities  of  the  modern 
ballet. 

That  the  theory  of  evolution  serves  usefully  to  group  and  to 
interpret  many  facts  in  the  history  of  art  we  shall  not  deny, 
though  it  would  be  easy  to  show  that  Herbert  Spencer's  instances 
and  applications  are  not  sufficient  to  sustain  all  the  conclusions 
that  he  seems  to  draw  from  them.  Thus,  it  is  perfectly  true 


that  the  Egyptian  or  Assyrian  palace  wall  is  an  instance  of 
rudimentary  painting  and  rudimentary  sculpture  in  subser- 
vience to  architecture.  But  it  is  not  less  true  that  races 
who  had  no  architecture  at  all,  but  lived  in  caverns  of  ^^g"c 
the  earth,  exhibit,  as  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  points  of 
notice,  excellent  rudiments  of  the  other  two  shaping  arts  Spencer's 
in  a  different  form,  in  the  carved  or  incised  handles  of  general- 
their  weapons.  And  it  is  almost  certain  that,  among 
the  nations  of  oriental  antiquity  themselves,  the  art  of  decorating 
solid  walls  so  as  to  please  the  eye  with  patterns  and  presentations 
of  natural  objects  was  borrowed  from  the  precedent  of  an  older 
art  which  works  in  easier  materials,  namely,  the  art  of  the 
weaver.  It  would  be  in  the  perished  textile  fabrics  of  the 
earliest  dwellers  in  the  valleys  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile 
that  we  should  find,  if  anywhere,  the  origins  of  the  systems  of 
surface  design,  whether  conventional  or  imitative,  which  those 
races  afterwards  applied  to  the  decoration  of  their  solid  construc- 
tions. Not,  therefore,  in  any  one  exclusive  type  of  primitive 
artistic  activity,  but  in  a  score  of  such  types  equally,  varying 
according  to  race,  region  and  circumstances,  shall  we  find  so 
many  germs  or  nuclei  from  which  whole  families  of  fine  arts 
have  in  the  course  of  the  world's  history  differentiated  and 
unfolded  themselves.  And  more  than  once  during  that  history, 
a  cataclysm  of  political  and  social  forces  has  not  only  checked 
the  process  of  the  evolution  of  the  fine  arts,  but  from  an  advanced 
stage  of  development  has  thrown  them  back  again  to  a  primitive 
stage.  Recent  research  has  shown  how  the  Minoanand  Mycenaean 
civilizations  in  the  Mediterranean  basin,  with  their  developed 
fine  arts,  must  have  perished  and  been  effaced  before  the  second 
growth  of  art  from  new  rudiments  took  place  in  Greece.  The 
great  instance  of  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  civilization  need 
not  be  requoted.  By  Spencer's  application  of  the  theory  of 
evolution,  not  less  than  by  Hegel's  theory  of  the  historic  periods, 
attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  Christian  Europe,  during 
several  centuries  of  the  middle  age,  presents  to  our  study  a 
civilization  analogous  to  the  civilization  of  the  old  oriental 
empires  in  this  respect,  that  its  ruling  and  characteristic  manual 
art  is  architecture,  to  which  sculpture  and  painting  are,  as  in 
the  oriental  empires,  once  more  subjugated  and  attached.  It 
does  not  of  course  follow  that  such  periods  of  fusion  or  mutual 
dependence  among  the  arts  are  periods  of  bad  art.  On  the 
contrary,  each  stage  of  the  evolution  of  any  art  has  its  own 
characteristic  excellence.'  The  arts  can  be  employed  in  combina- 
tion, and  yet  be  all  severally  excellent.  When  music,  dancing, 
acting  and  singing  were  combined  in  the  performance  of  the 
Greek  chorus,  the  combination  no  doubt  presented  a  relative 
perfection  of  each  of  the  four  elements  analogous  to  the  combined 
perfection,  in  the  contemporary  Doric  temple,  of  pure  architec- 
tural form,  sculptured  enrichment  of  spaces  specially  contrived 
for  sculpture  in  the  pediments  and  frieze,  and  coloured  decoration 
over  all.  The  extreme  differentiation  of  any  art  from  every 
other  art,  and  of  the  several  branches  of  one  art  among  themselves, 
does  not  by  any  means  tend  to  the  perfection  of  that  art.  The 
process  of  evolution  among  the  fine  arts  may  go,  and  indeed 
in  the  course  of  history  has  gone,  much  too  far  for  the  health 
of  the  arts  severally.  Thus  an  artist  of  our  own  day  is  Usually 
either  a  painter  only  or  a  sculptor  only;  but  yet  it  is  acknow- 
ledged that  the  painter  who  can  model  a  statue,  or  the  sculptor 
who  can  paint  a  picture,  is  likely  to  be  the  more  efficient  master 
of  both  arts;  and  in  the  best  days  of  Florentine  art  the  greatest 
men  were  generally  painters,  sculptors,  architects  and  goldsmiths 
all  at  once.  In  like  manner  a  landscape  painter  who  paints 
landscape  only  is  apt  not  to  paint  it  so  well  as  one  who  paints 
the  figure  too;  and  in  recent  times  the  craft  of  engraving  had 
almost  ceased  to  be  an  art  from  the  habit  of  allotting  one  part 
of  the  work,  as  skies,  to  one  hand,  another  part,  as  figures,  to  a 
second,  and  another  part,  as  landscape,  to  a  third.  This  kind 
of  continually  progressing  subdivision  of  labour,  which  seems 
to  be  the  necessary  law  of  industrial  processes,  is  fatal  to  any 
skill  which  demands,  as  skill  in  the  fine  arts,  we  have  seen^ 
demands,  the  free  exercise  and  direction  of  a  highly  complex 
cluster  both  of  faculties  and  sensibilities. 


372 


FINE  ARTS 


[HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT 


* 


In  the  second  half  of  the  ipth  century  a  reaction  set  in  against 
such  over-differentiation  of  the  several  manual  arts  and  crafts. 
This  reaction  is  chiefly  identified  in  England  with  the 
name  of  William  Morris,  who  insisted  by  precept  and 
example  that  one  form  of  artistic  activity  was  as 
evolution  worthy  as  another,  and  himself  both  practised  and 
amongst  tra;ned  others  in  the  practiceof  glass-painting,  weaving, 
artS  *"  embroidery,  furniture  and  wall-paper  designing,  and 
book  decoration  alike.  His  example  has  been  to  some 
extent  followed  in  most  European  countries,  and  efforts  have 
been  made  to  reunite  the  functions  of  artist  and  craftsman, 
and  to  set  a  limit  to  the  process  of  differentiation  among  the 
various  manual  arts.  In  the  vocal  or  time  arts  also,  a  reformer 
of  high  genius  and  force  of  character,  Richard  Wagner,  rose  to 
contend  that  in  music  the  process  of  evolution  and  differentiation 
had  gone  much  too  far.  Music,  he  urged,  as  separated  from 
words  and  actions,  independent  orchestral  and  instrumental 
music,  had  reached  its  utmost  development,  and  its  further 
advance  could  only  be  an  advance  into  the  inane;  while  operatic 
music  had  broken  itself  up  into  a  number  of  set  and  separate 
forms,  as  aria,  scena,  recitative,  which  corresponded  to  no  real 
varieties  of  instinctive  emotional  utterance,  and  in  the  aimless 
production  of  which  the  art  was  in  danger  of  paralysing  and 
stultifying  itself.  This  process,  he  declared,  must  be  checked; 
music  and  words  must  be  brought  back  again  into  close  connexion 
and  mutual  dependence;  the  artificial  opera  forms  must  be 
abolished,  and  a  new  and  homogeneous  music-drama  be  created, 
of  which  the  author  must  combine  in  himself  the  functions  of 
poet,  composer,  inventor,  and  director  of  scenery  and  stage 
appliances,  so  that  the  entire  creation  should  bear  the  impress 
of  a  single  mind;  to  the  creation  of  such  a  music-drama  he 
accordingly  devoted- all  the  energies  of  his  being. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  the  evolution  theory,  though  it  furnishes 
us  with  some  instructive  points  of  view  for  the  history  of  the  fine 
arts  as  for  other  things,  is  far  from  being  the  whole 
key  to  that  history.  Another  key,  employed  with 
"or  natural  results  perhaps  less  really  luminous  than  they  are 
history  of  certainly  showy  and  attractive,  is  that  supplied  by 
art/'""  Taine.  Taine's  philosophy,  which  might  perhaps 
be  better  called  a  natural  history,  of  fine  art  consists 
in  regarding  the  fine  arts  as  the  necessary  result  of  the 
general  conditions  under  which  they  are  at  any  time  produced 
— conditions  of  race  and  climate,  of  religion,  civilization  and 
manners.  Acquaint  yourself  with  these  conditions  as  they 
existed  in  any  given  people  at  any  given  period,  and  you  will 
be  able  to  account  for  the  characters  assumed  by  the  arts  of  that 
people  at  that  period,  and  to  reason  from  one  to  the  other,  as  a 
botanist  can  account  for  the  flora  of  any  given  locality,  and  can 
reason  from  its  soil,  exposure  and  temperature,  to  the  orders 
of  vegetation  which  it  will  produce.  This  method  of  treating 
the  history  of  the  fine  arts,  again,  is  one  which  can,  be  pursued 
with  profit  in  so  far  as  it  makes  the  student  realize  the  connexion 
of  fine  arts  with  human  culture  in  general,  and  teaches  him  how 
the  arts  of  any  age  and  country  are  not  an  independent  or 
arbitrary  phenomenon,  but  are  essentially  an  outcome,  or 
efflorescence,  to  use  a  phrase  of  Ruskin's,  of  deep-seated  elements 
in  the  civilization  which  produces  them.  But  it  is  a  method 
which,  rashly  used,  is  very  apt  to  lead  to  a  hasty  and  one-sided 
handling  both  of  history  and  of  art.  It  is  easy  to  fasten  on 
certain  obvious  relations  of  fine  art  to  general  civilization  when 
you  know  a  few  of  the  facts  of  both,  and  to  say,  the  cloudy  skies 
and  mongrel  industrial  population  of  Protestant  Amsterdam  at 
such  and  such  a  date  had  their  inevitable  reflection  in  the  art  of 
Rembrandt;  the  wealth  and  pomp  of  the  full-fleshed  burghers 
and  burgesses  of  Catholic  Antwerp  had  theirs  in  the  art  of 
Rubens.  But  to  do  this  in  the  precise  and  conclusive  manner 
of  Taine's  treatises  on  the  philosophy  of  art  always  means  to 
ignore  a  large  range  of  conditions  or  causes  for  which  no  corre- 
sponding effect  is  on  the  surface  apparent,  and  generally  also 
a  large  number  of  effects  for  which  appropriate  causes  cannot 
easily  be  discovered  at  all. 

These   considerations   have   resulted  in   a   reaction   against 


Taine's  theories  which  goes  probably  too  far.  It  is  no  complete 
confutation  of  his  philosophy  of  art-history  to  contend, 
as  has  been  done  somewhat  contemptuously  by  md"* 
Professor  Ernst  Grosse  and  others,  that  the  great  counter- 
artist,  so  far  from  representing  the  general  tendencies  criticisms 
of  his  time  and  environment,  is  commonly  a  solitary  "meth'ods* 
innovator  and  revolutionist,  and  has  to  educate  and 
create  his  own  public,  often  through  years  of  obloquy 
or  neglect.  This  is  sometimes  true  when  the  traditions  and 
ideals  of  art  are  undergoing  revolution  or  swift  experimental 
change,  but  hardly  ever  true  in  times  of  stable  tradition  and 
accepted  ideals;  and  when  true  it  only  shows  that  the  tendencies 
the  innovating  genius  represents  are  tendencies  which  have  till 
his  time  been  working  underground,  and  which  he  is  born  to 
bring  into  light  and  evidence.  A  new  and  revolutionary  impulse 
in  art,  as  in  thought  or  politics,  is  like  a  yeast  or  ferment  working 
at  first  secretly,  affecting  for  a  while  only  a  few  spirits,  as  a  new 
epidemic  may  for  a  while  only  affect  a  few  constitutions,  and 
then  gradually  ripening  and  strengthening  till  it  communicates 
itself  to  thousands.  In  its  inception  such  a  ferment  is  not, 
indeed,  one  of  the  obvious  phenomena  of  the  society  in  which 
it  takes  root,  but  it  is  none  the  less  one  of  the  most  vital  and 
significant  phenomena.  The  truth  is,  that  this  particular 
efflorescence  of  human  culture  depends  for  its  character  at  any 
given  time  upon  combinations  of  causes  which  are  by  no  means 
simple,  but  generally  highly  complex,  obscure  and  nicely 
balanced.  For  instance,  the  student  who  should  try  to  reason 
back  from  the  holy  and  beatified  character  which  prevails  in 
much  of  the  devotional  painting  of  the  Italian  schools  down 
to  the  Renaissance  would  be  much  mistaken  were  he  to  conclude, 
"  like  art,  like  life,  thoughts  and  manners."  He  would  not 
understand  the  relation  of  the  art  to  the  general  civilization  of 
those  days  unless  he  were  to  remember  that  one  of  the  chief 
functions  of  the  imagination  is  to  make  up  for  the  shortcomings 
of  reality,  and  to  supply  to  contemplation  images  of  that  which 
is  most  lacking  in  actual  life;  so  that  the  visions  at  once  peaceful 
and  ardent  embodied  by  the  religious  schools  of  art  in  the 
Italian  cities  are  to  be  explained,  not  by  the  peace,  but  rather 
in  great  part  by  the  dispeace,  of  contemporary  existence,  and 
by  the  longing  of  the  human  spirit  to  escape  into  happier  and 
more  calm  conditions. 

Any  one  of  the  three  modes  of  generalization  to  which  we  have 
referred  might  no  doubt  yield,  however,  supposing  in  the  student 
the  due  gifts  of  patience  and  of  caution,  a  working 
clue  to  guide  him  through  that  immense  region  of 
research,  the  history  of  the  fine  arts.     But  it  is  hardly  biniag  the 
possible  to  pursue  to  any  purpose  the  history  of  the  study  at 
two  great  groups,  the  shaping  group  and  the  speaking  ^*oua/ 
group,    together.     At   some   stages   of    the   world's   with  that 
history  the  manual  and  the  monumental  arts  have  of  the 
flourished,  as  in  Egypt  and  Assyria,  when  there  was  vocal 
no  fine  art  of  words  at  all,  and  the  only  literature  was  fl^arts. 
that  of  records  cut  in  hieroglyph  or  cuneiform  on 
palace  walls  and  temples,  and  on  tablets,  seals  and  cylinders. 
At  other  times  and  in  other  communities  there  has  existed 
a  great  tradition  and  inheritance  of  .poetry  and  song  when  the 
manual  arts  were  only  beginning  to  emerge  again  from  the 
wreck  of  an  old  civilization,  as  in  the  Homeric  age  of  Greece, 
or  where  they  had  never  flourished  at  all  except  by  imitation 
and  importation,  as  in  Palestine.     In  historic  Greece  all  three 
divisions  of  the  art  of  poetry,  the  epic,  lyric  and  the  dramatic, 
had  been  perfected,  and  two  of  them  had  again  declined,  before 
sculpture  had  reached  maturity  or  painting  had  passed  beyond 
the  stage  of  its  early  severity.     The  European  poetry  of  the 
middle  ages,  abundant  and  rich  as  it  was  alike  in  France  and 
Provence,  in  Germany  and  Scandinavia,  can  yet  not  take  rank, 
among  the  creations  of  human  genius,  beside  the  great  master- 
pieces of  Romanesque  and  Gothic  architecture;  it  was  in  Italy 
only  that  Dante,  before  the  end  of  that  age,  carried  poetry  to 
a  place  of  equality  if  not  of  primacy  among  the  arts.     Taking  the 
England  of  the  Elizabethan  age,  we  find  the  great  outburst  of 
our  national  genius  in  poetry  contemporary  with  nothing  more 


HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT] 


FINE  ARTS 


373 


interesting  in  the  manual  arts  than  the  gradual  and  only  half- 
intelligent  transformation  of  late  Gothic  architecture  by  the 
adoption  of  Italian  Renaissance  forms  imported  principally 
by  way  of  Flanders  or  France,  together  with  a  fine  native  skill 
shown  in  the  art  of  miniature  portrait-painting,  and  none  at 
all  worth  mentioning  in  other  branches  of  painting  or  in  sculpture. 
If  the  course  of  poetry  and  that  of  the  manual  arts  have  thus 
run  independently  throughout  almost  the  whole  field  of  history, 
those  of  music  and  the  manual  arts  have  been  more  widely 
separated  still.  In  ancient  Greece  music  and  poetry  were,  we 
know,  most  intimately  connected,  but  of  the  true  nature  of  Greek 
music  we  know  but  little,  of  that  of  the  earlier  middle  ages  less 
still,  and  throughout  the  later  middle  ages  and  the  earlier 
Renaissance  the  art  remained  undeveloped,  whether  in  the 
service  of  the  church  or  in  secular  and  popular  use,  and  in  both 
cases  in  strict  subservience  to  words.  The  growth  of  independent 
music  is  entirely  the  work  of  the  modern  world,  and  will  probably 
rank  in  the  esteem  of  posterity  as  its  highest  spiritual  achievement 
and  claim  to  gratitude,  when  the  mechanical  inventions  and 
applications  of  applied  science,  which  now  occupy  so  dispropor- 
tionate a  part  of  the  attention  of  humanity,  have  become  a 
normal  and  unregarded  part  of  its  existence. 

Moments  in  history  there  have  no  doubt  been  when  literature 
and  the  manual  arts,  and  even  music,  have  been  swept  simul- 
taneously along  a  single  stream  of  ideas  and  feelings.  Such  a 
moment  was  experienced  in  France  in  18.30  and  the  following 
years,  when  (to  choose  only  a  few  of  the  greatest  names)  Hugo 
in  poetry,  Delacroix  in  painting,  and  Berlioz  in  music  were 
roused  to  a  high  pitch  of  consentaneous  inspiration  by  the  new 
ideas  and  feelings  of  romanticism.  But  such  moments  are  rare 
and  exceptional.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  very  possible  to  take 
the  whole  of  the  shaping  or  manual  group  of  fine  arts  together 
and  to  pursue  their  history  connectedly  throughout  the  course 
of  civilization.  By  the  history  of  art  what  is  usually  meant  is 
indeed  the  history  of  these  three  arts  with  that  of  some  of  their 
subordinate  and  connected  crafts.  Leaving  aside  the  arts  of 
the  races  of  the  farther  East,  which,  profoundly  interesting 
as  they  are,  have  but  gradually  and  late  become  known  to  us, 
and  the  relations  of  which  with  the  arts  of  the  nearer  East  and 
the  Mediterranean  are  still  quite  obscure — leaving  these  aside, 
the  history  of  the  manual  arts  of  architecture,  painting  and 
sculpture  falls  naturally  into  several  great  periods  or  divisions  to 
some  extent  overlapping  each  other  but  in  the  main  consecutive. 

These  periods  are  roughly  as  follows: — 

1.  The   period   of   the  great   civilizations  of   Mesopotamia 
and    the    Nile,    beginning    approximately    about    5000    B.C. 
Mala  divl-  an<^  ending,   roughly  speaking   (but  some  of  them 
sloas  at      much  earlier),  with  the  spread  of  Greek  power  and 
the  history  Greek  ideas  under  Alexander.     On  the  main  char- 
of  "*•         acteristics  of  the  art  of  these  empires  we  have  already 
had  occasion  to  touch. 

2.  The  Minoan  and  Mycenaean  period,  partly  contemporary 
with  the  above  and  dating  probably  from  about  2500  to  about 
1000  B.C.;  our  knowledge  of  this  is  due  entirely  to  quite  recent 
researches,  confined  at  present  to  certain  points  in  Greece  and 
Asia  Minor,  in  Crete  and  other  islands  in  the  Mediterranean 
basin;  enough  has  already  been  revealed  to  prove  the  existence 
of  an  original  and  highly  developed  palace-architecture  and  of 
forms  of  relief-painting  and  of  al!  the  minor  and  decorative 
arts  more  free  and  animated  than  anything  known  to  Egypt  or 
Assyria.     (See  CRETE  and  AEGEAN  CIVILIZATION.) 

3.  The  Greek  and  Roman  period,  from  about  700  B.C.  to  the 
final  triumph  of  Christianity,  say  A.D.  400.      During  the  first 
two  or  three  centuries  of  this  period  the  Hellenic  race,  beginning 
again  after  the  cataclysm  which  had  swallowed  up  the  earlier 
Mediterranean    civilizations,    carried    to    perfection    its    most 
characteristic  art,  that  of  sculpture,  in  the  endeavour  to  embody 
worthily  its  ideas  of  the  supernatural  powers  governing  the  world. 
Putting  aside  the  monstrous  gods  of  Egypt  and  the  East,  it 
found  its  ideals  in  varieties  of  the  human  form  as  presented  by 
the  most  harmoniously  developed  specimens  of  the  race  under 
conditions  of  the  greatest  health,  activity  and  grace.  In  the  figures 


of  Greek  sculpture,  both  decorative  and  independent,  and  no 
doubt  in  Greek  painting  also  (but  of  that  we  can  only  judge  from 
such  specimens  of  the  minor  handicrafts,  chiefly  vase-paintings, 
as  have  come  down  to  us) — in  these  were  set  for  the  whole 
Western  world  the  types  and  standards  of  human  beauty,  and 
in  their  grouping  and  arrangement  the  types  and  standards 
of  rhythmical  composition  and  design.  Gradually  human  por- 
traiture and  themes  of  everyday  life  took  their  place  beside 
representations  of  the  gods  and  heroes.  New  schools  struck 
out  new  tendencies  within  certain  limits.  But  in  the  general 
standards  of  form  and  design  there  was  in  the  imitative  arts 
relatively  little  change,  though  towards  the  end  there  was  much 
failure  of  skill,  throughout  the  whole  period.  The  one  great 
change  was  in  architecture.  Greece  had  been  content  with  the 
constructive  system  of  columns  and  horizontal  entablature, 
and  under  that  system  had  invented  and  perfected  her  three 
successive  modes  or  orders  of  architecture — the  Doric,  Ionic  and 
Corinthian.  The  genius  of  Rome  invented  the  round  arch, 
and  by  help  of  that  system  erected  throughout  her  subject 
world  a  thousand  vast  constructions — temple,  palace,  bath, 
amphitheatre,  forum,  aqueduct,  triumphal  gate  and  the  rest — 
on  a  scale  of  monumental  grandeur  such  as  Greece  had  never 
known. 

4.  The  Christian  period,  from  about  400  to  about  1400. 
The  decay  or  petrifaction  of  the  imitative  arts  which  had  set 
in  during  the  latter  days  of  Rome  continued  during  all  the 
earlier  centuries  of  the  Christian  period,  while  the  Western 
world  was  in  process  of  remaking.  Free  painting  and  free 
sculpture  practically  ceased  to  exist.  Roman  architecture 
underwent  modifications  under  the  influence  of  the  church  and 
of  the  new  conditions  of  life;  the  Byzantine  form,  touched  at 
certain  times  and  places  with  oriental  influences,  developed 
itself  wherever  the  Eastern  Empire  still  stood  erect  in  decay; 
the  Romanesque  form,  as  it  is  called,  in  the  barbarian-conquered 
regions  of  the  west  and  north.  Sculpture  existed  for  centuries 
only  in  rudimentary  and  subordinate  forms  as  applied  to  archi- 
tecture; painting  only  in  forms  of  rigid  though  sometimes 
impressive  hieratic  imagery,  whether  as  mosaic  in  the  apses  and 
vaults  of  churches,  as  rude  illumination  in  MSS.  and  service- 
books,  or  as  still  ruder  altar-painting  carried  on  according  to  a 
frozen  mechanical  tradition.  As  time  went  on  and  medieval 
institutions  developed  themselves,  a  gradual  vitality  dawned 
in  all  these  arts.  In  architecture  the  introduction  of  the  pointed 
or  Gothic  arch  at  the  beginning  of  the  I3th  century  led  to  almost 
as  great  a  revolution  as  that  brought  about  by  the  use  of  the 
round  or  vaulted  arch  among  the  Romans.  The  same  vital 
impulse  that  informed  the  new  Gothic  architecture  breathed 
into  the  still  quite  subordinate  arts  of  sculpture  and  painting 
(the  latter  now  including  the  craft  of  glass-painting  for  church 
windows)  a  new  spirit  whether  of  devotional  intensity  or  sweet- 
ness, or  of  human  pathos  or  rugged  humour,  with  a  new  technical 
skill  for  its  embodiment.  We  have  not  set  down,  as  is  usually 
done,  a  specifically  Gothic  period  in  art,  for  this  reason.  The 
characteristic  of  the  whole  Christian  period  is  that  its  dominant 
art  is  architecture,  chiefly  employed  in  the  service  of  the  church, 
with  painting  and  sculpture  only  subordinately  introduced  for 
its  enrichment.  It  makes  no  essential  difference  that  from  the 
5th  to  the  1 2th  century  the  forms  of  this  art  were  derived  with 
various  modifications  from  the  round-arched  architecture  of  the 
Empire,  and  that  by  the  i3th  century  new  forms  both  of  con- 
struction and  decoration,  in  which  the  round  arch  was  replaced 
by  the  pointed,  had  been  invented  in  France,  and  from  thence 
spread  abroad  to  Germany  and  Scandinavia,  Great  Britain, 
Spain,  and  last  and  most  superficially  to  Italy.  The  essential 
difference  only  begins  when  the  imitative  arts,  sculpture  and 
painting,  begin  to  emancipate  and  detach  themselves,  to  exist 
and  strive  after  perfection  on  their  own  account.  This  happened 
first  and  very  partially  in  Italy  with  the  artificers  of  the  I3th 
and  i4th  centuries — with  the  sculptors  Nicola,  Giovanni,  and 
Andrea  Pisano;  the  Sienese  group  of  painters,  Duccii/,  Simone 
Martini,  and  the  Lorenzetti;  and  the  Florentine  group,  Cimabue 
(if  Cimabue  is  not  a  myth),  Giotto  and  the  Giotteschi.  The 


374 


FINE  ARTS 


[HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT 


development  of  the  rapid  and  flowing  craft  of  fresco  in  place  of 
the  laborious  and  piecemeal  craft  of  mosaic  (henceforth  for 
several  centuries  almost  lost)  was  a  great  aid  to  this  movement. 
After  a  period  of  something  like  stagnation,  the  movement 
received  a  vigorous  fresh  impulse  soon  after  1400,  at  about 
which  date  in  Italy  (not  till  near  a  century  later  in  northern 
Europe)  the  beginning  of  the  Renaissance  is  usually  fixed. 

5.  The  Renaissance  period,  from  about  1400  to  about  1600. 
The  passion  for  classic  literature,  stimulated  by  the  influence 
of  Greek  scholars  into  Italy  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople; 
the  enthusiastic  revival  of  classic  forms  of  architecture  by 
architects  like  Brunelleschi  and  Alberti;    the  achievements  in 
sculpture  and  painting  of  masters  like  Donatello  and  Masaccio, 
based  on  a  new  and  impassioned  study  of  nature  and  the  antique 
together;     these  are  the  outstanding  and  universally  known 
symptoms  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  in  the  second  and  third 
quarters  of  the  i5th  century.     Promptly  and  contemptuously 
in  Italy,  much  more  gradually  and  incompletely  in  'the  north, 
Gothic  principles   of   construction  and    decoration  were    cast 
aside  for  classical  principles,  as  reformulated  by  eager  spirits 
from  a  combined  study  of  Roman  remains  and  of  the  text  of 
Vitruvius.     To  the  ideal  types  of  devout  and  prayer-worn, 
ascetic  and  spiritualized  humanity  (tempered  in  certain  subjects 
with  elements  of  the  homely  and  the  grotesque),  which  the 
spirit  of  the  middle  ages  had  dictated  to  the  sculptor  and  the 
painter,  succeeded  ideals  of  physical  power,  beauty  and  grace 
rivalling  the  Hellenic.     The  personages  of  the  Christian  faith 
and  story  were  brought  into  visible  kindred  with  those  of  ancient 
paganism.     In  the  hands  of  certain  artists  a  fortunate  blending 
of  the  two  ideals  yielded  results  of  a  poignant  and  unique  charm, 
which  for  us,  who  are  the  heirs  both  of  antiquity  and  the  middle 
ages,  is  far  from  being  yet  exhausted.     At  the  same  time,  the 
love  ah'ke  of  republics,  great  princes,  churchmen,  nobles  and 
merchants  for  works  of  art  gave  employment  to  sculptors  and 
painters  on  themes  other  than  ecclesiastical.     The  taste  for  civic 
or  personal  commemoration,  for  portraiture,  for  illustrations 
of  allegory,  romance  and  classic  fable,  covered  with  pictures 
the  walls  of  council  halls,  of  public  and  private  palaces,  and  of 
villas.     The  invention  of  the  oil  medium  by  the   painters  of 
Flanders,  and  its  gradual  adoption  by  the  Venetians  and  other 
schools  of  Italy  for  all  purposes  except  the  external  decorations 
of  buildings,  added  enormously  to  the  resources  of  the  art  in 
rivalry  with  nature,  and  to  the  splendour  of  its  results  as  objects 
of  pride  and  luxury.    The  glories  of  matured  Italian  art  reacted, 
not  always  favourably,  on  the  north.     The  great  days  of  Flemish 
painting  had  been  from  about  1430  to  1500,  before  any  appreci- 
able influence  of  the  Renaissance  had  touched  the  schools  of 
Brussels,  of  Bruges  or  of  Antwerp.     By  about  1520  the  artists 
of  those  schools  had  begun,  except  in  portraiture,  to  lose  their 
native  vigour  and  originality  by  contact  with  the  alien  south. 
Among  the  great  artists  of  Germany  in  the  first  half  of  the   i6tb 
century  the  work  of  one  or  two,  like  Burgkmair  and  Holbein, 
shows  Italian  influence  reconciled  not  unsuccessfully  with  native 
instinct;     but  Diirer,  the  greatest  of   them,    remained   in   all 
essentials  Gothic  and  German  to  the  end.     During  the  last  half 
of  the  century,  the  Netherlands  and  Germany  alike  yielded 
little  but  work  of  mongrel  Teutonized  Italian  or  Italianized 
Teutonic  type,  until  towards  its  close  Rubens  accomplished,  in 
the  fire  of  his  prodigious  temperament,  a  true  fusion  of  Flemish 
and  Venetian  qualities,  at  the   same    time   closing   gloriously 
the  Renaissance  period  properly  so  called,  and  handing  on  an 
example  which  irresistibly  affected  a  great  part  of  modern 
painting. 

6.  Modern  period,  from   about  1600  to   the   present  time. 
During  this  period  architecture    remained    in    all    European 
countries,  until  the  igth  century,  more  or  less  completely  under 
the  influence  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.     The  principles  of  the 
classical  revival  had  during  a  century  or  more  of  transition  been 
gradually  absorbed,  first  by  France,  then  by  Germany,  the  Low 
Countries,  and  Spain,  and  last  by  England,  each  country  modify- 
ing the  style  according  to  its  degree  of  knowledge  or  ignorance, 
its  needs,  instincts  and  traditions.     Sculpture,  which  in  the 


hands  of  the  great  masters  of  the  earlier  and  later  Renaissance 
in  Italy  had  almost  equalled  its  ancient  glories,  nay,  in  those  of 
Michelangelo  had  actually  surpassed  them  in  the  qualities  at 
least  of  superhuman  energy  and  intellectual  expression — 
sculpture  lost  the  sense  of  its  true  limitations,  and  entered, 
with  the  work  of  Bernini  and  even  earlier,  into  an  extravagant 
or  "  baroque  "  period  of  relaxed  and  bulging  line,  of  exaggerated 
and  ostentatious  virtuosity.  In  this  it  followed  the  lead  given 
by  Italian  architecture,  by  Jesuit  church  architecture  especially, 
at  and  after  the  height  of  the  Catholic  reaction.  From  the 
monumental  and  memorial  purposes  which  sculpture  principally 
serves,  it  remained  still,  except  in  purely  iconic  uses,  attached 
to  or  dependent  on  architecture.  Not  so  painting,  which  asserted 
its  independence  more  and  more.  In  Protestant  countries  the 
old  ecclesiastical  patronage  of  the  art  had  quite  died  out;  in 
those  that  remained  Catholic  it  continued,  and  even  received 
a  new  stimulus  from  the  anti-Protestant  reaction.  The  demand 
for  reh'gious  art  was  supplied  with  abundance  of  traditional 
facility,  of  technical  accomplishment  and  devotional  display, 
but  with  a  loss  of  the  old  sincerity  and  inspiration.  Almost  all 
painting,  even  for  the  most  extensive  and  monumental  phases 
of  decoration  in  church  or  palace  or  civic  hall,  was  on  canvas 
stretched  over  or  fitted  into  its  allotted  space  in  the  architecture, 
and  the  art  of  fresco,  even  in  Venice,  its  last  stronghold,  was 
for  a  time  neglected  or  forgotten.  Portable  paintings  for  princely 
or  private  galleries  and  cabinets  became  the  chief  and  most 
characteristic  products  of  the  art.  The  subjects  of  painting 
multiplied  themselves.  All  manner  of  new  aspects  of  life  and 
nature  were  brought  within  the  technical  compass  of  the  painter. 
Besides  devotional  and  classical  subjects  and  portraiture,  daily 
life  in  all  its  phases,  down  to  the  homeliest  and  grossest,  the 
life  of  the  parlour  and  the  tavern,  of  field  and  shore  and  sea, 
with  landscape  in  all  its  varieties,  took  their  place  as  material 
for  the  painter.  The  truths  of  indoor  and  outdoor  atmosphere 
were  translated  on  canvas  for  the  first  time.  The  Dutchmen 
from  about  1620  to  1670  were  the  most  active  innovators  and 
path-breakers  of  modern  art  along  all  these  lines.  The  greatest 
of  them,  Rembrandt,  dealt,  as  has  been  said,  like  a  master  and  a 
magician  with  the  problems  of  human  individuality  as  revealed 
in  a  mysterious  colour  and  shadow  world  of  his  own  invention. 
At  the  same  time  a  painter  of  no  less  power  in  Spain,  Velazquez, 
viewing  the  world  in  the  natural  light  of  every  day,  showed  for 
the  first  time  how  vitally  and  subtly  paint  could  render  the 
relief  and  mutual  values  of  figures  and  objects  in  space,  the 
essential  truth  of  their  visible  relations  and  reactions  in  the 
enveloping  atmosphere.  The  achievement  of  these  two  victorious 
innovators  has  only  come  to  be  fully  understood  in  our  own  day. 
The  simultaneous  conquest  of  Claude  le  Lorrain,  on  the  other 
hand,  over  the  atmospheric  glow  of  summer  and  sunset  on  the 
Roman  Campagna  and  the  adjacent  hills  and  coasts,  found 
acceptance  instantly,  less  perhaps  for  its  own  sake  than  because 
of  the  classical  associations  of  the  scenery  which  he  depicted. 
The  vast  widening  of  the  field  of  the  painter's  art  and  multiplica- 
tion of  its  subjects,  which  thus  took  place  at  the  dawn  of  the 
modern  period,  were  gains  attended  by  one  drawback,  the  loss, 
namely,  of  the  sense  of  high  seriousness  and  universal  appeal 
which  belonged  to  the  art  while  its  themes  had  been  those  of 
religion  and  classic  story  almost  exclusively. 

During  the  three  hundred  or  so  years  of  the  modern  period, 
academical  schools  attempting,  more  or  less  unsuccessfully, 
to  carry  on  the  great  Italian  and  classical  traditions  Classical 
of  the  Renaissance  have  not  ceased  to  exist  side  by  and 
side  with  those  which  have  striven  to  express  new  r°™a"<fc 
ways  of  seeing  and  feeling.  Sometimes,  as  in  France 
first  under  Louis  XIV.,  and  again  for  forty  years  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Revolution  to  the  dawn  of  romanticism,  such 
schools  have  succeeded  in  crushing  out  and  discrediting  all 
efforts  in  other  directions.  Between  these  two  epochs,  say 
from  1710  to  1780,  French  iSth-century  ideals  of  social  elegance 
and  brilliant  frivolity  expressed  themselves  in  forms  of  great 
accomplishment  and  vivacity  both  in  poetry  and  sculpture, 
from  the  days  of  Watteau  to  those  of  Fragonard  and  Clodion. 


FINGER— FINGER-AND-TOE 


375 


At  the  same  time  England  produced  one  of  the  finest  and  at  the 
same  time  most  national  and  downright  masters  of  the  brush  in 
Hogarth;  two  of  the  greatest  aristocratic  portrait-painters  of  the 
world  in  Reynolds  and  Gainsborough,  each  of  whom  modified 
according  to  his  own  instincts  the  tradition  imported  in  the 
previous  century  by  Van  Dyck,  the  greatest  pupil  of  Rubens 
(Reynolds  fusing  with  this  influence  those  of  Rembrandt  and  the 
Venetians  in  almost  equal  shares).     Pastoral  landscape  in  the 
hands  of  Gainsborough,  classical,  following  Claude,  in  those  of 
Wilson — these  together  with  the  humble  but  wholesome  discipline 
of  topographical  illustration  led  on  to  the  ambitious,  wide-ranging 
and  often  inspired  experiments  of  Turner,  and  to  the  narrower 
but  more  secure  achievements  of  Constable  in  the  same  field, 
and  made  this  country  the  acknowledged  pioneer  of  modern 
landscape  art.     In  the  meantime  the  wave  of  classical  enthusiasm 
which  passed  over  Europe  in  the  later  years  of  the  i8th  century 
had  produced  in  architecture  generally   a   return  to    severer 
principles  and  purer  lines,  in  reaction  from  the  baroque  and  the 
rococo  Renaissance  styles  of  the  preceding  century  and  a  half. 
In  Italian  sculpture,  the  same  movement  inspired  during  the 
Napoleonic  period  the  over-honeyed  accomplishment  of  Canova 
and  his  school;    in  northern  sculpture,  the  more  truly  antique 
but  almost  wholly  imitative  work  of  Thorwaldsen,  and  the  pure 
and  rhythmic  grace  of  the  English  Flaxman,  a  true  master  of 
design  though  scarcely  of  sculpture  strictly  so  called.     The 
same  movement  again  was  partly  responsible  in  English  painting 
and  illustration  from  about  1770  to  1820  for  much  pastoral  and 
idyllic  work  of    agreeable  but   shallow  elegance.    In    French 
painting   the   classic   movement   struck   deeper.    Along   with 
much  would-be  Roman  attitudinizing  there  was  much  real,  if 
rigid,  power  in  the  work  of  David,  much  accomplished  purity 
and  sweetness  in  that  of  Prud'hon.     The  last  and  truest  classic 
of  France,  and  at  the  same  time  in  portraiture  the  greatest 
realist,  Ingres,  held  high  the  standard  of  his  cause  even  through 
and  past  the  great  romantic  revival  which  began  with  Gericault 
and  culminated  in  Delacroix  and  the  school  of  landscape  painters 
who  had  received  their  inspiration  from  Constable.     The  main 
instincts  embodied  in  the  Romantic  movement  were  the  awaken- 
ing of  the  human  spirit  to  an  eager  retrospective  love  of  the  past, 
and  especially  of  the  medieval  past,  and  simultaneously  to  a 
new  passion  for  the  beauties  of  nature,  and  especially  of  wild 
nature.     Germany  and  England  preceded  France  in  this  double 
awakening;     in  both  countries  the  movement  inspired  a  fine 
literature,  but  in  neither  did  it  express  itself  so  fully  and  self- 
consciously through  literature  and  the  other  arts  together  as 
it  did  in  France  when  the  hour  struck.     The  revival  of  medieval 
sentiment  in  Germany  had  inspired  comparatively  early  in  the 
century  the  learned  but  somewhat  aridly  ascetic  and  essentially 
unpainterlike  work  of  the  group  of  artists  who  styled  themselves 
Nazarener.     In    England    the    same    revival    expressed    itself 
during  a  great  part  cf  the  Victorian  age  in  an  enthusiastic  return 
to  the  early  Gothic  ecclesiastical  styles  of  architecture,  a  return 
unsuccessful  upon  the  whole,  because  in  pursuit  of  archaeological 
and  grammatical  detail  the  root  qualities  of  right  proportion 
and  organic  design  were  too  often  neglected. 
Allied  with  this  Gothic  revival,  and  stimulated  like  it  by  the 
persuasive  conviction  and  brilliant  resource  of  Ruskin  in  criticism 

was  the  pre-Raphaelite  movement  in  painting.  Among 
The  pre-  tne  artists  identified  with  this  movement  there  was 
ites.  *  little  really  m  common  except  in  impatience  of  the 

prevailing  modes  of  empty  academic  convention  or 
anecdotic  frivolity.  The  name  covered  for  a  while  the  essentially 
divergent  aims  of  a  vigorous  unintellectual  craftsman  like 
Millais,  fired  for  a  few  years  in  youth  by  contact  with  more 
imaginative  temperaments,  of  a  strenuous  imitator  of  unharmon- 
ized  local  colours  and  unsubordinated  natural  facts  like  Holman 
Hunt,  and  of  born  poets  and  impassioned  medievalists  like 
Rossetti  and  after  him  Burne-Jones.  Meantime  in  France, 
putting  aside  the  work  of  the  great  Delacroix,  the  impulse  of 
1830  expressed  itself  best  and  most  lastingly  in  the  monumental 
work  of  Daumier  both  in  caricature  and  romance,  the  impressive 
and  significant  treatment  of  peasant  life  and  labour  by  J-  F. 


Millet,  the  vitally   truthful   pastoral   and   landscape  work   of 
Troyon,  Corot,  Daubigny  and  the  rest. 

Since  the  exhaustion  of  the  Romantic  movement,  the  other 
movements  that  have  been  taking  place  in  European  art  have 
been  too  numerous  and  too  rapid  to  be  touched  on  Coatem. 
here  to  any  purpose.     Both  in  sculpture  and  painting  porary 
France  has  taken  and  held  the  lead.     Mention  has  teaden- 
already  been  made  of  the  special  tendency  in  recent  cles' 
sculpture  identified  with  the  name  and  influence  of  Rodin.     In 
painting  there  has  been  the  fertilizing  and  transforming  influence 
of  Japan  on  the  decorative  ideals  of  the  West;     there  have 
been  successively  the    Realist    movement,  the   movements  of 
the  Impressionists,  the  Luminists,  the  Neo-impressionists,  the 
Independents,   movements  initiated   almost   always   in   Paris, 
and  in  other  countries  eagerly  adopted  and  absorbed,  or  angrily 
controverted  and  denounced,  or  simply  neglected  and  ignored 
according  to  the  predilection  of  this  or  that  group  of  artists 
and  critics;    there  has  been  a  vast  amount  of  heterogeneous, 
hurried,    confident   and   clamant   innovating   activity   in    this 
direction  and  in  that,  much  of  it  perhaps  doomed  to  futility  in 
the  eyes  of  posterity,  but  at  any  rate  there  has  not  been  stag- 
nation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — To  attempt  in  this  place  anything  like  a  full 
bibliography  covering  so  vast  a  field  would  be  idle.  Many  of  the 
books  necessary  to  a  first-hand  study  of  the  subject  are  cited  in  the 
article  AESTHETICS.  The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important 
writings  actually  referred  to  in  the  text,  English  translations  being 
mentioned  where  they  exist:  Aristotle,  Poetics,  edited  with  critical 
notes  and  a  translation  by  S.  H.  Butcher  (1898);  S.  H.  Butcher, 
Aristotle's  Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine  Art,  with  a  critical  text  and  a 
translation  of  the  Poetics  (1902) ;  Plato,  Republic,  bk.  x.  596  ff., 
600  ff.  (Grote,  iii.  117  ff. ;  Jowett,  iii.  489  ff.) ;  B.  Bosanquet, 
Introduction  to  Hegel's  Philosophy  of  Fine  Art  (Asthetik),  translation 
with  notes  and  prefatory  essay  (1896);  The  Philosophy  of  Art,  an 
Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Aesthetics,  by  Hegel  and  C.  L.  Michelet, 
trans.  Hastie  (1886);  Schiller,  Briefe  iiber  die  asthetische  Erziehung 
des  Menschen  (trans,  by  G.  I.  Weiss,  with  preface  by  J.  chapman, 
1845;  also  in  Bonn's  Standard  Library,  1846);  Herbert  Spencer, 
First  Principles,  ch.  xxii. ;  Gottfried  Semper,  Der  Stil  (1860-1863); 
Hippolyte  Taine,  De  I'ideal  dans  I'art  (1867),  Philosophic  de  I'art  en 
Grece  (1869),  Philosophic  de  I'art  en  Italie,  Philosophte  de  I'art  dans 
les  Pays-Bas  (translations  in  5  vols.  by  J.  Durand,  New  York,  1889) ; 
Karl  Groos,  Die  Spiele  der  Menschen  (1899;  trans,  by  E.  L.  Baldwin, 
1901),  and  Die  Spiele  der  Tiere  <2nd  ed.,  1907;  trans,  by  E.  L. 
Baldwin,  1898);  Ernst  Grosse,  Die  Anfdnge  der  Knnst  (1894;  trans, 
in  the  Anthropological  Series,  1894) ;  Yrjci  Hirn,  The  Origins  of  Art 
(1900);  G.  Baldwin  Brown,  The  Fine  Arts  (2nd  ed.,  1902);  Felix 
Clay,  The  Origins  of  the  Sense  of  Beauty  (1908).  Fora  general  history 
of  the  manual  or  shaping  group  of  arts,  C.  J.  F.  Schnasse,  Geschichte 
derbildenden  Kiinste  (2nd  ed.,  1866-1879),  though  in  parts  obsolete, 
is  still  unsuperseded.  A  very  summary  general  view  is  given  in 
Salomon  Reinach,  The  Story  of  Art  through  the  Ages  (trans,  by 
Florence  Simmonds,  1904);  a  general  history  of  the  same  group 
was  undertaken  by  Giulio  Carotti  (English  translation  by  Alice  Todd, 
1909)-  (S.  C.) 

FINGER,  one  of  the  five  members  with  which  the  hand  is 
terminated,  a  digit;  sometimes  the  word  is  restricted  to  the 
four  digits  other  than  the  thumb.  The  word  is  common  to 
Teutonic  languages,  cf.  Dutch  vinger  and  Ger.  Finger;  probably 
the  ultimate  origin  is  to  be  found  in  the  root  of  the  words  ap- 
pearing in  Greek  irevrt,  Lat.  quinque,  five.  (See  SKELETON: 
Appendicular.) 

FINGER-AND-TOE,  CLUB  ROOT  or  ANBURY,  a  destructive 
plant-disease  known  botanically  as  Plasmodiophora  Brassicae, 
which  attacks  cabbages,  turnips,  radishes  and  other  cultivated 
and  wild  members  of  the  order  Cruciferae.  It  is  one  of  the 
so-called  Slime-fungi  or  Myxogastres.  The  presence  of  the 
disease  is  indicated  by  nodules  or  warty  outgrowths  on  the 
root,  which  sometimes  becomes  much  swollen  and  ultimately 
rots,  emitting  an  unpleasant  smell.  The  disease  is  contracted 
from  spores  present  in  the  soil,  which  enter  the  root.  The 
parasite  develops  within  the  living  cells  of  the  plant,  forming 
a  glairy  mass  of  protoplasm  known  as  the  plasmodium,  the  form 
of  which  alters  from  time  to  time.  The  cells  which  have  been 
attacked  increase  enormously  in  size  and  the  disease  spreads 
?rom  cell  to  cell.  Ultimately  the  plasmodium  becomes  resolved 
nto  numerous  minute  round  spores  which,  on  the  decay  of  the 
root,  are  set  free  in  the  soil.  A  preventive  is  quicklime,  the 


FIN  GER-PRINTS— FINIGUERRA 


application  of  which  destroys  the  spores  in  the  soil.     It  is  impor- 
tant that  diseased  plants  should  be  burned,  also  that  cruciferous 


Finger-and-Toe  (Plasmodiophora  Brassicae). 

1,  Turnip  attacked  by  the  disease,  reduced. 

2,  A  cell  of  the  tissue  containing  the  plasmodium ;   the  smaller  cells 

at  the  sides  are  unaffected. 

3,  Infected  cell,  showing  spore  formation.    2,  3,  highly  magnified. 

weeds,  such  as  shepherd's  purse,  charlock,  &c.,  should  not  be 
allowed  to  grow  in  places  where  plants  of  the  same  order  are  in 
cultivation. 

FINGER-PRINTS.  The  use  of  finger-prints  as  a  system  of 
identification  (q.ii.)  is  of  very  ancient  origin,  and  was  known 
from  the  earliest  days  in  the  East  when  the  impression  of  his 
thumb  was  the  monarch's  sign-manual.  A  relic  of  this  practice 
is  still  preserved  in  the  formal  confirmation  of  a  legal  document 
by  "  delivering  "  it  as  one's  "  act  and  deed."  The  permanent 
character  of  the  finger-print  waS  first  put  forward  scientifically 
in  1823  byj.  E.  Purkinje,  an  eminent  professor  of  physiology, 
who  read  a  paper  before  the  university  of  Breslau,  adducing  nine 
standard  types  of  impressions  and  advocating  a  system  of  classi- 
fication which  attracted  no  great  attention.  Bewick,  the 
English  draughtsman,  struck  with  the  delicate  qualities  of  the 
lineation,  made  engravings  of  the  impression  of  two  of  his  finger- 
tips and  used  them  as  signatures  for  his  work.  Sir  Francis 
Gallon,  who  laboured  to  introduce  finger-prints,  points  out  that 
they  were  proposed  for  the  identification  of  Chinese  immigrants 
when  registering  their  arrival  in  the  United  States.  In  India, 
Sir  William  Herschel  desired  to  use  finger-prints  in  the  courts 
of  the  Hugli  district  to  prevent  false  personation  and  fix 
the  identity  upon  the  executants  of  documents.  The  Bengal 
police  under  the  wise  administration  of  Sir  E.  R.  Henry,  after- 
wards chief  commissioner  of  the  London  metropolitan  police, 
usefully  adopted  finger-prints  for  the  detection  of  crime,  an 
example  followed  in  many  public  departments  in  India.  A 
transfer  of  property  is  attested  by  the  thumb-mark,  so  are 
documents  when  registered,  and  advances  made  to  opium- 
growers  or  to  labourers  on  account  of  wages,  or  to  contracts 
signed  under  the  emigration  law,  or  medical  certificates  to 
vouch  for  the  persons  examined,  all  tending  to  check  the  frauds 
and  impostures  constantly  attempted. 

The  prints  depend  upon  a  peculiarity  seen  in  the  human  hand 
and  to  some  extent  in  the  human  foot.  The  skin  is  traversed 
in  all  directions  by  creases  and  ridges,  which  are  ineradicable 
and  show  no  change  from  childhood  to  extreme  old  age.  The 
persistence  of  the  markings  of  the  finger-tips  has  been  proved 
beyond  all  question,  and  this  universally  accepted  quality  has 
been  the  basis  of  the  present  system  of  identification.  The 
impressions,  when  examined,  show  that  the  ridges  appear  in 
certain  fixed  patterns,  from  which  an  alphabet  of  signs  or  a 


system  of  notation  has  been  arrived  at  for  convenience  of  record. 
As  the  result  of  much  experiment  a  fourfold  scheme  of  classifi- 
cation has  been  evolved,  and  the  various  types  employed 
are  styled  "  arches,"  "  loops,"  "  whorls  "  and  "  composites." 
There  are  seven  subclasses,  and  all  are  perfectly  distinguishable 
by  an  expert,  who  can  describe  each  by  its  particular  symbol 
in  the  code  arranged,  so  that  the  whole  "  print  "  can  be  read 
as  a  distinct  and  separate  expression.  Very  few,  and  the  simplest, 
appliances  are  required  for  taking  the  print — a  sheet  of  white 
paper,  a  tin  slab,  and  some  printer's  ink.  Scars  or  malformations 
do  not  interfere  with  the  result. 

The  unchanging  character  of  the  finger-prints  has  repeatedly 
helped  in  the  detection  of  crime.  We  may  quote  the  case  of  the 
thief  who  broke  into  a  residence  and  among  other  things  helped 
himself  to  a  glass  of  wine,  leaving  two  finger-prints  upon  the 
tumbler  which  were  subsequently  found  to  be  identical  with 
those  of  a  notorious  criminal  who  was  arrested,  pleaded  guilty 
and  was  convicted.  Another  burglar  effected  entrance  by  re- 
moving a  pane  of  glass  from  a  basement  window,  but,  unhappily 
for  him,  left  his  imprints,  which  were  referred  to  the  registry 
and  found  to  agree  exactly  with  those  of  a  convict  at  large; 
his  address  was  known,  and  when  visited  some  of  the  stolen 
property  was  found  in  his  possession.  In  India  a  murderer  was 
identified  by  the  brown  mark  of  a  blood-stained  thumb  he  had 
left  when  rummaging  amongst  the  papers  of  the  deceased. 
This  man  was  convicted  of  theft  but  not  of  the  murder. 

The  keystone  to  the  whole  system  is  the  central  office  where 
the  register  or  index  of  all  criminals  is  kept  for  ready  reference. 
The  operators  need  no  special  gifts  or  lengthy  training;  method 
ard  accuracy  suffice,  and  abundant  checks  exist  to  obviate 
incorrect  classification  and  reduce  the  liability  to  error. 

AUTHORITIES. — F.  Gallon,  Finger  Prints  (1892),  Fingerprint 
Directories  (1895);  E.  R.  Henry,  Classification  and  Uses  of  Finger 
Prints;  A.  Yvert,  L' Identification  par  les  empreintes  digitales  pal- 
maires  (1905) ;  K.  Windl,  R.  S.  Kodicek,  Daktyloskopie.  Verwertung 
von  Fingerabdriicken  zu  Idenlifizierungszwecken  (Vienna,  1904);  E. 
Loeard,  La  Dactyloscopic.  Identification  des  recidivistes  par  les 
empreintes  digitales  (1904);  H.  Faulds,  Guide  to  Finger-Print 
Identification  (1905);  H.  Gross,  Criminal  Investigation  (irans.  J.  and 
J.  C.  Adam,  1907).  (A.  G.) 

FINGO,  or  FENGU  (Ama-Fengu,  "  wanderers  "),  a  Bantu- 
Negro  people,  allied  to  the  Zulu  family,  who  have  given  their 
name  to  the  districl  of  Fingoland,  the  S.W.  portion  of  the 
Transkei  division  of  the  Cape  province.  The  Fingo  tribes  were 
formed  from  the  nalions  broken  up  by  Chaka  and  his  Zulu; 
after  some  years  of  oppression  by  the  Xosa  they  appealed  to  the 
Cape  government  in  1835,  and  were  permitted  by  Sir  Benjamin 
D'Urban  to  setlle  on  Ihe  banks  of  l^ie  Greal  Fish  river.  They 
have  been  always  loyal  lo  Ihe  British,  and  have  steadily  advanced 
in  social  respects.  They  have  largely  adapled  Ihemselves  to 
western  cullure,  wearing  European  clothes,  supporting  their 
schools  by  voluntary  conlribulions,  editing  newspapers,  translat- 
ing English  poetry,  and  selling  their  nalional  songs  to  correct 
music.  The  majority  call  themselves  Christians  and  many  of 
Ihem  have  inlermarried  wilh  Europeans.  (See  KAPFIRS.) 

FINIAL  (a  varianl  of  "  final  ";  Lai.  finis,  end),  an  archi- 
tectural  term  for  the  lermination  of  a  pinnacle,  gable  end, 
butlress,  or  canopy,  consisling  of  a  bunch  of  foliage,  which 
bears  a  close  affmily  lo  Ihe  crockels  (q.v.)  running  up  Ihe  gables, 
lurrels  or  spires,  and  in  some  cases  may  be  formed  by  uniling 
four  or  more  crockels  logelher.  Sometimes  the  term  is  in- 
correctly applied  to  a  small  pinnacle  of  which  it  is  only  the 
terminalion  (see  EPI). 

FINIGUERRA,  MASO  [i.e.  TOMMASO]  (1426-1464),  Florenline 
goldsmilh,  draughlsman,  and  engraver,  whose  name  is  distin- 
guished  in  Ihe  hislory  of  arl  and  craflsmanship  for  reasons  which 
are  parlly  mylhical.  Vasari  represenls  him  as  having  been  Ihe 
firsl  invenlor  of  Ihe  arl  of  engraving  (using  lhal  word  in  its 
popular  sense  of  taking  impressions  on  paper  from  designs 
engraved  on  metal  plates),  and  Vasari 's  account  was  universally 
accepted  and  repeated  until  recent  research  proved  it  erroneous. 
What  we  actually  know  fiom  contemporary  documents  of 
Finiguerra,  his  origin,  his  life,  and  his  work,  is  as  follows.  He 


FINIGUERRA 


377 


was  the  son  of  Antonio,  and  grandson  of  Tommaso  Finiguerra  or 
Finiguerri,  both  goldsmiths  of  Florence,  and  was  born  in  Sta 
Lucia  d'Ognissanti  in  1426.  He  was  brought  up  to  the  hereditary 
profession  of  goldsmith  and  was  early  distinguished  for  his  work 
in  niello.  In  his  twenty-third  year  (1449)  we  find  note  of  a 
sulphur  cast  from  a  niello  of  his  workmanship  being  handed 
over  by  the  painter  Alessio  Baldovinetti  to  a  customer  in  pay- 
ment or  exchange  for  a  dagger  received.  In  1452  Maso  delivered 
and  was  paid  for  a  niellated  silver  pax  commissioned  for  the 
baptistery  of  St  John  by  the  consuls  of  the  gild  of  merchants 
or  Calimara.  By  this  time  he  seems  to  have  left  his  father's 
workshop:  and  we  know  that  he  was  in  partnership  with  Piero 
di  Bartolommeo  di  Sail  and  the  great  Antonio  Pollaiuolo  in  1457, 
when  the  firm  had  an  order  for  a  pair  of  fine  silver  candlesticks 
for  the  church  of  San  Jacopo  at  Pistoia.  In  1459  we  find  Fini- 
guerra noted  in  the  house-book  of  Giovanni  Rucellai  as  one  of 
several  distinguished  artists  with  whose  works  the  Casa  Rucellai 
was  adorned.  In  1462  he  is  recorded  as  having  supplied  another 
wealthy  Florentine,  Cino  di  Filippo  Rinuccini,  with  waist- 
buckles,  and  in  the  years  next  following  with  forks  and  spoons 
for  christening  presents.  In  1463  he  drew  cartoons,  the  heads 
of  which  were  coloured  by  Alessio  Baldovinetti,  for  five  or  more 
figures  for  the  sacristy  of  the  duomo,  which  was  being  decorated 
in  wood  inlay  by  a  group  of  artists  with  Giuliano  da  Maiano  at 
their  head.  On  the  I4th  of  December  1464  Maso  Finiguerra 
made  his  will,  and  died  shortly  afterwards. 

These  documentary  facts  are  supplemented  by  several  writers 
of  the  next  generation  with  statements  more  or  less  authoritative. 
Thus  Baccio  Bandinelli  says  that  Maso  was  among  the  young 
artists  who  worked  under  Ghiberti  on  the  famous  gates  of  the 
baptistery;  Benvenuto  Cellini  that  he  was  the  finest  master  of 
his  day  in  the  art  of  niello  engraving,  and  that  his  masterpiece 
was  a  pax  of  the  Crucifixion  in  the  baptistery  of  St  John;  that 
being  no  great  draughtsman,  he  in  most  cases,  including  that  of 
the  above-mentioned  pax,  worked  from  drawings  by  Antonio 
Pollaiuolo.  Vasari,  on  the  other  hand,  allowing  that  Maso  was 
a  much  inferior  draughtsman  to  Pollaiuolo,  mentions  nevertheless 
a  number  of  original  drawings  by  him  as  existing  in  his  own 
collection,  "  with  figures  both  draped  and  nude,  and  histories 
drawn  in  water-colour."  Vasari's  account  was  confirmed  and 
amplified  in  the  next  century  by  Baldinucci,  who  says  that  he 
has  seen  many  drawings  by  Finiguerra  much  in  the  manner  of 
Masaccio;  adding  that  Maso  was  beaten  by  Pollaiuolo  in  com- 
petition for  the  reliefs  of  the  great  silver  altar-table  commission 
by  the  merchants'  gild  for  the  baptistery  of  St  John  (this  famous 
work  is  now  preserved  in  the  Opera  del  Duomo).  But  the  para- 
graph of  Vasari  which  has  chiefly  held  the  attention  of  posterity 
is  that  in  which  he  gives  this  craftsman  the  credit  of  having 
been  the  first  to  print  off  impressions  from  niello  plates  on  sulphur 
casts  and  afterwards  on  sheets  of  paper,  and  of  having  followed 
up  this  invention  by  engraving  copper-plates  for  the  express 
purpose  of  printing  impressions  from  them,  and  thus  became 
the  inventor  and  father  of  the  art  of  engraving  in  general. 
Finiguerra,  adds  Vasari,  was  succeeded  in  the  practice  of  engrav- 
ing at  Florence  by  a  goldsmith  called  Baccio  Baldini,  who,  not 
having  much  invention  of  his  own,  borrowed  his  designs  from 
other  artists  and  especially  from  Botticelli.  In  the  last  years  of 
the  i8th  century  Vasari's  account  of  Finiguerra's  invention  was 
held  to  have  received  a  decisive  and  startling  confirmation  under 
the  following  circumstances.  There  was  in  the  baptistery  at 
Florence  (now  in  the  Bargello)  a  beautiful  i5th-centuiy  niello 
pax  of  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin.  The  Abate  Gori,  a  savant 
and  connoisseur  of  the  mid-century,  had  claimed  this  conjectur- 
ally  for  the  work  of  Finiguerra;  a  later  and  still  more  enthusi- 
astic virtuoso,  the  Abate  Zani,  discovered  first,  in  the  collection 
of  Count  Seratti  at  Leghorn,  a  sulphur  cast  from  the  very  same 
niello  (this  cast  is  now  in  the  British  Museum),  and  then,  in  the 
National  library  at  Paris,  a  paper  impression  corresponding  to 
both.  Here,  then,  he  proclaimed,  was  the  actual  material  first- 
fruit  of  Finiguerra's  invention  and  proof  positive  of  Vasari's 
accuracy. 

Zani's  famous  discovery,  though  still  accepted  in  popular 


art  histories  and  museum  guides,  is  now  discredited  among 
serious  students.  For  one  thing,  it  has  been  proved  that  the 
art  of  printing  from  engraved  copper-plates  had  been  known  in 
Germany,  and  probably  in  Italy  also,  for  years  before  the  date 
of  Finiguerra's  alleged  invention.  For  another,  Maso's  pax  for 
the  baptistery,  if  Cellini  is  to  be  trusted,  represented  not  a 
Coronation  of  the  Virgin  but  a  Crucifixion.  In  the  next  place,  its 
recorded  weight  does  not  at  all  agree  with  that  of  the  pax  claimed 
by  Gori  and  Zani  to  be  his.  Again,  and  perhaps  this  is  the 
strongest  argument  of  any,  all  authentic  records  agree  in  repre- 
senting Finiguerra  as  a  close  associate  in  art  and  business  of 
Antonio  Pollaiuolo.  Now  nothing  is  more  marked  than  the 
special  style  of  Pollaiuolo  and  his  group;  and  nothing  is  more 
unlike  it  than  the  style  of  the  Coronation  pax,  the  designer  of 
which  must  obviously  have  been  trained  in  quite  a  different 
school,  namely  that  of  Filippo  Lippi.  So  this  seductive  identifica- 
tion has  to  be  abandoned,  and  we  have  to  look  elsewheie  for 
traces  of  the  real  work  of  Finiguerra.  The  only  fully  authenti- 
cated specimens  which  exist  are  the  above-mentioned  tarsia 
figures,  over  half  life-size,  executed  from  his  cartoons  for  the 
sacristy  of  the  duomo.  But  his  hand  has  lately  been  conjectur- 
ally  recognized  in  a  number  of  other  things  :  first  in  a  set  of 
drawings  of  the  school  of  Pollaiuolo  at  the  Uffizi,  some  of  which 
are  actually  inscribed  "  Maso  Finiguerra  "  in  a  lyth-century 
writing,  probably  that  of  Baldinucci  himself;  and  secondly 
in  a  very  curious  and  important  book  of  nearly  a  hundred 
drawings  by  the  same  hand,  acquired  in  1888  for  the  British 
Museum.  The  Florence  series  depicts  for  the  most  part  figures 
of  the  studio  and  the  street,  to  all  appearance  members  of  the 
artist's  own  family  and  workshop,  drawn  direct  from  life.  The 
museum  volume,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  picture-chronicle,  drawn 
from  imagination,  and  representing  parallel  figures  of  sacred 
and  profane  history,  in  a  chronological  series  from  the  Creation 
to  Julius  Caesar,  dressed  and  accoutred  with  inordinate  richness 
according  to  the  quaint  pictures  which  Tuscan  popular  fancy 
in  the  mid-isth  century  conjured  up  to  itself  of  the  ancient 
world.  Except  for  the  differences  naturally  resulting  from  the 
difference  of  subject,  and  that  the  one  series  are  done  from  life 
and  the  other  from  imagination,  the  technical  style  and  handling 
of  the  two  are  identical  and  betray  unmistakably  a  common 
origin.  Both  can  be  dated  with  certainty,  from  their  style, 
costumes,  &c.,  within  a  few  years  of  1460.  Both  agree  strictly 
with  the  accounts  of  Finiguerra's  drawings  left  us  by  Vasari  and 
Baldinucci,  and  disagree  in  no  respect  with  the  character  of  the 
inlaid  figures  of  the  sacristy.  That  the  draughtsman  was  a 
goldsmith  is  proved  on  every  page  of  the  picture-chronicle  by 
his  skill  and  extravagant  delight  in  the  ornamental  parts  of 
design — chased  and  jewelled  cups,  helmets,  shields,  breastplates, 
scaLbards  and  the  like, — as  well  as  by  the  symmetrical  metallic 
forms  into  which  he  instinctively  conventionalizes  plants  and 
flowers.  That  he  was  probably  also  an  engraver  in  niello  appears 
from  the  fact  that  figures  from  the  Uffizi  series  of  drawings  are 
repeated  among  the  rare  anonymous  Florentine  niello  prints 
of  the  time  (the  chief  collection  of  which,  formerly  belonging  to 
the  marquis  of  Salamanca,  is  now  in  the  cabinet  of  M.Edmondde 
Rothschild  in  Paris).  That  he  was  furthermore  an  engraver  on 
copper  seems  certain  from  the  fact  that  the  general  style  and 
many  particular  figures  and  features  of  the  British  Museum 
chronicle  drawings  are  exactly  repeated  in  some  of  those  primitive 
15th-century  Florentine  prints  which  used  to  be  catalogued 
loosely  under  the  names  of  Baldini  or  Botticelli,  but  have  of 
late  years  been  classed  more  cautiously  as  anonymous  prints  in 
the  "  fine  manner  "  (in  contradistinction  to  another  contem- 
porary group  of  prints  in  the  "broad  manner").  The  fine- 
manner  group  of  primitive  Florentine  engravings  itself  falls 
into  two  divisions,  one  more  archaic,  more  vigorous  and  original 
than  the  other,  and  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  larger  and 
more  important  prints.  It  is  this  division  which  the  drawings  of 
the  Chronicle  series  most  closely  resemble;  so  closely  as  almost 
to  compel  the  conclusion  that  drawings  and  engravings  are  by 
the  same  hand.  The  later  division  of  fine-manner  prints  represent 
a  certain  degree  of  technical  advance  from  the  earlier,  and  are 


378 


FINISHING 


softer  in  styJe,  with  elements  of  more  classic  grace  and  playful- 
ness; their  motives  moreover  are  seldom  original,  but  are 
borrowed  from  various  sources,  some  from  German  engravings, 
some  from  Botticelli  or  a  designer  closely  akin  to  him,  some 
from  the  pages  of  the  British  Museum  Chronicle-book  itself, 
with  a  certain  softening  and  attenuating  of  their  rugged  spirit; 
as  though  the  book,  after  the  death  of  the  original  draughtsman- 
engraver,  had  remained  in  his  workshop  and  continued  to  be 
used  by  his  successors.  We  thus  find  ourselves  in  presence  of  a 
draughtsman  of  the  school  of  Pollaiuolo,  some  of  whose  drawings 
bear  an  ancient  attribution  to  Finiguerra,  while  all  agree  with 
what  is  otherwise  known  of  him,  and  one  or  two  are  exactly 
repeated  in  extant  works  of  niello,  the  craft  which  was  peculiarly 
his  own;  others  being  intimately  related  to  the  earliest  or  all 
but  the  earliest  works  of  Florentine  engraving,  the  kindred 
craft  which  tradition  avers  him  to  have  practised,  and  which 
Vasari  erroneously  believed  him  to  have  invented.  Surely, 
it  has  been  confidently  argued,  this  draughtsman  must  be  no 
other  than  the  true  Finiguerra  himself.  The  argument  has  not 
yet  been  universally  accepted,  but  neither  has  any  competent 
criticism  appeared  to  shake  it;  so  that  it  may  be  regarded  for 
the  present  as  holding  the  field. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See  Bandinelli  in  Bottari,  Raccolta  di  letters 
(1754),  i.  p.  75;  Vasari  (ed.  Milanesi),  i.  p.  209,  iii.  p.  206;  Ben- 
venuto  Cellini,  /  Trattati  dell'  orificeria,  &c.  (ed.  Lemonnier),  pp.  7, 
12,  13,  14;  Baldinucci,  Notizie  dei  professori  di  diseeno  (1845),  i. 
PP-  5.i8,  519,  533;  Zani,  Materiali per  seniire,  &c.  (1802);  Duchesne, 
Essai  sur  les  nielles  (1824) ;  Dutuit,  Manuel  de  I'  amateur  d'estampes, 
vol.  i.  pref.  and  vol.  ii. ;  and  for  a  full  discussion  of  the  whole  ques- 
tion, with  quotations  from  earlier  authorities  and  reproductions 
of  the  works  discussed,  Sidney  Colvin,  A  Florentine  Picture  Chronicle 
(1898).  (S.  C.) 

FINISHING.  The  term  finishing,  as  specially  applied  in  the 
textile  industries,  embraces  the  process  or  prqcesses  to  which 
bleached,  dyed  or  printed  fabrics  of  any  description  are  subjected, 
with  the  object  of  imparting  a  characteristic  appearance  to  the 
surface  of  the  fabric,  or  of  influencing  its  handle  or  feel.  Strictly 
speaking,  certain  operations  might  be  classed  under  this  heading 
which  are  conducted  previous  to  bleaching,  dyeing,  &c.;  e.g. 
mercerizing  (q.v.),  stretching  and  crabbing,  singeing  (see  BLEACH- 
ING); but  as  these  are  not  undertaken  by  the  finisher,  only 
those  will  be  dealt  with  here  which  are  not  mentioned  under 
other  headings.  By  the  various  treatments  to  which  the  fabric 
is  subjected  in  finishing,  it  is  often  so  altered  in  appearance  that 
it  is  impossible  to  recognize  in  it  the  same  material  that  came 
from  the  loom  or  from  the  bleacher  or  dyer.  On  the  other  hand, 
one  and  the  same  fabric,  subjected  to  different  processes  of 
finishing,  may  be  made  to  represent  totally  different  classes  of 
material.  In  other  cases,  however,  the  appearance  of  the  finished 
article  differs  but  slightly  from  that  of  the  piece  on  leaving  the 
loom. 

All  processes  of  finishing  are  purely  mechanical  in  character, 
and  the  most  important  of  them  depend  upon  the  fact  that  in 
their  ordinary  condition  (i.e.  containing  their  normal  amount  of 
moisture),  or  better  still  in  a  damp  state,  the  textile  fibres  are 
plastic,  and  consequently  yield  to  pressure  or  tension,  ultimately 
assuming  the  shape  imparted  to  them.  The  old-fashioned  box 
press,  formerly  largely  used  for  household  linen,  owed  its  efficacy 
to  this  principle.  At  elevated  temperatures  the  damp  fibres 
become  very  much  more  plastic  than  at  the  ordinary  temperature, 
the  simplest  form  of  finishing  appliance  based  on  this  fact  being 
the  ordinary  flat  iron.  Indeed  it  may  safely  be  stated  that  most 
of  the  modern  finishing  processes  have  been  evolved  from  the 
household  operations  of  washing  (milling),  brushing,  starching, 
mangling,  ironing  and  pressing. 

Cotton  Pieces. — In  the  ordinary  process  of  bleaching,  cotton 
goods  are  subjected  during  the  various  operations  to  more  or 
less  continual  longitudinal  tension,  and  while  becoming  elongated, 
shrink  more  or  less  considerably  in  width.  In  order  to  bring 
them  back  to  their  original  width,  they  are  stretched  or 
"  stentered  "  by  means  of  specially  constructed  machines.  The 
most  effective  of  these  is  the  so-called  stentering  frame,  which 
consists  essentially  of  two  slightly  diverging  endless  chains 
carrying  clips  or  pins  which  hold  the  piece  in  position  as  it 


traverses  the  machine.  The  length  of  a  frame  may  vary  from 
20  to  30  yds.  On  the  upper  part  of  the  frame  the  chains  run  in 
slots,  and  by  means  of  set  screws  the  distance  between  the  two 
chains  can  be  set  within  the  required  limits.  The  pieces  are 
fed  on  to  one  end  of  the  machine  in  the  damp  state  by  hand  and 
are  then  naturally  slack.  But  before  they  have  travelled  many 
yards  they  become  taut,  the  stretching  increasing  as  they  travel 
along.  Simultaneously  with  the  stretching,  the  pieces  are  dried 
by  a  current  of  hot  air  which  is  blown  through  from  below,  so 
that  on  arriving  at  the  end  of  the  machine  they  are  not  only 
stretched  to  the  required  degree  but  are  also  dry.  The  machine 
used  for  stentering  is  more  fully  described  under  MERCERIZING 
(q.v.).  In  case  the  goods  come  straight  from  the  loom  to  be 
finished,  stentering  is  not  necessary. 

Pieces  intended  to  receive  a  "  pure  "  finish  pass  on  without 
further  treatment  to  the  ordinary  finishing  processes  such  as 
calendering,  hot  pressing,  raising,  &c.  But  in  the  majority  of 
cases  they  are  previously  impregnated,  according  to  the  finish 
desired,  with  stiffening  or  softening  agents,  weighting  materials, 
&c.  Usually,  starch  constitutes  the  main  stiffening  agent,  with 
additions  of  china  clay,  barium  compounds,  &c.,  for  weighting 
purposes,  and  Turkey  red  oil,  with  or  without  the  addition  of 
some  vegetable  oil  or  fat,  as  the  softening  agent.  Magnesium 
sulphate  is  also  largely  used  in  order  to  give  "  body  "  to  the  cloth, 
which  it  does  by  virtue  of  its  property  of  crystallizing  in  fine 
felted  needle-shaped  crystals  throughout  the  mass  of  the  fabric. 
When  starch  is  used  in  filling,  it  is  advisable  to  add  some  anti- 
septic, such  as  zinc  chloride,  sodium  silicofluoride,  phenol  or 
salicylic  acid,  in  order  to  prevent  or  retard  subsequent  develop- 
ment of  mildew.  The  impregnation  of  the  pieces  with  the 
filling  is  effected  in  two  ways,  viz.  either  throughout  the  thickness 
of  the  cloth  or  on  one  surface  only  (back  starching).  When  the 
whole  piece  is  to  be  impregnated  the  operation  is  conducted  in  a 
starching  mangle,  which  is  similar  in  construction  to  an  ordinary 
household  mangle,  though  naturally  larger  and  more  elaborate 
in  construction.  The  pieces  run  at  full  width  through  a  trough 
situated  immediately  below  the  bowls  and  containing  the  filling 
(starch  paste,  &c.),  then  between  the  bowls,  the  pressure  ("  nip  ") 
of  which  regulates  the  amount  of  filling  taken  up,  and  thence 
over  a  range  of  steam-heated  drying  cylinders  (see  BLEACHING). 
In  case  one  side  only  of  the  goods  is  to  be  stiffened — and  this 
is  usually  necessary  in  the  case  of  printed  goods, — a  so-called 
back-starching  mangle  is  employed. 

The  construction  of  the  machine  varies,  but  the  simplest  form 
consists  essentially  of  a  wooden  bowl  a  (fig.  i)  which  runs  in  the 
starch  paste  con- 
tained in  trough  t. 
The  pieces  pass 
from  the  batch- 
roller  B,  through 
scrimp  rails  S  and 
over  the  bowl 
under  tension, 
touching  the  sur- 
face from  which 
they  gather  the 
starch  paste.  By 
means  of  the  fixed 

doctor  "  blade  d, 


FIG.  i. — Principle  of  Back-Starching  Machine. 


_.„.       ,  which  extends  across  the  piece,  the  paste  is 

levelled  on  the  surface  of  the  fabric  and  excess  scraped  off,  falling 
back  into  the  trough.  The  goods  are  then  dried  with  the  face  side 
to  the  cylinders. 

Some  goods  come  into  the  market  with  no  further  treatment 
after  starching  other  than  running  through  a  mangle  with  a 
little  softening  and  then  drying,  but  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases  they  are  subjected  to  further  operations. 

Damping. — When  deprived  of  their  natural  moisture  by 
drying  on  the  cylinder  drying  machine,  cotton  goods  are  not  in  a 
fit  condition  to  undergo  the  subsequent  operations  of  calendering, 
beetling,  &c.,  since  the  fibres  in  the  dry  state  have  lost  their 
plasticity.  The  pieces  are  consequently  damped  to  the  desired 
degree,  and  this  is  usually  effected  in  a  damping  machine  in 
passing  through  which  they  meet  with  a  fine  spray  of  water. 

A  simple  and  effective  device  for  this  purpose  is  shown  in  section 
in  fig.  2.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  brass  roller  r  running  in  water 


FINISHING 


379 


contained  in  a  trough  or  box  /.     Touching  the  brass  roller  is  a  brush 
roller  b  which  revolves  at  a  high  speed,  thus  spraying  the  water, 

which  it  takes  up 
continuously  from 
the  wet  revolving 
brass  roller  in  all 
idirections,  and 
'  consequently  also 
against  the  piece 
which  passes  in  a 
stretched  condi- 
tion over  the  top 
of  the  box,  being 
drawn  from  the 
batch  roller  B, 


FIG.  2. — Principle  of  Damping  Machine. 


over  scrimp  rails  S,  and  batched  again  on  the  other  side  on  roller  R. 
The  level  of  the  water  in  the  trough  is  kept  constant. 

f  Calendering. — The  calender  may  be  regarded  as  an  elaboration 
of  the  ordinary  mangle,  from  which,  however,  it  differs  essentially 
inasmuch  as  one  or  more  of  the  rollers  or  bowls  are  made  of  steel 
or  iron  and  can  be  treated  either  by  gas  or  steam;  the  other 
bowls  are  made  of  compressed  cotton  or  paper.  Three  distinct 
forms  of  calender  are  in  use,  viz.  the  ordinary  calender,  the 
friction  calender  and  the  embossing  calender. 

The  number  of  bowls  in  an  ordinary  calender  varies  between 
two  and  six  according  to  the  character  of  the  finish  for  which 
it  is  intended.  In  a  modern  five-bowl  calender  the  bottom  bowl 
is  made  of  cast  iron,  the  second  of  compressed  cotton  or  paper, 
the  third  of  iron  being  hollow  and  fitted  with  steam  heating 
apparatus.  The  fourth  bowl  is  made  of  compressed  cotton,  and 
the  fifth  of  cast  iron.  The  pieces  are  simply  passed  through  for 
"  swissing,"  i.e.  for  the  production  of  an  ordinary  plain  finish. 
The  same  calender  may  also  be  used  for  "  chasing,"  in  which 
two  pieces  are  passed  through,  face  to  face,  in  order  to  produce 
an  imitation  linen  finish.  Moire  or  "  watered  "  effects  are 
produced  in  a  similar  way,  but  these  effects  are  frequently 
imitated  in  the  embossing  calender. 

The  friction  calender,  the  object  of  which  is  to  produce  a  high 
gloss  on  the  fabric,  differs  from  the  ordinary  calender  inasmuch 
as  one  of  the  bowls  is  caused  to  revolve  at  a  greater  speed  than 
the  others.  In  an  ordinary  three-bowl  friction  calender  the 
bottom  bowl  is  made  of  cast  iron,  the  middle  one  of  compressed 
cotton  or  paper,  and  the  top  one  (the  friction  bowl)  of  highly 
polished  chilled  iron.  The  last-named  bowl,  which  has  a  greater 
peripheral  speed  than  the  others,  is  hollow  and  can  be  heated 
either  by  steam  or  gas. 

The  embossing  calender  is  usually  constructed  of  two  bowls, 
one  of  which  is  of  steel  and  the  other  of  compressed  cotton  or 
paper.  The  steel  roller,  which  is  hollow  and  can  be  heated 
either  by  steam  or  gas,  is  engraved  with  the  pattern  which  it  is 
desired  to  impart  to  the  piece.  If  the  pattern  is  deep,  as  is  the 
case  in  the  production  of  book  cloths,  it  is  necessary  to  run  the 
machine  empty  under  pressure  until  the  pattern  of  the  steel 
bowl  has  impressed  itself  into  the  cotton  or  paper  bowls,  but  if 
the  effect  desired  only  consists  of  very  fine  lines,  this  is  not 
necessary;  for  instance,  in  the  production  of  the  Schreiner 
finish,  which  is  intended  to  give  the  pieces  (especially  after 
mercerizing)  the  appearance  of  silk,  the  steel  roller  is  engraved 
with  fine  diagonal  lines  which  are  so  close  together  (about  250 
to  the  in.)  as  to  be  undistinguishable  by  the  naked  eye. 

Beetling  is  a  process  by  which  a  peculiar  linen-like  appearance 
and  a  leathery  feel  or  handle  are  imparted  to  cotton  fabrics,  the 
process  being  also  employed  for  improving  the  appearance  of 
linen  goods.  For  the  best  class  of  beetle  finish,  the  pieces  are 
first  impregnated  with  sago  starch  and  the  other  necessary 
ingredients  (softening,  &c.)  and  are  dried  on  cylinders.  They 
are  then  damped  on  a  water  mangle,  and  beamed  on  to  the 
heavy  iron  bowl  of  the  beetling  machine. 

A  beetling  machine  of  the  kind,  with  four  sets  of  "  fallers,"  is 
shown  in  fig.  3.  The  fallers  are  made  of  beech  wood,  are  about  8  ft. 
long,  5j  in.  deep  and  4  in.  wide,  and  are  kept  in  their  vertical  position 
by  two  pairs  of  guide  rails.  Each  faller  is  provided  with  a  tappet 
or  wooden  peg  driven  in  at  one  side,  which  engages  with  the  teeth 
or  "  wipers  "  of  the  revolving  shaft  in  the  front  of  the  machine. 
The  effect  of  this  mechanism  is  to  lift  the  faller  a  distance  of  about 
13  in.  and  then  let  it  drop  on  to  the  cloth  wound  on  the  beam.  This 


lifting  and  dropping  of  the  fallers  on  to  the  beam  takes  place  in 
rhythmical  and  rapid  succession.  To  ensure  even  treatment  the 
beam  turns  slowly  round  and  also  has  a  to-and-fro  movement  im- 
parted to  it.  The  treatment  may  last,  according  to  the  finish  which 
it  is  desired  to  obtain,  from  one  to  sixty  hours. 


FIG.  3. — Beetling  Machine  (Edmeston  &  Sons). 

Beetling  was  originally  used  for  linen  goods,  but  to-day  is 
almost  entirely  applied  to  cotton  for  the  production  of  so-called 
linenettes. 

Hot-pressing  is  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  order  to  obtain  a 
soft  finish  on  cotton  goods,  but  as  this  operation  is  more  used  for 
wool,  it  will  be  described  below. 

Raising. — This  operation,  which  was  formerly  only  used  for 
woollen  goods  (teasing),  has  come  largely  into  use  for  cotton 
pieces,  partly  in  consequence  of  the  introduction  of  the  direct 
cotton  colours  by  which  the  cotton  is  dyed  evenly  throughout 
(see  DYEING),  and  partly  in  consequence  of  new  and  improved 
machinery  having  been  devised  for  the  purpose.  Starting  with 
a  plain  bleached,  dyed  or  printed  fabric,  the  process  consists 
in  principle  in  raising  or  drawing  out  the  ends  of  individual 
fibres  from  the  body  of  the  cloth,  so  as  to  produce  a  nap  or  soft 
woolly  surface  on  the  face. 

This  is  effected  by  passing  the  fabric  slowly  round  a  large  drum  D, 
which  is  surrounded,  as  shown  in  the  diagram  (fig.  4),  by  a  number  of 


XJ 


FIG.  4. — Raising. 

small  cylinders  or  rollers,  r,  covered  with  steel  wire  brushes  or 
"  carding,"  such  as  is  used  in  carding  engines  (see  COTTON-SPINNING 
MACHINERY). 

The  rollers  r,  which  are  all  driven  by  one  and  the  same  belt 
(not  shown  in  the  figure),  revolve  at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  and  can  be 
made  to  do  so  either  in  the  same  direction  as  that  followed  by  the 
piece  as  it  travels  through  the  machine  or  in  the  opposite  one.  In 
addition  to  their  revolving  round  their  own  axes,  the  raising  rollers 
may  be  either  kept  stationary  or  may  be  moved  round  the  drum  D  in 
either  direction. 

In  the  more  modern  machines  there  are  two  sets  of  raising  rollers, 
of  which  each  alternate  one  is  caused  to  revolve  in  the  direction 
followed  by  the  piece,  while  the  other  is  made  to  revolve  in  the 
opposite  direction.  By  passing  through  an  arrangement  of  this 
kind  several  times,  or  through  several  such  machines  in  succession, 
the  ends  of  the  fibres  are  gradually  drawn  out  to  the  desired  extent. 


38o 


FINISHING 


After  raising,  the  pieces  are  sheared  (for  better  class  work) 
in  order  to  produce  greater  regularity  in  the  length  of  the  nap. 
The  raised  style  of  finishing  is  used  chiefly  for  the  production  of 
uniformly  white  or  coloured  flannelettes  but  is  also  used  for 
such  as  are  dyed  in  the  yarn,  and  to  a  limited  extent  for  printed 
fabrics. 

Woollen  and  Worsted  Pieces. — Although  both  of  these  classes 
of  material  are  made  from  wool,  their  treatment  in  finishing 
differs  so  materially  that  it  is  necessary  to  deal  with  them 
separately.  Unions  or  fabrics  consisting  of  a  cotton  warp  with 
a  worsted  weft  are  in  general  treated  like  worsteds. 

In  the  finishing  of  woollen  pieces  the  most  important  operation 
is  that  of  milling,  which  consists  in  subjecting  the  pieces  to 
mechanical  friction,  usually  in  an  alkaline  medium  (soap  or 
soap  and  soda)  but  sometimes  in  an  acid  (sulphuric  acid)  medium, 
in  order  to  bring  about  felting  and  consequent  "  fulling  "  of  the 
fabric.  This  felting  of  the  wool  is  due  to  the  peculiar  structure 
of  the  fibre,  the  scales  of  which  all  protrude  in  one  direction,  so 
that  the  individual  fibres  can  slip  past  each  other  in  one  direction 
more  readily  than  in  the  opposite  one  and  thus  become  more  and 
more  interlocked  as  the  milling  proceeds.  If  the  pieces  contain 
burrs  these  are  usually  removed  by  a  process  known  as  "  carbon- 
izing," which  generally,  but  not  necessarily,  precedes  the  milling. 
Their  removal  depends  upon  the  fact  that  the  burrs,  which 
consist  in  the  main  of  cellulose,  are  disintegrated  at  elevated 
temperatures  by  dilute  mineral  acids.  The  pieces  are  run 
through  sulphuric  acid  of  from  4°  to  6°  Tw.,  squeezed  or  hydro- 
extracted,  and  dried  over  cylinders  and  then  in  stoves.  The 
acid  is  thus  concentrated  -and  attacks  the  burrs,  which  fall  to 
dust,  while  leaving  the  wool  intact.  For  the  removal  of  the  acid 
the  fabric  is  first  washed  in  water  and  then  in  weak  soda.  Carbon- 
izing is  also  sometimes  used  for  worsteds. 

Milling  was  formerly  all  done  in  milling  or  fulling  stocks  (see 
fig.  5),  in  which  the  cloth  saturated  with  a  strong  solution  of  soap 


FlG.  5.— Milling  Stocks. 

(with  or  without  other  additions  such  as  stale  urine,  potash, 
fuller's  earth,  &c.)  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  heavy  wooden 
hammers,  which  are  raised  by  the  cams  attached  to  the  wheel 
(E)  on  the  revolving  shaft,  and  fall  with  their  own  weight  on  to 
the  bundles  of  cloth.  The  shape  of  the  hammer-head  causes  the 
cloth  to  turn  slowly  in  the  cavity  in  which  the  milling  takes  place. 
Occasionally,  the  cloth  is  taken  out,  straightened,  washed  if 
necessary,  and  then  returned  to  the  stocks  to  undergo  further 
treatment,  the  process  being  continued  until  the  material  is 
uniformly  shrunk  or  milled  to  the  desired  degree. 

In  the  more  modern  forms  of  milling  machines  the  principle 
adopted  is  to  draw  the  pieces  in  rope  form,  saturated  with  soap 
solution  and  sewn  together  end  to  end  so  as  to  form  an  endless 
band,  between  two  or  more  rollers,  on  leaving  which  they  are 
forced  down  a  closed  trough  ending  in  an  aperture  the  size  of 
which  can  be  varied,  but  which  in  any  case  is  sufficiently  small 
to  cause  a  certain  amount  of  force  to  be  necessary  to  push  the 
pieces  through.  A  machine  of  this  kind  is  shown  in  fig.  6.  It  is 
evident  that  for  coloured  goods  which  have  to  be  milled  only 


such  colouring  matters  must  be  chosen  for  dyeing  that  are 
absolutely  fast  to  soap. 

After  the  pieces  have  been  milled  down  to  the  desired  degree, 
they  present  an  uneven  and  undesirable  appearance  on  the 
surface,  the  ends 
of  many  of  the 
fibres  which  pre- 
viously projected 
having  been 
turned  and  thus 
become  embedded 
in  the  body  of  the 
cloth.  In  order  to 
bring  these  hairs 
to  the  surface 
again,  the  fabric  is 
subjected  to  teas- 
ing or  raising,  an 
operation  iden- 
tical in  principle 
with  one  which 


has  already   been 


From  Ganswindt,  Technologic  dtr  A  pprctur. 

FIG.  6. — Roller  Milling  Machine. 

noticed  under  the  finishing  of  cotton.  In  place  of  the  steel  wire 
brushes  it  is  the  usual  practice  to  employ  teasels  for  the  treat- 
ment of  woollen  goods. 

The  teasel  (see  fig.  7)  is  the  dried  head  (fruit)  of  a  kind  of  thistle 
(Dipsacusfullorum),  the  horny  sharp  spikes  of  which  turn  downwards 
at  their  extremity,  and,  while  possessing  the  necessary  sharpness 
and  strength  for  raising  the  fibres,  are  not  sufficiently  rigid  to  cause 
any  material  damage  to  the  cloth.  For  raising,  the  teasels  are  fixed 
in  rows  on  a  large  revolving  drum,  and  the  piece  to  be  treated  is 
drawn  lengthways  underneath  the  drum,  being  guided  by  rollers 
or  rods  so  as  to  just  touch  the  teasels  as  they  sweep  past.  In  the 
raising  of  woollen  goods  it  is  necessary  that  the  pieces  should  be 
damp  or  moist  while  undergoing  this  treatment. 

After  teasing,  the  pieces  are  stretched  and  dried.  At  this 
stage  they  still  have  an  irregular  appearance,  for  although  the 
raising  has  brought  all  the  loose  ends  of  the  fibres  to  the  surface, 
these  vary  considerably  in  length  and  thus  give  rise  to  an  uneven 
nap. 

By  the  next  operation  of  shearing  or  cropping,  the  long  hairs 
are  cut  off  and  a  uniform  surface  is  thus  obtained.  Shearing 
was  in  former  times  done  by 
hand,  by  means  of  shears, 
but  is  to-day  universally 
effected  by  means  of  a  cut- 
ting device  which  works  on 
the  same  principle  as  an 
ordinary  lawn-mower,  in 
which  a  number  of  spiral 
blades  set  on  the  surface  of 
a  rapidly  revolving  roller 
pass  continuously  over  a 
straight  fixed  blade  under- 
neath, the  roller  being  set 
so  that  the  spiral  blades 
just  touch  the  fixed  blade. 
Before  the  piece  comes  to 
the  shearing  device  the  nap 
is  raised  by  means  of  a 
rotary  brush.  Shearing  may 
be  effected  either  trans- 
versely, in  which  case  the 
fixed  blade-  is  parallel  to 
the  warp,  or  longitudinally 

with  the  fixed  blade  parallel  From  Ganswindt  Technologie  derApprelur. 
to  the  weft.  In  the  first  case,      FlG    -,._Teasel  used  for  Raising. 
the  piece  being  stretched  on 

a  table,  over  which  the  cutter,  carried  on  rails,  travels  from  selv- 
edge to  selvedge.  The  length  of  the  piece  that  can  be  shorn  in 
one  operation  will  naturally  depend  upon  the  length  of  the  blade, 
but  in  any  case  the  process  is  necessarily  intermittent,  many 
operations  being  required  before  the  whole  piece  is  shorn.  In 


FINISHING 


381 


the  longitudinal  shearing  machines  the  process  is  continuous, 
the  pieces  passing  from  the  beam  in  the  stretched  condition 
over  the  rotary  brush,  under  the  fixed  blade,  and  then  being 
again  brushed  before  being  beamed  on  the  other  side  of  the 
machine.  Shearing  once  is  generally  insufficient,  and  for  this 
reason  many  of  the  modern  machines  are  constructed  with 
duplicate  arrangements  so  as  to  effect  the  shearing  twice  in  the 
same  operation.  In  the  finishing  of  certain  woollen  goods  the 
pieces,  after  having  been  milled,  raised  and  sheared,  go  through 
these  operations  again  in  the  same  sequence. 

After  these  operations  the  goods  are  pressed  either  in  the 
hydraulic  press  or  in  the  continuous  press,  and  according  to  the 
character  of  the  material  and  the  finish  desired  may  or  may 
not  be  steamed  under  pressure,  all  of  which  operations  are 
described  below. 

New  cloth,  as  it  comes  into  the  hands  of  the  tailor,  frequently 
shows  an  undesirable  gloss  or  sheen,  which  is  removed  before 
making  up  by  a  process  known  as  shrinking,  in  which  the  material 
is  simply  damped  or  steamed. 

Worsteds  and  Unions. — The  pieces  are  first  singed  by  gas  or 
hot  plate  (see  BLEACHING),  and  are  then  usually  subjected  to  a 
process  known  as  "  crabbing,"  the  object  of  which  is  to  "  set  " 
the  wool  fibres.  If  this  operation  is  omitted,  especially  in  the 
case  of  unions,  the  fabric  will  "  cockle,"  or  assume  an  uneven 
surface  on  being  wetted.  In  crabbing  the  pieces  are  drawn 
at  full  breadth  and  under  as  much  tension  as  they  will  stand 
through  boiling  water,  and  are  wound  or  beamed  on  to  a  roller 
under  the  pressure  of  a  superposed  heavy  iron  roller,  the  operation 
being  conducted  two  or  three  times  as  required.  From  the 
crabbing  machine  the  pieces  are  wound  on  to  a  perforated 
shell  or  steel  cylinder  which  is  closed  at  one  end.  The  open 
end  is  then  attached  to  a  steam  pipe,  and  steam,  at  a  pressure 
of  30  to  45  Ib,  is  allowed  to  enter  until  it  makes  its  way  through 
all  the  layers  of  cloth  to  the  outside,  when  the  steam  is  turned 
off  and  the  whole  allowed  to  cool.  Since  those  layers  of  the  cloth 
which  are  nearest  the  shell  are  acted  upon  for  a  longer  period 
than  those  at  the  outside,  it  is  necessary  to  re-wind  and  repeat 
the  operation,  the  outside  portions  coming  this  time  nearest  to 
the  shell.  The  principle  of  the  process  depends  upon  the  fact 
that  at  elevated  temperatures  moist  wool  becomes  plastic,  and 
then  easily  assumes  the  shape  imparted  to  it  by  the  great  tension 
under  which  the  pieces  are  wound.  On  cooling  the  shape  is 
retained,  and  since  the  temperature  at  which  the  pieces  were 
steamed  under  tension  exceeds  any  to  which  they  are  submitted 
in  the  subsequent  processes,  the  "  setting  "  of  the  fibres  is 
permanent.  After  crabbing,  the  pieces  are  washed  or  "  scoured  " 
in  soap  either  on  the  winch  or  at  full  width.  In  some  cases  the 
crabbing  precedes  the  scouring.  The  goods  are  then  dyed  and 
finished. 

The  nature  of  the  finishing  process  will  vary  considerably 
according  to  the  special  character  of  the  goods  under  treatment. 
Thus,  for  certain  classes  of  goods  cold  pressing  is  sufficient, 
while  in  other  cases  the  pieces  are  steamed  under  pressure  in  a 
manner  analogous  to  the  treatment  after  crabbing  ("  decatiz- 
ing  ").  The  treatment  in  most  common  use  for  worsteds  and 
unions  is  hot  pressing,  which  may  be  effected  either  in  the 
hydraulic  press  or  in  the  continuous  press,  but  in  most  cases  in 
the  former. 

In  pressing  in  the  hydraulic  press  the  pieces  are  folded  down 
by  hand  on  a  table,  a  piece  of  press  paper  (thin  hand-made 
cardboard  with  a  glossed  and  extremely  hard  surface)  being 
inserted  between  each  lap.  After  a  certain  number  of  laps,  a 
steel  or  iron  press  plate  is  inserted,  and  the  folding  proceeds 
in  this  way  until  the  pile  is  sufficiently  high,  when  it  is  placed 
in  the  press.  The  press  being  filled,  the  hydraulic  ram  is  set 
in  motion  until  the  reading  on  the  gauge  shows  that  the  desired 
amount  of  pressure  has  been  obtained.  The  heating  of  the  press 
plates  was  formerly  done  in  ovens,  previous  to  their  insertion 
in  the  piece,  but  although  this  practice  is  still  in  vogue  in  rare 
instances,  the  heating  is  now  effected  either  by  means  of  steam 
which  is  caused  to  circulate  through  the  hollow  steel  plates, 
or  in  the  more  modern  forms  of  presses  by  means  of  an  electric 


current.  After  the  pieces  have  thus  been  subjected  to  the 
combined  effects  of  heat  and  pressure  for  the  desired  length  of 
time,  they  are  allowed  to  cool  in  the  press.  It  is  evident  that 
portions  of  the  pieces,  viz.  the  folds,  thus  escape  the  finishing 
process,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  necessary  to  repeat  the  process, 
the  folds  now  being  made  to  lie  in  the  middle  of  the  press 
papers. 

The  continuous  press,  which  is  used  for  certain  classes  of  worsteds, 
but  more  especially  for  woollen  goods,  consists  in  principle  of  a 
polished  steam-heated  steel  cylinder  against  which  either  one  or  two 
steam-heated  chilled  iron  cheeks  are  set  by  mcansof  leversand  adjust- 
ing screws.  The  pieces  to  be  pressed  are  drawn  slowly  between  the 


From  Ganswindt,  Technologic  da  Appretw. 

FIG.  8. — Continuous  Press. 

cheeks  and  the  bowl.  A  machine  of  the  kind  is  shown  in  section  in 
fig.  8.  In  working,  the  cheeks  C,  Ci  are  pressed  against  the  bowl  B. 
The  course  followed  by  the  cloth  to  be  finished  is  shown  by  the 
dotted  line,  the  finished  material  being  mechanically  folded  down 
on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  machine.  The  pieces  thus  acquire  a 
certain  amount  of  finish  which  is,  however,  not  comparable  with 
that  produced  in  the  hydraulic  press. 

Pile  Fabrics,  such  as  velvets,  velveteens,  corduroys,  plushes, 
sealskins,  &c.,  require  a  special  treatment  in  finishing,  and  great 
care  must  be  taken  in  all  operations  to  prevent  the  pile  being 
crushed  or  otherwise  damaged.  Velveteens  and  corduroys  are 
singed  before  boiling  or  bleaching.  Velveteens  dyed  in  black 
or  in  dark  shades  are  brushed  with  an  oil  colour  (e.g.  Prussian 
blue  for  blacks),  and  dried  over-night  in  a  hot  stove  in  order  to 
give  them  a  characteristic  bloom.  Regularity  in  the  pile  and 
gloss  are  obtained  by  shearing  and  brushing.  Corduroys  are 
stiffened  at  the  back  by  the  application  of  "  bone-size  "  (practi- 
cally an  impure  form  of  glue)  in  a  machine  similar  to  that  used 
for  back-starching.  The  face  of  the  fabric  is  waxed  with  beeswax 
by  passing  the  piece  under  a  revolving  drum,  on  the  surface 
of  which  bars  of  this  material  are  fixed  parallel  to  the  axis. 
The  bars  just  touch  the  surface  of  the  fabric  as  it  passes  through 
the  machine.  The  gloss  is  then  obtained  by  brushing  with 
circular  brushes  which  run  partly  in  the  direction  of  the  piece 
and  partly  diagonally.  In  the  finishing  of  velvets,  shearing 
and  brushing  are  the  most  important  operations.  The  same 
applies  to  sealskins  and  other  long  pile  fabrics,  but  with  these 
an  additional  operation,  viz.  that  of  "  batting,"  is  employed 
after  dyeing  and  before  shearing  and  brushing,  which  consists 
in  beating  the  back  of  the  stretched  fabric  with  sticks  in  order 
to  shake  out  the  pile  and  cause  it  to  stand  erect. 

For  the  finishing  of  silk  pieces  the  operations  and  machinery 
employed  are  similar  in  character  to  some  of  those  used  for 
cotton  and  worsteds.  Most  high-class  silks  require  no  further 
treatment  other  than  simple  damping  and  pressing  after  they 
leave  the  loom.  Inferior  qualities  are  frequently  filled  or  back- 
filled with  glue,  sugar,  gum  tragacanth,  dextrin,  &c.,  after  which 
they  are  dried,  damped  and  given  a  light  calender  finish.  Moir6 


382 


FINISTERE 


or  watered  effects  are  produced  by  running  two  pieces  face  to 
face  through  a  calender  or  by  means  of  an  embossing  calender. 
In  the  latter  case  the  pattern  repeats  itself.  For  the  production 
of  silk  crape  the  dyed  (generally  black)  piece  is  impregnated 
with  a  solution  of  shellac  in  methylated  spirit  and  dried.  It 
is  then  "  goffered,"  an  operation  which  is  practically  identical 
with  embossing  (see  above),  and  may  either  be  done  on  an 
embossing  calender  or  by  means  of  heated  brass  plates  in  which 
the  design  is  engraved  to  the  desired  depth  and  pattern. 

The  measuring,  wrapping,  doubling,  folding,  &c.,  of  piece  goods 
previous  to  making  up  are  done  in  the  works  by  specially  con- 
structed machinery. 

Finishing  of  Yarn. — The  finishing  of  yarn  is  not  nearly  so 
important  as  the  finishing  of  textiles  in  the  piece,  and  it  will 
suffice  to  draw  attention  to  the  main  operations.  Cotton  yarns 
are  frequently  "  gassed,"  i.e.  drawn  through  a  gas  flame,  in 
order  to  burn  or  singe  off  the  projecting  fibres  and  thus  to  produce 
a  clean  thread  which  is  required  for  the  manufacture  of  certain 
classes  of  fabrics.  The  most  important  finishing  process  for 
cotton  yarn  is  "  mercerizing  "  (<?.».),  by  means  of  which  a  per- 
manent silk-like  gloss  is  obtained.  The  "  polishing  "  of  cotton 
yarn,  by  means  of  which  a  highly  glazed  product,  similar  in 
appearance  to  horsehair,  is  obtained,  is  effected  by  impregnating 
the  yarn  with  a  paste  consisting  essentially  of  starch,  beeswax 
or  paraffin  wax  and  soap,  and  then  subjecting  the  damp  material 
to  the  action  of  revolving  brushes  until  dry.  Woollen  yarn  is 
not  subjected  to  any  treatment,  but  worsted  yarns  (especially 
twofold)  have  to  be  "  set  "  before  scouring  and  dyeing  in  order 
to  prevent  curling.  This  is  effected  by  stretching  the  yarn 
tight  on  a  frame,  which  is  immersed  in  boiling  water  and  then 
allowing  it  to  cool  in  this  condition. 

A  peculiar  silk-like  gloss  and  feel  is  sometimes  imparted  to 
yarns  made  from  lustre  wool  by  a  treatment  with  a  weak  solution 
of  chlorine  (bleaching  powder  and  hydrochloric  acid)  followed 
by  a  treatment  with  soap. 

Worsted  and  mohair  yarns  intended  for  the  manufacture  of 
braids  are  singed  by  gas,  a  process  technically  known  as 
•"  Genapping." 

Silk  yarn  is  subjected  to  various  mechanical  processes  before 
weaving.  The  most  important  of  these  are  stretching,  shaking, 
lustreing  and  glossing.  Stretching  and  shaking  are  simple 
operations  the  nature  of  which  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  their 
names,  and  by  these  means  the  hanks  are  stretched  to  their 
original  length  and  straightened  out  by  hand  or  on  a  specially 
devised  machine.  In  lustreing,  the  yarn  is  stretched  slightly 
beyond  its  original  length  between  two  polished  revolving 
cylinders  (one  of  which  is  steam  heated)  contained  in  a  box  or 
chest  into  which  steam  is  admitted.  In  glossing,  the  yarn  is 
twisted  tight,  first  in  one  direction  and  then  in  the  other,  on  a 
machine,  this  alternating  action  being  continued  until  the 
maximum  gloss  is  obtained. 

The  so-called  "  scrooping "  process,  which  gives  to  silk  a 
peculiar  feel  and  causes  it  to  crackle  or  crunch  when  compressed 
by  the  hand,  is  a  very  simple  operation,  and  consists  in  treating 
the  yarn  after  dyeing  in  a  bath  of  dilute  acid  (acetic,  tartaric  or 
sulphuric)  and  then  drying  without  washing.  Heavily  weighted 
black  silks  are  passed  after  dyeing  through  an  emulsion  of  olive 
oil  in  soap  and  dried  without  washing,  in  order  to  give  additional 
lustre  to  the  material  or  rather  to  restore  some  of  the  lustre 
which  has  been  lost  in  weighting.  (E.  K.) 

FINISTtRE,  or  FINISTERRE,  the  most  western  department  of 
France,  formed  from  part  of  the  old  province  of  Brittany.  Pop. 
(1906)  705,103.  Area,  2713  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded  W.  and  S.  by 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  E.  by  the  departments  of  C6tes-du-Nord 
and  Morbihan,  and  N.  by  the  English  Channel.  Two  converging 
chains  of  hills  run  from  the  west  towards  the  east  of  the  depart- 
ment and  divide  it  into  three  zones  conveying  the  waters  in  three 
different  directions.  North  of  the  Arree,  or  more  northern  of 
the  two  chains,  the  waters  of  the  Douron,  Penze  and  Fleche 
flow  northward  to  the  sea.  The  Elorn,  however,  after  a  short 
northerly  course,  turns  westward  and  empties  into  the  Brest 
roads.  South  of  the  Montagnes  Noires,  the  Odet,  Aven,  Isole 


and  Elle  flow  southward;  while  the  waters  of  the  Aulne,  flowing 
through  a  region  enclosed  by  the  two  chains  with  a  westward 
declination,  discharge  into  the  Brest  roads.  The  rivers  are  all 
small,  and  none  of  the  hills  attain  a  height  of  1300  ft.  The 
coast  is  generally  steep  and  rocky  and  at  some  points  dangerous, 
notably  off  Cape  Raz  and  the  lie  de  Sein;  it  is  indented  with 
numerous  bays  and  inlets,  the  chief  of  which — the  roadstead 
of  Brest  and  the  Bays  of  Douarnenez  and  Audierne— are  on  the 
west.  The  principal  harbours  are  those  of  Brest,  Concarneau, 
Morlaix,  Landerneau,  Quimper  and  Douarnenez.  Off  the  coast 
lie  a  number  of  islands  and  rocks,  the  principal  of  which  are 
Ushant  (tf.f.)N.W.  of  Cape  St  Mathieu,  and  Batz  off  Roscoff. 
The  climate  is  temperate  and  equable,  but  humid ;  the  prevailing 
winds  are  the  W.,  S.W.  and  N.W.  Though  more  than  a  third 
of  the  department  is  covered  by  heath,  waste  land  and  forest, 
it  produces  oats,  wheat,  buckwheat,  rye  and  barley  in  quantities 
more  than  sufficient  for  its  population.  In  the  extreme  north 
the  neighbourhood  of  Roscoff,  and  farther  south  the  borders 
of  the  Brest  roadstead,  are  extremely  fertile  and  yield  large 
quantities  of  asparagus,  artichokes  and  onions,  besides  melons 
and  other  fruits.  The  cider  apple  is  abundant  and  furnishes  the 
chief  drink  of  the  inhabitants.  Hemp  and  flax  are  also  grown. 
The  farm  and  dairy  produce  is  plentiful,  and  great  attention  is 
paid  to  the  breeding  and  feeding  of  cattle  and  horses.  The  pro- 
duction of  honey  and  wax  is  considerable.  The  fisheries  of  the 
coast,  particularly  the  pilchard  fishery,  employ  a  great  many 
hands  and  render  this  department  an  excellent  nursery  of  seamen 
for  the  French  navy.  Coal,  though  found  in  Finistere,  is  not 
mined;  there  are  quarries  of  granite,  slate,  potter's  clay,  &c. 
The  lead  mines  of  Poullaouen  and  Huelgoat,  which  for  several 
centuries  yielded  a  considerable  quantity  of  silver,  are  no  longer 
worked.  The  preparation  of  sardines  is  carried  on  on  a  large 
scale  at  several  of  the  coast-towns.  The  manufactures  include 
linens,  woollens,  sail-cloth,  ropes,  agricultural  implements,  paper, 
leather,  earthenware,  soda,  soap,  candles,  and  fertilizers  and 
chemicals  derived  from  seaweed.  Brest  has  important  foundries 
and  engineering  works;  and  shipbuilding  is  carried  on  there 
and  at  other  seaports.  Brest  and  Morlaix  are  the  most  important 
commercial  ports.  Trade  is  in  fish,  vegetables  and  fruit. 
Coal  is  the  chief  import.  The  department  is  served  by  the 
Orleans  and  Western  railways.  The  canal  from  Nantes  to  Brest 
has  51  m.  of  its  length  in  the  department.  The  Aulne  is 
navigable  for  17  m.,  and  many  of  the  smaller  rivers  for  short 
distances. 

Finistere  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Quimperle, 
Brest,  Chateaulin,  Morlaix  and  Quimper  (43  cantons,  294  com- 
munes), the  town  of  Quimper  being  the  capital  of  the  department 
and  the  seat  of  a  bishopric.  The  department  belongs  to  the 
region  of  the  XI.  army  corps  and  to  the  archiepiscopal  province 
and  academic  (educational  division)  of  Rennes,  where  its  court 
of  appeal  is  also  situated. 

The  more  important  places  are  Quimper,  Brest,  Morlaix, 
Quimperle,  St  Pol-de-Leon,  Douarnenez,  Concarneau,  Roscoff, 
Penmarc'h  and  Pont-1'Abbe.  Finistere  abounds  in  menhirs  and 
other  megalithic  monuments,  of  which  those  of  Penmarc'h, 
Plouarzal  and  Crozon  are  noted.  The  two  religious  structures 
characteristic  of  Brittany — calvaries  and  charnel-houses — are 
frequently  met  with.  The  calvaries  of  Plougastel-Daoulas, 
Pleyben,  St  Thegonnec,  Lampaul-Guimiliau,  which  date  from 
the  I7th  century,  and  that  of  Guimiliau  (i6th  century),  and  the 
charnel-houses  of  Sizun  and  St  Thegonnec  (i6th  century)  and 
of  Guimiliau  (i7th  century)  may  be  instanced  as  the  most 
remarkable.  Daoulas  has  the  remains  of  a  fine  church  and 
cloister  in  the  Romanesque  style.  The  chapel  of  St  Herbot 
(i6th  century)  near  Loqueffret,  the  churches  of  St  Jean-du-Doigt 
and  Locronan,  which  belong  to  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries, 
those  of  Ploare,  Roscoff,  Penmarc'h  and  Pleyben  of  the  i6th 
century,  that  of  Le  Folgoet  (i4th  and  i6th  centuries),  and  the 
huge  chateau  of  Kerjean  (i6th  century)  are  of  architectural  in- 
terest. Religious  festivals,  and  processions  known  as  "  pardons," 
are  held  in  many  places,  notably  at  Locronan,  St  Jean-du-Doigt, 
St  Herbot  and  Le  Faou. 


FINLAND 


383 


FINLAND  (Finnish,  Suomi  or  Suomenmaa),  a  grand-duchy 
governed  subject  to  its  own  constitution  by'  the  emperor  of 
Russia  as  grand-duke  of  Finland.  It  is  situated  between  the 
gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  and  includes,  moreover,  a  large 
territory  in  Lapland.  It  touches  at  its  south-eastern  extremity 
the  government  of  St  Petersburg,  includes  the  northern  half 
of  Lake  Ladoga,  and  is  separated  from  the  Russian  governments 
of  Arkhangelsk  and  Olonets  by  a  sinuous  line  which  follows, 
roughly  speaking,  the  water-parting  between  the  rivers  flowing 
into  the  Baltic  Sea  and  the  White  Sea.  In  the  north  of  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia  it  is  separated  from  Sweden  and  Norway  by  a  broken 
line  which  takes  the  course  of  the  valley  of  the  Tornea  river  up 
to  its  sources,  thus  falling  only  21  m.  short  of  reaching  the  head 
of  Norwegian  Lyngen-fjord;  then  it  runs  south-east  and 
north-east  down  the  Tana  and  Pasis-joki,  but  does  not  reach 
the  Artie  Ocean,  and  13  m.  from  the  Varanger-fjord  it  turns 
southwards.  Finland  includes  in  the  south-west  the  Aland 
archipelago — its  frontier  approaching  within  8  m.  from  the 
Swedish  coast — as  well  as  the  islands  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
Hogland,  Tytars,  &c.  Its  utmost  limits  are:  59°  48'— 70°  6'  N., 
and  19°  2' — 32°  50'  E.  The  area  of  Finland,  in  square  miles, 
is  as  follows  (Atlas  de  Finlande,  1899): — 


Government. 

Continent. 

Islands 
in  Lakes. 

Islands 
in  Seas. 

Lakes. 

Total. 

Nyland 
Abo-Bjorneborg 

4,062 
7.594 

24 
8 

2IO 

1331 

286 
400 

4,582 
9,333 

Tavastehus 

6,837 

97 

1,400 

8,334 

Viborg 

11,630 

362 

130 

4-502 

16,624 

St  Michel    . 

5,652 

1018 

2,149 

8,819 

Kuopio 

13,160 

643 

2,696 

16,499 

Vasa    .... 

14-527 

62 

203 

1,313 

16,105 

Uleaborg     . 

60,348 

I?' 

94 

3,344 

63,957 

Total      . 

123,810 

2385 

1968 

16,090 

144,253 

Orography. — -A  line  drawn  from  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia 
to  the  eastern  coast  of  Lake  Ladoga  divides  Finland  into  two  distinct 
parts,  the  lake  region  and  the  nearly  uninhabited  hilly  tracts  belong- 
ing to  the  Kjolen  mountains,  to  the  plateau  of  the  Kola  peninsula, 
and  to  the  slopes  of  the  plateau  which  separates  Finland  proper 
from  the  White  Sea.  At  the  head-waters  of  the  Tornea,  Finland 
penetrates  as  a  narrow  strip  into  the  heart  of  the  highlands  of  Kjolen 
(the  Keel),  where  the  Haldefjall  (Lappish,  Halditjokko)  reaches  41 15 
ft.  above  the  sea,  and  is  surrounded  by  other  f  jails,  or  flat-topped 
summits,  of  from  3300  to  3750  ft.  of  altitude.  Extensive  plateaus 
(1500-1750  ft.),  into  which  Lake  Enare,  or  Inari,  and  the  valleys  of 
its  tributaries  are  deeply  sunk,  and  which  take  the  character  of  a 
mountain  region  in  the  Saariselka  (highest  summit,  2360  ft.),  occupy 
the  remainder  of  Lapland.  Along  the  eastern  border  the  dreary 
plateaus  of  Olonets  reach  on  Finnish  territory  altitudes  of  from  700 
to  1000  ft.  Quite  different  is  the  character  of  the  pentagonal  space 
comprised  between  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  Lake  Ladoga, 
and  the  above-mentioned  line  traced  through  the  lakes  Ulea  and 
Piellis.  The  meridional  ridges  which  formerly  used  to  be  traced  here 
along  the  main  water-partings  do  not  exist  in  reality,  and  the  country 
appears  on  the  hypsometrical  map  in  the  Atlas  de  Finlande  as  a 
plateau  of  350  ft.  of  average  altitude,  covered  with  countless  lakes, 
lying  at  altitudes  of  from  250  to  300  ft.  The  three  main  lake-basins 
of  Nasi-jarvi,  Pajane  and  Saima  are  separated  by  low  and  flat  hills 
only;  but  one  sees  distinctly  appearing  on  the  map  a  line  of  flat 
elevations  running  south-west  to  north-east  along  the  north-west 
border  of  the  lake  regions  from  Lauhanvuori  to  Kajana,  and  reaching 
from  650  to  825  ft.  of  altitude.  A  regular  gentle  slope  leads  from 
these  hills  to  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  (Osterbotten),  forming  vast  prairie 
tracts  in  its  lower  parts. 

A  notable  feature  of  Finland  are  the  asar  or  narrow  ridges  of 
morainic  deposits,  more  or  less  reassorted  on  their  surfaces.  Some 
of  them  are  relics  of  the  longitudinal  moraines  of  the  ice-sheet,  and 
they  run  north-west  to  south-east,  parallel  to  the  striaticn  of  the 
rocks  and  to  the  countless  parallel  troughs  excavated^by  the  ice  in 
the  hard  rocks  in  the  same  direction;  while  the  Lojo  as,  which  runs 
from  Hangoudd  to  Vesi-jarvi,  and  is  continued  farther  east  under 
the  name  of  Salpausellia,  parallel  to  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
are  remainders  of  the  frontal  moraines,  formed  at  a  period  when  the 
ice-sheet  remained  for  some  time  stationary  during  its  retreat.  As 
a  rule  these  forest-clothed  dsar  rise  from  30  to  60  and  occasionally 
120  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  country,  largely  adding 
to  the  already  great  picturesqueness  of  the  lake  region;  railways 
are  traced  in  preference  along  them. 

Lakes  and  Rivers. — A  labyrinth  of  lakes,  covering  II  %  of  the 
aggregate  territory,  and  connected  by  short  and  rapid  streams 
(fjdrden),  covers  the  surface  of  South  Finland,  offering  great  facilities 


for  internal  navigation,  while  the  connecting  streams  supply  an 
enormous  amount  of  motive-power.  The  chief  lakes  are :  Lake 
Ladoga,  of  which  the  northern  half  belongs  to  Finland;  Saima 
(three  and  a  half  times  larger  than  Lake  Leman),  whose  outlet,  the 
Vuoksen,  flows  into  Lake  Ladoga,  forming  the  mighty  Imatra  rapids, 
while  the  lake  itself  is  connected  by  means  of  a  sluiced  canal  with  the 
Gulf  of  Finland;  the  basins  of  Pyha-selka,  Ori-vesi  and  Piellis-jarvi ; 
Pajane,  surrounded  by  hundreds  of  smaller  lakes,  and  the  waters  of 
which  are  discharged  into  the  lower  gulf  through  the  Kymmene  river; 
Nasi-jarvi  and  Pyha-jarvi,  whose  outflow  is  the  Kumo-elf,  flowing 
into  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia;  Ulea-trask,  discharged  by  the  Ulea  into 
the  same  gulf;  and  Enare,  belonging  to  the  basin  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  Two  large  rivers,  Kemi  and  Tornea,  enter  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  Bothnia,  while  the  Ulea  is  now  navigable  throughout,  owing 
to  improvements  in  its  channel. 

Geology. — Cambrian,  Silurian,  Devonian  and  Carboniferous 
deposits  are  found  on  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland  and  Lake 
Ladoga,  and  also  along  the  coasts  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  (probably 
Devonian),  and  in  the  Kjolen.  Eruptive  rocks  of  Palaeozoic  age 
are  met  with  in  the  Kola  peninsula  (nepheline-syenites)  and  at 
Kuusamo  (syenite).  The  remainder  of  Finland  is  built  up  of  the 
oldest  known  crystalline  rocks  belonging  to  the  Archaeozoic  or 
Algonkian  period.  The  most  ancient  of  these  seem  to  be  the  granites 
of  East  Finland.  The  denudation  and  destruction  of  the  granites 
gave  rise  to  the  Ladoga  schists  and  various  deposits  of  the  same 
period,  which  were  subsequently  strongly  folded.  Then  the  country 
came  once  more  under  the  sea,  and  the  debris  of  the  previous 
formations,  mixed  with  fragments  from  the  vol- 
canoes then  situated  in  West  Finland,  formed  the 
so-called  Bothnian  series.  New  masses  of  granites 
protruded  next  from  underneath,  and  the  Bothnian 
deposits  underwent  foldings  in  their  turn,  while 
denudation  was  again  at  work  on  a  grand  scale.  A 
new  series  of  Jalulian  deposits  was  formed  and  a  new 
system  of  foldings  followed;  but  these  were  the  last 
in  this  part  of  the  globe.  The  Jotnian  series,  which 
were  formed  next,  remain  still  undisturbed.  It  is  to 
this  series  that  the  well-known  Rapakivi  granite  of 
Aland,  Nystad  and  Viborg  belongs.  No  marine 
deposits  younger  than  those  just  mentioned — all 
belonging  to  a  pre-Cambrian  epoch — are  found  in 
the  central  portion  of  Finland;  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  country  has  probably  been  dry  land  since 
Palaeozoic  times.  The  whole  of  Finland  is  covered  with  Glacial  and 
post-Glacial  deposits.  The  former  of  these,  representing  the  bottom- 
moraine  of  the  ice-sheet,  are  covered  with  Glacial  and  post-Glacial 
clays  (partly  of  lacustrine  and  partly  of  marine  origin)  only  in 
the  peripheral  coast-region — or  in  separate  areas  in  the  interior 
depressions.  Some  Finnish  geologists — Sederholm  for  one — con- 
sider it  probable  that  during  the  Glacial  period  an  Arctic  sea  ( Yoldia 
sea)  covered  all  southern  Finland  and  also  Scania  (Skane)  in  Sweden, 
thus  connecting  the  Atlantic  Ocean  with  the  Baltic  and  the  White 
Sea  by  a  broad  channel;  but  no  fossils  from  that  sea  have  been 
found  anywhere  in  Finland.  Conclusive  proofs,  however,  of  a  later 
submergence  under  a  post-Glacial  Littorina  sea  (containing  shells 
now  living  in  the  Baltic)  are  found  up  to  150  ft.  along  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  and  up  to  260,  or  perhaps  330  ft.,  in  Osterbotten.  Traces 
of  a  large  inner  post-Glacial  lake,  similar  to  Lake  Agassiz  of  North 
America,  have  been  discovered.  The  country  is  still  continuing 
to  rise,  but  at  an  unequal  rate;  of  nearly  3-3  ft.  in  a  century  in  the 
Gulf  of  Bothnia  (Kvarken),  from  1-4  to  2  ft.  in  the  south,  and  nearly 
zero  in  the  Baltic  provinces. 

Climate. — Owing  to  the  prevalence  of  moist  west  and  south-west 
winds  the  climate  of  Finland  is  less  severe  than  it  is  farther  east  in 
corresponding  latitudes.  The  country  lies  thus  between  the  annual 
isotherms  of  41°  and  28°  Fahr.,  which  run  in  a  W.N.W.-E.S.E. 
direction.  In  January  the  average  monthly  temperature  varies  from 
9°  Fahr.  about  Lake  Enare  to  30°  along  the  south  coast ;  while  in  July 
the  difference  between  the  monthly  averages  is  only  eight  degrees, 
being  53°  in  the  north  and  61°  in  the  south-east.  Everywhere,  and 
especially  in  the  interior,  the  winter  lasts  very  long,  and  early  frosts 
(June  12-14  m  1892)  often  destroy  the  crops.  The  amount  of  rain 
and  snow  is  from  25^  in.  along  the  south  coast  to  13-8  in.  in  the 
interior  of  southern  Finland. 

Flora,  Forests,  Fauna. — The  flora  of  Finland  has  been  most 
minutely  explored,  especially  in  the  south,  and  the  Finnish  botanists 
were_  enabled  to  divide  the  country  into  twenty-eight  different 
provinces,  giving  the  numbers  of  phanerogam  species  for  each  prov- 
ince. These  numbers  vary  from  318  to  400  species  in  Lapland, 
from  508  to  651  in  Karelia,  and  attain  752  species  for  Finland  proper; 
while  the  total  for  all  Finland  attains  1132  species.  Alpine  plants 
are  not  met  with  in  Finland  proper,  but  are  represented  by  from  32 
to  64  species  in  the  Kola  peninsula.  The  chief  forest  trees  of  Finland 
are  the  Scotch  fir  (Pinus  sylvestris,  L.),  the  fir  (Picea  excelsa,  Link.); 
two  species  of  birch  (B.  verrucosa,  Ehrh.,  and  B.  odorala,  Bechst.), 
as  well  as  the  birch-bush  (B.  nana) ;  two  species  of  Alnus  (glutinosa 
and  inca.no) ;  the  oak  (Q.  pedunculata,  Ehrh.),  which  grows  only  on 
the  south  coast ;  the  poplar  (Populus  tremula) ;  and  the  Siberian 
larch,  introduced  in  culture  in  the  l8th  century.  Over  6,000,000 
trees  are  cut  every  year  to  be  floated  to  thirty  large  saw-mills,  and 


384 


FINLAND 


about  i  ,000,000  to  be  transformed  into  paper  pulp.  The  total  export 
of  timber  was  valued  in  1897  at  82,160,000  marks.  It  is  estimated, 
however,  that  the  domestic  use  of  wood  (especially  for  fuel)  represents 
nearly  five  times  as  many  cubic  feet  as  the  wood  used  for  export  in 
different  shapes.  The  total  area  under  forests  is  estimated  at 
63,050,000  acres,  of  which  34,662,000  acres  belong  to  the  state. 
The  fauna  has  been  explored  in  great  detail  both  as  regards  the 
vertebrates  and  the  invertebrates,  and  specialists  will  find  the 
necessary  bibliographical  indications  in  Travaux  gcographiques  en 
Finlande,  published  for  the  London  Geographical  Congress  of  1895. 
Population. — The  population  of  Finland,  which  was  429,912  in 
1751.  832.659  >n  I8o°.  1,636,915  in  1850,  and  2,520,437  in  1895, 
was  2,712,562  in  1904,  of  whom  1,370,480  were  women  and  1,342,082 
men.  Of  these  only  341,602  lived  in  towns,  the  remainder  in  the 
country  districts.  The  distribution  of  population  in  various  prov- 
inces was  as  follows : — 


1904. 

Population. 

Density  per 
sq.  kilometre. 

Abo-Bjorneborg.        .        ... 
Kuopio  
Nyland  
St  Michel    
Tavastehus  
Uleaborg     
Viborg          
Vasa       

447,098 
313,951 
297,813 
189,360 
301,272 
280,899 
421,610 
460,460 

20-3 
8-9 

29-3 
Il-l 
17-7 
1-9 
14-6 
12-5 

Total 

2,712,562 

8-6 

The  number  of  births  in  1904  was  90,253  and  the  deaths  50,227, 
showing  an  excess  of  births  over  deaths  of  40,026.  Emigration  was 
estimated  at  about  three  thousand  every  year  before  1898,  but  it 
largely  increased  then  owing  to  Russian  encroachments  on  Finnish 
autonomy.  In  1899  the  emigrants  numbered  12,357;  10,642  in 
1900;  12,659  m  1901;  and  10,952  in  1904. 

The  bulk  of  the  population  are  Finns  (2,352,990  in  1904)  and 
Swedes  (349,733).  Of  Russians  there  were  only  5939,  chiefly  in  the 
provinces  of  Viborg  and  Nyland.  Both  Finns  and  Swedes  belong 
to  the  Lutheran  faith,  there  being  only  46,466  members  of  the  Greek 
Orthodox  Church  and  755  Roman  Catholics. 

The  leading  cities  of  Finland  are:  Helsingfors,  capital  of  the 
grand-duchy  and  of  the  province  (Ian)  of  Nyland,  principal  seaport 
(in ,654  inhabitants) ;  Abo,  capital  of  the  Abo-Bjorneborg  province 
and  ancient  capital  of  Finland  (42,639) ;  Tammerfors,  the  leading 
manufacturing  town  of  the  grand-duchy  (40,261);  Viborg,  chief 
town  of  province  of  same  name,  important  seaport  (34,672);  Ulea- 
borg, capital  of  province  (17,737) ;  Vasa,  or  Nikolaistad,  capital  of 
Vasa  Ian  (18,028);-  Bjorneborg  (16,053);  Kuopio,  capital  of  pro- 
vince (13,519) ;  and  Tavastehus,  capital  of  province  of  the  same 
name  (5545). 

Industries. — Agriculture  gives  occupation  to  the  large  majority 
of  the  population,  but  of  late  the  increase  of  manufactures  has 
been  marked.  Dairy-farming  is  also  on  the  increase,  and  the  foreign 
exports  of  butter  rose  from  1930  cwt.  in  1900  to  3130  cwt.  in  1905. 
Measures  have  been  taken  since  1892  for  the  improvement  of  agri- 
culture, and  the  state  keeps  twenty-six  agronomists  and  instructors 
for  that  purpose.  There  are  two  high  schools,  one  experimental 
station,  twenty-two  middle  schools  and  forty-eight  lower  schools  of 
agriculture,  besides  ten  horticultural  schools.  Agricultural  societies 
exist  in  each  province. 

Fishing  is  an  important  item  of  income.  The  value  of  exports  of 
fish,  &c.,  was  £140,000  in  1904,  but  fish  was  also  imported  to  the 
value  of  £61,300.  The  manufacturing  industries  (wood-products, 
metallurgy,  machinery,  textiles,  paper  and  leather)  are  of  modern 
development,  but  the  aggregate  production  approaches  one  and  a 
half  millions  sterling  in  value. 

Some  gold  is  obtained  in  Lapland  on  the  Ivalajoki,  but  the  output, 
which  amounted  in  1871  to  56,692  grammes,  had  fallen  in  1904  to 
1951  grammes.  There  is  also  a  small  output  of  silver,  copper  and 
iron.  The  last  is  obtained  partly  from  mines,  but  chiefly  from  the 
lakes.  In  1904  22,050  tons  of  cast  iron  were  obtained.  The  textile 
industries  are  making  rapid  progress,  and  their  produce,  notwith- 
standing the  high  duties,  is  exported  to  Russia.  The  fabrication  of 
paper  out  of  wood  is  also  rapidly  growing.  As  to  the  timber  trade, 
there  are  upwards  of  500  saw-mills,  employing  21,000  men,  and  with 
an  output  valued  at  over  £3,000,000  annually. 

Communications. — The  roads,  attaining  an  aggregate  length  of 
27,500  m.,are  kept  as  a  rule  in  very  good  order.  The  first  railway 
was  opened  in  l862;  and  the  next,  from  Helsingfors  to  St  Petersburg, 
in  1870  (cost  only  £4520  per  mile).  Railways  of  a  lighter  type 
began  to  be  built  since  1877,  and  now  Finland  has  about  2100  m.  of 
railway,  mostly  belonging  to  the  state.  The  gross  income  from  the 
state  railways  is  26,607,622,  and  the  net  income  4,684,856  marks. 
Finland  has  an  extensive  and  well-kept  system  of  canals,  of  which 
the  sluiced  canal  connecting  Lake  Saima  with  the  Gulf  of  Finland 
is  the  chief  one.  It  permits  ships  navigating  the  Baltic  to  penetrate 
270  m.  inland,  and  is  passed  every  year  by  from  4980  to  5200  vessels. 
Considerable  works  have  also  been  made  to  connect  the  different 


lakes  and  lake-basins  for  inland  navigation,  a  sum  of  £1,000,000 
having  been  spent  for  that  purpose. 

The  telegraphs  chiefly  belong  to  Russia.  Telephones  have  an 
enormous  extension  both  in  the  towns  and  between  the  different 
towns  of  southern  Finland;  the  cost  of  the  yearly  subscription 
varies  from  40  to  60  marks,1  and  is  only  10  marks  in  the  smaller  towns. 

Commerce. — The  foreign  trade  of  Finland  increases  steadily,  and 
reached  in  1904  the  following  values: — 


From  or  to 
Russia. 

From  or  to 
other  Countries. 

Totals. 

Imports 
Exports 

£4,036,000 
2,332,000 

£6,488,000 
6,292,000 

£10,524,000 
8,624,000 

The  chief  trade  of  Finland  is  with  Russia,  and  next  with  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  Denmark,  France  and  Sweden.  The  main  im- 
ports are:  cereals  and  flour  (to  an  annual  value  exceeding  £3,000,000), 
metals,  machinery,  textile  materials  and  textile  products.  The 
chief  articles  of  export  are:  timber  and  wood  articles  (£5,250,000), 
paper  and  paper  pulp,  some  tissues,  metallic  goods,  leather,  &c. 
The  chief  ports  are  Helsingfors,  Abo,  Viborg,  Hango  and  Vasa. 

Education. — Great  strides  have  been  made  since  1866,  when  a 
new  education  law  was  passed.  Rudimentary  teaching  in  reading, 
occasionally  writing,  and  the  first  principles  of  Lutheran  faith  are 
given  in  the  maternal  house,  or  in  "  maternal  schools,"  or  by  ambu- 
latory schools  under  the  control  of  the  clergy,  who  make  the  necessary 
examination  in  the  houses  of  every  parish.  All  education  above 
that  level  is  in  the  hands  of  the  educational  department  and  school 
boards  elected  in  each  parish,  each  rural  parish  being  bound  (since 
1898)  to  be  divided  into  a  proper  number  of  school  districts  and  to 
have  a  school  in  each  of  them,  the  state  contributing  to  these  ex- 
penses 800  marks  a  year  for  each  male  and  600  marks  for  each 
female  teacher,  or  25  %  of  the  total  cost  in  urban  communes. 
Secondary  education,  formerly  instituted  on  two  separate  lines, 
classical  and  scientific,  has  been  reformed  so  as  to  give  more  prom- 
inence to  scientific  education,  even  in  the  classical  (linguistic)  lyceums 
or  gymnasia.  For  higher  education  there  is  the  university  of 
Helsingfors  (formerly  the  Abo  Academy),  which  in  1906  had  1921 
students  (328  women)  and  141  professors  and  docents.  Besides  the 
Helsingfors  polytechnic  there  are  a  number  of  higher  and  lower 
technical,  commercial  and  navigation  schools.  Finland  has  several 
scientific  societies  enjoying  a  world-wide  reputation,  as  the  Finnish 
Scientific  Society,  the  Society  for  the  Flora  and  Fauna  of  Finland, 
several  medical  societies,  two  societies  of  literature,  the  Finno- 
Ugrian  Society,  the  Historical  and  Archaeological  Societies,  one 
juridical,  one  technical  and  two  geographical  societies.  All  of  these, 
as  also  the  Finnish  Geological  Survey,  the  Forestry  Administration, 
&c.,  issue  publications  well  known  to  the  scientific  world.  The 
numerous  local  branches  of  the  Friends  of  the  Folk-School  and  the 
Society  for  Popular  Education  display  great  activity,  the  former  by 
aiding  the  smaller  communes  in  establishing  schools,  and  the  latter 
in  publishing  popular  works,  starting  their  own  schools  as  well  as 
free  libraries  (in  nearly  every  commune),  and  organizing  lectures  for 
the  people.  The  university  students  take  a  lively  part  in  this  work. 

Government  and  Administration. — From  the  time  of  its  union 
with  Russia  at  the  Diet  of  Borga  in  1809  till  the  events  of  1899 
(see  History)  Finland  was  practically  a  separate  state,  the 
emperor  of  Russia  as  grand-duke  governing  by  means  of  a  nomin- 
ated senate  and  a  diet  elected  on  a  very  narrow  franchise,  and 
meeting  at  distant  and  irregular  intervals.  This  diet  was  on  the 
old  Swedish  model,  consisting  of  representatives  of  the  four 
estates — nobility,  clergy,  burghers  and  peasants — sitting  and 
voting  in  separate  "  Houses."  The  government  of  the  country 
was  practically  carried  on  by  the  senate,  which  communicated 
with  St  Petersburg  through  a  Finnish  secretary  attached  to  the 
Russian  government.  War  and  foreign  affairs  were  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  Russia,  and  a  Russian  governor  had  his  residence 
in  Helsingfors.  The  senate  also  controlled  the  administration 
of  the  law;  The  constitutional  conflict  of  1899-1905  brought 
about  something  like  a  revolution  in  Finland.  For  some  years 
the  country  was  subject  to  a  practically  arbitrary  form  of  govern- 
ment, but  the  disasters  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War  and  the 
growing  anarchy  in  Russia  resulted  in  1905  in  a  complete  and 
peaceful  victory  for  the  defenders  of  the  Finnish  constitution. 
As  a  Finnish  writer  puts  it:  "  just  as  the  calamities  which  had 
befallen  Finland  came  from  Russia,  so  was  her  deliverance  to 
come  from  Russia."  The  status  quo  ante  was  restored,  the  diet 
met  in  extraordinary  session,  and  proceeded  to  the  entire  re- 
casting of  the  Finnish  government.  Freedom  of  the  press  was 
voted,  and  the  diet  next  proceeded  to  reform  its  own  constitution. 
1  The  Finnish  mark,  markka,  of  100  penni,  equals  about  9$d- 


FINLAND 


385 


Far-reaching  changes  were  voted.  The  new  diet,  instead  of 
being  composed  of  four  estates  sitting  separately,  consists  of  a 
single  chamber  of  200  members  elected  directly  by  universal 
suffrage,  women  being  eligible.  By  the  new  constitution  the 
grand-duchy  was  to  be  divided  into  not  less  than  twelve  and  not 
more  than  eighteen  constituencies,  electing  members  in  propor- 
tion to  population.  A  scheme  of  "  proportional  representation," 
the  votes  being  counted  in  accordance  with  the  system  invented 
by  G.  M.  d'Hondt,  a  Belgian,  was  also  adopted.  The  executive 
was  to  consist  of  a  minister-secretary  of  state  and  of  the  members 
of  the  senate,  who  were  entitled  to  attend  and  address  the  diet 
and  who  might  be  the  subject  of  interpellations.  The  members 
of  the  senate  were  made  responsible  to  the  diet  as  well  as  to 
the  emperor-grand-duke  for  their  acts.  The  diet  has  power  to 
consider  and  decide  upon  measures  proposed  by  the  government. 
After  a  measure  has  been  approved  by  the  diet  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  senate  to  report  upon  it  to  the  sovereign.  But  the  senate 
is  not  obliged  to  accept  the  decision  of  the  majority  of  the  diet, 
nor,  apparently,  is  the  sovereign  bound  to  accept  the  advice  of 
the  senate.  The  first  elections,  April  1907,  resulted  in  the 
election  to  the  diet  of  about  40  %  representatives  of  the  Social 
Democratic  party,  and  nineteen  women  members.  The  budget 
of  Finland  in  1905  was  £4,273,970  of  "  ordinary  "  revenue. 
The  "  ordinary  "  expenditure  was  £3,595,300.  The  public  debt 
amounted  at  the  end  of  1905  to  £5,611,170. 

History. — It  was  probably  at  the  end  of  the  7th  or  the  begin- 
ning of  the  8th  century  that  the  Finns  took  possession  of  what 
is  now  Finland,  though  it  was  only  when  Christianity  was  in- 
troduced, about  1157,  that  they  were  brought  into  contact  with 
civilized  Europe.  They  probably  found  the  Lapps  in  possession 
of  the  country.  The  early  Finlanders  do  not  seem  to  have  had 
any  governmental  organization,  but  to  have  lived  in  separate 
communities  and  villages  independent  of  each  other.  Their 
mythology  consisted  in  the  deification  of  the  forces  of  nature, 
as  "  Ukko,"  the  god  of  the  air,  "  Tapio,"  god  of  the  forests, 
"  Ahti,"  the  god  of  water,  &c.  These  early  Finlanders  seem  to 
have  been  both  brave  and  troublesome  to  their  neighbours,  and 
their  repeated  attacks  on  the  coast  of  Sweden  drew  the  attention 
of  the  kings  of  that  country.  King  Eric  IX.  (St  Eric),  accom- 
panied by  the  bishop  of  Upsala,  Henry  (an  Englishman,  it  is 
said),  and  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army,  invaded  the 
country  in  1157,  when  the  people  were  conquered  and  baptized. 
King  Eric  left  Bishop  Henry  with  his  priests  and  some  soldiers 
behind  to  confirm  the  conquest  and  complete  the  conversion. 
After  a  time  he  was  killed,  canonized,  and  as  St  Henry  became 
the  patron  saint  of  Finland.  As  Sweden  had  to  attend  to  her 
own  affairs,  Finland  was  gradually  reverting  to  independence 
and  paganism,  when  in  1209  another  bishop  and  missionary, 
Thomas  (also  an  Englishman),  arrived  and  recommenced  the 
work  of  St  Henry.  Bishop  Thomas  nearly  succeeded  in  detaching 
Finland  from  Sweden,  and  forming  it  into  a  province  subject 
only  to  the  pope.  The  famous  Birger  Jarl  undertook  a  crusade 
in  Finland  in  1249,  compelling  the  Tavastians,  one  of  the  sub- 
divisions of  the  Finlanders  proper,  to  accept  Christianity,  and 
building  a  castle  at  Tavestehus.  It  was  Torkel  Knutson  who 
conquered  and  connected  the  Karelian  Finlanders  in  1293,  and 
built  the  strong  castle  of  Viborg.  Almost  continuous  wars 
between  Russia  and  Sweden  were  the  result  of  the  conquest 
of  Finland  by  the  latter.  In  1323  it  was  settled  that  the  river 
Rajajoki  should  be  the  boundary  between  Russia  and  the 
Swedish  province.  After  the  final  conquest  of  the  country  by 
the  Swedes,  they  spread  among  the  Finlanders  their  civilization, 
gave  them  laws,  accorded  them  the  same  civil  rights  as  belonged 
to  themselves,  and  introduced  agriculture  and  other  beneficial 
arts.  The  Reformed  religion  was  introduced  into  Finland  by 
Gustavus  Vasa  about  1528,  and  King  John  III.  raised  the 
country  to  the  dignity  of  a  grand-duchy.  It  continued  to 
suffer,  sometimes  deplorably,  in  most  of  the  wars  waged  by 
Sweden,  especially  with  Russia  and  Denmark.  His  predecessor 
having  created  an  order  of  nobility, — counts,  barons  and 
nobles,  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  the  beginning  of  the  i7th  century 
established  the  diet  of  Finland,  composed  of  the  four  orders  of 

X.  13 


the  nobility,  clergy,  burghers  and  peasants.  Gustavus  and 
his  successor  did  much  for  Finland  by  founding  schools  and 
gymnasia,  building  churches,  encouraging  learning  and  intro- 
ducing printing.  During  the  reign  of  Charles  XI.  (1692-1696) 
the  country  suffered  terribly  from  famine  and  pestilence;  in  the 
diocese  of  Abo  alone  60,000  persons  died  in  less  than  nine  months. 
Finland  has  been  visited  at  different  periods  since  by  these 
scourges;  so  late  as  1848  whole  villages  were  starved  during 
a  dreadful  famine.  Peter  the  Great  cast  an  envious  eye  on 
Finland  and  tried  to  wrest  it  from  Sweden;  in  1710  he  managed 
to  obtain  possession  of  the  towns  of  Kexholm  and  Villmanstrand; 
and  by  1716  all  the  country  was  in  his  power.  Meantime  the 
sufferings  of  the  people  had  been  great;  thousands  perished 
in  the  wars  of  Charles  XII.  By  the  peace  of  Nystad  in  1721 
the  province  of  Viborg,  the  eastern  division  of  Finland,  was 
finally  ceded  to  Russia.  But  the  country  had  been  laid  very 
low  by  war,  pestilence  and  famine,  though  it  recovered  itself 
with  wonderful  rapidity.  In  1741  the  Swedes  made  an  effort 
to  recover  the  ceded  province,  but  through  wretched  management 
suffered  disaster,  and  were  compelled  to  capitulate  in  August 
1 742,  ceding  by  the  peace  of  Abo,  next  year,  the  towns  of  Villman- 
strand and  Fredrikshamn.  Nothing  remarkable  seems  to  have 
occurred  till  1788,  under  Gustavus  III.,  who  began  to  reign 
in  1771,  and  who  confirmed  to  Finland  those  "fundamental 
laws  "  which  they  have  succeeded  in  maintaining  against  kings 
and  tsars  for  over  two  centuries.  The  country  was  divided  into 
six  governments,  a  second  superior  court  of  justice  was  founded 
at  Vasa,  many  new  towns  were  built,  commerce  flourished,  and 
science  and  art  were  encouraged.  Latin  disappeared  as  the 
academic  language,  and  Swedish  was  adopted.  In  1788  war 
again  broke  out  between  Sweden  and  Russia,  and  was  carried 
on  for  two  years  without  much  glory  or  gain  to  either  party, 
the  main  aim  of  Gustavus  being  to  recover  the  lost  Finnish 
province.  In  1808,  under  Gustavus  IV.,  peace  was  again 
broken  between  the  two  countries,  and  the  war  ended  by  the 
cession  in  1809  of  the  whole  of  Finland  and  the  Aland  Islands  to 
Russia.  Finland,  however,  did  not  enter  Russia  as  a  conquered 
province,  but,  thanks  to  the  bravery  of  her  people  after  they  had 
been  abandoned  by  an  incompetent  monarch  and  treacherous 
generals,  and  not  less  to  the  wisdom  and  generosity  of  the 
emperor  Alexander  I.  of  Russia,  she  maintained  her  free  constitu- 
tion and  fundamental  laws,  and  became  a  semi-independent 
grand-duchy  with  the  emperor  as  grand-duke.  The  estates 
were  summoned  to  a  free  diet  at  Borga  and  accepted  Alexander 
as  grand-duke  of  Finland,  he  on  his  part  solemnly  recognizing 
the  Finnish  constitution  and  undertaking  to  preserve  the  religion, 
laws  and  liberties  of  the  country.  A  senate  was  created  and  a 
governor-general  named.  The  province  of  Viborg  was  reunited 
to  Finland  in  1811,  and  Abo  remained  the  capital  of  the  country 
till  1821,  when  the  civil  and  military  authorities  were  removed 
to  Helsingfors,  and  the  university  in  1827.  The  diet,  which  had 
not  met  for  56  years,  was  convoked  by  Alexander  II.  at  Helsingfors 
in  1863.  Under  Alexander  II.  Finland  was  on  the  whole  pros- 
perous and  progressive,  and  his  statue  in  the  great  square  in 
front  of  the  cathedral  and  the  senate  house  in  Helsingfors 
testifies  to  the  regard  in  which  his  memory  is  cherished  by  his 
Finnish  subjects.  Unfortunately  his  successor  soon  fell  under 
the  influence  of  the  reactionary  party  which  had  begun  to  assert 
itself  in  Russia  even  before  the  assassination  of  Alexander  II. 
One  of  Alexander  III.'s  first  acts  was  to  confirm  "  the  constitu- 
tion which  was  granted  to  the  grand-duchy  of  Finland  by  His 
Majesty  the  emperor  Alexander  Pavlovich  of  most  glorious 
memory,  and  developed  with  the  consent  of  the  estates  of  Finland 
by  our  dearly  beloved  father  of  blessed  memory  the  emperor 
Alexander  Nicolaievich."  But  the  Slavophil  movement,  with 
its  motto,  "  one  law,  one  church,  one  tongue,"  acquired  great 
influence  in  official  circles,  and  its  aim  was,  in  defiance  of  the 
pledges  of  successive  tsars,  to  subject  Finland  to  Orthodoxy 
and  autocracy.  It  is  unnecessary  to  follow  in  detail  the  seven 
years'  struggle  between  the  Russian  bureaucracy  and  the 
defenders  of  the  Finnish  constitution.  Politics  in  Finland  were 
complicated  by  the  rivalry  between  the  Swedish  party,  which 


386 


FINLAND 


[LITERATURE 


had  hitherto  been  dominant  in  Finland,  and  the  Finnish  "  nation- 
alist "  party  which,  during  the  latter  half  of  the  igth  century, 
had  been  determinedly  asserting  itself  linguistically  and  politi- 
cally. With  some  exceptions,  however,  the  whole  country  united 
in  defence  of  its  constitution;  "  Fennoman  "  and  "  Svecoman," 
recognizing  that  their  common  liberties  were  at  stake,  suspended 
their  feud  for  a  season.  With  the  accession  of  Nicholas  II. 
(see  RUSSIA)  the  constitutional  conflict  became  acute,  and  the 
"  February  manifesto  "  (February  isth,  1899)  virtually  abro- 
gated the  legislative  power  of  the  Finnish  diet.  A  new  military 
law,  practically  amalgamating  the  Finnish  with  the  Russian 
forces,  followed  in  July  1901;  Russian  officials  and  the  Russian 
language  were  forced  on  Finland  wherever  possible,  and  in 
April  1903  the  Russian  governor,  General  Bobrikov,  was  invested 
with  practically  dictatorial  powers.  The  country  was  flooded 
with  spies,  and  a  special  Russian  police  force  was  created,  the 
expenses  being  charged  to  the  Finnish  treasury.  The  Russian 
system  was  now  in  full  swing;  domiciliary  visits,  illegal  arrests 
and  banishments,  and  the  suppression  of  newspapers,  were  the 
order  of  the  day.  To  all  this  the  people  of  Finland  opposed 
a  dogged  and  determined  resistance,  which  culminated  in 
November  1905  in  a  "  national  strike."  The  strike  was  universal, 
all  classes  joining  in  the  movement,  and  it  spread  to  all  the 
industrial  centres  and  even  to  the  rural  districts.  The  railway, 
steamship,  telephone  and  postal  services  were  practically 
suspended.  Helsingfors  was  without  tramcars,  cabs,  gas  and 
electricity;  no  shops  except  provision  shops  were  open;  public 
departments,  schools  and  restaurants  were  closed.  After  six 
days  the  unconstitutional  government — already  much  shaken 
by  events  in  Russia  and  Manchuria — capitulated.  In  an  imperial 
manifesto  dated  the  7th  of  November  1905  the  demands  of 
Finland  were  granted,  and  the  status  quo  ante  1899  was  restored. 

But  the  reform  did  not  rest  here.  The  old  Finnish  constitution, 
although  precious  to  those  whose  only  protection  it  was,  was  an 
antiquated  and  not  very  efficient  instrument  of  government. 
Popular  feeling  had  been  excited  by  the  political  conflict,  ad- 
vanced tendencies  had  declared  themselves,  and  when  the  new 
diet  met  it  proceeded  as  explained  above  to  remodel  the  con- 
stitution, on  the  basis  of  universal  suffrage,  with  freedom  of 
the  press,  speech,  meeting  and  association. 

In  1908-10  friction  with  Russia  was  again  renewed.  The 
Imperial  government  insisted  that  the  decision  in  all  Finnish 
questions  affecting  the  Empire  must  rest  with  them;  and  a  re- 
newed attempt  was  made  to  curtail  the  powers  of  the  Finnish  Diet. 

Ethnology. — The  term  Finn  has  a  wider  application  than 
Finland,  being,  with  its  adjective  Finnic  or  Finno-Ugric  (q.v.) 
or  Ugro-Finnic,  the  collective  name  of  the  westernmost  branch 
of  the  Ural- Altaic  family,  dispersed  throughout  Finland,  Lapland, 
the  Baltic  provinces  (Esthonia,  Livonia,  Curland),  parts  cf 
Russia  proper  (south  of  Lake  Onega),  both  banks  of  middle 
Volga,  Perm,  Vologda,  West  Siberia  (between  the  Ural  Mountains 
and  the  Yenissei)  and  Hungary. 

Originally  nomads  (hunters  and  fishers),  all  the  Finnic  people 
except  the  Lapps  and  Ostyaks  have  long  yielded  to  the  influence 
of  civilization,  and  now  everywhere  lead  settled  lives  as  herdsmen, 
agriculturists,  traders,  &c.  Physically  the  Finns  (here  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  Swedish-speaking  population,  who 
retain  their  Scandinavian  qualities)  are  a  strong,  hardy  race, 
of  low  stature,  with  almost  round  head,  low  forehead,  flat 
features,  prominent  cheek  bones,  eyes  mostly  grey  and  oblique 
(inclining  inwards),  short  and  flat  nose,  protruding  mouth, 
thick  lips,  neck  very  full  and  strong,  so  that  the  occiput  seems 
flat  and  almost  in  a  straight  line  with  the  nape;  beard  weak 
and  sparse,  hair  no  doubt  originally  black,  but,  owing  to  mixture 
with  other  races,  now  brown,  red  and  even  fair;  complexion 
also  somewhat  brown.  The  Finns  are  morally  upright,  hospitable, 
faithful  and  submissive,  with  a  keen  sense  of  personal  freedom 
and  independence,  but  also  somewhat  stolid,  revengeful  and 
indolent.  Many  of  these  physical  and  moral  characteristics 
they  have  in  common  with  the  so-called  "  Mongolian  "  race, 
to  which  they  are  no  doubt  ethnically,  if  not  also  linguistically, 
related. 


Considerable  researches  have  been  accomplished  since  about 
1850  in  the  ethnology  and  archaeology  of  Finland,  on  a  scale 
which  has  no  parallel  in  any  other  country.  The  study  of  the 
prehistoric  population  of  Finland — Neolithic  (no  Palaeolithic 
finds  have  yet  been  made) — of  the  Age  of  Bronze  and  the  Iron 
Age  has  been  carried  on  with  great  zeal.  At  the  same  time  the 
folklore,  Finnish  and  partly  Swedish,  has  been  worked  out  with 
wonderful  completeness  (see  L'CEuvre  demi-seculaire  de  la  Societe 
de  LiMrature  finnoise  et  le  mouvement  national  finnois,  by  Dr 
E.  G.  Palmen,  Helsingfors,  1882,  and  K.  Krohn's  report  to  the 
London  Folklore  Congress  of  1891).  The  work  that  was  begun 
by  Porthan,  Z.  Topelius,  and  especially  E.  Lonnrot  (1802-1884), 
for  collecting  the  popular  poetry  of  the  Finns,  was  continued 
by  Castren  (1813-1852),  Europaeus  (1820-1884),  and  V.  Porkka 
(1854-1889),  who  extended  their  researches  to  the  Finns  settled 
in  other  parts  of  the  Russian  empire,  and  collected  a  considerable 
number  of  variants  of  the  Kalewala  and  other  popular  poetry 
and  songs.  In  order  to  study  the  different  eastern  kinsfolk 
of  the  Finns,  Sjogren  (1792-1855)  extended  his  journeys  to 
North  Russia,  and  Castren  to  West  and  East  Siberia  (Nordische 
Reisen  und  Forschungen) :  and  collected  the  materials  which 
permitted  himself  and  Schiefner  to  publish  grammatical  works 
relative  to  the  Finnish,  Lappish,  Zyrian,  Tcheremiss,  Ostiak, 
Samoyede,  Tungus,  Buryat,  Karagas,  Yenisei-Ostiak  and  Kott 
languages.  Ahlqvist  (1826-1889),  an(i  a  phalanx  of  linguists, 
continued  their  work  among  the  Vogules,  the  Mordves  and  the 
Obi-Ugrians.  And  finally,  the  researches  of  Aspelin  (Foundations 
of  Finno-U grian  Archaeology,  in  Finnish,  and  Atlas  of  Antiquities) 
led  the  Finnish  ethnologists  to  direct  more  and  more  their 
attention  to  the  basin  of  the  Yenisei  and  the  Upper  Selenga. 
A  series  of  expeditions  (of  Aspelin,  Snellman  and  Heikel)  were 
consequently  directed  to  those  regions,  especially  since  the 
discovery  by  Yadrintseff  of  the  remarkable  Orkhon  inscriptions 
(see  TURKS,  p.  473),  which  finally  enabled  the  Danish  linguist, 
V.  Thomsen,  to  decipher  these  inscriptions,  and  to  discover 
that  they  belonged  to  the  Turkish  Iron  Age.  (See  Inscriptions 
de  Vlenissei  recueillies  et  publi&es  par  la  Societe  Finl.  d'  A  rcheologie , 
1889,  and  Inscriptions  de  I'Orkhon,  1892.) 

AUTHORITIES. — The  general  history  of  Finland  is  fully  treated  by 
Yrjo  Koskinen  (1869-1873)  and  M.  G.  Schybergson  (1887-1889). 
Both  works  have  been  translated  into  German.  The  constitutional 
conflict  gave  rise  to  a  host  of  books  and  pamphlets  in  various 
languages.  Mechelin,  Danielson  and  Hermanson  were  the  leading 
writers  on  the  Finnish  side,  and  M.  Ordin  on  the  Russian.  Most  of  the 
political  documents  have  been  published  and  translated.  A  finely 
illustrated  book,  Finland  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  by  various  Finnish 
writers,  gives  an  excellent  account  of  the  country;  also  Reuter's 
Finlandia,  a  very  complete  work  with  an  exhaustive  bibliography. 
The  constitutional  question  was  fully  discussed  in  English  in  Fin- 
land and  the  Tsars,  by  J.  R.  Fisher  (2nd  ed.,  1900).  The  Atlas  de 
Finlande,  published  in  1899  by  the  Geographical  Society  of  Fin- 
land, is  a  remarkably  well  executed  and  complete  work.  The 
Statistical  Annual  for  Finland — Statistisk  Arsbok  for  Finland-— pub- 
lished annually  by  the  Central  Statistical  Bureau  in  Helsingfors, 
gives  the  necessary  figures.  (P.  A.  K. ;  J.  S.  K. ;  J.  R.  F.*) 

Finnish  Literature. 

The  earliest  writer  in  the  Finnish  vernacular  was  Michael 
Agricola  (1506-1552),  who  published  an  A  B  C  Book  in  1544, 
and,  as  bishop  of  Abo,  a  number  of  religious  and  educational 
works.  A  version  of  the  New  Testament  in  Finnish  was  printed 
by  Agricola  in  1548,  and  some  books  of  the  Old  Testament  in 
1552.  A  complete  Finnish  Bible  was  published  at  Stockholm 
in  1642.  The  dominion  of  the  Swedes  was  very  unfavourable 
to  the  development  of  anything  like  a  Finnish  literature,  the 
poets  of  Finland  preferring  to  write  in  Swedish  and  so  secure  a 
wider  audience.  It  was  not  until,  in  1835,  the  national  epos  of 
Finland,  the  Kalewala  (q.v.),  was  introduced  to  readers  by  the 
exertions  of  Elias  Lonnrot  (q.v.),  that  the  Finnish  language  was 
used  for  literary  composition.  Lonnrot  also  collected  and  edited 
the  works  of  the  peasant-poets  P.  Korhonen  (1775-1840)  and 
Pentti  Lyytinen,  with  an  anthology  containing  the  improvisa- 
tions of  eighteen  other  rustic  bards.  During  the  last  quarter  of 
the  igth  century  there  was  an  ever-increasing  literary  activity 
in  Finland,  and  it  took  the  form  less  and  less  of  the  publication 


FINLAY— FINN  MAC  COOL 


of  Swedish  works,  but  more  and  more  that  of  examples  of  the 
aboriginal  vernacular.  At  the  present  time,  in  spite  of  the 
political  troubles,  books  in  almost  every  branch  of  research  are 
found  in  the  language,  mainly  translations  or  adaptations.  We 
meet  with,  during  the  present  century,  a  considerable  number 
of  names  of  poets  and  dramatists,  no  doubt  very  minor,  as  also 
painters,  sculptors  and  musical  composers.  At  the  Paris 
International  Exhibition  of  1878  several  native  Finnish  painters 
and  sculptors  exhibited  works  which  would  do  credit  to  any 
country;  and  both  in  the  fine  and  applied  arts  Finland  occupied 
a  position  thoroughly  creditable.  An  important  contribution 
to  a  history  of  Finnish  literature  is  Krohn's  Suomenkielinen 
runollisuns  ruotsimiallan  aikana  (1862).  Finland  is  wonderfully 
rich  in  periodicals  of  all  kinds,  the  publications  of  the  Finnish 
Societies  of  Literature  and  of  Sciences  and  other  learned  bodies 
being  specially  valuable.  A  great  work  in  the  revival  of  an 
interest  in  the  Finnish  language  was  done  by  the  Suomalaisen 
Kirjallisuuden  Seura  (the  Finnish  Literary  Society) ,  which  from 
the  year  1841  has  published  a  valuable  annual,  Suomi.  The 
Finnish  Literary  Society  has  also  published  a  new  edition  of  the 
works  of  the  father  of  Finnish  history,  Henry  Gabriel  Porthan 
(died  1804).  A  valuable  handbook  of  Finnish  history  was  pub- 
lished at  Helsingfors  in  1869-1873,  by  Yrjo  Koskinen,  and  has 
been  translated  into  both  Swedish  and  German.  The  author 
was  a  Swede,  Georg  Forsman,  the  above  form  being  a  Finnish 
translation.  Other  works  on  Finnish  history  and  some  inportant 
works  in  Finnish  geography  have  also  appeared.  In  language 
we  have  Lonnrot's  great  Finnish-Swedish  dictionary,  published 
by  the  Finnish  Literary  Society.  Dr  Otto  Donner's  Comparative 
Dictionary  of  the  Finno-Ugric  Languages  (Helsingfors  and 
Leipzig)  is  in  German.  In  imaginative  literature  Finland  has 
produced  several  important  writers  of  the  vernacular.  Alexis 
Stenwall  ("  Kiwi  ")  (1834-1872),  the  son  of  a  village  tailor, 
was  the  best  poet  of  his  time;  he  wrote  popular  dramas  and  an 
historical  romance,  The  Seven  Brothers  (1870).  Among  recent 
playwrights  Mrs  Minna  Canth  (1844-1897)  has  been  the  most 
successful.  Other  dramatists  are  E.  F.  Johnsson  (1844-1895), 
P.  Cajander  (b.  1846),  who  translated  Shakespeare  into  Finnish, 
and  Karl  Bergbom  (b.  1843).  Among  lyric  poets  are  J.  H. 
Erkko  (b.  1849),  Arwi  Jannes  (b.  1848)  and  Yrjo  Weijola 
(b.  1875).  The  earliest  novelist  of  Finland,  Pietari  Paivarinta 
(b.  1827),  was  the  son  of  a  labourer;  he  is  the  author  of  a  grimly 
realistic  story,  His  Life.  Many  of  the  popular  Finnish  authors 
of  our  day  are  peasants.  Kauppis  Heikki  was  a  wagoner;  Alkio 
Filander  a  farmer;  Heikki  Mavilainen  a  smith;  Juhana  Kokko 
(Kyosti)  a  gamekeeper.  The  most  gifted  of  the  writers  of 
Finland,  however,  is  certainly  Juhani  Aho  (b.  1861),  the  son  of 
a  country  clergyman.  His  earliest  writings  were  studies  of 
modern  life,  very  realistically  treated.  Aho  then  went  to 
reside  in  France,  where  he  made  a  close  study  of  the  methods 
of  the  leading  French  novelists  of  the  newer  school.  About  the 
year  1893  he  began  to  publish  short  stories,  some  of  which,  such 
as  Enris,  The  Fortress  of  Matthias,  The  Old  Man  of  Korpela  and 
Finland's  Flag,  are  delicate  works  of  art,  while  they  reveal  to  a 
very  interesting  degree  the  temper  and  ambitions  of  the  contem- 
porary Finnish  population.  It  has  been  well  said  that  in  the 
writings  of  Juhani  Aho  can  be  traced  all  the  idiosyncrasies 
which  have  formed  the  curious  and  pathetic  history  of  Finland 
in  recent  years.  A  village  priest,  Juho  Reijonen  (b.  1857),  in 
tales  of  somewhat  artless  form,  has  depicted  the  hardships 
which  poverty  too  often  entails  upon  the  Finn  in  his  country 
life.  Tolstoy  has  found  an  imitator  in  Arwid  Jarnefelt  (b.  1861). 
Santeri  Ingman  (b.  1866)  somewhat  naively,  but  not  without 
skill,  has  followed  in  the  steps  of  Aho.  It  would  be  an  error  to 
exaggerate  either  the  force  or  the  originality  of  these  early 
developments  of  a  national  Finnish  literature,  which,  moreover, 
are  mostly  brief  and  unambitious  in  character.  But  they  are 
eminently  sincere,  and  they  have  the  great  merit  of  illustrating 
the  local  aspects  of  landscape  and  temperament  and  manners. 

AUTHORITIES. — E.  G.  Palmen,  L'CEuvre  demi-seculaire  de  la 
Suomalaisen  Kirjallisuuden  Seura,  1831-81  (Helsingfors,  1882); 
J.  Krohn,  Suomalaisen  Kirjallisuuden  waiheet  (Helsingfors,  1897)  > 


F.  W.  Pipping,  Forteckning  ofver  backer  pdfinska  sprdket  (Helsingfors, 
1856-1857);  E.  Brausewetter,  Finland  im  Bilde  seiner  Dichtung  und 
seiner  Dichter  (Berlin,  1899);  C.  J.  Billson,  Popular  Poetry  of  the 
Finns  (London,  1900) ;  V.  Vasenius,  Ofversigt  af  Finlands  Litteratur- 
historiafor  skolor  (Helsingfors,  1893).  For  writers  using  the  Swedish 
language,  see  SWEDEN  :  Literature.  (E.  G.) 

FINLAY,  GEORGE  (1799-1875),  British  historian,  was  born 
of  Scottish  parents  at  Faversham,  Kent,  on  the  2ist  of  December 
1799.  He  studied  for  the  law  in  Glasgow,  and  about  1821  went 
to  Gottingen.  He  had  already  begun  to  feel  a  deep  interest  in 
the  Greek  struggle  for  independence,  and  in  1823  he  resolved  to 
visit  the  country.  In  November  he  arrived  in  Cephalonia,  where 
he  was  kindly  received  by  Lord  Byron.  Shortly  afterwards  he 
landed  at  Pyrgos,  and  during  the  next  fourteen  months  he 
improved  his  knowledge  of  the  language,  history  and  antiquities 
of  the  country.  Though  he  formed  an  unfavourable  opinion 
of  the  Greek  leaders,  both  civil  and  military,  he  by  no  means 
lost  his  enthusiasm  for  their  cause.  A  severe  attack  of  fever, 
however,  combined  with  other  circumstances,  induced  him  to 
spend  the  winter  of  1824-1825  and  the  spring  of  1825  in  Rome, 
Naples  and  Sicily.  He  then  returned  to  Scotland,  and,  after 
spending  a  summer  at  Castle  Toward,  Argyllshire,  went  to 
Edinburgh,  where  he  passed  his  examination  in  civil  law  at  the 
university,  with  a  view  to  being  called  to  the  Scottish  bar.  His 
enthusiasm,  however,  carried  him  back  to  Greece,  where  he 
resided  almost  uninterruptedly  till  his  death.  He  took  part  in 
the  unsuccessful  operations  of  Lord  Cochrane  and  Sir  Richard 
Church  for  the  relief  of  Athens  in  1827.  When  independence 
had  been  secured  in  1829  he  bought  a  landed  estate  in  Attica, 
but  all  his  efforts  for  the  introduction  of  a  better  system  of 
agriculture  ended  in  failure,  and  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
literary  work  which  occupied  the  rest  of  his  life.  His  first 
publications  were  The  Hellenic  Kingdom  and  the  Greek  Nation 
(1836);  Essai  sur  les  principes  de  banque  appliques  a  I' flat  actuel 
de  la  Grece  (Athens,  1836);  and  Remarks  on  the  Topography 
of  Oropia  and  Diacria,  with  a  map  (Athens,  1838).  The  first 
instalment  of  his  great  historical  work  appeared  in  1844  (2nd  ed., 
1857)  under  the  title  Greece  under  the  Romans;  a  Historical 
View  of  the  Condition  of  the  Greek  Nation  from  the  time  of  its 
Conquest  by  the  Romans  until  the  Extinction  of  the  Roman  Empire 
in  the  East.  Meanwhile  he  had  been  qualifying  himself  still 
further  by  travel  as  well  as  by  reading;  he  undertook  several 
tours  to  various  quarters  of  the  Levant;  and  as  the  result  of 
one  of  them  he  published  a  volume  On  the  Site  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre;  with  a  plan  of  Jerusalem  (1847).  The  History  of  the 
Byzantine  and  Greek  Empires  from  716-1453  was  completed 
in  1854.  It  was  speedily  followed  by  the  History  of  Greece  under 
the  Ottoman  and  Venetian  Domination  (1856),  and  by  the  History 
of  the  Greek  Revolution  (1861).  In  weak  health,  and  conscious 
of  failing  energy,  he  spent  his  last  years  in  revising  his  history. 
From  1864  to  1870  he  was  also  correspondent  of  The  Times 
newspaper,  his  letters  to  which  attracted  considerable  attention, 
and,  appearing  in  the  Greek  newspapers,  exercised  a  distinct 
influence  on  Greek  politics.  He  was  a  member  of  several  learned 
societies;  and  in  1854  he  received  from  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  He  died  at  Athens  on  the 
26th  of  January  1875.  A  new  edition  of  his  History,  edited  by 
the  Rev.  H.  F.  Tozer,  was  issued  by  the  Oxford  Clarendon  press  in 
1877.  It  includes  a  brief  but  extremely  interesting  fragment  of  an 
autobiography  of  the  author,  almost  the  only  authority  for  his  life. 

As  an  historian,  Finlay  had  the  merit  of  entering  upon  a  field 
of  research  that  had  been  neglected  by  English  writers,  Gibbon 
alone  being  a  partial  exception.  As  a  student,  he  was  laborious; 
as  a  scholar  he  was  accurate;  as  a  thinker,  he  was  both  acute 
and  profound;  and  in  all  that  he  wrote  he  was  unswerving  in 
his  loyalty  to  the  principles  of  constitutional  government  and  to 
the  cause  of  liberty  and  justice. 

FINN  MAC  COOL  (in  Irish  FIND  MAC  CUMAILL),  the  central 
figure  of  the  later  heroic  cycle  of  Ireland,  commonly  called 
Ossianic  or  Fenian.  In  Scotland  Find  usually  goes  by  the  name 
of  Fingal.  This  appears  to  be  due  to  a  misunderstanding  of  the 
title  assumed  by  the  Lord  of  the  Isles,  RJ  Fionnghall,  i.e.  king  of 
the  Norse.  Find's  father,  Cumall  macTrenmoir,  was  uncle  to  Conn 


388 


FINNO-UGRIAN 


C6tchathach,  High  King  of  Ireland,  who  died  in  A.D.  157.  Cumall 
carried  off  Murna  Munchaem,  the  daughter  of  a  Druid  named 
Tadg  mac  Nuadat,  and  this  led  to  the  battle  of  Cnucha,  in  which 
Cumall  was  slain  by  Goll  mac  Morna  (A.D.  174).  Find  was  born 
after  his  father's  death  and  was  at  first  called  Demni.  He  is 
leader  of  the  fiann  or  feinne  (English  "  Fenians  "),  a  kind  of 
militia  or  standing  army  which  was  drawn  from  all  quarters  of 
Ireland.  His  father  had  held  the  same  office  before  him,  but 
after  his  death  it  passed  to  his  enemy  Goll  mac  Morna,  who 
retained  it  until  Find  came  to  man's  estate.  Find  usually 
resided  at  Almu  (Allen)  in  Co.  Kildare,  where  he  was  surrounded 
by  some  of  the  contingents  of  the  fiann,  the  rest  being  scattered 
throughout  Ireland  to  ward  off  enemies,  particularly  those 
coming  from  over  the  sea.  In  times  of  invasion  Find  collected 
his  forces,  overcame  the  foe,  and  pursued  him  to  Scotland  or 
Lochlann  (Scandinavia)  as  the  case  might  be.  When  not 
engaged  in  war  the  fiann  gave  themselves  up  to  the  chase  or 
love-adventures.  We  are  informed  in  great  detail  as  to  the 
conditions  of  admission  to  this  privileged  band,  which  were 
at  once  singular  and  exacting.  The  foremost  heroes  in  Find's 
train  were  his  son  Ossian,  his  grandson  Oscar,  Cailte  mac  Ronain, 
and  Diarmait  O'Duibne,  whose  elopement  with  Find's  destined 
bride  Grainne,  daughter  of  the  High-King  Cormac  mac  Airt 
(A.D.  227-266),  forms  the  subject  of  a  celebrated  story.  These, 
like  Find,  were  all  of  the  Ua  Baisgne  branch,  with  which  was 
allied  the  Ua  Morna,  with  whom  they  were  generally  at  variance. 
The  latter  hailed  from  Connaught,  chief  among  them  being 
Goll  and  Conan.  By  the  annalists  Find  is  represented  as  having 
met  with  death  by  treachery  either  in  252  or  283.  Under 
Coirpre  Lifeochair,  successor  to  Cormac  mac  Airt,  the  power 
of  the  fiann  became  intolerable.  The  monarch  accordingly 
took  up  arms  against  them  and  utterly  crushed  them  at  the 
battle  of  Gabra  (A.D.  283).  Very  few  survived  the  defeat,  but 
the  story  makes  Ossian  and  Cailte  live  on  until  after  the  arrival 
of  St  Patrick  in  432. 

It  is  incredible  that  such  a  band  as  the  fiann  should  have 
existed  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  centuries.  A  number  of  sagas  older 
in  date  than  the  Ossianic  stories  have  been  preserved,  which  deal 
with  events  happening  in  the  reigns  of  Art  son  of  Conn  (166-196), 
Lugaid  mac  Con  (196-227),  and  Cormac  mac  Airt  (227-266), 
but  none  of  these  in  their  oldest  shape  contain  any  allusion 
whatsoever  to  Find  and  his  warriors.  In  the  history  of  the 
Boroma,  contained  in  the  book  of  Leinster,  Find  is  merely  a 
Leinster  chieftain  who  assists  Bressal  the  king  of  Leinster 
against  Coirpre  Lifeochair.  It  can  be  shown  that  Find  was 
originally  a  figure  in  Leinster-Munster  tradition  previous  to  the 
Viking  age,  but  we  have  no  documentary  evidence  concerning 
him  at  this  time.  He  seems  primarily  to  have  been  regarded  as 
a  poet  and  magician.  Later  he  appears  to  have  been  trans- 
formed into  a  petty  chief,  and  Zimmer  even  tried  to  show  that 
his  personality  was  developed  in  Leinster  and  Munster  local 
tradition  out  of  stories  clustering  round  the  figure  of  the  Viking 
leader  Ketill  Hviti  (Caittil  Find),  who  was  slain  in  857.  By  the 
year  1000  Find  was  certainly  connected  in  the  minds  of  the  people 
with  the  reign  of  Cormac  mac  Airt,  but  the  process  is  obscure. 
Recently  John  MacNeill  has  pointed  out  that  in  the  oldest 
genealogies  Find  is  always  connected  with  the  Ui  Tairrsigh  of 
Failge  (Offaley,  a  district  comprising  the  present  county  of 
Kildare  and  parts  of  King's  and  Queen's  counties).  The  Ui 
Tairrsigh  were  undoubtedly  of  Firbolg  origin,  and  MacNeill 
would  account  in  this  manner  for  the  slow  acceptance  of  the 
stories  by  the  conquering  Milesians.  Whilst  the  Ulster  epic  was 
fashionable  at  court,  the  subject  races  clung  to  the  Fenian  cycle. 
For  the  last  800  years  Find  has  been  the  national  hero  of  the 
Gaelic-speaking  populations  of  Ireland,  the  Scottish  Highlands 
and  the  Isle  of  Man.  See  also  CELT  (subsection  Irish  Literature). 

AUTHORITIES. — A.  Nutt,  Ossian  and  the  Ossiar.ic  Literature 
(London,  1899);  H.  Zimmer,  "  Keltische  Beitrage  iii.,"  Zeitschriftfur 
deutsches  Alterlum  (1891),  vol.  xxxv.  pp.  1-172;  L.  C.  Stern,  "  Die 
Ossianischen  Heldenlieder,"  Zeitschrift  fur  vergleichende  Litteralur- 


geschichte  (1895;  trans,  by  J.  L.  Robertson  in    Transactions  of  the 
Gaelic  Society  of  Inverness,  1897-1898,  vc' 
MacNeill,  Duanaire  Finn  (London,  1908). 


Gaelic  Society  of  Inverness,  1897-1898,  vol.  xxii.  pp.  257-325);   J. 

(li.  (_.  y. 


FINNO-UGRIAN,  or  FINNO-UGRIC,  the  designation  of  a 
division  of  the  Ural-Altaic  family  of  languages  and  their  speakers. 
The  first  part  is  the  name  given  by  their  neighbours,  though 
not  used  by  themselves,  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  shores 
of  the  Baltic.  It  is  probably  the  same  word  as  the  Fenni  of 
Tacitus  and  Qlvvoi  of  Ptolemy,  though  it  is  not  certain  that  those 
races  were  Finns  in  the  modern  sense.  It  possibly  means  people 
of  the  fens  or  marshes,  and  corresponds  to  the  native  word  Suomi, 
which  appears  to  be  derived  from  suo,  a  marsh.  Finn  and 
Finnish  are  used  not  only  of  the  inhabitants  of  Finland  but 
also  in  a  more  extended  sense  of  similar  tribes  found  in  Russia 
and  sometimes  called  Baltic  Finns  and  Volga  Finns.  In  this 
sense  the  Esthonian  tribes  (Baltic),  the  Laps,  the  Cheremis  and 
Mordvins  (Volga),  and  the  Permian  tribes  are  all  Finns.  The 
name  is  not,  however,  extended  to  the  Ostiaks,  Voguls  and 
Magyars,  who,  though  allied,  form  a  separate  subdivision  called 
Ugrian,  a  name  derived  from  Yura  or  Ugra,  the  country  on 
either  side  of  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  first  used  by  Castren  in 
a  scientific  sense. 

The  name  Finno-Ugric  is  primarily  linguistic  and  must  not 
be  pressed  as  indicating  a  community  of  physical  features 
and  customs.  But  making  allowance  for  the  change  of  language 
by  some  tribes,  the  Finno-Ugrians  form,  with  the  striking  ex- 
ception of  the  Hungarians,  a  moderately  homogeneous  whole. 
They  are  nomads,  but,  unlike  the  Turks,  Mongols  and  Manchus, 
have  hardly  ever  shown  themselves  warlike  and  have  no  power 
of  political  organization.  Those  of  them  who  have  not  come 
under  European  influence  live  under  the  simplest  form  of 
patriarchal  government,  and  states,  kings  or  even  great  chiefs 
are  almost  unknown  among  them. 

Their  headquarters  are  in  Russia.  From  the  Baltic  to  south 
Siberia  extends  a  vast  plain  broken  only  by  the  Urals.  Large 
parts  of  it  are  still  wooded,  and  the  proportion  of  forest  land  and 
marsh  was  no  doubt  much  greater  formerly.  The  Finno-Ugric 
tribes  seem  to  shun  the  open  steppes  but  are  widely  spread  in 
the  wooded  country,  especially  on  the  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers. 
Their  want  of  political  influence  renders  them  obscure,  but  they 
form  a  considerable  element  in  the  population  of  the  northern, 
middle  and  eastern  provinces  of  Russia,  but  are  not  found  much 
to  the  south  of  Moscow  (except  in  the  east)  or  in  the  west  (except 
in  the  Baltic  provinces) .  The  difference  of  temperament  between 
the  Great  Russians  and  the  purer  Slavs  such  as  the  Little 
Russians  is  partly  due  to  an  infusion  of  Finnish  blood. 

Physically  the  Finno-Ugric  races  are  as  a  rule  solidly  built 
and,  though  there  is  considerable  variation  in  height  and  the 
cephalic  index,  are  mostly  of  small  or  medium  stature,  somewhat 
squat,  and  brachy-  or  mesocephalic.  As  a  rule  the  skin  is  greyish 
or  olive  coloured,  the  eyes  grey  or  blue,  the  hair  light,  the 
beard  scanty.  Most  of  them  seem  deficient  in  energy  and 
liveliness,  both  mental  and  physical;  they  are  slow,  heavy, 
conservative,  somewhat  suspicious  and  vindictive,  inclined  to 
be  taciturn  and  melancholy.  On-  the  other  hand  they  are 
patient,  persevering,  industrious,  faithful  and  honest.  When 
their  natural  mistrust  of  strangers  is  overcome  they  are  kindly 
and  hospitable. 

I.  Tribes  and  Nations. — The  Ugrian  subdivision,  which  seems 
to  be  in  many  respects  the  more  primitive,  consists  of  three 
peoples  standing  on  very  different  levels  of  civilization,  the 
Ostiaks  and  Voguls  and  the  Hungarians. 

The  Ostiaks  (Ostyaks  or  Ostjaks)  are  a  tribe  of  nomadic 
fishermen  and  hunters  inhabiting  at  present  the  government 
of  Tobolsk  and  the  banks  of  the  Obi.  They  formerly  Ostiaks 
extended  into  the  government  of  Perm  on  the  European 
side  of  the  Ural  Mountains.  The  so-called  Ostiaks  of  the  Yenisei 
appear  to  be  a  different  race  and  not  to  belong  to  the  Finno- 
Ugrian  group.  The  Ostiaks  are  still  partially  pagan  and  worship 
the  River  Obi.  Allied  to  them  are  the  Voguls,  a.  similar  nomadic 
tribe  found  on  both  sides  of  the  Urals,  and  formerly  vogul* 
extending  at  least  as  far  as  the  government  of  Vologda. 
The  languages  of  the  Ostiaks  and  Voguls  are  allied,  though  not 
mere  dialects  of  one  another,  and  form  a  small  group  separated 
from  the  languages  of  the  Finns  both  Western  and  Eastern. 


FINNO-UGRIAN 


389 


For  further  details  of  these  and  other  tribes  see  under  the  separate 
headings. 

According  to  the  legend,  Nirnrod  had  two  sons,  Hunyor  and 
Magyor.     They  married  daughters  of  the  prince  of  the  Alans 

and  became  the  ancestors  of  the  two  kindred  nations, 

Huns  and  Magyars  or  Hungarians.  This  story  corre- 
gartaas.  spends  with  what  can  be  ascertained  scientifically  about 

the  origin  of  these  peoples.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Huns  and  Magyars  were  allied  tribes  of  mixed  descent  comprising 
both  Turkish  and  Finno-Ugrian  elements.  The  language  is 
indisputably  Finno-Ugrian,  but  the  name  Hungarian  seems  to 
lead  back  to  the  form  Un-ugur,  and  to  suggest  Turkish  connexions 
which  are  confirmed  by  the  warlike  habits  of  the  Huns  and 
Magyars.  The  same  name  possibly  occurs  in  the  form  Hiung-nu 
as  far  east  as  the  frontiers  of  China,  but  recent  authorities  are 
of  opinion  that  the  tribes  from  whom  the  present  Hungarians 
are  descended  were  formed  originally  in  the  Terek-Kuban 
country  to  the  north  of  the  Caucasus,  where  a  mixture  of  Turkish 
and  Ugrian  blood  took  place,  a  Ugrian  language  but  Turkish 
mode  of  life  predominating.  They  were  also  influenced  by 
Iranians  and  the  various  tribes  of  the  Caucasus.  Both  Huns 
and  Magyars  moved  westwards,  but  the  Huns  invaded  Europe 
in  the  5th  century  and  made  no  permanent  settlement  in  spite 
of  the  devastation  they  caused,  whereas  the  Magyars  remained 
for  some  centuries  near  the  banks  of  the  Don.  According  to 
tradition  they  were  compelled  to  leave  a  country  called  Lebedia 
under  the  pressure  of  nomadic  tribes,  and  moved  westward 
under  the  leadership  of  seven  dukes.  They  conquered  Hungary 
in  the  years  884-895,  and  the  first  king  of  their  new  dominions 
was  called  Arpad.  For  the  chequered  and  often  tragic  history 
of  the  country  see  HUNGARY.  The  Magyars  were  converted  to 
Christianity  in  the  nth  century  and  adhered  to  the  Roman 
not  the  Eastern  Church.  They  have  in  all  probability  entirely 
lost  their  ancient  physique,  but  have  retained  their  language, 
and  traces  of  their  older  life  may  be  seen  in  their  fondness  for 
horses  and  flocks. 

The  following  are  the  principal  Finnish  peoples.     The  Permians 
and  Syryenians  may  be  treated  as  one  tribe.     The  latter  name 

is  very  variously  spelt  asSyrjenian,Sirianian,Zyrjenian, 
Permians  zirian,  &c.  They  both  call  themselves  Komi  and 
yeaiaos'  speak  a  mutually  intelligible  language,  allied  to 

Votiak.  The  name  Bjarmisch  is  sometimes  applied 
to  this  sub-group.  Both  Permians  and  Syryenians  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  governments  of  Perm,  Vologda  and  Archangel, 
but  there  are  a  few  Syryenians  on  the  Siberian  side  of  the  Urals. 
The  Syryenian  headquarters  are  at  the  town  of  Ishma  on  the 
Pechora,  whereas  the  name  Permian  is  more  correctly  restricted 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  right  bank  of  the  upper  Kama.  Both 
probably  extended  much  farther  to  the  west  in  former  times. 
The  Syryenians  are  said  to  be  more  intelligent  and  active  than 
most  Finnish  tribes  and  to  make  considerable  journeys  for 
trading  purposes.  They  are  possibly  a  mixed  race. 

The  Votiaks  are  a  tribe  of  about  a  quarter  of  a  million  persons 
dwelling  chiefly  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  government 

of  Viatka.     Their  language  indicates  that  they  have 

borrowed  a  good  deal  from  the  Tatars  and  Chuvashes, 
and  they  seem  to  have  little  individuality,  being  described  as 
weak  both  mentally  and  physically.  They  call  themselves 
Ud-murt  or  Urt-murt.  About  the  i6th  century  some  of  them 
migrated,  doubtless  under  the  pressure  of  Russian  advance,  into 
the  government  of  Ufa  and,  the  country  being  more  fertile,  are 
said  to  have  improved  in  physique. 

The  Chcremissians,  or  Tcheremissians  or  Cheremis,  who  call 
themselves  Mari,  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  chiefly  in  the 

neighbourhood  of  Kazan.  Those  inhabiting  the  right 
Cm!s7ians.  bank  of  the  VolSa  are  physically  stronger  and  are 

known  as  Hill  Cheremiss.  The  evidence  of  place 
names  makes  it  probable  that  their  present  position  is  the  result 
of  their  being  driven  northwards  by  the  Mordvins  and  then 
southwards  by  the  Russians.  There  is  some  discrepancy  between 
their  language  and  their  physical  characteristics.  The  former 
shows  affinities  to  both  Mordvinian  and  the  Permian  group,  but 


Votiaks. 


their  crania  are  said  to  be  mainly  dolichocephalic,  and  it  has 
been  suggested  that  they  are  connected  with  the  neolithic 
dolichocephalic  population  of  Lake  Ladoga.  They  are  gentle 
and  honest,  but  neither  active  nor  intelligent. 

The  Mordmnians,  also  called  Mordva,  Mordvins  and  Mordvs, 
are  scattered  over  the  provinces  near  the  middle  Volga,  especially 
Nizhniy  Novgorod,  Kazan,  Penza,  Tambov,  Simbirsk, ' 
Ufa  and  even  Orenburg.  Though  not  continuous,  ^ia^os 
their  settlements  are  considerable  both  in  extent  and 
population.  They  are  the  most  important  of  the  Eastern  Finns, 
and  their  traditions  speak  of  a  capital  and  of  a  king  who  fought 
with  the  Tatars.  They  are  mentioned  as  Mordens  as  early  as  the 
6th  century,  but  do  not  now  use  the  name,  calling  themselves 
after  one  of  their  two  divisions,  Moksha  or  Erza.  Their  country 
is  still  covered  with  forest  to  a  large  extent.  Their  language 
is  on  the  one  side  allied  to  Cheremissian.  On  the  other  it  shows 
a  nearer  approach  to  Finnish  (Suomi)  than  the  other  Eastern 
languages  of  the  family,  but  it  has  also  constructions  peculiar 
to  itself. 

The  Lapps  are  found  in  Norway,  Sweden  and  Finland.     They 
call  themselves  Sabme,  but  are  called  Finns  by  the  Norwegians. 
They  are  the  shortest  and  most  brachycephalic  race 
in  Europe.     The  majority  are  nomads  who  live  by 
pasturing  reindeer,  and  are  known  as  Mountain  Lapps,  but 
others  have  become  more  or  less  settled  and  live  by  hunting  or 
fishing.     From  ancient  times  the  Lapps  have  had  a  great  reputa- 
tion among  the  Finns  and  other  neighbouring  nations  for  skill 
in  sorcery. 

The  Esthonians  are  the  peasantry  of  the  Russian  province 
Esthonia   and    the   neighbouring   districts.     They   were   serfs 
until  1817  when  they  were  liberated,  but  their  condition 
remained  unsatisfactory  and  led  to  a  serious  rebellion  in 
1859.    They  are  practically  a  branch  of  the  Finns,  and 
are  hardly  separable  from  the  other  Finnish  tribes  inhabiting 
the  Baltic  provinces.     The  name  Est  or  Ehst,  by  which  they 
are  known  to  foreigners,  appears  to  be  the  same  as  the  Aestii 
of  Tacitus,  and  to  have  properly  belonged  to  quite  a  different 
tribe.     They  call  themselves  Ma  mes,  or  country  people,  and 
their  land  Rahwama  or  Wiroma  (cf.  Finnish,  Virolaiset,  Esthon- 
ians.)    Though  not  superior  to  other  tribes  in  general  intelligence, 
they  have  become  more  civilized  owing  to  their  more  intimate 
connexion  with  the  Russian  and  German  population  around  them. 

Livs,  Livlanders  or  Liwnians  is  the  name  given  to  the  old 
Finnish-speaking  population  of  west  Livland  or  Livonia  and 
north  Kurland.  We  hear  of  them  as  a  warlike  and 
predatory  pagan  tribe  in  the  middle  ages,  and  it  is 
possible  that  they  were  a  mixed  Letto-Finnish  race 
from  the  beginning.  In  modern  times  they  have  become  almost 
completely  absorbed  by  Letts,  and  their  language  is  only  spoken 
in  a  few  places  on  the  coast  of  Kurland.  It  has  indeed  been 
disputed  if  it  still  exists.  It  is  known  as  Livish  or  Livonian  and 
is  allied  to  Esthonian. 

The  Votes  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Votiaks),  also 
called  southern  Chudes  and  Vatjalaiset,  apparently  represent 
the  original  inhabitants  of  Ingria,  the  district  round 
St  Petersburg,  but  have  decreased  before  the  advance 
of  the  Russians  and  also  of  Karelians  from  the  north.  They  are 
heard  of  in  the  nth  century,  but  now  occupy  only  about  thirty 
parishes  in  north-west  Ingria. 

The  Vepsas  or  Vepses,  also  called  Northern  Chudes,  are  another 
tribe  allied  to  the  Esthonians,  but  are  more  numerous  than  the 
Votes.  They  are  found  in  the  district  of  Tikhvinsk 
and  other  parts  of  the  government  of  Old  Novgorod, 
and  apparently  extended  farther  east  into  the  government  of 
Vologda  in  former  times.  Linguistically  both  the  Votes  and 
Vepsas  are  closely  related  to  the  Esthonians. 

The  Finns  proper  or  Suomi,  as  they  call  themselves,  are  the 
most  important  and  civilized  division  of  the  group.  They 
inhabit  at  present  the  grand  duchy  of  Finland  and  the  Fiaas. 
adjacent  governments,  especially  Olonetz,  Tver  and 
St  Petersburg.  Formerly  a  tribe  of  them  called  Kainulaiset 
was  also  found  in  Sweden,  whence  the  Swedes  call  the  Finns 


Votes. 


Vepsas. 


39° 


FINNO-UGRIAN 


Qven.  At  present  there  are  two  principal  subdivisions  of  Finns, 
the  Tavastlanders  or  Hamalaiset,  who  occupy  the  southern  and 
western  parts  of  the  grand  duchy,  and  the  Karelians  orKarjalaiset 
found  in  the  east  and  north,  as  far  as  Lake  Onega  and  towards 
the  White  Sea. 

The  former,  and  generally  speaking,  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
grand  duchy  have  undergone  a  strong  Swedish  influence.  There 
is  a  considerable  admixture  of  Swedish  blood;  the  language  is 
full  of  Swedish  words;  Christianity  is  universal;  and  the  upper 
classes  and  townspeople  are  mainly  Swedish  in  their  habits  and 
speech,  though  of  late  a  persistent  attempt  has  been  made  to 
Russify  the  country.  The  Finns  have  much  the  same  mental 
and  moral  characteristics  as  the  other  allied  tribes,  but  have 
reached  a  far  higher  intellectual  and  literary  stage.  Several 
collections  of  their  popular  and  mythological  poetry  have  been 
made,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  is  the  Kalewala,  compiled 
by  Lonnrot  about  1835,  and  there  is  a  copious  modern  literature. 
The  study  of  the  national  languages  and  antiquities  is  prosecuted 
in  Helsingfors  and  other  towns  with  much  energy:  several 
learned  societies  have  been  formed  and  considerable  results 
published,  partly  in  Finnish.  It  is  clear  that  this  scientific 
activity,  though  animated  by  a  patriotic  Finnish  spirit,  owes 
much  to  Swedish  training  in  the  past.  Besides  the  literary 
language  there  are  several  dialects,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  that  of  Savolaks. 

The  Karelians  are  not  usually  regarded  as  separate  from  the 
Finns,  though  they  are  a  distinct  tribe  as  much  as  the  Vepsas 
Karelians  an<^  Votes.  Living  farther  east  they  have  come  less 
under  Swedish  and  more  under  Russian  influence  than 
the  inhabitants  of  West  Finland;  but,  since  many  of  the  districts 
which  they  inhabit  are  out  of  the  way  and  neglected,  this  influence 
has  not  been  strong,  so  that  they  have  adopted  less  of  European 
civilization,  and  in  places  preserved  their  own  customs  more 
than  the  Westerners.  They  are  of  a  slighter  and  better  pro- 
portioned build  than  the  Finns,  more  enterprising,  lively  and 
friendly,  but  less  persevering  and  tenacious.  They  number 
about  260,000,  of  whom  about  63,000  live  in  Olonetz  and  195,000 
in  Tver  and  Novgorod,  but  in  the  southern  districts  are  less 
distinguished  from  the  Russian  population.  They  belong  to 
the  Russian  Church,  whereas  the  Finns  of  the  grand  duchy  are 
Protestants.  There  also  appear  to  be  authentic  traces  of  a 
Karelian  population  in  Kaluga,  Yaroslavl,  Vladimir,  Vologda 
and  Tambov.  It  was  among  them  that  the  Kalewala  was 
collected,  chiefly  in  East  Finland  and  Olonetz. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  the  Samoyedes 
should  be  included  among  the  Finno-Ugrian  tribes  or  be  given 
the  rank  of  a  separate  division  equivalent  to  Finno- 
Ugrian  and  Turkish.  The  linguistic  question  is 
discussed  below.  The  Samoyedes  are  a  nomad  tribe 
who  wander  with  their  reindeer  over  the  treeless  plains  which 
border  on  the  White  and  Kara  seas  on  either  side  of  the  Urals. 
In  culture  and  habits  they  resemble  the  Finno-Ugrian  tribes, 
and  there  seems  to  be  no  adequate  reason  for  separating  them. 

Various  other  peoples  have  been  referred  to  the  Finno-Ugrian 

group,  but  some  doubt  must  remain  as  to  the  propriety 

inclusions.  °^  the  classification,   either  because   they  are  now 

extinct,   or  because  they  are  suspected  of  having 

changed  their  language. 

The  original  Bulgarians,  who  had  their  home  on  the  Volga 
before  they  invaded  the  country  which  now  bears  their  name, 
were  probably  a  tribe  similar  to  the  Magyars,  though  all  record 
of  their  language  is  lost.  It  has  been  disputed  whether  the 
Khazars,  who  in  the  middle  ages  occupied  parts  of  south  Russia 
and  the  shores  of  the  Caspian,  were  Finno-Ugrians  or  Turks,  and 
there  is  the.  same  doubt  about  the  Avars  and  Pechenegs,  which 
without  linguistic  evidence  remains  insoluble.  Nor  is  the  differ- 
ence ethnographically  important.  The  formation  of  hordes 
of  warlike  bodies,  half  tribes,  half  armies,  composed  of  different 
races,  was  a  characteristic  of  Central  Asia,,  and  it  was  probably 
of  ten  ^  a  matter  of  chance  what  language  was  adopted  as  the 
common  speech. 

At  the  present  day  the  Bashkirs,  Meshchers  and  Tepters,  who 


speak  Tatar  languages,  are  thought  to  be  Finnish  in  origin,  as  are 
also  the  Chuvashes,  whose  language  is  Tatar  strongly  modified 
by  Finnish  influence.  The  little  known  Soyots  of  the  headwaters 
of  the  Yenisei  are  also  said  to  be  Finno-Ugrians. 

The  name  Chude  appears  to  be  properly  applied  to  the  Vepsas 
and  Votes  but  is  extended  by  popular  usage  in  Russia  to  all 
Finno-Ugrian  tribes,  and  to  all  extinct  tribes  of  whatever  race 
who  have  left  tombs,  monuments  or  relics  of  mining  operations 
in  European  Russia  or  Siberia.  Some  Russian  archaeologists  use 
it  specifically  of  the  Permian  group.  But  its  extension  is  so 
vague  that  it  is  better  to  discard  it  as  a  scientific  term. 

II.  Languages. — The  Finno-Ugric  languages  are  generally 
considered  as  a  division  of  the  Ural-Altaic  group,  which  consists 
of  four  families:  Turkish,  Mongol,  Manchu  and  Finno-Ugric, 
including  Samoyede  unless  it  is  reckoned  separately  as  a  fifth. 
The  chief  character  of  the  group  is  that  agglutination,  or  the 
addition  of  suffixes,  is  the  only  method  of  word-formation, 
prefixes  and  significant  change  of  vowels  being  unknown,  as  is 
also  gender.  This  suggests  an  affinity  with  many  other  languages, 
such  as  the  ancient  Accadian  or  Sumerian,  and  Japanese.  A 
connexion  between  the  Finno-Ugric  and  Dravidian  languages  has 
also  been  suggested.  On  the  other  hand,  the  more  highly 
developed  agglutinative  languages,  such  as  Finnish,  approach 
the  inflected  Aryan  type,  so  that  the  Aryan  languages  may  have 
been  developed  from  an  ancestor  not  unlike  the  Ural-Altaic 
group. 

The  Finno-Ugrian  languages  are  distinguished  from  the  other 
divisions  of  the  Ural-Altaic  group  both  in  grammar  and  vocabu- 
lary. Compared  with  Mongol  and  Manchu  they  have  a  much 
greater  wealth  of  forms,  both  in  declension  and  conjugation; 
the  suffixes  form  one  word  with  the  root  and  are  not  wholly  cr 
partially  detachable  postpositions;  the  pronominal  element 
is  freely  represented  in  the  suffixes  added  to  both  verbs  and 
nouns.  These  features  are  also  found  in  the  Turkish  languages, 
but  Finno-Ugrian  has  a  much  greater  variety  of  cases  denoting 
position  or  motion,  and  the  union  of  the  case  termination  with 
the  noun  is  more  complete;  in  some  languages  the  object  can 
be  incorporated  in  the  verb,  which  does  not  occur  in  Turkish, 
but  the  negative  is  rarely  (Cheremissian)  thus  incorporated 
after  the  Turkish  fashion  (e.g.  yazmak,  "  to  write  ";  yazmamak, 
"  not  to  write  "),  and  in  some  languages  takes  pronominal 
suffixes  (Finnish  en  tule,  et  luTe,  eivat  Me,  "  I,  you,  they  do  not 
come").  Vowel-harmony  is  completely  observed  in  Finnish 
and  Magyar,  but  in  the  other  languages  is  imperfectly  developed, 
or  has  been  lost  under  Russian  influence.  Relative  pronouns 
and  particles  exist  and  are  fully  developed  in  some  languages. 
The  tendency  to  form  compounds,  which  is  not  characteristic 
of  Turkish,  is  very  marked  in  Finnish  and  Hungarian,  and  is 
said  also  to  be  found  in  Samoyede,  Cheremissian  and  Syryenian. 
The  original  order  in  the  sentence  seems  to  be  that  the  governing 
word  follows  the  word  governed,  but  there  are  many  exceptions 
to  this,  particularly  in  Hungarian  where  the  arrangement  is 
very  free. 

In  vocabulary  the  pronouns  agree  fairly  well  with  those  of 
Turkish,  Mongol  and  Manchu,  but  there  is  little  resemblance 
between  the  numbers.  Many  of  the  languages  contain  numerous 
Tatar  and  Turkish  loan-words,  but  with  this  exception  the 
resemblance  of  vocabulary  is  not  striking  and  indicates  an 
ancient  separation.  But  the  similarity  in  the  process  of  word- 
building  and  of  the  elements  used,  even  if  they  have  not  the 
same  sense,  as  well  as  analogies  in  the  general  construction  of 
sentences  and.  in  some  details  (e.g.  the  use  of  the  infinitive  or 
verbal  substantive),  seem  to  justify  the  hypothesis  of  an  original 
relationship  with  the  Turkish  languages,  which  in  their  turn 
have  connexions  with  the  other  groups. 

Samoyede  is  classed  by  some  as  a  separate  group  and  by 
some  among  the  Finno-Ugrian  languages,  but  it  at  any  rate 
displays  a  far  closer  resemblance  to  them  in  both  grammar 
and  vocabulary  than  do  any  of  the  Turkish  languages.  The 
numerals  are  different,  but  the  personal  and  interrogative 
pronouns  and  many  common  words  (e.g.  joha,  "  river,"  Finn. 
joki;  sava,  "  good,"  Finn,  hywii;  hole,  "  fish,"  Finn,  kala) 


FINNO-UGRIAN 


391 


show  a  considerable  resemblance.  The  inflection  of  nouns  is 
very  like  that  found  in  Finno-Ugrian  but  that  of  the  verb 
differs,  verb  and  noun  being  imperfectly  differentiated.  In 
detail,  however,  the  verbal  suffixes  show  analogies  to  those  of 
Finno-Ugrian.  Vowel  -  harmony  and  weakening  of  consonants 
occur  as  in  Finnish. 

Excluding  Samoyede,  the  Finno-Ugrian  languages  may  be 
divided  into  two  sections:  (i)  Ugrian,  comprising  Ostiak, 
Vogul  and  Magyar;  and  (2)  Finnish.  The  Permian  languages 
(Syryenian,  Permian  and  Votiak)  form  a  distinct  group  within 
this  latter  section,  and  the  remainder  may  be  divided  into  the 
Volga  group  (Cheremissian  and  Mordvinian)  and  the  West 
Finnish  (Lappish,  Esthonian  and  Finnish  proper). 

The  Ugrian  languages  appear  to  have  separated  from  the 
Finnish  branch  before  the  systems  of  declension  or  conjugation 
were  developed.  Their  case  suffixes  seem  to  be  later  formations, 
though  we  find,  t,  tl  or  k  for  the  plural  and  traces  of  I  as  a  local 
suffix.  Ostiak  and  Vogul,  like  Samoyede,  have  a  dual.  Moods 
and  tenses  are  less  numerous  but  the  number  of  verbal  forms  is 
increased  by  those  in  which  the  pronominal  object  is  incorporated. 
Hungarian  has  naturally  advanced  enormously  beyond  the 
stage  reached  by  Ostiak  and  Vogul,  and  shows  marks  of  strong 
European  influence,  but  also  retains  primitive  features.  Vowel- 
harmony  is  observed  (vdrok,  "  I  await,"  but  verek,  "  I  strike  "). 
The  verb  has  two  sets  of  terminations,  according  as  it  is  transitive 
or  intransitive,  and  the  pronominal  object  is  sometimes  in- 
corporated. Alone  among  Finno-Ugrian  languages  it  has 
developed  an  article,  and 'the  adjective  is  inflected  when  used 
as  a  predicate  though  not  as  an  attribute  (J6  emberek,  "  good 
men,"  but  Az  emberek  j6k,  "  the  men  are  good  ").  There  is 
great  freedom  in  the  order  of  words  and,  as  in  Finnish,  a  tendency 
to  form  long  compounds. 

The  Finnish  languages  are  not  divided  from  the  Ugrian  by 
any  striking  differences,  but  show  greater  resemblances  to  one 
another  in  details.  None  of  them  have  a  dual  and  only  Mord- 
vinian an  objective  conjugation.  The  case  system  is  elaborate 
and  generally  comprises  twelve  or  fifteen  forms.  The  negative 
conjugation  is  peculiar;  there  are  negative  adjectives  ending 
in  tern  or  torn  and  abessive  cases  (e.g.  Finnish  syytia,  without  a 
cause,  tiedotta,  without  knowledge). 

Permian,  Syryenian  and  Votiak  exhibit  this  common  develop- 
ment less  fully  than  the  more  western  languages.  They  are 
less  completely  inflected  than  the  Finnish  languages  and  more 
thoroughly  agglutinative  in  the  strict  sense.  In  vocabulary, 
e.g.  the  numerals,  they  show  resemblances  to  the  Ugrian  division. 
Syryenian  has  older  literary  remains  than  any  Finno-Ugrian 
language  except  Hungarian.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  I4th 
century  Russian  missionaries  composed  in  it  various  manuals 
and  translations,  using  a  special  alphabet  for  the  purpose. 

Unlike  the  Finnish  and  Esthonian  branch,  the  languages  of 
the  Volga  Finns  (Mordvinian  and  Cheremissian)  have  been 
influenced  by  Russian  and  Tatar  rather  than  by  Scandinavian, 
and  hence  show  apparent  differences.  But  Mordvinian  has 
points  of  detailed  resemblance  to  Finnish  which  seem  to  point 
to  a  comparatively  late  separation,  e.g.  the  use  of  kemen  for  ten, 
-nza  as  the  possessive  suffix  of  the  third  personal  pronoun,  the 
regular  formation  of  the  imperfect  with  *',  the  infinitive  with 
ma,  and  the  participle  with/  (Finnish  va).  On  the  other  hand 
it  has  many  peculiarities.  It  retains  an  objective  conjugation 
like  the  Ugrian  languages,  and  has  developed  two  forms  of 
declension,  the  definite  and  indefinite. 

Cheremissian  has  affinities  to  both  the  Permian  languages 
and  Mordvinian.  It  resembles  Syryenian  in  its  case  terminations 
and  also  in  marking  the  plural  by  interposing  a  distinct  syllable 
(Syry.  yas,  Cher,  vlya)  between  the  singular  and  the  case  suffixes. 
Most  of  the  numerals  are  like  Syryenian  but  kandekhsye,indekhsye, 
for  eight  and  nine,  recall  Finnish  forms  (kahdeksan,  yhdeksdn), 
as  do  also  the  pronouns. 

The  connexion  between  the  various  West  Finnish  languages 
is  more  obvious  than  between  those  already  discussed.  Lappish 
(or  Lapponic)  forms  a  link  between  them  and  Mordvinian.  Its 
pronouns  are  remarkably  like  the  Mordvinian  equivalents,  but 


the  general  system  of  declension  and  conjugation,  both  positive 
and  negative,  is  much  as  in  Finnish.  Superficially,  however, 
the  resemblance  is  somewhat  obscured  by  the  difference  in 
phonetics,  for  Lappish  has  an  extraordinary  fondness  for  diph- 
thongs and  also  an  unusually  ample  provision  of  consonants. 

The  affinity  of  Esthonian  (together  with  Votish,  Vepsish  and 
Livish)  to  Finnish  is  obvious  not  only  to  the  philologist  but 
to  the  casual  learner.  In  a  few  cases  it  shows  older  forms  than 
Finnish,  but  on  the  whole  is  less  primitive  and  has  assumed 
under  foreign  influence  the  features  of  a  European  language 
even  more  thoroughly.  The  vowel-harmony  is  found  only  in  the 
Dorpat  dialect  and  there  imperfectly,  the  pronominal  affixes 
are  not  used,  and  the  negative  has  become  an  unvarying  particle, 
though  in  Vepsish  and  Votish  it  takes  suffixes  as  in  Finnish. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  laws  for  the  change  of  consonants,  the 
general  system  of  phonetics,  the  declension,  the  pronouns  and 
the  positive  conjugation  of  the  verb  all  closely  resemble  Finnish. 
Esthonian  has  two  chief  dialects,  those  of  Reval  and  Dorpat,  and 
a  certain  amount  of  literary  culture,  the  best-known  work  being 
the  national  epic  or  Kalewi-poeg. 

Finnish  proper  is  divided  into  two  chief  dialects,  the  Karelian 
or  Eastern,  and  the  Tavastland  or  Western.  The  spoken 
language  of  the  Karelians  is  corrupt  and  mixed  with  Russian, 
but  the  Kalewala  and  their  other  old  songs  are  written  in  a  pure 
Finnish  dialect,  which  has  come  to  be  accepted  as  the  ordinary 
language  of  poetry  throughout  modern  Finland,  just  as  the 
Homeric  dialect  was  used  by  the  Greeks  for  epic  poetry.  It  is 
more  archaic  than  the  Tavastland  dialect  and  preserves  many 
old  forms  which  have  been  lost  elsewhere,  but  its  utterance  is 
softer  and  it  sometimes  rejects  consonants  which  are  retained  in 
ordinary  speech,  e.g.  saa'a,  kosen  for  saada,  kosken. 

The  affinity  of  Finnish  to  the  more  eastern  languages  of  the 
group  is  clear,  but  it  has  been  profoundly  influenced  by  Scandi- 
navian and  in  its  present  form  consists  of  non-Aryan  material 
recast  in  an  Aryan  and  European  mould.  Not  only  are  some 
of  the  simplest  words  borrowed  from  Scandinavian,  but  the 
grammar  has  been  radically  modified.  Un-Aryan  peculiarities 
have  been  rejected,  though  perhaps  less  than  in  Esthonian. 
The  various  forms  of  nouns  and  verbs  are  not  merely  roots  with 
a  string  of  obvious  suffixes  attached,  but  the  termination  forms 
a  whole  with  the  root  as  in  Greek  and  Latin  inflections;  the 
adjective  is  declined  and  compared  and  agrees  with  its  sub- 
stantive; compound  tenses  are  formed  with  the  aid  of  the 
auxiliary  verb,  and  there  is  a  full  supply  of  relative  pronouns 
and  particles. 

Finnish  and  Hungarian  together  with  Turkish  are  interesting 
examples  of  non-Aryan  languages  trying  to  participate,  by  both 
translation  and  imitation,  in  the  literary  life  of  Europe,  but  it 
may  be  doubted  if  the  experiment  is  successful.  The  sense  of 
effort  is  felt  less  in  Hungarian  than  in  the  other  languages; 
though  they  are  admirable  instruments  for  terse  conversation  or 
popular  poetry,  there  appears  to  be  some  deep-seated  difference 
in  the  force  of  the  verb  and  the  structure  of  phrases  which 
renders  them  clumsy  and  complicated  when  they  attempt  to 
express  sentences  of  the  type  common  in  European  literature. 

III.  Civilization  and  Religion. — The  Finno-Ugric  tribes  have 
not  been  equally  progressive;  some,  such  as  the  Finns  and 
Magyars,  have  adopted,  at  least  in  towns,  the  ordinary  civiliza- 
tion of  Europe;  others  are  agriculturists;  others  still  nomadic. 
The  wilder  tribes,  such  as  the  Ostiaks,  Voguls  and  Lapps,  mostly 
consist  of  one  section  which  is  nomadic  and  another  which  is 
settling  down.  The  following  notes  apply  to  traces  of  ancient 
conditions  which  survive  sporadically  but  are  nowhere  universal. 
Few  except  the  Hungarians  have  shown  themselves  warlike, 
though  we  read  of  conflicts  with  the  Russians  in  the  middle  ages 
as  they  advanced  among  this  older  population.  But  most 
Finno-Ugrians  are  astute  and  persevering  hunters,  and  the 
Ostiaks  still  shoot  game  with  a  bow.  The  tribes  are  divided 
into  numerous  small  clans  which  are  exogamous.  Marriage  by 
capture  is  said  to  survive  among  the  Cheremiss,  who  are  still 
polygamous  in  some  districts,  but  purchase  of  the  bride  is  the 
more  general  form.  Women  are  treated  as  servants  and  often 


392 


FINNO-UGRIAN 


excluded  from  pagan  religious  ceremonies.  The  most  primitive 
form  of  house  consists  of  poles  inclined  towards  one  another 
and  covered  with  skins  or  sods,  so  as  to  form  a  circular  screen 
round  a  fire;  winter  houses  are  partly  underground.  Long 
snow-shoes  are  used  in  winter  and  boats  are  largely  employed  in 
summer.  The  Finns  in  particular  are  very  good  seamen.  The 
Ostiaks  'and  Samoyedes  still  cast  tin  ornaments  in  wooden 
moulds.  The  variation  of  the  higher  numerals  in  the  different 
languages,  which  are  sometimes  obvious  loan  words,  shows  that 
the  original  system  did  not  extend  beyond  seven,  and  the  aptitude 
for  calculating  and  trading  is  not  great.  Several  thousands  of 
the  Ostiaks,  Voguls  and  Cheremiss  are  still  unbaptized,  and  much 
paganism  lingers  among  the  nominal  Christians,  and  in  poetry 
such  as  the  Kalewala.  The  deities  are  chiefly  nature  spirits  and 
the  importance  of  the  several  gods  varies  as  the  tribes  are  hunters, 
fishermen,  &c.  Sun  or  sky  worship  is  found  among  the  Samoyedes 
and  Jumala,  the  Finnish  word  for  god,  seems  originally  to  mean 
sky.  The  Ostiaks  worship  a  water-spirit  of  the  river  Obi  and 
also  a  thunder-god.  We  hear  of  a  forest-god  among  the  Finns, 
Lapps  and  Cheremiss.  There  are  also  clan  gods  worshipped  by 
each  clan  with  special  ceremonies.  Traces  of  ancestor-worship 
are  also  found.  The  Samoyedes  and  Ostiaks  are  said  to  sacrifice 
to  ghosts,  and  the  Ostiaks  to  make  images  of  the  more  important 
dead,  which  are  tended  and  honoured,  as  if  alive,  for  some  years. 
Images  are  found  in  the  tombs  and  barrows  of  most  tribes,  and 
the  Samoyedes,  Ostiaks  and  Voguls  still  use  idols,  generally 
of  wood.  Animal  sacrifices  are  offered,  and  the  lips  of  the 
idol  sometimes  smeared  with  blood.  Quaint  combinations 
of  Christianity  and  paganism  occur;  thus  the  Cheremiss  are 
said  to  sacrifice  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  The  idea  that  disease  is 
due  to  possession  by  an  evil  spirit,  and  can  be  both  caused  and 
cured  by  spells,  seems  to  prevail  among  all  tribes,  and  in  general 
extraordinary  power  is  supposed  to  reside  in  incantations  and 
magical  formulae.  This  belief  is  conspicuous  in  the  Kalewala, 
and  almost  every  tribe  has  its  own  collection  of  prayers,  healing 
charms  and  spells  to  be  used  on  the  most  varied  occasions. 
A  knowledge  of  these  formulae  is  possessed  by  wizards  (Finnish 
noita)  corresponding  to  the  Shamans  of  the  Altaic  peoples. 
They  are  exorcists  and  also  mediums  who  can  ascertain  the 
will  of  the  gods;  a  magic  drum  plays  a  great  part  in  their 
invocations,  and  their  office  is  generally  hereditary.  The  non- 
Buddhist  elements  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  religion  present 
the  same  features  as  are  found  among  the  Finno-Ugrians — nature- 
worship,  ancestor-worship  and  exorcism — but  in  a  much  more 
elaborate  and  developed  form. 

IV.  History. — Most  of  the  Finno-Ugrian  tribes  have  no  history 
or  written  records,  and  little  in  the  way  of  traditions  of  their 
past.  In  their  later  period  the  Hungarians  and  Finns  enter 
to  some  extent  the  course  of  ordinary  European  history.  For 
the  earlier  period  we  have  no  positive  information,  but  the  labours 
of  investigators,  especially  in  Finland,  have  collected  a  great 
number  of  archaeological  and  philological  data  from  which  an 
account  of  the  ancient  wanderings  of  these  tribes  may  be  con- 
structed. Barrows  containing  skulls  and  ornaments  may  mark 
the  advance  of  a  special  form  of  culture,  and  language  may  be 
of  assistance;  if  we  find,  for  instance,  a  language  with  loan 
words  of  an  archaic  type,  we  may  conclude  that  it  was  in  contact 
with  the  other  language  from  which  it  borrowed  at  the  time  when 
such  forms  were  current.  But  clearly  all  such  deductions 
contain  a  large  element  of  theory,  and  the  following  sketch  is 
given  with  all  reserve. 

The  Finno-Ugrian  tribes  originally  lived  together  east  of  the 
Urals  and  spoke  a  common  language.  It  is  not  certain  if  they 
were  all  of  the  same  physical  type,  for  the  association  of  different 
races  speaking  one  language  is  common  in  central  Asia.  They 
were  hunters  and  fishermen,  not  agriculturists.  At  an  unknown 
period  the  Finns,  still  undivided,  moved  into  Europe  and  perhaps 
settled  on  the  Volga  and  Oka.  They  had  perhaps  arrived  there 
before  1500  B.C.,  learned  some  rudiments  of  agriculture,  and 
developed  their  system  of  numbers  up  to  ten.  They  were  still 
in  the  neolithic  stage.  About  600  B.C.  they  came  in  contact 
with  an  Iranian  people,  from  whom  they  learned  the  use  of 


metals,  and  borrowed  numerals  for  a  hundred  (Finnish  sata, 
Ostiak  sat,  Magyar  szaz;  cf.  Zend  sata)  and  a  thousand  (Magyar 
ezer;  cf.  hazanra  and  hazar).  Magyar  and  some  other  languages 
also  borrowed  a  word  for  ten  (tiz,  cf.  das).  This  Iranian  race 
may  perhaps  have  been  the  Scythians,  who  are  believed  by  many 
authorities  to  have  been  Iranians  and  to  be  represented  by  the 
Osetians  of  the  Caucasus.  There  was  probably  a  trade  route 
up  the  Volga  in  the  4th  century  B.C.  About  that  time  the 
Western  Finns  must  have  broken  away  from  the  Mordvinians 
and  wandered  north-westwards.  At  a  period  not  much  later 
than  the  Christian  era,  they  must  have  come  in  contact  with 
Letto-Lithuanian  peoples  in  the  Baltic  provinces,  and  also  with 
Scandinavians.  Whether  they  came  in  contact  with  the  latter 
first  in  the  Baltic  provinces  or  in  Finland  itself  is  disputed,  as 
there  may  have  been  Scandinavians  in  the  Baltic  provinces. 
But  the  distribution  of  tombs  and  barrows  seems  to  indicate 
that  they  entered  Finland  not  from  the  east  through  Karelia 
but  from  the  Baltic  provinces  by  sea  to  Satakunta  and  the 
south-east  coast,  whence  they  extended  eastwards.  From  both 
Lithuanians  and  Scandinavians  they  borrowed  an  enormous 
quantity  of  culture-words  and  probably  the  ideas  and  materials 
they  indicate.  Thus  the  Finnish  words  for  gold,  king  and 
everything  concerned  with  government  are  of  Scandinavian 
origin.  Their  migration  to  Finland  was  probably  complete  about 
A.D.  800.  Meanwhile  the  Slav  tribes  known  later  as  Russians 
were  coming  up  from  the  south  and  pressed  the  Finns  northwards, 
overwhelming  but  not  annihilating  them  in  the  country  between 
St  Petersburg  and  Moscow.  The  same  movement  tended  to 
drive  the  Eastern  Finns  and  Ugrians  backwards  towards  the  east. 
The  Finns  knew  the  Russians  by  the  name  of  Veniija,  or  Wends, 
and  as  this  name  is  not  used  by  Slavs  themselves  but  by  Scandi- 
navians and  Teutons,  it  seems  clear  that  they  arrived  among 
the  Finns  as  greater  strangers  than  the  Scandinavians  and 
known  by  a  foreign  name.  Christianity  was  perhaps  first 
preached  to  the  Finns  as  early  as  A.D.  1000,  but  there  was  a  long 
political  and  religious  struggle  with  the  Swedes.  At  the  end  of 
the  I3th  century  Finland  was  definitely  converted  and  annexed 
to  Sweden,  remaining  a  dependency  of  that  country  until  1809, 
when  it  was  ceded  to  Russia. 

The  Ugrians  and  Eastern  Finns  took  no  part  in  the  westward 
movement  and  did  not  fall  under  western  influences  but  came 
into  contact  with  Tatar  tribes  and  were  more  or  less  Tatarized. 
In  some  cases  this  took  the  form  of  the  adoption  of  a  Tatar 
language,  in  others  (Mordvin,  Cheremis  and  Votiak)  a  large 
number  of  Tatar  words  were  borrowed.  We  also  know  that  there 
were  considerable  settlements  of  these  tribes,  perhaps  amounting 
to  states,  on  the  Volga  and  in  south-eastern  Russia.  Such 
was  Great  Bulgaria,  which  continued  until  destroyed  by  the 
Mongols  in  1238.  The  pressure  of  tribes  farther  east  acting  on 
these  settlements  dislodged  sections  of  them  from  time  to  time 
and  created  the  series  of  invasions  which  devastated  the  East 
Roman  empire  from  the  sth  century  onwards.  But  we  do  not 
know  what  were  the  languages  spoken  by  the  Huns,  Bulgarians, 
Pechenegs  and  Avars,  so  that  we  cannot  say  whether  they  were 
Turks,  Finns  or  Ugrians,  nor  does  it  follow  that  a  horde  speaking 
a  Ugrian  language  were  necessarily  Ugrians  by  race.  An  inspec- 
tion of  the  performances  of  the  various  tribes,  as  far  as  we  can 
distinguish  them,  suggests  that  the  Turks  or  Tatars  were  the 
warlike  element.  The  names  Hun  and  Hungarian  may  possibly 
be  the  same  as  Hiung-nu,  but  we  cannot  assume  that  this  tribe 
passed  across  Asia  unchanged  in  language  and  physique.  The 
Hungarians  entered  on  their  present  phase  at  the  end  of  the  gth 
century  of  this  era,  when  they  crossed  the  Carpathians  and 
conquered  the  old  Pannonia  and  Dacia.  For  half  a  century  or 
so  before  this  invasion  they  are  said  to  have  inhabited  Atelkuzu, 
probably  a  district  between  the  Dnieper  and  the  Danube.  The 
isolated  groups  of  Hungarians  now  found  in  Transylvania  and 
called  Szeklers  are  considered  the  purest  descendants  of  the 
invading  Magyars.  Those  who  settled  in  the  plains  of  Hungary 
probably  mingled  there  with  remnants  of  Huns,  Avars  and 
earlier  invaders,  and  also  with  subsequent  invaders,  such  as 
Pechenegs  and  Kumans. 


FINSBURY— FIORENZO  DI  LORENZO 


393 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Among  the  older  writers  may  be  mentioned 
Strahlenberg  (Das  nord-  und  ostliche  Theil  von  Europa  und  Asia, 
^730),  Johann  Gottlieb  Georgi  (Description  de  toutes  les  nations  de 
V empire  de  la  Russie,  French  tr.,  St  Petersburg,  1777),  but  especially 
the  various  works  of  Matthias  A.  Castren  (1852-1853)  and  W.  Schott 
(1858).  Modern  scientific  knowledge  of  the  Finno-Ugrians  and  their 
languages  was  founded  by  these  two  authors.  Among  newer  works 
some  of  the  most  important  separate  publications  are:  J.  R.  Aspelin, 
Antiquites  du  nord  finno-ougrien  (1877-1884);  J.  Abercromby, 
Pre-  and  Proto-historic  Finns  (1898);  and  A.  Hackmann,  Die  altere 
Eisenzeit  in  Finnland  (1905). 

The  recent  literature  on  the  origin,  customs,  antiquities  and 
languages  of  these  races  is  voluminous,  but  is  contained  chiefly  not 
in  separate  books  but  in  special  learned  periodicals.  Of  these  there 
are  several:  Journal  de  la  Societe  Finno-ougrienne  (Helsinefors) 
(Suomalais-Ugrilaisen  Seuran  Aikakauskirja) ;  Finnisch-Ugrische 
Forschungen  (Helsingfors  and  Leipzig) ;  Mitteilungen  der  archdo- 
logischen,  historischen  und  ethnographischen  Gesellschaft  der  Kais. 
Universitdt  zu  Kasan;  Keleti  Szemle  or  Revue  orientale  pour  les 
etudes  ouralo-altaiques  (Budapest).  In  all  of  these  will  be  found 
numerous  valuable  articles  by  such  authors  as  Ahlqvist,  Halevy, 
Heikel,  Krohn,  Muncacsi,  Paasonen,  Setala,  Smurnow,  Thomsen 
and  Vambery. 

The  titles  of  grammars  and  dictionaries  will  be  found  under  the 
headings  of  the  different  languages.  For  general  linguistic  questions 
may  be  consulted  the  works  of  Castren,  Schott  and  Otto  Donner, 
also  such  parts  of  the  following  as  treat  of  Finno-Ugric  languages: 
Byrne,  Principles  of  the  Structure  of  Language,  vol.  i.  (1892) ;  Friedrich 
Miiller,  Grundriss  der  Sprachivissenschaft  II.,  Band  ii.,  Abth.  1882 ; 
Steinthal  and  Misleli,  Abriss  der  Sprachwissenschaft  (1893).  (C.  EL.) 

FINSBURY,  a  central  metropolitan  borough  of  London, 
England,  bounded  N.  by  Islington,  E.  by  Shoreditch,  S.  by  the 
city  of  London  and  W.  by  Holborn  and  St  Pancras.  Pop. 
(1901)  101,463.  The  principal  thoroughfares  are  Pentonville 
Road,  from  King's  Cross  east  to  the  Angel,  Islington,  continuing 
E.  and  S.  in  City  Road  and  S.  again  to  the  City  in  Moorgate 
Street;  Clerkenwell  Road  and  Old  Street,  crossing  the  centre 
from  W.  to  E.;  King's  Cross  Road  running  S.E.  into  Farringdon 
Road,  and  so  to  the  City;  St  John  Street  and  Road  and  Goswell 
Road  (the  residence  of  Dickens'  Pickwick)  running  S.  from  the 
Angel  towards  the  City;  and  Rosebery  Avenue  running  S.W. 
from  St  John  Street  into  Holborn.  The  commercial  character 
of  the  City  extends  into  the  southern  part  of  the  borough;  the 
residential  houses  are  mostly  those  of  artisans.  Local  industries 
include  working  in  precious  metals,  watch-making,  printing 
and  paper-making. 

An  early  form  of  the  name  is  Vynesbury,  but  the  derivation 
is  not  known.  The  place  was  supposed  by  some  to  take  name 
from  an  extensive  fen,  a  part  of  which,  commonly  known  as 
Moorfields  (cf.  Moorgate  Street),  was  drained  in  the  i6th  century 
and  subsequently  laid  out  as  public  grounds.  It  was  a  frequent 
resort  of  Pepys,  who  mentions  its  houses  of  entertainment  and 
the  wrestling  and  other  pastimes  carried  on,  also  that  it  furnished 
a  refuge  for  many  of  those  whose  houses  were  destroyed  in  the  fire 
of  London  in  1666.  Bookstalls  and  other  booths  were  numerous 
at  a  somewhat  later  date.  The  borough  includes  the  parish  of 
Clerkenwell  (q.v.),  a  locality  of  considerable  historic  interest, 
including  the  former  priory  of  St  John,  Clerkenwell,  of  which 
the  gateway  and  other  traces  remain.  Among  several  other 
sites  and  buildings  of  historical  interest  the  Charterhouse  (q.v.) 
west  of  Aldersgate  Street,  stands  first,  originally  a  Carthusian 
monastery,  subsequently  a  hospital  and  a  school  out  of  which 
grew  the  famous  public  school  at  Godalming.  Bunhill  Fields, 
City  Road,  was  used  by  the  Dissenters  as  a  burial-place  from  the 
middle  of  the  i7th  century  until  1832.  Among  eminent  persons 
interred  here  are  John  Bunyan,  Daniel  Defoe,  Susanna,  mother 
of  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  and  George  Fox,  founder  of  the 
Society  of  Friends.  A  neighbouring  chapel  is  intimately  associ- 
ated with  the  Wesleys,  and  the  house  of  John  Wesley  is  opened 
as  a  museum  bearing  his  name.  Many  victims  of  the  plague 
were  buried  in  a  pit  neighbouring  to  these  fields,  near  the  junction 
of  Goswell  Road  and  Old  Street.  To  the  south  of  the  fields 
lies  the  Artillery  Ground,  the  training  ground  of  the  Honourable 
Artillery  Company,  so  occupied  since  1641,  with  barracks  and 
armoury,  Sadler's  Wells  theatre,  Rosebery  Avenue,  dating  as 
a  place  of  entertainment  from  1683,  preserves  the  name  of  a 
fashionable  medicinal  spring,  music  room  and  theatre,  the  last 


most  notable  in  its  connexion  with  the  names  of  Joseph  Grimaldi 
the  clown  and  Samuel  Phelps.  Other  institutions  are  the  tech- 
nical college,  Leonard  Street,  and  St  Mark's,  St  Luke's  and 
the  Royal  chest  hospitals.  At  Mount  Pleasant  is  the  parcels 
department  of  the  general  post  office,  and  at  Clerkenwell  Green 
the  sessions  house  for  the  county  of  London  (north  side  of  the 
Thames).  Adjacent  to  Rosebery  Avenue  are  reservoirs  of  the 
New  River  Head.  The  municipal  borough  coincides  with  the 
east  and.  central  divisions  of  the  parliamentary  borough  of 
Finsbury,  each  returning  one  member.  The  borough  council 
consists  of  a  mayor,  9  aldermen  and  54  councillors.  Area, 
589-1  acres. 

FINSTERWALDE,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia,  on  the  Schackebach.  a  tributary  of  the  Little  Elster, 
28  m.  W.S.W.  of  Cottbus  by  rail.  Pop.  (1905)  10,726.  The 
town  has  a  Gothic  church  (1581),  a  chateau,  schools,  cloth  and 
cigar  factories,  iron-foundries,  flour  and  saw  mills  and  factories 
for  machine  building.  The  town,  which  is  first  mentioned  in 
1288,  came  into  the  possession  of  electoral  Saxony  in  1635  and 
of  Prussia  in  1815. 

FIORENZO  DI  LORENZO  (c.  1440-1522),  Italian  painter,  of 
the  Umbrian  school,  lived  and  worked  at  Perugia,  where  most 
of  his  authentic  works  are  still  preserved  in  the  Pinacoteca.  There 
is  probably  no  other  Italian  master  of  importance  of  whose 
life  and  work  so  little  is  known.  In  fact  the  whole  edifice  that 
modern  scientific  criticism  has  built  around  his  name  is  based 
on  a  single  signed  and  dated  picture  (1487)  in  the  Pinacoteca 
of  Perugia — a  niche  with  lunette,  two  wings  and  predella — and 
on  the  documentary  evidence  that  he  was  decemvir  of  that  city 
in  1472,  in  which  year  he  entered  into  a  contract  to  paint 
an  altarpiece  for  Santa  Maria  Nuova — the  pentatych  of  the 
"  Madonna  and  Saints  "  now  in  the  Pinacoteca.  Of  his  birth 
and  death  and  pupilage  nothing  is  known,  and  Vasari  does  not 
even  mention  Fiorenzo's  name,  though  he  probably  refers  to  him 
when  he  says  that  Cristofano,  Perugino's  father,  sent  his  son 
to  be  the  shop  drudge  of  a  painter  in  Perugia,  "  who  was  not 
particularly  distinguished  in  his  calling,  but  held  the  art  in  great 
veneration  and  highly  honoured  the  men  who  excelled  therein." 
Certain  it  is  that  the  early  works  both  of  Perugino  and  of  Pintu- 
ricchio  show  certain  mannerisms  which  point  towards  Fiorenzo's 
influence,  if  not  to  his  direct  teaching.  The  list  of  some  fifty 
pictures  which  modern  critics  have  ascribed  to  Fiorenzo  includes 
works  of  such  widely  varied  character  that  one  can  hardly  be 
surprised  to  find  great  divergence  of  opinion  as  regards  the 
masters  under  whom  Fiorenzo  is  supposed  to  have  studied. 
Pisanello,  Verrocchio,  Benozzo  Gozzoli,  Antonio  Pollaiuolo, 
Benedetto  Bonfigli,  Mantegna,  Squarcione,  Filippo  Lippi, 
Signorelli  and  Ghirlandajo  have  all  been  credited  with  this 
distinguished  pupil,  who  was  the  most  typical  Umbrian  painter 
that  stands  between  the  primitives  and  Perugino;  but  the 
probability  is  that  he  studied  under  Bonfigli  and  was  indirectly 
influenced  by  Gozzoli.  Fiorenzo's  authentic  works  are  remarkable 
for  their  sense  of  space  and  for  the  expression  of  that  peculiar 
clear,  soft  atmosphere  which  is  so  marked  a  feature  in  the  work 
of  Perugino.  But  Fiorenzo  has  an  intensity  of  feeling  and  a 
power  of  expressing  character  which  are  far  removed  from  the 
somewhat  affected  grace  of  Perugino.  Of  the  forty-five  pictures 
bearing  Fiorenzo's  name  in  the  Pinacoteca  of  Perugia,  the  eight 
charming  St  Bernardino  panels  are  so  different  from  his  well- 
authenticated  works,  so  Florentine  in  conception  and  movement, 
that  the  Perugian's  authorship  is  very  questionable.  On  the 
other  hand  the  beautiful  "  Nativity,"  the  "  Adoration  of  the 
Magi,"  and  the  "  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds  "  in  the  same 
gallery,  may  be  accepted  as  the  work  of  his  hand,  as  also  the 
fresco  of  SS.  Romano  and  Rocco  at  the  church  of  S.  Francesco 
at  Deruta.  The  London  National  Gallery,  the  Berlin  and  the 
Frankfort  museums  contain  each  a  "  Madonna  and  Child  " 
ascribed  to  the  master,  but  the  attribution  is  in  each  case  open 
to  doubt. 

See  Jean  Carlyle  Graham,  The  Problem  of  Fiorenzo  di  Lorenzo 
(Perugia,  1903) ;  Edward  Hutton,  The  Cities  of  Umbria  (London). 

(P.  G.  K.) 


394 


FIORENZUOLA  D'ARDA— FIR 


FIORENZUOLA  D'ARDA,  a  town  of  Emilia,  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Piacenza,  from  which  it  is  14  m.  S.E.  by  rail,  270  ft. 
above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1901)  7792.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Via 
Aemilia,  and  has  a  picturesque  piazza,  with  an  old  tower  in  the 
centre.  The  Palazzo  Grossi  also  is  a  fine  building.  Alseno 
lies  4  m.  to  the  S.E.,  and  near  it  is  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Chiara- 
valle  della  Colomba,  with  a  fine  Gothic  church  and  a  large  and 
beautiful  cloister  (in  brick  and  Verona  marble),  of  the  I2th-i4th 
century. 

FIORILLO,  JOHANN  DOMINICUS  (1748-1821),  German 
painter  and  historian  of  art,  was  born  at  Hamburg  on  the  i3th 
of  October  1748.  He  received  his  first  instructions  in  art  at  an 
academy  of  painting  at  Bayreuth;  and  in  1761,  to  continue 
his  studies,  he  went  first  to  Rome,  and  next  to  Bologna,  where 
he  distinguished  himself  sufficiently  to  attain  in  1769  admission 
to  the  academy.  Returning  soon  after  to  Germany,  he  obtained 
the  appointment  of  historical  painter  to  the  court  of  Brunswick. 
In  1781  he  removed  to  Gottingen,  occupied  himself  as  a  drawing- 
master,  and  was  named  in  1784  keeper  of  the  collection  of  prints 
at  the  university  library.  He  was  appointed  professor  extra- 
ordinary in  the  philosophical  faculty  in  1799,  and  ordinary 
professor  in  1813.  During  this  period  he  had  made  himself 
known  as  a  writer  by  the  publication  of  his  Geschichte  der  zeich- 
nenden  Kiinste,  in  5  vols.  (1798-1808).  This  was  followed  in 
1815  to  1820  by  the  Geschichte  der  zeichnenden  Kiinste  in  Deutsch- 
land  und  den  wreinigten  Niederlanden,  in  4  vols.  These  works, 
though  not  attaining  to  any  high  mark  of  literary  excellence, 
are  esteemed  for  the  information  collected  in  them,  especially 
on  the  subject  of  art  in  the  later  middle  ages.  Fiorillo  practised 
his  art  almost  till  his  death,  but  has  left  no  memorable  master- 
piece. The  most  noticeable  of  his  painting  is  perhaps  the 
"  Surrender  of  Briseis."  He  died  at  Gottingen  on  the  loth  of 
September  1821. 

FIR,  the  Scandinavian  name  originally  given  to  the  Scotch 
pine  (Pinus  sylveslris),  but  at  present  not  infrequently  employed 
as  a  general  term  for  the  whole  of  the  true  conifers  (Abietineae); 
in  a  more  exact  sense,  it  has  been  transferred  to  the  "  spruce  " 
and  "  silver  firs,"  the  genera  Picea  and  Abies  of  most  modern 
botanists. 

The  firs  are  distinguished  from  the  pines  and  larches  by  having 
their  needle-like  leaves  placed  singly  on  the  shoots,  instead  of 
growing  in  clusters  from  a  sheath  on  a  dwarf  branch.  Their 
cones  are  composed  of  thin,  rounded,  closely  imbricated  scales, 
each  with  a  more  or  less  conspicuous  bract  springing  from  the 
base.  The  trees  have  usually  a  straight  trunk,  and  a  tendency 
to  a  conical  or  pyramidal  growth,  throwing  out  each  year  a  more 
or  less  regular  whorl  of  branches  from  the  foot  of  the  leading 
shoot,  while  the  buds  of  the  lateral  boughs  extend  horizontally. 
In  the  spruce  firs  (Picea),  the  cones  are  pendent  when  mature 
and  their  scales  persistent ;  the  leaves  are  arranged  all  round  the 
shoots,  though  the  lower  ones  are  sometimes  directed  laterally. 
In  the  genus  Abies,  the  silver  firs,  the  cones  are  erect,  and  their 
scales  drop  off  when  the  seed  ripens;  the  leaves  spread  in  distinct 
rows  on  each  side  of  the  shoot. 

The  most  important  of  the  firs,  in  an 'economic  sense,  is  the 
Norway  spruce  (Picea  excelsa),  so  well  known  in  British  planta- 
tions, though  rarely  attaining  there  the  gigantic  height  and 
grandeur  of  form  it  often  displays  in  its  native  woods.  Under 
favourable  conditions  of  growth  it  is  a  lofty  tree,  with  a  nearly 
Straight,  tapering  trunk,  throwing  out  in  somewhat  irregular 
whorls  its  widespreading  branches,  densely  clothed  with  dark, 
clear  green  foliage.  The  boughs  and  their  side-branches,  as  they 
increase  in  length,  have  a  tendency  to  droop,  the  lower  tier,  even 
in  large  trees,  often  sweeping  the  ground — a  habit  that,  with 
the  jagged  sprays,  and  broad,  shadowy,  wave-like  foliage-masses, 
gives  a  peculiarly  graceful  and  picturesque  aspect  to  the  Norway 
spruce.  The  slender,  sharp,  slightly  curved  leaves  are  scattered 
thickly  around  the  shoots;  the  upper  one  pressed  towards  the 
stem,  and  the  lower  directed  sideways,  so  as  to  give  a  somewhat 
flattened  appearance  to  the  individual  sprays.  The  elongated 
cylindrical  cones  grow  chiefly  at  the  ends  of  the  upper  branches 
they  are  purplish  at  first,  but  become  afterwards  green,  and 


eventually  light  brown;  their  scales  are  slightly  toothed  at  the 
extremity;  they  ripen  in  the  autumn,  but  seldom  discharge 
:heir  seeds  until  the  following  spring. 

The  tree  is  very  widely  distributed,  growing  abundantly  on 
most  of  the  mountain  ranges  of  northern  and  central  Europe; 
while  in  Asia  it  occurs  at  least  as  far  east  as  the  Lena,  and  in 
atitude  extends  from  the  Altaic  ranges  to  beyond  the  Arctic  circle. 
On  the  Swiss  Alps  it  is  one  of  the  most  prevalent  and  striking 
of  the  forest  trees,  its  dark  evergreen  foliage  often  standing  out 
in  strong  contrast  to  the  snowy  ridges  and  glaciers  beyond, 
[n  the  lower  districts  of  Sweden  it  is  the  predominant  tree  in 
most  of  the  great  forests  that  spread  over  so  large  a  portion  of 
that  country.  In  Norway  it  constitutes  a  considerable  part  of 
the  dense  woods  of  the  southern  dales,  flourishing,  according 
to  Franz  Christian  Schubeler,  on  the  mountain  slopes  up  to  an 
altitude  of  from  280010310x3  ft.,  and  clothing  the  shores  of  some 
of  the  fjords  to  the  water's  edge;  in  the  higher  regions  it  is 
generally  mingled  with  the  pine.  Less  abundant  on  the  western 
side  of  the  fjelds,  it  again  forms  woods  in  Nordland,  extending 


Mt.  sue 


FIG.  i. — Norway  Spruce  (Picea  excelsa).  Male  Flowers.  A,  branch 
bearing  male  cones,  reduced ;  B,  single  male  cone,  enlarged;  C,  single 
stamen,  enlarged. 

in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  coast  nearly  to  the  67th  parallel; 
but  it  is,  in  that  arctic  climate,  rarely  met  with  at  a  greater 
elevation  than  800  ft.  above  the  sea,  though  in  Swedish  Lapland 
it  is  found  on  the  slope  of  the  Sulitelma  as  high  as  1200  ft.,  its 
upper  limit  being  everywhere  lower  than  that  of  the  pine.  In 
all  the  Scandinavian  countries  it  is  known  as  the  Gran  or  Grann. 
Great  tracts  of  low  country  along  the  southern  shores  of  the 
Baltic  and  in  northern  Russia  are  covered  with  forests  of  spruce. 
It  everywhere  shows  a  preference  for  a  moist  but  well-drained 
soil,  and  never  attains  its  full  stature  or  luxuriance  of  growth 
upon  arid  ground,  whether  on  plain  or  mountain — a  peculiarity 
that  should  be  remembered  by  the  planter.  In  a  favourable 
soil  and  open  situation  it  becomes  the  tallest  and  one  of  the 
stateliest  of  European  trees,  rising  sometimes  to  a  height  of 
from  150  to  170  ft.,  the  trunk  attaining  a  diameter  of  from  5 
to  6  ft.  at  the  base.  But  when'it  grows  in  dense  woods,  where 
the  lower  branches  decay  and  drop  off  early,  only  a  small  head 
of  foliage  remaining  at  the  tapering  summit,  its  stem,  though 
frequently  of  great  height,  is  rarely  more  than  13  or  2  ft.  in 
thickness.  Its  growth  is  rapid,  the  straight  leading  shoot,  in  the 
vigorous  period  of  the  tree,  often  extending  25  or  even  3  ft.  in 
a  single  season.  In  its  native  habitats  it  is  said  to  endure  for 
several  centuries;  but  in  those  countries  from  which  the  com- 
mercial supply  of  its  timber  is  chiefly  drawn,  it  attains  perfection 
in  from  70  to  90  years,  according  to  soil  and  situation. 


FIR 


PLATE  I, 


SILVER  FIR  (Abies  pectinata). 
A,  Cone  and  foliage. 


SPRUCE  FIR  (Picea  excelsa) 
B.  Cone  and  foliage. 


HEMLOCK  SPRUCE  (Tsuga  canadensis). 
C,  Cone,  seed  and  foliage. 

X.394- 


DOUGLAS  FIR  (Pseudotsuga  Douglasii}. 
D,  Cone,  seed  and  foliage. 

Photos  by  Henry  Irving. 


PLATE  II. 


FIR 


CYPRESS  (Cupressus  sempervirens). 
A,  Cone  and  branchlets. 


JUNIPER  (Juniperus  communis). 
2>,  Fruit  and  foliage. 


c 


ARAUCARIA  (A.  imbricata,  Chile  pine  or  monkey-puzzle). 
C,  Seed-bearing  cone  and  a  single  scale  with  seed. 


YEW  (Taxus  baccata). 
D,  Seed  and  foliage. 


Photos  by  Henry  Irving. 


FIR 


395 


In  the  most  prevalent  variety  of  the  Norway  spruce  the  wood 
is  white,  apt  to  be  very  knotty  when  the  tree  has  grown  in  an 
open  place,  but,  as  produced  in  the  close  northern  forests,  often 
of  fine  and  even  grain.  Immense  quantities  are  imported  into 
Britain  from  Norway,  Sweden  and  Prussia,  under  the  names 
of  "  white  Norway,"  "  Christiania  "  and  "  Danzig  deal."  The 
larger  trees  are  sawn  up  into  planks  and  battens,  much  used  for 
the  purposes  of  the  builder,  especially  for  flooring,  joists  and 
rafters.  Where  not  exposed  to  the  weather  the  wood  is  probably 
as  lasting  as  that  of  the  pine,  but,  not  being  so  resinous,  appears 
less  adapted  for  out-door  uses.  Great  quantities  are  sent  from 
Sweden  in  a  manufactured  state,  in  the  form  of  door  and  window- 
frames  and  ready-prepared  flooring,  and  much  of  the  cheap 
"  white  deal  "  furniture  is  made  of  this  wood.  The  younger  and 
smaller  trees  are  remarkably  durable,  especially  when  the  bark 
is  allowed  to  remain  on  them;  and  most  of  the  poles  imported 
into  Britain  for  scaffolding,  ladders,  mining-timber  and  similar 
uses  are  furnished  by  this  fir.  Small  masts  and  spars  are  often 

made  of  it,  and  are 
said  to  be  lighter 
than  those  of  pine. 
The  best  poles  are 
obtained  in  Norway 
from  small,  slender, 
drawn-up  trees, 
growing  under  the 
shade  of  the  larger 
ones  in  the  thick 
woods,  these  being 
freer  from  knots, 
and  tougher  from 
their  slower  growth. 
A  variety  of  the 
spruce,  abounding  in 
some  parts  of  Nor- 
way, produces  a  red 
heartwood,  not  easy 
to  distinguish  from 
that  of  the  Norway 
pine  (Scotch  fir),  and 
imported  with  it  into 
England  as  "  red 
deal  "  or  "  pine." 
This  kind  is  some- 
FIG.  2.— Norway  Spruce  (Picea  excelsa).  times  seen  jn  planta- 
Cones;  scale  with  seeds.  A,  Branch  bear-  ..  wuprp  ,-,.  „,„„ 

ing  (a)  young  female  cones,  (6)  ripe  cones,  ^lons'  ™™  *  may 
reduced.  B,  Ripe  cone  scale  with  seeds,  be  recognized  by  its 
enlarged.  shorter,  darker 

leaves     and      longer 

cones.  The  smaller  branches  and  the  waste  portion  of  the 
trunks,  left  in  cutting  up  the  timber,  are  exported  as  fire-wood, 
or  used  for  splitting  into  matches.  The  wood  of  the  spruce  is 
also  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  wood-pulp  for  paper. 

The  resinous  products  of  the  Norway  spruce,  though  yielded 
by  the  tree  in  less  abundance  than  those  furnished  by  the  pine, 
are  of  considerable  economic  value.  In  Scandinavia  a  thick 
turpentine  oozes  from  cracks  or  fissures  in  the  bark,  forming 
by  its  congelation  a  fine  yellow  resin,  known  commercially  as 
"  spruce  rosin,"  or  "  frankincense  ";  it  is  also  procured  artifici- 
ally by  cutting  off  the  ends  of  the  lower  branches,  when  it 
slowly  exudes  from  the  extremities.  In  Switzerland  and  parts  of 
Germany,  where  it  is  collected  in  some  quantity  for  commerce, 
a  long  strip  of  bark  is  cut  out  of  the  tree  near  the  root ;  the  resin 
that  slowly  accumulates  during  the  summer  is  scraped  out  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  season,  and  the  slit  enlarged  slightly  the 
following  spring  to  ensure  a  continuance  of  the  supply.  The 
process  is  repeated  every  alternate  year,  until  the  tree  no  longer 
yields  the  resin  in  abundance,  which  under  favourable  circum- 
stances it  will  do  for  twenty  years  or  more.  The  quantity 
obtained  from  each  fir  is  very  variable,  depending  on  the  vigour 
of  the  tree,  and  greatly  lessens  after  it  has  been  subjected  to  the 
operation  for  some  years.  Eventually  the  tree  is  destroyed, 


B 


and  the  wood  rendered  worthless  for  timber,  and  of  little  value 
even  for  fuel.  From  the  product  so  obtained  most  of  the  better 
sort  of  "  Burgundy  pitch  "  of  the  druggists  is  prepared.  By 
the  peasantry  of  its  native  countries  the  Norway  spruce  is 
applied  to  innumerable  purposes  of  daily  life.  The  bark  and 
young  cones  afford  a  tanning  material,  inferior  indeed  to  oak- 
bark,  and  hardly  equal  to  that  of  the  larch,  but  of  value  in  countries 
where  substances  more  rich  in  tannin  are  not  abundant.  In 
Norway  the  sprays,  like  those  of  the  juniper,  are  scattered  over 
the  floors  of  churches  and  the  sitting-rooms  of  dwelling-houses, 
as  a  fragrant  and  healthful  substitute  for  carpet  or  matting. 
The  young  shoots  are  also  given  to  oxen  in  the  long  winters  of 
those  northern  latitudes,  when  other  green  fodder  is  hard  to 
obtain.  In  times  of  scarcity  the  Norse  peasant-farmer  uses  the 
sweetish  inner  bark,  beaten  in  a  mortar  and  ground  in  his 
primitive  mill  with  oats  or  barley,  to  eke  out  a  scanty  supply  of 
meal,  the  mixture  yielding  a  tolerably  palatable  though  some- 
what resinous  substitute  for  his  ordinary  flad-brod.  A  decoction 
of  the  buds  in  milk  or  whey  is  a  common  household  remedy 
for  scurvy;  and  the  young  shoots  or  green  cones  form  an  essential 
ingredient  in  the  spruce-beer  drank  with  a  similar  object,  or  as 
an  occasional  beverage.  The  well-known  "  Danzig-spruce " 
is  prepared  by  adding  a  decoction  of  the  buds  or  cones  to  the 
wort  or  saccharine  liquor  before  fermentation.  Similar  prepara- 
tions are  in  use  wherever  the  spruce  fir  abounds.  The  wood  is 
burned  for  fuel,  its  heat-giving  power  being  reckoned  in  Germany 
about  one-fourth  less  than  that  of  beech.  From  the  wide- 
spreading  roots  string  and  ropes  are  manufactured  in  Lapland 
and  Bothnia:  the  longer  ones  which  run  near  the  surface  are 
selected,  split  through,  and  then  boiled  for  some  hours  in  a  ley 
of  wood-ashes  and  salt,  which,  dissolving  out  the  resin,  loosens 
the  fibres  and  renders  them  easily  separable,  and  ready  for  twist- 
ing into  cordage.  Light  portable  boats  are  sometimes  made  of 
very  thin  boards  of  fir,  sewn  together  with  cord  thus  manufac- 
tured from  the  roots  of  the  tree. 

The  Norway  spruce  seems  to  have  been  the  "  Picea  "  of 
Pliny,  but  is  evidently  often  confused  by  the  Latin  writers 
with  their  "  Abies,"  the  Abies  pectinata  of  modern  botanists. 
From  an  equally  loose  application  of  the  word  "  fir  "  by  our 
older  herbalists,  it  is  difficult  to  decide  upon  the  date  of  intro- 
duction of  this  tree  into  Britain;  but  it  was  commonly  planted 
for  ornamental  purposes  in  the  beginning  of  the  i7th  century. 
In  places  suited  to  its  growth  it  seems  to  flourish  nearly  as  well 
as  in  the  woods  of  Norway  or  Switzerland;  but  as  it  needs  for 
its  successful  cultivation  as  a  timber  tree  soils  that  might  be 
turned  to  agricultural  account,  it  is  not  so  well  adapted  for 
economic  planting  in  Britain  as  the  Scotch  fir  or  larch,  which 
come  to  perfection  in  more  bleak  and  elevated  regions,  and  on 
comparatively  barren  ground,  though  it  may  perhaps  be  grown 
to  advantage  on  some  moist  hill-sides  and  mountain  hollows. 
Its  great  value  to  the  English  forester  is  as  a  "  nurse  "  for  other 
trees,  for  which  its  dense  leafage  and  tapering  form  render  it 
admirably  fitted,  as  it  protects,  without  overshading,  the  young 
saplings,  and  yields  saleable  stakes  and  small  poles  when  cut  out. 
For  hop-poles  it  is  not  so  well  adapted  as  the  larch.  As  a  pictur- 
esque tree,  for  park  and  ornamental  plantation,  it  is  among 
the  best  of  the  conifers,  its  colour  and  form  contrasting  yet 
harmonizing  with  the  olive  green  and  rounded  outline  of  oaks 
and  beeches,  or  with  the  red  trunk  and  glaucous  foliage  of  the 
pine.  When  young  its  spreading  boughs  form  good  cover  for 
game.  The  fresh  branches,  with  their  thick  mat  of  foliage,  are 
useful  to  the  gardener  for  sheltering  wall-fruit  in  the  spring. 
In  a  good  soil  and  position  the  tree  sometimes  attains  an  enormous 
size:  one  in  Studley  Park,  Yorkshire,  attained  nearly  140  ft. 
in  height,  and  the  trunk  more  than  6  ft.  in  thickness  near  the 
ground.  The  spruce  bears  the  smoke  of  great  cities  better  than 
most  of  the  Abielineae;  but  in  suburban  localities  after  a 
certain  age  it  soon  loses  its  healthy  appearance,  and  is  apt  to 
be  affected  with  blight  (Eriosoma),  though  not  so  much  as 
the  Scotch  fir  and  most  of  the  pines. 

The  black  spruce  (Picea  nigra)  is  a  tree  of  more  formal  growth 
than  the  preceding.  The  branches  grow  at  a  more  acute  angle 


396 


FIR 


and  in  more  regular  whorls  than  those  of  the  Norway  spruce; 
and,  though  the  lower  ones  become  bent  to  a  horizontal  position, 
they  do  not  droop,  so  that  the  tree  has  a  much  less  elegant 
appearance.  The  leaves,  which  grow  very  thickly  all  round  the 
stem,  are  short,  nearly  quadrangular,  and  of  a  dark  greyish- 
green.  The  cones,  produced  in  great  abundance,  are  short  and 
oval  in  shape,  the  scales  with  rugged  indented  edges;  they  are 
deep  purple  when  young,  but  become  brown  as  they  ripen. 
The  tree  also  occurs  in  the  New  England  states  and  extends  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  British  North  America,  its  northern  limit 
occurring  at  about  67°  N.  lat.,  often  forming  a  large  part  of  the 
dense  forests,  mostly  in  the  swampy  districts.  A  variety  with 
lighter  foliage  and  reddish  bark  is  common  in  Newfoundland  and 
some  districts  on  the  mainland  adjacent.  The  trees  usually 
grow  very  close  together,  the  slender  trunks  rising  to  a  great 
height  bare  of  branches;  but  they  do  not  attain  the  size  of  the 
Norway  spruce,  being  seldom  taller  than  60  or  70  ft.,  with  a 
diameter  of  15  or  2  ft.  at  the  base.  This  species  prefers  a  peaty 
soil,  and  often  grows  luxuriantly  in  very  moist  situations.  The 
wood  is  strong,  light  and  very  elastic,  forming  an  excellent 
material  for  small  masts  and  spars,  for  which  purpose  the  trunks 
are  used  in  America,  and  exported  largely  to  England.  The 
sawn  timber  is  inferior  to  that  of  P.  excelsa,  besides  being  of  a 
smaller  size.  In  the  countries  in  which  it  abounds,  the  log-houses 
of  the  settlers  are  often  built  of  the  long  straight  trunks.  The 
Spruce-beer  of  America  is  generally  made  from  the  young  shoots 
of  this  tree.  The  small  twigs,  tied  in  bundles,  are  boiled  for 
some  time  in  water  with  broken  biscuit  or  roasted  grain;  the 
resulting  decoction  is  then  poured  into  a  cask  with  molasses  or 
maple  sugar  and  a  little  yeast,  and  left  to  ferment.  It  is  often 
made  by  the  settlers  and  fishermen  of  the  St  Lawrence  region, 
being  esteemed  as  a  preventive  of  scurvy.  The  American 
"  essence  of  spruce,"  occasionally  used  in  England  for  making 
spruce-beer,  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  shoots  and  buds  and 
concentrating  the  decoction.  The  resinous  products  of  the  tree 
are  of  no  great  value.  It  was  introduced  into  Britain  at  the 
end  of  the  i7th  century. 

The  white  spruce  (Picea  alba),  sometimes  met  with  in  English 
plantations,  is  a  tree  of  lighter  growth  than  the  black  spruce, 
the  branches  being  more  widely  apart;  the  foliage  is  of  a  light 
glaucous  green;  the  small  light-brown  cones  are  more  slender 
and  tapering  than  in  P.  nigra,  and  the  scales  have  even  edges. 
It  is  of  comparatively  small  size,  but  is  of  some  importance  in  the 
wilds  of  the  Canadian  dominion,  where  it  is  found  to  the  northern 
limit  of  tree- vegetation  growing  up  to  at  least  69°;  the  slender 
trunks  yield  the  only  useful  timber  of  some  of  the  more  desolate 
northern  regions.  In  the  woods  of  Canada  it  occurs  frequently 
mingled  with  the  black  spruce  and  other  trees.  The  fibrous 
tough  roots,  softened  by  soaking  in  water,  and  split,  are  used 
by  the  Indians  and  voyageurs  to  sew  together  the  birch-bark 
covering  of  their  canoes;  and  a  resin  that  exudes  from  the  bark 
is  employed  to  varnish  over  the  seams.  It  was  introduced  to 
Great  Britain  at  the  end  of  the  I7th  century  and  was  formerly 
more  extensively  planted  than  at  present. 

The  hemlock  spruce  ( Tsuga  canadensis)  is  a  large  tree,  abound- 
ing in  most  of  the  north-eastern  parts  of  America  up  to  Labrador; 
in  lower  Canada,  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  it  is  often 
the  prevailing  tree.  The  short  leaves  are  flat,  those  above 
pressed  close  to  the  stem,  and  the  others  forming  two  rows 
they  are  of  a  rather  light  green  tint  above,  whitish  beneath 
The  cones  are  very  small,  ovate  and  pointed.  The  large  branches 
droop,  like  those  of  the  Norway  spruce,  but  the  sprays  are  much 
lighter  and  more  slender,  rendering  the  tree  one  of  the  most 
elegant  of  the  conifers,  especially  when  young.  When  old 
the  branches,  broken  and  bent  down  by  the  winter  snows,  give 
it  a  ragged  but  very  picturesque  aspect.  The  trunk  is  frequently 
3  ft.  thick  near  the  base.  The  hemlock  prefers  rather  dry 
and  elevated  situations,  often  forming  woods  on  the  declivities 
of  mountains.  The  timber  is  very  much  twisted  in  grain,  anc 
liable  to  warp  and  split,  but  is  used  for  making  plasterers'  lath 
and  for  fencing;  "  shingles  "  for  roofing  are  sometimes  made  o 
it.  The  bark,  split  off  in  May  or  June,  forms  one  of  the  mos 


aluable  tanning  substances  in  Canada.  The  sprays  are  some- 
imes  used  for  making  spruce-beer  and  essence  of  spruce.  It 
was  introduced  into  Great  Britain  in  about  the  year  1736. 

The  Douglas  spruce  (Pseudo-tsuga  Douglasii),  one  of  the 
finest  conifers,  often  rises  to  a  height  of  200  ft.  and  sometimes 
.onsiderably  more,  while  the  gigantic  trunk  frequently  measures 
5  or  10  ft.  across.  The  yew-like  leaves  spread  laterally,  and  are 
>f  a  deep  green  tint;  the  cones  are  furnished  with  tridentate 
>racts  that  project  far  beyond  the  scales.  It  forms  extensive 
orests  in  Vancouver  Island,  British  Columbia  and  Oregon, 
whence  the  timber  is  exported,  being  highly  prized  for  its  strength, 
durability  and  even  grain,  though  very  heavy;  it  is  of  a  deep 
ellow  colour,  abounding  in  resin,  which  oozes  from  the  thick 
jark.  It  was  introduced  into  Britain  soon  after  its  rediscovery 
>y  David  Douglas  in  1827,  and  has  been  widely  planted,  but 
does  not  flourish  well  where  exposed  to  high  winds  or  in  too 
>hallow  soil. 

Of  the  Abies  group,  the  silver  fir  (A.  pectinata),  may  be  taken 
as  the  type, — a  lofty  tree,  rivalling  the  Norway  spruce  in  size, 
with  large  spreading  horizontal  boughs  curving  upward  toward 
the  extremities.  The  flat  leaves  are  arranged  in  two  regular, 
distinct  rows;  they  are  deep  green  above,  but  beneath  have  two 
>road  white  lines,  which,  as  the  foliage  in  large  trees  has  a 
tendency  to  curl  upwards,  give  it  a  silvery  appearance  from  below. 
The  large  cones  stand  erect  on  the  branches,  are  cylindrical 
n  shape,  and  have  long  bracts,  the  curved  points  of  which 
>roject  beyond  the  scales.  When  the  tree  is  young  the  bark  is 
of  a  silvery  grey,  but  gets  rough  with  age.  This  tree  appears  to 
lave  been  the  true  "  Abies  "  of  the  Latin  writers — the  "  pul- 
cherrima  abies  "  of  Virgil.  From  early  historic  times  it  has  been 
leld  in  high  estimation  in  the  south  of  Europe,  being  used  by 
the  Romans  for  masts  and  all  purposes  for  which  timber  of  great 
ength  was  required.  It  is  abundant  in  most  of  the  mountain 
ranges  of  southern  and  central  Europe,  but  is  not  found  in  the 
northern  parts  of  that  continent.  In  Asia  it  occurs  on  the 

!aucasus  and  Ural,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  Altaic  chain.     Exten- 
sive woods  of  this  fir  exist  on  the  southern  Alps,  where  the  tree 
*rows  up  to  nearly  4000  ft.;  in  the  Rhine  countries  it  forms 
ijreat  part  of  the  extensive  forest  of  the  Hochwald,  and  occurs 
in  the  Black  Forest  and  in  the  Vosges;  it  is  plentiful  likewise  on 
the  Pyrenees  and  Apennines.     The  wood  is  inferior  to  that  of 
Picea  excelsa,   but,   being  soft  and  easily  worked,   is  largely 
employed  in  the  countries  to  which  it  is  indigenous  for  all 
the  purposes  of  carpentry.     Articles  of  furniture  are  frequently 
made  of  it,  and  it  is  in  great  esteem  for  carving  and  for  the 
construction  of  stringed  instruments.     Deficient  in  resin,  the 
wood  is  more  perishable  than  that  of  the  spruce  fir  when  exposed 
to  the  air,  though  it  is  said  to  stand  well  under  water.     The  bark 
contains  a  large  amount  of  a  fine,  highly-resinous  turpentine, 
which  collects  in  tumours  on  the  trunk  during  the  heat  of  summer. 
In  the  Alps  and  Vosges  this  resinous  semi-fluid  is  collected  by 
climbing  the  trees  and  pressing  out  the  contents  of  the  natural 
receptacles  of  the  bark  into  horn  or  tin  vessels  held  beneath 
them.     After  purification  by  straining,  it  is  sold  as  "  Strasburg 
turpentine,"  much  used  in  the  preparation  of  some  of  the  finer 
varnishes.     Burgundy  pitch  is  also  prepared  from  it  by  a  similar 
process  as  that  from  Picea  excelsa.     A  fine  oil  of  turpentine  is 
distilled  from  the  crude  material;  the  residue  forms  a  coarse 
resin.     Introduced  into  Britain  at  the  beginning  of  the  I7th 
century,  the  silver  fir  has  become  common  there  as  a  planted  tree, 
though,  like  the  Norway  spruce,  it  rarely  comes  up  from  seed 
scattered  naturally.     There  are  many  fine  trees  in  Scotland; 
one  near  Roseneath,  figured  by  Strutt  in  his  Syltia  Britannica, 
then  measured  more  than  22  ft.  round  the  trunk.     In  the  more 
southern  parts  of  the  island  it  often  reaches  a  height  of  90  ft., 
and  specimens  exist  considerably  above  that  size;  but  the  young 
shoots  are  apt  to  be  injured  in  severe  winters,  and  the  tree  on 
light  soils  is  also  hurt  by  long  droughts,  so  that  it  usually  presents 
a  ragged  appearance;  though,  in  the  distance,  the  lofty  top 
and  horizontal  boughs  sometimes  stand  out  in  most  picturesque 

relief  above  the  rounded  summits  of  the  neighbouring  trees. 

The  silver  fir  flourishes  in  a  deep  loamy  soil,  and  will  grow  even 


FIRDOUSl 


397 


upon  stiff  clay,  when  well  drained — a  situation  in  which  few 
conifers  will  succeed.  On  such  lands,  where  otherwise  desirable, 
it  may  sometimes  be  planted  with  profit.  The  cones  do  not  ripen 
till  the  second  year. 

The  silver  fir  of  Canada  (A.  balsamea),  a  small  tree  resembling 
the  last  species  in  foliage,  furnishes  the  "  Canada  balsam  "; 
it  abounds  in  Quebec  and  the  adjacent  provinces. 

Numerous  other  firs  are  common  in  gardens  and  shrubberies, 
and  some  furnish  valuable  products  in  their  native  countries; 
but  they  are  not  yet  of  sufficient  economic  or  general  interest  to 
demand  mention  here. 

For  further  information  see  Veitch's  Manual  of  Coniferae  (and  ed., 
1900). 

FIRDOUSl,  FIRDAUSI  or  FIRDUSI,  Persian  poet.  Abu  '1 
Kasim  Mansur  (or  Hasan) ,  who  took  the  nom  de  plume  of  FirdousI, 
author  of  the  epic  poem  the  Shahnama,  or  "  Book  of  Kings," 
a  complete  history  of  Persia  in  nearly  60,000  verses,  was  born 
at  Shadab,  a  suburb  of  Tus,  about  the  year  329  of  the  Hegira 
(941  A.D.),  or  earlier.  His  father  belonged  to  the  class  of  Dihkans 
(the  old  native  country  families  and  landed  proprietors  of  Persia, 
who  had  preserved  their  influence  and  status  under  the  Arab 
rule),  and  possessed  an  estate  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tus 
(in  Khorasan).  Firdousl's  own  education  eminently  qualified 
him  for  the  gigantic  task  which  he  subsequently  undertook, 
for  he  was  profoundly  versed  in  the  Arabic  language  and  literature 
and  had  also  studied  deeply  the  Pahlavi  or  Old  Persian,  and  was 
conversant  with  the  ancient  historical  records  which  existed 
in  that  tongue. 

The  Shahnama  of  FirdousI  (see  also  PERSIA:  Literature)  is 
perhaps  the  only  example  of  a  poem  produced  by  a  single 
author  which  at  once  took  its  place  as  the  national  epic  of  the 
people.  The  nature  of  the  work,  the  materials  from  which 
it  was  composed,  and  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was 
written  are,  however,  in  themselves  exceptional,  and  necessarily 
tended  to  this  result.  The  grandeur  and  antiquity  of  the  empire 
and  the  vicissitudes  through  which  it  passed,  their  long  series 
of  wars  and  the  magnificent  monuments  erected  by  their  ancient 
sovereigns,  could  not  fail  to  leave  numerous  traces  in  the  memory 
of  so  imaginative  a  people  as  the  Persians.  As  early  as  the  5th 
century  of  the  Christian  era  we  find  mention  made  of  these 
historical  traditions  in  the  work  of  an  Armenian  author,  Moses 
of  Chorene  (according  to  others,  he  lived  in  the  7th  or  8th 
century).  During  the  reign  of  Chosroes  I.  (Anushirvan)  the 
contemporary  of  Mahomet,  and  by  order  of  that  monarch,  an 
attempt  had  been  made  to  collect,  from  various  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  all  the  popular  tales  and  legends  relating  to  the  ancient 
kings,  and  the  results  were  deposited  in  the  royal  library.  During 
the  last  years  of  the  Sassanid  dynasty  the  work  was  resumed, 
the  former  collection  being  revised  and  greatly  added  to  by  the 
Dihkan  Danishwer,  assisted  by  several  learned  mobeds.  His 
work  was  entitled  the  Khoda'inama,  which  in  the  old  dialect 
also  meant  the  "  Book  of  Kings."  On  the  Arab  invasion  this 
work  was  in  great  danger  of  perishing  at  the  hands  of  the  icono- 
clastic caliph  Omar  and  his  generals,  but  it  was  fortunately 
preserved;  and  we  find  it  in  the  2nd  century  of  the  Hegira 
being  paraphrased  in  Arabic  by  Abdallah  ibn  el  Mokaffa,  a 
learned  Persian  who  had  embraced  Islam.  Other  Guebres 
occupied  themselves  privately  with  the  collection  of  these  tradi- 
tions; and,  when  a  prince  of  Persian  origin,  Yakub  ibn  Laith, 
founder  of  the  Saffarid  dynasty,  succeeded  in  throwing  off  his 
allegiance  to  the  caliphate,  he  at  once  set  about  continuing  the 
work  of  his  illustrious  predecessors.  His  "  Book  of  Kings  " 
was  completed  in  the  year  260  of  the  Hegira,  and  was  freely 
circulated  in  Khorasan  and  Irak.  Yakub's  family  did  not 
continue  long  in  power;  but  the  Samanid  princes  who  succeeded 
applied  themselves  zealously  to  the  same  work,  and  Prince 
Nuh  II.,  who  came  to  the  throne  in  365  A.H.  (A.D.  976),  entrusted 
it  to  the  court  poet  Dakiki,  a  Guebre  by  religion.  Dakiki's 
labours  were  brought  to  a  sudden  stop  by  his  own  assassination, 
and  the  fall  of  the  Samanian  house  happened  not  long  after,  and 
their  kingdom  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Ghaznevids.  Mahmud 
ibn  Sabuktagin,  the  second  of  the  dynasty  (998-1030),  continued 


to  make  himself  still  more  independent  of  the  caliphate  than  his 
predecessors,  and,  though  a  warrior  and  a  fanatical  Moslem, 
extended  a  generous  patronage  to  Persian  literature  and  learning, 
and  even  developed  it  at  the  expense  of  the  Arabic  institutions. 
The  task  of  continuing  and  completing  the  collection  of  the 
ancient  historical  traditions  of  the  empire  especially  attracted 
him.  With  the  assistance  of  neighbouring  princes  and  of  many 
of  the  influential  Dihkans,  Mahmud  collected  a  vast  amount 
of  materials  for  the  work,  and  after  having  searched  in  vain 
for  a  man  of  sufficient  learning  and  ability  to  edit  them  faithfully, 
and  having  entrusted  various  episodes  for  versification  to  the 
numerous  poets  whom  he  had  gathered  round  him,  he  at  length 
made  choice  of  FirdousI.  FirdousI  had  been  always  strongly 
attracted  by  the  ancient  Pahlavi  records,  and  had  begun  at  an 
early  age  to  turn  them  into  Persian  epic  verse.  On  hearing  of 
the  death  of  the  poet  Dakiki,  he  conceived  the  ambitious  design 
of  himself  carrying  out  the  work  which  the  latter  had  only  just 
commenced;  and,  although  he  had  not  then  any  introduction 
to  the  court,  he  contrived,  thanks  to  one  of  his  friends,  Mahommed 
Lashkari,  to  procure  a  copy  of  the  Dihkan  Danishwer's  collection, 
and  at  the  age  of  thirty-six  commenced  his  great  undertaking. 
Abu  Mansur,  the  governor  of  Tus,  patronized  him  and  encour- 
aged him  by  substantial  pecuniary  support.  When  Mahmud 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  evinced  such  active  interest  in  the 
work,  FirdousI  was  naturally  attracted  to  the  court  of  Ghazni. 
At  first  court  jealousies  and  intrigues  prevented  FirdousI  from 
being  noticed  by  the  sultan;  but  at  length  one  of  his  friends, 
Mahek,  undertook  to  present  to  Mahmud  his  poetic  version  of 
one  of  the  well-known  episodes  of  the  legendary  history.  Hearing 
that  the  poet  was  born  at  Tus,  the  sultan  made  him  explain  the 
origin  of  his  native  town,  and  was  much  struck  with  the  intimate 
knowledge  of  ancient  history  which  he  displayed.  Being  pre- 
sented to  the  seven  poets  who  were  then  engaged  on  the  projected 
epic,  Abu  '1  Kasim  was  admitted  to  their  meetings,  and  on  one 
occasion  improvised  a  verse,  at  Mahmud's  request,  in  praise  of 
his  favourite  Ayaz,  with  such  success  that  the  sultan  bestowed 
upon  him  the  name  of  FirdousI,  saying  that  he  had  converted 
his  assemblies  into  paradise  (Firdous).  During  the  early  days 
of  his  sojourn  at  court  an  incident  happened  which  contributed 
in  no  small  measure  to  the  realization  of  his  ambition.  Three  of 
the  seven  poets  were  drinking  in  a  garden  when  FirdousI  ap- 
proached, and  wishing  to  get  rid  of  him  without  rudeness,  they 
informed  him  who  they  were,  and  told  him  that  it  was  their 
custom  to  admit  none  to  their  society  but  such  as  could  give 
proof  of  poetical  talent.  To  test  his  acquirements  they  proposed 
that  each  should  furnish  an  extemporary  line  of  verse,  his  own 
to  be  the  last,  and  all  four  ending  in  the  same  rhyme.  FirdousI 
accepted  the  challenge,  and  the  three  poets  having  previously 
agreed  upon  three  rhyming  words  to  which  a  fourth  could  not 
be  found  in  the  Persian  language,  'Ansari  began — 

"  Thy  beauty  eclipses  the  light  of  the  sun  " ; 
Farrakhi  added — 

"  The  rose  with  thy  cheek  would  comparison  shun  " ; 
'Asjadi  continued — 

"  Thy  glances  pierce  through  the  mailed  warrior's  johsun  " ;  * 
and  FirdousI,  without  a  moment's  hesitation,  completed  the 
quatrain — 

"  Like  the  lance  of  fierce  Giv  in  his  fight  with  Poshun." 
The  poets  asked  for  an  explanation  of  this  allusion,  and  Firdousi 
recited  to  them  the  battle  as  described  in  the  Shahnama,  and 
delighted  and  astonished  them  with  his  learning  and  eloquence. 
Mahmud  now  definitely  selected  him  for  the  work  of  compiling 
and  versifying  the  ancient  legends,  and  bestowed  upon  him  such 
marks  of  his  favour  and  munificence  as  to  elicit  from  the  poet 
an  enthusiastic  panegyric,  which  is  inserted  in  the  preface  of 
the  Shahnama,  and  forms  a  curious  contrast  to  the  bitter  satire 
which  he  subsequently  prefixed  to  the  book.  The  sultan  ordered 
his  treasurer,  Khojah  Hasan  Maimandi,  to  pay  to  FirdousI  a 
thousand  gold  pieces  for  every  thousand  verses;  but  the  poet 
preferred  allowing  the  sum  to  accumulate  till  the  whole  was 
1  A  sort  of  cuirass. 


FIRDOUSI 


finished,  with  the  object  of  amassing  sufficient  capital  to  construct 
a  dike  for  his  native  town  of  Tus,  which  suffered  greatly  from 
defective  irrigation,  a  project  which  had  been  the  chief  dream 
of  his  childhood.  Owing  to  this  resolution,  and  to  the  jealousy 
of  Hasan  Maimandi,  who  often  refused  to  advance  him  sufficient 
for  the  necessaries  of  life,  FirdousI  passed  the  later  portion  of 
his  life  in  great  privation,  though  enjoying  the  royal  favour 
and  widely  extended  fame.  Amongst  other  princes  whose 
liberal  presents  enabled  him  to  combat  his  pecuniary  difficulties, 
was  one  Rustam,  son  of  Fakhr  Addaula,  the  Dailamite,  who 
sent  him  a  thousand  gold  pieces  in  acknowledgment  of  a  copy 
of  the  episode  of  Rustam  and  Isfendiar  which  FirdousI  had  sent 
him,  and  promised  him  a  gracious  reception  if  he  should  ever 
come  to  his  court.  As  this  prince  belonged,  like  FirdousI,  to  the 
Shiah  sect,  while  Mahmud  and  Maimandi  were  Sunnites,  and 
as  he  was  also  politically  opposed  to  the  sultan,  Hasan  Maimandi 
did  not  fail  to  make  the  most  of  this  incident,  and  accused  the 
poet  of  disloyalty  to  his  sovereign  and  patron,  as  well  as  of 
heresy.  Other  enemies  and  rivals  also  joined  in  the  attack,  and 
for  some  time  Firdousl's  position  was  very  precarious,  though 
his  pre-eminent  talents  and  obvious  fitness  for  the  work  prevented 
him  from  losing  his  post.  To  add  to  his  troubles  he  had  the 
misfortune  to  lose  his  only  son  at  the  age  of  37. 

At  length,  after  thirty-five  years'  work,  the  book  was  completed 
(ion),  and  FirdousI  entrusted  it  to  Ayaz,  the  sultan's  favourite, 
for  presentation  to  him.  Mahmud  ordered  Hasan  Maimandi 
to  take  the  poet  as  much  gold  as  an  elephant  could  carry,  but  the 
jealous  treasurer  persuaded  the  monarch  that  it  was  too  generous 
a  reward,  and  that  an  elephant's  load  of  silver  would  be  sufficient. 
60,000  silver  dirhems  were  accordingly  placed  in  sacks,  and 
taken  to  FirdousI  by  Ayaz  at  the  sultan's  command,  instead  of 
the  60,000  gold  pieces,  one  for  each  verse,  which  had  been 
promised.  The  poet  was  at  that  moment  in  the  bath,  and  seeing 
the  sacks,  and  believing  that  they  contained  the  expected  gold, 
received  them  with  great  satisfaction,  but  finding  only  silver  he 
complained  to  Ayaz  that  he  had  not  executed  the  sultan's  order. 
Ayaz  related  what  had  taken  place  between  Mahmud  and  Hasan 
Maimandi,  and  FirdousI  in  a  rage  gave  20  thousand  pieces  to 
Ayaz  himself,  the  same  amount  to  the  bath-keeper,  and  paid  the 
rest  to  a  beer  seller  for  a  glass  of  beer  (fouka),  sending  word 
back  to  the  sultan  that  it  was  not  to  gain  money  that  he  had 
taken  so  much  trouble.  On  hearing  this  message,  Mahmud  at 
first  reproached  Hasan  with  having  caused  him  to  break  his  word, 
but  the  wily  treasurer  succeeded  in  turning  his  master's  anger 
upon  FirdousI  to  such  an  extent  that  he  threatened  that  on  the 
morrow  he  would  "  cast  that  Carmathian  (heretic)  under  the 
feet  of  his  elephants."  Being  apprised  by  one  of  the  nobles  of 
the  court  of  what  had  taken  place,  FirdousI  passed  the  night 
in  great  anxiety;  but  passing  in  the  morning  by  the  gate  that 
led  from  his  own  apartments  into  the  palace,  he  met  the  sultan 
in  his  private  garden,  and  succeeded  by  humble  apologies  in 
appeasing  his  wrath.  He  was,  however,  far  from  being  appeased 
himself,  and  determined  at  once  upon  quitting  Ghazni.  Return- 
ing home  he  tore  up  the  draughts  of  some  thousands  of  verses 
which  he  had  composed  and  threw  them  in  the  fire,  and  repairing 
to  the  grand  mosque  of  Ghazni  he  wrote  upon  the  walls,  at  the 
place  where  the  sultan  was  in  the  habit  of  praying,  the  following 
lines: — 

"  Theauspicious  court  of  Mahmud,  king  of  Zabulistan,  is  like  a  sea. 
What  a  sea!  One  cannot  see  its  shore.  If  I  have  dived  therein 
without  finding  any  pearls  it  is  the  fault  of  my  star  and  not  of  the 
sea." 

He  then  gave  a  sealed  paper  to  Ayaz,  begging  him  to  hand  it 
to  the  sultan  in  a  leisure  moment  after  20  days  had  elapsed, 
and  set  off  on  his  travels  with  no  better  equipment  than  his 
staff  and  a  dervish's  cloak.  At  the  expiration  of  the  20  days 
Ayaz  gave  the  paper  to  the  sultan,  who  on  opening  it  found  the 
celebrated  satire  which  is  now  always  prefixed  to  copies  of  the 
Shahnama,  and  which  is  perhaps  one  of  the  bitterest  and  severest 
pieces  of  reproach  ever  penned.  Mahmud,  in  a  violent  rage, 
sent  after  the  poet  and  promised  a  large  reward  for  his  capture, 
but  he  was  already  in  comparative  safety.  FirdousI  directed  his 


steps  to  Mazandaran,  and  took  refuge  with  Kabus,  prince  of 
Jorjan,  who  at  first  received  him  with  great  favour,  and  promised 
him  his  continued  protection  and  patronage;  learning,  however, 
the  circumstances  under  which  he  had  left  Ghazni,  he  feared  the 
resentment  of  so  powerful  a  sovereign  as  Mahmud,  who  he  knew 
already  coveted  his  kingdom,  and  dismissed  the  poet  with  a 
magnificent  present.  FirdousI  next  repaired  to  Bagdad,  where 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  a  merchant,  who  introduced  him 
to  the  vizier  of  the  caliph,  al-Qadir,  by  presenting  an  Arabic 
poem  which  the  poet  had  composed  in  his  honour.  The  vizier 
gave  FirdousI  an  apartment  near  himself,  and  related  to  the 
caliph  the  manner  in  which  he  had  been  treated  at  Ghazni. 
The  caliph  summoned  him  into  his  presence,  and  was  so  much 
pleased  with  a  poem  of  a  thousand  couplets,  which  FirdousI 
composed  in  his  honour,  that  he  at  once  received  him  into 
favour.  The  fact  of  his  having  devoted  his  life  and  talents  to 
chronicling  the  renown  of  fire-worshipping  Persians  was,  however, 
somewhat  of  a  crime  in  the  orthodox  caliph's  eyes;  in  order 
therefore  to  recover  his  prestige,  FirdousI  composed  another 
poem  of  9000  couplets  on  the  theme  borrowed  from  the  Koran 
of  the  loves  of  Joseph  and  Potiphar's  wife — Yiisuf  and  Zuleikha 
(edited  by  H.  Ethe,  Oxford,  1902;  complete  metrical  transla- 
tion by  Schlechta-Wssehrd,  Vienna,  1889).  This  poem,  though 
rare  and  little  known,  is  still  in  existence — the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society  possessing  a  copy.  But  Mahmud  had  by  this  time 
heard  of  his  asylum  at  the  court  of  the  caliph,  and  wrote  a  letter 
menacing  his  liege  lord,  and  demanding  the  surrender  of  the 
poet.  FirdousI,  to  avoid  further  troubles,  departed  for  Ahwaz, 
a  province  of  the  Persian  Irak,  and  dedicated  his  Yiisuf  and 
Zuleikha  to  the  governor  of  that  district.  Thence  he  went  to 
Kohistan,  where  the  governor,  Nasir  Lek,  was  his  intimate  and 
devoted  friend,  and  received  him  with  great  ceremony  upon  the 
frontier.  FirdousI  confided  to  him  that  he  contemplated  writing 
a  bitter  exposition  of  his  shameful  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the 
sultan  of  Ghazni;  but  Nasir  Lek,  who  was  a  personal  friend  of 
the  latter,  dissuaded  him  from  his  purpose,  but  himself  wrote  and 
remonstrated  with  Mahmud.  Nasir  Lek's  message  and  the 
urgent  representations  of  Firdousl's  friends  had  the  desired 
effect ;  and  Mahmud  not  only  expressed  his  intention  of  offering 
full  reparation  to  the  poet,  but  put  his  enemy  Maimandi  to  death. 
The  change,  however,  came  too  late;  FirdousI,  now  a  broken 
and  decrepit  old  man,  had  in  the  meanwhile  returned  to  Tus, 
and,  while  wandering  through  the  streets  of  his  native  town, 
heard  a  child  lisping  a  verse  from  his  own  satire  in  which  he 
taunts  Mahmud  with  his  slavish  birth: — 

"  Had  Mahmud's  father  been  what  he  is  now 
A  crown  of  gold  had  decked  this  aged  brow ; 
Had  Mahmud's  mother  been  of  gentle  blood, 
In  heaps  of  silver  knee-deep  had  I  stood." 

He  was  so  affected  by  this  proof  of  universal  sympathy  with  his 
misfortunes  that  he  went  home,  fell  sick  and  died.  He  was 
buried  in  a  garden,  but  Abu'l  Kasim  Jurjani,  chief  sheikh  of 
Tus,  refused  to  read  the  usual  prayers  over  his  tomb,  alleging 
that  he  was  an  infidel,"and  had  devoted  his  life  to  the  glorification 
of  fire-worshippers  and  misbelievers.  The  next  night,  however, 
having  dreamt  that  he  beheld  FirdousI  in  paradise  dressed  in  the 
sacred  colour,  green,  and  wearing  an  emerald  crown,  he  recon- 
sidered his  determination;  and  the  poet  was  henceforth  held  to 
be  perfectly  orthodox.  He  died  in  the  year  411  of  the  Hegira 
(1020  A.D.),  aged  about  eighty,  eleven  years  after  the  completion 
of  his  great  work.  The  legend  goes  that  Mahmud  had  in  the 
meanwhile  despatched  the  promised  hundred  thousand  pieces  of 
gold  to  FirdousI,  with  a  robe  of  honour  and  ample  apologies 
for  the  past.  But  as  the  camels  bearing  the  treasure  reached 
one  of  the  gates  of  the  city,  Firdousl's  funeral  was  leaving  it  by 
another.  His  daughter,  to  whom  they  brought  the  sultan's 
present,  refused  to  receive  it;  but  his  aged  sister  remembering 
his  anxiety  for  the  construction  of  the  stone  embankment  for 
the  river  of  Tus,  this  work  was  completed  in  honour  of  the  poet's 
memory,  and  a  large  caravanserai  built  with  the  surplus. 

Much  of  the  traditional  life,  as  gjiven  above,  which  is  based  upon 
that  prefixed  to   the  revised  edition  of  the  poem,  undertaken  by 


FIRE 


399 


order  of  Baisingar  Khan,  grandson  of  Timur-i-Leng  (Timur),  is 
rejected  by  modern  scholars  (see  T.  Noldeke,  "  Das  iranische 
Nationalepos,"  in  W.  Geiger  s  Grundriss  der  iranischen  Philologie,  ii. 
pp.  150-158). 

The  Shahnama  is  based,  as  we  have  seen,  upon  the  ancient  legends 
current  among  the  populace  of  Persia,  and  collected  by  the  Dihkans, 
a  class  of  men  who  had  the  greatest  facilities  for  this  purpose.  There 
is  every  reason  therefore  to  believe  that  Firdousi  adhered  faithfully 
to  these  records  of  antiquity,  and  that  the  poem  is  a  perfect  store- 
house of  the  genuine  traditions  of  the  country. 

The  entire  poem  (which  only  existed  in  MS.  up  to  the  beginning  of 
the  ipth  century)  was  published  (1831-1868)  with  a  French  transla- 
tion in  a  magnificent  folio  edition,  at  the  expense  of  the  French 
government,  by  the  learned  and  indefatigable  Julius  von  Mohl. 
The  size  and  number  of  the  volumes,  however,  and  their  great 
expense,  made  them  difficult  of  access,  and  Frau  von  Mohl  published 
the  French  translation  (1876-1878)  with  her  illustrious  husband's 
critical  notes  and  introduction  in  a  more  convenient  and  cheaper 
form.  Other  editions  are  by  Turner  Macan  (Calcutta,  1829),  T.  A. 
Vullers  and  S.  Landauer  (unfinished;  Leiden,  1877-1883).  There 
is  an  English  abridgment  by  J.  Atkinson  (London,  1832;  reprinted 
1886,  1892);  there  is  a  verse-translation,  partly  rhymed  and  partly 
unrhymed,  by  A.  G.  and  E.  Warner  (1905  foil. ),_ with  an  introduction 
containing  an  account  of  Firdousi  and  the  Shahnama;  the  version 
by  A.  Rogers  (1907)  contains  the  greater  part  of  the  work.  The 
episode  of  Sohrab  and  Rustam  is  well  known  to  English  readers 
from  Matthew  Arnold's  poem.  The  only  complete  translation  is  // 
Libra  dei  Rei,  by  I.  Pizzi  (8  vols.,  Turin,  1886-1888),  also  the  author 
of  a  history  of  Persian  poetry. 

See  also  E.  G.  Browne's  Literary  History  of  Persia,  i.,  ii.  (1902- 
1906) ;  T.  Noldeke  (as  above)  for  a  full  account  of  the  Shahnama, 
editions,  &c. ;  and  H.  Ethe,  "  Neupersische  Litteratur,"  in  the  same 
work.  (E.  H.  P.;  X.) 

FIRE  (in  O.  Eng.  fyr;  the  word  is  common  to  West  German 
languages,  cf.  Dutch  tiuur,  Ger.  Feuer;  the  pre- Teutonic  form 
is  seen  in  Sanskrit  pit,  pavaka,  and  Gr.  TrOp;  the  ultimate  origin 
is  usually  taken  to  be  a  root  meaning  to  purify,  cf.  Lat.  purus), 
the  term  commonly  used  for  the  visible  effect  of  combustion 
(see  FLAME),  operating  as  a  heating  or  lighting  agency. 

So  general  is  the  knowledge  of  fire  and  its  uses  that  it  is  a 
question  whether  we  have  any  authentic  instance  on  record  of  a 
tribe  altogether  ignorant  of  them.  A  few  notices  indeed  are  to 
be  found  in  the  voluminous  literature  of  travel  which  would 
decide  the  question  in  the  affirmative;  but  when  they  are 
carefully  investigated,  their  evidence  is  found  to  be  far  from 
conclusive.  The  missionary  Krapf  was  told  by  a  slave  of  a  tribe 
in  the  southern  part  of  Shoa  who  lived  like  monkeys  in  the 
bamboo  jungles,  and  were  totally  ignorant  of  fire;  but  no 
better  authority  has  been  found  for  the  statement,  and  the 
story,  which  seems  to  be  current  in  eastern  Africa,  may  be 
nothing  else  than  the  propagation  of  fables  about  the  Pygmies 
whom  the  ancients  located  around  the  sources  of  the  Nile. 
Lieut.  Charles  Wilkes,  commander  of  the  United  States  exploring 
expedition  of  1838-42,  says  that  in  Fakaafo  or  Bowditch  Island 
"  there  was  no  sign  of  places  for  cooking  nor  any  appearance  of 
fire,"  and  that  the  natives  felt  evident  alarm  at  the  sparks  pro- 
duced by  flint  and  steel  and  the  smoke  emitted  by  those  with 
cigars  in  their  mouths.  The  presence  of  the  word  afi,  fire,  in  the 
Fakaafo  vocabulary  supplied  by  Hale  the  ethnographer  of  the 
expedition,  though  it  might  perhaps  be  explained  as  equivalent 
only  to  solar  light  and  heat,  undoubtedly  invalidates  the  supposi- 
tion of  Wilkes;  and  the  Rev.  George  Turner,  in  an  account  of  a 
missionary  voyage  in  1859,  not  only  repeats  the  word  afi  in  his 
list  for  Fakaafo,  but  relates  the  native  legend  about  the  origin 
of  fire,  and  describes  some  peculiar  customs  connected  with  its 
use.  Alvaro  de  Saavedra,  an  old  Spanish  traveller,  informs  us 
that  the  inhabitants  of  Los  Jardines,  an  island  of  the  Pacific, 
showed  great  fear  when  they  saw  fire — which  they  did  not  know 
before.  But  that  island  has  not  been  identified  with  certainty 
by  modern  explorers.  It  belongs,  perhaps,  to  the  Ladrones  or 
Marianas  Archipelago,  where  fire  was  unknown,  says  Padre 
Gobien,  "  till  Magellan,  wroth  at  the  pilferings  of  the  inhabitants, 
burnt  one  of  their  villages.  When  they  saw  their  wooden  huts 
ablaze,  their  first  thought  was  that  fire  was  a  beast  which  eats 
up  wood.  Some  of  them  having  approached  the  fire  too  near 
were  burnt,  and  the  others  kept  aloof,  fearing  to  be  torn  or 
poisoned  by  the  powerful  breath  of  that  terrible  animal."  To 
this  Freycinet  objects  that  these  Ladrone  islanders  made  pottery 


before  the  arrival  of  Europeans,  that  they  had  words  expressing 
the  ideas  of  flame,  fire,  oven,  coals,  roasting  and  cooking.  Let 
us  add  that  in  their  country  numerous  graves  and  ruins  have  been 
found,  which  seem  to  be  remnants  of  a  former  culture.  Thus 
the  question  remains  in  uncertainty:  though  there  is  nothing 
impossible  in  the  supposition  of  the  existence  of  a  fireless  tribe, 
it  cannot  be  said  that  such  a  tribe  has  been_discovered. 

It  is  useless  to  inquire  in  what  way  man  first  discovered  that 
fire  was  subject  to  his  control,  and  could  even  be  called  into 
being  by  appropriate  means.  With  the  natural  phenomenon 
and  its  various  aspects  he  must  soon  have  become  familiar. 
The  volcano  lit  up  the  darkness  of  night  and  sent  its  ashes  or  its 
lava  down  into  the  plains;  the  lightning  or  the  meteor  struck 
the  tree,  and  the  forest  was  ablaze;  or  some  less  obvious  cause 
produced  some  less  extensive  ignition.  For  a  time  it  is  possible 
that  the  grand  manifestations  of  nature  aroused  no  feelings  save 
awe  and  terror;  but  man  is  quite  as  much  endowed  with  curiosity 
as  with  reverence  or  caution,  and  familiarity  must  ere  long  have 
bred  confidence  if  not  contempt.  It  is  by  no  means  necessary 
to  suppose  that  the  practical  discovery  of  fire  was  made  only 
at  one  given  spot  and  in  one  given  way;  it  is  much  more  probable 
indeed  that  different  tribes  and  races  obtained  the  knowledge 
in  a  variety  of  ways. 

It  has  been  asserted  of  many  tribes  that  they  would  be  unable 
to  rekindle  their  fires  if  they  were  allowed  to  die  out.  Travellers 
in  Australia  and  Tasmania  depict  the  typical  native  woman 
bearing  always  about  with  her  a  burning  brand,  which  it  is  one 
of  her  principal  duties  to  protect  and  foster;  and  it  has  been 
supposed  that  it  was  only  ignorance  which  imposed  on  her  the 
endless  task.  This  is  absurd.  The  Australian  methods  of 
producing  fire  by  the  friction  of  two  pieces  of  wood  are  perfectly 
well  known,  and  are  illustrated  in  Hewitt's  Native  Tribes  of 
South-East  Australia,  pp.  771-773.  To  carry  a  brand  saves  a 
little  trouble  to  the  men. 

The  methods  employed  for  producing  fire  vary  considerably 
in  detail,  but  are  for  the  most  part  merely  modified  applications 
of  concussion  or  friction.  Lord  Avebury  has  remarked  that  the 
working  up  of  stone  into  implements  must  have  been  followed 
sooner  or  later  by  the  discovery  of  fire;  for  in  the  process  of 
chipping  sparks  were  elicited,  and  in  the  process  of  polishing 
heat  was  generated.  The  first  or  concussion  method  is  still 
familiar  in  the  flint  and  steel,  which  has  hardly  passed  out  of 
use  even  in  the  most  civilized  countries.  Its  modifications  are 
comparatively  few  and  unimportant.  The  Alaskans  and  Aleutians 
take  two  pieces  of  quartz,  rub  them  well  with  native  sulphur, 
strike  them  together  till  the  sulphur  catches  fire,  and  then 
transfer  the  flame  to  a  heap  of  dry  grass  over  which  a  few  feathers 
have  been  scattered.  Instead  of  two  pieces  of  quartz  the 
Eskimos  use  a  piece  of  quartz  and  a  piece  of  iron  pyrites.  Mr 
Frederick  Boyle  saw  fire  produced  by  striking  broken  china 
violently  against  a  bamboo,  and  Bastian  observed  the  same 
process  in  Burma,  and  Wallace  in  Ternate.  In  Cochin  China 
two  pieces  of  bamboo  are  considered  sufficient,  the  silicious 
character  of  the  outside  layer  rendering  it  as  good  as  native 
flint.  The  friction  methods  are  more  various.  One  of  the 
simplest  is  what  E.  B.  Tylor  calls  the  stick  and  groove — "  a 
blunt  pointed  stick  being  run  along  a  groove  of  its  own  making 
in  a  piece  of  wood  lying  on  the  ground."  Much,  of  course, 
depends  on  the  quality  of  the  woods  and  the  expertness  of  the 
manipulator.  In  Tahiti  Charles  Darwin  saw  a  native  produce 
fire  in  a  few  seconds,  but  only  succeeded  himself  after  much 
labour.  The  same  device  was  employed  in  New  Zealand,  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  Tonga,  Samoa  and  the  Radak  Islands. 
Instead  of  rubbing  the  movable  stick  backwards  and  forwards 
other  tribes  make  it  rotate  rapidly  in  a  round  hole  in  the  station- 
ary piece  of  wood — thus  making  what  Tylor  has  happily  desig- 
nated a  fire-drill.  This  device  has  been  observed  in  Australia, 
Kamchatka,  Sumatra  and  the  Carolines,  among  the  Veddahs 
of  Ceylon,  throughout  a  great  part  of  southern  Africa,  among 
:he  Eskimo  and  Indian  tribes  of  North  America,  in  the  West 
[ndies,  in  Central  America,  and  as  far  south  as  the  Straits  of 
Magellan.  It  was  also  employed  by  the  ancient  Mexicans,  and 


400 


FIRE 


Tylor  gives  a  quaint  picture  of  the  operation  from  a  Mexican 
MS. — a  man  half  kneeling  on  the  ground  is  causing  the  stick 
to  rotate  between  the  palms  of  his  hands.  This  simple  method 
of  rotation  seems  to  be  very  generally  in  use;  but  various 
devices  have  been  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing 
the  labour  and  hastening  the  result.  The  Gaucho  of  the  Pampas 
takes  "  an  elastic  stick  about  18  in.  long,  presses  one  end  to  his 
breast  and  the  other  in  a  hole  in  a  piece  of  wood,  and  then 
rapidly  turns  the  curved  part  like  a  carpenter's  centre-bit." 
In  other  cases  the  rotation  is  effected  by  means  of  a  cord  or 
thong  wound  round  the  drill  and  pulled  alternately  by  this  end 
and  that.  In  order  to  steady  the  drill  the  Eskimo  and  others 
put  the  upper  end  in  a  socket  of  ivory  or  bone  which  they  hold 
firmly  in  their  mouth.  A  further  advance  was  made  by  the 
Eskimo  and  neighbouring  tribes,  who  applied  the  principle  of 
the  bow-drill;  and  the  still  more  ingenious  pump-drill  was 
used  by  the  Onondaga  Indians.  For  full  descriptions  of  these 
instruments  and  a  rich  variety  of  details  connected  with 
fire-making  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  Tylor's  valuable 
chapter  in  his  Researches.  These  methods  of  producing  fire  are 
but  rarely  used  in  Europe,  and  only  in  connexion  with  super- 
stitious observances.  We  read  in  Wuttke  that  some  time  ago  the 
authorities  of  a  Mecklenburg  village  ordered  a  "  wild  fire  "  to  be 
lit  against  a  murrain  amongst  the  cattle.  For  two  hours  the 
men  strove  vainly  to  obtain  a  spark,  but  the  fault  was  not  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  quality  of  the  wood,  or  to  the  dampness  of  the 
atmosphere,  but  to  the  stubbornness  of  an  old  lady,  who,  object- 
ing to  the  superstition,  would  not  put  out  her  night  lamp;  such 
a  fire,  to  be  efficient,  must  burn  alone.  At  last  the  strong-minded 
female  was  compelled  to  give  in;  fire  was  obtained — but  of 
bad  quality,  for  it  did  not  stop  the  murrain. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  the  rays  of  the  sun  might  be 
concentrated  by  a  lens  or  concave  mirror.  Aristophanes  men- 
tions the  burning-lens  in  The  Clouds,  and  the  story  of  Archimedes 
using  a  mirror  to  fire  the  ships  at  Syracuse  is  familiar  to  every 
schoolboy.  If  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  can  be  trusted  as  an  authority 
the  Virgins  of  the  Sun  in  Peru  kindled  the  sacred  fire  with  a 
concave  cup  set  in  a  great  bracelet.  In  China  the  burning-glass 
is  in  common  use. 

To  the  inquiry  how  mankind  became  possessed  of  fire,  the 
cosmogonies,  those  records  of  pristine  speculative  thought, 
do  not  give  any  reply  which  would  not  be  found  in  the  relations 
of  travellers  and  historians. 

They  say  in  the  Tonga  Islands  that  the  god  of  the  earthquakes 
is  likewise  the  god  of  fire.  At  Manga'ia  it  is  told  that  the  great 
Maui  went  down  to  hell,  where  he  surprised  the  secret  of  making 
fire  by  rubbing  two  pieces  of  wood  together.  The  Maoris  tell  the 
tale  differently,  Maui  had  the  fire  given  to  him  by  his  old  blind 
grandmother,  Mahuika,  who  drew  it  from  the  nails  of  her  hands. 
Wishing  to  have  a  stronger  one,  he  pretended  that  it  had  gone  out, 
and  so  he  obtained  fire  from  her  great  toe.  It  was  so  fierce  that  every 
thing  melted  before  the  glow;  even  Maui  and  the  grandmother 
herself  were  already  burning  when  a  deluge,  sent  from  heaven, 
saved  the  hero  and  the  perishing  world;  but  before  the  waters 
extinguished  all  the  blaze,  Mahuika  shut  a  few  sparks  into  some 
trees,  and  thence  men  draw  it  now.  The  Maoris  have  also  the 
legend  that  thunder  is  the  noise  of  Tawhaki's  footsteps,  and  that 
lightnings  flash  from  his  armpits.  At  Western  Point,  Victoria,  the 
Australians  say  the  good  old  man  Pundyil  opened  the  door  of  the 
sun,  whose  light  poured  then  on  earth,  and  that  Karakorok,  the 
good  man's  good  daughter,  seeing  the  earth  to  be  full  of  serpents, 
went  everywhere  destroying  serpents;  but  before  she  had  killed 
them  all,  her  staff  snapped  in  two,  and  while  it  broke,  a  flame  burst 
out  of  it.  Here  the  serpent-killer  is  a  fire-bringer.  In  the  Persian 
Shahnama  also  fire  was  discovered  by  a  dragon-fighter.  Hushenk, 
the  powerful  hero,  hurled  at  the  monster  a  prodigious  stone,  which, 
evaded  by  the  snake,  struck  a  rock  and  was  splintered  by  it.  "  Light 
shone  from  the  dark  pebble,  the  heart  of  the  rock  flashed  out  in 
glory,  and  fire  was  seen  for  the  first  time  in  the  world."  The  snake 
escaped,  but  the  mystery  of  fire  had  been  revealed. 

North  American  legends  narrate  how  the  great  buffalo,  careering 
through  the  plains,  makes  sparks  flit  in  the  night,  and  sets  the 
prairie  ablaze  by  his  hoofs  hitting  the  rocks.  We  meet  the  same 
idea  in  the  Hindu  mythology,  which  conceives  thunder  to  have 
been,  among  many  other  things,  the  clatter  of  the  solar  horses  on 
the  Akmon  or  hard  pavement  of  the  sky.  The  Dakotas  claim  that 
their  ancestor  obtained  fire  from  the  sparks  which  a  friendly  panther 
struck  with  its  claws,  as  it  scampered  upon  a  stony  hill. 

Tohil,  who  gave  the  Quiches  fire  by  shaking  his  sandals,  was, 


like  the  Mexican  Quetzelcoatl,  represented  by  a  flint  stone.  Gua- 
mansuri,  the  father  of  the  Peruvians,  produced  the  thunder  and  the 
lightning  by  hurling  stones  with  his  sling.  The  thunderbolts  are 
his  children.  Kudai,  the  great  god  of  the  Altaian  Tartars,  disclosed 
"  the  secret  of  the  stone's  edge  and  the  iron's  hardness."  The 
Slavonian  god  of  thunder  was  depicted  with  a  silex  in  his  hand,  or 
even  protruding  from  his  head.  The  Lapp  Tiermes  struck  with  his 
hammer  upon  his  own  head;  the  Scandinavian  Thor  held  a  mallet 
in  one  hand,  a  flint  in  the  other.  Taranis,  the  Gaul,  had  upon  his  head 
a  huge  mace  surrounded  by  six  little  ones.  Finnish  poems  describe 
how  "  fire,  the  child  of  the  sun,  came  down  from  heaven,  where  it 
was  rocked  in  a  tub  of  yellow  copper,  in  a  large  pail  of  gold."  Ukko, 
theEsthonian  god,  sends  forth  lightnings,  as  he  strikes  his  stone  with 
his  steel.  According  to  the  Kalewala,  the  same  mighty  Ukko  struck 
his  sword  against  his  nail,  and  from  the  nail  issued  the  "  fiery  babe." 
He  gave  it  to  the  Wind's  daughter  to  rock  it,  but  the  unwary  maiden 
let  it  fall  in  the  sea,  where  it  was  swallowed  by  the  great  pike,  and 
fire  would  have  been  lost  for  ever  if  the  child  of  the  sun  had  not 
come  to  the  rescue.  He  dragged  the  great  pike  from  the  water, 
drew  out  his  entrails,  and  found  there  the  heavenly  spark  still  alive. 
Prometheus  brought  to  earth  the  torch  he  had  lighted  at  the  sun's 
chariot. 

Human  culture  may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  fire,  of  which 
the  uses  increased  in  the  same  ratio  as  culture  itself.  To  save 
the  labour  expended  on  the  initial  process  of  procuring  light, 
or  on  carrying  it  about  constantly,  primitive  men  hit  on  the 
expedient  of  a  fire,  which  should  burn  night  and  day  in  a  public 
building.  The  Egyptians  had  one  in  every  temple,  the  Greeks, 
Latins  and  Persians  in  all  towns  and  villages.  The  Natchez, 
the  Aztecs,  the  Mayas,  the  Peruvians  had  their  "  national 
fires  "  burning  upon  large  pyramids.  Of  these  fires  the  "  eternal 
lamps"  in  the  synagogues,  in  the  Byzantine  and  Catholic 
churches,  may  be  a  survival.  The  "  Regia,"  Rome's  sacred 
centre,  supposed  to  be  the  abode  of  Vesta,  stood  close  to  a 
fountain;  it  was  convenient  to  draw  from  the  same  spot  the 
two  great  requisites,  fire  and  water.  All  civil  and  political 
interests  grouped  themselves  around  the  prytaneum  which  was 
at  once  a  temple,  a  tribunal,  a  town-hall,  and  a  gossiping  resort : 
all  public  business  and  most  private  affairs  were  transacted  by 
the  light  and  in  the  warmth  of  the  common  fire.  No  wonder 
that  its  flagstones  should  become  sacred.  Primitive  communities 
consider  as  holy  everything  that  ensures  their  existence  and 
promotes  their  welfare,  material  things  such  as  fire  and  water 
not  less  than  others.  Thus  the  prytaneum  grew  into  a  religious 
institution.  And  if  we  hear  a  little  more  of  fire  worship  than  of 
water  worship,  it  is  because  fire,  being  on  the  whole  more  difficult 
to  obtain,  was  esteemed  more  precious.  The  prytaneum  and 
the  state  were  convertible  terms.  If  by  chance  the  fire  in  the 
Roman  temple  of  Vesta  was  extinguished,  all  tribunals,  all 
authority,  all  public  or  private  business  had  to  stop  immediately. 
The  connexion  between  heaven  and  earth  had  been  broken, 
and  it  had  to  be  restored  in  some  way  or  other — either  by  Jove 
sending  down  divine  lightning  on  his  altars,  or  by  the  priests 
making  a  new  fire  by  the  old  sacred  method  of  rubbing  two 
pieces  of  wood  together,  or  by  catching  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  a 
concave  mirror.  No  Greek  o*  Roman  army  crossed  the  frontier 
without  carrying  an  altar  where  the  fire  taken  from  the  prytaneum 
burned  night  and  day.  When  the  Greeks  sent  out  colonies  the 
emigrants  took  with  them  living  coals  from  the  altar  of  Hestia, 
and  had  in  their  new  country  a  fire  lit  as  a  representative  of  that 
burning  in  the  mother  country.1  Not  before  the  three  curiae 
united  their  fires  into  one  could  Rome  become  powerful;  and 

1  Curiously  enough  we  see  the  same  institution  obtaining  among 
the  Damaras  of  South  Africa,  where  the  chiefs,  who  sway  their  people 
with  a  sort  of  priestly  authority,  commit  to  their  daughters  the  care 
of  a  so-called  eternal  fire.  From  its  hearth  younger  scions  separating 
from  the  parent  stock  take  away  a  burning  brand  to  their  new  home. 
The  use  of  a  common  prytaneum,  of  circular  form,  like  the  Roman 
temple  of  Vesta,  testified  to  the  common  origin  of  the  North  American 
Assinais  and  Maichas.  The  Mobiles,  the  Chippewas,  the  Natchez, 
had  each  a  corporation  of  Vestals.  If  the  Natchez  let  their  fire  die 
out,  they  were  bound  to  renew  it  from  the  Mobiles.  The  Moquis, 
Pueblos  and  Comanches  had  also  their  perpetual  fires.  The  Red- 
skins discussed  important  affairs  of  state  at  the  "  council  fires, 
around  which  each  sachem  marched  three  times,  turning  to  it  all  the 
sides  of  his  person.  "  It  was  a  saying  among  our  ancestors,"  said  an 
Iroquois  chief  in  1753,  "  that  when  the  fire  goes  out  at  Onondaga  - 
the  Delphi  of  the  league — "  we  shall  no  longer  be  a  people." 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


401 


Athens  became  a  shining  light  to  the  world  only,  we  are  told, 
when  the  twelve  tribes  of  Attica,  led  by  Theseus,  brought  each 
its  brand  to  the  altar  of  Athene  Polias.  All  Greece  confederated, 
making  Delphi  its  central  hearth;  and  the  islands  congregated 
around  Delos,  whence  the  new  fire  was  fetched  every  year. 

Periodic  Fires. — Because  the  sun  loses  its  force  after  noon, 
and  after  midsummer  daily  shortens  the  length  of  its  circuit,  the 
ancients  inferred,  and  primitive  populations  still  believe,  that, 
as  time  goes  on,  the  energies  of  fire  must  necessarily  decline. 
Therefore  men  set  about  renewing  the  fires  in  the  temples  and 
on  the  hearth  on  the  longest  day  of  summer  or  at  the  beginning 
of  the  agricultural  year.  The  ceremony  was  attended  with 
much  rejoicing,  banqueting  and  many  religious  rites.  Houses 
were  thoroughly  cleansed;  people  bathed,  and  underwent 
lustrations  and  purifications;  new  clothes  were  put  on;  quarrels 
were  made  up;  debts  were  paid  by  the  debtor  or  remitted  by 
the  creditor;  criminals  were  released  by  the  civil  authorities 
in  imitation  of  the  heavenly  judges,  who  were  believed  to  grant 
on  the  same  day. a  general  remission  of  sins.  All  things  were 
made  new;  each  man  turned  over  a  new  page  in  the  book  of 
his  existence.  Some  nations,  like  the  Etruscans  in  the  Old 
World  and  the  Peruvians  and  Mexicans  in  the  New,  carried 
these  ideas  to  a  high  degree  of  development,  and  celebrated 
with  magnificent  ceremonies  the  renewal  of  the  saecula,  or 
astronomic  periods,  which  might  be  shorter  or  longer  than  a 
century.  Some  details  of  the  festival  among  the  Aztecs  have 
been  preserved.  On  the  last  night  of  every  period  (52  years) 
every  fire  was  extinguished,  and  men  proceeded  in  solemn 
procession  to  some  sacred  spot,  where,  with  awe  and  trembling, 
the  priests  strove  to  kindle  a  new  fire  by  friction.  It  was  as  if 
they  had  a  vague  idea  that  the  cosmos,  with  its  sun,  moon  and 
stars,  had  been  wound  up  like  a  clock  for  a  definite  period  of 
time.  And  had  they  failed  to  raise  the  vital  spark,  they  would 
have  believed  that  it  was  because  the  great  fire  was  being  extin- 
guished at  the  central  hearth  of  the  world.  The  Stoics  and  many 
other  ancient  philosophers  thought  that  the  world  was  doomed 
to  final  extinction  by  fire.  The  Scandinavian  bards  sung  the 
end  of  the  world,  how  at  last  the  wolf  Fenrir  would  get  loose, 
how  the  cruel  fire  of  Loki  would  destroy  itself  by  destroying 
everything.  The  Essenes  enlarged  upon  this  doctrine,  which  is 
also  found  in  the  Sibylline  books  and  appears  in  the  Apocrypha 
(2  Esdras  xvi.  15). 

See  Dupuis,  Origine  de  tons  les  cultes  (1794);  Burnouf,  Science 
des  religions;  Grimm,  Deutsche  Mythologie,  cap.  xx.  (1835);  Adal- 
bert Kuhn.  Die  Herabkunft  des  Feuers  und  des  Gottertranks  (1859); 
Steinthal,  fiber  die  urspriingliche  Form  der  Sage  von  Prometheus 
(1861) ;  Albert  Reville,  Le  Mythe  de  Promethee,"  in  Revue  des  deux 
mondes  (August  1862);  Michel  B real,  Hercule  et  Cacus  (1863);  Tylor, 
Researches  into  the  Early  History  of  Mankind,  ch.  ix.  (1865) ;  Bachofen, 
Die  Sage  von  Tanaquil  (1870) ;  Lord  Avebury,  Prehistoric  Times  (6th 
ed.,  1900) ;  Haug,  Religion  of  the  Parsis  (1878).  (E.  RE.) 

FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION.  Fire  is  considered  in  this 
article,  primarily,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  protection  against 
fire  that  can  be  accorded  by  preventive  measures  and  by  the 
organization  of  fire  extinguishing  establishments. 

History  is  full  of  accounts  of  devastation  caused  by  fires  in 
towns  and  cities  of  nearly  every  country  in  the  civilized  world. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  notable  fires  of  early  days : — 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND 
798.  London,  nearly  destroyed. 

,,       greater  part  of  the  city  burned. 

„       all  houses  and  churches  from  the  east  to  the  west 

gate  burned. 

,,       greater  part  of  the  city  burned. 
„       "  The  Great  Fire,"  September  2-6. 

It  began  in  a  wooden  house  in  Pudding  Lane,  and  burned 
for  three  days,  consuming  the  buildings  on  436  acres,  400 
streets,  lanes,  &c.,  13,200  houses,  with  St  Paul's  church,  86 
parish  churches,  6  chapels,  the  guild-hall,  the  royal  ex- 
change, the  custom-house,  many  hospitals  and  libraries,  52 
companies'  halls,  and  a  vast  number  of  other  stately 
edifices,  together  with  three  of  the  city  gates,  four  stone 
bridges,  and  the  prisons  of  Newgate,  the  Fleet,  and  the 
Poultry  and  Wood  Street  Compters.  The  fire  swept  from 
the  Tower  to  Temple  church,  and  from  the  N.E.  gate  to 
Holborn  bridge.  Six  persons  were  killed.  The  total  loss  of 
property  was  estimated  at  the  time  to  be  £10,730,500. 


982. 
1086. 

1212. 

1666. 


1794.  London,  630    houses    destroyed    at    Wapping.     Loss    above 

£1,000,000. 
1834.         „       Houses  of  Parliament  burned. 

1861.  „       Tooley  Street  wharves,  &c.,  burned.     Loss  estimated 

at  £2,000,000. 

1873.         „       Alexandra  palace  destroyed. 
1137.  York,  totally  destroyed. 
1184.  Glastpnbury,  town  and  abbey  burned. 
1292.  Carlisle,  destroyed. 

1507.  Norwich,  nearly  destroyed;   718  houses  burned. 
1544.  Leith,  burned. 
1598.  Tiverton,  400  houses  and  a  large  number  of  horses  burned; 

33  persons  killed.     Loss,  £150,000. 

1612.         „        600  houses  burned.     Loss  over  £200,000. 
1731.         ,,        300  houses  burned. 
1700.  Edinburgh,  "  the  Great  Fire." 

1612.  Cork,  greater  part  burned,  and  again  in  1622. 

1613.  Dorchester,  nearly  destroyed.     Loss,  £200,000. 

1614.  Stratford-on-Avon,  burned. 

1644.  Beaminster,  burned.     Again  in  1684  and  1781. 
1675.  Northampton,  almost  totally  destroyed. 
1683.  Newmarket,  large  part  of  the  town  burned. 
1694.  Warwick,  more  than  half  burned;    rebuilt  by  national  con- 
tribution. 
1707.  Lisburn,  burned. 

1727.  Gravesend,  destroyed. 

1738.  Wellingborough,  800  houses  burned. 

1743.  Crediton,  450  houses  destroyed. 

1760.  Portsmouth,  dockyard  burned.     Loss,  £400,000. 

1770.          „  „  „  Loss,  £100,000. 

1802.  Liverpool,  destructive  fire.     Loss,  £1,000,000. 
1827.  Sheerness,  50  houses  and  much  property  destroyed. 
1854.  Gateshead,  50  persons  killed.     Loss,  £1,000,000. 
1875.  Glasgow.     Great  fire.     Loss,  £300,000. 

FRANCE 

59.  Lyons,  burned  to  ashes.  Nero  offers  to  rebuild  it. 
1118.  Nantes,  greater  part  of  the  city  destroyed. 
1137.  Dijon,  burned. 
1524.  Troyes,  nearly  destroyed. 

1720.  Rennes,  on  fire  from  December  22  to  29.     850  houses  burned. 
1784.  Brest.     Fire  and  explosion  in  dockyard.     Loss,  £l, 000,000. 

1862.  Marseilles,  destructive  fire. 

1871.  Paris.     Communist      devastations.        Property      destroyed, 
£32,000,000. 

CENTRAL  AND  SOUTHERN  EUROPE 
64.  Rome  burned  during  8  days.     10  of  the  14  wards  of  the  city 

were  destroyed. 

1106.  Venice,  greater  part  of  the  city  was  burned. 
1577.        „      fire  at  the  arsenal,  greater  part  of  the  city  ruined  by 

an  explosion. 

1299.  Weimar,  destructive  fire;  also  in  1424  and  1618. 
1379.  Memel  was  in  large  part  destroyed,  and  again  in  1457,  1540, 

1678,  1854. 

1405.  Bern  was  destroyed. 
1420.  Leipzig  lost  400  houses. 

1457.  Dart,  cathedral  and  large  part  of  the  town  burned. 
1491.  Dresden  was  destroyed. 
1521.  Oviedo,  large  part  of  the  city  destroyed. 
1543.  Komorn  was  burned. 
1634.  Furth  was  burned  by  Austrian  Croats. 
1680.  Furth  was  again  destroyed. 
1686.  Landau  was  almost  destroyed. 

1758.  Pirna  was  burned  by  Prussians.     260  houses  destroyed. 
1762.  Munich  lost  200  houses. 

1764.  Konigsberg,  public  buildings,  &c.,  burned.     Loss,  £600,000. 
1769.  ,,  almost  destroyed. 

1784.  Rokitzan  (Bohemia)  was  totally  destroyed.     Loss,  £300,000. 
1801.  Brody,  1500  houses  destroyed. 
'859.      ,,        1000  houses  destroyed. 

1803.  Posen,  large  part  of  older  portion  of  city  burned. 
1811.  Forest  fires  in  Tyrol  destroyed  64  villages  and  hamlets. 
^818.  Salzburg  was  partly  destroyed. 

1842.  Hamburg.     A  fire  raged  for  loo  hours,  May  5-7. 

During  the  fire  the  city  was  in  a  state  of  anarchy. 

buildings,  including  2000  dwellings,  were  destroyed. 

fifth  of  the  population  was  made  homeless,  and  100  persons 

lost  their  lives.     The  total  loss  amounted  to  £7,000,000. 

After  the  fire,  contributions  from  all  Germany  came  in  to 

help  to  rebuild  the  city. 
1861.  Glarus  (Switzerland)  ,500  houses  burned. 

NORTHERN  EUROPE 
1530.  Aalborg,  almost  entirely  destroyed. 
1541.  Aarhuus,  almost  entirely  destroyed,  and  again  in  1556. 
1624.  Opslo,  nearly  destroyed.     Christiania  was  built  on  the  site. 
1702.  Bergen,  greater  part  of  the  town  destroyed. 

1728.  Copenhagen,  nearly  destroyed.     1650  houses  burned,  77  streets. 

1794.  „  royal  palace  with  contents  burned. 

1795.  „  50  streets,  1563  houses  burned. 


4219 
One- 


402 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


[STATISTICS 


1751.  Stockholm,  1000  houses  destroyed. 

1759.  „          250  houses  burned.     Loss,  2,000,000  crowns. 

1775.  A  bo,  200  houses  and  15  mills  burned. 

1827.  ,,     780  houses  burned,  with  the  university. 

1790.  Carlscrona,  1087  houses,  churches,  warehouses,  &c.,  destroyed. 

1802.  Gothenburg,  178  houses  burned. 

1858.  Christiania.     Loss  estimated  at  £250,000. 

1865.  Carlstadt  (Sweden),  everything  burned  except  the  bishop's 
residence,  hospital  and  jail.  10  lives  lost. 

RUSSIA 

1736.  St  Petersburg,  2000  houses  burned. 
1862.  ,,  great  fire.     Loss,  £1,000,000. 

1752.  Moscow,  18,000  houses  burned. 

1812.  „  The  Russians  fired  the  city  on  September  14  to 
drive  out  the  army  of  Napoleon.  The  fire  con- 
tinued five  days.  Nine-tenths  of  the  city  was 
destroyed.  Number  of  houses  burned,  30,800. 
Loss,  £30,000,000. 

1753.  Archangel,  900  houses  burned. 

1793.  „          3000  buildings  and  the  cathedral  burned. 

1786.  Tobolsk,  nearly  destroyed. 

1788.  Mitau,  nearly  destroyed. 

1812.  Riga,  partly  destroyed. 

1834.  Tula,  destructive  fire. 

1848.  Orel,  large  part  of  the  town  destroyed. 

1850.  Cracow,  large  part  of  the  town  burned. 

1864.  Novgorod,  large  amount  of  property  destroyed. 

TURKEY 

The  following  fires  have  occurred  at  Constantinople: — 
1729.  A  great  fire  destroyed  12,000  houses  and  7000  people. 
1745.  A  fire  lasted  five  days. 

1750.  In  January,  10,000  houses  burned;  in  April,  property  destroyed 

estimated   from   £1,000,000  to   £3,000,000.     Later  in   the 
year  10,000  houses  were  destroyed. 

1751.  4000  houses  were  burned. 

1756.  15,000  houses  and  ioo  people  destroyed.  During  the  years 
1761,  1765  and  1767  great  havoc  was  made  by  fire. 

1769.  July  17.  A  fire  raged  for  twelve  hours,  extending  nearly  I  m. 
in  length.  Many  of  the  palaces,  some  small  mosques  and 
nearly  650  houses  were  destroyed. 

1771.  A  fire  lasting  15  hours  consumed  2500  houses  and  shops. 

1778.  2000  houses  were  burned. 

1782.  August  12.  A  fire  burned  three  days:  10,000  houses,  50 
mosques  and  ioo  corn  mills  destroyed;  ioo  lives  lost. 
In  February,  600  houses  burned;  in  June,  7000  more. 

1784.  August  5.  A  fire  burned  for  26  hours  and  destroyed  10,000 
houses,  most  of  which  had  been  rebuilt  sjnce  the  fires  of 
1782.  In  the  same  year,  March  13,  a  fire  in  the  suburb  of 
Pera  destroyed  two-thirds  of  that  quarter.  Loss  estimated 
at  2,000,000  florins. 

1791.  Between  March  and  July  32,000  houses  are  said  to  have  been 

burned,  and  as  many  in  1795. 
1799.  In  the  suburb  of  Pera  13,000  houses  were  burned  and  many 

magnificent  buildings. 
1816.  August  1 6.     1 2,000  houses  and  3000  shops  in  the  finest  quarter 

were  destroyed. 

1818.  August  13.     A  fire  destroyed  several  thousand  houses. 
1826.  A  fire  destroyed  6000  houses. 
1848.  500  houses  and  2000  shops  destroyed.     Loss  estimated  at 

£3,000,000. 

1865.  A  great  fire  destroyed  2800   houses,  public   buildings,  &c. 

Over  22,000  people  were  left  homeless. 

1870.  June  5.  The  suburb  of  Pera,  occupied  by  the  foreign  popula- 
tion and  native  Christians,  was  swept  by  a  fire  which 
destroyed  over  7000  buildings,  many  of  them  among  the 
best  in  the  city,  including  the  residence  of  the  foreign 
legations.  Loss  estimated  at  nearly  £5,000,000. 

1797.  Scutari,  the  town  of  3000  houses  totally  destroyed. 

1763.  Smyrna,  2600  houses  consumed.     Loss,  £200,000. 

I772-  >•  3000  dwellings  burned.  3000  to  4000  shops,  &c. 
consumed.  Loss,  £4,000,000. 

1796.         „        4000  shops,  mosques,  magazines,  &c.,  burned. 

1841.         ,,        12,000  houses  were  burned. 

INDIA 

1631.  Rajmahal.     Palace  and  great  part  of  the  town  burned. 

1799.  Manilla,  vast  storehouses  were  burned. 

1833.  „       10,000  huts  were  burned,  March  26.     30,000  people 

rendered  homeless,  and  50  lives  lost. 

1803.  Madras,  more  than  1000  houses  burned. 
1803.  Bombay.     Loss  by  fire  of  £600,000. 

CHINA  AND  JAPAN 
1822.  Canton  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire. 

1866.  Yokohama,  two-thirds  of  the  native  town  and  one-sixth  of  the 

foreign  settlement  destroyed. 

1872.  Yeddo.     A  fire  occurred  in  April  during  a  gale  of  wind,  destroy- 

ing buildings  covering  a  space  of  6  sq.  m.     20,000 
persons  were  made  homeless. 

1873.  „        A  fire  destroyed  10,000  houses. 


1679.  Boston. 

1760. 
1787- 
1794- 
1872. 


1862. 
1866. 


1871. 


1815. 
1845. 


1866. 
1825. 


1837. 


UNITED  STATES 

All  the  warehouses,  80  dwellings,  and  the  vessels 
in  the  dockyards  were  consumed.     Loss,  £200,000. 
„          A  fire  caused  a  loss  estimated  at  £100,000. 
,,          A  fire  consumed  ioo  buildings,  February  2O. 
„          96  buildings  were  burned.     Loss,  £42,000. 
,,          Great  fire,  November  9-10.     By  this  fire  the  richest 

quarter  of  Boston  was  destroyed. 
The  fire  commenced  at  the  corner  of  Summer  and 
Kingston  streets.  The  area  burned  over  was  65  acres. 
776  buildings,  comprising  the  largest  granite  and  brick 
warehouses  of  the  city,  filled  with  merchandise,  were  burned. 
The  loss  was  about  £15,000,000.  Before  the  end  of  the  year 
1876  the  burned  district  had  been  rebuilt  more  substantially 
than  ever. 

Charleston  (S.C.).     A  fire  caused  the  loss  of  £100,000. 
,,          300  houses  were  burned. 
„          One-half  the  city  was  burned  on  April  27.  1158 

buildings  destroyed.     Loss,  £600,000. 
Portsmouth  (N.H.),  102  buildings  destroyed. 
,,  397  buildings  destroyed. 

Savannah,  463  buildings  were  burned.  Loss,  £800,000. 
New  York.  The  great  fire  of  New  York  began  in  Merchant 
Street,  December  16,  and  burned  530  buildings 
in  the  business  part  of  the  city.  1000  mercantile 
firms  lost  their  places  of  business.  The  area 
burned  over  was  52  acres.  The  loss  was 
£3,000,000. 

„  A  fire  in  the  business  part  of  the  city,  July  20, 

destroyed     300     buildings.     The     loss     was 
£1,500,000.     35  persons  were  killed. 
A  large  part  of  the  city  burned,  April  n.     20 
squares,  noo  buildings  destroyed.     Loss,  £2,000,000. 
Nantucket  was  almost  destroyed. 
Albany.     600  houses  burned,  August  17.     Area  burned  over 

37  acres,  one-third  of  the  city.     Loss,  £600,000. 
St  Louis.     23  steamboats  at  the  wharves,  and  the  whole  or 
part  of  15  blocks  of  the  city  burned,  May  17. 
Loss,  £600,000. 
„          More  than  three-quarters  of  the  city  was  burned, 

May  4.     2500  buildings.     Loss,  £2,200,000. 
„          500  buildings  burned.     Loss,  £600,000. 
Philadelphia.     400  buildings  burned,  July  9.     30  lives  lost. 

Loss,  £200,000. 
„  50  buildings  burned,  February  8.     20  persons 

killed.     Loss,  £100,000. 

Washington.  Part  of  the  Capitol  and  the  whole  of  the  Con- 
gressional Library  were  burned. 

San  Francisco.    On  May  4-5  a  fire  destroyed  2500  buildings. 
A  number  of  lives  lost.      More  than  three-fourths  of  the  city 
destroyed.     Loss,  upwards  of  £2,000,000.     In  June  another 
fire  burned  500  buildings.     Loss  estimated  at  £600,000. 
Chicago.     A  fire  destroyed  over  £100,000.     14  lives  lost. 
„  Property  destroyed  worth  £100,000,  Sept.  15. 

„          Two  fires  on  August  10  and  November  18.     Loss, 

£100,000  each. 

„          The  greatest  fire  of  modern  times. 
It  began  in  a  barn  on  the  night  of  the  8th  of  October  and 
raged  until  the  loth.     The  area  burned  over  was  2 124  acres, 
or  3^  sq.  m.,  of  the  very  heart  of  the  city.     250  lives  were 
lost,    98,500    persons    were    made    homeless,    and    17,430 
buildings  were  consumed.     The  buildings  were  one-third  in 
number  and  one-half  in  value  of  the  buildings  of  the  city. 
Before  the  end  of  1875  the  whole  burned  district  had  been 
rebuilt.     The  loss  was  estimated  at  £39,000,000. 
Troy  (N.Y.)  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire. 
Portland  (Maine).     Great  fire  on  July  4.     One-half  of  the  city 
was  burned;  200  acres  were  ravaged;  50  buildings  were 
blown  up  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  fire.     Loss,  £2,000,000 
to  £2,250,000. 

October.  Forest  and  prairie  fires  in  Wisconsin  and  Michigan. 
15,000  persons  were  made  homeless;  1000  lives  lost.  Loss 
estimated  at  £600,000. 

BRITISH  NORTH  AMERICA 
Quebec  was  injured  to  the  extent  of  £260,000. 

„     1650  houses  were  burned,  May  28.     One-third  of  the 
population  made  homeless.     Loss  from  £400,000  to 
£750,000.     Another  fire,  on  June  28,  consumed  1300 
dwellings.     6000  persons  were  made  homeless.     30 
streets  destroyed.     Insurance  losses,  £60,770. 
,,     2500  houses  and  17  churches  in  French  quarter  burned. 
New  Brunswick.     A  tract   of   4,000,000   acres,    more   than 
ioo  m.   in   length,   was  burned   over;  it   included   many 
towns.     160  persons  killed,  and  875  head  of  cattle.     590 
buildings  burned.     Loss,  about  £60,000.     Towns  of  New- 
castle, Chatham  and  Douglastown  destroyed. 
St  John  (New  Brunswick).     115  houses  burned,  January  13, 
and    nearly    all    the    business    part  of    the    city.     Loss, 
£1,000,000. 


1778. 
1796. 
1838. 

1802. 
1813. 
1820. 
1835- 


1845. 


1845.  Pittsburg. 


1846. 
1848. 

1849. 


1851. 

1851. 
1850. 

1865. 
1851. 
1851. 


I857- 
1859. 
1866. 

1871. 


FIRE  PROTECTION] 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


403 


1877.  St.  John.  Great  fire  on  June  21.  The  area  burned  over  was 
200  acres.  37  streets  and  squares  totally  or  in  part  de- 
stroyed; 10  m.  of  streets;  1650  dwellings.  18  lives 
lost.  Total  loss,  £2,500,000.  Two-fifths  of  the  city 
burned. 

1846.  St  John's   (Newfoundland)   was    nearly    destroyed,   June  9. 
Two  whole  streets  burned  upwards  of  I  m.  long.     Loss 
estimated  at  £1,000,000. 
1850.  Montreal.     A   fire  destroyed   the   finest   part  of  the  city  on 

June  7.     200  houses  were  burned. 

1852.         „  A  fire  on  July  9  rendered  10,000  people  destitute. 

The  space  burned  was  I  m.  in  length  by  J  m.  in 
width,  including  1200  houses.     Loss,  £1,000,000. 

SOUTH  AMERICA 
1536.  Cuzco  was  nearly  consumed. 

1 86 1.  Mendoza.     A  great  fire  followed  an  earthquake  which  had 

destroyed  10,000  people. 

1862.  Valparaiso  was  devastated  by  fire. 

1863.  Santiago.     Fire  in  the  Jesuit  church;    2000  persons,  mostly 

women  and  children,  perished. 

WEST  INDIES 

1752.  Pierre  (Martinique)  had  700  houses  burned. 

1782.  Kingston  (Jamaica)  had  80  houses  burned.     Loss,  £500,000. 

1795.  Montego  Bay  (Jamaica).     Loss  by  fire  of  £400,000. 

1805.  St  Thomas.     900  warehouses  consumed.     Loss,  £6,000,000. 

1808.  Spanish  Town  (Trinidad)  was  totally  destroyed.  Loss  esti- 
mated at  £1,500,000. 

1828.  Havana  lost  350  houses;   2000  persons  reduced  to  poverty. 

1843.  Port  Republicain  (Haiti).  Nearly  one-third  of  the  town  was 
burned. 

Since  this  list  was  compiled,  there  have  been  further  notable 
fires,  more  particularly  in  North  America,  the  great  conflagra- 
tions at  Chicago,  Baltimore  and  San  Francisco  being  terrible 
examples.  But  speaking  generally,  these  conflagrations,  exten- 
sive as  they  were,  only  repeated  the  earlier  lessons  as  to  the 
necessity  of  combating  the  general  negligence  of  the  public  by 
attaching  far  greater  importance  to  the  development  of  fire- 
preventive  measures  even  than  to  the  better  organization  of  the 
fire-fighting  establishments. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  mention  notable  fires  in  the  British 
empire,  and  London  in  particular,  during  the  decade  1890  to 
1899:— 

Port  of  Spain  (Trinidad)    . 
New  Westminster  (British  Columbia) 
Toronto  (Ontario)        .... 


Windsor  (Nova  Scotia) 
St  John's  (Newfoundland) 
London — Charterhouse  Square 
St  Mary  Axe 

Old  Bailey  and  Fleet  Street 
Tabernacle  Street,  Finsbury 
Bermondsey  Leather  Market 

Minories 

South-West  India  Docks 

Charlotte  and  Leonard  Streets 

Cripplegate 
Nottingham 
Sheffield 
Bradford 
Sunderland    . 
Dublin 

Glasgow — Anderston  Quay 
„          Dunlop  Street 


Finsbury 


March  4,  1895 
Sept.  10,  1898 
Jan.  6,  10,  and 
March  3,  1895 
Oct.  17,  1897 
July  8,  1892 
Dec.  25,  1889 

Vily  18,  1893 
ov.  15,  1893 
June  21,  1894 
Sept.  13,  1894 
May  17,  1895 
Nov.  10,  1894 
Feb.  8,  1895 
June  10,  1896 
19,  1897 
17,  1894 
21, 1893 


J« 

to 


Nov. 
Nov. 
Dec. 


Nov.    30,  1896 
July     18,  1898 
4,  1894 
16,  1897 


May 
Jan. 


April   25,  i  £ 


As  to  fires  in  any  one  specific  class  of  building,  the  extra- 
ordinary number  of  fires  that  occurred  in  theatres  and  similar 
places  of  public  entertainment  up  to  the  close  of  the  igth  century 
calls  for  mention.  Since  that  time,  however,  there  has  been  a 
considerable  abatement  in  this  respect,  owing  to  the  adoption 
of  successful  measures  of  fire  prevention.  A  list  of  some  noo 
fires  was  published  by  Edwin  O.  Sachs  in  1897  (Fires  at  Public 
Entertainments},  and  the  results  of  these  fires  analysed.  They 
involved  a  recorded  loss  of  life  to  the  extent  of  93  50  souls.  About 
half  of  them  (584)  occurred  in  Europe,  and  the  remainder  in 
other  parts  of  the  world.  Since  the  publication  of  that  list 
extraordinary  efforts  have  been  made  in  all  countries  to  reduce 
the  risk  of  fires  in  public  entertainments.  The  only  notable 
disaster  that  has  occurred  since  was  that  at  the  Iroquois  Theatre 
at  Chicago. 


The  annual  drain  in  loss  of  life  and  in  property  through  fires 
is  far  greater  than  is  generally  realized,  and  although  the  loss 
of  life  and  property  is  being  materially  reduced  from  year  to  year, 
mainly  by  the  fire-preventive  measures  that  are  now  making 
themselves  felt,  the  annual  fire  wastage  of  the  world  still  averages 
quite  £50,000,000  sterling.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  obtain 
precise  data  as  to  the  fire  loss,  insured  and  uninsured,  but  it 
may  be  assumed  that  in  Great  Britain  the  annual  average  loss 
by  fire,  towards  the  end  of  the  I9th  century  (say  1897),  was  about 
£17,000,000  sterling,  and  that  this  had  been  materially  reduced 
by  1909  to  probably  somewhere  about  £12,000,000  sterling. 
This  extraordinary  diminution  in  the  fire  waste  of  Great  Britain, 
— in  spite  of  the  daily  increasing  number  of  houses,  and  the 
increasing  amount  of  property  in  buildings — is  in  the  main  owing 
to  the  fire-preventive  measures,  which  have  led  to  a  better  class 
of  new  building  and  a  great  improvement  in  existing  structures, 
and  further,  to  a  greater  display  of  intelligence  and  interest  in 
general  fire  precautionary  measures  by  the  public. 

Notable  improvements  in  the  fire  service  have  been  effected, 
more  particularly  in  London  and  in  the  country  towns  of  the 
south  of  England  since  1903.  The  International  Fire  Exhibition 
held  in  1903  at  Earl's  Court,  and  the  Fire  Prevention  Congress 
of  the  same  year,  may  be  said  to  have  revolutionized  thought 
on  the  subject  of  fire  brigade  organization  and  equipment  in  the 
British  empire;  but,  for  all  that,  the  advance  made  by  the  fire 
service  has  not  been  so  rapid  as  the  development  of  the  fire- 
preventive  side  of  fire  protection. 

Fire  Protection. — The  term  "  Fire  Protection  "  is  often  mis- 
understood. Fire-extinguishing — in  other  words,  fire  brigade 
work — is  what  the  majority  understand  by  it,  and  many  towns 
consider  themselves  well  protected  if  they  can  boast  of  an 
efficiently  manned  fire-engine  establishment.  The  fire  brigade 
as  such,  however,  has  but  a  minor  role  in  a  rational  system  of 
protection.  Really  well-protected  towns  owe  their  condition 
in  the  first  place  to  properly  applied  preventive  legislation,  based 
on  the  practical  experience  and  research  of  architects,  engineers, 
fire  experts  and  insurance  and  municipal  officials.  Fire  protec- 
tion is  a  combination  of  fire  prevention,  fire  combating  and  fire 
research. 

Under  the  heading  of  "  Fire  Prevention"  should  be  classed 
all  preventive  measures,  including  the  education  of  the  public; 
and  under  the  heading  "  Fire  Combating  "  should  be  classed 
both  self-help  and  outside  help. 

Preventive  measures  may  be  the  result  of  private  initiative, 
but  as  a  rule  they  are  defined  by  the  local  authority,  and  con- 
tained partly  in  Building  Acts,  and  partly  in  separate  codes  of 
fire-survey  regulations — supplemented,  if  necessary,  by  special 
rules  as  to  the  treatment  of  extraordinary  risks,  such  as  the 
storage  of  petroleum,  the  manufacture  of  explosives,  and  theatri- 
cal performances.  The  education  of  the  public  may  be  simply 
such  as  can  be  begun  informally  at  school  and  continued  by 
official  or  semi-official  warnings,  and  a  judicious  arrangement 
with  the  newspapers  as  to  the  tendency  of  their  fire  reports. 

Such  forms  of  training  have  already  been  successfully  introduced. 
There  are  English  towns  where  the  authorities  have,  for  instance, 
had  some  of  the  meaningless  fables  of  the  old  elementary  school 
Standard  Reader  replacea  by  more  instructive  ones,  which  warn 
children  not  to  play  with  matches,  and  teach  them  to  run  for  help 
in  case  of  an  emergency.  Instructive  copy-book  headings  have  been 
arranged  in  place  of  the  meaningless  sentences  so  often  used  in 
elementary  schools.  There  are  a  number  of  municipalities  where 
regular  warnings  are  issued  every  December  as  to  the  dangerous 
Christmas-tree.  In  such  places  every  inhabitant  has  at  least  an 
opportunity  of  learning  how  to  throw  a  bucket  of  water  properly, 
and  how  to  trip  up  a  burning  woman  and  roll  her  up  without  fanning 
the  flames.  The  householder  is  officially  informed  where  the  nearest 
fire-call  point  is,  and  how  long  he  must  expect  to  wait  till  the  first 
engine  can  reach  his  house.  If  he  is  a  newspaper  reader,  he  will 
also  have  ample  opportunity  of  knowing  the  resources  of  his  town, 
and  the  local  reporter's  fire  report  will  give  him  much  useful  infor- 
mation based  on  facts  or  hints  supplied  by  the  authorities. 

Both  self-help  and  outside  help  must  be  classed  under  the 
heading  of  "  Fire  Combating."  Self-help  mainly  deals  with 
the  protection  of  large  risks,  such  as  factories,  stores  and  public 
places  of  amusement,  which  lend  themselves  to  regulation. 


4°4 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


[FIRE  PROTECTION 


The  requirements  of  the  fire  survey  code  may  allow  for  hydrants 
or  sprinklers  in  certain  risks,  and  also  for  their  regular  inspection, 
and  the  means  for  self-help  may  thus  be  given.  These  means 
will,  however,  probably  not  be  properly  employed  unless  some 
of  the  employes  engaged  on  the  risk  are  instructed  as  to  their 
purpose,  and  have  confidence  in  the  apparatus  at  their  disposal. 
The  possibility  of  proper  self-help  in  dangerous  risks  may  be 
encouraged  by  enforcing  regular  drills  for  the  employes,  and 
regular  inspections  to  test  their  efficiency.  There  are  towns 
where  great  reliance  is  placed  on  the  efforts  of  such  amateur 
firemen.  In  some  cities  they  even  receive  extra  pay  and  are 
formed  into  units,  properly  uniformed  and  equipped,  and 
retained  by  the  fire  brigade  as  a  reserve  force  for  emergencies. 

Self-help  for  the  shopkeeper,  the  lodger  or  the  householder 
can  scarcely  be  regulated.  The  opportunities  already  mentioned 
for  the  education  of  the  public,  if  properly  utilized,  would  assure 
intelligent  behaviour  on  the  part  of  a  large  percentage  of  the 
community.  There  are  places  where,  without  any  regulation 
being  attempted,  and  thanks  entirely  to  the  influence  referred 
to,  most  residences  can  boast  of  a  hand-pump,  a  bucket,  and  a 
crowbar,  the  proper  use  of  which  is  known  to  most  of  the  house- 
hold. Self-help  in  small  risks  may,  however,  be  distinctly 
encouraged  by  the  authorities,  without  any  irksome  interference 
with  personal  liberty,  simply  by  the  provision  of  street  pillar- 
boxes,  with  the  necessaries  of  first  aid,  including  perhaps  a  couple 
of  scaling  ladders,  and,  further,  by  opportunities  being  given 
to  householders  to  learn  how  to  handle  them.  If  a  street  pillar- 
box  of  this  kind  be  put  in  a  fire-station,  and  certain  afternoons 
in  the  year  be  reserved  on  which  this  elementary  instruction  will 
be  given,  and  the  students  afterwards  shown  over  the  fire-station 
or  treated  to  a  "  turn-out,"  a  considerable  number  will  be  found 
to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity.  No  matter  whether 
curiosity  or  real  interest  brings  them,  the  object  in  view  will 
be  attained. 

Under  "  outside  "  help  should  be  understood  what  is  organized, 
and  not  simply  such  as  is  tendered  by  the  casual  passer-by  or 
by  a  neighbour.  The  link  between  self-help  and  outside  help  is 
the  fire-call. 

The  Fire-Call. — The  efficiency  of  the  fire-call  depends  not 
only  on  the  instrument  employed  and  its  position,  but  also 
on  its  conspicuous  appearance,  and  the  indications  by  which 
its  situation  may  be  discovered.  These  indications  are  quite 
as  important  as  the  instruments  themselves.  The  conspicuous- 
ness  of  the  instrument  alone  does  not  suffice.  Of  the  official 
notifications  given  in  the  press,  those  in  regard  to  the  position 
of  the  call-points  are  among  the  most  useful.  An  indication  at 
every  street  corner  as  to  the  direction  to  take  to  reach  the  point — 
or  perhaps  better,  the  conspicuous  advertisement  of  the  nearest 
call-point  over  every  post  pillar-box  and  inside  every  front  door — 
may  enable  the  veriest  stranger  to  call  assistance,  and  minimize 
the  chances  of  time  being  lost  in  search  of  the  instrument.  It 
is  immaterial  for  the  moment  whether  the  helpers  are  called  by 
bell  outside  a  fire-station,  by  a  messenger  from  some  special 
messenger  service,  by  a  call  through  a  telephone,  or  by  an 
electric  or  automatic  appliance.  Any  instrument  will  do  that 
ensures  the  call  being  transmitted  with  maximum  speed  and 
certainty  and  in  full  accord  with  the  requirements  of  the  locality. 

Outside  Help.— Organized  outside  help  may  not  be  limited 
simply  to  the  attendance  of  the  fire  brigade.  Special  arrange- 
ments can  be  made  for  the  attendance  of  the  local  police  force, 
a  public  or  private  salvage  corps,  an  ambulance,  or,  in  some 
cases,  a  military  guard.  Then  in  some  instances  arrangements 
are  made  for  the  attendance  of  the  water  and  gas  companies' 
servants,  and  even  officials  from  the  public  works  office,  insur- 
ance surveyors,  and  the  Press.  There  are  places  where  the  salvage 
corps  arrives  on  the  scene  almost  simultaneously  with  the  fire 
brigade,  and  others  where  the  police  are  generally  on  the  spot 
in  good  force  five  minutes  after  the  arrival  of  the  first  engines. 
There  are  several  cities  where  the  ambulance  wagon  and  the 
steamers  arrive  together,  and  another  city  where  the  military 
authorities  always  send  a  fire  piquet  which  can  be  turned  out 
in  a  few  minutes. 


If  all  these  helpers  come  together,  no  matter  how  high  the  rank 
of  the  individual  commanders,  the  senior  officer  of  the  fire 
brigade,  even  if  he  holds  only  non-commissioned  officer's  rank, 
should  have  control,  and  his  authority  be  fully  recognized. 
Unfortunately,  there  are  not  many  countries  where  this  is  the 
case.  The  efficiency  of  outside  help  depends  in  the  first  instance 
on  the  clear  definition  of  the  duties  and  powers  of  all  concerned — 
on  the  legal  foundation,  in  fact;  then  on  the  organization,  the 
theoretically  as  well  as  practically  correct  executive;  and,  last, 
but  by  no  means  least,  on  the  prestige,  the  social  standing,  the 
education  of  commanders  and  their  ability  to  handle  men. 
Among  the  rank  and  file  of  the  brigade,  clear-headedness,  pluck, 
smartness  and  agility  will  be  as  invaluable  as  reckless  dare- 
devilry;  showy  acrobatism,  or  an  unhealthy  ambition  for 
public  applause,  will  be  dangerous. 

Research. — Under  the  heading  "  Fire  Research  "  should  be 
included  theoretical  and  experimental  investigation  as  to 
materials  and  construction,  combined  with  the  chronicling  of 
practical  experience  in  fires,  then  the  careful  investigation  and 
chronicling  of  the  causes  of  fires,  assisted  where  necessary  by  a 
power  for  holding  fire  inquests  in  interesting,  suspicious  or  fatal 
cases.  Experimental  investigation  as  to  natural  and  accidental 
causes  as  distinct  from  criminal  causes  can  be  included.  Re- 
search in  criminal  cases  may  be  assisted  not  only  by  a  fire 
inquest,  but  also  by  immediate  formal  inquiries  held  on  the  spot, 
by  the  senior  fire  brigade  and  police  officers  present,  or  by 
immediate  government  investigations  held  on  the  same  lines  as 
inquiries  into  explosions  and  railway  accidents.1  As  to  general 
research  work,  there  are  several  cities  which  contribute  sub- 
stantially towards  the  costs  of  fire  tests  at  independent  testing 
stations.  Some  towns  also  have  special  commissions  of  experts 
who  visit  all  big  fires  occurring  within  easy  travelling  distance, 
take  photographs  and  sketches,  and  issue  reports  as  to  how  the 
materials  were  affected.  Then  there  are  the  usual  statistics 
as  to  outbreaks,  their  recurrence  and  causes,  and  in  some  places 
such  tables  are  supplemented  by  reports  on  experiments  with 
oil  lamps,  their  burners  and  wicks,  electric  wiring,  and  the  like. 

The  British  Fire  Prevention  Committee. — The  British  Fire  Preven- 
tion Committee  is  an  organization  founded  a  few  days  after  the  great 
Cripplegate  (London)  fire  in  1897,  and  incorporated  in  February 
1899.  It  comprises  some  500  members  and  subscribers.  The 
members  include  civil  engineers,  public  officials  holding  government 
appointments,  fire  chiefs,  insurance  surveyors  and  architects,  whilst 
the  subscribers  in  the  main  include  the  great  public  departments, 
such  as  the  admiralty  and  war  office,  and  municipalities,  such  as  the 
important  corporations  of  Glasgow,  Liverpool  and  the  like.  Colonial 
government  departments  and  municipalities  are  also  on  the  roll, 
together  with  a  certain  number  of  colonial  members.  New  Zealand 
has  formed  a  special  section  having  its  own  local  honorary  secretary. 
The  ordinary  work  of  the  committee  is  carried  out  by  a  council 
and  an  executive,  and  the  necessary  funds  are  provided  by  the  sub- 
scription of  members  and  subscribers.  The  services  of  the  members 
of  council  and  executive  are  given  gratuitously,  no  out-of-pocket 
expenses  of  any  kind  being  refunded.  Whilst  the  routine  work  deals 
mainly  with  questions  of  regulations,  rules  and  publications  of 
general  technical  interest,  the  tests  are  probably  what  have  brought 
the  committee  into  prominence  and  given  it  an  international  re- 
putation. They  are  not  only  the  recognized  fire  tests  of  Great 
Britain,  but  they  rank  as  universal  standard  tests  for  the  whole  of 
the  civilized  world,  and  Americans,  just  as  much  as  Danes,  Germans 
or  Austrians,  pride  themselves  when  some  product  of  their  country 
has  passed  the  official  procedure  of  a  test  by  the  committee.  The 
reports  of  the  tests,  which  state  facts  only  without  giving  criticisms 
or  recommendations,  are  much  appreciated  by  all  who  have  the 
control  of  public  works  or  the  specification  of  appliances.  The 
committee  does  not  limit  itself  solely  to  testing  proprietary  forms 
of  construction  or  appliances,  but  has  a  number  of  tests — quite  equal 
to  the  proprietary  tests —  of  articles  in  general  use.  The  ordinary 
concrete  floor  or  the  ordinary  wooden  joist  floor  protected  by  asbestos 
boards  or  slag  wool  receives  as  much  attention  as  a  patent  floor; 


1  In  the  United  States  a  special  officer  called  a  "  fire-marshal  " 
has  for  some  time  been  allocated  to  this  work  in  many  cities,  and  in 
1894  state  fire-marshals  were  authorized  in  Massachusetts  and  in 
Maryland,  this  example  being  followed  by  Ohio  (1900),  Connecticut 
(1901),  and  Washington  (1902) ;  and  in  other  states  laws  have  been 
passed  making  official  inquiry  compulsory.  In  England  the  question 
has  been  mooted  whether  coroners,  even  where  no  death  has  occurred, 
should  hold  similar  inquiries,  but  though  this  has  been  done  in  recent 
years  in  the  City  of  London  no  regular  system  exists. 


COST] 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


405 


and  similarly  the  ordinary  everyday  hydrant  receives  equal  attention 
with  the  patent  hydrant,  or  ordinary  bucket  of  water  with  the  special 
fire  extinguisher.  The  door  tests  of  the  committee,  which  cover 
some  thirty  different  types  of  doors,  deal  with  no  less  than  twenty 
ordinary  wooden  doors  that  can  be  made  by  any  ordinary  builder 
or  cabinet-maker.  These  so-called  non-proprietary  tests  are  made 
at  the  expense  of  the  general  funds  of  the  committee,  whilst  for  the 
proprietary  tests  the  owners  have  to  pay  about  two-thirds  of  the 
expenses  incurred  in  the  form  of  a  testing  fee.  The  expenses  incurred 
in  a  test,  of  course,  not  only  comprise  the  actual  testing  operation  of 
testing,  but  also  the  expense  of  producing  the  report,  which  is  always 
a  very  highly  finished  publication  with  excellent  blocks.  The  ex- 
pense incurred  also  includes  the  establishment  expenses  of  the  testing 
station  at  Regent's  Park. 

The  British  Fire  Prevention  Committee  organized  the  great  Fire 
Exhibition  and  International  Fire  Congress  of  London  in  1903,  in 
both  of  which  it  enjoyed  the  support  and  assistance  of  the  National 
Fire  Brigades  Union  and  the  Association  of  Professional  Fire  Chiefs. 
It  from  time  to  time  despatches  special  commissions  to  the  continent 
of  Europe,  and  these  visits  are  followed  by  the  issue  of  official  reports, 
well  illustrated,  presenting  the  appliances,  rules  and  methods  of  the 
countries  visited,  and  serving  as  most  useful  reference  publications. 

Taken  generally,  the  whole  of  the  work  of  the  committee,  both 
in  respect  of  scientific  investigations  and  propagandism,  has  been 
most  beneficial.  Fire  waste  has  been  materially  reduced,  regardless 
of  the  fact  of  the  greater  fire  hazards  and  the  ever-growing  amount 
of  property.  In  Great  Britain  alone  the  sum  saved  in  fire  wastage 
annually  is  about  £5,000,000.  This  great  annual  saving  has  been 
obtained  at  an  expenditure  in  research  work,  as  far  as  the  British 
Fire  Prevention  Committee  is  concerned,  of  about  £23,000,  of  which 
more  than  half  was  provided  by  the  membership  in  voluntary 
contributions  or  subscriptions. 

There  is  no  similar  institution  anywhere  in  the  world,  although 
several  government  laboratories  occasionally  undertake  fire  tests, 
notably  the  Gross  Lichterfelde  laboratory  near  Berlin,  and  several 
insurance  corporations  have  testing  plants,  notably  the  American 
Underwriters  at  Chicago.  The  efforts  at  research  work  outside 
Great  Britain  have,  however,  been  spasmodic  and  in  no  way  compare 
with  the  systematic  series  of  inquiries  conducted  without  any 
substantial  state  aid  in  London. 

Distribution  of  Losses. — Property  destroyed  by  fire  is  practi- 
cally an  absolute  loss.  This  loss  may  actually  only  affect  the 
owner,  or  it  may  be  distributed  among  a  number  of  people,  who 
are  taxed  for  it  in  the  form  of  a  contribution  to  their  national 
or  local  fire  fund,  a  share  in  some  mutual  insurance  "  ring," 
or  the  more  usual  insurance  companies'  premium.  In  the  first 
two  oases  some  expenses  have  also  to  be  met  in  connexion  with 
the  management  of  the  fund,  "  tariff  "  organization,  or  "  ring." 
In  the  last  case,  not  only  the  expenses  of  management  have  to 
be  covered,  but  also  the  costs  incurred  in  running  the  insurance 
enterprise  as  such,  and  then  a  further  amount  for  division  amongst 
those  who  share  the  risk  of  the  venture — namely,  the  insurance 
company's  shareholders. 

It  is  well  to  distinguish  between  loss  and  mere  expenditure. 
The  sinking  fund  of  the  large  property  owner  should  cover  a  loss 
with  a  minimum  extra  expense;  insurance  in  an  extravagantly 
managed  company  paying  large  dividends  will  cover  a  loss,  but 
with  an  unnecessarily  large  extra  outlay.  In  every  case  the  loss 
remains;  and  as  property  may  always  be  considered  part  of  the 
community,  the  province  or  nation,  as  the  case  may  be,  suffers. 
It  is  always  in  the  interest  of  a  nation  to  minimize  its  national  losses, 
no  matter  whether  they  fall  on  one  individual's  shoulders  or  on  many, 
and  whether  such  losses  are  good  for  certain  trades  or  not.  With  a 
suitable  system  of  fire  protection  it  is  possible  to  bring  these  losses 
to  a  minimum,  but  this  minimum  would  probably  only  be  reached  by 
an  extra  expense,  which  would  fall  heavier  on  the  insurers'  pockets 
in  the  form  of  municipal  rates  than  the  higher  premium  for  the 
greater  risk.  A  practical  minimum  is  all  that  can  be  attempted, 
and  that  practical  minimum  varies  according  to  circumstances. 

Practical  protection  must  mean  smaller  annual  insurance  dues, 
and  the  actual  extra  cost  of  this  protection  should  be  something  less 
than  the  saving  off  these  dues.  Then  not  only  has  the  nation  a 
smaller  dead  loss,  but  the  owner  also  has  a  smaller  annual  ex- 
penditure for  his  combined  contributions  toward  the  losses,  the 
management  of  his  insurance,  and  the  protective  measures.  _  Where 
there  is  mutual  insurance  or  municipal  insurance  in  its  best 
sense,  the  losses  by  fire  and  the  costs  of  the  protection  are  often 
booked  in  one  account,  and  the  better  protection  up  to  a  certain 
point  should  mean  a  smaller  individual  annual  share.  Where  there 
is  company  insurance  the  municipal  rates  are  increased  to  cover  the 
.  cost  of  extra  protection,  while  a  proportionate  decrease  is  expected 
in  the  insurance  premiums.  Competition  and  public  opinion 
generally  impose  this  decrease  of  the  insurance  rates  as  soon  as  there 
is  a  greater  immunity  from  fire.  Where  the  insurance  companies 
are  well  managed  and  the  shareholders  are  satisfied  with  reasonable 
dividends,  practical  protection  can  be  said  to  find  favour  with  all 


concerned,  but  if  the  protection  is  arranged  for  and  the  companies 
do  not  moderate  their  charges  accordingly,  the  reverse  is  the  case. 

The  position  of  insurance  companies  subscribing  towards  the 
maintenance  of  a  fire  brigade  should  here  be  referred  to,  as  there  is 
considerable  misunderstanding  on  the  subject.  The  argument  which 
municipalities  or  fire  brigade  organizations  often  use  is  to  the  effect 
that  the  insurance  companies  derive  all  the  profit  from  a  good  fire 
service,  and  should  contribute  towards  its  cost.  Where  properly 
managed  companies  have  the  business,  a  better  fire  service,  however, 
means  a  smaller  premium  to  the  ratepayer.  If  the  ratepayer  has 
to  pay  for  extra  protection  in  the  form  of  an  increased  municipal 
rate,  or  in  the  form  of  an  increased  premium  raised  to  meet  the 
contribution  levied,  this  is  simply  juggling  with  figures. 

Cost. — As  to  the  cost  of  a  practical  system  of  fire  protection, 
better  and  safer  building  from  the  fire  point  of  view  means 
better  and  more  valuable  structures  of  longer  life  from  the 
economic  aspect.  Such  better  and  safer  constructional  work 
pays  for  itself  and  cannot  be  considered  in  the  light  of  an  extra 
tax  on  the  building  owner.  The  compilation  and  administration 
of  the  fire  protective  clauses  in  a  Building  Act  would  be  attended 
to  by  the  same  executive  authorities  as  would  in  any  case 
superintend  general  structural  matters,  and  the  additional 
work  would  at  the  most  require  some  increased  clerical  aid. 
If  the  execution  of  the  fire  survey  regulations  were  delegated 
to  the  same  authority  there  would  again  simply  be  some  extra  • 
clerical  aid  to  pay  for,  and  the  salaries  of  perhaps  a  few  extra 
surveyors.  To  make  the  inspections  thoroughly  efficient,  it  has 
been  found  advisable  in  several  instances  to  form  parties  of  three 
for  the  rounds.  The  second  man  would,  in  this  case,  be  a  fire 
brigade  officer,  and  the  third  probably  a  master  chimney-sweep, 
who  would  have  to  receive  a  special  retaining  fee. 

The  cost  of  the  public  training  referred  to  would  be  small, 
as  the  elementary  part  would  simply  be  included  in  the  school- 
master's work,  and  the  Press  matters  could  be  easily  managed 
in  the  fire  brigade  office.  Payments  would  have  only  to  be  made 
for  advertisements,  such  as  the  official  warnings,  lists  for  fire- 
call  points,  &c.,  and  perhaps  for  the  publication  of  semi-official 
hints.  Self-help,  as  far  as  inspection  and  drills  for  amateurs 
are  concerned  would  be  under  the  control  of  the  fire  brigade. 
There  would,  however,  be  an  extra  expense  for  the  purchase 
and  maintenance  of  the  street  first-aid  appliances  referred  to. 

The  most  expensive  items  in  the  system  of  fire  protection 
undoubtedly  come  under  the  headings  "  Fire-Call  "  and  "  Fire 
Brigade."  As  to  the  former,  there  are  a  number  of  cities  where 
the  cost  is  modified  by  having  the  whole  of  the  electrical  service 
for  the  police  force,  the  ambulance  and  fire  brigade,  managed  by 
a  separate  department.  The  same  wires  call  up  each  of  these 
services,  and,  as  the  same  staff  attend  to  their  maintenance, 
the  fire  protection  of  a  city  need  only  be  debited  with  perhaps 
a  third  of  the  outlay  it  would  occasion  if  managed  independently. 
The  combined  system  has  also  the  great  advantage  of  facilitating 
the  mutual  working  of  the  different  services  in  case  of  an  emer- 
gency. The  indicators  which  have  been  referred  to  involve  an 
outlay;  but  here  again,  if  the  three  services  work  together, 
the  expenses  on  the  count  of  fire  protection  can  be  lessened. 
The  money  rewards  given  in  some  cities  to  the  individuals  who 
first  call  the  fire-engines  may  become  a  heavy  item.  Their 
utility  is  doubtful,  and  they  have  formed  an  inducement  for 
arson. 

As  to  the  outlay  on  fire  brigade  establishment,  a  strong 
active  force  should  be  provided,  supported  by  efficient  reserves. 
The  latter  should  be  as  inexpensive  as  possible,  but  should  at 
least  constitute  a  part-paid  and  disciplined  body  which  could 
be  easily  called  in  for  emergencies.  Fire  brigade  budgets  cannot 
allow  for  an  active  force  being  ready  for  such  coincidences  as  an 
unusual  number  of  large  fires  starting  simultaneously,  but  they 
must  allow  for  an  ample  strength  always  being  forthcoming 
for  the  ordinary  emergencies,  and  this  with  all  due  consideration 
for  men's  rest  and  possible  sickness.  An  undermanned  fire 
brigade  is  an  anomaly  which  is  generally  fatal,  not  only  to  the 
property  owner,  but  also  to  the  whole  efficiency  and  esprit  of 
the  force.  The  budget  must  also  allow  for  an  attractive  rate  of 
pay,  as  the  profession  is  one  which  requires  men  who  have  a 
maximum  of  the  sterling  qualities  which  we  look  for  in  the  pick 


406 


FIRE   AND   FIRE   EXTINCTION          (SAFETY  OF  PROPERTY 


of  a  nation.  It  must  also  not  be  forgotten  that  the  fire  service 
is  one  of  the  few  where  a  system  of  pensions  is  the  only  fair  way 
of  recognizing  the  risks  of  limb  and  health,  and  at  the  same  time 
securing  that  stability  in  which  practical  experience  from  long 
service  is  so  essential  a  factor.  The  budget  must  allow  for  an 
ample  reserve  of  appliances. 

Whether  or  not  a  fire  brigade  should  be  so  strong  as  to  permit 
of  its  having  a  separate  section  for  salvage  corps  purposes 
depends  on  circumstances.  Economically  a  salvage  corps  is 
required,  and  should  be  part  and  parcel  of  the  municipal  brigade 
and  organized  on  the  same  lines  with  a  reserve,  no  matter 
whether  the  insurance  of  the  locality  be  managed  by  the  authori- 
ties or  by  companies.  If  a  corps  is  necessary,  it  matters  little 
whether  it  be  paid  for  out  of  premiums  or  out  of  rates. 

Of  further  expenses  which  have  to  be  considered,  there  are 
items  for  fire  research  and  fire  inquest.  If  managed  economically, 
due  confidence  being  placed  in  the  opinions  of  the  fire  officers 
and  surveyors,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  outlay  should  be  great. 
The  statistical  work  would  only  require  some  clerical  aid.  Where 
special  coroners  are  retained  for  criminal  cases  some  extra  money 
will  of  course  be  required;  but  even  here  the  costs  need  not  be 
excessive,  as  there  are  many  retired  fire  brigade  officers  and  fire 
surveyors  who  are  well  suited  for  the  work,  and  would  be  satisfied 
with  a  small  emolument. 

As  to  the  cost  of  the  water  supply,  there  are  but  few  places 
where  special  fire  high-pressure  mains  are  laid  on  in  the  interests 
of  fire  protection.  As  a  rule  the  costs  which  are  debited  to  the 
heading  "  Fire  Protection  "  have  simply  to  cover  the  maintenance 
of  hydrants  and  tablets,  or  at  the  most  the  cost  of  the  water 
actually  used  for  fire-extinguishing  purposes.  Sometimes  the 
cost  of  hydrants  is  shared  with  the  scavenging  department  or 
the  commission  of  sewers,  which  also  have  the  use  of  them. 
Where  the  provision  of  water  and  hydrants  falls  to  a  private 
water  company,  the  property  owners  will  be  paying  their  share 
for  them,  indirectly,  in  the  form  of  water  rates. 

The  protective  measures  referred  to  will  serve  both  for  life- 
saving  and  for  the  protection  of  property.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  a  good  staircase  and  a  ladder  are  often  as  useful 
for  the  manoeuvring  of  the  firemen  as  for  life-saving  purposes, 
and  that  they  are  practically  as  essential  for  the  saving  of  pro- 
perty as  for  saving  life.  No  distinction  need  be  made  between 
the  two  risks  when  speaking  of  fire  protection  in  general;  but  as 
the  safety  of  the  most  valueless  life  is  generally  classed  higher 
than  that  of  the  most  valuable  property,  it  may  be  well  to  give 
life-saving  the  first  place  when  alluding  to  the  two  separately. 

Criminal  fire-raising  only  prevails  where  the  fire-protective 
system  is  defective.  With  good  construction  and  a  fire  survey, 
the  quick  arrival  of  the  firemen,  and  careful  inquests,  the  risks 
of  detection  are  as  a  rule  far  too  great  to  encourage  its  growth. 

Saving  of  Life. — Under  "  Fire  Prevention  "  special  require- 
ments in  the -Building  Act  can  greatly  influence  the  safety  of  life 
by  requiring  practical  exits  and  sufficient  staircase  accommoda- 
tion. The  risks  in  theatres  and  assembly  halls  require  separate 
legislation.  In  ordinary  structures  no  inmate  of  a  building 
should  be  more  than  sixty  feet  away  from  a  staircase,  and 
preferably  there  should  be  two  staircases  at  his  disposal  in  the 
event  of  one  being  blocked.  Generally,  attention  is  only  given 
to  the  construction  of  staircases;  but  it  must  be  pointed  out  that 
their  ventilation  is  equally  important.  Smoke  is  even  a  greater 
danger  than  fire,  and  may  hamper  the  helpers  terribly.  The 
possibility  of  opening  a  window  has  saved  many  a  life. 

Safety  of  Property. — As  far  as  the  protection  of  property 
is  concerned,  the  prevention  of  outbreaks  can  be  influenced  by 
the  careful  construction  of  flues,  hearths,  stoves,  and  in  certain 
classes  of  buildings  by  the  construction  of  floors  and  ceilings, 
the  arrangement  of  skylights,  shutters  and  lightning  conductors. 
Then  comes  the  prevention  of  the  fire  spreading,  first,  by  the 
division  of  risks,  and  secondly,  by  the  materials  used  in  con- 
struction. 

The  legislator's  first  ambition  must  be  to  prevent  a  fire  in  one 
house  from  spreading  to  another,  and  a  stranger's  property, 
so  to  say,  from  being  endangered.  This  is  quite  possible,  given 


good  party  walls  carried  well  over  the  roof  to  a  height  regulated 
by  the  nature  of  the  risk,  the  provision  of  the  shutters  to  windows 
where  necessary,  and  the  use  of  fire-resisting  glass.  Again,  a 
thoroughly  good  roof — or  still  better,  a  fire-resisting  attic  floor 
— can  do  much.  If  the  locality  has  a  fire  brigade  and  the  force 
is  efficiently  handled,  "  spreads  "  from  one  house  to  another 
should  never  occur.  Narrow  thoroughfares  and  courts  are, 
however,  a  source  of  danger  which  may  baffle  all  efforts  to 
localize  a  fire.  This  should  be  remembered  by  those  responsible 
for  street  improvements. 

The  division  of  a  building  or  large  "  risk  "  into  a  number 
of  minor  ones  is  only  possible  to  a  certain  extent.  There  is  no 
need  to  spend  enormous  sums  to  make  each  of  the  minor  "  risks  " 
impregnable.  The  desire  should  be  simply  to  try  to  retard  the 
spread  for  a  certain  limited  time  after  the  flames  have  really 
taken  hold  of  the  contents.  In  those  minutes  most  fires  will 
have  been  discovered,  and,  where  there  is  an  efficient  fire- 
extinguishing  establishment,  a  sufficient  number  of  firemen  can 
be  on  the  spot  to  localize  the  outbreak  and  prevent  the  con- 
flagration from  becoming  a  big  one.  In  the  drawing-room  of  an 
ordinary  well-built  house,  for  example,  if  the  joists  are  strong 
and  the  boards  grooved,  if  some  light  pugging  be  used  and  the 
plastering  properly  done,  if  the  doors  are  made  well-fitting  and 
fairly  strong,  a  very  considerable  amount  of  furniture  and  fittings 
can  remain  well  alight  for  half  an  hour  before  there  is  a  spread. 
In  a  warehouse  or  factory  "  risk  "  the  same  holds  good.  With 
well-built  wooden  floors,  thickly  pugged,  and  the  ceilings  perhaps 
run  on  wire  netting  or  on  metal  instead  of  on  laths,  with  ordinary 
double  ledged  doors  safely  hung,  at  the  most  perhaps  lined  with 
sheet  iron  or  asbestos  cloth,  a  very  stiff  blaze  can  be  imprisoned 
for  a  considerable  time.  Many  of  the  recent  forms  of  "patent  " 
flooring  are  exceedingly  useful  for  the  division  of  "risks,"  and 
with  their  aid  a  fire  can  be  limited  to  an  individual  storey  of  a 
building,  but  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  even  the  best  of 
flooring  is  useless  if  carried  by  unprotected  iron  girders  supported, 
say,  by  some  light  framing  or  weak  partition.  The  general 
mistake  made  in  using  expensive  iron  and  concrete  construction 
is  the  tendency  to  allow  some  breach  to  be  made  (for  lifts, 
shafting,  &c.),  through  which  the  fire  spreads,  or  to  forget  that 
the  protection  of  the  supports  and  girder-work  requires  most 
careful  attention. 

Of  the  various  systems  of  "  patent "  flooring,  as  a  rule  the 
simpler  forms  are  the  more  satisfactory.  It  should,  however, 
always  be  remembered  that  any  specific  form  of  flooring  alone 
does  not  prevent  a  fire  breaking  from  one  "  risk  "  to  another. 
They  should  go  hand  in  hand  with  general  good  construction, 
and  naked  ironwork  must  be  non-existent.  Some  of  the  modern 
fire-resisting  floors  are  too  expensive  to  permit  their  introduction 
for  fire  protection  alone.  In  considering  their  introduction,  the 
general  advantages  which  they  afford  as  to  spans,  thickness, 
general  stability,  &c.,  should  be  taken  into  account.  A  practical 
installation  of  floors,  partitions,  doors,  &c.,  should,  first,  not 
increase  the  cost  of  a  building  more  than  5%,  and  secondly 
should  add  to  the  general  value  of  the  structure  by  giving  it  a 
more  substantial  character. 

The  danger  of  lift  wells,  skylights  and  shaft  openings  should 
not  be  forgotten.  The  last  should  be  as  small  as  possible,  well 
armed  with  shutters,  the  skylights  should  have  fire-resisting 
glass,  and  the  lifts  not  only  vertical  doors,  but  also  horizontal 
flaps,  cutting  up  the  well  into  sections.  The  question  of  light 
partitions  must  also  not  be  neglected. 

Division  of  "  risks,"  common-sense  construction,  and  proper 
staircase  accommodation  are  really  all  that  fire  protection 
requires,  and  where  the  special  Building  Act  clauses  have  been 
kept  within  the  lines  indicated,  there  has  been  little  friction  and 
discontent.  It  is  only  as  a  rule  when  the  authorities  are  eccentric 
in  their  demands  that  the  building  owner  considers  himself 
harassed  by  protective  measures. 

Fire  survey  regulations  should  mainly  aim  at  preventing  the 
actual  outbreak  of  fire.  In  certain  classes  of  risks  fire  survey 
can  also  increase  the  personal  safety  of  the  inmates  and  lessen 
the  possibility  of  a  fire  spreading.  The  provision  of  fire-escapes 


FIRE  COMBATING] 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


407 


or  ladders,  and  a  regular  inspection  of  their  efficiency,  will  do 
much.  The  examination  of  a  rusty  door-catch  may  save  a 
building.  The  actual  preventive  work  of  the  surveyor  will, 
however,  mostly  consist  in  warning  property  owners  against 
temporary  stoves  standing  on  ordinary  floor  boards,  sooty 
chimneys,  badly  hung  lamps,  dangerous  burners  and  gas 
brackets  fixed  in  risky  positions.  Self-help  will  be  greatly 
facilitated  by  the  judicious  arrangement  of  fire-extinguishing 
gear,  and  a  like  inspection  of  its  efficiency.  Hydrants  and 
cocks  must  not  rust,  nor  must  the  hose  get  so  stiff  that  the  water 
cannot  pass  through  it,  or  sprinklers  choked.  Hand  pumps  and 
pails  must  always  stand  ready  filled.  One  of  the  greatest  errors 
generally  made  in  distributing  such  apparatus  is  disregard  of 
the  fact  that  the  amateur  likes  to  have  an  easy  retreat  if  his 
efforts  are  unsuccessful,  and  if  this  is  not  the  case,  he  may  not, 
perhaps,  use  the  gear  at  all. 

With  regard  to  regulations  governing  "  special  risks,"  so  far 
as  the  safety  of  the  public  in  theatres  and  public  assembly  halls 
is  concerned,  attention  should  be  chiefly  given  to  the  exits. 
Spread  of  fire,  and  even  its  outbreak,  are  secondary  considera- 
tions. A  panic  caused  by  the  suspicion  of  a  fire  can  be  quite 
as  fatal  as  that  caused  by  the  actual  start  of  a  conflagration. 
In  the  storage  of  petroleum  in  shops,  direct  communication 
should  be  prevented  between  the  shop  or  cellar  and  the  main 
staircase  or  the  living  rooms.  The  sale  of  dangerous  lamps  and 
burners  should  be  prohibited. 

Fire  -  resisting  Materials. — One  of  the  greatest  misnomers 
in  connexion  with  fire  prevention  was  originally  the  description 
of  certain  materials  and  systems  of  construction  as  being  "  fire- 
proof." This  has  seriously  affected  the  development  of  the 
movement  towards  fire  prevention,  for,  having  regard  to  the  fact 
that  nothing  described  as  "  fire-proof  "  could  be  fire-proof  in 
the  true  sense,  confidence  was  lost  in  everything  so  described, 
and  in  fact  everything  described  as  "  fire-proof  "  came  to  be 
looked  on  with  suspicion.  In  order  to  decrease  this  suspicion 
and  obtain  a  better  understanding  on  the  subject,  the  Inter- 
national Fire  Prevention  Congress  of  London  in  1903,  at  which 
some  800  representatives  of  government  departments  and 
municipalities  were  present,  discussed  this  matter  at  considerable 
length,  and  they  arrived  at  conclusions  which,  in  consideration 
of  their  importance  in  affecting  the  whole  development  of  fire- 
resisting  construction,  are  published  below.  It  is  the  classifica- 
tion of  fire  resistance  adopted  by  this  congress  in  1903  that  has 
been  utilized  by  all  concerned  throughout  the  British  empire, 
and  in  numerous  other  countries,  since  that  date. 

The  resolutions  adopted  by  the  congress  embodied  the  re- 
commendations contained  in  the  following  statement  issued  by 
the  British  Fire  Prevention  Committee: — 

The  executive  of  the  British  Fire  Prevention  Committee  having 
given  their  careful  consideration  to  the  common  misuse  of  the  term 


"  fire-proof,"  now  indiscriminately  and  often  most  unsuitably 
applied  to  many  building  materials  and  systems  of  building  con- 
struction in  use  in  Great  Britain,  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  avoidance  of  this  term  in  general  business,  technical,  and  legis- 
lative vocabulary  is  essential. 

The  executive  consider  the  term  "  fire-resisting  "  more  applicable 
for  general  use,  and  that  it  more  correctly  describes  the  varying 
qualities  of  different  materials  and  systems  of  construction  intended 
to  resist  the  effect  of  fire  for  shorter  or  longer  periods,  at  high  or  low 
temperatures,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  they  advocate  the  general 
adoption  of  this  term  in  place  of  "  fire-proof." 

Further,  the  executive,  fully  realizing  the  great  variations  in  the 
fire-resisting  qualities  of  materials  and  systems  of  construction, 
consider  that  the  public,  the  professions  concerned,  and  likewise 
the  authorities  controlling  building  operations,  should  clearly  dis- 
criminate between  the  amount  of  protection  obtainable  or,  in  fact, 
requisite  for  different  classes  of  property.  For  instance,  the  city 
warehouse  filled  with  highly  inflammable  goods  of  great  weight 
requires  very  different  protection  from  the  tenement  house  of  the 
suburbs. 

The  executive  are  desirous  of  discriminating  between  fire-resisting 
materials  and  systems  of  construction  affording  temporary  protection, 
partial  protection,  and  full  protection  against  fire,  and  to  classify  all 
building  materials  and  systems  of  construction  under  these  three 
headings.  The  exact  and  definite  limit  of  these  three  classes  is  based 
on  the  experience  obtained  from  numerous  investigations  and  tests, 
combined  with  the  experience  obtained  from  actual  fires,  and  after 
due  consideration  of  the  limitations  of  building  practice  and  the 
question  of  cost. 

The  executive's  minimum  requirements  of  fire-resistance  for 
building  materials  or  systems  of  construction  will  be  seen  from  the 
standard  tables  appended  for — 

I.  Fire-resisting  floors  and  ceilings, 

II.  Fire-resisting  partitions, 

III.  Fire-resisting  doors, 

but  they  could  be  popularly  summarized  as  follows: — 

(a)  That  temporary  protection  implies  resistance  against  fire 
for  at  least  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 

(6)  That  partial  protection  implies  resistance  against  a  fierce  fire 
for  at  least  one  hour  and  a  half. 

(c)  That  full  protection  implies  resistance  against  a  fierce  fire 
for  at  least  two  hours  and  a  half. 

The  conditions  under  this  resistance  should  be  obtainable,  the 
actual  minimum  temperatures,  thickness,  questions  of  load,  and 
the  application  of  water  can  be  appreciated  from  the  annexed  tables 
by  all  technically  interested,  but  for  the  popular  discrimination— 
which  the  executive  are  desirous  of  encouraging — the  time  standard 
alone  should  suffice. 

It  is  desirable  that  these  standards  become  the  universal  standards 
in  this  country,  on  the  continent  and  in  the  United  States,  so  that 
the  same  standardization  may  in  future  be  common  to  all  countries, 
and  the  preliminary  arrangements  for  this  universal  standardization 
are  already  in  hand. 

Fire  Combating. — As  to  self-help,  complication  must  always 
be  avoided.  The  amateur  fireman  must  be  drilled  on  the  simplest 
lines.  One  thing  which  must  be  instilled  into  him  is  not  to 
waste  water — a  sure  sign  of  lack  of  training.  Of  course  the  drills 
must  be  on  the  same  lines  as  those  of  the  local  brigade,  and  on 
no  account  should  other  gear  be  used  for  self-help  than  is  generally 


Standard  Table  for  Fire-resisting  Floors  and  Ceilings. 


Classification. 

Sub-Class. 

Duration 
of  Test. 
At  Least 

Minimum 
Temperature. 

Load  per 
Superficial 
Foot 
Distributed 
(per  Sq.  Metre). 

Minimum 
Superficial 
Area 
under  Test. 

Minimum 
Time  for 
Application 
of  Water 
under  Press. 

Temporary  Protection      .               .        .   J 

Class  A 

45  mins. 

1500°  F. 

(815-5°  C.) 

Optional 

100  sq.  ft. 
(9-290  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Class  B 

60  mins. 

1500°  F. 

(815-5°  C.) 

Optional 

200  sq.  ft. 
(18-580  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Partial  Protection     -| 

Class  A 

90  mins. 

1800°  F. 

(982-2°  C.) 

112  ft 

(546-852  kg.) 

100  sq.  ft. 
(9-290  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Class  B 

1  20  mins. 

1800°  F. 
(982-2°  C.) 

168  ft 
(820-278  kg.) 

200  sq.  ft. 
(18-580  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Full  Protection          J 

Class  A 

150  mins. 

1800°  F. 

(982-2°  C.) 

224  ft 
(1093-706  kg.) 

100  sq.  ft. 
(9-290  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Class  B 

240  mins. 

1800°  F. 
(982-2°  C.) 

280  ft 
(1367-130  kg.) 

2OO  sq.  ft. 
(18-580  sq.  m.) 

5  mins. 

g.  =  kilogramme. 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 

Standard  Table  for  Fire-resisting  Partitions. 


[FIRE-CALLS 


Classification. 

Sub-class. 

Duration 
of  Test. 
At  Least 

Minimum 
Temperature. 

Thickness  of 
Material. 

Minimum 
Superficial 
Area 
under  Test. 

Minimum 
Time  for 
Application 
of  Water 
under  Press. 

Temporary  Protection      ...        .   -< 

Class  A 

45  mins. 

1500°  F. 
(815-5°  C.) 

2  in.  and  under 

(-051  m.) 

80  sq.  ft. 

(7-432  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Class  B 

60  mins. 

1500°  F. 

(815-5°  C.) 

Optional 

80  sq.  ft. 
(7-432  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Partial  Protection      -j 

Class  A 

90  mins. 

1800°  F. 
(982-2°  C.) 

2j  in.  and  under 
(-063  m.) 

80  sq.  ft. 
(7-432  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Class  B 

120  mins. 

1800°  F. 
(982-2°  C.) 

Optional 

80  sq.  ft. 
(7-432  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Full  Protection          -j 

Class  A 

150  mins. 

1800°  F. 
(982-2°  C.) 

2j  in.  and  under 
(-063  m.) 

80  sq.  ft. 

(7-432  sq.  m.) 

/ 
2  mins. 

Class  B 

240  mins. 

1800°  F. 
(982  -2  °C.) 

Optional 

80  sq.  ft. 

(7-432  sq.  m.) 

5  mins. 

Standard  Table  for  Fire-resisting  Single  Doors,  with  or  without  Frames. 


Classification. 

Sub-class. 

Duration 
of  Test. 
At  Least 

Minimum 
Temperature. 

Thickness  of 
Material. 

Minimum 
Superficial 
Area 
under  Test. 

Minimum 
Time  for 
Application 
of  Water 
under  Press. 

Temporary  Protection      .        .        .        .   -| 

Class  A 

45  mins. 

1500°  F. 

(815-5°  C.) 

2  in.  and  under 
(-051  m.) 

20  sq.  ft. 
(1-858  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Class  B 

60  mins. 

1500°  F. 
(815-5°  C.) 

Optional 

2O  sq.  ft. 

(1-858  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Partial  Protection     -< 

Class  A 

90  mins. 

1800°  F. 
(982-2°  C.) 

2j  in.  and  under 
(-063  m.) 

20  sq.  ft. 
(1-858  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Class  B 

1  20  mins. 

1800°  F. 
(982-2°  C.) 

Optional 

20  sq.  ft. 

(i-8s8sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Full  Protection          .        .       .       .        .  -| 

Class  A 

150  mins. 

i8oo°F. 
(982-2°  C.) 

i  in.  and  under 
(-018  m.) 

25  sq.  ft. 

(2-322  sq.  m.) 

2  mins. 

Class  B 

240  mins. 

1800°  F. 
(982-2°  C.) 

Optional 

25  sq.  ft. 
(2-322  sq.  m.) 

5  mins. 

customary  in  that  force.  When  volunteers  and  regulars  work 
together,  the  former  should  always  remember  that  the  paid 
force  are  experts,  though  the  regulars  must  never  have  that 
contempt  for  volunteer  work  so  often  noticeable.  Volunteers 
are  often  men  who  are  probably  experts  in  some  other  vocation 
outside  fire-fighting,  and  have  not  had  the  opportunities  which 
a  professional  fire-fighter  has  had. 

Transmission  of  Fire-Calls. — There  are  several  methods  of 
transmitting  the  message  of  a  fire-call.  The  simplest  is,  of 
course,  to  run  direct  to  the  nearest  fire-station;  but  this  is  only 
possible  where  the  distance  is  short.  In  one  or  two  cities,  how- 
ever, the  number  of  fire-stations  is  so  great  that  they  are  very 
dose  to  one  another,  and  hence  "  direct  "  calls  are  generally 
recorded. 

Then  comes  the  system  of  special  messengers.  The  fire  is 
reported  at  some,  public  office,  police-station  or  guard-room, 
where  there  are  always  runners  ready  to  start  off  to  the  nearest 
'fire-station.  The  special  runner  is  here  practically  a  makeshift 
for  the  more  modern  telegraph  or  telephone  line,  and  it  is  believed 
that  the  only  city  in  which  this  system  is  employed  is  one  where 
the  unsettled  political  atmosphere  has  compelled  the  authorities 
to  prohibit  the  construction  of  any  telegraph  lines  other  than 
those  for  the  use  of  the  general  postal  service.  Similar  messenger 
services  have,  however,  also  been  introduced  in  connexion  with 
the  telegraphic  signalling  system.  Private  enterprises  known 
as  "  general  messenger "  or  "  call-boy  "  services,  which  are 
organized  for  business  purposes,  have  the  advantage  of  including 
the  fire-call  and  the  police-call.  In  the  same  way  that  a  cab  can 
be  signalled,  a  call  may  come  for  a  fire-engine,  and  the  ever-ready 


runner  makes  off  to  the  fire-station  instead  of  to  the  cab  rank. 
As  a  rule,  these  messenger  offices  are  near  the  fire-station.  The 
combination  is  rather  a  curious  one,  as  it  embraces  the  most 
advanced  notions  of  giving  every  "  risk  "  its  own  fire-call,  and 
the  somewhat  ancient  one  of  the  special  runner. 

Another  system  for  facilitating  the  fire-call  relies  entirely 
on  the  public  telephone  system,  the  terms  of  subscription  to 
which  may  compel  holders  to  forward  fire  messages  if  required 
to  do  so.  This  system  allows  for  such  development  as  the 
payment  of  retaining  fees  to  porters  in  public  and  other  buildings 
which  have  a  night  service,  on  condition  that  the  fire-call  shall 
be  promptly  despatched.  The  telephones  are,  perhaps,  even 
provided  free,  if  they  are  not  forthcoming;  but  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  service  always  goes  through  a  general 
telephone  exchange,  which  is,  of  course,  open  day  and  night. 

In  the  special  telephone  line  system  special  wires  are  laid 
from  buildings  which  are  practically  open  all  the  year  round 
direct  to  their  nearest  fire-stations,  and  some  payment  is  again 
made  for  prompt  attention.  Sometimes  the  telegraph  takes 
the  place  of  the  telephone,  but  this  requires  the  porter  or  attend- 
ant to  be  specially  trained  to  the  work.  To  simplify  matters, 
the  buildings  are  sometimes  provided  with  automatic  fire-calls 
instead  of  telephones;  but  the  principle  of  the  system  remains 
the  same.  In  districts  where  there  are  few  public  offices,  the 
list  of  buildings  at  which  messages  can  be  handed  in  has  been 
frequently  augmented  by  a  set  of  bakeries  or  apothecaries'  shops, 
where  night  service  is  not  unusual. 

What  may  be  termed  semi-public  street  alarms  come  next. 
Automatic  fire-calls  are  put  up  in  the  street,  but  their  handles 


FIRE-CALLS] 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


409 


are  under  lock  and  key,  and  the  keys  are  distributed  only  among 
policemen,  watchmen  or  householders,  and  the  messages  can, 
therefore,  only  be  given  by  persons  known  to  the  authorities. 

The  public  automatic  street-call  is  the  simplest  system  next 
to  the  direct  message.  Private  automatic  fire-calls  or  telephones 
can  be  laid  on  from  dangerous  risks,  and  there  has  even  been  an 
instance  where  an  attempt  was  made  to  give  every  householder 
a  private  fire-call.  This  system  is,  however,  unfortunately 
too  extreme  for  the  municipal  purse.  If  in  connexion  with 
some  other  paying  enterprise,  as  in  the  case  of  the  messenger 
services  referred  to,  it  would  be  a  different  matter,  though  it 
should  also  not  be  forgotten  that  too  great  a  number  of  call 
points  means  a  probable  repetition  of  signals  of  the  same  fire, 
and  a  risk  of  too  many  sections  of  the  fire  brigade  being  on  the 
road  to  it. 

Besides  these  forms  of  "  call,"  there  is  also  the  private  alarm. 
Dangerous  buildings  are  frequently  provided  with  telephones, 
alarm-posts,  or  even  automatic  temperature  indicators,  by  which 
a  call  can  be  given  direct  from  the  "  risk  "  involved. 

Call  points  should  be  not  only  conspicuous,  but  also  in  most 
frequented  positions.  Possibly,  in  some  towns,  a  point  in  front 
of  a  church  would  be  the  best;  in  others,  the  front  of  a  public- 
house.  It  should  always  be  remembered  that  every  facility 
should  be  given  to  enable  as  many  people  as  possible  to  know 
the  whereabouts  of  the  call  points  without  any  distinct  effort 
on  their  part.  Red  paint  may  make  a  call  pillar  conspicuous 
by  day,  and  a  coloured  lamp  by  night. 

As  to  the  indication  of  call  points,  a  plate  on  every. letter-box 
stating  the  position  of  the  nearest  call-point  is  perhaps  one  of  the 
best  methods.  The  letter-box  is  one  of  the  instruments  most 
in  use  in  a  modern  city,  and  hence  the  plate  is  read  by  many. 
In  an  oriental  town  the  public  fountain  would,  however,  take 
the  place  of  the  letter-box.  Plates  put  up  inside  every  front 
door  are  somewhat  extreme  measures.  In  one  city  red  darts 
are  painted  on  the  glass  of  every  street  lamp,  indicating  the 
direction  to  be  taken  to  find  a  street  alarm.  This  sign,  however, 
has  the  disadvantage  of  requiring  a  previous  knowledge  of  its 
meaning,  and  is  generally  useless  to  a  stranger  in  the  town. 

Rewards  paid  to  messengers  vary  from  one  shilling  to  half  a 
sovereign.  In  some  places  every  call  is  rewarded — even  those 
to  chimney  fires — and  this  often  results  in  an  abuse  of  the 
privilege.  Rogues  light  fires  on  the  top  of  a  chimney  and  then 
run  to  call  the  engines.  If  a  reward  be  given,  a  limitation 
should  be  made.  In  one  town  no  relation  or  employe  of  the 
owner  receives  a  reward.  In  other  cities  no  rewards  are  given 
for  calls  to  a  fire  in  a  dust-bin  or  a  chimney. 

No  true  fireman  would  be  annoyed  at  a  false  alarm  given  by 
mistake.  The  possibility  of  a  fire,  or  the  suspicion  of  one,  is 
a  bona  fide  reason  for  a  call  which  should  not  be  discouraged. 
Malicious  alarms  should,  however,  be  treated  with  the  utmost 
rigour,  as  the  absence  of  firemen  from  their  stations  always  means 
an  extra  risk  to  life  and  property.  Combined  "lynch  law" 
and  imprisonment  has  generally  been  adopted  with  good  effect. 
The  rascal  should  first  be  put  when  caught  over  the  pole  of  the 
engine  and  thrashed  with  a  broad  fireman's  belt,  and  after  that 
handed  to  the  police. 

The  fire-call  should,  if  possible,  also  be  so  constructed  as  to 
facilitate  intercommunication  between  the  scene  of  a  fire  and  the 
headquarters  of  the  fire  brigade.  Where  the  runner  is  employed 
or  the  telephone  is  used  no  special  arrangements  are  required, 
but  where  the  telegraph  or  automatic  call  point  has  been  intro- 
duced, the  apparatus  must  be  adapted  for  this  contingency. 
At  some  automatic  fire-call  points  a  few  signals  can  be  given,  at 
others  a  telegraphic  or  telephonic  transmitter  can  be  applied. 
Much  valuable  time  may  be  saved  in  this  way  when  more  assist- 
ance is  required. 

Fire  Brigades. — The  organization  of  fire  brigades  varies 
greatly.  There  are  brigades  where  officers  and  men  are  practi- 
cally constantly  ready  to  attend  a  fire,  and  others  where  they 
are  ready  on  alternate  days,  two  days  out  of  every  three,  or  three 
days  out  of  every  four,  and  the  off  day  is  entirely  their  own, 
or  at  the  most,  only  partially  used  by  the  authorities  for  some 


light  work.  The  men  off  duty  are  only  expected  to  attend  a  fire 
if  there  is  a  great  emergency,  the  brigade  being  strong  enough 
without  them  for  ordinary  eventualities.  Both  systems  can  be 
worked  with  or  without  part-paid  or  volunteer  service,  which 
would  be  only  called  out  for  great  calamities.  They  could  be 
organized  as  a  practically  independent  reserve  force,  or  the 
reserve  men  might  be  attached  to  sections  of  the  regulars  and 
mixed  with  them  when  the  occasion  arises.  The  reserves  can 
consist  either  of  retired  firemen  who  have  a  few  regular  drills, 
or  of  amateurs  who  go  through  a  special  course  of  training,  and 
have  some  series  of  drills  at  intervals,  with  preferably  a  short 
spell  of  service  every  year  with  the  regulars.  For  the  regulars, 
forty-eight  hours  on  duty  to  every  twenty-four  off  has  given  the 
most  satisfactory  results. 

The  division  of  the  active  force  may  be  on  a  system  of  a  number 
of  small  parties  of  twos  and  threes  backed  by  one  or  more  strong 
bodies.  Another  system  allows  for  subdivision  into  sections  of 
equal  strength,  ranging  from  parties  of,  say,  five  men  with  a 
non-commissioned  officer  to  thirty  non-commissioned  officers 
and  men  with  an  officer.  The  force  can,  of  course,  also  simply 
be  divided  up  into  parties  or  sections  of  different  strengths  not 
governed  by  a  system  of  military  units.  The  sections  either  can 
work  independently,  as  units,  simply  governed  by  one  central 
authority,  or  there  can  be  a  grouping  of  the  units  into  minor 
or  major  bodies  or  districts,  each  duly  officered,  and  as  a  whole 
individually  responsible  to  headquarters. 

The  officers  may  be  all  taken  from  the  ranks,  or  they  may 
be  "  officers  and  gentlemen  "  in- the  military  sense,  or  have  only 
temporarily  done  work  with  the  rank  and  file  when  in  training. 
There  could  also  be  a  combination  of  these  two  systems.  Only 
the  captain  and  deputy-captain  might  be  officers  in  the  military 
sense,  the  sections  or  divisions  being  officered  by  "  non-coms." 
Some  cities  have  an  officer  to  every  thirty  "  non-coms  "  and  men, 
whilst  others  put  a  division  of  as  many  as  two  hundred  under 
a  fireman  who  has  risen  from  the  ranks.  Where  protection  is 
treated  as  a  science,  and  where  those  in  charge  of  a  brigade  have 
really  to  act  as  advisers  to  their  employers,  officers  in  the  military 
sense  have  been  found  essential.  They  have  also  been  found 
advantageous  where  their  scope  is  limited  to  fire  extinguishing. 
The  prestige  of  the  fire  service  has  been  raised  everywhere  where 
the  officers,  besides  being  fire  experts,  are  educated  men  of 
social  standing.  There  are  cities  where  the  officers  of  the  fire 
brigade  are  in  every  way  recognized  as  equal  to  army  or  navy 
men,  their  social  position  is  the  same,  and  their  mess  fulfils  the 
same  functions  as  a  regimental  mess.  The  fire  brigade  officer 
is  recognized  at  court,  and  there  is  no  ceremonial  without  him. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  also  cities  with  brigades  several 
hundred  strong  where  the  captain's  social  standing  is  beneath 
that  of  a  petty  officer  or  colour-sergeant.  As  to  the  primary 
training  of  a  fire  brigade  officer,  the  best  men  have  generally 
had  some  experience  in  another  profession,  such  as  the  army,  the 
navy,  or  the  architectural  and  engineering  professions,  previous 
to  their  entering  the  fire  service.  Some  brigades  recruit  from 
army  officers  only,  and  preferably  from  the  engineers  or  artillery 
regiments;  others  recruit  from  among  architects  and  engineers, 
subject  to  their  having  at  least  had  some  military  experience 
in  the  reserve  forces  or  the  volunteers.  Some  cities  only  take 
engineers  or  architects,  and  make  a  point  of  it  that  they  should 
have  no  previous  military  experience.  Some  previous  experience 
in  the  handling  of  men  is  essential. 

As  to  the  men,  there  are  cities  where  only  trained  soldiers  are 
taken  as  firemen;  others  where  the  engines  are  manned  by 
sailors.  In  some  towns  the  building  trades  supply  the  recruits; 
in  others,  all  trades  are  either  discriminately  or  indiscriminately 
represented.  A  combination  from  the  army  or  navy  on  the  one 
side  and  the  building  trades  on  the  other  is  most  satisfactory. 
The  knowledge  of  building  construction  in  the  ranks  stands  the 
force  in  good  stead,  and  has  often  saved  both  lives  and  property. 
Where  a  brigade  can  boast  of  a  few  men  of  each  important  trade, 
much  money  has  been  saved  the  ratepayers  by  the  men  doing 
their  own  repairs  and  refitting,  but  the  number  of  men  from 
sedentary  trades  should  not  be  excessive.  Where  there  are  only 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


[FIRE-CALLS 


men  of  one  trade  or  calling,  there  is  often  too  great  a  tendency 
to  one-sidedness,  and  a  great  amount  of  prejudice. 

Physical  strength  and  perfect  constitution  are  requisite  for 
both  officers  and  men.  As  to  the  height  of  the  men,  small,  wiry 
men  are  very  useful.  First-class  eyes,  ears  and  nose  are  neces- 
sary, also  a  good  memory.  Fat  men  are  entirely  out  of  place  in 
a  brigade,  and  should  be  transferred  to  some  other  service  if 
the  fatness  be  developed  during  their  engagement  with  a  brigade. 
Many  brigades  take  only  single  men,  "  non-coms  "  and  officers 
only  being  allowed  to  marry.  There  are  many  brigades  where 
twenty-two  and  forty  are  the  limits  of  age  for  the  privates,  fifty 
for  the  "  non-coms,"  and  sixty  for  the  officers. 

As  to  the  equipment,  there  are  brigades  which  have  all  their 
sections  or  units  provided  with  practically  the  same  gear; 
others  where  each  unit  has  a  double  or  treble  set,  one  of  which 
is  used  according  to  circumstances.  The  section  may  have  a 
manual  engine,  a  steamer  and  a  ladder  truck  at  its  disposal, 
and  may  turn  out  with  either.  There  are  towns  where  the  units 
are  differently  equipped,  and  steamer  or  manual  sections  called 
out,  as  the  case  may  be.  In  a  few  extreme  cases,  where  the 
sections  are  very  strong,  they  may  be  equipped  with  a  set  of 
engines  and  trucks,  and  the  unit,  in  every  case,  turns  out  complete 
with  (say)  a  chemical  engine,  a  steamer  and  a  horsed  escape. 
The  contrast  to  this  will  be  found  in  the  small  parties  of  twos 
or  threes,  whose  turn-out  would  only  consist  of  a  small  hose 
trolley  or  an  escape.  Of  course,  there  are  all  kinds  of  combina- 
tions, the  most  important  of  which  allows  a  section  to  have 
one  or  more  independent  subsections.  Though  practically 
belonging  to  the  "  unit,"  the  subsections  work  independently 
in  charge  of  a  certain  gear.  This  may  be  a  hose-reel,  a  long 
ladder,  or  a  smoke  helmet,  according  to  circumstances.  The 
subsections  may  act  as  outposts  or  simply  as  specialist  parties, 
which  are  only  called  out  for  particular  work. 

As  for  the  housing  of  the  units  or  sections,  simple  street 
stations  are  provided  for  the  small  parties  referred  to.  In  a  few 
cases  two  small  parties  are  housed  under  the  same  roof.  The 
large  bodies  that  back  them  are  generally  quartered  together 
in  extensive  barracks,  from  which  any  number  of  engines  and 
men  can  be  turned  out  according  to  the  nature  of  the  call.  Then 
there  are  cities  where  every  section  has  its  own  well-built  station; 
others  where  one  or  two  sections  are  housed  together,  according 
to  circumstances,  and  perhaps  as  many  as  half  a  dozen  located 
at  headquarters.  If  groups  are  formed,  the  headquarters  of  the 
group  or  district  has,  perhaps,  two  sections,  while  each  of  the 
other  stations  has  only  one.  The  general  headquarters  may  be 
the  central  station  of  a  district  at  the  same  time.  The  actual 
working  of  the  district  headquarters  would,  however,  then  be 
kept  separate  from  the  working  of  the  headquarters  staff.  The 
latter  would,  perhaps,  have  some  sections  ready  to  send  any- 
where besides  the  trucks,  &c.,  necessary  for  the  officers,  the 
general  extra  gear,  &c.,  that  might  be  required.  It  is  usual  to 
combine  workshops,  stores,  hose-drying  towers,  &c.,  with  the 
headquarters  station,  and,  in  some  cases,  also  with  the  district 
centres. 

In  the  distribution  of  the  stations,  the  formation  of  districts, 
&c.,  various  systems  have  been  adopted.  The  most  satisfactory 
results  have  been  obtained  where  a  fully-equipped  section  (not 
simply  a  hose-car  or  escape-party)  can  reach  any  building  in  the 
city  within  six  minutes  from  the  time  of  the  call  reaching  the 
station,  the  six  minutes  including  both  turn-out  and  run.  Where 
there  are  exceptionally  large  or  dangerous  risks,  this  time  has  had 
to  be  shortened  to  four  minutes,  and  the  possibility  of  an  attend- 
ance from  a  second  station  assured  within  six  minutes.  In 
dividing  up  districts,  the  most  satisfactory  results  have  been 
obtained  where  every  house  can  be  reached  from  the  district 
centre  within  fifteen  minutes  from  the  call.  Headquarters 
would  naturally  have  a  central  position  in  the  city.  In  one  or 
two  instances  the  headquarters  offices  are  located  in  a  separate 
building,  which  in  no  way  serves  as  a  fire-station,  but  simply  as 
a  centre  through  which  all  orders  and  business  pass. 

The  different  stations  must  be  in  connexion  with  each  other. 
The  special  runner  or  rider  is  practically  disappearing.  The 


telegraph  and  telephone  have  taken  his  place.  Some  cities 
favour  Morse  telegraphy,  which  certainly  had  great  advantages 
over  the  telephone  at  one  time,  as  messages  could  be  easily 
transmitted  to  several  stations  with  the  same  effort,  but  telephone 
distributors  have  now  been  successfully  introduced.  Errors 
are  less  frequent  by  telegraph  than  by  telephone,  and  there  is 
always  a  record  of  every  message.  The  most  modern  forms  of 
telephone  communication  are,  however,  more  suitable  for  the 
fire  service  than  the  telegraph.  Headquarters  should  be  in 
direct  communication  with  every  station,  but  every  station 
should  be  able  to  communicate  with  its  neighbour  directly,  as 
well  as  through  the  headquarters  office,  and  there  should  be  a 
direct  wire  to  its  district  station  if  it  has  one.  There  should  be 
three  routes  of  communication,  so  that  two  should  be  always 
ready  for  use  in  case  of  one  breaking  down.  Either  headquarters 
or  the  district  centres  would  be  in  touch  with  the  various 
auxiliaries  referred  to,  as  well  as  the  general  telegraph  office  and 
the  telephone  exchange. 

As  to  the  attendance  at  fires,  some  cities  turn  out  but  one 
unit  to  answer  the  first  call  if  they  have  no  particulars,  others 
always  turn  out  two  or  three  sections,  and  there  are  several 
cities  where  the  district  centre  would  at  least  send  an  officer 
and  a  few  men  as  well.  In  one  brigade,  headquarters  is  always 
represented  by  either  the  chief  or  the  second  officer  in  the  case 
of  a  call  of  this  kind.  The  idea  is  that  it  is  always  better  to  have 
too  strong  a  force  quickly  in  attendance  than  too  small  a  number 
of  men,  and  that  it  is  most  important  that  the  first  arrival  should 
be  well  handled.  Further,  if  two  sections  answer  a  call  and  one 
breaks  down  on  the  road,  there  is  no  chance  of  there  being  too 
great  a  delay  in  the  arrival  of  organized  help.  It  should,  however, 
not  be  forgotten  that  further  calls  in  the  same  district  to  other 
fires  are  not  unusual,  and  that  the  absence  of  too  many  engines, 
on  account  of  a  first  call,  is  dangerous.  In  some  cities,  when  a 
call  reaches  the  firemen  one  or  two  of  the  nearest  stations  turn 
out,  and  if  more  help  is  required  other  sections  will  be  called 
up  individually.  In  others  the  reinforcements  are  not  called 
up  separately,  but  the  fires  are  divided  into  three  classes — small, 
medium  and  large;  and  on  the  message  arriving  of  a  more 
extensive  conflagration  at  a  certain  point,  the  section  already 
know  beforehand  whether  they  must  attend  or  not.  First  calls 
to  certain  classes  of  risks,  e.g.  to  theatres  or  public  offices,  may 
always  be  considered  to  be  for  medium  or  large  fires;  and  the 
same  message  will  then  simultaneously  turn  out  the  stronger 
body  without  any  further  detailed  instructions  being  necessary. 
In  some  towns  the  fire-call  automata  are  so  arranged  that  the 
messenger  can  at  once  call  for  the  different  classes  of  fire.  This, 
however,  is  not  to  be  recommended,  as  a  messenger  will  probably 
consider  the  smallest  fire  to  be  a  gigantic  blaze,  and  will  bring  out 
too  many  engines.  . 

Equipment. — The  following  are  characteristic  features  in  the 
equipment  of  brigades.  First,  where  there  is  a  high-pressure 
water  supply,  some  brigades  simply  attend  with  hose-cars, 
life-saving  gear  and  ladders;  or,  instead  of  the  hose-cars,  take 
their  manuals,  which  they  practically  never  use  and  which  serve 
only  as  vehicles  to  carry  men  and  hose.  Others  take,  and  make 
a  point  of  using,  the  manuals,  and  have  a  barrel  with  them 
ready  to  supply  the  first  gallons  of  water  necessary.  No  time 
is  thus  lost  in  connecting  with  the  nearest  hydrant  or  plug; 
and  in  case  of  a  hydrant  being  out  of  order,  there  is  always 
sufficient  water  at  hand  until  the  second  hydrant  has  been  found. 
Many  cities  have  introduced  chemical  engines  to  take  the  place 
of  this  combination  of  water  barrel  and  manual  engine.  A 
supply  of  water  is  carried  on  the  chemical  engine.  Some  cities 
always  have  an  attendance  of  steamers,  which  are,  however, 
only  used  in  urgent  cases.  In  other  instances  the  Steamer  is  at 
once  used  in  the  same  way  as  the  manual,  and  this  quite  inde- 
pendently of  the  pressure  there  is  in  the  water  service.  Where 
there  is  no  good  water  service,  manuals  or  steamers  have,  of 
course,  to  be  sent  out,  and  are  supplied  either  from  the  low- 
pressure  service  or  from  the  natural  waterways  or  wells.  There 
are  still  a  large  number  of  cities  where  the  suburbs  have  no 
proper  water  service,  and  the  water  barrel  is  then  very  handy 


FIRE  BRIGADES] 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


411 


for  water  porterage.  Attempts  have  also  been  made  at  the 
chemical  treatment  of  water  which  is  to  be  thrown  on  to  a  fire, 
with  the  view  of  increasing  its  effect,  or  at  the  use  of  chemicals 
instead  of  water.  In  certain  localities  fire  appliances  are  still 
run  out  to  fires  by  hand,  especially  where  there  is  a  high  pressure 
water  system  and  hose  carts  only  are  required.  Generally  the 
appliances  are  horsed.  Motor  traction  is,  however,  now  rapidly 
superseding  horse  traction  for  reasons  of  economy  and  the 
wider  and  more  rapid  range  of  efficiency. 

As  to  life  saving  and  manoeuvring  gear,  some  brigades  rely 
almost  entirely  on  hook  ladders,  others  almost  entirely  depend 
on  scaling  ladders  or  telescopic  escapes.  In  some  great  con- 
fidence is  placed  in  the  jumping-sheet;  in  another,  chutes  are 
much  used;  and  there  are  a  few  where  wonderful  work  is  done 
with  life-lines.  To  indicate  the  diversity  with  which  any  one 
appliance  can  be  treated,  made  or  handled,  in  the  fire  service, 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  there  are  quite  ten  different  ways  in 
which  a  jumping-sheet  can  be  held.  Then  there  is  the  material 
of  the  jumping-sheet  to  be  considered;  the  size  and  the  shape — 
whether  round,  oblong,  square  or  rectangular;  then  the  means 
of  holding  it,  the  way  to  fold  it,  how  and  where  to  stow  it,  and  at 
what  distance  from  the  endangered  building  the  sheet  is  to  be 
held.  Last,  but  not  least,  come  the  words  of  command. 

Working  of  Brigades. — In  some  forces  all  possible  attention 
is  given  to  the  rapidity  of  the  actual  turn  out,  while  in  others 
the  speed  at  which  engines  run  to  the  fire  is  considered  to  be 
of  primary  importance.  Other  brigades,  again,  give  equal 
attention  to  both.  There  are  brigades  which  work  entirely  on 
military  lines,  each  man  having  certain  duties  marked  out  for 
him  beforehand  for  every  possible  occasion,  and  there  are  others 
where  happy-go-lucky  working  is  preferred.  Of  course  there 
are  combinations  in  the  same  way  as  regards  command.  Some 
chief  officers  arrive  at  a  fire  with  a  staff  of  adjutants  and  orderlies, 
and  control  the  working  of  the  brigade  from  a  position  of  vantage 
at  a  distance.  Other  chiefs  delight  to  be  in  the  thick  of  a  fire, 
perhaps  at  the  branch  itself,  or  on  some  gallant  life-saving 
exploit  where  they  no  doubt  do  good  work  as  a  fireman,  but  in 
no  way  fulfil  the  office  of  commanders.  Officers  must  remember 
that  they  are  officers,  and  not  rank  and  file;  and  this  is  generally 
very  difficult  to  those  who  have  advanced  from  the  ranks. 
Superintendents,  however  smart,  must  leave  acts  of  bravery  to 
their  men,  and  chief  officers,  without  going  to  extremes,  must 
always  be  in  a  good  position  where  they  can  superintend  every- 
thing pertaining  to  the  outbreak  in  question.  Some  brigades 
seem  to  make  a  point  of  working  quietly,  and  shouting  is 
absolutely  forbidden,  all  commands  being  given  by  shrill  whistles. 
In  some  brigades  all  commands  are  given  by  word  of  mouth,  and 
there  is  much  bawling.  In  others  commands,  besides  being 
bawled,  are  even  repeated  on  horns,  and  the  noise  becomes 
trying.  As  a  rule,  quiet  working  is  a  sign  of  efficiency. 

Some  brigades  work  as  close  as  possible  to  the  fire,  others 
are  satisfied  with  putting  water  on  or  about  the  fire  from  a 
distance.  Some  attack  the  fire  direct,  others  only  try  to  protect 
what  surrounds  the  seat  of  the  flames.  Several  brigades  are 
ordered  always  to  try  to  attack  by  the  natural  routes  of  the 
front  door  and  the  staircases.  In  others,  the  men  always  have 
to  attempt  some  more  unnatural  entrance,  with  the  aid  of 
ladders — through  windows,  for  instance.  Some  brigades  care- 
fully extinguish  a  fire,  some  simply  swamp  it.  Some  brigades 
boast  of  never  having  damaged  property  unnecessarily.  They 
have,  for  instance,  had  the  patience  to  suffocate  a  cellar  fire, 
instead  of  putting  the  whole  cellar  under  water.  In  certain 
classes  of  property  the  bucket,  the  mop,  and  the  hand-pump 
have  been  far  more  effective  in  minimizing  actual  destruction 
than  the  branch  and  hose.  It  is  one  of  the  easiest  signs  by  which 
to  judge  the  training  and  handling  of  a  fire  brigade — to  see  what 
damage  they  do.  Even  an  inconsiderate  smashing  of  doors  and 
windows,  when  there  is  absolutely  no  need  for  it,  can  be  avoided, 
where  every  man  in  the  force  feels  that  his  first  duty  is  to  prevent 
damage  and  loss  and  his  second  to  extinguish  the  fire. 

Where  the  brigade  includes  a  salvage  division,  it  is  generally 
stationed  at  headquarters;  where  this  division  is  split  up  into 


sections,  there  would  also  be  a  distribution  among  the  district 
centres;  the  salvage  men  are  simply  part  of  the  force,  told  off 
on  special  duty.  Where  there  are  private  salvage  corps,  their 
stations  are  generally  near  the  headquarters  or  district  centres 
of  the  brigade,  from  which  they  receive  notice  of  the  fire.  In 
some  cities  the  salvage  corps  work  quite  independently;  in 
others,  they  work  under  the  chief  of  the  brigade  directly  they 
arrive  at  the  fire. 

As  to  the  working  of  allied  civilian  forces  in  conjunction  with 
the  fire  service,  the  advantages  of  firemen  having  plenty  of  room 
to  work  in  is  now  fully  recognized,  and  the  police  are  at  once 
called  out  and  often  brought  on  to  the  scene  in  an  incredibly 
short  time.  The  value  of  these  measures  should  not  be  under- 
rated, especially  in  cities  where  rowdyism  exists.  In  many 
cities  the  ambulance  service  is  also  turned  out  to  fires.  Where 
no  independent  ambulance  corps  exists,  some  of  the  firemen 
should  be  trained  to  work  as  ambulance  men.  Turncocks  and 
gasmen  are  also  frequently  brought  to  all  fires.  Lastly,  in  many 
garrison  towns  the  military  turn  out  to  assist  the  fire  brigade. 

National  Fire  Brigades'  Union. — The  National  Fire  Brigades' 
Union,  which  is  the  representative  Fire  Service  Society  for  Great 
Britain,  originated  in  a  national  demonstration  of  volunteer  fire 
brigades  held  at  Oxford  in  celebration  of  Queen  Victoria's  jubilee 
on  the  3Oth  of  May  1887,  when  82  fire  brigades  with  916  firemen  were 
present.  Next  day  a  meeting  of  the  officers  was  held  at  the  Guildhall, 
Oxford,  and  it  was  then  resolved  to  form  the  National  Fire  Brigades 
Union.  Alderman  Green,  the  chief  officer  of  the  Oxford  fire  brigade, 
was  appointed  the  first  chairman.  Sir  Eyre  Massey  Shaw  was  ap- 
pointed first  president  in  1888,  and  on  his  retirement  in  1896  through 
ill-health  he  was  succeeded  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough.  When  the 
union  offered  to  provide  ambulance  firemen  and  stretcher  bearers 
for  his  regiment  the  duke  accepted  the  offer,  and  two  fully  equipped 
corps  were  sent  out  to  the  Imperial  Yeomanry  hospital  at  Deel- 
fontein,  South  Africa,  under  Colonel  Sloggett,  who  specially  men- 
tioned the  services  rendered  by  the  firemen  in  his  despatches. 

The  union  is  divided  into  seventeen  districts,  each  having  its  own 
council,  and  sending  one  delegate  for  every  ten  brigades  to  the 
central  council.  The  districts  are: — Eastern,  Midlands,  South  Coast, 
South-Eastern,  West  Midland,  North-Eastern,  North-Western, South 
Western,  Surrey,  South  Midlands,  Southern,  South  Wales,  North 
Wales,  Cornish,  Yorkshire,  Central  and  South  Africa  (formed  in 
1902).  There  are  also  seventy-five  foreign  members  and  corre- 
spondents in  America,  Australia,  Austria,  Belgium,  Canada,  Denmark, 
France,  Germany,  Holland,  Italy,  New  Zealand,  Russia,  South 
Africa,  India  and  the  Federated  Malay  Straits.  The  total  strength 
of  the  union  is  667  fire  brigades  and  members  with  nearly  12,000 
firemen.  Every  member  of  the  union  gives  his  time  and  services 
for  the  benefit  of  the  country ;  all  appointments  are  honorary,  with 
the  exception  that  a  small  allowance  is  made  for  clerical  assistance. 
A  drill  book  is  issued  by  the  union,  and  the  fourth  edition  was 
published  in  1902.  Over  60,000  of  these  books  have  been  issued  to 
brigades  all  over  the  world. 

The  ambulance  department  is  under  the  charge  of  medical  officers. 
All  members  have  to  come  up  for  re-examination  every  three  years, 
else  they  are  not  entitled  to  wear  the  red  cross,  and  the  examination 
is  more  stringent  than  that  held  by  the  St  John  Ambulance  Associa- 
tion. This  department  has  proved  to  be  a  great  benefit  to  provincial 
fire  brigades,  who  are  often  called  upon  to  undertake  ambulance 
work.  A  very  useful  and  instructive  manual  has  been  issued  by  the 
union  entitled  First  Aid  in  the  Fire  Service,  by  Chief  Officer  William 
Ettles,  M.D. 

The  union  organized  and  took  part  in  the  International  Fire 
Exhibitions,  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Hall,  London,  in  1893  and 
1896,  and  it  was  represented  at  the  International  Fire  Congresses 
at  Antwerp,  Brussels,  Ghent,  Paris,  Lyons,  Havre  and  Berlin.  It 
has  also  held  a  review  before  the  German  emperor  at  the  Crystal 
Palace,  and  before  Queen  Victoria  in  Windsor  Park. 

Fire  Brigade  Organization. 

Below  are  given  examples  of  the  organization  of  different  fire 
brigades.  The  brigades  so  described  have  been  selected  not  so 
much  on  account  of  their  intrinsic  importance,  as  because  they 
represent  classes  or  types  of  brigades  and  fire  brigade  organization 
which  it  may  be  useful  to  refer  to.  In  respect  of  the  London 
fire  brigade,  however,  historical  data  are  also  presented,  as  it 
is  only  with  the  aid  of  these  that  the  extraordinary  development 
of  that  force  can  be  properly  realized. 

With  regard  to  modern  views  as  to  the  functions  of  the  fire 
brigade,  the  resolutions  of  the  Fire  Prevention  Congress  of  1903 
are  reprinted  below.  As  they  indicate,  the  general  feeling 
amongst  all  interested  in  fire  protection  from  an  economic  point 


412 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


[LONDON 


of  view  is  that  fire  brigades  should  not  be  merely  fire  extinguish- 
ing organizations  but  should  utilize  their  influence  in  a  much 
wider  sense. 

The  Congress  considered: — 

1.  That  public  authorities  should  encourage  fire  brigade  officers 
to  take  an  active  interest  in  the  preventive  aspect  of  fire  protection, 
inasmuch  as  the  result  of  the  fire  brigade  officers'  experience  in  actual 
fire  practice,  if  suitably  applied  in  conjunction  with  the  work  of 
architects,  engineers  and  public  officials,  would  be  most  useful  for 
the  organization  and  development  of  precautionary  measures. 

2.  That   fire   brigade  societies,   associations  and   unions  should 
encourage  amongst  the  brigades  affiliated  to  these  bodies  the  study 
of  questions  of  fire  prevention. 

3.  That  fire  brigades  should  be  placed  on  a  sound  legal  basis,  and 
that  it  is  advisable  that  their  efficiency  be  supervised  by  a  govern- 
ment department. 

4.  That  an  official  investigation  should  be  made  of  all  fires.     That 
on  the  occurrence  of  every  fire  an  investigation  should  be  immedi- 
ately made  by  au  official,  duly  qualified  and  empowered  to  ascertain 
the   cause  and   circumstances  connected  therewith,  reporting  the 
result  of  such  investigation  to  a  public  department  for  tabulation 
and  publication. 

5.  That  the  whole  or  part  of  the  cost  of  such  inquiry  should  be 
charged  to  the  occupier  of  the  premises  where  the  fire  occurred, 
as  may  appear  desirable  in  the  circumstances  of  each  case. 

6.  That  the  press  should  from  time  to  time  publish  technical 
reports  on  fires  so  that  the  public  may  benefit  from  the  knowledge 
and  experience  gained. 

London. — In  the  early  part  of  the  igth  century  the  methods 
in  vogue  for  the  suppression  of  outbreaks  of  fire  in  the  metropolis 
were  of  the  most  crude  and  disjointed  character,  in  striking 
contrast  with  the  highly  elaborated  system  now  put  into  practice 
by  the  London  County  Council  through  its  fire  brigade;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  second  half  of  the  ipth  century  was  well 
advanced  that  anything  approaching  an  adequate  and  satis- 
factory organization  was  brought  into  existence.  Until  the 
passing  of  the  Metropolitan  Fire  Brigade  Act  1865,  the  only 
acts  relating  to  the  suppression  of  outbreaks  of  fire  in  London 
were  the  Lighting  and  Watching  Act  (3  &  4  William  IV.,  c.  90), 
and  "  an  act  (14  Geo.  III.,  c.  78)  for  the  further  and  better 
Regulation  of  Buildings  and  Party  Walls,  and  for  the  more 
effectually  preventing  Mischiefs  by  Fire  within  the  Cities  of 
London  and  Westminster,  and  the  Liberties  thereof,  and  other 
the  Parishes,  Precincts  and  Places  within  the  Weekly  Bills  of 
Mortality,  the  Parishes  of  Marylebone,  Paddington,  St  Pancras, 
and  St  Luke's  at  Chelsea,  in  the  County  of  Middlesex."  The 
clauses  in  the  latter  act  relating  to  protection  against  fire  re- 
mained in  force  till  the  passing  of  the  act  of  1865.  They  provided 
that  every  parish  should  keep  "  one  large  engine  and  one  small, 
called  a  hand  engine,  a  leathern  pipe,  and  a  certain  number  of 
ladders."  The  Lighting  and  Watching  Act  contained  a  clause 
which  extended  to  England  and  Wales  and  so  covered  the  area 
"without -the  bills  of  mortality,"  enabling  the  inspectors  ap- 
pointed under  that  act  to  provide  and  keep  up  two  fire-engines; 
and  certain  of  the  parishes  in  the  metropolitan  district,  without 
the  bills  of  mortality,  availed  themselves  of  this  provision. 

The  select  committee  of  fires  in  the  metropolis,  which  sat  in 
1862,  reported  that  it  was  difficult  to  ascertain  how  far  the  act 
of  George  III.  was  attended  to,  or  when  it  ceased  to  be  considered 
practically  of  importance,  but  that,  at  the  time  of  the  report, 
the  arrangements  generally  made  by  the  parishes  under  the  act 
were  not  only  entirely  useless,  but  in  many  cases  produced 
injurious  results,  as  the  system  under  the  act  frequently  con- 
ferred a  reward  for  the  first  useless  parochial  engine,  whereas 
the  efficient  engine  which  might  be  on  the  spot  a  few  minutes 
later  derived  no  pecuniary  advantages.  There  were,  however, 
exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  At  Hackney,  for  example,  a 
"  very  efficient  "  fire  brigade  was  maintained  at  an  expense  of 
about  £500  a  year,  or  about  one  halfpenny  in  the  pound  on  the 
rating  of  the  parish.  The  select  committee  were  unable  to 
ascertain  with  any  accuracy  the  total  amount  paid  by  the 
metropolitan  parishes  for  the  maintenance,  "  however  in- 
efficient," of  their  fire-engines,  but  it  was  estimated  to  be 
about  £10,000. 

For  many  years  previous  to  1832,  the  principal  fire  insurance 
offices  in  London  kept  fire  brigades  at  their  individual  expense; 


to  these  brigades  were  attached  a  considerable  number  of  men 
usually  occupied  as  Thames  watermen,  retained  in  the  service 
of  the  different  Fire  Offices,  who  received  payment  only  on  the 
occurrence  of  fires,  and  who  wore  the  livery  and  badge  of  the 
respective  companies.  These  fire  brigades  were,  to  quote  the 
report  of  the  select  committee  of  1862,  considered  as  giving 
notoriety  to  the  different  insurance  companies,  and  a  considerable 
rivalry  was  maintained,  which  was  productive  naturally  of  good 
as  well  as  of  some  considerable  evil  on  occasions  of  fires. 

The  large  expenses  thus  incurred  by  the  companies  induced 
an  attempt  to  be  made,  which  was  effectually  carried  out  in 
the  year  1832,  by  R.  Bell  Forde,  a  leading  director  of  the  Sun 
Fire  Office,  to  form  one  brigade  for  the  purpose  of  promoting 
economy  as  well  as  greater  efficiency.  Thus  the  first  organized 
fire  brigade' for  London  began  its  operations  under  the  united 
sanction  of,  and  from  funds  contributed  by,  most  of  the  leading 
insurance  offices  in  London.  The  force  thus  formed  was  known 
as  the  London  Fire  Engine  Establishment.  The  annual  expense 
was  at  first  £8000,  the  number  of  stations  19,  the  number  of 
men  employed  80.  By  1862  the  annual  cost  had  grown  to 
£25,000,  the  number  of  stations  had  become  20,  and  the  number 
of  men  127. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  chief  station  of  the  Fire 
Engine  Establishment  was  the  Watling-Street  station,  in  sub- 
stitution for  which  the  new  Cannon-Street  station  has  been 
built .  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  other  stations  of  the  establish- 
ment:— 

School  House-lane,  Shadwell         Crown  Street,  Soho 
Wellclose  Square  Wells  Street 

Jeffrey's  Square  Baker  Street 

Whitecross  Street  King  Street,  Golden  Square 

Farringdon  Street  Horseferry  Road 

Holborn  Waterloo  Road 

Chandos  Street  Southwark  Bridge  Road 

Tooley  Street  Southwark  Bridge  (floating) 

Lucas  Street,  Rotherhithe  Rotherhithe  (floating) 

The  work  of  this  force  was  carried  out  in  an  efficient  manner 
as  far  as  its  limited  equipment  and  strength  would  permit,  but 
it  was  universally  admitted  that  the  staff,  engines  and  stations 
were  totally  inadequate  for  the  general  protection  of  London 
from  fire.  The  directors  of  the  insurance  offices  themselves 
admitted  this,  but  they  considered  their  brigade  sufficient  for 
the  protection  of  that  part  of  London  in  which  the  largest  amount 
of  insured  property  was  located,  and  contended  that  it  was  not 
their  business  to  provide  fire  stations  in  the  more  outlying 
districts  where,  if  a  fire  occurred,  it  was  not  likely  to  involve 
their  offices  in  serious  loss. 

From  1836  the  work  of  the  brigade  maintained  by  the  fire 
offices  was  supplemented  by  the  "  Society  for  the  Protection  of 
Life  from  Fire."  This  society  was  managed  by  a  committee  of 
which  the  lord  mayor  was  president.  It  was  supported  entirely 
by  voluntary  contributions,  and,  at  a  cost  of  about  £7000  a 
year,  maintained  fire-escapes  at  from  80  to  90  stations  in  different 
parts  of  the  most  central  districts  in  London.  Its  most  outlying 
station  was  only  4  m.  from  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  it  main- 
tained no  stations  in  such  localities  as  Greenwich,  Peckham, 
Deptford  and  New  Cross.  It  did  much  useful  work,  though  its 
equipment  was  quite  inadequate  to  cope  with  the  needs  of  the 
metropolis. 

In  1834,  two  years  after  the  institution  of  the  London  Fire 
Engine  Establishment,  the  Houses  of  Parliament  were  destroyed 
by  fire,  and  the  attention  of  the  government  was  consequently 
directed  to  the  inadequacy  of  the  existing  conditions  for  fire 
extinction.  It  was  suggested,  at  the  time,  that  the  parochial 
engines  should  be  placed  under  the  inspection  of  the  commis- 
sioners of  police,  but  this  proposal  was  not  adopted,  and  the 
existing  state  of  matters  was  allowed  to  continue  for  another 
thirty  years.  The  select  committee  of  1862  recommended  that  a 
fire  brigade  should  be  created  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
commissioners  of  police,  and  should  form  part  of  the  general 
establishment  of  the  metropolitan  police.  In  1865,  however, 
the  Metropolitan  Fire  Brigade  Act  was  passed,  under  which  the 
responsibility  for  the  provision  and  maintenance  of  an  efficient 


COLOGNE] 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


fire  brigade  was  laid  upon  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works. 
Under  the  provisions  of  the  act,  the  board  took  over  the  staff, 
stations  and  equipment  of  the  Fire  Engine  Establishment; 
the  engines  maintained  by  the  various  parochial  authorities, 
and  the  men  in  charge  of  them  were  also  absorbed  by  the  new 
organization,  as  were  the  fire-escapes  and  staff  of  the  Society 
for  the  Protection  of  Life  from  Fire. 

The  funds  provided  by  the  Fire  Brigade  Act  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  brigade  were:  (i)  the  produce  of  a  halfpenny 
rate  on  all  the  rateable  property  in  London;  (2)  contributions 
by  the  fire  insurance  companies  at  the  rate  of  £35  per  million 
of  the  gross  amount  insured  by  them  in  respect  of  property  in 
London;  and  (3)  a  contribution  of  £10,000  a  year  by  the  govern- 
ment. Although  the  revenue  allotted  increased  year  by  year, 
its  increase  was  far  from  keeping  pace  with  the  constant  calls 
from  all  parts  of  London  for  protection  from  fire.  Some  tem- 
porary financial  relief  was  afforded  by  the  Metropolitan  Board 
of  Works  (Loans)  Act  1869,  which  (i)  authorized  the  interest 
on  borrowed  money  to  be  paid,  and  the  principal  to  be  redeemed 
out  of  the  proceeds  of  the  Metropolitan  Consolidated  rate,  apart 
from  the  halfpenny  allocated  for  fire  brigade  purposes;  and  (2) 
provided  that  the  amount  to  be  raised  for  the  annual  working 
expenditure  on  the  brigade  should  be  equal  to  what  would  be 
produced  by  a  halfpenny  in  the  pound  on  the  gross  annual  value 
of  property,  instead  of,  as  before,  on  the  rateable  value.  One 
result  of  the  passing  of  the  Local  Government  Act  1888  (by 
which  the  London  County  Council  was  constituted),  under  which 
a  county  rate  for  all  purposes  is  levied,  was  virtually  to  repeal 
the  limitation  of  the  amount  which  might  be  raised  from  the 
ratepayers  for  fire  brigade  purposes.  Since  that  time  the 
expenditure  on  the  brigade  has  therefore,  like  that  of  other 
departments  of  the  council's  service,  been  determined  solely 
by  what  the  council  has  judged  to  be  the  requirements  of  the 
case. 

When  the  council  came  into  existence  early  in  1889  the  fire 
brigade  was  admittedly  not  large  enough  properly  to  protect 
the  whole  of  London,  the  provision  in  various  suburban  districts 
being  notoriously  inadequate  to  the  requirements.  A  plan  for 
enlarging  .and  improving  old  stations,  and  for  carrying  out  a 
scheme  of  additional  protection  laid  down  after  careful  considera- 
tion of  the  needs  of  London  as  a  whole,  was  approved  on  the  8th 
of  February  1898  (and  somewhat  enlarged  in  1901);  it  provided 
for  the  placing  of  horsed  escapes  at  existing  fire  stations,  for 
the  establishment  of  some  22  additional  stations  provided  with 
horsed  escapes,  and  for  the  discontinuance  of  nearly  all  the  fire- 
escape  and  hose-cart  stations  in  the  public  thoroughfares. 

Since  it  came  into  existence  the  London  County  Council  has  estab- 
lished additional  fire  stations  at  Dulwich.  New  Cross,  Kingsland, 
Whitefriars,  Lewisham,  Shepherd's  Bush,  West  Hampstead,  East 
Greenwich,  Perivale,  Homerton,  Highbury,  Vauxhall,  Pageant's 
Wharf  (Rotherhithe),  Streatham,  Kilburn,  Bayswater,  Eltham, 
Burdett  Road  (Mile  End),  Wapping,  Northcote  Road  (Battersea), 
Herne  Hill,  Lee  Green  and  North  End  (Fulham).  Of  these,  Vaux- 
hall, Kilburn,  Bayswater,  Eltham,  Burdett  Road,  Herne  Hill  and 
North  End  stations  are  sub-stations.  New  stations  have  been 
erected,  in  substitution  for  small  and  inconvenient  buildings,  at 
Wandsworth,  Shoreditch,  Fulham,  Brompton,  Islington,  Padding- 
ton,  Redcross  Street  (City),  Euston  Road,  Clapham,  Mile  End, 
Deptford,  Old  Kent  Road,  Millwall,  Kensington,  Westminster, 
Brixton  and  Cannon  Street  (City),  and  the  existing  stations  at 
Kennington,  Rotherhithe,  Clerkenwell,  Hampstead,  Battersea, 
Whitechapel,  Greenwich  and  Stoke  Newington  have  been  consider- 
ably enlarged.  Two  small  stations  without  horses  have  been  estab- 
lished in  Battersea  Park  Road  and  North  Woolwich  respectively. 
A  building  has  been  erected  at  Rotherhithe  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  staff  of  the  Cherry-garden  river  station ;  and  another  building 
has  been  erected  at  Battersea  for  the  accommodation  of  the  staff 
of  a  river  station  which  has  been  established  there. 

In  1909  new  stations  in  substitution  for  existing  stations  were  in 
course  of  erection  at  Knightsbridge  and  Tooting,  and  additional 
sub-stations  were  being  erected  at  Plumstead  and  Hornsey  Rise. 
The  Bethnal  Green  station  was  being  considerably  altered  and  en- 
larged. The  council  had  also  determined  to  erect  new  stations  in 
substitution  for  existing  inconvenient  buildings  at  Holloway, 
Waterloo  Road,  Shooter's  Hill  and  North  End,  Fulham;  and  to 
build  additional  sub-stations  at  Charlton,  Caledonian  Road,  Brixton 
Hill,  Camberwell  New  Road,  Roehampton,  Balham,  Brockley  and 
Earlsfield. 


Budapest. — There  is  a  combination  of  a  professional  force 
and  a  volunteer  force  at  Budapest,  and  in  addition  an  auxiliary 
service  of  factory  fire  brigades.  The  professional  fire  brigade 
possesses  a  central  station  and  eight  sub-stations,  two  minor 
stations,  and  permanent  theatre-watchrooms  at  the  royal 
theatres.  The  staff  (in  1901)  of  the  professional  brigade  con- 
sisted of  a  chief  officer,  an  inspector,  a  senior  adjutant  and  two 
junior  adjutants,  a  clerk,  and  further  23  warrant  officers,  3 
engineers,  15  foremen,  154  firemen  and  30  coachmen  with  62 
horses.  There  have  been  some  slight  increases  since.  The 
apparatus  at  their  disposal  consists  of  6  steam  fire-engines,  22 
manual  engines,  27  small  manual  engines,  u  water  carts,  13 
traps,  4  tenders,  26  hose  reels  and  hose  carts,  5  long  ladders, 
9  ordinary  extension  ladders,  34  hook  ladders,  1 2  smoke  helmets 
and  22,000  metres  of  hose.  The  various  stations  are  connected 
with  the  central  station  by  private  telephone  lines.  There  are 
149  telephonic  fire  alarms  distributed  throughout  the  city. 
They  are  on  radial  lines  connected  up  with  their  respective 
nearest  stations,  and  on  a  single  radial  line  there  are  from  three 
to  seventeen  call-points. 

The  volunteer  brigade  has  an  independent  constitution  and 
comprises  some  eighty  members.  Its  equipment  is  housed  with 
that  of  the  professional  brigade,  and  is  bought  and  maintained 
by  the  municipality.  This  volunteer  brigade  is  a  comparatively 
wealthy  institution,  having  a  capital  of  100,000  crowns,  whilst 
receiving  a  special  subsfdy  annually  from  the  municipality. 
Though  legally  an  entirely  independent  institution,  the  brigade 
voluntarily  puts  itself  under  the  command  of  the  chief  officer 
of  the  professional  brigade.  It  further  puts  daily  at  the  disposal 
of  the  professional  fire  chief  ten  men  who  do  duty  every  night 
and  "  turn  out  "  when  called  upon  to  render  service.  This 
volunteer  brigade  stands  as  a  kind  of  model  to  the  other  volunteer 
brigades,  and  it  is  in  connexion  with  this  volunteer  brigade  that 
the  educational  classes  referred  to  above  are  held  and  facilities 
accorded  to  the  officers  undergoing  instruction  to  gain  experience 
at  the  Budapest  fires. 

The  Budapest  professional  fire  brigade,  even  if  assisted  by  the 
volunteer  force,  would  scarcely  be  of  adequate  strength  to  deal  with 
the  great  factory  risks  of  that  city  were  it  not  that  the  Budapest 
factories  and  mills  have  a  splendidly  organized  service  of  factory  fire 
brigades.  These  brigades — forty-four  in  number — are  essentially 
private  institutions,  intended  to  render  self-help  in  the  factories  to 
which  they  belong,  but  they  are  well  organized,  and  have  a  mutual 
understanding  whereby  the  neighbouring  brigades  of  any  one  factory 
immediately  turn  out  and  assist  in  case  of  need.  These  factory 
brigades  have  a  total  staff  of  1600  men.  They  are  equipped  with 

1  steam  fire-engine,  57  large  manuals,  136  small  manuals,  and  have 
a  very  considerable  amount  of  small  gear,   including   15  smoke 
helmets. 

Cologne. — The  Cologne  professional  fire  brigade  is  153  strong 
(1906),  with  a  chief  officer,  a  second  officer,  and  two  divisional 
officers,  a  warrant  officer,  a  telegraph  superintendent  and  16 
foremen.  The  brigade  has  26  horses,  of  which  2,  however,  are 
used  for  ambulance  purposes.  The  brigade  has  three  large 
stations  and  a  minor  station,  and  has  a  permanent  fire-watch 
at  the  two  municipal  theatres.  Men  are  told  off  for  duty  as 
coachmen  among  the  firemen.  The  staff  do  forty-eight  hours  of 
duty  to  twenty-four  hours  of  rest. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  Cologne  organization  is  its  auxiliary 
retained  fire  brigade  in  two  sections,  comprising  a  superintendent, 

2  deputy  superintendents,  5  foremen,  and  51  men,  with  2  horses, 
who  are  retained  men  housed  in  municipal  buildings  (tenements), 
and  available  as  an  immediate  reserve  force.     The  first  section 
of  the  reserve  force  are  housed  centrally. 

There  is  a  further  system  of  suburban  volunteer  fire  brigades 
manned  by  volunteers  but  equipped  by  the  municipality,  and 
horsed  from  'the  municipal  stables  or  municipal  tramways. 
Three  of  these  volunteer  brigades,  which  have  large  suburban 
districts,  comprise  each  a  superintendent,  2  senior  foremen  and 

3  junior  foremen,  with  50  firemen  and  3  coachmen.     The  minor 
outlying  suburbs  have  several  such  brigades,  each  having  one 
senior  foreman,  3  junior  foremen,  20  firemen  and  2  coachmen. 
The  combined  force  of  the  suburban  volunteer  brigades  is  295, 
all  ranks. 


414 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


The  Cologne  fire  service  thus  comprises  a  combination  of  pro- 
fessional brigade  with  a  retained  auxiliary  brigade  and  a  system  of 
suburban  volunteer  brigades.  Of  the  three  stations,  the  central  one  is 
still  an  old  building,  and  the  other  two  are  in  modern  buildings;  the 
extra  sub-station  (near  the  river  stores)  is  also  a  modern  building. 
The  brigade  has  about  150  fires  to  attend  per  annum.  Its  printed 
matter,  in  the  form  of  an  annual  detailed  report,  is  exceptionally 
well  prepared.  The  brigade  does  permanent  "  fire-watch  '  duty  at 
the  municipal  theatres  which  are  strengthened  of  an  evening.  It 
provides  additional  watches  during  performances  at  all  other 
theatres  and  public  entertainments.  Such  duties  are  provided  in 
part  by  an  auxiliary  brigade  and  partly  by  the  professional  brigade. 
•  A  number  of  the  professional  brigade  are  always  utilized  for  doing 
general  work  in  the  workshops  of  the  brigade.  The  first  or  central 
section  of  the  auxiliary  brigade  drills  eleven  times  per  annum,  and 
is  additionally  turned  out  eleven  times  per  annum  (without  drill). 
Men  newly  attached  to  the  auxiliary  force  have  to  go  through  a 
four  weeks'  recruit  drill. 

Nuremberg. — The  Nuremberg  fire  service  stands  as  the  most 
economically  organized  efficient  fire  service  in  Central  Europe, 
and  its  form  of  organization  is  peculiar  and  exceptional.  In 
1902  the  entire  fire-service  cost  the  city  126,000  marks  (£63*00). 
The  total  of  inhabitants  in  1900  was  261,000.  For  this  small 
amount  of  money  the  city  gets  a  highly-trained  retained  fire 
brigade  of  156  men  (1907),  and  two  volunteer  fire  brigades  of 
130  and  224  men  respectively.  Further,  it  has  an  auxiliary  of 
eighteen  suburban  volunteer  fire  brigades  (1080  men)  and  two 
private  factory  fire  brigades  (71  men).  The  whole  service  stands 
under  a  professional  chief  officer  and  professional  second  officer. 
There  are  8  telegraph  clerks,  6  watchmen  and  17  coachmen 
attached  to  the  retained  brigade.  The  service  has  been  in 
existence  for  fifty  years.  It  has  gradually  developed  and  has 
worked  remarkably  well,  and  may,  in  fact,  be  taken  as  a  model 
institution  for  municipal  economy,  with  due  regard  to  up-to- 
dateness  and  efficiency.  The  retained  fire  brigade  comprises 
entirely  municipal  employes,  regularly  engaged  in  the  municipal 
workshops,  scavenging  and  works  department.  The  municipal 
workshops  are  located  alongside  the  fire-brigade  stations.  There 
is  a  headquarters  station  for  the  retained  brigade  and  volunteer 
brigade  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  a  modern  district  station  in  the 
western  district,  and  a  third  district  station  is  in  course  of  erection 
for  the  eastern  district,  which  is  at  present  only  served  by  a 
small  branch  station. 

At  headquarters  station  there  are  on  immediate  duty  by  day  14 
firemen  (chiefly  smiths  and  carpenters)  of  the  retained  brigade. 
Nine  men  of  the  retained  brigade  are  on  duty  at  headquarters  at 
night,  together  with  8  men  of  the  volunteer  fire  brigade.  At  the  west 
district  station,  14  men  of  the  retained  brigade  are  on  duty  by  day, 
and  the  same  number  at  night. 

The  headquarters  can  turn  out  in  succession  four  complete  units 
of  the  following  strength,  namely : — 

First  unit,  a  large  chemical  engine,  and  a  mechanical  long  ladder. 

Second  unit,  a  trap  with  hose  reel,  a  special  gear-cart  and  a  long 
ladder. 

Third  unit,  a  trap  with  hose-cart  and  manual,  and  a  long  ladder. 

Fourth  unit,  a  steam  fire-engine,  and  hose-and  coal-tender  trap. 

From  the  west  district  station  three  units  can  be  turned  out  in 
rotation,  namely: — 

First  unit,  large  chemical  engine,  large  trap  and  a  long  ladder. 

Second  unit,  a  trap  with  hose-reel  and  manual  engine. 

Third  unit,  a  steam  fire-engine  and  a  hose-tender  and  coal-tender 
trap. 

The  equipment  of  the  eastern  sub-station  at  present  comprises 
a  turn-out  of  a  trap  and  a  long  ladder. 

The  brigade  can  thus  turn  out  immediately,  in  rapid  succession, 
these  horsed  appliances,  well  organized  and  fully  manned.  It  further 
has  a  reserve  of  4  manual  engines  and  2  long  ladders. 

The  suburban  volunteer  brigades  have  besides  at  their  disposal 
25  manual  engines,  9  fire-escapes  and  18  hose-reels.  The  whole  of 
the  hose  for  all  brigades  is  of  uniform  pattern  and  make,  with  bayonet 
pattern  standard  couplings.  The  brigade  posts  an  evening  "  fire 
watch  "  at  the  theatres.  The  men  of  the  retained  brigade  get 
modest  extra  pay  for  fire  brigade  duty,  but  this  pay  is  intended  rather 
to  cover  disbursements  or  expenses  than  to  be  considered  as  wages. 
The  brigade  uses  the  municipal  horses,  all  of  which  are  stabled  in 
proximity  to  the  fire  stations,  and  a  number  of  which  are  kept  on 
duty  for  fire  brigade  purposes  in  the  actual  stations.  For  all  practical 
purposes  the  retained  brigade  is  the  professional  brigade  in  which 
the  men  do  municipal  work  in  the  municipal  workshops,  and  else- 
where, i.e.  in  training,  drill  and  general  efficiency  they  are  quite  up 
to  the  best  professional  standard.  The  volunteer  brigade  is  well 
drilled  and  includes  the  best  of  the  younger  townsmen,  who  do 
duty  at  night  by  rotation.  The  brigade's  responsibilities  are  clearly 


[VIENNA 

defined,  and  the  position  of  the  professional  chief  and  second  officer 
clearly  laid  down  by  by-laws.  There  are  1 29  fire-call  points.  During 
the  fifty  years'  existence  of  the  service,  85  firemen  received  the 
twenty-five  years'  long-service  medal,  of  whom  32  belonged  to  the 
suburban  volunteer  brigades. 

Venice. — The  Venice  fire  brigade  is  a  section  of  the  force 
of  "  Vigili  "  or  municipal  watchmen,  which  body  does  general 
duty  in  preserving  order  and  rendering  assistance  to  the  com- 
munity. In  other  words,  this  force  performs  the  duties  of  the 
civil  police  (rather  than  governmental  or  criminal  police),  fire, 
patrol  watch  service,  and  public  control  in  a  general  sense. 
The  force,  which  in  all  its  sections  made  a  most  excellent  impres- 
sion, has  a  commandant,  under  whom  the  two  primary  sections 
work,  namely  (a)  the  civil  police  section  and  the  (b)  fire  brigade 
section;  each  section  in  turn  having  its  own  principal  officers. 
The  police  section  comprises  some  108  of  all  ranks,  and  the  fire 
brigade  section  some  73  of  all  ranks  (1908).  The  commandant 
of  the  whole  force  is  a  retired  military  officer,  and  the  chief  of  the 
fire  service  section  is  a  civil  engineer,  and  these  two  officers, 
together  with  the  chief  of  the  civil  police  section,  are  the  three 
superior  officers  of  the  force.  The  police  section  serve  as  auxili- 
aries to  the  fire  brigade  section  in  case  of  any  great  fire,  and, 
of  course,  generally  work  very  much  hand  in  hand  on  all  occa- 
sions. The  fire  brigade  section  has  3  superintendents,  6  foremen, 
6  sub-foremen,  6  corporals  and  40  file.  The  section  is  well 
equipped  with  appliances,  both  hand  and  steam,  having  a  large 
modern  petrol-propelled  float,  constructed  in  London,  a  large  old 
type  steam-float,  two  35-ft.  old  steam-floats,  and  several  small 
petrol  motor-floats  or  first  turnout  appliances.  The  manual- 
engines,  ladders,  &c.,  which  are  in  considerable  number,  are 
carried  in  a  large  fleet  of  swift  gondolas.  Fire-escape  work  is 
done  with  Roman  ladders,  which  are  usually  planted  on  two 
gondolas  flung  'together  barge-form,  or,  if  the  depth  of  the  canal 
permits,  the  lower  length  is  buried  in  the  canal  bottom.  Hook 
ladders  are  also  used. 

Men  are  distributed  in  six  companies  of  varying  strength,  the 
headquarters  company  being  stationed  at  the  town  hall,  with  a 
strength  of  22,  and  most  of  the  steam  and  petrol  floats  lie  opposite 
the  station.  The  fire  brigade  does  theatre  watch  duty.  As  a  fire 
station  of  considerable  interest,  should  be  mentioned  the  one  at  the 
Doge's  palace;  the  large  vaults  occupying  a  portion  of  the  ground 
floor  facing  St  Mark's  Square  have  been  adapted  for  fire  station 
purposes  in  a  very  simple  yet  artistic  manner,  and  the  old  gear  of 
the  brigade  has  been  used  to  form  emblems,  &c. 

Vienna.— In  1892  the  Vienna  fire  service  was  reconstituted 
on  modern  lines  owing  to  the  area  of  the  Vienna  municipality 
having  been  greatly  extended.  The  professional  brigade  was 
somewhat  strengthened  and  entirely  re-equipped,  and  the 
various  existing  volunteer  brigades  of  the  outlying  districts 
were  transformed  into  suburban  volunteer  fire  brigades,  equipped 
and  controlled  by  the  municipality  and  standing  under  the 
general  command  of  the  fire  brigade  headquarters.  The  principle 
involved  was  the  utilization  of  the  splendid  volunteer  force 
around  Vienna  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  the  municipal 
brigade,  a  principle  of  great  economic  advantage,  as  the  pro- 
fessional brigade  would  otherwise  have  had  to  be  materially 
strengthened,  probably  trebled.  These  suburban  volunteer  fire 
brigades  number  no  fewer  than  34,  and  have  1200  firemen  of 
all  ranks.  They  are  practically  independent  institutions  as  far 
as  the  election  of  officers  and  administration  is  concerned,  but 
their  equipment  and  uniforms  and  their  fire  stations  are  provided 
by  the  municipality,  and  in  certain  districts  a  staff  of  professional 
firemen  detached  from  headquarters  are  attached  to  their 
stations  as  telegraph  clerks  and  drill-instructors. 

The  suburban  volunteer  brigades  turn  out  to  fires  in  their 
own  districts,  and  further,  assist  in  other  districts  when  so 
ordered  by  headquarters.  They  form  a  strong  reserve  for  great 
fires  in  the  city  proper.  Headquarters,  of  course,  renders 
assistance  at  large  suburban  fires.  These  suburban  volunteer 
fire  brigades  are  very  perfectly  equipped  with  appliances,  gener- 
ally of  the  same  type  as  those  used  in  the  central  professional 
brigade.  Some  of  these  brigades  are  equipped  with  combined 
chemical  engines  with  i5-metres  long  ladders  attached.  They 
have  smoke  helmets,  and  everything  that  may  be  termed  modern. 


UNITED  STATES] 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


The  men  are  volunteers  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  word,  i.e.  do 
not  take  pay  of  any  description  or  make  any  charges  for  attend- 
ance at  fires  or  refreshments  at  fires. 

The  Vienna  "professional  brigade,"  as  it  is  generally  called, 
has  a  personnel  (1906)  consisting  of  8  officers,  5  officials  and  475 
men.  Of  stations  there  is  the  headquarters,  a  district  station, 
4  branch  stations  with  steam  fire  engines,  9  small  branch  stations, 
and  2  "  watches  "  in  public  buildings.  The  officers  of  the  brigade 
consist  of  the  commandant,  chief  inspector  and  six  inspectors. 
The  officers,  of  whom  four  are  on  duty  daily,  are  all  quartered 
at  headquarters.  There  are  three  telegraph  superintendents. 
The  rank  and  file  is  composed  of  8  drill-sergeants,  40  telegraph 
clerks  (three  classes),  53  foremen  (two  classes),  22  engineers 
and  stokers,  248  men  (three  classes).  Twenty-four  telegraph 
clerks  and  engineers  are  detailed  for  duty  with  the  suburban 
volunteer  brigades.  There  are  78  coachmen. 

The  following  are  the  fire-extinguishing  and  life-saving  apparatus 
and  service  vehicles  of  all  kinds  standing  ready  to  "  turn  out  "  :  — 
2  open  and  2  officers'  service  carriages  (at  headquarters),  6  "  traps  " 
for  the  first  turn-out  "  (5  at  headquarters  and  I  at  the  district 
fire  station),  each  manned  by  one  officer  in  charge  and  nine  men, 
and  equipped  with  3  hook-ladders,  a  portable  extension  ladder 
and  jumping  sheet,  a  life-saving  chute,  an  ambulance  chest,  3  tool- 
boxes, a  jack,  tools,  torches,  2  smoke-helmets,  with  hand-pump 
and  a  hose-reel  attached;  five  special  gear-carts  (4  at  headquarters 
and  I  at  the  district  station),  each  manned  by  seven  firemen  and 
equipped  like  the  "  traps  "  with  the  exception  that,  instead  of  the 
life-saving  chute,  the  carts  carry  with  them  a  sliding-sheet,  two 
petroleum  torches  each,  an  extension  ladder  (15  metres  long)  and 
some  spare  coal  for  the  steam  fire-engines;  4  pneumatic  extension 
ladders  each  25  metres  long,  and  3  extension  turn-table  ladders 
each  25  metres  long  (at  headquarters  and  at  two  of  the  substations) ; 
each  of  the  pneumatic  ladders  has  three  men,  and  each  turn-table 
ladder  five  men;  18  chemical  engines  (3  at  headquarters  and  I  each 
in  the  other  stations),  each  having  five  men  with  3  hook-ladders,  a 
jointed  ladder  (in  four  sections),  a  hose-reel,  a  hand-engine,  a  smoke 
helmet,  a  jumping  sheet,  an  ambulance  chest,  a  tool  box,  torches, 
&c. ;  8  steam  fire-engines  (3  at  headquarters  and  one  each  in  the 
district  fire  station  and  the  4  steam-engine  stations),  each  with  an 
engineer  and  stoker. 

The  reserve  of  appliances  includes  12  manual  engines,  15  large 
chemical  engines,  17  steel  water-carts  (with  1000  litre  reservoirs). 
The  total  number  of  oxygen  smoke  helmets  in  the  brigade  is  68, 
and  there  are  15  ordinary  smoke  helmets  with  hand-pumps.  The 
total  number  of  horses  is  132.  One  electrically-driven  trap  and  two 
electrically-driven  chemical  engines  are  being  tried.  The  fire  tele- 
graphic and  telephonic  installation,  including  the  lines  in  the  volun- 
teer brigades'  districts  kept  up  by  the  professional  brigade,  comprises 
47  telegraph  stations,  249  telephone  stations,  with  altogether  161 
Morse  instruments  and  536  semi-public  fire-call  points. 

Zilrlch. — Zurich  covers  about  12,000  English  acres,  1500  of 
which  are  built  over  with  some  15,000  houses,  the  whole  of  the 
buildings  being  subject  to  the  local  building  regulations  and  the 
State  Insurance  Association's  rules,  in  which  they  are  com- 
pulsorily  insured.  The  brigade  is  a  compulsory  militia  brigade, 
placed  under  the  control  of  the  head  of  the  department  of  police 
under  a  law  of  1898.  The  same  municipal  officer  is  head  of  a 
special  municipal  committee  of  nine,  entrusted  with  the  safety 
of  the  town  from  fire.  The  executive  officer  of  the  committee  is 
known  as  the  inspector,  and  acts  as  captain  of  the  fire  brigade. 
His  office  is  at  the  fire-brigade  headquarters,  where  he  has  a 
small  permanent  staff  both  for  brigade  work  and  correspondence. 
Every  male  inhabitant  of  Zurich  is  compelled  to  do  some  service 
for  the  prevention  of,  or  protection  against,  fire,  from  the  age  of 
twenty  to  fifty  years.  The  duty  may  be  fulfilled  (i)  by  active 
service,  or  (2)  in  the  case  of  an  able-bodied  citizen,  who  for  some 
reason  is  not  found  suited  to  be  a  member  of  the  brigade,  or  has 
been  dismissed  from  the  brigade,  by  the  payment  of  a  tax, 
which  tax  is  fixed  on  the  basis  of  his  income.  Certain  citizens, 
however,  are  ipso  facto  exempt  from  active  service,  namely 
members  of  parliament,  members  of  council  of  the  Polytechnic 
school,  of  the  Cantonal  gcvernment,  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice, 
and  of  the  Town  Council;  also  clergymen  and  schoolmasters, 
the  officials  of  railways,  tramway  and  steamboat  companies,  of 
the  post-office  and  telephone  department,  students  of  the  Poly- 
technic school  and  other  educational  institutions  and  municipal 
officials,  with  whose  duties  fire  brigade  service  is  incompatible. 
Exemption  from  active  service  can  also  be  accorded  on  a  testi- 


415 


monial  of  a  medical  board.  Exemption  from  active  service, 
however,  in  no  case  exempts  from  the  tax,  the  total  of  which 
amounts  to  between  £4000  and  £5000.  In  making  the  selection 
of  men  for  active  service  only,  men  particularly  fitted  for  the 
work  are  taken,  namely,  men  who  are  personally  keen,  who 
have  a  good  physique,  and  who  are  preferably  of  the  building  or 
allied  trades.  The  officers  of  the  brigade  are  appointed  by  the 
municipal  committee.  The  men's  drills  are  by  the  chief  officer, 
and  the  men  are  liable  to  fines  and  to  imprisonment  (up  to  four 
days)  for  not  attending  their  drills.  The  whole  of  the  brigade 
is  insured  against  accidents  and  illness  with  the  Swiss  Fire 
Brigade  Union  at  the  expense  of  the  city,  and  the  city  in  addition 
provides  a  fund  for  families  in  cases  of  death  of  firemen  on  duty. 
There  is  also  a  sick  fund  provided  for  the  brigade  by  the  munici- 
pality, which  also  accords  a  scale  of  compensation. 

The  fire  brigade  comprises  the  very  large  complement  of  fifteen 
companies  with  120  men  each.  Each  company  has  three  sections, 
namely,  a  fire  service  section,  a  life-saving  section,  and  a  police 
section,  the  last  being  utilized  for  keeping  the  ground  and  attending 
to  salvage.  Each  company  is  supposed  to  be  able,  as  a  rule,  to  deal 
with  the  fire  in  its  own  district  without  calling  upon  the  company 
of  an  adjoining  district,  and  it  is  only  in  the  case  of  a  very  serious 
fire  that  additional  companies  are  turned  out.  There  is  thus  a 
system  of  decentralization  and  independence  of  companies  in  this 
brigade  not  often  met  with  elsewhere.  Firemen  are  paid  one  franc 
for  each  drill  of  two  hours.  For  fires,  two  francs  for  two  hours, 
and  fifty  centimes  per  hour  afterwards.  Refreshments  are  provided. 
Any  telephone  can  be  used  free  by  law  for  an  alarm.  The  brigade  has 
at  its  disposal  an  extension  telephone  service,  but  the  men  are  not 
all  connected  up  with  the  telephone  of  their  respective  districts, 
and  thus  the  alarm  is  given  mainly  with  horns  sounded  by  men  who 
are  on  the  telephone.  No  section  of  the  brigade  has  less  than  ten 
men  on  the  telephone. 

The  water-supply  is  of  a  most  excellent  character.  The  appliances 
in  the  main  comprise  hydrants  and  hose-reels  with  ladder  trucks, 
and  each  section  has  not  less  than  3000  ft.  of  hose.  They  are  mainly 
housed  in  small  temporary  corrugated  iron  sheds  with  roller  shutter 
doors,  to  which  all  the  firemen  have  keys.  There  are  some  sixty 
of  these  hydrant  houses  distributed  round  the  city,  the  larger  appli- 
ances being  at  headquarters  and  at  some  depots. 

Apart  from  the  fact  of  there  being  the  inspector  or  chief  officer  for 
the  whole  district,  with  a  certain  permanent  staff,  each  company 
might  be  considered  as  a  separate  brigade,  having  its  own  chief 
officer  and  staff,  and  independent  organization,  the  organization  of 
the  companies,  however,  being  identical.  A  company  comprises  I 
chief  officer,  I  second  officer,  i  doctor,  2  ambulance  men  and  6 
orderlies,  a  staff  in  charge,  and  the  three  sections  have  respectively 
i  lieutenant,  i  deputy-lieutenant  and  40  men  for  the  fire  service 
section;  i  lieutenant,  i  deputy-lieutenant  and  40  men  for  the  life- 
saving  section,  and  I  lieutenant,  I  deputy-lieutenant  and  20  men 
for  the  police  section.  Only  in  the  case  of  sections  I  and  2  is  there 
some  slight  variation  in  the  organization,  namely,  i  and  2  sections 
have  been  combined  as  a  joint  section,  with  an  additional  senior 
officer.  At  Zurich,  as  in  all  Swiss  fire  brigades,  there  is  an  extra- 
ordinary uniformity  of  drills,  rules,  regulations  and  instructions  in 
all  its  sections.  In  1908  the  brigade  comprised  2268  in  all  ranks. 
There  were  about  70  fires  in  that  year.  (E.  O.  S.) 

United  States. _ 

Fire  service  in  the  United  States  has  developed  on  so  large  a 
scale  that  in  1902  it  was  estimated  by  P.  G.  Hubert  ("  Fire 
Fighting  To-Day  and  To-Morrow,"  Scribner's  Magazine,  1902, 
32,  pp.  448  sqq.)  that  in  proportion  to  population  the  fire  force 
of  America  was  nearly  four  times  that  of  Germany  or  France  and 
about  three  times  that  of  England.  The  many  fires  consequent 
on  wooden  construction  even  in  the  large  cities;  the  bad  effect 
of  sudden  climatic  changes — drying,  parching  heat  being  followed 
by  weather  so  cold  as  to  require  artificial  heating;  the  less  safe 
character  of  heating  appliances;  and,  especially  in  tenements, 
the  more  inflammable  character  of  furniture,  are  some  of  the 
reasons  assigned  for  greater  fire  frequency  in  America.  Fire- 
fighting  service  in  the  United  States  is  in  no  way  connected  with 
the  military  as  it  is  on  the  continent  of  Europe;  the  association 
of  volunteer  with  paid  firemen  is  uncommon  except  in  the 
suburban  parts  of  the  large  cities,  and  in  the  smaller  cities  and 
towns,  where  volunteers  serving  for  a  certain  term  are,  during 
that  term  and  thereafter,  exempt  from  jury  duty. 

New  York. — The  fire  department  of  New  York  City  is  the 
result  of  gradual  development.  The  first  record  of  municipal 
action  in  regard  to  fire  prevention  dates  from  1659,  when  250 


416 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


[FIRE  APPLIANCES 


leather  buckets  and  a  supply  of  fire-ladders  and  hooks  were 
purchased,  and  a  tax  of  one  guilder  for  fire  apparatus  was  imposed 
on  every  chimney;  in  1676  fire-wells  were  ordered  to  be  dug;  in 
1686  every  dwelling-house  with  two  chimneys  was  required  to 
provide  one  bucket  (if  with  more  than  two  hearths,  two),  and 
bakers  and  brewers  had  to  provide  three  and  six  buckets  re- 
spectively; in  1689  "  brent-masters "  or  fire-marshals  were 
appointed;  in  1695  every  dwelling-house  had  to  provide  one 
fire-bucket  at  least;  in  1730  two  Richard  Newsham  hand- 
engines  were  ordered  from  England,  and  soon  afterwards  a 
superintendent  of  fire-engines  was  appointed  on  a  small  salary; 
in  1736  an  engine-house  was  built  near  the  watch-house  in  Broad 
Street,  and  an  act  of  the  provincial  legislature  authorized  the 
appointment  of  twenty-four  firemen  exempt  from  constable 
or  militia  duty.  Early  in  the  igth  century  volunteer  fire  com- 
panies increased  rapidly  in  numbers  and  in  importance,  especially 
political;  and  success  in  a  fire  company  was  a  sure  path  to 
success  in  politics,  the  best-known  case  being  that  of  Richard 
Croker,  a  member  of  "  Americus  6,"  commonly  called  "  Big 
Six,"  of  which  William  M.  Tweed  was  organizer  and  foreman. 
Parades  of  fire  companies,  chowder  parties  and  picnics  (pre- 
decessors of  the  present  "  ward  leader's  outing  ")  under  the 
auspices  of  the  volunteer  organizations,  annual  balls  after  1829, 
water-throwing  contests,  often  over  liberty  poles,  and  bitter 
fights  between  different  companies  (sometimes  settled  by  fist 
duels  between  selected  champions),  improved  the  organization 
of  these  companies  as  political  factors  if  not  as  fire-fighters. 
So  devoted  were  the  volunteers  to  their  leaders  that  in  1836, 
when  James  Gulick,  chief  engineer  since  1831,  was  removed  from 
office  for  political  reasons,  the  news  of  his  removal  coming  when 
the  volunteers  were  fighting  a  fire  caused  them  all  to  stop  their 
work,  and  they  began  again  only  when  Gulick  assured  them  that 
the  news  was  false;  almost  all  the  firemen  resigned  until  Gulick 
was  reinstated.  The  type  of  the  noisy ,  rowdy  New  York  volunteer 
fire  hero  was  made  famous  in  1848-1849  by  Frank  S.  Chanfrau's 
playing  of  the  part  Mose  in  Benjamin  Baker's  play,  A  Glance  at 
New  York.  The  Ellsworth  Zouaves  of  New  York  were  raised 
entirely  from  volunteer  firemen  of  the  city. 

In  1865,  when  the  volunteer  service  was  abolished,  it  consisted 
of  163  companies  (52  engines,  54  hose;  57  hook  and  ladder) 
manned  by  3521  men  (engines  averaging  40  to  60  men,  hose-carts 
about  25,  and  hook  and  ladder  companies  about  40);  the  chief 
engineer,  'elected  with  assistants  for  terms  of  five  or  three  years 
by  ballots  of  the  firemen,  received  a  salary  of  $3000  a  year;  and 
three  bell-ringers  in  each  of  eight  district  watch-towers,  who 
watched  for  smoke  and  gave  alarms,  received  $600  a  year. 
The  legislature  in  March  1865  created  a  Metropolitan  Fire 
District  and  established  therein  a  Fire  Department,  headed  by 
four  commissioners,  who  with  the  mayor  and  comptroller  con- 
stituted a  board  of  estimate. 

This  organization  was  practically  unchanged  until  1898,  when 
the  Greater  New  York  was  chartered  and  the  present  system 
was  introduced.  At  its  head  is  a  commissioner  who  receives 
$7500  a  year.  The  more  immediate  head  of  the  firemen  is  a 
chief  (annual  salary  $10,000),  the  only  member  of  the  force  not 
appointed  on  the  basis  of  a  civil  service  examination;  the  chief 
has  a  deputy  in  Manhattan  (for  Manhattan,  Bronx  and  Rich- 
mond boroughs)  and  another  for  Brooklyn  and  Queens,  each 
receiving  an  annual  salary  of  $5000. 

In  December  1908  there  were:  14  deputy  chiefs  (eight  in  Man- 
hattan, Bronx  and  Richmond,  and  six  in  Brooklyn  and  Queens) ; 
59  chiefs  of  battalion  (31  in  Manhattan,  Bronx  and  Richmond, 
and  28  in  Brooklyn  and  Queens);  248  foremen  or  captains  (137  in 
Manhattan,  Bronx  and  Richmond,  and  1 1 1  in  Brooklyn  and  Queens), 
365  assistant  foremen  (221  in  Manhattan,  Bronx  and  Richmond; 
and  144  in  Brooklyn  and  Queens) ;  431  engineers  of  steamers  (247 
in  Manhattan,  Bronx  and  Richmond,  and  184  in  Brooklyn  and 
Queens)  and  2933  firemen  (1772  in  Manhattan,  Bronx  and  Rich- 
mond, and  1161  in  Brooklyn  and  Queens) ;  and  the  total  uniformed 
force  was  4107.  At  the  close  of  1908  there  were  88  engine  com- 
panies in  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx,  including  6  fire-boat  companies 
— at  East  99th  St.,  Battery  Park,  Grand  St.  (East  River),  West 
35th  St.,  Gansevoort  St.  and  West  I32nd  St. ;  and  in  Manhattan 
and  the  Bronx  there  were  38  hook  and  ladder  companies;  in 
Brooklyn  »nd  Queens  there  were  70  engine  companies,  including 


two  fire-boat  companies — at  42nd  St.  and  at  North  8th  St.  The 
appropriations  for  the  year  1906  were  $4,777,687  for  Manhattan, 
Bronx  and  Richmond,  and  $3,147,033  for  Brooklyn  and  Queens; 
and  the  department  expenses  were  $3,980,535  for  Manhattan,  Bronx 
and  Richmond,  and  $2,565,849  for  Brooklyn  and  Queens. 

The  first  high-pressure  mam  system  in  the  city  was  installed  at 
Coney  Island  in  1905,  gas-engines  working  the  'pumps.  Electrically 
driven  centrifugal  pumps  are  used  in  Brooklyn  (protected  area, 
1360  acres)  and  in  Manhattan,  where  the  system  was  introduced  in 
1908,  and  where  the  protected  district  (1454  acres)  reaches  from  the 
City  Hall  to  25th  St.  and  from  the  Hudson  east  to  Second  Avenue 
and  East  Broadway,  being  the  "  Dry  Goods  District  " ;  water  is 
pumped  either  from  city  mains  or  from  the  river,  and  the  change  may 
be  made  instantaneously.  The  fire  watch-tower  system  was  abolished 
in  1869;  the  present  system  is  that  of  red  box  electric  telegraph 
alarms,  which  register  at  headquarters  (East  67th  St.),  where  an 
operator  sends  out  the  alarm  to  that  engine-house  nearest  to  the 
fire  which  is  ready  to  respond,  and  a  chart  informing  him  of  the 
absence  from  the  engine-house  of  apparatus.  There  are  volunteer 
forces  (about  2700  men)  in  Queens  and  Richmond  boroughs  and  in 
other  outlying  districts. 

Boston. — The  Boston  fire  department  (reorganized  after  the  great 
fire  of  1872)  is  officered  by  a  commissioner  (annual  salary,  $5000), 
a  chief  (annual  salary,  $4000),  a  senior  deputy  ($2400),  and  a  junior 
deputy  ($2200),  twelve  district  chiefs  ($2000  each),  a  superintendent 
and  an  assistant  superintendent  of  fire-alarms,  and  a  superintendent 
and  an  assistant  superintendent  of  the  repair  shop.  In  1909  the 
force  numbered  877  regulars  and  8  call  men.  There  were  53  steam 
fire-engines,  14  chemical  engines,  3  water-towers,  3  combination 
chemical  engines  and  hose-wagons  (one  being  motor-driven),  3  fire- 
boats  (built  in  1889,  1895  and  1909  respectively),  29  ladder-trucks 
and  49  hose-wagons.  The  auxiliary  salt-water  main  service  was 
established  in  1893.  The  earliest  suggestion  of  the  application  of 
the  electric  telegraph  to  a  fire-alarm  system  was  made  in  Boston  in 
1845  by  Dr  Wm.  F.  Channing;  in  1847-1848  Moses  G.  Farmer,  then 
a  telegraph  operator  at  Framingham,  made  a  practicable  electric 
telegraph  alarm;  and  in  1851-1855  Farmer  became  superintendent 
of  the  Boston  fire-alarm  system,  a  plant  being  installed  in  1852.* 

Chicago. — The  Chicago  organization  practically  dates  from  the 
fire  of  1871,  though  there  was  a  paid  department  as  early  as  1858. 
Its  principal  officers  are  a  fire-marshal  and  chief  of  brigade  (salary 
$8000),  four  assistant  fire-marshals,  a  department  inspector,  eighteen 
battalion  chiefs,  a  superintendent  of  machinery,  a  veterinary  and 
assistant,  and  about  one  hundred  each  of  captains,  lieutenants, 
engineers  and  assistant  engineers;  the  total  regular  force  in  1908 
was  1799  men  with  an  auxiliary  volunteer  force  of  71  in  Riverdale, 
Norwood  Park,  Hansen  Park  and  Ash'burn  Park.  In  the  business 
part  of  the  city  there  is  a  patrol  of  seven  companies  employed  by 
the  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.  Since  1895  all  men  in  the  uniformed 
force  (except  the  chief  of  brigade)  are  under  civil  service  rules.  In 
1908  the  equipment  incjuded  117  engine  companies,  34  hook  and 
ladder  companies,  including  one  water-tower,  1 5  chemical  engines  and 
one  hose  company;  and  there  were  5  fire-boats  (4  active  and  I 
reserve).  The  first  fire-boat  was  built  in  1883.  The  initial  installa- 
tion of  high-pressure  mains  was  completed  in  1902,  and  was  greatly 
enlarged  in  1908. 

Fire  Appliances. 

Fire-Alarms. — Most  large  cities  possess  a  system  of  electrical 
fire-alarms,  consisting  of  call  boxes  placed  at  frequent  intervals 
along  the  streets.  Any  one  wishing  to  give  notice  of  a  fire  either 
opens  the  door  of  one  of  these  boxes  or  breaks  the  glass  window 
with  which  it  is  fitted,  and  then  pulls  the  handle  inside,  thus 
causing  the  particular  number  allocated  to  the  box,  which  of 
course  indicates  its  position,  to  be  electrically  telegraphed  to 
the  nearest  fire  station,  or  elsewhere  as  thought  advisable. 
Sometimes  a  telephone  is  fixed  in  each  call-box.  Automatic 
fire-alarms  consist  of  arrangements  whereby  an  electric  circuit 
is  closed  when  the  surrounding  air  reaches  a  certain  temperature. 
The  electric  circuit  may  be  used  to  start  an  alarm  bell  or  to  give 
warning  to  a  watchman  or  central  office,  and  the  devices  for 
closing  it  are  of  the  most  varied  kinds — the  expansion  of  mercury 
in  a  thermometer  tube,  the  sagging  of  a  long  wire  suspended 
between  horizontal  supports,  the  unequal  expansion  of  the  brass 
in  a  curved  strip  of  brass  and  steel  welded  together,  &c. 

Fire- Engines. — The  earliest  method  of  applying  water  to  the 
extinction  of  fires  was  by  means  of  buckets,  and  'these  long 
remained  the  chief  instruments  employed  for  the  purpose, 
though  Hero  of  Alexandria  about  150  B.C.  described  a  fire- 


1  See  Thomas  C.  Martin,  Municipal  Electric  Fire  Alarm  and  Police 
Patrol  Systems  (Washington,  1904),  Bulletin  II  of  the  Bureau  of  the 
Census,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labour.  The  next  plant  was 
installed  in  Philadelphia  in  1855;  one  in  St  Louis  was  completed  in 
1858;  and  work  was  begun  in  New  Orleans  and  Baltimore  in  1860. 


FIRE  APPLIANCES] 


FIRE  AND  FIRE  EXTINCTION 


engine  with  two  cylinders  and  pistons  worked  by  a  reciprocating 
lever,  and  Pliny  refers  to  the  use  of  fire-engines  in  Rome.  In 
the  1 6th  century  (as  at  Augsburg  in  1518)  we  hear  of  fire  squirts 
or  syringes  worked  by  hand,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  same 
century  Cyprien  Lucar  described  a  very  large  one  operated  by 
a  screw  handle.  The  fire  squirts  used  in  London  about  the  time 
of  the  Great  Fire  were  3  or  4  ft.  long  by  2^  or  3  in.  in  diameter, 
and  three  men  were  required  to  manipulate  them.  The  next 
stage  of  development  was  to  mount  a  cistern  or  reservoir  on 
wheels  so  that  it  was  portable,  and  to  provide  it  with  pumps 
which  forced  out  the  water  contained  in  it  through  a  fixed 
delivery  pipe  in  the  middle  of  the  machine.  An  important 
advance  was  made  in  1672  when  two  Dutchmen,  Jan  van  der 
Heyde,  senior  and  junior,  made  flexible  hose  by  sewing  together 
the  edges  of  a  strip  of  leather,  and  applied  it  for  both  suction  and 
delivery,  so  that  the  engines  could  be  continuously  supplied  with 
water  and  the  stream  could  be  more  readily  directed  on  the  seat 
of  the  fire.  For  many  years  manual  engines  were  the  only  ones 
employed,  and  they  came  to  be  made  of  great  size,  requiring  as 
many  as  40  or  50  men  to  work  them;  but  now  they  are  super- 
seded by  power-driven  engines,  at  least  for  all  important  services. 
The  first  practical  steam  fire-engine  was  made  by  John  Braith- 
waite  about  1829,  but  though  it  proved  useful  in  various  fires 
in  London  for  several  years  after  that  date,  it  was  objected  to 
by  the  men  of  the  fire  brigade  and  its  use  was  abandoned.  A 
generation  later,  however,  steam  fire-engines  began  to  come  into 
vogue.  At  first  they  were  usually  drawn  by  horses  to  the  scene 
of  the  fire,  though  exceptionally  their  engines  could  be  geared 
to  the  wheels  so  that  they  became  self-propelled;  and  it  was  not 
till  the  beginning  of  the  2oth  century  that  motor  fire-engines 
were  employed  to  any  extent.  Steam,  petrol  and  electricity 
have  all  been  used.  Such  engines  have  the  advantage  that  they 
can  reach  a  fire  much  more  rapidly  than  a  horse-drawn  vehicle, 
especially  in  hilly  districts,  and  they  can  if  necessary  be  made 
of  greater  power,  since  their  size  need  not  be  limited  by  considera- 
tions of  the  weight  that  can  be  drawn  by  horses.  Petrol-propelled 
engines  can  be  started  off  from  a  station  within  a  few  seconds 
of  the  receipt  of  an  alarm,  and  their  pumps  are  ready  to  work 
immediately  the  fire  is  reached;  steam-propelled  engines  possess 
the  same  advantage,  if  they  are  kept  always  standing  under 
steam,  though  this  involves  expense  that  is  avoided  with  petrol 
engines,  which  cost  nothing  for  maintenance  except  while  they 
are  actually  working.  Motor  engines  are  made  with  a  capacity 
to  deliver  1000  gallons  of  water  a  minute  or  even  more,  but  the 
sizes  than  can  deal  with  400  or  500  gallons  a  minute  are  probably 
those  most  commonly  used. 

In  towns  standing  on  a  navigable  water-way  fire-boats  are 
often  provided  for  extinguishing  fires  in  buildings,  in  docks 
and  along  the  waterside.  The  capacity  of  these  may  rise  to  6000 
gallons  a  minute.  Steam  is  the  power  most  commonly  used  in 
them,  both  for  propulsion  and  for  pumping,  but  in  one  built 
for  Spezia  by  Messrs  Merryweather  &  Sons  of  London  in  1909, 
an  80  H.  P.  petrol  engine  was  fitted  for  propulsion,  while  a  steam 
engine  was  employed  for  pumping.  The  boiler  was  fired  with 
oil-fuel,  and  steam  could  be  raised  in  a  few  minutes  while  the 
boat  was  on  its  way  to  a  fire.  The  pumps  could  throw  a  ij-in. 
jet  to  a  height  of  nearly  200  ft.  In  some  places,  as  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  the  fire-boats  are  utilized  for  service  at  some  distance  from 
the  water.  Fire-mains  laid  through  the  streets  terminate  in  deep 
water  at  points  accessible  to  the  boats,  the  pumps  of  which  can 
be  connected  to  them  and  made  to  fill  them  with  water  at  high 
pressure.  In  cities  where  a  high-pressure  hydraulic  supply 
system  is  available,  a  relatively  small  quantity  of  the  pressure 
water  can  be  used,  by  means  of  Greathead  hydrants  or  similar 
devices,  to  draw  a  much  larger  quantity  from  the  ordinary 
mains  and  force  it  in  jets  to  considerable  heights  and  distances, 
without  the  intervention  of  any  engine. 

The  water  is  conducted  from  the  engines  or  hydrants  in  hose- 
pipes, which  are  made  either  of  leather  fastened  with  brass  or 
copper  rivets,  or  of  canvas  (woven  from  flax)  which  has  the 
merit  of  lightness  but  is  liable  to  rot,  or  of  rubber  jacketed  with 
canvas  (or  in  America  with  cotton).  For  directing  the  water  on 
X.  14 


the  fire,  nozzles  of  various  forms  are  employed,  some  throwing 
a  plain  solid  jet,  others  producing  spray,  and  others  again  com- 
bining jet  and  spray,  the  spray  being  useful  to  drive  away  smoke 
and  protect  the  firemen.  Various  devices  are  employed  to 
enable  the  upper  storeys  of  buildings  to  be  effectively  reached. 
A  line  of  hose  may  be  attached  to  a  telescopic  ladder,  the  exten- 
sions of  which  are  pulled  out  by  a  wire  rope  until  the  top  rests 
on  the  wall  of  the  building  at  the  required  height.  Water-towers 
enable  the  jet  to  be  delivered  at  a  considerable  height  inde- 
pendently of  any  support  from  the  building.  A  light,  stiff,  lattice 
steel  frame  is  .mounted  on  a  truck,  on  which  it  lies  horizontally 
while  being  drawn  to  a  fire,  but  when  it  has  to  be  used  it  is 
turned  to  an  upright  position,  often  by  the  aid  of  compressed 
gas,  and  then  an  extensible  tube  is  drawn  out  to  a  still  greater 
height.  The  direction  of  the  stream  delivered  at  the  top  may  be 
controlled  from  below  by  means  of  gearing  which  enables  the 
nozzle  to  be  moved  both  horizontally  and  vertically.  The  pipe 
up  the  tower  may  be  of  large  diameter,  so  that  it  can  carry  a 
huge  volume  of  water,  and  at  the  bottom  it  may  terminate  in  a 
reservoir  into  which  several  fire-engines  may  pump  simultane- 
ously. 

Another  class  of  fire-engines,  known  in  the  smaller  portable 
sizes  as  fire-extinguishers  or  "  extincteurs,"  and  in  the  larger 
ones  as  "  chemical  engines,"  throw  a  jet  of  water  charged  with 
gas,  commonly  carbon  dioxide,  which  does  not  support  com- 
bustion. Essentially  they  consist  of  a  closed  metal  tank,  filled 
with  a  solution  of  some  carbonate  and  also  containing  a  small 
vessel  of  sulphuric  acid.  Under  normal  conditions  the  acid  is 
kept  separate  from  the  solution,  but  when  the  machine  has  to 
be  used  they  are  mixed  together;  in  some  cases  there  is  a  plunger 
projecting  externally,  which  when  struck  a  sharp  blow  breaks  the 
bottle  of  acid,  while  in  others  the  act  of  inverting  the  apparatus 
breaks  the  bottle  or  causes  it  to  fall  against  a  sharp  pricker 
which  pierces  the  metallic  capsule  that  closes  it.  As  soon  as  the 
acid  comes  into  contact  with  the  carbonate  solution  carbon 
dioxide  is  formed,  and  a  stream  of  gas  and  liquid  mixed  issues 
under  considerable  pressure  from  the  attached  nozzle  or  hose- 
pipe. Hand  apph'ances  of  this  kind,  holding  a  few  gallons, 
are  often  placed  in  the  corridors  of  hotels,  public  buildings,  &c., 
and  if  they  are  well-constructed,  so  that  they  do  not  fail  to  act 
when  they  are  wanted,  they  are  useful  in  the  early  stages  of  a  fire, 
because  they  enable  a  powerful  jet  to  be  quickly  brought  to  bear: 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  stream  of  mixed  gas  and  liquid 
they  emit  is  much  more  efficacious  than  plain  water,  and  too 
much  importance  can  easily  be  attached  to  spectacular  displays 
of  their  power  to  extinguish  artificial  blazes  of  wood  soused  with 
petrol,  which  have  been  burning  only  a  few  seconds.  Chemical 
engines,  up  to  60  or  70  gallons  capacity,  are  used  by  fire  brigades 
as  first-aid  appliances,  being  mounted  on  a  horsed  or  motor 
vehicle  and  often  combined  with  a  fire-escape,  a  reel  of  hose, 
and  other  appliances  needed  by  the  firemen,  and  even  with 
pumps  for  throwing  powerful  jets  of  ordinary  water.  Large 
buildings,  such  as  hotels  and  warehouses,  where  a  competent 
watchman  is  assumed  to  be  always  on  diity,  may  be  protected 
by  a  large  chemical  engine  placed  in  the  basement  and  connected 
by  pipes  to  hydrants  placed  at  convenient  points  on  the  various 
floors.  At  each  hose-station  a  handle  is  provided  which  when 
pulled  actuates  a  device  that  effects  the  mixing  of  the  acid  and 
carbonate  solution  in  the  machine,  so  that  in  a  minute  or  so  a 
stream  is  available  at  the  hydrants. 

Automatic  Sprinklers. — Factories,  warehouses  and  other 
buildings  in  which  the  fire  risks  are  great,  are  sometimes  fitted 
with  automatic  sprinklers  which  discharge  water  from  the 
ceiling  of  a  room  as  soon  as  the  temperature  rises  to  a  certain 
point.  Lines  of  pipes  containing  water  under  pressure  are  carried 
through  the  building  near  the  ceilings  at  distances  of  8  cr  10  ft. 
apart,  and  to  these  pipes  are  attached  sprinkler  heads  at  intervals 
such  that  the  water  from  them  is  distributed  all  over  the  room. 
The  valves  of  the  sprinklers  are  normally  kept  closed  by  a  device 
the  essential  feature  of  which  is  a  piece  of  fusible  metal;  this 
as  soon  as  it  is  softened  (at  a  temperature  of  about  160°  F.)  by 
the  heat  from  an  incipient  fire,  gives  way  and  releases  the  water, 


FIREBACK— FIREBRICK 


which  striking  against  a  deflecting  plate  is  spread  in  a  shower. 
In  situations  where  the  water  is  liable  to  freeze,  the  ceiling  pipes 
are  filled  only  with  air  at  a  pressure  of  say  10  Ib  per  sq.  in.  When 
the  sprinkler  head  opens  under  the  influence  of  the  heat  from  a 
fire,  the  compressed  air  escapes,  and  the  consequent  loss  of 
pressure  in  the  pipes  is  arranged  to  operate  a  system  of  levers 
that  opens  the  water-valve  of  the  main-feed  pipe.  The  idea  of 
automatic  sprinklers  is  an  old  one,  and  a  system  was  patented 
by  Sir  William  Congreve  in  1812;  but  in  their  present  develop- 
ment they  are  specially  associated  with  the  name  of  Frederick 
Grinnell,  of  Providence,  Rhode  Island. 

Fire-Escapes. — The  best  kind  of  fire-escape,  because  it  is 
always  in  place,  and  always  ready  for  use,  is  an  external  iron 
staircase,  reaching  from  the  top  of  a  building  to  the  ground, 
and  connected  with  balconies  accessible  from  the  windows  on 
each  floor.  In  many  towns  the  building  by-laws  require  such 
staircases  to  be  provided  on  buildings  exceeding  a  certain  height 
and  containing  more  than  a  certain  number  of  persons.  Of 
non-fixed  escapes,  designed  to  enable  the  inmates  of  an  upper 
room  to  reach  the  ground  through  the  window,  numberless 
forms  have  been  invented,  from  simple  knotted  ropes  and 
folding  ladders  to  slings  and  baskets  suspended  by  a  rope  over 
sheaves  fixed  permanently  outside  the  windows,  and  provided 
with  brakes  by  which  the  occupant  can  regulate  the  speed  of 
his  descent,  and  to  "  chutes  "  or  canvas  tubes  down  which 
he  slides.  Fire  brigades  are  provided  with  telescopic  ladders, 
mounted  on  a  wheeled  carriage,  up  which  the  firemen  climb; 
sometimes  the  persons  rescued  are  sent  down  a  chute  attached 
to  the  apparatus,  but  many  fire  brigades  think  it  preferable  to 
rely  on  carrying  down  those  who  are  unable  to  descend  the 
ladder  unaided.  Jumping  sheets  or  nets,  held  by  a  number  of 
men,  are  provided  to  catch  those  whose  only  chance  of  escape 
is  by  jumping-from  an  upper  window.  (X.) 

FIREBACK,  the  name  given  to  the  ornamented  slab  of  cast 
iron  protecting  the  back  of  a  fireplace.  The  date  at  which 
firebacks  became  common  probably  synchronizes  with  the 
removal  of  the  fire  from  the  centre  to  the  side  or  end  of  a  room. 
They  never  became  universal,  since  the  proximity  of  deposits 
of  iron  ore  was  essential  to  their  use.  In  England  they  were 
confined  chiefly  to  the  iron  districts  of  Sussex  and  Surrey,  and 
appear  to  have  ceased  being  made  when  the  ore  in  those  counties 
was  exhausted.  They  are,  however,  occasionally  found  in  other 
parts  of  the  country,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  there 
was  a  certain  commerce  in  an  appliance  which  gradually  assumed 
an  interesting  and  even  artistic  form.  The  earlier  examples 
were  commonly  rectangular,  but  a  shaped  or  gabled  top  eventu- 
ally became  common.  English  firebacks  may  roughly  be  separ- 
ated into  four  chronological  divisions — those  moulded  from  more 
than  one  movable  stamp;  armorial  backs;  allegorical,  mytho- 
logical and  biblical  slabs  with  an  occasional  portrait;  and  copies 
of  1 7th  and  i8th  century  continental  designs,  chiefly  Nether- 
landish. The  fleur-de-lys,  the  rosette,  and  other  motives  of 
detached  ornament  were  much  used  before  attempts  were  made 
to  elaborate  a  homogeneous  design,  but  by  the  middle  of  the  I7th 
century  firebacks  of  a  very  elaborate  type  were  being  produced. 
Thus  we  have  representations  of  the  Crucifixion,  the  death  of 
f  acob,  Hercules  slaying  the  hydra,  and  the  plague  of  serpents. 
Coats  of  arms  were  very  frequent,  the  royal  achievement  being 
used  extensively — many  existing  firebacks  bear  the  arms  of 
the  Stuarts.  About  the  time  of  Elizabeth  the  coats  of  private 
families  began  to  be  used,  the  earliest  instances  remaining 
bearing  those  of  the  Sackvilles,  who  were  lords  of  a  large  portion 
of  the  forest  of  Anderida,  which  furnished  the  charcoal  for  the 
smelting  operations  in  our  ancient  iron-fields.  To  the  armorial 
shields  the  date  was  often  added,  together  with  the  initials 
of  the  owner.  The  method  of  casting  firebacks  was  to  cut  the 
design  upon  a  thick  slab  of  oak  which  was  impressed  face  down- 
wards upon  a  bed  of  sand,  the  molten  metal  being  ladled  into 
the  impression.  Firebacks  were  also  common  in  the  Netherlands 
and  in  parts  of  France,  notably  in  Alsace.  At  Strassburg  and 
Metz  there  are  several  private  collections,  and  there  are  also 
many  examples  in  public  museums.  The  museum  of  the  Porte  de 


Hal  at  Brussels  contains  one  of  the  finest  examples  in  existence 
with  an  equestrian  portrait  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  accom- 
panied by  his  arms  and  motto.  When  monarchy  was  first 
destroyed  in  France  the  possession  of  a  plaque  de  cheminee 
bearing  heraldic  insignia  was  regarded  as  a  mark  of  disaffection 
to  the  republic,  and  on  the  I3th  of  October  1793  the  National 
Convention  issued  a  decree  giving  the  owners  and  tenants  of 
houses  a  month  in  which  to  turn  such  firebacks  with  their  face 
to  the  wall,  pending  the  manufacture  by  the  iron  foundries  of  a 
sufficient  number  of  backs  less  offensive  to  the  instinct  of  equality. 
Very  few  of  the  old  plaques  were  however  removed,  and  to  this 
day  the  old  chateaux  of  France  contain  many  with  their  backs 
outward.  Reproductions  of  ancient  chimney  backs  are  now  not 
infrequently  made,  and  the  old  examples  are  much  prized  and 
collected. 

FIRE  BRAT,  a  small  insect  (Thermobia  or  Thermophila 
furnorum)  related  to  the  silverfish,  and  found  in  bakehouses, 
where  it  feeds  upon  bread  and  flour. 

FIREBRICK. — Under  this  term  are  included  all  bricks,  blocks 
and  slabs  used  for  lining  furnaces,  fire-mouths,  flues,  &c.,  where 
the  brickwork  has  to  withstand  high  temperature  (see  BRICK). 

The  conditions  to  which  firebricks  are  subjected  in  use  vary 
very  greatly  as  regards  changes  of  temperature,  crushing  strain, 
corrosive  action  of  gases,  scouring  action  of  fuel  or  furnace 
charge,  chemical  action  of  furnace  charge  and  products  of  com- 
bustion, &c.,  and  in  order  to  meet  these  different  conditions 
many  varieties  of  firebricks  are  manufactured. 

Ordinary  firebricks  are  made  from  fireclays,  i.e.  from  clays 
which  withstand  a  high  temperature  without  fusion,  excessive 
shrinkage  or  warping.  Many  clays  fulfil  these  conditions  although 
the  term  "  fireclay  "  is  generally  restricted  in  use  to  certain 
shales  from  the  Coal  Measures,  which  contain  only  a  small 
percentage  of  soda,  potash  and  lime,  and  are  consequently 
highly  refractory.  There  is  no  fixed  standard  of  refractoriness 
for  these  clays,  but  no  clay  should  be  classed  as  a  fireclay  which 
has  a  fusion  point  below  1600°  C. 

Fireclays  vary  considerably  in  chemical  composition,  but  gener- 
ally the  percentage  of  alumina  and  silica  (taken  together)  is  high, 
and  the  percentage  of  oxide  of  iron,  magnesia,  lime,  soda  and  potash 
(taken  together)  is  low.  Other  materials,  such  as  lime,  bauxite,  &c., 
are  also  used  for  the  manufacture  of  firebricks  where  special  chemical 
or  other  properties  are  necessary. 

The  suitability  of  a  fireclay  for  the  manufacture  of  the  various 
fireclay  goods  depends  upon  its  physical  character  as  well  as  upon 
its  refractoriness,  and  it  is  often  necessary  to  mix  with  the  clay  a 
certain  proportion  of  ground  firebrick,  gamster,  sand  or  some  similar 
refractory  material  in  order  to  obtain  a  suitable  brick.  Speaking 
generally,  fireclay  goods  used  for  lining  furnaces  where  the  firing 
is  continuous,  or  where  the  lining  is  in  contact  with  molten  metal  or 
other  flux,  are  best  made  from  fine-grained  plastic  clays;  whereas 
firebricks  used  in  fire-mouths  and  other  places  which  are  subjected 
to  rapid  changes  of  temperature  must  be  made  from  coarser-grained 
and  consequently  less  plastic  clays.  In  all  cases  care  should  be  taken 
to  obtain  a  texture  and  also,  as  far  as  possible,  by  selection  and 
mixing,  to  obtain  a  chemical  composition  suitable  for  the  purpose 
to  which  the  goods  are  to  be  applied.  The  Coal  Measure  clays  often 
contain  nodules  of  siderite  in  addition  to  the  carbonate  of  iron 
disseminated  in  fine  particles  throughout  the  mass,  and  these  nodules 
are  carefully  picked  out  as  far  as  practicable  before  the  clay  is  used. 

A  firebrick  suitable  for  ordinary  purposes  should  be  even  and  rather 
open  in  texture,  fairly  coarse  in  grain,  free  from  cracks  or  warping, 
strong  enough  to  withstand  the  pressure  to  which  it  may  be  sub- 
jected when  in  use,  and  sufficiently  fired  to  ensure  practically  the 
full  contraction  of  the  material.  Very  few  fireclays  meet  all  these  re- 
quirements, and  it  is  usual  to  mix  a  certain  proportion  of  ground 
firebrick,  ganister,  sand  or  clay  with  the  fireclay  before  making  up. 
The  fireclay  or  shale  or  other  materials  are  ground  either  between 
rollers  or  on  perforated  pans,  and  then  passed  through  sieves  to 
ensure  a  certain  size  and  evenness  of  grain,  after  which  the  clay 
and  other  materials  are  mixed  in  suitable  proportion  in  the  dry 
state,  water  being  generally  added  in  the  mixing  mill,  and  the  bricks 
made  up  from  plastic  or  semi-plastic  clay  in  the  ordinary  way. 

The  proportion  of  ground  firebrick,  &c.,  used  depends  on  the  nature 
of  the  clay  and  the  purpose  for  which  the  material  is  required,  but 
generally  speaking  the  more  plastic  clays  require  a  higher  percentage 
of  a  plastic  material  than  the  less  plastic  clays,  the  object  being  to 
produce  a  clay  mixture  which  shall  dry  and  fire  without  cracking, 
warping  or  excessive  shrinkage,  and  which  shall  retain  after  firing 
a  sufficiently  open  and  even  texture  to  withstand  alternate  heatings 
and  coolings  without  cracking  or  flaking.  For  special  purposes 


FIREFLY— FIRESHIP 


419 


special  mixtures  are  required  and  many  expedients  are  used  to  obtain 
fireclay  goods  having  certain  specific  qualities.  In  preparing  clay 
for  the  manufacture  of  ordinary  fire-grate  backs,  &c.,  where  the 
temperature  is  very  variable  but  never  very  high,  a  certain  per- 
centage of  sawdust  is  often  mixed  with  the  fireclay,  which  burns  out 
on  firing  and  ensures  a  very  open  or  porous  texture.  Such  material 
is  much  less  liable  to  splitting  or  flaking  in  use  than  one  having  a 
closer  texture,  but  it  is  useless  for  furnace  lining  and  similar  work, 
where  strength  and  resistance  to  wear  and  tear  are  essential.  For 
the  construction  of  furnaces,  fire-mouths,  &c.,  the  firebrick  used 
must  be  sufficiently  strong  and  rigid  to  withstand  the  crushing 
strain  of  the  superimposed  brickwork,  &c.,  at  the  highest  temperature 
to  which  they  are  subjected. 

The  wearing  out  of  a  firebrick  used  in  the  construction  of  furnaces, 
&c.,  takes  place  in  various  ways  according  to  the  character  of  the 
brick  and  the  particular  conditions  to  which  it  is  subjected.  The 
firebrick  may  waste  by  crumbling — due  to  excessive  porosity  or 
openness  of  texture;  it  may  waste  by  shattering,  due  to  the  presence 
of  large  pebbles,  pieces  of  limestone,  &c. ;  it  may  gradually  wear 
away  by  the  friction  of  the  descending  charge  in  the  furnace,  of  the 
solid  particles  carried  by  the  flue  gases  and  of  the  flue  gases  them- 
selves; it  may  waste  by  the  gradual  vitrification  of  the  surface 
through  contact  with  fluxing  materials:  in  cases  where  it  is  sub- 
jected to  very  high  temperature  it  will  gradually  vitrify  and  contract 
and  so  split  and  fall  away  from  the  setting.  It  is  a  well-recognized 
fact  that  successive  firings  to  a  temperature  approaching  the  fusion 
point,  or  long  continued  heating  near  that  temperature,  will  gradually 
produce  vitrification,  which  brings  about  a  very  dense  mass  and  close 
texture,  and  entirely  alters  the  properties  of  the  brick. 

Where  firebricks  are  in  contact  with  the  furnace  charge  it  is 
necessary  that  the  texture  shall  be  fairly  close,  and  that  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  brick  shall  be  such  as  to  retard  the  formation  of 
fusible  double  silicates  as  much  as  possible.  Where  the  furnace 
charge  is  basic  the  firebrick  should,  generally  speaking,  be  basic  or 
aluminous  and  not  siliceous,  i.e.  it  should  be  made  from  a  fireclay 
containing  little  free  silica,  or  from  such  a  fireclay  to  which  a  high 
percentage  of  alumina,  "rime,  magnesia,  or  iron  oxide  has  been  added. 
For  such  purposes  firebricks  are  often  made  from  materials  con- 
taining little  or  no  clay,  as  for  example  mixtures  of  calcined  and 
uncalcined  magnesite;  mixtures  of  lime  and  magnesia  and  their 
carbonates;  mixtures  of  bauxite  and  clay;  mixtures  of  bauxite, 
clay  and  plumbago;  bauxite  and  oxide  of  iron,  &c. 

In  certain  cases  it  is  necessary  to  use  an  acid  brick,  and  for  the 
manufacture  of  these  a  highly  siliceous  mineral,  such  as  chert  or 
ganister,  is  used,  mixed  if  necessary  with  sufficient  clay  to  bind  the 
material  together.  Dinas  fireclay,  so-called,  and  the  ganisters  of 
the  south"  Yorkshire  coal-fields  are  largely  used  for  making  these 
siliceous  firebricks,  which  may  be  also  used  where  the  brickwork 
does  not  come  in  contact  with  basic  material,  as  in  the  arches,  &c., 
of  many  furnaces.  It  is  evident  that  no  particular  kind  of  firebrick 
can  be  suitable  for  all  purposes,  and  the  manufacturer  should  en- 
deavour to  make  his  bricks  of  a  definite  composition,  texture,  &c., 
to  meet  certain  definite  requirements,  recognizing  that  the  materials 
at  his  disposal  may  be  ill-adapted  or  entirely  unsuitable  for  making 
firebricks  for  other  purposes.  In  setting  firebricks  in  position,  a 
thin  paste  of  fireclay  and  water  or  of  material  similar  to  that  of 
which  the  brick  is  composed,  must  be  used  in  place  of  ordinary 
mortar,  and  the  joints  should  be  as  close  as  possible,  only  just 
sufficient  of  the  paste  being  used  to  enable  the  bricks  to  "  bed  on 
one  another. 

It  has  long  been  the  practice  on  certain  works  to  wash  the  face  of 
firebrick  work  with  a  thin  paste  of  some  very  refractory  material — 
such  as  kaolin — in  order  to  protect  the  firebricks  from  the  direct 
action  of  the  flue  gases,  &c.,  and  quite  recently  a  thin  paste  of 
carborundum  and  clay,  or  carborundum  and  silicate  of  soda  has 
been  more  extensively  used  for  the  same  purpose.  So-called  carbor- 
undum bricks  have  been  put  on  the  market,  which  have  a  coating  of 
carborundum  and  clay  fired  on  to  the  firebrick,  and  which  are  said  to 
have  a  greatly  extended  life  for  certain  purposes.  It  is  probable  that 
the  carborundum  gradually  decomposes  in  the  firing,  leaving  a  thin 
coating  of  practically  pure  silica  which  forms  a  smooth,  impervious 
and  highly-refractory  facing.  (J.  B.*;  W.  B.*) 

FIREFLY,  a  term  popularly  used  for  certain  tropical  American 
click-beetles  (Pyrophorus) ,  on  account  of  their  power  of  emitting 
light.  The  insects  belong  to  the  family  Elateridae,  whose  char- 
acters are  described  under  Coleoptera  (g.v.).  The  genus  Pyro- 
phorus contains  about  ninety  species,  and  is  entirely  confined  to 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  ranging  from  the  southern  United 
States  to  Argentina  and  Chile.  Its  species  are  locally  known  as 
cucujos.  Except  for  a  few  species  in  the  New  Hebrides,  New 
Caledonia  and  Fiji,  the  luminous  Elateridae  are  unknown  in  the 
eastern  hemisphere.  The  light  proceeds  from  a  pair  of  con- 
spicuous smooth  ovoid  spots  on  the  pronotum  and  from  an  area 
beneath  the  base  of  the  abdomen.  Beneath  the  cuticle  of  these 
regions  are  situated  the  luminous  organs,  consisting  of  layers  of 
cells  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  specialized  portion  of  the 


fat-body.  Both  the  male  and  female  fireflies  emit  light,  as  well 
as  their  larvae  and  eggs,  the  egg  being  luminous  even  while 
still  in  the  ovary.  The  inhabitants  of  tropical  America  some- 
times keep  fireflies  in  small  cages  for  purposes  of  illumination, 
or  make  use  of  the  insects  for  personal  adornment. 

The  name  "  firefly  "  is  often  applied  also  to  luminous  beetles 
of  the  family  Lampyridae,  to  which  the  well-known  glow-worm 
belongs. 

FIRE-IRONS,  the  implements  for  tending  a  fire.  Usually 
they  consist  of  poker,  tongs  and  shovel,  and  they  are  most 
frequently  of  iron,  steel,  or  brass,  or  partly  of  one  and  partly 
of  another.  The  more  elegant  brass  examples  of  the  early  part 
of  the  ipth  century  are  much  sought  after  for  use  with  the  brass 
fenders  of  that  date.  They  were  sometimes  hung  from  an 
ornamental  brass  stand.  The  fire-irons  of  our  own  times  are 
smaller  in  size  and  lighter  in  make  than  those  of  the  best  period. 

FIRENZUOLA,  AGNOLO  (i4Q3-c.  1545),  Italian  poet  and 
litterateur,  was  born  at  Florence  on  the  z8th  of  September  1493. 
The  family  name  was  taken  from  the  town  of  Firenzuola,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  its  original  home.  The  grandfather 
of  Agnolo  had  obtained  the  citizenship  of  Florence  and  trans- 
mitted it  to  his  family.  Agnolo  was  destined  for  the  profession 
of  the  law,  and  pursued  his  studies  first  at  Siena  and  afterwards 
at  Perugia.  There  he  became  the  associate  of  the  notorious 
Pietro  Aretino,  whose  foul  life  he  was  not  ashamed  to  make  the 
model  of  his  own.  They  met  again  at  Rome,  where  Firenzuola 
practised  for  a  time  the  profession  of  an  advocate,  but  with 
little  success.  It  is  asserted  by  all  his  biographers  that  while 
still  a  young  man  he  assumed  the  monastic  dress  at  Vallombrosa, 
and  that  he  afterwards  held  successively  two  abbacies.  Tira- 
boschi  alone  ventures  to  doubt  this  account,  partly  on  the 
ground  of  Firenzuola's  licentiousness,  and  partly  on  the  ground 
of  absence  of  evidence;  but  his  arguments  are  not  held  to  be 
conclusive.  Firenzuola  left  Rome  after  the  death  of  Pope 
Clement  VII.,  and  after  spending  some  time  at  Florence,  settled 
at  Prato  as  abbot  of  San  Salvatore.  His  writings,  of  which  a 
collected  edition  was  published  in  1548,  are  partly  in  prose  and 
partly  in  verse,  and  belong  to  the  lighter  classes  of  literature. 
Among  the  prose  works  are — Discorsi  degli  animali,  imitations 
of  Oriental  and  Aesopian  fables,  of  which  there  are  two  French 
translations;  Dialogo  delle  bellezze  delle  donne,  also  translated 
into  French;  Ragionamenli  amorosi,  a  series  of  short  tales  in 
the  manner  of  Boccaccio,  rivalling  him  in.  elegance  and  in  licen- 
tiousness; Discacciamento  delle  nuove  letlere,  a  controversial  piece 
against  Trissino's  proposal  to  introduce  new  letters  into  the 
Italian  alphabet;  a  free  version  or  adaptation  of  The  Golden 
Ass  of  Apuleius,  which  became  a  favourite  book  and  passed 
through  many  editions;  and  two  comedies,  /  Lucidi,  an  imitation 
of  the  Menaechmi  of  Plautus,  and  La  Trinuzia,  which  in  some 
points  resembles  the  Calandria  of  Cardinal  Bibbiena.  His 
poems  are  chiefly  satirical  and  burlesque.  All  his  works  are 
esteemed  as  models  of  literary  excellence,  and  are  cited  as  authori- 
ties in  the  vocabulary  of  the  Accademia  della  Crusca.  The  date 
of  Firenzuola's  death  is  only  approximately  ascertained.  He 
had  been  dead  several  years  when  the  first  edition  of  his  writings 
appeared  (1548). 

His  works  have  been  very  frequently  republished,  separately  and 
in  collected  editions.  A  convenient  reprint  of  the  whole  was  issued 
at  Florence  in  2  vols.  in  1848.  • 

FIRESHIP,  a  vessel  laden  with  combustibles,  floated  down 
on  an  enemy  to  set  him  on  fire.  Fireships  were  used  in  antiquity, 
and  in  the  middle  ages.  The  highly  successful  employment 
of  one  by  the  defenders  of  Antwerp  when  besieged  by  the  prince 
of  Parma  in  1585  brought  them  into  prominent  notice,  and  they 
were  used  to  drive  the  Armada  from  its  anchorage  at  Gravelines 
in  1588.  They  continued  to  be  used,  sometimes  with  great 
effect,  as  late  as  the  first  quarter  of  the  igth  century.  Thus 
in  1809  fireships  designed  by  Lord  Cochrane  (earl  of  Dundonald) 
were  employed  against  the  French  ships  at  anchor  in  the  Basque 
Roads;  and  in  the  War  of  Greek  Independence  the  successes  of 
the  Greek  fireships  against  the  Ottoman  navy,  and  the  conse- 
quent demoralization  of  the  ill-disciplined  Turkish  crews,  largely 


420 


FIRE-WALKING—FIREWORKS 


contributed  to  secure  for  the  insurgents  the  command  of  the  sea. 
In  general,  however,  it  was  found  that  fireships  hampered  the 
movements  of  a  fleet,  were  easily  sunk  by  an  enemy's  fire,  or 
towed  aside  by  his  boats,  while  a  premature  explosion  was 
frequently  fatal  to  the  men  who  had  to  place  them  in  position. 
They  were  made  by  building  "  a  fire  chamber  "  between  the  decks 
from  the  forecastle  to  a  bulkhead  constructed  abaft  the  main- 
mast. This  space  was  filled  with  resin,  pitch,  tallow  and  tar, 
together  with  gunpowder  in  iron  vessels.  The  gunpowder  and 
combustibles  were  connected  by  trains  of  powder,  and  by 
bundles  of  brushwood  called  "  bavins."  When  a  fireship  was 
to  be  used,  a  body  of  picked  men  steered  her  down  on  the  enemy, 
and  when  close  enough  set  her  alight,  and  escaped  in  a  boat 
which  was  towed  astern.  As  the  service  was  peculiarly  dangerous 
a  reward  of  £100,  or  in  lieu  of  it  a  gold  chain  with  a  medal  to  be 
worn  as  a  mark  of  honour,  was  granted  in  the  British  navy  to  the 
successful  captain  of  a  fireship.  A  rank  of  capitaine  de  brulot 
existed  in  the  French  navy  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  was  next  to  the 
full  captain — or  capitaine  de  iiaisseau. 

FIRE-WALKING,  a  religious  ceremony  common  to  many 
races.  The  origin  and  meaning  of  the  custom  is  very  obscure, 
but  it  is  shown  to  have  been  widespread  in  all  ages.  It  still 
survives  in  Bulgaria,  Trinidad,  Fiji  Islands,  Tahiti,  India,  the 
Straits  Settlements,  Mauritius,  and  it  is  said  Japan.  The  details 
of  its  ritual  and  its  objects  vary  in  different  lands,  but  the 
essential  feature  of  the  rite,  the  passing  of  priests,  fakirs,  and 
devotees  barefoot  over  heated  stones  or  smouldering  ashes  is 
always  the  same.  Fire-walking  was  usually  associated  with 
the  spring  festivals  and  was  believed  to  ensure  a  bountiful 
harvest.  Such  was  the  Chinese  vernal  festival  of  fire.  In  the 
time  of  Kublai  Khan  the  Taoist  Buddhists  held  great  festivals 
to  the  "  High  Emperor  of  the  Sombre  Heavens  "  and  walked 
through  a  great  fire  barefoot,  preceded  by  their  priests  bearing 
images  of  their  gods  in  their  arms.  Though  they  were  severely 
burned,  these  devotees  held  that  they  would  pass  unscathed 
if  they  had  faith.  J.  G.  Frazer  (Golden  Bough,  vol.  iii.  p.  307) 
describes  the  ceremony  in  the  Chinese  province  of  Fo-kien. 
The  chief  performers  are  labourers  who  must  fast  for  three  days 
and  observe  chastity  for  a  week.  During  this  time  they  are 
taught  in  the  temple  how  they  are  to  perform  their  task.  On 
the  eve  of  the  festival  a  huge  brazier  of  charcoal,  often  twenty 
feet  wide,  is  prepared  in  front  of  the  temple  of  the  great  god.  At 
sunrise  the  next  morning  the  brazier  is  lighted.  A  Taoist  priest 
throws  a  mixture  of  salt  and  rice  into  the  flames.  The  two 
exorcists,  barefooted  and  followed  by  two  peasants,  traverse 
the  fire  again  and  again  till  it  is  somewhat  beaten  down.  The 
trained  performers  then  pass  through  with  the  image  of  the  god. 
Frazer  suggests  that,  as  the  essential  feature  of  the  rite  is  the 
carrying  of  the  deity  through  the  flames,  the  whole  thing  is 
sympathetic  magic  designed  to  give  to  the  coming  spring  sun- 
shine (the  supposed  divine  emanation),  that  degree  of  heat 
which  the  image  experiences.  Frazer  quotes  Indian  fire-walks, 
notably  that  of  the  Dosadhs,  a  low  Indian  caste  in  Behar  and 
Chota  Nagpur.  On  the  fifth,  tenth,  and  full  moon  days  of  three 
months  in  the  year,  the  priest  walks  over  a  narrow  trench 
filled  with  smouldering  wood  ashes.  The  Bhuiyas,  a  Dravidian 
tribe  of  Mirzapur,  worship  their  tribal  hero  Bir  by  a  like  per- 
formance, and  they  declare  that  the  walker  who  is  really  "  pos- 
sessed "  by  the  hero  feels  no  pain.  For  fire-walking  as  observed 
in  the  Madras  presidency  see  Indian  Antiquary,  vii.  (1878) 
p.  126;  iii.  (1874)  pp.  6-8;  ii.  (1873)  p.  190  seq.  In  Fiji  the 
ceremony  is  called  vilavilarevo,  and  according  to  an  eyewitness 
a  number  of  natives  walk  unharmed  across  and  among  white- 
hot  stones  which  form  the  pavement  of  a  huge  native  oven. 
In  Tahiti  priests  perform  the  rite.  In  April  1899  an  Englishman 
saw  a  fire-walk  in  Tokio  (see  The  Field,  May  2oth,  1899).  The 
fire  was  six  yards  long  by  six  wide.  The  rite  was  in  honour  of  a 
mountain  god.  The  fire-walkers  in  Bulgaria  are  called  Nistinares 
and  the  faculty  is  regarded  as  hereditary.  They  dance  in  the 
fire  on  the  zist  of  May,  the  feast  of  SS.  Helena  and  Constantine. 
Huge  fires  of  faggots  are  made,  and  when  these  burn  down  the 
Nistinares  (who  turn  blue  in  the  face)  dance  on  the  red-hot 


embers  and  utter  prophecies,  afterwards  placing  their  feet  in  the 
muddy  ground  where  libations  of  water  have  been  poured. 

The  interesting  part  of  fire-walking  is  the  alleged  immunity 
of  the  performers  from  burns.  On  this  point  authorities  and 
eyewitnesses  differ  'greatly.  In  a  case  in  Fiji  a  handkerchief 
was  thrown  on  to  the  stones  when  the  first  man  leapt  into  the 
oven,  and  what  remained  of  it  snatched  up  as  the  last  left  the 
stones.  Every  fold  that  touched  the  stone  was  charred!  In 
some  countries  a  thick  ointment  is  rubbed  on  the  feet,  but  this 
is  not  usual,  and  the  bulk  of  the  reports  certainly  leave  an  im- 
pression that  there  is  something  still  to  be  explained  in  the 
escape  of  the  performers  from  shocking  injuries.  S.  P.  Langley, 
who  witnessed  a  fire-walk  in  Tahiti,  declares,  however,  that  the 
whole  rite  as  there  practised  is  a  mere  symbolic  farce  (Nature 
for  August  22nd,  1901). 

For  a  full  discussion  of  the  subject  with  many  eyewitnesses'  reports 
in  extenso,  see  A.  Lang,  Magic  and  Religion  (1901).  See  also  Dr 
Gustav  Oppert,  Original  Inhabitants  of  India,  p.  480;  W.  Crooke, 
Introd.  to  Popular  Religion  and  Folklore  of  Northern  India,  p.  10 
(1896);  Folklore  Journal  tor  September  1895  and  for  1903,  vol.  xiv. 
P- 87. 

FIREWORKS.  In  modern  times  this  term  is  principally 
associated  with  the  art  of  "  pyrotechny  "  (Gr.  irvp,  fire,  and 
Tt\vri,  art),  and  confined  to  the  production  of  pleasing  scenic 
effects  by  means  of  fire  and  inflammable  and  explosive  substances. 
But  the  history  of  the  evolution  of  such  displays  is  bound  up 
with  that  of  the  use  of  such  substances  not  only  for  scenic 
display  but  for  exciting  fear  and  for  military  purposes;  and  it  is 
consequently  complicated  by  our  lack  of  exact  knowledge  as 
to  the  materials  at  the  disposal  of  the  ancients  prior  to  the 
invention  of  gunpowder  (see  also  the  article  GREEK  FIRE).  For 
the  following  historical  account  the  term  "  fireworks  "  is  therefore 
used  in  a  rather  general  sense. 

History. — It  is  usually  stated  that  from  very  ancient  times 
fireworks  were  known  in  China;  it  is,  however,  difficult  to 
assign  dates  or  quote  trustworthy  authorities.  Pyrotechnic 
displays  were  certainly  given  in  the  Roman  circus.  While  a 
passage  in  Manilius,1  who  lived  in  the  days  of  Augustus,  seems 
to  bear  this  interpretation,  there  is  the  definite  evidence  of 
Vopiscus 2  that  fireworks  were  performed  for  the  empercr 
Carinus  and  later  for  the  emperor  Diocletian;  and  Claudian,3 
writing  in  the  4th  century,  gives  a  poetical  description  of  a  set 
piece,  where  .whirling  wheels  and  dropping  fountains  of  fire 
were  displayed  upon  the  pegma,  a  species  of  movable  framework 
employed  in  the  various  spectacles  presented  in  the  circus. 
After  the  fall  of  the  Western  empire  no  mention  of  fireworks 
can  be  traced  until  the  Crusaders  carried  back  with  them  to 
Europe  a  knowledge  of  the  incendiary  compounds  of  the  East, 
and  gunpowder  had  made  its  appearance.  Biringuccio,4  writing 
in  1540,  says  that  at  an  anterior  period  it  had  been  customary 
at  Florence  and  Siena  to  represent  a  fable  or  story  at  the  Feast 
of  St  John  or  at  the  Assumption,  and  that  on  these  occasions 
stage  properties,  including  effigies  with  wooden  bodies  and 
plaster  limbs,  were  grouped  upon  lofty  pedestals,  and  that  these 
figures  gave  forth  flames,  whilst  round  about  tubes  or  pipes  were 
erected  for  projecting  fire-balls  into  the  air:  but  he  adds  that 
these  shows  were  never  heard  of  in  his  time  except  at  Rome 
when  a  pope  was  elected  or  crowned.  But  if  relinquished  in  Italy, 
fire  festivals  on  the  eve  of  St  John  were  observed  both  in  England 
and  France;  the  custom  was  a  very  old  one  in  the  days  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,5  while  De  Frezier,6  writing  in  1707,  says  it  was  com- 
monly adhered  to  in  his  time,  and  that  on  one  occasion  the  king 
of  France  himself  set  a  light  to  the  great  Paris  bonfire.  Survivals 
of  these  curious  rites  have  been  noted  quite  recently  in  Scotland 
and  Ireland.7  Early  use  also  of  fireworks  was  made  in  plays 
and  pageants.  Hell  or  hell's  mouth  was  represented  by  a 

1  Manilius,  Astronomica,  lib.  v.,  438-443. 

2  Vopiscus,  Carus,  Numerianus  el  Carinus,  ch.  xix. 

1  Claudianus,  De  consulatu  Manlii  Theodori,  325-330. 

4  Vanuzzio  Biringuccio,  Pyrotechnia. 

6  Strutts,  Sports  and  Pastimes  of  the  English  People. 

6  De  Frezier,  Traitt  des  feux  a' artifice  (1707  and  1747). 

7  Notes  and  Queries,  series  5,  vol.  ix.  p.  140,  and  series  8,  vol.  ii. 
pp.  145  and  254. 


FIREWORKS 


421 


gigantic  head  out  of  which  flames  were  made  to  issue:1  in  the 
river  procession  on  the  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  Henry  VII. 
and  Elizabeth  (1487)  the  "  Bachelors'  Barge  "  carried  a  dragon 
spouting  flames,  and  Hall  relates  that  at  the  marriage  of  Anne 
Boleyn  (1538)  "  there  went  before  the  lord  mayor's  barge  a 
foyst  or  wafter  full  of  ordnance,  which  foyst  also  carried  a  great 
red  dragon  that  spouted  out  wild  fyre  and  round  about  were 
terrible  monstrous  and  wild  men  casting  fire  and  making  a  hideous 
noise." 2  These  individuals  were  known  as  "  green  men." 
Their  clothing  was  green,  they  wore  fantastic  masks,  and  carried 
"  fire  clubs."  They  were  sometimes  employed  to  clear  the  way 
at  processions.3 

Soon  after  the  introduction  of  gunpowder  the  gunner  and 
fireworker  came  into  existence;  at  first  they  were  not  soldiers, 
but  civilians  who  sometimes  exercised  military  functions,  and 
part  of  their  duties  was  intimately  connected  with  the  preparation 
of  fireworks  both  for  peace  and  war.  The  emperor  Charles  V. 
brought  his  fireworks  under  definite  regulations  in  IS3S,4  and 
eventually  other  countries  did  the  same.  The  ignes  triumphales 
were  an  early  form  of  public  fireworks.  Scaffold  poles  were 
erected  with  trophies  at  their  summits,  while  fixed  around  them 
were  tiers  of  casks  filled  with  combustibles,  so  that  they  presented 
the  appearance  of  huge  flaming  trees;  at  their  bases  crouched 
dragons  or  other  mythical  beasts.  With  such  a  display  Antwerp 
welcomed  the  archduke  of  Austria  in  1550.*  Then  the  "  fire 
combat  "  came  into  fashion.  Helmets  from  which  flames  would 
issue  were  provided  for  the  performers;  there  were  also  swords 
and  clubs  that  would  give  out  sparks  at  every  stroke,  lances 
with  fiery  points,  and  bucklers  that  when  struck  gave  forth  a 
detonation  and  a  flame.  A  picture  of  a  combat  with  weapons 
s^ch  as  these  will  be  found  in  Hanzelet's  Recueil  de  machines 
militaires  (1620).  In  addition,  the  fireworker  grew  to  be  some- 
what of  a  scenic  artist  who  could  devise  a  romantic  background 
and  fill  it  with  shapes  bizarre,  beautiful  or  terrific;  he  had  to 
make  his  castle,  his  cave  or  his  rocky  ravine,  and  people  his 
stage  with  distressed  damsel,  errant  knight  or  devouring  dragon. 
Furthermore  he  had  to  give  motion  to  the  inanimate  persons  of 
the  drama;  thus  his  dragon  would  run  down  an  incline  on 
hidden  wheels,  be  actuated  by  a  rope,  or  be  propelled  by  a  rocket.9 
In  1613  at  the  marriage  of  the  prince  palatine  to  the  daughter 
of  James,  the  pyrotechnic  display  was  confided  to  four  of  the 
king's  gunners,  who  provided  a  fiery  drama  which  included  a 
giant,  a  dragon,  a  lady,  St  George,  a  conjurer,  and  an  enchanted 
castle,  jumbled  up  together  after  the  approved  fashion  of  the 
Spenserian  legends.7  As  time  went  on  a  more  refined  taste 
rejected  the  bizarre  features  of  the  old  displays,  artistic  merit 
began  to  creep  into  the  designs,  and  an  effort  was  made  to 
introduce  something  appropriate  to  the  occasion.  Thus  Clarmer 
of  Nuremberg,  a  well-known  fire-worker,  celebrated  the  capture 
of  Rochelle  (1613)  by  an  adaptation  of  the  Andromeda  legend, 
where  Rochelle  was  the  rock,  Andromeda  the  Catholic  religion, 
the  monster  Heresy,  and  Perseus  on  his  Pegasus  the  all-conquer- 
ing Louis  XIII.8  In  the  first  half  of  the  1 7th  century  many  books9 
on  fireworks  appeared,  which  avoided  the  old  grotesque  ideas 
and  advocated  skill  and  finesse.  "  It  is  a  rare  thing,"  says  Nye 


1 J.  B.  Nichols  &  Sons,  London  Pageants. 
1  Hall's  Ch 


Chronicles. 

'J.  Bate.  Mysteries  of  Nature  and  Art  (1635).  This  contains  a 
picture  of  a  green  man. 

iGeschichte  des  Feuerwerkswesen  (Berlin,  1887).  The  Jubilee 
pamphlet  of  the  Brandenburg  Artillery. 

6  See  "  Fairholts'  Collection  "  bequeathed  to  the  Royal  Society  of 
Antiquaries. 

8  Journal  of  the  Royal  Artillery,  vol.  xxxii.  No.  II. 

7  Somers'  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  "  De  Frezier. 

'Diego  Ufano,  Artillery,  in  Spanish  (1614);  Master  Gunner 
Norton,  The  Gunner  and  The  Gunner's  Dialogue  (1628);  F.  de 
Malthe  (Malthus),  Artificial  Fireworks,  in  French  and  English 
(1628);  "  Hanzelet,"  Recueil  de  plusieurs  machines  militaires  etfeux 
artificiels  pour  la  guerre  et  recreation  (1620  and  1630) ;  Furttenback, 
master  gunner  of  Bavaria,  HalinitroPyrobolio,in  German  (1627)  ;(John 
Babington  Matross,  Pyrotechnia,  1635) ;  Nye,  master  gunner_  of 
Worcester,  Art  of  Gunnery  (Worcester,  1648) ;  Casimir  Siemienowitz, 
lieut.-general  of  the  Ordnance  to  the  king  of  Poland,  The  Great  Art  of 
Artillery,  in  French  (1650). 


(1648),  "  to  represent  a  tree  or  fountain  in  the  air."  The  most 
celebrated  work  of  them  all  was  the  Great  Art  of  Artillery  by 
Siemienowitz,  which  was  considered  important  enough  to  be 
translated  into  English  by  order  of  the  Board  of  Ordnance,  nearly 
eighty  years  after  it  had  appeared.10  The  classic  facade  now 
came  into  fashion;  on  it  and  about  it  were  placed  emblematic 
figures,  and  disposed  around  were  groups  of  rockets,  Roman 
candles,  &c.,  musket  barrels  for  projecting  stars,  and  mortars 
from  which  were  fired  shells  called  balloons,  which  were  full  of 
combustibles.  The  figures  were  carved  out  of  wood  which  was 
soaped  or  waxed  over  and  covered  with  papier  mache  so  that 
a  skin  was  formed:  this  was  cut  vertically  into  two  parts, 
removed  from  the  wood,  formed  into  a  hollow  figure,  and  filled 
with  fireworks. 

National  fireworks  now  assumed  a  stately  and  dignified  appear- 
ance, and  for  two  centuries  played  a  conspicuous  part  all  over 
Europe  in  the  public  expression  of  thanksgiving  or  of  triumph. 
Representations  and  sometimes  accounts  will  be  found  in  the 
British  Museum "  of  the  more  important  English  displays, 
from  the  coronation  of  James  II.  down  to  the  peace  rejoicings 
of  1856,  during  which  period  national  fireworks  were  provided 
by  the  officials  of  the  Ordnance.  But  since  the  days  of  Ranelagh 
and  Vauxhall  fireworks  have  become  a  subject  of  private  enter- 
prise, and  the  triumphs  of  such  firms  as  Messrs  Brock  or  Messrs 
Pain  at  the  Crystal  Palace  and  elsewhere  have  been  without 
an  official  rival.  (J.  R.  J.  J.) 

Modern  Fireworks. — In  modern  times  the  art  of  pyrotechny 
has  been  gradually  improved  by  the  work  of  specialists,  who 
have  had  the  advantage  of  being  guided  by  the  progress  of 
scientificchemistryandmechanics.  As  in  all  such  cases,  however, 
science  is  useless  without  the  aid  of  practical  experience  and 
acquired  manual  dexterity. 

Many  substances  have  a  strong  tendency  to  combine  with 
oxygen,  and  will  do  so,  in  certain  circumstances,  so  energetically 
as  to  render  the  products  of  the  combination  (which  may  be 
solid  matter  or  gas)  intensely  hot  and  luminous.  This  is  the 
general  cause  of  the  phenomenon  known  as  fire.  Its  special 
character  depends  chiefly  on  the  nature  of  the  substances  burned 
and  on  the  manner  in  which  the  oxygen  is  supplied  to  them. 
As  is  well  known,  our  atmosphere  contains  oxygen  gas  diluted 
with  about  four  times  its  volume  of  nitrogen;  and  it  is  this 
oxygen  which  supports  the  combustion  of  our  coal  and  candles. 
But  it  is  not  often  that  the  pyrotechnist  depends  wholly  upon 
atmospheric  oxygen  for  his  purposes;  for  the  phenomena  of 
combustion  in  it  are  too  familiar,  and  too  little  capable  of  varia- 
tion, to  strike  with  wonder.  Two  cases,  however,  where  he  does 
so  may  be  instanced,  viz.  the  burning  of  magnesium  powder 
and  of  lycopodium,  both  of  which  are  used  for  the  imitation  of 
lightning  in  theatres.  Nor  does  the  pyrotechnist  resort  much 
to  the  use  of  pure  oxygen,  although  very  brilliant  effects  may 
be  produced  by  burning  various  substances  in  glass  jars  filled 
with  the  gas.  Indeed,  the  art  could  never  have  existed  in  any- 
thing like  its  present  form  had-  not  certain  solid  substances 
become  known  which,  containing  oxygen  in  combination  with 
other  elements,  are  capable  of  being  made  to  evolve  large  volumes 
of  it  at  the  moment  it  is  required.  The  best  examples  of  these 
solid  oxidizing  agents  are  potassium  nitrate  (nitre  or  saltpetre) 
and  chlorate;  and  these  are  of  the  first  importance  in  the 
manufacture  of  fireworks.  If  a  portion  of  one  of  these  salts 
be  thoroughly  powdered  and  mixed  with  the  correct  quantity 
of  some  suitable  combustible  body,ralso  reduced  to  powder, 
the  resulting  mixture  is  capable  of  burning  with  more  or  less 
energy  without  any  aid  from  atmospheric  oxygen,  since  each 
small  piece  of  fuel  is  in  close  juxtaposition  to  an  available  and 
sufficient  store  of  the  gas.  All  that  is  required  is  that  the  libera- 
tion of  the  oxygen  from  the  solid  particles  which  contain  it  shall 
be  started  by  the  application  of  heat  from  without,  and  the 

10  Translated  by  George  Shelvocke,  1727,  by  order  of  the  surveyor- 
general  of  the  Ordnance. 

11  "  Grace  Collection  "  in  the  print-room;  the  King's  Prints  and 
Drawings  in  the  library.     See  also  "  The  Connection  ofthe  Ordnance 
Department  with  National  and  Royal  Fireworks,"  R.  A.  Journal, 
vol.  xxii.  No.  ii. 


422 


FIREWORKS 


action  then  goes  on  unaided.  This,  then,  is  the  fundamental 
fact  of  pyrotechny — that,  with  proper  attention  to  the  chemical 
nature  of  the  substances  employed,  solid  mixtures  (compositions 
or  fuses}  may  be  prepared  which  contain  within  themselves 
all  that  is  essential  for  the  production  of  fire. 

If  nitre  and  potassium  chlorate,  with  other  salts  of  nitric 
and  chloric  acids  and  a  few  similar  compounds,  be  grouped 
together  as  oxidizing  agents,  most  of  the  other  materials  used 
in  making  firework  compositions  may  be  classed  as  oxidizable 
substances.  Every  composition  must  contain  at  least  one 
sample  of  each  class:  usually  there  are  present  more  than  one 
oxidizable  substance,  and  very  often  more  than  one  oxidizing 
agent.  In  all  cases  the  proportions  by  weight  which  the  in- 
gredients of  a  mixture  bear  to  one  another  is  a  matter  of  much 
importance,  for  it  greatly  affects  the  manner  and  rate  of  com- 
bustion. The  most  important  oxidizable  substances  employed 
are  charcoal  and  sulphur.  These  two,  it  is  well  known,  when 
properly  mixed  in  certain  proportions  with  the  oxidizing  agent 
nitre,  constitute  gunpowder;  and  gunpowder  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  construction  of  most  fireworks.  It  is  sometimes 
employed  alone,  when  a  strong  explosion  is  required;  but  more 
commonly  it  is  mixed  with  one  or  more  of  its  own  ingredients 
and  with  other  matters.  In  addition  to  charcoal  and  sulphur, 
the  following  oxidizable  substances  are  more  or  less  employed: — 
many  compounds  of  carbon,  such  as  sugar,  starch,  resins,  &c. ; 
certain  metallic  compounds  of  sulphur,  such  as  the  sulphides  of 
arsenic  and  antimony;  a  few  of  the  metals  themselves,  such  as 
iron,  zinc,  magnesium,  antimony,  copper.  Of  these  metals 
iron  (cast-iron  and  steel)  is  more  used  than  any  of  the  others. 
They  are  all  employed  in  the  form  of  powder  or  small  filings. 
They  do  not  contribute  much  to  the  burning  power  of  the 
composition;  but  when  it  is  ignited  they  become  intensely 
heated  and  are  discharged  into  the  air,  where  they  oxidize 
more  or  less  completely  and  cause  brilliant  sparks  and 
scintillations. 

Sand,  potassium  sulphate,  calomel  and  some  other  substances, 
which  neither  combine  with  oxygen  nor  supply  it,  are  sometimes 
employed  as  ingredients  of  the  compositions  in  order  to  influence 
the  character  of  the  fire.  This  may  be  modified  in  many  ways. 
Thus  the  rate  of  combustion  may  be  altered  so  as  to  give  anything 
from  an  instantaneous  explosion  to  a  slow  fire  lasting  many 
minutes.  The  flame  may  be  clear,  smoky,  or  charged  with  glow- 
ing sparks.  But  the  most  important  characteristic  of  a  fire — 
one  to  which  great  attention  is  paid  by  pyrotechnists — is  its 
colour,  which  may  be  varied  through  the  different  shades  and 
combinations  of  yellow,  red,  green  and  blue.  These  colours 
are  imparted  to  the  flame  by  the  presence  in  it  of  the  heated 
vapours  of  certain  metals,  of  which  the  following  are  the  most 
important: — sodium,  which  gives  a  yellow  colour;  calcium, 
red;  strontium,  crimson;  barium,  green;  copper,  green  or 
blue,  according  to  circumstances.  Suitable  salts  of  these  metals 
are  much  used  as  ingredients  of  fire  mixtures;  and  they  are 
decomposed  and  volatilized  during  the  process  of  combustion. 
Very  often  the  chlorates  and  nitrates  are  employed,  as  they 
serve  the  double  purpose  of  supplying  oxygen  and  of  imparting 
colour  to  the  flame. 

The  number  of  fire  mixtures  actually  employed  is  very  great, 
for  the  requirements  of  each  variety  of  firework,  and  of  almost 
each  size  of  each  variety,  are  different.  Moreover,  every  pyro- 
technist has  his  own  taste  in  the  matter  of  compositions.  They 
are  capable,  however,  of  being  classified  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  work  to  which  they  are  suited.  Thus  there  are  rocket- 
fuses,  gerbe-fuses,  squib-fuses,  star-compositions,  &c.;  and,  in 
addition,  there  are  a  few  which  are  essential  in  the  construction 
of  most  fireworks,  whatever  the  main  composition  may  be. 
Such  are  the  starting-powder,  which  first  catches  the  fire,  the 
bursting-powder,  which  causes  the  final  explosion,  and  the  quick- 
match  (cotton-wick,  dried  after  being  saturated  with  a  paste  of 
gunpowder  and  starch),  employed  for  connecting  parts  of  the  more 
complicated  works  and  carrying  the  fire  from  one  to  another. 
Of  the  general  nature  of  fuses  an  idea  may  be  had  from  the 
following  two  examples,  which  are  selected  at  hazard  from 


among  the  numerous  recipes  for  making,  respectively,  tourbillion 
fire  and  green  stars: — 

Tourbillion.  _  Green  Stars. 

Meal  gunpowder  .      .     24  parts. 
Nitre     . 
Sulphur 
Charcoal 


10 

7 
4 
8' 


Potassium  chlorate 


16  parts. 
48 

12 
I 


Barium  nitrate 
Sulphur 
Charcoal    . 

Steel  filings     .      .      .       8  •     „      Shellac       .      . 

Calomel     . 
Copper  sulphide 

Although  the  making  of  compositions  is  of  the  first  importance, 
it  is  not  the  only  operation  with  which  the  pyrotechnist  has  to  do ; 
for  the  construction  of  the  cases  in  which  they  are  to  be  packed, 
and  the  actual  processes  of  packing  and  finishing,  require  much 
care  and  dexterity.  These  cases  are  made  of  paper  or  pasteboard, 
and  are  generally  of  a  cylindrical  shape.  In  size  they  vary 
greatly,  according  to  the  effect  which  it  is  desired  to  produce. 
The  relations  of  length  to  thickness,  of  internal  to  external 
diameter,  and  of  these  to  the  size  of  the  openings  for  discharge, 
are  matters  of  extreme  importance,  and  must  always  be  attended 
to  with  almost  mathematical  exactness  and  considered  in 
connexion  with  the  nature  of  the  composition  which  is  to  be 
used. 

There  is  one  very  important  property  of  fireworks  that  is 
due  more  to  the  mechanical  structure  of  the  cases  and  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  filled  than  to  the  precise  chemical  character 
of  the  composition,  i.e.  their  power  of  motion.  Some  are  so 
constructed  that  the  piece  is  kept  at  rest  and  the  only  motion 
possible  is  that  of  the  flame  and  sparks  which  escape  during 
combustion  from  the  mouth  of  the  case.  Others,  also  fixed, 
contain,  alternately  with  layers  of  some  more  ordinary  com- 
positions, balls  or  blocks  of  a  special  mixture  cemente'd  by  some 
kind  of  varnish;  and  these  stars,  as  they  are  called,  shot  into  the 
air,  one  by  one,  like  bullets  from  a  gun,  blaze  and  burst  there 
with  striking  effect.  But  in  many  instances  motion  is  imparted 
to  the  firework  as  a  whole — to  the  case  as  well  as  to  its  contents. 
This  motion,  various  as  it  is  in  detail,  is  almost  entirely  one  of  two 
kinds — rotatory  motion  round  a  fixed  point,  which  may  be  in  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  a  single  piece  or  that  of  a  whole  system  of 
pieces,  and  free  ascending  motion  through  the  air.  In  all  cases  the 
cause  of  motion  is  the  same,  viz.  that  large  quantities  of  gaseous 
matter  are  formed  by  the  combustion,  that  these  can  escape 
only  at  certain  apertures,  and  that  a  backward  pressure  is  neces- 
sarily exerted  at  the  point  opposite  to  them.  When  a  large 
gun  is  discharged,  it  recoils  a  few  feet.  Movable  fireworks  may 
be  regarded  as  very  light  guns  loaded  with  heavy  charges;  and 
in  them  the  recoil  is  therefore  so  much  greater  as  to  be  the 
most  noticeable  feature  of  the  discharge;  and  it  only  requires 
proper  contrivances  to  make  the  piece  fly  through  the  air  like 
a  sky-rocket  or  revolve  round  a  central  axis  like  a  Catherine 
wheel.  Beauty  of  motion  is  hardly  less  important  in  pyro- 
techny than  brilliancy  of  fire  and  variety  of  colour. 

The  following  is  a  brief  description  of  some  of  the  forms  of  fire- 
work most  employed : — 

Fixed  Fires. — Theatre  fires  consist  of  a  slow  composition  which 
may  be  heaped  in  a  conical  pile  on  a  tile  or  a  flagstone  and  lit  at 
the  apex.  They  require  no  cases.  Usually  the  fire  is  coloured — 
green,  red  or  blue ;  and  beautiful  effects  are  obtained  by  illuminating 
buildings  wjth  it.  It  is  also  used  on  the  stage;  but,  in  that  case, 
the  composition  must  be  such  as  to  give  no  suffocating  or  poisonous 
fumes.  Bengal  lights  are  very  similar,  but  are  piled  in  saucers, 
covered  with  gummed  paper,  and  lit  by  means  of  pieces  of  match. 
Marroons  are  small  boxes  wrapped  round  several  times  with  lind 
cord  and  filled  with  a  strong  composition  which  explodes  with  a  loud 
report.  They  are  generally  used  in  batteries,  or  in  combination  with 
some  other  form  of  firework.  Squibs  are  straight  cylindrical  cases 
about  6  in.  long,  firmly  closed  at  one  end,  tightly  packed  with  a 
strong  composition,  and  capped  with  touch-paper.  Usually  a  little 
bursting-powder  is  put  in  before  the  ordinary  composition,  so  that 
the  fire  is  finished  by  an  explosion.  The  character  of  the  fire  is,  of 
course,  susceptible  of  great  variation  in  colour,  &c.  Crackers  are 
characterized  by  the  cases  being  doubled  backwards  and  forwards 
several  times,  the  folds  being  pressed  close  and  secured  by  twine. 
One  end  is  primed;  and  when  this  is  lit  the  cracker  burns  with  a 
hissing  noise,  and  a  loud  report  occurs  every  time  the  fire  reaches  a 
bend.  If  the  cracker  is  placed  on  the  ground,  it  will  give  a  jump  at 
each  report ;  so  that  it  cannot  quite  fairly  be  classed  among  the 
fixed  fireworks.  Roman  candles  are  straight  cylindrical  cases  filled 


FIRM— FIRMICUS 


423 


with  layers  of  composition  and  stars  alternately.  These  stars  are 
simply  balls  of  some  special  composition,  usually  containing  metallic 
filings,  made  up  with  gum  and  spirits  of  wine,  cut  to  the  required 
size  and  shape,  dusted  with  gunpowder  and  dried.  They  are  dis- 
charged like  blazing  bullets  several  feet  into  the  air,  and  produce  a 
beautiful  effect,  which  may  be  enhanced  by  packing  stars  of  differ- 
ently coloured  fire  in  one  case.  Gerbes  are  choked  cases,  not  unlike 
Roman  candles,  but  often  of  much  larger  size.  Their  fire  spreads 
like  a  sheaf  of  wheat.  They  may  be  packed  with  variously  coloured 
stars,  which  will  rise  30  ft.  or  more.  Lances  are  small  straight  cases 
charged  with  compositions  like  those  used  for  making  stars.  They 
are  mostly  used  in  complex  devices,  for  which  purpose  they  are  fixed 
with  wires  on  suitable  wooden  frames.  They  are  connected  by 
leaders,  i.e.  by  quick-match  enclosed  in  paper  tubes,  so  that  they 
can  be  regulated  to  take  fire  all  at  the  same  time,  singly,  or  in  detach- 
ments, as  may  be  desired.  The  devices  and  "  set  pieces  "  constructed 
jn  this  way  are  often  of  an  extremely  elaborate  character;  and  they 
include  all  the  varieties  of  lettered  designs,  of  fixed  suns,  fountains, 
palm-trees,  waterfalls,  mosaic  work.  Highland  tartan,  portraits,  ships,  &c. 

Rotating  Fireworks. — Pin  or  Catherine  wheels  are  long  paper 
cases  filled  with  a  composition  by  means  of  a  funnel  and  packing- 
wire  and  afterwards  wound  round  a  disk  of  wood.  This  is  fixed  by 
a  pin,  sometimes  vertically  and  sometimes  horizontally;  and  the 
outer  primed  end  of  the  spiral  is  lit.  As  the  fire  escapes  the  recoil 
causes  the  wheel  to  revolve  in  an  opposite  direction  and  often  with 
considerable  velocity.  Pastiles  are  very  similar  in  principle  and 
construction.  Instead  of  the  case  being  wound  in  a  spiral  and 
made  to  revolve  round  its  own  centre  point,  it  may  be  used  as  the 
engine  to  drive  a  wheel  or  other  form  of  framework  round  in  a 
circle.  Many  varied  effects  are  thus  produced,  of  which  the  fire- 
wheel  is  the  simplest.  Straight  cases,  filled  with  some  fire-com- 
position, are  attached  to  the  end  of  the  spokes  of  a  wheel  or  other 
mechanism  capable  of  being  rotated.  They  are  all  pointed  in  the 
same  direction  at  an  angle  to  the  spokes,  and  they  are  connected 
together  by  leaders,  so  that  each,  as'it  burns  out,  fires  the  one  next 
it.  The  pieces  may  be  so  chosen  that  brilliant  effects  of  changing 
colour  are  produced ;  or  various  fire-wheels  of  different  colours  may 
be  combined,  revolving  in  different  planes  and  different  directions 
— some  fast  and  some  slowly.  Bisecting  wheels,  plural  wheels,  caprice 
wheels,  spiral  wheels,  are  all  more  or  less  complicated  forms;  and 
it  is  possible  to  produce,  by  mechanism  of  this  nature,  a  model  in 
fire  of  the  solar  system. 

Ascending  Fireworks. — Tourbillions  are  fireworks  so  constructed 
as  to  ascend  in  the  air  and  rotate  at  the  same  time,  forming  beautiful 
spiral  curves  of  fire.  The  straight  cylindrical  case  is  closed  at  the 
centre  and  at  the  two  ends  with  plugs  of  plaster  of  Paris,  the  com- 
position occupying  the  intermediate  parts.  The  fire  finds  vent  by 
six  holes  pierced  in  the  case.  Two  of  these  are  placed  close  to  the 
ends,  but  at  opposite  sides,  so  that  one  end  discharges  to  the  right 
and  the  other  to  the  left;  and  it  is  this  which  imparts  the  rotatory 
motion.  The  other  holes  are  placed  along  the  middle  line  of  what  is 
the  under-surface  of  the  case  when  it  is  laid  horizontally  on  the 
ground;  and  these,  discharging  downwards,  impart  an  upward 
motion  to  the  whole.  A  cross  piece  of  wood  balances  the  tourbillion ; 
and  the  quick-match  and  touch-paper  are  so  arranged  that  com- 
bustion begins  at  the  two  ends  simultaneously  and  does  not  reach 
the  holes  of  ascension  till  after  the  rotation  is  fairly  begun.  The 
sky-rocket  is  generally  considered  the  most  beautiful  of  all  fireworks ; 
and  it  certainly  is  the  one  that  requires  most  skill  and  science  in  its 
construction.  It  consists  essentially  of  two  parts, — the  body  and  the 
head.  The  body  is  a  straight  cylinder  of  strong  pasted  paper  and 
is  choked  at  the  lower  end,  so  as  to  present  only  a  narrow  opening 
for  the  escape  of  the  fire.  The  composition  does  not  fill  up  the  case 
entirely,  for  a  central  hollow  conical  bore  extends  from  the  choked 
mouth  up  the  body  for  three-quarters  of  its  length.  This  is  an 
essential  feature  of  the  rocket.  It  allows  of  nearly  the  whole  com- 
position being  fired  at  once ;  the  result  of  which  is  that  an  enormous 
quantity  of  heated  gases  collects  in  the  hollow  bore,  and  the  gases, 
forcing  their  way  downwards  through  the  narrow  opening,  urge  the 
rocket  up  through  the  air.  The  top  of  the  case  is  closed  by  a  plaster- 
of-Paris  plug.  A  hole  passes  through  this  and  is  filled  with  a  fuse, 
which  serves  to  communicate  the  fire  to  the  head  after  the  body  is 
burned  out.  This  head,  which  is  made  separately  and  fastened  on 
after  the  body  is  packed,  consists  of  a  short  cylindrical  paper  chamber 
with  a  conical  top.  It  serves  the  double  purpose  of  cutting  a  way 
through  the  air  and  of  holding  the  garniture  of  stars,  sparks,  crackers, 
serpents,  gold  and  silver  rain,  &c.,  which  are  scattered  by  bursting 
fire  as  soon  as  the  rocket  reaches  the  highest  point  of  its  path.  A 
great  variety  of  beautiful  effects  may  be  obtained  by  the  exercise  of 
ingenuity  in  the  choice  and  construction  of  this  garniture.  Many  of 
the  best  results  have  been  obtained  by  unpublished  methods  which 
must  be  regarded  as  the  secrets  of  the  trade.  The  stick  of  the  sky- 
rocket serves  the  purpose  of  guiding  and  balancing  it  in  its  flight; 
and  its  size  must  be  accurately  adapted  to  the  dimensions  of  the  case. 
In  winged  rockets  the  stick  is  replaced  by  cardboard  wings,  which  act 
like  the  feathers  of  an  arrow.  A  girandole  is  the  simultaneous  dis- 
charge of  a  large  number  of  rockets  (often  from  one  hundred  to  two 
hundred),  which  either  spread  like  a  peacock's  tail  or  pierce  the 
sky  in  all  directions  with  rushing  lines  of  fire.  This  is  usually  the 
final  feat  of  a  great  pyrotechnic  display. 


See  Chertier,  Sur  les  feux  d'arlifice  (Paris,  1841 ;  2nd  ed.,  1854)  > 
Mortimer,  Manual  of  Pyrotechny  (London,  1856) ;  Tessier,  Chimie 
pyrotechnique,  ou  traite  pratique  des  feux  colores  (Paris,  1858) ; 
Richardson  and  Watts,  Chemical  Technology,  s.v.  "  Pyrotechny  " 
(London,  1863-1867);  Thomas  Kentish,  The  Pyrotechnist's  Treasury 
(London,  1878);  Websky,  Luftfeuerwerkkunst  (Leipzig,  1878). 

(O.  M.) 

FIRM,  an  adjective  originally  indicating  a  dense  or  close 
consistency,  hence  steady,  unshaken,  unchanging  or  fixed.  This 
word,  in  M.  Eng.  ferme,  is  derived  through  the  French,  from  Lat. 
firntus.  The  medieval  Latin  substantive  firma  meant  a  fixed 
payment,  either  in  the  way  of  rent,  composition  for  periodic 
payments,  &c.;  and  this  word,  often  represented  by  "firm" 
in  translations  of  medieval  documents,  has  produced  the  English 
"  farm  "  (<?.».).  From  a  late  Latin  use  of  firmare,  to  confirm 
by  signature,  firma  occurs  in  many  Romanic  languages  for  a 
signature,  and  the  English  "  firm  "  was  thus  used  till  the  i8th 
century.  From  a  transferred  use  came  the  meaning  of  a  business 
house.  In  the  Partnership  Act  1890,  persons  who  have  entered 
into  partnership  with  one  another  are  called  collectively  a  firm, 
and  the  name  under  which  their  business  is  carried  on  is  called 
the  firm-name. 

FIRMAMENT,  the  sky,  the  heavens.  In  the  Vulgate  the 
word  firmamentum,  which  means  in  classical  Latin  a  strengthen- 
ing or  support  (firmare,  to  make  firm  or  strong)  was  used  as  the 
equivalent  of  orepewjua  (o-repeoeiv,  to  make  firm  or  solid)  in 
the  LXX.,  which  translates  the  Heb.  rdqiya'.  The  Hebrew 
probably  signifies  literally  "  expanse,"  and  is  thus  used  of  the 
expanse  or  vault  of  the  sky,  the  verb  from  which  it  is  derived 
meaning  "  to  beat  out."  In  Syriac  the  verb  means  "  to  make 
firm,"  and  is  the  direct  source  of  the  Gr.  artpka^a  and  the  Lat. 
firmamentum.  In  ancient  astronomy  the  firmament  was  the 
eighth  sphere  containing  the  fixed  stars  surrounding  the  seven 
spheres  of  the  planets. 

FIRMAN  (an  adaptation  of  the  Per.  ferman,  a  mandate  or 
patent,  cognate  with  the  Sanskrit  pramdna,  a  measure,  authority), 
an  edict  of  an  oriental  sovereign,  used  specially  to  designate 
decrees,  grants,  passports,  &c.,  issued  by  the  sultan  of  Turkey 
and  signed  by  one  of  his  ministers.  A  decree  bearing  the  sultan's 
sign-manual  and  drawn  up  with  special  formalities  is  termed  a 
hatli-sherif,  Arabic  words  meaning  a  line,  writing  or  command, 
and  lofty,  noble.  A  written  decree  of  an  Ottoman  sultan  is  also 
termed  an  irade,  the  word  being  taken  from  the  Arab,  irada, 
will,  volition,  order. 

FIRMICUS,  MATERNUS  JULIUS,  a  Latin  writer,  who  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Constantine  and  his  successors.  About  the  year 
346  he  composed  a  work  entitled  De  erroribus  profanarum 
religionum,  which  he  inscribed  to1  Constantius  and  Constans, 
the  sons  of  Constantine,  and  which  is  still  extant.  In  the  first 
part  (chs.  1-17)  he  attacks  the  false  objects  of  worship  among  the 
Oriental  cults;  in  the  second  (chs.  18-29)  he  discusses  a  number 
of  formulae  and  rites  connected  with  the  mysteries.  The  whole 
tone  of  the  work  is  fanatical  and  declamatory  rather  than 
argumentative,  and  is  thus  in  such  sharp  contrast  with  the 
eight  books  on  astronomy  (Libri  VIII.  Malheseos)  bearing  the 
same  author's  name,  that  the  two  works  have  usually  been 
attributed  to  different  writers.  Mommsen  (Hermes  vol.  29, 
pp.  468-472)  has,  however,  shown  that  the  astronomy — a  work 
interfused  with  an  urbane  Neoplatonic  spirit — was  composed 
about  336  and  not  in  354  as  was  formerly  held.  When  we  add 
to  this  the  similarity  of  style,  and  the  fact  that  each  betrays  a 
connexion  with  Sicily,  there  is  the  strongest  reason  for  claiming 
the  same  author  for  the  two  books,  though  it  shows  that  in  the 
4th  century  acceptance  of  Christianity  did  not  always  mean  an 
advance  in  ethical  standpoint. 

The  Christian  work  is  preserved  in  a  Palatine  MS.  in  the  Vatican 
library.  It  was  first  printed  at  Strassburg  in  1562,  and  has  been 
reprinted  several  times,  both  separately  and  along  with  the  writings 
of  Minucius  Felix,  Cyprian  or  Arnobius.  The  most  correct  editions 
are  those  by  Conr.  Bursian  (Leipzig,  1856),  and  by  C.  Halm,  in  his 
Minucius  Felix  (Corp.  Scr.  Eccl.  Lat.  ii.),  (Vienna,  1867).  The  Neo- 
platonist  work  was  first  printed  by  Aldus  Manutius  in  1501,  and  has 
often  been  reprinted.  For  full  discussions  see  G.  Ebert,  Cesch.  der 
chr.  lot.  Litt.,  ed.  1889,  p.  129  ff. ;  O.  Bardenhewer,  Patrologie, 
ed.  1901,  p.  354. 


FIRMINY— FIRST  OF  JUNE  (BATTLE) 


424 

FIRMINY,  a  town  of  central  France  in  the  department  of 
Loire,  8  m.  S.W.  of  St  Etienne  by  rail.  Pop.  (1906)  15,778. 
It  has  important  coal  mines  known  since  the  I4th  century  and 
extensive  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  goods,  including 
railway  material,  .machinery  and  cannon.  Fancy  woollen 
hosiery  is  also  manufactured. 

FIRST-FOOT,  in  British  folklore,  especially  that  of  the  north 
and  Scotland,  the  first  person  who  crosses  the  threshold  on 
Christmas  or  New  Year's  Eve.  Good  or  ill  luck  is  believed  to  be 
brought  the  house  by  First-Foot,  and  a  female  First-Foot  is 
regarded  with  dread.  In  Lancashire  a  light-haired  man  is  as 
unlucky  as  a  woman,  and  it  became  a  custom  for  dark-haired 
males  to  hire  themselves  out  to  "  take  the  New  Year  in."  In 
Worcestershire  luck  is  ensured  by  stopping  the  first  carol-singer 
who  appears  and  leading  him  through  the  house.  In  Yorkshire 
it  must  always  be  a  male  who  enters  the  house  first,  but  his 
fairness  is  no  objection.  In  Scotland  first-footing  was  always 
more  elaborate  than  in  England,  involving  a  subsequent  enter- 
tainment. 

FIRST  OF  JUNE,  BATTLE  OF  THE.  By  this  name  we  call  the 
great  naval  victory  won  by  Lord  Howe  over  the  French  fleet  of 
Admiral  Villaret-Joyeuse,  on  the  ist  of  June  1794.  No  place 
name  can  be  given  to  it,  because  the  battle  was  fought  429  m. 
to  the  west  of  Ushant. 

The  French  people  were  suffering  much  distress  from  the  bad 
harvest  of  the  previous  year,  and  a  great  convoy  of  merchant 
ships  laden  with  corn  was  expected  from  America.  Admiral 
Vanstabel  of  the  French  navy  had  been  sent  to  escort  it  with 
two  ships  of  the  line  in  December  of  1793.  He  sailed  with  his 
charge  from  the  Chesapeake  on  the  nth  of  April  1794.  On  the 
previous  day  six  French  ships  of  the  line  left  Brest  to  meet 
Vanstabel  in  mid  ocean.  The  British  force  designed  to  intercept 
the  convoy  was  under  LordHowe,then  in  command  of  the  channel 
fleet.  He  sailed  from  Spithead  on  the  2nd  of  May  with  34  sail 
of  the  line  and  15  smaller  vessels,  having  under  his  charge 
nearly  a  hundred  merchant  ships  which  were  to  be  seen  clear  of 
the  Channel.  On  the  4th,  when  off  the  Lizard,  the  convoy  was 
sent  on  its  way  protected  by  8  line  of  battle  ships  and  6  or  7 
frigates.  Two  of  the  line  of  battle  ships  were  to  accompany 
them  throughout  the  voyage.  The  other  six  under  Rear-admiral 
Montagu  were  to  go  as  far  as  Cape  Finisterre,  and  were  then  to 
cruise  on  the  look-out  for  the  French  convoy  between  Cape 
Ortegal  and  Belle  Isle.  These  detachments  reduced  the  force 
under  Lord  Howe's  immediate  command  to  26  of  the  line  and 
7  frigates.  On  the  sth  of  May  he  was  off  Ushant,  and  sent 
frigates  to  reconnoitre  the  harbour  of  Brest.  They  reported  to 
him  that  the  main  French  fleet,  which  was  under  the  command 
of  Villaret-Joyeuse,  and  was  of  25  sail  of  the  line,  was  lying  at 
anchor  in  the  roads.  Howe  then  sailed  to  the  latitude  on  which 
the  convoy  was  likely  to  be  met  with,  knowing  that  if  the  French 
admiral  came  out  it  would  be  to  meet  the  ships  with  the  food  and 
cover  them  from  attack.  To  seek  the  convoy  was  therefore  the 
most  sure  way  of  forcing  Villaret-Joyeuse  to  action.  Till  the 
i8th  the  British  fleet  continued  cruising  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 
On  the  1 9th  Lord  Howe  returned  to  Ushant  and  again  recon- 
noitred Brest.  It  was  then  seen  that  Villaret-Joyeuse  had  gone 
to  sea.  He  had  sailed  with  his  whole  force  on  the  i6th  and  had 
passed  close  to  the  British  fleet  on  the  i7th,  unseen  in  a  fog. 
On  the  igth  the  French  admiral  was  informed  by  the  "  Patriote  " 
(74)  that  Nielly  had  fallen  in  with,  and  had  captured,  the  British 
frigate  "  Castor  "  (32),  under  Captain  Thomas  Troubridge,  to- 
gether with  a  convoy  from  Newfoundland.  On  the  same  day 
Villaret-Joyeuse  captured  part  of  a  Dutch  convoy  of  53  sail 
from  Lisbon.  On  the  igth  a  frigate  detached  by  Admiral  Montagu 
joined  Howe.  It  brought  information  that  Montagu  had  re- 
captured part  of  the  Newfoundland  convoy,  and  had  learnt  that 
Nielly  was  to  join  Vanstabel  at  sea,  and  that  their  combined 
force  would  be  9  sail  of  the  line.  Montagu  himself  had  steered  to 
cruise  on  the  route  of  the  convoy  between  the  45th  and  47th 
degrees  of  north  latitude.  Howe  now  steered  to  meet  his  sub- 
ordinate who,  he  considered,  would  be  in  danger  from  the  main 
French  fleet.  On  the  2ist  he  recaptured  some  of  the  Dutch 


ships  taken  by  Villaret-Joyeuse.  From  them  he  learnt  that 
on  the  i  gth  the  French  fleet  had  been  in  latitude  47°  46'  N.  and  in 
longitude  n°  22'  N.  and  was  steering  westward.  Judging  that 
Montagu  was  too  far  to  the  south  to  be  in  peril  from  Villaret- 
Joyeuse,  and  considering  him  strong  enough  to  perform  the 
duty  of  intercepting  the  convoy,  Lord  Howe  decided  to  pursue 
the  main  French  fleet.  The  wind  was  changeable  and  the 
weather  hazy.  It  was  not  till  the  28th  of  May  at  6.30  A.M.  that 
the  British  fleet  caught  sight  of  the  enemy  in  47°  34'  N.  and 

13°  39'  W- 

The  wind  was  from  the  south-east,  and  the  French  were  to 
windward.  Villaret-Joyeuse  bore  down  to  a  distance  of  10  m. 
from  the  British,  and  then  hauled  to  the  wind  on  the  port  tack. 
It  was  difficult  for  the  British  fleet  to  force  an  action  from  leeward 
if  the  French  were  unwilling  to  engage.  Lord  Howe  detached 
a  light  squadron  of  four  ships,  the  "  Bellerophon  "  (74),  "  Russel " 
(74),  "  Marlborough "  (74),  and  "Thunderer"  (74)  under 
Rear-admiral  Thomas  Pasley,  to  attack  the  rear  of  the  French 
line.  Villaret-Joyeuse  stood  on  and  endeavoured  to  work  to 
windward.  In  the  course  of  the  afternoon  Rear-admiral  Pasley's 
ships  began  to  come  up  with  the  last  of  the  French  line,  the 
"  Revolutionnaire  "  (no).  A  partial  action  took  place  which 
went  on  till  after  dark;  other  British  vessels  joined.  The 
"  Revolutionnaire  "  was  so  damaged  that  she  was  compelled 
to  leave  her  fleet,  and  the  British  "  Audacious  "  (74)  was  also 
crippled  and  compelled  to  return  to  port.  The  "  ReVolution- 
naire  "  was  accompanied  by  another  liner.  During  the  night 
the  two  fleets  continued  on  the  same  course,  and  next  day  Howe 
renewed  his  attempts  to  force  an  action  from  leeward.  He 
tacked  his  fleet  in  succession — his  first  ship  tacking  first  and  the 
rest  in  order — in  the  hope  that  he  would  be  able  to  cut  through 
the  French  rear  and  gain  the  weather-gage.  Villaret-Joyeuse 
then  turned  all  his  ships  together  and  again  headed  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  British.  This  movement  brought  him  nearer 
the  British  fleet,  and  another  partial  action  took  place  between 
the  van  of  each  force.  Seeing  that  the  French  admiral  was  not 
disposed  to  charge  home,  Howe  at  noon  once  more  ordered  his 
fleet  to  tack  in  succession.  His  signal  was  poorly  obeyed  by  the 
van,  and  his  object,  which  was  to  cut  through  the  French  line, 
was  not  at  once  achieved.  But  the  admiral  himself  finally  set 
an  example  by  tacking  his  flagship,  the  "  Queen  Charlotte  " 
(too),  and  passing  through  the  French,  two  ships  from  the  end 
of  their  line.  He  was  followed  by  his  fleet,  and  Villaret-Joyeuse, 
seeing  the  peril  of  the  ships  in  his  rear,  wore  all  his  ships  together 
to  help  them.  Both  forces  had  been  thrown  into  considerable 
confusion  by  these  movements,  but  the  British  had  gained  the 
weather-gage.  Villaret-Joyeuse  was  able  to  save  the  two  ships 
cut  off,  but  he  had  fallen  to  leeward  and  the  power  to  force  on  a 
battle  had  passed  to  Lord  Howe.  During  the  3oth  the  fleets 
lost  sight  of  one  another  for  a  time.  The  French,  who  had  four 
ships  crippled,  had  been  joined  by  four  others,  and  were  again 
26  in  number,  including  the  "  Patriote." 

The  3ist  of  May  passed  without  a  hostile  meeting  and  in  thick 
weather,  but  by  the  evening  the  British  were  close  to  windward 
of  the  French.  As  Howe,  who  had  not  full  confidence  in  all  his 
captains,  did  not  wish  for  a  night  battle,  he  waited  till  the  follow- 
ing morning,  keeping  the  French  under  observation  by  frigates. 
On  the  ist  of  June  they  were  in  the  same  relative  positions,  and 
at  about  a  quarter  past  eight  Howe  bore  down  on  the  French, 
throwing  his  whole  line  on  them  at  once  from  end  to  end,  with 
orders  to  pass  through  from  windward  to  leeward,  and  so  to 
place  the  British  ships  on  the  enemy's  line  of  retreat.  It  was  a 
very  bold  departure  from  the  then  established  methods  of 
fighting,  and  most  honourable  in  a  man  of  sixty-eight,  who  had 
been  trained  in  the  old  school.  Its  essential  merit  was  that  it 
produced  a  close  mUte,  in  which  the  better  average  gunnery 
and  seamanship  of  the  British  fleet  would  tell.  Lord  Howe's 
orders  were  not  fully  obeyed  by  all  his  captains,  but  a  signal 
victory  was  won, — six  of  the  French  line  of  battle  ships  were 
taken,  and  one,  the  "  Vengeur,"  sunk.  The  convoy  escaped 
capture,  having  passed  over  the  spot  on  which  the  action  of  the 
2oth  May  was  fought,  on  the  following  day,  and  it  anchored  at 


FIRTH— FISCHART 


425 


Brest  on  the  3rd  of  June.  Its  safe  arrival  went  far  to  console 
the  French  for  their  defeat.  The  failure  to  stop  it  was  forgotten 
in  England  in  the  pleasure  given  by  the  victory. 

See  James's  Naval  History,  vol.  i.  (1837);  and  Tronde,  Batailks 
navales  de  la  France  (1867).  (D.  H.) 

FIRTH,  CHARLES  HARDING  (1857-  ),  British  historian, 
was  born  at  Sheffield  on  the  1 6th  of  March  1857,  and  was  educated 
at  Clifton  College  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  At  his  univer- 
sity he  took  the  Stanhope  prize  for  an  essay  on  the  marquess 
Wellesley  in  1877,  became  lecturer  at  Pembroke  College  in  1887, 
and  fellow  of  All  Souls  College  in  1901.  He  was  Ford's  lecturer 
in  English  history  in  1900,  and  became  regius  professor  of 
modern  history  at  Oxford  in  succession  to  F.  York  Powell  in 
1904.  Firth's  historical  work  was  almost  entirely  confined  to 
English  history  during  the  time  of  the  Great  Civil  War  and  the 
Commonwealth;  and  although  he  is  somewhat  overshadowed 
by  S.  R.  Gardiner,  a  worker  in  the  same  field,  his  books  are  of 
great  value  to  students  of  this  period.  The  chief  of  them  are: 
Life  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle  (1886) ;  Scotland  and  the  Common- 
wealth (1895);  Scotland  and  the  Protectorate  (1899);  Narrative 
of  General  V enables  (1900);  Oliver  Cromwell  (1900);  Cromwell's 
Army  (1902);  and  the  standard  edition  of  Ludlow's  Memoirs 
(1894).  He  also  edited  the  Clarke  Papers  (1891-1901),  and  Mrs 
Hutchinson's  Memoirs  of  Colonel  Hutchinson  (1885),  and  wrote 
an  introduction  to  the  Stuart  Tracts  (1903),  besides  contributions 
to  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography.  In  1909  he  published 
The  Last  Years  of  the  Protectorate. 

FIRTH,  MARK  (1819-1880),  English  steel  manufacturer  and 
philanthropist,  was  born  at  Sheffield  on  the  25th  of  April  1819, 
the  son  of  a  steel  smelter.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  Mark,  with  his 
brother,  left  school  to  join  their  father  in  the  foundry  where  he 
was  employed,  and  ten  years  later  the  three  together  started  a 
six-hole  furnace  of  their  own.  The  venture  proved  successful, 
and  besides  an  extensive  home  business,  they  soon  established 
a  large  American  connexion.  Their  huge  Norfolk  works  were 
erected  at  Sheffield  in  1849,  and  still  greater  were  afterwards 
acquired  at  Whittington  in  Derbyshire  and  others  at  Clay  Wheels 
near  Wadsley.  The  manufacture  of  steel  blocks  for  ordnance 
was  the  principal  feature  of  their  business,  and  they  produced 
also  shot  and  heavy  forgings.  They  also  installed  a  plant 
for  the  production  of  steel  cores  for  heavy  guns,  and  for  some 
time  they  supplied  nearly  all  the  metal  used  for  gun  making 
by  the  British  government  and  a  large  proportion  of  that  used 
by  the  French.  On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1848  Mark  Firth 
became  the  head  of  the  firm.  In  1869  he  built  and  endowed 
"  Mark  Firth's  Almshouses  "  at  Ranmoor  near  Sheffield,  and  in 
1875,  when  mayor,  he  presented  to  his  native  place  a  freehold 
park  of  thirty-six  acres.  He  founded  and  endowed  Firth  College, 
for  lectures  and  classes  in  connexion  with  the  extension  of 
university  education,  which  was  opened  in  1879.  He  died  on  the 
28th  of  November  1880,  and  was  accorded  a  public  funeral. 

FIRUZABAD,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of  Fars,  72m. 
S.  of  Shiraz,  in  28°  51'  N.  Pop.  about  3000.  It  is  situated 
in  a  fertile  plain,  15  m.  long  and  7  m.  broad,  well  watered  by 
the  river  Khoja  which  flows  through  it  from  north  to  south. 
The  town  is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall  and  ditch.  Three  or  four 
miles  north-west  of  the  town  are  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city 
and  of  a  large  building  popularly  known  as  the  fire-temple  of 
Ardashir,  and  beyond  them  on  the  face  of  the  rock  in  the  gorge 
through  which  the  river  enters  the  plain  are  two  Sassanian 
bas-reliefs. 

The  river  leaves  the  plain  by  a  narrow  gorge  at  the  southern 
end,  and  according  to  Persian  history  it  was  there  that  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  when  unable  to  capture  the  ancient  city,  built 
a  dike  across  the  gorge,  thus  damming  up  the  water  of  the  river 
and  turning  the  plain  into  a  lake  and  submerging  the  city  and 
villages.  The  lake  remained  until  the  beginning  of  the  3rd 
century,  when  Ardashir,  the  first  Sassanian  monarch,  drained 
it  by  destroying  the  dike.  He  built  a  new  city,  called  it  Gur, 
and  made  it  the  capital  of  one  of  the  five  great  provinces  or 
divisions  of  Fars.  Firuz  (or  Peroz,  q.v.),  one  of  Ardashir's 
successors,  called  the  district  after  his  name  Firuzabad  ("  the 


abode  of  Firuz  "),  but  the  name  of  the  city  remained  Gur  until 
Azud  ed  Dowleh  (Adod  addaula)  (949-982)  change'd  it  to  its 
present  name.  He  did  this  because  he  frequently  resided  at  Gur, 
and  the  name  meaning  also  "  a  grave  "  gave  rise  to  unpleasant 
allusions,  for  instance,  "  People  who  go  to  Gur  (grave)  never 
return  alive;  our  king  goes  to  Gur  (the  town)  several  times  a 
year  and  is  not  dead  yet." 

The  district  has  twenty  villages  and  produces  much  wheat 
and  rice.  It  is  said  that  the  rice  of  Firuzabad  bears  sixty- 
fold.  (A.  H.-S.) 

FIRUZKUH,  a  small  province  of  Persia,  with  a  population 
of  about  5000,  paying  a  yearly  revenue  of  about  £500.  Its  chiel 
place  is  a  village  of  the  same  name  picturesquely  situated  in  a 
valley  of  the  Elburz,  about  90  m.  east  of  Teheran,  at  an  elevation 
of  6700  ft.  and  in  35°  46'  N.  and  52°  48'  E.  It  has  post  and 
telegraph  offices  and  a  population  of  2500.  A  precipitous  cliff 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  valley  is  surmounted  by  the  ruins  of  an 
ancient  fort  popularly  ascribed  to  Alexander  the  Great. 

FISCHART,  JOHANN  (c.  1545-1591),  German  satirist  and 
publicist,  was  born,  probably  at  Strassburg  (but  according  to 
some  accounts  at  Mainz),  in  or  about  the  year  1545,  and  was 
educated  at  Worms  in  the  house  of  Kaspar  Scheid,  whom  in  the 
preface  to  his  Eulenspiegel  he  mentions  as  his  "  cousin  and 
preceptor."  He  appears  to  have  travelled  in  Italy,  the  Nether- 
lands, France  and  England,  and  on  his  return  to  have  taken  the 
degree  of  doctor  juris  at  Basel.  From  1 575  to  1 581 ,  within  which 
period  most  of  his  works  were  written,  he  lived  with,  and  was 
probably  associated  in  the  business  of,  his  sister's  husband, 
Bernhard  Jobin,  a  printer  at  Strassburg,  who  published  many 
of  his  books.  In  1581  Fischart  was  attached,  as  advocate  to 
the  Reichskammergericht  (imperial  court  of  appeal)  at  Spires, 
and  in  1583,  when  he  married,  was  appointed  Amtmann  (magis- 
trate) at  Forbach  near  Saarbriicken.  Here  he  died  in  the  winter 
of  1590-1591.  Fischart  wrote  under  various  feigned  names, 
such  as  Mentzer,  Menzer,  Reznem,  Huldrich  Elloposkleros, 
Jesuwalt  Pickhart,  Winhold  Alkofribas  Wiistblutus,  Ulrich 
Mansehr  von  Treubach,  and  Im  Fiscnen  Gilt's  Mischen;  and  it 
is  partly  owing  to  this  fact  that  there  is  doubt  whether  some  of 
the  works  attributed  to  him  are  really  his.  More  than  50  satirical 
works,  however,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  remain  authentic, 
among  which  are — Nachtrab  oder  Nebelkrdh  (1570),  a  satire 
against  one  Jakob  Rabe,  who  had  become  a  convert  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church;  VonSt  Dominici  des  Predigermonchs 
und  St  Francisci  Barfussers  artlichem  Leben  (1571),  a  poem  with 
the  expressive  motto  "  Sie  haben  Nasen  vnd  riechen's  nit  " 
(Ye  have  noses  and  smell  it  not) ,  written  to  defend  the  Protestants 
against  certain  wicked  accusations,  one  of  which  was  that  Luther 
held  communion  with  the  devil;  Eulenspiegel  Reimensweis 
(•written  1571,  published  1572);  Aller  Praktik  Grossmutter 
(1572),  after  Rabelais's  Prognostication  Pantagrueline;  Floh 
Haz,  Weiber  Traz  (1573),  in  which  he  describes  a  battle  be- 
tween fleas  and  women;  Ajfentheuerliche  und  ungeheuerliche  Ge- 
schichtschrift  vom  Leben,  Rhaten  und  Thaten  der  .  .  .  Helden 
und  Herren  Grandgusier  Gargantoa  und  Panlagruel,  also  after 
Rabelais  (1575,  and  again  under  the  modified  title,  Naupen- 
geheurliche  Geschichtklitterung,  1577);  Neue  kunslliche  Figuren 
biblischer  Historien  (1576);  Anmahnung  zur  christlichen  Kinder- 
zucht  (1576);  Das  gliickhafft  Schiff  von  Zurich  (1576,  repub- 
lished  1828,  with  an  introduction  by  the  poet  Ludwig  Uhland), 
a  poem  commemorating  the  adventure  of  a  company  of 
Ziirich  arquebusiers,  who  sailed  from  their  native  town  to 
Strassburg  in  one  day,  and  brought,  as  a  proof  of  this  feat,  a 
kettleful  of  Hirsebrei  (millet),  which  had  been  cooked  in  Zurich, 
still  warm  into  Strassburg,  and  intended  to  illustrate  the  pro- 
verb "  perseverance  overcomes  all  difficulties  ";  Podagrammisch 
Trostbiichlein  (1577);  Philosophisch  Ehzuchtbilchlein  (1578);  the 
celebrated  Bienenkorb  des  heiligen  romischen  Immenschwarms, 
&c.,  a  modification  of  the  Dutch  De  roomsche  Byen-Korf,  by 
Philipp  Marnix  of  St  Aldegonde,  published  in  1579  and  reprinted 
in  1847;  Der  heilig  Brotkorb  (1580),  after  Calvin's  Traite  des 
reliques;  Das  vierhornige  Jesuilerhullein,  a  rhymed  satire 
against  the  Jesuits  (1580);  and  a  number  of  smaller  poems. 


426 


FISCHER,  EMIL— FISCHER,  ERNST 


To  Fischart  also  have  been  attributed  some  "  Psalmen  und 
geistliche  Lieder  "  which  appeared  in  a  Strassburg  hymn-book 
of  1576. 

Fischart  had  studied  not  only  the  ancient  literatures,  but  also 
those  of  Italy,  France,  the  Netherlands  and  England.  He 
was  a  lawyer,  a  theologian,  a  satirist  and  the  most  powerful 
Protestant  publicist  of  the  counter-reformation  period;  in 
politics  he  was  a  republican.  Above  all,  he  is  a  master  of 
language,  and  was  indefatigable  with  his  pen.  His  satire  was 
levelled  mercilessly  at  all  perversities  in  the  public  and  private 
life  of  his  time — at  astrological  superstition,  scholastic  pedantry, 
ancestral  pride,  but  especially  at  the  papal  dignity  and  the 
lives  of  the  priesthood  and  the  Jesuits.  He  indulged  in  the 
wildest  witticisms,  the  most  abandoned  caricature;  but  all 
this  he  did  with  a  serious  purpose.  As  a  poet,  he  is  characterized 
by  the  eloquence  and  picturesqueness  of  his  style  and  the  symboli- 
cal language  he  employed.  Thirty  years  after  Fischart's  death 
his  writings,  once  so  popular,  were  almost  entirely  forgotten. 
Recalled  to  the  public  attention  by  Johann  Jakob  Bodmer  and 
Gotthold  Ephraim  Lessing,  it  is  only  recently  that  his  works 
have  come  to  be  a  subject  of  investigation,  and  his  position 
in  German  literature  to  be  fully  understood. 

Freiherr  von  Meusebach,  whose  valuable  collection  of  Fischart's 
works  has  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  royal  library  in  Berlin, 
deals  in  his  Fischartstudien  (Halle,  1879)  with  the  great  satirist. 
Fischart's  poetical  works  were  published  by  Hermann  Kurz  in  three 
volumes  (Leipzig,  1866-1868);  and  selections  by  K.  Goedeke 
(Leipzig,  1800)  and  by  A.  Hauffen  in  Kiirschner's  Deutsche  National- 
literatur  (Stuttgart,  1893) ;  Die  Geschichtklitterung  and  some  minor 
writings  appeared  in  Scheible's  Kloster,  vols.  7  and  10  (Stuttgart, 
1847-1848).  Das  gluckhafft  Schiff  has  been  frequently  reprinted, 
critical  edition  by  J.  Baechtold  (1880).  See  for  further  biographical 
details,  Erich  Schmidt  in  the  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographic,  vol.  7; 
A.  F.  C.  Vilmar  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Encyclopaedic ;  W.  Wacker- 
nagel,  Johann  Fischart  von  Strassburg  und  Basels  Anteil  an  ihm  (2nd 
ed.,  Basel,  1875);  P.  Besson,  Etude  sur  Jean  Fischart  (Paris,  1889); 
and  A.  Hauffen,  "  Fischart-Studien  "  (in  Euphorion,  1896-1909). 

FISCHER,  EMIL  (1852-  ),  German  chemist,  was  born  at 
Euskirchen,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  pth  of  October  1852, 
his  father  being  a  merchant  and  manufacturer.  After  studying 
chemistry  at  Bonn,  he  migrated  to  Strassburg,  where  he  graduated 
as  Ph.D.  in  1874.  He  then  acted  as  assistant  to  Adolf  von 
Baeyer  at  Munich  for  eight  years,  after  which  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  chemistry  successively  at  Erlangen  (1882)  and 
Wurzburg  (1885).  In  1892  he  succeeded  A.  W.  von  Hofmann 
as  professor  of  chemistry  at  Berlin.  Emil  Fischer  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  organic  chemistry,  and  his  investigations 
are  characterized  by  an  originality  of  idea  and  readiness  of 
resource  which  make  him  the  master  of  this  branch  of  experi- 
mental chemistry.  In  his  hands  no  substance  seemed  too 
complex  to  admit  of  analysis  or  of  synthesis;  and  the  more 
intricate  and  involved  the  subjects  of  his  investigations  the  more 
strongly  shown  is  the  conspicuous  skill  in  pulling,  as  it  were, 
atom  from  atom,  until  the  molecule  stood  revealed,  and,  this 
accomplished,  the  same  skill  combined  atom  with  atom  until 
the  molecule  was  regenerated.  His  forte  was  to  enter  fields 
where  others  had  done  little  except  break  the  ground;  and  his 
researches  in  many  cases  completely  elucidated  the  problem  in 
hand,  and  where  the  solution  was  not  entire,  his  methods  and 
results  almost  always  contained  the  key  to  the  situation. 

In  1875,  the  year  following  his  engagement  with  von  Baeyer, 
he  published  his  discovery  of  the  organic  derivatives  of  a  new  com- 
pound of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  which  he  named  hydrazine  (?.».). 
He  investigated  both  the  aromatic  and  aliphatic  derivatives,  estab- 
lishing their  relation  to  the  diazo  compounds,  and  he  perceived  the 
readiness  with  which  they  entered  into  combination  with  other 
substances,  giving  origin  to  a  wealth  of  hitherto  unknown  compounds. 
Of  such  condensation  products  undoubtedly  the  most  important  are 
the  hydrazones,  which  result  from  the  interaction  with  aldehydes 
and  ketones.  His  observations,  published  in  1886,  that  such  hydra- 
zones,  by  treatment  with  hydrochloric  acid  or  zinc  chloride,  yielded 
derivatives  of  indpl,  the  pyrrol  of  the  benzene  series  and  the  parent 
substance  of  indigo,  were  a  valuable  confirmation  of  the  views 
advanced  by  his  master,  von  Baeyer,  on  the  subject  of  indigo  and 
the  many  substances  related  to  it.  Of  greater  moment  was  his 
discovery  that  phenyl  hydrazine  reacted  with  the  sugars  to  form 


substances  which  he  named  osazones,  and  which,  being  highly 
crystalline  and  readily  formed,  served  to  identify  such  carbohydrates 
more  definitely  than  had  been  previously  possible.  He  next  turned 
to  the  rosaniline  dyestuffs  (the  magenta  of  Sir  W.  H.  Perkin),  and  in 
collaboration  with  his  cousin  Otto  Fischer  (b.  1852),  then  at  Munich 
and  afterwards  professor  at  Erlangen,  who  has  since  identified 
himself  mainly  with  the  compounds  of  this  and  related  groups,  he 
published  papers  in  1878  and  1879  which  indubitably  established 
that  these  dyestuffs  were  derivatives  of  triphenyl  methane.  Fischer's 
next  research  was  concerned  with  compounds  related  to  uric  acid. 
Here  the  ground  had  been  broken  more  especially  by  von  Baeyer, 
but  practically  all  our  knowledge  of  the  so-called  purin  group  (the 
word  purin  appears  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  phrase  purum 
uricum)  is  due  to  Fischer.  In  1881-1882  he  published  papers  which 
established  the  formulae  of  uric  acid,  xanthine,  caffeine,  theobromine 
and  some  other  compounds  of  this  group.  But  his  greatest  work 
in  this  field  was  instituted  in  1894,  when  he  commenced  his  great 
series  of  papers,  wherein  the  compounds  above  mentioned  were  all 
referred  to  a  nitrogenous  base,  purin  (q.v.).  The  base  itself  was 
obtained,  but  only  after  much  difficulty;  and  an  immense  series  of 
derivatives  were  prepared,  some  of  which  were  patented  in  view  of 
possible  therapeutical  applications.1  These  researches  were  pub- 
lished in  a  collected  form  in  1907  with  the  title  Unlersuchungen  in 
der  Puringruppe  (1882-1906).  The  first  stage  of  his  purin  work 
successfully  accomplished,  he  next  attacked  the  sugar  group.  Here 
the  pioneer  work  was  again  of  little  moment,  and  Fischer  may  be 
regarded  as  the  prime  investigator  in  this  field.  His  researches  may 
be  taken  as  commencing  in  1883;  and  the  results  are  unparalleled 
in  importance  in  the  history  of  organic  chemistry.  The  chemical 
complexity  of  these  carbohydrates,  and  the  difficulty  with  which 
they  could  be  got  into  a  manageable  form — they  generally  appeared 
as  syrups — occasioned  much  experimental  difficulty;  but  these 
troubles  were  little  in  comparison  with  the  complications  due  to 
stereochemical  relations.  However,  Fischer  synthesized  fructose, 
glucose  and  a  great  number  of  other  sugars,  and  having  showed 
how  to  deduce,  for  instance,  the  formulae  of  the  1 6  stereoisomeric 
glucoses,  he  prepared  several  stereoisomerides,  thereby  completing 
a  most  brilliant  experimental  research,  and  simultaneously  confirm- 
ing the  van't  Hoff  theory  of  the  asymmetric  carbon  atom  (see 
STEREO-ISOMERISM).  The  study  of  the  sugars  brought  in  its  train 
the  necessity  for  examining  the  nature,  properties  and  reactions  of 
substances  which  bring  about  the  decomposition  known  as  fermenta- 
tion (q.v.).  Fischer  attacked  the  problem  presented  by  ferments 
and  enzymes,  and  although  we  as  yet  know  little  of  this  complex 
subject,  to  Fischer  is  due  at  least  one  very  important  discovery, 
viz.  that  there  exists  some  relation  between  the  chemical  constitution 
of  a  sugar  and  the  ferment  and  enzyme  which  breaks  it  down.  The 
magnitude  of  his  researches  in  this  field  may  be  gauged  by  his 
collected  papers,  Untersuchungen  iiber  Kohknhydrate  und  Fermente 
(1884-1908),  pp.  viii.  +  9i2  (Berlin,  1909). 

From  the  sugars  and  ferments  it  is  but  a  short  step  to  the  subject 
of  the  proteins,  substances  which  are  more  directly  connected  with 
life  processes  than  any  others.  The  chemistry  of  the  proteins,  a 
subject  which  bids  fair  to  be  Fischer's  great  lifework,  presents 
difficulties  which  are  probably  without  equal  in  the  whole  field  of 
chemistry,  partly  on  account  of  the  extraordinary  chemical  com- 
plexity of  the  substances  involved,  and  partly  upon  the  peculiar 
manner  in  which  chemical  reactions  are  brought  about  in  the  living 
organism.  But  by  the  introduction  of  new  methods,  Fischer  suc- 
ceeded in  breaking  down  the  complex  albuminoid  substances  into 
amino  acids  and  other  nitrogenous  compounds,  the  constitutions 
of  most  of  which  have  been  solved;  and  by  bringing  about  the  re- 
combination of  these  units,  appropriately  chosen,  he  prepared 
synthetic  peptides  which  approximate  to  the  natural  products. 
His  methods  led  to  the  preparation  of  an  octadeca-peptide  of  the 
molecular  weight  1213,  exceeding  that  of  any  other  synthetic 
compound;  but  even  this  compound  falls  far  short  of  the  simplest 
latural  peptide,  which  has  a  molecular  weight  of  from  2000  to  3000. 
He  considers,  however,  that  the  synthesis  of  more  complex  products 
s  only  a  matter  of  trouble  and  cost.  His  researches  made  from  1899 
to  1906  have  been  published  with  the  title  Untersuchungen  iiber 
Aminosauren,  Polypeptides  und  Proteine  (Berlin,  1907).  The  extra- 
ordinary merit  of  his  many  researches  has  been  recognized  by  all  the 
mportant  scientific  societies  in  the  world,  and  he  was  awarded  the. 
Mobel  prize  for  chemistry  in  1902.  Under  his  control  the  laboratory 
at  Berlin  became  one  of  the  most  important  in  existence,  and  has 
attracted  to  it  a  constant  stream  of  brilliant  pupils,  many  of  whom 
are  to  be  associated  with  much  of  the  experimental  work  indis- 
solubly  connected  with  Fischer. 

FISCHER,  ERNST  KUNO  BERTHOLD  (1824-1907),  German 
shilosopher,  was  born  at  Sandewalde  in  Silesia,  on  the  23rd  of 
July  1824.  After  studying  philosophy  at  Leipzig  and  Halle, 
became  a  privat-docent  at  Heidelberg  in  1850.  The  Baden 
government  in  1853  laid  an  embargo  on  his  teaching  owing  to 

1  For  a  brief  review  of  the  pharmacology  of  purin  derivatives  see 
?.  Francis  and  J.  M.  Fortescue-Brinkdale,  The  Chemical  Basis  of 
Pharmacology  (1908). 


FISH— FISHER,  JOHN 


his  Liberal  ideas,  but  the  effect  of  this  was  to  rouse  considerable 
sympathy  for  his  views,  and  in  1856  he  obtained  a  professorship 
at  Jena,  where  he  soon  acquired  great  influence  by  the  dignity 
of  his  personal  character.  In  1872,  on  Zeller's  removal  to  Berlin, 
Fischer  succeeded  him  as  professor  of  philosophy  and  the  history 
of  modern  German  literature  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  died  on 
the  4th  of  July  1 907 .  His  part  in  philosophy  was  that  of  historian 
and  commentator,  for  which  he  was  especially  qualified  by  his 
remarkable  clearness  of  exposition;  his  point  of  view  is  in  the 
main  Hegelian.  His  Geschichte  der  neuern  Philosophic  (1852- 
1893,  new  ed.  1897)  is  perhaps  the  most  accredited  modern  book 
of  its  kind,  and  he  made  valuable  contributions  to  the  study  of 
Kant,  Bacon,  Shakespeare,  Goethe,  Spinoza,  Lessing,  Schiller 
and  Schopenhauer. 

Some  of  his  numerous  works  have  been  translated  into  English: 
Francis  Bacon  of  Verulam,  by  J.  Oxenford  (1857);  The  Life  and 
Character  of  Benedict  Spinoza,  by  Frida  Schmidt  (1882);  A  Com- 
mentary on  Kant's  Kritik  of  Pure  Reason,  by  J.  P.  Mahaffy  (1866) ; 
Descartes  and  his  School,  by  J.  P.  Gordy  (1887) ;  A  Critique  of  Kant, 
by  W.  S.  Hough  (1888);  see  also  H.  Falkenheim,  Kuno  Fischer  und 
die  litterar-historische  Methode  (1892);  and  bibliography  in  J.  M. 
Baldwin's  Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology  (1905). 

FISH,  HAMILTON  (1808-1893),  American  statesman,  was 
born  in  New  York  City  on  the  3rd  of  August  1808.  His  father, 
Nicholas  Fish  (1758-1833),  served  in  the  American  army  during 
the  War  of  American  Independence,  rising  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel.  The  son  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in 
1827,  and  in  1830  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  practised  only 
a  short  time.  In  1843-1845  he  was  a  Whig  representative  in 
Congress.  He  was  the  Whig  candidate  for  lieutenant-governor 
of  New  York  in  1846,  and  was  defeated  by  Addison  Gardner 
(Democrat);  but  when  in  1847  Gardner  was  appointed  a  judge 
of  the  state  court  of  appeals,  Fish  was  elected  (November  1847) 
to  complete  the  term  (to  January  1849).  He  was  governor  of 
New  York  state  from  1849  to  1851,. and  was  United  States 
senator  in  1851-1857,  acting  with  the  Republicans  during  the 
last  part  of  his  term.  In  1861-1862  he  was  associated  with  John 
A.  Dix,  William  M.  Evarts,  William  E.  Dodge,  A.  T.  Stewart, 
John  Jacob  Astor,  and  other  New  York  men,  on  the  Union 
Defence  Committee,  which  (from  April  22,  1861,  to  April  30, 
1862)  co-operated  with  the  municipal  government  in  the  raising 
and  equipping  of  troops,  and  disbursed  more  than  a  million 
dollars  for  the  relief  of  New  York  volunteers  and  their  families. 
Fish  was  secretary  of  state  during  President  Grant's  two  ad- 
ministrations (1860-1877).  He  conducted  the  negotiations  with 
Great  Britain  which  resulted  in  the  treaty  of  the  8th  of  May 
1871,  under  which  (Article  i)  the  "Alabama  claims"  were 
referred  to  arbitration,  and  the  same  disposition  (Article  34) 
was  made  of  the  "  San  Juan  Boundary  Dispute,"  concerning 
the  Oregon  boundary  line.  In  1871  Fish  presided  at  the  Peace 
Conference  at  Washington  between  Spain  and  the  allied  republics 
of  Peru,  Chile,  Ecuador  and  Bolivia,  which  resulted  in  the 
formulation  (April  1 2)  of  a  general  truce  between  those  countries, 
to  last  indefinitely  and  not  to  be  broken  by  any  one  of  them 
without  three  years'  notice  given  through  the  United  States; 
and  it  was  chiefly  due  to  his  restraint  and  moderation  that  a 
satisfactory  settlement  of  the  "  Virginius  Affair  "  was  reached 
by  the  United  States  and  Spain  (1873).  Fish  was  vice-president- 
general  of  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati  from  1848  to  1854, 
and  president-general  from  1854  until  his  death.  He  died  in 
Garrison,  New  York,  on  the  7th  of  September  1893. 

His  son,  NICHOLAS  FISH  (1846-1902),  was  appointed  second 
secretary  of  legation  at  Berlin  in  1871,  became  secretary  in 
1874,  and  was  charge  d'affaires  at  Berne  in  1877-1881,  and 
minister  to  Belgium  in  1882-1886,  after  which  he  engaged  in 
banking  in  New  York  City. 

FISH  (O.  Eng.  fisc,  a  word  common  to  Teutonic  languages, 
cf.  Dutch  visch,  Ger.  Fisch,  Goth,  fisks,  cognate  with  the  Lat. 
piscis),  the  common  name  of  that  class  of  vertebrate  animals 
which  lives  exclusively  in  water,  breathes  through  gills,  and 
whose  limbs  take  the  form  of  fins  (see  ICHTHYOLOGY).  The 
article  FISHERIES  deals  with  the  subject  from  the  economic  and 
commercial  point  of  view,  and  ANGLING  with  the  catching  of 


427 

fish  as  a  sport.  The  constellation  and  sign  of  the  zodiac  known 
as  "  the  fishes  "  is  treated  under  PISCES. 

The  fish  was  an  early  symbol  of  Christ  in  primitive  and  medieval 
Christian  art.  The  origin  is  to  be  found  in  the  initial  letters 
of  the  names  and  titles  of  Jesus  in  Greek,  viz.  "I»j<roDs  Xpioros, 
Qtov  Tios,  ZCOTIJP,  Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God,  Saviour,  which 
together  spell  the  Greek  word  for  "  fish,"  IxBvs.  The  fish  is 
also  said  to  be  represented  in  the  oval-shaped  figure,  pointed  at 
both  ends,  and  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two  circles.  This 
figure,  also  known  as  the  iiesica  piscis,  is  common  in  ecclesiastical 
seals  and  as  a  glory  or  aureole  in  paintings  of  sculpture,  surround- 
ing figures  of  the  Trinity,  saints,  &c.  The  figure  is,  however, 
sometimes  referred  to  the  almond,  as  typifying  virginity;  the 
French  name  for  the  symbol  is  Amande  mystique. 

The  word  "  fish  "  is  used  in  many  technical  senses.  Thus 
it  is  used  of  the  purchase  used  in  raising  the  flukes  of  an  anchor 
to  the  bill-board;  of  a  piece  of  wood  or  metal  used  to  strengthen 
a  sprung  mast  or  yard;  and  of  a  plate  of  metal  used,  as  in  railway 
construction,  for  the  strengthening  of  the  meeting-place  of  two 
rails.  This  word  is  of  doubtful  origin,  but  it  is  probably  an 
adaptation  of  the  Fr.  fiche,  that  which  "  fixes,"  a  peg.  This 
word  also  appears  in  the  English  form  "  fish,"  in  the  metal, 
pearl  or  bone  counters,  sometimes  made  in  the  form  of  fish,  used 
for  scoring  points,  &c.,  in  many  games. 

FISHER,  ALVAN  (1792-1863),  American  portrait-painter, 
was  born  at  Needham,  Massachusetts,  on  the  gth  of  August  1792. 
At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was  a  clerk  in  a  country  shop,  and 
subsequently  was  employed  by  the  village  house  painter,  but  at 
the  age  of  twenty-two  he  began  to  paint  portrait  heads,  alternat- 
ing with  rural  scenes  and  animals,  for  which  he  found  patrons 
at  modest  prices.  In  ten  years  he  had  saved  enough  to  go  to 
Europe,  studying  at  the  Paris  schools  and  copying  in  the  galleries 
of  the  Louvre.  Upon  his  return  he  became  one  of  the  recognized 
group  of  Massachusetts  portrait-painters.  Along  with  Doughty, 
Harding  and  Alexander,  in  1831,  he  held  an  exhibition  of  his 
work  in  Boston — perhaps  the  first  joint  display  by  painters 
ever  held  in  that  city.  Though  he  had  considerable  talent  for 
landscape,  a  lack  of  patronage  for  such  work  caused  him  to 
confine  himself  to  portraiture,  in  which  he  was  moderately 
successful.  He  died  at  Dedham,  Mass.,  on  the  i6th  of  February 
1863. 

FISHER,  GEORGE  PARK  (1827-1909),  American  theologian, 
was  born  at  Wrentham,  Massachusetts,  on  the  icth  of  August 
1827.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1847,  and  at  the 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1851,  spent  three  years  in 
study  in  Germany,  was  college  preacher  and  professor  of  divinity 
at  Yale  College  in  1854-1861,  and  was  Titus  Street  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history  in  the  Yale  Divinity  School  in  1861-1901, 
when  he  was  made  professor  emeritus.  He  was  president  of  the 
American  Historical  Association  in  1897-1898.  His  writings  have 
given  him  high  rank  as  an  authority  on  ecclesiastical  history. 
They  include  Essays  on  the  Supernatural  Origin  of  Christianity 
(1865);  History  of  the  Reformation  (1873),  republished  in  several 
revisions;  The  Beginnings  of  Christianity  (1877);  Discussions 
in  History  and  Theology  (1880);  Outlines  of  Universal  History 
(1886);  History  of  the  Christian  Church  (1887);  The  Nature 
and  Method  of  Revelation  (1890);  Manual  of  Natural  Theology 
(1893);  A  History  of  Christian  Doctrine,  in  the  "Interna- 
tional Theological  Library"  (1896);  and  A  Brief  History  of 
Nations  (1896).  He  died  on  the  2oth  of  December  1909. 

FISHER,  JOHN  (c.  1460-1535),  English  cardinal  and  bishop  of 
Rochester,  born  at  Beverly,  received  his  first  education  at  the 
collegiate  church  there.  In  1484  he  went  to  Michael  House, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degrees  in  arts  in  1487  and  1491, 
and,  after  filling  several  offices  in  the  university,  became  master 
of  his  college  in  1499.  He  took  orders;  and  his  reputation  for 
learning  and  piety  attracted  the  notice  of  Margaret  Beaufort, 
mother  of  Henry  VII.,  who  made  him  her  confessor  and  chaplain. 
In  1501  he  became  vice-chancellor;  and  later  on,  when  chancellor, 
he  was  able  to  forward,  if  not  to  initiate  entirely,  the  beneficent 
schemes  of  his  patroness  in  the  foundations  of  St.  John's  and 
Christ's  colleges,  in  addition  to  two  lectureships,  in  Greek 


428 


FISHER,  BARON 


and  Hebrew.  His  love  for  Cambridge  never  waned,  and  his 
own  benefactions  took  the  form  of  scholarships,  fellowships  and 
lectures.  In  1503  he  was  the  first  Margaret  professor  at  Cam- 
bridge; and  the  following  year  was  raised  to  the  see  of  Rochester, 
to  which  he  remained  faithful,  although  the  richer  sees  of  Ely 
and  Lincoln  were  offered  to  him.  He  was  nominated  as  one  of 
the  English  prelates  for  the  Lateran  council  (1512),  but  did  not 
attend.  A  man  of  strict  and  simple  life,  he  did  not  hesitate  at 
the  legatine  synod  of  1517  to  censure  the  clergy,  in  the  presence 
of  the  brilliant  Wolsey  himself,  for  their  greed  of  gain  and  love  of 
display;  and  in  the  convocation  of  1523  he  freely  opposed  the 
cardinal's  demand  for  a  subsidy  for  the  war  in  Flanders.  A 
great  friend  of  Erasmus,  whom  he  invited  to  Cambridge,  whilst 
earnestly  working  for  a  reformation  of  abuses,  he  had  no  sym- 
pathy with  those  who  attacked  doctrine;  and  he  preached  at 
Paul's  Cross  (i2th  of  May  1521)  at  the  burning  of  Luther's  books. 
Although  he  was  not  the  author  of  Henry's  book  against  Luther, 
he  joined  with  his  friend,  Sir  Thomas  More,  in  writing  a  reply 
to  the  scurrilous  rejoinder  made  by  the  reformer.  He  retained 
the  esteem  of  the  king  until  the  divorce  proceedings  began  in 
1527;  and  then  he  set  himself  sternly  in  favour  of  the  validity 
of  the  marriage.  He  was  Queen  Catherine's  confessor  and  her 
only  champion  and  advocate.  He  appeared  on  her  behalf  before 
the  legates  at  Blackfriars;  and  wrote  a  treatise  against  the 
divorce  that  was  widely  read. 

Recognizing  that  the  true  aim  of  the  scheme  of  church  reform 
brought  forward  in  parliament  in  1529  was  to  put  down  the  only 
moral  force  that  could  withstand  the  royal  will,  he  energetic- 
ally opposed  the  reformation  of  abuses,  which  doubtless  under 
other  circumstances  he  would  have  been  the  first  to  accept. 
In  convocation,  when  the  supremacy  was  discussed  (nth  of 
February  1531),  he  declared  that  acceptance  would  cause  the 
clergy  "  to  be  hissed  out  of  the  society  of  God's  holy  Catholic 
Church  ";  and  it  was  his  influence  that  brought  in  the  saving 
clause,  quantum  per  legem  Dei  licet.  By  listening  to  the  revela- 
tions of  the  "  Holy  Maid  of  Kent,"  the  nun  Elizabeth  Barton 
(q.v.),  he  was  charged  with  misprision  of  treason,  and  was  con- 
demned to  the  loss  of  his  goods  and  to  imprisonment  at  the  king's 
will,  penalties  he  was  allowed  to  compound  by  a  fine  of  £300 
(25th  of  March  1534).  Fisher  was  summoned  (i3th  of  April) 
to  take  the  oath  prescribed  by  the  Act  of  Succession,  which  he 
was  ready  to  do,  were  it  not  that  the  preamble  stated  that  the 
offspring  of  Catherine  were  illegitimate,  and  prohibited  all  faith, 
trust  and  obedience  to  any  foreign  authority  or  potentate. 
Refusing  to  take  the  oath,  he  was  committed  (isth  of  April)  to 
the  Tower,  where  he  suffered  greatly  from  the  rigours  of  a  long 
confinement.  On  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  Supremacy  (November 
1534),  in  which  the  saving  clause  of  convocation  was  omitted, 
he  was  attainted  and  deprived  of  his  see.  The  council,  with 
Thomas  Cromwell  at  their  head,  visited  him  on  the  7th  of  May 
1535,  and  his  refusal  to  acknowledge  Henry  as  supreme  head  of 
the  church  was  the  ground  of  his  trial.  The  constancy  of  Fisher, 
while  driving  Henry  to  a  fury  that  knew  no  bounds,  won  the 
admiration  of  the  whole  Christain  world,  where  he  had  been 
long  known  as  one  of  the  most  learned  and  pious  bishops  of  the 
time.  Paul  III.,  who  had  begun  his  pontificate  with  the  intention 
of  purifying  the  curia,  was  unaware  of  the  grave  danger  in  which 
Fisher  lay;  and  in  the  hope  of  reconciling  the  king  with  the 
bishop,  created  him  (2oth  of  May  1535)  cardinal  priest  of  St 
Vitalis.  When  the  news  arrived  in  England  it  sealed  his  fate. 
Henry,  in  a  rage,  declared  that  if  the  pope  sent  Fisher  a  hat  there 
should  be  no  head  for  it.  The  cardinal  was  brought  to  trial  at 
Westminster  (i7th  of  June  1535)  on  the  charge  that  he  did 
"  openly  declare  in  English  that  the  king,  our  sovereign  lord, 
is  not  supreme  head  on  earth  of  the  Church  of  England,"  and 
was  condemned  to  a  traitor's  death  at  Tyburn,  a  sentence 
afterwards  changed.  He  was  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill  on  the  2  2nd 
of  June  1535,  after  saying  the  Te  Deum  and  the  psalm  In 
te  Domine  speravi.  His  body  was  buried  first  at  All  Hallows, 
Barking,  and  then  removed  to  St.  Peter's  ad  vincula  in  the  Tower, 
where  it  lies  beside  that  of  Sir  Thomas  More.  His  head  was 
exposed  on  London  Bridge  and  then  thrown  into  the  river.  As 


a  champion  of  the  rights  of  conscience,  and  as  the  only  one  of 
the  English  bishops  that  dared  to  resist  the  king's  will,  Fisher 
commends  himself  to  all.  On  the  9th  of  December  1886  he  was 
beatified  by  Pope  'Leo  XIII. 

Fisher's  Latin  works  are  to  be  found  in  the  Opera  J.  Fisheri  quae 
hactenus  inveniri  potuerunt  omnia  (Wurzburg,  1595),  and  some  of  his 
published  English  works  in  the  Early  English  Text  Society  (Extra 
series,  No.  27,  part  i.  1876).  There  are  others  in  manuscript  at  the 
P.R.O.  (27,  Henry  VIII.,  No.  887).  Besides  the  State  papers,  the 
main  sources  for  his  biography  are  The  Life  and  Death  of  that  renowned 
John  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester  (London,  1655),  by  an  anonymous 
writer,  the  best  edition  being  that  of  Van  Ortroy  (Brussels,  1893) ; 
Bridgett's  Life  of  Blessed  John  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester  (London, 
1880  and  1890);  and  Thureau,  Le  bienheureux  Jean  Fisher  (Paris, 
1907)-  (E.  TN.) 

FISHER,  JOHN  ARBUTHNOT  FISHER,  IST  BARON  (1841- 
),  British  admiral,  was  born  on  the  2sth  of  January  1841, 
and  entered  the  navy  in  June  1854.  He  served  in  the  Baltic 
during  the  Crimean  War,  and  was  engaged  as  midshipman  on 
the  "  Highflyer,"  "  Chesapeake  "  and  "  Furious,"  in  the  Chinese 
War,  in  the  operations  required  by  the  occupations  of  Canton, 
and  of  the  Peiho  forts  in  1859.  He  became  sub-lieutenant  on 
the  25th  of  January  1860,  and  lieutenant  on  the  4th  of  November 
of  the  same  year.  The  cessation  of  naval  wars,  at  least  of  wars 
at  sea  in  which  the  British  navy  had  to  take  a  part,  after  1860, 
allowed  few  officers  to  gain  distinction  by  actual  services  against 
the  enemy.  But  they  were  provided  with  other  ways  of  proving 
their  ability  by  the  sweeping  revolution  which  transformed  the 
construction,  the  armament,  and  the  methods  of  propulsion  of 
all  the  navies  of  the  world,  and  with  them  the  once  accepted 
methods  of  combat.  Lieutenant  Fisher  began  his  career  as  a 
commissioned  officer  in  the  year  after  the  launching  of  the  French 
"  Gloire  "  had  set  going  the  long  duel  in  construction  between 
guns  and  armour.  He  early  made  his  mark  as  a  student  of 
gunnery,  and  was  prompted  commander  on  the  and  of  August 
1869,  and  post-captain  on  the  3oth  of  October  1874.  In  this 
rank  he  was  chosen  to  serve  as  president  of  the  committee 
appointed  to  revise  "  The  Gunnery  Manual  of  the  Fleet."  It 
was  his  already  established  reputation  which  pointed  Captain 
Fisher  out  for  the  command  of  H.M.S.  "  Inflexible,"  a  vessel 
which,  as  the  representative  of  a  type,  had  supplied  matter  for 
much  discussion.  As  captain  of  the  "  Inflexible  "  he  took  part 
in  the  bombardment  of  Alexandria  (nth  July  1882).  The 
engagement  was  not  arduous  in  itself,  having  been  carried  out 
against  forts  of  inferior  construction,  indifferently  armed,  and 
worse  garrisoned,  but  it  supplied  an  opportunity  for  a  display 
of  gunnery,  and  it  was  conspicuous  in  the  midst  of  a  long  naval 
peace.  The  "  Inflexible  "  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  action, 
and  her  captain  had  the  command  of  the  naval  brigade  landed  in 
Alexandria,  where  he  adapted  the  ironclad  train  and  com- 
manded it  in  various  skirmishes  with  the  enemy.  After  the 
Egyptian  campaign,  he  was,  in  succession,  director  of  Naval 
Ordnance  and  Torpedoes  (from  October  1886  to  May  1891); 
A.D.C.  to  Queen  Victoria  (i8th  June,  1887,  to  2nd  August  1890, 
at  which  date  he  became  rear-admiral) ;  admiral  superintendent 
of  Portsmouth  dockyard  (1891  to  1892);  a  lord  commissioner 
of  the  navy  and  comptroller  of  the  navy  (1892  to  1897),  and 
vice-admiral  (8th  May  1896);  commander-in-chief  on  the 
North  American  and  West  Indian  station  (1897).  In  1899  he 
acted  as  naval  expert  at  the  Hague  Peace  Conference,  and  on 
the  ist  of  July  1809  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  the 
Mediterranean,,  From  the  Mediterranean  command,  Admiral 
Fisher  passed  again  to  the  admiralty  as  second  sea  lord  in  1902, 
and  became  commander-in-chief  at  Portsmouth  on  the  3ist 
of  August  1903,  from  which  post  he  passed  to  that  of  first  sea 
lord.  Besides  holding  the  foreign  Khedivial  and  Osmanieh 
orders,  he  was  created  K.C.B.  in  1894  and  G.C.B.  in>i9O2.  As 
first  sea  lord,  during  the  years  1903-1909,  Sir  John  Fisher  had 
a  predominant  influence  in  all  the  far-reaching  new  measures  of 
naval  development  and  internal  reform;  and  he  was  also  one 
of  the  committee,  known  as  Lord  Esher's  committee,  appointed 
in  1904  to  report  on  the  measures  necessary  to  be  taken  to 
put  the  administration  and  organization  of  the  British  army  on 
a  sound  footing.  The  changes  in  naval  administration  made 


FISHERIES 


429 


under  him  were  hotly  canvassed  among  critics,  who  charged  him 
with  autocratic  methods,  and  in  1906-1909  with  undue  sub- 
servience to  the  government's  desire  for  economy;  and  whatever 
the  efficiency  of  his  own  methods  at  the  admiralty,  the  fact 
was  undeniable  that  for  the  first  time  for  very  many  years  the 
navy  suffered,  as  a  service,  from  the  party-spirit  which  was 
aroused.  It  was  notorious  that  Admiral  Lord  Charles  Beresford 
in  particular  was  acutely  hostile  to  Sir  John  Fisher's  administra- 
tion; and  on  his  retirement  in  the  spring  of  1909  from  the 
position  of  commander-in-chief  of  the  Channel  fleet,  he  put  his 
charges  and  complaints  before  the  government,  and  an  inquiry 
was  held  by  a  small  committee  under  the  Prime  Minister.  Its 
report,  published  in  August,  was  in  favour  of  the  Admiralty, 
though  it  encouraged  the  belief  that  some  important  suggestions 
as  to  the  organization  of  a  naval  "  general  staff  "  would  take 
effect.  On  the  pth  of  November  Sir  John  Fisher  was  created 
a  peer  as  Baron  Fisher  of  Kilverstone,  Norfolk.  He  retired 
from  the  Admiralty  in  January  1910. 

FISHERIES,1  a  general  term  for  the  various  operations  engaged 
in  for  the  capture  of  such  aquatic  creatures  as  are  useful  to  man. 
From  time  immemorial  fish  have  been  captured  by  various  forms 
of  spears,  nets,  hooks  and  more  elaborate  apparatus,  and  a 
historical  description  of  the  methods  and  appliances  that  have 
been  used  would  comprise  a  considerable  portion  of  a  treatise 
on  the  history  of  man.  For  the  most  part  the  operations  of 
fishing  have  been  comparable  with  those  of  primitive  hunting 
rather  than  with  agriculture;  they  have  taken  the  least  possible 
account  of  considerations  affecting  the  supply;  when  one  locality 
has  been  fished  out,  another  has  been  resorted  to.  The  increasing 
pressure  on  every  source  of  food,  and  the  enormous  improvements 
in  the  catching  power  of  the  engines  involved,  has  made  some 
kind  of  regulation  and  control  inevitable,  with  the  result  that 
in  practically  every  civilized  country  there  exists  some  authority 
for  the  investigation  and  regulation  of  fisheries. 

The  annexed  table  shows  the  department  of  state  and  the 


The  early  years  of  the  2oth  century  witnessed  another  great 
expansion  of  the  sea  fisheries  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
herring  fishery  has  been  revolutionized  partly  by  the  successful 
introduction  of  steam  drifters,  which  have  markedly  increased 
the  aggregate  catching  power,  and  partly  by  the  prosecution 
of  .the  fishery  on  one  part  or  other  of  the  British  coasts  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year.  The  crews  of  many  Scottish 
vessels  which  formerly  worked  at  the  herring  and  line  fisheries 
in  alternate  seasons  of  the  year  now  devote  their  energies  almost 
entirely  to  the  herring  fishery,  which  they  pursue  in  nomad 
fleets  around  all  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain.  The  East  Anglian 
drifters  carry  on  their  operations  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year  from  Shetland  in  the  north  (for  herrings)  to  Newlyn  in  the 
west  (for  mackerel).  In  Scotland  the  value  of  the  nets  employed 
on  steam  drifters  has  increased  from  £3000  in  1899  to  £61,000 
in  1906,  and  the  average  annual  catch  of  herrings  has  increased 
from  about  four  to  about  five  million  cwts.  during  the  past 
ten  years.  In  England  also  the  annual  catch  of  herrings, 
which  reached  a  total  of  two  million  cwts.  for  the  first  time 
in  1899,  has  exceeded  three  millions  in  each  year  from  1902  to 

1905- 

In  steam  trawling  also  great  enterprise  has  been  shown.  In 
1906  Messrs  Hellyer  of  Hull  launched  a  new  steam  trawling 
fleet  of  50  vessels  for  working  the  North  Sea  grounds,  and  the 
delivery  of  new  steam  trawlers  at  Grimsby  was  greater  than 
at  any  previous  period,  these  vessels  being  designed  more  especi- 
ally to  exploit  the  distant  fishing  grounds,  the  range  of  which 
has  been  extended  from  Morocco  to  the  White  Sea.  About  100 
vessels  were  added  to  the  Grimsby  fleet  in  the  course  of  twelve 
months.  These  new  vessels  measure  about  140  ft.  in  length 
and  over  20  ft.  in  beam,  and  exceed  250  tons  gross  tonnage, 
the  accommodation  both  for  fish  and  crews  being  considerably 
in  excess  of  that  provided  in  vessels  of  this  class  hitherto. 

Returns  of  the  steam  trawlers  registered  in  1907  in  the  chief 
European  countries  show  the  expanse  of  this  industry,  and  the 


Administration  of  Fisheries. 


Norway. 

Sweden. 

Denmark. 

Germany. 

Holland. 

Belgium. 

Department  of  State 

Trade  and  In- 

Agriculture. 

Agriculture. 

Imperial     De- 

Agriculture. 

Agriculture    and 

dustry     and 

partment  of 

Woods     and 

Agriculture. 

Interior. 

Forests. 

Approximate  Annual  Expenditure  — 
I.  Administration 

£15,000 

£5,500 

£10,200 

Conducted   by 

£12,500 

M  aritime 

States 

2.  Scientific  Fishery  Research     . 

5,000 

4-500 

6,300 

£27-750 

2,500 

£1,000 

Canada. 

U.S.  America. 

'  Wales. 

Scotland. 

Ireland. 

Department  of  State 

Marine  and  Fish- 
eries. 

Bureau  of  Fisheries 
under  Commerce 

Agriculture     and 
Fisheries. 

Fishery   Board. 

Agriculture    and 
Technical      In- 

and Labour. 

struction. 

Approximate  Annual  Expenditure  — 
I.  Administration 

£159,000 

Conducted    by 

£8,000 

£13,000 

£10,000 

Coastal  States 

2.  Scientific  Fishery  Research    . 

48,000 

£141,000 

14,000 

(expended  through 

800 

agents) 

approximate  expenditure  on  fisheries  in  some  of  the  chief  countries 
of  the  world.  The  figures  are  only  approximate  and  are  based 
on  the  expenditure  for  1907.  In  the  case  of  England  and  Wales 
the  expenditure  is  not  complete,  as  under  the  Sea  Fisheries 
Regulation  Act  of  1888  the  whole  of  the  coast  of  England  and 
Wales  could  be  placed  under  local  fisheries  committees  with 
power  to  levy  rates  for  fishery  purposes,  and  in  a  certain  number 
of  districts  advantage  has  been  taken  of  this  act.  But  even  with 
this  addition,  British  expenditure  on  fisheries  is  less  than  that 
undertaken  by  most  of  the  countries  of  northern  Europe,  although 
British  fisheries  are  much  more  valuable  than  those  of  all  the  rest 
of  Europe  together. 

1  For  fisheries  in  the  cases  of  CORAL,  OYSTER,  PEARL,  SALMON, 
SPONGES  and  WHALE,  see  these  articles;  for  fishing  as  a  sport  see 
ANGLING. 


enormous  preponderance  of  Great  Britain, 
follows: — 

Belgium 

Denmark 

France 

Germany 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Portugal 

Spain 

Sweden 

Scotland 

Ireland 

England  and  Wales 


The  numbers  are  as 


23 

5 

224 

239 
81 
20 

12-18 

ii 

292 

6 

1317 


A  simultaneous  development  of  the  sea  fisheries  has  been 
manifested  in  other  maritime  countries  of  Europe,  particularly 
in  Germany  and  Holland,  but  the  total  number  of  steam  trawlers 


430 


FISHERIES 


belonging  to  those  countries  in  1905  scarcely  exceeded  the  mere 
additions  to  the  British  fishing  fleet  in  1906. 

The  relative  magnitude  of  British  fisheries  may  best  be 
gauged  by  a  comparison  with  the  proceeds  of  the  chief  fisheries 
of  other  European  countries.  The  following  table  is  based  upon 
official  returns  and  mainly  derived  from  the  Bulletin  Statistique 
of  the  International  Council  for  the  Study  of  the  Sea.  It  re- 
presents in  pounds  sterling  the  value  of  the  produce  of  the  various 
national  fisheries  during  the  year  1904,  except  in  the  case  of 
France,  for  which  country  the  latest  available  figures  are  those 
for  1902. 

Values  in  Thousands  of  £. 


The  total  value  of  the  sea  fisheries  in  the  three  chief  sub- 
divisions of  the  British  Isles  in  the  year  1905,  according  to  the 
official  returns,  was  as  follows: 


These  figures  show  an  increase  of  £1,000,000  as  compared 
with  the  total  value  in  1900,  and  of  more  than  £3,000,000  as 
compared  with  1895  (cf.  Table  I.  at  end). 

In  England  and  Wales  the  trawl  fisheries  for  cod,  haddock, 
and  flat  fish  yielded  about 
three-quarters  of  the  total, 
and  the  drift  fisheries  for 
herring  and  mackerel  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  remaining 
quarter.  The  line  fisheries  in 
England  and  Wales  are  now 
relatively  insignificant  and 
yield  only  about  one-fortieth 
of  the  total  (cf.  Table  VIII.  at  end). 

In  Scotland,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  not  so  much  difference 
in  the  relative  importance  of  the  three  chief  fisheries.  In  1905 
herrings  and  other  net-caught  fish  yielded  rather  more  than  one- 


east  coasts.  The  remaining  quarter  is  mainly  derived  from  the 
trawl  fisheries,  the  headquarters  of  which  are  at  Dublin,  Howth 
and  Balbriggan  on  the  east,  and  at  Galway  and  Dingle  on  the 
west  coast. 

The  value  of  the  fishing  boats  and  gear  employed  in  the 
Scottish  fisheries  during  1905  is  returned  as  nearly  £4,120,000. 
Upon  a  moderate  estimate,  the  total  value  of  the  boats  and  gear 
employed  in  the  fisheries  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  cannot 
be  less  than  £12,000,000. 

The  relative  yield  and  value  of  the  various  fisheries  on  the 
separate  coasts  of  the  British  Isles  is  illustrated  in  the  table  of 
landings  from  the  latest  data  available. 

From  these  figures  it  is  manifest  that  the  yield  and  value  of 
the  east  coast  fisheries  of  England  and  Scotland  preponderate 
enormously  over  those  of  the  western  coasts,  whether  attention 
be  paid  to  the  drift-net  fisheries  for  surface  fish  or  to  the  fisheries 
for  bottom  fish  with  trawls  and  lines. 

The  preceding  statistics  and  remarks,  as  well  as  the  supple- 
mentary tables  at  the  end  of  this  article,  indicate  that  the  British 
fishing  industry  has  enjoyed  a  period  of  unexampled  prosperity. 
The  community  at  large  has  benefited  by  the  more  plentiful 
supply,  and  the  merchant  by  the  general  lowering  of  prices  at 
the  ports  of  landing  (see  Tables  I. -IV.  at  end).  But  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  this  wave  of  prosperity,  as  on  previous  occasions, 
has  been  attained  by  the  application  of  increased  and  more 
powerful  means  of  capture  and  by  the  exploitation  of  new 
fishing  grounds  in  distant  waters,  and  not  by  any  increase, 
natural  or  artificial,  in  the  productivity  of  the  home  waters, — 
unless  perhaps  the  abundance  of  herrings  is  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  destruction  of  their  enemies  by  trawling.  British  fisheries 
are  still  pursued  as  a  form  of  hunting  rather  than  of  husbandry. 
In  1892  the  Iceland  and  Bay  of  Biscay  trawling  banks  were 
discovered,  in  1898  the  Faroe  banks,  in  1905  rich  plaice  grounds 
in  the  White  Sea.  In  1905  one-half  of  the  cod  and  a  quarter 
of  the  haddock  and  plaice  landed  at  east  coast  ports  of  England 
were  caught  in  waters  beyond  the  North  Sea. 

Table  showing,  in  Thousands  of  Cwt.,  the  Quantity  of  Fish  landed  by  Steam  Trawlers  on  the  East  Coast 
of  England  from  Fishing  Grounds  within  and  beyond  the  North  Sea  respectively. 


Herring. 

Cod. 

Plaice. 

Other 
Fish. 

Total. 

British  Isles 
Norway  . 
Denmark 
Germany 
Holland  .      .      . 
France  (1902)    . 

1870 

352 
117 
220 
575 
635 

1015 

834 
60 
64' 

$. 

IIOO 

171 

40  1 
58 

5496 

443 
223 

5I21 
3" 
3562 

9,481,000' 
1,629,000 
571,000 
836,000 
997,000 
5,048,000 

Fish  landed  in 

Excluding 
Shellfish. 

Including 
Shellfish. 

England  and  Wales     .... 
Scotland        
Ireland  

Total 

£7,200,644 
2,649,148 
360.577 

£7,502,768 
2,719,810 
4'4.364 

£10,210,369    |  £10,636,942 

Year. 

Within  the  North  Sea. 

Beyond  the  North  Sea. 

Cod. 

Haddock. 

Plaice. 

All  Kinds. 

Cod. 

Haddock. 

Plaice. 

All  Kinds. 

1903 
1904 
1905 

729 
637 
640 

2301 
2032 
1560 

812 
658 
621 

4776 
4228 
3739 

470 

447 
603 

389 
429 

518 

114 
284 
244 

1189 

1389 
1682 

Trawl  and  Line. 

Drift  and  Stake-nets. 

Shellfish. 

Fishery. 

Thousands 

Thousands 

Thousands 

Thousands 

Thousands 

of  cwt. 

of£. 

of  cwt. 

of£. 

of£. 

England  and  Wales,  1905— 

East  Coast 

6017 

4713 

3042 

"45 

202 

South  Coast     . 

303 

245 

728 

268 

64 

West  Coast 

1  002 

720 

219 

in 

36 

Scotland,  1906  — 

East  Coast 

2296 

1202 

2709 

819 

25 

Orkney  and  Shetland     . 

114 

42 

1735 

642 

10 

West  Coast 

148 

62 

591 

210 

38 

Ireland,  1905  — 

North  Coast    . 

9 

5 

177 

70 

7 

East  Coast 

79 

7<> 

no 

32 

18 

South  and  West  Coast  . 

46 

35 

577 

148 

28 

half  of  the  total,  the  trawl  fisheries  nearly  three-eighths,  and 
the  line  fisheries  one-eighth  (cf.  Table  X.). 

In  Ireland  the  mackerel  and  herring  fisheries  provide  nearly 
three-quarters  6f  the  total  yield,  the  mackerel  forming  the  chief 
item  in  the  south  and  west,  and  the  herring  on  the  north  and 

1  Estimated  as  regards  about  one-third  of  the  total. 
1  Including   the   Newfoundland   fishery. 


The  statistics  of  the  English  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries 
have  distinguished  since  1903  between  the  catch  of  fish  within 
and  beyond  the  North  Sea,  and  between  the  catch  of  trawlers 
and  liners.  Neglecting  the  catch  of  the  liners  as  relatively 
insignificant,  and  of  the  sailing  trawlers 
as  relatively  small  and  practically  con- 
stant during  the  three  years  in  question, 
we  see  from  the  board's  figures  (see  table 
above)  that  the  total  catch  of  English 
steam  trawlers  within  the  North  Sea 
during  1904  and  1905  was  in  each  year1 
500,000  cwt.  less  than  in  the  year 
before,  amounting  to  a  gross  decrease 
of  more  than  25%  in  1905  as  com- 
pared with  1903,  and,  in  relation  to  the 
catching  power  employed,  to  an  average 
decrease  of  25  cwt.  per  boat  per  diem. 
This  decrease  may  be  largely  explained 
by  the  occurrence  in  1903  of  one  of 
those  periodic  "  floods  "  of  email  cod 
and  haddock  which  take  place  in  the  North  Sea  from  time 
to  time;  but  the  steady  decline  in  the  number  of  North 
Sea  voyages  by  English  steam  trawlers — from  29,300  in  1903 
to  26,700  in  1905 — affords  a  clear  indication  of  the  fact  that 
many  of  our  trawling  skippers  are  deserting  the  North  Sea 
for  more  profitable  fishing  grounds.  The  number  of  Scottish 
steam  trawlers  "  employed  "  at  Scottish  North  Sea  ports  has 


FISHERIES 


also  declined  during   the   same   period   from    240   in    1903    to 
228  in  1905. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  British  and  foreign 
steam  trawlers  registered  at  North  Sea  ports,  and  for  English 
vessels  the  number  of  fishing  voyages  made  within  and  beyond 
the  North  Sea  respectively: — 


Year. 

Boats 
Registered. 

English  Steam  Trawlers. 
Voyages.1 

Scottish. 
Employed. 

German, 
Dutch  and 
Belgian. 
Registered. 

Within 
North  Sea. 

Beyond 
North  Sea. 

1903 
1904 
1905 

1060 
1049 
1064 

29,328 
28,589 
26,670 

1822 

2I2O 

2671 

240 

2.33 
228 

181 
199 
228 

Unfortunately  the  North  Sea  gains  no  rest  from  this  with- 
drawal of  British  trawlers,  since  the  place  of  the  latter  is  filled 
year  after  year  by  increasing  numbers  of  continental  fishing 
boats.  The  number  of  fishing  steamers  (practically  all  trawlers) 
registered  at  North  Sea  ports  in  Germany  and  Holland  was  159 
in  1903,  177  in  1904,  205  in  1905,  and  330  in  1907. 

It  is  satisfactory  under  these  circumstances  to  note  the  in- 
creased attention  which  has  been  paid  in  recent  years  to  the 
acquisition  of  more  exact  knowledge  upon  the  actual  state  of 
the  fisheries  and  upon  the  biological  and  other  factors  which 
influence  the  supply. 

A  comprehensive  programme  of  co-operative  investigations, 
both  scientific  and  statistical,  was  put  into  execution  in  the 
course  of  1902  under  the  International  Council  for  the  Study 
of  the  Sea  (see  below).  The  Fishery  Board  for  Scotland  and  the 
Marine  Biological  Association  for  England  were  commissioned 
to  carry  out  the  work  at  sea  allotted  to  Great  Britain,  and  the 
English  fishery  department  was  equipped  soon  afterwards  with 
the  means  for  collecting  more  adequate  statistics. 

Trawling  investigations  and  the  quantitative  collection  of 
fish  eggs  have  located  important  spawning  grounds  of  cod, 
haddock,  plaice,  sole,  eel,  &c.;  marking  experiments  with  cod, 
plaice  and  eel  have  thrown  much  light  upon  the  migrations  of 
these  fishes;  and  the  rate  of  growth  of  plaice,  cod  and  herring 
has  been  elucidated  in  different  localities.  The  percentage  of 
marked  plaice  annually  recaptured  in  the  North  Sea  has  been 
found  to  be  remarkably  high  (from  25  to  50  %),  and  throws  a 
significant  light  on  the  intensity  of  fishing  under  modern  con- 
ditions. It  seems  probable  that  the  impoverishment  of  the  stock 
of  plaice  on  the  central  grounds  of  the  North  Sea  is  mainly 
attributable  to  the  excessive  rate  of  capture  of  plaice  during 
their  annual  off-shore  migrations  from  the  coast.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  has  been  shown  that  the  growth-rate  of  plaice  on  the 
Dogger  Bank  is  constantly  and  markedly  greater  (five-  or  six-fold 
in  weight)  than  on  the  coastal  grounds  where  these  fish  are 
reared, — facts  which  open  up  the  possibility  of  increasing  the 
permanent  supply  of  plaice  from  the  North  Sea  by  the  adoption 
of  some  plan  of  commercial  transplantation  (see  PISCICULTURE)  . 

History. — A  brief  review  may  now  be  given  of  the  history 
of  the  administration  of  British  sea-fisheries  since  1860,  and  of 
the  steps  which  have  been  taken  for  the  attainment  of  scientific 
and  statistical  information  in  relation  thereto. 

In  1860  a  royal  commission,  consisting  of  Professor  Huxley, 
Mr  (afterwards  Sir)  John  Caird,  and  Mr  G.  Shaw-Lefevre  (after- 
wards Lord  Eversley),  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  con- 
dition of  the  British  sea-fisheries,  the  harmfulness  or  otherwise 
of  existing  methods  of  fishing,  and  the  necessity  or  otherwise 
of  the  existing  legislation.  The  .important  report  of  this  com- 
mission, issued  in  1866,  embodied  the  following  main  conclusions 
and  recommendations: — (i)  the  total  supply  of  fish  obtained 
upon  the  British  coasts  is  increasing  and  admits  of  further 
augmentation;  (2)  beam-trawling  in  the  open  sea  is  not  a  waste- 
fully  destructive  mode  of  fishing;  (3)  all  acts  of  parliament 
which  profess  to  regulate  or  restrict  the  modes  of  fishing  pursued 
in  the  open  sea  should  be  repealed  and  "  unrestricted  freedom 

1  Excluding  the  voyages  of  the  fleeting  trawlers  which  supply 
London  by  means  of  carriers. 


of  fishing  be  permitted  hereafter  ";  (4)  all  fishing  boats  should 
be  lettered  and  numbered  as  a  condition  of  registration  and 
licence. 

In  1868  full  effect  was  given  to  these  recommendations  by 
the  passing  of  the  Sea  Fisheries  Act.  Regulations  for  the 
registration  of  fishing  boats  were  issued  by  order  in  council  in 
the  following  year.  (Mew  regulations  were  intro- 
duced in  1902.) 

In  1878  a  commission  was  given  to  Messrs  Buck- 
land  and  Walpole  to  inquire  into  the  alleged 
destruction  of  the  spawn  and  fry  of  sea  fish, 
especially  by  the  use  of  the  beam-trawl  and 
ground  seine.  Their  report  is  an  excellent  sum- 
mary of  the  condition  of  the  sea  fisheries  at  the 
time,  and  shows  how  little  was  then  known  with 
regard  to  the  eggs  and  spawning  habits  of  our  marine  food 
fishes. 

In  1882  the  former  Board  of  British  White  Herring  was  dis- 
solved and  the  Fishery  Board  for  Scotland  instituted,  the  latter 
being  empowered  to  take  such  measures  for  the  improvement 
of  the  fisheries  as  the  funds  under  their  administration  might 
admit  of.  Arrangements  were  made  in  the  following  year  with 
Professor  M'Intosh  of  St  Andrews  which  enabled  the  latter 
to  fit  up  a  small  marine  laboratory  and  to  begin  a  series  of  studies 
'on  the  eggs  and  larvae  of  sea  fishes,  which  have  contributed 
greatly  to  the  development  of  more  exact  knowledge  concerning 
the  reproduction  of  fishes.  Under  the  Sea  Fisheries  (Scotland) 
Amendment  Act  of  1885  the  board  closed  the  Firth  of  Forth 
and  St  Andrews  Bay  against  trawlers  as  an  experiment  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  the  result  of  such  prohibition  on  the 
supply  of  fish  on  the  grounds  so  protected.  The  treasury  also, 
by  a  further  grant  of  £3000,  enabled  the  board  to  purchase  the 
steam-yacht "  Garland  "  as  a  means  of  carrying  out  regular  experi- 
mental trawlings  over  the  protected  grounds.  Reports  on  the 
results  of  these  experiments  have  been  annually  published,  and 
were  summarized  at  the  end  of  ten  years'  closure  in  the  board's 
report  for  1895.  Dr  Fulton's  summary  showed  that  "  no  very 
marked  change  took  place  in  the  abundance  of  food-fishes 
generally,  either  in  the  closed  or  open  waters  of  the  Firth  of  Forth 
or  St  Andrews  Bay,"  as  a  consequence  of  the  prohibition  of  trawl- 
ing. Nevertheless,  among  flat  fishes,  plaice  and  lemon  soles, 
which  spawn  off-shore,  were  reported  to  have  decreased  in 
numbers  in  all  the  areas  investigated,  whether  closed  or  open, 
while  dabs  and  long  rough  dabs  showed  a  preponderating,  if 
not  quite  universal,  increase. 

The  results  of  this  classical  experiment  point  strongly  to  the 
presumptions  (i)  that  trawling  operations  in  the  open  sea  have 
now  exceeded  the  point  at  which  their  effect  on  the  supply  of 
eggs  and  fry  for  the  upkeep  of  the  flat  fisheries  is  inappreciable; 
and  (2)  that  protection  of  in-shore  areas  alone  is  insufficient  to 
check  the  impoverishment  caused  by  over-fishing  off-shore. 
(For  critical  examinations  of  Dr  Fulton's  account  see  M'Intosh, 
Resources  of  the  Sea,  London,  1889;  Garstang,  "  The  Impoverish- 
ment of  the  Sea,"  Journ.  Mar.  Biol.  Ass.  vol.  vi.,  1900;  and 
Archer,  Report  of  Ichlhyological  Committee,  Cd.  1312,  1902.) 

A  laboratory  and  sea-fish  hatchery  were  subsequently  estab- 
lished by  the  board  at  Dunbar  in  1893,  but  removed  to  Aberdeen 
in  1900. 

In  1883  a  royal  commission,  under  the  chairmanship  of.  the 
late  earl  of  Dalhousie,  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  complaints 
against  the  practice  of  beam-trawling  on  the  part  of  line  and 
drift-net  fishermen.  A  small  sum  of  money  (£200)  was  granted 
to  the  commission  for  the  purpose  of  scientific  trawling  experi- 
ments, which  were  carried  out  by  Professor  M'Intosh. 

The  report  of  this  commission  was  an  important  one,  and  its 
recommendations  resulted  in  the  institution  of  fishery  statistics 
for  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland  (1885-1887). 

In  1884  the  Marine  Biological  Association  of  the  United 
Kingdom  was  founded  for  the  scientific  study  of  marine  zoology 
and  botany,  especially  as  bearing  upon  the  food,  habits  and 
life-conditions  of  British  food-fishes,  Crustacea  and  molluscs. 
Professor  Huxley  was  its  first  president,  and  Professor  Ray 


432 


FISHERIES 


Lankester,  who  initiated  the  movement,  succeeded  him.  A  large 
and  well-equipped  laboratory  was  erected  at  Plymouth,  and 
formally  opened  for  work  in  1888.  The  work  of  the  association 
has  been  maintained  by  annual  grants  of  £400  from  the  Fish- 
mongers' Company  and  £1000  from  H.  M.  treasury,  and  by  the 
subscriptions  of  the  members.  The  association  publishes  a 
half-yearly  journal  recording  the  results  of  its  investigations. 

In  1886  a  fishery  department  of  the  Board  of  Trade  was 
organized  under  the  Salmon  and  Freshwater  Fisheries  Act  of 
that  year.  The  department  publishes  annually  a  return  of 
statistics  of  sea-fish  landed,  a  report  on  salmon  fisheries  (trans- 
ferred from  the  home  office),  and  a  report  on  sea  fisheries.  It 
consists  of  several  inspectors  under  an  assistant  secretary  of 
the  board;  it  has  no  power  to  make  scientific  investigations 
or  bye-laws  and  regulations  affecting  the  sea-fisheries.  In  1894 
the  administration  of  the  acts  relating  to  the  registration  of 
fishing  vessels,  &c.,  was  transferred  to  the  fisheries  department. 

In  1888  the  Sea  Fisheries  Regulation  Act  provided  for  the 
constitution  (by  provisional  order  of  the  Board  of  Trade)  of  local 
fisheries  committees  having,  within  defined  limits,  powers  for 
the  regulation  of  coast  fisheries  in  England  and  Wales.  The 
powers  of  district  committees  were  extended  under  Part  II.  of 
the  Fisheries  Act  1891,  and  again  under  the  Fisheries  (Shell 
Fish)  Regulation  Act  1894.  Sea-fisheries  districts  have  now  been 
created  round  nearly  the  whole  coast  of  England  and  Wales. 
Under  bye-laws  of  these  committees  steam-trawling  has  been 
prohibited  in  nearly  all  the  territorial  waters  of  England  and 
Wales,  and  trawling  by  smaller  boats  has  been  placed  under  a 
variety  of  restrictions.  Local  scientific  investigations  have  been 
initiated  under  several  of  the  committees,  especially  in  Lancashire 
by  Professor  Herdman  of  Liverpool  and  his  assistants. 

In  1890  an  important  survey  of  the  fishing  grounds  off  the 
west  coast  of  Ireland  was  undertaken  by  the  Royal  Dublin 
Society,  with  assistance  from  the  government,  and  in  the  hands 
of  Mr  E.  W.  L.  Holt  led  to  the  acquisition  of  much  valuable 
information  concerning  the  spawning  habits  of  fishes  and  the 
distribution  of  fish  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

In  1892,  under  powers  conferred  by  the  Herring  Fishery  (Scot- 
land) Act  of  1889,  the  Fishery  Board  for  Scotland  closed  the  whole 
of  the  Moray  Firth — including  a  large  tract  of  extra-territorial 
waters — against  trawling,  in  order  to  test  experimentally  the 
effect  of  protecting  certain  spawning  grounds  in  the  outer  parts 
of  the  firth.  The  closure  has  given  rise  to  a  succession  of  protests 
from  the  leaders  of  the  trawling  industry  in  Aberdeen  and 
England.  It  seems  that  the  difficulty  of  policing  so  large  an 
area,  as  well  as  the  absence  of  any  power  to  enforce  the  restriction 
on  foreign  vessels,  have  defeated  the  original  intention;  and 
the  bye-law  appears  to  be  now  retained  mainly  in  deference 
to  the  wishes  of  the  local  line-fishermen,  the  decadence  of  whose 
industry — from  economic  causes  which  have  been  alluded  to 
above — is  manifest  from  the  figures  in  Table  X.  below.  The 
controversy  has  had  the  effect  of  causing  the  transference  of  a 
number  of  English  trawlers  to  foreign  flags,  especially  the 
Norwegian. 

Statistics. — The  following  tables  summarize  the  official  statistics 
of  fish  landed  on  the  coasts  of  England  and  Wales,  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  and  give  some  information  relative  to  the  numbers  of 
fishing-boats  and  fishermen  in  the  three  countries. 

TABLE  I. — Summary  of  Statistics  of  Fish  landed,  imported  and 
exported  for  the  United  Kingdom. 


Year. 

Fish  landed 
(excluding  Shell-fish). 

Net 
Imports. 

Exports  of 
British  Fish. 

1890 

1895 
1900 

1905 

Cwt. 
12,774,010 
14,068,641 
14,671,070 
20,164,276 

£6,361,487 
7,168,025 
9,242,491 
10,210,369 

£2,315-572 
2,453-676 
2,937-486 
2,250,259 

£1,795,267 
2,282,406 
3,000,852 
4,164,869 

Note. — Imported  fish  afterwards  re-exported  (consisting  chiefly 
of  salted  or  cured  fish  to  the  value  of  over  £900,000  in  1905)  are  not 
included  in  the  above  values  of  imports  and  exports.  The  exports 
consist  mainly  of  herrings. 


TABLE  II. — Quantity  and  Average  Landing  Value  of  Flat  Fishes 
landed  on  the  Coasts  of  England  and  Wales  (all  caught  with 
Trawl-nets,  except  Halibut  in  part).  . 


Quantity 
(in  Thousands  of  Cwt.). 

Average  Price  (per  Cwt.). 

• 

£ 

<u 

•M 
1 

_j 

d 

B 

4J 

3 
.O 

V 

.(J 
o 

.Q 
~ 

_j 

OJ 

D 

M 

3 

£ 

i 

H 

• 

£ 

"3 
E 

& 

3 

C 
BQ 

J2 
E 

~a 

{.    s. 

{,    s. 

f.     S- 

f.     B. 

f.     s. 

1890 

72-1 

51-9 

15-4 

623 

95 

6     7 

3  13 

2      8 

o  19 

I     10 

i«95 

82-8 

77-9 

19-0 

7«9 

114 

6  16 

3  17 

2    II 

I       I 

I  15 

1900 

75-3 

60-7 

20-7 

752 

136 

7  ii 

4    3 

2    14 

I     4 

I  14 

1905 

80-  1 

89-5 

22-4 

1074 

120 

5   i« 

3  ii 

2    II 

o  19 

I  17 

TABLE  III. — Quantity  and  Average  Landing  Vaiue  of  Round  Fishes, 
caught  with  Trawls  and  Lines,  landed  on  the  Coasts  of  England 
and  Wales. 


Quantity 
(in  Thousands  of  Cwt.). 

Average  Price  (per  Cwt.) 

a 

. 

i 

j 

3 

8 
1 

d 

E 

bo 

_c 

1 

3 

1 
U 

y 

5 

i 

q 

d 
Jt 

cS 

E 

U) 

C 

J 

1 

E 

in 

E 

CO 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

1890 
1895 

363 
496 

1585 
2433 

132 

96 

114 

"5i 
1013 

13  io 
12  5 

9  7 
9  9 

16  2 

H  3 
n  8 

14  o 
13  7 

1900 

589 

2487 

2.33 

100 

1190 

14  8 

13  8 

15  io 

12  10 

14  io 

'90S 

1423 

2148 

484 

165 

1425 

12  4 

12  5 

13  4 

ii  3 

9  8 

TABLE  IV. — Quantity  and  Average  Landing  Value  of  Surface  Fishes 
landed  on  the  Coasts  of  England  and  Wales  (caught  with  Drift-, 
Seine-,  and  Slow-nets). 


Quantity 
(in  Thousands  of  Cwt.). 

Average  Price  (per  Cwt.). 

1 

M 

"Z 

fc 

i 

^ 

JB 

o 

'£ 

2 

u 

| 

1 

I 

E 

K 

(ft 

^ 

E 

E 

in 

s.     d. 

s.     d. 

s.     d. 

s.     d. 

1890 

509 

1332 

61 

99 

15    5 

7     2 

5  1° 

3     o 

1895 

375 

H37 

65 

91 

16    3 

5  io 

5     3 

3     i 

1900 

321 

2425 

1  06 

73 

IS     9 

7     8 

4    6 

4  ii 

1905 

682 

3062 

169 

75 

8  ii 

7     7 

3     6 

TABLE  V. — Quantity  and  Average  Landing  Value  of  Shell-fish  landed 
on  the  Coasts  of  England  and  Wales. 


Number. 

Average  Price. 

Thou- 

p 

Thousands. 

Mills. 

sands  of 
Cwt. 

Per  Hundred. 

Cwt. 

B 

| 

I 
en 

g 

fi 

(A 

.- 

•o 

| 

•M 

ss 

£ 

V 

t 

I 

O 

JD 
O 

1 

B 
CO 

U 

•S 

•J 

M 
>. 

O 

j 

f,   s- 

£   s. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

1890 

4808 

922 

47-6 

505 

i     4 

4  18 

6     I 

5    o 

1895 

4501 

677 

25-3 

590 

i     4 

4    8 

6     2 

411 

1900 

5177 

654 

37-8 

539 

I       2 

4    7 

7     o 

5     8 

1905 

5106 

503 

35-4 

423 

i     3 

4  15 

5     9 

5    6 

TABLE  VI. — Total  Quantity  ofthemore  important  Fishes  and  Shell-fish 
landed  in  Scotland. 


Year. 

In  Thousands  of  Cwt. 

Cwt. 

Number 
(Thousands)  . 

li 

B 

1 

gjj 
44C/3 

Flounder, 
Plaice, 
and  Brill. 

Halibut. 

1 

U 

M 

Q 

Haddock. 

1 

1 

a 

• 

% 

Mussels. 

I 

1 

i 

o 

1890 

1895 
1900 

i9°5 

3980 
4077 
353° 

5343 

17 
19 
21 
31 

81 
80 
loa 
561 

10 

at) 
16 
36 

449 
459 
434 
677 

170 
165 

157 
151 

754 

IOOI 

761 
932 

75 
43 

75 
184 

54 
59 
73 

IOO 

181 
194 
143 
103 

2882 
2548 
3138 
1990 

643 
610 
680 
760 

350 

239 

796 

218 

i  Plaice  only. 


FISHERIES 


TABLE  VII. — Total  Quantity  of  the  more  important  Fishes  and  Shell- 
fish returned  as  landed  on  the  Irish  Coasts. 


433 


divergencies  of  opinion  on  the  question  whether  the  low  size- 
limits  proposed  would  be  effectual  in  keeping  the  trawlers  from 
working  on  the  grounds  where  small  fish  congregated,  the 
committee  reported  against  the  bill,  and  urged  the  immediate 
equipment  of  the  government  departments  with  means  for 
undertaking  the  necessary  scientific  investigations. 

In  1901  an  international  conference  of  representatives  of  all 
the  countries  bordering  upon  the  North  and  Baltic  Seas  met  at 
Christiania  to  revise  proposals  which  had  been  drafted  at  Stock- 
holm in  1899  for  a  scientific  exploration  of  these  waters  in  the 
interest  of  the  fisheries,  to  be  undertaken  concurrently  by  all 
the  participating  countries.  The  British  government  was 
represented  by  Sir  Colin  Scott-Moncrieff,  K.C.M.G.,  with  Pro- 
fessor D'Arcy  W.  Thompson,  Mr  (afterwards  Professor)  W. 
Garstang  and  Dr  H.  R.  Mill  as  advisers.  The  proposals  were 
subsequently  accepted,  with  some  restrictions,  and  an  interna- 
TABLE  VIII.— Classified  List  of  British  Fishing  Boats  on  the  Register  for  1905,  omitting  2nd  Class  Steamers  tional  council  of  manage- 


In  Thousands  of  Cwt. 

Number 
(Thousands)  . 

<5 

"a 

M 

-4J 

^ 

si 

. 

3 

i 

c 

U 

o 

T3 

bo 

X 

C 

o 

€ 

_o 

B 

9* 

rt 

C 

V 

E 

S 

C 

H 

a 

J 

TJ 
T3 

S 

O 

'J3 

K 

1 

S 

U 

O 

1 

1890 

502 

85 

4-5 

1-4 

39-6 

I4-8 

16-4 

13-5 

25-3 

576 

228 

2^8 

i«95 

339 

'7' 

1-8 

I-O 

43-6 

29-7 

30-9 

n-9 

18-7 

563 

240 

276 

1900 

278 

284 

3-i 

1-5 

33-6 

1  1  -9 

12-4 

11-9 

16-3 

236 

2O2 

286 

1905 

505 

354| 

3'5 

0-8 

18-6 

9-1 

"•3 

18-3 

7'i 

348 

175 

236 

Note. — The  Irish  statistics  of  shell-fish  are  very  incomplete,  owing 
to  the  inadequate  means  at  the  disposal  of  the  authorities  for  collect- 
ing statistics  over  large  sections  of  the  coast. 


and  Vessels  under  18  Ft.  Keel  or  Navigated  by  Oars  only  and  Vessels  unemployed. 


Mode  of 
Fishing. 

England  and  Wales. 

Scotland. 

Ireland. 

Steamers, 
ist  Cl. 

Sailing. 
1st  Cl.       2nd  Cl. 

Steamers, 
ist  Cl. 

Sailing. 
1st  Cl.       2nd  Cl. 

Steamers. 
1st  Cl. 

Sailing. 
1st  Cl.        2nd  Cl. 

Trawling  . 
Drift-nets 
Lines 
Various     . 

H73 
263 

56 

21 

904 
562 
29 
215 

586 

539 
685 
2277 

244 
209 

3403 

68 
2910 

10 

142 
229 

283 
2776 

Total     . 

1513 

1710 

4087 

453 

3403 

2978 

10 

371 

3059 

Note. — 1st  class  =  steamers  of  at  least  15  tons  gross  tonnage,  and  other  boats  of  at  least 

tonnage  (in  Scotland  exceeding  30  ft.  keel). 
2nd  class  =less  than  15  tons  tonnage,  or  from  18  to  30  ft.  keel. 


TABLE  IX. — Number  (A)  of  Men  and  Boys  constantly  employed 
and  (B)  of  other  Persons  occasionally  employed  in  Fishing. 


Year. 

England  and 
Wales. 

Scotland. 

Ireland. 

United 
Kingdom. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

1890 
1895 
1900 

1905 

32,503 
33,229 
31.589 
34,3i8 

93" 
8995 
7994 
8132 

34,319 
3i.°44 
27,288 
29,064 

20,829 
12,329 
10,288 
10.487 

IO.I2I 
8,693 
8,677 

8,744 

I3,98l 
18,218 
18,982 
17,079 

78,450 
73,090 
68,708 
73,293 

*6,i37 
41,23° 
37,8l4 
36,131 

TABLE  X. — Catch  and  Value  of  Line-caught  and  Trawled  Fish  landed 
in  Scotland. 


Year. 

Line-caught  Fish. 

Trawled  Fish. 

1890 

1895 
1900 

1905 

Cwt. 
1-577-299 
1,479,654 
757,416 

735,654 

£591,059 
548,629 

371,173 
348,610 

Cwt. 
291,812 
531,695 
1,077,082 
1,745.431 

£203,620 
291,165 

703,427 
948,117 

In  1893  a  select  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  took 
evidence  as  to  the  expediency  of  adopting  measures  for  the 
preservation  of  the  sea-fisheries  in  the  seas  around  the  British 
Islands,  with  especial  reference  to  the  alleged  wasteful  destruction 
of  under-sized  fish.  They  reco-mmended  the  adoption  of  a  size- 
limit  of  8  in.  for  soles  and  plaice,  and  10  in.  for  turbot  and  brill, 
below  which  the  sale  of  these  fishes  should  be  prohibited,  on  the 
ground  that  these  limits  would  approximate  to  those  already 
adopted  by  foreign  countries. 

In  1899  the  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  (Ireland) 
Act  transferred  the  "powers  and  duties  of  the  inspectors  of  Irish 
fisheries  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruc- 
tion for  Ireland.  The  department  is  provided  with  a  steam 
cruiser,  the  "Helga,"37S  tons,  fully  equipped  for  fishery  research, 
as  well  as  with  a  floating  marine  laboratory.  Mr  Holt,  formerly 
of  the  Marine  Biological  Association,  was  appointed  to  take 
charge  of  the  scientific  work. 

In  1900  another  select  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
was  appointed  to  consider  and  take  evidence  on  the  proposals  of 
the  Sea  Fisheries  Bill,  which  had  been  framed  in  accordance  with 
the  recommendations  of  the  select  committee  of  1893,  but  had 
failed  to  pass  in  several  sessions  of  parliament.  Owing  to  marked 


ment  was  appointed  by 
the  participating  govern- 
ments.  The  Fishery 
Board  for  Scotland  and 
the  Marine  Biological 
Association  from  England 
were  commissioned  in 
1902  to  carry  out  the 
work  at  sea  allotted  to 
Great  Britain,  and  a 
special  grant  of  £5500 

per  annum  was  made  to 
15  tons  registered  each   body  by   the  Trea_ 

sury  for  this  purpose. 
Two  steamers,  the 


"  Huxley  "  and  the  "  Goldseeker,"  were  chartered  for  the  investi- 
gations and  began. work  in  1902  and  1903  from  Lowestoft 
and  Aberdeen  respectively.  Reports  on  the  work  of  the  first 
five  years  were  published  in  1909. 

In  1901  the  Board  of  Trade  appointed  a  committee  (the 
Committee  on  Ichthyological  Research)  to  inquire  and  report 
as  to  the  best  means  by  which  scientific  fishery  research  could 
be  organized  and  assisted  in  relation  to  the  state  or  local  authori- 
ties. The  committee  consisted  of  Sir  Herbert  Maxwell,  M.P. 
(chairman),  Mr  W.  F.  Archer,  Mr  Donald  Crawford,  Rev.  W.  S. 
Green,  Professor  W.  A.  Herdman,  Hon.  T.  H.  W.  Pelham, 
Mr  S.  E.  Spring  Rice  and  Professor  J.  A.  Thomson.  Sir  Herbert 
Maxwell  resigned  his  chairmanship  before  the  report  was  drawn 
up  (September  1902),  and  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Colin  Scott- 
Moncrieff.  The  committee  recommended  the  provision  of  more 
complete  statistics;  the  provision  and  maintenance  of  five  special 
steamers  (where  not  already  existing)  to  work  in  connexion  with 
as  many  marine  laboratories,  viz.  one  for  each  of  the  three  coasts 
of  England  and  Wales,  and  one  each  for  Scotland  and  Ireland; 
the  provision  of  three  biological  assistants  at  each  laboratory; 
the  grant  of  statutory  powers  to  local  sea-fisheries  committees  to 
expend  money  on  fishery  research;  the  constitution  of  a  fishery 
council  for  England  and  Wales,  and  of  a  conference  of  represent- 
atives of  the  central  authorities  in  England,  Scotland  and 
Ireland.  In  1903  the  fishery  department  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
was  transferred  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  Mr  W.  E.  Archer, 
chief  inspector  of  fisheries,  becoming  an  assistant  secretary  of 
the  new  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries. 

In  1907  a  departmental  treasury  committee  was  appointed 
to  inquire  into  the  scientific  and  statistical  investigations  carried 
on  in  relation  to  the  fishing  industry  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  committee  consisted  of  Mr  H.  J.  Tennant,  M.P.  (chairman), 
Lord  Nunburnholme,  Sir  Reginald  MacLeod,  Mr  N.  W.  Helms, 
M.P.,  Mr  A.  Williamson.  M.P.,  DrP.  Chalmers  Mitchell,  F.R.S., 
Mr  J.  S.  Gardiner,  F.R.S.,  the  Rev.  W.  S.  Green,  Mr  R.  H.  Rew 
and  Mr  L.  S.  Hewby.  This  committee  reviewed  the  work  that 
had  already  been  done  and  urged  its  continuation  and  extension 
under  the  direction  of  a  central  council  composed  of  represent- 
atives of  the  government  departments  concerned  with  fishery 
matters  in  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland,  with  a  scientific 


434 


FISHERY 


chairman  and  director;  and  further  insisted  on  the  need  of 
international  co-operation  in  the  investigations. 

United  Slates  Fisheries. — The  administration  of  the  fisheries 
of  the  United  States  of  America  is  under  the  control  of  the 
several  coastal  states,  but  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  at  Washing- 
ton, which  reports  to  the  secretary  of  commerce  and  labour, 
conducts  a  vast  amount  of  scientific  fishery  investigation,  issues 
admirable  statistical  and  biological  reports,  and  conducts  on  a 
very  large  scale  work  on  the  replenishment  of  the  fishing  stations 
by  artificial  means  (see  PISCICULTURE).  Although  in  recent 
years  Canada  has  given  an  increasing  amount  of  state  support 
to  the  investigation,  control  and  assistance  of  her  fisheries,  an 
amount  actually  and  relatively  far  exceeding  that  given  in  Great 
Britain,  the  fishing  industry  of  the  United  States  still  far  exceeds 
that  of  Canada.  A  considerable  bulk  of  fish,  taken  by  American 
ships  from  the  Newfoundland  coasts  and  from  those  of  other 
British  provinces,  is  landed  at  American  ports,  but  as  the  follow- 
ing recent  table  shows,  it  is  much1  less  than  that  taken  from 
American  waters. 

Quantities  and  Values  of  Fish  landed  by  American  Vessels  at  Boston 
and  Gloucester,  Mass.,  in  190$. 


Quantities. 

Value. 

(a)  From  fishing  grounds  off  U.S. 
coasts  
(ft)  From  fishing  grounds  off  New- 
foundland    
(c)  From  fishing  grounds  off  other 
British  provinces 

152,241,139 
17,165,083 
32,608,343 

£669,640 
103,145 
192,517 

The  fisheries  of  the  United  States  show  a  substantial  increase 
from  year  to  year.  There  has  been  a  decline  in  some  important 
branches  owing  to  indiscreet  fishing  and  to  the  inevitable  effects 
of  civilization  on  certain  kinds  of  animal  life  and  in  certain 
restricted  areas.  Such  diminution  has  been  more  than  com- 
pensated for  by  growth  resulting  from  the  invasion  of  new  fishing 
grounds  made  possible  by  increase  in  the  sea-going  capacity 
of  the  vessels  employed,  by  improvement  in  the  preservation 
and  handling  of  the  catch,  and  by  the  greater  utilization  of 
products  which  until  comparatively  recently  were  disregarded 
or  considered  without  economic  value.  The  annual  value  of  the 
water  products  taken  and  sold  by  the  United  States  fishermen 
now  amounts  to  over  £11,000,000,  and  this  sum  does  not  include 
the  very  large  quantities  taken  by  the  fishermen  for  home 
consumption  or  captured  by  sportsmen  and  amateurs.  Between 
two  and  three  hundred  thousand  persons  make  a  livelihood  by 
the  industry,  and  the  capital  involved  exceeds  £16,000,000. 

The  oyster  is  the  most  valuable  single  product,  and  the  output 
of  the  United  States  industry  exceeds  the  combined  output  of 
all  other  countries  in  the  world.  The  most  notable  feature  of 
this  fishery  is  that"  nearly  half  the  total  yield  now  comes  from 
cultivated  grounds,  so  that  the  business  is  being  placed  on  a 
secure  basis.  Virginia  has  now  taken  the  first  rank  as  an  oyster- 
producing  state,  oyster  farming  being  now  highly  developed 
with  an  annual  yield  of  nearly  nine  million  bushels. 

The  high-sea  fisheries  for  cod,  haddock,  hake,  halibut,  mackerel, 
herring,  and  so  forth  are  on  the  whole  not  increasing  in  prosperity, 
the  annual  value  being  between  one  and  two  million  pounds. 
The  lobster  fishery  shows  a  markedly  diminishing  yield,  the 
diminution  having  been  progressive  since  about  1890,  and 
being  attributed  to  over-fishing  and  violation  of  the  restrictive 
regulations.  At  present  a  large  part  of  the  lobsters  consumed 
in  the  United  States  comes  from  Nova  Scotia,  but  there  is 
evidence  of  useful  results  coming  from  the  extensive  cultural 
operations  now  being  carried  out. 

The  whale  fishery,  at  one  time  the  leading  fishing  industry 
of  the  country,  is  now  conducted  chiefly  in  the  North  Pacific 
and  Arctic  oceans,  but  is  decaying,  being  now  expensive,  un- 
certain and  often  unremunerative.  The  annual  value  of  the 
take  is  now  under  £200,000. 

The  important  group  of  anadromous  fishes  (those  like  salmon, 
shad,  alewife,  striped  bass  and  sea  perches,  which  ascend  the 
rivers  from  the  ocean)  has  continued  to  provide  an  increasing 


source  of  income  to  fishermen,  the  combined  value  of  the  catch 
on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  seaboards  now  amounting  to  over 
£3,000,000  annually.  The  fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes  yield 
about  £600,000  annually.  (W.  GA.;  P.  C.  M.) 

FISHERY  (LAW  or).  This  subject  has  (i)  its  international 
aspect;  (2)  its  municipal  aspect.  On  the  high  seas  outside 
territorial  waters  the  right  of  fishery  is  now  recognized  as  common 
to  all  nations.  Claims  were  made  in  former  times  by  single 
nations  to  the  exclusive  right  of  fishing  in  tracts  of  open  sea; 
such  as  that  set  up  by  Denmark  in  respect  of  the  North  Sea,  as 
lying  between  its  possessions  of  Norway  and  Iceland,  against 
England  in  the  1 7th  century,  and  against  England  and  Holland 
in  the  i8th  century,  when  she  prohibited  any  foreigners  fishing 
within  15  German  miles  of  the  shores  of  Greenland  and  Iceland. 
This  claim,  however,  was  always  effectively  resisted  on  the 
ground  stated  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  remonstrance  to  Denmark 
on  the  subject  in  1602,  that  "  the  law  of  nations  alloweth  of 
fishing  in  the  sea  everywhere,  even  in  seas  where  a  nation  hath 
propertie  of  command."  The  enunciation  of  this  principle  is 
to  be  found,  also,  in  the  award  of  the  arbitration  court  which 
decided  the  question  of  the  fur-seal  fishery  in  Bering  Sea  in  1894. 
(See  BERING  SEA  ARBITRATION;  ARBITRATION,  INTERNATIONAL.) 
The  right  of  nations  to  take  fish  in  the  sea  may,  however,  be 
restrained  or  regulated  by  treaty  or  custom;  and  Great  Britain 
has  entered  into  conventions  with  other  nations  with  regard  to 
fishing  in  certain  parts  of  the  sea.  The  provisions  of  such 
conventions  are  made  binding  on  British  subjects  by  statutes. 

Instances  of  these  are  the  conventions  of  1818  and  1872  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  as  to  the  fisheries  on  the  eastern 
coasts  of  British  North  America  iind  the  United  States  within  certain 
limits,  and  the  award  of  the  Bering  Sea  arbitration  tribunal  under  the 
treaty  of  1892;  the  conventions  between  Great  Britain  and  France 
in  183^  and  1867  as  regards  fishing  in  the  seas  adjoining  these 
countries,  the  latter  of  which  will  come  into  force  on  the  repeal  of 
the  former;  the  agreement  of  1904  with  respect  to  the  New- 
foundland fisheries  (see  NEWFOUNDLAND)  ;  the  convention  of  1882 
between  Belgium,  Denmark,  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain  and 
Holland,  regarding  the  North  Sea  fisheries;  that  of  1887  between 
the  same  parties  concerning  the  liquor  traffic  in  the  North  Sea; 
and  the  declaration  regarding  the  same  waters  made  between 
Great  Britain  and  Belgium  for  the  settlement  of  differences  between 
their  fishermen  subjects  in  such  extra-territorial  waters.  At  the 
instance  of  the  Swedish  government  the  British  parliament  also 
passed  an  act  in  1875  to  establish  a  close  time  for  the  seal  fishery  in 
the  seas  adjacent  to  the  eastern  coasts  of  Greenland. 

Cases  have  come  before  British  courts  with  regard  to  the 
whale  fishery  in  northern  and  southern  seas;  and  the  customs 
proved  to  exist  among  the  whaling  ships  of  the  nations  engaged 
in  a  particular  trade  have  been  upheld  if  known  to  the  parties 
to  the  action.  In  territorial  waters,  on  the  other  hand,  fishery 
is  a  right  exclusively  belonging  to  the  subjects  of  the  country 
owning  such  waters,  and  no  foreigners  can  fish  there  except  by 
convention. 

(a)  Tidal  Waters. — In  British  territorial  waters,  it  may  be 
stated,  as  the  general  rule,  that  fishery  is  a  right  incidental 
to  the  soil  covered  by  the  waters  in  which  that  right  is  exercised. 

The  bed  of  all  navigable  rivers  where  the  tide  flows  and  reflows, 
and  of  all  estuaries  or  arms  of  the  sea,  is  vested  in  the  crown ;  and 
therefore,  in  Lord  Chief  Justice  Hale's  words,  "  the  right  of  the 
fishery  in  the  sea  and  the  creeks  and  arms  thereof  is  originally 
lodged  in  the  crown,  as  the  right  of  depasturing  is  originally  lodged 
in  the  owner  of  the  waste  whereof  he  is  lord,  or  as  the  right  of  fishing 
belongs  to  him  that  is  the  owner  of  a  private  or  inland  river. 
"  But,"  he  continues,  "  though  the  king  is  the  owner  of  this  great 
waste,  and  as  a  consequent  of  his  propriety  hath  the  primary  right 
of  fishing  in  the  sea  and  the  creeks  and  arms  thereof,  yet  the  common 
people  of  England  have  regularly  a  liberty  of  fishing  therein  as  a 
public  common  of  piscary,  and  may  not  without  injury  to  their  right 
be  restrained  of  it  unless  in  such  places  or  creeks  or  navigable  rivers 
where  either  the  king  or  some  particular  subject  hath  gained  a 
propriety  exclusive  of  that  common  liberty  "  (De  Jure  Maris,  ch.  iv.)_ 

This  right  extends  to  all  fish  floating  in  the  sea  or  left  on  the 
seashore,  except  certain  fish  known  as  royal  fish,  which,  when 
taken  in  territorial  waters,  belong  to  the  crown  or  its  grantee, 
though  caught  by  another  person.  These  are  whales,  sturgeons 
and  porpoises;  and  grampuses  are  also  sometimes  added  (whales, 
porpoises  and  grampuses  being  "  fishes  "  only  in  a  legal  sense). 
In  Scotland  only  whales  which  are  of  large  size  can  be  so  claimed ; 


FISHERY 


435 


but  the  rights  of  salmon  fishing  in  the  sea  and  in  public  and 
private  rivers,  and  those  of  mussel  and  oyster  fishing,  except 
in  private  rivers,  are  inter  regalia,  and  are  only  enjoyable  by  the 
crown  or  persons  deriving  title  under  it.  As  salmon  fishery  was 
formerly  practised  by  nets  and  engines  on  the  shore,  and  the 
mussel  and  oyster  fisheries  were  necessarily  carried  on  on  the 
shore,  the  opinion  was  held  at  one  time  that  angling  for  salmon 
was  a  public  right,  but  the  later  decisions  have  established  that 
the  right  of  salmon  fishing  by  whatever  means  is  a  jus  regale  in 
Scotland.  In  England  the  crown  in  early  times  made  frequent 
grants  of  fisheries  to  subjects  in  tidal  waters,  and  instances  of 
such  fisheries  belonging  to  persons  and  corporations  are  very 
common  at  the  present  day:  but  by  Magna  Carta  the  crown 
declared  that  "  no  rivers  shall  be  defended  from  henceforth, 
but  such  as  were  in  defence  in  the  time  of  King  Henry,  our 
grandfather,  by  the  same  places  and  the  same  bounds  as  they 
were  wont  to  be  in  his  time  ";  and  thus  bound  itself  not  to 
create  a  private  fishery  in  any  navigable  tidal  river.  Judicial 
decision  and  commentators  having  interpreted  this  statute 
according  to  the  spirit  and  not  the  letter,  at  the  present  day  the 
right  of  fishery  in  tidal  waters  prima  facie  belongs  to  the  public, 
and  they  can  only  be  excluded  by  a  particular  person  or  corpora- 
tion on  proof  of  an  exclusive  right  to  fish  there  not  later  in  its 
origin  than  Magna  Carta;  and  for  this  it  is  necessary  either  to 
prove  an  actual  grant  from  the  crown  of  that  date  to  the  claimant's 
predecessor  in  title,  or  a  later  grant  or  immemorial  custom  or 
prescription  to  that  effect,  from  which  such  an  original  grant 
may  be  presumed.  This  exclusive  right  of  fishing  may  be  either 
a  franchise  derived  from  the  crown,  or  may  arise  by  virtue  of 
ownership  of  the  soil  covered  by  the  waters. 

In  Lord  Hate's  words:  "  Fishing  may  be  of  two  kinds  ordinarily, 
viz.  fishing  with  a  net,  which  may  be  either  as  a  liberty  without  the 
soil,  or  as  a  liberty  arising  by  reason  of  and  in  concomitance  with  the 
soil  or  an  interest  or  propriety  of  it;  or  otherwise  it  is  a  local  fishing 
that  ariseth  by  or  from  the  propriety  of  the  soil, — such  are  gurgites, 
wears,  fishing-places,  borachiae,  stachiae,  which  are  the  very  soil 
itself,  and  so  frequently  agreed  by  our  books.  And  such  as  these  a 
subject  may  have  by  usage;  either  in  gross,  as  many  religious 
nouses  had,  or  as  parcel  of  or  appurtenant  to  their  manors,  as  both 
corporations  and  others  have  had ;  and  this  not  only  in  navigable 
rivers  and  arms  of  the  sea  but  in  creeks  and  ports  and  havens,  yea, 
and  in  certain  known  limits  in  the  open  sea  contiguous  to  the  shore. 
And  these  kinds  of  fishings  are  not  only  for  small  sea-fish,  such  as 
herrings,  &c.,  but  for  great  fish,  as  salmons,  and  not  only  for  them 
but  for  royal  fish. .  .  .  Most  of  the  precedents  touching  such  rights 
of  fishing  in  the  sea,  and  the  arms  and  creeks  thereof  belonging  by 
usage  to  subjects,  appear  to  be  by  reason  of  the  propriety  of  the 
very  water  and  soil  wherein  the  fishing  is,  and  some  of  them  even 
within  parts  of  the  seas  "  (De  Jure  Marts,  ch.  v.) 

An  instance  of  the  former  kind  of  fishery  is  to  be  found  in  the 
old  case  of  Royal  Fishery  of  the  River  Bann  (temp.  James  I., 
Davis  655),  and  the  modern  one  of  Wilson  v.  Crossfield,  1883, 
i  T.L.R.  601,  where  a  right  of  fishery  in  gross  was  established; 
but  the  latter  kind,  as  Hale  says,  is  much  more  common,  and  the 
presumption  is  always  in  its  favour;  &  fortiori  where  the  fishing 
is  proved  to  have  been  carried  on  by  means  of  engines  or  struc- 
tures fixed  in  the  soil.  In  England  the  public  have  not  at  com- 
mon law,  as  incidental  to  their  right  of  fishing  in  tidal  waters, 
the  right  to  make  use  of  the  banks  or  shores  for  purposes  in- 
cidental to  the  fishery,  such  as  beaching  their  boats  upon  them, 
landing  there,  or  drying  their  nets  there  (though  they  can  do  so 
by  proving  a  custom  from  which  such  a  grant  may  be  presumed) ; 
but  statutes  relating  to  particular  parts  of  the  realm,  such  as 
Cornwall  for  the  pilchard  fishery,  give  them  such  rights.  In 
Scotland  a  right  of  salmon  fishing  separate  from  land  implies 
the  right  of  access  to  and  use  of  the  banks,  foreshores  or  beach 
for  the  purposes  of  the  fishing;  and  so  does  white  fishing  by 
statute.  But  otherwise  there  is  no  right  to  do  so,  e.g.  in  a  public 
river  for  trout  fishing.  A  similar  privilege  is  given  to  Irish 
fishermen  for  the  purpose  of  sea  fishery  by  special  statute.  There 
is  no  property  in  fish  in  the  sea,  and  they  belong  to  the  first 
taker;  and  the  custom  of  the  trade  decides  when  a  fish  is  taken 
or  not,  e.g.  in  the  whale  fishery  the  question  whether  a  fish  is 
"  loose  "  or  not  has  come  before  English  courts. 

(b)  Fresh    Waters. — In    non-tidal    waters   in    England    and 


Ireland,  for  the  reason  given  above,  the  presumption  is  in  favour 
of  the  fishery  in  such  waters  belonging  to  the  owners  of  the  ad- 
jacent lands;  "  fresh  waters  of  what  kind  soever  do  of  common 
right  belong  to  the  owners  of  the  soil  adjacent,  so  that  the  owners 
of  the  one  side  have  of  common  right  the  property  of  the  soil,  and 
consequently  the  right  of  fishing  usque  ad  filum  aquae,  and  the 
owners  of  the  other  side  the  right  of  soil  or  ownership  and  fishing 
unto  the  filum  aquae  on  their  side;  and  if  a  man  be  owner  of 
the  land  on  both  sides,  in  common  presumption  he  is  owner  of 
the  whole  river,  and  hath  the  right  of  fishing  according  to  the 
extent  of  his  land  in  length  "  (Hale,  ch.  i.).  There  is  a  similar 
presumption  that  the  owner  of  the  bed  of  a  river  has  the  exclusive 
right  of  fishery  there,  and  this  is  so  even  though  he  does  not  own 
the  banks;  but  these  presumptions  may  be  displaced  by  proof 
of  a  different  state  of  things,  e.g.  where  the  banks  of  a  stream 
are  separately  owned  the  owner  of  one  bank  may  show  by  acts 
of  ownership  exercised  over  the  whole  stream  that  he  has  the 
fishery  over  it  all.  The  crown  prerogative  of  fishery,  never  it 
seems,  extended  to  non-tidal  waters  flowing  over  the  land  of  a 
subject,  and  it  .could  not  therefore  grant  such  a  franchise  to  a 
subject,  nor  has  it  any  right  de  jure  to  the  soil  or  fisheries  of  an 
inland  lake  such  as  Lough  Neagh  (Bristow  v.  Cormican,  1878, 
3  App.  Cas.  641).  The  public  cannot  acquire  the  right  to  fish 
in  fresh  waters  by  prescription  or  otherwise  although  they  are 
navigable;  such  a  right  is  unknown  to  law,  because  a  profit 
a  prendre  in  alieno  solo  is  neither  to  be  acquired  by  custom  nor 
by  prescription  under  the  Prescription  Act.  It  has  been  decided 
that  the  "  dwellers  "  in  a  parish  cannot  acquire  such  a  right, 
being  of  too  vague  a  class;  but  the  commoners  in  a  manor  may 
have  it  by  custom;  and  the  "  free  inhabitants  of  ancient  tene- 
ments "  in  a  borough  have  been  held  capable  of  acquiring  a 
right  to  dredge  for  oysters  in  a  fishery  belonging  to  the  coroora- 
tion  of  the  borough  on  certain  days  in  each  year  by  giving  proof 
of  uninterrupted  enjoyment  of  it  from  time  immemorial,  on  the 
presumption  that  this  was  a  condition  to  which  the  grant  made 
to  the  corporation  was  subject. 

In  Scotland  the  law  is  similar.  The  right  to  fish  for  trout 
in  private  streams  is  a  pertinent  of  the  land  adjacent,  and 
owners  of  opposite  banks  may  fish  usque  ad  medium  filum  aquae; 
and  where  two  owners  own  land  round  a  private  loch,  both  have 
a  common  of  fishing  over  it.  The  public  cannot  prescribe  for  it, 
for  a  written  title  either  to  adjacent  lands  or  to  the  fishery  is 
necessary.  A  right  of  way  along  the  bank  of  a  river  or  loch 
does  not  give  it,  nor  does  the  right  of  the  public  to  be  on  or 
at  a  navigable  but  non-tidal  river.  The  right  of  salmon  fishing 
carries  with  it  the  right  of  trout  fishing:  and  eel  fishing  passes  in 
the  same  way. 

In  England  and  Ireland  private  fisheries  have  been  divided 
into  (a)  several  (separalis),  (b)  free  (liber a),  (c)  common  of  piscary 
(communis) ,  whether  in  tidal  or  non-tidal  waters.  The  distinction 
between  several  and  free  fisheries  has  always  been  uncertain. 
Blackstone's  opinion  was  that  several  fishery  implied  a  fishery  in 
right  of  the  soil  under  the  water,  while  free  fishery  was  confined 
to  a  public  river  and  did  not  necessarily  comprehend  the  soil. 
He  is  supported  by  later  writers,  such  as  Woolrych  and  Paterson. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  opinions  of  Coke  and  Hale  are  opposed 
to  this  view.  "  A  man  may  prescribe  to  have  a  several  fishery 
in  such  a  water,  and  the  owner  shall  not  fish  there;  but  if  he 
claim  to  have  common  of  fishery  or  free  fishery  the  owner  of  the 
soil  shall  fish  there  "  (Co  Littl.  122  A);  "  one  man  may  have 
the  river  and  others  the  soil  adjacent :  or  one  man  may  have  the 
river  and  soil  thereof,  and  another  the  free  or  several  fishing  in 
that  river  "  (De  Jure  Maris,  ch.  i.).  Lord  Holt,  though  in  one 
instance  he  distinguished  them,  in  a  later  case  thought  that 
they  were  "  all  one."  Later  decisions  have  established  the  latter 
view,  and  it  is  now  settled  that  although  the  owner  of  the  several 
fishery  is  prima  facie  owner  of  the  soil  of  the  waters,  this  presump- 
tion may  be  displaced  by  showing  that  the  terms  of  the  grant 
only  convey  an  incorporeal  hereditament,  and  that  the  words 
"  sole  and  exclusive  fishery  "  give  a  several  fishery  in  alieno  solo. 
In  the  .words  of  Mr  Justice  Willes,  "  the  only  substantial  distinc- 
tion is  between  an  exclusive  right  of  fishery,  usually  called 


436 


FISHERY 


'  several,'  and  sometimes  '  free,'  as  in  '  free  warren,'  and  a  right 
in  common  with  others,  usually  called  '  common  of  fishery,' 
and  sometimes  '  free,'  as  in  '  free  port.'  A  several  fishery  means 
an  exclusive  right  to  fish  in  a  given  place,  either  with  or  without 
the  property  in  the  soil  "  (Malcolmson  v.  O'Dea,  1863,  10  H.L.). 
A  common  of  piscary,  or  "  a  right  to  fish  in  common  with  certain 
other  persons  in  a  particular  stream,"  is  usually  found  in  manors, 
the  commoners  of  which  may  have  the  right  to  enjoy  it  to  an 
extent  sufficient  for  the  sustenance  of  their  tenements;  but 
they  cannot,  except  by  immemorial  special  prescription,  exclude 
the  lord  of  the  manor  therefrom,  and  have  no  rights  over  the 
soil  itself.  Decisions  also  establish  that  a  grant  of  "  fishery  " 
will  prima  facie  pass  an  exclusive  fishery;  a  grant  of  soil  covered 
by  water  or  a  lease  of  lands  including  water  will  pass  the  fishery 
therein;  a  several  fishery  will  not  merge  on  being  resumed  by 
the  crown;  and  a  fishery  situate  within  a  manor  is  presumed 
to  belong  to  the  owners  of  adjacent  land,  and  not  to  the  lord. 
A  several  fishery,  as  already  seen,  being  an  incorporeal  heredita- 
ment, can  only  be  transferred  by  deed,  and  therefore  camot 
be  abandoned,  and  so  acquired  by  the  public,  even  on  proof  that 
the  public  have,  as  far  back  as  living  memory,  exercised  the  right 
of  fishing  in  the  locus  in  quo  to  the  knowledge  of  and  without 
interruption  from  the  claimant  of  the  fishery.  But  to  establish 
a  title  to  a  several  fishery,  a  "  paper  title,"  i.e.  one  founded  on 
documentary  evidence  only,  is  not  sufficient;  it  must  be  sup- 
ported by  evidence  of  acts  of  ownership  in  recent  times,  for 
otherwise  it  will  be  presumed  that  a  person  other  than  the  alleged 
owner  is  the  real  owner.  If  the  waters  of  a  tidal  river  leave  their 
old  channel  and  flow  into  another,  the  owner  of  a  several  fishery 
in  the  old  channel  cannot  claim  to  have  it  in  the  new  one;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  owner  of  a  several  fishery  can  take 
advantage  of  a  gradual  encroachment  by  the  river  upon  and 
into  the  land  of  a  riparian  owner,  the  limits  of  whose  land  are 
ascertained.  The  owner  of  an  exclusive  fishery,  whether  in  tidal 
or  fresh  waters,  has  the  right  to  take  as  many  fish  as  he  can,  and 
may  do  so  by  means  of  fixed  engines  or  dredging,  provided  that 
in  navigable  waters  he  does  not  interfere  with  the  right  of 
navigation,  and  that  in  navigable  and  other  waters  he  does  not 
interfere  with  the  fishing  rights  of  his  neighbours  or  infringe  the 
provisions  made  by  old  or  modern  statutes  as  to  the  methods 
of  taking  the  fish,  e.g.  by  weirs.  These  were  forbidden  in  rivers 
by  Magna  Carta  and  later  statutes,  and  on  the  seashore  by  a 
statute  of  James  I.;  but  all  weirs  in  navigable  fresh  waters 
traceable  to  a  date  not  later  than  25  Edward  III.  are  lawful, 
for  the  statutes  forbidding  weirs  do  not  apply  to  navigable 
waters.  It  seems,  however,  that  at  common  law  any  fixed 
structures  put  up  by  the  owner  of  a  fishery  in  his  part  of  a  river, 
which  at  all  prevent  the  free  passage  of  fish  to  the  waters  above 
or  below,  give  the  owners  of  fisheries  therein  a  right  of  action 
against  him.  So  the  grantee  of  an  exclusive  fishery  with  rod 
and  line  in  an  unnavigable  river  can  prevent  any  person  from 
polluting  the  river  higher  up  and  so  damaging  the  fishery.  At 
common  law  there  is  no  property  in  fish  when  enjoying  their 
natural  liberty;  the  taker  is  entitled  to  keep  them  unless  they 
are  caught  from  a  tank  or  small  pond;  or  except  in  the  case  of 
salmon  by  statute. 

Modern  statutes  now  regulate  all  fisheries,  sea  or  fresh,  in 
territorial  or  inland  waters.  As  regards  sea  fishery  in  England, 
the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  has  (since  1903,  when  it 
took  it  over  from  the  Board  of  Trade)  power  by  order  to  create 
sea  fisheries  districts,  comprising  any  part  of  the  sea  within 
which  British  subjects  have,  by  international  law,  the  exclusive 
right  of  fishing,  and  to  provide  for  the  constitution  of  a  local 
fisheries  committee  to  regulate  the  sea  fisheries  in  such  district, 
which  can  make  by-laws  for  that  purpose.  It  appoints  fishery 
officers  to  enforce  them,  prescribes  a  close  time  for  sea  fish 
(which  does  not  include  salmon  as  defined  in  the  Salmon  Act), 
has  summary  jurisdiction  over  offences  committed  on  the  sea 
coast  or  at  sea  beyond  the  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  a  court  of 
summary  jurisdiction,  can  enforce  the  Sea  Fisheries  Acts,  or 
regulate,  protect  and  develop  fisheries  for  all  or  any  kind  of  shell 
fish.  Special  provision  is  also  made  by  statute  for  the  oyster 


fishery  and  herring  fishery  (applicable  also  to  Scotland),  and  that 
of  mussels,  cockles,  lobsters  and  crabs  (applicable  to  all  the 
United  Kingdom) .  In  Scotland  the  Fishery  Board  can  constitute 
sea  fishery  districts,  and  boards  with  like  powers  to  those  in 
England,  and  has  general  control  over  the  coast  and  deep-sea 
fisheries  of  Scotland;  and  there  are  acts  relative  to  herring, 
mussel  and  oyster  fisheries,  and  allowing  the  appropriation  of 
money  intended  to  relieve  local  distress  and  taxation  towards 
the  encouragement  of  sea  fisheries,  and  marine  superintendence 
and  enforcement  of  Scottish  sea  fisheries  laws.  In  Ireland  the 
sea  fisheries  are  under  the  direction  of  the  inspectors  of  Irish 
fisheries,  who  have  replaced  the  former  fishery  commissioners 
and  special  commissioners  for  Irish  fisheries;  special  statutes, 
besides  the  general  ones  applying  to  all  the  United  Kingdom, 
deal  with  oyster  fisheries  and  mussel  fisheries;  and  money  is 
also  appropriated  for  sea  fisheries  under  the  head  of  technical 
instruction.  In  all  three  component  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom 
there  are  also  special  statutes  relative  to  salmon  and  freshwater 
fish:  for  England,  the  Salmon  and  Freshwater  Fisheries  Acts 
1861-1907,  and  the  Freshwater  Fisheries  Acts  1878-1886;  for 
Scotland  the  chief  Salmon  Acts  are  those  of  1862-1868,  and  for 
trout  and  freshwater  fish  those  of  1845-1902;  for  Ireland,  the 
Fisheries  (Ireland)  Acts  1842-1901.  A  similar  scheme  is  adopted 
in  each  case,  namely,  fishery  districts  and  district  boards  are 
set  up  which  regulate  the  fishing  by  by-laws  and  protect  the  fish 
by  fixing  a  close  time,  and  prescribing  passes,  licences,  inspection 
and  the  like,  breaches  of  which  are  punishable  by  courts  of 
summary  jurisdiction.  The  supreme  authorities  in  each  case 
are — for  England  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries,  for 
Scotland  the  Fishery  Board,  and  for  Ireland  the  inspectors  of 
fisheries,  and  in  England  a  certain  official  number  of  conservators 
on  such  boards  are  appointed  by  the  county  councils.  The 
Salmon  and  Freshwater  Fisheries  Act  1907  gives  the  Board 
of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  power  to  make  provisional  orders 
for  the  regulation  of  salmon  fisheries  or  freshwater  fisheries 
within  any  area  on  the  application  of  any  board  of  conservators, 
or  of  a  county  council,  or  of  the  owners  of  one-fourth  in  value 
of  private  fisheries.  There  are  also  special  acts  dealing  with  the 
fishing  in  certain  rivers,  such  as  the  Thames,  Medway,  Severn, 
Tweed  and  Esk.  (The  act  of  1907  applies,  however,  to  the  Esk, 
but  not  otherwise  to  Scotland  nor  to  Ireland.)  Throughout  the 
United  Kingdom  the  use  of  dynamite  or  other  explosive  substance 
to  catch  or  destroy  fish  in  any  public  fishery  is  prohibited,  as  it 
is  also  in  England  in  any  private  waters  subject  to  the  Salmon 
and  Freshwater  Fisheries  Acts  1878,  in  which  it  is  also  forbidden 
to  use  poison  or  other  noxious  substance  for  destroying  fish. 
Officers  in  the  army  or  marines  are  forbidden  (under  penalty)  to 
kill  fish  without  written  leave  from  the  person  entitled  to  grant 
it.  There  are  also  provisions  of  the  criminal  law  dealing  with  the 
protection  of  fisheries  generally,  as  well  as  the  provisions  of  the 
acts  already  mentioned  dealing  with  special  kinds  of  fish. 

Special  provision  is  made  by  the  Merchant  Shipping  Acts 
1894-1906  for  sea-fishing  boats  (except  in  Scotland  and  the 
colonies),  relating  to  their  registration,  carrying  official  papers, 
carrying  boats  in  proportion  to  their  tonnage,  the  punishment 
of  offences  on  board,  the  wages  of  their  crews,  and  keeping  record 
of  all  casualties,  punishments  and  the  like  on  board.  As  regards 
trawlers,  especially  in  the  case  of  those  of  25  tons  and  upwards, 
a  statutory  form  of  agreement  with  the  crew  is  prescribed,  as 
well  as  accounts  of  wages  and  discharges;  and  skippers  and 
second  hands  must  have  certificates  of  competency,  which  are 
granted  under  similar  conditions  to  those  required  in  the  case 
of  seagoing  ships  and  are  registered  with  the  Board  of  Trade. 
Scottish  fishing  boats  are  regulated  by  a  special  statute  of  1886 
(except  as  regards  agreements  to  pay  crew  by  share  of  profits, 
dealt  with  by  the  above  act)  and  by  the  Sea  Fisheries  Act  of  1868, 
which  applies  to  all  British  fishing  boats.  Particular  lights  must 
be  carried  by  fishing  boats  in  navigation.  An  act  of  1908  (The 
Cran  Measures  Act)  legalized  the  use  of  cran  measures  in  connexion 
with  trading  in  fresh  herrings  in  England  and  Wales,  the  Board 
of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  being  empowered  to  make  regula- 
tions under  the  act. 


FISHGUARD— FISKE 


437 


AUTHORITIES. — Green,  Encyclopaedia  of  Scots  Law  (Edinburgh, 
1896);  Stewart,  Law  of  Fishing  in  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1869); 
Woolrych,  Waters  (London,  1851);  Paterson,  Fishery  Laws  of  the 
United  Kingdom  (London  and  Cambridge,  1863);  Stuart  Moore, 
Foreshore  (London,  1888);  Phillimore,  International  Law  (3rd  ed., 
London,  1879);  Martens,  Causes  celebres  du  droit  des  gens  (Leipzig, 
1827);  Selwyn,  Nisi  Prius,  Fishery  (London,  1869).  (G.  G.  P.*) 

FISHGUARD  (Abergwaun),  a  market  town,  urban  district, 
contributory  parliamentary  borough  and  seaport  of  Pembroke- 
shire, Wales,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Gwaun,  which  here 
flows  into  Fishguard  Bay  of  St  George's  Channel.  Pop.  (1901) 
2002.  Its  railway  station,  which  is  the  chief  terminus  of  the 
South  Wales  system  of  the  Great  Western  railway,  is  at  the  hamlet 
of  Goodwick  across  the  bay,  a  mile  distant  to  the  south-west. 
Fishguard  Bay  is  deep  and  well  sheltered  from  all  winds  save 
those  of  the  N.  and  N.E.,  and  its  immense  commercial  value  has 
long  been  recognized.  After  many  years  of  labour  and  at  a  great 
expenditure  of  money  the  Great  Western  railway  has  constructed 
a  fine  breakwater  and  railway  pier  at  Goodwick  across  the  lower 
'end  of  the  bay,  and  an  important  passenger  and  goods  traffic  with 
Rosslare  on  the  opposite  Irish  coast  was  inaugurated  in  1906. 

The  importance  of  Fishguard  is  due  to  the  local  fisheries  and 
the  excellence  of  its  harbour,  and  its  early  history  is  obscure. 
The  chief  historical  interest  of  the  town  centres  round  the  so- 
called  "  Fishguard  Invasion  "  of  1797,  in  which  year  on  the 
22nd  of  February  three  French  men-of-war  with  troops  on  board, 
under  the  command  of  General  Tate,  an  Irish-American  adven- 
turer, appeared  off  Carreg  Gwastad  Point  in  the  adjoining 
parish  of  Llanwnda.  To  the  great  alarm  of  the '  inhabitants  a 
body  of  about  1400  men  disembarked,  but  it  quickly  capitulated, 
practically  without  striking  a  blow,  to  a  combined  force  of  the 
local  militias  under  Sir  Richard  Philipps,  Lord  Milford  and 
John  Campbell,  Lord  Cawdor;  the  French  frigates  meanwhile 
sailing  away  towards  Ireland.  For  many  years  the  castles  and 
prisons  of  Haverfordwest  and  Pembroke  were  filled  to  over- 
flowing with  French  prisoners  of  war.  Close  to  the  banks  of  the 
Gwaun  is  the  pretty  estate  of  Glyn-y-mel,  for  many  years  the 
residence  of  Richard  Fenton  (1746-1821),  the  celebrated  anti- 
quary and  historian  of  Pembrokeshire. 

FISHKILL  LANDING,  or  FISHKILL-ON-THE-HUDSON,  a  village 
of  Fishkill  township,  Dutchess  county,  New  York,  U.S.A., 
about  58  m.  N.  of  New  York  City,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Hudson 
river,  opposite  Newburgh.  Pop.  (1890)  3617;  (1900)  3673, 
of  whom  540  were  foreign-born;  (1905)  3939;  (1910)  3902, 
of  Fishkill  township  (1890)  11,840;  (1900)  13,016;  (1905) 
r3>i83;  (1910)  13,858.  In  the  township  are  also  the  villages 
of  Matteawan  (q.v.),  Fishkill  and  Glenham.  Fishkill  Landing 
is  served  by  the  New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River  and  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railways;  by  railway  ferry 
and  passenger  ferries  to  Newburgh,  connecting  with  the  West 
Shore  railway;  by  river  steamboats  and  by  electric  railway 
to  Matteawan.  Four  miles  farther  N.  on  Fishkill  Creek  is 
the  village  of  Fishkill  (incorporated  in  1899),  pop.  (1905)  579. 
In  this  village  are  two  notable  old  churches,  Trinity  (1769), 
and  the  First  Dutch  Reformed  (1731),  in  which  the  New  York 
Provinical  Congress  met  in  August  and  September  1776. 
At  the  old  Verplanck  mansion  in  Fishkill  Landing  the  Society 
of  the  Cincinnati  was  organized  in  1783.  Among  the  manu- 
factures of  Fishkill  Landing  are  rubber-goods,  engines  (Corliss) 
and  other  machinery,  hats,  silks,  woollens,  and  brick  and  tile. 
The  village  of  Fishkill  Landing  was  incorporated  in  1864.  The 
first  settlement  in  the  township  was  made  about  1690.  The 
township  of  Fishkill  was,  like  Newburgh,  an  important  military 
post  during  the  War  of  Independence,  and  was  a  supply  depot 
for  the  northern  Continental  Army. 

FISK,  JAMES  (1834-1872),  American  financier,  was  born  at 
Bennington,  Vermont,  on  the  ist  of  April  1834.  After  a  brief 
period  in  school  he  ran  away  and  joined  a  circus.  Later  he  became 
a  hotel  waiter,  and  finally  adopted  the  business  of  his  father, 
a  pedlar.  He  then  became  a  salesman  for  a  Boston  dry  goods 
firm,  his  aptitude  and  energy  eventually  winning  for  him  a  share 
in  the  business.  By  his  shrewd  dealing  in  army  contracts  during 
the  Civil  War,  and  it  is  said  by  engaging  in  cotton  smuggling, 


he  accumulated  a  considerable  capital  which  he  soon  lost  in 
speculation.  In  1864  he  became  a  stockbroker  in  New  York 
and  was  employed  by  Daniel  Drew  as  a  buyer.  He  aided  Drew 
in  his  war  against  Vanderbilt  for  the  control  of  the  Erie  railway, 
and  as  a  result  of  the  compromise  that  was  reached  he  and  Jay 
Gould  became  members  of  the  Erie  directorate.  The  association 
with  Gould  thus  began  continued  until  his  death.  Subsequently 
by  a  well-planned  "  raid,"  Fisk  and  Gould  obtained  control 
of  the  road.  They  carried  financial  "  buccaneering  "  to  extremes, 
their  programme  including  open  alliance  with  the  Tweed  "  ring," 
the  wholesale  bribery  of  legislatures  and  the  buying  of  judges. 
Their  attempt  to  corner  the  gold  market  culminated  in  the 
fateful  Black  Friday  of  the  24th  of  September  1869.  Fisk  was 
shot  and  killed  in  New  York  City  by  E.  S.  Stokes,  a  former 
business  associate,  on  the  6th  of  January  1872. 

FISK,  WILBUR  (1792-1839),  American  educationist,  was 
born  in  Brattleboro,  Vermont,  on  the  3ist  of  August  1792. 
He  studied  at  the  university  of  Vermont  in  1812-1814,  and  then 
entered  Brown  University,  where  he  graduated  in  1815.  He 
studied  law,  and  in  1817  came  under  the  influence  of  a  religious 
revival  in  Vermont,  where  at  Lyndon  in  the  following  year  he 
was  licensed  as  a  local  preacher  and  was  admitted  to  the  New 
England  conference.  His  influence  with  the  conference  turned 
that  body  from  its  opposition  to  higher  education  as  immoral 
in  tendency  to  the  establishment  of  secondary  schools  and 
colleges.  Upon  the  removal  in  1824  of  the  conference's  academy 
at  New  Market,  New  Hampshire,  to  Wilbraham,  Massachusetts, 
Fisk  became  one  of  its  agents  and  trustees,  and  in  1826  its 
principal.  He  drafted  the  report  of  the  committee  on  education 
to  the  general  conference  in  1828,  at  which  time  he  declined 
the  bishopric  of  the  Canada  conference.  He  was  first  president 
of  Wesleyan  University  from  the  opening  of  the  university  in 
1831  until  his  death  on  the  22nd  of  February  1839  in  Middle- 
town,  Connecticut.  His  successful  administration  of  the  Wesleyan 
Academy  at  Wilbraham  and  of  Wesleyan  University  were  remark- 
able. He  was  an  able  controversialist,  and  in  the  interests 
of  Arminianism  attacked  both  New  England  Calvinism  and 
Unitarianism;  he  published  in  1837  The  Calvinislic  Controversy. 
He  also  wrote  Travels  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  (1838). 

See  Life  and  Writings  of  Wilbur  Fisk  (New  York,  1842),  edited  by 
Joseph  Holdich,  and  the  biography  by  George  Prentice  (Boston, 
1890),  in  the  American  Religious  Leaders  Series',  also  a  sketch  in 
Memoirs  of  Teachers  and  Educators  (New  York,  1861),  edited  by 
Henry  Barnard. 

FISKE,  JOHN  (1842-1901),  American  historical,  philosophical 
and  scientific  writer,  was  born  in  Hartford,  Connecticut,  on  the 
3oth  of  March  1842,  and  died  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  on 
the  4th  of  July  1901.  His  name  was  originally  Edmund  Fisk,e 
Green,  but  in  1855  he  took  the  name  of  a  great-grandfather, 
John  Fiske.  His  boyhood  was  spent  with  a  grandmother  in 
Middletown,  Connecticut;  and  prior  to  his  entering  college  he 
had  read  widely  in  English  literature  and  history,  had  surpassed 
most  boys  in  the  extent  of  his  Greek  and  Latin  work,  and  had 
studied  several  modern  languages.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1863,  continuing  to  study  languages  and  philosophy  with  zeal; 
spent  two  years  in  the  Harvard  law  school,  and  opened  an  office 
in  Boston;  but  soon  devoted  the  greater  portion  of  his  time 
to  writing  for  periodicals.  With  the  exception  of  one  year, 
he  resided  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  from  the  time  of  his 
graduation  until  his  death.  In  1869  he  gave  a  course  of  lectures 
at  Harvard  on  the  Positive  Philosophy;  next  year  he  was 
history  tutor;  in  1871  he  delivered  thirty-five  lectures  on  the 
Doctrine  of  Evolution,  afterwards  revised  and  expanded  as 
Outlines  of  Cosmic  Philosophy  (1874);  and  between  1872  and 
1879  he  was  assistant-librarian.  After  that  time  he  devoted 
himself  to  literary  work  and  lecturing  on  history.  Nearly  all 
of  his  books  were  first  given  to  the  public  in  the  form  of  lectures 
or  magazine  articles,  revised  and  collected  under  a  general 
title,  such  as  Myths  and  Myth-Makers  (1872),  Darwinism  and 
Other  Essays  (1879),  Excursions  of  an  Evolutionist  (1883),  and 
A  Century  of  Science  (1899).  He  did  much,  by  the  thoroughness 
of  his  lea'rning  and  the  lucidity  of  his  style,  to  spread  a  knowledge 
of  Darwin  and  Spencer  in  America.  His  Outlines  of  Cosmic 


438 


FISKE— FITCH 


Philosophy,  while  setting  forth  the  Spencerian  system,  made 
psychological  and  sociological  additions  of  original  matter,  in 
some  respects  anticipating  Spencer's  later  conclusions.  Of  one 
part  of  the  argument  of  this  work  Fiske  wrote  in  the  preface  of 
one  of  his  later  books  (Through  Nature  to  God,  1899):  "The 
detection  of  the  part  played  by  the  lengthening  of  infancy  in  the 
genesis  of  the  human  race  is  my  own  especial  contribution  to  the 
Doctrine  of  Evolution."  In  The  Idea  of  God  as  affected  by 
Modern  Knowledge  (1885)  Fiske  discusses  the  theistic  problem, 
and  declares  that  the  mind  of  man,  as  developed,  becomes  an 
illuminating  indication  of  the  mind  of  God,  which  as  a  great 
immanent  cause  includes  and  controls  both  physical  and  moral 
forces.  More  original,  perhaps,  is  the  argument  in  the  immedi- 
ately preceding  work,  The  Destiny  of  Man,  viewed  in  the  Light  of 
his  Origin  (1884),  which  is,  in  substance,  that  physical  evolution 
is  a  demonstrated  fact;  that  intellectual  force  is  a  later,  higher 
and  more  potent  thing  than  bodily  strength;  and  that,  finally, 
in  most  men  and  some  "  lower  animals  "  there  is  developed  a 
new  idea  of  the  advantageous,  a  moral  and  non-selfish  line  of 
thought  and  procedure,  which  in  itself  so  transcends  the  physical 
that  it  cannot  be  identified  with  it  or  be  measured  by  its  standards, 
and  may  or  must  be  enduring,  or  at  its  best  immortal. 

It  is  principally,  however,  through  his  work  as  a  historian 
that  Fiske's  reputation  will  live.  His  historical  writings,  with 
the  exception  of  a  small  volume  on  American  Political  Ideas 
(1885),  an  account  of  the  system  of  Civil  Government  in  the 
United  States  (1890),  The  Mississippi  Valley  in  the  Civil  War 
(1900),  a  school  history  of  the  United  States,  and  an  elementary 
story  of  the  American  Revolution,  are  devoted  to  studies,  in  a 
unified  general  manner,  of  separate  yet  related  episodes  in 
American  history.  The  volumes  have  not  appeared  in  chrono- 
logical order  of  subject,  but  form  a  nearly  complete  colonial 
history,  as  follows:  The  Discovery  of  America,  with  some  Account 
of  Ancient  America,  and  the  Spanish  Conquest  (1892,  2  vols.); 
Old  Virginia  and  her  Neighbours  (1897,  2  vols.);  The  Beginnings 
of  New  England;  or,  The  Puritan  Theocracy  in  its  Relations  to 
Civil  and  Religious  Liberty  (1889);  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies 
in  America  (1899);  The  American  Revolution  (1891,  2  vols.); 
and  The  Critical  Period  of  American  History,  1783-1789  (1888). 
Of  these  the  most  original  and  valuable  is  the  Critical  Period 
volume,  a  history  of  the  consolidation  of  the  states  into  a  govern- 
ment, and  of  the  formation  of  the  constitution.  (C.  F.  R.) 

FISKE,  MINNIE  MADDERN  (1865-  ),  American  actress, 
was  born  in  New  Orleans,  the  daughter  of  Thomas  Davey.  As 
a  child  she  played,  under  her  mother's  name  of  Maddern,  with 
several  well-known  actors.  In  1882  she  first  appeared  as  a 
"star,"  but  in  1890  she  married  Harrison  Grey  Fiske  and  was 
absent  from  the  stage  for  several  years.  In  1893  she  reappeared 
in  Hester  Crewe,  a  play  written  by  her  husband,  and  afterwards 
acted  a  number  of  Ibsen's  heroines,  and  in  Becky  Sharp,  a 
dramatization  of  Thackeray's  Vanity  Fair.  In  1901  she  opened, 
in  opposition  to  the  American  theatrical  "  trust,"  an  independent 
theatre  in  New  York,  the  Manhattan.  She  won  a  considerable 
reputation  in  the  United  States  as  an  emotional  actress. 

FISTULA  (Lat.  for  a  pipe  or  tube),  a  term  in  surgery  used  to 
designate  an  abnormal  communication  leading  either  from 
the  surface  of  the  body  to  a  normal  cavity  or  canal,  or  from  one 
normal  cavity  or  canal  to  another.  These  communications  are 
the  result  of  disease  or  injury.  They  receive  different  names 
according  to  their  situation:  lachrymal  fistula  is  the  small 
opening  left  after  the  bursting  of  an  abscess  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  tear-duct,  near  the  root  of  the  nose;  salivary  fistula  is  an 
opening  into  the  salivary  duct  on  the  cheek;  anal  fistula,  or 
fistula  in  ano,  is  a  suppurating  track  near  the  outlet  of  the 
bowel;  urethral  fistula  is  the  result  of  a  giving  way  of  the  tissues 
behind  a  stricture.  These  are  examples  of  the  variety  of  the 
first  kind  of  fistula;  while  recto-vesical  fistula,  a  communication 
between  the  rectum  and  bladder,  and  vesico-vaginal  fistula,  a 
communication  between  the  bladder  and  vagina,  are  examples 
of  the  second.  The  abnormal  passage  may  be  straight  or  tortuous, 
of  considerable  diameter  or  of  narrow  calibre.  Fistulae  may 
be  caused  by  an  obstruction  of  the  normal  channel,  the  result 


of  disease  or  injury,  which  prevents,  for  example,  the  tears, 
saliva  or  urine,  as  the  case  may  be,  from  escaping;  their  reten- 
tion gives  rise  to  inflammation  and  ulceration  in  order  that  an 
exit  may  be  obtained  by  the  formation  of  an  abscess,  vhich 
bursts,  for  example,  into  the  gut  or  through  the  skin;  the 
cavity  does  not  close,  and  a  fistula  is  the  result.  The  fistulous 
channel  remains  open  as  long  as  the  contents  of  the  cavity  or 
canal  with  which  it  is  connected  can  pass  through  it.  To  obliter- 
ate the  fistula  one  must  remove  the  obstruction  and  encourage 
the  flow  along  the  natural  channel;  for  example,  one  must 
open  up  the  nasal  duct  so  as  to  allow  the  tears  to  reach  the  nasal 
cavity,  and  the  lachrymal  fistula  will  close;  and  so  also  in  the 
salivary  and  urethral  fistulae.  Sometimes  it  may  be  necessary 
to  lay  the  channel  freely  open,  to  scrape  out  the  unhealthy 
material  which  lines  the  track,  and  to  encourage  it  to  fill  up  from 
its  deepest  part,  as  in  anal  fistula;  in  other  cases  it  may  be 
necessary  to  pare  the  edges  of  the  abnormal  opening  and  stitch 
them  together.  (E.  O.*) 

FIT,  a  word  with  several  meanings,  (i)  A  portion  or  division' 
of  a  poem,  a  canto,  in  this  sense  often  spelled  "  fytte."  (2)  A 
sudden  but  temporary  seizure  or  attack  of  illness,  particularly 
one  with  convulsive  paroxysms  accompanied  by  unconsciousness, 
especially  an  attack  of  apoplexy  or  epilepsy,  but  also  applied  to 
a  transitory  attack  of  gout,  of  coughing,  fainting,  &c.,  also  of  an 
outburst  of  tears,  of  merriment  or  of  temper.  In  a  transferred 
sense,  the  word  is  also  used  of  any  temporary  or  irregular  periods 
of  action  or  inaction,  and  hence  in  such  expressions  as  "by 
fits  and  starts."  (3)  As  an  adjective,  meaning  suitable,  proper, 
becoming,  often  with  the  idea  of  having  necessary  qualifications 
for  a  specific  purpose,  "  a  fit  and  proper  person  ";  and  also 
as  prepared  for,  or  in  a  good  condition  for,  any  enterprise.  The 
verb  "  to  fit  "  is  thus  used  intransitively  and  transitively,  to  be 
adapted  for,  to  suit,  particularly  to  be  of  the  right  measurement 
or  shape,  of  a  dress,  of  parts  of  a  mechanism,  &c.,  and  to  make 
or  render  a  thing  in  such  a  condition.  Hence  the  word  is  used 
as  a  substantive. 

The  etymology  of  the  word  is  difficult;  the  word  may  be  one 
in  origin,  or  may  be  a  homonymous  term,  one  in  sound  and 
spelling  but  with  different  origin  in  each  different  meaning. 
In  Skeat's  Etymological  Dictionary  (ed.  1898)  (i)  and  (2)  are 
connected  and  derived  from  the  root  of  "  foot,"  which  appears 
in  Lat.  pes,  pedis.  The  evolution  of  the  word  is:  step,  a  part 
of  a  poem,  a  struggle,  a  seizure.  (3)  A  word  of  Scandinavian 
origin,  with  the  idea  of  "  knitted  together  "  (cf.  Ice.  fitja,  to 
knit  together,  Goth,  fetjan,  to  adorn) ;  the  ultimate  origin  is  a 
Teutonic  root  meaning  to  seize  (cf.  "  fetch  ").  The  New  English 
Dictionary  suggests  that  this  last  root  may  be  the  origin  of  all 
the  words,  and  that  the  underlying  meaning  is  junction,  meeting; 
the  early  use  of  "  fit  "  (2)  is  that  of  conflict.  It  is  also  pointed 
out  that  the  meanings  of  "  fit,"  suitable,  proper,  have  been 
modified  by  "  feat,"  which  comes  through  Fr.  fait,  from  Lat. 
factum,  facere,  to  do,  make. 

FITCH,  JOHN  (1743-1798),  American  pioneer  of  steam  naviga- 
tion, was  born  at  Windsor,  Connecticut,  on  the  2ist  of  January 
1743.  He  was  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  received  the  usual 
common  school  education.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  went  to 
sea,  but  he  discontinued  his  sailor  life  after  a  few  voyages  and 
became  successively  a  clockmaker,  a  brassfounder  and  a  silver- 
smith. During  the  War  of  Independence  he  was  a  sutler  to  the 
American  troops,  and  amassed  in  that  way  a  considerable  sum 
of  money,  with  which  he  bought  land  in  Virginia.  He  was 
appointed  deputy-surveyor  for  Kentucky  in  1780,  and  when 
returning  to  Philadelphia  in  the  following  year  he  was  captured 
by  the  Indians,  but  shortly  afterwards  regained  his  liberty. 
About  this  time  he  began  an  exploration  of  the  north-western 
regions,  with  the  view  of  preparing  a  map  of  the  district;  and 
while  sailing  on  the  great  western  rivers,  the  idea  occurred  to 
him  that  they  might  be  navigated  by  steam.  He  endeavoured 
by  the  sale  of  his  map  to  find  money  for  the  carrying  out  of  his 
projects,  but  was  unsuccessful.  He  next  applied  for  assistance 
to  the  legislatures  of  different  states,  but  though  each  reported 
in  favourable  terms  of  his  invention,  none  of  them  would  agree 


FITCH,  SIR  J.  G.— FITCHBURG 


439 


to  grant  him  any  pecuniary  assistance.  He  was  successful, 
however,  in  1786,  in  forming  a  company  for  the  prosecution  of 
his  enterprise,  and  shortly  afterwards  a  steam-packet  of  his 
invention  was  launched  on  the  Delaware.  His  claim  to  be  the 
inventor  of  steam-navigation  was  disputed  by  James  Rumsey 
of  Virginia,  but  Fitch  obtained  exclusive  rights  in  steam-naviga- 
tion in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware,  while  a  similar 
privilege  was  granted  to  Rumsey  in  Virginia,  Maryland  and 
New  York.  A  steam-boat  built  by  Fitch  conveyed  passengers 
for  hire  on  the  Delaware  in  the  summer  of  1790,  but  the  under- 
taking was  a  losing  one,  and  led  to  the  dissolution  of  the  company. 
In  1793  he  endeavoured  to  introduce  his  invention  into  France, 
but  met  with  no  success.  On  his  return  to  America  he  found  his 
property  overrun  by  squatters,  and  reaping  from  his  invention 
nothing  but  disappointment  and  poverty,  he  committed  suicide 
at  Bardstown,  Kentucky,  on  the"  2nd  of  July  1798. 

He  left  behind  him  a  record  of  his  adventures  and  misfortunes, 
"  inscribed  to  his  children  and  future  posterity  ";  and  from  this  a 
biography  was  compiled  by  Thompson  Westcott  (Philadelphia, 
1857.) 

FITCH,  SIR  JOSHUA  GIRLING  (i824-I9o3),  English  educa- 
tionist, second  son  of  Thomas  Fitch,  of  a  Colchester  family,  was 
born  in  Southwark,  London,  in  1824.  His  parents  were  poor  but 
intellectually  inclined,  and  at  an  early  age  Fitch  started  work 
as  an  assistant  master  in  the  British  and  Foreign  School  Society's 
elementary  school  in  the  Borough  Road,  founded  by  Thomas 
Lancaster.  But  he  continued  to  educate  himself  by  assiduous 
reading  and  attending  classes  at  University  College;  he,  was 
made  headmaster  of  another  school  at  Kingsland;  and  in  1850 
he  took  his  B.A.  degree  at  London  University,  proceeding  M.A. 
two  years  later.  In  1852  he  was  appointed  by  the  British  and 
Foreign  School  Society  to  a  tutorship  at  their  Training  College 
in  the  Borough  Road,  soon  becoming  vice-principal  and  in  1856 
principal.  He  had  previously  done  some  occasional  teaching 
there,  and  he  was  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  Lancasterian 
system.  In  1863  he  was  appointed  a  government  inspector  of 
schools  for  the  York  district,  from  which,  after  intervals  in  which 
he  was  detached  for  work  as  an  assistant  commissioner  (1865- 
1867)  on  the  Schools  Inquiry  Commission,  as  special  commis- 
sioner (1869),  and  as  an  assistant  commissioner  under  the 
Endowed  Schools  Act  (1870-1877),  he  was  transferred  in  1877 
to  East  Lambeth.  In  1883  he  was  made  a  chief  inspector, 
to  superintend  the  eastern  counties,  and  in  1885  chief  inspector 
of  training  colleges,  a  post  he  held  till  he  retired  in  1894.  In  the 
course  of  an  extraordinarily  active  career,  he  acquired  a  unique 
acquaintance  with  all  branches  of  education,  and  became  a 
recognized  authority  on  the  subject,  his  official  reports,  lectures 
and  books  having  a  great  influence  on  the  development  of 
education  in  England.  He  was  a  strong  advocate  and  supporter 
of  the  movement  for  the  higher  education  of  women,  and  he  was 
constantly  looked  to  for  counsel  and  direction  on  every  sort  of 
educational  subject;  his  wide  knowledge,  safe  judgment  and 
amiable  character  made  his  co-operation  of  exceptional  value, 
and  after  he  retired  from  official  life  his  services  were  in  active 
request  in  inquiries  and  on  boards  and  committees.  In  1896 
he  was  knighted;  and  besides  receiving  such  academic  distinc- 
tions as  the  LL.D.  degree  from  St  Andrews  University,  he  was 
made  a  chevalier  of  the  French  Legion  of  Honour  in  1889.  He 
was  a  constant  contributor  to  the  leading  reviews;  he  published 
an  important  series  of  Lectures  on  Teaching  (1881),  Educational 
Aims  and  Methods,  Notes  on  American  Schools  and  Colleges 
(1887),  and  an  authoritative  criticism  of  Thomas  and  Matthew 
Arnold,  and  their  Influence  on  English  Education  (see  also  the 
article  on  ARNOLD,  MATTHEW)  in  1901;  and  he  wrote  the  article 
on  EDUCATION  in  the  supplementary  volumes  (loth  edition) 
of  this  encyclopaedia  (1902).  He  died  on  the  uth  of  July  1903 
in  London.  A  civil  list  pension  was  given  to  his  widow,  whom, 
as  Miss  Emma  Wilks,  he  had  married  in  1856. 

See  also  Sir  Joshua  Fitch,  by  the  Rev.  A.  L.  Lilley  (1906). 

FITCH,  RALPH  (fl.  1583-1606),  London  merchant,  one  of 
the  earliest  English  travellers  and  traders  in  Mesopotamia,  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  Indian  Ocean,  India  proper  and  Indo-China. 


In  January  1583  he  embarked  in  the  "  Tiger  "  for  Tripoli  and 
Aleppo  in  Syria  (see  Shakespeare,  Macbeth,  Act  I.  sc.  3),  together 
with  J.  Newberie,  J.  Eldred  and  two  other  merchants  or  em- 
ployees of  the  Levant  Company.  From  Aleppo  he  reached  the 
Euphrates,  descended  the  river  from  Bir  to  Fallujah,  crossed 
southern  Mesopotamia  to  Bagdad,  and  dropped  down  the  Tigris 
to  Basra  (May  to  July  1583).  Here  Eldred  stayed  behind  to 
trade,  while  Fitch  and  the  rest  sailed  down  the  Persian  Gulf 
to  Ormuz,  where  they  were  arrested  as  spies  (at  Venetian  instiga- 
tion, as  they  believed)  and  sent  prisoners  to  the  Portuguese 
viceroy  at  Goa  (September  to  October).  Through  the  sureties 
procured  by  two  Jesuits  (one  being  Thomas  Stevens,  formerly 
of  New  College,  Oxford,  the  first  Englishman  known  to  have 
reached  India  by  the  Cape  route  in  1579)  Fitch  and  his  friends 
regained  their  liberty,  and  escaping  from  Goa  (April  1584) 
travelled  through  the  heart  of  India  to  the  court  of  the  Great 
Mogul  Akbar,  then  probably  at  Agra.  In  September  1585 
Newberie  left  on  his  return  journey  overland  via  Lahore  (he 
disappeared,  being  presumably  murdered,  in  the  Punjab),  while 
Fitch  descended  the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges,  visiting  Benares, 
Patna,  Kuch  Behar,  Hugli,  Chittagong,  &c.  (1585-1586),  and 
pushed  on  by  sea  to  Pegu  and  Burma.  Here  he  visited  the 
Rangoon  region,  ascended  the  Irawadi  some  distance,  acquired 
a  remarkable  acquaintance  with  inland  Pegu,  and  even  pene- 
trated to  the  Siamese  Shan  states  (1586-1587).  Early  in  1588 
he  visited  Malacca;  in  the  autumn  of  this  year  he  began  his 
homeward  travels,  first  to  Bengal;  then  round  the  Indian  coast, 
touching  at  Cochin  and  Goa,  to  Ormuz;  next  up  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  Basra  and  up  the  Tigris  to  Mosul  (Nineveh);  finally 
via  Urfa,  Bir  on  the  Euphrates,  Aleppo  and  Tripoli,  to  the 
Mediterranean.  He  reappeared  in  London  on  the  29th  of  April 
1591.  His  experience  was  greatly  valued  by  the  founders  of 
the  East  India  Company,  who  specially  consulted  him  on  Indian 
affairs  (e.g.  2nd  of  October  1600;  29th  of  January  1601;  3ist 
of  December  1606). 

See  Hakluyt,  Principal  Navigations  (1599),  voj.  ii.  part  i.  pp. 
245-271,  esp.  250-268;  Linschoten,  Voyages  (Itineraris),  part  i. 
ch.  xcii.  (vol.  ii.  pp.  158-169,  &c.,  Hakluyt  Soc.  edition) ;  Stevens  and 
Birdwood,  Court  Records  of  the  East  India  Company  1599-1603  (1886), 
esp.  pp.  26,  123;  State  Papers,  East  Indies,  &c.,  1513-1616  (1862), 
No.  36;  Pinkerton,  Voyages  and  Travels  (1808-1814),  ix.  406-425. 

FITCHBURG,  a  city  and  one  of  the  county-seats  of  Worcester 
county,  Massachusetts,  U.S.A.,  situated,  at  an  altitude  varying 
from  about  433  ft.  to  about  550  ft.,  about  23  m.  N.  of  Worcester 
and  about  45  m.  W.N.W.  of  Boston.  Pop.  (1880)  12,429; 
(1890)  22,037;  (1900)  3i,S3i»  of  whom  10,917  were  foreign-born, 
including  4063  French  Canadians,  836  English  Canadians, 
2306  Irish  and  963  Finns;  (1910  census)  37,826.  Fitchburg 
is  traversed  by  the  N.  branch  of  the  Nashua  river,  and  is  served 
by  the  Boston  &  Maine,  and  the  New  York,  New  Haven  & 
Hartford  railways,  and  by  three  interurban  electric  lines.  The 
city  area  (27-7  sq.m.)  is  well  watered,  and  is  very  uneven,  with 
hill  spurs  running  in  all  directions,  affording  picturesque  scenery. 
The  court  house  and  the  post  office  (in  a  park  presented  by  the 
citizens)  are  the  principal  public  buildings.  Fitchburg  is  the 
seat  of  a  state  normal  school  (1895),  with  model  and  training 
schools;  has  a  free  public  library  (1859;  in  the  Wallace  library 
and  art  building),  the  Burbank  hospital,  the  Fitchburg  home 
for  old  ladies,  and  an  extensive  system  of  parks,  in  one  of  which 
is  a  fine  fountain,  designed  by  Herbert  Adams.  Fitchburg 
has  large  mercantile  and  financial  interests,  but  manufacturing 
is  the  principal  industry.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
paper  and  wood  pulp,  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  yarn  and  silk, 
machinery,  saws,  horn  goods,  and  bicycles  and  firearms  (the 
Iver  Johnson  Arms  and  Cycle  Works  being  located  here).  In 
1905  the  city's  total  factory  product  was  valued  at  $i5,39°>5°7> 
of  which  $3,019,118  was  the  value  of  the  paper  and  wood  pulp 
product,  $2,910,572  was  the  value  of  the  cotton  goods,  and 
$1,202,421  was  the  value  of  the  foundry  and  machine  shop 
products.  The  municipality  owns  and  operates  its  (gravity) 
water  works  system.  Fitchburg  was  included  in  Lunenburg 
until  1764,  when  it  was  incorporated  as  a  township  and  was 


440 


FITTIG— FITTON 


named  in  honour  of  John  Fitch,  a  citizen  who  did  much  to  secure 
incorporation;  it  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1872. 

See  W.  A.  Emerson,  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts,  Past  and  Present 
(Fitchburg,  1887). 

FITTIG,  RUDOLF  (1835-  ),  German  chemist,  was  born 
at  Hamburg  on  the  6th  of  December  1835.  He  studied  chemistry 
at  Gottingen,  graduating  as  Ph.D.  with  a  dissertation  on 
acetone  in  1858.  He  subsequently  held  several  appointments  at 
Gottingen,  being  privat  docent  (1860),  and  extraordinary 
professor  (1870).  In  1870  he  obtained  the  chair  at  Tubingen, 
and  in  1876  that  at  Strassburg,  where  the  laboratories  were 
erected  from  his  designs.  Fittig's  researches  are  entirely  in 
organic  chemistry,  and  cover  an  exceptionally  wide  field.  The 
aldehydes  and  ketones  provided  material  for  his  earlier  work. 
He  observed  that  aldehydes  and  ketones  may  suffer  reduction  in 
neutral,  alkaline,  and  sometimes  acid  solution  to  secondary 
and  tertiary  glycols,  substances  which  he  named  pinacones; 
and  also  that  certain  pinacones  when  distilled  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  gave  compounds,  which  he  named  pinacolines. 
The  unsaturated  acids  also  received  much  attention,  and  he 
discovered  the  internal  anhydrides  of  oxyacids,  termed  lactones. 
In  1863  he  introduced  the  reaction  known  by  his  name.  In 
1855  Adolph  Wurtz  had  shown  that  when  sodium  acted  upon 
alkyl  iodides,  the  alkyl  residues  combined  to  form  more  complex 
hydrocarbons;  Fittig  developed  this  method  by  showing  that  a 
mixture  of  an  aromatic  and  alkyl  haloid,  under  similar  treatment, 
yielded  homologues  of  benzene.  His  investigations  on  Perkin's 
reaction  led  him  to  an  explanation  of  its  mechanism  which 
appeared  to  be  more  in  accordance  with  the  facts.  The  question, 
however,  is  one  of  much  difficulty,  and  the  exact  course  of  the 
reaction  appears  to  await  solution.  These  researches  incidentally 
solved  the  constitution  of  coumarin,  the  odoriferous  principle 
of  woodruff.  Fittig  and  Erdmann's  observation  that  phenyl 
isocrotonic  acid  readily  yielded  a-naphthol  by  loss  of  water  was 
of  much  importance,  since  it  afforded  valuable  evidence  as  to 
the  constitution  of  naphthalene.  They  also  investigated  certain 
hydrocarbons  occurring  in  the  high  boiling  point  fraction  of  the 
coal  tar  distillate  and  solved  the  constitution  of  phenanthrene. 
We  also  owe  much  of  our  knowledge  of  the  alkaloid  piperine  to 
Fittig,  who  in  collaboration  with  Ira  Remsen  established  its 
constitution  in  1871.  Fittig  has  published  two  widely  used 
text-books;  be  edited  several  editions  of  Wohler's  Grundriss 
der  organischen  Chemie  (i  ith  ed.,  1887) and  wrote  an  Unorganische 
Chemie  (ist  ed.,  1872;  3rd,  1882).  His  researches  have  been 
recognized  by  many  scientific  societies  and  institutions,  the  Royal 
Society  awarding  him  the  Davy  medal  in  1906. 

FITTON,  MARY  (c.  1578-1647),  identified  by  some  writers 
with  the  "  dark  lady  "  of  Shakespeare's  sonnets,  was  the  daughter 
of  Sir  Edward  Fitton  of  Gawsworth,  Cheshire,  and  was  baptized 
on  the  24th  of  June  1578.  Her  elder  sister,  Anne,  married  John 
Newdigate  in  1587,  in  her  fourteenth  year.  About  1595  Mary 
Fitton  became  maid  of  honour  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  Her  father 
recommended  her  to  the  care  of  Sir  William  Knollys,  comptroller 
of  the  queen's  household,  who  promised  to  defend  the  "  innocent 
lamb  "  from  the  "  wolfish  cruelty  and  fox-like  subtlety  of  the 
tame  beasts  of  this  place."  Sir  William  was  fifty  and  already 
married,  but  he  soon  became  suitor  to  Mary  Fitton,  in  hope  of  the 
speedy  death  of  the  actual  Lady  Knollys,  and  appears  to  have 
received  considerable  encouragement.  There  is  no  hint  in  her 
authenticated  biography  that  she  was  acquainted  with  Shake- 
speare. William  Kemp,  who  was  a  clown  in  Shakespeare's 
company,  dedicated  his  Nine  Dales  Wonder  to  Mistress  Anne 
(perhaps  an  error  for  Mary)  Fitton,  "  Maid  of  Honour  to  Eliza- 
beth"; and  there  is  a  sonnet  addressed  to  her  in  an  anonymous 
volume,  A  Woman's  Woorth  defended  against  all  the  Men  in  the 
World  (1599).  In  1600  Mary  Fitton  led  a  dance  in  court  festivi- 
ties at  which  William  Herbert,  later  earl  of  Pembroke,  is  known 
to  have  been  present;  and  shortly  afterwards  she  became  his 
mistress.  In  February  1601  Pembroke  was  sent  to  the  Fleet 
in  connexion  with  this  affair,  but  Mary  Fitton,  whose  child 
died  soon  after  its  birth,  appears  to  have  simply  been  dismissed 
from  court.  Mary  Fitton  seems  to  have  gone  to  her  sister,  Lady 


Newdigate,  at  Arbury.  A  second  scandal  has  been  fixed  on 
Mary  Fitton  by  George  Ormerod,  author  of  History  of  Cheshire, 
in  a  MS.  quoted  by  Mr.  T.  Tyler  (Academy,  27th  Sept.  1884). 
Ormerod  asserted,  on  the  strength  of  the  MSS.  of  Sir  Peter 
Leycester,  that  she  had  two  illegitimate  daughters  by  Sir  Richard 
Leveson,  the  friend  and  correspondent  of  her  sister  Anne.  He 
also  gives  the  name  of  her  first  husband  as  Captain  Logher,  and 
her'  second  as  Captain  Polwhele,  by  whom  she  had  a  son  and 
daughter.  Polwhele  died  in  1609  or  1610,  about  three  years 
after  his  marriage.  But  Ormerod  was  mistaken  in  the  order 
of  Mary  Fitton's  husbands,  for  her  second  husband,  Logher, 
died  in  1636.  Her  own  will,  which  was  proved  in  1647,  gives 
her  name  as  "  Mary  Lougher."  In  Gawsworth  church  there  is 
a  painted  monument  of  the  Fittons,  in  which  Anne  and  Mary 
are  represented  kneeling  behind  their  mother .  It  is  stated  that 
from  what  remains  of  the  colouring  Mary  was  a  dark  woman, 
which  is  of  course  essential  to  her  icrentification  with  the  lady 
of  the  sonnets,  but  in  the  portraits  at  Arbury  described  by  Lady 
Newdigate-Newdegate  in  her  Gossip  from  a  Muniment  Room 
(1897)  she  has  brown  hair  and  grey  eyes. 

The  identity  of  the  Arbury  portrait  with  Mary  Fitton  was  chal- 
lenged by  Mr  Tyler  and  by  Dr  Furnivall.  For  an  answer  to  their 
remarks  see  an  appendix  by  C.  G.  O.  Bridgeman  in  the  2nd  edition 
of  Lady  Newdigate-Newdegate's  book. 

The  suggestion  that  Mary  Fitton  should  be  regarded  as  the  false 
mistress  of  Shakespeare's  sonnets  rests  on  a  very  thin  chain  of 
reasoning,  and  by  no  means  follows  on  the  acceptance  of  the  theory 
that  William  Herbert  was  the  addressee  of  the  sonnets,  though  it  of 
course  fails  with  the  rejection  of  that  supposition.  Mr  William 
Archer  (Fortnightly^  Review,  December  1897)  found  some  support 
for  Mary  Fitton's  identification  with  the  "  dark  lady  "  in  the  fact 
that  Sir  William  Knollys  was  also  her  suitor,  thus  numbering  three 
"  Wills  "  among  her  admirers.  This  supplies  a  definite  interpreta- 
tion, whether  right  or  wrong,  to  the  initial  lines  of  Sonnet  135 : — 
"  Whoever  hath  her  wish,  thou  hast  thy  '  Will,' 
And  '  Will  '  to  boot,  and  '  Will  '  in  overplus." 
Arguments  in  favour  of  her  adoption  into  the  Shakespeare  circle 
will  be  found  in  Mr  Thomas  Tyler's  Shakespeare's  Sonnets  (1890,  pp. 
73-92),  and  in  the  same  writer's  Herbert- Fitton  Theory  of  Shake- 
speare's Sonnets  (1898). 

FITTON,  WILLIAM  HENRY  (1780-1861),  British  geologist 
was  born  in  Dublin  in  January  1780.  Educated  at  Trinity 
College,  in  that  city,  he  gained  the  senior  scholarship  in  1798, 
and  graduated  in  the  following  year.  At  this  time  he  began  to 
take  interest  in  geology  and  to  form  a  collection  of  fossils.  Having 
adopted  the  medical  profession  he  proceeded  in  1808  to  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Robert  Jameson,  and 
thenceforth  his  interest  in  natural  history  and  especially  in 
geology  steadily  increased.  He  removed  to  London  in  1809, 
where  he  further  studied  medicine  and  chemistry.  In  1811  he 
brought  before  the  Geological  Society  of  London  a  description 
of  the  geological  structure  of  the  vicinity  of  Dublin,  with  an 
account  of  some  rare  minerals  found  in  Ireland.  He  took  a 
medical  practice  at  Northampton  in  1812,  and  for  some  years 
the  duties  of  his  profession  engrossed  his  time.  He  was  admitted 
M.D.  at  Cambridge  in  1816.  In  1820,  having  married  a  lady  of 
means,  he  settled  in  London,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  science 
of  geology  with  such  assiduity  and  thoroughness  that  he  soon 
became  a  leading  authority,  and  in  the  end,  as  Murchison  said, 
"  one  of  the  British  worthies  who  have  raised  modern  geology  to 
its  present  advanced  position."  His  "  Observations  on  some  of  the 
Strata  between  the  Chalk  and  the  Oxford  Oolite,  in  the  South-east 
of  England  "  (Trans.  Geol.  Soc.  ser.  2,  vol.  iv.)  embodied  a  series 
of  researches  extending  from  1824  to  1836,  and  form  the  classic 
memoir  familiarly  known  as  Fitton's  "  Strata  below  the  Chalk." 
In  this  great  work  he  established  the  true  succession  and  relations 
of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Greensand,  and  of  the  Wealden  and 
Purbeck  formations,  and  elaborated  their  detailed  structure. 
He  had  been  elected  F.R.S.  in  1815,  and  he  was  president  of  the 
Geological  Society  of  London  1827-1829.  His  house  then 
became  a  meeting  place  for  scientific  workers,  and  during  his 
presidency  he  held  a  conversazione  open  on  Sunday  evenings 
to  all  fellows  of  the  Geological  Society.  From  1817  to  1841  he 
contributed  to  the  Edinburgh  Review  many  admirable  essays  on 
the  progress  of  geological  science;  he  also  wrote  "  Notes  on  the 


FITZBALL— FITZGERALD 


44 


Progress  of  Geology  in  England  "  for  the  Philosophical  Magazine 
(1832-1833).  His  only  independent  publication  was  A  Geological 
Sketch  of  the  Vicinity  of  Hastings  (1833).  He  was  awarded  the 
Wollaston  medal  by  the  Geological  Society  in  1852.  He  died 
in  London  on  the  i3th  of  May  1861. 

Obituary  by  R.  I.  Murchison  in  Quart.  Journ.  Ceol.  Soc.,  vol. 
xviii.,  1862,  p.  xxx. 

FITZBALL,  EDWARD  (1792-1873),  English  dramatist, 
whose  real  patronymic  was  Ball,  was  born  at  Burwell,  Cambridge- 
shire, in  1792.  His  father  was  a  well-to-do  farmer,  and  Fitzball, 
after  receiving  his  schooling  at  Newmarket,  was  apprenticed 
to  a  Norwich  printer  in  1809.  He  produced  some  dramatic 
pieces  at  the  local  theatre,  and  eventually  the  marked  success 
of  his  Innkeeper  of  Abbeville,  or  The  Ostler  and  the  Robber  (1820), 
together  with  the  friendly  acceptance  of  one  of  his  pieces  at  the 
Surrey  theatre  by  Thomas  Dibdin,  induced  him  to  settle  in 
London.  During  the  next  twenty-five  years  he  produced  a 
great  number  of  plays,  most  of  which  were  highly  successful. 
He  had  a  special  talent  for  nautical  drama.  His  Floating  Beacon 
(Surrey  theatre,  ipth  of  April  1824)  ran  for  140  nights,  and  his 
Pilot  (Adelphi,  1825)  for  200  nights.  His  greatest  triumph  in 
melodrama  was  perhaps  Jonathan  Bradford,  or  the  Murder  at  the 
Roadside  Inn  (Surrey  theatre,  I2th  of  June  1833).  He  was  at 
one  time  stock  dramatist  and  reader  of  plays  at  Covent  Garden, 
and  afterwards  at  Drury  Lane.  He  had  a  considerable  reputation 
as  a  song-writer  and  as  a  librettist  in  opera.  The  last  years  of 
his  life  were  spent  in  retirement  at  Chatham,  where  he  died  on 
the  27th  of  October  1873. 

His  autobiography,  Thirty-Five  Years  of  a  Dramatic  Author's  Life 
(2  vols.,  1859),  >s  a  naive  record  qf  his  career.  Numbers  of  his  plays 
are  printed  in  Cumberland's  Minor  British  Theatre,  Dick's  Standard 
Plays  and  Lacy's  Acting  Edition  of  Plays. 

FITZGERALD,  the  name  of  an  historic  Irish  house,  which 
descends  from  Walter,  son  of  Other,  who  at  the  time  of  the 
Domesday  Survey  (1086)  was  castellan  of  Windsor  and  a  tenant- 
in-chief  in  five  counties.  From  his  eldest  son  William,  known 
as  "  de  Windsor,"  descended  the  Windsors  of  Stanwell,  of  whom 
Andrew  Windsor  was  created  Lord  Windsor  of  Stanwell  (a 
Domesday  possession  of  the  house)  by  Henry  VIII.,  which 
barony  is  now  vested  in  the  earl  of  Plymouth,  his  descendant 
in  the  female  line.  Of  Walter's  younger  sons,  Robert  was  given 
by  Henry  I.  the  barony  of  Little  Easton,  Essex;  Maurice 
obtained  the  stewardship  (dapiferatus)  of  the  great  Suffolk  abbey 
of  Bury  St  Edmunds;  Reinald  the  stewardship  to  Henry  I.'s 
queen,  Adeliza;  and  Gerald  (also  a  dapifer)  became  the  ancestor 
of  the  FitzGeralds.  As  constable  and  captain  of  the  castle  that 
Arnulf  de  Montgomery  raised  at  Pembroke,  Gerald  strengthened 
his  position  in  Wales  by  marrying  Nesta,  sister  of  Griffith,  prince 
of  South  Wales,  who  bore  to  him  famous  children,  "  by  whom 
the  southern  coast  of  Wales  was  saved  for  the  English  and  the 
bulwarks  of  Ireland  stormed."  Of  these  sons  William,  the  eldest, 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Odo,  who  was  known  as  "  de  Carew," 
from  the  fortress  of  that  name  at  the  neck  of  the  Pembroke 
peninsula,  the  eldest  son  Gerald  having  been  slain  by  the  Welsh. 
The  descendants  of  Odo  held  Carew  and  the  manor  of  Moulsford, 
Berks,  and  some  of  them  acquired  lands  in  Ireland.  But  the 
wild  claims  of  Sir  Peter  Carew,  under  Queen  Elizabeth,  to  vast 
Irish  estates,  including  half  of  "  the  kingdom  of  Cork,"  were 
based  on  a  fictitious  pedigree.  Odo  de  Carew's  brothers, 
Reimund  "  Fitz  William  "  (known  as  "  Le  Gros  ")  and  Griffin 
"  Fitz  William,"  took  an  active  part  in  the  conquest  of  Ireland. 

Returning  to  Gerald  and  Nesta,  their  son  David  "  Fitz  Gerald  " 
became  bishop  of  St  David's  (1147-1176),  and  their  daughter 
Angharat  mother  of  Gerald  de  Barri  (Giraldus  Cambrensis,  q.v.), 
the  well-known  historian  and  the  eulogist  of  his  mother's  family. 
A  third  son,  Maurice,  obtained  from  his  brother  the  stewardship 
(dapiferatus)  of  St  David's,  c.  1174,  and  having  landed  in  Ireland 
in  1169,  on  the  invitation  of  King  Dermod,  founded  the  fortunes 
of  his  house  there,  receiving  lands  at  Wexford,  where  he  died 
and  was  buried  in  1176.  His  eventual  territory,  however,  was 
the  great  barony  of  the  Naas  in  Ophaley  (now  in  Kildare),  which 
Strongbow  granted  him  with  Wicklow  Castle;  but  his  sons  were 


forced  to  give  up  the  latter.  His  eldest  son  William  succeeded 
him  as  baron  of  the  Naas  and  steward  of  St  David's,  but  William's 
granddaughter  carried  the  Naas  to  the  Butlers  and  so  to  the 
Loundreses.  Gerald,  a  younger  son  of  Maurice,  who  obtained 
lands  in  Ophaley,  was  father  of  Maurice  "  Fitz  Gerald,"  who 
held  the  great  office  of  justiciar  of  Ireland  from  1232  to  1245. 
In  1234  he  fought  and  defeated  his  overlord,  the  earl  marshal, 
Richard,  earl  of  Pembroke,  and  he  also  fought  for  his  king 
against  the  Irish,  the  Welsh,  and  in  Gascony,  dying  in  1257. 
He  held  Maynooth  Castle,  the  seat  of  his  descendants. 

Much  confusion  follows  in  the  family  history,  owing  to  the 
justiciar  leaving  a  grandson  Maurice  (son  of  his  eldest  son 
Gerald)  and  a  younger  son  Maurice,  of  whom  the  latter  was 
justiciar  for  a  year  in  1272,  while  the  former,  as  heir  male  and 
head  of  the  race,  inherited  the  Ophaley  lands,  which  he  is  said 
to  have  bequeathed  at  his  death  (1287)  to  John  "  Fitz  Thomas," 
whose  fighting  life  was  crowned  by  a  grant  of  the  castle  and 
town  of  Kildare,  and  of  the  earldom  of  Kildare  to  him  and  the 
heirs  male  of  his  body  (May  i4th,  1316),  Dying  shortly  after, 
he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Thomas,  son-in-law  of  Richard 
(de  Burgh)  the  "  red  earl  "  of  Ulster,  who  received  the  hereditary 
shrievalty  of  Kildare  in  1317,  and  was  twice  (1320, 1327)  justiciar 
of  Ireland  for  a  year.  His  younger  son  Maurice  "  Fitz  Thomas," 
4th  earl  (1331-1390),  was  frequently  appointed  justiciar,  and 
was  great-grandfather  of  Thomas,  the  7th  earl  (1427-1477),  who 
between  1455  and  1475  was  repeatedly  in  charge  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Ireland  as  "  deputy,"  and  who  founded  the  "  brotherhood 
of  St  George  "  for  the  defence  of  the  English  Pale.  He  was  also 
made  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  in  1463.  His  son  Gerald,  the 
8th  earl  (1477-1513),  called  "  More"  (the  Great),  was  deputy 
governor  of  Ireland  from  1481  for  most  of  the  rest  of  his  life, 
though  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  two  years  (1494-1496)  on 
suspicion  as  a  Yorkist.  He  was  mortally  wounded  while  fighting 
the  Irish  as  "deputy."  Gerald,  the  9th  earl  (1513-1334), 
followed  in  his  father's  steps  as  deputy,  fighting  the  Irish,  till 
the  enmity  of  the  earl  of  Ormonde,  the  hereditary  rival  of  his 
house,  brought  about  his  deposition  in  1520.  In  spite  of  tem- 
porary restorations  he  finally  died  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower. 

In  his  anger  at  his  rival's  successes  the  9th  earl  had  been  led, 
it  was  suspected,  into  treason,  and  while  he  was  a  prisoner  in 
England  his  son  Lord  Thomas  Fitzgerald,  "  Silken  Thomas," 
broke  out  into  open  revolt  (1534),  and  declared  war  on  the 
government;  his  followers  slew  the  archbishop  of  Dublin  and 
laid  siege  to  Dublin  Castle.  Meanwhile  he  made  overtures  to 
the  native  Irish,  to  the  pope  and  to  the  emperor;  but  the 
Butlers  took  up  arms  against  him,  an  English  army  laid  siege 
to  his  castle  of  Maynooth,  and,  though  its  fall  was  followed  by 
a  long  struggle  in  the  field,  the  earl,  deserted  by  O'Conor,  had 
eventually  to  surrender  himself  to  the  king's  deputy.  He  was 
sent  to  the  Tower,  where  he  was  subsequently  joined  by  his 
five  uncles,  arrested  as  his  accomplices.  They  were  all  six 
executed  as  traitors  in  February  1537,  and  acts  of  attainder 
completed  the  ruin  of  the  family. 

But  the  earl's  half-brother,  Gerald  (whose  sister  Elizabeth 
was  the  earl  of  Surrey's  "  fair  Geraldine  "),  a  mere  boy,  had 
been  carried  off,  and,  after  many  adventures  at  home  and  abroad, 
returned  to  England  after  Henry  VIII. 's  death,  and  to  propitiate 
the  Irish  was  restored  to  his  estates  by  Edward  VI.  (1552). 
Having  served  Mary  in  Wyat's  rebellion,  he  was  created  by  her 
earl  of  Kildare  and  Lord  Offaley,  on  the  I3th  of  May  1554,  but 
the  old  earldom  (though  the  contrary  is  alleged)  remained  under 
attainder.  Although  he  conformed  to  the  Protestant  religion 
under  Elizabeth  and  served  against  the  Munster  rebels  and  their 
Spanish  allies,  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  on  suspicion  of 
treason  in  1583.  But  the  acts  attainting  his  family  had  been 
repealed  in  1569,  and  the  old  earldom  was  thus  regained.  In 
1585  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Henry  ("  of  the  Battleaxes  "), 
who  was  mortally  wounded  when  fighting  the  Tyrone  rebels 
in  1 597.  On  the  death  of  his  brother  in  1 599  the  earldom  passed 
to  their  cousin  Gerald,  whose  claim  to  the  estates  was  opposed  by 
Lettice,  Lady  Digby,  the  heir-general.  She  obtained  the 
ancestral  castle  of  Geashill  with  its  territory  and  was  recognized 


442 


FITZGERALD 


in  1620  as  Lady  Offaley  for  life.  George,  the  i6th  earl  (1620- 
1 660) ,  had  his  castle  of  Maynooth  pillaged  by  the  Roman  Catholics 
in  1642,  and  after  its  subsequent  occupation  by  them  in  1646 
it  was  finally  abandoned  by  the  family. 

The  history  of  the  earls  after  the  Restoration  was  uneventful, 
save  for  the  re-acquisition  in  1739  of  Carton,  which  thenceforth 
became  the  seat  of  the  family,  until  James  the  2oth  earl  (1722- 
1773),  who  obtained  a  viscounty  of  Great  Britain  in  1747,  built 
Leinster  House  in  Dublin,  and  formed  a  powerful  party  in  the 
Irish  parliament.  In  1756  he  was  made  lord  deputy;  in  1760 
he  raised  the  royal  Irish  regiment  of  artillery;  and  in  1766  he 
received  the  dukedom  of  Leinster,  which  remained  the  only 
Irish  dukedom  till  that  of  Abercorn  was  created  in  1868.  His 
wealth  and  connexions  secured  him  a  commanding  position. 
Of  his  younger  children  one  son  was  created  Lord  Lecale; 
another  was  the  well-known  rebel,  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald; 
another  was  the  ancestor  of  Lord  De  Ros;  and  a  daughter 
was  created  Baroness  Rayleigh.  William  Robert,  the  2nd  duke 
(1749-1804),  was  a  cordial  supporter  of  the  Union,  and  received 
nearly  £30,000  for  the  loss  of  his.borough  influence.  In  1883  the 
family  was  still  holding  over  70,000  acres  in  Co.  Kildare;  but, 
after  a  tenure  of  nearly  750  years,  arrangements  were  made  to 
sell  them  to  the  tenants  under  the  recent  Land  Purchase  Acts. 
In  1893  Maurice  Fitzgerald  (b.  1887)  succeeded  his  father  Gerald, 
the  sth  duke  (1851-1893),  as  6th  duke  of  Leinster. 

The  other  great  Fitzgerald  line  was  that  of  the  earls  of  Desmond, 
who  were  undoubtedly  of  the  same  stock  and  claimed  descent 
from  Maurice,  the  founder  of  the  family  in  Ireland,  through  a 
younger  son  Thomas.  It  would  seem  that  Maurice,  grandson 
of  Thomas,  was  father  of  Thomas  "  Fitz  Maurice  "  Nappagh 
("  of  the  ape  "),  justice  of  Ireland  in  1295,  who  obtained  a  grant 
of  the  territory  of  "  Decies  and  Desmond  "  in  1292,  and  died 
in  1298.  His  son  Maurice  Fitz  Thomas  or  Fitzgerald,  inheriting 
vast  estates  in  Munster,  and  strengthening  his  position  by  marry- 
ing a  daughter  of  Richard  de  Burgh,  earl  of  Ulster,  was  created 
earl  of  Desmond  (i.e.  south  Munster)  on  the  22nd  of  August 
1329,  and  Kerry  was  made  a  palatine  liberty  for  him.  The 
greatest  Irish  noble  of  his  day,  he  led  the  Anglo-L-ish  party 
against  the  English  representatives  of  the  king,  and  was  attacked 
as  the  king's  enemy  by  the  viceroy  in  1345.  He  surrendered  in 
England  to  the  king  and  was  imprisoned,  but  eventually  regained 
favour,  and  was  even  made  viceroy  himself  in  1355.  He  died, 
however,  the  following  year.  Two  of  his  sons  succeeded  in 
turn,  Gerald,  the  3rd  earl  (1359-1398),  being  appointed  justiciar 
(i.e.  viceroy)  in  1367,  despite  his  adopting  his  father's  policy 
which  the  crown  still  wished  to  thwart.  But  he  was  superseded 
two  years  later,  and  defeated  and  captured  by  the  native  king 
of  Thomond  shortly  after.  Yet  his  sympathies  were  distinctly 
Irish.  The  remote  position  of  Desmond  in  the  south-west  of 
Ireland  tended  to  make  the  succession  irregular  on  native  lines, 
and  a  younger  son  succeeded  as  6th  or  7th  earl  about  1422. 
His  son  Thomas,  the  next  earl  (1462-1467),  governed  Ireland 
as  deputy  from  1463  to  1467,  and  upheld  the  endangered  English 
rule  by  stubborn  conflict  with  the  Irish.  Yet  Tiptoft,  who  super- 
seded him,  procured  his  attainder  with  that  of  the  earl  of  Kildare, 
on  the  charge  of  alliance  with  the  Irish,  and  he  was  beheaded  on 
the  i4th  of  February  1468,  his  followers  in  Munster  avenging  his 
death  by  invading  the  Pale.  His  younger  son  Maurice,  earl 
from  1487  to  1520,  was  one  of  Perkin  Warbeck's  Irish  supporters, 
and  besieged  Waterford  on  his  behalf.  His  son  James  (1520- 
1529)  was  proclaimed  a  rebel  and  traitor  for  conspiring  with  the 
French  king  and  with  the  emperor.  At  his  death  the  succession 
reverted  to  his  uncle  Thomas  (1520-1534),  then  an  old  man,  at 
whose  death  there  was  a  contest  between  his  younger  brother 
Sir  John  "  of  Desmond  "  and  his  grandson  James,  a  court  page 
of  Henry  VIII.  Old  Sir  John  secured  possession  till  his  death 
(1536),  when  his  son  James  succeeded  de  facto,  and  dejure  on  the 
rightful  earl  being  murdered  by  the  usurper's  younger  brother 
in  1540.  Intermarriage  with  Irish  chieftains  had  by  this  time 
classed  the  earls  among  them,  but  although  this  James  looked 
to  their  support  before  1540,  he  thenceforth  played  so  prudent 
a  part  that  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  Butlers,  the  hereditary 


foes  of  his  race,  he  escaped  the  fate  of  the  Kildare  branch  and 
kept  Munster  quiet  and  in  order  for  the  English  till  his  death 
in  1558.  His  four  marriages  produced  a  disputed  succession 
and  a  break-up  of  the  family.  His  eldest  son  Thomas  "  Roe  " 
(the  Red)  was  disinherited,  and  failed  to  obtain  the  earldom, 
which  was  confirmed  by  Elizabeth  to  his  half-brother  Gerald 
"the  rebel  earl  "  (1558-1582),  but  Gerald  had  other  enemies  in 
his  uncle  Maurice  (the  murderer  of  1540)  and  his  son  especially, 
the  famous  James  "  Fitz  Maurice "  Fitz  Gerald.  Gerald's 
turbulence  and  his  strife  with  the  Butlers  led  to  his  detention 
in  England  (1562-1564)  and  again  in  1565-1566.  In  1567 
Sidney  imprisoned  him  in  Dublin  Castle,  whence,  with  his  brother, 
Sir  John  "  of  Desmond,"  he  was  sent  to  England  and  the  Tower, 
and  not  allowed  to  return  to  Ireland  till  1573.  Meanwhile  the 
above  James,  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  Thomas  "  Roe,"  had 
usurped  his  position  in  his  absence  and  induced  the  natives  to 
choose  him  as  "  captain  "  or  chieftain  of  Desmond.  He  formed 
a  strong  Irish  Catholic  party  and  broke  into  revolt  in  1569. 
Suppressed  by  Sidney,  he  rebelled  again,  till  crushed  by  Perrot 
in  1573.  As  Earl  Gerald  on  his  return  would  not  join  James  in 
revolt,  the  latter  withdrew  to  France.  But  Gerald  himself, 
after  some  trimming,  rose  in  rebellion  (July  1574),  though  he 
soon  submitted  to  the  queen's  forces.  On  the  continent  James 
Fitz  Maurice  offered  the  crown  of  Ireland  in  succession  to  France 
and  to  Spain,  and  finally  to  the  nephew  of  Pope  Gregory  XIII. 
With  the  papal  nuncio  and  a  few  troops  he  landed  at  Dingle  in 
Kerry  (June  1 579)  and  called  on  the  earls  of  Kildare  and  Desmond 
to  join  him,  but  the  latter  assured  the  English  government  of 
his  loyalty,  and  James  was  killed  in  a  skirmish.  Yet  Desmond 
was  viewed  with  suspicion  and  finally  forced,  by  being  proclaimed 
as  a  traitor  (Nov.  ist,  1579),  into  a  miserable  rebellion.  His 
castles  were  soon  captured,  and  he  was  hunted  as  a  fugitive, 
till  surprised  and  beheaded  on  the  nth  of  November  1583,  after 
long  wanderings,  his  head  being  fixed  on  London  Bridge.  His 
ruin  is  attributable  to  his  restless  turbulence  and  lack  of  settled 
policy.  The  vast  estates  of  the  earls,  estimated  at  600,000  acres, 
were  forfeited  by  act  of  parliament. 

But  the  influence  of  his  mighty  house  was  still  great  among 
the  Irish.  The  disinherited  Thomas  "  Roe  "  left  a  son  James 
"  Fitz  Thomas,"  who,  succeeding  him  in  1595  and  finding  that 
the  territory  of  the  earls  would  never  be  restored,  assumed  the 
earldom  and  joined  O'Neill's  rebellion  in  1598,  at  the  head  of 
8000  of  his  men.  Long  sheltered  from  capture  by  the  fidelity 
of  the  peasantry,  he  was  eventually  seized  (1601)  by  his  kinsman 
the  White  Knight,  Edmund  Fitz  Gibbon,  whose  sister-in-law  he 
had  married,  and  sent  to  the  Tower.  The  "  sugan  "  (sham) 
earl  lingered  there  obscurely  as  "  James  M'Thomas  "  till  his 
death.  In  consequence  of  his  rebellion  and  the  devotion  of  the 
Irish  to  his  race,  James,  son  of  Gerald  "  the  rebel  earl,"  who 
had  remained  in  the  Tower  since  his  father's  death  (1583),  was 
restored  as  earl  of  Desmond  and  sent  over  to  Munster  in  1600,  but 
he,  known  as  "  the  queen's  earl,"  could,  as  a  Protestant,  do 
nothing,  and  he  died  unmarried  in  1601.  The  "  sugan  "  earl's 
brother  John,  who  had  joined  in  his  rebellion,  escaped  into  Spain, 
and  left  a  son  Gerald,  who  appears  to  have  assumed  the  title 
and  was  known  as  the  Conde  de  Desmond.  He  was  killed  in  the 
service  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  in  1632.  The  common  origin 
of  the  earls  of  Desmond  and  of  Kildare  had  never  been  forgotten, 
and  intermarriage  had  cemented  the  bond.  Just  before  his 
death  the  exile  wrote  as  "  Desmond  alias  Gerratt  Fitz  Gerald  " 
to  his  "  Most  Noble  Cosen  "  the  earl  of  Kildare,  that  "  wee  must 
not  be  oblivious  of  the  true  amity  and  love  that  was  inviolably 
observed  betweene  our  antenates  and  elders." 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  house  of  Fitzmaurice  was  also 
of  this  stock,  although  their  actual  origin,  in  the  iath  century, 
is  doubtful.  From  a  very  early  date  they  were  feudal  lords  of 
Kerry,  and  their  dignity  was  recognized  as  a  peerage  by  Henry 
VII.  in  1489.  The  isolated  position  of  their  territory  ("  Clan- 
maurice  ")  threw  them  even  more  among  the  Irish  than  the  earls 
of  Desmond,  and  they  often  adopted  the  native  form  of  their 
name,  "  MacMorrish."  Under  Elizabeth  the  lords  of  Kerry 
narrowly  escaped  sharing  the  ruin  of  the  earls.  The  conduct 


FITZGERALD,  EDWARD— FITZGERALD,  LORD  E.          443 


of  Thomas  in  the  rebellion  of  James  "  Fitz  Maurice  "  was 
suspicious,  and  his  sons  joined  in  that  of  the  earl  of  Desmond, 
while  he  himself  was  a  rebel  in  1582.  Patrick,  his  successor 
(1590-1600),  was  captured  in  rebellion  (1587),  and  when  free, 
joined  the  revolt  of  1598,  as  did  his  son  and  heir  Thomas,  who 
continued  in  the  field  till  he  obtained  pardon  and  restoration  in 
1603,  though  suspect  till  his  death  in  1630.  His  grandson  with- 
drew to  France  with  James  II.,  but  the  next  peer  became  a 
supporter  of  the  Whig  cause,  married  the  eventual  heiress  of  Sir 
William  Petty,  and  was  created  earl  of  Kerry  in  1723.  From 
him  descend  the  family  of  Petty-Fitzmaurice,  who  obtained  the 
marquessate  of  Lansdowne  (q.v.)  in  1818,  and  still  hold  among 
their  titles  the  feudal  barony  of  Kerry  together  with  vast  estates 
in  that  county. 

From  the  three  sons  by  a  second  wife  of  one  of  the  earls  of 
Desmond's  ancestors,  descended  the  hereditary  White  Knights, 
Knights  of  Glin  and  Knights  of  Kerry,  these  feudal  dignities 
having,  it  is  said,  been  bestowed  upon  them  by  their  father, 
as  Lord  of  Decies  and  Desmond.  Glin  Castle,  county  Limerick, 
is  still  the  seat  of  the  (Fitzgerald)  Knight  of  Glin.  Valencia 
Island  is  now  the  seat  of  the  Knights  of  Kerry,  who  received  a 
baronetcy  in  1880. 

AUTHORITIES. — Calendars  of  Irish  documentsand  state  papers  and 
Carew  papers;  Gilbert's  Viceroys  of  Ireland;  Lord  Kildare 's  Earls 
of  Kildare;  G.  E.  C[okayne]'s  Complete  Peerage;  Haymond  Graves, 
Unpublished  Geraldine  Documents;  Annals  of  the  Four  Masters; 
Calendar  of  the  duke  of  Leinster's  MSS.  in  gth  Report  on  Historical 
MSS.,  part  ii.;  Ware's  Annals;  J.  H.  Round's  "Origin  of  the 
Fitzgeralds"  and  "Origin  of  the  Carews"  in  the  Ancestor;  his 
"  Earldom  of  Kildare  and  Barony  of  Offaley  "  in  Genealogist,  ix., 
and  "  Barons  of  the  Naas  "  in  Genealogist,  xv. ;  and  his  "  Decies 
and  Desmond  "  in  Eng.  Hist.  Rev.  xviii.  (J.  H.  R.) 

FITZGERALD,  EDWARD  (1809-1883),  English  writer,  the 
poet  of  Omar  Khayyam,  was  born  as  EDWARD  PURCELL,  at 
Bredfield  House,  in  Suffolk,  on  the  3ist  of  March  1809.  His 
father,  John  Purcell,  who  had  married  a  Miss  FitzGerald,  assumed 
in  1818  the  name  and  arms  of  his  wife's  family.  From  1816  to 
1821  the  FitzGeralds  lived  at  St  Germain  and  at  Paris,  but  in 
the  latter  year  Edward  was  sent  to  school  at  Bury  St  Edmunds. 
In  1826  he  proceeded  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where, 
some  two  years  later,  he  became  acquainted  with  Thackeray 
and  W.  H.  Thompson.  With  Tennyson,  "  a  sort  of  Hyperion," 
his  intimacy  began  about  1835.  In  ^3°  ne  went  to  live  in 
Paris,  but  in  1831  was  in  a  farm-house  on  the  battlefield  of 
Naseby.  He  adopted  no  profession,  and  lived  a  perfectly 
stationary  and  rustic  life,  presently  moving  into  his  native 
county  of  Suffolk,  and  never  again  leaving  it  for  more  than  a 
week  or  two.  Until  1835  the  FitzGeralds  lived  at  Wherstead; 
from  that  year  until  1853  the  poet  resided  at  Boulge,  near 
Woodbridge;  until  1860  at  Farlingay  Hall;  until  1873  in  the 
town  of  Woodbridge;  and  then  until  his  death  at  his  own  house 
hard  by,  called  Little  Grange. 

•  During  most  of  this  time  FitzGerald  gave  his  thoughts  almost 
without  interruption  to  his  floweis,  to  music  and  to  literature. 
He  allowed  friends  like  Tennyson  and  Thackeray,  however,  to 
push  on  far  before  him,  and  long  showed  no  disposition  to 
emulate  their  activity.  In  1851  he  published  his  first  book, 
Euphranor,  a  Platonic  dialogue,  born  of  memories  of  the  old 
happy  life  at  Cambridge.  In  1 8  5  2  appeared  Polonius,  a  collection 
of  "  saws  and  modern  instances,"  some  of  them  his  own,  the  rest 
borrowed  from  the  less  familiar  Engh'sh  classics.  FitzGerald 
began  the  study  of  Spanish  poetry  in  1850,  when  he  was  with 
Professor  E.  B.  Cowell  at  Elmsett  and  that  of  Persian  in  Oxford 
in  1853.  In  the  latter  year  he  issued  Six  Dramas  of  Calderon, 
freely  translated.  He  now  turned  to  Oriental  studies,  and  in 
1856  he  anonymously  published  a  version  of  the  Salamdn  and 
Absdl  of  Jami  in  Miltonic  verse.  In  March  1857  the  name  with 
which  he  has  been  so  closely  identified  first  occurs  in  FitzGerald's 
correspondence — "  Hafiz  and  Omar  Khayyam  ring  like  true 
metal."  On  the  isth  of  January  1859  a  little  anonymous 
pamphlet  was  published  as  The  Rubdiydt  of  Omar  Khayyam. 
In  the  world  at  large,  and  in  the  circle  of  FitzGerald's  particular 
friends,  the  poem  seems  at  first  to  have  attracted  no  attention. 
The  publisher  allowed  it  to  gravitate  to  the  fourpenny  or  even 


(as  he  afterwards  boasted)  to  the  penny  box  on  the  bookstalls. 
But  in  1860  Rossetti  discovered  it,  and  Swinburne  and  Lord 
Houghton  quickly  followed.  The  Rubdiydt  became  slowly 
famous,  but  it  was  not  until  1868  that  FitzGerald  was  encouraged 
to  print  a  second  and  greatly  revised  edition.  Meanwhile  he 
had  produced  in  1865  a  version  of  the  Agamemnon,  and  two  more 
plays  from  Calderon.  In  1880-1881  he  issued  privately  transla- 
tions of  the  two  Oedipus  tragedies;  his  last  publication  was 
Readings  in  Crabbe,  1882.  He  left  in  manuscript  a  version  of 
Attar's  Manlic-Uttair  under  the  title  of  The  Bird  Parliament. 

From  1861  onwards  FitzGerald's  greatest  interest  had  centred 
in  the  sea.  In  June  1863  he  bought  a  yacht,  "  The  Scandal," 
and  in  1867  he  became  part-owner  of  a  herring-lugger,  the 
"  Meum  and  Tuum."  For  some  years,  till  1871,  he  spent  the 
months  from  June  to  October  mainly  in  "  knocking  about 
somewhere  outside  of  Lowestoft."  In  this  way,  and  among  his 
books  and  flowers,  FitzGerald  gradually  became  an  old  man. 
On  the  i4th  of  June  1883  he  passed  away  painlessly  in  his  sleep. 
He  was  "  an  idle  fellow,  but  one  whose  friendships  were  more 
like  loves."  In  1885  a  stimulus  was  given  to  the  steady  advance 
of  his  fame  by  the  fact  that  Tennyson  dedicated  his  Tiresias 
to  FitzGerald's  memory,  in  some  touching  reminiscent  verses 
to  "  Old  Fitz."  This  was  but  the  signal  for  that  universal 
appreciation  of  Omar  Khayyam  in  his  English  dress,  which  has 
been  one  of  the  curious  literary  phenomena  of  recent  years. 
The  melody  of  FitzGerald's  verse  is  so  exquisite,  the  thoughts 
he  rearranges  and  strings  together  are  so  profound,  and  the 
general  atmosphere  of  poetry  in  which  he  steeps  his  version  is 
so  pure,  that  no  surprise  need  be  expressed  at  the  universal 
favour  which  the  poem  has  met  with  among  criucal  readers. 
But  its  popularity  has  gone  much  deeper  than  this;  it  is  now 
probably  better  known  to  the  general  public  than  any  single 
poem  of  its  class  published  since  the  year  1860,  and  its  admirers 
have  almost  transcended  common  sense  in  the  extravagance 
of  their  laudation.  FitzGerald  married,  in  middle  life,  Lucy,  the 
daughter  of  Bernard  Barton,  the  Quaker  poet.  Of  FitzGerald 
as  a  man  practically  nothing  was  known  until,  in  1889,  Mr  W. 
Aldis  Wright,  his  intimate  friend  and  literary  executor,  published 
his  Letters  and  Literary  Remains  in  three  volumes.  This  was 
followed  in  1895  by  the  Letters  to  Fanny  Kemble.  These  letters 
constitute  a  fresh  bid  for  immortality,  since  they  discovered  that 
FitzGerald  was  a.  witty,  picturesque  and  sympathetic  letter- 
writer.  One  of  the  most  unobtrusive  authors  who  ever  lived, 
FitzGerald  has,  nevertheless,  by  the  force  of  his  extraordinary 
individuality,  gradually  influenced  the  whole  face  of  English 
belles-lettres,  in  particular  as  it  was  manifested  between  1890  and 
1900. 

The  Works  of  Edward  FitzGerald  appeared  in  1887.  See  also 
a  chronological  list  of  FitzGerald's  works  (Caxton  Club,  Chicago, 
1899);  notes  for  a  bibliography  by  Col.  W.  F.  Prideaux,  in  Notes 
and  Queries  (gth  series,  vol.  vi.),  published  separately  in  1901 ; 
Letters  and  Literary  Remains  (ed.  W.  Aldis  Wright,  1902-1903); 
and  the  Life  of  Edward  FitzGerald,  by  Thomas  Wright  (1904), 
which  contains  a  bibliography  (vol.  ii.  pp.  241-243)  and  a  list  of 
sources  (vol.  i.  pp.  xvi.-xvii.).  The  volume  on  FitzGerald  in  the 
"  English  Men  of  Letters  "  series  is  by  A.  C.  Benson.  The  Fitz- 
Gerald centenary  was  celebrated  in  March  1909.  See  the  Centenary 
Celebrations  Souvenir  (Ipswich,  1909)  and  The  Times  for  March  25, 
1909-  (E.  G.) 

FITZGERALD,  LORD  EDWARD  (1763-1798),  Irish  con- 
spirator, fifth  son  of  James,  ist  duke  of  Leinster,  by  his  wife 
Emilia  Mary,  daughter  of  Charles  Lennox,  2nd  duke  of  Richmond, 
was  born  at  Carton  House,  near  Dublin,  on  the  isth  of  October 
1763.  In  1773  the  duke  of  Leinster  died,  and  his  widow  soon 
afterwards  married  William  Ogilvie,  who  superintended  Lord 
Edward's  early  education.  Joining  the  army  in  1779,  Lord 
Edward  served  with  credit  in  America  on  the  staff  of  Lord 
Rawdon  (afterwards  marquess  of  Hastings),  and  at  the  battle 
of  Eutaw  Springs  (8th  of  September  1781)  he  was  severely 
wounded,  his  life  being  saved  by  a  negro  named  Tony,  whom 
Lord  Edward  retained  in  his  service  till  the  end  of  his  life.  In 
1 783  Fitzgerald  returned  to  Ireland,  where  his  brother,  the  duke 
of  Leinster,  had  procured  his  election  to  the  Irish  parliament 
as  member  for  Athy.  In  parliament  he  acted  with  the  small 


444 

Opposition  group  led  by  Grattan  (q.v.),  but  took  no  prominent 
part  in  debate.  After  spending  a  short  time  at  Woolwich  to 
complete  his  military  education,  he  made  a  tour  through  Spain 
in  1787;  and  then,  dejected  by  unrequited  love  for  his  cousin 
Georgina  Lennox  (afterwards  Lady  Bathurst),  he  sailed  for  New 
Brunswick  to  join  the  S4th  regiment  with  the  rank  of  major. 
The  love-sick  mood  and  romantic  temperament  of  the  young 
Irishman  found  congenial  soil  in  the  wild  surroundings  of  un- 
explored Canadian  forests,  and  the  enthusiasm  thus  engendered 
for  the  "  natural  "  life  of  savagery  may  have  been  already 
fortified  by  study  of  Rousseau's  writings,  for  which  at  a  later 
period  Lord  Edward  expressed  his  admiration.  In  February 
1789,  guided  by  compass,  he  traversed  the  country,  practically 
unknown  to  white  men,  from  Frederickstown  to  Quebec,  falling 
in  with  Indians  by  the  way,  with  whom  he  fraternized;  and  in 
a  subsequent  expedition  he  was  formally  adopted  at  Detroit 
by  the  Bear  tribe  of  Hurons  as  one  of  their  chiefs,  and  made  his 
way  down  the  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans,  whence  he  returned  to 
England. 

Finding  that  his  brother  had  procured  his  election  for  the 
county  of  Kildare,  and  desiring  to  maintain  political  independ- 
ence, Lord  Edward  refused  the  command  of  an  expedition  against 
Cadiz  offered  him  by  Pitt,  and  devoted  himself  for  the  next  few 
years  to  the  pleasures  of  society  and  his  parliamentary  duties. 
He  was  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  his  relative  C.  J.  Fox,  with 
R.  B.  Sheridan  and  other  leading  Whigs.  According  to  Thomas 
Moore,  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald  was  the  only  one  of  the  numerous 
suitors  of  Sheridan's  first  wife  whose  attentions  were  received 
with  favour;  and  it  is  certain  that,  whatever  may  have  been 
its  limits,  a  warm  mutual  affection  subsisted  between  the  two. 
His  Whig  connexions  combined  with  his  transatlantic  experiences 
to  predispose  Lord  Edward  to  sympathize  with  the  doctrines  of 
the  French  Revolution,  which  he  embraced  with  ardour  when 
he  visited  Paris  in  October  1792.  He  lodged  with  Thomas  Paine, 
and  listened  to  the  debates  in  the  Convention.  At  a  convivial 
gathering  on  the  i8th  of  November  he  supported  a  toast  to  "  the 
speedy  abolition  of  all  hereditary  titles  and  feudal  distinctions," 
and  gave  proof  of  his  zeal  by  expressly  repudiating  his  own 
title — a  performance  for  which  he  was  dismissed  from  the  army. 
While  in  Paris  Fitzgerald  became  enamoured  of  a  young  girl 
whom  he  chanced  to  see  at  the  theatre,  and  who  is  said  to  have 
had  a  striking  likeness  to  Mrs  Sheridan.  Procuring  an  intro- 
duction he  discovered  her  to  be  a  protfgfe  of  Madame  de  Sillery, 
comtesse  de  Genlis.  The  parentage  of  the  girl,  whose  name  was 
Pamela  (?i776-i83i),  is  uncertain;  but  although  there  is  some 
evidence  to  support  the  story  of  Madame  de  Genlis  that  Pamela 
was  born  in  Newfoundland  of  parents  called  Seymour  or  Sims, 
the  common  belief  that  she  was  the  daughter  of  Madame  de 
Genlis  herself  by  Philippe  (Egalit6),  duke  of  Orleans,  was  prob- 
ably well  founded.  On  the  27th  of  December  1792  Fitzgerald 
and  Pamela  were  married  at  Tournay,  one  of  the  witnesses 
being  Louis  Philippe,  afterwards  king  of  the  French;  and  in 
January  1793  the  couple  reached  Dublin. 

Discontent  in  Ireland  was  now  rapidly  becoming  dangerous, 
and  was  finding  a  focus  in  the  Society  of  the  United  Irishmen, 
and  in  the  Catholic  Committee,  an  organization  formed  a  few 
years  previously,  chiefly  under  the  direction  of  Lord  Kenmare, 
to  watch  the  interests  of  the  Catholics.  French  revolutionary 
doctrines  had  become  ominously  popular,  and  no  one  sympa- 
thized with  them  more  warmly  than  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald, 
who,  fresh  from  the  gallery  of  the  Convention  in  Paris,  returned 
to  his  seat  in  the  Irish  parliament  and  threw  himself  actively 
into  the  work  of  opposition.  Within  a  week  of  his  arrival  he 
denounced  in  the  House  of  Commons  a  government  proclamation, 
which  Grattan  had  approved,  in  language  so  violent  that  he 
was  ordered  into  custody  and  required  to  apologize  at  the  bar 
of  the  House.  As  early  as  1794  the  government  had  information 
that  placed  Lord  Edward  under  suspicion;  but  it  was  not  till 
1796  that  he  joined  the  United  Irishmen,  whose  aim  after  the 
recall  of  Lord  Fitzwilliam  in  1795  was  avowedly  the  establish- 
ment of  an  independent  Irish  republic.  In  May  1796  Theobald 
Wolfe  Tone  was  in  Paris  endeavouring  to  obtain  French  assist- 


FITZGERALD,  LORD  E. 


ance  for  an  insurrection  in  Ireland.  In  the  same  month  Fitz- 
gerald and  his  friend  Arthur  O'Connor  proceeded  to  Hamburg, 
where  they  opened  negotiations  with  the  Directory  through 
Reinhard,  French  minister  to  the  Hanseatic  towns.  The  duke 
of  York,  meeting  Pamela  at  Devonshire  House  on  her  way 
through  London  with  her  husband,  had  told  her  that  "  all  was 
known  "  about  his  plans,  and  advised  her  to  persuade  him  not 
to  go  abroad.  The  proceedings  of  the  conspirators  at  Hamburg 
were  made  known  to  the  government  in  London  by  an  informer, 
Samuel  Turner.  Pamela  was  entrusted  with  all  her  husband's 
secrets  and  took  an  active  part  in  furthering  his  designs;  and 
she  appears  to  have  fully  deserved  the  confidence  placed  in  her, 
though  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  at  times  she  counselled 
prudence.  The  result  of  the  Hamburg  negotiations  was  Hoche's 
abortive  expedition  to  Bantry  Bay  in  December  1796.  In 
September  1797  the  government  learnt  from  the  informer 
MacNally  that  Lord  Edward  was  among  those  directing  the 
conspiracy  of  the  United  Irishmen,  which  was  now  quickly 
maturing.  He  was  specially  concerned  with  the  military  organ- 
ization, in  which  he  held  the  post  of  colonel  of  the  Kildare 
regiment  and  head  of  the  military  committee.  He  had  papers 
showing  that  280,000  men  were  ready  to  rise.  They  possessed 
some  arms,  but  the  supply  was  insufficient,  and  the  leaders  were 
hoping  for  a  French  invasion  to  make  good  the  deficiency  and  to 
give  support  to  a  popular  uprising.  But  French  help  proving 
dilatory  and  uncertain,  the  rebel  leaders  in  Ireland  were  divided 
in  opinion  as  to  the  expediency  of  taking  the  field  without 
waiting  for  foreign  aid.  Lorcl  Edward  was  among  the  advocates 
of  the  bolder  course.  His  opinions  and  his  proposals  for  action 
were  alike  violent.  He  was  on  intimate  terms  with  apologists 
for  assassination;  there  is  some  evidence  that  he  favoured  a 
project  for  the  massacre  of  the  Irish  peers  while  in  procession 
to  the  House  of  Lords  for  the  trial  of  Lord  Kingston  in  May 
1798.  It  was  probably  abhorrence  of  such  measures  that 
converted  Thomas  Reynolds  from  a  conspirator  to  an  informer; 
at  all  events,  by  him  and  several  others  the  authorities  were  kept 
posted  in  what  was  going  on,  though  lack  of  evidence  producible 
in  court  delayed  the  arrest  of  the  ringleaders.  But  on  the  I2th 
of  March  1798  Reynolds'  information  led  to  the  seizure  of  a 
number  of  conspirators  at  the  house  of  Oliver  Bond.  Lord 
Edward  Fitzgerald,  warned  by  Reynolds,  was  not  among  them. 
The  government  were  anxious  to  save  him  from  the  consequences 
of  his  own  folly,  and  Lord  Clare  said  to  a  member  of  his  family, 
"  for  God's  sake  get  this  young  man  out  of  the  country;  the  ports 
shall  be  thrown  open,  and  no  hindrance  whatever  offered." 
Fitzgerald  with  chivalrous  recklessness  refused  to  desert  others 
who  could  not  escape,  and  whom  he  had  himself  led  into  danger. 
On  the  30th  of  March  a  proclamation  establishing  martial  law 
and  authorizing  the  military  to  act  without  orders  from  the  civil 
magistrate,  which  was  acted  upon  with  revolting  cruelty  in 
several  parts  of  the  country,  precipitated  the  crisis. 

The  government  had  now  no  choice  but  to  secure  if  possible 
the  person  of  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald,  whose  social  position 
more  than  his  abilities  made  him  the  most  important  factor 
in  the  conspiracy.  On  the  nth  of  May  a  reward  of  £1000  was 
offered  for  his  apprehension.  The  23rd  of  May  was  the  date 
fixed  for  the  general  rising.  Since  the  arrest  at  Bond's,  Fitzgerald 
had  been  in  hiding,  latterly  at  the  house  of  one  Murphy,  a  feather 
dealer,  in  Thomas  Street,  Dublin.  He  twice  visited  his  wife  in 
disguise;  was  himself  visited  by  his  stepfather,  Ogilvie,  and 
generally  observed  less  caution  than  his  situation  required. 
The  conspiracy  was  honeycombed  with  treachery,  and  it  was 
long  a  matter  of  dispute  to  whose  information  the  government 
were  indebted  for  Fitzgerald's  arrest;  but  it  is  no  longer  open 
to  doubt  that  the  secret  of  his  hiding  place  was  disclosed  by  a 
Catholic  barrister  named  Magan,  to  whom  the  stipulated  reward 
was  ultimately  paid  through  Francis  Higgins,  another  informer. 
On  the  igth  of  May  Major  Swan  and  a  Mr.  Ryan  proceeded  to 
Murphy's  house  with  Major  H.  C.  Sirr  and  a  few  soldiers.  Lord 
Edward  was  discovered  in  bed.  A  desperate  scuffle  took  place, 
Ryan  being  mortally  wounded  by  Fitzgerald  with  a  dagger, 
while  Lord  Edward  himself  was  only  secured  after  Sirr  had 


FITZGERALD,  R.— FITZGERALD,  LORD  T. 


445 


disabled  him  with  a  pistol  bullet  in  the  shoulder.  He  was 
conveyed  to  Newgate  gaol,  where  by  the  kindness  of  Lord  Clare 
he  was  visited  by  two  of  his  relatives,  and  where  he  died  of  his 
wound  on  the  4th  of  June  1798.  An  Act  of  Attainder  (repealed 
in  1819)  was  passed,  confiscating  his  property;  and  his  wife — 
against  whom  the  government  probably  possessed  sufficient 
evidence  to  secure  a  conviction  for  treason — was  compelled 
to  leave  the  country  before  her  husband  had  actually 
expired. 

Pamela,  who  was  scarcely  less  celebrated  than  Lord  Edward 
himself,  and  whose  remarkable  beauty  made  a  lasting  impression 
on  Robert  Southey,  repaired  to  Hamburg,  where  in  1800  she 
married  J.  Pitcairn,  the  American  consul.  Since  her  marriage 
with  Lord  Edward  she  had  been  greatly  beloved  and  esteemed 
by  the  whole  Fitzgerald  family;  and  although  after  her  second 
marriage  her  intimacy  with  them  ceased,  there  is  no  sufficient 
evidence  for  the  tales  that  represented  her  subsequent  conduct 
as  open  to  grave  censure.  She  remained  to  the  last  passionately 
devoted  to  the  memory  of  her  first  husband;  and  she  died  in 
Paris  in  November  1831.  A  portrait  of  Pamela  is  in  the  Louvre. 
She  had  three  children  by  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald:  Edward 
Fox  (1794-1863);  Pamela,  afterwards  wife  of  General  Sir  Guy 
Campbell;  and  Lucy  Louisa,  who  married  Captain  Lyon,  R.N. 

Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald  was  of  small  stature  and  handsome 
features.  His  character  and  career  have  been  made  the  subject 
of  eulogies  much  beyond  their  merits.  He  had,  indeed,  a  winning 
personality,  and  a  warm,  affectionate  and  generous  nature, 
which  made  him  greatly  beloved  by  his  family  and  friends; 
he  was  humorous,  light-hearted,  sympathetic,  adventurous. 
But  he  was  entirely  without  the  weightier  qualities  requisite 
for  such  a  part  as  he  undertook  to  play  in  public  affairs.  Hot- 
headed and  impulsive,  he  lacked  judgment.  He  was  as  con- 
spicuously deficient  in  the  statesmanship  as  he  was  in  the  oratori- 
cal genius  of  such  men  as  Flood,  Plunket  or  Grattan.  One  of 
his  associates  in  conspiracy  described  him  as  "  weak  and  not  fit 
to  command  a  sergeant's  guard,  but  very  zealous."  Reinhard, 
who  considered  Arthur  O'Connor  "  a  far  abler  man,"  accurately 
read  the  character  of  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald  as  that  of  a  young 
man  "  incapable  of  falsehood  or  perfidy,  frank,  energetic,  and 
likely  to  be  a  useful  and  devoted  instrument;  but  with  no 
experience  or  extraordinary  talent,  and  entirely  unfit  to  be 
chief  of  a  great  party  or  leader  in  a  difficult  enterprise." 

See  Thomas  Moore,  Life  and  Death  of  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald 
(2  vols.,  London,  1832),  also  a  revised  edition  entitled  The  Memoirs 
of  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald,  edited  with  supplementary  particulars 
by  Martin  MacDermott  (London,  1897);  R.  R.  Madden,  The 
United  Irishmen  (7  vols.,  Dublin,  1842-1846);  C.  H.  Teeling, 
Personal  Narrative  of  the  Irish  Rebellion  of  1798  (Belfast,  1832); 
W.  J.  Fitzpatrick,  The  Sham  Squire,  The  Rebellio-ii  of  Inland  and  the 
Informers  of  1798  (Dublin,  1866),  and  Secret  Service  under  Pitt 
(London,  1892);  J.  A.  Froude,  The  English  in  Ireland  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century  (3  vols.,  London,  1872-1874);  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  History  of 
England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  vols.  vii.  and  viii.  (London, 
1896) ;  Thomas  Reynolds  the  younger,  The  Life  of  Thomas  Reynolds 
(London,  1839);  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Lady  Sarah  Lennox, 
edited  by  the  countess  of  Ilchester  and  Lord  Stayordale  (London, 
1901) ;  Ida  A.  Taylor,  The  Life  of  Lord  Edward-  Fitzgerald  (London, 
1903)1  which  gives  a  prejudiced  and  distorted  picture  of  Pamela. 
For  particulars  of  Pamela,  and  especially  as  to  the  question  of 
her  parentage,  see  Gerald  Campbell,  Edward  and  Pamela  Fitz- 
gerald (London,  1904) ;  Memoirs  of  Madame  de  Genlis  (London, 
1825);  Georgette  Ducrest,  Chromques  populaires  (Paris,  1855); 
Thomas  Moore,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  R.  B.  Sheridan  (London, 
1825).  (R.  J-  M.) 

FITZGERALD,  RAYMOND,  or  REDMOND  (d.  ca.  1182), 
surnamed  Le  Gros,  was  the  son  of  William  Fitzgerald  and  brother 
of  Odo  de  Carew.  He  was  sent  by  Strongbow  to  Ireland  in  1 170, 
and  landed  at  Dundunnolf,  near  Waterford,  where  he  was 
besieged  in  his  entrenchments  by  the  combined  Irish  and  Ostmen, 
whom  he  repulsed.  He  was  Strongbow's  second  in  command, 
and  had  the  chief  share  in  the  capture  of  Waterford  and  in  the 
successful  assault  on  Dublin.  He  was  sent  to  Aquitaine  to 
hand  over  Strongbow's  conquests  to  Henry  II.,  but  was  back 
in  Dublin  in  July  1171,  when  he  led  one  of  the  sallies  from  the 
town.  Strongbow  offended  him  later  by  refusing  him  the 
marriage  of  his  sister  Basilea,  widow  of  Robert  de  Quenci,  con- 


stable of  Leinster.  Raymond  then  retired  to  Wales,  and  Hervey 
de  Mountmaurice  became  constable  in  his  place.  At  the  outbreak 
of  a  general  rebellion  against  the  earl  in  1174  Raymond  returned 
with  his  uncle  Meiler  Fitz  Henry,  after  receiving  a  promise  of 
marriage  with  Basilea.  Reinstated  as  constable  he  secured  a 
series  of  successes,  and  with  the  fall  of  Limerick  in  October 
1175  order  was  restored.  Mountmaurice  meanwhile  obtained 
Raymond's  recall  on  the  ground  that  his  power  threatened  the 
royal  authority,  but  the  constable  was  delayed  by  a  fresh  out- 
break at  Limerick,  the  earl's  troops  refusing  to  march  without 
him.  On  the  death  of  Strongbow  he  was  acting  governor  until 
the  arrival  of  William  Fitz  Aldhelm,  to  whom  he  handed  over 
the  royal  fortresses.  He  was  deprived  of  his  estates  near  Dublin 
and  Wexford,  but  the  Geraldines  secured  the  recall  of  Fitz 
Aldhelm  early  in  1183,  and  regained  their  power  and  influence. 
In  1182  he  relieved  his  uncle  Robert  Fitzstephen,  who  was 
besieged  in  Cork.  The  date  of  his  death,  sometimes  stated  to 
be  1182,  is  not  known. 

FITZGERALD,  LORD  THOMAS  (loth  earl  of  Kildare), 
(1513-1537),  the  eldest  son  of  Gerald  Fitzgerald,  9th  earl  of 
Kitdare,  was  born  in  London  in  1513.  He  spent  much  of  his 
youth  in  England,  but  in  1534  when  his  father  was  for  the 
third  time  summoned  to  England  to  answer  for  his  maladministra- 
tion as  lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  Thomas,  at  the  council  held  at 
Drogheda,  in  February  was  made  vice-deputy.  In  June  the 
Ormond  faction  spread  a  report  in  Ireland  that  the  earl  had  been 
executed  in  the  Tower,  and  that  his  son's  life  was  to  be  attempted. 
Inflamed  with  rage  at  this  apparent  treachery,  Thomas  rode 
at  the  head  of  his  retainers '  into  Dublin,  and  before  the  council 
for  Ireland  (the  nth  of  June  1534)  formally  renounced  his 
allegiance  to  the  king  and  proclaimed  a  rebellion.  His  enemies, 
including  Archbishop  John  Allen  (of  Dublin),  who  had  been  set 
by  Henry  VIII.  to  watch  Fitzgerald,  took  refuge  in  Dublin 
Castle.  In  attempting  to  escape  to  England,  Allen  was  taken 
by  the  rebels,  and  on  the  28th  of  July  1534,  was  murdered  by 
Fitzgerald's  servants  in  his  presence,  but  whether  actually  by 
his  orders  is  uncertain.  In  any  case  he  sent  to  the  pope  for  . 
absolution,  but  was  solemnly  excommunicated  by  the  Irish 
Church.  Leaving  part  of  his  army  (with  the  consent  of  the 
citizens)  to  besiege  Dublin  Castle,  Fitzgerald  himself  went  against 
Piers  Butler,  earl  of  Ossory,  and  succeeded  at  first  in  making 
a  truce  with  him.  But  the  citizens  of  Dublin  now  rose  against 
him,  Ossory  invaded  Kildare,  and  the  approach  of  an  English 
army  forced  Fitzgerald  to  raise  the  siege.  Part  of  the  English 
army  landed  on  the  i7th  of  October,  the  rest  a  week  later,  but 
taking  advantage  of  the  inactivity  of  the  new  lord  deputy,  Sir 
William  Skeffington,  Fitzgerald  from  his  stronghold  at  Maynooth 
ravaged  Kildare  and  Meath  throughout  the  winter.  He  had  now 
succeeded  to  the  earldom  of 'Kildare,  his  father  having  died  in 
the  Tower  on  the  I3th  of  December  1534,  but  he  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  known  by  that  title.  In  March  Skeffington 
stormed  the  castle,  the  stronghold  of  the  Geraldines,  which  was 
defended,  and  some  said  betrayed,  by  Christopher  Parese, 
Fitzgerald's  foster-brother.  It  fell  on  the  23rd  of  March  1535, 
and  most  of  the  garrison  were  put  to  the  sword.  This  proved 
the  final  blow  to  the  rebellion.  The  news  of  what  is  known  as 
the  "  pardon  of  Maynooth  "  reached  Fitzgerald  as  he  was 
returning  from  levying  fresh  troops  in  Offaley;  his  men  fell 
away  from  him,  and  he  retreated  to  Thomond,  intending  to  sail 
for  Spain.  Changing  his  mind  he  spent  the  next  few  months 
in  raids  against  the  English  and  their  allies,  but  his  party  gradu- 
ally deserting  him,  on  the  i8th  of  August  1535  he  surrendered 
himself  to  Lord  Leonard  Grey  (d.  1541).  It  seems  likely  that  he 
made  some  conditions,  but  what  they  were  is  very  uncertain. 
He  was  taken  to  England  and  placed  in  the  Tower.  In  February 
1536  his  five  uncles  were  also,  some  of  them  with  great  injustice, 
seized  and  brought  to  England.  The  six  Geraldines  were  hanged 
at  Tyburn  on  the  3rd  of  February  1537.  Acts  of  attainder 
against  them  and  Gerald  the  9th  earl  were  passed  by  both  the 

1  Fitzgerald  was  known  by  the  sobriquet  of  "  Silken  Thomas," 
either  from  the  silken  fringes  on  his  helmet,  or  from  his  distinguished 


FITZHERBERT,  SIR  A.— FITZ-OSBERN,  W. 


Irish  and  English  parliaments;  but  the  family  estates  were 
restored  by  Edward  VI.  to  Gerald,  nth  earl  of  Kildare  (step- 
brother of  Thomas),  and  the  attainder  was  repealed  by  Queen 
Elizabeth.  Lord  Thomas  Fitzgerald  married  Frances,  youngest 
daughter  of  Sir  Adrian  Fortescue,  but  had  no  children. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Richard  Stanihurst,  Chronicles  of  Ireland  (vol.  11. 
of  Holinshed's  Chronicles);  Sir  James  Ware,  Rerum  Hibermcarum 
annales  (Dublin,  1664) ;  The  Earls  of  Kildare,  by  C.  W.  Fitzgerald, 
duke  of  Leinster  (3rd  ed.,  1858);  Richard  Bagwell,  Ireland  under 
the  Tudors  (3  vols.,  1885,  vol.  i.  passim);  Calendar  State  Papers, 
Hen.  VIII. ,  Irish;  G.  E.  C.'s  Peerage;  John  Lodge,  Peerage  of 
Ireland,  ed.  M.  Archdall  (1789),  vol.  i. 

FITZHERBERT,  SIR  ANTHONY  (1470-1538),  English  jurist, 
was  born  at  Norbury,  Derbyshire.  After  studying  at  Oxford, 
he  was  called  to  the  English  bar,  and  in  1523  became  justice  of 
the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  the  duties  of  which  office  he  con- 
tinued to  discharge  till  within  a  short  time  of  his  death  in  1538. 
As  a  judge  he  left  behind  him  a  high  reputation  for  fairness  and 
integrity,  and  his  legal  learning  is  sufficiently  attested  by  his 

published  works. 

He  is  the  author  of  La  Graunde  Abridgement,  a  digest  of  important 
legal  cases  written  in  Old  French,  first  printed  in  1514;  The  Office 
and  Authority  of  Justices  of  the  Peace,  first  printed  in  1538  (last  ed. 
1794);  the  New  Nalura  Brevium  (1534,  last  ed.  1794),  with  a 
commentary  ascribed  to  Sir  Matthew  Hale.  To  Fitzherbert  are 
sometimes  attributed  the  Book  of  Husbandry  (1523), the  first  published 
work  on  agriculture  in  the  English  language,  and  the  Book  of  Surveying 
and  Improvements  (1523)  (see  AGRICULTURE). 

FITZHERBERT,  THOMAS  (1552-1640),  English  Jesuit, 
was  the  eldest  son  and  heir  of  William  Fitzherbert  of  Swynnerton 
in  Staffordshire,  and  grandson  of  Sir  Anthony  Fitzherbert, 
judge  of  the  common  pleas.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where, 
at  the  age  of  twenty,  he  was  imprisoned  for  recusancy.  On 
his  release  he  went  to  London,  where  he  was  a  member  of  the 
association  of  young  men  founded  in  1580  to  assist  the  Jesuits 
Edmund  Campion  and  Robert  Parsons.  In  1582  he  withdrew 
to  the  continent,  where  he  was  active  in  the  cause  of  Mary, 
queen  of  Scots.  He  married  in  this  year  Dorothy,  daughter  of 
Edward  East  of  Bledlow  in  Buckinghamshire.  After  the  death 
of  his  wife  (1588)  he  went  to  Spain,  where  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  duke  of  Feria  he  received  a  pension  from  the  king.  He 
continued  his  intrigues  against  the  English  government,  and  in 
1598  he  was  charged  with  complicity  in  a  plot  to  poison  Queen 
Elizabeth.  After  this  he  was  for  a  short  while  in  the  service  of 
the  duke  of  Feria  at  Milan,  then  went  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
ordained  priest  (1601-1602)  and  became  agent  for  the  English 
clergy.  He  was  unpopular  with  them,  however,  owing  to  his 
subserviency  to  the  Jesuits,  and  resigned  the  agency  in  1607 
owing  to  the  remonstrances  of  the  English  arch-priest  George 
Birkhead.  In  1613  he  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  was 
appointed  superior  of  the  English  mission  at  Brussels  in  1616, 
and  in  1618  rector  of  the  English 'college  at  Rome.  He  held 
this  post  to  within  a  year  of  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Rome 
on  the  7th  of  August  (O.S.)  1640. 

Father  Fitzherbert,  who  is  described  as  "  a  person  of  excellent 
parts,  a  notable  politician,  and  of  graceful  behaviour  and  generous 
spirit,"  wrote  many  controversial  works,  a  list  of  which  is  given  in 
the  article  on  him  by  Mr  Thompson  Cooper  in  the  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography,  together  with  authorities  for  his  life. 

FITZ  NEAL  or  (Fixz  NIGEL),  RICHARD  (d.  1198),  treasurer 
of  Henry  II.  and  Richard  I.  of  England,  and  bishop  of  London, 
belonged  to  a  great  administrative  family  whose  fortunes  were 
closely  linked  with  those  of  Henry  I.,  Henry  II.  and  Richard  I. 
The  founder  of  the  family  was  Roger,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  the 
great  minister  of  Henry  I.  Before  the  death  of  that  sovereign 
(1135)  the  care  of  the  treasury  passed  from  Roger  to  his  nephew, 
Nigel,  bishop  of  Ely  (d.  1169),  who  held  that  office  until  the 
whole  family  were  disgraced  by  Stephen  (1139).  Becoming  a 
partisan  of  the  empress,  Nigel  reaped  his  reward  at  the  accession 
of  her  son,  Henry  II.,  who  made  him  at  first  chancellor  and 
then  treasurer.  Nigel's  son,  Richard,  who  was  born  before  his 
father's  elevation  to  the  episcopate  (1133),  succeeded  to  the 
office  of  treasurer  in  1158,  and  held  it  continuously  for  forty 
years.  His  name  appears  in  the  lists  of  itinerant  justices  for 
1179  and  1194,  but  these  are  the  only  occasions  on  which  he 


exercised  that  office.  Before  1184  he  became  dean  of  Lincoln, 
and  was  in  that  year  presented  by  the  chapter  of  Lincoln  among 
three  select  candidates  for  the  vacant  see.  The  king  passed 
lim  over  in  favour  of  Hugh  of  Avalon,  having  resolved  on  this 
occasion  to  make  a  disinterested  appointment.  Richard  I., 
lowever,  rewarded  the  treasurer's  services  with  the  see  of  London 
(1189). 

Richard  Fitz  Neal  is  best  remembered  as  an  author.  He  lacked 
the  broad  statesmanship  of  his  father  and  great-uncle;  he  avoided 
any  connexion  with  pplitical  parties;  he  is  only  once  mentioned 
as  taking  part  in  a  debate  of  the  Great  Council  (1193),  and  then 
spoke,  in  his  character  as  a  bishop,  to  support  a  royal  demand  for 
a  special  aid.  But  his  work  De  necessariis  observantiis  Scaccarii 
dialogus,  commonly  called  the  Dialogus  de  Scaccario,  is  of  unique 
interest  to  the  historian.  It  is  an  account,  in  two  books,  of  the 
procedure  followed  by  the  exchequer  in  the  author's  time. 
Richard  handles  his  subject  with  the  more  enthusiasm  because, 
as  he  explains,  the  "  course  "  of  the  exchequer  was  largely  the 
creation  of  his  own  family.  When  read  in  connexion  with  the 
Pipe  Rolls  the  Dialogus  furnishes  a  most  faithful  and  detailed 
picture  of  English  fiscal  arrangements  under  Henry  II.  The 
speakers  in  the  dialogue  are  Richard  himself  and  an  anonymous 
pupil.  The  latter  puts  leading  questions  which  Richard  answers 
in  elaborate  fashion.  The  date  of  the  conversation  is  given 
in  the  prologue  as  1176-1177.  This  probably  marks  the  date 
at  which  the  book  was  begun;  it  was  not  completed  before  1178 
or  1179.  Soon  after  the  author's  death  we  find  it  already  recog- 
nized as  the  standard  manual  for  exchequer  officials.  It  was 
frequently  transcribed  and  has  been  used  by  English  antiquarians 
of  every  period.  Hence  it  is  the  more  necessary  to  insist  that 
the  historical  statements  which  the  treatise  contains  are  some- 
times demonstrably  erroneous;  the  author  appears  to  have 
relied  excessively  upon  oral  tradition.  But,  as  the  work  is  only 
known  to  us  through  transcripts,  it  is  possible  that  some  of  the 
blunders  which  it  now  contains  are  due  to  the  misdirected  zeal 
of  editors.  Richard  Fitz  Neal  also  compiled  in  his  earlier  years 
a  register  or  chronicle  of  contemporary  affairs,  arranged  in  three 
parallel  columns.  This  was  preserved  in  the  exchequer  at  the 
time  when  he  wrote  the  Dialogus,  but  has  since  disappeared. 
Stubbs'  conjectural  identification  of  this  Liber  tricolumnis  with 
the  first  part  of  the  Gesta  Henrici  (formerly  attributed  to 
Benedictus  Abbas)  is  now  abandoned  as  untenable. 

See  Madox's  edition  in  his  History  of  the  Exchequer  (1769);  and 
that  of  A.  Hughes,  C.  G.  Crump  and  C.  Johnson  (Oxford,  1902). 
F.  Liebermann's  Einleitung  in  den  Dialogus  de  Scaccario  (Gottingen, 
1875)  contains  the  fullest  account  of  the  author.  (H.  W.  C.  D.) 

FITZ-OSBERN,  ROGER  (fl.  1070),  succeeded  to  the  earldom 
of  Hereford  and  the  English  estate  of  William  Fitz-Osbern  in 
1071.  He  did  not  keep  on  good  terms  with  William  the  Con- 
queror, and  in  1075,  disregarding  the  king's  prohibition,  married 
his  sister  Emma  to  Ralph  Guader,  earl  of  Norfolk,  at  the  famous 
bridal  of  Norwich.  Immediately  afterwards  the  two  earls 
rebelled.  But  Roger,  who  was  to  bring  his  force  from  the  west 
to  join  the  earl  of  Norfolk,  was  held  in  check  at  the  Severn  by  the 
Worcestershire  fyrd  which  the  English  bishop  Wulfstan  brought 
into  the  field  against  him.  On  the  collapse  of  his  confederate's 
rising,  Roger  was  tried  before  the  Great  Council,  deprived  of 
his  lands  and  earldom,  and  sentenced  to  perpetual  imprisonment; 
but  he  was  released,  with  other  political  prisoners,  at  the  death 
of  William  I.  in  1087. 

FITZ-OSBERN,  WILLIAM,  Earl  of  Hereford  (d.  1071), 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  the 
principal  agent  in  preparing  for  the  invasion  of  England.  He 
received  the  earldom  of  Hereford  with  the  special  duty  of  pushing 
into  Wales.  During  William's  absence  in  1067,  Eitz-Osbern 
was  left  as  his  deputy  in  central  England,  to  guard  it  from 
the  Welsh  on  one  side,  and  the  Danes  on  the  other.  He  also 
acted  as  William's  lieutenant  during  the  rebellions  of  1069. 
In  1070  William  sent  him  to  assist  Queen  Matilda  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Normandy.  But  Richilde,  widow  of  Baldwin  VI.  of 
Flanders,  having  offered  to  marry  him  if  he  would  protect  her 
son  Arnulf  against  Robert  the  Frisian,  Fitz-Osbern  accepted 


FITZ  OSBERT— FITZROY 


447 


the  proposal  and  joined  Richilde  in  Flanders.    He  was  killed, 
fighting  against  Robert,  at  Cassel  in  1071. 

See  Freeman,  Norman  Conquest,  vpls.  iii.  and  iv. ;  Sir  James 
Ramsay,  Foundations  of  England,  vol.  ii. 

FITZ  OSBERT,  WILLIAM  (d.  1106),  was  a  Londoner  of  good 
position  who  had  served  in  the  Third  Crusade,  and  on  his  return 
took  up  the  cause  of  the  poorer  citizens  against  the  magnates 
who  monopolized  the  government  of  London  and  assessed  the 
taxes,  as  he  alleged,  with  gross  partiality.  It  is  affirmed  that 
he  entered  on  this  course  of  action  through  a  quarrel  with  his 
elder  brother  who  had  refused  him  money.  But  this  appears 
to  be  mere  scandal;  the  chronicler  Roger  of  Hoveden  gives 
Fitz  Osbert  a  high  character,  and  he  was  implicitly  trusted  by 
the  poorer  citizens.  He  attempted  to  procure  redress  for  them 
from  the  king;  but  the  city  magistrates  persuaded  the  justiciar 
Hubert  Walter  that  Fitz  Osbert  and  his  followers  meditated 
plundering  the  houses  of  the  rich.  Troops  were  sent  to  seize 
the  demagogue.  He  was  smoked  out  of  the  sanctuary  of  St 
Mary  le  Bow,  in  which  he  had  taken  refuge,  and  summarily 
dragged  to  execution  at  Tyburn. 

FITZ  PETER,  GEOFFREY  (d.  1213),  earl  of  Essex  and  chief 
justiciar  of  England,  began  his  official  career  in  the  later  years 
of  Henry  II.,  whom  he  served  as  a  sheriff,  a  justice  itinerant  and 
a  justice  of  the  forest.  During  Richard's  absence  on  Crusade 
he  was  one  of  the  five  justices  of  the  king's  court  who  stood  next 
in  authority  to  the  regent,  Longchamp.  It  was  at  this  time 
(1190)  that  Fitz  Peter  succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  Essex,  in  the 
right  of  his  wife,  who  was  descended  from  the  famous  Geoffrey 
de  Mandeville.  In  attempting  to  assert  his  hereditary  rights 
over  Walden  priory  Fitz  Peter  came  into  conflict  with  Long- 
champ,  and  revenged  himself  by  taking  an  active  part  in  the 
baronial  agitation  through  which  the  regent  was  expelled  from 
his  office.  The  king,  however,  forgave  Fitz  Peter  for  his  share 
in  these  proceedings;  and, .though  refusing  to  give  him  formal 
investiture  of  the  Essex  earldom,  appointed  him  justiciar  in 
succession  to  Hubert  Walter  (1108).  In  this  capacity  Fitz 
Peter  continued  his  predecessor's  policy  of  encouraging  foreign 
trade  and  the  development  of  the  towns;  many  of  the  latter 
received,  during  his  administration,  charters  of  self-government. 
He  was  continued  in  his  office  by  John,  who  found  him  a  useful 
instrument  and  described  him  in  an  official  letter  as  "  indispens- 
able to  the  king  and  kingdom."  He  proved  himself  an  able 
instrument  of  extortion,  and  profited  to  no  small  extent  by  the 
spoliation  of  church  lands  in  the  period  of  the  interdict.  But 
he  was  too  closely  counected  with  the  baronage  to  be  altogether 
trusted  by  the  king.  The  contemporary  Histoire  des  dues 
describes  Fitz  Peter  as  living  in  constant  dread  of  disgrace  and 
confiscation.  In  the  last  years  of  his  life  he  endeavoured  to  act 
as  a  mediator  between  the  king  and  the  opposition.  It  was  by  his 
mouth  that  the  king  promised  to  the  nation  the  laws  of  Henry  I. 
(at  the  council  of  St  Albans,  August  4th,  1213).  But  Fitz 
Peter  died  a  few  weeks  later  (Oct.  2),  and  his  great  office  passed 
to  Peter  des  Roches,  one  of  the  unpopular  foreign  favourites. 
Fitz  Peter  was  neither  a  far-sighted  nor  a  disinterested  statesman; 
but  he  was  the  ablest  pupil  of  Hubert  Walter,  and  maintained 
the  traditions  of  the  great  bureaucracy  which  the  first  and 
second  Henries  had  founded. 

See  the  original  authorities  specified  for  the  reigns  of  Richard  1. 
and  John.  Also  Miss  K.  Norgate's  Angevin  England,  vol.  n.  (1887), 
and  John  Lackland  (1902) ;  A.  Ballard  in  English  Historical  Review, 
xiv.  p.  93;  H.  W.  C.  Davis'  England  under  the  Normans  and  Angevms 
(1905).  (H-  w-  C-  D;) 

FITZROY,  ROBERT  (1803-1865),  English  vice-admiral, 
distinguished  as  a  hydrographer  and  meteorologist,  was  born 
at  Ampton  Hall,  Suffolk,  on  the  sth  of  July  1805,  being  a  grand- 
son, on  the  father's  side,  of  the  third  duke  of  Grafton,  and  on  the 
mother's,  of  the  first  marquis  of  Londonderry.  He  entered  the 
navy  from  the  Royal  Naval  College,  then  a  school  for  cadets, 
on  the  igth  of  October  1819,  and  on  the  7th  of  September  1824 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  After  serving  in  the 
"  Thetis  "  frigate  in  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  coast  of  South 
.  America,  under  the  command  of  Sir  John  Phillimore  and  Captain 
Bingham,  he  was  in  August  1828  appointed  to  the  "  Ganges," 


as  flag-lieutenant  to  Rear-Admiral  Sir  Robert  Otway,  the 
commander-in-chief  on  the  South  American  station;  and  on  the 
death  of  Commander  Stokes  of  the  "  Beagle,"  on  the  I3th  of 
November  1828,  was  promoted  to  the  vacant  command.  The 
"  Beagle,"  a  small  brig  of  about  240  tons,  was  then,  and  had 
been  for  the  two  previous  years,  employed  on  the  survey  of  the 
coasts  of  Patagonia  and  Tierra  del  Fuego,  under  the  orders  of 
Commander  King  in  the  "  Adventure,"  and,  together  with  the 
"  Adventure,"  returned  to  England  in  the  autumn  of  1830. 
Fitzroy  had  brought  home  with  him  four  Fuegians,  one  of  whom 
died  of  smallpox  a  few  weeks  after  arriving  in  England;  to  the 
others  he  endeavoured,  with  but  slight  success,  to  impart  a 
rudimentary  knowledge  of  religion  and  of  some  useful  handi- 
crafts; and,  as  he  had  pledged  himself  to  restore  them  to  their 
native  country,  he  was  making  preparations  in  the  summer  of  the 
following  year  to  carry  them  back  in  a  merchant  ship  bound  to 
Valparaiso,  when  he  received  his  reappointment  to  the  "  Beagle," 
to  continue  the  survey  of  the  same  wild  coasts.  The  "  Beagle  " 
sailed  from  Plymouth  on  the  27th  of  December  1831,  carrying 
as  a  supernumerary  Charles  Darwin,  the  afterwards  famous 
naturalist.  After  an  absence  of  nearly  five  years,  and  having, 
in  addition  to  the  survey  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  a  great 
part  of  the  coast  of  South  America,  run  a  chronometric  line  round 
the  world,  thus  fixing  the  longitude  of  many  secondary  meridians 
with  sufficient  exactness  for  all  the  purposes  of  ordinary  naviga- 
tion, the  "  Beagle  "  anchored  at  Falmouth  on  the  2nd  of  October 
1836.  In  1835  Fitzroy  had  been  advanced  to  the  rank  of  captain 
and  was  now  for  the  next  few  years  principally  employed  in 
reducing  and  discussing  his  numerous  observations.  In  1837  he 
was  awarded  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society; 
and  in  1839  he  published,  in  two  thick  8vo  volumes,  the  narrative 
of  the  voyage  of  the  "  Adventure  "  and  "  Beagle,"  1826-1830, 
and  of  the  "  Beagle,"  1831-1836,  with  a  third  volume  by  Darwin 
— a  book  familiarly  known  as  a  record  of  scientific  travel.  Of 
Fitzroy's  work  as  a  surveyor,  carried  on  under  circumstances 
of  great  difficulty,  with  scanty  means,  and  with  an  outfit  that 
was  semi-officially  denounced  as  "  shabby,"  Sir  Francis  Beaufort, 
the  Hydrographer  to  the  Admiralty,  wrote,  in  a  report  to  the 
House  of  Commons,  icth  of  February  1848,  that  "  from  the 
equator  to  Cape  Horn,  and  from  thence  round  to  the  river 
Plata  on  the  eastern  side  of  America,  all  that  is  immediately 
wanted  has  been  already  achieved  by  the  splendid  survey  of 
Captain  Robert  Fitzroy."  This  was  written  before  steamships 
made  the  Straits  of  Magellan  a  high-road  to  the  Pacific.  The 
survey  that  was  sufficient  then  became  afterwards  very  far 
from  sufficient. 

In  1841  Fitzroy  unsuccessfully  contested  the  borough  of 
Ipswich,  and  in  the  following  year  was  returned  to  parliament 
as  member  for  Durham.  About  the  same  time  he  accepted  the 
post  of  conservator  of  the  Mersey,  and  in  his  double  capacity 
obtained  leave  to  bring  in  a  bill  for  improving  the  condition  and 
efficiency  of  officers  in  the  mercantile  marine.  This  was  not 
proceeded  with  at  the  time,  but  gave  rise  to  the  "  voluntary 
certificate  "  instituted  by  the  Board  of  Trade  in  1845,  and 
furnished  some  important  clauses  to  the  Mercantile  Marine  Act 
of  1850. 

Early  in  1843  Fitzroy  was  appointed  governor  and  commander- 
in-chief  of  New  Zealand,  then  recently  established  as  a  colony. 
He  arrived  in  his  government  in  December,  whilst  the  excitement 
about  the  Wairau  massacre  was  still  fresh,  and  the  questions 
relating  to  the  purchase  of  land  from  the  natives  were  in  a  very 
unsatisfactory  state.  The  early  settlers  were  greedy  and  un- 
scrupulous; Fitzroy,  on  the  other  hand,  had  made  no  secret  of 
his  partiality  for  the  aborigines.  Between  such  discordant 
elements  agreement  was  impossible:  the  settlers  insulted  the 
governor;  the  governor  did  not  conciliate  the  settlers,  who 
denounced  his  policy  as  adverse  to  their  interests,  as  unjust 
and  illegal;  colonial  feeling  against  him  ran  very  high;  petition 
after  petition  for  his  recall  was  sent  home,  and  the  government 
was  compelled  to  yield  to  the  pressure  brought  to  bear  on  it. 
Fitzroy  was  relieved  by  Sir  George  Grey  in  November  1845. 

In  September  1848  he  was  appointed  acting  superintendent 


FITZROY— FITZWALTER 


of  the  dockyard  at  Woolwich,  and  in  the  following  March  to  the 
command  of  the  "  Arrogant,"  one  of  the  early  screw  frigates 
which  had  been  fitted  out  under  his  supervision,  and  with 
which  it  was  desired  to  carry  out  a  series  of  experiments  and 
trials.  When  these  were  finished  he  applied  to  be  superseded, 
on  account  at  once  of  his  health  and  of  his  private  affairs.  In 
February  1850  he  was  accordingly  placed  on  half  -pay;  nor 
did  he  ever  serve  again,  although  advanced  in  due  course  by 
seniority  to  the  ranks  of  rear-  and  vice-admiral  on  the  retired 
list  (1857,  1863).  In  1851  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  in  1854,  after  serving  for  a  few  months  as  private 
secretary  to  his  uncle,  Lord  Hardinge,  then  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army,  he  was  appointed  to  the  meteorological  department 
of  the  Board  of  Trade,  with,  in  the  first  instance,  the  peculiar 
title  of  "  Meteorological  Statist." 

From  the  date  of  his  joining  the  "  Beagle  "  in  1828  he  had 
paid  very  great  attention  to  the  different  phenomena  foreboding 
or  accompanying  change  of  weather,  and  his  narratives  of  the 
voyages  of  the  "  Adventure  "  and  "  Beagle  "  are  full  of  interest- 
ing and  valuable  details  concerning  these.  Accordingly,  when 
in  1854  Lord  Wrottesley,  the  president  of  the  Royal  Society, 
was  asked  by  the  Board  of  Trade  to  recommend  a  chief  for  its 
newly  forming  meteorological  department,  he,  almost  without 
hesitation,  nominated  Fitzroy,  whose  name  and  career  became 
from  that  time  identified  with  the  progress  of  practical  meteor- 
ology. His  Weather  Book,  published  in  1863,  embodies  in  broad 
outline  his  views,  far  in  advance  of  those  then  generally  held; 
and  in  spite  of  the  rapid  march  of  modern  science,  it  is  still 
worthy  of  careful  attention  and  exact  study.  His  storm  warnings, 
in  their  origin,  indeed,  liable  to  a  charge  of  empiricism,  were 
gradually  developed  on  a  more  scientific  basis,  and  gave  a  high 
percentage  of  correct  results.  They  were  continued  for  eighteen 
months  after  his  death  by  the  assistants  he  had  trained,  and 
though  stopped  when  the  department  was  transferred  to  the 
management  of  a  committee  of  the  Royal  Society,  they  were 
resumed  a  few  months  afterwards;  and  under  the  successive 
direction  of  Dr  R.  H.  Scott  and  Dr  W.  N.  Shaw,  have  been 
developed  into  what  we  now  know  them.  But  though  it  is 
perhaps  by  these  storm  warnings  that  Fitzroy's  name  has  been 
most  generally  known,  seafaring  men  owe  him  a  deeper  debt  of 
gratitude,  not  only  for  his  labours  in  reducing  to  a  more  practical 
form  the  somewhat  complicated  wind  charts  of  Captain  Maury, 
but  also  for  his  great  exertions  in  connexion  with  the  life-boat 
association.  Into  this  work,  in  its  many  ramifications,  he  threw 
himself  with  the  energy  of  an  excitable  temperament,  already 
strained  by  his  long  and  anxious  service  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 
His  last  years  were  fully  and  to  an  excessive  degree  occupied 
by  it;  his  health,  both  of  body  and  mind,  threatened  to  give 
way;  but  he  refused  to  take  the  rest  that  was  prescribed.  In 
a  fit  of  mental  aberration  he  put  an  end  to  his  existence  on  the 
of  April  1865. 


Besides  his  works  already  named  mention  may  be  made  of  Remarks 
on  New  Zealand  (1846)  ;  Sailing  Directions  for  South  America  (1848)  ; 
his  official  reports  to  the  Board  of  Trade  (1857—1865)  ;  and  occasional 
papers  in  the  journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  and  of  the 
Royal  United  Service  Institution.  (J.  K.  L.) 

FITZROY,  a  city  of  Bourke  county,  Victoria,  Australia, 
2  m.  by  rail  N.E.  of  and  suburban  to  Melbourne.  Pop.  (1901) 
31,610.  It  is  a  prosperous  manufacturing  town,  well  served  with 
tramways  and  containing  many  fine  residences. 

FITZ  STEPHEN,  ROBERT  (fl.  1150),  son  of  Nesta,  a  Welsh 
princess  and  former  mistress  of  Henry  I.,  by  Stephen,  constable 
of  Cardigan,  whom  Robert  succeeded  in  that  office,  took  service 
with  Dermot  of  Leinster  when  that  king  visited  England  (1167). 
In  1169  Robert  led  the  vanguard  of  Dermot's  Anglo-  Welsh 
auxiliaries  to  Ireland,  and  captured  Wexford,  which  he  was  then 
allowed  to  hold  jointly  with  Maurice  Fitz  Gerald.  Taken 
prisoner  by  the  Irish  in  1171,  he  was  by  them  surrendered  to 
Henry  II.,  who  appointed  him  lieutenant  of  the  justiciar  of 
Ireland,  Hugh  de  Lacy.  Robert  rendered  good  service  in  the 
troubles  of  1173,  and  was  rewarded  by  receiving,  jointly  with 
Miles  Cogan,  a  grant  of  Cork  (1177).  He  had  difficulty  in  main- 


taining his  position  and  was  nearly  overwhelmed  by  a  rising  of 
Desmond  in  1182.  The  date  of  his  death  is  uncertain. 

FITZ  STEPHEN,  WILLIAM  (d.  c.  1190),  bi9grapher  of  Thomas 
Becket  and  royal  justice,  was  a  Londoner  by  origin.  He  entered 
Becket's  service  at  some  date  between  1154  and  1162.  The 
chancellor  employed  Fitz  Stephen  in  legal  work,  made  him 
sub-deacon  of  his  chapel  and  treated  him  as  a  confidant.  Fitz 
Stephen  appeared  with  Becket  at  the  council  of  Northampton 
(1164)  when  the  disgrace  of  the  archbishop  was  published  to  the 
world;  but  he  did  not  follow  Becket  into  exile.  He  joined 
Becket's  household  again  in  1170,  and  was  a  spectator  of  the 
tragedy  in  Canterbury  cathedral.  To  his  pen  we  owe  the  most 
valuable  among  the  extant  biographies  of  his  patron.  Though 
he  writes  as  a  partisan  he  gives  a  precise  account  of  the  differ- 
ences between  Becket  and  the  king.  This  biography  contains 
a  description  of  London  which  is  our  chief  authority  for  the 
social  life  of  the  city  in  the  I2th  century.  Despite  his  connexion 
with  Becket,  William  subsequently  obtained  substantial  prefer- 
ment from  the  king.  He  was  sheriff  of  Gloucestershire  from  1171 
to  1190,  and  a  royal  justice  in  the  years  1176-1180  and  1189- 
1190. 

See  his  "  Vita  S.  Thomae  "  in  J.  C.'Robertson's  Materials  for  the 
History  of  Thomas  Becket,  vol.  in.  (Rolls  series,  1877).  Sir  T.  D. 
Hardy,  in  his  Catalogue  of  Materials,  ii.  330  (Rolls  series,  1865), 
discusses  the  manuscripts  of  this  biography  and  its  value.  W.  H. 
Hutton,  St  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  pp.  272-274  (1880),  gives  an 
account  of  the  author.  (H.  W.  C.  D.) 

FITZ  THEDMAR,  ARNOLD  (d.  1274),  London  chronicler  and 
merchant,  was  born  in  London  on  the  9th  of  August  1201.  Both 
his  parents  were  of  German  extraction.  The  family  of  his  mother 
migrated  to  England  from  Cologne  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.; 
his  father,  Thedmar  by  name,  was  a  citizen  of  Bremen  who  had 
been  attracted  to  London  by  the  privileges  which  the  Plantagenets 
conferred  upon  the  Teutonic  Hanse.  Arnold  succeeded  in 
time  to  his  father's  wealth  and  position.  He  held  an  honourable 
position  among  the  Hanse  traders,  and  became  their  "  alderman." 
He  was  also,  as  he  tells  us  himself,  alderman  of  a  London  ward 
and  an  active  partisan  in  municipal  politics.  In  the  Barons' 
War  he  took  the  royal  side  against  the  populace  and  the  mayor 
Thomas  Fitz  Thomas.  The  popular  party  planned,  in  1265,  to 
try  him  for  his  life  before  the  folk-moot,  but  he  was  saved  by  the 
news  of  the  battle  of  Evesham  which  arrived  on  the  very  day 
appointed  for  the  trial.  Even  after  the  king's  triumph  Arnold 
suffered  from  the  malice  of  his  enemies,  who  contrived  that 
he  should  be  unfairly  assessed  for  the  tallages  imposed  upon 
the  city.  He  appealed  for  help  to  Henry  III.,  and  again  to 
Edward  I.,  with  the  result  that  his  liability  was  diminished. 
In  1270  he  was  one  of  the  four  citizens  to  whose  keeping  the 
muniments  of  the  city  were  entrusted.  To  this  circumstance 
we  probably  owe  the  compilation  of  his  chronicle.  Chronica 
Maiorum  et  Vicecomitum,  which  begins  at  the  year  1188  and  is 
continued  to  1274.  From  1239  onwards  this  work  is  a  mine  of 
curious  information.  Though  municipal  in  its  outlook,  it  is 
valuable  for  the  general  history  of  the  kingdom,  owing  to  the 
important  part  which  London  played  in  the  agitation  against 
the  misrule  of  Henry  III.  We  have  the  king's  word  for  the  fact 
that  Arnold  was  a  consistent  royalist;  but  this  is  apparent  from 
the  whole  tenor  of  the  chronicle.  Arnold  was  by  no  means 
blind  to  the  faults  of  Henry's  government,  but  preferred  an 
autocracy  to  the  mob-rule  which  Simon  de  Montfortcountenanced 
in  London.  Arnold  died  in  1274;  the  last  fact  recorded  of  him 
is  that,  in  this  year,  he  joined  in  a  successful  appeal  to  the  king 
against  the  illegal  grants  which  had  been  made  by  the  mayor, 
Walter  Hervey. 

The  Chronica  Maiorum  et  Vicecomitum,  with  the  other  contents  of 
Arnold's  common-place  book,  were  edited  for  the  Camden  Society 
by  T.  Stapleton  (1846),  under  the  title  Liber  de  Antiquis  Legibus. 
Our  knowledge  of  Arnold's  life  comes  from  the  Chronica  and  his 
own  biographical  notes.  Extracts,  with  valuable  notes,  are  edited 
in  G.  H.  Pertz's  Man.  Germaniae  historica,  Scriftores,  vol.  xxviii. 
See  also  J.  M.  Lappenberg's  Urkundliche  Geschichte  des  Hansischen 
Stahlhofes  zu  London  (Hamburg,  1851).  (H.  W.  C.  D.) 

FITZWALTER,  ROBERT  (d.  1235),  leader  of  the  baronial 
opposition  against  King  John  of  England,  belonged  to  the 


FITZWILLIAM— FIUME 


449 


official  aristocracy  created  by  Henry  I.  and  Henry  II.  He 
served  John  in  the  Norman  wars,  and  was  taken  prisoner  by 
Philip  of  France,  and  forced  to  pay  a  heavy  ransom.  He  was 
implicated  in  the  baronial  conspiracy  of  1212.  According  to  his 
own  statement  the  king  had  attempted  to  seduce  his  eldest 
daughter;  but  Robert's  account  of  his  grievances  varied  from 
time  to  time.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  he  was  irritated  by 
the  suspicion  with  which  John  regarded  the  new  baronage. 
Fitzwalter  escaped  a  trial  by  flying  to  France.  He  was  outlawed, 
but  returned  under  a  special  amnesty  after  John's  reconciliation 
with  the  pope.  He  continued,  however,  to  take  the  lead  in  the 
baronial  agitation  against  the  king,  and  upon  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities  was  elected  "  marshal  of  the  army  of  God  and  Holy 
Church  "  (1215).  To  his  influence  in  London  it  was  due  that  his 
party  obtained  the  support  of  the  city  and  used  it  as  their  base 
of  operations.  The  famous  clause  of  Magna  Carta  (§  39)  pro- 
hibiting sentences  of  exile,  except  as  the  result  of  a  lawful  trial, 
refers  more  particularly  to  his  case.  He  was  one  of  the  twenty- 
five  appointed  to  enforce  the  promises  of  Magna  Carta;  and  his 
aggressive  attitude  was  one  of  the  causes  which  contributed  to 
the  recrudescence  of  civil  war  (1215).  His  incompetent  leadership 
made  it  necessary  for  the  rebels  to  invoke  the  help  of  France. 
He  was  one  of  the  envoys  who  invited  Louis  to  England,  and 
was  the  first  of  the  barons  to  do  homage  when  the  prince  entered 
London.  Though  slighted  by  the  French  as  a  traitor  to  his 
natural  lord,  he  served  Louis  with  fidelity  until  captured  at  the 
battle  of  Lincoln  (May  1217).  Released  on  the  conclusion  of 
peace  he  joined  the  Damietta  crusade  of  1219,  but  returned  at  an 
early  date  to  make  his  peace  with  the  regency.  The  remainder  of 
his  career  was  uneventful;  he  died  peacefully  in  1235. 

See  the  list  of  chronicles  for  the  reign  of  John.  The  Histoire  des 
dues  de  Normandie  et  des  rois  d'Angleterre  (ed.  F.  Michel,  Paris,  1840) 
gives  the  fullest  account  of  his  quarrel  with  the  king.  Miss  K. 
Norgate's  John  Lackland  (1902),  W.  McKechnie's  Magna  Carta 
(1905),  and  Stubbs's  Constitutional  History,  vol.  i.  ch.  xii.  (1897), 
should  also  be  consulted. 

FITZWILLIAM,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1526-1599),  lord  deputy  of 
Ireland,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  William  Fitzwilliam  (d.  1576) 
of  Milton,  Northamptonshire,  where  he  was  born,  and  grandson 
of  another  Sir  William  Fitzwilliam  (d.  1534),  alderman  and 
sheriff  of  London,  who  was  also  treasurer  and  chamberlain  to 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  and  who  purchased  Milton  in  1506.  On  his 
mother's  side  Fitzwilliam  was  related  to  John  Russell,  ist  earl  of 
Bedford,  a  circumstance  to  which  he  owed  his  introduction  to 
Edward  VI.  In  1559  he  became  vice-treasurer  of  Ireland  and  a 
member  of  the  Irish  House  of  Commons;  and  between  this  date 
and  1571  he  was  (during  the  absences  of  Thomas  Radclyffe, 
earl  of  Sussex,  and  of  his  successor,  Sir  Henry  Sidney)  five  times 
lord  justice  of  Ireland.  In  1571  Fitzwilliam  himself  was  appointed 
lord  deputy,  but  like  Elizabeth's  other  servants  he  received  little 
or  no  money,  and  his  period  of  government  was  marked  by 
continuous  penury  and  its  attendant  evils,  inefficiency,  mutiny 
and  general  lawlessness.  Moreover,  the  deputy  quarrelled  with 
the  lord  president  of  Connaught,  Sir  Edward  Fitton  (1527-1579), 
but  he  compelled  the  earl  of  Desmond  to  submit  in  1574.  He 
disliked  the  expedition  of  Walter  Devereux,  earl  of  Essex;  he 
had  a  further  quarrel  with  Fitton,  and  after  a  serious  illness 
he  was  allowed  to  resign  his  office.  Returning  to  England  in 
1575  he  was  governor  of  Fotheringhay  Castle  at  the  time  of 
Mary  Stuart's  execution.  In  1588  Fitzwilliam  was  again  in 
Ireland  as  lord  deputy,  and  although  old  and  ill  he  displayed 
great  activity  in  leading  expeditions,  and  found  time  to  quarrel 
with  Sir  Richard  Bingham  (1528-1599),  the  new  president  of 
Connaught.  In  1594  he  finally  left  Ireland,  and  five  years  later 
he  died  at  Milton.  From  Fitzwilliam,  whose  wife  was  Anne, 
daughter  of  Sir  William  Sidney,  were  descended  the  barons  and 
earls  Fitzwilliam. 

See  R.  Bagwell,  Ireland  under  the  Tudors,  vol.  ii.    (1885). 

FITZWILLIAM,  WILLIAM  WENTWORTH  FITZWILLIAM, 
2ND  EARL  (1748-1833),  English  statesman,  was  the  son  of  the 
ist  earl  (peerage  of  the  United  Kingdom),  who  died  in  1756. 
The  English  family  of  Fitzwilliam  claimed  descent  from  a  natural 
son  of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  among  its  earlier  members 

x.  15- 


ware  a  Sir  William  Fitzwilliam  (1460-1534),  sheriff  of  London, 
who  in  1506  acquired  the  family  seat  of  Milton  Manor  in  North- 
amptonshire, and  his  grandson  Sir  William  Fitzwilliam  (see 
above).  The  latter's  grandson  was  made  an  Irish  baron  in  1620; 
and  injlater  generations  the  Irish  titles  of  Viscount  Milton  and 
Earl  Fitzwilliam  (1716)  and  the  English  titles  of  Baron  Milton 
(1742)  and  Viscount  Milton  and  Earl  Fitzwilliam  (1746),  were 
added.  These  were  all  in  the  English  house  of  the  Fitzwilliams 
of  Milton  Manor.  They  were  distinct  from  the  Irish  Fitzwilliams 
of  Meryon,  who  descended  from  a  member  of  the  English  family 
who  went  to  Ireland  with  Prince  John  at  the  end  of  the  I2th 
century,  and  whose  titles  of  Baron  and  Viscount  Fitzwilliam 
died  out  with  the  8th  viscount  in  1833;  the  best  known  of  these 
was  Richard,  7th  viscount  (1745-1816),  who  left  the  Fitzwilliam 
library  and  a  fund  for  creating  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum  to 
Cambridge  University. 

The  2nd  earl  inherited  not  only  the  Fitzwilliam  estates  in 
Northamptonshire,  but  also,  on  the  death  of  his  uncle  the 
marquess  of  Rockingham  in  1782,  the  valuable  Wentworth 
estates  in  Yorkshire,  and  thus  became  one  of  the  wealthiest 
noblemen  of  the  day.  He  had  been  at  Eton  with  C.  J.  Fox, 
and  became  an  active  supporter  of  the  Whig  party;  and  in  1794, 
with  the  duke  of  Portland,  Windham  and  other  "  old  Whigs  " 
he  joined  Pitt's  cabinet,  becoming  president  of  the  council.  At 
the  end  of  the  year,  however,  he  was  sent  to  Ireland  as  viceroy. 
Fitzwilliam,  however,  had  set  his  face  against  the  jobbery  of  the 
Protestant  leaders,  and  threw  himself  warmly  into  Grattan's 
scheme  for  admitting  the  Catholics  to  political  power;  and  in 
March  1795  he  was  recalled,  his  action  being  disavowed  by  Pitt, 
the  result  of  a  series  of  misunderstandings  which  appeared  to 
Fitzwilliam  to  give  him  just  cause  of  complaint.  The  quarrel 
was,  however,  made  up,  and  in  1798  Fitzwilliam  was  appointed 
lord-lieutenant  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  He  continued 
to  take  an  active  part  in  politics,  and  in  1806  was  president 
of  the  council,  but  his  Whig  opinions  kept  him  mainly  in 
opposition.  He  died  in  February  1833,  his  son,  Charles  William 
Wentworth,  the  3rd  earl  (1786-1857),  and  later  earls,  being 
notable  figures  in  the  politics  and  social  life  of  the  north  of 
England. 

FIUME  (Slav.  Rjeka,  Rieka  or  Reka,  Ger.  St  Veil  am  Flaunt), 
a  royal  free  town  and  port  of  Hungary;  situated  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Quarnero,  an  inlet  of  the  Adriatic,  and 
on  a  small  stream  called  the  Rjeka,  Recina  or  Fiumara,  70  m. 
by  rail  S.E.  of  Trieste.  Pop.  (1900)  38,955;  including  17,354 
Italians,  14,885  Slavs  (Croats,  Serbs  and  Slovenes),  2482  Hun- 
garians and  1945  Germans.  Geographically,  Fiume  belongs  to 
Croatia;  politically  the  town,  with  its  territory  of  some  7  sq.  m.( 
became  a  part  of  Hungary  in  August  1870.  The  picturesque 
old  town  occupies  an  outlying  ridge  of  the  Croatian  Karst; 
while  the  modern  town,  with  its  wharves,  warehouses,  electric 
light  and  electric  trams,  is  crowded  into  the  amphitheatre  left 
between  the  hills  and  the  shore.  On  the  north-west  there  is  a 
fine  public  garden.  The  most  interesting  buildings  are  the 
cathedral  church  of  the  Assumption,  founded  in  1377,  and  com- 
pleted with  a  modern  facade  copied  from  that  of  the  Pantheon 
in  Rome;  the  church  of  St  Veit,  on  the  model  of  Santa  Maria 
della  Salute  in  Venice;  and  the  Pilgrimage  church,  hung  with 
offerings  from  shipwrecked  sailors,  and  approached  by  a  stairway 
of  400  steps.  In  the  old  town  is  a  Roman  triumphal  arch,  said 
to  have  been  erected  during  the  3rd  century  A.D.  in  honour 
of  the  emperor  Claudius  II.  Fiume  also  possesses  a  theatre  and 
a  music-hall;  palaces  for  the  governor  and  the  Austrian  emperor; 
a  high  court  of  justice  for  commerce  and  marine;  a  chamber  of 
commerce;  an  asylum  for  lunatics  and  the  aged  poor;  an 
industrial  home  for  boys;  and  several  large  schools,  including 
the  marine  academy  (1856)  and  the  school  of  seamanship  (1903). 
Municipal  affairs  are  principally  managed  by  the  Italians,  who 
sympathize  with  the  Hungarians  against  the  Slavs. 

Fiume  is  the  only  seaport  of  Hungary,  with  which  country 
it  was  connected,  in  1809,  by  the  Maria  Louisa  road,  through 
Karlstadt.  It  has  two  railways,  opened  in  1873;  one  a  branch 
of  the  southern  railway  from  Vienna  to  Trieste,  the  other  of  the 


450 


FIVES 


Hungarian  state  railway  from  Karlstadt.  There  are  several 
harbours,  including  the  Porto  Canale,  for  coasting  vessels;  the 
Porto  Harass,  for  timber;  and  the  Porlo  Grande,  sheltered  by 
the  Maria  Theresia  mole  and  breakwater,  besides  four  lesser 
moles,  and  flanked  by  the  quays,  with  their  grain-elevators. 
The  development  of  the  Porto  Grande,  originally  named  the 
Porto  Nuow,  was  undertaken  in  1847,  and  carried  on  at  intervals 
as  trade  increased.  In  1902,  arrangements  were  made  for  the 
construction  of  a  new  mole  and  an  enlargement  of  the  quays 
and  breakwater;  these  works  to  be  completed  within  5  years, 
at  a  cost  of  £420,000.  The  exports,  worth  £6,460,000  in  1902, 
chiefly  consisted  of  grain,  flour,  sugar,  timber  and  horses;  the 
imports,  worth  £3,678,000  in  the  same  year,  of  coal,  wine,  rice, 
fruit,  jute  and  various  minerals,  chemicals  and  oils.  A  large 
share  in  the  carrying  trade  belongs  to  the  Cunard,  Adria,  Ungaro- 
Croat  and  Austrian  Lloyd  Steamship  Companies,  subsidized 
by  the  state.  A  steady  stream  of  Croatian  and  Hungarian 
emigrants,  officially  numbered  in  1902  at  7500,  passes  through 
Fiume.  Altogether  11,550  vessels,  of  1,963,000  tons,  entered 
at  Fiume  in  1902;  and  11,535,  of  1,956,000,  cleared.  Foremost 
among  the  industrial  establishments  are  Whitehead's  torpedo 
factory,  Messrs  Smith  &  Meynie's  paper-mill,  the  royal  tobacco 
factory,  a  chemical  factory,  and  several  flour-mills,  tanneries 
and  rope  manufactories.  In  1902  the  last  shipbuilding  yard 
was  closed.  The  soil  of  the  surrounding  country  is  stony,  but 
the  climate  is  warm,  and  wine  is  extensively  produced.  The 
Gulf  of  Quarnero  yields  a  plentiful  supply  of  fish,  and  the  tunny 
trade  with  Trieste  and  Venice  is  of  considerable  importance. 
Steamboats  ply  daily  from  Fiume  to  the  Istrian  health-resort 
of  Abbazia,  the  Croatian  port  of  Buccari,  and  the  islands  of 
Veglia  and  Cherso. 

Fiume  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  Liburnian 
town  Tersatica;  later  it  received  the  name  of  Vitopolis,  and 
eventually  that  of  Fanum  Sancti  Viti  ad  Flumen,  from  which  its 
present  name  is  derived.  It  was  destroyed  by  Charlemagne 
in  799,  from  which  time  it  probably  long  remained  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Franks.  It  was  held  in  feudal  tenure  from  the 
patriarch  of  Aquileia  by  the  bishop  of  Pola,  and  afterwards, 
in  1139,  by  the  counts  of  Duino,  who  retained  it  till  the  end 
of  the  i4th  century.  It  next  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  counts 
of  Wallsee,  by  whom  it  was  surrendered  in  1471  to  the  emperor 
Frederick  III.,  who  incorporated  it  with  the  dominions  of  the 
house  of  Austria.  From  this  date  till  1776  Fiume  was  ruled  by 
imperial  governors.  In  1 7  23  it  was  declared  a  free  port  by  Charles 
VI.,  in  1776  united  to  Croatia  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa,  and 
in  1779  declared  a  corpus  separatum  of  the  Hungarian  crown. 
In  1809  Fiume  was  occupied  by  the  French;  but  it  was  retaken 
by  the  British  in  1813,  and  restored  to  Austria  in  the  following 
year.  It  was  ceded  to  Hungary  in  1822,  but  after  the  revolution 
of  1848-1849  was  annexed  to  the  crown  lands  of  Croatia,  under 
the  government  of  which  it  remained  till  it  came  under  Hungarian 
control  in  1870. 

FIVES,  a  ball-game  played  by  two  or  four  players  in  a  court 
enclosed  on  three  or  four  sides,  the  ball  being  struck  with  the 
hand,  usually  protected  by  a  glove,  whence  the  game  is  known 
in  America  as  "  handball."  The  origin  of  the  game  is  probably 
the  French  jeu  de  paume,  tennis  played  with  the  hand,  the  hand 
in  that  case  being  eventually  superseded  by  the  racquet.  Fives 
and  racquets  are  probably  both  descended  from  the  jeu  de  paume, 
of  which  they  are  simplified  forms.  The  name  fives  may  be 
derived  from  la  longue  paume,  in  which  five  on  a  side  played,  or 
from  the  five  fingers,  or  from  the  fact  that  five  points  had  to  be 
made  by  the  winners  (in  modern  times  the  game  consists  of 
fifteen  points).  Fives  is  played  in  Great  Britain  principally 
at  the  schools  and  universities,  although  its  encouragement  is 
included  in  the  functions  of  the  Tennis  Racquets  and  Fives 
Association,  founded  in  1908.  In  America  it  is  much  affected 
for  training  purposes  by  professional  athletes  and  boxers.  There 
are  two  forms  of  fives — the  Eton  game  and  the  Rugby  game — 
which  require  separate  notice,  though  the  main  features  of 
the  two  games  are  the  serving  of  the  ball  to  the  taker  of  the 
service,  the  necessity  of  hitting  the  ball  before  the  second 


bounce,  and  of  hitting  it  above  a  line  and  within  the  limits  of 
the  court. 

Eton  Fives. — The  peculiar  features  of  the  Eton  court  arose 
from  the  fact  that  in  early  times  the  game  was  played  against 
the  chapel-wall,  so  that  buttresses  formed  side  walls  and  the 
balustrade  of  the  chapel-steps  projected  into  the  court,  while 
a  step  divided  the  court  latitudinally.  These  were  reproduced 
in  the  regular  courts,  the  buttress  being  known  as  the  "  pepper- 
box "  and  the  space  between  it  and  the  step  as  the  "  hole." 
The  riser  of  the  step  is  about  5  in.  The  floor  of  the  court  is  paved ; 
there  is  no  back  wall.  On  the  front  wall  is  a  ledge,  known  as 
the  "  line,"  4  ft.  6  in.  from  the  floor,  and  a  vertical  line,  painted, 
3  ft.  8  in.  from  the  right-hand  wall.  Four  people  usually  play, 
two  against  two;  one  of  each  pair  plays  in  the  forward  court, 
the  other  in  the  back  court.  The  server  stands  on  the  left  of 
the  forward  court,  his  partner  in  the  right-hand  corner  of  the  back 
court;  the  taker  of  the  service  by  the  right  wall  of  the  forward 
court,  his  partner  at  the  left-hand  corner  of  the  back  court.  The 
forward  court  is  known  as  "  on-wall,"  the  other  as  "  off-wall." 
The  server  must  toss  the  ball  gently  against  the  front  wall, 
above  the  line,  so  that  it  afterwards  hits  the  right  wall  and  falls 
on  the  "  off-wall,"  but  the  server's  object  is  not,  as  at  tennis 
and  racquets,  to  send  a  service  that  cannot  be  returned.  At 
fives  he  must  send  a  service  that  hand-out  can  take  easily;  indeed 
hand-out  can  refuse  to  take  any  service  that  he  does  not  like,  and 
if  he  fails  to  return  the  ball  above  the  line  no  stroke  is  counted. 
After  the  service  has  been  returned  either  of  the  opponents 
returns  the  ball  if  he  can,  and  so  on,  each  side  and  either  member 
of  it  returning  the  ball  above  the  line  alternately  till  one  side 
or  the  other  hits  it  below  the  line  or  out  of  court.  Only  hand-in 
can  score.  If  hand-in  wins  a  stroke,  his  side  scores  a  point; 
if  he  misses  a  stroke  he  loses  his  innings  and  his  partner  becomes 
server,  unless  he  has  already  served  in  this  round,  in  which  case 
the  opponents  become  hand-in.  The  game  is  fifteen  points. 
If  the  score  is  "  13  all,"  the  out  side  may  "  set  "  the  game  to 
5  or  3;  i.e.  the  game  becomes  one  of  5  or  3  points;  at  "  14  all  " 
it  may  be  set  to  three.  The  game  and  its  terminology  being 
somewhat  intricate,  can  best  be  learnt  in  the  court.  No  apparatus 
is  required  except  padded  gloves  and  fives-balls,  which  are 
covered  with  white  leather  tightly  stretched  over  a  hard  founda- 
tion of  cork,  strips  of  leather  and  twine.  The  Eton  balls  are 
if  in.  in  diameter  and  weigh  about  ij  oz.  apiece. 

Rugby  Fives  is  much  less  complicated  owing  to  the  simpler 
form  of  the  court.  The  rules  as  to  service,  taking  the  balls,  &c., 
are  the  same  as  in  Eton  Fives.  The  balls  are  rather  smaller.  The 
courts  are  larger,  measuring  about  34  ft.  by  19  ft.  6  in.  and  may 
be  roofed  or  open.  The  side  walls  slope  from  20  ft.  to  12  ft. 
Some  courts  have  a  dwarf  back  wall,  some  have  none.  The 
back  wall,  when  there  is  one,  is  5  ft.  8  in.  in  height.  In  some 
courts  the  side  walls  are  plain;  in  others,  where  there  is  no 
back  wall,  a  projection  about  3  in.  deep  is  built  at  right  angles 
to  the  two  side  walls;  in  others  a  buttress,  similar  to  the  tambour 
of  the  tennis-court,  is  built  out  from  the  left-hand  wall  about  10  ft. 
from  the  front  wall,  and  continued  to  the  end  of  the  court. 
The  line  is  generally  a  board  fixed  across  the  front  wall,  its 
upper  edge  34  in.  from  the  ground,  but  the  height  varies  slightly. 

Handball,  of  ancient  popularity  in  Ireland  and  much  played 
in  the  United  States,  is  practically  identical  with  fives,  though 
there  are  minor  differences.  The  usual  American  court  is  about 
60  ft.  long,  24^  ft.  wide  and  35  ft.  high  at  the  front,  tapering  to 
33  ft.  at  the  back  wall.  The  front  wall  is  of  brick  faced  with 
marble,  the  sides  of  cement  and  the  floor  of  white  pine  laid  on 
beams  10  in.  apart.  These  are  the  dimensions  of  the  Brooklyn 
court  of  the  former  American  champion,  Phil  Casey  (d.  1904), 
which  has  been  extensively  copied.  Twenty-one  aces  constitute 
a  game  and  gloves  are  not  usually  worn.  The  American  ball 
is  a  trifle  larger  and  softer  than  the  Irish,  which  is  called  a  "  red 
ace  "  when  made  of  solid  red  rubber,  and  "  black  ace  "  when 
made  of  black  rubber.  Baggs  of  Tipperary,  who  was  in  his 
prime  about  1855,  was  the  most  celebrated  Irish  handball  player. 
In  his  day  nearly  every  village  tavern  in  Ireland  had  a  court. 
Browning  and  Lawlor,  who  won  the  Irish  championship  in  1885, 


FIX— FIXTURES 


were  his  most  prominent  successors.     In  America  Phil  Casey 
and  Michael  Egan  are  the  best-known  names. 

See  A.  Tait's  Fives  in  the  All  England  Series:  "  Fives  "  in  the 
Encyclopaedia  of  Sport;  and  Official  Handball  Guide  in  Spalding's 
Athletic  Library. 

FIX,  THEODORE  (1800-1846),  French  journalist  and  econo- 
mist, was  born  at  Soleure  in  Switzerland  in  1800.  His 
father  was  a  French  physician  whose  ancestors  had  been  ex- 
patriated by  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  At  first  a 
land  surveyor,  he  in  1830  became  connected  with  the  Bulletin 
universal  des  sciences,  to  which  he  contributed  most  of  the 
geographical  articles.  In  1833  he  founded  the  Revue  mensuelle 
d'  economic  politique,  which  he  edited  during  the  three  years 
of  its  existence.  He  then  became  engaged  in  journalistic  work, 
till  his  essay  on  L' Association  des  douanes  allemandes  won  him  a 
prize  from  the  Academic  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques  in 
1840,  and  also  procured  him  work  on  the  report  on  the  progress 
of  sciences  since  the  Revolution,  which  the  Institute  was  prepar- 
ing. A  few  months  before  his  death  he  published  Observations 
sur  les  classes  ouvrieres,  in  which  he  argued  against  all  attempts 
to  regulate  artificially  the  rate  of  wages,  and  attributed  the 
condition  of  the  working  classes  to  their  own  thriftlessness  and 
intemperance.  He  died  suddenly  at  Paris  on  the  3ist  of  July 
1846. 

FIXTURES  (Lat.  figere,  to  fix),  in  law,  chattels  which  have 
been  so  fixed  or  attached  to  land  (as  it  is  expressed  in  English  law, 
"  so  annexed  to  the  freehold  "),  as  to  become,  in  contemplation 
of  law,  a  part  of  it.  All  systems  of  law  make  a  marked  distinction 
for  certain  purposes,  between  immovables  and  movables,  between 
real  and  personal  property,  between  land  and  all  other  things. 
In  the  case  of  fixtures  the  question  arises  under  which  set  of 
rights  they  are  to  fall — under  those  of  real  or  of  personal  property. 
The  general  rule  of  English  law  is  that  everything  attached  to 
the  land  goes  with  the  land — quicquid  plantalur  solo,  solo  cedit. 
This,  like  many  other  rules  of  English  law,  is  all  in  favour  of  the 
freeholder;  but  its  hardship  has  been  modified  by  a  large 
number  of  exceptions  formulated  from  time  to  time  by  the 
courts  as  occasion  arose. 

In  order  to  constitute  a  fixture  there  must  be  some  degree 
of  annexation  to  the  land,  or  to  a  building  which  forms  part  of  it. 
Thus  it  has  been  held  that  a  barn  laid  on  blocks  of  timber,  but 
not  fixed  to  the  ground  itself,  is  not  a  fixture;  and  the  onus 
of  showing  that  articles  not  otherwise  attached  to  the  land  than 
by  their  own  weight  have  ceased  to  be  chattels,  rests  with  those 
who  assert  the  fact.  On  the  other  hand,  an  article,  even  slightly 
affixed  to  the  land,  is  to  be  considered  part  of  it,  unless  the 
circumstances  show  that  it  was  intended  to  remain  a  chattel. 
The  question  is  one  of  fact  in  each  case — depending  mainly  on 
the  mode,  degree  and  object  of  the  annexation,  and  the  possi- 
bility of  the  removal  of  the  article  without  injury  to  itself  or  the 
freehold.  In  certain  cases  the  courts  have  recognized  a  construc- 
tive annexation,  when  the  articles,  though  not  fixed  to  the  soil, 
pass  with  the  freehold  as  if  they  were,  e.g.  the  keys  of  a  house, 
the  stones  of  a  dry  wall,  and  the  detached  or  duplicate  portions 
of  machines. 

Questions  as  to  the  property  in  fixtures  principally  arise — 
(i)  between  landlord  and  tenant,  (2)  between  heir  and  executor, 
(3)  between  executor  and  remainder-man  or  reversioner,  (4) 
between  seller  and  buyer. 

I.  At  common  law,  if  the  tenant  has  affixed  anything  to  the 
freehold  during  his  occupation,  he  cannot  remove  it  without  the 
permission  of  his  landlord.  But  an  exception  was  established  in 
favour  of  trade  fixtures.  In  a  case  before  Lord  Holt  it  was  held  that 
a  soap-boiler  might,  during  his  term,  remove  the  vats  he  had  set  up 
for  trade  purposes,  and  that  not  by  virtue  of  any  special  custom, 
but  "  by  the  common  law  in  favour  of  trade,  and  to  encourage 
industry,"  and  it  may  be  stated  as  a  general  rule  that  things  which 
a  tenant  has  fixed  to  the  freehold  for  the  purpose  of  trade  or  manu- 
facture may  be  taken  away  by  him,  whenever  the  removal  is  not 
contrary  to  any  prevailing  practice,  or  the  particular  terms  of  the 
contract  of  tenancy,  and  can  be  effected  without  causing  material 
injury  to  the  estate  or  destroying  the  essential  character  of  the 
articles  themselves  (Lambourn  v.  McLellan,  1903,  2  Ch.  269).  Agri- 
cultural tenants  are  not  entitled,  at  common  law,  to  remove  trade 
fixtures.  But  the  Landlord  and  Tenant  Act  1851  granted  such 
a  right  of  removal  in  the  case  of  buildings  or  machinery  erected  by  a 


tenant  at  his  own  expense,  and  with  his  landlord's  consent  in  writing, 
provided  that  the  freehold  was  not  injured  or  that  any  injury  was 
made  good,  and  that  before  removal  a  month's  written  notice  was 
given  to  the  landlord,  who  had  an  option  of  purchase.  Under  the 
Agricultural  Holdings  Act  1883  the  tenant  might,  under  similar 
conditions,  remove  fixtures,  although  the  landlord  had  not  consented 
to  their  erection.  The  Agricultural  Holdings  Act  1900  extended 
this  provision  to  fixtures  or  buildings  acquired,  although  not  annexed 
or  erected,  by  the  tenant.  Similar  rights  were  created  by  the  Allot- 
ments Compensation  Act  1887,  and  by  the  Market  Gardeners' 
Compensation  Act  1895.  All  these  provisions  were  re-enacted  by 
the  Agricultural  Holdings  Act  1908. 

Again,  ornamental  fixtures,  set  up  by  the  tenant  for  ornament  and 
convenience,  such  as  hangings  and  looking-glasses,  tapestry,  iron- 
backs  to  chimneys,  wainscot  fixed  by  screws,  marble  chimney-pieces, 
are  held  to  belong  to  the  tenant,  and  to  be  removable  without  the 
landlord's  consent.  Here  again  the  extent  of  the  privilege  has  been  a 
matter  of  some  uncertainty. 

In  all  these  cases  the  fixtures  must  be  removed  during  the  term. 
If  the  tenant  gives  up  possession  of  the  premises  without  removing 
the  fixtures,  it  will  be  presumed,  it  appears,  that  he  has  made  a 
gift  of  them  to  the  landlord,  and  that  presumption  probably  could 
not  be  rebutted  by  positive  evidence  of  a  contrary  intention.  His 
right  to  the  fixtures  is  not,  however,  destroyed  by  the  mere  expiry 
of  the  term,  if  he  still  remains  in  possession;  but  if  he  has  once 
left  the  premises  he  cannot  come  back  and  claim  his  fixtures.  In 
one  case  where  the  fixtures  had  actually  been  severed  from  the  free- 
hold after  the  end  of  the  term,  it  was  held  that  the  tenant  had  no 
right  to  recover  them. 

2.  As  between  heir  and  executor  or  administrator.     The  question 
of  fixtures  arises  between  these  parties  on  the  death  of  a  person 
owning  land.     The  executor  has  no  right  to  remove  trade  fixtures, 
set  up  lor  the  benefit  of  the  inheritance.     As  regards  ornamental 
objects,  the  rule  quicquid  plantatur  solo,  solo  cedit  was  in  early  times 
somewhat  relaxed  in  favour  of  the  executor.     As  far  back  as  1701, 
it  was  held  that  hangings  fixed  to  a  wall  for  ornament  passed  to  the 
executor;  and,  although  the  effect  of  this  relaxation  was  subsequently 
cut  down,  it^  is  supported  by  the  decisions  of  the  courts  affirming 
the  executor's  right  to  valuable  tapestries  affixed  by  a  tenant  for 
life  to  the  walls  of  a  house  for  ornament  and  their  better  enjoyment 
as  chattels  (Leigh  v.  Taylor,  1902,  App.  Cas.  157) ;   and  the  same 
has  been  held  as  to  statues  and  bronze  groups  set  on  pedestals  in 
the  grounds  of  a  mansion  house. 

3.  When  a  tenant  for  life  of  land  dies,  the  question  of  fixtures 
arises  between  his  representatives  and  the  persons  next  entitled  to 
the  estate  (the  remainder-man  or  reversioner).     The  remainder-man 
is  not  so  great  a  favourite  of  the  law  as  the  heir,  and  the  right  to 
fixtures  is  construed  more  favourably  for  executors  than  in  the 
preceding  cases  between  heir  and  executor.     Whatever  are  executor's 
fixtures  against   the   heir   would   therefore   be  executor's   fixtures 
against  the  remainder-man.     And  the  result  of  the  cases  seems  to 
be  that,  as  against  the  remainder,  the  executor  of  the  tenant  for  life 
would  be  certainly  entitled  to  trade  fixtures.     Agricultural  fixtures 
are  not  removable  by  the  executor  of  a  tenant  for  life. 

4.  As  between  seller  and  buyer,  a  purchase  of  the  lands  includes 
a  purchase  of  all  the  fixtures.     But  here  the  intention  of  the  parties 
is  of  great  importance.    Similar  questions  may  arise  in  other  cases, 
e.g.  as  between  mortgagor  and  mortgagee.     When  land  is  mortgaged 
the  fixtures  pass  with  it,  unless  a  contrary  intention  is  expressed  in 
the  conveyance;    and  this  even  where  the  chattels  affixed  are  the 
subject  of  a  hire  purchase  agreement   (Reynolds  v.  Ashby,  1903, 
I  K.B.  87).     Aga.n,  in  reference  to  bills  of  sale  the  question  arises. 
Bills  of  sale  are  dispositions  of  personal  property  similar  to  mort- 
gages, the  possession  remaining  with  the  person  selling   them.     To 
make  them  valid  they  must  be  registered,  and  so  the  question  has 
arisen  whether  deeds  conveying  fixtures  ought  not  to  have  been 
registered  as  bills  of  sale.     Unless  it  was  the  intention  of  the  parties 
to  make  the  fixtures  a  distinct  security,  it  seems  that  a  deed  of 
mortgage  embracing  them  does  not  require  to  be  registered  as  a  bill 
of  sale.     The  question  of  what  is  or  is  not  a  fixture  must  also  often 
be  considered  in  questions  of  rating  or  assessment. 

The  law  of  Scotland  as  to  fixtures  is  the  same  as  that  of  England. 
The  Agricultural  Holdings  (Scotland)  Acts  1883  (ss.  35, 42)  and  1900 
(as  to  market  gardens)  give  a  similar  statutory  right  of  removal. 
The  law  of  Ireland  has  been  the  subject  of  the  special  legislation 
sketched  in  the  article  LANDLORD  AND  TENANT.  The  French  Code 
Civil  recognizes  the  right  of  the  usufructuary  to  remove  articles 
attached  by  him  to  the  subject  of  his  estate  on  the  expiry  of  his  term, 
on  making  good  the  place  from  which  they  were  taken  (Art.  599) ; 
and  there  are  similar  provisions  in  the  Civil  Codes  of  Italy  (Art. 
495),  Spain  (Arts.  487,  489),  Portugal  (Art.  2217)  and  Germany 
(Arts.  1037,  1049). 

The  law  of  the  United  States  as  to  fixtures  is  substantially  identical 
with  English  common  law.  Constructive,  as  well  as  actual,  annexa- 
tion is  recognized.  The  same  relaxations  (from  the  common  law 
rule  quicquid  plantatur  solo,  solo  cedit)  as  regards  trade  fixtures,  and 
ornamental  fixtures,  such  as  tapestry,  have  been  recognized. 

In  Mauritius  the  provisions  of  the  Code  Civil  are  in  force  without 
modification.  In  Quebec  (Civil  Code,  Arts.  374  et  seq.)  and  St 
Lucia  (Civil  Code,  Arts.  368  et  seq.)  they  have  been  re-enacted  in 


452 


FIZEAU— FLACH 


substance.  Some  of  the  British  colonies  have  conferred  a  statutory 
right  to  remove  fixtures  on  tenants  (cf.  Tasmania,  Landlord  and 
Tenant  Act  1874).  In  certain  of  the  colonies  acquired  by  cession  or 
settlement  (e.g.  New  Zealand)  the  English  Landlord  and  Tenant  Act 
1851  is  in  force. 

AUTHORITIES. — English  law:  Amos  and  Ferard,  Law  of  Fixtures 
(3rd  ed.,  London,  1883) ;  Brown,  Law  of  Fixtures  (yd  ed.,  London, 
1875);  Ryde,  on  Rating  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1905).  Scots  Law: 
Hunter,  Landlord  and  Tenant;  Erskine's  Principles  (2oth  ed., 
Edin.,  1903).  American  Law:  Bronson,  Law  of  Fixtures  (St  Paul, 
1904) ;  Reeves,  Real  Property  (Boston,  1904) ;  Ruling  Cases  (London 
and  Boston,  1894-1901),  Tit.  "  Fixtures  "  (American  Notes). 

(A.  W.  R.) 

FIZEAU,  ARMAND  HIPPOLYTE  LOUIS  (1810-1896),  French 
physicist,  was  born  at  Paris  on  the  23rd  of  September  1819. 
His  earliest  work  was  concerned  with  improvements  in  photo- 
graphic processes;  and  then,  in  association  with  J.  B.  L.  Foucault, 
he  engaged  in  a  series  of  investigations  on  the  interference  of 
light  and  heat.  In  1849  he  published  the  first  results  obtained 
by  his  method  for  determining  the  speed  of  propagation  of  light 
(see  LIGHT),  and  in  1850  with  E.  Gounelle  measured  the  velocity 
of  electricity.  In  1853  he  described  the  employment  of  the  con- 
denser as  a  means  for  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  induction- 
coil.  Subsequently  he  studied  the  expansion  of  solids  by  heat,  and 
applied  the  phenomena  of  interference  of  light  to  the  measure- 
ment of  the  dilatations  of  crystals.  He  died  at  Venteuil  on  the 
i8th  of  September  1896.  He  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1860  and  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes  in  1878. 

FJORD,  or  FIORD,  the  anglicized  Norwegian  word  for  a  long 
narrow  arm  of  the  sea  running  far  inland,  with  more  or  less 
precipitous  cliffs  on  each  side.  These  "  sea-lochs,"  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  present  many  peculiar  features.  They  differ 
entirely  from  an  estuary  in  the  fact  that  they  are  bounded  sea- 
wards by  a  rocky  sill,  covered  by  shallow  water,  and  they  deepen 
inland  for  some  distance  before  the  bottom  again  curves  up  to 
the  surface.  They  are  thus  true  rock  basins  drowned  in  sea- 
water.  It  is  pointed  out  by  Dr  H.  R.  Mill  that  Loch  Morar  on 
the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  a  fresh-water  basin  1 78  fathoms  deep, 
with  its  surface  30  ft.  above  sea-level,  which  is  connected  with 
the  sea  by  a  short  river,  is  exactly  similar  in  configuration  to 
Loch  Etive,  80  fathoms  deep,  filled  with  sea-water  which  pours 
over  the  seaward  sill  in  a  waterfall  with  the  retreating  tide; 
that  Loch  Nevis  with  a  depth  of  70  fathoms  has  its  sill  8  fathoms 
below  the  surface,  while  the  gigantic  Sogne  Fjord  in  Norway, 
more  than  too  m.  in  length,  is  a  rock  basin  with  a  maximum 
depth  of  700  fathoms.  Any  inland  rock  basin  such  as  Loch 
Morar  would  become  a  fjord  if  the  seaward  portion  sank  below 
sea-level.  The  origin  of  these  rock  basins  has  not  yet  been 
satisfactorily  determined.  Recent  work  upon  somewhat  similar 
basins  in  the  high  Alps  has  suggested  local  weathering  of  surface 
rock  in  fracture  belts  or  faulted  areas,  or  dikes,  where  material 
is  easily  eroded,  thus  producing  a  trough  bounded  by  high  walls 
in  which  a  lake  forms  under  favourable  conditions.  But  in- 
.  vestigations  in  such  regions  as  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the 
Yosemite  Valley,  where  there  is  frequently  a  "  reversed  grade  " 
similar  to  that  near  the  seaward  end  of  rock  basins  and  fjords, 
seem  to  show,  in  some  cases  at  least,  that  such  a  formation  may 
be  due  to  the  "  gouging  "  effect  of  a  glacier  coming  down  the 
valley  which  it  constantly  deepens  where  the  ice  pressure  and 
the  supply  of  eroding  material  are  greatest.  There  may  be  several 
causes,  but  the  results  are  the  same  in  all  these  drowned  valleys. 
The  mass  of  sea-water  in  the  depth  of  the  basin  is  either  un- 
affected by  the  seasonal  changes  in  surface  temperature,  which 
in  Norway  penetrate  no  deeper  than  200  fathoms,  or  else,  as  in 
Loch  Goil,  the  fresher  film  of  surface  water  responds  quickly  to 
seasonal  changes,  while  the  heat  of  advancing  summer  penetrates 
so  slowly  to  the  depth  of  the  basin  that  it  takes  six  months 
to  reach  the  bottom,  arriving  there  in  winter.  It  has  been  found 
that  where  the  fresher  surface  water  has  been  frozen  over,  the 
temperature  may  be  as  much  as  45°  F.  at  a  few  fathoms  from 
the  surface.  When  the  surface  is  warmest,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  depths  are  coldest. 

FLACCUS,  a  cognomen  in  the  plebeian  gens  Fulvia,  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  in  ancient  Rome.  Cicero  and  Pliny  state  that 


the  family  came  from  Tusculum,  where  some  were  still  living  in 
the  middle  of  the  ist  century  B.C.  Of  the  Fulvii  Flacci  the  most 
important  were  the  following: 

QUINTUS  FULVIUS  FLACCUS,  son  of  the  first  of  the  family, 
Marcus,  who  was  consul  with  Appius  Claudius  Caudex  in  264. 
He  especially  distinguished  himself  during  the  second  Punic 
War.  He  was  consul  four  times  {237,  224,  212,  209),  censor  (231) 
pontifex  maximus  (216),  praetor  urbanus  (215).  During  his 
first  consulships  he  did  good  service  against  the  Ligurians,  Gauls 
and  Insubrians.  In  212  he  defeated  Hanno  near  Beneventum, 
and  with  his  colleague  Appius  Claudius  Pulcher  began  the  siege 
of  Capua.  The  capture  of  this  place  was  considered  so  important 
that  their  imperium  was  prolonged,  but  on  condition  that  they 
should  not  leave  Capua  until  it  had  been  taken.  Hannibal's 
unexpected  diversion  against  Rome  interfered  with  the  operations 
for  the  moment,  but  his  equally  unexpected  retirement  enabled 
Flaccus,  who  had  been  summoned  to  Rome  to  protect  the  city, 
to  return,  and  bring  the  siege  to  a  successful  conclusion.  He 
punished  the  inhabitants  with  great  severity,  alleging  in  excuse 
that  they  had  shown  themselves  bitterly  hostile  to  Rome.  He 
was  nominated  dictator  to  hold  the  consular  elections  at  which 
he  was  himself  elected  (209).  He  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  army  in  Lucania  and  Bruttium,  where  he  crushed  all  further 
attempts  at  rebellion.  Nothing  further  is  known  of  him.  The 
chief  authority  for  his  life  is  the  part  of  Livy  dealing  with  the 
period  (see  PUNIC  WARS). 

His  brother  GNAEUS  was  convicted  of  gross  cowardice  against 
Hannibal  near  Herdoniae  in  210,  and  went  into  voluntary  exile 
at  Tarquinii.  His  son,  QUINTUS,  waged  war  with  signal  success 
against  the  Celtiberians  in  182-181,  and  the  Ligurians  in  179. 
Having  vowed  to  build  a  temple  to  Fortuna  Equestris,  he 
dismantled  the  temple  of  Juno  Lacinia  in  Bruttium  of  its  marble 
slabs.  This  theft  became  known  and  he  was  compelled  to 
restore  them,  though  they  were  never  put  back  in  their  places. 
Subsequently  he  lost  his  reason  and  hanged  himself. 

MARCUS  FULVIUS  FLACCUS,  grandnephew  of  the  first  Quintus, 
lived  in  the  times  of  the  Gracchi,  of  whom  he  was  a  strong 
supporter.  After  the  death  of  Tiberius  Gracchus  (133  B.C.) 
he  was  appointed  in  his  place  one  of  the  commission  of  three 
for  the  distribution  of  the  land.  He  was  suspected  of  having 
had  a  hand  in  the  sudden  death  of  the  younger  Scipio  (129), 
but  there  was  no  direct  evidence  against  him.  When  consul 
in  125,  he  proposed  to  confer  the  Roman  citizenship  on  all  the 
allies,  and  to  allow  even  those  who  had  not  acquired  it  the  right 
of  appeal  to  the  popular  assembly  against  penal  judgments. 
This  proposal,  though  for  the  time  successfully  opposed  by  the 
senate,  eventually  led  to  the  Social  War.  The  attack  made  upon 
the  Massilians  (who  were  allies  of  Rome)  by  the  Salluvii  (Salyes) 
afforded  a  convenient  excuse  for  sending  Flaccus  out  of  Rome. 
After  his  return  in  triumph,  he  was  again  sent  away  (122),  this  time 
with  Gaius  Gracchus  to  Carthage  to  found  a  colony,  but  did  not 
remain  absent  long.  In  121  the  disputes  between  the  optimates 
and  the  party  of  Gracchus  culminated  in  open  hostilities, 
during  which  Flaccus  was  killed,  together  with  Gracchus  and  a 
number  of  his  supporters.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  Flaccus  was 
perfectly  honest  in  his  support  of  the  Gracchan  reforms,  but  his 
hot-headedness  did  more  harm  than  good  to  the  cause.  Cicero 
(Brutus,  28)  speaks  of  him  as  an  orator  of  moderate  powers,  but 
a  diligent  student. 

See  Livy,  Epit.  59-61;  Val.  Max.  ix.  5.  i;  Veil.  Pat.  ii.  6; 
Appian,  Bell.  Civ.  i.  18,  21,  24-26;  Plutarch,  C.  Gracchus,  10.  13; 
also  A.  H.  J.  Greenidge,  Hist,  of  Rome  (1904),  and  authorities  quoted 
under  GRACCHUS. 

FLACH,  GEOFROI  JACQUES  (1846-  ),  French  jurist  and 
historian,  was  born  at  Strassburg,  Alsace,  on  the  i6th  of  February 
1846,  of  a  family  known  at  least  as  early  as  the  i6th  century,  when 
Sigismond  Flach  was  the  first  professor  of  law  at  Strassburg 
University.  G.  J.  Flach  studied  classics  and  law  at  Strassburg, 
and  in  1869  took  his  degree  of  doctor  of  law.  In  his  theses  as 
well  as  in  his  early  writings — such  as  De  la  subrogation  rtelle, 
La  Bonorum  possessio,  and  Sur  la  duree  des  ejfets  de  la  minoritt 
(1870) — he  endeavoured  to  explain  the  problems  of  laws  by 


FLACIUS 


453 


means  of  history,  an  idea  which  was  new  to  France  at  that  time. 
The  Franco-German  War  engaged  Flach's  activities  in  other 
directions,  and  he  spent  two  years  (described  in  his  Strasbourg 
apres  le  bombardement,  1873)  at  work  on  the  rebuilding  of  the 
library  and  the  museum,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  Prussian 
shells.  When  the  time  came  for  him  to  choose  between  Germany 
and  France,  he  settled  definitely  in  Paris,  where  he  completed 
his  scientific  training  at  the  Ecole  des  Charles  and  the  Ecole  des 
Hautes  Etudes.  Having  acted  for  some  time  as  secretary  to 
Jules  Senard,  ex-president  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  he 
published  an  original  paper  on  artistic  copyright,  but  as  soon  as 
possible  resumed  the  history  of  law.  In  1879  he  became  assistant 
to  the  jurist  Edouard  Laboulaye  at  the  College  de  France,  and 
succeeded  him  in  1884  in  the  chair  of  comparative  legislation. 
Since  1877  he  had  been  professor  of  comparative  law  at  the  free 
school  of  the  political  sciences.  To  qualify  himself  for  these 
two  positions  he  had  to  study  the  most  diverse  civilizations, 
including  those  of  the  East  and  Far  East  (e.g.  Hungary,  Russia 
and  Japan)  and  even  the  antiquities  of  Babylonia  and  other 
Asiatic  countries.  Some  of  his  lectures  have  been  published, 
particularly  those  concerning  Ireland:  Histoire  du  regime 
agraire  de  I'lrlande  (1883) ;  Considerations  sur  I'histoire  politique 
de  I'lrlande  (1885);  and  Jonathan  Swift,  son  action  politique 
en  Irlande  (1886). 

His  chief  efforts,  however,  were  concentrated  on  the  history 
of  ancient  French  law.  A  celebrated  lawsuit  in  Alsace,  pleaded 
by  his  friend  and  compatriot  Ignace  Chauffour,  aroused  his 
interest  by  reviving  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the  feudal 
laws,  and  gradually  led  him  to  study  the  formation  of  those 
laws  and  the  early  growth  of  the  feudal  system.  His  great  work, 
Les  Origines  de  I'ancienne  France,  was  produced  slowly.  In  the 
first  volume,  Le  Regime  seigneurial  (1886),  he  depicts  the  triumph 
of  individualism  and  anarchy,  showing  how,  after  Charlemagne's 
great  but  sterile  efforts  to  restore  the  Roman  principle  of 
sovereignty,  the  great  landowners  gradually  monopolized  the 
various  functions  in  the  state;  how  society  modelled  on  antiquity 
disappeared;  and  how  the  only  living  organisms  were  vassalage 
and  clientship.  The  second  volume,  Les  Origines  communales,  la 
feodalM  et  la  chevalerie  (1893),  deals  with  the  reconstruction  of 
society  on  new  bases  which  took  place  in  the  loth  and  nth 
centuries.  It  explains  how  the  Gallo-Roman  villa  gave  place  to 
the  village,  with  its  fortified  castle,  the  residence  of  the  lord; 
how  new  towns  were  formed  by  the  side  of  old,  some  of  which 
disappeared;  how  the  townspeople  united  in  corporations;  and 
how  the  communal  bond  proved  to  be  a  powerful  instrument 
of  cohesion.  At  the  same  time  it  traces  the  birth  of  feudalism 
from  the  germs  of  the  Gallo-Roman  personal  comitatus;  and 
shows  how  the  bond  that  united  the  different  parties  was  the 
contract  of  the  fief;  and  how,  after  a  slow  growth  of  three 
centuries,  feudalism  was  definitely  organized  in  the  I2th  century. 
In  1904  appeared  the  third  volume,  La  Renaissance  de  I'etat, 
in  which  the  author  describes  the  efforts  of  the  Capetian  kings 
to  reconstruct  the  power  of  the  Prankish  kings  over  the  whole 
of  Gaul;  and  goes  on  to  show  how  the  clergy,  the  heirs  of  the 
imperial  tradition,  encouraged  this  ambition;  how  the  great  lords 
of  the  kingdom  (the  "  princes,"  as  Flach  calls  them),  whether  as 
allies  or  foes,  pursued  the  same  end;  and  how,  before  the  close 
of  the  1 2th  century,  the  Capetian  kings  were  in  possession  of 
the  organs  and  the  means  of  action  which  were  to  render  them 
so  powerful  and  bring  about  the  early  downfall  of  feudalism. 

In  these  three  volumes,  which  appeared  at  long  intervals, 
the  author's  theories  are  not  always  in  complete  harmony,  nor 
are  they  always  presented  in  a  very  luminous  or  coherent  manner, 
but  they  are  marked  by  originality  and  vigour.  Flach  gave 
them  a  solid  basis  by  the  wide  range  of  his  researches,  utilizing 
charters  and  cartularies  (published  and  unpublished),  chronicles, 
lives  of  saints,  and  even  those  dangerous  guides,  the  chansons 
de  geste.  He  owed  little  to  the  historians  of  feudalism  who  knew 
what  feudalism  was,  but  not  how  it  came  about.  He  pursued  the 
same  method  in  his  L'Origine  de  I'habitation  et  des  lieux  habites 
en  France  (1899),  in  which  he  discusses  some  of  the  theories 
circulated  by  A.  Meitzen  in  Germany  and  by  Arbois  de  Jubain- 


ville  in  France.  Following  in  the  footsteps  of  the  jurist  F.  C. 
von  Savigny,  Flach  studied  the  teaching  of  law  in  the  middle 
ages  and  the  Renaissance,  and  produced  Cujas,  les  glossateurs 
et  les  Bartolistes  (1883),  and  £tudes  critiques  sur  I'histoire  du 
droit  remain  au  may  en  age,  avec  textes  inedits  (1890). 

FLACIUS  (Ger.  Flack;  Slav.  Vlakich),  MATTHIAS  (1520- 
1575),  surnamed  ILLYRICUS,  Lutheran  reformer,  was  born  at 
Albona,  in  Illyria,  on  the  3rd  of  March  1520.  Losing  his  father 
in  childhood,  he  was  in  early  years  self-educated,  and  made 
himself  able  to  profit  by  the  instructions  of  the  humanist, 
Baptista  Egnatius  in  Venice.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
decided  to  join  a  monastic  order,  with  a  view  to  sacred  learning. 
His  intention  was  diverted  by  his  uncle,  Baldo  Lupetino,  pro- 
vincial of  the  Franciscans,  in  sympathy  with  the  Reformation, 
who  induced  him  to  enter  on  a  university  career,  from  1539, 
at  Basel,  Tubingen  and  Wittenberg.  Here  he  was  welcomed 
(1541)  by  Melanchthon,  being  well  introduced  from  Tubingen, 
and  here  he  came  under  the  decisive  influence  of  Luther.  In 
1544  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Wittenberg. 
He  married  in  the  autumn  of  1545,  Luther  taking  part  in  the 
festivities.  He  took  his  master's  degree  on  the  24th  of  February 
1 546,  ranking  first  among  the  graduates.  Soon  he  was  prominent 
in  the  theological  discussions  of  the  time,  opposing  strenuously 
the  "Augsburg  Interim,"  and  the  compromise  of  Melanchthon 
known  as  the  "  Leipzig  Interim  "  (see  ADIAPHORISTS).  Melan- 
chthon wrote  of  him  with  venom  as  a  renegade  ("  aluimus  in  sinu 
serpentem  "),  and  Wittenberg  became  too  hot  for  him.  He 
removed  to  Magdeburg  (Nov.  9,  1551),  where  his  feud  with 
Melanchthon  was  patched  up.  On  the  I7th  of  May  1557  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  New  Testament  theology  at  Jena;  but 
was  soon  involved  in  controversy  with  Strigel,  his  colleague,  on 
the  synergistic  question  (relating  to  the  function  of  the  will  in 
conversion).  Affirming  the  natural  inability  of  man,  he  un- 
wittingly fell  into  expressions  consonant  with  the  Manichaean 
view  of  sin,  as  not  an  accident  of  human  nature,  but  involved  in 
its  substance,  since  the  Fall.  Resisting  ecclesiastical  censure, 
he  left  Jena  (Feb.  1562)  to  found  an  academy  at  Regensburg. 
The  project  was  not  successful,  and  in  October  1 566  he  accepted 
a  call  from  the  Lutheran  community  at  Antwerp.  Thence  he 
was  driven  (Feb.  1567)  by  the  exigencies  of  war,  and  betook 
himself  to  Frankfort,  where  the  authorities  set  their  faces 
against  him.  He  proceeded  to  Strassburg,  was  well  received 
by  the  superintendent  Marbach,  and  hoped  he  had  found  an 
asylum.  But  here  also  his  religious  views  stood  in  his  way; 
the  authorities  eventually  ordering  him  to  leave  the  city  by  May- 
day 1573.  Again  betaking  himself  to  Frankfort,  the  prioress, 
Catharina  von  Meerfeld,  of  the  convent  of  White  Ladies, 
harboured  him  and  his  family  in  despite  of  the  authorities. 
He  fell  ill  at  the  end  of  1574;  the  city  council  ordered  him  to 
leave  by  Mayday  1575;  but  death  released  him  on  the  nth 
of  March  1575.  His  first  wife,  by  whom  he  had  twelve  children, 
died  in  1564;  in  the  same  year  he  remarried  and  had  further 
issue.  His  son  Matthias  was  professor  of  philosophy  and 
medicine  at  Rostock.  Of  a  life  so  tossed  about  the  literary 
fruit  was  indeed  remarkable.  His  polemics  we  may  pass  over; 
he  stands  at  the  fountain-head  of  the  scientific  study  of  church 
history,  and — if  we  except,  a  great  exception,  the  work  of 
Laurentius  Valla — of  hermeneutics  also.  No  doubt  his  impelling 
motive  was  to  prove  popery  to  be  built  on  bad  history  and  bad 
exegesis.  Whether  that  be  so  or  not,  the  extirpation  of  bad 
history  and  bad  exegesis  is  now  felt  to  be  of  equal  interest  to 
all  religionists.  Hence  the  permanent  and  continuous  value  of 
the  principles  embodied  in  Flacius'  Catalogus  testium  veritatis 
(1556;  revised  edition  by  J.  C.  Dietericus,  1672)  and  his  Clavis 
scripturae  sacrae  (1567),  followed  by  his  Glossa  compendiaria 
in  N.  Testamentum  (1570).  His  characteristic  formula,"  historia 
est  fundamentum  doctrinae,"  is  better  understood  now  than 
in  his  own  day. 

See  J.  B.  Ritter,  Flacius 's  Leben  u.  Tod  (1725);  M.  Twesten,  M. 
Flacius  Illyricus  (1844);  W.  Preger,  M.  Flacius  Illyricus  u.  seine 
Zeit  (1859-1861);  G.  Kawerau,  in  Herzog-Hauck's  Realencyklopadie 
(1899).  (A.  Go.*) 


454 


FLACOURT— FLAG 


FLACOURT,  ETIENNE  DE  (1607-1660),  French  governor 
of  Madagascar,  was  born  at  Orleans  in  1607.  He  was  named 
governor  of  Madagascar  by  the  French  East  India  Company 
in  1648.  Flacourt  restored  order  among  the  French  soldiers, 
who  had  mutinied,  but  in  his  dealings  with  the  natives  he  was 
less  successful,  and  their  intrigues  and  attacks  kept  him  in 
continual  harassment  during  all  his  term  of  office.  In  1655  he 
returned  to  France.  Not  long  after  he  was  appointed  director 
general  of  the  company;  but  having  again  returned  to  Mada- 
gascar, he  was  drowned  on  his  voyage  home  on  the  icth  of  June 
1660.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Histoire  de  la  grande  isle  Madagascar 
(ist  edition  1658,  2nd  edition  1661). 

See  A.  Malotet,  £t.  de  Flacourt,  ou  les  origines  de  la  colonisation 
fran$a,ise  a  Madagascar  (1648-1661),  (Paris,  1898). 

FLAG  (or  "  FLAGGE,"  a  common  Teutonic  word  in  this  sense, 
but  apparently  first  recorded  in  English),  a  piece  of  bunting 
or  similar  material,  admitting  of  various  shapes  and  colours, 
and  waved  in  the  wind  from  a  staff  or  cord  for  use  in  display 
as  a  standard,  ensign  or  signal.  The  word  may  simply  be  derived 
onomatopoeically,  or  transferred  from  the  botanical  "flag"; 
or  an  original  meaning  of  "  a  piece  of  cloth  "  may  be  connected 
with  the  12th-century  English  "flage,"  meaning  a  baby's  garment; 
the  verb  "  to  flag,"  i.e.  droop,  may  have  originated  in  the  idea 
of  a  pendulous  piece  of  bunting,  or  may  be  connected  with  the 
O.  Fr.  flaguir,  to  become  flaccid.  It  is  probable  that  almost  as 
soon  as  men  began  to  collect  together  for  common  purposes 
some  kind  of  conspicuous  object  was  used,  as  the  symbol  of  the 
common  sentiment,  for  the  rallying  point  of  the  common  force. 
In  military  expeditions,  where  any  degree  of  organization  and 
discipline  prevailed,  objects  of  such  a  kind  would  be  necessary 
to  mark  out  the  lines  and  stations  of  encampment,  and  to  keep 
in  order  the  different  bands  when  marching  or  in  battle.  In 
addition,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  flags  or  their  equivalents 
have  often  served,  by  reminding  men  of  past  resolves,  past  deeds 
and  past  heroes,  to  arouse  to  enthusiasm  those  sentiments  of 
esprit  de  corps,  of  family  pride  and  honour,  of  personal  devotion, 
patriotism  or  religion,  upon  which,  as  well  as  upon  good  leader- 
ship, discipline  and  numerical  force,  success  in  warfare  depends. 

History. — Among  the  remains  of  the  people  which  has  left 
the  earliest  traces  of  civilization,  the  records  of  the  forms  of 
objects  used  as  ensigns  are  frequently  to  be  found.  From  their 
carvings  and  paintings,  supplemented  by  ancient  writers,  it 
appears  that  several  companies  of  the  Egyptian  army  had 
their  own  particular  standards.  These  were  formed  of  such 
objects  as,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  were  associated  in  the 
minds  of  the  men  with  feelings  of  awe  and  devotion.  Sacred 
animals,  boats,  emblems  or  figures,  a  tablet  bearing  a  king's 
name,  fan  and  feather-shaped  symbols,  were  raised  on  the  end 
of  a  staff  as  standards,  and  the  office  of  bearing  them  was  looked 
upon  as  one  of  peculiar  privilege  and  honour  (fig.  i).  Somewhat 
similar  seem  to  have  been  the  customs  of  the  Assyrians  and 
Jews.  Among  the  sculptures  unearthed  by  Layard  and  others 
at  Nineveh,  only  two  different  designs  have  been  noticed  for 
standards:  one  is  of  a  figure  drawing  a  bow  and  standing  on 
a  running  bull,  the  other  of  two  bulls  running  in  opposite  direc- 
tions (fig.  2).  These  may  resemble  the  emblems  of  war  and 
peace  which  were  attached  to  the  yoke  of  Darius's  chariot. 
They  are  borne  upon  and  attached  to  chariots;  and  this  method 
of  bearing  such  objects  was  the  custom  also  of  the  Persians, 
and  prevailed  during  the  middle  ages.  That  the  custom  survived 
to  a  comparatively  modern  period  is  proved  from  the  fact  that 
the  "  Guns,"  which  are  the  "  standards  "  of  the  artillery,  have 
from  time  immemorial  been  entitled  to  all  the  parade  honours 
prescribed  by  the  usages  of  war  for  the  flag,  that  is,  the  symbol 
of  authority.  In  days  comparatively  recent  there  was  a  "  flag 
gun,"  usually  the  heaviest  piece,  which  emblemized  authority 
and  served  also  as  the  "  gun  of  direction  "  in  the  few  concerted 
movements  then  attempted.  No  representations  of  Egyptian 
or  Assyrian  naval  standards  have  been  found,  but  the  sails  of 
ships  were  embroidered  and  ornamented  with  devices,  another 
custom  which  survived  into  the  middle  ages. 

In  both  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  examples,  the  staff  bearing  the 


emblem  is  frequently  ornamented  immediately  below  with 
flag-like  streamers.  Rabbinical  writers  have  assigned  the 
different  devices  of  the  different  Jewish  tribes,  but  the  authen- 
ticity of  their  testimony  is  extremely  doubtful.  Banners, 
standards  and  ensigns  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
"  Every  man  of  the  children  of  Israel  shall  pitch  by  his  standard, 


FIG.  i. — Egyptian  Standards. 

with  the  ensign  of  their  father's  house  "  (Num.  ii.  2).  "  Who 
is  she  that  looketh  forth  as  the  morning,  fair  as  the  moon,  clear 
as  the  sun,  terrible  as  an  army  with  banners?"  (Cant.  vi. 
10.  See  also  Num.  ii.  10,  x.  14;  Ps.  xx.  5,  Ix.  4;  Cant.  ii.  4; 
Is.  v.  26,  x.  18,  lix.  19;  Jer.  iv.  21). 

The  Persians  bore  an  eagle  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  lance,  and  the 
sun,  as  their  divinity,  was  also  represented  upon  their  standards, 
which  appear  to  have  been  formed  of  some  kind  of  textile,  and 
were  guarded  with  the  greatest  jealousy  by  the  bravest  men  of 


FIG.  2. — Assyrian  Standards. 

the  army.  The  Carian  soldier  who  slew  Cyrus,  the  brother  of 
Artaxerxes,  was  allowed  the  honour  of  carrying  a  golden  cock 
at  the  head  of  the  army,  it  being  the  custom  of  the  Carians  to 
wear  that  bird  as  a  crest  on  their  helmets.  The  North  American 
Indians  carried  poles  fledged  with  feathers  from  the  wings  of 
eagles,  and  similar  customs  seem  to  have  prevailed  among  other 
semi-savage  peoples. 

The  Greeks  bore  a  piece  of  armour  upon  a  spear  in  early 
times;  afterwards  the  several  cities  bore  sacred  emblems  or 


FLAG 


455 


letters  chosen  for  their  particular  associations — the  Athenians 
the  olive  and  the  owl,  the  Corinthians  a  pegasus,  the  Thebans 
a  sphinx,  in  memory  of  Oedipus,  the  Messenians  their  initial 
M,  and  the  Lacedaemonians  A.  A  purple  dress  was  placed  on 
the  end  of  a  spear  as  the  signal  to  advance.  The  Dacians  carried 
a  standard  representing  a  contorted  serpent,  while  the  dragon 
was  the  military  sign  of  many  peoples — of  the  Chinese,  Dacians 
and  Parthians  among  others — and  was  probably  first  used  by 
the  Romans  as  the  ensign  of  barbarian  auxiliaries  (see  fig.  3). 


FIG.  3. — Roman  Standards. 

The  question  of  the  signa  militaria  of  the  Romans  is  a  wide 
and  very  important  one,  having  direct  bearing  on  the  history 
of  heraldry,  and  on  the  origin  of  national,  family  and  personal 
devices.  With  them  the  custom  was  reduced  to  system.  "Each 
century,  or  at  least  each  maniple,"  says  Meyrick,  "  had  its 
proper  standard  and  standard-bearer."  In  the  early  days  of  the 
republic  a  handful  of  hay  was  borne  on  a  pole,  whence  probably 
came  the  name  manipulus  (Lat.  manus,  a  hand).  The  forms 
of  standards  in  later  times  were  very  various;  sometimes  a 
cross  piece  of  wood  was  placed  at  the  end  of  a  spear  and  sur- 
mounted by  the  figure  of  a  hand  in  silver,  below  round  or  oval 
discs,  with  figures  of  Mars  or  Minerva,  or  in  later  times  portraits 
of  emperors  or  eminent  generals  (fig.  3).  Figures  of  animals, 
as  the  wolf,  horse,  bear  and  others,  were  borne,  and  it  was  not 
till  a  later  period  that  the  eagle  became  the  special  standard 
of  the  legion.  According  to  Pliny,  it  was  Gaius  Marius  who,  in 
his  second  consulship,  ordained  that  the  Roman  legions  should 
only  have  the  eagle  for  their  standard;  "  for  before  that  time 
the  eagle  marched  foremost  with  four  others — wolves,  minotaurs, 
horses  and  bears — each  one  in  its  proper  order.  Not  many  years 
passed  before  the  eagle  alone  began  to  be  advanced  in  battle, 
and  the  rest  were  left  behind  in  the  camp.  But  Marius  rejected 
them  altogether,  and  since  this  it  is  observed  that  scarcely  is 
there  a  camp  of  a  legion  wintered  at  any  time  without  having 
a  pair  of  eagles." 

The  vexillum,  which  was  the  cavalry  flag,  is  described  by 
Livy  as  a  square  piece  of  cloth  fastened  to  a  piece  of  wood  fixed 
crosswise  to  the  end  of  a  spear,  somewhat  resembling  the  medieval 
gonfalon.  Examples  of  these  vexilla  are  to  be  seen  on  various 
Roman  coins  and  medals,  on  the  sculptured  columns  of  Trajan 
and  Antoninus,  and  on  the  arch  of  Titus.  The  labarum,  which 
was  the  imperial  standard  of  later  emperors,  resembled  in  shape 
and  fixing  the  vexillum.  It  was  of  purple  silk  richly  embroidered 
with  gold,  and  sometimes  was  not  suspended  as  the  vexillum 
from  a  horizontal  crossbar,  but  displayed  as  our  modern  flags, 
that  is  to  say,  by  the  attachment  of  one  of  its  sides  to  a  staff. 
After  Constantine,  the  labarum  bore  the  monogram  of  Christ 
(fig.  5,  A) .  It  is  supposed  that  the  small  scarf,  which  in  medieval 


days  was  of  ten  attached  to  the  pastoral  staff  or  crook  of  a  bishop, 
was  derived  from  the  labarum  of  the  first  Christian  emperor, 
Constantine  the  Great.  The  Roman  standards  were  guarded 
with  religious  veneration  in  the  temples  at  Rome;  and  the 
reverence  of  this  people  for  their  ensigns  was  in  proportion  to 
their  superiority  to  other  nations  in  all  that  tends  to  success  in 
war.  It  was  not  unusual  for  a  general  to  order  a  standard  to  be 
cast  into  the  ranks  of  the  enemy,  to  add  zeal  to  the  onset  of 
his  soldiers  by  exciting  them  to  recover  what  to  them  was  perhaps 
the  most  sacred  thing  the  earth  possessed.  The  Roman  soldier 
swore  by  his  ensign. 

Although  in  earlier  times  drapery  was  occasionally  used  for 
standards,  and  was  often  appended  as  ornament  to  those  of 
other  material,  it  was  probably  not  until  the  middle  ages  that 
it  became  the  special  material  of  military  and  other  ensigns; 
and  perhaps  not  until  the  practice  of  heraldry  had  attained  to 
definite  nomenclature  and  laws  does  anything  appear  which  is  in 
the  modern  sense  a  flag. 

Early  flags  were  almost  purely  of  a  religious  character.  In 
Bede's  description  of  the  interview  between  the  heathen  king 
^Ethelberht  and  the  Roman  missionary  Augustine,  the  followers 
of  the  latter  are  said  to  have  borne  banners  on  which  silver 
crosses  were  displayed.  The  national  banner  of  England  for 
centuries — the  red  cross  of  St  George — was  a  religious  one;  in 
fact  the  aid  of  religion  seems  ever  to  have  been  sought  to  give 
sanctity  to  national  flags,  and  the  origin  of  many  can  be  traced 
to  a  sacred  banner,  as  is  notably  the  case  with  the  oriflamme 
of  France  and  the  Dannebrog  of  Denmark.  Of  the  latter  the 
legend  runs  that  King  Waldemar  of  Denmark,  leading  his  troops 
to  battle  against  the  enemy  in  1219,  saw  at  a  critical  moment 
a  cross  in  the  sky.  This  was  at  once  taken  as  an  answer  to  his 
prayers,  and  an  assurance  of  celestial  aid.  It  was  forthwith 
adopted  as  the  Danish  flag  and  called  the  "  Dannebrog,"  i.e.  the 
strength  of  Denmark.  Apart  from  all  legend,  this  flag  un- 
doubtedly dates  from  the  I3th  century,  and  the  Danish  flag  is 
therefore  the  oldest  now  in  existence. 

The  ancient  kings  of  France  bore  the  blue  hood  of  St  Martin 
upon  their  standards.  The  Chape  de  St  Martin  was  originally 
in  the  keeping  of  the  monks  of  the  abbey  of  Marmoutier,  and  the 
right  to  take  this  blue  flag  into  battle  with  them  was  claimed 
by  the  counts  of  Anjou.  Clovis  bore  this  banner  against  Alaric 
in  507,  for  victory  was  promised  him  by  a  verse  of  the  Psalms 
which  the  choir  were  chanting  when  his  envoy  entered  the  church 
of  St  Martin  at  Tours.  Charlemagne  fought  under  it  at  the  battle 
of  Narbonne,  and  it  frequently  led  the  French  to  victory.  At 
what  precise  period  the  oriflamme,  which  was  originally  simply 
the  banner  of  the  abbey  of  St  Denis,  supplanted  the  Chape  de 
St  Martin  as  the  sacred  banner  of  all  France  is  not  known. 
Probably,  however,  it  gradually  became  the  national  flag  after 
the  kings  of  France  had  transferred  the  seat  of  government  to 
Paris,  where  the  great  local  saint,  St  Denis,  was  held  in  high 
honour,  and  the  banner  hung  over  the  tomb  of  the  saint  in  the 
abbey  church.  The  king  of  France  himself  was  one  of  the  vassals 
of  the  abbey  of  St  Denis  for  the  fief  of  the  Vexin,  and  it  was  in  his 
quality  of  count  of  Vexin  that  Louis  VI.,  le  Gros,  bore  this  banner 
from  the  abbey  to  battle,  in  1124.  He  is  credited  with  having 
been  the  first  French  king  to  have  taken  the  banner  to  war,  and 
it  appeared  for  the  last  time  on  the  field  of  fight  at  Agincourt 
in  1415.  The  accounts  also  of  its  appearance  vary  considerably. 
Guillaume  Guiart,  in  his  Chronicle  says: — 
"  Oriflambe  est  une  banniSre 

De  cendal  voujoiant  et  simple 
Sans  portraiture  d'autre  affaire." 

It  would,  therefore,  seem  to  have  been  a  plain  scarlet  flag;  whilst 
an  English  authority  states  "  the  celestial  auriflamb,  so  by  the 
French  admired,  was  but  of  one  colour,  a  square  redde  banner." 
The  Chronique  de  Flandres  describes  it  as  having  three  points 
with  tassels  of  green  silk  attached.  The  banner  of  William  the 
Conqueror  was  sent  to  him  by  the  pope,  and  the  early  English 
kings  fought  under  the  banners  of  Edward  the  Confessor  and 
St  Edmund;  while  the  blended  crosses  of  St  George,  St  Andrew 
and  St  Patrick  still  form  the  national  ensign  of  the  united 


FLAG 


kingdoms   of   England,    Scotland   and   Ireland,  whose    patron 
saints  they  severally  were. 

The  Bayeux  tapestry,  commemorating  the  Norman  conquest 
of  England,  contains  abundant  representations  of  the  flags  of 
the  period  borne  upon  the  lances  of  the  knights  of  William's 
army.  They  appear  small  in  size,  and  pointed,  frequently 
indented  into  three  points  and  bearing  pales,-crosses  and  roundels. 
One,  a  Saxon  pennon,  is  triangular,  and  roundly  indented  into 
four  points;  one  banner  is  of  segmental  shape  and  rayed,  and 


FIG.  4. — Pennons  and  Standards  from  the  Bayeux  Tapestry. 

bears  the  figure  of  a  bird,  which  has  been  supposed  to  represent 
the  raven  of  the  war-flag  of  the  Scandinavian  Vikings  (fig.  4). 
In  all,  thirty-seven  pennons  borne  on  lances  by  various  knights 
are  represented  in  the  Bayeux  tapestry,  and  of  these  twenty-eight 
have  triple  points,  whilst  others  have  two,  four  or  five.  The 
devices  on  these  pennons  are  very  varied  and  distinctive,  although 
the  date  is  prior  to  the  period  in  which  heraldry  became  definitely 
established.  In  fact,  the  flags  and  their  charges  are  probably 
not  really  significant  of  the  people  bearing  them;  for,  even 
admitting  that  personal  devices  were  used  at  the  time,  the 
figures  may  have  been  placed  without  studied  intention,  and 
so  give  the  general  figure  only  of  such  flags  as  happened  to  have 
come  under  the  observation  of  the  artists.  The  figures  are 
probably  rather  ornamental  and  symbolic  than  strictly  heraldic, 
— that  is,  personal  devices,  for  the  same  insignia  do  not  appear 
on  the  shields  of  the  several  bearers.  The  dragon  standard 
which  he  is  known  to  have  borne  is  placed  near  Harold;  but 
similar  figures  appear  on  the  shields  of  Norman  warriors,  which 
fact  has  induced  a  writer  in  the  Journal  of  the  Archaeological 
Association  (vol.  xiii.  p.  113)  to  suppose  that  on  the  spears  of 
the  Saxons  they  represent  only  trophies  torn  from  the  shields 
of  the  Normans,  and  that  they  are  not  ensigns  at  all.  Standards 
in  form  much  resembling  these  dragons  appear  on  the  Arch  of 
Titus  and  the  Trajan  column  as  the  standards  of  barbarians. 

At  the  battle  of  the  Standard  in  1138  the  English  standard 
was  formed  of  the  mast  of  a  ship,  having  a  silver  pyx  at  the 
top  and  bearing  three  sacred  banners,  dedicated  severally  to 
St  Peter,  St  John  of  Beverley  and  St  Wilfrid  of  Ripon,  the 
whole  being  fastened  to  a  wheeled  vehicle.  Representations 
of  three-pointed,  cross-bearing  pennons  are  found  on  seals  of 
as  early  date  as  the  No  man  era,  and  the  warriors  in  the  first 
crusade  bore  three-pointed  pennons.  It  is  possible  that  the 
three  points  with  the  three  roundels  and  cross,  which  so  often 
appear  on  these  banners,  have  some  reference  to  the  faith  of 
the  bearers  in  the  Trinity  and  in  the  Crucifixion,  for  in  con- 
temporary representations  of  Christ's  resurrection  and  descent 
into  hell  he  bears  a  three-pointed  banner  with  cross  above. 
The  triple  indentation  so  common  on  the  flags  of  this  period  has 
been  supposed  to  be  the  origin  of  one  of  the  honourable  ordinaries 


— the  pile.  The  "  pile,"  it  may  be  explained,  is  in  the  form  of  a 
wedge,  and  unless  otherwise  specified  in  the  blazon,  occupies 
the  central  portion  of  the  escutcheon,  issuing  from  the  middle 
chief.  It  may,  however,  issue  from  any  other  extremity  of  the 
shield,  and  there  may  be  more  th^ffbne.  More  secular  characters 
were,  however,  not  uncommon^!  In  1244  Henry  III.  gave  order 
for  a  "  dragon  to  be  made  in  fashion  of  a  standard  of  red  silk 
sparkling,  all  over  with  fine  gold,  the  tongue  of  which  should  be 
made  to  resemble  burning  fire  and  appear  to  be  continually 
moving,  and  the  eyes  of  sapphires  or  other  suitable  stones." 
The  Siege  of  Carlaverock,  an  Anglo-Norman  poem  of  the  i4th 
century,  describes  the  heraldic  bearings  on  the  banners  of  the 
knights  at  the  siege  of  that  fortress.  Of  the  king  himself  the 
writer  says: — 

"  En  sa  bannieYe  trois  luparte 

De  or  fin  estoient  mis  en  rouge;" 

and  he  goes  on  to  describe  the  kingly  characteristics  these  may 
be  supposed  to  symbolize.  A  MS.  in  the  British  Museum  (one 
of  Sir  Christopher  Barker's  heraldic  collection,  Harl.  4632) 
gives  drawings  of  the  standards  of  English  kings  from  Edward 
III.  to  Henry  VIII.,  which  are  roughly  but  artistically 
coloured. 

The  principal  varieties  of  flags  borne  during  the  middle 
ages  were  the  pennon,  the  banner  and  the  standard.  The 
"  guydhommes  "  or  "  guidons,"  "  banderolls,"  "  pennoncells," 
"  streamers  "  or  pendants,  may  be  considered  as  minor  varieties. 
The  pennon  (fig.  5,  B)  was  a  purely  personal  ensign,  sometimes 
pointed,  but  more  generally  forked  or  swallow-tailed  at  the 
end.  It  was  essentially  the  flag  of  the  knight  simple,  as  apart 
from  the  knight  banneret,  borne  by  him  on  his  lance,  charged 
with  his  personal  armorial  bearings  so  displayed  that  they 
stood  in  true  position  when  he  couched  his  lance  for  action. 
A  MS.  of  the  i6th  century  (Harl.  2358)  in  the  British  Museum, 
which  gives  minute  particulars  as  to  the  size,  shape  and  bearings 
of  the  standards,  banners,  pennons,  guydhommes,  pennoncells, 
&c.,  says  "  a  pennon  must  be  two  yards  and  a  half  long,  made 
round  at  the  end,  and  conteyneth  the  armes  of  the  owner," 
and  warns  that  "  from  a  standard  or  streamer  a  man  may  flee 
but  not  from  his  banner  or  pennon  bearing  his  arms." 

A  pennoncell  (or  penselle)  was  a  diminutive  pennon  carried 
by  the  esquires.  Flags  of  this  character  were  largely  used  on 


FIG.  5.— A,  Labarum  from  medallion  of  Constantine;  B,  Medieval 
Pennon;  C,  Medieval  Banner;  D,  Standard  of  Henry  V. 

any  special  occasion  of  ceremony;  and  more  particularly  at  state 
funerals.  For  instance,  we  find  "  XII.  doz.  penselles  "  amongst 
the  items  that  figured  at  the  funeral  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk  in 
1554,  and  in  the  description  of  the  lord  mayor's  procession  in  the 
following  year  we  read  of  "  ij  goodly  pennes  (state  barges)  deckt 
with  flages  and  stremers,  and  a  m  (1000)  penselles."  Amongst 


FLAG 


457 


the  items  that  ran  the  total  cost  of  the  funeral  of  Oliver  Cromwell 
up  to  an  enormous  sum  of  money,  we  find  mention  of  thirty  dozen 
of  pennoncells  a  foot  long  and  costing  twenty  shillings  a  dozen, 
and  twenty  dozen  of  the  same  kind  of  flags  at  twelve  shillings  a 
dozen. 

The  banner  was,  in  the  earlier  days  of  chivalry,  a  square  flag, 
though  at  a  later  date  it  is  often  found  greater  in  length  than  in 
depth,  precisely  as  is  the  case  in  the  ordinary  national  flags  of 
to-day.  In  some  very  early  examples  it  is  found  considerably 
longer  in  the  depth  on  the  staff  than  in  its  outward  projection 
from  the  staff.  The  banner  was  charged  in  a  manner  exactly 
similar  to  the  shield  of  the  owner,  and  it  was  borne  by  knights 
banneret  and  all  above  them  in  rank.  As  a  rough  guide  it  may 
be  taken  that  the  banner  of  an  emperor  was  6  ft.  square;  of  a 
king,  5  ft.;  of  a  prince  or  duke,  4  ft.;  of  a  marquis,  earl,  viscount 
or  baron,  3  ft.  square.  As  the  function  of  the  banner  was  to 
display  the  armorial  bearings  of  the  dignitary  who  had  the 
right  to  carry  it,  it  is  evident  that  the  square  form  was  the  most 
convenient  and  akin  to  the  shield  of  primal  heraldry.  In  fact, 
flags  were  originally  heraldic  emblems,  though  in  modern  devices 
the  strict  laws  of  heraldry  have  often  been  departed  from. 

The  rank  of  knights  bannerets  was  higher  than  that  of  ordinary 
knights,  and  they  could  be  created  on  the  field  of  battle  only. 
To  create  a  knight  banneret,  the  king  or  commander-in-chief 
in  person  tore  off  the  fly  of  the  pennon  on  the  lance  of  the  knight, 
thus  turning  it  roughly  into  the  square  flag  or  banner,  and  so 
making  the  knight  a  banneret.  The  date  in  which  this  dignity 
originated  is  uncertain,  but  it  was  probably  about  the  period  of 
Edward  I.  John  Chandos  is  said  to  have  been  made  a  banneret 
by  the  Black  Prince  and  the  king  of  Castile  at  Najara  on  the  3rd 
of  April  1367;  John  of  Copeland  was  made  a  banneret  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  he  having  taken  prisoner  David  Bruce,  the 
Scottish  king,  at  the  battle  of  Durham.  In  more  modern  times 
Captain  John  Smith,  of  Lord  Bernard  Stuart's  troop  of  the 
King's  Guards,  who  saved  the  royal  banner  from  the  parlia- 
mentary troops  at  Edgehill,  was  made  a  knight  banneret  by 
Charles  I.  From  this  time  the  custom  of  creating  knights 
banneret  ceased  until  it  was  revived  by  George  II.  after  Dettingen 
in  1743,  when  the  dignity  was  again  conferred.  It  is  true,  however, 
that,  when  in  1763  Sir  William  Erskine  presented  to  George  III. 
sixteen  stands  of  colours  captured  by  his  regiment  [now  the 
15th  (king's)  Hussars]  at  Emsdorf,  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  knight  banneret,  but  as  the  ceremony  was  not  performed  on 
the  field  of  battle,  the  creation  was  considered  irregular,  and  his 
possession  of  the  rank  was  not  generally  recognized. 

The  banner  was  therefore  not  only  a  personal  ensign,  but  it 
also  denoted  that  he  who  bore  it  was  the  leader  of  a  military 
force,  large  or  small  according  to  his  degree  or  estate.  It  was, 
in  fact,  the  battle  flag  of  the  leader  who  controlled  the  particular 
force  that  followed  it  into  the  fight.  Every  baron  who  in  time 
of  war  had  furnished  the  proper  number  of  men  to  his  liege  was 
entitled  to  charge  with  his  arms  the  banner  which  they  followed. 
There  could  indeed  be  at  present  found  no  better  representative 
of  the  medieval  "  banner  "  than  what  we  now  term  the  "  royal 
standard  ";  it  is  essentially  the  personal  battle  flag  of  the  king  of 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  It  and  other 
royal  and  imperial  standards  have  now  become  "  standards," 
inasmuch  as  they  are  to-day  used  for  display  in  the  same  fashion, 
and  for  the  same  purposes  as  was  the  "  standard  "  of  old.  The 
"  gonfalon  "  or  "  gonfannon  "  was  a  battle  flag  differing  from 
the  ordinary  banner  in  that  it  was  not  attached  to  the  pole  but 
hung  from  it  crosswise,  and  was  not  always  square  in  shape 
but  serrated,  so  that  the  lower  edge  formed  streamers.  The 
gonfalon  was  in  action  borne  close  to  the  person  of  the  commander- 
in-chief  and  denoted  his  position.  In  certain  of  the  Italian 
cities  chief  magistrates  had  the  privilege  of  bearing  a  gonfalon, 
and  for  this  reason  were  known  as  "  gonfaloniere." 

The  standard  (fig.  5,  D)  was  a  flag  of  noble  size,  long,  tapering 
towards  the  fly  (the  "  fly "  is  that  portion  of  the  flag  farther 
from  the  pole,  the  "  hoist  "  the  portion  of  the  flag  attached  to 
the  pole),  the  edges  of  the  flag  fringed  or  bordered,  and  with 
the  ends  split  and  rounded  off.  The  shape  was  not,  however,  by 


any  means  uniform  during  the  middle  ages  nor  were  there  any 
definite  rules  as  to  its  charges.  It  varied  in  size  according  to 
tne  rank  of  the  owner.  The  Tudor  MS.  mentioned  above  says 
of  the  royal  standard  of  that  time — "  the  Standard  to  be  sett 
before  the  king's  pavilion  or  tente,  and  not  to  be  borne  in 
battayle;  to  be  in  length  eleven  yards."  A  MS.  of  the  time 
of  Henry  VII.  gives  the  following  dimensions  for  standards: 
"  The  King's  had  a  length  of  eight  yards;  that  of  a  duke,  seven; 
a  marquis,  six  and  a  half;  an  earl,  six;  a  viscount,  five  and  a 
half;  a  baron,  five;  a  knight  banneret,  four  and  a  half;  and 
a  knight  four  yards."  The  standard  was,  in  fact,  from  its  size, 
and  as  its  very  name  implies,  not  meant  to  be  carried  into  action, 
as  was  the  banner,  but  to  denote  the  actual  position  of  its  pos- 
sessor on  occasions  of  state  ceremonial,  or  on  the  tilting  ground, 
and  to  denote  the  actual  place  occupied  by  him  and  his  following 
when  the  hosts  were  assembled  in  camp  preparatory  for  battle. 
It  was  essentially  a  flag  denoting  position,  whereas  the  banner 
was  the  rallying  point  of  its  followers  in  the  actual  field.  Its 
uses  are  now  fulfilled,  as  far  as  royalties  are  concerned,  by  the 
"  banner  "  which  has  now  become  the  "  royal  standard,"  and 
which  floats  over  the  palace  where  the  king  is  in  residence,  is 
hoisted  at  the  saluting  point  when  he  reviews  his  troops,  and  is 
broken  from  the  mainmast  of  any  ship  in  his  navy  the  moment 
that  his  foot  treads  its  deck.  The  essential  condition  of  the 
standard  was  that  it  should  always  have  the  cross  of  St.  George 
conspicuous  in  the  innermost  part  of  the  hoist  immediately  con- 
tiguous to  the  staff;  the  remainder  of  the  flag  was  then  divided 
fesse-wise  by  two  or  more  stripes  of  colours  exactly  as  the 
heraldic  "  ordinary  "  termed  "  fesse  "  crosses  the  shield  horizon- 
tally. The  colours  used  as  stripes,  as  also  those  used  in  the  fringe 
or  bordering  of  the  standard,  were  those  which  prevailed  in  the 
arms  of  the  bearer  or  were  those  of  his  livery.  The  standard 
here  depicted  (fig.  5,  D)  is  that  of  Henry  V.;  the  colours  white 
and  blue,  a  white  antelope  standing  between  two  red  roses,  and 
in  the  interspaces  more  red  roses.  To  quote  again  from  the 
Harleian  MS.  above  mentioned:  "  Every  standard  and  guidon 
to  have  in  the  chief  the  cross  of  St  George,  the  beast  or  crest  with 
his  devyce  and  word,  and  to  be  slitt  at  the  end."  The  motto 
indeed  usually  figured  on  most  standards,  though  occasionally 
it  was  missing.  An  excellent  type  of  the  old  standard  is  that 
of  the  earls  of  Percy,  which  bore  the  blue  lion,  the  crescent, 
and  the  fetterlock — all  badges  of  the  family — whilst,  as  tokens 
of  matrimonial  alliances  with  the  families  of  Poynings,  Bryan 
and  Fitzpayne,  a  silver  key,  a  bugle-horn  and  a  falchion  were 
respectively  displayed.  There  was  also  the  historic  Percy  motto, 
Esptrance  en  Dieu.  No  one,  whatsoever  his  rank,  could  possess 
more  than  one  banner,  since  it  displayed  his  heraldic  arms,  which 
were  unchangeable.  A  single  individual,  however,  might  possess 
two  or  three  standards  since  this  flag  displayed  badges  that  he 
could  multiply  at  discretion,  and  a  motto  that  he  could  at  any 
time  change.  For  example,  the  standards  of  Henry  VII.,  mostly 
green  and  white — the  colours  of  the  Tudor  livery — had  in  one 
"  a  red  firye  dragon,"  in  another  "  a  donne  kowe,"  in  a  third 
"  a  silver  greyhound  and  two  red  roses."  The  standard  was 
always  borne  by  an  eminent  person,  and  that  of  Henry  V.  at 
Agincourt  is  supposed  to  have  been  carried  upon  a  car  that 
preceded  the  king.  At  Nelson's  funeral  his  banner  and  standard 
were  borne  in  the  procession,  and  around  his  coffin  were  the 
banderolls — square,  bannerlike  flags  bearing  the  various  arms 
of  his  family  lineage.  Nelson's  standard  bore  his  motto,  Palmam 
qui  meruit  ferat,  but,  in  lieu  of  the  cross  of  St  George,  it  bore  the 
union  of  the  crosses  of  St  George,  St  Andrew  and  St  Patrick, 
the  medieval  England  having  expanded  into  the  United  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Again,  at  the  funeral  of  the  duke 
of  Wellington  we  find  amongst  the  flags  his  personal  banner 
and  standard,  and  ten  banderolls  of  the  duke's  pedigree  and 
descent. 

The  guidon,  a  name  derived  from  the  Fr.  Guyd-homme,  was 
somewhat  similar  to  the  standard,  but  without  the  cross  of  St 
George,  rounded  at  the  end,  less  elongated  and  altogether  less 
ornate.  It  was  borne  by  a  leader  of  horse,  and  according  to  a 
medieval  writer  "  must  be  two  and  a  half  yards  or  three  yards 


FLAG 


long,  and  therein  shall  no  armes  be  put,  but  only  the  man's 
crest,  cognisance,  and  devyce." 

The  streamer,  so  called  in  Tudor  days  but  now  better  known 
as  the  pennant  or  pendant,  was  a  long,  tapering  flag,  which  it  was 
directed  "  shall  stand  in  the  top  of  a  ship  or  in  the  forecastle, 
and  therein  be  put  no  armes,  but  the  man's  cognisance  or  devyce, 
and  may  be  of  length  twenty,  thirty,  forty  or  sixty  yards,  and 
is  slitt  as  well  as  a  guidon  or  standard."  Amongst  the  fittings 
of  the  ship  that  took  Beauchamp,  earl  of  Warwick,  to  France  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  was  a  "  grete  stremour  for  the  shippe 
xl  yardes  in  length  viij  yardes  in  brede."  In  the  hoist  was 
"  a  grete  here  holding  a  raggid  staffe,"  and  the  rest  of  the  fly 
"  powdrid  full  of  raggid  staves." 

NATIONAL  FLAGS. — British.  The  royal  standard  of  England 
was,  when  it  was  hoisted  on  the  Tower  on  the  ist  of  January 
1801,  thus  heraldically  described: — "  Quarterly;  first  and 
fourth,  gules,  three  lions  passant  gardant,  in  pale,  or,  for  England ; 
second,  or,  a  lion  rampant,  gules,  within  a  double  tressure  flory 
counter  flory  of  the  last,  for  Scotland;  third,  azure,  a  harp  or, 
stringed  argent,  for  Ireland."  The  present  standard  connects 
in  direct  descent  from  the  arms  of  the  Conqueror.  These  were 
two  leopards  passant  on  a  red  field,  and  remained  the  same 
until  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  when  lions  were  substituted  for 
leopards,  and  a  third  added.  The  next  change  that  took  place 
was  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  when  the  royal  arms  were  for 
the  first  time  quartered;  fleurs-de-lis  in  the  first  and  fourth 
quarters,  and  the  three  lions  of  England  in  the  second  and  third. 
The  fleurs-de-lis  were  assumed  in  token  of  the  monarch's  claim 
to  the  throne  of  France.  In  the  "  coats  "  of  Edward  III.  and 
the  two  monarchs  that  succeeded  him,  the  fleurs-de-lis  were 
powdered  over  a  blue  ground,  but  under  Henry  V.  the  fleurs-de-lis 
were  reduced  in  number  to  three,  and  the  "  coat  "  so  devised 
remained  the  same  until  the  death  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  lion 
of  Scotland  and  the  Irish  harp  were  added  to  the  flag  on  the 
accession  of  James  I.,  and  the  flag  then  had  the  French  and 
English  arms  quartered  in  the  first  and  fourth  quarters,  the  lion 
of  Scotland,  red  on  a  yellow  ground,  in  the  second  quarter,  and 
the  harp  of  Ireland,  gold  on  a  blue  ground,  in  the  third  quarter. 
With  the  exception  of  the  period  of  the  Commonwealth,  to 
which  reference  will  be  made  later,  the  flag  remained  thus  until 
the  accession  of  William  III.,  who  imposed  upon  the  Stuart 
standard  a  central  shield  carrying  the  arms  of  Nassau.  Queen 
Anne  made  further  alterations;  the  first  and  fourth  quarters  were 
subdivided,  the  three  lions  of  England  being  in  one  half,  the  lion  of 
Scotland  in  the  other.  Thefleurs-de-lis  were  in  the  second  quarter; 
the  Irish  harp  in  the  third.  Under  George  I.  and  George  II. 
the  first,  second  and  third  quarters  remained  the  same,  the  arms 
of  Hanover  being  placed  in  the  fourth  quarter,  and  this  continued 
to  be  the  royal  standard  until  1801,  when  the  standard  was  re- 
arranged as  first  described  with  the  addition  of  the  Hanoverian 
arms  displayed  on  a  shield  in  the  centre.  On  the  accession  of 
Queen  Victoria,  the  Hanoverian  arms  were  removed,  and  the 
flag  remained  as  it  to-day  exists.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  however, 
that  in  the  royal  standard  of  King  Edward  VII.  which  hangs  in 
the  chapel  of  St  George  at  Windsor,  the  ordinary  "  winged 
woman  "  form  of  the  harp  in  the  Irish  third  quartering  is  altered 
to  a  harp  of  the  old  Irish  pattern.  At  King  Edward's  accession 
this  banner  replaced  that  of  Queen  Victoria  which  for  sixty-two 
years  had  hung  in  this,  the  chapel  of  the  order  of  the  Garter. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  Stuarts  it  had  been  the  custom  of 
the  lord  high  admiral  or  person  in  command  of  the  fleet  to  fly 
the  royal  standard  as  deputy  of  the  sovereign.  When  royalty 
ceased  to  be,  a  new  flag  was  devised  by  the  council  of  state  for 
the  Commonwealth,  which  comprised  the  "arms  of  England 
and  Ireland  in  two  several  escutcheons  in  a  red  flag  within  a 
compartment."  In  other  words,  it  was  a  red  flag  containing 
two  shields,  the  one  bearing  the  cross  of  St  George,  red  on  a  white 
ground,  the  other  the  harp,  gold  on  a  blue  ground,  and  round  the 
shields  was  a  wreath  of  palm  and  shamrock  leaves.  One  of  these 
flags  is  still  in  existence  at  Chatham  dockyard,  where  it  is  kept 
in  a  wooden  chest  which  was  taken  out  of  a  Spanish  galleon  at 
Vigo  by  Admiral  Sir  George  Rooke  in  1704.  When  Cromwell 


became  protector  of  the  commonwealth  of  England,  Scotland 
and  Ireland,  he  devised  for  himself  a  personal  standard.  This 
had  the  cross  of  St  George  in  the  first  and  fourth  quarters,  the 
cross  of  St  Andrew,  a  white  saltire  on  a  blue  ground,  in  the 
second,  and  the  Irish  harp  in  the  third.  His  own  arms — a  lion 
on  a  black  shield — were  imposed  on  the  centre  of  the  flag. ,  No 
one  but  royalty  has  a  right  to  fly  the  royal  standard,  and  though 
it  is  constantly  seen  flying  for  purposes  of  decoration  its  use  is 
irregular.  There  has,  however,  always  been  one  exception, 
namely,  that  the  lord  high  admiral  when  in  executive  command 
of  a  fleet  has  always  been  entitled  to  fly  the  royal  standard. 
For  example,  Lord  Howard  flew  it  from  the  mainmast  of  the 
"  Ark  Royal  "  when  he  defeated  the  Spanish  Armada;  the 
duke  of  Buckingham  flew  it  as  lord  high  admiral  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  I.,  and  the  duke  of  York  fought  under  it  when  he 
commanded  during  the  Dutch  Wars. 

The  national  flag  of  the  British  empire  is  the  Union  Jack, 
in  which  are  combined  in  union  the  crosses  of  St  George,  St 
Andrew  and  St  Patrick.  St  George  had  long  been  a  patron 
saint  of  England,  and  his  banner,  argent,  a  cross  gules,  its 
national  ensign.  St  Andrew  in  the  same  way  was  the  patron 
saint  of  Scotland,  and  his  banner,  azure,  a  saltire  argent,  the 
national  ensign  of  Scotland.  On  the  union  of  the  two  crowns 
James  I.  issued  a  proclamation  ordaining  that  "  henceforth  all 
our  subjects  of  this  Isle  and  Kingdom  of  Greater  Britain  and 
the  members  thereof,  shall  bear  in  their  main-top  the  red  cross 
commonly  cajled  St  George's  cross,  and  the  white  cross  commonly 
called  St  Andrew's  cross,  joined  together  according  to  a  form 
made  by  our  heralds,  and  sent  by  us  to  our  admiral  to  be  pub- 
lished to  our  said  subjects;  and  in  their  fore-top  our  subjects 
of  south  Britain  shall  wear  the  red  cross  only,  as  they  were  wont, 
and  our  subjects  of  north  Britain  in  their  fore-top,  the  white 
cross  only  as  they  were  accustomed."  This  was  the  first  Union 
Jack,  as  it  is  generally  termed,  though  strictly  the  name  of  the 
flag  is  the  "  Great  Union,"  and  it  is  only  a  "Jack"  when  flown 
on  the  jackstaff  of  a  ship  of  war.  Probably  the  name  of  the 
Stuart  king  "  Jacques,"  which  James  I.  always  signed,  gave 
the  name  to  the  flag,  and  then  to  the  staff  at  which  it  was  hoisted. 
At  the  death  of  Charles  I.,  the  union  with  Scotland  being  dissolved, 
the  ships  of  the  parliament  reverted  to  the  simple  cross  of  St 
George,  but  the  union  flag  was  restored  when  Cromwell  became 
protector,  with  the  Irish  harp  imposed  upon  its  centre.  On  the 
Restoration,  Charles  II.  removed  the  harp  and  so  the  original 
union  flag  was  restored,  and  continued  as  described  until  the 
year  1801,  when,  on  the  legislative  union  with  Ireland,  the  cross 
of  St  Patrick,  a  saltire  gules,  on  a  field  argent,  was  incorporated 
in  the  union  flag.  To  so  combine  these  three  crosses  without 
losing  the  distinctive  features  of  each  was  not  easy;  each  cross 
must  be  distinct,  and  retain  equally  distinct  its  fimbriation,  or 
bordering,  which  denotes  the  original  ground.  In  the  first 
union  flag,  the  red  cross  of  St  George  with  the  white  fimbriation 
that  represented  the  original  white  field  was  simply  imposed 
upon  the  white  saltire  of  St  Andrew  with  its  blue  field.  To 
place  the  red  saltire  of  St  Patrick  on  the  white  saltire  of  St 
Andrew  would  have  been  to  obliterate  the  latter,  nor  would  the 
red  saltire  have  its  proper  bordering  denoting  its  original  white 
field;  even  were  the  red  saltire  narrowed  in  width  the  portion 
of  the  white  saltire  that  would  appear  would  not  be  the  St 
Andrew  saltire,  but  only  the  fimbriation  appertaining  to  the 
saltire  of  St  Patrick.  The  difficulty  has  been  got  over  by  making 
the  white  broader  on  one  side  of  the  red  than  the  other.  In  fact, 
the  continuity  of  direction  of  the  arms  of  the  St  Patrick  red 
saltire  has  been  broken  by  its  portions  being  removed  from  the 
centre  of  the  oblique  points  that  form  the  St  Andrew's  saltire. 
Thus  both  the  Irish  and  Scottish  saltires  can  be  easily  distin- 
guished from  one  another,  whilst  the  red  saltire  has  its  due  white 
fimbriation. 

The  Union  Jack  is  the  most  important  of  all  British  ensigns, 
and  is  flown  by  representatives  of  the  empire  all  the  world  over. 
It  flies  from  the  jackstaff  of  every  man-of-war  in  the  navy. 
With  the  Irish  harp  on  a  blue  shield  displayed  in  the  centre,  it  is 
flown  by  the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland.  When  flown  by  the 


FLAGS 


PLATE  I. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 
Royal  Standard. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 
White  Ensign 
(Royal  Navy). 


JAPAN. 
Imperial  Navy. 


CANADA. 

Red  Ensign 

(Mercantile  Marine). 


NEW  ZEALAND. 

Blue  Ensign 
(Government). 


GERMANY. 
Imperial  Navy. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 
Union  Jack. 


GERMANY. 
Mercantile  Marine. 


SPAIN. 
Royal  Navy. 


SPAIN. 
Mercantile  Marine. 


PORTUGAL. 
National  Flag. 


JAPAN. 
Mercantile  Marine. 


AUSTRI A-H  UNG  AR  Y. 
Imperial  Navy. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 
Mercantile  Marine. 


ITALY. 
Mercantile  Marine. 


RUMANIA. 
National  Flag. 


Niagara  Litho.  Co..  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


FLAG 


459 


governor-general  of  India  the  star  and  device  of  the  order  of 
the  Star  of  India  are  borne  in  the  centre.  Colonial  governors  fly 
it  with  the  badge  of  their  colony  displayed  in  the  centre.  Diplo- 
matic representatives  use  it  with  the  royal  arms  in  the  centre. 
As  a  military  flag,  it  is  flown  over  fortresses  and  headquarters, 
and  on  all  occasions  of  military  ceremonial.  Hoisted  at  the 
mainmast  of  a  man-of-war  it  is  the  flag  of  an  admiral  of  the 
fleet. 

Military  flags  in  the  shape  of  regimental  standards  and  colours, 
and  flags  used  for  signalling,  are  described  elsewhere,  and  it  will 
here  be  only  necessary  to  deal  with  the  navy  and  admiralty 
flags. 

The  origin  of  the  three  ensigns — the  red,  white,  and  blue — 
had  its  genesis  in  the  navy.  In  the  days  of  huge  fleets,  such  as 
prevailed  in  the  Tudor  and  Stuart  navies,  there  were,  besides 
the  admiral  in  supreme  command,  a  vice-admiral  as  second  in 
command,  and  a  rear-admiral  as  third  in  command,  each  con- 
trolling his  own  particular  group  or  squadron.  These  were 
designated 'centre,  van,  and  rear,  the  centre  almost  invariably 
being  commanded  by  the  admiral,  the  vice-admiral  taking  the 
van  and  the  rear-admiral  the  rear  squadron.  In  order  that  any 
vessel  in  any  group  could  distinguish  its  own  admiral's  ship, 
the  flagships  of  centre,  van,  and  rear  flew  respectively  a  plain 
red,  white,  or  blue  flag,  and  so  came  into  being  those  naval 
ranks  of  admiral,  vice-admiral,  and  rear-admiral  of  the  red,  white, 
and  blue  which  continued  down  to  as  late  as  1864.  As  the 
admiral  in  supreme  command  flew  the  union  at  the  main,  there 
was  no  rank  of  admiral  of  the  red,  and  it  was  not  until  November 
1805  that  the  rank  of  admiral  of  the  red  was  added  to  the  navy 
as  a  special  compliment  to  reward  Trafalgar.  About  1652,  so 
that  each  individual  ship  in  the  squadron  should  be  distinguish- 
able as  well  as  the  flagships,  each  vessel  carried  a  large  red, 
white,  or  blue  flag  according  as  to  whether  she  belonged  to  the 
centre,  van,  or  rear,  each  flag  having  in  the  left-hand  upper 
corner  a  canton,  as  it  is  termed,  of  white  bearing  the  St  George's 
cross.  These  flags  were  called  ensigns,  and  it  is,  of  course,  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  union  with  Scotland  was  for  the  time  dissolved 
that  they  bore  only  the  St  George's  cross.  Even  when  the 
restoration  of  the  Stuarts  restored  the  status  quo  the  cross  of  St 
George  still  remained  alone  on  the  ensign,  and  it  was  not  altered 
until  1707  when  the  bill  for  the  Union  of  England  and  Scotland 
passed  the  English  parliament.  In  1801,  when  Ireland  joined 
the  Union,  the  flag,  of  course,  became  as  we  know  it  to-day.  All 
these  three  ensigns  belonged  to  the  royal  navy,  and  continued 
to  do  so  until  1864,  but  as  far  back  as  1707  ships  of  the  mercantile 
marine  were  instructed  to  fly  the  red  ensign.  As  ironclads 
replaced  the  wooden  vessels  and  fleets  became  smaller  the 
inconvenience  of  three  naval  ensigns  was  manifest,  and  in  1864 
the  grades  of  flag  officer  were  reduced  again  to  admiral,  vice- 
admiral,  and  rear-admiral,  and  the  navy  abandoned  the  use 
of  the  red  and  blue  ensigns,  retaining  only  the  white  ensign  as 
its  distinctive  flag.  The  mercantile  marine  retained  the  red 
ensign  which  they  were  already  using,  whilst  the  blue  ensign 
was  allotted  to  vessels  employed  on  the  public  service  whether 
home  or  colonial. 

The  white  ensign  is  therefore  essentially  the  flag  of  the  royal 
navy.  It  should  not  be  flown  anywhere  or  on  any  occasion 
except  by  a  ship  (or  shore  establishment)  of  the  royal  navy, 
with  but  one  exception.  By  a  grant  of  William  IV.  dating  from 
1829  vessels  belonging  to  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron,  the  chief 
of  all  yacht  clubs,  are  allowed  to  fly  the  white  ensign.  From 
1821  to  1829  ships  of  the  squadron  flew  the  red  ensign,  as  that  of 
highest  dignity,  but  as  it  was  also  used  by  merchant  ships,  they 
then  obtained  the  grant  of  the  white  ensign  as  being  more 
distinctive.  Some  few  other  yacht  clubs  flew  it  until  1842,  when 
the  privilege  was  withdrawn  by  an  admiralty  minute.  By  some 
oversight  the  order  was  not  conveyed  to  the  Royal  Western 
of  Ireland,  whose  ships  flew  the  white  ensign  until  in  1857  the 
usage  was  stopped.  Since  that  date  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron 
has  alone  had  the  privilege.  Any  vessel  of  any  sort  flying  the 
white  ensign,  or  pennant,  of  the  navy  is  committing  a  grave 
offence,  and  the  ship  can  be  boarded  by  any  officer  of  His 


Majesty's  service,  the  colours  seized,  the  vessel  reported  to  the 
authorities,  and  a  penalty  inflicted  on  the  owners  or  captain  or 
both.  The  penalty  incurred  is  £500  fine  for  each  offence,  as 
laid  down  in  the  73rd  section  of  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act  1894. 
In  1883  Lord  Annesley's  yacht,  belonging  to  the  Royal  Yacht 
Squadron,  was  detained  at  the  Dardanelles  in  consequence  of 
her  flying  the  white  ensign  of  the  royal  navy  which  brought  her 
under  the  category  of  a  man-of-war,  and  no  foreign  man-of-war 
is  allowed  to  pass  the  Dardanelles  without  first  obtaining  an 
imperial  trade.  Since  then  owners  belonging  to  the  squadron 
have  been  warned  that  they  must  either  sail  their  ships  through 
the  straits  under  the  red  ensign  common  to  all  ships  British 
owned,  or  obtain  imperial  permission  if  they  wish  to  display 
the  white  ensign. 

Besides  the  white  ensign  the  ship  of  war  flies  a  long  streamer 
from  the  maintopgallant  masthead.  This,  which  is  called  a 
pennant,  is  flown  only  by  ships  in  commission;  it  is,  in  fact, 
the  sign  of  command,  and  is  first  hoisted  when  a  captain  com- 
missions his  ship.  The  pennant,  which  was  really  the  old 
"  pennoncell,"  was  of  three  colours  for  the  whole  of  its  length, 
and  towards  the  end  left  separate  in  two  or  three  tails,  and  so 
continued  till  the  end  of  the  great  wars  in  1816.  Now,  however, 
the  pennant  is  a  long  white  streamer  with  the  St  George's  cross 
in  the  inner  portion  close  to  the  mast.  Pennants  have  been 
carried  by  men-of-war  from  the  earliest  times,  prior  to  1653  at 
the  yard-arm,  but  since  that  date  at  the  maintopgallant  mast- 
head. 

The  blue  ensign  is  exclusively  the  flag  of  the  public  service 
other  than  the  royal  navy,  and  is  as  well  the  flag  of  the  royal 
naval  reserve.  It  is  flown  also  by  certain  authorized  vessels 
of  the  British  mercantile  marine,  the  conditions  governing  this 
privilege  being  that  the  captain  and  a  certain  specified  portion 
of  the  officers  and  crew  shall  belong  to  the  ranks  of  the  royal 
naval  reserve.  When  flown  by  ships  belonging  to  British 
government  offices  the  seal  or  badge  of  the  office  is  displayed 
in  the  fly.  For  example,  hired  transports  fly  it  with  the  yellow 
anchor  in  the  fly;  the  marine  department  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
has  in  the  fly  the  device  of  a  ship  under  sail;  the  telegraph 
branch  of  the  post-office  shows  in  the  fly  a  device  representing 
Father  Time  with  his  hour-glass  shattered  by  lightning;  the 
ordnance  department  displays  upon  the  fly  a  shield  with  a 
cannon  and  cannon  balls  upon  it.  Certain  yacht  clubs  are  also 
authorized  by  special  admiralty  warrant  to  fly  the  blue  ensign. 
Some  of  these  display  it  plain;  others  show  in  the  fly  the  distinc- 
tive badge  of  the  club.  Consuls-general,  consuls  and  consular 
agents  also  have  a  right  to  fly  the  blue  ensign,  the  distinguishing 
badge  in  their  case  being  the  royal  arms. 

The  red  ensign  is  the  distinguishing  flag  of  the  British  merchant 
service,  and  special  orders  to  this  effect  were  issued  by  Queen 
Anne  in  1707,  and  again  by  Queen  Victoria  in  1864.  The  order 
of  Queen  Anne  directed  that  merchant  vessels  should  fly  a  red 
flag  "  with  a  Union  Jack  described  in  a  canton  at  the  upper 
corner  thereof  next  the  staff,"  and  this  is  probably  the  first 
time  that  the  term  "  Union  Jack  "  was  officially  used.  In  some 
cases  those  yacht  clubs  which  fly  the  red  ensign  change  it  slightly 
from  that  flown  by  the  merchant  service,  for  they  are  allowed 
to  display  the  badge  of  the  club  in  the  fly.  Colonial  merchant- 
men usually  display  the  ordinary  red  ensign,  but,  provided  they 
have  a  warrant  of  authorization  from  the  admiralty,  they  can 
use  the  ensign  with  the  badge  of  the  colony  in  the  fly. 

In  regard  to  ensigns  it  is  important  to  remember  that  they 
are  purely  maritime  flags,  and  though  the  rule  is  more  honoured 
in  the  breach  than  in  the  observance,  the  only  flag  that  a  private 
individual  or  a  corporation  has  a  right  to  display  on  shore  is  the 
national  flag,  the  Union  Jack,  in  its  plain  condition  and  without 
any  emblazonment. 

There  are  two  other  British  sea  flags  which  are  worthy  of 
brief  notice.  These  are  the  admiralty  flag  and  the  flag  of  the 
master  of  Trinity  House.  The  admiralty  flag  is  a  plain  red 
flag  with  a  clear  anchor  in  the  centre  in  yellow.  In  a  sense  it  is 
a  national  flag,  for  the  sovereign  hoists  it  when  afloat  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  royal  standard  and  the  Union  Jack.  It  would 


460 


FLAG 


appear  to  have  been  first  used  by  the  duke  of  York  as  lord  high 
admiral,  who  flew  it  when  the  sovereign  was  afloat  and  had  the 
royal  standard  flying  in  another  ship.  When  a  board  of  com- 
missioners was  appointed  to  execute  the  office  of  lord  high 
admiral  this  was  the  flag  adopted,  and  in  1691  we  find  the 
admiralty,  minuting  the  navy  board,  then  a  subordinate  depart- 
ment, "  requiring  and  directing  it  to  cause  a  fitting  red  silk 
flag,  with  the  anchor  and  cable  therein,  to  be  provided  against 
Tuesday  morning  next,  for  the  barge  belonging  to  this  board." 
In  1725,  presumably  as  being  more  pretty  and  artistic,  the  cable 
in  the  device  was  twisted  round  the  stock  of  the  anchor.  It 
was  thus  made  into  a  "  foul  anchor,"  the  thing  of  all  others  that 
a  sailor  most  hates,  and  this  despite  the  fact  that  the  first  lord 
at  the  time,  the  earl  of  Berkeley,  was  himself  a  sailor.  The 
anchor  retained  its  unseamanlike  appearance,  and  was  not 
"  cleared  "  till  1815,  and  even  to  this  day  the  buttons  of  the 
naval  uniform  bear  a  "  foul  anchor."  The  "  anchor  "  flag  is 
solely  the  emblem  of  an  administrative  board;  it  does  not  carry 
the  executive  or  combatant  functions  which  are  vested  in  the 
royal  standard,  the  union  or  an  admiral's  flag,  but  on  two 
occasions  it  has  been  made  use  of  as  an  executive  flag.  In  1719 
the  earl  of  Berkeley,  who  at  the  time  was  not  only  first  lord 
of  the  admiralty,  but  vice-admiral  of  England,  obtained  the 
special  permission  of  George  I.  to  hoist  it  at  the  main  instead  of 
the  union  flag.  Again  in  1869,  when  Mr  Childers,  then  first 
lord,  accompanied  by  some  members  of  his  board,  went  on 
board  the  "  Agincourt  "  he  hoisted  the  admiralty  flag  and  took 
command  of  the  combined  Mediterranean  and  Channel  squadrons, 
thus  superseding  the  flags  of  the  two  distinguished  officers  who 
at  the  time  were  in  command  of  these  squadrons.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  add  that  throughout  the  navy  there  was  a  very 
distinct  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  at  the  innovation.  When  the 
admiralty  flag  is  flown  by  the  sovereign  it  is  hoisted  at  the  fore, 
his  own  standard  being  of  course  at  the  main,  and  the  union  at 
the  mizzen. 

The  flag  of  the  master  of  the  Trinity  House  is  the  red  cross 
of  St  George  on  its  white  ground,  but  with  an  ancient  ship  on 
the  waves  in  each  quarter;  in  the  centre  is  a  shield  with  a 
precisely  similar  device  and  surmounted  by  a  lion. 

The  sign  of  a  British  admiral's  command  afloat  is  always 
the  same.  It  is  the  St  George's  cross.  Of  old  it  was  borne 
on  the  main,  the  fore,  or  the  mizzen,  according  as  to  whether 
the  officer  to  whom  it  pertained  was  admiral,  vice-admiral, 
or  rear-admiral,  but,  as  ironclads  superseded  wooden  ships, 
and  a  single  pole  mast  took  the  place  of  the  old  three  masts, 
a  different  method  of  indicating  rank  was  necessitated.  To-day 
the  flag  of  an  admiral  is  a  square  one,  the  plain  St  George's 
cross.  When  flown  by  a  vice-admiral  it  bears  a  red  ball  on  the 
white  ground  in  the  upper  canton  next  to  the  staff;  if  flown 
by  a  rear-admiral  there  is  a  red  ball  in  both  the  upper  and  lower 
cantons.  As  nowadays  most  battleships  have  two  masts,  the 
admiral's  flag  is  hoisted  at  the  one  which  has  no  masthead 
semaphore.  The  admiral's  flag  is  always  a  square  one,  but  that 
of  a  commodore  is  a  broad  white  pennant  with  the  St  George's 
cross.  If  the  commodore  be  first  class  the  flag  is  plain;  if  of 
the  second  class  the  flag  has  a  red  ball  in  the  upper  canton  next 
to  the  staff.  The  same  system  of  differentiating  rank  prevails 
in  most  navies,  though  very  often  a  star  takes  the  place  of  the  ball. 
In  some  cases,  however,  the  indications  of  rank  are  differently 
shown.  For  instance,  both  in  the  Russian  and  Japanese  navies 
the  distinction  is  made  by  a  line  of  colour  on  the  upper  or  lower 
edges  of  the  flag. 

The  flags  of  the  British  colonies  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
mother  country,  but  differentiated  by  the  badge  of  the  colony 
being  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  flag  if  it  is  the  Union  Jack,  or 
in  the  fly  if  it  be  the  blue  or  red  ensign.  Examples  of  these  are 
shown  in  the  Plate,  where  the  blue  ensign  illustrated  is  that  of 
New  Zealand,  the  device  of  the  colony  being  the  southern  cross 
in  the  fly.  Precisely  the  same  flag,  with  a  large  six-pointed 
star,  emblematic  of  the  six  states  immediately  under  the  union, 
forms  the  flag  of  the  federated  commonwealth  of  Australia. 
The  red  ensign  shown  is  that  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  the 


device  in  the  fly  being  the  armorial  bearings  of  the  Dominion. 
As  the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  as  the  representative  of  royalty, 
flies  the  Union  Jack  with  a  harp  in  the  centre,  or  the  viceroy 
of  India  flies  the  same  flag  with,  in  the  centre,  the  badge  of  the 
order  of  the  Star  of  India,  so  too  colonial  governors  or  high 
commissioners  fly  the  union  flag  with  the  arms  of  the  colony 
they  preside  over  on  a  white  shield  in  the  centre  and  surrounded 
by  a  laurel  wreath.  In  the  case  of  Canada  the  wreath,  however, 
is  not  of  laurel  but  of  maple,  which  is  the  special  emblem  of  the 
Dominion. 

French. — To  come  to  flags  of  other  countries,  nowhere  have 
historical  events  caused  so  much  change  in  the  standards  and 
national  ensigns  of  a  country  as  in  the  case  of  France.  The 
oriflamme  and  the  Chape  de  St  Martin  were  succeeded  at  the 
end  of  the  i6th  century,  when  Henry  III.,  the  last  of  the  house 
of  Valois,  came  to  the  throne,  by  the  white  standard  powdered 
with  fleurs-de-lis.  This  in  turn  gave  place  to  the  famous  tricolour. 
The  tricolour  was  introduced  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  but 
the  origin  of  this  flag  and  its  colours  is  a  disputed  question. 
Some  maintain  that  the  intention  was  to  combine  in  the  flag 
the  blue  of  the  Chape  de  St  Martin,  the  red  of  the  oriflamme, 
and  the  white  flag  of  the  Bourbons.  By  others  the  colours  are 
said  to  be  those  of  the  city  of  Paris.  Yet  again,  other  authorities 
assert  that  the  flag  is  copied  from  the  shield  of  the  Orleans  family 
as  it  appeared  after  Philippe  Egalite  had  knocked  off  the  fleurs- 
de-lis.  The  tricolour  is  divided  vertically  into  three  parts  of  equal 
width — blue,  white  and  red,  the  red  forming  the  fly,  the  white 
the  middle,  and  the  blue  the  hoist  of  the  flag.  During  the  first 
and  second  empires  the  tricolour  became  the  imperial,  standard, 
but  in  the  centre  of  the  white  stripe  was  placed  the  eagle,  whilst 
all  three  stripes  were  richly  powdered  over  with  the  golden  bees 
of  the  Napoleons.  The  tricolour  is  now  the  sole  flag  of  France. 

American. — Before  the  Declaration  of  Independence  the 
flags  of  those  colonies  which  now  form  the  United  States  of 
America  were  very  various.  In  the  early  days  of  New  England 
the  Puritans  objected  to  the  red  cross  of  St  George,  not  from 
any  disloyalty  to  the  mother  country,  but  from  a  conscientious 
objection  to  what  they  deemed  an  idolatrous  symbol.  By  the 
year  1700  most  of  the  colonies  had  devised  badges  to  distinguish 
their  vessels  from  those  of  England  and  of  each  other.  In  the 
early  stages  of  the  revolution  each  state  adopted  a  flag  of  its 
own;  thus,  that  of  Massachusetts  bore  a  pine  tree,  South 
Carolina  displayed  a  rattlesnake,  New  York  had  a  white  flag 
with  a  black  beaver,  and  Rhode  Island  a  white  flag  with  a  blue 
anchor  upon  it.  Even  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
and  the  introduction  of  the  stars  and  stripes,  the  latter  under- 
went many  changes  in  the  manner  of  their  arrangement  before 
taking  the  position  at  present  established.  In  1775  a  committee 
was  appointed  to  consider  the  question  of  a  single  flag  for  the 
thirteen  states.  It  recommended  that  the  union  be  retained 
in  the  upper  corner  next  to  the  staff,  the  remainder  of  the  field 
of  the  flag  to  be  of  thirteen  horizontally  disposed  stripes,  alter- 
nately red  and  white.  This  flag,  curiously  enough,  was  precisely 
the  same  as  the  flag  of  the  old  Honourable  East  India  Company. 
On  the  1 4th  of  June  1777  congress  resolved  "  that  the  flag 
of  the  United  States  be  thirteen  stripes,  alternate  red  and 
white;  that  the  Union  be  thirteen  stars,  white  in  a  blue  field, 
representing  a  new  constellation."  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
national  flag,  but  at  first,  as  the  number  of  the  stripes  were 
unequal,  the  flag  very  often  varied,  sometimes  having  seven 
white  and  six  red  stripes,  and  at  other  times  seven  red  and  six 
white,  and  it  was  not  for  some  considerable  time  that  it  was 
authoritatively  laid  down  that  the  latter  arrangement  was  the 
one  to  be  adopted.  It  has  also  been  held  that  the  stars  and 
stripes  of  the  American  national  flag,  as  well  as  the  eagle,  were 
suggested  by  the  crest  and  arms  of  the  Washingoh  family. 
The  latter  supposition  is  absurd,  for  the  Washington  crest  was  a 
raven.  The  Washington  arms  were  a  white  shield  having  two 
horizontal  red  bars,  and  above  these  a  row  of  three  red  stars. 
This  might,  by  a  stretch  of  imagination,  be  supposed  to  have 
inspired  the  original  idea  of  the  flag  which  was  that  each  state 
in  the  Union  should  be  represented  in  the  national  flag  by  a  star 


FLAGS 


PLATE  II. 


RUSSIA. 
Mercantile  Marine. 


RUSSIA. 
Imperial  Navy. 


[•  •     !•  JP 

m_JHH^.  SWEDEN. 

DENMARK.  Royal  Navy. 


NETHERLANDS. 
National  Flag. 


SWITZERLAND. 
National  Flag. 


CHINA. 
Imperial  Navy. 


ARGENTINA. 
Naval. 


PERU. 
Naval. 


BELGIUM. 
National  Flag. 


NORWAY. 
Mercantile  Marine. 


GREECE. 
Mercantile  Marine 


UNITED  STATES 
National  Flag. 


TURKEY. 
National  Flag. 


VENEZUELA. 
Naval. 


Niagara  Litho.   Co..  Buffalo,  N.   K. 


FLAG 


461 


and  stripe.  Naturally  other  states  coming  into  the  Union 
expected  the  same  privilege.  After  Vermont  in  1790  and 
Kentucky  in  1752  had  entered  the  Union,  the  stars  and  stripes 
were  changed  in  number  from  thirteen  to  fifteen.  Later  on  other 
states  joined,  and  soon  the  flag  came  to  consist  of  twenty  stars 
and  stripes.  It  was,  however,  found  objectionable  to  be  con- 
stantly altering  the  national  flag,  and  in  the  year  1818  it  was 
determined  to  go  back  to  the  original  thirteen  stripes,  but  to 
place  a  star  for  each  state  in  the  blue  union  canton  in  the  top 
corner  of  the  flag  next  the  staff.  Thus  the  stars  always  show  the 
exact  number  of  states  that  are  in  the  Union,  whilst  the  stripes 
denote  the  original  number  of  the  states  that  formed  the  union.1 
The  presidential  flag  of  the  president  of  the  United  States  is 
an  eagle  on  a  blue  field,  bearing  on  its  breast  a  shield  displaying 
stripes,  and  above  the  national  motto  E  pluribus  unum,  and  a 
design  of  the  stars  of  the  original  thirteen  states  of  the  union. 

Other  Countries. — The  most  general  and  important  of  the 
various  national  flags  are  figured  in  the  Plate.  In  the  top  line 
representing  Great  Britain  are  shown  the  royal  standard,  the 
Union  Jack  (the  national  flag),  the  white  ensign  of  the  royal 
navy,  the  blue  ensign  of  government  service,  and  the  red  ensign 
of  the  commercial  marine,  colonial  flags  being  shown  in  the  case 
of  the  two  latter  ensigns.  The  two  Japanese  flags  shown  are  the 
man-of-war  ensign — a  rising  sun,  generally  known  as  the  sun- 
burst— and  the  flag  of  the  mercantile  marine,  in  which  the-red  ball 
is  used  without  the  rays  and  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  white 
field.  The  imperial  standard  of  Japan  is  a  golden  chrysanthemum 
on  a  red  field.  It  is  essential  that  the  chrysanthemum  should 
invariably  have  sixteen  petals.  Heraldry  in  Japan  is  of  a  simpler 
character  than  that  of  Europe,  and  is  practically  limited  to  the 
employment  of  "  Mon,"  which  correspond  very  nearly  to  the 
"  crests  "  of  European  heraldry.  The  great  families  of  Japan 
possess  at  least  one,  and  in  many  cases  even  three,  "  Mon." 
The  imperial  family  use  two,  the  one  Kiku  no  go  Mon  (the  august 
chrysanthemum  crest)  and  Kiri  no  go  Mon  (the  august  Kiri 
crest) .  The  first  represents  the  sixteen-petalled  chrysanthemum, 
and,  although  the  use  of  the  chrysanthemum  flower  as  a  badge 
is  not  necessarily  confined  to  the  imperial  family,  they  alone 
have  the  right  to  use  the  sixteen-petalled  form.  If  used  by  any 
other  family,  or  society  or  corporation,  it  must  be  with  a  number 
of  petals  less  or  more  than  sixteen.  The  second  imperial "  Mon  " 
is  composed  of  three  leaves  and  three  flower  spikes  of  the  Kiri 
(Paulownia  imperialis).  This,  however,  is  not  displayed  as  an 
official  emblem,  that  being  reserved  for  the  chrysanthemum. 
The  Kiri  is  used  for  more  private  purposes.  For  example,  the 
chrysanthemum  figures  in  the  imperial  standard,  and  the  Kiri 
"  Mon  "  adorns  the  harness  of  the  emperor's  horses.  It  is  very 
probable  that  the  chrysanthemum  crest  did  not  originally  repre- 
sent the  chrysanthemum  flower  at  all  but  the  sun  with  sixteen 
rays,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  "  sun-burst "  flag  the 
sun's  rays  are  sixteen  in  number.  The  use  of  the  number  sixteen 
is  probably  traceable  to  Chinese  geomantic  ideas. 

The  German  imperial  navy  and  mercantile  marine  flags  are  next 
depicted.  The  "  iron  cross  in  the  navy  flag  is  that  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  and  dates  from  the  close  of  the  I2th  century.  For  five 
centuries  black  and  white  have  been  the  Hohenzpllern  colours, 
and  the  first  verse  of  the  German  war  song,  Ich  bin  ein  Preusse, 
runs: — 

"  I  am  a  Prussian !     Know  ye  not  my  banner? 

Before  me  floats  my  flag  of  black  and  white  ! 
My  fathers  died  for  freedom,  'twas  their  manner, 
So  say  these  colours  floating  in  your  sight.' 

The  mercantile  marine  tricolour  of  black,  white  and  red  is  em- 
blematic of  the  joining  of  the  Hohenzollern  black  and  white  with 
the  red  and  white,  which  was  the  ensign  of  the  Hanseatic  League. 
This  flag  came  into  being  when  the  North  German  Confederacy 
was  established  (November  25th,  1867)  at  the  close  of  the  Austro- 
Prussian  War.  .    .        ... 

The  German  imperial  standard  has  the  iron  cross  with  its  white 
border  displayed  on  a  yellow  field,  diapered  over  in  each  ol  the  toi 
quarters  with  three  black  eagles  and  a  crown.     In  the  centre  ot  i 
cross  is  a  shield  bearing  the  arms  of  Prussia  surmounted  by  a  :rown, 


1  By  the  admission  of  Oklahoma  as  a  state  in  1907  the  number  of 
stars  became  46,  arranged  from  the  top  in  horizontal  rows  tl 
8,  7,  8,  7,  8,  8  =  46. 


and  surrounded  by  a  collar  of  the  Order  of  the  Black  Eagle.  In  the 
four  arms  of  the  crown  are  the  legend  Gott  mil  uns  1870.  The  United 
States  flag  and  the  tricolour  of  France  have  already  been  fully  dealt 
with,  and  in  both  countries  the  one  flag  is  common  to  both  men-of- 
war  and  ships  of  the  mercantile  marine. 

The  next  depicted  are  the  imperial  navy  and  the  mercantile 
marine  flags  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  empire.  In  the  latter  the 
introduction  of  the  green  half  stripe  denotes  the  combination  of  the 
Austrian  red,  white  and  red  with  the  Hungarian  red,  white  and 
green.  The  shields  with  which  the  flag  is  charged  contain  respectively 
the  arms  of  Austria  and  of  Hungary.  The  former  shield  only  is 
borne  on  the  man-of-war  ensign,  and  displays  the  heraldic  device  of 
the  ancient  dukes  of  Austria,  which  dates  back  to  the  year  1191. 
The  Austrian  imperial  standard  has,  on  a  yellow  ground,  the  black 
double-headed  eagle,  on  the  breast  and  wings  of  which  are  imposed 
shields  bearing  the  arms  of  the  provinces  of  the  empire.  The  flag 
is  bordered  all  round,  the  border  being  composed  of  equal-sided 
triangles  with  their  apices  alternately  inwards  and  outwards,  those 
with  their  apices  pointing  inwards  being  alternately  yellow  and 
white,  the  others  alternately  scarlet  and  black. 

The  green,  white  and  red  Italian  tricolour  was  adopted  in  1805, 
when  Napoleon  I.  formed  Italy  into  one  kingdom.  It  was  adopted 
again  in  1848  by  the  Nationalists  of  the  peninsula,  accepted  by  the 
king  of  Sardinia,  and,  charged  by  him  with  the  arms  of  Savoy,  it 
became  the  flag  of  a  united  Italy.  The  man-of-war  flag  is  precisely 
similar  to  that  of  the  mercantile  marine,  except  that  in  the  case  of 
the  former  the  shield  of  Savoy  is  surmounted  by  a  crown.  The  royal 
standard  is  a  blue  flag.  In  the  centre  is  a  black  eagle  crowned  and 
displaying  on  its  breast  the  arms  of  Savoy,  the  whole  surrounded 
by  the  collar  of  the  Most  Sacred  Annunziata,  the  third  in  rank  of  all 
European  orders.  In  each  corner  of  the  flag  is  the  royal  crown. 

For  Portugal  the  flag  is  one  of  the  few  national  flags  that  are  parti- 
coloured. It  is  half  blue,  half  white,  with,  in  the  centre,  the  arms  of 
Portugal  surmounted  by  the  royal  crown,  and  it  is  the  same  both 
in  the  mercantile  marine  and  in  the  Portuguese  navy.  The  royal 
standard  of  Portugal  is  an  all-red  flag  charged  in  the  centre  with  the 
royal  arms,  as  shown  in  the  national  flag. 

In  the  Spanish  ensigns  red  and  yellow  are  the  prevailing  colours, 
and  here  again  the  arrangement  differs  from  that  generally  used. 
The  navy  flag  has  a  yellow  central  stripe,  with  red  above  and  below. 
To  be  correct  the  yellow  should  be  half  the  width  of  the  flag,  and  each 
of  the  red  stripes  a  quarter  of  the  width  of  the  flag.  The  central 
yellow  stripe  is  charged  in  the  hoist  with  an  escutcheon  containing 
the  arms  of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  surmounted  by  the  royal  crown. 
In  the  mercantile  flag  the  yellow  centre  is  without  the  escutcheon, 
and  is  one-third  of  the  entire  depth  of  the  flag,  the  remaining  thirds 
being  divided  into  equal  stripes  of  red  and  yellow,  the  yellow  above 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  flag,  the  red  in  the  lower.  Of  all  royal 
standards  that  of  Spain  is  the  most  elaborate,  for  it  contains  quarter- 
ings  of  the  Spanish  royal  escutcheon,  many  of  the  bearings  being  as 
much  an  anachronism  as  if  the  royal  arms  of  England  were  to-day 
to  be  quartered  with  the  fleur-de-lis.  In  all,  the  quarterings  displayed 
are  those  of  Leon,  Castile,  Aragon,  Sicily,  Austria,  Burg-- 


Flanders, Antwerp,  Brabant,  Portugal  and  France.  The  Hag  is 
usually  depicted  as  composed  entirely  of  the  quarterings.  We 
believe,  however,  that  it  is  more  correctly  a  purple  flag  in  the  centre 
of  which  the  quarterings  are  displayed  on  an  oval  shield  surmounted 
by  a  crown  and  encircled  by  the  collar  of  the  order  of  the  Golden 
Fleece. 

The  flag  of  the  Russian  mercantile  marine  is  a  horizontal  tricolour 
of  white,  blue  and  red.  Originally,  it  was  a  tricolour  of  blue,  white 
and  red,  and  it  is  said  that  the  idea  of  its  colouring  was  taken  by 
Peter  the  Great  when  learning  shipbuilding  in  Holland,  for  as  the 
flag  then  stood  it  was  simply  the  Dutch  ensign  reversed.  Later,  to 
make  it  more  distinctive,  the  blue  and  white  stripes  changed  places, 
leaving  the  tricolour  as  it  stands  to-day.  The  flag  of  the  Russian 
navy  is  the  blue  saltire  of  St  Andrew  on  a  white  ground.  St  Andrew 
is  the  patron  saint  of  Russia,  from  whence  the  emblem.  The  imperial 
standard  is  of  a  character  akin  to  that  of  Austria;  the  ground  is 
yellow,  and  the  centre  bears  the  imperial  double-headed  eagle,  a 
badge  that  dates  back  to  1472,  when  Ivan  the  Great  married  a 
niece  of  Constantine  Palaeologus  and  assumed  the  arms  of  the  Greek 
empire.  On  the  breast  of  the  eagle  is  an  escutcheon  charged  with 
the  emblem  of  St  George  and  the  Dragon  on  a  red  ground,  and  this 
is  surrounded  by  the  collar  of  the  order  of  St  Andrew.  On  the  splayed 
wings  of  the  eagle  are  small  shields  bearing  the  arms  of  the  various 
provinces  of  the  empire. 

The  Rumanian  flag  is  a  blue,  yellow  and  red  tricolour,  the  stripes 
vertical,  with  the  blue  stripe  forming  the  fly.  The  Servian  flag  is  a 
horizontal  tricolour,  the  top  stripe  red,  the  middle  blue  and  the  lower 
white.  When  these  tricolours  are  flown  as  royal  standards  the  royal 
arms  are  displayed  on  the  central  stripe.  The  flag  of  Montenegro  is 
a  horizontal  tricolour,  the  top  stripe  red,  the  centre  blue,  the  lower- 
most white.  The  Bulgarian  flag  is  a  similar  tricolour,  white,  green 
and  red,  the  white  stripe  uppermost,  but  when  flown  as  a  war  ensign 
there  is  a  canton  in  the  upper  corner  of  the  hoist  in  which  is  a  golden 
lion  on  a  red  ground. 

The  flags  of  all  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms  are  somewhat 
similar  in  design.  That  of  Denmark,  the  Dannebrog,  has  been  already 
alluded  to,  and  it  is  shown  in  our  illustration  as  flown  by  the  Danish 


462 


FLAG 


!ar 
cross 


navy.  The  mercantile  marine  flag  is  precisely  similar,  but  rectangul 
instead  of  being  swallow-tailed.  The  Swedish  flag  is  a  yellow  cro 
on  a  blue  ground.  When  flown  from  a  man-of-war  it  is  forked  as 
in  the  Danish,  but  the  longer  arm  of  the  cross  is  not  cut  off  but 
pointed,  thus  making  it  a  three-pointed  flag  as  illustrated.  For  the 
mercantile  marine  the  flag  is  rectangular.  When  Norway  separated 
from  Denmark  in  1814,  the  first  flag  was  red  with  a  white  cross  on  it, 
and  the  arms  of  Norway  in  the  upper  corner  of  the  hoist,  but  as  this 
was  found  to  resemble  too  closely  the  Danish  flag,  a  blue  cross 
with  a  white  border  was  substituted  for  the  red  cross.  This,  it  will 
be  seen,  is  the  Danish  flag  with  a  blue  cross  imposed  upon  the 
white  one.  For  a  man-of-war  the  flag  is  precisely  similar  to  that  of 
Sweden  in  shape;  that  is  to  say,  converted  from  the  rectangular 
into  the  three-pointed  design.  While  Sweden  and  Norway  remained 
united  the  flag  of  each  remained  distinct,  but  each  bore  jn  the  top 
canton  of  the  hoist  a  union  device,  being;the  combination  of  the 
Norwegian  and  Swedish  national  colours  and  crosses.  In  each  of  the 
three  above  nationalities  the  flag  used  for  a  royal  standard  is  the 
man-of-war  flag  with  the  royal  arms  imposed  on  the  centre  of  the 
cross. 

The  Belgian  tricolour  is  vertical,  the  strips  being  black  next  the 
hoist,  yellow  in  the  centre  and  red  in  the  fly.  That  of  the  Nether- 
lands is  a  horizontal  tricolour,  red  above,  white  in  the  centre  and 
blue  below.  In  both  countries  the  same  flag  is  common  to  both  navy 
and  mercantile  marine,  but  when  the  flag  is  used  as  a  royal  standard 
the  royal  arms  are  displayed  in  the  central  stripe.  The  black, 
yellow  and  red  of  the  Belgian  flag  are  the  colours  of  the  duchy  of 
Brabant,  and  were  adopted  in  1831  when  the  monarchy  was  founded. 
The  original  Dutch  colours  adopted  when  Holland  declared  its 
independence  were  orange,  white  and  blue,  the  colours  of  the  house 
of  Orange,  and  when  and  how  the  orange  became  red  is  not  quite  clear, 
though  it  was  certainly  prior  to  1643. 

The  blue  and  white  which  form  the  colouring  of  the  Greek  flag 
shown  in  our  illustration  are  the  colours  of  the  house  of  Bavaria, 
and  were  adopted  in  1832,  when  Prince  Otho  of  Bavaria  was  elected 
to  the  throne  of  Greece.  The  stripes  are  nine  in  number — five  blue 
and  four  white — -with,  in  the  upper  corner  of  the  hoist,  a  canton 
bearing  a  white  cross  on  a  blue  ground.  The  flag  for  the  royal  navy 
is  similar  to  that  flown  by  the  mercantile  marine,  with  the  exception 
that  it  has  the  addition  of  a  golden  crown  in  the  centre  of  the  cross. 
The  royal  standard  is  a  blue  flag  with  a  white  cross,  on  the  centre 
of  which  the  royal  arms  are  imposed.  The  cross  is  exactly  similar 
to  that  in  the  Danish  flag,  that  is  to  say,  the  arms  of  the  cross  are 
not  of  equal  length,  the  shorter  end  being  in  the  hoist  of  the  flag. 

The  very  simple  flag  of  Switzerland  is  one  of  great  antiquity,  for 
it  was  the  emblem  of  the  nation  as  far  back  as  1339,  and  probably 
considerably  earlier.  In  addition  to  the  national  flag  of  the  Swiss 
confederation,  each  canton  has  its  own  cantonal  colours.  In  each 
case  the  flag  has  its  stripes  disposed  horizontally.  Basel,  for  instance, 
is  half  black,  half  white;  Berne,  half  black,  half  red;  Glarus,  red, 
black  and  white,  &c.,  &c. 

The  Turkish  crescent  moon  and  star  were  the  device  adopted  by 
Mahomet  II.  when  he  captured  Constantinople  in  1453.  Originally 
they  were  the  symbol  of  Diana,  the  patroness  of  Byzantium,  and 
were  adopted  by  the  Ottomans  as  a  triumph,  for  they  had  always 
been  the  special  emblem  of  Constantinople,  and  even  now  in  Moscow 
and  elsewhere  the  crescent  emblem  and  the  cross  may  be  seen 
combined  in  Russian  churches,  the  crescent  badge,  of  course,  indicat- 
ing the  Byzantine  origin  of  the  Russian  church.  The  symbol  origin- 
ated at  the  time  of  the  siege  of  Constantinople  by  Philip  the  father 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  when  a  night  attempt  of  the  besiegers  to 
undermine  the  walls  was  betrayed  by  the  light  of  a  crescent  moon, 
and  in  acknowledgment  of  their  escape  the  Byzantines  raised  a 
statue  to  Diana,  and  made  her  badge  the  symbol  of  the  city.  Both 
the  man-of-war  and  mercantile  marine  flags  are  the  same,  but  the 
imperial  standard  of  the  sultan  is  scarlet,  and  bears  in  its  centre 
the  device  of  the  reigning  sovereign.  This  device  is  known  as  the 
"  Tughra,"  and  consists  of  the  name  of  the  sultan,  the  title  of  khan, 
and  the  epithet  al-Muzaffar  Daima,  which  means  "  the  ever  vic- 
torious." The  origin  of  the  "  Tughra  "  is  that  the  sultan  Murad  I., 
who  was  not  of  scholarly  parts,  signed  a  treaty  by  wetting  his  open 
hand  with  ink,  and  pressing  it  on  the  paper,  the  first,  second  and 
third  fingers  making  smears  close  together,  the  thumb  and  fourth 
finger  leaving  marks  apart.  Within  the  marks  thus  made  the 
scribes  wrote  in  the  name  of  Murad,  his  title,  and  the  epithet  above 
quoted.  The  "  Tughra  "  dates  from  the  latter  part  of  the  I4th 
century.  The  smaller  characters  in  the  "  Tughra  "  change,  of  course, 
on  the  accession  of  every  fresh  sovereign,  but  the  leading  form  of  the 
device  always  remains  the  same,  namely,  rounded  lines  to  the  left 
denoting  the  thumb,  lines  to  the  right  denoting  where  the  little 
finger  made  impression,  and  three  upright  lines  indicating  the  other 
fingers. 

The  Mahommedan  states  tributary  to  Turkey  also  display  the 
crescent  and  star.  Morocco,  Muscat  and  other  Arab  states  where 
they  use  an  ensign  display  a  red  flag,  that  of  the  Zanzibar  protectorate 
having  the  British  union  in  the  centre  of  the  red  field. 

The  Persian  flag  is  white  with  a  border,  green  on  the  upper  edge 
of  the  flag  and  in  the  fly,  and  red  in  the  hoist  and  on  the  lower  edge. 
On  the  white  ground  are  the  lion  and  sun. 

The  flag  of  Siam  is  a  white  elephant  on  a  red  ground.     That  of 


Korea,  a  white  flag  with,  in  the  centre,  a  ball,  half  red,  half  blue, 
the  colours  being  curiously  intermixed,  the  whole  being  precisely 
as  if  two  large  commas  of  equal  size,  one  red  and  the  other  blue, 
were  united  to  form  a  complete  circle. 

The  Chinese  flag  is  a  yellow  one,  bearing  on  it  the  emblem  of  the 
dragon  devouring  the  sun.  As  at  present  used,  it  is  a  square  flag, 
but  an  earlier  version  was  a  triangular  right-angled  flag,  hoisted  with 
the  right-angle  in  the  base  of  the  hoist.  The  merchant  flag  is  red 
with  a  yellow  ball  in  the  centre. 

Among  the  South  American  republics  the  Brazilian  flag  is  peculiar 
inasmuch  as  it  is  the  only  national  flag  which  carries  a  motto. 

Mexico  flies  precisely  the  same  tricolour  as  Italy,  but  plain  in 
the  case  of  the  merchant  ensign,  and  charged  on  the  central  stripe 
with  the  Mexican  arms  (as  illustrated)  when  flown  as  a  man-of-war 
ensign. 

The  Argentine  flag  is  as  illustrated  flown  by  the  navy,  but,  when 
used  by  the  mercantile  marine,  the  sun  emblazoned  on  the  central 
white  stripe  is  omitted,  the  flag  otherwise  being  precisely  the  same. 

The  Venezuelan  flag  shown  is  also  that  of  the  navy.  The  flag  of  the 
mercantile  marine  is  the  same,  but  the  shield  bearing  the  arms  of 
the  state  is  not  introduced  into  the  yellow  top  stripe  in  the  corner 
near  the  hoist,  as  in  the  naval  flag. 

The  Chilean  ensign  illustrated  is  used  alike  by  men-of-war  and 
vessels  in  the  mercantile  marine,  but,  when  flown  as  the  standard  of 
the  president,  the  Chilean  arms  and  supporters  are  placed  in  the 
centre  of  the  flag. 

The  plain  red,  white,  red  in  vertical  stripes,  is  the  flag  of  the  mer- 
cantile marine  of  Peru,  and  becomes  the  naval  ensign  when  charged 
on  the  central  stripe  with  the  Peruvian  arms  as  shown  in  our  illus- 
tration. In  fact,  in  nearly  every  case  with  the  South  American 
republics,  the  ordinary  mercantile  marine  flag  becomes  that  of  the 
war  navy  by  the  addition  of  the  national  arms,  and  in  some  cases  is 
used  in  the  same  way  as  a  presidential  flag. 

In  nearly  every  case  the  flags  of  the  lesser  American  republics 
are  tricolours,  and  in  a  very  great  many  of  them  the  flags  are  by  no 
means  such  combinations  as  would  meet  with  the  approval  of  Euro- 
pean heralds.  All  flag  devising  should  be  in  accordance  with 
heraldic  laws,  and  one  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  that  colour 
should  not  be  placed  on  colour,  nor  metal  on  metal,  yellow  in  blazonry 
being  the  equivalent  of  gold  and  white  of  silver.  Hence,  properly 
devised  tricolours  are  such  as,  for  example,  those  of  France,  where 
the  red  and  blue  are  divided  by  white,  or  Belgium,  where  the  black 
and  red  are  divided  by  yellow.  On  the  other  hand,  the  yellow,  blue, 
red  of  Venezuela  is  heraldically  an  abomination. 

Manufacture  and  Miscellaneous  Uses. — Flags,  the  manufacture 
of  which  is  quite  a  large  industry,  are  almost  invariably  made 
from  bunting,  a  very  light,  tough  and  durable  woollen  material. 
The  regulation  bunting  as  used  in  the  navy  is  made  in  9  in. 
widths,  and  the  flag  classes  in  size  according  to  the  number  of 
breadths  of  bunting  of  which  it  is  composed.  The  great  centre 
of  the  manufacture  of  flags,  as  far  as  the  royal  navy  is  concerned, 
is  the  dockyard  at  Chatham.  Ensigns  and  Jacks  are  made  in 
different  sizes;  the  largest  ensign  made  is  33  ft.  long  by  165  ft. 
in  width;  the  largest  Jack  issued  is  24  ft.  long  and  12  ft.  wide. 

The  dimensions  of  a  flag  according  to  heraldry  should  be 
either  square  or  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one,  and  it  is  this 
latter  dimension  that  is  used  in  the  navy  and  generally. 

Signalling  flags  are  dealt  with  elsewhere  (see  SIGNAL),  and  here 
it  will  only  be  necessary  to  make  brief  allusion  to  some  inter- 
national customs  with  regard  to  the  use  of  flags  to  indicate 
certain  purposes.  For  long  a  blood-red  flag  has  always  been 
used  as  a  symbol  of  mutiny  or  of  revolution.  The  black  flag 
was  in  days  gone  by  the  symbol  of  the  pirate;  to-day,  in  the  only 
case  in  which  it  survives,  it  is  flown  after  an  execution  to  indicate 
that  the  requirements  of  the  law  have  been  duly  carried  out. 
All  over  the  world  a  yellow  flag  is  the  signal  of  infectious  illness. 
A  ship  hoists  it  to  denote  that  there  are  some  on  board  suffering 
from  yellow  fever,  cholera  or  some  such  infectious  malady,  and 
it  remains  hoisted  until  she  has  received  quarantine.  This  flag 
is  also  hoisted  on  quarantine  stations.  The  white  flag  is  univers- 
ally used  as  a  flag  of  truce. 

At  the  sea  striking  of  the  flag  denotes  surrender.  When  the 
flag  of  one  country  is  placed  over  that  of  another  the  victory  of 
the  former  is  denoted,  hence  in  time  of  peace  it  would  be  an 
insult  to  hoist  the  flag  of  one  friendly  nation  above  that  of  another. 
If  such  were  done  by  mistake,  say  in  "  dressing  ship  "  for  instance, 
an  apology  would  have  to  be  made.  This  custom  of  hoisting 
the  flag  of  the  vanquished  beneath  that  of  the  victor  is  of  com- 
paratively modern  date,  as  up  to  about  a  century  ago  the  sign  of 
victory  was  to  trail  the  enemy's  flag  over  the  taffrail  in  the  water. 


FLAGELLANTS 


463 


Each  national  flag  must  be  flown  from  its  own  flagstaff,  and  this 
is  often  seen  when  the  allied  forces  of  two  or  more  powers  are 
in  joint  occupation  of  a  town  or  territory.  To  denote  honour 
and  respect  a  flag  is  "  dipped."  Ships  at  sea  salute  each  other 
by  "  dipping  "  the  flag,  that  is  to  say,  by  running  it  smartly 
down  from  the  masthead,  and  then  as  quickly  replacing  it. 
When  troops  parade  before  the  sovereign  the  regimental  flags 
are  lowered  as  they  salute  him.  A  flag  flying  half-mast  high  is 
the  universal  symbol  of  mourning.  When  a  ship  has  to  make 
the  signal  of  distress,  this  is  done  by  hoisting  the  national  ensign 
reversed,  that  is  to  say,  upside  down.  If  it  is  wished  to  accentuate 
the  imminence  of  the  danger  it  is  done  by  making  the  flag  into  a 
"  weft,"  that  is,  by  knotting  it  in  the  middle.  This  means  of 
showing  distress  at  sea  is  of  very  ancient  usage,  for  in  naval 
works  written  as  far  back  as  the  reign  of  James  I.  we  find  the 
"  weft  "  mentioned  as  a  method  of  showing  distress. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  Union  Jack  as  used  for  denoting 
nationality,  and  as  a  flag  of  command,  but  it  also  serves  many 
other  purposes.  For  instance,  if  a  court-martial  is  being  held 
on  board  any  ship  the  Union  Jack  is  displayed  while  the  court 
is  sitting,  its  hoisting  being  accompanied  by  the  firing  of  a  gun. 
In  a  fleet  in  company  the  ship  that  has  the  guard  for  the  day 
flies  it.  With  a  white  border  it  forms  the  signal  for  a  pilot,  and 
in  this  case  is  known  as  a  Pilot  Jack.  In  all  combinations  of 
signalling  flags  which  denote  a  ship's  name  the  Union  Jack 
forms  a  unit.  Lastly,  it  figures  as  the  pall  of  every  sailor  or 
soldier  of  the  empire  who  receives  naval  or  military  honours 
at  his  funeral. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See  Flags:  Some  Account  of  their  History  and 
Uses,  by  A.  MacGeorge  (1881);  National  Banners:  Their  History 
and  Construction,  by  W.  Bland  (1892)  (one  of  a  series  of  Heraldic 
Tracts,  1850-1892,  Br.  Museum  Library,  No.  9906,  b.  9;  this 
pamphlet  gives  the  design  of  the  national  banners  of  St  George, 
St  Andrew  and  St  Patrick,  and  illustrates  and  tells  the  story  of  the 
composition  of  the  three  flags  into  the  great  union  flag,  commonly 
knownastheUnionJack) ;  Our  Flags:  TheirOrigin,  Use  and  Traditions, 
by  Rear-Admiral  S.  Eardley-Wilmot  (1901),  an  excellent  treatise, 
historical  and  narrative,  on  all  the  flags  of  the  British  empire;  A 
History  of  the  Flag  of  the  United  States  (Boston,  1872),  by  G.  H. 
Preble;  Flags  of  the  World:  Their  History,  Blazonry  and  Associations, 
by  Edward  Hulme,  F.L.S.,  F.S.A.  (1897),  a  most  complete  mono- 
graph on  the  subject,  illustrated  with  a  very  complete  series  of  plates ; 
Admiralty  Book  of  Flags  of  all  Nations,  printed  for  H.M.  Stationery 
office,  1889,  kept  up  to  date  by  the  publication  periodically  of  Errata, 
officially  issued  under  an  admiralty  covering  letter;  Flags  of  Mari- 
time Nations,  prepared  by  the  Bureau  of  Equipment  department  of 
the  navy,  printed  by  authority  (Washington,  1899).  The  last  two 
works  have  no  letterpress  beyond  titles,  but  contain,  to  scale, 
delineations  of  all  the  flags  at  present  used  officially  by  all  nations. 
Between  the  two  there  are  no  discrepancies,  and  the  delineation 
of  a  flag  taken  from  either  may  be  assumed  as  absolutely  correct. 
Both  are  respectively  the  guides  for  flag  construction  in  the  royal 
navy  and  the  United  States  navy.  (H.  L.  S.) 

FLAGELLANTS  (from  Lat.  flagdlare,  to  whip),  in  religion, 
the  name  given  to  those  who  scourge  themselves,  or  are  scourged, 
by  way  of  discipline  or  penance.  Voluntary  flagellation,  as  a 
form  of  exalted  devotion,  occurs  in  almost  all  religions.  Accord- 
ing to  Herodotus  (ii.  40.  61),  it  was  the  custom  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  to  beat  themselves  during  the  annual  festival  in 
honour  of  their  goddess  Isis.  In  Sparta  children  were  flogged 
before  the  altar  of  Artemis  Orthia  till  the  blood  flowed  (Plutarch, 
Instil.  Laced.  40).  At  Alea,  in  the  Peloponnese,  women  were 
flogged  in  the  temple  of  Dionysus  (Pausanias,  Arcad.  23).  The 
priests  of  Cybele,  or  archigalli,  submitted  to  the  discipline  in  the 
temple  of  the  goddess  (Plutarch,  Adv.  Colot.  p.  1127;  Apul., 
Metam.  viii.  173).  At  the  Roman  Lupercalia  women  were 
flogged  by  the  celebrants  to  avert  sterility  or  as  a  purificatory 
ceremony  (W.  Mannhardt,  Mythol.  Forsch.,  Strassburg,  1884, 
p.  72  seq.). 

Ritual  flagellation  existed  among  the  Jews,  and,  according 
to  Buxtorf  (Synagoga  judaica,  Basel,  1603),  was  one  of  the 
ceremonies  of  the  day  of  the  Great  Pardon.  In  the  Christian 
church  flagellation  was  originally  a  punishment,  and  was 
practised  not  only  by  parents  and  schoolmasters,  but  also  by 
bishops,  who  thus  corrected  offending  priests  and  monks  (St 
Augustine,  Ep.  159  ad  MarcelL;  cf.  Cone.  Agd.  506,  can.  ii.). 


Gradually,  however,  voluntary  flagellation  appeared  in  the 
libri  poenilentiales  as  a  very  efficacious  means  of  penance.  In 
the  nth  century  this  new  form  of  devotion  was  extolled  by  some 
of  the  most  ardent  reformers  in  the  monastic  houses  of  the  west, 
such  as  Abbot  Popon  of  Stavelot,  St  Dominic  Loricatus  (so 
called  from  his  practice  of  wearing  next  his  skin  an  iron  lorica, 
or  cuirass  of  thongs),  and  especially  Cardinal  Pietro  Damiani. 
Damiani  advocated  the  substitution  of  flagellation  for  the  recita- 
tion of  the  penitential  psalms,  and  drew  up  a  scale  according 
to  which  1000  strokes  were  equivalent  to  ten  psalms,  and  15,000 
to  the  whole  psalter.  The  majority  of  these  reformers  exemplified 
their  preaching  in  their  own  persons,  and  St  Dominic  gained 
great  renown  by  inflicting  upon  himself  300,000  strokes  in  six 
days.  The  custom  of  collective  flagellation  was  introduced  into 
the  monastic  houses,  the  ceremony  taking  place  every  Friday 
after  confession. 

The  early  Franciscans  flagellated  themselves  with  character- 
istic rigour,  and  it  is  no  matter  of  surprise  to  find  the  Franciscan, 
St  Anthony  of  Padua,  preaching  the  praises  of  this  means  of 
penance.  It  is  incorrect,  however,  to  suppose  that  St  Anthony 
took  any  part  in  the  creation  of  the  flagellant  fraternities,  which 
were  the  result  of  spontaneous  popular  movements,  and  later 
than  the  great  Franciscan  preacher;  while  Ranieri,  a  monk  of 
Perugia,  to  whom  the  foundation  of  these  strange  communities 
has  been  attributed,  was  merely  the  leader  of  the  flagellant 
brotherhood  in  that  region.  About  1259  these  fraternities  were 
distributed  over  the  greater  part  of  northern  Italy.  The  con- 
tagion spread  very  rapidly,  extending  as  far  as  the  Rhine  pro- 
vinces, and,  across  Germany,  into  Bohemia.  Day  and  night, 
long  processions  of  all  classes  and  ages,  headed  by  priests  carrying 
crosses  and  banners,  perambulated  the  streets  in  double  file, 
reciting  prayers  and  drawing  the  blood  from  their  bodies  with 
leathern  thongs.  The  magistrates  in  some  of  the  Italian  towns, 
and  especially  Uberto  Pallavicino  at  Milan,  expelled  theflagellants 
with  threats,  and  for  a  time  the  sect  disappeared.  The  disorders 
of  the  i4th  century,  however,  the  numerous  earthquakes,  and 
the  Black  Death,  which  had  spread  over  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  produced  a  condition  of  ferment  and  mystic  fever  which 
was  very  favourable  to  a  recrudescence  of  morbid  forms  of 
devotion.  The  flagellants  reappeared,  and  made  the  state  of 
religious  trouble  in  Germany,  provoked  by  the  struggle  between 
the  papacy  and  Louis  of  Bavaria,  subserve  their  cause.  In  the 
spring  of  1349  bands  of  flagellants,  perhaps  from  Hungary, 
began  their  propaganda  in  the  south  of  Germany.  Each  band 
was  under  the  command  of  a  leader,  who  was  assisted  by  two 
lieutenants;  and  obedience  to  the  leader  was  enjoined  upon 
every  member  on  entering  the  brotherhood.  The  flagellants 
paid  for  their  own  personal  maintenance,  but  were  allowed 
to  accept  board  and  lodging,  if  offered.  The  penance  lasted 
335  days,  during  which  they  flogged  themselves  with  thongs 
fitted  with  four  iron  points.  They  read  letters  which  they  said 
had  fallen  from  heaven,  and  which  threatened  the  earth  with 
terrible  punishments  if  men  refused  to  adopt  the  mode  of  penance 
taught  by  the  flagellants.  On  several  occasions  they  incited 
the  populations  of  the  towns  through  which  they  passed  against 
the  Jews,  and  also  against  the  monks  who  opposed  their  propa- 
ganda. Many  towns  shut  their  gates  upon  them;  but,  in  spite 
of  discouragement,  they  spread  from  Poland  to  the  Rhine,  and 
penetrated  as  far  as  Holland  and  Flanders.  Finally,  a  band 
of  100  marched  from  Basel  to  Avignon  to  the  court  of  Pope 
Clement  VI.,  who,  in  spite  of  the  sympathy  shown  them  by 
several  of  his  cardinals,  condemned  the  sect  as  constituting  a 
menace  to  the  priesthood.  On  the  2oth  of  October  1349  Clement 
published  a  bull  commanding  the  bishops  and  inquisitors  to 
stamp  out  the  growing  heresy,  and  in  pursuance  of  the  pope's 
orders  numbers  of  the  sectaries  perished  at  the  stake  or  in  the 
cells  of  the  inquisitors  and  the  episcopal  justices.  In  1389  the 
leader  of  a  flagellant  band  in  Italy  called  the  bianchi  was  burned 
by  order  of  the  pope,  and  his  following  dispersed.  In  1417, 
however,  the  Spanish  Dominican  St  Vincent  Ferrer  pleaded 
the  cause  of  the  flagellants  with  great  warmth  at  the  council 
of  Constance,  and  elicited  a  severe  reply  from  John  Gerson 


464 


FLAGELLATA 


(Epistola  ad  Vincentium),  who  declared  that  the  flagellants  were 
showing  a  tendency  to  slight  the  sacramental  confession  and 
penance,  were  refusing  to  perform  the  cultus  of  the  martyrs 
venerated  by  the  church,  and  were  even  alleging  their  own 
superiority  to  the  martyrs. 

The  justice  of  Gerson's  protest  was  borne  out  by  events. 
In  Germany,  in  1414,  there  was  a  recrudescence  of  the  epidemic 
of  flagellation,  which  then  became  a  clearly-formulated  heresy. 
A  certain  Conrad  Schmidt  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  com- 
munity of  Thuringian  flagellants,  who  took  the  name  of  Brethren 
of  the  Cross.  Schmidt  gave  himself  out  as  the  incarnation  of 
Enoch,  and  prophesied  the  approaching  fall  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  the  overthrow  of  the  ancient  sacraments,  and  the  triumph 
of  flagellation  as  the  only  road  to  salvation.  Numbers  of 
Beghards  joined  the  Brethren  of  the  Cross,  and  the  two  sects 
were  confounded  in  the  rigorous  persecution  conducted  in 
Germany  by  the  inquisitor  Eylard  Schoneveld,  who  almost 
annihilated  the  flagellants.  This  mode  of  devotion,  however, 
held  its  ground  among  the  lower  ranks  of  Catholic  piety.  In 
the  i6th  century  it  subsisted  in  Italy,  Spain  and  southern  France. 
Henry  III.  of  France  met  with  it  in  Provence,  and  attempted  to 
acclimatize  it  at  Paris,  where  he  formed  bands  divided  into 
various  orders,  each  distinguished  by  a  different  colour.  The 
king  and  his  courtiers  joined  in  the  processions  in  the  garb  of 
penitents,  and  scourged  themselves  with  ostentation.  The 
king's  encouragement  seemed  at  first  to  point  to  a  successful 
revival  of  flagellation;  but  the  practice  disappeared  along  with 
the  other  forms  of  devotion  that  had  sprung  up  at  the  time  of 
the  league,  and  Henry  III.'s  successor  suppressed  the  Paris 
brotherhood.  Flagellation  was  occasionally  practised  as  a 
means  of  salvation  by  certain  Jansenist  convulsionaries  in  the 
i8th  century,  and  also,  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century, 
by  a  little  Jansenist  sect  known  as  the  Fareinists,  founded  by 
the'  brothers  Bonjour,  curis  of  Fareins,  near  Trevoux  (Ain). 
In  1820  a  band  of  flagellants  appeared  during  a  procession  at 
Lisbon;  and  in  the  Latin  countries,  at  the  season  of  great 
festivals,  one  may  still  see  brotherhoods  of  penitents  flagellating 
themselves  before  the  assembled  faithful. 

For  an  account  of  flagellation  in  antiquity  see  S.  Reinach,  Cultes, 
mythes  et  religions  (vol.  i.  pp.  173-183,  1906),  which  contains  a  biblio- 
graphy of  the  subject.  For  a  bibliography  of  the  practice  in  medieval 
times,  see  M.  Rohricht,  "  Bibliographische  Beitrage  zur  Gesch.  der 
Geissler"  inBriegersZeitschriftfurK.irchengeschichte,\.j,\j,.  (P.  A.) 

FLAGELLATA,  the  name  given  to  the  Protozoa  whose 
dominant  phase  is  a  "  flagellula,"  or  cell-body  provided  with 
one,  few  or  rarely  many  long  actively  vibratile,  cytoplasmic 
processes.  Nutrition  is  variable: — (i)  "Holozoic";  food 
taken  in  by  ingestion,  by  amoeboid  action  either  unspeciaiized 
or  at  one  or  more  well-defined  oral  spots,  or  through  an  aperture 
(mouth);  (2)  "  Saprophytic  "  ;  food  taken  in  in  solution  through 
the  general  surface  of  the  body;  (3)  "  Holophytic  ";  food- 
material  formed  in  the  coloured  plasm  by  fixation  of  carbon 
from  the  medium,  with  liberation  of  oxygen,  in  presence  of  light, 
as  in  green  plants.  Fission  in  the  "  active  "  state  occurs  and  is 
usually  longitudinal.  Multiple  fission  rarely  occurs  save  in  a 
sporocyst,  and  produces  microzoospores,  which  in  some  cases 
may  conjugate  with  others  as  isogametes  or  with  larger  forms 
(megagametes).  "  Hypnocysts "  to  tide  over  unfavourable 
conditions  are  not  infrequent,  but  have  no  necessary  relation  to 
reproduction.  Many  have  a  firm  pellicle  which  may  form  a  hard 
shell:  again  a  distinct  cell -wall  of  chitin  or  cellulose  may  be 
formed:  finally,  an  open  cup,  "  theca,"  of  .firm  or  gelatinous 
material  may  be  present,  with  or  without  a  stalk:  such  a  cup 
and  stalk  are  often  found  in  colonial  species,  and  are  subject 
to  much  the  same  conditions  as  in  Infusoria.  The  nucleus  is 
simple  in  most  cases;  but  in  Haemoflagellates  it  is  connected 
with  a  second  nucleus,  which  again  is  in  immediate  relation 
with  the  motile  apparatus;  the  former  is  termed  the  "  tropho- 
nucleus,"  the  latter  the  "  kineto-nucleus." 

As  reserves  the  protoplasm  may  contain  oil,  starch,  paramylum, 
leucosin  (a  substance  soluble  in  water,  and  of  doubtful  com- 
position), proteid  granules.  In  the  holophytic  forms  the  cyto- 
plasm contains  specialized  parts  of  more  or  less  definite  form, 


FIG.  i. — Flagellata. 


1 .  Chlamydomonas  pulvisculus, 
Ehr.  (Chlamydomonadidae)    free- 
swimming  individual. 

a  =  nucleus. 
b  =  contractile  vacuole. 
c}  =  starch  corpuscle. 
d  =cellulose  investment. 
e  =  stigma  (eye-spot). 

2.  Resting  stage  of  the  same, 
with    fourfold    division    of    the 
cell-contents.     Letters  as  before. 

3.  Breaking  up    of    the    cell- 
contents  into  minute  biflagellate 
swarm-spores,  which  escape,  and 
whose    history    is    not    further 
known. 

4.  Syncrypta       volvox,       Ehr. 
(Chrysomonadidae).      A    colony 
enclosed  by  a  common  gelatinous 
test  c. 

a  =  stigma. 

b  =vacuole(non-contractile). 

5.  Uroglena        volvox,       Ehr. 


(Chrysomonadidae).  Half  of  a 
large  colony,  the  flagellates  em- 
bedded in  a  common  jelly. 

6.  Chlorogonium       euchlorum, 
Ehr.  (Chlamydomonadidae). 

a  =  nucleus. 

6  =  contractile  vacuole. 

c  =  starch  grain. 

d  =  eye-spot. 

7.  Chlorogonium       euchlorum, 
Ehr.  (Chlamydomonadidae).  Copu- 
lation  of   two   liberated    micro- 
gonidia. 

a  =  nucleus. 

b  =  contractile  vacuole. 

d  =eye-spot  (so-called). 

8.  Colony  of  Dinobryon  sertu- 
laria,   Ehr.;  X2OO  (Chrysomcna- 
didae). 

9.  Haematococcvs       palustris, 
Girod  ( =  Chlamydococcus,  Braun, 
Protococcus,  Conn),  one  of  the 


FLAGELLATA 


Chrysomonadidae;  ordinary  in- 
dividual with  widely  separated 
test. 

a  =  nucleus. 

b  =  contractile  vacuole. 

c  =amylon  nucleus  (pyre- 
noid). 

10.  Dividing  resting  stage  of 
the  same,  with  eight  fission  pro- 
ducts in  the  common  test  e. 

11.  A    microgonidium    of    the 
same. 

12.  Phalansterium  consociatum, 
Cienk.  (Choanoflagellata) ;  X325. 
Disk-like  colony. 

13.  Euglena      viridis,       Ehr.; 
X  300  (Euglenidae). 

o  =  pigment  spot  (stigma). 
b  =  clear  space. 
c  =paramylum  granules. 
d  =  chromatophor         (endo- 
chrome  plate). 

14.  Gonium    pectorale,    O.    F. 
Miiller      (Volvocineae).      Colony 
seen  from  the  flat  side ;  X  300. 

a  =  nucleus. 

6  =  contractile  vacuole. 

c  =amylon  nucleus. 

15.  Dinobryon  sertularia,  Ehr. 
( Chrysomonadidae) . 

a  =  nucleus. 

b  =contractile  vacuole. 

c  =amylon  nucleus. 

d  =  free  colourless  flagellates, 

probably  not  belonging 

to  Dinobryon. 
e  =  stigma  (eye-spot). 
/ = chromatophors. 

1 6.  Peranema       trichophorum, 
Ehr.  (Peranemidae),  creeping  in- 
dividual   seen    from    the    back; 
X  140. 

c  =  pharynx. 
d  =  mouth. 

17.  Anterior  end  of  Euglena 
acus,  Ehr.,  in  profile. 

a  =  mouth. 

b  =vacuoles. 

c  —  pharynx. 

d  =  stigma  (eye-spot). 

e  =paramylum-body. 

/= chlorophyll  corpuscles. 

18.  Part   of   the   surface   of 
colony    of     Volvox    globator, 


465 


a 
L. 


(Volvoctdae),  showing  the  inter 
cellular  connective  fibrils. 

a  =  nucleus. 

b  =  contractile  vacuole. 

c  =  starch  granule. 

19.  Two   microgametes    (sper- 
matozoa) of   Volvox  globator,  L 

a  =  nucleus. 

b  =  contractile  vacuole. 

20.  Ripe    asexually    producec 
daughter-individual     of     Volvox 
minor,  Stein,  still  enclosed  in  the 
cyst  of  the  partheno-gonidium. 

a  =  young,  partheno-gonidia. 

21,22.  Trypanosoma  sanguinis, 

Gruby  (Haematoflagella tes) ,  from 

the  blood  of  Rana  esculenta. 

a  =  nucleus;    X  500. 

23-26.  Reproduction  of  Bodo 
caudatus,  Duj.  (Bodonidae),  after 
Dallinger  and  Drysdale : — 23, 
fusion  of  several  individuals  (plas- 
modium);  24,  encysted  fusion- 
product  dividing  into  four;  25, 
later  into  eight;  26,  cyst  filled 
with  swarm-spores. 

27.  Distigma    proteus,    Ehbg., 
O.  F.  Muller  (Euglenidae)  •  X44O. 
Individual  with  the  two  flagella, 
and  strongly  contracting  hinder 
region  of  the  body. 

28.  The  same  devoid  of  flagella. 
c,  c  =  the  two  dark  pigment 

spots  (so-called  eyes)  near 
the  mouth. 

29.  Oicomonas   termo    (Monas 
termo)  Ehr.  (one  of  the  Oicomona- 
didae). 

c  =  food-ingesting  vacuole. 
d  =  food-particle;    X44O. 

30.  The    food-particle    d    has 
now  been  ingested  by  the  vacuole. 

31.  Oicomonas  mutabilis,  Kent 
(Oicomonadidae),  with  adherent 
stalk. 

a  =  nucleus. 

b=  contractile  vacuole. 

c  —  food-particle     in      food 

vacuole. 

32,33.  Cercomonas  crassicauda, 
Duj.  (Oicomonadidae),  showing 
two  conditions  of  the  pseudo- 
podium-protruding  tail. 

a  =  nucleus. 

6  =  contractile  vacuoles. 

c  =  mouth. 


known  generally  as  "  plastids  "  or  "  chromatophores  "  impreg- 
nated with  a  lipochrome  pigment,  whether  green  (chlorophyll), 
yellow  or  brown  (diatomin  or  some  allied  pigment),  or  again  red 
(chlorophyll  with  phycoerythrin).  In  the  active  condition  of 
such  coloured  holophytic  forms  there  is  usually  at  least  one 
anterior  "  eye-spot,"  of  a  refractive  globule  embedded  behind 
in  a  collection  of  red  pigment  granules.  The  single  anterior 
"  flagellum  tractellum  "  of  so  many  of  the  larger  forms  acts 
by  the  bending  over  of  its  free  end  in  consecutive  meridians, 
so  as  to  describe  a  hollow  cone  with  its  apex  backwards:  we 
may  imitate  this  by  bending  the  head  of  a  slender  sapling  round 
and  round  while  it  is  implanted  in  the  soil;  and  the  result  is  to 
push  the  water  backwards,  or  in  other  words  to  pull  the  body 
forwards,  the  whole  rotating  on  its  longitudinal  axis  as  it  moves 
on  (Y.  Delage).  An  anterior  lateral  trailing  flagellum  may 
modify  this  axial  rotation,  and  help  in  steering.  When  the  animal 
is  at  rest — attached  by  its  base  or  with  its  body  so  curved  as 
to  resist  onward  motion — the  current  produced  by  the  tractellum 
will  bring  suspended  particles  up  against  the  protoplasm  at  its 
base  of  insertion.  As  noted  by  E.  R.  Lankester,  the  posterior 
flagellum  of  many  Haemoflagellates,  like  that  of  the  spermato- 
zoon of  Metazoa,  propels  the  cell  by  a  sculling  motion  behind; 
he  terms  it  a  "  pulsellum."  Such  flagellar  motion  is  distinct 
from  that  of  cilia,  which  always  move  backwards  and  forwards, 
with  a  swift  downstroke  and  a  slower  recovery  in  the  same  plane; 
though  where  the  flagella  are  numerous  they  may  behave  in  this 


way,  and  indeed  flagella  agree  with  cilia  in  being  mere  vibratory 
extensions  of  cytoplasm.  Symmetrically  placed  flagella  may 
have  a  symmetrical  reciprocating  motion  like  that  of  cilia. 

Many  of  the  Flagellata  are  parasitic  (some  haematozoic) ; 
the  majority  live  in  the  midst  of  putrefying  organic  matter  in 
sea  and  fresh  waters,  but  are  not  known  to  be  active  as  agents 
of  putrefaction.  Dallinger  and  Drysdale  have  shown  that  the 
spores  of  Bodo  and  others  will  survive  an  exposure  to  a  higher 
temperature  than  do  any  known  Schizomycetes  (Bacteria), 
viz.  250°  to  300°  Fahr.,  for  ten  minutes,  although  the  adults  are 
killed  at  180°. 

The  Flagellata  are  for  the  most  part  very  minute;  the  Proto- 
mastigopoda  rarely  exceeding  20  /i  in  length.  The  Euglenaceae 
contain  the  largest  species,  up  to  130  /i  in  length,  exclusive  of 
the  flagellum. 

Our  classification  is  modified  from  those  of  Senn  (in  Engler 
and  Prantl,  Pflanzenfamilien)  and  Hartog  (in  Cambridge  Natural 
History). 

I.  RHIZOFLAGELLATA  (PANTOSTOMATA) 
Food  taken  in  by  pseudopodia  at  any  part  of  the  body. 
Order  I.— HOLOMASTIGACEAE.      Body  homaxial  with  uniform 
flagella.     Multicilia  (Cienkowski) ;  Crassia  (Fisch,  in  frog's  blood 

and  gastric  mucus). 

Order  2.— RHIZpMASTIGACEAE.     Flagellum  i,  2  or  few,  diverg- 
ing from  anterior  end.     Mastigamoeba  (F.  E.  Schulze). 

II.  EUFLAGELLATA 

Food  taken  in  at  one  or  more  definite  mouth-spots,  or  by  a  true 
mouth,  or  by  absorption ;   or  nutrition  holophytic. 
Order  I .— PROTOMASTIGACEAE.  Contractile  vacuole  simple,  one 
or  more,  or  absent;   either  holozoic,  ingesting  food  by  a  mouth- 
spot  (or  2  or  more),  saprophytic,  or  parasitic. 

Family  i  .^OICOMONADIDAE.  Flagellum  i,  sometimes  with 
a  tail-like  posterior  prominence  passing  into  a  temporary 
flagellum,  but  without  other  cytoplasmic  processes. 
Oicomonas  (Kent);  Cercomonas  (Dujardin)  (fig.  1,32,33); 
Codonoeca  (James-Clark),  with  a  gelatinous  theca. 
Family  2. — BICOECIDAE.  Differs  from  Oicomonadidae  in  a  uni- 
lateral proboscidiform  process  next  the  flagellum;  often 
thecate  and  stalked,  forming  branched  colonies,  like 
Choanoflagellates  in  habit.  Bicoeca  (J.-C1.),  Poteriodendron. 
Family  3. — CHOANOFLAGELLIDAE  (Choanoflagellata,  Kent; 
Craspedomonadina,  Stein).  As  in  previous  families,  but 
with  flagellum  surrounded  by  an  obconical  or  cylindrical 
rim  of  cytoplasm,  at  the  base  of  which  is  the  ingestive 
area.  The  cells  of  this  group  have  the  morphology  of  the 
fiageljate  cells  (choanocvtes)  of  sponges.  They  are  often 
colonial,  and  in  the  gelatinous  colony  of  Proterospongia, 
the  more  internal  cells  (fig.  2,  15)  pass  into  a  definite 
"  reproductive  state."  Many  stalked  forms  are  epizoic  on 
Entomostracan  Crustacea. 

(a)  Naked  forms  often  stalked:   Monosiga  (Kent),  stalked 

solitary;  Codosiga  (Kent)  (fig.  2,  3),  stalked  social; 
Desmarella  (Kent),  unstalked,  and  Astrosiga  (Kent), 
stalked,  form  floating  colonies. 

(b)  Forms  enclosed  in  a  vase-like  shell:    Salpingoeca  (J.- 

Cl.);  (fig.  2,  I,  6,  7)  recalling  the  habit  of  Monosiga 
and  Cod  siga;  Polyoeca  forming  a  branched  free 
swimming  colony. 

(f)  Forms  surrounded  by  a  gelatinous  sheath :  Protero- 
spongia (Kent)  (fig.  2,  is);  Phalansterium  (Cienk.) 
(fig.  i,  12),  has  a  slender  cylindrical  collar,  and  a 
branching  tubular  stalk. 

Family  4. — HAEMOFLAGELLIDAE.  Formswithacomplexnuclear 
apparatus,  and  a  muscular  undulating  membrane  with 
which  one  or  two  flagella  are  connected,  parasitic  in  Metazoa 
(often  in  the  blood).  Trypanosoma  (Gruby)  (fig.  I,  21,  22), 
Herpetomonas(Kent),Treponema(Vu'Memin)(  =  Spirochaele, 
auctt.,  nee.  Ehrbg.). 

Family  5. — AMPHIMONADIDAE.  Flagella  2 anterior.both  directed 
forward,  equal  and  similar;  in  stalk  sheath,  &c.,  often 
recalling  Choanoflagellata,  Amphimonas  (Kent),  Diplomitus 
(Kent);  Spongomonas  (St.),  with  thick  branching  gelatinous 
sheath. 

Family  6.^MoNADiDAE.  Flagella  2  (3),  anterior  all  directed 
forwards,  one  long  the  other  (or  2)  accessory,  short. 

Monas  (St.);  Anthophysa  (Bory)  (fig.  2,  12,  13),  with  the 
stalk  composed  of  the  accumulation  of  faeces  at  the  hinder 
end  of  the  cells  of  the  colony. 

Family  7. — BODONIDAE.  Flagella  2  (or  3)  i  anterior,  the  other 
(i  or  2)  antero-lateral  and  trailing  or  becoming  fixed  at  the 
end  to  form  a  temporary  anchor. 

j(  Bodo  (Ehrb.)  (figs,  i,  23-26  and  2,  jo).  B.  lens  is  the 
"  hooked  "  and  B.  saltans  the  "  springing  monad  "  of 
Dallinger  and  Drysdale ;  Dallingeria  (Kent)  with  a  pair  of 


4-66 


FLAGELLATA 


FIG.  2. — Flagellata. 


1.  Salpingoeca   fusiformis,    S. 
Kent     (Chpanoflagellata).     The 
protoplasmic  body  is  drawn  to- 
gether within  the  goblet-shaped 
shell,  and  divided  into  numerous 
spores;    Xi5<x>. 

2.  Escape  of  the  spores  of  the 
same     as     monoflagellate     and 
swarm-spores. 

3.  Codosiga  umbellate,    Tatem 
(Choanoflagellata) ;  adult  colony 
formed  by  dichotomous  growth; 
X625. 

4.  A  single  zooid  of  the  same; 
Xi250. 

a = nucleus. 

b  =  contractile  vacuole. 

c=the  characteristic  "col- 
lar "  of  naked  stream- 
ing protoplasm. 

5.  Hexamita  inflata,  Duj.  (Dis- 
tomatidae);      X6so;     normal 
adult. 


6,  7.  Salpingoeca  urceolata,  S. 
Kent  (Choanoflagellata) : — 6, 
with  collar  extended;  7,  with 
collar  retracted  within  the 
stalked  cup. 

8.  Polytoma  uvella,  Mull.   sp. 
(Chlamydomonadidae) ;    X8oo. 

9.  Lophomonas  blattarum, 
Stein   (Trichonymphidae)      from 
the  intestine  of  Blatta  orientalis. 

10.  Bodo  lens,  Mull.;     X8oo. 
(Bodonidae),  the  wavy  filament 
is  a  tractellum,  the  straight  one 
is  a  trailing  thread. 

11.  Tetramitus  sulcatus,  Stein 
(Tetramitidae);    X43O. 

12.  Anthophysavegetans,  O.  F. 
Muller     (Monadidae) ;        Xjoo. 
A  typical,  erect,  shortly-branch- 
ing colony  stock  with  four  ter- 
minal monad-clusters. 

13.  Monad  cluster  of  the  same 
in  optical  section  (X8oo),  show- 


ing the  relation  of  the  individual 
monads  or  flagellate  zooids  to  the 
stem  d. 

14.  Tetramitus  rostratus,  Perty 
( Tetramitidae) ;    X  i  ooo. 

a  =  nucleus. 

b  =  contractile  vacuole. 

15.  Proterospongia      Haeckeli, 
Saville  Kent  (Choanoflagellata); 
X8oo.    A  social  colony  of  about 
forty  flagellate  zooids. 

a  =  nucleus. 

b  =  contractile  vacuole. 

c=amoebiform     cell     sunk 


within  the  colonial  gela- 
tinous test  compared  by 
S.  Kent  to  a  mesoderm 
cell  of  the  sponges. 

d  =  similar  cell  reproducing 
by  transverse  fission. 

e  =  normal  cells,  with  their 
collars  contracted. 

/  =  substance  of  test. 

g  =  individual  reproducing 
by  multiple  fission,  pro- 
ducing microzOospores, 
comparable  to  the  sper- 
matozoa of  sponges. 


antero-lateral  flagella;    Cosiia  necalrix  (Leclerq)  is  also  3- 
flagellate;  causes  destructive  epidemics  in  fish-hatcheries. 

Family  8. — TETRAMITIDAE.  Body  pyriform,  the  pointed  end 
posterior ;  flagella  4  anterior. 

Tetramitus  (Perty)  (T.  calycinus  of  Kent,  fig.  2,  n,  id), 
is  the  "  calycine  monad  "  of  Dallinger  and  Drysdale; 
Trichomonas,  Donne,  possesses  a  longitudinal  undulating 
membrane,  and  is  an  innocuous  human  parasite;  it  is 
possibly  related  to 
H  a  e  m  o  fl  agellates 
on  one  hand  and 
to  Trichonymphi- 
dae on  the  other. 

Family  9. — DISTOMA- 
TIDAE.  Mouth- , 
spots  two,  or  one, 
with  a  distinct 
construction ;  fla- 
gella symmetri- 
cally arranged ; 
nucleus  bilobed 
or  geminate.  Hex- 
amitus  (Duj.)  (fig. 
2,  5),  saprpphytic 
and  parasitic ;  Tre- 
p'omonas  (Duj.), 
freshwater;  Mega- 
stoma  (Grassi)  (  = 
I^amblia  of  Blan- 
chard),  with  con- 
stricted mouth- 
spot  and  blepha- 
roplast  (kinetp- 
nucleus)  parasitic 
in  the  small  intes- 
tine of  Mammals, 
including  Man. 

Family    10. — TRICHO- 
NYMPHIDAE.   Fla- 
gella      numerous, 
sometimes  accom- 
panied by  one  or  FIG.  3. 
more     undulating       i.   Trichonympha  agilis,  Leidy,  from 
membranes;  cyto-  gut  of  White  Ant  (Termite);    X6oo. 
plasm       highly       2.  Opalina  ranarum,  Purkinje  para- 
differentiated;  sitic  in  frog  rectum  multinucleate  adult ; 
contractile       vac-    Xioo. 

uole     absent;     all      3,4.  Binary  fissionsof  same,  i-nucleat 
parasitic      in      in-  individual  at  final  stage  of  fission, 
sects     (all    except       5.  Same     encysted     dejected     from 
Lophomonas        in  rectum  to  be  swallowed  by  tadpole. 
Termites — the  so-       6.  Young       l-nucleate       individual 
called     White  emerged  from  cyst,  destined  to  grow, 
Ants.)  proliferating  its  nuclei  to  adult  form. 

Lophomonas  (St.)  a  =  nucleus, 

(fig.  2,  p);     para-  6  =  food  (?)  particles  in  fig.  I. 

sitic  in  the  cock- 
roach; Dinenympha  (Leidy ),Pyrsonympha  (Leidy);  Triche- 
nympha  (Leidy)  (fig.  3,  j). 

Family  n. — OPALINIDAE.  Flagella  short,  numerous,  cUiform, 
uniformly  distributed  over  the  flat  oval  body ;  nuclei  small, 
numerous,  uniform. 

Only  genus,  Opalina  (Purkinje  and  Valentin)  (fig.  3,  2-6), 
in  bladder  and  cloaca  of  the  frog  (usually  regarded  as  an 
aberrant  ciliate,  but  E.  R.  Lankester  expressed  doubts  as 
to  its  position  in  the  gth  edition  of  this  encyclopaedia). 
Order  2.— CHRYSOMONADACEAE.  Contractile  vacuole  simple  (in 
fresh-water  forms)  or  absent;     plastids  yellow  or  brown  always 
present;   reserves  fat. 

Family  i. — CHRYSOMONADIDAE.  Body  naked,  often  amoeboid 
in  active  state,  or  sometimes  with  a  cup-like  theca,  a  gela- 
tinous investment,  a  firm  cuticle,  or  silicified  shell ;  reserves 
fat  or  leucosin  (starch  in  Zooxanthella) ;  eye-spot  present. 
Chromulina  (Cienk.)  often  forms  a  golden  scum  on  tanks; 
Chrysamoeba  (Klebs);  Hydrurus  (Agardh),  theca  of  colony 


FLAGELLATA 


467 


forming  branching  tubes,  simulating  a  yellow  Conferva  in 
mountain  torrents;  Dinobryon  (Ehrb.)  (fig.  I,  8,  15); 
Stylochrysalis  (St.);  Uroglena  (Ehrb.);  Syncrypta  (Ehrb.), 
and  Synura  (Ehrb.)  (fig.  i,  5)  form  floating  spherical 
colonies;  Zooxanthella  (Brandt),  symbiotic  as  "  yellow 
cells  "  in  RadioJaria  Foramtnifera,  Millet>ora,  and  many 
Actinozoa. 

Family  2. — COCCOLITHOPHORIDAE.  Body  invested  in  a  spheri- 
cal test  strengthened  by  calcareous  elements,  tangential 
circular  plates,  "  coccoliths,"  "  discoliths,"  "  cyatholiths," 
or  radiating  rods  "  rhabdpliths."  These  are  often  found  in 
Foraminiferal  ooze  and  its  fossil  condition,  chalk;  when 
coherent  as  in  the  complete  test,  they  are  known  as  "  cocco- 
spheres  "  and  "  rhabdospheres."  Coccolithophora  (Loh- 
mann),  Rhabdospkaera  (Haeckel). 

Order  3.— CRYPTOMONADACEAE.  Contractile vacuole  (in  fresh- 
water forms)  simple;  plastids  green,  more  rarely  red,  brown  or 
absent;  reserves  starch;  holophytic  or  saprophytic.  Crypto- 
monas  (Ehrb.);  Paramoeba  (Greeff)  has  yellow  plastids  and 
shows  two  cycles,  in  the  one  amoeboid,  finally  encysting  to  pro- 
duce a  brood  of  flagellulae;  in  the  other  flagellate,  and  multiply- 
ing by  longitudinal  fission  (it  differs  from  Mastigamoeba  in  possess- 
ing no  flagellum  in  the  amoeboid  state,  though  it  takes  in  food 
amoeba-fashion) ;  Chilomonas  (Ehrb.). 

Order  4.— CHLOROMONADACEAE.  Contractile  vacuoles  1-3,  a 
complex  of  variable  arrangement;  pellicle  delicate;  plastids  dis- 
coid chlorophyll-bodies;  reserves  oil;  eye-spot  absent  even  in 
active  state;  holophytic  or  saprophytic,  though  with  an  anterior 
blind  tubular  depression  simulating  a  pharynx.  Coelomonas  (St.), 
Vacuolaria  (Cienk.). 

Order  5. — EUGLENACEAE.  Vacuole  large,  a  reservoir  for  one  or 
more  accessory  vacuoles,  contractile  and  opening  to  the  surface 
by  a  canal  ("  pharynx  ")  in  which  are  planted  one  or  two  strong 
flagella ;  pellicle  strong  often  striated ;  nucleus  large,  chromato- 
phores  green,  complex  or  absent;  reserves  paramylum  granules 
of  definite  shape,  and  oil;  nutrition  variable;  body  stiff  or 
"  metabolic,"  never  amoeboid.  Among  the  true  Flagellates  these 
are  the  largest,  few  being  below  40  p  and  several  attaining  130  n 
in  length  of  cell-body  (excluding  flagellum).  Encysted  condition 
common;  the  green  forms  sometimes  multiply  in  this  state  and 
simulate  unicellular  Algae. 

Family  I. — EUGLENIDAE.  Radial  (monaxial)  forms;  nutrition 
saprophytic  or  holophytic,  mostly  one  flagellate.  (l) 
Chromatophore  large;  eye-spot  conspicuous.  Euglena 
(Ehrb.)  (fig.  I,  13,  17),  with  flexible  cuticle  and  metabolic 
movements  (this  is  probably  Priestley's  "  green  matter  " 
through  which  he  obtained  oxygen  gas) — -a  very  common 
genus;  Colacium  (Ehbg.),  in  its  resting  state  epizoic  on 
Copepoda,  which  it  colours  green;  Eutreptia  (Perty),  bi- 
flagellate;  Ascoglena  (St.);  Trachelomonas  (Ehrb.),  with 
a  hard  brown  cuticle;  Phacus  (Nitszche),  with  a  firm  rigid 
pellicle,  often  symmetrically  flattened;  Cryptoglena  (Ehbg.). 
(2)  Chromatcphores  absent.  Astasia  (Duj.),  body  meta- 
bolic; Menoidium  (Perty),  body  not  metabolic,  somewhat 
inflected  and  crescentic;  Sphenomonas  (Stein),  with  a  short 
accessory  trailing  flagellum  in  front  peeled;  Distigma 
(Ehbg.)  (fie.  I,  27 .  28),  very  metabolic,  with  two  unequal 
flagella  and  two  dark  pigment  spots. 

Family  2. — PERANEMIDAE.  Bilaterally  symmetrical,  often 
creeping,  pharynx  highly  developed,  with  a  firm  rod-like 
skeleton,  sometimes  protrusible;  nutrition  saprophytic 
and  holozoic.  Peranema  (Ehbg.)  and  Urceolus  (Mcre- 
schowsky),  uni-flagellate  creeping,  very  metabolic.  Peta- 
lomonas  (St.),  uni-flagellate  flattened  with  a  deep  ventral 
groove,  not  metabolic;  Heteronema  (Duj.)  and  Tropido- 
scyphus  (St.),  with  a  small  accessory  anterior  trailing 
flagellum;  Anisonema  (Duj.)  and  Entosiphon  (St.),  with 
the  trailing  flagellum  as  long  as  the  tractellum  or  even  much 
longer. 

Order  6. — VOLVOCACEAE.     Contractile  vacuole  simple  anterior; 
cell  always  enclosed  in  a  cellulose  wall  (sometimes  gelatinous) 
perforated  by  the  two  (more  rarely  four,  five)  diverging  anterior 
flagella;    reserves    starch;    chlorophyll    almost    always    present, 
except  in  Polytoma,  sometimes  masked  by  a  red  pigment;  nutri- 
tion   usually    holophytic,    rarely    saprophytic,    never    holozoic. 
Brood-division  in  active  state  common,  radial. 
Family     I. — CHLAMYDOMONADIDAE.       Cell-wall      firm      not 
gelatinous,  rarely  forming  colonies.    Fore-end  of  the  body 
with  two  or  four  (seldom  five)  flagella.     Almost  always 
green  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  a  very  large  single 
chromatophore.     Generally  a  delicate  shell-like  envelope 
of  membranous  consistence.     I   to  2  simple  contractile 
vacuoles  at  the  base  of  the  flagella.     Usually  one  eye- 
speck.    Division  of  the  protoplasm  within  the  envelope  may 
produce  four,  eight  or  more  new  individuals.     This  may 
occur  in  the  swimming  or  in  a  resting  stage.    Also  by  more 
continuous    fission    microgametes    of    various    sizes    are 
formed.    Conjugation  is  frequent. 

Genera.— Chlorangium      (Stein),     lacking      green     chlorophyll; 
Chlorogonium   (Ehr.)   (fig.   I,  6,  7):  Polytoma   (Ehr.)   (fig.   2,  8); 


Chlamydomonas  (Ehr.)  (fig.  I,  I,  2,  j);  Haematococcus  (Agardh) 
( =  Chlamydococcus,  A.  Braun,  Stein);  Prolococcus  (Cohn,  Huxley 
and  Martin);  Chlamydomonas  (Cienkowski),  causes  red  snow  and 
"  bloody  rairt  ";  Carteria  (Diesing),  quadri-flagellate ;  Spondyto- 
morum  (Ehrb.),  forming  floating  colonies;  Coccomonas  (St.); 
Phacotus  (Perty);  Zoochlorella  (Brandt),  is  the  name  given  to  un- 
determined Chlamydomonads  found  multiplying  in  the  resting  state 
within  and  in  symbiotic  relation  to  other  Protozoa,  to  the  fresh- 
water sponge,  Ephydatia,  Hydra  viridis,  and  to  the  Turbellarian, 
Convoluta  viridis  (in  which  last  species  the  active  form  has  been 
recognized  as  a  Carteria). 

Family  2. — VOLVOCIDAE.  Cell-wall  gelatinous;  always  as- 
sociated in  colonies;  cells,  as  in  Family  I.  The  number 
of  individuals  united  to  form  a  colony  varies  very  much, 
as  does  the  shape  of  the  colony.  Reproduction  by  the 
continuous  division  of  all  or  of  only  certain  individuals  of 
the  colony,  resulting  in  the  production  of  a  daughter  colony 
(from  each  such  individual).  In  some,  probably  in  all, 
at  certain  times  copulation  of  the  individuals  of  distinct 
sexual  colonies  takes  place,  without  or  with  a  differentiation 
of  the  colonies  and  of  the  copulating  cells  as  male  and  female. 
The  result  of  the  copulation  is  a  resting  zygospore  (also 
called  zygote  or  oospermo  or  fertilized  egg),  which  after  a 
time  develops  itself  into  one  or  more  new  colonies. 
Genera. — Gonium  (O.  F.  Miiller)  (fig.  I,  14);  Slephanosphaera 
(Cohn);  Pandorina  (Bory  de  Vine.);  Eudorina  (Ehr.);  Volvox 
(Ehr.)  (fig.  i,  18, 20). 

The  sexual  reproduction  of  the  colonies  of  the  Volvocaceae  is  one 
of  the  most  important  phenomena  presented  by  the  Protozoa.  In 
some  families  of  Flagellata  full-grown  individuals  become  amoeboid, 
fuse,  encyst,  and  then  break  up  into  flagellate  spores  which  develop 
simply  to  the  parental  form  (fig.  I,  23  to  26).  In  the  Chlamydomona- 
didae  a  single  adult  individual  by  division  produces  small  individuals, 
so-called  '  microgametes."  These  conjugate  with  one  another  or 
with  similar  microgametes  formed  by  other  adults  (as  in  Chloro- 
gonium, fig.  I,  7);  or  more  rarely  in  certain  genera  a  microgamete 
conjugates  with  an  ordinary  individual  megagamete.  The  result 
in  either  case  is  a  "  zygote,  a  cell  formed  by  fusion  of  two  which 
divides  in  the  usual  way  to  produce  new  individuals.  The  micro- 
gamete  in  this  case  is  the  male  element  and  equivalent  to  a  sperma- 
tozoon; the  megagamete  is  the  female  and  equivalent  to  an  egg- 
cell.  The  zygote  is  a  "  fertilized  egg,"  or  oosperm.  In  some  colony- 
building  forms  we  find  that  only  certain  cells  produce  by  division 
microgametes;  and,  regarding  the  colony  as  a  multicellular  in- 
dividual, we  may  consider  these  cells  as  testis-cells  and  their  micro- 
gametes  as  spermatozoa. 

CYSTOFLAGELLATA(RHYNCHOFLAGELLATApfE.R.Lankester)and 

DINOFLAGELLATA  are  scarcely  more  than  subdivisions  of  Flagellata ; 
but,  following  O.  Biitschli,  we  describe  them  separately;  the  three 
groups  being  united  into  his  MASTIGOPHORA. 

Further  Remarks  on  the  Flagellates. — Besides  the  work  of  special 
Protozoologists,  such  as  F.  Cienkowski,  O.  Biitschli,  F.  v.  Stein,  F. 
Schaudinn,  W.  Saville  Kent,  &c.,  the  Flagellates  have  been  a 
favourite  study  with  botanists,  especially  algologists:  we  may  cite 
N.  Pringsheim,  F.  Cohn,  W.  C.  Williamson,  W.  Zopf,  P.  A.  Dangeard, 
G.  Klebs,  G.  Senn,  F.  Schiitt;  the  reason  for  this  is  obvious.  They 
present  a  wide  range  of  structure,  from  the  simple  amoeboid  genera 
to  the  highly  differentiated  cells  of  Euglenaceae,  and  the  complex 
colonies  of  Proterospongia  and  Volvox.  By  some  they  are  regarded 
as  the  parent-group  of  the  whole  of  the  Protozoa — a  position  which 
may  perhaps  better  be  assigned  to  the  Proteomyxa ;  but  they  seem 
undoubtedly  ancestral  to  Dinoflagellates  and  to  Cystoflagellates,  as 
well  as  to  Sporozoa,  and  presumably  to  Infusoria.  Moreover,  the 
only  distinction  between  the  CUamydomonadidae  and  the  true  green 
Algae  or  Chlorophyceae  is  that  when  the  former  divide  in  the  resting 
condition,  or  are  held  together  by  gelatinization  of  the  older  cell- 
walls  (Palmella  state),  they  round  off  and  separate,  while  the  latter 
divide  by  a  "  party  wall  '  so  as  to  give  rise  either  to  a  cylindrical 
filament  when  the  partitions  are  parallel  and  the  axis  of  growth 
constant  (Conferva  type),  or  to  a  plate  of  tissue  when  the  directions 
alternate  in  a  plane.  The  same  holds  good  for  the  Chrysomonadaceac 
and  Cryptomonadaceae,  so  that  .these  little  groups  are  included  in 
all  text-books  of  botany.  Again  among  Fungi,  the  zoospores  of 
the  Zoosporous  Phycomycetes  (Chytrydiaceae,  Peronosporaceae, 
Saprolegniaceae)  have  the  characters  of  the  Bodonidae.  Thus  in 
two  directions  the  Flagellates  lead  up  to  undoubted  Plants.  Prob- 
ably also  the  Chlamydomonads  have  an  ancestral  relation  to  the 
Conjugatae  in  the  widest  sense,  and  the  Chrysomonadaceae  to  the 
Diatomaceae;  both  groups  of  obscure  affinity,  since  even  the  repro- 
ductive bodies  have  no  special  organs  of  locomotion.  For  these 
reasons  the  Volvocaceae,  Chloromonadaceae,  Chrysomonadaceae 
and  Cryptomonadaceae  have  been  united  as  Phytpflagellates ;  and 
the  Euglenaceae  might  well  be  added  to  these.  It  is  easy  to  under- 
stand the  relation  of  the  saprophytic  and  the  holophytic  Flagellates 
to  true  plants.  The  capacity  to  absorb  nutritive  matter  in  solution 
(as  contrasted  with  the  ingestion  of  solid  matter)  renders  the  encysted 
condition  compatible  with  active  growth,  and  what  in  holozoic  forms 
is  a  true  hypnocyst,  a  state  in  which  all  functions  are  put  to  sleep, 
is  here  only  a  rest  from  active  locomotion,  nutrition  being  only 
limited  by  the  supply  of  nutritive  matter  from  without,  and — in  the 


468 


FLAGEOLET— FLAMBARD 


case  of  holophytic  species — by  the  illumination:  this  latter  con- 
dition naturally  limits  the  possible  growth  in  thickness  in  holophytes 
with  undifferentiated  tissues.  The  same  considerations  apply 
indeed  to  the  larger  parasitic  organisms  among  Sporozoa,  such  as 
Gregarines  and  Myxosporidia  and  Dolichosporidia,  which  are  giants 
among  Protozoa. 

LITERATURE. — W.  S.  Kent, Manual  of  the^  Infusoria,  vol.  i.  Protozoa 
(1880-1882) ;  O.  Butschli,  Die  Flagellaten  (in  Bronn's  Thierreich,  vol. 
i.  Protozoa,  1885) ;  these  two  works  contain  full  bibliographies  of  the 
antecedent  authors.  See  also  J.  Goroschankin  (on  Chlamydomonads) 
in  Bull.  Soc.  Nat.  (Moscow,  iv.  v.,  1890-1891);  G.  Klebs,  "  Flagel- 
latenstudien  "  in  Zeitsch.  Wiss.  Zool.  Iv.  (1892);  Dofjein,  Prolozoen 
als  Krankheitserreger  (1900) ;  Senn,  "  Flagellaten,"  in  Engler  and 
Prantl's  Pflanzenfamilien,  i  Teil,  Abt.  la  (1900);  R.  France,  Der 
Organismus  der  Craspedomonaden  (1897) ;  Grass!  and  Sandias,  "  Tri- 
chonymphidae,"  in  Quart.  J.  Micr.  Sci.  xxxix.-xl.  (1897);  Bezzen- 
berger,  "  Opa  inidae  "  in  Arch.  Protist,  iii.  (1903);  Marcus  Hartog, 
"  Protozoa,"  in  Cambridge  Nat.  Hist.  vol.  i.  (1906).  (M.  HA.) 

FLAGEOLET,  in  music,  a  kind  of  flule-a-bec  with  a  new 
fingering,  invented  in  France  at  the  end  of  the  i6th  century,  and 
in  vogue  in  England  from  the  end  of  the  i7th  to  the  beginning  of 
the  i  gth  century.  The  instrument  is  described  and  illustrated 
by  Mersenne,1  who  states  that  the  most  famous  maker  and 
player  in  his  day  was  Le  Vacher.  The  flageolet  differed  from 
the  recorder  in  that  it  had  four  finger-holes  in  front  and  two 
thumb-holes  at  the  back  instead  of  seven  finger-holes  in  front 
and  one  thumb-hole  at  the  back.  This  fingering  has  survived 
in  the  French  flageolet  still  used  in  the  provinces  of  France  in 
small  orchestras  and  for  dance  music.  The  arrangement  of  the 
holes  was  as  follows:  i,  left  thumb-hole  at  the  back  near 
mouthpiece;  2  and  3,  finger-holes  stopped  by  the  left  hand; 
4,  finger-hole  stopped  by  right  hand;  5,  thumb-hole  at  the  back; 
6,  hole  near  the  open  end.  According  to  Dr  Burney  (History 
of  Music)  the  flageolet  was  invented  by  the  Sieur  Juvigny,  who 
played  it  in  the  Ballet  comique  de  la  Royne,  1581.  Dr  Edward 
Browne,2  writing  to  his  father  from  Cologne  on  the  2oth  of  June 
1673,  relates,  "  We  have  with  us  here  one  .  .  .  and  Mr  Hadly 
upon  the  flagelet,  which  instrument  he  hath  so  improved  as  to 
invent  large  ones  and  outgoe  in  sweetnesse  all  the  basses  whatso- 
ever upon  any  other  instrument."  About  the  same  time  was 
published  Thomas  Greeting's  Pleasant  Companion;  or  New 
Lessons  and  Instructions  for  the  Flagelet  (London,  1675  or  1682), 
a  rare  book  of  which  the  British  Museum  does  not  possess  a 
copy.  The  instrument  retained  its  popularity  until  the  beginning 
of  the  i  gth  century,  when  Bainbridge  constructed  double  and 
triple  flageolets.3  The  three  tubes  were  bored  parallel  through 
one  piece  of  wood  communicating  near  the  mouthpiece  which 
was  common  to  all  three.  The  lowest  notes  of  the  respective 

tubes  were 

The  word  flageolet  was  undoubtedly  derived  from  the  medieval 
Fr.  flajol,  the  primitive  whistle-pipe.  (K.  S.) 

FLAGSHIP,  the  vessel  in  a  fleet  which  carries  the  flag,  the 
symbol  of  authority  of  an  admiral. 

FLAHAUT  DE  LA  BILLARDERIE,  AUGUSTE  CHARLES 
JOSEPH,  COMTE  DE  (1785-1870),  French  general  and  statesman, 
son  of  Alexandre  Sebastien  de  Flahaut  de  la  Billarderie,  comte 
de  Flahaut,  beheaded  at  Arras  in  February  1793,  and  his  wife 
Adelaide  Filleul,  afterwards  Mme  de  Souza  (q.v.),  was  born  in 
Paris  on  the  2ist  of  April  1785.  Charles  de  Flahaut  was  generally 
recognized  to  be  the  offspring  of  his  mother's  liaison  with  Talley- 
rand, with  whom  he  was  closely  connected  throughout  his  life. 
His  mother  took  him  with  her  into  exile  in  1792,  and  they 
remained  abroad  until  1 798.  He  entered  the  army  as  a  volunteer 
in  1800,  and  received  his  commission  after  the  battle  of  Marengo. 
He  became  aide-de-camp  to  Murat,  and  was  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Landbach  in  1805.  At  Warsaw  he  met  Anne  Ponia- 
towski,  Countess  Potocka,  with  whom  he  rapidly  became  inti- 
mate. After  the  battle  of  Fried  land  he  received  the  Legion  of 

1  Harmonie  universelle  (Paris,  1636),  bk.  v.  pp.  232-237. 

2  See  Sir  Thomas  Browne's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  206. 

1  See  Capt.  C.  R.  Day,  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  Musical  Instruments 
(London,  1891),  pp.  18-22  and  pi.  4;  also  Complete  Instructions  for 
the  Double  Flageolet  (London,  1825);  and  The  Preceptor,  or  a  Key 
to  the  Double  Flageolet  (London,  1815). 


Honour,  and  returned  to  Paris  in  1807.  He  served  in  Spain  in 
1808,  and  then  in  Germany.  Meanwhile  the  Countess  Potocka 
had  established  herself  in  Paris,  but  Charles  de  Flahaut  had  by 
this  time  entered  on  his  liaison  with  Hortense  de  Beauharnais, 
queen  of  Holland.  The  birth  of  their  son  was  registered  in  Paris 
on  the  2ist  of  October  1811  as  Charles  Auguste  Louis  Joseph 
Demorny,  known  later  as  the  due  de  Morny.  Flahaut  fought 
with  distinction  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812,  and  in  1813 
became  general  of  brigade,  aide-de-camp  to  the  emperor,  and, 
after  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  general  of  division.  After  Napoleon's 
abdication  in  1814  he  submitted  to  the  new  government,  but 
was  placed  on  the  retired  list  in  September.  He  was  assiduous 
in  his  attendance  on  Queen  Hortense  until  the  Hundred  Days 
brought  him  into  active  service  again.  A  mission  to  Vienna  to 
secure  the  return  of  Marie  Louise  resulted  in  failure.  He  was 
present  at  Waterloo,  and  afterwards  sought  to  place  Napoleon  II. 
on  the  throne.  He  was  saved  from  exile  by  Talleyrand's  influence, 
but  was  placed  under  police  surveillance.  Presently  he  elected 
to  retire  to  Germany,  and  thence  to  England,  where  he  married 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Admiral  George  Keith  Elphinstone, 
Lord  Keith,  and  after  the  latter's  death  Baroness  Keith  in  her 
own  right.  The  French  ambassador  opposed  the  marriage,  and 
Flahaut  resigned  his  commission.  His  eldest  daughter,  Emily 
Jane,  married  Henry,  4th  marquess  of  Lansdowne.  The  Flahauts 
returned  to  France  in  1827,  and  in  1830  Louis  Philippe  gave  the 
count  the  grade  of  lieutenant-general  and  made  him  a  peer  of 
France.  He  remained  intimately  associated  with  Talleyrand's 
policy,  and  was,  for  a  short  time  in  1831,  ambassador  at  Berlin. 
He  was  afterwards  attached  to  the  household  of  the  duke  of 
Orleans,  and  in  1841  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Vienna,  where 
he  remained  until  1848,  when  he  was  dismissed  and  retired  from 
the  army.  After  the  coup  d'etat  of  1851  he  was  again  actively 
employed,  and  from  1860  to  1862  was  ambassador  at  the  court 
of  St  James's.  He  died  on  the  ist  of  September  1870.  The 
comte  de  Flahaut  is  perhaps  better  remembered  for  his  exploits 
in  gallantry,  and  the  elegant  manners  in  which  he  had  been 
carefully  trained  by  his  mother,  than  for  his  public  services, 
which  were  not,  however,  so  inconsiderable  as  they  have  some- 
times been  represented  to  be. 

See  A.  de  Haricourt,  Madame  de  Souza  el  safamille  (1907). 

FLAIL  (from  Lat.  flagellum,  a  whip  or  scourge,  but  used  in 
the  Vulgate  in  the  sense  of  "  flail  ";  the  word  appears  in  Dutch 
vlegel,  Ger.  Flegel,  and  Fr.Jl&au) ,  a  farm  hand-implement  formerly 
used  for  threshing  corn.  It  consists  of  a  short,  thick  club  called 
a  "  swingle  "  or  "  swipple  "  attached  by  a  rope  or  leather  thong 
to  a  wooden  handle  in  such  a  manner  as  to  enable  it  to  swing 
freely.  The  "  flail  "  was  a  weapon  used  for  military  purposes 
in  the  middle  ages.  It  was  made  in  the  same  way  as  a  threshing- 
flail  but  much  stronger  and  furnished  with  iron  spikes.  It  also 
took  the  form  of  a  chain  with  a  spiked  iron  ball  at  one  end 
swinging  free  on  a  wooden  or  iron  handle.  This  weapon  was 
known  as  the  "  morning  star "  or  "  holy  water  sprinkler." 
During  the  panic  over  the  Popish  plot  in  England  from  1678 
to  1681,  clubs,  known  as  "  Protestant  flails,"  were  carried  by 
alarmed  Protestants  (see  GREEN  RIBBON  CLUB). 

FLAMBARD,  RANULF,  or  RALPH  (d.  1128),  bishop  of  Durham 
and  chief  minister  of  William  Rufus,  was  the  son  of  a  Norman 
parish  priest  who  belonged  to  the  diocese  of  Bayeux.  Migrating 
at  an  early  age  to  England,  the  young  Ranulf  entered  the 
chancery  of  William  I.  and  became  conspicuous  as  a  courtier. 
He  was  disliked  by  the  barons,  who  nicknamed  him  Flambard 
in  reference  to  his  talents  as  a  mischief-maker;  but  he  acquired 
the  reputation  of  an  acute  financier  and  appears  to  have  played 
an'  important  part  in  the  compilation  of  the  Domesday  survey. 
In  that  record  he  is  mentioned  as  a  clerk  by  profession,  and  as 
holding  land  both  in  Hants  and  Oxfordshire.  Before  the  death 
of  the  old  king  he  became  chaplain  to  Maurice,  bishop  of  London, 
under  whom  he  had  formerly  served  in  the  chancery.  But 
early  in  the  next  reign  Ranulf  returned  to  the  royal  service. 
He  is  usually  described  as  the  chaplain  of  Rufus;  he  seems  in 
that  •  capacity  to  have  been  the  head  of  the  chancery  and  the 
custodian  of  the  great  seal.  But  he  is  also  called  treasurer; 


FLAMBOROUGH  HEAD— FLAME 


469 


and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  his  services  were  chiefly  of  a 
fiscal  character.  His  name  is  regularly  connected  by  the 
chroniclers  with  the  ingenious  methods  of  extortion  from  which 
all  classes  suffered  between  1087  and  noo.  He  profited  largely 
by  the  tyranny  of  Rufus,  farming  for  the  king  a  large  proportion 
of  the  ecclesiastical  preferments  which  were  illegaly  kept  vacant, 
and  obtaining  for  himself  the  wealthy  see  of  Durham  (1099). 
His  fortunes  suffered  an  eclipse  upon  the  accession  of  Henry  I., 
by  whom  he  was  imprisoned  in  deference  to  the  popular  outcry. 
A  bishop,  however,  was  an  inconvenient  prisoner,  and  Flambard 
soon  succeded  in  effecting  his  escape  from  the  Tower  of  London. 
A  popular  legend  represents  the  bishop  as  descending  from  the 
window  of  his  cell  by  a  rope  which  friends  had  conveyed  to  him 
in  a  cask  of  wine.  He  took  refuge  with  Robert  Curthose  in 
Normandy  and  became  one  of  the  advisers  who  pressed  the 
duke  to  dispute  the  crown  of  England  with  his  younger  brother; 
Robert  rewarded  the  bishop  by  entrusting  him  with  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  see  of  Lisieux.  After  the  victory  of  Tinchebrai 
(1106)  the  bishop  was  among  the  first  to  make  his  peace  with 
Henry,  and  was  allowed  to  return  to  his  English  see.  At  Durham 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  private  life  was  lax; 
he  had  at  least  two  sons,  for  whom  he  purchased  benefices  before 
they  had  entered  on  their  teens;  and  scandalous  tales  are  told 
of  the  entertainments  with  which  he  enlivened  his  seclusion. 
But  he  distinguished  himself,  even  among  the  bishops  of  that 
age,  as  a  builder  and  a  pious  founder.  He  all  but  completed 
the  cathedral  which  his  predecessor,  William  of  St  Carilef,  had 
begun;  fortified  Durham;  built  Norham  Castle;  founded  the 
priory  of  Mottisfout  and  endowed  the  college  of  Christchurch, 
Hampshire.  As  a  politician  he  ended  his  career  with  his  sub- 
mission to  Henry,  who  found  in  Roger  of  Salisbury  a  financier 
not  less  able  and  infinitely  more  acceptable  to  the  nation.  Ranulf 
died  on  the  sth  of  September  1128. 

See  Orderic  Vitalis,  Historia  ecclesiastica,  vols.  iii.  and  iv.  (ed. 
le  Prevost,  Paris,  1845) ;  the  first  continuation  of  Symeon's  Historia 
Ecclesiae  Dunelmensis  (Rolls  ed.,  1882);  William  of  Malmesbury 
in  the  Gesta  pontificum  (Rolls  ed.,  1870);  and  the  Peterborough 
Chronicle  (Rolls  ed.,  1861).  Of  modern  writers  E.  A.  Freeman  in 
his  William  Rufus  (Oxford,  1882)  gives  the  fullest  account.  See  also 
T.  A.  Archer  in  the  English  Historical  Review,  ii.  p.  103 ;  W.  Stubbs's 
Constitutional  History  of  England,  vol.  i.  (Oxford,  1897);  J.  H. 
Round's  Feudal  England  (London,  1895).  (H.  W.  C.  D.) 

FLAMBOROUGH  HEAD,  a  promontory  on  the  Yorkshire 
coast  of  England,  between  the  Filey  and  Bridlington  bays  of 
the  North  Sea.  It  is  a  lofty  chalk  headland,  and  the  resistance 
it  offers  to  the  action  of  the  waves  may  be  well  judged  by  contrast 
with  the  low  coast  of  Holderness  to  the  south.  The  cliffs  of  the 
Head,  however,  are  pierced  with  caverns  and  fringed  with  rocks 
of  fantastic  outline.  Remarkable  contortion  of  strata  is  seen 
at  various  points  in  the  chalk.  Sea-birds  breed  abundantly  on 
the  cliffs.  A  lighthouse  marks  the  point,  in  54°  7'  N.,  o°  5'  W. 

FLAMBOYANT  STYLE,  the  term  given  to  the  phase  of  Gothic 
architecture  in  France  which  corresponds  in  period  to  the 
Perpendicular  style.  The  word  literally  means  "  flowing  "  or 
"  flaming,"  in  consequence  of  the  resemblance  to  the  curved 
lines  of  flame  in  window  tracery.  The  earliest  examples  of 
flowing  tracery  are  found  in  England  in  the  later  phases  of  the 
Decorated  style,  where,  in  consequence  of  the  omission  of  the 
enclosing  circles  of  the  tracery,  the  carrying  through  of  the 
foliations  resulted  in  a  curve  of  contrary  flexure  of  ogee  form 
and  hence  the  term  flowing  tracery.  In  the  minster  and  the 
church  of  St  Mary  at  Beverley,  dating  from  1320  and  1330,  are 
the  earliest  examples  in  England;  in  France  its  first  employment 
dates  from  about  1460,  and  it  is  now  generally  agreed  that  the 
flamboyant  style  was  introduced  from  English  sources.  One  of 
the  chief  characteristics  of  the  flamboyant  style  in  France  is 
that  known  as  "  interpenetration,"  in  which  the  base  mouldings 
of  one  shaft  are  penetrated  by  those  of  a  second  shaft  of  which 
the  faces  are  set  diagonally.  This  interpenetration,  which  was 
in  a  sense  a  tour  de  force  of  French  masons,  was  carried  to  such 
an  extent  that  in  a  lofty  rood-screen  the  mouldings  penetrating 
the  base-mould  would  be  found  to  be  those  of  a  diagonal  buttress 
situated  20  to  30  ft.  above  it.  It  was  not  'limited,  however,  to 


internal  work;  in  late  isth  and  early  i6th  century  ecclesiastical 
architecture  it  is  found  on  the  facades  of  some  French 
cathedrals,  and  often  on  the  outside  of  chapels  added  in  later 
times. 

FLAME  (Lat.  flamma;  the  root  flag-  appears  in  flagrare,  to 
burn,  blaze,  and  Gr.  <t>\iytiv).  There  is  no  strict  scientific 
definition  of  flame,  but  for  the  purpose  of  this  article  it  will  be 
regarded  as  a  name  for  gas  which  is  temporarily  luminous  in 
consequence  of  chemical  action.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
luminosity  of  gases  can  be  induced  by  the  electrical  discharge, 
and  with  rapidly  alternating  high-tension  discharges  in  air  an 
oxygen-nitrogen  flame  is  produced  which  is  long  and  flickering, 
can  be  blown  out,  yields  nitrogen  peroxide,  and  is  in  fact  in- 
distinguishable from  an  ordinary  flame  except  by  its  electrical 
mode  of  maintenance.  The  term  "  flame  "  is  also  applied  to 
solar  protuberances,  which,  according  to  the  common  view, 
consist  of  gases  whose  glow  is  of  a  purely  thermal  origin.  Even 
with  the  restricted  definition  given  above,  difficulties  present 
themselves.  It  is  found,  for  example,  with  a  hydrogen  flame 
that  the  luminosity  diminishes  as  the  purity  of  the  hydrogen 
is  increased  and  as  the  air  is  freed  from  dust,  and  J.  S.  Stas 
declared  that  under  the  most  favourable  conditions  he  was  only 
able,  even  in  a  dark  room,  to  localize  the  flame  by  feeling  for  it, 
an  observation  consistent  with  the  fact  that  the  line  spectrum 
of  the  flame  lies  wholly  in  the  ultra-violet.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  many  examples  of  chemical  combination  between  gases 
where  the  attendant  radiation  is  below  the  pitch  of  visibility, 
as  in  the  case  of  ethylene  and  chlorine.  It  will  be  obvious  from 
these  facts  that  a  strict  definition  of  flame  is  hardly  possible. 
The  common  distinction  between  luminous  and  non-luminous 
flames  is,  of  course,  quite  arbitrary,  and  only  corresponds  to  a 
rough  estimate  of  the  degree  of  luminosity. 

The  chemical  energy  necessary  for  the  production  of  flame  may 
be  liberated  during  combination  or  decomposition.  A  single 
substance  like  gun-cotton,  which  is  highly  endothermic  and 
gives  gaseous  products,  will  produce  a  bright  flame  of  decom- 
position if  a  single  piece  be  heated  in  an  evacuated  flask.  Com- 
bination is  the  more  common  case,  and  this  means  that  we  have 
two  separate  substances  involved.  If  they  be  not  mixed  en 
masse  before  combination,  the  one  which  flows  as  a  current  into 
the  other  is  called  conventionally  the  "  combustible,"  but  the 
simple  experiment  of  burning  air  in  coal  gas  suffices  to  show 
the  unreality  of  this  distinction  between  combustible  and  sup- 
porter of  combustion,  which,  in  fact,  is  only  one  of  the  many 
partial  views  that  are  explained  and  perhaps  justified  by  the 
dominance  of  oxygen  in  terrestrial  chemistry. 

Although  hydrocarbon  flames  are  the  commonest  and  most 
interesting,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  simpler  flames  first  in 
order  to  discuss  some  fundamental  problems.  In  hydrocarbon 
flames  the  complexity  of  the  combustible,  its  susceptibility 
to  change  by  heating,  and  the  possibilities  of  fractional  oxidation, 
create  special  difficulties.  In  the  flame  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
or  carbon  monoxide  and  oxygen  we  have  simpler  conditions, 
though  here,  too,  things  may  be  by  no  means  so  simple  as  they 
seem  from  the  equations  2H2  +  O2  =  2H2O  and  2CO  +  O2  =  2COj- 
The  influence  of  water  vapour  on  both  these  actions  is  well 
known,  and  the  molecular  transactions  may  in  reality  be  com- 
plicated. We  shall,  however,  assume  for  the  sake  of  clearness 
that  in  these  cases  we  have  a  simple  reaction  taking  place  through- 
out the  mass  of  flame.  There  are  various  ways  in  which  a  pair 
of  gases  may  be  burned,  and  these  we  shall  consider  separately. 
Let  us  first  suppose  the  two  gases  to  have  been  mixed  en  masse 
and  a  light  to  be  applied  to  the  stationary  mixture.  If  the 
mixture  be  made  within  certain  limiting  proportions,  which 
vary  for  each  case,  a  flame  spreads  from  the  point  where  the  light 
is  applied,  and  the  flame  traverses  the  mixture.  This  flame 
may  be  very  slow  in  its  progress  or  it  may  attain  a  velocity  of 
the  order  of  one  or  two  thousand  metres  per  second.  Until 
comparatively  recent  times  great  misunderstanding  prevailed 
on  this  subject.  The  slow  rate  of  movement  of  flame  in  short 
lengths  of  gaseous  mixtures  was  taken  to  be  the  velocity  of 
explosion,  but  more  recent  researches  by  M.  P.  E.  Berthelot, 


470 


FLAME 


E.  Mallard  and  H.  L.  le  Chatelier  and  H.  B.  Dixon  have  shown 
that  a  distinction  must  be  made  between  the  slow  initial  rate 
of  inflammation  of  gaseous  mixtures  and  the  rapid  rate  of  detona- 
tion, or  rate  of  the  explosive  wave,  which  in  many  cases  is  subse- 
quently set  up.  We  shall  here  deal  only  with  the  slow  movements 
of  flame.  The  development  of  a  flame  in  such  a  gaseous  mixture 
requires  that  a  small  portion  of  it  should  be  raised  to  a  tempera- 
ture called  the  temperature  of  ignition.  Here  again  considerable 
misunderstanding  has  prevailed.  The  temperature  of  ignition 
has  often  been  regarded  as  the  temperature  at  which  chemical 
combination  begins,  whereas  it  is  really  the  temperature  at 
which  combination  has  reached  a  certain  rate.  The  combination 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  begins  at  temperatures  far  below  that 
of  ignition.  It  may  indeed  be  supposed  that  the  combination 
occurs  with  extreme  slowness  even  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
and  that  as  the  temperature  is  raised  the  velocity  of  the  reaction 
increases  in  accordance  with  the  general  expression  according 
to  which  an  increase  of  10°  C.  will  approximately  double  the  rate. 
However  that  may  be,  it  has  been  proved  experimentally  by 
J.  H.  van't  Hoff,  Victor  Meyer  and  others  that  the  combination 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  proceeds  at  perceptible  rates  far  below 
the  temperature  of  ignition.  The  phenomenon  appears  to  be 
greatly  influenced  by  the  solid  surfaces  which  are  present;  thus 
in  a  plain  glass  vessel  the  combination  only  began  to  be  per- 
ceptible at  448°,  whilst  in  a  silvered  glass  vessel  it  would  be 
detected  at  182°  C. 

The  same  kind  of  thing  is  true  for  most  oxidizable  substances, 
including  ordinary  combustibles.  We  must  look  upon  the 
application  of  heat  to  a  combustible  mixture  as  resulting  in  an 
increase  of  the  rate  of  combination  locally.  Let  us  suppose 
that  we  are  dealing  with  a  stratum  of  the  mixture  in  small 
contiguous  sections.  If  we  raise  the  temperature  of  the  first 
section  a°  C.,  an  increased  rate  of  combination  is  set  up.  The 
heat  produced  by  this  combination  will  be  dissipated  by  conduc- 
tion and  radiation,  and  we  will  suppose  that  it  does  not  quite 
suffice  to  raise  the  adjacent  section  of  the  mixture  to  a°  C.  The 
combination  in  that  section,  therefore,  will  not  be  as  rapid  as  in 
the  first  one,  and  so  evidently  the  impulse  to  combination  will 
go  on  abating  as  we  pass  along  the  stratum.  Suppose  now  we 
start  again  and  heat  the  first  section  of  the  mixture  to  a  tempera- 
ture c°  C.,  such  that  the  rate  of  combination  is  very  rapid  and  the 
heat  developed  by  combination  suffices  to  raise  the  adjacent 
section  of  the  mixture  to  a  temperature  higher  than  c°  C.  The 
rate  of  combination  will  then  be  greater  than  in  the  first  section, 
and  the  impulse  to  combination  will  be  intensified  in  the  same 
way  from  section  to  section  along  the  stratum  until  a  maximum 
temperature  is  reached.  It  is  obvious  that  there  must  be  a 
temperature  of  b°  C.  between  a"  and  c°  which  will  satisfy  this 
condition,  that  the  heat  which  results  from  the  combination 
stimulated  in  the  first  section  just  suffices  to  raise  the  temperature 
of  the  second  section  to  6°.  This  temperature  b°  is  the  tempera- 
ture of  ignition  of  the  mixture;  so  soon  as  it  is  attained  by  a 
portion  of  the  mixture  the  combustion  becomes  self-sustaining 
and  flame  spreads  through  the  mixture.  Ignition  temperature 
may  be  defined  briefly  as  the  temperature  at  which  the  initial 
loss  of  heat  due  to  conduction,  &c.,  is  equal  to  the  heat  evolved 
in  the  same  time  by  the  chemical  reaction  (van't  Hoff).  From 
the  above  considerations  we  see  that  the  temperature  of  ignition 
will  vary  not  only  when  the  gases  are  varied,  but  when  the 
proportions  of  the  same  gases  are  varied,  and  also  when  the 
pressure  is  varied.  We  can  see  also  that  outside  certain  limiting 
proportions  a  mixture  of  gases  will  have  no  practicable  ignition 
temperature,  that  is  to  say,  the  cooling  effect  of  the  gas  which 
is  in  excess  will  carry  off  so  much  heat  that  no  attainable  initial 
heating  will  suffice  to  set  up  the  transmission  of  a  constant 
temperature.  Thus  in  the  case  of  hydrogen  and  air,  mixtures 
containing  less  than  5  and  more  than  72%  of  hydrogen  are  not 
inflammable.  The  theory  of  ignition  temperature  enables  us 
to  understand  why  in  an  explosive  mixture  a  very  small  electric 
spark  may  not  suffice  to  induce  explosion.  Combination  will 
indeed  take  place  in  the  path  of  the  spark,  but  the  amount  of  it 
is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  loss  of  heat  by  conduction,  &c.  It 


must  be  added  that  the  theory  of  ignition  temperatures  given 
above  does  not  explain  all  the  observed  facts.  F.  Emich  states 
that  the  inflammability  of  gaseous  mi:;tures  is  not  necessarily 
greatest  when  the  gases  are  mixed  in  the  proportions  theoretically 
required  for  complete  combination,  and  the  influence  of  foreign 
gases  does  not  appear  to  follow  any  simple  law.  The  presence 
of  a  small  quantity  of  a  gas  may  exercise  a  profound  influence 
on  the  ignition  temperature  as  in  the  case  of  the  addition  of 
ethylene  to  hydrogen  (Sir  Edward  Frankland),  and  again  when  a 
mixture  of  methane  and  air  is  raised  to  its  ignition  temperature 
a  sensible  interval  (about  10  seconds)  elapses  before  inflammation 
occurs. 

The  rate  at  which  a  flame  will  traverse  a  mixture  of  two  gases 
which  has  been  ignited  depends  on  the  proportions  in  which  the 
gases  are  mixed.  Fig.  i  (Bunte)  represents  this  relationship 
for  several  common  gases. 


10  20  3O  4O          SO  6O          70 

Percentage  of  combustible  gat  in  mixture 

FIG.  I. — Rates  of  inflammation  of  combustible  gases  with  air. 

If  a  ready-made  gaseous  mixture  is  to  be  used-for  the  produc- 
tion of  a  steady  flame,  it  may  be  forced  through  a  tube  and 
ignited  at  the  end;  it  is  obvious  that  the  velocity  of  efflux  must 
be  greater  than  the  initial  rate  of  inflammation  of  the  mixture; 
for  otherwise  the  mixture  would  fire  back  down  the  tube.  If 
the  velocity  of  efflux  be  considerably  greater  than  the  rate  of 
inflammation,  the  flame  will  be  separated  from  the  end  of  the  tube, 
and  only  appear  as  a  flickering  crown  where  the  velocity  and 
inflammability  of  the  issuing  gas  have  been  diminished  by 
admixture  with  air.  With  much  increased  velocity  of  efflux 
the  flame  will  be  blown  out.  J.  B.  A.  Dumas  used  to  show  the 
experiment  of  blowing  out  a  candle  with  electrolytic  gas.  A 
steady  flame  formed  by  burning  a  ready-made  gaseous  mixture 
at  the  end  of  a  tube  of  circular  section  has  the  form  shown  in 
fig.  2.  The  small  internal  cone  marks  the  lower  limiting  surface 
of  the  flame;  it  is  the  locus  of  all  points  where  the  velocity  of 
efflux  is  just  equal  to  the  velocity  of  inflammation, 
and  its  conical  form  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 
rate  of  efflux  of  gas  is  greatest  in  the  vertical  axis  of 
the  tube  where  the  flow  is  not  retarded  by  friction 
with  the  walls,  as  well  as  by  the  further  fact  that 
the  gas  issuing  from  such  an  orifice  spreads  outwards, 
the  inflammation  proceeding  directly  against  it.  The 
flame,  it  will  be  seen,  is  of  considerable  thickness. 
If  the  gaseous  mixture  be  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  or 
carbon  .monoxide  and  oxygen,  it  will  have  no  obvious 
features  of  structure  beyond  those  shown  in  the  figure; 
that  is  to  say,  the  shaded  region  of  burning  gas  has 
the  appearance  of  homogeneity  and  uniform  colour 
which  might  be  expected  to  accompany  a  uniform 
chemical  condition.  Some  admixture  of  the  external  FIG.  2. 
air  will,  of  course,  take  place,  especially  in  the  upper 
parts  of  the  flame,  and  detectable  quantities  of  oxides  of  nitrogen 
may  be  found  in  the  products  of  combustion,  but  this  is  an 
inconsiderable  feature.  The  flame  just  described  is  essentially 
that  of  a  blowpipe. 

A  second  %ay  of  producing  a  flame  is  the  more  common  one  of 
allowing  one  gas  to  stream  into  the  other.  Using  the  same  gases 
as  before,  hydrogen  or  carbon  monoxide  with  oxygen,  we  find 


FLAME 


again  that  the  flame  is  conical  in  form  and  uniform  in  colour, 
but  in  this  case,  if  the  velocity  of  efflux  be  not  immoderate, 
the  burning  gas  only  extends  over  a  comparatively  thin  shell, 
limited  on  the  inside  by  the  pure  combustible  and  on  the  outside 
by  a  mixture  of  the  products  of  combustion  with  oxygen.  The 
combustible  gas  has  to  make  its  own  inflammable  mixture  with 
the  circumambient  oxygen,  and  we  may  suppose  the  column  of 
gas  to  be  burned  through  as  it  ascends.  The  core  of  unburned 
gas  thus  becomes  thinner  as  it  ascends  and  the  flame  tapers  to  a 
point.  The  external  surface  of  a  flame  of  this  kind  will  for 
the  same  consumption  of  gas  be  larger  than  that  of  a  flame  where 
the  ready-made  mixture  of  gases  is  used.  If  a  jet  of  one  gas  be 
sent  with  a  sufficient  velocity  into  another,  turbulent  admixture 
takes  place  and  an  unsteady  sheet  of  flame  of  uniform  colour  is 
obtained. 

A  third  way  of  forming  a  flame  is  to  allow  the  whole  of  one 
gas,  mixed  with  a  less  quantity  of  the  second  than  is  sufficient 
for  complete  combustion,  to  issue  into  an  atmosphere  of  the 
second.  This  is  the  case  with  what  are  generally  known  as 
at  mospheric  burners,  of  which  the  B  unsen  burner  is  the  prototype. 
The  development  of  a  flame  of  this  kind  can  be  well  studied  in 
the  case  of  carbon  monoxide  and  air.  The  carbon  monoxide  is 
fed  into  a  Bunsen  burner  with  closed  air-valve,  the  burner-tube 
being  prolonged  by  affixing  a  glass  tube  to  it  by  means  of  a 
cork.  The  flame  consists  of  a  single  conical  blue  sheet.  If  now 
the  air-valve  be  opened  very  slightly,  an  internal  cone  of  the  same 
blue  colour  makes  its  appearance.  The  air  which  has  entered 
through  the  air-valve  ("  primary  "  air)  has  become  mixed  with 
the  carbon  monoxide  and  so  oxidizes  its  quota  in  an  internal 
cone,  the  rest  of  the  carbon  monoxide  (diluted  now,  of  course, 
with  carbon  dioxide  and  nitrogen)  wandering  into  the  external 
atmosphere  to  burn  (with  "  secondary  "  air)  in  a  second  cone. 
The  existence  of  the  internal  cone  and  the  subsequent  thermal 
effect  lead  to  slight  convexity  of  surface  in  the  outer  cone.  If 
the  quantity  of  primary  air  be  increased  more  internal  combustion 
can  take  place.  This,  however,  does  not  lead  to  an  enlargement 
of  the  inner  cone,  for  the  increase  of  air  increases  the  rate  of 
inflammation  of  the  mixture,  and  the  inner  cone  (which  only 
maintains  its  stability  because  the  rate  of  efflux  of  the  mixture  is 
greater  than  the  velocity  of  inflammation)  contracts,  and  will,  as 
the  proportion  of  primary  air  is  increased,  soon  evince  a  tendency 
to  enter  the  burner-tube.  At  this  stage  an  interesting  pheno- 
menon is  to  be  noticed.  When  we  have  reached  the  point  of 
aeration  where  the  velocity  of  inflammation  of  the  mixture 
just  surpasses  the  velocity  of  efflux,  the  inner  cone  enters  the 
burner-tube  as  a  disk  and  descends,  but  this  downward  motion 
checks  the  suction  flow  of  air  through  the  valve  at  the  base  of 
the  burner,  whilst  it  does  not  appreciably  check  the  pressure 
flow  of  the  carbon  monoxide  through  the  gas  nozzle.  The 
result  is  that  a  stratum  of  gas-mixture  poor  in  air,  and  therefore 
of  low  rate  of  inflammation,  is  formed,  and  when  the  descending 
disk  of  flame  meets  it,  the  descent  is  arrested  and  the  disk 
returns  to  the  top  of  the  tube,  reproducing  the  inner  cone.  The 
full  air  suction  is  now  restored  and  the  course  of  events  is  repeated. 
This  oscillatory  action  can  be  maintained  almost  indefinitely 
long  if  the  pressure  and  other  conditions  be  maintained  constant. 
With  still  more  primary  air  the  inner  cone  of  flame  simply  fires 
back  to  the  burner  nozzle,  or,  in  the  last  stage,  we  may  have 
enough  air  entering  to  produce  a  flame  of  the  blast  blowpipe 
type,  namely,  one  where  the  carbon  monoxide  mixed  with  an 
excess  of  primary  air  burns  with  a  single  cone  in  a  steady 
flame. 

By  means  of  a  simple  contrivance  devised  by  A.  Smithells 
a  two-coned  flame  of  the  kind  described  may  be  resolved  into 
its  components.  The  apparatus  is  like  a  half-extended  telescope 
made  of  two  glass  tubes,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  velocity  of 
a  mixture  of  gases  flowing  through  it  must  be  greater  in  the 
narrow  tube  than  in  the  wider  one.  If  the  end  of  the  narrower 
tube  be  fixed  to  a  Bunsen  burner  and  the  flame  be  formed  at  the 
end  of  the  wider  one,  then  when  the  air-supply  is  increased  to  a 
certain  point  the  inner  cone  will  descend  into  the  wide  tube  and 
attach  itself  to  the  upper  end  of  the  narrower  one.  This  occurs 


when  the  velocity  of  inflammation  is  just  greater  than  the 
upward  velocity  of  the  gaseous  stream  in  the  wide  tube  and  less 
than  the  upward  velocity  in  the  narrow  tube.  If  the  outer 
tube  be  now  drawn  down,  a  two-coned  flame  burns  at  the  end 
of  the  inner  tube;  if  the  outer  tube  he  slid  up  again,  it 
detaches  the  outer  cone  and  carries  it  upward.  This  apparatus 
has  been  of  use  in  investigating  the  progress  of  combustion  in 
various  flames. 

Temperature  of  Flames. — The  term  "  flame-temperature  "  is 
used  very  vaguely  and  has  no  clear  meaning  unless  qualified  by 
some  description.  It  it  least  ambiguous  when  used  in  reference 
to  flames  where  the  combining  gases  are  mixed  in  theoretical 
proportions  before  issuing  from  the  burner.  The  flame  in  such 
a  case  has  considerable  thickness  and  uniformity,  and,  though 
the  temperature  is  not  constant  throughout,  flames  of  this 
type  given  by  different  combustibles  admit  of  comparison.  In 
other  flames  where  the  shells  of  combustion  are  thin  and  envelop 
large  regions  of  unburned  or  partly-burned  gas,  it  is  not  clear  how 
temperature  should  be  specified.  An  ordinary  gas-flame  will 
not,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  practical  arts,  give  a  sufficient 
temperature  for  melting  platinum,  yet  a  very  thin  platinum 
wire  may  be  melted  at  the  edge  of  the  lower  part  of  such  a  flame. 
The  maximum  temperature  of  the  flame  is  therefore  not  in  any 
serious  sense  an  available  temperature.  It  will  suffice  to  point 
out  here  that  in  order  to  burn  a  gas  so  that  it  may  have  the 
highest  available  temperature,  we  must  burn  it  with  the  smallest 
external  flame-surface  obtainable.  This  is  done  when  the  com- 
bining gases  are  completely  mixed  before  issuing  from  the  burner. 
Where  this  is  impracticable  we  may  employ  a  burner  of  the 
Bunsen  type,  and  arrange  matters  so  that  a  large  amount  of 
primary  air  is  supplied.  It  is  in  this  direction  that  modern 
improvements  have  been  made  with  a  view  to  obtaining  hot 
flames  for  heating  the  Welsbach  mantle.  The  Kern  burner, 
for  example,  employs  the  principle  of  the  Venturi  tube.  Where 
much  primary  air  is  drawn  in  it  is  usual  to  provide  for  it  being 
well  mixed  with  the  gas,  otherwise  an  unsteady  flame  may  be 
produced  with  a  great  tendency  to  light  back.  The  burner  head 
is  therefore  usually  provided  with  a  mixing  chamber  and  the 
mixture  issues  through  a  slit  or  a  mesh.  A  great  many  modified 
Bunsen  burners  have  been  produced,  the  aim  in  all  of  them  being 
to  produce  a  flame  which  shall  combine  steadiness  with  the 
smallest  attainable  external  surface. 

To  estimate  the  temperature  of  flames  several  methods  have 
been  employed.  The  method  of  calculation,  based  on  the 
supposition  that  the  whole  heat  of  combustion  is  localized  in 
the  product  (or  products)  of  combustion  and  heats  it  to  a  tem- 
perature depending  on  its  specific  heat,  cannot  be  applied  in  a 
simple  way.  Apart  from  the  assumption  (which  there  is  reason 
to  suppose  incorrect)  that  none  of  the  chemical  energy  assumes 
the  radiant  form  directly,  we  have  to  regard  the  possible  change 
of  specific  heat  at  high  temperatures,  the  likelihood  of  dissociation 
and  the  time  of  reaction.  Any  practical  consideration  of  tem- 
perature must  have  regard  to  a  large  assemblage  of  molecules 
and  not  to  a  single  one,  and  therefore  any  influence  which  means 
delay  in  combination  will  result  in  reduction  of  temperature  by 
radiation  and  conduction.  It  can  hardly  be  maintained  that 
in  the  present  state  of  knowledge  we  have  the  requisite  data  for 
the  calculation  of  flame  temperature,  though  good  approxima- 
tions may  be  made.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  deter- 
mine flame  temperatures  by  means  of  thermo-electric  couples 
and  by  radiation  pyrometers.  The  couple  most  employed  is  that 
known  as  H.  L.  le  Chatelier's,  consisting  of  two  wires,  one  of 
platinum  and  the  other  an  alloy  of  90%  platinum  and  10%  of 
rhodium.  When  all  possible  precautions  are  taken  it  is  possible 
by  means  of  such  thermo-couples  to  measure  local  flame  tempera- 
tures with  a  considerable  degree  of  accuracy.  Subjoined  are 
some  results  obtained  at  different  times  and  by  different  observers 
with  regard  to  the  maximum  temperatures  of  flames: — 

Coal  gas  in  Bunsen  burner  (Waegener,  1896).     .  .  1770°  C. 

,,  ,,          „          „          (Berkenbusch,  1899).  .  1830° 

„          „          (White  &  Traver,  1902)  .  1780° 

(Fery,  1905).      .        .  .  1871° 


472  FLAME 

The  following  are  given  by  F6ry: — 

Acetylene        .        .  .  .  2548°  C. 

Alcohol    ...  .  .  1705° 

Hydrogen  (in  air)  .  .  .  1900° 

Oxy-hydrogen         .  .  .  2420° 

Oxy-coal  gas  blowpipe  .  .  2200° 

Source  of  Light  in  Flames. — We  may  consider  first  those 
flames  where  solid  particles  are  out  of  the  question ;  for  example, 
the  flame  of  carbon  monoxide  in  air.  The  old  idea  that  the 
luminosity  was  due  to  the  thermal  glow  of  the  highly  heated 
product  of  combustion  has  been  challenged  independently  by  a 
number  of  observers,  and  the  view  has  been  advanced  that  the 
emission  of  light  is  due  to  radiation  attendant  upon  a  kind  of 
discharge  of  chemical  energy  between  the  reacting  molecules. 
E.  Wiedemann  proposed  the  name  "  chemi-luminescence " 
for  radiation  of  this  kind.  The  fact  is  that  colourless  gases 
cannot  be  made  to  glow  by  any  purely  thermal  heating  at  present 
available,  and  products  of  combustion  heated  to  the  average 
temperature  of  the  flames  in  which  they  are  produced  are  non- 
luminous.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  a 
mass  of  burning  gas  only  a  certain  proportion  of  the  molecules 
are  engaged  at  one  instant  in  the  act  of  chemical  combination, 
and  that  the  energy  liberated  in  such  individual  transactions, 
if  localized  momentarily  as  heat,  would  give  individual  molecules 
a  unique  condition  of  temperature  far  transcending  that  of  the 
average,  and  the  distribution  of  heat  in  a  flame  would  be  very 
different  from  that  existing  in  the  same  mixture  of  gases  heated 
from  an  external  source  to  the  same  average  temperature.  The 
view  advocated  by  Smithells  is  that  in  the  chemical  combination 
of  gases  the  initial  phase  of  the  formation  of  the  new  molecule 
is  a  vibratory  one,  which  directly  furnishes  light,  and  that  the 
damping  down  of  this  vibration  by  colliding  molecules  is  the 
source  of  that  translatory  motion  which  is  evinced  as  heat. 
This,  it  will  be  seen,  is  an  exact  reversal  of  the  older  view. 

The  view  of  Sir  H.  Davy  that  "  whenever  a  flame  is  remarkably 
brilliant  and  dense  it  may  always  be  concluded  that  some  solid 
matter  is  produced  in  it  "  can  be  no  longer  entertained.  The 
flames  of  phosphorus  in  oxygen  and  of  carbon  disulphide  in 
nitric  oxide  contain  only  gaseous  products,  and  Frankland 
showed  that  the  flames  of  hydrogen  and  carbon  monoxide  became 
highly  luminous  under  pressure.  From  his  experiments  Frank- 
land  was  led  to  the  generalization  that  high  luminosity  of  flames 
is  associated  with  high  density  of  the  gases,  and  he  does 
not  draw  a  distinction  in  this  respect  between  high'  density  due 
to  high  molecular  weight  and  high  density  due  to  the  close 
packing  of  lighter  molecules.  The  increased  luminosity  of  a 
compressed  flame  is  not  difficult  to  understand  from  the  kinetic 
theory  of  gases,  but  no  explanation  has  appeared  of  the  luminosity 
considered  by  Frankland  to  be  due  merely  to  high  molecular 
weight.  It  is  possible  that  the  electron  theory  may  ultimately 
afford  a  better  understanding  of  these  phenomena. 

Structure  of  Flame. — The  vagueness  of  the  term  structure, 
as  applied  to  flames,  is  to  be  seen  from  the  very  conflicting 
accounts  which  are  current  as  to  the  number  of  differentiated 
parts  in  different  flames.  Unless  this  term  is  restricted  to 
sharp  differences  in  appearance,  there  is  no  limit  to  the  number 
of  parts  which  may  be  selected  for  mention.  The  flame  of  carbon 
monoxide,  when  the  gas  is  not  mixed  with  air  before  it  issues 
from  the  burner,  shows  no  clearly  differentiated  structure,  but  is 
a  shell  of  blue  luminosity  of  shaded  intensity — a  hollow  cone  if 
the  orifice  of  the  burner  be  circular  and  the  velocity  of  the  gas 
not  immoderate,  or  a  double  sheet  of  fan  shape  if  the  burner  have 
a  slit  or  two  inclined  pores  which  cause  the  jets  of  issuing  gas 
to  spread  each  other  out.  Such  a  flame  has  but  one  single 
distinct  feature,  and  this  is  not  surprising,  as  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  there  is  any  difference  in  the  chemical  process 
or  processes  that  are  occurring  in  different  quarters  of  the  flame. 
The  amount  of  materials  undergoing  this  transformation  in 
different  parts  of  the  flame  may  and  does  vary;  the  gases 
become  diluted  with  products  of  combustion,  and  the  molecular 
vibrations  gradually  die  down.  These  things  may  cause  a 
variation  in  the  intensity  of  the  light  in  different  quarters,  but 


the  differences  induced  are  not  sharp  or  in  any  proper  sense 
structural.  A  flame  of  this  kind  may  develop  a  secondary 
feature  of  structure.  If  carbon  monoxide  be  burnt  in  oxygen 
which  is  mixed  or  combined  with  another  element  there  may 
be  an  additional  chemical  process  that  will  give  light;  flames  in 
air  are  sometimes  surrounded  by  a  faintly  luminous  fringe  of  a 
greenish  cast,  apparently  associated  with  the  combination  of 
nitrogen  with  oxygen  (H.  B.  Dixon).  Carbon  monoxide  on  being 
strongly  heated  begins  to  dissociate  into  carbon  and  carbon 
dioxide;  if  the  unburnt  carbon  monoxide  within  a  flame  of 
that  gas  were  so  highly  heated  by  its  own  burning  walls  as  to 
reach  the  temperature  of  dissociation,  we  might  expect  to  see 
a  special  feature  of  structure  due  to  the  separated  carbon.  Such 
a  temperature  does  not,  however,  appear  to  be  reached. 

Apart  from  hydrocarbon  flames  not  much  has  been  published 
in  reference  to  the  structure  of  flames.  The  case  of  cyanogen  is 
of  peculiar  interest.  The  beautiful  flame  of  this  gas  consists 
of  an  almost  crimson  shell  surrounded  by  a  margin  of  bright  blue. 
Investigations  have  shown  that  these  two  colours  correspond 
to  two  steps  in  the  progress  of  the  combustion,  in  the  first  of 
which  the  carbon  of  the  cyanogen  is  oxidized  to  carbon  monoxide 
and  in  the  second  the  carbon  monoxide  oxidized  to  carbon 
dioxide. 

The  inversion  of  combustion  may  bring  new  features  of 
structure  into  existence;  thus  when  a  jet  of  cyanogen  is  burnt 
in  oxygen  no  solid  carbon  can  be  found  in  the  flame,  but  when 
a  jet  of  oxygen  is  burnt  in  cyanogen  solid  carbon  separates  on 
the  edge  of  the  flame. 

Hydrocarbon  Flames. — As  already  stated  the  flames  of  carbon 
compounds  and  especially  of  hydrocarbons  have  been  much  more 
studied  than  any  other  kind,  as  is  natural  from  their  common 
use  and  practical  importance.  The  earliest  investigations  were 
made  with  coal  gas,  vegetable  oils  and  tallow,  and  the  composite 
and  complex  nature  of  these  substances  led  to  difficulties  and 
confusion  in  the  interpretation  of  results.  One  such  difficulty 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  fact,  often  overlooked,  that  when  a 
mixed  gaseous  combustible  issues  into  air  the  individual  com- 
ponent gases  will  separate  spontaneously  in  accordance  with 
their  diffusibilities:  hydrogen  will  thus  tend  to  get  to  the  outer 
edge  of  a  flame  and  heavy  hydrocarbons  to  lag  behind. 

The  features  of  structure  in  a  hydrocarbon  flame  depend  of 
course  on  the  manner  in  which  the  air  is  supplied.  The  extreme 
cases  are  (i.)  when  the  issuing  gas  is  supplied  before  it  leaves  the 
burner  with  sufficient  air  for  complete  combustion,  as  in  the 
blast  blowpipe,  in  which  case  we  have  a  sheet  of  blue  undiffer- 
entiated  flame;  and  (ii.)  when  the  gas  has  to  find  all  the  air  it 
requires  after  leaving  the  burner.  The  intermediate  stage  is 
when  the  issuing  gas  is  supplied  before  leaving  the  burner  with 
a  part  of  the  air  that  is  required.  In  this  case  a  two-coned  flame 
is  produced.  The  general  theory  of  such  phenomena  has  already 
been  discussed.  It  must  be  remarked  that  the  transition  of  one 
kind  of  flame  into  the  others  can  be  effected  gradually,  and  this 
is  seen  with  particular  ease  and  distinctness  by  burning  benzene 
vapour  admixed  with  gradually  increasing  quantities  of  air. 
The  key  to  the  explanation  of  the  structure  of  an  ordinary 
luminous  flame,  such  as  that  of  a  candle,  is  to  be  found,  according 
to  Smithells,  by  observing  the  changes  undergone  by  a  well-aerated 
Bunsen  flame  as  the  "  primary  "  air  is  gradually  cut  off  by 
closing  the  air-ports  at  the  base  of  the  burner.  It  is  then  seen 
that  the  two  cones  of  flame  evolve  or  degenerate  into  the  two 
recognizable  blue  parts  of  an  ordinary  luminous  flame,  whilst 
the  appearance  of  the  bright  yellow  luminous  patch  becomes 
increasingly  emphasized  as  a  hollow  dome  lying  within  the  upper 
part  of  the  blue  sheath.  There  are  thus  three  recognizable 
features  of  structure  in  an  ordinary  luminous  flame,  each  region 
being  as  it  were  a  mere  shell  and  the  interior  of  the  flame  filled 
with  gas  which  has  not  yet  entered  into  active  combustion. 
If,  as  is  suggested,  the  blue  parts  of  an  ordinary  luminous  flame 
are  the  relics  of  the  two  cones  of  a  Bunsen  flame,  the  chemistry 
of  a  Bunsen  flame  may  be  appropriately  considered  first.  What 
happens  chemically  when  -a  hydrocarbon  is  burned  in  a  Bunsen 
burner  ?  The  air  sent  in  with  the  gas  is  insufficient  for  complete 


FLAME 


473 


combustion  so  that  the  inner  cone  of  the  flame  may  be  considered 
as  air  burning  in  an  excess  of  coal  gas.  What  will  be  the  products 
of  this  combustion?  This  question  has  been  answered  at 
different  times  in  very  different  ways.  There  are  many  conceiv- 
able answers:  part  of  the  hydrocarbon  might  be  wholly  oxidized 
and  the  rest  left  unaltered  to  mix  with  the  outside  air  and  burn 
as  the  outer  cone;  on  the  other  hand,  there  might  be  (as  has 
been  so  commonly  assumed)  a  selective  oxidation  in  the  inner 
cone  whereby  the  hydrogen  was  fully  oxidized  and  the  carbon 
set  free  or  oxidized  to  carbon  monoxide;  or  again  the  carbon 
might  be  oxidized  to  carbon  dioxide  or  monoxide  and  the 
hydrogen  set  free.  There  might  of  course  be  other  intermediate 
kinds  of  action.  Now  it  is  important  at  this  point  to  insist  upon 
a  distinction  between  what  can  be  found  by  direct  analysis  as 
to  the  products  of  partial  combustion,  and  what  can  be  imagined 
or  inferred  as  the  transitory  existence  of  substances  of  which 
the  products  actually  found  in  analysis  are  the  outcome.  We 
shall  consider  only  in  the  first  instance  what  substances  are 
found  by  analysis.  Earlier  experiments  on  the  Bunsen  burner 
in  which  coal  gas  was  used,  and  the  gases  withdrawn  directly 
from  the  flame  by  aspiration,  gave  no  very  clear  results,  but  the 
introduction  of  the  cone-separating  apparatus  and  the  use  of 
single  hydrocarbons  led  to  more  definite  conclusions.  The 
analysis  of  the  inter-conal  gases  from  an  ethylene  flame  gave 
the  following  numbers: — carbon  dioxide  =  3-6;  water  =  9-5; 
carbon  monoxide  =  15-6;  hydrocarbons  =  1-3;  hydrogen  =  9-4; 
nitrogen  =  60-6. 

It  appears  therefore,  and  it  may  be  stated  as  a  fact,  that  a 
considerable  amount  of  hydrogen  is  left  unoxidized,  whilst 
practically  all  the  carbon  is  converted  into  monoxide  or  dioxide. 
As  the  gases  have  cooled  down  before  analysis  and  as  the  reaction 
CO  +  H2O^fCO2  +  H2  is  reversible,  it  may  be  objected  that  the 
inter-conal  gases  may  have  a  composition  when  they  are  hot 
very  different  from  what  they  show  when  cold.  Experiments 
made  to  test  this  question  have  not  sustained  the  objection. 
Subsequent  experiments  on  the  oxidation  of  hydrocarbons 
have  made  it  appear  undesirable  to  use  the  expression  "  pre- 
ferential combustion  "  or  "  selective  combustion  "  in  connexion 
with  the  facts  just  stated;  but  for  the  purpose  of  describing  in 
brief  the  chemistry  of  a  hydrocarbon  flame  it  is  necessary  to  say 
that  in  the  inner  cone  of  a  Bunsen  flame  hydrogen  and  carbon 
monoxide  are  the  result  of  the  limited  oxidation,  and  that  the 
combustion  of  these  gases  with  the  external  air  generates  the 
outer  cone  of  the  flame.  As  to  the  actual  stages  in  the  limited 
oxidation  of  a  hydrocarbon  a  large  amount  of  very  valuable 
work  has  been  carried  out  by  W.  A.  Bone  and  his  collaborators. 
Different  hydrocarbons  mixed  with  oxygen  have  been  circulated 
continuously  through  a  vessel  heated  to  various  temperatures, 
beginning  with  that  (about  250°  C.)  at  which  the  rate  of  oxidation 
is  easily  appreciable.  Proceeding  in  this  way,  Bone,  without 
effecting  a  complete  transformation  of  the  hydrocarbon  into 
partially  oxidized  substances,  has  isolated  large  quantities  of 
such  products,  and  concludes  that  the  oxidation  of  a  hydrocarbon 
involves  nothing  in  the  nature  of  a  selective  or  preferential 
oxidation  of  either  the  hydrogen  or  the  carbon.  He  maintains 
that  it  occurs  in  several  well-defined  stages  during  which  oxygen 
enters  into  and  is  incorporated  with  the  hydrocarbon  molecule, 
forming  oxygenated  intermediate  products  among  which  are 
alcohols  and  aldehydes.  The  reactions  between  ethane  and 
ethylene  with  an  equal  volume  of  oxygen  would  be  represented 

as  follows* — 

Stage  i.  Stage  2. 

--^     CH,-CH2OH    #     CH.-CH(OH), 

Ethyl  alcohol. 


CH3-CH3 
Ethane. 


CH2  :  CH2 


C2H,+H20 
2C+2H2+H20 


CH2  :  CHOH 


CH,CHO+H, 

Acetaldehyde. 

(  CH4+CO  i 
?  C+2H2+CO  \ 
HO-CH  :  CH-OH 


Ethylene. 


('C2H2+H20    )  2CH20=2CO+2H2 

I  2C+H2+H2O  \  Formaldehyde. 

The  affinity  between  the  hydrocarbon  and  oxygen  at  a  high 


temperature  is  so  great  that,  when  the  supply  of  oxygen  is 
sufficient  to  carry  the  oxidation  as  far  as  the  second  stage, 
practically  no  decomposition  of  the  monohydroxy  molecule 
formed  in  the  first  stage  occurs.  This  is  especially  the  case 
with  unsaturated  hydrocarbons. 

As  a  crucial  test  decisive  against  the  hypothesis  of  preferential 
carbon  oxidation,  Bone  cites  the  experiment  of  firing  a  mixture 
of  equal  volumes  of  ethane  and  oxygen  sealed  up  in  a  glass  bulb. 
In  such  a  case  a  lurid  flame  fills  the  vessel,  accompanied  by  a 
black  cloud  of  carbon  particles  and  considerable  condensation 
of  water.  About  10%  of  methane  is  also  found.  It  is  impossible 
within  the  limits  of  this  article  to  give  a  more  extended  account 
of  these  later  researches  on  the  oxidation  of  hydrocarbons. 
They  make  it  evident  that  the  relative  oxidizability  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  cannot  form  the  basis  of  a  general  theory  of  the 
combustion  of  hydrocarbons,  and  that  both  the  a  priori  view 
that  hydrogen  is  the  more  oxidizable  element,  and  the  inference 
from  the  behaviour  of  ethylene  when  exploded  with  its  own 
volume  of  oxygen,  viz.  that  carbon  is  the  more  oxidizable  element 
in  hydrocarbons,  are  not  in  harmony  with  experimental  facts. 

The  view  that  the  bright  luminosity  of  hydrocarbon  flames  is 
due  "  to  the  deposition  of  solid  charcoal  "  was  first  put  forward 
by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1816.  In  explaining  the  origin  of 
this  charcoal,  Davy  used  somewhat  ambiguous  language,  stating 
that  it  "  might  be  owing  to  a  decomposition  of  a  part  of  the  gas 
towards  the  interior  of  the  flame  where  the  air  was  in  smallest 
quantity."  This  statement  was  interpreted  commonly  as 
implying  that  the  charcoal  became  free  by  the  preferential 
combustion  of  the  hydrogen,  and  such  an  interpretation  was 
given  explicitly  by  Faraday.  Whatever  may  have  been  Davy's 
view  with  regard  to  this  part  of  the  theory,  his  conclusion  that 
finely  divided  carbon  was  the  cause  of  luminosity  in  hydrocarbon 
flames  was  not  questioned  until  1867,  when  E.  Frankland,  in 
connexion  with  researches  already  alluded  to,  maintained  that 
the  luminosity  of  such  flames  was  not  due  in  any  important 
degree  to  solid  particles  of  carbon,  but  to  the  incandescence  of 
dense  hydrocarbon  vapours.  Among  the  arguments  adduced 
against  this  view  the  most  decisive  is  furnished  by  the  optical 
test  first  used  by  J.  L.  Soret.  If  the  image  of  the  sun  be  focussed 
upon  the  glowing  part  of  a  hydrocarbon  flame  the  scattered 
light  is  found  to  be  polarized,  and  it  is  indisputable  that  the 
luminous  region  is  pervaded  by  a  cloud  of  finely  divided  solid 
matter.  The  quantity  of  this  solid  (estimated  by  H.  H.  C.  Bunte 
to  be  o- 1  milligram  in  a  coal-gas  flame  burning  5  cub.  ft.  per  hour) 
is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  luminosity,  so  that  Davy's  original 
view  may  be  said  to  be  now  universally  accepted. 

The  remaining  question  with  regard  to  the  luminosity  of  a 
hydrocarbon  flame  relates  to  the  manner  in  which  the  carbon  is 
set  free.  The  fact  that  hydrocarbons  when  strongly  heated  in 
absence  of  air  will  deposit  carbon  has  long  been  known  and  is 
daily  evident  in  the  operation  of  coal-gas  making,  when  gas 
carbon  accumulates  as  a  hard  deposit  in  the  highly-heated 
crown  of  the  retorts.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  supposing  therefore 
that  the  carbon  in  a  flame  is  separated  from  the  hydrocarbon 
within  it  by  the  purely  thermal  action  of  the  blue  burning  walls 
of  the  flame.  Many  experiments  might  be  adduced  to  confirm 
this  view.  It  is  sufficient  to  name  two.  If  a  ring  of  metal  wire 
be  so  disposed  in  a  small  flame  as  to  make  a  girdle  within  the 
blue  walls  towards  the  base,  the  withdrawal  of  heat  is  rapid 
enough  to  prevent  the  maintenance  of  a  temperature  sufficient 
to  cause  a  separation  of  carbon,  and  the  bright  luminosity 
disappears.  Again,  if  the  flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner  be  fed 
through  the  air-ports  not  with  air  but  with  some  neutral 
gas  such  as  nitrogen,  carbon  dioxide  or  steam,  the  dilution  of 
the  burning  gas  and  the  hydrocarbon  within  it  becomes  so  great 
that  the  temperature  of  separation  is  not  attained,  no  carbon  is 
separated  and  the  flame  consists  of  a  single  blue  shell. 

Whilst  it  is  thus  easy  to  understand  generally  why  carbon 
becomes  separated  as  a  solid  within  a  flame,  it  is  not  easy  to 
trace  the  processes  by  which  the  carbon  becomes  separated  in 
the  case  of  a  given  hydrocarbon.  According  to  M.  P.  E. 
Berthelot,  who  made  prolonged  and  elaborate  researches  on  the 


474 


FLAMEL 


pyrogenetic  relationships  of  hydrocarbons,  these  compounds 
only  liberate  carbon  by  a  process  of  the  continual  coalescence 
of  hydrocarbon  molecules  with  the  elimination  of  hydrogen, 
until  there  is  left  the  limiting  solid  hydrocarbon  hardly  distin- 
guishable from  carbon  itself  and  constituting  the  glowing  soot 
of  flames. 

V.  B.  Lewes,  on  the  other  hand,  basing  his  conclusions  on  a 
study  of  the  thermal  decomposition  of  hydrocarbons,  on  tempera- 
ture measurements  of  flames  and  analysis  of  their  gases,  has 
more  recently  developed  a  theory  of  flame  luminosity  in  which 
the  formation  and  sudden  exothermic  decomposition  of  acetylene 
are  regarded  as  the  essential  incidents  productive  of  carbon 
separation  and  luminosity.  Smithells  has  disputed  the  evidence 
on  which  this  theory  is  based  and  it  appears  to  have  gained  no 
adherence  from  those  who  have  worked  in  the  same  field;  but 
as  it  has  not  been  formally  disavowed  by  the  author  and  has 
found  its  way  into  some  text-books,  it  is  mentioned  here. 

W.  A.  Bone  and  H.  F.  Coward  (Journ.  Chem.  Soc.,  1908) 
published  the  results  of  a  very  careful  study  of  the  decomposition 
of  hydrocarbons  when  heated  in  a  stationary  condition  and  when 
continually  circulated  through  hot  vessels.  Their  results  disclose 
once  more  the  great  difficulty  of  tracing  the  processes  of  decom- 
position and  of  arriving  at  a  generalization  of  wide  applicability, 
but  they  appear  to  be  conclusive  against  the  views  both  of 
Berthelot  and  of  Lewes. 

They  do  not  think  that  the  decomposition  of  hydrocarbons 
can  be  adequately  represented  by  ordinary  chemical  equations 
owing  to  the  complexity  of  the  changes  which  really  take  place. 
Methane,  which  is  the  most  stable  of  the  hydrocarbons,  appears 
to  be  resolved  at  high  temperatures  directly  into  carbon  and 
hydrogen,  hut  the  phenomenon  is  dependent  mainly  on  surface 
action;  ethane,  ethylene  and  acetylene  undergo  decomposition 
throughout  the  body  of  the  gas  (loc.  cil.  p.  1197  et  seq.). 

"  In  the  cases  of  ethane  and  ethylene  it  may  be  supposed  that  the 
primary  effect  of  high  temperature  is  to  cause  an  elimination  of 
hydrogen  with  a  simultaneous  loosening  or  dissolution  of  the  bond 
between  the  carbon  atoms,  giving  rise  to  (in  the  event  of  dissolution) 
residues  such  as  :  CH2  and  •  CH.  These  residues,  which  can  only 
have  a  very  fugitive  separate  existence,  may  either  (a)  form 
H2C  :  CH2  and  HC  •  CH,  as  the  result  of  encounters  with  other 
similar  residues,  or  (b)  break  down  directly  into  carbon  and  hydrogen, 
or  (c)  be  directly  hydrogenized  to  methane  in  an  atmosphere  rich  in 
hydrogen.  These  three  possibilities  may  all  be  realized  simul- 
taneously in  the  same  decomposing  gas  in  proportions  dependent 
on  the  temperature,  pressure  and  amount  of  hydrogen  present. 
The  whole  process  may  be  represented  by  the  following  scheme,  the 
dotted  line  indicating  the  tendency  to  dissolve  a  bond  between  the 
carbon  atoms  which  becomes  actually  effective  at  higher  tem- 
peratures :  — 

H=H  (  (a)  C2H4+H2 

]  =     (b)  2C+2H2+H2 


H  ' 


... 
H-OC-H 


-[2(:CH)+H2] 


( 

=  } 
( 


(a)  C2H2+H2 

(b)  2C+H2+H2 

(c)  plus  2Ut  =  C 


"  In  the  case  of  acetylene,  the  main  primary  change  may  be  either 
one  of  polymerization  or  of  dissolution  according  to  the  temperature, 
and  if  the  latter,  it  may  be  supposed  that  the  molecule  breaks  down 
across  the  triple  bond  between  the  carbon  atoms,  giving  rise  to 
2(  ':  CH),andthat  these  residues  are  subsequently  either  resolved  into 
carbon  and  hydrogen  or  "  hydrogenized  "  according  to  circumstances, 
thus  :  — 


Polymerization. 

"  Acetylene  is,  moreover,  distinguished  by  its  power  of  poly- 
merization at  moderate  temperatures  so  that  whether  it  is  the  gas 
initially  heated  or  whether  it  is  a  prominent  product  of  the  decom- 
position of  another  hydrocarbon  polymerization  will  occur  to  an 
extent  dependent  on  temperature.' 

We  may  describe  briefly  the  view  to  which  we  are  led  as  to 
the  genesis  of  an  ordinary  luminous  hydrocarbon  flame:  — 

The  gaseous  hydrocarbon  issues  from  the  burner  or  wick, 
let  us  suppose,  in  a  cylindrical  column.  This  column  is  not 
sharply  marked  off  from  the  air  but  is  so  penetrated  by  it  that 
we  must  suppose  a  gradual  transition  from  the  pure  hydrocarbon 
in  the  centre  of  column  to  the  pure  air  on  the  outside.  Let  us 


take  a  thin  transverse  slice  of  the  flame,  near  the  lower  part  of 
the  wick  or  close  to  the  burner  tube.  At  what  lateral  distance 
from  the  centre  will  combustion  begin  ?  Clearly,  where  enough 
oxygen  has  penetrated  the  column  to  give  such  partial  combus- 
tion as  takes  place  in  the  inner  cone  of  a  Bunsen  burner.  This 
then  defines  the  blue  region.  Outside  this  the  combustion  of 
the  carbon  monoxide,  hydrogen  and  any  hydrocarbons  which 
pass  from  the  blue  region  takes  place  in  a  faintly  luminous 
fringe.  These  two  layers  form  a  sheath  of  active  combustion, 
surrounding  and  intensely  heating  the  enclosed  hydrocarbons 
in  the  middle  of  the  column.  These  heated  hydrocarbons  rise 
and  are  heated  to  a  higher  temperature  as  they  ascend.  Th^y 
are  accordingly  decomposed  with  separation  of  carbon  in  the 
higher  parts  of  the  flame,  giving  the  region  of  bright  yellow 
luminosity.  There  remains  a  central  core  in  which  neither  is 
there  any  oxygen  for  combustion  nor  a  sufficiently  high  tempera- 
ture to  cause  carbon  separation.  This  constitutes  the  dark 
interior  region  of  the  flame.  We  thus  account  for  the  different 
parts  of  the  flame.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  bright, 
blue  layer  only  surrounds  the  lower  part  of  the  flame,  whilst 
the  pale,  faintly-luminous  fringe  surrounds  the  whole  flame. 
The  flame  also  is  conical  and  not  cylindrical.  The  foregoing 
explanation  is  therefore  not  quite  complete.  Let  us  suppose 
that  the  changes  have  gone  on  in  the  small  section  of  the  flame 
exactly  as  described  and  consider  how  the  processes  will  differ 
in  parts  above  this  section.  The  central  core  of  unburned  gases 
will  pass  upwards  and  we  may  treat  it  as  a  new  cylindrical 
column  which  will  undergo,  changes  just  as  the  original  one, 
leaving,  however,  a  smaller  core  of  unburned  gases,  or,  in  other 
words,  each  succeeding  section  of  the  flame  will  be  of  smaller 
diameter.  This  gives  us  the  conical  form  of  the  flame.  Again, 
the  higher  we  ascend  the  flame  the  greater  proportionally  is  the 
amount  of  separated  carbon,  for  we  have  not  only  the  heat  of 
laterally  outlying  combustion  to  effect  decomposition,  but  also 
that  of  the  lower  parts  of  the  flame.  The  lower  part  of  a  luminous 
flame  accordingly  contains  less  separated  carbon  than  the  upper. 
Where  the  hydrocarbon  is  largely  decomposed  before  combustion 
we  have  no  longer  the  conditions  of  the  Bunsen  flame,  and  so  in 
the  upper  parts  of  a  luminous  flame  the  bright  blue  part  fades 
away.  The  luminous  fringe  would,  however,  be  continued, 
for  the  separated  hydrogen  has  still  to  burn.  In  this  way 
then  we  may  reasonably  account  for  the  existence,  position 
and  relative  sizes  of  the  four  regions  of  an  ordinary  luminous 
flame.  (A.  S.) 

FLAMEL,  NICOLAS  (c.  1330-1418),  reputed  French  alchemist 
and  scrivener  to  the  university  of  Paris,  was  born  in  Paris  or 
Pontoise  about  1330,  and  died  in  Paris  in  1418,  bequeathing  the 
bulk  of  his  property  to  the  church  of  Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie, 
where  he  was  buried.  During  his  life  he  contributed  freely  to 
charitable  and  religious  purposes  from  the  considerable  wealth 
he  amassed  either  by  the  practice  of  his  craft,  or,  as  some  surmise 
without  definite  proof,  by  fortunate  speculation  or  money 
lending,  or,  as  legend  has  it,  by  alchemy.  According  to  a  docu- 
ment purporting  to  be  written  by  himself  in  1413  (printed  in 
Waite's  Lives  of  the  Alchemystical  Philosophers,  London,  1888), 
there  fell  into  his  hands  in  1357,  at  the  cost  of  two  florins,  a  book 
on  alchemy  by  Abraham  the  Jew,  which  taught  in  plain  words 
the  transmutation  of  metals.  It  did  not,  however,  explain  the 
materia  prima,  but  merely  figured  or  depicted  it,  and  for  more 
than  20  years  Flamel  strove  in  vain  to  find  out  the  secret.  Then, 
returning  from  a  journey  to  Spain,  he  fell  in  with  a  Christian 
Jew,  named  Canches,  who  gave  him  the  explanation,  and  after 
three  more  years'  work  he  succeeded  in  preparing  the  materia 
prima,  thus  being  enabled  in  1382  to  transmute  mercury  into 
both  silver  and  gold.  But  this  fantastic  story  was  disposed 
of  by  the  facts,  derived  from  parish  records,  set  forth  in  Vilain's 
Essai  sur  I'histoire  de  Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie,  1758,  and  his 
Histoire  critique  de  Nicolas  Flamel  et  de  Pernelle  sa  femme, 
recueillie  d'acles  anciens  qui  justifient  I'origine  et  la  midiocriti  de 
leur  fortune  centre  les  imputations  des  alchimistes,  1761. 

A  book  on  alchemy  in  the  Paris'Bibliotheque,  Le  Tresor  de  philo- 
sophie,  professing  to  be  written  and  illuminated  by  Flamel  with  his 


FLAMEN— FLAMINGO 


475 


own  hand,  is  of  very  doubtful  authenticity,  and  other  treatises  bear- 
ing his  name,  such  as  the  Sommaire  philospphique  de  Nicolas  Flamel, 
published  in  1561  in  a  collection  of  alchemist  treatises  entitled  Trans- 
formation metallique,  are  certainly  spurious. 

FLAMEN  (from  flare,  "  to  blow  up  "  the  altar  fire),  a  Roman 
sacrificial  priest.  The  flamens  were  subject  to  the  pontifex  (q.v.) 
maximus,  and  were  consecrated  to  the  service  of  some  particular 
deity.  The  highest  in  rank  were  the  flamen  Dialis,  flamen 
Marlialis  and  flamen  Quirinalis,  who  were  always  selected 
from  among  the  patricians.  Their  institution  is  generally 
ascribed  to  Numa.  When  the  number  of  flamens  was  raised 
from  three  to  fifteen,  those  already  mentioned  were  entitled 
majores,  in  contradistinction  to  the  other  twelve,  who  were 
called  minores,  as  connected  with  less  important  deities,  and  were 
chosen  from  the  plebs.  Towards  the  end  of  the  republic  the 
number  of  the  lesser  flamens  seems  to  have  diminished.  The 
flamens  were  held  to  be  elected  for  life,  but  they  might  be  com- 
pelled to  resign  office  for  neglect  of  duty,  or  on  the  occurrence 
of  some  ill-omened  event  (such  as  the  cap  falling  off  the  head) 
during  the  performance  of  their  rites.  The  characteristic  dress 
of  the  flamens  in  general  was  the  apex,  a  white  conical  cap,  the 
laena  or  mantle,  and  a  laurel  wreath.  The  official  insignia 
of  the  flamen  Dialis  (of  Jupiter),  the  highest  of  these  priests, 
were  the  white  cap  (pileus,  albogalerus),  at  the  top  of  which  was 
an  olive  branch  and  a  woollen  thread;  the  laena,  a  thick  woollen 
toga  praetexta  woven  by  his  wife;  the  sacrificial  knife;  and  a 
rod  to  keep  the  people  from  him  when  on  his  way  to  offer  sacrifice. 
He  was  never  allowed  to  appear  without  these  emblems  of  office, 
every  day  being  considered  a  holy  day  for  him.  By  virtue  of  his 
office  he  was  entitled  to  a  seat  in  the  senate  and  a  curule  chair. 
The  sight  of  fetters  being  forbidden  him,  his  toga  was  not  allowed 
to  be  tied  in  a  knot  but  was  fastened  by  means  of  clasps,  and  the 
only  kind  of  ring  permitted  to  be  worn  on  his  finger  was  a  broken 
one.  If  a  person  in  fetters  took  refuge  in  his  house  he  was 
immediately  loosed  from  his  bonds;  and  if  a  criminal  on  his 
way  to  the  scene  of  his  punishment  met  him  and  threw  himself 
at  his  feet  he  was  respited  for  that  day.  The  flamen  Dialis  was 
not  allowed  to  leave  the  city  for  a  single  night,  to  ride  or  even 
touch  a  horse  (a  restriction  which  incapacitated  him  for  the 
consulship),  to  swear  an  oath,  to  look  at  an  army,  to  touch  any- 
thing unclean,  or  to  look  upon  people  working.  His  marriage, 
which  was  obliged  to  be  performed  with  the  ceremonies  of 
confarreatio  (q.v.),  was  dissoluble  only  by  death,  and  on  the  death 
of  his  wife  (called  flaminica  Dialis)  he  was  obliged  to  resign  his 
office.  The  flaminica  Dialis  assisted  her  husband  at  the  sacrifices 
and  other  religious  duties  which  he  performed.  She  wore  long 
woollen  robes;  a  veil  and  a  kerchief  for  the  head,  her  hairbeing 
plaited  up  with  a  purple  band  in  a  conical  form  (tutulus') ;  and 
shoes  made  of  the  leather  of  sacrificed  animals;  like  her  husband, 
she  carried  the  sacrificial  knife.  The  main  duty  of  the  flamens 
•was  the  offering  of  daily  sacrifices;  on  the  ist  of  October  the 
three  major  flamens  drove  to  the  Capitol  and  sacrificed  to  Fides 
Publica  (the  Honour  of  the  People).  Some  of  the  municipal 
towns  in  Italy  had  flamens  as  well  as  Rome. 

We  may  mention,  as  distinct  from  the  above,  the  flamen 
curialis,  who  assisted  the  curio,  the  priest  who  attended  to  the 
religious  affairs  of  each  curia  (?.».);  the  flamens  of  various 
sacerdotal  corporations,  such  as  the  Arval  Brothers;  the  flamen 
Augustalis,  who  superintended  the  worship  of  the  emperor  in 

the  provinces. 

See  Marquardt,  Romische  Staatsverwaltung,  iii.  (1885),  pp.  326- 
336,  473;  H.  Dessau,  in  Ephemeris  epigraphica,  iii.  (1877);  and  the 
exhaustive  article  by  C.Jullian  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio,  Dictionnaire 
des  antiquites. 

FLAMINGO  (Port.  Flamingo,  Span.  Flamenco),  one  of  the 
tallest  and  most  beautiful  birds,  conspicuous  for  the  bright 
flame-coloured  or  scarlet  patch  upon  its  wings,  and  long  known 
by  its  classical  name  Phoenicopterus,  as  an  inhabitant  of  most 
of  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Flamingos 
have  a  very  wide  distribution,  and  the  sole  genus  comprises 
only  a  few  species.  Ph.  roseus  or  antiquorum,  white,  with  a  rosy 
tinge  above,  and  with  scarlet  wing-coverts,  while  the  remiges 
are  black  (as  in  all  species),  ranges  from  the  Cape  Verde  Islands 


to  India  and  Ceylon,  north  as  far  as  Lake  Baikal;  southwards 
through  Africa  and  Madagascar,  eventually  as  P.  minor.  P.  ruber, 
entirely  light  vermilion,  extends  from  Florida  to  Para  and  the 
Galapagos;  P.  chilensis  s.  ignipalliatus,  from  Peru  to  Patagonia, 
more  resembles  the  classical  species;  while  P.  andinus,  the  tallest 
of  all,  which  lacks  the  hallux,  inhabits  the  salt  lakes  of  the 
elevated  desert  of  Atacama,  whence  it  extends  into  Chile  and 
Argentina.  Fossil  remains  of  flamingos  have  been  described 
from  the  Lower  Miocene  of  France  as  P.  croizell,  and  from  the 
Pliocene  of  Oregon.  From  the  Mid-Miocene  to  the  Oligocene 
of  France  are  known  several  species  of  Palaelodus,  Elornis  and 
Agnoplerus,  which  have  relatively  shorter  legs,  longer  toes  and  a 
complicated  hypotarsus,  and  represent  an  earlier  family,  less 
specialized  although  not  directly  ancestral  to  the  flamingos. 
Palaeiodidae  and  Phoenicopteridae  together  form  the  larger  group 
Phoenicopteri.  These  are  in  many  respects  exactly  intermediate 
between  Anserine  and  stork-like  birds,  so  much  so  in  fact  that 


The  Flamingo. 

T.  H.  Huxley  preferred  to  keep  them  separate  as  A  mphimorphae. 
However,  if  we  carefully  sift  their  characters,  the  flamingos 
obviously  reveal  themselves  as  much  nearer  related  to  the 
Ciconiae,  especially  to  Platalea  and  Ibis,  than  to  the  Anseres.  This 
is  the  opinion  arrived  at  by  W.  F.  R.  Weldon,  M.  Fuerbringer 
and  Gadow,  while  others  prefer  the  goose-like  voice  and  the 
webbed  toes  as  reliable  characters.  (For  a  detailed  analysis  of  this 
instructive  question  see  Bronn's  Thierreich,  Aves  Syst.  p.  146.) 

The  food  of  the  flamingo  seems  to  consist  chiefly  of  small 
aquatic  invertebrate  animals  whch  live  in  the  mud  of  lagoons, 
for  instance  Mollusca,  but  also  of  Confervae  and  other  low 
salt-water  algae.  Whilst  feeding,  the  bird  wades  about,  stirs 
up  the  mud  with  its  feet,  and,  reversing  the  ordinary  position 
of  its  head  so  as  to  hold  the  crown  downwards  and  to  look 
backwards,  sifts  the  mud  through  its  bill.  This  is  abruptly 
bent  down  in  the  middle,  as  if  broken;  the  upper  jaw  is  rather 
flat  and  narrow,  while  the  lower  jaw  is  very  roomy  and  furnished 
with  numerous  lamellae,  which,  together  with  the  thick  and 


476 


FLAMINIA,  VIA— FLAMININUS 


large  tongue,  act  like  a  sieve,  an  arrangement  enhanced  by  the 
considerable  movability  of  the  upper  jaw.  Then  the  bird 
erects  its  long  neck  to  swallow  the  selected  food.  When  flying, 
flamingos  present  a  striking  and  beautiful  sight,  with  legs  and 
neck  stretched  out  straight,  looking  like  white  and  rosy  or  scarlet 
crosses  with  black  arms.  Not  less  fascinating  is  a  flock  of  these 
sociable  birds  when  at  rest,  standing  on  one  or  both  legs,  with 
their  long  necks  twisted  or  coiled  upon  the  body  in  any  conceiv- 
able position. 

The  nest  is  likewise  peculiar.  It  is  built  of  mud,  a  somewhat 
conical  structure  rising  above  the  water  according  to  the  depth, 
of  which  the  cone  is  from  a  few  inches  to  2  ft.  in  height.  If,  as 
often  happens,  the  water-level  sinks,  the  nests  stand  out  higher. 
On  the  top  is  a  shallow  cup  for  the  reception  of  the  one  or  two 
eggs,  which  have  a  bluish-white  shell  with  chalky  incrustation. 
Of  course  the  hen  sits  with  her  legs  doubled  up  under  her,  as 
does  any  other  long-legged  bird.  It  seems  strange  that  many 
ornithologists  should  have  given  credence  to  W.  Dampier's 
statement  of  the  mode  of  incubation  (New  Voyage  round  the 
World,  ed.  2,  i.  p.  71,  London,  1699):  "  And  when  they  lay  their 
eggs,  or  hatch  them,  they  stand  all  the  while,  not  on  the  hillock, 
but  close  by  it  with  their  legs  on  the  ground  and  in  the  water, 
resting  themselves  against  the  hillock,  and  covering  the  hollow 
nest  upon  it  with  their  rumps,"  &c.  P.  S.  Pallas  (Zoograph. 
Rosso- Asiatica,  ii.  p.  208)  tried  to  improve  upon  this  by  stating 
that  the  standing  bird  leans  upon  the  nest  with  its  breast !  The 
young,  which  are  hatched  after  about  four  weeks'  incubation, 
look  very  different  from  the  adult.  The  small  bill  is  still  quite 
straight  and  the  legs  are  short.  The  whole  body  is  covered  with 
a  thick  coat  of  short  nestling  feathers,  pure  white  in  colour. 
These  neossoptUes  or  first  feathers  bear  no  resemblance  to  those 
of  the  Anseriform  birds,  but  agree  in  detail  with  those  of  spoonbills, 
the  young  of  which  the  little  flamingos  resemble  to  a  striking 
extent,  but  they  leave  the  nest  soon  after  their  birth  to  shift 
for  themselves  like  ducks  and  geese.  (H.  F.  G.) 

FLAMINIA,  VIA,  an  ancient  high  road  of  Italy,  constructed 
by  C.  Flaminius  during  his  censorship  (220  B.C.).  It  led  from 
Rome  to  Ariminum,  and  was  the  most  important  route  to  the 
north.  We  hear  of  frequent  improvements  being  made  in  it 
during  the  imperial  period.  Augustus,  when  he  instituted  a 
general  restoration  of  the  roads  of  Italy,  which  he  assigned  for 
the  purpose  among  various  senators,  reserved  the  Flaminia  for 
himself,  and  rebuilt  all  the  bridges  except  the  Pons  Mulvius,  by 
which  it  crosses  the  Tiber,  2  m.  N.  of  Rome  (built  by  M.  Scaurus 
in  109  B.C.),  and  an  unknown  Pons  Minucius.  Triumphal 
arches  were  erected  in  his  honour  on  the  former  bridge  and  at 
Ariminum,  the  latter  of  which  is  still  preserved.  Vespasian 
constructed  a  new  tunnel  through  the  pass  of  Intercisa,  modern 
Furlo,  in  A.D.  77  (see  CALES),  and  Trajan,  as  inscriptions  show, 
repaired  several  bridges  along  the  road. 

The  Via  Flaminia  runs  due  N.  from  Rome,  considerable 
remains  of  its  pavement  being  extant  in  the  modern  high  road, 
passing  slightly  E.  of  the  site  of  the  Etruscan  Falerii,  through 
Ocriculi  and  Narnia.  Here  it  crossed  the  Nar  by  a  splendid 
four-arched  bridge  to  which  Martial  alludes  (Epigr.  vii.  93,  8),  one 
arch  of  which  and  all  the  piers  are  still  standing;  and  went  on, 
followed  at  first  by  the  modern  road  to  Sangemini  which  passes 
over  two  finely  preserved  ancient  bridges,  past  Carsulae  to 
Mevania,  and  thence  to  Forum  Flaminii.  Later  on  a  more 
circuitous  route  from  Narnia  to  Forum  Flaminii  was  adopted, 
passing  by  Interamna,  Spoletium  and  Fulginium  (from  which 
a  branch  diverged  to  Perusia),  and  increasing  the  distance  by 
12  m.  The  road  thence  went  on  to  Nuceria  (whence  a  branch 
road  ran  to  Septempeda  and  thence  either  to  Ancona  or  to 
Tolentinum  and  Urbs  Salvia)  and  Helvillum,  and  then  crossed 
the  main  ridge  of  the  Apennines,  a  temple  of  Jupiter  Apenninus 
standing  at  the  summit  of  the  pass.  Thence  it  descended  to 
Cales  (where  it  turned  N.E.),  and  through  the  pass  of  Intercisa 
to  Forum  Sempronii  (Fossombrone)  and  Forum  Fortunae, 
where  it  reached  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic.  Thence  it  ran  N.W. 
through  Pisaurum  to  Ariminum.  The  total  distance  from  Rome 
was  210  m.  by  the  older  road  and  222  by  the  newer.  The  road 


gave  its  name  to  a  juridkal  district  of  Italy  from  the  2nd  century 
A.D.  onwards,  the  former  territory  of  the  Senones,  which  was 
at  first  associated  with  Umbria  (with  which  indeed  under 
Augustus  it  had  formed  the  sixth  region  of  Italy),  but  which  after 
Constantine  was  always  administered  with  Picenum.  (T.  As.) 

FLAMININUS,  TITUS  QUINCTIUS  (c.  228-174  B.C.),  Roman 
general  and  statesman.  He  began  his  public  life  as  a  military 
tribune  under  M.  Claudius  Marcellus,  the  conqueror  of  Syracuse. 
In  199  he  was  quaestor,  and  the  next  year,  passing  over  the 
regular  stages  of  aedile  and  praetor,  he  obtained  the  consulship. 

Flamininus  was  one  of  the  first  and  most  successful  of  the 
rising  school  of  Roman  statesmen,  the  opponents  of  the  narrow 
patriotism  of  which  Cato  was  the  type,  the  disciples  of  Greek 
culture,  and  the  advocates  of  a  wide  imperial  policy.  His 
winning  manners,  his  polished  address,  his  knowledge  of  men, 
his  personal  fascination,  and  his  intimate  knowledge  of  Greek, 
all  marked  him  out  as  the  fittest  representative  of  Rome  in  the 
East.  Accordingly,  the  province  of  Macedonia,  and  the  conduct 
of  the  war  with  Philip  V.  of  Macedon,  in  which,  after  two  years, 
Rome  had  as  yet  gained  little  advantage,  were  assigned  to  him. 
Flamininus  modified  both  the  policy  and  tactics  of  his  pre- 
decessors. After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  come  to  terms,  he 
drove  the  Macedonians  from  the  valley  of  the  Aous  by  skilfully 
turning  an  impregnable  position.  Having  thus  practically 
made  himself  master  of  Macedonia,  he  proceeded  to  Greece, 
where  Philip  still  had  allies  and  supporters.  The  Achaean 
League  (q.v .)  at  once  deserted  the  cause  of  Macedonia,  and  Nabis, 
the  tyrant  of  Sparta,  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Rome; 
Acarnania  and  Boeotia  submitted  in  less  than  a  year,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  the  great  fortresses,  Flamininus  had  the  whole 
of  Greece  under  his  control.  The  demand  of  the  Greeks  for  the 
expulsion  of  Macedonian  garrisons  from  Demetrias,  Chalcis  and 
Corinth,  as  the  only  guarantee  for  the  freedom  of  Greece,  was 
refused,  and  negotiations  were  broken  off.  Hostilities  were 
renewed  in  the  spring  of  197,  and  Flamininus  took  the  field 
supported  by  nearly  the  whole  of  Greece.  At  Cynoscephalae 
the  Macedonian  phalanx  and  the  Roman  legion  for  the  first  time 
met  in  open  fight,  and  the  day  decided  which  nation  was  to  be 
master  of  Greece  and  perhaps  of  the  world.  It  was  a  victory  of 
superior  tactics.  The  left  wing  of  the  Roman  army  was  retiring 
in  confusion  before  the  Macedonian  right  led  by  Philip  in  person, 
when  Flamininus,  leaving  them  to  their  fate,  boldly  charged 
the  left  wing  under  Nicanor,  which  was  forming  on  the  heights. 
Before  the  left  wing  had  time  to  form,  Flamininus  was  upon 
them,  and  a  massacre  rather  than  a  fight  ensued.  This  defeat 
was  turned  into  a  general  rout  by  a  nameless  tribune,  who 
collected  twenty  companies  and  charged  in  the  rear  the  victorious 
Macedonian  phalanx,  which  in  its  pursuit  had  left  the  Roman 
right  far  behind.  Macedonia  was  now  at  the  mercy  of  Rome, 
but  Flamininus  contented  himself  with  his  previous  demands. 
Philip  lost  all  his  foreign  possessions,  but  retained  his  Macedonian 
kingdom  almost  entire.  He  was  required  to  reduce  his  army, 
to  give  up  all  his  decked  ships  except  five,  and  to  pay  an  indemnity 
of  1000  talents  (£244,000).  Ten  commissioners  arrived  from 
Rome  to  regulate  the  final  terms  of  peace,  and  at  the  Isthmian 
games  a  herald  proclaimed  to  the  assembled  crowds  that  "  the 
Roman  people,  and  T.  Quinctius  their  general,  having  conquered 
King  Philip  and  the  Macedonians,  declare  all  the  Greek  states 
which  had  been  subject  to  the  king  henceforward  free  and 
independent."  Flamininus's  last  act  before  returning  home 
was  characteristic.  Of  the  Achaeans,  who  vied  with  one  another 
in  showering  upon  him  honours  and  rewards,  he  asked  but  one 
personal  favour,  the  redemption  of  the  Italian  captives  who  had 
been  sold  as  slaves  in  Greece  during  the  Hannibalic  War.  These, 
to  the  number  of  1 200,  were  presented  to  him  on  the'  eve  of  his 
departure  (spring,  194),  and  formed  the  chief  ornament  of  his 
triumph. 

In  192,  on  the  rupture  between  the  Romans  and  Antiochus  III. 
the  Great,  Flamininus  returned  to  Greece,  this  time  as  the  civil 
representative  of  Rome.  His  personal  influence  and  skilful 
diplomacy  secured  the  wavermg  Achaean  states,  cemented  the 
alliance  with  Philip,  and  contributed  mainly  to  the  Roman 


FLAMINIUS,  GAIUS— FLAMSTEED 


victory  at  Thermopylae  (191).  In  183  he  undertook  an  embassy 
to  Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia,  to  induce  him  to  deliver  up  Hannibal, 
who  forestalled  his  fate  by  taking  poison.  Nothing  more  is 
known  of  Flamininus,  except  that,  according  to  Plutarch,  his 
end  was  peaceful  and^happy. 

There  seems  no  doubt  that  Flamininus  was  actuated  by  a 
genuine  love  of  Greece  and  its  people.  To  attribute  to  him  a 
Machiavellian  policy,  which  foresaw  ,the  overthrow  of  Corinth 
fifty  years  later  and  the  conversion  of  Achaea  into  a  Roman 
province,  is  absurd  and  disingenuous.  There  is  more  force  in 
the  charge  that  his  Hellenic  sympathies  prevented  him  from 
seeing  the  innate  weakness  and  mutual  jealousies  of  the  Greek 
states  of  that  period,  whose  only  hope  of  peace  and  safety  lay 
in  submitting  to  the  protectorate  of  the  Roman  republic.  But 
if  the  event  proved  that  the  liberation  of  Greece  was  a  political 
mistake,  it  was  a  noble  and  generous  mistake,  and  reflects 
nothing  but  honour  on  the  name  of  Flamininus,  "  the  liberator 
of  the  Greeks." 

His  life  has  been  written  by  Plutarch,  and  in  modern  times  by 
F.  D.  Gerlach  (1871);  see  also  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Rome  (Eng.  tr.), 
bk.  iii.  chs.  8,  9. 

FLAMINIUS,  GAIUS,  Roman  statesman  and  general,  of 
plebeian  family.  During  his  tribuneship  (232  B.C.),  in  spite  of 
the  determined  opposition  of  the  senate  and  his  own  father,  he 
carried  a  measure  for  distributing  among  the  plebeians  the  ager 
Gallicus  Picenus,  an  extensive  tract  of  newly-acquired  territory 
to  the  south  of  Ariminum  (Cicero,  De  seneclute,  4,  Brutus,  14). 
As  praetor  in  227,  he  gained  the  lasting  gratitude  of  the  people 
of  his  province  (Sicily)  by  his  excellent  administration.  In  223, 
when  consul  with  P.  Furius  Philus,  he  took  the  field  against  the 
Gauls,  who  were  said  to  have  been  roused  to  war  by  his  agrarian 
law.  Having  crossed  the  Po  to  punish  the  Insubrians,  he  at 
first  met  with  a  severe  check  and  was  forced  to  capitulate. 
Reinforced  by  the  Cenomani,  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  on  the 
banks  of  the  Addua.  He  had  previously  been  recalled  by  the 
optimates,  but  ignored  the  order.  The  victory  seems  to  have 
been  due  mainly  to  the  admirable  discipline  and  fighting  qualities 
of  the  soldiers,  and  he  obtained  the  honour  of  a  triumph  only 
after  the  decree  of  the  senate  against  it  had  been  overborne  by 
popular  clamour.  During  his  censorship  (220)  he  strictly 
limited  the  freedmen  to  the  four  city  tribes  (see  COMITIA).  His 
name  is  further  associated  with  two  great  works.  He  erected 
the  Circus  Flaminius  on  the  Campus  Martius,  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  plebeians,  and  continued  the  military  road  from 
Rome  to  Ariminum,  which  had  hitherto  only  reached  as  far  as 
Spoletium  (see  FLAMINIA,  VIA).  He  probably  also  instituted 
the  "  plebeian  "  games.  In  218,  as  a  leader  of  the  democratic 
opposition,  Flaminius  was  one  of  the  chief  promoters  of  the 
measure  brought  in  by  the  tribune  Quintus  Claudius,  which 
prohibited  senators  and  senators'  sons  from  possessing  sea-going 
vessels,  except  for  the  transport  of  the  produce  of  their  own 
estates,  and  generally  debarred  them  from  all  commercial 
speculation  (Livy  xxi.  63).  His  effective  support  of  this  measure 
vastly  increased  the  popularity  of  Flaminius  with  his  own  order, 
and  secured  his  second  election  as  consul  in  the  following  year 
(217),  shortly  after  the  defeat  of  T.  Sempronius  Longus  at  the 
Trebia.  He  hastened  at  once  to  Arretium,  the  termination  of 
the  western  high  road  to  the  north,  to  protect  the  passes  of  the 
Apennines,  but  was  defeated  and  killed  at  the  battle  of  the 
Trasimene  lake  (see  PUNIC  WARS). 

The  testimony  of  Livy  (xxi.,  xxii.)  and  Polybius  (ii.,  iii.) — 
no  friendly  critics — shows  that  Flaminius  was  a  man  of  ability, 
energy  and  probity.  A  popular  and  successful  democratic 
leader,  he  cannot,  however,  be  ranked  among  the  great  statesmen 
of  the  republic.  As  a  general  he  was  headstrong  and  self- 
sufficient  and  seems  to  have  owed  his  victories  chiefly  to  personal 
boldness  favoured  by  good  fortune. 

His  son,  GAIUS  FLAMINIUS,  was  quaestor  under  P.  Scipio 
Africanus  the  elder  in  Spain  in  210,  and  took  part  in  the  capture 
of  New  Carthage.  Fourteen  years  later,  when  curule  aedile,  he 
distributed  large  quantities  of  grain  among  the  citizens  at  a  very 
low  price.  In  193,  as  praetor,  he  carried  on  a  successful  war 


477 

against  the  insubordinate  populations  of  his  recently  constituted 
province  of  Hispania  Citerior.  In  187  he  was  consul  with  M. 
Aemilius  Lepidus,  and  subjugated  the  warlike  Ligurian  tribes. 
In  the  same  year  the  branch  of  the  Via  Aemilia  connecting 
Bononia  with  Arretium  was  constructed  by  him.  In  181  he 
founded  the  colony  of  Aquileia.  The  chief  authority  for  his  life 
is  the  portion  of  Livy  dealing  with  the  history  of  the  period. 

FLAMSTEED,  JOHN  (1646-1719),  English  astronomer,  was 
born  at  Denby,  near  Derby,  on  the  ipth  of  August  1646.  The 
only  son  of  Stephen  Flamsteed,  a  maltster,  he  was  educated  at 
the  free  school  of  Derby,  but  quitted  it  finally  in  May  1662,  in 
consequence  of  a  rheumatic  affection  of  the  joints,  due  to  a 
chill  caught  while  bathing.  Medical  aid  having  proved  of  no 
avail,  he  went  to  Ireland  in  1665  to  be  "  stroked  "  by  Valentine 
Greatrakes,  but  "  found  not  his  disease  to  stir."  Meanwhile, 
he  solaced  his  enforced  leisure  with  astronomical  studies.  Begin- 
ning with  J.  Sacrobosco's  De  sphaera,  he  read  all  the  books 
on  the  subject  that  he  could  buy  or  borrow;  observed  a  partial 
solar  eclipse  on  the  12th  of  September  1662;  and  attempted  the 
construction  of  measuring  instruments.  A  tract  on  the  equation 
of  time,  written  by  him  in  1667,  was  published  by  Dr  John  Wallis 
with  the  Posthumous  Works  of  J.  Horrocks  (1673);  and  a  paper 
embodying  his  calculations  of  appulses  to  stars  by  the  moon, 
which  appeared  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  (iv.  1099), 
signed  In  Mathesi  a  sole  fundes,  an  anagram  of  "  Johannes 
Flamsteedius,"  secured  for  him,  from  1670,  general  scientific 
recognition. 

On  his  return  from  a  visit  to  London  in  1670  he  became 
acquainted  with  Isaac  Newton  at  Cambridge,  entered  his  name 
at  Jesus  college,  and  took,  four  years  later,  a  degree  of  M.A. 
by  letters-patent.  An  essay  composed  by  him  in  1673  on  the 
true  and  apparent  diameters  of  the  planets  furnished  Newton 
with  data  for  the  third  book  of  the  Principia,  and  he  fitted 
numerical  elements  to  J.  Horrocks's  theory  of  the  moon.  In 
1674,  and  again  in  1675,  he  was  invited  to  London  by  Sir  Jonas 
Moore,  governor  of  the  Tower,  who  proposed  to  establish  him  in 
a  private  observatory  at  Chelsea,  but  the  plan  was  anticipated 
by  the  determination  of  Charles  II.  to  have  the  tables  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  corrected,  and  the  places  of  the  fixed  stars 
rectified  "  for  the  use  of  his  seamen,"  and  Flamsteed  was  ap- 
pointed "  astronomical  observator  "  by  a  royal  warrant  dated 
4th  of  March  1675.  His  salary  of  £100  a  year  was  cut  down  by 
taxation  to  £90;  he  had  to  provide  his  own  instruments,  and  to 
instruct,  into  the  bargain,  two  boys  from  Christ's  hospital. 
Sheer  necessity  drove  him,  in  addition,  to  take  many  private 
pupils;  but  having  been  ordained  in  1675,  he  was  presented  by 
Lord  North  in  1684  to  the  living  of  Burstow  in  Surrey;  and  his 
financial  position  was  further  improved  by  a  small  inheritance 
on  his  father's  death  in  1688.  He  now  ordered,  at  an  expense  of 
£120,  a  mural  arc  from  Abraham  Sharp,  with  which  he  began 
to  observe  systematically  on  the  izth  of  September  1689  (see 
ASTRONOMY:  History).  The  latter  part  of  Flamsteed's  life 
passed  in  a  turmoil  of  controversy  regarding  the  publication  of 
his  results.  He  struggled  to  withhold  them  until  they  could  be 
presented  in  a  complete  form;  but  they  were  urgently  needed 
for  the  progress  of  science,  and  the  astronomer-royal  was  a  public 
servant.  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  who  depended  for  the  perfecting 
of  his  lunar  theory  upon  "  places  of  the  moon  "  reluctantly 
doled  out  from  Greenwich1,  led  the  movement  for  immediate 
communication;  whence  arose  much  ill-feeling  between  him 
and  Flamsteed.  At  last,  in  1704,  Prince  George  of  Denmark 
undertook  the  cost  of  printing;  a  committee  of  the  Royal 
Society  was  appointed  to  arrange  preliminaries,  and  Flamsteed, 
protesting  and  exasperated,  had  to  submit.  The  work  was  only 
partially  through  the  press  when  the  prince  died,  on  the  28th  of 
October  1708,  and  its  completion  devolved  upon  a  board  of 
visitors  to  the  observatory  endowed  with  ample  powers  by  a 
royal  order  of  the  i2th  of  December  1712.  As  the  upshot,  the 
Historia  coelestis,  embodying  the  first  Greenwich  star-catalogue, 
together  with  the  mural  arc  observations  made  1689-1705,  was 
issued  under  Edmund  Halley's  editorship  in  1712.  Flamsteed 
denounced  the  production  as  surreptitious;  he  committed  to 


FLANDERS 


the  flames  three  hundred  copies,  of  which  he  obtained  possession 
through  the  favour  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole;  and,  in  defiance  of 
bodily  infirmities,  vigorously  prosecuted  his  designs  for  the 
entire  and  adequate  publication  of  the  materials  he  continued 
to  accumulate.  They  were  but  partially  executed  when  he  died 
on  the  3ist  of  December  1719.  The  preparation  of  his  monu- 
mental work,  Historia  coelestis  Britannica  (3  vols.  folio,  1725), 
was  finished  by  his  assistant,  Joseph  Crosthwait,  aided  by 
Abraham  Sharp.  The  first  two  volumes  included  the  whole'of 
Flamsteed's  observations  at  Derby  and  Greenwich;  the  third 
contained  the  British  Catalogue  of  nearly  3000  stars.  Numerous 
errors  in  this  valuable  record  having  been  detected  by  Sir  William 
Herschel,  Caroline  Herschel  drew  up  a  list  of  560  stars  observed, 
but  not  catalogued,  while  1 1 1  of  those  catalogued  proved  to  have 
never  been  observed  (Phil.  Trans.  Ixxxvii.  293;  see  also  F. 
Baily,  Memoirs  Roy.  Astr.  Society,  iv.  129).  The  appearance 
of  the  Atlas  coelestis,  corresponding  to  the  British  Catalogue, 
was  delayed  until  1729.  A  portrait  of  Flamsteed,  painted  by 
Thomas  Gibson  in  1712,  hangs  in  the  rooms  of  the  Royal  Society. 
The  extent  and  quality  of  his  performance  were  the  more  remark- 
able considering  his  severe  physical  sufferings,  his  straitened 
means,  and  the  antagonism  to  which  he  was  exposed.  Estimable 
in  private  life,  he  was  highly  susceptible  in  professional  matters, 
and  hence  failed  to  keep  on  terms  with  his  contemporaries. 

Francis  Daily's  Account  of  the  Rev.  John  Flamsteed  (1835)  is  the 
leading  authority  for  his  life.  It  comprises  an  autobiographical 
narrative  pieced  together  from  various  sources,  a  large  collection  of 
Flamsteed's  letters,  a  revised  and  enlarged  edition  of  the  British 
Catalogue,  besides  authoritative  and  detailed  introductory  dis- 
cussions. Some  clamour  was  raised  by  a  publication  in  which  blame 
for  harsh  dealings  was  freely  imputed  to  Newton,  but  W.  Whewell 
vindicated  his  character  in  Flamsteed  and  Newton  (1836). 

See  also  General  Dictionary,  vol.  v.  (1737),  from  materials  supplied 
by  James  Hodgson,  Flamsteed's  nephew-in-law ;  Biographia  Britan- 
nica, iii.  1943  (1750);  S.  Rigaud's  Correspondence  of  Scientific  Men; 
Cunningham's  Lives  of  Eminent  Englishmen,  iv.  366  (1835);  Mark 
Noble's  Continuation  of  James  Granger's  Biog.  Hist,  of  England, 
ii.  132;  R.  Grant's  Hist,  of  Phys.  Astronomy,  p.  467;  W.  Whewell's 
Hist,  of  the  Inductive  Sciences,  ii.  162;  I.  S.  Bailly's  Hist,  de 
I' astronomic  moderne,  ii.  423,  589,  650;  J.  Delambre's  Hist,  de 
I' astronomic  au  XVIII'  siecle,  p.  93;  Observatory,  xv.  355,  379, 
382.  (A.  M.  C.) 

FLANDERS  (Flem.  Vlaanderen),  a  territorial  name  for  part  of 
the  Netherlands,  Europe.  Originally  it  applied  only  to  Bruges 
and  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  In  the  8th  and  9th  centuries 
it  was  gradually  extended  to  the  whole  of  the  coast  region  from 
Calais  to  the  Scheldt.  In  the  middle  ages  this  was  divided  into 
two  parts,  one  looking  to  Bruges  as  its  capital,  and  the  other  to 
Ghent.  The  name  is  retained  in  the  two  Belgian  provinces  of 
West  and  East  Flanders. 

1.  West  Flanders  is  the  portion  bordering  the  North  Sea,  and 
its  coast-line  extends  from  the  French  to  the  Dutch  frontier  for 
a  little  over  40  m.     Its  capital  is  Bruges,  and  the  principal  towns 
of  the  province  are  Ostend,  Courtrai,  Ypres  and  Roulers.     Agri- 
culture is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  population,  and  the  country 
is  under  the  most  careful  and  skilful  cultivation.     The  admiration 
of  the  foreign  observer  for  the  Belgian  system  of  market  gardening 
is  not  diminished  on  learning  that  the  subsoil  of  most  of  this 
tract  is  the  sand  of  the  "  dunes."     Fishing  employs  a  large 
proportion  of  the  coast  population.     The  area  of  West  Flanders 
is  officially  computed  at  808,667  acres  or  1 263  sq.  m.     In  1904  the 
population  was  845,732,  giving  an  average  of  669  to  the  sq.  m. 

2.  East   Flanders  lies   east   and   north-east   of   the  western 
province;   and  extends  northwards  to  the   neighbourhood  of 
Antwerp.     It  is  still  more  productive  and  richer  than  Western 
Flanders,  and  is  well  watered  by  the  Scheldt.     The  district  of 
Waes,  land  entirely  reclaimed  within  the  memory  of  man,  is 
supposed  to  be  the  most  productive  district  of  its  size  in  Europe. 
The  principal  towns  are  Ghent  (capital  of  the  province),  St 
Nicolas,  Alost,  Termonde,  Eecloo  and  Oudenarde.     The  area  is 
given  at  749,987  acres  or  1172  sq.  m.     In  1904  the  population 
was  1,073,507,  showing  an  average  of  916  per  sq.  m. 

History. — The  ancient  territory  of  Flanders  comprised  not 
only  the  modern  provinces  known  as  East  and  West  Flanders, 
but  the  southernmost  portion  of  the  Dutch  province  of  Zeeland 


and  a  considerable  district  in  north-western  France.  In  the  time 
of  Caesar  it  was  inhabited  by  the  Morini,  Atrebates  and  other 
Celtic  tribes,  but  in  the  centuries  that  followed  the  land  was 
repeatedly  overrun  by  German  invaders,  and  finally  became 
a  part  of  the  dominion  of  the  Franks.  On  the  break-up  of  the 
Carolingian  empire  the  river  Scheldt  was  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun 
(843)  made  the  line  of  division  between  the  kingdom  of  East 
Francia  (Austrasia)  under  the  emperor  Lothaire,  and  the 
kingdom  of  West  Francia  (Neustria)  under  Charles  the  Bald. 
In  virtue  of  this  compact  Flanders  was  henceforth  attached  to 
the  West  Prankish  monarchy  (France).  It  thus  acquired  a 
position  unique  among  the  provinces  of  the  territory  known  in 
later  times  as  the  Netherlands,  all  of  which  were  included  in  that 
northern  part  of  Austrasia  assigned  on  the  death  of  the  emperor 
Lothaire  (855)  to  King  Lothaire  II.,  and  from  his  name  called 
Lotharingia  or  Lorraine. 

The  first  ruler  of  Flanders  of  whom  history  has  left  any  record 
is  Baldwin,  surnamed  Bras-de-fer  (Iron-arm).  This  man,  a  brave 
and  daring  warrior  under  Charles  the  Bald,  fell  in  love  with 
the  king's  daughter  Judith,  the  youthful  widow  of  two  English 
kings,  married  her,  and  fled  with  his  bride  to  Lorraine.  Charles, 
though  at  first  very  angry,  was  at  last  conciliated,  and  made 
his  son-in-law  margrave  (Marchio  Flandriae)  of  Flanders,  which 
he  held  as  an  hereditary  fief.  The  Northmen  were  at  this  time 
continually  devastating  the  coast  lands,  and  Baldwin  was 
entrusted  with  the  possession  of  this  outlying  borderland  of  the 
west  Prankish  dominion  in  order  to  defend  it  against  the  invaders. 
He  was  the  first  of  a  line  of  strong  rulers,  who  at  some  date 
early  in  the  loth  century  exchanged  the  title  of  margrave  for 
that  of  count.  His  son,  Baldwin  II. — the  Bald — from  his  strong- 
hold at  Bruges  maintained,  as  did  his  father  before  him,  a 
vigorous  defence  of  his  lands  against  the  incursions  of  the  North- 
men. On  his  mother's  side  a  descendant  of  Charlemagne,  he 
strengthened  the  dynastic  importance  of  his  family  by  marrying 
Aelfthryth,  daughter  of  Alfred  the  Great.  On  his  death  in  918 
his  possessions  were  divided  between  his  two  sons  Arnulf  the 
Elder  and  Adolphus,  but  the  latter  survived  only  a  short  time 
and  Arnulf  succeeded  to  the  whole  inheritance.  His  reign  was 
filled  with  warfare  against  the  Northmen,  and  he  took  an  active 
part  in  the  struggles  in  Lorraine  between  the  emperor  Otto  I. 
and  Hugh  Capet.  In  his  old  age  he  placed  the  government  in  the 
hands  of  Baldwin,  his  son  by  Adela,  daughter  of  the  count  of 
Vermandois,  and  the  young  man,  though  his  reign  was  a  very 
short  one,  did  a  great  deal  for  the  commercial  and  industrial 
progress  of  the  country,  establishing  the  first  weavers  and 
fullers  at  Ghent,  and  instituting  yearly  fairs  at  Ypres,  Bruges 
and  other  places. 

On  Baldwin  III.'s  death  in  961  the  old  count  resumed  the 
control,  and  spent  the  few  remaining  years  of  his  life  in  securing 
the  succession  of  his  grandson  Arnulf  II. — the  Younger.  The 
reign  of  Arnulf  was  terminated  by  his  death  in  989,  and  he  was 
followed  by  his  son  Baldwin  IV.,  named  Barbalus  or  the  Bearded. 
This  Baldwin  fought  successfully  both  against  the  Capetian 
king  of  France  and  the  emperor  Henry  II.  Henry  found  himself 
obliged  to  grant  to  Baldwin  IV.  in  fief  Valenciennes,  the  bur- 
graveship  of  Ghent,  the  land  of  Waes,  and  Zeeland.  The  count 
of  Flanders  thus  became  a  feudatory  of  the  empire  as  well  as  of 
the  French  crown.  The  French  fiefs  are  known  in  Flemish 
history  as  Crown  Flanders  (Kroon-Vlaaiideren) ,  the  German  fiefs 
as  Imperial  Flanders  (Rijks-Vlaanderen).  Baldwin's  son — 
afterwards  Baldwin  V. — rebelled  in  1028  against  his  father  at 
the  instigation  of  his  wife  Adela,  daughter  of  Robert  II.  of 
France;  but  two  years  later  peace  was  sworn  at  Oudenaarde, 
and  the  old  count  continued  to  reign  till  his  death  in  1036. 
Baldwin  V.  proved  a  worthy  successor,  and  acquired  from  the 
people  the  surname  of  D&bonnaire.  He  was  an  active  enter- 
prising man,  and  greatly  extended  his  power  by  wars  and 
alliances.  He  obtained  from  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  the  territory 
between  the  Scheldt  and  the  Dender  as  an  imperial  fief,  and  the 
margraviate  of  Antwerp.  So  powerful  had  he  become  that  the 
Flemish  count  on  the  decease  of  Henry  I.  of  France  in  1060 
was  appointed  regent  during  the  minority  of  Philip  I.  (see 


FLANDERS 


479 


FRANCE).  Before  his  death  he  saw  his  eldest  daughter  Matilda 
(d.  1083)  sharing  the  English  throne  with  William  the  Conqueror, 
his  eldest  son  Baldwin  of  Mons  in  possession  of  Hainaut  in  right 
of  his  wife  Richilde,  heiress  of  Regnier  V.  (d.  1036)  and  widow 
of  Hermann  of  Saxony  (d.  1050/1)  (see  HAINAUT),  and  his  second 
son  Robert  the  Frisian  regent  (tioogd)  of  the  county  of  Holland 
during  the  minority  of  Dick  V.,  whose  mother,  Gertrude  of 
Saxony,  widow  of  Floris  I.  of  Holland  (d.  1061),  Robert  had 
married  (see  HOLLAND).  On  his  death  in  1067  his  son  Baldwin 
of  Mons,  already  count  of  Hainaut,  succeeded  to  the  countship 
of  Flanders.  Baldwin  V.  had  granted  to  Robert  the  Frisian 
on  his  marriage  in  1063  his  imperial  fiefs.  His  right  to  these  was 
disputed  by  Baldwin  VI.,  and  war  broke  out  between  the  two 
brothers.  Baldwin  was  killed  in  battle  in  1070.  Robert  now 
claimed  the  tutelage  of  Baldwin's  children  and  obtained  the 
support  of  the  emperor  Henry  IV.,  while  Richilde,  Baldwin's 
widow,  appealed  to  Philip  I.  of  France.  The  contest  was  decided 
at  Ravenshoven,  near  Cassel,  on  the  22nd  of  February  1071, 
where  Robert  was  victorious.  Richilde  was  taken  prisoner  and 
her  eldest  son  Arnulf  III.  was  slain.  Robert  obtained  from 
Philip  I.  the  investiture  of  Crown  Flanders,  and  from  Henry  IV. 
the  fiefs  which  formed  Imperial  Flanders. 

The  second  son  of  Richilde  was  recognized  as  count  of  Hainaut 
(see  HAINAUT)  ,  which  was  thus  after  a  brief  union  separated  from 
Flanders.  Robert  died  in  1093,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Robert  II.,  who  acquired  great  renown  by  his  exploits  in  the 
first  crusade,  and  won  the  name  of  the  Lance  and  Sword  of 
Christendom.  His  fame  was  second  only  to  that  of  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon.  Robert  returned  to  Flanders  in  1 1 oo.  He  fought 
with  his  suzerain  Louis  the  Fat  of  France  against  the  English, 
and  was  drowned  in  1 1 1 1  by  the  breaking  of  a  bridge.  His  son 
and  successor,  Baldwin  VII.,  or  Baldwin  with  the  Axe,  also 
fought  against  the  English  in  France.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
twenty-seven  from  the  wound  of  an  arrow,  in  1119,  leaving  no 
heir.  He  nominated  as  his  successor  his  cousin  Charles,  son  of 
Knut  IV.  of  Denmark  and  of  Adela,  daughter  of  Robert  the 
Frisian.  Charles  tried  his  utmost  to  put  down  oppression  and  to 
promote  the  welfare  of  his  subjects,  and  obtained  the  surname 
of  "  the  Good."  His  determination  to  enforce  the  right  made 
him  many  enemies,  and  he  was  foully  murdered  on  Ash 
Wednesday,  1127,  at  Bruges.  He  died  childless,  and  there 
were  no  less  than  six  candidates  to  the  countship.  The  contest 
lay  between  two  of  these,  William  Clito,  son  of  Robert  of 
Normandy  and  grandson  of  William  the  Conqueror  and  Matilda 
of  Flanders,  and  Thierry  or  Dirk  of  Alsace,  whose  mother 
Gertrude  was  a  daughter  of  Robert  the  Frisian.  William  Clito, 
through  the  support  of  Louis  of  France,  was  at  first  accepted  by 
the  Flemish  nobles  as  count,  but  he  gave  offence  to  the  com- 
munes, who  supported  Thierry.  A  struggle  ensued  and  William 
was  killed  before  Alost.  Thierry  then  became  count  without 
further  opposition.  He  married  the  widow  of  Charles  the  Good, 
Marguerite  of  Clermont,  and  proved  himself  at  home  a  wise 
and  prudent  prince,  encouraging  the  growth  of  popular  liberty 
and  of  commerce.  In  1146  he  took  part  in  the  second  crusade 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  exploits.  In  1157  he  resigned 
the  countship  to  his  son  Philip  of  Alsace  and  betook  himself 
once  more  to  Jerusalem.  On  his  return  from  the  East  twenty 
years  later  Thierry  retired  to  a  monastery  to  die  in  his  own 

land. 

Count  Philip  of  Alsace  was  a  strong  and  able  man.  . 
much  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  municipalities  for  which 
Flanders  was  already  becoming  famous.  Ghent,  Bruges,  Ypres, 
Lille  and  Douai  under  him  made  much  progress  as  flourishing 
industrial  towns.  He  also  conferred  rights  and  privileges  on 
a  number  of  ports,  Hulst,  Nieuwport,  Sluis,  Dunkirk,  Axel, 
Damme,  Gravelines  and  others.  But  while  encouraging  the 
development  of  the  communes  and  "  free  towns,"  Philip  sternly 
repressed  any  spirit  of  independence  or  attempted  uprisings 
against  his  authority.  This  count  was  a  powerful  prince  He 
acted  for  a  time  as  regent  in  France  during  the  minority  of  his 
godson  Philip  Augustus,  and  married  his  ward  to  his  niece 
Isabella  of  Hainaut  (1180).  Philip  took  part  in  the  third 


crusade,  and  died  in  the  camp  before  Acre  of  the  pestilence 
in  1191. 

As  he  had  no  children,  the  succession  passed  to  Baldwin  of 
Hainaut,  who  had  married  Philip's  sister  Margaret.  The  count- 
ships  of  Flanders  and  Hainaut  were  thus  united  under  the  same, 
ruler.  Baldwin  did  not  obtain  possession  of  Flanders  without 
strong  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  French  king,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  cede  Artois,  St  Omer,  Lens,  Hesdin  and  a  great  part 
of  southern  Flanders  to  France,  and  to  allow  Matilda  of  Portugal, 
the  widow  of  Philip  of  Alsace,  to  retain  certain  towns  in  right  of 
her  dowry.  Margaret  died  in  1194  and  Baldwin  the  following 
year,  and  their  eldest  son  Baldwin  IX.  succeeded  to  both  count- 
ships.  Baldwin  IX.  is  famous  in  history  as  the  founder  of  the 
Latin  empire  at  Constantinople.  He  perished  in  Bulgaria  in 
1206.  The  emperor's  two  daughters  were  both  under  age,  and 
the  government  was  carried  on  by  their  uncle  Philip,  marquess 
of  Namur,  whom  Baldwin  had  appointed  regent  on  his  departure 
to  Constantinople.  Philip  proved  faithless  to  his  charge,  and 
he  allowed  his  nieces  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  Philip  Augustus, 
who  married  the  elder  sister  Johanna  of  Constantinople  to  his 
nephew  Ferdinand  of  Portugal.  The  Flemings  were  averse  to 
the  French  king's  supremacy,  and  Ferdinand,  who  acted  as 
governor  in  the  name  of  his  wife,  joined  himself  to  the  confederacy 
formed  by  Germany,  England,  and  the  leading  states  of  the 
Netherlands  against  Philip  Augustus.  Ferdinand  was,  however, 
taken  prisoner  at  the  disastrous  battle  of  Bouvines  (1214)  and 
was  kept  for  twelve  years  a  prisoner  in  the  Louvre.  The  countess 
Johanna  ruled  the  united  countships  with  prudence  and  courage. 
On  Ferdinand's  death  she  married  Thomas  of  Savoy,  but  died 
in  1244,  leaving  no  heirs.  She  was  succeeded  in  her  dignities 
by  her  younger  sister  Margaret  of  Constantinople,  commonly 
known  amongst  her  contemporaries  as  "  Black  Meg  "  (Zwarle 
Grief).  Margaret  had  been  twice  married.  Her  first  husband 
was  (1212)  Buchard  of  Avesnes,  one  of  the  first  of  Hainaut's 
nobles  and  a  man  of  knightly  prowess,  but  originally  destined 
for  the  church.  On  this  ground  he  was  excommunicated  by 
Innocent  III.  and  imprisoned  by  the  countess  Johanna,  with 
the  result  that  Margaret  at  last  was  driven  to  repudiate  him. 
She  married  in  second  wedlock  (1225)  William  of  Dampierre. 
Two  sons  were  the  issue  of  the  first  marriage,  three  sons  and  three 
daughters  of  the  second. 

When  Margaret  in  1244  became  countess  of  Flanders  and 
Hainaut,  she  wished  her  son  William  of  Dampierre  to  be  acknow- 
ledged as  her  successor.  John  of  Avesnes,  her  eldest  son,  strongly 
protested  against  this  and  was  supported  by  the  French  king, 
A  civil  war  ensued,  which  ended  in  a  compromise  (1246),  the 
succession  to  Flanders  being  granted  to  William  of  Dampierre, 
that  of  Hainaut  to  John  of  Avesnes.  Margaret,  however,  ruled 
with  a  strong  hand  for  many  years  and  survived  both  her  sons, 
dying  at  the  age  of  eighty  in  1 280.  On  her  death  her  grandson, 
John  II.  of  Avesnes,  became  count  of  Hainaut :  Guy  of  Dampierre, 
her  second  son  by  her  second  marriage,  count  of  Flanders. 

The  two  counties  were  once  more  under  separate  dynasties. 
The  government  of  Guy  of  Dampierre  was  unfortunate.  It  was 
the  interest  of  the  Flemish  weavers  to  be  on  good  terms  with 
England,  the  wool-producing  country,  and  Guy  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  Edward  I.  against  France.  This  led  to  an  invasion 
and  conquest  of  Flanders  by  Philip  the  Fair.  Guy  with  his  sons 
and  the  leading  Flemish  nobles  were  taken  prisoners  to  Paris, 
and  Flanders  was  ruled  as  a  French  dependency.  But  though 
in  the  principal  towns,  Ghent,  Bruges  and  Ypres,  there  was  a 
powerful  French  faction — known  as  Leliaerts  (adherents  of  the 
lily) — the  arbitrary  rule  of  the  French  governor  and  officials 
stirred  up  the  mass  of  the  Flemish  people  to  rebellion.  The 
anti-French  partisans  (known  as  Clauwaerts)  were  strongest  at 
Bruges  under  the  leadership  of  Peter  de  Conync,  master  of 
the  cloth- weavers,  and  John  Breydel,  master  of  the  butchers. 
The  French  garrison  at  Bruges  were  massacred  (May  igth,  1302), 
and  on  the  following  nth  of  July  a  splendid  French  army  of 
invasion  was  utterly  defeated  near  Courtray.  Peace  was  con- 
cluded in  1305,  but  owing  to  Guy  of  Dampierre,  and  the  leading 
Flemish  nobles  being  in  the  hands  of  the  French  king,  on  terms 


480 


FLANDRIN— FLANNEL 


very  disadvantageous  to  Flanders.  Very  shortly  afterwards  the 
aged  count  Guy  died,  as  did  also  Philip  the  Fair.  Robert  of 
Bethune,  his  son  and  successor,  had  continual  difficulties  with 
France  during  the  whole  of  his  reign,  the  Flemings  offering  a 
.stubborn  resistance  to  all  attempts  to  destroy  their  independence. 
Robert  was  succeeded  in  1322  by  his  grandson  Louis  of  Nevers. 
Louis  had  been  brought  up  at  the  French  court,  and  had  married 
Margaret  of  France.  His  sympathies  were  entirely  French,  and 
he  made  use  of  French  help  in  his  contests  with  the  communes. 

Under  Louis  of  Nevers  Flanders  was  practically  reduced  to  the 
status  of  a  French  province.  In  his  time  the  long  contest  between 
Flanders  and  Holland  for  the  possession  of  the  island  of  Zeeland 
was  brought  to  an  end  by  a  treaty  signed  on  the  6th  of  March 
1323,  by  which  West  Zeeland  was  assigned  to  the  count  of  Holland, 
the  rest  to  the  count  of  Flanders.  The  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  of  Nevers  was  remarkable  for  the  successful  revolt  of  the 
Flemish  communes,  now  rapidly  advancing  to  great  material 
prosperity  under  Jacob  van  Artevelde  (see  ARTEVELDE,  JACOB 
VAN).  Artevelde  allied  himself  with  Edward  III.  of  England  in 
his  contest  with  Philip  of  Valois  for  the  French  crown,  while 
Louis  of  Nevers  espoused  the  cause  of  Philip.  He  fell  at  the  battle 
of  Crecy  (1346).  He  was  followed  in  the  countship  by  his  son 
Louis  II.  of  Male.  The  reign  of  this  count  was  one  long  struggle 
with  the  communes,  headed  by  the  town  of  Ghent,  for  political 
supremacy.  Louis  was  as  strong  in  his  French  sympathies  as 
his  father,  and  relied  upon  French  help  in  enforcing  his  will 
upon  his  refractory  subjects,  who  resented  his  arbitrary  methods 
of  government,  and  the  heavy  taxation  imposed  upon  them  by 
his  extravagance  and  love  of  display.  Had  the  great  towns  with 
their  organized  gilds  and  great  wealth  held  together  in  their 
opposition  to  the  count's  despotism,  they  would  have  proved 
successful,  but  Ghent  and  Bruges,  always  keen  rivals,  broke  out 
into  open  feud.  The  power  of  Ghent  reached  its  height  under 
Philip  van  Artevelde  (see  ARTEVELDE,  PHILIP  VAN)  in  1382. 
He  defeated  Louis,  took  Bruges  and  was  made  rmoard  of  Flanders. 
But  the  triumph  of  the  White  Hoods,  as  the  popular  party  was 
called,  was  of  short  duration.  On  the  27th  of  November  1382 
Artevelde  suffered  a  crushing  defeat  from  a  large  French  army  at 
Roosebeke  and  was  himself  slain.  Louis  of  Male  died  two  years 
later,  leaving  an  only  daughter  Margaret,  who  had  married  in 
1369  Philip  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy. 

Flanders  now  became  a  portion  of  the  great  Burgundian 
domain,  which  in  the  reign  of  Philip  the  Good,  Margaret's 
grandson,  had  absorbed  almost  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands 
(see  BURGUNDY;  NETHERLANDS).  The  history  of  Flanders  as 
a  separate  state  ceases  from  the  time  of  the  acquisition  of  the 
countship  by  the  Burgundian  dynasty.  There  were  revolts 
from  time  to  time  of  great  towns  against  the  exactions  even  of 
these  powerful  princes,  but  they  were  in  vain.  The  conquest 
and  humiliation  of  Bruges  by  Philip  the  Good  in  1440,  and  the 
even  more  relentless  punishment  inflicted  on  rebellious  Ghent 
by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  exactly  a  century  later  are  the  most 
remarkable  incidents  in  the  long-continued  but  vain  struggle  of 
the  Flemish  communes  to  maintain  and  assert  their  privileges. 
The  Burgundian  dukes  and  their  successors  of  the  house  of 
Habsburg  were  fully  alive  to  the  value  to  them  of  Flanders 
and  its  rich  commercial  cities.  It  was  Flanders  that  furnished 
to  them  no  small  part  of  their  resources,  but  for  this  very  reason, 
while  fostering  the  development  of  Flemish  industry  and  trade, 
they  were  the  more  determined  to  brook  no  opposition  which 
sought  to  place  restrictions  upon  their  authority. 

The  effect  of  the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  and  the  War  of 
Dutch  Independence  which  followed  was  ruinous  to  Flanders. 
Albert  and  Isabel  on  their  accession  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
southern  Netherlands  in  1599  found  "  the  great  cities  of  Flanders 
and  Brabant  had  been  abandoned  by  a  large  part  of  their  in- 
habitants; agriculture  hardly  in  a  less  degree  than  commerce 
and  industry  had  been  ruined."  In  1633  with  the  death  of 
Isabel,  Flanders  reverted  to  Spanish  rule  (1633).  By  the  treaty 
of  Munster  the  north-western  portion  of  Flanders,  since  known 
as  States  (or  Dutch)  Flanders,  was  ceded  by  Philip  IV.  to  the 
United  Provinces  (1648).  By  a  succession  of  later  treaties — of 


the  Pyrenees  (1659),  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1668),  Nijmwegen  (1679) 
and  others — a  large  slice  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  old  county 
of  Flanders  became  French  territory  and  was  known  as  French 
Flanders. 

From  1795  to  1814  Flanders,  with  the  rest  of  the  Belgic 
provinces,  was  incorporated  in  France,  and  was  divided  into 
two  departments — department  de  I'Escaut  and  departemenl  de  la 
Lys.  This  division  has  since  been  retained,  and  is  represented 
by  the  two  provinces  of  East  Flanders  and  West  Flanders  in  the 
modern  kingdom  of  Belgium.  The  title  of  count  of  Flanders 
was  revived  by  Leopold  I.  in  1840  in  favour  of  his  second  son, 
Philip  Eugene  Ferdinand  (d.  1905).  (G.  E.) 

FLANDRIN,  JEAN  HIPPOLYTE  (1809-1864),  French  painter, 
was  born  at  Lyons  in  1809.  His  father,  though  brought  up  to 
business,  had  great  fondness  for  art,  and  sought  himself  to  follow 
an  artist's  career.  Lack  of  early  training,  however,  disabled 
him  for  success,  and  he  was  obliged  to  take  up  the  precarious 
occupation  of  a  miniature  painter.  Hippolyte  was  the  second 
of  three  sons,  all  painters,  and  two  of  them  eminent,  the  third 
son  Paul  (b.  1811)  ranking  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  modern 
landscape  school  of  France.  Auguste  (1804-1842),  the  eldest, 
passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life  as  professor  at  Lyons,  where  he 
died.  After  studying  for  some  time  at  Lyons,  Hippolyte  and 
Paul,  who  had  long  determined  on  the  step  and  economized  for 
it,  set  out  to  walk  to  Paris  in  1829,  to  place  themselves  under  the 
tuition  of  Hersent.  They  chose  finally  to  enter  the  atelier  of 
Ingres,  who  became  not  only  their  instructor  but  their  friend  for 
life.  At  first  considerably  hampered  by  poverty,  Hippolyte's 
difficulties  were  for  ever  removed  by  his  taking,  in  1832,  the 
Grand  Prix  de  Rome,  awarded  for  his  picture  of  the  "  Recognition 
of  Theseus  by  his  Father."  This  allowed  him  to  study  five  years 
at  Rome,  whence  he  sent  home  several  pictures  which  consider- 
ably raised  his  fame.  "  St  Clair  healing  the  Blind  "  was  done 
for  the  cathedral  of  Nantes,  and  years  after,  at  the  exhibition  of 
1855,  brought  him  a  medal  of  the  first  class.  "  Jesus  and  the 
Little  Children  "  was  given  by  the  government  to  the  town  of 
Lisieux.  "  Dante  and  Virgil  visiting  the  Envious  Men  struck 
with  Blindness,"  and  "  Euripides  writing  his  Tragedies,"  belong 
to  the  museum  at  Lyons.  Returning  to  Paris  through  Lyons  in 
1838  he  soon  received  a  commission  to  ornament  the  chapel  of 
St  John  in  the  church  of  St  Severin  at  Paris,  and  reputation 
increased  and  employment  continued  abundant  for  the  rest  of 
his  life.  Besides  the  pictures  mentioned  above,  and  others  of  a 
similar  kind,  he  painted  a  great  number  of  portraits.  The  works, 
however,  upon  which  his  fame  most  surely  rests  are  his  monu- 
mental decorative  paintings.  Of  these  the  principal  are  those 
executed  in  the  following  churches: — in  the  sanctuary  of  St 
Germain  des  Pres  at  Paris  (1842-1844),  in  the  choir  of  the  same 
church  (1846-1848),  in  the  church  of  St  Paul  at  Nismes  (1848- 
1849),  of  St  Vincent  de  Paul  at  Paris  (1850-1854),  in  the  church 
of  Ainay  at  Lyons  (1855),  in  the  nave  of  St  Germain  des  Pr6s 
(1855-1861).  In  1856  Hippolyte  Flandrin  was  elected  to  the 
Academic  des  Beaux- Arts.  In  1863  his  failing  health,  rendered 
worse  by  incessant  toil  and  exposure  to  the  damp  and  draughts 
of  churches,  induced  him  again  to  visit  Italy.  He  died  of  small- 
pox at  Rome  on  the  2ist  of  March  1864.  As  might  naturally 
be  expected  in  one  who  looked  upon  painting  as  but  the  vehicle 
for  the  expression  of  spiritual  sentiment,  he  had  perhaps  too 
little  pride  in  the  technical  qualities  of  his  art.  There  is  shown 
in  his  works  much  of  that  austerity  and  coldness,  expressed  in 
form  and  colour,  which  springs  from  a  faith  which  feels  itself  in 
opposition  to  the  tendencies  of  surrounding  life.  He  has  been 
compared  to  Fra  Angelico;  but  the  faces  of  his  long  processions 
of  saints  and  martyrs  seem  to  express  rather  the  austerity  of 
souls  convicted  of  sin  than  the  joy  and  purity  of  never-corrupted 
life  which  shines  from  the  work  of  the  early  master. 

See  Delaborde,  Lettres  el  pensees  de  H.  Flandrin  (Paris,  1865); 
Beule,  Notice  historique  sur  H.  F.  (1869). 

FLANNEL,  a  woollen  stuff  of  various  degrees  of  weight  and 
fineness,  made  usually  from  loosely  spun  yarn.  The  origin  of 
the  word  is  uncertain,  but  in  the  i6th  century  flannel  was  a 
well-known  production  of  Wales,  and  a  Welsh  origin  has  been 


FLANNELETTE— FLAT 


481 


suggested.  The  French  form  flanelle  was  used  late  in  the  i7th 
century,  and  the  Ger.  Flandl  early  in  the  i8th  century.  Baize, 
a  kind  of  coarse  flannel  with  a  long  nap,  is  said  to  have  been  first 
introduced  to  England  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century 
by  refugees  from  France  and  the  Netherlands.  The  manufacture 
of  flannel  has  naturally  undergone  changes,  and,  in  some  cases, 
deteriorations.  Flannels  are  frequently  made  with  an  admixture 
of  silk  or  cotton,  and  in  low  varieties  cotton  has  tended  to  become 
the  predominant  factor.  Formerly  a  short  staple  wool  of  fine 
quality  from  a  Southdown  variety  of  the  Sussex  breed  was 
principally  in  favour  with  the  flannel  manufacturers  of  Rochdale, 
who  also  used  largely  the  wool  from  the  Norfolk  breed,  a  cross 
between  the  Southdown  and  Norfolk  sheep.  In  Wales  the  short 
staple  wool  of  the  mountain  sheep  was  used,  and  in  Ireland  that 
of  the  Wicklow  variety  of  the  Cottagh  breed,  but  now  the  New 
Zealand,  Cape  and  South  American  wools  are  extensively 
employed,  and  English  wools  are  not  commonly  used  alone. 
Over  2000  persons  are  employed  in  flannel  manufacture  in 
Rochdale  alone,  which  is  the  historic  seat  of  the  industry,  and  a 
good  deal  of  flannel  is  now  made  in  the  Spen  Valley  district, 
Yorkshire.  Blankets,  which  constitute  a  special  branch  of  the 
flannel  trade,  are  largely  made  at  Bury  in  Lancashire  and 
Dewsbury  in  Yorkshire.  Welsh  flannels  have  a  high  reputation, 
and  make  an  important  industry  in  Montgomeryshire.  There 
are  also  flannel  manufactories  in  Ireland. 

A  moderate  export  trade  in  flannel  is  done  by  Great  Britain. 
The  following  table  gives  the  quantities  exported  during  three 
years: — 

1904.  1905.  1906. 

Yards       .        .     9,758,300  9,220,500  8,762,200 

In  1877  the  export  was  9,273,429  yds.,  so  it  appears  that  this 
trade  has  varied  comparatively  little.  The  imports  of  flannel 
are  not  very  large. 

Many  so-called  flannels  have  been  made  with  a  large  admixture 
of  cotton,  but  the  Merchandise  Marks  Act  has  done  something 
to  limit  the  indiscriminate  use  of  names.  Unquestionably  the 
development  of  the  flannel  trade  has  been  checked  by  the  great 
increase  in  the  production  of  flannelettes,  the  better  qualities 
of  which  have  become  formidable  competitors  with  flannel. 
There  must,  however,  be  a  regular  and  large  demand  for  flannel 
while  theory  and  experience  confirm  its  value  as  a  clothing 
particularly  suitable  for  immediate  contact  with  the  body. 

FLANNELETTE,  a  cotton  cloth  made  to  imitate  flannel. 
The  word  seems  to  have  been  first  used  in  the  early  'eighties, 
and  there  is  a  reference  in  the  Daily  News  of  1887  to  "  a  poverty- 
stricken  article  called  flannelette."  Now  it  is  used  very  exten- 
sively for  underclothing,  night  gear,  dresses,  dressing-gowns, 
shirts,  &c.  It  is  usually  made  with  a  much  coarser  weft  than 
warp,  and  its  flannel-like  appearance  is  obtained  by  the  raising 
or  scratching  up  of  this  weft,  and  by  various  finishing  processes. 
Some  kinds  are  raised  equally  on  both  sides,  and  the  nap  may 
be  long  or  short  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  the  cloth  is 
required.  A  considerable  trade  is  done  in  plain  cloths  dyed, 
and  also  in  woven  coloured  stripes  and  checks,  but  almost  any 
heavy  or  coarse  cotton  cloth  can  be  made  into  flannelette.  It  is 
now  largely  used  by  the  poorer  classes  of  the  community,  and 
the  flimsier  kinds  have  been  a  frequent  source  of  accident  by 
fire.  It  is,  however,  when  used  discreetly  and  in  a  fair  quality, 
a  cheap  and  useful  article.  A  flannelette,  patented  under  the 
title  of  "  Non-flam,"  has  been  made  with  fire-resisting  properties, 
but  its  sale  has  been  more  in  the  better  qualities  than  in  the  lower 
and  more  dangerous  ones.  Flannelette  is  made  largely  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States  as  well  as  in  Great 
Britain. 

FLASK,  in  its  earliest  meaning  in  Old  English  a  vessel  for 
carrying  liquor,  made  of  wood  or  leather.  The  principal  applica- 
tions in  current  usage  are  (i)  to  a  vessel  of  metal  or  wood, 
formerly  of  horn,  used  for  carrying  gunpowder;  (2)  to  a  long- 
necked,  round-bodied  glass  vessel,  usually  covered  with  plaited 
straw  or  maize  leaves,  containing  olive  or  other  oil  or  Italian 
wines — it  is  often  known  as  a  "Florence  flask":  similarly 
shaped  vessels  are  used  for  experiments,  &c.,  in  a  laboratory; 

x.  16 


(3)  to  a  small  metal  or  glass  receptacle  for  spirits,  wine  or  other 
liquor,  of  a  size  and  shape  to  fit  into  a  pocket  or  holster,  usually 
covered  with  leather,  basket-work  or  other  protecting  substance, 
and  with  a  detachable  portion  of  the  case  shaped  to  form  a  cup. 
"  Flask  "  is  also  used  in  metal-founding  of  a  wooden  frame  or 
case  to  contain  part  of  the  mould.  The  word  "  flagon,"  which 
is  by  derivation  a  doublet  of  "  flask,"  is  usually  applied  to  a 
larger  type  of  vessel  for  holding  liquor,  more  particularly  to  a 
type  of  wine-bottle  with  a  short  neck  and  circular  body  with 
flattened  sides.  The  word  is  also  used  of  a  jug-shaped  vessel 
with  a  handle,  spout  and  lid,  into  which  wine  may  be  decanted 
from  the  bottle  for  use  at  table,  and  of  a  similarly  shaped  vessel 
to  contain  the  Eucharistic  wine  till  it  is  poured  into  the  chalice. 
"  Flask  "  (in  O.  Eng.flasce  orflaxe)  is  represented  both  in  Teutonic 
and  Romanic  languages.  The  earliest  examples  are  found  in 
Med.  Lat.  fiasco,  flasconis,  whence  come  Ital.  fiascone,  O.  Fr. 
flascon(mod.  flacon),  adapted  in  the  Eng.  "flagon."  Another 
Lat.  form  isflasca,  this  gave  a  Fr.flasque,  which  in  the  sense  of 
"  powder  flask  "  remained  in  use  till  later  than  the  i6th  century. 
In  Teutonic  languages  the  word,  in  its  various  forms,  is  the 
common  one  for  "  bottle,"  so  in  Ger.  Flasche,  Dutch  flesch,  &c. 
If  the  word  is  of  Romanic  origin  it  is  probably  a  metathesized 
form  of  the  Lat.  vasculum,  diminutive  of  vas,  vessel.  There  is 
no  very  satisfactory  etymology  if  the  word  is  of  Teutonic  origin; 
the  New  English  Dictionary  considers  a  connexion  with  "  flat  " 
probable  phonetically,  but  finds  no  evidence  that  the  word  was 
used  originally  for  a  flat-shaped  vessel. 

FLAT  (a  modification  of  O.  Eng.  flet,  an  obsolete  word  of 
Teutonic  origin,  meaning  the  ground  beneath  the  feet),  a  term 
commonly  used  as  an  adjective,  signifying  level  in  surface,  level 
with  the  ground,  and  so,  figuratively,  fallen,  dead,  inanimate, 
tasteless,  dull;  or,  by  another  transference,  downright;  or,  in 
music,  below  the  true  pitch.  In  a  substantival  form,  the  term  is 
used  in  physical  geography  for  a  level  tract. 

The  word  is  also  generally  applied  by  modern  usage  to  a 
self-contained  residence  or  separate  dwelling  (in  Scots  law,  the 
term  flatted  house  is  still  used),  consisting  of  a  suite  of  rooms  which 
form  a  portion,  usually  on  a  single  floor,  of  a  larger  building, 
called  the  tenement  house,  the  remainder  being  similarly  divided. 
The  approach  to  it  is  over  a  hall,  passage  and  stairway,  which 
are  common  to  all  residents  in  the  building,  but  from  which  each 
private  flat  is  divided  off  by  its  own  outer  door  (Clode,  Tenement 
Houses  and  Flats,  pp.  i,  2). 

There  is  in  England  a  considerable  body  of  special  law  applic- 
able to  flats.  The  following  points  deserve  notice: — (i.)  The 
occupants  of  distinct  suites  of  rooms  in  a  building  divided  into 
flats  are  generally,  and  subject,  of  course,  to  any  special  terms 
in  their  agreements,  not  lodgers  but  tenants  with  exclusive 
possession  of  separate  dwelling-houses  placed  one  above  the 
other.  They  are,  therefore,  liable  to  distress  by  the  immediate 
landlord,  and  each  flat  is  separately  rateable,  though  as  a  general 
rule  by  the  contract  of  tenancy  the  rates  are  payable  by  the 
landlord.  Flats  used  solely  for  business  purposes  arc  exempt 
from  house  tax,  by  the  Customs  and  Inland  Revenue  Act  1878 
(see  Grant,  v.  Langston,  1900,  A.C.  383);  and,  by  the  Revenue 
Act  1903  (s.  u),  provision  is  made  for  excluding  from  assessment 
or  for  assessing  at  a  low  rate  buildings  used  for  providing  separate 
dwellings  at  rents  not  exceeding  £60  a  year.  It  appears  that 
tenants  of  a  flat  would  not  come  within  the  meaning  of  "  lodger  " 
for  the  purposes  of  the  Lodgers'  Goods  Protection  Act  1871. 
(ii.)  The  owner  of  an  upper  storey,  without  any  express  grant  or 
enjoyment  for  any  given  time,  has  a  right  to  the  support  of  the 
lower  storey  (Dalton  v.  Angus,  i88i,6A.C.  740,793).  The  owner 
of  the  lower  storey,  however,  so  long  as  he  does  nothing  actively 
in  the  way  of  withdrawing  its  support,  is  not  bound  to  repair, 
in  the  absence  of  a  special  covenant  imposing  that  obligation 
upon  him.  The  right  of  support  being  an  easement  in  favour  of 
the  owner  of  the  upper  storey,  it  is  for  him  to  repair.  He  is  in 
law  entitled  to  enter  on  the  lower  storey  for  the  purpose  of  doing 
the  necessary  repairs.  It  appears,  however,  that  there  is  an 
implied  obligation  by  the  landlord  to  the  tenants  to  keep  the 
common  stair  and  the  lift  or  elevator  in  repair,  and,  for  breach 


482 


FLATBUSH— FLATHEADS 


of  this  duty,  he  will  be  liable  to  a  third  party  who,  while  visiting 
a  tenant  in  the  course  of  business,  is  injured  by  its  defective 
condition  (Miller  v.  Hancock,  1893,  2  Q.B.  177).  No  such 
liability  would  be  involved  in  a  mere  licence  to  the  tenants  to 
use  a  part  of  the  building  not  essential  to  the  enjoyment  of  their 
Hats,  (iii.)  In  case  of  the  destruction  of  the  flat  by  fire,  the  rent 
abates  pro  tanto  and  an  apportionment  is  made;  pari  ratione, 
where  a  flat  is  totally  destroyed,  the  rent  abates  altogether 
(Clode,  p.  14);  unless  the  tenant  has  entered  into  an  express 
and  unqualified  agreement  to  pay  rent,  when  he  will  remain 
liable  till  the  expiration  of  his  tenancy,  (iv.)  Where  the  agree- 
ments for  letting  the  flats  in  a  single  building  are  in  common 
form,  an  agreement  by  the  lessor  not  to  depart  from  the  kind  of 
building  there  indicated  may  be  held  to  be  implied.  Thus  an 
injunction  has  been  granted  to  restrain  the  conversion  into  a 
club  of  a  large  part  of  a  building,  adapted  to  occupation  in 
residential  flats,  at  the  instance  of  a  tenant  who  held  under  an 
agreement  in  a  common  form  binding  the  tenants  to  rules 
suitable  only  for  residential  purposes  (Hudson  v.  Cripps,i8g6, 
i  Ch.  265).  (v.)  The  porter  is  usually  appointed  and  paid  by 
the  landlord,  who  is  liable  for  his  acts  while  engaged  on 
his  general  duties;  while  engaged  on  any  special  duty  for  any 
tenant  the  porter  is  the  servant  of  the  latter,  who  is  liable  for 
his  conduct  within  the  scope  of  his  employment. 

In  Scots  law  the  rights  and  obligations  of  the  lessors  and 
lessees  of  flats,  or — as  they  are  called — "  flatted  houses,"  spring 
partly  from  the  exclusive  possession  by  each  lessee  of  his  own 
flat,  partly  from  the  common  interest  of  all  in  the  tenement  as  a 
whole.  The  "  law  of  the  tenement  "  may  be  thus  summed  up. 
The  solum  on  which  the  flatted  house  stands,  the  area  in  front 
and  the  back  ground  are  presumed  to  belong  to  the  owner  of  the 
lowest  floor  or  the  owners  of  each  floor  severally,  subject  to 
the  common  right  of  the  other  proprietors  to  prevent  injury 
to  their  flats,  especially  by  depriving  them  of  light.  The  external 
walls  belong  to  each  owner  in  so  far  as  they  enclose  his  flat; 
but  the  other  owners  can  prevent  operations  on  them  which 
would  endanger  the  security  of  the  building.  The  roof  and 
uppermost  storey  belong  to  the  highest  owner  or  owners,  but 
he  or  they  may  be  compelled  to  keep  them  in  repair  and  to  refrain 
from  injuring  them.  The  gables  are  common  to  the  owner  of 
each  flat,  so  far  as  they  bound  his  property,  and  to  the  owner  of 
the  adjoining  house;  but  he  and  the  other  owners  in  the  building 
have  cross  rights  of  common  interest  to  prevent  injury  to  the 
stability  of  the  building.  The  floor  and  ceiling  of  each  flat  are 
divided  in  ownership  by  an  ideal  line  drawn  through  the  middle 
of  the  joists;  they  may  be  used  for  ordinary  purposes,  but  may 
not  be  weakened  or  exposed  to  unusual  risk  from  fire.  The 
common  passages  and  stairs  are  the  common  property  of  all  to 
whose  premises  they  form  an  access,  and  the  walls  which  bound 
them  are  the  common  property  of  those  persons  a  nd  of  the  owners 
on  their  farther  side. 

In  the  United  States  the  term  "  apartment-house  "  is  applied 
to  what  in  England  are  called  flats.  The  general  law  is  the  same 
as  in  England.  The  French  Code  Civil  provides  (Art.  664)  that 
where  the  different  storeys  of  a  house  belong  to  different  owners 
the  main  walls  and  roof  are  at  the  charge  of  all  the  owners, 
each  one  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  storey  belonging 
to  him.  The  proprietor  of  each  storey  is  responsible  for  his  own 
flooring.  The  proprietor  of  the  first  storey  makes  the  staircase 
which  leads  to  it,  the  proprietor  of  the  second,  beginning  from 
where  the  former  ended,  makes  the  staircase  leading  to  his  and 
so  on.  There  are  similar  provisions  in  the  Civil  Codes  of  Belgium 
(Art.  664),  Quebec  (Art.  521),  St  Lucia  (Art.  471). 

AUTHORITIES. — ENGLISH  LAW:  Clode,  Law  of  Tenement-Houses 
and  Flats  (London,  1889);  Daniels,  Manual  of  the  Law  of  Flats 
(London,  1905).  SCOTS  LAW:  Erskine,  Principles  of  the  Law  of 
Scotland  (2Oth  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1903);  Bell,  Principles  of  the  Law 
of  Scotland  (loth  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1899).  AMERICAN  LAW:  Bouvier, 
Law  Dicty.  (Boston  and  London,  1897).  FOREIGN  LAWS:  Burge, 
Foreign  and  Colonial  Laws  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1906).  (A.  W.  R.) 

FLATBUSH,  formerly  a  township  of  Kings  county,  Long 
Island,  New  York,  U.S.A.,  annexed  to  Brooklyn  in  1894,  and 
after  the  ist  of  January  1898  a  part  of  the  borough  of  Brooklyn, 


New  York  City.  The  first  settlement  was  made  here  by  the 
Dutch  about  1651,  and  was  variously  called  "  Midwout,"  "  Mid- 
woud  "  and  "Medwoud"  (from  the  Dutch  words,  med,  "middle" 
and  woud,  '  wood  ")  for  about  twenty  years,  when  it  became  more 
commonly  known  as  Vlachte  Bos  (vlachle,  "wooded";  bos, 
"  plain ")  or  Flackebos,  whence,  by  further  corruption,  the 
present  name.  Farming  was  the  chief  occupation  of  the  early 
settlers.  On  the  23rd  of  August  1776  the  village  was  occupied 
by  General  Cornwallis's  division  of  the  invading  force  under  Lord 
Howe,  and  on  the  2'7th,  at  the  disastrous  battle  of  Long  Island 
(or  "  battle  of  Flatbush,"  as  it  is  sometimes  called),  "  Flatbush 
Pass,"  an  important  strategic  point,  was  vigorously  defended  by 
General  Sullivan's  troops. 

FLAT-FISH  (Pleuroneclidae),  the  name  common  to  all  those 
fishes  which  swim  on  their  side,  as  the  halibut,  turbot,  brill, 
plaice,  flounder,  sole,  &c.  The  side  which  is  turned  towards  the 
bottom,  and  in  some  kinds  is  the  right,  in  others  the  left,  is 
generally  colourless,  and  called  "  blind,"  from  the  absence  of  an 
eye  on  this  side.  The  opposite  side,  which  is  turned  upwards  and 
towards  the  light,  is  variously,  and  in  some  tropical  species  even 
vividly,  coloured,  both  eyes  being  placed  on  this  side  of  the  head. 
All  the  bones  and  muscles  of  the  upper  side  are  more  strongly 
developed  than  on  the  lower;  but  it  is  noteworthy  that  these 
fishes  when  hatched,  and  for  a  short  time  afterwards,  are  sym- 
metrical like  other  fishes. 

Assuming  that  they  are  the  descendants  of  symmetrical  fishes, 
the  question  has  been  to  determine  which  group  of  Teleosteans 
may  be  regarded  as  the  ancestors  of  the  flat-fishes.  The  old 
notion  that  they  are  only  modified  Gadids  (Anacanthini)  was 
the  result  of  the  artificial  classification  of  the  past  and  is  now 
generally  abandoned.  The  condition  of  the  caudal  fin,  which 
in  the  cod  tribe  departs  so  markedly  from  that  of  ordinary 
Teleosteans,  is  in  itself  a  sufficient  reason  for  dismissing  the  idea 
of  the  homocercal  flat-fishes  being  derived  from  the  Anacanthini, 
and  the  whole  structure  of  the  two  types  of  fishes  speaks  against 
such  an  assumption.  On  the  other  hand  it  has  been  shown,  as 
noticed  in  the  article  DORY,  that  considerable,  deep-seated 
resemblances  exist  between  the  Zeidae  or  John  Dories  and  the 
more  generalized  of  the  Pleuronectidae;  and  that  a  fossil  fish 
from  the  Upper  Eocene,  Amphistium  paradoxum,  evidently 
allied  to  the  Zeidae,  appears  to  realize  in  every  respect  the 
prototype  of  the  Pleuronectidae  before  they  had  assumed  the 
asymmetry  which  characterizes  them  as  a  group.  In  accordance 
with  these  views  the  flat-fishes  are  placed  by  G.  A.  Boulenger 
in  the  suborder  Acanthopterygii,  in  a  division  called  Zeorhombi. 
The  three  families  included  in  that  division  can  be  traced  back 
to  the  Upper  Eocene,  and  their  common  ancestors  will  probably 
be  found  in  the  Upper  Cretaceous  associated  with  the  Berycidae, 
to  which  they  will  no  doubt  prove  to  be  related.  The  very  young 
are  transparent  and  symmetrical,  with  an  eye  on  each  side,  and 
swim  in  a  vertical  position.  As  they  grow,  the  eye  of  one  side 
moves  by  degrees  to  the  other  side,  where  it  becomes  the  upper 
eye.  If  at  that  age  the  dorsal  fin  does  not  extend  to  the  frontal 
region,  the  migrating  eye  simply  moves  over  the  line  of  the  profile, 
temporarily  assuming  the  position  which  it  preserves  in  some 
of  the  less  modified  genera,  such  as  Pseltodes;  in  other  genera, 
the  dorsal  fin  has  already  extended  to  the  snout  before  the 
migration  takes  place,  and  the  eye,  passing  between  the  frontal 
bone  and  the  tissues  supporting  the  fin,  appears  to  make  its 
way  from  side  to  side  through  the  head,  as  was  believed  by  some 
of  the  earlier  observers. 

About  500  species  of  flat-fish  are  known,  mostly  marine,  a 
few  species  allied  to  the  sole  being  confined  to  the  fresh  waters 
of  South  America,  West  Africa,  and  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
whilst  a  few  others,  such  as  the  English  flounder,  ascend  streams, 
though  still  breeding  in  the  sea.  They  range  from  the  Arctic 
Circle  to  the  southern  coasts  of  the  southern  hemisphere  and 
may  occur  at  great  depths.  (G.  A.  B.) 

FLATHEADS,  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians  of  Salishan 
stock.  They  formerly  occupied  the  mouptains  of  north-western 
Montana  and  the  country  around.  The)'  have  always  been 
friendly  to  the  whites.  Curiously  enough  tbey  have  not  the 


FLAUBERT 


483 


custom,  so  general  among  American  tribes,  of  flattening  the 
heads  of  their  infants.  Father  P.  J.  de  Smet  in  1841  founded 
among  them  a  mission  which  proved  the  most  successful  in 
the  north-west.  With  the  Pend  d'Oreille  tribe  and  some 
Kutenais  they  are  on  a  reservation  in  Montana,  and  number 
a  few  hundreds. 

FLAUBERT,  GUSTAVE  (1821-1880),  French  novelist,  was 
born  at  Rouen  on  the  izth  of  December  1821.  His  father, 
of  whom  many  traits  are  reproduced  in  Flaubert's  character  of 
Charles  Bo  vary,  was  a  surgeon  in  practice  at  Rouen;  his  mother 
was  connected  with  some  of  the  oldest  Norman  families.  He  was 
educated  in  his  native  city,  and  did  not  leave  it  until  1840,  when 
he  came  up  to  Paris  to  study  law.  He  is  said  to  have  been  idle  at 
school,  but  to  have  been  occupied  with  literature  from  the  age 
of  eleven.  Flaubert  in  his  youth  "  was  like  a  young  Greek," 
full  of  vigour  of  body  and  a  certain  shy  grace,  enthusiastic, 
intensely  individual,  and  apparently  without  any  species  of 
ambition.  He  loved  the  country,  and  Paris  was  extremely 
distasteful  to  him.  He  made  the  acquaintance  of  Victor  Hugo, 
and  towards  the  close  of  1840  he  travelled  in  the  Pyrenees  and 
Corsica.  Returning  to  Paris,  he  wasted  his  time  in  sombre 
dreams,  living  on  his  patrimony.  In  1846,  his  mother  being  left 
quite  alone  through  the  deaths  of  his  father  and  his  sister  Caroline, 
Flaubert  gladly  abandoned  Paris  and  the  study  of  the  law 
together,  to  make  a  home  for  her  at  Croisset,  close  to  Rouen. 
This  estate,  a  house  in  a  pleasant  piece  of  ground  which  ran  down 
to  the  Seine,  became  Flaubert's  home  for  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  From  1846  to  1854  he  carried  on  relations  with  the  poetess, 
Mile  Louise  Colet;  their  letters  have  been  preserved,  and  accord- 
ing to  M.  Emile  Faguet,  this  was  the  only  sentimental  episode 
of  any  importance  in  the  life  of  Flaubert,  who  never  married. 
His  principal  friend  at  this  time  was  Maxime  du  Camp,  with 
whom  he  travelled  in  Brittany  in  1846,  and  through  the  East  in 
1849.  Greece  and  Egypt  made  a  profound  impression  upon  the 
imagination  of  Flaubert.  From  this  time  forth,  save  for  occa- 
sional visits  to  Paris,  he  did  not  stir  from  Croisset. 

On  returning  from  the  East,  in  1850,  he  set  about  the  com- 
position of  Madame  Bovary.  He  had  hitherto  scarcely  written 
anything,  and  had  published  nothing.  The  famous  novel  took 
him  six  years  to  prepare,  but  was  at  length  submitted  to  the 
Revue  de  Paris,  where  it  appeared  in  serial  form  in  1857.  The 
government  brought  an  action  against  the  publisher  and  against 
the  author,  on  the  charge  of  immorality,  but  both  were  acquitted; 
and  when  Madame  Bovary  appeared  in  book-form  it  met  with 
a  very  warm  reception.  Flaubert  paid  a  visit  to  Carthage  in 
1858,  and  now  settled  down  to  the  archaeological  studies  which 
were  required  to  equip  him  for  Salammlo,  which,  however,  in 
spite  of  the  author's  ceaseless  labours,  was  not  finished  until 
1862.  He  then  took  up  again  the  study  of  contemporary 
manners,  and,  making  use  of  many  recollections  of  his  youth 
and  childhood,  wrote  L' Education  sentimentale,  the  composition 
of  which  occupied  him  seven  years;  it  was  published  in  1869. 
Up  to  this  time  the  sequestered  and  laborious  life  of  Flaubert 
had  been  comparatively  happy,  but  misfortunes  began  to  gather 
around  him.  He  felt  the  anguish  of  the  war  of  1870  so  keenly 
that  the  break-up  of  his  health  has  been  attributed  to  it;  he 
began  to  suffer  greatly  from  a  distressing  nervous  malady.  His 
best  friends  were  taken  from  him  by  death  or  by  fatal  misunder- 
standing; in  1872  he  lost  his  mother,  and  his  circumstances 
became  greatly  reduced.  He  was  very  tenderly  guarded  by 
his  niece,  Mme  Commonville;  he  enjoyed  a  rare  intimacy  of 
friendship  with  George  Sand,  with  whom  he  carried  on  a  corre- 
spondence of  immense  artistic  interest,  and  occasionally  he  saw 
his  Parisian  acquaintances,  Zola,  A.  Daudet,  Tourgenieff,  the 
Goncourts;  but  nothing  prevented  the  close  of  Flaubert's  life 
from  being  desolate  and  melancholy.  He  did  not  cease,  however, 
to  work  with  the  same  intensity  and  thoroughness.  La  Tentation 
de  Saint- Antoine,  of  which  fragments  had  been  published  as  early 
as  1857,  was  at  length  completed  and  sent  to  press  in  1874.  In 
that  year  he  was  subjected  to  a  disappointment  by  the  failure 
of  his  drama  Le  Candidat.  In  1877  Flaubert  published,  in  one 
volume,  entitled  Trois  contes,  Un  Cceur  simple,  La  Legende  de 


Saint-Julien-l' Hospilalier  and  Herodias.  After  this  something  of 
his  judgment  certainly  deserted  him ;  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life  in  the  toil  of  building  up  a  vast  satire  on  the  futility  of 
human  knowledge  and  the  omnipresence  of  mediocrity,  which  he 
left  a  fragment.  This  is  the  depressing  and  bewildering  Bouvard 
et  Pecuchet  (posthumously  printed,  1881),  which,  by  a  curious 
irony,  he  believed  to  be  his  masterpiece.  Flaubert  had  rapidly 
and  prematurely  aged  since  1870,  and  he  was  quite  an  old  man 
when  he  was  carried  off  by  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  at  the  age  of  only 
58,  on  the  8th  of  May  1880.  He  died  at  Croisset,  but  was  buried 
in  the  family  vault  in  the  cemetery  of  Rouen.  A  beautiful 
monument  to  him  by  Chapu  was  unveiled  at  the  museum  of 
Rouen  in  1890. 

The  personal  character  of  Flaubert  offered  various  peculiarities. 
He  was  shy,  and  yet  extremely  sensitive  and  arrogant ;  he  passed 
from  silence  to  an  indignant  and  noisy  flow  of  language.  The 
same  inconsistencies  marked  his  physical  nature;  he  had  the 
build  of  a  guardsman,  with  a  magnificent  Viking  head,  but  his 
health  was  uncertain  from  childhood,  and  he  was  neurotic  to 
the  last  degree.  This  ruddy  giant  was  secretly  gnawn  by  mis- 
anthropy and  disgust  of  life.  His  hatred  of  the  "  bourgeois  " 
began  in  his  childhood,  and  developed  into  a  kind  of  monomania. 
He  despised  his  fellow-men,  their  habits,  their  lack  of  intelligence, 
their  contempt  for  beauty,  with  a  passionate  scorn  which  has 
been  compared  to  that  of  an  ascetic  monk.  Flaubert's  curious 
modes  of  composition  favoured  and  were  emphasized  by  these 
peculiarities.  He  worked  in  sullen  solitude,  sometimes  occupying 
a  week  in  the  completion  of  one  page,  never  satisfied  with  what 
he  had  composed,  violently  tormenting  his  brain  for  the  best 
turn  of  a  phrase,  the  most  absolutely  final  adjective.  It  cannot 
be  said  that  his  incessant  labours  were  not  rewarded.  His 
private  letters  show  that  he  was  not  one  of  those  to  whom 
easy  and  correct  language  is  naturally  given;  he  gained  his 
extraordinary  perfection  with  the  unceasing  sweat  of  his  brow. 
One  of  the  most  severe  of  academic  critics  admits  that  "  in  all  his 
works,  and  in  every  page  of  his  works,  Flaubert  may  be  con- 
sidered a  model  of  style."  That  he  was  one  of  the  greatest  writers 
who  ever  lived  in  France  is  now  commonly  admitted,  and  his 
greatness  principally  depends  upon  the  extraordinary  vigour 
and  exactitude  of  his  style.  Less  perhaps  than  any  other 
writer,  not  of  France,  but  of  modern  Europe,  Flaubert  yields 
admission  to  the  inexact,  the  abstract,  the  vaguely  inapt  ex- 
pression which  is  the  bane  of  ordinary  methods  of  composition. 
He  never  allowed  a  cliche  to  pass  him,  never  indulgently  or 
wearily  went  on,  leaving  behind  him  a  phrase  which  "  almost  " 
expressed  his  meaning.  Being,  as  he  is,  a  mixture  in  almost 
equal  parts  of  the  romanticist  and  the  realist,  the  marvellous 
propriety  of  his  style  has  been  helpful  to  later  writers  of  both 
schools,  of  every  school.  The  absolute  exactitude  with  which 
he  adapts  his  expression  to  his  purpose  is  seen  in  all  parts  of  his 
work,  but  particularly  in  the  portraits  he  draws  of  the  figures  in 
his  principal  romances.  The  degree  and  manner  in  which,  since 
his  death,  the  fame  of  Flaubert  has  extended,  form  an  interesting 
chapter  of  literary  history.  The  publication  of  Madame  Bovary 
in  1857  had  been  followed  by  more  scandal  than  admiration; 
it  was  not  understood  at  first  that  this  novel  was  the  beginning 
of  a  new  thing,  the  scrupulously  truthful  portraiture  of  life. 
Gradually  this  aspect  of  his  genius  was  accepted,  and  began  to 
crowd  out  all  others.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  famous  as 
a  realist,  pure  and  simple.  Under  this  aspect  Flaubert  exercised 
an  extraordinary  influence  over  E.  de  Goncourt,  Alphonse 
Daudet  and  M.  Zola.  But  even  since  the  decline  of  the  realistic 
school  Flaubert  has  not  lost  prestige;  other  facets  of  his  genius 
have  caught  the  light.  It  has  been  perceived  that  he  was  not 
merely  realistic,  but  real;  that  his  clairvoyance  was  almost 
boundless;  that  he  saw  certain  phenomena  more  clearly  than 
the  best  of  observers  had  done.  Flaubert  is  a  writer  who 
must  always  appeal  more  to  other  authors  than  to  the  world  at 
large,  because  the  art  of  writing,  the  indefatigable  pursuit  of 
perfect  expression,  were  always  before  him,  and  because  he  hated 
the  lax  felicities  of  improvization  as  a  disloyalty  to  the  most 
sacred  procedures  of  the  literary  artist. 


FLAVEL— FLAX 


His  (Euvres  competes  (8  vols.,  1885)  were  printed  from  the  original 
manuscripts,  and  included,  besides  the  works  mentioned  already, 
the  two  plays,  Le  Candidat  and  Le  Chateau  des  cceurs.  Another 
edition  (10  vols.)  appeared  in  1873-1885.  Flaubert's  correspondence 
with  George  Sand  was  published  in  1884  with  an  introduction  by 
Guy  de  Maupassant.  Other  posthumous  works  are  Par  les  champs 
et  par  les  greves  (1885),  the  result  of  a  tour  in  Brittany;  and  four 
volumes  of  Correspondance  (1887-1893).  See  also  Paul  Bourget, 
Essais  de  psychologic  contemporaine  (1883);  Emile  Faguet,  Flaubert 
(1899) ;  Henry  James,  French  Poets  and  Novelists  (1878) ;  Emile  Zola, 
Les  Romanciers  naluralistes  (1881);  C.  A.  Sainte-Beuve,  Gausenes 
du  lundi,  vol.  xiii.,  Nouveaux  lundis,  vol.  iv. ;  and  the  Souvenirs 
litteraires  (2  vols.,  1882-1883)  of  Maxime  du  Camp.  (E.  G.) 

FLAVEL,  JOHN  (c.  1627-1691),  English  Presbyterian  divine, 
was  born  at  Bromsgrove  in  Worcestershire,  probably  in  1627. 
He  was  the  elder  son  of  Richard  Flavel,  described  in  con- 
temporary records  as  "  a  painful  and  eminent  minister."  After 
receiving  his  early  education,  partly  at  home  and  partly  at  the 
grammar-schools  of  Bromsgrove  and  Haslar,  he  entered  Uni- 
versity College,  Oxford.  Soon  after  taking  orders  in  1650  he 
obtained  a  curacy  at  Diptford,  Devon,  and  on  the  death  of  the 
vicar  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  him.  From  Diptford  he  re- 
moved in  1656  to  Dartmouth.  He  was  ejected  from  his  living 
by  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity  in  1662,  but  continued 
to  preach  and  administer  the  sacraments  privately  till  the  Five 
Mile  Act  of  1665,  when  he  retired  to  Slapton,  5  m.  away.  He 
then  lived  for  a  time  in  London,  but  returned  to  Dartmouth, 
where  he  laboured  till  his  death  in  1691.  He  was  married  four 
times.  He  was  a  vigorous  and  voluminous  writer,  and  not  without 

a  play  of  fine  fancy. 

His  principal  works  are  his  Navigation  Spiritualized  (1671);  The 
Fountain  of  Life,  in  forty-two  Sermons  (1672) ;  The  Method  of  Grace 
(1680);  Pneumatologia,  a  Treatise  on  the  Soul  of  Man  (1698);  A 
Token  for  Mourners;  Husbandry  Spiritualized  (1699).  Collected 
editions  appeared  throughout  the  l8th  century,  and  in  1823  Charles 
Bradley  edited  a  2  vol.  selection. 

FLAVIAN  I.  (d.  404),  bishop  or  patriarch  of  Antioch,  was 
born  about  320,  most  probably  in  Antioch.  He  inherited  great 
wealth,  but  resolved  to  devote  his  riches  and  his  talents  to  the 
service  of  the  church.  In  association  with  Diodorus,  afterwards 
bishop  of  Tarsus,  he  supported  the  Catholic  faith  against  the 
Arian  Leontius,  who  had  succeeded  Eustathius  as  bishop  of 
Antioch.  The  two  friends  assembled  their  adherents  outside 
the  city  walls  for  the  observance  of  the  exercises  of  religion; 
and,  according  to  Theodoret,  it  was  in  these  meetings  that  the 
practice  of  antiphonal  singing  was  first  introduced  in  the  services 
of  the  church.  When  Meletius  was  appointed  bishop  of  Antioch 
in  361  he  raised  Flavian  to  the  priesthood,  and  on  the  death  of 
Meletius  in  381  Flavian  was  chosen  to  succeed  him.  The 
schism  between  the  two  parties  was,  however,  far  from  being 
healed;  the  bishop  of  Rome  and  the  bishops  of  Egypt  refused  to 
acknowledge  Flavian,  and  Paulinus,  who  by  the  extreme  Eus- 
tathians  had  been  elected  bishop  in  opposition  to  Meletius, 
still  exercised  authority  over  a  portion  of  the  church.  On  the 
death  of  Paulinus  in  383,  Evagrius  was  chosen  as  his  successor, 
but  after  the  death  of  Evagrius  (c.  393)  Flavian  succeeded  in 
preventing  his  receiving  a  successor,  though  the  Eustathians  still 
continued  to  hold  separate  meetings.  Through  the  intervention 
of  Chrysostom,  soon  after  his  elevation  to  the  patriarchate  of 
Constantinople  (398)  ,and  the  influence  of  the  emperorTheodosius, 
Flavian  was  acknowledged  in  399  as  legitimate  bishop  of  Antioch 
by  the  Church  of  Rome;  but  the  Eustathian  schism  was  not 
finally  healed  till  415.  Flavian,  who  died  in  February  404,  is 
venerated  in  both  the  Western  and  Eastern  churches  as  a  saint. 

See  also  the  article  MELETIUS  OF  ANTIOCH,  and  the  article 
"  Flavianus  von  Antiochien  "  by  Loofs  in  Herzog-Hauck's  Real- 
encyklop.  (ed.  3).  For  the  Meletian  schism  see  also  A.  Harnack's, 
Hist,  of  Dogma,  iv.  95. 

FLAVIAN  II.  (d.  518),  bishop  or  patriarch  of  Antioch,  was 
chosen  by  the  emperor  Anastasius  I.  to  succeed  Palladius,  most 
probably  in  498.  He  endeavoured  to  please  both  parties  by 
steering  a  middle  course  in  reference  to  the  Chalcedon  (q.v.) 
decrees,  but  was  induced  after  great  hesitation  to  agree  to  the 
request  of  Anastasius  that  he  should  accept  the  Henoticon, 
or  decree  of  union,  issued  by  the  emperor  Zeno.  His  doing  so, 
while  it  brought  upon  him  the  anathema  of  the  patriarch  of 


Constantinople,  failed  to  secure  the  favour  of  Anastasius,  who 
in  511  found  in  the  riots  which  were  occurring  between  the  rival 
parties  in  the  streets  of  Antioch  a  pretext  for  deposing  Flavian, 
and  banishing  him  to  Petra,  where  he  died  in  518.  Flavian  was 
soon  after  his  death  enrolled  among  the  saints  of  the  Greek 
Church,  and  after  some  opposition  he  was  also  canonized  by  the 
Latin  Church. 

FLAVIAN  (d.  449),  bishop  of  Constantinople,  and  an  adherent 
of  the  Antiochene  school,  succeeded  Proclus  in  447.  He  presided 
at  the  council  which  deposed  Eutyches  (q.v.)  in  448,  but  in  the 
following  year  he  was  deposed  by  the  council  of  Ephesus  (the 
"  robber  synod "),  which  reinstated  Eutyches  in  his  office. 
Flavian's  death  shortly  afterwards  was  attributed,  by  a  pious 
fiction,  to  ill  treatment  at  the  hands  of  his  theological  opponents. 
The  council  of  Chalcedon  canonized  him  as  a  martyr,  and  in  the 
Latin  Church  he  is  commemorated  on  the  i8th  of  February. 

FLAVIGNY,  a  town  of  eastern  France,  in  the  department  of 
Cote-d'Or,  situated  on  a  promontory  overlooking  the  river 
Ozerain,  33  m.  W.N.W.  of  Dijon  by  road.  Pop.  (1906)  725. 
Among  its  antiquities  are  the  remains  of  an  abbey  of  the  8th 
century,  which  has  been  rebuilt  as  a  factory  for  the  manufacture 
of  anise,  an  industry  connected  with  the  town  as  early  as  the 
1 7th  century.  There  is  also  a  church  of  the  i3th  and  isth 
centuries,  containing  carved  stalls  (i5th  century)  and  a  fine 
rood-screen  (early  i6th  century).  A  Dominican  convent,  some 
old  houses  and  ancient  gateways  are  also  of  interest.  About 
3-  m.  north-west  of  Flavigny  rises  Mont  Auxois,  the  probable 
site  of  the  ancient  Alesia,  where  Caesar  in  A.D.  52  defeated  the 
Gallic  chieftain  Vercingetorix,  to  whom  a  statue  has  been  erected 
on  the  summit  of  the  height.  Numerous  remains  of  the  Gallo- 
Roman  period  have  been  discovered  on  the  hill. 

FLAVIN  (Lat.  flaws,  yellow),  the  commercial  name  for  an 
extract  or  preparation  of  quercitron  bark  (Quercus  tinctoria), 
which  is  used  as  a  yellow  dye  in  place  of  the  ground  and  powdered 
bark  (see  QUERCITRON). 

FLAX.  The  terms  flax  or  lint  (Ger.  Flacks,  Fr.  Km,  Lat. 
linum)  are  employed  at  once  to  denote  the  fibre  so  called,  and 
the  plant  from  which  it  is  prepared.  The  flax  plant  (Linum 
usitatissimum)  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Linaceae,  and,  like 
most  plants  which  have  been  long  under  cultivation,  it  possesses 
numerous  varieties,  while  its  origin  is  doubtful.  As  cultivated 
it  is  an  annual  with  an  erect  stalk  rising  to  a  height  of  from 
2c?  to  40  in.,  with  alternate,  sessile,  narrowly  lance-shaped  leaves, 
branching  only  at  the  top,  each  branch  or  branchlet  ending  in  a 
bright  blue  flower.  The  flowers  are  regular  and  symmetrical, 
having  five  sepals,  tapering  to  a  point  and  hairy  on  the  margin, 
five  petals  which  speedily  fall,  ten  stamens,  and  a  pistil  bearing 
five  distinct  styles.  The  fruit  or  boll  is  round,  containing  five 
cells,  each  of  which  is  again  divided  into  two,  thus  forming  ten 
divisions,  each  of  which  contains  a  single  seed.  The  seeds  of  the 
flax  plant,  well  known  as  linseed,  are  heavy,  smooth,  glossy  and 
of  a  bright  greenish-brown  colour.  They  are  oval  in  section, 
but  their  maximum  contour  represents  closely  that  of  a  pear 
with  the  stalk  removed.  The  contents  are  of  an  oily  nature, 
and  when  liquefied  are  of  great  commercial  value. 

The  earliest  cultivated  flax  was  Linum  anguslifolium,  a  smaller 
plant  with  fewer  and  narrower  leaves  than  L.  usitatissimum, 
and  usually  perennial.  This  is  known  to  have  been  cultivated  by 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Swiss  lake-dwellings,  and  is  found  wild 
in  south  and  west  Europe  (including  England),  North  Africa, 
and  western  Asia.  The  annual  flax  (L.  usitatissimum)  has  been 
cultivated  for  at  least  four  or  five  thousand  years  in  Mesopotamia, 
Assyria  and  Egypt,  and  is  wild  in  the  districts  included  between 
the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Black  Sea.  This 
annual  flax  appears  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  north  of 
Europe  by  the  Finns,  afterwards  into  the  west  of  Europe  by 
the  western  Aryans,  and  perhaps  here  and  there  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians; lastly,  into  Hindustan  by  the  eastern  Aryans  after 
their  separation  from  the  European  Aryans.  (De  Candolle, 
Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants) 

The  cultivation  and  preparation  of  flax  are  among  the  most 
ancient  of  all  textile  industries,  very  distinct  traces  of  their 


FLAX 


existence  during  the  stone  age  being  preserved  to  the  present 
day.  "  The  use  of  flax,"  says  Ferdinand  Keller  (Lake  Dwellings 
of  Switzerland,  translated  by  J.  E.  Lee),  "  reaches  back  to  the 
very  earliest  periods  of  civilization,  and  it  was  most  extensively 
and  variously  applied  in  the  lake-dwellings,  even  in  those  of  the 
stone  period.  But  of  the  mode  in  which  it  was  planted,  steeped, 
heckled,  cleansed  and  generally  prepared  for  use,  we  can  form 
no  idea  any  more  than  we  can  of  the  mode  or  tools  employed  by 
the  settlers  in  its  cultivation.  .  .  .  Rough  or  unworked  flax  is 
found  in  the  lake-dwellings  made  into '  bundles,  or  what  are 
technically  called  heads,  and,  as  much  attention  was  given  to 
this  last  operation,  it  was  perfectly  clean  and  ready  for  use." 
As  to  its  applications  at  this  early  period,  Keller  remarks: 
"  Flax  was  the  material  for  making  lines  and  nets  for  fishing  and 
catching  wild  animals,  cords  for  carrying  the  earthenware  vessels 
and  other  heavy  objects;  in  fact,  one  can  hardly  imagine  how 


485 


FIG.  i. — Flax  Plant  (Linum  usitalissimum). 

navigation  could  be  carried  on,  or  the  lake-dwellings  themselves 
be  erected,  without  the  use  of  ropes  and  cords;  and  the  erection 
of  memorial  stones  (menhirs,  dolmens),  at  whichever  era,  and  to 
whatever  people  these  monuments  may  belong,  would  be  alto- 
gether impracticable  without  the  use  of  strong  ropes." 

Manufacture. — That  flax  was  extensively  cultivated  and  was 
regarded  as  of  much  importance  at  a  very. early  period  in  the 
world's  history  there  is  abundant  testimony.  Especially  in 
ancient  Egypt  the  fibre  occupied  a  most  important  place,  linen 
having  been  there  not  only  generally  worn  by  all  classes,  but  it 
was  the  only  material  the  priestly  order  was  permitted  to  wear, 
while  it  was  most  extensively  used  as  wrappings  for  embalmed 
bodies  and  for  general  purposes.  In  the  Old  Testament  we  are 
told  that  Pharaoh  arrayed  Joseph  "  in  vestures  of  fine  linen  " 
(Gen.  xlii.  42),  and  among  the  plagues  of  Egypt  that  of  hail 
destroyed  the  fiax  and  barley  crops,  "  for  the  barley  was  in  the 
ear,  and  the  flax  was  boiled  "  (Exod.  ix.  31).  Further,  numerous 
pictorial  representations  of  flax  culture  and  preparation  exist 
to  the  present  day  on  the  walls  of  tombs  and  in  Egypt.  Sir  J. 
G.  Wilkinson  in  his  description  of  ancient  Egypt  shows  clearly 
the  great  antiquity  of  the  ordinary  processes  of  preparing  flax. 
"  At  Beni  Hassan,"  he  says,  "  the  mode  of  cultivating  the  plant, 
in  the  same  square  beds  now  met  with  throughout  Egypt  (much 
resembling  our  salt  pans),  the  process  of  beating  the  stalks  and 
making  them  into  ropes,  and  the  manufacture  of  a  piece  of  cloth 
are  distinctly  pointed  out."  The  preparation  of  the  fibre  as 
conducted  in  Egypt  is  illustrated  by  Pliny,  who  says:  "  The 
stalks  themselves  are  immersed  in  water,  warmed  by  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  and  are  kept  down  by  weights  placed  upon 


them,  for  nothing  is  lighter  than  flax.  The  membrane,  or  rind, 
becoming  loose  is  a  sign  of  their  being  sufficiently  macerated. 
They  are  then  taken  out  and  repeatedly  turned  over  in  the  sun 
until  perfectly  dried,  and  afterwards  beaten  by  mallets  on  stone 
slabs.  That  which  is  nearest  the  rind  is  called  stupa  ['  tow  '], 
inferior  to  the  inner  fibres,  and  fit  only  for  the  wicks  of  lamps. 
It  is  combed  out  with  iron  hooks  until  the  rind  is  all  removed. 
The  inner  part 'is  of  a  whiter  and  finer  quality.  Men  are  not 
ashamed  to  prepare  it  "  (Pliny,  N.H.  xix.  i).  For  many  ages, 
even  down  to  the  early  part  of  the  uth  century,  Egyptian  flax 
occupied  the  foremost  place  in  the  commercial  world,  being  sent 
into  all  regions  with  which  open  intercourse  was  maintained. 
Among  Western  nations  it  was,  without  any  competitor,  the 
most  important  of  all  vegetable  fibres  till  towards  the  close  of 
the  i8th  century,  when,  after  a  brief  struggle,  cotton  took  its 
place  as  the  supreme  vegetable  fibre  of  commerce. 

Flax  prospers  most  when  grown  upon  land  of  firm  texture 
resting  upon  a  moist  subsoil.  It  does  well  to  succeed  oats  or 
potatoes,  as  it  requires  the  soil  to  be  in  fresh  condition  without 
being  too  rich.  Lands  newly  broken  up  from  pasture  suit  it 
well,  as  these  are  generally  freer  from  weeds  than  those  that  have 
been  long  under  tillage.  It  is  usually  inexpedient  to  apply 
manure  directly  to  the  flax  crop,  as  the  tendency  of  this  is  to 
produce  over-luxuriance,  and  thereby  to  mar  the  quality  of  the 
fibre,  on  which  its  value  chiefly  depends.  For  the  same  reason 
it  must  be  thickly  seeded,  the  effect  of  this  being  to  produce  tall, 
slender  stems,  free  from  branches.  The  land,  having  been 
ploughed  in  autumn,  is  prepared  for  sowing  by  working  it  with 
the  grubber,  harrow  and  roller,  until  a  fine  tilth  is  obtained. 
On  the  smooth  surface  the  seed  is  sown  broadcast  by  hand  or 
machine,  at  the  rate  of  3  bushels  per  acre,  and  covered  in  the 
same  manner  as  clover  seeds.  It  is  advisable  immediately  to 
hand-rake  it  with  common  hay-rakes,  and  thus  to  remove  all 
stones  and  clods,  and  to  secure  a  uniform  close  cover  of  plants. 
When  these  are  about  2  to  3  in.  long  the  crop  must  be  carefully 
hand-weeded.  This  is  a  tedious  and  expensive  process,  and 
hence  the  importance  of  sowing  the  crop  on  land  as  free  as 
possible  from  weeds  of  all  kinds.  The  weeders,  faces  to  the  wind, 
move  slowly  on  hands  and  knees,  and  should  remove  every  vestige 
of  weed  in  order  that  the  flax  plants  may  receive  the  full  benefit 
of  the  land.  When  flax  is  cultivated  primarily  on  account  of 
the  fibre,  the  crop  ought  to  be  pulled  before  the  capsules  are 
quite  ripe,  when  they  are  just  beginning  to  change  from  a  green 
to  a  pale-brown  colour,  and  when  the  stalks  of  the  plant  have 
become  yellow  throughout  about  two-thirds  of  their  height. 

The  various  operations  through  which  the  crop  passes  from 
this  point  till  flax  ready  for  the  market  is  produced  are — (i) 
Pulling,  (2)  Rippling,  (3)  Retting,  (4)  Drying,  (5)  Rolling, 
(6)  Scutching. 

Pulling  and  rippling  may  be  dismissed  very  briefly.  Flax  is 
always  pulled  up  by  the  root,  and  under  no  circumstances  is  it 
cut  or  shorn  like  cereal  crops.  The  pulling  ought  to  be  done  in 
dry  clear  weather;  and  care  is  to  be  taken  in  this,  as  in  all  the 
subsequent  operations,  to  keep  the  root-ends  even  and  the  stalks 
parallel.  At  the  same  time  it  is  desirable  to  have,  as  far  as 
possible,  stalks  of  equal  length  together, — all  these  conditions 
having  considerable  influence  on  the  quality  and  appearance 
of  the  finished  sample.  As  a  general  rule  the  removal  of  the 
bolls  "  or  capsules  by  the  process  of  rippling  immediately 
fellows  the  pulling,  the  operation  being  performed  in  the  field; 
but  under  some  systems  of  cultivation,  as,  for  example,  the 
Courtrai  method,  alluded  to  below,  the  crop  is  made  up  into 
sheaves,  dried  and  stacked,  and  is  only  boiled  and  retted  in  the 
early  part  of  the  next  ensuing  season.  The  best  rippler,  or 
apparatus  for  separating  the  seed  capsules  from  the  branches, 
consists  of  a  kind  of  comb  having,  set  in  a  wooden  frame,  iron 
teeth  made  of  round-rod  iron  -j^ths  of  an  inch  asunder  at 
the  bottom,  and  half  an  inch  at  the  top,  and  18  in.  long,  to 
allow  a  sufficient  spring,  and  save  much  breaking  of  flax.  The 
points  should  begin  to  taper  3  in.  from  the  top.  A  sheet  or  other 
cover  being  spread  on  the  field,  the  apparatus  is  placed  in  the 
middle  of  it,  and  two  ripplers  sitting  opposite  each  other,  with 


486 


FLAX 


the  machine  between  them,  work  at  the  same  time.  It  is  un- 
advisable  to  ripple  the  flax  so  severely  as  to  break  or  tear  the 
delicate  fibres  at  the  upper  part  of  the  stem.  The  two  valuable 
commercial  products  of  the  flax  plant,  the  seeds  and  the  stalk, 
are  separated  at  this  point.  We  have  here  to  do  with  the  latter 
only. 

Retting  or  rotting  is  an  operation  of  the  greatest  importance, 
and  one  in  connexion  with  which  in  recent  years  numerous 
experiments  have  been  made,  and  many  projects  and  processes 
put  forth,  with  the  view  of  remedying  the  defects  of  the  primi- 
tive system  or  altogether  supplanting  it.  From  the  earliest  times 
two  leading  processes  of  retting  have  been  practised,  termed  re- 
spectively water-retting  and  dew-retting;  and  as  no  method 
has  yet  been  introduced  which  satisfactorily  supersedes  these 
operations,  they  will  first  be  described. 

Water-retting. — For  this — the  process  by  which  flax  is  generally 
prepared — pure  soft  water,  free  from  iron  and  other  materials 
which  might  colour  the  fibre,  is  essential.  Any  water  much 
impregnated  with  lime  is  also  specially  objectionable.  The  dams 
or  ponds  in  which  the  operation  is  conducted  are  of  variable  size, 
and  usually  between  4  and  5  ft.  in  depth.  The  rippled  stalks 
are  tied  in  small  bundles  and  packed,  roots  downwards,  in  the 
dams  till  they  are  quite  full;  over  the  top  of  the  upper  layer 
is  placed  a  stratum  of  rushes  and  straw,  or  sods  with  the  grassy 
side  downwards,  and  above  all  stones  of  sufficient  weight  to 
keep  the  flax  submerged.  Under  favourable  circumstances  a 
process  of  fermentation  should  immediately  be  set  up,  which 
soon  makes  itself  manifest  by  the  evolution  of  gaseous  bubbles. 
After  a  few  days  the  fermentation  subsides;  and  generally  in 
from  ten  days  to  two  weeks  the  process  ought  to  be  complete. 
The  exact  time,  however,  depends  upon  the  weather  and  upon 
the  particular  kind  of  water  in  which  the  flax  is  immersed. 
The  immersion  itself  is  a  simple  matter;  the  difficulty  lies  in 
deciding  when  the  process  is  complete.  If  allowed  to  remain 
under  water  too  long,  the  fibre  is  weakened  by  what  is  termed 
"  over-retting,"  a  condition  which  increases  the  amount  of 
cedilla  in  the  scutching  process;  whilst  "  under-retting  "  leaves 
part  of  the  gummy  or  resinous  matter  in  the  material,  which 
hinders  the  subsequent  process  of  manufacture.  As  the  steeping 
is  such  a  critical  operation,  it  is  essential  that  the  stalks  be 
frequently  examined  and  tested  as  the  process  nears  completion. 
When  it  is  found  that  the  fibre  separates  readily  from  the  woody 
"  shove  "  or  core,  the  beets  or  small  bundles  are  ready  for  remov- 
ing from  the  dams.  It  is  drained,  and  then  spread,  evenly  and 
equally,  over  a  grassy  meadow  to  dry.  The  drying,  which  takes 
from  a  week  to  a  fortnight,  must  be  uniform,  so  that  all  the 
fibres  may  spin  equally  well.  To  secure  this  uniformity,  it  is 
necessary  to  turn  the  material  over  several  times  during  the 
process.  It  is  ready  for  gathering  when  the  core  cracks  and 
separates  easily  from  the  fibre.  At  this  point  advantage  is 
taken  of  fine  dry  weather  to  gather  up  the  flax,  which  is  now 
ready  for  scutching,  but  the  fibre  is  improved  by  stocking 
and  stacking  it  for  some  time  before  it  is  taken  to  the  scutching 
mill. 

Dew^retting  is  the  process  by  which  all  the  Archangel  flax 
and  a  large  portion  of  that  sent  out  from  St  Petersburg  are  pre- 
pared. By  this  method  the  operation  of  steeping  is  entirely 
dispensed  with,  and  the  flax  is,  immediately  after  pulling,  spread 
on  the  grass  where  it  is  under  the  influence  of  air,  sunlight, 
night-dews  and  rain.  The  process  is  tedious,  the  resulting  fibre 
is  brown  in  colour,  and  it  is  said  to  be  peculiarly  liable  to  undergo 
heating  (probably  owing  to  the  soft  heavy  quality  of  the  flax)  if 
exposed  to  moisture  and  kept  close  packed  with  little  access  of 
air.  Archangel  flax  is,  however,  peculiarly  soft  and  silky  in 
structure,  although  in  all  probability  water-retting  would  result 
in  a  fibre  as  good  or  even  better  in  quality. 

The  theory  of  retting, according  to  the  investigations  of  J.  Kolb, 
is  that  a  peculiar  fermentation  is  set  up  under  the  influence 
of  heat  and  moisture,  resulting  in  a  change  of  the  intercellular 
substance — pectose  or  an  analogue  of  that  body — into  pectin 
and  pectic  acid.  The  former,  being  soluble,  is  left  in  the  water; 
but  the  latter,  an  insoluble  body,  is  in  part  attached  to  the 


fibres,  from  which  it  is  only  separated  by  changing  into  soluble 
metapectic  acid  under  the  action  of  hot  alkaline  ley  in  the 
subsequent  process  of  bleaching. 

To  a  large  extent  retting  continues  to  be  conducted  in  the 
primitive  fashions  above  described,  although  numerous  and 
persistent  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  upon  it,  or  to 
avoid  the  process  altogether.  The  uniform  result  of  all  ex- 
periments has  only  been  to  demonstrate  the  scientific  soundness 
of  the  ordinary  process  of  water-retting,  and  all  the  proposed 
improvements  of  recent  times  seek  to  obviate  the  tediousness, 
difficulties  and  uncertainties  of  the  process  as  carried  on  in  the 
open  air.  In  the  early  part  of  the  igth  century  much  attention 
was  bestowed,  especially  in  Ireland,  on  a  process  invented  by 
Mr  James  Lee.  He  proposed  to  separate  the  fibre  by  purely 
mechanical  means  without  any  retting  whatever;  but  after  the 
Irish  Linen  Board  had  expended  many  thousands  of  pounds 
and  much  time  in  making  experiments  and  in  erecting  his 
machinery,  his  entire  scheme  ended  in  complete  failure.  About 
the  year  1851  Chevalier  Claussen  sought  to  revive  a  process  of 
"  cottonizing  "  flax — a  method  of  proceeding  which  had  been 
suggested  three-quarters  of  a  century  earlier.  Claussen's  process 
consisted  in  steeping  flax  fibre  or  tow  for  twenty-four  hours 
in  a  weak  solution  of  caustic  soda,  next  boiling  it  for  about  two 
hours  in  a  similar  solution,  and  then  saturating  it  in  a  solution 
containing  5  %  of  carbonate  of  soda,  after  which  it  was  immersed 
in  a  vat  containing  water  acidulated  with  3%  of  sulphuric 
acid.  The  action  of  the  acid  on  the  carbonate  of  soda  with  which 
the  fibre  was  impregnated  caused  the  fibre  to  split  up  into  a 
fine  cotton-like  mass,  which  it  was  intended  to  manufacture  in 
the  same  manner  as  cotton.  A  process  to  turn  good  flax  into 
bad  cotton  had,  however,  on  the  face  of  it,  not  much  to  recom- 
mend it  to  public  acceptance;  and  Claussen's  process  therefore 
remains  only  as  an  interesting  and  suggestive  experiment. 

The  only  modification  of  water-retting  which  has  hitherto 
endured  the  test  of  prolonged  experiment,  and  taken  a  firm 
position  as  a  distinct  improvement,  is  the  warm-water  retting 
patented  in  England  in  1846  by  an  American,  Robert  B.  Schenck. 
For  open  pools  and  dams  Schenck  substitutes  large  wooden  vats 
under  cover,  into  which  the  flax  is  tightly  packed  in  an  upright 
position.  The  water  admitted  into  the  tanks  is  raised  to  and 
maintained  at  a  temperature  of  from  75°  to  95°  F.  during  the 
whole  time  the  flax  is  in  steep.  In  a  short  time  a  brisk  fermenta- 
tion is  set  up,  gases  at  first  of  pleasant  odour,  but  subsequently 
becoming  very  repulsive,  being  evolved,  and  producing  a  frothy 
scum  over  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  whole  process  occupies 
only  from  50  to  60  hours.  A  still  further  improvement,  due 
to  Mr  Pownall,  comes  into  operation  at  this  point,  which 
consists  of  immediately  passing  the  stalks  as  they  are  taken 
out  of  the  vats  between  heavy  rollers  over  which  a  stream 
of  pure  water  is  kept  flowing.  By  this  means,  not  only  is  all 
the  slimy  glutinous  adherent  matter  thoroughly  separated,  but 
the  subsequent  processes  of  breaking  and  scutching  are  much 
facilitated. 

A  process  of  retting  by  steam  was  introduced  by  W.  Watt  of 
Glasgow  in  1852,  and  subsequently  modified  and  improved  by 
J.  Buchanan.  The  system  possessed  the  advantages  of  rapidity, 
being  completed  in  about  ten  hours,  and  freedom  from  any 
noxious  odour;  but  it  yielded  only  a  harsh,  ill-spinning  fibre, 
and  consequently  failed  to  meet  the  sanguine  expectations  of 
its  promoters. 

In  connexion  with  improvements  in  retting,  Mr  Michael 
Andrews,  secretary  of  the  Belfast  Flax  Supply  Association, 
made  some  suggestions  and  experiments  which  deserve  close 
attention.  In  a  paper  contributed  to  the  International  Flax 
Congress  at  Vienna  in  1873  he  entered  into  details  regarding  an 
experimental  rettery  he  had  formed,  with  the  view  of  imitating 
by  artificial  means  the  best  results  obtained  by  the  ordinary 
methods.  In  brief,  Mr  Andrews'  method  consists  in  introducing 
water  at  the  proper  temperature  into  the  retting  vat,  and  main- 
taining that  temperature  by  keeping  the  air  of  the  chamber 
at  a  proper  degree  of  heat.  By  this  means  the  flax  is  kept  at  a 
uniform  temperature  with  great  certainty,  since  even  should  the 


FLAX 


487 


heat  of  the  air  vary  considerably  through  neglect,  the  water  in  the 
vat  only  by  slow  degrees  follows  such  fluctuations.  "  It  may  be 
remarked,"  says  Mr  Andrews,  "  that  the  superiority  claimed 
for  this  method  of  retting  flax  over  what  is  known  as  the 
'hot- water  steeping'  is  uniformity  of  temperature;  in  fact 
the  experiments  have  demonstrated  that  an  absolute  control 
can  be  exercised  over  the  means  adopted  to  produce  the 
artificial  climate  in  which  the  vats  containing  the  flax  are 
situated." 

Several  other  attempts  have  been  made  with  a  view  of  obtain- 
ing a  quick  and  practical  method  of  retting  flax.  The  one  by 
Messrs  Doumer  and  Deswarte  appears  to  have  been  well  received 
in  France,  but  in  Ireland  the  invention  of  Messrs  Loppens  and 
Deswarte  has  recently  received  the  most  attention.  The 
apparatus  consists  of  a  tank  with  two  chambers,  the  partition 
being  perforated.  The  flax  is  placed  in  the  upper  chamber  and 
covered  by  two  sets  of  rods  or  beams  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 
Fresh  water  is  allowed  to  enter  the  lower  chamber  immediately 
under  the  perforated  partition.  As  the  tank  fills,  the  water  enters 
the  upper  chamber  and  carries  with  it  the  flax  and  the  beams, 
the  latter  being  prevented  from  rising  too  high.  The  soluble 
substances  are  dissolved  by  the  water,  and  the  liquid  thus  formed 
being  heavier  than  water,  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank 
where  it  is  allowed  to  escape  through  an  outlet.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  flax  is  almost  continually  immersed  in  fresh  water,  a 
condition  which  hastens  the  retting.  The  flow  of  the  liquids, 
in  and  out,  can  be  so  arranged  that  the  motion  is  very  slow, 
and  hence  the  liquids  of  different  densities  do  not  mix.  When  the 
operation  is  completed,  the  whole  of  the  water  is  run  off,  and  the 
flax  remains  on  the  perforated  floor,  where  it  drains  thoroughly 
before  being  removed  to  dry. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical  Instruction  for 
Ireland,  and  the  Belfast  Flax  Supply  Association,  have  jointly 
made  some  experiments  with  this  method,  and  the  following 
extract  from  the  Association's  report  for  1905  shows  the  success 
which  attended  their  efforts: — 

"  By  desire  of  the  department  (which  has  taken  up  the  position 
of  an  impartial  critic  of  the  experiment)  a  quantity  of  flax  straw  was 
divided  into  two  equal  lots.  One  part  was  retted  at  Millisle  by  the 
patent-system  of  Loppens  and  Deswarte;  the  other  was  sent  to 
Courtrai  and  steeped  in  the  Lys.  Both  lots  when  retted  and  scutched 
were  examined  by  an  inspector  of  the  department  and  by  several 
flax  spinners.  That  which  was  retted  at  Millisle  was  pronounced 
superior  to  the  other  "... 

"  To  summarise  results  up  to  date — 

1.  It  has  been  proved  that  flax  can  be  thoroughly  dried  in 

the  field  in  Ireland. 

2.  That  the  seed  can  be  saved,  and  is  of  first  quality. 

3.  That   the   system   of  retting   (Loppens  and   Deswarte's 

patent)  is  at  least  equal  to  the  Lys,  as  to  quality  and 
yield  of  fibre  produced." 

Since  these  results  appear  to  be  satisfactory,  it  is  natural  to 
expect  further  attempts  with  the  same  object  of  supplanting 
the  ordinary  steeping.  A  really  good  chemical,  mechanical 
or  other  method  would  probably  be  the  means  of  reviving  the 
flax  industry  in  the  remote  parts  of  the  British  Isles. 

Scutching  is  the  process  by  which  the  fibre  is  freed  from  its 
woody  core  and  rendered  fit  for  the  market.  For  ordinary  water- 
retted  flax  two  operations  are  required,  first  breaking  and  then 
scutching,  and  these  are  done  either  by  hand  labour  or  by  means 
of  small  scutching  or  lint  mills,  driven  either  by  water  or  steam 
power.  Hand  labour,  aided  by  simple  implements,  is  still  much 
used  in  continental  countries;  also  in  some  parts  of  Ireland 
where  labour  is  cheap  or  when  very  fine  material  is  desired; 
but  the  use  of  scutching  mills  is  now  very  general,  these  being 
more  economical.  The  breaking  is  done  by  passing  the  stalks 
between  grooved  or  fluted  rollers  of  different  pitches;  these 
rollers,  of  which  there  may  be  from  5  to  7  pairs,  are  sometimes 
arranged  to  work  alternately  forwards  and  backwards  in  order  to 
thoroughly  break  the  woody  material  or  "  boon  "  of  the  straw, 
while  the  broken  "  shoves  "  are  beaten  out  by  suspending  the 
fibre  in  a  machine  fitted  with  a  series  of  revolving  blades,  which, 
striking  violently  against  the  flax,  shake  out  the  bruised  and 
broken  woody  cores.  A  great  many  modified  scutching  machines 


and  processes  have  been  proposed  and  introduced  with  the  view 
of  promoting  economy  of  labour  and  improving  the  turn-out  of 
fibre,  both  in  respect  of  cleanness  and  in  producing  the  least 
proportion  of  codilla  or  scutching  tow. 

The  celebrated  Courtrai  flax  of  Belgium  is  the  most  valuable 
staple  in  the  market,  on  account  of  its  fineness,  strength  and 
particularly  bright  colour.  There  the  flax  is  dried  in  the  field, 
and  housed  or  stacked  during  the  winter  succeeding  its  growth, 
and  in  the  spring  of  the  following  year  it  is  retted  in  crates  sunk 
in  the  sluggish  waters  of  the  river  Lys.  After  the  process  has 
proceeded  a  certain  length,  the  crates  are  withdrawn,  and  the 
sheaves  taken  out  and  stocked.  It  is  thereafter  once  more  tied 
up,  placed  in  the  crates,  and  sunk  in  the  river  to  complete  the 
retting  process;  but  this  double  steeping  is  not  invariably 
practised.  When  finally  taken  out,  it  is  unloosed  and  put  up  in 
cones,  instead  of  being  grassed,  and  when  quite  dry  it  is  stored 
for  some  time  previous  to  undergoing  the  operation  of  scutching. 
In  all  operations  the  greatest  care  is  taken,  and  the  cultivators 
being  peculiarly  favoured  as  to  soil,  climate  and  water,  Courtrai 
flax  is  a  staple  of  unapproached  excellence. 

An  experiment  made  by  Professor  Hodges  of  Belfast  on  7770  lb 
of  air-dried  flax  yielded  the  following  results.  By  rippling  he 
separated  1946  lb  of  bolls  which  yielded  910  lb  of  seed.  The  5824  lb 
(52  cwt.)  of  flax  straw  remaining  lost  in  steeping  13  cwt.,  leaving 
39  cwt.  of  retted  stalks,  and  from  that  6  cwt.  I  qr.  2  lb  (702  tb)  of 
finished  flax  was  procured.  Thus  the  weight  of  the  fibre  was  equal 
to  about  9  %  of  the  dried  flax  with  the  bolls,  12  %  of  the  boiled  straw, 
and  over  16%  of  the  retted  straw.  One  hundred  tons  treated  by 
Schenck's  method  gave  33  tons  bolls,  with  27-50  tons  of  loss  in  steep- 
ing; 32-13  tons  were  separated  in  scutching,  leaving  5-90  tons  of 
finished  fibre,  with  1-47  tons  of  tow  and  pluckings.  The  following 
analysis  of  two  varieties  of  heckled  Belgian  flax  is  by  Dr  Hugo 
Miiller  (Hoffmann's  Berichte  uber  die  Entwickelung  der  chemischen 
Industrie) : — 

Ash           .        .  0-70 

Water      .       .  8-65 

Extractive  matter  3-65 

Fat  and  wax   .  2-39 

Cellulose  .        .  82-57 

Intercellular  substance  and  pectose  bodies  2-74 

According  to  the  determinations  of  Julius  Wiesner  (Die  Rohstoffe 
des  Pflanzenreiches),  the  fibre  ranges  in  length  from  20  to  140  centi- 
metres, the  length  of  the  individual  cells  being  from  2-0  to  4-0 
millimetres,  and  the  limits  of  breadth  between  0-012  and  0-025  mm., 
the  average  being  0-016  mm. 

Among  the  circumstances  which  have  retarded  improvement 
both  in  the  growing  and  preparing  of  flax,  the  fact  that,  till 
comparatively  recent  times,  the  whole  industry  was  conducted 
only  on  a  domestic  scale  has  had  much  influence.  At  no  very 
remote  date  it  was  the  practice  in  Scotland  for  every  small 
farmer  and  cotter  not  only  to  grow  "  lint  "  or  flax  in  small 
patches,  but  to  have  it  retted,  scutched,  cleaned,  spun,  woven, 
bleached  and  finished  entirely  within  the  limits  of  his  own 
premises,  and  all  by  members  or  dependents  of  the  family. 
The  same  practice  obtained  and  still  largely  prevails  in  other 
countries.  Thus  the  flax  industry  was  long  kept  away  from  the 
most  powerful  motives  to  apply  to  it  labour-saving  devices, 
and  apart  from  the  influence  of  scientific  inquiry  for  the  improve- 
ment of  methods  and  processes.  As  cotton  came  to  the  front, 
just  at  the  time  when  machine-spinning  and  power-loom  weaving 
were  being  introduced,  the  result  was  that  in  many  localities 
where  flax  crops  had  been  grown  for  ages,  the  culture  gradually 
drooped  and  ultimately  ceased.  The  linen  manufacture  by 
degrees  ceased  to  be  a  domestic  industry,  and  began  to  centre 
in  and  become  the  characteristic  factory  employment  of  special 
localities,  which  depended,  however,  for  their  supply  of  raw 
material  primarily  on  the  operations  of  small  growers,  working, 
for  the  most  part,  on  the  poorer  districts  of  remote  thinly 
populated  countries.  The  cultivation  of  the  plant  and  the 
preparation  of  the  fibre  have  therefore,  even  at  the  present  day, 
not  come  under  the  influence  (except  in  certain  favoured  localities) 
of  scientific  knowledge  and  experience. 

estivation. — The  approximate  number  of  acres  (1905)  under 
cultivation  in  the  principal  flax-growing  countries  is  as 
follows: — 


1-32 
10-70 

6-02 

2-37 
7I-50 

9-41 


FLAX 


Russia 

Caucasia 

Austria 

Italy 

Poland 

Rumania 

Germany 

France 

Belgium 

Hungary 

Ireland 

Holland 


3,500,000  acres. 
450,000 
175,000 
120,000 

95,000 

80,000 

75,000 

65,000 

53,ooo 
50,000 
46,000 
38,000 


Although  the  amount  grown  in  Russia  exceeds  considerably 
the  combined  quantity  grown  in  the  rest  of  the  above-mentioned 
countries,  the  quality  of  the  fibre  is  inferior.  The  fibre  is  culti- 
vated in  the  Russian  provinces  of  Archangel,  Courland,  Esthonia, 
Kostroma,  Livonia,  Novgorod,  Pskov,  Smolensk,  Tver,  Vyatka, 
Vitebsk,  Vologda  and  Yaroslav  or  Jaroslav,  while  the  bulk  of  the 
material  is  exported  through  the  Baltic  ports.  Riga  and  St 
Petersburg  (including  Cronstadt)  are  the  principal  ports,  but 
flax  is  also  exported  from  Revel,  Windau,  Pernau,  Libau, 
Narva  and  Konigsberg.  Sometimes  it  is  exported  from 
Archangel,  but  this  port  is  frost-bound  for  a  great  period 
of  the  year;  moreover,  most  of  the  districts  are  nearer  to  the 
Baltic. 

The  raw  flax  is  almost  invariably  known  by  the  same  name  as 
the  district  in  which  it  is  grown,  and  it  is  further  classified  by 


The  marks  in  the  Crown  flaxes  have  the  following  signification: — 
K  means  Crown  and  is  usually  the  base  mark. 
H  Light  and  represents  a  rise  of  about 

P  Picked 

G  Grey 

S  Superior 

W  White 

Z  Zins 

Each  additional  mark  means  a  rise  in  the  price,  but  it  must  be 
understood  that  it  is  quite  possible  for  a  quality  denoted  by  two 
letters  to  be  more  valuable  than  one  indicated  by  three  or  more, 
since  every  mark  has  not  the  same  value. 

If  we  take  £25  as  the  value  of  the  base  mark,  the  value  per  ton  for 
the  different  groups  would  be: — 

K  .      .      .   £25  HSPK    .      .      .   £33 

HK  .      .      .   £26  GSPK    .      .      .   £35 

PK  .     .      .   £28  WSPK  .  .   £36 

HPK  ...   229  ZK  .      .      .   £35 

GPK  .      .      .   £31  HZK  .      .      .   £36 

SPK  .      .      .   £32  GZK  .      .      .   £38,  &c. 

The  Hoffs  flaxes  are  reckoned  in  a  similar  way.  Here  H  is  for 
Hoffs,  D  for  Drieband,  P  for  picked,  F  for  fine,  S  for  superior,  and 
R  for  Risten.  In  addition  to  these  marks,  an  X  may  appear  before, 
after  or  in  both  places.  With  £20  as  base  mark  we  have: — 

HD   .      .      .   £20  per  ton. 

PHD   .      .      .   £23 

FPHD   .      .      .   £26 

SFPHD    .      .      .   £29 

XHDX   .      .      .   £32 

XRX    .      .      .   £35 


The  following  Prices,  taken  from  the  Dundee  Year  Books,  show  the  Change  in  Price  of  a  few  well-known  Varieties. 


Dec.  1897. 

Dec.  1898. 

Dec.  1899. 

Dec.  1900. 

Dec.  1901. 

Dec.  1902. 

Dec.  1903. 

Dec.  1904. 

Dec.  1905. 

Dec.  1906. 

Riga— 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

SPK  .  . 

23i 

21   to  22 

28  to  32 

42 

28  to  32 

32 

39 

33 

35 

32 

XHDX  .  . 

27 

26i 

32  i  to  33 

43i 

34 

35 

42 

34 

36 

33 

W  .  . 

16  to  i6J 

15!  to  16 

22j  to  24 

31 

18  to  19 

22 

29 

23 

24 

24 

St  Petersburg  — 

Bajetsky  . 

28  to  29 

26  to  27 

32  to  32  J 

46 

37 

33 

49 

36 

42 

38 

Jaropol  . 

24  to  25 

23  to  23* 

30 

42 

32 

30 

42 

33 

35 

33 

Tows  — 

Mologin  . 
Novgorod 

24  to  24} 
'23!  to24i 

23  to23i 

'23 

24$  to  25 

126  to  26J 

31} 
33 

Si 

Si 

42 
41 

Si 

34 
37 

32* 
34} 

Archangel  — 

J  and  J  tow  . 

25 

24  to  24! 

26  to  27 

32 

31 

32 

41 

3ii 

32} 

31 

2nd  Codilla  . 

25 

24  to24i 

25J  tO  26 

32 

31 

32 

41 

32 

33 

3i 

special  marks.  The  following  names  amongst  others  are  given  to 
the  fibre: — Archangel,  Bajetsky,  Courish,  Dorpat,  Drogobusher, 
Dunaberg,  Fabrichnoi,  Fellin,  Gjatsk,  Glazoff,  Griazourtz, 
Iwashkower,  Jaransk,  Janowitz,  Jaropol,  Jaroslav,  Kama, 
Kashin,  Konigsberg,  Kostroma,  Kotelnitch,  Kowns,  Krasno- 
holm,  Kurland  (Courland),  Latischki,  Livonian  Crowns,  Mal- 
muish,  Marienberg,  Mochenetz,  Mologin,  Newel,  Nikolsky, 
Nolinsk,  Novgorod,  Opotchka,  Ostroff,  Ostrow,  Otbornoy, 
Ouglitch,  Pernau,  Pskoff,  Revel,  Riga,  Rjeff,  St  Petersburg, 
Seretz,  Slanitz,  Slobodskoi,  Smolensk,  Sytcheffka,  Taroslav, 
Tchesna,  Totma,  Twer,  Ustjuga,  Viatka,  Vishni,  Vologda, 
Werro,  Wiasma,  Witebsk. 

These  names  indicate  the  particular  district  in  which  the  flax 
has  been  grown,  but  it  is  more  general  to  group  the  material 
into  classes  such  as  Livonian  Crowns,  Rija  Crowns,  Hoffs, 
Wracks,  Drieband,  Zins,  Ristens,  Pernau,  Archangel,  &c. 

The  quotations  for  the  various  kinds  of  flaxes  are  made  with  one 
or  other  special  mark  termed  a  base  mark;  this  usually,  but  not 
necessarily,  indicates  the  lowest  quality.  The  September-October 
1906  quotations  appeared  as  under: — 

Livonian  .        .        .   basis  K  £26  to  £27  per  ton. 

Hoffs HD  £21  to  ' 

Pernau      .        .        .        „     D  £28  to 

Dorpat  „    D  £32  to 

cleaned. 

It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  the  base  mark  is  subject  to 
variation,  the  ruling  factors  being  the  amount  of  crop,  quality  and 
demand. 

1  8  and  2,  which  means  80  %  of  one  quality  and  20  %  of 
another.  Sometimes  other  proportions  obtain,  while  it  is  not 
unusual  to  have  quotations  for  flaxes  containing  four  different 
kinds. 


Of  the  lower  qualities  of  Riga  flax  the  following  may  be  named : 


W,  Wrack  flax. 
WPW,  White  picked  wrack. 

D,  Dreiband  (Threeband). 
LD,  Livonian  Dreiband. 
SD,  Slanitz  Dreiband. 


PW,  Picked  wrack  flax. 
GPW,  Grey  picked  wrack  flax. 

PD,  Picked  Dreiband  flax. 
PLD,  Picked  Livonian  Dreiband. 
PSD,  Picked  Slanitz  Dreiband. 


The  last-named  (SD  and  PSD)  are  dew-retted  qualities  shipped 
from  Riga  either  as  Lithuanian  Slanitz,  Wellish  Slanitz  or 
Wiasma  Slanitz,  showing  from  what  district  they  come,  as  there 
are  differences  in  the  quality  of  the  produce  of  each  district.  The 
lowest  quality  of  Riga  flax  is  marked  DW,  meaning  Dreiband 
Wrack. 

Another  Russian  port  from  which  a  large  quantity  of  flax  is  im- 
ported is  Pernau,  where  the  marks  in  use  are  comparatively  few. 
The  leading  marks  are: — 

LOD,  indicating  Low  Ordinary  Dreiband  (Threeband). 
OD,  Ordinary  Dreiband. 


D, 

HD, 

R, 

G, 

M, 


Dreiband. 

Light  Dreiband. 

Risten. 

Cut. 

Marienburg. 


Pernau  flax  is  shipped  as  Livonian  and  Fellin  sorts,  the  latter  being 
the  best. 

Both  dew-retted  and  water-retted  flax  are  exported  fromSt  Peters- 
burg, the  dew-retted  or  Slanitz  flax  being  marked  1st,  2nd,  3rd 
and  4th  Crown,  also  Zebrack  No.  I  and  Zebrack  No.  2,  while  all  the 
Archangel  flax  is  dew-retted.  , 

Some  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  Russian  flax  trade  may  be  gathered 
from  the  fact  that  233,000  tons  were  exported  in  1905.  Out  of  this 
quantity  a  little  over  53,000  tons  came  to  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  chief  British  ports  for  the  landing  of  flax  are : — Belfast,  Dundee, 
Leith,  Montrose,  London  and  Arbroath,  the  two  former  being  the 
chief  centres  of  the  flax  industry. 

The  following  table,  taken  from  ths  annual  report  of  the  Belfast 
Flax  Supply  Association,  shows  the  quantities  received  from  all 
sources  into  the  different  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom : — 


FLAXMAN 


489 


Year. 

Imports  to 
the  United 
Kingdom. 

Imports  to 
Ireland. 

Imports  to 
England  and 
Scotland. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

1895 

102,622 

33.506 

67,116 

1896 

95.199 

36,650 

58,549 

.1897 

98,802 

37,715 

61,087 

1898 

97,253 

34,44° 

62,813 

1899 

99,052 

40,145 

58.907 

1900 

7L586 

31,563 

40,023 

1901 

75,565 

28,785 

46,780 

1902 

73.6II 

29,727 

43,884 

1903 

94,701 

38,168 

56,533 

1904 

74.917 

33,024 

41.893 

1905 

90,098 

40,063 

50,035 

The  extent  of  flax  cultivation  in  Ireland  is  considerable,  but  the 
acreage  has  been  gradually  diminishing  during  late  years.  In  1864 
it  reached  the  maximum,  301,693  acres;  next  year  it  fell  to  251,433. 
After  1869  it  declined,  there  being  229,252  acres  in  flax  crop  that 
year,  and  only  122,003  in  1872.  From  this  year  to  1889  it  fluctuated 
considerably,  reaching  157,534  acres  in  1880  and  dropping  to 
89,225  acres  in  1884.  Then  for  five  successive  years  the  acreage 
was  above  108,000.  From  1890  to  1905  it  only  once  reached  100,000, 
while  the  average  in  1903,  1904  and  1905  was  a  little  over  45,000 
acres.  (T.  Wo.) 

FLAXMAN,  JOHN  (1755-1826),  English  sculptor  and  draughts- 
man, was  born  on  the  6th  of  July  1755,  during  a  temporary 
residence  of  his  parents  at  York.  The  name  John  was  hereditary 
in  the  family,  having  been  borne  by  his  father  after  a  forefather 
who,  according  to  the  family  tradition,  had  fought  on  the  side  of 
parliament  at  Naseby,  and  afterwards  settled  as  a  carrier  or 
farmer,  or  both,  in  Buckinghamshire.  John  Flaxman,  the  father 
of  the  sculptor,  carried  on  with  repute  the  trade  of  a  moulder 
and  seller  of  plaster  casts  at  the  sign  of  the  Golden  Head,  New 
Street,  Covent  Garden,  London.  His  wife's  maiden  name  was 
See,  and  John  was  their  second  son.  Within  six  months  of  his 
birth  the  family  returned  to  London,  and  in  his  father's  back 
shop  he  spent  an  ailing  childhood.  His  figure  was  high-shouldered 
and  weakly,  the  head  very  large  for  the  body.  His  mother 
having  died  about  his  tenth  year,  his  father  took  a  second  wife, 
of  whom  all  we  know  is  that  her  maiden  name  was  Gordon,  and 
that  she  proved  a  thrifty  housekeeper  and  kind  stepmother. 
Of  regular  schooling  the  boy  must  have  had  some,  since  he  is 
reputed  as  having  remembered  in  after  life  the  tyranny  of  some 
pedagogue  of  his  youth;  but  his  principal  education  he  picked 
up  for  himself  at  home.  He  early  took  delight  in  drawing  and 
modelling  from  his  father's  stock-in-trade,  and  early  endeavoured 
to  understand  those  counterfeits  of  classic  art  by  the  light  of 
translations  from  classic  literature. 

Customers  of  his  father  took  a  fancy  to  the  child,  and  helped 
him  with  books,  advice,  and  presently  with  commissions.  The 
two  special  encouragers  of  his  youth  were  the  painter  Romney, 
and  a  cultivated  clergyman,  Mr  Mathew,  with  his  wife,  in  whose 
house  in  Rathbone  Place  the  young  Flaxman  used  to  meet  the 
best  "  blue-stocking  "  society  of  those  days,  and,  among 
associates  of  his  own  age,  the  artists  Blake  and  Stothard,  who 
became  his  closest  friends.  Before  this  he  had  begun  to  work 
with  precocious  success  in  clay  as  well  as  in  pencil.  At  twelve 
years  old  he  won  the  first  prize  of  the  Society  of  Arts  for  a  medal, 
and  became  a  public  exhibitor  in  the  gallery  of  the  Free  Society 
of  Artists;  at  fifteen  he  won  a  second  prize  from  the  Society  of 
Arts  and  began  to  exhibit  in  the  Royal  Academy,  then  in  the 
second  year  of  its  existence.  In  the  same  year,  1770,  he  entered 
as  an  Academy  student  and  won  the  silver  medal.  But  all  these 
successes  were  followed  by  a  discomfiture.  In  the  competition 
for  the  gold  medal  of  the  Academy  in  1772,  Flaxman,  who  had 
made  sure  of  victory,  was  defeated,  the  prize  being  adjudged 
by  the  president,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  to  another  competitor 
named  Engleheart.  But  this  reverse  proved  no  discouragement, 
and  indeed  seemed  to  have  had  a  wholesome  effect  in  curing 
the  successful  lad  of  a  tendency  to  conceit  and  self-sufficiency 
which  made  Thomas  Wedgwood  say  of  him  in  1775:  "It  is  but 
a  few  years  since  he  was  a  most  supreme  coxcomb." 

He  continued  to  ply  his  art  diligently,  both  as  a  student  in  the 
schools  and  as  an  exhibitor  in  the  galleries  of  the  Academy, 


occasionally  also  attempting  diversions  into  the  sister  art  of 
painting.  To  the  Academy  he  contributed  a  wax  model  of 
Neptune  (1770);  four  portrait  models  in  wax  (1771);  a  terra- 
cotta bust,  a  wax  figure  of  a  child,  a  figure  of  History  (1772); 
a  figure  of  Comedy,  and  a  relief  of  a  Vestal  (1773).  During  these 
years  he  received  a  commission  from  a  friend  of  the  Mathew 
family,  for  a  statue  of  Alexander.  But  by  heroic  and  ideal  work 
of  this  class  he  could,  of  course,  make  no  regular  livelihood.  The 
means  of  such  a  livelihood,  however,  presented  themselves  in 
his  twentieth  year,  when  he  first  received  employment  from 
Josiah  Wedgwood  and  his  partner  Bentley,  as  a  modeller  of 
classic  and  domestic  friezes,  plaques,  ornamental  vessels  and 
medallion  portraits,  in  those  varieties  of  "  jasper  "  and  "  basalt " 
ware  which  earned  in  their  day  so  great  a  reputation  for  the 
manufacturers  who  had  conceived  and  perfected  the  invention. 
In  the  same  year,  1775,  John  Flaxman  the  elder  moved  from 
New  Street,  Covent  Garden,  to  a  more  commodious  house  in 
the  Strand  (No.  420).  For  twelve  years,  from  his  twentieth  to 
his  thirty-second  (1775-1787),  Flaxman  subsisted  chiefly  by  his 
work  for  the  firm  of  Wedgwood.  It  may  be  urged,  of  the  minute 
refinements  of  figure  outline  and  modelling  which  these  manu- 
facturers aimed  at  in  their  ware,  that  they  were  not  the  qualities 
best  suited  to  such  a  material;  or  it  may  be  regretted  that  the 
gifts  of  an  artist  like  Flaxman  should  have  been  spent  so  long 
upon  such  a  minor  and  half-mechanical  art  of  household  decora- 
tion; but  the  beauty  of  the  product  it  would  be  idle  to  deny,  or 
the  value  of  the  training  which  the  sculptor  by  this  practice 
acquired  in  the  delicacies  and  severities  of  modelling  in  low 
relief  and  on  a  minute  scale. 

By  1780  Flaxman  had  begun  to  earn  something  in  another 
branch  of  his  profession,  which  was  in  the  future  to  furnish 
his  chief  source  of  livelihood,  viz.  the  sculpture  of  monuments  for 
the  dead.  Three  of  the  earliest  of  such  monuments  by  his  hand 
are  those  of  Chatterton  in  the  church  of  St  Mary  Redcliffe  at 
Bristol  (1780),  of  Mrs  Morley  in  Gloucester  cathedral  (1784), 
and  of  the  Rev.  T.  and  Mrs  Margaret  Ball  in  the  cathedral  at 
Chichester  (1785).  During  the  rest  of  Flaxman's  career  memorial 
bas-reliefs  of  the  same  class  occupied  a  principal  part  of  his 
industry;  they  are  to  be  found  scattered  in  many  churches 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  England,  and  in  them  the 
finest  qualities  of  his  art  are  represented.  The  best  are  admirable 
for  pathos  and  simplicity,  and  for  the  alliance  of  a  truly  Greek 
instinct  for  rhythmical  design  and  composition  with  that  spirit 
of  domestic  tenderness  and  innocence  which  is  one  of  the  secrets 
of  the  modern  soul. 

In  1782,  being  twenty-seven  years  old,  Flaxman  was  married 
to  Anne  Denman,  and  had  in  her  the  best  of  helpmates  until 
almost  his  life's  end.  She  was  a  woman  of  attainments  in  letters 
and  to  some  extent  in  art,  and  the  devoted  companion  of  her 
husband's  fortunes  and  of  his  travels.  They  set  up  house  at  first 
in  Wardour  Street,  and  lived  an  industrious  life,  spending  their 
summer  holidays  once  and  again  in  the  house  of  the  hospitable 
poet  Hayley,  at  Eartham  in  Sussex.  After  five  years,  in  1787, 
they  found  themselves  with  means  enough  to  travel,  and  set  out 
for  Rome,  where  they  took  up  their  quarters  in  the  Via  Felice. 
Records  more  numerous  and  more  consecutive  of  Flaxman's 
residence  in  Italy  exist  in  the  shape  of  drawings  and  studies  than 
in  the  shape  of  correspondence.  He  soon  ceased  modelling 
himself  for  Wedgwood,  but  continued  to  direct  the  work  of  other 
modellers  employed  for  the  manufacture  at  Rome.  He  had 
intended  to  return  after  a  stay  of  a  little  more  than  two  years, 
but  was  detained  by  a  commission  for  a  marble  group  of  a  Fury 
of  Athamas,  a  commission  attended  in  the  sequel  with  circum- 
stances of  infinite  trouble  and  annoyance,  from  the  notorious 
Comte-Evfique,  Frederick  Hervey,  earl  of  Bristol  and  bishop  of 
Derry.  He  did  not,  as  things  fell  out,  return  until  the  summer 
of  1794,  after  an  absence  of  seven  years, — having  in  the  meantime 
executed  another  ideal  commission  (a  "  Cephalus  and  Aurora  ") 
for  Mr  Hope,  and  having  sent  home  models  for  several  sepulchral 
monuments,  including  one  in  relief  for  the  poet  Collins  in 
Chichester  cathedral,  and  one  in  the  round  for  Lord  Mansfield 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 


490 


FLAXMAN 


But  what  gained  for  Flaxman  in  this  interval  a  general  and 
European  fame  was  not  his  work  in  sculpture  proper,  but  those 
outline  designs  to  the  poets,  in  which  he  showed  not  only  to  what 
purpose  he  had  made  his  own  the  principles  of  ancient  design 
in  vase-paintings  and  bas-reliefs,  but  also  by  what  a  natural 
affinity,  better  than  all  mere  learning,  he  was  bound  to  the 
ancients  and  belonged  to  them.  The  designs  for  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  were  commissioned  by  Mrs  Hare  Naylor;  those  for 
Dante  by  Mr  Hope;  those  for  Aeschylus  by  Lady  Spencer; 
they  were  all  engraved  by  Piroli,  not  without  considerable  loss 
of  the  finer  and  more  sensitive  qualities  of  Flaxman's  own  lines. 

During  their  homeward  journey  the  Flaxmans  travelled 
through  central  and  northern  Italy.  On  their  return  they  took 
a  house,  which  they  never  afterwards  left,  in  Buckingham  Street, 
Fitzroy  Square.  Immediately  afterwards  we  find  the  sculptor 
publishing  a  spirited  protest  against  the  scheme  already  enter- 
tained by  the  Directory,  and  carried  out  five  years  later  by 
Napoleon,  of  equipping  at  Paris  a  vast  central  museum  of  art 
with  the  spoils  of  conquered  Europe. 

The  record  of  Flaxman's  life  is  henceforth  an  uneventful  record 
of  private  affection  and  contentment,  and  of  happy  and  tenacious 
industry,  with  reward  not  brilliant  but  sufficient,  and  repute  not 
loud  but  loudest  in  the  mouths  of  those  whose  praise  was  best 
worth  having — Canova,  Schlegel,  Fuseli.  He  took  for  pupil  a 
son  of  Hayley's,  who  presently  afterwards  sickened  and  died. 
In  1 797  he  was  made  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Every 
year  he  exhibited  work  of  one  class  or  another:  occasionally  a 
public  monument  in  the  round,  like  those  of  Paoli  (1798),  or 
Captain  Montague  (1802)  for  Westminster  Abbey,  of  Sir  William 
Jones  for  St  Mary's,  Oxford  (1797-1801),  of  Nelson  or  Howe  for 
St  Paul's;  more  constantly  memorials  for  churches,  with  symbolic 
Acts  of  Mercy  or  illustrations  of  Scripture  texts,  both  commonly 
in  low  relief  [Miss  Morley,  Chertsey  (1797),  Miss  Cromwell, 
Chichester  (1800),  Mrs  Knight,  Milton,  Cambridge  (1802),  and 
many  more];  and  these  pious  labours  he  would  vary  from  time 
to  time  with  a  classical  piece  like  those  of  his  earliest  predilection. 
Soon  after  his  election  as  associate,  he  published  a  scheme,  half 
grandiose,  half  childish,  for  a  monument  to  be  erected  on  Green- 
wich Hill,  in  the  shape  of  a  Britannia  200  ft.  high,  in  honour  of 
the  naval  victories  of  his  country.  In  1800  he  was  elected  full 
Academician.  During  the  peace  of  Amiens  he  went  to  Paris  to 
see  the  despoiled  treasures  collected  there,  but  bore  himself 
according  to  the  spirit  of  protest  that  was  in  him.  The  next 
event  which  makes  any  mark  in  his  life  is  his  appointment  to  a 
chair  specially  created  for  him  by  the  Royal  Academy — the 
chair  of  Sculpture:  this  took  place  in  1810.  We  have  ample 
evidence  of  his  thoroughness  and  judiciousness  as  a  teacher  in 
the  Academy  schools,  and  his  professorial  lectures  have  been 
often  reprinted.  With  many  excellent  observations,  and  with 
one  singular  merit — that  of  doing  justice,  as  in  those  days 
justice  was  hardly  ever  done,  to  the  sculpture  of  the  medieval 
schools — these  lectures  lack  point  and  felicity  of  expression, 
just  as  they  are  reported  to  have  lacked  fire  in  delivery,  and  are 
somewhat  heavy  reading.  The  most  important  works  that 
occupied  Flaxman  in  the  years  next  following  this  appointment 
were  the  monument  to  Mrs  Baring  in  Micheldever  church,  the 
richest  of  all  his  monuments  in  relief  (1805-1811);  that  for  the 
Worsley  family  at  Campsall  church,  Yorkshire,  which  is  the  next 
richest;  those  to  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  for  St  Paul's  (1807); 
to  Captain  Webbe  for  India  (1810);  to  Captains  Walker  and 
Beckett  for  Leeds  (1811);  to  Lord  Cornwallis  for  Prince  of 
Wales's  Island  (1812);  and  to  Sir  John  Moore  for  Glasgow  (1813). 
At  this  time  the  antiquarian  world  was  much  occupied  with  the 
vexed  question  of  the  merits  of  the  Elgin  marbles,  and  Flaxman 
was  one  of  those  whose  evidence  before  the  parliamentary 
commission  had  most  weight  in  favour  of  the  purchase  which 
was  ultimately  effected  in  1816. 

After  his  Roman  period  he  produced  for  a  good  many  years 
no  outline  designs  for  the  engraver  except  three  for  Cowper's 
translations  of  the  Latin  poems  of  Milton  (1810).  Other  sets 
of  outline  illustrations  drawn  about  the  same  time,  but  not 
published,  were  one  to  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  and  one  to  a 


Chinese  tale  in  verse,  called  "  The  Casket,"  which  he  wrote  to 
amuse  his  womenkind.  In  1817  we  find  him  returning  to  his 
old  practice  of  classical  outline  illustrations  and  publishing  the 
happiest  of  all  his  series  in  that  kind,  the  designs  to  Hesiod, 
excellently  engraved  by  the  sympathetic  hand  of  Blake.  Im- 
mediately afterwards  he  was  much  engaged  designing  for  the 
goldsmiths — a  testimonial  cup  in  honour  of  John  Kemble,  and 
following  that,  the  great  labour  of  the  famous  and  beautiful 
(though  quite  un-Homeric)  "  Shield  of  Achilles."  Almost  at  the 
same  time  he  undertook  a  frieze  of  "  Peace,  Liberty  and  Plenty," 
for  the  duke  of  Bedford's  sculpture  gallery  at  Woburn,  and  an 
heroic  group  of  Michael  overthrowing  Satan,  for  Lord  Egremont's 
house  at  Petworth.  His  literary  industry  at  the  same  time  is 
shown  by  several  articles  on  art  and  archaeology  contributed 
to  Rees's  Encyclopaedia  (1819-1820). 

In  1820  Mrs  Flaxman  died,  after  a  first  warning  from  paralysis 
six  years  earlier.  Her  younger  sister,  Maria  Denman,  and  the 
sculptor's  own  sister,  Maria  Flaxman,  remained  in  his  house, 
and  his  industry  was  scarcely  at  all  relaxed.  In  1822  he 
delivered  at  the  Academy  a  lecture  in  memory  of  his  old  friend 
and  generous  fellow-craftsman,  Canova,  then  lately  dead; 
in  1823  he  received  from  A.  W.  von  Schlegel  a  visit  of  which 
that  writer  has  left  us  the  record.  From  an  illness  occurring 
soon  after  this  he  recovered  sufficiently  to  resume  both  work 
and  exhibition,  but  on  the  3rd  of  December  1826  he  caught  cold 
in  church,  and  died  four  days  later,  in  his  seventy-second  year. 
Among  a  few  intimate  associates,  he  left  a  memory  singularly 
dear;  having  been  in  companionship,  although  susceptible  and 
obstinate  when  his  religious  creed — a  devout  Christianity  with 
Swedenborgian  admixtures — was  crossed  or  slighted,  yet  in  other 
things  genial  and  sweet-tempered  beyond  most  men,  full  of 
modesty  and  playfulness  and  withal  of  a  homely  dignity,  a  true 
friend  and  a  kind  master,  a  pure  and  blameless  spirit. 

Posterity  will  doubt  whether  it  was  the  fault  of  Flaxman  or 
of  his  age,  which  in  England  offered  neither  training  nor  much 
encouragement  to  a  sculptor,  that  he  is  weakest  when  he  is 
most  ambitious,  and  most  inspired  when  he  makes  the  least 
effort;  but  so  it  is.  Not  merely  does  he  fail  when  he  seeks  to 
illustrate  the  intensity  of  Dante,  or  to  rival  the  tumultuousness 
of  Michelangelo — to  be  intense  or  tumultuous  he  was  never 
made;  but  he  fails,  it  may  almost  be  said,  in  proportion  as  his 
work  is  elaborate  and  far  carried,  and  succeeds  in  proportion  as 
it  is  partial  and  suggestive.  Of  his  completed  ideal  sculptures, 
the  "  St  Michael "  at  Petworth  is  the  best,  and  is  indeed  admirably 
composed  from  all  points  of  view;  but  it  lacks  fire  and  force, 
and  it  lacks  the  finer  touches  of  the  chisel;  a  little  bas-relief  like 
the  diploma  piece  of  the  "  Apollo  "  and  "  Marpessa  "  in  the  Royal 
Academy  compares  with  it  favourably.  This  is  one  of  the  very 
few  things  which  he  is  recorded  to  have  executed  in  the  marble 
entirely  with  his  own  hand;  ordinarily  he  entrusted  the  finishing 
work  of  the  chisel  to  the  Italian  workmen  in  his  employ,  and 
was  content  with  the  smooth  mechanical  finish  which  they 
imitated  from  the  Roman  imitations  (themselves  often  reworked 
at  the  Renaissance)  of  Greek  originals.  Of  Flaxman's  com- 
plicated monuments  in  the  round,  such  as  the  three  in  West- 
minster Abbey  and  the  four  in  St  Paul's,  there  is  scarcely  one 
which  has  not  something  heavy  and  infelicitous  in  the  arrange- 
ment, and  something  empty  and  unsatisfactory  in  the  surface 
execution.  But  when  we  come  to  his  simple  monuments  in 
relief,  in  these  we  find  almost  always  a  far  finer  quality.  The 
truth  is  that  he  did  not  thoroughly  understand  composition  on 
the  great  scale  and  in  the  round,  but  he  thoroughly  understood 
relief,  and  found  scope  in  it  for  his  remarkable  gifts  of  harmonious 
design,  and  tender,  grave  and  penetrating  feeling.  But  if  we 
would  see  even  the  happiest  of  his  conceptions  at  their  best, 
we  must  study  them,  not  in  the  finished  marble  but  rather  in 
the  casts  from  his  studio  sketches  ("marred  though  they  have  been 
by  successive  coats  of  paint  intended  for  their  protection)  of 
which  a  comprehensive  collection  is  preserved  in  the  Flaxman 
gallery  at  University  College.  And  the  same  is  true  of  his 
happiest  efforts  in  the  classical  and  poetical  vein,  like  the  well- 
known  relief  of  "  Pandora  conveyed  to  Earth  by  Mercury."  Nay. 


FLEA— FLECHIER 


491 


going  farther  back  still  among  the  rudiments  and  first  concep- 
tions of  his  art,  we  can  realize  the  most  essential  charm  of  his 
genius  in  the  study,  not  of  his  modelled  work  at  all,  but  of  his 
sketches  in  pen  and  wash  on  paper.  Of  these  the  principal 
public  collections  are  at  University  College,  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  the  Victoria  &  Albert  Museum;  many  others  are 
dispersed  in  public  and  private  cabinets.  Every  one  knows  the 
excellence  of  the  engraved  designs  to  Homer,  Dante,  Aeschylus 
and  Hesiod,  in  all  cases  save  when  the  designer  aims  at  that  which 
he  cannot  hit,  the  terrible  or  the  grotesque.  To  know  Flaxman 
at  his  best  it  is  necessary  to  be  acquainted  not  only  with  the 
original  studies  for  such  designs  as  these  (which,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Hesiod  series,  are  far  finer  than  the  engravings),  but 
still  more  with  those  almost  innumerable  studies  from  real  life 
which  he  was  continually  producing  with  pen,  tint  or  pencil. 
These  are  the  most  delightful  and  suggestive  sculptor's  notes  in 
existence;  in  them  it  was  his  habit  to  set  down  the  leading  and 
expressive  lines,  and  generally  no  more,  of  every  group  that 
struck  his  fancy.  There  are  groups  of  Italy  and  London, 
groups  of  the  parlour  and  the  nursery,  of  the  street,  the 
garden  and  the  gutter;  and  of  each  group  the  artist  knows 
how  to  seize  at  once  the  structural  and  the  spiritual  secret, 
expressing  happily  the-  value  and  suggestiveness,  for  his  art 
of  sculpture,  of  the  contacts,  intervals,  interlacements  and 
balancings  of  the  various  figures  in  any  given  group,  and  not 
less  happily  the  charm  of  the  affections  which  link  the  figures 
together  and  inspire  their  gestures. 

The  materials  for  the  life  of  Flaxman  are  scattered  in  various  bio- 
graphical and  other  publications;  the  principal  are  the  following: — 
An  anonymous  sketch  in  the  EuropeanMagazine  for  1823;  an  anony- 
mous "  Brief  Memoir,"  prefixed  to  Flaxman' s  Lectures  (ed.  1829,  and 
reprinted  in  subsequent  editions) ;  the  chapter  in  Allan  Cunningham's 
Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  British  Painters,  &c.,  vol.  iii. ;  notices  in 
the  Life  of  Nollekens,  by  John  Thomas  Smith ;  in  the  Life  of  Josiah 
Wedgwood,  by  Miss  G.  Meteyard  (London,  1865);  in  the  Diaries  and 
Reminiscences  of  H.  Crabbe  Robinson  (London,  1869),  the  latter  an 
authority  of  great  importance ;  in  the  Livesol  Stothard,  by  Mrs  Bray, 
of  Constable,  by  Leslie,  of  Watson,  by  Dr  Lonsdale,  and  of  Blake,  by 
Messrs  Gilchrist  and  Rossetti ;  a  series  of  illustrated  essays,  princi- 
pally on  the  monumental  sculpture  of  Flaxman,  in  the  Art  Journal 
for  1867  and  1868,  by  Mr  G.  F.  Teniswood;  Essays  in  English  Art, 
by  Frederick  Wedmore ;  The  Drawings  of  Flaxman,  in  32  plates, 
with  Descriptions,  and  an  Introductory  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Genius 
of  Flaxman,  by  Sidney  Colvin  (London,  1876);  and  the  article 
"  Flaxman  "  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography.  (S.  C.) 

FLEA  (O.  Enj.  fleah,  or  flea,  cognate  with  flee,  to  run  away 
from,  to  take  flight),  a  name  typically  applied  to  Pulex  irritans, 
a  well-known  blood-sucking  insect-parasite  of  man  and  other 
mammals,  remarkable  for  its  powers  of  leaping,  and  nearly 
cosmopolitan.  In  ordinary  language  the  name  is  used  for  any 
species  of  Siphonaptera  (otherwise  known  as  Aphaniptera) , 
which,  though  formerly  regarded  as  a  suborder  of  Diptera 
(q.v.),  are  now  considered  to  be  a  separate  order  of  insects.  All 
Siphonaptera,  of  which  more  than  100  species  are  known,  are 
parasitic  on  mammals  or  birds.  The  majority  of  the  species 
belong  to  the  family  Pulicidae,  of  which  P.  irritans  may  be  taken 
as  the  type;  but  the  order  also  includes  the  Sarcopsyllidae,  the 
females  of  which  fix  themselves  firmly  to  their  host,  and  the 
Ceralopsyllidae,  or  bat-fleas. 

Fleas  are  wingless  insects,  with  a  laterally  compressed  body, 
small  and  indistinctly  separated  head,  and  short  thick  antennae 
situated  in  cavities  somewhat  behind  and  above  the  simple  eyes, 
which  are  always  minute  and  sometimes  absent.  The  structure 
of  the  mouth-parts  is  different  from  that  seen  in  any  other  insects. 
The  actual  piercing  organs  are  the  mandibles,  while  the  upper 
lip  or  labrum  forms  a  sucking  tube.  The  maxillae  are  not  pierc- 
ing organs,  and  their  function  is  to  protect  the  mandibles  and 
labrum  and  separate  the  hairs  or  feathers  of  the  host.  Maxillary 
and  labial  palpi  are  also  present,  and  the  latter,  together  with 
the  labrum  or  lower  lip,  form  the  rostrum. 

Fleas  are  oviparous,  and  undergo  a  very  complete  metamor- 
phosis. The  footless  larvae  are  elongate,  worm-like  and  very 
active;  they  feed  upon  almost  any  kind  of  waste  animal  matter, 
and  when  full-grown  form  a  silken  cocoon.  The  human  flea  is 
considerably  exceeded  in  size  by  certain  other  species  found 


upon  much  smaller  hosts;  thus  the  European  Hyslrichopsylla 
talpae,  a  parasite  of  the  mole,  shrew  and  other  small  mammals, 
attains  a  length  of  sJ  millimetres;  another  large  species  infests 
the  Indian  porcupine.  Of  the  Sarcopsyllidae  the  best  known 
species  is  the  "  jigger  "  or  "  chigoe  "  (Dermatophilus  penetrans), 
indigenous  in  tropical  South  America  and  introduced  into  West 
Africa  during  the  second  half  of  last  century.  Since  then  this 
pest  has  spread  across  the  African  continent  and  even  reached 
Madagascar.  The  impregnated  female  jigger  burrows  into  the 
feet  of  men  and  dogs,  and  becomes  distended  with  eggs  until 
its  abdomen  attains  the  size  and  appearance  of  a  small  pea. 
If  in  extracting  the  insect  the  abdomen  be  ruptured,  serious 
trouble  may  ensue  from  the  resulting  inflammation.  At  least 
four  species  of  fleas  (including  Pulex  irritans)  which  infest  the 
common  rat  are  known  to  bite  man,  and  are  believed  to  be  the 
active  agents  in  the  transmission  of  plague  from  rats  to  human 
beings.  (E.  E.  A.) 

FLECHE  (French  for  "  arrow  "),  the  term  generally  used  in 
French  architecture  for  a  spire,  but  more  especially  employed 
to  designate  the  timber  -spire  covered  with  lead,  which  was 
erected  over  the  intersection  of  the  roofs  over  nave  and  transepts; 
sometimes  these  were  small  and  unimportant,  but  in  cathedrals 
they  were  occasionally  of  large  dimensions,  as  in  the  fleche  of 
Notre-Dame,  Paris,  where  it  is  nearly  100  ft.  high;  this,  however, 
is  exceeded  by  the  example  of  Amiens  cathedral,  which  measures 
148  ft.  from  its  base  on  the  cresting  to  its  finial. 

FLECHIER,  ESPRIT  (1632-1710),  French  preacher  and  author, 
bishop  of  Nlmes,  was  born  at  Pernes,  department  of  Vaucluse, 
on  the  loth  of  June  1632.  He  was  brought  up  at  Tarascon  by 
his  uncle,  Hercule  Audiffret,  superior  of  the  Congregation  des 
Doctrinaires,  and  afterwards  entered  the  order.  On  the  death  of 
his  uncle,  however,  he  left  it,  owing  to  the  strictness  of  its  rules, 
and  went  to  Paris,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  writing  poetry. 
His  French  poems  met  with  little  success,  but  a  description  in 
Latin  verse  of  a  tournament  (carrousel,  circus  regius),  given 
by  Louis  XIV.  in  1662,  brought  him  a  great  reputation.  He 
subsequently  became  tutor  to  Louis  Urbain  Lefevre  de  Cau- 
martin,  afterwards  intendant  of  finances  and  counsellor  of  state, 
whom  he  accompanied  to  Clermont-Ferrard  (q.v.),  where  the 
king  had  ordered  the  Grands  Jours  to  be  held  (1665),  and  where 
Caumartin  was  sent  as  representative  of  the  sovereign.  There 
Flechier  wrote  his  curious  Memoires  sur  les  Grand  Jours  tenus  a 
Clermont,  in  which  he  relates,  in  a  half  romantic,  half  historical 
form,  the  proceedings  of  this  extraordinary  court  of  justice. 
In  1668  the  duke  of  Montausier  procured  for  him  the  post  of 
lecleur  to  the  dauphin.  The  sermons  of  Flechier  increased  his 
reputation,  which  was  afterwards  raised  to  the  highest  pitch 
by  his  funeral  orations.  The  most  important  are  those  on 
Madame  de  Montausier  (1672),  which  gained  him  the  membership 
of  the  Academy,  the  duchesse  d'Aiguillon  (1675),  and,  above  all, 
Marshal  Turenne  (1676).  He  was  now  firmly  established  in  the 
favour  of  the  king,  who  gave  him  successively  the  abbacy  of  St 
Severin,  in  the  diocese  of  Poitiers,  the  office  of  almoner  to  the 
dauphiness,  and  in  1685  the  bishopric  of  Lavaur,  from  which 
he  was  in  1687  promoted  to  that  of  Nimes.  The  edict  of  Nantes 
had  been  repealed  two  years  before;  but  the  Calvinists  were  still 
very  numerous  at  Nlmes.  Flechier,  by  his  leniency  and  tact, 
succeeded  in  bringing  over  some  of  them  to  his  views,  and  even 
gained  the  esteem  of  those  who  declined  to  change  their  faith. 
During  the  troubles  in  the  Cevennes  (see  HUGUENOTS)  he  softened 
to  the  utmost  of  his  power  the  rigour  of  the  edicts,  and  showed 
himself  so  indulgent  even  to  what  he  regarded  as  error,  that  his 
memory  was  long  held  in  veneration  amongst  the  Protestants  of 
that  district.  It  is  right  to  add,  however,  that  some  authorities 
consider  the  accounts  of  his  leniency  to  have  been  greatly 
exaggerated,  and  even  charge  him  with  going  beyond  what  the 
edicts  permitted.  He  died  at  Montpellier  on  the  1 6th  of  February 
1710.  Pulpit  eloquence  is  the  branch  of  belles-lettres  in  which 
Flechier  excelled.  He  is  indeed  far  below  Bossuet,  whose  robust 
and  sublime  genius  had  no  rival  in  that  age;  he  does  not  equal 
Bourdaloue  in  earnestness  of  thought  and  vigour  of  expression; 
nor  can  he  rival  the  philosophical  depth  or  the  insinuating  and 


492 


FLECKEISEN— FLEET  PRISON 


impressive  eloquence  of  Massillon.  But  he  is  always  ingenious, 
often  witty,  and  nobody  has  carried  farther  than  he  the  harmony 
of  diction,  sometimes  marred  by  an  affectation  of  symmetry 
and  an  excessive  use  of  antithesis.  His  two  historical  works, 
the  histories  of  Theodosius  and  of  Ximenes,  are  more  remarkable 
for  elegance  of  style  than  for  accuracy  and  comprehensive 

insight. 

The  last  complete  edition  of  Flechier's  works  is  by  J.  P.  Migne 
(Paris,  1856) ;  the  Memoires  sur  les  Grands  Jours  was  first  published 
in  1844  by  B.  Gonod  (2nd  ed.  as  Mem.  sur  les  Gr.  J.  d'Auvergne,  with 
notice  by  Sainte-Beuve  and  an  appendix  by_M.  Cheruel,  1862).  His 
chief  works  are :  Histoire  de  Theodose  le  Grand,  Oraisons  funebres, 
Histoire  du  Cardinal  Ximenes,  Sermons  de  morale,  Panegyriquss  des 
saints.  He  left  a  portrait  or  caractere  of  himself,  addressed  to  one  of 
his  friends.  The  Life  of  Theodosius  has  been  translated  into  English 
by  F.  Manning  (1603),  and  the  "  Funeral  Oration  of  Marshal 
Turenne  "  in  H.  C.  Fish's  History  and  Repository  of  Pulpit  Eloquence 
(ii.,  1857).  On  Flechier  generally  see  Antonin  V.  D.  Fabre,  La 
JeunessK  de  Flechier  (1882),  and  Adolphe  Fabre,  Flechier,  orateur 
(1886) ;  A.  Delacroix,  Hist,  de  Flechier  (1865). 

FLECKEISEN,     CARL     FRIEDRICH     WILHELM      ALFRED 

(1820-1899),  German  philologist  and  critic,  was  born  at  Wolfen- 
buttel  on  the  23rd  of  September  1820.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Helmstedt  gymnasium  and  the  university  of  Gottingen.  After 
holding  several  educational  posts,  he  was  appointed  in  1861  to 
the  vice-principalship  of  the  Vitzthum'sches  Gymnasium  at 
Dresden,  which  he  held  tvll  his  retirement  in  1889.  He  died  on 
the  7th  of  August  1899.  Fleckeisen  is  chiefly  known  for  his 
labours  on  Plautus  and  Terence;  in  the  knowledge  of  these 
authors  he  was  unrivalled,  except  perhaps  by  Ritschl,  his  life- 
long friend  and  a  worker  in  the  same  field.  His  chief  works  are: 
Exercitationes  Plautinae  (1842),  one  of  the  most  masterly  pro- 
ductions on  the  language  of  Plautus;  "  Analecta  Plautina," 
printed  in  PhUologus,  ii.  (1847);  Plauti  Comoediae,  i.,  ii.  (1850- 
1851,  unfinished),  introduced  by  an  Epistula  critica  ad  F. 
Ritschelium;  P.  Terenti  Afri  Comoediae  (new  ed.,  1898).  In 
his  editions  he  endeavoured  to  restore  the  text  in  accordance 
with  the  results  of  his  researches  on  the  usages  of  the  Latin 
language  and  metre.  He  attached  great  importance  to  the  ques- 
tion of  orthography,  and  his  short  treatise  Funfzig  Artikel  (1861) 
is  considered  most  valuable.  Fleckeisen  also  contributed  largely 
to  the  Jahrbiicher  fur  Philologie,  of  which  he  was  for  many  years 
editor.  • 

See  obituary  notice  by  G.  Gotz  in  C.  Bursian's  Biographisches 
Jahrbuchfur  Altertumskunde  (xxiii.,  1901),  and  article  by  H.  Usener 
in  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographic  (where  the  date  of  birth  is  given 
as  the  2Oth  of  September).  . 

FLECKNOE,  RICHARD  (c.  1600-1678?),  English  dramatist 
and  poet,  the  object  of  Dryden's  satire,  was  probably  of  English 
birth,  although  there  is  no  corroboration  of  the  suggestion  of 
J.  Gillow  (Bibliog.  Diet,  of  the  Eng.  Catholics,  vol.  ii.,  1885),  that 
he  was  a  nephew  of  a  Jesuit  priest,  William  Flecknoe,  or  more 
properly  Flexney,  of  Oxford.  The  few  known  facts  of  his  life 
are  chiefly  derived  from  his  Relation  of  Ten  Years'  Travels  in 
Europe,  Asia,  A/rique  and  America  (1655?),  consisting  of  letters 
written  to  friends  and  patrons  during  his  travels.  The  first  of 
these  is  dated  from  Ghent  (1640),  whither  he  had  fled  to  escape 
the  troubles  of  the  Civil  War.  In  Brussels  he  met  Beatrix  de 
Cosenza,  wife  of  Charles  IV.,  duke  of  Lorraine,  who  sent  him 
to  Rome  to  secure  the  legalization  of  her  marriage.  There  in 
1645  Andrew  Marvell  met  him,  and  described  his  leanness  and 
his  rage  for  versifying  in  a  witty  satire,  "  Flecknoe,  an  English 
Priest  at  Rome."  He  was  probably,  however,  not  in  priest's 
orders.  He  then  travelled  in  the  Levant,  and  in  1648  crossed 
the  Atlantic  to  Brazil,  of  which  country  he  gives  a  detailed 
description.  On  his  return  to  Europe  he  entered  the  household 
of  the  duchess  of  Lorraine  in  Brussels.  In  1645  he  went  back 
to  England.  His  royalist  and  Catholic  convictions  did  not 
prevent  him  from  writing  a  book  in  praise  of  Oliver  Cromwell, 
The  Idea  of  His  Highness  Oliver  .  .  .  (1659),  dedicated  to  Richard 
Cromwell.  This  publication  was  discounted  at  the  restoration 
by  the  Heroick  Portraits  (1660)  of  Charles  II.  and  others  of  the 
Stuart  family.  John  Dryden  used  his  name  as  a  stalking  horse 
from  behind  which  to  assail  Thomas  Shadwell  in  Mac  Flecknoe 
(1682).  The  opening  lines  run: — 


"  All  human  things  are  subject  to  decay, 
And,  when  fate  summons,  monarchs  must  obey. 
This  Flecknoe  found,  who,  like  Augustus,  young 
Was  called  to  empire,  and  had  governed  long; 
In  prose  and  verse  was  owned,  without  dispute, 
Throughout  the  realms  of  nonsense,  absolute." 

Dryden's  aversion  seems  to  have  been  caused  by  Flecknoe's 
affectation  of  contempt  for  the  players  and  his  attacks  on 
the  immorality  of  the  English  stage.  His  verse,  which  hardly 
deserved  his  critic's  sweeping  condemnation,  was  much  of  it 
religious,  and  was  chiefly  printed  for  private  circulation.  None 
of  his  plays  was  acted  except  Love's  Dominion,  announced  as  a 
"  pattern  for  the  reformed  stage  "  (1654),  that  title  being  altered 
in  1664  to  Love's  Kingdom,  with  a  Discourse  of  the  English  Stage. 
He  amused  himself,  however,  by  adding  lists  of  the  actors  whom 
he  would  have  selected  for  the  parts,  had  the  plays  been  staged. 
Flecknoe  had  many  connexions  among  English  Catholics,  and 
is  said  by  Gerard  Langbaine,  to  have  been  better  acquainted 
with  the  nobility  than  with  the  muses.  He  died  probably  about 
1678. 

A  Discourse  of  the  English  Stage,  was  reprinted  in  W.  C.  Hazlitt's 
English  Drama  and  Stage  (Roxburghe  Library,  1869);  Robert 
Southey,  in  his  Omniana  (1812),  protested  against  the  wholesale 
depreciation  of  Flecknoe's  works.  See  also  "  Richard  Flecknoe  " 
(Leipzig,  1905,  in  Munchener  Beitrage  zur  .  .  .  Philologie),  by  A. 
Lohr,  who  has  given  minute  attention  to  his  life  and  works. 

FLEET,  a  word  in  all  its  significances,  derived  from  the  root 
of  the  verb  "  to  fleet,"  from  O.  Eng.  fleotan,  to  float  or  flow, 
which  ultimately  derives  from  an  Indo-European  root  seen  in 
Gr.  irXeetc,  to  sail,  and  Lat.  pluere,  to  rain ;  cf .  Dutch  vliessen,  and 
Ger.  fliessen.  In  English  usage  it  survives  in  the  name  of  many 
places,  such  as  Byfleet  and  Northfleet,  and  in  the  Fleet,  a  stream 
in  London  that  formerly  ran  into  the  Thames  between  the 
bottom  of  Ludgate  Hill  and  the  present  Fleet  Street.  From 
the  idea  of  "  float  "  comes  the  application  of  the  word  to  ships, 
when  in  company,  and  particularly  to  a  large  number  of  warships 
under  the  supreme  command  of  a  single  officer,  with  the 
individual  ships,  or  groups  of  ships,  under  individual  and  sub- 
ordinate command.  The  distinction  between  a  fleet  and  a 
squadron  is  often  one  of  name  only.  In  the  British  navy  the 
various  main  divisions  are  or  have  been  called  fleets  and 
squadrons  indifferently.  The  word  is  also  frequently  used  of 
a  company  of  fishing  vessels,  and  in  fishing  is  also  applied  to  a 
row  of  drift-nets  fastened  together.  From  the  original  meaning 
of  the  word  "  flowing  "  comes  the  adjectival  use  of  the  word, 
swift,  or  speedy;  so  also  "  fleeting,"  of  something  evanescent 
or  fading  away,  with  the  idea  of  the  fast-flowing  lapse  of  time. 

FLEET  PRISON,  an  historic  London  prison,  formerly  situated 
on  the  east  side  of  Farringdon  Street,  and  deriving  its  name  from 
the  Fleet  stream,  which  flowed  into  the  Thames.  Concerning 
its  early  history  little  is  known,  but  it  certainly  dated  back  to 
Norman  times.  It  came  into  particular  prominence  from  being 
used  as  a  place  of  reception  for  persons  committed  by  the  Star 
Chamber,  and,  afterwards,  for  debtors,  and  persons  imprisoned 
for  contempt  of  court  by  the  court  of  chancery.  It  was  burnt 
down  in  the  great  fire  of  1666;  it  was  rebuilt,  but  was  destroyed 
in  the  Gordon  riots  of  1780  and  again  rebuilt  in  1781-1782. 
In  pursuance  of  an  act  of  parliament  (5  &  6  Viet.  c.  22,  1842), 
by  which  the  Marshalsea,  Fleet,  and  Queen's  Bench  prisons  were 
consolidated  into  one  under  the  name  of  Queen's  prison,  it  was 
finally  closed,  and  in  1844  sold  to  the  corporation  of  the  city  of 
London,  by  whom  it  was  pulled  down.  The  head  of  the  prison 
was  termed  "  the  warden,"  who  was  appointed  by  patent.  It 
became  a  frequent  practice  of  the  holder  of  the  patent  to  "  farm 
out  "  the  prison  to  the  highest  bidder.  It  was  this  custom  which 
made  the  Fleet  prison  long  notorious  for  the  cruelties  inflicted 
on  prisoners.  One  purchaser  of  the  office  was  of  particularly 
evil  repute,  by  name  Thomas  Bambridge,  who  in  1728  paid, 
with  another,  the  sum  of  £5000  to  John  Huggins  for  the  warden- 
ship.  He  was  guilty  of  the  greatest  extortions  upon  prisoners, 
and,  in  the  words  of  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
appointed  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  the  gaols  of  the  kingdom, 
"  arbitrarily  and  unlawfully  loaded  with  irons,  put  into  dungeons, 


FLEETWOOD,  C.— FLEETWOOD,  W. 


493 


and  destroyed  prisoners  for  debt,  treating  them  in  the  most 
barbarous  and  cruel  manner,  in  high  violation  and  contempt  of 
the  laws  of  this  kingdom."  He  was  committed  to  Newgate,  and 
an  act  was  passed  to  prevent  his  enjoying  the  office  of  warden 
or  any  other  office  whatsoever.  The  liberties  or  rules  of  the 
Fleet  were  the  limits  within  which  particular  prisoners  were 
allowed  to  reside  outside  the  prison  walls  on  observing  certain 
conditions. 

Fleet  Marriages. — By  the  law  of  England  a  marriage  was 
recognized  as  valid,  so  long  as  the  ceremony  was  conducted  by 
a  person  in  holy  orders,  even  if  those  orders  were  not  of  the 
Church  of  England.  Neither  banns  nor  licence  were  necessary, 
and  the  time  and  place  were  alike  immaterial.  Out  of  this 
state  of  the  marriage  law,  in  the  period  of  laxness  which  succeeded 
the  Commonwealth,  resulted  innumerable  clandestine  marriages. 
They  were  contracted  at  first  to  avoid  the  expenses  attendant 
on  the  public  ceremony,  but  an  act  of  1696,  which  imposed  a 
penalty  of  £100  on  any  clergyman  who  celebrated,  or  permitted 
another  to  celebrate,  a  marriage  otherwise  than  by  banns  or 
licence,  acted  as  a  considerable  check.  To  clergymen  imprisoned 
for  debt  in  the  Fleet,  however,  such  a  penalty  had  no  terrors, 
for  they  had  "  neither  liberty,  money  nor  credit  to  lose  by  any 
proceedings  the  bishop  might  institute  against  them."  The 
earliest  recorded  date  of  a  Fleet  marriage  is  1613,  while  the 
earliest  recorded  in  a  Fleet  register  took  place  in  1674,  but  it 
was  only  on  the  prohibition  of  marriage  without  banns  or  licence 
that  they  began  to  be  clandestine.  Then  arose  keen  competition, 
and  "  many  of  the  Fleet  parsons  and  tavern-keepers  in  the 
neighbourhood  fitted  up  a  room  in  their  respective  lodgings  or 
houses  as  a  chapel,"  and  employed  touts  to  solicit  custom  for 
them.  The  scandal  and  abuses  brought  about  by  these  clan- 
destine marriages  became  so  great  that  they  became  the  object 
of  special  legislation.  In  1753  Lord  Hardwicke's  Act  (26  Geo.  ii. 
c.  33)  was  passed,  which  required,  under  pain  of  nullity,  that  banns 
should  be  published  according  to  the  rubric,  or  a  licence  obtained, 
and  that,  in  either  case,  the  marriage  should  be  solemnized  in 
church;  and  that  in  the  case  of  minors,  marriage  by  licence  must 
be  by  the  consent  of  parent  or  guardian.  This  act  had  the  effect 
of  putting  a  stop  to  these  clandestine  marriages,  so  far  as  England 
was  concerned,  and  henceforth  couples  had  to  fare  to  Gretna 
Green  (</.».). 

The  Fleet  Registers,  consisting  of  "  about  two  or  three  hundred 
large  registers  "  and  about  a  thousand  rough  or  "  pocket  "  books, 
eventually  came  into  private  hands,  but  were  purchased  by  the 
government  in  1821,  and  are  now  deposited  in  the  office  of  the 
registrar-general,  Somerset  House.  Their  dates  range  from  1686 
to  1754.  In  1840  they  were  declared  not  admissible  as  evidence 
to  prove  a  marriage. 

AUTHORITIES. — J.  S.  Burn,  The  Fleet  Registers;  comprising  the 
History  of  Fleet  Marriages,  and  some  Account  of  the  Parsons  and 
Marriage-house  Keepers,  &c.  (London,  1833);  J.  Ashton,  The  Fleet: 
its  River,  Prison  and  Marriages  (London,  1888). 

FLEETWOOD,  CHARLES  (d.  1692),  English  soldier  and 
politician,  third  son  of  Sir  Miles  Fleetwood  of  Aldwinkle, 
Northamptonshire,  and  of  Anne,  daughter  of  Nicholas  Luke  of 
Woodend,  Bedfordshire,  was  admitted  into  Gray's  Inn  on  the 
30th  of  November  1 638.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Great  Rebellion, 
like  many  other  young  lawyers  who  afterwards  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  field,  he  joined  Essex's  life-guard,  was  wounded 
at  the  first  battle  of  Newbury,  obtained  a  regiment  in  1644  and 
fought  at  Naseby.  He  had  already  been  appointed  receiver  of 
the  court  of  wards,  and  in  1646  became  member  of  parliament 
for  Marlborough.  In  the  dispute  between  the  army  and  parlia- 
ment he  played  a  chief  part,  and  was  said  to  have  been  the 
.principal  author  of  the  plot  to  seize  King  Charles  at  Holmby, 
but  he  did  not  participate  in  the  king's  trial.  In  1649  he  was 
appointed  a  governor  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  in  1650,  as 
lieutenant-general  of  the  horse ,  took  part  in  Cromwell's  campaign 
in  Scotland  and  assisted  in  the  victory  of  Dunbar. 
year  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  council  of  state,  and  being 
recalled  from  Scotland  was  entrusted  with  the  command  of  the 
forces  in  England,  and  played  a  principal  part  in  gaming  the 


final  triumph  at  Worcester.  In  1652  he  married1  Cromwell's 
daughter,  Bridget,  widow  of  Ireton,  and  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  in  Ireland,  to  which  title  that  of  lord  deputy  was  added. 
The  chief  feature  of  his  administration,  which  lasted  from 
September  1652  till  September  1655,  was  the  settlement  of  the 
soldiers  on  the  confiscated  estates  and  the  transplantation  o'f 
the  original  owners,  which  he  carried  out  ruthlessly.  He  showed 
also  great  severity  in  the  prosecution  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
priests,  and  favoured  the  Anabaptists  and  the  extreme  Puritan 
sects  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  moderate  Presbyterians,  exciting 
great  and  general  discontent,  a  petition  being  finally  sent  in  for 
his  recall. 

Fleetwood  was  a  strong  and  unswerving  follower  of  Cromwell's 
policy.  He  supported  his  assumption  of  the  protectorate  and 
his  dismissal  of  the  parliaments.  In  December  1654  he  became 
a  member  of  the  council,  and  after  his  return  to  England  in  1655 
was  appointed  one  of  the  major-generals.  He  approved  of  the 
"  Petition  and  Advice,"  only  objecting  to  the  conferring  of  the 
title  of  king  on  Cromwell;  became  a  member  of  the  new  House 
of  Lords;  and  supported  ardently  Cromwell's  foreign  policy  in 
Europe,  based  on  religious  divisions,  and  his  defence  of  the 
Protestants  persecuted  abroad.  He  was  therefore,  on  Cromwell's 
death,  naturally  regarded  as  a  likely  successor,  and  it  is  said 
that  Cromwell  had  in  fact  so  nominated  him.  He,  however, 
gave  his  support  to  Richard's  assumption  of  office,  but  allowed 
subsequently,  if  he  did  not  instigate,  petitions  from  the  army 
demanding  its  independence,  and  finally  compelled  Richard 
by  force  to  dissolve  parliament.  His  project  of  re-establishing 
Richard  in  close  dependence  upon  the  army  met  with  failure, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  recall  the  Long  Parliament  on  the  6th  of 
May  1659.  He  was  appointed  immediately  a  member  of  the 
committee  of  safety  and  of  the  council  of  state,  and  one  of  the 
seven  commissioners  for  the  army,  while  on  the  9th  of  June 
he  was  nominated  commander-in-chief.  In  reality,  however,  his 
power  was  undermined  and  was  attacked  by  parliament,  which 
on  the  nth  of  October  declared  his  commission  void.  The  next 
day  he  assisted  Lambert  in  his  expulsion  of  the  parliament 
and  was  reappointed  commander-in-chief.  On  Monk's  approach 
from  the  North,  he  stayed  in  London  and  maintained  order. 
.While  hesitating  with  which  party  to  ally  his  forces,  and  while  on 
the  point  of  making  terms  with  the  king,  the  army  on  the  24th 
of  December  restored  the  Rump,  when  he  was  deprived  of  his 
command  and  ordered  to  appear  before  parliament  to  answer 
for  his  conduct.  The  Restoration  therefore  took  place  without 
him.  He  was  included  among  the  twenty  liable  to  penalties 
other  than  capital,  and  was  finally  incapacitated  from  holding 
any  office  of  trust.  His  public  career  then  closed,  though  he 
survived  till  the  4th  of  October  1692. 

FLEETWOOD,  WILLIAM  (1656-1723),  English  divine,  was 
descended  of  an  ancient  Lancashire  family,  and  was  born  in  the 
Tower  of  London  on  New  Year's  Day  1656.  He  received  his 
education  at  Eton  and  at  King's  College,  Cambridge.  About 
the  time  of  the  Revolution  he  took  orders,  and  was  shortly 
afterwards  made  rector  of  St  Austin's,  London,  and  lecturer  of 
St  Dunstan's  in  the  West.  He  became  a  canon  of  Windsor  in 
1702,  and  in  1708  he  was  nominated  to  the  see  of  St  Asaph,  from 
which  he  was  translated  in  1714  to  that  of  Ely.  He  died  at 
Tottenham,  Middlesex,  on  the  4th  of  August  1723.  Fleetwood 
was  regarded  as  the  best  preacher  of  his  time.  He  was  accurate 
in  learning,  and  effective  in  delivery,  and  his  character  stood 
deservedly  high  in  general  estimation.  In  episcopal  administra- 
tion he  far  excelled  most  of  his  contemporaries.  He  was  a 
zealous  Hanoverian,  and  a  favourite  with  Queen  Anne  in  spite 
of  his  Whiggism.  His  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  non-resistance 
brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  tory  ministry  of  1712  and  with 
Swift,  but  he  never  entered  into  personal  controversy. 

His  principal  writings  are — An  Essay  on  Miracles  (1701) ;  Chroni- 
cum  preciosum  (an  account  of  the  English  coinage,  1707) ;  and  Free 
Sermons  (1712),  containing  discourses  on  the  death  of  Queen  Mary, 


'He  had  lost  his  first  wife,  Frances  Smith;  and  later  he  had  a 
third  wife,  Mary,  daughter  of  Sir  John  Coke  and  widow  of  Sir  Edward 
Hartopp. 


494 

the  duke  of  Gloucester  and  King  William.  The  preface  to  this  las 
was  condemned  to  public  burning  by  parliament,  but,  as  No.  38. 
of  The  Spectator,  circulated  more  widely  than  ever.  A  collectec 
edition  of  his  works,  with  a  biographical  preface,  was  published  in 
1737- 

FLEETWOOD,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  in  the  Blackpoo 
parliamentary  division  of  Lancashire,  England,  at  the  mouth  o: 
the  Wyre,  230  m.  N.W.  by  N.  from  London,  the  terminus  of  a 
joint  branch  of  the  London  &  North- Western  and  Lancashire 
&  Yorkshire  railways.  Pop.  (1891)  9274;  (1901)  12,082.  It 
dates  its  rise  from  1836,  and  takes  its  name  from  Sir  Peter 
Hesketh  Fleetwood,  by  whom  it  was  laid  out.  The  seaward 
views,  especially  northward  over  Morecambe  Bay,  are  fine, 
but  the  neighbouring  country  is  flat  and  of  little  interest.  The 
two  railways  jointly  are  the  harbour  authority.  The  dock  is 
provided  with  railways  and  machinery  for  facilitating  traffic, 
including  a  large  grain  elevator.  The  shipping  traffic  is  chiefly 
in  the  coasting  and  Irish  trade.  Passenger  steamers  serve 
Belfast  and  Londonderry  regularly,  and  the  Isle  of  Man  and  other 
ports  during  the  season.  The  fisheries  are  important,  and  there 
are  salt-works  in  the  neighbourhood.  There  is  a  pleasant 
promenade,  with  other  appointments  of  a  watering-place. 
There  are  also  barracks  with  a  military  hospital  and  a  rifle 
range.  Rossall  school,  to  the  S.W.,  is  one  of  the  principal  public 
schools  in  the  north  of  England.  Rossall  Hall  was  the  seat  of  Sir 
Peter  Fleetwood,  but  was  converted  to  the  uses  of  the  school 
on  its  foundation  in  1844.  The  school  is  primarily  divided 
into  classical  and  modern  sides,  with  a  special  department  for 
preparation  for  army,  navy  or  professional  examinations.  A 
number  of  entrance  scholarships  and  leaving  scholarships 
tenable  at  the  universities  are  offered  annually.  The  number 
of  boys  is  about  350. 

FLEGEL,  EDWARD  ROBERT  (1855-1886),  German  traveller 
in  West  Africa,  was  born  on  the  ist  of  October  1855  at  Wilna, 
Russia.  After  receiving  a  commercial  education  he  obtained  in 
1875  a  position  in  Lagos,  West  Africa.  In  1879  he  ascended 
the  Benue  river  some  125  m.  above  the  farthest  point  hitherto 
reached.  His  careful  survey  of  the  channel  secured  him  a 
commission  from  the  German  African  Society  to  explore  the 
whole  Benue  district.  In  1880  he  went  up  the  Niger  to  Gomba, 
and  then  visited  Sokoto,  where  he  obtained  a  safe-conduct 
from  the  sultan  for  his  intended  expedition  to  Adamawa.  This 
expedition  was  undertaken  in  1882,  and  on  the  i8th  of  August 
in  that  year  Flegel  discovered  the  source  of  the  Benue  at 
Ngaundere.  In  1883-1884  he  made  another  journey  up  the 
Benue,  crossing  for  the  second  time  the  Benue-Congo  watershed. 
After  a  short  absence  in  Europe  Flegel  returned  to  Africa  in 
April  1885  with  a  commission  from  the  German  African  Company 
and  the  Colonial  Society  to  open  up  the  Niger-Benue  district 
to  German  trade.  This  expedition  had  the  support  of  Prince 
Bismarck,  who  endeavoured,  unsuccessfully,  to  obtain  for 
Germany  this  region,  already  secured  as  a  British  sphere  of 
influence  by  the  National  African  Company  (the  Royal  Niger 
Company).  Flegel,  despite  a  severe  illness,  ascended  the  Benue 
to  Yola,  but  was  unable  to  accomplish  his  mission.  He  returned 
to  the  coast  and  died  at  Brass,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Niger,  on  the 
nth  of  September  1886.  (See  further  GOLDIE,  SIR  GEORGE.) 

Flegel  wrote  Lose  Blatter  aus  dent  Tagebuche  meiner  Haussaajreunde 
(Hamburg,  1885),  and  Vom  Niger-Benue.  Brief e  aus  Afrika  (edited 
by  K.  Flegel,  Leipzig,  1890). 

FLEISCHER,  HEINRICH  LEBERECHT  (1801-1888),  German 
Orientalist,  was  born  at  Schandau,  Saxony,  on  the  2ist  of 
February  1801.  From  1819  to  1824  he  studied  theology  and 
oriental  languages  at  Leipzig,  subsequently  continuing  his 
studies  in  Paris.  In  1836  he  was  appointed  professor  of  oriental 
languages  at  Leipzig  University,  and  retained  this  post  till  his 
death.  His  most  important  works  were  editions  of  Abulfeda's 
Historia  ante-I slamica  (1831-1834),  and  of  Beidhawi's  Com- 
mentary on  the  Koran  (1846-1848).  He  compiled  a  catalogue 
of  the  oriental  MSS.  in  the  royal  library  at  Dresden  (1831); 
published  an  edition  and  German  translation  of  Ali's  Hundred 
Sayings  (1837);  the  continuation  of  Babicht's  edition  of  The 
Thousand  and  One  Nights  (vols.  ix.-xii.,  1842-1843);  and  an 


FLEETWOOD— FLEMING,  SIR  S. 


edition  of  Mahommed  Ibrihim's  Persian  Grammar  (1847).  He 
also  wrote  an  account  of  the  Arabic,  Turkish  and  Persian  MSS. 
at  the  town  library  in  Leipzig.  He  died  there  on  the  loth  of 
February  1888.  Fleischer  was  one  of  the  eight  foreign  members 
of  the  French  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  a  knight  of  the 
German  Ordre  pour  le  merite. 

FLEMING,  PAUL  (1609-1640),  German  poet,  was  born  at 
Hartenstein  in  the  Saxon  Erzgebirge,  on  the  5th  of  October 
1609,  the  son  of  the  village  pastor.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was 
sent  to  school  at  Leipzig  and  subsequently  studied  medicine 
at  the  university.  Driven  away  by  the  troubles  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  he  was  fortunate  enough  to  become  attached  to  an 
embassy  despatched  in  1634  by  Duke  Frederick  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp  to  Russia  and  Persia,  and  to  which  the  famous  traveller 
Adam  Olearius  was  secretary.  In  1639  the  mission  returned 
to  Reval,  and  here  Fleming,  having  become  betrothed,  determined 
to  settle  as  a  physician.  He  proceeded  to  Leiden  to  procure  a 
doctor's  diploma,  but  died  suddenly  at  Hamburg  on  his  way 
home  on  the  2nd  of  April  1640. 

Though  belonging  to  the  school  of  Martin  Opitz,  Fleming 
is  distinguished  from  most  of  his  contemporaries  by  the  ring  of 
genuine  feeling  and  religious  fervour  that  pervades  his  lyric 
poems,  even  his  occasional  pieces.  In  the  sonnet,  his  favourite 
form  of  verse,  he  was  particularly  happy.  Among  his  religious 
poems  the  hymn  beginning  "  In  alien  meinen  Taten  lass  ich  den 
Hochsten  raten  "  is  well  known  and  widely  sung. 

Fleming's  Teutsche  Poemata  appeared  posthumously  in  1642; 
they  are  edited  by  J.  M.  Lappenberg,  in  the  Bibliothek  des  littera- 
rischen  Vereins  (2  vols.,  1863;  a  third  volume,  1866,  contains 
Fleming's  Latin  poems).  Selections  have  been  edited  by  J.  Tittmann 
in  the  second  volume  of  the  series  entitled  Deutsche  Dichter  des  sieb- 
zehnten  Jahrhunderts  (Leipzig,  1870),  and  by  H.  Osterley  (Stuttgart, 


..  .,„,     lemings  Leben  und  Orientreise  (1892);  L.  G.  Wysocky, 
Pauli  Flemingi  Germanice  scriptis  et  ingenio  (Paris,  1892). 

FLEMING,  RICHARD  (d.  1431),  bishop  of  Lincoln,  and 
Founder  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  was  born  at  Crofton  in 
Yorkshire.  He  was  descended  from  a  good  family,  and  was 
educated  at  University  College,  Oxford.  Having  taken  his 
degrees,  he  was  made  prebendary  of  York  in  1406,  and  the  next 
year  was  junior  proctor  of  the  university.  About  this  time  he 
jecame  an  ardent  Wycliffite,  winning  over  many  persons,  some 
of  high  rank,  to  the  side  of  the  reformer,  and  incurring  the 
censure  of  Archbishop  Arundel.  He  afterwards  became  one  of 
Wycliffe's  most  determined  opponents.  Before  1415  he  was 
nstituted  to  the  rectory  of  Boston  in  Lincolnshire,  and  in  1420 
le  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Lincoln.  In  1428-1429  he  attended 
:he  councils  of  Pavia  and  Siena,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  pope, 
Martin  V.,  made  an  eloquent  speech  in  vindication  of  his  native 
country,  and  in  eulogy  of  the  papacy.  It  was  probably  on  this 
occasion  that  he  was  named  chamberlain  to  the  pope.  To 
Bishop  Fleming  was  entrusted  the  execution  of  the  decree  of 
he  council  for  the  exhumation  and  burning  of  Wycliffe's 
remains.  The  see  of  York  being  vacant,  the  pope  conferred  it  on 
Fleming;  but  the  king  (Henry  V.)  refused  to  confirm  the 
appointment.  In  1427  Fleming  obtained  the  royal  licence 
mpowering  him  to  found  a  college  at  Oxford  for  the  special 
purpose  of  training  up  disputants  against  Wycliffe's  heresy. 
le  died  at  Sleaford,  on  the  26th  of  January  1431.  Lincoln 
'ollege  was,  however,  completed  by  his  trustees,  and  its  endow- 
ments were  afterwards  augmented  by  various  benefactors. 

FLEMING,  SIR  SANDFORD  (1827-        ),  Canadian  engineer 
and  publicist,  was  born  at  Kirkcaldy,  Scotland,  on  the  7th  of 
anuary  1827,  but  emigrated  to  Canada  in  1845.     Great  powers 
if  work  and  thoroughness  in  detail  brought  him  to 'the  front, 
and  he  was  from  1867  to  1880  chief  engineer  of  the  Dominion 
government.     Under  his  control   was  constructed  the  Inter- 
olonial  railway,  and  much  of  the  Canadian  Pacific.     After  his 
etirement  in  1880  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  Canadian 
and  Imperial  problems,  such  as  the  unification  of  time  reckoning 
hroughout  the  world,  and  the  construction  of  a  state-owned 
ystem  of  telegraphs  throughout  the    British  empire.     After 


FLEMING,  SIR  T.— FLEMISH  LITERATURE 


495 


years  of  labour  he  saw  the  first  link  forged  in  the  chain,  in  the 
opening  in  1902  of  the  Pacific  Cable  between  Canada  and 
Australia.  Though  not  a  party  man  he  strongly  advocated 
Federation  in  1864-1867,  and  in  1891  vehemently  attacked  the 
Liberal  policy  of  unrestricted  reciprocity  with  the  United  States. 
He  took  the  deepest  interest  in  education,  and  in  1880  became 
chancellor  of  Queen's  University,  Kingston. 

He  published  The  Intercolonial:  a  History  (Montreal  and  London, 
1876) ;  England  and  Canada  (London,  1884) ;  and  numerous  brochures 
and  magazine  articles  on  scientific,  social  and  political  subjects. 

FLEMING,  SIR  THOMAS  (1544-1613),  English  judge,  was 
born  at  Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,  in  April  1544,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1574.  He  represented  Winchester 
in  parliament  from  1584  to  1601,  when  he  was  returned  for 
Southampton.  In  1594  he  was  appointed  recorder  of  London, 
and  in  1595  was  chosen  solicitor-general  in  preference  to  Bacon. 
This  office  he  retained  under  James  I.  and  was  knighted  in  1603. 
In  1604  he  was  created  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer  and  presided 
over  many  important  state  trials.  In  1607  he  was  promoted 
to  the  chief  justiceship  of  the  king's  bench,  and  was  one  of  the 
judges  at  the  trial  of  the  post-nati  in  1608,  siding  with  the  majority 
of  the  judges  in  declaring  that  persons  born  in  Scotland  after 
the  accession  of  James  I.  were  entitled  to  the  privileges  of 
natural-born  subjects  in  England.  He  was  praised  by  his 
contemporaries,  more  particularly  Coke,  for  his  "  great  judg- 
ments, integrity  and  discretion."  He  died  on  the  7th  of  August 
1613  at  his  seat,  Stoneham  Park,  Hampshire. 

See  Foss,  Lives  of  the  Judges. 

FLEMISH  LITERATURE.  The  older  Flemish  writers  are 
dealt  with  in  the  article  on  DUTCH  LITERATURE;  after  the 
separation  of  Belgium,  however,  from  the  Netherlands  in  1830 
there  was  a  great  revival  of  Flemish  literature.  The  immediate 
result  of  the  revolution  was  a  reaction  against  everything 
associated  with  Dutch,  and  a  disposition  to  regard  the  French 
language  as  the  speech  of  liberty  and  independence.  The 
provisional  government  of  1830  suppressed  the  official  use  of  the 
Flemish  language,  which  was  relegated  to  the  rank  of  a  patois. 
For  some  years  before  1830  Jan  Frans  Willems1  (1793-1846) 
had  been  advocating  the  claims  of  the  Flemish  language.  He 
had  done  his  best  to  allay  the  irritation  between  Holland  and 
Belgium  and  to  prevent  a  separation.  As  archivist  of  Antwerp 
he  made  use  of  his  opportunities  by  writing  a  history  of  Flemish 
letters.  After  the  revolution  his  Dutch  sympathies  had  made 
it  necessary  for  him  to  live  in  seclusion,  but  in  1835  he  settled 
at  Ghent,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  cultivation  of  Flemish. 
He  edited  old  Flemish  classics,  Reinaert  de  Vos  (1836),  the 
rhyming  Chronicles  of  Jan  van  Heelu  and  Jan  le  Clerc,  &c., 
and  gathered  round  him  a  band  of  Flemish  enthusiasts,  the 
chevalier  Philipp  Blommaert  (1809-1871),  Karel  Lodewijk 
Ledeganck  (1805-1847),  Fr.  Rens  (1805-1874),  F.  A.  Snellaert 
(1809-1872),  Prudens  van  Duyse  (1804-1859),  and  others. 
Blommaert,  who  was  born  at  Ghent  on  the  27th  of  August  1809, 
founded  in  1834  in  his  native  town  the  Nederduitsche  letteroefen- 
ingen,  a  review  for  the  new  writers,  and  it  was  speedily  followed 
by  other  Flemish  organs,  and  by  literary  societies  for  the  promo- 
tion of  Flemish.  In  1851  a  central  organization  for  the  Flemish 
propaganda  was  provided  by  a  society,  named  after  the  father 
of  the  movement,  the  "  Willemsfonds."  The  Catholic  Flemings 
founded  in  1874  a  rival  "  Davidsfonds,"  called  after  the  energetic 
J.  B.  David  (1801-1866),  professor  at  the  university  of  Louvain, 
and  the  author  of  a  Flemish  history  of  Belgium  ( V ' aderlandsche 
historic,  Louvain,  1842-1866).  As  a  result  of  this  propaganda 
the  Flemish  language  was  placed  on  an  equality  with  French  in 
law,  and  in  administration,  in  1873  and  1878,  and  in  the  schools 
in  1883.  Finally  in  1886  a  Flemish  Academy  was  established 
by  royal  authority  at  Ghent,  where  a  course  in  Flemish  literature 
had  been  established  as  early  as  1854. 

The  claims  put  forward  by  the  Flemish  school  were  justified 
by  the  appearance  (1837)  of  In't  Wonder jaar  1566  (In  the  Wonder- 

^ee  Max  Rooses,  Keus  van  DicM-  en  Prozawerken  van  J.  F. 
Willems,  and  his  Brieven  in  the  publications  of  the  Willemsfonds 
•(Ghent,  1872-1874). 


ful  year)  of  Hendrik  Conscience  (q.v.),  who  roused  national 
enthusiasm  by  describing  the  heroic  struggles  of  the  Flemings 
against  the  Spaniards.  Conscience  was  eventually  to  make  his 
greatest  successes  in  the  description  of  contemporary  Flemish 
life,  but  his  historical  romances  and  his  popular  history  of 
Flanders  helped  to  give  a  popular  basis  to  a  movement  which 
had  been  started  by  professors  and  scholars. 

The  first  poet  of  the  new  school  was  Ledeganck,  the  best 
known  of  whose  poems  are  those  on  the  "  three  sister  cities  " 
of  Bruges,  Ghent  and  Antwerp  (Die  drie  zusterstcden,  vader- 
landsche  trilogie,  Ghent,  1846),  in  which  he  makes  an  im- 
passioned protest  against  the  adoption  of  French  ideas,  manners 
and  language,  and  the  neglect  of  Flemish  tradition.  The  book 
speedily  took  its  place  as  a  Flemish  classic.  Ledeganck,  who 
was  a  magistrate,  also  translated  the  French  code  into  Flemish. 
Jan  Theodoor  van  Rijswijck  (1811-1849),  after  serving  as  a 
volunteer  in  the  campaign  of  1830,  settled  down  as  a  clerk  in 
Antwerp,  and  became  one  of  the  hottest  champions  of  the 
Flemish  movement.  He  wrote  a  series  of  political  and  satirical 
songs,  admirably  suited  to  his  public.  The  romantic  and 
sentimental  poet,  Jan  van  Beers  (q.v.),  was  typically  Flemish 
in  his  sincere  and  moral  outlook  on  life.  Prudens  van  Duyse, 
whose  most  ambitious  work  was  the  epic  Arlavelde  (1859),  is 
perhaps  best  remembered  by  a  collection  (1844)  of  poems  for 
children.  Peter  Frans  Van  Kerckhoven  (1818-1857),  a  native 
of  Antwerp,  wrote  novels,  poems,  dramas,  and  a  work  on  the 
Flemish  revival  (De  Vlaemsche  Beweging,  1847). 

Antwerp  produced  a  realistic  novelist  in  Jan  Lambrecht 
Damien  Sleeckx  (1818-1901).  An  inspector  of  schools  by 
profession,  he  was  an  indefatigable  journalist  and  literary  critic. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  in  1844  of  the  Vlaemsch  Belgi'e,  the 
first  daily  paper  in  the  Flemish  interest.  His  works  include  a 
long  list  of  plays,  among  them  Jan  Steen  (1852),  a  comedy; 
Gretry,  which  gained  a  national  prize  in  1861;  De  Visschers 
van  Blankenberg  (1863);  and  the  patriotic  drama  of  Zannekin 
(1865).  His  talent  as  a  novelist  was  diametrically  opposed  to 
the  idealism  of  Conscience.  He  was  precise,  sober  and  concrete 
in  his  methods,  relying  for  his  effect  on  the  accumulation  of 
carefully  observed  detail.  He  was  particularly  successful  in 
describing  the  life  of  the  shipping  quarter  of  his  native  town. 
Among  his  novels  are:  In'  I  Schipperskwartier  (1856),  Dirk  Meyer 
(1860),  TybaerlsenKi'^Sfy^KunslenLiefdeC'  Art  and  Love," 
1870),  and  Vesalius  in  Spanje  (1895).  His  complete  works  were 
collected  in  17  vols.  (1877-1884). 

Jan  Renier  Snieders  (1812-1888)  wrote  novels  dealing  with 
North  Brabant;  his  brother,  August  Snieders  (b.  1825),  began  by 
writing  historical  novels  in  the  manner  of  Conscience,  but  his 
later  novels  are  satires  on  contemporary  society.  A  more  original 
talent  was  displayed  by  Anton  Bergmann  (1835-1874),  who, 
under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Tony,"  wrote  Ernest  Staas,  Advocat, 
which  gained  the  quinquennial  prize  of  literature  in  1874.  In 
the  same  year  appeared  the  Novellen  of  the  sisters  Rosalie  (1834- 
1875)  and  Virginie  Leveling  (b.  1836).  These  simple  and 
touching  stories  were  followed  by  a  second  collection  in  1876. 
The  sisters  had  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1870.  Virginie 
Loveling's  gifts  of  fine  and  exact  observation  soon  placed  her  in 
the  front  rank  of  Flemish  novelists.  Her  political  sketches, 
In  onze  Vlaamsche  gewesten  (1877),  were  published  under  the 
name  of  "  W.  G.  E.  Walter."  Sophie  (1885),  Een  dure  Red 
(1892),  and  Het  Land  der  Verbeelding  (1896)  are  among  the  more 
famous  of  her  later  works.  Reimond  Styns  (b.  1850)  and  Isidoor 
Teirlinck  (b.  1851)  produced  in  collaboration  one  very  popular 
novel,  Arm  Vlaanderen  (1884),  and  some  others,  and  have  since 
written  separately.  Cyril  Buysse,  a  nephew  of  Mme  Leveling, 
is  a  disciple  of  Zola.  Het  Recht  van  den  Sterkste  ("  The  Right  of 
the  Strongest,"  1893)  is  a  picture  of  vagabond  life  in  Flanders; 
Schoppenboer  ("  The  Knave  of  Spades,"  1898)  deals  with 
brutalized  peasant  life;  and  Sursum  corda  (1895)  describes  the 
narrowness  and  religiosity  of  village  life. 

In  poetry  Julius  de  Geyter  (b.  1830),  author  of  a  rhymed 
translation  of  Reinaert  (1874),  an  epic  poem  on  Charles  V.  (1888), 
&c.,  produced  a  social  epic  in  three  parts,  Drie  menschen  van  in 


496 


FLENSBURG— FLETCHER,  ANDREW 


de  wieg  tot  in  het  graf  ("  Three  Men  from  the  Cradle  to  the  Grave," 
1861),  in  which  he  propounded  radical  and  humanitarian  views. 
The  songs  of  Julius  Vuylsteke  (1836-1903)  are  full  of  liberal  and 
patriotic  ardour;  but  his  later  life  was  devoted  to  politics  rather 
than  literature.  He  had  been  the  leading  spirit  of  a  students' 
association  at  Ghent  for  the  propagation  of  "  fiamingant  "  views, 
and  the  "  Willemsfonds "  owed  much  of  its  success  to  his 
energetic  co-operation.  His  Uit  het  studenten  letien  appeared  in 
1868,  and  his  poems  were  collected  in  1881.  The  poems  of 
Mme  van  Ackere  (1803-1884),  nee  Maria  Doolaeghe,  were 
modelled  on  Dutch  originals.  Joanna  Courtmans  (1811-1890), 
nee  Berchmans,  owed  her  fame  rather  to  her  tales  than  her 
poems;  she  was  above  all  a  moralist,  and  her  fifty  tales  are 
sermons  on  economy  and  the  practical  virtues.  Other  poets 
were  Emmanuel  Hiel  (q.v.),  author  of  comedies,  opera  libretti 
and  some  admirable  songs;  the  abbe  Guido  Gezelle  (1830-1899), 
who  wrote  religious  and  patriotic  poems  in  the  dialect  of  West 
Flanders;  Lodewijk  de  Koninck  (b.  1838),  who  attempted  a 
great  epic  subject  in  Menschdon  Veriest  (1872);  J.  M.  Dautzen- 
berg  (1808-1869),  author  of  a  volume  of  charming  V ' olksliederen. 
The  best  of  Dautzenberg's  work  is  contained  in  the  posthumous 
volume  of  1869,  published  by  his  son-in-law,  Frans  de  Cort 
(1834-1878),  who  was  himself  a  song-writer,  and  translated  songs 
from  Burns,  from  Jasmin  and  from  the  German.  The  Makamen 
en  Ghazelen  (1866),  adapted  from  Riickert's  version  of  Hariri, 
and  other  volumes  by  "  Jan  Ferguut  "  (J.  A.  van  Droogen- 
broeck,  b.  1835)  show  a  growing  preoccupation  with  form,  and 
with  the  work  of  Theodoor  Antheunis  (b.  1840),  they  prepare 
the  way  for  the  ingenious  and  careful  workmanship  of  the 
younger  school  of  poets,  of  whom  Charles  Polydore  de  Mont  is 
the  leader.  He  was  born  at  Wambeke  in  Brabant  in  1857,  and 
became  professor  in  the  academy  of  the  fine  arts  at  Antwerp. 
He  introduced  something  of  the  ideas  and  methods  of  con- 
temporary French  writers  into  Flemish  verse;  and  explained 
his  theories  in  1898  in  an  Inleiding  tot  de  Poezie.  Among  Pol 
de  Mont's  numerous  volumes  of  verse  dating  from  1877  onwards 
are  Claribella  (1893),  and  Iris  (1894),  which  contains  amongst 
other  things  a  curious  "  Uit  de  Legende  van  Jeschoea-ben-Jossef," 
a  version  of  the  gospel  story  from  a  Jewish  peasant. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  history  of  Ghent  (Gent 
ran  den  vroegsten  Tijd  lot  heden,  1882-1889)  of  Frans  de  Potter 
(b.  1834),  and  of  the  art  criticisms  of  Max  Rooses  (b.  1839), 
curator  of  the  Plantin  museum  at  Antwerp,  and  of  Julius  Sabbe 
(b.  1846). 

See  Ida  van  Duringsfeld,  Von  der  Schelde  bis  zur  Maas.  Das 
geistige  Leben  dsr  Vlamingen  (Leipzig,  3  yols.,  1861);  J.  Stecher, 
Histoire  de  la  litterature  neerlandaise  en  Belgique  (1886) ;  Geschiedenis 
der  Vlaamsche  Letterkunde  van  het  jaar  1830  tot  heden  (1899),  by 
Theodoor  Coopman  and  L.  Scharpe;  A.  de  Koninck,  Bibliographie 
nationale  (3  vols.,  1886-1897);  and  Histoire  politique  et  litteraire  du 
mouvement  flamand  (1894),  by  Paul  Hamelius.  The  Vlaamsche 
Bibliographie,  issued  by  the  Flemish  Academy  of  Ghent,  by  Frans 
de  Potter,  contains  a  list  of  publications  between  1830  and  1890; 
and  there  is  a  good  deal  of  information  in  the  excellent  Biographisch 
woordenboeck  der  Noord-  en  Zuid  -  Nederlandscke  Letterkunde  (1878) 
of  Dr  W.  J.  A.  Huberts  and  others.  (E.  G.) 

FLENSBURG  (Danish,  Flensborg),  a  seaport  of  Germany,  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  at  the  head  of  the 
Flensburg  Fjord,  20  m.  N.W.  from  Schleswig,  at  the  junction 
of  the  main  line  Altona-Vamdrup  (Denmark),  with  branches 
to  Kiel  and  Gliicksburg.  Pop.  (1905)  48,922.  The  principal 
public  buildings  are  the  Nikolai  Kirche  (built  1390,  restored 
1894),  with  a  spire  295  ft.  high;  the  Marienkirche,  also  a  medieval 
church,  with  a  lofty  tower;  the  law  courts;  the  theatre  and  the 
exchange.  There  are  two  gymnasia,  schools  of  marine  engWer- 
ing,  navigation,  wood-carving  and  agriculture.  The  cemetery 
contains  the  remains  of  the  Danish  soldiers  who  fell  at  the  battle 
of  Idstedt  (2$th  of  July  1850),  but  the  colossal  Lion  monument, 
erected  by  the  Danes  to  commemorate  their  victory,  was  removed 
to  Berlin  in  1864.  Flensburg  is  a  busy  centre  of  trade  and 
industry,  and  is  the  most  important  town  in  what  was  formerly 
the  duchy  of  Schleswig.  It  possesses  excellent  wharves,  does  a 
large  import  trade  in  coal,  and  has  shipbuilding  yards,  breweries, 
distilleries,  cloth  and  paper  factories,  glass-works,  copper-works, 


soap-works  and  rice  mills.  Its  former  extensive  trade  with  the 
West  Indies  has  lately -suffered  owing  to  the  enormous  develop- 
ment of  the  North  Sea  ports,  but  it  is  still  largely  engaged  in  the 
Greenland  whale  and  the  oyster  fisheries. 

Flensburg  was  probably  founded  in  the  I2th  century.  It 
attained  municipal  privileges  in  1284,  was  frequently  pillaged 
by  the  Swedes  after  1643,  and  in  1848  became  the  capital,  under 
Danish  rule,  of  Schleswig. 

See  Holdt,  Flensburg  fruher  undjetzt  (1884). 

FLERS,  a  manufacturing  town  of  'north-western  France,  in 
the  arrondissement  of  Domfront,  and  department  of  Orne,  on 
the  Vere,  41  m.  S.  of  Caen  on  the  railway  to  Laval.  Pop.  (1906) 
1 1, 1 88.  A  modern  church  in  the  Romanesque  style  and  a 
restored  chateau  of  the  i$th  century  are  its  principal  buildings. 
There  is  a  tribunal  of  commerce,  a  board  of  trade-arbitrators, 
a  communal  college  and  a  branch  of  the  Bank  of  France.  Flers 
is  the  centre  of  a  cotton  and  linen-manufacturing  region  which 
includes  the  towns  of  Conde-sur-Noireau  and  La  Ferte-Mace. 
Manufactures  are  very  important,  and  include,  besides  cotton 
and  linen  fabrics,  of  which  the  annual  value  is  about  £1,500,000, 
drugs  and  chemicals;  there  are  large  brick  and  tile  works,  flour 
mills  and  dyeworks. 

FLETA,  a  treatise,  with  the  sub-title  seu  Commentarius  juris 
Anglicani,  on  the  common  law  of  England.  It  appears,  from 
internal  evidence,  to  have  been  written  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
I.,  about  the  year  1290.  It  is  for  the  most  part  a  poor  imitation 
of  Bracton.  The  author  is  supposed  to  have  written  it  during 
his  confinement  in  the  Fleet  prison,  hence  the  name.  It  has 
been  conjectured  that  he  was  one  of  those  judges  who  were  im- 
prisoned for  malpractices  by  Edward  I.  Fleta  was  first  printed 
by  J.  Selden  in  1647,  with  a  dissertation  (2nd  edition,  1685). 

FLETCHER,  ALICE  CUNNINGHAM  (1845-  ),  American 
ethnologist,  was  born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1845.  She 
studied  the  remains  of  Indian  civilization  in  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  valleys,  became  a  member  of  the  Archaeological 
Institute  of  America  in  1879,  and  worked  and  lived  with  the 
Omahas  as  a  representative  of  the  Peabody  Museum  of  American 
Archaeology  and  Ethnology,  Harvard  University.  In  1883  she 
was  appointed  special  agent  to  allot  lands  to  the  Omaha  tribes, 
in  1884  prepared  and  sent  to  the  New  Orleans  Exposition  an 
exhibit  showing  the  progress  of  civilization  among  the  Indians  of 
North  America  in  the  quarter-century  previous,  in  1886  visited 
the  natives  of  Alaska  and  the  Aleutian  Islands  on  a  mission 
from  the  commissioner  of  education,  and  in  1887  was  United 
States  special  agent  in  the  distribution  of  lands  among  the 
Winnebagoes  and  Nez  Perces.  She  was  made  assistant  in 
ethnology  at  the  Peabody  Museum  in  1882,  and  received  the 
Thaw  fellowship  in  1891;  was  president  of  the  Anthropological 
Society  of  Washington  and  of  the  American  Folk-Lore  Society, 
and  vice-president  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science;  and,  working  through  the  Woman's  National 
Indian  Association,  introduced  a  system  of  making  small  loans 
to  Indians,  wherewith  they  might  buy  land  and  houses.  In 
1888  she  published  Indian  Education  and  Civilization,  a  special 
report  of  the  Bureau  of  Education.  In  1898  at  the  Congress 
of  Musicians  held  at  Omaha  during  the  Trans-Mississippi  Ex- 
position she  read  "  several  essays  upon  the  songs  of  the  North 
American  Indians ...  in  illustration  of  which  a  number  of 
Omaha  Indians  .  .  .  sang  their  native  melodies."  Out  of  this 
grew  her  Indian  Story  and  Song  from  North  America  (1900), 
illustrating  "  a  stage  of  development  antecedent  to  that  in  which 
culture  music  appeared." 

FLETCHER,  ANDREW,  of  Saltoun  (1655-1716),  Scottish 
politician,  was  the  son  and  heir  of  Sir  Robert  Fletcher  (1625- 
1664),  and  was  born  at  Saltoun,  the  modern  Salton,  in  East 
Lothian.  Educated  by  Gilbert  Burnet,  afterwards  bishop  of 
Salisbury,  who  was  then  the  parish  minister  of  Saltoun,  he 
completed  his  education  by  spending  some  years  in  travel  and 
study,  entering  public  life  as  member  of  the  Scottish  parliament 
which  met  in  1681.  Possessing  advanced  political  ideas,  Fletcher 
was  a  fearless  and  active  opponent  of  the  measures  introduced 
by  John  Maitland,  duke  of  Lauderdale,  the  representative  of 


FLETCHER,  GILES 


497 


Charles  II.  in  Scotland,  and  his  successor,  the  duke  of  York, 
afterwards  King  James  II.;  but  he  left  Scotland  about  1682, 
subsequently  spending  some  time  in  Holland  as  an  associate 
of  the  duke  of  Monmouth  and  other  malcontents. 

Although  on  grounds  of  prudence  Fletcher  objected  to  the 
rising  of  1685,  he  accompanied  Monmouth  to  the  west  of  England, 
but  left  the  army  after  killing  one  of  the  duke's  trusted  advisers. 
This  incident  is  thus  told  by  Sir  John  Dairy mple: 

"  Being  sent  upon  an  expedition,  and  not  esteeming  times  of 
danger  to  be  times  of  ceremony,  he  had  seized  for  his  own  riding  the 
horse  of  a  country  gentleman  (the  mayor  of  Lynne)  which  stood 
ready  equipt  for  its  master.  The  master  hearing  this  ran  in  a  passion 
to  Fletcher,  gave  him  opprobrious  language,  shook  his  cane  and 
attempted  to  strike.  Fletcher,  though  rigid  m  the  duties  of  morality, 
yet  having  been  accustomed  to  foreign  services  both  by  sea  and 
land  in  which  he  had  acquired  high  ideas  of  the  honour  of  a  soldier 
and  a  gentleman  and  of  the  affront  of  a  cane,  pulled  out  his  pistol 
and  shot  him  dead  on  the  spot.  The  action  was  unpopular  in 
countries  where  such  refinements  were  not  understood.  A  clamour 
was  raised  against  it  among  the  people  of  the  country:  in  a  body 
they  waited  upon  the  duke  with  their  complaints;  and  he  was  forced 
to  desire  the  only  soldier  and  almost  the  only  man  of  parts  in  his 
army,  to  abandon  him." 

Another,  but  less  probable  account,  represents  Fletcher  as 
quitting  the  rebel  army  because  he  disapproved  of  the  action  of 
Monmouth  in  proclaiming  himself  king. 

His  history  during  the  next  few  years  is  rather  obscure. 
He  probably  travelled  in  Spain,  and  fought  against  the  Turks 
in  Hungary;  and  having  in  his  absence  lost  his  estates  and  been 
sentenced  to  death,  he  joined  William  of  Orange  at  the  Hague, 
and  returned  to  Scotland  in  1689  in  consequence  of  the  success 
of  the  Revolution  of  1688.  His  estates  were  restored  to  him; 
and  he  soon  became  a  leading  member  of  the  "  club,"  an  organiza- 
tion which  aimed  at  reducing  the  power  of  the  crown  in  Scotland, 
and  in  general  an  active  opponent  of  the  English  government. 
In  1703,  at  a  critical  stage  in  the  history  of  Scotland,  Fletcher 
again  became  a  member  of  the  Scottish  parliament.  The  failure 
of  the  Darien  expedition  had  aroused  a  strong  feeling  of  resent- 
ment against  England,  and  Fletcher  and  the  national  party 
seized  the  opportunity  to  obtain  a  greater  degree  of  independence 
for  their  country. 

His  attitude  in  this  matter,  and  also  to  the  proposal  for  the 
union  of  the  two  crowns,  is  thus  described  by  a  writer  in  the  third 
edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica: — 

"  The  thought  of  England's  domineering  over  Scotland  was  what 
his  generous  soul  could  not  endure.  The  indignities  and  oppression 
which  Scotland  lay  under  galled  him  to  the  heart,  so  that  in  his 
learned  and  elaborate  discourses  he  exposed  them  with  undaunted 
courage  and  pathetical  eloquence.  In  that  great  event,  the  Union, 
he  performed  essential  service.  He  got  the  act  of  security  passed, 
which  declared  that  the  two  crowns  should  not  pass  to  the  same  head 
till  Scotland  was  secured  in  her  liberties  civil  and  religious.  There- 
fore Lord  Godolphin  was  forced  into  the  Union,  to  avoid  a  civil  war 
after  the  queen's  demise.  Although  M  r  Fletcher  disapproved  of  some 
of  the  articles,  and  indeed  of  the  whole  frame  of  the  Union,  yet,  as 
the  act  of  security  was  his  own  work,  he  had  all  the  merit  of  that 
important  transaction." 

Soon  after  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  Union  Fletcher  retired 
from  public  life.  Employing  his  abilities  in  another  direction, 
he  did  a  real,  if  homely,  service  to  his  country  by  introducing 
from  Holland  machinery  for  sifting  grain.  He  died  unmarried 
in  London  in  September  1716. 

Contemporaries  speak  very  highly  of  Fletcher's  integrity,  but 
he  was  also  choleric  and  impetuous.  Burnet  describes  him  as 
"  a  Scotch  gentleman  of  great  parts  and  many  virtues,  but  a 
most  violent  republican  and  extremely  passionate."  In  appear- 
ance he  was  "  a  low,  thin  man,  of  a  brown  complexion;  full  of 
fire;  with  a  stern,  sour  look."  Fletcher  was  a  fine  scholar  and 
a  graceful  writer,  and  both  his  writings  and  speeches  afford 
bright  glimpses  of  the  manners  and  state  of  the  country  in  his 
time.  His  chief  works  are:  A  Discourse  of  Government  relating 
to  Militias  (1698);  'Two  Discourses  concerning  the.  A/airs  of 
Scotland  (1698);  and  An  Account  of  a  Conversation  concerning 
a  right  regulation  of  Governments  for  the  common  good  of  Mankind 
(1704).  In  Two  Discourses  he  suggests  that  the  numerous 
vagrants  who  infested  Scotland  should  be  brought  into  com- 
pulsory and  hereditary  servitude;  and  in  An  Account  of  a 


Conversation  occurs  his  well-known  remark,  "  I  knew  a  very 
wise  man  so  much  of  Sir  Christopher's  (Sir  C.  Musgrave)  senti- 
ment, that  he  believed  if  a  man  were  permitted  to  make  all  the 
ballads,  he  need  not  care  who  should  make  the  laws  of  a  nation." 

The  Political  Works  of  Andrew  Fletcher  were  published  in  London 
in  1737.  See  D.  S.  Erskine,  nth  earl  of  Buchan  Essay  on  the  Lives 
of  Fletcher  of  Saltoun  and  the  Poet  Thomson  (1792);  J.  H.  Burton, 
History  of  Scotland,  vol.  viii.  (Edinburgh,  1905) ;  and  A.  Lang, 
History  of  Scotland,  vol.  iv.  (Edinburgh,  1907). 

FLETCHER,  GILES  (c.  1548-1611),  English  author,  son  of 
Richard  Fletcher,  vicar  of  Cranbrook,  Kent,  and  father  of  the 
poets  Phineas  and  Giles  Fletcher,  was  born  in  1548  or  1549. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  King's  College,  Cambridge, 
taking  his  B.  A.  degree  in  1569.  He  was  a  fellow  of  his  college,  and 
was  made  LL.D.  in  1581.  In  1580  he  had  married  Joan  Sheafe 
of  Cranbrook.  In  that  year  he  was  commissary  to  Dr  Bridg- 
water,  chancellor  of  Ely,  and  in  1585  he  sat  in  parliament  for 
Winchelsea.  He  was  employed  on  diplomatic  service  in  Scotland, 
Germany  and  Holland,  and  in  1588  was  sent  to  Russia  to  the 
court  of  the  czar  Theodore  with  instructions  to  conclude  an 
alliance  between  England  and-  Russia,  to  restore  English  trade, 
and  to  obtain  better  conditions  for  the  English  Russia  Company. 
The  factor  of  the  company,  Jerome  Horsey,  had  already  obtained 
large  concessions  through  the  favour  of  the  protector,  Boris 
Godunov,  but  when  Dr  Fletcher  reached  Moscow  in  1588  he 
found  that  Godunov's[interest  was  alienated,  and  that  the  Russian 
government  was  contemplating  an  alliance  with  Spain.  The 
envoy  was  badly  lodged,  and  treated  with  obvious  contempt, 
and  was  not  allowed  to  forward  letters  to  England,  but  the 
English  victory  over  the  Armada  and  his  own  indomitable 
patience  secured  among  other  advantages  for  English  traders 
exclusive  rights  of  trading  on  the  Volga  and  their  security  from 
the  infliction  of  torture.  Fletcher's  treatment  at  Moscow  was 
later  made  the  subject  of  formal  complaint  by  Queen  Elizabeth. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1389  in  company  with  Jerome 
Horsey,  and  in  1591  he  published  OJ  the  Russe  Commonwealth, 
Or  Maner  of  Government  by  the  Russe  Etnperour  (commonly  called 
The  Emperour  of  Moskovia)  with  the  manners  and  fashions  of  the 
people  of  that  Countrey.  In  this  comprehensive  account  of 
Russian  geography,  government,  law,  methods  of  warfare, 
church  and  manners,  Fletcher,  who  states  that  he  began  to 
arrange  his  material  during  the  return  journey,  doubtless 
received  some  assistance  from  the  longer  experience  of  his 
travelling  companion,  who  also  wrote  a  narrative  of  his  travels, 
published  in  Pwchas  his  Pilgrimes  (1626).  The  Russia  Company 
feared  that  the  freedom  of  Fletcher's  criticisms  would  give 
offence  to  the  Muscovite  authorities,  and  accordingly  damage 
their  trade.  The  book  was  consequently  suppressed,  and  was 
not  reprinted  in  its  entirety  until  1856,  when  it  was  edited  from 
a  copy  of  the  original  edition  for  the  Hakluyt  Society,  with  an 
introduction  by  Mr  Edward  A.  Bond. 

Fletcher  was  appointed  "  Remembrancer  "  to  the  city  of 
London,  and  an  extraordinary  master  of  requests  in  1596,  and 
became  treasurer  of  St  Paul's  in  1597.  He  contemplated  a 
history  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  in  a  letter  to  Lord 
Burghley  he  suggested  that  it  might  be  well  to  begin  with  an 
account  from  the  Protestant  side  of  the  marriage  of  Henry  VIII. 
and  Ann  Boleyn.  But  personal  difficulties  prevented  the  execu- 
tion of  this  plan.  He  had  become  security  to  the  exchequer  for 
the  debts  of  his  brother,  Richard  Fletcher,  bishop  of  London, 
who  died  in  1596,  and  was  only  then  saved  from  imprison- 
ment by  the  protection  of  the  earl  of  Essex.  He  was  actually 
in  prison  in  1601,  when  he  addressed  a  somewhat  ambiguous 
letter  to  Burghley  from  which  it  may  be  gathered  that  his  prime 
offence  had  been  an  allusion  to  Essex's  disgrace  as  being  the  work 
of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  Fletcher  was  employed  in  1610  to 
negotiate  with  Denmark  on  behalf  of  the  "  Eastland 
Merchants,"  and  he  died  next  year,  and  was  buried  on  the  nth 
of  March  in  the  parish  of  St  Catherine  Colman,  London. 

The  Russe  Commonwealth  was  issued  in  an  abridged  form  in 
Hakluyt's  Principal  Navigations,  Voyages,  &c.  (vol.  i.  p.  473,  ed.  of 
1598),  a  somewhat  completer  version  in  Purchas  his  Pilgrimes 
(pt.  iii.  ed.  1625),  also  as  History  of  Rrtssia  in  1643  and  1657. 


498 


FLETCHER,  GILES— FLETCHER,  P. 


Fletcher  also  wrote  De  literis  antiquae  Britanniae  (ed.  by  Phineas 
Fletcher,  1633),  a  treatise  on  "  The  Tartars,"  printed  in  Israel  Redux 
(ed.  by  S(amuel)  L(ee),  1677),  to  prove  that  they  were  the  ten  lost 
tribes  of  Israel,  Latin  poems  published  in  various  miscellanies,  and 
Licia,  or  Poemes  of  Love  in  Honour  of  the  admirable  and  singular 
vertues  of  his  Lady,  to  the  imitation  of  the  best  Latin  Poets .  .  .  where- 
unto  is  added  the  Rising  to  the  Crowne  of  Richard  the  third  (1593). 
This  series  of  love  sonnets,  followed  by  some  other  poems,  was  pub- 
lished anonymously.  Most  critics,  with  the  notable  exception  of 
Alexander  Dyce  (Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  Works,  i.  p.  xvi.,  1843) 
have  accepted  it  as  the  work  of  Dr  Giles  Fletcher  on  the  evidence 
afforded  in  the  first  of  the  Piscatory  Eclogues  of  his  son  Phineas,  who 
represents  his  father  (Thelgon),  as  having  "  raised  his  rime  to  sing 
of  Richard's  climbing." 

See  E.  A.  Bond's  Introduction  to  the  Hakluyt  Society's  edition; 
also  Dr  A.  B.  Grosart's  prefatory  matter  to  Licia  (Fuller  Worthies 
Library,  Miscellanies,  vol.  iii.,  1871),  and  to  the  works  (1869)  of 
Phineas  Fletcher  in  the  same  series.  Fletcher's  letters  relative  to 
the  college  dispute  with  the  provost,  Dr  Roger  Goad,  are  preserved 
in  the  Lansdowne  MSS.  (xxiii.  art.  18  et  seq.),  and  are  translated  in 
Grosart's  edition. 

FLETCHER,  GILES  (c.  1584-1623),  English  poet,  younger 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  1 584.  Fuller  in  his  Worthies 
of  England  says  that  he  was  a  native  of  London,  and  was  educated 
at  Westminster  school.  From  there  he  went  to  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  B.A.  degree  in  1606,  and  became 
a  minor  fellow  of  his  college  in  1608.  He  was  reader  in  Greek 
grammar  (1615)  and  in  Greek  language  (1618).  In  1603  he  con- 
tributed a  poem  on  the  death  of  Queen  Elizabeth  to  Sorrow's 
Joy.  His  great  poem  of  Christ's  Victory  appeared  in  1610,  and 
in  1612  he  edited  the  Remains  of  his  cousin  Nathaniel  Pownall. 
It  is  not  known  in  what  year  he  was  ordained,  but  his  sermons  at 
St  Mary's  were  famous.  Fuller  tells  us  that  the  prayer  before 
the  sermon  was  a  continuous  allegory.  He  left  Cambridge  about 
1618,  and  soon  after  received,  it  is  supposed  from  Francis  Bacon, 
the  rectory  of  Alderton,  on  the  Suffolk  coast,  where  "  his  clownish 
and  low-parted  parishioners  .  .  .  valued  not  their  pastor 
according  to  his  worth;  which  disposed  him  to  melancholy 
and  hastened  his  dissolution."  (Fuller,  Worthies  of  England, 
ed.  181 1,  vol.  ii.  p.  82).  His  last  work,  The  Reward  of  the  Faithful, 
appeared  in  the  year  of  his  death  (1623). 

The  principal  work  by  which  Giles  Fletcher  is  known  is 
Christ's  Victorie  and  Triumph,  in  Heaven,  in  Earth,  over  and 
after  Death  (1610).  An  edition  in  1640  contains  seven  full-page 
illustrative  engravings  by  George  Tate.  It  is  in  four  cantos 
and  is  epic  in  design.  The  first  canto,  "  Christ's  Victory  in 
Heaven,"  represents  a  dispute  in  heaven  between  Justice  and 
Mercy,  assuming  the  facts  of  Christ's  life  on  earth;  the  second, 
"  Christ's  Victory  on  Earth,"  deals  with  an  allegorical  account 
of  the  Temptation;  the  third,  "  Christ's  Triumph  over  Death," 
treats  of  the  Passion;  and  the  fourth,  "  Christ's  Triumph  after 
Death,"  treating  of  the  Resurrection  and  Ascension,  concludes 
with  an  affectionate  eulogy  of  his  brother  Phineas  Fletcher 
(q.v.)  as  "  Thyrsilis."  The  metre  is  an  eight-line  stanza  owing 
something  to  Spenser.  The  first  five  lines  rhyme  ababb,  and 
the  stanza  concludes  with  a  rhyming  triplet,  resuming  the  conceit 
which  nearly  every  verse  embodies.  Giles  Fletcher,  like  his 
brother  Phineas,  to  whom  he  was  deeply  attached,  was  a  close 
follower  of  Spenser.  In  his  very  best  passages  Giles  Fletcher 
attains  to  a  rich  melody  which  charmed  the  ear  of  Milton,  who 
did  not  hesitate  to  borrow  very  considerably  from  the  Christ's 
Victory  and  Triumph  in  his  Paradise  Regained.  Fletcher  lived 
in  an  age  which  regarded  as  models  the  poems  of  Marini  and 
Gongora,  and  his  conceits  are  sometimes  grotesque  in  connexion 
wilh  the  sacredness  of  his  subject.  But  when  he  is  carried  away 
by  his  theme  and  forgets  to  be  ingenious,  he  attains  great 
solemnity  and  harmony  of  style.  His  descriptions  of  the  Lady 
of  Vain  Delight,  in  the  second  canto,  and  of  Justice  and  of 
Mercy  in  the  first,  are  worked  out  with  much  beauty  of  detail 
into  separate  pictures,  in  the  manner  of  the  Faerie  Queene. 

Giles  Fletcher's  poem  was  edited  (1868)  for  the  Fuller  Worthies 
Library,  and  (1876)  for  the  Early  English  Poets  by  Dr  A.  B.  Grosart. 
It  is  also  reprinted  for  The  Ancient  and  Modern  Library  of  Theo- 
logical Literature  (1888),  and  in  R.  Cattermole's  and  H.  Stebbing's 
Sacred  Classics  (1834,  &c.)  vol.  20.  In  the  library  of  King's  College, 
Cambridge,  is  a  MS.  Aegidii  Fletcherii  versio  poetica  Lamentationum 
Jeremiae. 


FLETCHER,  JOHN  WILLIAM  (17^0-1785),  English  divine, 
was  born  at  Nyon  in  Switzerland  on  the  i2th  of  September 
1729,  his  original  name  being  DE  LA  FLECHIERE.  He  was 
educated  at  Geneva,  but,  preferring  an  army  career  to  a  clerical 
one,  went  to  Lisbon  and  enlisted.  An  accident  prevented  his 
sailing  with  his  regiment  to  Brazil,  and  after  a  visit  to  Flanders, 
where  an  uncle  offered  to  secure  a  commission  for  him,  he  went 
to  England,  picked  up  the  language,  anj  in  1752  became  tutor 
in  a  Shropshire  family.  Here  he  came  under  the  influence  of 
the  new  Methodist  preachers,  and  in  1757  took  orders,  being 
ordained  by  the  bishop  of  Bangor.  He  often  preached  with 
John  Wesley  and  for  him,  and  became  known  as  a  fervent 
supporter  of  the  revival.  Refusing  the  wealthy  living  of  Dunham, 
he  accepted  the  humble  one  of  Madeley,  where  for  twenty-five 
years  (1760-1785)  he  lived  and  worked  with  unique  devotion  and 
zeal.  Fletcher  was  one  of  the  few  parish  clergy  who  understood 
Wesley  and  his  work,  yet  he  never  wrote  or  said  anything 
inconsistent  with  his  own  Anglican  position.  In  theology  he 
upheld  the  Arminian  against  the  Calvinist  position,  but  always 
with  courtesy  and  fairness;  his  resignation  on  doctrinal  grounds 
of  the  superintendency  (1768-1771)  of  the  countess  of  Hunting- 
don's college  at  Tre  vecca  left  no  unpleasantness.  The  outstanding 
feature  of  his  life  was  a  transparent  simplicity  and  saintliness 
of  spirit,  and  the  testimony  of  his  contemporaries  to  his  godliness 
is  unanimous.  Wesley  preached  his  funeral  sermon  from  the 
words  "  Mark  the  perfect  man."  Southey  said  that  "  no  age 
ever  provided  a  man  of  more  fervent  piety  or  more  perfect 
charity,  and  no  church  ever  possessed  a  more  apostolic  minister." 
His  fame  was  not  confined  to  his  own  country,  for  it  is  said 
that  Voltaire,  when  challenged  to  produce  a  character  as  perfect 
as  that  of  Christ,  at  once  mentioned  Fletcher  of  Madeley.  He 
died  on  the  i4th  of  August  1785. 

Complete  editions  of  his  works  were  published  in  1803  and  1836. 
The  chief  of  them,  written  against  Calvinism,  are  Five  Checks  to 
Antinomianism,  Scripture  Scales  to  weigh  the  Gold  of  Gospel  Truth, 
and  the  Portrait  of  St  Paul.  See  lives  by  J.  Wesley  (1786);  L. 
Tyerman  (1882);  F.  W.  Macdonald  (1885);  J.  Maratt  (1902);  also 
C.  J.  Ryle,  Christian  Leaders  of  the  i8th  Century,  pp.  384-423  (1869). 

FLETCHER,  PHINEAS  (1582-1650),  English  poet,  elder  son 
of  Dr  Giles  Fletcher,  and  brother  of  Giles  the  younger,  noticed 
above,  was  born  at  Cranbrook,  Kent,  and  was  baptized  on  the 
8th  of  April  1582.  He  was  admitted  a  scholar  of  Eton,  and  in 
1600  entered  King's  College,  Cambridge.  He  graduated  B.A. 
in  1604,  and  M.A.  in  1608,  and  was  one  of  the  contributors  to 
Sorrow's  Joy  (1603).  His  pastoral  drama,  Sicelides  or  Piscatory 
(pr.  1631)  was  written  (1614)  for  performance  before  James  I., 
but  only  produced  after  the  king's  departure  at  King's  College. 
He  had  been  ordained  priest  and  before  1611  became  a  fellow 
of  his  college,  but  he  left  Cambridge  before  1616,  apparently 
because  certain  emoluments  were  refused  him.  He  became 
chaplain  to  Sir  Henry  Willoughby,  who  presented  him  in  1621 
to  the  rectory  of  Hilgay,  Norfolk,  where  he  married  and  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life.  In  1627  he  published  Locustae,  vel  Pietas 
Jesuitica.  The  Locusts  or  Apollyonists,  two  parallel  poems  in 
Latin  and  English  furiously  attacking  the  Jesuits.  Dr  Grosart 
saw  in  this  work  one  of  the  sources  of  Milton's  conception  of 
Satan.  Next  year  appeared  an  erotic  poem,  Brittains  Ida, 
with  Edmund  Spenser's  name  on  the  title-page.  It  is  certainly 
not  by  Spenser,  and  is  printed  by  Dr  Grosart  with  the  works 
of  Phineas  Fletcher.  Sicelides,  a  play  acted  at  King's  College 
in  1614,  was  printed  in  1631.  In  1632  appeared  two  theological 
prose  treatises,  The  Way  to  Blessedness  and  Joy  in  Tribulation, 
and  in  1633  his  magnum  opus,  The  Purple  Island.  The  book  was 
dedicated  to  his  friend  Edward  Benlowes,  and  included  his 
Piscatorie  Eclogs  and  other  Poetical  Miscellanies.  He  died  in 
1650,  his  will  being  proved  by  his  widow  on  the  I3th  of  December 
of  that  year.  The  Purple  Island,  or  the  Isle  of  Man,  is  a  poem 
in  twelve  cantos  describing  in  cumbrous  allegory  the  physiological 
structure  of  the  human  body  and  the  mind  of  man.  The  in- 
tellectual qualities  are  personified,  while  the  veins  are  rivers, 
the  bones  the  mountains  of  the  island,  the  whole  analogy  being 
worked  out  with  great  ingenuity.  The  manner  of  Spenser  is 
preserved  throughout,  but  Fletcher  never  lost  sight  of  his  moral 


FLEURANGES— FLEURUS 


499 


aim  to  lose  himself  in  digressions  like  those  of  the  Faerie  Queene. 
What  he  gains  in  unity  of  design,  however,  he  more  than  loses 
in  human  interest  and  action.  The  chief  charm  of  the  poem 
lies  in  its  descriptions  of  rural  scenery.  The  Piscatory  Eclogues 
are  pastorals  the  characters  of  which  are  represented  as  fisher 
boys  on  the  banks  of  the  Cam,  and  are  interesting  for  the  light 
they  cast  on  the  biography  of  the  poet  himself  (Thyrsil)  and 
his  father  (Thelgon).  The  poetry  of  Phineas  Fletcher  has  not 
the  sublimity  sometimes  reached  by  his  brother  Giles.  The 
mannerisms  are  more  pronounced  and  the  conceits  more  far- 
fetched, but  the  verse  is  fluent,  and  lacks  neither  colour  nor 
music. 

A  complete  edition  of  hi?  works  (4  vols.)  was  privately  printed 
by  Dr  A.  B.  Grosart  (Fuller  Worthies  Library,  1869). 

FLEURANGES,  ROBERT  (III.)  DE  LA  MARCK,  SEIGNEUR 
DE  (1491-1537),  marshal  of  France  and  historian,  was  the  son 
of  Robert  II.  de  la  Marck,  duke  of  Bouillon,  seigneur  of  Sedan 
and  Fleuranges,  whose  uncle  was  the  celebrated  William  de 
la  Marck,  "  The  Wild  Boar  of  the  Ardennes."  A  fondness  for 
military  exercises  displayed  itself  in  his  earliest  years,  and  at 
the  age  of  ten  he  was  sent  to  the  court  of  Louis  XII.,  and  placed 
in  charge  of  the  count  of  Angouleme,  afterwards  King  Francis  I. 
In  his  twentieth  year  he  married  a  niece  of  the  cardinal  d' Amboise, 
but  after  three  months  he  quitted  his  home  to  join  the  French 
army  in  the  Milanese.  With  a  handful  of  troops  he  threw  himself 
into  Verona,  then  besieged  by  the  Venetians;  but  the  siege  was 
protracted,  and  being  impatient  for  more  active  service,  he 
rejoined  the  army.  He  then  took  part  in  the  relief  of  Mirandola, 
besieged  by  the  troops  of  Pope  Julius  II.,  and  in  other  actions 
of  the  campaign.  In  1512  the  French  being  driven  from  Italy, 
Fleuranges  was  sent  into  Flanders  to  levy  a  body  of  10,000  men, 
in  command  of  which,  under  his  father,  he  returned  to  Italy 
in  1513,  seized  Alessandria,  and  vigorously  assailed  Novara. 
But  the  French  were  defeated,  and  Fleuranges  narrowly  escaped 
with  his  life,  having  received  more  than  forty  wounds.  He  was 
rescued  by  his  father  and  sent  to  Vercellae,  and  thence  to  Lyons. 
Returning  to  Italy  with  Francis  I.  in  1515,  he  distinguished 
himself  in  various  affairs,  and  especially  at  Marignano,  where 
he  had  a  horse  shot  under  him,  and  contributed  so  powerfully 
to  the  victory  of  the  French  that  the  king  knighted  him  with 
his  own  hand.  He  next  took  Cremona,  and  was  there  called 
home  by  the  news  of  his  father's  illness.  In  1519  he  was  sent 
into  Germany  on  the  difficult  errand  of  inducing  the  electors 
to  give  their  votes  in  favour  of  Francis  I.;  but  in  this  he  failed. 
The  war  in  Italy  being  rekindled,  Fleuranges  accompanied  the 
king  thither,  fought  at  Pavia  (1525),  and  was  taken  prisoner 
with  his  royal  master.  The  emperor,  irritated  by  the  defection 
of  his  father,  Robert  II.  de  la  Marck,  sent  him  into  confinement 
in  Flanders,  where  he  remained  for  some  years.  During  this 
imprisonment  he  was  created  marshal  of  France.  He  employed 
his  enforced  leisure  in  writing  his  Histoire  des  chases  memorables 
advenues  du  regne  de  Louis  XII  et  de  Francois  I,  dcpuis  1499 
jusqu'en  Van  1521.  In  this  work  he  designates  himself  Jeune 
Adventureux.  Within  a  small  compass  he  gives  many  curious 
and  interesting  details  of  the  time,  writing  only  of  what  he  had 
seen  and  in  a  very  simple  but  vivid  style.  The  book  was  first 
published  in  1735,  by  Abbe  Lambert,  who  added  historical  and 
critical  notes;  and  it  has  been  reprinted  in  several  collections. 
The  last  occasion  on  which  Fleuranges  was  engaged  in  active 
service  was  at  the  defence  of  Peronne,  besieged  by  the  count  of 
Nassau  in  1536.  In  the  following  year  he  heard  of  his  father  s 
death,  and  set  out  from  Amboise  for  his  estate  of  La  Marck: 
but  he  was  seized  with  illness  at  Longjumeau,  and  died  there  in 
December  1537. 

See  his  own  book  in  the  Nouvette  Collection  des  memotres  pour 
servir  A  I'histoire  de  France  (edited  by  J.  F.  Michaud  and  J.  J.  K 
Poujoulat,  series  i.  vol.  v.  Paris,  1836  seq.). 

FLEUR-DE-LIS  (Fr.  "  lily  flower  "),  an  heraldic  device,  very 
widespread  in  the  armorial  bearings  of  all  countries,  but  more 
particularly  associated  with  the  royal  house  of  France, 
conventional  fleur-de-lis,  as  Littre  says,  represents  very  im- 
perfectly three  flowers  of  the  white  lily  (Lihum)  joined  together, 


the  central  one  erect,  and  each  of  the  other  two  curving  outwards. 
The  fleur-de-lis  is  a  common  device  in  ancient  decoration,  notably 
in  India  and  in  Egypt,where  it  was  the  symbol  of  life  and  resur- 
rection, the  attribute  of  the  god  Horus.  It  is  common  also  in 
Etruscan  bronzes.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  conventional 
fleur-de-lis  was  originally  meant  to  represent  the  lily  or  white 
iris — the  flower-de-luce  of  Shakespeare — or  an  arrow-head,  a 
spear-head,  an  amulet  fastened  on  date-palms  to  ward  off  the 
evil  eye,  &c.  In  Roman  and  early  Gothic  architecture  the 
fleur-de-lis  is  a  frequent  sculptured  ornament.  As  early  as 
1 1 20  three  fleurs-de-lis  were  sculptured  on  the  capitals  of  the 
Chapelle  Saint-Aignan  at  Paris.  The  fleur-de-lis  was  first 
definitely  connected  with  the  French  monarchy  in  an  ordonnance 
of  Louis  le  Jeune  (c.  1147),  and  was  first  figured  on  a  seal  of 
Philip  Augustus  in  1180.  The  use  of  the  fleur-de-lis  in  heraldry 
dates  from  the  izth  century,  soon  after  which  period  it  became 
a  very  common  charge  in  France,  England  and  Germany,  where 
every  gentleman  of  coat-armour  desired  to  adorn  his  shield 


Middle  Ages.          I7th  century.         i8th  and  igth  centuries. 

with  a  loan  from  the  shield  of  France,  which  was  at  first  d'azur, 
semi  defleurs  de  Us  d  'or.  In  February  1376  Charles  V.  of  France 
reduced  the  number  of  fleurs-de-lis  to  three — in  honour  of  the 
Trinity — and  the  kings  of  France  thereafter  bore  d'azur,  a  trois 
fleurs  de  Us  d'or.  Tradition  soon  attributed  the  origin  of  the 
fleur-de-lis  to  Clovis,  the  founder  of  the  Prankish  monarchy, 
and  explained  that  it  represented  the  lily  given  to  him  by  an 
angel  at  his  baptism.  Probably  there  was  as  much  foundation 
for  this  legend  as  for  the  more  rationalistic  explanation  of  William 
Newton  (Display  of  Heraldry,  p.  145),  that  the  fleur-de-lis  was 
the  figure  of  a  reed  or  flag  in  blossom,  used  instead  of  a  sceptre 
at  the  proclamation  of  the  Prankish  kings.  Whatever  be  the 
true  origin  of  the  fleur-de-lis  as  a  conventional  decoration,  it 
is  demonstrably  far  older  than  the  Frankish  monarchy,  and 
history  does  not  record  the  reason  of  its  adoption  by  the  royal 
house  of  France,  from  which  it  passed  into  common  use  as  an 
heraldic  charge  in  most  European  countries.  An  order  of  the 
Lily,  with  a  fleur-de-lis  for  badge,  was  established  in  the  Roman 
states  by  Pope  Paul  III.  in  1546;  its  members  were  pledged 
to  defend  the  patrimony  of  St  Peter  against  the  enemies  of  the 
church.  Another  order  of  the  Lily  was  founded  by  Louis  XVIII. 
in  1816,  in  memory  of  the  silver  fleurs-de-lis  which  the  comte 
d'Artois  had  given  to  the  troops  in  1814  as  decorations;  it  was 
abolished  by  the  revolution  of  1830. 

FLEURUS,  a  village  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Hennegau, 
5  m.  N.E.  of  Charleroi,  famous  as  the  scene  of  several  battles. 
The  first  of  these  was  fought  on  August  19/29,  1622,  between 
the  forces  of  Count  Mansfeld  and  Christian  of  Brunswick  and 
the  Spaniards  under  Cordovas,  the  latter  being  defeated.  The 
second  is  described  below,  and  the  third  and  fourth,  incidents 
of  Jourdan's  campaign  of  1794,  under  FRENCH  REVOLUTIONARY 
WARS.  The  ground  immediately  north-east  of  Fleurus  forms 
the  battlefield  of  Ligny  (June  16,  1815),  for  which  see  WATERLOO 
CAMPAIGN. 

The  second  battle  was  fought  on  the  ist  of  July  1690  between 
45,000  French  under  Francois-Henri  de  Montgomery-Bouteville, 
duke  of  Luxemburg,  and  37,000  allied  Dutch,  Spaniards  and 
Imperialists  under  George  Frederick,  prince  of  Waldeck.  The 
latter  had  formed  up  his  army  between  Heppignies  and  St 
Amand  in  what  was  then  considered  an  ideal  position;  a  double 
barrier  of  marshy  brooks  was  in  front,  each  flank  rested  on  a 
village,  and  the  space  between,  open  upland,  fitted  his  army 
exactly.  But  Luxemburg,  riding  up  with  his  advanced  guard 
from  Velaine,  decided,  after  a  cursory  survey  of  the  ground,  to 


5°° 


FLEURY— FLEURY,  A.  H.  DE 


attack  the  front  and  both  flanks  of  the  Allies'  position  at  once — 
a  decision  which  few,  if  any,  generals  then  living  would  have  dared 
to  make,  and  which  of  itself  places  Luxemburg  in  the  same  rank 
as  a  tactician  as  his  old  friend  and  commander  Conde.  The 
left  wing  of  cavalry  was  to  move  under  cover  of  woods,  houses 
and  hollows  to  gain  Wangenies,  where  it  was  to  connect  with  the 
frontal  attack  of  the  French  centre  from  Fleurus  and  to  envelop 
Waldeck's  right.  Luxemburg  himself  with  the  right  wing  of 
cavalry  and  some  infantry  and  artillery  made  a  wide  sweep 
round  the  enemy's  left  by  way  of  Ligny  and  Les  Trois  Burettes, 
concealed  by  the  high-standing  corn.  At  8  o'clock  the  frontal 
attack  began  by  a  vigorous  artillery  engagement,  in  which 
the  French,  though  greatly  outnumbered  in  guns,  held  their 
own,  and  three  hours  later  Waldeck,  whose  attention  had  been 
absorbed  by  events  on  the  front,  found  a  long  line  of  the  enemy 


FLEURUS  1690 


French  Camp 

French  positions  In  the  battle.. 


Allies'first  position 

Second  position  of  left  mi  ng Bi 


already  formed  up  in  his  rear.  He  at  once  brought  his  second 
line  back  to  oppose  them,  but  while  he  was  doing  so  the  French 
leader  filled  up  the  gap  between  himself  and  the  frontal  assailants 
by  posting  infantry  around  Wagnelee,  and  also  guns  on  the 
neighbouring  hill  whence  their  fire  enfiladed  both  halves  of  the 
enemy's  army  up  to  the  limit  of  their  ranging  power.  At  i  P.M. 
Luxemburg  ordered  a  general  attack  of  his  whole  line.  He  him- 
self scattered  the  cavalry  opposed  to  him  and  hustled  the  Dutch 
infantry  into  St  Amand,  where  they  were  promptly  surrounded. 
The  left  and  centre  of  the  French  army  were  less  fortunate,  and 
in  their  first  charge  lost  their  leader,  Lieutenant-General  Jean 
Christophe,  comte  de  Gournay,  one  of  the  best  cavalry  officers 
in  the  service.  But  Waldeck,  hoping  to  profit  by  this  momentary 
success,  sent  a  portion  of  his  right  wing  towards  St  Amand, 
where  it  merely  shared  the  fate  of  his  left,  and  the  day  was  decided. 
Only  a  quarter  of  the  cavalry  and  14  battalions  of  infantry 
(English  and  Dutch)  remained  intact,  and  Waldeck  could  do  no 
more,  but  with  these  he  emulated  the  last  stand  of  the  Spaniards 
at  Rocroi  fifty  years  before.  A  great '.square  was  formed  of  the 
infantry,  and  a  handful  of  cavalry  joined  them — the  French 
cavalry,  eager  to  avenge  Gournay,  had  swept  away  the  rest. 
Then  slowly  and  in  perfect  order,  they  retired  into  the  broken 
ground  above  Mellet,  where  they  were  in  safety.  The  French 
slept  on  the  battlefield,  and  then  returned  to  camp  with  their 
trophies  and  8000  prisoners.  They  had  lost  some  2500  killed, 
amongst  them  Gournay  and  Berbier  du  Metz,  the  chief  of  artillery, 
the  Allies  twice  as  many,  as  well  as  48  guns,  and  Luxemburg 
was  able  to  send  150  colours  and  standards  to  decorate  Notre- 
Dame.  But  the  victory  was  not  followed  up,  for  Louis  XIV. 
•rdered  Luxemburg  to  keep  in  line  with  other  French  armies 


which  were  carrying  on  more  or  less  desultory  wars  of  manoeuvre 
on  the  Meuse  and  Moselle. 

FLEURY  [ABRAHAM  JOSEPH  BENARD]  (1750-1822),  French 
actor,  was  born  at  Chartres  on  the  26th  of  October  1750,  and 
began  his  stage  apprenticeship  at  Nancy,  where  his  father  was 
at  the  head  of  a  company  of  actors  attached  to  the  court  of  King 
Stanislaus.  After  four  years  in  the  provinces,  he  came  to  Paris 
in  1778,  and  almost  immediately  was  made  societaire  at  the 
Comedie  Franchise,  although  the  public  was  slow  to  recognize 
him  as  the  greatest  comedian  of  his  time.  In  1793  Fleury,  like 
the  rest  of  his  fellow-players,  was  arrested  in  consequence  of 
the  presentation  of  Laya's  L' Ami  des  lois,  and,  when  liberated, 
appeared  at  various  theatres  until,  in  1799,  he  rejoined  the 
rehabilitated  Comedie  Francaise.  After  forty  years  of  service 
he  retired  in  1818,  and  died  on  the  3rd  of  March  1822.  He  was 
notoriously  illiterate,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  interesting 
Memoire  de  Fleury  owes  more  to  its  author,  Lafitte,  than  to  the 
subject  whose  "  notes  and  papers  "  it  is  said  to  contain. 

FLEURY,  ANDR6  HERCULE  DE  (1653-1743),  French 
cardinal  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Lodeve  (Herault)  on  the 
22nd  of  June  1653,  the  son  of  a  collector  of  taxes.  Educated 
by  the  Jesuits  in  Paris,  he  entered  the  priesthood,  and  became 
in  1679,  through  the  influence  of  Cardinal  Bonzi,  almoner  to 
Maria  Theresa,  queen  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  in  1698  bishop  of 
Frejus.  «Seventeen  years  of  a  country  bishopric  determined 
him  to  seek  a  position  at  court.  He  became  tutor  to  the  king's 
great-grandson  and  heir,  and  in  spite  of  an  apparent  lack  of 
ambition,  he  acquired  over  the  child's  mind  an  influence  which 
proved  to  be  indestructible.  On  the  death  of  the  regent  Orleans 
in  1723  Fleury,  although  already  seventy  years  of  age,  deferred 
his  own  supremacy  by  suggesting  the  appointment  of  Louis 
Henri,  duke  of  Bourbon,  as  first  minister.  Fleury  was  present 
at  all  interviews  between  Louis  XV.  and  his  first  minister,  and 
on  Bourbon's  attempt  to  break  through  this  rule  Fleury  retired 
from  court.  Louis  made  Bourbon  recall  the  tutor,  who  on  the 
nth  of  July  1726  took  affairs  into  his  own  hands,  and  secured 
the  exile  from  court  of  Bourbon  and  of  his  mistress  Madame 
de  Prie.  He  refused  the  title  of  first  minister,  but  his  elevation 
to  the  cardinalate  in  that  year  secured  his  precedence  over  the 
other  ministers.  He  was  naturally  frugal  and  prudent,  and 
carried  these  qualities  into  the  administration,  with  the  result 
that  in  1738-1739  there  was  a  surplus  of  1 5,000,000  livres  instead 
of  the  usual  deficit.  In  1 7  26  he  fixed  the  standard  of  the  currency 
and  secured  the  credit  of  the  government  by  the  regular  payment 
thenceforward  of  the  interest  on  the  debt.  By  exacting  forced 
labour  from  the  peasants  he  gave  France  admirable  roads,  though 
at  the  cost  of  rousing  angry  discontent.  During  the  seventeen 
years  of  his  orderly  government  the  country  found  time  to 
recuperate  its  forces  after  the  exhaustion  caused  by  the  extra- 
vagances of  Louis  XIV.  and  of  the  regent,  and  the  general 
prosperity  rapidy  increased.  Internal  peace  was  only  seriously 
disturbed  by  the  severities  which  Fleury  saw  fit  to  exercise 
against  the  Jansenists.  He  imprisoned  priests  who  refused  to 
accept  the  bull  Unigenitus,  and  he  met  the  opposition  of  the 
parlement  of  Paris  by  exiling  forty  of  its  members. 

In  foreign  affairs  his  chief  preoccupation  was  the  maintenance 
of  peace,  which  was  shared  by  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  and  therefore 
led  to  a  continuance  of  the  good  understanding  between  France 
and  England.  It  was  only  with  reluctance  that  he  supported 
the  ambitious  projects  of  Elizabeth  Farnese,  queen  of  Spain, 
in  Italy  by  guaranteeing  in  1729  the  succession  of  Don  Carlos 
to  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Tuscany.  Fleury  had  economized 
in  the  army  and  navy,  as  elsewhere,  and  when  in  1733  war  was 
forced  upon  him  he  was  hardly  prepared.  He  was  compelled 
by  public  opinion  to  support  the  claims  of  Louis  XV.'s  father-in- 
law  Stanislaus  Leszczynski,  ex-king  of  Poland,  to  the  Polish 
crown  on  the  death  of  Frederick  Augustus  I.,  against  the  Russo- 
Austrian  candidate;  but  the  despatch  of  a  French  expedition 
of  1 500  men  to  Danzig  only  served  to  humiliate  France.  Fleury 
was  driven  by  Chauvelin  to  more  energetic  measures;  he  con- 
cluded a  close  alliance  with  the  Spanish  Bourbons  and  sent 
two  armies  against  the  Austrians.  Military  successes  on  the 


FLEURY,  C.— FLIEDNER 


Rhine  and  in  Italy  secured  the  favourable  terms  of  the  treaty 
of  Vienna  (1735-1738).  France  had  joined  with  the  other 
powers  in  guaranteeing  the  succession  of  Maria  Theresa  under 
the  Pragmatic  sanction,  but  on  the  death  of  Charles  VI.  in  1740 
Fleury  by  a  diplomatic  quibble  found  an  excuse  for  repudiating 
his  engagements,  when  he  found  the  party  of  war  supreme 
in  the  king's  counsels.  After  the  disasters  of  the  Bohemian 
campaign  he  wrote  in  confidence  a  humble  letter  to  the  Austrian 
general  Konigsegg,  who  immediately  published  it.  Fleury  dis- 
avowed his  own  letter,  and  died  a  few  days  after  the  French 
evacuation  of  Prague  on  the  29th  of  January  1743.  He  had 
enriched  the  royal  library  by  many  valuable  oriental  MSS.,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy,  of  the  Academy  of  Science, 
and  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— F.  J.  Bataille,  £loge  historique  de  M.  le  Cardinal 
A.  H.  de  Fleury  (Strassburg,  1737);  C.  Frey  de  Neuville,  Oraison 
funebre  de  S.E.  Mgr.  le  Cardinal  A.  H.  Flsury  (Paris,  1743);  P. 
Vicaire,  Oraison  funebre  du  Cardinal  A.  H.  de  Fleury  (Caen,  1743); 
M.  van  Hoey,  Lettres  el  negotiations  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  de  la  vie 
du  Cardinal  de  Fleury  (London,  1743);  Leben  des  Cardinals  A.  H. 
Fleury  (Freiburg,  1743);  F.  Morenas,  Parallele  du  ministere  du 
Cardinal  Richelieu  et  du  Cardinal  de.  Fleury  (Avignon,  1743);  Nach- 
richten  von  dem  Leben  und  der  Verwaltung  des  Cardinals  Fleury 
(Hamburg,  1744). 

FLEURY,  CLAUDE  (1640-1 7  23),  French  ecclesiastical  historian, 
was  born  at  Paris  on  the  6th  of  December  1640.  Destined  for 
the  bar,  he  was  educated  at  the  aristocratic  college  of  Clermont 
(now  that  of  Louis-le-Grand).  In  1658  he  was  nominated  an 
advocate  to  the  parlement  of  Paris,  and  for  nine  years  followed 
the  legal  profession.  But  he  had  long  been  of  a  religious  disposi- 
tion, and  in  1667  turned  from  lav/  to  theology.  He  had  been 
some  time  in  orders  when  Louis  XIV.,  in  1672,  selected  him  as 
tutor  of  the  princes  of  Conti,  with  such  success  that  the  king 
next  entrusted  to  him  the  education  of  the  count  of  Vermandois, 
one  of  his  natural  sons,  on  whose  death  in  1683  Fleury  received 
for  his  services  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Loc-Dieu,  in  the  diocese 
of  Rhodez.  In  1689  he  was  appointed  sub-preceptor  of  the  dukes 
of  Burgundy,  of  Anjou,  and  of  Beny,  and  thus  became  intimately 
associated  with  Fenelon,  their  chief  tutor.  In  1696  he  was 
elected  to  fill  the  place  of  La  Bruyere  in  the  French  Academy; 
and  on  the  completion  of  the  education  of  the  young  princes 
the  king  bestowed  upon  him  the  rich  priory  of  Argenteuil,  in  the 
diocese  of  Paris  (1706).  On  assuming  this  benefice  he  resigned, 
with  rare  disinterestedness,  that  of  the  abbey  of  Loc-Dieu. 
About  this  time  he  began  his  great  work,  the  first  of  the  kind  in 
France,  and  one  for  which  he  had  been  collecting  materials 
for  thirty  years — the  Hisloire  ecdeslaslique.  Fleury's  evident 
intention  was  to  write  a  history  of  the  church  for  all  classes  of 
society;  but  at  the  time  in  which  his  great  work  appeared  it 
was  less  religion  than  theology  that  absorbed  the  attention  of 
the  clergy  and  the  educated  public;  and  his  work  accordingly 
appealed  to  the  student  rather  than  to  the  popular  reader, 
dwelling  as  it  does  very  particularly  on  questions  of  doctrine, 
of  discipline,  of  supremacy,  and  of  rivalry  between  the  priest- 
hood and  the  imperial  power.  Nevertheless  it  had  a  great  success. 
The  first  edition,  printed  at  Paris  in  20  volumes  410,  1691,  was 
followed  by  many  others,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  that 
of  Brussels,  in  32  vols.  8vo,  1692,  and  that  of  Nismes,  in  25  vols. 
8vo,  1778  to  1780.  The  work  of  Fleury  only  comes  down  to  the 
year  1414.  It  was  continued  by  J.  Claude  Fabre  and  Goujet 
down  to  1595,  in  16  vols.  4to.  In  consulting  the  work  of  Fleury 
and  its  supplement,  the  general  table  of  contents,  published 
by  Rondel,  Paris,  1758,  i  vol.  4to.  will  be  found  very  useful. 
Translations  have  been  made  of  the  entire  work  into  Latin, 
German  and  Italian.  The  Latin  translation,  published  at 
Augsburg,  1758-1759,  85  vols.  8vo,  carries  the  work  down  to 
1684.  Fleury,  who  had  been  appointed  confessor  to  the  young 
king  Louis  XV.  in  1716,  because,  as  the  duke  of  Orleans  said, 
he  was  neither  Jansenist  nor  Molinist,  nor  Ultramontanist,  but 
Catholic,  died  on  the  i4th  of  July  1723.  His  great  learning  was 
equalled  by  the  modest  simplicity  of  his  life  and  the  uprightness 
of  his  conduct. 

Fleury  left  many  works  besides  his  Hisloire  ecclesiastique.  The 
following  deserve  special  mention: — Histoire  du  droit  franfois  (1674, 


501 


I2mo);  Masurs  des  Israelites  (1681,  I2mo);  Masurs  des  Chretiens 
(1682,  I2mo);  Traite  du  choix  et  de  la  methode  des  etudes  (1686, 
2  vols.  I2mo);  Les  Devoirs  des  maitres  et  des  domestiques  (1688, 
I2mo).  A  number  of  the  smaller  works  were  published  in  one  volume 
at  Pans  in  1807.  The  Roman  Congregation  of  the  Index  condemned 
his  Catechisme  historique  (1679)  and  the  Institution  du  droit  ecclesi- 
astique (1687). 

See  C.  Ernst  Simonetti,  Der  Character  tints  Geschichlsschreibers 
in  dem  Leben  und  aus  den  Schriften  des  Abts  C.  Fleury  (Gottingen, 
1746,  410);  C.  F.  P.  Jaeger,  Notice  sur  C.  Fleury,  considers  comme 
hislonen  de  I'eglise  (Strassburg,  1847,  8vo);  Reichlin-Meldegg, 
Ceschichte  des  Christentums,  \. 

FLIEDNER,  THEODOR  (1800-1864),  German  Protestant 
divine,  was  born  on  the  2ist  of  January  1800  at  Epstein  (near 
Wiesbaden),  the  small  village  in  which  his  father  was  pastor. 
He  studied  theology  at  the  universities  of  Giessen  and  Gottingen, 
and  at  the  theological  seminary  of  Herborn,  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty  he  passed  his  final  examination.  After  a  year  spent 
in  teaching  and  preaching,  in  1821  he  accepted  a  call  from  the 
Protestant  church  at  Kaiserswerth,  a  little  town  on  the  Rhine, 
a  few  miles  below  Diisseldorf.  To  help  his  people  and  to  provide 
an  endowment  for  his  church,  he  undertook  journeys  in  1822 
through  part  of  Germany,  and  then  in  1823  to  Holland  and 
England.  He  met  with  considerable  success,  and  had  oppor- 
tunities of  observing  what  was  being  done  towards  prison  reform; 
in  England  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  philanthropist 
Elizabeth  Fry.  The  German  prisons  were  then  in  a  very  bad 
state.  The  prisoners  were  huddled  together  in  dirty  rooms, 
badly  fed,  and  left  in  complete  idleness.  No  one  dreamed  of 
instructing  them,  or  of  collecting  statistics  to  form  the  basis 
of  useful  legislation  on  the  subject.  Fliedner,  at  first  singly, 
undertook  the  work.  He  applied  for  permission  to  be  imprisoned 
for  some  time,  in  order  that  he  might  look  at  prison  life  from  the 
inside.  This  petition  was  refused,  but  he  was  allowed  to  hold 
fortnightly  services  in  the  Diisseldorf  prison,  and  to  visit  the 
inmates  individually.  Those  interested  in  the  subject  banded 
themselves  together,  and  on  the  i8th  of  June  1826  the  first 
Prison  Society  of  Germany  (Rheinisch-Westfalischer  Ccfangnis- 
verein)  was  founded.  In  1833  Fliedner  opened  in  his  own 
parsonage  garden  at  Kaiserswerth  a  refuge  for  discharged 
female  convicts.  His  circle  of  practical  philanthropy  rapidly 
increased.  The  state  of  the  sick  poor  had  for  some  time  ex- 
cited his  interest,  and  it  seemed  to  him  that  hospitals  might  be 
best  served  by  an  organized  body  of  specially  trained  women. 
Accordingly  in  1836  he  began  the  first  deaconess  house,  and 
the  hospital  at  Kaiserswerth.  By  their  ordination  vows  the 
deaconesses  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  poor,  the  sick 
and  the  young;  but  their  engagements  were  not  final — they 
might  leave  their  work  and  return  to  ordinary  life  if  they  chose. 
In  addition  to  these  institutions  Fliedner  founded  in  1835  an 
infant  school,  then  a  normal  school  for  infant  school  mistresses 
(1836),  an  orphanage  for  orphan  girls  of  the  middle  class  (1842), 
and  an  asylum  for  female  lunatics  (1847).  Moreover,  he  assisted 
at  the  foundation  and  in  the  management  of  similar  institutions, 
not  only  in  Germany,  but  in  various  parts  of  Europe. 

In  1849  he  resigned  his  pastoral  charge,  and  from  1849  to  1851 
he  travelled  over  a  large  part  of  Europe,  America  and  the  East 
— the  object  of  his  journeys  being  to  found  "  mother  houses," 
which  were  to  be  not  merely  training  schools  for  deaconesses,  but 
also  centres  whence  other  training  establishments  might  arise. 
He  established  a  deaconess  house  in  Jerusalem,  and  after  his 
return  assisted  by  counsel  and  money  in  the  erection  of  establish- 
ments at  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  Alexandria  and  Bucharest. 
Among  his  later  efforts  may  be  mentioned  the  Christian  house  of 
refuge  for  female  servants  in  Berlin  (connected  with  which  other 
institutions  soon  arose)  and  the  "  house  of  evening  rest  "  for 
retired  deaconesses  at  Kaiserswerth.  In  1855  Fliedner  received 
the  degree  of  doctor  in  theology  from  the  university  of  Bonn,  in 
recognition  rather  of  his  practical  activity  than  of  his  theological 
attainments.  He  died  on  the  4th  of  October  1864,  leaving  behind 
him  over  100  stations  attended  by  430  deaconesses;  and  these 
by  1876  had  increased  to  150  with  an  attendance  of  600. 

Fliedner's  son  FRITZ  FLIEDNER  (1845-1901),  after  studying 
in  Halle  and  Tubingen,  became  in  1870  chaplain  to  the  embassy  in 


502 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


Madrid.  He  followed  in  his  father's  footsteps  by  founding 
several  philanthropic  institutions  in  Spain.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  a  number  of  books,  amongst  which  was  an  auto- 
biography, Aus  meinem  Leben.  Erinnerungen  und  Erfahrungen 

(1901). 

Theodor  Fliedner's  writings  are  almost  entirely  of  a  practical 
character.  He  edited  a  periodical,  Der  Armen  und  Kranken  Freund, 
which  contained  information  regarding  the  various  institutions,  and 
also  the  yearly  almanac  of  the  Kaiserswerth  institution.  Besides  purely 
educational  and  devotional  works,  he  wrote  Buck  der  Mdrtyrer  (1852) ; 
Kurze  Geschichte  der  Enlstehung  der  ersten  evang.  Liebesanstalten  zu 
Kaiserswerth  (1856);  Nachricht  ilber  das  Diakonissen-Werk  in  der 
Christ.  Kirche  (5th  ed.,  1867);  Die  evangel.  Mdrtyrer  Ungarns  und 
Siebenbiirgens;  and  Beschreibung  der  Reise  nach  Jerusalem  und 
Constantinopel.  All  were  published  at  Kaiserswerth.  There  is  a 
translation  of  the  German  life  by  C.  Winkworth  (London,  1867). 
See  also  G.  Fliedner,  Theodor  Fliedner,  kurzer  Abriss  seines  Lebens 
und  Wirkens  (3rd  ed.,  1892).  See  also  on  Fliedner  and  his  work 
Kaiserswerth  Deaconesses  (London,  1857);  Dean  John  S.  Howson's 
Deaconesses  (London,  1862);  The  Service  of  the  Poor,  by  E.  C. 
Stephen  (London,  1871);  W.  F.  Stevenson's  Praying  and  Working 
(London,  1865). 

FLIGHT  and  FLYING.  Of  the  many  scientific  problems  of 
modern  times,  there  are  few  possessing  a  wider  or  more  enduring 
interest  than  that  of  aerial  navigation  (see  also  AERONAUTICS) 
To  fly  has  always  been  an  object  of  ambition  with  man;  nor 
will  this  occasion  surprise  when  we  remember  the  marvellous 
freedom  enjoyed  by  volant  as  compared  with  non- volant  animals. 
The  subject  of  aviation  is  admittedly  one  of  extreme  difficulty. 
To  tread  upon  the  air  (and  this  is  what  is  really  meant)  is,  at 
first  sight,  in  the  highest  degree  Utopian;  and  yet  there  are 
thousands  of  living  creatures  which  actually  accomplish  this 
feat.  These  creatures,  however  varied  in  form  and  structure, 
all  fly  according  to  one  and  the  same  principle;  and  this  is  a 
significant  fact,  as  it  tends  to  show  that  the  air  must  be  attacked 
in  a  particular  way  to  ensure  flight.  It  behoves  us  then  at  the 
outset  to  scrutinize  very  carefully  the  general  configuration  of 
flying  animals,  and  in  particular  the  size,  shape  and  movements 
of  their  flying  organs. 

Flying  animals  differ  entirely  from  sailing  ships  and  from 
balloons,  with  which  they  are  not  unfrequently  though  errone- 
ously compared;  and  a  flying  machine  constructed  upon  proper 
principles  can  have  nothing  in  common  with  either  of  those 
creations.  The  ship  floats  upon  water  and  the  balloon  upon  air; 
but  the  ship  differs  from  the  balloon,  and  the  ship  and  the  balloon 
differ  from  the  flying  creature  and  flying  machine.  The  water 
and  air,  moreover,  have  characteristics  of  their  own.  The 
analogies  which  connect  the  water  with  the  air,  the  ship  with  the 
balloon,  and  the  ship  and  the  balloon  with  the  flying  creature 
and  flying  machine  are  false  analogies.  A  sailing  ship  is  sup- 
ported by  the  water  and  requires  merely  to  be  propelled;  a 
flying  creature  and  a  flying  machine  constructed  on  the  living 
type  require  to  be  both  supported  and  propelled.  This  arises 
from  the  fact  that  water  is  much  denser  than  air,  and  because 
water  supports  on  its  surface  substances  which  fall  through  air. 
While  water  and  air  are  both  fluid  media,  they  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  in  the  following  particulars.  Water 
is  comparatively  very  heavy,  inelastic  and  incompressible; 
air,  on  the  other  hand,  is  comparatively  very  light,  elastic  and 
compressible.  If  water  be  struck  with  violence,  the  recoil 
obtained  is  great  when  compared  with  the  recoil  obtained  from 
air  similarly  treated.  In  water  we  get  a  maximum  recoil  with  a 
minimum  of  displacement;  in  air,  on  the  contrary,  we  obtain  a 
minimum  recoil  with  a  maximum  of  displacement.  Water  and 
air  when  unconfined  yield  readily  to  pressure.  They  thus  form 
movable  fulcra  to  bodies  acting  upon  them.  In  order  to  meet 
these  peculiarities  the  travelling  organs  of  aquatic  and  flying 
animals  (whether  they  be  feet,  fins,  flippers  or  wings)  are  made 
not  of  rigid  but  of  elastic  materials.  The  travelling  organs, 
moreover,  increase  in  size  in  proportion  to  the  tenuity  of  the  fluid 
to  be  acted  upon.  The  difference  in  size  of  the  travelling  organs 
of  animals  becomes  very  marked  when  the  land  animals  are 
contrasted  with  the  aquatic,  and  the  aquatic  with  the  aerial, 
as  in  figs,  i,  2  and  3. 

The  peculiarities  of  water  and  air  as  supporting  media  are  well 


illustrated  by  a  reference  to  swimming,  diving  and  flying  birds. 
A  bird  when  swimming  extends  its  feet  simultaneously  or  alter- 
nately in  a  backward  direction,  and  so  obtains  a  forward  recoil. 
The  water  supports  the  bird,  and  the  feet  simply  propel.  la 
this  case  the  bird  is  lighter  than  the  water,  and  the  long  axis  of 
the  body  is  horizontal  (a  of  fig.  4).  When  the  bird  dives,  or  flies 
under  water,  the  long  axis  of  the  body  is  inclined  obliquely  down- 
wards and  forwards,  and  the  bird  forces  itself  into  and  beneath  the 
water  by  the  action  of  its  feet,  orwings,  or  both.  In  divingorsub- 
aquatic  flight  the  feet  strike  upwards  and  backwards,  the  wings 
downwards  and  backwards  (b  of  fig.  4) .  In  aerial  flying  everything 


FIG.  i. — Chillingham  Bull  (Bos  Scoticus).  Small  travelling  ex- 
tremities adapted  For  land,  r,  s,  t,  u,  figure-of-8  described  by  the 
feet  in  walking. 


FIG.  2. — The  Turtle  (Chelonia  imbricata).    Enlarged  travelling 
extremities  (flippers)  adapted  for  water. 


FIG.  3. — The  Bat  (Phyllocina  gracilis).    Greatly  expanded 
travelling  extremities  adapted  for  air. 

is  reversed.  The  long  axis  of  the  bird  is  inclined  obliquely 
upwards  and  forwards,  and  the  wings  strike,  not  downwards 
and  backwards,  but  downwards  a.nd  forwards  (c  of  fig.  4).  These 
changes  in  the  direction  of  the  long  axis  of  the  bird  in  swimming, 
diving  and  flying,  and  in  the  direction  of  the  stroke  of  the  wings 
in  sub-aquatic  and  aerial  flight,  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  bird 
is  heavier  than  the  air  and  lighter  than  the  water. 

The  physical  properties  of  water  and  air  explain  in  a  great 
measure  how  the  sailing  ship  differs  from  the  balloon,  and  how 
the  latter  differs  from  the  flying  creature  and  flying  machine 
constructed  on  the  natural  type.  The  sailing  ship  is,  as  it  were, 
immersed  in  two  oceans,  viz.  an  ocean  of  water  and  an  ocean 
of  air — the  former  being  greatly  heavier  and  denser  than  the 
latter.  The  ocean  of  water  buoys  or  floats  the  ship,  and  the 
ocean  of  air,  or  part  of  it  in  motion,  swells  the  sails  which  propel 
the  ship.  The  moving  air,  which  strikes  the  sails  directly,  strikes 
the  hull  of  the  vessel  indirectly  and  forces  it  through  the  water, 
which,  as  explained,  is  a  comparatively  dense  fluid.  When  the 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


503 


ship  is  in  motion  it  can  be  steered  either  by  the  sails  alone,  or  by 
the  rudder  alone,  or  by  both  combined.  A  balloon  differs  from 
a  sailing  ship  in  being  immersed  in  only  one  ocean,  viz.  the  ocean 
of  air.  It  resembles  the  ship  in  floating  upon  the  air,  as  the  ship 


FIG.  4.  —  The  King  Penguin  in  the  positions  assumed  by  a  bird  in  (a)  swimming, 

diving,  and  (c)  flying. 


floats  upon  the  water;  in  other  words,  the  balloon  is  lighter  than 
the  air,  as  the  ship  is  lighter  than  the  water.  But  here  all  analogy 
ceases.  The  ship,  in  virtue  of  its  being  immersed  in  two  fluids 
having  different  densities,  can  be  steered  and  made  to  tack  about 
in  a  horizontal  plane  in  any  given  direction.  This  in  the  case  of 
the  balloon,  immersed  in  one  fluid,  is  impossible.  The  balloon 
in  a  calm  can  only  rise  and  fall  in  a  vertical  line.  Its  horizontal 
movements,  which  ought  to  be  the  more  important,  are  accidental 
movements  due  to  air  currents,  and  cannot  be  controlled;  the 
balloon,  in  short,  cannot  be  guided.  One  might  as  well  attempt 
to  steer  a  boat  carried  along  by  currents  of  water  in  the  absence 
of  oars,  sails  and  wind,  as  to  steer  a  balloon  carried  along  by 
currents  of  air.  The  balloon  has  no  hold  upon  the  air,  and  this 
consequently  cannot  be  employed  as  a  fulcrum  for  regulating 
its  course.  The  balloon,  because  of  its  vast  size  and  from  its 
being  lighter  than  the  air,  is  completely  at  the  mercy  of  the  wind. 
It  forms  an  integral  part,  so  to  speak,  of  the  wind  for  the  time 
being,  and  the  direction  of  the  wind  in  every  instance  determines 
the  horizontal  motion  of  the  balloon.  The  force  required  to 
propel  a  balloon  against  even  a  moderate  breeze  would  result  in  its 
destruction.  The  balloon  cannot  be  transferred  with  any  degree 
of  certainty  from  one  point  of  the  earth's  surface  to  another, 
and  hence  the  chief  danger  in  its  employment.  It  may,  quite  as 
likely  as  not,  carry  its  occupants  out  to  sea.  The  balloon  is  a 
mere  lifting  machine  and  is  in  no  sense  to  be  regarded  as  a  flying 
machine.  It  resembles  the  flying  creature  only  in  this,  that  it  is 
immersed  in  the  ocean  of  air  in  which  it  sustains  itself.  The  mode 
of  suspension  is  wholly  different.  The  balloon  floats  because  it 
is  lighter  than  the  air;  the  flying  creature  floats  because  it  extracts 
from  the  air,  by  the  vigorous  downward  action  of  ks  wings, 
a  certain  amount  of  upward  recoil.  The  balloon  is  passive;  the 
flying  creature  is  active.  The  balloon  is  controlled  by  the  wind; 
the  flying  creature  controls  the  wind.  The  balloon  in  the  absence 
of  wind  can  only  rise  and  fall  in  a  vertical  line;  the  flying  creature 
can  fly  in  a  horizontal  plane  in  any  given  direction.  The  balloon 
is  inefficient  because  of  its  levity;  the  flying  creature  is  efficient 
because  of  its  weight. 

Weight,  however  paradoxical  it  may  appear,  is  necessary  to 
flight.  Everything  which  flies  is  vastly  heavier  than  the  air. 
The  inertia  of  the  mass  of  the  flying  creature  enables  it  to  control 
and  direct  its  movements  in  the  air.  Many  are  of  opinion  that 
flight  is  a  mere  matter  of  levity  and  power.  This  is  quite  a  mis- 


take. No  machine,  however  light  and  powerful,  will  ever  fly 
whose  travelling  surf  aces  are  not  properly  fashioned  and  properly 
applied  to  the  air. 

It  was  supposed  at  one  time  that  theairsacsof  birds  contributed 
in  some  mysterious  way  to  flight,  but 
this  is  now  known  to  be  erroneous. 
The  bats  and  some  of  the  best-flying 
birds  have  no  air  sacs.  Similar  re- 
marks are  to  be  made  of  the  heated 
air  imprisoned  within  the  bones  of 
certain  birds.1  Feathers  even  are  not 
necessary  to  flight.  Insects  and  bats 
have  no  feathers,  and  yet  fly  well. 
The  only  facts  in  natural  history 
which  appear  even  indirectly  to 
countenance  the  flotation  theory  are 
the  presence  of  a  swimming  bladder 
in  some  fishes,  and  the  existence  of 
membranous  expansions  or  pseudo- 
wings  in  certain  animals,  such  as 
the  flying  fish,  flying  dragon  and 
flying  squirrel.  As,  however,  the 
animals  referred  to  do  not  actually 
fly,  but  merely  dart  into  the  air  and 
there  sustain  themselves  for  brief 
intervals,  they  afford  no  real  support 
to  the  theory.  The  so-called  floating 
animals  are  depicted  at  figs.  s,6and  7. 
It  has  been  asserted,  and  with  some 
degree  of  plausibility,  that  a  fish 
lighter  than  the  water  might  swim,  and  that  a  bird  lighter 
than  the  air  might  fly:  it  ought,  however,  to  be  borne  in  mind 


FIG.  5. — The  Red-throated  Dragon      FIG.  6.— The   Flying   Colugo 
(Draco  haemalopogon).  (Caleopithecus  volans) ;  also  called 

flying  lemur  and  flying  squirrel. 


FIG.  7. — The  Flying  Fish  (Exocoetus  exiliens). 

that,  in  point  of  fact,  a  fish  lighter  than  the  water  could  not  hold 
its  own  if  the  water  were  in  the  least  perturbed,  and  that  a  bird 
Lighter  than  the  air  would  be  swept  into  space  by  even  a  moderate 

1  According  to  Dr  Crisp,  the  swallow,  martin,  snipe  and  many  birds 
of  passage  have  no  air  in  their  bones. — Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  Land,  part 
xxv.,  1857,  p.  13. 


504 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


breeze  without  hope  of  return.  Weight  and  power  are  always 
associated  in  living  animals,  and  the  fact  that  living  animals  are 
made  heavier  than  the  medium  they  are  to  navigate  may  be 
regarded  as  a  conclusive  argument  in  favour  of  weight  being 
necessary  alike  to  the  swimming  of  the  fish  and  the  flying  of  the 
bird.  It  may  be  stated  once  for  all  that  flying  creatures  are  for 
the  most  part  as  heavy,  bulk  for  bulk,  as  other  animals,  and  that 
flight  in  every  instance  is  the  product,  not  of  superior  levity, 
but  of  weight  and  power  directed  upon  properly  constructed 
flying  organs. 

This  fact  is  important  as  bearing  on  the  construction  of  flying 
machines.  It  shows  that  a  flying  machine  need  not  necessarily 
be  a  light,  airy  structure  exposing  an  immoderate  amount  of 
surface.  On  the  contrary,  it  favours  the  belief  that  it  should 
be  a  compact  and  moderately  heavy  and  powerful  structure, 
which  trusts  for  elevation  and  propulsion  entirely  to  its  flying 
appliances — whether  actively  moving  wings,  or  screws,  or  aero- 
planes wedged  forward  by  screws.  It  should  attack  and  subdue 
the  air,  and  never  give  the  air  an  opportunity  of  attacking  or 
subduing  it.  It  should  smite  the  air  intelligently  and  as  a  master, 
and  its  vigorous  well-directed  thrusts  should  in  every  instance 
elicit  an  upward  and  forward  recoil.  The  flying  machine  must  be 
multum  in  panio.  It  must  launch  itself  in  the  ocean  of  air,  and 
must  extract  from  that  air,  by  means  of  its  travelling  surfaces — 
however  fashioned  and  however  applied — the  recoil  or  resistance 
necessary  to  elevate  and  carry  it  forward.  Extensive  inert 
surfaces  indeed  are  contra-indicated  in  a  flying  machine,  as  they 
approximate  it  to  the  balloon,  which,  as  has  been  shown,  cannot 
maintain  its  position  in  the  air  if  there  are  air  currents.  A  flying 
machine  which  could  not  face  air  currents  would  necessarily  be 
a  failure.  To  obviate  this  difficulty  we  are  forced  to  fall  back 
upon  weight,  or  rather  the  structures  and  appliances  which  weight 
represents.  These  appliances  as  indicated  should  not  be  un- 
necessarily expanded,  but  when  expanded  they  should,  wherever 
practicable,  be  converted  into  actively  moving  flying  surfaces, 
in  preference  to  fixed  or  inert  dead  surfaces. 

The  question  of  surface  is  a  very  important  one  in  aviation: 
it  naturally  resolves  itself  into  one  of  active  and  passive  surface. 
As  there  are  active  and  passive  surfaces  in  the  flying  animal, 
so  there  are,  or  should  be,  active  and  passive  surfaces  in  the  flying 
machine.  Art  should  follow  nature  in  this  matter.  The  active 
surfaces  in  flying  creatures  are  always  greatly  in  excess  of  the 
passive  ones,  from  the  fact  that  the  former  virtually  increase  in 
proportion  to  the  spaces  through  which  they  are  made  to  travel. 
Nature  not  only  distinguishes  between  active  and  passive  surfaces 
in  flying  animals,  but  she  strikes  a  just  balance  between  them, 
and  utilizes  both.  She  regulates  the  surfaces  to  the  strength  and 
weight  of  the  flying  creature  and  the  air  currents  to  which  the 
surfaces  are  to  be  exposed  and  upon  which  they  are  to  operate. 
In  her  calculations  she  never  forgets  that  her  flying  subjects  are 
to  control  and  not  to  be  controlled  by  the  air.  As  a  rule  she 
reduces  the  passive  surfaces  of  the  body  to  a  minimum;  she 
likewise  reduces  as  Tar  as  possible  the  actively  moving  or  flying 
surfaces.  While,  however,  diminishing  the  surfaces  of  the  flying 
animal  as  a  whole,  she  increases  as  occasion  demands  the  active 
or  wing  surfaces  by  wing  movements,  and  the  passive  or  dead 
surfaces  by  the  forward  motion  of  the  body  in  progressive 
flight.  She  knows  that  if  the  wings  are  driven  with  sufficient 
rapidity  they  practically  convert  the  spaces  through  which  they 
move  into  solid  bases  of  support;  she  also  knows  that  the  body 
in  rapid  flight  derives  support  from  all  the  air  over  which  it  passes. 
The  manner  in  which  the  wing  surfaces  are  increased  by  the 
wing  movements  will  be  readily  understood  from  the  accompany- 
ing illustrations  of  the  blow-fly  with  its  wings  at  rest  and  in 
motion  (figs.  8  and  9).  In  fig.  8  the  surfaces  exposed  by  the  body 
of  the  insect  and  the  wings  are,  as  compared  with  those  of  fig.  o, 
trifling.  The  wing  would  have  much  less  purchase  on  fig.  8  than 
on  fig.  9,  provided  the  surfaces  exposed  by  the  latter  were  passive 
or  dead  surfaces.  But  they  are  not  dead  surfaces:  they  represent 
the  spaces  occupied  by  the  rapidly  vibrating  wings,  which  are 
actively  moving  flying  organs.  As,  moreover,  the  wings  travel  at 
a  much  higher  speed  than  any  wind  that  blows,  they  are  superior 


to  and  control  the  wind;  they  enable  the  insect  to  dart  through 
the  wind  in  whatever  direction  it  pleases. 

The  reader  has  only  to  imagine  figs.  8  and  9  cut  out  in  paper  to 
realize  that  extensive,  inert,  horizontal  aeroplanes1  in  a  flying 
machine  would  be  a  mistake.  It  is  found  to  be  so  practically, 
as  will  be  shown  by  and  by.  Fig.  9  so  cut  out  would  be  heavier 
than  fig.  8,  and  if  both  were  exposed  to  a  current  of  air,  fig.  9 
would  be  more  blown  about  than  fig.  8. 

It  is  true  that  in  beetles  and  certain  other  insects  there  are  the 
elytra  or  wing  cases — thin,  light,  horny  structures  inclined 


FIG.  8.— Blow-fly  (Musca  vomitoria)  FIG.  9. — Blow-fly  with  its  wings 
with  its  wings  at  rest.  in  motion  as  in  flight. 

slightly  upwards — which  in  the  act  of  flight  are  spread  out 
and  act  as  sustainers  or  gliders.  The  elytra,  however,  are  com- 
paratively long  narrow  structures  which  occupy  a  position  in 
front  of  the  wings,  of  which  they  may  be  regarded  as  forming 
the  anterior  parts.  The  elytra  are  to  the  delicate  wings  of  some 
insects  what  the  thick  anterior  margins  are  to  stronger  wings. 
The  elytra,  moreover,  are  not  wholly  passive  structures.  They 
can  be  moved,  and  the  angles  made  by  their  under  surfaces  with 
the  horizon  adjusted.  Finally,  they  are  not  essential  to  flight, 
as  flight  in  the  great  majority  of  instances  is  performed  without 
them.  The  elytra  serve  as  protectors  to  the  wings  when  the 
wings  are  folded  upon  the  back  of  the  insect,  and  as  they  are 
extended  on  either  side  of  the  body  more  or  less  horizontally  when 
the  insect  is  flying  they  contribute  to  flight  indirectly,  in  virtue 
of  their  being  carried  forward  by  the  body  in  motion. 

Natural  Flight. — The  manner  in  which  the  wings  of  the  insect 
traverse  the  air,  so  as  practically  to  increase  the  basis  of  support, 
raises  the  whole  subject  of  natural  flight.  It  is  necessary,  there- 
fore, at  this  stage  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  reader  somewhat 
fully  to  the  subject  of  flight,  as  witnessed  in  the  insect,  bird  and 
bat,  a  knowledge  of  natural  flight  preceding,  and  being  in  some 
sense  indispensable  to,  a  knowledge  of  artificial  flight.  The 
bodies  of  flying  creatures  are,  as  a  rule,  very  strong,  compara- 
tively light  and  of  an  elongated  form, — the  bodies  of  birds  being 
specially  adapted  for  cleaving  the  air.  Flying  creatures,  however, 
are  less  remarkable  for  their  strength,  shape  and  comparative 
levity  than  for  the  size  and  extraordinarily  rapid  and  complicated 
movements  of  their  wings.  Prof.  J.  Bell  Pettigrew  first  satis- 
factorily analysed  those  movements,  and  reproduced  them  by 
the  aid  of  artificial  wings.  This  physiologist  in  1867"  showed 
that  all  natural  wings,  whether  of  the  insect,  bird  or  bat,  are 
screws  structurally,  and  that  they  act  as  screws  when  they  are 
made  to  vibrate,  from  the  fact  that  they  twist  in  opposite 
directions  during  the  down  and  up  strokes.  He  also  explained 
that  all  wings  act  upon  a  common  principle,  and  that  they 
present  oblique,  kite-like  surfaces  to  the  air,  through  which  they 
pass  much  in  the  same  way  that  an  oar  passes  through  water 
in  sculling.  He  further  pointed  out  that  the  wings  of  flying 
creatures  (contrary  to  received  opinions,  and  as  has  been  already 
indicated)  strike  downwards  and  forwards  during  the  down 
strokes,  and  upwards  and  forwards  during  the  up  strokes.  Lastly 
he  demonstrated  that  the  wings  of  flying  creatures,'  when  the 

1  By  the  term  aeroplane  is  meant  a  thin,  light,  expanded  structure 
inclined  at  a  slight  upward  angle  to  the  horizon  intended  to  float  or 
rest  upon  the  air,  and  calculated  to  afford  a  certain  amount  of  support 
to  any  body  attached  to  it. 

2  "  On  the  Various  Modes  of  Flight  in  relation  to  Aeronautics," 
by  J.  Bell  Pettigrew,  Proc.  Roy.  Inst.,  1867;    "  On  the  Mechanical 
Appliances  by  which  Flight  is  attained  in  the  Animal  Kingdom," 
by  the  same  author,  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.,  1867. 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


505 


bodies  of  said  creatures  are  fixed,  describe  figure-of-8  tracks  in 
space — the  figure-of-8  tracks,  when  the  bodies  are  released  and 
advancing  as  in  rapid  flight,  being  opened  out  and  converted 
into  waved  tracks. 

It  may  be  well  to  explain  here  that  a  claim  has  been  set  up  by  his 
admirers  for  the  celebrated  artist,  architect  and  engineer,  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  to  be  regarded  as  the  discoverer  of  the  principles  and 
practice  of  flight  (see  Theodore  Andrea  Cook,  Spirals  in  Nature  and 
Art,  1903).  The  claim  is,  however,  unwarranted;  Leonardo's  chief 
work  on  flight,  bearing  the  title  Codice  sul  Volo  degli  Uccelli  e  Varie 
Altre  Materie,  written  in  1505,  consists  of  a  short  manuscript  of 
twenty-seven  small  quarto  pages,  with  simple  sketch  illustrations 
interspersed  in  the  text.  In  addition  he  makes  occasional  references 
to  flight  in  his  other  manuscripts,  which  are  also  illustrated.  In 
none  of  Leonardo's  manuscripts,  however,  and  in  none  of  his  figures, 
is  the  slightest  hint  given  of  his  having  any  knowledge  of  the  spiral 
movements  made  by  the  wing  in  flight  or  of  the  spiral  structure  of  the 
wing  itself.  It  is  claimed  that  Leonardo  knew  the  direction  of  the 
stroke  of  the  wing,  as  revealed  by  recent  researches  and  proved  by 
modern  instantaneous  photography.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Leonardo 
gives  a  wholly  inaccurate  account  of  the  direction  of  the  stroke  of 
the  wing.  He  states  tha't  the  wing  during  the  down  stroke  strikes 
downwards  and  backwards,  whereas  in  reality  it  strikes  downwards 
and  forwards.  In  speaking  of  artificial  flight  Leonardo  says:  "The 
wings  have  to  row  downwards  and  backwards  to  support  the  machine 
on  high,  so  that  it  moves  forward."  In  speaking  of  natural  flight  he 
remarks:  "  If  in  its  descent  the  bird  rows  backwards  with  its  wings 
the  bird  will  move  rapidly;  this  happens  because  the  wings  strike 
the  air  which  successively  runs  behind  the  bird  to  fill  the  void 
whence  it  comes."  There  is  nothing  in  Leonardo's  writings  to  show 
that  he  knew  either  the  anatomy  or  physiology  of  the  wing  in  the 
modern  sense. 

Pettigrew's  discovery  of  the  figure-of-8  and  waved  movements 
made  by  the  wing  in  stationary  and  progressive  flight  was  con- 
firmed some  two  years  after  it  was  made  by  Prof.  E.  J.  Marey 
of  Paris1  by  the  aid  of  the  "sphygmograph."2  The  movements 
in  question  are  now  regarded  as  fundamental,  from  the  fact 
that  they  are  alike  essential  to  natural  and  artificial  flight. 

The  following  is  Pettigrew's  description  of  wings  and  wing 
movements  published  in  1867: — 

"  The  wings  of  insects  and  birds  are,  as  a  rule,  more  or  less  tri- 
angular in  shape,  the  base  of  the  triangle  being  directed  towards  the 
body,  its  sides  anteriorly  and  posteriorly.  They  are  also  conical  on 
section  from  within  outwards  and  from  before  backwards,  this  shape 
converting  the  pinions.into  delicately  graduated  instruments  balanced 
with  the  utmost  nicety  to  satisfy  the  requirements  of  the  muscular 
system  on  the  one  hand  and  the  resistance  and  resiliency  of  the  air 
on  the  other.  While  all  wings  are  graduated  as  explained,  innumer- 
able varieties  occur  as  to  their  general  contour,  some  being  falcated 
or  scythe-like,  others  oblong,  others  rounded  or  circular,  some  lanceo- 
late and  some  linear.  The  wings  of  insects  may  consist  either  of  one 
or  two  pairs — the  anterior  or  upper  pair,  when  two  are  present, 
being  in  some  instances  greatly  modified  and  presenting  a  corneous 
condition.  They  are  then  known  as  elytra,  from  the  Gr.  tXvrpov, 
a  sheath.  Both  pairs  are  composed  of  a  duplicature  of  the  integu- 
ment, or  investing  membrane,  and  are  strengthened  in  various  direc- 
tions by  a  system  of  hollow,  horny  tubes,  known  to  entomologists  as 
the  neurae  or  nervures.  These  nervures  taper  towards  the  extremity 
of  the  wing,  and  are  strongest  towards  its  root  and  anterior  margin, 
where  they  supply  the  place  of  the  arm  in  birds  and  bats.  The  neurae 
are  arranged  at  the  axis  of  the  wing  after  the  manner  of  a  fan  or 
spiral  stair — the  anterior  one  occupying  a  higher  position  than  that 
farther  back,  and  so  of  the  others.  As  this  arrangement  extends  also 
to  the  margins,  the  wings  are  more  or  less  twisted  upon  themselves 
and  present  a  certain  degree  of  convexity  on  their  superior  or  upper 
surface,  and  a  corresponding  concavity  on  their  inferior  or  under 
surface  —their  free  edges  supplying  those  fine  curves  which  act  with 
such  efficacy  upon  the  air  in  obtaining  the  maximum  of  resistance 
and  the  minimum  of  displacement.  As  illustrative  examples  of  the 
form  of  wings  alluded  to,  those  of  the  beetle,  bee  and  fly  may  be  citi 
—the  pinions  in  those  insects  acting  as  helices;  or  twisted  levers,  and 

1  Revue  des  cours  scientifiques  de  la  France  el  del'  Stranger,  1 869. 

8  The  sphygmograph,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  a  recording  instru- 
ment. It  consists  of  a  smoked  cylinder  revolving  by  means  of  clock- 
work at  a  known  speed,  and  a  style  or  pen  which  inscribes  its  surface 
by  scratching  or  brushing  away  the  lampblack  The  movements 
be  registered  are  transferred  to  the  style  or  pen  by  one  or  more  levers, 
and  the  pen  in  turn  transfers  them  to  the  cylinder,  where  they  appear 
as  legible  tracings.  In  registering  the  movements  of  the  wings i  thi 
tips  and  margins  of  the  pinions  were,  by  an  ingenious  modification, 
employed  as  the  styles  or  pens.  By  this  arrangement  the  different 
parts  of  the  wings  were  made  actually  to  record  their  own  movements 
As  will  be  seen  from  this  account  the  figure-of-8  or  wave  theory  of 
stationary  and  progressive  flight  has  been  made  the  subject 
rigorous  experimentum  crucis. 


elevating  weights  much  greater  than  the  area  of  the  wings  would  seem 
to  warrant  "  (figs.  10  and  u).  .  .  .  "  To  confer  on  the  wings  the 
multiplicity  of  movements  which  they  require,  they  are  supplied 
with  double  hinge  or  compound  joints,  which  enable  them  to  move 
not  only  in  an  upward,  downward,  forward  and  backward  direction, 
but  also  at  various  intermediate  degrees  of  obliquity.  An  insect  with 
winjjs  thus  hinged  may,  as  far  as  steadiness  of  body  is  concerned,  be 
not  inaptly  compared  to  a  compass  set  upon  gimbals,  where  the  uni- 
versality of  motion  in  one  direction  ensures  comparative  fixedness 
in  another."  ..."  All  wings  obtain  their  leverage  by  presenting 
oblique  surfaces  to 
the  air,  the  degree 
of  obliquity  gradu- 
ally increasing  in  a 
direction  from  be- 
hind, forwards  and 
downwards,  during 
extension  when  the 
sudden  or  effective 
stroke  is  being  given,  FIG.  JO. — Right  Wing  of  the  Beetle  (Goliathui 
and  gradually  de-  micans)  when  at  rest ;  seen  from  above, 
creasing  in  an  oppo- 
site direction  during 
flexion,  or  when  the 
wing  is  being  more 

slowly  recovered  pre-  FJG  lr._Ri  ht  wing  of  the  Bectic  (Co/J-. 
paratory  to  making  a//mi  OTtVanj)  bwhen  inb  motion;  xen  from 
a  second  stroke  The  behind  This  figure  shows  how  the  wing  twists 

?nictsVe  and Hib  and  untwists  w*"en  in  action'  and  how  !t  forms 
holds  S'true  also  of  a  true  screw> 

birds,  is  therefore  delivered  downwards  and  forwards,  and  not,  as  the 
majority  of  writers  believe,  vertically,  or  even  slightly  backwards  .  .  . 
The  wing  in  the  insect  is  more  flattened  than  in  the  bird ;  and  advan- 
tage is  taken  on  some  occasions  of  this  circumstance,  particularly  in 
heavy-bodied,  small-winged,  quick-flying  insects,  to  reverse  the  pinion 
more  or  less  completely  during  the  down  and  up  strokes."  ...  This 
is  effected  in  the  following  manner.  The  posterior  margin  of 
the  wing  is  made  to  rotate,  during  the  down  stroke,  in  a  direction 
from  above  downwards  and  from  behind  forwards — the  anterior 
margin  travelling  in  an  opposite  direction  and  reciprocating. 
The  wing  may  thus  be  said  to  attack  the  air  by  a  screwing 
movement  from  above.  During  the  up  or  return  stroke,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  posterior  margin  rotates  in  a  direction  from  below  upwards 
and  from  before  backv/ards,  so  that  by  a  similar  but  reverse  screwing 
motion  the  pinion  attacks  the  air  from  beneath."  .  .  ."  A  figure-of-8, 
compressed  laterally  and  placed  obliquely  with  its  long  axis  running 
from  left  to  right  of  the  spectator,  represents  the  movements  in 
question.  The  down  and  up  strokes,  as  will  be  seen  from  this  account, 
cross  each  other,  the  wing  smiting  the  air  during  its  descent  from 
above,  as  in  the  bird  and  bat,  and  during  its  ascent  from  below  as 
in  the  flying  fish  and  boy's  kite  "  (fig.  12). 


FIG.  12  shows  the  figure-of-8  made  by  the  margins  of  the  wing  in 
extension  (continuous  line),  and  flexion  (dotted  line).  As  the  tip  of 
the  wing  is  mid-way  between  its  margins,  a  line  between  the  continu- 
ous and  dotted  lines  gives  the  figure-of-8  made  by  the  tip.  The 
arrows  indicate  the  reversal  of  the  planes  of  the  wing,  and  show  how 
the  down  and  up  strokes  cross  each  other. 

..."  The  figure-of-8  action  of  the  wing  explains  how  an  insect 
or  bird  may  fix  itself  in  the  air,  the  backward  and  forward  recipro- 
cating action  of  the  pinion  affording  support,  but  no  propulsion. 
In  the^e  instances  the  backward  and  forward  strokes  are  made  to 
counterbalance  each  other.  Although  the  figure-of-8  represents  with 
considerable  fidelity  the  twisting  of  the  wing  upon  its  axis  during 
extension  and  flexion,  when  the  insect  is  playing  its  wings  before  an 
object,  or  still  better  when  it  is  artificially  fixed,  it  is  otherwise  when 
the  down  stroke  is  added  and  the  insect  is  fairly  on  the  wing  and  pro- 
gressing rapidly.  In  this  case  the  wing,  in  virtue  of  its  being  carried 
Forward  by  the  body  in  motion,  describes  an  undulating  or  spiral 
course,  as  shown  in  ng.  13." 

..."The  down  and  up  strokes  are  compound  movements — 
the  termination  of  the  down  stroke  embracing  the  beginning  of  the 
up  stroke,  and  the  termination  of  the  up  stroke  including  the  begin- 
ning of  the  down  stroke.  This  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  down 
and  up  strokes  may  glide  into  each  other  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
prevent  jerking  and  unnecessary  retardation."  *  ... 

8  This  continuity  of  the  down  into  the  up  stroke  and  the  converse 
is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  elastic  ligaments  at  the  root  and  in  the 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


"  The  wing  of  the  bird,  like  that  of  the  insect,  is  concavo-convex, 
and  more  or  less  twisted  upon  itself  when  extended,  so  that  the  anterior 
or  thick  margin  of  the  pinion  presents  a  different  degree  of  curvature 
to  that  of  the  posterior  or  thm  margin.  This  twisting  is  in  a  great 
measure  owing  to  the  manner  in  which  the  bones  of  the  wing  are 
twisted  upon  themselves,  and  the  spiral  nature  of  their  articular 
surfaces — the  long  axes  of  the  joints  always  intersecting  each  other 

- 


FIG.  13. — Wave  track  made  by  the  wing  in  progressive  flight,  a,  b, 
Crests  of  the  wave;  c,  d,  e,  up  strokes;  x,  x,  down  strokes;  /,  point 
corresponding  to  the  anterior  margin  of  the  wing,  and  forming  a  centre 
for  the  downward  rotation  of  the  wing  (a,  g) ;  g,  point  corresponding 
to  the  posterior  margin  of  the  wing,  and  forming  a  centre  for  the 
upward  rotation  of  the  wing  (d,  f). 

at  right  angles,  and  the  bones  of  the  elbow  and  wrist  making  a  quarter 
of  a  turn  or  so  during  extension  and  the  same  amount  during  flexion. 
As  a  result  of  this  disposition  of  the  articular  surfaces,  the  wing  .may 
be  shot  out  or  extended,  and  retracted  or  flexed  in  nearly  the  same 
plane,  the  bones  composing  the  wing  rotating  on  their  axes  during 
either  movement  (fig.  14).  The  secondary  action,  or  the  revolving  of 


Extension  (elbow). 


Flexion  (wrist). 


Flexion  (elbow). 


Extension  (wrist). 


FIG.  15.- 

legged  Partridge  (Perdix  rubra).  Dorsal    waY. 
aspect  as  seen  from  above. 


FIG.  14. — a,  b,  line  along  which  the  wing  travels  during  extension 
and  flexion.  The  arrows  indicate  the  direction  in  which  the  wing  is 
spread  out  in  extension  and  closed  or  folded  in  flexion. 

the  component  bones  on  their  own  axes,  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
in  the  movements  of  the  wing,  as  it  communicates  to  the  hand  and 
forearm,  and  consequently  to  the  primary  and  secondary  feathers 
which  they  bear,  the  precise  angles  necessary  for  flight.  It  in  fact 
ensures  that  the  wing,  and  the  curtain  or  fringe  of  the  wing  which 
the  primary  and  secondary  feathers  form,  shall  be  screwed  into  and 
down  upon  the  wind  in  extension,  and  unscrewed  or  withdrawn 
from  the  wind  during  flexion.  The  wing  of  the  bird  may  therefore 
be  compared  to  a  huge  gimlet  or  auger,  the  axis  of  the  gimlet  repre- 
senting the  bones  of  the  wing,  the  flanges  or  spiral  thread  of  the  gimlet 

the  primary  and  secondary 
feathers  "  (figs.  15  and  16). 
..."  From  this  descrip- 
tion it  will  be  evident  that 
by  the  mere  rotation  of  the 
bones  of  the  forearm  and 
hand  the  maximum  and 
minimum  of  resistance  is 

-Right  Wing  of  the  Red-  secured  much  in  the  same 
•  way  that  this  object  is 
attained  by  the  alternate 
dipping  and  feathering  of 
an  oar."  ..."  The  wing,  both  when  at  rest  and  when  in  motion, 
may  not  inaptly  be  compared  to  the  blade  of  an  ordinary  screw 
propeller  as  employed  in  navigation.  Thus  the  general  outline  of 

the  wing  corresponds  closely 
with  the  outline  of  the 
propeller  (figs.  II,  16  and 
18),  and  the  track  described 
by  the  wing  in  space  is 
twisted  upon  itself  propeller 

FIG.  16.— Right  Wing  of  the  Red-  fashion1  (figs.  12,  20,  21, 
legged  Partridge  (Perdix  rubra).  Dorsal  22,  23).  The  great  velocity 
and  ventral  aspects  as  seen  from  be-  w'th  which  the  wing  is 
hind;  showing  auger-like  conformation  driven  converts  the  impres- 
of  wing.  Compare  with  figs.  II  and  18.  ?lon  or  D.lur  made  by  it 

into  what  is  equivalent  to  a 

solid  for  the  time  being,  in  the  same  way  that  the  spokes  of  a  wheel 
in  violent  motion,  as  is  well  understood,  more  or  less  completely 

substance  of  the  wing.  These  assist  in  elevating,  and,  when  necessary, 
in  flexing  and  elevating  it.  They  counteract  in  some  measure  what 
may  be  regarded  as  the  dead  weight  of  the  wing,  and  are  especially 
useful  in  giving  it  continuous  play. 

1  "  The  importance  of  the  twisted  configuration  or  screw-like  form 
cannot  be  over-estimated.  That  this  shape  is  intimately  associated 
with  flight  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  the  rowing  feathers  of  the 
wing  of  the  bird  are  every  one  of  them  distinctly  spiral  in  their 
nature ;  in  fact,  one  entire  rowing  feather  is  equivalent — morpho- 
logically and  physiologically — to  one  entire  insect  wing.  In  the 


occupy  the  space  contained  within  the  rim  or  circumference  of  the 
wheel  "  (figs.  9,  20  and  21). 

..."  The  wing  of  the  bat  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  insect,  inasmuch  as  it  consists  of  a  delicate,  semi-trans- 
parent,  continuous 
membrane,  supported  in 
divers  directions,  par- 
ticularly towards  its 
anterior  margin,  by  a 
system  of  osseous  stays 
or  stretchers  which  con- 
fer upon  it  the  degree 
of  rigidity  requisite  for 
flight.  It  is,  as  a  rule, 
deeply  concave  on  its  FIG.  17.— Right  Wing  of  the  Bat  (Phyl- 
under  or  ventral  surface,  locina  gracilis).  Dorsal  aspect  as  seen  from 
and  in  this  respect  re-  above, 
sembles  the  wing  of  the 

heavy-bodied  birds.  The  movement  of  the  bat's  wing  in  extension 
is  a  spiral  one,  the  spiral  running  alternately  from  below  upwards 
and  forwards  and  from  above  downwards  and  backwards.  The 
action  of  the  wing  of  the  bat,  and  the  movements  of  its  component 
bones,  are  essentially 
the  same  as  in  the  bird  ' 
(figs.  17  and  18). 

.  .  .  "The  wing  strikes 
the  air  precisely  as  a 
boy's  kite  would  if  it 
were  Jerked  by  its  string,  FlG  l8._R;  ht  W;  of  the  Bat  (ph  ,_ 

Ih  *   &  ^rence  being   iocina  graciUs} .  Dorsal  and  ventral  aspects, 
that  the   kite  is  putted    as   seesn   ^   behind      These     h  ^     h^ 

forwards  upon  the  wind    screw.like  configuration  of  the  wing,  and 

by   the   string   and   the    also  how  the  wi        twists  and   untwists 

hand,    whereas    in    the    during  its  action. 

insect,     bird     and     bat 

the  wing  is  pushed  forwards  on  the  wind  by  the  weight  of  the  body 

and  the  power  residing  in  the  pinion  itself  "  (fig.         2 


FIG.  19. — The  Cape  Barn-owl  (Strix  capensis),  showing  the  kite- 
like  surfaces  presented  by  the  ventral  aspect  of  the  wings  and  body 
in  flight. 

The  figure-of-8  and  kite-like  action  of  the  wing  referred  to 
lead  us  to  explain  how  it  happens  that  the  wing,  which  in  many 
instances  is  a  comparatively  small  and  delicate  organ,  can  yet 
attack  the  air  with  such  vigour  as  to  extract  from  it  the  recoil 
necessary  to  elevate  and  propel  the  flying  creature.  The  accom- 
panying figures  from  one  of  Pettigrew's  later  memoirs3  will 
serve  to  explain  the  rationale  (figs.  20,  21,  22  and  23). 

As  will  be  seen  from  these  figures,  the  wing  during  its  vibration 
sweeps  through  a  comparatively  very  large  space.  This  space, 
as  already  explained,  is  practically  a  solid  basis  of  support  for 
the  wing  and  for  the  flying  animal.  The  wing  attacks  the  air 
in  such  a  manner  as  virtually  to  have  no  slip — this  for  two 
reasons.  The  wing  reverses  instantly  and  acts  as  a  kite  during 
nearly  the  entire  down  and  up  strokes.  The  angles,  moreover, 
made  by  the  wing  with  the  horizon  during  the  down  and  up 
strokes  are  at  no  two  intervals  the  same,  but  (?.nd  this  is  a 


wing  of  the  martin,  where  the  bones  of  the  pinion  are  short,  and  in 
some  respects  rudimentary,  the  primary  and  secondary  feathers  are 
greatly  developed,  and  banked  up  in  such  a  manner  that  the  wing 
as  a  whole  presents  the  same  curves  as  those  displayed  by  the 
insect's  wing,  or  by  the  wing  of  the  eagle,  where  the  bones,  muscles 
and  feathers  have  attained  a  maximum  development.  The  con- 
formation of  the  wing  is  such  that  it  presents  a  waved  appearance 
in  every  direction — the  waves  running  longitudinally,  transversely 
and  obliquely.  The  greater  portion  of  the  wing  may  consequently 
be  removed  without  essentially  altering  either  its  form  or  its  func- 
tions. This  is  proved  by  making  sections  in  various  directions, 
and  by  finding  that  in  some  instances  as  much  as  two-thirds  of  the 
wing  may  be  lopped  off  without  materially  impairing  the  power  of 
flight." — -Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edin.  vol.  xxyi.  pp.  325,  326. 

"  On  the  Various  Modes  of  Flight  in  relation  to  Aeronautics," 
Prpc.  Roy.  Inst.,  1867;  "  On  the  Mechanical  Appliances  by  which 
Flight  is  attained  in  the  Animal  Kingdom,"  Trans.  Linn.  Soc., 
1867,  26. 

3  "  On  the  Physiology  of  Wings;  being  an  analysis  of  the  move- 
ments by  which  flight  is  produced  in  the  Insect,  Bat  and  Bird," 
Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edin.  vol.  26. 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


remarkable  circumstance)  they  are  always  adapted  to  the  speed 
at  which  the  wing  is  travelling  for  the  time  being.  The  increase 
and  decrease  in  the  angles  made  by  the  wing  as  it  hastens  to 
and  fro  are  due  partly  to  the  resistance  offered  by  the  air,  anc 
partly  to  the  mechanism  and  mode  of  application  of  the  wing 
to  the  air.  The  wing,  during  its  vibrations,  rotates  upon  two 
.  separate  centres,  the  tip  rotating  round  the  root  of  the  wing  as 
an  axis  (short  axis  of  wing),  the  posterior  margin  rotating  arounc 


FIG.  20. 


FIG.  21. 


FIG.  22.  FIG.  23. 

FIGS.  20,  21,  22  and  23  show  the  area  mapped  out  by  the  left  wing 
of  the  Wasp  when  the  insect  is  fixed  and  the  wing  made  to  vibrate. 
These  figures  illustrate  the  various  angles  made  by  the  wing  with  the 
horizon  as  it  hastens  to  and  fro,  and  show  how  the  wing  reverses  and 
reciprocates,  and  how  it  twists  upon  itself  in  opposite  directions,  and 
describes  a  figure-of-8  track  in  space.  Figs.  20  and  22  represent  the 
forward  or  down  stroke  (a  b  c  d  ef  g),  figs.  21  and  23  the  backward 
or  up  stroke  (g  h  ij  k  I  a).  The  terms  forward  and  back  strokes  are 
here  employed  with  reference  to  the  head  of  the  insect,  x,  x',  line 
to  represent  the  horizon.  If  fig.  22,  representing  the  down  or  forward 
stroke,  be  placed  upon  fig.  23,  representing  the  up  or  backward 
stroke,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  wing  crosses  its  own  track  more  or  less 
completely  at  every  stage  of  the  down  and  up  strokes. 

the  anterior  margin  (long  axis  of  wing).  The  wing  is  really 
eccentric  in  its  nature,  a  remark  which  applies  also  to  the  rowing 
feathers  of  the  bird's  wing.  The  compound  rotation  goes  on 
throughout  the  entire  down  and  up  strokes,  and  is  intimately 
associated  with  the  power  which  the  wing  enjoys  of  alternately 
seizing  and  evading  the  air. 

The  compound  rotation  of  the  wing  is  greatly  facilitated  by 
the  wing  being  elastic  and  flexible.  It  is  this  which  causes  the 
wing  to  twist  and  untwist  diagonally  on  its  long  axis  when  it  is 
made  to  vibrate.  The  twisting  referred  to  is  partly  a  vital  and 
partly  a  mechanical  act; — that  is,  it  is  occasioned  in  part  by 
the  action  of  the  muscles  and  in  part  by  the  greater  resistance 
experienced  from  the  air  by  the  tip  and  posterior  margin  of  the 
wing  as  compared  with  the  root  and  anterior  margin, — the  re- 
sistance experienced  by  the  tip  and  posterior  margin  causing 
them  to  reverse  always  subsequently  to  the  root  and  anterior 
margin,  which  has  theeffect  of  throwing  the  anterior  and  posterior 
margins  of  the  wing  into  figure-of-8  curves,  as  shown  at  figs. 
9,  n,  12,  16,  18,  20,  21,  22  and  23. 

The  compound  rotation  of  the  wing,  as  seen  in  the  bird,  is 
represented  in  fig.  24. 

Not  the  least  curious  feature  of  the  wing  movements  is  the 
remarkable  power  which  the  wing  possesses  of  making  and 
utilizing  its  own  currents.  Thus,  when  the  wing  descends  it 
draws  after  it  a  strong  current,  which,  being  met  by  the  wing 
during  its  ascent,  greatly  increases  the  efficacy  of  the  up  stroke. 
Similarly  and  conversely,  when  the  wing  ascends,  it  creates  an 
upward  current,  which,  being  met  by  the  wing  when  it  descends, 
powerfully  contributes  to  the  efficiency  of  the  down  stroke. 
This  statement  can  be  readily  verified  by  experiment  both  with 
natural  and  artificial  wings.  Neither  the  up  nor  the  down  strokes 
are  complete  in  themselves. 

The  wing  to  act  efficiently  must  be  driven  at  a  certain  speed, 
and  in  such  a  manner  that  the  down  and  up  strokes  shall  glide 
into  each  other.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that  the  air  can  be  made 
to  pulsate,  and  that  the  rhythm  of  the  wing  and  the  air  waves 
can  be  made  to  correspond.  The  air  must  be  seized  and  let  go 
in  a  certain  order  and  at  a  certain  speed  to  extract  a  maximum 


recoil.  The  rapidity  of  the  wing  movements  is  regulated  by  the 
size  of  the  wing,  small  wings  being  driven  at  a  very  much  higher 
speed  than  larger  ones.  The  different  parts  of  the  wing,  more- 
over, travel  at  different  degrees  of  velocity— the  tip  and  posterior 
margin  of  the  wing  always  rushing  through  a  much  greater 
space,  in  a  given  time,  than  the  root  and  anterior  margin. 


..-•-' k 


/ p]"'     ~k  J  * 

FIG.  24. — Wing  of  the  Bird  with  its  root  (a,  b)  cranked  forwards. 
a,  b,    Short  axis  of  the  wing  (axis  their  long  axis   (they  are 

for  tip  of  wing,  h).  eccentrics)   enables   them 

c,  d,     Long  axis  (axis  for  posterior  to  open  or  separate  during 

margin  of  wing,  h,  i,  j,  k,  I).  the  up,  and  close  or  come 

m,  n,  Short   axis   of   rowing  together  during  the  down 

feathers  of  wing.  strokes. 

r,  s,     Long  axis  of  rowing  feathers  ef,  g  p,  concave  shape  presented 

of  wing.     The   rotation  of  by  the  under  surface  of  the 

the    rowing     feathers    on  wing. 

The  rapidity  of  travel  of  the  insect  wing  is  in  some  cases 
enormous.  The  wasp,  for  instance,  is  said  to  ply  its  wings  at 
the  rate  of  no,  and  the  common  house-fly  at  the  rate  of  330 
beats  per  second.  Quick  as  are  the  vibrations  of  natural  wings, 
the  speed  of  certain  parts  of  the  wing  is  amazingly  increased. 
Wings  as  a  rule  are  long  and  narrow.  As  a  consequence,  a 
comparatively  slow  and  very 
limited  movement  at  the  root 
confers  great  range  and  im- 
mense speed  at  the  tip,  the 
speed  of  each  portion  of  the 
wing  increasing  as  the  root  of 
the  wing  is  receded  from.  This 
is  explained  on  a  principle  well 
understood  in  mechanics,  viz. 
that  when  a  wing  or  rod 
hinged  at  one  end  is  made  to 
move  in  a  circle,  the  tip  or 
free  end  of  the  wing  or  rod 
describes  a  much  wider  circle 
in  a  given  time  than  a  portion  ^^  teWS±gW  $!%% 
of  the  wing  or  rod  nearer  the  different  degrees  of  speed.  In  this 
hinge  (fig.  25).  figure  the  rod  a,  b,  hinged  at  x, 

One  naturally  inquires  why   represents  the  wing.     When   the 

the  hieh  soeed  of  wines  and  Wlng  IS  madc  to  Vlbrate. lts  several 

1  wings,  ai  1  portions  travel  through  the  spaces 

why  the  progressive  increase  d  b  f,  j  k  I,  g  h  i,  and  e  a  c  in 

of    speed    at    their    tips    and  exactly  the  same  interval  of  time, 

posterior  margins?    The  Tlie  Part  of  the  W'n8  marked  6, 

answer  is  not  far  tn  sppt       Tf  wl"ch   corresponds   with   the   tip, 

1  consequently   travels   very    much 

the  wings  were  not  driven  at  more  rapidly  than  the  part  marked 

a  high  speed,  and  if  they  were  o,  which  corresponds  with  the  root, 

not  eccentrics  made  to  revolve  m  n<  °  P<  curves  made  by  the  wing 

upon  two  separate  axes,  they   at  ^e  end  of  .*.he  uP,and  -down 
...  *    strokes;   r,  position  of  the  wing  at 

would  of  necessity  be    large    the  middle  of  the  stroke, 
cumbrous  structures;   but 

large  heavy  wings  would  be  difficult  to  work,  and  what  is 
worse,  they  would  (if  too  large),  instead  of  controlling  the 
air,  be  controlled  by  it,  and  so  cease  to  be  flying  organs. 

There  is,  however,  another  reason  why  wings  should  be  made 
to  vibrate  at  high  speeds.  The  air,  as  explained,  is  a  very  light, 
thin,  elastic  medium,  which  yields  on  the  slightest  pressure,  and 
unless  the  wings  attacked  it  with  great  violence  the  necessary 
recoil  or  resistance  could  not  be  obtained.  The  atmosphere, 
)ecause  of  its  great  tenuity,  mobility  and  comparative  imponder- 
ability, presents  little  resistance  to  bodies  passing  through  it  at 
ow  velocities.  If,  however,  the  speed  be  greatly  accelerated, 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


\/t 


the  action  of  even  an  ordinary  cane  is  sufficient  to  elicit  a  recoil. 
This  comes  of  the  action  and  reaction  of  matter,  the  resistance 
experienced  varying  according  to  the  density  of  the  atmosphere 
and  the  shape,  extent  and  velocity  of  the  body  acting  upon  it. 
While,  therefore,  scarcely  any  impediment  is  offered  to  the  pro- 
gress of  an  animal  in  motion  in  the  air,  it  is  often  exceedingly 
difficult  to  compress  the  air  with  sufficient  rapidity  and  energy 
to  convert  it  into  a  suitable  fulcrum  for  securing  the  necessary 
support  and  forward  impetus.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that 
bodies  moving  in  air  experience  a  minimum  of  resistance  and 
occasion  a  maximum  of  displacement.  Another  and  very  obvious 
difficulty  is  traceable  to  the  great  disparity  in  the  weight  of  air 
as  compared  with  any  known  solid,  and  the  consequent  want  of 
buoying  or  sustaining  power  which  that  disparity  involves.  If 
we  compare  air  with  water  we  find  it  is  nearly  1000  times  lighter. 
To  meet  these  peculiarities  the  insect,  bird  and  bat  are  furnished 
with  extensive  flying  surfaces  in  the  shape  of  wings,  which  they 
apply  with  singular  velocity  and  power  to  the  air,  as  levers  of 
the  third  order.  In  this  form  of  lever  the  power  is  applied 
between  the  fulcrum  and  the  weight  to  be  raised.  The  power 
is  represented  by  the  wing,  the  fulcrum  by  the  air,  and  the 
weight  by  the  body  of  the  flying  animal.  Although  the  third 
order  of  lever  is  particularly  inefficient  when  the  fulcrum  is  rigid 
and  immobile,  it  possesses  singular  advantages  when  these 
conditions  are  reversed,  that  is,  when  the  fulcrum,  as  happens 
with  the  air,  is  elastic  and  yielding.  In  this  instance  a  very  slight 
movement  at  the  root  of  the  pinion,  or  that  end  of  the  lever 

directed  towards  the  body, 
is  followed  by  an  immense 
sweep  of  the  extremity  of 
the  wing,  where  its  elevat- 

•  ^^^\  'n£  an<^  ProPelung  power 

/  ^^^>  ,--'"'      is  greatest — this  arrange- 

ment ensuring  that  the 
large  quantity  of  air 
necessary  for  support  and 
propulsion  shall  be  com- 
pressed under  the  most 
favourable  conditions. 

In  this  process  the 
weight  of  the  body  per- 
forms an  important  part, 
by  acting  upon  the  in- 
clined planes  formed  by 
the  wings  in  the  plane  of 
progression.  The  power 
and  the  weight  may  thus 
be  said  to  reciprocate,  the 
two  sitting  as  it  were  side 
by  side  and  blending  their 
peculiar  influences  to  pro- 
duce a  common  result,  as 
indicated  at  fig.  26. 

When  the  wings  descend 
they  elevate  the  body,  the 
wings  being  active  and 
the  body  passive;  when 
the  body  descends  it  con- 
tributes to  the  elevation  of 
the  wings,1  the  body  being 

active  and  the  wings  more  or  less  passive.  It  is  in  this  way  that 
weight  forms  a  factor  in  flight,  the  wings  and  the  weight  of  the  body 
reciprocating  and  mutually  assisting  and  relieving  each  other. 
This  is  an  argument  for  employing  four  wings  in  artificial  flight, — 
the  wings  being  so  arranged  that  the  two  which  are  up  shall 
always  by  their  fall  mechanically  elevate  the  two  which  are 
down.  Such  an  arrangement  is  calculated  greatly  to  conserve 
the  driving  power,  and  as  a  consequence,  to  reduce  the  weight. 

1  The  other  forces  which  assist  in  elevating  the  wings  are — (a)  the 
elevator  muscles  of  the  wings,  (6)  the  elastic  properties  of  the  wings, 
and  (c)  the  reaction  of  the  compressed  air  on  the  under  surfaces  of 
the  wings. 


u 

w 

?IG.  26. — In  this  figure/, /'represent 
the  movable  fulcra  furnished  by  the 
air,  p  p'  the  power  residing  in  the  wing, 
and  6  the  body  to  be  moved.  In  order 
to  make  the  problem  of  flight  more  in- 
telligible, the  lever  formed  by  the  wing 
is  prolonged  beyond  the  body  (6),  and 
to  the  root  of  the  wing  so  extended  the 
weight  (w,  w')  is  attached ;  x  represents 
the  universal  joint  by  which  the  wing 
is  attached  to  the  body.  When  the 
wing  ascends  as  shown  at  p,  the  air 
(fulcrum  /)  resists  its  upward  passage, 
and  forces  the  body  (6)  or  its  repre- 
sentative (ID)  slightly  downwards. 
When  the  wing  descends  as  shown  at 
p',  the  air  (fulcrum/')  resists  its  down- 
ward passage,  and  forces  the  body  (b) 
or  its  representative  (w')  slightly  up- 
wards. From  this  it  follows  that  when 
the  wing  rises  the  body  falls,  and  vice 
versa — the  wing  describing  the  arc  of 
a  large  circle  (//'),  the  body  (b),  or  the 
weights  (w,  w')  representing  it,  describ- 
ing the  arc  of  a  small  circle. 


That  the  weight  of  the  body  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
production  of  flight  may  be  proved  by  a  very  simple  experiment. 
If  two  quill  feathers  are  fixed  in  an  ordinary  cork,  and  so  arranged 
that  they  expand  and  arch 
above  it  (fig.  27),  it  is  found 
that  if  the  apparatus  be 
dropped  from  a  vertical 

height    of   3    yds.   it   does  I  \e 

not  fall  vertically  down- 
wards, but  downwards  and 
forwards  in  a  curve,  the 
forward  travel  amounting 
in  some  instances  to  a  yard 
and  a  half.  Here  the  cork, 
in  falling,  acts  upon  the 
feathers  (which  are  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  wings), 
and  these  in  turn  act  upon 
the  air,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  produce  a  horizontal 
transference. 

In  order  to  utilize  the  air 


ie 


FIG.  27. — a,  b,  quill  feathers;  c, 
cork ;  d,  e,  f,  g,  downward  and  for- 
ward curved  trajectory  made  by  the 
feathers  and  cork  before  reaching  the 
ground  (h,  i). 


as  a  means  of  transit,  the  body  in  motion,  whether  it  moves 
in  virtue  of  the  life  it  possesses,  or  because  of  a  force  super- 
added,  must  be  heavier  than  air.  It  must  tread  with  its 
wings  and  rise  upon  the  air  as  a  swimmer  upon  the  water, 
or  as  a  kite  upon  the  wind.  This  is  necessary  for  the  simple 
reason  that  the  body  must  be  active,  the  air  passive.  The 
flying  body  must  act  against  gravitation,  and  elevate  and 
carry  itself  forward  at  the  expense  of  the  air  and  of  the  force 
which  resides  in  it,  whatever  that  may  be.  If  it  were  other- 
wise— if  it  were  rescued  from  the  law  of  gravitation  on  the 
one  hand,  and  bereft  of  independent  movement  on  the  other, 
it  would  float  about  uncontrolled  and  uncontrollable  like  an 
ordinary  balloon. 

In  flight  one  of  two  things  is  necessary.  Either  the  wings  must 
attack  the  air  with  great  violence,  or  the  air  in  rapid  motion  must 
attack  the  wings:  either  suffices.  If  a  bird  attempts  to  fly  in  a 
calm,  the  wings  must  be  made  to  smite  the  air  after  the  manner 
of  a  boy's  kite  with  great  vigour  and  at  a  high  speed.  In  this 
case  the  wings  fly  the  bird.  If,  however,  the  bird  is  fairly 
launched  in  space  and  a  stiff  breeze  is  blowing,  all  that  is  required 
in  many  instances  is  to  extend  the  wings  at  a  slight,  upward 
angle  to  the  horizon  so  that  the  under  parts  of  the  wings  present 
kite-like  surfaces.  In  these  circumstances  the  rapidly  moving 
air  flies  the  bird.  The  flight  of  the  albatross  supplies  the  necessary 
illustration.  If  by  any  chance  this  magnificent  bird  alights 
upon  the  sea  he  must  flap  and  beat  the  water  and  air  with  his 
wings  with  tremendous  energy  until  he  gets  fairly  launched. 
This  done  he  extends  his  enormous  pinions2  and  sails  majestically 
along,  seldom  deigning  to  flap  his  wings,  the  breeze  doing  the 
work  for  him.  A  familiar  illustration  of  the  same  principle  may 
be  witnessed  any  day  when  children  are  engaged  in  the  pastime 
of  kite-flying.  If  two  boys  attempt  to  fly  a  kite  in  a  calm,  the 
one  must  hold  up  the  kite  and  let  go  when  the  other  runs.  In 
this  case  the  under  surface  of  the  kite  is  made  to  strike  the  still 
air.  If,  however,  a  stiff  autumn  breeze  be  blowing,  it  suffices  if 
the  boy  who  formerly  ran  when  the  kite  was  let  go  stands  still. 
In  this  case  the  air  in  rapid  motion  strikes  the  under  surface 
of  the  kite  and  forces  it  up.  The  string  and  the  hand  are  to  the 
kite  what  the  weight  of  the  flying  creature  is  to  the  inclined 
planes  formed  by  its  wings. 

The  area  of  the  insect,  bird  and  bat,  when  the  wings  are  fully 
expanded,  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  class  of  animal, 
their  weight  being  proportionally  less.  As  already  stated, 
however,  it  ought  never  to  be  forgotten  that  even  the  lightest 
insect,  bird  or  bat  is  vastly  heavier  than  the  air,  and  that  no 
fixed  relation  exists  between  the  weight  of  body  and  expanse 
of  wing  in  any  of  the  orders.  We  have  thus  light-bodied  and 

2  The  wings  of  the  albatross,  when  fully  extended,  measure  across 
the  back  some  14  ft.  They  are  exceedingly  narrow,  being  sometimes 
under  a  foot  in  width. 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


509 


large- winged  insects  and  birds,  as  the  butterfly  and  heron;  and 
others  with  heavy  bodies  and  small  wings,  as  the  beetle  and 
partridge.  Similar  remarks  are  to  be  made  of  bats.  Those 
apparent  inconsistencies  in  the  dimensions  of  the  body  and  wings 
are  readily  explained  by  the  greater  muscular  development 
of  the  heavy-bodied,  small-winged  insects,  birds  and  bats,  and 
the  increased  power  and  rapidity  with  which  the  wings  in  them 
are  made  to  oscillate.  This  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the 
science  of  aviation,  as  showing  that  flight  may  be  attained  by  a 
heavy  powerful  animal  with  comparatively  small  wings,  as  well 
as  by  a  lighter  one  with  greatly  enlarged  wings.  While,  therefore, 
there  is  apparently  no  correspondence  between  the  area  of  the 
wing  and  the  animal  to  be  raised,  there  is,  except  in  the  case  of 
sailing  insects,  birds  and  bats,  an  unvarying  relation  as  to  the 
weight  and  number  of  oscillations;  so  that  the  problem  of  flight 
would  seem  to  resolve  itself  into  one  of  weight,  power,  velocity 
and  small  surfaces,  versus  buoyancy,  debility,  diminished  speed 
and  extensive  surfaces — weight  in  either  case  being  a  sine  qua 
non. 

That  no  fixed  relation  exists  between  the  area  of  the  wings  and 
the  size  and  weight  of  the  body  to 
be  elevated  is  evident  on  comparing 
the  dimensions  of  the  wings  and 
bodies  of  the  several  orders  of  insects, 
bats  and  birds.  If  such  comparison 
be  made,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
pinions  in  some  instances  diminish 
while  the  bodies  increase,  and  the 
converse.  No  practical  good  can 
therefore  accrue  to  aviation  from 
elaborate  measurements  of  the  wings 
and  body  of  any  flying  thing;  neither 
can  any  rule  be  laid  down  as  to  the 
extent  of  surface  required  for  sus- 
taining a  given  weight  in  the  air. 
The  statements  here  advanced  are 
borne  out  by  the  fact  that  the  wings 
of  insects,  bats  and  birds  may  be 
materially  reduced  without  impair- 
ing their  powers  of  flight.  In  such 
cases  the  speed  with  which  the 
wings  are  driven  is  increased  in 
the  direct  ratio  of  the  mutilation. 
The  inference  to  be  deduced  from  the  foregoing  is  plainly  this, 
that  even  in  large-bodied,  small-winged  insects  and  birds  the 
wing-surface  is  greatly  in  excess,  the  surplus  wing  area  supplying 


this  we  have  a  partial  explanation  of  the  buoyancy  of  insects, 
and  the  great  lifting  power  possessed  by  birds  and  bats, — the 
bats  carrying  their  young  without  inconvenience,  the  birds  elevat- 
ing surprising  quantities  of  fish,  game,  carrion,  &c.  (fig.  28). 

While  as  explained,  no  definite  relation  exists  between  the 
weight  of  a  flying  animal  and  the  size  of  its  flying  surfaces,  there 
being,  as  stated,  heavy-bodied  and  small-winged  insects,  birds 
and  bats,  and  the  converse,  and  while,  as  has  been  shown,  flight 
is  possible  within  a  wide  range,  the  wings  being,  as  a  rule,  in 
excess  of  what  are  required  for  the  purposes  of  flight. — still  it 
appears  from  the  researches  of  L.  de  Lucy  that  there  is  a  general 
law,  to  the  effect  that  the  larger  the  volant  animal,  the  smaller, 
by  comparison,  are  its  flying  surfaces.  The  existence  of  such 
a  law  is  very  encouraging  so  far  as  artificial  flight  is  concerned, 
for  it  shows  that  the  flying  surfaces  of  a  large,  heavy,  powerful 
flying  machine  will  be  comparatively  small,  and  consequently 
comparatively  compact  and  strong.  This  is  a  point  of  very 
considerable  importance,  as  the  object  desiderated  in  a  flying 
machine  is  elevating  capacity. 

De  Lucy  tabulated  his  results  as  under: — 


INSECTS. 

BIRDS. 

Flying  Surface 

referred  to  the 

Names. 

Kilogramme 
=  2  IbSoz.  3dwt. 

Names. 

Flying  Surface 
referred  to  the 

2  er.  avoird. 

Kilogramme. 

=  2  10307.4-428 

dr.  troy. 

yds.     ft.     in. 

sq. 
yds.    ft.       in. 

Gnat           

II       8       92 

Swallow      .... 

i       i       104} 

Dragon-fly  (small) 
Coccinella  (Lady-bird)     . 

7       2       56 
5     13       87 

Sparrow     .... 
Turtle-dove 

o      5      142! 
o      4      100} 

Dragon-fly  (common) 
Tipula.or  Daddy-long-legs 

5      2       89 

35" 

Pigeon        .... 
Stork  

0        2         113 

02        20 

Bee              

i       2       74* 

Vulture      ... 

o      i       116 

Meat-fly     . 

i       3      54* 

Crane  of  Australia    . 

o      o      130 

Drone  (blue) 

I         2         20 

Cockchafer      .... 

I         2         50 

{  Stag-beetle  { 

T            T           IQi 

(female)  ) 

I            1           oV2 

Stag-beetle  ) 
(male)    \ 

o      8      33 

Rhinoceros-beetle 

o      6     122! 

FIG.  28. — Hawk  and  Pigeon. 

that  degree  of  elevating  and  sustaining  power  which  is  necessary 
to  prevent  undue  exertion  on  the  part  of  the  volant  animal.   I 


"  It  is  easy,  by  the  aid  of  this  table,  to  follow  the  order,  always 
decreasing,  of  the  surfaces,  in  proportion  as  the  winged  animal  in- 
creases in  size  and  weight.  Thus,  in  comparing  the  insects  with  one 
another,  we  find  that  the  gnat,  which  weighs  460  times  less  than  the 
stag-beetle,  has  14  times  more  of  surface.  The  lady-bird  weighs 
150  times  less  than  the  stag-beetle,  and  possesses  5  times  more  of 
surface,  &c.  It  is  the  same  with  the  birds.  The  sparrow  weighs 
about  10  times  less  than  the  pigeon,  and  has  twice  as  much  surface. 
The  pigeon  weighs  about  8  times  less  than  the  stork,  and  has  twice 
as  much  surface.  The  sparrow  weighs  339  times  less  than  the 
Australian  crane,  and  possesses  7  times  more  surface,  &c.  If  now 
we  compare  the  insects  and  the  birds,  the  gradation  will  become 
even  much  more  striking.  The  gnat,  for  example,  weighs  97,000 
times  less  than  the1  pigeon,  and  has  40  times  more  surface;  it  weighs 
three  millions  of  times  less  than  the  crane  of  Australia,  and  possesses 
140  times  more  of  surface  than  this  latter,  the  weight  of  which  is 
about  9  kilogrammes  500 grammes  (25  Ib  5  oz.  9  dwt.  troy,  20  Ib  15  oz. 
2}  dr.  avoirdupois). 

The  Australian  crane,  the  heaviest  bird  weighed,  is  that  which  has 
the  smallest  amount  of  surface,  for,  referred  to  the  kilogramme,  it 
does  not  give  us  a  surface  of  more  than  899  square  centimetres  (139 
sq.  in.),  that  is  to  say,  about  an  eleventh  part  of  a  square  metre. 
But  every  one  knows  that  these  grallatorial  animals  are  excellent 
birds  of  flight.  Of  all  travelling  birds  they  undertake  the  longest 
and  most  remote  journeys.  They  are,  in  addition,  the  eagle  excepted, 
the  birds  which  efevate  themselves  the  highest,  and  the  flight  of  which 
is  the  longest  maintained."1 

The  way  in  which  the  natural  wing  rises  and  falls  on  the  air, 
and  reciprocates  with  the  body  of  the  flying  creature,  has  a  very 
obvious  bearing  upon  artificial  flight.  In  natural  flight  the  body 
of  the  flying  creature  falls  slightly  forward  in  a  curve  when  the 

1  On  the  Flight  of  Birds,  nf  Bats  and  of  Insects,  in  reference  to  the 
subject  of  Aerial  Locomotion,  by  L.  de  Lucy  (Paris). 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


wing  ascends,  and  is  slightly  elevated  in  a  curve  when  the  wing 
descends.  The  wing  and  body  are  consequently  always  playing 
at  cross  purposes,  the  wing  rising  when  the  body  is  falling  and 
vice  versa.  The  alternate  rise  and  fall  of  the  body  and  wing  of 
the  bird  are  well  seen  when  contemplating  the  flight  of  the  gull 


FIG.  29  shows  how  in  progressive  flight  the  wing  and  the  body 
describe  waved  tracks, — the  crests  of  the  waves  made  by  the  wing 
(a,  c,  e,  g,  i)  being  placed  opposite  the  crests  of  the  waves  made  by 
the  body  I,  2,  3,  4,  5). 

from  the  stern  of  a  steamboat,  as  the  bird  is  following  in  the  wake 
of  the  vessel.  The  complementary  movements  referred  to  are 
indicated  at  fig.  29,  where  the  continuous  waved  line  represents 
the  trajectory  made  by  the  wing,  and  the  dotted  waved  line  that 
made  by  the  body.  As  will  be  seen  from  this  figure,  the  wing 
advances  both  when  it  rises  and  when  it  falls.  It  is  a  peculiarity 
of  natural  wings,  and  of  artificial  wings  constructed  on  the 
principle  of  living  wings,  that  when  forcibly  elevated  ordepressed, 
even  in  a  strictly  vertical  direction,  they  inevitably  dart  forward. 
If,  for  instance,  the  wing  is  suddenly  depressed  in  a  vertical 
direction,  as  at  a  b  of  fig.  29,  it  at  once  darts  downwards  and 
forwards  in  a  double  curve  (see  continuous  line  of  figure)  to  c, 
thus  converting  the  vertical  down  stroke  into  a  down,  oblique, 
forward  stroke.  If,  again,  the  wing  be  suddenly  elevated  in  a 
strictly  vertical  direction,  as  at  c  d,  the  wing  as  certainly  darts 
upwards  and  forwards  in  a  double  curve  to  e,  thus  converting 
the  vertical  up  strokes  into  an  upward,  oblique,  forward  stroke. 
The  same  thing  happens  when  the  wing  is  depressed  from  e  to  / 
and  elevated  from  g  to  h,  the  wing  describing  a  waved  track  as  at 

eg,  si- 
There  are  good  reasons  why  the  wings  should  always  be  in 
advance  of  the  body.  A  bird  when  flying  is  a  body  in  motion; 
but  a  body  in  motion  tends  to  fall  not  vertically  downwards, 
but  downwards  and  forwards.  The  wings  consequently  must 
be  made  to  strike  forwards  and  kept  in  advance  of  the  body  of  the 
bird  if  they  are  to  prevent  the  bird  from  falling  downwards  and 
forwards.  If  the  wings  were  to  strike  backwards  in  aerial  flight, 
the  bird  would  turn  a  forward  somersault. 

That  the  wings  invariably  strike  forwards  during  the  down  and 
up  strokes  in  aerial  flight  is  proved  alike  by  observation  and 
experiment.  If  any  one  watches  a  bird  rising  from  the  ground 
or  the  water,  he  cannot  fail  to  perceive  that  the  head  and  body 
are  slightly  tilted  upwards,  and  that  the  wings  are  made  to 
descend  with  great  vigour  in  a  downward  and  forward  direction. 
The  dead  natural  wing  and  a  properly  constructed  artificial 
wing  act  in  precisely  the  same  way.  If  the  wing  of  a  gannet, 
just  shot,  be  removed  and  made  to  flap  in  what  the  operator 
believes  to  be  a  strictly  vertical  downward  direction,  the  tip  of 
the  wing,  in  spite  of  him,  will  dart  forwards  between  2  and  3  ft. 
— the  amount  of  forward  movement  being  regulated  by  the 
rapidity  of  the  down  stroke.  This  is  a  very  striking  experiment. 
The  same  thing  happens  with  a  properly  constructed  artificial 
wing.  The  down  stroke  with  the  artificial  as  with  the  natural 
wing  is  invariably  converted  into  an  oblique,  downward  and 
forward  stroke.  No  one  ever  saw  a  bird  in  the  air  flapping  its 
wings  towards  its  tail.  The  old  idea  was  that  the  wings  during 
the  down  stroke  pushed  the  body  of  the  bird  in  an  upward  and 
forward  direction;  in  reality  the  wings  do  not  push  but  pull,  and 
in  order  to  pull  they  must  always  be  in  advance  of  the  body  to 
be  flown.  If  the  wings  did  not  themselves  fly  forward,  they  could 
not  possibly  cause  the  body  of  the  bird  to  fly  forward.  It  is  the 
wings  which  cause  the  bird  to  fly. 

It  only  remains  to  be  stated  that  the  wing  acts  as  a  true  kite, 
during  both  the  down  and  the  up  strokes,  its  under  concave 
or  biting  surface,  in  virtue  of  the  forward  travel  communicated 
to  it  by  the  body  of  the  flying  creature,  being  closely  applied 
to  the  air,  during  both  its  ascent  and  its  descent.  This  explains 


how  the  wing  furnishes  a  persistent  buoyancy  alike  when  it  rises 
and  when  it  falls  (fig.  30). 

The  natural  kite  formed  by  the  wing  differs  from  the  artificial 
kite  only  in  this,  that  the  former  is  capable  of  being  moved  in 
all  its  parts,  and  is  more  or  less  flexible  and  elastic,  whereas  the 
latter  is  comparatively  rigid.  The  flexibility  and  elasticity  of 
the  kite  formed  by  the  natural  wing  are  rendered  necessary  by 
the  fact  that  the  wing,  as  already  stated,  is  practically  hinged 
at  its  root  and  along  its  anterior  margin,  an  arrangement  which 
necessitates  its  several  parts  travelling  at  different  degrees  of 
speed,  in  proportion  as  they  are  removed  from  the  axes  of 
rotation.  Thus  the  tip  travels  at  a  higher  speed  than  the  root, 
and  the  posterior  margin  than  the  anterior  margin.  This  begets  a 
twisting  diagonal  movement  of  the  wing  on  its  long  axis,  which,  but 
for  the  elasticity  referred  to,  would  break  the  wing  into  fragments. 
The  elasticity  contributes  also  to  the  continuous  play  of  the  wing, 
and  ensures  that  no  two  parts  of  it  shall  reverse  at  exactly  the 
same  instant.  If  the  wing  was  inelastic,  every  part  of  it  would 
reverse  at  precisely  the  same  moment,  and  its  vibration  would  be 
characterized  by  pauses  or  dead  points  at  the  end  of  the  down 
and  up  strokes  which  would  be  fatal  to  it  as  a  flying  organ. 


»n 


FIG.  30  shows  the  kite-like  action  of  the  wing  during  the  down  and 
up  strokes,  how  the  angles  made  by  the  wing  with  the  horizon  (a,  b) 
vary  at  every  stage  of  these  strokes,  and  how  the  wing  evades  the 
superimposed  air  during  the  up  stroke,  and  seizes  the  nether  air 
during  the  down  stroke.  In  this  figure  the 'spaces  between  the  double 
dotted  lines  (c  g,  i  b)  represent  the  down  strokes,  the  single  dotted  line 
(h,  i)  representing  the  up  stroke.  The  kite-like  surfaces  and  angles 
made  by  the  wing  with  the  horizon  (a,  b)  during  the  down  strokes 
are  indicated  a.tcdefg,jkl  m, — those  made  during  the  up  strokes 
being  indicated  at  g  h  i.  As  the  down  and  up  strokes  run  into  each 
other,  and  the  convex  surface  of  the  wing  is  always  directed  upwards 
and  the  concave  surface  downwards,  it  follows  that  the  upper  surface 
of  the  wing  evades  in  a  great  measure  the  upper  air,  while  the  under 
surface  seizes  the  nether  air.  It  is  easy  to  understand  from  this 
figure  how  the  wing  always  flying  forwards  furnishes  a  persistent 
buoyancy. 

The  elastic  properties  of  the  wing  are  absolutely  essential,  when 
the  mechanism  and  movements  of  the  pinion  are  taken  into 
account.  A  rigid  wing  can  never  be  an  effective  flying  instru- 
ment. 

The  kite-like  surfaces  referred  to  in  natural  flight  are  those 
upon  which  the  constructors  of  flying  machines  very  properly 
ground  their  hopes  of  ultimate  success.  These  surfaces  may  be 
conferred  on  artificial  wings,  aeroplanes,  aerial  screws  or  similar 
structures;  and  these  structures,  if  we  may  judge  from  what 
we  find  in  nature,  should  be  of  moderate  size  and  elastic.  The  power 
of  the  flying  organs  will  be  increased  if  they  are  driven  at  a  com- 
paratively high  speed,  and  particularly  if  they  are  made  to 
reverse  and  reciprocate,  as  in  this  case  they  will  practically 
create  the  currents  upon  which  they  are  destined  to  rise  and 
advance.  The  angles  made  by  the  kite-like  surfaces  with  the 
horizon  should  vary  according  to  circumstances.  They  should 
be  small  when  the  speed  is  high,  and  vice  versa.  This,  as  stated, 
is  true  of  natural  wings.  It  should  also  be  true  of  artificial  wings 
and  their  analogues. 

Artificial  Flight. — We  are  now  in  a  position  to  enter  upon  a 
consideration  of  artificial  .wings  and  wing  movements,  and  of 
artificial  flight  and  flying  machines. 

We  begin  with  artificial  wings.  The  first  properly  authenti- 
cated account  of  an  artificial  wing  was  given  by  G.  A.  Borelli 
in  1670.  This  author,  distinguished  alike  as  a  physiologist, 
mathematician  and  mechanician,  describes  and  figures  a  bird 
with  artificial  wings,  each  of  which  consists  of  a  rigid  rod  in  front 
and  flexible  feathers  behind.  The  wings  are  represented  as  striking 
vertically  downwards,  as  the  annexed  duplicate  of  Borelli 's  figure 
shows  (fig.  31). 

Borelli  wasof  opinion  that  flight  resulted  from  the  application 
of  an  inclined  plane,  which  beats  the  air,  and  which  has  a  wedge 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


pIG 


action.  He,  in  fact,  endeavours  to  prove  that  a  bird  wedges 
itself  forward  upon  the  air  by  the  perpendicular  vibration  of  its 
wings,  the  wings  during  their  action  forming  a  wedge,  the  base  of 

which  (c  b  e)  is  directed  to- 
wards the  head  of  the  bird, 
the  apex  (a  /)  being  directed 
towards  the  tail  (d).  In  the 
ip6th  proposition  of  his  work 
(De  motu  animalium,  Leiden, 
1685)  he  states  that  — 

"  If  the  expanded  wings  of  a 
bird  suspended  in  the  air  shall 
strike  the   undisturbed  air  be- 
neath it  with  a  motion  perpen- 
dicular  to  the  horizon,  the  bird 
will  fly  with  a  transverse  motion 
Borelli's  bird  with  artificial  wings,  in    a    plane    parallel    with    the 
r  e,    Anterior  margin  of  the  right  horizon."      '  If,"  he  adds,  "  the 
wing.consistingofarigidrod.  wings  of  the  bird  be  expanded, 
o  a,   Posterior  margin  of  the  right  ai}d  the  under  surfaces  of  the 
wing,  consisting  of   flexible  wings    be    struck    by    the    air 
feathers.  ascending  perpendicularly  to  the 

be,    Anterior;  and  horizon   with    such   a   force   as 

/,       Posterior  margins  of  the  left  shall   prevent   the   bird   gliding 
wing  same  as  the  right.  downwards    (i.e.    with   a   tend- 

d,      Tail  of  the  bird.  ency  to  glide  downwards)  from 

r  g,  d  h,    Vertical  direction  of  the  falling,    it   will   be   urged   in   a 
down  stroke  of  the  wing.       horizontal  direction." 

The    same    argument    is    re- 

stated in  different  words  as  under:  —  "  If  the  air  under  the  wings  be 
struck  by  the  flexible  portions  of  the  wings  (flabella,  literally  fly 
flaps  or  small  fans)  with  a  motion  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  the 
sails  (vela)  and  flexible  portions  of  the  wings  (flabella)  will  yield  in 
an  upward  direction  and  form  a  wedge,  the  point  of  which  is 
directed  towards  the  tail.  Whether,  therefore,  the  air  strikes  the 
wings  from  below,  or  the  wings  strike  the  air  from  above,  the  result 
is  the  same,  —  the  posterior  or  flexible  margins  of  the  wings  yield 
in  an  upward  direction,  and  in  so  doing  urge  the  bird  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction." 

There  are  three  points  in  Borelli's  argument  to  which  it  is 
necessary  to  draw  attention:  (i)  the  direction  of  the  down 
stroke:  it  is  stated  to  be  vertically  downwards;  (2)  the  construc- 
tion of  the  anterior  margin  of  the  wing:  it  is  stated  to  consist 
of  a  rigid  rod;  (3)  the  function  delegated  to  the  posterior  margin 
of  the  wing:  it  is  said  to  yield  in  an  upward  direction  during  the 
down  stroke. 

With  regard  to  the  first  point.  It  is  incorrect  to  say  the  wing 
strikes  vertically  downwards,  for,  as  already  explained,  the  body 
of  a  flying  bird  is  a  body  in  motion;  but  as  a  body  in  motion 
tends  to  fall  downwards  and  forwards,  the  wing  must  strike 
downwards  and  forwards  in  order  effectually  to  prevent  its  fall. 
Moreover,  in  point  of  fact,  all  natural  wings,  and  all  artificial 
wings  constructed  on  the  natural  type,  invariably  strike  down- 
wards and  forwards. 

With  regard  to"  the  second  point,  viz.  the  supposed  rigidity 
of  the  anterior  margin  of  the  wing,  it  is  only  necessary  to  examine 
the  anterior  margins  of  natural  wings  to  be  convinced  that  they 
are  in  every  case  flexible  and  elastic.  Similar  remarks  apply  to 
properly  constructed  artificial  wings.  If  the  anterior  margins  of 
natural  and  artificial  wings  were  rigid,  it  would  be  impossible 
to  make  them  vibrate  smoothly  and  continuously.  This  is  a 
matter  of  experiment.  If  a  rigid  rod,  or  a  wing  with  a  rigid 
anterior  margin,  be  made  to  vibrate,  the  vibration  is  characterized 
by  an  unequal  jerky  motion,  at  the  end  of  the  down  and  up 
strokes,  which  contrasts  strangely  with  the  smooth,  steady 
fanning  movement  peculiar  to  natural  wings. 

As  to  the  third  point,  viz.  the  upward  bending  of  the  posterior 
margin  of  the  wing  during  the  down  stroke,  it  is  necessary  to 
remark  that  the  statement  is  true  if  it  means  a  slight  upward 
bending,  but  that  it  is  untrue  if  it  means  an  extensive  upward 
bending. 

Borelli  does  not  state  the  amount  of  upward  bending,  but  one 
of  his  followers,  E.  J.  Marey,  maintains  that  during  the  down 
stroke  the  wing  yields  until  its  under  surface  makes  a  backward 
angle  with  the  horizon  of  45°.  Marey  further  states  that  during 
the  up  stroke  the  wing  yields  to  a  corresponding  extent  in  an 
opposite  direction—  the  posterior  margin  of  the  wing,  according 


to  him,  passing  through  an  angle  of  po°,  plus  or  minus  according 
to  circumstances,  every  time  the  wing  rises  and  falls. 

That  the  posterior  margin  of  the  wing  yields  to  a  slight  extent 
during  both  the  down  and  up  strokes  will  readily  be  admitted, 
alike  because  of  the  very  delicate  and  highly  elastic  properties 
of  the  posterior  margins  of  the  wing,  and  because  of  the  com- 
paratively great  force  employed  in  its  propulsion;  but  that  it 
does  not  yield  to  the  extent  stated  by  Marey  is  a  matter  of 
absolute  certainty.  This  admits  of  direct  proof.  If  any  one 
watches  the  horizontal  or  upward  flight  of  a  large  bird  he  will 
observe  that  the  posterior  or  flexible  margin  of  the  wing  never 
rises  during  the  down  stroke  to  a  perceptible  extent,  so  that  the 
under  surface  of  the  wing,  as  a  whole,  never  looks  backwards. 
On  the  contrary,  he  will  perceive  that  the  under  surface  of  the 
wing  (during  the  down  stroke)  invariably  looks  forwards  and 
forms  a  true  kite  with  the  horizon,  the  angles  made  by  the  kite 
varying  at  every  part  of  the  down  stroke,  as  shown  more 
particularly  at  c  d  efg,  ij  k  I  m  of  fig.  30. 

The  authors  who  have  adopted  Borelli's  plan  of  artificial  wing, 
and  who  have  endorsed  his  mechanical  views  of  the  wing's  action 
most  fully,  are  J.  Chabrier,  H.  E.  G.  Strauss-Durckheim  and 
Marey.  Borelli's  artificial  wing,  it  will  be  remembered,  consists 
of  a  rigid  rod  in  front  and  a  flexible  sail  behind.  It  is  also  made 
to  strike  vertically  downwards.  According  to  Chabrier,  the  wing 
has  only  one  period  of  activity.  He  believes  that  if  the  wing  be 
suddenly  lowered  by  the  depressor  muscles,  it  is  elevated  solely 
by  the  reaction  of  the  air.  There  is  one  unanswerable  objection 
to  this  theory:  the  birds  and  bats,  and  some  if  not  all  the  insects, 
have  distinct  elevator  muscles,  and  can  elevate  their  wings  at 
pleasure  when  not  flying  and  when,  consequently,  the  reaction 
of  the  air  is  not  elicited.  Strauss-Durckheim  agrees  with  Borelli 
both  as  to  the  natural  and  the  artificial  wing.  He  is  of  opinion 
that  the  insect  abstracts  from  the  air  by  means  of  the  inclined 
plane  a  component  force  (composant)  which  it  employs  to  support 
and  direct  itself.  In  his  theology  of  nature  he  describes  a  sche- 
matic wing  as  consisting  of  a  rigid  ribbing  in  front,  and  a  flexible 
sail  behind.  A  membrane  so  constructed  will,  according  to  him, 
be  fit  for  flight.  It  will  suffice  if  such  a  sail  elevates  and  lowers 
itself  successively.  It  will  of  its  own  accord  dispose  itself  as  an 
inclined  plane,  and  receiving  obliquely  the  reaction  of  the  air, 
it  transfers  into  tractile  force  a  part  of  the  vertical  impulsion  it 
has  received.  These  two  parts  of  the  wing,  moreover,  are  equally 
indispensable  to  each  other. 

Marey  repeats  Borelli  and  Durckheim  with  very  trifling 
modifications,  so  late  as  1869.  He  describes  two  artificial  wings, 
the  one  composed  of  a  rigid  rod  and  sail — the  rod  representing 
the  stiff  anterior  margin  of  the  wing;  the  sail,  which  is  made  of 
paper  bordered  with  cardboard,  the  flexible  posterior  margin. 
The  other  wing  consists  of  a  rigid  nervure  in  front  and  behind  of 
thin  parchment  which  supports  fine  rods  of  steel.  He  states  that 
if  the  wing  only  elevates  and  depresses  itself,  "  the  resistance  of 
the  air  is  sufficient  to  produce  all  the  other  movements.  In 
effect  (according  to  Marey)  the  wing  of  an  insect  has  not  the  power 
of  equal  resistance  in  every  part.  On  the  anterior  margin  the 
extended  nervures  make  it  rigid,  while  behind  it  is  fine  and 
flexible.  During  the  vigorous  depression  of  the  wing,  the  nervure 
has  the  power  of  remaining  rigid,  whereas  the  flexible  portion, 
being  pushed  in  an  upward  direction  on  Account  of  the  resistance 
it  experiences  from  the  air,  assumes  an  oblique  position  which 
causes  the  upper  surface  of  the  wing  to  look  forwards."  The 
reverse  of  this,  in  Marey's  opinion,  takes  place  during  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  wing — the  resistance  of  the  air  from  above  causing 
the  upper  surface  of  the  wing  to  look  backwards. ..."  At  first," 
he  says,  "  the  plane  of  the  wing  is  parallel  with  the  body  of  the 
animal.  It  lowers  itself — the  front  part  of  the  wing  strongly 
resists,  the  sail  which  follows  it  being  flexible  yields.  Carried  by 
the  ribbing  (the  anterior  margin  of  the  wing)  which  lowers  itself, 
the  sail  or  posterior  margin  of  the  wing  being  raised  meanwhile 
by  the  air,  which  sets  it  straight  again,  the  sail  will  take  an  inter- 
mediate position  and  incline  itself  about  45°  plus  or  minus  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  .  .  .  The  wing  continues  its  movements 
of  depression  inclined  to  the  horizon ;  but  the  impulse  of  the  air, 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


which  continues  its  effect,  and  naturally  acts  upon  the  surface 
which  it  strikes,  has  the  power  of  resolving  itself  into  two  forces, 
a  vertical  and  a  horizontal  force;  the  first  suffices  to  raise  the 
animal,  the  second  to  move  it  along."1  Marey,  it  will  be 
observed,  reproduces  Borelli's  artificial  wing,  and  even  his  text, 
at  a  distance  of  nearly  two  centuries. 

The  artificial  wing  recommended  by  Pettigrew  is  a  more  exact 
imitation  of  nature  than  either  of  the  foregoing.  It  is  of  a  more 
or  less  triangular  form,  thick  at  the  root  and  anterior  margin, 
and  thin  at  the  tip  and  posterior  margin.  No  part  of  it  is  rigid. 
It  is,  on  the  contrary,  highly  elastic  and  flexible  throughout. 
It  is  furnished  with  springs  at  its  root  to  contribute  to  its  con- 
tinued play,  and  is  applied  to  the  air  by  a  direct  piston  action 
in  such  a  way  that  it  descends  in  a  downward  and  forward 
direction  during  the  down  stroke,  and  ascends  in  an  upward  and 
forward  direction  during  the  up  stroke.  It  elevates  and  propels 
both  when  it  rises  and  falls.  It,  moreover,  twists  and  untwists 
during  its  action  and  describes  figure-of-8  and  waved  tracks  in 
space,  precisely  as  the  natural  wing  does.  The  twisting  is  most 
marked  at  the  tip  and  posterior  margin,  particularly  that  half  of 
the  posterior  margin  next  the  tip.  The  wing  when  in  action  may 
be  divided  into  two  portions  by  a  line  running  diagonally  between 
the  tip  of  the  wing  anteriorly  and  the  root  of  the  wing  posteriorly. 
The  tip  and  posterior  parts  of  the  wing  are  more  active  than  the 
root  and  anterior  parts,  from  the  fact  that  the  tip  and  posterior 
parts  (the  wing  is  an  eccentric)  always  travel  through  greater 
spaces,  in  a  given  time,  than  the  root  and  anterior  parts. 


FlG.  32. — Elastic  Spiral  Wing,  which  twists  and  untwists  during 
its  action,  to  form  a  mobile  helix  or  screw.  This  wing  is  made  to 
vibrate  by  a  direct  piston  action,  and  by  a  slight  adjustment  can  be 
propelled  vertically,  horizontally  or  at  any  degree  of  obliquity. 


a  b.  Anterior  margin  of  wing,  to 
which  the  neurae  or  ribs 
are  affixed. 

c  d,  Posterior  margin  of  wing 
crossing  anterior  one. 

x,  Ball-and-socket  joint  at  root 
of  wing,  the  wing  being 
attached  to  the  side  of  the 
cylinder  by  the  socket. 

/,      Cylinder. 

r  r,  Piston,  with  cross  heads 
(w,  w)  and  piston  head  (s). 

o  o,  Stuffing  boxes. 

e,  f.  Driving  chains.  • 

m,     Superior  elastic  band,  which 


assists    in     elevating    the 
wing. 

Inferior  elastic  band,  which 
antagonizes  m.  The  alter- 
nate stretching  of  '  the 
superior  and  inferior  elastic 
bands  contributes  to  the 
continuous  play  of  the  wing, 
by  preventing  dead  points 
at  the  end  of  the  down  and 
up  strokes.  The  wing  is 
free  to  move  in  a  vertical 
and  horizontal  direction 
and  at  any  degree  of 
obliquity. 


The  wing  is  so  constructed  that  the  posterior  margin  yields 
freely  in  a  downward  direction  during  the  up  stroke,  while  it 
yields  comparatively  little  in  an  upward  direction  during  the 
down  stroke;  and  this  is  a  distinguishing  feature,  as  the  wing 
is  thus  made  to  fold  and  elude  the  air  more  or  less  completely 
during  the  up  stroke,  whereas  it  is  made  to  expand  and  seize 
the  air  with  avidity  during  the  down  stroke.  The  oblique  line 
referred  to  as  running  diagonally  across  the  wing  virtually  divides 
the  wing  into  an  active  and  a  passive  part,  the  former  elevating 
and  propelling,  the  latter  sustaining. 

It  is  not  possible  to  determine  with  exactitude  the  precise 
function  discharged  by  each  part  of  the  wing,  but  experiment 
tends  to  show  that  the  tip  of  the  wing  elevates,  the  posterior 
margin  propels,  and  the  root  sustains. 

The  wing— and  this  is  important — is  driven  by  a  direct  piston 

1  E.  J.  Marey,  Revue  des  cours  scientifiques  de  la  France  el  die 
I'ttranger  (1869). 


action  with  an  irregular  hammer-like  movement,  the  pinion 
having  communicated  to  it  a  smart  click  at  the  beginning  of 
every  down  stroke — the  up  stroke  being  more  uniform.  The 
following  is  the  arrangement  (fig.  32).  If  the  artificial  wing  here 
represented  (fig.  32)  be  compared  with  the  natural  wing  as 
depicted  at  fig.  33,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  one 
which  is  not  virtually  reproduced  in  the  other.  In  addition  to 
the  foregoing,  Pettigrew  recommended  a  double  elastic  wing  to 
be  applied  to  the  air  like  a  steam-hammer,  by  being  fixed  to  the 


FIG.  33  shows  the  Spiral  Elastic  Wings  of  the  Gull.     Each 
wing  forms  a  mobile  helix  or  screw. 


o  6,  Anterior  margin  of  left  wing. 
c  d,  Posterior  margin  of  ditto. 
d  g,  Primary  or  rowing  feathers 

of  left  wing. 
g  a,  Secondary  feathers  ditto. 


x,     Root  of  right  wing  with  ball- 
and-socket  joint. 
I,      Elbow  joint. 
m,     Wrist  joint. 
n,o,  Hand  and  finger  joints. 


head  of  the  piston.  This  wing,  like  the  single  wing  described, 
twists  and  untwists  as  it  rises  and  falls,  and  possesses  all  the 
characteristics  of  the  natural  wing  (fig.  34). 

He  also  recommends  an  elastic  aerial  screw  consisting  of  two 
blades,  which  taper  and  become  thinner  towards  the  tips  and 


-m 


FIG.  34. — Double  Elastic  Wing  driven  by  direct  piston  action. 
During  the  up  stroke  of  the  piston  the  wing  is  very  decidedly  convex 
on  its  upper  surface  (abed,  A  A') ;  its  under  surface  (efgh,  A  A') 
being  deeply  concave  and  inclined  obliquely  upwards  and  forwards. 
It  thus  evades,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  air  during  the  up  stroke. 
During  the  down  stroke  of  the  piston  the  wing  is  flattened  out  in  every 
direction,  and  its  extremities  twisted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form 
two  screws,  as  seen  at  a'  V  c'  d',  e'  f  g'  h',  B,  B'.  The  active  area  of 
the  wing  is  by  this  arrangement  considerably  diminished  during 
the  up  stroke,  and  considerably  augmented  during  the  down  stroke; 
the  wing  seizing  the  air  with  greater  avidity  during  the  down  than 
during  the  up  stroke,  i,  j,  k,  elastic  band  to  regulate  the  expansion 
of  the  wing;  /.piston;  m,  piston  head;  n,  cylinder. 

posterior  margins.  When  the  screw  is  made  to  rotate,  the  blades, 
because  of  their  elasticity,  assume  a  great  variety  of  angles,  the 
angles  being  least  where  the  speed  of  the  blades  is  greatest  and 
vice  versa.  The  pitch  of  the  blades  is  thus  regulated  by  the 
speed  attained  (fig.  35). 

The  peculiarity  of  Pettigrew's  wings  and  screws  consists  in 
their  elasticity,  their  twisting  action,  and  their  great  comparative 
length  and  narrowness.  They  offer  little  resistance  to  the  air 
when  they  are  at  rest,  and  when  in  motion  the  speed  with  which 
they  are  driven  is  such  as  to  ensure  that  the  comparatively 
large  spaces  through  which  they  travel  shall  practically  be 
converted  into  solid  bases  of  support. 

After  Pettigrew  enunciated  his  views  (1867)  as  to  the  screw 
configuration  and  elastic  properties  of  natural  wings,  and  more 
especially  after  his  introduction  of  spiral,  elastic  artificial  wings, 
and  elastic  screws,  a  great  revolution  took  place  in  the  construc- 
tion of  flying  models.  Elastic  aeroplanes  were  advocated  by 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


D.  S.  Brown,1  elastic  aerial  screws  by  J.  Armour,2  and  elastic 
aeroplanes,  wings  and  screws  by  Alphonse  Penaud.' 

Penaud's  experiments  are  alike  interesting  and  instructive. 
He  constructed  models  to  fly  by  three  different  methods: — 
(a)  by  means  of  screws  acting  vertically  upwards;  (ft)  by  aero- 
planes propelled  horizontally  by  screws;  and  (c)  by  wings  which 


FlG.  35. — Elastic  Aerial  Screw  with  twisted  blades  resembling 
wings  (abed, efg h). 


x,        End  of  driving  shaft. 

v,  w,  Sockets  in  which  the  roots 
of  the  blades  of  the  screw 
rotate,  the  degree  of  rota- 
tion being  limited  by  steel 
springs  (z,  s). 

ab,ef,  tapering  elastic  rods  form- 


ing anterior  or  thick 
margins  of  blades  of  screw. 
d  c,  h  g,  Posterior  or  thin  elastic 
margins  of  blades  of  screw. 
The  arrows  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r 
indicate  the  direction  of 
travel. 


flapped  in  an  upward  and  downward  direction.  An  account  of 
his  helicoptere  or  screw  model  appeared  in  the  Aeronaut  for 
January  1872,  but  before  giving  a  description  of  it,  it  may  be  well 
to  state  very  briefly  what  is  known  regarding  the  history  of  the 
screw  as  applied  to  the  air. 

The  first  suggestion  on  this  subject  was  given  by  A.  J.  P. 
Paucton  in  1768.  This  author,  in  his  treatise  on  the  Theorie 
de  la  vis  d' Archimede,  describes  a  machine  provided  with  two 
screws  which  he  calls  a  "  pterophores."  In  1796  Sir  George 


FIG.  36. — Cayley's  Flying  Model. 


Cayley  gave  a  practical  illustration  of  the  efficacy  of  the  screw 
as  applied  to  the  air  by  constructing  a  small  machine,  consisting 
of  two  screws  made  of  quill  feathers,  a  representation  of  which 
we  annex  (fig.  36).  Sir  George  writes  as  under: — 

"  As  it  may  be  an  amusement  to  some  of  your  readers  to  see  a 
machine  rise  in  the  air  by  mechanical  means,  I  will  conclude  my 
present  communication  by  describing  an  instrument  of  this  kind, 
which  any  one  can  construct  at  the  expense  of  ten  minutes  labour. 


1  "  The  Aero-bi-plane,  or  First  Steps  to  Flight,"  Ninth  Annual 
Report  of  the  Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Britain,  1874. 

1  "  Resistance  to  Falling  Planes  on  a  Path  of  Translation,  Ninth 
Annual  Report  of  the  Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Britain,  1874. 

3  The  Aeronaut  for  January  1872  and  February  1875. 


"  a  and  6,  fig.  36,  are  two  corks,  into  each  of  which  are  inserted 
four  wing  feathers  from  any  bird,  so  as  to  be  slightly  inclined  like 
the  sails  of  a  windmill,  but  in  opposite  directions  in  each  set.  A 
round  shaft  is  fixed  in  the  cork  a,  which  ends  in  a  sharp  point.  At 
the  upper  part  of  the  cork  b  is  fixed  a  whalebone  bow,  having  a  small 
pivot  hole  in  its  centre  to  receive  the  point  of  the  shaft.  The  bow  is 
then  to  be  strung  equally  on  each  side  to  the  upper  portion  of  the 
shaft,  and  the  little  machine  is  completed.  Wind  up  the  string  by 
turning  the  flyers  different  ways,  so  that  the  spring  of  the  bow  may 
unwind  them  with  their  anterior  edges  ascending;  then  place  the 
cork  with  the  bow  attached  to  it  upon  a  table,  and  with  a  finger  on 
the  upper  cork  press  strong  enough  to  prevent  the  string  from  un- 
winding, and,  taking  it  away  suddenly,  the  instrument  willrise  to  the 
ceiling.  ' 

Cayley's  screws  were  peculiar,  inasmuch  as  they  were  super- 
imposed and  rotated  in  opposite  directions.  He  estimated  that 
if  the  area  of  the  screws  was  increased  to  200  sq.  ft.,  and 
moved  by  a  man,  they  would  elevate  him.  His  interesting 
experiment  is  described  at  length,  and  the  apparatus  figured 
in  Nicolson's  Journal,  1800,  p.  172. 

Other  experimenters,  such  as  J.  Degen  in  1816  and  Ottoris 
Sard  in  1823,  followed  Cayley  at  moderate  intervals,  constructing 
flying  models  on  the  vertical  screw  principle.  In  1842  W.  H. 
Phillips  succeeded,  it  is  stated,  in  elevating  a  steam  model  by 
the  aid  of  revolving  fans,  which  according  to  his  account  flew 
across  two  fields  after  having  attained  a  great  altitude;  and  in 
1859  H.  Bright  took  out  a  patent  for  a  machine  to  be  sustained 
by  vertical  screws.  In  1863  the  subject  of  aviation  by  vertical 
screws  received  a  fresh  impulse  from  the  experiments  of  Gustave 
de  Ponton  d'Am6court,  G.  de  la  Landelle,  and  A.  Nadar,  who 
exhibited  models  driven  by  clock-work  springs,  which  ascended 
with  graduated  weights  a  distance  of  from  10  to  12  ft.  These 
models  were  so  fragile  that  they  usually  broke  in  coming  in  contact 
with  the  ground  in  their  descent.  Their  flight,  moreover,  was 
unsatisfactory,  from  the  fact  that  it  only  lasted  a  few  seconds. 


X.  17 


FIG.  37. — De  la  Landelle's  Flying-machine,  m,  n,  o,  p;  a,  r,  s,  t, 
Screws  arranged  on  vertical  axes  to  act  vertically  upwards.  The 
vertical  axes  are  surmounted  by  two  parachutes,  and  the  body  of  the 
machine  is  furnished  with  an  engine,  propeller,  rudders  and  an  exten- 
sive aeroplane. 

Stimulated  by  the  success  of  his  spring  models,  Ponton 
d'Am6court  had  a  small  steam  model  constructed.  This  model, 
which  was  shown  at  the  exhibition  of  the  Aeronautical  Society 
of  Great  Britain  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in  1868,  consisted  of  two 
superposed  screws  propelled  by  an  engine,  the  steam  for  which 
was  generated  (for  lightness)  in  an  aluminium  boiler.  This 
steam  model  proved  a  failure,  inasmuch  as  it  only  lifted  a  third 
of  its  own  weight.  Fig.  37  embodies  de  la  Landelle's  ideas. 

5 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


All  the  models  referred  to  (Cayley's  excepted1)  were  provided 
with  rigid  screws.  In  1872  Penaud  discarded  the  rigid  screws 
in  favour  of  elastic  ones,  as  Pettigrew  had  done  some  years  before. 

Penaud  also  substituted  india-rubber  under  torsion  for  the 
whalebone  and  clock  springs  of  the  smaller  models,  and  the  steam 
of  the  larger  ones.  His  helicoptere  or  screw-model  is  remarkable 
for  its  lightness,  simplicity  and  power.  The  accompanying 
sketch  will  serve  to  illustrate  its  construction  (fig.  38).  It  con- 


FIG.  38. — H61icopt6re  or  Screw-Model,  by  PSnaud. 

sists  of  two  superposed  elastic  screws  (a  a,bb),  the  upper  of  which 
(a  a)  is  fixed  in  a  vertical  frame  (c),  which  is  pivoted  in  the  central 
part  (d)  of  the  under  screw.  From  the  centre  of  the  under 
screw  an  axle  provided  with  a  hook  (e),  which  performs  the  part 
of  a  crank,  projects  in  an  upward  direction.  Between  the  hook 
or  crank  (e)  and  the  centre  of  the  upper  screw  (a  a),  the  india- 
rubber  in  a  state  of  torsion  (/)  extends.  By  fixing  the  lower 
screw  and  turning  the  upper  one  a  sufficient  number  of  times 
the  requisite  degree  of  torsion  and  power  is  obtained.  The 
apparatus  when  liberated  flies  into  the  air  sometimes  to  a  height 
of  50  ft.,  and  gyrates  in  large  circles  for  a  period  varying  from 
15  to  30  seconds. 

Penaud  next  directed  his  attention  to  the  construction  of  a 
model,  to  be  propelled  by  a  screw  and  sustained  by  an  elastic 
aeroplane  extending  horizontally.  Sir  George  Cayley  proposed 
such  a  machine  in  1810,  and  W.  S.  Henson  constructed  and 
patented  a  similar  machine  in  1 842.  Several  inventors  succeeded 
in  making  models  fly  by  the  aid  of  aeroplanes  and  screws,  as, 
e.g.  ].  Stringfellow  in  1847,"  and  F.  du  Temple  in  1857.  These 
models  flew  in  a  haphazard  sort  of  a  way,  it  being  found  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  confer  on  them  the  necessary  degree  of  stability 
fore  and  aft  and  laterally.  Penaud  succeeded  in  overcoming 
the  difficulty  in  question  by  the  invention  of  what  he  designated 
an  automatic  rudder.  This  consisted  of  a  small  elastic  aeroplane 
placed  aft  or  behind  the  principal  aeroplane  which  is  also  elastic. 
The  two  elastic  aeroplanes  extended  horizontally  and  made  a 
slight  upward  angle  with  the  horizon,  the  angle  made  by  the 
smaller  aeroplane  (the  rudder)  being  slightly  in  excess  of  that 
made  by  the  larger.  The  motive  power  was  india-rubber  in  the 
condition  of  torsion;  the  propeller,  a  screw.  The  reader  will 
understand  the  arrangement  by  a  reference  to  the  accompanying 
drawing  (fig.  39). 

Models  on  the  aeroplane  screw  type  may  be  propelled  by  two 
screws,  one  fore  and  one  aft,  rotating  in  opposite  directions; 
and  in  the  event  of  only  one  screw  being  employed  it  may  be 
placed  in  front  of  or  behind  the  aeroplane. 

When  such  a  model  is  wound  up  and  let  go  it  descends  about 
2  ft.,  after  which,  having  acquired  initial  velocity,  it  rises  and 
flies  in  a  forward  direction  at  a  height  of  from  8  to  10  ft.  from 

1  Cayley's  screws,  as  explained,  were  made  of  feathers,  and  con- 
sequently elastic.  As,  however,  no  allusion  is  made  in  his  writings 
to  the  superior  advantages  possessed  by  elastic  over  rigid  screws,  it  is 
to  be  presumed  that  feathers  were  employed  simply  for  convenience 
and  lightness.  Pettigrew,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  was  the  first  to 
advocate  the  employment  of  elastic  screws  for  aerial  purposed 

*  Stringfellow  constructed  a  second  model,  which  is  described  and 
figured  further  on  (fig.  44). 


the  ground  for  a  distance  of  from  MO  to  130  ft.  It  flies  this 
distance  in  from  10  to  1 1  seconds,  its  mean  speed  being  something 
like  1 2  ft.  per  second.  From  experiments  made  with  this  model, 
Penaud  calculates  that  one  horse-power  would  elevate  and 
support  85  ft. 

D.  S.  Brown  also  wrote  (1874)  in  support  of  elastic  aero- 
biplanes.  His  experiments  proved  that  two  elastic  aeroplanes 
united  by  a  central  shaft  or  shafts,  and  separated  by  a  wide 


FIG.  39. — Aeroplane  Model  with  Automatic  Rudder. 


a  a,  Elastic  aeroplane. 
6  b,    Automatic  rudder. 

Aerial  screw  centred  at  /. 

Frame  supporting  aeroplane, 
rudder  and  screw. 

India-rubber,  in  a   state  of 


c  c, 
d. 


e, 


torsion,  attached  to  hook 
or  crank  at  /.  By  holding 
the  aeroplane  (a  a)  and 
turning  the  screw  (c  c)  the 
necessary  power  is  obtained 
by  torsion.  (Pe'naud.) 

interval,  always  produce  increased  stability.  The  production 
of  flight  by  the  vertical  flapping  of  wings  is  in  some  respects 
the  most  difficult,  but  this  also  has  been  attempted  and  achieved. 
Penaud  and  A.  H.  de  Villeneuve  each  constructed  winged 
models.  Marey  was  not  so  fortunate.  He  endeavoured  to 
construct  an  artificial  insect  on  the  plan  advocated  by  Borelli, 
Strauss-Durckheim  and  Chabrier,  but  signally  failed,  his  insect 
never  having  been  able  to  lift  more  than  a  third  of  its  own 
weight. 

De  Villeneuve  and  Penaud  constructed  their  winged  models 
on  different  types,  the  former  selecting  the  bat,  the  latter  the  bird. 


FIG.  40. — P6naud's  Artificial  Flying  Bird. 


abed,  a'  b' c' d',  Elastic  wings, 
which  twist  and  untwist 
when  made  to  vibrate. 

a  b,  a'  b',  Anterior  margins  of 
wings. 

c  d,  c'  d'.  Posterior  margins  of 
wings. 

C,  c',  Inner  portions  of  wings 
attached  to  central  shaft  of 
model  by  elastic  bands  at  e. 

f,  India-rubber    in    a    state    of 


torsion,  which  provides  the 
motive  power,  by  .causing 
the  crank  situated  between 
the  vertical  wing  supports 
(g)  to  rotate;  as  the  crank 
revolves  the  wings  are  made 
to  vibrate  by  means  of  two 
rods  which  extend  between 
the  crank  and  the  roots  of 
the  wings. 
h,  Tail  of  artificial  bird. 


De  Villeneuve  made  the  wings  of  his  artificial  bat  conical  in 
shape  and  comparatively  rigid.  He  controlled  the  movements 
of  the  wings,  and  made  them  strike  downwards  and  forwards 
in  imitation  of  natural  wings.  His  model  possessed  great  power 
of  rising.  It  elevated  itself  from  the  ground  with  ease,  and  flew 
in  a  horizontal  direction  for  a  distance  of  24  ft.,  and  at  a  velocity 
of  20  m.  an  hour.  P6naud's  model  differed  from  de  Villeneuve's 
in  being  provided  with  elastic  wings,  the  posterior  margins 
of  which  in  addition  to  being  elastic  were  free  to  move  round  the 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


anterior  margins  as  round  axes  (see  fig.  24).  India-rubber 
springs  were  made  to  extend  between  the  inner  posterior  parts 
of  the  wings  and  the  frame,  corresponding  to  the  backbone  of 
the  bird. 

A  vertical  movement  having  been  communicated  by  means 
of  india-rubber  in  a  state  of  torsion  to  the  roots  of  the  wings, 
the  wings  themselves,  in  virtue  of  their  elasticity,  and  because 
of  the  resistance  experienced  from  the  air,  twisted  and  untwisted 
and  formed  reciprocating  screws,  precisely  analogous  to  those 
originally  described  and  figured  by  Pettigrew  in  1867.  Penaud's 
arrangement  is  shown  in  fig.  40. 

If  the  left  wing  of  Penaud's  model  (a  b,  c  d  of  fig.  40)  be  com- 
pared with  the  wing  of  the  bat  (fig.  18),  or  with  Pettigrew's 
artificial  wing  (fig.  32),  the  identity  of  principle  and  application 
is  at  once  apparent. 

In  Penaud's  artificial  bird  the  equilibrium  is  secured  by  the 
addition  of  a  tail.  The  model  cannot  raise  itself  from  theground, 
but  on  being  liberated  from  the  hand  it  descends  2  ft.  or  so,  when, 
having  acquired  initial  velocity,  it  flies  horizontally  for  a  distance 
of  50  or  more  feet,  and  rises  asitfliesfrom  7  togft.  Thefollowing 
are  the  measurements  of  the  model  in  question: — length  of  wing 
from  tip  to  tip,  32  in.;  weight  of  wing,  tail,  frame,  india-rubber, 
&c.,  73  grammes  (about  2^  ounces).  (J.  B.  P.) 

Flying  Machines. — Henson's  flying  machine,  designed  in 
1843,  was  the  earliest  attempt  at  aviation  on  a  great  scale. 
Henson  was  one  of  the  first  to  combine  aerial  screws  with  exten- 
sive supporting  structures  occupying  a  nearly  horizontal  position. 
The  accompanying  illustration  explains  the  combination  (fig.  41). 


FIG.  41. — Henson's  Aerostat. 

"  The  chief  feature  of  the  invention  was  the  very  great  expanse 
of  its  sustaining  planes,  which  were  larger  in  proportion  to  the  weight 
it  had  to  carry  than  those  of  many  birds.  The  machine  advanced 
with  its  front  edge  a  little  raised,  the  effect  of  which  was  to  present 
its  under  surface  to  the  air  over  which  it  passed,  the  resistance  of 
which,  acting  upon  it  like  a  strong  wind  on  the  sails  of  a  windmill, 
prevented  the  descent  of  the  machine  and  its  burden.  The  sustaining 
of  the  whole,  therefore,  depended  upon  the  speed  at  which  it  travelled 
through  the  air,  and  the  angle  at  which  its  under  surface  impinged 

on  the  air  in  its  front The  machine,  fully  prepared  for  flight, 

was  started  from  the  top  of  an  inclined  plane,  m  descending  which  :t 
attained  a  velocity  necessary  to  sustain  it  in  its  further  progress. 
That  velocity  would  be  gradually  destroyed  by  the  resistance  of  the 
air  to  the  forward  flight;  it  was,  therefore,  the  office  of  the  steam- 
engine  and  the  vanes  it  actuated  simply  to  repair  the  loss  of  velocity ; 
it  was  made,  therefore,  only  of  the  power  and  weight  necessary  for 
that  small  effect."  The  editor  of  Newton  s  Journal  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  speaks  of  it  thus:—"  The  apparatus  consists  of  a  car  con- 
taining the  goods,  passengers,  engines,  fuel,  &c.,  to  which  a  n 
angular  frame,  made  of  wood  or  bamboo  cane,  and  covered  with  canvas 
or  oiled  silk,  is  attached.  This  frame  extends  on  either  side  of  the  car 
in  a  similar  manner  to  the  outstretched  wings  of  a  bird ;  but  with  th 
difference,  that  the  frame  is  immovable.  Behind  the  wings  are  two 
vertical  fan  wheels,  furnished  with  oblique  vanes,  which  are  intended 
to  propel  the  apparatus  through  the  air.  The  rainbow-like  circular 
wheels  are  the  propellers,  answering  to  the  wheels  of  *  steam-boat 
and  acting  upon  the  air  after  the  manner  of  a  windmill.  These  wheels 
receive  motions  from  bands  and  pulleys  from  a  steam  or  other  engine 
contained  in  the  car.  To  an  axis  at  the  stern  of  the  car  a  triangular 
frame  is  attached,  resembling  the  tail  of  a  bird,  which  is  also  covered 
with  canvas  or  oiled  silk.  This  may  be  expanded  or  contracted  at 
pleasure,  and  is  moved  up  and  down  for  the  purpose  of  causing  th 
machine  to  ascend  or  descend.  Beneath  the  tail  is  a  "*&'«<"?£ 
ing  the  course  of  the  machine  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  and I  to 
facilitate  the  steering  a  sail  is  stretched  between  two  masts  which  rise 
from  the  car.  The  amount  of  canvas  or  oiled  silk  «^^ "  ™rh 
ing  up  the  machine  is  stated  to  be  equal  to  one  square  foot  for  each 
half  pound  of  weight." 


F.  H.  Wenham,  thinking  to  improve  upon  Henson,  invented 
in  1866  what  he  designated  his  aeroplanes.1  These  were  thin, 
light,  long,  narrow  structures,  arranged  above  each  other  in 
tiers  like  so  many  shelves.  They  were  tied  together  at  a  slight 
upward  angle,  and  combined  strength  and  lightness.  The  idea 
was  to  obtain  great  sustaining  area  in  comparatively  small  space 
with  comparative  ease  of  control.  It  was  hoped  that  when  the 
aeroplanes  were  wedged  forward  in  the  air  by  vertical  screws, 
or  by  the  body  to  be  flown,  each  aeroplane  would  rest  or  float 
upon  a  stratum  of  undisturbed  air,  and  that  practically  the 
aeroplanes  would  give  the  same  support  as  if  spread  out  horizon- 
tally. The  accompanying  figures  illustrate  Wenham's  views 
(figs.  42  and  43). 

Stringfellow,  who  was  originally  associated  with  Henson, 
and  built  a  successful  flying  model  in  1847,  made  a  second  model 


FIG.  42. — Wenham's  system  of  Aeroplanes  designed  to  carry  a  man. 
a,  a,  Thin  planks,  tapering  at  each 

end,    and    attached    to    a 

triangle. 
6,      Similar  plank  for  supporting 

the  aeronaut. 
c,  c,  Thin  bands  of  iron  with  truss 


planks  a,  a,  and 
d,  d,  Vertical       rods.       Between 


these  are  stretched  five 
bands  of  Holland  15  in. broad 
and  16  ft.  long,  the  total 
length  of  the  web  being 
80  ft.  This  apparatus 
when  caught  by  a  gust  of 
wind,  actually  lifted  the 
aeronaut. 


in  1868,  in  which  Wenham's  aeroplanes  were  combined  with 
aerial  screws.  This  model  was  on  view  at  the  exhibition  of  the 
Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Britain,  held  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 


FIG.  43. — A  similar  system,  planned  by  Wenham. 


a,  a.  Main  spar  16  ft.  long; 

6,  b.  Panels,  with  base  board  for 

aeronaut  attached  to  main 

spar. 
e,  e,  Thin  tie-band  of  steel  with 

struts  starting    from    main 


aeroplanes,  consisting  of  six 
webs  of  thin  Holland  15  in. 
broad.  The  aeroplanes  are 
kept  in  parallel  plane  by 
vertical  divisions  of  holland 
2  ft.  wide. 


spar.   |  This  forms  a   strong  c,  c',  Wing  propellers  driven  by 


light    framework     for    the 


the  feet. 


London,  in  1868.  It  was  remarkably  compact,  elegant  and 
light,  and  obtained  the  £100  prize  of  the  exhibition  for  its  engine, 
which  was  the  lightest  and  most  powerful  so  far  constructed. 
The  illustration  below  (fig.  44),  drawn  from  a  photograph,  gives  a 


FIG.  44. — Stringfellow 's  Flying  Machine. 


very  good  idea  of  the  arrangement — a,  b,  c  representing  the 
superimposed  aeroplanes,  d  the  tail,  e,  /  the  screw  propellers. 
The  superimposed  aeroplanes  (a,  b,  c)  in  this  machine  contained 
a  sustaining  area  of  28sq.ft.,inadditiontothetail(d).  Itsengine 
represented  a  third  of  a  horse  power,  and  the  weight  of  the 
whole  (engine,  boiler,  water,  fuel,  superimposed  aeroplanes  and 
111  On  Aerial  Locomotion,"  Aeronautical  Society's  Report  for  1 867. 


Si6 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


propellers)  was  under  12  Ib.  Its  sustaining  area,  if  that  of  the 
tail  (d)  be  included,  was  something  like  36  sq.  ft.,  i.e.  3  sq.  ft.  for 
every  pound.  The  model  was  forced  by  its  propellers  along  a 
wire  at  a  great  speed,  but  so  far  as  an  observer  could  determine, 
failed  to  lift  itself,  notwithstanding  its  extreme  lightness  and 
the  comparatively  very  great  power  employed.  Stringfellow, 
however,  stated  that  it  occasionally  left  the  wire  and  was  sus- 
tained by  its  aeroplanes  alone. 

The  aerial  steamer  of  Thomas  Moy  (fig.  45),  designed  in  1874, 
consisted  of  a  light,  powerful,  skeleton  frame  resting  on  three 
wheels;  a  very  effective  light  engine  constructed  on  a  new 
principle,  which  dispensed  with  the  old-fashioned,  cumbrous 
boiler;  two  long,  narrow,  horizontal  aeroplanes;  and  two 
comparatively  very  large  aerial  screws.  The  idea  was  to  get 
up  the  initial  velocity  by  a  preliminary  run  on  the  ground.  This 
accomplished  it  was  hoped  that  the  weight  of  the  machine 
would  gradually  be  thrown  upon  the  aeroplanes  in  the  same  way 
that  the  weight  of  certain  birds — the  eagle,  e.g. — is  thrown  upon 


FIG.  45. — Moy's  Aerial  Steamer. 

the  wings  after  a  few  hops  and  leaps.  Once  in  the  air  the  aero- 
planes, it  was  believed,  would  become  effective  in  proportion  to 
the  speed  attained.  The  machine,  however,  did  not  realize 
the  high  expectations  formed  of  it,  and  like  all  its  predecessors 
it  was  doomed  to  failure. 

Two  of  the  most  famous  of  the  next  attempts  to  solve  the 
problem  of  artificial  flight,  by  means  of  aeroplanes,  were  those 
of  Prof.  S.  P.  Langley  and  Sir  Hiram  S.  Maxim,  who  began 
their  aerial  experiments  about  the  same  time  (1880-1890).  By 
1893-1894  both  had  embodied  their  views  in  models  and  large 
flying  machines. 

Langley,  who  occupied  the  position  of  secretary  to  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  U.S.A.,  made  many  small 
flying  models  and  one  large  one.  These  he  designated  "  aero- 
dromes." They  were  all  constructed  on  a  common  principle, 
and  were  provided  with  extensive  flying  surfaces  in  the  shape  of 
rigid  aeroplanes  inclined  at  an  upward  angle  to  the  horizon,  and 
more  or  less  fixed  on  the  plan  advocated  by  Henson.  The 
cardinal  idea  was  to  force  the  aeroplanes  (slightly  elevated  at 
their  anterior  margins)  forwards,  kite-fashion,  by  means  of  power- 
ful vertical  screw  propellers  driven  at  high  speed — the  greater 
the  horizontal  speed  provided  by  the  propellers,  the  greater,  by 
implication,  the  lifting  capacity  of  the  aerodrome.  The  bodies, 
frames  and  aeroplanes  of  the  aerodromes  were  strengthened 
by  vertical  and  other  supports,  to  which  were  attached  aluminium 
wires  to  ensure  absolute  rigidity  so  far  as  that  was  possible. 
Langley  aimed  at  great  lightness  of  construction,  and  in  this  he 
succeeded  to  a  remarkable  extent.  His  aeroplanes  were  variously 
shaped,  and  were,  as  a  rule,  concavo-convex,  the  convex  surface 
being  directed  upwards.  He  employed  a  competent  staff  of 
highly  trained  mechanics  at  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and 
great  secrecy  was  observed  as  to  his  operations.  He  flew  his 
smallest  models  in  the  great  lecture  room  of  the  National  Museum, 
and  his  larger  ones  on  the  Potomac  river  about  40  m.  below 
Washington. 

While  Langley  conducted  his  preliminary  experiments  in 
1889,  he  did  not  construct  and  test  his  steam-driven  flying 


models  until  1893.  These  were  made  largely  of  steel  and 
aluminium,  and  one  of  them  in  1896  made  the  longest  flight 
then  recorded  for  a  flying  machine,  namely,  fully  half  a  mile 
on  the  Potomac  river.  The  largest  aerodrome,  intended  to  carry 
passengers  and  to  be  available  for  war  purposes,  was  built  to 
the  order  and  at  the  expense  of  the  American  government, 
which  granted  a  sum  of  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  its  construction. 
Langley's  machine  shown  in  fig.  46  was  a  working  model,  not 
intended  to  carry  passengers.  In  configuration  the  body-portion 


FIG.  46. — Langley's  Flying  Machine,    a,  Large  aeroplane; 
b,  Small  aeroplane ;  c,  Propelling  screws. 

closely  resembled  a  mackerel.  The  backbone  was  a  light  but  very 
rigid  tube  of  aluminium  steel,  15  ft.  in  length,  and  a  little  more  than 
2  in.  in  diameter.  The  engines  were  located  in  the  portion  of  the 
framework  corresponding  to  the  head  of  the  fish;  they  weighed 
60  oz.  and  developed  one  horse-power.  There  were  four  boilers  made 
of  thin  hammered  copper  and  weighing  a  little  more  than  7  Ib  each ; 
these  occupied  the  middle  portion  of  the  fish.  The  fuel  used  was 
refined  gasoline,  and  the  extreme  end  of  the  tail  of  the  fish  was 
utilized  for  a  storage  tank  with  a  capacity  of  one  quart.  There  were 
twin  screw  propellers,  which  could  be  adjusted  to  different  angles  in 
practice,  to  provide  for  steering,  and  made  1700  revolutions  a  minute. 
The  wings,  or  aeroplanes,  four  in  number,  consisted  of  light  frames 
of  tubular  aluminium  steel  covered  with  china  silk.  The  pair  in  front 
were  42  in.  wide  and  40  ft.  from  tip  to  tip.  They  could  be  adjusted  at 
different  angles.  The  machine  required  to  be  dropped  from  a  height, 
or  a  preliminary  forward  impetus  had  to  be  given  to  it,  before  it  could 
be  started.  Fixity  of  all  the  parts  was  secured  by  a  tubular  mast 
extending  upwards  and  downwards  through  about  the  middle  of  the 
craft,  and  from  its  extremities  ran  stays  of  aluminium  wire  to  the  tips 
of  the  aeroplanes  and  the  end  of  the  tubular  backbone.  By  this 
trussing  arrangement  the  whole  structure  was  rendered  exceedingly 
stiff. 

In  the  larger  aerodrome  (fig.  47)  the  aeroplanes  were  concavo- 
convex,  narrow,  greatly  elongated  and  square  at  their  free  extremities, 


FIG.  47. — Langley's  Aerodrome  in  flight. 

the  two  propellers,  which  were  comparatively  very  large,  being  placed 
amidships,  so  to  speak.  At  the  first  trial  of  this  machine,  on  the  7th 
of  October  1903,  just  as  it  left  the  launching  track  it  was  jerked 
violently  down  at  the  front  (being  caught,  as  subsequently  appeared, 
by  the  falling  ways),  and  under  the  full  power  of  its  engine  was  pulled 
into  the  water,  carrying  with  it  its  engineer.  When  the  aerodrome 
rose  to  the  surface,  it  was  found  that  while  the  front  sustaining 
surfaces  had  been  broken  by  their  impact  with  the  water,  yet  the  rear 
ones  were  comparatively  uninjured.  At  the  second  and  last  attempt, 
on  the  8th  of  December  1903,  another  disaster,  again  due  to  the 
launching  ways,  occurred  as  the  machine  was  leaving  the  track.  This 
time  the  back  part  of  the  machine,  in  some  way  still  unexplained, 
was  caught  by  a  portion  of  the  launching  car,  which  caused  the  rear 
sustaining  surface  to  break,  leaving  the  rear  entirely  without  support, 


FLIGHT  AND  FLYING 


5*7 


and  it  came  down  almost  vertically  into  the  water.  Darkness  had 
come  before  the  engineer,  who  had  been  in  extreme  danger,  could  aid 
in  the  recovery  of  the  aerodrome.  The  boat  and  machine  had  drifted 
apart,  and  one  of  the  tugs  in  its  zeal  to  render  assistance  had  fastened 
a  rope  to  the  frame  of  the  machine  in  the  reverse  position  from  what 
it  should  have  been  attached,  and  had  broken  the  frame  entirely  in 
two.  Owing  to  lack  of  funds  further  trials  were  abandoned  (see 
Annual  Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  1904,  p.  122). 

Sir  Hiram  S.  Maxim,  like  Langley,  employed  a  staff  of  highly 
skilled  workmen.  His  machine  (fig.  48)  consisted  of  a  platform,  on 
which  stood  a  large  water-tube  boiler,  a  number  of  concavo-convex 
aeroplanes  arranged  in  tiers  like  shelves,  each  making  a  slight  upward 
angle  with  the  horizon,  two  very  large  vertical  screws  placed  aft  and 
propelled  by  steam  engines,  tanks  for  the  storage  of  water,  naphtha, 
&c.  The  boiler  was  especially  noteworthy.  The  water  was  contained 
in  about  2000  bent  copper  tubes,  only  f  in.  in  external  diameter, 
heated  by  over  7000  gas  jets  arranged  in  rows.  The  fuel  was  naphtha 
or  gasoline.  Steam  could  be  got  up  in  the  short  space  of  half  a  minute. 
The  steam-generating  appliances,  which  weighed  only  1000  ft  in 
all,  were  placed  in  the  front  of  the  machine.  The  motive  power  was 


FIG.  48. — Sir  H.  Maxim's  Flying  Machine. 

provided  by  a  pair  of  two-cylinder,  compound  engines,  poised  about 
8  ft.  from  the  ground,  and  about  6  ft.  apart.  Each  of  them  was  in- 
dependently governed,  and  furnished  together  363  horse-power  in 
actual  effect,  an  amount  which,  considering  that  their  total  weight 
was  only  600  Ib,  gave  the  extraordinary  efficiency  of  over  I  horse- 
power for  every  2  ft>  weight.  The  high  and  the  low  pressure  cylinders 
were  5  and  8  in.  in  diameter  respectively,  and  the  stroke  was  12  in. 
When  going  at  full  speed  these  engines  conferred  425  revolutions  per 
minute  on  the  two  gigantic  propellers  that  drove  the  machine  along. 
These  were  in  appearance  like  two-bladed  marine  propellers  except 
that  they  were  square  instead  of  rounded  at  the  ends,  and  were  broad 
and  thin.  They  were  built  from  overlapping  strips  of  American  pine, 
planed  smooth  and  covered  with  glued  canvas.  They  weighed 
135  ft  each,  the  length  of  each  blade  being  close  upon  9  ft.  and  the 
width  at  the  ends  5j  ft.  The  pitch  was  1 6  ft.  They  were  carefully 
stayed  by  steel  wires  to  their  shafts,  or  the  first  revolution  would  have 
snapped  them  off  short.  The  material  of  which  the  framework  was 
built  was  thin  steel  tubing,  exceedingly  light.  All  the  wires  and  ties 
were  of  the  best  steel,  capable  of  standing  a  strain  of  100  tons  to  the 
square  inch.  The  body  of  the  machine  was  oblong  in  shape,  with  the 
fore-part  cut  away  like  a  water-chute  boat,  and  a  long  counter  at  the 
stern  over  which  the  propellers  revolved.  It  had  canvas  stretched  all 
over  it.  High  overhead,  like  a  gigantic  awning,  was  the  slightly 
concavo-convex  main  aeroplane,  tilted  towards  the  front  at  an 
imperceptible  angle,  and  stretched  taut.  Its  area  was  1400  sq.  ft., 
increased  by  side  wings  to  2700 sq.  ft.  There  were  also  side  aeroplanes 
arranged  in  tiers,  and  large  aeroplanes  in  front,  which  were  pivoted 
and  served  for  vertical  steering.  The  machine  was  strengthened  in 
every  direction  by  vertical  and  other  supports  and  securely  wired 
together  at  all  points.  It  was  furnished  with  four  strong  flanged 
wheels  and  ran  along  a  light  broad-gauge  (9  ft.)  railway  track, 
1800  ft.  long,  in  the  hope  that  when  the  speed  reached  a  certain 
point  it  would  leave  the  rails,  but  it  was  prevented  from  rising  more 
than  an  inch  or  so  by  four  arms,  or  outriggers,  furnished  with  wheels, 
which  projected  from  its  sides  and  ran  under  an  inverted  wooden 
upper  or  safety  track  outside  the  railway  track  proper. 

At  a  trial  carried  out  in  1894  at  Bexley,  Kent,  only  the  main  aero- 
plane, the  fore  and  aft  rudders,  and  the  top  and  bottom  side  planes 
were  in  position.  After  everything  had  been  got  in  readiness,  careful 
observers  were  stationed  along  the  track,  and  the  machine  was  con- 
nected to  a  dynamometer.  The  engines  were  then  started  and  the 
pump  set  so  as  to  deliver  over  5000  Ib  of  water  per  hour  into  the  boiler. 
The  gas  was  then  carefully  turned  on  until  the  pressure  amounted 
to  310  ft  per  sq.  in.,  and  the  dynamometer  showed  a  thrust  of  more 
than  2100  Ib.  A  small  safety-valve  placed  in  the  steam  pipe  had 
been  adjusted  so  as  to  blow  off  slightly  at  310  ft  and  with  a  strong 
blast  at  320  ft.  The  signal  being  given  to  let  go,  the  machine  darted 
forward  at  a  terrific  pace,  and  the  safety-valve  ceased  to  blow.  More 
gas  was  instantly  turned  on,  and  before  the  machine  had  advanced 
300  ft.,  the  steam  had  mounted  to  320  ft  per  sq.  in.,  and  the  safety- 
valve  was  blowing  off  a  steady  blast.  When  the  machine  had 
travelled  only  a  few  hundred  feet,  all  four  of  the  small  outrigger 
wheels  were  fully  engaged,  which  showed  that  the  machine  was 
lifting  at  least  8000  ft.  The  speed  rapidly  increased  until  when  the 


machine  had  run  about  900  ft.  one  of  the  rear  axletrees,  which  were 
of  2  in.  steel  tubing,  doubled  up  and  set  the  rear  end  of  the  machine 
completely  free.  When  the  machine  had  travelled  about  1000  ft., 
the  left-hand  forward  wheel  became  disengaged  from  the  safety 
track,  and  shortly  after  this  the  right-hand  wheel  broke  the  upper 
track — 3  in.  by  9  in.  Georgia  pine — and  a  plank  became  entangled 
in  the  framework  of  the  machine.  Steam  had  already  been  shut  off, 
and  the  machine  coming  to  rest  fell  directly  to  the  ground,  all  four 
of  its  wheels  sinking  deeply  into  the  turf  without  leaving  other 
marks.  Before  making  this  run  the  wheels  which  were  to  engage  the 
upper  track  were  painted,  and  the  paint  left  by  them  on  the  upper 
track  indicated  the  exact  point  where  the  machine  lifted.  The  area 
of  the  aeroplanes  was  very  nearly  4000  sq.  ft.  and  the  total  lifting 
effect  was  fully  10,000  ft.  The  planes  therefore  lifted  2-5  ft  per 
sq.  ft.,  and  5  ft  for  each  pound  thrust.  Nearly  half  of  the  power  of 
the  engines  was  lost  in  the  screw  slip.  This  showed  that  the  diameter 
of  the  screws  was  not  great  enough ;  it  should  have  been  at  least  22  ft. 

In  1897  M.  C.  Ader,  who  had  already  tested,  with  indifferent 
results,  two  full-sized  flying  machines,  built  a  third  apparatus 
with  funds  furnished  by  the  French  government.  This  repro- 
duced the  structure  of  a  bird  with  almost  servile  imitation,  save 
that  traction  was  obtained  by  two  screw-propellers.  The  steam 
engine  weighed  about  7  Ib  per  horse-power,  but  the  equilibrium 
of  the  apparatus  was  defective. 

Largely  with  the  view  of  studying  the  problem  of  maintaining 
equilibrium,  several  experimenters,  including  Otto  Lilienthal, 
Percy  Pilcher  and  Octave  Chanute,  cultivated  gliding  flight 
by  means  of  aeroplanes  capable  of  sustaining  a  man.  They 
depended  mainly  on  the  utilization  of  natural  air  currents,  trust- 
ing for  stability  and  balance  to  movements  in  their  own  bodies, 
or  in  portions  of  their  machines  which  they  could  control.  They 
threw  themselves  from  natural  or  artificial  elevations,  or,  facing 
the  wind,  they  ran  or  were  dragged  forwards  against  it  until 
they  got  under  way  and  the  wind  caught  hold  of  their  aeroplanes. 
To  Lilienthal  in  Germany  belongs  the  double  credit  of  demon- 
strating the  superiority  of  arched  over  flat  surfaces,  and  of 
reducing  gliding  flight  to  regular  practice.  He  made  over  2000 
glides  safely,  using  gravity  as  his  motive  power,  with  concave, 
batlike  wings,  in  some  cases  with  superposed  surfaces  (fig.  49). 


FIG.  49. — Lilienthal's  Gliding  Machine. 

It  was  with  a  machine  of  the  latter  type  that  he  was  upset  by 
a  sudden  gust  of  wind  and  killed  in  1896.  Pilcher  in  England 
improved  somewhat  on  Lilienthal's  apparatus,  but  used  the  same 
general  method  of  restoring  the  balance,  when  endangered,  by 
shifting  the  weight  of  the  operator's  body.  He  too  made  several 
hundred  glides  in  safety,  but  finally  was  thrown  over  by  a  gust 
of  wind  and  killed  in  1899.  Chanute  in  America  confined  his 
endeavours  to  the  production  of  automatic  stability,  and  made 
the  surfaces  movable  instead  of  the  man.  He  used  several 
different  forms  of  apparatus,  including  one  with  five  superposed 
pairs  of  wings  and  a  tail  (fig.  50)  and  another  with  two  continuous 
aeroplanes,  one  above  the  other  (fig.  51).  He  made  over  1000 
glides  without  accident. 

Similar  experiments  were  meanwhile  conducted  by  Wilbur 
and  Orville  Wright  of  Dayton,  Ohio,  in  whose  hands  the  glider 
developed  into  a  successful  flying  machine.  These  investigators 
began  their  work  in  1900,  and  at  an  early  stage  introduced  two 
characteristic  features — a  horizontal  rudder  in  front  for  steering 
in  the  vertical  plane,  and  the  flexing  or  bending  of  the  ends  of 


5i8 


FLIGHT  AND   FLYING 


the  main  supporting  aeroplanes  as  a  means  of  maintaining  the 
structure  in  proper  balance.  Their  machines  to  begin  with  were 
merely  gliders,  the  operator  lying  upon  them  in  a  horizontal 
position,  but  in  1903  a  petrol  motor  was  added,  and  a  flight 
lasting  59  seconds  was  performed.  In  1905  they  made  forty-five 
flights,  in  the  longest  of  which  they  remained  in  the  air  for  half 


FIG.  50. — Chanute's  Multiple  Gliding  Machine. 

an  hour  and  covered  a  distance  of  243  m.  The  utmost  secrecy, 
however,  was  maintained  concerning  their  experiments,  and  in 
consequence  their  achievements  were  regarded  at  the  time  with 
doubt  and  suspicion,  and  it  was  hardly  realized  that  their  suc- 
cess would  reach  the  point  later  achieved. 

Thanks,  however,  to  the  efforts  of  automobile  engineers,  great 
improvements  were  now  being  effected  in  the  petrol  engine,  and, 
although  the  certainty  and  trustworthiness  of  its  action  still 
left  something  to  be  desired,  it  provided  the  designers  of  flying 
machines  with  what  they  had  long  been  looking  for — a  motor 


FIG.  51. — Chanute's  Biplane  Gliding  Machine. 

very  powerful  in  proportion  to  its  weight.  Largely  in  consequence 
of  this  progress,  and  partly  no  doubt  owing  to  the  stimulus 
given  by  the  activity  of  builders  of  dirigible  balloons,  the  con- 
struction of  motor-driver,  aeroplanes  began  to  attract  a  number 
of  workers,  especially  in  France.  In  1906  A.  Santos  Dumont, 
after  a  number  of  successful  experiments  with  dirigible  cigar- 
shaped  gas  balloons,  completed  an  aeroplane  flying  machine. 
It  consisted  of  the  following  parts: — (a)  A  system  of  aeroplanes 
arranged  like  the  capital  letter  T  at  a  certain  upward  angle  to 
the  horizon  and  bearing  a  general  resemblance  to  box  kites; 


(6)  a  pair  of  very  light  propellers  driven  at  a  high  speed;  and 
(c)  an  exceedingly  light  and  powerful  petrol  engine.  The  driver 
occupied  a  position  in  the  centre  of  the  arrangement,  which  is 
shown  in  fig.  52.  The  machine  was  furnished  with  two  wheels 
and  vertical  supports  which  depended  from  the  anterior  parts 
of  the  aeroplanes  and  supported  it  when  it  touched  the  ground 


FIG.  52. — Santos  Dumont's  Flying  Machine. 

on  either  side.  With  this  apparatus  he  traversed  on  the  I2th 
of  November  1906  a  distance  of  220  metres  in  21  seconds. 

About  a  year  later  Henry  Farman  made  several  short  flights 
on  a  machine  of  the  biplane  type,  consisting  of  two  main  sup- 
porting surfaces  one  above  the  other,  with  a  box-shaped  vertical 
rudder  behind  and  two  small  balancing  aeroplanes  in  front. 
The  engine  was  an  eight-cylinder  Antoinette  petrol  motor, 
developing  49  horse-power  at  iioo  revolutions  a  minute,  and 
driving  directly  a  single  metal  screw  propeller.  On  the  27th  of 
October  1906  he  flew  a  distance  of  nearly  half  a  mile  at  Issy-les- 
Molineaux,  and  on  the  i3th  of  January  1908  he  made  a  circular 
flight  of  one  kilometre,  thereby  winning  the  Deutsch-Archdeacon 
prize  of  £2000.  In  March  he  remained  in  the  air  for  35  minutes, 
covering  a  distance  of  ij  m.;  but  in  the  following  month  a  rival, 
Leon  Delagrange,  using  a  machine  of  the  same  type  and  con- 
structed by  the  same  makers,  Messrs  Voisin,  surpassed  this 
performance  by  flying  nearly  25  m.  in  65  minutes.  In  July 
Farman  remained  in  the  air  for  over  20  minutes;  on  the  6th  of 
September  Delagrange  increased  the  time  to  nearly  30  minutes, 
and  on  the  29th  of  the  same  month  Farman  again  came  in  front 
with  a  flight  lasting  42  minutes  and  extending  over  nearly  245  m. 

But  the  best  results  were  obtained  by  the  Wright  brothers- — 
Orville  Wright  in  America  and  Wilbur  Wright  in  France. .  On 
the  9th  of  September  1908  the  former,  at  Fort  Myer,  Virginia, 
made  three  notable  flights;  in  the  first  he  remained  in  the  air 
575  minutes  and  in  the  second  i  hour  3  minutes,  while  in  the  third 
he  took  with  him  a  passenger  and  covered  nearly  4  m.  in  6  minutes. 
Three  days  later  he  made  a  flight  of  45  m.  in  i  hour  14^  minutes, 
but  on  the  i7th  he  had  an  accident,  explained  as  being  due  to  one 
of  his  propellers  coming  into  contact  with  a  stay,  by  which  his 
machine  was  wrecked,  he  himself  seriously  injured,  and  Lieu- 
tenant Selfridge,  who  was  with  him,  lulled.  Four  days  afterwards 
Wilbur  Wright  at  Le  Mans  in  France  beat  all  previous  records 
with  a  flight  lasting  i  hour  31  minutes  25$  seconds,  in  which  he 
covered  about  56  m.;  and  subsequently,  on  the  nth  of  October, 
he  made  a  flight  of  i  hour  9  minutes  accompanied  by  a  passenger. 
On  the  3ist  of  December  he  succeeded  in  remaining  in  the  air 
for  2  hours  20  minutes  23  seconds. 

Wilbur  Wright's  machine  (fig.  53),  that  used  by  his  brother 
being  essentially  the  same,  consisted  of  two  slightly  arched 
supporting  surfaces,  each  12^  metres  long,  arranged  parallel 
one  above  the  other  at  a  distance  of  if  metres  apart.  As  they 
were  each  about  2  metres  wide  their  total  area  was  about  50  sq. 
metres.  About  3  metres  in  front  of  them  was  arranged  a  pair 
of  "smaller  horizontal  j aeroplanes,  shaped  like  a  long  narrow 
ellipse,  which  formed  the  rudder  that  effected  changes  of  eleva- 
tion, the  driver  being  able  by  means  of  a  lever  to  incline  them  up 
or  down  according  as  he  desired  to  ascend  or  descend.  The  rudder 
for  lateral  steering  was  placed  about  25  metres  behind  the  main 
surfaces  and  was  formed  of  two  vertical  pivoted  aeroplanes. 
The  lever  by  which  they  were  turned  was  connected  with  the 
device  by  which  the  ends  of  the  main  aeroplanes  could  be  flexed 
simultaneously  though  in  opposite  directions;  i.e.  if  the  ends  of 
the  aeroplanes  on  one  side  were  bent  downwards,  those  on  the 


FLIGHT    AND    FLYING 


PLATE  I. 


_*- 

Zl  t 

1 


FIG.   i.— PAULHAN   FLYING   ON   FARMAN    BIPLANE. 


1'hoto,  Topical  Press. 


X.  518- 


FIG.  2.— WRIGHT   BIPI.AM.. 


Photo,  Topical  Press. 


PLATE  II. 


FLIGHT    AND    FLYING 


FIG.  3.— BLERIOT  MONOPLANE. 


Pltolo,  Topical  Press. 


FIG.  4.— A.  V.  ROE'S  TRIPLANE. 


Pholo.  Topical  Press. 


FLINCK 


other  were  bent  upwards.  By  the  aid  of  this  arrangement  the 
natural  cant  of  the  machine  when  making  a  turn  could  be 
checked,  if  it  became  excessive.  The  four-cylinder  petrol  engine 
was  placed  on  the  lower  aeroplane  a  little  to  the  right  of  the 
central  line,  being  counterbalanced  by  the  driver  (and  passenger 


FIG.  53. — Wright  Flying  Machine ;  diagrammatic  sketch. 
A,  B,  Main  supporting  surfaces.  F,  Vertical  rudder. 

C,  D,  Aeroplanes  of  horizontal  rudder  G,  Motor, 

with  fixed  semilunar  fin  E.  H,  Screws. 

if  one  was  carried),  who  sat  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  same  line. 
Making  about  1200  revolutions  a  minute,  it  developed  about  24 
horse-power,  and  was  connected  by  chain  gearing  to  two  wooden 
propellers,  2§  metres  in  diameter  and  3!  metres  apart,  the 
speed  of  which  was  about  450  revolutions  a  minute.  The  whole 
machine,  with  aeronaut,  weighed  about  noo  Ib,  the  weight  of 
the  motor  being  reputed  to  be  200  Ib. 

A  feature  of  the  year  1909  was  the  success  obtained  with 
monoplanes  having  only  a  single  supporting  surface,  and  it  was 
on  a  machine  of  this  type  that  the  Frenchman  Bleriot  on  July 
2  $th  flew  across  the  English  Channel  from  Calais  to  Dover  in 
31  minutes.  Hubert  Latham  all  but  performed  the  same  feat  on 
an  Antoinette  monoplane.  The  year  saw  considerable  increases 
in  the  periods  for  which  aviators  were  able  to  remain  in  the  air, 
and  Roger  Sommer's  flight  of  nearly  25  hours  on  August  yth 
was  surpassed  by  Henry  Farman  on  November  3rd,  when  he 
covered  a  distance  estimated  at  1371  m.  in  4  hr.  17  min.  53  sec. 
In  both  these  cases  biplanes  were  employed.  Successful  aviation 
meetings  were  held,  among  other  places,  at  Reims,  Juvisy, 
Doncaster  and  Blackpool;  and  at  Blackpool  a  daring  flight  was 
made  in  a  wind  of  40  m.  an  hour  by  Latham.  This  aviator  also 
proved  the  possibility  of  flying  at  considerable  altitudes  by 
attaining  on  December  ist  a  height  of  over  1500  ft.,  but  this 
record  was  far  surpassed  in  the  following  January  by  L.  Paulhan, 
who  on  a  biplane  rose  to  a  height  of  1383  yds.  at  Los  Angeles. 
In  the  course  of  the  year  three  aviators  were  killed — Lefevbre 
and  Ferber  in  September  and  Fernandez  in  December;  and 
four  men  perished  in  September  by  the  destruction  of  the  French 
airship  "  Republique,"  the  gas-bag  of  which  was  ripped  open  by 
a  broken  propeller.  In  January  1910  Delagrange  was  killed 
by  the  fracture  of  one  of  the  wings  of  a  monoplane  on  which 
he  was  flying.  On  April  27th-28th,  1910,  Paulhan  successfully 
flew  from  London  to  Manchester,  with  only  one  stop,  within 
24  hours,  for  the  Daily  Mail's  £10,000  prize. 

The  progress  made  by  all  these  experiments  at  aviation 
had  naturally  created  widespread  interest,  both  as  a  matter  of 


sport  and  also  as  indicating  a  new  departure  in  the  possibilities  of 
machines  of  war.  And  in  1909  the  British  government  appointed 
a  scientific  committee,  with  Lord  Rayleigh  as  chairman,  as  a  con- 
sultative body  for  furthering  the  development  of  the  science  in 
England. 

The  table  below  gives  some  details,  approximately  correct, 
of  the  principal  experiments  made  with  flying  machines  up  to 
1908. 

REFERENCES. — Some  of  the  books  mentioned  under  AERONAUTICS 
contain  details  of  flying  machines;  seeH.  W.L.  Moedebeck./l  Pocket- 
book  of  Aeronautics,  trans,  by  W.  Mansergh  Varley  (London,  1907); 
Sir  Hiram  S.  Maxim,  Artificial  and  Natural  Flight  (London,  1908); 
F.  W.  Lanchester,  Aerodynamics  and  Aerodonetics  (London,  1907  and 
1908);  C.  C.  Turner,  Aerial  Navigation  of  To-day  (London,  1909); 
also  two  papers  on  "Aerial  Navigation"  read  by  Colonel  G.  O. 
Fullerton  before  the  Royal  United  Service  Institution  in  1892  and 
1906;  papers  read  by  Major  B.  F.  S.  Baden-Powell  and  E.  S.  Bruce 
before  the  Society  of  Arts,  London,  in  April  1907  and  December  1908 
respectively;  Cantor  Lectures  by  F.  W.  Lanchester  (Society  of 
Arts,  1909);  and  the  Proceedings  of  the  Aeronautical  Society 
(founded  1865),  &c. 

FLINCK,  GOVERT  (1615-1660),  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Cleves 
in  1615,  was  apprenticed  by  his  father  to  a  silk  mercer,  but 
having  secretly  acquired  a  passion  for  drawing,  was  sent  to 
Leuwarden,  where  he  boarded  in  the  house  of  Lambert  Jacobszon, 
a  Mennonite,  better  known  as  an  itinerant  preacher  than  as  a 
painter.  Here  Flinck  was  joined  by  Jacob  Backer,  and  the 
companionship  of  a  youth  determined  like  himself  to  be  an  artist 
only  confirmed  his  passion  for  painting.  Amongst  the  neighbours 
of  Jacobszon  at  Leuwarden  were  the  sons  and  relations  of 
Rombert  Ulenburg,  whose  daughter  Saske  married  Rembrandt 
in  1634.  Other  members  of  the  same  family  lived  at  Amsterdam, 
cultivating  the  arts  either  professionally  or  as  amateurs.  The 
pupils  of  Lambert  probably  gained  some  knowledge  of  Rembrandt 
by  intercourse  with  the  Ulenburgs.  Certainly  J.  von  Sandrart, 
who  visited  Holland  in  1637,  found  Flinck  acknowledged  as 
one  of  Rembrandt's  best  pupils,  and  living  habitually  in  the  house 
of  the  dealer  Hendrik  Ulenburg  at  Amsterdam.  For  many  years 
Flinck  laboured  on  the  lines  of  Rembrandt,  following  that  master's 
style  in  all  the  works  which  he  executed  between  1636  and  1648; 
then  he  fell  into  peculiar  mannerisms  by  imitating  the  swelling 
forms  and  grand  action  of  Rubens's  creations.  Finally  he  sailed 
with  unfortunate  complacency  into  the  Dead  Sea  of  official 
and  diplomatic  painting.  Flinck's  relations  with  Cleves  became 
in  time  very  important.  He  was  introduced  to  the  court  of  the 
Great  Elector,  Frederick  William  of  Brandenburg,  who  married 
in  1646  Louisa  of  Orange.  He  obtained  the  patronage  of  John 
Maurice  of  Orange,  who  was  made  stadtholder  of  Cleves  in  1649. 
In  i&52a  citizen  of  Amsterdam,  Flinck  married  in  1656  an  heiress, 
daughter  of  Ver  Hoeven,  a  director  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company.  Hewas  already  well  known  even  then  in  the  patrician 
circles  over  which  the  burgomasters  De  Graef  and  the  Echevin 
Six  presided;  he  was  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the  poet  Vondel 
and  the  treasurer  Uitenbogaard.  In  his  house,  adorned  with 
antique  casts,  costumes,  and  a  noble  collection  of  prints,  he  often 


Year. 

Experimenter. 

Tip 
to 
Tip. 

Surface. 

Weight. 

Pounds 
per 
sq.  ft. 

Speed 
per 
hour. 

Maximum 
Flight. 

Motor. 

Horse- 
power. 

Pounds 
sustained 
per  h.p. 

1879 

18851 
1889  \ 

I8O1 

Tatin      

Hargrave  (No.  16) 
Phillips    

Ft. 

6-2 

5-5 

22-O 

Sq.  ft. 
7'5 

26-0 
136-0 

B>. 
3-85 

5-00 

402-00 

0-51 

0-19 
3-00 

Mis. 
18 

10 

28 

Ft. 

IOO? 

343 
500? 

Compressed 
air 

Steam 

0-03 

0-06 
5-6 

no? 

79 
72? 

1894 
1896 
1897 
1897 

1895 
1896 
1896 
1906 
1908 

Maxim  * 
Langley 
Tatin  and  Richet 
Ader*      . 
Lilienthal* 
Pilcher* 
Chanute* 
S.  Dumont* 
W.  Wright* 

50-0 
12-0 
21-0 

49-0 
23-0 
23-0 
16-0 
39 
41 

4000-0 
70-0 
86-0 
270-0 
151-0 
170-0 

135'° 
560 
650 

8000-00 
30-00 
72-00 

IIOO-OO 

220-00 
200-00 
178-00 

550 

1  100 

2-5 
o-43 
0-83 
4-00 
1-46 
1-17 

i-3i 
0-98 

i'7 

36 
24 
40 
50? 
23 
25 

22 
22-26 

37 

300? 
4,000 
460 

IOO? 

1,200 
900 
360 
2,900 
295,000 

Gravity 

Petrol 

Petrol 

i 

363-00 

I  -00 

1-33 
40-00 

2-OO 
2-OO 
2-OO 
50 

24 

28 
30 

55 
27 
no 

IOO 

89 
23 
46 

"The  apparatus  marked  thus  *  carried  a  man  or  men. 


520 


FLINDERS 


received  the  stadtholder  John  Maurice,  whose  portrait  is  still 
preserved  in  the  work  of  the  learned  Barleius. 

The  earliest  of  Flinck's  authentic  pieces  is  a  likeness  of  a  lady, 
dated  1636,  in  the  gallery  of  Brunswick.  His  first  subject  picture 
is  the  "  Blessing  of  Jacob,"  in  the  Amsterdam  museum  (1638). 
Both  are  thoroughly  Rembrandtesque  in  effect  as  well  as  in 
vigour  of  touch  and  warmth  of  flesh  tints.  The  four  "  civic 
guards  "  of  1642,  and  "  the  twelve  musketeers  "  with  their 
president  in  an  arm-chair  (1648),  in  the  town-hall  at  Amsterdam, 
are  fine  specimens  of  composed  portrait  groups.  But  the  best 
of  Flinck's  productions  in  this  style  is  the  peace  of  Minister  in 
the  museum  of  Amsterdam,  a  canvas  with  19  life-size  figures  full 
of  animation  in  the  faces,  "  radiant  with  Rembrandtesque 
colour,"  and  admirably  distributed.  Flinck  here  painted  his 
own  likeness  to  the  left  in  a  doorway.  The  mannered  period  of 
Flinck  is  amply  illustrated  in  the  "  Marcus  Curius  eating  Turnips 
before  the  Samnite  Envoys,"  and  "  Solomon  receiving  Wisdom," 
in  the  palace  on  the  Dam  at  Amsterdam.  Here  it  is  that  Flinck 
shows  most  defects,  being  faulty  in  arrangement,  gaudy  in  tint, 
flat  and  shallow  in  execution,  and  partial  to  whitened  flesh  that 
looks  as  if  it  had  been  smeared  with  violet  powder  and  rouge. 
The  chronology  of  Flinck's  works,  so  far  as  they  are  seen  in 
public  galleries,  comprises,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing,  the 
"  Grey  Beard  "  of  1639  at  Dresden,  the  "  Girl  "  of  1641  at  the 
Louvre,  a  portrait  group  of  a  male  and  female  (1646)  at  Rotter- 
dam, a  lady  (1651)  at  Berlin.  In  November  1659  the  burgo- 
master of  Amsterdam  contracted  with  Flinck  for  12  canvases  to 
represent  four  heroic  figures  of  David  and  Samson  and  Marcus 
Curius  and  Horatius  Codes,  and  scenes  from  the  wars  of  the 
Batavians  and  Romans.  Flinck  was  unable  to  finish  more  than 
the  sketches.  In  the  same  year  he  received  a  flattering  acknow- 
ledgment from  the  town  council  of  Cleves  on  the  completion  of  a 
picture  of  Solomon  which  was  a  counterpart  of  the  composition 
at  Amsterdam.  This  and  other  pictures  and  portraits,  such  as 
the  likenesses  of  Frederick  William  of  Brandenburg  and  John 
Maurice  of  Nassau,  and  the  allegoryof  "  Louisaof  Orange  attended 
by  Victory  and  Fame  "  and  other  figures  at  the  cradle  of  the 
first-born  son  of  the  elector,  have  disappeared.  Of  several 
pictures  which  were  painted  for  the  Great  Elector,  none  are 
preserved  except  the  "  Expulsion  of  Hagar "  in  the  Berlin 
museum.  Flinck  died  at  Amsterdam  on  the  22nd  of  February 
1660. 

FLINDERS,  MATTHEW  (1774-1814),  English  navigator, 
explorer,  and  man  of  science,  was  born  at  Donington,  near 
Boston,  in  Lincolnshire,  on  the  i6th  of  March  1774.  Matthew 
was  at  first  designed  to  follow  his  father's  profession  of  surgeon, 
but  his  enthusiasm  in  favour  of  a  life  of  adventure  impelled  him 
to  enter  the  royal  navy,  which  he  did  on  the  23rd  of  October 
1789.  After  a  voyage  to  the  Friendly  Islands  and  West  Indies, 
and  after  serving  in  the  "  Bellerophon  "  during  Lord  Howe's 
"  glorious  first  of  June  "  (1794)  off  Ushant,  Flinders  went  out 
in  1795  as  midshipman  in  the  "  Reliance  "  to  New  South  Wales. 
For  the  next  few  years  he  devoted  himself  to  the  task  of  accurately 
laying  down  the  outline  and  bearings  of  the  Australian  coast, 
and  he  did  his  work  so  thoroughly  that  he  left  comparatively 
little  for  his  successors  to  do.  With  his  friend  George  Bass,  the 
surgeon  of  the  "  Reliance,"  in  the  year  of  his  arrival  he  explored 
George's  river;  and,  after  a  voyage  to  Norfolk  Island,  again  in 
March  1796  the  two  friends  in  the  same  boat,  the  "Tom  Thumb," 
only  8  ft.  long,  and  with  only  a  boy  to  help  them,  explored  a 
stretch  of  coast  to  the  south  of  Port  Jackson.  After  a  voyage 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  when  he  was  promoted  to  a  lieutenancy, 
Flinders  was  engaged  during  February  1798  in  a  survey  of  the 
Furneaux  Islands,  lying  to  the  north  of  Tasmania.  His  delight 
was  great  when,  in  September  of  the  same  year,  he  was  com- 
missioned along  with  Bass,  who  had  already  explored  the  sea 
between  Tasmania  and  the  south  coast  to  some  extent  and 
inferred  that  it  was  a  strait,  to  proceed  in  the  sloop  "  Norfolk  " 
(25  tons)  to  prove  conclusively  that  Van  Diemen's  Land  was  an 
island  by  circumnavigating  it.  In  the  same  sloop,  in  the  summer 
of  next  year,  Flinders  made  an  exploration  to  the  north  of  Port 
Jackson,  the  object  being  mainly  to  survey  Glasshouse  Bay 


(Moreton  Bay)  and  Hervey's  Bay.  Returning  to  England  he 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of^an  expedition  for  the  thorough 
exploration  of  the  coasts  of  Terra  Australis,  as  the  southern 
continent  was  still  called,  though  Flinders  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  suggest  for  it  the  name  Australia.  On  the  i8th  of 
July  1801  the  sloop  "  Investigator  "  (334  tons),  in  which  the 
expedition  sailed,  left  Spithead,  Flinders  being  furnished  with 
instructions  and  with  a  passport  from  the  French  government 
to  all  their  officials  in  the  Eastern  seas.  Among  the  scientific 
staff  was  Robert  Brown,  one  of  the  most  eminent  English 
botanists;  and  among  the  midshipmen  was  Flinders's  relative, 
John  Franklin,  of  Arctic  fame.  Cape  Leeuwin,  on  the  south- 
west coast  of  Australia,  was  reached  on  November  6,  and  King 
George's  sound  on  the  pth  of  December.  Flinders  sailed  round 
the  Great  Bight,  examining  the  islands  and  indentations  on  the 
east  side,  noting  the  nature  of  the  country,  the  people,  products, 
&c.,  and  paying  special  attention  to  the  subject  of  the  variation 
of-  the  compass.  Spenser  and  St  Vincent  Gulfs  were  discovered 
and  explored.  On  the  8th  of  April  1802,  shortly  after  leaving 
Kangaroo  Islands,  at  the  mouth  of  St  Vincent  Gulf,  Flinders 
fell  in  with  the  French  exploring  ship,  "  Le  Geographe,"  under 
Captain  Nicolas  Baudin,  in  the  bay  now  known  as  Encounter 
Bay.  In  the  narrative  of  the  French  expedition  published  in 
1807  (when  Flinders  was  a  prisoner  in  the  Mauritius)  by  M. 
Peron,  the  naturalist  to  the  expedition,  much  of  the  land  west 
of  the  point  of  meeting  was  claimed  as  having  been  discovered 
by  Baudin,  and  French  names  were  extensively  substituted  for 
the  English  ones  given  by  Flinders.  It  was  only  in  1814,  when 
Flinders  published  his  own  narrative,  that  the  real  state  of  the 
case  was  fully  exposed.  Flinders  continued  his  examination 
of  the  coast  along  Bass's  Strait,  carefully  surveying  Port  Phillip. 
Port  Jackson  was  reached  on  the  9th  of  May  1802. 

After  staying  at  Port  Jackson  for  about  a  couple  of  months, 
Flinders  set  out  again  on  the  22nd  of  July  to  complete  his 
circumnavigation  of  Australia.  The  Great  Barrier  Reef  was 
examined  with  the  greatest  care  in  several  places.  The  north- 
east entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  was  reached  early  in 
November;  and  the  next  three  months  were  spent  in  an  examina- 
tion of  the  shores  of  the  gulf,  and  of  the  islands  that  skirt  them. 
An  inspection  of  the  "  Investigator  "  showed  that  she  was  in  so 
leaky  a  condition  that  only  with  the  greatest  precaution  could 
the  voyage  be  completed  in  her.  Flinders  completed  the  survey 
of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  and  after  touching  at  the  island  of 
Timor,  the  "  Investigator  "  sailed  round  the  west  and  south  of 
Australia,  and  Port  Jackson  was  reached  on  the  9th  of  June 
1803.  Much  suffering  was  endured  by  nearly  all  the  members 
of  the  expedition:  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  men  suc- 
cumbed to  disease,  and  their  leader  was  so  reduced  by  scurvy 
that  his  health  was  greatly  impaired. 

Flinders  determined  to  proceed  home  in  H.M.S.  "  Porpoise  " 
as  a  passenger,  submit  the  results  of  his  work  to  the  Admiralty, 
and  obtain,  if  possible,  another  vessel  to  complete  his  exploration 
of  the  Australian  coast.  The  "  Porpoise  "  left  Port  Jackson  on 
the  loth  of  August,  accompanied  by  the  H.E.I.C.'s  ship  "  Bridge- 
water  "  (750  tons)  and  the  "  Cato  "  (450  tons)  of  London.  On  the 
night  of  the  i7th  the  "  Porpoise  "  and  "  Cato  "  suddenly  struck 
on  a  coral  reef  and  were  rapidly  reduced  to  wrecks.  The  officers 
and  men  encamped  on  a  small  sandbank  near,  3  or  4  ft.  above 
high-water,  a  considerable  quantity  of  provisions,  with  many 
of  the  papers  and  charts,  having  been  saved  from  the  wrecks. 
The  reef  was  in  about  22°  n'  S.  and  155°  E.,  and  about  800  m. 
from  Port  Jackson.  Flinders  returned  to  Port  Jackson  in  a 
six-oared  cutter  in  order  to  obtain  a  vessel  to  rescue  the  party. 
The  reef  was  again  reached  on  the  8th  of  October,  and  all  the 
officers  and  men  having  been  satisfactorily  disposed  of,  Flinders 
on  the  nth  left  for  Jones  Strait  in  an  unsound  schooner  of  29 
tons,  the  "  Cumberland,"  with  ten  companions,  and  a  valuable 
collection  of  papers,  charts,  geological  specimens,  &c.  On  the 
I5th  of  December  he  put  in  at  Mauritius,  when  he  discovered 
that  France  and  England  were  at  war.  The  passport  he  possessed 
from  the  French  government  was  for  the  "  Investigator "; 
still,  though  he  was  now  on  board  another  ship,  his  mission  was 


FLINSBERG— FLINT 


essentially  the  same,  and  the  work  he  was  on  was  simply  a  con- 
tinuation of  that  commenced  in  the  unfortunate  vessel.  Never- 
theless, on  her  arrival  at  Port  Louis  the  "  Cumberland  "  was 
seized  by  order  of  the  governor-general  de  Caen.  Flinders's 
papers  were  taken  possession  of,  and  he  found  himself  virtually 
a  prisoner.  We  need  not  dwell  on  the  sad  details  of  this  un- 
justifiable captivity,  which  lasted  to  June  1810.  But  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  hardships  and  inactivity  Flinders  was  com- 
pelled to  endure  for  upwards  of  six  years  told  seriously  on  his 
health,  and  brought  his  life  to  a  premature  end.  He  reached 
England  in  October  1810,  after  an  absence  of  upwards  of  nine 
years.  The  official  red-tapeism  of  the  day  barred  all  promotion 
to  the  unfortunate  explorer,  who  set  himself  to  prepare  an 
account  of  his  explorations,  though  unfortunately  an  important 
part  of  his  record  had  been  retained  by  de  Caen.  The  results  of 
his  labours  were  published  in  two  large  quarto  volumes,  entitled 
A  Voyage  to  Terra  Australis,  with  a  folio  volume  of  maps.  The 
very  day  (July  19,  1814)  on  which  his  work  was  published 
Flinders  died,  at  the  early  age  of  forty.  The  great  work  is  a 
model  of  its  kind,  containing  as  it  does  not  only  a  narrative  of 
his  own  and  of  previous  voyages,  but  masterly  statements  of 
the  scientific  results,  especially  with  regard  to  magnetism, 
meteorology,  hydrography  and  navigation.  Flinders  paid  great 
attention  to  the  errors  of  the  compass,  especially  to  those  caused 
by  the  presence  of  iron  in  ships.  He  is  understood  to  have  been 
the  first  to  discover  the  source  of  such  errors  (which  had  scarcely 
been  noticed  before),  and  after  investigating  the  laws  of  the 
variations,  he  suggested  counter-attractions,  an  invention  for 
which  Professor  Barlow  got  much  credit  many  years  afterwards. 
Numerous  experiments  on  ships'  magnetism  were  conducted  at 
Portsmouth  by  Flinders,  by  order  of  the  admiralty,  in  1812. 
Besides  the  Voyage,  Flinders  wrote  Observations  on  the  Coast 
of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  Bass's  Strait,  &c.,  and  two  papers 
in  the  Phil.  Trans. — one  on  the  "  Magnetic  Needle  "  (1805), 
and  the  other,  "  Observations  on  the  Marine  Barometer " 
(1806).  (J.S.  K.) 

FLINSBERO,  a  village  and  watering-place  of  Germany,  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Silesia,  on  the  Queis,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Iserkamm,  1450  ft.  above  the  sea,  5  m.  W.  of  Friedeberg,  the 
terminus  station  of  the  railway  from  Greiffenberg.  Pop.  (1000) 
1957.  It  contains  an  Evangelical  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church, 
and  has  some  manufactures  of  wooden  wares.  Flinsberg  is 
celebrated  for  its  chalybeate  waters,  specific  in  cases  of  feminine 
disorders,  and  used  both  for  bathing  and  drinking.  It  is  also 
a  climatic  health  resort  of  some  reputation,  and  the  visitors 
number  about  8500  annually. 

See  Adam,  Bad  Flinsberg  als  klimatischer  Kurort  (Gorlitz,  1891). 

FLINT,  AUSTIN  (1812-1886),  American  physician,  was  born 
at  Petersham,  Massachusetts,  on  the  2oth  of  October  1812, 
and  graduated  at  the  medical  department  of  Harvard  University 
in  1833.  From  1847  to  1852  he  was  professor  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  medicine  in  Buffalo  Medical  College,  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  founders,  and  from  1852  to  1856  he  filled  the  same 
chair  in  the  university  of  Louisville.  From  1861  to  1886  he  was 
professor  of  the  principles  and  practice  of  medicine  and  clinical 
medicine  in  Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  College,  New  York.  He 
wrote  many  text-books  on  medical  subjects,  among  these  being 
Diseases  of  the  Heart  (1859-1870);  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Medicine  (1866);  Clinical  Medicine  (1879);  and  Physical 
Exploration  of  the  Lungs  by  means  of  Auscultation  and  Percussion 
(1882).  He  died  in  New  York  on  the  I3th  of  March  1886. 

His  son,  AUSTIN  FLINT,  junr.,  who  was  born  at  Northampton, 
Massachusetts,  on  the  28th  of  March  1836,  after  studying  at 
Harvard  and  at  the  university  of  Louisville,  graduated  at  the 
Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia,  in  1857.  He  then  became 
professor  of  physiology  at  the  university  of  Buffalo  (1858)  and 
subsequently  at  other  centres,  his  last  connexion  being  with  the 
Cornell  University  Medical  College  (1898-1906).  He  was  better 
known  as  a  teacher  and  writer  on  physiology  than  as  a  practi- 
tioner, and  his  Text-book  of  Human  Physiology  (1876)  was 
for  many  years  a  standard  book  in  American  medical  colleges. 
He  also  published  an  extensive  Physiology  of  Man  (5  vols.,  1866- 


1874),  Chemical  Examination  of  the  Urine  in  Disease  (1870), 
Effects  of  Severe  and  Protracted  Muscular  Exercise  (1871),  Source 
of  Muscular  Power  (1878),  and  Handbook  of  Physiology  (1905). 
In  1896  he  became  a  consulting  physician  to  the  New  York  State 
Hospital  for  the  Insane. 

FLINT,  ROBERT  ( 1 838-  ) ,  Scottish  divine  and  philosopher, 
was  born  near  Dumfries  and  educated  at  the  university  of 
Glasgow.  After  a  few  years  of  pastoral  service,  first  in  Aberdeen 
and  then  at  Kilconquhar,  Fife,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  and  political  economy  at  St  Andrews  in  1864. 
From  1876  to  1903  he  was  professor  of  divinity  at  Edinburgh. 
He  contributed  a  number  of  articles  to  the  9th  edition  of  the 
Encyclopaedia  Brilannica.  His  chief  works  are  Christ's  Kingdom 
upon  Earth  (Sermons,  1865);  Philosophy  of  History  in  Europe 
(1874;  partly  rewritten  with  reference  to  France  and  Switzerland, 
1894);  Theism  and  Anti-theislic  Theories  (2  vols.,  being  the 
Baird  Lectures  for  1876-1877;  often  reprinted);  Socialism 
(1894);  Sermons  and  Addresses  (1899);  Agnosticism  (1903). 

FLINT,  TIMOTHY  (1780-1840),  American  clergyman  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Reading,  Massachusetts,  on  the  nth  of  July 
1780.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1800,  and  in  1802  settled  as 
a  Congregational  minister  in  Lunenburg,  Mass. ,  where  he  pursued 
scientific  studies  with  interest;  and  his  labours  in  his  chemical 
laboratory  seemed  so  strange  to  the  people  of  that  retired  region, 
that  some  persons  supposed  and  asserted  that  he  was  engaged  in 
counterfeiting.  This,  together  with  political  differences,  led  to 
disagreeable  complications,  which  resulted  in  his  resigning  his 
charge  (1814)  and  becoming  a  missionary  (1815)  in  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi.  He  was  also  for  a  short  period  a  teacher  and  a 
farmer.  His  observations  on  the  manners  and  character  of  the 
settlers  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys  were  recorded  in  a 
picturesque  work  called  Recollections  of  the  Last  Ten  Years  passed 
in  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  (1826;  reprinted  in  England 
and  translated  into  French),  the  first  account  of  the  western 
states  which  brought  to  light  the  real  life  and  character  of  the 
people.  The  success  which  this  work  met  with,  together  with  the 
failing  health  of  the  writer,  led  him  to  relinquish  his  more  active 
labours  for  literary  pursuits,  and,  besides  editing  the  Western 
Review  in  Cincinnati  from  1825  to  1828  and  Knickerbocker's 
Magazine  (New  York)  in  1833,  he  published  a  number  of  books, 
including  Francis  Berrian,  or  the  Mexican  Patriot  (1826),  his  best 
novel;  A  Condensed  Geography  and  History  of  the  Western  States, 
or  the  Mississippi  Valley  (2  vols.,  1828);  Arthur  Clenning  (1828), 
a  novel;  and  Indian  Wars  in  the  West  (1833).  His  style  is  vivid, 
plain  and  forcible,  and  his  matter  interesting;  and  his  works  on 
the  western  states  are  of  great  value.  He  died  in  Salem,  Mass., 
on  the  i6th  of  August  1840. 

FLINT, 'a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Genesee  county,  Michigan, 
U.S.A.,  on  Flint  river,  68  m.  (by  rail)  N.W.  of  Detroit.  Pop. 
(1800)  9803;  (1900)  13,103,  of  whom  2165  were  foreign-born; 
(1910,  census)  33,550.  It  is  served  by  the  Grand  Trunk  and 
the  Pe're  Marquette  railways,  and  by  an  electric  line,  the 
Detroit  United  railway,  connecting  with  Detroit.  The  city  has  a 
fine  court-house  (1004),  a  federal  building  (1908),  a  city  hall 
(1908)  and  a  public  library.  The  Michigan  school  for  the  deaf, 
established  in  1854,  and  the  Oak  Grove  hospital  (private)  for  the 
treatment  of  mental  and  nervous  diseases,  are  here.  Flint  has 
important  manufacturing  interests,  its  chief  manufactures  being 
automobiles,  wagons,  carriages — Flint  is  called  "  the  vehicle 
city," — flour,  woollen  goods,  iron  goods,  cigars,  beer,  and  bricks 
and  tiles;  and  its  grain  trade  is  of  considerable  importance. 
In  1904  the  total  value  of  the  city's  factory  product  was 
$6,177,170,  an  increase  of  31-1  %  over  that  of  1900.  The  settle- 
ment of  the  place,  then  called  the  Grand  Traverse  of  the  Flint, 
began  in  1820,  but  Flint's  growth  was  very  slow  until  1831, 
when  it  was  platted  as  a  village;  it  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 

1855- 

FLINT,  or  FLINTSHIRE  (sir  Gallestr),  a  county  of  North  Wales, 
the  smallest  in  the  country,  bounded  N.  by  the  Irish  Sea  and  the 
Dee  estuary,  N.E.  by  the  Dee,  E.  by  Cheshire,  and  S.W.  by 
Denbighshire.  Area,  257sq.m.  Included  in  Flint  is  the  detached 
hundred  of  Maelor,  lying  8  m.  S.E.  of  the  main  part  of  the  county, 


522 


FLINT 


and  shut  in  by  Cheshire  on  the  N.  and  N.E.,  by  Shropshire 
on  the  S.,  and  by  Denbighshire  on  the  W.  and  N.W.  The  Clwyd 
valley  is  common  to  Flint  and  Denbigh.  Those  of  the  Alyn  and 
Wepre  (from  Ewloe  Castle  to  the  Dee)  are  fine.  The  Dee,  entering 
the  county  near  Overton,  divides  Maelor  from  Denbigh  on  the 
W.,  passes  Chester  and  bounds  most  of  the  county  on  the  N. 
The  Clwyd  enters  Flint  near  Bodfary,  and  joining  the  Elwy  near 
Rhuddlan,  reaches  the  Irish  Sea  near  Rhyl.  The  Alyn  enters  the 
county  under  Moel  Fammau,  passes  Cilcen  and  Mold  (y  Wydd- 
grug),  runs  underground  near  Hesb-Alyn  (Alyn's  drying-up), 
bends  south  to  Caergwrle,  re-enters  Denbighshire  and  joins  the 
Dee.  Llyn  Helyg  (willow-pool),  near  Whitford,  is  the  chief  lake. 
Both  for  their  influence  upon  the  physical  features  and  for  their 
economic  value  the  carboniferous  rocks  of  Flintshire  are  the  most 
important.  From  Prestatyn  on  the  coast  a  band  of  carboniferous 
limestone  passes  close  by  Holy  well  and  through  Caerwen;  it  forms 
the  Halkin  Mountain  east  of  Halkin,  whence  it  continues  past  Mold 
to  beyond  the  county  boundary.  The  upper  portion  of  this  series 
is  cherty  in  the  north — the  chert  is  quarried  for  use  in  the  potteries 
of  Staffordshire — but  traced  southward  it  passes  into  sandstones  and 
grits;  above  these  beds  come  the  Holywell  shales,  possibly  the 
equivalent  of  the  Pendleside  series  of  Lancashire  and  Derbyshire, 
while  upon  them  lies  the  Gwespyr  sandstone,  which  has  been  thought 
to  correspond  to  the  Gannister  coal  measures  of  Lancashire,  but  may 
be  a  representative  of  the  Millstone  Grit.  Farther  to  the  east,  the 
coal  measures,  with  valuable  coals,  some  oil  shale,  and  with  fireclays 
and  marls  which  are  used  for  brick  and  tile-making,  extend  from 
Talacre  through  Flint,  Northop,  Hawarden  and  Broughton  to  Hope. 
The  carboniferous  rocks  appear  again  through  the  intervention  of  a 
fault,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  St  Asaph.  Silurian  strata,  mostly  of 
Wenlock  age,  lie  below  the  carboniferous  limestone  on  the  western 
border  of  the  county.  Triassic  red  beds  of  the  Bunter  fill  the  Clwyd 
valley  and  appear  again  on  the  coal  measures  S.E.  of  Chester.  Lead 
and  zinc  ores  have  been  worked  in  the  lower  carboniferous  rocks  in 
the  north  of  the  county,  and  caves  in  the  same  formation,  at  Caer 
Gwyn  and  Ffynnon  Beuno,  have  yielded  the  remains  of  Pleistocene 
mammals  along  with  palaeolithic  implements.  Much  glacial  drift 
obscures  the  older  rocks  on  the  east  and  north  and  in  the  vale  of 
Clwyd.  Short  stretches  of  blown  sand  occur  on  the  coast  near  Rhyl 
and  Talacre. 

The  London  &  North- Western  railway  follows  the  coast-line. 
Other  railways  which  cross  the  county  are  the  Great  Western, 
and  the  Wrexham,  Mold  &  Connah's  Qua'y,  acquired  by  the 
Great  Central  company.  For  pasture  the  vale  of  Clwyd  is  well 
known.  Oats,  turnips  and  swedes  are  the  chief  crops.  Stock 
and  dairy  farming  prospers,  native  cattle  being  crossed  with 
Herefords  and  Downs,  native  sheep  with  Leicesters  and  South- 
downs,  while  in  the  thick  mining  population  a  ready  market  is 
found  for  meat,  cheese,  butter,  &c.  The  population  (81,700  in 
1901)  nearly  doubled  in  the  igth  century,  and  Flintshire  to-day 
is  one  of  the  most  densely  populated  counties  in  North  Wales. 
The  area  of  the  ancient  county  is  164,744  acres,  and  that  of 
the  administrative  county  163,025  acres.  The  collieries  begin  at 
Llanasa,  run  through  Whitford,  Holywell,  Flint,  Halkin  (Halcyn), 
Northop,  Buckley,  Mold  and  Hawarden  (Penarlag).  At  Halkin, 
Mold,  Holywell,  Prestatyn  and  Talacre  lead  is  raised,  and  is 
sometimes  sent  to  Bagillt,  Flint  or  Chester  to  be  smelted.  Zinc, 
formerly  only  worked  at  Dyserth,  has  increased  in  output,  and 
copper  mines  also  exist,  as  at  Talargoch,  together  with  smelting 
works,  oil,  vitriol,  potash  and  alkali  manufactories.  Potteries 
around  Buckley  send  their  produce  chiefly  to  Connah's  Quay, 
whence  a  railway  crosses  the  Dee  to  the  Birkenhead  (Cheshire) 
district.  Iron  seams  are  now  thin,  but  limestone  quarries  yield 
building  stone,  lime  for  burning  and  small  stone  for  chemical 
works.  Fisheries  are  unproductive  and  textile  manufactures 
small. 

The  county  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  The  parlia- 
mentary borough  district  (returning  one  member),  consists  of 
Caergwrle,  Caerwys,  Flint,  Holywell,  Mold,  Overton,  St  Asaph 
and  Rhuddlan.  In  addition,  there  is  a  small  part  of  the  Chester 
parliamentary  borough.  There  is  one  municipal  borough, 
Flint  (pop.  4625).  The  other  urban  districts  are:  Buckley 
(5780),  Connah's  Quay  (3369),  Holywell  (2652),  Mold  (4263), 
Prestatyn  (1261)  and  Rhyl  (8473).  Flint  is  in  the  North  Wales 
and  Chester  circuit,  assizes  being  held  at  Mold.  The  Flint 
borough  has  a  separate  commission  of  the  peace,  but  no  separate 
court  of  quarter  sessions.  The  ancient  county,  which  is  in  the 


dioceses  of  Chester,  Lichfield  and  St  Asaph,  contains  forty-six 
entire  ecclesiastical  parishes  and  districts,  with  parts  of  eleven 
others. 

Among  sites  of  antiquarian  or  historical  interest,  besides  the 
fragmentary  ruin  of  Flint  Castle,  the  following  may  be  mentioned : 
— Caerwys,  near  Flint,  still  shows  traces  of  Roman  occupation. 
Bodfary  (Bodfari)  was  traditionally  occupied  by  the  Romans. 
Moel  y  gaer  (bald  hill  of  the  fortress),  near  Northop,  is  a  re- 
markably perfect  old  British  post.  Maes  y  Garmon  (perhaps 
for  Meusydd  Garmon,  as  y,  the  article,  has  no  significance  before 
a  proper  name,  and  so  to  be  translated,  battlefields  of  Germanus). 
A  mile  from  Mold  is  the  reputed  scene  of  une  victoire  sans  larmes, 
gagnfe  non  par  les  armes,  mais  par  la  foi  (E.  H.  Vollet).  The 
Britons,  says  the  legend,  were  threatened  by  the  Picts  and 
Saxons,  at  whose  approach  the  Alleluia  of  that  Easter  (A.D.  430) 
was  sung.  Panic  duly  seized  the  invaders,  but  the  victor,  St 
Germanus,  confessor  and  bishop  of  Auxerre  (A.D.  380-448),  had 
to  return  to  the  charge  in  446.  He  has,  under  the  name  Garmon, 
a  great  titular  share  in  British  topography.  At  Bangor  Iscoed, 
"  the  great  high  choir  in  Maelor,"  was  the  monastery,  destroyed 
with  over  2000  monks,  by  ^Ethelfred  of  Northumberland  in  607, 
as  (by  a  curious  coincidence)  its  namesake  Bangor  in  Ireland 
was  sacked  by  the  Danes  in  the  gth  century.  Bede  says  (ii.  2) 
that  Bangor  monastery  was  in  seven  sections,  with  three  hundred 
(working)  monks.  The  supposed  lines  of  direction  of  Watt's  and 
Offa's  dykes  were:  Basingwerk,  Halkin,  Hope,  Alyn  valley, 
Oswestry  (Croes  Oswallt,  "  Oswald's  cross  "),  for  Watt's,  and 
Prestatyn,  Mold,  Minera,  across  the  Severn  (Hafren,  or  Sabrina) 
for  Offa's.  Owain  Gwynedd  (Gwynedd  or  Venedocia,  is  North 
Wales)  defeated  Henry  II.  at  Coed  Ewloe  (where  is  a  tower) 
and  at  Coleshill  (Cynsylll).  Near  Pant  Asa  (pant  is  a  bottom) 
is  the  medieval  Maen  Achwynfan  (achwyn,  to  complain,  maen, 
stone),  and  tumuli,  menhirs  (meini  hirion)  and  inscribed  stones 
are  frequent  throughout  the  county.  There  is  a  14th-century 
cross  in  Newmarket  churchyard.  Caergwrle  Castle  seems  early 
Roman,  or  even  British;  but  most  of  the  castles  in  the  county 
date  from  the  early  Edwards. 

See  H.  Taylor,  Flint  (London,  1883). 

FLINT,  a  municipal  borough  and  the  county  town  of  the 
above;  a  seaport  and  contributory  parliamentary  borough,  on 
the  south  of  the  Dee  estuary,  192  m.  from  London  by  the  London 
&  North-Western  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  4265.  The  seat  of 
great  alkali  manufactures,  it  imports  chiefly  sulphur  and  other 
chemicals,  exporting  coal,  soda,  potash,  copper,  &c.  The  county 
gaol  here,  as  at  Haverfordwest,  occupied  an  angle  of  the  castle, 
was  removed  to  Mold,  and  is  now  Chester  Castle  (jointly  with 
Cheshire.) 

Flint  Castle  was  built  on  a  lonely  rock  by  the  riverside  by 
Edward  I.  Here  met  Edward  II.  and  Piers  Gaveston.  Edward 
III.  bestowed  its  constableship  upon  the  earls  of  Chester,  and 
here  Richard  II.  surrendered  to  Bolingbroke.  It  was  twice 
taken,  after  siege,  by  the  parliamentarians,  and  finally  dismantled 
in  1647.  There  remain  a  square  court  (with  angle  towers), 
round  tower  and  drawbridge,  all  three  entrusted  to  a  constable, 
appointed  by  the  crown  under  the  Municipal  Corporations 
Reforms  Act.  Made  a  borough  by  Edward  I.,  Flint  was  chartered 
by  Edward  III.,  and  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  as  earl  of 
Chester. 

FLINT  (a  word  common  in  Teutonic  and  Scandinavian 
languages,  possibly  cognate  with  the  Gr.  TrXipflos,  a  tile),  in 
petrology,  a  dark  grey  or  dark  brown  crypto-crystalline  substance 
which  has  an  almost  vitreous  lustre,  and  when  pure  appears 
structureless  to  the  unaided  eye.  In  the  mass  it  is  dark  and 
opaque,  but  thin  plates  or  the  edges  of  splinters  are  pale  yellow 
and  translucent.  Its  hardness  is  greater  than  that  of  steel,  so 
that  a  knife  blade  leaves  a  grey  metallic  streak  when  drawn 
across  its  surface.  Its  specific  gravity  is  2-6  or  only  a  little 
less  than  that  of  crystalline  quartz.  It  is  brittle,  and  when 
hammered  readily  breaks  up  into  a  powder  of  angular  grains. 
The  fracture  is  perfectly  conchoidal,  so  that  blows  with  a  hammer 
detach  flakes  which  have  convex,  slightly  undulating  surfaces. 
At  the  point  of  impact  a  bulb  of  percussion,  which  is  a  somewhat 


FLINT  IMPLEMENTS  AND  WEAPONS 


523 


elevated  conical  mark,  is  produced.  This  serves  to  distinguish 
flints  which  have  been  fashioned  by  human  agencies  from  those 
which  have  been  split  merely  by  the  action  of  frost  and  the 
weather.  The  bulb  is  evidence  of  a  direct  blow,  probably 
intentionally  made,  and  is  a  point  of  some  importance  to 
archaeologists  investigating  Palaeolithic  implements.  With 
skill  and  experience  a  mass  of  flint  can  be  worked  to  any  simple 
shape  by  well  directed  strokes,  and  further  trimming  can  be 
effected  with  pressure  by  a  pointed  stone  in  a  direction  slightly 
across  the  edge  of  the  weapon.  The  purest  flints  have  the 
most  perfect  conchoidal  fracture,  and  prehistoric  man  is  known 
to  have  quarried  or  mined  certain  bands  of  flint  which  were 
specially  suitable  for  his  purposes. 

Silica  forms  nearly  the  whole  substance  of  flint;  calcite  and 
dolomite  may  occur  in  it  in  small  amounts,  and  analysis  has  also 
detected  minute  quantities  of  volatile  ingredients,  organic  com- 
pounds, &c.,  to  which  the  dark  colour  is  ascribed  by  some  authorities. 
These  are  dispelled  by  heat  and  the  flint  becomes  white  and  duller 
in  lustre.  Microscopic  sections  show  that  flint  is  very  finely  crystal- 
line and  consists  of  quartz  or  chalcedonic  silica;  colloidal  or  amorph- 
ous silica  may  also  be  present  but  cannot  form  any  considerable  part 
of  the  rock.  Spicules  of  sponges  and  fragments  of  other  organisms, 
such  as  molluscs,  polyzoa,  foraminifera  and  brachiopods,  often  occur 
in  flint,  and  may  be  partly  or  wholly  silicified  with  retention  of  their 
original  structure.  Nodules  of  flint  when  removed  from  the  chalk 
which  encloses  them  have  a  white  dull  rough  surface,  and  exposure 
to  the  weather  produces  much  the  same  appearance  on  broken  flints. 
At  first  they  acquire  a  bright  and  very  smooth  surface,  but  this  is 
subsequently  replaced  by  a  dull  crust,  resembling  white  or  yellowish 
porcelain.  It  has  been  suggested  that  this  change  is  due  to  the  re- 
moval of  the  colloidal  silica  in  solution,  leaving  behind  the  fibres 
and  grains  of  more  crystalline  structure.  This  process  must  be  a 
very  slow  one  as,  from  its  chemical  composition,  flint  is  a  material 
of  great  durability.  Its  great  hardness  also  enables  it  to  resist 
attrition.  Hence  on  beaches  and  in  rivers,  such  as  those  of  the  south- 
east of  England,  flint  pebbles  exist  in  vast  numbers.  Their  surfaces 
often  show  minute  crescentic  or  rounded  cracks  which  are  the  edges 
of  small  conchoidal  fractures  produced  by  the  impact  of  one  pebble 
on  another  during  storms  or  floods. 

Flint  occurs  primarily  as  concretions,  veins  and  tabular  masses  in 
the  white  chalk  of  such  localities  as  the  south  of  England  (see  CHALK). 
It  is  generally  nodular,  and  forms  rounded  or  highly  irregular  masses 
which  may  be  several  feet  in  diameter.  Although  the  flint  nodules 
often  lie  in  bands  which  closely  follow  the  bedding,  they  were  not 
deposited  simultaneously  with  the  chalk;  very  often  the  flint  bands 
.cut  across  the  beds  of  the  limestone  and  may  traverse  them  at  right 
angles.  Evidently  the  flint  has  accumulated  along  fissures,  such  as 
bedding  planes,  joints  and  other  cracks,  after  the  chalk  had  to  some 
extent  consolidated.  The  silica  was  derived  from  the  tests  of 
radiolaria  and  the  spicular  skeletons  of  sponges.  It  has  passed  into 
solution,  filtered  through  the  porous  matrix,  and  has  been  again 
precipitated  when  the  conditions  were  suitable.  Its  formation  is 
consequently  the  result  of  "  concretionary  action."  Where  the  flints 
lie  the  chalk  must  have  been  dissolved  away ;  we  have  in  fact  a  kind 
of  metasomatic  replacement  in  which  a  siliceous  rock  has  slowly 
replaced  a  calcareous  one.  The  process  has  been  very  gradual  and 
the  organisms  of  the  original  chalk  often  have  their  outlines  preserved 
in  the  flint.  Shells  may  become  completely  silicified,  or  may  have 
their  cavities  occupied  by  flint  with  every  detail  of  the  interior  of  the 
shell  preserved  in  the  outer  surface  of  the  cast.  Objects  of  this  kind 
are  familiar  to  all  collectors  of  fossils  in  chalk  districts. 

Chert  is  a  coarser  and  less  perfectly  homogeneous  substance  of  the 
same  nature  and  composition  as  flint.  It  is  grey,  black  or  brown,  and 
commonly  occurs  in  limestone  (e.g.  the  Carboniferous  Limestone)  in 
the  same  way  as  flint  occurs  in  chalk.  Some  cherts  contain  tests  of 
radiolaria,  and  correspond  fairly  closely  to  the  siliceous  radiolarian 
oozes  which  are  gathering  at  the  present  day  at  the  bottom  of  some 
of  the  deepest  parts  of  the  oceans.  Brownish  cherts  are  found  in  the 
English  Greensand ;  these  often  contain  remains  of  sponges. 

The  principal  uses  to  which  flint  has  been  put  are  the  fabrica- 
tion of  weapons  in  Palaeolithic  and  Neolithic  times.  Other 
materials  have  been  employed  where  flint  was  not  available, 
e.g.  obsidian,  chert,  chalcedony,  agate  and  quartzite,  but  to 
prehistoric  man  (see  FLINT  IMPLEMENTS  below)  flint  must  have 
been  of  great  value  and  served  many  of  the  uses  to  which  steel 
is  put  at  the  present  day.  Flint  gravels  are  widely  employed 
for  dressing  walks  and  roads,  and  for  rough-cast  work  in  archi- 
tecture. For  road-mending  flint,  though  very  hard,  is  not 
regarded  with  favour,  as  it  is  brittle  and  pulverizes  readily; 
binds  badly,  yielding  a  surface  which  breaks  up  with  heavy 
traffic  and  in  bad  weather;  and  its  fine  sharp-edged  chips  do 
much  damage  to  tires  of  motors  and  cycles.  Seasoned  flints 


from  the  land,  having  been  long  exposed  to  the  atmosphere, 
are  preferred  to  flints  freshly  dug  from  the  chalk  pits.  Formerly 
flint  and  steel  were  everywhere  employed  for  striking  a  light; 
and  gun  flints  were  required  for  fire-arms.  A  special  industry 
in  the  shaping  of  gun  flints  long  existed  at  Brandon  in  Suffolk. 
In  1870  about  thirty  men  were  employed.  Since  then  the  trade 
has  become  almost  extinct  as  gun  flints  are  in  demand  only  in 
semi-savage  countries  where  modern  fire-arms  are  not  obtainable. 
Powdered  flint  was  formerly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass, 
and  is  still  one  of  the  ingredients  of  many  of  the  finer  varieties 
of  pottery.  (J.  S.  F.) 

FLINT  IMPLEMENTS  AND  WEAPONS.  The  excavation  of 
these  remains  of  the  prehistoric  races  of  the  globe  in  river-drift 
gravel-beds  has  marked  a  revolution  in  the  study  of  Man's 
history  (see  ARCHAEOLOGY).  Until  almost  the  middle  of  the  igth 
century  no  suspicion  had  arisen  in  the  minds  of  British  and 
European  archaeologists  that  the  momentous  results  of  the 
excavations  then  proceeding  in  Egypt  and  Assyria  would  be 
dwarfed  by  discoveries  at  home  which  revolutionized  all  previous 
ideas  of  Man's  antiquity.  It  was  in  1841  that  Boucher  de  Perthes 
observed  in  some  sand  containing  mammalian  remains,  at 
Menchecourt  near  Abbeville,  a  flint,  roughly  worked  into  a  cutting 
implement.  This  "  find  "  was  rapidly  followed  by  others,  and 
Boucher  de  Perthes  published  his  first  work  on  the  subject, 
Antiquites  celtiques  et  antediluviennes:  memoire  sur  I' Industrie 
primitive  et  les  arts  d  leur  origin  (1847),  in  which  he  proclaimed 
his  discovery  of  human  weapons  in  beds  unmistakably  belonging 
to  the  age  of  the  Drift.  It  was  not  until  1859  that  the  French 
archaeologist  convinced  the  scientific  world.  An  English  mission 
then  visited  his  collection  and  testified  to  the  great  importance 
of  his  discoveries.  The  "  finds  "  at  Abbeville  were  followed 
by  others  in  many  places  in  England,  and  in  fact  in  every 
country  where  siliceous  stones  which  are  capable  of  being  flaked 
and  fashioned  into  implements  are  to  be  found.  The  implements 
occurred  in  beds  of  rivers  and  lakes,  in  the  tumuli  and  ancient 
burial-mounds;  on  the  sites  of  settlements  of  prehistoric  man  in 
nearly  every  land,  such  as  the  shell-heaps  and  lake-dwellings; 
but  especially  embedded  in  the  high-level  gravels  of  England 
and  France  which  have  been  deposited  by  river-floods  and  long 
left  high  and  dry  above  the  present  course  of  the  stream.  These 
gravels  represent  the  Drift  or  Palaeolithic  period  when  man 
shared  Europe  with  the  mammoth  and  woolly-haired  rhinoceros. 
The  worked  flints  of  this  age  are,  however,  unevenly  distributed; 
for  while  the  river-gravels  of  south-eastern  England  yield  them 
abundantly,  none  has  been  found  in  Scotland  or  the  northern 
English  counties.  On  the  continent  the  same  partial  distribution 
is  observable:  while  they  occur  plentifully  in  the  north-western 
area  of  France,  they  are  not  discovered  in  Sweden,  Norway  or 
Denmark.  The  association  of  these  flints,  fashioned  for  use  by 
chipping  only,  with  the  bones  of  animals  either  extinct  or  no 
longer  indigenous,  has  justified  their  reference  to  the  earlier 
period  of  the  Stone  Age,  generally  called  Palaeolithic.  Those  flint 
implements,  which  show  signs  of  polishing  and  in  many  cases 
remarkably  fine  workmanship,  and  are  found  in  tumuli,  peat-bogs 
and  lake-dwellings  mixed  with  the  bones  of  common  domestic 
animals,  are  assigned  to  the  Neolithic  or  later  Stone  Age.  The 
Palaeolithic  flints  are  hammers,  flakes,  scrapers,  implements 
worked  to  a  cutting  edge  at  one  side,  implements  which  resemble 
rude  axes,  flat  ovoid  implements  worked  to  an  edge  all  round, 
and  a  great  quantity  of  spear  and  arrow  heads.  None  of  these 
is  ground  or  polished.  The  Neolithic  flints,  on  the  other  hand, 
exhibit  more  variety  of  design,  are  carefully  finished,  and  the 
particular  use  of  each  weapon  can  be  easily  detected.  Man  has 
reached  the  stage  of  culture  when  he  could  socket  a  stone  into 
a  wooden  handle,  and  fix  a  flaked  flint  as  a  handled  dagger  or 
knife.  The  workmanship  is  superior  to  that  shown  in  any  of  the 
stone  utensils  made  by  savage  tribes  of  historic  times.  The 
manner  of  making  flint  implements  appears  to  have  been  in  all 
ages  much  the  same.  Flint  from  its  mode  of  fracture  is  the  only 
kind  of  stone  which  can  be  chipped  or  flaked  into  almost  any 
shape,  and  thus  forms  the  principal  material  of  these  earliest 
weapons.  The  blows  must  be  carefully  aimed  or  the  flakes 


524 


FLOAT— FLOE 


dislodged  will  be  shattered:  a  gun-flint  maker  at    Brandon, 
Suffolk,  stated  that  it  took  him  two  years  to  acquire  the  art. 

For  accounts  of  the  gun-flint  manufacture  at  Brandon,  and 
detailed  descriptions  of  ancient  flint-working,  see  Sir  John  Evans, 
Ancient  Stone  Implements  (1897),  Lord  Avebury's  Prehistoric  Times 
(1865,  1900) ;  also  Thomas  Wilson,  "  Arrow-heads,  Spear-heads  and 
Knives  of  Prehistoric  Times,"  in  Smithsonian  Report  for  1897;  and 
W.  K.  Moorehead,  Prehistoric  Implements  (1900). 

FLOAT  (in  O.  Eng.flot  znAflota,  in  the  verbal  form  fltotan;  the 
Teutonic  root  is  flul-,  another  form  of  flu-,  seen  in  "  flow,"  cf. 
"  fleet  ";  the  root  is  seen  in  Gr.  TrXew,  to  sail,  Lat.  pluere,  to 
rain;  the  Lat,  fluere  and  fluctus,  wave,  is  not  connected),  the 
action  of  moving  on  the  surface  of  water,  or  through  the  air. 
The  word  is  used  also  of  a  wave,  or  the  flood  of  the  tide,  river, 
backwater  or  stream,  and  of  any  object  floating  in  water,  as 
a  mass  of  ice  or  weeds;  a  movable  landing-stage,  a  flat-bottomed 
boat,  or  a  raft,  or,  in  fishing,  of  the  cork  or  quill  used  to  support 
a  baited  line  or  fishing-net.  It  is  also  applied  to  the  hollow  or 
inflated  organ  by  means  of  which  certain  animals,  such  as  the 
"  Portuguese  man-of-war,"  swim,  to  a  hollow  metal  ball  or  piece 
of  whinstone,  &c.,  used  to  regulate  the  level  of  water  in  a  tank  or 
boiler,  and  to  a  piece  of  ivory  in  the  cistern  of  a  barometer. 
"  Float  "  is  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  boards  of  a  paddle-wheel 
or  water-wheel.  In  a  theatrical  sense,  it  is  used  to  denote  the 
footlights.  The  word  is  also  applied  to  something  broad,  level 
and  shallow,  as  a  wooden  frame  attached  to  a  cart  or  wagon 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  carrying  capacity;  and  to  a 
special  kind  of  low,  broad  cart  for  carrying  heavy  weights,  and 
to  a  platform  on  wheels  used  for  shows  in  a  procession.  The  term 
is  applied  also  to  various  tools,  especially  to  many  kinds  of  trowels 
used  in  plastering.  It  is  also  used  of  a  dock  where  vessels  may 
float,  as  at  Bristol,  and  of  the  trenches  used  in  "  floating  "  land. 
In  geology  and  mining,  loose  rock  or  ore  brought  down  by  water 
is  known  as  "  float,"  and  in  tin-mining  it  is  applied  to  a  large 
trough  used  for  the  smelted  tin.  In  weaving  the  word  is  used  of 
the  passing  of  weft  threads  over  part  of  the  warp  without  being 
woven  in  with  it,  also  of  the  threads  so  passed.  In  the  United 
States  a  voter  not  attached  to  any  particular  party  and.  open  to 
bribery  is  called  a  "  float  "  or  "  floater." 

FLOCK,  i.  (A  word  found  in  Old  English  and  Old  Norwegian, 
from  which  come  the  Danish  and  Swedish  words,  and  not  in 
other  Teutonic  languages),  originally  a  company  of  people,  now 
mainly,  except  in  figurative  usages,  of  certain  animals  when 
gathered  together  for  feeding  or  moving  from  place  to  place. 
For  birds  it  is  chiefly  used  of  geese;  and  for  other  animals  most 
generally  of  sheep  and  goats.  It  is  from  the  particular  applica- 
tion of  the  word  to  sheep  that  "  flock  "  is  used  of  the  Christian 
Church  in  its  relation  to  the  "  Good  Shepherd,"  and  also  of 
a  congregation  of  worshippers  in  its  relation  to  its  spiritual 
head. 

2.  (Probably  from  the  Lat.  floccus,  but  many  Teutonic 
languages  have  the  same  word  in  various  forms),  a  tuft  of  wool, 
cotton  or  similar  substance.  The  name  "  flock  "  is  given  to  a 
material  formed  of  wool  or  cotton  refuse,  or  of  shreds  of  old 
woollen  or  cotton  rags,  torn  by  a  machine  known  as  a  "  devil." 
This  material  is  used  for  stuffing  mattresses  or  pillows,  and  also 
in  upholstery.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  a  special  kind  of 
wall-paper,  which  has  an  appearance  almost  like  cloth,  or,  in 
the  more  expensive  kinds,  of  velvet.  It  is  made  by  dusting  on  a 
specially  prepared  adhesive  surface  finely  powdered  fibres  of 
cotton  or  silk.  The  word  "  flocculent  "  is  used  of  many  substances 
which  have  a  fleecy  or  "  flock  "-like  appearance,  such  as  a 
precipitate  of  ferric  hydrate. 

FLODDEN,  or  FLODDEN  FIELD,  near  the  village  of  Branxton, 
in  Northumberland,  England  (10  m.  N.W.  of  Wooler),  the  scene 
of  a  famous  battle  fought  on  the  9th  of  September  1513  between 
the  English  and  the  Scots.  On  the  22nd  of  August  a  great 
Scottish  army  under  King  James  IV.  had  crossed  the  border. 
For  the  moment  the  earl  of  Surrey  (who  in  King  Henry  VIII. 's 
absence  was  charged  with  the  defence  of  the  realm)  had  no 
organized  force  in  the  north  of  England,  but  James  wasted  much 
precious  time  among  the  border  castles,  and  when  Surrey 
appeared  at  Wooler,  with  an  army  equal  in  strength  to  his  own, 


which  was  now  greatly  weakened  by  privations  and  desertion, 
he  had  not  advanced  beyond  Ford  Castle.  The  English  com- 
mander promptly  sent  in  a  challenge  to  a  pitched  battle,  which 
the  king,  in  spite  of  the  advice  of  his  most  trusted  counsellors, 
accepted.  On  the  6th  of  September,  however,  he  left  Ford  and 
took  up  a  strong  position  facing  south,  on  Flodden  Edge.  Surrey's 
reproaches  for  the  alleged  breach  of  faith,  and  a  second  challenge 
to  fight  on  Millfield  Plain  were  this  time  disregarded.  The 
English  commander,  thus  foiled,  executed  a  daring  and  skilful 
march  round  the  enemy's  flank,  and  on  the  gth  drew  up  for  battle 
in  rear  of  the  hostile  army.  It  is  evident  that  Surrey  was  con- 
fident of  victory,  for  he  placed  his  own  army,  not  less  than  the 
enemy,  in  a  position  where  defeat  would  involve  utter  ruin. 
On  his  appearance  the  Scots  hastily  changed  front  and  took 
post  on  Branxton  Hill,  facing  north.  The  battle  began  at  4  P.M. 
Surrey's  archers  and  cannon  soon  gained  the  upper  hand,  and  the 
Scots,  unable  quietly  to  endure  their  losses,  rushed  to  close 
quarters.  Their  left  wing  drove  the  English  back,  but  Lord 
Dacre's  reserve  corps  restored  the  fight  on  this  side.  In  all  other 
parts  of  the  field,  save  where  James  and  Surrey  were  personally 
opposed,  the  English  gradually  gained  ground.  The  king's 
corps  was  then  attacked  by  Surrey  in  front,  and  by  Sir  Edward 
Stanley  in  flank.  As  the  Scots  were  forced  back,  a  part  of  Dacre's 
force  closed  upon  the  other  flank,  and  finally  Dacre  himself, 
boldly  neglecting  an  almost  intact  Scottish  division  in  front  of 
him,  charged  in  upon  the  rear  of  King  James's  corps.  Sur- 
rounded and  attacked  on  all  sides,  this,  the  remnant  of  the 
invading  army,  was  doomed.  The  circle  of  spearmen  around 
the  king  grew  less  and  less,  and  in  the  end  James  and  a  few  of  his 
nobles  were  alone  left  standing.  Soon  they  too  died,  fighting  to 
the  last  man.  Among  the  ten  thousand  Scottish  dead  were  all 
the  leading  men  in  the  kingdom  of  Scotland,  and  there  was  no 
family  of  importance  that  had  not  lost  a  member  in  this  great 
disaster.  The  "  King's  Stone,"  said  to  mark  the  spot  where 
James  was  killed,  is  at  some  distance  from  the  actual  battlefield. 
"  Sybil's  Well,"  in  Scott's  Marmion,  is  imaginary. 

FLODOARD  (894-966),  French  chronicler,  was  born  at 
Epernay,  and  educated  at  Reims  in  the  cathedral  school  which 
had  been  established  by  Archbishop  Fulcon  (822-900).  As 
canon  of  Reims,  and  favourite  of  the  archbishops  Herivaeus 
(d.  922)  and  Seulfus  (d.  925),  he  occupied  while  still  young  an 
important  position  at  the  archiepiscopal  court,  but  was  twice 
deprived  of  his  benefices  by  Heribert,  count  of  Vermandois,  on 
account  of  his  steady  opposition  to  the  election  of  the  count's 
infant  son  to  the  archbishopric.  Upon  the  final  triumph  of 
Archbishop  Artold  in  947,  Flodoard  became  for  a  time  his  chief 
adviser,  but  withdrew  to  a  monastery  in  952,  and  spent  the 
remaining  years  of  his  life  in  literary  and  devotional  work.  His 
history  of  the  cathedral  church  at  Reims  (Historia  Remensis 
Ecclesiae)  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  productions  of  the  loth 
century.  Flodoard  had  been  given  charge  of  the  episcopal 
archives,  and  constructed  his  history  out  of  the  original  texts, 
which  he  generally  reproduces  in  full;  the  documents  for  the 
period  of  Hincmar  being  especially  valuable.  The  Annales 
which  Flodoard  wrote  year  by  year  from  919  to  966  are  doubly 
important,  by  reason  of  the  author's  honesty  and  the  central 
position  of  Reims  in  European  affairs  in  his  time.  Flodoard's 
poetical  works  are  of  hardly  less  historical  interest.  The  long 
poem  celebrating  the  triumph  of  Christ  and  His  saints  was  called 
forth  by  the  favour  shown  him  by  Pope  Leo  VII.,  during  whose 
pontificate  he  visited  Rome,  and  he  devotes  fourteen  books  to 
the  history  of  the  popes. 

Flodoard's  works  were  published  in  full  by  J.  P.  Migne  (Patrologia 
Latino,,  vol.  135) ;  a  modern  edition  of  the  Annales  is  the  one  edited 
by  P.  Lauer  (Paris,  1906).  For  bibliography  see  A.  Molinier,  Sources 
de  I'histoire  de  France  (No.  932). 

FLOE  (of  uncertain  derivation;  cf.  Norse  flo,  layer,  level 
plain),  a  sheet  of  floating  ice  detached  from  the  main  body  of 
polar  ice.  It  is  of  less  extent  than  the  field  of  "  pack  "  ice, 
which  is  a  compacted  mass  of  greater  depth  drifting  frequently 
under  the  influence  of  deep  currents,  while  the  floating  floe  is 
driven  by  the  wind. 


FLOOD,  H. 


525 


FLOOD,  HENRY  (1732-1791),  Irish  statesman,  son  of  Warden 
Flood,  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in  Ireland,  was  born 
in  1732,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  after- 
wards at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  became  proficient  in 
the  classics.  His  father  was  a  man  of  good  birth  and  fortune, 
and  he  himself  married  a  member  of  the  influential  Beresford 
family,  who  brought  him  a  large  fortune.  In  his  early  years 
he  was  handsome,  witty,  good-tempered,  and  a  brilliant  con- 
versationalist. His  judgment  was  sound,  and  he  had  a  natural 
gift  of  eloquence  which  had  been  cultivated  and  developed  by 
study  of  classical  oratory  and  the  practice  of  elocution.  Flood 
therefore  possessed  every  personal  advantage  when,  in  1759, 
he  entered  the  Irish  parliament  as  member  for  Kilkenny  in  his 
twenty-seventh  year.  There  was  at  that  time  no  party  in  the 
Irish  House  of  Commons  that  could  truly  be  called  national, 
and  until  a  few  years  before  there  had  been  none  that  deserved 
even  the  name  of  an  opposition.  The  Irish  parliament  was  still 
constitutionally  subordinate  to  the  English  privy  council;  it 
had  practically  no  powers  of  independent  legislation,  and  none 
of  controlling  the  policy  of  the  executive,  which  was  nominated 
by  the  ministers  in  London  (see  GRATTAN,  HENRY).  Though 
the  great  majority  of  the  people  were  Roman  Catholics,  no 
person  of  that  faith  could  either  enter  parliament  or  exercise  the 
franchise;  the  penal  code,  which  made  it  almost  impossible  for 
a  Roman  Catholic  to  hold  property,  to  follow  a  learned  profession, 
or  even  to  educate  his  children,  and  which  in  numerous  particulars 
pressed  severely  on  the  Roman  Catholics  and  subjected  them  to 
degrading  conditions,  was  as  yet  unrepealed,  though  in  practice 
largely  obsolete;  the  industry  and  commerce  of  Ireland  were 
throttled  by  restrictions  imposed,  in  accordance  with  the 
economic  theories  of  the  period,  in  the  interest  of  the  rival  trade 
of  Great  Britain.  Men  like  Anthony  Malone  and  Hely-Hutchison 
fully  realized  the  necessity  for  far-reaching  reforms,  and  it  only 
needed  the  ability  and  eloquence  of  Flood  in  the  Irish  House  of 
Commons  to  raise  up  an  independent  party  in  parliament,  and 
to  create  in  the  country  a  public  opinion  with  definite  intelligible 
aims. 

The  chief  objects  for  which  Flood  strove  were  the  shortening 
of  the  duration  of  parliament — which  had  then  no  legal  limit 
in  Ireland  except  that  of  the  reigning  sovereign's  life, — the 
reduction  of  the  scandalously  heavy  pension  list,  the  establish- 
ment of  a  national  militia,  and,  above  all,  the  complete  legislative 
independence  of  the  Irish  parliament.  For  some  years  little 
was  accomplished;  but  in  1768  the  English  ministry,  which 
had  special  reasons  at  the  moment  for  avoiding  unpopularity 
in  Ireland,  allowed  an  octennial  bill  to  pass,  which  was  the  first 
step  towards  making  the  Irish  House  of  Commons  in  some 
measure  representative  of  public  opinion.  It  had  become  the 
practice  to  allow  crown  patronage  in  Ireland  to  be  exercised  by 
the  owners  of  parliamentary  boroughs  in  return  for  their  under- 
taking to  manage  the  House  in  the  government  interest.  But 
during  the  viceroyalty  of  Lord  Townsend  the  aristocracy,  and 
more  particularly  these  "  undertakers  "  as  they  were  called, 
were  made  to  understand  that  for  the  future  their  privileges  in 
this  respect  would  be  curtailed.  When,  therefore,  an  opportunity 
was  taken  by  the  government  in  1768  for  reasserting  the  con- 
stitutional subordination  of  the  Irish  parliament,  these  powerful 
classes  were  thrown  into  temporary  alliance  with  Flood.  In  the 
following  year,  in  accordance  with  the  established  procedure, 
a  money  bill  was  sent  over  by  the  privy  council  in  London  for 
acceptance  by  the  Irish  House  of  Commons.  Not  only  was  it 
rejected,  but  contrary  to  custom  a  reason  for  this  course  was 
assigned,  namely,  that  the  bill  had  not  originated  in  the  Irish 
House.  In  consequence  parliament  was  peremptorily  prorogued, 
and  a  recess  of  fourteen  months  was  employed  by  the  government 
in  securing  a  majority  by  the  most  extensive  corruption.1  Never- 
theless when  parliament  met  in  February  1771  another  money 
bill  was  thrown  out  on  the  motion  of  Flood;  and  the  next  year 
Lord  Townsend,  the  lord  lieutenant  whose  policy  had  provoked 
this  conflict,  was  recalled.  The  struggle  was  the  occasion  of  a 
publication,  famous  in  its  day,  called  Baratariana,  to  which 
1  Walpole's  George  III.,  iv.  348. 


Flood  contributed  a  series  of  powerful  letters  after  the 
manner  of  Junius,  one  of  his  collaborators  being  Henry 
Grattan. 

The  success  which  had  thus  far  attended  Flood's  efforts  had 
placed  him  in  a  position  such  as  no  Irish  politician  had  previously 
attained.  He  had,  as  an  eminent  historian  of  Ireland  observes, 
"  proved  himself  beyond  all  comparison  the  greatest  popular 
orator  that  his  country  had  yet  produced,  and  also  a  consummate 
master  of  parliamentary  tactics.  Under  parliamentary  conditions 
that  were  exceedingly  unfavourable,  and  in  an  atmosphere 
charged  with  corruption,  venality  and  subserviency,  he  had 
created  a  party  before  which  ministers  had  begun  to  quail,  and 
had  inoculated  the  Protestant  constituencies  with  a  genuine 
spirit  of  liberty  and  self-reliance. " '  Lord  Harcourt,  who 
succeeded  Townsend  as  viceroy,  saw  that  Flood  must  be  con- 
ciliated at  any  price  "  rather  than  risk  the  opposition  of  so 
formidable  a  leader."  Accordingly,  in  1775,  Flood  was  offered 
and  accepted  a  seat  in  the  privy  council  and  the  office  of  vice- 
treasurer  with  a  salary  of  £3500  a  year.  For  this  step  he  has 
been  severely  criticized.  The  suggestion  that  he  acted  corruptly 
in  the  matter  is  groundless;  and  although  it  is  true  that  he  lost 
influence  from  the  moment  he  became  a  minister  of  the  crown, 
Flood  may  reasonably  have  held  that  he  had  a  better  prospect 
of  advancing  his  policy  by  the  leverage  of  a  ministerial  position 
than  by  means  of  any  opposition  party  he  could  hope  to  muster 
in  an  unreformed  House  of  Commons.3  The  result,  however, 
was  that  the  leadership  of  the  national  party  passed  from  Flood 
to  Grattan,  who  entered  the  Irish  parliament  in  the  same  session 
that  Flood  became  a  minister. 

Flood  continued  in  office  for  nearly  seven  years.  During  this 
long  period  he  necessarily  remained  silent  on  the  subject  of  the 
independence  of  the  Irish  parliament,  and  had  to  be  content 
with  advocating  minor  reforms  as  occasion  offered.  He  was 
thus  instrumental  in  obtaining  bounties  on  the  export  of  Irish 
corn  to  foreign  countries  and  some  other  trifling  commercial 
concessions.  .  On  the  other  hand  he  failed  to  procure  the  passing 
of  a  Habeas  Corpus  bill  and  a  bill  for  making  the  judges  irre- 
movable, while  his  support  of  Lord  North's  American  policy 
still  more  gravely  injured  his  popularity  and  reputation.  But 
an  important  event  in  1778  led  indirectly  to  his  recovering  to 
some  extent  his  former  position  in  the  country;  this  event  was 
the  alliance  of  France  with  the  revolted  American  colonies. 
Ireland  was  thereby  placed  in  peril  of  a  French  invasion,  while 
the  English  government  could  provide  no  troops  to  defend  the 
island.  The  celebrated  volunteer  movement  was  then  set  on 
foot  to  meet  the  emergency;  in  a  few  weeks  more  than  40,000 
men,  disciplined  and  equipped,  were  under  arms,  officered  by 
the  country  gentry,  and  controlled  by  the  wisdom  and  patriotism 
of  Lord  Charlemont.  This  volunteer  force,  in  which  Flood  was 
a  colonel,  while  vigilant  for  the  defence  of  the  island,  soon 
made  itself  felt  in  politics.  A  Volunteer  Convention,  formed 
with  all  the  regular  organization  of  a  representative  assembly, 
but  wielding  the  power  of  an  army,  began  menacingly  to  demand 
the  removal  of  the  commercial  restrictions  which  were  destroying 
Irish  prosperity.  Under  this  pressure  the  government  gave  way; 
the  whole  colonial  trade  was  in  1779  thrown  open  to  Ireland  for 
the  first  time,  and  other  concessions  were  also  extorted.  Flood, 
who  had  taken  an  active  though  not  a  leading  part  in  this  move- 
ment, now  at  last  resigned  his  office  to  rejoin  his  old  party.  He 
found  to  his  chagrin  that  his  former  services  had  been  to  a  great 
extent  forgotten,  and  that  he  was  eclipsed  by  Grattan.  When 
in  a  debate  on  the  constitutional  question  in  1779  Flood  com- 
plained of  the  small  consideration  shown  him  in  relation  to  a 
subject  which  he  had  been  the  first  to  agitate,  he  was  reminded 
that  by  the  civil  law  "  if  a  man  should  separate  from  his  wife, 
and  abandon  her  for  seven  years,  another  might  then  take  her 
and  give  her  his  protection."  But  though  Flood  had  lost 
control  of  the  movement  for  independence  of  the  Irish  parliament, 
the  agitation,  backed  as  it  now  was  by  the  Volunteer  Convention 

1  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  Leaders  of  Public  Opinion  in  Ireland  (enlarged 
edition,  2  vols.,  1003),  i.  48. 

'  See  Hardy's  Life  of  Charlemont,  i.  356. 


526 


FLOOD— FLOOD  PLAIN 


and  by  increasing  signs  of  popular  disaffection,  led  at  last  in 
1782  to  the  concession  of  the  demand,  together  with  a  number 
of  other  important  reforms  (see  GRATTAN,  HENRY). 

No  sooner,  however,  was  this  great  success  gained  than  a 
question  arose — known  as  the  Simple  Repeal  controversy — 
as  to  whether  England,  in  addition  to  the  repeal  of  the  Acts  on 
which  the  subordination  of  the  Irish  parliament  had  been  based, 
should  not  be  required  expressly  to  renounce  for  the  future  all 
claim  to  control  Irish  legislation.  The  chief  historical  importance 
of  this  dispute  is  that  it  led  to  the  memorable  rupture  of  friendship 
between  Flood  and  Grattan,  each  of  whom  assailed  the  other  with 
unmeasured  but  magnificently  eloquent  invective  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  Flood's  view  prevailed — for  a  Renunciation  Act  such 
as  he  advocated  was  ungrudgingly  passed  by  the  English  parlia- 
ment in  1783 — and  for  a  time  he  regained  popularity  at  the 
expense  of  his  rival.  Flood  next  (28th  of  November  1783) 
introduced  a  reform  bill,  after  first  submitting  it  to  the  Volunteer 
Convention.  The  bill,  which  contained  no  provision  for  giving 
the  franchise  to  Roman  Catholics — a  proposal  which  Flood 
always  opposed — was  rejected,  ostensibly  on  the  ground  that  the 
attitude  of  the  volunteers  threatened  the  freedom  of  parliament. 
The  volunteers  were  perfectly  loyal  to  the  crownand  the  connexion 
with  England.  They  carried  an  address  to  the  king,  moved  by 
Flood,  expressing  the  hope  that  their  support  of  parliamentary 
reform  might  be  imputed  to  nothing  but  "  a  sober  and  laudable 
desire  to  uphold  the  constitution  .  .  .  and  to  perpetuate  the 
cordial  union  of  both  kingdoms."  The  convention  then  dissolved, 
though  Flood  had  desired,  in  opposition  to  Grattan,  to  continue 
it  as  a  means  of  putting  pressure  on  parliament  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  reform. 

In  1776  Flood  had  made  an  attempt  to  enter  the  English  House 
of  Commons.  In  1783  he  tried  again,  this  time  with  success. 
He  purchased  a  seat  for  Winchester  from  the  duke  of  Chandos, 
and  for  the  next  seven  years  he  was  a  member  at  the  same  time 
of  both  the  English  and  Irish  parliaments.  He  reintroduced, 
but  without  success,  his  reform  bill  in  the  Irish  House  in  1784; 
supported  the  movement  for  protecting  Irish  industries;  but 
short-sightedly  opposed  Pitt's  commercial  propositions  in  1785. 
He  remained  a  firm  opponent  of  Roman  Catholic  emancipation, 
even  defending  the  penal  laws  on  the  ground  that  after  the 
Revolution  they  "  were  not  laws  of  persecution  but  of  political 
necessity  ";  but  after  1786  he  does  not  appear  to  have  attended 
the  parliament  in  Dublin.  In  the  House  at  Westminster,  where 
he  refused  to  enrol  himself  as  a  member  of  either  political  party, 
he  was  not  successful.  His  first  speech,  in  opposition  to  Fox's 
India  Bill  on  the  3rd  of  December  1783,  disappointed  the  ex- 
pectations aroused  by  his  celebrity.  His  speech  in  opposition 
to  the  commercial  treaty  with  France  in  1787  was,  however, 
most  able;  and  in  1790  he  introduced  a  reform  bill  which  Fox 
declared  to  be  the  best  scheme  of  reform  that  had  yet  been 
proposed,  and  which  in  Burke's  opinion  retrieved  Flood's  reputa- 
tion. But  at  the  dissolution  in  the  same  year  he  lost  his  seat  in 
both  parliaments,  and  he  then  retired  to  Farmley,  his  residence 
in  county  Kilkenny,  where  he  died  on  the  2nd  of  December  1791. 

When  Peter  Burrowes,  notwithstanding  his  close  personal 
friendship  with  Grattan,  declared  that  Flood  was  "  perhaps  the 
ablest  man  Ireland  ever  produced,  indisputably  the  ablest  man 
of  his  own  times,"  he  expressed  what  was  probably  the  general 
opinion  of  Flood's  contemporaries.  Lord  Charlemont,  who  knew 
him  intimately  though  not  always  in  agreement  with  his  policy, 
pronounced  him  to  be  "  a  man  of  consummate  ability."  He  also 
declared  that  avarice  made  no  part  of  Flood's  character.  Lord 
Mountmorres,  a  critic  by  no  means  partial  to  Flood,  described 
him  as  a  pre-eminently  truthful  man,  and  one  who  detested 
flattery.  Grattan,  who  even  after  the  famous  quarrel  never  lost 
his  respect  for  Flood,  said  of  him  that  he  was  the  best  tempered  and 
the  most  sensible  man  in  the  world.  In  his  youth  he  was  genial, 
frank,  sociable  and  witty;  but  in  later  years  disappointment 
made  him  gloomy  and  taciturn.  As  an  orator  he  was  less  polished, 
less  epigrammatic  than  Grattan;  but  a  closer  reasoner  and  a 
greater  master  of  sarcasm  and  invective.  Personal  ambition 
often  governed  his  actions,  but  his  political  judgment  was  usually 


sound;  and  it  was  the  opinion  of  Bentham  that  Flood  would  have 
succeeded  in  carrying  a  reform  bill  which  might  have  preserved 
Irish  parliamentary  independence,  if  he  had  been  supported  by 
Grattan  and  the  rest  of  his  party  in  keeping  alive  the  Volunteer 
Convention  in  1783.  Though  he  never  wavered  in  loyalty  to  the 
British  crown  and  empire,  Ireland  never  produced  a  more  sincere 
patriot  than  Henry  Flood. 

See  Warden  Flood,  Memoirs  of  Henry  Flood  (London,  1838); 
Henry  Grattan,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  the  Right  Hon.  H. 
Grattan  (5  vols.,  London,  1839-1846);  Charles  Phillips,  Recollections 
of  Curran  and  some  of  his  Contemporaries  (London,  1822) ;  The  Irish 
Parliament  1775,  from  an  official  and  contemporary  manuscript, 
edited  by  Wilham  Hunt  (London,  1907);  W.  J.  O'Neill  Daunt, 
Ireland  and  her  Agitators;  Lord  Mountmorres,  History  of  the  Irish 
Parliament  (2  vols.,  London,  1792);  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  History  of 
England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (8  vols.,  London,  1878-1890); 
and  Leaders  of  Public  Opinion  in  Ireland  (enlarged  edition,  2  vols., 
London,  1903) ;  J.  A.  Froude,  The  English  in  Ireland,  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 
(London,  1881) ;  Horace  Walpole,  Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  George  III. 
(4  vols.,  London,  1845,  1894);  Sir  Jonah  Barrington,  Rise  and  Fall 
of  the  Irish  Nation  (London,  1833) ;  Francis  Plowden,  Historical 
Review  of  the  State  of  Ireland  (London,  1803);  Alfred  Webb,  Com- 
pendium of  Irish  Biography  (Dublin,  1878);  F.  Hardy,  Memoirs  of 
Lord  Charlemont  (London,  1812),  especially  for  the  volunteer  move- 
ment, on  which  see  also  Proceedings  of  the  Volunteer  Delegates  of 
Ireland  1784  (Anon.  Pamphlet,  Brit.  Mus.);  also  The  Charlemont 
Papers,  and  Irish  Parl.  Debates,  vols.  i.-iv.).  (R.  J.  M.) 

FLOOD  (in  0.  Eng.flod,  a  word  common  to  Teutonic  languages, 
cf.  Ger.  Flut,  Dutch  vloed,  from  the  same  root  as  is  seen  in  "  flow," 
"  float  "),  an  overflow  of  water,  an  expanse  of  water  submerging 
land, a  deluge,  hence  "  the  flood,"  specifically,  the  Noachian  deluge 
of  Genesis,  but  also  any  other  catastrophic  submersion  recorded 
in  the  mythology  of  other  nations  than  the  Hebrew  (see  DELUGE, 
THE).  In  the  sense  of  "  flowing  water,"  the  word  is  applied  to 
the  inflow  of  the  tide,  as  opposed  to  "  ebb." 

FLOOD  PLAIN,  the  term  in  physical  geography  for  a  plain 
formed  of  sediment  dropped  by  a  river.  When  the  slope  down 
which  a  river  runs  has  become  very  slight,  it  is  unable  to  carry 
the  sediment  brought  from  higher  regions  nearer  its  source, 
and  consequently  the  lower  portion  of  the  river  valley  becomes 
filled  with  alluvial  deposits;  and  since  in  times  of  flood  the  rush 
of  water  in  the  high  regions  tears  off  and  carries  down  a  greater 
quantity  of  sediment  than  usual,  the  river  spreads  this  also  over 
the  lower  valley  where  the  plain  is  flooded,  because  the  rush  of 
water  is  checked,  and  the  stream  in  consequence  drops  its  extra 
load.  These  flood  plains  are  sometimes  of  great  extent.  That 
of  the  Mississippi  below  Ohio  has  a  width  of  from  20  to  80  m., 
and  its  whole  extent  has  been  estimated  at  50,000  sq.  m.  Flood 
plains  may  be  the  result  of  planation,  with  aggradation,  that  is, 
they  may  be  due  to  a  graded  river  working  in  meanders  from  side 
to  side,  widening  its  valley  by  this  process  and  covering  the 
widened  valley  with  sediment.  Or  the  stream  by  cutting  into 
another  stream  (piracy),  by  cutting  through  a  barrier  near  its 
head  waters,  by  entering  a  region  of  looser  or  softer  rock,  and  by 
glacial  drainage,  may  form  a  flood  plain  simply  by  filling  up 
its  valley  (alluviation  only).  Any  obstruction  across  a  river's 
course,  such  as  a  band  of  hard  rock,  may  form  a  flood  plain  behind 
it,  and  indeed  anything  which  checks  a  river's  course  and  causes 
it  to  drop  its  load  will  tend  to  form  a  flood  plain;  but  it  is  most 
commonly  found  near  the  mouth  of  a  large  river,  such  as  the 
Rhine,  the  Nile,  or  the  Mississippi,  where  there  are  occasional 
floods  and  the  river  usually  carries  a  large  amount  of  sediment. 
"  Levees  "  are  formed,  inside  which  the  river  usually  flows, 
gradually  raising  its  bed  above  the  surrounding  plain.  Occasional 
breaches  during  floods  cause  the  overloaded  stream  to  spread  in 
a  great  lake  over  the  surrounding  country,  where  the  silt  covers 
the  ground  in  consequence.  Sections  of  the  Missouri  flood  plain 
made  by  the  United  States  geological  survey  show  a  great  variety 
of  material  of  varying  coarseness,  the  stream  bed  being  scoured 
at  one  place,  and  filled  at  another  by  currents  and  floods  of  varying 
swiftness,  so  that  sometimes  the  deposits  are  of  coarse  gravel, 
sometimes  of  fine  sand,  or  of  fine  silt,  and  it  is  probable  that  any 
section  of  such  an  alluvial  plain  would  show  deposits  of  a  similar 
character.  The  flood  plain  during  its  formation  is  marked  by 
meandering,  or  anastomosing  streams,  ox-bow  lakes  and  bayous, 


FLOOR— FLOR,  ROGER  DI 


527 


marshes  or  stagnant  pools,  and  is  occasionally  completely  covered 
with  water.  When  the  drainage  system  has  ceased  to  act  or  is 
entirely  diverted  owing  to  any  cause,  the  flood  plain  may  become 
a  level  area  of  great  fertility,  similar  in  appearance  to  the  floor  of 
an  old  lake.  The  flood  plain  differs,  however,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
not  altogether  flat.  It  has  a  gentle  slope  down-stream,  and  often 
for  a  distance  from  the  sides  towards  the  centre. 

FLOOR  (from  O.  Eng.  flor,  a  word  common  to  many  Teutonic 
languages,  cf .  Dutch  iiloer,  and  Ger.  Flur,  a.  field,  in  the  feminine, 
and  a  floor,  masculine),  generally  the  lower  horizontal  surface  of 
a  room,  but  specially  employed  for  one  covered  with  boarding 
or  parquetry.  The  various  levels  of  rooms  in  a  house  are  desig- 
nated as  "  ground-floor,"  "  first-floor,"  "  mezzanine-floor,"  &c. 
The  principal  floor  is  the  storey  which  contains  the  chief  apart- 
ments whether  on  the  ground-  or  first-floor;  in  Italy  they  are 
always  on  the  latter  and  known  as  the  "  piano  nobile."  The 
storey  below  the  ground-floor  is  called  the  "  basement-floor," 
even  if  only  a  little  below  the  level  of  the  pavement  outside ;  the 
storey  in  a  roof  is  known  as  the  "  attic-floor."  The  expressions 
one  pair,  two  pair,  &c.,  apply  to  the  storeys  above  the  first 
flight  of  stairs  from  the  ground  (see  also  CARPENTRY). 

FLOORCLOTH,  a  rough  flannel  cloth  used  for  domestic 
cleaning;  also  a  generic  term  applied  to  a  variety  of  materials 
used  in  place  of  carpets  for  covering  floors,  and  known  by  such 
trade  names  as  kamptulicon,  oil-cloth,  linoleum,  corticinc,  cork- 
carpet,  &c.  Kamptulicon  (xa/iTrros,  flexible,  oiiXos,  thick)  was 
patented  in  1844  by  E.  Galloway,  but  did  not  attract  much 
attention  till  about  1862.  It  was  essentially  a  preparation  of 
indiarubber  masticated  up  with  ground  cork,  and  rolled  out 
into  sheets  between  heavy  steam-heated  rollers,  sometimes 
over  a  backing  of  canvas.  Owing  to  its  expensiveness,  it  has 
given  place  to  cheaper  materials  serving  the  same  purpose. 
Oil-cloth  is  a  coarse  canvas  which  has  received  a  number  of 
coats  of  thick  oil  paint,  each  coat  being  rubbed  smooth  with 
pumice  stone  before  the  application  of  the  next.  Its  surface 
is  ornamented  with  patterns  printed  in  oil  colours  by  means  of 
wooden  blocks.  Linoleum  (linum,  flax,  oleum,  oil),  patented  by 
F.  Walton  in  1860  and  1863,  consists  of  oxidized  linseed  oil  and 
ground  cork.  These  ingredients,  thoroughly  incorporated  with 
the  addition  of  certain  gummy  and  resinous  matters,  and  of 
pigments  such  as  ochre  and  oxide  of  iron  as  required,  are  pressed 
on  to  a  rough  canvas  backing  between  steam-heated  rollers. 
Patterns  may  be  printed  on  its  surface  with  oil  paint,  or  by  an 
improved  method  may  be  inlaid  with  coloured  composition 
so  that  the  colours  are  continuous  through  the  thickness  of  the 
linoleum,  instead  of  being  on  the  surface  only,  and  thus  do  not  dis- 
appear with  wear.  Lincrusta- Walton  is  a  similar  material  to  lino- 
leum, also  having  oxidized  linseed  oil  as  its  base,  which  is  stamped 
out  in  embossed  patterns  and  used  as  a  covering  for  walls. 

FLOQUET,  CHARLES  THOMAS  (1828-1896),  French  states- 
man, was  born  at  St  Jean-Pied-de-Port  (Basses- Pyrenees)  on 
the  2nd  of  October  1828.  He  studied  law  in  Paris,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1851.  The  coup  d'etat  of  that  year  aroused 
the  strenuous  opposition  of  Floquet,  who  had,  while  yet  a  student, 
given  proof  of  his  republican  sympathies  by  taking  part  in  the 
fighting  of  1848.  He  made  his  name  by  his  brilliant  and  fearless 
attacks  on  the  government  in  a  series  of  political  trials,  and  at 
the  same  time  contributed  to  the  Temps  and  other  influential 
journals.  When  the  tsar  Alexander  II.  visited  the  Palais  de 
Justice  in  1867,  Floquet  was  said  to  have  confronted  him  with 
the  cry  "  Vive  la  Pologne,  monsieur!  "  He  delivered  a  scathing 
indictment  of  the  Empire  at  the  trial  of  Pierre  Bonaparte  for 
killing  Victor  Noir  in  1870,  and  took  a  part  in  the  revolution 
of  the  4th  of  September,  as  well  as  in  the  subsequent  defence 
of  Paris.  In  1871  he  was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly 
by  the  department  of  the  Seine.  During  the  Commune  he  formed 
the  Ligue  d'union  republicaine  des  droits  de  Paris  to  attempt  a 
reconciliation  with  the  government  of  Versailles.  When  his 
efforts  failed,  he  left  Paris,  and  was  imprisoned  by  order  of  Thiers, 
but  soon  released.  He  became  editor  of  the  Rtpublique  Franfaise, 
was 'chosen  president  of  the  municipal  council,  and  in  1876  was 
elected  deputy  for  the  eleventh  arrondissement.  He  took  a 


prominent  place  among  the  extreme  radicals,  and  became 
president  of  the  group  of  the  "  Union  republicaine."  In  1882 
he  held  for  a  short  time  the  post  of  prefect  of  the  Seine.  In 
1885  he  succeeded  M.  Brisson  as  president  of  the  chamber. 
This  difficult  position  he  filled  with  such  tact  and  impartiality 
that  he  was  re-elected  the  two  following  years.  Having 
approached  the  Russian  ambassador  in  such  a  way  as  to  remove 
the  prejudice  existing  against  him  in  Russia  since  the  incident 
of  1867,  he  rendered  himself  eligible  for  office;  and  on  the  fall 
of  the  Tirard  cabinet  in  1888  he  became  president  of  the  council 
and  minister  of  the  interior  in  a  radical  ministry,  which  pledged 
itself  to  the  revision  of  the  constitution,  but  was  forced  to  combat 
the  proposals  of  General  Boulanger.  Heated  debates  in  the 
chamber  culminated  on  the  I3th  of  July  in  a  duel  between  Floquet 
and  Boulanger  in  which  the  latter  was  wounded.  In  the  following 
February  the  government  fell  on  the  question  of  revision,  and 
in  the  new  chamber  of  November  Floquet  was  re-elected  to 
the  presidential  chair.  The  Panama  scandals,  in  which  he  was 
compelled  to  admit  his  implication,  dealt  a  fatal  blow  to  his 
career:  he  lost  the  presidency  of  the  chamber  in  1892,  and  his 
seat  in  the  house  in  1893,  but  in  1894  was  elected  to  the  senate. 
He  died  in  Paris  on  the  i8th  of  January  1896. 

See  Discours  et  opinions  de  M.  Charles  Floquet,  edited  by  Albert 
Faivre  (1885). 

FLOR,  ROGER  DI,  a  military  adventurer  of  the  I3th-i4tk 
century,  was  the  second  son  of  a  falconer  in  the  service  of  the 
emperor  Frederick  II.,  who  fell  at  Tagliacozzo  (1268),  and  when 
eight  years  old  was  sent  to  sea  in  a  galley  belonging  to  the 
Knights  Templars.  He  entered  the  order  and  became  com- 
mander of  a  galley.  At  the  siege  of  Acre  by  the  Saracens  in 
1291  he  was  accused  and  denounced  to  the  pope  as  a  thief  and 
an  apostate,  was  degraded  from  his  rank,  and  fled  to  Genoa, 
where  he  began  to  play  the  pirate.  The  struggle  between  the 
kings  of  Aragon  and  the  French  kings  of  Naples  for  the  possession 
of  Sicily  was  at  this  time  going  on;  and  Roger  entered  the 
service  of  Frederick,  king  of  Sicily,  who  gave  him  the  rank  of 
vice-admiral.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  in  1302,  as  Frederick  was 
anxious  to  free  the  island  from  his  mercenary  troops  (called 
Almtigavares) ,  whom  he  had  no  longer  the  means  of  paying, 
Roger  induced  them  under  his  leadership  to  seek  new  adventures 
in  the  East,  in  fighting  against  the  Turks,  who  were  ravaging 
the  empire.  The  emperor  Andronicus  II.  accepted  his  offer  of 
service;  and  in  September  1303  Roger  with  his  fleet  and  army 
arrived  at  Constantinople.  He  was  adopted  into  the  imperial 
family,  was  married  to  a  grand-daughter  of  the  emperor,  and 
was  made  grand  duke  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and 
the  fleet.  After  some  weeks  lost  in  dissipation,  intrigues  and 
bloody  quarrels,  Roger  and  his  men  were  sent  into  Asia,  and  after 
some  successful  encounters  with  the  Turks  they  went  into  winter 
quarters  at  Cyzicus.  In  May  1304  they  again  took  the  field, 
and  rendered  the  important  service  of  relieving  Philadelphia, 
then  invested  and  reduced  to  extremities  by  the  Turks.  But 
Roger,  bent  on  advancing  his  own  interests  rather  than  those 
of  the  emperor,  determined  to  found  in  the  East  a  principality 
for  himself.  He  sent  his  treasures  to  Magnesia,  but  the  people 
slew  his  Catalans  and  seized  the  treasures.  He  then  formed  the 
siege  of  the  town,  but  his  attacks  were  repulsed,  and  he  was 
compelled  to  retire.  Being  recalled  to  Europe,  he  settled  his 
troops  in  Gallipoli  and  other  towns,  and  visited  Constantinople 
to  demand  pay  for  the  Almugavares.  Dissatisfied  with  the  small 
sum  granted  by  the  emperor,  he  plundered  the  country  and 
carried  on  intrigues  both  with  and  against  the  emperor,  receiving 
reinforcements  all  the  while  from  all  parts  of  southern  Europe. 
Roger  was  now  created  Caesar,  but  shortly  afterwards  the  young 
emperor  Michael  Palaeologus,  not  daring  to  attack  the  fierce 
and  now  augmented  bands  of  adventurers,  invited  Roger  to 
Adrianople,  and  there  contrived  his  assassination  and  the 
massacre  of  his  Catalan  cavalry  (April  4,  1306).  His  death  was 
avenged  by  his  men  in  a  fierce  and  prolonged  war  against  the 
Greeks. 

See  Moncada,  Expedition  de  los  Catalanes  y  Aragoneses  centre 
Turcos  y  Griegos  (Paris,  1840). 


528 


FLORA— FLORENCE 


FLORA,  in  Roman  mythology,  goddess  of  spring-time  and 
flowers,  later  identified  with  the  Greek  Chloris.  Her  festival 
at  Rome,  the  Floralia,  instituted  238  B.C.  by  order  of  the 
Sibylline  books  and  at  first  held  irregularly,  became  annual 
after  173.  It  lasted  six  days  (April  28-May  3) ,  the  first  day  being 
the  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  her  temple.  It  included 
theatrical  performances  and  animal  hunts  in  the  circus,  and 
vegetables  were  distributed  to  the  people.  The  proceedings 
were  characterized  by  excessive  merriment  and  licentiousness. 
According  to  the  legend,  her  worship  was  instituted  by  Titus 
Tatius,  and  her  priest,  the  flamen  Floralis,  by  Numa.  In  art 
Flora  was  represented  as  a  beautiful  maiden,  bedecked  with 
flowers  (Ovid,  Fasti,  v.  183  ff.;  Tacitus,  Annals,  ii.  49). 

The  term  "  flora  "  is  used  in  botany  collectively  for  the  plant- 
growth  of  a  district;  similarly  "  fauna  "  is  used  collectively 
for  the  animals. 

FLOKE  AND  BLANCHEFLEUR,  a  13th-century  romance. 
This  tale,  generally  supposed  to  be  of  oriental  origin,  relates  the 
passionate  devotion  of  two  children,  and  their  success  in  over- 
coming all  the  obstacles  put  in  the  way  of  their  love.  The 
romance  appears  in  differing  versions  in  French,  English,  German, 
Swedish,  Icelandic,  Italian,  Spanish,  Greek  and  Hungarian. 
The  various  forms  of  the  tale  receive  a  detailed  notice  in  E. 
Hausknecht's  version  of  the  13th-century  Middle  English  poem 
.of  "  Floris  and  Blauncheflur  "  (Samml.  eng.  Denkmaler,  vol.  v. 
Berlin,  1885).  Nothing  definite  can  be  stated  of  the  origin  of 
the  story,  but  France  was  in  the  I2th  and  i3th  centuries  the 
chief  market  of  romance,  and  the  French  version  of  the  tale, 
F loire  et  Blanchefleur,  is  the  most  widespread.  Floire,  the  son 
of  a  Saracen  king  of  Spain,  is  brought  up  in  constant  companion- 
ship with  Blanchefleur,  the  daughter  of  a  Christian  slave  of 
noble  birth.  Floire's  parents,  hoping  to  destroy  this  attachment, 
send  the  boy  away  at  fifteen  and  sell  Blanchefleur  to  foreign 
slave-merchants.  When  Floire  returns  a  few  days  later  he  is 
told  that  his  companion  is  dead,  but  when  he  threatens  to  kill 
himself,  his  parents  tell  him  the  truth.  He  traces  her  to  the 
tower  of  the  maidens  destined  for  the  harem  of  the  emir  of 
Babylon,  into  which  he  penetrates  concealed  in  a  basket  of 
flowers.  The  lovers  are  discovered,  but  their  constancy  touches 
the  hearts  of  their  judges.  They  are  married,  and  Floire  returns 
to  his  kingdom,  when  he  and  all  his  people  adopt  Christianity. 
Of  the  two  12th-century  French  poems  (ed.  Edelestand  du 
M6ril,  Paris,  1856),  the  one  contains  the  love  story  with  few 
additions,  the  other  is  a  romance  of  chivalry,  containing  the 
usual  battles,  single  combats,  &c.  Two  lyrics  based  on  episodes 
of  the  story  are  printed  by  Paulin  Paris  in  his  Romancero 
franfais  (Paris,  1883).  The  English  poem  renders  the  French 
version  without  amplifications,  such  as  are  found  in  other 
adaptations.  Its  author  has  less  sentiment  than  his  original, 
and  less  taste  for  detailed  description.  Among  the  other  forms 
of  the  story  must  be  noted  the  prose  romance  (c.  1340)  of 
Boccaccio,  II  FUocolo,  and  the  14th-century  Leggenda  della 
reina  Rosana  e  di  Rosana  sua  figliuola  (pr.  Leghorn,  1871).  The 
similarity  between  the  story  of  Floire  and  Blanchefleur  and 
Chanle-fable  of  Aucassin  et  Nicolete 1  has  been  repeatedly  pointed 
out,  and  they  have  even  been  credited  with  a  common 
source. 

See  also  editions  by  I.  Bekker  (Berlin,  1844)  and  E.  Hausknecht 
(Berlin,  1885) ;  also  H.  Sundmacher,  Die  altfr.  und  mittelhochdeutsche 
Bearbeitung  der  Sage  von  Flore  et  Blanscheflur  (Gottingen,  1872); 
H.  Herzog,  Die  beiden  Sagenkreise  von  Flore  und  Blanscheflur  (Vienna, 
1884);  Zeitschrift  fur  deut.  Altertum  (vol.  xxi.)  contains  a  Rhenish 
version;  the  Scandinavian  Flares  Saga  ok  Blankiflur,  ed.  E.  Kolbing 
(Halle,  1896) ;  the  13th-century  version  of  Konrad  Fleck,  Flore  und 
Blanscheflur,  ed.  E.  Somraer  (Leipzig,  1846) ;  the  Swedish  by  G.  E. 
Klemming  (Stockholm,  1844).  The  English  poem  was  also  edited 
by  Hartschorne  (English  Metrical  Tales,  1829),  by  Laing  (Abbotsford 
Club,U82Q),  and  by  Lumly  (Early  Eng.  Text  Soc.,  1866,  re-edited 
G.  H.  McKnight,  1901).  J.  Reinhold  (Floire  et  Blanchefleur,  Paris, 
1906)  suggests  a  parallelism  with  the  story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  as 

1  Ed.  H.  Suchier  (Paderborn,  1878,  5th  ed.  1903) ;  modern  French 
by,;G.  Michaut,  with  preface  by  J.  Bedier  (Tours,  1901);  English 
by  Andrew  Lang  (1887),  by  F.  W.  Bourdillon  (Oxford,  1896),  and 
by  Laurence  Housman  (1902). 


told  by  Apuleius ;  also  that  the  oriental  setting  does  not  necessarily 
imply  a  connexion  with  Arab  tales,  as  the  circumstances  might  with 
small  alteration  have  been  taken  from  the  Vulgate  version  of  the 
book  of  Esther. 

FLORENCE,  WILLIAM  JERMYN  (1831-1891),  American 
actor,  of  Irish  descent,  whose  real  name  was  Bernard  Conlin, 
was  born  on  the  26th  of  July  1831  at  Albany,  N.Y.,  and  first 
attracted  attention  as  an  actor  at  Brougham's  Lyceum  in  1851. 
Two  years  later  he  married  Mrs  Malvina  Pray  Lit  tell  (d.  1906),  in 
association  with  whom,  until  her  retirement  in  1889,  he  won  all 
his  successes,  notably  in  Benjamin  Woolf's  The  Mighty  Dollar, 
said  to  have  been  presented  more  than  2500  times.  In  1856 
they  had  a  successful  London  season,  Mrs  Florence  being  one  of 
the  first  American  actresses  to  appear  on  the  English  stage. 
In  1889  Florence  entered  into  partnership  with  Joseph  Jefferson, 
playing  Sir  Lucius  O'Trigger  to  his  Bob  Acres  and  Mrs  John 
Drew's  Mrs  Malaprop  on  a  very  successful  tour.  His  last 
appearance  was  with  Jefferson  on  the  i4th  of  November  1891, 
as  Ezekiel  Homespun  in  The  Heir-at-law,  and  he  died  on  the  i8th 
of  November  in  Philadelphia. 

FLORENCE  OF  WORCESTER  (d.  1118),  English  chronicler, 
was  a  monk  of  Worcester,  who  died,  as  we  learn  from  his  con- 
tinuator,  on  the  7th  of  July  1118.  Beyond  this  fact  nothing  is 
known  of  his  life.  He  compiled  a  chronicle  called  Chronicon 
ex  chronicis  which  begins  with  the  creation  and  ends  in  1117. 
The  basis  of  his  work  was  a  chronicle  compiled  by  Marianus 
Scotus,  an  Irish  recluse,  who  lived  first  at  Fulda,  afterwards  at 
Mainz.  Marianus,  who  began  his  work  after  1069,  carried  it  up 
to  1082.  Florence  supplements  Marianus  from  a  lost  version 
of  the  English  Chronicle,  and  from  Asser.  He  is  always  worth 
comparing  with  the  extant  English  Chronicles;  and  from  1106 
he  is  an  independent  annalist,  dry  but  accurate.  Either  Florence 
or  a  later  editor  of  his  work  made  considerable  borrowings  from 
the  first  four  books  of  Eadmer's  Historia  novorum.  Florence's 
work  is  continued,  up  to  1141,  by  a  certain  John  of  Worcester, 
who  wrote  about  1150.  John  is  valuable  for  the  latter  years 
of  Henry  I.  and  the  early  years  of  Stephen.  He  is  friendly  to 
Stephen,  but  not  an  indiscriminate  partisan. 

The  first  edition  of  these  two  writers  is  that  of  1592  (by  William 
Howard).  The  most  accessible  is  that  of  B.  Thorpe  (Eng.  Hist.  Soc., 
2  vols.,  1848-1849) ;  but  Thorpe's  text  of  John's  continuation  needs 
revision.  Thorpe  gives,  without  explanations,  the  insertions  of  an 
ill-informed  Gloucester  monk  who  has  obscured  the  accurate  chrono- 
logy of  the  original.  Thorpe  also  prints  a  continuation  by  John 
Taxter  (died  c.  1295),  a  13th-century  writer  and  a  monk  of  Bury  St 
Edmunds.  Florence  and  John  of  Worcester  are  translated  by  J. 
Stevenson  in  his  Church  Historians  of  England,  vol.  ii.  pt.  i.  (London, 
'853) ;  T.  Forester's  translation  in  Bohn's  Antiquarian  Library 
(London,  1854)  gives  the  work  of  Taxter  also.  (H.  W.  C.  D.) 

FLORENCE,  the  county-seat  of  Lauderdale  county,  Alabama, 
U.S.A.,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Tennessee  river,  at  the  foot  of 
Muscle  Shoals  Canal,  and  about  560  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop. 
(1880)  1359;  (1890)  6012;  (1900)  6478  (1952  negroes);  (1910) 
6689.  It  is  served  by  the  Southern,  the  Northern  Alabama 
(controlled  by  the  Southern),  and  the  Louisville  &  Nashville 
railways,  and  by  electric  railway  to  Sheffield  and  Tuscumbia, 
and  the  Tennessee  river  is  here  navigable.  Florence  is  situated 
in  the  fertile  agricultural  lands  of  the  Tennessee  river  valley  on 
the  edge  of  the  coal  and  iron  districts  of  Alabama,  and  has 
various  manufactures,  including  pig-iron,  cotton  goods,  wagons, 
stoves,  fertilizers,  staves  and  mercantile  supplies.  At  Florence 
are  the  state  Normal  College,  the  Florence  University  for 
Women,  and  the  Burrell  Normal  School  (for  negroes;  founded 
in  1903  by  the  American  Missionary  Association).  Florence 
was  founded  in  1818,  Andrew  Jackson,  afterwards  president 
of  the  United  States,  and  ex-president  James  Madison  being 
among  the  early  property  holders.  For  several  years  Florence 
and  Nashville,  Tennessee,  were  commercial  rivals,  being  situated 
respectively  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Tennessee  and 
Cumberland  rivers.  The  first  invasion  of  Alabama  by  Federal 
troops  in  the  Civil  War  was  by  a  gunboat  raid  up  the  Tennessee 
to  Florence  on  the  8th  of  February  1862.  On  the  nth  of  April 
1863  another  Federal  gunboat  raid  was  attempted,  but  the  vessels 
were  repulsed  by  a  force  under  Gen.  S.  A.  Wood.  On  the  26th 


FLORENCE 


529 


of  May  following,  Federal  troops  entered  Florence,  and  destroyed 
cotton  mills  and  public  and  private  property;  but  they  were 
driven  back  by  Gen.  Philip  D.  Roddy  (1820-1897).  On  the 
nth  of  December  1863  the  town  was  again  raided,  but  the 
Federals  did  not  secure  permanent  possession.  Florence  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1889. 

FLORENCE  (Ital.  Firenze,  Lat.  Florenlia),  formerly  the  capital 
of  Tuscany,  now  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  and  the  sixth  largest  city  in  the  country.  It  is  situated 
43°  46'  N.,  n°  14'  E.,  on  both  banks  of  the  river  Arno,  which  at 
this  point  flows  through  a  broad  fertile  valley  enclosed  between 
spurs  of  the  Apennines.  The  city  is  165  ft.  above  sea-level,  and 
occupies  an  area  of  3  sq.  m.  (area  of  the  commune,  165  sq.  m.). 
The  geological  formation  of  the  soil  belongs  to  the  Quaternary 
and  Pliocene  period  in  its  upper  strata,  and  to  the  Eocene  and 
Cretaceous  in  the  lower.  Pietra  forte  of  the  Cretaceous  period 
is  quarried  north  and  south  of  the  city,  and  has  been  used  for 
centuries  as  paving  stone  and  for  the  buildings.  Pietra  serena 
or  macigno,  a  stone  of  a  firm  texture  also  used  for  building 
purposes,  is  quarried  at  Monte  Ceceri  below  Fiesole.  The  soil 
is  very  fertile;  wheat,  Indian  corn,  olives,  vines,  fruit  trees  of 
many  kinds  cover  both  the  plain  and  the  surrounding  hills; 
the  chief  non-fruit-bearing  trees  are  the  stone  pine,  the  cypress, 
the  ilex  and  the  poplar,  while  many  other  varieties  are  repre- 
sented. The  gardens  and  fields  produce  an  abundance  of 
flowers,  which  justify  the  city's  title  of  la  citta  dei  jiori. 

Climate  and  Sanitary  Conditions. — The  climate  of  Florence 
is  very  variable,  ranging  from  severe  cold  accompanied  by  high 
winds  from  the  north  in  winter  to  great  heat  in  the  summer, 
while  in  spring-time  sudden  and  rapid  changes  of  temperature 
are  frequent.  At  the  same  time  the  climate  is  usually  very 
agreeable  from  the  end  of  February  to  the  beginning  of  July, 
and  from  the  end  of  September  to  the  middle  of  November. 
The  average  temperature  throughout  the  year  is  about  57° 
Fahr.;  the  maximum  heat  is  about  96-8°,  and  the  minimum 
36-  5°,  sometimes  sinking  to  2 1°.  The  longest  day  is  1 5  hours  and 
33  minutes,  the  shortest  8  hours  and  50  minutes/  The  average 
rainfall  is  about  37^  inches.  Epidemic  diseases -are  rare  and 
children's  diseases  mild;  cholera  has  visited  Florence  several 
times,  but  the  city  has  been  free  from  it  for  many  years. 
Diphtheria  first  appeared  in  1868  and  continued  as  a  severe 
epidemic  until  1872,  since  when  it  has  only  occurred  at  rare  inter- 
vals and  in  isolated  cases.  Typhoid,  pneumonia,  tuberculosis, 
measles  and  scarlatina,  and  influenza  are  the  commonest  illnesses. 
The  drainage  system  is  still  somewhat  imperfect,  but  the  water 
brought  from  the  hills  or  from  the  Arno  in  pipes  is  fairly  good, 
and  the  general  sanitary  conditions  are  satisfactory. 

Public  Buildings. — Of  the  very  numerous  Florentine  churches 
the  Duomo  (Santa  Maria  del  Fieri)  is  the  largest  and  most 
Churches  important,  founded  in  1298  on  the  plans  of  Arnolfo 
di  Cambio,  completed  by  Brunelleschi,  and  consecrated 
in  1436;  the  facade,  however,  was  not  finished  until  the  igth 
century — it  was  begun  in  1875  on  the  designs  of  de  Fabris  and 
unveiled  in  1888.  Close  by  the  Duomo  is  the  no  less  famous 
Campanile  built  by  Giotto,  begun  in  1332,  and  adorned  with 
exquisite  bas-reliefs.  Opposite  is  the  Baptistery  built  by  Arnolfo 
di  Cambio  in  the  1 3th  century  on  the  site  of  an  earlier  church, 
and  adorned  with  beautiful  bronze  doors  by  Ghiberti  in  the  isth 
century.  The  Badia,  Santo  Spirito,  Santa  Maria  Novella,  are 
a  few  among  the  many  famous  and  beautiful  churches  of  Florence. 
The  existence  of  these  works  of  art  attracts  students  from  all 
countries,  and  a  German  art  school  subsidized  by  the  imperial 
government  has  been  instituted. 

The  streets  and  piazze  of  the  city  are  celebrated  for  their 
splendid  palaces,  formerly,  and  in  many  cases  even  to-day  the 
residences  of  the  noble  families  of  Florence.  Among  others  we 
may  mention  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  formerly  the  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Republic  and  now  the  town  hall,  the  Palazzo  Riccardi, 
the  residence  of  the  Medici  and  now  the  prefecture,  the  palaces  of 
the  Strozzi,  Antinori  (one  of  the  most  perfect  specimens  of 
Florentine  quattrocento  architecture),  Corsini,  Davanzati,  Pitti 
(the  royal  palace),  &c.  The  palace  of  the  Arte  della  Lana  or 


gild  of  wool  merchants,  tastefully  and  intelligently  restored,  is 
the  headquarters  of  the  Dante  Society.  The  centre  of  Florence, 
which  was  becoming  a  danger  from  a  hygienic  point  of  View, 
was  pulled  down  in  1880-1890,  but,  unfortunately,  sufficient  care 
was  not  taken  to  avoid  destroying  certain  buildings  of  historic 
and  artistic  value  which  might  have  been  spared  without  im- 
pairing the  work  of  sanitation,  while  the  new  structures  erected 
in  their  place,  especially  those  in  the  Piaza  Vittorio  Emanuele, 
are  almost  uniformly  ugly  and  quite  out  of  keeping  with 
Florentine  architecture.  The  question  aroused  many  polemics 
at  the  time  both  in  Italy  and  abroad.  After  the  new  centre  was 
built,  a  society  called  the  Societd  per  la  difesa  di  Firenze  antica 
was  formed  by  many  prominent  citizens  to  safeguard  the  ancient 
buildings  and  prevent  them  from  destruction,  and  a  spirit  of 
intelligent  conservatism  seems  now  to  prevail  in  this  connexion. 
The  city  is  growing  in  all  directions,  and  a  number  of  new  quarters 
have  sprung  up  where  the  houses  are  more  sanitary  than  in  the 
older  parts,  but  unfortunately  few  of  them  evince  much  aesthetic 
feeling.  The  viali  or  boulevards  form  pleasant  residential  streets 
with  gardens,  and  the  system  of  building  separate  houses  for 
each  family  (villini)  instead  of  large  blocks  of  flats  is  becoming 
more  and  more  general. 

Florence  possesses  four  important  libraries  besides  a  number 
•of  smaller  collections.  The  Biblioteca  Nazionale,  originally 
founded  by  Antonio  Magliabecchi  in  1747,  enjoys  the  ubraries 
right,  shared  by  the  Vitlorio  Emanuele  library  of 
Rome,  of  receiving  a  copy  of  every  work  printed  in  Italy,  since 
1870  (since  1848  it  had  enjoyed  a  similar  privilege  with  regard 
to  works  printed  in  Tuscany).  It  contains  some  500,^00  printed 
volumes,  700,000  pamphlets,  over  9000  prints  and  drawings 
(including  284  by  Albert  Diirer),  nearly  20,000  MSS.,  and  40,000 
letters.  The  number  of  readers  in  1904  was  over  50,000.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  the  confusion  engendered  by  a  defective 
organization  has  long  been  a  byword  among  the  people;  there 
is  no  printed  catalogue,  quantities  of  books  are  buried  in  packing- 
cases  and  unavailable,  the  collection  of  foreign  books  is  very  poor, 
hardly  any  new  works  being  purchased,  and  the  building  itself 
is  quite  inadequate  and  far  from  safe;  but  the  site  of  a  new 
one  has  now  been  purchased  and  the  plans  are  agreed  upon, 
so  that  eventually  the  whole  collection  will  be  transferred  to 
more  suitable  quarters.  The  Biblioteca  Marucelliana,  founded  in 
1752,  contains  150,000  books,  including  620  incunabula,  17,000 
engravings  and  1500  MSS.;  it  is  well  managed  and  chiefly 
remarkable  for  its  collection  of  illustrated  works  and  art  publica- 
tions. The  Biblioteca  Mediceo-Laurenziana,  founded  in  1571, 
has  its  origin  in  the  library  of  Cosimo  de'  Medici  the  Elder,  and 
was  enlarged  by  Piero,  Giovanni  and  above  all  by  Lorenzo  the 
Magnificent.  Various  princes  and  private  persons  presented  it 
with  valuable  gifts  and  legacies,  among  the  most  important  of 
which  was  thecollectionoieditionesprincipes  given  by  Count  d'Elci, 
in  1841,  and  the  Ashburnham  collection  of  MSS.  purchased  by 
the  Italian  Government  in  1885.  It  contains  nearly  10,000  MSS., 
including  many  magnificent  illuminated  missals  and  Bibles  and  a 
number  of  valuable  Greek  and  Latin  texts,  242  incunabula  and 
n,ooo  printed  books,  chiefly  dealing  with  palaeography;  it  is 
in  some  ways  the  most  important  of  the  Florentine  libraries. 
The  Biblioteca  Riccardiana,  founded  in  the  i6th  century  by 
Romolo  Riccardi,  contains  nearly  4000  MSS.,  over  32,000  books 
and  650  incunabula,  chiefly  relating  to  Florentine  history.  The 
state  archives  are  among  the  most  complete  in  Italy,  and  contain 
over  450,000  filze  and  regislri  and  1 26,000  charters,  covering  the 
period  from  726  to  1856. 

Few  cities  are  as  rich  as  Florence  in  collections  of  works  of 
artistic  and  historic  interest,  although  the  great  majority  of 
them  belong  to  a  comparatively  limited  period — from   aalieries 
the  i3th  to  the  i6th  century.     The  chief  art  galleries   of  Floe 
are  the  Uffizi,  the  Pitti  and  Accademia.     The  two  Arts  ""* 
former  are  among  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  are 
filled  with  masterpieces  by  Raphael,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  Perugino, 
Ghirlandaio,  Botticelli,  the   Lippi,  and  many  other  Florentine, 
Umbrian,  Venetian,  Dutch  and  Flemish  artists,  as  well  as  numer- 
ous admirable  examples  of  antique,  medieval  and  Renaissance 


530 


FLORENCE 


sculpture.  The  Pitti  collection  is  in  the  royal  palace  (formerly 
the  residence  of  the  grand  dukes),  and  a  fine  new  stairway 
and  vestibule  have  been  constructed  by  royal  munificence. 
In  the  Uffizi  the  pictures  are  arranged  in  strict  chronological 
order.  In  the  Accademia,  which  is  rich  in  early  Tuscan 
masters,  the  Botticelli  and  Perugino  rooms  deserve  special 
mention.  Other  pictures  are  scattered  about  in  the  churches, 
monasteries  and  private  palaces.  Of  the  monasteries,  that  of 
St  Mark  should  be  mentioned,  as  containing  many  works  of 
Fra  Angelico,  besides  relics  of  Savonarola,  while  of  the  private 
collections  the  only  one  of  importance  is  that  of  Prince  Corsini. 
There  is  a  splendid  museum  of  medieval  and  Renaissance 
antiquities  in  the  Bargello,  the  ancient  palace  of  the  Podesta, 
itself  one  of  the  finest  buildings  in  the  city;  among  its  many 
treasures  are  works  of  Donatello,  Ghiberti,  Verrochio  and  other 
sculptors,  and  large  collections  of  ivory,  enamel  and  bronze 
ware.  The  Opera  del  Duomo  contains  models  and  pieces  of 
sculpture  connected  with  the  cathedral;  the  Etruscan  and 
Egyptian  museum,  the  gallery  of  tapestries,  the  Michelangelo 
museum,  the  museum  of  natural  history  and  other  collections 
are  all  important  in  different  ways. 

The  total  population  of  Florence  in  1905,  comprising  foreigners 

and  a  garrison  of  5500  men,  was  220,879.     In  J86i  it  was  114,363; 

_       it  increased  largely  when  the  capital  of  Italy  was  in 

ttoa.  "        Florence  (1865-1872),  but  decreased  or  increased  very 

slightly  after  the  removal  of  the  capital  to  Rome,  and 

increased  at  a  greater  rate  from  1881  onwards.     At  present  the 

rate  of  increase  is  about  22  per  1000,  but  it  is  due  to  immigration, 

as  the  birth  rate  was  actually  below  the  death  rate  down  to  1903, 

since  when  there  has  been  a  slight  increase  of  the  former  and  a 

decrease  of  the  latter. 

Florence  is  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  and  the 
central  government  is  represented  by  a  prefect  (prefetto),  while 
^OCa^  8overnment  's  carried  on  by  a  mayor  (sindaco) 
anc^  an  elective  town  council  (consiglio  comunale). 
The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  court  of  cassation  (for  civil 
cases  only),  of  a  court  of  appeal,  besides  minor  tribunals.  It  is 
the  headquarters  of  an  army  corps,  and  an  archiepiscopal  see. 

There  are  22  public  elementary  schools  for  boys  and  1 8  for  girls 
(education  being  compulsory  and  gratuitous),  with  about  20,000 
Education  Pupi's>  and  56  private  schools  with  5700  pupils.  Secondary 
education  is  provided  by  one  higher  and  four  lower 
technical  schools  with  1375  pupils,  three  ginnasii  or  lower  classical 
schools,  and  three  licei  or  higher  classical  schools,  with  1000 
pupils,  and  three  training  colleges  with  over  700  pupils.  Higher 
education  is  imparted  at  the  university  (Istituto  di  studii  superiors 
e  di  perfezionamento) ,  with  600  to  650  students;  although  only 
comprising  the  faculties  of  literature,  medicine  and  natural  science, 
it  is,  as  regards  the  first-named  faculty,  one  of  the  most 
important  institutions  in  Italy.  The  original  Studio  Fiorentino 
was  founded  in  the  I4th  century,  and  acquired  considerable  fame 
as  a  centre  of  learning  under  the  Medici,  enhanced  by  the  presence  in 
Florence  of  many  learned  Greeks  who  had  fled  from  Constantinople 
after  its  capture  by  the  Turks  (1453).  Although  in  1472  some  of  the 
faculties  and  several  of  the  professors  were  transferred  to  Pisa,  it 
still  retained  importance,  and  in  the  1 7th  and  1 8th  centuries  it 
originated  a  number  of  learned  academies.  In  1859  after  the  annexa- 
tion of  Tuscany  to  the  Italian  kingdomitwasrevivedandreorganized ; 
since  then  it  has  become  to  some  extent  a  national  centre  of  learning 
and  culture,  attracting  students  from  other  parts  of  Italy,  partly  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  it  is  in  Florence  that  the  purest  Italian  is 
spoken.  The  revival  of  classical  studies  on  scientific  principles  in 
modern  Italy  may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  Florence,  and  great 
activity  has  also  been  displayed  in  reviving  the  study  of  Dante, 
Dante  lectures  being  given  regularly  by  scholars  and  men  of  letters 
from  all  parts  of  the  country,  above  the  church  of  Or  San  Michele 
as  in  the  middle  ages,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Societd.  Dantesca. 
Palaeography,  history  and  Romance  languages  are  among  the  other 
subjects  to  which  especial  importance  is  given.  Besides  the  Istitutodi 
studii  superiori  there  is  the  Istituto  di  scienze  sociali  "  Cesare  Alfieri," 
founded  by  the  marchese  Alfieri  di  Sostegno  for  the  education  of 
aspirants  to  the  diplomatic  and  consular  services,  and  for  students 
of  economics  and  social  sciences  (about  50  students) ;  an  academy 
of  fine  arts,  a  conservatoire  of  music,  a  higher  female  training-college 
with  150  students,  a  number  of  professional  and  trade  schools,  and 
an  academy  of  recitation.  Therearealsomanyacademiesandlearned 
societies  of  different  kinds,  of  which  one  of  the  most  important  is  the 
Accademia  della  Crusca  for  the  study  of  the  Italian  language,  which 
undertook  the  publication  of  a  monumental  dictionary. 
Several  of  the  Florence  hospitals  are  of  great  antiquity,  the  most 


important  being  that  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova,  which,  founded  by  Folco 
Portinari,    the    father    of  Dante's  Beatrice,    has    been 
thoroughly    renovated    according    to    modern    scientific     £*«**»«• 
principles.     There   are   numerous   other   hospitals   both     etc' 
general  and  special,  a  foundling  hospital  dating  from  the  I3th  century 
(Santa  Maria  degli  Innocenti),  an  institute  for  the  blind,  one  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  &c.     Most  of  the  hospitals  and  other  charitable 
institutions  are  endowed,  but  the  endowments  are  supplemented  by 
private  contributions. 

Florence  is  the  centre  of  a  large  and  fertile  agricultural  district, 
and  does  considerable  business  in  wine,  oil  and  grain,  and  supplies 


the  neighbouring  peasantry  with  goods  of  all  kinds.   There  _ 
are  no  important  industries,  except  a  few  flour-mills,  some 

glass  works,  iron  foundries,  a  motor  car  factory,  straw  f"5 

c  _  A    r_  _ .  _  i  •  ..          .         *  *„  Industry, 


hat  factories,  and  power-houses  supplying  electricity  for  ladustry- 
lighting  and  for  the  numerous  tramcars.  There  are,  however,  some 
artistic  industries  in  and  around  the  city,  of  which  the  most  important 
is  the  Ginori-Richard  porcelain  works,  and  the  Cantagalli  majolica 
works.  _  There  are  many  other  smaller  establishments,  and  the 
Florentine  artificer  seems  to  possess  an  exceptional  skill  in  all  kinds 
of  work  in  which  art  is  combined  with  technical  ability.  Another 
very  important  source  of  revenue  is  the  so-called  "  tourist  industry," 
which  in  late  years  has  assumed  immense  proportions;  the  city 
contains  a  large  number  of  hotels  and  boarding-houses  which  every 
year  are  filled  to  overflowing  with  strangers  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  (L.  V.*) 

HISTORY 

Florentia  was  founded  considerably  later  than  Faesulae 
(Fiesole),  which  lies  on  the  hill  above  it;  indeed,  as  its  name 
indicates,  it  was  built  only  in  Roman  times  and  probably  in 
connexion  with  the  construction  by  C.  Flaminius  in  187  B.C. 
of  a  road  from  Bononia  to  Arretium  (which  later  on  formed  part 
of  the  Via  Cassia)  at  the  point  where  this  road  crossed  the  river 
Arnus.  We  hear  very  little  of  it  in  ancient  times;  it  appears  to 
have  suffered  at  the  end  of  the  war  between  Marius  and  Sulla, 
and  in  A.D.  15  (by  which  period  it  seems  to  have  been  already 
a  colony)  it  successfully  opposed  the  project  of  diverting  part  of 
the  waters  of  the  Clanis  into  the  Arno  (see  CHIANA).  Tacitus 
mentions  it,  and  Florus  describes  it  as  one  of  the  municipia 
splendidissima.  A  bishop  of  Florence  is  mentioned  in  A.D.  313. 
A  group  of  Italic  cremation  tombs  a  pozzo  of  the  Villanova 
period  were  found  under  the  pavement  of  the  medieval  Vicolo 
del  Campidoglio.  This  took  its  name  from  the  Capitolium  of 
Roman  times,  the  remains  of  which  were  found  under  the  Piazza 
Luna;  the  three  cellae  were  clearly  traceable.  The  capitals 
of  the  columns  were  Corinthian,  about  4  ft.  in  diameter,  and  it 
became  clear  that  this  temple  had  supplied  building  materials 
for  S.  Giovanni  and  S.  Miniato.  Fragments  of  a  fine  octagonal 
altar,  probably  belonging  to  the  temple,  were  found.  Remains 
of  baths  have  been  found  close  by,  while  the  ancient  amphi- 
theatre has  been  found  near  S.  Croce  outside  the  Roman  town, 
which  formed  a  rectangle  of  about  400  by  600  yds.,  with  four 
gates,  the  Decumanus  being  represented  by  the  Via  Strozzi  and 
Via  del  Corso,  and  the  Cardo  by  the  Via  Calcinara,  while  the 
Mercato  Vecchio  occupied  the  site  of  the  Forum. 

See  L.  A.  Milan!,  "  Reliquie  di  Firenze  antica,"  in  Monumenti  dei 
Lincei,  vi.  (1896),  5  seq.  (T.  As.) 

The  first  event  of  importance  recorded  is  the  siege  of  the  city 
by  the  Goths,  A.D.  405,  and  its  deliverance  by  the  Roman  general 
Stilicho.  Totila  besieged  Florence  in  542,  but  was  repulsed  by 
the  imperial  garrison  under  Justin,  and  later  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Goths.  We  find  the  Longobards  in  Tuscany  in  570,  and 
mention  is  made  of  one  Gudibrandus  Dux  civitatis  Florentinorum, 
which  suggests  that  Florence  was  the  capital  of  a  duchy  (one  of 
the  regular  divisions  of  the  Longobard  empire).  Charlemagne 
was  in  Florence  in  786  and  conferred  many  favours  on  the  city, 
which  continued  to  grow  in  importance  owing  to  its  situation 
on  the  road  from  northern  Italy  to  Rome.  At  the  time  of  the 
agitation  against  simony  and  the  corruption  of  the  clergy,  the 
head  of  the  movement  in  Florence  was  San  Giovanni  Gualberto, 
of  the  monastery  of  San  Salvi.  The  simoniacal  election  of  Pietro 
Mezzabarba  as  bishop  of  Florence  (1068)  caused  serious  dis- 
turbances and  a  long  controversy  with  Rome,  which  ended  in  the 
triumph,  after  a  trial  by  fire,  of  the  monk  Petrus  Igneus,  champion 
of  the  popular  reform  movement;  this  event  indicates  the 
beginnings  of  a  popular  conscience  among  the  Florentines. 


FLORENCE 


Oueiphs 
and 


Under  the  Carolingian  emperors  Tuscany  was  a  March  or 
margraviate,  and  the  marquises  became  so  powerful  as  to  be 
even  a  danger  to  the  Empire.  Under  the  emperor  Otto  I.  one 
Ugo  (d.  1001)  was  marquis,  and  the  emperor  Conrad  II.  (elected 
in  1024)  appointed  Boniface  of  Canossa  marquis  of  Tuscany, 
a  territory  then  extending  from  the  Po  to  the  borders  of  the 
Roman  state.  Boniface  died  in  1052,  and  in  the  following  year 
the  margraviate  passed  to  his  daughter,  the  famous 
countess  countess  Matilda,  who  ruled  for  forty  years  and  played 
Matilda.  a  prominent  part  in  the  history  of  Italy  in  that  period. 
In  the  Wars  of  the  Investitures  Matilda  was  ever  on 
the  papal  (afterwards  called  Guelph)  side  against  the  emperor 
and  the  faction  afterwards  known  as  Ghibelline,  and 
she  herself  often  led  armies  to  battle.  It  is  at  this 
time  that  the  people  of  Florence  first  began  to  acquire 
influence,  and  while  the  countess  presided  at  the  courts 
of  justice  in  the  name  of  the  Empire,  she  was  assisted  by  a  group 
of  great  feudal  nobles,  judges,  lawyers,  &c.,  who  formed,  as 
elsewhere  in  Tuscany,  the  boni  homines  or  sapientes.  As  the 
countess  was  frequently  absent  these  boni  homines  gave  judgment 
without  her,  thus  paving  the  way  for  a  free  commune.  The 
citizens  found  themselves  in  opposition  to  the  nobility  of  the 
hills  around  the  city,  Teutonic  feudatories  of  Ghibelline 
sympathies,  who  interfered  with  their  commerce.  Florence 
frequently  waged  war  with  these  nobles  and  with  other  cities 
on  its  own  account,  although  in  the  name  of  the  countess,  and 
the  citizens  began  to  form  themselves  into  groups  and  associations 
which  were  the  germs  of  the  arti  or  gilds.  After  the  death  of 
Begin-  Countess  Matilda  in  1115  the  grandi  or  boni  homines 
nings  of  continued  to  rule  and  administer  justice,  but  in  the 
tae  name  of  the  people  —  a  change  hardly  noticed  at  first, 

commune.  bu(.  whicn  marfc5  the  foundation  of  the  commune. 
After  1138  the  boni  homines  began  to  be  called  consults,  while 
the  population  was  divided  into  the  grandi  or  delle  torri,  i.e.  the 
noble  families  who  had  towers,  and  the  arti  or  trade  and  merchant 
gilds.  At  first  the  consults,  of  whom  there  seem  to  have  been 
twelve,  two  for  each  sestiere  or  ward,  were  chosen  by  the  men 
of  the  towers,  and  assisted  by  a  council  of  100  boni  homines,  in 
which  the  arti  were  predominant;  the  government  thus  came  to 
be  in  the  hands  of  a  few  powerful  families.  The  republic  now 
proceeded  to  extend  its  power.  In  1  125  Fiesole  was  sacked  and 
destroyed,  but  the  feudal  nobles  of  the  contado  (surrounding 
country)  ,  protected  by  the  imperial  margraves,  were  still  power- 
ful. The  early  margraves  had  permitted  the  Florentines  to  wage 
war  against  the  Alberti  family,  whose  castles  they  destroyed. 
The  emperor  Lothair  when  in  Italy  forced  Florence  to  submit 
to  his  authority,  but  at  his  death  in  1137  things  returned  to  their 
former  state  and  the  Florentines  fought  successfully  against  the 
powerful  counts  Guidi.  Frederick  Barbarossa,  however,  elected 
emperor  in  1152,  made  his  authority  felt  in  Tuscany,  and  ap- 
pointed one  Welf  of  Bavaria  as  margrave.  Florence  and  other 
cities  were  forced  to  supply  troops  to  the  emperor  for  his  Lombard 
campaigns,  and  he  began  to  establish  a  centralized  imperial 
bureaucracy  in  Tuscany,  appointing  a  potestas,  who  resided  at 
San  Miniato  (whence  the  name  of  "  San  Miniato  al  Tedesco  "), 
to  represent  him  and  exercise  authority  in  the  contado;  this 
double  authority  of  the  consoli  in  the  town  and  the  potestas  or 
podestd,  outside  generated  confusion.  By  1176  the  Florentines 
were  masters  of  all  the  territory  comprised  in  the  dioceses  of 
Florence  and  Fiesole;  but  civil  commotion  within 
War  wttb  the  c;ty  broke  out  between  the  consoli  and  the  greater 
*  nobles,  headed  by  the  Alberti  and  strengthened  by 
the  many  feudal  families  who  had  been  forced  to  leave  their 
castles  and  dwell  in  the  city  (1177-1180).  Intheendthe  Alberti, 
though  not  victorious,  succeeded  in  getting  occasionally  admitted 
to  the  consulship.  Florence  now  formed  a  league  with  the  chief 
cities  of  Tuscany,  made  peace  with  the  Guidi,  and  humbled  the 
Alberti  whose  castle  of  Semifonte  was  destroyed  (1202).  Later 
we  find  a  potestas  within  the  city,  elected  for  a  year 
ancl  assist^  by  seven  councillors  and  seven  rectores 


Th 


e  t*s. 

super  capitibus  artium.     This  represented  the  triumph 

of  the  feudal  party,  which  had  gained  the  support  of  the  arti 


minori  or  minor  gilds.  The  potestates  subsequently  were 
foreigners,  and  in  1 207  the  dignity  was  conferred  on  Gualf redotto 
of  Milan;  a  new  council  was  formed,  the  consiglio  del  comune, 
while  the  older  senate  still  survived.  The  Florentines  now 
undertook  to  open  the  highways  of  commerce  towards  Rome, 
for  their  city  was  already  an  important  industrial  and  banking 
centre. 

Discord  among  the  great  families  broke  out  again,  and  the 
attempt  to  put  an  end  to  it  by  a  marriage  between  Buondelmonte 
de'  Buondelmonti  and  a  daughter  of  the  Amidei;  only  led  to 
further  strife  (1215),  although  the  causes  of  these  broils  were 
deeper  and  wider,  being  derived  from  the  general  division  between 
Guelphs  and  Ghibellines  all  over  Italy.  But  the  work  of  crush- 
ing the  nobles  of  the  contado  and  of  asserting  the  city's  position 
among  rival  communes  continued.  In  1222  Florence  waged  war 
successfully  on  Pisa,  Lucca  and  Pistoia,  and  during  the  next 
few  years  against  the  Sienese  with  varying  results;  although 
the  emperor  supported  the  latter  as  Ghibellines,  on  his  departure 
for  Germany  in  1235  they  were  forced  to  accept  peace  on  onerous 
terms.  During  the  interregnum  (1241-1243)  following  on  the 
death  of  Pope  Gregory  IX.  the  Ghibelline  cause  revived  in  Tuscany 
and  imperial  authority  was  re-established.  The  tumults  against 
the  Paterine  heretics  (1244-1245),  among  whom  were  many 
Ghibelline  nobles  favoured  by  the  podestd  Pace  di  Pesamigola, 
indicate  a  successful  Guelphic  reaction;  but  Frederick  II,, 
having  defeated  his  enemies  both  in  Lombardy  and  in  the  Two 
Sicilies,  appointed  his  natural  son,  Frederick  of  Antioch,  imperial 
vicar  in  Tuscany,  who,  when  civil  war  broke  out,  entered  the 
city  with  1600  German  knights.  The  Ghibellines  now  triumphed 
completely,  and  in  1249  the  Guelph  leaders  were  driven  into 
exile — the  first  of  many  instances  in  Florentine  history  of  exile 
en  masse  of  a  defeated  party.  The  attempt  to  seize  Montevarchi 
and  other  castles  where  the  Guelph  exiles  were  congregated 
failed,  and  in  1250  the  burghers  elected  thirty-six  caporali  di 
popolo,  who  formed  the  basis  of  the  primo  popolo  or  body  of 
citizens  independent  of  the  nobles,  headed  by*  the  capitano 
del  popolo.  The  Ghibellines  being  unable  to  maintain  their 
supremacy,  the  city  came  to  be  divided  into  two 
almost  autonomous  republics,  the  comune  headed  by  <aan^uae 
the  podestd,  and  the  popolo  headed  by  the  capitano  and  popolo. 
militarily  organized  into  twenty  companies;  the  central 
power  was  represented  by  twelve  anziani  or  elders.  The  podestd , 
who  was  always  a  foreigner,  usually  commanded  the  army,  repre- 
sented the  city  before  foreign  powers,  and  signed  treaties.  He 
was  assisted  by  the  consiglio  speciale  of  90  and  the  consiglio 
generate  e  speciale  of  300,  composed  of  nobles,  while  the  capitano 
del  popolo  had  also  two  councils  composed  of  burghers,  heads  of 
the  gilds,  gonfalonieri  of  the  companies,  &c.  The  anziani  had  a 
council  of  36  burghers,  and  then  there  was  the  parlamento  or 
general  assembly  of  the  people,  which  met  only  on  great 
occasions.  At  this  time  the  podesta's  palace  (the  Bargello)  was 
built,  and  the  gold  florin  was  first  coined  and  soon  came  to  be 
accepted  as  the  standard  gold  piece  throughout  Europe.  But, 
although  greatly  strengthened,  the  Guelphs,  who  now  may  be 
called  the  democrats  as  opposed  to  the  Ghibelline  aristocrats, 
were  by  no  means  wholly  victorious,  and  in  1251  they  had  to 
defend  themselves  against  a  league  of  Ghibelline  cities  (Siena, 
Pisa  and  Pistoia)  assisted  by  Florentine  Ghibellines;  the 
Florentine  Uberti,  who  had  been  driven  into  exile  after  their 
plot  of  1258,  took  refuge  in  Siena  and  encouraged  that  city  in 
its  hostility  to  Florence.  Fresh  disputes  about  the  possession 
of  Montepulciano  and  other  places  having  arisen,  the  Florentines 
declared  war  once  more.  A  Florentine  army  assisted  by  Guelphs 
of  other  towns  was  cunningly  induced  to  believe  that  Siena 
would  surrender  at  the  first  summons;  but  it  was  met  by  a 
Sienese  army  reinforced  by  Florentine  exiles,  including  Farinata 
degli  Uberti  and  other  Ghibellines,  and  by  the  cavalry  of  Manfred 
(q.v.)  of  Sicily,  led  by  Count  Giordano  and  the  count  Battle  or 
of  Arras,  with  the  result  that  the  Florentines  were  MontM- 
totally  routed  at  Montaperti  on  the  4th  of  September  i)crtl 
1260.  Count  Giordano  entered  Florence,  appointed 
Count  Guido  Novello  podesla,  and  began  a  series  of  persecutions 


532 


FLORENCE 


against  the  Guelphs.  The  Ghibellines  even  proposed  to  raze  the 
walls  of  the  city,  but  Farinata  degli  Uberti  strongly  opposed  the 
idea,  saying  that  "  he  had  fought  to  regain  and  not  to  ruin  his 
fatherland." 

During  this  new  Ghibelline  predominance  (1260-1266)  the 
old  liberties  were  abolished,  and  the  popolo  was  deprived  of  all 

share  in  the  administration.  But  when  Charles  I. 
Ifitufion  (t-v-)  °f  Anjou  descended  into  Italy  as  champion  of 

the  papacy,  and  Manfred  was  defeated  and  killed 
(i  266) ,  the  popolo,  who  had  acquired  wealth  in  trade  and  industry, 
was  ready  to  rise.  After  some  disturbances  Guido  Novello  and 
the  Ghibellines  were  expelled,  but  it  was  not  the  popolo  who 
triumphed;  the  pope  and  Charles  were  the  real  masters  of  the 
situation,  and  the  Florentines  found  they  had  exchanged  a 
foreign  and  Ghibelline  protector  for  one  who  was  foreign  and 
Guelph.  Nevertheless  much  of  the  old  order  was  restored; 
the  podesta  who  represented  King  Charles  was  assisted  by  12 
buoni  uomini,  and  by  the  council  of  the  100  buoni  uomini  del 
popolo,  "  without  the  deliberation  of  whom,"  says  Villani,  "  no 
great  matter  nor  expenditure  could  be  undertaken."  Other 
bodies  and  magistrates  were  maintained,  and  the  capitano  del 
popolo,  now  called  capitano  della  massa  di  parle  Guelfa,  tended 
to  become  a  very  important  person.  The  property  of  the 
Ghibellines  was  confiscated,  and  a  commission  of  six  capitani 
di  parle  Guelfa  appointed  to  administer  it  and  in  general  to 
expend  it  for  the  persecution  of  the  Ghibellines.  The  whole 
constitution  of  the  republic,  although  of  very  democratic 
tendencies,  seemed  designed  to  promote  civil  strife  and  weaken 
the  central  power. 

While  the  constitution  was  evolving  in  a  manner  which  seemed 
to  argue  small  political  ability  and  no  stability  in  the  Florentines, 

the  people  had  built  up  a  wonderful  commercial 
Florentine  organization.  Each  of  the  seven  arti  maggiori  or 

greater  gilds  was  organized  like  a  small  state  with  its 

councils,  statutes,  assemblies,  magistrates,  &c.,  and 
in  times  of  trouble  constituted  a  citizen  militia.  Florentine 
cloth  especially  was  known  and  sold  all  over  Europe,  and  the 
Florentines  were  regarded  as  the  first  merchants  of  the  age. 
If  the  life  of  the  city  went  on  uninterruptedly  even  during  the 
many  changes  of  government  and  the  almost  endemic  civil  war, 
it  was  owing  to  the  solidity  of  the  gilds,  who  could  carry  on  the 
administration  without  a  government. 

After  Charles's  victory  over  Conradin  in  1268  the  Florentines 
defeated  the  Sienese  (1269)  and  made  frequent  raids  into  Pisan 

territory.  As  Charles  perpetually  interfered  in  their 
Latino.  affairs,  always  favouring  the  grandi  or  Guelph  nobles, 

some  of  the  Ghibellines  were  recalled  as  a  counterpoise, 
which,  however,  only  led  to  further  civil  strife.  Rudolph  of 
Habsburg,  elected  king  of  the  Romans  in  1273,  having  come 
to  terms  with  Pope  Nicholas  III.,  Charles  was  obliged  in  1278 
to  give  up  his  title  of  imperial  vicar  in  Tuscany,  which  he  had 
held  during  the  interregnum  following  on  the  death  of  Frederick 
II.  In  1279  Pope  Nicholas  sent  his  nephew,  the  friar  preacher 
Latino  Frangipani  Malabranca,  whom  he  had  created  cardinal 
bishop  of  Ostia  the  same  year,  to  reconcile  the  parties  in  Florence 
once  more.  Cardinal  Latino  to  some  extent  succeeded,  and  was 
granted  a  kind  of  temporary  dictatorship.  He  raised  the  12 
buoni  uomini  to  14  (8  Guelphs  and  6  Ghibellines),  to  be  changed 
every  two  months;  and  they  were  assisted  by  a  council  of  too. 
A  force  of  1000  men  was  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  podestd 
and  capitano  (now  both  elected  by  the  people)  to  keep  order  and 
oblige  the  grandi  to  respect  the  law.  The  Sicilian  Vespers  (q.v.) 
by  weakening  Charles  strengthened  the  commune,  which  aimed 
at  complete  independence  of  emperors,  kings  and  popes.  After 
1282  the  signoria  was  composed  of  the  3  (afterwards  6)  priori 
of  the  gilds,  who  ended  by  ousting  the  buoni  uomini,  while  a 
defensor  artificum  el  artium  takes  the  place  of  the  capitano; 
thus  the  republic  became  an  essentially  trading  community, 
governed  by  the  popolani  grassi  or  rich  merchants. 

The  republic  now  turned  to  the  task  of  breaking  the  power 
of  the  Ghibelline  cities  of  Pisa  and  Arezzo.  In  1289  the  Aretini 
were  completely  defeated  by  the  Florentines  at  Campaldino,  a 


battle  made  famous  by  the  fact  that  Dante  took  part  in  it. 
War  against  the  Pisans,  who  had  been  defeated  by  the  Genoese 
in  the  naval  battle  of  La  Meloria  in  1284,  was  Battle  ot 
carried  on  in  a  desultory  fashion,  and  in  1 293  peace  was  campa/- 
made.  But  the  grandi,  who  had  largely  contributed  «"«<> 
to  the  victory  of  Campaldino,  especially  men  like  Corso  (**«')• 
Donati  and  Vieri  de'  Cerchi,  were  becoming  more  powerful,  and 
Charles  had  increased  their  number  by  creating  a  great  many 
knights;  but  their  attempts  to  interfere  with  the  administration 
of  justice  were  severely  repressed,  and  new  laws  were  passed  to 
reduce  their  influence.  Among  other  internal  reforms  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  last  traces  of  servitude  in  1289,  and  the  increase  in 
the  number  of  arti,  first  to  12  and  then  to  21  (7  maggiori  and  14 
minori)  must  be  mentioned.  This,  however,  was  not  enough  for 
the  Florentine  democracy,  who  viewed  with  alarm  the  increasing 
power  and  arrogance  of  the  grandi,  who  in  spite  of  their  exclusion 
from  many  offices  were  still  influential  and  constituted  inde- 
pendent clans  within  the  state.  The  law  obliged  each  member 
of  the  clan  (consorteria)  to  sodare  for  all  the  other  members,  i.e. 
to  give  a  pecuniary  guarantee  to  ensure  payment  of  fines  for 
offences  committed  by  any  one  of  their  number,  a  provision 
made  necessary  by  the  fact  that  the  whole  clan  acted  collectively. 
But  as  the  laws  were  not  always  enforced  new  and  severe  ones 
were  enacted.  These  were  the  famous  Ordinamenti  Ordlaa, 
della  Giustizia  of  1293,  by  which  all  who  were  not  of  meati  delta 
the  arti  were  definitely  excluded  from  the  signory.  Ohistizia 
The  priori  were  to  remain  in  office  two  months  and  (-l29f>- 
elected  the  gonfoloniere,  also  for  two  months;  there  were  the 
capitudini  or  councils  of  the  gilds,  and  two  savi  for  each  sestiere, 
with  looo  soldiers  at  their  disposal;  the  number  of  the  grandi 
families  was  fixed  at  38  (later  72).  Judgment  in  matters  con- 
cerning the  Ordinamenti  was  delivered  in  a  summary  fashion 
without  appeal.  The  leading  spirit  of  this  reform  was  Giano 
della  Bella,  a  noble  who  by  engaging  in  trade  had  become  a 
popolano;  the  grandi  now  tried  to  make  him  unpopular  with  the 
popolani  grassi,  hoping  that  without  him  the  Ordinamenti  would 
not  be  executed,  and  opened  negotiations  with  Pope  Boniface 
VIII.  (elected  1294),  who  aimed  at  extending  his  authority  in 
Tuscany.  A  signory  adverse  to  Giano  having  been  elected,  he 
was  driven  into  exile  in  1295.  The  grandi  regained  some  of  their 
power  by  corrupting  the  podesta  and  by  the  favour  of  the  popolo 
minuto  or  unorganized  populace;  but  their  quarrels  among 
themselves  prevented  them  from  completely  succeeding,  while 
the  arti  were  solid. 

In  1295  a  signory  favourable  to  the  grandi  enacted  a  law 
attenuating  the  Ordinamenti,  but  now  the  grandi  split  into  two 
factions,  one  headed  by  the  Donati,  which  hoped  to  The 
abolish  the  Ordinamenti,  and  the  other  by  the  Cerchi,  Bianchi 
which  had  given  up  all  hope  of  their  abolition;  after- 
wards these  parties  came  to  be  called  Neri  (Blacks) 
and  Bianchi  (Whites).  A  plot  of  the  Donati  to  establish  their 
influence  over  Florence  with  the  help  of  Boniface  VIII.  having 
been  discovered  (May  1300),  serious  riots  broke  out  between  the 
Neri  and  the  Bianchi.  The  pope's  attempt  to  unite  the  grandi 
having  failed,  he  summoned  Charles  of  Valois  to  come  to  his 
assistance,  promising  him  the  imperial  crown;  in  1301  Charles 
entered  Italy,  and  was  created  by  the  pope  paciaro  or  peace- 
maker of  Tuscany,  with  instructions  to  crush  the  Bianchi  and 
the  popolo  and  exalt  the  Neri.  On  the  ist  of  November  Charles 
reached  Florence,  promising  to  respect  its  laws;  but  he  permitted 
Corso  Donati  and  his  friends  to  attack  the  Bianchi,  and  the  new 
podestd, C^nte  dei  Gabrielli  of  Gubbio,  who  had  come  with  Charles, 
punished  many  of  that  faction;  among  those  whom  he  exiled 
was  the  poet  Dante  (1302).  Corso  Donati,  who  for  some  time 
was  the  most  powerful  man  in  Florence,  made  himself  many 
enemies  by  his  arrogance,  and  was  obliged  to  rely  on  the  popolo 
grasso,  the  irritation  against  him  resulting  in  a  rising  in  which 
he  was  killed  (1308).  In  this  same  year  Henry  of  Luxemburg 
was  elected  king  of  the  Romans  and  with  the  pope's  favour  he 
came  to  Italy  in  1310;  the  Florentine  exiles  and  all  the  Ghibel- 
lines of  Italy  regarded  him  as  a  saviour  and  regenerator  of  the 
country,  while  the  Guelphs  of  Florence  on  the  contrary  opposed 


and  the 
Neil. 


FLORENCE 


533 


both  him  and  the  pope  as  dangerous  to  their  own  liberties  and 
accepted  the  protection  of  King  Robert  of  Naples,  disregarding 
Henry's  summons  to  submission.  In  1312  Henry  was  crowned 
emperor  as  Henry  VII.  in  Rome,  but  instead  of  the  universal 
ruler  and  pacifier  which  he  tried  to  be,  he  was  forced  by  circum- 
stances into  being  merely  a  German  kaiser  who  tried  to  subjugate 
free  Italian  communes.  He  besieged  Florence  without  success, 
and  died  of  disease  in  1313. 

The  Pisans,  fearing  the  vengeance  of  the  Guelphs  now  that 
Henry  was  dead,  had  accepted  the  lordship  of  Uguccione  della 

Fagginola,  imperial  vicar  in  Genoa.  A  brave  general 
de/itf'0"6  am* an  ambitious  man,  he  captured  Lucca  and  defeated 
Fagginola  the  Florentines  and  their  allies  from  Naples  at  Monte- 
and  catini  in  1315,  but  the  following  year  he  lost  both  Pisa 

Castruccio  an(j  Lucca  ancj  had  to  fly  from  Tuscany.  A  new  danger 
caot_  now  threatened  Florence  in  the  person  of  Castruccio 

Castracani  degli  Antelminelli  (q.i.),  who  made  himself 
lord  of  Lucca  and  secured  help  from  Matteo  Visconti,  lord  of 
Milan,  and  other Ghibellines  of  northern  Italy.  Between  i32oand 
1323  he  harried  the  Florentines  and  defeated  them  several  times, 
captured  Pistoia,  devastated  their  territory  up  to  the  walls  of 
the  city  in  spite  of  assistance  from  Naples  under  Raymundo 
de  Cardona  and  the  duke  of  Calabria  (King  Robert's  son); 
never  before  had  Florence  been  so  humiliated,  but  while 
Castruccio  was  preparing  to  attack  Florence  he  died  in  1328. 
Two  months  later  the  duke  of  Calabria,  who  had  been  appointed 
protector  of  the  city  in  1325,  died,  and  further  constitutional 
reforms  were  made.  The  former  councils  were  replaced  by  the 
consiglio  del  popolo,  consisting  of  300  popolani  and  presided  over 
by  the  capitano,  and  the  consiglio  del  comune  of  250  members, 
half  of  them  nobles  and  half  popolani,  presided  over  by  the 
podestd.  The  priori  and  other  officers  were  drawn  by  lot  from 
among  the  Guelphs  over  thirty  years  old  who  were  declared  fit 
for  public  office  by  a  special  board  of  98  citizens  (1329).  The 
system  worked  well  at  first,  but  abuses  soon  crept  in,  and  many 
persons  were  unjustly  excluded  from  office;  trouble  being 
expected  in  1335  a  captain  of  the  guard  was  created.  But  the 
first  one  appointed,  Jacopo  dei  Gabrielli  of  Gubbio,  used  his 
dictatorial  powers  so  ruthlessly  that  at  the  end  of  his  year  of 
office  no  successor  was  chosen. 

The  Florentines  now  turned  their  eyes  towards  Lucca;    they 
might  have  acquired  the  city  immediately  after  Castruccio's 

death  for  80,000  florins,  but  failed  to  do  so  owing  to 
Attempt  to  differences  of  opinion  in  the  signory;  Martino  della 
Tucc^  Scala,  lord  of  Verona,  promised  it  to  them  in  1335,  but 

broke  his  word,  and  although  their  finances  were  not 
then  very  flourishing  they  allied  themselves  with  Venice  to  make 
war  on  him.  They  were  successful  at  first,  but  Venice  made  a 
truce  with  the  Scala  independently  of  the  Florentines,  and  by 
the  peace  of  1339  they  only  obtained  a  part  of  Lucchese  territory. 
At  the  same  time  they  purchased  from  the  Tarlati  the  protectorate 
over  Arezzo  for  ten  years.  But  misfortunes  fell  on  the  city: 
Edward  III.  of  England  repudiated  the  heavy  debts  contracted 
for  his  wars  in  France  with  the  Florentine  banking  houses  of 
Bardi  and  Peruzzi  (1339),  which  eventually  led  to  their  failure 
and  to  that  of  many  smaller  firms,  and  shook  Florentine  credit 
all  over  the  world;  Philip  VI.  of  France  extorted  large  sums 
from  the  Florentine  merchants  and  bankers  in  his  dominions 
by  accusing  them  of  usury;  in  1340  plague  and  famine  wrought 
terrible  havoc  in  Florence,  and  riots  again  broke  out  between  the 
grandi  and  the  popolo,  partly  on  account  of  the  late  unsuccessful 
wars  and  the  unsatisfactory  state  of  the  finances.  To  put  an 

end  to  these  disorders,  Walter  of  Brienne,  duke  of 
The  duke  Athens,  was  elected  "  conservator  "  and  captain  of 

the  guard  in  1342.     An  astute,  dissolute  and  ambitious 

man,  half  French  and  half  Levantine,  he  began  his 
government  by  a  policy  of  conciliation  and  impartial  justice 
which  won  him  great  popularity.  But  as  soon  as  he  thought 
the  ground  was  secure  he  succeeded  in  getting  himself  acclaimed 
by  the  populace  lord  of  Florence  for  life,  and  on  the  8th  of 
September  was  carried  in  triumph  to  the  Palazzo  della  Signoria. 
The  podestd  and  the  capitano  assenting  to  this  treachery,  he 


dismissed  the  gonfaloniere,  reduced  the  priori  to  a  position  of 
impotence,  disarmed  the  citizens,  and  soon  afterwards  accepted 
the  lordship  of  Arezzo,  Volterra,  Colle,  San  Gimignano  and 
Pistoia.  He  increased  his  bodyguard  to  800  men,  all  Frenchmen, 
who  behaved  with  the  greatest  licence  and  brutality;  by  his 
oppressive  taxes,  and  his  ferocious  cruelty  towards  all  who 
opposed  him,  and  the  unsatisfactory  treaties  he  concluded  with 
Pisa,  he  accumulated  bitter  hatred  against  his  rule.  The 
grandi  were  disappointed  because  he  had  not  crushed  the 
popolo,  and  the  latter  because  he  had  destroyed  their  liberties 
and  interfered  with  the  organization  of  the  arti.  Many  unsuccess- 
ful plots  against  him  were  hatched,  and  having  discovered  one 
that  was  conducted  by  Antonio  degli  Adimari,  the  duke  summoned 
the  latter  to  the  palace  and  detained  him  a  prisoner.  He  also 
summoned  300  leading  citizens  on  the  pretext  of  wishing  to 
consult  them,  but  fearing  treachery  they  refused  to  come.  On 
the  26th  of  July  1343,  the  citizens  rose  in  arms,  demanded  the 
duke's  abdication,  and  besieged  him  in  the  palace.  Help  came 
to  the  Florentines  from  neighbouring  cities,  the  podestd  was  ex- 
pelled, and  a  balia  or  provisional  government  of  14  was  elected. 
The  duke  was  forced  to  set  Adimari  and  his  other  prisoners  free, 
and  several  of  his  men-at-arms  were  killed  by  the  populace; 
three  of  his  chief  henchmen,  whom  he  was  obliged  to  surrender, 
were  literally  torn  to  pieces,  and  finally  on  the  ist  of  August  he 
had  to  resign  his  lordship.  He  departed  from  Florence  under  a 
strong  guard  a  few  days  later,  and  the  Fourteen  cancelled  all 
his  enactments. 

The  expulsion  of  the  duke  of  Athens  was  followed  by  several 
measures  to  humble  the  grandi  still  further,  while  the  popolo 
minuto  or  artisans  began  to  show  signs  of  discontent 
at  the  rule  of  the  merchants,  andthepopulacedestroyed 
the  houses  of  many  nobles.  As  soon  as  order  was 
restored  a  balia  was  appointed  to  reform  the  government,  in 
which  task  it  was  assisted  by  the  Sienese  and  Perugian 
ambassadors  and  by  Simone  da  Battifolle.  The  priori  were 
reduced  to  8  (2  popolani  grassi,  3  mediani  and  3  artifici  minuli), 
while  the  gonfaloniere  was  to  be  chosen  in  turn  from  each  of  those 
classes;  the  grandi  were  excluded  from  the  administration,  but 
they  were  still  admitted  to  the  consiglio  del  comune,  the  cinque 
di  mercanzia,  and  other  offices  pertaining  to  the  commune;  the 
Ordinamenti  were  maintained  but  in  a  somewhat  attenuated 
form,  and  certain  grandi  as  a  favour  were  declared  to  be  of  the 
popolo.  Florence  was  now  a  thoroughly  democratic  and  com- 
mercial republic,  and  its  whole  policy  was  mainly  dominated  by 
commercial  considerations:  its  rivalry  with  Pisa  was  due  to  an 
ambition  to  gain  secure  access  to  the  sea;  its  strong  Guelphism 
was  the  outcome  of  its  determination  to  secure  the  bank-business 
of  the  papacy,  and  its  desire  to  extend  its  territory  in  Tuscany 
to  the  necessity  for  keeping  open  the  land  trade  routes. 
Florentine  democracy,  however,  was  limited  to  the  walls  of  the 
city,  for  no  one  of  the  contado  nor  any  citizen  of  the  subject 
towns  enjoyed  political  rights,  which  were  reserved  for  the  in- 
habitants of  Florence  alone  and  not  by  any  means  for  all  of  them. 
Florence  was  in  the  I4th  century  a  city  of  about  100,000 
inhabitants,  of  whom  25,000  could  bear  arms;  there  were  no 
churches,  39  religious  houses;  the  shops  of  the  arte  staattlct 
della  lana  numbered  over  200,  producing  cloth  worth 
1,200,000  florins;  Florentine  bankers  and  merchants  were  found 
all  over  the  world,  often  occupying  responsible  positions  in  the 
service  of  foreign  governments;  the  revenues  of  the  republic, 
derived  chiefly  from  the  city  customs,  amounted  to  some  300,000 
florins,  whereas  its  ordinary  expenses,  exclusive  of  military 
matters  and  public  buildings,  were  barely  40,000.  It  was  already 
a  centre  of  art  and  letters  and  full  of  fine  buildings,  pictures  and 
libraries.  But  now  that  the  grandi  were  suppressed  politically, 
the  lowest  classes  came  into  prominence,  "  adventurers  without 
sense  or  virtue  and  of  no  authority  for  the  most  part,  who  had 
usurped  public  offices  by  illicit  and  dishonest  practices  "  (Matteo 
Villani,  iv.  69);  this  paved  the  way  for  tyranny. 

In  1347  Florence  was  again  stricken  with  famine,  followed 
the  next  year  by  the  most  terrible  plague  it  had  ever  experienced, 
which  carried  off  three-fifths  of  the  population  (according  to 


534 


FLORENCE 


Milan 


Villani).  Yet  in  spite  of  these  disasters  the  republic  was 
by  no  means  crushed;  it  soon  regained  the  suzerainty  of 
many  cities  which  had  broken  off  all  connexion 
The  Great  ^^  ^  after  the  expulsion  of  the  duke  of  Athens, 
(1348).  and  purchased  the  overlordship  of  Prato  from  Queen 
Joanna  of  Naples,  who  had  inherited  it  from  the 
duke  of  Calabria.  In  1351  Giovanni  Visconti,  lord  and  archbishop 
of  Milan,  having  purchased  Bologna  and  allied  himself  with 
sundry  Ghibelline  houses  of  Tuscany  with  a  view  to 
War  with  dominating  Florence,  the  city  made  war  on  him,  and  in 
violation  of  its  Guelph  traditions  placed  itself  under  the 
protection  of  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  (1355)  for  his  life- 
time. This  move,  however,  was  not  popular,  and  it  enabled 
the  grandi,  who,  although  excluded  from  the  chief  offices,  still 
dominated  the  parte  Guelfa,  to  reassert  themselves.  They  had  in 
1347  succeeded  in  enacting  a  very  stringent  law  against  all  who 
were  in  any  way  tainted  with  Ghibellinism,  which,they  themselves 
being  above  suspicion  in  that  connexion,  enabled  them  to  drive 
from  office  many  members  of  the  popolo  minuto.  In  1358  the 
parte  Guelfa  made  these  enactments  still  more  stringent,  punish- 
ing with  death  or  heavy  fines  all  who  being  Ghibellines  held 
office,  and  provided  that  if  trustworthy  witnesses  were  forth- 
coming condemnations  might  be  passed  for  this  offence  without 
hearing  the  accused;  even  a  non-proved  charge  or  an  ammonizione 
(warning  not  to  accept  office)  might  entail  disfranchisement. 
Thus  the  parte,  represented  by  its  6  (afterwards  9)  captains, 
came  to  exercise  a  veritable  reign  of  terror,  and  no  one  knew 
when  an  accusation  might  fall  on  him.  The  leader  of  the  parte 
was  Piero  degli  Albizzi,  whose  chief  rivals  were  the  Ricci  family. 
Italy  at  this  time  began  to  be  overrun  by  bands  of  soldiers 
of  fortune.  The  first  of  these  bands  with  whom  Florence  came 
into  contact  was  the  Great  Company,  commanded  by 
the  count  of  Lando,  which  twice  entered  Tuscany 
but  was  expelled  both  times  by  the  Florentine  troops 

(I3S8-I359). 

In  1362  we  find  Florence  at  war  with  Pisa  on  account  of 
commercial  differences,  and  because  the  former  had  acquired 
the  lordship  of  Vol terra.  The  Florentines  were  successful 
until  Pisa  enlisted  Sir  John  Hawkwood's  English  company; 
the  latter  won  several  battles,  but  were  at  last  defeated  at 
Cascina,  and  peace  was  made  in  1364,  neither  side  having  gained 
much  advantage.  A  fresh  danger  threatened  the  republic  in 
1367  when  Charles  IV.,  who  had  allied  himself  with  Pope  Urban 
V.,  Queen  Joanna  of  Naples,  and  various  north  Italian  despots 
to  humble  the  Visconti,  demanded  that  the  Florentines  should 
join  the  league.  This  they  refused  to  do  and  armed  themselves 
for  defence,  but  eventually  satisfied  the  emperor  with  a  money 
payment. 

The  tyranny  of  the  parte  Guelfa  still  continued  unabated, 
and  the  capitani  carried  an  enactment  by  which  no  measure 
affecting  the  parte  should  be  even  discussed  by  the 
Oueifa.  "  signory  unless  previously  approved  of  by  them.  This 
infamous  law,  however,  aroused  so  much  opposition 
that  some  of  the  very  men  who  had  proposed  it  assembled  in  secret 
to  discuss  its  abolition,  and  a  quarrel  between  the  Albizzi  and 
the  Ricci  having  weakened  the  parte,  a  balla  of  56  was  agreed 
upon.  Several  of  the  Albizzi  and  the  Ricci  were  excluded  from 
office  for  five  years,  and  a  council  called  the  Ten  of  Liberty  was 
created  to  defend  the  laws  and  protect  the  weak  against  the 
strong.  The  parte  Guelfa  and  the  Albizzi  still  remained  very 
influential  and  the  attempts  to  abolish  admonitions  failed. 

In  1375  Florence  became  involved  in  a  war  which  showed 
how  the  old  party  divisions  of  Italy  had  been  obliterated.  The 
papal  legate  at  Bologna,  Cardinal  Guillaume  de  Noellet 
War  with  (j.  1394),  although  the  church  was  then  allied  to 
(1375-78).  Florence,  was  meditating  the  annexation  of  the  city  to 
the  Holy  See;  he  refused  a  request  of  the  Florentines 
for  grain  from  Romagna,  and  authorized  Hawkwood  to  devastate 
their  territory.  Although  a  large  part  of  the  people  disliked 
the  idea  of  a  conflict  with  the  church,  an  alliance  with  Florence's 
old  enemy  Bernabo  Visconti  was  made,  war  declared,  and  a 
boMa  of  8,  the  Otto  della  guerra  (afterwards  called  the  "  Eight 


Saints  "  on  account  of  their  good  management)  was  created 
to  carry  on  the  campaign.  Treaties  with  Pisa,  Siena,  Arezzo 
and  Cortona  were  concluded,  and  soon  no  less  than  80  towns, 
including  Bologna,  had  thrown  off  the  papal  yoke.  Pope  Gregory 
XI.  placed  Florence  under  an  interdict,  ordered  the  expulsion 
of  all  Florentines  from  foreign  countries,  and  engaged  a  ferocious 
company  of  Bretons  to  invade  the  republic's  territory.  The 
Eight  levied  heavy  toll  on  church  property  and  ordered  the 
priests  to  disregard  the  interdict.  They  turned  the  tables  on 
the  pope  by  engaging  Hawkwood,  and  although  the  Bretons  by 
order  of  Cardinal  Robert  of  Geneva  (afterwards  the  anti-pope 
Clement  VII.)  committed  frightful  atrocities  in  Romagna, 
their  captains  were  bribed  by  the  republic  not  to  molest  its 
territory.  By  1378  peace  was  made,  partly  through  the  media- 
tion of  St  Catherine  of  Siena,  and  the  interdict  was  removed 
in  consideration  of  the  republic's  paying  a  fine  of  200,000  florins 
to  the  pope. 

During  the  war  the  Eight  had  been  practically  rulers  of  the 
city,  but  now  the  parte  Guelfa,  led  by  Lapo  da  Castiglionchio 
and  Piero  degli  Albizzi,  attempted  to  reassert  itself 
by  illicit  interference  in  the  elections  and  by  a  liberal    Satvestrp 
use  of  "  admonitions  "(ammonizioni).     Salvestro  de'    Medici. 
Medici,  who  had  always  opposed  the  parte,  having  been 
elected  gonfal'oniere  in  spite  of  its  intrigues,  proposed  a  law  for 
the  abolition  of  the  admonitions,  which  was  eventually  passed 
(June  18,  1378),  but  the  people  had  been  aroused,  and  desired 
to  break  the  power  of  the  parte  for  good.     Rioting  occurred 
on  the  2ist  of  June,  and  the  houses  of  the  Albizzi  and  other 
nobles  were  burnt.     The  signory  meanwhile  created  a  balla 
of  80  which  repealed  some  of  the  laws  promoted  by  the  parte, 
and  partly  enfranchised  the  ammoniti.     The  people  were  still 
unsatisfied,  the  arti  minori  demanded  further  privileges,  and 
the  workmen  insisted  that  their  grievances  against  the  arti 
maggiori,  especially  the  wool  trade  by  whom  they  were  employed, 
be  redressed.     A  large  body  of  ciompi  (wool  carders) 
gathered  outside  the  city  and  conspired  to  subvert  T*e  **"*  °/ 

,.r,  ,  .     the  ciompi 

the  signory  and  establish  a  popular  government.  (t3-fS^ 
Although  the  plot,  in  which  Salvestro  does 
not  seem  to  have  played  a  part,  was  revealed,  a  good 
deal  of  mob  violence  occurred,  and  on  the  2ist  of  July  the 
populace  seized  the  podesta's  palace,  which  they  made  their 
headquarters.  They  demanded  a  share  in  the  government  for 
the  popolo  minuto,  but  as  soon  as  this  was  granted  Tommaso 
Strozzi,  as  spokesman  of  the  ciompi,  obliged  the  signory  to 
resign  their  powers  to  the  Eight.  Once  the  people  were  in 
possession  of  the  palace,  a  ciompo  named  Michele  di  Lando 
took  the  lead  and  put  a  stop  to  disorder  and  pillage.  He  re- 
mained master  of  Florence  for  one  day,  during  which  he  reformed 
the  constitution,  probably  with  the  help  of  Salvestro  de' Medici. 
Three  new  gilds  were  created,  and  nine  priors  appointed,  three 
from  the  arti  maggiori,  three  from  the  minori,  and  three  from 
the  new  ones,  while  each  of  these  classes  in  turn  was  to  choose 
the  gonfaloniere  of  justice;  the  first  to  hold  the  office  was  Michele 
di  Lando.  This  did  not  satisfy  the  ciompi,  and  the  disorders 
provoked  by  them  resulted  in  a  new  government  which  reformed 
the  two  councils  so  as  to  exclude  the  lower  orders.  But  to  satisfy 
the  people  several  of  the  grandi,  including  Piero  degli  Albizzi, 
were  put  to  death,  on  charges  of  conspiracy,  and  many  others 
were  exiled.  There  was  perpetual  rioting  and  anarchy,  and 
interference  in  the  affairs  of  the  government  by  the  working 
men,  while  at  the  same  time  poverty  and  unemployment  increased 
owing  to  the  timidity  of  capital  and  the  disorders,  until  at  last 
in  1382  a  reaction  set  in,  and  order  was  restored  by  the  gild 
companies.  Again  a  new  constitution  was  decreed  by  which 
the  gonfaloniere  and  half  the  priori  were  to  be  chosen  from  the 
arti  maggiori  and  the  other  half  from  the  minori;  on  several 
other  boards  the  former  were  to  be  in  the  majority,  and  the 
three  new  gilds  were  abolished.  The  demagogues  were  executed 
or  forced  to  fly,  and  Michele  di  Lando  with  great  ingratitude 
was  exiled.  Several  subsequent  risings  of  the  ciompi,  krgely 
of  an  economic  character,  were  put  down,  and  the  Guelph 
families  gradually  regained  much  of  their  lost  power,  of  which 


FLORENCE 


535 


they  availed  themselves  to  exile  their  opponents  and  revive 
the  odious  system  of  ammonizioni. 

Meanwhile  in  foreign  affairs  the  republic  maintained  its 
position,  and  in  1383  it  regained  Arezzo  by  purchase  from  the 
lieutenant  jdf  Charles  of  Durazzo.  In  1390  Gian  Galeazzo 
Visconti,  having  made  himself  master  of  a  large  part  of  northern 
Italy,  intrigued  to  gain  possession  of  Pisa  and  Siena.  Florence, 
alone  in  resisting  him,  engaged  Hawkwood,  who  with  an  army 
of  7000  men  more  than  held  his  own  against  the  powerful  lord 
of  Milan,  and  in  1392  a  peace  was  concluded  which  the  republic 
strengthened  by  an  alliance  with  Pisa  and  several  north  Italian 
states.  In  1393  Maso  degli  Albizzi  was  made  gonfaloniere,  and 
for  many  years  remained  almost  master  of  Florence  owing  to  his 
influential  position  in  the  Arte  detta  Lana.  A  severe  persecution 
was  initiated  against  the  Alberti  and  other  families,  who  were 
disfranchised  and  exiled.  Disorders  and  conspiracies  against  the 
merchant  oligarchy  continued,  and  although  they  were  unsuc- 
cessful party  passion  was  incredibly  bitter,  and  the  exiles  caused 
the  republic  much  trouble  by  intriguing  against  it  in  foreign 
states.  In  1397-1398  Florence  had  two  more  wars  with  Gian 
Galeazzo  Visconti,  who,  aspiring  to  the  conquest  of  Tuscany, 
acquired  the  lordship  of  Pisa,  Siena  and  Perugia.  Hawkwood 
being  dead,  Florence  purchased  aid  from  the  emperor  Rupert. 
The  Imperialists  were  beaten;  but  just  as  the  Milanese  were  about 
to  march  on  Florence,  Visconti  died.  His  territories  were  then 
divided  between  his  sons  and  his  condotlieri,  and  Florence, 
ever  keeping  her  eye  on  Pisa,  now  ruled  by  Gabriele  Maria 
Visconti,  made  an  alliance  with  Pope  Boniface  IX.,  who  wished 
to  regain  Perugia  and  Bologna.  War  broke  out  once  more,  and 
the  allies  were  successful,  but  as  soon  as  Boniface  had  gained  his 
ends  he  made  peace,  leaving  the  Florentines  unsatisfied.  In 
Attempts  I4°4  tnelr  attempt  to  capture  Pisa  single-handed 
to  acquire  failed,  and  Gabriele  Maria  placed  himself  under  the 
P**"  protection  of  the  French  king.  The  Florentines  then 

(1402-6).  macje  overtures  to  France,  who  had  supported  the 
anti-popes  all  through  the  great  schism,  and  suggested  that  they 
too  would  support  the  then  anti-pope,  Benedict  XIII.,  in  ex- 
change for  the  sale  of  Pisa.  This  was  agreed  to,  and  in  1405  the 
city  was  sold  to  Florence  for  260,000  florins;  and  Gino  Capponi,1 
the  Florentine  commissioner,  took  possession  of  the  citadel, 
but  a  few  days  later  the  citizens  arose  in  arms  and  recaptured 
it  from  the  mercenaries.  There  was  great,  consternation  in 
Florence  at  the  news,  and  every  man  in  the  city  "  determined 
that  he  would  go  naked  rather  than  not  conquer  Pisa  "  (G. 
Capponi).  The  next  year  that  city,  then  ruled  by  Giovanni 
Gambacorti,  was  besieged  by  the  Florentines,  who  blockaded  the 
mouth  of  the  Arno.  After  a  six  months'  siege  Pisa  surrendered 
on  terms  (gth  October  1406),  and,  although  it  was  not  sacked, 
many  of  the  citizens  were  exiled  and  others  forced  to  live  in 
Florence,  a  depopulation  from  which  it  never  recovered.  Florence 
now  acquired  a  great  seaport  and  was  at  last  able  to  develop  a 
direct  maritime  trade. 

Except  in  connexion  with  the  Pisan  question  the  republic 
had  taken  no  definite  side  in  the  great  schism  which  had  divided 
Tbe  the  church  since  1378,  but  in  1408  she  appealed  both 

council  to  Pope  Gregory  XII.  and  the  anti-pope  Benedict 
of  Pisa  XIII.  as  well  as  to  various  foreign  governments  in 
(1408).  favour  Of  a  settlement,  and  suggested  a  council  within 
her  own  territory.  Gregory  refused,  but  after  consulting  a  com- 
mittee of  theologians  who  declared  him  to  be  a  heretic,  the  council 
promoted  by  Cardinal  Cossa  and  other  independent  prelates 
met  at  Pisa.  This  nearly  led  to  war  with  King  Ladislas  of 
Naples,  because  he  had  seized  Rome,  which  he  could  only  hold 
so  long  as  the  church  was  divided.  The  council  deposed  both 
popes  and  elected  Pietro  Filargi  as  Alexander  V.  (26th  of  June). 
But  Ladislas  still  occupied  the  papal  states,  and  Florence, 
alarmed  at  his  growing  power  and  ambition,  formed  a  league  with 
Siena,  Bologna  and  Louis  of  Anjou  who  laid  claim  to  the  Nea- 
politan throne,  to  drive  Ladislas  from  Rome.  Cortona,  Orvietp, 
Viterbo  and  other  cities  were  recovered  for  Alexander,  and  in 

1  The  historian,  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  modern  historian 
and  statesman  of  the  same  name  (j.f.). 


January  1410  Rome  itself  was  captured  by  the  Florentines  under 
Malatesta  dei  Malatesti.  Alexander  having  died  in  May  before 
entering  the  Eternal  City,  Cardinal  Cossa  was  elected  as  John 
XXIII.;  Florence  without  offending  him  made  peace  with 
Ladislas,  who  had  ceased  to  be  dangerous,  and  purchased 
Cortona  of  the  pope.  In  1413  Ladislas  attacked  the  papal 
states  once  more,  driving  John  from  Rome,  and  threatened 
Florence;  but  like  Henry  VII.,  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti,  and 
other  enemies  of  the  republic,  he  too  died  most  opportunely 
(6th  of  August  1414).  John  having  lost  all  authority  after 
leaving  Rome,  a  new  council  was  held  at  Constance,  which  put 
an  end  to  the  schism  in  1417  with  the  election  of  Martin  V. 
The  new  pope  came  to  Florence  in  1419  as  he  had  not  yet  re- 
gained Rome,  which  was  held  by  Francesco  Sforza  for  Queen 
Joanna  II.  of  Naples,  and  remained  there  until  the  following 
year. 

No  important  changes  in  the  constitution  took  place  during 
this  period  except  the  appointment  of  two  new  councils  in  1411 
to  decide  oh  questions  of  peace  and  war.  The  aristocratic  faction 
headed  by  Maso  degli  Albizzi,  a  wise  and  popular  statesman,  had 
remained  predominant,  and  at  Maso's  death  in  1417  he  was 
succeeded  in  the  leadership  of  the  party  by  Niccolo  da  Uzzano. 
In  1421  Giovanni  de'  Medici  was  elected  gonfaloniere  of  justice, 
an  event  which  marks  the  beginning  of  that  wealthy  family's 
power.  The  same  year  the  republic  purchased  Leghorn  from 
the  Genoese  for  100,000  florins,  and  established  a  body  of  "  Con- 
suls of  the  Sea  "  to  superintend  maritime  trade.  Although 
11,000,000  florins  had  been  spent  on  recent  wars  Florence  con- 
tinued prosperous  and  its  trade  increased. 

In  1421  Filippo  Maria  Visconti,  who  had  succeeded  in  recon- 
quering most  of  Lombardy,  seized  Forli;     this   induced   the 
Florentines  to  declare  war  on  him,  as  they  regarded  his     HCW  wttr 
approach  as  a  menace  to  their  territory  in  spite  of  the     w/ta  the 
opposition  of  the  peace  party  led  by  Giovanni  de'     vi*coati 
Medici.     The  campaign  was  anything  but  successful, 
and  the  Florentines  were  defeated  several  times,  with  the  result 
that  their  credit  was  shaken  and  several  important  firms  failed. 
The  pope  too  was  against  them,  but  when  they  induced  the 
Venetians  to  intervene  the  tide  of  fortune  changed,  and  Visconti 
was  finally  defeated  and  forced  to  accept  peace  on  onerous 
terms  (1427). 

The  old  systems  of  raising  revenue  no  longer  corresponded 
to  the  needs  of  the  republic,  and  as  early  as  1336  the  various 
loans  made  to  the  state  were  consolidated  into  one 
national  debt  (monte) .  Subsequently  all  extraordinary 
expenditure  was  met  by  forced  loans  (prestanze) ,  but  the  (1427). 
method  of  distribution  aroused  discontent  among  the 
lower  classes,  and  in  1427  a  general  calaslo  or  assessment  of  all 
the  wealth  of  the  citizens  was  formed,  and  measures  were  devised 
to  distribute  the  obligations  according  to  each  man's  capacity, 
so  as  to  avoid  pressing  too  hardly  on  the  poor.  The  catasto  was 
largely  the  work  of  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  who  greatly  increased 
his  popularity  thereby.  He  died  in  1429. 

An  attempt  to  capture  Lucca  led  Florence,  in  alliance  with 
Venice,  into  another  costly  war  with  Milan  (1432-1433)-  The 
mismanagement  of  the  campaign  brought  about  a  Exlje  ana 
quarrel  between  the  aristocratic  party,  led  by  Rinaldo  return  of 
degli  Albizzi,  and  the  popular  party,  led  by  Giovanni  Cosimo 
de'  Medici's  son  Cosimo  (1380-1464),  although  both  f/^Jfj^f' 
had  agreed  to  the  war  before  it  began.  Rinaldo  was 
determined  to  break  the  Medici  party,  and  succeeded  in  getting 
Cosimo  exiled.  The  Albizzi  tried  to  strengthen  their  position  by 
conferring  exceptional  powers  on  the  capitano  del  popolo  and 
by  juggling  with  the  election  bags,  but  the  Medici  still  had  a 
great  hold  on  the  populace.  Rinaldo's  proposal  for  a  coup  d'etat 
met  with  no  response  from  his  own  party,  and  he  failed  to  prevent 
the  election  of  a  pro-Medici  signory  in  1434.  He  and  other  leaders 
of  the  party  were  summoned  to  the  palace  to  answer  a  charge  of 
plotting  against  the  state,  to  which  he  replied  by  collecting  800 
armed  followers.  A  revolution  was  only  averted  through  the 
intervention  of  Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  who  was  then  in  Florence. 
A  parlamento  was  summoned,  and  the  balia  appointed  decreed 


FLORENCE 


Cosltno's 
rule. 


the  return  of  Cosimo  and  the  exile  of  Rinaldo  degli  Albizzi, 
Rodolfo  Peruzzi,  Niccolo  Barbadori,  and  others,  in  spite  of  the 
feeble  attempt  of  Eugenius  to  protect  them.  On  the  6th  of 
October  1434  Cosimo  returned  to  Florence,  and  for  the  next 
three  centuries  the  history  of  the  city  is  identified  with  that  of 
the  house  of  Medici.1 

Cosimo  succeeded  in  dominating  the  republic  while  remaining 
nominally  a  private  citizen.  He  exiled  those  who  opposed  him, 
and  governed  by  means  of  the  bafte,  which,  re-elected 
every  five  years,  appointed  all  the  magistrates  and 
acted  according  to  his  orders.  In  1437  Florence  and 
Venice  were  again  at  war  with  the  Visconti,  whose  chief  captain, 
Niccolo  Piccinino  (q.v.),  on  entering  Tuscany  with  many  Floren- 
tine exiles  in  his  train,  was  signally  defeated  at  Anghiari  by  the 
Florentines  under  Francesco  Sforza  (1440);  peace  was  made  the 
following  year.  The  system  of  the  calasto,  which  led  to  abuses, 
was  abolished,  and  a  progressive  income-tax  (decima  scalata) 
was  introduced  with  the  object  of  lightening  the  burdens  of  the 
poor,  who  were  as  a  rule  Medicean,  at  the  expense  of  the  rich; 
but  as  it  was  frequently  increased  the  whole  community  came 
to  be  oppressed  by  it  in  the  end.  Cosimo  increased  his  own 
authority  and  that  of  the  republic  by  aiding  Francesco  Sforza 
to  become  duke  of  Milan  (1450),  and  he  sided  with  him  in  the 
war  against  Venice  (1452-1434).  In  1452  the  emperor  Frederick 
III.  passed  through  Florence  on  his  way  to  be  crowned  in  Rome, 
and  was  received  as  a  friend.  During  the  last  years  of  Cosimo's 
life,  affairs  were  less  under  his  control,  and  the  gonfaloniere  Luca 
Pitti,  a  vain  and  ambitious  man,  introduced  many  changes,  such 
as  the  abasement  of  the  authority  of  the  podesld  and  of  the 
capitano,  which  Cosimo  desired  but  was  glad  to  attribute  to 
others. 

In  1464  Cosimo  died  and  was  succeeded,  not  without  some 
opposition,  by  his  son  Piero,  who  was  very  infirm  and  gouty. 
Various  plots  against  him  were  hatched,  the  anti- 
Medicean  faction  being  called  the  Del  Poggio  party 
(the  because  the  house  of  its  leader  Luca  Pitti  was  on  a  hill, 

Qouty).  •while  the  Mediceans  were  called  the  Del  Piano  party 
because  Piero's  house  was  in  the  town  below;  the  other  opposi- 
tion leaders  were  Dietisalvi  Neroni  and  Agnolo  Acciaiuoli.  But 
Piero's  unexpected  energy  upset  the  schemes  of  his  enemies. 
The  death  of  Sforza  led  to  a  war  for  the  succession  of  Milan, 
and  the  Venetians,  instigated  by  Florentine  exiles,  invaded 
Tuscany.  The  war  ended,  after  many  indecisive  engagements, 
in  1468,  through  the  intervention  of  Pope  Paul  II.  Piero  died 
Lonazo  m  I4^°>  leaving  two  sons,  Lorenzo  (1440-1492)  and 
the  Giuliano  (1453-1478).  The  former  at  once  assumed 

Magaia-  the  reins  of  government  and  became  ruler  of  Florence 
ceat'  in  a  way  neither  Cosimo  nor  Piero  had  ever  attempted ; 

he  established  his  domination  by  means  of  balie  consisting  of  the 
signory,  the  accoppiatori,  and  240  other  members,  all  Mediceans, 
to  be  renewed  every  five  years  (1471).  In  1472  a  quarrel  having 
arisen  with  Volterra  on  account  of  a  dispute  concerning  the  alum 
mines,  Lorenzo  sent  an  expedition  against  the  city,  which  was 
sacked  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  massacred.  Owing  to  a 
variety  of  causes  an  enmity  arose  between  Lorenzo  and  Pope 
Sixtus  IV.,  and  the  latter,  if  not  an  accomplice,  at  all  events 
had  knowledge  of  the  Pazzi  conspiracy  against  the  Medici  (1478). 
The  result  of  the  plot  was  that,  although  Giuliano  was  murdered, 
Lorenzo  strengthened  his  position,  and  put  to  death  or  exiled 
numbers  of  his  enemies.  He  was  excommunicated  by  Sixtus, 
who,  together  with  King  Ferdinand  of  Naples,  waged  war  against 
him;  no  great  successes  were  registered  on  either  side  at  first,  but 
eventually  the  Florentines  were  defeated  at  Poggio  Imperiale 
(near  Poggibonsi)  and  the  city  itself  was  in  danger.  Lorenzo's 
position  was  critical,  but  by  his  boldness  in  going  to  Naples  he 
succeeded  in  concluding  a  peace  with  the  king,  which  led  to  a 
reconciliation  with  the  pope  (1479-1480).  He  was  received  with 
enthusiasm  on  returning  to  Florence  and  became  absolute  master 

1  The  history  of  Florence  from  1434  to  1737  will  be  found  in  greater 
detail  in  the  article  MEDICI,  save  for  the  periods  from  1494  to  1512 
and  from  1527  to  1530,  during  which  the  republic  was  restored.  For 
the  period  from  1530  to  1860  see  also  under  TUSCANY. 


Savon- 
arola. 


of  the  situation.  In  April  1480  a  balia  was  formed,  and  its  most 
important  act  was  the  creation  at  Lorenzo's  instance  of  the 
Council  of  Seventy;  it  was  constituted  for  five  years,  but  it  be- 
came permanent,  and  all  its  members  were  Lorenzo's  friends. 
From  that  time  until  his  death  the  city  was  free  from  party  strife 
under  a  de  facto  despotism,  but  after  the  Rinuccini  conspiracy 
of  that  year  the  Council  of  Seventy  passed  a  law  declaring 
attempts  on  Lorenzo's  life  to  be  high  treason.  Owing  to  his 
political  activity  Lorenzo  had  neglected  the  business  interests 
of  his  firm,  and  in  order  to  make  good  certain  heavy  losses  he 
seems  to  have  appropriated  public  funds.  His  foreign  policy, 
which  was  magnificent  but  expensive,  rendered  further  forced 
loans  necessary,  and  he  also  laid  hands  on  the  Monte  delle  Doti, 
an  insurance  institution  to  provide  dowries  for  girls. 

An  attempt  by  the  Venetians  to  seize  Ferrara  led  to  a  general 
Italian  war,  in  which  Florence  also  took  part  on  the  side  hostile 
to  Venice,  and  when  peace  was  made  in  1484  the  republic 
gained  some  advantages.  The  following  year  a  revolt  of  the 
Neapolitan  barons  against  King  Ferdinand  broke  out,  actively 
supported  by  Pope  Innocent  VIII. ;  Lorenzo  remained  neutral  at 
first,  but  true  to  his  policy  of  maintaining  the  balance  of  power 
and  not  wishing  to  see  Ferdinand  completely  crushed,  he  ended 
by  giving  him  assistance  in  spite  of  the  king's  unpopularity  in 
Florence.  Peace  was  made  when  the  pope  agreed  to  come  to  terms 
in  1486,  and  in  1487  Lorenzo  regained  Sarzana,  which  Genoa 
had  taken  from  Florence  nine  years  previously.  The  general  dis- 
orders and  ceaseless  intrigues  all  over  Italy  required  Lorenzo's 
constant  attention,  and  he  succeeded  in  making  Florence  "  the 
needle  of  the  balance  of  power  in  Italy."  At  this 
time  the  Dominican  Fra  Girolamo  Savonarola  (q.v.) 
was  in  Florence  and  aroused  the  whole  city  by  his 
denunciations  of  ecclesiastical  corruption  and  also  of  that 
of  the  Florentines.  He  opposed  Lorenzo's  government  as  the 
source  of  the  immorality  of  the  people,  and  to  some  extent 
influenced  public  opinion  against  him.  Ill-health  now  gained  on 
Lorenzo,  and  Savonarola,  whom  he  had  summoned  to  his  bedside, 
refused  to  give  absolution  to  the  destroyer  of  Florentine  liberties. 
Lorenzo,  during  whose  rule  Florence  had  become  one  of  the 
greatest  centres  of  art  and  literature  in  Europe,  died  in  1492. 

^He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Piero,  who  had  none  of  his  father's 
capacity  and  made  a  number  of  political  blunders.  When 
Charles  VIII.  of  France  came  to  Italy  to  conquer  Naples 
Piero  decided  to  assist  the  latter  kingdom,  although  the 
traditional  sympathies  of  the  people  were  for  the  French 
king,  and  when  Charles  entered  Florentine  territory  and  captured 
Sarzana,  Piero  went  to  his  camp  and  asked  pardon  for  oppos- 
ing him.  The  king  demanded  the  cession  of  Pisa,  Leghorn  and 
other  towns,  which  Piero  granted,  but  on  returning  to  Florence 
on  the  8th  of  November  1494  he  found  the  opposition  greatly 
strengthened  and  his  popularity  forfeited,  especially  when  the 
news  of  his  disgraceful  cessions  to  Charles  became  known.  He 
was  refused  admittance  to  the  palace,  and  the  people  began  to 
shout  "  Popolo  e  liberta  I "  in  opposition  to  the  Medicean  cry  of 
"Palle,  Palle!"  (from  the  Medici  arms).  With  a  small  escort 
he  fled  from  the  city,  followed  soon  after  by  his  brother  Giovanni. 
That  same  day  Pisa  rose  in  revolt  against  the  Floren-  Expulsion 
tines,  and  was  occupied  by  Charles.  The  expulsion  of  at  the 
the  Medici  produced  some  disorder,  but  Piero  Capponi  Media 
(q.v.)  and  other  prominent  citizens  succeeded  in  (/'"'<)< 
keeping  the  peace.  Ambassadors,  one  of  whom  was  Savonarola, 
were  sent  to  treat  with  the  French  king,  but  no  agreement  was 
arrived  at  until  Charles  entered  Florence  on  the  I7th 
of  November  at  the  head  of  12,000  men.  In  spite  of 
their  French  sympathies  the  citizens  were  indignant  at 
the  seizure  of  Sarzana,  and  while  they  gave  the  king 
a  splendid  welcome,  they  did  not  like  his  attitude  of  conqueror. 
Charles  was  impressed  with  the  wealth  and  refinement  of  the 
citizens,  and  above  all  with  the  solid  fortress-like  appearance  of 
their  palaces.  The  signory  appointed  Piero  Capponi,  a  man  of 
great  ability  and  patriotism,  and  experienced  in  diplomacy, 
the  gonfaloniere  Francesco  Valori,  the  Dominican  Giorgio 
Vespucci,  and  the  jurisconsult  and  diplomatist  Domenico  Bonsi, 


Piero  de' 
Medici. 


Florence. 


FLORENCE 


537 


syndics  to  conduct  the  negotiations  with  the  French  king. 
Charles's  demands  by  no  means  pleased  the  citizens,  and  the 
arrogance  and  violence  of  his  soldiers  led  to  riots  in  which  they 
were  assailed  with  stones  in  the  narrow  streets.  When  the  king 
began  to  hint  at  the  recall  of  Piero  de'  Medici,  whose  envoys  had 
gained  his  ear,  the  signory  ordered  the  citizens  to  be  ready  to 
fly  to  arms.  The  proposal  was  dropped,  but  Charles  demanded 
an  immense  sum  of  money  before  he  would  leave  the  city;  long 
discussions  followed,  and  when  at  last  he  presented  an  insolent 
ultimatum  the  syndics  refused  to  accept  it.  The  king  said  in 
plem  a  threatening  tone,  "  Then  we  shall  sound  our 

Capponi.      trumpets,"  whereupon  Capponi  tore  up  the  document 

in  his  face  and  replied,  "  And  we  shall  ring  our  bells." 
The  king,  realizing  what  street  fighting  in  Florence  would  mean, 
at  once  came  to  terms;  he  contented  himself  with  120,000 
florins,  agreeing  to  assume  the  title  of  "  Protector  and  Restorer 
of  the  liberty  of  Florence,"  and  to  give  up  the  fortresses  he  had 
taken  within  two  years,  unless  his  expedition  to  Naples  should 
be  concluded  sooner;  the  Medici  were  to  remain  banished,  but 
the  price  on  their  heads  was  withdrawn.  But  Charles  would  not 
depart,  a  fact  which  caused  perpetual  disturbance  in  the  city, 
and  it  was  not  until  the  28th  of  November,  after  an  exhortation 
by  Savonarola  whom  he  greatly  respected,  that  he  left  Florence. 
It  was  now  intended  to  re-establish  the  government  on  the 
basis  of  the  old  republican  institutions,  but  it  was  found  that 

sixty  years  of  Medici  rule  had  reduced  them  to  mere 
revived  shadows,  and  the  condition  of  the  government,  largely 
republic.  controlled  by  a  balia  of  20  accoppialori  and  frequently 

disturbed  by  the  summoning  of  the  parlamento,  was 
utterly  chaotic.  Consequently  men  talked  of  nothing  save  of 
changing  the  constitution,  but  unfortunately  there  was  no  longer 
an  upper  class  accustomed  to  public  affairs,  while  the  lower  class 
was  thoroughly  demoralized.  Many  proposals  were  made,  none 
Savon-  °f  them  of  practical  value,  until  Savonarola,  who  had 
ania  as  a  already  made  a  reputation  as  a  moral  reformer,  began 
states-  his  famous  series  of  political  sermons.  In  the  prevailing 

confusion  the  people  turned  to  him  as  their  only  hope, 
and  gradually  a  new  government  was  evolved,  each  law  being 
enacted  as  the  result  of  his  exhortations.  A  Greater  Council 
empowered  to  appoint  magistrates  and  pass  laws  was  formed, 
to  which  all  citizens  netti  di  specchio  (who  had  paid  their  taxes) 
and  beneficiati  (i.e.  who  had  sat  in  one  of  the  higher  magistracies 
or  whose  fathers,  grandfathers,  or  great-grandfathers  had  done 
so)  were  eligible  together  with  certain  others.  There  were  3200 
such  citizens,  and  they  sat  one-third  at  a  time  for  six  months. 
The  Greater  Council  was  to  elect  another  council  of  80  citizens 
over  forty  years  old,  also  to  be  changed  every  six  months;  this 
body,  which  the  signory  must  consult  once  a  week,  together 
with  the  colleges  and  the  signory  itself,  was  to  appoint 
ambassadors  and  commissaries  of  war,  and  deal  with  other 
confidential  matters.  The  system  of  forced  loans  was  abolished 
and  a  10%  tax  on  real  property  introduced  in  its  stead,  and  a 
law  of  amnesty  for  political  offenders  enacted.  Savonarola 
also  proposed  a  court  of  appeal  for  criminal  and  political  crimes 
tried  by  the  Otto  di  guardia  e  balia;  this  too  was  agreed  to,  but 
the  right  of  appeal  was  to  be,  not  to  a  court  as  Savonarola 
suggested,  but  to  the  Greater  Council,  a  fact-which  led  to  grave 
abuses,  as  judicial  appeals  became  subject  to  party  passions. 
The  parlamenti  were  abolished  and  a  monte  di  pield  to  advance 
money  at  reasonable  interest  was  created.  But  in  spite  of 
Savonarola's  popularity  there  was  a  party  called  the  Bigi 
(greys)  who  intrigued  secretly  in  favour  of  the  return  of  the 
Medici,  while  the  men  of  wealth,  called  the  Arrabbiati,  although 
they  hated  the  Medici,  were  even  more  openly  opposed  to  the 
actual  regime  and  desired  to  set  up  an  aristocratic  oligarchy. 
The  adherents  of  Savonarola  were  called  the  Piagnoni,  or 
snivellers,  while  the  Neutrali  changed  sides  frequently. 

A  league  between  the  pope,  the  emperor,  Venice  and  Spain 
having  been  made  against  Charles  VIII.,  the  latter  was  forced 
to  return  to  France.  On  his  way  back  he  passed  through 
Florence,  and,  although  the  republic  had  refused  to  join  the 
league,  it  believed  itself  in  danger,  as  Piero  de'  Medici  was  in  the 


king's  train.  Savonarola  was  again  sent  to  the  French  camp, 
and  his  eloquence  turned  the  king  from  any  idea  he  may  have 
had  of  reinstating  the  Medici.  At  the  same  time  Lea 
Charles  violated  his  promise  by  giving  aid  to  the  Pisans  against 
in  their  revolt  against  Florence,  and  did  not  restore  the  Charles 
other  fortresses.  After  the  French  had  abandoned  vlu' 
Italy,  Piero  de'  Medici,  encouraged  by  the  league,  enlisted  a 
number  of  mercenaries  and  marched  on  Florence,  but  the 
citizens,  fired  by  Savonarola's  enthusiasm,  flew  to  arms  and 
prepared  for  an  energetic  resistance;  owing  to  Piero 's  incapacity 
and  the  exhaustion  of  his  funds  the  expedition  came  to  nothing. 
At  the  sa^ne  time  the  conditions  of  the  city  were  not  prosperous; 
its  resources  were  strained  by  the  sums  paid  to  Charles  and  by 
the  war;  its  credit  was  shaken,  its  trade  paralysed,  famine  and 
plague  visited  the  city,  and  the  war  to  subjugate  Pisa  was  pro- 
ceeding unsatisfactorily.  Worse  still  was  the  death  in  1496  of 
one  of  its  ablest  and  most  disinterested  statesmen,  Piero  Capponi. 
The  league  now  attacked  Florence,  for  Pope  Alexander  VI. 
hated  Savonarola  and  was  determined  to  destroy  >,. 

i  !!•  •  ,».,..  Aiexaoaer 

the  republic,  so  as  to  reinstate  the  Medici  temporarily  vi. 
and  prepare  the  way  for  his  own  sons;  the  Venetians  'gainst 
and  Imperialists  besieged  Leghorn,  and  there  was  Ftonace- 
great  misery  in  Florence.  All  this  decreased  Savonarola's 
popularity  to  some  extent,  but  the  enemy  having  been  beaten 
at  Leghorn  and  the  league  being  apparently  on  the  point  of 
breaking  up,  the  Florentines  took  courage  and  the  friar's  party 
was  once  more  in  the  ascendant.  Numerous  processions  were 
held,  Savonarola's  sermons  against  corruption  and  vice  seemed 
to  have  temporarily  transformed  the  citizens,  and  the  carnival 
of  1497  remained  famous  for  the  burning  of  the  "  vanities  "  (i.e. 
indecent  books  and  pictures  and  carnival  masks  and  costumes). 
The  friar's  sermons  against  ecclesiastical  corruption,  and  especi- 
ally against  the  pope,  resulted  in  his  excommunication  by  the 
latter,  in  consequence  of  which  he  lost  much  of  his  influence 
and  immorality  spread  once  more.  That  same  year  Piero  made 
another  unsuccessful  attempt  on  Florence.  New  Medici  plots 
having  been  discovered,  Bernardo  del  Nero  and  other  prominent 
citizens  were  tried  and  put  to  death;  but  the  party  hostile 
to  Savonarola  gained  ground  and  had  the  support  of  the 
Franciscans,  who  were  hostile  to  the  Dominican  order.  Pulpit 
warfare  was  waged  between  Savonarola  and  his  opponents,  and 
the  matter  ended  in  his  being  forbidden  to  preach  and  in  a  pro- 
posed ordeal  by  fire,  which,  however,  never  came  off.  The  pope 
again  and  again  demanded  that  the  friar  be  surrendered  to  him, 
but  without  success,  in  spite  of  his  threats  of  an  interdict  against 
the  city.  The  Piagnoni  were  out  of  power,  and  a  signory  of 
Arrabbiati  having  been  elected  in  1498,  a  mob  of  Savonarola's 
opponents  attacked  the  convent  of  St  Mark  where  he  resided, 
and  he  himself  was  arrested  and  imprisoned.  The  commission 
appointed  to  try  him  on  charges  of  heresy  and  treason  was  com- 
posed of  his  enemies,  including  Doffo  Spini,  who  had  Trla,  anrf 
previously  attempted  to  murder  him;  many  irregu-  execution 
larities  were  committed  during  the  three  trials,  and  oisavou- 
the  prisoner  was  repeatedly  tortured.  The  outgoing 
signory  secured  the  election  of  another  which  was  of 
their  way  of  thinking,  and  on  the  22nd  of  May  1498  Savonarola 
was  condemned  to  death  and  executed  the  following  day. 

The  pope  having  been  satisfied,  the  situation  in  Florence 
was  less  critical  for  the  moment.  The  war  against  Pisa  was 
renewed,  and  in  1499  the  city  might  have  been  taken  but  for 
the  dilatory  tactics  of  the  Florentine  commander  Paolo  Vitelli, 
who  was  consequently  arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason  and  put 
to  death.  Louis  XII.  of  France,  who  now  sent  an  army  into 
Italy  to  conquer  the  Milanese,  obtained  the  support  of  the 
Florentines.  Cesare  Borgia,  who  had  seized  many  cities  in 
Romagna,  suddenly  demanded  the  reinstatement  of  the  Medici 
in  Florence,  and  the  danger  was  only  warded  off  by  appointing 
him  captain-general  of  the  Florentine  forces  at  a  large  salary 
(1501).  The  weakness  of  the  government  becoming  every 
day  more  apparent,  several  constitutional  changes  were  made, 
and  many  old  institutions,  such  as  that  of  the  podestd  and 
capitano  del  popolo,  were  abolished;  finally  in  1502,  in  order 


538 


FLORENCE 


Pisa 
(W/0). 


to  give  more  stability  to  the  government,  the  office  of  gonfaloniere, 
with  the  right  of  proposing  laws  to  the  signory,  was  made  a  life 
appointment.  The  election  fell  on  Piero  Soderini  (1448-1522), 

an  honest  public-spirited  man  of  no  particular  party, 
s'oderini  but  lacking  in  strength  of  character.  One  useful 

measure  which  he  took  was  the  institution  of  a  national 
militia  at  the  suggestion  of  Niccolo  Machiavelli  (1505).  In  the 
meanwhile  the  Pisan  war  dragged  on  without  much  headway 
being  made.  In  1 503  both  Piero  de'  Medici  and  Alexander  VI. 
had  died,  eliminating  two  dangers  to  the  republic.  Spain,  who 
was  at  war  with  France  over  the  partition  of  Naples,  helped  the 
Pisans  as  the  enemies  of  Florence,  France's  ally  (1501-1504), 
but  when  the  war  was  over  the  Florentines  were  able  to  lay 
siege  to  Pisa  (1507),  and  in  1509  the  city  was  driven  by  famine 
to  surrender  and  became  a  dependency  of  Florence  once  more. 

Pope  Julius  II.,  after  having  formed  the  league  of  Cambrai 
with  France  and  Spain  against  Venice,  retired  from  it  in  1510, 
Schis-  and  raise(l the  crv  °f  "  Fuori  £  Barbari  "  (out  with  the 
malic  barbarians),  with  a  view  to  expelling  the  French  from 
council  of  Italy.  King  Louis  thereupon  proposed  an  oecumenical 

council  so  as  to  create  a  schism  in  the  Church,  and 

demanded  that  it  be  held  in  Florentine  territory.  After 
some  hesitation  the  republic  agreed  to  the  demand,and  the  council 
was  opened  at  Pisa,  whereupon  the  pope  immediately  placed 
Florence  under  an  interdict.  At  the  request  of  the  Florentines 
the  counol  removed  to  Milan,  but  this  did  not  save  them  from 
the  pope's  wrath.  A  Spanish  army  under  Raymundo  de  Cardona 
and  accompanied  by  Cardinal  Giovanni  de' Medici  and  his  brother 
Giuliano  entered  the  republic's  territory  and  demanded  100,000 
florins,  the  dismissal  of  Soderini,  and  the  readmission  of  the 
Medici.  Soderini  offered  to  resign,  but  the  Greater  Council 
supported  him  and  preparations  for  defence  were  made.  In 
August  the  Spaniards  took  Prato  by  storm  and  committed 
hideous  atrocities  on  the  inhabitants;  Florence  was  in  a  panic, 
a  group  of  the  Ottimati,  or  nobles,  forced  Soderiri  to  resign  and 
leave  the  city,  and  Cardona's  new  terms  were  accepted,  viz. 
the  readmission  of  the  Medici,  a  fine  of  150,000  florins,  and  an 
alliance  with  Spain.  On  the  ist  of  September  1512 
the'/ttedia  Giuliano  and  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  and  their  nephew 
(ISI2).  Lorenzo,  entered  Florence  with  the  Spanish  troops; 
a  parlamento  was  summoned,  and  a  packed  balla 
formed  which  abolished  the  Greater  Council  and  created  a  con- 
stitution similar  to  that  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent.  Giuliano 
became  de  facto  head  of  the  government,  but  he  did  not  pursue 
the  usual  vindictive  policy  of  his  house,  although  he  resorted 
to  the  Laurentian  method  of  amusing  the  citizens  with  splendid 
festivities.  In  1513,  on  the  death  of  Julius  II.,  Giovanni  de' 
Medici  was  elected  pope  as  Leo  X.,  an  event  which  greatly  en- 
hanced the  importance  of  the  house.  In  March  1514  Giuliano 
died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lorenzo,  who  was  also  created  duke 
of  Urbino.  At  his  death  in  1519  Cardinal  Giulio  de'  Medici  (son 
of  the  Giuliano  murdered  in  the  Pazzi  conspiracy)  took  charge 
of  the  government;  he  met  with  some  opposition  and  had  to 
play  off  the  Ottimati  against  the  Piagnoni,  but  he  did  not  rule 
badly  and  maintained  at  all  events  the  outward  forms  of  freedom. 
In  1523  he  was  created  pope  as  Clement  VII.  and  sent  his  relatives 
Ippolito  and  Alessandro,  both  minors  and  bastards,  to  Florence 
under  the  tutorship  of  Cardinal  Silvio  Passerini.  Ippolito  was 
styled  the  Magnifico  and  destined  to  be  ruler  of  the  republic, 
but  Cardinal  Passerini's  regency  proved  most  unpopular,  and  the 
city  was  soon  seething  with  discontent.  Revolts  broke  out  and 
Passerini  showed  himself  quite  unequal  to  coping  with  the 
situation.  The  Ottimati  were  mostly  anti-Medicean,  and  by  1527 
the  position  was  untenable.  When  Filippo  Strozzi,  and  above 
Second  ^  ^'s  w^e>  threw  their  influence  in  the  scales  against 
expulsion  the  Medici,  and  the  magistrates  declared  for  their  ex- 
otthe  pulsion  from  power,  Passerini,  Ippolito  and  Alessandro 
left  Florence  (i7th  of  May  1527).  A  Consiglio 
degli  Scelti  was  summoned,  and  a  constitution  similar 
to  that  of  Savonarola's  time  was  established.  The  Greater 
Council  was  revived  and  Niccolo  Capponi  created  gonfaloniere 
for  a  year.  But  Florence  was  torn  by  factions — the  Ottimati 


Medici 


who  desired  an  oligarchy,  the  Palleschi  or  Mediceans  who  gener- 
ally supported  them,  the  Adirati  who  opposed  Capponi  for  his 
moderation,  the  Arrabbiati  who  were  strongly  anti-Medicean, 
and  the  Popolani  who  opposed  the  Ottimati.  "  It  is  almost 
impossible  that  a  state  so  disorganized  and  corrupt  as  Florence 
then  was  should  produce  men  of  parts  and  character,  but  if  by 
chance  any  such  should  arise  they  would  be  hated  and  perse- 
cuted, their  dispositions  would  be  soured  by  indignation,  or  they 
would  be  hunted  from  their  country  or  die  of  grief  "  (Benedette 
Varchi).  Capponi  did  his  best  to  reform  the  city  and  save  the 
situation,  and  while  adopting  Savonarola's  tone  in  internal 
affairs,  he  saw  the  dangers  in  the  foreign  situation,  realizing  that 
a  reconciliation  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
would  prove  disastrous  for  Florence,  for  Clement  would  certainly 
seize  the  opportunity  to  reinstate  his  family  in  power.  Having 
been  re-elected  gonfaloniere  in  spite  of  much  opposition  in  1528, 
Capponi  tried  to  make  peace  with  the  pope,  but  his  correspond- 
ence with  the  Vatican  resulted  in  a  quite  unjustified  charge  of  high 
treason,  and  although  acquitted  he  had  to  resign  office  and  leave 
the  city  for  six  months.  Francesco  Carducci  was  elected  gon- 
faloniere in  his  place,  and  on  the  29th  of  June  1529  the  pope  and 
the  emperor  concluded  a  treaty  by  which  the  latter  agreed  to 
re-establish  the  Medici  in  Florence.  Carducci  made  preparations 
for  a  siege,  but  a  large  part  of  the  people  were  against  him, 
either  from  Medicean  sympathies  or  fear,  although  the  Frateschi, 
as  the  believers  in  Savonarola's  views  were  called,  supported 
him  strongly.  A  body  called  the  Nove  detta  Milizia,  of  whom 
Michelangelo  Buonarroti  was  a  member,  was  charged  with  the 
defence  of  the  city,  and  Michelangelo  (q.v.)  himself  superintended 
the  strengthening  of  the  fortifications.  A  most  unfortunate 
choice  for  the  chief  command  of  the  army  was  the  appointment 
of  Malatesta  Baglioni.  In  August  an  imperial  army  under 
Philibert,  prince  of  Orange,  advanced  on  the  city.  In  September 
Malatesta  surrendered  Perugia,  and  other  cities  fell  before  the 
Imperialists.  All  attempts  to  come  to  terms  with  the  pope  were 
unsuccessful,  and  by  October  the  siege  had  begun. 
Although  alone  against  papacy  and  empire,  the  citizens  ™*  of 
showed  the  greatest  spirit  and  devotion,  and  were  Florence. 
successful  in  many  sorties.  The  finest  figure  produced 
by  these  events  was  that  of  Francesco  Ferruccio  (q.v.);  by  his 
defence  of  Empoli  he  showed  himself  a  first-class  soldier,  and 
was  appointed  commissioner-general.  He  executed  many  rapid 
marches  and  counter-marches,  assaulting  isolated  bodies  of  the 
enemy  unexpectedly,  and  harassing  them  continually.  But 
Malatesta  was  a  traitor  at  heart  and  hindered  the  defence  of 
the  city  in  every  way.  Ferruccio,  who  had  recaptured  Volterra, 
marched  to  Gavinana  above  Pistoia  to  attack  the  Imperialists  in 
the  rear.  A  battle  took  place  at  that  spot  on  the  3rd  of  August, 
but  in  spite  of  Ferruccio's  heroism  he  was  defeated  and  killed; 
the  prince  of  Orange  also  fell  in  that  desperate  engagement. 
Malatesta  contributed  to  the  defeat  by  preventing  a  simultaneous 
attack  by  the  besieged.  The  sufferings  from  famine  within  the 
city  were  now  very  great,  and  an  increasingly  large  part  of  the 
people  favoured  surrender.  The  signory,  at  last  realizing  that 
Malatesta  was  a  traitor,  dismissed  him;  but  it  was  too  late, 
and  he  now  behaved  as  though  he  were  governor  of  Florence; 
when  the  troops  attempted  to  enforce  the  dismissal  he  turned 
his  guns  on  them.  On  the  9th  of  August  the  signory  saw  that 
all  hope  was  lost  and  entered  into  negotiations  with  Don  Surrender 
Ferrante  Gonzaga,  the  new  imperial  commander,  ot 
On  the  1 2th  the  capitulation  was  signed:  Florence 
was  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  80,000  florins,  the  Medici 
were  to  be  recalled,  the  emperor  was  to  establish  the  new  govern- 
ment, "  it  being  understood  that  liberty  is  to  be  preserved." 
Baccio  Valori,  a  Medicean  who  had  been  in  the  imperialist  camp, 
now  took  charge,  and  the  city  was  occupied  by  foreign  troops. 
A  parlamento  was  summoned,  the  usual  packed  balla  created,  and 
all  opposition  silenced.  The  city  was  given  over  to  Pope  Clement, 
who,  disregarding  the  terms  of  the  capitulation,  had  Carducci 
and  Girolami  (the  last  gonfaloniere)  hanged,  and  established 
Alessandro  de'  Medici,  the  natural  son  of  Lorenzo,  duke  of  Urbino, 
as  head  of  the  republic  on  the  sth  of  July  1531.  The  next  y«ar 


FLORES— FLORIAN 


539 


the  signory  was  abolished,  Alessandro  created  gonfaloniere  for 
life,  and  his  lordship  made  hereditary  in  his  family  by  imperial 
patent.  Thus  Florence  lost  her  liberty,  and  came  to  be  the  capital 
of  the  duchy  (afterwards  grand-duchy) of  Tuscany  (see  TUSCANY). 

The  Medici  dynasty  ruled  in  Tuscany  until  the  death  of  Gian 
Gastone  in  1737,  when  the  grand-duchy  was  assigned  to  Francis, 
The  duke  of  Lorraine.  But  it  was  governed  by  a  regency 

Grand-  until  1753,  when  it  was  conferred  by  the  empress 
Duchy  of  Maria  Theresa  on  his  son  Peter  Leopold.  During  the 
Napoleonic  wars  the  grand-duke  Ferdinand  III.  of 
Habsburg-Lorraine  was  driven  from  the  throne,  and  Tuscany 
was  annexed  to  the  French  empire  in  1808.  In  1809  Florence 
was  made  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Etruria,  but  after  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  in  1814  Ferdinand  was  reinstated.  He  died  in  1833, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Leopold  II.  In  1848  there  was  a  liberal 
revolutionary  movement  in  Florence,  and  Leopold  granted  a 
constitution.  But  civil  disorders  followed,  and  in  1849  the  grand- 
duke  returned  under  an  Austrian  escort.  In  1859,  after  the 
Franco-Italian  victories  over  the  Austrians  in  Lombardy,  by  a 
bloodless  revolution  in  Florence  Leopold  was  expelled  and 
Tuscany  annexed  to  the  Sardinian  kingdom. 

In  1865  Florence  became  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy, 
but  after  the  occupation  of  Rome  in  1870  during  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  the  capital  was  transferred  to  the  Eternal  City 

(1871). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  best  complete  history  of  Florence  is  Gino 
Capponi's  Storia  della  Repubblica  di  Firenze  (2  vols.,  Florence,  1875), 
which  although  defective  as  regards  the  earliest  times  is  a  standard 
work  based  on  original  authorities;  also  F.  T.  Perrens,  Histoire  de 
Florence  (9  vols.,  Paris,  1877-1890).  For  the  early  period  see 
Pasquale  Villari's  I  Primi  Due  Secoli  delta  storia  di  Firenze  (Eng.  ed., 
London,  1894),  and  R.  Davidsohn's  Geschichte  der  Sladt  Florenz 
(Berlin,  1896);  P.  Villari's  Savonarola  (English  ed.,  London,  1896)  is 
invaluable  for  the  period  during  which  the  friar's  personality  domin- 
ated Florence,  and  his  Machiavelli  (English  ed.,  London,  1892)  must 
be  also  consulted,  especially  for  the  development  of  political  theories. 
Among  the  English  histories  of  Florence,  Napier's  Florentine  History 
(6  vols.,  London, 1 846-1 847)  and  A.Trollope's  History  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Florence  (4  vols.,  London,  1865)  are  not  without  value 
although  out  of  date.  Francis  Hyett's  Florence  (London,  1903)  is 
more  recent  and  compendious;  the  author  is  somewhat  Medicean 
in  his  views,  and  frequently  inaccurate.  For  the  later  history,  A. 
von  Reumont's  Geschichte  von  Toscana  (Gotha,  1876-1877)  is  one 
of  the  best  works.  There  is  a  large  number  of  small  treatises  and 
compendia  of  Florentine  history  of  the  guide-book  description.  See 
also  the  bibliographies  in  MEDICI,  MACHIAVELLI,  SAVONAROLA, 
TUSCANY,  &c.  (L-  "•" 

FLORES,  an  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  belonging  to 
Portugal,  and  forming  part  of  the  Azores  archipelago.  Pop. 
(1900)  8137;  area,  57  sq.  m.  Flores  and  the  adjacent  island 
of  Corvo  (pop.  806;  area,  7  sq.  m.)  constitute  the  westernmost 
group  of  the  Azores,  and  seem  but  imperfectly  to  belong  to  the 
archipelago,  from  the  rest  of  which  they  are  widely  severed. 
They  lie  also  out  of  the  usual  track  of  navigators;  but  to  those 
who,  missing  their  course,  are  led  thither,  Flores  affords  good 
shelter  in  its  numerous  bays.  Its  poultry  is  excellent;  and  the 
cattle  are  numerous,  but  small.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
abundance  of  the  flowers  that  find  shelter  in  its  deep  ravines.  Its 
capital  is  Santa  Cruz  das  Flores  (2247).  In  1591  Flores  was  the 
station  of  the  English  fleet  before  the  famous  sea  fight  between 
Sir  R.  Grenville's  ship  "  Revenge  "  and  a  Spanish  fleet  of  53 
vessels.  See  AZORES. 

FLORES,  an  island  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  a  member  of 
the  chain  extending  east  of  Java.  Its  length  is  224  m.,  its  greatest 
breadth  37  m.,  and  its  area  5850  sq.  m.  The  existence  of  slate, 
chalk,  and  sandstone,  eruptive  rock,  volcanoes  and  heights 
stretching  west  and  east,  indicates  a  similar  structure  to  that  of 
the  other  islands  of  the  chain.  Several  volcanoes  are  active. 
Among  the  loftier  summits  are,  on  the  south  coast,  Gunong 
Rokka  (7940 ft.)  and  Keo  (6560  ft.);  with  the  lesser  but  con- 
stantly active  Gunong  Api,  forming  a  peninsula;  and  at  ths 
south-east,  Lobetobi  (7120  ft.).  The  thickly  wooded  interior 
is  little  explored.  The  coasts  have  deep  bays  and  extensive 
rounded  gulfs,  where  are  situated  the  principal  villages  (kam 
Pongs).  On  the  north  coast  are  Bari,  Reo,  Maumer  and  Gditing; 
on  the  east,  Larantuka;  and  on  the  south,  Sikka  and  Enden. 


The  rivers,  known  only  at  their  mouths,  seem  to  be  unnavigable. 
The  mean  temperature  is  77°  to  80°  F.,  and  the  yearly  rainfall 
43  to  47  in.  For  administrative  purposes  the  island  is  divided 
into  West  Flores  (Mangerai),  attached  to  the  government 
of  Celebes,  and  Middle  and  East  Flores  (Larantuka  and  depend- 
encies), attached  to  the  residency  of  Timor.  The  population 
is  estimated  at  250,000.  The  people  live  by  trade,  fishing, 
salt-making,  shipbuilding,  and  the  cultivation  of  rice,  maize, 
and  palms  in  the  plain,  but  there  is  little  industry  or  commerce. 
Some  edible  birds'  nests,  rice,  sandalwood  and  cinnamon  are 
exported  to  Celebes  and  elsewhere.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
coast-districts  are  mainly  of  Malay  origin.  The  aborigines, 
who  occupy  the  interior,  are  of  Papuan  stock.  They  are  tall 
and  well-built,  with  dark  or  black  skins.  The  hair  is  frizzly. 
They  are  pure  savages;  their  only  religion  is  a  kind  of  nature- 
worship.  They  consider  the  earth  holy  and  inviolable;  thus 
in  severe  droughts  they  only  dig  the  river-beds  for  water  as  a 
last  resource.  Portugal  claimed  certain  portions  of  the  island 
until  1859. 

FLOREZ,  ENRIQUE  (1701-1773),  Spanish  historian,  was 
born  at  Valladolid  on  the  i4th  of  February  1701.  In  his  fifteenth 
year  he  entered  the  order  of  St  Augustine,  was  afterwards 
professor  of  theology  at  the  university  of  Alcala,  and  published 
a  Cursus  Iheologiae  in  five  volumes  (1732-1738).  He  afterwards 
devoted  himself  to  historical  studies.  Of  these  the  first-fruit 
was  his  Clave  Hislorial,  a  work  of  the  same  class  as  the  French 
Art  de  verifier  les  dates,  and  preceding  it  by  several  years.  It 
appeared  in  1743,  and  passed  through  many  editions.  In  1747 
was  published  the  first  volume  of  EspaftaSagrada,teatrogeografico- 
historico  de  la  Iglesia  de  Espana,  a  vast  compilation  of  Spanish 
ecclesiastical  history  which  obtained  a  European  reputation, 
and  of  which  twenty-nine  volumes  appeared  in  the  author's 
lifetime.  It  was  continued  after  his  death  by  Manuel  Risco 
and  others,  and  further  additions  have  been  made  at  the  expense 
of  the  Spanish  government.  The  whole  work  in  fifty-one  volumes 
was  published  at  Madrid  (1747-1886).  Its  value  is  considerably 
increased  by  the  insertion  of  ancient  chronicles  and  documents 
not  easily  accessible  elsewhere.  Florez  was  a  good  numismatist, 
and  published  Medallas  de  las  Colonias  in  2  vols.  (1757-1758),  of 
which  a  third  volume  appeared  in  1773.  His  last  work  was  the 
Memorias  de  las  reynas  Catolicas,  2  vols.  (1770).  Flore?  led  a 
retired,  studious  and  unambitious  life,  and  died  at  Madrid 
on  the  2oth  of  August  1773. 

See  F.  Mendez,  Noticia  de  la  vida  y  escritos  de  Henrique  Florez 
(Madrid,  1780). 

FLORIAN,  SAINT,  a  martyr  honoured  in  Upper  Austria.  In 
the  8th  century  Puoche  was  mentioned  as  the  place  of  his  tomb, 
and  on  the  site  was  built  the  celebrated  monastery  of  canons 
regular,  St  Florian,  which  still  exists.  His  Acta  are  of  consider- 
able antiquity,  but  devoid  of  historical  value.  Their  substance 
is  borrowed  from  the  Acta  of  St  Irenaeus  of  Sirmium.  The  cult 
of  St  Florian  was  introduced  into  Poland,  together  with  the 
relics  of  the  saint,  which  were  brought  thither  in  1183  by  Giles, 
bishop  of  Modena.  Casimir,  duke  of  Poland,  dedicated  a  church 
at  Cracow  to  him.  He  is  represented  in  various  ways,  especially 
as  a  warrior  holding  in  his  hand  a  vessel  from  which  he  pours 
out  flames.  His  protection  is  often  sought  against  fire.  His 
day  in  the  calendar  is  the  4th  of  May. 

See  Acta  Sanctorum,  May,  i.  461-467;  B.  Krusch,  Scripiores  rerum 
Merovingicarum,  iii.  65-68;  C.  Cahier,  CaractMstiques  des  saints, 
p.  490  (Paris,  1867).  (H.  DE.) 

FLORIAN,  JEAN  PIERRE  CLARIS  DE  (1755-1794),  French 
poet  and  romance  writer,  was  born  on  the  6th  of  March  1755  at 
the  chateau  of  Florian,  near  Sauve,  in  the  department  of  Card. 
His  mother,  a  Spanish  lady  named  Gilette  de  Salgues,  died  when 
he  was  quite  a  child.  His  uncle  and  guardian,  the  marquis  of 
Florian,  who  had  married  a  niece  of  Voltaire,  introduced  him  at 
Ferney  and  in  1768  he  became  page  at  Anet  in  the  household  of 
the  duke  of  Penthievre,  who  remained  his  friend  throughout  his 
life.  Having  studied  for  some  time  at  the  artillery  school  at 
Bapaume  he  obtained  from  his  patron  a  captain's  commission 
in  a  dragoon  regiment,  and  in  this  capacity  it  is  said  he  displayed 


540 


FLORIANOPOLIS— FLORIDA 


a  boisterous  behaviour  quite  incongruous  with  the  gentle, 
meditative  character  of  his  works.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  Revolution  he  retired  to  Sceaux,  but  he  was  soon  dis- 
covered and  imprisoned;  and  though  his  imprisonment  was  short 
he  survived  his  release  only  a  few  months,  dying  on  the  i3th 
of  September  1794. 

Florian's  first  literary  efforts  were  comedies;  his  verse  epistle 
Voltaire  et  le  serfdu  Mont  Jura  and  an  eclogue  Ruth  were  crowned 
by  the  French  Academy  in  1782  and  1784  respectively.  In 
1782  also  he  produced  a  one-act  prose  comedy,  Le  Bon  Mtnage, 
and  in  the  next  year  Galatee,  a  romantic  tale  in  imitation  of  the 
Galatea  of  Cervantes.  Other  short  tales  and  comedies  followed, 
and  in  1786  appeared  Nutna  Pompilius,  an  undisguised  imitation 
of  Fenelon's  Telemaque.  In  1788  he  became  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy,  and  published  Estelle,  a  pastoral  of  the  same 
class  as  Galatee.  Another  romance,  Gonzalve  de  Cordoue,  pre- 
ceded by  an  historical  notice  of  the  Moors,  appeared  in  1791, 
and  his  famous  collection  of  Fables  in  1 792.  Among  his  posthum- 
ous works  are  La  Jeunesse  de  Florian,  ou  Menwires  d'un  jeune 
Espagnol  (1807),  and  an  abridgment  (1799)  of  Don  Quixote, 
which,  though  far  from  being  a  correct  representation  of  the 
original,  had  great  and  merited  success. 

Florian  imitated  Salomon  Gessner,  the  Swiss  idyllist,  and  his 
style  has  all  the  artificial  delicacy  and  sentimentality  of  the 
Gessnerian  school.  Perhaps  the  nearest  example  of  the  class 
in  English  literature  is  afforded  by  John  Wilson's  (Christopher 
North's)  Lights  and  Shadows  of  Scottish  Life.  Among  the  best 
of  his  fables  are  reckoned  "  The  Monkey  showing  the  Magic 
Lantern,"  "  The  Blind  Man  and  the  Paralytic,"  and  "  The 
Monkeys  and  the  Leopard." 

The  best  edition  of  Florian's  CEuvres  completes  appeared  in  Paris 
in  16  volumes,  1820;  his  CEuvres  inedites  in  4  volumes,  1824. 

See  "  Vie  de  Florian,"  by  L.  F.  Jauffret,  prefixed  to  his  CEuvres 
posthumes  (1802);  A.  J.  N.  de  Rpsny,  Vie  de  Florian  (Paris,  An  V.); 
Sainte-Beuve,  Cauteries  du  lundi,  t.  iii. ;  A.  de  Montvaillant,  Florian, 
sa  vie,  ses  ceuvres  (1879) ;  and  Lettres  de  Florian  a  Mme  de  la  Briche, 
published,  with  a  notice  by  the  baron  de  Barante  in  Melanges 
published  (1903)  by  the  Societe  des  bibliophiles  franjais. 

FLORIANOPOLIS  (formerly  Desterro,  Nossa  Senhora  do 
Desterro  and  Santa  Catharina,  and  still  popularly  known  under 
the  last  designation),  a  city  and  port  of  Brazil  and  the  capital 
of  the  state  of  Santa  Catharina,  on  the  western  or  inside  shore 
of  a  large  island  of  the  same  name,  485  m.  S.S.W.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
in  27°  30'  S.,  48°  30'  W.  Pop.  (1890)  11,400,  including  many 
Germans;  (1902,  estimate)  16,000;  of  the  municipality,  includ- 
ing a  large  rural  district  and  several  villages  (1890),  30,687. 
The  harbour  is  formed  by  the  widening  of  the  strait  separating 
the  island  from  the  mainland,  which  is  nearly  2  m.  wide  at  this 
point.  It  is  approached  by  narrow  entrances  from  the  N.  and 
S.,  which  are  defended  by  small  forts.  The  island  is  mountainous 
and  wooded,  and  completely  shelters  the  harbour  from  easterly 
storms.  The  surroundings  are  highly  picturesque  and  tropical 
in  character,  but  the  town  itself  is  poorly  built  and  unattractive. 
Its  public  buildings  include  the  president's  official  residence, 
arsenal,  lyceum,  hospital  and  some  old  churches.  The  climate 
is  warm  for  the  latitude,  but  the  higher  elevations  of  the  vicinity 
are  noted  for  their  mild  climate  and  healthfulness.  There  are 
some  German  colonies  farther  up  the  coast  whose  products  find 
a  market  here,  and  a  number  of  small  settlements  along  the 
mainland  coast  add  something  to  the  trade  of  the  town.  The 
more  distant  inland  towns  are  partly  supplied  from  this  point, 
but  difficult  mountain  roads  tend  to  restrict  the  trade  greatly. 
There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  market  produce  with  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  but  the  exports  are  inconsiderable.  Santa  Catharina 
was  formerly  one  of  the  well-known  whaling  stations  of  the 
South  Atlantic,  and  is  now  a  secondary  military  and  naval 
station. 

The  island  of  Santa  Catharina  was  originally  settled  by  the 
Spanish;  Cabeza  de  Vaca  landed  here  in  1542  and  marched 
hence  across  country  to  Asuncion,  Paraguay.  The  Spanish 
failed  to  establish  a  permanent  colony,  however,  and  the  Portu- 
guese took  possession.  The  island  was  captured  by  a  Spanish 
expedition  under  Viceroy  Zeballos  in  1777.  A  boundary  treaty 


of  that  same  year  restored  it  to  Portugal.  In  1894  Santa 
Catharina  fell  into  the  possession  of  revolutionists  against  the 
government  of  President  Floriano  Peixoto.  With  the  collapse 
of  the  revolution  the  city  was  occupied  by  the  government  forces, 
and  its  name  was  then  changed  to  Florianopolis  in  honour  of  the 
president  of  the  republic. 

FLORIDA,  the  most  southern  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
situated  between  24°  30'  and  31°  N.  lat.  and  79°  48'  and  87°  38' 
W.  long.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Georgia  and  Alabama,  E.  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  S.  by  the  Strait  of  Florida,  which  separates  it 
from  Cuba,  and  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  W.  by  Alabama 
and  the  Gulf.  The  Florida  Keys,  a  chain  of  islands  extending 
in  a  general  south-westerly  direction  from  Biscayne  Bay,  are 
included  in  the  state  boundaries,  and  the  city  of  Key  West,  on 
an  island  of  the  same  name,  is  the  seat  of  justice  of  Monroe 
county.  The  total  area  of  the  state  is  58,666  sq.  m.,  of  which 
3805  sq.  m.  are  water  surface.  The  coast  line  is  greater  than  that 
of  any  other  state,  extending  472  m.  on  the  Atlantic  and  674  m. 
on  the  Gulf  Coast. 

The  peculiar  outline  of  Florida  gives  it  the  name  of  "  Peninsula 
State."  The  average  elevation  of  the  surface  of  the  state  above 
the  sea-level  is  less  than  that  of  any  other  state  except  Louisiana, 
but  there  is  not  the  monotony  of  unbroken  level  which  descrip- 
tions and  maps  often  suggest.  The  N.W.  portion  of  the  state 
is,  topographically,  similar  to  south-eastern  Alabama,  being  a 
rolling,  hilly  country;  the  eastern  section  is  a  part  of  the  Atlantic 
coastal  plain;  the  western  coast  line  is  less  regular  than  the 
eastern,  being  indented  by  a  number  of  bays  and  harbours, 
the  largest  of  which  are  Charlotte  Harbour,  Tampa  Bay  and 
Pensacola  Bay.  Along  much  of  the  western  coast  and  along 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  eastern  coast  extends  a  line  of  sand 
reefs  and  narrow  islands,  enclosing  shallow  and  narrow  bodies 
of  water,  such  as  Indian  river  and  Lake  Worth — called  rivers, 
lakes,  lagoons,  bays  and  harbours.  In  the  central  part  of  the 
state  there  is  a  ridge,  extending  N.  and  S.  and  forming  a  divide, 
separating  the  streams  of  the  east  coast  from  those  of  the  west. 
Its  highest  elevation  above  sea-level  is  about  300  ft.  The  central 
region  is  remarkable  for  its  large  number  of  lakes,  approximately 
30,000  between  Gainesville  in  Alachua  county,  and  Lake  Okee- 
chobee.  They  are  due  largely  to  sinkholes  or  depressions  caused 
by  solution  of  the  limestone  of  the  region.  Many  of  the  lakes 
are  connected  by  subterranean  channels,  and  a  change  in  the 
surface  of  one  lake  is  often  accompanied  by  a  change  in  the 
surface  of  another.  By  far  the  largest  of  these  lakes,  nearly 
all  of  them  shallow,  is  Lake  Okeechobee,  a  body  of  water  about 
1250  sq.  m.  in  area  and  almost  uniformly  shallow,  its  depth 
seldom  being  greater  than  15  ft.  Caloosahatchee  river,  flowing 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  near  Charlotte  Harbour,  is  its  principal 
outlet.  Among  the  other  lakes  are  Orange,  Crescent,  George, 
Weir,  Harris,  Eustis,  Apopka,  Tohopekaliga,  Kissimmee  and 
Istokpoga.  The  chief  featureof  the  southern  portionof  thestate 
is  the  Everglades  (q.v.),  the  term  "Everglade  State"  being 
popularly  applied  to  Florida.  Within  the  state  there  are  many 
swamps,  the  largest  of  which  are  the  Big  Cypress  Swamp  in  the 
S.  adjoining  the  Everglades  on  the  W.,  and  Okefinokee  Swamp, 
extending  from  Georgia  into  the  N.E.  part  of  the  state. 

A  peculiar  feature  of  the  drainage  of  the  state  is  the  large  number 
of  subterranean  streams  and  of  springs,  always  found  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  in  limestone  regions.  Some  of  them  are  of  great  size. 
Silver  Spring  and  Blue  Spring  in  Marion  county,  Blue  Spring  and 
Orange  City  Mineral  Spring  in  Volusia  county,  Chipola  Spring  near 
Marianna  m  Jackson  county,  Espiritu  Santo  Spring  near  Tampa 
in  Hillsboro  county,  Magnolia  Springs  in  Clay  county,  Suwanee 
Springs  in  Suwanee  county,  White  Sulphur  Springs  in  Hamilton 
county,  the  Wekiva  Springs  in  Orange  county,  and  Wakulla  Spring, 
Newport  Sulphur  Spring  and  Panacea  Mineral  Spring  in  Wakulla 
county  are  the  most  noteworthy.  Many  of  the  springs  have  curative 
properties,  one  of  them,  the  Green  Cove  Spring  in  Clay  county, 
discharging  about  3000  gallons  of  sulphuretted  water  per  minute. 
Not  far  from  St  Augustine  a  spring  bursts  through  the  sea  itself  with 
such  force  that  the  ocean  breakers  roll  back  from  it  as  from  a  sunken 
reef.  The  springs  often  merge  into  lakes,  and  lake  systems  are 
usually  the  sources  of  the  rivers,  Lake  George  being  the  principal 
source  of  the  St  Johns,  and  Lake  Kissimmee  of  the  Kissimmee, 
while  a  number  of  smaller  lakes  are  the  source  of  the  Oklawaha,  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  Floridian  rivers. 


P«U6,,IU.      A-iJ.-Gdiaj^-v 

p^wsS^T-rsswSaifn 


FLOR;  DA 


-1  P  A  L  M    BEACH 


ffailtvof/s 

County  Seats 
County  Boundaries 


NORTH-WESTERN 
FLORIDA 

Same  Scale  as  main  man 


B    Longitudo  West  84  of  Greemvic 


EnwryWilkersc. 


FLORIDA 


54* 


Of  the  rivers  the  most  important  are  the  St  Johns,  which 
flows  N.  from  about  the  middle  of  the  peninsula,  empties  into 
the  Atlantic  a  short  distance  below  Jacksonville,  and  is  navigable 
for  about  250  m.  from  its  mouth,  the  Withlacoochee,  flowing 
in  a  general  north-westerly  direction  from  its  source  in  the  N.E. 
part  of  Polk  county,  and  forming  near  its  entrance  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  the  boundary  between  Levy  and  Citrus  counties,  and 
four  rivers,  the  Escambia,  the  Choctawatchee,  the  Apalachicola, 
and  the  Suwanee,  having  their  sources  in  other  states  and 
traversing  the  north-western  part  of  Florida.  On  account  of 
its  sand  reefs,  the  east  coast  has  not  so  many  harbours  as  the 
west  coast.  The  most  important  harbours  are  at  Fernandina, 
St  Augustine,  and  Miami  on  the  E.  coast,  and  at  Tampa,  Key 
West  and  Pensacola  on  the  W.  coast. 

The  soils  of  Florida  have  sand  as  a  common  ingredient.1  They 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes :  the  pine  lands,  which  often  have 
a  surface  of  dark  vegetable  mould,  under  which  is  a  sandy  loam 
resting  on  a  substratum  of  clay,  marl  or  limestone — areas  of  such 
soil  are  found  throughout  the  state;  the  "  hammocks,"  which  have 
soil  of  similar  ingredients  and  are  interspersed  with  the  pine  lands — 
large  areas  of  this  soil  occur  in  Levy,  Alachua,  Citrus,  Hernando. 
Pasco,  Gadsden,  Leon,  Madison,  Jefferson  and  Jackson  counties; 
and  the  alluvial  swamp  lands,  chiefly  in  E.  and  S.  Florida,  the  richest 
class,  which  require  drainage  to  fit  them  for  cultivation. 

As  regards  climate  Florida  may  be  divided  into  three  more 
or  less  distinct  zones.  North  and  west  of  a  line  passing  through 
Cedar  Keys  and  Fernandina  the  climate  is  distinctly  "  southern," 
similar  to  that  of  the  Gulf  states;  from  this  line  to  another 
extending  from  the  mouth  of  the  Caloosahatchee  to  Indian 
river  inlet  the  climate  is  semi-tropical,  and  is  well  suited  to  the 
cultivation  of  oranges;  S.  of  this  the  climate  is  sub-tropical, 
well  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  pineapples.  Since  the  semi- 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  zones  are  nearer  the  course  of  the 
Gulf  Stream,  and  are  swept  by  the  trade  winds,  their  tempera- 
tures are  more  uniform  than  those  of  the  zones  of  southern 
climate;  indeed,  the  extremes  of  heat  (103°  F.)  and  cold  (13°  F.) 
are  felt  in  the  region  of  southern  climate.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  of  the  state  is  70-8°  F.,  greater  in  the  sub-tropical 
than  in  the  other  climate  zones,  and  the  Atlantic  coast  is  in 
general  warmer  than  the  Gulf  Coast.  The  rainfall  averages 
52-09  in.  per  annum.  On  account  of  its  warm  climate,  Florida 
has  many  resorts  for  health  and  pleasure,  which  are  especially 
popular  in  the  season  from  January  to  April;  the  more 
important  are  St  Augustine,  Ormond,  Daytona,  Palm  Beach, 
Miami,  Tampa,  White  Springs,  Hampton  Springs,  Worthington 
Springs  and  Orange  Springs. 

No  metals  have  ever  been  discovered  in  Florida.  The  principal 
minerals  are  rock  phosphate  and  (recently  more  important)  land  and 
river  pebble  phosphate,  found  in  scattered  deposits  in  a  belt  on  the 
"  west  coast  about  30  m.  wide  and  extending  from  Tallahassee  to 
Lake  Okeechobee.  The  centre  of  the  quarries  is  Dunnellon  in 
Marion  county,  and  pebble  phosphate  is  found  m  Hillsboro,  Polk, 
De  Soto,  Osceola,  Citrus  and  Hernando  counties.  Although  the 
economic  value  of  the  phosphate  deposits  was  first  realized  about 
1880,  between  1894  and  1907  Florida  produced,  each  year,  more 
than  half  of  all  the  phosphate  rock  produced  in  the  whole  United 
States,  the  yield  of  Florida  (i, 357-365  long  tons)  m  1907  being 
valued  at  $6,577,757!  that  of  the  whole  country  at  $10,653,558- 
Florida  is  also  the  principal  source  in  the  United  States  for  fuller  s 
earth,  a  deposit  of  which,  near  Quincy,  was  first  discovered  in  1893; 
and  clay  (including  kaolin)  is  also  mined  to  some  extent.  Other 
minerals  that  have  been  discovered  but  have  not  been  industrially 
developed  are  gypsum,  lignite  and  cement  rock.  1  he  lack 
thorough  geological  survey  has  perhaps  prevented  the  discovery 
of  other  minerals— certainly  it  is  responsible  for  a  late  recognition 
of  the  economic  value  of  the  known  mineral  resources. 

The  flora  of  N.  Florida  is  similar  to  that  of  south-eastern  North 
America ;  that  of  S.  Florida  seems  to  be  a  link  between  the  vegetation 
of  North  America  and  that  of  South  America  and  the  West  Indies, 
for  out  of  247  species  of  S.  Florida  that  have  been  examined,  187 
are  common  to  the  West  Indies,  Mexico  and  South  America.     The 
forests  cover  approximately  37,700  sq.  m.,  chiefly  in  the  northeri 
part  of  the  state,  including  about  half  of  the  peninsula,  yellow  pine 
being  predominant,  except  in  the  coastal  marsh  lands,  where  cypress, 
found  throughout  the  state,  particularly  abounds.     About  halt 
the  varieties  of  forest  trees  m  the  United  States  are  found,  and 


1  Almost  everywhere  limestone  is  the  underlying  rock,  but  siliceous 
sands,  brought  out  by  the  Atlantic  rivers  to  the  N.E.,  are  carried  the 
whole  length  of  the  Florida  coast  by  marine  action. 


among  the  peculiar  species  are  the  red  bay  or  "  Florida  Mahogany," 
satinwood  and  cachibou,  and  the  Florida  yew  and  savin,  both 
almost  extinct.  The  lumber  industry  is  important:  in  1905  the 
total  factory  product  of  lumber  and  timber  was  valued  at 
$10,901,650,  and  lumber  and  planing  mill  products  were  valued 
at  $1,690,455.  In  1900  this  was  the  most  valuable  industry  in 
the  state;  m  1905  it  was  second  to  the  manufacture  of  tobacco. 
The  fauna  is  similar  in  general  to  that  of  the  southern  United  States. 
Among  the  animals  are  the  puma,  manatee  (sea  cow),  alligator  and 
crocodile,  but  the  number  of  these  has  been  greatly  diminished  by 
hunting.  Ducks,  wild  turkeys,  bears  and  wild  cats  (lynx)  are  found, 
but  in  decreasing  numbers. 

The  fisheries  are  very  valuable ;  the  total  number  of  species  of 
fish  in  Florida  waters  is  about  600,  and  many  species  found  on 
one  coast  are  not  found  on  the  other.  The  king  fish  and  tarpon  are 
hunted  for  sport,  while  mullet,  shad,  redsnappers,  pompano,  trout, 
sheepshead  and  Spanish  mackerel  are  of  great  economic  value. 
The  sponge  and  oyster  fisheries  are  also  important.  The  total 
product  of  the  fisheries  in  1902  was  valued  at  about  $2,000,000. 

Industry  and  Commerce. — The  principal  occupation  is  agri- 
culture, in  which  44%  of  the  labouring  population  was  engaged 
in  1900,  but  only  12-6%  of  the  total  land  surface  was  enclosed 
in  farms,  of  which  only  34-6%  was  improved,  and  the  total 
agricultural  product  for  1899  was  valued  at  $18,309,104.  As 
the  number  of  farms  increased  faster  than  the  cultivated  area 
from  1850  to  1900,  the  average  size  of  farms  declined  from  444 
acres  in  1860  to  140  in  1880  and  to  106-9  i°  I9O°)  tne  largest 
class  of  farms  being  those  with  an  acreage  varying  from  20  to 
50  acres.  Nearly  three-fourths  of  the  farms,  in  1900,  were 
cultivated  by  their  owners,  but  the  cash  tenantry  system  showed 
an  increase  of  100%  since  1890,  being  most  extensively  used 
in  the  cotton  counties.  One-third  of  the  farms  were  operated  by 
negroes,  but  one-half  of  these  farms  were  rented,  and  the  value 
of  negro  farm  property  was  only  one-eighth  that  of  the  entire 
farm  property  of  the  state.  According  to  the  state  census  of 
1905  only  1,621,362  acres  were  improved;  of  45,984  farms, 
31,233  were  worked  by  whites. 

Fruits  normally  form  the  principal  crop;  the  total  value  for 
1907-8  of  the  fruit  crops  of  the  state  (including  oranges,  lemons, 
limes,  grape-fruit,  bananas,  guavas,  pears,  peaches,  grapes, 
figs,  pecans,  &c.)  was  $6,160,299,  according  to  the  report  of 
the  State  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  discovery  of  Florida's 
adaptability  to  the  culture  of  oranges  about  1875  may  be  taken 
as  the  beginning  of  the  state's  modern  industrial  development. 
But  the  unusual  severity  of  the  winters  of  1887,  1894  and  1899 
(the  report  of  the  Twelfth  Census  which  gives  the  figures  for 
this  year  being  therefore  misleading)  destroyed  three- fourths  of 
the  orange  trees,  and  caused  an  increased  attention  to  stock- 
raising,  and  to  various  agricultural  products.  Orange  culture 
has  recovered  much  of  its  importance,  but  it  is  carried  on  in 
the  more  southern  counties  of  the  state.  The  cultivation  of 
pineapples,  in  sub-tropical  Florida,  is  proving  successful,  the 
product  far  surpassing  that  of  California,  the  only  other  state 
in  the  Union  in  which  pineapples  are  grown.  Grape-fruit,  guavas 
and  lemons  are  also  successfully  produced  in  this  part  of  the 
state.  The  cultivation  of  strawberries  and  vegetables  (cabbage, 
cauliflower,  beets,  beans,  tomatoes,  egg-plant,  cucumbers, 
water-melons,  celery,  &c.)  for  northern  markets,  and  of  orchard 
fruits,  especially  plums,  pears  and  prunes,  has  likewise  proved 
successful.  In  1907-8,  according  to  the  State  Department  of 
Agriculture,  the  total  value  of  vegetable  and  garden  products 
was  $3,928,657.  In  1903,  according  to  the  statistics  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Indian  corn  ranked 
next  to  fruits  (as  given  in  the  state  reports),  but  its  product 
as  compared  with  that  of  various  other  states  is  unimportant — 
in  1907  it  amounted  to  7,017,000  bushels  only;  rice  is  the  only 
other  cereal  whose  yield  in  1899  was  greater  than  that  of  1889, 
but  the  Florida  product  was  surpassed  (in  1899)  by  that  of  the 
Carolinas,  Georgia,  Louisiana  and  Texas;  in  1907  the  product 
of  rice  in  Florida  (69,000  bushels)  was  less  than  that  of  Texas, 
Louisiana,  South  Carolina,  Arkansas  and  Georgia  severally. 
Tobacco  culture,  which  declined  after  1860  on  account  of  the 
competition  of  Cuba  and  Sumatra,  has  revived  since  1885 
through  the  introduction  of  Cuban  and  Sumatran  seed;  the 
product  of  1907  (6,937,500  ft)  was  more  than  six  times  that  of 


542 


FLORIDA 


1899,  the  product  in  1899  (1,125,600  Ib)  being  more  than 
twice  that  of  1889  (470,443  ft>),  which  in  turn  was  more 
than  twenty  times  that  for  1880  (21,182  Ib) — the  smallest 
production  recorded  for  many  decades.  In  1907  the  average 
farm  price  of  tobacco  was  45  cents  per  Ib  higher  than  that  of 
any  other  state.  In  1899,  84%  of  the  product  was  raised  in 
Gadsden  county.  The  sweet  potato  and  pea-nut  crops  have  also 
become  very  valuable;  on  the  other  hand  the  Census  of  1900 
showed  a  decline  in  acreage  and  production  of  cotton.  In  1907 
the  acreage  (265,000  acres)  was  less  than  in  any  cotton-growing 
state  except  Missouri  and  Virginia;  the  crop  for  1907-1908 
was  49,794  bales.  Sea-island  cotton  of  very  high  grade  is  grown 
in  Alachua  county.  The  production  of  sugar,  begun  by  the 
early  Spanish  settlers,  declined,  but  that  of  syrup  increased. 
Pecan  nuts  are  a  promising  crop,  and  many  groves  were  planted 
after  1905.  In  1900  there  were  more  than  1,900,000  acres  of 
land  in  the  state  unoccupied.  The  low  lands  of  the  South  are 
being  drained  partly  by  the  state  and  partly  by  private  companies. 
Irrigation,  introduced  in  1888  by  the  orange  growers,  has  been 
adopted  by  other  farmers,  especially  the  tobacco-growers  of 
Gadsden  county,  and  so  the  evil  effects  of  the  droughts,  so  com- 
mon from  February  to  June,  are  avoided.  The  value  of  farm  pro- 
perty in  the  southern  counties,  which  have  been  developed  very 
recently,  shows  a  steady  increase,  that  of  Hillsboro  county 
surpassing  the  other  counties  of  the  state.  In  1907-8,  according 
to  the  state  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  total  value  of  all 
field  crops  (cotton,  cereals,  sugar-cane,  hay  and  forage,  sweet 
potatoes,  &c.)  was  $11,856,340,  and  the  total  value  of  all  farm 
products  (including  live  stock,  $20,81 7,804,  poultry  and  products, 
$1,688,433,  and  dairy  products,  $1,728,642)  was  $46,371,320. 

The  manufactures  of  Florida,  as  compared  with  those  of  other 
states,  are  unimportant.  Their  product  in  1900  was  more  than  twice 
the  product  in  1890,  and  the  product  in  1905  (from  establishments 
under  the  factory  system  only)  was  $50,298,290,  i.e.  47-1% 
greater  than  in  1900.  The  most  important  industries  were  those 
that  depended  upon  the  forests,  their  product  amounting  to  nearly 
45  %  °f  the  entire  manufactured  product  of  the  state.  The  lumber 
and  timber  products  were  valued  in  1905  at  $10,901,650,  almost 
twice  their  valuation  in  1890,  and  an  increase  of  1-2%  over  the 
product  of  1900.  The  manufacture  of  turpentine  and  rosin,  material 
for  which  is  obtained  from  the  pine  forests,  had  increased  greatly 
in  importance  between  1890  and  1900,  the  product  in  1890  being 
valued  at  only  $191,859,  that  of  1900  at  $6,469,605,  and  from  the 
latter  sum  it  increased  in  1905  to  $9,901,905,  an  increase  of  more 
than  one-half.  In  1900  the  state  ranked  second  and  in  1905  first 
of  all  the  states  of  the  country  in  the  value  of  this  product ;  in  1905 
the  state's  product  amounted  to  41  -4  %  of  that  of  the  entire  country. 
The  manufacture  of  cigars  and  cigarettes  (almost  entirely  of  cigars, 
few  cigarettes  being  manufactured),  carried  on  chiefly  by  Cubans 
at  Key  West  and  Tampa,  also  increased  in  importance  between 
1890  and  1900,  the  products  in  the  latter  year  being  valued  at 
$10,735,826,  or  more  than  one-quarter  more  than  in  1890,  and  in 
1905  there  was  a  further  increase  of  56-2  %,  the  gross  value  being 
$16,764,276,  or  nearly  one-third  of  the  total  factory  product  of  the 
state.  In  1900  Florida  ranked  fourth  in  the  manufacture  of  tobacco 
among  the  states  of  the  Union,  being  surpassed  by  New  York, 
Pennsylvania  and  Ohio;  in  1905  it  ranked  third  (after  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania).  Most  of  the  tobacco  used  is  imported  from 
Cuba,  though,  as  has  been  indicated,  the  production  of  the  state  has 
greatly  increased  since  1880.  In  the  manufacture  of  fertilizers,  the 
raw  material  for  which  is  derived  from  the  phosphate  beds,  Florida's 
aggregate  product  in  1900  was  valued  at  $500,239,  and  in  1905  at 
$i>59°,37i,  an  increase  of  217-9%  in  five  years. 

Florida's  industrial  progress  has  been  mainly  since  the  Civil 
War,  for  before  that  conflict  a  large  part  of  the  state  was  practi- 
cally undeveloped.  An  important  influence  has  been  the  railways. 
In  1880  the  total  railway  mileage  was  518  m.;  in  1890  it  was 
2489  m.;  in  1900,  3255  m.,  and  in  January  1909,  4,004-92  m.  The 
largest  system  is  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line,  the  lines  of  which  in 
Florida  were  built  or  consolidated  by  H.  B.  Plant  (1819-1899)  and 
once  formed  a  part  of  the  so-called  "  Plant  System  "  of  railways. 
The  Florida  East  Coast  Railway  is  also  the  product  of  one  man's 
faith  in  the  country,  that  of  Henry  M.  Flagler  (b.  1830).  The 
Seaboard  Air  Line,  the  Louisville  &  Nashville,  and  the  Georgia 
Southern  &  Florida  are  the  other  important  railways.  The 
Southern  railway  penetrates  the  state  as  far  as  Jacksonville, 
over  the  tracks  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line.  A  state  railway 
commission,  whose  members  are  elected  by  the  people,  has  power 


to  enforce  its  schedule  of  freight  rates  except  when  such  rates 
would  not  pay  the  operating  expenses  of  the  railway.  In  1882 
the  Florida  East  Coast  Line  Canal  and  Transportation  Co.  was 
organized  to  develop  a  waterway  from  Jacksonville  to  Biscayne 
Bay  by  connecting  with  canals  the  St  Johns,  Matanzas,  and 
Halifax  rivers,  Mosquito  Lagoon,  Indian  river,  Lake  Worth, 
Hillsboro  river,  New  river,  and  Snake  Creek;  in  1908  this 
vast  undertaking  was  completed.  The  development  of  marine 
commerce  has  been  retarded  by  unimproved  harbours,  but 
Fernandina  and  Pensacola  harbours  have  always  been  good. 
Since  1890  much  has  been  done  by  the  national  Government, 
aided  in  many  cases  by  the  local  authorities  and  by  private 
enterprise,  to  improve  the  harbours  and  to  extend  the  limits 
of  river  navigation.  With  the  increase  of  trade  between  the 
United  States  and  the  West  Indies  following  the  Spanish- 
American  War  (1898),  the  business  of  the  principal  ports,  notably 
of  Fernandina,  Tampa  and  Pensacola,  greatly  increased. 

Population. — The  population  of  Florida  in  1880  was  269,493; 
in  1890,  391,422,  an  increase  of  45-2%;  and  in  1900,  528,542, 
or  a  further  increase  of  35% ;  and  in  1905,  by  a  state  census, 
614,845;  and  in  1910,  752,619.  In  1900,  95-5%  were  native  born, 
43' 7%  were  coloured  (including  479  Chinese,  Japanese  and 
Indians),  and  in  1905  the  percentages  were  little  altered.  The 
Seminole  Indians,  whose  number  is  not  definitely  known,  live 
in  and  near  the  Everglades.  The  urban  population  on  the  basis 
of  places  having  a  population  of  4000  or  more  was  16-6%  of  the 
total  in  1900  and  22-7%  in  1905,  the  percentage  for  Florida, 
as  for  other  Southern  States,  being  small  as  compared  with  the 
percentage  for  most  of  the  other  states  of  the  Union.  In  1900 
there  were  92,  and,  in  1905,  125  incorporated  cities,  towns  and 
villages;  but  only  14  (in  1905,  22)  of  these  had  a  population 
of  over  2000,  and  only  4  (in  1905,  8)  a  population  of  more  than 
5000.  The  four  in  1900  were:  Jacksonville  (28,429);  Pensacola 
(17,747);  Key  West  (17,114);  and  Tampa  (15,839).  The  eight 
in  1905  were  Jacksonville  (35,301),  Tampa  (22,823),  Pensacola 
(21,505),  Key  West  (20,498),  Live  Oak  (7200),  Lake  City 
(6409),  Gainesville  (5413),  and  St  Augustine(si2i).  Tallahassee 
is  the  capital  of  the  state.  In  1906  the  Baptists  were  the  strongest 
religious  denomination;  the  Methodists  ranked  second,  while 
the  Roman  Catholic,  Presbyterian  and  Protestant  Episcopal 
churches  were  of  relatively  minor  importance. 

Government. — The  present  constitution  was  framed  in  1885 
and  was  ratified  by  the  people  in  1886.  Its  most  important 
feature,  when  compared  with  the  previous  constitution  of  1868, 
is  its  provision  for  the  choice  of  state  officials  other  than  the 
governor  (who  was  previously  chosen  by  election)  by  elections 
instead  of  by  the  governor's  appointment,  but  the  governor, 
who  serves  for  four  years  and  is  not  eligible  for  the  next  succeed- 
ing term,  still  appoints  the  circuit  judges,  the  state  attorneys 
for  each  judicial  circuit  and  the  county  commissioners;  he  may 
fill  certain  vacancies  and  may  suspend,  and  with  the  Senate 
remove  officers  not  liable  to  impeachment.  The  governor  is  a 
member  of  the  Board  of  Pardons,  the  other  members  being 
the  attorney-general,  the  secretary  of  state,  the  comptroller  and 
the  commissioner  of  agriculture;  he  and  the  secretary  of  state, 
attorney-general,  comptroller,  treasurer,  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  and  commissioner  of  agriculture  comprise  a 
Board  of  Commissioners  of  State  Institutions;  he  is  also  a 
member  of  the  Board  of  Education.  The  office  of  lieutenant- 
governor  was  abolished  by  the  present  constitution.  The  legisla- 
ture meets  biennially,  the  senators  being  chosen  for  four,  the 
representatives  for  two  years.  By  an  amendment  of  1896  the 
Senate  consists  of  not  more  than  32,  and  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  not  more  than  68  members;  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of 
members  present  the  legislature  may  pass  a  bill  over  the  governor's 
veto.  The  three  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  and  the  seven  of  the 
circuit  court  serve  for  six  years,  those  of  the  county  courts  for 
four  years,  and  justices  of  the  peace  (one  for  each  justice  district, 
of  which  the  county  commissioners  must  form  at  least  two  in 
each  county)  hold  office  for  four  years.  The  constitutional 
qualifications  for  suffrage  are:  the  age  of  twenty-one  years, 
citizenship  in  the  United  States  or  presentation  of  naturalization 


FLORIDA 


543 


certificates  at  registration  centres,  residence  in  the  state  one 
year  and  in  the  county  six  months,  and  registration.  To  these 
requirements  the  payment  of  a  poll-tax  has  been  added  by 
legislative  enactment,  such  an  enactment  having  been  authorized 
by  the  constitution.  Insane  persons  and  persons  under  guardian- 
ship are  excluded  by  the  constitution,  and  "  all  persons  convicted 
of  bribery,  perjury,  larceny  or  of  infamous  crime,  or  who  shall 
make  or  become  directly  or  indirectly  interested  in  any  bet  or 
wager  the  result  of  which  shall  depend  upon  any  election,"  or 
who  shall  participate  as  principal,  second  or  challenger  in  any 
duel,  are  excluded  by  legislative  enactment. 

Amendments  to  the  constitution  may  be  made  by  a  three-fifths 
vote  of  each  house  of  the  legislature,  ratified  by  a  majority  vote 
of  the  people.  A  revision  of  the  Constitution  may  be  made 
upon  a  two-thirds  vote  of  all  members  of  both  Houses  of  the 
legislature,  if  ratified  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  people;  a 
Constitutional  Convention  is  then  to  be  provided  for  by  the 
legislature,  such  convention  to  meet  within  six  months  of  the 
passage  of  the  law  therefor,  and  to  consist  of  a  number  equal  to 
the  membership  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  apportioned 
among  the  counties,  as  are  the  members  of  this  House. 

A  homestead  of  160  acres,  or  of  one-half  of  an  acre  in  an  in- 
corporated town  or  city,  owned  by  the  head  of  a  family  residing 
in  the  state,  with  personal  property  to  the  value  of  $1000  and 
the  improvements  on  the  real  estate,  is  exempt  from  enforced 
sale  except  for  delinquent  taxes,  purchase  money,  mortgage 
or  improvements  on  the  property.  The  wife  holds  in  her  own 
name  property  acquired  before  or  after  marriage;  the  inter- 
marriage of  whites  and  negroes  (or  persons  of  negro  descent  to  the 
fourth  generation)  is  prohibited.  All  these  are  constitutional 
provisions.  By  legislative  enactment  whites  and  blacks  living 
in  adultery  are  to  be  punished  by  imprisonment  or  fine;  divorces 
may  be  secured  only  after  two  years'  residence  in  the  state  and 
on  the  ground  of  physical  incapacity,  adultery,  extreme  cruelty, 
habitual  indulgence  in  violent  temper,  habitual  drunkenness, 
desertion  for  one  year,  previous  marriage  still  existing,  or  such 
relationship  of  the  parties  as  is  within  the  degrees  for  which 
marriage  is  prohibited  by  law.  Legitimacy  of  natural  children 
can  be  established  by  subsequent  marriage  of  the  parents,  and 
the  age  of  consent  is  sixteen  years. 

The  bonded  debt  was  incurred  during  the  Reconstruction  Period 
(1865-1875).  In  1871  7  %  30  year  bonds  to  the  extent  of  $350,000 
were  issued  and  in  1873  another  issue  of  6%  30  year  bonds  to  the 
value  of  $925,000  was  made.  Most  of  these  were  held  by  the 
Educational  Fund  at  the  time  of  their  maturity.  By  1901  all  but 
$267,700  of  the  issue  of  1871  had  been  retired  and  this  amount  was 
then  refunded  with  3%  50  year  bonds  which  were  taken  by  the 
Educational  Fund.  In  1903  $616,800  of  the  1873  issue  was  held 
by  the  Educational  Fund  and  $148,000  by  individuals.  The  first 
part  of  this  claim  was  refunded  by  a  new  bond  issue,  also  taken  by 
the  Educational  Fund,  the  second  was  paid  from  an  Indian  war 
claim  of  $692,946,  received  from  the  United  States  government  in 
1902,  when  $132,000  bonds  of  1857,  held  by  the  United  States 
government,  were  also  extinguished.  The  bonded  debt  was  thus 
reduced  to  $884,500;  and  on  the  1st  of  January  1909  the  debt, 
consisting  of  refunding  bonds  held  as  educational  funds,  amounted 
to  $601,567. 

Penal  System.— There  is  no  penitentiary;  the  convicts  are 
hired  to  the  one  highest  bidder  who  contracts  for  their  labour, 
and  who  undertakes,  moreover,  to  lease  all  other  persons 
convicted  during  the  term  of  the  lease,  and  sub-leases  the 
prisoners.  In  1889  the  convicts  were  placed  under  the  care 
of  a  supervisor  of  convicts,  and  in  1905  the  law  was  amended 
so  that  one  or  more  supervisors  could  be  appointed  at  the  will 
of  the  governors.  In  1908  there  were  four  supervisors  and  one 
state  prison  physician,  and  there  are  special  laws  designed  to 
prevent  abuses  in  the  system.  In  1908  the  state  received 
$208,148  from  the  lease  of  convicts.  Decrepit  prisoners  were 
formerly  leased,  but  in  1906  the  lease  excluded  such  as  were 
thought  unfit  by  the  state  prison  physician.  Women  convicts 
were  still  leased  with  the  men  in  1908;  of  the  446  convici 
committed  in  that  year,  there  were  15  negro  females,  356  negro 
males  and  75  white  males.  In  the  same  year  54  escaped,  and 
27  were  recaptured.  The  leased  convicts  are  employed  in  the 
turpentine  and  lumber  industries  and  in  the  phosphate  works. 


The  1232  convicts  "  on  hand"  at  the  close  of  1908  were  held  in 
38  camps,  4  being  the  minimum,  and  160  the  maximum  number, 
at  a  camp.  In  1908  two  central  hospitals  for  the  prisoners  were 
maintained  by  the  lessee  company.  County  prison  camps  are 
under  the  supervision  of  the  governor  and  the  supervisors  of 
convicts.  The  state  supervisors  must  inspect  each  state  prison 
camp  and  each  county  prison  camp  every  thirty  days. 

Education. — As  early  as  1831  an  unsuccessful  attempt  was 
made  to  form  an  adequate  public  school  fund;  the  first  real 
effort  to  establish  a  common  school  system  for  the  territory  was 
made  after  1835;  in  1840  there  were  altogether  18  academies 
and  51  common  schools,  and  in  1849  the  state  legislature  made 
an  appropriation  in  the  interest  of  the  public  instruction  of  white 
pupils,  and  this  was  supplemented  by  the  proceeds  of  land 
granted  by  the  United  States  government  for  the  same  purpose. 
In  1852  Tallahassee  established  a  public  school;  and  in  1860 
there  were,  according  to  a  report  of  the  United  States  census, 
2032  pupils  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state,  and  4486  in 
"  academies  and  other  schools."  The  Civil  War,  however,  in- 
terrupted the  early  progress,  and  the  present  system  of  common 
schools  dates  from  the  constitution  of  1868  and  the  school  law 
of  1869.  The  school  revenue  derived  from  the  interest  of  a 
permanent  school  fund,  special  state  and  county  taxes,  and  a 
poll-tax,  in  1907-1908  amounted  to  $1,716,161;  the  per  capita 
cost  for  each  child  of  school  age  was  $6-11  (white,  $9-08; 
negro,  $2-24),  and  the  average  school  term  was  108  days  (112 
for  whites,  99  for  negroes).  The  state  constitution  prescribes 
that  "  white  and  colored  children  shall  not  be  taught  in  the  same 
school,  but  impartial  provision  shall  be  made  for  both."  The 
percentage  of  enrolment  in  1907-1908  was  60  (whites,  66; 
negroes,  52).  The  percentage  of  attendance  to  enrolment  was 
70%, — 68%  for  white  and  74%  for  negro  schools.  Before 
1905  the  state  provided  for  higher  education  by  the  Florida 
State  College,  at  Tallahassee,  formerly  the  West  Florida 
Seminary  (founded  in  1857);  the  University  of  Florida,  at  Lake 
City,  which  was  organized  in  1903  by  enlarging  the  work  of  the 
Florida  Agricultural  College  (founded  in  1884);  the  East  Florida 
Seminary,  at  Gainesville  (founded  1848  at  Ocala);  the 
normal  school  (for  whites)  at  De  Funiak  Springs;  and  the  South 
Florida  Military  Institute  at  Bartow;  but  in  1905  the  legislature 
passed  the  Buckman  bill  abolishing  all  these  state  institutions 
for  higher  education  and  establishing  in  their  place  the  university 
of  the  state  of  Florida  and  a  state  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  both  now  at  Gainesville,  and  the  Florida  Female  College 
at  Tallahassee,  which  has  the  same  standards  for  entrance  and  for 
graduation  as  the  state  university  for  men.  Private  educational 
institutions  in  Florida  are  John  B.  Stetson  University  at  De  Land 
(Baptist) ;  Rollins  College  (1885)  at  Winter  Park  (non-sectarian), 
with  a  collegiate  department,  an  academy,  a  school  of  music,  a 
school  of  expression,  a  school  of  fine  arts,  a  school  of  domestic  and 
industrial  arts,  and  a  business  school;  Southern  College  (1901), 
at  Sutherland  (Methodist  Episcopal,  South);  the  Presbyterian 
College  of  Florida  (1905),  at  Eustis;  Jasper  Normal  Institute 
(1890),  at  Jasper,  and  the  Florida  Normal  Institute  at  Madison. 
The  negroes  have  facilities  for  advanced  instruction  in  the 
Florida  Baptist  Academy,  and  Cookman  Institute  (Methodist 
Episcopal,  South),  both  at  Jacksonville,  and  in  the  Normal  and 
Manual  Training  School  (Congregational),  at  Orange  Park. 
There  are  a  school  for  the  Blind,  Deaf,  and  Dumb  (1885)  at  St. 
Augustine,  a  hospital  for  the  insane  at  Chattahoochee  and  a 
reform  school  at  Marianna,  all  wholly  supported  by  the  state, 
and  a  Confederate  soldiers'  and  sailors'  home  at  Tallahassee, 
which  is  partially  supported  by  the  state. 

History. — The  earliest  explorations  and  attempts  at  coloniza- 
tion of  Florida  by  Euiopeans  were  made  by  the  Spanish.  The 
Council  of  the  Indies  claimed  that  since  1510  fleets  and  ships 
had  gone  to  Florida,  and  Florida  is  shown  on  the  Cantino  map 
of  1502.  In  1513  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon  (c.  1460-1521),  who  had 
been  with  Christopher  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage  and  had 
later  been  governor  of  Porto  Rico,  obtained  a  royal  grant 
authorizing  him  to  discover  and  settle  "  Bimini," — a  fabulous 
island  believed  to  contain  a  marvellous  fountain  or  spring 


544 


FLORIDA 


whose  waters  would  restore  to  old  men  their  youth  or  at  least 
had  wonderful  curative  powers.  Soon  after  Easter  Day  he 
came  in  sight  of  the  coast  of  Florida,  probably  near  the  mouth 
of  the  St  Johns  river.  From  the  name  of  the  day  in  the  calendar, 
Pascua  Florida,  or  from  the  fact  that  many  flowers  were  found 
on  the  coast,  the  country  was  named  Florida.  De  Leon  seems 
to  have  explored  the  coast,  to  some  degree,  on  both  sides  of  the 
peninsula,  and  to  have  turned  homeward  fully  convinced  that 
he  had  discovered  an  immense  island.  He  returned  to  Spain 
in  1514,  and  obtained  from  the  king  a  grant  to  colonize  "  the 
island  of  Bimini  and  the  island  of  Florida,"  of  which  he  was 
appointed  adelantado,  and  in  1521  he  made  another  expedition, 
this  one  for  colonization  as  well  as  for  discovery.  He  seems 
to  have  touched  at  the  island  of  Tortugas,  so  named  on  account 
of  the  large  number  of  turtles  found  there,  and  to  have  landed 
at  several  places,  but  many  of  his  men  succumbed  to  disease 
and  he  himself  was  wounded  in  an  Indian  attack,  dying  soon 
afterward  in  Cuba.  Meanwhile,  in  1516,  another  Spaniard, 
Diego  Miruelo,  seems  to  have  sailed  for  some  distance  along  the 
west  coast  of  the  peninsula.  The  next  important  exploration 
of  Florida  was  that  of  Panfilo  de  Narvaez.  In  1527  he  sailed 
from  Cuba  with  about  600  men  (soon  reduced  to  less  than  400), 
landed  (early  in  1528)  probably  at  the  present  site  of  Pensacola, 
and  for  six  months  remained  in  the  country,  he  and  his  men 
suffering  terribly  from  exposure,  hunger  and  fierce  Indian 
attacks.  In  September,  his  ships  being  lost  and  his  force  greatly 
reduced  in  number,  he  hastily  constructed  a  crazy  fleet,  re- 
embarked  probably  at  Apalachee  Bay,  and  lost  his  life  in  a  storm 
probably  near  Pensacola  Bay.  Only  four  of  his  men,  including 
Nufiez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  succeeded  after  eight  years  of  Indian 
captivity  and  of  long  and  weary  wanderings,  in  finding  their 
way  to  Spanish  settlements  in  Mexico.  Florida  was  also  partially 
explored  by  Ferdinando  de  Soto  (q.v.)  in  1539-1540.  In  the 
summer  of  1559  another  attempt  at  colonization  was  made  by 
Tristan  de  Luna,  who  sailed  from  Vera  Cruz,  landed  at  Pensacola 
Bay,  and  explored  a  part  of  Florida  and  (possibly)  Southern 
Alabama.  Somewhere  in  that  region  he  desired  to  make  a 
permanent  settlement,  but  he  was  abandoned  by  most  of  his 
followers  and  gave  up  his  attempt  in  1561. 

In  the  following  year,  Jean  Ribaut  (1520-1565),  with  a  band 
of  French  Huguenots,  landed  first  near  St  Augustine  and  then 
at  the  mouth  of  the  St  Johns  river,  which  he  called  the  river 
of  May,  and  on  behalf  of  France  claimed  the  country,  which 
he  described  as  "  the  fairest,  fruitfullest  and  pleasantest  of  all 
the  world  ";  but  he  made  his  settlement  on  an  island  near  what 
is  now  Beaufort,  South  Carolina.  In  1564  Rene  de  Laudonniere 
(?  -c.  1586),  with  another  party  of  Huguenots,  established 
Fort  Caroline  at  the  mouth  of  the  St  Johns,  but  the  colony  did 
not  prosper,  and  in  1565  Laudonniere  was  about  to  return  to 
France  when  (on  the  28th  of  August)  he  was  reinforced  by 
Ribaut  and  about  300  men  from  France.  On  the  same  day  that 
Ribaut  landed,  a  Spanish  expedition  arrived  in  the  bay  of  St 
Augustine.  It  was  commanded  by  Pedro  Menendez  de  Aviles 
(1523-1574),  one  of  whose  aims  was  to  destroy  the  Huguenot 
settlement.  This  he  did,  putting  to  death  almost  the  entire 
garrison  at  Fort  Caroline  "  not  as  Frenchmen,  but  as  Lutherans," 
on  the  2oth  of  September  1565.  The  ships  of  Ribaut  were  soon 
afterwards  wrecked  near  Matanzas  Inlet;  he  and  most  of  his 
followers  surrendered  to  Menendez  and  were  executed.  Menendez 
then  turned  his  attention  to  the  founding  of  a  settlement  which 
he  named  St  Augustine  (q.v.);  he  also  explored  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  Cape  Florida  to  St  Helena,  and  established  forts  at 
San  Mateo  (Fort  Caroline),  Avista,  Guale  and  St  Helena.  In 
1567  he  returned  to  Spain  in  the  interest  of  his  colony. 

The  news  of  the  destruction  of  Fort  Caroline,  and  the  execution 
of  Ribaut  and  his  followers,  was  received  with  indifference  at 
the  French  court;  but  Dominique  de  Gourgues  (c.  1530-1593), 
a  friend  of  Ribaut  but  probably  a  Catholic,  organized  an  expedi- 
tion of  vengeance,  not  informing  his  men  of  his  destination 
until  his  three  ships  were  near  the  Florida  coast.  With  the 
co-operation  of  the  Indians  under  their  chief  Saturiba  he  captured 
Fort  San  Mateo  in  the  spring  of  1568,  and  on  the  spot  where 


the  garrison  of  Fort  Caroline  had  been  executed,  he  hanged 
his  Spanish  prisoners,  inscribing  on  a  tablet  of  pine  the  words, 
"  I  do  this  not  as  unto  Spaniards  but  as  to  traitors,  robbers 
and  murderers."  Feeling  unable  to  attack  St  Augustine,  de 
Gourgues  returned  to  France. 

The  Spanish  settlements  experienced  many  vicissitudes. 
The  Indians  were  hostile  and  the  missionary  efforts  among  them 
failed.  In  1586  St  Augustine  was  almost  destroyed  by  Sir 
Francis  Drake  and  it  also  suffered  severely  by  an  attack  of 
Captain  John  Davis  in  1665.  No  until  the  last  decade  of  the 
1 7th  century  did  the  Spanish  authorities  attempt  to  extend  the 
settlements  beyond  the  east  coast.  Then,  jealous  of  the  French 
explorations  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  they  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  the  west  coast,  and  in  1696  founded  Pensacola.  When 
the  English  colonies  of  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  were  founded, 
there  was  constant  friction  with  Florida.  The  Spanish  were 
accused  of  inciting  the  Indians  to  make  depredations  on  the 
English  settlements  and  of  interfering  with  English  commerce 
and  the  Spanish  were  in  constant  fear  of  the  encroachments  of 
the  British.  In  1702,  when  Great  Britain  and  Spain  were  con- 
tending in  Europe,  on  opposite  sides,  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  a  force  from  South  Carolina  captured  St  Augustine 
and  laid  siege  to  the  fort,  but  being  unable  to  reduce  it  for  lack 
of  necessary  artillery,  burned  the  town  and  withdrew  at  the 
approach  of  Spanish  reinforcements.  In  1706  a  Spanish  and 
French  expedition  against  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  failed, 
and  the  Carolinians  retaliated  by  invading  middle  Florida  in 
1708  and  again  in  1722.  In  1740  General  James  Edward  Ogle- 
thorpe,  governor  of  Georgia,  supported  by  a  naval  force,  made 
an  unsuccessful  attack  upon  St  Augustine;  two  years  later  a 
Spanish  expedition  against  Savannah  by  way  of  St  Simon's 
Island  failed,  and  in  1745  Oglethorpe  again  appeared  before 
the  walls  of  St  Augustine,  but  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
in  1748  prevented  further  hostilities.  Pensacola,  the  other 
centre  of  Spanish  settlement,  though  captured  and  occupied 
(1719-1723)  by  the  French  from  Louisiana,  had  a  more  peaceful 
history. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1763  Florida  was  ceded  to  England 
in  return  for  Havana.  The  provinces  of  East  Florida  and 
West  Florida  were  now  formed,  the  boundaries  of  West  Florida 
being  31°  N.  lat.  (when  civil  government  was  organized  in  1767, 
the  N.  line  was  made  32°  28'),  the  Chattahoochee,  and  the 
Apalachicola  rivers,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Mississippi  Sound, 
Lakes  Borgne,  Pontchartrain  and  Maurepas,  and  the  Mississippi 
river.  A  period  of  prosperity  now  set  in.  Civil  in  place  of 
military  government  was  instituted;  immigration  began; 
and  Andrew  Turnbull,  an  Englishman,  brought  over  a  band  of 
about  1500  Minorcans  (1769),  whom  he  engaged  in  the  cultivation 
of  indigo  at  New  Smyrna.  Roads  were  laid  out,  some  of  which 
yet  remain;  and  in  the  last  three  years  of  English  occupation 
the  government  spent  $580,000  on  the  two  provinces.  Conse- 
quently, the  people  of  Florida  were  for  the  most  part  loyal  to 
Great  Britain  during  the  War  of  American  Independence.  In 
1776,  the  Minorcans  of  New  Smyrna  refused  to  work  longer  on  the 
indigo  plantations;  and  many  of  them  removed  to  St  Augustine, 
where  they  were  protected  by  the  authorities.  Several  plans 
were  made  to  invade  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  but  none 
matured  until  1778,  when  an  expedition  was  organized  which 
co-operated  with  British  forces  from  New  York  in  the  siege 
of  Savannah,  Georgia.  In  the  following  year,  Spain  having 
declared  war  against  Great  Britain,  Don  Bernardo  de  Galvez 
(1756-1794),  the  Spanish  governor  at  New  Orleans,  seized  most 
of  the  English  forts  in  West  Florida,  and  in  1781  captured 
Pensacola. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris  (1783)  Florida  reverted  to  Spain,  and, 
no  religious  liberty  being  promised,  many  of  the  English  in- 
habitants left  East  and  West  Florida.  A  dispute  with  the 
United  States  concerning  the  northern  boundary  was  settled  by 
the  treaty  of  1795,  the  line  31°  N.  lat.  being  established. 

The  westward  expansion  of  the  United  States  made  necessary 
American  ports  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  consequently  the  acquisi- 
tion of  West  Florida  as  well  as  of  New  Orleans  was  one  of  the 


FLORIDA 


545 


aims  of  the  negotiations  which  resulted  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase 
of  1803.  After  the  cession  of  Louisiana  to  the  United  States, 
the  people  of  West  Florida  feared  that  that  province  would  be 
seized  by  Bonaparte.  They,  therefore,  through  a  convention 
at  Buhler's  Plains  (July  17,  1810),  formulated  plans  for  a 
more  effective  government.  When  it  was  found  that  the  Spanish 
governor  did  not  accept  these  plans  in  good  faith,  another  con- 
vention was  held  on  the  26th  of  September  which  declared 
West  Florida  to  be  an  independent  state,  organized  a  government 
and  petitioned  for  admission  to  the  American  Union.  On  the 
27th  of  October  President  James  Madison,  acting  on  a  theory  of 
Robert  R.  Livingston  that  West  Florida  was  ceded  by  Spain  to 
France  in  1800  along  with  Louisiana,  and  was  therefore  included 
by  France  in  the  sale  of  Louisiana  to  the  United  States  in  1803, 
declared  West  Florida  to  be  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United 
States.  Two  years  later  the  American  Congress  annexed  the 
portion  of  West  Florida  between  the  Pearl  and  the  Mississippi 
rivers  to  Louisiana  (hence  the  so-called  Florida  parishes  of 
Louisiana),  and  that  between  the  Pearl  and  the  Perdido  to  the 
Mississippi  Territory. 

In  the  meantime  war  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  was  imminent.  The  American  government  asked  the 
Spanish  authorities  of  East  Florida  to  permit  an  American 
occupation  of  the  country  in  order  that  it  might  not  be  seized 
by  Great  Britain  and  made  a  base  of  military  operations.  When 
the  request  was  refused,  American  forces  seized  Fernandina  in 
the  spring  of  181 2,  an  action  that  was  repudiated  by  the  American 
government  after  protest  from  Spain,  although  it  was  authorized 
in  official  instructions.  About  the  same  time  an  attempt  to 
organize  a  government  at  St  Mary's  was  made  by  American 
sympathizers,  and  a  petty  civil  war  began  between  the  Americans, 
who  called  themselves  "  Patriots,"  and  the  Indians,  who  were 
encouraged  by  the  Spanish.  In  1814  British  troops  landed 
at  Pensacola  to  begin  operations  against  the  United  States. 
In  retaliation  General  Andrew  Jackson  captured  the  place,  but 
in  a  few  days  withdrew  to  New  Orleans.  The  British  then 
built  a  fort  on  the  Apalachicola  river,  and  there  directed  expedi- 
tions of  Indians  and  runaway  negroes  against  the  American 
settlements,  which  continued  long  after  peace  was  concluded 
in  1814.  In  1818  General  Jackson,  believing  that  the  Spanish 
were  aiding  the  Seminole  Indians  and  inciting  them  to  attack 
the  Americans,  again  captured  Pensacola.  By  the  treaty  of 
1819  Spain  formally  ceded  East  and  West  Florida  to  the  United 
States;  the  treaty  was  ratified  in  1821,  when  the  United  States 
took  formal  possession,  but  civil  government  was  not  established 
until  1822. 

Indian  affairs  furnished  the  most  serious  problems  of  the 
new  Territory  of  Florida.  The  aborigines,  who  seemed  to  have 
reached  a  stage  of  civilization  somewhat  similar  to  that  of 
the  Aztecs,  were  conquered  and  exterminated  or  absorbed  by 
Creeks  about  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century.  There  was  a 
strong  demand  for  the  removal  of  these  Creek  Indians,  known 
as  Seminoles,  and  by  treaties  at  Payne's  Landing  in  1832  and 
Fort  Gibson  in  1833  the  Indian  chiefs  agreed  to  exchange  their 
Florida  lands  for  equal  territory  in  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States.  But  a  strong  sentiment  against  removal  suddenly 
developed,  and  the  efforts  of  the  United  States  to  enforce  the 
treaty  brought  on  the  Seminole  War  (1836-42),  which  resulted 
in  the  removal  of  all  but  a  few  hundred  Seminoles  whose 
descendants  still  live  in  southern  Florida. 

In  1845  Florida  became  a  state  of  the  American  Union.  On 
the  toth  of  January  1861  an  ordinance  of  secession,  which 
declared  Florida  to  be  a  "  sovereign  and  independent  nation," 
was  adopted  by  a  state  convention,  and  Florida  became  one  of 
the  Confederate  States  of  America.  The  important  coast  towns 
were  readily  captured  by  Union  forces;  Fernandina,  Pensacola 
and  St  Augustine  in  1862,  and  Jacksonville  in  1863;  but  an 
invasion  of  the  interior  in  1864  failed,  the  Union  forces  being 
repulsed  in  a  battle  at  Olustee  (on  the  2oth  of  February  1864). 
In  1865  a  provisional  governor  was  appointed  by  President 
Andrew  Johnson,  and  a  new  state  government  was  organized. 
The  legislature  of  1866  rejected  the  Fourteenth  Amendment 

x.i* 


to  the  Federal  Constitution,  and  soon  afterwards  Florida  was 
made  a  part  of  the  Third  Military  District,  according  to  the 
Reconstruction  Act  of  1867.  Negroes  were  now  registered  as 
voters  by  the  military  authorities,  and  another  Constitutional 
Convention  met  in  January  and  February  1868.  A  factional 
strife  in  the  dominant  party,  the  Republican,  now  began;  fifteen 
delegates  withdrew  from  the  convention;  the  others  framed  a 
constitution,  and  then  resolved  themselves  into  a  political 
convention.  The  seceding  members  with  nine  others  then 
returned  and  organized;  but  the  factions  were  reconciled  by 
General  George  M.  Meade.  A  new  constitution  was  framed  and 
was  ratified  by  the  electors,  and  Florida  passed  from  under  a 
quasi-military  to  a  full  civil  government  on  the  4th  of  July  1868. 
The  factional  strife  in  the  Republican  party  continued,  a 
number  of  efforts  being  made  to  impeach  Governor  Harrison 
Reed  (1813-1899).  The  decisive  year  of  the  Reconstruction 
•Period  was  1876.  The  Canvassing  Board,  which  published  the 
election  returns,  cast  out  some  votes,  did  not  wait  for  the  returns 
from  Dade  county,  and  declared  the  Republican  ticket  elected. 
George  F.  Drew  (1827-1900),  the  Democratic  candidate  for 
governor,  then  secured  a  mandamus  from  the  circuit  court 
restraining  the  board  from  going  behind  the  face  of  the  election 
returns;  this  was  not  obeyed  and  a  similar  mandamus  was 
therefore  obtained  from  the  supreme  court  of  Florida,  which 
declared  that  the  board  had  no  right  to  determine  the  legality 
of  a  particular  vote.  According  to  the  new  count  thus  ordered, 
the  Democratic  state  ticket  was  elected.  By  a  similar  process 
the  board's  decision  in  favour  of  the  election  of  Republican 
presidential  electors  was  nullified,  and  the  Democratic  electors 
were  declared  the  successful  _  candidates;  but  the  electoral 
commission,  appointed  by  Congress,  reversed  this  decision.  (See 
ELECTORAL  COMMISSION.) 

Since  1876  Florida  has  been  uniformly  Democratic  in  politics. 
AMERICAN  GOVERNORS  OF  FLORIDA. 

Territorial  Governors. 
Andrew  Jackson   .  1821-1822 

William  P.  Duval  1822-1834 

John  H.  Eaton     .  1834-1835 

Richard  K.  Call   .  1835-1840 

Robert  R.  Reid     .  1840-1841 

Richard  K.  Call    .  1841-1844 

John  Branch         .  1844-1845 

State  Governors. 


William  D.  Moseley 
Thomas  Brown 
Tames  E.  Broome 
Madison  S.  Perry 
John  Milton    . 
William  Marvin 
David  S.  Walker 
Harrison  Reed 
Ossian  B.  Hart 
Marcellus  L.  Stearns 
George  F.  Drew 
William  D.  Bloxham 
Edward  A.  Perry    . 
Francis  P.  Fleming 
Henry  L.  Mitchell 
William  D.  Bloxham 
William  S.  Jennings 
Napoleon  B.  Broward 
Albert  W.  Gilchrist 


1845-1849  Democrat 

1849-1853  Whig 

1853-1857  Democrat 

1857-1861    „ 

1861-1865    .. 

1865  Provisional 

1865-1868  Democrat 

1868-1872  Republican 

1873-1874 

1874-1877 

1877-1881  Democrat 

1881-1885 

1885-1889 

1889-1893 

1893-1897 

1897-1901 

1901-1905 

1905-1909 


1909- 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Physical  and  economic  conditions  are  discussed 
in  a  pamphlet  (591  pp.)  published  by  the  State  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Florida,  a  Pamphlet  Descriptive  of  its  History,  Topo- 
graphy, Climate,  Soil,  &c.  (Tallahassee,  1904) ;  in  Climate,  Soil  and 
Resources  of  Florida  (United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  1882) ;  A  Preliminary  Report  on  the  Soils  of  Florida 
(United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Soils,  Bulletin 
13,  1898) ;  C.  L.  Norton's  Handbook  of  Florida  (2nd  edition,  New 
York,  1892);  the  volumes  of  the  Twelfth  Census  of  the  United 
States  (for  1900)  which  treat  of  Agriculture  and  Manufactures,  and 
the  Special  Report  on  Mines  and  Quarries  for  1902.  J.  N.  Mac- 
Gonigle's  "  Geography  of  Florida  "  (National  Geographic  Magazine, 
vol.  7),  T.  D.  A.  Cockerell's  "  West  Indian  Fauna  in  Florida  " 
(Nature,  vol.  46),  L.  F.  Pourtales's  "  Flora  and  Fauna  of  the  Florida 
Keys  "  (American  Naturalist,  vol.  n),  and  C.  F.  Millspaugh's  Flora 
of  the  Sand  Keys  of  Florida  (Chicago,  1907),  a  Field  Columbian 
Museum  publication,  are  of  value.  To  sportsmen,  C.  B.  Cory's 
Hunting  and  Fishing  in  Florida  (Boston,  1896)  and  A.  W.  and 


54-6 


FLORIDABLANCA— FLORIO 


T.  A.  Dimock's  Florida  Enchantments  (New  York,  1908)  areof  interest. 
For  administration,  see  Wilbur  F.  Yocum's  Civil  Government  of 
Florida  (De  Land,  Florida,  1904);  and  the  Revised  Statutes  of 
Florida  (1892).  The  standard  history  is  that  by  G.  R.  Fairbanks, 
History  of  Florida  (Philadelphia,  1871).  This  should  be  supple- 
mented by  D.  G.  Brinton's  Notes  on  the  Floridian  Peninsula,  its 
Literary  History,  Indian  Tribes  and  Antiquities  (Philadelphia,  1859), 
which  has  an  excellent  descriptive  bibliography  of  the  early  ex- 
plorations: Woodbury  Lowery,  The  Spanish  Settlements  within  the 
Present  Limits  of  the  United  States  (New  York,  vol.  i.,  1901 ;  vol.  ii., 
sub-title  Florida,  1905) ;  R.  L.  Campbell's  Historical  Sketches  of 
Colonial  Florida  (Cleveland,  1892),  which  treats  at  length  of  the 
history  of  Pensacola;  H.  E.  Chambers's  West  Florida  and  its 
Relation  to  the  Historical  Cartography  of  the  United  States  (Johns 
Hopkins  Studies  in  Historical  and  Political  Science,  Series  1 6, 
No.  5) ;  and  Herbert  B.  Fuller's  The  Purchase  of  Florida;  its  History 
and  Diplomacy  (Cleveland,  O.,  1906).  Theonly  published  collections 
of  documents  relating  to  the  state  are  Buckingham  Smith's  Colleccion 
de  varies  documentos  para  la  historia  de  la  Florida  y  tierras  adyacentes 
(London,  1857),  and  Benjamin  F.  French's  Historical  Collections  of 
Louisiana  (New  York,  1846-1875). 

FLORIDABLANCA,  DON  JOSE  MONINO  Y  REDONDO, 
COUNT  OF  (1728-1808),  Spanish  statesman,  was  born  at  Murcia 
in  1728.  He  was  the  son  of  a  retired  army  officer,  and  received 
a  good  education,  which  he  completed  at  the  university  of 
Salamanca,  especially  applying  himself  to  the  study  of  law. 
For  a  time  he  followed  the  profession  of  an  advocate,  and  acquired 
a  high  reputation.  A  more  public  career  was  opened  to  him 
by  the  marquis  of  Esquilache,  then  chief  minister  of  state,  who 
sent  him  ambassador  to  Pope  Clement  XIV.  Successful  in  his 
mission,  he  was  soon  after  appointed  by  Charles  III.  successor 
to  his  patron,  and  his  administration  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
Spain  had  ever  seen.  He  regulated  the  police  of  Madrid,  reformed 
many  abuses,  projected  canals,  established  .many  societies  of 
agriculture  and  economy  and  many  philanthropical  institutions, 
and  gave  encouragement  to  learning,  science  and  the  fine  arts. 
Commerce  flourished  anew  under  his  rule,  and  the  long-standing 
disputes  with  Portugal  about  the  South  American  colonies  were 
settled.  He  sought  to  strengthen  the  alliance  of  Spain  with 
Portugal  by  a  double  marriage  between  the  members  of  the 
royal  houses,  designing  by  this  arrangement  to  place  ultimately 
a  Spanish  prince  on  the  throne  of  Portugal.  But  in  this  he  failed. 
Floridablanca  was  the  right-hand  man  of  King  Charles  III.  in 
his  policy  of  domestic  reform,  and  was  much  under  the  influence 
of  French  philosophes  and  economic  writers.  Like  other  re- 
formers of  that  school  he  was  a  strong  supporter  of  the  royal 
authority  and  a  convinced  partisan  of  benevolent  despotism. 
The  French  Revolution  frightened  him  into  reaction,  and  he 
advocated  the  support  of  the  first  coalition  against  France. 
He  retained  his  office  for  three  years  under  Charles  IV. ;  but  in 
1792,  through  the  influence  of  the  favourite  Godoy,  he  was 
dismissed  and  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Pampeluna.  Here 
he  was  saved  from  starvation  only  by  the  intervention  of  his 
brother.  He  was  afterwards  aUowed  to  retire  to  his  estates, 
and  remained  in  seclusion  till  the  French  invasion  of  1808.  He 
was  then  called  by  his  countrymen  to  take  the  presidency  of 
the  central  junta.  But  his  strength  failed  him,  and  he  died  at 
Seville  on  the  soth  of  November  of  the  same  year.  He  left 
several  short  treatises  on  jurisprudence. 

See  Obras  originates  del  Conde  de  Floridablanca,  edited,  with  bio- 
graphical introduction,  by  A.  Ferrer  del  Rio;  in  the  Biilicteca  de 
Rivadeneyra,  vol.  lix. 

FLORIDOR  fJcsiAS  DE  SOULAS,  Sieur  de  Prinefosse]  (d.  c. 
1671),  French  actor,  was  born  in  Brie  early  in  the  i7th  century, 
the  son  of  a  gentleman  of  German  family  who  had  moved  to 
France,  married  there,  and  become  a  Roman  Catholic.  The  son 
entered  the  French  army,  but  after  being  promoted  ensign, 
quitted  the  army  for  the  theatre,  where  he  took  the  name 
of  Floridor.  His  first  Paris  appearance  was  in  1640.  Three 
years  later  he  was  called  to  the  company  at  the  H&tel  de  Bour- 
gogne,  where  he  played  all  the  leading  parts  in  tragedy  and 
comedy  and  became  the  head  of  his  profession.  He  was  a  man 
of  superb  physique  and  excellent  carriage,  with  a  flexible  and 
sonorous  voice,  and  manners  of  rare  distinction  and  elegance, 
He  was  much  liked  at  court,  and  Louis  XIV.  held  him  in  particular 
esteem.  He  died  in  1671  or  1672. 


FLORIN,  the  name  applied  to  several  coins  of  the  continent 
of  Europe  and  to  two  coins  struck  in  England  at  different  times. 
The  word  comes  through  the  Fr.  florin  from  the  Ital.  fiorino, 
flower,  Lat.  flos,  florem.  Fiorino  was  the  Italian  name  of  a  gold 
coin  issued  at  Florence  in  1252,  weighing  about  fifty-four  grains. 
This  coin  bore  on  the  obverse  a  lily,  from  which  it  took  its  name 
of  "  the  flower,"  on  the  reverse  the  Latin  name  of  the  city 
Florentia,  from  which  it  was  also  known  as  a  "  florence." 
"  Florin  "  and  "  florence  "  seem  to  have  been  used  in  English 
indiscriminately  as  the  name  of  this  coin.  The  Florentine  florin 
was  held  in  great  commercial  repute  throughout  Europe,  and 
similar  coins  were  struck  in  Germany,  other  parts  of  Italy, 
France,  &c.  The  English  gold  florin  was  introduced  by  Edward 
III.  in  1343,  half  and  quarter  florins  being  struck  at  the  same 
time.  This  gold  florin  weighed  108  grains  and  was  to  be  current 
for  six  shillings.  It  was  found,  however,  to  be  overvalued  in 
proportion  to  the  silver  currency  and  was  demonetized  the 
following  year.  The  florin  did  not  again  appear  in  the  English 
coinage  until  1849,  when  silver  coins  with  this  name,  having 
a  nominal  value  of  two  shillings  (one-tenth  of  a  pound),  were 
struck.  When  first  issued  the  "  Dei  gratia  "  was  omitted  from 
the  inscription,  and  they  were  frequently  referred  to  as  the 
"  Godless  "  or  "  graceless  "  florins.  The  D.G.  was  added  in 
1852.  In  1887  a  double  florin  or  four  shilling  piece  was  issued, 
but  its  coinage  was  discontinued  in  1890.  The  total  value  of 
double  florins  issued  during  these  years  amounted  to  £533,125. 
(See  also  NUMISMATICS.) 

FLORIO,  GIOVANNI  (i553?-i625),  English  writer,  was  born 
in  London  about  1553.  He  was  of  Tuscan  origin,  his  parents 
being  Waldenses  who  had  fled  from  persecution  in  the  Valtelline 
and  taken  refuge  in  England.  His  father,  Michael  Angelo 
Florio,  was  pastor  of  an  Italian  Protestant  congregation  in 
London  in  1550.  He  was  attached  to  the  household  of  Sir 
William  Cecil,  but  dismissed  on  a  charge  of  immorality.  He 
dedicated  a  book  on  the  Italian  language  to  Henry  Herbert, 
and  may  have  been  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  William  Herbert, 
earl  of  Pembroke.  Anthony  a  Wood  says  that  the  Florios  left 
England  on  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  but  returned  after  her 
death.  The  son  resided  for  a  time  at  Oxford,  and  was  appointed, 
about  1576  tutor  to  the  son  of  Richard  Barnes,  bishop  of  Durham, 
then  studying  at  Magdalen  College.  In  1578  Florio  published 
a  work  entitled  First  Fruits,  which  yield  Familiar  Speech,  Merry 
Proverbs,  Witty  Sentences,  and  Golden  Sayings  (4to).  This  was 
accompanied  by  A  Perfect  Induction  to  the  Italian  and  English 
Tongues.  The  work  was  dedicated  to  the  earl  of  Leicester. 
Three  years  later  Florio  was  admitted  a  member  of  Magdalen 
College,  and  became  a  teacher  of  French  and  Italian  in  the  univer- 
sity. In  1591  appeared  his  Second  Fruits,  to  be  gathered  of 
Twelve  Trees,  of  divers  but  delightsome  Tastes  to  the  Tongues  of 
Italian  and  English  men;  to  which  was  annexed  the  Garden  of 
Recreation,  yielding  six  thousand  Italian  Proverbs  (4to).  These 
manuals  contained  an  outline  of  the  grammar,  a  selection  of 
dialogues  in  parallel  columns  of  Italian  and  English,  and  longer 
extracts  from  classical  Italian  writers  in  prose  and  verse.  Florio 
had  many  patrons;  he  says  that  he  "  lived  some  years  "  with 
the  earl  of  Southampton,  and  the  earl  of  Pembroke  also  be- 
friended him.  His  Italian  and  English  dictionary,  entitled 
A  World  of  Words,  was  published  in  folio  in  1598.  After  the 
accession  of  James  I.,  Florio  was  named  French  and  Italian 
tutor  to  Prince  Henry,  and  afterwards  became  a  gentleman  of  the 
privy  chamber  and  clerk  of  the  closet  to  the  queen,  whom  he 
also  instructed  in  languages.  His  magnum  opus  is  the  admirable 
translation  of  the  Essayes  on  Morall,  Politike,  and  Millitarie 
Discourses  of  Lo.  Michaell  de  Montaigne,  'published  in  folio  in 
1603  in  three  books,  each  dedicated  to  two  noble  ladies.  A 
second  edition  in  1613  was  dedicated  to  the  queen.  Special 
interest  attaches  to  the  first  edition  from  the  circumstance  that 
of  the  several  copies  in  the  British  Museum  library  one  bears 
the  autograph  of  Shakespeare — long  received  as  genuine  but 
now  supposed  to  be  by  an  iSth-century  hand — and  another  that 
of  Ben  Jonson.  It  was  suggested  by  Warburton  that  Florio  is 
satirized  by  Shakespeare  under  the  character  of  Holofernes,  the 


FLORIS— FLOTOW 


547 


pompous  pedant  of  Low's  Labour's  Lost,  but  it  is  much  more  likely, 
especially  as  he  was  one  of  the  earl  of  Southampton's  proteges, 
that  he  was  among  the  personal  friends  of  the  dramatist,  who 
may  well  have  gained  his  knowledge  of  Italian  and  French  from 
him.  He  had  married  the  sister  of  the  poet  Daniel,  and  had 
friendly  relations  with  many  writers  of  his  day.  Ben  Jonson 
sent  him  a  copy  of  Volpone  with  the  inscription,  "  To  his  loving 
father  and  worthy  friend  Master  John  Florio,  Ben  Jonson 
seals  this  testimony  of  his  friendship  and  love."  He  is  character- 
ized by  Wood,  in  Athenae  Oxonienses,  as  a  very  useful  man  in 
his  profession,  zealous  for  his  religion,  and  deeply  attached  to 
his  adopted  country.  He  died  at  Fulham,  London,  in  the 
autumn  of  1625. 

FLORIS,  FRANS,  or  more  correctly  FRANS  DE  VEIENDT, 
called  FLORIS  (1520-1570),  Flemish  painter,  was  one  of  a  large 
family  trained  to  the  study  of  art  in  Flanders.  Son  of  a  stone- 
cutter, Cornells  de  Vriendt,  who  died  at  Antwerp  in  1538,  he 
began  life  as  a  student  of  sculpture,  but  afterwards  gave  up 
carving  for  painting.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  went  to  Li6ge 
and  took  lessons  from  Lambert  Lombard,  a  pupil  of  Mabuse,. 
whose  travels  in  Italy  had  transformed  a  style  truly  Flemish 
into  that  of  a  mongrel  Leonardesque.  Following  in  the  footsteps 
of  Mabuse,  Lambert  Lombard  had  visited  Florence,  and  caught 
the  manner  of  Salviati  and  other  pupils  of  Michelangelo  and 
Del  Sarto.  It  was  about  the  time  when  Schoreel,  Coxcie  and 
Heemskerk,  after  migrating  to  Rome  and  imitating  the  master- 
pieces of  Raphael  and  Buonarroti,  came  home  to  execute  Dutch- 
Italian  works  beneath  the  level  of  those  produced  in  the  peninsula 
itself  by  Leonardo  da  Pistoia,  Nanaccio  and  Rinaldo  of  Mantua. 
Fired  by  these  examples,  Floris  in  his  turn  wandered  across 
the  Alps,  and  appropriated  without  assimilation  the  various 
mannerisms  of  the  schools  of  Lombardy,  Florence  and  Rome. 
Bold,  quick  and  resolute,  he  saw  how  easy  it  would  be  to  earn  a 
livelihood  and  acquire  a  name  by  drawing  for  engravers  and 
painting  on  a  large  scale  after  the  fashion  of  Vasari.  He  came 
home,  joined  the  gild  of  Antwerp  in  1540,  and  quickly  opened  a 
school  from  which  120  disciples  are  stated  to  have  issued.  Floris 
painted  strings  of  large  pictures  for  the  country  houses  of  Spanish 
nobles  and  the  villas  of  Antwerp  patricians.  He  is  known  to 
have  illustrated  the  fable  of  Hercules  in  ten  compositions,  and 
the  liberal  arts  in  seven,  for  Claes  Jongeling,  a  merchant  of 
Antwerp,  and  adorned  the  duke  of  Arschot's  palace  of  Beaumont 
with  fourteen  colossal  panels.  Comparatively  few  of  his  works 
have  descended  to  us,  partly  because  they  came  to  be  contemned 
for  their  inherent  defects,  and  so  were  suffered  to  perish,  partly 
because  they  were  soon  judged  by  a  different  standard  from 
that  of  the  Flemings  of  the  i6th  century.  The  earliest  extant 
canvas  by  Floris  is  the  "  Mars  and  Venus  ensnared  by  Vulcan  "  in 
the  Berlin  Museum  (1547),  the  latest  a  "  Last  Judgment "  (1566) 
in  the  Brussels  gallery.  Neither  these  nor  any  of  the  intermediate 
works  at  Alost,  Antwerp,  Copenhagen,  Dresden,  Florence, 
Leau,  Madrid,  St  Petersburg  and  Vienna  display  any  charm 
of  originality  in  composition  or  in  form.  Whatever  boldness 
and  force  they  may  possess,  or  whatever  principles  they  may 
embody,  they  are  mere  appropriations  of  Italian  models  spoiled 
in  translation  or  adaptation.  Their  technical  execution  reveals 
a  rapid  hand,  but  none  of  the  lustre  of  bright  colouring;  and 
Floris  owed  much  of  his  repute  to  the  cleverness  with  which 
his  works  were  transferred  to  copper  by  Jerome  Cock  and 
Theodore  de  Galle.  Whilst  Floris  was  engaged  on  a  Crucifixion 
of  27  ft.,  and  a  Resurrection  of  equal  size,  for  the  grand  prior 
of  Spain,  he  was  seized  with  illness,  and  died  on  the  ist  of  October 
1 570  at  Antwerp.  . 

FLORUS,  Roman  historian,  flourished  in  the  time  of  Trajan 
and  Hadrian.  He  compiled,  chiefly  from  Livy,  a  brief  sketch 
of  the  history  of  Rome  from  the  foundation  of  the  city  to  t) 
closing  of  the  temple  of  Janus  by  Augustus  (25  B.C.).  The  work, 
which  is  called  Epitome  de  T.  Lino  Bellorum  omnium  annorum 
DCC  Libri  duo,  is  written  in  a  bombastic  and  rhetorical  style, 
and  is  rather  a  panegyric  of  the  greatness  of  Rome,  whose  life 
is  divided  into  the  four  periods  of  infancy,  youth,  manhooc 
and  old  age.  It  is  often  wrong  in  geographical  and  chronological 


details;  but,  in  spite  of  its  faults,  the  book  was  much  used  in  the 
middle  ages.  In  the  MSS.  the  writer  is  variously  given  as  Julius 
Florus,  Lucius  Anneus  Florus,  or  simply  Annaeus  Florus.  From 
certain  similarities  of  style  he  has  been  identified  with  Publius 
Annius  Florus,  poet,  rhetorician  and  friend  of  Hadrian,  author 
of  a  dialogue  on  the  question  whether  Virgil  was  an  orator  or 
poet,  of  which  the  introduction  has  been  preserved. 

The  best  editions  are  by  O.  Jahn  (1852),  C.  Halm  (1854),  which 
contain  the  fragments  of  the  Virgilian  dialogue.  There  is  an  English 
translation  in  Bohn's  Classical  Library. 

FLORUS,  JULIUS,  poet,  orator,  and  jurist  of  the  Augustan 
age.  His  name  has  been  immortalized  by  Horace,  who  dedicated 
to  him  two  of  his  Epistles  (i.  3;  ii.  2),  from  which  it  would 
appear  that  he  composed  lyrics  of  a  light,  agreeable  kind.  The 
statement  of  Porphyrion,  the  old  commentator  on  Horace,  that 
Florus  himself  wrote  satires,  is  probably  erroneous,  but  he  may 
have  edited  selections  from  the  earlier  satirists  (Ennius,  Lucilius, 
Varro).  Nothing  is  definitely  known  of  his  personality,  except 
that  he  was  one  of  the  young  men  who  accompanied  Tiberius  on 
his  mission  to  settle  the  affairs  of  Armenia.  He  has  been  variously 
identified  with  Julius  Florus,  a  distinguished  orator  and  uncle 
of  Julius  Secundus,  an  intimate  friend  of  Quintilian  (Instil,  x. 
3,  13) ;  with  the  leader  of  an  insurrection  of  the  Treviri  (Tacitus, 
Ann.  iii.  40);  with  the  Postumus  of  Horace  (Odes,  ii.  14) 
and  even  with  the  historian  Florus. 

FLORUS,  PUBLIUS  ANNIUS,  Roman  poet  and  rhetorician, 
identified  by  some  authorities  with  the  historian  Florus  (g.v.). 
The  introduction  to  a  dialogue  called  Virgilius  orator  an  poeta 
is  extant,  in  which  the  author  (whose  name  is  given  as  Publius 
Annius  Florus)  states  that  he  was  born  in  Africa,  and  at  an 
early  age  took  part  in  the  literary  contests  on  the  Capitol  insti- 
tuted by  Domitian.  Having  been  refused  a  prize  owing  to  the 
prejudice  against  African  provincials,  he  left  Rome  in  disgust, 
and  after  travelling  for  some  time  set  up  at  Tarraco  as  a  teacher 
of  rhetoric.  Here  he  was  persuaded  by  an  acquaintance  to 
return  to  Rome,  for  it  is  generally  agreed  that  he  is  the  Florus 
who  wrote  the  well-known  lines  quoted  together  with  Hadrian's 
answer  by  Aelius  Spartianus  (Hadrian  16).  Twenty-six  trochaic 
tetrameters,  De  qualitate  iiitae,  and  five  graceful  hexameters, 
De  rosis,  are  also  attributed  to  him.  Florus  is  important  as 
being  the  first  in  order  of  a  number  of  2nd-century  African 
writers  who  exercised  a  considerable  influence  on  Latin  literature, 
and  also  the  first  of  the  poetae  neoterici  or  novelli  (new-fashioned 
poets)  of  Hadrian's  reign,  whose  special  characteristic  was  the 
use  of  lighter  and  graceful  metres  (anapaestic  and  iambic 
dimeters),  which  had  hitherto  found  little  favour. 

The  little  poems  will  be  found  in  E.  Bahrens,  Poetae  Latini  minores 
(1879-1883) ;  for  an  unlikely  identification  of  Fionas  with  the  author 
of  the  Penrigilium  Veneris  (q.v.)  see  E.  H.  O.  Miiller,  De  P.  Annio 
Flora  poeta  el  de  Pervigilio  Veneris  (1855),  and,  for  the  poet's  re- 
lations with  Hadrian,  F.  Eyssenhardt,  Hadrian  und  Florus  (1882); 
see  also  F.  Marx  in  Pauly-Wissowa's  Realencyclopadie,  i.  pt.  2  (1894). 

FLOTOW,  FRIEDRICH  FERDINAND  ADOLF  VON,  FREIHERR 
(1812-1883),  German  composer,  was  born  on  his  father's  estate 
at  Teutendorf,  in  Mecklenburg,  on  the  27th  of  April  1812. 
Destined  originally  for  the  diplomatic  profession,  his  passion 
for  music  induced  his  father  to  send  him  to  Paris  to  study 
under  Reicha.  But  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  in  1830 
caused  his  return  home,  where  he  busied  himself  writing  chamber- 
music  and  operetta  until  he  was  able  to  return  to  Paris.  There 
he  produced  Pierre  et  Catherine,  Rob  Roy,  La  Duchesse  de  Guise, 
but  made  his  first  real  success  with  Le  Naufrage  de  la  Meduse 
at  the  Renaissance  Thdatre  in  1838.  Greater,  however,  was  the 
success  which  attended  Stradella  (1844)  and  Martha  (1847), 
which  made  the  tour  of  the  world.  In  1848  Flotow  was  again 
driven  home  by  the  Revolution,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years 
he  produced  Die  Grossfiirstin  (1850),  Indra  (1853),  Rubezahl 
(1854),  Hilda  (1855)  and  Albin  (1856).  From  1856  to  1863 
he  was  director  (Intendant)  of  the  Schwerin  opera,  but  in  the 
latter  year  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  in  1869  he  produced 
L'  Ombre.  From  that  time  to  the  date  of  his  death  he  lived  in 
Paris  or  on  his  estate  near  Vienna.  He  died  on  the  24th  of 


FLOTSAM— FLOUR  AND  FLOUR  MANUFACTURE 


January  1883.  Of  his  concert-music  only  the  Jubelouvertiire 
is  now  ever  heard.  His  strength  lay  in  the  facility  of  his 
melodies. 

FLOTSAM,  JETSAM  and  LIGAN,  in  English  law,  goods  lost 
at  sea,  as  distinguished  from  goods  which  come  to  land,  which 
are  technically  designated  wreck.  Jetsam  (the  same  word  as 
jettison,  from  Lat.  jactare,  to  throw)  is  when  goods  are  cast  into 
the  sea,  and  there  sink  and  remain  under  water;  flotsam  (floatson, 
from  float,  Lat.  flottare)  is  where  they  continue  floating  on  the 
surface  of  the  waves;  ligan  (or  lagan,  from  lay  or  lie)  is  where 
they  are  sunk  in  the  sea,  but  tied  to  a  cork  or  buoy  in  order  to 
be  found  again.  Flotsam,  jetsam  and  ligan  belong  to  the 
sovereign  in  the  absence  only  of  the  true  owner.  Wreck,  on  the 
other  hand  (i.e.  goods  cast  on  shore),  was  by  the  common  law 
adjudged  to  the  sovereign  in  any  case,  because  it  was  said  by 
the  loss  of  the  ship  all  property  was  gone  out  of  the  original 
owner.  This  singular  distinction  which  treated  goods  washed 
ashore  as  lost,  and  goods  on  and  in  the  sea  as  not  lost,  is  no  doubt 
to  be  explained  by  the  primitive  practice  of  plundering  wrecked 
ships.  (See  WRECK.) 

FLOUNDER,  a  common  term  for  flat-fish.  The  name  is  also 
more  specially  given  to  certain  varieties,  according  to  local 
usage.  Thus  the  Pleuronectes  flesus  is  the  common  flounder 
of  English  terminology,  found  along  the  coasts  of  northern 
Europe  from  the  Bristol  Channel  to  Iceland.  It  is  particularly 
partial  to  fresh  water,  ascending  the  Rhine  as  far  as  Cologne. 
It  rarely  exceeds  a  length  of  12  in.  or  a  weight  of  15  Ib.  In 
American  terminology  the  principal  fish  of  the  name  are  the 
"  summer  flounders  "  or  "  deep-sea  flounders,"  also  known 
in  America  as  "  plaice  "  (Paralichlhys  dentatus),  as  long  as  3  ft. 
and  as  heavy  as  15  ft>;  the  "four-spotted  flounders"  (Para- 
lichthys  oblongus);  the  "common"  or  "winter"  flounder 
(Pseudopleuronectes  americanus) ;  the  "  diamond  flounder " 
(Hysopsella  guttulata);  and  the  "  pole  flounder  "  (Glyptocephalus 
cynoglossus). 

FLOUR  and  FLOUR  MANUFACTURE.  The  term  "flour" 
(Fr.  fleur,  flower,  i.e.  the  best  part)  is  usually  applied  to  the 
triturated  farinaceous  constituents  of  the  wheat  berry  (see 
WHEAT)  ;  it  is,  however,  also  used  of  other  cereals  and  even  of 
leguminoids  when  ground  into  a  fine  powder,  and  of  many  other 
substances  in  a  pulverulent  state,  though  in  these  cases  it  is 
usual  to  speak  of  rye  flour,  bean  flour,  &c.  The  flour  obtained 
from  oats  is  generally  termed  oatmea).  In  Great  Britain  wheaten 
flour  was  commonly  known  in  the  i6th  and  I7th  centuries  as 
meal,  and  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  ipth  century,  or  perhaps 
later,  the  term  mealing  trade  was  not  infrequently  used  of  the 
milling  trade. 

The  ancestor  of  the  millstone  was  apparently  a  rounded  stone 
about  the  size  of  a  man's  fist,  with  which  grain  or  nuts  were 
pounded  and  crushed  into  a  rude  meal.  These  stones 
grtndtag.  are  generally  of  hard  sandstone  and  were  evidently 
used  against  another  stone,  which  by  dint  of  continual 
hammering  was  broken  into  hollows.  Sometimes  the  crusher 
was  used  on  the  surface  of  rocks.  St  Bridget's  stone,  on  the 
shore  of  Lough  Macnean,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  primitive 
Irish  mill;  there  are  many  depressions  in  the  face  of  the  table- 
like rock,  and  it  is  probable  that  round  this  stone  several  women 
(for  in  early  civilization  the  preparation  of  flour  was  peculiarly 
the  duty  of  the  women)  would  stand  and  grind,  or  rather  pound, 
meal.  Many  such  stones,  known  as  Bullan  stones,  still  exist  in 
Ireland.  Similar  remains  are  found  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands, 
and  it  is  on  record  that  some  of  these  stones  have  been  used 
for  flour-making  within  historic  times.  Richard  Bennett  in  his 
History  of  Corn  Milling  remarks  that  the  Seneca  Indians  to  this 
day  boil  maize  and  crush  it  into  a  paste  between  loose  stones. 
In  the  same  way  the  Omahas  pound  this  cereal  in  holes  in  the 
rocks,  while  the  Oregon  Indians  parch  and  pound  the  capsules 
of  the  yellow  lily,  much  after  the  fashion  described  by  Herodotus 
in  his  account  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  In  California  the 
Indian  squaws  make  a  sort  of  paste  by  crushing  acorns  between 
a  round  stone  or  "  muller,"  and  a  cuplike  hollow  in  the  surface 
of  a  rock.  Crushing  stones  are  of  different  shapes,  ranging 


Quern. 


from  the  primitive  ball-like  implement  to  an  elongated  shape 
resembling  the  pestle  of  a  mortar.  Mullers  of  the  latter  type 
are  not  infrequent  among  prehistoric  remains  in  America,  while 
Dr  Schliemann  discovered  several  specimens  of  the  globular 
form  on  the  reputed  site  of  the  city  of  Troy,  and  also  among  the 
ruins  of  Mycenae.  As  a  matter  of  fact  stone  mullers  survived 
in  highly  civilized  countries  into  modern  days,  if  indeed  they  are 
now  altogether  extinct. 

The  saddle-stone  is  the  connecting  link  between  the  primitive 
pounder,  or  muller,  and  the  quern,  which  was  itself  the  direct 
ancestor  of  the  millstones  still  used  to  some  extent 
in  the  manufacture  of  flour.  The  saddle-stone,  the  stone"' 
first  true  grinding  implement,  consisted  of  a  stone  with 
a  more  or  less  concave  face  on  which  the  grain  was  spread,  and 
in  and  along  this  hollow  surface  it  was  rubbed  and  ground  into 
coarse  meal.  Saddle-stones  have  been  discovered  in  the  sand 
caves  of  Italy,  among  the  lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland,  in  the 
dolmens  of  France,  in  the  pit  dwellings  of  the  British  Isles,  and 
among  the  remains  of  primitive  folk  all  the  world  over.  The 
Romans  of  the  classical  period  seem  to  have  distinguished  the 
saddle-stone  from  the  quern.  We  find  allusions  to  the  mold 
trusatilis,  which  may  be  translated  "  the  thrusting  mill  ";  this 
would  fairly  describe  a  backwards  and  forwards  motion.  The 
mola  iiersatilis  evidently  referred  to  the  revolving  millstone  or 
quern.  In  primitive  parts  of  the  world  the  saddle-stone  is  not 
yet  extinct,  as  for  instance  in  Mexico.  It  is  known  as  the  metata, 
and  is  used  both  for  grinding  maize  and  for  making  the  maize 
cakes  known  as  tortillas.  The  same  implement  is  apparently 
still  in  use  in  some  parts  of  South  America,  notably  in  Chile. 

According  to  Richard  Bennett,  the  quern,  the  first  complete 
milling  machine,  originated  in  Italy  and  is  in  all  probability 
not  older  than  the  2nd  century  B.C.  This  is,  however, 
a  controverted  point.  Querns  are  still  used  in  most 
primitive  countries,  nor  is  it  certain  that  they  have  altogether 
disappeared  from  remoter  districts  of  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
Whatever  was  their  origin,  they  revolutionized  flour  milling. 
The  rotary  motion  of  millstones  became  the  essential  principle 
of  the  trituration  of  grain,  and  exists  to-day  in  the  rolls  of  the 
roller  mill.  The  early  quern  appears  to  have  differed  from  its 
descendants  in  that  it  was  somewhat  globular  in  shape,  the 
lower  stone  being  made  conical,  possibly  with  the  idea  that  the 
ground  flour  should  be  provided  with  a  downward  flow  to  enable 
it  to  fall  from  the  stones.  This  type  did  not,  however,  persist. 
Gradually  the  convexity  disappeared  and  the  surface  of  the 
two  stones  became  flat  or  very  nearly  so.  In  the  upper  stone 
was  a  species  of  funnel,  through  which  the  grain  passed  as  through 
a  hopper,  making  its  way  thence,  as  the  stone  revolved,  into  the 
space  between  the  running  and  the  bed  stone.  The  ground 
meal  was  discharged  at  the  periphery.  The  runner,  or  upper 
stone,  was  provided  with  a  wooden  handle  by  which  the  stone 
was  revolved.  The  typical  Roman  mill  of  the  Augustan  age 
may  be  seen  at  Pompeii.  Here,  in  what  is  believed  to  have 
been  a  public  pistrinum  or  mill,  were  found  four  pairs  of  mill- 
stones. The  circular  base  of  these  mills  is  5  ft.  in  diameter  and 

1  ft.  high,  and  upon  it  was  fastened  the  meta,  a  blunt  cone  about 

2  ft.  high,  on  which  fitted  the  upper  millstone  or  calUlus,  also 
conical.     These  mills  were  evidently  rotated  by  slave  labour, 
as  there  was  no  room  for  the  perambulation  of  a  horse  or  donkey, 
while  the  side-lugs  in  which  the  handle-bars  were  inserted  are 
plainly  visible.     Slave  labour  was  generally  used   up   to   the 
introduction  of  Christianity,  but  was  finally  abolished  by  the 
emperor  Constantine,  though  even  after  his  edict  mills  continued 
to  be  driven  by  criminals. 

The  Romans  are  credited  by  some  authorities  with  having 
first  applied  power  to  the  driving  of  millstones,  which  they 
connected  with  water-wheels  by  a  horizontal  spindle 
through  the  intervention  of  bevel  gearing.     But  long        power. 
after  millstones  had  been  harnessed  to  water  power 
slave  labour  was  largely  employed  as  a  motive  force.     The  water- 
mill  of  the  Romans  was  introduced  at  a  relatively  early  period 
into  Britain.     Domesday  Book  shows  that  England  was  covered 
by  mills  of  a  kind  at  the  time  of  the  Norman  conquest,  and 


FLOUR  AND  FLOUR  MANUFACTURE 


549 


Roller 

milling. 


mentions  some  500  mills  in  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk 
alone.  No  doubt  the  mola  of  Domesday  Book  consisted  of  one 
pair  of  stones  connected  by  rude  gearing  with  a  water-wheel. 
Windmills  are  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Crusaders, 
who  brought  them  from  the  East.  Steam  power  is  believed 
to  have  been  first  used  in  a  British  flour  mill  towards  the  close 
of  the  1 8th  century,  when  Boulton  &  Watt  installed  a  steam 
engine  in  the  Albion  Flour  Mills  in  London,  erected  under  the 
care  of  John  Rennie.  Another  great  engineer,  Sir  William 
Fairbairn,  in  the  early  days  of  the  iQth  century,  left  the  impress 
of  his  genius  on  the  mill  and  all  its  accessories.  He  was  followed 
by  other  clever  engineers,  and  in  the  days  immediately  preceding 
the  roller  period  many  improvements  were  introduced  as  regards 
the  balancing  and  driving  of  millstones.  The  introduction  of 
the  blast  and  exhaust  to  keep  the  stones  cool  was  a  great  step 
in  advance,  while  the  substitution  of  silk  gauze  for  woollen  or 
linen  bolting  cloth,  about  the  middle  of  the  ipth  century,  marked 
another  era  in  British  milling.  Millstones,  as  used  just  before 
the  introduction  of  roller  milling,  were  from  4  to  45  ft.  in  diameter 
by  some  1 2  in.  in  thickness,  and  were  usually  made  of  a  siliceous 
stone,  known  as  buhr-stone,  much  of  which  came  from  the  quarry 
of  La  Ferte-sous-Jouarre,  in  France. 

Nine-tenths,  or  perhaps  ninety-nine  hundredths,  of  all  the 
flour  consumed  in  Great  Britain  is  made  in  roller  mills,  that  is, 
mills  in  which  the  wheat  is  broken  and  floured  by 
means  of  rollers,  some  grooved  in  varying  degrees 
of  fineness,  some  smooth,  their  work  being  preceded 
and  supplemented  by  a  wide  range  of  other  machinery.  All 
roller  mills  worthy  of  the  name  are  completely  automatic,  that 
is  to  say,  from  the  time  the  raw  material  enters  the  mill  warehouse 
till  it  is  sacked,  either  in  the  shape  of  finished  flour  or  of  offals, 
it  is  touched  by  no  human  hand. 

The  history  of  roller  milling  extends  back  to  the  first  half 
of  the  igth  century.  Roller  mills,  that  is  to  say,  machines 
fitted  with  rolls  set  either  horizontally,  or  vertically,  or  obliquely, 
for  the'  grinding  of  corn,  are  said  to  have  been  used  as  far  back 
as  the  1 7th  century,  but  if  this  be  so  it  is  certain  that  they  were 
only  used  in  a  tentative  manner.  Towards  the  middle  of  the 
iQth  century  the  firm  of  E.  R.  &  F.  Turner,  of  Ipswich,  began  to 
build  roller  mills  for  breaking  wheat  as  a  preliminary  to  the 
conversion  of  the  resultant  middlings  on  millstones.  The  rolls 
were  made  of  chilled  iron  and  were  provided  with  serrated  edges, 
which  must  have  exercised  a  tearing  action  on  the  integuments 
of  the  berry.  These  mills  were  built  to  the  design  of  a  German 
engineer,  of  the  name  of  G.  A.  Buchholz,  and  were  exhibited  at 
the  London  exhibition  of  1862,  but  they  never  came  into  general 
use.  It  has  also  been  stated  that  as  early  as  1823  a  French 
engineer,  named  Collier,  of  Paris,  patented  a  roller  mill,  while 
five  years  later  a  certain  Malar  took  out  another  French  patent, 
the  specification  of  which  speaks  of  grooves  and  differential 
speeds.  But  the  direct  ancestors  of  the  roller  mills  of  the  present 
day  were  brought  out  some  time  in  the  third  decade  of  the  ipth 
century  by  a  Swiss  engineer  named  Sulzberger.  His  apparatus 
was  rather  cumbrous,  and  the  chilled  iron  rolls  with  which  it 
was  fitted  consumed  a  large  amount  of  power  relatively  to  the 
work  effected.  But  the  Pester  Walz-Muhle,  founded  in  1839 
by  Count  Szechenyi,  a  Hungarian  nobleman,  which  took  its 
name  from  the  roller  mills  with  which  it  was  equipped  by  Sulz- 
berger, was  for  many  years  a  great  success;  some  of  its  roller 
mills  are  said  to  have  been  kept  at  work  for  upwards  of  forty 
years,  and  one  at  least  is  preserved  in  the  museum  at  Budapest. 
It  may  be  noted  that  Hungarian  wheat  is  hard  and  flinty  and 
well  adapted  for  treatment  by  rolls.  Moreover,  gradual  reduction, 
as  now  understood,  was  more  or  less  practised  in 
Hungarian  Hungary!  everl  before  the  introduction  of  roller 
milling.  Though  millstones,  and  not  rolls,  were  used, 
yet  the  wheat  was  not  floured  at  one  operation,  as  in  typical 
low  or  flat  grinding,  but  was  reduced  to  flour  in  several  successive 
operations.  In  the  first  break  the  stones  would  be  placed  just 
wide  enough  apart  to  "  end  "  the  wheat,  and  in  each  succeeding 
operation  the  stones  were  brought  closer  together.  But  Hun- 
garian milling  was  not  then  automatic  in  the  sense  in  which 


British  millers  understand  the  word.  For  a  long  time  a  great 
deal  of  hand  labour  was  employed  in  the  merchant  mills  of 
Budapest  in  carrying  about  products  from  one  machine  to 
another  for  further  treatment.  This  practice  may  have  been 
partly  due  to  the  cheap  labour  available,  but  it  was  also  the 
deliberate  policy  of  Hungarian  millers  to  handle  in  this  way  the 
middlings  and  fine  "  dunst,"  because  it  was  maintained  that 
only  thus  could  certain  products  be  delivered  to  the  machine 
by  which  they  were  to  be  treated  in  the  perfection  of  condition. 
The  results  were  good  so  far  as  the  finished  products  were  con- 
cerned, but  in  the  light  of  modern  automatic  milling  the  system 
appears  uneconomical.  Not  only  did  it  postulate  an  inordinately 
large  staff,  but  it  further  increased  the  labour  bill  by  the  demand 
it  made  on  the  number  of  sub-foremen  who  were  occupied  in 
classifying,  largely  by  touch,  the  various  products,  and  directing 
the  labourers  under  them.  Hungarian  milling  still  differs 
widely  from  milling  as  practised  in  Great  Britain  in  being  a  longer 
system.  This  is  due  to  the  more  minute  subdivision  of  products, 
a  necessary  consequence  of  the  large  number  of  grades  of  flour 
and  offals  made  in  Hungary,  where  there  are  many  intermediate 
varieties  of  middlings  and  "  dunst  "  for  which  no  corresponding 
terms  are  available  in  an  English  miller's  vocabulary. 

It  will  be  convenient  here  to  explain  the  meaning  of  three 
terms  constantly  used  by  millers,  namely,  semolina,  middlings 
and  dunst.  These  three  products  of  roller  mills  are 
practically  identical  in  composition,  but  represent 
different  stages  in  the  process  of  reducing  the  endo- 
sperm  of  the  wheat  to  flour.  A  wheat  berry  is  covered 
by  several  layers  of  skin,  while  under  these  layers  is  the  floury 
kernel  or  endosperm.  This  the  break  or  grooved  rolls  tend  to 
tear  and  break  up.  The  largest  of  these  more  or  less  cubical 
particles  are  known  as  semolina,  whilst  the  medium-sized  are 
called  middlings  and  the  smallest  sized  termed  dunst.  The  last 
is  a  German  word,  with  several  meanings,  but  is  used  in  this 
particular  sense  by  German  and  Austrian  millers,  from  whom 
it  was  doubtless  borrowed  by  the  pioneers  of  roller  milling  in 
England.  If  we  were  to  lay  a  sample  of  fairly  granular  flour 
beside  a  sample  of  small  dunst  the  two  would  be  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish, but  place  a  magnifying  glass  over  the  flour  and  it 
would  look  very  like  the  dunst.  If  we  were  to  repeat  this  experi- 
ment on  dunst  and  fine  middlings,  the  former  would  under  the 
glass  present  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  middlings.  The  same 
effect  would  be  produced  by  the  putting  side  by  side  of  large 
middlings  and  small  semolina.  This  is  a  broad  description  of 
semolina,  middlings  and  dunst.  Semolina  and  middlings  are 
more  apt  to  vary  in  appearance  than  dunst,  because  the  latter 
is  the  product  of  the  later  stages  of  the  milling  process  and 
represents  small  particles  of  the  floury  kernel  tolerably  free 
from  such  impurities  as  bran  or  fluff.  The  flour  producing 
middlings  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  variety  of  wheat 
offal  which  is  also  known  to  many  English  millers  as  middlings. 
This  consists  of  husk  or  bran,  more  or  less  comminuted,  and  with 
a  certain  proportion  of  floury  particles  adherent.  It  is  only 
fit  for  feeding  beasts. 

The  spread  of  roller  milling  on  the  continent  of  Europe  was 
undoubtedly  accelerated  by  the  invention  of  porcelain  rolls, 
by  Friedrich  Wegmann,  a  Swiss  miller,  which  were 
brought  into  general  use  in  the  seventh  decade  of  the 
igth  century,  and  are  still  widely  employed.  They  are 
admirably  fitted  for  the  reduction  of  semolina,  middlings  and 
dunst  into  flour;  and  for  reducing  pure  middlings,  that  is, 
middlings  containing  no  bran  or  wheat  husk,  there  is  perhaps 
nothing  that  quite  equals  them.  They  were  introduced  into 
Great  Britain  in  1877,  or  thereabouts,  and  were  used  for  several 
years,  but  ultimately  they  almost  disappeared  from  British 
mills.  This  was  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  as  made  at  that  date 
they  were  rather  difficult  to  work,  as  it  was  not  easy  to  keep 
the  rolls  perfectly  parallel.  Another  drawback  was  .  their  in- 
adaptability to  over-heavy  feeds,  to  which  the  British,  and 
perhaps  still  more  the  American,  miller  is  frequently  obliged 
to  resort.  However,  since  the  beginning  of  the  2oth  century 
some  of  the  most  advanced  flour  mills  in  England  have  again 


™  * 


550 


FLOUR  AND  FLOUR  MANUFACTURE 


taken  to  using  porcelain  rolls  for  some  part  of  their  reduction 
process. 

The  birth  of  roller  milling  in  Great  Britain  may  be  said  to 
date  from  1872,  when  Oscar  Oexle,  a  German  milling  engineer, 
Roller  erected  a  set  of  roller  mills  in  the  Tradeston  Mills, 
mining  in  Glasgow.  This  was  long  before  the  introduction  of 
la  automatic  roller  mills.  But  the  foundations  of  the 

England,  j^^ng  System  were  not  seriously  disturbed  till 
1877,  when  a  party  of  leading  British  and  Irish  millers  visited 
Vienna  and  Budapest  with  the  object  of  studying  roller  milling 
in  its  native  home.  In  1878  J.  H.  Carter  installed  in  the  mill 
of  J.  Boland,  of  Dublin,  what  was  probably  the  first  complete 
automatic  roller  plant  erected  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  in 
1881  a  milling  exhibition  held  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Hall, 
London,  showed  the  automatic  roller  system  in  complete  opera- 
tion. From  that  time  the  roller  system  made  great  progress. 
By  1885  many  of  the  leading  British  millers  had  installed  full 
roller  plants,  and  in  the  succeeding  ten  years  small  roller  plants 
were  installed  in  many  country  mills.  For  a  time  there  was  a 
transition  stage  in  which  there  was  in  operation  a  number  of  so- 
called  "  combined  "  plants,  that  is  to  say,  mills  in  which  the 
wheat  was  broken  on  millstones  or  disk  mills,  while  the  middlings 
were  reduced  by  smooth  rolls;  but  these  gradually  dropped  out 
of  being. 

Well-found  British  flour  mills  at  the  present  time  are  probably 
the  best  fitted  in  the  world,  and  as  a  whole  have  nothing  to  fear 
from  comparison  with  their  American  competitors.  It  is  true 
that  American  millers  were  rather  quicker  to  copy  Hungarian 
milling  methods  so  far  as  gradual  reduction  was  concerned. 
But  from  about  1880  the  British  miller  was  quite  awake  to  his 
position  and  was  straining  every  nerve  to  provide  himself  with 
a  plant  capable  of  dealing  with  every  kind  of  wheat.  It  has 
often  been  said  that  he  commands  the  wheat  of  the  whole  world. 
This  is  true  in  a  sense,  but  it  is  not  true  that  he  can  always 
command  the  exact  kind  of  wheat  he  requires  at  the  price 
required  to  meet  foreign  competition.  Therein  he  is  at  a  dis- 
advantage. But  engineers  have  done  their  best  to  meet  this 
weak  point,  and  by  their  assistance  he  is  able  to  compete  under 
almost  all  conditions  with  the  millers  of  the  whole  world. 

Processes  of  Milling. — Fully  to  appreciate  the  various  processes 
of  modern  milling,  it  must  be  remembered  not  only  that  the 
wheat  as  delivered  at  the  mill  is  dusty  and  mixed  with  sand  and 
even  more  objectionable  refuse,  but  also  that  it  contains  many 
light  grains  and  seeds  of  other  plants.  It  is  not  therefore  sufficient 
for  the  miller  to  be  able  to  reduce  the  grain  to  flour  on  the  most 
approved  principles;  he  must  also  have  at  command  the  means 
of  freeing  it  from  foreign  substances,  and  further  of  "  condition- 
ing "  it,  should  it  be  damp  or  over  dry  and  harsh.  Again,  his 
operations  must  be  conducted  with  reference  to  the  structure 
of  the  wheat  grain.  The  wheat  berry  is  a  fruit,  not  a  seed,  the 
actual  seed  being  the  germ  or  embryo,  a  kidney-shaped  body 
which  is  found  at  the  base  of  the  berry  and  is  connected  with 
the  plumule  or  root.  The  germ  is  tough  in  texture  and  is  in 
roller  milling  easily  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  berry,  being 
flattened  instead  of  crushed  by  the  rolls  and  thus  readily  sifted 
from  the  stock.  The  germ  contains  a  good  deal  of  fatty  matter, 
which,  if  allowed  to  remain,  would  not  increase  the  keeping 
qualities  of  the  flour.  Botanists  distinguish  five  skins  on  the 
berry — epidermis,  epicarp,  endicarp,  episperm  and  embryous 
membrane — but  for  practical  purposes  the  number  of  integuments 
may  be  taken  as  three.  The  inner  skin  is  often  as  thick  as  the 
outer  and  second  skins  together,  which  are  largely  composed 
of  woody  fibre;  it  contains  the  cerealin  or  aleurone  cells,  but 
although  these  are  made  up  of  a  certain  proportion  of  proteids, 
on  account  of  the  discolouring  and  diastasic  action  of  the  cerealin 
in  flour  they  are  best  eliminated.  The  endosperm,  or  floury 
kernel,  coming  next  to  the  inner  skin,  consists  of  starch  granules 
which  are  caught  as  it  were  in  the  minute  meshes  of  a  net.  This 
network  is  the  gluten,  and  it  may  be  noted  that  these  meshes 
are  not  of  equal  consistency  throughout  the  berry,  but  are 
usually  finer  and  more  dense  near  the  husk  than  in  the  interior 
of  the  kernel.  This  glutinous  portion  is  of  great  importance 


to  the  baker  because  on  its  quantity  and  quality  depends  the 
"  strength  "  or  rising  power  of  the  flour,  and  the  aim  of  modern 
roller  milling  is  to  retain  it  as  completely  as  possible,  a  matter 
of  some  difficulty  owing  to  its  close  adherence  to  the  husk, 
especially  in  the  richest  wheats.  Another  organ  of  the  wheat 
berry  which  has  a  most  important  bearing  on  the  work  of  the 
miller  is  the  placenta,  which  is  in  effect  a  cord  connecting  the 
berry  with  its  stalk  or  straw.  The  placenta  serves  to  filter  the 
food  which  the  plant  sucks  up  from  the  ground;  it  passes  up 
the  crease  of  the  berry,  and  is  enfolded  in  the  middle  skin,  being 
protected  on  the  outer  side  by  the  first  and  having  the  third 
or  inner  skin  on  its  other  side.  A  good  deal  of  the  matters 
filtered  by  the  placenta  are  mineral  in  their  nature,  and  such 
portions  as  are  not  digested  remain  in  the  crease.  This  is  the 
matter  which  millers  call  "  crease  dirt."  It  is  highly  discolouring 
to  flour,  and  must  be  carefully  eliminated.  The  fuzzy  end  of  the 
berry  known  as  the  beard  also  has  a  distinct  function;  its  hairs 
are  in  reality  tubes  which  serve  to  carry  off  superfluous  moisture. 
They  have,  in  common  with  the  bran,  no  nutritive  value.  (See 
also  WHEAT.) 

In  the  old  "  flat  "  or  "  low  "  milling  the  object  was  to  grind  as 
perfectly  as  possible,  at  one  operation,  the  central  substance  of  the 
grain,  constituting  the  flour,  and  to  separate  it  from  the  embryo  and 
outer  skins  constituting  the  bran.  In  "  high  "  milling,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  grinding  is  effected  in  a  series  of  operations,  the  aim 
being  to  get  as  much  semolina  and  middlings  as  possible  from  the 
wheat,  and  to  make  as  little  flour  as  possible  during  the  earlier  or 
"  breaking  "  part  of  the  process.  It  is  impossible  altogether  to 
avoid  the  production  of  flour  at  this  stage,  but  properly  set  and 
worked  break-rolls  will  make  as  little  as  15%  of.  "break-flour," 
which  is  of  less  value,  being  contaminated  with  crease  dirt,  and 
also  because  it  is  weak  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  gluten  cells  which 
adhere  more  readily  to  the  middlings.  Whole  wheaten  flour,  some- 
times called  Graham  flour,  consists  of  the  entire  grain  ground  up 
to  a  uniform  mass. 

Wheat  cleaning  has  been  well  called  the  foundation  of  all  good 
milling.  In  the  screen  house,  as  the  wheat-cleaning  department 
of  the  mill  is  termed,  will  be  found  an  array  of  machinery 
almost  equal  in  range  and  variety  to  that  in  the  mill 
itself.  The  wheat,  drawn  by  an  elevator  from  the  barge, 
or  hoisted  in  sacks,  is  first  treated  by  a  machine  known  as  a  ware- 
house separator.  This  apparatus  accomplishes  its  work  by  means 
of  flat  sieves,  some  of  which  will  be  of  much  coarser  mesh  than 
others,  and  of  air  currents,  the  adjustment  of  which  is  a  more  delicate 
task  than  might  appear.  Tha  warehouse  separator  serves  to  free 
dirty  wheat  of  such  impurities  as  lumps  of  earth,  stones,  straws  and 
sand,  not  to  mention  small  seeds,  also  some  maize,  oats  and  barley. 
Great  care  has  to  be  exercised  in  all  operations  of  the  screen  house 
lest  wheat  should  pass  away  with  the  screenings.  Besides  the 
warehouse  separator,  which  is  made  in  different  types  and  sizes, 
grading  and  sorting  cylinders,  and  what  are  known  as  cockle  and 
barley  cylinders,  are  much  used  in  the  screen  house.  These  cylinders 
are  provided  with  indents  so  shaped  and  of  such  size  as  to  catch 
seeds  which  are  smaller  than  wheat,  and  reject  grains,  as  of  barley  or 
oats,  which  are  longer  than  wheat.  Sorting  cylinders  should  be 
followed  by  machines  known  as  scourers,  the  function  of  which  is  to 
free  the  wheat  from  adherent  impurities.  These  machines  are  of 
different  types,  but  all  depend  on  percussive  action.  A  vertical 
scourer  consists  of  a  number  of  steel  or  iron  beaters  attached  to  a 
vertical  spindle  which  revolves  inside  a  metallic  woven  or  perforated 
casing,  the  whole  being  fitted  with  an  effectual  exhaust.  Scourers 
with  horizontal  spindles  are  also  in  great  favour.  Not  every  wheat 
is  suitable  for  scouring,  but  some  wheats  are  so  mingled  with  im- 
purities that  a  severe  action  between  the  beaters  and  the  perforated 
case  is  absolutely  necessary.  The  most  efficient  scourer  is  that  which 
frees  the  wheat  from  the  greatest  amount  of  impurity  with  a  mini- 
mum of  abrasion.  The  beaters  should  be  adjustable  to  suit  different 
kinds  of  wheat.  Scourers  are  followed  by  brush  machines  which 
are  similar  to  the  last  and  are  of  three  distinct  types :  solid,  divided 
and  cone  brushes.  In  the  solid  variety  the  brush  surface  is  continu- 
ous around  the  circumference  of  a  revolving  cylinder;  in  divided 
brushes  there  is  often  a  set  of  beaters  or  bars  covered  with  brush 
but  leaving  intermediate  spaces;  while  the  cone  brush  consists  of 
beaters  covered  with  fibre  arranged  like  cones  around  a  vertical 
spindle.  The  object  of  all  these  brushes,  the  cylinder  containing 
them  being  fitted  with  an  exhaust  fan,  is  to  polish  the  wheat  and 
remove  adhering  impurities  which  the  percussive  action  of  the 
scourer  may  have  failed  to  eliminate,  also  to  remove  the  beard  or 
fuzzy  end  and  any  loose  portions  of  the  outer  husk.  But  the  miller 
must  be  careful  not  to  overdo  the  scouring  action  and  unnecessarily 
abrade  the  berry,  else  he  will  have  trouble  with  his  flour,  the  tritu- 
rated bran  breaking  under  the  rolls  and  producing  powder  which 
will  discolour  the  break  flour.  To  remove  such  metallic  fragments 
as  nails,  pieces  of  wire,  &c.,  magnets  are  used.  These  may  either 


FLOUR  AND  FLOUR  MANUFACTURE 


be  of  horseshoe  shape,  in  which  case  they  are  usually  set  at  the  head 
of  the  wheat  spouts,  or  they  may  consist  of  magnetized  plates  set 
at  angles  over  which  the  wheat  will  slide.  It  is  not  a  bad  plan  to 
place  the  magnets  just  before  the  first  set  of  break-rolls,  where  they 
should  ensure  the  arrest  of  steel  and  iron  particles,  which  might 
otherwise  get  between  the  rolls  and  spoil  the  edges  of  their  grooves, 
and  also  do  damage  to  the  sifting  machines.  Mention  must  also 
be  made  of  the  automatic  scales  which  are  used  to  check  the  milling 
value  of  the  wheat.  In  principle  these  machines  are  all  the  same, 
though  details  of  construction  may  vary.  Each  weigher  is  set  for 
a  given  weight  of  grain.  As  soon  as  the  receiving  (hopper  has 
poured  through  a  valve  into  the  recipient  or  skip,  which  is  hung  at 
one  end  of  a  beam  scale,  a  load  of  grain  sufficient  to  overcome  the 
weight  hung  at  the  other  end  of  the  beam,  the  inlet  of  grain  is  auto- 
matically cut  off  and  the  skip  is  discharged,  automatically  returning 
to  take  another  charge.  Each  weighing  is  automatically  recorded 
on  a  dial.  In  this  way  a  record  can  be  kept  of  the  gross  weight  of 
the  uncleaned  wheat  entering  the  warehouse  and  of  the  net  weight 
of  the  cleaned  wheat.  The  difference  between  the  two  weighings 
will,  of  course,  represent  the  loss  by  cleaning.  The  percentage  of 
flour  obtained  from  a  given  wheat  can  be  ascertained  in  the  mill 
itself.  In  practice  the  second  weigher  is  placed  just  before  the 
first  break. 

The  cleansing  of  wheat  by  washing  only  became  a  fine  art  at  the 
close  of  the  igth  century,  though  it  '.vas  practised  in  the  north  of 
England  some  twenty  years  earlier.  Briefly  it  may  be  said 
that  certain  wheats  are  washed  to  free  them  from  extrane- 
'mlca-  ous-  matters  sucn  as  adherent  earth  and  similar  impurities 
dltloalast  wn'cn  cou'd  not  be  removed  by  dry  cleaning  without 
*'  undue  abrasion.  Such  wheats  are  Indians,  Persians  and 
hard  Russians,  and  these  require  not  only  washing  but  also  condition- 
ing, by  which  is  meant  mellowing,  before  going  to  the  rolls.  With 
another  class  of  wheats,  such  as  the  softer  Russians  and  Indians, 
spring  Americans  and  Canadians,  hard  American  winters,  Cali- 
fornians  and  the  harder  River  Plates,  washing  and  conditioning  by 
heat  is  also  desirable,  though  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  let  the 
moisture  penetrate  into  the  endosperm  or  floury  portion  of  the 
kernel.  In  a  third  and  distinct  class  fall  soft  wheats,  such  as  many 
kinds  of  Plates,  soft  Russians  and  English  wheat.  It  is  generally 
admitted  that  while  wheat  of  the  first  two  divisions  will  benefit  from 
the  application  of  both  moisture  and  heat,  wheat  of  the  third  class 
must  be  washed  with  great  circumspection.  The  object  of  washing 
machines  is  to  agitate  the  wheat  in  water  till  the  adherent  foreign 
matters  are  washed  off  and  any  dirt  balls  broken  up  and  drained  off 
in  the  waste  water.  To  this  end  some  washers  are  fitted  with  Archi- 
medean worm  conveyors  set  either  at  an  inclined  angle  or  horizon- 
tally or  vertically;  or  the  washer  may  consist  of  a  barrel  revolving 
in  a  tank  partly  filled  with  water.  Another  function  of  washing 
machines  is  to  separate  stones  of  the  same  size  which  are  found  in 
several  varieties  of  wheat.  This  separation  is  effected  by  utilizing 
a  current  of  water  as  a  balance  strong  enough  to  carry  wheat  but  not 
strong  enough  to  carry  stones  or  bodies  of  greater  specific  gravity 
than  wheat.  This  current  may  be  led  up  an  inclined  worm  or  may 
flow  horizontally  over  a  revolving  tray.  The  washer  is  followed 
by  a  whizzer,  which  is  an  apparatus  intended  to  free  the  berry  by 
purely  mechanical  means  from  superfluous  moisture.  The  typical 
whizzer  is  a  vertical  column  fed  at  the  bottom  and  delivering  at  the 
top.  The  wet  wheat  ascends  by  centrifugal  force  in  a  spiral  direction 
round  the  column  to  the  top,  and  by  the  time  it  is  discharged  from 
the  spout  at  the  top  it  has  thrown  off  from  its  outer  skin  almost 
all  its  moisture,  the  water  escaping  through  the  perforated  cover 
of  the  machine.  But  there  still  remains  a  certain  amount  of  water 
which  has  penetrated  the  integuments  more  or  less  deeply,  and  to 
condition  the  berry  it  is  treated  by  a  combination  of  hot  and  cold  air. 
The  wheat  is  passed  between  perforated  metalplates  and  subjected 
to  a  draught  hrst  of  hot  and  then  of  cold  air.  The  perforated  plates 
are  usually  built  in  the  shape  of  a  column,  or  leg  as  it  is  often  called, 
and  this  is  provided  with  two  air  chambers,  an  upper  one  serving 
as  a  reservoir  for  hot,  and  the  lower  for  cold  air.  The  air  from  both 
chambers  is  discharged  by  pressure  through  the  descending  layers 
of  wheat,  which  should  not  be  more  than  an  inch  thick;  the  air  is 
drawn  in  by  a  steel-plate  fan,  which  is  often  provided  with  a  divided 
casing,  one  side  being  used  for  cold,  andtheotherforhotair.  Coupled 
with  the  hot  air  side  is  a  heater  consisting  of  .a  series  of  circulating 
steam-heated  pipes.  The  temperature  of  the  heated  air  can  be 
regulated  by  the  supply  of  steam  to  the  heater.  This  process  of 
washing  and  conditioning,  one  of  the  most  important  in  a  flour 
mill,  is  characteristically  British;  millers  have  to  deal  with  wheats 
of  the  most  varied  nature,  and  one  object  of  conditioning  is  to  bring 
hard  and  harsh,  soft  and  weak  wheats  as  nearly  as  possible  to  a 
common  standard  of  condition  before  being  milled.  Wheat  is  some- 
times washed  to  toughen  the  bran,  an  end  which  can  also  be  attained 
by  damping  it  from  a  spraying  pipe  as  it  passes  along  an  inclined 
worm.  Another  way  of  toughening  bran  is  to  pass  wheat  through 
a  heated  cylinder,  while  again  another  process  known  as  steaming 
consists  of  injecting  steam  into  wheat  as  it  passes  through  a  metal 
hopper.  Here  the  object  is  to  cleanse  to  some  extent,  and  to  warm 
and  soften  (by  the  condensation  of  moisture  on  the  grain),  but  these 
processes  are  imperfect  substitutes  for  a  full  washing  and  condition- 
ing plant.  Hard  wheats  will  not  be  injured  by  a  fairly  long  im- 


mersion in  water,  always  provided  the  subsequent  whizzing  and  dry- 
ing are  efficiently  carried  out.  The  second  class  of  semi-hard  wheats 
already  mentioned  must  be  run  more  quickly  through  the  washer 
and  freed  from  the  water  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Still  more  is  this 
necessary  with  really  soft  wheats,  such  as  soft  River  Plates  and  the 
softer  English  varieties.  Here  an  immersion  of  only  a  few  seconds 
is  desirable,  while  the  moisture  left  by  the  water  must  be  immediately 
and  energetically  thrown  off  by  the  whizzer  before  the  grain  enters 
the  drier.  Treated  thus,  soft  wheats  may  be  improved  By  washing. 
It  is  claimed  that  hard  wheats,  like  some  varieties  of  Indians,  are 
positively  improved  in  flavour  by  conditioning,  and  this  is  probably 
true;  certain  it  is  that  English  country  millers,  in  seasons  when 
native  wheat  was  scarce  and  dear,  and  Indian  wheat  was  abundant 
and  cheap,  have  found  the  latter,  mellowed  by  conditioning,  to  be 
an  excellent  substitute. 

Wheats  which  have  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  water  during 
harvest  do  not  necessarily  yield  unsound  flour;  the  matter  is  a 
question  of  the  amount  of  moisture  absorbed.  But  it 
must  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  so  much  the  water  Efl ect  ot 
itself  which  degrades  the  constituents  of  the  wheat  avaP- 
(starch  and  gluten)  as  the  chemical  changes  which  the  dampness 
produces.  Hence  perhaps  the  best  remedy  which  can  be  found  for 
damp  wheat  is  to  dry  it  as  soon  as  it  has  been  harvested,  either  by 
kiln  or  steam  drier  at  a  heat  not  exceeding  120°  F.,  until  the  moisture 
has  been  reduced  to  10  %  of  the  whole  grain.  The  flour  made  from 
wheat  so  treated  may  be  weak,  but  will  not  usually  be  unsound. 
The  practice  of  drying  damp  flour  has  also  good  results.  Long  before 
the  roller  milling  period  it  was  found  that  only  flour  which  had  been 
dried  (in  a  kiln)  could  safely  be  taken  on  long  sea  voyages,  especially 
when  the  vessel  had  to  navigate  warm  latitudes.  It  may  be  noted 
that  in  the  days  of  millstone  milling  it  was  far  more  difficult  to 
produce  good  keeping  flour.  The  wheat  berry  being  broken  up 
and  triturated  in  one  operation,  the  flour  necessarily  contained  a 
large  proportion  of  branny  particles  in  which  cerealin,  an  active 
diastasic  constituent,  was  present  in  very  sensible  proportions. 
Again,  the  elimination  of  the  germ  by  the  roller  process  is  favourable 
to  the  production  of  a  sounder  flour,  because  the  germ  contains  a 
large  amount  of  oleaginous  matter  and  has  a  strong  diastasic  action 
on  imperfectly  matured  starches.  The  tendency  of  flours  containing 
germ  to  become  rancid  is  well  marked.  During  the  South  African 
War  of  1899-1902  the  British  army  supply  department  had  a 
practical  proof  of  the  diastasic  action  of  branny  particles  in  flour. 
Soldiers'  bread  is  not  usually  of  white  colour,  and  the  military 
authorities  not  unnaturally  believed  that  comparatively  low-grade 
flour,  if  sound,  was  eminently  suitable  for  use  in  the  field  bakeries. 
But  in  the  climate  of  South  Africa  flour  of  this  description  soon 
developed  considerable  acidity.  Ultimately  the  supply  department 
gave  up  buying  any  but  the  driest  patent  flours,  and  it  is  understood 
that  the  most  suitable  flour  proved  to  be  certain  patents  milled 
in  Minneapolis,  U.S.A.,  from  hard  spring  wheat.  Not  only  did  they 
contain  a  minimum  of  branny  and  fibrous  matters,  but  they  were 
also  the  driest  that  could  be  found. 

After  being  cleaned  the  wheat  berry  is  split  and  broken  up  into 
increasingly  fine  pieces  by  fluted  rolls  or  "  breaks."  In  the  earlier 
years  of  roller  milling  it  was  usual  to  employ  more  breaks 
than  is  now  the  case.  The  first  pair  of  break-rolls  used 
to  be  called  the  splitting  rolls,  because  their  function  was  rolls. 
supposed  to  be  to  split  the  berry  longitudinally  down  its  crease,  so  as 
to  give  the  miller  an  opportunity  of  removing  the  dirt  between  the 
two  lobes  of  the  berry  by  means  of  a  brush  machine.  The  dirt  was 
in  many  cases  no  more  than  the  placenta  already  described,  which 
shrivelling  up  took,  like  all  vegetable  fibre,  a  dark  tint.  The  neat 
split  along  the  crease  was  not,  however,  achieved  in  more  than  10% 
of  the  berries  so  treated.  Where  such  rolls  are  still  in  use  they  are 
really  serving  as  a  sort  of  adjunct  to  the  wheat-cleaning  system. 
Four  or  five  breaks  are  now  thought  sufficient,  but  three  breaks  are 
not  recommended,  except  in  very  short  systems  for  small  country 
mills.  Rolls  are  now  used  up  to  60  in.  in  length,  though  in  one  of 
the  most  approved  systems  they  never  exceed  40  in. ;  they  are  made 
of  chilled  iron,  and  for  the  breaking  of  wheat  are  provided  with 
grooving  cut  at  a  slight  twist,  the  spiral  averaging  J  in.  to  the  foot 
length,  though  for  the  last  set  of  break-rolls,  which  clean  up  the  bran, 
the  spiral  is  sometimes  increased  to  J  in.  per  foot.  The  grooves 
should  have  sharp  edges  because  they  do  better  work  than  when 
bjunt,  giving  larger  semolina  and  middlings,  with  bran  adherent  in 
big  flakes;  small  middlings,  that  is,  little  pieces  of  the  endosperm 
torn  away  by  blunt  grooves,  and  comminuted  bran,  make  the  pro- 
duction of  good  class  flour  almost  impossible;  cut  bran,  moreover, 
brings  less  money.  The  break-rolls  should  never  work  by  pressure, 
but  nip  the  material  fed  between  them  at  a  given  point;  to  cut  or 
shear,  not  to  flatten  and  crush,  is  their  function.  Rolls  may  be  set 
either  horizontally  or  vertically;  an  oblique  setting  has  also  come 
into  favour.  The  feed  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  correct 
working  of  a  roller  mill.  The  material  should  be  fed  in  an  even 
stream,  not  too  thick,  and  leaving  no  part  of  the  roll  uncovered. 
The  two  rolls  of  each  pair  are  run  at  unequal  speeds,  2j  to  I  being 
the  usual  ratio  on  the  three  first  breaks,  while  the  last  break  is  often 
speeded  at  3  to  I  or  3}  to  I ;  in  one  of  the  oblique  mills  the  difference 
is  obtained  by  making  the  diameter  of  one  roll  13  and  of  the  other  10 
in.  and  running  them  at  equal  speed.  For  break-rolls  up  to  36  in.  in 


552 


FLOUR  AND  FLOUR  MANUFACTURE 


length  9  in.  is  the  usual  diameter;  for  longer  rolls  10  in.  is  the 
standard.  To  do  good  work  rolls  must  run  in  perfect  parallelism ; 
otherwise  some  parts  of  the  material  will  pass  untouched,  while 
others  will  be  treated  too  severely. 

'  The  products  of  the  break-rolls  are  treated  by  what  are  known 
as  scalpers,  which  are  simply  machines  for  sorting  out  these  products 
_.  for  further  treatment.  Scalpers  may  either  be  revolving 

reels  or  flat  sieves.  The  sieve  is  the  favourite  form  of 
scalper  on  account  of  its  gentle  action.  Scalping  requires  a  separat- 
ing and  sifting,  not  a  scouring  action.  The  break  products  are 
usually  separated  on  a  sieve  covered  with  wire  or  perforated  zinc 
plates.  Generally  speaking,  two  sieves  are  in  one  frame  and  are  run 
at  a  slight  incline.  The  throughs  of  the  top  sieve  fall  on  the  sieve 
below,  while  the  rejections  or  overtails  of  the  first  sieve  are  fed  to  the 
next  break.  The  "  throughs,"  or  what  has  passed  this  sieve,  are 
graded  by  the  next  sieve,  the  tailings  going  to  a  purifier,  while  the 
throughs  may  be  freed  from  what  flour  adheres  to  them  by  a  centri- 
fugal dressing  machine  and  then  treated  by  another  purifier.  A 
form  of  scalper  which  has  come  into  general  use  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  Great  Britain  and  America,  is 
known  as  the  plansifter.  This  machine,  of  Hungarian  origin,  is 
simply  a  collection  of  superimposed  flat  sieves  in  one  box,  and  will 
scalp  or  sort  out  any  kind  of  break  stock  very  efficiently.  A  system 
of  grading  the  tailings,  that  is,  the  rejections  of  the  scalpers,  intro- 
duced by  James  Harrison  Carter  (Carter-Zimmer  patent),  was  known 
as  pneumatic  sorting.  Its  object  was  to  supplement  the  work  of 
the  scalpers  by  classifying  the  tailings  by  means  of  air-currents. 
To  this  end  each  scalper  was  followed  by  a  machine  arranged  some- 
what like  a  gravity  purifier;  that  is  to  say,  a  current  of  air  drawn 
through  the  casing  of  the  sorter  allowed  the  heaviest  and  best 
material  to  drop  down  straight,  while  the  lighter  stuff  was  deposited 
in  one  or  other  of  further  compartments  formed  by  obliquely  placed 
adjustable  cant  boards.  So  searching  was  this  grading,  that  from 
the  first  sorter  of  a  four-break  plant  four  separations  would  be 
obtained,  the  first  going  to  the  second  break,  the  second  joining  the 
first  separation  from  the  second  sorter  and  being  fed  to  the  third 
break,  while  the  third  went  with  the  best  separation  of  the  third 
sorter  to  the  fourth  break,  and  the  last  separation  from  all  the 
sorters  went  straight  into  the  bran  sack.  The  work  of  the  break- 
rolls  was  greatly  simplified  and  reduced  by  this  sorting  process,  as 
each  particle  of  broken  wheat  went  exactly  to  that  pair  of  break- 
rollers  for  which  it  was  suitable,  instead  of  all  the  material  being 
run  indiscriminately  through  all  the  break-rollers  and  thereby  being 
cut  up  with  the  necessary  result  of  increasing  the  production  of 
small  bran. 

The  object  of  the  purifier,  a  machine  on  which  milling  engineers 
have  lavished  much  thought  and  labour,  is  to  get  away  from  the 
_  .„  semolina  and  middlings  as  much  impure  matteras  possible, 

that  those  products  may  be  pure,  as  millers  say,  for 
reduction  to  flour  by  the  smooth  rolls.  The  purifiers  used  in  British 
mills  take  advantage  of  the  fact  that  the  more  valuable  portions  of 
the  wheat  berry  are  heavier  than  the  less  valuable  particles,  such  as 
bran  and  fibrous  bodies,  and  a  current  of  air  is  employed  to  weigh 
these  fragments  of  the  wheat  berry  as  in  a  balance  and  to  separate 
them  while  they  pass  over  a  silk-covered  sieve.  To  this  end  the 
semolina  or  middlings  are  fed  on  a  sieve  vibrated  by  an  eccentric 
and  set  at  a  slight  downward  angle.  This  sieve  is  installed  in  an 
air-tight  longitudinal  wooden  chamber  with  glass  windows  on  either 
side,  through  which  the  process  of  purifying  can  be  watched.  Up- 
wards through  this  sieve  a  fan  constantly  draws  a  current  of  air, 
which,  raising  the  stock  upwards,  allows  the  heavier  and  better 
material  to  remain  below  while  the  lighter  particles  are  lifted  off 
and  fall  on  side  platforms  or  channels,  whence  they  are  carried 
forward  and  delivered  separately.  The  good  material  drops  through 
the  meshes  of  the  silk,  and  is  collected  by  a  worm.  It  is  usual  to 
clothe  the  sieve  in  sections  with  several  different  meshes  of  silk  so 
that  stock  of  almost  identical  value,  but  differing  size,  may  be 
treated  with  uniform  accuracy.  In  good  purifiers  the  strength  of 
the  current  can  be  regulated  at  will  in  each  section.  The  tailings  of 
a  purifier  do  not  usually  exceed  10  to  15  %  of  the  feed.  The  clothing 
of  purifier  sheets  must  be  nicely  graduated  to  the  clothing  of  the 
preceding  machines.  Repurification  and  even  tertiary  purification 
may  be  necessary  under  certain  conditions.  In  Hungary  and  other 
parts  of  Europe,  gravity  purifiers  are  much  in  use.  Here  the  material 
is  guided  along  an  open  sieve  set  at  a  slight  angle,  while  an  air- 
current  is  drawn  up  at  an  acute  angle.  Under  the  sieve  may  be  ar- 
ranged a  series  of  inclined  boards,  the  position  of  which  can  be  varied 
as  required.  The  heaviest  and  most  valuable  products  resist  the 
current  and  drop  straight  down,  while  lighter  material  is  carried 
off  to  further  divisions. 

From  the  purifier  all  the  stock  except  the  tailings,  which  may 
require  other  treatment,  should  go  to  the  smooth  rollers  to  be  made 
Smooth  'nto  fl°ur'  but  here  the  rollerman  will  have  to  exercise 
rolls  great  care  and  discretion.  Many  of  the  remarks  already 

made  in  regard  to  break-rolls  apply  to  smooth  rolls, 
notably  in  respect  of  parallelism.  But  instead  of  a  cutting  action, 
the  smooth  rolls  press  the  material  fed  to  them  into  flour.  This 
pressure,  however,  must  be  applied  with  great  discrimination,  large 
semolina  with  impurities  attached  requiring  quite  different  treat- 
ment from  that  called  for  by  small  pure  middlings.  The  pressure  on 


the  stock  must  be  just  sufficient  and  no  more.  Reduction  rolls  are 
usually  run  at  a  differential  speed  of  about  2  to  3.  The  feed  must  be 
carefully  graded,  because  to  pass  stock  of  varying  size  through  a 
pair  of  smooth  rolls  would  be  fatal  to  good  work.  Scratch  rolls  very 
finely  grooved  are  used  for  cracking  impure  semolina  or  for  reducing 
the  tailings  of  purifiers.  The  latter  often  hold  fragments  of  bran, 
which  are  best  detached  by  rolls  grooved  about  36  to  the  inch  and 
run  at  a  differential  of  3  to  I.  The  reduction  requires  even  more 
roll  surface  than  the  break  system.  To  do  first-class  work  a  mill 
should  have  at  least  35  to  40  in.  on  the  breaks  and  50  in.  on  the 
reduction  for  each  sack  of  280  ft  of  flour  per  hour.  Many  engineers 
consider  100  to  1 10  in.  on  the  break,  scratch  and  smooth  rolls  not 
too  much. 

The  dressing  out  of  the  flour  from  the  stock  reduced  on  smooth 
rolls  is  generally  effected  by  centrifugal  machines,  which  consist 
of  a  slowly  revolving  cylinder  provided  with  an  internal  -^ 
shaft  on  which  are  keyed  a  number  of  iron  beaters  that 
run  at  a  speed  of  about  200  revolutions  a  minute,  and  fling  the  feed 
against  the  silk  clothing  of  the  cylinder.  What  goes  through  the  silk 
is  collected  by  a  worm  conveyor  at  the  bottom  of  the  machine. 
Most  centrifugals  have  so-called  "  cut-off  "  sheets,  with  internal 
divisions  in  the  tail  end ;  these  are  intended  to  separate  some 
intermediate  products,  which,  having  been  freed  fromfloury  particles, 
are  treated  on  some  other  machine,  such  as  a  pair  of  rolls  either 
direct  or  after  a  purifier.  The  centrifugal  is  undoubtedly  an  efficient 
flour  separator,  but  the  plansifters  already  mentioned  are  also  good 
flour-dressers,  especially  in  dry  climates.  A  plansifter  mill  will  have 
no  centrifugals,  except  one  or  two  at  the  tail  end  where  the  material 
gets  more  sticky  and  requires  more  severe  treatment. 

The  yield  of  flour  obtained  in  a  British  roller  mill  averages  70  to 
73  %  of  the  wheat  berry.  The  residue,  with  the  exception  of  a  very 
small  proportion  of  waste,  is  offal,  which  is  divided  into  various 
grades  and  sold.  Profitable  markets  for  British-made  bran  have 
been  found  in  Scandinavia,  and  especially  in  Denmark.  In  mill- 
stone milling  the  yield  of  flour  probably  averaged  75  to  80  %,  but 
a  certain  proportion  of  this  was  little  more  than  offal.  The  length  of 
the  flour  yield  taken  by  British  millers  varies  in  different  parts  of 
the  kingdom,  because  demand  varies.  In  one  locality  high-class 
patents  may  be  at  a  premium ;  in  another  the  call  is  for  a  straight 
grade,  i.e.  a  flour  containing  as  much  of  the  farinaceous  substance 
as  can  be  won  from  the  wheat  berry.  In  one  district  there  is  a  sale 
for  rich  offals,  that  is,  offals  with  plenty  of  flour  adhering ;  in  another 
there  may  be  no  demand  for  such  offals.  Hence,  though  the  general 
principles  of  roller  milling  as  given  above  hold  good  all  over  the 
country,  yet  in  practice  the  work  of  each  mill  is  varied  more  or  less 
to  suit  the  peculiarities  of  the  local  trade. 

Early  in  the  io.th  century  a  French  chemist,  J.  J.  E.  Poutet, 
discovered  that  nitrous  acid  and  oxides  of  nitrogen  act  on  some 
fluid  and  semi-fluid  vegetable  oils,  removing  their  yellow  „.  . . 
tinge  and  converting  a  considerable  portion  of  their  sub-  .  ~  * 
stance  into  a  white  solid.  The  importance  of  this  dis- 
covery, when  the  physical  constitution  of  wheat  is  considered,  is 
obvious,  but  it  was  years  before  any  attempt  was  made  to  bleach 
flour.  The  first  attempts  at  bleaching  seem  to  have  been  made  on 
the  wheat  itself  rather  than  on  the  flour.  In  1879  a  process  was 
patented  for  bleaching  grain  by  means  of  chlorine,  gas,  and  about 
1891  a  suggestion  was  made  for  bleaching  grain  by  means  of  electro- 
lysed sea-water.  In  1895  a  scheme  was  put  forward  for  treating 
grain  with  sulphurous  acid,  and  about  two  years  later  it  was  pro- 
posed to  subject  both  grain  and  flour  to  the  influence  of  electric 
currents.  In  1893  a  patent  was  granted  for  the  purification  of  flour 
by  means  of  fresh  air  or  oxygen,  and  three  years  later  another  in- 
ventor proposed  to  employ  the  Rontgen  rays  for  the  same  purpose. 
In  1898  Emile  Frichot  took  out  a  patent  for  using  ozone  and  ozonized 
air  for  flour-bleaching.  The  patent  (No.  1661  of  1901)  taken  out  by 
J.  &  S.  Andrews  of  Belfast  recited  that  flour  is  known  to  improve 
greatly  if  kept  for  some  time  after  grinding,  and  the  purpose  of  the 
invention  it  covered  was  to  bring  about  this  improvement  or  con- 
ditioning not  only  immediately  after  grinding,  but  also  to  a  greater 
extent  than  can  be  effected  by  keeping.  The  process  consisted  in 
subjecting  the  flour  to  the  action  of  a  suitable  gaseous  oxidizing 
medium;  the  inventors  preferred  air  carrying  a  minute  quantity 
of  nitric  acid  or  peroxide  of  nitrogen,  but  they  did  not  confine  them- 
selves to  those  compounds,  having  found  that  chlorine,  bromine 
and  other  substances  capable  of  liberating  oxygen  were  also  more 
or  less  efficacious.  They  claimed  that  while  exercising  no  deleterious 
action  their  treatment  made  the  flour  whiter,  improved  its  baking 
qualities,  and  rendered  it  less  liable  to  be  attacked  by  mites  or  other 
organisms.  Under  the  patent,  No.  14006  of  1903,  granted  to  J.  N. 
Alsop  of  Kentucky  the  flour  was  treated  with  atmospheric  air 
which  had  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  an  arc  or,  flaming  dis- 
charge of  electricity,  with  the  purpose  of  purifying  it  and  improv- 
ing its  nutritious  properties.  The  Andrews  and  Alsop  patents 
became  the  objects  of  extended  litigation  in  the  English  courts, 
and  it  was  held  that  the  gaseous  medium  employed  by  Alsop  was 
substantially  the  same  as  that  employed  by  Andrews,  though 
produced  electrically  instead  of  chemically,  and  therefore  that  the 
Alsop  process  was  an  infringement  of  the  Andrews  patent.  Various 
other  patents  for  more  or  less  similar  processes  have  also  been  taken 
out.  (G.F.Z.) 


FLOURENS— FLOWER 


553 


FLOURENS,  GUSTAVE  (1838-1871),  French  revolutionist 
and  writer,  a  son  of  J.  P.  Flourens  (1794-1867),  the  physiologist, 
was  born  at  Paris  on  the  4th  of  August  1838.  In  1863  he  under- 
took for  his  father  a  course  of  lectures  at  the  College  de  France, 
the  subject  of  which  was  the  history  of  mankind.  His  theories 
as  to  the  manifold  origin  of  the  human  race,  however,  gave 
offence  to  the  clergy,  and  he  was  precluded  from  delivering  a 
second  course.  He  then  went  to  Brussels,  where  he  published 
his  lectures  under  the  title  of  Histoire  de  I'homme  (1863);  he 
next  visited  Constantinople  and  Athens,  took  part  in  the  Cretan 
insurrection  of  1866,  spent  some  time  in  Italy,  where  an  article 
of  his  in  the  Popolo  d  Italia  caused  his  arrest  and  imprisonment, 
and  finally,  having  returned  to  France,  nearly  lost  his  life  in  a 
duel  with  Paul  de  Cassagnac,  editor  of  the  Pays.  In  Paris  he 
devoted  his  pen  to  the  cause  of  republicanism,  and  at  length, 
having  failed  in  an  attempt  to  organize  a  revolution  at  Belleville 
on  the  7th  of  February  1870,  found  himself  compelled  to  flee 
from  France.  Returning  to  Paris  on  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  he 
soon  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  500  tirailleurs.  On 
account  of  his  insurrectionary  proceedings  he  was  taken  prisoner 
at  Creteil,  near  Vincennes,  by  the  provisional  government,  and 
confined  at  Mazas  on  the  7th  of  December  1870,  but  was  released 
by  his  men  on  the  night  of  January  21-22.  On  the  i8th  of 
March  he  joined  the  Communists.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  commune  by  the  2oth  arrondissement,  and  was  named  colonel. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  active  leaders  of  the  insurrection,  and  in 
a  sortie  against  the  Versailles  troops  in  the  morning  of  the  3rd 
of  April  was  killed  in  a  hand-to-hand  conflict  at  Rueil,  near 
Malmaison.  Besides  his  Science  de  I'homme  (Paris,  1 869) ,  Gustave 
Flourens  was  the  author  of  numerous  fugitive  pamphlets. 

See  C.  Proles,  Les  Hommes  de  la  revolution  de  1871  (Paris,  1898). 

FLOURENS,  MARIE  JEAN  PIERRE  (1794-1867),  French 
physiologist,  was  born  at  Maureilhan,  near  Beziers,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Herault,  on  the  isth  of  April  1794.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
he  began  the  study  of  medicine  at  Montpellier,  where  in  1823 
he  received  the  degree  of  doctor.  In  the  following  year  he 
repaired  to  Paris,  provided  with  an  introduction  from  A.  P.  de 
Candolle,  the  botanist,  to  Baron  Cuvier,  who  received  him 
kindly,  and  interested  himself  in  his  welfare.  At  Paris  Flourens 
engaged  in  physiological  research,  occasionally  contributing  to 
literary  publications;  and  in  1821,  at  the  Ath6nee  there,  he 
gave  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  physiological  theory  of  the 
sensations,  which  attracted  much  attention  amongst  men  of 
science.  His  paper  entitled  Recherches  experimentales  sur  les 
proprietes  et  les  fonctions  du  systeme  nerveux  dans  les  animaux 
vertebres,  in  which  he,  from  experimental  evidence,  sought  to 
assign  their  special  functions  to  the  cerebrum,  corpora  quadri- 
gemina  and  cerebellum,  was  the  subject  of  a  highly  commendatory 
report  by  Cuvier,  adopted  by  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1822.  He  was  chosen  by  Cuvier  in  1828  to  deliver  for  him  a 
course  of  lectures  on  natural  history  at  the  College  de  France, 
and  in  the  same  year  became,  in  succession  to  L.  A.  G.  Bosc,  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  in  the  division  "  Economic  rurale." 
In  1830  he  became  Cuvier's  substitute  as  lecturer  on  human 
anatomy  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  and  in  1832  was  elected  to  the 
post  of  titular  professor,  which  he  vacated  for  the  professorship 
of  comparative  anatomy  created  for  him  at  the  museum  of  the 
Jardin  the  same  year.  In  1833  Flourens,  in  accordance  with  the 
dying  request  of  Cuvier,  was  appointed  a  perpetual  secretary  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences;  and  in  1838  he  was  returned  as  a 
deputy  for  thejarrondissement  of  Beziers.  In  1 840  he  was  elected, 
in  preference  to  Victor  Hugo,  to  succeed  J.  F.  Michaud  at  the 
French  Academy;  and  in  1845  he  was  created  a  commander  of 
the  legion  of  honour,  and  in  the  next  year  a  peer  of  France. 
In  March  1847  Flourens  directed  the  attention  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  to  the  anaesthetic  effect  of  chloroform  on  animals. 
On  the  revolution  of  1848  he  withdrew  completely  from  political 
life;  and  in  1855  he  accepted  the  professorship  of  natural  history 
at  the  College  de  France.  He  died  at  Montgeron,  near  Paris, 
on  the  6th  of  December  1867. 

Besides  numerous  shorter  scientific  memoirs,  Flourens  published— 
Essai  sur  quelques  points  de  la  doctrine  de  la  revulsion  et  de  la  deri- 


vation (Montpellier,  1813) ;  Experiences  sur  le  systeme  nerveux  (Paris, 
1825);  Cours  sur  la  generation,  I'ovologie,  et  I' embryologie  (1836); 
Analyse  raisonnee  des  travaux  de  G.  Cuvier  (1841) ;  Recherches  sur  le 
developpement  des  os  et  des  dents  (1842) ;  Anatomie  genirale  de  la  peau 
et  des  membranes  muqueuses  (1843);  Buffon,  histoire  de  ses  travaux 
et  de  ses  idees  (1844);  Fontenelle,  ou  de  la  philpsophie  moderne  rela- 
tivement  aux  sciences  physiques  (1847);  Thtorie  experimental  de  la 
formation  des  os  (1847; ;  (Euvres  completes  de  Buffon  (1853) ;  De  la 
longevite  humaine  et  de  la  quantite  de  vie  sur  le  globe  (1854),  numerous 
editions;  Histoire  de  la  decouverte  de  la  circulation  du  san$  (1854); 
Cours  de  physiologic  comparee  (1856);  Recueil  des  eloges  historiques 
(1856) ;  De  la  vie  et  de  I  intelligence  (1858) ;  De  la  raison,  du  genief 
et  de  lafolie  (1861);  Ontologie  naturette  (1861);  Examen  du  livre  de 
M.  Darwin  sur  I'Origine  des  Especes  (1864).  For  a  list  of  his  papers 
see  the  Royal  Society's  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers. 

FLOWER,  SIR  WILLIAM  HENRY  (1831-1899),  English 
biologist,  was  born  at  Stratford-on-Avon  on  the  3oth  of  November 
1831.  Choosing  medicine  as  his  profession,  he  began  his  studies 
at  University  College,  London,  where  he  showed  special  aptitude 
for  physiology  and  comparative  anatomy  and  took  his  M.B. 
degree  in  1851.  He  then  joined  the  Army  Medical  Service,  and 
went  out  to  the  Crimea  as  assistant-surgeon,  receiving  the  medal 
with  four  clasps.  On  his  return  to  England  he  became  a  member 
of  the  surgical  staff  of  the  Middlesex  hospital,  London,  and  in 
1 86 1  succeeded  J.  T.  Quekett  as  curator  of  the  Hunterian 
Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England.  In  1870 
he  also  became  Hunterian  professor,  and  in  1884,  on  the  death 
of  Sir  Richard  Owen,  was  appointed  to  the  directorship  of  the 
Natural  History  Museum  at  South  Kensington.  He  died  in 
London  on  the  ist  of  July  1 899.  He  made  valuable  contributions 
to  structural  anthropology,  publishing,  for  example,  complete 
and  accurate  measurements  of  no  less  than  1300  human  skulls, 
and  as  a  comparative  anatomist  he  ranked  high,  devoting 
himself  especially  to  the  study  of  the  mammalia.  He  was  also 
a  leading  authority  on  the  arrangement  of  museums.  The  greater 
part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  their  administration,  and  in  conse- 
quence he  held  very  decided  views  as  to  the  principles  upon 
which  their  specimens  should  be  set  out.  He  insisted  on  the 
importance  of  distinguishing  between  collections  intended  for 
the  use  of  specialists  and  those  designed  for  the  instruction  of  the 
general  public,  pointing  out  that  it  was  as  futile  to  present 
to  the  former  a  number  of  merely  typical  forms  as  to  provide 
the  latter  with  a  long  series  of  specimens  differing  only  in  the 
most  minute  details.  His  ideas,  which  were  largely  and  success- 
fully applied  to  the  museums  of  which  he  had  charge,  gained  wide 
approval,  and  their  influence  entitles  him  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
reformer  who  did  much  to  improve  the  methods  of  museum 
arrangement  and  management.  In  addition  to  numerous  original 
papers,  he  was  the  author  of  An  Introduction  to  the  Osteology  of  the 
Mammalia  (1870);  Fashion  in  Deformity  (1881);  The  Horse: 
a  Study  in  Natural  History  (1890);  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Mammals,  Living  and  Extinct  (1891);  Essays  on  Museums  and 
other  Subjects  (1898).  He  also  wrote  many  articles  for  the  ninth 
edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

FLOWER  (Lat.  jlos,  floris;  Fr.  fleur),  a  term  popularly  used 
for  the  bloom  or  blossom  of  a  plant,  and  so  by  analogy  for  the 
fairest,  choicest  or  finest  part  or  aspect  of  anything,  and  in  various 
technical  senses.  Here  we  shall  deal  only  with  its  botanical 
interest.  It  is  impossible  to  give  a  rigid  botanical  definition 
of  the  term  "  flower."  The  flower  is  a  characteristic  feature  of 
the  highest  group  of  the  plant  kingdom — the  flowering  plants 
(Phanerogams) — and  is  the  name  given  to  the  association  of 
organs,  more  or  less  leaf-like  in  form,  which  are  concerned  with 
the  production  of  the  fruit  or  seed.  In  modern  botanical  works 
the  group  is  often  known  as  the  seed-plants  (Spermatophyta). 
As  the  seed  develops  from  the  ovule  which  has  been  fertilized 
by  the  pollen,  the  essential  structures  for  seed-production  are 
two,  viz.  the  pollen-bearer  or  stamen  and  the  ovule-bearer  or 
carpel.  These  are  with  few  exceptions  foliar  structures,  known 
in  comparative  morphology  as  sporophylls,  because  they  bear 
the  spores,  namely,  the  microspores  or  pollen-grains  which  are 
developed  in  the  microsporangia  or  pollen-sacs,  and  the  mega- 
spore,  which  is  contained  in  the  ovule  or  megasporangium. 

In  Gymnosperms  (?.».),  which  represent  the  more  primitive 


554 


FLOWER 


Bracts. 


type  of  seed-plants,  the  micro-  or  macro-sporophylls  are  generally 
associated,  often  in  large  numbers,  in  separate  cones,  to  which 
the  term  "  flower  "  has  been  applied.  But  there  is  considerable 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  relation  between  these  cones 
and  the  more  definite  and  elaborate  structure  known  as  the 
flower  in  the  higher  group  of  seed-plants — the  Angiosperms  (q.v.) 
— and  it  is  to  this  more  definite  structure  that  we  generally  refer 
in  using  the  term  "  flower." 

Flowers  are  produced  from  flower-buds,  just  as  leaf-shoots 
arise  from  leaf -buds.  These  two  kinds  of  buds  have  a  resemblance 
to  each  other  as  regards  the  arrangement  and  the  development 
of  their  parts;  and  it  sometimes  happens,  from  injury  and 
other  causes,  that  the  part  of  the  axis  which,  in  ordinary  cases, 
would  produce  a  leaf-bud,  gives  origin  to  a  flower-bud.  A 
flower-bud  has  not  in  ordinary  circumstances  any  power  of 

extension  by  the  continuous  de- 
velopment of  its  apex.  In  this 
respect  it  differs  from  a  leaf-bud. 
In  some  cases,  however,  of  mons- 
trosity, especially  seen  in  the  rose 
(fig.  i),  the  central  part  is  pro- 
longed, and  bears  leaves  or  flowers. 
In  such  cases  the  flowers,  so  far  as 
their  functional  capabilities  are 
concerned,  are  usually  abortive. 
This  phenomenon  is  known  as  pro- 
liferation of  the  floral  axis. 

Flower-buds,  like  leaf-buds,  are 
produced  in  the  axil  of  leaves, 
which  are  called  brads. 

The  term  bract  is  properly  applied 
to  the  leaf  from  which  the  primary 
floral  axis,  whether 
simple  or  branched, 
arises,  while  the  leaves  which  arise 
on  the  axis  between  the  bract  and 
the  outer  envelope  of  the  flower 
are  bracteoles  or  bractlets.     Bracts 
sometimes    do    not    differ    from 
FIG.  i. — Proliferous  Rose,  the  ordinary  leaves,  as  in  Veronica 
s,   Sepals    transformed    into  hederijolia,    Vinca,    Anagallis   and 
leaves.  Ajuga.     In  general  as  regards  their 

p.  Petals  multiplied    at  the  form   anci   appearance   they   differ 
expense   01  the   stamens.  ,  j-  i  ,  i      iS» 

which     are     reduced    in  from  ordinary  leaves,  the  difference 
number.  being  greater  in  the  upper  than 

c.   Coloured  leaves  represent-  in  the  lower  branches  of  an  inflor- 
ing  abortive  carpels.  escence.     They    are    distinguished 

a,  Axis  prolonged,  bearing  an  ,        .,    •  ... 

imperfect    flower    at   its  b?  thelr   Position   at   the  base  of 

apex.  the  flower  or  flower-stalk.     Their 

arrangement  is  similar  to  that  of 

the  leaves.  When  the  flower  is  sessile  the  bracts  are  often 
applied  closely  to  the  calyx,  and  may  thus  be  confounded  with 
it,  as  in  the  order  Malvaceae  and  species  of  Dianthus  and  winter 
aconite  (Eranthis),  where  they  have  received  the  name  of  epicalyx 
or  calyctdus.  In  some  Rosaceous  plants  an  epicalyx  is  present, 
due  to  the  formation  of  stipulary  structures  by  the  sepals.  In 
many  cases  bracts  act  as  protective  organs,  within  or  beneath 
which  the  young  flowers  are  concealed  in  their  earliest  stage  of 
growth. 

When  bracts  become  coloured,  as  in  Amherstia  nobilis, 
Euphorbia  splendens,  Erica  elegans  and  Salvia  splendens,  they 
may  be  mistaken  for  parts  of  the  corolla.  They  are  sometimes 
mere  scales  or  threads,  and  at  other  times  are  undeveloped; 
giving  rise  to  the  ebracteate  inflorescence  of  Cruciferae  and  some 
Boraginaceae.  Sometimes  they  are  empty,  no  flower-buds 
being  produced  in  their  axil.  A  series  of  empty  coloured  bracts 
terminates  the  inflorescence  of  Salvia  Horminum.  The  smaller 
bracts  or  bracteoles,  which  occur  among  the  subdivisions  of  a 
branching  inflorescence,  often  produce  no  flower-buds,  and  thus 
anomalies  occur  in  the  floral  arrangements.  Bracts  are  occasion- 
ally persistent,  remaining  long  attached  to  the  base  of  the 
peduncles,  but  more  usually  they  are  deciduous,  falling  off  early 


by  an  articulation.  In  some  instances  they  form  part  of  the 
fruit,  becoming  incorporated  with  other  organs.  Thus,  the  cones 
of  firs  and  the  stroboli  of  the  hop  are  composed  of  a  series  of 
spirally  arranged  bracts  covering  fertile  flowers;  and  the  scales 
on  the  fruit  of  the  pine-apple  are  of  the  same  nature.  At  the 
base  of  the  general  umbel  in  umbelliferous  plants  a  whorl  of 
bracts  often  exists,  called  a  general  involucre,  and  at  the  base 
of  the  smaller  umbels  or  umbellules  there  is  a  similar  leafy  whorl 
called  an  imiolucel  or  partial  involucre.  In  some  instances,  as  in 
fool's-parsley,  there  is  no  general  involucre,  but  simply  an 
involucel;  while  in  other  cases,  as  in  fennel  or  dill  (fig.  15), 
neither  involucre  nor  involucel  is  developed.  In  Compositae 
the  name  involucre  is  applied  to  the  bracts  surrounding  the  head 


FlG.  2. — Head  (capitulum)of  From  Strasburger's  Lehrbuch  der  Botanik, 

Marigold  (Calendula),  showing  ^  permission  of  Gustav  Fischer. 

a  congeries  of  flowers,  enclosed  FIG.  3. — Cupule  of  Quercus  Aegi- 

by  rows  of  bracts, i, at  the  base,  lops,    cp,  Cupule;   gl,  fruit.    (After 

which  are  collectively  called  an  Duchartre.) 
involucre. 

of  flowers  (fig.  2,  i),  as  in  marigold,  dandelion,  daisy,  artichoke. 
This  involucre  is  frequently  composed  of  several  rows  of  leaflets, 
which  are  either  of  the  same  or  of  different  forms  and  lengths, 
and  often  lie  over  each  other  in  an  imbricated  manner.  The 
leaves  of  the  involucre  are  spiny  in  thistles  and  in  teazel  (Dip- 
sacus),  and  hooked  in  burdock.  Such  whorled  or  verticillate 
bracts  generally  remain  separate  (polyphyllous) ,  but  may  be 
united  by  cohesion  (gamophyllous) ,  as  in  many  species  of  Bu- 
pleurum  and  in  Lavatera.  In  Compositae  besides  the  involucre 
there  are  frequently  chaffy  and  setose  bracts  at  the  base  of  each 
flower,  and  in  Dipsacaceae  a  membranous  tube  surrounds  each 
flower.  These  structures  are  of  the  nature  of  an  epicalyx.  In 
the  acorn  the  cupule  or  cup  (fig.  3)  is  formed  by  a  growing 
upwards  of  the  flower-stalk  immediately  beneath  the  flower, 
upon  which  scaly  or  spiny  protuberances  appear;  it  is  of  the 
nature  of  bracts.  Bracts  also  compose  the  husky  covering  of 
the  hazel-nut.  •  i 

When  bracts  become  united,  and  overlie  each  other  in  several 
rows,  it  often  happens  that  the  outer  ones  do  not  produce  flowers, 
that  is,  are  empty  or  sterile.  In  the  artichoke  the  outer  imbri- 
cated scales  or  bracts  are  in  this  condition,  and  it  is  from  the 
membranous  white  scales  or  bracts  (paleae)  forming  the  choke 
attached  to  the  edible  receptacle  that  the  flowers  are  produced. 
The  sterile  bracts  of  the  daisy  occasionally  produce  capitula, 
and  give  rise  to  the  hen-and-chickens  daisy.  In  place  of  develop- 
ing flower-buds,  bracts  may,  in  certain  circumstances,  as  in 
proliferous  or  viviparous  plants,  produce  leaf-buds. 

A  sheathing  bract  enclosing  one  or  several  flowers  is  called 
a  spathe.  It  is  common  among  Monocotyledons,  as  Narcissus 
(fig.  4),  snow-flake,  Arum  and  palms.  In  some  palms  it  is  20 
ft.  long,  and  encloses  200,000  flowers.  It  is  often  associated 
with  that  form  of  inflorescence  termed  the  spadix,  and  may  be 
coloured,  as  in  Anthurium,  or  white,  as  in  arum  lily  (Richardia 
aethiopica).  When  the  spadix  is  compound  or  branching,  as  in 
palms,  there  are  smaller  spathes,  surrounding  separate  parts  of 
the  inflorescence.  The  spathe  protects  the  flowers  in  their  young 
state,  and  often  falls  off  after  they  are  developed,  or  hangs  down 


FLOWER 


555 


\\ 


FIG.  4. — Flowers  of  Narcissus 
(Narcissus  Tazetta}  bursting  from 
a  sheathing  bract  b. 


g 


in  a  withered  form,  as  in  some  palms,  Typha  and  Pathos.  In 
grasses  the  outer  scales  or  glumes  of  the  spikelets  are  sterile 
bracts  (fig.  5,  gl);  and  in  Cyperaceae  bracts  enclose  the  organs 

of  reproduction.  Bracts  are 
frequently  changed  into  com- 
plete leaves.  This  change  is 
called  phyllody  of  bracts,  and 
is  seen  in  species  of  Planlago, 
especially  in  the  variety  of 
Plantago  media,  called  the 
rose-plantain  in  gardens, 
where  the  bracts  become  leafy 
and  form  a  rosette  round  the 
flowering  axis.  Similar  changes 
occur  in  Plantago  major,  P. 
lanceolata,  Ajuga  reptans, 
dandelion,  daisy,  dahlia  and 
in  umbelliferous  plants.  The 
conversion  of  bracts  into 
stamens  (staminody  of  bracts) 
has  been  observed  in  the  case 
of  Abies  excelsa.  A  lengthen- 
ing of  the  axis  of  the  female 
strobilus  of  Coniferae  is  not 
of  infrequent  occurrence  in 
Cryptomeria  japonica,  larch  (Larix  europaea),  &c.,  and  this  is 
usually  associated  with  a  leaf-like  condition  of  the  bracts,  and 

sometimes  even  with 
the  development  of 
leaf-bearing  shoots  in 
place  of  the  scales. 

The  arrangement  of 
the  flowers  on  the  axis, 
or  the  ramification  of 
the  floral  axis,  is  called 
the  inflorescence.  The 
primary  axis  of  the 
inflorescence  is  some- 
times called  the  rachis; 
its  branches,  whether 
terminal  or  lateral, 
which  form  the  stalks 
supporting  flowers  or 
clusters  of  flowers,  are 

.  peduncles,  and  ii  small 
FIG.  5.— Spikelet  of  Oat  (Avena  saliva)  i.....,..},  „„  „;„„„  nff 
laid  open,  showing  the  sterile  bracts  gl,  gl,  branches  are  given  ot 
or  empty  glumes;  g,  the  fertile  or  floral  by  it,  they  are  called 
glume,  with  a  dorsal  awn  a;  p,  the  pale;  pedicels.  A  flower 
fs,  an  abortive  flower.  having  a  stalk  is  called 

pedunculate  or  pedicel- 
late; one  having  no  stalk  is  sessile.     In  describing  a  branching 
inflorescence,  it  is  common  to  speak  of  the  rachis  as  the  primary 
floral  axis,  its  branches  as  the  secondary  floral  axes,  their  divi- 
sions as  the  tertiary  floral  axes, 
and   so  on;   thus  avoiding  any 
confusion  that  might  arise  from 
the  use  of  the  terms  rachis,  ped- 
uncle and  pedicel. 

The  peduncle  is  simple,  bearing 
>a  single  flower,  as  in  primrose; 
or  branched,  as  in  London-pride. 
It  is  sometimes  succulent,  as  in 
the  cashew,  in  which  it  forms  the 
large  coloured  expansion  sup- 
porting the  nut;  spiral,  as  in 
Cyclamen  and  Vallisneria;  or 
spiny,  as  in  Alyssum  spinosum.  When  the  peduncle  proceeds 
from  radical  leaves,  that  is,  from  an  axis  which  is  so  shortened 
as  to  bring  the  leaves  close  together  in  the  form  of  a  cluster,  as 
in  the  primrose,  auricula  or  hyacinth,  it  is  termed  a  scape. 
The  floral  axis  may  be  shortened,  assuming  a  flattened,  convex 
or  concave  form,  and  bearing  numerous  flowers,  as  in  the  arti- 


FlG.  6. — Peduncle  of  Fig 
(Ficus  Carica),  ending  in  a 
hollow  receptacle,  enclosing 
numerous  male  and  female 
flowers. 


choke,  daisy  and  fig  (fig.  6).  The  floral  axis  sometimes  appears  as 
if  formed  by  several  peduncles 
united  together,  constituting  a 
fasciated  axis,  as  in  the  cocks- 
comb, in  which  the  flowers  form 
a  peculiar  crest  at  the  apex  of 
the  flattened  peduncles.  Adhe- 
sions occasionally  take  place 
between  the  peduncle  and  the 
bracts  or  leaves  of  the  plant,  as 
in  the  lime-tree  (fig.  7).  The 
adhesion  of  the  peduncles  to  the 
stem  accounts  for  the  extra- 
axillary  position  of  flowers,  as 
in  many  Solanaceae.  When  this 
union  extends  for  a  considerable 
length  along  the  stem,  several 
leaves  may  be  interposed  be- 
tween the  part  where  the  ped- 
uncle becomes  free  and  the  leaf 
whence  it  originated,  and  it  may 
be  difficult  to  trace  the  con- 
nexion. The  peduncle  occasion- 
ally becomes  abortive,  and  in 
place  of  bearing  a  flower,  is  trans- 
formed into  a  tendril;  at  other 
times  it  is  hollowed  at  the  apex, 
so  as  apparently  to  form  the 
lower  part  of  the  outer  whorl  of 
floral  leaves  as  in  Eschschollzia. 
The  termination  of  the  peduncle, 
or  the  part  on  which  the  whorls  gj  > 
of  the  flower  are  arranged,  is  Oi  Branch, 
called  the  thalamus,  torus  or  re-  b,  Petiole  with  axillary  _  bud. 
ceplacle. 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of    ., 
inflorescence — one  in  which  the   c'    Corolla, 
flowers   arise   as   lateral   shoots   s,    Stamens, 
from  a  primary  axis,  which  goes  /•     Ovary, 
on  elongating,   and   the  lateral   kn-  Flower-bud, 
shoots  never  exceed  in  their  development  the  length  of  the 
primary  axis  beyond  their 
point  of  origin.  The  flowers 
are  thus  always  axillary. 
Exceptions,   such  as  in  cruciferous 
(*  J3f  plants,  are  due  to  the  non-appear- 

^\T  ^-^  ance  of  the  bracts.     In  the    other 

^\  ffSi^  type  the  primary  axis    terminates 


FIG.  7. 
T 


(From  Vines' 
Students'  Text-Book 
of  Botany,  by  per- 
mission of  Swan 
Sonnenschein  Si  Co,) 

Inflorescence  of  the 
(Tilia  platyphyllos)  (nat. 


Attached  to  the  peduncle 
bract  W' 


tenor* 


FIG.  9. — Head  of  flowers(capitulum) 
of  Scabiosa  atropurpurea.  The  inflor- 
escence is  simple  and  indeterminate, 
and  the  expansion  of  the  flowers  cen- 
tripetal, those  at  the  circumference 
opening  first. 

in  a  single  flower,  but  lateral  axes  are 
given  off  from  the  axils  of  the  bracts, 
which  again  repeat  the  primary  axis; 
the  development  of  each  lateral  axis 
is  stronger  than  that  of  the  primary 
(From  strasburgfr's  Lehrbuch  axis  beyond  its  point  of  origin.  The 

der  Botamk,  by  permission  of  Gustav    .,  f.       .  .     .    „ 

Fischer.)  flowersproduced  in  this  inflorescence 

FIG.  8.— Raceme  of  Linaria   are  thus  terminal.     The   first   kind 

stnata.     d,  bract.  of     inflorescence     is     indeterminate, 

indefinite    or    axillary.       Here    the    axis  is  either   elongated, 


556 


FLOWER 


producing  flower-buds  as  it  grows,  the  lower  expanding  first 
(fig.  8),  or  it  is  shortened  and  depressed,  and  the  outer  flowers 
expand  first  (fig.  9).  The  expansion  of  the  flowers  is  thus 
centripetal,  that  is,  from  base  to  apex,  or  from  circumference 
to  centre. 

The  second  kind  of  inflorescence  is  determinate,  definite  or 
terminal.  In  this  the  axis  is  either  elongated  and  ends  in  a  solitary 
flower,  which  thus  terminates  the  axis,  and  if  other  flowers  are 
produced,  they  belong  to  secondary  axes  farther  from  the  centre; 

or  the  axis  is  shortened  and  flat- 
tened, producing  a  number  of 
separate  floral  axes,  the  central 
one  expanding  first,  while  the 
others  are  developed  in  succession 
farther  from  the  centre.  The  ex- 
pansion of  the  flowers  is  in  this 
case  centrifugal,  that  is,  from  apex 
to  base,  or  from  centre  to  circum- 
ference. It  is  illustrated  in  fig.  10, 
Ranunculus  bulbosus ;  a'  is  the 
primary  axis  swollen  at  the  base  in 
a  bulb-like  manner  b,  and  with 
roots  proceeding  from  it.  From 
the  leaves  which  are  radical  pro- 
ceeds the  axis  ending  in  a  solitary 
terminal  flower  /'.  About  the 
middle  of  this  axis  there  is  a  leaf 
or  bract,  from  which  a  secondary 
floral  axis  a"  is  produced,  ending 
in  a  single  flower  /",  less  advanced 

/FlGi  5?'~Plaut  °-f  RAnUH~  than  the  flower/'.  This  secondary 
culus  bulbosus,  showing  deter-  .  ,  ,  •'.  ,  ,  ,  .  £ 

minate  inflorescence.  axls  bears  a  leaf  also>  from  which 

a  tertiary  floral  axis  a'"  is  pro- 
duced, bearing  an  unexpanded  solitary  flower  /".  From  this 
tertiary  axis  a  fourth  is  in  progress  of  formation.  Here/  is  the 
termination  of  the  primary  axis,  and  this  flower  expands  first, 
while  the  other  flowers  are  developed  centrifugally  on  separate 
axes. 

A  third  series  of  inflorescences,  termed  mixed,  may  be  recog- 
nized. In  them  the  primary  axis  has  an  arrangement  belonging 
to  the  opposite  type  from  that  of  the  branches,  or  vice  versa. 
According  to  the  mode  and  degree  of  development  of  the  lateral 
shoots  and  also  of  the  bracts,  various  forms  of  both  inflorescences 
result. 

Amongst  indefinite  forms  the  simplest  occurs  when  a  lateral 
shoot  produced  in  the  axil  of  a  large  single  foliage  leaf  of  the  plant 
ends  in  a  single  flower,  the  axis  of  the  plant  elongating  beyond, 
as  in  Veronica  hederifolia,  Vinca  minor  and  Lysimachia  nemorum. 
The  flower  in  this  case  is  solitary,  and  the  ordinary  leaves  become 
bracts  by  producing  flower-buds  in  place  of  leaf-buds;  their 
number,  like  that  of  the  leaves  of  this  main  axis,  is  indefinite, 
varying  with  the  vigour  of  the  plant.  Usually,  however,  the 
floral  axis,  arising  from  a  more  or  less  altered  leaf  or  bract, 
instead  of  ending  in  a  solitary  flower,  is  prolonged,  and  bears 
numerous  bracteoles,  from  which  smaller  peduncles  are  produced, 
and  those  again  in  their  turn  may  be  branched  in  a  similar  way. 
Thus  the  flowers  are  arranged  in  groups,  and  frequently  very 
complicated  forms  of  inflorescence  result.  When  the  primary 
peduncle  or  floral  axis,  as  in  fig.  8,  is  elongated,  and  gives  off 
pedicels,  ending  in  single  flowers,  a  raceme  is  produced,  as  in 
currant,  hyacinth  and  barberry.  If  the  secondary  floral  axes 
give  rise  to  tertiary  ones,  the  raceme  is  branching,  and  forms  a 
panicle,  as  in  Yucca  gloriosa.  If  in  a  raceme  the  lower  flower- 
stalks  are  developed  more  strongly  than  the  upper,  and  thus  all 
the  flowers  are  nearly  on  a  level,  a  corymb  is  formed,which  maybe 
simple,  as  in  fig.  1 1 ,  where  the  primary  axis  a'  gives  off  secondary 
axes  a",  a",  which  end  in  single  flowers;  or  branching,  where 
the  secondary  axes  again  subdivide.  If  the  pedicels  are  very  short 
or  wanting,  so  that  the  flowers  are  sessile,  a  spike  is  produced,  as 
in  Plantago  and  vervain  (Verbena  officinalis)  (fig.  12).  If  the 
spike  bears  unisexual  flowers,  as  in  willow  or  hazel  (fig.  13),  it  is  an 
amentum  or  catkin,  hence  such  trees  are  called  amentiferous;  at 


other  times  it  becomes  succulent,  bearing  numerous  flowers, 
surrounded  by  a  sheathing  bract  or  spathe,  and  then  it  constitutes 
a  spadix,  which  may  be  simple,  as  in  Arum  maculatum  (fig.  14), 
or  branching  as  in  palms.  A  spike  bearing  female  flowers  only, 
and  covered  with  scales,  is  a  strobilus,  as  in  the  hop.  In  grasses 


FIG.  ii.  FIG.  12.  FIG.  13. 

FIG.  ii. — Corymb  of  Cerasus  Mahaleb,  terminating  an  abortive 
branch,  at  the  base  of  which  are  modified  leaves  in  the  form  of  scales, 
e.  a',  Primary  axis;  c",  secondary  axes  bearing  flowers;  b,  bract  in 
the  axils  of  which  the  secondary  axes  arise. 

FIG.  12. — Spike  of  Vervain  (Verbena  officinalis),  showing  sessile 
flowers  on  a  common  rachis.  The  flowers  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
spike  have  passed  into  fruit,  those  towards  the  middle  are  in  full 
bloom,  and  those  at  the  top  are  only  in  bud. 

FIG.  13. — Amentum .or  catkin  of  Hazel  (Corylus  Avellana) ,  consist- 
ing of  an  axis  or  rachis  covered  with  bracts  in  the  form  of  scales, 
each  of  which  covers  a  male  flower,  the  stamens  of  which  are  seen 
projecting  beyond  the  scale.  The  catkin  falls  off  in  a  mass,  separating 
from  the  branch  by  an  articulation. 

there  are  usually  numerous  sessile  flowers  arranged  in  small 
spikes,  called  locustae  or  spikelets,  which  are  either  set  closely 
along  a  central  axis,  or  produced  on  secondary  axes  formed  by 
the  branching  of  the  central  one;  to  the  latter  form  the  term 
panicle  is  applied. 

If  the  primary  axis,  in  place  of  being  elongated,  is  contracted, 
it  gives  rise  to  other  forms  of  indefinite  inflorescence.  When  the 
axis  is  so  shortened  that  the  secondary  axes  arise  from  a  common 
point,  and  spread  out  as  radii  of  nearly  equal  length,  each  ending 
in  a  single  flower  or  dividing  again  in  a  similar  radiating  manner, 


(From  Strasburger's  Lchrbuch 
der  Botanik,  by  permission  of 
Gustav  Fischer.) 

'ix    of 
(After 

Wossidlo.)  a,  Female 
flowers;  b,  male  flowers; 
c,  hairs  representing 
sterile  flowers. 


FIG.  15. — Compound  umbel  of  Corn- 
Dill  (Anethum  graveolens) ,  having 
a  primary  umbel  a,  and  secondary 
umbels  b,  without  either  involucre  or 
involucel. 


an  umbel  is  produced,  as  in  fig.  15.  From  the  primary  floral 
axis  a  the  secondary  axes  come  off  in  a  radiating  or  umbrella-like 
manner,  and  end  in  small  umbels  b,  which  are  called  partial 
umbels  or  umbellules.  This  inflorescence  is  seen  in  hemlock  and 
other  allied  plants,  which  are  hence  called  umbelliferous.  If 
there  are  numerous  flowers  on  a  flattened,  convex  or  slightly 
concave  receptacle,  having  either  very  short  pedicels  or  none,  a 


FLOWER 


capilulum  (head)  is  formed,  as  in  dandelion,  daisy  and  other 
composite  plants  (fig.  2),  also  in  scabious  (fig.  9)  and  teazel. 
In  the  American  button-bush  the  heads  are  globular,  in  some 
species  of  teazel  elliptical,  while  in  scabious  and  in  composite 
plants,  as  sunflower,  dandelion,  thistle,  centaury  and  marigold, 
they  are  somewhat  hemispherical,  with  a  flattened,  slightly 
hollowed,  or  convex  disk.  If  the  margins  of  such  a  receptacle 
be  developed  upwards,  the  centre  not  developing,  a  concave 
receptacle  is  formed,  which  may  partially  or  completely  enclose 
a  number  of  flowers  that  are  generally  unisexual.  This  gives  rise 
to  the  peculiar  inflorescence  of  Dorslenia,  or  to  that  of  the  fig 
(fig.  6),  where  the  flowers  are  placed  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
hollow  receptacle,  and  are  provided  with  bracteoles.  This  in- 
florescence has  been  called  a  hypanthodium. 

Lastly,  we  have  what  are  called  compound  indefinite  inflores- 
cences. In  these  forms  the  lateral  shoots,  developed  centripetally 
upon  the  primary  axis,  bear  numerous  bracteoles,  from  which 
floral  shoots  arise  which  may  have  a  centripetal  arrangement 
similar  to  that  on  the  mother  shoot,  or  it  may  be  different.  Thus 
we  may  have  a  group  of  racemes,  arranged  in  a  racemose  manner 
on  a  common  axis,  forming  a  raceme  of  racemes  or  compound 
raceme,  as  in  Astilbe.  In  the  same  way  we  may  have  compound 
umbels,  as  in  hemlock  and  most  Umbelliferae  (fig.  15),  a  com- 
pound spike,  as  in  rye-grass,  a  compound  spadix,  as  in  some 
palms,  and  a  compound  capitulum,  as  in  the  hen-and-chickens 
daisy.  Again,  there  may  be  a  raceme  of  capitula,  that  is,  a  group 
of  capitula  disposed  in  a  racemose  manner,  as  in  Petasites,  a 
raceme  of  umbels,  as  in  ivy,  and  so  on,  all  the  forms  of  inflores- 
cence being  indefinite  in  disposition.  In  Eryngium  the  shortening 
of  the  pedicels  changes  an  umbel  into  a  capitulum. 

The  simplest  form  of  the  definite  type  of  the  inflorescence  is 
seen  in  Anemone  nemorosa  and  in  gentianella  (Gentiana  acaulis), 
where  the  axis  terminates  in  a  single  flower,  no  other  flowers 
being  produced  upon  the  plant.  This  is  a  solitary  terminal 
inflorescence.  If  other  flowers  were  produced,  they  would  arise 
as  lateral  shoots  from  the  bracts  below  the  first-formed  flower. 
The  general  name  of  cyme  is  applied  to  the  arrangement  of  a 
group  of  flowers  in  a  definite  inflorescence.  A  cymose  inflores- 
cence is  an  inflorescence  where  the  primary  floral  axis  before 
terminating  in  a  flower  gives  off  one  or  more  lateral  unifloral 
axes  which  repeat  the  process — the  development  being  only 
limited  by  the  vigour  of  the  plant.  The  floral  axes  are  thus 
centrifugally  developed.  The  cyme,  according  to  its  develop- 
ment, has  been  characterized  as  biparous  or  uniparous.  In  fig.  16 
the  biparous  cyme  is  represented  in  the  flowering  branch  of 
Cerastium.  Here  the  primary  axis  /  ends  in  a  flower,  which  has 
passed  into  the  state  of  fruit.  At  its  base  two  leaves  are  produced, 
in  each  of  which  arise  secondary  axes  /'  /',  ending  in  single  flowers, 
and  at  the  base  of  these  axes  a  pair  of  opposite  leaves  is  produced, 
giving  rise  to  tertiary  axes  t"  t",  ending  in  single  flowers,  and 
so  on.  The  term  dichasium  has  also  been  applied  to  this  form 
of  cyme. 

In  the  natural  order  Carophyllaceae  (pink  family)  the  dichasial 
form  of  inflorescence  is  very  general.  In  some  members  of  the 
order,  as  Diantkus  barbatm,  D.  carthusianorum,  &c.,  in  which 
the  peduncles  are  short,  and  the  flowers  closely  approximated, 
with  a  centrifugal  expansion,  the  inflorescence  has  the  form  of  a 
contracted  dichasium,  and  receives  the  name  of  fascicle.  When 
the  axes  become  very  much  shortened,  the  arrangement  is  more 
complicated  in  appearance,  and  the  nature  of  the  inflorescence 
can  only  be  recognized  by  the  order  of  opening  of  the  flowers. 
In  Labiate  plants,  as  the  dead-nettle  (Lamium),  the  flowers  are 
produced  in  the  axil  of  each  of  the  foliage  leaves  of  the  plant, 
and  they  appear  as  if  arranged  in  a  simple  whorl  of  flowers. 
But  on  examination  it  is  found  that  there  is  a  central  flower 
expanding  first,  and  from  its  axis  two  secondary  axes  spring 
bearing  solitary  flowers;  the  expansion  is  thus  centrifugal. 
The  inflorescence  is  therefore  a  contracted  dichasium,  the  flowers 
being  sessile,  or  nearly  so,  and  the  clusters  are  called  verlicillaslers 
(fig.  17).  Sometimes,  especially  towards  the  summit  of  a  di- 
chasium, owing  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  growing  power  of  the 
plant,  only  one  of  the  bracts  gives  origin  to  a  new  axis,  the  other 


557 


remaining  empty;  thus  the  inflorescence  becomes  unilateral, 
and  further  development  is  arrested.  In  addition  to  the  dichasial 
form  there  are  others  where  more  than  two  lateral  axes  are 
produced  from  the  primary  floral  axis,  each  of  which  in  turn 


(From  Strasburger's  Lehrbuch  da  Bolanik,  by  permission  of  Gustav  Fischer.) 
FIG.  16. — Cymose  inflorescence  (dichasium)  of  Cerastium  cottinum\ 
t-t",  successive  axes.     (After  Duchartre.) 

produces  numerous  axes.  To  this  form  the  terms  trichasial  and 
polychasial  cyme  have  been  applied;  but  these  are  now  usually 
designated  cymose  umbels.  They  are  well  seen  in  some  species 
of  Euphorbia.  Another  term,  anlhela,  has  been  used  to  dis- 
tinguish such  forms  as  occur  in  several  species  of  Luzula  and 


FIG.  17. — Flowering  stalk  of  the  White  Dead-nettle  (Lamium 
album).  The  bracts  are  like  the  ordinary  leaves  of  the  plant,  and 
produce  clusters  of  flowers  in  their  axil.  The  clusters  are  called 
verticillasters,  and  consist  of  flowers  which  are  produced  in  a  centri- 
fugal manner. 

Juncus,  where  numerous  lateral  axes  arising  from  the  primary 
axis  grow  very  strongly  and  develop  in  an  irregular  manner. 

In  the  uniparous  cyme  a  number  of  floral  axes  are  successively 
developed  one  from  the  other,  but  the  axis  of  each  successive 
generation,  instead  of  producing  a  pair  of  bracts,  produces  only 
one.  The  basal  portion  of  the  consecutive  axes  may  become 
much  thickened  and  arranged  more  or  less  in  a  straight  line, 


558 


FLOWER 


and  thus  collectively  form  an  apparent  or  false  axis  or  sympodium, 
and  the  inflorescence  thus  simulates  a  raceme.  In  the  true 
raceme,  however,  we  find  only  a  single  axis,  producing  in  succes- 
sion a  series  of  bracts,  from  which  the  flora!  peduncles  arise  as 
lateral  shoots,  and  thus  each  flower  is  on  the  same  side  of  the 
floral  axis  as  the  bract  in  the  axil  of  which  it  is  developed;  but 
in  the  uniparous  cyme  the  flower  of  each  of  these  axes,  the  basal 
portions  of  which  unite  to  form  the  false  axis,  is  situated  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  axis  to  the  bract  from  which  it  apparently 
arises  (fig.  18).  The  bract  is  not,  however,  the  one  from  which 
the  axis  terminating  in  the  flower  arises,  but  is  a  bract  produced 
upon  it,  and  gives  origin  in  its  axil  to  a  new  axis,  the  basal  portion 


FIG.  20. 


FIG.  19. 


FIG.  21. 


FIG. 


18. — Helicoid  cyme  of  a  species  of  Alstroemeria.  Oi,  oj,  0.3,  o«, 
&c.,  separate  axes  successively  developed  in  the  axils  of  the  corre- 
sponding bracts  h,  b3,  64,  &c.,  and  ending  in  a  flower  ft,  ft,  ft,  &c.  The 
whole  appears  to  form  a  simple  raceme  of  which  the  axes  form  the 
internodes. 

FIG.  19. — Scorpioidal  or  cicinal  cyme  of  Forget-me-not  (Myosotis 
palustris). 

FIG.  20. — Diagram  of  definite  floral  axes  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  &c. 

FIG.  21. — Flowering  stalk  of  Ragwort  (Senecio).  The  flowers  are 
in  heads  (capitula),  and  open  from  the  circumference  inwards  in  an 
indefinite  centripetal  manner.  The  heads  of  flowers,  on  the  other 
hand,  taken  collectively,  expand  centrifugally — the  central  one  a 
first. 

of  which,  constituting  the  next  part  of  the  false  axis,  occupies 
the  angle  between  this  bract  and  its  parent  axis — the  bract 
from  which  the  axis  really  does  arise  being  situated  lower  down 
upon  the  same  side  of  the  axis  with  itself.  The  uniparous  cyme 
presents  two  forms,  the  scorpioid  or  cicinal  and  the  helicoid  or 
bostrychoid. 

In  the  scorpioid  cyme  the  flowers  are  arranged  alternately  in  a 
double  row  along  one  side  of  the  false  axis  (fig.  19),  the  bracts 
when  developed  forming  a  second  double  row  on  the  opposite 
side;  the  whole  inflorescence  usually  curves  on  itself  like  a 
scorpion's  tail,  hence  its  name.  In  fig.  20  is  shown  a  diagram- 
matic sketch  of  this  arrangement.  The  false  axis,  a  b  c  d,  is 
formed  by  successive  generations  of  unifloral  axes,  the  flowers 
being  arranged  along  one  side  alternately  and  in  a  double  row; 
had  the  bracts  been  developed  they  would  have  formed  a  similar 
double  row  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  false  axis;  the  whole 


inflorescence  is  represented  as  curved  on  itself.  The  inflorescence 
in  the  family  Boraginaceae  are  usually  regarded  as  true  scorpioid 
cymes. 

In  the  helicoid  cyme  there  is  also  a  false  axis  formed  by  the 
basal  portion  of  the  separate  axes,  but  the  flowers  are  not  placed 
in  a  double  row,  but  in  a  single  row,  and  form  a  spiral  or  helix 
round  the  false  axis.  In  Alstroemeria,  as  represented  in  fig.  18, 
the  axis  <Xi  ends  in  a  flower  (cut  off  in  the  figure)  and  bears  a  leaf. 
From  the  axil  of  this  leaf,  that  is,  between  it  and  the  primary 
axis  a\  arises  a  secondary  axis  02,  ending  in  a  flower  /2,  and 
producing  a  leaf  about  the  middle.  From  the  axil  of  this  leaf 
a  tertiary  floral  axis  a3,  ending  in  a  flower  /3,  takes  origin. 
In  this  case  the  axes  are  not  arranged  in  two  rows  along  one 
side  of  the  false  axis,  but  are  placed  at  regular  intervals,  so  as 
to  form  an  elongated  spiral  round  it. 

Compound  definite  inflorescences  are  by  no  means  common, 
but  in  Streplocarpus  polyanthus  and  in  several  calceolarias 
we  probably  have  examples.  Here  there  are  scorpioid  cymes  of 
pairs  of  flowers,  each  pair  consisting  of  an  older  and  a  younger 
flower. 

Forms  of  inflorescence  occur,  in  which  both  the  definite 
and  indefinite  types  are  represented — mixed  inflorescences. 
Thus  in  Composite  plants,such  as  hawkweeds(.ff  ieracia) 
and  ragworts  (Senecio,  fig.  21),  the  heads  of  flowers,  /Uflores- 
taken  as  a  whole,  are  developed  centrifugally,  the  ceace. 
terminal  head  first,  while  the  florets,  or  small  flowers 
on  the  receptacle,  open  centripetally,  those  at  the  circumference 
first.  So  also  in  Labiatae,  such  as  dead-nettle  (Lamium),  the 
different  whorls  of  inflorescence  are  developed  centripetally, 
while  the  florets  of  the  verticillaster  are  centrifugal.  This  mixed 
character  presents  difficulties  in  such  cases  as  Labiatae,  where 
the  leaves,  in  place  of  retaining  their  ordinary  form,  become 
bracts,  and  thus  might  lead  to  the  supposition  of  the  whole 
series  of  flowers  being  one  inflorescence.  In  such  cases  the  cymes 
are  described  as  spiked,  racemose,  or  panicled,  according  to 
circumstances.  In  Saxifraga  umbrosa  (London-pride)  and  in 
the  horse-chestnut  we  meet  with  a  raceme  of  scorpioid  cymes; 
in  sea-pink,  a  capitulum  of  contracted  scorpioid  cymes  (often 
called  a  glomerulus);  in  laurustinus,  a  compound  umbel  of 
dichasial  cymes;  a  scorpioid  cyme  of  capitula  in  Vernonia 
scorpioides.  The  so-called  catkins  of  the  birch  are,  in  reality, 
spikes  of  contracted  dichasial  cymes.  In  the  bell-flower  (Cam- 
panula) there  is  a  racemose  uniparous  cyme.  In  the  privet 
(Liguslrum  vulgare)  there  are  numerous  racemes  of  dichasia 
arranged  in  a  racemose  manner  along  an  axis;  the  whole  inflores- 
cence thus  has  an  appearance  not  unlike  a  bunch  of  grapes, 
and  has  been  called  a  thyrsus. 

TABULAR  VIEW  OF  INFLORESCENCES 

A.  Indefinite  Centripetal  Inflorescence. 

I.   Flowers  solitary,  axillary.      Vinca,  Veronica  hederifolia. 
II.   Flowers  in  groups,  pedicellate. 

1 .  Elongated  form  ( Raceme) ,  Hyacinth,  Laburnum ,  Currant. 

(Corymb),  Ornithogalum. 

2.  Contracted   or      shortened   form    (Umbel),    Cowslip, 

A  strantia. 
III.    Flowers  in  groups,  sessile. 

1.  Elongated  form  (Spike),  Plantago. 

(Spikelet),  Grasses. 
(Amentum,  Catkin),  Willow,  Hazel. 
(Spadix)  Arum,  some  Palms. 
(Strobilus),  Hop. 

2.  Contracted ^orshortened  form  (Capitulum),  Daisy, Dande- 

lion, Scabious. 
IV.   Compound  Indefinite  Inflorescence. 

a.  Compound  Spike,  Rye-grass. 

b.  Compound  Spadix,  Palms. 

c.  Compound  Raceme,  Astilbe. 

d.  Compound  Umbel,  Hemlock  and  most  Umbelliferae. 

e.  Raceme  of  Capitula,  Petasiles. 

f.  Raceme  of  Umbels,  Ivy. 

B.  Definite  Centrifugal  Inflorescence. 

I.   Flowers  solitary,  terminal.     Gentianella,  Tulip. 
II.   Flowers  in  Cymes. 

i.  Uniparous  Cyme. 

a.  Helicoid  Cyme  (axes  forming  a  spiral). 
Elongated  form,  Alstroemeria. 
Contracted  form,  Witsenia  corymbosa. 


FLOWER 


559 


The 
flower. 


FlG.  22. 


FIG.  25. 


b.  Scorpioid  Cyme  (axes  unilateral,  two  rows). 

Elongated    form,    Forget-me-not,    Symphytum, 

Henbane. 
Contracted  form,  Erodium,  Akhemilla  arvensis. 

2.  Biparous  Cyme  (Dichotomous),including  3-5-chotomous 

Cymes  (Dichasium,  Cymose  Umbel,  Anthela). 

a.  Elongated  form,  Cerastium,  Stellaria. 

b.  Contracted  form  (Verticillaster),  Dead-nettle,  Pelar- 

gonium. 

3.  Compound  Definite  Inflorescence.    Streptocarpus  poly- 

anthus, many  Calceolarias. 
C,  Mixed  Inflorescence. 

Raceme  of  Scorpioid  Cymes,  Horse-chestnut. 
Scorpioid  Cyme  of  Capitula,  Vernonia  scorpioides. 
Compound  Umbel  of  Dichotomous  Cymes.Laurustinus. 
Capitulum  of  contracted  Scorpioid  Cymes  (Glomerulus), 

Sea-pink. 

The  flower  consists  of  the  floral  axis  bearing  the  sporophylls 
(stamens  and  carpels),  usually  with  certain  protective  envelopes. 

The  axis  is  usually  very  much 
contracted,  no  inter- 
nodes    being     devel- 
oped, and  the  portion 
bearing  the  floral  leaves,  termed 
the  thalamus  or  torus,  frequently 
expands  into  a  conical,  flattened 
or  hollowed  expansion;  at  other 
times,  though  rarely,  the  inter- 
nodes  are  developed  and  it  is 
elongated.     Upon  this  torus  the 
parts  of  the  flower  are  arranged 
in  a  crowded  manner,  usually 
,.,  forming  a  series  of  verticils,  the 

if.  Q$P     ;j  parts    of    which  alternate;  but 

\  A>  v/Vs  if   g  they    are    sometimes    arranged 

^•V^^  *3fr  spirally  especially  if  the   floral 

axis  be  elongated.  In  a  typical 
flower,  as  in  fig.  22,  we  recognize 
four  distinct  whorls  of  leaves: 
an  outer  whorl,  the  calyx  of 
sepals',  within  it,  another  whorl, 
the  parts  alternating  with  those 
of  the  outer  whorl,  the  corolla  of 
petals',  next  a  whorl  of  parts 
alternating  with  the  parts  of 
the  corolla,  the  androecium  of 
stamens;  and  in  the  centre  the 
gynoecium  of  carpels.  Fig.  23  is 
a  diagrammatic  representation 
of  the  arrangement  of  the  parts 
Flower  of  Sedum  of  such  a  flower;  it  js  known  as 

a  floral  diagram.     The  flower  is 

FIG!  23.—  Diagram  of  a  com-  supposed  to  be  cut  transversely, 
pletely  symmetrical  flower,  con-  and  the  parts  of  each  whorl 
sisting  of  four  whorls,  each  of  are  distinguished  by  a  different 


FIG.  24.        FIG.  26. 

FIG.  22. 
rubens.     s,  Sepals;  p,  petals;  a, 
stamens;   c,  carpels. 


«,tra;crpel'P         :  .        ,   f 

FIG.  24.—  Monochlamydeous    two  internal,  forming  the  sporo- 

(apetalous)    flower    of    Goose-  phylls,   constitute   the  essential 

foot   (Chenopodium),  consisting  organs  of  reproduction;  the  two 
of  a  single  perianth  (calyx)  of  five  Q     j  th     protective 

parts,    enclosing    five    stamens,  u     **  "'  _, 

which  are  opposite  the  divisions  coverings  or  floral  envelopes.  1 

of  the  perianth,  owing  to  the  sepals  are  generally  of  a  greenish 

absence  of  the  petals.  colour;  their  function   is  mainly 

of^fi^Tnt1  (S)  Tanfaf  Protective,  shielding  the  more 

anther  a,  containing  the  pollen/),  delicate  internal   organs   before 

which  is  discharged  through  slits  the  flower  opens.  The  petals  are 

in  the  two  lobes  of  the  anther,  usually    showy,    and    normally 

FIG.  26.-The  pistil  of  Tobacco  alternate  with  the  sepals.   Some- 
(Ntcotiana  Tabacum),  consisting 

of     the     ovary     o,    containing  times,  as  usually  in  monocoty- 

ovules,    the  style    s,    and    the  ledons,  the  calyx  and  corolla  are 

capitate  stigma  g.     The  pistil  is  similar;  in  such  cases  the  term 

placed  on  the  receptacle  r,  at  the  >,m-an^   or  perigone,  is  applied. 

extremity  of  the  peduncle.  ^    .^  ^  J^  crocuS;  ^ 

hyacinth,  we  speak  of  the  parts  of  the  perianth,  in  place  of 
calyx  and  corolla,  although  in  these  plants  there  is  an  outer 


whorl  (calyx),  of  three  parts,  and  an  inner  (corolla),  of  a 
similar  number,  alternating  with  them.  When  the  parts  of 
the  calyx  are  in  appearance  like  petals  they  are  said  to  be 
petaloid,  as  in  Liliaceae.  In  some  cases  the  petals  have  the 
appearance  of  sepals,  then  they  are  sepaloid,  as  injuncaceae. 
In  plants,  as  Nymphaea  alba,  where  a  spiral  arrangement  of  the 
floral  leaves  occurs,  it  is  not  easy  to  say  where  the  calyx  ends 
and  the  corolla  begins,  as  these  two  whorls  pass  insensibly  into 
each  other.  When  both  calyx  and  corolla  are  present,  the  plants 
are  dichlamydeous;  when  one  only  is  present,  the  flower  is 
termed  monochlamydeous  or  apelalous,  having  no  petals  (fig.  24). 
Sometimes  both  are  absent,  when  the  flower  is  achlamydeous, 
or  naked,  as  in  willow.  The  outermost  series  of  the  essential 
organs,  collectively  termed  the  androecium,  is  composed  of  the 
microsporophylls  known  as  the  staminal  leaves  or  stamens.  In 
their  most  differentiated  form  each  consists  of  a  stalk,  the 
filament  (fig.  25,  /),  supporting  at  its  summit  the  anther 
(a),  consisting  of  the  pollen-sacs  which  contain  the  powdery 
pollen  (p),  the  microspores,  which  is  ultimately  discharged 
therefrom.  The  gynoecium  or  pistil  is  the  central  portion 
of  the  flower,  terminating  the  floral  axis.  It  consists  of  one 
or  more  carpels  (megasporophylls),  either  separate  (fig.  22,  c) 
or  combined  (fig.  24).  The  parts  distinguished  in  the  pistil 
are  the  ovary  (fig.  26,  o),  which  is  the  lower  portion  enclosing 
the  ovules  destined  to  become  seeds,  and  the  stigma  (g),  a  portion 
of  loose  cellular  tissue,  the  receptive  surface  on  which  the  pollen 
is  deposited,  which  is  either  sessile  on  the  apex  of  the  ovary, 
as  in  the  poppy,  or  is  separated  from  it  by  a  prolonged  portion 
called  the  style  (s).  The  androecium  and  gynoecium  are  not 
present  in  all  flowers.  When  both  are  present  the  flower  is 
hermaphrodite;  and  in  descriptive  botany  such  a  flower  is 
indicated  by  the  symbol  £ .  When  only  one  of  those  organs 
is  present  the  flower  is  unisexual  or  diclinous,  and  is  either  male 
(staminate),fr  f  or  female  (pistillate),  ? .  A  flower  then  normally 
consists  of  the  four  series  of  leaves — calyx,  corolla,  androecium 
and  gynoecium — and  when  these  are  all  present  the  flower  is 
complete.  These  are  usually  densely  crowded 
upon  the  thalamus,  but  in  some  instances, 
after  apical  growth  has  ceased  in  the  axis, 
an  elongation  of  portions  of  the  receptacle 
by  intercalary  growth  occurs,  by  which 
changes  in  the  position  of  the  parts  may  be 
brought  about.  Thus  in  Lychnis  an  elonga- 
tion of  the  axis  betwixt  the  calyx  and  the 
corolla  takes  place,  and  in  this  way  they  are 
separated  by  an  interval.  Again,  in  the 
passion-flower  (Passiflora)  the  stamens  are 
separated  from  the  corolla  by  an  elongated 
portion  of  the  axis,  which  has  consequently 
been  termed  the  androphore,  and  in  Passi-  and  pistil'  of  Frax- 
flora  also,  fraxinella  (fig.  27),  Cappari-  inella  (Dictamnus 
daceae,  and  some  other  plants,  the  ovary  is  ^^  consists  ot 
raised  upon  a  distinct  stalk  termed  the  geveral  carpels, 
gynophore;  it  is  thus  separated  from  the  which  are  elevated 
stamens,  and  is  said  to  be  stipitate.  Usually  on  a  stalk  or  gyno- 

the  successive  whorls  of  the  flower,  disposed  More  prolonged 

.' ,          .      from  the  receptacle 
from  below  upwards  or  from  without  in- 
wards upon  the  floral  axis,  are  of  the  same  number  of  parts,  or 
are  a  multiple  of  the  same  number  of  parts,  those  of  one  whorl 
alternating  with  those  of  the  whorls  next  it. 

In  the  more  primitive  types  of  flowers  the  torus  is  more  or 
less  convex,  and  the  series  of  organs  follow  in  1'egular  succession, 
culminating  in  the  carpels,  in  the  formation  of  which  the  growth 
of  the  axis  is  closed  (fig.  28).  This  arrangement  is  known  as 
hypogynous,  the  other  series  (calyx,  corolla  and  stamens)  being 
beneath  (hypo-)  the  gynoecium.  In  other  cases,  the  apex  of  the 
growing  point  ceases  to  develop,  and  the  parts  below  form  a  cup 
around  it,  from  the  rim  of  which  the  outer  members  of  the  flower 
are  developed  around  (peri-)  the  carpels,  which  are  formed  from 
the  apex  of  the  growing-point  at  the  bottom  of  the  cup.  This 
arrangement  is  known  as  perigynous  (fig.  29).  In  many  cases 
this  is  carried  farther  and  a  cavity  is  formed  which  is  roofed  over 


FIG.   27. — Calyx 


560 


FLOWER 


by  the  carpels,  so  that  the  outer  members  of  the  flower  spring 
from  the  edge  of  the  receptacle  which  is  immediately  above  the 
ovary  (epigynous),  hence  the  term  epigyny  (fig.  30). 


•f 


FIG.  28.  FIG.  29.  FIG.  30. 

FIGS.  28,  29  and  30. — Diagrams  illustrating  hypogyny,  perigyny 
and  epigyny  of  the  flower,  a,  Stamens;  c,  carpels;  p,  petals; 
s,  sepals. 

When  a  flower  consists  of  parts  arranged  in  whorls  it  is  said 
to  be  cyclic,  and  if  all  the  whorls  have  an  equal  number  of  parts 

and  are  alternate  it  is  eucydic  (figs.  22,  23).  In 
Symmetry  contrast  to  the  cyclic  flowers  are  those,  as  in  Magnoli- 
aower.  aceae,  where  the  parts  are  in  spirals  (acyclic).  Flowers 

which  are  cyclic  at  one  portion  and  spiral  at  another, 
as  in  many  Ranunculaceae,  are  termed  hemicyclic.  In  spiral 
flowers  the  distinction  into  series  is  by  no  means  easy,  and  usually 
there  is  a  gradual  passage  from  sepaloid  through  petaloid  to 
staminal  parts,  as  in  the  water-lily  family,  Nymphaeaceae  (figs. 
31,  32),  although  in  some  plants  there  is  no  such  distinction,  the 


FIG.  3  FIG.  31. 

From  Strasburger's  Text-Book  of  Botany,  by  permission  of  Macmillan  &  Co.,  Ltd. 

FIGS.  31  and  32.— White  Water  Lily.  Fig.  31,  flower;  fig.  32, 
successive  stages,  a-f,  in  the  transition  from  petals  to  stamens. 
(After  Wossidlo.) 

parts  being  all  petaloid,  as  in  Trollius.  Normally,  the  parts  of 
successive  whorls  alternate;  but  in  some  cases  we  find  the  parts 
of  one  whorl  opposite  or  superposed  to  those  of  the  next  whorl. 
In  some  cases,  as  in  the  vine-family  Ampelidaceae,  this  seems 
to  be  the  ordinary  mode  of  development,  but  the  superposition 
of  the  stamens  on  the  sepals  in  many  plants,  as  in  the  pink  family, 
Caryophyllaceae,  is  due  to  the  suppression  or  abortion  of  the 
whorl  of  petals,  and  this  idea  is  borne  out  by  the  development, 
in  some  plants  of  the  order,  of  the  suppressed  whorl.  As  a  rule, 
whenever  we  find  the  parts  of  one  whorl  superposed  on  those  of 
another  we  may  suspect  some  abnormality. 

A  flower  is  said  to  be  symmetrical  when  each  of  its  whorls 
consists  of  an  equal  number  of  parts,  or  when  the  parts  of  any 
one  whorl  are  multiples  of  that  preceding  it.  Thus,  a  sym- 
metrical flower  may  have  five  sepals,  five  petals,  five  stamens  and 
five  carpels,  or  the  number  of  any  of  these  parts  may  be  ten, 
twenty  or  some  multiple  of  five.  Fig.  23  is  a  diagram  of  a 
symmetrical  flower,  with  five  parts  in  each  whorl,  alternating 
with  each  other.  Fig.  33  is  a  diagram  of  a  symmetrical  flower 
of  stone-crop,  with  five  sepals,  five  alternating  petals,  ten 


stamens  and  five  carpels.  Here  the  number  of  parts  in  the 
staminal  whorl  is  double  that  in  the  others,  and  in  such  a  case 
the  additional  five  parts  form  a  second  row  alternating  with 
the  others.  In  the  staminal  whorl  especially  it  is  common  to 
find  additional  rows.  Fig.  34  shows  a  symmetrical  flower,  with 
five  parts  in  the  three  outer  rows,  and  ten  divisions  in  the  inner. 
In  this  case  it  is  the  gynoecium  which  has  an  additional  number 
of  parts.  Fig.  35  shows  a  flower  of  heath,  with  four  divisions 
of  the  calyx  and  corolla,  eight  stamens  in  two  rows,  and  four 
divisions  of  the  pistil.  In  fig. 
36  there  are  three  parts  in 
each  whorl ;  and  in  fig.  37 
there  are  three  divisions  of 
the  calyx,  corolla  and  pistil, 
and  six  stamens  in  two  rows. 
In  all  these  cases  the  flower 
is  symmetrical.  In  Mono- 
cotyledons it  is  usual  for  the 
staminal  whorl  to  be  double, 
it  rarely  having  more  than 
two  rows,  whilst  amongst 
dicotyledons  there  are  often 
very  numerous  rows  of 
stamens.  The  floral  envelopes 
are  rarely  multiplied.  Flowers 
in  which  the  number  of  parts 
in  each  whorl  is  the  same,  are 
isomerous  (of  equal  number); 
when  the  number  in  some  of 
the  whorls  is  different,  the 
flower  is  anisomerous  (of  un- 
equal number).  The  pistil- 
late whorl  is  very  liable  to 
changes.  It  frequently 


FIG.  33. 


FIG.  34. 


FIG.  37. 


FIG.  38. 


FIG.  33. — Diagrammatic  section 
..  .  f  ,,  of  a  symmetrical  pentamerous 
happens  that  when  it  is  fully  flower  of  Stone-crop  (Sedum),  con- 
formed, the  number  of  its  sisting  of  five  sepals  (s),  five  petals 
parts  is  not  in  conformity  (p)  alternating  with  the  sepals,  ten 
with  that  of  the  other  whorls,  stamens  (a)  in  two  rows,  and  five 
T  •  .  carpels  (c)  containing  ovules.  I  he 

In  such  circumstances,  how-  dar£  HnesV)  on  the  outside  of  the 
ever,  a  flower  has  been  called  carpels  are  glands, 
symmetrical,  provided  the  FIG.  34. — Diagram  of  the  flower 
parts  of  the  other  whorls  are  of  F'ax  (Linum),  consisting  of  five 
normal,-tbe  permanent  state  %^A^J&  g| 
of  the  pistil  not  being  taken  each  of  which  is  partially  divided 
into  account  in  determining  into  two.  The  dots  represent  a 
symmetry.  Thus  fig.  38  shows  whorl  of  stamens  which  has  dis- 
a  pentamerous  symmetrical  ^^SlSSS^S^ 
flower,  with  dimerous  pistil.  FIG.  35.— Diagram  of  the  flower 
Symmetry,  then,  in  botanical  of  Heath  (Erica),  a  regular  tetra- 
language,  has  reference  to  a  merous  flower, 
certain  definite  numerical  ^^ 

relation  of  parts.  A  flower  FIG.  37.— Diagram  of  the  sym- 
in  which  the  parts  are  metrical  trimerous  flower  of  Fritil- 
arranged  in  twos  is  called  lafy  (FntiUaria). 
dimerous;  when  the  parts  of  «%^g*j»£$%$3. 
the  whorls  are  three,  four  or  The  calyx  and  corolla  consist  of 
five,  the  flower  is  trimerous,  five  parts,  the  stamens  are  ten  in 
tetramerous  or  pentamerous,  two  rows,  while  the  pistil  has  only 
respectively.  The  symmetry  two  Parts  developed, 
which  is  most  commonly  met  with  is  trimerous  and  pentamerous 
— the  former  occurring  generally  among  monocotyledons,  the 
latter  among  dicotyledons.  Dimerous  and  tetramerous  sym- 
metry occur  also  among  dicotyledons. 

The  various  parts  of  the  flower  have  a  certain  definite  relation 
to  the  axis.  Thus,  in  axillary  tetramerous  flowers  (fig.  35),  one 
sepal  is  next  the  axis,  and  is  called  superior  or  posterior;  another 
is  next  the  bract,  and  is  inferior  or  anterior,  and  the  other  two 
are  lateral;  and  certain  terms  are  used  to  indicate  that  position. 
A  plane  passing  through  the  anterior  and  posterior  sepal  and 
through  the  floral  axis  is  termed  the  median  plane  of  the  flower; 
a  plane  cutting  it  at  right  angles,  and  passing  through  the  lateral 
sepals,  is  the  lateral  plane;  whilst  the  planes  which  bisect  the 


FLOWER 


561 


angles  formed  by  the  lateral  and  median  planes  are  the  diagonal 
planes,  and  in  these  flowers  the  petals  which  alternate  with  the 
sepals  are  cut  by  the  diagonal  planes. 

In  a  pentamerous  flower  one  sepal  may  be  superior,  as  in  the 
calyx  of  Rosaceae  and  Labiatae;  or  it  may  be  inferior,  as  in 
the  calyx  of  Leguminosae  (fig.  39) — the  reverse,  by  the  law  of 
alternation,  being  the  case  with  the  petals.  Thus,  in  the  blossom 
of  the  pea  (figs.  39,  40),  the  odd  petal  (vexillum)  st  is  superior, 


FIG.  39. — Diagram  of  flower 
of  Sweet-pea  (Lathyrus),  showing 
five  sepals  (s),  two  superior,  one 
inferior,  and  two  lateral;  five 
petals  (p),  one  superior,  two  in- 
ferior, and  two  ,  lateral;  ten 
stamens  in  two  rows  (a);  and 
one  carpel  (c). 


FIG.  40. — Flower  of  Pea 
(Pisum  sativum),  showing  a  papi- 
lionaceous corolla,  with  one 
petal  superior  (st)  called  the 
standard  (vexillum),  two  inferior 
(car)  called  the  keel  (carina), 
and  two  lateral  (a)  called  wings 
(alae).  The  calyx  is  marked  c. 


while  the  odd  sepal  is  inferior.  In  the  order  Scrophulariaceae 
one  of  the  two  carpels  is  posterior  and  the  other  anterior,  whilst 
in  Convolvulaceae  the  carpels  are  arranged  laterally.  Sometimes 
the  twisting  of  a  part  makes  a  change  in  the  position  of  other 
parts,  as  in  Orchids,  where  the  twisting  of  the  ovary  changes 
the  position  of  the  labellum. 

When  the  different  members  of  each  whorl  are  like  in  size  and 
shape,  the  flower  is  said  to  be  regular;  while  differences  in  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  parts  of  a  whorl  make  the  flower  irregular, 
as  in  the  papilionaceous  flower,  represented  in  fig.  39.  When  a 
flower  can  be  divided  by  a  single  plane  into  two  exactly  similar 
parts,  then  it  is  said  to  be  zygomorphic.  Such  flowers  as  Papilio- 
naceae,  Labiatae,  are  examples.  In  contrast  with  this  are 
polysymmetrical  or  actinomorphic  flowers,  which  have  a  radial 
symmetry  and  can  be  divided  by  several  planes  into  several 
exactly  similar  portions;  such  are  all  regular,  symmetrical 
flowers.  When  the  parts  of  any  whorl  are  not  equal  to  or  some 
multiple  of  the  others,  then  the  flower  is  asymmetrical.  This 
want  of  symmetry  may  be  brought  about  in  various  ways. 
Alteration  in  the  symmetrical  arrangement  as  well  as  in  the 
completeness  and  regularity  of  flowers  has  been  traced  to  sup- 
pression or  the  non-development  of  parts,  degeneration  or  imperfect 
formation,  cohesion  or  union  of  parts  of  the  same  whorl,  adhesion 
or  union  of  the  parts  of  different  whorls,  multiplication  of  parts, 
and deduplication  (sometimes  called  cAomw)orsplitting  of  parts. 

By  suppression  or  non-appearance  of  a  part  at  the  place  where 
it  ought  to  appear  if  the  structure  was  normal,  the  symmetry 
or  completeness  of  the  flower  is  disturbed.  This  suppression 
when  confined  to  the  parts  of  certain  verticils  makes  the  flower 
asymmetrical.  Thus,  in  many  Caryophyllaceae,  as  Polycarpon 
and  Holosteum,  while  the  calyx  and  corolla  are  pentamerous, 
there  are  only  three  or  four  stamens  and  three  carpels;  in 
Impaliens  N oli-me-tangere  the  calyx  is  composed  of  three  parts, 
while  the  other  verticils  have  five;  in  labiate  flowers  there  are 
five  parts  of  the  calyx  and  corolla,  and  only  four  stamens;  and 
in  Tropaeolum  pentaphyllum  there  are  five  sepals,  two  petals, 
eight  stamens  and  three  carpels.  In  all  these  cases  the  want  of 
symmetry  is  traced  to  the  suppression  of  certain  parts.  In  the 
last-mentioned  plant  the  normal  number  is  five,  hence  it  is  said 
that  there  are  three  petals  suppressed,  as  shown  by  the  position 
of  the  two  remaining  ones;  there  are  two  rows  of  stamens, 
in  each  of  which  one  is  wanting;  and  there  are  two  carpels 
suppressed.  In  many  instances  the  parts  which  are  afterwards 
suppressed  can  be  seen  in  the  early  stages  of  growth,  and  occasion- 
ally some  vestiges  of  them  remain  in  the  fully  developed  flower. 
By  the  suppression  of  the  verticil  of  the  stamens,  or  of  the 
carpels,  flowers  become  unisexual  or  diclinous,  and  by  the 
suppression  of  one  or  both  of  the  floral  envelopes,  monochlamy- 
deous  and  achlamydeous  flowers  are  produced.  The  suppression 


of  parts  of  the  flower  may  be  carried  so  far  that  at  last  a  flower 
consists  of  only  one  part  of  one  whorl.  In  the  Euphorbiaceae  we 
have  an  excellent  example  of  the  gradual  suppression  of  parts, 
where  from  an  apetalous,  trimerous,  staminal  flower  we  pass  to 
one  where  one  of  the  stamens  is  suppressed,  and  then  to  forms 
where  two  of  them  are  wanting.  We  next  have  flowers  in  which 
the  calyx  is  suppressed,  and  its  place  occupied  by  one,  two  or 
three  bracts  (so  that  the  flower  is,  properly  speaking,  achlamy- 
deous), and  only  one  or  two  stamens  are  produced.  And  finally, 
we  find  flowers  consisting  of  a  single  stamen  with  a  bract.  There 
is  thus  traced  a  degradation,  as  it  is  called,  from  a  flower  with 
three  stamens  and  three  divisions  of  the  calyx,  to  one  with  a 
single  bract  and  a  single  stamen. 

Degeneration,  or  the  transformation  of  parts,  often  gives  rise 
either  to  an  apparent  want  of  symmetry  or  to  irregularity  in 
form.  In  unisexual  flowers  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  vestiges 
of  the  undeveloped  stamens  in  the  form  of  filiform  bodies  or 
scales.  In  double  flowers  transformations  of  the  stamens  and 
pistils  take  place,  so  that  they  appear  as  petals.  In  Canna, 
what  are  called  petals  are  in  reality  metamorphosed  stamens. 
In  the  capitula  of  Compositae  we  sometimes  find  the  florets 
converted  into  green  leaves.  The  limb  of  the  calyx  may  appear 
as  a  rim,  as  in  some  Umbelliferae;  or  as  pappus,  in  Compositae 
and  Valeriana.  In  Scrophularia  the  fifth  stamen  appears  as  a 
scale-like  body;  in  other  Scrophulariaceae,  as  in  Pentstemon, 
it  assumes  the  form  of  a  filament,  with  hairs  at  its  apex  in  place 
of  an  anther. 

Cohesion,  or  the  union  of  parts  of  the  same  whorl,  and  adhesion, 
or  the  growing  together  of  parts  of  different  whorls,  are  causes 
of  change  both  as  regards  form  and  symmetry.  Thus  in  Cucurbita 
the  stamens  are  originally  five  in  number,  but  subsequently 
some  cohere,  so  that  three  stamens  only  are  seen  in  the  mature 
flower.  Adhesion  is  well  seen  in  the  gynostemium  of  orchids, 
where  the  stamens  and  stigmas  adhere.  In  Capparidaceae 
the  calyx  and  petals  occupy  their  usual  position,  but  the  axis 
is  prolonged  in  the  form  of  a  gynophore,  to  which  the  stamens 
are  united. 

Multiplication,  or  an  increase  of  the  number  of  parts,  gives 
rise  to  changes.  We  have  already  alluded  to  the  interposition 
of  new  members  in  a  whorl.  This  takes  place  chiefly  in  the 
staminal  whorl,  but  usually  the  additional  parts  produced  form 
a  symmetrical  whorl  with  the  others.  In  some  instances, 
however,  this  is  not  the  case.  Thus  in  the  horse-chestnut  there 
is  an  interposition  of  two  stamens,  and  thus  seven  stamens  are 
formed  in  the  flower,  which  is  asymmetrical. 

Parts  of  the  flower  are  often  increased  by  a  process  of  deduplica- 
tion, or  chorisis,  i.e.  the  splitting  of  a  part  so  that  two  or  more 
parts  are  formed  out  of  what  was  originally  one.  Thus  in  Cruci- 
ferous plants  the  staminal  whorl  consists  of  four  long  stamens 
and  two  short  ones  (letradynamous) .  The  symmetry  in  the  flower 
is  evidently  dimerous,  and  the  abnormality  in  the  androecium, 
where  the  four  long  stamens  are  opposite  the  posterior  sepals, 
takes  place  by  a  splitting,  at  a  very  early  stage  of  development, 
of  a  single  outgrowth  into  two.  Many  cases  of  what  was  con- 
sidered chorisis  are  in  reality  due  to  the  development  of  stipules 
from  the  staminal  leaf.  Thus  in  Dicenlra  and  Corydalis  there 
are  six  stamens  in  two  bundles;  the  central  one  of  each  bundle 
alone  is  perfect,  the  lateral  ones  have  each  only  half  an  anther, 
and  are  really  stipules  formed  from  the  staminal  leaf.  Branching 
of  stamens  also  produces  apparent  want  of  symmetry;  thus, 
in  the  so-called  polyadelphous  stamens  of  Hypericaceae  there 
are  really  only  five  stamens  which  give  off  numerous  branches, 
but  the  basal  portion  remaining  short,  the  branches  have  the 
appearance  of  separate  stamens,  and  the  flower  thus  seems 
asymmetrical. 

Cultivation  has  a  great  effect  in  causing  changes  in  the  various 
parts  of  plants.  Many  alterations  in  form,  size,  number  and 
adhesion  of  parts  are  due  to  the  art  of  the  horticulturist.  The 
changes  in  the  colour  and  forms  of  flowers  thus  produced  are 
endless.  In  the  dahlia  the  florets  are  rendered  quilled,  and  are 
made  to  assume  many  glowing  colours.  In  pelargonium  the 
flowers  have  been  rendered  larger  and  more  showy;  and  such  is 


562 


FLOWER 


also  the  case  with  the  Ranunculus,  the  auricula  and  the  carna- 
tion. Some  flowers,  with  spurred  petals  in  their  usual  state, 
as  columbine,  are  changed  so  that  the  spurs  disappear;  and 
others,  as  Linaria,  in  which  one  petal  only  is  usually  spurred, 
are  altered  so  as  to  have  all  the  petals  spurred,  and  to  present 
what  are  called  pelorian  varieties. 

As  a  convenient  method  of  expressing  the  arrangement  of  the 
parts  of  the  flower,  floral  formulae  have  been  devised.  Several 
modes  of  expression  are  employed.  The  following  is  a  very 
simple  mode  which  has  been  proposed: — The  several  whorls 
are  represented  by  the  letters  S  (sepals),  P  (petals),  St  (stamens), 
C  (carpels),  and  a  figure  marked  after  each  indicates  the  number 
of  parts  in  that  whorl.  Thus  the  formula  SsPsStsCs  means  that 


FIG.  41.  FIG.  42.  FIG.  43. 

FIG.  41. — Tetramerous  monochlamydeous  male  flower  of  the 
Nettle  (Urtica). 

FIG.  42. — Diagram  to  illustrate  valvular  or  valvate  aestivation,  in 
which  the  parts  are  placed  in  a  circle,  without  overlapping  or  folding. 

FIG.  43. — Diagram  to  illustrate  induplicative  or  induplicate 
aestivation,  in  which  the  parts  of  the  verticil  are  slightly  turned 
inwards  at  the  edges. 

the  flower  is  perfect,  and  has  pentamerous  symmetry,  the  whorls 
being  isomerous.  Such  a  flower  as  that  of  Sedum  (fig.  33)  would 
be  represented  by  the  formula  S5P6St6+5C5,  where  Ste+6  indicates 
that  the  staminal  whorl  consists  of  two  rows  of  five  parts  each. 
A  flower  such  as  the  male  flower  of  the  nettle  (fig.  41)  would  be 
expressed  S4PoSt4Co.  When  no  other  mark  is  appended  the 
whorls  are  supposed  to  be  alternate;  but  if  it  is  desired  to  mark 
the  position  of  the  whorls  special  symbols  are  employed.  Thus, 
to  express  the  superposition  of  one  whorl  upon  another,  a  line  is 
drawn  between  them,  e.g.  the  symbol  S6P6  |  StsCs  is  the  formula 
of  the  flower  of  Primulaceae. 

The  manner  in  which  the  parts  are  arranged  in  the  flower-bud 
with  respect  to  each  other  before  opening  is  the  aestivation  or 
praefloration.  The  latter  terms  are  applied  to  the  flower-bud 
in  the  same  way  as  vernation  is  to  the  leaf-bud,  and  distinctive 
names  have  been  given  to  the  different  arrangements  exhibited, 
both  by  the  leaves  individually  and  in  their  relations  to  each 
other.  As  regards  each  leaf  of  the  flower,  it  is  either  spread  out, 
as  the  sepals  in  the  bud  of  the  lime-tree,  or  folded  upon  itself 
(conduplicate),  as  in  the  petals  of  some  species  of  Lysimachia, 
or  slightly  folded  inwards  or  outwards  at  the  edges,  as  in  the 


FIG.  44.  FIG.  45.  FIG.  46. 

FIG.  44. — Diagram  to  illustrate  reduplicative  or  reduplicate 
aestivation,  in  which  the  parts  of  the  whorl  are  slightly  turned  out- 
wards at  the  edges. 

FIG.  45. — Diagram  to  illustrate  contorted  or  twisted  aestivation,  in 
which  the  parts  of  the  whorl  are  overlapped  by  each  other  in  turn, 
and  are  twisted  on  their  axis. 

FIG.  46. — Diagram  to  illustrate  the  quincuncial  aestivation,  in 
which  the  parts  of  the  flower  are  arranged  in  a  spiral  cycle,  so  that 
I  and  2  are  wholly  external,  4  and  5  are  internal,  and  3  is  partly 
external  and  partly  overlapped  by  I. 

calyx  of  some  species  of  clematis  and  of  some  herbaceous  plants, 
or  rolled  up  at  the  edges  (involute  or  revolute),  or  folded  trans- 
versely, becoming  crumpled  or  corrugated,  as  in  the  poppy. 
When  the  parts  of  a  whorl  are  placed  in  an  exact  circle,  and  are 


applied  to  each  other  by  their  edges  only,  without  overlapping 
or  being  folded,  thus  resembling  the  valves  of  a  seed-vessel, 
the  aestivation  is  valvate  (fig.  42).  The  edges  of  each  of  the  parts 
may  be  turned  either  inwards  or  outwards;  in  the  former  case 
the  aestivation  is  induplicate  (fig.  43),  in  the  latter  case  reduplicate 
(fig.  44).  When  the  parts  of  a  single  whorl  are  placed  in  a  circle, 
each  of  them  exhibiting  a  torsion  of  its  axis,  so  that  by  one  of  its 
sides  it  overlaps  its  neighbour,  whilst  its  side  is  overlapped  in  like 
manner  by  that  standing  next  to  it,  the  aestivation  is  twisted 
or  contorted  (fig.  45).  This  arrangement  is  characteristic  of  the 
flower-buds  of  Malvaceae  and  Apocynaceae,  and  it  is  also  seen 
in  Convolvulaceae  and  Caryophyllaceae.  When  the  flower 
expands,  the  traces  of  twisting  often  disappear,  but  sometimes, 
as  in  Apocynaceae,  they  remain.  Those  forms  of  aestivation 
are  such  as  occur  in  cyclic  flowers,  and  they  are  included  under 
circular  aestivation.  But  in  spiral  flowers  we  have  a  different 
arrangement ;  thus  the  leaves  of  the  calyx  of  Camellia  japonica 
cover  each  other  partially  like  tiles  on  a  house.  This  aestivation 
is  imbricate.  At  other  times,  as  in  the  petals  of  Camellia,  the 
parts  envelop  each  other  completely,  so  as  to  become  convolute. 
This  is  also  seen  in  a  transverse  section  of  the  calyx  of  Magnolia 
grandiflora,  where  each  of  the  three  leaves  embraces  that  within 
it.  When  the  parts  of  a  whorl  are  five,  as  occurs  in  many 
dicotyledons,  and  the  imbrication  is  such  that  there  are  two 
parts  external,  two  internal,  and  a  fifth  which  partially  covers 
one  of  the  internal  parts  by 
its  margin,  and  is  in  its 
turn  partially  covered  by 
one  of  the  external  parts, 
the  aestivation  is  quin- 
cuncial  (fig.  46).  This  quin- 
cunx is  common  in  the 
corolla  of  Rosaceae.  In 
fig.  47  a  section  is  given 
of  the  bud  of  Antirrhinum 
majus,  showing  the  imbri- 
cate spiral  arrangement. 
In  this  case  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  part  marked  5  has, 
by  a  slight  change  in  posi- 
tion, become  overlapped  by 
i.  This  variety  of  imbri- 
cate aestivation  has  been 
termed  cochlear.  In  flowers 
such  as  those  of  the  pea 
(fig.  40),  one  of  the  parts, 
the  vexillum,  is  often  large 
and  folded  over  the  others, 
giving  rise  to  vexillary 
aestivation  (fig.  48),  or  the 
carina  may  perform  a  similar  office,  and  then  the  aestivation  is 
carinal,  as  in  the  Judas-tree  (Cercis  SUiquastrum) .  The  parts  of 
the  several  verticils  often  differ  in  their  mode  of  aestivation. 
Thus,  in  Malvaceae  the  cor&lla  is  contorted  and  the  calyx  valvate, 
or  reduplicate;  in  St  John's- wort  the  calyx  is  imbricate,  and 
the  corolla  contorted.  In  Convolvulaceae,  while  the  corolla  is 
twisted,  and  has  its  parts  arranged  in  a  circle,  the  calyx  is  imbri- 
cate, and  exhibits  a  spiral  arrangement.  In  Guazuma  the  calyx 
is  valvate,  and  the  corolla  induplicate.  The  circular  aestivation 
is  generally  associated  with  a  regular  calyx  and  corolla,  while  the 
spiral  aestivations  are  connected  with  irregular  as  well  as  with 
regular  forms. 

-The  sepals  are  sometimes  free  or  separate  from  each  other, 
at  other  times  they  are  united  to  a  greater  or  less  extent;  in  the 
former  case,  the  calyx  is  polysepalous,  in  the  latter 
gamosepalous  or  monosepalous.'  The  divisions  of  the 
calyx  present  usually  the  characters  of  leaves,  and  in  some  cases 
of  monstrosity  they  are  converted  into  leaf-like  organs,  as  not 
infrequently  happens  in  primulas.  They  are  usually  entire, 
but  occasionally  they  are  cut  in  various  ways,  as  in  the  rose; 
they  are  rarely  stalked.  Sepals  are  generally  of  a  more  or  less 
oval,  elliptical  or  oblong  form,  with  their  apices  either  blunt  or 


FIG.  47.  FIG.  48. 

FIG.  47. — Diagram  to  illustrate  im- 
bricated aestivation,  in  which  the 
parts  are  arranged  in  a  spiral  cycle, 
following  the  order  indicated  by  the 
figures  i,  2,  3,  4,  5. 

FIG.  48. — Diagram  of  a  papilio- 
naceous flower,  showing  vexillary 
aestivation. 

i  and  2,  The  alae  or  wings. 
3,  A  part  of  the  carina  or  keel. 
,  The  vexillum  or  standard,  which, 
in    place    of   being   internal,   as 
marked  by  the  dotted  line,  be- 
comes external. 

,  The  remaining  part  of  the  keel. 
The  order  of  the  cycle  is  indicated 
y  the  figures. 


Calyx. 


FLOWER 


acute.  In  their  direction  they  are  erect  or  reflexed  (with  their 
apices  downwards),  spreading  outwards  (divergent  or  palulous), 
or  arched  inwards  (connivent).  They  are  usually  of  a  greenish 
colour  (herbaceous);  but  sometimes  they  are  coloured  or 
petaloid,  as  in  the  fuchsia,  tropaeolum,  globe-flower  and 
pomegranate.  Whatever  be  its  colour,  the  external  envelope 
of  the  flower  is  considered  as  the  calyx.  The  vascular  bundles 
sometimes  form  a  prominent  rib,  which  indicates  the  middle  of 
the  sepal;  at  other  times  they  form  several  ribs.  The  venation 
is  useful  as  pointing  out  the  number  of  leaves  which  constitute 
a  gamosepalous  calyx.  In  a  polysepalous  calyx  the  number 
of  the  parts  is  indicated  by  Greek  numerals  prefixed;  thus, 
a  calyx  which  has  three  sepals  is  trisepalous;  one  with  five  sepals 
is  pentasepalous.  The  sepals  occasionally  are  of  different  forms 
and  sizes.  In  Aconite  one  of  them  is  shaped  like  a  helmet 
(galeate).  In  a  gamosepalous  calyx  the  sepals  are  united  in 
various  ways,  sometimes  very  slightly,  and  their  number  is 
marked  by  the  divisions  at  the  apex.  These  divisions  either 
are  simple  projections  in  the  form  of  acute  or  obtuse  teeth 
(fig.  49) ;  or  they  extend  down  the  calyx  as  fissures  about  halfway, 


From  Strasburger's  Lehrbuch  der 
Botanik,  by  permission  of  Gustav 
Fischer. 

FIG.  51.  FIG.  52.  FIG.  53. 

FIG.  49. — Gamosepalous  five-toothed  calyx  of  Campion  (Lychnis). 

FIG.  50. — Obsolete  calyx  (c)  of  Madder  (Rubia)  adherent  to  the 
pistil,  in  the  form  of  a  rim. 

FIG.  51. — -Feathery  pappus  attached  to  the  fruit  of  Groundsel 
(Senecio  vulgaris). 

FIG.  52. — Caducous  calyx  (c)  of  Poppy.  There  are  two  sepals 
which  fall  off  before  the  petals  expand. 

FIG.  53. — Fruit  of  Physalis  Alkekengi,  consisting  of  the  persistent 
calyx  (s),  surrounding  the  berry  (Jr),  derived  from  the  ovary.  (After 
Duchartre.) 

the  calyx  being  trifid  (three-cleft),  quinquefid  (five-cleft),  &c., 
according  to  their  number;  or  they  reach  to  near  the  base  in  the 
form  of  partitions,  the  calyx  being  tripartite,  quadripartite, 
quinquepartitc,  &c.  The  union  of  the  parts  may  be  complete, 
and  the  calyx  may  be  quite  entire  or  truncate,  as  in  some  Correas, 
the  venation  being  the  chief  indication  of  the  different  parts' 
The  cohesion  is  sometimes  irregular,  some  parts  uniting  to  a 
greater  extent  than  others;  thus  a  two-lipped  or  labiate  calyx 
is  formed.  The  upper  Up  is  often  composed  of  three  parts, 
which  are  thus  posterior  or  next  the  axis,  while  the  lower  has 
two,  which  are  anterior.  The  part  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
sepals  is  called  the  tube  of  the  calyx;  the  portion  where  the  sepals 
are  free  is  the  limb.  • 

Occasionally,  certain  parts  of  the  sepals  undergo  marked 
enlargement.  In  the  violet  the  calycine  segments  are  prolonged 
downwards  beyond  their  insertions,  and  in  the  Indian  cress 
(Tropaeolum)  this  prolongation  is  in  the  form  of  a  spur  (calcar), 
formed  by  three  sepals;  in  Delphinium  it  is  formed  by  one. 
In  Pelargonium  the  spur  from  one  of  the  sepals  is  adherent  to 
the  flower-stalk.  In  Potenlilla  and  allied  genera  an  epicalyx  is 
formed  by  the  development  of  stipules  from  the  sepals,  which 
form  an  apparent  outer  calyx,  the  parts  of  which  alternate  with 


the  true  sepals.  In  Malvaceae  an  epicalyx  is  formed  by  the 
bracteoles.  Degenerations  take  place  in  the  calyx,  so  that  it 
becomes  dry,  s6aly  and  glumaceous  (like  the  glumes  of  grasses), 
as  in  the  rushes  (Juncaceae);  hairy,  as  in  Compositae;  or  a 
mere  rim,  as  in  some  Umbelliferae  and  Acanthaceae,  and  in 
Madder  (Rubia  tinctorum,  fig.  50),  when  it  is  called  obsolete  or 
marginate.  In  Compositae,  Dipsacaceae  and  Valerianaceae 
the  calyx  is  attached  to  the  pistil,  and  its  limb  is  developed  in 
the  form  of  hairs  called  pappus  (fig.  51).  This  pappus  is  either 
simple  (pilose)  or  feathery  (plumose).  In  Valsriana  the  superior 
calyx  is  at  first  an  obsolete  rim,  but  as  the  fruit  ripens  it  is  shown 
to  consist  of  hairs  rolled  inwards,  which  expand  so  as  to  waft 
the  fruit.  The  calyx  sometimes  falls  off  before  the  flower 
expands,  as  in  poppies,  and  is  caducous  (fig.  52);  or  along  with 
the  corolla,  as  in  Ranunculus,  and  is  deciduous;  or  it  remains 
after  flowering  (persistent)  as  in  Labiatae,  Scrophulariaceae, 
and  Boraginaceae;  or  its  base  only  is  persistent,  as  in  Datura 
Stramonium.  In  Eschschollzia  and  Eucalyptus  the  sepals  remain 
united  at  the  upper  part,  and  become  disarticulated  at  the  base 
or  middle,  so  as  to  come  off  in  the  form  of  a  lid  or  funnel.  Such 
a  calyx  is  operculate  or  calyptrate.  The  existence  or  non-existence 
of  an  articulation  determines  the  deciduous  or  persistent  nature 
of  the  calyx. 

The  receptacle  bearing  the  calyx  is  sometimes  united  to  the 
pistil,  and  enlarges  so  as  to  form  a  part  of  the  fruit,  as  in  the 
apple,  pear,  &c.  In  these  fruits  the  withered  calyx  is  seen  at 
the  apex.  Sometimes  a  persistent  calyx  increases  much  after 
flowering,  and  encloses  the  fruit  without  being  incorporated 
with  it,  becoming  accrescent,  as  in  various  species  of  Physalis 
(fig.  53);  at  other  times  it  remains  in  a  withered  or  marcescent 
form,  as  in  Erica;  sometimes  it  becomes  inflated  or  vesicular, 
as  in  sea  campion  (Silene  maritima). 

The  corolla  is  the  more  or  less  coloured  attractive  inner  floral 
envelope;  generally  the  most  conspicuous  whorl.  It  is  present 
in  the  greater  number  of  Dicotyledons.  Petals  differ 
more  from  ordinary  leaves  than  sepals  do,  and  are  Corotl*- 
much  more  nearly  allied  to  the  staminal  whorl.  In  some  cases, 
however,  they  are  transformed  into  leaves,  like  the  calyx,  and 
occasionally  leaf-buds  are  developed  in  their  axil.  They  are 
seldom  green,  although  occasionally  that  colour  is  met  with,  as 
in  some  species  of  Cobaea,  Hoya  viridiflora,  Gonolobus  viridiftorus 
and  Pentatropis  spiralis.  As  a  rule  they  are  highly  coloured, 
the  colouring  matter  being  contained  in  the  cell-sap,  as  in  blue 
or  red  flowers,  or  in  plastids  (chromoplasts) ,  as  generally  in  yellow 
flowers,  or  in  both  forms,  as  in  many  orange-coloured  or  reddish 
flowers.  The  attractiveness  of  the  petal  is  often  due  wholly  or 
in  part  to  surface  markings;  thus  the  cuticle  of  the  petal  of  a 
pelargonium,  when  viewed  wikh  a  J  or  J-in.  object-glass,  shows 
beautiful  hexagons,  the  boundaries  of  which  are  ornamented  with 
several  inflected  loops  in  the  sides  of  the  cells. 

Petals  are  generally  glabrous  or  smooth;  but,  in  some 
instances,  hairs  are  produced  on  their  surface.  Petaline  hairs, 
though  sparse  and  scattered,  present  occasionally  the  same 
arrangement  as  those  which  occur  on  the  leaves;  thus,  in 
Bombaceae  they  are  stellate.  Coloured  hairs  are  seen  on  the 
petals  of  Menyanthes,  and  on  the  segments  of  the  perianth  of 
Iris.  They  serve  various  purposes  in  the  economy  of  the  flower, 
often  closing  the  way  to  the  honey-secreting  part  of  the  flower 
to  small  insects,  whose  visits  would  be  useless  for  purposes  of 
pollination.  Although  petals  are  usually  very  thin  and  delicate 
in  their  texture,  they  occasionally  become  thick  and  fleshy, 
as  in  Stapelia  and  Rafflesia;  or  dry,  as  in  heaths;  or  hard  and 
stiff,  as  in  Xylopia.  A  petal  often  consists  of  two  portions — the 
lower  narrow,  resembling  the  petiole  of  a  leaf,  and  called  the 
unguis  or  claw;  the  upper  broader,  like  the  blade  of  a  leaf,  and 
called  the  lamina  or  limb.  These  parts  are  seen  in  the  petals 
of  the  wallflower  (fig.  54).  The  claw  is  often  wanting,  as  in  the 
crowfoot  (fig.  55)  and  the  poppy,  and  the  petals  are  then  sessile. 
According  to  the  development  of  veins  and  the  growth  of  cellular 
tissue,  petals  present  varieties  similar  to  those  of  leaves.  Thus 
the  margin  is  either  entire  or  divided  into  lobes  or  teeth.  These 
teeth  sometimes  form  a  regular  fringe  round  the  margin,  and  the 


564 


FLOWER 


petal  becomes  fimbriated,  as  in  the  pink;  or  laciniated,  as  in 
Lychnis  Flos-cuculi;  or  crested,  as  in  Poly  gala.  Sometimes  the 
petal  becomes  pinnatifid,  as  in  Schizopetalum.  The  median  vein 
is  occasionally  prolonged  beyond  the  summit  of  the  petals  in 
the  form  of  a  long  process,  as  in  Strophanthus  hispidus,  where 
it  extends  for  7  in.  ;  or  the  prolonged  extremity  is  folded  down- 
wards or  inflexed,  as  in  Umbelliferae,  so  that  the  apex  approaches 
the  base.  The  limb  of  the  petal  may  be  flat  or  concave,  or 
hollowed  like  a  boat.  In  Hellebore  the  petals  become  folded 


FIG.  56. 


FIG.  57. 


FIG.  58. 


FIG.  54. — Unguiculate  or  clawed  petal  of  Wallflower  (Cheiranthus 
Cheiri).  c,  Theclaworunguis;  /,  the  blade  or  lamina. 

FIG.  55. — Petal  of  Crowfoot  (Ranunculus),  without  a  claw,  and 
thus  resembling  a  sessile  leaf.  At  the  base  of  the  petal  a  nectariferous 
scale  is  seen. 

FIG.  56. — Tubular  petal  of  Hellebore  (Hellcborus). 

FIG.  57. — Pansy  (Viola  tricolor).  Longitudinal  section  of  flower; 
v,  bracteole  on  the  peduncle;  /,  sepals;  Is,  appendage  of  sepal;  c, 
petals;  cs,  spur  of  the  lower  petals;  fs,  glandular  appendage  of  the 
lower  stamens;  a,  anthers.  (After  Sachs.) 

(From  Vines'  Students'  Text-Book  ot  Botany,  by  permission  of  Swan  Sonnenscbein 
&Co.) 

FlG.  58. — Part  of  the  flower  of  Aconite  (Aconitum  Napellus),  show- 
ing two  irregular  horn-like  petals  (p)  supported  on  grooved  stalks  (o). 
These  serve  as  nectaries,  i,  the  whorl  of  stamens  inserted  on  the 
thalamus  and  surrounding  the  pistil. 

in  a  tubular  form,  resembling  a  horn  (fig.  56) ;  in  aconite  (fig.  58) 
some  of  the  petals  resemble  a  hollow-curved  horn,  supported 
on  a  grooved  stalk;  while  in  columbine,  violet  (fig.  57), 
snapdragon  and  Centranthus,  one  or  all  of  them  are  prolonged 
in  the  form  of  a  spur,  and  are  calcarate.  In  Valeriana,  Antir- 
rhinum and  Corydalis,  the  spur  is  very  short,  and  the  corolla 
or  petal  is  said  to  be  gibbous,  or  saccate,  at  the  base.  These  spurs, 
tubes  and  sacs  serve  as  receptacles  for  the  secretion  or  containing 
of  nectar. 

A  corolla  is  dipetalous,  tripetalous,  tetrapetalous  or  pentapetalous 
according  as  it  has  two,  three,  four  or  five  separate  petals.  The 
general  name  of  polypetalous  is  given  to  corollas  having  separate 
petals,  while  monopetalous,  gamopetalous  or  sympetalous  is  applied 
to  those  in  which  the  petals  are  united.  This  union  generally 
takes  place  at  the  base,  and  extends  more  or  less  towards  the 
apex;  in  Phyteuma  the  petals  are  united  at  their  apices  also. 
In  some  polypetaious  corollas,  as  that  of  the  vine,  the  petals  are 
separate  at  the  base  and  adhere  by  the  apices.  When  the  petals 
are  equal  as  regards  their  development  and  size,  the  corolla  is 
regular;  when  unequal,  it  is  irregular.  When  a  corolla  is  gamo- 
petalous it  usually  happens  that  the  lower  portion  forms  a 
tube,  while  the  upper  parts  are  either  free  or  partially  united, 
so  as  to  form  a  common  limb,  the  point  of  union  of  the  two 
portions  being  the  throat,  which  often  exhibits  a  distinct  constric- 
tion or  dilatation.  The  number  of  parts  forming  such  a  corolla 
can  be  determined  by  the  divisions,  whether  existing  as  teeth, 
crenations,  fissures  or  partitions,  or  if,  as  rarely  happens,  the 
corolla  is  entire,  by  the  venation.  The  union  may  be  equal 
among  the  parts,  or  some  may  unite  more  than  others. 


Amongst  regular  polypetalous  corollas  may  be  noticed  the 
rosaceous  corolla  (fig.  59),  in  which  there  are  five  spreading 
petals,  having  no  claws,  and  arranged  as  in  the  rose,  strawberry 
and  Potentilla;  the  caryophyllaceous  corolla,  in  which  there  are 
five  petals  with  long,  narrow,  tapering  claws,  as  in  many  of  the 
pink  tribe;  the  cruciform,  having  four 
petals,  often  unguiculate,  placed  opposite 
in  the  form  of  a  cross,  as  seen  in  wall- 
flower, and  in  other  plants  called  cruci- 
ferous. Of  irregular  polypetalous  corollas 
the  most  marked  is  the  papilionaceous 
(fig.  40),  in  which  there  are  five  petals: 

—one  superior  (posterior),  st,  placed  FIG.  59.— Rosaceous 
next  to  the  axis,  usually  larger  than  the  corolla  (c)  of  the  Straw- 
rest,  called  the  vexillum  or  standard;  berrv  (Fra.ga.ria  vesca), 
two  lateral,  a,  the  alae  or  wings;  two  ^CuTdatf6  P  * 

...  ,  ,i  in  W1LI1UUL   LltlVVb. 

inferior    (anterior),    partially    or    com- 
pletely covered  by  the  alae,  and  often  united  slightly  by  their 
lower  margins,  so  as  to  form  a  single  keel-like  piece,  car,  called 
carina,  or  keel,  which  embraces  the  essential  organs.     This  form 
of  corolla  is  characteristic  of  British  leguminous  plants. 

Regular  gamopetalous  corollas  are  sometimes  campanulate  or 
Mi-shaped,  as  in  (Campanula)  (fig.  60);  infundibuliform  or 
funnel-shaped,  when  the  tube  is  like  an  inverted  cone,  and  the 
limb  becomes  more  expanded  at  the  apex,  as  in  tobacco;  hypo- 
crateriform  or  salver-shaped,  when  there  is  a  straight  tube  sur- 
mounted by  a  flat  spreading  limb,  as  in  primula  (fig.  61);  tubular, 
having  a  long  cylindrical  tube,  appearing  continuous  with  the 
limb,  as  in  Spigelia  and  comfrey;  rotate  or  wheel-shaped,  when 
the  tube  is  very  short,  and  the  limb  flat  and  spreading,  as  in 
forget-me-not,  Myosotis  (when  the  divisions  of  the  rotate  corolla 
are  very  acute,  as  in  Galium,  it  is  sometimes  called  stellate  or 
star-like);  urceolate  or  urn-shaped,  when  there  is  scarcely  any 
limb,  and  the  tube  is  narrow  at  both  ends,  and  expanded  in  the 
middle,  as  in  bell-heath  (Erica  cinerea).  Some  of  these  forms 
may  become  irregular  in  consequence  of  certain  parts  being  more 
developed  than  others.  Thus,  in  Veronica,  the  rotate  corolla 
has  one  division  much  smaller  than  the  rest,  and  in  foxglove 
(Digitalis)  there  is  a 
slightly  irregular 
companulate  cor- 
olla. Of  irregular 
gamopetalous  cor- 
ollas there  may  be 
mentioned  the  labiate 
or  lipped  (fig.  62), 
having  two  divisions 
of  the  limb  in  the 
form  of  lips  (the 
upper  one,  u,  com- 
posed usually  of  two 
united  petals,  and 
the  lower,  I,  of  three) , 
separated  by  a  gap. 
In  such  cases  the  tube  varies  in  length,  and  the  parts  in  their 
union  follow  the  reverse  order  of  what  occurs  in  the  calyx,  where 
two  sepals  are  united  in  the  lower  lip  and  three  in  the  upper. 
When  the  upper  lip  of  a  labiate  corolla  is  much  arched,  and  the 
lips  separated  by  a  distinct  gap,  it  is  called  ringent  (fig.  62).  The 
labiate  corolla  characterizes  the  natural  order  Labiatae.  When 
the  lower  lip  is  pressed  against  the  upper,  so  as  to  leave  only  a 
chink  between  them,  the  corolla  is  said  to  be  personate,  as  in 
snapdragon,  and  some  other  Scrophulariaceae.  In  some  corollas 
the  two  lips  become  hollowed  out  in  a  remarkable  manner,  as  in 
calceolaria,  assuming  a  slipper-like  appearance,  similar  to  what 
occurs  in  the  labellum  of  some  orchids,  as  Cypripedium.  When  a 
tubular  corolla  is  split  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  strap-like  process 
on  one  side  with  several  tooth-like  projections  at  its  apex,  it 
becomes  ligulate  or  strap-shaped  (fig.  63).  This  corolla  occurs 
in  many  composite  plants,  as  in  the  florets  of  dandelion,  daisy 
and  chicory.  The  number  of  divisions  at  the  apex  indicates  the 
number  of  united  petals,  some  of  which,  however,  may  be 


From  Strasburgcr's  Lehrbuch  der  Bolanik,  by  permis- 
sion of  Gustav  Fischer. 

FIG.  60. — Flower  of  Campanula  medium ; 
d,  bract;     v,  bracteoles. 


FLOWER 


565 


abortive.  Occasionally  some  of  the  petals  become  more  united 
than  others,  and  then  the  corolla  assumes  a  bilabiate  or  two-lipped 
form,  as  seen  in  the  division  of  Compositae  called  Labiatiflorae. 

Petals  are  sometimes  suppressed,  and  sometimes  the  whole 
corolla  is  absent.  In  Amorpha  and  Afzelia  the  corolla  is  reduced  to 
a  single  petal,  and  in  some  other  Leguminous  plants  it  is  entirely 
wanting.  In  the  natural  order  Ranunculaceae,  some  genera,  such 
as  Ranunculus,  globe-flower  and  paeony,  have  both  calyx  and 
corolla,  while  others,  such  as  clematis,  anemone  and  Callha,  have 
only  a  coloured  calyx.  Flowers  become  double  by  the  multiplica- 
tion of  the  parts  of  the  corolline  whorl;  this  arises  in  general 
from  a  metamorphosis  of  the  stamens. 

Certain  structures  occur  on  the  petals  of  some  flowers,  which 
received  in  former  days  the  name  of  nectaries.  The  term  nectary 

was  very  vaguely  applied 
by  Linnaeus  to  any  part 
of  the  flower  which  pre- 
sented an  unusual  aspect, 
as  the  crown  (corona)  of 
narcissus,  the  fringes  of 
the  Passion-flower,  &c.  If 
the  name  is  retained  it 
ought  properly  to  include 
only  those  parts  which 
secrete  a  honey-like  sub- 
stance, as  the  glandular 
depression  at  the  base  of 
the  perianth  of  the  fritil- 
lary,  or  on  the  petal  of 
Ranunculus  (fig.  55),  or  on 
the  stamens  of  Rutaceae. 


FIG.  61.        FIG.  62.       FIG.  63. 

FIG.  61.  —  Flower  of  cowslip  (Pri- 
mula veris)  cut  vertically,  s,  Sepals 
joined  to  form  a  gamosepalous  calyx; 
c,  corolla  consisting  of  tube  and  spread-  The  honey  secreted  by 
ing  limb;  a,  stamens  springing  from  flowers  attracts  insects, 
the  mouth  of  the  tube;  p,  pistil. 

FIG.  62.  —  Irregular     gamopetalous 
labiate    corolla    of    the    Dead-nettle  Pollf 
(Lamium  album).    The  upper  lip  u  is  effect 
composed  of  two  petals  united,  the 
lower  lip  (/)  of  three.     Between  the 


limb  join.  From  the  arching  of  the 
upper  lip  this  corolla  is  called  ringent. 
FIG.  63.  —  Irregular  gamopetalous 
ligulate  flower  of  Ragwort  (Senecio). 
It  is  a  tubular  floret,  split  down  on  one 
side,  with  the  united  petals  forming  a 
straplike  projection.  The  lines  on  the 
flat  portion  indicate  the  divisions  of  the 
five  petals.  From  the  tubular  portion 
below,  the  bifid  style  projects  slightly. 


which,  by  conveying  the 
to  the  stigma, 
fertilization.  The 
horn-like  nectaries  under 
the  galeate  sepal  of 
aconite  (fig.  58)  are  modi- 
fied petals,  so  also  are  the 
tubular  nectaries  of  hel- 
lebore (fig.  56).  Other 
modifications  of  some  part 
of  the  flower,  especially 
of  the  corolla  and  stamens, 
are  produced  either  by 
degeneration  or  out- 


growth,  or  by  chorisis, 
or  deduplicalion.  Of  this  nature  are  the  scales  on  the  petals  in 
Lychnis,  Silene  and  Cynoglossum,  which  are  formed  in  the  same 
way  as  the  ligules  of  grasses.  In  other  cases,  as  in  Samolus, 
the  scales  are  alternate  with  the  petals,  and  may  represent  altered 
stamens.  In  Narcissus  the  appendages  are  united  to  form  a 
crown,  consisting  of  a  membrane  similar  to  that  which  unites 
the  stamens  in  Pancratium.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  say 
whether  these  structures  are  to  be  referred  to  the  corolline  or  to 
the  staminal  row. 

Petals  are  attached  to  the  axis  usually  by  a  narrow  base. 
When  this  attachment  takes  place  by  an  articulation,  the  petals 
fall  off  either  immediately  after  expansion  (caducous)  or  after 
fertilization  (deciduous).  A  corolla  which  is  continuous  with  the 
axis  and  not  articulated  to  it,  as  in  campanula  and  heaths, 
may  be  persistent,  and  remain  in  a  withered  or  marcescent  state 
while  the  fruit  is  ripening.  A  gamopetalous  corolla  falls  off  in 
one  piece;  but  sometimes  the  base  of  the  corolla  remains  per- 
sistent, as  in  Rhinanthus  and  Orobanche. 

The  stamens  and  the  pistil  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the 
essential  organs  of  the  flower,  as  the  presence  of  both  is  required 
in  order  that  perfect  seed  may  be  produced.  As  with  few  excep- 
tions the  stamen  represents  a  leaf  which  has  been  specially 
developed  to  bear  the  pollen  or  microspores,  it  is  spoken  of  in 
comparative  morphology  as  a  microsporophyll;  similarly  the 


Stamen*. 


carpels  which  make  up  the  pistil  are  the  megasporophylls  (see 
ANGIOSPERMS).  Hermaphrodite  or  bisexual  flowers  are  those 
in  which  both  these  organs  are  found;  unisexual  or  diclinous 
are  those  in  which  only  one  of  these  organs  appears, — those 
bearing  stamens  only,  being  staminiferous  or  "  male  ";  those 
having  the  pistil  only,  pistilliferous  or  "  female."  But  even  in 
plants  with  hermaphrodite  flowers  self-fertilization  is  often  pro- 
vided against  by  the  structure  of  the  parts  or  by  the  period  of 
ripening  of  the  organs.  For  instance,  in  Primula  and  Linum 
some  flowers  have  long  stamens  and  a  pistil  with  a  short  style, 
the  others  having  short  stamens  and  a  pistil  with  a  long  style. 
The  former  occur  in  the  so-called  thrum-eyed  primroses  (fig.  61), 
the  latter  in  the  "  pin-eyed."  Such  plants  are  called  dimorphic. 
Other  plants  are  trimorphic,  as  species  of  Lylhrum,  and  proper 
fertilization  is  only  effected  by  combination  of  parts  of  equal 
length.  In  some  plants  the  stamens  are  perfected  before  the 
pistil;  these  are  called  proterandrous,  as  in  Ranunculus  repens, 
Silene  maritime,  Zea  Mays.  In  other  plants,  but  more  rarely, 
the  pistil  is  perfected  before  the  stamens,  as  in  Potentilla  argentea, 
Plantago  major,  Coix  Lachryma,  and  they  are  termed  pro- 
terogynous.  Plants  in  which  proterandry  or  proterogyny  occurs 
are  called  dichogamous.  When  in  the  same  plant  there  are 
unisexual  flowers,  both  male  and  female,  the  plant  is  said  to  be 
monoecious,  as  in  the  hazel  and  castor-oil  plant.  When  the  male 
and  female  flowers  of  a  species  are  fcund  on  separate  plants, 
the  term  dioecious  is  applied,  as  in  Mercurialis  and  hemp;  and 
when  a  species  has  male,  female  and  hermaphrodite  flowers 
on  the  same  or  different  plants,  as  in  Parielaria,  it  is  polygamous. 
The  stamens  arise  from  the  thalamus  or  torus  within  the 
petals,  with  which  they  generally  alternate,  forming  one  or  more 
whorls,  which  collectively  constitute  the  androecium. 
Their  normal  position  is  below  the  pistil,  and  when 
they  are  so  placed  (fig.64,  a)  upon  the  thalamus  they  are  hypo- 
gynous.  Sometimes  they  become  adherent  to  the  petals,  or  are 
epipetalous,  and  the  insertion  of  both  is  looked  upon  as  similar, 
so  that  they  are  still  hypogynous,  provided  they  are  independent 
of  the  calyx  and  the  pistil.  In  other  cases  they  are  perigynous 
or  epigynous  (fig.  65).  Numerous  intermediate  forms  occur, 
especially  amongst  Saxifragaceae,  where  the  parts  are  half  superior 
or  half  inferior.  Where  the  stamens  become  adherent  to  the 
pistil  so  as  to  form  a  column,  the  flowers  are  said  to  be  gynandrous, 
as  in  Aristolochia  (fig. 
66).  These  arrange- 
ments of  parts  are  of 
great  importance  in 
classification.  The 
stamens  vary  in  num- 
ber from  one  to  many 
hundreds.  In  acyclic 
flowers  there  is  often 
a  gradual  transition 
from  petals  to 
stamens,  as  in  the 
white  water-lily  (fig. 
31).  When  flowers  be- 
come double  by  cul- 
tivation, the  stamens 
are  converted  into 
petals,  as  in  the 
paeony,  camellia, 
rose,  &c.  When  there  is  only  one  whorl  the  stamens  are 
usually  equal  in  number  to  the  sepals  or  petals,  and  are 
arranged  opposite  to  the  former,  and  alternate  with  the  latter. 
The  flower  is  then  isostemonous.  When  the  stamens  are  not 
equal  in  number  to  the  sepals  or  petals,  the  flower  is  anisoste- 
monous.  When  there  is  more  than  one  whorl  of  stamens,  then  the 
parts  of  each  successive  whorl  alternate  with  those  of  the  whorl 
preceding  it.  The  staminal  row  is  more  liable  to  multiplication 
of  parts  than  the  outer  whorls.  A  flower  with  a  single  row  of 
stamens  is  haplostemonous.  If  the  stamens  are  double  the  sepals 
or  petals  as  regards  number,  the  flower  is  diplostemonous;  if 
more  than  double,  polystemonous.  The  additional  rows  of 


From  Strasburger's  Lehrbuth  der  Balanik,  by  per- 
mission of  Gustav  Fischer. 

FlG.  64. — Flower  of  Paeonia  pcregrina,\n 
longitudinal  section,  k,  Sepal;  c,  petal;  a, 
stamens;  g,  pistil.  (J  nat.  size.) 


566 


FLOWER 


stamens  may  be  developed  in  the  usual  centripetal  (acropetal) 
order,  as  in  Rhamnaceae;  or  they  may  be  interposed  between 
the  pre-existing  ones  or  be  placed  outside  them,  i.e.  develop 
centrifugally  (basipetally),  as  in  geranium  and  oxalis,  when  the 
flower  is  said  to  be  obdiplostemonous .  When  the  stamens  are 
fewer  than  twenty  they  are  said  to  be  definite;  when  above 
twenty  they  are  indefinite,  and  are  represented  by  the  symbol  oo. 
The  number  of  stamens  is  indicated  by  the  Greek  numerals 
prefixed  to  the  term  androus;  thus  a  flower  with  one  stamen 
is  monandrous,  with  two,  three,  four,  five,  six  or  many  stamens, 
di-,  tri-,  tetr-,  pent-,  hex-  or  polyandrous,  respectively. 

The  function  of  the  stamen  is  the  development  and  distribution 
of  the  pollen.  The  stamen  usually  consists  of  two  parts,  a  con- 
tracted portion,  often  thread-like,  termed  the  filament  (fig.  25  /), 
and  a  broader  portion,  usually  of  two  lobes,  termed  the  anther  (a) , 
containing  the  powdery  pollen  (p],  and  supported  upon  the  end 
of  the  filament.  That 
portion  of  the  filament 
in  contact  with  the 
anther-lobes  is  termed 
the  connective.  If  the 


FIG.  65. — Flower  of 
Aralia  in  vertical  sec- 
tion, c,  Calyx;  p, petal; 
e,  stamen;  s,  stigmas. 
The  calyx,  petals  and 
stamens  spring  from 
above  the  ovary  (o)  in 
which  two  chambers 
are  shown  each  with  a 
pendulous  ovule;  d,  disc 
between  the  stamens 
and  stigmas. 


From  Strasburger's  Lehrbuch  der  Botanik,  by  per- 
mission of  Gustav  Fischer. 

FIG.  06. — Flowers  of  Aristoluchia  Clem- 
atitis  cut  through  longitudinally.  I.  Young 
flower  in  which  the  stigma  (N)  is  receptive 


anther   is   absent   the 

stamen     is     abortive, 

and     cannot     perform    and  the  stamens  (S)  have  not  yet  opened ; 

its     functions  .       The    H-   °*der   flower  with   the  stamens   (S) 

anther  Hpvplnr>prl    opened,  the  stigma  withered,  and  the  hairs 

is     developed   on  the  corolla  dried  up.    (X2.) 
before     the     filament, 

and  when  the  latter  is  not  produced,  the  anther  is  sessile,  as  in 
the  mistletoe. 

The  filament  is  usually,  as  its  name  imports,  filiform  or  thread- 
like ,  and  cylindrical,  or  slightly  tapering  towards  its  summit. 
It  is  often,  however,  thickened ,  compressed  and  flattened  in 
various  ways,  becoming  petaloid  in  Canna,  Marania,  water-lily 
(fig.  32);  subulate  or  slightly  broadened  at  the  base  and  drawn 
out  into  a  point  like  an  awl,  as  in  Butomus  umbellatus;  or 
clavate,  that  is,  narrow  below  and  broad  above,  as  in  Thalictrum. 
In  some  instances,  as  in  Tamarix  gallica,  Peganum  Harmala, 
and  Campanula,  the  base  of  the  filament  is  much  dilated,  and 
ends  suddenly  in  a  narrow  thread-like  portion.  In  these  cases 
the  base  may  give  off  lateral  stipulary  processes,  as  in  A  Ilium 
and  Alyssum  calycinum.  The  filament  varies  much  in  length 
and  in  firmness.  The  length  sometimes  bears  a  relation  to  that 
of  the  pistil,  and  to  the  position  of  the  flower,  whether  erect  or 
drooping.  The  filament  is  usually  of  sufficient  solidity  to  support 
the  anther  in  an  erect  position;  but  sometimes,  as  in  grasses, 
and  other  wind-pollinated  flowers,  it  is  very  delicate  and  hair-like, 
so  that  the  anther  is  pendulous  (fig.  105).  The  filament  is 
generally  continuous  from  one  end  to  the  other,  but  in  some 
cases  it  is  bent  or  jointed,  becoming  geniculate;  at  other  times, 
as  in  the  pellitory,  it  is  spiral.  It  is  colourless,  or  of  different 
colours.  Thus  in  fuchsia  and  Poinciana,  it  is  red;  in  Adamia 
and  Tradescantia  virginica,  blue;  in  Oenothera  and  Ranunculus 
acris,  yellow. 

Hairs,  scales,  teeth  or  processes  of  different  kinds  are  some- 


times developed  on  the  filament.  In  spiderwort  (Tradescantia 
virginica)  the  hairs  are  beautifully  coloured,  moniliform  or 
necklace-like,  and  afford  good  objects  for  studying  rotation 
of  the  protoplasm.  Filaments  are  usually  articulated  to  the 
thalamus  or  torus,  and  the  stamens  fall  off  after  fertilization: 
but  in  Campanula  and  some  other  plants  they  are  continuous 
with  the  torus,  and  the  stamens  remain  persistent,  although  in  a 
withered  state.  Changes  are  produced  in  the  whorl  of  stamens 
by  cohesion  of  the  filaments  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  while 
the  anthers  remain  free;  thus,  all  the  filaments  of  the  androecium 
may  unite,  forming  a  tube 
round  the  pistil,  or  a  central 
bundle  when  the  pistil  is  abor- 
tive, the  stamens  becoming 
monadelphous,  as  occurs  in 
plants  of  the  Mallow  tribe;  or 
they  may  be  arranged  in  two 
bundles,  the  stamens  being 
diadelphous,  as  in  Polygala, 
Fumaria  and  Pea;  in  this  case 
the  bundles  may  be  equal  or 
unequal.  It  frequently  happens, 
especially  in  Papilionaceous 
flowers,  that  out  of  ten  stamens 
nine  are  united  by  their  fila- 
ments, while  one  (the  posterior 
one)  is  free  (fig.  68).  When 
there  are  three  or  more  bundles 
the  stamens  are  triadelphous,  as  in  Hypericum  aegyptiacum,  or 
polyadelphous,  as  in  Ricinus  communis  (castor-oil).  In  some 
cases,  as  in  papilionaceous  flowers,  the  stamens  cohere,  having 
been  originally  separate,  but  in  most  cases  each  bundle  is  pro- 
duced by  the  branching  of  a  single  stamen.  When  there  are 
three  stamens  in  a  bundle  we  may  conceive  the  lateral  ones 
as  of  a  stipulary  nature.  In  Lauraceae  there  are  perfect 
stamens,  each  having  at  the  base  of  the  filament  two  abortive 
stamens  or  staminodes,  which  may  be  analogous  to  stipules. 
Filaments  sometimes  are  adherent  to  the  pistil,  forming  a  column 
(gynostemium) ,  as  in  Stylidium,  Asclepiadaceae,  Rafflesia,  and 
Aristolochiaceae  (fig.  66) ;  the  flowers  are  then  termed  gynandrous. 


a' 

FIG.  67. — Spikelet  of  Reed 
(Phragmites  communis)  opened 
out.  a,  b.  Barren  glumes;  c, 
fertile  glumes,  each  enclosing  one 
flower  with  its  pale,  d;  the  zig- 
zag axis  (rhachilla)  bears  long 
silky  hairs. 


FIG.  69. 


FIG.  70. 


FIG.  68. — Stamens  and  pistil  of  Sweet  Pea  (Lathyrus).  The 
stamens  are  diadelphous,  nine  of  them  being  united  by  their  filaments 
(/),  while  one  of  them  (e)  is  free;  st,  stigma;  c,  calyx. 

FIG.  69. — Portion  of  wall  of  anther  of  Wallflower  (Cheiranthus). 
ce,  Exothecium;  cf,  endothecium;  highly  magnified. 

FIG.  70. — Quadrilocular  or  tetrathecal  anther  of  the  flowering 
Rush  (Butomus  umbellatus).  The  anther  entire  (a)  with  its  filament; 
section  of  anther  (b)  showing  the  four  loculi. 

The  anther  consists  of  lobes  containing  the  minute  powdery 
pollen  grains,  which,  when  mature,  are  discharged  by  a  fissure 
or  opening  of  some  sort.     There  is  a  double  covering 
of  the  anther — the  outer,  or  exothecium,  resembles  the       aatbtr. 
epidermis, and  of  ten  presents  stomata  and  projections  of 
different  kinds  (fig.  69) ;  the  inner,  or  endothecium,  is  formed  by  a 
layer  or  layers  of  cellular  tissue  (fig.  69,  cf),  the  cells  of  which 


FLOWER 


have  a  spiral,  annular,  or  reticulated  thickening  of  the  wall. 
The  endothecium  varies  in  thickness,  generally  becoming  thinner 
towards  the  part  where  the  anther  opens,  and  there  disappears 
entirely.  The  walls  of  the  cells  are  frequently  absorbed,  so  that 
when  the  anther  attains  maturity  the  fibres  are  alone  left,  and 
these  by  their  elasticity  assist  in  discharging  the  pollen.  The 
anther  is  developed  before  the  filament,  and  is  always  sessile  in 
the  first  instance,  and  sometimes  continues  so.  It  appears  at 
first  as  a  simple  cellular  papilla  of  meristem,  upon  which  an 
indication  of  two  lobes  soon  appears.  Upon  these  projections 
the  rudiments  of  the  pollen-sacs  are  then  seen,  usually  four 
in  number,  two  on  each  lobe.  In  each  a  differentiation  takes 
place  in  the  layers  beneath  the  epidermis,  by  which  an  outer  layer 
of  small-celled  tissue  surrounds  an  inner  portion  of  large  cells. 
Those  central  cells  are  the  mother-cells  of  the  pollen,  whilst  the 
small-celled  layer  of  tissue  external  to  them  becomes  the  endo- 
thecium, the  exothecium  being  formed  from  the  epidermal  layer. 

In  the  young  state  there  are  usually  four  pollen-sacs,  two  for 
each  anther-lobe,  and  when  these  remain  permanently  complete 
it  is  a  quadrilocular  or  tetrathecal  anther  (fig.  70).  Sometimes, 
however,  only  two  cavities  remain  in  the  anther,  by  union  of 
the  sacs  in  each  lobe,  in  which  case  the  anther  is  said  to  be  bilocular 
or  dilhecal.  Sometimes  the  anther  has  a  single  cavity,  and 
becomes  unilocular,  or  monothecal,  or  dimidiate,  either  by  the 
disappearance  of  the  partition  between  the  two  lobes,  or  by  the 
abortion  of  one  of  its  lobes,  as  in  Styphelia  laeta  and  Althaea 
officinalis  (hollyhock).  Occasionally  there  are  numerous  cavities 
in  the  anther,  as  in  Viscum  and  Rafflesia.  The  form  of  the 
anther-lobes  varies.  They  are  generally  of  a  more  or  less  oval 
or  elliptical  form,  or  they  may  be  globular,  as  in  Mercurialis 
annua;  at  other  times  linear  or  clavate;  curved,  flexuose,  or 
sinuose,  as  in  bryony  and  gourd.  According  to  the  amount  of 
union  of  the  lobes  and  the  unequal  development  of  different 
parts  of  their  surface  an  infinite  variety  of  forms  is  produced. 
That  part  of  the  anther  to  which  the  filament  is  attached  is  the 
back,  the  opposite  being  the  face.  The  division  between  the  lobes 
is  marked  on  the  face  of  the  anther  by  a  groove  or  furrow,  and 
there  is  usually  on  the  face  a  suture,  indicating  the  line  of  de- 
hiscence. The  suture  is  often  towards  one  side  in  consequence  of 
the  valves  being  unequal.  The  stamens  may  cohere  by  their 
anthers,  and  become  syngenesious,  as  in  composite  flowers,  and  in 
lobelia,  jasione,  &c. 

The  anther-lobes  are  united  to  the  connective,  which  is  either 
continuous  with  the  filament  or  articulated  with  it.  When  the 
filament  is  continuous  with  the  connective,  and  is 
prolonged  so  that  the  anther-lobes  appear  to  be  united 
to  it  throughout  their  whole  length,  and  lie  in  apposition 
to  it  and  on  both  sides  of  it,  the  anther  is  said  to  be  adnate  or 
adherent;  when  the  filament  ends  at  the  base  of  the  anther,  then 
the  latter  is  innate  or  erect.  In  these  cases  the  anther  is  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  fixed.  When,  however,  the  attachment  is 
very  narrow,  and  an  articulation  exists,  the  anthers  are  movable 
(versatile)  and  are  easily  turned  by  the  wind,  as  in  Tritonia, 
grasses  (fig.  105),  &c.,  where  the  filament  is  attached  only  to  the 
middle  of  the  connective.  The  connective  may  unite  the  anther- 
lobes  completely  or  only  partially.  It  is  sometimes  very  short 
and  is  reduced  to  a  mere  point,  so  that  the  lobes  are  separate  or 
free.  At  other  times  it  i%  prolonged  upwards  beyond  the  lobes, 
assuming  various  forms,  as  in  Acalypha  and  oleander;  or  it  is 
extended  backwards  and  downwards,  as  in  violet  (fig.  71), 
forming  a  nectar-secreting  spur.  In  Salvia  officinalis  the  connec- 
tive is  attached  to  the  filament  in  a  horizontal  manner,  so  as 
to  separate  the  two  anther-lobes  (fig.  72),  one  only  of  which 
contains  pollen,  the  other  being  imperfectly  developed  and  sterile. 
The  connective  is  joined  to  the  filament  by  a  movable  joint 
forming  a  lever  which  plays  an  important  part  in  the  pollination- 
mechanism.  In  Slachys  the  connective  is  expanded  laterally, 
so  as  to  unite  the  bases  of  the  anther-lobes  and  bring  them  into 
a  horizontal  line. 

The  opening  or  dehiscence  of  the  anthers  to  discharge  their 
contents  takes  place  either  by  clefts,  by  valves,  cr  by  pores. 
When  the  anther-lobes  are  erect,  the  cleft  is  lengthwise  along  the 


The  con 

native. 


At  other 


line  of  the  suture — longitudinal  dekiscence  (fig.  25). 
times- the  slit  is  horizontal,  from  the  connective  to  the 
side,  as  in  Alchemilla  arvensis  (fig.  73)  and  in 
the  dehiscence  is  then  transverse.  When  the  anther- 
lobes  are  rendered  horizontal  by  the  enlargement  of  the  connec- 
tive, then  what  is  really  longitudinal  dehiscence  may  appear 
to  be  transverse.  The  cleft  does  not  always  proceed  the  whole 
length  of  the  anther-lobe  at  once, 
but  often  for  a  time  it  extends 
only  partially.  In  other  in- 
stances the  opening  is  confined 
to  the  base  or  apex,  each  locula- 
ment  opening  by  a  single  pore, 
as  in  Pyrola,  Tetratheca  juncea, 
Rhododendron,  Vaccinium  and 
Solanum  (fig.  74),  where  there  are 
two,  and  Poranthera,  where  there 
are  four;  whilst  in  the  mistletoe 
the  anther  has  numerous  pores 
for  the  discharge  of  the  pollen. 
Another  mode  of  dehiscence  is 
the  valvular,  as  in  the  barberry 
(fig.  75),  where  each  lobe  opens 
by  a  valve  on  the  outer  side  of 
the  suture,  separately  rolling  up 
from  base  to  apex;  in  some  of 
the  laurel  tribe  there  are  two 
such  valves  for  each  lobe,  or  four 
in  all.  In  some  Guttiferae,  as 
Hebradendron  cambogioides  (the 
Ceylon  gamboge  plant),  the 
anther  opens  by  a  lid  separating 
from  the  apex  (circumscissile 
dehiscence) . 

The  anthers  dehisce  at  different 
periods  during  the  process  of 
flowering;  sometimes  in  the  bud, 
but  more  commonly  when  the 
pistil  is  fully  developed  and  the 
flower  is  expanded.  They  either 
dehisce  simultaneously  or  in  suc- 
cession. In  the  latter  case  in- 
dividual stamens  may  move  in 
succession  towards  the  pistil  and 
discharge  their  contents,  as  in 
Parnassia  palustris,  or  the  outer 
or  •  the  inner  stamens  may  first 
dehisce,  following  thus  a  centri- 
petal or  centrifugal  order.  These 
variations  are  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  arrangements 
for  transference  of  pollen.  The 
anthers  are  called  inlrorse  when 
they  dehisce  by  the  surface  next 
to  the  centre  of  the  flower;  they 
are  extrorse  when  they  dehisce  by  the  outer  surface;  when  they 
dehisce  by  the  sides,  as  in  Iris  and  some  grasses,  they  are 
laterally  dehiscent.  Sometimes,  from  their  versatile  nature, 
anthers  originally  introrse  become  extrorse,  as  in  the  Passion- 
flower and  Oxalis. 

The  usual  colour  of  anthers  is  yellow,  but  they  present  a  great 
variety  in  this  respect.  They  are  red  in  the  peach,  dark  purple  in 
the  POPPY  and  tulip,  orange  in  Eschscholtzia,  &c.  The  colour 
and  appearance  of  the  anthers  often  change  after  they  have 
discharged  their  functions. 

Stamens  occasionally  become  sterile  by  the  degeneration  or 
non-development  of  the  anthers,  when  they  are  known  as 
staminodia,  or  rudimentary  stamens.  In  Scrophularia  the  fifth 
stamen  appears  in  the  form  of  a  scale;  and  in  many  Pentstemons 
it  is  reduced  to  a  filament  with  hairs  or  a  shrivelled  membrane  at 
the  apex.  In  other  cases,  as  in  double  flowers,  the  stamens  are 
converted  into  petals;  this  is  also  probably  the  case  with  such 


FIG.  72.  FIG.  75. 

FIG.  71. — Two  stamens  of 
Pansy  (Viola  tricolor),  with 
their  two  anther-lobes  and  the 
connectives  (p)  extending  be- 
yond them.  One  of  the  stamens 
has  been  deprived  of  its  spur, 
the  other  shows  its  spur  c. 

FIG.  72.— Anther  of  Salvia 
officinalis.  If,  fertile  lobe  full 
of  pollen ;  Is,  barren  lobe  with- 
out pollen;  e,  connective;  /, 
filament. 

FIG.  73. — Stamen  of  Lady's 
Mantle  (Alchemilla),  with  the 
anther  opening  transversely. 

FIG. 74. — Stamen  of  a  species 
of  Nightshade  (Solanum), 
showing  the  divergence  of  the 
anther-lobes  at  the  base,  and 
the  dehiscence  by  pores  at  the 
apex. 

FIG.  75. — The  stamen  of  the 
Barberry  (Berberis  vulgaris), 
showing  one  of  the  valves  of 
the  anther  (v)  curved  upwards, 
bearing  the  pollen  on  its  inner 
surface. 


568 


FLOWER 


plants  as  Mesembryanthemum,  where  there  is  a  multiplication 
of  petals  in  several  rows.  Sometimes,  as  in  Canna,  one  qf  the 
anther-lobes  becomes  abortive,  and  a  petaloid  appendage  is 
produced.  Stamens  vary  in  length  as  regards  the  corolla. 
Some  are  enclosed  within  the  tube  of  the  flower,  as  in  Cinchona 
(included);  others  are  exserted,  or  extend  beyond  the  flower, 
as  in  Littorella  or  Plantago.  Sometimes  the  stamens  in  the  early 
state  of  the  flower  project  beyond  the  petals,  and  in  the  progress 
of  growth  become  included,  as  in  Geranium  striatum.  Stamens 
also  vary  in  their  relative  lengths.  When  there  is  more  than  one 
row  or  whorl  in  a  flower,  those  on  the  outside  are  sometimes 
longest,  as  in  many  Rosaceae;  at  other  times  those  in  the  interior 
are  longest,  as  in  Luhea.  When  the  stamens  are  in  two  rows, 
those  opposite  the  petals  are  usually  shorter  than  those  which 
alternate  with  the  petals.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  single 

stamen  is  longer  than 
all  the  rest.  A  definite 
relation,  as  regards 
number,  sometimes 
exists  between  the  long 
and  the  short  stamens. 
Thus,  in  some  flowers 
the  stamens  are  didy- 
namous,  having  only 
four  out  of  five  stamens 
developed,  and  the 
two  corresponding  to 
the  upper  part  of  the 
flower  longer  than  the 
two  lateral  ones.  This 
occurs  in  Labiatae  and 
Scrophulariaceae  (fig. 
76).  Again,  in  other 
cases  there  are  six 
stamens,  whereof  four 
long  ones  are  arranged 
in  pairs  opposite  to  each 
other,  and  alternate 

with  two  isolated  short  ones  (fig.  77),  giving  rise  to  tetradynamous 
flowers,  as  in  Cruciferae.  Stamens,  as  regards  their  direction, 
may  be  erect,  turned  inwards,  outwards,  or  to  one  side.  In  the 
last-mentioned  case  they  are  called  declinate,  as  in  amaryllis, 
horse-chestnut  and  fraxinella. 

The  pollen-grains  or  microspores  contained  in  the  anther  con- 
sist of  small  cells,  which  are  developed  in  the  large  thick-walled 
mother-cells  formed  in  the  interior  of  the  pollen-sacs  (micro- 
sporangia)  of  the  young  anther.  These  mother-cells  are  either 
separated  from  one  another  and  float  in  the  granular  fluid  which 
fills  up  the  cavity  of  the  pollen-sac,  or  are  not  so  isolated.  A 
division  takes  place,  by  which  four  cells  are  formed  in  each,  the 
exact  mode  of  division  differing  in  dicotyledons  and  mono- 
cotyledons. These  cells  are  the  pollen-grains.  They  increase 
in  size  and  acquire  a  cell-wall,  which  becomes  differentiated  into 
an  outer  cuticular  layer,  or  extine,  and  an  inner  layer,  or  inline. 
Then  the  walls  of  the  mother-cells  are  absorbed,  and  the  pollen- 
grains  float  freely  in  the  fluid  of  the  pollen-sacs,  which  gradually 
disappears,  and  the  mature  grains  form  a  powdery  mass  within 
the  anther.  They  then  either  remain  united  in  fours,  or  multiples 
of  four,  as  in  some  acacias,  Periploca  graeca  and  Inga  anomala, 
or  separate  into  individual  grains,  which  by  degrees  become 
mature  pollen.  Occasionally  the  membrane  of  the  mother-cell  is 
not  completely  absorbed,  and  traces  of  it  are  detected  in  a 
viscid  matter  surrounding  the  pollen-grains,  as  in  Onagraceae. 
In  orchidaceous  plants  the  pollen-grains  are  united  into  masses, 
or  pollinia  (fig.  78),  by  means  of  viscid  matter.  In  orchids  each 
of  the  pollen-masses  has  a  prolongation  or  stalk  (caudide)  which 
adheres  to  a  prolongation  at  the  base  of  the  anther  (rostellum) 
by  means  of  a  viscid  gland  (retinaculum)  which  is  either  naked 
or  covered.  The  term  clinandrium  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
part  of  the  column  in  orchids  where  the  stamens  are  situated. 
In  some  orchids,  as  Cypripedium,  the  pollen  has  its  ordinary 
character  of  separate  grains.  The  number  of  pollinia  varies; 


FIG.  76.— Corolla 
of  foxglove  (Digi- 
talis purpurea),  cut 
in  order  to  show 
the  didynamous 
stamens  (two  long 
and  two  short; 
which  are  attached 
to  it. 


From  Strasburger's 
Lehrbuch  der  Botanik, 
by  permission  of  Gustav 
Fischer. 

FIG.  77. — Tetra- 
dynamous stamens 
(four  long  and  two 
short)  of  wallflower 
(CheiranthusCheiri). 


thus,  in  Orchis  there  are  usually  two,  in  Cattleya  four,  and  in 
Laelia  eight.  The  two  pollinia  in  Orchis  Morio  contain  each 
about  200  secondary  smaller  masses.  These  small  masses,  when 
bruised,  divide  into  grains  which  are  united  in  fours.  In  Asclepia- 
daceae  the  pollinia  are  usually  united  in  pairs  (fig.  79),  belonging 
to  two  contiguous  anther-lobes — each  pollen-mass  having  a 

s 


FIG.  78.  FIG.  79.  FIG.  80. 

FIG.  78. — Pollinia,  or  pollen-masses,  with  their  retinacula  (g)  or 
viscid  matter  attaching  them  at  the  base.  The  pollen  masses  (p) 
are  supported  on  stalks  or  caudicles  (c).  These  masses  are  easily 
detached  by  the  agency  of  insects.  Much  enlarged. 

FIG.  79. — Pistil  of  Asclepias  (a)  with  pollen-masses  (p)  adhering 
to  the  stigma  (s).  b,  pollen-masses,  removed  from  the  stigma,  united 
by  a  gland-like  body.  Enlarged. 

FIG.  80.— Stamen  of  Asclepias,  showing  filament  /,  anther  a,  and 
appendages  p.  Enlarged. 

caudicular  appendage,  ending  in  a  common  gland,  by  means  of 
which  they  are  attached  to  a  process  of  the  stigma.  The  pollinia 
are  also  provided  with  an  appendicular  staminal  covering  (fig.  80). 
The  extine  is  a  firm  membrane,  which 
defines  the  figure  of  the  pollen-grain,  and 
gives  colour  to  it.  It  is  either  smooth,  or 
covered  with  numerous  projections  (fig.  81), 
granules,  points  or  crested  reticulations. 
The  colour  is  generally  yellow,  and  the  sur- 
face is  often  covered  with  a  viscid  or  oily 
matter.  The  intine  is  uniform  in  different 
kinds  of  pollen,  thin  and  transparent, 
and  possesses  great  power  of  extension. 
In  some  aquatics,  as  Zoster  a,  Zannichellia,  Naias,  &c.,  only  one 
covering  exists. 

Pollen-grains  vary  from  -$fa  to  yj-jf  of  an  inch  or  less  in  diameter. 
Their  forms  are  various.  The  most  common  form  of  grain  is 
ellipsoidal,  more  or  less  narrow  at  the  extremities,  which  are 
called  its  poles,  in  contradistinction  to  a  line  equidistant  from 
the  extremities,  which  is  its  equator.  Pollen-grains  are  also 
spherical;  cylindrical  and  curved,  as  in  Tradescanlia  virginica; 


FIG.  83. — Male  flWer  of 
Pellitory  (Parietaria  officinalis), 
having  four  stamens  with  in- 
curved elastic  filaments,  and 
an  abortive  pistil  in  the  centre. 
When  the  perianth  (p)  ex- 
pands, the  filaments  are  thrown 
out  with  force  as  at  a,  so  as  to 
scatter  the  pollen. 


From  Vines'  Students'  Text-Book  of 
Botany,  by  permission  of  Swan  Sonnen- 
schein  &  Co. 

FIG.  82. — Germinating  pollen- 
grain  of  Epilobium  (highly  mag.) 
bearing  a  pollen-tube  s ;  e,  exine ; 
i,  intine;  abc,  the  three  spots 
where  the  exine  is  thicker  in 
anticipation  of  the  formation  of 
the  pollen-tube  developed  in  this 
case  at  a.  > 

polyhedral  in  Dipsacaceae  and  Compositae;  nearly  triangular  in 
section  in  Proteaceae  and  Onagraceae  (fig.  82).  The  surface  of  the 
pollen-grain  is  either  uniform  and  homogeneous,  or  it  is  marked 
by  folds  formed  by  thinnings  of  the  membrane.  There  are  also 
rounded  portions  of  the  membrane  or  pores  visible  in  the  pollen- 
grain;  these  vary  in  number  from  one  to  fifty,  and  through  one 


FLOWER 


569 


or  more  of  them  the  pollen-tube  is  extended  in  germination  of 
the  spore.  In  Monocotyledons,  as  in  grasses,  there  is  often  only 
one,  while  in  Dicotyledons  they  number  from  three  upwards; 
•when  numerous,  the  pores  are  either  scattered  irregularly,  or 
in  a  regular  order,  frequently  forming  a  circle  round  the  equatorial 
surface.  Sometimes  at  the  place  where  they  exist,  the  outer 
membrane,  in  place  of  being  thin  and  transparent,  is  separated 
in  the  form  of  a  lid,  thus  becoming  operculate,iLS  in  the  passion- 
flower and  gourd.  Within  the  pollen-grain  is  the  granular 
protoplasm  with  some  oily  particles,  and  occasionally  starch. 
Before  leaving  the  pollen-sac  a  division  takes  place  in  the  pollen- 
grain  into  a  vegetative  cell  or  cells,  from  which  the  tube  is 
developed,  and  a  generative  cell,  which  ultimately  divides  to 
form  the  male  cells  (see  ANGIOSPERMS  and  GYMNOSPERMS)  . 

When  the  pollen-grains  are  ripe,  the  anther  dehisces  and  the 
pollen  is  shed.  In  order  that  fertilization  may  be  effected  the 
pollen  must  be  conveyed  to  the  stigma  of  the  pistil. 
This  process,  termed  pollination  (see  POLLINATION), 
is  promoted  in  various  ways, — the  whole  form  and 
structure  of  the  flower  having  relation  to  the  process.  In  some 
plants,  as  Kalmia  and  Pellitory  (fig.  83),  the  mere  elasticity 
of  the  filaments  is  sufficient  to  effect  this;  in  other  plants 
pollination  is  effected  by  the  wind,  as  in  most  of  our  forest  trees, 
grasses,  &c.,  and  in  such  cases  enormous  quantities  of  pollen  are 
produced.  These  plants  are  anemophilous .  But  the  common 
agents  for  pollination  are  insects.  To  allure  and  attract  them 
to  visit  the  flower  the  odoriferous  secretions  and  gay  colours 
are  developed,  and  the  position  and  complicated  structure  of 
the  parts  of  the  flower  are  adapted  to  the  perfect  performance 
of  the  process.  It  is  comparatively  rare  in  hermaphrodite  flowers 
for  self-fertilization  to  occur,  and  the  various  forms  of  dicho- 
gamy, dimorphism  and  trimorphism  are  fitted  to  prevent  this. 

Under  the  term  disk  is  included  every  structure  intervening 
between  the  stamens  and  the  pistil.  It  was  to  such  structures 
Disk  t'lat  t^le  name  °f  nectary  was  applied  by  old  authors. 

It  presents  great  varieties  of  form,  such  as  a  ring,  scales, 
glands,  hairs,  petaloid  appendages,  &c.,  and  in  the  progress  of 
growth  it  often  contains  saccharine  matter,  thus  becoming  truly 
nectariferous .  The  disk  is  frequently  formed  by  degeneration 
or  transformation  of  the  staminal  row.  It  may  consist  of 
processes  rising  from  the  torus,  alternating  with  the  stamens, 
and  thus  representing  an  abortive  whorl;  or  its  parts  may  be 
opposite  to  the  stamens.  In  some 
flowers,  as  Jatropha  Curcas,  In  which 
the  stamens  are  not  developed,  their 
place  is  occupied  by  glandular 
bodies  forming  the  disk.  In  Gesner- 
I  aceae  and  Cruciferae  the  disk  con- 
sists of  tooth-  like  scales  at  the  base 
of  the  stamens.  The  parts  compos- 
ing the  disk  sometimes  unite  and 
form  a  glandular  ring,  as  in  the 
orange;  or  they  form  a  dark-red 
lamina  covering  the  pistil,  as  in 
Paeonia  Moutan  (fig.  84);  or  a 

p  g  —Flower  of  Tree  waxv  Imm8  of  the  hollow  receptacle, 
Paeony  (Paeonia  Moutan),™  in  the  rose;  or  a  swelling  at  the 
deprived  of  its  corolla,  and  top  of  the  ovary,  as  in  Umbelliferae, 
showing  the  disk  in  the  form  jn  which  the  disk  is  said  to  be 
of  a  fleshy  expansion  (d)  epjgynous  The  enlarged  torus 
covering  the  ovary  in  Nymphaea 
(Castalia)  and  NelumUum  may  be  regarded  as  a  form  of  disk. 

The  pistil  or  gynoecium  occupies  the  centre  or  apex  of  the 

flower,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  stamens  and  floral  envelopes 

when  these  are  present.     It  constitutes  the  innermost 

whorl,  which  after  flowering  is  changed  into  the  fruit 

and  contains  the  seeds.    It  consists  essentially  of  two  parts,  a 

basal  portion  forming  a  chamber,  the  ovary,  containing  the  ovules 

attached  to  a  part  called  the  placenta,  and  an  upper  receptive 

portion,  the  stigma,  which  is  either  seated  on  the  ovary  (sessile), 

as  in  the  tulip  and  poppy,  or  is  elevated  on  a  stalk  called  the 

style,  interposed   between  the  ovary  and  stigma.      The  pistil 


consists  of  one  or  more  modified  leaves,  the  carpels  (or  megasporo- 
phylls).  When  a  pistil  consists  of  a  single  carpel  it  is  simple  or 
monocarpellary  (fig.  85).  When  it  is  composed  of  several  carpels, 
more  or  less  united,  it  is  compound  or  polycarpdlary  (fig.  86). 
In  the  first-mentioned  case  the  terms  carpel  and  pistil  are 
synonymous.  Each  carpel  has  its  own  ovary,  style  (when 
present),  and  stigma, and  may  be  regarded  as  formed  by  a  folded 
leaf,  the  upper  surface  of  which  is  turned  inwards  towards  the 
axis,  and  the  lower  outwards,  while  from  its  margins  are  developed 
one  or  more  ovules.  This  comparison  is  borne  out  by  an  examina- 
tion of  the  flower  of  the  double-flowering  cherry.  In  it  no  fruit 
is  produced,  and  the  pistil  consists  merely  of  sessile  leaves, 
the  limb  of  each  being  green  and  folded,  with  a  narrow  prolonga- 
tion upwards,  as  if  from  the  midrib,  and  ending  in  a  thickened 
portion.  In  Cycas  the  carpels  are  ordinary  leaves,  with  ovules 
upon  their  margin. 

A  pistil  is  usually  formed  by  more  than  one  carpel.     The  carpels 
may  be  arranged  either  at  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  height 


FIG.  85. 


jFlG.    87. 


From  Strasburger's 
Lcltrbuch  der  Bolanik, 
by  permission  of  Guslav 
Fischer. 


FIG.  86.          FIG.  89.  FIG.  88.  FIG.  90. 

FIG.  85. — Pistil  of  Broom  (Cytisus)  consisting  of  ovary  o,  style  s, 
and  stigma  /.  It  is  formed  by  a  single  carpel. 

FIG.  86.— Vertical  section  of  the  flower  of  Black  Hellebore  (Hette- 
borus  niger).  The  pistil  is  apocarpous,  consisting  of  several  distinct 
carpels,  each  with  ovary,  style  and  stigma.  The  stamens  are  in- 
definite, and  are  inserted  below  the  pistil  (hypogynous). 

FIG.  87.— Fruit  of  the  Strawberry  (Fragaria  vesca),  consisting  of 
an  enlarged  succulent  receptacle,  bearing  on  its  surface  the  small 
dry  seed-like  fruits  (achenes). 

FIG.  88. — Fruit  of  Rosa  alba,  consisting  of  the  fleshy  hollowed  axis 
s',  the  persistent  sepals  s,  and  the  carpels  fr.  The  stamens  (c)  have 
withered.  (After  Duchartre.) 

FIG.  89.— Pistil  of  Ranunculus,  x,  Receptacle  with  the  points  of 
insertion  of  the  stamens  a,  most  of  which  have  been  removed. 

FIG.  90. — Syncarpous  Pistil  of  Flax  (Linum),  consisting  of  five 
carpels,  united  by  their  ovaries,  while  their  styles  and  stigmas  are 
separate. 

in  a  verticil,  or  at  different  heights  in  a  spiral  cycle.  When  they 
remain  separate  and  distinct,  thus  showing  at  once  the  composi- 
tion of  the  pistil,  as  in  Callha,  Ranunculus,  hellebore  (fig.  86),  and 
Spiraea,  the  term  apocarpous  is  applied.  Thus,  in  Sedum  (fig.  2  2) 
the  pistil  consists  of  five  verticillate  carpels  o,  alternating  with 
the  stamens  e.  In  magnolia  and  Ranunculus  (fig.  89)  the  separate 
carpels  are  numerous  and  are  arranged  in  a  spiral  cycle  upon  an 
elongated  axis  or  receptacle.  In  the  raspberry  the  carpels  are 
on  a  conical  receptacle;  in  the  strawberry,  on  a  swollen  succulent 
one  (fig.  87);  and  in  the  rose  (fig.  88),  on  a  hollow  one.  When 
the  carpels  are  united,  as  in  the  pear,  arbutus  and  chickweed, 
the  pistil  becomes  syncarpous.  Thenumberof  carpels  ina  pistil 
is  indicated  by  the  Greek  numeral.  A  flower  with  a  simple 
pistil  is  monogynous;  with  two  carpels,  digynous;  with  three 
carpels,  trigynous,  &c. 

The  union  in  a  syncarpous  pistil  is  not  always  complete; 
it  may  take  place  by  the  ovaries  alone,  while  the  styles  and 
stigmas  remain  free  (fig.  oo),  and  in  this  case,  when  the  ovaries 
form  apparently  a  single  body,  the  organ  receives  the  name  of 
compound  ovary;  or  the  union  may  take  place  by  the  ovaries 
and  styles  while  the  stigmas  are  disunited;  or  by  the  stigmas 


570 


FLOWER 


and  the  summit  of  the  style  only.  Various  intermediate  states 
exist,  such  as  partial  union  of  the  ovaries,  as  in  the  rue,  where 
they  coalesce  at  their  base;  and  partial  union  of  the  styles,  as 
in  Malvaceae.  The  union  is  usually  most  complete  at  the  base ; 
but  in  Labiatae  the  styles  are  united  throughout  their  length,  and 
in  Apocynaceae  and  Asclepiadaceae  the  stigmas  only.  When 
the  union  is  incomplete,  the  number  of  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound pistil  may  be  determined  by  the  number  of  styles  and 
stigmas;  when  complete,  the  external  venation,  the  grooves 
on  the  surface,  and  the  internal  divisions  of  the  ovary  indicate 
the  number. 

The  ovules  are  attached  to  the  placenta,  which  consists  of  a 

mass  of  cellular  tissue,  through  which  the  nourishing  vessels 

pass  to  the  ovule.     The.  placenta  is  usually  formed  on 

placenta.     the  edges  of  the  carPellary  leaf  (fiS-  90~ marginal. 
In  many  cases,  however,  the  placentas  are  formations 
from  the  axis  (axile),  and  are  not  connected  with  the  carpellary 
leaves.     In  marginal  placentation  the  part  of  the  carpel  bearing 
the  placenta  is   the  inner   or  ventral 
suture,  corresponding  to  the   margin 
of  the    folded    carpellary  leaf,  while 
the  outer  or  dorsal  suture  corresponds 
to  the  midrib  of  the  carpellary  leaf. 
As  the  placenta  is  formed   on  each 
margin  of  the  carpel  it  is  essentially 
double.     This  is  seen  in   cases  where 
the   margins   of   the   carpel   do    not 
unite,  but  remain  separate,  and  con- 
sequently two  placentas  are  formed  in 
place  of  one.      When    the   pistil    is 
formed  by  one  carpel  the  inner  margins 
unite   and   form    usually   a   common 
marginal  placenta,  which  may  extend 
tFlG-r9i-— Pi?til  of  Pea  aj         the  whole  margjn  of  tne  ovary 

ovuYesSveCng  toform  as  far  as  the  base  of  the  style  (fig.  9I), 
the  fruit.  /,  Funicle  or  or  may  be  confined  to  the  base  or 
stalk  of  ovule  (of) ;  pi,  pla-  apex  only.  When  the  pistil  consists 
centa;  ^withered  style  and  of  severai  separate  carpels,  or  is 
stigma;;,  persistent  calyx.  apocarpouS)  there  are  generally  separ- 
ate placentas  at  each  of  their  margins.  In  a  syncarpous  pistil, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  carpels  are  so  united  that  the  edges  of 
each  of  the  contiguous  ones,  by  their  union,  form  a  septum  or 
dissepiment,  and  the  number  of  these  septa  consequently  indicates, 
the  number  of  carpels  in  the  compound  pistil  (fig.  92).  When  the 


FIG.  92.  FIG.  93.  FIG.  94. 

FIG.  92. — Trilocular  ovary  of  the  Lily  (Lilium),cut  transversely. 
s,  Septum;  o,  ovules,  which  form  a  double  row  in  the  inner  angle 
of  each  chamber.  Enlarged. 

FIG.  93. — Diagrammatic  section  of  a  quinquelocular  ovary,  com- 
posed of  five  carpels,  the  edges  of  which  are  folded  inwards,  and  meet 
in  the  centre  forming  the  septa,  s.  The  ovules  (o)  are  attached  to  a 
central  placenta,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  five  ventral  sutures. 
Dorsal  suture,  /. 

FIG.  94. — Diagrammatic  section  of  a  five-carpellary  ovary,  in 
which  the  edges  of  the  carpels,  bearing  the  placentas  and  ovules  o,  are 
not  folded  inwards.  The  placentas  are  parietal,  and  the  ovules 
appear  sessile  on  the  walls  of  the  ovary.  The  ovary  is  unilocular. 

dissepiments  extend  to  the  centre  or  axis,  the  ovary  is  divided 
into  cavities  or  cells,  and  it  may  be  bilocular,  trilocular  (fig.  92), 
quadrilocular,  quinquelocular,  or  multilocular,  according  as  it  is 
formed  by  two,  three,  four,  five  or  many  carpels;  each  carpel 
corresponding  to  a  single  cell.  In  these  cases  the  marginal 
placentas  meet  in  the  axis,  and  unite  so  as  to  form  a  single  central 
one  (figs.  92,  93),  and  the  ovules  appear  in  the  central  angle  of 
the  loculi.  When  the  carpels  in  a  syncarpous  pistil  do  not  fold 
inwards  so  that  the  placentas  appear  as  projections  on  the  walls 


of  the  ovary,  then  the  ovary  is  unilocular  (fig.  95)  and  the 
placentas  are  parietal,  as  in  Viola  (fig.  96).  In  these  instances 
the  placentas  may  be  formed  at  the  margin  of  the  united  con- 
tiguous leaves,  so  as  to  appear  single,  or  the  margins  may  not  be 
united,  each  developing  a  placenta.  Frequently  the  margins  of 
the  carpels,  which  fold  in  to  the  centre,  split  there  into  two 
lamellae,  each  of  which  is  curved  outwards  and  projects  into  the 


FIG.  95. 


FIG.  96. 


FIG.  97.  FIG.  98. 

FIG.  95. — Diagrammatic  section  of  a  five-carpellary  ovary,  in 
which  the  septa  (s)  proceed  inwards  for  a  certain  length,  bearing  the 
placentas  and  ovules  (o).  In  this  case  the  ovary  is  unilocular,  and  the 
placentas  are  parietal.  Dorsal  suture,  I, 

FIG.  96. — Pistil  of  Pansy  (Viola  tricolor),  enlarged.  I,  Vertical; 
2,  horizontal  section;  c,  calyx;  d,  wall  of  ovary;  o,  ovules;  p, 
placenta;  s,  stigma. 

FIG.  97. — Transverse  section  of  the  fruit  of  the  Melon  (Cucumis 
Melo),  showing  the  placentas  with  the  seeds  attached  to  them.  The 
three  carpels  forming  the  pepo  are  separated  by  partitions.  From 
the  centre,  processes  go  to  circumference,  ending  in  curved  placentas 
bearing  the  ovules. 

FIG.  98. — Diagrammatic  section  of  a  compound  unilocular  ovary, 
in  which  there  are  no  indications  of  partitions.  The  ovules  (p)  are 
attached  to  a  free  central  placenta,  which  has  no  connexion  with 
the  walls  of  the  ovary. 

loculament,  dilating  at  the  end  into  a  placenta.     This  is  well 

seenin  Cucurbitaceae  (fig.  97),  Pyrola,  &c.     The  carpellary  leaves 

may  fold  inwards  very  slightly,  or  they  may  be  applied  in  a 

valvate  manner,  merely  touching  at  their  margins,  the  placentas 

then  being  parietal  (fig.  94),  and  appearing  as  lines  or  thickenings 

along  the  walls.     Cases  occur,  however,  in  which  the  placentas 

are   not   connected   with   the 

walls  of  the  ovary,  and  form 

what  is  called  a  free   central 

placenta  (fig.  98).     This  is  seen 

in   many  of   the   Caryophyl- 

laceae  and  Primulaceae  (figs. 

99,100).     In  Caryophyllaceae, 

however,   while   the  placenta 

is  free  in  the  centre,  there  are 

often  traces  found  at  the  base 

of  the  ovary  of  the  remains  of 

septa,  as  if  rupture  had  taken 

place,  and,  in  rare  instances, 

ovules    are     found    on      the 

margins  of  the  carpels.      But 

in  Primulaceae  no  vestiges  of 

septa  or  marginal  ovules  can 

be  perceived  at  any  period  of 

growth;      the      placenta      is 

always  free,  and  rises  in  the 

centre    of    the    ovary.     Free 


FIG.  99.  FIG.  loo. 

FIG.  99. — Pistil  of  Cerastium 
hirsutum  cut  vertically,  o,  Ovary; 
p,  free  central  placenta;  g,  ovules; 
j,  styles. 

FIG.  loo. — The  same  cut  hori- 
zontally, and  the  halves  separated 
so  as  to  show  the  interior  of  the 
cavity  of  the  ovary  o,  with  the  free 
central  placenta  p,  covered  with 
ovules  g. 


central     placentation,     there- 
fore, has  been  accounted  for  in  two  ways:  either  by  supposing 
that  the  placentas  in  the  early  state  were  formed  on  the  margins  of 


FLOWER 


carpellary  leaves,  and  that  in  the  progress  of  development  these 
leaves  separated  from  them,  leaving  the  placentas  and  ovules 
free  in  the  centre;  or  by  supposing  that  the  placentas  are  not 
marginal  but  axile  formations,  produced  by  an  elongation  of  the 
axis,  and  the  carpels  verticillate  leaves,  united  together  around 
the  axis.  The  first  of  these  views  applies  to  Caryophyllaceae, 
the  second  to  Primulaceae. 

Occasionally,  divisions  take1  place  in  ovaries  which  are  not 
formed  by  the  edges  of  contiguous  carpels.  These  are  called 
spurious  dissepiments.  They  are  often  horizontal,  as  in  Cathar- 
tocarpus  Fistula,  where  they  consist  of  transverse  cellular  pro- 
longations from  the  walls  of  the  ovary,  only  developed  after 
fertilization,  and  therefore  more  properly  noticed  under  fruit. 
At  other  times  they  are  vertical,  as  in  Datura,  where  the  ovary, 
in  place  of  being  two-celled,  becomes  four-celled;  in  Cruciferae, 
where  the  prolongation  of  the  placentas  forms  a  vertical  partition; 
in  Astragalus  and  Thespesia,  where  the  dorsal  suture  is  folded 
inwards;  and  in  Oxytropis,  where  the  ventral  suture  is  folded 
inwards. 

The  ovary  is  usually  of  a  more  or  less  spherical  or  curved  form, 
sometimes  smooth  and  uniform  on  its  surface,  at  other  times 
hairy  and  grooved.  The  grooves  usually  indicate  the  divisions 
between  the  carpels  and  correspond  to  the  dissepiments.  The 
dorsal  suture  may  be  marked  by  a  slight  projection  or  by  a 
superficial  groove.  When  the  ovary  is  situated  on  the  centre 
of  the  receptacle,  free  from  the  other  whorls,  so  that  its  base  is 
above  the  insertion  of  the  stamens,  it  is  termed  superior,  as  in 
Lychnis,  Primula  (fig.  61)  and  Peony  (fig.  64)  (see  also  fig.  28). 
When  the  margin  of  the  receptacle  is  prolonged  upwards,  carrying 
with  it  the  floral  envelopes  and  staminal  leaves,  the  basal  portion 
of  the  ovary  being  formed  by  the  receptacle,  and  the  carpellary 
leaves  alone  closing  in  the  apex,  the  ovary  is  inferior,  as  in 
pomegranate,  aralia  (fig.  65),  gooseberry  and  fuchsia  (see 

fig.  30).  In  some  plants, 
as  many  Saxifragaceae, 
there  are  intermediate 
forms,  in  which  the  term 
half-inferior  is  applied  to 
the  ovary,  whilst  the 
floral  whorls  are  half- 
superior. 

The  style  proceeds 
from  the  summit  of  the 
carpel  (fig. 
102),  and  is 
traversed  by  a  narrow 
canal,  in  which  there  are 
some  loose  projecting 
cells,  a  continuation  of 
the  placenta,  constituting 
what  is  called  conduct- 
ing tissue,  which  ends  in 
the  stigma.  This  is  par- 
ticularly abundant  when 
the  pistil  is  ready  for 
fertilization.  In  some 
cases,  owing  to  more 
rapid  growth  of  the 
ovaVy'"(o)'1a'nd''as'tyTe°w'hK:h  divides  into  dorsal  side  of  the  ovary, 
three  petaloid  segments  (s),  each  bearing  the  style  becomes  lateral 
a  stigma  (st).  .  (fig.  IOi);  this  may  so 

FIG.  104.— Capsuleof Poppy, opening     >°  '/hat    the    stvle 

by  pores  (p),  under  the  radiating  peltate     mci 

stigma  (*)  aPPears    to    anse    frT 

near  the  base,  as  in  the 

strawberry,  or  from  the  base,  as  in  Chrysobalanus  Icaco,  when 
it  is  called  basilar.  In  all  these  cases  the  style  still  indicates 
the  organic  apex  of  the  ovary,  although  it  may  not  be  the 
apparent  apex.  When  in  a  compound  pistil  the  style  of  each 
carpel  is  thus  displaced,  it  appears  as  if  the  ovary  were 
depressed  in  the  centre,  and  the  style  rising  from  the  depres- 
sion in  the  midst  of  the  carpels  seems  to  come  from  the  torus. 
Such  a  style  is  gynobasic,  and  is  well  seen  in  Boraginaceae. 


The  style. 


FIG.  104.  FIG.  103. 

FIG.  101. — Carpel  of  Lady's-mantle 
(AlchemUla)  with   lateral   style  s;     o, 


composed  of  five  carpels  which  are  com- 
pletely  united  ;  o,  ovary;  s,  style;  st, 
stigma.  Enlarged. 


nlarg 


The 
stigma. 


The  form  of  the  style  is  usually  cylindrical,  more  or  less  filiform 
and  simple;  sometimes  it  is  grooved  on  one  side,  at  other  times 
it  is  flat,  thick,  angular,  compressed  and  even  petaloid,  as  in  Iris 
(fig.  103)  and  Canna.  In  Goodeniaceae  it  ends  in  a  cup-like 
expansion,  enclosing  the  stigma.  It  sometimes  bears  hairs, 
which  aid  in  the  application  of  the  pollen  to  the  stigma,  and  are 
called  collecting  hairs,  as  in  Campanula,  and  also  in  Aster  and  other 
Compositae.  These  hairs,  during  the  upward  growth  of  the 
style,  come  into  contact  with  the  already  ripened  pollen,  and 
carry  it  up  along  with  them,  ready  to  be  applied  by  insects  to  the 
mature  stigma  of  other  flowers.  In  Vicia  and  Lobelia  the  hairs 
frequently  form  a  tuft  below  the  stigma.  The  styles  of  a  syn- 
carpous  pistil  are  either  separate  or  united;  when  separate,  they 
alternate  with  the  septa;  when  united  completely,  the  style  is 
said  to  be  simple  (fig.  102).  The  style  of  a  single  carpel,  or  of 
each  carpel  of  a  compound  pistil,  may  also  be  divided.  Each 
division  of  the  tricarpellary  ovary  of  Jilropka  Curcas  has  a 
bifurcate  or  forked  style,  and  the  ovary  of  Emblica  officinalis  has 
three  styles,  each  of  which  is  twice  forked.  The  length  of  the 
style  is  determined  by  the  relation  which  should  subsist  between 
the  position  of  the  stigma  and  that  of  the  anthers,  so  as  to  allow 
the  proper  application  of  the  pollen.  The  style  is  deciduous  or 
persists  after  fertilization. 

The  stigma  is  the  termination  of  the  conducting  tissue  of  the 
style,  and  is  usually  in  direct  communication  with  the  placenta. 
It  consists  of  loose  cellular  tissue,  and  secretes  a  viscid 
matter  which  detains  the  pollen,  and  causes  it  to 
germinate.  This  secreting  portion  is,  strictly  speaking, 
the  true  stigma,  but  the  name  is  generally  applied  to  all  the 
divisions  of  the  style  on  which  the  stigmatic  apparatus  is  situated. 
The  stigma  alternates  with  the  dissepiments  of  a  syncarpous 
pistil,  or,  in  other  words,  corresponds  with  the  back  of  the 
loculaments;  but  in  some  cases  it  would  appear  that  half  the 
stigma  of  one  carpel  unites  with  half  that  of  the  contiguous 
carpel,  and  thus  the  stigma  is  opposite  the  dissepiments,  that  is, 
alternates  with  the  loculaments,  as  in  the  poppy. 

The  divisions  of  the  stigma  mark  the  number  of  carpels  which 
compose  the  pistil.  Thus  in  Campanula  a  five-cleft  stigma 
indicates  five  carpels;  in  Bignoniaceae,  Scrophulariaceae  and 
Acanthaceae,  the  two-lobed  or  bilamellar  stigma  indicates  a 
bilocular  ovary.  Sometimes,  however,  as  in  Gramineae,  the 
stigma  of  a  single  carpel  divides.  Its  position  may  be  terminal 
or  lateral.  In  Iris  it  is  situated  on  a  cleft  on  the  back  of  the 
petaloid  divisions  of  the  style  (fig.  103).  Some  stigmas,  as 
those  of  Mimulus,  present  sensitive  flattened  laminae,  which 
close  when  touched.  The  stigma  presents  various  forms.  It  may 
be  globular,  as  in  Mirabilis  Jalapa;  orbicular,  as  in  Arbutus 
Andrachne;  umbrella-like,  as  in 
Sarracenia,  where,  however,  the 
proper  stigmatic  surface  is  beneath 
the  angles  of  the  large  expansion 
of  the  apex  of  the  style;  ovoid,  as 
in  fuchsia;  hemispherical;  poly- 
hedral; radiating,  as  in  the  poppy 
(fig.  104),  where  the  true  stigmatic 
rays  are  attached  to  a  sort  of  peltate 
or  shield-like  body,  which  may 
represent  depressed  or  flattened 
styles;  cucullate,  i.e.  covered  by  a 
hood,  in  calabar  bean.  The  lobes 
of  a  stigma  are  flat  and  pointed  as 
in  Mimulus  and  Bignonia,  fleshy 

and  blunt,  smooth  or  granular,  or  with  glumes  removed,  snow- 
they  are  feathery,  as  in  many  ing  three  stamens  and  two 
grasses  (fig.  103)  and  other  wind- 
pollinated  flowers.  In  Orchidaceae 
the  stigma  is  situated  on  the  antetior  surface  of  the  column 
beneath  the  anther.  In  Asclepiadaceae  the  stigmas  are 
united  to  the  face  of  the  anthers,  and  along  with  them  form 
a  solid  mass. 

The  ovule  is  attached  to  the  placenta,  and  destined  to  become 
the  seed.     Ovules  are  most  usually  produced  on  the  margins  of 


FIG.  105. — Flower  of  a  grass 


572 


FLOWER 


the  carpellary  leaves,  but  are  also  formed  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  leaf,  as  in  Butomus.  In  other  instances  they  rise 
from  the  floral  axis  itself,  either  terminal,  as  in  Poly- 
gonaceae  and  Piperaceae,  or  lateral,  as  in  Primulaceae 
and  Compositae.  The  ovule  is  usually  contained  in  an  ovary, 
and  all  plants  in  which  the  ovule  is  so  enclosed  are  termed 
angiospermous;  but  in  Coniferae  and  Cycadaceae  it  has  no 
proper  ovarian  covering,  and  is  called  naked,  these  orders  being 
denominated  gymnospermous.  In  Cycas  the  altered  leaf,  upon 
the  margin  of  which  the  ovule  is  produced,  and  the  peltate  scales, 
from  which  they  are  pendulous  in  Zamia,  are  regarded  by  all 
botanists  as  carpellary  leaves.  As  for  the  Coniferae  great  dis- 
cussion has  arisen  regarding  the  morphology  of  parts  in  many 
genera.  The  carpellary  leaves  are  sometimes  united  in  such  a 
way  as  to  leave  an  opening  at  the  apex  of  the  pistil,  so  that  the 
ovules  are  exposed,  as  in  mignonette.  In  Leontice  thalictroides 
(Blue  Cohosh),  species  of  Ophiopogon,  Peliosanthes  and  Stateria, 
the  ovary  ruptures  immediately  after  flowering,  and  the  ovules 
are  exposed;  and  in  species  of  Cuphea  the  placenta  ultimately 
bursts  through  the  ovary  and  corolla,  and  becomes  erect,  bearing 
the  exposed  ovules.  The  ovule  is  attached  to  the  placenta  either 
directly,  when  it  is  sessile,  or  by  means  of  a  prolongation  funicle 
(fig.  1 10,  f) .  This  cord  sometimes  becomes  much  elongated  after 
fertilization.  The  part  by  which  the  ovule  is  attached  to  the 
placenta  or  cord  is  its  baseorhilum,  the  opposite  extremity  being 
its  apex.  The  latter  is  frequently  turned  round  in  such  a  way 
as  to  approach  the  base.  The  ovule  is  sometimes  embedded  in 
the  placenta,  as  in  Hydnora. 


FIG.  i 06. 


FIG.  107. 


FIG.  108.          FIG.  109. 


FIGS.  106  and  107. — Successive  stages  in  the  development  of  an 
ovule,  n,  Nucellus;  i,  inner;  o,  outer  integument  in  section;  m, 
micropyle. 

FIG.  108. — Orthptropous  ovule  of  Polygonum  in  section,  showing 
the  embryo-sac  s,  in  the  nucellus  n,  the  different  ovular  coverings, 
the  base  of  the  nucellus  or  chalaza  ch,  and  the  apex  of  the  ovule  with 
its  micropyle  m. 

FIG.  109.— Vertical  section  of  the  ovule  of  the  Austrian  Pine 
(Pinus  austriaca),  showing  the  nucellus  a,  consisting  of  delicate 
cellular  tissue  containing  deep  in  its  substance  an  embryo-sac  b. 
The  micropyle  m  is  very  wide. 

The  ovule  appears  at  first  as  a  small  cellular  projection  from 
the  placenta.  The  cells  multiply  until  they  assume  a  more  or 
less  enlarged  ovate  form  constituting  what  has  been  called  the 
nucellus  (fig.  106,  n),  or  central  cellular  mass  of  the  ovule.  This 
nucellus  may  remain  naked,  and  alone  form  the  ovule,  as  in 
some  orders  of  parasitic  plants  such  as  Balanophoraceae,  Santa- 
laceae,  &c. ;  but  in  most  plants  it  becomes  surrounded  by  certain 
coverings  or  integuments  during  its  development.  These  appear 
first  in  the  form  of  cellular  rings  at  the  base  of  the  nucellus, 
which  gradually  spread  over  its  surface  (figs.  106,  107).  In  some 
cases  only  one  covering  is  formed,  especially  amongst  gamo- 
petalous  dicotyledons,  as  in  Compositae,  Campanulaceae,  also 
in  walnut,  &c.  But  usually  besides  the  single  covering  another 
is  developed  subsequently  (fig.  106,  o),  which  gradually  extends 
over  that  first  formed,  and  ultimately  covers  it  completely, 
except  at  the  apex.  There  are  thus  two  integuments  to  the 
nucellus,  an  outer  and  an  inner.  The  integuments  do  not 
completely  invest  the  apex  of  the  nucellus,  but  an  opening  termed 
the  micropyle  is  left.  The  micropyle  indicates  the  organic  apex 
of  the  ovule.  A  single  cell  of  the  nucellus  enlarges  greatly  to 
form  the  embryo-sac  or  megaspore  (fig.  108,  s).  This  embryo-sac 
increases  in  size,  gradually  supplanting  the  cellular  tissue  of  the 
nucellus  until  it  is  surrounded  only  by  a  thin  layer  of  it;  or  it 


may  actually  extend  at  the  apex  beyond  it,  as  in  Phaseolus 
and  Alsine  media;  or  it  may  pass  into  the  micropyle,  as  in 
Santalum.  In  Gymnosperms  it  usually  remains  deep  in  the 
nucellus  and  surrounded  by  a  thick  mass  of  cellular  tissue  (fig. 
109).  For  an  account  of  the  further  development  of  the  mega- 
spore,  and  the  formation  of  the  egg-cell,  from  which  after  fertiliza- 
tion is  formed  the  embryo,  see  GYMNOSPERMS  and  ANGIO- 
SPERMS. 

The  point  where  the  integuments  are  united  to  the  base  of 
the  nucellus  is  called  the  chalaza  (figs.  111,112).  This  is  often 
coloured,  is  of  a  denser 
texture  than  the  sur-  ^f=^^.  f 

rounding  tissue,  and  is 
traversed  by  fibro- 
vascular  bundles,  which 
pass  from  the  placenta 
to  nourish  the  ovule. 

When  the  ovule  is 
so  developed  that  the 
chalaza  is  at  the 
hilum  (next  the  pla-  FIG.  no.  FIG.  in. 

centa),  and  the  micro-  FlG,-  1 10.— Campylotrppous  ovule  of 
_  i  tu  •<.  wall-flower  (Cheiranthus) ,  showing  the 

pyle  is  at  the  opposite  funicle/f  which  attaches  the  ovule  to  the 
extremity,  there  being  placenta ;  p,  the  outer,  s,  the  inner  coat, 
a  short  funicle,  the  «,  the  nucellus,  ch,  the  chalaza.  The 
ovule  is  orthotropous.  ovule  is  curved  upon  itself,  so  that  the 
This  form  U  ivpll  «PPTI  Jn  nucropyle  is  near  the  funicle. 
JL  his  lorm  is  .veil  seen  in  FlG  , :  I  _Anatropous  ovule  Of  Dande- 

Polygonaceae  (fig.  112),  non  (Taraxacum),  n,  nucellus,  which  is 
Cistaceae,  and  most  inverted,  so  that  the  chalaza  ch,  is  re- 
gymnosperms.  In  such  moved  from  the  base  or  hilum  h,  while 
straight  Un,>  the  micropyle  /  is  near  the  base.  The 
an  ovule  a  straight  me  connexion  between  the  base  of  the  ovule 
drawn  from  the  hilum  anci  the  base  of  the  nucellus  is  kept  up 
to  the  micropyle  passes  by  means  of  the  raphe  r. 
along  the  axis  of  the 

ovule.  Where,  by  more  rapid  growth  on  one  side  than  on  the 
other,  the  nucellus,  together  with  the  integuments,  is  curved  upon 
itself,  so  that  the  micropyle  approaches  the  hilum, and  ultimately 
is  placed  close  to  it,  while  the  chalaza  is  at  the  hilum,  the  ovule  is 
campylotropous  (fig.  1 1  o) .  Curved  ovules  are  found  in  Crucif  erae, 
and  Caryophyllaceae.  The  inverted  or  anatropous  ovule  (fig.  in) 
is  the  commonest  form  amongst  angiosperms.  In  this  ovule  the 
apex  with  the  micropyle  is  turned  towards  the  point  of  attach- 
ment of  the  funicle  to  the  placenta,  the  chalaza  being  situated 
at  the  opposite  extremity;  and  the  funicle,  which  runs  along  the 
side  usually  next  the  placenta,  coalesces  with  the  ovule  and 
constitutes  the  raphe  (r),  which  often  forms  a  ridge.  The 
anatropous  ovule  arises  from  the  placenta  as  a  straight  or  only 
slightly  curved  cellular  process,  and  as  it  grows,  gradually 
becomes  inverted,  curving  from  the  point  of  origin  of  the  integu- 
ments (cf.  figs.  106,  107).  As  the  first  integument  grows  round 
it,  the  amount  of  inversion  increases,  and  the  funicle  becomes 
adherent  to  the  side  of  the  nucellus.  Then  if  a  second  integument 
be  formed  it  covers  all  the  free  part  of  the  ovule,  but  does  not 
form  on  the  side  to  which  the  raphe  is  adherent.  These  may  be 
taken  as  the  three  types  of  ovule;  but  there  are  various  inter- 
mediate forms,  such  as  semi-anatropous  and  others. 

The  position  of  the  ovule  relative  to  the  ovary  varies.  When 
there  is  a  single  ovule,  with  its  axis  vertical,  it  may  be  attached 
to  the  placenta  at  the  base  of  the  ovary  (basal  placenta),  and  is 
then  erect,  as  in  Polygonaceae  and  Compositae;  or  it  may  be 
inserted  a  little  above  the  base,  on  a  parietal  placenta,  with  its 
apex  upwards,  and  then  is  ascending,  as  in  Parietaria.  It  may 
hang  from  an  apicilar  placenta  at  the  summit  of  the  ovary,  its 
apex  being  directed  downwards,  and  is  inverted  or  pendulous, 
as  in  Hippuris  vulgaris;  or  from  a  parietal  placenta  near  the 
summit,  and  then  is  suspended,  as  in  Daphne  Mezereum,  Poly- 
galaceae  and  Euphorbiaceae.  Sometimes  a  long  funicle  arises 
from  a  basal  placenta,  reaches  the  summit  of  the  ovary,  and 
there  bending  over  suspends  the  ovule,  as  in  Armeria  (sea-pink) ; 
at  other  times  the  hilum  appears  to  be  in  the  middle,  and  the 
ovule  becomes  horizontal.  When  there  are  two  ovules  in  the 
same  cell,  they  may  be  either  collateral,  that  is,  placed  side  by 


FLOWERS,  ARTIFICIAL— FLOYD 


side  (fig.  92),  or  the  one  may  be  erect  and  the  other  inverted, 
as  in  some  species  of  Spiraea  and  Aesculus;  or  they  may  be 
placed  one  above  another,  each  directed  similarly,  as  is  the  case 
in  ovaries  containing  a  moderate  or  definite  number  of  ovules. 
Thus,  in  the  ovary  of  Leguminous  plants  (fig.  91),  the  ovules,  o, 
are  attached  to  the  extended  marginal  placenta,  one  above  the 
other,  forming  usually  two  parallel  rows  corresponding  to  each 
margin  of  the  carpel.  When  the  ovules  are  definite  (i.e.  are 
uniform,  and  can  be  counted),  it  is  usual  to  find  their  attachment 
so  constant  as  to  afford  good  characters  for  classification.  When 
the  ovules  are  very  numerous  (indefinite),  while  at  the  same  time 
the  placenta  is  not  much  developed,  their  position  exhibits  great 
variation,  some  being  directed  upwards,  others  downwards, 
others  transversely;  and  their  form  is  altered  by  pressure  into 
various  polyhedral  shapes.  In  such  cases  it  frequently  happens 
that  some  of  the  ovules  are  arrested  in  their  development  and 
become  abortive. 

When  the  pistil  has  reached  a  certain  stage  in  growth  it  becomes 
ready  for  fertilization.  Pollination  having  been  effected,  and 
the  pollen-grain  having  reached  the  stigma  in  angio- 
sperms,or  the  summit  of  the  nucellusin  gymnosperms, 
it  is  detained  there,  and  the  viscid  secretion  from  the 
glands  of  the  stigma  in  the  former  case,  or  from  the  nucellus  in 
the  latter,  induce  the  protrusion  of  the  inline  as  a  pollen-tube 

through  the  pores  of  the  grain. 
The  pollen-tube  or  tubes  pass 
down  the  canal  (fig.  112), 
through  the  conducting  tissue 
of  the  style  when  present,  and 
reach  the  interior  of  the  ovary 
in  angiosperms,  and  then  pass 
to  the  micropyle  of  the  ovule, 
one  pollen-tube  going  to  each 


Fertiliza- 
tion. 


n 


From  Strasburger's  Lehrbuch  det 
Bolanik,  by  permission  of  Gustav  Fischer. 

FIG.  112. — Ovary  of  Poly- 
gonum  Convolvulus  in  longitu- 
dinal section  during  fertilization. 

(X  48.) 

fs,  Stalk-like  base  of  ovary. 

fu,  Funicle. 

cha,  Chalaza. 

rtM,  Nucellus. 

mi,  Micropyle. 

ii,  inner,  ie,  outer  integument. 

e,  Embryo-sac. 

ek,  Nucleus  of  embryo-sac. 

ei.  Egg-apparatus. 

an,  Antipodal  cells. 

g.  Style. 

n,  Stigma. 

p,  Pollen-grains. 

ps,  Pollen-tubes. 


FIG.  113. — Vertical  section  of 
the  ovule  of  the  Scotch  Fir  (Pinus 
sylvestris)  in  May  of  the  second 
year,  showing  the  enlarged  em- 
bryo-sac b,  full  of  endosperm 
cells,  and  pollen-tubes  c,  pene- 
trating the  summit  of  the  nucellus 
after  the  pollen  has  entered  the 
large  micropyle. 

ovule.  Sometimes  the  micro- 
pyle lies  close  to  the  base  of 
the  style,  and  then  the  pollen- 
tube  enters  it  at  once,  but 
frequently  it  has  to  pass  some 
distance  into  the  ovary,  being 
guided  in  its  direction  by  vari- 
ous contrivances,  as  hairs, 
grooves,  &c.  In  gymnosperms 
the  pollen-grain  resting  on  the 
apex  of  the  nucellus  sends  out 
its  pollen-tubes,  which  at  once 
penetrate  the  nucellus  (fig.  113)- 
In  angiosperms  when  the  pollen- 


tube  reaches  the  micropyle  it 
passes  down  into  the  canal,  and  this  portion  of  it  increases 
considerably  in  size.     Ultimately  the  apex  of  the  tube  comes  in 
contact  with  the  tip  of  the  embryo-sac  and  perforates  it. 
male  cells  in  the  end  of  the  pollen-tube  are  then  transmitted  t 
the  embryo-sac  and  fertilization  is  effected.     Consequent  upon 
this   after  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  those  changes  commence 
in  the  embryo-sac  which  result  in  the  formation  of  the  embryo 


573 

plant,  the  ovule  also  undergoing  changes  which  convert  it  into 
the  seed,  and  fit  it  for  a  protective  covering,  and  a  store  of 
nutriment  for  the  embryo.  Nor  are  the  effects  of  fertilization 
confined  to  the  ovule;  they  extend  to  other  parts  of  the  plant. 
The  ovary  enlarges,  and,  with  the  seeds  enclosed,  constitutes 
the  fruit,  frequently  incorporated  with  which  are  other  parts 
of  the  flower,  as  receptacle,  calyx,  &c.  In  gymnosperms  the 
pollen-tubes,  having  penetrated  a  certain  distance  down  the 
tissue  of  the  nucellus,  are  usually  arrested  in  growth  for  a  longer 
or  shorter  period,  sometimes  nearly  a  year.  Fruit  and  seed  are 
discussed  in  a  separate  article — FRUIT.  (A.  B.  R.) 

FLOWERS,  ARTIFICIAL.  Imitations  of  natural  flowers  are 
sometimes  made  for  scientific  purposes  (as  the  collection  of  glass 
flowers  at  Harvard  University,  which  illustrates  the  flora  of  the 
United  States),  but  more  often  as  articles  of  decoration  and 
ornament.  A  large  variety  of  materials  have  been  used  in  their 
manufacture  by  different  peoples  at  different  times — painted 
linen  and  shavings  of  stained  horn  by  the  Egyptians,  gold  and 
silver  by  the  Romans,  rice-paper  by  the  Chinese,  silkworm 
cocoons  in  Italy,  the  plumage  of  highly  coloured  birds  in  South 
America,  wax,  small  tinted  shells,  &c.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
i8th  century  the  French,  who  originally  learnt  the  art  from  the 
Italians,  made  great  advances  in  the  accuracy  of  their  repro- 
ductions, and  towards  the  end  of  that  century  the  Paris  manu- 
facturers enjoyed  a  world-wide  reputation.  About  the  same 
time  the  art  was  introduced  into  England  by  French  refugees, 
and  soon  afterwards  it  spread  also  to  America.  The  industry 
is  now  a  highly  specialized  one  and  comprises  a  large  number  of 
operations  performed  by  separate  hands.  Four  main  processes 
may  be  distinguished.  The  first  consists  of  cutting  up  the  various 
fabrics  and  materials  employed  into  shapes  suitable  for  forming 
the  leaves,  petals,  &c. ;  this  may  be  done  by  scissors,  but  more 
often  stamps  are  employed  which  will  cut  through  a  dozen  or 
more  thicknesses  at  one  blow.  The  veins  of  the  leaves  are  next 
impressed  by  means  of  a  die,  and  the  petals  are  given  their 
natural  rounded  forms  by  goffering  irons  of  various  shapes. 
The  next  step  is  to  assemble  the  petals  and  other  parts  of  the 
flower,  which  is  built  up  from  the  centre  outwards;  and  the 
fourth  is  to  mount  the  flower  on  a  stalk  formed  of  brass  or  iron 
wire  wrapped  round  with  suitably  coloured  material,  and  to 
fasten  on  the  leaves  required  to  complete  the  spray. 

FLOYD,  JOHN  (1572-1649),  English  Jesuit,  was  born  in 
Cambridgeshire  in  1572.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  when 
at  Rome  in  1592  and  is  also  known  as  Daniel  a  Jesu,  Hermannus 
Loemelius,  and  George  White,  the  names  under  which  he  pub- 
lished a  score  of  controversial  treatises.  He  had  considerable 
fame  both  as  a  preacher  and  teacher,  and  was  frequently  arrested 
in  England.  His  last  years  were  spent  at  Louvain  and  he  died 
at  St  Omer  on  the  i  sth  of  September  1649.  His  brother  Edward 
Floyd  was  impeached  and  sentenced  by  the  Commons  in  1621  for 
speaking  disparagingly  of  the  elector  palatine.  *J 

FLOYD,  JOHN  BUCHANAN  (1807-1863),  American  politician, 
was  born  at  Blacksburg,  Virginia,  on  the  ist  of  June  1807.  He 
was  the  son  of  John  Floyd  (1770-1837),  a  representative  in 
Congress  from  1817  to  1829  and  governor  of  Virginia  from 
1830  to  1834.  After  graduating  at  South  Carolina  College  in  1826, 
the  son  practised  law  in  his  native  state  and  at  Helena,  Arkansas, 
and  in  1839  settled  in  Washington  county,  Virginia,  which  in 
1847-1849  and  again  in  1853  he  represented  in  the  state  legisla- 
ture. Meanwhile,  from  184910  1852,  he  was  governor  of  Virginia, 
in  which  position  he  recommended  to  the  legislature  the  enact- 
ment of  a  law  laying  an  import  tax  on  the  products  of  such  states 
as  refused  to  surrender  fugitive  slaves  owned  by  Virginia  masters. 
In  March  1857  he  became  secretary  of  war  in  President 
Buchanan's  cabinet,  where  his  lack  of  administrative  ability 
was  soon  apparent.  In  December  1860,  on  ascertaining  that 
Floyd  had  honoured  heavy  drafts  made  by  government  con- 
tractors in  anticipation  of  their  earnings,  the  president  requested 
his  resignation.  Several  days  later  Floyd  was  indicted  for 
malversation  in  office,  but  the  indictment  was  overruled  on 
technical  grounds.  There  is  no  proof  that  he  profited  by 
these  irregular  transactions;  in  fact  he  went  out  of  the  office 


574 


FLOYER— FLUME 


financially  embarrassed.  Though  he  had  openly  opposed  seces- 
sion before  the  election  of  Lincoln,  his  conduct  after  that  event, 
especially  after  his  breach  with  Buchanan,  fell  under  suspicion, 
and  he  was  accused  of  having  sent  large  stores  of  government 
arms  to  Southern  arsenals  in  anticipation  of  the  Civil  War.  In 
the  last  days  of  his  term  he  apparently  had  such  an  intention, 
but  during  the  year  1860  the  Southern  States  actually  received 
less  than  their  full  quota  of  arms.  After  the  secession  of  Virginia 
he  was  commissioned  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
service.  He  was  first  employed  in  some  unsuccessful  operations 
in  western  Virginia,  and  in  February  1862  became  commander 
of  the  Confederate  forces  at  Fort  Donelson,  from  which  he  fled 
with  his  second  in  command,  General  Gideon  J.  Pillow,  on  the 
night  of  February  18,  leaving  General  Simon  B.  Buckner  to 
surrender  to  General  Grant.  A  fortnight  later  President  Davis 
relieved  him  of  his  command.  He  died  at  Abingdon,  Virginia, 
on  the  26th  of  August  1863. 

FLOYER,  SIR  JOHN  (1649-1734),  English  physician  and 
author,  was  born  at  Hinters  in  Staffordshire,  and  was  educated 
at  Oxford.  He  practised  in  Lichfield,  and  it  was  by  his  advice 
that  Dr  Johnson,  when  a  child,  was  taken  by  his  mother  to  be 
touched  by  Queen  Anne  for  the  king's  evil  on  the  3Oth  of  March 
1714.  He  died  on  the  ist  of  February  1734.  Floyer  was  an 
advocate  of  cold  bathing,  introduced  the  practice  of  counting  the 
rate  of  the  pulse-beats,  and  gave  an  early  account  of  the  patho- 
logical changes  in  the  lungs  associated  with  emphysema. 

His  writings  include: — <l>ap;uaico-B<i<rai'os:  or  the  Touchstone  of 
Medicines,  discovering  the  virtues  of  Vegetables,  Minerals  and  Animals, 
by  their  Tastes  and  Smells  (2  vols.,  1687) ;  The  praeternatural  State  of 
animal  Humours  described  by  their  sensible  Qualities  (1696) ;  An 
Enquiry  into  the  right  Use  and  Abuses  of  the  hot,  cold  and  temperate 
Baths  in  England  (1697) ;  A  Treatise  of  the  Asthma  (ist  ed.,  1698) ; 
The  ancient  Vvxpo\ovaia  revived,  or  an  Essay  to  prove  cold  Bathing 
both  safe  and  useful  (London,  1702;  several  editions  8vo;  abridged, 
Manchester,  1844,  I2mo);  The  Physician's  Pulse-watch  (1707-1710); 
The  Sibylline  Oracles,  translated  from  the  best  Greek  copies,  and  com- 
pared with  the  sacred  Prophecies  (ist  ed.,  1713);  Two  Essays:  the 
first  Essay  concerning  the  Creation,  Aetherial  Bodies,  and  Offices  of 
good  and  bad  Angels;  the  second  Essay  concerning  the  Mosaic  System 
of  the  World  (Nottingham,  1717);  An  Exposition  of  the  Revelations 
(1719) ;  An  Essay  to  restore  the  Dipping  of  Infants  in  their  Baptism 
(1722);  Medicina  Gerocomica,  or  the  Galenic  Art  of  preserving  old 
Men's  Healths  (ist  ed.,  1724);  A  Comment  on  forty-two  Histories 
described  by  Hippocrates  (1726). 

FLUDD,  or  FLUD,  ROBERT  [ROBERTUS  DE  FLUCTIBUS]  (1574- 
1637),  English  physician  and  mystical  philosopher,  the  son  of 
Sir  Thomas  Fludd,  treasurer  of  war  to  Queen  Elizabeth  in  France 
and  the  Low  Countries,  was  born  at  Milgate,  Kent.  After 
studying  at  St  John's  College,  Oxford,  he  travelled  in  Europe 
for  six  years,  and  became  acquainted  with  the  writings  of 
Paracelsus.  He  subsequently  returned  to  Oxford,  became  a 
member  of  Christ  Church,  took  his  medical  degrees,  and  ulti- 
mately became  a  fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians.  He  practised 
in  London  with  success,  though  it  is  said  that  he  combined  with 
purely  medical  treatment  a  good  deal  of  faith-healing.  Following 
Paracelsus,  he  endeavoured  to  form  a  system  of  philosophy 
founded  on  the  identity  of  physical  and  spiritual  truth.  The 
universe  and  all  created  things  proceed  from  God,  who  is  the 
beginning,  the  end  and  the  sum  of  all  things,  and  to  him  they 
will  return.  The  act  of  creation  is  the  separation  of  the  active 
principle  (light)  from  the  passive  (darkness)  in  the  bosom  of  the 
divine  unity  (God).  The  universe  consists  of  three  worlds; 
the  archetypal  (God),  the  macrocosm  (the  world),  the  microcosm 
(man).  Man  is  the  world  in  miniature,  all  the  parts  of  both 
sympathetically  correspond  and  act  upon  each  other.  It  is 
possible  for  man  (and  even  for  the  mineral  and  the  plant) 
to  undergo  transformation  and  to  win  immortality.  Fludd's 
system  may  be  described  as  a  materialistic  pantheism,  which, 
allegorically  interpreted,  he  put  forward  as  containing  the  real 
meaning  of  Christianity,  revealed  to  Adam  by  God  himself, 
handed  down  by  tradition  to  Moses  and  the  patriarchs,  and  re- 
vealed a  second  time  by  Christ.  The  opinions  of  Fludd  had  the 
honour  of  being  refuted  by  Kepler,  Gassendi  and  Mersenne. 
Though  rapt  in  mystical  speculation,  Fludd  was  a  man  of  varied 
attainments.  He  did  not  disdain  scientific  experiments,  and  is 


thought  by  some  to  be  the  original  inventor  of  the  barometer. 
He  was  an  ardent  defender  of  the  Rosicrucians,  and  De  Quincey 
considers  him  to  have  been  the  immediate,  as  J.  V.  Andrea 
was  the  remote,  father  of  freemasonry.  Fludd  died  on  the  8th 
of  September  1637. 

See  J.  B.  Craven,  Robert  Fludd,  the  English  Rosicrucian  (1902), 
where  a  list  of  his  works  is  given;  A.  E.  Waite,  The  Real  History 
of  the  Rosicrucians  (1887);  De  Quincey,  The  Rosicrucians  and  Free- 
masons; J.  Hunt,  Religious  Thought  in  England  (1870),  i.  240  seq. 
His  works  were  published  in  6  vols.,  Oppenheim  and  Gouda,  1638. 

FLUGEL,  GUSTAV  LEBERECHT  (1802-1870),  German 
orientalist,  was  born  at  Bautzen  on  the  i8th  of  February  1802. 
He  received  his  early  education  at  the  gymnasium  of  his  native 
town,  and  studied  theology  and  philology  at  Leipzig.  Gradually 
he  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to  Oriental  languages,  which  he 
studied  in  Vienna  and  Paris.  In  1832  he  became  professor  at  the 
Fiirstenschule  of  St  Afra  in  Meissen,  but  ill-health  compelled  him 
to  resign  that  office  in  1850,  and  in  1851  be  went  to  Vienna, 
where  he  was  employed  in  cataloguing  the  Arabic,  Turkish  and 
Persian  manuscripts  of  the  court  library.  He  died  at  Dresden 
on  the  sth  of  July  1870. 

Fliigel's  chief  work  is  an  edition  of  the  bibliographical  and  ency- 
clopaedic lexicon  of  Haji  Khalfa,  with  Latin  translation  (7  vols., 
London  and  Leipzig,  1835-1858).  He  also  brought  out  an  edition 
of  the  Koran  (Leipzig,  1834  and  again  1893);  then  followed  Con- 
cordantiae  Corani  arabicae  (Leipzig,  1842  and  again  1898);  Mani, 
seine  Lehren  und  seine  Schnften  (Leipzig,  1862) ;  Die  grammatischen 
Schulen  der  Araber  (Leipzig,  1862);  and  Ibn  Kutlubugas  Krone  der 
Lebensbeschreibungen  (Leipzig,  1862).  An  edition  of  Kitdb-al- Fihrist, 
prepared  by  him,  was  published  after  his  death. 

FLUGEL,  JOHANN  GOTTFRIED  (1788-1855),  German  lexico- 
grapher, was  born  at  Barby  near  Magdeburg,  on  the  22nd  of 
November  1788.  He  was  originally  a  merchant's  clerk,  but 
emigrating  to  the  United  States  in  1810,  he  made  a  special  study 
of  the  English  language,  and  returning  to  Germany  in  1819, 
was  in  1824  appointed  lector  of  the  English  language  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Leipzig.  In  1838  he  became  American  consul,  and 
subsequently  representative  and  correspondent  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  at  Washington  and  several  other  leading 
American  literary  and  scientific  institutions.  He  died  at  Leipzig 
on  the  24th  of  June  1855. 

The  fame  of  Flugel  rests  chiefly  on  the  Vollstandige  englisch- 
deutsche  und  deutsch-englische  Worterbuch,  first  published  in  2  vols. 
(Leipzig)  in  1830,  which  has  had  an  extensive  circulation  not  only 
in  Germany  but  in  England  and  America.  In  this  work  he  was 
assisted  by  J.  Sporschil,  and  a  new  and  enlarged  edition;  edited  by 
his  son  Felix  Flugel  (1820^-1904),  was  published  at  Brunswick  (1890- 
1892).  Another  edition,  in  two  volumes,  edited  by  Prof.  Immanuel 
Schmidt  and  S.  Tanger  appeared  (Brunswick,  London  &  New  York) 
in  1906.  Among  his  other  works  are — Vollstandige  engl.  Sprachlehre 
(1824-1826);  Triglotte,  oder  kaufmannisches  Worterbuch  in  drei 
Sprachen,  Deutsch,  Englisch  und  Franzosisch  (1836-1840);  Kleines 
Kaufmannisches  Handivorterbuch  in  drei  Sprachen  (1840);  and 
Praktisches  Handbuch  der  engl.  Handelscorrespondenz  (1827,  9th  ed. 
1873).  All  these  have  passed  through  several  editions.  In  addition, 
Flugel  also  published  in  the  English  language:  A  series  of  Com- 
mercial Letters  (Leipzig,  1822),  a  9th  edition  of  which  appeared  in 
1874  under  the  title  Practical  Mercantile  Correspondence  and  a 
Practical  Dictionary  of  the  English  and  German  Languages  (2  vols., 
Hamburg  and  Leipzig,  1847-1852;  isth  ed.,  Leipzig,  1891).  The 
last  was  continued  and  re-edited  by  his  son  Felix. 

FLUKE  (probably  connected  with  the  Ger.  flack,  flat),  a  name 
given  to  several  kinds  of  fish,  flat  in  shape,  especially  to  the 
common  flounder;  also  the  name  of  a  trematoid  worm,  resem- 
bling a  flounder  in  shape,  which  as  a  parasite  infects  the  liver 
and  neighbouring  organs  of  certain  animals,  especially  sheep, 
and  causes  liver-rot.  The  most  common  is  the  Fasciola  hepatica 
(see  TREMATODES).  It  is  also  the  name  of  a  species  of  kidney 
potato.  Probably  from  a  resemblance  to  the  shape  of  the  fish, 
"  fluke  "  is  the  name  given  to  the  holding-plates,  triangular  in 
shape,  at  the  end  of  the  arms  of  an  anchor,  and  to  the  triangular 
extremities  of  the  tail  of  a  whale.  The  use  of  the  word  as  a  slang 
expression  for  a  lucky  accident  appears  to  have  been  first  applied 
in  billiards  to  an  unintentional  scoring  shot. 

FLUME  (through  an  O.  Fr.  word  flum,  from  the  Lat.  flumen, 
a  river),  a  word  formerly  used  for  a  stream,  and  particularly 
for  the  tail  of  a  mill-race.  It  is  used  in  America  for  a  very 
narrow  gorge  running  between  precipitous  rocks,  with  a  stream 


FLUMINI  MAGGIORE— FLUORESCENCE 


575 


at  the  bottom,  but  more  frequently  is  applied  to  an  artificial 
channel  of  wood  or  other  material  for  the  diversion  of  a  stream 
of  water  from  a  river  for  purposes  of  irrigation,  for  running  a  saw- 
mill, or  for  various  processes  in  the  hydraulic  method  of  gold- 
mining  (see  AQUEDUCT). 

FLUMINI  MAGGIORE,  a  town  of  the  province  of  Cagliari, 
Sardinia,  10  m.  by  road  N.  of  Iglesias,  and  5  m.  from  the  W.  coast. 
Pop.  (1901)  town  3908;  commune  9647.  It  is  the  centre  of 
a  considerable  lead  and  zinc  mining  district.  Three  miles  to  the 
S.  are  the  ruins  of  a  temple  erected  probably  in  the  time  of 
Commodus  (Corpus  inscr.  Lai.  x.,  Berlin,  1883,  No.  7539). 
They  seem  to  mark  the  site  of  Metalla  (mines),  a  station  on  the 
coast  road  from  Sulci  to  Tharros,  and  the  centre  of  the  mining 
district  in  Roman  times.  At  Flumini  Maggiore  itself  were  found 
two  ingots  of  lead,  one  bearing  a  stamp  with  Hadrian's  name. 

FLUORANTHENE,  Ci5H10,  also  known  asidryl,  a  hydrocarbon 
occurring  with  phenanthrene,  pyrene,  diphenyl,  and  other 
substances  in  "  Stupp  "  fat  (the  fat  obtained  in  working  up  the 
mercury  ores  in  Idria),  and  also  in  the  higher  boiling  fractions 
of  the  coal  tar  distillate.  It  was  discovered  by  R.  Fittigin  1878, 
who,  with  Gebhard  and  H.  Liepmann,  elucidated  its  constitution 
(see  Ann.,  1879,  200,  p.  i).  The  hydrocarbons  are  separated 
from  the  "  Stupp  "  by  means  of  alcohol,  the  soluble  portion  on 
distillation  giving  first  phenanthrene  and  then  a  mixture  of  pyrene 
and  fluoranthene.  From  the  tar  distillate,  the  chrysene  can  be 
fractionally  precipitated,  and  the  fluoranthene  can  be  separated 
from  most  of  the  pyrene  by  fractional  distillation  in  a  partial 
vacuum.  In  either  case  the  two  hydrocarbons  are  finally 
separated  by  fractional  crystallization  of  their  picrates,  which 
are  then  decomposed  by  ammonia.  Fluoranthene  crystallizes 
in  large  slender  needles  or  monoclinic  tables,  melting  at  109-110° 
C.  and  boiling  at  250-251°  C.  (60  mm.).  It  is  easily  soluble  in  hot 
alcohol,  ether  and  carbon  bisulphide.  On  oxidation  with  chromic 
acid  it  forms  a  quinone,  CuHgOa,  and  an  a-diphenylene  keto- 

carboxylic  acid  (^''''CO  H'    ^e  P'crate  melts  at  182-183°  C. 

FLUORENE  (a-diphenylene  methane),  C,3Hi0  or  (CeH^CHs, 
a  hydrocarbon  found  in  coal-tar.  It  is  obtained  from  the  higher 
boiling  fractions,  after  separation  of  naphthalene  and  anthracene, 
by  fractional  distillation,  the  portion  boiling  between  290-340°  C. 
being  taken.  The  fluorene  is  separated  from  this  by  placing  it  in 
a  freezing  mixture,  and  is  then  redistilled  or  crystallized  from 
glacial  acetic  acid,  or  purified  by  means  of  its  picrate.  It  may 
be  prepared  by  distilling  diphenylene  ketone  over  zinc  dust, 
or  by  heating  it  with  hydriodic  acid  and  phosphorus  to  150-160° 
C.;  and  also  by  passing  the  vapour  of  diphenyl  methane  through 
a  red  hot  tube.  It  crystallizes  in  colourless  plates,  possessing 
a  violet  fluorescence,  melting  at  112-113°  and  boiling  at  293-295° 
C.  By  oxidation  with  chromic  acid  in  glacial  acetic  acid  solution, 
it  is  converted  into  diphenylene  ketone  (CeH^-CO;  whilst  on 
heating  with  hydriodic  acid  and  phosphorus  to  250-260°  C.  it 
gives  a  hydro  derivative  of  composition  CnHn. 

FLUORESCEIN,  or  RESORCIN-PHTHALEIN,  C2oHi2OB,  in 
chemistry,  a  compound  discovered  in  1876  by  A.  v.  Baeyer  by 
the  condensation  of  phthalic  anhydride  with  resorcin  at  195-200° 
C.  (Ann.,  1876, 183,  p.  i).  The  two  reacting  substances  are  either 
heated  alone  or  with  zinc  chloride  for  some  hours,  and  the  melt 
obtained  is  boiled  out  with  water,  washed  by  dilute  alcohol, 
extracted  by  means  of  sodium  hydrate,  and  the  solution  so 
obtained  is  precipitated  by  an  acid.  The  precipitate  is  well 
washed  with  water  and  then  dried.  By  repeating  this  process 
two  or  three  times,  the  fluorescein  may  be  obtained  in  a  very  pure 
condition.  It  forms  a  yellow  amorphous  powder,  insoluble  in 
water  but  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  crystallizing  from  the  alcoholic 
solution  in  small  dark  red  nodules.  It  is  readily  soluble  in  solu- 
tions of  the  caustic  alkalis,  the  solution  being  of  a  dark  red  colour 
and  showing  (especially  when  largely  diluted  with  water)  a 
brilliant  green  fluorescence.  It  was  so  named  on  account  of  this 
last  character.  By  brominating  fluorescein  in  glacial  acetic  acid 
solution,  eosin  (tetrabromfluorescein)  is  obtained,  the  same 
compound  being  formed  by  heating  3-5-dibrom-2-4-dioxy- 
benzoylbenzoic  acid  above  its  melting  point  (R.  Meyer,  Ber., 


1895,  28,  p.  1576).  It  crystallizes  from  alcohol  in  yellowish  red 
needles,  and  dyes  silk,  wool,  and  mordanted  cotton  a  fine  pink 
colour.  When  heated  with  caustic  alkalis  it  yields  dibrom- 
resorcin  and  dibrommonoresorcin-phthalein.  The  corresponding 
iodo  compound  is  known  as  erythrosin.  Fluoresceiu  is  readily 
nitrated,  yielding  a  di-  or  tetra-nitro  compound  according  to 
conditions.  The  entrance  of  the  negative  nitro  group  into  the 
molecule  weakens  the  central  pyrone  ring  in  the  fluorescein 
nucleus  and  the  di-  and  tetra-nitro  compounds  readily  yield 
hydrates  (see  J.  T.  Hewitt  and  B.  W.  Perkins,  Jour.  Chem.  Soc., 
1900,  p.  1326).  By  the  action  of  ammonia  or  amines  the  di-nitro 
fluoresceins  are  converted  into  yellow  dyestuffs  (F.  Reverdin, 
Ber.,  1897,  30,  p.  332).  Other  dyestuffs  obtained  from  fluorescein 
are  safrosine  or  eosin  scarlet  (dibromdinitrofluorescein)  and  rose 
Bengal  (tetraiodotetrachlorfluorescein) . 

On  fusion  with  caustic  alkali,  fluorescein  yields  resorcin, 
C«H4(OH)2,  and  monoresorcin  phthalcin  (dioxybenzoylbenzoic 
acid),  (HG)2C9H,-CO-C  H«-COOH.  With  zinc  dust  and  caustic 
soda  it  yields  fluorescin.  By  warming  fluorescein  with  excess  of 
phosphorus  pentachloride  it  yields  fluorescein  chloride,  CjoHioOsCli 
(A.  Baeyer),  which  crystallizes  from  alcohol  in  small  prisms,  melting 
at  252°  C.  When  heated  with  aniline  and  aniline  hydrochloride, 
fluorescein  yields  a  colourless  anilide  (O.  Fischer  and  E.  Hepp,  Ber., 
1893,  26,  p.  2236),  which  is  readily  methylated  by  methyl  iodide 
and  potash  to  a  fluoresceinanilidedimethyl  ether,  which  when  heated 
for  six  hours  to  150°  C.  with  acetic  and  hydrochloric  acids,  is  hydro- 
lysed  and  yields  a  colourless  fluorcsceindimethyl  ether,  which  melts 
at  198°  C.  On  the  other  hand,  by  heating  fluorescein  with  caustic 
potash,  methyl  iodide  and  methyl  alcohol,  a  coloured  (yellow) 
dimethyl  ether,  melting  at  208°  C.  is  obtained  (Fischer  and  Hepp). 
By  heating  the  coloured  dimethyl  ether  with  caustic  soda,  the 
monomethyl  ether  is  obtained  (O.  Fischer  and  E.  Hepp,  Ber.,  1895, 
28,  p.  397);  this  crystallizes  in  triclinic  tables,  and  melts  at  262°  C. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  colourless  monomethyl  ether  fluoresces 
strongly  in  alkaline  solution,  the  dimethyl  ether  of  melting  point 
208°  fluoresces  only  in  neutral  solution  (e.g.,  in  alcoholic  solution), 
and  the  dimethyl  ether  of  melting  point  198  C.  only  in  concentrated 
hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  arid  solution  (Fischer  and  Hepp).  Con- 
siderable discussion  has  taken  place  as  to  the  position  held  by  the 
hydroxyl  groups  in  the  fluorescein  molecule,  C.  Graebe  (Ber.,  1895, 
28,  p.  28)  asserting  that  they  were  in  the  orthp  position  to  the  linking 
carbon  atom  of  the  phthalic  anhydride  residue.  G.  Heller  (Ber., 
1895,  28,  p.  312),  however,  showed  that  monoresorcin-phthalcin 
when  brominated  in  glacial  acetic  acid  gives  a  dibrom  derivative 
which,  with  fuming  sulphuric  acid,  yields  dibromxanthopurpurin 
(l'3-dioxy-2'4-dibromanthraquinone),  a  reaction  which  is  onjy 
possible  if  the  fluorescein  (from  which  the  monoresorcin-phthalein 
is  derived)  contains  free  hydroxyl  groups  in  the  para  position  to  the 
linking  carbon  atom  of  the  phthalic  anhydride  residue. 

FLUORESCENCE.  In  a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh  in  1833,  Sir  David  Brewster  described  a  remarkable 
phenomenon  he  had  discovered  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
"  internal  dispersion."  Ori  admitting  a  beam  of  sunlight,  con- 
densed by  a  lens,  into  a  solution  of  chlorophyll,  the  green  colour- 
ing matter  of  leaves  (see  fig.  i),  he  was  surprised  to  find  that  the 
path  of  the  rays  within  the  fluid 
was  marked  by  a  bright  light  of  a 
blood-red  colour,  strangely  contrast- 
ing with  the  beautiful  green  of  the 
fluid  when  seen  in  moderate  thick- 
ness. Brewster  afterwards  observed 
the  same  phenomenon  in  various 
vegetable  solutions  and  essential 
oils,  and  in  some  solids,  amongst 
which  was  fluor-spar.  He  believed 
this  effect  to  be  due  to  coloured 
particles  held  in  suspension.  A  few 
years  later,  Sir  John  Herschel  in- 
dependently discovered  that  if  a 
solution  of  quinine  sulphate,  which,  viewed  by  transmitted 
light,  appears  colourless  and  transparent  like  water,  were 
illuminated  by  a  beam  of  ordinary  daylight,  a  peculiar  blue 
colour  was  seen  in  a  thin  stratum  of  the  fluid  adjacent  to 
the  surface  by  which  the  light  entered.  The  blue  light  was 
unpolarized  and  passed  freely  through  many  inches  of  the 
fluid.  The  incident  beam,  after  having  passed  through  the 
stratum  from  which  the  blue  light  came,  was  not  sensibly 
enfeebled  or  coloured,  but  yet  it  had  lost  the  power  of 


FIG.  i. 


576 


FLUORESCENCE 


producing  the  characteristic  blue  colour  when  admitted  into  a 
second  solution  of  quinine  sulphate.  A  beam  of  light  modified 
in  this  mysterious  manner  was  called  by  Herschel  "  epipolized.  " 
Brewster  showed  that  epipolic  was  merely  a  particular  case  of 
internal  dispersion,  peculiar  only  in  this  respect,  that  the  rays 
capable  of  dispersion  were  dispersed  with  unusual  rapidity. 
The  investigation  of  this  phenomenon  was  afterwards  taken 
up  by  Sir  G.  G.  Stokes,  to  whom  the  greater  part  of  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  subject  is  due.  Stokes's  first  paper  "  On  the 
Change  of  the  Refrangibility  of  Light  "  appeared  in  1852.  He 
repeated  the  experiments  of  Brewster  and  Herschel,  and  con- 
siderably extended  them.  These  experiments  soon  led  him  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  effect  could  not  be  due,  as  Brewster  had 
imagined,  to  the  scattering  of  light  .by  suspended  particles,  but 
that  the  dispersed  beam  actually  differed  in  refrangibility  from 
the  light  which  excited  it.  He  therefore  termed  it  "  true  internal 
dispersion  "  to  distinguish  it  from  the  scattering  of  light,  which 
he  called  "  false  internal  dispersion."  As  this  name,  however, 
is  apt  to  suggest  Brewster's  view  of  the  phenomenon,  he  after- 
wards abandoned  it  as  unsatisfactory,  and  substituted  the  word 
"  fluorescence."  This  term,  derived  from  fluor-spar  after  the 
analogy  of  opalescence  from  opal,  does  not  presuppose  any  theory. 
To  examine  the  nature  of  the  fluorescence  produced  by  quinine, 
Stokes  formed  a  pure  spectrum  of  the  sun's  rays  in  the  usual 
manner.  A  test-tube,  filled  with  a  dilute  solution  of  quinine 
sulphate,  was  placed  just  outside  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum 
and  then  gradually  moved  along  the  spectrum  to  the  other 
extremity.  No  fluorescence  was  observed  as  long  as  the  tube 
remained  in  the  more  luminous  portion,  but  as  soon  as  the  violet 
was  reached,  a  ghost-like  gleam  of  blue  light  shot  right  across 
the  tube.  On  continuing  to  move  the  tube,  the  blue  light  at 
first  increased  in  intensity  and  afterwards  died  away,  but  not 
until  the  tube  had  been  moved  a  considerable  distance  into  the 
ultra-violet  part  of  the  spectrum.  When  the  blue  gleam  first 
appeared  it  extended  right  across  the  tube,  but  just  before 
disappearing  it  was  confined  to  a  very  thin  stratum  on  the  side 
at  which  the  exciting  rays  entered.  Stokes  varied  this  experi- 
ment by  placing  a  vessel  filled  with  the  dilute  solution  in  a 
spectrum  formed  by  a  train  of  prisms.  The  appearance  is 
illustrated  diagrammatically  in  fig.  2.  The  greater  part  of  the 
light  passed  freely  as  if  through  water, 
but  from  about  half-way  between  the 
Fraunhofer  lines  G  and  H  to  far  beyond 
the  extreme  violet,  the  incident  rays 
:  gave  rise  to  light  of  a  sky-blue  colour, 
which  emanated  in  all  directions  from 
'  the  portion  of  the  fluid  (represented 
white  in  fig.  2)  which  was  under  the 
influence  of  the  incident  rays.  The 
anterior  surface  of  the  blue  space  coin- 
cided, of  course,  with  the  inner  surface 
of  the  glass  vessel.  The  posterior  sur- 
face marked  the  distance  to  which  the  incident  rays  were  able 
to  penetrate  before  they  were  absorbed.  This  distance  was  at 
first  considerable,  greater  than  the  diameter  of  the  vessel,  but 
decreased  with  great  rapidity  as  the  refrangibility  of  the  incident 
light  increased,  so  that  from  a  little  beyond  the  extreme  violet 
to  the  end,  the  blue  space  was  reduced  to  an  excessively  thin 
stratum.  This  shows  that  the  fluid  is  very  opaque  to  the  ultra- 
violet rays.  The  fixed  lines  in  the  violet  and  invisible  part  of 
the  solar  spectrum  were  represented  by  dark  lines,  or  rather 
planes,  intersecting  the  blue  region.  Stokes  found  that  the 
fluorescent  light  is  not  homogeneous,  for  on  reducing  the  incident 
rays  to  a  narrow  band  of  homogeneous  light,  and  examining  the 
dispersed  beam  through  a  prism,  he  found  that  the  blue  light 
consisted  of  rays  extending  over  a  wide  range  of  refrangibility, 
but  not  into  the  ultra-violet. 

I  Another  method,  which  Stokes  found  especially  useful  in 
examining  different  substances  for  fluorescence,  was  as  follows. 
Two  coloured  media  were  prepared,  one  of  which  transmitted 
the  upper  portion  of  the  spectrum  and  was  opaque  to  the  lower 
portion,  while  the  second  was  opaque  to  the  upper  and  trans- 


FIG.  2. 


parent  to  the  lower  part  of  the  spectrum.  These  were  called  by 
Stokes  "  complementary  absorbents."  No  pair  could  be  found 
which  were  exactly  complementary,  of  course,  but  the  condition 
was  approximately  fulfilled  by  several  sets  of  coloured  glasses 
or  solutions.  One  such  combination  consisted  of  a  deep-blue 
solution  of  ammoniacal  copper  sulphate  and  a  yellow  glass 
coloured  with  silver.  The  two  media  together  were  almost 
opaque.  The  light  of  the  sun  being  admitted  through  a  hole  in 
the  window-shutter,  a  white  porcelain  tablet  was  laid  on  a  shelf 
fastened  in  front  of  the  hole.  If  the  vessel  containing  the  blue 
solution  was  placed  so  as  to  cover  the  hole,  and  the  tablet  was 
viewed  through  the  yellow  glass,  scarcely  any  light  entered  the 
eye,  but  if  a  paper  washed  with  some  fluorescent  liquid  were  laid 
on  the  tablet  it  appeared  brilliantly  luminous.  Different  pairs 
of  complementary  absorbents  were  required  according  to  the 
colour  of  the  fluorescent  light.  This  experiment  shows  clearly 
that  the  light  which  passed  through  the  first  absorbent  and 
which  would  have  been  stopped  by  the  second  gave  rise  in  the 
fluorescent  substance  to  rays  of  a  different  wave-length  which 
were  transmitted  by  the  second  absorbent.  Scattered  light, 
with  which  the  true  fluorescent  light  was  often  associated,  was 
eliminated  by  this  method,  being  stopped  by  the  second 
absorbent. 

Stokes  also  used  a  method,  analogous  to  Newton's  method  of 
crossed  prisms,  for  the  purpose  of  analysing  the  fluorescent  light. 
A  spectrum  was  produced  by  means  of  a  slit  and  a  prism,  the  slit 
being  horizontal  instead  of  vertical.  The  resulting  very  narrow 
spectrum  was  projected  on  a  white  paper  moistened  with  a 
fluorescent  solution,  and  viewed  through  a  second  prism  with  its 
refracting  edge  per- 
pendicular to  that  of 
the  first  prism.  In 
addition  to  the  slop- 
ing spectrum  seen 
under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, another 
spectrum  due  to  the 
fluorescent  light 
alone,  made  its 
appearance,  as  seen 
in  figs.  3  and  4.  In 
this  spectrum  the 
colours  do  not  run 
from  left  to  right, 
but  in  horizontal 
lines.  Thus  the  dark 
lines  of  the  solar 
spectrum  lie  across 
the  colours.  The 
spectra  in  figs.  3  and 
4  were  obtained  by 
V.  Pierre  with  an 
improved  arrange- 


FIG.  3. — Spectrum  of  Chlorophyll. 


FIG.  4. — Spectrum  of  Aesculin. 


ment  of  Stokes's  method.  It  will  be  seen  that,  in  the  case 
of  chlorophyll,  the  whole  spectrum,  far  into  the  ultra-violet, 
gives  rise  to  a  short  range  of  red  fluorescent  light,  while 
the  effective  part  of  the  exciting  light  in  the  case  of  aesculin 
(a  glucoside  occurring  in  horse-chestnut  bark)  begins  a  little 
above  the  fixed  line  G  and  the  fluorescent  light  covers  a  wide 
range  extending  from  orange  to  blue. 

Besides  the  substances  already  mentioned,  a  large  number 
of  vegetable  extracts  and  some  inorganic  bodies  are  strongly 
fluorescent.  Stokes  found  that  most  organic  substances  show 
signs  of  fluorescence.  Green  fluor-spar  from  Alston  Moor 
exhibits  a  violet,  uranium  glass  a  yellowish-green  fluorescence. 
Tincture  of  turmeric  gives  rise  to  a  greenish  light,  and  the  extract 
of  seeds  of  Datura  stramonium  a  pale  green  light.  Ordinary 
paraffin  oil  fluoresces  blue.  Barium  platinocyanide,  which  is 
much  used  in  the  fluorescent  screens  employed  in  work  with  the 
Rontgen  rays,  shows  a  brilliant  green  fluorescence  with  ordinary 
light.  Crystals  of  magnesium  platinocyanide  possess  the 
remarkable  property  of  emitting  a  polarized  fluorescent  light, 


FLUORINE 


the  colour  and  plane  of  polarization,  depending  on  the  position 
of  the  crystal  with  respect  to  the  incident  beam,  and,  if  polarized 
light  is  used,  on  the  plane  of  polarization  of  the  latter. 

Slokes's  Law.— In  all  the  substances  examined  by  Stokes,  the 
fluorescent  light  appeared  to  be  of  lower  refrangibility  than  the 
light  which  excited  it.  Stokes  considered  it  probable  that  this 
lowering  of  the  refrangibility  of  the  light  was  a  general  law  which 
held  for  all  substances.  This  is  known  as  Stokes's  law.  It  has 
been  shown,  however,  by  E.  Lommel  and  others,  that  this  law 
does  not  hold  generally.  Lommel  distinguishes  two  kinds  of 
fluorescence.  The  bodies  which  exhibit  the  first  kind  are  those 
which  possess  strong  absorption  bands,  of  which  only  one  re- 
mains appreciable  after  great  dilution.  These  bodies  are  always 
strongly  coloured  and  show  anomalous  dispersion  and  (in  solids) 
surface  colour.  In  such  cases,  the  maximum  of  intensity  in  the 
fluorescent  spectrum  corresponds  to  the  maximum  of  absorption. 
Stokes's  law  is  not  obeyed,  for  a  fluorescent  spectrum  can  be  pro- 
duced by  means  of  homogeneous  light  of  lower  refrangibility 
than  a  great  part  of  the  fluorescent  light.  The  second  kind  of 
fluorescence  is  the  most  common,  and  is  exhibited  by  bodies  which 
show  absorption  only  in  the  upper  part  of  the  spectrum,  i.e. 
they  are  usually  yellow  or  brown  or  (if  the  absorption  is  in  the 
ultra-violet)  colourless.  The  absorption  bands  also  are  different 
from  those  of  substances  of  the  first  kind,  for  they  readily  dis- 
appear on  dilution.  A  third  class  of  bodies  is  formed  by  those 
substances  which  exhibit  both  kinds  of  fluorescence. 

Nature  of  Fluorescence. — No  complete  theory  of  fluorescence 
has  yet  been  given,  though  various  attempts  have  been  made  to 
explain  the  phenomenon.  Fluorescence  is  closely  allied  to 
phosphorescence  (q.v.),  the  difference  consisting  in  the  duration 
of  the  effect  after  the  exciting  cause  is  removed.  Liquids  which 
fluoresce  only  do  so  while  the  exciting  light  is  falling  on  them, 
ceasing  immediately  the  exciting  light  is  cut  off.  In  the  case 
of  solids,  on  the  other  hand,  such  as  fluor-spar  or  uranium  glass, 
the  effect,  though  very  brief,  does  not  die  away  quite  instantane- 
ously, so  that  it  is  really  a  very  brief  phosphorescence.  The 
property  of  phosphorescence  has  been  generally  attributed  to 
some  molecular  change  taking  place  in  the  bodies  possessing  it. 
That  some  such  change  takes  place  during  fluorescence  is  rendered 
probable  by  the  fact  that  the  property  depends  upon  the  state 
of  the  sensitive  substance;  somebodies,  such  as  barium  platino- 
cyanide,  fluorescing  in  the  solid  state  but  not  in  solution,  while 
others,  such  as  fluorescein,  only  fluoresce  in  solution.  Fluores- 
cence is  always  associated  with  absorption,  but  many  bodies  are 
absorbent  without  showing  fluorescence.  A  satisfactory  theory 
would  have  to  account  for  these  facts  as  well  as  for  the  production 
of  waves  of  one  period  by  those  of  another,  and  the  non-homo- 
geneous character  of  the  fluorescent  light.  Quite  recently  W. 
Voigt  has  sought  to  give  a  theory  of  fluorescence  depending  on 
the  theory  of  electrons.  Briefly,  this  theory  assumes  that  the 
electrons  which  constitute  the  molecule  of  the  sensitive  body 
can  exist  in  two  or  more  different  configurations  simultaneously, 
and  that  these  are  in  dynamical  equilibrium,  like  the  molecule 
in  a  partially  dissociated  gas.  If  the  electrons  have  different 
periods  of  vibration  in  the  different  configurations,  then  it  would 
happen  that  the  electrons  whose  period  nearly  corresponded  with 
that  of  the  incident  light  would  absorb  the  energy  of  the  latter, 
and  if  they  then  underwent  a  transformation  into  a  different 
configuration  with  a  different  period,  this  absorbed  energy 
would  be  given  out  in  waves  of  a  period  corresponding  to  that  of 
the  new  configuration. 

Applications  of  Fluorescence. — The  phenomenon  of  fluorescence 
can  be  utilized  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  laws  of  re- 
flection and  refraction  in  lecture  experiments  since  the  path  of 
a  ray  of  light  through  a  very  dilute  solution  of  a  sensitive  sub- 
stance is  rendered  visible.  The  existence  of  the  dark  h'nes  in  the 
ultra-violet  portion  of  the  solar  spectrum  can  also  be  demon- 
strated in  a  simple  'manner.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing 
applications,  Stokes  made  use  of  this  property  for  studying  the 
character  of  the  ultra-violet  spectrum  of  different  sources  of 
illumination  and  flames.  He  suggested  also  that  the  property 
would  in  some  cases  furnish  a  simple  test  for  the  presence  of  a 

x.  10 


577 


small  quantity  of  a  sensitive  substance  in  an  organic  mixture. 
Fluorescent  screens  are  largely  used  in  work  with  Rontgen  rays. 
There  appears  to  be  some  prospect  of  light  being  thrown  on  the 
question  of  molecular  structure  by  experiments  on  the  fluores- 
cence of  vapours.  Some  very  interesting  experiments  in  this 
direction  have  been  performed  by  R.  W.  Wood  on  the  fluorescence 
of  sodium  vapour. 

REFERENCES.— Sir  G.  G.  Stokes,  Mathematical  and  Physical 
Papers,  vols.  iii.  and  iv. ;  Muller-Pouillet,  Lehrbuch  der  Physik,  Bd.  ii. 
(1897);  A.  Wullner,  Lehrbuch  der  Experimentalphysik,  Bd.  iv. 
(1899);  A.  A.  Winkelmann,  Handbuch  der  Physik,  Bd.  vi.  (1006): 
R.  W.  Wood,  Physical  Optics  (1905).  (J.  R.  C.) 

FLUORINE  (symbol  F,  atomic  weight  19),  a  chemical  element 
of  the  halogen  group.  It  is  never  found  in  the  uncombined 
condition,  but  in  combination  with  calcium  as  fluor-spar  CaFj 
it  is  widely  distributed;  it  is  also  found  in  cryolite  Na3AlF,, 
in  fluor-apatite,  CaFj-SCaaPjOs,  and  in  minute  traces  in  sea- 
water,  in  some  mineral  springs,  and  as  a  constituent  of  the  enamel 
of  the  teeth.  It  was  first  isolated  by  H.  Moissan  in  1886  by  the 
electrolysis  of  pure  anhydrous  hydrofluoric  acid  containing 
dissolved  potassium  fluoride.  The  U-shaped  electrolytic  vessel 
and  the  electrodes  are  made  of  an  alloy  of  platinum-iridium, 
the  limbs  of  the  tube  being  closed  by  stoppers  made  of  fluor-spar, 
and  fitted  with  two  lateral  exit  tubes  for  carrying  off  the  gases 
evolved.  Whilst  the  electrolysis  is  proceeding,  the  apparatus 
is  kept  at  a  constant  temperature  of  -  23°  C.  by  means  of  liquid 
methyl  chloride.  The  fluorine,  which  is  liberated  as  a  gas  at 
the  anode,  is  passed  through  a  well  cooled  platinum  vessel, 
in  order  to  free  it  from  any  acid  fumes  that  may  be  carried  over, 
and  finally  through  two  platinum  tubes  containing  sodium 
fluoride  to  remove  the  last  traces  of  hydrofluoric  acid;  it  is 
then  collected  in  a  platinum  tube  closed  with  fluor-spar  plates. 
B.  Brauner  (Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  1894,  65,  p.  393)  obtained  fluorine 
by  heating  potassium  fluorplumbate  3KF-HF-PbF4.  At  200°  C. 
this  salt  decomposes,  giving  off  hydrofluoric  acid,  and  between 
230-250°  C.  fluorine  is  liberated. 

Fluorine  is  a  pale  greenish-yellow  gas  with  a  very  sharp  smell; 
its  specific  gravity  is  1-265  (H.  Moissan);  it  has  been  liquefied, 
the  liquid  also  being  of  a  yellow  colour  and  boiling  at  - 187°  C. 
It  is  the  most  active  of  all  the  chemical  elements;  in  contact 
with  hydrogen  combination  takes  place  between  the  two  gases 
with  explosive  violence,  even  in  the  dark,  and  at  as  low  a  tempera- 
ture as  -210°  C.;  finely  divided  carbon  burns  in  the  gas, 
forming  carbon  tetrafluoride;  water  is  decomposed  even  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  with  the  formation  of  hydrofluoric  acid 
and  "  ozonised  "  oxygen;  iodine,  sulphur  and  phosphorus  melt 
and  then  inflame  in  the  gas;  it  liberates  chlorine  from  chlorides, 
and  combines  with  most  metals  instantaneously  to  form  fluorides; 
it  does  not,  however,  combine  with  oxygen.  Organic  compounds 
are  rapidly  attacked  by  the  gas. 

Only  one  compound  of  hydrogen  and  fluorine  is  known, 
namely  hydrofluoric  acid,  HF  or  H2F2,  which  was  first  obtained 
by  C.  Scheele  in  1 77 1  by  decomposing  fluor-spar  with  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid,  a  method  still  used  for  the  commercial  preparation 
of  the  aqueous  solution  of  the  acid,  the  mixture  being  distilled 
from  leaden  retorts  and  the  acid  stored  in  leaden  or  gutta-percha 
bottles.  The  perfectly  anhydrous  acid  is  a  very  volatile  colour- 
less liquid  and  is  best  obtained,  according  to  G.  Gore  (Phil. 
Trans.,  1869,  p.  173)  by  decomposing  the  double  fluoride  of 
hydrogen  and  potassium,  at  a  red  heat  in  a  platinum  retort  fitted 
with  a  platinum  condenser  surrounded  by  a  freezing  mixture,  and 
having  a  platinum  receiver  luted  on.  It  can  also  be  prepared 
in  the  anhydrous  condition  by  passing  a  current  of  hydrogen 
over  dry  silver  fluoride.  The  pure  acid  thus  obtained  is  a  most 
dangerous  substance  to  handle,  its  vapour  even  when  highly 
diluted  with  air  having  an  exceedingly  injurious  action  on  the 
respiratory  organs,  whilst  inhalation  of  the  pure  vapour  is 
followed  by  death.  The  anhydrous  acid  boils  at  19°- 5  C.  (H. 
Moissan),  and  on  cooling,  sets  to  a  solid  mass  at  -102°- 5  C., 
which  melts  at-92°-3  C.  (K.  Olszewski,  Monats.fur  Chemie, 
1886,  7,  p.  371).  Potassium  and  sodium  readily  dissolve  in  the 
anhydrous  acid  with  evolution  of  hydrogen  and  formation  of 


578 


FLUOR-SPAR— FLUSHING 


fluorides.  The  aqueous  solution  is  strongly  acid  to  litmus  and 
dissolves  most  metals  directly.  Its  most  important  property  is 
that  it  rapidly  attacks  glass,  reacting  with  the  silica  of  the  glass 
to  form  gaseous  silicon  fluoride,  and  consequently  it  is  used  for 
etching.  T.  E.  Thorpe  (Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  1889,  55,  p.  163) 
determined  the  vapour  density  of  hydrofluoric  acid  at  different 
temperatures,  and  showed  that  there  is  no  approach  to  a  definite 
value  below  about  88°  C.  where  it  reaches  the  value  10-29 
corresponding  to  the  molecular  formula  HF;  at  temperatures 
below  88°  C.  the  value  increases  rapidly,  showing  that  the 
molecule  is  more  complex  in  its  structure.  (For  references  see 
J.  N.  Friend,  The  Theory  of  Valency  (1909),  p.  in.)  The  aqueous 
solution  behaves  on  concentration  similarly  to  the  other  halogen 
acids;  E.  Deussen  (Zeit.  anorg.  Chem.,  1905,  44,  pp.  300,  408; 
1906,  49,  p.  297)  found  the  solution  of  constant  boiling  point 
to  contain  43-2%  HF  and  to  boil  at  110°  (750  mm.). 

The  salts  of  hydrofluoric  acid  are  known  as  fluorides  and  are 
sasily  obtained  by  the  action  of  the  acid  on  metals  or  their  oxides, 
hydroxides  or  carbonates.  The  fluorides  of  the  alkali  metals,  of 
silver,  and  of  most  of  the  heavy  metals  are  soluble  in  water;  those 
of  the  alkaline  earths  are  insoluble.  A  characteristic  property  of 
the  alkaline  fluorides  is  their  power  of  combining  with  a  molecule  of 
hydrofluoric  acid  and  with  the  fluorides  of  the  more  electro-negative 
elements  to  form  double  fluorides,  a  behaviour  not  shown  by  other 
metallic  halides.  Fluorides  can  be  readily  detected  by  their  power 
of  etching  glass  when  warmed  with  sulphuric  acid ;  or  by  warming 
them  in  a  glass  tube  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  and  holding  a 
moistened  glass  rod  in  the  mouth  of  the  tube,  the  water  apparently 
gelatinizes  owing  to  the  decomposition  of  the  silicon  fluoride  formed. 
The  atomic  weight  of  fluorine  has  been  determined  by  the  con- 
version of  calcium,  sodium  and  potassium  fluorides  into  the  corres- 
ponding sulphates.  J.  Berzelius,  by  converting  silver  fluoride 
into  silver  chloride,  obtained  the  value  19-44,  and  by  analysing 
calcium  fluoride  the  value  19-16;  the  more  recent  work  of  H. 
Moissan  gives  the  value  19-05. 

See  H.  Moissan,  Le  Fluor  el  ses  composes  (Paris,  1900). 

FLUOR-SPAR,  native  calcium  fluoride  (CaF2),  known  also 
as  FLUORITE  or  simply  FLUOR.  In  France  it  is  called  fluorine, 
whilst  the  term  fluor  is  applied  to  the  element  (F).  All  these 
terms,  from  the  ~La.t.fluere,  "  to  flow,"  recall  the  fact  that  the  spar 
is  useful  as  a  flux  in  certain  metallurgical  operations.  (Cf.  its 
Ger.  name  Flussspat  or  Fluss.) 

Fluor-spar  crystallizes  in  the  cubic  system,  commonly  in 
cubes,  either  alone  or  combined  with  the  octahedron,  rhombic 
dodecahedron,  four-faced  cube,  &c.  The  four-faced  cube  has 
been  called_the  fluoroid.  In  fig.  i,  a  is  the  cube  (100),  d  the 


FIG.  i. 


FIG.  2. 


rhombic  dodecahedron  (no),  and/  the  four-faced  cube  (310). 
Fig.  2  shows  a  characteristic  twin  of  interpenetrant  cubes. 
The  crystals  are  sometimes  polysyntheti'c,  a  large  octahedron, 
e.g.,  being  built  up  of  small  cubes.  The  faces  are  often  etched  or 
corroded.  Cleavage  is  nearly  always  perfect,  parallel  to  the 
octahedron. 

Fluor-spar  has  a  hardness  of  4,  so  that  it  is  scratched  by  a  knife, 
though  not  so  readily  as  calcite.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  3-2. 
The  colour  is  very  variable,  and  often  beautiful,  but  the  mineral 
is  too  soft  for  personal  decoration,  though  it  forms  a  handsome 
material  for  vases,  &c.  In  some  fluor-spar  the  colour  is  disposed 
in  bands,  regularly  following  the  contour  of  the  crystal.  As  the 
colour  is  usually  expelled,  or  much  altered,  by  heat,  it  is  believed 
to  be  due  to  an  organic  pigment,  and  the  presence  of  hydrocarbons 
has  been  detected  in  many  specimens  by  G.  Wyrouboff,  and 
other  observers.  H.  W.  Morse  (Proc.  Amer.  Acad.,  1906,  p.  587) 


obtained  carbon  monoxide  and  dioxide,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen 
and  small  quantities  of  oxygen  from  Weardale  specimens  by 
heating.  He  concluded  that  the  gases  are  due  to  the  decom- 
position of  an  organic  colouring  matter,  which  has,  however,  no 
connexion  with  the  fluorescence  or  thermo-luminescence  of 
the  mineral.  Certain  crystals  from  Cumberland  are  beautifully 
fluorescent,  appearing  purple  with  a  bluish  internal  haziness 
by  reflected  light,  and  greenish  by  transmitted  light.  Fluor-spar, 
though  cubic,  sometimes  exhibits  weak  double  refraction, 
probably  due  to  internal  tension.  Many  kinds  of  fluor-spar  are 
thermo-luminescent,  i.e.  they  glow  on  exposure  to  a  moderate 
heat,  and  the  name  of  chlorophane  has  been  given  to  a  variety 
which  exhibits  a  green  glow.  The  mineral  also  phosphoresces 
under  the  Rontgen  rays.  Cavities  containing  liquid  occasionally 
occur  in  crystals  of  fluor-spar,  notably  in  the  greasy  green  cubes 
of  Weardale  in  Durham.  A  dark  violet  fluor-spar  from  Wolsen- 
dorf  in  Bavaria,  evolves  an  odour  of  ozone  when  struck,  and  has 
been  called  antozonite.  Ozone  is  also  emitted  by  a  violet  fluor- 
spar from  Quincie,  dep.  Rhone,  France.  In  both  cases  the  spar 
evolves  free  fluorine,  which  ozonizes  the  air. 

Fluor-spar  is  largely  employed  by  the  metallurgist,  especially 
in  lead-smelting,  and  in  the  production  of  ferro-silicon  and 
ferro-manganese.  It  is  also  used  in  iron  and  brass  foundries, 
and  has  been  found  useful  as  a  flux  for  certain  gold-ores  and  in 
the  reduction  of  aluminium.  It  is  used  as  a  source  of  hydrofluoric 
acid,  which  it  evolves  when  heated  with  sulphuric  acid.  The 
mineral  is  also  used  in  the  production  of  opal  glass  and  enamel 
ware.  In  consequence  of  its  low  refractive  and  dispersive  power, 
colourless  pellucid  fluor-spar  is  valuable  in  the  construction  of 
apochromatic  lenses,  but  this  variety  is  rare.  The  dark  violet 
fluor-spar  of  Derbyshire,  known  locally  as  "  Blue  John,"  is 
prized  for  ornamental  purposes.  It  occurs  almost  exclusively  at 
Tray  Cliff,  near  Castleton.  The  dark  purple  spar,  called  by  the 
workmen  "  bull  beef,"  may  be  changed,  by  heat,  to  a  rich 
amethystine  tint.  Being  very  brittle,  the  spar  is  rather  difficult 
to  work  on  the  lathe,  and  is  often  toughened  by  means  of  resin. 
F.  Corsi,  the  eminent  Italian  antiquary,  held  that  fluor-spar  was 
the  material  of  the  famous  murrhine  vases. 

Fluor-spar  is  a  mineral  of  very  wide  distribution.  Some  of  the 
finest  crystals  occur  in  the  lead-veins  of  the  Carboniferous 
Limestone  series  in  the  north  of  England,  especially  at  Weardale, 
Allendale  and  Alston  Moor.  It  is  also  found  in  the  lead  and 
copper-mines  of  Cornwall  and  S.  Devon,  notably  near  Liskeard, 
where  fine  crystals  have  been  found,  with  faces  of  the  six-faced 
octahedron  replacing  the  corners  of  the  cube.  In  Cornwall  fluor- 
spar is  known  to  the  miners  as  "  cann."  Fine  yellow  fluor-spar 
occurs  in  some  of  the  Saxon  mines,  and  beautiful  rose-red 
octahedra  are  found  in  the  Alps,  near  Goschenen.  Many 
localities  in  the  United  States  yield  fluor-spar,  and  it  is  worked 
commercially  in  a  few  places,  notably  at  Rosiclare  in  southern 
Illinois. 

FLUSHING,  formerly  a  township  and  a  village  of  Queens  county, 
New  York,  U.S.A.,  on  Long  Island,  at  the  head  of  Flushing 
Bay,  since  the  ist  of  January  1898  a  part  of  the  borough  of 
Queens,  New  York  City.  Flushing  is  served  by  the  Long  Island 
railroad  and  by  electric  lines.  It  was  settled  in  1644  by  a  company 
of  English  non-conformists  who  had  probably  been  residents  of 
Flushing  in  Holland,  from  which  the  new  place  took  its  name. 
Subsequently  a  large  number  of  Quakers  settled  here,  and  in 
1672  George  Fox  spent  some  time  in  the  township.  Before  the 
War  of  Independence  Flushing  was  the  country-seat  of  many  rich 
New  Yorkers  and  colonial  officials. 

FLUSHING  (Dutch  Vlissingen),  a  fortified  seaport  in  the 
province  of  Zeeland,  Holland,  on  the  south  side  of  the  island  of 
Walcheren,  at  the  mouth  of  the  estuary  of  the  western  Scheldt, 
4  m.  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Middelburg,  with  which  it  is  also  con- 
nected by  steam  tramway  and  by  a  ship  canal.  There  is  a  steam 
ferry  to  Breskens  and  Ter  Neuzen  on  the  coast  of  Zeeland- 
Flandres.  Pop.  (1900)  18,893.  An  important  naval  station 
and  fortress  up  to  1867,  Flushing  has  since  aspired,  under  the 
care  of  the  Dutch  government,  to  become  a  great  commercial 
port.  In  1872  the  railway  was  opened  which,  in  conjunction 


FLUTE 


with  the  regular  day  and  night  service  of  steamers  to  Queen- 
borough  in  the  county  of  Kent,  forms  one  of  the  main  routes 
between  England  and  the  east  of  Europe.  In  1873  the  great 
harbour,  docks  and  canal  works  were  completed.  Yet  the 
navigation  of  the  port  remains  far  behind  that  of  Rotterdam  or 
Antwerp,  the  tonnage  being  in  1899  about  7-9%  of  that  of  the 
kingdom.  As  a  summer  resort,  however,  Flushing  has  acquired 
considerable  popularity,  sea-baths  and  a  large  modern  hotel 
being  situated  on  the  fine  beach  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
north-west  of  the  town.  It  possesses  a  town  hall,  containing  a 
collection  of  local  antiquities,  a  theatre,  an  exchange,  an  academy 
of  sciences  and  a  school  of  navigation.  The  Jakobskerk,  or 
Jacob's  church,  founded  in  1328,  contains  monuments  to  Admiral 
de  Ruyter  (1607-1676)  and  the  poet  Jacob  Bellamy  (1757-1786), 
who  were  natives  of  Flushing.  The  chief  industries  of  the  town 
are  connected  with  the  considerable  manufacture  of  machinery, 
the  state  railway-workshops,  shipbuilding  yards,  Krupp  iron 
and  steel  works'  depot,  brewing,  and  oil  and  soap  manufacture. 
The  chief  imports  are  colonial  produce  and  wine,  wood  and  coal. 
The  exports  include  agricultural  produce  (wheat  and  beans), 
shrimps  and  meat. 

FLUTE,  a  word  adapted  from  O.  Fr.  fleiite,  modern  flute;  from 
O.  Fr.  have  come  the  Span,  flauta,  Ital.  flauto  and  Ger.  Flo'le. 
The  New  English  Dictionary  dismisses  the  derivations  suggested 
from  Lat.  flatuare  or  flavilare;  ultimately  the  word  must  be 
referred  to  the  root  seen  in  "  blow,"  Lat.  flare,  Ger.  blasen,  &c. 

i.  In  music  "  flute  "  is  a  general  term  applied  to  wood-wind 
instruments  consisting  of  a  pipe  pierced  with  lateral  holes  and 
blown  directly  through  the  mouthpiece  without  the  intervention 
of  a  reed.  The  flute  family  is  classified  according  to  the  mouth- 
piece used  to  set  in  vibration  the  column  of  air  within  the  tube: 
i.e.  (i)  the  simple  lateral  mouth-hole  or  embouchure  which 
necessitates  holding  the  instrument  in  a  transverse  position; 
(2)  the  whistle  or  fipple  mouthpiece  which  allows  the  performer 
to  hold  the  instrument  vertically  in  front  of  him.  There  is  a 
third  class  of  pipes  included  among  the  flutes,  having  no  mouth- 
piece of  any  sort,  in  which  the  column  of  air  is  set  in  vibration  by 
blowing  obliquely  across  the  open  end  of  the  pipe,  as  in  the 
ancient  Egyptian  nay,  and  the  pan-pipe  or  syrinx  (q.ti.).  The 
transverse  flute  has  entirely  superseded  the  whistle  flute,  which 
has  survived  only  in  the  so-called  penny  whistle,  in  the  "  flute- 
work  "  of  the  organ  (q.v.),  and  in  the  French  flageolet.  • 

The  Transverse  Flute  or  German  Flute  (Fr.  flute  traversiere, 
flute  allemande:  Ger.  Flote,  Querflote,  Zwerchpfeif.  Schweitzer- 
pfeiff;  Ital.  flauto  traverse)  includes  the  concert  flute  known  both 
as  flute  in  C  and  as  flute  in  D,  the  piccolo  (q.v.)  or  octave  flute, 
and  the  fife  (q.v.).  The  modern  flute  consists  of  a  tube  open  at 
one  end  and  nominally  closed  at  the  other  by  means  of  a  plug 
or  cork  stopper:  virtually,  however,  the  tube  is  an  open  one 
giving  the  consecutive  harmonic  series  of  the  open  pipe  or  of  a 
stretched  string.  The  primitive  flute  was  made  in  one  piece, 
but  the  modern  instrument  is  composed  of  three  adjustable 
joints,  (i)  The  head- joint,  plugged  at  the  upper  end  and  contain- 
ing at  about  one-third  of  the  length  the  mouth-hole  or  em- 
bouchure. This  embouchure,  always  open  when  the  instrument 
is  being  played,  converts  the  closed  tube  into  an  open  one,  in  an 
acoustical  sense.  (2)  The  body,  containing  the  holes  and  keys 
necessary  to  produce  the  scale  which  gave  the  flute  its  original 
designation  of  D  flute,  the  head  and  body  together,  when  the 
holes  are  closed,  giving  the  fundamental  note  D.  Before  the 
invention  of  keys,  this  fundamental  note  and  the  notes  obtained 
by  the  successive  opening  of  the  six  holes  produced  the  diatonic 
scale  of  D  major.  All  other  semitones  were  obtained  by  what 
is  known  as  cross  fingering  (Fr.  doigte  fourchu;  Ger.  Gabelgri/e). 
It  became  usual  to  consider  this  the  typical  fingering  nomen- 
clature, whatever  the  fundamental  note  given  out  by  the  flute, 
and  to  indicate  the  tonality  by  the  note  given  out  when  the 
six  lateral  holes  are  covered  by  the  fingers.  The  result  is 
that  the  tonality  is  always  a  tone  lower  than  the  name  of 
the  instrument  indicates.  Thus  the  D  flute  is  really  in  C, 
the  F  flute  is  Et>,  &c.  (3)  The  foot-joint  or  tail-joint  con- 
taining the  two  additional  keys  for  C#  and  C  which  extend  the 


579 


compass  downwards,  completing  the  chromatic  scale  of  C  in  the 
fundamental  octave. 
The   compass  of   the   modern   flute   is   three   octaves   with 


chromatic  semitones  from 


=.     The  sound  is  pro- 


duced by  holding  the  flute  transversely  with  the  embouchure 
turned  slightly  outwards,  the  lower  lip  resting  on  the  nearer 
edge  of  the  embouchure,  and  blowing  obliquely  across,  not 
into,  the  orifice.  The  flat  stream  of  air  from  the  lips,  known 
as  the  air-reed,  breaks  against  the  sharp  outer  edge  of  the 
embouchure.  The  current  of  air,  thus  set  in  a  flutter,  produces 
in  the  stationary  column  of  air  within  the  tube  a  series  of  pulsa- 
tions or  vibrations  caused  by  the  alternate  compression  and  rare- 
faction of  the  air  and  generating  sounds  of  a  pitch  proportional 
to  the  length  of  the  stationary  column,  which  is  practically 
somewhat  longer  than  the  length  of  the  tube.1  The  length  of  this 
column  is  varied  by  opening  the  lateral  finger-holes.  The  current 
or  air-reed  thus  acts  upon  the  air  column  within  the  flute,  without 
passing  through  the  tube,  as  a  plectrum  upon  a  string,  setting  it 
in  vibration.  The  air  column  of  the  flute  is  the  sound-producer, 
whereas  in  instruments  with  reed  mouthpieces  the  vibrating 
reed  is  more  properly  the  sound-producer,  while  the  air  column, 
acting  as  a  resonating  medium,  reinforces  the  note  of  the  reed  by 
vibrating  synchronously  with  it.  If  the  angle2  at  which  the 
current  of  air  is  directed  against  the  outer  edge  of  the  embouchure 
be  made  less  acute  and  the  pressure  of  the  breath  be  at  the  same 
time  increased,  the  frequency  of  the  alternate  pulses  of  com- 
pression and  rarefaction  within  the  tube  will  be  increased  two, 
three  or  fourfold,  forming  a  corresponding  number  of  nodes  and 
loops  which  results  in  harmonics  or  upper  partials,  respectively 
the  octave,  the  twelfth,  the  doubje  octave.  By  this  means  sounds 
of  higher  pitch  are  produced  without  actually  shortening  the 
length  of  the  column  of  air  by  means  of  lateral  holes.  The 
acoustic  theory  of  sound-production  in  the  flute  is  one  on  which 
there  is  great  diversity  of  opinion.  The  subject  is  too  vast  to  be 
treated  here,  but  readers  who  wish  to  pursue  it  may  consult 
the  works  of  Rockstro,3  Helmholtz,4  and  others.*  The  effect  of 
boring  lateral  holes  in  pipes  is  to  shorten  the  vibrating  length  of 
the  air  column,  which  may  be  regarded  as  being  effective  only 
between  the  hole  in  question  and  the  mouthpiece.  In  order  to 
obtain  this  result  the  diameter  of  the  hole  should  be  equal  to  that 
of  the  bore;  as  long  as  the  holes  were  covered  by  the  fingers, 
this  was  obviously  impossible.  The  holes,  therefore,  being  smaller 
than  the  laws  of  acoustics  demand,  have  to  be  placed  proportion- 
ally nearer  the  mouthpiece  in  order  to  avoid  deepening  the  pitch 
and  deadening  the  tone.  This  principle  was  understood  by  wind- 
instrument  makers  of  classic  Greece  (see  AULOS  and  CLARINET), 
and  has  been  explained  by  Chladni6  and  Gottfried  Weber.7 

The  bore  of  the  early  flute  with  six  finger-holes  was  invariably 
cylindrical  throughout,  but  towards  the  end  of  the  i7th  century 
a  modification  took  place,  the  head  joint  alone  remaining 
cylindrical  while  the  rest  of  the  bore  assumed  the  form  of  a  cone 
having  its  smallest  diameter  at  the  open  end  of  the  tube.  The 

1  See  E.  F.  F.  Chladni,  Die  Akustik  (Leipzig,  1802),  p.  87. 

1  See  Sonreck,  "  t)ber  die  Schwingungserregung  und  die  Bewegung 
der  Luftsaule  in  offenen  und  gedeckten  Rohren,  Fogg.  Ann.,  1876, 
vol.  158. 

*  The  Flute  (London,  1890),  §  90-105,  pp.  34-40. 

*  Theorie   der   Luftschwingungen    in    Rohren    r, 
(Berlin,    1896).     r>-' — IJ1-    v'-~- •«—    J- 

No.  80. 

*  V.  C.  Mahillon,  Experimental  Studies  on  the  Resonance  of  Trunco- 
Conical  and  Cylindrical  Air  Columns,  translated  by  F.  A.  Mahan 
(London,    1001);    D.   J.    Blaikley,   Acoustics   in   Relation  to    Wind 
Instruments  (London,  1890);  Fnedrich  Zamminer,  Die  Musik  und 
die  musikalischen  Instrumente,  &c.  (Giessen,  1855);  idem.  "  Sur  le 
mouvement  vibratoire  de  1'air  dans  les  tuyaux," .  Comptes  rendus, 
1855,  vol. 41, &c. 

8  Op.  cit.,  §  73,  pp.  87-88,  note  I. 

7  "  Akustik  der  Blasinstrumente,"  AUgem.  musikal.  Zeit.  (Leipzig, 
1816),  Bd.  xviii.  No.  5,  p.  65  et  seq.  See  also  Ernst  Euting,  Zur 
Geschichle  der  Blasinstrumente  im  16.  und  77.  Jahrhundert.  Inaugural 
Dissertation,  Friedrich-Wilhelms  Universitat.  (Berlin,  isth  of 
March  1899),  p.  9. 


_  mit   offenen   Enden 

Ostwald's  Klassiker  der  exacten    Wissenschaften, 


58° 


FLUTE 


conoidal  bore  greatly  improved  the  quality  of  tone  and  the 
production  of  the  higher  harmonics  of  the  third  octave.  Once 
the  conical  bore  had  been  adopted,  the  term  flute  was  exclu- 
sively applied  to  the  new  instruments,  the  smaller  flutes,  then 
cylindrical,  used  in  the  army  being  designated  fife  (q.v.) .  At 


T 


From  Captain  Day's  Catalogue,  &•<:.,  by  permission  of  Messrs.  Eyre  &  Spottiswoode. 

FlG.  I. — Eight-keyed  Cone  Flute  by  Richard  Potter.     l8th  century. 


•s.  Rudall,  Carte  &  Co. 


FIG.  2. — Boehm  Cylinder  Flute.    Rockstro  Model 


the  present  day. in  England,  France  and  America,  the  favourite 
mode  of  construction  is  that  introduced  by  Theobald  Boehm, 
and  known  as  the  "  cylinder  flute  with  the  parabolic  head," 
of  which  more  will  be  said  further  on.  The  successive  opening 
of  the  holes  and  keys  on  the  flute  produces  the  chromatic  scale 
of  the  first  or  fundamental  octave.  By  increasing  the  pressure 
of  the  breath  and  slightly  altering  the  position  of  the  lips  over 
the  mouth-hole,  the  same  fingering  produces  the  notes  of  the 
fundamental  octave  in  the  next  octave  higher.  The  third  octave 
of  the  compass  is  obtained  by  the  production  of  the  higher 
harmonics  (Fr.  sons  harmoniques;  Ger.  Flageolettb'ne),  of  the 
fundamental  scale,  facilitated  by  the  opening  of  certain  of  the 
finger-holes  as  "  vent  holes."  The  quality  of  tone  depends 
somewhat  on  the  material  of  which  the  flute  is  made;  silver  and 
gold  produce  a  liquid  tone  of  exquisite  delicacy  suitable  for  solo 
music,  cocus-wood  and  ebonite  a  rich  mellow  tone  of  considerable 
power  suitable  for  orchestral  .music.  The  tone  differs  further 
in  the  three  registers,  the  lowest  being  slightly  rough,  the  medium 
sweet  and  elegiac,  and  the  third  bird-like  and  brilliant.  The 
proportions,  position  and  form  of  the  stopper  and  of  the  air 
chamber  situated  between  it  and  the  embouchure  are  mainly 
influential  in  giving  the  flute  its  peculiar  slightly  hollow  timbre, 
due  to  the  paucity  of  the  upper  partials  of  which  according  to 
Helmholtz1  only  the  octave  and  twelfth  are  heard.  Mr  Blaikley2 
states,  however,  that  when  the  fundamental  D  is  played,  he  can 
discern  the  seventh  partial.  The  technical  capabilities  of  the 
flute  are  practically  unlimited  to  a  good  player  who  can  obtain 
sustained  notes  diminuendo  and  crescendo,  diatonic  and  chro- 
matic scales  and  arpeggios  both  legato  and  staccato,  leaps, 
turns,  shakes,  &c.  By  the  articulation  with  the  tongue  of  the 
syllables  te-ke  or  ti-ke  repeated  quickly  for  groups  of  double  notes, 
or  of  te-ke-ti  for  triplets,  an  easy  effective  staccato  is  produced, 
known  respectively  as  double  or  triple  tonguing,  a  device  under- 
stood early  in  the  i6th  century  and  mentioned  by  Martin 
Agricola,3  who  gives  the  syllables  as  de  for  sustained  notes, 
di-ri  for  shorter  notes,  and  tel-lel-lel  for  staccato  passages  in 
quick  tempo.4 

Musical  instruments,  such  as  flutes,  in  which  a  column  of  air  is 
set  in  vibration  by  regular  pulsations  derived  from  a  current  of  air 
directed  by  the  lips  of  the  executant  against  the  side  of  the  orifice 
serving  as  embouchure,  appear  to  be  of  very  ancient  origin.  The 
Hindus,  Chinese  and  Japanese  claim  to  have  used  these  modes  of 
blowing  from  time  immemorial.  The  ancient  Egyptians  had  a  long 
pipe  held  obliquely  and  blown  across  the  end  of  the  pipe  itself  at  its 
upper  extremity;  it  was  known  as  Saib-it*  and  was  frequently 
figured  on  the  monuments.  The  same  instrument,  called  nay, 
is  still  used  in  Mahommedan  countries.  The  oblique  aulos  of  the 


Greeks,  plagiaulos,6  was  of  Egyptian  origin  and  was  perhaps  at  first 
blown  from  the  end  as  described  above,7  since  we  know  that  the 
Greeks  were  familiar  with  that  method  of  blowing  in  the  syrinx 
or  pan-pipe.  The  instruments  preserved  at  the  British  Museum1 
having  lateral  embouchures  show,  however,  that  they  were  also 
acquainted — probably  through  the  Hindus — with  the  transverse 
flute,  although  in  the  case  of  these  specimens  a  reed  must 
have  been  inserted  into  the  mouth-hole  or  no  sound  would 
have  been  obtained. 

The  high  antiquity  of  a  lateral  embouchure  in  Europe 
is  generally  admitted;  the  flute  evidently  penetrated 
from  the  East  at  some  period  not  yet  determined.  A 
transverse  flute  is  seen  on  Indian 
sculptures  of  the  Gandhara 
school  showing  Greek  influence, 
and  dating  from  the  beginning 
of  our  era  (fig.  3).  But  although 
the  transverse  flute  was  evi- 
dently known  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  it  did  not  find  the  same 
favour  as  the  reed  instruments  known  as  auloi.  We  have  no 
evidence  of  the  survival  of  the  transverse  flute  after  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  empire  until  it  filtered  through  from  Byzantine  sources 


1  Lenre  von  der  Tonempfindung  (Braunschweig,  1877). 

2  See  additions  by  D.  J.  B.  to  article  "  Flute  "  in  Grove's  Diction- 
ary of  Music  and  Musicians  (London,  1904). 

3  Musica  instrumentalis  deutsch  (Wittenberg,  1528). 

4  See    also    L'Artusi,    Delle    imperfettioni   della    musica    moderna 
(Venice,  1600),  p.  4;   Gottfried  Weber  in  Cdcilia,  Bd.  ix.  p.  99. 

6  See  "  Les  Anciennes  Flutes  e'gyptiennes,"  by  Victor  Loret  in 
Journal  asiatique  (Paris,  1889),  vol.  xiy.  p.  133  et  seq.,  two  careful 
articles  based  on  the  ancient  Egyptian  instruments  still  extant.  See 
also  Lauth,  "  t)ber  die  agyptische  Instrumente,"  Sitzungs.  der  philos., 
phUolog.  und  histor.  Klasse.  der  Kgl.  bayer.  Akad.  zu  Munchen  (1873). 


.FiG.  3. — Transverse  Flute.     1st  or  2nd  century  A.D.     From  the 
Tope  at  Amarabati,  British  Museum. 

during  the  early  middle  ages.  Instances  of  the  flute  occur  on  a 
group  of  caskets'  of  Italo-Byzantine  work  of  the  gth  or  loth  century, 
while  of  purely  Byzantine  origin  we  find  examples  of  flutes  in  Greek 


6  See  Albert  A.  Howard,  "  The  Aulos  or  Tibia,"  Harvard  Studies, 
iv.  (Boston,  1893),  pp.  16-17. 

7  Representations  of  flutes  blown  as  here  described  have  been 
found  in  Europe.     See  Comptes  rendus  de  la  commission  imperiale 
archeologique  (St  Petersburg,  1867),  p.  45,  and  atlas  for  the  same 
date,  pi.  vi.     Pompeian  painting  given  by  Helbig,   Wandgemalde, 
No.  7607;   Zahn,  vol.  iii.  pi.  31 ;   Museo  Borbonnico,  pi.  xv.  No.  18; 
Clarac,  pi.  130,  131,  139;    Heuzey, Les  Figurines,  p.  136. 

'There  are  two  flutes  at  the  British  Museum  (Catal.  No.  84,  4-9 
and  5  and  6),  belonging  to  the  Castellan!  collection,  made  of  wood 
encased  in  bronze  in  which  the  mouthpiece,  consisting  of  the  head 
of  a  maenad,  has  a  lateral  hole  bored  obliquely  into  the  main  tube. 
This  hole  was  probably  intended  for  the  reception  of  a  reed.  The 
pipe  is  stopped  at  the  end  beyond  the  mouthpiece  as  in  the  modern 
flute.  There  are  six  holes.  See  also  the  plagiaulos  from  Halicar- 
nassus  in  the  British  Museum  described  by  C.  T.  Newton  in  History 
of  Discoveries  at  Halicarnassus  (London),  vol.  ii.  p.  339.  The  Louvre 
has  two  ancient  statues  (from  the  villa  Borghese)  representing 
satyrs  playing  upon  transverse  flutes.  Unfortunately  these  marbles 
have  been  restored,  especially  in  the  details  affecting  our  present 
subject,  and  are  therefore  examples  of  no  value  to  us.  Another 
statue  representing  a  flute-player  occurs  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  instrument  has  been  supposed  to  be  a  transverse  flute,  but 
erroneously,  for  the  insufflation  of  the  lateral  tube  against  which 
the  instrumentalist  presses  his  lips,  could  not,  without  the  inter- 
vention of  a  reed,  excite  the  vibratory  movement  of  the  column  of 
air. 

9  Florence,  Carrand  Collection.  See  Museo  Nazionale  Firenze, 
Catalog*}  (1898),  p.  205,  No.  26  (description  only).  Illustration  in 
Gallerie  nazionali  ilaliane,  A.  Ventun,  vol.  iii.  (1897),  p.  263, 
L'Arte  (Rome,  1894)",  vol.  i.  p.  24,  Hans  Graeven,  "  Antike  Vorlagen 
byzantinischer  Elfenbeinreliefs,"  in  Jahrb.  d.  K.  Preuss.  Kunst- 
Sammlungen  (Berlin,  1897),  Bd.  xviii.  p.  II ;  Hans  Graeven,  "  Bin 
Reliquienkastchen  aus  Pirano,"  id.,  1899,  Bd.  xx.  fig.  2  and  pi.  iii. 


FLUTE 


581 


pitch  of  .  the  tenor 

the  bass  £2-      '=  and   alto  i 


MSS.1  preserved  in  Paris,  at  the  British  Museum  and  elsewhere. 
There  is  moreover  in  the  cathedral  of  St  Sophia  at  Kiev  *  an  orchestra 
depicted  on  frescoes  said  to  date  from  the  nth  century;  among 
the  musicians  is  a  flautist. 

The  first  essentially  western  European  trace  of  the  transverse 
flute  occurs  in  a  German  MS.  of  the  I2th  century,  the  celebrated 
Hortus  deliciarum  of  the  abbess  Herrad  von  Landsperg.3  Fol.  221 
shows  a  syren  playing  upon  the  transverse  flute,  which  Herrad 
explains  in  a  legend  as  tibia ;  in  the  vocabulary  the  latter  is  trans- 
lated swegel.  In  the  I3th  century  it  occurs  among  the  miniatures  of 
the  fifty-one  musicians  in  the  beautiful  MS.  Las  Cantigas  de  Santa 
Maria  in  the  Escorial,  Madrid.4  Eustache  Deschamps,  a  French 
poet  of  the  I4th  century,  in  one  of  his  ballads,  makes  mention  of  the 
"  flute  traversaine,"  and  we  are  justified  in  supposing  that  he  refers 
to  the  transverse  flute.  It  had  certainly  acquired  some  vogue  in 
the  1 5th  century,  being  figured  in  an  engraving  in  Sebastian  Vird- 
ung's  celebrated  work6,  where  it  is  called  "  Zwerchpfeiff,"  and,  with 
the  drums,  it  already  constituted  the  principal  element  of  the 
military  music.  Agricola  (op.  cit.)  alludes  to  it  as  the  "  Querch- 
pfeiff  "  or  "  Schweizerpfeiff,  '  the  latter  designation  dating,  it  is 
said,  from  the  battle  of  Marignan  (1515),  when  the  Swiss  troops 
used  it  for  the  first  time  in  war. 

From  Agricola  onwards  transverse  flutes  formed  a  complete  family, 
said  to  comprise  the  discant,  the  alto  and  -tenor,  and  the  bass — 
_a  Q  ^  _  respectively.  Praetorius*  desig- 


nates   the    transverse     flute    as 
"  Flauta     traversa'     Querpfeiff  " 
and   "  Querflot,"   and   gives   the 
=  and  the  .  o        i     -  as    varie- 
:       I       discant  grc  —  a  —  ties  .  then 

in  -  in  °St     &       in  V  in  use.   A 

flute  concert  at  that  time  included  two  discants,  four  altos  or 
tenors,  and  two  basses.  The  same  author  distinguishes  between  the 
"  Traversa  "  and  the  "  Schweizerpfeiff  "  or  fife  (which  he  also  calls 
"  Feldpfeiff,"  i.e.  military  flute),  although  the  construction  was  the 
same.  There  were  -e^  -»—  —  respectively  ;  they  were 

two  kinds  of  gfr  —  ^  —  and  gfr  -  |  employed  exclusively 
"Feldpfeiff,"  in  v~  *f  —  =*  with  the  military  drum. 

MersenneV  account  of  the  transverse  flute,  then  designated  "  flflte 
d'Allemagne  "or  "  flute  allemande  "  in  France,  and  an  "  Air  de  Cour  " 
for  four  flutes  in  his  work  lead  us  to  believe  that  there  were  then  in 
use  in  France  -p  the  tenor  an^  tnc  Dass 

the    soprano  ffr     j       or     alto 
flute  in  **f    £>  —  flute  in  '^      ing  to 

The  museum  of  the  Conservatoire  Royal  of  Brussels  possesses 
specimens  of  all  these  varieties  except  the  last.  All  of  them  are 
laterally  pierced  with  six  finger-holes;  they  have  a  cylindrical  bore, 
and  are  fashioned  out  of  a  single  piece  of  wood.  Their  compass  con- 
sists of  two  octaves  and  a  fifth.  Mersenne's  tablature  for  fingering 
the  flute  differs  but  little  from  those  of  Hotteterre-le-Romam8  and 
Eisel  •  for  the  diatonic  scale;  he  does  not  give  the  chromatic  semi- 
tones and  the  flute  had  as  yet  no  keys.  _  f^  | 

The  largest  bass   flute  in  the  Brussels  museum  is  in  g=b=^_ 
at  the  French  normal  pitch  A  435  double  vibrations  per  —  —  — 
second.     It  measures  0-95  m.  from  the  centre  of  the  blow  orini 

1  Greek  MS.  510,  Gre'goir  de  Nazance  loth  century,  Bibliotheque 
Nationale,  Paris;  illustration  in  Gustave  L.  Schlumberger,  L  Epopte 
byzantine  a  la  fin  du  dizibme  siecle  (Paris,  1896  and  1900),  vol.  i. 
p  1503.  British  Museum,  Greek  Psalter,  add.  MS.  19352,  Ml  1890. 
written  and  illuminated  dr.  1066  by  Theodorus  of  Caesarea.  A 
cylindrical  flute  is  shown  turned  to  the  right  the  left  hand  being 
uppermost.  Smyrna,  Library  of  the  Evaggehke  Schole  B  18,  fol. 
72a,  A.D.  1  100,  illustration  by  Strzygowski,  ''  Der  Bilderkreis  des 
griechischen  Physiologus,"  in  Byzantinisches  Archiv  (Leipzig,  I  «99> 
Heft  2,  Taf.  xi.;  N.  P.  Kondakoff,  Histoire  de  I'artbyzanlin  (Pans, 
1886  and  1891),  pi.  xii.  5;  "  Kuseyr'  Amra,"  issued  by  K.  Akad.  a. 
Wissenschaften  (Vienna,  1907),  vol.  11.  pi.  xxxiy. 

1  A  fine  volume  containing  coloured  drawings  of  these 
has  been  published  in  St  Petersburg  (British  Museum  library  cata- 
logue, sect.    "  Academies,"  St  Petersburg,  1874-1887,  vol.  iv.  Tab. 

I3>  This  manuscript,  written  towards  the  end  of  the  iath  century 
was  preserved  in  the  Strassburg  library  until  1870,  when  it  was  burnt 
during  the  bombardment  of  the  city.  See  the  fine  reproduction  in 
facsimile  published  by  the  Soc.  pour  la  conservation  des  monuments 
historigues  d'  Alsace.  Texte  exphcatif  de  A  Straub  and  G.  Keller 
(Strassbure  1901),  pi.  Ivii.,  also  C.  M.  Engelhardt,  Herraa  von 
(^ndspergunLhr'  Werk  (Stuttgart  and  Tubingen,  18.8),  twelve 


S    i.  b.  2.     Illustrated  in  Critical  and  Bibliographical  Notes 
on  Early  Spanish  Music  (London,  1887),  p.  119- 
<•  Musica  getutscht  und  auszgezogen  (Basel,  1511; 
•  Oreanoeraphia  (Wolfenbuttel.  1618),  pp.  24,  25,  40. 


informirend,  Musicus 


(Erfurt,  1738),  P-  85- 


the  lower  extremity  of  the  tube.  The  disposition  of  the  lateral  holes 
is  such  that  it  is  impossible  to  cover  them  with  the  fingers  if  the 
flute  is  held  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  in- 
strument must  be  placed  against  the  mouth 
in  an  almost  vertical  direction,  inclining  the 
extremity  of  the  tube  either  to  the  right  or 
the  left.  This  inconvenient  position  makes 
it  necessary  that  the  instrument  should  be 
divided  into  two  parts,  enabling  the  player 
to  turn  the  head  joint  that  the  embouchure 
may  be  most  commodiously  approached  by 
the  lips,  which  is  not  at  all  easy.  The  first 
and  fourth  of  the  six  lateral  holes  are 
double  in  order  to  accommodate  both  right- 
and  left-handed  players,  the  holes  not  in 
use  being  stopped  up  with  wax.  The  bass 
flute  shown  in  fig.  4  is  the  facsimile  of  an 
instrument  in  the  Museo  Civico  of  Verona. 
The  original,  unfortunately  no  longer  fit  for 
use,  is  nevertheless  sufficiently  well  pre- 
served to  allow  of  all  its  proportionate 
measurements  being  given.  The  lowest 
note,  Eb,  is  obtained  with  a  remarkable 
amplitude  of  sound,  thus  upsetting  a  very 
prevalent  opinion  that  it  is  impossible  to 
produce  by  lateral  insufflation  sounds  which 
go  a  little  lower  than  the  ordinary  limit 
downwards  of  the  modern  orchestral  flute.10 
The  bass  flute  cited  by  Mersenne  should 
not  differ  much  from  that  of  the  Museo 
Civico  at  Verona.  We  suppose  it  to  have 


been  in  ($ — »» — -.  and  that  it  was  furnished 

with  an  open  key  like  that  which  was 
applied  to  the  recorders  (flutes  douces)  of 
the  same  epoch,  the  function  of  the  key 
being  to  augment  by  another  note  the  com- 
pass of  the  instrument  in  the  lower  part.  A 
bass  flute  in  G  similar  to  the  one  in  fig.  5 
is  figured  and  described  in  Diderot  and  _ 

D'Alembert's  encyclopaedia"  (1751).     Ac-        • TIG-  4-     * lG-$: 
cording  to  Quantz,12  it  was  in  France  and  _   *IG-  4v~Bass  *!  'Vte- 
about  the  middle  of  the  I7th  century  that  f rom    Museo   Civico, 
the  first  modifications  were  introduced  in  Verona  (facsimile), 
the  manufacture  of  the  flute.    The  improve-  _  FIG.  5.— Bass  Flute, 
ments    at    this    period    consisted    of    the  Brussels  Museum, 
abandonment   of   the   cylindrical    bore    in 

favour  of  a  conical  one,  with  the  base  of  the  cone  forming  the 
head  of  the  instrument.  At  the  same  time  the  flute  was 
made  of  three  separate  pieces  called  head,  body,  and  tail  or  foot, 
which  were  ultimately  further  subdivided.  The  body  or  middle 
joint  was  divided  into  two  pieces,  so  that  the  instrument  could  be 
tuned  to  the  different  pitches  then  in  use  by  a  replacement  with 
longer  or  shorter  pieces.  It  was  probably  about  1677,  when  Lully 
introduced  the  German  flute  into  the  opera,  that  recourse  was  had 
for  the  first  time  to  keys,  and  that  the  key  of  D#  was  applied  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  instrument."  The  engraving  of  B.  Picart,  dated 
1707,  given  in  Hotteterre's  book,  represents  the  flute  as  having 
reached  the  stage  of  improvement  of  which  we  have  just  spoken.  In 
1726  Quantz,14  finding  himself  in  Paris,  had  a  second  key  applied  to 
the  flute,  placed  nearly  at  the  same  height  as  the  first,  that  of  the 
.n  _—,  intended  to  differentiate  the  D#  and  the  Eb."  This 
gk  |  =  innovation  was  generally  well  received  in  Germany,  but 
»)»=>  does  not  appear  to  have  met  with  corresponding  success 
in  other  countries.  In  France  and  England  manufacturers  adopted 
it  bat  rarely;  in  Italy  it  was  declared  useless."  About  the  same 


10  Fdtis,  Rapport  sur  la  fabrication  des  instruments  de  musique  d, 
I' Exposition  Universelle  de  Paris,  en  1855. 

11  See  Recueil  de  planches,  vol.  iv.,  and  article  "  Basse  de  flflte 
traversiere,"  vol.  ii.  (Paris,  1751).     See  also  The  Flute,  by  R.  S. 
Rockstro  (London,  1890),  p.  238,  where  the  wood  cut  is  reproduced 
together  with  a  translation  of  the  article.     The  Museum  of  the 
Conservatoire  in  Paris  also  possesses  a  bass  flute  by  the  noted  French 
maker  Delusse. 

u  Versuch  einer  Anweisung  die  Flote  traversiere  zu  spielen  (Berlin, 

13  Unless  the  contrary  is  stated,  we  have  always  in  view,  in  describ- 
ing the  successive  improvements  of  the  flute,  the  treble  flute  in  D, 
which  is  considered  to  be  typical  of  the  family. 

14  "  Herrn  Johann  Joachim  Ouantzens-Lebenslauf,  von  ihm  selbst 
entwprfen,"  in  the  Historisch-kritische  Beytrdge  zur  Aufnahme  der 
Musik,  by  Marpurg  (Berlin,  1754),  p.  239.    Quantz  was  professor 
of  the  flute  to  Frederick  the  Great. 

"See  Johann  Georg  Tromlitz,  Ausfuhrlicher  und  grundlicher 
Unterricht  die  Flote  zu  spielen  (Leipzig,  1791),  i,  §  7,  and  Uber  Floten 
mil  mehrern  Klappen  (Leipzig,  1800),  cap.  vii.  §  21. 

'•  Antonio  Lorenzoni,  Saggio  per  ben  sonare  il  flauto  traverse 
(Vicenza,  1779). 


FLUTE 


time  flutes  were  constructed  with  the  lower  extremity  lengthened 
sufficiently  to  produce  the  fundamental  C,  and  furnished  with  a 
supplementary  key  to  produce  the  C#.  This  innovation,  spoken  of 
by  Quantz  1  did  not  meet  with  a  very  favourable  reception,  and  was 
shortly  afterwards  abandoned.  Passing  mention  may  be  made  of 
the  drawing  of  a  flute  with  a  C  key  in  the  Music-Saal  of  J.  F.  B. 
Majer  (Nuremberg,  1741),  p.  45. 

The  tuning  of  the  instrument  to  different  pitches  was  effected 
by  changes  in  the  length,  and  notably  by  substituting  a  longer  or 
shorter  upper  piece  in  the  middle  joint.  So  wide  were  the  differences 
in  the  pitches  then  in  use  that  seven  such  pieces  for  the  upper  portion 
of  it  were  deemed  necessary.  The  relative  proportions  between  the 
different  parts  of  the  instrument  being  altered  by  these  modifications 
in  the  length,  it  was  conceived  that  the  just  relation  could  be  re- 
established by  dividing  the  foot  into  two  pieces,  below  the  key. 
These  two  pieces  were  adjusted  by  means  of  a  tenon,  and  it  was 
asserted  that,  in  this  way,  the  foot  could  be  lengthened  proportion- 
ately to  the  length  of  the  middle  joint.  Flutes  thus  improved  took 
the  name  of  "  flutes  a  registre."  The  register  system  was,  about 
1752,  applied  by  Quantz  to  the  head  joint2  and,  the  embouchure 
section  being  thus  capable  of  elongation,  it  was  allowable  to  the  per- 
former, according  to  the  opinion  of  this  professor,  to  lower  the  pitch 
of  the  flute  a  semitone,  without  having  recourse  to  other  lengthening 
pieces,  and  without  disturbing  the  accuracy  of  intonation. 

The  upper  extremity  of  the  flute,  beyond  the  embouchure  orifice, 
is  closed  by  means  of  a  cork  stopper.  On  the  position  of  this  cork 
depends,  in  a  great  measure,  the  accurate  tuning  of  the  flute.  It  is 
in  its  right  place  when  the  accompanying  octaves  are 
true.  Quantz,  in  speaking  of  this  accessory,  mentions 
the  use  of  a  nut-screw  to  give  the  required  position  to 
the  cork.3  He  does  not  name  the  inventor  of  this  ap- 
pliance, but,  according  to  Tromlitz,4  the  improvement  was  due  to 
Quantz  himself.  The  invention  goes  back  to  1 726. 

When  the  Method  of  Quantz  appeared  there  were  still  in  use, 
besides  the  orchestral  flute  in  D,  the  little  fourth  flute  in  G,  the 
low  fourth  flute  in  A,  and  the  flute  d'amour  a  note  higher;  in 
France  they  had,  moreover,  the  little  octave  flute  in  D  (octave). 
A  bass  flute  in  D  had  also  been  attempted  (see  fig.  5).  When 
Ribock  published  his  Bemerkungen  uber  die  Flote s  the  flute 
had  already  the  five  keys  here  shown. 
This  author  states  that  the  inventor  of  these 
new  keys  is  not  known  to  him,  but  that 
either  Kusder,  a  musical  instrument-maker  in  London,  or  Johann 
Georg  Tromlitz  of  Leipzig  was  the  originator,  since  he  has  not  been 
able  to  trace  those  keys  on  the  flutes  of  any  other  maker.  Although 
Tromlitz  does  not  claim  for  himself  the  invention  of  the  keys  for  F, 
G#  and  B!>,  he  states  that  "  he  had  occupied  himself  for  several  years 
in  applying  these  keys  so  as  not  to  augment  the  difficulty  of  playing, 
but  on  the  contrary  to  render  the  handling  of  them  as  easy  as 
possible." 6  In  the  later  work  published  in  1800,'  however,  he 
seems  to  attribute  the  invention  of  these  keys  to  Richard  Potter  of 
London;  he  says  that  he  has  never  yet  been  fortunate  enough  to 
come  across  a  good  flute  by  that  maker — •"  the  flute  has  certainly 
gained  by  the  addition  of  the  keys  for  F,  G#  and  Bb,  but  this  is  not 
everything,  for  on  such  a  flute  much  must  perforce  be  left  un- 
atternpted.  .  .  .  Only  a  flute  with  eight  keys  according  to  my  in- 
vention is  capable  of  everything."  It  would  seem,  moreover,  from 
circumstantial  evidence  stated  clearly  and  on  good  authority  by 
Rockstro 8  that  the  keys  for  F,  G#  and  B\>  must  have  been  used 
first  in  England  and  made  by  Richard  Potter  before  1774.  The 
higher  key  of  C  adopted  from  1786  by  Tromlitz,  we  believe  to  have 
been  first  recommended  by  Ribock  (1782).'  Tromlitz  in  Uber 
Floten  describes  at  length  what  may  be  termed  the  first  systematic 
effort  to  overcome  the  difficulties  created  by  the  combination  of 
open  holes  and  closed  keys.  He  attempted  to  solve  the  question 
by  determining  the  positions  of  the  holes  according  to  the  exigencies 
of  fingering  instead  of  subordinating  them  to  the  more  arbitrary 
theories  connected  with  the  musical  scale. 

In  1785  Richard  Potter  improved  Quantz's  slide  applied  to  the 
head  joint  as  well  as  to  the  register  of  the  foot  by  a  double  system 
of  tubes  forming  double  sliding  air-tight  joints.  In  the  document  10 
describing  this  improvement  Potter  patented  the  idea  of  lining  the 
holes  with  silver  tubes  and  of  adapting  metal  conical  valves  to  the 
keys.  Potter's  patent  conical  valves  were  an  adaptation  of  the 
contrivance  first  invented  by  J.  F.  Boie  or  Boye  of  Gottingen," 

1  See  A  nweisung,  i.  §  15. 

2  See  Lebensiauf,  loc.  cit.  p.  248,  where  Quantz  states  that  he  in- 
vented the  adjustable  head  for  the  flute. 

3  See  Anweisung,  i.  §§  10-13  and  iv.  §  26. 

4  Ausfuhrlicher  und  grilndlicher    Unterricht  die   Flole  zu  spielen 
(Leipzig,    1791),   i.   cap.  §  20.     Compare    Schilling,    Univ.-Lexikon 
(Leipzig,  1835). 

6Stendal,   1782   (published  under  his  initials  only,  J.  J.  H.  R., 
see  p.  2). 
*  Kurze  Abhandlung  von  Flotenspielen  (Leipzig,  1786),  p.  27. 

7  Ober  Floten,  &c.,  pp.  133  and  134. 

8  See  The  Flute,  pp.  242-244  and  561  and  562. 

9  See  op.  cit.  pp.  51  and  62. 

10  English  patent,  No.  1499.         "  See  Rockstro,  op.  cit.  p.  197. 


who  used  pewter  for  the  plugs,  and  silver  for  lining  the  holes.  The 
keys  mentioned  in  the  patent  were  four — -D#,  F,  G#,  A#.  The  idea 
of  extending  the  compass  of  the  flute  downwards  was  taken  up  again 
about  the  same  time  by  two  players  of  the  flute  in  London  named 
Tacet  and  Florio.  They  devised  a  new  disposition  of  the  keys  C 
and  C#,  and  confided  the  execution  of  their  invention  to  Potter.  In 
Dr  Arnold's  New  Instructions  for  the  German  Flute  occurs  a  tablature, 
the  engraving  of  which  goes  back  to  the  end  of  the  i8th  century,  and 
bears  the  following  title,  "  A  Complete  Drawing  and  Concise  Scale 
and  Description  of  Tacet  and  Florio's  new  invented  German  Flute, 
with  all  the  additional  keys  explained."  It  explains  the  use  of  six 
keys — C,  C#,  D#,  F,  G#,  A# — that  are  not  always  figured,  because 
the  employment  of  so  many  keys  was  at  once  admitted.  Tromlitz 
himself,  who,  however,  made  flutes  with  nine  keys — adding  El>, 
another  F,  and  Cq,  declared  that  he  was  not  in  favour  of  so  great 
a  complication,  and  that  he  preferred  the  flute  with  only  two  keys, 
D#  and  Eb,  with  a  register  foot  joint  and  a  cork  nut-screw  at  the 
head  joint.  This  instrument  met  all  requirements.  He  was  always 
much  opposed  to  the  use  of  the  old  keys  for  Cq  and  C#,  because  they 
altered  the  recognised  quality  of  tone  of  the  instrument.  When 
Tromlitz  published  his  method,  the  family  of  flutes  had  become 
modified.  It  comprehended  only  the  typical  flute  in  D,  the  flflte 
d'amour  a  minor  third  lower,  a  "  third  '  flute  a  minor  third  higher, 
and,  finally,  the  little  octave  flute. 

While  Tromlitz  was  struggling  in  Germany  with  the  idea  of 
augmenting  the  compass  of  the  flute  downwards  by  employing  open 
keys  for  Cs]  and  C#,  an  Italian,  Giovanni  Batista  Orazi,12  increased 
the  scale  of  the  instrument  downwards  by  the  application  of  five 
new  keys,  viz.  B,  Bb,  A,  Al>,  and  G.  At  the  same  time  that  he 
produced  this  invention  u  he  conceived  the  plugging  of  the  lateral 
holes  by  the  valve  keys  then  recently  invented  by  Potter.  But 
it  was  hardly  possible  to  obtain  a  perfect  plugging  of  seven  lateral 
holes  with  the  aid  of  as  many  keys,  for  the  control  of  which  there 
were  only  the  two  little  fingers,  and  therefore  this  invention  of 
Orazi  proved  a  failure. 

In  1808  the  Rev.  Frederick  Nolan,14  of  Stratford,  near  London, 
conceived  an  open  key,  the  lever  of  which,  terminating  by  a  ring, 
permitted  the  closing  of  a  lateral  hole  at  the  same  time  the  key  was 
being  acted  upon.  The  combination  in  this  double  action  is  the 
embryo  of  the  mechanism  that  a  little  later  was  to  transform  the 
system  of  the  flute.  Two  years  later  Macgregor,16  a  musical-instru- 
ment maker  in  London,  constructed  a  bass  flute  an  octave  lower 
than  the  ordinary  flute.  The  idea  was  not  new,  as  is  proved  by  the 
existence  of  the  bass  flute  mentioned  above.  The  difference  between 
the  two  instruments  lies  in  the  mechanism  of  the  keys.  That  em- 
ployed by  Macgregor  consisted  of  a  double  lever,  a  contrivance 
dating  from  before  the  middle  of  the  l8th  century,  of  which  the 
application  is  seen  in  an  oboe  of  large  dimensions  preserved  in  the 
National  Museum  at  Munich.16 

In  1811  Johann  Nepomuk  Capeller  invented  the  extra  Dqhole 
and  key,  which  is  still  in  constant  use  on  every  flute  of  modern 
construction.17 

About  1830  the  celebrated  French  flautist  Tulou  added  two  more 
keys,  those  of  F#  and  C#,  and  a  key,  called 


"  de  cadence,"  to  facilitate  the  accompany- 
ing shakes. 

To  increase  the  number  of  keys,  to  improve  ~& 

their  system  of  plugging,  and  to  extend  the  Cj)  

scale  of  the  instrument  in  the  lower  region, 

— these  had  hitherto  been  the  principal  problems  dealt  with  in 
the  improvement  of  the  flute.  No  maker,  no  inventor  to  whose 
labours  we  have  called  attention,  had  as  yet  devoted  his  atten- 
tion to  the  rational  division  of  the  column  of  air  by  means  of  the 
lateral  holes.  In  1831  Theobald  Boehm,  a  Bavarian,  happening  to 
be  in  London,  was  struck  with  the  power  of  tone  the  celebrated 
English  performer  Charles  Nicholson  drew  from  his  instrument. 
Boehm  learned,  and  not  without  astonishment,  that  his  English 
colleague  obtained  this  result  by  giving  the  lateral  holes  a  much 
greater  diameter  than  was  then  usually  admitted.  About  the 
same  time  Boehm  made  the  acquaintance  of  an  amateur  player 
named  Gordon,  who  had  effected  certain  improvements;  he  had 
bored  the  lateral  hole  for  the  lower  E,  and  had  covered  it  with  a 
key,  while  he  had  replaced  the  key  for  F  with  a  ring.  These  innova- 
tions set  Boehm  about  attempting  a  complete  reform  of  the 

12  Saggio  per  costruire  e  suonare  un  flauto  traverse  enarmonico  che 
ha  i  suoni  bassi  del  violino  (Rome,  1797). 

13  The  idea  of  this  large  flute  was  taken  up  again  in  1819  by  Trexler 
of  Vienna,  who  called  it  the  "  panaulon." 

14  Patent,  No.  3183.     Part  of  the  specification  together  with  a 
diagram  is  reproduced  by  Rockstro,  op.  cit.  pp.  273-274. 

16  Patent,  No.  3349.     Part  of  the  specification  together  with  a 
diagram  is  reproduced  by  Rockstro,  op.  cit.  pp.  273-274. 

16  Another  specimen,  almost  the  same,  constructed  about  1775, 
and  called  "  Basse  de  Musette,"  may  be  seen  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Paris  Conservatoire. 

17  See  account  of  Capeller's  inventions  by  Carl  Maria  von  Weber 
in  Allgem.  musikal.  Zeit.  (Leipzig,  1811),  pp.  377-379,  a  translation 
of  which  is  given  by  Rockstro,  op.  cit.  pp.  279  and  280. 


FLUX 


583 


instrument.1  He  went  resolutely  to  work,  and  during  the  year  1832 
he  produced  the  new  flute  which  bears  his  name.  This  instrument 
is  distinguished  by  a  new  mechanism  of  keys,  as  well  as  by  larger 
holes  disposed  along  the  tube  in  geometrical  progression. 

Boehm's  system  had  preserved  the  key  of  G#  open ;  Coche,1  a 
professor  in  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  assisted  by  Auguste  Buffet 
the  younger,  a  musical-instrument  maker  in  that  city,  modified 
Boehm's  flute  by  closing  the  G#  with  a  key,  wishing  thus  to  render 
the  new  fingering  more  conformable  to  the  old.  He  thus  added  a 
key,  facilitating  the  shake  upon  C#  with  D#,  and  brought  about 
some  other  changes  in  the  instrument  of  less  importance. 

Boehm  had  not,  however,  altered  the  bore  of  the  flute,  which  had 
been  conical  from  the  end  of  the  I7th  century.  In  1846,  however, 
he  made  further  experiments,  and  the  results  obtained  were  put  in 
practice  by  the  construction  of  a  new  instrument,  of  which  the  body 
was  given  a  cylindrical  bore,  while  the  diameter  of  the  head  was 
modified  at  the  embouchure,  the  head-joint  becoming  parabolic 
(see  fig.  2).  The  inventor  thus  obtained  a  remarkable  equality  in 
the  tones  of  the  lower  octave,  a  greater  sonorousness,  and  a  perfect 
accuracy  of  intonation,  by  establishing  the  more  exact  proportions 
which  a  column  of  air  of  cylindrical  form  permitted. 

The  priority  of  Boehm  s  invention  was  long  contested,  his  de- 
tractors maintaining  that  the  honour  of  having  reconstructed  the 
flute  was  due  to  Gordon.  But  an  impartial  investigation  vindi- 
cates the  claim  of  the  former  to  the  invention  of  the  large  lateral 
holes.3  His  greatest  title  to  fame  is  the  invention  of  the  mechanism 
which  allows  the  production  of  the  eleven  chromatic  semitones 
intermediate  between  the  fundamental  note  and  its  first  harmonic 
by  means  of  eleven  holes  so  disposed  that  in  opening  them  suc- 
cessively they  shorten  the  column  of  air  in  exact  proportional 
quantities.4  Boehm  (Essays,  &c.)  published  a  diagram  or  scheme  to 
be  adopted  in  determining  the  position  of  the  note-holes  of  wind 
instruments  for  every  given  pitch.  This  diagram  gives  the  posi- 
tion of  the  intermediate  holes  which  he  had  been  enabled  to 
establish  by  a  rule  of  proportion  based  on  the  law  of  the  lengths 
of  strings. 

The  Boehm  flute,  notwithstanding  the  high  degree  of  perfection 
it  has  reached,  has  not  secured  unanimous  favour;  even  now  there 
are  players  who  prefer  the  ordinary  flute.  The  change  of  fingering 
required  for  some  notes,  the  great  delicacy  and  liability  Jo  derange- 
ment of  the  mechanism,  have  something  to  do  with  this.  In  England 
especially,  the  ordinary  flute  retains  many  partisans,  thanks  to 
the  improvements  introduced  by  a  clever  player,  Abel  Siccama,  in 
1845  (Patent  No.  10,553).  He  bored  the  lateral  holes  of  E  and  A 
lower,  and  covered  them  with  open  keys.  He  added  some  keys,  and 
made  a  better  disposition  of  the  other  lateral  holes,  of  which  he 
increased  the  diameter,  producing  thus  a  sonorousness  almost  equal 
to  that  of  the  Boehm  flute,  while  yet  preserving  the  old  fingering 
for  the  notes  of  the  first  two  octaves.  But  in  spite  of  these  improve- 
ments the  old  flute  will  not  bear  an  impartial  comparison  with  that 
.of  Boehm. 

A  flute  constructed  on  a  radically  new  system  by  Signer  Carlo 
Tommaso  Georgi  and  introduced  in  1896  places  the  technique  of 
the  instrument  on  an  entirely  new  and  simple  basis.  The  principal 
features  of  this  flute  consist  in  an  embouchure  placed  at  the  upper 
extremity  of  the  tube  instead  of  at  the  side,  which  allows  the  instru- 
ment to  be  held  in  a  perpendicular  position;  no  tuning  cork  is  re- 
quired. There  are  eleven  holes  mathematically  placed  in  the  tube 
which  give  the  semitones  of  the  scale;  there  are  no  keys.  The 
eleven  holes  are  fingered  by  the  fingers  and  thumbs,  the  C#  hole 
being  closed  by  the  side  of  the  left  fore-finger.  All  the  notes  are 
obtained  by  means  of  simple  fingering  as  far  as  G#  of  the  third 
octave,  the  remaining  notes  of  which  are  produced  by  cross-fingering. 
For  the  convenience  of  players  with  short  fingers  keys  can  be  added, 
and  the  head  of  the  Georgi  flute  can  be  used  with  any  cylinder  flute. 
The  compass  of  the  Georgi  flute  £  is  almost  the  same  as  that  of 
the  concert  flute;  viz.  ±E  If  the  lower  C  and  CJ  are 

required,  extra  holes  -5  p-  and  keys  can  be  added. 

Everything  that  is  gs^=to_  =  possible  on  the  Boehm  flute  is 
possible  on  the  Georgi  V~~*  and  more,  owing  to  the  sim- 

plicity of  the  fingering ;  each  finger  having  but  one  duty  to  perform, 
all  trills  are  equally  easy.  The  tone  is  the  true  flute  tone,  brilliant 
and  sympathetic.5 

1  See  Vber  den  Flolenbau  und  die  neuesten  Verbesserungen  desselben 
(Mainz,  1847);   and  W.  S.  Broadwood,  An  Essay  on  the  Construction 
of  Flutes  originally  written  by  Theobald  Boehm,  published  with  the 
addition  of  Correspondence  and  other  Documents  (London,  1882). 

2  Examen  critique  de  la  flute  ordinaire  comparee  d.  la  flute  Boehm 

3  They  existed  long  before,  however,  in  the  Chinese  Ty  and  the 

a«>Tnc  reader  may  consult  with  advantage  Mr  C.  Welch's  History 
of  the  Boehm  Flute  (London,  1883),  wherein  all  the  documents  relat- 
ing to  this  interesting  discussion  have  been  collected  with  great 

impartiality.^  ^^  ^  Kathleen  Schlesinger,  The  Instruments 
of  the  Orchestra,  part  i.  pp.  192-194,  where  an  illustration  is  given 
and  Paul  Wetzger,  Die  Flote  (Heilbronn,  1906),  pp.  23-24,  and  Tafel 
iv.  No.  20. 


The  old  English  fipple  flute,  or  flute  d  bee,  is  described  under  the 
headings  RECORDER  and  FLAGEOLET.  (V.  M.;  K.  S.) 

2.  In  architecture  the  name  "  flute  "  is  given  to  the  vertical 
channels  (segmental,  semicircular  or  elliptical  in  horizontal 
section)  employed  on  the  shafts  of  columns  in  the  classic  styles. 
The  flutes  are  separated  one  from  the  other  by  an  "  arris  "  in 
the  Doric  order  and  by  a  "  fillet  "  in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian 
orders.  The  earliest  fluted  columns  are  those  in  Egypt,  at  first 
with  plain  faces  without  any  sinking,  subsequently  at  Karnac 
(1400  B.C.)  with  a  segmental  sinking  equal  in  depth  to  about 
one-seventh  of  the  width  of  the  flute.  The  columns  flanking  one 
of  the  "  beehive  "  tombs  at  Mycenae  have  segmental  flutes  and 
are  the  earliest  Greek  examples.  In  two  of  the  earliest  Doric 
temples  at  Metapontum  and  Syracuse  (temple  of  Apollo)  the 
flutes  are  also  segmental,  but  in  later  examples  in  order  to 
emphasize  the  arris  they  were  formed  of  three  arcs  and  are  known 
as  "  false  ellipses,"  and  this  applies  to  nearly  all  the  fluting  in 
Greek  examples  whether  belonging  to  the  Doric,  Ionic  or 
Corinthian  orders.  The  number  of  flutes  varies,  there  being  52 
in  the  archaic  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  and  from  30  to  52 
flutes  in  the  Persian  columns  according  to  the  diameter  of  the 
column.  In  the  Greek  Doric  column  20  is  the  usual  number,  but 
there  are  16  only  in  the  temples  of  Sunium,  Assos,  Segesta  and 
the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Syracuse;  18  in  one  of  the  temples  of 
Selinus  and  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Syracuse,  and  24  in  the  temple 
of  Neptune  at  Paestum.  The  depth  of  the  flute  also  varies; 
in  the  Propylaea  at  Athens  the  radius  is  equal  to  the  width  of 
the  flute  and  the  flute  is  segmental.  In  the  Parthenon  the  radius 
of  the  central  part  of  the  flute  is  greater  than  the  width,  but  the 
smaller  arcs  on  either  side  accentuate  better  the  arris.  A  similar 
accentuation  is  found  in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders,  where 
the  flutes  are  separated  by  fillets,  and  their  section  is  always 
elliptical  in  Greek  work,  the  depth  of  the  flute,  however,  being 
always  greater  than  in  the  Doric  order.  Thus,  in  the  temple  of 
Ilissus  and  the  Ionic  column  in  the  cella  of  the  temple  at  Bassae, 
the  depth  is  about  one-quarter  of  the  width,  in  the  Propylaea 
at  Priene  it  is  about  one-third,  and  in  the  Erechtheum  and  other 
examples  of  the  Greek  Ionic  order  it  is  little  more  than  one-half. 
The  width  of  the  fillet  also  varies,  being  as  a  rule  one  quarter  of 
the  width  of  the  flute;  and  the  same  applies  to  the  Greek 
Corinthian  order.  In  the  Roman  Doric,  Ionic  and  Corinthian 
orders,  the  flute  is  either  segmental  or  semicircular,  its  depth 
being  about  one-third  of  the  width  in  the  Doric  column,  and  in  all 
Ionic,  Corinthian  and  Composite  columns  half  the  width  of  the 
flute.  The  fillet  also  is  much  broader  in  Roman  examples,  being 
about  one-third  of  the  width  of  the  flute.  In  Roman  columns 
sometime-,  the  flutes  of  the  lower  part  of  the  shaft,  about  one- 
third  of  the  height,  are  partly  filled  with  a  convex  moulding, 
"  cabling "  being  the  usual  term  applied  to  this  treatment. 
The  French  architects  of  the  i6th  and  lyth  centuries  carried  this 
decorative  feature  much  farther,  and  in  the  Tuileries  and  the 
Louvre  carved  a  series  of  leaves  in  the  flutes.  In  a  few  Italian 
buildings,  instead  of  the  fluting  of  the  column  being  vertical, 
it  twines  round  the  column  and  is  known  as  spiral  fluting;  a  fine 
example  is  found  in  the  Bevilacqua  palace  at  Verona  by  San 
Michele.  Fluting  is  sometimes  introduced  into  capitals,  as  in 
the  tomb  of  Mylasa,  and  in  friezes,  as  in  the  theatre  at  Cnidos, 
the  Incantada  at  Salonica,  and  a  doorway  at  Patara.  In  one 
of  the  museums  at  Rome  is  a  fine  sarcophagus,  the  sides  of  which 
are  sculptured  with  flutes  in.  waved  lines.  The  coronas  of  many 
of  the  Roman  temples  were  carved  with  flutes.  In  medieval 
buildings,  fluting  was  occasionally  introduced  in  imitation  of 
Roman  work,  as  in  the  churches  of  central  Syria  and  of  Autun  and 
Langres  in  France,  but  in  the  south  of  Italy  and  Sicily  it  would 
seem  to  have  been  brought  in  as  a  variety  of  treatment  in  the 
decoration  of  the  shafts  carrying  the  arches  of  cloisters,  as  at 
Monreale  in  Sicily  and  in  those  of  St  John  Lateran  and  St  Paul- 
outside-the- Walls  at  Rome.  (R.  P.  S.) 

FLUX  (Lat.  fluxus,  a  flowing;  this  being  also  the  meaning 
of  the  English  term  in  medicine,  &c.),in  metallurgy,  a  substance 
introduced  in  the  smelting  of  ores  to  promote  fluidity,  and  to 
remove  objectionable  impurities  in  the  form  of  a  slag.  The 


584 


FLY— FLYCATCHER 


substances  in  commonest  use  are: — lime  or  limestone,  to  slag 
off  silica  and  silicates,  fluor-spar  for  lead,  calcium  and  barium 
sulphates  and  calcium  phosphate,  and  silica  for  removing  basic 
substances  such  as  limestone.  Other  substances  are  also  used, 
but  more  commonly  in  assaying  than  in  metallurgy.  Sodium 
and  potassium  carbonates  are  valuable  for  fluxing  off  silica; 
mixed  with  potassium  nitrate  sodium  carbonate  forms  a  valuable 
oxidizing  fusion  mixture;  "  black  flux  "  is  a  reducing  flux 
composed  of  finely  divided  carbon  and  potassium  carbonate,  and 
formed  by  deflagrating  a  mixture  of  argol  with  j  to  5  its  weight 
of  nitre.  Borax  is  very  frequently  employed;  it  melts  to  a  clear 
liquid  and  dissolves  silica  and  many  metallic  oxides.  Potassium 
bisulphate  is  useful  in  the  preliminary  treatment  of  refractory 
aluminous  ores.  Litharge  and  red  lead  are  used  in  silver  and 
gold  assays,  acting  as  solvents  for  silica  and  any  metallic  oxides 
present. 

FLY  (formed  on  the  root  of  the  supposed  original  Teut.  fleugan, 
to  fly),  a  designation  applied  to  the  winged  or  perfect  state  of 
many  insects  belonging  to  various  orders,  as  in  butterfly  (see 
LEPIDOPTERA),  dragon-fly  (?.».),  may-fly  (q.v.),  caddis-fly  (q.v.), 
&c.;  also  specially  employed  by  entomologists  to  mean  any 
species  of  the  two- winged  flies,  or  DIPTERA  (q.v.).  In  ordinary 
parlance  fly  is  often  used  in  the  sense  of  the  common  house-fly 
(Musca  domestica);  and  by  English  colonists  and  sportsmen 
in  South  Africa  in  that  of  a  species  of  tsetse-fly  (Glossina),  or  a 
tract  of  country  ("  belt  ")  in  which  these  insects  abound  (see 
TSETSE-FLY). 

Apart  from  the  house-fly  proper  (Musca  domestica),  which  in 
England  is  the  usual  one,  several  species  of  flies  are  commonly 
found  in  houses;  e.g.  the  Stomoxys  calcitrans,  or  stable-fly; 
Pollenia  rudis,  or  cluster-fly;  Muscina  stabulans,  another  stable- 
fly;  Calliphora  erythrocephala,  blue-bottle  fly,  blow- fly  or  meat- 
fly, with  smaller  sorts  of  blue-bottle,  Phormia  terraenovae  and 
Lucilia  caesar;  Homalomyia  canicularis  and  brevis,  the  small 
house-fly;  Scenopinus  feneslralis,  the  black  window-fly,  &c. 
But  Musca  domestica  is  far  the  most  numerous,  and  in  many 
places,  especially  in  hot  weather  and  in  hot  climates,  is  a  regular 
pest.  Mr  L.  O.  Howard  (Circular  71  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology 
U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  1906)  says  that  in  1900 
he  made  a  collection  of  the  flies  in  dining-rooms  in  different  parts 
of  the  United  States,  and  out  of  a  total  of  23,087  flies,  22,808 
were  the  common  house-fly.  Its  geographical  distribution  is 
of  the  widest,  and  its  rapidity  of  breeding,  in  manure  and  door- 
yard  filth,  so  great  that,  as  a  carrier  of  germs  of  disease,  especially 
cholera  and  typhoid,  the  house-fly  is  now  recognized  as  a  potent 
source  of  danger;  and  various  sanitary  regulations  have  been 
made,  or  precautions  suggested,  for  getting  rid  of  it.  These  are 
discussed  by  Mr  Howard  in  the  paper  referred  to,  but  in  brief 
they  all  amount  to  measures  of  general  hygiene,  and  the  isolation, 
prompt  removal,  or  proper  sterilization  of  the  animal  or  human 
excrement  in  which  these  flies  breed. 

FLYCATCHER,  a  name  introduced  in  ornithology  by  Ray, 
being  a  translation  of  the  Muscicapa  of  older  authors,  and 
applied  by  Pennant  to  an  extremely  common  English  bird,  the 
M.  grisola  of  Linnaeus.  It  has  since  been  used  in  a  general  and 
very  vague  way  for  a  great  many  small  birds  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  which  have  the  habit  of  catching  flies  on  the  wing.  Orni- 
thologists who  have  trusted  too  much  to  this  characteristic  and 
to  certain  merely  superficial  correlations  of  structure,  especially 
those  exhibited  by  a  broad  and  rather  flat  bill  and  a  gape  beset 
by  strong  hairs  or  bristles,  have  associated  under  the  title  of 
Muscicapidae  an  exceedingly  heterogeneous  assemblage  of 
forms  much  reduced  in  number  by  later  systematists.  Great 
advance  has  been  made  in  establishing  as  independent  families 
the  Todidae  and  Eurylaemidae,  as  well  as  in  excluding  from  it 
various  members  of  the  Ampelidae,  Cotingidae,  Tyrannidae, 
Vireonidae,  Mniotiltidae,  and  perhaps  others,  which  had  been 
placed  within  its  limits.  These  steps  have  left  the  Muscicapidae 
a  purely  Old- World  family  of  the  order  Passeres,  and  the  chief 
difficulty  now  seems  to  lie  in  separating  it  from  the  Campephagidae 
and  the  Laniidae.  Only  a  very  few  of  the  forms  of  flycatchers 
(which,  after  all  the  deductions  above  mentioned,  may  be 


reckoned  to  include  some  60  genera  or  subgenera,  and  perhaps 
250  species)  can  here  be  even  named.1 

The  best-known  bird  of  this  family  is  that  which  also  happens 
to  be  the  type  of  the  Linnaean  genus  Muscicapa — the  spotted 
or  grey  flycatcher  (M.  grisola).  It  is  a  common  summer  visitant 
to  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  is  found  throughout  Great 
Britain,  though  less  abundant  in  Scotland  than  in  England,  as 
well  as  in  many  parts  of  Ireland,  where,  however,  it  seems  to  be 
but  locally  and  sparingly  distributed.  It  is  one  of  the  latest 
migrants  to  arrive,  and  seldom  reaches  the  British  Islands  till  the 
latter  part  of  May,  when  it  may  be  seen,  a  small  dust-coloured 
bird,  sitting  on  the  posts  or  railings  of  gardens  and  fields,  ever 
and  anon  springing  into  the  air,  seizing  with  an  audible  snap 
of  its  bill  some  passing  insect  as  it  flies,  and  returning  to  the  spot 
it  has  quitted,  or  taking  up  some  similar  station  to  keep  watch  as 
before.  It  has  no  song,  but  merely  a  plaintive  or  peevish  call- 
note,  uttered  from  time  to  time  with  a  jerking  gesture  of  the 
wings  and  tail.  It  makes  a  neat  nest,  built  among  the  small  twigs 
which  sprout  from  the  bole  of  a  large  tree,  fixed  in  the  branches 
of  some  plant  trained  against  a  wall,  or  placed  in  any  hole  of 
the  wall  itself  that  may  be  left  by  the  falling  of  a  brick  or  stone. 
The  eggs  are  from  four  to  six  in  number,  of  a  pale  greenish-blue, 
closely  blotched  or  freckled  with  rust-colour.  Silent  and  incon- 
spicuous as  is  this  bird,  its  constant  pursuit  of  flies  in  the  closest 
vicinity  of  houses  makes  it  a  familiar  object  to  almost  everybody. 
A  second  British  species  is  the  pied  flycatcher  (M.  atricapilla), 
a  much  rarer  bird,  and  in  England  not  often  seen  except  in  the 
hilly  country  extending  from  the  Peak  of  Derbyshire  to  Cumber- 
land, and  more  numerous  in  the  Lake  District  than  elsewhere. 
It  is  not  common  in  Scotland,  and  has  only  once  been  observed 
in  Ireland.  More  of  a  woodland  bird  than  the  former,  the 
brightly-contrasted  black  and  white  plumage  of  the  cock, 
together  with  his  agreeable  song,  readily  attracts  attention 
where  it  occurs.  It  is  a  summer  visitant  to  all  western  Europe, 
but  farther  eastward  its  place  is  taken  by  a  nearly  allied  species 
(M.  collaris)  in  which  the  white  of  the  throat  and  breast  extends 
like  a  collar  round  the  neck.  A  fourth  European  species  (M. 
parva),  distinguished  by  its  very  small  size  and  red  breast,  has 
also  strayed  some  three  or  four  times  to  the  extreme  south-west 
of  England.  This  last  belongs  to  a  group  of  more  eastern  range, 
which  has  received  generic  recognition  under  the  name  of  Erythro- 
sterna,  and  it  has  several  relations  in  Asia  and  particularly  in 
India,  while  the  allies  of  the  pied  flycatchers  (Ficedula  of  Brisson) 
are  chiefly  -of  African  origin,  and  those  of  the  grey  or  spotted 
flycatcher  (Muscicapa  proper2)  are  common  to  the  two  con- 
tinents. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  groups  of  Muscicapidae  is  that 
known  as  the  paradise  flycatchers,  forming  the  genus  Tchitrea  of 
Lesson.  In  nearly  all  the  species  the  males  are  distinguished  by 
the  growth  of  exceedingly  long  feathers  in  their  tail,  and  by  their 
putting  on,  for  some  part  of  the  year  at  least,  a  plumage  generally 
white,  but  almost  always  quite  different  from  that  worn  by  the 
females,  which  is  of  a  more  or  less  deep  chestnut  or  bay  colour, 
though  in  both  sexes  the  crown  is  of  a  glossy  steel-blue.  They  are 
found  pretty  well  throughout  Africa  and  tropical  Asia  to  Japan, 
and  seem  to  affect  the  deep  shade  of  forests  rather  than  the  open 
country.  The  best-known  species  is  perhaps  the  Indian  T. 
paradisi;  but  the  Chinese  T.  incii,  and  the  Japanese  T.  princeps, 
from  being  very  commonly  represented  by  the  artists  of  those 
nations  on  screens,  fans  and  the  like,  are  hardly  less  so;  and  the 
cock  of  the  last  named,  with  his  bill  of  a  pale  greenish-blue  and 

1  Of  the  36  genera  or  subgenera  which  Swainson  included  in  his 
Natural  Arrangement  and  Relations  of  the  Family  of  Flycatchers 
(published  in  1838),  at  least  19  do  not  belong  to  the  Muscicapidae  at 
all,  and  one  of  them,  Todus,  not  even  to  the  order  Passeres.  It  is 
perhaps  impossible  to  name  any  ornithological  work  whose  substance 
so  fully  belies  its  title  as  does  this  treatise.  Sw?inson  wrote  it  filled 
with  faith  in  the  so-called  "  Quinary  System  " — that  fanciful  theory, 
invented  by  W.  S.  Macleay,  which  misled  and  kept  back  so  many  of 
the  best  English  zoologists  of  his  generation  from  the  truth, — and, 
unconsciously  swayed  by  his  bias,  his  judgment  was  warped  to  fit 
his  hypothesis. 

1  By  some  writers  this  section  is  distinguished  as  Butalis  of  Boie, 
but  to  do  so  seems  contrary  to  rule. 


FLYGARE-CARLEN— FLYING-FISH 


585 


eyes  surrounded  by  bare  skin  of  the  same  colour — though  these 
are  characters  possessed  in  some  degree  by  all  the  species — 
seems  to  be  the  most  beautiful  of  the  genus.  T,  bourbonnensis, 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  islands  of  Mauritius  and  Reunion, 
appears  to  be  the  only  species  in  which  the  outward  difference  of 
the  sexes  is  but  slight.  In  T.  corvina  of  the  Seychelles,  the  adult 
male  is  wholly  black,  and  his  middle  tail-feathers  are  not  only 
very  long  but  very  broad.  In  T.  mutata  of  Madagascar,  some 
of  the  males  are  found  in  a  blackish  plumage,  though  with  the 
elongated  median  rectrices  white,  while  in  others  white  pre- 
dominates over  the  whole  body;  but  whether  this  sex  is  here 
actually  dimorphic,  or  whether  the  one  dress  is  a  passing  phase 
of  the  other,  is  at  present  undetermined.  Some  of  the  African 
species,  of  which  many  have  been  described,  seem  always  to 
retain  the  rufous  plumage,  but  the  long  tail-feathers  serve  to 
mark  the  males. 

A  few  other  groups  are  distinguished  by  the  brilliant  blue  they 
exhibit,  as  Myiagra  azurea,  and  others  as  Monarcha  (or  Arses) 
chrysomela  by  their  golden  yellow.  The  Australian  forms  assigned 
to  the  Muscicapidae  are  very  varied.  Sisura  inquieta  has  some 
of  the  habits  of  a  water- wagtail  (Motacilla),  and  hence  has  re- 
ceived the  name  of  "  dishwasher,"  bestowed  in  many  parts  of 
England  on  its  analogue;  and  the  many  species  of  Rhipidura 
or  fantailed  flycatchers,  which  occur  in  various  parts  of  the 
Australian  Region,  have  manners  still  more  singular — turning 
over  in  the  air,  it  is  said,  like  a  tumbler  pigeon,  as  they  catch  their 
prey;  but  concerning  the  mode  of  life  of  the  .majority  of  the 
Muscicapidae,  and  especially  of  the  numerous  African  forms, 
hardly  anything  is  known.  (A.  N.) 

FLYGARE-CARLEN,  EMILIE  (1807-1892),  Swedish  novelist, 
was  born  in  Stromstad  on  the  8th  of  August  1807.  Her  father, 
Rutger  Smith,  was  a  retired  sea-captain  who  had  settled  down 
as  a  small  merchant,  and  she  often  accompanied  him  on  the 
voyages  he  made  along  the  coast.  She  married  in  1827  a  doctor 
named  Axel  Flygare,  and  went  with  him  to  live  in  the  province 
of  Smaland.  After  his  death  in  1833  she  returned  to  her  old  home 
and  published  in  1838  her  first  novel,  Waldemar  Klein.  In  the 
next  year  she  removed  to  Stockholm,  and  married,  in  1841,  the 
jurist  and  poet,  Johan  Gabriel  Garlen  (1814-1875).  Her  house 
became  a  meeting-place  for  Stockholm  men  of  letters,  and  for 
the  next  twelve  years  she  produced  one  or  two  novels  annually. 
The  premature  death  of  her  son  Edvard  Flygare  (1820-1853), 
who  had  already  published  three  books,  showing  great  promise, 
was  followed  by  six  years  of  silence,  after  which  she  resumed  her 
writing  until  1884.  The  most  famous  of  her  tales  are  Rosen  pd 
Tistelon  (1842;  Eng.  trans.  The  Rose  of  Tistelon,  1842); 
Enslingen  pa  Johannesskaret  (1846;  Eng.  trans.  The  Hermit, 
4  vols.,  1853);  and  Ell  Kopemanshus  i  skargarden  (1859;  The 
Merchant's  House  on  the  Cliffs).  Fru  Carlen  published  in  1878 
Minnen  af  svenskl  forfattarlif  1840-1860,  and  in  1887-1888 
three  volumes  of  Efterskord  {ran  en  80-  arings  forfattarbana, 
containing  her  last  tales.  She  died  at  Stockholm  on  the  sth  of 
February  1892.  Her  daughter,  Rosa  Carlen  (1836-1883),  was 
also  a  popular  novelist. 

Emilie  Flygare-CarleVs  novels  were  collected  in  thirty-one 
volumes  (Stockholm,  1869-1875). 

FLYING  BUTTRESS,   in  architecture,   the  term  given  to  a 
structural  feature  employed  to  transmit  the  thrust  of  a  vault 
across  an  intervening  space,  such  as  an  aisle,  chapel  or  cloister, 
to  a  buttress  built  outside  the  latter.     This  was  done  by  throwing 
a  semi-arch  across  to  the  vertical  buttress.    Though  employed 
by  the  Romans  and  in  early  Romanesque  work,  it  was  generally 
masked  by  other  constructions  or  hidden  under  a  roof,  but  in 
the  1 2th  century  it  was  recognized  as  rational  construction  and 
emphasized  by  the  decorative  accentuation  of  its  features,  as  in 
the  cathedrals  of  Chartres,  Le  Mans,  Paris,  Beauvais,  Reims, 
&c.     Sometimes,  owing  to  the  great  height  of  the  vaults,  t' 
semi-arches  were  thrown  one  above  the  other,  and  there  i 
cases  where  the  thrust  was  transmitted  to  two  or  even  t 
buttresses  across  intervening  spaces.     As  a  vertical  buttress, 
placed  at  a  distance,  possesses  greater  power  of  resistance 
thrust  than  if  attached  to  the  wall  carrying  the  vault,  vertical 


buttresses  as  at  Lincoln  and  Westminster  Abbey  were  built 
outside  the  chapterhouse  to  receive  the  thrust.  All  vertical 
buttresses  are,  as  a  rule,  in  addition  weighted  with  pinnacles  to 
give  them  greater  power  of  resistance. 

FLYING  COLUMN,  in  military  organization,  an  independent 
corps  of  troops  usually  composed  of  all  arms,  to  which  a  particular 
task  is  assigned.  It  is  almost  always  composed  in  the  course  of 
operations,  out  of  the  troops  immediately  available.  Mobility 
being  its  raison  d'etre,  a  flying  column  is  when  possible  composed 
of  picked  men  and  horses  accompanied  with  the  barest  minimum 
of  baggage.  The  term  is  usually,  though  not  necessarily,  applied 
to  forces  under  the  strengthof  a  brigade.  The  "  mobile  columns  " 
employed  by  the  British  in  the  South  African  War  of  1899-1902, 
were  usually  of  the  strength  of  two  battalions  of  infantry,  a 
battery  of  artillery,  and  a  squadron  of  cavalry — almost  exactly 
half  that  of  a  mixed  brigade.  Flying  columns  are  mostly  used  in 
savage  or  guerrilla  warfare. 

"  FLYING  DUTCHMAN,"  a  spectre-ship  popularly  believed  to 
haunt  the  waters  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  legend 
has  several  variants,  but  the  commonest  is  that  which  declares 
that  the  captain  of  the  vessel,  Vanderdecken,  was  condemned  for 
his  blasphemy  to  sail  round  the  cape  for  ever,  unable  to  "  make  " 
a  port.  In  the  Dutch  version  the  skipper  is  the  ghost  of  the  Dutch 
seaman  Van  Straaten.  The  appearance  of  the  "  Flying  Dutch- 
man "  is  considered  by  sailors  asominousof  disaster.  The  German 
legend  makes  one  Herr  Von  Falkenberg  the  hero,  and  alleges  that 
he  is  condemned  to  sail  for  ever  around  the  North  Sea,  on  a  ship 
without  helm  or  steersman,  playing  at  dice  for  his  soul  with 
the  devil.  Sir  Walter  Scott  says  the  "  Flying  Dutchman  "  was 
originally  a  vessel  laden  with  bullion.  A  murder  was  committed 
on  board,  and  thereafter  the  plague  broke  out  among  the  crew, 
which  closed  all  ports  to  the  ill-fated  craft.  The  legend  has  been 
used  by  Wagner  in  his  opera  Der  fliegende  Hollander. 

FLYING-FISH,  the  name  given  to  two  different  kinds  of  fish. 
The  one  (Dactylopterus)  belongs  to  the  gurnard  family  ( Triglidae), 
and  is  more  properly  called  flying  gurnard;  the  other  (Exocoetus) 
has  been  called  flying  herring,  though  more  nearly  allied  to  the 
gar-pike  than  to  the  herring.  Some  other  fishes  with  long 
pectoral  fins  (Pterois)  have  been  stated  to  be  able  to  fly,  but  this 
has  been  proved  to  be  incorrect.  ' 

The  flying  gurnards  are  much  less  numerous  than  the  Exocoeti 
with  regard  to  individuals  as  well  as  species,  there  being  only 
three  or  four  species  known  of  the  former,  whilst  more  than  fifty 
have  been  described  of  the  latter,  which,  besides,  are  found  in 
numerous  shoals  of  thousands.  The  Dactylopteri  may  be  readily 


FIG.  i . — Dactylopterus  volitans. 

distinguished  by  a  large  bony  head  armed  with  spines,  hard 
keeled  scales,  two  dorsal  fins,  &c.  The  Exocofli  have  thin, 
deciduous  scales,  only  one  dorsal  fin,  and  the  ventrals  placed 
far  backwards,  below  the  middle  of  the  body;  some  have  long 
barbels  at  the  chin.  In  both  kinds  the  pectoral  fins  are  greatly 
prolonged  and  enlarged,  modified  into  an  organ  of  flight,  and  in 
many  species  of  Exocoelus  the  ventral  fins  are  similarly  enlarged, 
and  evidently  assist  in  the  aerial  evolutions  of  these  fishes. 
Flying-fishes  are  found  in  the  tropical  and  subtropical  seas  only, 
and  it  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  geographical  distribution  of  the 
two  kinds  is  nearly  identical.  Flying-fish  are  more  frequently 


586 


FLYING-FOX— FLYING-SQUIRREL 


observed  in  rough  weather  and  in  a  disturbed  sea  than  during 
calms;  they  dart  out  of  the  water  when  pursued  by  their 
enemies  or  frightened  by  an  approaching  vessel,  but  frequently 
also  without  any  apparent  cause,  as  is  also  observed  in  many 
other  fishes;  and  they  rise  without  regard  to  the  direction  of 
the  wind  or  waves.  The  fins  are  kept  quietly  distended,  without 
any  motion,  except  an  occasional  vibration  caused  by  the  air 
whenever  the  surface  of  the  wing  is  parallel  with  the  current  of 
the  wind.  Their  flight  is  rapid,  greatly  exceeding  that  of  a  ship 
going  10  m.  an  hour,  but  gradually  decreasing  in  velocity  and  not 
extending  beyond  a  distance  of  500  ft.  Generally  it  is  longer 
when  the  fishes  fly  against,  than  with  or  at  an  angle  to,  the  wind. 
Any  vertical  or  horizontal  deviation  from  a  straight  line  is  not 
caused  at  the  will  of  the  fish,  but  by  currents  of  the  air;  thus  they 


FIG.  2. — Exocoetus  callopterus. 

retain  a  horizontally  straight  course  when  flying  with  or  against 
the  wind,  but  are  carried  towards  the  right  or  left  whenever  the 
direction  of  the  wind  is  at  an  angle  with  that  of  their  flight. 
However,  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  fish  during  its  flight 
immerses  its  caudal  fin  in  the  water,  and  by  a  stroke  of  its  tail 
turns  towards  the  right  or  left.  In  a  calm  the  line  of  their  flight  is 
always  also  vertically  straight  or  rather  parabolic,  like  the  course 
of  a  projectile,  but  it  may  become  undulated  in  a  rough  sea, 
when  they  are  flying  against  the  course  of  the  waves;  they  then 
frequently  overtop  each  wave,  being  carried  over  it  by  the 
pressure  of  the  disturbed  air.  Flying-fish  often  fall  on  board  of 
vessels,  but  this  never  happens  during  a  calm  or  from  the  lee  side, 
but  during  a  breeze  only  and  from  the  weather  side.  In  day  time 
they  avoid  a  ship,  flying  away  from  it,  but  during  the  night 
when  they  are  unable  to  see,  they  frequently  fly  against  the 
weather  board,  where  they  are  caught  by  the  current  of  the  air, 
and  carried  upwards  to  a  height  of  20  ft.  above  the  surface  of  the 
water,  whilst  under  ordinary  circumstances  they  keep  close  to  it. 
All  these  observations  point  clearly  to  the  fact  that  any  deflection 
from  a  straight  course  is  due  to  external  circumstances,  and  not 
to  voluntary  action  on  the  part  of  the  fish. 

A  little  Malacopterygian  fish  about  4  in.  long  has  recently  been 
discovered  in  West  Africa  which  has  the  habits  of  a  fresh-water 
flying-fish.  It  has  been  named  Pantodon  buchholzi.  It  has  very 
large  pectoral  fins  with  a  remarkable  muscular  process  attached 
to  the  inner  ray.  It  lives  in  fresh-water  lakes  and  rivers  in  the 
Congo  region,  and  has  been  caught  in  its  flight  above  the  water 
in  a  butterfly-net. 

FLYING-FOX,  or,  more  correctly,  Fox-BAT.  The  first  name 
is  applied  by  Europeans  in  India  to  the  fruit-eating  bats  of  the 
genus  Pleropus,  which  contains  more  than  half  the  family 
(Pteropidae).  This  genus  is  confined  to  the  tropical  regions  of  the 
Eastern  hemisphere  and  Australia.  It  comprises  numerous 
species,  a  considerable  proportion  of  which  occur  in  the  islands 
of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  The  flying-foxes  are  the  largest  of 
the  bats,  the  kalong  of  Java  (Pteropus  edulis)  measuring  about 
a  foot  in  length,  and  having  an  expanse  of  wing-membrane 
measuring  5  ft.  across.  Flying-foxes  are  gregarious,  nocturnal 
bats,  suspending  themselves  during  the  day  head-downwards 
by  thousands  from  the  branches  of  trees,  where  with  their  wings 
gathered  about  them,  they  bear  some  resemblance  to  huge 
shrivelled-up  leaves  or  to  clusters  of  some  peculiar  fruit.  In 
Batchian,  according  to  Wallace,  they  suspend  themselves  chiefly 
from  the  branches  of  dead  trees,  where  they  are  easily  caught 
or  knocked  down  by  sticks,  the  natives  carrying  them  home  in 
basketfuls.  They  are  then  cooked  with  abundance  of  spices, 
and  "  are  really  very  good  eating,  something  like  hare."  Towards 


evening  these  bats  bestir  themselves,  and  fly  off  in  companies 
to  the  village  plantations,  where  they  feed  on  all  kinds  of  fruit, 
and  so  numerous  and  voracious  are  they  that  no  garden  crop 
has  much  chance  of  being  gathered  which  is  not  specially  pro- 
tected from  their  attacks.  The  flying-fox  of  India  (Pteropus 
medius)  is  a  smaller  species,  but  is  found  in  great  numbers 
wherever  fruit  is  to  be  had  in  the  Indian  peninsula. 

FLYING-SQUIRREL,  properly  the  name  of  such  members  of 
the  squirrel-group  of  rodent  mammals  as  have  a  parachute-like 
expansion  of  the  skin  of  the  flanks,  with  attachments  to  the 
limbs,  by  means  of  which  they  are  able  to  take  long  flying-leaps 
from  tree  to  tree.  The  parachute  is  supported  by  a  cartilage 
attached  to  the  wrist  or  carpus;  in  addition  to  the  lateral 
membrane,  there  is  a  narrow  one  from  the  cheek  along  the  front 
of  each  shoulder  to  the  wrist,  and  in  the  larger  species  a  third 
(interfemoral)  connecting  the  hind-limbs  with  the  base  of  the  long 
tail.  Of  the  two  widely  distributed  genera,  Pteromys  includes 
the  larger  and  Sciuro- 
plerus  the  smaller  species. 
The  two  differ  in  certain 
details  of  dentition,  and 
in  the  greater  develop- 
ment in  the  former  of  the 
parachute,  especially  the 
interfemoral  portion, 
which  in  the  latter  is 
almost  absent.  .  In  Ptero- 
mys the  tail  is  cylindrical 
and  comparatively  thin, 
while  in  Sciuropterus  it  is 
broad,  flat  and  laterally 
expanded,  so  as  to  com- 
pensate for  the  absence 
of  the  interfemoral  mem- 
brane by  acting  as  a 
supplementary  para- 
chute. 

In  general  appearance 
flying-squirrels  resemble 
ordinary  squirrels, 
although  they  are  even 
more  beautifully  col- 
oured. Their  habits, 
food,  &c.,  are  also  very 
similar  to  those  of  the 
true  squirrels,  except  that 
they  are  more  nocturnal, 
and  are  therefore  less 

often  seen.  The  Indian  flying-squirrel  (P.  oral)  leaps  with  its 
parachute  extended  from  the  higher  branches  of  a  tree,  and 
descends  first  directly  and  then  more  and  more  obliquely,  until 
the  flight,  gradually  becoming  slower,  assumes  a  horizontal 
direction,  and  finally  terminates  in  an  ascent  to  the  branch  or 
trunk  of  the  tree  to  which  it  was  directed.  The  presence  of  these 
rodents  at  night  is  made  known  by  their  screaming  cries.  Sciuro- 
pterus is  represented  by  5.  wlucella  in  eastern  Europe  and 
northern  Asia,  and  by  a  second  species  in  North  America,  but  the 
other  species  of  this  genus  and  all  those  of  Pteromys  are  Indo- 
Malayan.  A  third  genus,  Eupetaurus,  typified  by  a  very  large, 
long-haired,  dark-grey  species  from  the  mountains  to  the  north- 
west of  Kashmir  (Eu.  cinereus),  differs  from  all  other  members  of 
the  squirrel-family  by  its  tall-crowned  molar  teeth.  It  has  a 
total  length  of  37  in.,  of  which  22  are  taken  up  by  the  tail. 

In  Africa  the  name  of  flying-squirrel  is  applied  to  the  members 
of  a  very  different  family  of  rodents,  the  Anomaluridae,  which  are 
provided  with  a  parachute.  Since,  however,  this  parachute  is 
absent  in  some  members  of  the  family,  the  most  distinctive 
character  is  the  presence  of  a  double  row  of  spiny  scales  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  tail,  which  apparently  aid  in  climbing. 
The  flying  species  are  also  distinguished  from  ordinary  flying- 
squirrels  by  the  circumstance  that  the  additional  bone  serving 
for  the  support  of  the  fore  part  of  the  flying-membrane  rises 


Pigmy  African  Flying-Squirrel 
(Idiurus  zenkeri). 


FLYSCH— FOG 


587 


from  the  elbow-joint  instead  of  from  the  wrist.  The  family  is 
represented  by  two  flying  genera,  Anomalurus  and  Idiurus;  the 
latter  containing  only  one  very  minute  species  (shown  in  the  cut) 
characterized  by  its  small  ears  and  elongated  tail.  Most  of  the 
species  are  West  African.  In  habits  these  rodents  appear  to  be 
very  similar  to  the  true  flying-squirrels.  The  species  without  a 
parachute  constitutes  the  genus  Zenkerella,  and  looks  very  like 
an  ordinary  squirrel  (see  RODENTIA). 

In  Australia  and  Papua  the  name  flying-squirrel  is  a'pplied 
to  such  marsupials  as  are  provided  with  parachutes;  animals 
which  naturalists  prefer  to  designate  flying-phalangers  (see 
MARSUPIALIA).  (R.L.*) 

FLYSCH,  in  geology,  a  remarkable  formation,  composed 
mainly  of  sandstones,  soft  marls  and  sandy  shales  found  extending 
from  S.W.  Switzerland  eastward  along  the  northern  Alpine  zone 
to  the  Vienna  basin,  whence  it  may  be  followed  round  the 
northern  flanks  of  the  Carpathians  into  the  Balkan  peninsula. 
It  is  represented  in  the  Pyrenees,  the  Apennines,  the  Caucasus 
and  extends  into  Asia;  similar  flysch-like  deposits  are  related 
to  the  Himalayas  as  the  European  formations  are  to  the  Alps. 
The  Flysch  is  not  of  the  same  age  in  every  place;  thus  in  the 
western  parts  of  Switzerland  the  oldest  portions  probably  belong 
to  the  Eocene  period,  but  the  principal  development  is  of 
Oligocene  age;  as  it  is  traced  eastward  we  find  in  the  east  Alps 
that  it  descends  into  the  upper  Cretaceous,  and  in  the  Vienna 
region  and  the  Carpathians  it  contains  intercalations  which  clearly 
indicate  a  lower  Cretaceous  horizon  for  the  lower  parts.  It 
appears  indeed  that  this  type  of  formation  was  in  progress  of 
deposition  at  one  point  or  another  in  the  regions  enumerated 
above  from  Jurassic  to  late  Tertiary  times.  The  absence  of 
fossils  from  enormous  thicknesses  of  Flysch  makes  the  correlation 
with  other  formations  difficult;  often  the  only  indications 
of  organisms  are  the  abundant  markings  supposed  to  represent 
Algae  (Chondrites,  &c.),  which  have  given  rise  to  the  term 
"  Hieroglyphic-sandstone."  The  most  noteworthy  exceptions 
are  perhaps  the  Oligocene  fish-bed  of  Glarus,  the  Eocene  nummu- 
litic  beds  in  Calabria,  and  the  Aplychus  beds  of  Waidhofen. 
Local  phases  of  the  Flysch  have  received  special  names;  it  is 
the  "  Vienna  "  or  "  Carpathian  "  sandstone  of  those  regions; 
the  "  macigno  "  (a  soft  sandstone  with  calcareous  cement)  of 
the  Maritime  Alps  and  Apennines;  the  "  scagliose  "  (scaly  clays) 
and  "  alberese  "  (limestones)  of  the  same  places  are  portions  of 
this  formation.  The  gris  de  Menton,  the  gris  d'Annot  of  the 
Basses  Alps,  and  the  gm  d'Embrun  of  Chaillot  appear  in  Switzer- 
land as  the  gris  de  Taveyannaz.  At  several  places  the  upper 
layers  of  the  Flysch  are  iron-stained,  as  in  the  region  of  Leman 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  Dent  du  Midi;  it  is  then  styled  the  "  Red- 
Flysch."  Lenticular  intercalations  of  gabbro,  diabase,  &c.,  occur 
in  the  Flysch  in  Calabria  on  the  Pyrenees.  Large  exotic  blocks  of 
granite,  gneiss  and  other  crystalline  rocks  in  coarse  conglomerates 
are  found  near  Vienna,  near  Sonthofen  in  Bavaria,  near LakeThun 
(Wild  Flysch)  and  at  other  points,  which  have  been  variously 
regarded  as  indications  of  glaciation  or  of  coastal  conditions. 

FOCA  (pronounced  FAwtcha),  a  town  of  Bosnia,  situated  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Drina  and  Cehotina  rivers,  and  encircled 
by  wooded  mountains.  Pop.  (1895)  4217.  The  town  is  the  head- 
quarters of  a  thriving  industry  in  silver  filigree-work  and  inlaid 
weapons,  for  which  it  was  famous.  With  its  territories  enclosed 
by  the  frontiers  of  Montenegro  and  Novi  Bazar,  Foca,  then 
known  as  Chocha,  was  the  scene  of  almost  incessant  border 
warfare  during  the  middle  ages.  No  monuments  of  this  period 
are  left  except  the  Bogomil  cemeteries,  and  the  beautiful  mosques, 
which  are  the  most  ancient  in  Bosnia.  The  three  adjoining 
towns  of  Foca,  Gorazda  and  Ustikolina  were  trading-stations 
of  the  Ragusans  in  the  uth  century,  if  not  earlier.  In  the  i6th 
century,  Benedetto  Ramberti,  ambassador  from  Venice  to  the 
Porte,  described  the  town,  in  his  Libri  Tre  delle  Cose  dei  Turchi, 
as  Cozza,  "  a  large  settlement,  with  good  houses  in  Turkish  style, 
and  many  shops  and  merchants.  Here  dwells  the  governor  of 
Herzegovina,  whose  authority  extends  over  the  whole  of  Seryia. 
Through  this  place  all  goods  must  pass,  both  going  and  returning, 
between  Ragusa  and  Constantinople." 


FOCHABERS,  a  burgh  of  barony  and  village  of  Elginshire, 
Scotland.  Pop.  (1901)  981.  It  is  delightfully  situated  on  the 
Spey,  about  9  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Elgin,  the  terminus  of  a  branch  of 
the  Highland  railway  connecting  at  Orbliston  Junction  with  the 
main  line  from  Elgin  to  Keith.  The  town  was  rebuilt  in  its 
present  situation  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  century,  when  its  earlier 
site  was  required  for  alterations  in  the  grounds  of  Gordon  Castle, 
in  which  the  old  town  cross  still  stands.  The  streets  all  lead  at 
right  angles  to  the  central  square,  where  fairs  and  markets  are 
held.  The  public  buildings  include  a  library  and  reading-room, 
the  court-house  and  the  Milne  school,  named  after  Alexander 
Milne,  who  endowed  it  with  a  legacy  of  £20,000.  Adjoining  the 
town,  surrounded  by  a  park  containing  many  magnificent  old 
trees,  stands  Gordon  Castle,  the  chief  seat  of  the  duke  of 
Richmond  and  Gordon,  erected  in  the  i8th  century.  The  anti- 
quary George  Chalmers  (1742-1825)  and  the  composer  William 
Marshall  (1748-1833)  were  natives  of  the  burgh. 

FOCSHANI  (Rumanian  Focjani,  sometimes  incorrectly  written 
Fokshani  or  Fokshan),  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Putna, 
Rumania;  on  the  river  Milcov,  which  formed  the  ancient  frontier 
of  the  former  principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Walachia.  Pop. 
(1900)  23,783;  of  whom  6000  were  Jews.  The  chief  buildings 
are  the  prefecture,  schools,  synagogues,  and  many  churches, 
including  those  of  the  Armenians  and  Protestants.  Focshani 
is  a  commercial  centre  of  some  importance,  the  chief  industries 
being  oil  and  soap  manufacture  and  tannery.  A  large  wine  trade 
is  also  carried  on,  and  corn  is  shipped  in  lighters  to  Galatz.  The 
annual  fair  is  held  on  the  29th  of  April.  Government  explora- 
tions in  the  vicinity  of  this  town  show  it  to  be  rich  in  minerals, 
such  as  iron,  copper,  coal  and  petroleum.  The  line  Focshani- 
Galatz  is  covered  by  a  very  strong  line  of  fortifications,  known 
as  the  Sereth  Line.  A  congress  between  Russian  and  Turkish 
diplomatists  was  held  near  the  town  in  1772.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood the  Turks  suffered  a  severe  defeat  from  the  Austrians  and 
Russians  in  1789. 

FOCUS  (Latin  for  "  hearth  "  or  "  fireplace  "),  a  point  at  which 
converging  rays  meet,  toward  which  they  are  directed,  or  from 
which  diverging  rays  are  directed;  in  the  latter  case  called 
the  virtual  focus  (see  MICROSCOPE;  TELESCOPE;  LENS).  In 
geometry  the  word  is  used  to  denote  certain  points  (see 
GEOMETRY;  CONIC  SECTION;  and  PERSPECTIVE). 

FOG,  the  name  given  to  any  distribution  of  solid  or  liquid 
particles  in  the  surface  layers  of  the  atmosphere  which  renders 
surrounding  objects  notably  indistinct  or  altogether  invisible 
according  to  their  distance.  In  its  more  intense  forms  it  hinders 
and  delays  travellers  of  all  kinds,  by  sea  or  land,  by  railway,  road 
or  river,  or  by  the  mountain  path.  It  is  sometimes  so  thick  as 
to  paralyse  traffic  altogether.  According  to  the  New  English 
Dictionary  the  word  "  appears  to  be  "  a  back  formation  from 
the  adjective  "  foggy,"  a  derivative  of  "  fog  "  used  with  its  old 
meaning  of  aftermath  or  coarse  grass,  or,  in  the  north  of  Britain, 
of  "  moss."  Such  a  formation  would  be  reasonable,  because 
wreaths  of  fog  in  the  atmospheric  sense  are  specially  character- 
istic of  meadows  and  marshes  where  fog,  in  the  more  ancient 
sense,  grows. 

Two  other  words,  mist  and  haze,  are  also  in  common  use  with 
reference  to  the  deterioration  of  transparency  of  the  surface 
layers  of  the  atmosphere  caused  by  solid  or  liquid  particles,  and 
in  ordinary  literature  the  three  words  are  used  almost  according 
to  the  fancy  of  the  writer.  It  seems  possible  to  draw  a  distinction 
between  mist  and  haze  that  would  be  fairly  well  supported  by 
usage.  Mist  may  be  defined  as  a  cloud  of  water  particles  at  the 
surface  of  land  or  sea,  and  would  only  occur  when  the  air  is  nearly 
or  actually  saturated,  that  is,  when  there  is  little  or  no  difference 
between  the  readings  of  the  dry  and  wet  bulbs;  the  word  haze, 
on  the  other  hand,  may  be  reserved  for  the  obscuration  of  the 
surface  layers  of  the  atmosphere  when  the  air  is  dry. 

It  would  not  be  difficult  to  quote  instances  in  which  even  this 
distinction  is  disregarded  in  practice.  Indeed,  the  telegraphic 
code  of  the  British  Meteorological  Office  uses  the  same  figure  for 
mist  and  haze,  and  formerly  the  Beaufort  weather  notation  had 
no  separate  letter  for  haze  (now  indicated  by  2),  though  it 


588 


FOG 


Name. 

No. 

On  Land. 

On  Sea. 

On  River. 

Slight  Fog  or  Mist 

i 

Objects      indistinct,     but 

Horizon  invisible,  but 

Objects     indistinct,     but 

traffic  by  rail  or  road 
unimpeded 

lights  and  landmarks 
visible     at     working 

navigation  unimpeded 

distances 

f 

Traffic    by    rail    requires 
additional  caution 

Lights,   passing  vessels 
and  landmarks  gener- 

Navigation impeded,  ad- 
ditional     caution      re- 

Moderate Fog 

P 

Traffic    by    rail    or    road 

ally  indistinct  under 

quired 

I 

impeded 

a   mile.     Fog  signals 

are  sounded 

I* 

Traffic    by    rail    or   road 
impeded 

Ships'  lights  and  vessels 

Navigation  suspended 

Thick  Fog     . 

\5 

Traffic    by    rail    or    road 

invisible  at  i  mile  or 

I 

totally  disorganized 

l£SS 

distinguished  between 
/,fog,  and  m,  mist.  It  is 
possible,  however,  that 
these  practices  may 
arise,  not  from  confu- 
sion of  idea,  but  from 
economy  of  symbols, 
when  the  meaning  can 
be  made  out  from  a 
knowledge  of  the  asso- 
ciated observations. 

As  regards  the  dis- 
tinction between  mist 
and  fog,  careful  con- 
sideration of  a  number 

of  examples  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  word  "  fog  "  is 
used  to  indicate  not  so  much  the  origin  or  meteorological 
nature  of  the  obscurity  as  its  effect  upon  traffic  and  travellers 
whether  on  land  or  sea.  It  is,  generally  speaking,  "  in  a 
fog  "  that  a  traveller  loses  himself,  and  indeed  the  phrase 
has  become  proverbial  in  that  sense.  A  "  fog-bell  "  or  "  fog- 
horn "  is  sounded  when  the  atmosphere  is  so  thick  that  the  aid  of 
sound  is  required  for  navigation.  A  vessel  is  "  fog-logged  " 
or  "  fog-bound  "  when  it  is  stopped  or  detained  on  account  of 
thick  atmosphere.  A  "  fog-signal  "  is  employed  on  railways 
when  the  ordinary  signals  are  obliterated  within  working 
distances.  A  "  fog-bow  "  is  the  accompaniment  of  conditions 
when  a  mountain  traveller  is  apt  to  lose  his  way. 

These  words  are  used  quite  irrespective  of  the  nature  of  the 
cloud  which  interferes  with  effective  vision  and  necessitates  the 
special  provision;  the  word  "  mist  "  is  seldom  used  in  similar 
connexion.  We  may  thus  define  a  fog  as  a  surface  cloud  suffi- 
ciently thick  to  cause  hindrance  to  traffic.  It  will  be  a  thick  mist 
if  the  cloud  consists  of  water  particles,  a  thick  haze  if  it  consists 
of  smoke  or  dust  particles  which  would  be  persistent  even  in  a 
dry  atmosphere. 

It  is  probable  that  sailors  would  be  inclined  to  restrict  the  use 
of  the  word  to  the  surface  clouds  met  with  in  comparatively  calm 
weather,  and  that  the  obscurity  of  the  atmosphere 
when  it  is  blowing  hard  and  perhaps  raining  hard 
as  well  should  be  indicated  by  the  terms  "  thick 
weather  "  or  "  very  thick  weather  "  and  not  by 
"'fog  " ;  but  the  term  "  fog  "  would  be  quite  correctly 
used  on  such  occasions  from  the  point  of  view  of 
cautious  navigation.  If  cloud,  drizzling  rain,  or 
heavy  rain  cause  such  obscurity  that  passing  ships 
are  not  visible  within  working  distances  the  sound- 
ing of  a  fog-horn  becomes  a  duty. 

The  number  of  occasions  upon  which  fog  and 
mist  may  be  noted  as  occurring  with  winds  of  different  strengths 
may  be  exemplified  by  the  following  results  of  thirty  years  for 
St  Mary's,  Scilly  Isles,  where  the  observations  have  always 
been  made  by  men  of  nautical  experience. 


Description  of  Effects. 


a  cloud  of  minute  water  globules,  of  no  great  vertical  thickness, 
which  disperses  the  sunlight  by  repeated  reflection  but  is  fully 
translucent.  In  dust-storms  and  sand-storms  dark  or  coloured 
fog  clouds  are  produced  such  as  those  which  are  met  with  in  the 
Harmattan  winds  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  In  large  towns 
the  fog  cloud  is  darkened  and  intensified  by  smoke,  and  in  some 
cases  may  be  regarded  as  due  entirely  to  the  smoke. 

The  physical  processes  which  produce  fogs  of  water  particles 
are  complicated  and  difficult  to  unravel.  We  have  to  account 
for  the  formation  and  maintenance  of  a  cloud  at  the  earth's 
surface;  and  the  process  of  cloud-formation  which  is  probably 
most  usual  in  nature,  namely,  the  cooling  of  air  by  rarefraction 
due  to  the  reduction  of  pressure  on  ascent,  cannot  be  invoked, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  fogs  forming  the  cloud-caps  of  hills, 
which  are  perhaps  not  fairly  included.  We  have  to  fall  back  upon 
the  only  other  process  hitherto  recognized  as  causing  cloudy 
condensation  in  the  atmosphere,  that  is  to  say,  the  mixing  of 
masses  of  mist  air  of  different  temperatures.  The  mixing  is 
brought  about  by  the  slow  motion  of  air  masses,  and  this  slow 
motion  is  probably  essential  to  the  phenomenon. 

Over  the  sea  fog  is  most  frequently  due  to  the  cooling  of  a 
surface  layer  of  warm  air  by  the  underlying  cold  water.  The 
amount  of  motion  of  the  air  must  be  sufficient  to  prevent  the 

TABLE  I. — Air  travelling  from  Northern  Africa  to  Northern  Russia, 
ro.und  by  the  Azores. 


Successive  Temperatures  of  sea         . 

68° 

68° 

67° 

59° 

54°F. 

„                     ,.            „   air 

68° 

70° 

67° 

60° 

56°F. 

„        States  of  the  atmosphere  . 

clear 

clear 

clear 

shower 

mist 

TABLE  II. — Air  travelling  from  N.W.  Africa  to  Scotland. 


Successive  Temperatures  of  sea. 

67° 

63° 

54°  F. 

,,                    ,,            „  air  . 

66° 

64° 

53°  F. 

„        State  of  atmosphere 

fair 

shower 

mist  with  shower 

Wind  Force. 

0  &  I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8-12 

All 
Winds. 

Number  of  occasions  of  fog 

per  1000  observations  . 

8 

7 

9 

H 

6 

3 

<i 

<i 

47 

Number  of  occasions  of  mist 

per  1000  observations  . 

5 

6 

ii 

22 

20 

12 

6 

2 

84 

The  use  of  the  word  "  fog  "  in  the  connexion  "  high  fog," 
to  describe  the  almost  total  darkness  in  the  daytime  occasionally 
noted  in  London  and  other  large  cities  due  to  the  persistent 
opaque  cloud  in  the  upper  air  without  serious  obscuration  of  the 
surface  layers,  is  convenient  but  incorrect. 

Regarding  "  fog  "  as  a  word  used  to  indicate  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere  as  regards  transparency  considered  with  reference  to 
its  effect  upon  traffic,  a  scale  of  fog  intensity  has  been  introduced 
for  use  on  land  or  at  sea,  whereby  the  intensity  of  obscurity  is 
indicated  by  the  numbers  i  to  5  in  the  table  following.  At 
sea  or  in  the  country  a  fog,  as  a  rule,  is  white  and  consists  of 


condensation  taking  place  at  the  sea  surface  without  showing 
itself  as  a  cloud.  In  a  research  on  the  Life  History  of  Surface  Air 
Currents  the  changes  incidental  to  the  movement  of  the  air  over 
the  north  Atlantic  Ocean  were  traced  with  great  care,  and  the 
above  examples  (Tables  I,  II)  taken  from  page  72 
of  the  work  referred  to  are  typical  of  the  forma- 
tion of  sea  fog  by  the  cooling  of  a  relatively  warm 
current  passing  over  cold  water. 

In  conformity  with  this  suggestion  we  find  that 
fog  is  most  liable  to  occur  over  the  open  ocean 
in  those  regions  where,  as  off  the  Newfound- 
land banks,  cold-water  currents  underlie  warm 
air,  and  that  it  is  most  frequent  at  the  season  of  the  year  when  the 
air  temperature  is  increasing  faster  than  the  water  temperature. 
But  it  is  difficult  to  bring  this  hypothesis  always  to  bear  upon 
actual  practice,  because  the  fog  is  representative  of  a  tempera- 
ture difference  which  has  ceased  to  exist.  One  cannot  therefore 
observe  under  ordinary  circumstances  both  the  temperature 
difference  and  the  fog.  Doubtless  one  requires  not  only  the 
initial  temperature  difference  but  also  the  slow  drift  of  air  which 
favours  cooling  of  the  lower  layers  without  too  much  mixing  and 
consequently  a  layer  of  fog  close  to  the  surface.  Such  a  fog, 
the  characteristic  sea  fog,  may  be  called  a  cold  surface  fog.  From 


FOG 


589 


the  conditions  of  its  formation  it  is  likely  to  be  less  dense  at  the 
mast-head  than  it  is  on  deck. 

One  would  expect  that  a  cold-air  current  passing  over  a  warm 
sea  surface  would  give  rise  to  an  ascending  current  of  warmed  air 
and  hence  cause  cumulus  cloud  and  possibly  thunder  showers 
rather  than  surface  fog,  but  one  cannot  resist  the  conclusion  that 
sea  fog  is  sometimes  formed  by  slow  transference  of  cold  air  over 
relatively  warm  water,  giving  rise  to  what  may  be  called  a 
"  steaming-pot  "  fog.  In  such  a  case  the  actual  surface  layer  in 
contact  with  the  warm  water  would  be  clear,  and  the  fog  would 
be  thicker  aloft  where  the  mixing  of  cold  air  and  water  vapour 
is  more  complete.  Such  fogs  are,  however,  probably  rare  in 
comparison  with  the  cold-water  fogs.  If  the  existence  of  a  cold 
current  over  warm  water  were  a  sufficient  cause  of  fog,  as  a  current 
of  warm  air  over  cold  water  appears  to  be,  the  geographical 
distribution  of  notable  fog  would  be  much  more  widespread  than 
it  actually  is,  and  the  seasonal  distribution  of  fog  would  also  be 
other  than  it  is. 

The  formation  of  fog  over  land  seems  to  be  an  even  more 
complicated  process  than  over  the  sea.  Certainly  in  some  cases 
mistiness  amounting  to  fog  arises  from  the  replacement  of  cold 
surface  air  which  has  chilled  the  earth  and  the  objects  thereon 
by  a  warm  current.  But  this  process  can  hardly  give  rise  to 
detached  masses  or  banks  of  fog.  The  ordinary  land  or  valley 
fog  of  the  autumn  evening  or  winter  morning  is  due  to  the  com- 
bination of  three  causes,  first  the  cooling  of  the  surface  layer  of 
air  at  or  after  sunset  by  the  radiation  of  the  earth,  or  more 
particularly  of  blades  of  grass,  secondly  the  slow  downward  flow 
(in  the  absence  of  wind)  of  the  air  thus  cooled  towards  lower 
levels  following  roughly  the  course  of  the  natural  water  drainage 
of  the  land,  and  thirdly  the  supply  of  moisture  by  evaporation 
from  warm  moist  soil  or  from  the  relatively  warm  water  surface 
of  river  or  lake.  In  this  way  steaming-pot  fog  gradually  forms 
and  is  carried  downward  by  the  natural  though  slow  descent  of 
the  cooled  air.  It  thus  forms  in  wreaths  and  banks  in  the  lowest 
parts,  until  perhaps  the  whole  valley  becomes  filled  with  a  cloud 
of  mist  or  fog.  A  case  of  this  kind  in  the  Lake  District  is  minutely 
described  by  J.  B.  Cohen  (Q.  J.  Roy.  Mel.  Soc.  vol.  30,  p.  211, 
1904). 

It  will  be  noticed  that  upon  this  hypothesis  the  circumstances 
favourable  for  fog  formation  are  (i)  a  site  near  the  bottom  level  of 
the  drainage  area,  (2)  cold  surface  air  and  no  wind,  (3)  an  even- 
ing or  night  of  vigorous  radiation,  (4)  warm  soil,  and  (5)  abundant 
moisture  in  the  surface-soil.  These  conditions  define  with 
reasonable  accuracy  the  circumstances  in  which  fog  is  actually 
observed. 

The  persistence  of  these  fog  wreaths  is  always  remarkable 
when  one  considers  that  the  particles  of  a  fog  cloud,  however 
small  they  may  be,  must  be  continually  sinking  through  the  air 
which  holds  them,  and  that  unless  some  upward  motion  of  the 
air  keeps  at  least  a  balance  against  this  downward  fall,  the 
particles  of  the  cloud  must  reach  the  earth  or  water  and  to  that 
extent  the  cloud  must  disappear.  In  sheltered  valleys  it  is  easy 
to  suppose  that  the  constant  downward  drainage  of  fresh  and 
colder  fog-laden  material  at  the  surface  supplies  to  the  layers  dis- 
placed from  the  bottom  the  necessary  upward  motion,  and  the 
result  of  the  gradual  falling  of  drops  is  only  that  the  surface 
cloud  gets  thicker;  but  there  are  occasions  when  the  extent  and 
persistence  of  land  fog  seems  too  great  to  be  accounted  for  by 
persistent  radiation  cooling.  For  example,  in  the  week  before 
Christmas  of  1904  the  whole  of  England  south  of  the  Humber 
was  covered  with  fog  for  several  days.  It  is  of  course  possible 
that  so  much  fog-laden  air  was  poured  down  from  the  sides  of 
mountains  and  hills  that  did  project  above  the  surface  of  the  fog, 
as  to  keep  the  lower  reaches  supplied  for  the  whole  time,  but 
without  more  particulars  such  a  statement  seems  almost  incred- 
ible. Moreover,  the  drifting  of  fog  banks  over  the  sea  seems 
capricious  and  unrelated  to  any  known  circumstances  of  fog- 
formation,  so  that  one  is  tempted  to  invoke  the  aid  of  electrifica- 
tion of  the  particles  or  some  other  abnormal  condition  to  account 
for  the  persistence  of  fog.  The  observations  at  Kew  observatory 
show  that  the  electrical  potential  is  abnormally  high  during  fog, 


but  whether  that  is  the  cause  or  the  result  of  the  presence  of  the 
water  particles,  we  are  not  yet  in  a  position  to  say.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  a  fog  cloud  ought  to  be  regarded  as  being, 
generally  speaking,  in  process  of  formation  by  mixing.  Observa- 
tions upon  clouds  formed  experimentally  in  globes  tend  to  show 
that  if  a  mass  of  fog-bearing  air  could  be  enclosed  and  kept  still 
for  only  a  short  while  the  fog  would  settle  and  leave  the  air  clear. 
The  apparently  capricious  behaviour  of  fog  banks  may  be  due 
to  the  fact  that  mixing  is  still  going  on  in  the  persistent  ones, 
but  is  completed  in  the  disappearing  ones. 

One  remarkable  characteristic  of  a  persistent  fog  is  the  coldness 
of  the  foggy  air  at  the  surface  in  spite  of  the  heat  of  the  sun's 
rays  falling  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  fog.  A  remarkable 
example  may  be  quoted  from  the  case  of  London,  which  was  under 
fog  all  day  on  28th  January  1909.  The  maximum  temperature 
only  reached  3  i°F.,  whereas  at  Warlinghamin  Surrey  from  which 
the  fog  lifted  it  was  as  high  as  46°  F. 

A  priori  we  might  suppose  that  the  formation  of  fog  would 
arrest  cooling  by  radiation,  and  that  fog  would  thus  act  as  a 
protection  of  plants  against  frost.  The  condensation  of  water 
evaporated  from  wet  ground,  which  affords  the  material  for  making 
fog,  does  apparently  act  as  a  protection,  and  heavy  watering  is 
sometimes  used  to  protect  plants  from  frost,  but  the  same  cannot 
be  said  of  fog  itself — cooling  appears  to  go  on  in  spite  of  the  forma- 
tion of  fog. 

A  third  process  of  fog-formation,  namely,  the  descent  of  a 
cloud  from  above  in  the  form  of  light  drizzling  rain,  hardly  calls 
for  remark.  In  so  far  as  it  is  subject  to  rules,  they  are  the  rules 
of  clouds  and  rain  and  are  therefore  independent  of  surface 
conditions. 

These  various  causes  of  fog-formation  may  be  considered  with 
advantage  in  relation  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  fog. 
Statistics  on  this  subject  are  not  very  satisfactory  on  account  of 
the  uncertainty  of  the  distinction  between  fog  and  mist,  but  a 
good  deal  may  be  learned  from  the  distribution  of  fog  over  the 
north  Altantic  Ocean  and  its  various  coasts  as  shown  in  the 
Monthly  Meteorological  Charts  of  the  north  Atlantic  issued  by 
the  Meteorological  Office,  and  the  Pilot  charts  of  the  North 
Atlantic  of  the  United  States  Hydrographic  Office.  Coast  fog, 
which  is  probably  of  the  same  nature  as  land  fog,  is  most  frequent 
in  the  winter  months,  whereas  sea  fog  and  ocean  fog  is  most 
extensive  and  frequent  in  the  spring  and  summer.  By  June  the 
fog  area  has  extended  from  the  Great  Banks  over  the  ocean  to 
the  British  Isles,  in  July  it  is  most  intense,  and  by  August  it  has 
notably  diminished,  while  in  November,  which  is  proverbially  a 
foggy  month  on  land,  there  is  hardly  any  fog  shown  over  the 
ocean. 

The  various  meteorological  aspects  of  fog  and  its  incidence  in 
London  were  the  subject  of  reports  to  the  Meteorological  Council 
by  Captain  A.  Carpenter  and  Mr  R.  G.  K.  Lempfert,  based  upon 
special  observations  made  in  the  winters  of  1001-1902  and  1902- 
1903  in  order  to  examine  the  possibility  of  more  precise  forecasts 
of  fog. 

The  study  of  the  properties  and  behaviour  of  fog  is  especially 
important  for  large  towns  in  consequence  of  the  economic  and 
hygienic  results  which  follow  the  incidence  of  dense  fogs.  The 
fogs  of  London  in  particular  have  long  been  a  subject  of  inquiry. 
It  is  difficult  to  get  trustworthy  statistics  on  the  subject  in  con- 
sequence of  the  vagueness  of  the  practice  as  regards  the  classifica- 
tion of  fog.  For  large  towns  there  is  great  advantage  in  using  a 
fog  scale  such  as  that  given  above,  in  which  one  deals  only  with 
the  practical  range  of  vision  irrespective  of  the  meteorological 
cause. 

Accepting  the  classification  which  distinguishes  between  fog 
and  haze  or  mist,  but  not  between  the  two  latter  terms,  as 
equivalent  to  specifying  fog  when  the  thickness  amounts  to  the 
figure  2  or  more  on  the  fog  scale,  we  are  enabled  to  compare  the 
frequency  of  fog  in  London  by  the  comparison  of  the  results  at 
the  London  observing  stations.  The  comparison  was  made  by 
Mr  Brodie  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Meteorological  Society 
(Quarterly  Journal,  vol.  31,  p.  15),  and  it  appears  therefrom 
that  in  recent  years  there  has  been  a  notable  diminution  of  fog 


590 


FOGAZZARO— FOHR 


frequency,  as  indicated  in  the  following  table  of  the  total  number 
of  days  of  fog  in  the  years  from  1871: — 


1871. 

1872. 

1873- 

1874. 

J875. 

1876. 

1877. 

1878. 

1879. 

1880. 

1881. 

1882. 

1883. 

1884. 

1885. 

1886. 

1887. 

1888. 

1889. 

42 

35 

75 

53 

49 

40 

46 

63 

69 

74 

59 

69 

61 

53 

69 

86 

83 

62 

75 

1890. 

1891. 

1892, 

1893- 

1894. 

i895- 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

1904. 

I905- 

1906. 

1907. 

1908. 

65 

69 

68 

31 

51 

48 

43 

48 

47 

56 

13 

45 

42 

26 

44 

19 

16 

37 

19 

But  from  any  statistics  of  the  frequency  occurrence  of  fog 
it  must  not  be  understood  that  the  atmosphere  of  London  is 
approaching  that  of  the  surrounding  districts  as  regards  trans- 
parency. Judged  by  the  autographic  records  it  is  still  almost 
opaque  to  sunshine  strong  enough  to  burn  the  card  of  the 
recorder  during  the  winter  months. 

The  bibliography  of  fog  is  very  extensive.  The  titles  referring  to 
fog,  mist  and  naze  in  the  Bibliography  of  Meteorology  (part  ii.) 
of  the  U.  S.  Signal  Office,  published  in  1889,  number  306.  Among 
more  recent  authors  on  the  subject,  besides  those  referred  to  in 
the  text,  may  be  mentioned: — Koppen,  "  Bodennebel,"  Met.Zeit. 
(1885);  Trabert,  Met.  Zeit.  (1901),  p.  522;  Elias  in  Ergebnisse  des 
aeronautischen  Observatoriums  bei  Berlin,  ii.  (Berlin,  1904) ;  Scott, 
Q.J.R.  Met.  Soc.  xix.  p.  229;  A.  G.  McAdie,  "  Fog  Studies, "  Amer. 
Inv.  ix.  (Washington,  D.C.,  1902),  p.  209;  Buchan,  "  Fogs  on  the 
Coasts  of  Scotland,"  Journ.  Scot.  Met.  Soc.  xii.  p.  3.  (W.  N.  S.) 

FOGAZZARO,  ANTONIO  (1842-  ),  Italian  novelist  and 
poet,  was  born  at  Vicenza  in  1842.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Abate 
Zanella,  one  of  the  best  of  the  modern  Italian  poets,  whose 
tender,  thoughtful  and  deeply  religious  spirit  continued  to 
animate  his  literary  productions.  He  began  his  literary  career 
with  Miranda,  a  poetical  romance  (1874),  followed  in  1876 
by  Valsolda,  which,  republished  in  1886  with  considerable  addi- 
tions, constitutes  perhaps  his  principal  claim  as  a  poet,  which 
is  not  inconsiderable.  To  the  classic  grandeur  of  Carducci  and 
D'Annunzio's  impetuous  torrent  of  melody  Fogazzaro  opposes 
a  Wordsworthian  simplicity  and  pathos,  contributing  to  modern 
Italian  literature  wholesome  elements  of  which  it  would  other- 
wise be  nearly  destitute.  His  novels,  Malombra  (1882),  Daniele 
Cortis  (1887),  Mislerio  del  Poela  (1888),  obtained  considerable 
literary  success  upon  their  first  publication,  but  did  not  gain 
universal  popularity  until  they  were  discovered  and  taken  up  by 
French  critics  in  1896.  The  demand  then  became  prodigious, 
and  a  new  work,  Piccolo  Hondo  anlico  (1896),  which  critics  far 
from  friendly  to  Fogazzaro's  religious  and  philosophical  ideas 
pronounced  the  best  Italian  novel  since  /  Promessi  Sposi,  went 
through  numerous  editions.  Even  greater  sensation  was  caused 
by  his  novel  //  Santo  (The  Saint,  1906),  on  account  of  its  being 
treated  as  unorthodox  by  the  Vatican;  and  Fogazzaro's  sym- 
pathy with  the  Liberal  Catholic  movement — his  own  Catholicism 
being  well  known — made  this  novel  a  centre  of  discussion  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  world. 

See  the  biography  by  Molmenti  (1900). 

FOGELBERG,  BENEDICT  (or  BENGT)  ERLAND  (1786-1854), 
Swedish  sculptor,  was  born  at  Gothenburg  on  the  8th  of  August 
1786.  His  father,  a  copper-founder,  encouraging  an  early- 
exhibited  taste  for  design,  sent  him  in  1801  to  Stockholm,  where 
he  studied  at  the  school  of  art.  There  he  came  much  under  the 
influence  of  the  sculptor  Sergell,  who  communicated  to  him  his 
own  enthusiasm  for  antique  art  and  natural  grace.  Fogelberg 
worked  hard  at  Stockholm  for  many  years,  although  his  instinct 
for  severe  beauty  rebelled  against  the  somewhat  rococo  quality 
of  the  art  then  prevalent  in  the  city.  In  1818  the  grant  of  a 
government  pension  enabled  him  to  travel.  He  studied  from 
one  to  two  years  in  Paris,  first  under  Pierre  Guerin,  and  after- 
wards under  the  sculptor  Bosio,  for  the  technical  practice  of 
sculpture.  In  1820  Fogelberg  realized  a  dream  of  his  life  in 
visiting  Rome,  where  the  greater  part  of  his  remaining  years 
were  spent  in  the  assiduous  practice  of  his  art,  and  the  careful 
study  and  analysis  of  the  works  of  the  past.  Visiting  his  native 
country  by  royal  command  in  1854,  he  was  received  with  great 
enthusiasm,  but  nothing  could  compensate  him  for  the  absence 
of  those  remains  of  antiquity  and  surroundings  of  free  natural 
beauty  to  which  he  had  been  so  long  accustomed.  Returning 


to  Italy,  he  died  suddenly  of  apoplexy  at  Trieste  on  the  22nd 
of  December  1854.     The  subjects  of  Fogelberg's  earlier  works 

are  mostly  taken 
from  classic  myth- 
ology. Of  these, 
"Cupid  and 
Psyche,"  "Venus 
entering  the 
B  a  t  h,"  "  A 
Bather "  (1838), 
Apollo  Citharede,"  "  Venus  and  Cupid  "  (1839)  and  "  Psyche  " 
(1854)  may  be  mentioned.  In  his  representations  of  Scandinavian 
mythology  Fogelberg  showed,  perhaps  for  the  first  time,  that  he 
had  powers  above  those  of  intelligent  assimilation  and  imitation. 
His"Odm"(i83i),"Thor"(i842),and"Balder"(i842),thoughin- 
fluenced  by  Greek  art,  display  considerable  power  of  independent 
imagination.  His  portraits  and  historical  figures,  as  those  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus  ( 1 849) ,  of  Charles  XII.  ( 1 85 1 ) ,  of  Charles  XIII. 
(1852),  and  of  Birger  Jarl,  the  founder  of  Stockholm  (1853), 
are  faithful  and  dignified  works. 

See  Casimir  Leconte,  L'CEuvre  de  Fogelberg  (Paris,  1856). 
FOGGIA,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  (since  1855)  of  Apulia,  Italy, 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Foggia,  situated  243  ft.  above  sea- 
level,  in  the  centre  of  the  great  Apulian  plain,  201  m.  by  rail  S.E. 
of  Ancona  and  123  m.  N.E.  by  E.  of  Naples.  Pop.  (1901)  town, 
49,031;  commune,  53,134-  The  name  is  probably  derived  from 
the  pits  or  cellars  (foveae)  in  which  the  inhabitants  store  their 
grain.  The  town  is  the  medieval  successor  of  the  ancient  Arpi, 
3  m.  to  the  N.;  the  Normans,  after  conquering  the  district  from 
the  Eastern  empire,  gave  it  its  first  importance.  The  date  of  the 
erection  of  the  cathedral  is  probably  about  1179;  it  retains  some 
traces  of  Norman  architecture,  and  the  facade  has  a  fine  figured 
cornice  by  Bartolommeo  da  Foggia;  the  crypt  has  capitals  of 
the  nth  (?)  century.  The  whole  church  was,  however,  much 
altered  after  the  earthquake  of  1731.  A  gateway  of  the  palace 
of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  (1223,  by  Bartolommeo  da  Foggia) 
is  also  preserved.  Here  died  his  third  wife,  Isabella,  daughter 
of  King  John  of  England.  Charles  of  Anjou  died  here  in  1 284. 
After  his  son's  death,  it  was  a  prey  to  internal  dissensions  and 
finally  came  under  Alphonso  I.  of  Aragon,  who  converted  the 
pastures  of  the  Apulian  plain  into  a  royal  domain  in  1445,  and 
made  Foggia  the  place  at  which  the  tax  on  the  sheep  was  to  be 
paid  and  the  wool  to  be  sold.  The  other  buildings  of  the  town 
are  modern.  Foggia  is  a  commercial  centre  of  some  importance 
for  the  produce  of  the  surrounding  country,  and  is  also  a  con- 
siderable railway  centre,  being  situated  on  the  main  line  from 
Bologna  to  Brindisi,  at  the  point  where  this  is  joined  by  the  line 
from  Benevento  and  Caserta.  There  are  also  branches  to- 
Rocchetta  S.  Antonio  (and  thence  to  either  Avellino,  Potenza, 
or  Gioia  del  Colle),  to  Manfredonia,  and  to  Lucera. 

FOHN  (Ger.,  probably  derived  through  Romansch  favongn, 
favoign,  from  Lat.  fawnius),  a  warm  dry  wind  blowing  down  the 
valleys  of  the  Alps  from  high  central  regions,  most  frequently 
in  winter.  The  Fohn  wind  often  blows  with  great  violence. 
It  is  caused  by  the  indraft  of  air  from  the  elevated  region  ta 
areas  of  low  barometric  pressure  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  the 
warmth  and  dryness  are  due  to  dynamical  compression  of  the 
air  as  it  descends  to  lower  levels.  Similar  local  winds  occur 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  as  Greenland,  and  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  In  the  southern  Alpine  valleys  the  Fohn 
wind  is  often  called  sirocco,  but  its  nature  and  cause  are  different 
from  the  true  sirocco.  The  belief  that  the  warm  dry  wind  comes 
from  the  Sahara  dies  hard;  and  still  finds  expression  in  some 
textbooks. 

For  a  full  account  of  these  winds  see  Hann,  Lehrbuch  der  Meteoro- 
logie,^  p.  594. 

FOHR,  a  German  island  in  the  North  Sea,  belonging  to 
the  province  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  and  situated  off  its  coast. 
Pop.  4500.  It  comprises  an  area  of  32  sq.  m.,  and  is  reached  by 
a  regular  steamboat  service  from  Husum  and  Dagebiill  on  the 
mainland  to  Wyk,  the  principal  bathing  resort  on  the  E.  coast  of 
the  island.  The  chief  attraction  of  Wyk  is  the  Sandwall,  a 


FOIL— FOIL-FENCING 


591 


promenade  which  is  shaded  by  trees  and  skirts  the  beach.  Fohr, 
the  most  fertile  of  the  North  Frisian  islands,  is  principally 
marshland,  and  comparatively  well  wooded.  There  are  numerous 
pleasantly-situated  villages  and  hamlets  scattered  over  it,  of 
which  the  most  frequented  are  Boldixum,  Nieblum  and  Al- 
kersum.  The  inhabitants  are  mainly  engaged  in  the  fishing 
industry,  and  are  known  as  excellent  sailors. 

FOIL.  i.  (Through  O.  Fr.  from  Lat.  folium,  a  leaf,  modern 
Fr.  feuille),  a  leaf,  and  so  used  in  heraldry  and  in  plant  names, 
such  as  the  "  trefoil  "  clover;  and  hence  applied  to  anything  re- 
sembling a  leaf.  In  architecture,  the  word  appears  for  the  small 
leaf-like  spaces  formed  by  the  cusps  of  tracery  in  windows  or 
panels,  and  known,  according  to  the  number  of  such  spaces,  as 
"  quatrefoil,"  "  cinquefoil,"  &c.  The  word  is  also  found  in 
"  counterfoil,"  a  leaf  of  a  receipt  or  cheque  book,  containing 
memoranda  or  a  duplicate  of  the  receipt  or  draft,  kept  by  the 
receiver  or  drawer  as  a  "  counter  "  or  check.  "  Foil  "  is  particu- 
larly used  of  thin  plates  of  metal,  resembling  a  leaf,  not  in  shape 
as  much  as  in  thinness.  In  thickness  foil  comes  between  "  leaf  " 
and  "  sheet  "  metal.  In  jewelry,  a  foil  of  silvered  sheet  copper, 
sometimes  known  as  Dutch  foil,  is  used  as  a  backing  for  paste 
gems,  or  stones  of  inferior  lustre  or  colour.  This  is  coated  with 
a  mixture  of  isinglass  and  translucent  colour,  varying  with  the 
stones  to  be  backed,  or,  if  only  brilliancy  is  required,  left  un- 
coloured,  but  highly  polished.  From  this  use  of  "  foil,"  the 
word  comes  to  mean,  in  a  figurative  sense,  something  which  by 
contrast,  or  by  its  own  brightness,  serves  to  heighten  the  attrac- 
tive qualities  of  something  else  placed  in  juxtaposition.  The 
commonest  "  foil  "  is  that  generally  known  as  "  tinfoil."  The 
ordinary  commercial  "  tinfoil  "  usually  consists  chiefly  of  lead, 
and  is  used  for  the  wrapping  of  chocolate  or  other  sweetmeats, 
tobacco  or  cigarettes.  A  Japanese  variegated  foil  gives  the 
effect  of  "  damaskeening."  A  large  number  of  thin  plates  of 
various  metals,  gold,  silver,  copper,  together  with  alloys  of 
different  metals  are  soldered  together  in  a  particular  order, 
a  pattern  is  hammered  into  the  soldered  edges,  and  the  whole  is 
hammered  or  rolled  into  a  single  thin  plate,  the  pattern  then 
appearing  in  the  order  in  which  the  various  metals  were  placed. 

2.  (From  an  O.  Fr.  fuler  or  foler,  modern  fouler,  to  tread  or 
trample,  to  "  full  "  cloth,  Lat.  fullo,  a  fuller),  an  old  hunting 
term,  used  of  the  running  back  of  an  animal  over  its  own  tracks, 
to  confuse  the  scent  and  baffle  the  hounds.     It  is  also  used  in 
wrestling,  of  a  "  throw."      Thus  comes  the  common  use  of  the 
word,  in  a  figurative  sense,  with  reference  to  both  these  meanings, 
of  baffling  or  defeating  an  adversary,  or  of  parrying  an  attack. 

3.  As  the  name  of  the  weapon  used  in  fencing  (see  FOIL- 
FENCING)  the  word  is  of  doubtful  origin.     One  suggestion,  based 
on  a  supposed  similar  use  of  Fi.fleurel,  literally  a  "  little  flower," 
for  the  weapon,  is  that  foil  means  a  leaf,  and  must  be  referred 
in  origin  to  Lat.  folium.     A  second  suggestion  is  that  it  means 
"  blunted,"  and  is  the  same  as    (2).    A  third  is  that  it  is  an 
adaptation  of  an  expression  "  at  foils,"    i.e.    "  parrying."    Of 
these  suggestions,  according  to  the  New  English  Dictionary,  the 
first  has  nothing  to  support  it,  the  second  is  not  supported  by 
any  evidence  that  in  sense  (2)  the  word  ever  meant  to  blunt. 
The  third  has  some  support.     Finally  a  suggestion  is  made  that 
the  word  is  an  alteration  of  an  old  word  "  foin,"  meaning  a 
thrust  with  a  pointed  weapon.     The  origin  of  this  word  is 
probably  an  O.  Fr.foisne,  from  the  Lat.  fuscina,  a  three-pronged 
fork. 

FOIL-FENCING,  the  art  of  attack  and  defence  with  the  fencing- 
foil.  The  word  is  used  in  several  spellings  (foyle,  file,  &c.)  by  the 
English  writers  of  the  last  half  of  the  i6th  century,  but  less  in 
the  sense  of  a  weapon  of  defence  than  merely  as  an  imitation  of 
a  real  weapon.  Blunt  swords  for  practice  in  fencing  have  been 
used  in  all  ages.  For  the  most  part  these  were  of  wood  and  flat  ir 
general  form,  but  when,  towards  the  close  of  the  i?th  century,  all 
cutting  action  with  the  small-sword  was  discarded  (see  FENCING), 
foil-blades  were  usually  made  of  steel,  and  either  round,  three- 
cornered  or  four-cornered  in  form,  with  a  button  covering  the 
point  The  foil  is  called  in  French  fleurel,  and  in  Italian 
fioretlo  (literally  "  bud  ")  from  this  button.  The  classic  small- 


sword play  of  the  i?th  and  i8th  centuries  is  represented  at  the 
present  time  by  fencing  with  the  ipte  de  combat  (fighting-rapier), 
which  is  merely  the  modern  duelling-sword  furnished  with  a 
button  (see  EPEE-DE-COMBAT),  and  by  foil-fencing.  Foil-fencing 
is  a  conventional  art,  its  characteristic  limitation  lying  in  the  rule 
that  no  hits  except  those  on  the  body  shall  be  considered  good, 
and  not  even  those  unless  they  be  given  in  strict  accordance  with 
certain  standard  precepts.  In  6p6e-fencing  on  the  contrary, 
a  touch  on  any  part  of  the  person,  however  given,  is  valid. 
Foil-fencing  is  considered  the  basis,  so  far  as  practice  is  con- 
cerned, of  all  sword-play,  whether  with  foil,  e'pe'e  or  sabre. 

There  are  two  recognized  schools  of  foil-fencing,  the  French  and 
the  Italian.  The  French  method,  which  is  now  generally  adopted 
everywhere  except  in  Italy,  is  described  in  this  article,  reference 
being  made  to  the  important  differences  between  the  two  schools. 

The  Fail.— The  foil  consists  of  the  "  blade  "  and  the  "  handle." 
The  blade,  which  is  of  steel  and  has  a  quadrangular  section, 
consists  of  two  patts:  the  blade  proper,  extending  from  the  guard 
to  the  button,  and  the  "tongue,"  which  runs  through  the  handle 
and  is  joined  to  the  pommel.  The  blade  proper  is  divided  into 
the  "  forte,"  or  thicker  half  (next  the  handle),  and  the  "  foible  " 
or  thinner  half.  Some  authorities  divide  the  blade  proper  into 
three  parts,  the  "  forte,"  "  middle  "  and  "  foible."  The  handle 
is  comprised  of  the  "  guard,"  the  "  grip  "  and  the  "  pommel." 
The  guard  is  a  light  piece  of  metal  shaped  like  the  figure  8  (Fr. 
lunettes,  spectacles)  and  backed  with  a  piece  of  stiff  leather  of 
the  same  shape.  The  grip,  which  is  grasped  by  the  hand,  is  a 
hollow  piece  of  wood,  usually  wound  with  twine,  through  which 
the  tongue  of  the  blade  passes.  The  pommel  is  a  piece  of  metal, 
usually  pear-shaped,  to  which  the  end  of  the  tongue  is  joined  and 
which  forms  the  extremity  of  the  handle.  The  blade  from  guard 
to  button  is  about  33  in.  long  (No.  5),  though  a  somewhat  shorter 
and  lighter  blade  is  generally  used  by  ladies.  The  handle  is 
about  8  in.  long  and  slightly  curved  downwards. 

The  genuine  Italian  foil  differs  from  the  French  in  having  the 
blade  a  trifle  longer  and  more  whippy,  and  in  the  form  of  the 
handle,  which  consists  of  a  thin,  solid,  bell-shaped  guard  from 
4  to  5  in.  in  diameter,  a  straight  grip  and  a  light  metal  bar  joining 
the  grip  with  the  guard,  beyond  the  edge  of  which  it  extends 
slightly  on  each  side.  Of  late  years  many  Italian  masters  use 
French  blades  and  even  discard  the  cross-bar,  retaining,  however, 
the  bell-guard. 

In  holding  the  foil,  the  thumb  is  placed  on  the  top  or  convex 
surface  of  the  grip  (the  sides  of  which  are  a  trifle  narrower  than 
the  top  and  bottom),  while  the  palm  and  fingers  grasp  the  other 
three  sides.  This  is  the  position  of  "  supination,"  or  thumb-up. 
"  Pronation  "  is  the  reverse  position,  with  the  knuckles  up. 
The  French  lay  stress  upon  holding  the  foil  lightly,  the  necessary 
pressure  being  exerted  mostly  by  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  the 
other  fingers  being  used  more  to  guide  the  direction  of  the  exe- 
cuted movements.  This  is  in  order  to  give  free  scope  to  the 
doigti  (fingering),  or  the  faculty  of  directing  the  point  of  the  foil 
by  the  action  of  the  fingers  alone,  and  includes  the  possibility 
of  changing  the  position  of  the  hand  on  the  grip.  Thus,  in  parry- 
ing, the  end  of  the  thumb  is  placed  within  half  an  inch,  or  even 
less,  of  the  guard,  while  in  making  a  lunge,  the  foil  is  held  as  near 
the  pommel  as  possible,  in  order  to  gain  additional  length. 
It  will  be  seen  that  doigle  is  impossible  with  the  Italian  foil, 
in  holding  which  the  forefinger  is  firmly  interlaced  with  the  cross- 
bar, preventing  any  movement  of  the  hand.  The  lightness  of 
grasp  inculcated  by  the  French  is  illustrated  by  the  rule  of  the 
celebrated  master  Lafaug£re:  "  Hold  your  sword  as  if  you  had 
a  little  bird  in  your  hand,  firmly  enough  to  prevent  its  escape,  yet 
not  so  firmly  as  to  crush  it."  This  lightness  has  for  a  consequence 
that  a  disarmament  is  not  considered  of  any  value  in  the  Fren'ch 
school. 

To  Come  on  Guard. — The  position  of  "  on  guard  "  is  that  in 
which  the  fencer  is  best  prepared  both  for  attack  and  defence. 
It  is  taken  from  the  position  of  "  attention  ";  the  feet  together 
and  at  right  angles  with  each  other,  head  and  body  erect,  facing 
forward  in  the  same  direction  as  the  right  foot,  left  arm  and  hand 
hanging  in  touch  with  the  body,  and  the  right  arm  and  foil 


592 


FOIL-FENCING 


forming  a  straight  line  so  that  the  button  is  about  i  yd.  in 
front  of  the  feet  and  4  in.  from  the  floor.  From  this  position  the 
movements  to  come  "  on  guard  "  are  seven  in  number: — 

1.  Raise  the  arm  and  foil  and  extend  them  towards  the  adversary 
(or  master)  in  a  straight  line,  the  hand  being  opposite  the  eye. 

2.  Drop  the  arm  and  foil  again  until  the  point  is  about  4  in.  from 
the  floor. 

3.  Swing  the  button  round  so  that  it  shall  point  horizontally 
backwards,  and  hold  the  hilt  against  the  left  thigh,  the  open  fingers 
of  the  left  hand  being  held,  knuckles  down,  against  the  guard  and 
along  the  blade. 

4.  Carry  the  foil,  without  altering  the  position  of  the  hands,  above 
the  head  until  the  arms  are  fully  extended,  the  foil  being  kept 
horizontal  and  close  to  the  body  as  it  is  lifted. 

5.  Let  the  left  arm  fall  back  behind  the  head  to  a  curved  position, 
the  hand  being  opposite  the  top  of  the  head ;  at  the  same  time  bring 
the  right  hand  down  opposite  the  right  breast  and  about  8  in.  from 
it;    keeping  the  elbow  well  in  and  the  point  of  the  foil  directed 
towards  the  opponent's  eye. 

6.  Bend  the  legs  by  separating  them  at  the  knees  but  without 
moving  the  feet. 

7.  Shift  the  weight  of  the  body  on  to  the  left  leg  and  advance  the 
right  foot  a  short  distance  (from  14  to  1 8  in.,  according  to  the  height 
of  the  fencer). 

In  the  Italian  school  the  fencer  stands  on  guard  with  the  right 
arm  fully  extended,  the  body  more  effaced,  i.e.  the  left  shoulder 
thrown  farther  back,  and  the  feet  somewhat  farther  apart.  At 
the  present  time,  however,  many  of  the  best  Italian  fencers  have 
adopted  the  guard  with  crooked  sword-arm,  owing  to  their 
abandonment  of  the  old  long-foil  blade. 

The  Recover  (at  the  close  of  the  lesson  or  assault). — To  recover 
"in  advance  ":  extend  the  right  arm  at  right  angles  with  the 
body,  drop  the  left  arm  and  straighten  the  legs  by  drawing  the 
rear  foot  up  to  the  one  in  advance.  To  recover  "  to  the  rear  ": 
extend  the  right  arm  and  drop  the  left  as  before,  and  straighten 
the  legs  by  drawing  the  forward  foot  back  to  that  in  the  rear. 

The  Salute  always  follows  the  recover,  the  two  really  forming 
one  manoeuvre.  Having  recovered,  carry  the  right  hand  to  a 
position  just  in  front  of  the  throat,  knuckles  out,  foil  vertical 
with  point  upwards;  then  lower  and  extend  the  arm  with  nails 
up  until  the  point  is  4  in.  from  the  floor  and  slightly  to  the  right. 

To  Advance. — Being  on  guard,  take  a  short  step  forward  with 
the  right  foot  and  let  the  left  foot  follow  immediately  the  same 
distance,  the  position  of  the  body  not  being  changed.  However 
the  step,  or  series  of  steps,  is  made,  the  right  foot  should  always 
move  first. 

To  Retreat. — This  is  the  reverse  of  the  advance,  the  left  foot 
always  moving  first. 

The  Calls  (deux  appels). — Being  on  guard,  tap  the  floor  twice 
with  the  right  foot  without  altering  the  position  of  any  other 
part  of  the  person.  The  object  of  the  calls  is  to  test  the 
equilibrium  of  the  body,  and  they  are  usually  executed  as  a  pre- 
liminary to  the  recover. 

The  Lunge  is  the  chief  means  of  attack.  It  is  immediately 
preceded  by  the  movement  of  "  extension,"  in  fact  the  two 
really  form  one  combined  movement.  Extension  is  executed  by 
quickly  extending  the  right  arm,  so  that  point,  hand  and  shoulder 
shall  have  the  same  elevation;  no  other  part  of  the  person  is 
moved.  The  "  lunge  "  is  then  carried  out  by  straightening  the 
left  leg  and  throwing  forward  the  right  foot,  so  that  it  shall 
be  planted  as  far  forward  as  possible  without  losing  the  equili- 
brium or  preventing  a  quick  recovery  to  the  position  of  guard. 
The  left  foot  remains  firmly  in  its  position,  the  right  shoulder  is 
advanced,  and  the  left  arm  is  thrown  down  and  back  (with  hand 
open  and  thumb  up),  to  balance  the  body.  The  recovery  to  the 
position  of  guard  is  accomplished  by  smartly  throwing  the  body 
back  by  the  exertion  of  the  right  leg,  until  its  weight  rests  again 
on  the  left  leg,  the  right  foot  and  arms  resuming  their  on-guard 
positions.  The  point  upon  which  the  French  school  lays  most 
stress  is,  that  the  movement  of  extension  shall,  if  only  by  a 
fraction  of  a  second,  actually  precede  the  advance  of  the  right 
foot.  The  object  of  this  is  to  ensure  the  accuracy  of  the  lunge, 
i.e.  the  direction  of  the  point. 

The  Gain. — This  consists  in  bringing  up  the  left  foot  towards 
the  right  (the  balance  being  shifted),  keeping  the  knees  bent.  In 


this  manner  a  step  is  gained  and  an  exceptionally  long  lunge  can 
be  made  without  the  knowledge  of  the  adversary.  It  is  a  common 
stratagem  of  fencers  whose  reach  is  short. 

Defence. — For  the  purpose  of  nomenclature  the  space  on  the 
fencer's  jacket  within  which  hits  count  is  divided  into  quarters, 
the  two  upper  ones  being  called  the  "  high  lines,"  and  the  two 
lower  ones  the  "  low  lines."  Thus  a  thrust  directed  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  breast  is  called  an  attack  in  the  high  lines.  In  like 
manner  the  parries  are  named  from  the  different  quarters  they 
are  designed  to  protect.  There  are  four  traditional  parries 
executed  with  the  hand  in  supination,  and  four  others,  practically 
identical  in  execution,  made  with  the  hand  held  in  pronation. 
Thus  the  parries  defending  the  upper  right-hand  quarter  of  the 
jacket  are  "  sixte  "  (sixth;  with  the  hand  in  supination)  and 
"  tierce  "  (third;  hand  in  pronation).  Those  defending  the 
upper  left-hand  quarter  are  "  quarte  "  (fourth;  in  supination} 
and  "  quinte  "  (fifth;  in  pronation).  Those  defending  the  lower 
right-hand  quarter  are  "  octave  "  (eighth;  in  supination)  and 
"  seconde  "  (second;  in  pronation).  Those  defending  the  lower 
left-hand  quarter  are  "  septime "  (seventh;  in  supination), 
more  generally  called  "  demicircle,"  or  "  half-circle "  ;  and 
"  prime  "  (first;  in  pronation). 

The  Parries. — The  tendency  of  the  French  school  has  always 
been  towards  simplicity,  especially  of  defence,  and  at  the  present 
day  the  parries  made  with  the  knuckles  up  (pronation),  although 
recognized  and  taught,  are  seldom  if  ever  used  against  a  strong 
adversary  in  foil-fencing,  owing  principally  to  the  time  lost  in 
turning  the  hand.  The  theory  of  parrying  is  to  turn  aside  the 
opponent's  foil  with  the  least  possible  expenditure  of  time  and 
exertion,  using  the  arm  as  little  as  possible  while  letting  the  hand 
and  wrist  do  the  work,  and  opposing  the  "  forte  "  of  the  foil 
to  the  "  foible  "  of  the  adversary's.  The  foil  is  kept  pointed 
as  directly  as  possible  towards  the  adversary,  and  the  parries  are 
made  rather  with  the  corners  than  the  sides  of  the  blade.  The 
slightest  movement  that  will  turn  aside  the  opponent's  blade  is 
the  most  perfect  parry.  There  are  two  kinds  of  parries,  "  simple," 
in  which  the  attack  is  warded  off  by  a  single  movement,  and 
"  counter,"  in  which  a  narrow  circle  is  described  by  the  point  of 
the  foil  round  that  of  the  opponent,  which  is  thus  enveloped  and 
thrown  aside.  There  are  also  complex  parries,  composed  of 
combinations  of  two  or  more  parries,  which  are  used  to  meet 
complicated  attacks,  but  they  are  all  resolvable  into  simple 
parries.  In  parrying,  the  arm  is  bent  about  at  right  angles. 

Simple  Parries. — The  origin  of  the  numerical  nomenclature  of 
the  parries  is  a  matter  of  dispute,  but  it  is  generally  believed  that 
they  received  their  names  from  the  positions  assumed  in  the  pro- 
cess of  drawing  the  sword  and  falling  on  guard.  Thus  the  position 
of  the  hand  and  blade,  the  moment  it  is  drawn  from  the  scabbard 
on  the  left  side,  is  practically  that  of  the  first,  or  "  prime,"  parry. 
To  go  from  "  prime  "  to  "  seconde  "  it  is  only  necessary  to  drop 
the  hand  and  carry  it  across  the  body  to  the  left  side;  thence 
to  "  tierce  "  is  only  a  matter  of  raising  the  point  of  the  sword,  &c. 

Parry  of  Prime  (to  ward  off  attacks  on  the — usually  lower — 
left-hand  side  of  the  body).  Hold  the  hand,  knuckles  up,  opposite 
the  left  eye  and  the  point  directed  towards  the  opponent's  knee. 
This  parry  is  now  regarded  more  as  an  elegant  evolution  than  a 
sound  means  of  defence,  and  is  little  employed. 

Parry  of  Seconde  (against  thrusts  at  the  lower  right-hand  side). 
This  is  executed  by  a  quick,  not  too  wide  movement  of  the  hand 
downwards  and  slightly  to  the  right,  knuckles  up. 

Parry  of  Tierce  (against  thrusts  at  the  upper  right-hand  side). 
A  quick,  dry  beat  on  the  adversary's  "  foible  "  is  given,  forcing 
it  to  the  right,  the  hand,  in  pronation,  being  held  opposite  the 
middle  of  the  right  breast.  This  parry  has  been  practically 
discarded  in  favour  of  "  sixte." 

Parry  of  Quarte  (against  thrusts  at  the  upper  left-hand  side). 
This  parry,  perhaps  the  most  used  of  all,  is  executed  by  forcing 
the  adversary's  blade  to  the  left  by  a  dry  beat,  the  hand  being  in 
supination,  opposite  the  left  breast. 

Parry  of  Quinte  (against  thrusts  at  the  left-hand  side,  like 
"  quarte  ").  This  is  practically  a  low  "  quarte,"  and  is  little 
used. 


FOIL-FENCING 


Parry  of  Sixle  (against  thrusts  at  the  upper  right-hand  side). 
This  parry  is,  together  with  "  quarte,"  the  most  important  of  all. 
It  is  executed  with  the  hand  held  in  supinatiorr  opposite  the  right 
breast,  a  quick,  narrow  movement  throwing  the  adversary's 
blade  to  the  right. 

Parry  of  Septime  or  Half-Circle  (against  thrusts  at  the  lower 
left-hand  side)  is  executed  by  describing  with  the  point  of  the 
foil  a  small  semicircle  downward  and  towards  the  left,  the  hand 
moving  a  few  inches  in  the  same  direction,  but  kept  thumb  up. 

Parry  of  Octave  (against  thrusts  at  the  lower  right-hand  side) 
is  executed  by  describing  with  the  point  of  the  foil  a  small  semi- 
circle downward  and  towards  the  right,  the  hand  moving  a  few 
inches  in  the  same  direction,  but  kept  thumb  up. 

Counter  Parries  (Fr.  centre) . — Although  the  simple  parries 
are  theoretically  sufficient  for  defence,  they  are  so  easily  deceived 
by  feints  that  they  are  supplemented  by  counter  parries,  in 
which  the  blade  describes  narrow  circles,  following  that  of  the 
adversary  and  meeting  and  turning  it  aside;  thus  the  point 
describes  a  complete  circle  while  the  hand  remains  practically 
stationary.  Each  simple  parry  has  its  counter,  made  with  the 
hand  in  the  same  position  and  on  the  same  side  as  in  the  simple 
parry.  The  two  most  important  are  the  "  counter  of  quarte  " 
and  the  "  counter  of  sixte,"  while  the  counters  of  "  septime  " 
and  "  octave  "  are  less  used,  and  the  other  four  at  the  present 
time  practically  never. 

Counter  of  Quarte. — Being  on  guard  in  quarte  (with  your 
adversary's  blade  on  the  left  of  yours),  if  he  drops  his  point  under 
and  thrusts  in  sixte,  in  other  words  at  your  right  breast,  describe 
a  narrow  circle  with  your  point  round  his  blade,  downward  to  the 
right  and  then  up  over  to  the  left,  bringing  hand  and  foil  back  to 
their  previous  positions  and  catching  and  turning  aside  his  blade 
on  the  way.  The  "  Counter  of  Sixte  "  is  executed  in  a  similar 
manner,  but  the  circle  is  described  in  the  opposite  direction, 
throwing  off  the  adverse  blade  to  the  right.  The  "  Counters  of 
Septime  and  Octave  "  are  similar  to  the  other  two  but  are 
executed  in  the  low  lines. 

Complex  or  Combined  Parries  are  such  as  are  composed  of  two 
or  more  parries  executed  in  immediate  succession,  and  are  made 
in  answer  to  feint  attacks  by  the  adversary  (see  below);  e.g. 
being  on  guard  in  quarte,  should  the  adversary  drop  his  point 
under  and  feint  at  the  right  breast  but  deflect  the  point  again 
and  really  thrust  on  the  left,  it  is  evident  that  the  simple  parry 
of  sixte  would  cover  the  right  breast  but  would  leave  the  real 
point  of  attack,  the  left,  entirely  uncovered.  The  sixte  parry 
is  therefore  followed,  as  a  continuation  of  the  movement,  by  the 
parry  of  quarte,  or  a  counter  parry.  The  complex  parries  are 
numerous  and  depend  upon  the  attack  to  be  met. 

Engagement  is  the  junction  of  the  blades,  the  different  engage- 
ments being  named  from  the  parries.  Thus,  if  both  fencers  are  in 
the  position  of  quarte,  they  are  said  to  be  engaged  in  quarte. 
To  engage  in  another  line  (Change  of  Engagement)  e.g.  from 
quarte  to  sixte,  the  point  is  lowered  and  passed  under  the 
adversary's  blade,  which  is  pressed  slightly  outward,  so  as  to  be 
well  covered  (called  "  opposition  ").  "  Double  Engagement  " 
is  composed  of  two  engagements  executed  rapidly  in  succession 
in  the  high  lines,  the  last  with  opposition. 

Attack. — The  attack  in  fencing  comprises  all  movements  the 
object  of  which  is  to  place  the  point  of  the  foil  upon  the  adversary's 
breast,  body,  sides  or  back,  between  collar  and  belt.  The  space 
upon  which  hits  count  is  called  the  "  target  "  and  differs  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  prevailing  in  the  several  countries,  but  is  usually 
as  above  stated.  In  Great  Britain  no  hits  above  the  collar-bones 
count,  while  in  America  the  target  is  only  the  left  breast  between 
the  median  line  and  a  line  running  from  the  armpit  to  the  belt. 
The  reason  for  this  limitation  is  to  encourage  accuracy. 

Attacks  are  either  "primary"  or  "secondary."  Primary 
Attacks  are  those  initiated  by  a  fencer  before  his  adversary  has 
made  any  offensive  movement,  and  are  divided  into  "  Simple,' 
"  Feint  "  and  "  Force  "  attacks. 

Simple  Attacks,  the  characteristic  of  which  is  pace,  are  those 
made  with  one  simple  movement  only  and  are  four  in  number, 
viz.  the  "Straight  Lunge,"  the  "Disengagement,"  the 


593 


"  Counter-disengagement  "  and  the  "  Cut-over."  The  Straight- 
Lunge  (coup  droit),  used  when  the  adversary  is  not  properly 
covered  when  on  guard,  is  described  above  under  "  Lunge." 
The  Disengagement  is  made  by  dropping  the  point  of  the  foil 
under  the  opponent's  blade  and  executing  a  straight  lunge  on  the 
other  side.  It  is  often  used  to  take  an  opponent  unawares  or 
when  he  presses  unduly  hard  on  your  blade.  The  Counter- 
disengagement  is  used  when  the  adversary  moves  his  blade,  i.e. 
changes  the  line  of  engagement,  upon  which  you  execute  a  narrow 
circle,  avoiding  his  blade,  and  thrust  in  your  original  line.  The 
Cut-over  (coupe)  is  a  disengagement  executed  by  passing  the 
point  of  the  foil  over  that  of  the  adversary  and  lunging  in  the 
opposite  line.  The  preliminary  movement  of  raising  the  point 
is  made  by  the  action  of  the  hand  only,  the  arm  not  being  drawn 
back. 

Feint  Attacks,  deceptive  in  character,  are  those  which  are  pre- 
ceded by  one  or  more  feints,  or  false  thrusts  made  to  lure  the 
adversary  into  thinking  them  real  ones.  A  feint  is  a  simple 
extension,  often  with  a  slight  movement  of  the  body,  threatening 
the  adversary  in  a  certain  line,  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  him 
to  parry  on  that  side  and  thus  leave  the  other  open  for  the  real 
thrust.  At  the  same  time  any  movement  of  the  blade  or  any 
part  of  the  body  tending  to  deceive  the  adversary  in  regard  to  the 
nature  of  the  attack  about  to  follow,  must  also  be  considered  a 
species  of  feint.  The  principal  feint  attacks  are  the  "  One-Two," 
the  "  One-Two-Three  "  and  the  "  Double." 

The  "  One-Two "  is  a  feint  in  one  line,  followed  (as  the 
adversary  parries)  by  a  thrust  in  the  original  line  of  engagement. 
Thus,  being  engaged  in  quarte,  you  drop  your  point  under  the 
adversary's  blade  and  extend  your  arm  as  if  to  thrust  at  his  left 
breast,  but  instead  of  doing  this,  the  instant  he  parries  you 
move  your  point  back  again  and  lunge  in  quarte,  i.e.  on  the 
side  on  which  you  were  originally  engaged.  In  feinting  it  is 
necessary  that  the  extension  of  the  arm  and  blade  be  so 
complete  as  really  to  compel  the  adversary  to  believe  it  a 
part  of  a  real  thrust  in  that  line. 

The  '•  One-Two-Three  "  consists  of  two  feints,  one  at  each 
side,  followed  by  a  thrust  in  the  line  opposite  to  that  of  the 
original  engagement.  Thrusts  preceded  by  three  feints  are  also 
sometimes  used.  It  is  evident  that  the  above  attacks  are  useless 
if  the  adversary  parries  by  a  counter  (circular  parry),  which  must 
be  met  by  a  "  Double."  This  is  executed  by  feinting  and,  upon 
perceiving  that  the  adversary  opposes  with  a  circular  parry,  by 
following  the  circle  described  by  his  point  with  a  similar  circle, 
deceiving  (i.e.  avoiding  contact  with)  his  blade  and  thrusting 
home. 

The  "  Double,"  which  is  a  favourite  manoeuvre  in  fencing,  is 
a  combination  of  a  disengagement  and  a  counter-disengagement. 

Force- Attacks,  the  object  of  which  is  to  disconcert  the  opponent 
by  assaulting  his  blade,  are  various  in  character,  the  principal  ones 
being  the  "  Beat,"  the  "  Press,"  the  "  Glide  "  and  the  "  Bind." 
The  "  Beat  "  is  a  quick,  sharp  blow  of  the  forte  of  the  foil  upon 
the  foible  of  the  adversary's,  for  the  purpose  of  opening  a  way 
for  a  straight  lunge  which  follows  instantly.  The  blow  is  made 
with  the  hand  only.  A  "  false  beat  "  is  a  lighter  blow  made  for 
the  purpose  of  drawing  out  or  disconcerting  the  opponent,  and  is 
often  followed  by  a  disengagement.  The  "  Press  ''  is  similar  in 
character  to  the  beat,  but,  instead  of  striking  the  adverse  blade, 
a  sudden  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  upon  it,  sufficiently  heavy 
to  force  it  aside  and  allow  one's  own  blade  to  be  thrust  home.  A 
"  false  press  "  may  be  used  to  entice  the  adversary  into  a  too 
heavy  responsive  pressure,  which  may  then  be  taken  advantage 
of  by  a  disengagement.  The  "  Traverse  "  (Fr.  froisst,  Ital. 
striscio)  is  a  prolonged  press  carried  sharply  down  the  adverse 
blade  towards  the  handle.  The  "  Glide  "  ("  Graze,"  Fr.  coule) 
is  a  stealthy  sliding  of  one's  blade  down  that  of  the  adversary, 
without  his  notice,  until  a  straight  thrust  can  be  made  inside 
his  guard.  It  is  also  used  as  a  feint  before  a  disengage.  The 
"  Bind  "  (liemenl)  consists  in  gaining  possession  of  the  adver- 
sary's foible  with  one's  forte,  and  pressing  it  down  and  across 
into  the  opposite  low  line,  when  one's  own  point  is  thrust  home, 
the  adversary's  blade  being  still  held  by  one's  hilt.  It  may  be 


594 


FOIL-FENCING 


also  carried  out  from  a  low  line  into  a  high  one.  The  bind  is 
less  used  in  the  French  school  than  in  the  Italian.  The  "  Flan- 
connade  "  is  a  bind  made  by  capturing  the  adversary's  blade 
in  high  quarte,  carrying  it  down  and  thrusting  in  the  outside 
line  with  strong  opposition.  Another  attack  carried  out  by 
means  of  a  twist  and  thrust  is  the  "  Cross  "  (f  raise),  which  is 
executed  when  the  adversary's  blade  is  held  low  by  passing  one's 
point  over  his  wrist  and  forcing  down  both  blades  into  seconde 
with  a  full  extension  of  the  arm.  The  result  is  to  create  a  sudden 
and  wide  opening,  and  often  disarms  the  adversary. 

Secondary  Attacks  are  those  made  (i)  just  as  your  adversary 
himself  starts  to  attack;  (2)  during  his  attack;  and  (3)  on  the 
completion  of  his  attack  if  it  fails. 

1.  "  Attacks  on  the  Preparation  "  are  a  matter  of  judgment 
and  quickness.  They  are  usually  attempted  when  the  adversary 
is  evidently  preparing  a  complicated  attack,  such  as  the  "  one- 
two-three  "  or  some  other  manoeuvre,  involving   one  or  more 
preliminary  movements.     At  such  a  time  a  quick  thrust  will 
often  catch  him  unawares  and  score.     Opportunities  for  pre- 
paration attacks  are  often  given  when  the  adversary  attempts 
a  beat  preliminary  to  his  thrust;  the  beat  is  frustrated  by  an 
"  absence  of  the  blade,"  i.e.   your  blade  is  made  to  avoid 
contact   with   his   by  a   narrow   movement,   and   your   point 
thrust  home  into  the  space  left  unguarded  by  the  force  of 
his  unresisted  beat.    Or  the  adversary  himself  may  create  an 
"  absence  "  by  suddenly  interrupting  the  contact  of  the  blades, 
in  the  hope  that,  by  the  removal  of  the  pressure,  your  blade  will 
fly  off  to  one  side,  leaving  an  opening;  if,  however,  you  are  pre- 
pared for  his  "  absence  "  a  straight  thrust  will  score. 

2.  The  chief  "  Attacks  on  the  Development,"  or  "  Counter 
Attacks,"  are  the  "  Stop  Thrust  "  and  the  "  Time  Thrust," 
both  made  while  the  adversary  is  carrying  out  his  own  attack. 
The  "  Stop  Thrust  "  (coup  d'arrei)  is  one  made  after  the  adver- 
sary has  actually  begun  an  attack  involving  two  or  more  move- 
ments, and  is  only  justified  when  it  can  be  brought  off  without 
your  being  hit  by  the  attacking  adversary's  point  on  any  part  of 
the  person.  The  reason  for  this  is,  that  the  rules  of  fencing  decree 
that  the  fencer  attacked  must  parry,  and  that,  if  he  disregards  this 
and  attempts  a  simultaneous  counter  attack,  he  must  touch  his 
opponent  while  totally  avoiding  the  latter's  point.    Should  he, 
however,  be  touched,  even  on  the  foot  or  mask,  by  the  adversary, 
his  touch,  however  good,  is  invalid.    If  both  touches  are  good, 
that  of  the  original  attacker,  only  counts.     Stop  thrusts  are 
employed  mostly  against  fencers  who  attack  wildly  or  without 
being  properly  covered.    The  "  Time  Thrust  "  is  delivered  with 
opposition  upon  the  adversary's  composite  attack  (one  involving 
several  movements),  and,  if  successful,  generally  parries  the 
original  attack  at  the  same  time.    It  is  not  valid  if  the  fencer 
employing  it  is  toucTied  on  any  part  of  the  person. 

3.  "  Attacks  on  the  Completion  "   (i.e.  of  the  adversary's 
attack)  are  "  Ripostes,"  "  Counter-ripostes,"  "  Remises  "  and 
"  Renewals  of  Attack." 

The  Riposte  (literally,  response)  is  an  attack  made,  immediately 
after  parrying  successfully,  by  merely  straightening  the  arm, 
the  body  remaining  immovable.  The  "  counter-riposte  "  is  a 
riposte  made  after  parrying  the  adversary's  riposte,  and  gener- 
ally from  the  position  of  the  lunge,  or  while  recovering  from  it, 
since  one  must  have  attacked  with  a  full  lunge  if  the  adversary 
has  had  an  opportunity  to  deliver  a  riposte.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  ripostes:  direct,  with  feints  and  after  a  pause. 

The  "  direct  riposte  "  may  be  made  instantly  after  parrying 
the  adversary's  fchrust  by  quitting  his  blade  and  straightening 
the  arm,  so  that  the  point  will  touch  his  body  on  the  nearest 
and  most  exposed  part;  or  by  not  quitting  his  blade  but  running 
yours  quickly  down  his  and  at  the  same  time  keeping  a  strong 
opposition  ("  riposte  d'opposition  ").  The  quickest  direct  riposte 
is  that  delivered  after  parrying  quarte  (for  a  right-hand  fencer), 
and  is  called  by  the  French  the  riposte  of  "  tac-au-tac,"  imitative 
of  the  sudden  succession  of  the  click  of  the  parry  and  the  tap  of 
the  riposting  fencer's  point  on  his  adversary's  breast.  In  making 
"  ripostes  with  a  feint  "  the  point  is  not  jabbed  on  to  the  op- 
ponent's breast  immediately  after  the  parry,  but  one  or  more 


preliminary  movements  precede  the  actual  riposte,  such  as  a 
disengagement,  a  cut-over  or  a  double. 

Ripostes  with  a  pause  (a  temps  perdu,  with  lost  time)  are.  made 
after  a  second's  hesitation,  and  are  resorted  to  when  the  fencers 
are  too  near  for  an  accurate  direct  riposte,  or  to  give  the 
adversary  time  to  make  a  quick  parry,  which  is  then  deceived. 

The  remise  is  a  thrust  made  after  one's  first  thrust  has  been 
parried  and  in  the  same  line;  it  must  be  made  in  such  a  way 
that  the  adversary's  justified  riposte  is  at  the  same  time  parried 
by  opposition  or  completely  avoided.  It  is  really  a  renewal  of 
the  attack  in  the  original  line,  while  the  so-called  "  renewal  of 
attack  "  ("  redoublement  d'attaque  ")  is  a  second  thrust  which 
ignores  the  adversary's  riposte,  but  made  in  a  different  line. 
Both  the  remise  and  the  renewal  are  valid  only  when  the 
adversary's  riposte  does  not  hit. 

"  False  Attacks  "  are  broad  movements  made  for  the  purpose 
of  drawing  the  adversary  out  or  of  disconcerting  him.  They 
may  consist  of  an  advance,  an  extension,  a  change  of  engage- 
ment, an  intentional  uncovering  by  taking  a  wide  guard  (called 
"  invitation  guard "),  or  any  movement  or  combination  of 
movements  tending  to  make  the  adversary  believe  that  a  real 
attack  is  under  way. 

"  The  Assault  "  is  a  formal  fencing  bout  or  series  of  bouts  in 
public,  while  formal  fencing  in  private  is  called  "  loose  play  " 
or  a  "  friendly  bout."  Bouts  between  fencers  take  place  on  a 
platform  about  24  ft.  long  and  6  ft.  wide  (in  the  United  States 
20  X  3  ft.).  Formal  bouts  are  usually  for  a  number  of  touches, 
or  for  a  certain  number  of  minutes,  the  fencer  who  touches 
oftenest  winning.  The  judges  (usually  three  or  five)  are  some- 
times empowered  to  score  one  or  more  points  against  a  com- 
petitor for  breaches  of  good  form,  or  for  overstepping  the  space 
limits.  In  the  United  States  bouts  are  for  four  minutes,  with 
a  change  of  places  after  two  minutes,  and  the  competitors  are 
not  interrupted,  the  winner  being  indicated  by  a  vote  of  the 
judges,  who  take  into  account  touches  and  style.  In  all  countries 
contestants  are  required  to  wear  jackets  of  a  light  colour,  so 
that  hits  may  be  easily  seen.  Audible  acknowledgment  of  ali 
touches,  whether  on  the  target  or  not,  is  universally  considered 
to  be  a  fencer's  duty.  Fencing  competitions  are  held  in  Great 
Britain  under  the  rules  of  the  Amateur  Fencing  Association, 
and  in  the  United  States  under  those  of  the  Amateur  Fencers' 
League  of  America. 

Fencing  Terms  (not  mentioned  above) :  "  Cavazione,"  Ital.  for 
disengagement.  "  Contraction,  Parries  of,''  those  which  do  not  parry 
in  the  simplest  manner,  but  drag  the  adverse  blade  into  another 
line,  e.g.  to  parry  a  thrust  in  high  sixte  by  counter  of  quarte.  "  Con- 
trotempo,"  Ital.  for  time-thrust.  "  Coronation,"  an  attack  preceded 
by  a  circular  movement  from  high  sixte  to  high  quarte  (and  vice 
versa)  made  famous  by  Lafaugere.  "  Corps-a-corps  "  (body  to 
body),  the  position  of  two  fencers  who  are  at  such  close  quarters 
that  their  persons  touch;  when  this  occurs  the  fencers  must  again 
come  on  guard.  "  Coule,"  Fr.  for  glide.  "  Disarm,"  to  knock  the 
foil  out  of  the  adversary's  hand;  it  is  of  no  value  in  the  French 
school.  "  Double  Hit,"  when  both  fencers  attack  and  hit  at  the 
same  time;  neither  hit  counts.  "  Filo,"  Ital.  for  glide  (graze). 
"  Flying  Cut-over,"  a  cut-over  executed  as  a  continuation  of  a 
parry,  the  hand  being  drawn  back  towards  the  body.  "  Incontro," 
Ital.  for  double  attack.  "  Give  the  blade,"  to  allow  the  adversary 
easy  contact  with  the  foil ;  it  is  often  resorted  to  in  order  to  tempt 
the  adversary  into  a  beat  or  bind.  "  Menace,"  to  threaten  the 
adversary  by  an  extension  and  forward  movement  of  the  trunk. 
"  Mur,"  see  "  Salute."  "  Passage  of  arms,"  a  series  of  attacks  and 
parries,  ending  in  a  successful  hit.  "  Phrase  of  arms,"  a  series  of 
attacks  and  parries  ending  in  a  hit  or  invalidation.  "  Invalidation," 
a  hit  on  some  part  of  the  person  outside  the  target,  made  by  the  fencer 
whose  right  it  is  at  that  moment  to  attack  or  riposte;  such  a  hit 
invalidates  one  made  simultaneously  or  subsequently  by  hisopponent, 
however  good.  "  Rebeat,"  two  beats,  executed  as  quickly  as  possible 
together,  one  on  each  side  of  the  adversary's  blade.  "  Reprises 
d'attaque,"  Fr.  for  renewed  attacks.  "Salute,"  the  courteous 
salutation  of  the  public  and  the  adversary  before  and  after  a  bout. 
A  more  elaborate  salute,  called  by  the  French  the  Mur,  consists  of 
a  series  of  parries,  lunges  and  other  evolutions  carried  out  by  both 
fencers  at  the  same  time.  Important  exhibition  assaults  are  usually 
preceded  by  the  Mur,  which  is  called  in  English  the  Grand  Salute. 

Septime  enveloppee,"  a  riposte  by  means  of  a  twist  and  thrust  after 
a  parry  in  septime.  It  envelops  and  masters  the  adverse  blade, 
whence  the  name.  "  Secret  thrusts,"  the  French  "  bottes  secretes," 
pretended  infallible  attacks  of  which  the  user  is  supposed  alone  to 


FOIX,  P.  DE— FOIX 


595 


know  the  method  of  execution;  they  have  no  real  existence. 
"Sforza,"  Ital.  for  disarmament.  "  Scandaglio,"  Ital  for  examina- 
tion, studying  the  form  of  an  opponent  at  the  beginning  of  a  bout. 
"  Toccata!"  Ital.  for  " Touched! 'r;  Fr.  "  Touche." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  literature  of  foil-fencing  is  practically 
identical  with  that  of  the  art  in  general  (see  FENCING).  The  follow- 
ing modern  works  are  among  the  best.  French  School:  Fencing, 
in  the  Badminton  library  (1897);  Foil  and  Sabre,  by  L.  Rondelle 
(Boston,  1892);  "Fencing,"  by  C.  Prevost  in  the  Encyclopaedia 
of  Sport  (1901);  Fencing,  by  Edward  Breck  (New  York,  1906). 
Italian  school:  Istruzione  per  la  scherma,  &c.,  by  S.  de  Frae 
(Milan,  1885);  La  Scherma  ilaliana  di  spada  e  di  sciabola,  by  F. 
Masiello  (Florence,  1887).  (E.  B.) 

FOIX,  PAUL  DE  (1528-1584),  French  prelate  and  diplomatist. 
He  studied  Greek  and  Roman  literature  at  Paris,  and  juris- 
prudence at  Toulouse,  where  shortly  after  finishing  his  curri- 
culum he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  on  civil  law,  which  gained 
him  great  reputation.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  was  named 
councillor  of  the  parlement  of  Paris.  Having  in  this  capacity 
expressed  himself  favourable  to  the  adoption  of  mild  measures 
in  regard  to  certain  persons  accused  of  Lutheranism,  he  was 
arrested,  but  escaped  punishment,  and  subsequently  regained 
the  favour  of  the  French  court.  At  the  end  of  1561  he  was  sent 
ambassador  to  England,  where  he  remained  four  years.  He  was 
then  sent  to  Venice,  and  returned  a  short  time  afterwards  to 
England  to  negotiate  a  marriage  between  Queen  Elizabeth  and 
the  duke  of  Anjou.  He  again  fulfilled  several  important  missions 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  of  France.  In  1577  he  was  made 
archbishop  of  Toulouse,  and  in  1579  was  appointed  ambassador 
to  Rome,  where  he  remained  till  his  death  in  1584. 

Les  Lettres  de  Messire  de  Paul  de  Foix,  archevesque  de  Toloze  el 
ambassadeur  pour  le  roy  aupres  du  pape  Gregoire  XIII,  au  rot 
Henry  III,  were  published  in  1628,  but  there  are  some  doubts  as  to 
their  authenticity.  See  Gallia  Christiana  (1715  seq.) ;  M.  A.  Muret, 
Oraisonfunebre  de  Paul  de  Foix  (Paris,  1584) ;  "  Lettres  de  Catherine 
de  Medicis,"  edited  by  Hector  de  la  Ferriere  (Paris,  1880  seq.)  in 
the  Collection  de  documents  inedits  sur  I'histoire  de  France. 

FOIX,  a  town  of  south-western  France,  in  the  middle  ages 
capital  of  the  counts  of  Foix,  and  now  capital  of  the  department 
of  Ariege,  51  m.  S.  of  Toulouse,  on  the  Southern  railway  from 
that  city  to  Ax.  Pop.  (1906)  town,  4498;  commune,  6750.  It  is 
situated  between  the  Ariege  and  the  Arget  at  their  confluence. 
The  old  part  of  the  town,  with  its  ill-paved  winding  streets  and 
old  houses,  is  dominated  on  the  west  by  an  isolated  rock  crowned 
by  the  three  towers  of  the  castle  (i2th,  I4th  and  isth  centuries), 
while  to  the  south  it  is  limited  by  the  shady  Promenade  de 
Villotte.  The  chief  church  is  that  of  St  Volusien,  a  Gothic 
building  of  the  I4th  century.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  a  prefecture, 
a  court  of  assizes  and  a  tribunal  of  first  instance,  and  has  a  lycee, 
training  colleges,  a  chamber  of  commerce  and  a  branch  of  the 
Bank  of  France.  Flour-milling  and  iron-wcrking  are  carried  on. 
Foix  probably  owes  its  origin  to  an  oratory  founded  by  Charle- 
magne. This  afterwards  became  an  abbey,  in  which  were  laid 
the  remains  of  St  Volusien,  archbishop  of  Tours  in  the  5th 
century. 

The  county  of  Foix  included  roughly  the  eastern  part  of  the 
modern  department  of  Ariege,  a  region  watered  chiefly  by  the 
Ariege  and  its  affluents.  During  the  later  middle  ages  it  consisted 
of  an  agglomeration  of  small  holdings  ruled  by  lords,  who,  though 
subordinate  to  the  counts  of  Foix,  had  some  voice  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  district.  Protestantism  obtained  an  early  entrance 
into  the  county,  and  the  religious  struggles  of  the  i6th  and  i7th 
centuries  were  carried  on  with  much  implacability  therein.  The 
estates  of  the  county,  which  can  be  traced  back  to  the  i4th 
century,  consisted  of  three  orders  and  possessed  considerable 
power  and  virility.  In  the  I7th  and  i8th  centuries  Foix  formed 
one  of  the  thirty-three  governments  of  France,  and  in  1700  it  was 
incorporated  in  the  department  of  Ariege. 

Counts  of  Foix.— The  counts  of  Foix  were  an  old  and  dis- 
tinguished French  family  which  flourished  from  the  nth  to  the 
1 5th  century.  They  were  at  first  feudatories  of  the  counts  of 
Toulouse,  but  chafing  under  this  yoke  they  soon  succeeded  in 
throwing  it  off,  and  during  the  I3th  and  i4th  centuries  were 
among  the  most  powerful  of  the  French  feudal  nobles.  Living 
on  the  borders  of  France,  having  constant  intercourse  with 


Navarre,  and  in  frequent  communication  with  England,  they 
were  in  a  position  peculiarly  favourable  to  an  assertion  of 
independence,  and  acted  rather  as  the  equals  than  as  the 
dependents  of  the  kings  of  France. 

The  title  of  count  of  Foix  was  first  assumed  by  Roger,  son  of 
Bernard  Roger,  who  was  a  younger  son  of  Roger  I.,  count  of 
Carcassonne  (d.  1012),  when  he  inherited  the  town  of  Foix  and 
the  adjoining  lands,  which  had  hitherto  formed  part  of  the  county 
of  Carcassonne.  Dying  about  1064,  Roger  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Peter,  who  died  six  years  later,  and  was  succeeded  in 
turn  by  his  son,  Roger  II.  This  count  took  part  in  the  crusade 
of  1095,  and  was  afterwards  excommunicated  by  Pope  Paschal  II. 
for  seizing  ecclesiastical  property;  but  subsequently  he  appeased 
the  anger  of  the  church  by  rich  donations,  and  when  he  died 
in  1125  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Roger  III.  The  death  of 
Roger  III.  about  1149,  and  of  his  son,  Roger  Bernard  I.,  in  1188, 
brought  the  county  to  Roger  Bernard's  only  son,  Raymond 
Roger,  who,  in  1190,  accompanied  the  French  king,  Philip 
Augustus,  to  Palestine  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  capture 
of  Acre.  He  was  afterwards  engaged  in  the  wars  of  the  Albi- 
genses,  and  on  being  accused  of  heresy  his  lands  were  given  to 
Simon  IV.,  count  of  Montfort.  Raymond  Roger,  who  came  to 
terms  with  the  church  and  recovered  his  estates  before  his  death 
in  1223,  was  a  patron  of  the  Provencal  poets,  and  counted 
himself  among  their  number.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Roger  Bernard  II.,  called  the  Great,  who  assisted  Raymond  VII., 
count  of  Toulouse,  and  the  Albigenses  in  their  resistance  to  the 
French  kings,  Louis  VIII.  and  Louis  IX.,  was  excommunicated 
on  two  occasions  and  died  in  1241.  His  son,  Roger  IV.,  who 
followed,  died  in  1265,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Roger 
Bernard  III.,  who,  more  famous  as  a  poet  than  as  a  warrior, 
was  taken  prisoner  both  by  Philip  III.  of  France  and  by  Peter 
III.  of  Aragon.  This  count  married  Marguerite,  daughter  and 
heiress  of  Gaston  VII.,  viscount  of  Beam  (d.  1 290),  and  this  union 
led  to  the  outbreak  of  a  long  feud  between  the  houses  of  Foix 
and  Armagnac;  a  quarrel  which  was  continued  by  Roger 
Bernard's  son  and  successor,  Gaston  I.,  who  became  count 
in  1302,  inheriting  both  Foix  and  Beam.  Becoming  embroiled 
with  the  French  king,  Philip  IV.,  in  consequence  of  the  struggle 
with  the  count  of  Armagnac,  Gaston  was  imprisoned  in  Paris; 
but  quickly  regaining  his  freedom  he  accompanied  King  Louis  X. 
on  an  expedition  into  Flanders  in  1315,  and  died  on  his  return 
to  France  in  the  same  year.  His  eldest  son,  Gaston  II.,  was 
the  next  count.  Having  become  reconciled  with  the  house  of 
Armagnac,  Gaston  took  part  in  various  wars  both  in  France  and 
Spain,  dying  at  Seville  in  1343,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Gaston  III.  (1331-1391).  Gaston  III.,  who  was  surnamed 
Phoebus  on  account  of  his  beauty,  was  the  most  famous  member 
of  the  old  Foix  family.  Like  his  father  he  assisted  France  in  her 
struggle  against  England,  being  entrusted  with  the  defence  of 
the  frontiers  of  Gascony;  but  when  the  French  king,  John  II., 
showed  a  marked  preference  for  the  count  of  Armagnac,  Gaston 
left  his  service  and  went  to  fight  against  the  heathen  in  Prussia. 
Returning  to  France  about  1357  he  delivered  some  noble  ladies 
from  the  attacks  of  the  adherents  of  the  Jacquerie  at  Meaux,  and 
was  soon  at  war  with  the  count  of  Armagnac.  During  this  struggle 
he  also  attacked  the  count  of  Poitiers,  the  royal  representative  in 
Languedoc,  but  owing  to  the  intervention  of  Pope  Innocent  VI. 
he  made  peace  with  the  count  in  1360.  Gaston,  however,  con- 
tinued to  fight  against  the  count  of  Armagnac,  who,  in  1362, 
was  defeated  and  compelled  to  pay  a  ransom;  and  this  war 
lasted  until  1377,  when  peace  was  made.  Early  in  1380  the 
count  was  appointed  governor  of  Languedoc,  but  when  Charles 
VI.  succeeded  Charles  V.  as  king  later  in  the  same  year,  this 
appointment  was  cancelled.  Refusing,  however,  to  heed  the 
royal  command,  and  supported  by  the  communes  of  Languedoc, 
Gaston  fought  for  about  two  years  against  John,  duke  of  Berry, 
who  had  been  chosen  as  his  successor,  until,  worsted  in  the 
combat,  he  abandoned  the  struggle  and  retired  to  his  estates, 
remaining  neutral  and  independent.  In  1348  the  count  had 
married  Agnes,  daughter  of  Philip,  count  of  Evreux  (d.  1343), 
by  his  wife  Jeanne  II.,  queen  of  Navarre.  By  Agnes,  whom  he 


596 


FOLARD,  J.  C. 


divorced  in  1373,  he  had  an  only  son,  Gaston,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  incited  by  his  uncle,  Charles  II.,  king  of  Navarre,  to  poison 
his  father,  and  who  met  his  death  in  1381.  It  is  probable,  as 
Froissart  says,  that  he  was  killed  by  his  father.  Left  without 
legitimate  sons,  Gaston  was  easily  persuaded  to  bequeath  his 
lands  to  King  Charles  VI.,  who  thus  obtained  Foix  and  Bearn 
when  the  count  died  at  Orthes  in  1391.  Gaston  was  very  fond 
of  hunting,  but  was  not  without  a  taste  for  art  and  literature. 
Several  beautiful  manuscripts  are  in  existence  which  were  exe- 
cuted by  his  orders,  and  he  himself  wrote  Deduits  de  la  chasse 
des  bestes  sauvaiges  et  des  oiseaulx  de  proye.  Froissart,  who  gives 
a  graphic  description  of  his  court  and  his  manner  of  life,  speaks 
enthusiastically  of  Gaston,  saying:  "  I  never  saw  none  like  him 
of  personage,  nor  of  so  fair  form,  nor  so  well  made,"  and  again, 
"  in  everything  he  was  so  perfect  that  he  cannot  be  praised  too 
much." 

Almost  immediately  after  Gaston's  death  King  Charles  VI. 
granted  the  county  of  Foix  to  Matthew,  viscount  of  Castelbon, 
a  descendant  of  Count  Gaston  I.  Dying  without  issue  in  1398, 
Matthew's  lands  were  seized  by  Archambault,  count  of  Grailly 
and  captal  de  Buch,  the  husband  of  his  sister  Isabella  (d.i426), 
who  became  count  of  Foix  in  1401.  Archambault's  eldest  son, 
John  (c.  1382-1436),  who  succeeded  to  his  father's  lands  and 
titles  in  1412,  had  married  in  1402  Jeanne,  daughter  of  Charles 
III.,  king  of  Navarre.  Having  served  the  king  of  France  in 
Guienne  and  the  king  of  Aragon  in  Sardinia,  John  became  the 
royal  representative  in  Languedoc,  when  the  old  quarrel  between 
Foix  and  Armagnac  broke  out  again.  During  the  struggle 
between  the  Burgundians  and  the  Armagnacs,  he  intrigued 
with  both  parties,  and  consequently  was  distrusted  by  the 
dauphin,  afterwards  King  Charles  VII.  Deserting  the  cause  of 
France,  he  then  allied  himself  with  Henry  V.  of  England;  but 
when  Charles  VII.  became  king  in  1422,  he  returned  to  his  former 
allegiance  and  became  the  king's  representative  in  Languedoc 
and  Guienne.  He  then  assisted  to  suppress  the  marauding 
bands  which  were  devastating  France;  fought  for  Aragon 
against  Castile;  and  aided  his  brother,  the  cardinal  of  Foix,  to 
crush  some  insurgents  in  Aragon.  Peter,  cardinal  of  Foix  (1386- 
1464),  was  the  fifth  son  of  Archambault  of  Grailly,  and  was  made 
archbishop  of  Aries  in  1450.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
struggle  between  the  rival  popes,  and  founded  and  endowed 
the  College  de  Foix  at  Toulouse.  The  next  count  was  John's 
son,  Gaston  IV.,  who  married  Leonora  (d.  1479),  a  daughter  of 
John,  king  of  Aragon  and  Navarre.  In  1447  he  bought  the  vis- 
county  of  Narbonne,  and  having  assisted  King  Charles  VII.  in 
Guienne,  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France  in  1458.  In  1455  his 
father-in-law  designated  him  as  his  successor  in  Navarre,  and 
Louis  XI.  of  France  gave  him  the  counties  of  Rousillon  and 
Cerdagne,  and  made  him  his  representative  in  Languedoc  and 
Guienne;  but  these  marks  of  favour  did  not  prevent  him 
from  joining  a  league  against  Louis  in  1471.  His  eldest  son, 
Gaston,  the  husband  of  Madeleine,  a  daughter  of  Charles  VII.  of 
France,  died  in  1470,  and  when  Gaston  IV.  died  two  years  later, 
his  lands  descended  to  his  grandson,  Francis  Phoebus  (d.  1483), 
who  became  king  of  Navarre  in  1479,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
sister  Catherine  (d.  1517),  the  wife  of  Jean  d'Albret  (d.  1516). 
Thus  the  house  of  Foix-Grailly  was  merged  in  that  of  Albret 
and  subsequently  in  that  of  Bourbon;  and  when  Henry  of 
Navarre  became  king  of  France  in  1589  the  lands  of  the  counts 
of  Foix-Grailly  became  part  of  the  French  royal  domain.  A 
younger  son  of  Count  Gaston  IV.  was  John  (d.  1500),  who 
received  the  viscounty  of  Narbonne  from  his  father  and  married 
Marie,  a  sister  of  the  French  king  Louis  XII.  He  was  on  good 
terms  both  with  Louis  XL  and  Louis  XII.,  and  on  the  death 
of  his  nephew  Francis  Phoebus,  in  1483,  he  claimed  the  kingdom 
of  Navarre  against  Jean  d'Albret  and  his  wife,  Catherine  de 
Foix.  The  ensuing  struggle  lasted  until  1497,  when  John 
renounced  his  claim.  He  left  a  son,  Gaston  de  Foix  (1480-1512), 
the  distinguished  French  general,  and  a  daughter,  Germaine, 
who  became  the  second  wife  of  Ferdinand  I.,  king  of  Spain. 
In  1507  Gaston  exchanged  his  viscounty  of  Narbonne  with 
King  Louis  XII.  for  the  duchy  of  Nemours,  and  as  duke  of 


Nemours  he  took  command  of  the  French  troops  in  Italy. 
Having  delivered  Bologna  and  taken  Brescia,  Gaston  encountered 
the  troops  of  the  Holy  League  at  Ravenna  in  April  1512,  and 
after  putting  the  enemy  to  flight  was  killed  during  the  pursuit. 
From  the  younger  branch  of  the  house  of  Foix-Grailly  have  also 
sprung  the  viscounts  of  Lautrec  and  of  Meilles,  the  counts  of 
Benanges  and  Candale,  and  of  Gurson  and  Fleix. 

See  D.  J.  Vaissete,  Histoire  generate  de  Languedoc,  tome  iv.  (Paris, 
1876);  L.  Flourac,  Jean  I",  comte  de  Foix,  mcomte  souverain  de 
Beam  (Paris,  1884);  Le  Pere  Anselme,  Histoire  genealogique,  tome 
iii.  (Paris,  1726-1733) ;  Castillon,  Histoire  du  comte  de  Foix  (Toulouse, 
1852);  Madaune,  Gaston  Phasbus,  comte  de  Foix  et  souverain  de 
Beam  (Pau,  1865) ;  and  Froissart's  Chroniques,  edited  by  S.  Luce 
and  G.  Raynaud  (Paris,  1869-1897). 

FOLARD,  JEAN  CHARLES,  CHEVALIER  DE  (1660-1752), 
French  soldier  and  military  author,  was  born  at  Avignon  on  the 
i3thof  February  1669.  His  military  ardour  was  first  awakened 
by  reading  Caesar's  Commentaries,  and  he  ran  away  from  home 
and  joined  the  army.  He  soon  saw  active  service,  and,  young 
as  he  was,  wrote  a  manual  on  partisan  warfare,  the  manuscript 
of  which  passed  with  Folard's  other  papers  to  Marshal  Belleisle 
on  the  author's  death.  In  1702  he  became  a  captain,  and  aide-de- 
camp to  the  duke  of  Vendome,  then  in  command  of  the  French 
forces  in  Italy.  In  1705,  while  serving  under  Vendome's  brother, 
the  Grand  Prior,  Folard  won  the  cross  of  St  Louis  for  a  gallant 
feat  of  arms,  and  in  the  same  year  he  distinguished  himself  at 
the  battle  of  Cassano,  where  he  was  severely  wounded.  It  was 
during  his  tedious  recovery  from  his  wounds  that  he  conceived 
the  tactical  theories  to  the  elucidation  of  which  he  devoted  most 
of  his  life.  In  1706  he  again  rendered  good  service  in  Italy,  and 
in  1708  distinguished  himself  greatly  in  the  operations  attempted 
by  Vend6me  and  the  duke  of  Burgundy  for  the  relief  of  Lille, 
the  failure  of  which  was  due  in  part  to  the  disagreement  of  the 
French  commanders;  and  it  is  no  small  testimony  to  the  ability 
and  tact  of  Folard  that  he  retained  the  friendship  of  both. 
Folard  was  wounded  at  Malplaquet  in  1709,  and  in  1711  his 
services  were  rewarded  with  the  governorship  of  Bourbourg. 
He  saw  further  active  service  in  1714  in  Malta,  under  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden  in  the  north,  and  under  the  duke  of  Berwick  in 
the  short  Spanish  War  of  1719.  Charles  XII.  he  regarded  as  the 
first  captain  of  all  time,  and  it  was  at  Stockholm  that  Folard 
began  to  formulate  his  tactical  ideas  in  a  commertary  on  Polybius. 
On  his  way  back  to  France  he  was  shipwrecked  and  lost  all  his 
papers,  but  he  set  to  work  at  once  to  write  his  essays  afresh, 
and  in  1724  appeared  his  Nouvelles  Decouvertes  sur  la  guerre  dans 
une  dissertation  de  Polybe,  followed  (1727-1730).  by  Histoire  de 
Polybe  traduite  par  .  .  .  de  Thuillier  aiiec  un  commentaire  .  .  . 
de  M.  de  Folard,  Chevalier  de  I'Ordre  de  St  Louis.  Folard  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  answering  the  criticisms  provoked 
by  the  novelty  of  his  theories.  He  died  friendless  and  in  obscurity 
at  Avignon  in  1752. 

An  analysis  of  Folard's  military  writings  brings  to  light  not 
a  connected  theory  of  war  as  a  whole,  but  a  great  number  of 
independent  ideas,  sometimes  valuable  and  suggestive,  but  far 
more  often  extravagant.  The  central  point  of  his  tactics  was 
his  proposed  column  formation  for  infantry.  Struck  by  the 
apparent  weakness  of  the  thin  line  of  battle  of  the  time,  and 
arguing  from  the  eju/JoXov  or  cuneus  of  ancient  warfare,  he  desired 
to  substitute  the  shock  of  a  deep  mass  of  troops  for  former 
methods  of  attack,  and  further  considered  that  in  defence  a  solid 
column  gave  an  unshakable  stability  to  the  line  of  battle. 
Controversy  at  once  centred  itself  upon  the  column.  Whilst 
some  famous  commanders,  such  as  Marshal  Saxe  and  Guido 
Starhemberg,  approved  it  and  put  it  in  practice,  the  weight  of 
military  opinion  throughout  Europe  was  opposed  to  it,  and 
eventually  history  justified  this  opposition.  Amongst  the  most 
discriminating  of  his  critics  was  Frederick  the  Great,  who  is 
said  to  have  invited  Folard  to  Berlin.  The  Prussian  king 
certainly  caused  a  precis  to  be  made  by  Colonel  von  Seers,  and 
wrote  a  preface  thereto  expressing  his  views.  The  work  (like 
others  by  Frederick)  fell  into  unauthorized  hands,  and,  on  its 
publication  (Paris,  1760)  under  the  title  Esprit  du  Chen.  Folard, 
created  a  great  impression.  "  Thus  kept  within  bounds,"  said 


FOLD 


597 


the  prince  de  Ligne,  "  Folard  was  the  best  author  of  the  time." 
Frederick  himself  said  tersely  that  "  FoJard  had  buried  diamonds 
in  a  rubbish-heap."  Thus  began  the  controversy  between  line 
and  column  formations,  which  long  continued  and  influenced 
the  development  of  tactics  up  to  the  most  modern  times.  Folard's 
principal  adherents  in  the  i8th  century  were  Joly  de  Maizeroy 
and  Menil  Durand. 

See  Memoires  pour  servir  d  I'histoire  de  M.  le  Chevalier  de  Folard 
(Paris  and  Regensburg,  1753),  and  for  a  detailed  account  of  Folard's 
works  and  those  of  his  critics  and  supporters,  Max  Jahns,  Gesckichte 
der  Kriegswissenschaflen,  vol.  ii.  pp.  1478-1493  (Munich  and  Leipzig, 
1890). 

FOLD,  a  pleat  or  bend  in  a  flexible  material,  or  a  curve  in  any 
surface,  whence  its  particular  application  in  geology  with  which 
this  article  deals.  The  verb  "  to  fold  "  (O.  Eng.fealdan)  meant 
originally  to  double  back  a  oiece  of  cloth  or  other  material  so  as 
to  form  a  pleat,  whence  has  evolved  its  various  senses  of  to  roll 
up,  to  enclose,  enfold  or  embrace  as  with  the  arms,  to  clasp  the 
hands  or  arms  together,  &c.  The  word  is  common  to  Teutonic 
languages,  cf.  Ger.  fallen,  Dutch  vouwen  (for  vouden),  &c.,  and  the 
ultimate  Indo-European  root  is  found  in  Gr.  ir\fKtiv,  Lat. 
plicare,  plectere,  to  plait,  pleat,  weave,  and  in  the  suffixes  of  such 
words  as  SnrXciacos,  duplex,  double,  simplex,  &c.  Similarly  the 
termination  "  -fold  "  is  added  to  numbers  implying  "  so  many," 
e.g.  twofold,  hundredfold,  cf.  "  manifold."  The  similar  word 
for  an  enclosure  or  pen  for  animals,  especially  for  sheep,  and 
hence  applied  in  a  spiritual  sense  to  a  community  of  worshippers, 
or  to  the  whole  body  of  Christians  regarded  as  Christ's  flock, 
must  be  distinguished.  In  O.  Eng.  it  isfaleed,  and  cognate  forms 
are  found  in  Dutch  vaalt,  &c.  It  apparently  meant  a  planked  or 
boarded  enclosure,  cf.  Dan.  fjael,  Swed.  fjol,  plank. 

In  geology,  a  fold  is  a  bend  or  curvature  in  the  stratified 
rocks  of  the  earth's  crust,  whereby  they  have  been  made 
to  take  up  less  horizontal  space.  The  French  equivalents  are 
pli,  plissement,  ridement;  in  Germany,  Falte,  Fallung,  Soliciting 
are  the  terms  usually  employed.  It  is  comparatively  rarely  that 
bedded  rocks  are  observed  in  the  position  in  which  they  were 
first  deposited,  a  certain  amount  of  buckling  up  or  sagging  down 
of  the  crust  being  continually  in  progress  in  one  region  or  another. 
In  every  instance  therefore  where,  in  walking  over  the  surface, 
we  traverse  a  series  of  strata  which  gradually,  and  without  dis- 
locations, increase  or  diminish  in  inclination,  we  cross  part  of  a 
great  curvature  in  the  strata  of  the  earth's  crust. 

Such  foldings,  however,  can  often  be  distinctly  seen,  either  on 
some  cliff  or  coast-line,  or  in  the  traverse  of  a  piece  of  hilly  or 
mountainous  ground.  The  observer  cannot  long  continue  his 
researches  in  the  field  without  discovering  that  the  rocks  of  the 
earth's  crust  have  been  almost  everywhere  thrown  into  curves, 
usually  so  broad  and  gentle  as  to  escape  observation  except 
when  specially  looked  for.  The  outcrop  of  beds  at  the  surface 
is  commonly  the  truncation  of  these  curves.  The  strata  must 
once  have  risen  above  the  present  surface,  and  in  many  cases 
may  be  found  descending  to  the  surface  again  with  a  contrary  dip, 
the  intervening  portion  of  the  undulation  having  been  worn  away. 

The  curvature  occasionally  shows  itself  among  horizontal  or 
gently  inclined  strata  in  the  form  of  an  abrupt  inclination,  and 
then  an  immediate  resumption  of  the  previous  flat  or  sloping 
character.  The  strata  are  thus  bent  up  and  continue  on  the  other 
side  of  the  tilt  at  a  higher  level.  Such  bends  are  called  mono- 


FIG.  I. — Section  of  the  Isle  of  Wight — a  Monoclinal  Curve,  a, 
Chalk;  b,  Woolwich  and  Reading  beds;  c,  London  clay;  d,  Bagshot 
series;  e,  Headon  series;  /,  g,  Osborne  and  Bembridge  series. 

dines,  monoclinal  folds  or  flexures,  because  they  present  only  one 
fold,  or  one  half  of  a  fold,  instead  of  the  two  which  we  see  in  an 
arch  or  trough.  The  most  notable  instance  of  this  structure  in 
Britain  is  that  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  of  which  a  section  is  given  in 
fig.  i.  The  Cretaceous  rocks  on  the  south  side  of  the  island 
rapidly  rise  in  inclination  till  they  become  nearly  vertical. 


The  Lower  Tertiary  strata  follow  with  a  similar  steep  dip,  but 
rapidly  flatten  down  towards  the  north  coast.  Some  remarkable 
cases  of  the  same  structure  have  been  brought  to  light  by  J.  W. 
Powell  in  his  survey  of  the  Colorado  region. 

It  much  more  frequently  happens  that  the  strata  have  been 
bent  into  arches  and  troughs,  so  that  they  can  be  seen  dipping 
under  the  surface  on  one  side  of  the  axis  of  a  fold,  and  rising  up 
again  on  the  other  side.  Where  they  dip  away  from  the  axis  of 
movement  the  structure  is  termed  an  anticline  or  anticlinal  fold; 
where  they  dip  towards  the  axis,  it  is  a  syncline  or  synclinal  fold. 
The  diagram  in  fig.  2  may  be  taken  to  represent  a  series  of  strata 


FIG.  2. — Plan  of  Anticlinal  and  Synclinal  Folds. 

(1-17)  thrown  into  an  anticline  (AA')  and  syncline  (BB').  A 
section  drawn  across  these  folds  in  the  line  CD  would  show 
the  structure  given  in  fig.  3.  Here  we  see  that,  at  the  part  of  the 


CWilt 


Section  on  line  C  D. 


FIG.  3. — Section  of  Anticlinal  and  Synclinal  Folds  on  the  line  CD 

(fig.  2). 

anticlinal  axis  (A)  where  the  section  crosses,  bed  No.  4  forms  the 
crown  of  the  arch,  Nos.  i,  2  and  3  being  concealed  beneath  it. 
On  the  east  side  of  the  axis  the  strata  follow  each  other  in  regular 
succession  as  far  as  No.  13,  which,  instead  of  passing  here  under 
the  next  in  order,  turns  up  with  a  contrary  dip  and  forms  the 
centre  of  a  trough  or  syncline  (B).  From  underneath  No.  13  on 
the  east  side  the  same  beds  rise  to  the  surface  which  passed 
beneath  it  on  the  west  side.  The  particular  bed  marked  EF  has 
been  entirely  removed  by  denudation  from  the  top  of  the  anti- 
cline, and  is  buried  deep  beneath  the  centre  of  the  syncline. 

Such  foldings  of  strata  must  always  die  out  unless  they  are 
abruptly  terminated  by  dislocations.  In  the  cases  given  in  fig. 
2,  both  the  arch  and  trough  are  represented  as  diminishing,  the 
former  towards  the  north,  the  latter  towards  the  south.  The 
observer  in  passing  northwards  along  the  axis  of  that  anticline 
finds  himself  getting  into  progressively  higher  strata  as  the  fold 
sinks  down.  On  the  other  hand,  in  advancing  southwards  along 
the  synclinal  axis,  he  loses  stratum  after  stratum  and  gets  into 
lower  portions  of  the  series.  When  a  fold  diminishes  in  this  way 
it  is  said  to  "  nose  out."  In  fig.  2  there  is  obviously  a  general 
inclination  of  the  beds  towards  the  north,  besides  the  outward 
dip  from  the  anticline  and  the  inward  dip  from  the  syncline. 
Hence  the  anticline  noses  out  to  the  north  and  the  syncline  to 
the  south. 

Simple  Folds. — In  describing  rock-folds  special  terms  have 
been  assigned  to  certain  portions  of  the  fold;  thus,  the  sloping 


FOLENGO,  T. 


sides  of  an  anticline  or  syncline  are  known  as  the  "  limbs," 
"  slopes,"  "  flanks  "  or  "  members  "  of  the  fold;  in  an  anticline, 
the  part  X,  fig.  3,  the  angle  of  the  bend,  is  the  "  crest  "  or 
"  crown  "  (Ger.  Gewolbebiegung,  Fr.  charniere  anticlinale) ,  the 
corresponding  part  of  a  syncline  being  the  "  trough-core  "  or 
"  base,"  Y,  fig.  3  (Ger.  Muldenbiegung,  Fr.  charniere  synclinale). 
The  portion  of  an  anticline  which  has  been  removed  by  denuda- 
tion is  the  "  aerial  arch,"  dotted  in  fig.  3.  The  innermost  strata 
in  a  fold  constitute  the  "  core,"  arch-core  A,  fig.  3,  or  trough- 
core  B,  in  the  same  figure.  In  the  majority  of  folds  the  bending 
of  the  strata  has  taken  place  about  an  "  axial  plane  "  (often 
called  the  "  axis  "),  which  in  the  examples  illustrated  in  fig.  3 
would  pass  through  the  points  A  and  B,  perpendicularly  to  the 
horizontal  line  CD.  In  powerfully  folded  regions  the  axial 
planes  of  the  folds  are  no  longer  upright;  they  may  be  moder- 
ately inclined,  producing  an  "  inversion,"  "  inverted  fold  "  or 
"  overfold."  When  the  inclination  of  the  axial  plane  is  great  a 
"  recumbent  overfold  "  is  produced  (Fr.  pli  couchi,  Ger.  liegende 
Falle).  In  a  fold  of  this  kind  (fig.  4)  we  have  an  "  arch  limb  " 

(a),  a  middle  limb  (6)  and  a 
floor  or  "  trough  limb  "  (c). 
X  and  Y  are  the  upper  and 
lower  bends  respectively. 
One  of  the  important  func- 
tions of  a  fold  is  its  direc- 

P  tion;  this  of  course  depends 

upon  the  orientation  of  the 

axial  plane.  The  crest-line  of  an  anticline  or  trough-line  of 
a  syncline  is  rarely  horizontal  for  any  great  distance;  its 
departure  from  horizontality  is  designated  the  "  pitch,"  and 
the  fold  is  said  to  pitch  (or  dip)  towards  the  north,  &c.  Most 
simple  folds — with  the  exception  of  very  shallow  curvatures 
of  wide  area, — when  considered  in  their  entirety,  are  seen  to  be 
somewhat  canoe-shaped  in  form.  There  are  three  variatiohs 
of  the  simple  fold  dependent  upon  the  position  of  the  limbs, 
(i)  the  limbs  may  tend  to  diverge  as  they  recede  from  the 
crest  (fig.  3),  sometimes  styled  an  "open  anticline";  (2)  the 
limbs  may  be  parallel  in  "  closed  "  folds  (commonly  known  as 
isoclinal  folding);  (3)  the  limbs  may  make  an  open  angle  or 
widen  out  towards  the  crest  (fig.  4).  This  is  known  as  a  fan- 
shaped  fold  (Fr.  pli  en  eventail,  Ger.  Facherfalte) ;  another 
variant  of  the  same  form  is  the  mushroom  fold  (Fr.  pli  en  cham- 
pignon). The  axial  plane  is  not  always  extended:  it  may  be 
so  abbreviated  that  the  folding  appears  to  have  taken  place 
about  a  point;  anticlines  of  this  type  are  variously  designated 
"  short-anticlines,"  "  brachyanticlinaux  "  or  "domes";  simi- 
larly, there  are  "  short-synclines,"  "  brachysynclinaux "  or 
"  cuvettes."  The  dip  in  cases  of  this  kind  has  been  described  as 
"  qua-qua  versal  "  or  "  periclinal." 

Complex  Folding. — Sometimes  a  simple  fold  has  been  itself 
subjected  to  further  folding  repeated  more  than  once,  it  is  then 
termed  a  "  refolded  fold  "  (Fr.  pli  replil) ;  fine  examples  may  be 
observed  in  the  Alps  and  in  other  mountain  chains.  A  great 
regional  major  fold  containing  within  itself  a  number  of  minor 
"  special  "  or  subsidiary  folds  is  described  as  a  "  geanticline  " 
(Fr.  structure  en  eventail  compose'),  or  as  a  "  geosyncline  "  (Fr. 
structure  en  eventail  remierse).  Even  folds  of  lesser  magnitude 
may  be  highly  complex  in  regions  of  extreme  crustal  movement, 
and  may  contain  smaller  folds  of  the  first,  second,  third  or  higher 
order  (Fr.  couches  gaufrees  [fig.  5]).  In  its  smaller  manifestation, 
this  class  of  folding  passes  into  "  crumpling  "  or  "  puckering," 
where  quite  a  large  number  of  folds  may  be  crowded  into  a  single 
hand  specimen.  In  "  frilling  "  or  "  frilled  structure  "  the  folds 
have  still  smaller  amplitude,  and  in  many  highly  corrugated 
rocks  minute  folds  are  observable  with  the  microscope  that  do 
not  appear  to  the  unaided  eye.  When  a  series  of  adjacent  iso- 
clinal overfolds  has  passed  into  a  series  of  thrusts  (see  FAULT), 
the  so-called  "  imbricated  "  structure  (Fr.  structure  imbriquee, 
Ger.  Schuppenstruktur)  is  generated.  Occasionally  crust-blocks 
resembling  "  graben  "  and  "  horsts  "  are  circumscribed  by  folds 
instead  of  faults;  when  this  is  so  they  have  been  called  respec- 
tively "  infolded  graben  "  or  "  overfolded  horsts." 


The  heterogeneous  character  of  great  masses  of  strata  has 
always  had  a  marked  influence  on  the  nature  of  the  folding; 
some  beds  have  yielded  much  more  readily  than  others,  certain 
beds  will  be  found  to  be  faulted,  while  those  above  and  below 
have  folded  without  fracture.  In  many  examples  of  apparent 
plasticity  it  can  be  shown  that  this  effect  has  been  produced 
by  an  infinite  number  of  minute  slippings  within  the  rock 
substance.  • 

The  larger  rock  folds  have  produced  important  economic 


FIG.  5. — Curved  and  Contorted  Rocks,  near  Old  Head  of  Kinsale. 

(Du  Noyer.) 

results.  For  example,  in  many  coal  regions  the  deposits  have 
been  conserved  in  some  districts  in  the  synclines  or  "  basins," 
while  they  have  been  removed  by  denudation  from  the  uplifted 
anticlines  in  others.  Near  the  crest  of  anticlines  is  commonly 
an  enriched  portion  of  the  ground  in  mineralized  districts;  and, 
in  the  case  of  water  supply,  the  tilt  of  the  strata  determines  the 
direction  of  the  underground  flowage.  Again,  the  most  con- 
venient site  for  oil  wells  is  the  crest  of  an  anticline  or  "  dome," 
where  an  impervious  stratum  imprisons  the  gas  and  oil  in  a 
subjacent  saturated  layer  under  pressure. 

For  a  discussion  of  the  question  of  the  distribution  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  great  folded  regions  of  the  earth's  crust,  see  E.  Suess, 
Das  Antlitz  der  Arde,  English  translation,  The  Face  of  the  Earth, 
vols.  i.,  ii.,  iii.,  iv.  (Oxford).  See  also  E.  de  Margerie  and  A.  Heim, 
Les  Dislocations  de  I'ecorce  terrestre  (Zurich,  1888);  A.  Rothpletz, 
Ceotektonische  Probleme  (Stuttgart,  1894). 

FOLENGO,  TEOFILO  (1491-1544),  otherwise  known  as  Merlino 
Coccajo  or  Cocajo,  one  of  the  principal  Italian  macaronic  poets, 
was  born  of  noble  parentage  at  Cipada  near  Mantua  on  the  8th 
of  November  1491.  From  his  infancy  he  showed  great  vivacity 
of  mind,  and  a  remarkable  cleverness  in  making  verses.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  monastery  of  Monte  Casino  near 
Brescia,  and  eighteen  months  afterwards  he  became  a  professed 
member  of  the  Benedictine  order.  For  a  few  years  his  life  as  a 
monk  seems  to  have  been  tolerably  regular,  and  he  is  said  to 
have  produced  a  considerable  quantity  of  Latin  verse,  written, 
not  unsuccessfully,  in  the  Virgilian  style.  About  the  year  1516 
he  forsook  the  monastic  life  for  the  society  of  a  well-born  young 
woman  named  Girolama  Dieda,  with  whom  he  wandered  about 
the  country  for  several  years,  often  suffering  great  poverty, 
having  no  other  means  of  support  than  his  talent  for  versification. 
His  first  publication  was  the  Merlini  Cocaii  macaronicon,  which 
relates  the  adventures  of  a  fictitious  hero  named  Baldus.  The 
coarse  buffoonery  of  this  work  is  often  relieved  by  touches  of 
genuine  poetry,  as  well  as  by  graphic  descriptions  and  acute 
criticisms  of  men  and  manners.  Its  macaronic  style  is  rendered 
peculiarly  perplexing  to  the  foreigner  by  the  frequent  introduction 
of  words  and  phrases  from  the  Mantuan  patois.  Though  fre- 
quently censured  for  its  occasional  grossness  of  idea  and  ex- 
pression, it  soon  attained  a  wide  popularity,  and  within  a  very 
few  years  passed  through  several  editions.  Folengo's  next 
production  was  the  Orlandino,  an  Italian  poem  of  eight  cantos, 
written  in  rhymed  octaves.  It  appeared  in  1526,  and  bore  on 
the  title-page  the  new  pseudonym  of  Limerno  Pitocco  (Merlin 
the  Beggar)  da  Mantova.  In  the  same  year,  wearied  with  a  life 
of  dissipation,  Folengo  returned  to  his  ecclesiastical  obedience; 
and  shortly  afterwards  wrote  his  Chaos  del  tri  per  uno,  in  which, 
partly  in  prose,  partly  in  verse,  sometimes  in  Latin,  sometimes 
in  Italian,  and  sometimes  in  macaronic,  he  gives  a  veiled  account 
of  the  vicissitudes  of  the  life  he  had  lived  under  his  various  names. 


FOLEY,  J.  H.— FOLIO 


We  next  find  him  about  the  year  1533  writing  in  rhymed  octaves 
a  life  of  Christ  entitled  L'Umanitd  del  Figliuolo  di  Dio;  and  he  is 
known  to  have  composed,  still  later,  another  religious  poem  upon 
the  creation,  fall  and  restoration  of  man,  besides  a  few  tragedies. 
These,  however,  have  never  been  published.  Some  of  his  later 
years  were  spent  in  Sicily  under  the  patronage  of  Don  Fernando 
de  Gonzaga,  the  viceroy;  he  even  appears  for  a  short  time  to 
have  had  charge  of  a  monastery  there.  In  1543  he  retired  to 
Santa  Croce  de  Campesio,  near  Bassano;  and  there  he  died  on 
the  gth  of  December  1544. 

Folengo  is  frequently  quoted  and  still  more  frequently  copied  by 
Rabelais.  The  earlier  editions  of  his  Opus  macaronicum  are  now 
extremely  rare.  The  often  reprinted  edition  of  1530  exhibits  the 
text  as  revised  by  the  author  after  he  had  begun  to  amend  his  life. 

FOLEY,  JOHN  HENRY  (1818-1874),  Irish  sculptor,  was  born 
at  Dublin  on  the  24th  of  May  1818.  At  thirteen  he  began  to 
study  drawing  and  modelling  at  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Dublin 
Society,  where  he  took  several  first-class  prizes.  In  1835  ne  was 
admitted  a  student  in  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy,  London. 
He  first  appeared  as  an  exhibitor  in  1839  with  his  "  Death  of 
Abel  and  Innocence."  "  Ino  and  Bacchus,"  exhibited  in  1840, 
gave  him  immediate  reputation,  and  the  work  itself  was  after- 
wards commissioned  to  be  done  in  marble  for  the  earl  of  Elles- 
mere.  "  Lear  and  Cordelia  "  and  "  Death  of  Lear  "  were 
exhibited  in  1841.  "  Venus  rescuing  Aeneas  "and"  The  Houseless 
Wanderer  "  in  1842,  "  Prospero  and  Miranda  "  in  1843.  In 
1844  Foley  sent  to  the  exhibition  at  Westminster  Hall  his 
"  Youth  at  a  Stream,"  and  was,  with  Calder  Marshall  and  John 
Bell,  chosen  by  the  commissioners  to  do  work  in  sculpture  for 
the  decoration  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  Statues  of  John 
Hampden  and  Selden  were  executed  for  this  purpose,  and  received 
liberal  praise  for  the  propriety,  dignity  and  proportion  of  their 
treatment.  Commissions  of  all  kinds  now  began  to  come  rapidly. 
Fanciful  works,  busts,  bas-reliefs,  tablets  and  monumental 
statues  were  in  great  numbers  undertaken  and  executed  by  him 
with  a  steady  equality  of  worthy  treatment.  In  1849  ne  was 
made  an  associate  and  in  1858  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
Among  his  numerous  works  the  following  may  be  noticed, 
besides  those  mentioned  above: — "  The  Mother  ";  "  Egeria," 
for  the  Mansion  House;  "  The  Elder  Brother  in  Comus,"  his 
diploma  work;  "  The  Muse  of  Painting,"  the  monument  of 
James  Ward,  R.A.;  "  Caractacus,"  for  the  Mansion  House; 
"Helen  Faucit";  "Goldsmith"  and  "Burke,"  for  Trinity 
College,  Dublin;  "Faraday";  "Reynolds";  "Barry,"  for 
Westminster  Palace  Yard;  "  John  Stuart  Mill,"  for  the  Thames 
embankment;  "  O'Connell  "  and  "  Gough,"  for  Dublin  ; 
"  Clyde,"  for  Glasgow;  "  Clive,"  for  Shrewsbury;  "  Hardinge," 
"  Canning  "  and  "  Outram,"  for  Calcutta;  "  Hon.  James 
Stewart,"  for  Ceylon;  the  symbolical  group  "  Asia,"  as  well  as 
the  statue  of  the  prince  himself,  for  the  Albert  Memorial  in 
Hyde  Park;  and  "  Stonewall  Jackson,"  in  Richmond,  Va. 
The  statue  of  Sir  James  Outram  is  probably  his  masterpiece. 
Foley's  early  fanciful  works  have  some  charming  qualities;  but 
he  will  probably  always  be  best  remembered  for  the  workmanlike 
and  manly  style  of  his  monumental  portraits.  He  died  at 
Hampstead  on  the  27th  of  August  1874,  and  on  the  4th  of 
September  was  buried  in  St  Paul's  cathedral.  He  left  his  models 
to  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  his  early  school,  and  a  great  part 
of  his  property  to  the  Artists'  Benevolent  Fund. 

See  W.  Cosmo  Monkhouse,  The  Works  of  J.  H.  Foley  (1875). 

FOLEY,  SIR  THOMAS  (1757-1833),  British  admiral,  entered 
the  navy  in  1770,  and,  during  his  time  as  midshipman,  saw  a 
good  deal  of  active  service  in  the  West  Indies  against  American 
privateers.  Promoted  lieutenant  in  1778,  he  served  under 
Admiral  (afterwards  Viscount)  Keppel  and  Sir  Charles  Hardy 
in  the  Channel,  and  with  Rodney's  squadron  was  present 
the  defeat  of  De  Langara  off  Cape  St  Vincent  in  1780,  and  at  the 
relief  of  Gibraltar.  Still  under  Rodney's  command,  he  went 
out  to  the  West  Indies,  and  took  his  part  in  the  operations  which 
culminated  in  the  victory  of  the  i2th  of  April  1782.  In  the 
Revolutionary  War  he  was  engaged  from  the  first.  As  flag- 
captain  to  Admiral  John  Cell,  and  afterwards  to  Sir  Hyde 


599 

Parker,  Foley  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Toulon  in  1793,  the  action 
of  Golfe  Jouan  in  1794,  and  the  two  fights  off  Toulon  on  the  i3th 
of  April  and  the  I3th  of  July  1793.  At  St  Vincent  he  was  flag- 
captain  to  the  second  in  command,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  sent  out  in  command  of  the  "  Goliath  "  (74),  to  reinforce 
Nelson's  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  part  played  by  the 
"  Goliath  "  in  the  battle  of  the  Nile  was  brilliant.  She  led  the 
squadron  round  the  French  van,  and  this  manoeuvre  contributed 
not  a  little  to  the  result  of  the  day.  Whether  this  was  done  by 
Foley's  own  initiative,  or  intended  by  Nelson,  has  been  a  matter 
of  controversy  (see  Journal  of  the  Royal  United  Service  Institution, 
1885,  p.  916).  His  next  important  service  was  with  Nelson  in 
the  Baltic.  The  "  Elephant  "  carried  Nelson's  flag  at  the  battle 
of  Copenhagen,  and  her  captain  acted  as  his  chief-of-staff.  Ill- 
health  obliged  Foley  to  decline  Nelson's  offer  (made  when  on  the 
point  of  starting  for  the  battle  of  Trafalgar)  of  the  post  of  Captain 
of  the  Fleet.  From  1808  to  1815  he  commanded  in  the  Downs 
and  at  the  peace  was  made  K.C.B.  Sir  Thomas  Foley  rose  to  be 
full  admiral  and  G.  C.  B.  He  died  while  commanding  in  chief  at 
Portsmouth  in  1833. 

See  J.  B.  Herbert,  Life  and  Services  of  Sir  Thomas  Foley  (Cardiff, 
1884). 

FOLI  (FOLEY),  ALLAN  JAMES  (1837-1899),  Irish  bass  singer, 
was  born  at  Cahir,  Tipperary,  on  the  7th  of  August  1837  ; 
originally  a  carpenter,  he  studied  under  Bisaccia  at  Naples,  and 
made  his  first  appearance  at  Catania  in  1862.  From  the  opera 
in  Paris  he  was  engaged  by  Mapleson  for  the  season  of  1865,  and 
appeared  with  much  success  in  various  parts.  He  sang  in  the 
first  performance  of  The  Flying  Dutchman  (Daland)  in  England 
in  1870,  and  in  the  first  performance  of  Gounod's  Redemption  in 
1882.  He  was  distinguished  in  opera  and  oratorio  alike  for  his 
vigorous,  straightforward  way  of  singing,  and  was  in  great  request 
at  ballad  concerts.  He  died  on  the  2oth  of  October  1899. 

FOLIGNO  (anc.  Fulginiae,  q.v.),  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of 
Umbria,  Italy,  771  ft.  above  sea-level,  in  the  province  of  Perugia, 
from  which  it  is  25  m.  S.E.  by  rail.  Pop.  (1901)  9532  (town), 
26,278  (commune).  It  lies  in  a  fertile  plain,  on  the  Topino,  a 
tributary  of  the  Tiber;  it  is  almost  square  in  shape  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls.  It  is  a  picturesque  and  interesting  town; 
several  of  its  churches  contain  paintings  by  Umbrian  masters, 
notably  works  by  Niccol6  di  Liberatore  (or  Niccold  Alunno, 
1430-1502),  and  among  them  his  chief  work,  a  large  altar-piece 
(the  predella  of  which  is  in  the  Louvre)  in  S.  Niccold.  The 
cathedral  has  a  romanesque  S.  facade  of  1133,  restored  in  1903; 
the  interior  was  modernized  in  the  i8th  century.  To  the  left 
of  the  choir  is  an  octagonal  chapel  by  Antonio  da  Sangallo  the 
younger  (1527).  In  the  same  piazza  as  the  S.  facade  is  the  Palazzo 
del  Governo,  erected  in  1350,  which  has  a  chapel  with  frescoes 
by  Ottaviano  Nelli  of  Gubbio  (1424).  S.  Maria  infra  Portas  is 
said  to  date  from  the  7th  century,  but  from  this  period  only 
the  columns  of  the  portico  remain.  Raphael's  "  Madonna 
di  Foligno,"  now  in  the  Vatican,  was  originally  painted  for  the 
church  of  S.  Anna.  The  Palazzo  Orfini  and  the  Palazzo  Deli  are 
two  good  Renaissance  buildings. 

Foligno  seems  to  have  been  founded  about  the  middle  of  the 
8th  century  A.D.  It  changed  hands  often  during  the  wars  of  the 
I3th  century,  and  was  destroyed  by  Perugia  in  1281.  From 
1305  to  1439  it  was  governed  by  the  family  of  the  Trinci  as 
deputies  of  the  Holy  See,  until  in  the  latter  year  one  of  its  members 
went  against  the  church.  Pope  Eugene  IV.  sent  a  force  against 
Foligno,  to  which  the  inhabitants  opened  their  gates,  and  the 
last  of  the  Trinci,  Corrado  II.,  was  beheaded.  Henceforth 
Foligno  belonged  to  the  states  of  the  church  until  1860.  It 
suffered  from  a  severe  earthquake  in  1832.  Foligno  is  a  station 
on  the  main  line  from  Rome  (via  Orte)  to  Ancona,  and  is  the 
junction  for  Perugia.  Three  miles  to  the  E.  is  the  abbey  of 
Sassovivo  with  cloisters  of  1229,  very  like  those  of  S.  Paolo 
fuori  le  Mura  at  Rome,  with  pairs  of  small  columns  supporting 
arches,  and  decorations  in  coloured  mosaic  ("  Cosmatesque  " 
work).  The  church  has  been  modernized. 

FOLIO  (properly  the  ablative  case  of  the  Lat.  folium,  leaf,  but 
also  frequently  an  adaptation  of  the  Ital.  foglio),  a  term  in 


6oo 


FOLIUM— FOLKLAND 


o 


bibliography  and  printing,  with  reference  either  to  the  size  of 
paper  employed,  or  of  the  book,  or  to  the  pagination.  In  the 
phrase  "  in  folio  "  it  means  a  sheet  of  paper  folded  once,  and 
thus  a  book  bound  up  in  sheets  thus  folded  is  a  book  of  the  largest 
size  and  is  known  as  a  "  folio  "  (see  BIBLIOGRAPHY).  Similarly, 
"  folio  "  is  one  of  the  sizes  of  paper  adapted  to  be  thus  folded 
(see  PAPER).  In  book-keeping  the  word  is  used  for  a  page  in  a 
ledger  on  which  the  credit  and  debtor  account  is  written;  in 
law-writing,  for  a  fixed  number  of  words  in  a  legal  document, 
used  for  measurement  of  the  length  and  for  the  addition  of  costs. 
In  Great  Britain,  a  "  folio  "  is  taken  to  contain  72  words,  except 
in  parliamentary  and  chancery  documents,  when  the  number 
is  90.  In  the  U.S.A.  100  words  form  a  "  folio." 

FOLIUM,  in  mathematics,  a  curve  invented  and  discussed  by 
Rene  Descartes.  Its  cartesian  equation  is  x?+y>  =  3axy.  The 
curve  is  symmetrical  about  the  h'ne  x=y, 
and  consists  of  two  infinite  branches 
asymptotic  to  the  line  x+y+a=o  and 
a  loop  in  the  first  quadrant.  It  may  be 
traced  by  giving  m  various  values  in  the 
equations  x  =  ^am/  (i-f-m3),  y  =  3aw2 
(i+m3),  since  by  eliminating  m  between 
these  relations  the  equation  to  the  curve 
is  obtained.  Hence  it  is  unicursal  (see 
CURVE).  The  area  of  the  loop,  which 
equals  the  area  between  the  curve 
and  its  asymptote,  is  30/2. 

FOLKES,  MARTIN  (1690-1754),  English  antiquary,  was  born 
in  London  on  the  29th  of  October  1690.  He  was  educated  at 
Saumur  University  and  Clare  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  so 
distinguished  himself  in  mathematics  that  when  only  twenty- 
three  years  of  age  he  was  chosen  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  was  elected  one  of  the  council  in  1716,  and  in  1723  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  president  of  the  society,  appointed  him  one  of  the  vice- 
presidents.  On  the  death  of  Newton  he  became  a  candidate 
for  the  presidency,  but  was  defeated  by  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  whom, 
however,  he  succeeded  in  1741;  in  1742  he  was  made  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy;  in  1746  he  received  honorary  degrees 
from  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  In  1733  he  set  out  on  a  tour 
through  Italy,  in  the  course  of  which  he  composed  his  Disserta- 
tions on  the  Weights  and  Values  of  Ancient  Coins.  Before  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  of  which  he  was  president  from  1749  to 
1754,  he  read  in  1736  his  Observations  on  the  Trajan  and  Antonine 
Pillars  at  Rome  and  his  Table  of  English  Gold  Coins  from  the  i8lh 
Year  of  King  Edward  III.  In  1745  he  printed  the  latter  with 
another  on  the  history  of  silver  coinage.  He  also  contributed 
both  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  and  to  the  Royal  Society 
other  papers,  chiefly  on  Roman  antiquities.  He  married  in 
1714  Lucretia  Bradshaw,  an  actress  who  had  appeared  at  the 
Haymarket  and  Drury  Lane  (see  Nichols's  Lit.  Anecdot.  ii. 
578-598). 

For  Sir  John  Hill's  attack  on  Folkes  (Review  of  the  Works  of  the 
Royal  Soc.,  1751),  see  D'Israeli,  Calamities  and  Quarrels  of  Authors 
(1860),  pp.  364-366. 

FOLKESTONE,  a  municipal  borough,  seaport  and  watering- 
place  of  Kent,  England,  within  the  parliamentary  borough  of 
Hythe,  71  m.  S.E.  by  E.  of  London  by  the  South-Eastern  & 
Chatham  railway.  Pop.  (1891)  23,905;  (1901)  30,650.  This  is 
one  of  the  principal  ports  in  cross-Channel  communications,  the 
steamers  serving  Boulogne,  30  m.  distant.  The  older  part  of 
Folkestone  lies  in  a  small  valley  which  here  opens  upon  the  shore 
between  steep  hills.  The  more  modern  portions  extend  up  the 
hills  on  either  hand.  To  the  north  the  town  is  sheltered 
by  hills  rising  sharply  to  heights  of  400  to  500  ft.,  on  several  of 
which,  such  as  Sugarloaf  and  Castle  Hills,  are  ancient  earth- 
works. Above  the  cliff  west  of  the  old  town  is  a  broad  promenade 
called  the  Lees,  commanding  a  notable  view  of  the  channel 
and  connected  by  lifts  with  the  shore  below.  On  this  cliff  also 
stands  the  parish  church  of  St  Mary  and  St  Eanswith,  a  cruciform 
building  of  much  interest,  with  central  tower.  It  is  mainly  Early 
English,  but  the  original  church,  attached  to  a  Benedictine 
priory,  was  founded  in  1095  on  the  site  of  a  convent  established 


by  Eanswith,  daughter  of  Eadbald,  king  of  Kent  in  630.  The 
site  of  this  foundation,  however,  became  endangered  by  en- 
croachments of  the  sea.  The  monastery  was  destroyed  at  the 
dissolution  of  religious  houses  by  Henry  VIII.  Folkestone  inner 
harbour  is  dry  at  low  water,  but  there  is  a  deep  water  pier  for 
use  at  low  tide  by  the  Channel  steamers,  by  which  not  only 
the  passenger  traffic,  but  also  a  large  general  trade  are  carried 
on.  The  fisheries  are  important.  Among  institutions  may  be 
mentioned  the  grammar  school,  founded  in  1674,  the  public 
library  and  museum,  and  a  number  of  hospitals  and  sanatoria. 
The  discontinued  Harveian  Institution  for  young  men  was 
named  after  William  Harvey,  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  a  native  of  Folkestone  (1578),  who  is  also  commemorated 
by  a  tercentenary  memorial  on  the  Lees.  Folkestone  is  a  member 
of  the  Cinque  Port  of  Dover.  It  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  7 
aldermen  and  21  councillors.  Area,  2522  acres.  To  the  west  of 
Folkestone,  close  to  Shorncliffe  camp,  is  the  populous  suburb 
of  Cheriton  (an  urban  district,  pop.  7091). 

Folkestone  (Folcestan)  was  among  the  possessions  of  Earl 
Godwine  and  was  called  upon  to  supply  him  with  ships  when  he 
was  exiled  from  England;  at  the  time  of  the  Domesday  Survey 
it  belonged  to  Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux.  From  early  times  it  was 
a  member  of  the  Cinque  Port  of  Dover,  and  had  to  find  one  out 
of  the  twenty-one  ships  furnished  by  that  port  for  the  royal 
service.  It  shared  the  privileges  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  whose 
liberties  were  exemplified  at  the  request  of  the  barons  of  Folke- 
stone by  Edward  III.  in  1330.  The  corporation,  which  was 
prescriptive,  was  entitled  the  mayor,  jurats  and  commonalty 
of  Folkestone.  The  history  of  Folkestone  is  a  record  of  its 
struggle  against  the  sea,  which  was  -constantly  encroaching 
upon  the  town.  In  1629  the  inhabitants,  impoverished  by  their 
losses,  obtained  licence  to  erect  a  port.  By  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century  the  town  had  become  prosperous  by  the  increase  of  its 
fishing  and  shipping  trades,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  igth  century 
one  of  the  chief  health  and  pleasure  resorts  of  the  south  coast. 

FOLKLAND  (foldand).  This  term  occurs  three  times  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  documents.  In  a  law  of  Edward  the  Elder  (c.  i.  2)  it  is 
contrasted  with  bookland  in  a  way  which  shows  that  these  two 
kinds  of  tenure  formed  the  two  main  subdivisions  of  landowner- 
ship  :  no  one  is  to  deny  right  to  another  in  respect  of  folklarid  or 
bookland.  By  a  charter  of  863  (Cod.  Dipl.  281), King  ^thelberht 
exchanges  five  hides  of  folkland  for  five  hides  of  bookland  which 
had  formerly  belonged  to  a  thane,  granting  the  latter  for  the 
newly-acquired  estates  exemption  from  all  fiscal  exactions  except 
the  threefold  public  obligation  of  attending  the  fyrd  and  joining 
in  the  repair  of  fortresses  and  bridges.  Evidently  folkland  was 
not  free  from  the  payment  of  gafal  (land  tax)  and  providing 
quarters  for  the  king's  men.  In  ealdorman  Alfred's  will  the 
testator  disposes  freely  of  his  bookland  estates  in  favour  of  his 
sons  and  his  daughter,  but  to  a  son  who  is  not  considered  as 
rightful  offspring  five  hides  of  folkland  are  left,  provided  the 
king  consents.  It  is  probable  that  folkland  is  meant  in  two  or 
three  cases  when  Latin  documents  speak  of  terra  rei  publicae 
jure  possessa. 

Two  principal  explanations  have  been  given  to  this  term. 
Allen  thought  that  folkland  was  similar  to  the  Roman  ager 
publicus:  it  was  the  common  property  of  the  nation  (folc), 
and  the  king  had  to  dispose  of  it  by  carving  out  dependent 
tenures  for  his  followers  more  or  less  after  the  fashion  of  conti- 
nental beneficia.  These  estates  remained  subject  to  the  superior 
ownership  of  the  folk  and  of  the  king:  they  could  eventually 
be  taken  back  by  the  latter  and,  in  any  case,  the  heir  of  a  holder 
of  folkland  had  to  be  confirmed  in  possession  by  the  king.  A 
letter  of  Bede  to  the  archbishop  Ecgbert  of  York  may  be  inter- 
preted to  apply  to  this  kind  of  tenure.  Kemble,  K.  Maurer, 
H.  C.  Lodge,  Stubbs  and  others  followed  Allen's  lead. 

Another  theory  was  started  by  Professor  Vinogradoff  in  an 
article  on  folkland  in  the  English  Hist.  Review  for  1893.  It 
considers  folkland  as  landownership  by  folkright — at  common 
law,  as  might  be  said  in  modern  legal  speech.  In  opposition  to  it 
bookland  appears  as  landownership  derived  from  royal  privilege. 
The  incidents  recorded  in  the  charters  characterize  folkland  as 


FOLKLORE 


60 1 


subject  to  ordinary  fiscal  burdens  and  to  limitations  in  respect  of 
testamentary  succession.  Thane  Wallaf  has  to  be  relieved  from 
fiscal  exactions  when  his  estate  is  converted  from  folkland  into 
bookland  (C.D.  281).  Ealdorman  Alfred's  son,  not  being  recog- 
nized as  legitimate,  has  to  claim  fclkland  not  by  direct  succession 
or  devise,  but  by  the  consent  of  the  king.  These  incidents  and 
limitations  are  thrown  into  relief  by  copious  illustrations  as  to 
the  fundamental  features  of  bookland  contained  in  the  number- 
less "  books."  These  are  exemptions  from  fiscal  dues  and 
freedom  of  disposition  of  the  owner.  This  view  of  the  matter  has 
been  accepted  by  the  chief  modern  authorities. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J.  Allen,  Inquiry  into  the  Rise  and  Growth  of 
Royal  Prerogative  in  England  (London,  1849) ;  K.  Maurer,  Kritische 
Uberschau  (1853),  Band  i.  102  ff. ;  F.  W.  Maitland,  Domesday  Book 
and  Beyond,  244  ff.  (Cambridge,  1897) ;  P.  Vinogradoff,  "  Folcland," 
in  the  Eng.  Hist.  Rev.  (1893),  p.  I  ff.;  Sir  F.  Pollock,  Land  Laws 
(London,  1896);  H.  Brunner,  Deutsche  Rechtsgeschichte,  Band  i. 
(2nd  ed.,  293,  Leipzig,  1887-1892).  (P.  Vl.) 

FOLKLORE,  a  term  invented  in  1846  by  Mr  W.  J.  Thorns  as  a 
designation  for  the  traditional  learning  of  the  uncultured  classes 
of  civilized  nations.  The  word  has  been  adopted  in  this  sense 
into  many  foreign  languages;  it  is  sometimes  regarded  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  Ger.  Volkskunde.  But  folklore  is,  properly 
speaking,  the  "  lore  of  the  folk,"  while  Volkskunde  is  lore  or 
learning  about  the  folk,  and  includes  not  only  the  mental  life 
of  a  people,  but  also  their  arts  and  crafts.  The  term  folklore  is 
also  used  to  designate  the  science  which  deals  with  folklore; 
the  study  of  survivals  involves  the  investigation  of  the  similar 
customs,  beliefs,  &c.,  of  races  on  lower  planes  of  culture;  conse- 
quently folklore,  as  interpreted  by  the  English  and  American 
societies,  concerns  itself  as  much  or  more  with  savage  races  as 
with  the  popular  superstitions  of  the  white  races. 

History. — The  scientific  study  of  folklore  dates  back  to  the 
first  quarter  of  the  igth  century,  but  folklore  was  collected  long 
before  that  date.  The  organized  study  of  folklore  is  a  thing  of 
recent  growth.  The  first  Folklore  Society  was  founded  in  London 
in  1878;  similar  bodies  now  exist  in  the  United  States,  France, 
Italy,  Switzerland  and  especially  in  Germany  and  Austria. 
The  folk-tale  makes  its  appearance  in  literature  at  a  very  early 
period;  Egyptian  examples  have  come  down  to  us  from  the 
28th  century  B.C.  In  Greece  the  Homeric  poems  contain  many 
folk-tale  incidents;  for  India  we  have  the  Jatakas  and  Pancha- 
tantra;  and  for  the  Arabs  the  great  collection  of  the  Thousand 
and  One  Nights.  Another  type  of  folk-narrative  is  represented 
by  Aesop's  Fables.  Not  unnaturally  beliefs  and  customs  received 
less  attention;  our  knowledge  of  them  among  the  ancients  is  as 
a  rule  pieced  together.  Among  the  oldest  professed  collections 
are  J.  B.  Thiers  (1606-1703),  Traite  des  superstitions  (1679), 
Aubrey's  Miscellanies  (1686)  and  H.  Bourne's  (1696-1733) 
Antiquitates  vulgares  (1725);  but  they  belong  to  the  antiquarian, 
non-scientific  period. 

The  pioneers  of  the  modern  scientific  treatment  of  folklore 
were  the  brothers  Grimm,  by  the  publication  of  their  Kinder-und 
Hausmarchen  (1812-1815)  and  Deutsche  Mythologie  (1835). 
They  were  the  first  to  present  the  folk-tale  in  its  genuine  un- 
adulterated form.  They  differed  from  their  predecessors  in 
regarding  the  myth,  not  as  the  result  of  conscious  speculation, 
but  of  a  mythopoeic  impulse.  They  were,  however,  disposed  to 
press  modern  linguistic  evidence  too  far  and  make  the  figures 
of  the  folk-tale  the  lineal  representatives  of  ancient  gods,  as  the 
folk-tales  themselves  were  of  the  myths.  This  tendency  was 
exaggerated  by  their  successors,  J.  W.  Wolf,  W.  Rochholz  and 
others.  At  the  outset  of  his  career,  W.  Mannhardt  (1831-1880), 
the  forerunner  of  the  anthropological  school  of  folklore,  shared 
in  this  mistake.  Breaking  away  eventually  from  the  philological 
schools,  which  interpreted  myths  and  their  supposed  descendants, 
the  folk-tales,  as  relating  to  the  storm,  the  sun,  the  dawn,  &c. 
(see  MYTHOLOGY),  Mannhardt  made  folk-custom  and  belief  h 
basis  To  this  end  he  set  himself  to  collect  and  compare  the 
superstitions  of  the  peasantry;  but  his  health  was  always 
feeble  and  he  never  completed  his  scheme.  For  a  time  Mann 
hardt's  researches  bore  fruit  neither  in  his  own  country  nor 
abroad.  In  1878  the  foundation  of  the  Folklore  Society  marked 


a  new  era  in  England,  where  the  philological  school  had  had 
few  adherents;  and  the  anthropological  school  soon  produced 
evidence  of  its  vitality  in  the  works  of  Mr  Andrew  Lang,  Dr  J.  G. 
Frazer  and  Professor  Robertson  Smith. 

With  the  growth  of  our  knowledge  of  European  folk-custom 
and  belief  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  rites  and  religions  of  people 
in  the  lower  stages  of  culture  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  become 
abundantly  clear  that  there  is  no  line  of  demarcation  between 
the  two.  Each  throws  light  upon  the  other,  and  the  super- 
stitions of  Europe  are  the  lineal  descendants  of  savage  creeds 
which  have  their  parallels  all  over  the  world  in  the  culture  of 
primitive  peoples. 

Subdivisions. — The  folklore  of  civilized  peoples  may  be 
conveniently  classified  under  three  main  heads:  (i)  belief  and 
custom;  (2)  narratives  and  sayings;  (3)  art.  These  again  may 
be  subdivided.  The  first  division,  Belief  and  Custom,  includes 
(A)  Superstitious  beliefs  and  practices,  including  (a)  those 
connected  with  natural  phenomena  or  inanimate  nature,  (b) 
tree  and  plant  superstitions,  (c)  animal  superstitions,  (d)  ghosts 
and  goblins,  (e)  witchcraft,  (/)  leechcraft,  (g)  magic  in  general 
and  divination,  (h)  eschatology,  and  (»')  miscellaneous  super- 
stitions and  practices;  and  (B)  Traditional  customs,  including 
(a)  festival  customs  for  which  are  set  aside  certain  days  and 
seasons,  (b)  ceremonial  customs  on  the  occasion  of  events  such  as 
birth,  death  or  marriage,  (c)  games,  (d)  miscellaneous  local 
customs,  such  as  agricultural  rites  connected  with  the  corn-spirit 
(see  DEMONOLOGY),  and  (e)  dances.  The  second  head  of  Narra- 
tives and  Sayings  may  be  subdivided  (A)  into  (a)  sagas  or  tales 
told  as  true,  (b)  Marchen  or  nursery  tales,  (c)  fables,  (d)  drolls, 
apologues,  cumulative  tales,  &c.,  (e)  myths  (see  MYTHOLOGY), 
and  (/)  place  legends;  (B)  into  ballads  and  songs  (in  so  far  as 
they  do  not  come  under  art);  and  (C)  into  nursery  rhymes, 
riddles,  jingles,  proverbs,  nicknames,  place  rhymes,  &c.  The 
third  head,  Art,  subdivides  into  (a)  folk  music  with  ballads  and 
songs,  (b)  folk  drama.  Any  classification,  however,  labours 
under  the  disadvantage  of  separating  items  which  properly 
belong  together.  Thus,  myths  are  obviously  the  form  in 
which  some  superstitions  are  expressed.  They  may  also  be 
aetiological  in  their  nature  and  form  an  elaborate  record  of  a 
custom.  Eschatological  beliefs  naturally  take  the  form  of  myths. 
Traditional  narratives  can  also  be  classified  under  art,  and  so  on. 

Literature. — The  literature  of  the  subject  falls  into  two  sharply 
defined  classes — synthetic  works  and  collections  of  folklore — of 
which  the  latter  are  immensely  more  numerous.  Of  the  former 
class  the  most  important  is  Dr  J.  G.  Frazer's  Golden  Bough, 
which  sets  out  from  the  study  of  a  survival  in  Roman  religion 
and  covers  a  wide  field  of  savage  and  civilized  beliefs  and  customs. 
Especially  important  are  the  chapters  on  agricultural  rites,  in 
which  are  set  forth  the  results  of  Mannhardt's  researches.  Other 
important  lines  of  folklore  research  in  the  Golden  Bough  are 
those  dealing  with  spring  ceremonies,  with  the  primitive  view 
of  the  soul,  with  animal  cults,  and  with  sun  and  rain  charms. 
Mr  E.  S.  Hartland's  Legend  of  Perseus  is  primarily  concerned 
with  the  origin  of  a  folk-tale,  and  this  problem  in  the  end  is 
dismissed  as  insoluble.  A  large  part  of  the  book  is  taken  up 
with  a  discussion  of  sympathetic  magic,  and  especially  with  the 
"  life  index,"  an  object  so  bound  up  with  the  life  of  a  human 
being  that  it  acts  as  an  indication  of  his  well-being  or  otherwise. 
The  importance  of  children's  games  in  the  study  of  folklore  has 
been  recognized  of  recent  years.  An  admirable  collection  of  the 
games  of  England  has  been  published  by  Mrs  G.  L.  Gomme. 
With  the  more  minute  study  of  uncivilized  peoples  the  problem 
of  the  diffusion  of  games  has  also  come  to  the  fore.  In  particular 
it  is  found  that  the  string-game  called  "  cat's  cradle  "  in  various 
forms  is  of  very  wide  diffusion,  being  found  even  in  Australia. 
The  question  of  folk-music  has  recently  received  much  attention 
(see  SONG). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Introductory  works:  M.  R.  Cox,  Introduction 
to  Folklore',  Kaindl,  Die  Volkskunde;  Marillicr  in  Revue  de I'histoire 
des  religions,  xliii.  166,  and  other  works  mentioned  by  Kaindl. 

General  works:  J.  G.  Frazer,  The  Golden  Bough;  E.  S.  Hartland, 
The  Legend  of  Perseus;  A.  Lane,  Custom  and  Myth,  Myth,  Ritual 
and  Religion;  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture;  Liebrecht,  Zur  Volkskunde. 


602 


POLLEN,  A.— FONBLANQUE 


British  Isles.  England:  Burne,  Shropshire  Folklore;  Denham 
Tracts  (F.  L.  S.) ;  Harland  and  Wilkinson,  Lancashire  Folklore; 
Henderson,  Folklore  of  Northern  Counties;  County  Folklore  Series 
(Printed  Extracts)  of  the  F.L.S.  Wales:  Elias  Owen,  Welsh 
Folklore;  Rhys,  Celtic  Folklore.  Scotland:  Dalyell,  Darker 
Superstitions;  Gregor,  Folklore  of  N.E.  of  Scotland;  the  works  of 
J.  G.  Campbell,  &c. 

Germany:  Grimm,  Deutsche  Mythologie,  English  translation  by 
Stallybrass;  Wuttke,  Der  deutsche  Volksaberglaube;  Meyer,  Deutsche 
Volkskunde;  Tetzner,  Die  Slaven  in  Deutschland;  Mogk  in  Paul's 
Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philologie,  and  the  works  cited  by 
Kaindl  (see  above). 

France:  Sebillot's  works;  Rolland,  Faune  populaire;  Laisnel 
de  la  Salle,  Croyances  et  legendes. 

On  the  Slavs  see  the  works  of  Krauss  and  v.  Wlislochi;  for 
Bohemia,  Grohmann,  Aberglaube;  for  Greece,  Abbott,  Macedonian 
Folklore,  and  Rennell  Rodd,  Folklore  of  Greece;  for  Italy,  Pitre's 
bibliography;  for  India,  Crooke's  works,  and  the  Indian  Antiquary. 
For  questionnaires  see  Handbook  of  Folklore  (Folklore  Soc.) ;  Sebillot, 
Essai  de  questionnaires;  Journal  of  American  Folklore  (1890,  &c.); 
and  Kaindl's  Volkskunde.  For  a  bibliography  of  folk-tales  see 
Hartland,  Mythology  and  Folk-tales;  to  his  list  may  be  added 
Petitot's  Legendes  indiennes;  Rand,  Legends  of  the  Micmacs; 
Lummis,  The  Man  who  Married  the  Moon;  and  the  publications 
of  the  American  Folklore  Society.  For  other  works  see  biblio- 
graphies in  Folklore  and  other  periodicals.  On  special  points  may 
be  mentioned  Miss  Cox's  Cinderella  (Folklore  Society);  Kohler's 
works,  &c.  (see  also  bibliography  to  the  article  TALE).  For  games 
see  Gomme,  English  Games;  Culin,  Korean  Games;  Rochholz, 
Alcmannisches  Kinderlied;  Bohme,  Deutsches  Kinderlied;  Handel- 
mann,  Yolks-  und  Kinderspiele;  Jayne,  String  Figures,  &c. ;  and 
the  bibliography  to  DOLL.  See  also  Sonnenschein's  Best  Books. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  more  important  Societies  and  publi- 
cations : — 

England :  Folklore  Society ;  Folksong  Society ;  Gipsy-lore  Society. 

U.S.A.:  American  Folklore  Society. 

France :  Societe  des  traditions  populaires. 

Germany:  Verein  fur  Volkskunde;  Hessische  Vereinigung  fur 
Volkskunde;  and  minor  societies  in  Saxony,  Silesia  and  other 
provinces. 

Austria :   Verein  fur  osterreichische  Volkskunde. 

Switzerland :  Schweizerische  Gesettschaft  filr  Volkskunde. 

Italy :   Societa  per  lo  studio  delle  tradizioni  popolari. 

In  addition  to  these,  the  anthropological  societies  devote  more  or 
less  attention  to  folklore.  Resides  the  publications  of  the  societies 
mentioned  above,  minor  societies  or  individuals  are  responsible  for 
the  following  among  others:  Belgium,  Wattonia;  Poland,  Wisla; 
France,  Melusine  (1878,  1883-1901);  Bohemia,  Cesky  Lid;  Den- 
mark, Dania,  &c. ;  Germany,  Zcitschrift  fur  V olkerpsychologie 
(1859-1890) ;  Am  Urguell  (1890-1898).  (N.  W.  T.) 

POLLEN,  AUGUST  (or,  as  he  afterwards  called  himself, 
ADOLF)  LUDWI6  (1794-1855),  German  poet,  was  born  at  Giessen 
on  the  2ist  of  January  1794,  the  son  of  a  district  judge.  He 
studied  theology  at  Giessen  and  law  at  Heidelberg,  and  after 
leaving  the  university  edited  the  Elberfeld  Allgemeine  Zeitung. 
Suspected  of  being  connected  with  some  radical  plots,  he  was 
imprisoned  for  two  years  in  Berlin.  When  released  in  1821  he 
went  to  Switzerland,  where  he  taught  in  the  canton  school  at 
Aarau,  farmed  from  1847-1854  the  estate  of  Liebenfels  in 
Thurgau,  and  then  retired  to  Bern,  where  he  lived  till  his  death 
on  the  26th  of  December  1855.  Besides  a  number  of  minor 
poems  he  wrote  Harfengrusse  aus  Deutschland  und  der  Schweiz 
(1823)  and  Malegys  und  Vivian  (1829),  a  knightly  romance  after 
the  fashion  of  the  romantic  school.  Of  his  many  translations, 
mention  may  be  made  of  the  Homeric  Hymns  in  collaboration 
with  R.  Schwenck  (1814),  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered  (1818) 
and  Siegfrieds  Tod  from  the  Nibelungenlied  (1842);  he  also 
collected  and  translated  Latin  hymns  and  sacred  poetry  (1819). 
In  1846  he  published  a  brief  collection  of  sonnets  entitled  An 
die  gottlosen  Nichtswuteriche.  This  was  aimed  at  the  liberal 
philosopher  Arnold  Ruge,  and  was  the  occasion  of  a  literary  duel 
between  the  two  authors.  Pollen's  posthumous  poem  Tristans 
Eltern  (1857)  may  also  be  mentioned,  but  his  best-known  work 
is  a  collection  of  German  poetry  entitled  Bildersaal  deutscher 
Dichtung  (1827). 

POLLEN,  KARL  (i  795-1840) ,  German  poet  and  patriot,  brother 
of  A.  L.  Pollen,  was  born  at  Romrod  in  Hesse-Darmstadt,  on  the 
5th  of  September  1795.  He  first  studied  theology  at  Giessen, 
but  after  the  campaign  of  1814,  in  which,  like  his  brother 
August,  he  took  part  as  a  Hessian  volunteer,  began  the  study  of 
jurisprudence,  and  in  1818  established  himself  as  Privatdocent 


of  civil  law  at  Giessen.  Owing  to  being  suspected  of  political 
intrigues,  he  removed  to  Jena,  and  thence,  after  the  assassination 
of  Kotzebue,  fled  to  France.  Here  again  the  political  murder 
of  the  due  de  Berry,  on  the  I4th  of  January  1820,  led  to  Pollen 
being  regarded  as  a  suspect,  and  he  accordingly  took  refuge  in 
Switzerland,  where  he  taught  for  a  while  at  the  cantonal  school 
at  Coire  and  at  the  university  of  Basel;  but  the  Prussian 
authorities  imperatively  demanding  his  surrender,  he  sought  in 
1824  the  hospitality  of  the  United  States  of  America.  Here  he 
became  an  instructor  in  German  at  Harvard  in  1825,  and  in  1830 
obtained  an  appointment  as  professor  of  German  language 
and  literature  there;  but  his  anti-slavery  agitation  having 
given  umbrage  to  the  authorities,  he  forfeited  his  post  in  1835, 
and  was  ordained  Unitarian  minister  of  a  chapel  at  Lexington  in 
Massachusetts  in  1836.  He  perished  at  sea  on  board  a  steamboat 
which  was  totally  consumed  by  fire  while  on  a  voyage  from 
New  York  to  Boston,  on  the  night  of  the  I3th-i4th  of  January 
1840.  Pollen  was  the  author  of  several  celebrated  patriotic 
songs  written  in  the  interests  of  liberty.  The  best  is  perhaps 
Horch  auf,  ihr  Fursten!  Du  Volk,  horch  aufl  of  which  Johannes 
Wit,  called  von  Dorring  (1800-1863),  was  long,  though  errone- 
ously, considered  the  author.  It  was  published  in  A.  L.  Pollen's 
collection  of  patriotic  songs,  Freie  Stimmen  frischer  Jugend. 

His  wife  Elisa  Lee  (1787-1860),  an  American  authoress  of  some 
reputation,  published  after  his  death  his  lectures  and  sermons,  with 
a  biography  written  by  herself  (5  vols.,  Boston,  1846). 

FOLLETT,  SIR  WILLIAM  WEBB  (1798-1845),  English  lawyer, 
was  born  at  Topsham  in  Devonshire  on  the  2nd  of  December 
1798.  He  was  the  son  of  Captain  Benjamin  Follett,  who  had 
retired  from  the  army  in  1790,  and  engaged  in  business  at 
Topsham.  He  received  his  education  at  Exeter  grammar  school 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  graduating  in  1818.  He  had 
entered  the  Inner  Temple  in  1816  and  began  to  practise  as  a 
pleader  below  the  bar  in  1821,  but  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1824, 
and  joined  the  western  circuit  in  1825.  At  the  very  outset 
his  great  qualifications  were  universally  recognized.  He  was 
thoroughly  master  of  his  profession,  and  his  rapid  rise  in  it  was 
due  not  only  to  his  quick  perception  and  sound  judgment,  but 
to  his  singular  courtesy,  kindness  and  sweetness  of  temper. 
In  1830  he  married  the  eldest  daughter  of  Sir  Ambrose  Harding 
Gifford,  chief  justice  of  Ceylon.  In  1835  he  was  returned  to 
parliament  for  Exeter.  In  parliament  he  early  distinguished 
himself,  and  under  the  first  administration  of  Sir  Robert  Peel 
was  appointed  solicitor-general  (November  1834) ;  but  resigned 
with  the  ministry  in  April  1 83  5.  In  the  course  of  this  year  he  was 
knighted.  On  the  return  of  Peel  to  power  in  1841  Sir  William 
was  again  appointed  solicitor-general,  and  in  April  1844  he  suc- 
ceeded Sir  Frederick  Pollock  as  attorney-general.  But  his 
health,  which  had  begun  to  fail  him  in  1838,  and  had  been 
permanently  injured  by  a  severe  illness  in  1841,  now  broke  down, 
and  he  was  compelled  to  relinquish  practice  and  to  visit  the 
south  of  Europe.  He  returned  to  England  in  March  1845;  but 
the  disease,  consumption,  reasserted  itself,  and  he  died  in 
London  on  the  28th  of  June  following.  A  statue  of  Follett, 
executed  by  Behnes,  was  erected  by  subscription  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

FONBLANQUE,  ALBANY  WILLIAM  (1793-1872),  English 
journalist,  descended  from  a  noble  French  Huguenot  family, 
the  Greniers  of  Languedoc,  was  born  in  London  in  1793.  John 
Grenier,  a  banker,  became  naturalized  in  England  under  the 
name  of  Fonblanque;  and  his  son  John  Samuel  Martin  Fon- 
blanque  (1760-1838),  a  distinguished  equity  lawyer,  and  the 
author  of  a  standard  legal  work,  a  Treatise  on  Equity,  was  the 
father  of  Albany  Fonblanque;  he  represented  the  borough  of 
Camelford  in  parliament;  and  was  one  of  the  Whig  friends  of 
George  IV.  when  prince  of  Wales.  At  fourteen  young  Fonblanque 
was  sent  to  Woolwich  to  prepare  for  the  Royal  Engineers.  His 
health,  however,  failed,  and  for  two  years  his  studies  had  to  be 
suspended.  Upon  his  recovery  he  studied  for  some  time  with  a 
view  to  being  called  to  the  bar.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  (1812) 
he  commenced  writing  forthe  newspapers,  and  very  soon  attracted 
notice  both  by  the  boldness  and  liberality  of  his  opinions,  and  by 


FOND  DU  LAC— FONDI 


603 


the  superiority  of  his  style  to  what  Macaulay,  when  speaking  of 
him,  justly  called  the  "  rant  and  twaddle  of  the  daily  and  weekly 
press  "  of  the  time.  While  he  was  eagerly  taking  his  share  in  all 
the  political  struggles  of  this  eventful  period,  he  was  also  con- 
tinuing his  studies,  devoting  no  less  than  six  hours  a  day  to  the 
study  of  classics  and  political  philosophy.  Under  this  severe 
mental  training  his  health  once  more  broke  down.  His  energy, 
however,  was  not  impaired.  He  became  a  regular  contributor  to 
the  newspapers  and  reviews,  realizing  a  fair  income  which,  as  his 
habits  were  simple  and  temperate,  secured  him  against  pecuniary 
anxieties. 

From  1820  to  1830  Albany  Fonblanque  was  successively 
employed  upon  the  staff  of  The  Times  and  the  Morning  Chronicle, 
whilst  he  contributed  to  the  Examiner,  to  the  London  Magazine 
and  to  theWestminster Review.  In  1828  theExaminer  newspaper, 
which  had  been  purchased  by  the  Rev.  Dr  Fellowes,  author  of  the 
Religion  of  the  Universe,  &c.,  was  given  over  to  Fonblanque's 
complete  control;  and  for  a  period  of  seventeen  years  (183010 
1847)  he  not  only  sustained  the  high  character  for  political  in- 
dependence and  literary  ability  which  the  Examiner  had  gained 
under  the  direction  of  Leigh  Hunt  and  his  brother,  John  Hunt, 
but  even  compelled  his  political  opponents  to  acknowledge  a 
certain  delight  in  the  boldness  and  brightness  of  the  wit  directed 
against  themselves.  When  it  was  proposed  that  the  admirers 
and  supporters  of  the  paper  should  facilitate  a  reduction  in  its 
price  by  the  payment  of  their  subscription  ten  years  in  advance, 
not  only  did  Mr  Edward  Bulwer  (Lord  Lytton)  volunteer  his 
aid,  but  also  Mr  Disraeli,  who  was  then  coquetting  with  radical- 
ism. During  his  connexion  with  the  Examiner,  Fonblanque  had 
many  advantageous  offers  of  further  literary  employment; 
but  he  devoted  his  energies  and  talents  almost  exclusively  to 
the  service  of  the  paper  he  had  resolved  to  make  a  standard  of 
literary  excellence  in  the  world  of  journalism.  Fonblanque  was 
offered  the  governorship  of  Nova  Scotia;  but  although  he  took 
great  interest  in  colonial  matters,  and  had  used  every  effort  to 
advocate  the  more  generous  political  system  which  had  colonial 
self-government  for  its  goal,  he  decided  not  to  abandon  his 
beloved  Examiner  even  for  so  sympathetic  an  employment.  In 
1847,  however,  domestic  reasons  induced  him  to  accept  the  post 
of  statistical  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  This  of  course 
compelled  him  to  resign  the  editorship  of  the  Examiner,  but  he 
still  continued  to  contribute  largely  to  the  paper,  which,  under  the 
control  of  John  Forster,  continued  to  sustain  its  influential 
position.  During  the  later  years  of  his  life  Fonblanque  took  no 
prominent  part  in  public  affairs;  and  when  he  died  at  the  age  of 
seven ty-nine(  187 2)he seemed,  as  his  nephew, EdwardFonblanque, 
rightly  observes,  "  a  man  who  had  lived  and  toiled  in  an  age  gone 
by  and  in  a  cause  long  since  established." 

The  character  of  Albany  Fonblanque's  political  activity  may 
be  judged  of  by  a  study  of  his  England  under  Seven  Administra- 
tions (1837),  in  comparison  with  the  course  of  social  and  political 
events  in  England  from  1826  to  1837.  As  a  journalist,  he  must 
be  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  reformer.  Journalism  before  his 
day  was  regarded  as  a  somewhat  discreditable  profession;  men 
of  true  culture  were  shy  of  entering  the  hot  and  dusty  arena  lest 
they  should  be  confounded  with  the  ruder  combatants  who  fought 
there  before  the  public  for  hire.  But  the  fact  that  Fonblanque, 
a  man  not  only  of  strong  and  earnest  political  convictions  but 
also  of  exceptional  literary  ability,  did  not  hesitate  to  choose  this 
field  as  a  worthy  one  in  which  both  a  politician  and  a  man  of 
letters  might  usefully  as  well  as  honourably  put  forth  his  best 
gifts,  must  have  helped,  in  no  small  degree,  to  correct  the  old 
prejudice. 

See  the  Life  and  Labours  of  Albany  Fonblanque,  edited  by  his 
nephew,   Edward   Harrington   de  Fonblanque   (London,   1874;;    i 
collection  of  his  articles  with  a  brief  biographical  notice. 

FOND  DU  LAC,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Fond  du  Lac 
county,  Wisconsin,  U.S.A.,  about  60  m.  N.  of  Milwaukee,  at  the 
S.  end  of  Lake  Winnebago,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Fond  ( 
Lac  river,  which  is  navigable  for  only  a  short  distance. 
(1890)  12,024;  (1900)  15,110,  of  whom  2952  were  foreign-born; 
(1910)  18,797.    The  city  is  a  railway  centre  of  some  importance, 


and  is  served  by  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St  Paul,  the 
Minneapolis,  St  Paul  &  Sault  St  Marie,  and  the  Chicago  &  North- 
Western  railways,  by  interurban  electric  lines,  and  by  steamboat 
lines  connecting  through  the  Fox  river  with  vessels  on  the  Great 
Lakes.  At  North  Fond  du  Lac,  just  beyond  the  city  limits, 
are  car-shops  of  the  two  last-mentioned  railways,  and  in  the 
city  are  manufactories  of  machinery,  automobiles,  wagons 
and  carriages,  awnings,  leather,  beer,  flour,  refrigerators,  agri- 
cultural implements,  toys  and  furniture.  The  total  value  of  the 
city's  factory  products  in  1905  was  $5,599,606,  an  increase  of 
95'7%  since  1900.  The  city  has  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
cathedral,  the  Grafton  Hall  school  for  girls,  and  St  Agnes  hospital 
and  convent,  and  a  public  library  with  about  25,000  volumes  in 
1908.  The  first  settlers  on  the  site  of  Fond  du  Lac  arrived  about 
1835.  Subsequently  a  village  was  laid  out  which  was  incorpor-. 
ated  in  1847;  a  city  charter  was  secured  in  1852. 

FONDI  (anc.  Fundi),  a  town  of  Campania,  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Caserta,  12  m.  N.W.  of  Formia,  and  n  m.  E.N.E. 
of  Terracina  by  road.  Pop.  (1901)  9930.  It  lies  25  ft.  above 
sea-level,  at  the  N.  end  of  a  plain  surrounded  by  mountains, 
which  extend  to  the  sea.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Fundi,  a  Volscian  town,  belonging  later  to  Lalium  adjectum,  on 
the  Via  Appia,  still  represented  by  the  modern  high-road  which 
passes  through  the  centre  of  the  town.  It  is  rectangular  in  plan, 
and  portions  of  its  walls,  partly  in  fine  polygonal  work  and  partly 
in  opus  incertum,  are  preserved.  Both  plan  and  walls  date,  no 
doubt,  from  the  Roman  period.  The  gate  on  the  north-east  still 
exists,  and  bears  the  inscription  of  three  aediles  who  erected  the 
gate,  the  towers  and  the  wall.  A  similar  inscription  of  three 
different  aediles  from  the  N.W.  gate  still  exists,  but  not  in  situ. 
In  the  neighbourhood  are  the  remains  of  several  ancient  villas, 
and  along  the  Via  Appia  still  stands  an  ancient  wall  of  opus 
reliculatum,  with  an  inscription,  in  large  letters,  of  one  Varroni- 
anus,  the  letters  being  at  intervals  of  25  ft.  The  engineering  of 
the  ancient  Via  Appia  between  Fondi  and  Formia,  where  it 
passes  through  the  mountains  near  Itri,  is  remarkable. 

The  modern  town  is  still  enclosed  by  the  ancient  walls.  The 
castle  on  the  S.E.  side  has  some  15th-century  windows  with 
beautiful  tracery.  Close  by  is  the  Gothic  church  of  S.  Pietro 
(formerly  S.  Maria),  which  was  the  cathedral  until  the  see  was 
suppressed  in  1818  and  united  with  that  of  Gaeta;  it  contains 
a  fine  pulpit  with  "  cosmatesque  "  work  and  the  fine  tomb  of 
Cristoforo  Caetani  (1439),  two  interesting  15th-century  triptychs 
and  an  episcopal  throne,  which  served  for  the  coronation  of  the 
antipope  Clement  VII.  in  1378.  In  the  Dominican  monastery 
the  cell  which  St  Thomas  Aquinas  sometimes  occupied  is  shown. 

The  ancient  city  of  Fundi  in  338  B.C.  (or  332)  received  (with 
Formiae)  the  civitas  sine  suffragio,  because  it  had  always  secured 
the  Romans  safe  passage  through  its  territory;  the  people 
as  a  whole  did  not  join  Privernum  in  its  war  against  Rome  three 
years  later,  though  Vitruvius  Vacca,  the  leader,  was  a  native  of 
Fundi.  It  acquired  the  full  citizenship  in  188  B.C.,  and  was 
partly  under  the  control  of  a  praefectus.  The  inscription  upon 
some  waterpipes  which  have  been  discovered  shows  that  later  it 
became  a  municipium.  It  was  governed  by  three  aediles: 
Horace's  jest  against  the  officious  praetor  (sic)  is  due  to  the 
exigencies  of  metre  (Th.  Mommsen  in  Hermes,  xiii.  p.  113).  The 
family  of  Livia,  the  consort  of  Augustus,  belonged  to  Fundi. 
During  the  Lombard  invasions  in  592  Fundi  was  temporarily 
abandoned,  but  it  seems  to  have  come  under  the  rule  of  the 
papacy  by  A.D.  754  at  any  rate.  Pope  John  VIII.  ceded  it  with 
its  territory  to  Docibile,  duke  of  Gaeta,  but  its  history  is  some- 
what intricate  after  this  period.  Sometimes  it  appears  as  an 
independent  countship,  though  held  by  members  of  the  Caetani 
family,  who  about  1297  returned  to  it.  In  1504  it  was  given  to 
Prospero  Colonna.  In  1534  Khair-ed-Din  Barbarossa  tried  to 
carry  off  Giulia  Gonzaga,  countess  of  Fondi,  and  sacked  the  city. 
After  this  Fondi  was  much  neglected;  in  1721  it  was  sold  to  the 
Di  Sangro  family,  in  which  it  still  remains.  Its  position  as  a 
frontier  town  between  the  papal  states  and  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  just  in  the  territory  of  the  latter — the  Via  Appia  can 
easily  be  blocked  either  N.W.  at  the  actual  frontier  called 


604 


FONNI— FONSECA,  BAY  OF 


Portella '  or  S.E.  of  it — affected  it  a  good  deal  during  the  French 
Revolution  and  the  events  which  led  up  to  the  unification  of 

Italy. 

The  Lago  di  Fondi,  which  lies  in  the  middle  of  the  plain,  and 
the  partially  drained  marshes  surrounding  it,  compelled  the 
ancient  Via  Appia,  followed  by  the  modern  road,  to  make  a 
considerable  detour.  The  lake  was  also  known  in  classical  times 
as  lacus  Amyclanus,  from  the  town  of  Amyclae  or  Amunclae, 
which  was  founded,  according  to  legend,  by  Spartan  colonists, 
and  probably  destroyed  by  the  Oscans  in  the  5th  century  B.C. 
(E.  Pais  in  Rendiconti  dei  Lincei,  1906,  611  seq.);  the  bay  was 
also  known  as  mare  Amunclanum. 

The  ancient  Speluncae  (mod.  Sperlonga)  on  the  coast  also 
belonged  to  the  territory  of  Fundi.  Here  was  the  imperial  villa 
in  which  Sejanus  saved  the  life  of  Tiberius,  who  was  almost 
crushed  by  a  fall  of  rock.  Considerable  remains  of  it,  and  of  the. 
caves  from  which  it  took  its  name,  still  exist  i  m.  S.E.  of  the 
modern  village.  For  modern  discoveries  see  P.  di  Tucci  in 
Notizie  degli  scam  (1880),  480;  G.  Patroni,  ibid.  (1898),  493. 
The  wine  of  Fundi  is  spoken  of  by  ancient  writers,  though  the 
ager  Caecubus,  the  coast  plain  round  the  Lago  di  Fundi,  was  even 
more  renowned,  and  Horace  frequently  praises  its  wine;  and 
though  Pliny  the  Elder  speaks  as  if  its  production  had  almost 
entirely  ceased  in  his  day  (attributing  this  to  neglect,  but  even 
more  to  the  excavation  works  of  Nero's  projected  canal  from  the 
lacus  Avernus  to  Ostia),  Martial  mentions  it  often,  and  it  is 
spoken  of  in  the  inscription  of  a  wine-dealer  of  the  time  of 
Hadrian,  together  with  Falernian  and  Sedan  wines  (Corpus 
inscript.  Lai.  vi.  Berlin,  1882,  9797).  The  plain  of  Fondi  is  the 
northernmost  point  in  Italy  where  the  cultivation  of  oranges  and 
lemons  is  regularly  carried  on  in  modern  times. 

See  G.  Conte  Colino,  Storia  di  Fondi  (Naples,  1902) ;  B.  Amante 
and  R.  Bianchi,  Memorie  storiche  e  statutarie  di  Fondi  in  Campania 
(Rome,  1903) ;  T.  Ashby,  in  English  Historical  Review,  xix.  (1904) 
557  seq-  (T-  As') 

FONNI,  a  town  of  Sardinia,  in  the  province  of  Sassari,  3280  ft. 
above  sea-level,  to  the  N.W.  of  Monte  Gennargentu,  21  m.  S. 
of  Nuoro  by  road.  Pop.  (1901)  4323.  It  is  the  highest  village 
in  Sardinia,  and  situated  among  fine  scenery  with  some  chestnut 
woods.  The  church  of  the  Franciscans,  built  in  1708,  contains 
some  curious  paintings  by  local  artists.  The  costumes  are  ex- 
tremely picturesque,  and  are  well  seen  on  the  day  of  St  John  the 
Baptist,  the  patron  saint.  The  men's  costume  is  similar  to  that 
worn  in  the  district  generally;  the  linen  trousers  are  long  and 
black  gaiters  are  worn.  The  women  wear  a  white  chemise; 
over  that  a  very  small  corselet,  and  over  that  a  red  jacket  with 
blue  and  black  velvet  facings.  The  skirt  is  brown  above  and 
red  below,  with  a  blue  band  between  the  two  colours;  it  is 
accordion-pleated.  Two  identical  skirts  are  often  worn,  one 
above  the  other.  The  unmarried  girls  wear  white  kerchiefs, 
the  married  women  black.  A  little  to  the  N.  of  Fonni,  by  the 
high-road,  stood  the  Roman  station  of  Sorabile,  mentioned  in 
the  Antonine  Itinerary  as  situated  87  m.  from  Carales  on  the 
road  to  Olbia.  Excavations  made  in  1879  and  1880  led  to  the 
discovery  of  the  remains  of  this  station,  arranged  round  three 
sides  of  a  courtyard  some  100  ft.  square,  including  traces  of 
baths  and  other  buildings,  and  a  massive  embanking  wall  above 
them,  some  150  ft.  in  length,  to  protect  them  from  landslips 
(F.  Vivanet,  in  Notizie  degli  scavi,  1879,  350;  1881,  31),  while 
a  discharge  certificate  (tabula  honestae  missionis)  of  sailors 
who  had  served  in  the  classis  Ravennas  was  found  in  some 
ruins  here  or  hereabouts  (id.  ib.,  1882,  440;  T.  Mommsen, 
Corp.  inscr.  Lat.  x.  8325).  Near  Fonni,  too,  are  several 
"  menhirs "  (called  pietre  celtiche  in  the  district)  and  other 
prehistoric  remains.  (T.  As.) 

FONSA6RADA,  a  town  of  north-western  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Lugo;  25  m.  E.N.E.  of  Lugo  by  road.  Pop.  (1900)  17,302. 
Fonsagrada  is  situated  3166  ft.  above  the  sea,  on  the  watershed 
between  the  rivers  Rodil  and  Suarna.  It  is  an  important  markel 
for  all  kinds  of  agricultural  produce,  and  manufactures  linen  anc 
frieze;  but  its  trade  is  mainly  local,  owing  to  the  mountainous 
1  For  the  pass  of  Ad  Lautulas  see  TERRACINA. 


character  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  the  lack  of  a  railway  or 
navigable  waterway,  which  prevent  the  development  of  any 
considerable  export  trade. 

FONSECA,     MANOEL     DEODORO     DA     (1827-1892),     first 
president  of  the  united  states  of  Brazil,  was  born  at  Alagoas 
on  the  5th  of  August  1827,  being  the  third  son  of  Lieut.-Colonel 
Manoel  Mendes  da  Fonseca  (d.   1859).     He  was  educated  at 
;he  military  school  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  had  attained  the  rank 
of  captain  in  the  Brazilian  army  when  war  broke  out  in  1864 
against    Montevideo,   and   afterwards   against   Solano   Lopez, 
dictator  of  Paraguay.     His  courage  gained  him  distinction,  and 
aefore  the  close  of  the  war  in  1870  he  reached  the  rank  of  colonel, 
and  some  years  later  that  of  general  of  division.     After  holding 
several  military  commands,  he  was  appointed  in  1886  governor 
of  the  province  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.     In  this  position  he  threw 
himself  heartily  into  politics,  espoused  the  republican  opinions 
then  becoming  prevalent,  and  sheltered  their  exponents  with 
his  authority.     After  a  fruitless  remonstrance,  the  government 
at  the  close  of  the  year  removed  him  from  his  post,  and  recalled 
him  to  the  capital  as  director  of  the  service  of  army  material. 
Finding  that  even  in  that  post  he  still  continued  to  encourage 
insubordination,  the  minister  of  war,  Alfredo  Chaves,  dismissed 
him  from  office.     On  i4th  of  May  1887,  in  conjunction  with  the 
viscount  de  Pelotas,  Fonseca  issued  a  manifesto  in  defence  of 
the  military  officers'  political  rights.    From  that  time  his  influence 
was  supreme  in  the  army.     In  December  1888,  when  the  Con- 
servative Correa  d'Oliveira  became  prime  minister,  Fonseca  was 
appointed  to  command  an  army  corps  on  the  frontier  of  Matto 
Grosso.     In  June  1889  the  ministry  was  overthrown,  and  on  a 
dissolution  an  overwhelming  Liberal  majority  was  returned  to 
the  chamber  of  deputies.     Fonseca  returned  to  the  capital  in 
September.     Divisions  of  opinion  soon  arose  within  the  Liberal 
party  on    the  question  of    provincial    autonomy.     The  more 
extreme  desired  the  inauguration  of  a  complete  federal  system. 
Amongst  the  most  vehement  was  Ruy  Barbosa,  the  journalist 
and  orator,  and  after  some  difficulty  he  persuaded  Fonseca  to- 
head  an  armed  movement  against  the  government.     The  insur- 
rection broke  out  on  the  i5th  of  November  1889.     The  govern- 
ment commander,  Almeida  Barreto,  hastened  to  place  himself 
under   Fonseca's   orders,   and   the   soldiers   and   sailors   made 
common  cause  with   the  insurgents.     The  affair  was  almost 
bloodless,  the  minister  of  marine,  baron  de  Ladario,  being  the 
only  person  wounded.     Fonseca  had  only  intended  to  overturn 
the  ministry,  but  he  yielded  to  the  insistency  of  the  republican 
leaders  and  proclaimed  a  republic.     A  provisional  government 
was  constituted  by  the  army  and  navy  in  the  name  of  the  nation, 
with  Fonseca  at  its  head.     The  council  was  abolished,  and  both 
the  senate  and  the  chamber  of  deputies  were  dissolved.     The 
emperor  was  requested  to  leave  the  territory  of  Brazil  within 
twenty-four  hours,  and  on  the  i7th  of  November  was  embarked 
on  a  cruiser  for  Lisbon.     On  the  2oth  of  December  a  decree  of 
banishment  was  pronounced  against  the  imperial  family.     Sa 
universal  was  the  republican  sentiment  that  there  was  no  attempt 
at  armed  resistance.     The  provisional   government  exercised 
dictatorial  powers  for  a  year,  and  on  the  25th  of  February  1891 
Fonseca  was  elected  president  of  the  republic.     He  was,  however, 
no  politician,  and  possessed  indeed  little  ability  beyond  the  art 
of  acquiring  popularity.     His  tenure  of  office  was  short.     In 
May  be  became  involved  in  an  altercation  with  congress,  and  in 
November  pronounced  its  dissolution,  a  measure  beyond  his 
constitutional  power.     After  a  few  days  of  arbitrary  rule  insur- 
rection broke  out  in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  and  before  the  close  of 
November  Fonseca,  finding  himself  forsaken,  resigned  his  office. 
From  that  time  he  lived  in  retirement.     He  died  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  on  the  23rd  of  August  1892. 

FONSECA,  AMAPALA  or  CONCHAGUA,  BAY  OF,  an  inlet  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  in  the  volcanic  region  between  the  Central  American 
republics  of  Honduras,  Salvador  and  Nicaragua.  The  bay  is 
unsurpassed  in  extent  and  security  by  any  other  harbour  on 
the  Pacific.  It  is  upwards  of  50  m.  in  greatest  length,  by  about 
30  m.  in  average  width,  with  an  entrance  from  the  sea  about 
18  m.  wide,  between  the  great  volcanoes  of  Conchagua  (3800  ft.) 


FONT 


605 


and  Coseguina  (3000  ft.).  The  lofty  islands  of  Conchaguita 
and  Mianguiri,  with  a  collection  of  rocks  called  "  Los  Farellones," 
divide  the  entrance  into  four  distinct  channels,  each  of  sufficient 
depth  for  the  largest  vessels.  A  channel  called  "  El  Estero 
Real  "  extends  from  the  extreme  southern  point  of  the  bay  into 
Nicaragua  for  about  50  m.,  reaching  within  20  or  25  m.  of  Lake 
Managua.  The  principal  islands  in  the  bay  are  Sacate  Grande, 
Tigre,  Gueguensi  and  Esposescion  belonging  to  Honduras, 
and  Martin  Perez,  Punta  Sacate,  Conchaguita  and  Mianguiri 
belonging  to  Salvador.  Of  these  Sacate  Grande  is  the  largest, 
being  about  7  m.  long  by  4  broad.  The  island  of  Tigre  from  its 
position  is  the  most  important  in  the  bay,  being  about  20  m. 
in  circumference,  and  rising  in  a  cone  to  the  height  of  2500  ft. 
On  the  southern  and  eastern  shores  of  the  island  the  lava  forms 
black  rocky  barriers  to  the  waves,  varying  in  height  from  10 
to  80  ft.;  but  on  the  northward  and  eastward  are  a  number 
of  playas  or  smooth,  sandy  beaches.  Facing  one  of  the  most 
considerable  of  these  is  the  port  of  Amapala  (q.v.).  Fonseca 
Bay  was  discovered  in  1522  by  Gil  Gonzalez  de  Avila,  and  named 
by  him  after  his  patron,  Archbishop  Juan  Fonseca,  the  implacable 
enemy  of  Columbus. 

FONT  (Lat.  fans,  "  fountain  "  or  "  spring,"  Ital.  fonle,  Fr. 
les  fonts),  the  vessel  used  in  churches  to  hold  the  water  for 
Christian  baptism.  In  the  apostolic  period  baptism  was  ad- 
ministered at  rivers  or  natural  springs  (cf.  Acts  viii.  36),  and  no 
doubt  the  primitive  form  of  the  rite  was  by  immersion  in  the 
water.  Infusion — pouring  water  on  the  head  of  the  neophyte — 
was  early  introduced  into  the  west  and  north  of  Europe  on 
account  of  the  inconvenience  of  immersion,  as  well  as  its  occasional 
danger;  this  form  has  never  been  countenanced  in  the  Oriental 
churches.  Aspersion,  or  sprinkling,  was  also  admitted  as  valid, 
but  recorded  early  examples  of  its  use  are  rare  (see  BAPTISM). 
These  different  modes  of  administering  baptism  have  caused 
corresponding  changes  in  the  receptacles  for  the  water.  After 
the  cessation  of  persecution,  when  ritual  and  ornament  began 
to  develop  openly,  special  buildings  were  erected  for  administering 
the  rite  of  baptism.  This  was  obviously  necessary,  for  a  large 
piscina  (basin  or  tank)  in  which  candidates  could  be  immersed 
would  occupy  too  much  space  of  the  church  floor  itself.  These 
baptisteries  consisted  of  tanks  entered  by  steps  (an  ascent  of 
three,  and  descent  of  four,  to  the  water  was  the  normal  but  not 
the  invariable  number)  and  covered  with  a  domed  chamber 
(see  BAPTISTERY). 

By  the  gth  century,  however,  the  use  of  separate  baptisteries 
had  generally  given  place  to  that  of  fonts.  The  material  of 
which  these  were  made  was  stone,  often  decorative  marble; 
as  early  as  524,  however,  the  council  of  Lerida  enacted  that  if  a 
stone  font  were  not  procurable  the  presbyter  was  to  provide 
a  suitable  vessel,  to  be  used  for  the  sacrament  exclusively,  which 
might  be  of  any  material.  In  the  Eastern  Church  the  font 
never  became  an  important  decorative  article  of  church  furniture : 
"  The  font,  KoXu^Wpa  (says  Neale,  Eastern  Church,  i.  214),  in 
the  Eastern  Church  is  a  far  less  conspicuous  object  than  it  is  in 
the  West.  Baptism  by  immersion  has  been  retained;  but  the 
font  seldom  or  never  possesses  any  beauty.  The  material  is 
usually  either  metal  or  wood.  In  Russia  the  columbethra  is 
movable  and  only  brought  out  when  wanted." 

One  of  the  most  elaborate  of  early  fonts  is  that  described  by 
Anastasius  in  the  Lateran  church  at  Rome,  and  said  to  have  been 
presented  thereto  by  Constantine  the  Great.  It  was  of  porphyry, 
overlaid  with  silver  inside  and  out.  In  the  middle  were  two 
porphyry  pillars  carrying  a  golden  dish,  on  which  burnt  the 
Paschal  lamp  (having  an  asbestos  wick  and  fed  with  balsam). 
On  the  rim  of  the  bowl  was  a  golden  lamb,  with  silver  statues 
of  Christ  and  St.  John  the  Baptist.  Seven  silver  stags  poured 
out  water.  This  elaborate  vessel  was  of  course  exceptional; 
the  majority  of  early  fonts  were  certainly  much  simpler.  A  fine 
early  Byzantine  stone  example  exists,  or  till  recently  existed, 
at  Beer-Sheba. 

Few  if  any  fonts  survive  older  than  the  nth  century, 
are  all  of  stone,  except  a  few  of  lead;  much  less  common  are 
fonts  of  cast  bronze  (a  fine  example,  dated  1112,  exists  at  the 


Church  of  St  Barthelemy,  Li6ge).  The  most  ancient  are  plain 
cylindrical  bowls,  with  a  circular — sometimes  cruciform  or 
quatrefoil — outline  to  the  basin,  either  without  support  or  with 
a  single  central  pillar;  occasionally  there  is  more  than  one  pillar. 
The  basins  are  usually  lined  with  lead  to  prevent  absorption 
by  the  stone.  The  church  of  Efenechtyd,  Denbigh,  possesses 
an  ancient  font  made  of  a  single  block  of  oak.  Though  the 
circular  form  is  the  commonest,  early  Romanesque  fonts  are  not 
infrequently  square;  and  sometimes  an  inverted  truncated  cone 
is  found.  Octagonal  fonts  are  also  known,  though  uncommon; 
hexagons  are  even  less  common,  and  pentagons  very  rare. 
There  is  a  pentagonal  font  of  this  period  at  Cabourg,  dept. 
Calvados,  N.  France. 

Fonts  early  began  to  be  decorated  with  sculpture  and  relief. 
Arcading  and  interlacing  work  are  common;  so  are  symbol  and 
pictorial  representation.  A  very  remarkable  leaden  font  is 
preserved  at  Strassburg,  bearing  reliefs  representing  scenes  in 
the  life  of  Christ.  At  Pont-a-Mousson  on  the  Moselle  are  bas- 
reliefs  of  St  John  the  Baptist  preaching,  and  baptizing  Christ. 
Caryatides  sometimes  take  the  place  of  the  pillars,  and  sculp- 
tured animals  and  grotesques  of  strange  design  not  infrequently 
form  the  base.  More  remarkable  is  the  occasional  persistence 
of  pagan  symbolism;  an  interesting  example  is  the  very  ancient 
font  from  Ottrava,  Sweden,  which,  among  a  series  of  Christian 
symbols  and  figures  on  its  panels,  bears  a  representation  of  Thor 
(see  G.  Stephens'  brochure,  Thunor  the  Thunderer). 

In  the  I3th  century  octagonal  fonts  became  commoner.  A 
very  remarkable  example  exists  at  the  cathedral  of  Hildesheim 
in  Hanover,  resting  on  four  kneeling  figures,  each  bearing  a  vase 
from  which  water  is  running  (typical  of  the  rivers  of  Paradise). 
Above  is  an  inscription  explaining  the  connexion  of  these  rivers 
with  the  virtues  of  temperance,  courage,  justice  and  prudence. 
On  the  sides  of  the  cup  are  representations  of  the  passage  of  the 
Jordan,  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  Baptism  of  Christ,  and  the  Virgin 
and  Child.  The  font  has  a  conical  lid,  also  ornamented  with 
bas-reliefs.  A  cast  of  this  font  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum  at  South  Kensington.  A  leaden  font,  with  figures 
of  Our  Lord,  the  Virgin  Mary,  St  Martin,  and  the  twelve  Apostles, 
exists  at  Mainz;  it  is  dated  1328  by  a  set  of  four  leonine  hexa- 
meters inscribed  upon  it.  In  the  i4th  and  succeeding  centuries 
octagonal  fonts  became  the  rule.  They  are  delicately  ornamented 
with  mouldings  and  similar  decorations,  in  the  contemporary 
style  of  Gothic  architectural  art.  Though  the  basin  is  usually 
circular  in  15th-century  fonts,  examples  are  not  infrequently 
found  in  which  the  outline  of  the  basin  follows  the  octagonal 
shape  of  the  outer  surface  of  the  vessel.  Examples  of  this  type 
are  to  be  found  at  Strassburg,  Freiburg  and  Basel. 

In  England  no  fonts  can  certainly  be  said  to  date  before  the 
Norman  conquest,  although  it  is  possible  that  a  few  very  rude 
examples,  such  as  those  of  Washaway,  Cornwall,  and  Denton, 
Sussex,  are  actually  of  Saxon  times;  of  course  we  cannot  count 
as  "  Saxon  fonts  "  those  adapted  from  pre-Norman  sculptured 
stones  originally  designed  for  other  purposes,  such  as  that  at 
Dolton,  Devonshire.  On  the  other  hand,  Norman  fonts  are  very 
common,  and  are  often  the  sole  surviving  relics  of  the  Norman 
parish  church.  They  are  circular  or  square,  sometimes  plain, 
but  generally  covered  with  carving  of  arcades,  figures,  foliage, 
&c.  Among  good  examples  that  might  be  instanced  of  this 
period  are  Alphington,  Devon  (inverted  cone,  without  foot); 
Stoke  Cannon,  Devon  (supported  on  caryatides);  Ham,  Staffs 
(cup-shaped);  Fincham,  Burnham  Deepdale,  Sculthorpe, 
Toftrees,  and  Shernborne  in  Norfolk  (all,  especially  the  last, 
remarkable  for  elaborate  carving);  Youlgrave,  Derby  (with  a 
projecting  stoup  in  the  side  for  the  chrism — a  unique  detail); 
besides  others  in  Lincoln  cathedral;  Iffley,  Oxon;  Newenden, 
Kent;  Coleshill,  Warwick;  East  Meon,  Hants;  Castle  Frome, 
Herefordshire.  Some  of  the  best  examples  of  "  Norman " 
fonts  in  England  (such  as  the  notable  specimen  in  Winchester 
cathedral)  were  probably  imported  from  Belgium.  In  the 
Transitional  period  we  may  mention  a  remarkable  octagonal  font 
at  Belton,  Lincolnshire;  in  this  period  fall  most  of  the  leaden 
fonts  that  remain  in  England,  of  which  thirty  are  known  (7  in 


6o6 


FONTAINE,  P.  F.  L.— FONTAINEBLEAU 


Gloucestershire,  4  in  Berkshire  and  Kent,  3  in  Norfolk,  Oxford 
and  Sussex,  i  in  Derby,  Dorset,  Lincoln,  Somerset,  Surrey  and 
Wiltshire);  perhaps  the  finest  examples  are  at  Ashover,  Derby- 
shire, and  Walton,  Surrey.  Early  English  fonts  are  com- 
paratively rare.  They  bear  the  moulding,  foliage  and  tooth 
ornament  in  the  usual  .style  of  the  period.  A  good  example  of 
an  Early  English  font  is  at  All  Saints,  Leicester;  others  may  be 
seen  at  St  Giles',  Oxford,  and  at  Lackford,  Suffolk.  Fonts  of  the 
Decorated  period  are  commoner,  but  not  so  frequent  as  those  of 
the  preceding  Norman  or  subsequent  Perpendicular  periods. 
Fonts  of  the  Perpendicular  period  are  very  common,  and  are 
generally  raised  upon  steps  and  a  lofty  stem,  which,  together  with 
the  body  of  the  font,  are  frequently  richly  ornamented  with 
panelling.  It  was  also  the  custom  during  this  period  to  ornament 
the  font  with  shields  and  coats  of  arms  and  other  heraldic 
insignia,  as  at  Herne,  Kent.  The  fonts  of  this  period,  however, 
are  as  a  rule  devoid  of  interest,  and,  like  most  Perpendicular 
work,  are  stiff  and  monotonous.  There  is,  however,  a  remarkable 
font,  with  sculptured  figures,  belonging  to  the  late  I4th  century, 
at  West  Drayton  in  Middlesex. 

In  Holyrood  chapel  there  was  a  brazen  font  in  which  the  royal 
children  of  Scotland  were  baptized.  It  was  carried  off  in  1544 
by  Sir  R.  Lea,  and  given  by  him  to  the  church  at  St  Albans, 
but  was  afterwards  destroyed  by  the  Puritans.  A  silver  font 
existed  at  Canterbury,  which  was  sometimes  brought  to  West- 
minster on  the  occasion  of  a  royal  baptism.  At  Chobham, 
Surrey,  there  is  a  leaden  font  covered  with  oaken  panels  of  the 
1 6th  century.  The  only  existing  structure  at  all  recalling  the 
ancient  baptisteries  in  English  churches  is  found  at  Luton  in 
Bedfordshire.  The  font  at  Luton  belongs  to  the  Decorated 
style,  and  is  enclosed  in  an  octagonal  structure  of  freestone, 
consisting  of  eight  pillars  about  25  ft.  in  height,  supporting  a 
canopy.  The  space  around  the  font  is  large  enough  to  hold 
twelve  adults  comfortably.  At  the  top  of  the  canopy  is  a  vessel 
for  containing  the  consecrated  water,  which  when  required  was 
let  down  into  the  font  by  means  of  a  pipe. 

In  1236  it  was  ordered  by  Edmund,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
that  baptismal  fonts  should  be  kept  under  lock  and  key,  as  a 
precaution  against  sorcery: — "  Fontes  baptismales  sub  sera 
clausi  teneantUr  propter  sortilegia."  The  lids  appear  at  first  to 
have  been  quite  simple  and  flat.  They  gradually,  however, 
partook  of  the  ornamentation  of  the  font  itself,  and  are  often 
of  pyramidal  and  conical  forms,  highly  decorated  with  finials, 
crockets,  mouldings  and  grotesques.  Sometimes  these  covers  are 
very  heavy  and  are  suspended  by  chains  to  enable  them  to  be 
raised  at  will.  Very  rich  font  covers  may  be  seen  at  Ewelme, 
Oxon;  St  Gregory,  Sudbury;  North  Walsingham,  Norfolk; 
Worlingworth,  Suffolk.  The  ordinary  position  of  the  font  in 
the  church  was  and  is  near  the  entrance,  usually  to  the  left  of 
the  south  door. 

See  Arcisse  de  Caumpnt,  Cours  d'antiquites  monumentales  (Paris, 
1830-1843);  Francis  Simpson,  A  Serits  of  Antient. Baptismal  Fonts 
(London,  1828);  Paley,  Ancient  Fonts;  E.  E.  Viollet-le-Duc,  Diet, 
raisonne  de  V architecture  (1858-1868),  vol.  v. ;  J.  H.  Parker's  Glossary 
of  Architecture',  Francis  Bond,  Fonts  and  Font-Covers  (London,  1908). 
A  large  number  of  fine  illustrations  of  fonts,  principally  of  the  earlier 
periods,  will  be  found  in  the  volumes  of  the  Reliquar y  and  Illustrated 
Archaeologist.  (R.  A.  S.  M.) 

FONTAINE,  PIERRE  FRANCOIS  LEONARD  (1762-1853), 
French  architect,  was  born  at  Pontoise  on  the  2oth  of  September 
1762.  He  came  of  a  family  several  of  whose  members  had  dis- 
tinguished themselves  as  architects.  Leaving  the  college  of 
Pontoise  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  sent  to  L'Isle-Adam  to 
assist  in  hydraulic  works  undertaken  by  the  architect  Andre. 
To  facilitate  his  improvement  Andre  allowed  him  to  have  access 
to  his  plans  and  to  copy  his  designs.  In  October  1779  he  was 
sent  to  Paris  to  study  in  the  school  of  Peyre  the  younger,  and 
there  began  his  acquaintance  with  Percier,  which  ripened  into 
a  life-long  friendship.  After  six  years  of  study  he  competed 
for  a  prize  at  the  Academy,  and,  winning  the  second  for  the  plan 
of  an  underground  chapel,  he  received  a  pension  and  was  sent 
to  Rome  (1785).  Percier  accompanied  him.  The  Revolution 
breaking  out  soon  after  his  return  to  France,  he  took  refuge  in 


England;  but  after  the  establishment  of  the  consulate  he  was 
employed  by  Bonaparte,  to  whom  he  had  been  introduced  by 
the  painter,  David,  to  restore  the  palace  of  Malmaison.  Hence- 
forth he  was  fully  engaged  in  the  principal  architectural  works 
executed  in  Paris  as  architect  successively  to  Napoleon  I., 
Louis  XVIII.  and  Louis  Philippe.  In  conjunction  with  Percier 
(till  his  death)  he  was  employed  on  the  arch  of  the  Carrousel, 
the  restoration  of  the  Palais-Royal,  the  grand  staircase  of  the 
Louvre,  and  the  works  projected  for  the  union  of  the  Louvre  and 
the  Tuileries.  In  181 2  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts,  and  in  1813  was  named  first  architect  to  the 
emperor.  With  Percier  he  published  the  following  works — 
Palais,  maisons,  et  autres  edifices  de  Rome  moderne  (1802); 
Descriptions  de  ceremonies  et  de  files  (1807  and  1810);  Recueil 
de  decorations  interieures  (1812);  Choix  des  plus  celebres  maisons 
de  plaisance  de  Rome  et  des  environs  (1809-1813);  Residences 
des  souverains,  Parallele  (1833).  L'histoire  du  Palais-Royal  was 
published  by  Fontaine  alone,  who  lost  Percier,  his  friend  and 
associate,  in  1838,  and  himself  died  in  Paris  on  the  loth  of 
October  1853. 

FONTAINEBLEAU,  a  town  of  northern  France,  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Seine-et-Marne,  37m.  S.E. 
of  Paris  on  the  railway  to  Lyons.  Pop.  ( 1 906)  1 1 , 1 08.  Fontaine- 
bleau,  a  town  of  clean,  wide  and  well-built  streets,  stands  in  the 
midst  of  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau,  nearly  2  m.  from  the  left 
bank  of  the  Seine.  Of  its  old  houses,  the  Tambour  mansion,  and 
a  portion  of  that  which  belonged  to  the  cardinal  of  Ferrara, 
both  of  the  i6th  century,  are  still  preserved;  apart  from  the 
palace,  the  public  buildings  are  without  interest.  A  statue  of 
General  Damesme  (d.  1848)  stands  in  the  principal  square,  and  a 
monument  to  President  Carnot  was  erected  in  1895.  Fontaine- 
.bleau  is  the  seat  of  a  subprefect  and  has  a  tribunal  of  first 
instance  and  a  communal  college.  The  school  of  practical 
artillery  and  engineering  was  transferred  to  Fontainebleau  from 
Metz  by  a  decree  of  1871,  and  now  occupies  the  part  of  the  palace 
surrounding  the  cour  des  offices. 

Fontainebleau  has  quarries  of  sand  and  sandstone,  saw-mills, 
and  manufactories  of  porcelain  and  gloves.  Fine  grapes  are 
grown  in  the  vicinity.  The  town  is  a  fashionable  summer  resort, 
and  during  the  season  the  president  of  the  Republic  frequently 
resides  in  the  palace.  This  famous  building,  one  of  the  largest, 
and  in  the  interior  one  of  the  most  sumptuous,  of  the  royal 
residences  of  France,  lies  immediately  to  the  south-east  of  the 
town.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  courts  surrounded  by  buildings, 
extending  from  W.  to  E.N.E.;  they  comprise  the  Cour  du 
Cheval  Blanc  or  des  Adieux  (thus  named  in  memory  of  the  parting 
scene  between  Napoleon  and  the  Old  Guard  in  1814),  the  Cour 
de  la  Fontaine,  the  Cour  Ovale,  built  on  the  site  of  a  more 
ancient  chateau,  and  the  Cour  d'  Henri  IV.:  the  smaller  Cour 
des  Princes  adjoins  the  northern  wing  of  the  Cour  Ovale.  The 
exact  origin  of  the  palace  and  of  its  name  (Lat.  Fans  Bleaudi) 
are  equally  unknown,  but  the  older  chateau  was  used  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  i2th  century  by  Louis  VII.,  who  caused  Thomas 
Becket  to  consecrate  the  Chapelle  St  Saturnin,  and  it  continued 
a  favourite  residence  of  Philip  Augustus  and  Louis  IX.  The 
creator  of  the  present  edifice  was  Francis  I.,  under  whom  the 
architect  Gilles  le  Breton  erected  most  of  the  buildings  of  the 
Cour  Ovale,  including  the  Porte  Doree,  its  southern  entrance, 
and  the  Salle  des  Fetes,  which,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  was 
decorated  by  the  Italians,  Francesco  Primaticcio  and  Nicolo 
dell'  Abbate,  and  is  perhaps  the  finest  Renaissance  chamber  in 
France.  The  Galerie  de  Franf  ois  I.  and  the  lower  storey  of  the 
left  wing  of  the  Cour  de  la  Fontaine  are  the  work  of  the  same 
architect,  who  also  rebuilt  the  two-storeyed  Chapelle  St  Saturnin. 
In  the  same  reign  the  Cour  du  Cheval  Blanc,  including  the 
Chapelle  de  la  Ste  Trinite  and  the  Galerie  d'Ulys'se,  destroyed 
and  rebuilt  under  Louis  XV.,  was  constructed  by  Pierre 
Chambiges.  After  Francis  I.,  Fontainebleau  owes  most  to  Henry 
IV.,  to  whom  are  due  the  Cour  d'  Henri  IV.,  the  Cour  des  Princes, 
with  the  adjoining  Galerie 'de  Diane,  and  Galerie  des  Cerfs,  used 
as  a  library.  Louis  XIII.  built  the  graceful  horseshoe  staircase 
in  the  Cour  du  Cheval  Blanc;  Napoleon  I.  spent  12, 000,000  francs 


FONTAN,  L.  M.— FONTANA,  P. 


607 


on  works  of  restoration,  and  Louis  XVIII.,  Louis  Philippe  and 
Napoleon  III.  devoted  considerable  sums  to  the  same  end.  The 
palace  is  surrounded  by  gardens  and  ornamental  waters — to  the 
north  the  Jardin  de  POrangerie,  to  the  south  the  Jardin  Anglais 
and  the  Parterre,  between  which  extends  the  lake  known  as  the 
Bassin  des  Carpes,  containing  carp  in  large  numbers.  A  space 
of  over  200  acres  to  the  east  of  the  palace  is  covered  by  the  park, 
which  is  traversed  by  a  canal  dating  from  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. 
On  the  north  the  park  is  bordered  by  a  vinery  producing  fine 
white  grapes. 

Forest  of  Fontainebleau. — The  forest  of  Fontainebleau  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  wooded  tracts  in  France,  and  for  generations 
it  has  been  the  chosen  haunt  of  French  landscape  painters. 
Among  the  most  celebrated  spots  are  the  Vallee  de  la  Solle, 
the  Gorge  aux  Loups,  the  Gorges  de  Franchard  and  d'Apremont, 
and  the  Fort  1'Empereur.  The  whole  area  extends  to  42,200 
acres,  with  a  circumference  of  56  m.  Nearly  a  quarter  of  this 
area  is  of  a  rocky  nature,  and  the  quarries  of  sandstone  supplied 
a  large  part  of  the  paving  of  Paris.  The  oak,  pine,  beech,  horn- 
beam and  birch  are  the  chief  varieties  of  trees. 

It  is  impossible  to  do  more  than  mention  a  few  of  the  historical 
events  which  have  taken  place  at  Fontainebleau.  Philip  the 
Fair,  Henry  III.  and  Louis  XIII.  were  all  born  in  the  palace, 
and  the  first  of  these  kings  died  there.  James  V.  of  Scotland 
was  there  received  by  his  intended  bride;  and  Charles  V.  of 
Germany  was  entertained  there  in  1539.  Christina  of  Sweden 
lived  there  for  years,  and  the  gallery  is  still  to  be  seen  where  in 
1657  she  caused  her  secretary  Monaldeschi  to  be  put  to  death. 
In  1685  Fontainebleau  saw  the  signing  of  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes,  and  in  the  following  year  the  death  of  the 
great  Conde.  In  the  i8th  century  it  had  two  illustrious  guests 
in  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia  and  Christian  VII.  of  Denmark; 
and  in  the  early  part  of  the  igth  century  it  was  twice  the  residence 
of  Pius  VII., — in  1804  when  he  came  to  consecrate  the  emperor 
Napoleon,  and  in  1812-1814,  when  he  was  his  prisoner. 

See  Pfnor,  Monographic  de  Fontainebleau,  with  text  by  Cham- 
pollion  Figeac  (Paris,  1866);  Guide  artistique  et  historique  au  palais 
de  Fontainebleau  (Paris,  1889);  E.  Bourges,  Recherches  sur  Fontaine- 
bleau (Fontainebleau,  1896). 

FONTAN,  LOUIS  MARIE  (1801-1839),  French  man  of  letters, 
was  born  at  Lorient  on  the  4th  of  November  1801.  He  began 
his  career  as  a  clerk  in  a  government  office,  but  was  dismissed 
for  taking  part  in  a  political  banquet.  At  the  age  of  nineteen 
he  went  to  Paris  and  began  to  contribute  to  the  Tablettes  and 
the  Album.  He  was  brought  to  trial  for  political  articles  written 
for  the  latter  paper,  but  defended  himself  so  energetically  that 
he  secured  the  indefinite  postponement  of  his  case.  The  offending 
paper  was  suppressed  for  a  time,  and  Fontan  produced  a  collection 
of  political  poems,  Odes  et  epllres,  and  a  number  of  plays,  of 
which  Perkins  Warbec  (1828),  written  in  collaboration  with 
MM.  Halevy  and  Drouineau,  was  the  most  successful.  In  1828 
the  Album  was  revived,  and  in  it  Fontan  published  a  virulent 
but  witty  attack  on  Charles  X.,  entitled  Le  Mouton  enragf. 
(soth  June  1829).  To  escape  the  inevitable  prosecution  Fontan 
fled  over  the  frontier,  but,  finding  no  safe  asylum,  he  returned 
to  Paris  to  give  himself  up  to  the  authorities,  and  was  sentenced 
to  five  years'  imprisonment  and  a  heavy  fine.  He  was  liberated 
by  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  his  Jeanne  la  folk,  performed  in 
the  same  year,  gained  a  success  due  perhaps  more  to  sympathy 
with  the  author's  political  principles  than  to  the  merits  of  the 
piece  itself,  a  somewhat  crude  and  violent  picture  of  Breton 
history.  A  drama  representing  the  trial  of  Marshal  Ney,  whicl 
he  wrote  in  collaboration  with  Charles  Dupenty,  Le  Prods  d  un 
marechal  de  France  (printed  1831),  was  suppressed  on  the 
night  of  its  production.  Fontan  died  in  Paris  on  the 

AVmpatl'e'tic  portrait  of  Fontan  as  a  prisoner,  and  an  analysis 
of  his  principal  works,  are  to  be  found  in  Jules  Janm's  Histotre  de  la, 
litterature  dramatique,  vol.  i.  . 

FONTANA,   DOMENICO    (1543-1607),   Italian  architect 
mechanician,  was  born  at  Mili,  a  village  on  the  Lake  of  Como,  in 
i=;4l      After  a  good  training  in  mathematics,  he  went  m  1303 
to  join  his  elder  brother,  then  studying  architecture  at  Rome. 


He  made  rapid  progress,  and  was  taken  into  the  service  of 
Cardinal  Montalto,  for  whom  he  erected  a  chapel  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  and  the  villa  Negroni.  When  the  cardinal's 
pension  was  stopped  by  the  pope,  Gregory  XIII.,  Fontana 
volunteered  to  complete  the  works  in  hand  at  his  own  expense. 
The  cardinal  being  soon  after  elected  pope,  under  the  name  of 
Sixtus  V.,  he  immediately  appointed  Fontana  his  chief  architect. 
Amongst  the  works  executed  by  him  were  the  Lateran  palace, 
the  palace  of  Monte  Cavallo  (the  Quirinal),  the  Vatican  library, 
&c.  But  the  undertaking  which  brought  Fontana  the  highest 
repute  was  the  removal  of  the  great  Egyptian  obelisk,  which 
had  been  brought  to  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Caligula,  from  the  place 
where  it  lay  in  the  circus  of  the  Vatican.  Its  erection  in  front 
of  St  Peter's  he  accomplished  in  1586.  After  the  death  of  Sixtus 
V.,  charges  were  brought  against  Fontana  of  misappropriation 
of  public  moneys,  and  Clement  VIII.  dismissed  him  from  his 
post  (1592).  This  appears  to  have  been  just  in  time  to  save 
the  Colosseum  from  being  converted  by  Fontana  into  a  huge 
cloth  factory,  according  to  a  project  of  Sixtus  V.  Fontana  was 
then  called  to  Naples,  and  accepted  the  appointment  of  architect 
to  the  viceroy,  the  count  of  Miranda.  At  Naples  he  built  the 
royal  palace,  constructed  several  canals  and  projected  a  new 
harbour  and  bridge,  which  he  did  not  live  to  execute.  The  only 
literary  work  left  by  him  is  his  account  of  the  removal  of  the 
obelisk  (Rome,  1590).  He  died  at  Naples  in  1607,  and  was 
honoured  with  a  public  funeral  in  the  church  of  Santa  Anna. 
His  plan  for  a  new  harbour  at  Naples  was  carried  out  only  after 
his  death.  His  son  Giulio  Cesare  succeeded  him  as  royal  architect 
in  Naples,  the  university  of  that  town  being  his  best-known 
building. 

FONTANA,  LAVINIA  (1552-1614),  Italian  portrait-painter, 
was  the  daughter  of  Prospero  Fontana  (<?.».).  She  was  greatly 
employed  by  the  ladies  of  Bologna,  and,  going  thence  to  Rome, 
painted  the  likenesses  of  many  illustrious  personages,  being  under 
the  particular  patronage  of  the  family  (Buoncampagni)  of  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.,  who  died  in  1585.  The  Roman  ladies,  from  the 
days  of  this  pontiff  to  those  of  Paul  V.,  elected  in  1605,  showed 
no  less  favour  to  Lavinia  than  their  Bolognese  sisters  had  done; 
and  Paul  V.  was  himself  among  her  sitters.  Some  of  her  portraits, 
often  lavishly  paid  for,  have  been  attributed  to  Guido.  In  works 
of  a  different  kind  also  she  united  care  and  delicacy  with  boldness. 
Among  the  chief  of  these  are  a  Venus  in  the  Berlin  museum; 
the  "  Virgin  lifting  a  veil  from  the  sleeping  infant  Christ,"  in  the 
Escorial;  and  the  "  Queen  of  Sheba  visiting  Solomon."  Her 
own  portrait  in  youth — she  was  accounted  very  beautiful — was 
perhaps  her  masterpiece;  it  belongs  to  the  counts  Zappi  of 
Imola,  the  family  into  which  Lavinia  married.  Her  husband, 
whose  name  is  given  as  Paolo  Zappi  or  Paolo  Foppa,  painted  the 
draperies  in  many  of  Lavinia's  pictures.  She  is  deemed  on  the 
whole  a  better  painter  than  her  father;  from  him  naturally 
came  her  first  instruction,  but  she  gradually  adopted  the  Carac- 
cesque  style,  with  strong  quasi-Venetian  colouring.  She  was 
elected  into  the  Academy  of  Rome,  and  died  in  that  city  in  1614. 

FONTANA,  PROSPERO  (1512-1597),  Italian  painter,  was 
born  in  Bologna,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Innocenzo  da  Imola. 
He  afterwards  worked  for  Vasari  and  Perino  del  Vaga.  It  was 
probably  from  Vasari  that  Fontana  acquired  a  practice  of  off- 
hand, self-displaying  work.  He  undertook  a  multitude  of  com- 
missions, and  was  so  rapid,  that  he  painted,  it  is  said,  in  a  few 
weeks  an  entire  hall  in  the  Vitelli  palace  at  Citta  di  Castello. 
Along  with  daring,  he  had  fertility  of  combination,  and  in  works 
of  parade  he  attained  a  certain  measure  of  success,  although  his 
drawing  was  incorrect  and  his  mannerism  palpable.  He  belongs 
to  the  degenerate  period  of  the  Bolognese  school,  under  the 
influence  chiefly  of  the  imitators  of  Raphael — Sabbatini,  Sam- 
macru'ni  and  Passerotti  being  three  of  his  principal  colleagues. 
His  soundest  successes  were  in  portraiture,  in  which  branch  of 
art  he  stood  so  high  that  towards  1550  Michelangelo  introduced 
him  to  Pope  Julius  III.  as  a  portrait-painter;  and  he  was 
pensioned  by  this  pope,  and  remained  at  the  pontifical  court 
with  the  three  successors  of  Julius.  Here  he  lived  on  a  grand 
scale,  and  figured  as  a  sort  of  arbiter  and  oracle  among  his 


6o8 


FONTANE,  T.— FONTENELLE,  B.  DE 


professional  brethren.  Returning  to  Bologna,  after  doing  some 
work  in  Fontainebleau  and  in  Genoa,  he  opened  a  school  of  art, 
in  which  he  became  the  preceptor  of  Lodovico  and  Agostino 
Caracci;  but  these  pupils,  standing  forth  as  reformers  and 
innovators,  finally  extinguished  the  academy  and  the  vogue  of 
Fontana.  His  subjects  were  in  the  way  of  sacred  and  profane 
history  and  of  fable.  He  has  left  a  large  quantity  of  work  in 
Bologna, — the  picture  of  the  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  in  the 
church  of  S.  Maria  delle  Grazie,  being  considered  his  masterpiece 
— not  unlike  the  style  of  Paul  Veronese.  He  died  in  Rome  in 

1597- 

FONTANE,  THEODOR  (1819-1898),  German  poet  and  novelist, 
was  born  at  Neu-Ruppin  on  the  3oth  of  December  1819.  At 
the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  chemist,  and  after 
qualifying  as  an  apothecary,  he  found  employment  in  Leipzig 
and  Dresden.  In  1844  he  travelled  in  England,  and  settling 
in  Berlin  devoted  himself  from  1849  to  literature.  He  made 
repeated  journeys  to  England,  interesting  himself  in  old  English 
ballads,  and  as  the  firstfruits  of  his  tours  published  Ein  Sommer 
in  London  (1854);  Aus  England,  Sludien  und  Brief e  (1860)  and 
Jenseil  des  Tweed,  Bilder  und  Briefe  aus  Schottland  (1860). 
Fontane  was  particularly  attached  to  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg, 
in  which  his  home  lay;  he  was  proud  of  its  past  achievements, 
and  delighted  in  the  growth  of  the  capital  city,  Berlin.  The 
fascination  which  the  country  of  his  birth  had  for  him  may  be 
seen  in  his  delightfully  picturesque  Wanderungen  durch  die  Mark 
Brandenburg  (1862-1882,  4  vols.).  He  also  described  the  wars  of 
Prussia  in  Der  schleswig-holsteinische  Krieg  im  Jahre  1864  (1866) 
and  Der  deutsche  Krieg  von  1866  (1869).  He  proceeded  to  the 
theatre  of  war  in  1870,  and,  being  taken  prisoner  at  Vaucouleurs, 
remained  three  months  in  captivity.  His  experiences  he  narrates 
in  Kriegsgefangen.  Erlebtes  1870  (1871),  and  he  published  the 
result  of  his  observations  of  the  campaign  in  Der  Krieg  gegen 
Frankreich  1870-71  (1874-1876).  Like  most  of  his  contempo- 
raries, he  at  first  sought  inspiration  for  his  poetry  in  the  heroes 
of  other  countries.  His  Gedichte  (1851)  and  ballads  Manner  und 
Helden  (1860)  tell  of  England's  glories  in  bygone  days.  Then  the 
achievements  of  his  own  countrymen  entered  into  rivalry,  and 
these,  as  an  ardent  patriot,  he  immortalized  in  poem  and  narra- 
tive. It  is,  however,  as  a  novelist  that  Fontane  is  best  known. 
His  fine  historical  romance  Vor  dent  Sturm  (1878)  was  followed 
by  a  series  of  novels  of  modern  life:  L'Adultera  (1882);  Schach 
von  Wuthenoiv  (1883);  Irrungen,  Wirrungen  (1888);  Stine  (1890); 
Unwiederbringlich  (1891);  Effi  Briest  (1895);  Der  Stechlin  (1899), 
in  which  with  fine  literary  tact  Fontane  adapted  the  realistic 
methods  and  social  criticism  of  contemporary  French  fiction  to 
the  conditions  of  Prussian  life.  He  died  on  the  zoth  of  September 
1898  at  Berlin. 

Fontane's  Gesammelte  Romane  und  Erzdhlungen  were  published  in 
12  vols.  (1890-1891;  2nd  ed.,  1905).  For  his  life  see  the  auto- 
biographical works  Meine  Kinderjahre  (1894)  a"d  Von  zwanzig  bis 
dreissig  (1898),  also  Briefe  an  seine  Familie  (1905) ;  also  F.  Servaes, 
Theodor  Fontane  (1900). 

FONTANES,  LOUIS,  MARQUIS  DE  (1757-1821),  French  poet  and 
politician,  was  born  at  Niort  (Deux  Sevres)  on  the  6th  of  March 
1757.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  Protestant  family  of  Languedoc 
which  had  been  reduced  to  poverty  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes.  His  father  and  grandfather  remained  Protestant, 
but  he  was  himself  brought  up  as  a  Catholic.  His  parents  died 
in  1774-1775,  and  in  1777  Fontanes  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
found  a  friend  in  the  dramatist  J.  F.  Ducis.  His  first  published 
poems,  some  of  which  were  inspired  by  English  models,  appeared 
in  the  Almanack  des  Muses;  "  Le  Cri  de  mon  cceur,"  describing 
his  own  sad  childhood,  in  1778;  and  "  La  Foret  de  Navarre  " 
in  1780.  His  translation  from  Alexander  Pope,  L'Essai  sur 
I'homme,  was  published  with  an  elaborate  preface  in  1783,  and 
La  Chartreuse  and  Le  Jour  des  marts  in  the  same  year, 
Le  Verger  in  1788  and  his  Epttre  sur  I' edit  en  faveur  des 
non-catholiques,  and  the  Essai  sur  I' astronomie  in  1789. 
Fontanes  was  a  moderate  reformer,  and  in  1790  he  became 
joint-editor  of  the  Moderateur.  He  married  at  Lyons  in  1792, 
and  his  wife's  first  child  was  born  during  their  flight  from  the 


siege  of  that  town.  Fontanes  was  in  hiding  in  Paris  when  the  four 
citizens  of  Lyons  were  sent  to  the  Convention  to  protest  against 
the  cruelties  of  Collot  d'Herbois.  The  petition  was  drawn  up 
by  Fontanes,  and  the  authorship  being  discovered,  he  fled  from 
Paris  and  found  shelter  at  Sevran,  near  Livry,  and  afterwards 
at  Andelys.  On  the  fall  of  Robespierre  he  was  made  professor 
of  literature  in  the  Ecole  Centrale  des  Quatre-Nations,  and  he 
was  one  of  the  original  members  of  the  Institute.  In  the 
Memorial,  a  journal  edited  by  La  Harpe,  he  discreetly  advocated 
reaction  to  the  monarchical  principle.  He  was  exiled  by  the 
Directory  and  made  his  way  to  London,  where  he  was  closely 
associated  with  Chateaubriand.  He  soon  returned  to  France, 
and  his  admiration  for  Napoleon,  who  commissioned  him  to 
write  an  eloge  on  Washington,  secured  his  return  to  the  Institute 
and  his  political  promotion.  In  1802  he  was  elected  to  the  legis- 
lative chamber,  of  which  he  was  president  from  1804  to  1810. 
Other  honours  and  titles  followed.  He  has  been  accused  of 
servility  to  Napoleon,  but  he  had  the  courage  to  remonstrate 
with  him  on  the  judicial  murder  of  the  due  d'Enghien,  and  as 
grand  master  of  the  university  of  Paris  (1808-1815)  he  con- 
sistently supported  religious  and  monarchical  principles.  He 
acquiesced  in  the  Bourbon  restoration,  and  was  made  a  marquis 
in  1817.  He  died  on  the  i7th  of  March  1821  in  Paris,  leaving 
eight  cantos  of  an  unfinished  epic  poem  entitled  La  Grece  sauvee. 

The  verse  of  Fontanes  is  polished  and  musical  in  the  style  of 
the  1 8th  century.  It  was  not  collected  until  1839,  when  Sainte- 
Beuve  edited  the  CEuvres  (2  vols.)  of  Fontanes,  with  a  sym- 
pathetic critical  study  of  the  author  and  his  career.  But  by 
that  time  the  Romantic  movement  was  in  the  ascendant  and 
Fontanes  met  with  small  appreciation. 

FONTENAY-LE-COMTE,  a  town  of  western  France,  capital 
of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Vendee  30  m.  N.E. 
of  La  Rochelle  on  the  State  railway  between  that  town  and 
Saumur.  Pop.  (1906)  town,  7639;  commune,  10,326.  Fontenay, 
an  ancient  and  straggling  town,  is  situated  a  few  miles  south  of 
the  forest  of  Vouvant  and  on  both  banks  of  the  Vendee,  at  the 
point  where  it  becomes  navigable.  The  church  of  Notre-Dame 
(i5th  to  i8th  centuries),  which  has  a  fine  spire  and  a  richly 
sculptured  western  entrance,  and  the  church  of  St  Jean  (i6th 
and  1 7th  centuries)  are  the  chief  religious  buildings.  The  town 
has  several  houses  of  the  i6th  and  i7th  centuries.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  is  the  Hdtel  de  Terre  Neuve  (1595-1600), 
which  contains  much  rich  decoration  together  with  collections 
of  furniture  and  tapestry.  Fontenay  was  the  birthplace  of  many 
prominent  men  during  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries,  and  the 
Fontaine  des  Quatre-Tias,  a  fountain  in  the  Renaissance  style, 
given  to  the  town  by  King  Francis  I.,  commemorates  the  fact. 
The  chief  square  is  named  after  Francois  Viete,  the  great 
mathematician,  who  was  born  at  Fontenay  in  1540.  The  public 
institutions  of  the  town  include  a  tribunal  of  first  instance  and 
a  communal  college.  Among  its  industries  are  the  manufacture 
of  felt  hats,  oil  and  soap  and  timber-sawing,  flour-milling  and 
tanning.  There  is  trade  in  horses,  mules,  timber,  grain,  fruit,  &c. 

Fontenay  was  in  existence  as  early  as  the  time  of  the  Gauls. 
The  affix  of  "  comte  "  is  said  to  have  been  applied  to  it  when  it 
was  taken  by  King  Louis  IX.  from  the  family  of  Lusignan  and 
given  to  his  brother  Alphonse,  count  of  Poitou,  under  whom 
it  became  capital  of  Bas-Poitou.  Ceded  to  the  English  by  the 
treaty  of  Bretigny  in  1360  it  was  retaken  in  1372  by  Duguesclin. 
It  suffered  repeated  capture  during  the  Religious  Wars  of  the 
1 6th  century,  was  dismantled  in  1621  and  was  occupied  both 
by  the  republicans  and  the  Vendeans  in  the  war  of  1793.  From 
1790  to  1806  it  was  capital  of  the  department  of  Vendee. 

FONTENELLE,  BERNARD  LE  BOVIER  DE  (1657-1757), 
French  author,  was  born  at  Rouen,  on  the  nth  of  February 
1657.  He  died  in  Paris,  on  the  Qth  of  January  1757,  having 
thus  very  nearly  attained  the  age  of  100  years.  His  father  was 
an  advocate  settled  in  Rouen,  his  mother  a  sister  of  the  two 
Corneille.  He  was  educated  at  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  in  his 
native  city,  and  distinguished  himself  by  the  extraordinary 
precocity  and  versatility  of  his  talents.  His  teachers,  who 
readily  appreciated  these,  were  anxious  for  him  to  join  their 


FONTENOY 


order,  but  his  father  had  designed  him  for  the  bar,  and  an 
advocate  accordingly  he  became;  but,  having  lost  the  first 
cause  which  was  entrusted  to  him,  he  soon  abandoned  law  and 
gave  himself  wholly  to  literary  pursuits.  His  attention  was 
first  directed  to  poetry;  and  more- than  once  he  competed  for 
prizes  of  the  French  Academy,  but  never  with  success.  He 
visited  Paris  from  time  to  time  and  established  intimate  relations 
with  the  abbe  de  Saint  Pierre,  the  abbe  Vertot  and  the  mathe- 
matician Pierre  Varignon.  He  witnessed,  in  1680,  the  total 
failure  of  his  tragedy  Aspar.  Fontenelle  afterwards  acknowledged 
the  justice  of  the  public  verdict  by  burning  his  unfortunate 
drama.  His  opera  of  Thetis  et  Pelee,  1689,  though  highly  praised 
by  Voltaire,  cannot  be  said  to  rise  much  above  the  others;  and 
it  may  be  regarded  as  significant  that  of  all  his  dramatic 
works  not  one  has  kept  the  stage.  His  Poesies  pastorales 
(1688)  have  no  greater  claim  to  permanent  repute,  being  char- 
acterized by  stiffness  and  affectation;  and  the  utmost  that  can 
be  said  for  his  poetry  in  general  is  that  it  displays  much  of  the 
limae  labor,  great  purity  of  diction  and  occasional  felicity  of 
expression. 

His  Leltres  galantes  du  chevalier  d'Her  .  .  .,  published 
anonymously  in  1685,  was  an  amusing  collection  of  stories  that 
immediately  made  its  mark.  In  1686  his  famous  allegory  of 
Rome  and  Geneva,  slightly  disguised  as  the  rival  princesses 
Mreo  and  Eenegu,  in  the  Relation  de  I'ile  de  BornSo,  gave  proof 
of  his  daring  in  religious  matters.  But  it  was  by  his  Nouveaux 
Dialogues  des  marts  (1683)  that  Fontenelle  established  a  genuine 
claim  to  high  literary  rank;  and  that  claim  was  enhanced  three 
years  later  by  the  appearance  of  the  Enlrelicns  sur  la  plurality 
des  mond.es  (1686),  a  work  which  was  among  the  very  first 
to  illustrate  the  possibility  of  being  scientific  without  being 
either  uninteresting  or  unintelligible  to  the  ordinary  reader. 
His  object  was  to  popularize  among  his  countrymen  the  astro- 
nomical theories  of  Descartes;  and  it  may  well  be  doubted  if 
that  philosopher  ever  ranked  a  more  ingenious  or  successful 
expositor  among  his  disciples. 

Hitherto  Fontenelle  had  made  his  home  in  Rouen,  but  in  1687 
he  removed  to  Paris;  and  in  the  same  year  he  published  his 
Hisloire  des  oracles,  a  book  which  made  a  considerable  stir  in 
theological  and  philosophical  circles.  It  consisted  of  two  essays, 
the  first  of  which  was  designed  to  prove  that  oracles  were  not 
given  by  the  supernatural  agency  of  demons,  and  the  second 
that  they  did  not  cease  with  the  birth  of  Christ.  It  excited  the 
suspicion  of  the  Church,  and  a  Jesuit,  by  name  Baltus,  published 
a  ponderous  refutation  of  it;  but  the  peace-loving  disposition 
of  its  author  impelled  him  to  leave  his  opponent  unanswered. 
To  the  following  year  (1688)  belongs  his  Digression  sur  les 
anciens  et  les  modernes,  in  which  he  took  the  modern  side  in 
the  controversy  then  raging;  his  Doutes  sur  le  systeme  physique 
des  causes  occasionnelles  (against  Malebranche)  appeared  shortly 
afterwards. 

In  1691  he  was  received  into  the  French  Academy  in  spite  of 
the  determined  efforts  of  the  partisans  of  the  ancients  in  this 
quarrel,  especially  of  Racine  and  Boileau,  who  on  four  previous 
occasions  had  secured  his  rejection.  He  consequently  was 
admitted  a  member  both  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences;  and  in  1697  he  became  perpetual 
secretary  to  the  latter  body.  This  office  he  actually  held  for 
the  long  period  of  forty-two  years;  and  it  was  in  this  official 
capacity  that  he  wrote  the  Histoire  du  renouvellement  de  I'  Academic 
des  Sciences  (Paris,  3  vols.,  1708,  1717,  1722)  containing  extracts 
and  analyses  of  the  proceedings,  and  also  the  eloges  of  the  members, 
written  with  great  simplicity  and  delicacy.  Perhaps  the  best 
known  of  his  tloges,  of  which  there  are  sixty-nine  in  all,  is  that 
of  his  uncle  Pierre  Corneille.  This  was  first  printed  in  the 
Nouvelles  de  la  republique  des  leltrcs  (January  1685)  and,  as 
Vie  de  Corneille,  was  included  in  all  the  editions  of  Fontenelle's 
(Euwes.  The  other  important  works  of  Fontenelle  are  his 
Elements  de  la  geomctrie  de  I'infini  (1727)  and  his  Apologie  des 
tourbillons  (1752).  Fontenelle  forms  a  link  between  two  very 
widely  different  periods  of  French  literature,  that  of  Corneille, 
Racine  and  Boileau  on  the  one  hand,  and  that  of  Voltaire, 


609 


D'Alembert  and  Diderot  on  the  other.  It  is  not  in  virtue  of  his 
great  age  alone  that  this  can  be  said  of  him;  he  actually  had 
much  in  common  with  the  beaux  esprils  of  the  i7th  century,  as 
well  as  with  the  philosophes  of  the  i8th.  But  it  is  to  the  latter 
rather  than  to  the  former  period  that  he  properly  belongs. 

He  has  no  claim  to  be  regarded  as  a  genius;  but,  as  Sainte- 
Beuve  has  said,  he  well  deserves  a  place  "  dans  la  classe  des 
esprits  infiniment  dislingues  " — distinguished,  however,  it  ought 
to  be  added  by  intelligence  rather  than  by  intellect,  and  less 
by  the  power  of  saying  much  than  by  the  power  of  saying  a  little 
well.  In  personal  character  he  has  sometimes  been  described 
as  having  been  revoltingly  heartless;  and  it  is  abundantly 
plain  that  he  was  singularly  incapable  of  feeling  strongly  the 
more  generous  emotions — a  misfortune,  or  a  fault,  which  revealed 
itself  in  many  ways.  "  Ilfaut  avoir  de  I'ame  pour  avoir  du  gout." 
But  the  cynical  expressions  of  such  a  man  are  not  to  be  taken 
too  literally;  and  the  mere  fact  that  he  lived  and  died  in  the 
esteem  of  many  friends  suffices  to  show  that  the  theoretical 
selfishness  which  he  sometimes  professed  cannot  have  been 
consistently  and  at  all  times  carried  into  practice. 

There  have  been  several  collective  editions  of  Fontenelle's  works, 
the  first  being  printed  in  3  vols.  at  the  Hague  in  1728-1729.  The 
best  is  that  of  Paris,  in  8  vols.  8vo,  1790.  Some  of  his  separate 
works  have  been  very  frequently  reprinted  and  also  translated. 
The  Pluralite  des  mondes  was  translated  into  modern  Greek  in  1794. 
Sainte-Beuve  has  an  interesting  essay  on  Fontenelle,  with  several 
useful  references,  in  the  Cauteries  du  lundi,  vol.  iii.  See  also  Ville- 
main,  Tableau  de  la  litterature  franc,aise  au  XVIII'  siecle;  the  abbe 
Trublet,  Memoires  pour  servir  &  I'histoire  de  la  vie  et  des  outrages 
de  M.  de  FonteneUe_  0759);  A.  Laborde-Milaa,  Fontenelle  (1905), 
in  the  "Grands  ecrivains  francais  "  series;  and  L.  Maigron, 
Fontenelle,  I'homme,  I'oeuvre,  I' influence  (Paris,  1906). 

FONTENOY,  a  village  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Hennegau, 
about  4  m.  S.E.  of  Tournai,  famous  as  the  scene  of  the  battle  of 
Fontenoy,  in  which  on  the  nth  of  May  1745  the  French  army 
under  Marshal  Saxe  defeated  the  Anglo-Allied  army  under  the 
duke  of  Cumberland.  The  object  of  the  French  (see  also 
AUSTRIAN  SUCCESSION,  WAR  or  THE)  was  to  cover  the  siege 
of  the  then  important  fortress  of  Tournai,  that  of  the  Allies, 
who  slowly  advanced  from  the  east,  to  relieve  it.  Informed 
of  the  impending  attack,  Louis  XV.,  with  the  dauphin,  came 
with  all  speed  to  witness  the  operations,  and  by  his  presence  to 
give  Saxe,  who  was  in  bad  health  and  beset  with  private  enemies, 
the  support  necessary  to  enable  him  to  command  effectively. 
Under  Cumberland  served  the  Austrian  field-marshal  Konigsegg, 
and,  at  the  head  of  the  Dutch  contingent,  the  prince  of  Waldeck. 

The  right  of  the  French  position  (see  map)  rested  on  the  river 
at  Antoing,  which  village  was  fortified  and  garrisoned,  between 
Antoing  and  Fontenoy  three  square  redoubts  were  constructed, 
and  Fontenoy  itself  was  put  in  a  complete  state  of  defence.  On 
the  left  rear  of  this  line,  and  separated  from  Fontenoy  by  some 
furlongs  of  open  ground,  another  redoubt  was  made  at  the  corner 
of  the  wood  of  Barry  and  a  fifth  towards  Gavrain.  The  infantry 
was  arrayed  in  deployed  lines  behind  the  Antoing-Fontenoy 
redoubts  and  the  low  ridge  between  Fontenoy  and  the  wood; 
behind  them  was  the  cavalry.  The  approaches  to  Gavrain  were 
guarded  by  a  mounted  volunteer  corps  called  Grassins.  At 
Calonne  the  marshal  had  constructed  three  military  bridges 
against  the  contingency  of  a  forced  retreat.  The  force  of  the 
French  was  about  60,000  of  all  arms,  not  including  22,000  left 
in  the  lines  before  Tournai.  Marshal  Saxe  himself,  who  was 
suffering  from  dropsy  to  such  an  extent  that  he  was  unable  to 
mount  his  horse,  slept  in  a  wicker  chariot  in  the  midst  of  the 
troops.  At  early  dawn  of  the  1 1  th  of  May,  the  Anglo-Hanoverian 
army  with  the  Austrian  contingent  formed  up  in  front  of  V£zon, 
facing  towards  Fontenoy  and  the  wood,  while  the  Dutch  on  their 
left  extended  the  general  line  to  Peionne.  The  total  force  was 
46,000,  against  about  52,000  whom  Saxe  could  actually  put  into 
the  line  of  battle. 

The  plan  of  attack  arranged  by  Cumberland,  Konigsegg  and 
Waldeck  on  the  toth  grew  out  of  circumstances.  A  preliminary 
skirmish  had  cleared  the  broken  ground  immediately  about 
Vezon  and  revealed  a  part  of  the  defender's  dispositions.  It  was 
resolved  that  the  Dutch  should  attack  the  front  Antoing- 


x.  20 


6io 


FONTENOY 


Fontenoy,  while  Cumberland  should  deliver  a  flank  attack 
against  Fontenoy  and  all  in  rear  of  it,  by  way  of  the  open  ground 
between  Fontenoy  and  the  wood.  A  great  cavalry  attack  round 
the  wood  was  projected  but  had  to  be  given  up,  as  in  the  late 
evening  of  the  loth  the  Allies'  light  cavalry  drew  fire  from  its 
southern  edge.  Cumberland  then  ordered  his  cavalry  commander 
to  form  a  screen  facing  Fontenoy,  so  as  to  cover  the  formation  of 
the  infantry.  On  the  morning  of  the  nth  another  and  most 
important  modification  had  to  be  made.  The  advance  was 
beginning  when  the  redoubt  at  the  corner  of  the  wood  became 
visible.  Cumberland  hastily  told  off  Brigadier  James  Ingoldsby 
(major  and  brevet-colonel  ist  Guards),  with  four  regiments  and 
an  artillery  detachment,  to  storm  this  redoubt  which,  crossing 
its  fire  with  that  of  Fontenoy,  seemed  absolutely  to  inhibit  the 
development  of  the  flank  attack.  At  6  A.M.  the  brigade  moved 
off,  but  it  was  irresolutely  handled  and  halted  time  after  time; 
and  after  waiting  as  long  as  possible,  the  British  and  Hanoverian 
cavalry  under  Sir  James  Campbell  rode  forward  and  extended 


FONTENOY 

Scale,  i  :6o,ooo 
I  English  Milo 


Contours  at  intervals  of 
6  metres,  -  11-4  /«tl 


Emery  W«llur  1C. 


in  the  plain,  becoming  at  once  the  target  for  a  furious  cannonade 
which  killed  their  leader  and  drove  them  back.  Thereupon  Sir 
John  (Lord)  Ligonier,  whose  deployment  the  squadrons  were 
to  have  covered,  let  them  pass  to  the  rear,  and,  hearing  the  guns 
of  the  Dutch  towards  Antoing,  pushed  the  British  infantry  for- 
ward through  the  lanes,  each  unit  on  reaching  open  ground 
covering  the  exit  and  deployment  of  the  one  in  rear,  all  under  the 
French  cannonade.  This  went  on  for  two  hours,  and  save  that 
it  showed  the  magnificent  discipline  of  the  British  and  Hano- 
verian regiments,  was  a  bad  prelude  to  the  real  attack.  Cumber- 
land's own  exertions  brought  a  few  small  guns  to  the  front  of  the 
Guards'  Brigade,  and  one  of  the  first  shots  from  these  killed 
Antoine  Louis,  due  de  Gramont,  colonel  of  the  Gardes  Francaises, 
and  another  Henri  du  Baraillon  du  Brocard,  Saxe's  artillery 
commander. 

It  was  now  9  A.M.,  and  while  the  guns  from  the  wood  redoubt 
battered  the  upright  ranks  of  the  Allies,  Ingoldsby's  brigade  was 
huddled  together,  motionless,  on  the  right.  Cumberland  himself 
galloped  thither,  and  under  his  reproaches  Ingoldsby  lost  the 
last  remnants  of  self-possession.  To  Sir  John  Ligonier's  aide- 
de-camp,  who  delivered  soon  afterwards  a  bitterly  formal  order 
to  advance,  Ingoldsby  sullenly  replied  that  the  duke's  orders 
were  for  him  to  advance  in  line  with  Ligonier's  main  body. 


By  now,  too,  the  Dutch  advance  against  Antoing-Fontenoy  had 
collapsed. 

But  on  the  right  the  cannonade  and  the  blunders  together 
had  roused  a -stern  and  almost  blind  anger  in  the  leaders  and  the 
men  they  led.  Ingoldsby  was  wounded,  and  his  successor,  the 
Hanoverian  general  Zastrow,  gave  up  the  right  attack  and 
brought  his  battalions  into  the  main  body.  A  second  half- 
hearted attack  on  Fontenoy  itself,  delivered  by  some  Dutch 
troops,  was  almost  made  successful  by  the  valour  of  two  of  these 
battalions  (one  of  them  being  the  then  newly  raised  Highland 
regiment,  the  Black  Watch)  which  came  thither  of  their  own 
accord.  Meantime  the  young  duke  and  the  old  Austrian  field- 
marshal  had  agreed  to  take  all  risks  and  to  storm  through 
between  Fontenoy  and  the  wood  redoubt,  and  had  launched  the 
great  attack,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  the  history  of  war. 
The  English  infantry  was  in  two  lines.  The  Hanoverians  on 
their  left,  owing  to  want  of  space,  were  compelled  to  file  into  third 
line  behind  the  redcoats,  and  on  their  outer  flanks  were  the 
battalions  that  had  been  with  Ingoldsby.  A  few  guns,  man- 
drawn,  accompanied  the  assaulting  mass,  and  the  cavalry 
followed.  The  column  may  have  numbered  14,000  infantry. 
All  the  infantry  battalions  closed  on  their  centre,  the  normal 
three  ranks  becoming  six.  If  the  proper  distances  between  lines 
were  preserved,  the  mass  must  have  formed  an  oblong  about 
500  yds X 600  yds  (excluding  the  cavalry). 

The  duke  of  Cumberland  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
front  line  and  gave  the  signal  to  advance.  Slowly  and  in  parade 
order,  drums  beating  and  colours  flying,  the  mass  advanced, 
straight  up  the  gentle  slope,  which  was  swept  everywhere  by 
the  flanking  artillery  of  the  defence.  Then,  when  the  first  line 
reached  the  low  crest  on  the  ends  of  which  stood  the  French 
artillery,  the  fire,  hitherto  convergent,  became  a  full  enfilade 
from  both  sides,  and  at  the  same  moment  the  enemy's  horse  and 
foot  became  visible  beyond.  A  brief  pause  ensued,  and  the 
front  gradually  contracted  as  regiments  shouldered  inwards  to 
avoid  the  fire.  Then  the  French  advanced,  and  the  Guards 
Brigade  and  the  Gardes  Francaises  met  face  to  face.  Captain 
Lord  Charles  Hay  (d.  1760),  lieutenant  of  the  First  (Grenadier) 
Guards,  suddenly  ran  in  front  of  the  line,  took  off  his  hat  to  the 
enemy  and  drank  to  them  from  a  pocket  flask,  shouting  a  taunt, 
"  We  hope  you  will  stand  till  we  come  up  to  you,  and  not  swim 
the  river  as  you  did  at  Dettingen,"  then,  turning  to  his  own  men, 
he  called  for  three  cheers.  The  astonished  French  officers 
returned  the  salute  and  gave  a  ragged  counter-cheer.  Whether 
or  not  the  French,  as  legend  states,  were  asked  and  refused  to 
fire  first,  the  whole  British  line  fired  one  tremendous  series  of 
volleys  by  companies.  50  officers  and  760  men  of  the  three 
foremost  French  regiments  fell  at  once,  and  at  so  appalling  a 
loss  the  remnant  broke  and  fled.  Three  hundred  paces  farther 
on  stood  the  second  line  of  the  French,  and  slowly  the  mass 
advanced,  firing  regular  volleys.  It  was  now  well  inside  the 
French  position,  and  no  longer  felt  the  enfilade  fire  that  swept 
the  crest  it  had  passed  over.  By  now,  as  the  rear  lines  closed  up, 
the  assailants  were  practically  in  square  and  repelled  various 
partial  attacks  coming  from  all  sides.  The  Regiment  du  Roi 
lost  33  officers  and  345  men  at  the  hands  of  the  Second  (Cold- 
stream)  Guards.  But  these  counter-attacks  gained  a  few 
precious  minutes  for  the  French.  It  was  the  crisis  of  the  battle. 
The  king,  though  the  court  meditated  flight,  stood  steady  with 
the  dauphin  at  his  side, — Fontenoy  was  the  one  great  day  of 
Louis  XV. 's  life, — and  Saxe,  ill  as  he  was,  mounted  his  horse  to 
collect  his  cavalry  for  a  charge.  The  British  and  Hanoverians 
were  now  at  a  standstill.  More  and  heavier  counter-strokes 
were  repulsed,  but  no  progress  was  made;  their  cavalry  was  un- 
able to  get  to  the  front,  and  Saxe  was  by  now  thinking  of  victory. 
Captain  Isnard  of  the  Touraine  regiment  suggested  artillery  to 
batter  the  face  of  the  square,  preparatory  to  a  final  charge. 
General  Lowendahl  galloped  up  to  Saxe,  crying,  "  This  is  a  great 
day  for  the  king;  they  will  never  escape!  "  The  nearest  guns 
were  planted  in  front  of  the  assailants,  and  used  with  effect. 
The  infantry,  led  by  Lowendahl,  fastened  itself  on  the  sides  of 
the  square,  the  regiments  of  Normandy  and  Vaisseaux  and  the 


FONTEVRAULT— FOOD 


6n 


Irish  Brigade  conspicuous  above  the  rest.  On  the  front,  waiting 
for  the  cannon  to  do  its  work,  were  the  Maison  du  Roi,  the  Gendar- 
merie and  all  the  light  cavalry,  under  Saxe  himself,  the  duke  of 
Richelieu  and  count  d'Estrees.  The  left  wing  of  the  Allies  was 
still  inactive,  and  troops  were  brought  up  from  Antoing  and 
Fontenoy  to  support  the  final  blow.  About  2  P.M.  it  was  de- 
livered, and  in  eight  minutes  the  square  was  broken.  As  the 
infantry  retired  across  the  plain  in  small  stubborn  groups  the 
French  fire  still  made  havoc  in  their  ranks,  but  all  attempts 
to  close  with  them  were  repulsed  by  the  terrible  volleys,  and 
they  regained  the  broken  ground  about  Vezon,  whence  they  had 
come.  Cumberland  himself  and  all  the  senior  generals  remained 
with  the  rearguard. 

The  losses  at  Fontenoy  were,  as  might  be  expected,  somewhat 
less  than  normally  heavy  when  distributed  over  the  whole  of 
both  armies,  but  exceedingly  severe  in  the  units  really  engaged. 
Eight  out  of  nineteen  regiments  of  British  infantry  lost  over 
200  men,  two  of  these  more  than  300.  A  tribute  to  the  loyalty 
and  discipline  of  the  British,  as  compared  with  the  generality 
of  armies  in  those  days,  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  three 
Guards'  regiments  had  no  "  missing  "  men  whatever.  The  23rd 
(Royal  Welsh  Fusiliers)  had  322  casualties.  Boschlanger's 
Hanoverian  regiment  suffered  even  more  heavily,  and  four 
others  of  that  nation  had  200  or  more  casualties.  The  total 
loss  was  about  7500,  that  of  the  French  7200.  The  French 
"  Royal  "  regiment  lost  30  officers  and  645  men;  some  other 
regimental  casualties  have  been  mentioned  above.  The  Dutch 
lost  a  bare  7  %  of  their  strength. 

Fontenoy  was  in  the  i8th  century  what  the  attack  of  the 
Prussian  Guards  at  St  Privat  is  to-day,  s.locus  classicus  for  military 
theorists.  But  the  technical  features  of  the  battle  are  completely 
overshadowed  by  its  epic  interest,  and  above  all  it  illustrates 
the  permanent  and  unchangeable  military  characteristics  of  the 
British  and  French  nations. 

FONTEVRAULT,  or  FONTEVRAUD  (Lat.  Fans  Ebraldi),  a 
town  of  western  France,  in  the  department  of  Maine-et-Loire, 
10  m.  S.E.  of  Saumur  by  road  and  2|  m.  from  the  confluence  of 
the  Loire  and  Vienne.  Pop.  (1906)  1279.  It  is  situated  in  the 
midst  of  the  forest  of  Fontevrault.  The  interest  of  the  place 
centres  in  its  abbey,  which  since  1804  has  been  utilized  and  abused 
as  a  central  house  of  detention  for  convicts.  The  church  (i2th 
century),  of  which  only  the  choir  and  apse  are  appropriated  to 
divine  service,  has  a  beautiful  nave  formerly  covered  by  four 
cupolas  destroyed  in  1816.  There  is  a  fifth  cupola  above  the 
crossing.  In  a  chapel  in  the  south  transept  are  the  effigies  of 
Henry  II.  of  England,  of  his  wife  Eleanor  of  Guienne,  of  Richard 
I.  of  England  and  of  Isabella  of  Angouleme,  wife  of  John  of 
England — Eleanor's  being  of  oak  and  the  rest  of  stone.  The 
cloister,  refectory  and  chapter-house  date  from  the  i6th  century. 
The  second  court  of  the  abbey  contains  a  remarkable  building, 
the  Tour  d'fivrault  (i2th  century),  which  long  went  under  the 
misnomer  of  chapellefuneraire,  but  was  in  reality  the  old  kitchen. 
Details  and  diagrams  will  be  found  in  Viollet-le-Duc's  Dictionnaire 
de  I 'architecture.  There  are  three  stories,  the  whole  being 
surmounted  by  a  pyramidal  structure. 

The  Order  of  Fontevrault  was  founded  about  noo  by  Robert 
of  Arbrissel,  who  was  born  in  the  village  of  Arbrissel  or  Arbresec, 
in  the  diocese  of  Rennes,  and  attained  great  fame  as  a  preacher 
and  ascetic.  The  establishment  was  a  double  monastery, 
containing  a  nunnery  of  300  nuns  and  a  monastery  of  200  monks, 
separated  completely  so  that  no  communication  was  allowed 
except  in  the  church,  where  the  services  were  carried  on  in 
common;  there  were,  moreover,  a  hospital  for  120  lepers  and 
other  sick,  and  a  penitentiary  for  fallen  women,  both  worked  by 
the  nuns.  The  basis  of  the  life  was  the  Benedictine  rule,  but  the 
observance  of  abstinence  and  silence  went  beyond  it  in  stringency. 
The  special  feature  of  the  institute  was  that  the  abbess  ruled 
the  monks  as  well  as  the  nuns.  At  the  beginning  the  order  had 
a  great  vogue,  and  at  the  time  of  Robert's  death,  1117,  there 
were  several  monasteries  and  3000  nuns;  afterwards  the  number 
of  monasteries  reached  57,  all  organized  on  the  same  plan, 
institute  never  throve  out  of  France;  there  were  attempts  to 


introduce  it  into  Spain  and  England:  in  England  there  were 
three  houses — at  Ambresbury  (Amesbury  in  Wiltshire), Nuneaton, 
and  Westwood  in  Worcestershire.  The  nuns  in  England  as  in 
France  were  recruited  from  the  highest  families,  and  the  abbess 
of  Fontevrault,  who  was  the  superior-general  of  the  whole  order, 
was  usually  of  the  royal  family  of  France. 

See  P.  Helyot,  Hist,  des  ordres  religieuses  (1718),  vi.  cc.  12,  13; 
Max  Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Koneregationen  (1907),  i.  46;  the  arts'. 
"  Fontevrauld  "  in  Wetzer  and  Welte,  Kirchenlexicon  (ed.  2),  and 
in  Herzpg-Hauck,  Realencyklopadie  (ed.  3),  supply  full  references 
to  the  literature.  The  most  recent  monograph  is  Edouard,  Font- 
evrault et  ses  monuments  (1875);  for  the  later  history  see  art.  by 
Edmund  Bishop  in  Downside  Review  (1886).  (E.  C.  B.) 

FOOD  (like  the  verb  "  to  feed,"  from  a  Teutonic  root,  whence 
O.  Eng.  foda;  cf.  "fodder";  connected  with  Gr.  iranloOai, 
to  feed),  the  general  term  for  what  is  eaten  by  man  and  other 
creatures  for  the  sustenance  of  life.  The  scientific  aspect  of 
human  food  is  dealt  with  under  NUTRITION  and  DIETETICS. 

Infancy. — The  influence  of  a  normal  diet  upon  the  health  of 
man  (we  exclude  here  the  question  of  diet  in  illness,  which  must 
depend  on  the  abnormal  conditions  existing)  begins  at  the 
earliest  stage  of  his  life.  No  food  has  as  yet  been  found  so  suitable 
for  the  young  of  all  animals  as  their  mother's  milk.  This,  however, 
has  not  been  from  want  of  seeking.  Dr  Brouzet  (Sur  I'tducation 
mtdicinale  des  enfanls,  i.  p.  165)  had  such  a  bad  opinion  of  human 
mothers,  that  he  expressed  a  wish  for  the  state  to  interfere  and 
prevent  them  from  suckling  their  children,  lest  they  should 
communicate  immorality  and  disease!  A  still  more  determined 
pessimist  was  the  famous  chemist  Van  Helmont,  who  thought 
life  had  been  reduced  to  its  present  shortness  by  our  inborn 
propensities,  and  proposed  to  substitute  bread  boiled  in  beer 
and  honey  for  milk,  which  latter  he  calls  "  brute's  food."  Baron 
Justus  von  Liebig,  as  the  result  of  his  chemical  researches, 
introduced  a  "  food  for  infants,"  which  in  more  modern  days 
has  been  followed  by  a  multiplication  of  patent  foods.  A  close 
imitation  of  human  milk  may  also  be  made  by  the  addition  to 
fresh  cow's  milk  of  half  its  bulk  of  soft  water,  in  each  pint  of 
which  has  been  mixed  a  heaped-up  teaspoonful  of  powdered 
"  sugar  of  milk  "  and  a  pinch  of  phosphate  of  lime.  These 
artificial  substitutes  for  the  natural  nutriment  have  their  value 
where  for  any  reason  it  is  not  available.  The  wholesomest  food, 
however,  for  the  first  six  months  is  certainly  mother's  milk  alone. 
A  vigorous  baby  can  indeed  bear  with  impunity  much  rough 
usage,  and  often  appears  none  the  worse  for  a  certain  quantity 
of  farinaceous  food;  but  the  majority  do  not  get  habituated  to 
it  without  an  exhibition  of  dislike  which  indicates  rebellion  of 
the  bowels.  It  is  only  when  the  teeth  are  on  their  way  to  the 
front,  as  shown  by  dribbling,  that  the  parotid  glands  secrete 
an  active  saliva  capable  of  digesting  bread  stuffs.  Till  then 
anything  but  milk  must  be  given  tentatively,  and  considered 
in  the  light  of  a  means  of  education  for  its  future  mode  of  nutrition. 

The  time  for  weaning  should  be  fixed  partly  by  the  child's 
age,  partly  by  the  growth  of  the  teeth.  The  first  group  of  teeth 
nine  times  out  of  ten  consists  of  the  lower  central  front  teeth, 
which  may  appear  any  time  during  the  sixth  and  seventh  month. 
The  mother  may  then  begin  to  diminish  the  number  of  suckling 
times;  and  by  a  month  she  can  have  reduced  them  to  twice 
a  day,  so  as  to  be  ready  when  the  second  group  makes  its  way 
through  the  upper  front  gums  to  cut  off  the  supply  altogether. 
The  third  group,  the  lateral  incisors  and  first  grinders,  usually 
after  the  first  anniversary  of  birth,  give  notice  that  solid  food 
can  be  chewed.  But  it  is  prudent  to  let  dairy  milk  form  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  fare  till  the  eye-teeth  are  cut,  which 
seldom  happens  till  the  eighteenth  or  twentieth  month. 

Childhood  and  Youth. — At  this  stage  of  life  the  diet  must 
obviously  be  the  best  which  is  a  transition  from  that  of  infancy 
to  that  of  adult  age.  Growth  is  not  completed,  but  yet  entire 
surrender  of  every  consideration  to  the  claim  of  growth  is  not 
possible,  nor  indeed  desirable.  Moreover,  that  abundance  of 
adipose  tissue,  or  reserve  new  growth,  which  a  baby  can  bear 
is  an  impediment  to  the  due  education  of  the  muscles  of  the  boy 
or  girl.  The  supply  of  nutriment  need  not  be  so  continuous  as 
before,  but  at  the  same  time  should  be  more  frequent  than  /or 


6l2 


FOOD  PRESERVATION 


the  adult.  Up  to  at  least  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  of  age  the  rule 
should  be  four  meals  a  day,  varied  indeed,  but  nearly  equal  in 
nutritive  power  and  in  quantity,  that  is  to  say,  all  moderate, 
all  sufficient.  The  maturity  the  body  then  reaches  involves  a 
hardening  and  enlargement  of  the  bones  and  cartilages,  and  a 
strengthening  of  the  digestive  organs,  which  in  healthy  young 
persons  enables  us  to  dispense  with  some  of  the  watchful  care 
bestowed  upon  their  diet.  Three  full  meals  a  day  are  generally 
sufficient,  and  the  requirements  of  mental  training  may  be 
allowed  to  a  certain  extent  to  modify  the  attention  to  nutrition 
which  has  hitherto  been  paramount. 

Adults. — It  is  only  necessary  here  to  refer  to  the  article  on 
DIETETICS  (see  also  VEGETARIANISM)  for  a  discussion  of  the  food 
of  normal  adults;  and  to  such  headings  as  DIETARY  (for  fixed 
allowances)  or  COOKERY.  Different  staple  articles  of  food  are 
dealt  with  under  their  own  headings.  For  animals  other  than 
man  see  the  respective  articles  on  them. 

Among  numerous  books  on  the  subject,  in  addition  to  those 
enumerated  under  DIETETICS,  see  Sir  Henry  Thompson's  Foods  and 
Feeding  (1894) ;  Hart's  Diet  in  Sickness  and  Health  (1896) ;  Knight, 
Food  and  its  Functions  (1895). 

FOOD  PRESERVATION.  The  preservation  of  food  material 
beyond  the  short  term  during  which  it  naturally  keeps  sound  and 
eatable  has  engaged  human  thought  from  the  earliest  dawn  of 
civilization.  Necessity  compelled  man  to  store  the  plenitude 
of  one  season  or  place  against  the  need  of  another.  The  hunter 
dried,  smoked  and  salted  meat  and  fish,  pastoral  man  preserved 
milk  in  the  form  of  cheese  and  butter,  or  fermented  grape-juice 
into  wine.  With  the  separation  of  country  from  town,  the 
development  of  manufacturing  nation  as  distinct  from  agricul- 
tural and  food-producing  people,  the  spreading  of  civilized  man 
from  torrid  to  arctic  zones,  the  needs  of  travellers  on  land  and 
sea  and  of  armies  on  the  march,  the  problem  of  the  prevention 
of  the  natural  decomposition  to  which  nearly  all  food  substances 
are  liable  became  increasingly  urgent,  and  forms  to-day,  next 
to  the  production  of  food,  the  most  important  problem  in  con- 
nexion with  the  feeding  and  the  trade  of  nations.  As  long  as  the 
reasons  of  decomposition  were  unknown,  all  attempts  at  preser- 
vation were  necessarily  empirical,  and  of  the  numberless 
processes  which  have  during  modern  times  been  proposed  and 
attempted  comparatively  few  have  stood  the  test  of  experience. 
In  the  light  of  modern  knowledge,  however,  the  guiding  principles 
appear  to  be  very  simple. 

Very  few  organic  materials  undergo  decomposition,  as  it 
were,  of  their  own  accord.  They  may  lose  water  by  evaporation, 
and  fatty  substances  may  alter  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen 
from  the  air.  They  are  otherwise  quite  stable  and  unchangeable 
while  not  attacked  and  eaten  up  by  living  organisms,  or  while 
the  life  with  which  they  may  be  endowed  is  in  a  state  of  suspense. 
An  apple  is  alive  and  in  breathing  undergoes  its  ripening  change; 
a  grain  of  wheat  is  dormant  and  does  not  alter.  A  substance, 
in  order  to  be  a  food  material,  must  be  decomposable  under  the 
attack  of  a  living  organism;  the  energy  stored  in  it  must  be 
available  to  that  stream  of  energy  which  we  call  life,  whether  the 
life  be  in  the  form  of  the  human  consumer  or  of  any  lower 
organism.  All  decomposition  of  food  is  due  to  the  development 
within  the  food  of  living  organisms.  Under  conditions  under 
which  living  organisms  cannot  enter  or  cannot  develop  food 
keeps  undecomposed  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time.  The 
problem  of  food  preservation  resolves  itself,  therefore,  into  that 
of  keeping  out  or  killing  off  all  living  things  that  might  feed 
upon  and  thus  alter  the  food,  and  as  these  organisms  mainly 
belong  to  the  family  of  moulds,  yeasts  and  bacteria,  modern  food 
preservation  is  strictly  a  subject  for  the  bacteriologist. 

The  changes  which  food  undergoes  on  keeping  are  easily 
intelligible  when  once  their  biological  origin  is  recognized. 
Yeasts  cause  the  decomposition  of  saccharine  substances  into 
alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide,  acetic  and  lactic  ferments  produce 
from  sugar  or  from  alcohol  the  organic  acids  causing  the  souring 
of  food,  moulds  as  a  rule  cause  oxidation  and  complete  destruc- 
tion-of  organic  matter,  nitrogenous  or  saccharine,  while  most 
bacteria  act  mainly  upon  the  nitrogenous  constituents,  producing 


albumoses  and  peptones  and  breaking  up  the  complex  albumen- 
molecule  into  numerous  smaller  molecules  often  allied  to  alka- 
loids, generally  with  the  production  of  evil-smelling  gases. 
These  processes  may  go  on  simultaneously,  but  more  frequently 
take  place  successively  in  the  decomposition  of  food,  one  set  of 
organisms  taking  up  the  work  of  destruction  as  the  conditions 
become  favourable  to  its  development  and  unfavourable  to  its 
predecessor.  The  organisms  may  come  from  the  air,  the  soil 
or  from  animal  sources.  The  air  teems  with  organisms  which 
settle  and  may  develop  when  brought  upon  a  favourable  nidus; 
the  organic  matter  of  the  soil  largely  consists  of  fungoid  life; 
while  the  intestinal  canal  and  other  mucous  membranes  of  all 
animals  harbour  bacteria,  sarcinae  and  other  organisms  in 
countless  millions.  Whenever,  therefore,  food  material  is  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  or  touched  by  the  soil  or  by  animals  or  man, 
it  becomes  infected  with  living  cells,  which  by  their  development 
lead  to  its  decomposition  and  destruction. 

Fungoid  organisms  may  be  killed  by  heat  or  by  chemicals; 
or  their  development  may  be  arrested  by  cold,  removal  of  water, 
or  by  the  presence  of  agents  inhibiting  their  growth  though  not 
destroying  their  life.  All  successful  processes  of  food  preservation 
depend  upon  one  or  other  of  these  circumstances. 

Preservation  by  Heat. — At  the  boiling-point  of  water  all  living 
cells  perish,  but  some  spores  of  bacteria  may  survive  for  about 
three  hours.  Few  adult  bacteria  can  live  beyond  75°  C.  (167°  F.) 
in  the  presence  of  water,  though  dry  heat  only  kills  with  certainty 
at  140°  C.  (284°  F.).  Destruction  of  life  takes  place  more  rapidly 
in  solutions  showing  an  acid  than  a  feebly  alkaline  reaction; 
hence  acid  fruit  is  more  easily  preserved  than  milk,  which, 
when  quite  fresh,  is  alkaline.  By  cooking,  therefore,  food 
becomes  temporarily  sterile,  until  a  fresh  crop  of  organisms  finds 
access  from  the  air.  By  repeated  cooking  all  food  can  be  in- 
definitely preserved.  One  of  the  most  important  functions  of 
cookery  is  sterilization.  Civilized  man  unwittingly  revolts 
against  the  consumption  of  non-sterile  food,  and  the  use  of 
certain  fungus-infected  material  is  an  inheritance  from  barbarous 
ages:  few  materials  of  animal  origin  are  eaten  raw,  and  in 
vegetables  some  sort  of  sterilizing  process  is  attempted  by 
washing  (of  salads)  or  removal  of  the  outer  skin  (of  fruits). 
All  preparation  of  food  for  the  table,  cooking  being  the  most 
important,  tends  towards  preservation,  but  is  effectual  only  for 
a  few  hours  or  days  at  most,  unless  special  means  are  adopted 
to  prevent  reinfection.  The  housewife  covering  the  jam  with 
a  thin  paper  soaked  in  brandy,  or  the  potted  meat  with  a  thin 
layer  of  lard,  attempts  unconsciously  to  bar  the  road  to  bacteria 
and  other  minute  organisms.  To  preserve  food  in  a  permanent 
manner  and  on  a  commercial  scale  it  has  to  be  cooked  in  a 
receptacle  which  must  be  sufficiently  strong  for  transport, 
cheap,  light  and  unattacked  by  the  material  in  contact  with  it. 
None  of  the  receptacles  at  present  in  use  quite  fulfils  the  whole 
of  these  conditions:  glass  and  china  are  heavy  and  fragile,  and 
their  carriage  is  expensive;  tinned  iron,  so-called  tin-plate, 
is  rarely  quite  unaffected  by  food  materials,  but  owing  to  its 
strength,  tenacity  and  cheapness,  it  is  used  on  an  ever-increasing 
scale.  The  sheet  iron,  which  formerly  was  made  of  soft  wrought 
iron,  now  generally  consists  of  steel  containing  but  very  little 
carbon;  it  is  cleaned  by  immersion  in  acid  and  covered  with  a 
very  thin  layer  of  pure  tin,  all  excess  of  tin  being  removed  by 
hot  rollers  and  brushes.  The  layer  of  tin,  which  formerly  con- 
stituted from  3  to  5%  of  the  total  weight  of  the  plate,  has, 
owing  to  the  increased  price  of  tin  and  the  improvement  in 
machinery,  gradually  become  so  thin  that  its  weight  is  only  from 
i  to  3%.  Not  rarely,  therefore,  the  tin-surface  is  imperfect, 
perforated  or  pin-holed.  Tin  itself  is  slightly  attacked  by  all  acid 
juices  of  vegetable  or  animal  substances.  With  the  exception 
of  milk,  all  human  food  is  slightly  acid,  and  consequently  all 
food  that  has  been  preserved  in  tin  canisters  contains  variable 
traces  of  dissolved  tin.  Happily,  salts  of  tin  have  but  little 
physiological  action.  Nevertheless,  the  employment  of  tin- 
plate  for  very  acid  materials,  like  tomatoes,  peaches,  &c.,  is  very 
objectionable. 

The  process  of  preservation  in  canisters  is  carried  out  as 


FOOD  PRESERVATION 


613 


follows: — The  canister,  which  has  been  made  either  by  the  use 
of  solder  or  by  folding  machinery  only,  is  packed  with  the  material 
to  be  preserved,  and  a  little  water  having  been  added  to  fill  the 
interstices  the  lid  is  secured  by  soldering  or  folding,  generally 
the  former.  Sterilization  is  effected  by  placing  the  tins  in 
pressure  chambers,  which  are  heated  by  steam  to  120°  C.  or  more. 
The  tins  are  exposed  to  that  temperature  for  such  time  as 
experience  has  shown  to  be  necessary  to  heat  the  contents 
throughout  to  at  least  100°  C.  The  temperature  is  then  allowed 
to  fall  slowly  to  below  the  boiling-point  of  water,  when  the 
tins  can  be  taken  out  of  the  pressure  chamber,  or  they  are  placed 
in  pans  filled  with  water  or  a  solution  of  calcium  chloride  and 
are  therein  heated  till  thoroughly  cooked.  Sometimes  a  small 
aperture  is  pierced  through  the  lid,  to  allow  of  the  escape  of  the 
expanding  air,  such  holes  before  cooling  closed  by  means 
of  a  drop  of  solder.  This  process,  which  was  originally  intro- 
duced by  Francois  Appert  early  in  the  ipth  century,  is  employed 
on  an  enormous  scale,  especially  in  America.  The  use  of 
lacquered  tins,  having  the  inner  surface  of  the  tin  covered  with 
a  heat-resisting  varnish,  is  gradually  extending.  Imperfect 
sterilization  shows  itself  in  many  cases  by  gas  development 
within  the  tin,  which  causes  the  ends  to  become  convex  and 
drummy.  More  frequently  than  not  the  contents  of  the  larger 
tins,  containing  meat  or  other  animal  products,  are  not  absolutely 
sterile,  but  the  conditions  are  mostly  such  that  the  organisms 
which  have  survived  the  cooking  process  cannot  develop.  When 
they  can  develop  without  formation  of  gas  dangerous  products 
of  decomposition  may  be  produced  without  showing  themselves 
to  taste  or  smell.  Numerous  cases  of  so-called  ptomaine  poison- 
ing have  thus  occurred;  these  are  more  frequently  associated 
with  preserved  fish  and  lobster  than  with  meats,  although  no 
class  of  preserved  animal  food  is  free  from  liability  of  ptomaine 
formation.  The  formation  of  poisonous  substances  has  never 
been  traced  to  preserved  fruit  or  other  material  poor  in  nitrogen. 
The  mode  of  preserving  food  in  china  or  glass  is  quite  similar, 
but  the  losses  by  breakage  are  not  inconsiderable.  Food  which 
has  been  preserved  in  tins  is  sometimes  transferred  to  glass  and 
re-sterilized,  the  feeling  against  "  tinned  "  food  caused  by  the 
"  Chicago  scandals  "  not  having  entirely  subsided.  Were  it  not 
for  the  facts  that  sterilization  is  rarely  quite  perfect,  and  that  the 
food  attacks  the  tin,  the  contents  of  tin  canisters  ought  to  keep 
for  an  indefinite  length  of  time.  Under  existing  circumstances, 
however,  there  is  a  distinct  limit  to  the  age  of  soundness  of 
canned  food. 

Preservation  by  Chemicals. — Salt  is  the  oldest  chemical  pre- 
servative and,  either  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  saltpetre  and 
with  wood-smoke,  has  been  used  for  many  centuries,  mainly  as 
a  meat  preservative.  It  is  used  either  dry  in  layers  strewn  on 
the  surface  of  the  meat  or  fish  to  be  preserved,  or  in  the  form  of 
brine  in  which  the  meat  is  submerged  or  which  is  injected  into 
the  carcasses.  The  preserving  power  of  salt  is  but  moderate. 
It  has  the  great  advantage  that  in  ordinary  doses  it  is  non- 
injurious,  that  an  excess  at  once  betrays  itself  in  the  taste,  and 
that  it  can  be  readily  removed  by  soaking  in  water.  When 
aided  by  wood-smoke,  which  depends  for  its  preservative  power 
upon  traces  of  creosote  and  formaldehyde,  it  is,  however,  quite 
efficient.  The  addition  of  saltpetre  is  principally  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  to  the  meat  a  bright  pink  tint.  The  strongly  saline 
taste  of  pickled  meat  or  salted  butter  appears  gradually  to  have 
become  repugnant  to  a  large  part  of  mankind,  and  other  pre- 
servatives have  come  into  use,  possessing  greater  bactericidal 
power  and  less  taste.  The  serious  objection  attaching  to  them 
is  discussed  in  the  article  ADULTERATION.  At  the  present  time 
the  use  of  borax  or  boracic  acid  is  almost  universal  in  England. 
Meat  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  vapours  of  formaldehyde, 
and  has  thus  been  superficially  sterilized,  is  also  coming  into 
commerce  in  increasing  quantities.  Formaldehyde  in  itself  is 
distinctly  poisonous,  and  has  the  property  of  combining  with 
albuminoids  and  rendering  them  completely  insoluble  in  the 
digestive  secretions.  Salicylic  and  benzoic  acids  are  not  in- 
frequently used  to  stop  fermentation  of  saccharine  beverages 
or  deterioration  of  so-called  "  potted  meats,"  which  are  supposed 


to  last  fresh  and  sweet  on  the  consumer's  table  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time.  Sulphurous  acid  and  sulphites  are  chiefly  used 
in  the  preservation  of  thin  ales,  wine  and  fruit,  and  sodium 
fluoride  has  been  found  in  butter.  The  whole  of  these  substances 
possess  decided  and  injurious  physiological  properties.  Alcohol 
now  rarely  forms  a  preservative  of  food  material,  its  employment 
being  confined  to  small  fruit.  The  use  of  sugar  as  a  preservative 
depends  upon  the  fact  that,  although  in  a  dilute  solution  it 
is  highly  prone  to  fermentation  and  other  decomposition,  it 
possesses  bactericidal  properties  when  in  the  form  of  a  concen- 
trated syrup.  A  sugar  solution  containing  30%  of  water  or  less 
does  not  undergo,  any  biological  change;  in  the  presence  of 
organic  acids,  like  those  contained  in  fruit,  growth  of  organisms 
is  inhibited  when  the  percentage  of  water  is  somewhat  greater. 
Upon  this  fact  depends  the  use  of  sugar  in  the  manufacture  of 
jams,  marmalades  and  jellies.  Moulds  may  grow  on  the  surface 
of  such  saccharine  preparations,  but  the  interior  remains  un- 
affected and  unaltered. 

Preservation  by  Drying, — Food  materials  in  which  the  percent- 
age of  moisture  is  small  (not  exceeding  about  8%)  are  but  little 
liable  to  bacterial  growths,  at  most  to  the  attacks  of  innocent 
Penicillium.  Nature  preserves  the  germs  in  seeds  and  nuts, 
which  are  laden  with  otherwise  decomposable  food  material, 
by  the  simple  expedient  of  water  removal.  The  life  of  cereal 
grains  and  many  seeds  appears  to  be  unlimited.  By  the  removal 
of  water  the  most  perishable  materials,  like  meat  or  eggs,  can  be 
rendered  unchangeable,  except  so  far  as  the  inevitable  oxidation 
of  the  fatty  substances  contained  in  them  is  concerned  and 
which  is  independent  of  life-action.  The  drying  of  meat,  upon 
which  a  generation  ago  inventors  bestowed  a  great  deal  of 
attention,  has  become  almost  obsolete,  excepting  for  compara- 
tively small  articles  or  animals,  like  ox  tongues  or  tails  and  fish. 
It  has  been  superseded  even  among  less  civilized  communities 
by  the  spread  of  canned  food.  Fruit,  however,  is  very  largely 
preserved  in  the  dried  state.  Grapes  are  sun-dried  and  thus  form 
currants,  raisins  and  sultanas,  the  last  variety  being  often 
bleached  by  the  addition  of  sulphites.  Plums,  apples  and  pears 
are  artificially  dried  in  ovens  on  wooden  battens  or  on  wire 
sieves;  from  the  latter  they  are  apt  to  become  contaminated 
with  notable  quantities  of  zinc.  Excellent  preparations  of  dried 
vegetables,  including  potatoes,  carrots,  onions,  French  beans 
and  cabbages,  are  also  manufactured. 

The  utilization  of  meat  in  the  form  of  meat  extract  belongs  to 
some  extent  to  this  class  of  preserved  foods.  Its  origin  is  due 
to  J.  von  Liebig  and  Max  von  Pettenkofer,  and  dates  from  the 
middle  of  the  ipth  century.  The  soluble  material  is  extracted 
mainly  from  beef^in  Australia  to  some  extent  from  mutton, 
by  means  of  warm  water;  the  albumen  is  coagulated  by  heat 
and  removed,  and  the  broths  thus  obtained  are  evaporated  in 
vacua  until  the  extract  contains  no  more  than  about  20%  of 
water.  One  pound  of  extract  is  obtained  from  about  25  Ibof  lean 
beef. 

Preservation  by  Refrigeration. — At  or  below  the  freezing-point 
of  water  fungoid  organisms  are  incapable  of  growth  and  multipli- 
cation. Although  it  has  been  asserted  that  many  of  them  perish 
when  kept  for  some  time  in  the  frozen  condition,  it  is  certain  that 
the  vast  majority  of  bacteria  and  their  germs  remain  merely 
dormant.  Even  so  highly  organized  structures  as  cereal  seeds 
do  not  suffer  in  vitality  on  being  kept  for  a  considerable  length 
of  time  at  the  far  lower  temperature  of  liquid  air.  Biological 
change  is,  therefore,  arrested  at  freezing-point,  and  as  long  as 
that  temperature  is  maintained  food  material  remains  unaltered, 
except  for  physical  changes  depending  upon  the  evaporation 
of  water  and  of  volatile  flavouring  matters,  or  chemical  altera- 
tions due  to  oxidation. 

Refrigeration,  therefore,  affords  the  means  of  keeping  for  a 
reasonably  long  time,  and  without  the  addition  of  any  pre- 
servative substance,  food  in  a  raw  condition.  It  is  the  only 
process  of  preservation  which  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view  is 
entirely  unobjectionable  as  ordinarily  and  properly  employed. 
Its  introduction  on  a  commercial  scale  has  more  powerfully 
affected  the  economic  conditions  of  England  and,  to  a  less  degree, 


614 


FOOL 


of  the  United  States  than  any  other  scientific  advance  since  the 
establishment  of  railways  and  steamboats.  Enormous  quantities 
of  frozen  carcasses,  butter,  fruit,  vegetables  and  fish  are  intro- 
duced in  the  fresh  condition  into  Great  Britain  and  stored  until 
required.  Extreme  fluctuations  of  supply  or  of  price  have 
become  almost  impossible,  and  the  abundance  of  Australian  and 
New  Zealand  ranches,  and  cf  West  Indian  orchards,  has  been 
made  readily  accessible  to  the  British  consumer.  For  household 
purposes  cooling  in  ice-chests  or  ice-chambers  suffices  to  pre- 
serve food  on  a  comparatively  small  scale.  The  ice  used  for  the 
purpose  comes,  to  a  small  extent,  from  natural  sources,  stored 
from  the  winter  or  imported  from  northern  countries;  a  far 
larger  quantity  is  artificially  produced  by  the  methods  described 
in  the  article  on  REFRIGERATING,  which  also  contains  an  account 
of  the  means  by  which  low  temperatures  are  produced  for 
industrial  purposes  of  importation  and  storage.  Fleets  of 
steamships  fitted  with  refrigerating  machinery  and  insulated 
cold-rooms  are  employed  in  carrying  the  food  materials,  which 
are  deposited  in  cold-stores  at  docks,  warehouses,  markets  and 
hotels.  The  first  cargo  of  frozen  meat  was  shipped  in  July  1873 
from  Melbourne,  but  arrived  in  October  in  an  unsatisfactory 
state.  In  1875-1876  sound  frozen  meat  came  from  America. 
The  first  cargo  of  frozen  meat  was  successfully  brought  to  the 
United  Kingdom  in  1880  from  Australia  in  the  "  Strathleven," 
fitted  with  a  Bell-Coleman  air  machine.  The  temperature  in  the 
cold-storage  rooms  is  generally  kept  near  34°  F.,  whilst  in  the 
chilling  chambers  a  somewhat  lower,  and  in  the  freezing  room  or 
chambers  a  much  lower  temperature  (between  o°  and  10°  F.) 
is  maintained.  The  carcasses  to  be  frozen  should  be  cooled 
slowly  at  first  to  ensure  even  freezing  throughout  and  to  prevent 
damage  by  the  unequal  expansion  of  the  outer  layer  of  ice. 
The  carcasses  when  freezing  must  be  hung  separated  from  each 
other,  but  for  storage  or  transportation  they  are  packed  tightly 
together.  Fish  such  as  salmon  is  washed,  thoroughly  cleansed, 
and  frozen  on  trays.  Butter  should  be  cooled  as  rapidly  as 
possible  to  about  10°  F.;  its  composition  as  regards  proportion 
of  volatile  fatty-acids,  &c.,  remains  absolutely  unaltered  for 
years.  Cheese  should  only  be  cold-stored  when  nearly  ripe  and 
should  not  be  frozen.  Eggs  must  be  carefully  selected,  each 
one  being  inspected  by  candle-light.  They  are  placed  in  cases 
holding  about  three  hundred,  which  are  taken  first  to  a  room 
in  which  they  are  slowly  cooled  to  about  33°  F.,  and  are  then  kept 
in  store  just  below  freezing-point.  Particular  attention  must  be 
paid  to  the  relative  humidity  of  the  air  in  egg  stores.  Fruit 
should  be  quite  fresh;  grapes  may  be  chilled  to  26°  F.,  while 
lemons  cannot  safely  be  kept  at  a  lower  temperature  than  36°. 
The  time  during  which  soft  fruit  can  be  kept  even  in  cold-store 
is  limited,  and  does  not  exceed  about  six  weeks. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  chilled-meat  trade  considerable 
prejudice  existed  against  stored  meat.  While  in  many  cases  the 
flavour  of  fresh  meat  is  rather  superior,  the  food  value  is  in  no 
way  altered  by  cold-storage.1 

Preservation  by  Pickling  other  than  Salt. — For  the  preservation 
of  vegetables,  vinegar  or  other  solution  of  acetic  acid  is  used  to 
a  limited  extent.  Eggs  are  submerged  in  lime-water  or  a  dilute 
solution  of  sodium  silicate  (soluble  glass).  During  the  storage 
of  eggs  the  more  aqueous  white  of  egg  yields  by  endosmosis  a 
portion  of  its  water  to  the  more  concentrated  yolk,  which  thereby 
expands  and  renders  its  thin  containing-membrane  liable  to 
rupture.  Fish,  such  as  sardines,  sprats  and  salmon,  is  preserved 
by  packing  in  olive  or  other  oil. 

The  preservation  of  the  most  important  dairy  product,  namely, 
milk,  deserves  a  separate  notice.  It  has  already  been  stated  that 
alkaline  liquids,  like  milk,  are  more  difficult  to  sterilize  by  heat 
than  acid  materials.  In  consequence  of  the  alteration  in  flavour 
which  milk  undergoes  by  long  continued  boiling,  and  of  the  fact 

1  Per  contra,  see  the  article  by  Mary  E.  Pennington  in  the  Year- 
book for  1907  (1908)  of  the  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  pp.  197-206, 
with  illustrations  of  chickens  kept  in  cold  storage  for  two  and  three 
years.  The  results  there  shown  cast  considerable  doubt  on  the 
efficiency  of  even  refrigeration  so  far  as  an  "  indefinite  "  period  is 
concerned ;  and  it  is  suggested  that  the  consumption  of  frozen  meat 
may  really  account  for  various  modern  diseases. 


that  milk  forms  perhaps  the  best  medium  for  the  growth  and 
propagation  of  bacterial,  organisms,  there  is  exceptional  difficulty 
in  its  sterilization.  As  secreted  by  a  healthy  cow  it  is  a  perfectly 
sterile  fluid,  and,  as  shown  by  Sir  J.  Lister,  when  drawn  under 
aseptic  conditions  and  kept  under  such,  it  remains  definitely 
fresh  and  sweet.  Bacterial  and  other  pollution  at  the  time  of 
milking  arises  from  the  animal,  the  stable,  the  milker  and  the 
vessels.  In  animals  suffering  from  tuberculosis  and  other 
bacterial  affections  the  milk  may  be  infected  within  the  udder. 
Milk  as  it  reaches  the  consumer  rarely  contains  less  than  50,000 
bacteria  and  often  many  millions  per  cubic  centimetre.  In  fresh 
country  cream  100  millions  per  cubic  centimetre  are  not  unusual. 
These  bacteria  are  of  many  kinds,  some  of  them  spore-bearing. 
The  spores  are  more  difficult  to  kill  than  the  adult  organism. 
The  first  step  towards  preservation  is  the  removal  of  the  dirt 
unavoidably  present,  to  the  particles  of  which  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  bacteria  adhere.  Filtration  through  cloths  or, 
better,  the  passing  of  the  milk  through  centrifugals  effects  that 
removal.  Subsequent  treatment  is  preferably  preceded  by  a 
breaking-up  of  the  larger  fat-globules  by  the  projection  of  a  jet 
of  the  milk  under  high  pressures  against  a  steel  or  agate  plate, 
a  process  known  as  homogenizing.  From  homogenized  milk  the 
cream  separates  slowly,  and  does  not  form  the  coherent  layer 
thrown  up  by  ordinary  milk.  Heating  is  then  effected  either  after 
bottling  or  by  passing  the  milk  continuously  through  pipes  in 
which  it  is  heated  to  from  160°  to  170°  F.  By  a  repetition  of 
the  heating  process  on  two  or  more  succeeding  days,  complete 
sterilization  may  be  effected,  although  a  single  treatment  is 
sufficient  to  render  the  milk  stable  for  a  few  days.  Many  forms 
of  pasteurizing  apparatus  for  milk  are  in  use.  Since  the  general 
introduction  of  pasteurization  of  the  skim-milk  used  in  Denmark 
for  the  feeding  of  calves  and  pigs,  tuberculosis  in  these  animals 
has  practically  disappeared.  On  the  continent  of  Europe  the  use 
of  sterilized  milk  is  now  very  general.  In  England  it  has  found 
little  favour  in  households,  but  is  making  rapid  progress  on  board 
ship. 

Milk  which  has  been  condensed  has  for  many  years  found  a 
most  extensive  sale.  The  first  efforts  to  condense  and  thus 
preserve  milk  date  from  1835,  when  an  English  patent  was 
granted  to  Newton.  In  1849  C.  N.  Horsford  prepared  condensed 
milk  with  the  addition  of  lactose.  Commercially  successful  milk 
condensation  began  in  1856.  The  milk  is  heated  to  about 
180°  F.  and  filled  into  large  copper  vacuum  pans,  after  having 
been  mixed  with  from  10  to  12  parts  of  sugar  per  100  parts  of 
milk.  Evaporation  takes  place  in  the  pans  at  about  122°  F., 
and  is  carried  on  till  the  milk  is  boiled  down  to  such  concentration 
that  100  parts  of  the  condensed  milk,  including  the  sugar, 
contain  the  solids  of  300  parts  of  milk.  Sweetened  condensed 
milk,  although  rarely  quite  sterile,  keeps  indefinitely,  and  is 
invariably  brought  into  commerce  in  tin  canisters.  The  prepara- 
tion of  sweetened  condensed  milk  forms  one  of  the  most  important 
branches  of  manufacture  in  Switzerland  and  is  steadily  increasing 
in  England.  Although  milk  can  quite  well  be  preserved  in  the 
form  of  condensed  unsweetened  milk,  which  dietetically  possesses 
immense  advantages  over  the  sweetened  milk  in  which  the 
balance  between  carbohydrates  and  albuminoids  is  very  un- 
favourable, such  unsweetened  milk  has  found  little  or  no  favour. 
Milk  powder  is  manufactured  under  various  patents,  the  most 
successful  of  which  depends  upon  the  addition  of  sodium  bi- 
carbonate and  the  subsequent  rapid  evaporation  of  the  milk  on 
steam-heated  revolving  iron  cylinders.  Milk  powder  made  from 
skim-milk  keeps  well  for  considerable  periods,  but  full-cream 
milk  develops  rancid  or  tallowy  flavours  by  the  oxidation  of  the 
finely  divided  butter-fat.  It  is  largely  employed  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  so-called  milk  chocolates.  (O.  H.*) 

FOOL  (O.  Fr.fol,  modern  fou,  foolish,  from  a  Late  Latin  use  of 
follis,  bellows,  a  ball  filled  with  air,  for  a  stupid  person,  a  jester, 
a  wind-bag) ,  a  buffoon  or  jester. 

The  class  of  professional  fools  or  jesters,  which  reached  its 
culminating  point  of  influence  and  recognized  place  and  function 
in  the  social  organism  during  the  middle  ages,  appears  to  have 
existed  in  all  times  and  countries.  Not  only  have  there  always 


FOOLS,  FEAST  OF 


been  individuals  naturally  inclined  and  endowed  to  amuse  others; 
there  has  been  besides  in  most  communities  a  definite  class,  the 
members  of  which  have  used  their  powers  or  weaknesses  in  this 
direction  as  a  regular  means  of  getting  a  livelihood.  Savage 
jugglers,  medicine-men,  and  even  priests,  have  certainly  much  in 
common  with  the  jester  by  profession.  There  existed  in  ancient 
Greece  a  distinct  class  of  professed  fools  whose  habits  were  not 
essentially  different  from  those  of  the  jesters  of  the  middle  ages. 
Of  the  behaviour  of  one  of  these,  named  Philip,  Xenophon  has 
given  a  picturesque  account  in  the  Banquet.  Philip  of  Macedon 
is  said  to  have  possessed  a  court  fool,  and  certainly  these  (as 
well  as  court  poets  and  court  philosophers,  with  whom  they  have 
sometimes  been  not  unreasonably  confounded)  were  common 
in  a  number  of  the  petty  courts  at  that  era  of  civilization.  Scurrae 
and  moriones  were  the  Roman  parallels  of  the  medieval  witty 
fool;  and  during  the  empire  the  manufacture  of  human  mon- 
strosities was  a  regular  practice,  slaves  of  this  kind  being  much 
in  request  to  relieve  the  languid  hours.  The  jester  again  has 
from  time  immemorial  existed  at  eastern  courts.  Witty  stories 
are  told  of  Bahalul  (see  D'Herbelot,  s.v.)  the  jester  of  Harun  al- 
Reshid,  which  have  long  had  a  place  in  Western  fiction.  On  the 
conquest  of  Mexico  court  fools  and  deformed  human  creatures 
of  all  kinds  were  found  at  the  court  of  Montezuma.  But  that 
monarch  no  doubt  hit  upon  one  great  cause  of  the  favour  of 
monarchs  for  this  class  when  he  said  that  "  more  instruction 
was  to  be  gathered  from  them  than  from  wiser  men,  for  they 
dared  to  tell  the  truth."  Douce,  in  his  essay  On  the  Clowns  and 
Fools  of  Shakespeare,  has  made  a  ninefold  division  of  English 
fools,  according  to  quality  and  place  of  employment,  as  the 
domestic  fool,  the  city  or  corporation  fool,  the  tavern  fool,  the  fool 
of  the  mysteries  and  moralities.  The  last  is  generally  called  the 
"  vice,"  and  is  the  original  of  the  stage  clowns  so  common  among 
the  dramatists  of  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  and  who  embody  so 
much  of  the  wit  of  Shakespeare.  A  very  palpable  classification 
is  that  which  distinguishes  between  such  creatures  as  were  chosen 
to  excite  to  laughter  from  some  deformity  of  mind  or  body,  and 
such  as  were  so  chosen  for  a  certain  (to  all  appearance  generally 
very  shallow)  alertness  of  mind  and  power  of  repartee, — or  briefly, 
butts  and  wits.  The  dress  of  the  regular  court  fool  of  the  middle 
ages  was  not  altogether  a  rigid  uniform.  To  judge  from  the  prints 
and  illuminations  which  are  the  sources  of  our  knowledge  on  this 
matter,  it  seems  to  have  changed  considerably  from  time  to  time. 
The  head  was  shaved,  the  coat  was  motley,  and  the  breeches  tight, 
with  generally  one  leg  different  in  colour  from  the  other.  The 
head  was  covered  with  a  garment  resembling  a  monk's  cowl, 
which  fell  over  the  breast  and  shoulders,  and  often  bore 
asses'  ears,  and  was  crested  with  a  cockscomb,  while  bells 
hung  from  various  parts  of  the  attire.  The  fool's  bauble  was 
a  short  staff  bearing  a  ridiculous  head,  to  which  was  some- 
times attached  an  inflated  bladder,  by  means  of  which  sham 
castigations  were  effected.  A  long  petticoat  was  also  occa- 
sionally worn,  but  seems  to  have  belonged  rather  to  the  idiots 
than  to  the  wits. 

The  fool's  business  was  to  amuse  his  master,  to  excite  him 
to  laughter  by  sharp  contrast,  to  prevent  the  over-oppression 
of  state  affairs,  and,  in  harmony  with  a  well-known  physiological 
precept,  by  his  liveliness  at  meals  to  assist  his  lord's  digestion. 
The  names  and  the  witticisms  of  many  of  the  official  jesters  at 
the  courts  of  Europe  have  been  preserved  by  popular  or  state 
records.  In  England  the  list  is  long  between  Hitard,  the  fool  of 
Edmund  Ironside,  and  Muckle  John,  the  fool  of  Charles  I., 
and  probably  the  last  official  royal  fool  of  England.  Many  are 
remembered  from  some  connexion  with  general  or  literary  history. 
Scogan  was  attached  to  Edward  IV.,  and  later  was  published 
a  collection  of  poor  jests  ascribed  to  him,  to  which  Andrew 
Boorde's  name  was  attached,  but  without  authority. 

Will  Sommers,  of  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  seems  to  have 
been  a  kind-hearted  as  well  as  a  witty  man,  and  occasionally 
used  his  influence  with  the  king  for  good  and  charitable 
purposes.  Armin,  who,  in  his  Nest  of  Ninnies,  gives  a  full 
description  of  Sommers,  and  introduces  many  popular  fools, 
says  of  him — 


615 


"  Only  this  much,  he  was  a  poor  man's  friend, 
And  helpt  the  widow  often  in  her  end. 
The  king  would  ever  grant  what  he  would  crave, 
For  well  he  knew  Will  no  exacting  knave." 


The  literature  of  the  period  immediately  succeeding  his  death  is 
full  of  allusions  to  Will  Sommers. 

Richard  Tarleton,  famous  as  a  comic  actor,  cannot  be  omitted 
from  any  list  of  jesters.  A  book  of  Tarleton's  Jests  was  published 
in  1611,  and,  together  with  his  News  out  of  Purgatory,  was  re- 
printed by  Halliwell  Phillips  for  the  Shakespeare  Society  in  1844. 
Archie  Armstrong,  for  a  too  free  use  of  wit  and  tongue  against 
Laud,  lost  his  office  and  was  banished  the  court.  The  conduct 
of  the  archbishop  against  the  poor  fool  is  not  the  least  item  of  the 
evidence  which  convicts  him  of  a  certain  narrow-mindedness 
and  pettiness.  In  French  history,  too,  the  figure  of  the  court- 
jester  flits  across  the  gay  or  sombre  scene  at  times  with  fantastic 
effect.  Caillette  and  Triboulet  are  well-known  characters  of  the 
times  of  Francis  I.  Triboulet  appears  in  Rabelais's  romance, 
and  is  the  hero  of  Victor  Hugo's  Le  Roi  s'amuse,  and,  with  some 
changes,  of  Verdi's  opera  Rigoletto;  while  Chicot,  the  lithe  and 
acute  Gascon,  who  was  so  close  a  friend  of  Henry  III.,  is  por- 
trayed with  considerable  justness  by  Dumas  in  his  Dame  de 
Monsoreau.  In  Germany  Rudolph  of  Habsburg  had  his  Pfaff 
Cappadox,  Maximilian  I.  his  Kunz  von  der  Rosen  (whose  features, 
as  well  as  those  of  Will  Sommers,  have  been  preserved  by  the 
pencil  of  Holbein),  and  many  a  petty  court  its  jester  after  jester. 

Late  in  the  i6th  century  appeared  Le  SoltUissime  Asluzie  di 
Bertoldo,^  which  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  books  ever  written 
about  a  jester.  It  is  by  Giulio  Cesare  Croce,  a  street  musician  of 
Bologna,  and  is  a  comic  romance  giving  an  account  of  the 
appearance  at  the  court  of  Alboin  king  of  the  Lombards  of  a 
peasant  wonderful  in  ugliness,  good  sense  and  wit.  The  book 
was  for  a  time  the  most  popular  in  Italy.  A  great  number  of 
editions  and  translations  appeared,  and  it  was  even  versified. 
Though  fiction,  both  the  character  and  the  career  of  Bertoldo 
are  typical  of  the  jester.  That  the  private  fool  existed  as  late 
as  the  i8th  century  is  proved  by  Swift's  epitaph  on  Dicky  Pearce,, 
the  earl  of  Suffolk's  jester. 

See  Flogel,  Geschichte  der  Hofnarren  (Leipzig,  1789);  Doran,  The 
History  of  Court  Fools  (1858).  (W.  HE.) 

FOOLS,  FEAST  OF  (Lat.  festum  stultorum,  fatuorum,  follorum, 
Fr.  fete  des  fous),  the  name  for  certain  burlesque  quasi-religious 
festivals  which,  during  the  middle  ages,  were  the  ecclesiastical 
counterpart  of  the  secular  revelries  of  the  Lord  of  Misrule.  The 
celebrations  are  directly  traceable  to  the  pagan  Saturnalia  of 
ancient  Rome,  which  in  spite  of  the  conversion  of  the  Empire 
to  Christianity,  and  of  the  denunciation  of  bishops  and  ecclesi- 
astical councils,  continued  to  be  celebrated  by  the  people  on  the 
Kalends  of  January  with  all  their  old  licence.  The  custom, 
indeed,  so  far  from  dying  out,  was  adopted  by  the  barbarian 
conquerors  and  spread  among  the  Christian  Goths  in  Spain, 
Franks  in  Gaul,  Alemanni  in  Germany,  and  Anglo-Saxons  in 
Britain.  So  late  as  the  nth  century  Bishop  Burchard  of  Worms 
thought  it  necessary  to  fulminate  against  the  excesses  connected 
with  it  (Decretum,  xix.  c.  5,  Migne,  Patrologia  lat.  140,  p.  965). 
Then,  just  as  it  appears  to  have  been  sinking  into  oblivion  among 
the  people,  the  clergy  themselves  gave  it  the  character  of  a 
specific  religious  festival.  Certain  days  seem  early  to  have  been 
set  apart  as  special  festivals  for  different  orders  of  the  clergy: 
the  feast  of  St  Stephen  (December  26)  for  the  deacons,  St  John's 
day  (December  27)  for  the  priests,  Holy  Innocents'  Day  for  the 
boys,  and  for  the  sub-deacons  Circumcision,  the  Epiphany, 
or  the  nth  of  January.  The  Feast  of  Holy  Innocents  became 
a  regular  festival  of  children,  in  which  a  boy,  elected  by  his 
fellows  of  the  choir  school,  functioned  solemnly  as  bishop  or 
archbishop,  surrounded  by  the  elder  choir-boys  as  his  clergy, 
while  the  canons  and  other  clergy  took  the  humbler  seats.  At 
first  there  is  no  evidence  to  prove  that  these  celebrations  were 
characterized  by  any  specially  indecorous  behaviour;  but  in  the 
1 2th  century  such  behaviour  had  become  the  rule.  In  1180 
Jean  Beleth,  of  the  diocese  of  Amiens,  calls  the  festival  of  the 
sub-deacons  feslum  stultorum  (Migne,  Patrol,  lat.  202,  p.  79). 


6i6 


FOOLSCAP— FOOT 


The  burlesque  ritual  which  characterized  the  Feast  of  Fools 
throughout  the  middle  ages  was  now  at  its  height.  A  young 
sub-deacon  was  elected  bishop,  vested  in  the  episcopal  insignia 
(except  the  mitre)  and  conducted  by  his  fellows  to  the  sanctuary. 
A  mock  mass  was  begun,  during  which  the  lections  were  read 
cum  farsia,  obscene  songs  were  sung  and  dances  performed, 
cakes  and  sausages  eaten  at  the  altar,  and  cards  and  dice  played 
upon  it. 

This  burlesquing  of  things  universally  held  sacred,  though 
condemned  by  serious-minded  theologians,  conveyed  to  the 
child-like  popular  mind  of  the  middle  ages  no  suggestion  of 
contempt,  though  when  belief  in  the  doctrines  and  rites  of 
the  medieval  Church  was  shaken  it  became  a  ready  instrument 
in  the  hands  of  those  who  sought  to  destroy  them.  Of  this  kind 
of  retribution  Scott  in  The  Abbot  gives  a  vivid  picture,  the 
Protestants  interrupting  the  mass  celebrated  by  the  trembling 
remnant  of  the  monks  in  the  ruined  abbey  church,  and  insisting 
on  substituting  the  traditional  Feast  of  Fools. 

This  naive  temper  of  the  middle  ages  is  nowhere  more  con- 
spicuously displayed  than  in  the  Feast  of  the  Ass,  which  under 
various  forms  was  celebrated  in  a  large  number  of  churches 
throughout  the  West.  The  ass  had  been  introduced  into  the 
ritual  of  the  church  in  the  gth  century,  representing  either 
Balaam's  ass,  that  which  stood  with  the  ox  beside  the  manger 
at  Bethlehem,  that  which  carried  the  Holy  Family  into  Egypt, 
or  that  on  which  Christ  rode  in  triumph  into  Jerusalem.  Often 
the  ass  was  a  mere  incident  in  the  Feast  of  Fools;  but  sometimes 
he  was  the  occasion  of  a  special  festival,  ridiculous  enough  to 
modern  notions,  but  by  no  means  intended  in  an  irreverent 
spirit.  The  three  most  notable  celebrations  of  the  Feast  of  the 
Ass  were  at  Rouen,  Beauvais  and  Sens.  At  Rouen  the  feast 
was  celebrated  on  Christmas  Day,  and  was  intended  to  represent 
the  times  before  the  coming  of  Christ.  The  service  opened  with 
a  procession  of  Old  Testament  characters,  prophets,  patriarchs 
and  kings,  together  with  heathen  prophets,  including  Virgil, 
the  chief  figure  being  Balaam  on  his  ass.  The  ass  was  a  hollow 
wooden  effigy,  within  which  a  priest  capered  and  uttered  pro- 
phecies. The  procession  was  followed,  inside  the  church,  by 
a  curious  combination  of  ritual  office  and  mystery  play,  the  text 
of  which,  according  to  the  Ordo  processionis  asinorum  secundum 
Rothomagensem  usum,  is  given  in  Du  Cange. 

Far  more  singular  was  the  celebration  at  Beauvais,  which  was 
held  on  the  I4th  of  January,  and  represented  the  flight  into 
Egypt.  A  richly  caparisoned  ass,  on  which  was  seated  the 
prettiest  girl  in  the  town  holding  in  her  arms  a  baby  or  a  large 
doll,  was  escorted  with  much  pomp  from  the  cathedral  to  the 
church  of  St  Etienne.  There  the  procession  was  received  by 
the  priests,  who  led  the  ass  and  its  burden  to  the  sanctuary. 
Mass  was  then  sung;  but  instead  of  the  ordinary  responses  to 
the  Introit,  Kyrie,  Gloria,  &c.,  the  congregation  chanted  "  Hin- 
ham  "  (Hee-haw)  three  times.  The  rubric  of  the  mass  for  this 
feast  actually  runs:  In  fine  Missae  Sacerdos  versus  ad  populum 
nee,  Ite  missa  est,  Hinhannabit:  populus  vero  vice,  Deo  Gratias, 
ter  respondebit  Hinham,  Hinham,  Hinham  (At  the  close  of  the 
mass  the  priest  turning  to  the  people  instead  of  saying,  Ite  missa 
est,  shall  bray  thrice:  the  people,  instead  of  Deo  gratias,  shall 
thrice  respond  Hee-haw,  Hee-haw,  Hee-haw). 

At  Sens  the  Feast  of  the  Ass  was  associated  with  the  Feast 
of  Fools,  celebrated  at  Vespers  on  the  Feast  of  Circumcision. 
The  clergy  went  in  procession  to  the  west  door  of  the  church, 
where  two  canons  received  the  ass,  amid  joyous  chants,  and  led 
it  to  the  precentor's  table.  Bizarre  vespers  followed,  sung 
falsetto  and  consisting  of  a  medley  of  extracts  from  all  the 
vespers  of  the  year.  Between  the  lessons  the  ass  was  solemnly 
fed,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  the  service  was  led  by  the  precentor 
out  into  the  square  before  the  church  (conductus  ad  ludos); 
water  was  poured  on  the  precentor's  head,  and  the  ass  became 
the  centre  of  burlesque  ceremonies,  dancing  and  buffoonery 
being  carried  on  far  into  the  night,  while  the  clergy  and  the 
serious-minded  retired  to  matins  and  bed. 

Various  efforts  were  made  during  the  middle  ages  to  abolish 
the  Feast  of  Fools.  Thus  in  1 198  the  chapter  of  Paris  suppressed 


its  more  obvious  indecencies;  in  1210  Pope  Innocent  III. 
forbade  the  feasts  of  priests,  deacons  and  sub-deacons  altogether; 
and  in  1246  Innocent  IV.  threatened  those  who  disobeyed  this 
prohibition  with  excommunication.  How  little  effect  this  had, 
however,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  1265  Odo,  archbishop  of 
Sens,  could  do  no  more  than  prohibit  the  obscene  excesses  of 
the  feast,  without  abolishing  the  feast  itself;  that  in  1444  the 
university  of  Paris,  at  the  request  of  certain  bishops,  addressed 
a  letter  condemning  it  to  all  cathedral  chapters;  and  that  King 
Charles  VII.  found  it  necessary  to  order  all  masters  in  theology 
to  forbid  it  in  collegiate  churches.  The  festival  was,  in  fact, 
too  popular  to  succumb  to  these  efforts,  and  it  survived  through- 
out Europe  till  the  Reformation,  and  even  later  in  France; 
for  in  1645  Mathurin  de  Neure  complains  in  a  letter  to  Pierre 
Gassendi  of  the  monstrous  fooleries  which  yearly  on  Innocents' 
Day  took  place  in  the  monastery  of  the  Cordeliers  at  Antibes. 
"  Never  did  pagans,"  he  writes,  "  solemnize  with  such  extrava- 
gance their  superstitious  festivals  as  do  they  ....  The  lay- 
brothers,  the  cabbage-cutters,  those  who  work  in  the  kitchen  .  .  . 
occupy  the  places  of  the  clergy  in  the  church.  They  don  the 
sacerdotal  garments,  reverse  side  out.  They  hold  in  their  hands 
books  turned  upside  down,  and  pretend  to  read  through  spectacles 
in  which  for  glass  have  been  substituted  bits  of  orange-peel." 

See  B.  Picart,  Ceremonies  et  coutumes  religieuses  de  tons  les  peuples 
(1723);  du  Tilliot,  Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  de  la  fete  des 
Fous  (Lausanne,  1741);  Aime  Cherest,  Nouvelles  recherches  sur  la 
fete  des  Innocents  et  la  fete  des  Fous  dans  plusieurs  eglises  et  notamment 
dans  celle  de  Sens  (Paris,  1853);  Schneegans  in  Miiller's  Zeitschrift 
jur  deutsche  Ktdturgeschichte  (1858) ;  H.  Bohmer,  art.  "Narrenfest  " 
in  Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyklop.  (ed.  1903) ;  Du  Cange,  Glossarium 
(ed.  1884),  s.v.  "  Festum  Asinorum." 

FOOLSCAP,  the  cap,  usually  of  conical  shape,  with  a  cockscomb 
running  up  the  centre  of  the  back,  and  with  bells  attached,  worn 
by  jesters  and  fools  (see  FOOL);  also  a  conical  cap  worn  by 
dunces.  The  name  is  given  to  a  size  of  writing  or  printing  paper, 
varying  in  size  from  12  X 15  in.  to  17  X 133  in.  (see  PAPER).  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  use  of  a  "  fool's  cap  "  as  a  watermark. 
A  German  example  of  the  watermark  dating  from  1479  was 
exhibited  in  the  Caxton  Exhibition  (1877).  The  New  English 
Dictionary  finds  no  trustworthy  evidence  for  the  introduction  of 
the  watermark  by  a  German,  Sir  John  Spielmann,  at  his  paper- 
mill  at  Dartford  in  1580,  and  states  that  there  is  no  truth  in  the 
familiar  story  that  the  Rump  Parliament  substituted  a  fool's  cap 
for  the  royal  arms  as  a  watermark  on  the  paper  used  for  the 
journals  of  parliament. 

FOOL'S  PARSLEY,  in  botany,  the  popular  name  for  Aethusa 
Cynapium,  a  member  of  the  family  Umbelliferae,  and  a  common 
weed  in  cultivated  ground.  It  is  an  annual  herb,  with  a  fusiform 
root  and  a  smooth  hollow  branched  stem  i  to  2  ft.  high,  with 
much  divided  (ternately  pinnate)  smooth  leaves  and  small  com- 
pound umbels  of  small  irregular  white  flowers.  The  plant  has  a 
nauseous  smell,  and,like  other  members  of  the  order  (e.g.  hemlock, 
water-drop  wort),  is  poisonous. 

FOOT,  the  lower  part  of  the  leg,  in  vertebrate  animals  consisting 
of  tarsus,  metatarsus  and  phalanges,  on  which  the  body  rests 
when  in  an  upright  position,  standing  or  moving  (see  ANATOMY: 
Superficial  and  Artistic;  and  SKELETON:  Appendicular).  The 
word  is  also  applied  to  such  parts  of  invertebrate  animals  as  serve 
as  a  foot,  either  for  movement  or  attachment  to  a  surface. 
"  Foot  "  is  a  word  common  in  various  forms  to  Indo-European 
languages,  Dutch,  wet,  Ger.  Fuss,  Dan.  fod,  &c.  The  Aryan  root 
is1  pod-,  which  appears  in  Sans,  pud,  Gr.  TroOs,  TTO^OS,  and  Lat. 
pes,  pedis.  From  the  resemblance  to  the  foot,  in  regard  to  its 
position,  as  the  base'  of  anything,  or  as  the  lowest  member  of  the 
body,  or  in  regard  to  its  function  of  movement,  the  word  is 
applied  to  the  lowest  part  of  a  hill  or  mountain,  the  plate  of  a 
sewing-machine  which  holds  the  material  in  position,  to  the  part 
of  an  organ  pipe  below  the  mouth,  and  the  like.  In  printing  the 
bottom  of  a  type  is  divided  by  a  groove  into  two  portions  known 
as  "  feet."  Probably  referring  to  the  beating  of  the  rhythm 
with  the  foot  in  dancing,  the  Gr.  iroDs  and  Lat.  pes  were  applied  in 
prosody  to  a  grouping  of  syllables,  one  of  which  is  stressed, 
forming  the  division  of  a  verse.  "  Foot,"  i.e.  foot-soldier,  was 


FOOT-AND-MOUTH  DISEASE— FOOTBALL 


formerly,  with  an  ordinal  number  prefixed,  the  name  of  the 
infantry  regiments  of  the  British  army.  It  is  now  superseded  by 
territorial  designations,  but  it  still  is  used  in  the  four  regiments  of 
the  infantry  of  the  Household,  the  Foot  Guards.  As  a  lineal 
measure  of  length  the  "  foot  "  is  of  great  antiquity,  estimated 
originally  by  the  length  of  a  man's  foot  (see  WEIGHTS  AND 
MEASURES).  For  the, ceremonial  washing  of  feet,  see  MAUNDY 
THURSDAY. 

FOOT-AND-MOUTH  DISEASE  (Aphthous  Fever,  Epizootic 
Aphtha,  Eczema  Epizootica) ,  a  virulent  contagious  and  inoculable 
malady  of  animals,  characterized  by  initial  fever,  followed  by  the 
formation  of  vesicles  or  blisters  on  the  tongue,  palate  and  lips, 
sometimes  in  the  nostrils,  fourth  stomach  and  intestine  of 
cattle,  and  on  parts  of  the  body  where  the  skin  is  thin,  as  on  the 
udder  and  teats,  between  the  claws,  on  the  heels,  coronet  and 
pastern.  The  disease  begins  suddenly  and  spreads  very  rapidly. 
A  rise  of  temperature  precedes  the  vesicular  eruption,  which  is 
accompanied  by  salivation  and  a  peculiar  "  smacking  "  of  the 
lips.  The  vesicles  gradually  enlarge  and  eventually  break, 
exposing  a  red  raw  patch,  which  is  very  sensitive.  The  animal 
cannot  feed  so  well  as  usual,  suffers  much  pain  and  inconvenience, 
loses  condition,  and,  if  a  milk-yielding  creature,  gives  less  milk,  or, 
if  pregnant,  may  abort.  More  or  less  lameness  is  a  constant 
symptom,  and  sometimes  the  feet  become  very  much  diseased  and 
the  animal  is  so  crippled  that  it  has  to  be  destroyed.  It  is  often 
fatal  to  young  animals.  It  is  transmitted  by  the  saliva  and  the 
discharges  from  the  vesicles,  though  all  the  secretions  and 
excretions  are  doubtless  infective,  as  well  as  all  articles  and 
places  soiled  by  them.  This  disease  can  be  produced  by  injecting 
the  saliva,  or  the  lymph  of  the  vesicles,  into  the  blood  or  the 
peritoneal  cavity. 

If  we  were  to  judge  by  the  somewhat  vague  descriptions  of 
different  disorders  by  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  this  disease  has 
been  a  European  malady  for  more  than  2000  years.  But  no 
reliance  can  be  placed  on  this  evidence,  and  it  is  not  until  we 
reach  the  i7th  and  i8th  centuries  that  we  find  trustworthy  proof 
of  its  presence,  when  it  was  reported  as  frequently  prevailing 
extensively  in  Germany,  Italy  and  France.  During  the  igth 
century,  owing  to  the  vastly  extended  commercial  relations 
between  civilized  countries,  it  has,  like  the  lung-plague,  become 
widely  diffused.  In  the  Old  World  its  effects  are  now  experienced 
from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Hungary,  Lower 
Austria,  Bohemia,  Saxony  and  Prussia  were  invaded  in  1834. 
Cattle  in  the  Vosges  and  in  Switzerland  were  attacked  in  1837,  and 
the  disease  extending  to  France,  Belgium  and  Holland,  reached 
England  in  1839,  and  quickly  spread  over  the  three  kingdoms  (see 
also  under  AGRICULTURE).  At  this  time  the  importation  of 
foreign  animals  into  England  was  prohibited,  and  it  was  supposed 
that  the  infection  must  have  been  introduced  by  surplus  ships' 
stores,  probably  sheep,  which  had  not  been  consumed  during  the 
voyage.  This  invasion  was  followed  at  intervals  by  eleven  distinct 
outbreaks,  and  since  1902  Great  Britain  has  been  free  of  foot-and- 
mouth  disease.  From  the  observations  of  the  best  authorities  it 
would  appear  to  be  an  altogether  exotic  malady  in  the  west  of 
Europe,  always  invading  it  from  the  east;  at  least,  this  has  been 
the  course  noted  in  all  the  principal  invasions.  It  was  introduced 
into  Denmark  in  1841;  and  into  the  United  States  of  America  in 
1870,  from  Canada,  where  it  had  been  carried  by  diseased  cattle 
from  England.  It  rapidly  extended  through  cattle  traffic  from 
the  state  first  invaded  to  adjoining  states,  but  was  eventually 
extinguished,  and  does  not  now  appear  to  be  known  in  North 
America.  It  was  twice  introduced  into  Australia  in  1872,  but  was 
stamped  out  on  each  occasion.  It  appears  to  be  well  known  in 
India,  Ceylon,  Burma  and  the  Straits  Settlements.  In  1870  it 
was  introduced  into  the  Andaman  Islands  by  cattle  imported 
from  Calcutta,  where  it  was  then  prevailing,  and  in  the  same  year 
it  appeared  in  South  America.  In  South  Africa  it  is  frequently 
epizootic,  causing  great  inconvenience,  owing  to  the  bullocks 
used  for  draught  purposes  becoming  unfit  for  work.  These  cattle 
also  spread  the  contagion.  It  is  not  improbable  that  it  also 
prevails  in  central  Africa,  as  Schweinfurth  alludes  to  the  cattle 
of  the  Dinkas  suffering  from  a  disease  of  the  kind. 


Though  not  usually  a  fatal  malady,  except  in  very  young 
animals,  or  when  malignant,  yet  it  is  a  most  serious  scourge. 
In  one  year  (1892)  in  Germany,  it  attacked  150,929  farms,  with 
an  estimated  loss  to  the  owners  of  £7,500,000  sterling.  It  is 
transmissible  to  nearly  all  the  domestic  animals,  but  its  ravages 
are  most  severe  among  cattle,  sheep,  goats  and  swine.  Human 
beings  are  also  liable  to  infection. 

The  treatment  of  affected  animals  comprises  a  laxative  diet, 
with  salines,  and  the  application  of  antiseptics  and  astringents  to 
the  sores.  The  preventive  measures  recommended  are,  isolation 
of  the  diseased  animals,  boiling  the  milk  before  use,  and  thorough 
disinfection  of  all  places  and  substances  which  are  capable  of 
conveying  the  infection. 

FOOTBALL,  a  game  between  two  opposing  sides  played  with 
a  large  inflated  ball,  which  is  propelled  either  by  the  feet  alone  or 
by  both  feet  and  hands. 

Pastimes  of  the  kind  were  known  to  many  nations  of  antiquity, 
and  their  existence  among  savage  tribes,  sucji  as  the  Maoris, 
Faroe  Islanders,  Philippine  Islanders,  Polynesians  and  Eskimos, 
points  to  their  primitive  nature.  In  Greece  the  tiriowpos 
seems  to  have  borne  a  resemblance  to  the  modern  game.  Of  this 
we  read  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Antiquities — "  It  was  the  game 
at  football,  played  in  much  the  same  way  as  with  us,  by  a  great 
number  of  persons  divided  into  two  parties  opposed  to  one 
another."  Amongst  the  Romans  the  harpastum,  derived  from 
the  Greek  verb  apvafa,  I  seize,  thus  showing  that  carrying  the 
ball  was  permissible,  bore  a  certain  resemblance.  Basil  Kennett, 
in  his  Romae  antiquae  nolilia,  terms  this  missile  a  "  larger  kind 
of  ball,  which  they  played  with,  dividing  into  two  companies  and 
striving  to  throw  it  into  one  another's  goals,  which  was  the 
conquering  cast."  The  harpastum  was  a  gymnastic  game  and 
probably  played  for  the  most  part  indoors.  The  real  Roman 
football  was  played  with  the  inflated  follis,  which  was  kicked  from 
side  to  side  over  boundaries,  and  thus  must  have  closely  resembled 
the  modern  Association  game.  Tradition  ascribes  its  introduction 
in  northern  Europe  to  the  Roman  legions.  It  has  been  played  in 
Tuscany  under  the  name  of  Caldo  from  the  middle  ages  down  to 
modern  times. 

Regarding  the  origin  of  the  game  in  Great  Britain  the  Roman 
tradition  has  been  generally  accepted,  although  Irish  antiquarians 
assert  that  a  variety  of  football  has  been  played  in  Ireland  for 
over  2000  years.  In  early  times  the  great  football  festival  of  the 
year  was  Shrove  Tuesday,  though  the  connexion  of  the  game 
with  this  particular  date  is  lost  in  obscurity.  William  Fitz- 
stephen,  in  his  History  of  London  (about  1175),  speaks  of  the 
young  men  of  the  city  annually  going  into  the  fields  after  dinner 
to  play  at  the  well-known  game  of  ball  on.  the  day  quae  dicitiir 
Carnilevaria.  As  far  as  is  known  this  is  the  first  distinct  mention 
of  football  in  England.  It  was  forbidden  by  Edward  II.  (1314) 
in  consequence  of  "  the  great  noise  in  the  city  caused  by  hustling 
over  large  balls  (rageries  de  grosses  peloles)."  A  clear  reference  is 
made  "  ad  pilam  .  .  .  pedinam  "  in  the  Rotuli  Clausarum,  39 
Edward  III.  (1365),  memb.  23,  as  one  of  the  pastimes  to  be 
prohibited  on  account  of  the  decadence  of  archery,  and  the  same 
thing  occurs  in  12  Richard  II.  c.  6  (1388).  Both  Henry  VIII.  and 
Elizabeth  enacted  laws  against  football,  which,  both  then  and 
under  the  Stuarts  and  the  Georges,  seems  to  have  been  violent  to 
the  point  of  brutality,  a  fact  often  referred  to  by  prominent 
writers.  Thus  Sir  Thomas  Elyot,  in  his  Boke  named  the  Governour 
(1531),  speaks  of  football  as  being  "  nothyng  but  beastely  fury 
and  extreme  violence,  whereof  proceedeth  hurte  and  conse- 
quently rancour  and  malice  to  remayne  with  thym  that  be 
wounded,  wherefore  it  is  to  be  put  in  perpetual  silence."  In 
Stubbes'  Anatomic  of  Abuses  (1583)  it  is  referred  to  as  "a 
develishe  pastime  .  .  .  and  hereof  groweth  envy,  rancour  and 
malice,  and  sometimes  brawling,  murther,  homicide,  and  great 
effusion  of  blood,  as  experience  daily  teacheth."  Fifty  years 
ater  (1634)  Davenant  is  quoted  (in  Hone's  Table-Book)  as 
remarking,  "  I  would  now  make  a  safe  retreat,  but  methinks  I  am 
stopped  by  one  of  your  heroic  games  called  football;  which  I 
conceive  (under  your  favour)  not  very  conveniently  civil  in  the 
streets,  especially  in  such  irregular  and  narrow  roads  as  Crooked 


6i8 


FOOTBALL 


[RUGBY 


Lane.  Yet  it  argues  your  courage,  much  like  your  military 
pastime  of  throwing  at  cocks,  since  you  have  long  allowed  these 
two  valiant  exercises  in  the  streets." 

An  evidence  of  its  old  popularity  in  Ireland  is  that  the  statutes 
of  Gal  way  in  1527  forbade  every  other  sport  save  archery, 
excepting  "  onely  the  great  foot  balle."  In  the  time  of  Charles 
II.  football  was  popular  at  Cambridge,  particularly  at  Magdalene 
College,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  following  extract  from  the  register 
book  of  that  institution  under  the  date  1679: — 

"  That  no  schollers  give  or  receive  at  any  time  any  treat  or  collation 
upon  account  of  ye  football  play,  on  or  about  Michaelmas  Day, 
further  than  Colledge  beere  or  ale  in  ye  open  halle  to  quench  their 
thirsts.  And  particularly  that  that  most  vile  custom  of  drinking 
and  spending  money — Sophisters  and  Freshmen  together — upon  ye 
account  of  making  or  not  making  a  speech  at  that  football  time  be 
utterly  left  off  and  extinguished.  ' 

It  nevertheless  remained  for  the  most  part  a  game  for  the 
masses,  and  never  took  root,  except  in  educational  institutions, 
among  the  upper  classes  until  the  igth  century.  No  clubs  or 
code  of  rules  had  been  formed,  and  the  sole  aim  seems  to  have 
been  to  drive  the  ball  through  the  opposing  side's  goal  by  fair 
means  or  foul.  So  rough  did  the  game  become  that  James  I. 
forbade  the  heir  apparent  to  play  it,  and  describes  the  exercise  in 
his  Basilikon  Doron  as  "  meeter  for  laming  than  making  able  the 
users  thereof."  Both  sexes  and  all  ages  seem  to  have  taken  part 
in  it  on  Shrove  Tuesday;  shutters  had  to  be  put  up  and  houses 
closed  in  order  to  prevent  damage;  and  it  is  not  to  be  wondered 
that  the  game  fell  into  bad  repute.  Accidents,  sometimes  fatal, 
occurred;  and  Shrove  Tuesday  "  football-day  "  gradually  died 
out  about  1830,  though  a  relic  of  the  custom  still  remained  in  a 
few  places.  For  some  thirty  years  football  was  only  practised  at 
the  great  English  public  schools,  many  of  which  possessed  special 
games,  which  in  practically  all  cases  arose  from  the  nature  of  the 
individual  ground.  Thus  the  rough,  open  game,  with  its  charging, 
tackling  and  throwing,  which  were  features  of  football  when  it 
was  taken  up  by  the  great  public  schools,  would  have  been 
extremely  dangerous  if  played  in  the  flagged  and  walled  courts 
of  some  schools,  as,  for  example,  the  old  Charterhouse.  Hence 
at  such  institutions  the  dribbling  style  of  play,  in  which  Mr 
Montague  Shearman  (Football,  in  the  "  Badminton  Library  ")  sees 
the  origin  of  the  Association  game,  came  into  existence.  Only  at 
Rugby  (later  at  some  other  schools) ,  which  from  the  first  possessed 
an  extensive  grass  field,  was  the  old  game  preserved  and  de- 
veloped, including  even  its  roughness,  for  actual  "  hacking  " 
(i.e.  intentional  kicking  of  an  opponent's  legs)  was  not  expressly 
abolished  at  Rugby  until  1877.  The  description  of  the  old  school 
game  at  Rugby  contained  in  Tom  Brown's  School  Days  has 
become  classic. 

i.  Rugby  Union. — We  have  seen  that  from  early  times  a 
rudimentary  game  of  football  had  been  a  popular  form  of  sport  in 
many  parts  of  Great  Britain,  and  that  in  the  old-established 
schools  football  had  been  a  regular  game  among  the  boys.  In 
different  schools  there  arose  various  developments  of  the  original 
game;  or  rather,  what,  at  first,  must  have  been  a  somewhat 
rough  form  of  horse-play  with  a  ball  began  to  take  shape  as  a 
definite  game,  with  a  definite  object  and  definite  rules.  Rugby 
school  had  developed  such  a  game,  and  from  football  played 
according  to  Rugby  rules  has  arisen  Rugby  football.  It  was  about 
the  middle  of  the  igth  century  that  football — up  till  that  time  a 
regular  game  only  among  schoolboys — took  its  place  as  a  regular 
sport  among  men.  To  begin  with,  men  who  had  played  the  game 
as  schoolboys  formed  clubs  to  enable  them  to  continue  playing 
their  favourite  school  game,  and  others  were  induced  to  join 
them;  while  in  other  cases,  clubs  were  formed  by  men  who  had 
not  had  the  experience  of  playing  the  game  at  school,  but  who 
had  the  energy  and  the  will  to  follow  the  example  of  those  who 
had  had  this  experience.  In  this  way  football  was  established  as  a 
regular  game,  no  longer  confined  to  schoolboys.  When  football 
was  thus  first  started,  the  game  was  little  developed  or  organized. 
Rules  were  very  few,  and  often  there  was  great  doubt  as  to  what 
the  rules  were.  But,  almost  from  the  first,  clubs  were  formed  to 
play  football  according  to  Rugby  rules — that  is,  according  to  the 
rules  of  the  game  as  played  at  Rugby  school.  But  even  the 


Rugby  rules  of  that  date  were  few  and  vague,  and  indeed  almost 
unintelligible  to  those  who  had  not  been  at  Rugby  school.  Still, 
the  fact  that  play  was  according  to  Rugby  rules  produced  a 
certain  uniformity;  but  it  was  not  till  the  establishment  of  the 
English  Union,  and  the  commencement  of  international  matches, 
that  a  really  definite  code  of  rules  was  drawn  up. 

It  is  an  interesting  question  to  ask  why  it  was  that  the  game  of 
Rugby  school  became  so  popular  in  preference  to  the  games  of 
other  schools,  such  as  Eton,  Winchester  or  Harrow.  It  was 
probably  very  largely  due  to  the  reputation  and  success  of  Rugby 
school  under  Dr  Arnold,  and  this  also  led  most  probably  to  its 
adoption  by  other  schools;  for  in  1860  many  schools  besides 
Rugby  played  football  according  to  Rugby  rules.  The  rapidity 
with  which  the  game  spread  after  the  middle  of  the  ipth  century 
was  remarkable.  The  Blackheath  club,  the  senior  club  of  the 
London  district,  was  established  in  1860,  and  Richmond,  its  great 
rival,  shortly  afterwards.  Before  1870,  football  clubs  had  been 
started  in  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire;  indeed  the  Sheffield  foot- 
ball club  dates  back  to  1855.  Likewise,  in  the  universities  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  Rugby  football  clubs  had  been  formed 
before  1870,  and  by  that  date  the  game  had  been  implanted  both 
in  Ireland  and  South  Wales;  while  in  Scotland,  before  1860, 
football  had  taken  a  hold.  Thus  by  1870  the  game  had  been 
established  throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  and  in  many 
districts  had  been  regularly  played  for  a  number  of  years.  Rapid 
as,  in  some  ways,  had  been  the  spread  of  the  game  between  the 
years  1850  and  1870,  it  was  as  nothing  to  what  happened  in  the 
following  twenty  years;  for  by  1890  Rugby  football,  together 
with  Association  football,  had  become  the  great  winter  amuse- 
ment of  the  people,  and  roused  universal  interest;  while  to-day 
on  any  fine  Saturday  afternoon  in  winter  there  are  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  people  playing  football,  while  those  who  watch  the  game 
can  be  counted  by  the  hundred  thousand.  The  causes  that  led  to 
this  great  increase  in  the  game  and  interest  taken  in  it  were, 
undoubtedly,  the  establishment  of  the  various  national  Unions 
and  the  international  matches;  and,  of  course,  the  local  rivalry 
of  various  clubs,  together  with  cup  or  other  competitions  preva- 
lent in  certain  districts,  was  a  leading  factor.  The  establish- 
ment of  the  English  Union  led  to  a  codification  of  the  rules 
without  which  development  was  impossible. 

In  the  year  1871  the  English  Rugby  Union  was  founded  in 
London.  This  Union  was  an  association  of  some  clubs  and  schools 
which  joined  together  and  appointed  a  committee  and  officials 
to  draw  up  a  code  of  rules  of  the  game.  From  this  beginning  the 
English  Rugby  Union  has  become  the  governing  body  of  Rugby 
football  in  England,  and  has  been  joined  by  practically  all  the 
Rugby  clubs  in  England,  and  deals  with  all  matters  connected 
with  Rugby  football,  notably  the  choosing  of  the  international 
teams.  In  1873  the  Scottish  FootbaU  Union  was  founded  in 
Edinburgh  on  the  same  lines,  and  with  the  same  objects,  while 
in  1880  the  Welsh  Football  Union,  and  in  1881  the  Irish  Rugby 
FootbaU  Union,  were  established  as  the  national  Unions  of  Wales 
and  Ireland,  though  in  both  countries  there  had  been  previously 
Unions  not  thoroughly  representative  of  the  country.  All 
these  Unions  became  the  chief  governing  body  within  their  own 
country,  and  one  of  their  functions  was  to  make  the  rules  and 
laws  of  the  game;  but  as  this  had  been  done  to  start  with  by 
the  English  Union,  the  others  adopted  the  English  rules,  with 
amendments  to  them  from  time  to  time.  This  state  of  affairs 
had  one  element  of  weakness — viz.  that  since  all  the  Unions  made 
their  own  rules,  if  ever  a  dispute  should  arise  between  any  of 
them,  a  dead-lock  was  almost  certain  to  ensue.  Such  a  dispute 
did  occur  in  1884  between  the  English  and  Scottish  Unions. 
This  dispute  eventually  turned  on  the  question  of  the  right  of 
the  English  Union  to  make  and  interpret  the  rules  of  the  game, 
and  to  be  the  paramount  authority  in  the  game,  and  superior 
to  the  other  Unions.  Scotland,  Ireland  and  Wales  resisted  this 
claim,  and  finally,  in  1889,  Lord  Kingsburgh  and  Major  Marindin 
were  appointed  as  a  commission  to  settle  the  dispute.  The 
result  was  the  establishment  of  the  International  Board,  which 
consists  of  representatives  from  each  Union — six  from  England, 
two  from  each  of  the  others — whose  duties  were  to  settle  any 


RUGBY] 


FOOTBALL 


question  that  might  arise  between  the  different  Unions,  and  to 
settle  the  rules  under  which  international  matches  were  to  be 
played,  these  rules  being  invariably  adopted  by  the  various 
Unions  as  the  rules  of  the  game. 

With  the  establishment  of  the  International  Board  the  organ- 
ization of  the  game  was  complete.  Still  harmony  did  not  prevail, 
and  in  1895  occurred  a  definite  disruption.  A  number  of  leading 
clubs  in  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire  broke  off  from  the  English 
Union  and  formed  the  Northern  Union,  which  since  that  date 
has  had  many  accessions,  and  has  become  the  leading  body  in 
the  north  of  England.  The  question  in  dispute  was  the  payment 
of  players.  Football  was  originally  played  by  men  for  the  sheer 
love  of  the  game,  -and  by  men  who  were  comparatively  well-to-do, 
and  who  could  give  the  time  to  play  it;  but  with  the  increasing 
popularity  of  the  game  it  became  the  pastime  of  all  classes  of  the 
people,  and  clubs  began  to  grow  rich  by  "  drawing  big  gates," — 
that  is,  large  numbers  of  spectators,  frequently  many  thousands 
in  number,  paid  for  the  privilege  of  witnessing  the  match.  In 
these  circumstances  the  temptation  arose  to  reimburse  the  player 
for  any  out-of-pocket  expenses  he  might  be  put  to  for  playing 
the  game,  and  thus  it  became  universally  recognized  as  legitimate 
to  pay  a  player's  expenses  to  and  from  a  match.  But  in  the 
case  of  working  men  it  often  meant  that  they  lost  part  of  their 
weekly  wage  when  they  had  to  go  a  distance  to  play  a  match, 
or  to  go  on  tour  with  their  club — that  is,  go  off  for  a  few  days  and 
play  one  or  two  matches  in  different  parts  of  the  country — and 
consequently  the  claim  was  made  on  their  behalf  to  recoup  them 
for  their  loss  of  wage;  while  at  the  same  time  rich  clubs  began 
to  be  willing  to  offer  inducements  to  good  players  to  join  their 
club,  and  these  inducements  were  generally  most  acceptable 
in  the  form  of  money.  In  Association  football  (see  below) 
professionalism — i.e.  the  hiring  and  paying  of  a  player  for  his 
services — had  been  openly  recognized.  A  large  section  of  the 
English  Union — the  amateur  party — would  not  tolerate  anything 
that  savoured  of  professionalism,  and  regarded  payments  made 
to  a  player  for  broken  time  as  illegitimate.  The  result  was  the 
formation  of  the  Northern  Union,  which  allowed  such  payments, 
and  has  practically  recognized  professionalism.  This  body  has 
also  somewhat  altered  the  laws  of  the  game,  and  reduced  the 
number  of  players  constituting  a  team  from  fifteen  to  thirteen. 
In  Scotland  and  Ireland  Rugby  footballers  are  strongly  amateur; 
but  wherever  Rugby  football  is  the  popular  game  of  the  artisan 
the  professional  element  is  strong. 

Besides  legislation,  one  of  the  functions  of  the  Unions  is  to 
select  international  teams.  On  the  2;th  of  March  1871  the  first 
international  match  was  played  between  England  and  Scotland 
in  Edinburgh.  This  was  a  match  between  teams  picked  from 
English  and  Scottish  players.  These  matches  from  the  first 
roused  widespread  interest,  and  were  a  great  stimulus  to  the 
development  of  the  game.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  years, 
when  there  were  disputes  between  their  respective  Unions,  all 
the  countries  of  the  United  Kingdom  have  annually  played  one 
another— England  having  played  Scotland  since  1871,  Ireland 
since  1875  and  Wales  since  1880.  Scotland  commenced  playing 
Ireland  in  1877  and  Wales  in  1883,  while  Ireland  and  Wales 
met  first  in  1882  and  then  in  1884,  and  since  1887  have  played 
annually.  The  qualifications  of  a  player  for  any  country  were 
at  first  vaguely  considered  to  be  birth;  but  they  were  never 
definitely  settled,  and  there  has  been  a  case  of  a  player  playing 
for  two  countries.  In  1894,  however,  the  International  Board 
decided  that  no  player  was  to  play  for  more  than  one  country, 
and  this  has  been  the  only  pronouncement  on  the  question;  and 
though  birth  is  still  looked  upon  as  the  main  qualification,  it  is 
not  essential.  Though  international  matches  excite  interest 
throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  the  matches  between  two  rival 
clubs  arouse  just  as  much  excitement  in  their  district,  particu- 
larly when  the  clubs  may  be  taken  as  representatives  of  two 
neighbouring  rival  towns.  But  when  to  this  rivalry  there  is 
added  the  inducement  to  play  for  a  cup,  or  prize,  the  excitement 
is  much  more  intense.  Among  Rugby  players  cup  competitions 
have  never  been  so  popular  as  among  Association,  but  the  com- 
petition for  the  Yorkshire  Cup  was  very  keen  in  the  days  before 


619 


the  establishment  of  the  Northern  Union,  and  this  undoubtedly 
was  the  main  cause  of  the  popularity  of  the  game  in  that  county. 
Similarly  the  competition  for  the  South  Wales  Cup  from  1878 
to  1887  did  a  great  deal  to  establish  the  game  in  that  country. 
The  method  of  carrying  on  these  competitions  is,  that  all  the 
clubs  entered  are  drawn  by  lot,  in  pairs,  to  play  together  in  the 
first  round;  the  winners  of  these  ties  are  then  similarly  drawn 
in  pairs  for  the  next  round,  until  for  the  final  round  there  is 
only  one  pair  left,  the  winner  of  which  takes  the  cup.  An  elabora- 
tion of  this  competition  is  the  "  League  system  "  of  the  Association 
game.  This,  likewise,  has  not  been  popular  with  Rugby  players. 
Still  it  exists  in  some  districts,  especially  where  clubs  are  anxious 
to  draw  big  gates.  In  the  League  system  a  certain  number  of 
clubs  form  a  league  to  play  one  another  twice  each  season;  two 
points  are  counted  for  a  win  and  one  for  a  draw.  The  club 
which  at  the  end  of  the  season  comes  out  with  most  points  wins 
the  competition.  The  advantage  of  this  system  over  a  cup 
competition  is,  that  interest  is  kept  up  during  the  whole  season, 
and  one  defeat  does  not  debar  a  club  from  eventually  coming 
out  first. 

It  is  said  that  wherever  Britons  go  they  take  their  games  with 
them,  and  this  has  certainly  been  the  case  with  Rugby  football, 
especially  in  New  Zealand,  South  Africa  and  Australia.  An 
interchange  of  football  visits  between  these  colonies  and  the 
motherland  is  now  an  important  feature  in  the  game.  These 
tours  date  from  1888,  when  an  English  team  visited  Australia 
and  New  Zealand.  In  the  following  season,  1889,  a  team  of 
New  Zealanders,  some  of  whom  were  native  Maories,  came  over 
to  England,  and  by  their  play  even  then  indicated  how  well  the 
grammar  of  the  game  had  been  studied  in  that  colony.  Sub- 
sequently several  British  teams  visited  at  intervals  New  Zealand 
and  Australia,  and  in  1905  New  Zealand  sent  home  a  team 
which  eclipsed  anything  previously  accomplished.  They  played 
altogether  thirty-three  matches,  including  fixtures  with  England, 
Ireland,  Scotland  and  Wales,  and  only  sustained  one  defeat,  viz. 
by  a  try  in  their  match  with  Wales,  a  record  which  speaks  for 
itself.  In  1908  a  combined  team  of  English  and  Welsh  players 
toured  in  New  Zealand  and  Australia,  and  also  visited  Canada 
on  their  way  home.  The  team  was  not  so  strong  as  could  have 
been  wished,  and  though  they  did  fairly  well  in  Australia,  they 
lost  all  three  "  test  matches  "  against  New  Zealand.  In  South 
Africa  the  game  is  followed  with  equal  enthusiasm,  and  the  play 
is  hardly  inferior,  if  at  all,  to  that  of  the  New  Zealanders.  The 
first  British  team  to  visit  the  Cape  went  in  1891  through  the 
generosity  of  Cecil  Rhodes,  who  guaranteed  the  undertaking 
against  loss.  Teams  were  also  sent  out  in  1896  and  1903;  the 
result  of  matches  played  in  each  visit  showing  the  steady  improve- 
ment of  the  colonists.  In  1906  the  South  Africans  paid  their  first 
visit  to  England,  and  the  result  of  their  tour  proved  them  to 
be  equally  formidable  with  the  New  Zealanders.  England 
managed  to  draw  with  them,  but  Scotland  was  the  only  one 
of  the  home  Unions  to  gain  a  victory.  The  success  of  these 
colonial  visits,  more  especially  financially,  created  a  development 
very  foreign  to  the  intentions  of  their  organizers.  The  Northern 
Union  as  a  professional  body  had  drifted  into  a  somewhat  parlous 
state,  through  suffering  on  the  one  hand  from  a  lack  of  inter- 
national matches,  and  on  the  other  from  the  competition  of 
Association  professional  teams.  The  great  financial  success 
resulting  from  the  New  Zealand  tour  of  1905  roused  the  attention 
of  the  Northern  Union  authorities,  and  they  quickly  entered 
into  negotiations  with  New  Zealand  players  to  collect  a  team 
who  would  come  over  and  play  the  Northern  Union  clubs,  the 
visiting  players  themselves  taking  a  share  of  the  gate-money. 
For  this  purpose  a  team  of  New  Zealanders  toured  the  north  of 
England  in  1907,  and  their  action  caused  the  introduction  of 
professional  or  Northern  Union  football  in  both  New  Zealand 
and  Australia. 

The  spread  of  the  game  has  not,  however,  been  confined  to 
English-speaking  races.  In  France  it  has  found  fruitful  soil, 
and  numerous  clubs  exist  in  that  country.  Since  1906  inter- 
national matches  have  been  played  between  France  and  England, 
and  the  energy  of  French  players,  coupled  with  their  national 


620 


FOOTBALL 


[RUGBY 


(Ian,  makes  them  formidable  opponents.  The  Rugby  code  has 
also  obtained  a  firm  footing  in  Canada,  India,  Ceylon  and  the 
Argentine. 

The  game  itself  is  essentially  a  winter  pastime,  as  two  requisite 
conditions  for  its  enjoyment  are  a  cool  atmosphere  and  a  soft 
though  firm  turf.  The  field  of  play  is  an  oblong,  not  more  than 
1 10  yds.  long  nor  more  than  75  yds.  broad,  and  it  usually  approxi- 
mates to  these  dimensions.  The  boundaries  are  marked  by  lines, 
called  touch-lines,  down  the  sides,  and  goal-lines  along  the  ends. 
The  touch-lines  are  continued  beyond  the  goal-lines  for  a  distance 
of  not  more  than  25  yds.;  and  parallel  to  the  goal-line  and 
behind  it,  at  a  distance  of  not  more  than  25  yds.,  is  drawn  a  line 
called  the  dead-ball  line,  joining  the  ends  of  the  touch-lines 
produced.  On  each  goal-line,  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  touch- 
lines,  are  erected  two  posts,  termed  goal-posts,  exceeding  n  ft. 
in  height,  and  generally  much  more — averaging  perhaps  from 
20  to  30  ft.  from  the  ground,  and  placed  18  ft.  6  in.  apart.  At  a 
height  of  10  ft.  from  the  ground  they  are  joined  by  a  cross-bar; 
and  the  object  of  the  game  is  to  kick  the  ball  over  the  cross-bar 
between  the  upright  posts,  and  so  obtain  a  goal.  The  ball 
is  egg-shaped  (strictly  an  oblate  spheroid),  and  the  official 
dimensions  are — length,  n  to  iij  in.;  length  circumference, 
30  to  31  in.;  width  circumference,  255  to  26  in.;  weight,  13 
to  145  oz.  It  is  made  of  indiarubber  inflated,  and  covered  with 
a  leather  case.  Halfway  between  the  two  goal-lines  there  is 
generally  drawn  the  half-way  line,  but  sometimes  it  is  marked 
by  flags  on  the  touch-line;  and  25  yds.  from  each  goal-line  there 
is  similarly  marked  the  2S-yds.  line.  In  the  original  game  the 
side  that  had  gained  the  majority  of  goals  won  the  match,  and 
if  no  goal  had  been  scored,  or  an  equal  number,  the  game  was 
said  to  be  left  drawn;  but  a  modification  was  adopted  before 
long.  A  goal  can  be  kicked  from  the  field  in  the  ordinary  course 
of  play;  but  from  the  very  first  a  try  goal  could  be  obtained  by 
that  side  one  of  whose  players  either  carried  the  ball  across  his 
opponents'  goal-line  and  then  touched  it  down  (i.e.  on  the 
ground),  or  touched  it  down  after  it  had  been  kicked  across  the 
goal-line,  before  any  of  his  opponents.  The  "  try  "  is  then 
proceeded  with  as  follows:  the  ball  is  taken  out  by  a  member 
of  the  side  obtaining  the  try  in  a  straight  line  from  the  spot  where 
it  was  "  touched  down,"  and  is  deposited  in  a  selected  position 
on  the  ground  in  the  field  of  play,  the  defending  side  being  all 
confined  behind  their  own  goal-line  until  the  moment  the  ball 
is  so  placed  on  the  ground,  when  another  member  of  the  attacking 
side  endeavours  to  kick  it  from  the  ground  (a  "  place  kick  ") 
over  the  bar  and  between  the  goal-posts.  Frequently  a  goal 
is  kicked;  very  often  not.  The  modification  first  allowed  was 
to  count  that  side  the  winner  which  had  gained  the  majority 
of  tries,  provided  no  goal  or  an  equal  number  of  goals  had  been 
scored;  but  a  majority  of  one  goal  took  precedence  of  any 
number  of  tries.  But  this,  too,  was  afterwards  abolished,  and 
a  system  of  points  instituted  by  which  the  side  with  the  majority 
of  points  wins.  The  numerical  value,  however,  of  goals  and 
tries  has  undergone  several  changes,  the  system  in  1908  being 
as  follows: — A  try  counts  3  points.  A  goal  from  a  try  (in  which 
case  the  try  shall  not  count)  5  points.  A  dropped  goal  (except 
from  a  mark  or  a  penalty  kick)  4  points;  a  dropped  goal  being  a 
goal  obtained  by  a  player  who  drops  the  ball  from  his  hands  and 
kicks  it  the  moment  it  rises  off  the  ground,  as  in  the  "  half- volley  " 
at  cricket  or  tennis.  A  goal  from  a  mark  or  penalty  kick  3  points. 
Under  the  Northern  Union  code  any  sort  of  goal  counts  2  points, 
a  try  3  points;  but  if  a  try  be  converted  into  a  goal,  both  try 
and  goal  count,  i.e.  5  points  are  scored. 

In  the  game  itself  not  only  may  the  ball  be  kicked  in  the 
direction  of  the  opponents'  goal,  but  it  may  also  be  carried;  but 
it  must  not  be  thrown  forward  or  knocked  on — that  is,  in  the 
direction  of  the  opponents'  goal — though  it  may  be  thrown  back. 
Thus  the  game  is  really  a  combination  of  football  and  handball. 
The  main  principle  is  that  any  one  who  is  not  "  offside  "  is 
in  play.  A  player  is  offside  if  he  gets  in  front  of  the  ball — that 
is,  on  the  opponents'  side  of  the  ball,  nearer  than  a  colleague  in 
possession  of  the  ball  to  the  opponents'  goal-line;  when  in  this 
position  he  must  not  interfere  with  an  opponent  or  touch  the 


ball  under  penalty.  The  leading  feature  of  the  game  is  the 
"  scrummage."  In  old  days  at  Rugby  school  there  was  practically 
no  limit  to  the  numbers  of  players  on  each  side,  and  not  infre- 
quently there  would  be  a  hundred  or  more  players  on  one  side. 
This  was  never  prevalent  in  club  football;  twenty  a-side  was 
the  usual  number  to  start  with,  reduced  in  1877  to  fifteen  a-side, 
the  number  still  maintained.  In  the  old  Rugby  big  sides  the  ball 
got  settled  amidst  a  mass  of  players,  and  each  side  attempted 
to  drive  it  through  this  mass  by  shoving,  kicking,  and  otherwise 
forcing  their  way  through  with  the  ball  in  front  of  them.  This 
was  the  origin  of  the  scrummage. 

The  game  is  played  usually  for  one  hour,  or  one  hour  and  ten 
minutes,  sometimes  for  one  hour  and  a  half.  Each  side  defends 
each  goal  in  turn  for  half  the  time  of  play.  Of  the  fifteen  players 
who  compose  a  side,  the  usual  arrangement  is  that  eight  are  called 
"  forwards,"  and  form  the  scrummage;  two  "  half-backs  "  are 
posted  outside  the  scrummage;  and  four  "  three-quarter-backs," 
a  little  behind  the  halves,  stretch  in  a  line  across  the  field,  their 
duties  being  mainly  to  run  and  kick  and  pass  the  ball  to  other 
members  of  their  own  side,  and  to  prevent  their  opponents  from 
doing  the  same.  In  recent  years,  owing  to  the  development  of 
"  passing,"  the  field  position  of  the  half-backs  has  undergone 
a  change.  One  stands  fairly  close  to  the  scrummage  and  is 
known  as  the  "  scrum-half,"  the  other  takes  a  position  between 
the  latter  and  the  three-quarters,  and  is  termed  the  "stand-off- 
half."  Behind  the  three-quarters  comes  the  "full-back"  or 
"  back,"  a  single  individual  to  maintain  the  last  line  of  defence; 
his  duties  are  entirely  defensive,  either  to  "  tackle  "  an  opponent 
who  has  managed  to  get  through,  or,  more  usually,  to  catch 
and  return  long  kicks.  Play  is  started  by  one  side  kicking  the 
ball  off  from  the  centre  of  the  field  in  the  direction  of  the 
opponents'  goal.  The  ball  is  then  caught  by  one  of  the  other 
side,  who  either  kicks  it  or  runs  with  it.  In  running  he  goes  on 
until  he  is  "  tackled,"  or  caught,  by  one  of  his  opponents,  unless 
he  should  choose  to  "  pass  "  or  throw  it  to  another  of  his  own 
side,  who,  provided  he  be  not  offside,  may  either  kick,  or  run, 
or  pass  as  he  chooses.  The  ball  in  this  way  is  kept  moving 
until  it  crosses  the  touch-line,  or  goal-line,  or  is  tackled.  If  the 
ball  crosses  the  touch-line  both  sides  line  up  at  right  angles 
to  the  point  where  it  crossed  the  line,  and  the  ball  is  thrown  in 
straight  either  by  one  of  the  same  side  whose  player  carried 
the  ball  across  the  touch-line,  or,  if  the  ball  was  kicked  or  thrown 
out,  by  one  of  the  opposite  side.  If  the  ball  crosses  the  goal- 
line  either  a  try  is  gained,  as  explained  above,  or  if  the  defending 
side  touch  it  down  first,  the  other  side  retire  to  the  line  25  yds. 
from  the  goal-line,  and  the  defending  side  kick  it  up  the  field. 
If  the  ball  is  tackled  the  player  carrying  the  ball  gets  up  from 
the  ground  as  soon  as  possible,  and  the  forwards  at  once  form 
the  scrummage  by  putting  down  their  heads  and  getting  ready 
to  shove  against  one  another.  They  shove  as  soon  as  the  ball 
is  put  down  between  the  two  front  rows.  In  the  scrummage 
the  object  is,  by  shoving  the  opponents  back  or  otherwise 
breaking  away  with  the  ball  in  front,  to  carry  the  Ball  in  the 
direction  of  the  opponents'  goal-line  by  a  series  of  short  kicks 
in  which  the  players  run  after  the  ball  as  fast  as  possible,  while 
their  opponents  lie  in  wait  to  get  the  ball,  and  either  by  a  kick 
or  other  device  stop  the  rush.  Instead,  however,  of  the  forwards 
breaking  away  with  the  ball,  sometimes  they  let  the  ball  come 
out  of  the  scrummage  to  their  half-backs,  who  either  kick  or  run 
with  it,  or  pass  it  to  the  three-quarter-backs,  and  so  the  game 
proceeds  until  the  ball  is  once  more  "  dead  " — that  is,  brought 
to  a  standstill.  The  scrummage  appears  to  be  an  uninteresting 
manoeuvre,  and  a  strange  relic  of  bygone  times;  but  it  is  not 
merely  a  manoeuvre  in  which  weight  and  strength  alone  tell — 
it  also  needs  a  lot  of  dexterity  in  moving  the  ball  with  the  feet, 
applying  the  weight  to  best  advantage,  and  also  in  outflanking 
the  opposing  side,  as  it  were — usually  termed  wheeling — 
directing  all  the  force  to  one  side  of  the  scrummage  and  thus 
breaking  away.  As  a  rule  the  game  is  a  lively  one,  for  the  players 
are  rarely  at  rest;  if  there  is  much  scrummaging  it  is  called 
a  slow  game,  but,  if  much  running  and  passing,  a  fast  or  an  open 
game.  The  spectator,  unless  he  be  an  expert,  prefers  the  open 


ASSOCIATION] 


FOOTBALL 


621 


game;  but  in  any  case  the  game  is  always  a  hard  and  exciting 
struggle,  frequently  with  the  balance  of  fortune  swaying  very 
rapidly  from  one  side  to  the  other,  so  that  it  is  a  matter  of 
no  surprise  to  find  the  British  public  so  ardently  attached 
toit-  (C.J.N.F.;  C.J.B.M.) 

2.  Association. — It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  English 
game  of  Association  football  is  the  outcome  of  the  game  of  foot- 
ball as  played  at  Cambridge  University  about  the  middle  of 
the  ipth  century.  In  October  1863  a  committee,  consisting  of 
representatives  of  the  schools  of  Eton,  Harrow,  Rugby,  Marl- 
borough,  Shrewsbury  and  Westminster,  drew  up  a  code  of  laws 
which  settled  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  "  Association  " 
game,  as  distinguished  from  other  forms  of  the  game  which 
permitted  of  handling  and  carrying  the  ball.  In  Association 
football  the  use  of  the  hands  or  arms,  either  for  the  purpose  of 
playing  the  ball  or  impeding  or  holding  an  opponent,  is  absolutely 
prohibited;  "  dribbling  "  or  kicking  the  ball  with  the  feet,  and 
propelling  it  by  the  head  or  body,  are  the  methods  to  be  adopted. 
The  Cambridge  laws  specially  provided  for  "  kicking  "  the  ball. 
Laws  13  and  14  provided  that  "  the  ball,  when  in  play,  may  be 
stopped  by  any  part  of  the  body,  but  may  not  be  held  or  hit  by 
the  hands,  arms  or  shoulders.  All  charging  is  fair,  but  holding, 
pushing  with  the  hands,  tripping  up  and  shinning  are  forbidden." 

The  laws  of  Association  football  first  took  practical  shape 
as  the  outcome  of  a  meeting  held  on  the  26th  of  October  1863 
at  the  Freemasons'  Tavern,  London.  The  clubs  which  sent 
delegates  were  representative  of  all  classes  of  football  then 
played.  The  meeting  was  a  momentous  one,  for  not  only  was 
the  foundation  laid  of  the  Football  Association,  the  national 
association  which  has  since  then  controlled  the  game  in  England, 
but  as  the  outcome  of  the  differences  of  opinion  which  existed 
as  to  "  hacking  "  being  permissible  under  the  laws,  the  repre- 
sentatives who  favoured  the  inclusion  of  the  practice,  which  is 
now  so  roundly  condemned  in  both  the  Association  and  Rugby 
games,  withdrew  and  formed  the  Rugby  Union. 

The  Cambridge  laws  were  considered  by  the  committee  of  the 
Football  Association  at  their  meeting  on  the  24th  of  November 
1863.  They  took  the  view  that  those  laws  "  embraced  the  true 
principles  of  the  game  with  the  greatest  simplicity  ";  the  laws 
were  "  officially  "  passed  on  the  ist  of  December  1863,  and  the 
first  publication  was  made  in  Bell's  Life  four  days  later.  These 
laws  have  from  time  to  time  been  modified,  but  the  principles 
as  laid  down  in  1863  have  been  adhered  to;  and  the  Association 
game  itself  has  altered  very  little  since  1880.  The  usual  dimen- 
sions for  a  ground  are  120  yds.  long  by  80  yds.  wide,  and 
the  goals  are  8  yds.  in  width  with  a  cross-bar  from  post  to  post 
8  ft.  from  the  ground.  The  ball  is  about  14  oz.  in  weight,  and 
must  be  a  perfect  sphere  from  27  to  28  in.  in  circumference,  as 
distinguished  from  the  elliptical  or  egg-shaped  Rugby  ball.  A 
rectangular  space  extending  to  18  yds.  in  front  of  the  goals, 
and  marked  with  lines  on  the  ground,  constitutes  the  "  penalty 
area  ";  within  which,  at  a  distance  of  12  yds.  opposite  the  centre 
of  the  goal,  is  the  "  penalty  kick  mark."  The  boundary  lines 
at  the  sides  of  the  field  are  called  the  "  touch-lines  ";  those  at 
the  ends  (in  the  centre  of  which  are  the  goals)  being  the  "  goal- 
lines."  The  game  is  started  by  a  place  kick  from  the  centre  of 
the  field  of  play,  and  none  of  the  opposite  side  is  allowed  to 
approach  within  10  yds.  of  the  ball  when  it  is  kicked  off.  When 
the  ball  passes  over  the  touch  line  it  has  to  be  thrown  in  by  one 
of  the  opposite  side,  and  can  be  returned  into  the  field  of  play 
in  any  direction.  If  it  passes  over  the  goal-line  at  any  time 
without  touching  one  of  the  defending  side,  it  has  to  be  kicked 
out  by  the  goalkeeper  or  one  of  the  backs  from  a  line  marked  in 
front  of  goal,  the  spot  selected  being  in  front  of  the  post  nearest 
the  point  where  the  ball  left  the  field  of  play.  But  should  it 
touch  one  of  the  defending  side  in  its  transit  over  the  goal-line 
the  attacking  side  has  the  privilege  of  a  free  kick  from  the  corner 
flag  (a  "  corner  kick  ").  This  is  often  a  great  advantage,  but  such 
free  kick  does  not  produce  a  goal  unless  the  ball  touches  one  of 
the  other  players  on  its  way  to  the  post.  Ordinarily  a  goal  is 
scored  when  the  ball  goes  between  the  goal-posts  and  under  the 
cross-bar,  not  being  thrown,  knocked  on  or  carried.  The  regula- 


tion duration  of  a  game  is  an  hour  and  a  half,  and  ends  are 
changed  at  forty-five  minutes.  The  side  winning  the  toss  has 
the  choice  of  ends  or  kick-off,  and  the  one  obtaining  the  majority 
of  goals  wins.  A  goal  cannot  be  scored  from  a  free  kick  except 
when  the  free  kick  has  been  allowed  by  the  referee  as  a  penalty 
for  certain  infringements  of  the  rules  by  the  opposite  side;  and 
if  such  infringement  take  place  within  the  penalty  area  on  the 
part  of  a  player  on  the  side  then  defending  the  goal,  and  in 
the  judgment  of  the  referee  be  intentional,  a  "  penalty  kick  " 
is  awarded  to  the  attacking  side.  The  penalty  kick  is  a  free 
kick  from  the  penalty  kick  mark,  all  the  players  of  the  defending 
side  being  excluded  from  the  penalty  area,  except  the  goal- 
keeper, who  is  confined  to  the  goal-line;  the  result,  therefore, 
being  an  almost  certain  goal. 

A  player  is  always  in  play  as  long  as  there  are  three  of  the 
opposite  side  between  him  and  the  opposite  goal  at  the  time  the 
ball  is  kicked.  This  "  offside  "  rule  gives  much  trouble  to  the 
young  player,  though  why  it  should  do  so  it  is  not  easy  to  say. 
The  rule  is  simple  if  the  words  in  italics  are  remembered.  The 
ball  must  not  be  carried,  knocked  or  wilfully  handled  under  any 
pretence  whatever,  save  by  the  goalkeeper,  who  is  allowed  to 
use  his  hands  in  defence  of  his  goal,  either  by  knocking  on  or 
throwing,  within  his  own  half  of  the  field  of  play.  Thus  far  he 
is  entitled  to  go  in  maintaining  his  goal,  but  if  he  carry  the  ball 
the  penalty  is  a  free  kick.  There  are  other  infringements  of  the 
rules  which  also  involve  the  penalty  of  a  free  kick,  among  them 
the  serious  offences  of^tripping,  hacking  and  jumping  at  a  player. 
Players  are  not  allowed  to  wear  nails  in  their  boots  (except  such 
as  have  their  heads  driven  in  flush  with  the  leather),  or  metal 
plates  or  gutta-percha,  and  any  player  discovered  infringing  this 
rule  is  liable  to  be  prohibited  from  taking  further  part  in  a 
match. 

In  the  early  'sixties  of  the  ipth  century  there  were  probably 
not  more  than  twenty-five  organized  clubs  playing  Association 
football  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  these  were  chiefly  confined 
in  the  south  of  England  to  the  universities  and  public  schools. 
But  whilst  the  game  was  being  established  in  the  south  it  was 
making  steady  progress  in  the  north,  particularly  in  Yorkshire, 
where  the  Sheffield  Club  had  been  formed  as  early  as  1854.  In 
1867  the  game  had  become  so  well  established  that  it  was  decided 
to  play  an  inter-county  match.  The  match,  which  was  played 
"  in  the  wilds  of  Battersea  Park,"  terminated  in  a  draw,  neither 
side  having  obtained  a  goal;  and  it  did  much  to  stimulate  the 
growing  popularity  of  the  game.  During  the  season  1870-1871, 
only  three  years  later,  two  matches  of  an  international  character 
were  played  between  Englishmen  and  Scotsmen  in  membership 
with  the  Football  Association;  they  were  not,  however,  recognized 
as  "  international  "  matches.  The  first  real  international  match, 
England  v.  Scotland,  was  played  on  the  3oth  of  November  1872 
at  Partick,  Glasgow;  the  first  international  match  between 
England  and  Wales  was  played  at  Kennington  Oval  in  1879; 
and  that  between  England  and  Ireland  at  Belfast  in  1882.  In 
1896  amateur  international  matches  were  inaugurated  with 
Germany,  Austria  and  Bohemia;  and  games  are  now  annually 
played  with  Scotland,  Wales,  Ireland,  France,  Belgium,  Germany, 
Holland,  Austria  and  other  continental  countries.  As  the  out- 
come of  the  international  relations  with  Scotland,  Wales  and 
Ireland,  an  International  Football  Association  Board  was  formed 
in  1882,  when  a  universal  code  of  laws  was  agreed  upon.  Two 
representatives  from  each  of  the  four  national  associations  con- 
stitute the  board,  whose  laws  are  accepted  and  observed  not 
only  by  the  clubs  and  players  of  the  United  Kingdom  but  in 
all  countries  where  the  Association  game  is  played.  At  a  meeting 
held  at  Paris  on  the  2ist  of  May  1004  the  "  International  Federa- 
tion of  Association  Football  "  was  instituted.  It  consists  of  the 
recognized  national  associations  in  the  respective  countries; 
and  its  objects  are  to  develop  and  control  Association  inter- 
national football.  The  countries  in  federation  are:  Austria, 
Belgium,  Denmark,  England,  Finland,  France,  Germany, 
Hungary,  Italy,  Netherlands,  Norway,  Sweden  and  Switzerland. 

The  small  number  of  clubs  taking  part  in  the  game  in  the  early 
days  becomes  of  interest  when  compared  with  the  magnitude  of 


622 


FOOTBALL 


[ASSOCIATION 


the  game  in  the  zoth  century.  Association  football  has  become 
one  of  the  most  popular  of  all  national  sports  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  It  is  slowly  but  surely  taking  a  similar  position  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  and  is  making  progress  even  in  the  Far  East, 
Japan  being  one  of  its  latest  adherents.  In  the  season  of  1871- 
1872  the  Football  Association  inaugurated  its  popular  challenge 
cup  competition  which  is  now  competed  for  by  both  amateur  and 
professional  clubs.  In  the  first  year  fifteen  clubs  entered,  all  of 
which  were  from  the  south  of  England.  The  first  winners  of  the 
cup  were  the  Wanderers,  who  defeated  the  Royal  Engineers  in  the 
final  tie  by  one  goal  to  nothing.  For  the  first  ten  years  the 
competition  was  mostly  limited  to  the  southern  clubs,  but  in  the 
season  of  1881-1882  the  Blackburn  Rovers  were  only  defeated  in 
the  final  tie  by  the  Old  Etonians  by  one  goal  to  nothing.  Pro- 
fessionalism was  then  unknown  in  the  game,  and  comparatively 
little  interest  was  taken  in  it  except  by  the  players  themselves. 
In  the  following  season  of  1882-1883  the  cup  was  for  the  first  time 
taken  north  by  the  Blackburn  Olympic  Club,  and  it  remained  in 
the  north  for  the  next  nineteen  years,  until  in  the  season  of  1900— 
1 90 1  it  was  again  brought  south  by  the  Tottenham  Hotspur 
Club,  who  defeated  the  Sheffield  United  Club  at  Bolton  by  three 
goals  to  one.  In  the  following  season  the  cup  was  again  taken 
north  by  the  Bury  Club.  In  the  early  days  of  the  competition  a 
few  hundred  people  only  attended  the  final  tie,  which  for  many 
years  was  played  at  Kennington  Oval  in  London.  In  the  course 
of  time,  however,  the  interest  of  the  public  so  largely  increased 
that  it  became  necessary  to  seek  a  ground  of  greater  capacity; 
accordingly  in  1893  the  final  was  played  at  Fallowfield,  Man- 
chester, where  it  was  watched  by  forty  thousand  people;  in  1894 
it  was  played  at  Everton  and  in  1895  at  the  Crystal  Palace. 
The  attendance  during  the  following  ten  years  averaged  80,000 
people.  The  record  attendance  was  in  the  season  of  1900-1901, 
when  the  south  were  contesting  with  the  north,  the  spectators 
then  being  upwards  of  113,000.  In  the  season  of  1908-1909 
356  clubs  entered  the  competition;  in  1910-11  the  number  had 
increased  to  404. 

The  great  development  of  the  game  necessitated  many  changes 
in  the  system  of  control.  About  the  year  1880  (although  contrary 
to  the  rules)  a  practice  of  making  payment  to  players  crept  into 
the  game  in  the  north  of  England  and  slowly  developed.  After 
some  years  of  debate  as  to  the  best  method  of  dealing  with  this 
development  the  Football  Association  decided  in  1885  to  legalize 
and  control  the  payment  of  players.  The  rules  define  a  pro- 
fessional player  as  one  who  receives  remuneration  of  any  sort 
above  his  necessary  hotel  and  travelling  expenses' actually  paid,  or 
is  registered  as  a  professional.  They  further  provide  that  training 
expenses  not  paid  by  the  players  themselves  will  be  considered  as 
remuneration  beyond  necessary  travelling  and  hotel  expenses. 
Players  competing  for  any  money  prizes  in  football  contests  are 
also  considered  professionals. 

In  1888  the  Football  League,  a  combination  of  professional 
clubs  of  the  north  and  midlands  of  England,  was  formed;  and  a 
new  scheme  was  inaugurated  for  the  playing  of  matches  on  what 
is  known  as  the  "  League  "  principle,  the  essential  advantage  of 
which  is  that  the  clubs  in  membership  of  a  league  agree  to  play 
with  each  other  "  home  and  home  "  matches  each  season,  and 
also  bind  themselves  under  certain  penalties  to  play  their  best 
team  in  all  league  matches.  Six  years  later  the  Southern  League 
came  into  existence,  primarily  with  the  object  of  increasing  the 
interest  in  the  game  in  the  south  and  west  of  England.  The 
Football  League  and  the  Southern  League  very  soon  had  their 
imitators,  and  in  1909  there  were  upwards  of  six  hundred  league 
competitions  playing  under  the  sanction  and  control  of  the  Foot- 
ball Association .  The  league  system  also  found  favour  in  Scotland, 
Wales  and  Ireland,  and  has  extended  to  most  of  the  colonies 
where  Association  football  is  played.  In  the  season  of  1893-1894 
the  Amateur  Cup  Competition,  restricted  to  amateur  clubs  in 
membership  with  the  Football  Association,  was  inaugurated. 
In  the  first  season  32  clubs  entered,  and  the  growing  popularity 
of  the  competition  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  the  season  of  1908- 
1909  there  were  229  entries. 

The  Football  Association,  founded  in  1863  with  its  eleven  clubs, 


had  in  1909  under  its  jurisdiction  upwards  of  10,000  amateur 
clubs  and  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  amateur  players,  and  400 
professional  clubs  with  7000  professional  players.  It  has  also 
directly  affiliated  52  county,  district  and  colonial  associations, 
and  indirectly  in  membership  a  large  number  of  minor  associa- 
tions which  are  affiliated  through  the  county  and  district 
associations.  The  Army  Association  includes  316  army  clubs 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  together  with  clubs  formed  by  the 
various  battalions  in  India,  South  Africa,  Gibraltar  and  other 
army  stations;  and  the  Royal  Navy  Football  Association 
comprises  all  ships  afloat  having  Association  football  clubs. 

The  regulations  of  the  Football  Association,  which  is  the 
recognized  administrative  and  legislative  body  for  the  game  in 
England,  make  provision  for  the  sanction  and  control  of  leagues 
and  competitions;  and  its  rules,  regulations,  principles  and 
practices  very  largely  prevail  in  all  national  associations.  The 
king  is  the  patron,  and  the  council  consists  of  56  members,  a 
president,  6  vice-presidents,  a  treasurer,  10  representatives 
elected  by  the  clubs  in  the  ten  divisions  into  which  the  country  is 
subdivided,  together  with  representatives  of  the  army,  the  navy 
and  of  county  associations  in  England  which  have  upwards  of 
50  clubs  in  membership,  each  representative  being  directly 
appointed  by  his  association.  In  1905  the  Football  Association 
became  incorporated  under  the  Joint  Stock  Companies  Acts,  and 
as  a  consequence  the  word  "  Limited  "  appears  in  its  title.  It  is 
not,  however,  a  trading  body;  the  shareholders  are  not  entitled 
to  any  dividend,  bonus  or  profit,  nor  may  the  members  of  the 
council,  who  are  the  directors,  receive  any  payment  for  their 
services.  The  Scottish  Football  Association  is  also  an  incorpor- 
ated body  with  similar  powers.  Many  of  the  leading  clubs  of  the 
United  Kingdom  have  also  become  incorporated,  but  under  the 
regulations  of  the  Football  Association  they  may  not  pay  a  larger 
dividend  to  their  shareholders  than  5%,  nor  may  any  of  the 
directors  receive  payment  for  their  services. 

The  whole  policy  of  legislation  in  Association  football  of  late 
years  has  been  naturally  to  make  the  game  faster  by  bringing 
every  one  into  full  play.  The  great  aim  accordingly  has  been 
to  encourage  combination  and  to  discourage  purely  individual 
efforts.  In  the  early  days,  though  there  was  a  certain  amount  of 
cohesion,  a  player  had  to  rely  mainly  on  himself.  Even  up  to  the 
middle  of  the  'seventies  dribbling  was  looked  upon  as  the  great 
desideratum;  it  was  the  essential  for  a  forward,  just  as  long  kicks 
were  the  main  object  of  a  back.  The  development  of  the  game 
was  cf  course  bound  to  change  all  that.  The  introduction  of 
passing,  long  or  short,  but  long  in  particular,  placed  the  dribbler 
pure  and  simple  at  a  discount,  and  necessitated  methods  with 
which  he  was  mostly  unacquainted.  Combined  play  gradually 
came  to  be  regarded  as  the  keynote  to  success.  Instead  of  one  full 
back,  as  was  originally  the  case,  and  one  half-back,  the  defence 
gradually  developed  by  the  addition  first  of  a  second  half,  then  of 
a  second  full  back,  and  still  later  of  a  third  half-back,  until  it  came 
to  show,  in  addition  to  the  goalkeeper  of  course,  two  full  backs 
and  three  half-backs.  The  eight  forwards  who  used  to  constitute 
the  attack  in  the  earliest  days  of  the  Association  have  been 
reduced  by  degrees,  as  the  science  of  the  game  became  understood, 
until  they  now  number  only  five.  The  effect  of  the  transition  has 
been  to  put  the  attack  and  defence  on  a  more  equal  footing,  and 
as  a  natural  consequence  to  make  the  game  more  open  and 
thereby  generally  more  interesting  and  attractive.  Association 
football  is  indeed,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  spectator,  a  much 
brighter  game  than  it  was  in  its  infancy,  the  result  of  the  new 
methods  bringing  every  one  of  the  eleven  players  into  full  relief 
throughtout  the  game.  The  players  who,  as  a  rule,  make  or  mar 
the  success  of  a  side  in  modern  football  are  the  centre  forward 
and  the  centre  half-back.  They  are  the  pivot  on  which  the 
attack  and  the  defence  respectively  turn.  Instead  of  close 
dribbling  and  following  up,  the  new  formation  makes  for  accuracy 
of  passing  among  the  forwards,  with  intelligent  support  from  the 
half-backs.  The  net  result  is  practically  the  effective  combina- 
tion of  the  whole  side.  To  do  his  part  as  it  ought  to  be  done 
every  member  of  an  eleven  must  work  in  harmony  with  the  rest, 
and  on  a  definite  system,  in  all  cases  subordinating  his  own. 


AMERICAN] 


FOOTBALL 


623 


latitudinal  lines  only  and  was  therefore  popularly  called  the 
"  gridiron  ";  subsequently  it  was  called  the  "  checkerboard." 
The  end  lines  are  called  "  goal-lines,"  the  side  "  touch-lines." 
The  two  lines  25  yds.  from  each  goal-line,  and  the  middle  line,  or 
55  yard-line,  are  made  broader  than  the  rest.  In  the  middle  of 
each  goal-line  is  a  goal,  consisting  of  two  uprights  exceeding  20  ft. 
in  length,  set  18  ft.  6  in.  apart  with  a  crossbar  10  ft.  from  the 
ground.  The  ball  is  in  shape  and  material  of  the  English  Rugby 
type. 

A  match  game  consists  of  two  periods  (halves)  of  thirty-five 
minutes  with  an  interval  of  fifteen  minutes.  Practice  games 
usually  have  shorter  halves.  There  are  four  officials:  the  umpire, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  watch  the  conduct  of  the  players  and  decide 
regarding  fouls;  the  referee,  who  decides  questions  regarding  the 
progress  of  the  ball  and  of  play;  the  field  judge  who  assists 
the  referee  and  keeps  the  time;  and  the  linesman,  who  (with  two 


methods  and  personal  interests  to  promote  the  general  well-being 
of  the  side.  (C  W  A  •  F   I   W  ) 

The  literature  of  British  football  is  very  extensive,' but  the  following 
works  are  among  the  best:  Football  in  the  "  Badminton  Library  * 
(London  1004),  where  the  different  games  played  at  Eton,  Harrow 
Rugby  W'nchester  and  other  public  schools  are  thoroughly  de- 
scribed;  Rev.  F  Marshall,  Football;  the  Rugby  Game  (London, 
Cassels);  J  E.  Vincent ,  Football;  its  History  for  Five  Centuries 
"n  i  i  JSM  £vj'  ?.  Marriott  and  C.  W.  Alcock,  Football 
(,  i  ^eTs,,  'J,  '  Footba1'.  m  the  Encyclopaedia  of  Sport;  The 
Rugby  Football  Umon  Handbook,  Richardson,  Greenwich,  Official 
Annual ;  and  The  Football  Annual,  Merritt  and  Hatcher  (Association 
Game),  London. 

United  States.— in  America  the  game  of  football  has  been 
elaborated  far  more  than  elsewhere,  and  involves  more  complica- 
tions than  in  England.    From  colonial  times  until  1871  a  kind  of 
football  generally  resembling  the  English  Association  game  was 
played  on  the  village  greens  and  by  the  students  of  colleges  and 
academies.     There  was  no  running  with  the 
ball,   but   dribbling,   called   "  babying,"   was 
common.    In  1871  a  code  of  rules  was  drawn 
up,  but  they  were  unsatisfactory  and  not  in- 
variably observed.     "  Batting  the  ball,"  i.e. 
striking  the  ball  forward  with  the  fists,  was 
allowed.      There    were    two    backs,    sixteen 
rushers  or  forwards,  and  two  rovers  or  "  pea- 
nutters,"  who  lurked  near  the  opponents'  goal. 
During  this  period  the  first  international  foot- 
ball game  was  played  at  Yale  between  the 
college  team  and  one  made  up  of  old  Etonians, 
the  rules   being  a  compromise  between  the 
American  and  the  English. 

English  Rugby,  introduced  from  Canada, 
was  first  played  at  Harvard  University,  and 
in  1875  a  match  under  a  compromise  set  of 
rules,  taken  partly  from  the  Rugby  Union  and 
partly  from  the  existing  American  game,  was  DIAGRAM  OF  FIELD 

played  with  Yale.     The  following  year  Yale   ,  The  {ootba11  rules  P™™6  ,.tnat  when  the  ball  is  put  in  play  in  a  scrimmage,  the 

.      .    .   .,  i       r>      u     TT   •  j    first  man  who  receives  the  ball,  commonly  known  as  the  quarter-back,  may  carry  it 

adopted  the  regular  Rugby  Union  rules,  and  forward  beyond  the  line  of  scrimmage,  provided  in  so  doing  he  crosses  such  line  at  least 
played  Harvard  under  these.  Later,  several  5  yds.  from  the  point  where  the  snapper-back  put  the  ball  in  play,  and  furthermore, 
other  colleges  adopted  these  English  rules,  that  a  forward  pass  may  be  made  provided  the  ball  passes  over  the  line  of  scrimmage 

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ventions  were  held,  which  from  time   to  time  referee  in  determining  whether  the  quarter-back  runs  according  to  rule,  or  whether, 
altered   and   amplified   the   rules.     A   college  in  case  of  a  forward  pass,  such  pass  is  legally  made.     Thus  the  football  field  is  changed 
.     .  .      from  the  gridiron  as  m  1902,  to  what  now  resembles  a  checkerboard,  and  the  above 

association  was  formed,  and  the  game  grew  in  diagram  SHOWS  exactly  how  the  field  should  be  marked.  As  the  width  of  the  field 
popularity.  Public  criticism  of  the  roughness  does  not  divide  evenly  into  5  yd.  spaces,  it  is  wise  to  run  the  first  line  through  the 
shown  in  the  play  early  threatened  its  exist-  middle  point  of  the  field  and  then  to  mark  off  the  5  yds.  on  each  side  from  that  middle 
ence;  indeed  at  one  time  the  university  !ine-.  In  order  to  save  labour  it  may  be  sufficient  to  omit  t^he  full  completion  of  the 
'  .  .  „  ,  .  /  longitudinal  lines,  as  the  object  of  these  lines  is  accomplished  if  their  points  of  inter- 

authorities    compelled    Harvard    to    abstain  sectkm  with  the  transverse  lines  are  distinctly  marked,  for  instance,  byalineafootlong. 
from  the  annual  game  with  Yale.     Changes 

'  assistants,  one  representing  each  eleven)  marks  the  distance 
gained  or  lost  in  each  play. 

In  scoring,  a  "  touchdown  "  (the  English  Rugby  "  try  ")  counts 
5  points,  a  goal  from  a  touchdown  6  (or  one  added  to  the  5  for  the 
touchdown),  a  "  goal  from  the  field,"  whether  from  placement  or 
drop-kick,  4,  and  a  "  safety  "  (the  English  Rugby  "  touchdown  ") 


in  the  rules  were  introduced,  and  the  game  has  been  characterized 
by  less  roughness  and  by  increased  skill.  It  has  become  the 
most  popular  autumn  game  in  the  United  States,  the  principal 
university  matches  often  attracting  crowds  of  35,000  and  even 
40,000  spectators.  The  association  subsequently  disbanded,  but 
a  Rules  Committee,  invited  by  the  University  Athletic  Club  of 
New  York,  made  the  necessary  changes  in  the  rules  from  time 
to  time,  and  these  have  been  accepted  by  the  country  at  large. 
In  the  West  associations  were  formed;  but  the  game  in  the  East 
is  played  principally  under  separate  agreements  between  the 
contesting  universities,  all  using,  however,  one  code  of  rules. 
Later  this  Rules  Committee  amalgamated  with  a  new  com- 
mittee of  wider  representation.  Amateur  athletic  clubs  as 
well  as  public  and  private  schools  have  also  taken  up  the 
game.  The  American  football  season  lasts  from  the  middle 
of  September  to  the  first  of  December  only,  owing  to  the 
severity  of  the  American  winter.  Professional  football  is  not 
played  in  America. 

The  American  Rugby  game  is  played  by  teams  of  eleven  men 
on  a  field  of  330  ft.  long  and  160  ft.  wide,  divided  by  chalk  lines 
into  squares  with  sides  5  yds.  long,  leaving  a  strip  5  ft.  wide  on 
each  side  of  the  field.  Until  1903  the  field  was  divided  by 


2.  Mutatis  mutandis,  these  are  made  as  in  English  Rugby. 
American  Rugby  differs  from  the  English  game,  because  in  the 
scrimmage  the  men  are  lined  up  opposite  each  other,  and,  although 
separated  by  the  length  of  the  ball,  are  engaged  in  a  constant 
man-to-man  contest,  and  also  in  that  a  system  of  "  interference  " 
is  allowed.  Furthermore,  a  player  in  the  American  game  is  put 
"  on  side  "  when  a  kicked  ball  strikes  the  ground;  and  forward 
passing,  i.e.  throwing  the  ball  toward  the  opponents'  goal,  is 
permissible  under  certain  restrictions.  The  costume  usually 
consists  of  a  close-fitting  jersey  with  shoulders  and  elbows  padded 
and  reinforced  with  leather;  short  trousers  with  padded  thighs 
and  knees,  heavy  stockings  and  shoes  with  leather  cleats.  In  the 
early  period  of  the  game  caps  were  worn,  but,  as  they  were 
impossible  to  keep  on,  they  were  discarded  in  favour  of  the 
wearing  of  long  hair,  and  the  "  chrysanthemum  head  "  became 
the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  football  player.  This,  however, 


624 


FOOTBALL 


[AMERICAN 


proved  an  inadequate  protection,  and  some  players  now  wear  a 
"  head  harness  "  of  soft  padded  leather.  Substitutes  are  allowed 
in  the  places  of  injured  players. 

The  object  of  the  game  is  identical  with  that  of  English  Rugby, 
and  the  rules  in  regard  to  fair  catches,  punting,  drop-kicking, 
place-kicking,  goal-kicking,  passing  and  gentlemanly  conduct  are 
practically  the  same,  except  that,  on  a  free  kick  after  a  fair 
catch,  the  opposing  players  in  the  American  game  may  not  come 
up  to  the  mark  but  must  keep  10  yds.  in  front  of  it.  In  the 
American  game  there  is  no  scrummage  in  the  English  sense,  nor 
is  the  ball  thrown  in  at  right  angles  after  going  into  touch.  The 
element  of  chance  in  both  these  methods  of  play  was  done  away 
with  by  the  enunciation  of  the  principle  of  the  "  possession  of  the 
ball."  In  America,  when  the  ball  has  gone  out  of  bounds  or  a 
runner  has  been  tackled  and  held  and  the  ball  downed,  the  ball  is 
also  put  into  play  by  an  evolution  called  a  scrimmage,  usually 
called  "  line-up,"  which  beyond  the  name  bears  no  resemblance 
to  the  English  scrummage.  The  ball,  at  every  moment  of  the 
game,  belongs  theoretically  either  to  one  side  or  to  the  other. 
It  may  be  lost  by  a  fumble,  or  by  the  side  in  possession  not  being 
able  to  make  the  required  distance  of  10  yds.  in  three  successive 
attempts  or  by  a  voluntary  kick.  In  the  line-up  the  seven  line- 
men (i.e.  forwards)  face  each  other  on  a  line  parallel  to  the  goal- 
lines  on  the  spot  where  it  was  ordered  down  by  the  referee.  The 
ball  is  placed  on  the  ground  by  the  centre-rush,  also  called  the 
snapper-back,  who,  upon  the  signal  being  given  by  his  quarter- 
back, "  snaps  back  "  the  ball  to  this  player,  or  to  the  full-back, 
by  a  quick  movement  of  the  hand  or  foot.  The  moment  the  ball  is 
snapped-back  it  is  in  play.  In  every  scrimmage  it  is  a  foul  for  the 
side  having  the  ball  (attacking  side)  to  obstruct  an  opponent 
except  with  the  body  (no  use  may  be  made  of  hands  or  arms); 
or  for  the  defending  side  to  interfere  with  the  snap-back.  The 
defenders  may  use  their  hands  and  arms  only  to  get  their 
opponents  out  of  the  way  in  order  to  get  at  the  man  with  the  ball. 
Each  member  of  the  attacking  side  endeavours,  of  course,  to 
prevent  his  opponents  from  breaking  through  and  interfering 
with  the  quarter-back,  who  requires  this  protection  from  his  line 
in  order  to  have  time  to  pass  the  ball  to  one  of  the  backs,  whom  he 
has  notified  by  a  signal  to  be  ready.  In  the  United  States  a 
player  may  be  obstructed  by  an  off-side  opponent  so  long  as  hands 
and  arms  are  not  used.  In  the  line-up  this  is  called  "  blocking-off  " 
and  "  interference  "  when  done  to  protect  a  friend  running  with 
the  ball.  Interference  is  one  of  the  most  important  features  of 
American  football.  As  soon  as  the  ball  is  passed  to  one  of  the 
half-backs  for  a  run,  for  example,  round  one  end  of  the  line,  his 
interference  must  form  immediately.  This  means  that  one  or 
more  of  his  fellows  must  accompany  and  shield  him  as  he  runs, 
blocking  off  any  opponent  who  trys  to  tackle  him.  The  first 
duty  of  the  defence  against  a  hostile  run  is  therefore  to  break  up 
the  interference,  i.e.  put  these  defenders  out  of  the  play,  so  that 
the  runner  may  be  reached  and  tackled. 

The  game  begins  by  the  captains  tossing  for  choice  of  kick-off 
or  goal.  If  the  winner  of  the  toss  chooses  the  goal,  on  account 
of  the  direction  of  wind,  the  loser  must  kick  off  and  send  the 
ball  at  least  10  yds.  into  the  opponents'  territory  from  a  place- 
kick  from  the  55  yds.  line.  The  two  ends  of  the  kicking  side, 
who  are  usually  fast  runners,  get  down  the  field  after  the  ball 
as  quickly  as  possible,  in  order  to  prevent  the  man  who  catches 
the  kick-off  from  running  back  with  the  ball.  When  the  kick-off 
is  caught,  the  catcher  with  the  aid  of  interference  runs  it  back 
as  far  as  possible,  and  as  soon  as  he  is  tackled  and  held  by  his 
opponents  the  ball  is  down  and  a  line-up  takes  place,  the  ball 
being  in  the  possession  of  the  catcher's  side,  which  now  attacks. 
In  order  to  prevent  the  so-called  "  block  game,"  once  prevalent, 
in  which  neither  side  made  any  appreciable  progress,  the  rules 
provide  that  the  side  in  possession  of  the  ball  must  make  at 
least  10  yds.  in  three  successive  attempts,  or,  failing  to  do  so, 
must  surrender  the  ball  to  the  enemy,  or,  as  it  is  called,  "  lose 
the  ball  on  downs."  This  is  infrequent  in  actual  play,  because 
if,  after  two  unsuccessful  attempts,  or  partly  successful,  it  becomes 
evident  that  the  chances  of  completing  the  obligatory  jo-yd. 
gain  on  the  remaining  attempt  are  unfavourable,  a  forward 


pass  or  a  kick  is  resorted  to,  rather  than  risk  losing  the  ball  on 
the  spot.  The  kick,  although  resulting  in  the  loss  of  the  ball, 
nevertheless  gives  it  to  the  enemy  much  nearer  his  goal.  When 
the  wind  is  strong  the  side  favoured  by  it  usually  kicks  often, 
as  the  other  side,  not  being  able  to  kick  back  on  equal  terms, 
is  forced  to  play  a  rushing  game,  which  is  always  exhausting. 
Again,  the  kicking  game  is  often  resorted  to  by  the  side  that  has 
the  lead  in  the  score,  in  order  to  save  its  men  and  yet  retain  the 
advantage.  The  only  remaining  way  to  advance  the  ball  is  on 
a  free-kick  after  a  fair  catch,  as  in  the  English  game.  The  free 
kick  may  be  either  a  punt,  a  drop-kick  or  a  kick  from  placement. 
Whenever  the  ball  goes  over  the  side  line  into  touch  it  is  brought 
back  to  the  point  where  it  crossed  the  line  by  the  man  who 
carried  it  over,  or,  if  kicked  or  knocked  over,  by  a  man  of  the 
side  which  did  not  kick  it  out,  and  there  put  in  play  in  one  of 
two  ways.  Either  it  may  be  touched  to  the  ground  and  then 
kicked  at  least  10  yds.  towards  the  opponents'  goal,  or  it  may  be 
taken  into  the  field  at  right  angles  to  the  line  a  distance  not 
less  than  5  yds.  nor  more  than  15,  and  there  put  down  for  a 
line-up,  the  player  who  takes  it  in  first  declaring  how  far  he  will 
go,  so  that  the  opposing  team  may  not  be  caught  napping. 

Of  the  seven  men  in  the  line,  the  centre  is  chosen  for  his 
weight  and  ability  to  handle  the  ball  cleanly  in  snapping  back. 
He  must  also,  in  case  the  full-back  is  to  make  the  next  play, 
be  able  to  throw  the  ball  from  between  his  legs  accurately  into 
the  full-back's  hands,  thus  saving  the  time  that  would  be  wasted 
if  the  quarter-back  were  used  as  an  intermediary.  The  two 
"  guards,"  who  must  also  be  heavy  men,  form  with  the  centre 
the  bulk  of  the  line,  protecting  the  backs  in  offence,  and  in  de- 
fence blocking  the  enemy.  The  two  "  tackles  "  must  be  heavy 
yet  active  and  aggressive  men,  as  they  must  not  only  help  the 
centre  and  guards  in  repelling  assaults  on  the  middle  of  the  line, 
but  also  assist  the  ends  in  stopping  runs  round  the  line  as  well 
as  those  between  tackle  and  end,  a  favourite  point  of  attack. 
The  "  ends  "  are  chosen  for  their  activity,  sure  tackling,  fast 
running  and  ability  to  follow  up  the  ball  after  a  kick.  Of  the 
four  players  behind  the  line,  the  full-back  must  be  a  sure 
catcher  and  tackier  and  a  fast  runner.  The  two  half-backs 
must  also  be  fast  runners  and  good  dodgers.  One  of  them  is 
often  chosen  for  his  ability  to  gain  ground  by  "  bucking  the  line," 
i.e.  plunging  through  the  opposing  team's  line.  He  must  there- 
fore be  over  the  average  weight,  while  the  other  half-back  is  called 
upon  to  gain  by  running  round  the  opposing  ends.  The  quarter- 
back is  the  commanding  general  and  therefore  the  most  important 
member  of  his  side,  as  with  him  lies  the  choice  of  plays  to  be 
made  when  on  the  attack.  Courage,  coolness,  promptness  in 
decision  and  discrimination  in  the  choice  of  plays  are  the  qualities 
absolutely  required  for  this  position.  As  soon  as  his  side  obtains 
the  ball,  the  quarter-back  shouts  out  a  signal,  consisting  of  a 
series  of  numbers  or  letters,  or  both,  which  denotes  a  certain 
play  that  is  to  be  carried  through  the  moment  the  ball  is  snapped 
back.  A  good  quarter-back  thinks  rapidly  and  shouts  his  signal 
for  the  next  play  as  soon  as  a  down  has  been  called  and  while 
the  scrimmage  is  forming,  so  that  the  plays  are  run  off  rapidly 
and  the  enemy  is  given  as  little  time  as  possible  to  concentrate. 
The  signals,  which  are  secret  and  often  changed  to  guard  them 
from  being  solved  by  the  enemy,  are  formed  by  designating 
every  position  and  every  space  in  the  line,  as  well  as  kicks  and 
other  open  plays,  by  a  number  or  letter.  Some  signals  are  called 
sequence-signals,  and  indicate  a  prearranged  series  of  plays  for 
use  in  certain  emergencies.  Every  manoeuvre  of  the  attacking 
side  is  carried  out  by  every  member  of  the  team,  the  ideal  being 
"  every  man  in  every  play  every  time."  As  soon  as  a  signal  is 
given  each  man  should  know  what  part  of  the  ensuing  move  will 
fall  to  him,  in  carrying  the  ball,  interfering  for  the  runner,  or  get- 
ting down  the  field  under  a  punt.  Every  team  has  its  own  code. 

About  1890  the  system  of  interference  led  to  momentum  and 
mass  plays  (wedge-formations,  tandems,  &c.),  i.e.  to  the  grouping 
of  bodies  of  men  behind  the  line,  and  starting  them  before  the 
ball  was  snapped  back,  so  that  they  struck  the  line  with  an 
acquired  momentum  that  was  extremely  severe,  particularly 
when  met  by  men  equally  determined.  These  plays  caused 


FOOTE,  A.  H.— FOOTE,  SAMUEL 


625 


frequent  injuries  and  led  to  legislation  against  them,  the  most 
important  law  providing  for  a  limitation  to  the  number  of  men 
who  could  be  dropped  back  of  the  line,  and  practically  keeping 
seven  men  drawn  up  in  the  line. 

Penalties  are  of  three  kinds:  (i)  forfeiture  of  the  game,  for 
refusing  to  play  when  directed  to  do  so  by  the  referee,  and  for 
repeated  fouls  made  with  the  intention  of  delaying  the  game; 
(2)  disqualification  of  players  for  unnecessary  roughness  or 
ungentlemanly  conduct;  and  (3)  for  infringement  of  rules,  for 
which  certain  distances  are  taken  away  from  the  previous 
gains  of  the  side  making  the  fouls. 

The  game  resolves  itself  into  a  series  of  scrimmages  inter- 
spersed with  runs  and  kicks.  The  systematized  development 
of  plays  places  at  the  disposal  of  the  quarter  an  infinite  variety 
of  attack,  which  he  seeks  to  direct  at  the  opposing  line  with 
bewildering  rapidity  and  dash.  During  the  preliminary  games 
of  the  season  "  straight  football  "  is  generally  played ;  that  is, 
intricate  attacks  are  avoided  and  kicks  and  simple  plunges 
into  the  line  are  mainly  relied  upon.  "  Trick  plays,"  which 
comprise  all  manoeuvres  of  an  intricate  nature,  are  reserved 
for  later  and  more  important  matches.  Among  these  is  the 
"  fake  (false)  kick,"  in  which  the  full-back  takes  position  as  if 
to  receive  the  ball  for  a  kick,  but  the  ball  is  passed  to  a  different 
player  for  a  run.  Another  play  of  this  kind  is  the  "  wing-shift," 
in  which  some  or  all  of  the  players  on  one  side  of  centre  suddenly 
change  to  the  other  side,  thus  forming  a  mass  and  throwing  the 
opponents'  line  out  of  balance.  To  this  category  belong  also 
"  double  passes,"  "  false  passes,"  "  delayed  passes,"  "  delayed 
runs  "  and  "  criss-crosses." 

Training  for  football  in  America  resembles  that  for  other 
sports  in  regard  to  food  and  hygiene.  The  coaching  systems 
at  the  universities  differ,  but  there  is  generally  a  head  coach, 
who  is  assisted  by  graduates,  each  of  whom  pays  especial 
attention  to  one  set  of  men,  one  to  the  men  in  the  centre  of  the 
line,  one  to  the  backs,  another  to  the  ends,  &c.  Candidates  for 
the  teams  are  put  through  a  severe  course  of  practice  in  catching 
punts  and  hard-thrown  passes,  in  quick  starts,  falling  on  the 
ball,  tackling  a  mechanical  dummy,  in  blocking,  breaking  through 
the  line,  and  all  kinds  of  kicking,  although  in  matches  the  kicking 
is  generally  left  to  one  or  two  men  who  have  shown  themselves 
particularly  expert.  Every  player  is  taught  to  dive  for  the 
ball  whenever  he  sees  it  on  the  ground,  as  possession  is  of 
cardinal  importance  in  American  football,  and  dribbling  for  this 
reason  is  unknown.  When  running  with  the  ball  the  player  is 
taught  to  take  short  steps,  to  follow  his  interference,  that  is,  not 
isolate  himself  from  his  defenders,  and  neither  to  slow  up  nor 
shut  his  eyes  when  striking  the  opposing  line.  Tackling  well 
below  the  waist  is  taught,  but  it  is  a  foul  to  tackle  below  the  knee. 
The  general  rule  for  defensive  work  of  all  kinds  is  "  play  low." 

See  Walter  Camp,  How  to  play  Football,  and  the  Official  Football 
Guide  (annual),  both  in  Spalding's  Athletic  Library;  his  Book  of 
College  Sports  (New  York,  1893),  his  American  Football  (New  York, 
1894)  and  his  Football  (Boston,  1896) — the  last  in  co-operation  with 
L.  F.  Deland;  R.  H.  Barbour,  The  Book  of  School  and  College  Sports 
(New  York  1904) ;  W.  H.  Lewis,  Primer  of  College  Football  (Boston, 
1896).  (E-  B-;  W.  CA.) 

FOOTE,  ANDREW  HULL  (1806-1863),  American  admiral,  was 
born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  on  the  I2th  of  September  1806, 
his  father,  Samuel  Augustus  Foote  (i  780-1846) ,  beingaprominent 
lawyer  and  Whig  politician,  who  as  U.S.  senator  moved  in  1829 
"  Foote's  resolutions  "  on  public  lands,  in  the  discussion  of  which 
Daniel  Webster  made  his  "  reply  to  Hayne."  He  entered  the 
U.S.  navy  in  1822,  and  was  commissioned  lieutenant  in  1830. 
After  cruising  round  the  world  (1837-1840)  in  the  "  John  Adams," 
he  was  assigned  to  the  Philadelphia  Naval  Asylum,  and  later 
(1846-1848)  to  the  Boston  Navy  Yard.  In  1849  he  was  made 
commander  of  the  "  Perry,"  and  engaged  for  two  years  in  sup- 
pressing the  slave  trade  on  the  African  coast.  In  1856,  as 
commander  of  the  "  Portsmouth,"  he  served  on  the  East  India 
station,  under  Com.  James  Armstrong,  and  he  captured  the 
Barrier  Forts  near  Canton.  From  October  1858  to  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War,  he  was  in  charge  of  the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard, 


becoming  a  full  captain  in  1861.  In  August  1861  he  was  assigned 
to  the  command  "  of  the  naval  operations  upon  the  Western 
waters."  His  exploit  in  capturing  Fort  Henry  (on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tennessee  river)  from  the  Confederates,  on  the  6th 
of  February  1862,  without  the  co-operation  of  General  Grant's 
land  forces,  who  had  not  arrived  in  time,  was  a  brilliant  success; 
but  their  combined  attack  on  Fort  Donelson  ( 1 2  m.  off,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Cumberland  river),  whither  most  of  the  Fort  Henry 
garrison  had  escaped,  resulted,  before  its  surrender  (Feb.  16), 
in  heavy  losses  to  Foote's  gunboats,  Foote  himself  being  severely 
wounded.  In  March-April  he  co-operated  in  the  capture  of 
New  Madrid  (q.v.)  and  Island  No.  10.  In  June  he  retired  from 
his  command  and  in  July  was  promoted  rear-admiral,  and 
became  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Equipment  and  Recruiting.  On 
the  26th  of  June  1863  he  died  at  New  York. 

See  the  life  (1874)  by  Professor  James  Mason  Hoppin  (1820-1906). 

FOOTE,  MARY  HALLOCK  (1847-  ),  American  author  and 
illustrator,  was  born  in  Milton,  New  York,  on  the  igth  of 
November  1847,  of  English  Quaker  ancestry.  She  was  educated 
at  the  Poughkeepsie  (N.Y.)  Female  Collegiate  Seminary  and  at 
the  Cooper  Institute  School  of  Design  for  women,  in  New  York. 
In  1876  she  married  Arthur  De  Wint  Foote,  a  mining  engineer, 
and  subsequently  lived  in  the  mining  regions  of  California, 
Idaho,  Colorado  and  Mexico.  She  is  best  known  for  her  stories, 
in  which,  as  in  her  drawings,  she  portrays  vividly  the  rough 
picturesque  life,  especially  the  mining  life,  of  the  West.  Some 
of  her  best  drawings  appear  in  her  own  books.  Among  her 
publications  are  The  Led-Horse  Claim  (1883),  John  Bodewin's 
Testimony  (1886),  The  Chosen  Valley  (1892),  Cceur  d'Alene 
(1894);  The  Prodigal  (1900),  a  novelette;  The  Desert  and  the 
Sown  (1902);  and  several  collections  of  short  stories,  including 
A  Touch  of  Sun  and  other  Stories  (1903). 

FOOTE,  SAMUEL  (1720-1777),  English  dramatist  and  actor, 
was  baptized  at  Truro  on  the  27th  of  January  1720.  Of  his 
attachment  to  his  native  Cornwall  he  gives  no  better  proofs 
as  an  author  than  by  making  the  country  booby  Timothy  (in 
The  Knights)  sound  the  praises  of  that  county  and  of  its  manly 
pastimes;  but  towards  his  family  he  showed  a  loyal  and  enduring 
affection.  His  father  was  a  man  of  good  family  and  position. 
His  mother,  Eleanor  Goodere,  whom  he  is  said  in  person  as 
well  as  in  disposition  to  have  strongly  resembled,  he  liberally 
supported  in  the  days  of  his  prosperity,  and  after  her  death 
indignantly  vindicated  her  character  from  the  imputations 
recklessly  cast  upon  it  by  the  revengeful  spite  of  the  duchess 
of  Kingston.  About  the  time  when  Foote  came  of  age,  he 
inherited  his  first  fortune  through  the  murder  of  his  uncle,  Sir 
John  Dinely  Goodere,  Bart.,  by  his  brother,  Captain  Samuel 
Goodere.  Foote  was  educated  at  the  collegiate  school  at 
Worcester,  and  at  Worcester  College,  Oxford,  distinguishing 
himself  in  both  places  by  mimicry  and  audacious  pleasantries 
of  all  kinds,  and,  although  he  left  Oxford  without  taking  his 
degree,  acquiring  a  classical  training  which  afterwards  enabled 
him  neatly  to  turn  a  classical  quotation  or  allusion,  and  helped 
to  give  to  his  prose  style  a  certain  fluency  and  elegance. 

Foote  was  "  designed  "  for  the  law,  but  certainly  not  by 
nature.  In  his  chambers  at  the  Temple,  and  in  the  Grecian 
Coffee-house  hard  by,  he  learned  to  know  something  of  lawyers 
if  not  of  law,  and  was  afterwards  able  to  jest  at  the  jargon  and 
to  mimic  the  mannerisms  of  the  bar,  and  to  satirize  the  Latitats 
of  the  other  branch  of  the  profession  with  particular  success. 
The  famous  argument  in  Hobson  v.  Nobson,  in  The  Lame  Lovers, 
is  almost  as  good  of  its  kind  as  that  in  Bardell  v.  Pickwick. 
But  a  stronger  attraction  drew  him  to  the  Bedford  Coffee-house 
in  Covent  Garden,  and  to  the  theatrical  world  of  which  it  was 
the  social  centre.  After  he  had  run  through  two  fortunes  (the 
second  of  which  he  appears  to  have  inherited  at  his  father's 
death),  and  had  then  passed  through  severe  straits,  he  made 
his  first  appearance  on  the  actual  stage  in  1744.  It  is  said  that 
he  had  married  a  young  lady  in  Worcestershire;  but  the  traces 
of  his  wife  (he  affirmed  himself  that  he  was  married  to  his  washer- 
woman) are  mysterious,  and  probably  apocryphal. 

Foote's  first  appearance  as  an  actor  was  made  little  more  than 


626 


FOOTE,  SAMUEL 


two  years  after  that  of  Garrick,  as  to  whose  merits  the  critics, 
including  Foote  himself,  were  now  fiercely  at  war.  His  own 
first  venture,  as  Othello,  was  a  failure;  and  though  he  was 
fairly  successful  in  genteel  comedy  parts,  and  was,  after  a  favour- 
able reception  at  Dublin,  enrolled  as  one  of  the  regular  company 
at  Drury  Lane  in  the  winter  of  1745-1746,  he  had  not  as  yet 
made  any  palpable  hit.  Finding  that  his  talent  lay  neither  in 
tragedy  nor  in  genteel  comedy,  he  had  begun  to  wonder  "  where 
the  devil  it  did  lie,"  when  his  successful  performance  of  the  part 
of  Bayes  in  The  Rehearsal  at  last  suggested  to  him  the  true 
outlet  for  his  extraordinary  gift  of  mimicry.  Following  the 
example  of  Garrick,  he  had  introduced  into  this  famous  part 
imitations  of  actors,  and  had  added  a  variety  of  other  satirical 
comment  in  the  way  of  "  gag."  Engaging  a  small  company 
of  actors,  he  now  boldly  announced  for  the  22nd  of  April  1747, 
at  the  theatre  in  the  Haymarket  "  gratis,"  "  a  new  entertainment 
called  the  Diversions  of  the  Morning,"  to  which  were  to  be  added 
a  farce  adapted  from  Congreve,  and  an  epilogue  "  spoken  by 
the  B-d-d  Coffee-house."  Foote's  success  in  these  Diversions 
obtained  for  him  the  name  of  "  the  English  Aristophanes," 
an  absurd  compliment,  declined  by  Foote  himself  (see  his  letter 
in  The  Minor).  The  Diversions  consisted  of  a  series  of  imitations 
of  actors  and  other  well-known  persons,  whose  various  peculi- 
arities of  voice,  gesture,  manner  or  dress  were  brought  directly 
before  the  spectators,  while  the  epilogue  introduced  the  wits 
of  the  Bedford  engaged  in  ludicrous  disputation,  and  specially 
"  took  off  "  an  eminent  physician  (probably  the  munificent 
Sir  William  Browne,  whom  he  afterwards  caricatured  in  The 
Devil  on  Two  Sticks),  and  a  notori6us  quack  oculist  of  the  day. 
The  actors  ridiculed  in  this  entertainment  having  at  once  procured 
the  aid  of  the  constables  for  preventing  its  repetition,  Foote 
immediately  advertised  an  invitation  to  his  friends  to  drink 
a  dish  of  tea  with  him  at  the  Haymarket  on  the  following  day  at 
noon — "  and  'tis  hoped  there  will  be  a  great  deal  of  comedy 
and  some  joyous  spirits;  he  will  endeavour  to  make  the  morning 
as  diverting  as  possible.  Tickets  for  this  entertainment  to  be 
had  at  St  George's  coffee-house,  Temple-Bar,  without  which  no 
person  will  be  admitted.  N.B. — Sir  Dilbury  Diddle  will  be  there, 
and  Lady  Betty  Frisk  has  absolutely  promised."  The  device 
succeeded  to  perfection;  further  resistance  was  abandoned 
as  futile  by  the  actors,  whom  Foote  mercilessly  ridiculed  in  the 
"  instructions  to  his  pupils  "  which  the  entertainer  pretended 
to  impart  (typifying  them  under  characters  embodying  their 
several  chief  peculiarities  or  defects — the  massive  and  sonorous 
James  Quin  as  a  watchman,  the  shrill-voiced  Lacy  Ryan  as  a 
razor-grinder,  the  charming  Peg  Woffington,  whose  tones  had 
an  occasional  squeak  in  them,  as  an  orange-woman  crying  her 
wares  and  the  bill  of  the  play);  and  Mr  Foote's  Chocolate, 
which  was  afterwards  converted  into  an  evening  Tea,  became 
an  established  favourite  with  the  town. 

In  spite  of  this  success,  he  seems  to  have  contrived  to  spend 
a  third  fortune,  and  to  have  found  it  necessary  to  eke  out  his 
means  by  a  speculation  in  small-beer,  as  is  recorded  in  an  amusing 
anecdote  told  of  him  by  Johnson.  But  he  could  now  command 
a  considerable  income;  and  when  money  came  he  seems  to  have 
freely  expended  it  in  both  hospitality  and  charity.  During 
his  engagements  at  Covent  Garden  and  at  Drury  Lane,  of  which 
he  was  joint-manager,  and  in  professional  trips  to  Scotland,  and 
more  especially  to  Ireland,  he  appeared  both  in  comedies  of 
other  authors  and  more  especially  in  his  own.  He  played  Hartop 
in  his  Knights  ( 1 749,  printed  1 7  54) .  Taste  ( 1 7  5  2) ,  in  which  parts 
of  the  Diversions  were  incorporated,  was  followed  by  some 
eighteen  pieces,  the  majority  of  which  were  produced  at  the 
Haymarket,  the  favourite  home  of  Foote's  entertainments. 
In  1760  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  for  this  theatre  a  licence  from 
the  lord  chamberlain,  afterwards  (in  1766)  converted  into  a 
licence  for  summer  performances  for  life.  The  entertainments 
were  a  succession  of  variations  on  the  original  idea  of  the 
Diversions  and  the  Tea.  Now,  it  was  an  Auction  of  Pictures 
(1748),  of  part  of  which  an  idea  may  be  formed  from  the  second 
act  of  the  comedy  Taste;  now,  a  lecture  on  Orators  (1754), 
suggested  by  some  bombastic  discourses  given  by  Macklin  in 


his  old  age  at  the  Piazza  coffee-house  in  Covent  Garden,  where 
Foote  had  amused  the  audience  and  confounded  the  speaker 
by  interposing  his  humorous  comments.  The  Orators  is  pre- 
served in  the  shape  of  a  hybrid  piece,  which  begins  with  a  mock 
lecture  on  the  art  of  oratory  and  its  representatives  in  England, 
and  ends  with  a  diverting  scene  of  a  pot-house  forum  debate, 
to  which  Holberg's  Politician-Tinman  can  hardly  have  been  a 
stranger.  At  a  later  date  (1773)  a  new  device  was  introduced 
in  a  Puppet-show.  The  piece  (unprinted)  played  in  this  by  the 
puppets  was  called  Piety  in  Pattens,  and  professed  to  show  "  by 
the  moral  how  maidens  of  low  degree  might  become  rich  from 
the  mere  effects  of  morality  and  virtue,  and  by  the  literature 
how  thoughts  of  the  most  commonplace  might  be  concealed 
under  cover  of  words  the  most  high  flown."  In  other  words, 
it  was  an  attack  upon  sentimental  comedy,  which  was  still  not 
altogether  extinguished.  An  attack  upon  Garrick  in  connexion 
with  the  notorious  Shakespeare  jubilee  was  finally  left  out  from 
the  Puppet-show,  and  thus  was  avoided  a  recurrence  of  the 
quarrel  which  many  years  before  had  led  to  an  interchange 
of  epistolary  thrusts,  and  an  imitation  by  Woodward  of  the 
imitative  Foote. 

On  the  whole,  the  relations  between  the  two  public  favourites 
became  very  friendly,  and  on  Foote's  part  unmistakably 
affectionate,  and  they  have  not  been  always  generously  repre- 
sented by  Garrick's  biographers.  A  comparison  between  the 
two  as  actors  is  of  course  out  of  the  question;  but,  though 
Foote  was  a  buffoon,  and  his  tongue  a  scurrilous  tongue,  there 
is  no  authentic  ground  for  the  suggestion  that  his  character 
was  one  of  malicious  heartlessness.  Of  Samuel  Johnson's 
opinions  of  him  many  records  remain  in  Boswell;  when  Johnson 
had  at  last  found  his  way  into  Foote's  company  (he  afterwards 
found  it  to  Foote's  own  table)  he  was  unable  to  "  resist  "  him, 
and,  on  hearing  of  Foote's  death,  he  thought  the  career  just 
closed  worthy  of  a  lasting  biographical  record. 

Meanwhile  most  of  poor  Foote's  friendships  in  high  life  were 
probably  those  that  are  sworn  across  the  table,  and  require 
"  t'other  bottle  "  to  keep  them  up.  It  is  not  a  pleasant  picture 
— of  Lord  Mexborough  and  his  royal  guest  the  duke  of  York, 
and  their  companions,  bantering  Foote  on  his  ignorance  of  horse- 
manship, and  after  he  had  weakly  protested  his  skill,  taking  him 
out  to  hounds  on  a  dangerous  animal.  He  was  thrown  and 
broke  his  leg,  which  had  to  be  amputated,  the  "  patientee  " 
(in  which  character  he  said  he  was  now  making  his  first  appear- 
ance) consoling  himself  with  the  reflection  that  he  would  now 
be  able  to  take  off  "  old  Faulkner  "  (a  pompous  Dublin  alderman 
with  a  wooden  leg,  whom  he  had  brought  on  the  stage  as  Peter 
Paragraph  in  The  Orators)  "  to  the  life."  The  duke  of  York 
made  him  the  best  reparation  in  his  power  by  promising  him 
a  life-patent  for  the  theatre  in  the  Haymarket  (1766);  and 
Foote  not  only  resumed  his  profession,  as  if,  like  Sir  Luke  Limp, 
he  considered  the  leg  he  had  lost  "  a  redundancy,  a  mere  nothing 
at  all,"  but  ingeniously  turned  his  misfortune  to  account  in  two 
of  his  later  pieces,  The  Lame  Lover  and  The  Devil  on  Two  Sticks, 
while,  with  the  true  instinct  of  a  public  favourite,  making  constant 
reference  to  it  in  plays  and  prologues.  Though  the  characters 
played  by  him  in  several  of  his  later  plays  are  comparatively 
short  and  light,  he  continued  to  retain  his  hold  over  the  public, 
and  about  the  year  1774  was  beginning  to  think  of  withdrawing, 
at  least  for  a  time,  to  the  continent,  when  he  became  involved 
in  what  proved  a  fatal  personal  quarrel.  Neither  in  his  entertain- 
ments nor  in  his  comedies  had  he  hitherto  (except  in  Garrick's 
case,  and  it  is  said  in  Johnson's)  put  any  visible  restraint  upon 
personal  satire.  The  Author,  in  which,  under  the  infinitely 
humorous  character  of  Cadwallader,  he  had  brought  a  Welsh 
gentleman  of  the  name  of  Ap-Rice  on  the  stage,  had,  indeed, 
been  ultimately  suppressed.  But  in  general  he  bad  pursued 
his  hazardous  course,  mercilessly  exposing  to  public  ridicule  and 
contempt  not  only  fribbles  and  pedants,  quacks  or  supposed 
quacks  in  medicine  (as  in  The  Devil  on  Two  Sticks),  enthusiasts 
in  religion,  such  as  Dr  Dodd  (in  The  Cozeners)  and  George 
Whitefield  and  his  connexion  (in  The  Minor).  He  had  not  only 
dared  the  wrath  of  the  whole  Society  of  Antiquaries  (in  The 


FOOTE,  SAMUEL 


627 


Nabob),  and  been  rewarded  by  the  withdrawal,  from  among 
the  pundits  who  rationalized  away  Whittington's  Cat,  of  Horace 
Walpole  and  other  eminent  members  of  the  body,  but  had  in 
the  same  play  attacked  a  well-known  representative  of  a  very 
influential  though  detested  element  in  English  society,— the 
"  Nabobs  "  themselves.  But  there  was  one  species  of  cracked 
porcelain  which  he  was  not  to  try  to  hold  up  to  contempt  with 
impunity.  The  rumour  of  his  intention  to  bring  upon  the  stage, 
in  the  character  of  Lady  Kitty  Crocodile  in  The  Trip  to  Calais', 
the  notorious  duchess  of  Kingston,  whose  trial  for  bigamy  was 
then  (1775)  impending,  roused  his  intended  victim  to  the  utmost 
fury;  and  the  means  and  influence  she  had  at  her  disposal 
enabled  her,  not  only  to  prevail  upon  the  lord  chamberlain  to 
prohibit  the  performance  of  the  piece  (in  which  there  is  no  hint 
as  to  the  charge  of  bigamy  itself),  but  to  hire  agents  to  vilify 
Foote's  character  in  every  way  that  hatred  and  malice  could 
suggest.  After  he  had  withdrawn  the  piece,  and  letters  had  been 
exchanged  between  the  duchess  and  him  equally  characteristic 
of  their  respective  writers,  Foote  took  his  revenge  upon  the 
chief  of  the  duchess's  instruments,  a  "  Reverend  Doctor " 
Jackson,  who  belonged  to  the  "  reptile  "  society  of  the  journalists 
of  the  day,  so  admirably  satirized  by  Foote  in  his  comedy  of 
The  Bankrupt.  This  man  he  gibbeted  in  the  character  of  Viper 
in  The  Capuchin,  under  which  name  the  altered  Tri£Jo_Calais. 
was  performed  in  1776.  But  the  resources  of  his  enemies  were 
not  yet  at  an  end;  and  a  discharged  servant  of  Foote's  was 
suborned  by  Jackson  to  bring  a  charge  of  assault  and  apply 
for  a  warrant  against  him.  Though  the  attempt  utterly  broke 
down,  and  Foote's  character  was  thus  completely  cleared,  his 
health  and  spirits  had  given  way  in  the  struggle — as  to  which, 
though  he  seems  to  have  had  the  firm  support  of  the  better  part 
of  the  public,  including  such  men  as  Burke  and  Reynolds,  the 
very  audiences  of  his  own  theatre  had  been,  or  had  seemed  to 
be,  divided  in  opinion.  He  thus  resolved  to  withdraw,  at  least 
for  a  time,  from  the  effects  of  the  storm,  let  his  theatre  to  Colman, 
and  after  making  his  last  appearance  there  in  May  1777,  set 
forth  in  October  on  a  journey  to  France.  But  at  Dover  he  fell 
sick  on  the  day  after  his  arrival  there,  and  after  a  few  hours 
died  (October  2ist).  His  epitaph  in  St  Mary's  church  at  Dover 
(written  by  his  faithful  treasurer  William  Jewell)  records  that 
he  had  a  hand  "  open  as  day  for  melting  charity."  His  resting- 
place  in  Westminster  Abbey  is  without  any  memorial. 

Foote's  chief  power  as  an  actor  lay  in  his  extraordinary  gift  of 
mimicry,  which  extended  to  the  mental  and  moral,  as  well  as  the 
mere  outward  and  physical  peculiarities  of  the  personages  whose 
likeness  he  assumed.  He  must  have  possessed  a  wonderful  flexibility 
of  voice,  though  his  tones  are  said  to  have  been  harsh  when  his  voice 
was  not  disguised,  and  an  incomparable  readiness  for  rapidly  assum- 
ing characters,  both  in  his  entertainments  and  in  his  comedies, 
where  he  occasionally  "  doubled  "  parts.  The  excellent  "  patter  " 
of  some  of  his  plays,  such  as  The  Liar  and  The  Cozeners,  must  have 
greatly  depended  for  its  effect  upon  rapidity  of  delivery.  In  person 
he  was  rather  short  and  stout,  and  coarse-featured;  but  his  over- 
flowing humour  is  said  to  have  found  full  expression  in  the  irresistible 
sparkle  of  his  eyes. 

As  a  dramatic  author  he  can  only  be  assigned  a  subordinate  rank. 
He  regarded  comedy  as  "  an  exact  representation  of  the  peculiar 
manners  of  that  people  among  whom  it  happens  to  be  performed; 
a  faithful  imitation  of  singular  absurdities,  particular  follies,  which 
are  openly  produced,  as  criminals  are  publicly  punished,  for  the 
correction  of  individuals  and  as  an  example  to  the  whole  community. " 
This  he  regarded  as  the  utile,  or  useful  purpose,  of  comedy;  the 
dulce  he  conceived  to  be  "  the  fable,  the  construction,  machinery, 
conduct,  plot,  and  incidents  of  the  piece."  For  part  at  least  of  this 
view  (advanced  by  him  in  the  spirited  and  scholarly  "  Letter  "  in 
which  he  replied,  "  to  the  Reverend  Author  of  the  '  Remarks, 
Critical  and  Christian,'  on  The  Minor  "),  he  rather  loftily  appealed 
to  classical  authority.  But  he  overlooked  the  indispensableness  of 
the  dulce  to  the  comic  drama  under  its  primary  aspect  as  a  species 
of  art.  His  comic  genius  was  particularly  happy  in  discovering  and 
reproducing  characters  deserving  of  ridicule;  and  the  fact  that 
he  not  only  took  them  from  real  life,  but  closely  modelled  them  on 
well-known  living  men  and  women,  was  not  in  himself  an  artistic 
sin.  Nor  indeed  was  the  novelty  of  this  process  absolute,  though 
probably  no  other  comic  dramatist  has  ever  gone  so  far  in  this 
course,  or  has  pursued  it  so  persistently.  The  public  delighted  in  his 

"  d —d  fine  originals,"  because  it  recognized  them  as  copies;  and 

he  was  himself  proud  that  he  had  taken  them  from  real  persons, 
instead  of  their  being  "  vamped  from  antiquated  plays,  pilfered  from 


the  French  farces,  or  the  baseless  beings  of  the  poet's  brain."  But 
the  real  excellence  of  many  of  Foote's  comic  characters  lies  in  the 
fact  that,  besides  being  incomparably  ludicrous  types  of  manners, 
they  remain  admirable  comic  types  of  general  human  nature.  Sir 
Gregory  Gazette,  and  his  imbecile  appetite  for  news;  Lady  Pent- 
weazel,  and  her  preposterous  vanity  in  her  superannuated  charms; 
Mr  Cadwallader,  and  his  view  of  the  advantages  of  public  schools 
(where  children  may  "  make  acquaintances  that  may  hereafter  be 
useful  to  them;  for  between  you  and  I,  as  to  what  they  learn  there, 
does  not  signify  twopence1');  Major  Sturgeon  and  Jerry  Sneak; 
Sir  Thomas  Lofty,  Sir  Luke  Limp,  Mrs  Mechlin,  and  a  score  or  two 
of  other  characters,  are  excellent  comic  figures  in  themselves, 
whatever  their  origin ;  and  many  of  the  vices  and  weaknesses  exposed 
by  Foote's  vigorous  satire  will  remain  the  perennial  subject  of  comic 
treatment  so  long  as  a  stage  exists.  The  real  defect  of  his  plays  lies 
in  the  abnormal  weakness  of  their  construction,  in  the  absolute 
contempt  which  the  great  majority  of  them  show  for  the  invention 
or  conduct  of  a  plot,  and  in  the  unwarrantabje  subordination  of  the 
interest  of  the  action  to  the  exhibition  of  particular  characters.  His 
characters  are  ready-made,  and  the  action  is  only  incidental  to  them. 
With  the  exception  of  The  Liar  (which  Foote  pretended  to  have 
taken  from  Lope  de  Vega,  but  which  was  really  founded  on  Steele's 
adaptation  of  Corneille's  Le  Menteur),  and  perhaps  of  The  Bankrupt, 
there  is  hardly  one  of  Foote's  "  comedies  "  in  which  the  conception 
and  conduct  of  the  action  rise  above  the  exigencies  of  the  merest 
farce.  Not  that  sentimental  scenes  and  even  sentimental  characters 
are_  wanting,  but  these  familiar  ingredients  are  as  incapable  of 
exciting  real  interest  as  an  ordinary  farcical  action  is  in  itself  unable 
to  produce  more  than  transitory  amusement.  In  his  earlier  plays 
Foote  constantly  resorts  to  the  most  hackneyed  device  of  farce — a 
disguise.  Of  course  Foote  must  have  been  well  aware  of  the  short- 
comings of  his  rapidly  manufactured  productions;  he  knew  that  if 
he  might  sneer  at  "  genteel  comedy  as  suited  to  the  dramatists 
of  the  servants'  hall,  and  pronounce  the  arts  of  the  drama  at  the  great 
houses  to  be  "  directed  by  the  genius  of  insipidity,"  he,  like  the  little 
theatre  where  he  held  sway,  was  looked  upon  as  "an  eccentric,  a 
mere  summer  fly." 

At  the  same  time,  he  was  inexhaustible  in  the  devising  of  comic 
scenes  of  genuine  farce.  An  oration  of  "  old  masters,"  an  election 
of  a  suburban  mayor,  an  examination  at  the  College  of  Physicians, 
a  newspaper  conclave  where  paragraphs  are  concocted  and  reputa- 
tions massacred — all  these  and  other  equally  happy  situations  are 
brought  before  the  mere  reader  with  unfailing  vividness.  And 
everywhere  the  comic  dialogue  is  instinct  with  spirit  and  vigour, 
and  the  comic  characters  are  true  to  themselves  with  a  buoyancy 
which  at  once  raises  them  above  the  level  of  mere  theatrical  con- 
ventionalism. Foote  professed  to  despise  the  mere  caricaturing  of 
national  peculiarities  as  such,  and  generally  used  dialect  as  a  mere 
additional  colouring;  he  was,  however,  too  wide  awake  to  the 
demands  of  his  public  not  to  treat  France  and  Frenchmen  as  fair 
game,  and  coarsely  to  appeal  to  national  prejudice.  His  satire 
against  those  everlasting  victims  of  English  comedy  and  farce,  the 
Englishman  in  Paris  and  the  Englishman  returned  from  Paris,  was 
doubtless  well  warranted;  while  at  the  same  time  he  made  fun  of 
the  fact  that  Englishmen  are  nowhere  more  addicted  to  the  society 
of  their  countrymen  than  abroad.  In  general,  the  purposes  of 
Foote's  social  satire  are  excellent,  and  the  abuses  against  which  it 
is  directed  are  those  which  it  required  courage  to  attack.  The  tone 
of  his  morality  is  healthy,  and  his  language,  though  not  aiming  at 
refinement,  is  remarkably  free  from  intentional  grossness.  He  made 
occasional  mistakes;  but  he  was  on  the  right  side  in  the  warfare 
against  the  pretentiousness  of  Cant  and  the  effrontery  of  Vice,  the 
two  master  evils  of  the  age  and  the  society  in  which  he  lived. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Foote's  farces  or  "  comedies  "  as  he  calls, 
them,  mostly  in  three,  some  in  two  acts,  which  remain  in  print. 
The  date  of  production,  and  the  character  originally  performed  by 
Foote,  are  added  to  the  title  of  each : 

The  Knights  (1748:  Hartop,  who  assumes  the  character  of  Sir 
Penurious  Trifle);  Taste  (1752),  in  which  part  of  the  Diversions  is 
incorporated;  The  Englishman  in  Paris  (1753:  Young  Buck); 
The  Englishman  returned  from  Paris  (1756:  Sir  Charles  Buck);  The 
Author  (1757:  Cadwallader);  The  Minor  (1760:  Smirk  and  Mrs 
Cole);  The  Liar  (1762);  The  Orators  (1762:  Lecturer);  The  Mayor 
of  Garralt  (1763:  Major  Sturgeon  and  Matthew  Mug);  The  Patron 
(1764:  Sir  Thomas  Lofty  and  Sir  Peter  Peppercorn);  The  Com- 
missary (1765:  Mr  Zac.  Fungus);  The  Devil  upon  Two  Sticks 
(1768:  Devil,— alias  Dr  Hercules  Hellebore);  The  Lame  Lover 
(1770:  Sir  Luke  Limp);  The  Maid  of  Bath  (1771:  Mr  Flint);  The 
Nabob  (1772:  Sir  Matthew  Mite);  The  Bankrupt  (1773:  Sir  Robert 
Riscounter);  The  Cozeners  (1774:  Mr  Aircastle);  The  Capuchin,  a 
second  version  of  The  Trip  to  Calais,  forbidden  by  the  censor  (1776: 
O'Donovan).  His  dramatic  works  were  collected  in  1763-1768. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Foote's  biography  may  be  read  in  W.  ("  Con- 
versation ")  Cooke's  Memoirs  of  Samuel  Foote  (3  vols.,  1805),  which 
contain,  amidst  other  matter,  a  large  collection  of  his  good  things  * 
and  of  anecdotes  concerning  him,  besides  two  of  his  previously 
unpublished  occasional  pieces  (with  the  Tragedy  a  la  mode,  part  of 
the  Diversions,  in  which  Foote  appeared  as  Fustian).  From  this 
source  seems  to  have  been  mainly  taken  the  biographical  information 
in  the  rather  grandiloquent  essay  on  Foote  prefixed  by  "Jon  Bee" 


628 


FOOTMAN— FORAMINIFERA 


(John  Badcock,  fl.  1816-1830,  also  known  as  "  John  Hunds  )  to  his 
useful  edition  of  Foote's  Works  (3  vols.,  1830).  Various  particulars 
will  be  found  in  Tate  Wilkinson's  Wandering  Patentee  (York,  1795) 
and  in  other  sources.  There  is  an  admirable  essay  on  Foote,  re- 
printed with  additions,  from  the  Quarterly  Review,  in  John  Forster  s 
Biographical  Essays  (1858).  A  recent  life  of  Foote  is  by  Percy 
Fitzgerald  (1910).  (A.  W.  W.) 

FOOTMAN,  a  name  given  among  articles  of  furniture  to  a 
metal  stand,  usually  of  polished  steel  or  brass,  and  either  oblong 
or  oval  in  shape,  for  keeping  plates  and  dishes  hot  before  a  dining- 
room  fire.  In  the  days  before  the  general  use  of  hot-water  dishes 
the  footman  possessed  definite  utility,  but  although  it  is  still 
in  occasional  use,  it  is  now  chiefly  regarded  as  an  ornament. 
It  was  especially  common  in  the  hardware  counties  of  England, 
where  it  is  still  frequently  seen;  the  simple  conventionality 
of  its  form  is  not  inelegant. 

FOOTSCRAY,  a  city  of  Bourke  county,  Victoria,  Australia, 
on  the  Saltwater  river,  4  m.  W.  of  and  suburban  to  Melbourne. 
Pop.  (1901)  18,301.  The  city  has  large  bluestone  quarries  from 
which  most  of  the  building  stones  in  Melbourne  and  the  neighbour- 
hood is  obtained;  it  is  also  an  important  manufacturing  centre, 
with  numerous  sugar-mills,  jute  factories,  soap  works,  woollen- 
mills,  foundries,  chemical  works  and  many  other  minor  industries. 

FOOT-STALL,  a  word  supposed  to  be  a  literal  translation  of 
piedestal,  or  pedestal,  the  lower  part  of  a  pier  in  architecture 
(see  BASE). 

FOPPA,  VINCENZO,  Italian  painter,  was  born  near  Brescia. 
The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  used  to  be  given  as  1400  and 
1492;  but  there  is  now  good  reason  for  substituting  1427  and 
1515.  He  settled  in  Pavia  towards  1456,  and  was  the  head  of  a 
Lombard  school  of  painting  which  subsisted  up  to  the  'advent 
of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  In  1489  he  returned  to  Brescia.  His 
contemporary  reputation  was  very  considerable,  his  merit  in 
perspective  and  foreshortening  being  recognized  especially. 
Among  his  noted  works  are  a  fresco  in  the  Brera  Gallery,  Milan, 
the  "  Martyrdom  of  St  Sebastian  ";  and  a  "  Crucifixion  "  in 
the  Carrara  gallery,  Bergamo,  executed  in  1455.  He  worked 
much  in  Milan  and  in  Genoa,  but  many  of  his  paintings  are 

now  lost. 

See  C.  J.  Ffoulkes  and  R.  Maiocchi,  Vincenzo  Foppa  (1910). 

FORAGE,  food  for  cattle  or  horses,  chiefly  the  provender 
collected  for  the  food  of  the  horses  of  an  army.  In  early  usage 
the  word  was  confined  to  the  dried  forage  as  opposed  to  grass. 
From  this  word  comes  "  foray,"  an  expedition  in  search  of 
"  forage,"  and  hence  a  pillaging  expedition,  a  raid.  The  word 
"  forage,"  directly  derived  from  the  Fr.  fourrage,  comes  from  a 
common  Teutonic  origin,  and  appears  in  "  fodder,"  food  for 
cattle.  The  ultimate  Indo-European  root,  pat,  cf.  Gr.  ira-motf 
Lat.  pascere,  to  feed,  gives  "  food,"  "  feed,"  "  foster  ";  and 
appears  also  in  such  Latin  derivatives  as  "  pastor,"  "  pasture." 

FORAIN,  J.  L.  (1852-  ),  French  painter  and  illustrator, 
was  born  in  1852.  He  became  one  of  the  leading  modern 
Parisian  caricaturists,  who  in  his  merciless  exposure  of  the 
weaknesses  of  the  bourgeoisie  continued  the  work  which  was 
begun  by  Daumier  under  the  second  Empire.  The  scathing 
bitterness  of  his  satire  is  as  clearly  derived  from  Daumier  as  his 
pictorial  style  can  be  traced  to  Manet  and  Degas;  but  even  in 
his  painting  he  never  suppresses  the  caustic  spirit  that  drives 
him  to  caricature.  He  has,  indeed,  been  rightly  called  "  a  Degas 
pushed  on  to  caricature."  In  his  pen-and-ink  work  he  combines 
extraordinary  economy  of  means  with  the  utmost  power  of 
expression  and  suggestion.  Forain's  popularity  dates  from  the 
publication  of  his  ComMie  parisienne,  a  series  of  two  hundred 
and  fifty  sketches  republished  in  book  form.  He  has  contributed 
many  admirable,  if  sometimes  over-daring,  pages  to  the  Figaro 
Le  Rire,  L'Assielte  au  beurre,  Le  Courrier  franQais,  and  L'ln- 
discret.  His  political  drawings  for  the  Figaro  were  republishec 
in  book  form  under  the  title  of  Doux  Pays. 

FORAKER,  JOSEPH  BENSON  (1846-  ),  American 
political  leader,  was  born  near  Rainsboro,  Highland  county 
Ohio,  on  the  sth  of  July  1846.  He  passed  his  early  life  on  a 
farm,  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  Sgth  Ohio  Volunteer  Infantry 
in  July  1862,  served  throughout  the  Civil  War,  for  part  of  the 


ime  as  an  aide  on  the  staff  of  General  H.  W.  Slocum,  and  in 
1865  received  a  captain's  brevet  for  "  efficient  services  during 
he  campaigns  in  North  Carolina  and  Georgia."  After  the  war 
ic  spent  two  years  at  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  University  and  two 
years  at  Cornell.  In  1869  he  was  admitted  to  the  Ohio  bar  and 
>egan  practice  in  Cincinnati.  He  was  a  judge  of  the  Cincinnati 
Superior  Court  from  1879  to  1882.  In  1883  he  was  the  Republican 
candidate  for  governor  of  Ohio,  but  was  defeated;  in  1885 
and  1887,  however,  he  was  elected,  but  was  again  defeated  in 
[889.  He  then  for  eight  years  practised  law  with  great  success 
n  Cincinnati.  In  1896  he  was  elected  United  States  senator 
to  succeed  Calvin  S.  Brice  (1845-1898);  in  1902  was  re-elected 
and  served  until  1909.  In  the  Senate  he  was  one  of  the  aggressive 
Republican  leaders,  strongly  supporting  the  administration  of 
President  M'Kinley  (whose  name  he  presented  to  the  Republican 
National  Conventions  of  1896  and  1900)  in  thedebatespreceding, 
during,  and  immediately  following  the  Spanish-American  War, 
and  later,  during  the  administration  of  President  Roosevelt, 
was  conspicuous  among  Republican  leaders  for  his  independence. 
He  vigorously  opposed  various  measures  advocated  by  the 
^resident,  and  led  the  opposition  to  the  president's  summary 
discharge  of  certain  negro  troops  after  the  Brownsville  raid  of 
the  I3th  of  August  1906  (see  BROWNSVILLE,  Texas). 

FORAMINIFERA,  in  zoology,  a  subdivision  of  Protozoa, 
the  name  selected  for  this  enormous  class  being  that  given  by 
A.  D'Orbigny  in  1826  to  the  shells  characteristic  of  the  majority 
of  the  species.  He  regarded  them  as  minute  Cephalopods, 
whose  chambers  communicated  by  pores  (foramina).  Later 
on  their  true  nature  was  discovered  by  F.  Dujardin,  working 
on  living  forms,  and  he  referred  them  to  his  Rhizopoda,  char- 
acterized by  pseudopodia  given  off  from  the  sarcode  (proto- 
plasm) as  organs  of  prehension  and  locomotion.  W.  B.  Carpenter 
in  1862  differentiated  the  group  nearly  in  its  present  limits  as 

Reticularia  ";  and  since  then  it  has  been  rendered  more  natural 
by  the  removal  of  a  number  of  simple  forms  (mostly  freshwater) 
with  branching  but  not  reticulate  pseudopods,  to  Filosa,  a 
distinct  subclass,  now  united  with  Lobosa  into  the  restricted 
class  of  Rhizopoda. 


FIG.  IA. — Lieberkiihnia,  with  reticulate  pseudopodia. 

Anatomy. — Protista  Sarcodina,  with  simple  protoplasmic 
bodies  of  granular  surface,  emitting  processes  which  branch 
and  anastomose  freely,  either  from  the  whole  surface  or  from 
one  or  more  elongated  processes  ("  stylopods  ") ;  nucleus  one 
or  more  (not  yet  demonstrated  in  some  little  known  simple 
forms),  usually  in  genetic  relation  to  granules  or  strands  of 
matter  of  similar  composition,  the  "  chromidia  "  scattered  through 
the  protoplasm;  body  naked,  or  provided  with  a  permanent 
investment  (shell  or  test),  membranous,  gelatinous,  arenaceous 
(of  compacted  or  cemented  granules),  calcareous,  or  very  rarely 
(in  deep  sea  forms)  siliceous,  sometimes  freely  perforated,  but 
never  latticed;  opening  by  one  or  more  permanent  apertures 
("  pylomes ")  or  crevices  between  compacted  sand-granules, 
often  very  complex;  reproduction  by  fission  'only  in  simplest 
naked  forms),  or  by  brood  formation;  in  the  latter  case  one 
mode  of  brood  formation  (A)  eventuates  in  amoebiform  embryos, 
the  other  (B)  in  flagellate  zoospores  which  are  exogamous 


FORAMINIFERA 


629 


gametes,  pairing  but  not  with  those  of  their  own  brood;  the 
coupled  cell  ("  zygote  ")  when  mature  in  the  shelled  species  gives 
rise  to  a  very  small  primitive  testj-chamber  or"  microsphere."  The 
adult  microspheric  animal  gives  rise  to  the  amoebiform  brood 
which  have  a  larger  primitive  test  ("  megalosphere  ") ;  and  megalo- 
spheric  forms  appear  to  reproduce  by  the  A  type  a  series  of 
similar  forms  before  a  B  brood  of  gametes  is  finally  borne,  to 
pair  and  reproduce  the  microspheric  type,  which  is  consequently 
rare. 

The  shells  require  special  study.  In  the  lowest  forms  they 
are  membranous,  sometimes  encrusted  with  sand-grains,  always 
very  simple,  the  only  complication  being  the  doubling  of  the 
pylome  in  Diplophrys  (fig.  2,  i),  Shepheardella  (fig.  2,  3-5), 
Amphitrema  (fig.  2,  n),  Diaplwrophodon  (fig.  2,  12).  The  marine 
shells  are,  as  we  have  seen,  of  cemented  particles,  or  calcareous, 
glassy,  and  regularly  perforated,  or  again  calcareous,  but  porcel- 
lanous  and  rarely  perforate.  These  characters  have  been  used 


FIG.  IB. — Protomyxa  aurantiaca,  Haeck.     (After  Haeckel.) 

Adult,  containing  two  diatom     2,  Adult  encysted  and  segmented. 

Flagellate  zoospore  just  freed 

from  cyst. 
Zoospore    which 


frustules.and  three  Tintinnid 
ciliates,  with  a  large  Dino- 
flagellate  just  caught  by  the 
expanded  reticulate  pseudo- 
podia. 


has    passed 
into  the  amoeboid  state. 


as  a  guide  to  classification;  but  some  sandy  forms  have  so  large 
a  proportion  of  calcareous  cement  that  they  might  well  be 
called  encrusted  calcareous  genera,  and  are  also  not  very  constant 
in  respect  of  the  character  of  perforation.  The  porcellanous 
genera,  however,  form  a  compact  group,  the  replacement  of  the 
shell  by  silica  in  forms  dwelling  in  the  red  clay  of  the  ocean 
abysses,  where  calcium  carbonate  is  soluble,  not  really  making 
any  difficulty.  Moreover,  the  shells  of  this  group  show  a  deflected 
process  or  neck  of  the  embryonic  chamber  ("  camptopyle  ")  at 
least  in  the  megalospheric  forms,  whereas  when  such  a  neck 
exists  in  other  groups  it  is  straight.  The  opening  of  the  shell 
is  called  the  pylome.  This  may  be  a  mere  hole  where  the  lateral 
walls  of  the  body  end,  or  there  may  be  a  diaphragmatic  ingrowth 
so  as  to  narrow  the  entrance.  It  may  be  a  simple  rounded 
opening,  oblong  or  tri-multi-radiate,  or  branching  (fig.  4,  i); 
or  replaced  by  a  number  of  coarse  pores  ("  ethmopyle  ")  (fig. 
3, 50).  Again,  it  may  lie  at  the  end  of  a  narrowed  tube 
("  stylopyle  "),  which  in  Lagena  (fig.  3,  0)  may  project  outwards 
("  ectoselenial  "),  or  inwards  ("  entoselenial  ")•  In  most  groups 
the  stylopyle  is  straight;  but  in  the  majority  of  the  porcellanous 
shells  it  is  bent  down  on  the  side  of  the  shell,  and  constitutes 
the  "  flexopyle  "  of  A.  Kemna,  which  being  a  hybrid  term 
should  be  replaced  by  "  camptopyle."  The  animal  usually  forms 
a  simple  shell  only  after  it  has  attained  a  certain  size,  and  this 
"  embryonic  chamber "  cannot  grow  further.  In  Spirillina 
and  Ammodiscus  there  is  no  pylomic  end- wall,  and  the  shell 
continues  to  grow  as  a  spiral  tube;  in  Cornuspira  (fig.  3,  i) 
there  is  a  slight  constriction  indicating  the  junction  of  a  small 
embryonic  chamber  with  a  camptopyle,  but  the  rest  of  the  shell 
is  a  simple  flat  spiral  of  several  turns.  In  the  majority  at  least 
one  chamber  follows  the  first,  with  its  own  pylome  at  the  distal 
end.  This  second  chamber  may  rest  on  the  first,  so  that  the  part 
on  which  it  rests  serves  as  a  party-wall  bounding  the  front  of 


678 

FIG.  2. — Allogromiidea. 


10 


1,  Diplophrys    archeri,    Barker. 

a,  Nucleus. 

b,  Contractile  vacuoles. 

c,  The   yellow  oil-like    body. 

Moor  pools,  Ireland. 

2,  Allogromia  oviformis,  Duj. 

a,  The  numerous  nuclei ;  near 
these  the  elongated  bodies 
represent  ingested  diatoms. 
Freshwater.  Figs.  2, 3, 1 1, 
12  belong  to  Rhizopoda 
Filosa,  and  are  included 
here  to  show  the  character- 
istic filose  pseudopodia  in 
contrast  with  the  reticulate 
spread  of  the  others. 

3,  Shepheardella        taeniiformis, 

Siddall   (Quart.  Jour.   After. 
Set.,  1880);   X  30  diameters. 


Marine.    The  protoplasm  is 

retracted  at  both  ends  into 

the  tubular  case. 
a,  Nucleus. 
5,  Shepheardella        taeniiformis; 

X    15;     with    pseudopodia 

fully  expanded. 
6-1O,  Varying  appearance  of  the 

nucleus  as  it  is  carried  along 

in  the  streaming  protoplasm 

within  the  tube. 

11,  Amphitrema       wrightianum, 
Archer.showing  membranous 
shell  encrusted  with  foreign 
particles.     Moor  pools,  Ire- 
land. 

12,  Dia-phorophodon  mobile, 
Archer.  [land. 

a,  Nucleus.    Moor  pools,  Ire- 


the  newer  chamber  as  well  as  the  back  of  the  older;  and  this 
state  prevails  for  all  added  chambers  in  such  cases.     In  the 


630 


FORAMINIFERA 


highest  vitreous  shells,  however,  each  chamber  has  its  complete 
"  proper  wall  ";  while  a  "  supplementary  skeleton,"  a  deposit 
of  shelly  matter,  binds  the  chambers  together  into  a  compact 
whole.  In  all  cases  the  protoplasm  from  the  pylome  may 
deposit  additional  matter  on  the  outside  of  the  shell,  so  as  to 
produce  very  characteristic  sculpturing  of  the  surface. 

Compound  or  "  polythalamic  "  shells  derive  their  general 
form  largely  from  the  relations  of  successive  chambers  in  size, 
shape  and  direction.  This  is  well  shown  in  the  porcellanous 
Miliolidae.  If  we  call  the  straight  line  uniting  the  two  ends  of  a 
chamber  the  "polar  axis,"  we  find  that  successive  chambers 


FIG.  3. — Various  forms  of  Calcareous  Foraminifera. 


1,  Cornuspira. 

2,  Spiroloculina. 

3,  Triloculina. 

4,  Biloculina. 

5,  Peneroplis. 


8,  Orbiculina  (spiral).  14,  Textularia. 

9,  Lagena.  15,  Discorbina 

10,  Nodosaria. 

11,  Cristellaria. 


12,  Globigerina. 


t/ ,     a    CrlGIVptti.  1  Al,     \JbVtstgGI  tltLt. 

6,  Orbiculina  (cyclical).     13,  Polymorphina. 

7,  Orbiculina  (young). 


16,  Polystomella. 

17,  Planorbulina. 

18,  Rotalia. 

19,  Nonionina. 


have  their  pylomes  at  alternate  poles;  but  they  lie  on  different 
meridians.  In  Spiroloculina  (fig.  3,  2)  the  divergence  between 
the  meridians  is  180°,  and  the  chambers  are  strongly  incurved, 
so  that  the  whole  shell  forms  a  flat  spiral,  of  nearly  circular 
outline.  In  the  majority,  however,  the  chambers  are  crescentic 
in  section,  their  transverse  prolongations  being  termed  "  alary  " 
outgrowths,  so  that  successive  chambers  overlap;  when  under 
this  condition  the  angle  of  successive  meridians  is  still  180° 
we  have  the  form  Biloculina  (fig.  3, 4),  orwith  the  alary  extensions 
completely  enveloping,  Uniloculina;  when  the  angle  is  120° 
we  have  Triloculina,  or  144°,  Quinqueloculina.  Again  in  Penero- 
plis (figs.  3,  5,  and  4)  the  shell  begins  as  a  flattened  shell  which 
tends  to  straighten  out  with  further  growth  and  additional 
chambers.  In  some  forms  (Spirolina,  fig.  22,  3)  the  chambers 
have  a  nearly  circular  transverse  section,  and  the  adult  shell  is 


thus  crozier-shaped.  In  others  (which  may  have  the  same  sculp- 
ture, and  are  scarcely  distinguishable  as  species)  the  chambers 
are  short  and  wide, 
drawn  out  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis,  but 
in  the  plane  of  the 
spiral,  and  the  growing 
shell  becomes  fan- 
shaped  or  "  flabelli- 
form"  (figs.  3,6,4,  2). 
This  widening  may  go 
on  till  the  outer  cham- 
bers form  the  greater 
part  of  a  circle,  as  in 
Orbiculina  (fig.  3,  6-8) 
where,  moreover,  each 
large  chamber  is  sub- 
divided by  incomplete 
vertical  bulkheads  into 
a  tier  of  chamberlets; 
each  chamberlet  has  a  2 

distinct    pylomic   pore         Fie.  4.— Modifications  of  Peneroplis. 
opening  to  the  outside  1 ,  Dendritina ;  2,  Eu-Penerophs. 

or  to  those  of  the  next 

outer  zone.     In  OrUtolites  (figs.  5,  6)  we  have  a  centre  on  a 
somewhat  Milioline  type;  and  after  a  few  chambers  in  spiral 


FIG.  5. — Shell  of  simple  type  of  Orbitolites,  showing  primordial 
chamber  a,  and  circumambient  chamber  6,  surrounded  by  successive 
rings  of  chamberlets  connected  by  circular  galleries  which  open  at 
the  margin  by  pores. 

succession,  complete  circles  of  chambers  are  formed.     In  the 

larger  forms  the  new  zones  are  of  greater  height,  and  horizontal 

bulkheads      divide 

the        chamberlets 

into  vertical   tiers, 

each  with  its  own 

pylomic  pore. 

The  Cheilostomel- 
lidae  (fig.  3,13)  re- 
produce among 
perforate  vitreous 
genera  what  we 
have  already  seen 
in  the  Miliolida: 
Orbitoides  (fig.  io,#) 
and  Cycloclypeus, 
among  the  Num- 
mulite  group,  with 
a  very  finely  per- 
forate wall,  recall 
the  porcellanous 
Orbiculina  and 
Orbitolites. 

In  flat  spiral 
forms  (figs.  22, 1,  7; 


FIG.  6. — Animal  of  simple  type  of  Orbito- 
lites, showing  primordial  segment  a,  and 
circumambient  segment  6,  surrounded  by 
annuli  of  sub-segments  connected  by  radial 
and  circular  stolon-processes. 


3,  2, 16,  19,  &c.)  all  the  chambers  may  be  freely  exposed;  or  the 
successive  chambers  be  wider  transversely  than  their  predecessors 


FORAMINIFERA 


631 


and  overlap  by  "  alary  extensions,"  becoming  "  nautiloid  ";  in 

extreme  cases  only  the 
last  turn  or  whorl  is 
seen  (fig.  n).  When 
the  spiral  axis  is  conical 
the  shell  may  be  "  rota- 
loid,"  the  larger  lower 
chambers  partially  con- 
cealing the  upper 
smaller  ones  (fig.  3,  12, 
15,  17,  18);  or  they 
may  leave,  as  in  Paid- 
Una,  a  wide  central 
conical  cavity — which, 
in  this  genus,  is  finally 
occupied  by  later 
formed  "  supplement- 
ary "  chambers.  When 
FIG.  7.— Section  of  Rotalia  beccarii,  the  successive  chambers 
showing  the  canal  system,  a,  6,  c,  in  the  are  disposed  around  a 
substance  of  the  intermediate  skeleton;  longitudinal  central 
d,  tubulated  chamber-wall.  axis  they  may  be  said 

to  "  alternate  "  like  the  leaves  of  a  plant.    If  the  arrangement 


FIG.  8. — Internal  cast  of  Polystomella  craticulata. 


o,  Retral  processes,  proceeding 
from  the  posterior  margin 
of  one  of  the  segments. 

b,  b1,  Smooth  anterior  margin  of 

the  same  segment. 

c,  c1,    Stolons  connecting  succes- 

sive segments  and  uniting 
themselves  with  the  di- 

is  distichous  we  get  such  forms 
and  Frondicularia  (fig.  3,  13,  Uf), 


verging  branches  of  the 
meridional  canals. 

d,  d1,  d?,    Three  turns  of  one  of 

the  spiral  canals. 

e,  el,  e2,      Three  of  the  meridional 

canals. 

/,  /',  f,    Their   diverging 
branches. 

as  Polymorphina,   Textularia 
if  tristichous,  Tritaxia.    Such 


FIG.  9. — Operculina  laid  open,  to  show  its  internal  structure. 

a,  Marginal  cord  seen  in  cross  interseptal     canals,     the 

section  at  a',     [chambers.  general     distribution     of 

b,  b,     External     walls     of     the  which  is  seen  in  the  septa 

c,  c,      Cavities  of  the  chambers.  e,  e;    the    lines  radiating 
c',  c',    Their  alar  prolongations.  from   e,   e   point   to   the 

d,  d,      Septa  divided  at  d',  d',  and  secondary  pores. 

at  d",  so  as  to  lay  open  the     g,  g.     Non-tubular  columns, 
an  arrangement  may  coexist  with  a  spiral  twist  of  the  axis  for 
at  least  part  of  its  course,  as  in  the  crozier-shaped  Spiroplecta. 


Two  phenomena  interfere  with  the  ready  availability  of  the 
characters  of  form  for  classificatory  ends — dimorphism  and 
multiformity. 

Dimorphism. — The  majority  of  foraminiferal  shells  show  two 
types,  the  rarer  with  a  much  smaller  central  chamber  than  that 
of  the  more  frequent.  The  chambers  are  called  microsphere 


FIG.  10. — ?,  Piece  of  Nummulitic  Limestone  from  the  Pyrenees, 
showing  Nummulites  laid  open  by  fracture  through  the  median 
plane;  2,  vertical  section  of  Nummulite;  3,  Orbiloides. 

and  megalosphere,  the  forms  in  which  they  occur  microsphaeric 
and  megalosphaeric  forms,  respectively.  We  shall  study  below 
their  relation  to  the  reproductive  cycle. 

Multiformity. — Many  of  the  Polythalamia  show  different 
types  of  chamber-succession  at  different  ages.  We  have  noted 


FIG.  n. — Vertical  section  of  portion  of  Nummulites,  showing  the 
investment  of  the  earlier  whorls  by  the  alar  prolongations  of  the 
later. 

/,  Investing  portion  of  the 
outer  whorl. 

g,  g,  Spaces  left  between  the  in- 
vesting portions  of  succes- 


Marginal  cord. 

Chamber   of   outer   whorl. 

Whorl  invested  by  a. 

One  of  the  chambers  of  the 
fourth  whorl  from  the 
margin.  [closed  whorls. 
e,  e'.  Marginal  portions  of  the  en- 


a, 
b, 

c,  c, 
d, 


sive  whorls. 
h,  h,  Sections  of   the  partitions 
dividing  these. 


this  phenomenon  in  such  crozier  forms  as  Peneroplis,  as  well  as 
in  discoid  forms;  it  is  very  frequent.  Thus  the  microspheric 
Biloculina  form  the  first  few  chambers  in  quinqueloculine 
succession.  The  microspheric  forms  attain  to  a  greater  size 
when  adult  than  the  megalospheric;  and  in  Orbitolites  the 
microsphere  has  a  straight 
outlet,  orthostyle,  instead 
of  the  deflected  campto- 
style  one,  so  general  in 
porcellanous  types;  and 
the  spiral  succession  is  con- 
tinued for  more  turns  before 
reaching  the  fan-shaped 
and  finally  cyclic  stage. 
Globigerina,  whose  cham- 
bers are  nearly  spherical,  _ 
.  ,  rlG.  12. — Internal  surface  ot  wall 

is  sometimes  seen  to  be  of  two  charnbers,  a,  a,  of  Nummulites, 
enclosed  in  a  spherical  test,  showing  the  orifices  of  its  minute 
perforate,  but  without  a  tubuli. 

pylome,     and     known     as  b<b-  The  septa  containing  canals. 
rt  t,   r          ,.,,         r,       L       j   c,  c.    Extensions  of  these  canals  in  the 
Orbuhna;    the     chambered  intermediate  skeleton. 

Globigerina-shell    is  d,  d,  Larger  pores, 
attached  at  first  inside  the 

wall  of  the  Orbulina,  but  ultimately  disappears.  The  ultimate 
fate  of  the  Orbulina  shell  is  unknown;  but  it  obviously  marks 
a  turning-point  in  the  life-cycle. 

Protoplasmic  Body  and  Reproduction. — -The   protoplasm  is  not 
differentiated  into  ectb-  and  endosarc,  although  it  is  often  denser 


632 


FORAMINIFERA 


in  the  central  part  within  the  shell,  and  clearer  in  the  pseudopodial 
ramifications  and  the  layer  (or  stalk  in  the  monothalamic  forms) 
from  which  it  is  given  off.  In  pelagic  forms  like  Globigerina  the 
external  layer  is  almost  if  not  quite  identical  in  structure  with  the 
extracapsular  protoplasm  of  Radiolaria  (q.v.),  _  being  differentiated 
into  granular  strands  traversing  a  clear  jelly,  rich  in  large  vacuoles 
(alveoli),  and  uniting  outside  the  jelly  to  form  the  basal  layer  of  the 
pseudopods;  these  again  are  radiolarian  in  character.  Hence  E.  R. 
Lankester  justly  enough  compares  the  shell  here  to  the  central 
capsule  of  the  Radiolarian,  though  the  comparison  must  not  be 

pushed   too   far.     The   cyto- 

^^-si^sg^js—,-^^  plasm    contains    granules    of 

'0  BljEifireUidliSmHlHhl  various  kinds,  and  the  in- 
ternal protoplasm  is  some- 
times pigmented.  The  Chry- 
somonad  Flagellate,  Zooxan- 
thella,  so  abundant  in  its 
resting  state — the  so-called 
"  yellow  cells  " — -in  the  ex- 
tracapsular protoplasm  of 
Radiolaria  (q.v.)  also  occurs 
in  the  outer  protoplasm  of 
many  Foraminifera,  not  only 
pelagic  but  also  bottonv 
dwellers,  such  as  Orbitolites. 

The  nucleus  is  single  in  the 
Nuda   and   Allogromidia   and 
in    the    megalospheric    forms 
FIG.  13.— Internal    cast    of    two  of  higher  Foraminifera;     but 
chambers,  a,  a,  of  Nummtdites,  the  microspheric      forms      when 
radial  canals  between  them  passing  adult    contain    many    simple 
into  6,  marginal  plexus.  similar   nuclei.     The   nucleus 

in      every      case      gives      off 

granules  and  irregular  masses  ("  chromidia ")  of  similar  reac- 
tions, which  play  an  important  part  in  reproduction.  During 
the  maturation  of  the  microsphere  the  nuclei  disappear;  and  the 
cytoplasm  breaks  up  into  a  large  number  of  zoospores,  each 
of  which  is  soon  provided  with  a  single  nucleus,  whether  entirely 
derived  from  the  parent-nucleus  or  from  the  coalescence  of  chromidia, 
or  from  both  these  sources  is  still  uncertain.  These  zoospores  are 
amoeboid;  they  soon  secrete  a  shell  and  reveal  themselves  as 
megalospheres,  the  original  state  of  the  megalospheric  forms.  In 
the  adult  megalosphere  the  solitary  nucleus  disappears  and  is  re- 
placed by  hosts  of  minute  vesicular  nuclei,  formed  by  the  concen- 
tration of  chromidia.  Each  nucleus  aggregates  around  it  a  proper 
zone  of  dense  protoplasm ;  by  two  successive  mitotic  divisions  each 
mass  becomes  quadri-nucleate,  and  splits  up  into  four  biflagellate, 
uninucleate  zoospores.  These  are  pairing-cells  or  gametes,  though 
they  v/ill  not  pair  with  members  of  the  same  brood.  In  the  zygote 
resulting  from  pairing  two  nuclei  soon  fuse  into  one ;  but  this  again 
divides  into  two;  an  embryonic  shell  is  secreted,  and  this  is  the 
microspheric  type,  which  is  multinuclear  from  the  first.  F. 
Schaudinn  compares  the  nuclei  of  the  adult  Foraminifera  with  the 
(vegetative)  meganucleus  of  Infusora  (q.v.)  and  the  chromidial  mass 
with  the  micronucleus,  whose  chief  function  is  reproductive. 

Since  megalospheric  forms  are  by  far  the  most  abundant,  it  seems 
probable  that  under  most  conditions  they  also  give  rise  to  megalo- 
spheric young  like  themselves ;  and  that  the  production  of  zoospores, 


FIG.  14. — Vertical  section  of  tubulated  chamber-walls,  a,  a,  of 
Nummulites.  b,  b,  Marginal  cord;  c,  cavity  of  chamber ;  d,  d,  non- 
tubulated  columns. 

pairing  to  pass  into  the  microspheric  form,  is  only  occasional,  and 
possibly  seasonal.  This  life-history  we  owe  to  the  researches  of 
Schaudinn  and  J.  J.  Lister. 

In  several  species  (notably  Patellina)  plastogamy,  the  union  of 
the  cytoplasmic  bodies  without  nuclear  fusion,  has  been  noted,  as 
a  prelude  to  the  resolution  of  the  conjoined  protoplasm  into  uni- 
nucleate amoebulae. 

Calcituba,  a  pprcellanous  type,  which  after  forming  the  embryonic 
chamber  with  its  deflected  pylome  grows  into  branching  stems, 
may  fall  apart  into  sections,  or  the  protoplasm  may  escape  and 
break  up  into  small  amoebulae.  Of  the  reproduction  of  the  simplest 
forms  we  know  little.  In  Mikrogromia  the  cell  undergoes  fission 
within  the  test,  and  on  its  completion  the  daughter-cells  may 
emerge  as  biflagellate  zoospores. 


The  sandy  shells  are  a  very  interesting  series.  In  Astrorhiza  the 
sand  grains  are  loosely  agglutinated,  without  mineral  cement; 
they  leave  numerous  pores  for  the  exit  of  the  protoplasm,  and  there 
are  no  true  pylomes.  In  other  forms  the  union  of  the  grains  by  a 
calcareous  or  ferruginous  cement  necessitates  the  existence  of 
distinct  pylomes.  Many  of  the  species  reproduce  the  varieties  of 
form  found  in  calcareous  tests;  some  are  finely  perforated,  others 
not.  Many  of  the  larger  ones  have  their  walls  thickened  internally 
and  traversed  by  complex  passages;  this  structure  is  called  laby- 


FIG.  15. — Cycloclypeus. 

rinthic  (fig.  19,  g,  h).  The  shell  of  Endothyra,  a  form  only  known  to 
us  by  its  abundance  in  Carboniferous  and  Triassic  strata,  is  largely 
composed  of  calcite  and  is  sometimes  perforated. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  though  of  similar  habitat  each  species  selects 
its  own  size  or  sort  of  sand,  some  utilizing  the  siliceous  spicules  of 
sponges.  Despite  the  roughness  of  the  materials,  they  are  often 
so  laid  as  to  yield  a  perfectly  smooth  inner  wall;  and  sometimes 
the  outer  wall  may  be  as  simple.  As  we  can  find  no  record  of  a 
deflected  stylopyle  to  the  primitive  chamber  of  the  polythalamous 
Arenacea,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  they  have  no  close  alliance  with 
the  Porcellanea. 

Classification. 

I.  NUDA. — Protoplasmic  body  without  any  pellicle  or  shell  save 
in  the  resting  encysted  condition,  sometimes  forming 
colonial  aggregates  by  coalescence  of  pseudopods  (Myxo- 
dictyum),  or  even  plasmodia  (Protomyxa).  Brood-cells  at 
first  uniflagellate  or  amoeboid  from  birth.  Fresh-water 
and  marine  genera  Protogenes  (Haeckel),  Biomyxa  (Leidy), 
Myxodictyum  (Haeckel),  Protomyxa  (Haeckel)  (fig.  IB). 

This  group  of  very  simple  forms  includes  many  of 
Haeckel's  Monera,  denned  as  "  cytodes,"  masses  of  proto- 
plasm without  a  nucleus.  A  nucleus  (or  nuclei)  has, 
however,  been  demonstrated  by  improved  methods  of 
staining  in  so  many  that  it  is  probable  that  this  distinction 
will  fall  to  the  ground. 

'  II.  ALLOGROMiDiACEAE(figs.iA,  2). — Protoplasmic  body  protected 
in  adult  state  by  an  imperforate  test  with  one  or  two 
openings  (pylomes)  for  the  exit  of  the  stylopod;  test 
simple,  gelatinous,  membranous,  sometimes  incrusted  with 
foreign  bodies, 
never  calcareous 
nor  arenaceous ; 
reproduction  by 
fission  alone 
known.  Fresh- 
water or  marine 
genera  Allogromia 
(Rhumbl.),  Myxo- 
theca  (Schaud.), 
Lieberkuhnia  (Cl. 
&  L.)  (fig.  IA), 
Shephear della 
(Siddall)  (fig.  2, 
3-10),  Diplophrys 
(Barker),  Amphi- 
trema  (Arch.)  (fig. 
2,  //),  Diaphoro- 
phodon  (Arch.) (fig. 
2,  12),  are  possibly 
F  i  1  o  s  a.  This 
group  differs  from  the  preceding  in  its  simple  test,  but, 
like  it,  includes  many  fresh-water  species,  which  possess 
contractile  vacuoles. 

III.  ASTRORHIZIDIACEAE. — Simple  forms,  rarely  polythalamous 
(some  Rhabdamminidae) ,  but  often  branching  or  radiate; 
test  arenaceous,  loosely  compacted  and  traversed  by  chinks 
for  pseudopodia  (Astrorhizidae),  or  dense,  and  opening  by 
one  or  more  terminal  pylomes  at  ends  of  branches.  Marine, 
4  Fam.  The  test  of  some  Astrorhizidae  is  so  loose  that  it 
falls  to  pieces  when  taken  out  of  water.  Haliphysema  is 
remarkable  for  its  history  in  relation  to  the  "  gastraea 
theory."  Pilulina  has  a  neat  globular  shell  of  sponge- 
spicules  and  fine  sand.  Genera,  Astrorhiza  (Sandahl) 


FIG.  16.- — Heterostegina. 


FORAMINIFERA 


633 


(fig.  22),  Pilulina  (Carptr.)  (fig.  19),  Saccammina  (Sars) 
(fig.  19),  Rhabdammina  (Sars),  Botellina  (Carptr.),  Hali- 
physema  (Bowerbank)  (fig.  22). 

IV.  LITUOLIDACEAE. — Shell  arenaceous,  usually  fine-grained, 
definite  and  often  polythalamic,  recalling  in  structure 
calcareous  forms.  Lituola  (Lamk.)  (fig.  19),  Endothyra 
(Phil.),  Ammodiscus  (Reuss),  Loftusia  (Brady),  Haplo- 
phragmium  (Reuss)  (fig.  22),  Thurammina  (Brady)  (fig.  22). 
V.  MILIOLIDACEAE. — Shells  porcellanous  imperforate,  almost 
invariably  with  a  camptostyle  leading  from  the  embryonic 


VIII. 


LAGENIDACEAE. — Shells  vitreous,  often  sculptured,  mono- 
or  polythalamic,  finely  perforate;  chambers  flask-shaped, 
with  a  protruding  or  an  inturned  stylopyle;  Lagena 
(Walker  &  Boys)  (fig.  4,  9);  Nodosaria  (Lamk.)  (figs. 
23,  4;  4,  10);  Polymorphina  (d'Orb.)  (fig.  4,  13); 
Crislellaria  (Lamk.)  (fig.  4,  //);  Frondicularia  (Def.) 
(fig.  23,  3). 

IX.  GLOBIGERINIDACEAE. — Shells  vitreous,  coarsely  perforated; 
chambers  few  spheroidal  rapidly  increasing  in  size ; 
arranged  in  a  trochoid  or  nautiloid  spiral.  Globigerina 
(Lamk.)  (23,  6;  4,  12);  Hastigerina 
(Wyville  Thompson)  (fig.  23,  5) ;  Orbu- 
lina  (d'Orb.)  (fig.  23,  8). 
ROTALIDACEAE. — Shells  vitreous,  finely 
perforate;  walls  thick,  often  double, 
but  without  an  intermediate  party- 
layer  traversed  by  canals;  form  usually 
spiral  or  trochoid.  Discorbina  (Parker 
&  Jones)  (fig.  4,  15);  Planorbulina 
(d'Orb.)  (fig.  4,  17);  Rotalia  (Lamk.) 
(figs.  23,  7,  2;  7,21);  Calcarina  (d'Orb.) 
(fig.  23,  10); 
23,  9). 


X. 


Polytrema   (Risso)    (fig. 


Modified  from  F.  Schaudinn,  in  Lang's  Zoologie. 

FIG.  17. — Life  Cycle  of  Polystomella  crispa. 


A,  Young  megalospheric  individual. 

B,  Adult  decalcified. 

C,  Later  stage,  resolving  itself  into  two 

flagellate  gametes. 

D,  Conjugation.  [zygote. 

E,  M  icrospheric  individual  produced  from 

F,  The  same  resolved  itself  into  pseudo- 


podiospores  which  are  growing  into 
new  megalospheric  individuals. 
1,  Principal  nucleus,  and  2,  subsidiary 
nuclei  of  megalospheric  form. 

3,  Nuclei. 

4,  Nuclei  in  multiple  division. 

5,  Chromidia  derived  from  4- 


VI. 


VII. 


chamber;  Cornuspira  (Schultze)  (fig.  3);  Miliola  (Lamk.), 
including  as  subgenera  Spiroloculina  (d'Orb.)  (figs.  3  and 
22);  Triloculina  (d'Orb.)  (fig.  3);  Biloculina  (d'Orb.) 
(fig.  3);  Uniloculina  (d'Orb.);  Quinqueloculina  (d'Orb.); 
Peneroplis  (Montfort)  (figs.  22,  3;  3),  with  form  Dendritina 
(fig.  4,  1);  Orbiculina  (Lamk.)  (fig.  3,  6-8) ;  Orbilolites 
(Lamk.)  (figs.  5,  6);  Vertebralina  (d'Orb.)  (fig.  22); 
Squamulina  (Sch.)  (fig.  22);  Calcituba  (Schaudinn). 

TEXTULARIADACEAE. — Shells  perforate,  vitreous  or  (in  the 
larger  forms)  arenaceous,  in  two  or  three  alternating  ranks 
(distichous  or  tristichous).  Textularia  (Defrance)  (fig. 
21). 

CHEILOSTOMELLACEAE. — Shells  vitreous,  thin-,  the  chambers 
doubling  forwards  and  backwards  as  in  Miliolidae.  Cheilo- 
stomella  (Reuss). 


FIG.  i8.—Biloculina  depressa  d'Orb.,  transverse 
sections  showing  dimorphism.      (From  Lister.) 

a,  Megalospheric     shell  X  50,     showing     uniform 

growth,  biloculine  throughout. 

b,  M  icrospheric     shell  X  90,     showing    multiform 

growth,   quinqueloculine  at   first,   and   then 
multiform. 

XI.  NUMMULINIDACEAE. — As  in  Rotalidaceae, 
but  with  a  thicker  finely  perforated 
shell,  often  well  developed,  and  a  supple- 
mentary skeleton  traversed  by  branch- 
ing canals  as  an  additional  party-wall 
between  the  proper  chamber-walls. 
Nonionina  (d'Orb.)  (fig.  4,  19);  Fusu- 
lina  (Fischer)  (fig.  20) ;  Polystomella 
(Lamk.)  (figs.  4,  16;  8);  Operculina, 
(d'Orb.)  (fig.  9) ;  Helerostegina  (d'Orb.) 
(fig.  16);  Cyclodypeus  (Carptr.)  (fig. 
15);  Nummulites  (Lamk.)  (figs.  10,  n, 
12,  13,  H)- 

"Eozoon  canadense,"  described  as  a  species  of  this 
order  by  J.  W.  Dawson  and  Carpenter,  has  been 
pronounced  by  a  series  of  enquirers,  most  of  whom 
started  with  a  belief  in  its  organic  structure,  to  be  merely  a  com- 
plex mineral  concretion  in  ophicalcite,  a  rock  composed  of  an 
admixture  of  silicates  (mostly  serpentine  and  pyroxene)  and 
calcite. 

Distribution  in  Vertical  Space. — Owing  to  their  lack  of 
organs  for  active  locomotion  the  Foraminifera  are  all  crawling  or 
attached,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  genera  (very  rich  in  species, 
however)  which  float  near  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  constituting 
part  of  the  pelagic  plankton  (q.v.).  Thus  the  majority  are 
littoral  or  deep-sea,  sometimes  attached  to  other  bodies  or  even 
burrowing  in  the  tests  of  other  Foraminifera;  most  of  the 
fresh-water  forms  are  sapropelic,  inhabiting  the  layer  of  organic 


634 


FORAMINIFERA 


debris  at  the  surface  of  the  bottom  mud  ditches  of  pools,  ponds 
and  lakes.  The  deep-sea  species  below  a  certain  depth  cannot 
possess  a  calcareous  shell,  for  this  would  be  dissolved;  and  it 
is  in  these  that  we  find  limesalts  sometimes  replaced  by  silica. 
The  pelagic  floating  genera  are  also  specially  modified.  Their 
shell  is  either  thin  or  extended  many  times  by  long  slender 
tapering  spines,  and  the  protoplasm  outside  has  the  same 
character  as  that  of  the  Radiolaria  (q.v.),  being  differentiated 
into  jelly  containing  enormous  vacuoles  and  traversed  by 
reticulate  strands  of  granular  protoplasm.  These  coalesce 
into  a  peripheral  zone  from  which  protrude  the  pseudo- 


FIG.  19. — Arenaceous  Foraminifera. 

a,  Exterior  of  Saccammina.  f,   Nautiloid  Lituola,  exterior. 

b,  The  same  laid  open. 

c,  Portion  of  test  more  highly 

magnified. 

d,  Pilulina.  [magnified. 

e,  Portion  of  test   more  highly 


Chambered  interior. 

Portion  of  labyrinthic  cham- 
ber wall,  showing  component 
sand-grains. 


pods,  here  rather  radiate  than  reticulate.  Most  genera  and 
most  species  are  cosmopolitan;  but  local  differences  are  often 
marked.  Foraminifera  abound  in  the  shore  sands  and  the 
crevices  of  coral  reefs.  The  membranous  shelled  forms  decay 
without  leaving  traces.  The  sandy  or  calcareous  shells  of  dead 
Foraminifera  constitute  a  large  proportion  of  littoral  sand, 
both  below  and  above  tide  marks;  and,  as  shown  in  the  boring 
on  Funafuti,  enter  largely  into  the  constituents  of  coral  rock. 
They  may  accumulate  in  the  mud  of  the  bottom  to  constitute 
Foraminiferal  ooze.  The  source  of  these  shells  in  the  latter 
case  is  double:  (i)  shells  of  bottom-dwellers  accumulate  on  the 
spot;  (2)  shells  of  dead  plankton  forms  sink  down  in  a  continuous 
shower,  to  form  a  layer  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  during  which 
process  the  spines  are  dissolved  by  the  sea-water.  Thus  is 
formed  an  ooze  known  as  "  Globigerina-ooze,"  being  formed 
largely  of  that  genus  and  its  ally  Hastigerina;  below  3000  fathoms 
even  the  tests  themselves  are  dissolved.  Casts  of  their  bodies 


in  glauconite  (a  green  ferrous  silicate,  whose  composition  has 
not  yet  been  accurately  determined)  are,  however,  frequently  left. 
Glauconitic  casts  of  perforate  shells,  notably  Globigerma,  have 
been  found  in  Lower  Cambrian  (e.g.  Hollybush  Sandstone), 
and  the  shells  themselves  in  Siberian  limestones  of  that  age. 
It  is  only  when  we  pass  into  the  Silurian  Wenlock  limestone 
that  sandy  shells  make  their  appearance.  Above  this  horizon 
Foraminifera  are  more  abundant  as  constituents,  partial  or 
principal  of  calcareous  rocks,  the  genus  Endothyra  being  indeed 
almost  confined  to  Carboniferous  beds.  The  genus  Fusulina 
(fig.  20)  and  Saccammina  (fig.  19)  give  their  names  (from  their 


FIG.  20. — Section  of  Fusulina  Limestone. 

respective  abundance)  to  two  limestones  of  the  Carboniferous 
series.  Porcellanous  shells  become  abundant  only  from  the 
Lias  upwards.  The  glauconitic  grains  of  the  Greensand  forma- 
tions are  chiefly  foraminiferal  casts.  Chalk  is  well  known  to 
consist  largely  of  foraminiferal  shells,  mostly  vitreous,  like 
the  north  Atlantic  globigerina  ooze.  In  the  Maestricht  chalk 
more  littoral  conditions  prevailed,  and  we  find  such  large-sized 


FIG.  21. — Microscopic  Organisms  in  Chalk  from  Gravesend. 
a,  b,  c,  d,  Textularia  globulosa ;  e,  e,  e,  e,  Rotalia  aspera ;  f,  Textularia 
aculeata ;  g,  Planularia  hexas ;  h,  Navicula. 

species  as  Orbiloides  (vitreous)  and  OrUtolites  (porcellanous; 
figs.  5, 6),  &c.  In  the  Eocene  Tertiaries  the  Calcaire  Grossier  of 
the  Paris  basin  is  mainly  composed  of  Miliolid  forms.  Num- 
mulites  occur  in  English  beds  and  in  the  Paris  basin;  but  the 
great  beds  of  these,  forming  reef-like  masses  of  limestone,  occur 
farther  south,  extending  from  the  Pyrenees  through  the  southern 
and  eastern  Alps  to  Egypt,  Sinai,  and  on  to  north  India.  The 
peculiar  structure  occurring  in  the  Lower  Laurentian  limestone, 
as  well  as  other  limestones  of  Archean  age  described  as  a  Num- 
mulitaceous  genus,  "  Eozoon,"  by  Carpenter  and  Dawson,  and 
abundantly  illustrated  in  the  gth  edition  of  his  encyclopaedia, 
is  now  universally  regarded  as  of  inorganic  origin.  "  Looking 


FORAMINIFERA 


635 


FIG.  22. — Imperforata. 

/,  Spiroloculina  planulata,  Lamarck,  showing  five  "coils";   porcellanous. 

2,  Young  ditto,  with  shell  dissolved  and  protoplasm  stained  so  as  to  show  the  seven 
nuclei  n. 

j,  Spirolina  (Peneroplis);   a  sculptured  imperfectly  coiled  shell;   porcellanous. 

4,  Vertebralina,  a  simple  shell  consisting  of  chambers  succeeding  one  another  in  a 
straight  line;  porcellanous. 

5,  6,  Thurammina  papillata,  Brady,  a  sandy  form.     5  Is  broken  open  so  as  to  show 
an  inner  chamber;  recent.     X  25. 

7,  Haplophragmium  canariensis,  a  sandy  form;  recent. 

8,  Nucleated  reproductive  bodies  (bud-spores)  of  Halipkysema. 

Q,  Squamulina  laevis,  M.  Schultze;  X  40;  a  simple  porcellanous  Miliolide. 

70,  Protoplasmic  core  removed  after  treatment  with  weak  chromic  acid  from  the  shell 
of  Haliphysetna  tiimanoriizii.  Bow.  «,  Vesicular  nuclei,  stained  with  haematoxylin. 
(After  Lankester.) 

77,  ffaliphysema  tumanovitzii;  X  25  diam.;  living  specimen,  showing  the  wine- 
glass-shaped shell  built  up  of  sand-grains  and  sponge-spiculcs,  and  the  abundant  proto- 
plasm p,  issuing  from  the  mouth  of  the  shell  and  spreading  partly  over  its  projecting 
constituents. 

7.2,  Shell  of  Astrorhiza  limicola.  Sand.;  X  3;  showing  the  branching  of  the  test  on 
some  of  the  rays  usually  broken  away  in  preserved  specimens  (original). 

13,  Section  of  the  shell  of  Marsipella,  showing  thick  walls  built  of  sand-grains. 


10 


FIG.  23. — Perforata. 


7(  Spiral  arrangement  of  simple  chambers  of  a  Reticularian  shell,  as  in  small  Rofalia. 

2,  Ditto,  with  double  septal  walls,  and  supplemental  shell-substance  (shaded),  as  in 
large  Rotalia. 

j,  Diagram  to  show  the  mode  in  which  successively-formed  chambers  may  com- 
pletely embrace  their  predecessors,  as  in  Frondicularia. 

4t  Diagram  of  a  simple  straight  series  of  non-embracing  chambers,  as  in  Nodo- 
saria, 

5,  Hastigerina  murrayi,  Wyv.  Thomson,  a.  Bubbly  (vacuolated)  protoplasm,  en- 
closing b,  the  perforated  Globiger ma-like  shell  (conf.  central  capsuje  of  Radiolaria). 
From  the  peripheral  protoplasm  project,  not  only  fine  pseudopodia,  but  hollow  spines  of 
calcareous  matter,  which  are  set  on  the  shell,  and  have  an  axis  of  active  protoplasm. 
Pelagic;  drawn  in  the  living  state. 

6t  Globigerina  bulloides,  d'Orb.,  showing  the  punctiform  perforations  of  the  shell  and 
the  main  aperture. 

7,  Fragment  of  the  shell  of  Globigerina,  seen  from  within,  and  highly  magnified.  a, 
Fme  perforations  in  the  inner  shell  substances;  6,  outer  (secondary)  shell  substance. 
Two  coarser  perforations  are  seen  in  section,  and  one  lying  among  the  smaller. 

_  8,  Orbulina  universa,  d'Orb.  Pelagic  example,  with  adherent  radiating  calcareous 
spines  (hollow),  and  internally  a  small  Globigerina  shell.  It  is  probably  a  develop- 
mental phase  of  Globigerina.  a,  Orbulina  shell;  &,  Globigerina  shell. 

0,  Polytrema  miniaeewn,  Lin.;  X  12.  Mediterranean.  Example  of  a  branched 
adherent  calcareous  perforate  Recticularian. 

70,  Calcarina  spengleri,  Gmel.;  X  10.  Tertiary,  Sicily.  Shell  dissected  so  as  to 
show  the  spiral  arrangement  of  the  chambers,  and  the  copious  secondary  shell  substance. 
a2,  o3,  a*,  Chambers  of  three  successive  coils  in  section,  showing  the  thin  primary  wall 
(finely  tubulate)  of  each;  b,  b,  bt  bt  perforate  surfaces  of  the  primary  wall  of  four  tiers 
of  chambers,  from  which  the  secondary  shell  substance  has  been  cleared  away;  cf,  cft 
secondary  or  intermediate  shell  substance  in  section,  showing  coarse  canals;  d,  section 
of  secondary  shell  substance  at  right  angles  to  c'\  e,  tubercles  of  secondary  shell  sub- 
stance on  the  surface;  /,  /,  club-like  processes  of  secondary  shell  substance. 


636 


FORBACH— FORBES,  ARCHIBALD 


at  the  almost  universal  diffusion  of  existing  Foraminifera  and 
the  continuous  accumulation  of  their  shells  over  vast  areas  of 
the  ocean-bottom,  they  are  certainly  doing  more  than  any  other 
group  of  organisms  to  separate  carbonate  of  lime  from  its  solution 
in  sea-water,  so  as  to  restore  to  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth  what 
is  being  continuously  withdrawn  from  it  by  solution  of  the 
calcareous  materials  of  the  land  above  sea-level."  (E.  R.  Lan- 
kester,  "  Protozoa,"  Ency.  Brit,  gth  ed.) 

Historical. — The  Foraminifera  were  discovered  as  we  have 
seen  by  A.  d'Orbigny.  C.  E.  Ehrenberg  added  a  large  number 
of  species,  but  it  was  to  F.  Dujardin  in  1835  that  we  owe  the 
recognition  of  their  true  zoological  position  and  the  characters 
of  the  living  animal.  W.  B.  Carpenter  and  W.  C.  Williamson 
in  England  contributed  largely  to  the  study  of  the  shell,  the 
latter  being  the  first  to  call  attention  to  its  multiform  character 
in  the  development  of  a  single  species,  and  to  utilize  the  method 
of  thin  sections,  which  has  proved  so  fertile  in  results.  W.  K. 
Parker  and  H.  B.  Brady,  separately,  and  in  collaboration, 
described  an  enormous  number  of  forms  in  a  series  of  papers, 
as  well  as  in  the  monograph  by  the  latter  of  the  Foraminifera 
of  the  "  Challenger  "  expedition.  Munier-Chalmas  and  Schlum- 
berger  brought  out  the  fact  of  dimorphism  in  the  group,  which 
was  later  elucidated  and  incorporated  in  the  full  cytological 
study  of  the  life-cycle  of  Foraminifera  by  J.  J.  Lister  and  F. 
Schaudinn,  independently,  but  with  concurrent  results. 

LITERATURE. — The  chief  recent  books  are:  F.  Chapman,  The 
For-aminifera  (1902),  and  J.  J.  Lister,  "  The  Foraminifera,"  in  E.  R. 
Lankester's  Treatise  on  Zoology  (1903),  in  which  full  bibliographies 
will  be  found.  For  a  final  resume  of  the  long  controversy  on  Eozoon, 
see  George  P.  Merrill  in  Report  of  the  U.S.  National  Museum  (1906), 
p.  635.  Other  classifications  of  the  Foraminifera  will  be  found  by 
G.  H.  Theodor  Eimer  and  C.  Fickert  in  Zeitschr.fiir  wissenschaftliche 
Zoologie,  Ixv.  (1899),  p.  599,  and  L.  Rhumbler  in  A rchiv  fur  Protisten- 
kunde,  iii.  (1903-1904) ;  the  account  of  the  reproduction  is  based  on 
the  researches  of  J.  J.  Lister,  summarized  in  the  above-cited  work, 
and  of  F.  Schaudinn,  in  Arbeiten  des  kaiserlichen  Gesundheitsamts, 
xix.  (1903).  We  must  also  cite  W.  B.  Carpenter,  W.  K.  Parker  and 
T.  Rymer  Jones,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Foraminifera  (Ray 
Society)  (1862);  W.  B.  Carpenter,  "  Foraminifera,"  in  Ency.  Brit., 
9th  ed.;  W.  C.  Williamson,  On  the  Recent  Foraminifera  of  Great 
Britain  (Ray  Society),  (1858);  H.  B.  Brady,  "  The  Foraminifera," 
in  Challenger  Reports,  ix.  (1884);  A.  Kemna,  in  Ann.  de  la  soc. 
royale  zoologique  et  malacologique  de  Belgique,  xxxvii.  (1902),  p.  60; 
xxxix.  (1904),  p.  7. 

Appendix. — The  XENOPHYOPHORIDAE  are  asmallgroupof  bottom- 
dwelling  Sarcodina  which  show  a  certain  resemblance  to  arenaceous 
Foraminifera,  though  observations  in  the  living  state  show  that  the 
character  of  the  pseudopodia  is  lacking.  The  multinucleate  proto- 
plasm is  contained  in  branching  tubes,  aggregated  into  masses  of 
definite  form,  bounded  by  a  common  wall  of  foreign  bodies  (sponge 
spicules,  &c.)  cemented  into  a  membrane.  The  cytoplasm  contains 
granules  of  BaSp4  and  pellets  of  faecal  matter.  All  that  is  known 
of  reproduction  is  the  resolution  of  the  pellets  into  uninucleate  cells. 
(F.  E.  Schultze,  Wissenschaftliche  Ergebnisse  der  deutschen  Tiefsee- 
Expedition,  vol.  xi.,  1905,  pt.  i.)  (M.  HA.) 

FORBACH,  a  town  of  Germany  in  the  imperial  province  of 
Alsace-Lorraine,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Rossel,  and  on  the  railway 
from  Metz  to  Saarbrucken,  5^  m.  S. W.  of  the  latter.  Pop. 
(1905)  8193.  It  has  a  Protestant  and  a  Roman  Catholic  (Gothic) 
church,  a  synagogue  and  a  Progymnasium.  Its  industries 
include  the  manufacture  of%tiles,  pasteboard  wares  and  gardening 
implements,  while  there  are  coal  mines  in  the  vicinity.  After 
the  battle  on  the  neighbouring  heights  of  Spicheren  (6th  of  August 
1870),  in  which  the  French  under  General  Frossard  were  defeated 
by  the  Germans  under  General  von  Gliimer,  the  town  was  occupied 
by  the  German  troops,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  the  war  annexed 
to  Germany.  On  the  Schlossberg  near  the  town  are  the  ruins 
of  the  castle  of  the  counts  of  Forbach,  a  branch  of  the  counts  of 
Saarbrucken. 

See  Besler,  Geschichte  des  Schlosses,  der  Herrschaft  und  der  Stadt 
Forbach  (1895). 

FORBES,  ALEXANDER  PENROSE  (1817-1875),  Scottish 
divine,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  on  the  6th  of  June  1817.  He 
was  the  second  son  of  John  Heniy  Forbes,  Lord  Medwyn,  a 
judge  of  the  court  of  session,  and  grandson  of  Sir  William 
Forbes  of  Pitsligo.  He  studied  first  at  the  Edinburgh  Academy, 
then  for  two  years  under  the  Rev.  Thomas  Dale,  the  poet,  in 
Kent,  passed  one  session  at  Glasgow  University  in  1833,  and, 


having  chosen  the  career  of  the  Indian  civil  service,  completed 
his  studies  with  distinction  at  Haileybury  College.  In  1836 
he  went  to  Madras  and  secured  early  promotion,  but  in  conse- 
quence of  ill-health  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  England.  He 
then  entered  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  where  in  1841  he  obtained 
the  Boden  Sanskrit  scholarship,  and  graduated  in  1844.  He 
was  at  Oxford  during  the  early  years  of  the  movement  known 
as  Puseyism,  and  was  powerfully  influenced  by  association  with 
Newman,  Pusey  and  Keble.  This  led  him  to  resign  his  Indian 
appointment.  In  1844  he  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest  in 
the  English  Church,  and  held  curacies  at  Aston,  Rowant  and 
St  Thomas's,  Oxford;  but  being  naturally  attracted  to  the 
Episcopal  Church  of  his  native  land,  then  recovering  from  long 
depression,  he  removed  in  1846  to  Stonehaven,  the  chief  town 
of  Kincardineshire.  The  same  year,  however,  he  was  appointed 
to  the  vicarage  of  St  Saviour's,  Leeds,  a  church  founded  to  preach 
and  illustrate  Tractarian  principles.  In  1848  Forbes  was  called 
to  succeed  Bishop  Moir  in  the  see  of  Brechin.  He  removed 
the  episcopal  residence  to  Dundee,  where  he  resided  till  his  death, 
combining  the  pastoral  charge  of  the  congregation  with  the  duties 
of  the  see.  When  he  came  to  Dundee  the  churchmen  were 
accustomed  owing  to  their  small  numbers  to  worship  in  a  room 
over  a  bank.  Through  his  energy  several  churches  were  built, 
and  among  them  the  pro-cathedral  of  St  Paul's.  He  was  prose- 
cuted in  the  church  courts  for  heresy,  the  accusation  being  founded 
on  his  primary  charge,  delivered  and  published  in  1857,  in  which 
he  set  forth  his  views  on  the  Eucharist.  He  made  a  powerful 
defence  of  the  charge,  and  was  acquitted  with  "  a  censure  and 
an  admonition."  Keble  wrote  in  his  defence,  and  was  present 
at  his  trial  at  Edinburgh.  Forbes  was  a  good  scholar,  a  scientific 
theologian  and  a  devoted  worker,  and  was  much  beloved.  He 
died  at  Dundee  on  the  8th  of  October  1875. 

Principal  works:  A  Short  Explanation  of  the  Nicene  Creed  (1852); 
An  Explanation  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  (2  vols.,  1867  and  1868); 
Commentary  on  the  Seven  Penitential  Psalms  (1847);  Commentary 
on  the  Canticles  (1853).  See  Mackey's  Bishop  Forbes,  a  Memoir. 

FORBES,  ARCHIBALD  (1838-1900),  British  war  correspondent, 
the  son  of  a  Presbyterian  minister  in  Morayshire,  was  born  on 
the  1 7th  of  April  1838,  and  was  educated  at  Aberdeen  University. 
Entering  the  Royal  Dragoons  as  a  private,  he  gained,  while  in 
the  service,  considerable  practical  experience  of  military  life 
and  affairs.  Being  invalided  from  his  regiment,  he  settled  in 
London,  and  became  a  journalist.  When  the  Franco-German 
War  broke  out  in  1870,  Forbes  was  sent  to  the  front  as  war 
correspondent  to  the  Morning  Advertiser,  and  in  this  capacity 
he  gained  valuable  information  as  to  the  plans  of  the  Parisians 
for  withstanding  a  siege.  Transferring  his  services  to  the  Daily 
News,  his  brilliant  feats  in  the  transmission  of  intelligence  drew 
world-wide  attention  to  his  despatches.  He  was  with  the 
German  army  from  the  beginning  of  the  campaign,  and  he  after- 
wards witnessed  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  Commune.  Forbes 
afterwards  proceeded  to  Spain,  where  he  chronicled  the  outbreak 
of  the  second  Carlist  War;  but  his  work  here  was  interrupted 
by  a  visit  to  India,  where  he  spent  eight  months  upon  a  mission 
of  investigation  into  the  Bengal  famine  of  1 874.  Then  he  returned 
to  Spain,  and  followed  at  various  times  the  Carlist,  the  Republican 
and  the  Alfonsist  forces.  As  representative  of  the  Daily  News, 
he  accompanied  the  prince  of  Wales  in  his  tour  through  India 
in  1875-1876.  Forbes  went  through  the  Servian  campaign  of 
1876,  and  was  present  at  all  the  important  engagements.  In 
the  Russo-Turkish  campaign  of  1877  he  achieved  striking  jour- 
nalistic successes  at  great  personal  risk.  Attached  to  the  Russian 
army,  he  witnessed  most  of  the  principal  operations,  and  re- 
mained continuously  in  the  field  until  attacked  by  fever.  His 
letters,  together  with  those  of  his  colleagues,  MacGahan  and 
Millet,  were  republished  by  the  Daily  News.  On  recovering 
from  his  fever,  Forbes  proceeded  to  Cyprus,  in  order  to  witness 
the  British  occupation.  The  same  year  (1878)  he  went  to  India,' 
and  in  the  winter  accompanied  the  Khyber  Pass  force  to  Jalalabad - 
He  was  present  at  the  taking  of  Ali  Musjid,  and  marched  with 
several  expeditions  against  the  hill  tribes.  Burma  was  Forbes's 
next  field  of  adventure,  and  at  Mandalay,  the  capital,  he  had 
several  interesting  interviews  with  King  Thibaw.  He  left  Burma 


FORBES,  DAVID— FORBES,  DUNCAN 


637 


hurriedly  for  South  Africa,  where,  in  consequence  of  the  disaster 
of  Isandlwana,  a  British  force  was  collecting  for  the  invasion 
of  Zululand.  He  was  present  at  the  victory  of  Ulundi,  and 
his  famous  ride  of  1 20  m.  in  fifteen  hours,  by  which  he  was  enabled 
to  convey  the  first  news  of  the  battle  to  England,  remains  one 
of  the  finest  achievements  in  journalistic  enterprise.  Forbes 
subsequently  delivered  many  lectures  on  his  war  experiences 
to  large  audiences.  His  closing  years  were  spent  in  literary 
work.  He  had  some  years  before  published  a  military  novel 
entitled  Drawn  from  Life,  and  a  volume  on  his  experiences  of 
the  war  between  France  and  Germany.  These  were  now  followed 
by  numerous  publications,  including  Glimpses  through  the 
Cannon  Smoke  (1880);  Souvenirs  of  some  Continents  (1885); 
William  I.  of  Germany :  a  Biography  (1888);  Havelock,  in  the 
"  English  Men  of  Action"  Series  (1800);  Barracks,  Bivouacs, 
and  Battles  (1891);  The  Afghan  Wars,  1830-80  (1892);  Czar 
and  Sultan  (1895);  Memories  and  Studies  of  War  and  Peace 
(1895),  in  many  respects  autobiographic;  and  Colin  Campbell, 
Lord  Clyde  (1896).  He  died  on  the  3oth  of  March  1900. 

FORBES,  DAVID  (1828-1876),  British  mineralogist,  metal- 
lurgist and  chemist,  brother  of  Edward  Forbes  (<?.».),  was  born 
on  the  6th  of  September  1828,  at  Douglas,  Isle  of  Man,  and 
received  his  early  education  there  and  at  Brentwood  in  Essex. 
When  a  boy  of  fourteen  he  had  already  acquired  a  remarkable 
knowledge  of  chemistry.  This  subject  he  studied  at  the  university 
of  Edinburgh,  and  he  was  still  young  when  he  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  the  mining  and  metallurgical  works  at  Espedal 
in  Norway.  Subsequently  he  became  a  partner  in  the  firm  of 
Evans  &  Askin,  nickel-smelters,  of  Birmingham,  and  in  that 
capacity  during  the  years  1857-1860  he  visited  Chile,  Bolivia 
and  Peru.  Besides  reports  for  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  of 
which,  during  the  last  years  of  his  life,  he  was  foreign  secretary, 
he  wrote  upwards  of  50  papers  on  scientific  subjects,  among 
which  are  the  following:  "  The  Action  of  Sulphurets  on 
Metallic  Silicates  at  High  Temperatures,"  Rep.  Brit.  Assoc., 
1855,  pt.  ii.  p.  62;  "  The  Relations  of  the  Silurian  and  Meta- 
morphic  Rocks  of  the  south  of  Norway,"  ib.  p.  82;  "  The  Causes 
producing  Foliation  in  Rocks,"  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.  xi.,  1855; 
"  The  Chemical  Composition  of  the  Silurian  and  Cambrian 
Limestones,"  Phil.  Mag.  xiii.  pp.  365-373,  1857;  "  The  Geology 
of  Bolivia  and  Southern  Peru,"  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.  xvii.  pp. 
7-62,  1861;  "The  Mineralogy  of  Chile,"  Phil.  Mag.,  1865; 
"  Researches  in  British  Mineralogy,"  Phil.  Mag.,  1867-1868. 
His  observations  on  the  geology  of  South  America  were  given 
in  a  masterly  essay,  and  these  and  subsequent  researches  threw 
much  light  on  igneous  and  metamorphic  phenomena  and  on 
the  resulting  changes  in  rock -formations.  He  also  contributed 
important  articles  on  chemical  geology  to  the  Chemical  News 
and  Geological  Magazine  (1867  and  1868).  In  England  he  was 
a  pioneer  in  microscopic  petrology.  He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in 
1858.  He  died  in  London  on  the  5th  of  December  1876. 

See  Obituary  by  P.  M.  Duncan  in  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.,  vol. 
xxxiii.,  1877,  p.  41 ;  and  by  J.  Morris  in  Geol.  Mag.,  1877,  p.  45. 

FORBES,  DUNCAN,  OF  CULLODEN  (1685-1747),  Scottish 
statesman,  was  born  at  Bunchrew  or  at  Culloden  near  Inverness 
on  the  loth  of  November  1685.  After  he  had  completed  his 
studies  at  the  universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Leiden,  he  was 
admitted  advocate  at  the  Scottish  bar  in  1 709.  His  own  talents 
and  the  influence  of  the  Argyll  family  secured  his  rapid  advance- 
ment, which  was  still  further  helped  by  his  loyalty  to  the 
Hanoverian  cause  at  the  period  of  the  rebellion  in  1715.  In 
1722  Forbes  was  returned  member  for  Inverness,  and  in  1725 
he  succeeded  Dundas  of  Arniston  as  lord  advocate.  He  inherited 
the  patrimonial  estates  on  the  death  of  his  brother  in  1734,  and 
in  1737  he  attained  to  the  highest  legal  honours  in  Scotland, 
being  made  lord  president  of  the  court  of  session.  As  lord 
advocate,  he  had  laboured  to  improve  the  legislation  and  revenue 
of  the  country,  to  extend  trade  and  encourage  manufactures, 
and  no  less  to  render  the  government  popular  and  respected  in 
Scotland.  In  the  proceedings  which  followed  the  memorable 
Porteous  mob,  for  example,  when  the  government  brought 
in  a  bill  for  disgracing  the  lord  provost  of  Edinburgh,  for  fining 


the  corporation,  and  for  abolishing  the  town-guard  and  city-gate, 
Forbes  both  spoke  and  voted  against  the  measure  as  an  un- 
warranted outrage  on  the  national  feeling.  As  lord  president 
also  he  carried  out  some  useful  legal  reforms;  and  his  term  of 
office  was  characterized  by  quick  and  impartial  administration 
of  the  law. 

The  rebellion  of  1745  found  him  at  his  post,  and  it  tried  all 
his  patriotism.  Some  years  before  (1738)  he  had  repeatedly 
and  earnestly  urged  upon  the  government  the  expediency  of 
embodying  Highland  regiments,  putting  them  underthe  command 
of  colonels  whose  loyalty  could  be  relied  upon,  but  officering 
them  with  the  native  chieftains  and  cadets  of  old  families  in  the 
north.  "  If  government,"  said  he,  "  pre-engages  the  Highlanders 
in  the  manner  I  propose,  they  will  not  only  serve  well  against 
the  enemy  abroad,  but  will  be  hostages  for  the  good  behaviour 
of  their  relations  at  home;  and  I  am  persuaded  that  it  will  be 
absolutely  impossible  to  raise  a  rebellion  in  the  Highlands."  In 
1739,  with  Sir  Robert  Walpole's  approval,  the  original  (1730) 
six  companies  (locally  enlisted)  of  the  Black  Watch  were  formed 
into  the  famous  "  Forty-second  "  regiment  of  the  line.  The 
credit  given  to  the  earl  of  Chatham  in  some  histories  for  this 
movement  is  an  error;  it  rests  really  with  Forbes  and  his  friend 
Lord  Islay,  afterwards  3rd  duke  of  Argyll  (see  the  Autobio- 
graphy of  the  8th  duke  of  Argyll,  vol.  i.  p.  8  sq.,  1906). 

On  the  first  rumour  of  the  Jacobite  rising  Forbes  hastened 
to  Inverness,  and  through  his  personal  influence  with  the  chiefs 
of  Macdonald  and  Macleod,  those  two  powerful  western  clans 
were  prevented  from  taking  the  field  for  Charles  Edward;  the 
town  itself  also  he  kept  loyal  and  well  protected  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  struggle,  and  many  of  the  neighbouring  proprietors 
were  won  over  by  his  persuasions.  His  correspondence  with 
Lord  Lovat,  published  in  the  Culloden  papers,  affords  a  fine 
illustration  of  his  character,  in  which  the  firmness  of  loyal 
principle  and  duty  is  found  blended  with  neighbourly  kindness 
and  consideration.  But  at  this  critical  juncture  of  affairs,  the 
apathy  of  the  government  interfered  considerably  with  the 
success  of  his  negotiations.  Advances  of  arms  and  money  arrived 
too  late,  and  though  Forbes  employed  all  his  own  means  and 
what  money  he  could  borrow  on  his  personal  security,  his  re- 
sources were  quite  inadequate  to  the  emergency.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  these  advances  were  ever  fully  repaid.  Part  was  doled 
out  to  him,  after  repeated  solicitations  that  his  credit  might  be 
maintained  in  the  country;  but  it  is  evident  he  had  fallen  into 
disgrace  in  consequence  of  his  humane  exertions  to  mitigate 
the  impolitic  severities  inflicted  upon  his  countrymen  after 
their  disastrous  defeat  at  Culloden.  The  ingratitude  of  the 
government,  and  the  many  distressing  circumstances  connected 
with  the  insurrection,  sunk  deep  into  the  mind  of  Forbes.  He 
never  fairly  rallied  from  the  depression  thus  caused,  and  after  a 
period  of  declining  health  he  died  on  the  loth  of  December  1747. 

Forbes  was  a  patriot  without  ostentation  or  pretence,  a  true 
Scotsman  with  no  narrow  prejudice,  an  accomplished  and  even 
erudite  scholar  without  pedantry,  a  man  of  genuine  piety  without 
asceticism  or  intolerance.  His  country  long  felt  his  influence 
through  her  reviving  arts  and  institutions;  and  the  example 
of  such  a  character  in  that  coarse  and  venal  age,  and  among  a 
people  distracted  by  faction,  political  strife,  and  national  anti- 
pathies, while  it  was.  invaluable  to  his  contemporaries  in  a  man 
of  high  position,  is  entitled  to  the  lasting  gratitude  and  veneration 
of  his  countrymen.  In  his  intervals  of  leisure  he  cultivated  with 
some  success  the  study  of  philosophy,  theology  and  biblical 
criticism.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  diligent  reader  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible.  His  published  writings,  some  of  them  of  im- 
portance, include — A  Letter  to  a  Bishop,  concerning  some  Important 
Discoveries  in  Philosophy  and  Theology  (1732);  Some  Thoughts 
concerning  Religion,  natural  and  revealed,  and  the  Manner  of 
Understanding  Revelation  (1735);  and  Reflections  on  Incredulity 
(2nd  ed.,  1750). 

His  correspondence  was  collected  and  published  in  1815,  and  a 
memoir  of  him  (from  the  family  papers)  was  written  by  Mr  Hill 
Burton,  and  published  alone  with  a  Life  of  Lord  Lovat,  in  1847. 
His  statue  by  Roubillac  stands  in  the  Parliament  House,  Edinburgh. 


638 


FORBES,  E.— FORBES,  J.  D. 


FORBES,  EDWARD  (1815-1854),  British  naturalist,  was 
born  at  Douglas,  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  on  the  i2th  of  February 
1815.  While  still  a  child,  when  not  engaged  in  reading,  or  in 
the  writing  of  verses  and  drawing  of  caricatures,  he  occupied 
himself  with  the  collecting  of  insects,  shells,  minerals,  fossils, 
plants  and  other  natural  history  objects.  From  his  fifth  to  his 
eleventh  year,  delicacy  of  health  precluded  his  attendance  at 
any  school,  but  in  1828  he  became  a  day  scholar  at  Athole 
House  Academy  in  Douglas.  In  June  1831  he  left  the  Isle  of 
Man  for  London,  where  he  studied  drawing.  In  October,  how- 
ever, having  given  up  all  idea  of  making  painting  his  profession, 
he  returned  home;  and  in  the  following  month  'he  matriculated 
as  a  student  of  medicine  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh.  His 
vacation  in  1832  he  spent  in  diligent  work  on  the  natural  history 
of  the  Isle  of  Man.  In  1833  he  made  a  tour  in  Norway,  the 
botanical  results  of  which  were  published  in  Loudon's  Magazine 
of  Natural  History  for  1835-1836.  In  the  summer  of  1834  he 
devoted  much  time  to  dredging  in  the  Irish  Sea;  and  in  the 
succeeding  year  he  travelled  in  France,  Switzerland  and  Germany. 

Born  a  naturalist,  and  having  no  relish  for  the  practical 
duties  of  a  surgeon,  Forbes  in  the  spring  of  1836  abandoned  the 
idea  of  taking  a  medical  degree,  resolving  to  devote  himself 
to  science  and  literature.  The  winter  of  1836-1837  found  him 
at  Paris,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes 
on  natural  history,  comparative  anatomy,  geology  and  mineralogy.  • 
Leaving  Paris  in  April  1837,  he  went  to  Algiers,  and  there 
obtained  materials  for  a  paper  on  land  and  freshwater  Mollusca, 
published  in  the  Annals  of  Natural  History,  vol.  ii.  p.  250.  In 
•the  autumn  of  the  same  year  he  registered  at  Edinburgh  as  a 
student  of  literature;  and  in  1838  appeared  his  first  volume, 
Malacologia  Monensis,  a  synopsis  of  the  species  of  Manx  Mollusca. 
During  the  summer  of  1838  he  visited  Styria  and  Carniola,  and 
made  extensive  botanical  collections.  In  the  following  autumn 
he  read  before  the  British  Association  at  Newcastle  a  paper  on 
the  distribution  of  terrestrial  Pulmonifera  in  Europe,  and  was 
commissioned  to  prepare  a  similar  report  with  reference  to  the 
British  Isles.  In  1841  was  published  his  History  of  British 
Star-fishes,  embodying  extensive  observations  and  containing 
120  illustrations,  inclusive  of  humorous  tail-pieces,  all  designed 
by  the  author.  On  the  lyth  of  April  of  the  same  year  Forbes, 
accompanied  by  his  friend  William  Thompson,  joined  at  Malta 
H.M.  surveying  ship  "  Beacon,"  to  which  he  had  been  appointed 
naturalist  by  her  commander  Captain  Graves.  From  that  date 
until  October  1842  he  was  employed  in  investigating  the  botany, 
zoology  and  geology  of  the  Mediterranean  region.  The  results 
of  these  researches  were  made  known  in  his  "  Report  on  the 
Mollusca  and  Radiata  of  the  Aegean  Sea,  presented  to  the 
British  Association  in  1843,"  and  in  Travels  in  Lycia,  published 
in  conjunction  with  Lieut,  (afterwards  Admiral)  T.  A.  B.  Spratt 
in  1847.  In  the  former  treatise  he  discussed  the  influence  of 
climate  and  of  the  nature  and  depth  of  the  sea  bottom  upon 
marine  life,  and  divided  the  Aegean  into  eight  biological  zones; 
his  conclusions  with  respect  to  bathymetrical  distribution, 
however,  have  naturally  been  modified  to  a  considerable  extent 
by  the  more  recent  explorations  of  the  deep  seas. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year  1842  Forbes,  whom  family 
misfortunes  had  now  thrown  upon  his  own  resources,  sought 
and  obtained  the  curatorship  of  the  museum  of  the  Geological 
Society  of  London.  To  the  duties  of  that  post  he  added  in  1843 
those  of  the  professorship  of  botany  at  King's  College.  In 
November  1844  he  resigned  the  curatorship  of  the  Geological 
Society,  and  became  palaeontologist  to  the  Geological  Survey 
of  Great  Britain.  Two  years  later  he  published  in  the  Memoirs 
of  the  Geological  Survey,  i.  336,  his  important  essay  "  On  the 
Connexion  between  the  distribution  of  the  existing  Fauna  and 
Flora  of  the  British  Isles,  and  the  Geological  Changes  which 
have  affected  their  Area,  especially  during  the  epoch  of  the 
Northern  Drift."  It  is  therein  pointed  out  that,  in  accordance 
with  the  theory  of  their  origin  from  various  specific  centres,  the 
plants  of  Great  Britain  may  be  divided  into  five  well-marked 
groups:  the  W.  and  S.W.  Irish,  represented  in  the  N.  of  Spain, 
the  S.E.  Irish  and  S.W.  English,  related  to  the  flora  of  the  Channel 


Isles  and  the  neighbouring  part  of  France;  the  S.E.  English, 
characterized  by  species  occurring  on  the  opposite  French  coast; 
a  group  peculiar  to  mountain  summits,  Scandinavian  in  type; 
and,  lastly,  a  general  or  Germanic  flora.  From  a  variety  of  argu- 
ments the  conclusion  is  drawn  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
terrestrial  animals  and  flowering  plants  of  the  British  Islands 
migrated  thitherward,  over  continuous  land,  at  three  distinct 
periods,  before,  during  and  after  the  glacial  epoch.  On  this 
subject  Forbes's  brilliant  generalizations  are  now  regarded  as 
only  partially  true  (see  C.  Reid's  Origin  of  the  British  Flora,  1899). 
In  the  autumn  of  1848  Forbes  married  the  daughter  of  General 
Sir  C.  Ashworth;  and  in  the  same  year  was  published  his 
Monograph  of  the  British  Naked-eyed  Medusae  (Ray  Society). 
The  year  1851  witnessed  the  removal  of  the  collections  of  the 
Geological  Survey  from  Craig's  Court  to  the  museum  in  Jermyn 
Street,  and  the  appointment  of  Forbes  as  professor  of  natural 
history  to  the  Royal  School  of  Mines  just  established  in  con- 
junction therewith.  In  1852  was  published  the  fourth  and 
concluding  volume  of  Forbes  and  S.  Hanley's  History  of  British 
Mollusca;  also  his  Monograph  of  the  Echinodermata  of  the 
British  Terliaries  (Palaeontographical  Soc.). 

In  1853  Forbes  held  the  presidency  of  the  Geological  Society 
of  London,  and  in  the  following  year  he  obtained  the  fulfilment 
of  a  long-cherished  wish  in  his  appointment  to  the  professorship 
of  natural  history  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  vacant  by 
the  death  of  R.  Jameson,  his  former  teacher.  Since  his  return 
from  the  East  in  1842,  the  determination  and  arrangement  of 
fossils,  frequent  lectures,  and  incessant  literary  work,  including 
the  preparation  of  his  palaeontological  memoirs,  had  precluded 
Forbes  from  giving  that  attention  to  the  natural  history  pursuits 
of  his  earlier  life  which  he  had  earnestly  desired.  It  seemed  that 
at  length  he  was  to  find  leisure  to  reduce  to  order  his  stores  of 
biological  information.  He  lectured  at  Edinburgh,  in  the 
summer  session  of  1854,  and  in  September  of  that  year  he  occupied 
the  post  of  president  of  the  geological  section  at  the  Liverpool 
meeting  of  the  British  Association.  But  he  was  taken  ill  just 
after  he  had  commenced  his  winter's  course  of  lectures  in 
Edinburgh,  and  after  not  many  days'  illness  he  died  at  Wardie, 
near  Edinburgh,  on  the  i8th  of  November  1854. 

See  Literary  Gazette  (November  25,  1854);  Edinburgh  New  Philo- 
sophical Journal  (New  Ser.),  (1855) ;  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.  (May 
1855);  G.  Wilson  and  A.  Geikie,  Memoir  of  Edward  Forbes  (1861), 
in  which,  pp.  575-583,  is  given  a  list  of  Forbes's  writings.  See  also 
Literary  Papers,  edited  by  Lovell  Reeve  (1855).  The  following 
works  were  issued  posthumously:  "  On  the  Tertiary  Fluviomarine 
Formation  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  "  (Geol.  Survey),  edited  by  R.  A.  C. 
Godwin-Austen  (1856);  "The  Natural  History  of  the  European 
Seas,"  edited  and  continued  by  R.  A.  C.  Godwin-Austen  (1859). 

FORBES,  JAMES  DAVID  (1800-1868),  Scottish  physicist, 
was  the  fourth  son  of  Sir  William  Forbes,  7th  baronet  of  Pitsligo, 
and  was  born  at  Edinburgh  on  the  2oth  of  April  1 809.  He  entered 
the  university  of  Edinburgh  in  1825,  and  soon  afterwards  began 
to  contribute  papers  to  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal 
anonymously  under  the  signature  "  A."  At  the  age  of  nineteen 
he  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  in 
1 83  2  he  was  elected  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  A  year  later 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  Edinburgh 
University,  in  succession  to  Sir  John  Leslie  and  in  competition 
with  Sir  David  Brewster,  and  during  his  tenure  of  that  office, 
which  he  did  not  give  up  till  1860,  he  not  only  proved  himself 
an  active  and  efficient  teacher,  but  also  did  much  to  improve 
the  internal  conditions  of  the  university.  In  1859  he  was  ap- 
pointed successor  to  Brewster  in  the  principalship  of  the  United 
College  of  St  Andrews,  a  position  which  he  held  until  his  death 
at  Clifton  on  the  3ist  of  December  1868. 

As  a  scientific  investigator  he  is  best  known  for  his  researches 
on  heat  and  on  glaciers.  Between  1836  and  1844  he  published 
in  the  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Ed.  four  series  of  "  Researches  on  Heat," 
in  the  course  of  which  he  described  the  polarization  of  heat  by 
tourmaline,  by  transmission  through  a  bundle  of  thin  mica 
plates  inclined  to  the  transmitted  ray,  and  by  reflection  from  the 
multiplied  surfaces  of  a  pile  of  mica  plates  placed  at  the  polariz- 
ing angle,  and  also  its  circular  polarization  by  two  internal 


FORBES,  SIR  J.— FORCELLINI 


639 


reflections  in  rhombs  of  rock-salt.  His  work  won  him  the  Rumf  ord 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1838,  and  in  1843  he  received  its 
Royal  medaj  for  a  paper  on  the  "  Transparency  of  the  Atmosphere 
and  the  Laws  of  Extinction  of  the  Sun's  Rays  passing  through  it." 
In  1846  he  began  experiments  on  the  temperature  of  the  earth 
at  different  depths  and  in  different  soils  near  Edinburgh,  which 
yielded  determinations  of  the  thermal  conductivity  of  trap-tufa, 
sandstone  and  pure  loose  sand.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life 
he  was  occupied  with  experimental  inquiries  into  the  laws  of 
the  conduction  of  heat  in  bars,  and  his  last  piece  of  work  was 
to  show  that  the  thermal  conductivity  of  iron  diminishes  with 
increase  of  temperature.  His  attention  was  directed  to  the 
question  of  the  flow  of  glaciers  in  1840  when  he  met  Louis 
Agassiz  at  the  Glasgow  meeting  of  the  British  Association,  and 
in  subsequent  years  he  made  several  visits  to  Switzerland  and 
also  to  Norway  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  accurate  data.  His 
observations  led  him  to  the  view  that  a  glacier  is  an  imperfect 
fluid  or  a  viscous  body  which  is  urged  down  slopes  of  a  certain 
inclination  by  the  mutual  pressure  of  its  parts,  and  involved 
him  in  some  controversy  with  Tyndall  and  others  both  as  to 
priority  and  to  scientific  principle.  Forbes  was  also  interested 
in  geology,  and  published  memoirs  on  the  thermal  springs  of 
the  Pyrenees,  on  the  extinct  volcanoes  of  the  Vivarais  (Ardeche), 
on  the  geology  of  the  Cuchullin  and  Eildon  hills,  &c.  In  addition 
to  about  150  scientific  papers,  he  wrote  Travels  through  the  Alps 
of  Savoy  and  Other  Parts  of  the  Pennine  Chain,  with  Observations 
on  the  Phenomena  of  Glaciers  (1843);  Norway  and  its  Glaciers 
(i8$3);Occasional  Papers  onthe  Theory  of  Glaciers  (1859);  A  Tour 
of  Mont  Blanc  and  Monte  Rosa  (1855).  He  was  also  the  author 
(1852)  of  the  "  Dissertation  on  the  Progress  of  Mathematical 
and  Physical  Science,"  published  in  the  8th  edition  of  the 
Encyclopaedia  Brilannica. 

See  Forbes' s  Life  and  Letters,  by  Principal  Shairp,  Professor  P.  G. 
Tait  and  A.  Adams-Reilly  (1873);  Professor  Forbes  and  his  Bio- 
graphers, by  J.  Tyndall  (1873). 

FORBES,  SIR  JOHN  (1787-1861),  British  physician,  was  born 
at  Cuttlebrae,  Banffshire,  in  1787.  He  attended  the  grammar 
school  at  Aberdeen,  and  afterwards  entered  Marischal  College. 
After  serving  for  nine  years  as  a  surgeon  in  the  navy,  he  graduated 
M.D.  at  Edinburgh  in  1817,  and  then  began  to  practise  in 
Penzance,  whence  he  removed  to  Chichester  in  1822.  He  took 
up  his  residence  in  London  in  1840,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  appointed  physician  to  the  royal  household.  He  was 
knighted  in  1853,  and  died  on  the  i3th  of  November  1861  at 
Whitchurch  in  Berkshire.  Sir  John  Forbes  was  better  known 
as  an  author  and  editor  than  as  a  practical  physician.  His 
works  include  the  following: — Original  Cases  .  .  illustrating 
the  Use  of  the  Stethoscope  and  Percussion  in  the  Diagnosis  of 
Diseases  of  the  Chest  (1824);  Illustrations  of  Modern  Mesmerism 
(1845);  A  Physician's  Holiday  (ist  ed.,  1849);  Memorandums 
made  in  Ireland  in  the  Autumn  of  1852  (2  vols.,  1853);  Sight- 
seeing in  Germany  and  the  Tyrol  in  the  Autumn  of  1855  (1856). 
He  was  joint  editor  with  A.  Tweedie  and  J.  Conolly  of  The 
Cyclopaedia  of  Practical  Medicine  (4  vols.,  1833-1835);  and  in 
1836  he  founded  the  British  and  Foreign  Medical  Review,  which, 
after  a  period  of  prosperity,  involved  its  editor  in  pecuniary 
loss,  and  was  discontinued  in  1847,  partly  in  consequence  of 
the  advocacy  in  its  later  numbers  of  doctrines  obnoxious  to 
the  profession. 

FORBES,  a  municipal  town  of  Ashburnham  county,  New 
South  Wales,  Australia,  289  m.  W.  by  N.  from  Sydney,  on  the 
Lachlan  river,  and  with  a  station  on  the  Great  Western  railway. 
Pop.  (1901)  4313.  Its  importance  as  a  commercial  centre  is  due 
to  its  advantageous  position  between  the  northern  and  southern 
markets.  It  has  steam-sawing  and  flour-mills,  breweries  and 
wool-scouring  establishments;  while  the  surrounding  country 
produces  good  quantities  of  cereals,  lucerne,  wine  and  fruit. 

FORBES-ROBERTSON,  JOHNSTON  (1853-  ),  English 

actor,  was  the  son  of  John  Forbes-Robertson  of  Aberdeen,  an 
art  critic.  He  was  educated  at  Charterhouse,  and  studied  at 
the  Royal  Academy  schools  with  a  view  to  becoming  a  painter. 
But  though  he  kept  up  his  interest  in  that  art,  in  1874  he  turned 


to  the  theatre,making  his  first  appearance  in  LondonasChastelard, 
in  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  He  studied  under  Samuel  Phelps,  from 
whom  he  learnt  the  traditions  of  the  tragic  stage.  He  played 
with  the  Bancrofts  and  with  John  Hare,  supported  Miss  Mary 
Anderson  in  both  England  and  America,  and  also  acted  at 
different  times  with  Sir  Henry  Irving.  His  refined  and  artistic 
style,  and  beautiful  voice  and  elocution  made  him  a  marked 
man  on  the  English  stage,  and  in  Pinero's  The  Profligate  at  the 
Garrick  theatre  (1889),  under  Hare's  management,  he  established 
his  position  as  one  of  the  most  individual  of  London  actors. 
In  1893  he  started  under  his  own  management  at  the  Lyceum 
with  Mrs  Patrick  Campbell,  producing  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Hamlet, 
Macbeth  and  also  some  modern  plays;  his  impersonation  as 
Hamlet  was  especially  fine,  and  his  capacity  as  a  romantic 
actor  was  shown  to  great  advantage  also  in  John  Davidson's 
For  the  Crown  and  in  Maeterlinck's  Pelleas  and  Melisande.  In 
1900  he  married  the  actress  Gertrude  Elliott,  with  whom,  as  his 
leading  lady,  he  appeared  at  various  theatres,  producing  in 
subsequent  years  The  Light  that  Failed,  Madeleine  Lucette 
Riley's  Mice  and  Men,  and  G.  Bernard  Shaw's  Caesar  and 
Cleopatra,  Jerome  K.  Jerome's  Passing  of  the  Third  Floor  Back, 
&c.  His  brothers,  Ian  Robertson  (b.  1858)  and  Norman  Forbes 
(b.  1859),  had  also  been  well-known  actors  from  about  1878 
onwards. 

FORBIN,  CLAUDE  DE  (1656-1733),  French  naval  commander, 
was  born  in  Provence,  of  a  family  of  high  standing,  in  1656. 
High-spirited  and  ungovernable  in  his  boyhood,  he  ran  away 
from  his  home,  and  through  the  influence  of  an  uncle  entered 
the  navy,  serving  his  first  campaign  in  1675.  For  a  short  time 
he  quitted  the  navy  and  entered  the  army,  but  soon  returned  to 
his  first  choice.  He  made  under  D'Estrees  the  American  campaign, 
and  under  Duquesne  that  of  Algiers  in  1683,  on  all  occasions 
distinguishing  himself  by  his  impetuous  courage.  The  most 
remarkable  episode  of  his  life  was  his  mission  to  Siam.  During 
the  administration  of  the  Greek  adventurer  Phaulcon  in  that 
country,  the  project  was  formed  of  introducing  the  Christian 
religion  and  European  civilization,  and  the  king  sent  an  embassy 
to  Louis  XIV.  In  response  a  French  embassy  was  sent  out, 
Forbin  accompanying  the  chevalier  de  Chaumont  with  the 
rank  of  major.  When  Chaumont  returned  to  France,  Forbin 
was  induced  to  remain  in  the  service  of  the  Siamese  king,  and 
accepted,  though  with  much  reluctance,  the  posts  of  grand 
admiral,  general  of  all  the  king's  armies  and  governor  of  Bangkok. 
His  position,  however,  was  soon  made  untenable  by  the  jealousy 
and  intrigues  of  the  minister  Phaulcon;  and  at  the  end  of  two 
years  he  left  Siam,  reaching  France  in  1688.  He  was  afterwards 
fully  engaged  in  active  service,  first  with  Jean  Bart  in  the  war 
with  England,  when  they  were  both  captured  and  taken  to 
Plymouth.  They  succeeded  in  making  their  escape  and  were 
soon  serving  their  country  again.  Forbin  was  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  La  Hogue,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Lagos.  He  served  under  D'Estrees  at  the  taking  of 
Barcelona,  was  sent  ambassador  to  Algiers,  and  in  1702  took  a 
brilliant  part  in  the  Mediterranean  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession.  In  1706  he  took  command  of  a  squadron  at  Dunkirk, 
and  captured  many  valuable  prizes  from  the  Dutch  and  the 
English.  In  1708  he  was  entrusted  with  the  command  of  the 
squadron  which  was  to  convey  the  Pretender  to  Scotland;  but 
so  effectually  were  the  coasts  guarded  by  Byng  that  the  expedi- 
tion failed,  and  returned  to  Dunkirk.  Forbin  was  now  beginning 
to  be  weighed  down  with  the  infirmities  of  age  and  the  toils  of 
service,  and  in  1710  he  retired  to  a  country  house  near  Marseilles. 
There  he  spent  part  of  his  time  in  writing  his  memoirs,  published 
in  1730,  which  are  full  of  interest  and  are  written  in  a  graphic 
and  attractive  style.  Forbin  died  on  the  4th  of  March  1733. 

FORCELLINI,  EGIDIO  (1688-1768),  Italian  philologist,  was 
born  at  Fener  in  the  district  of  Treviso  and  belonged  to  a  very 
poor  family.  He  went  to  the  seminary  at  Padua  in  1704,  studied 
under  Facciolati,  and  in  due  course  attained  to  the  priesthood. 
From  1724  to  1731  he  held  the  office  of  rector  of  the  seminary 
at  Ceneda,  and  from  1731  to  1765  that  of  father  confessor  in 
the  seminary  of  Padua.  The  remaining  years  of  his  life  were 


640 


FORCHHAMMER— FORD,  E.  O. 


mainly  spent  in  his  native  village.  He  died  at  Padua  in  1768 
before  the  completion  of  the  great  work  on  which  he  had  long 
co-operated  with  Facciolati.  This  was  the  vast  Latin  Lexicon 
(see  FACCIOLATI),  which  has  formed  the  basis  of  all  similar 
works  that  have  since  been  published.  He  was  engaged  with  his 
Herculean  task  for  nearly  35  years,  and  the  transcription  of  the 
manuscript  by  Luigi  Violate  occupied  eight  years  more. 

FORCHHAMMER,  JOHANN  GEORG  (1794-1865),  Danish 
mineralogist  and  geologist,  was  born  at  Husum,  Schleswig,  on 
the  24th  of  July  1794,  and  died  at  Copenhagen  on  the  i4th  of 
December  1865.  After  studying  at  Kiel  and  Copenhagen  from 
1815  to  1818,  he  joined  Oersted  and  Lauritz  Esmarch  in  their 
mineralogical  exploration  of  Bornholm,  and  took  a  considerable 
share  in  the  labours  of  the  expedition.  In  1820  he  obtained 
his  doctor's  degree  by  a  chemical  treatise  De  mangano,  and 
immediately  after  set  out  on  a  journey  through  England,  Scotland 
and  the  Faeroe  Islands.  In  1823  he  was  appointed  lecturer 
at  Copenhagen  University  on  chemistry  and  mineralogy;  in 
1829  he  obtained  a  similar  post  in  the  newly  established  poly- 
technic school;  and  in  1831  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
mineralogy  in  the  university,  and  in  1848  became  curator  of  the 
geological  museum.  From  1835  to  1837  he  made  many  contribu- 
tions to  the  geological  survey  of  Denmark.  On  the  death  of 
H.  C.  Oersted  in  1851,  he  succeeded  him  as  director  of  the 
polytechnic  school  and  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
In  1850  he  began  with  J.  Steenstrup  and  Worsaae  various 
anthropological  publications  which  gained  a  high  reputation. 
As  a  public  instructor  Forchhammer  held  a  high  place  and  con- 
'  tributed  potently  to  the  progress  of  his  favourite  studies  in  his 
native  country.  He  interested  himself  in  such  practical  questions 
as  the  introduction  of  gas  into  Copenhagen,  the  establishment 
of  the  fire-brigade  at  Rosenberg  and  the  boring  of  artesian  wells. 

Among  his  more  important  works  are — Loerebog  i  de  enkelte 
Radicalers  Chemi  (1842);  Danmarks  geognostiske  Forhold  (1835); 
Om  de  Bornholmske  Kulformalioner  (1836) ;  Dit  myere  Kridt  i  Dan- 
mark  (1847);  Bidrag  til  Skildringen  af  Danmarks  geographiske 
Forhold  (1858).  A  list  of  his  contributions  to  scientific  periodicals, 
Danish,  English  and  German,  will  be  found  in  the  Catalogue  of 
Scientific  Papers  published  by  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  One 
of  the  most  interesting  and  most  recent  is  "  On  the  Constitution  of 
Sea  Water  at  Different  Depths  and  in  Different  Latitudes,"  in  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Roy.  Soc.  xii.  (1862—1863). 

FORCHHAMMER,  PETER  WILHELM  (1801-1894),  German 
classical  archaeologist,  was  born  at  Husum  in  Schleswig  on  the 
23rd  of  October  1801 .  He  was  educated  at  the  Liibeck  gymnasium 
and  the  university  of  Kiel,  with  which  he  was  connected  for 
nearly  65  years.  In  1830-1834  and  1838-1840  he  travelled  in 
Italy,  Greece,  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt.  In  1843  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  philology  at  Kiel  and  director  of  the  archaeological 
museum  founded  by  himself  in  co-operation  with  Otto  Jahn. 
He  died  on  the  8th  of  January  1894.  Forchhammer  was  a 
democrat  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word,  and  from  1871  to  1873 
represented  the  progressive  party  of  Schleswig-Holstein  in  the 
German  Reichstag.  His  published  works  deal  chiefly  with 
topography  and  ancient  mythology.  His  travels  had  convinced 
him  that  a  full  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  classical 
antiquity  could  only  be  acquired  by  a  thorough  acquaintance 
with  Greek  and  Roman  monuments  and  works  of  art,  and  a 
detailed  examination  of  the  topographical  and  climatic  condi- 
tions of  the  chief  localities  of  the  ancient  world.  These  principles 
are  illustrated  in  his  Hellenika.  Griechenland.  1m  Neuen  das 
Alte  (1837),  which  contains  his  theory  of  the  origin  and  explana- 
tion of  the  Greek  myths,  which  he  never  abandoned,  in  spite  of 
the  attacks  to  which  it  was  subjected.  According  to  him,  the 
myths  arose  from  definite  local  (especially  atmospheric  and 
aquatic)  phenomena,  and  represented  the  annually  recurring 
processes  of  nature  as  the  acts  of  gods  and  heroes;  thus,  in 
Achill  (1853),  the  Trojan  War  is  the  winter  conflict  of  the  elements 
in  that  district.  Other  similar  short  treatises  are:  Die  Grilndung 
Roms  (1868);  Daduchos  (1875),  on  the  language  of  the  myths 
and  mythical  buildings;  Die  Wanderungen  der  Inachostochler 
lo  (1880) ;  Prolegomena  zur  Mythologie  als  Wissenschaft  und 
Lexikon  der  Mythensprache  (1891).  Amongst  his  topographical 
works  mention  may  be  made  of:  Topographic  von  Alhen  (1841); 


Beschreibung  der  Ebene  von  Troja  (1850),  a  commentary  on  a 
map  of  the  locality  executed  by  T.  A.  Spratt  (see  Journal  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  xii.,  1842);  Topographia  The- 
barum  Heptapylarum  (1854);  Erkliirung  der  Ilias  (1884),  on 
the  basis  of  the  topographical  and  physical  peculiarities  of  the 
plain  of  Troy.  His  Demokratenbuchlein  (1849),  in  the  main  a 
discussion  of  the  Aristotelian  theory  of  the  state,  and  Die 
Alhener  und  Sokrates  (1837),  in  which,  contrary  to  the  almost 
universal  opinion,  he  upheld  the  procedure  of  the  Athenians 
as  perfectly  legal  and  their  verdict  as  a  perfectly  just  one,  also 
deserve  notice. 

For  a  full  list  of  his  works  see  the  obituary  notice  by  E.  Alberti  in 
C.  Bursian's  Biographisches  Jahrbuchfiir  Altertumskunde,  xx.  (1897); 
also  J.  Sass  in  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographic,  and  A.  Hoeck  and 
L.  C.  Pertsch,  P.  W.  Forchhammer  (1898). 

FORCHHEIM,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria, 
near  the  confluence  of  theWiesent  and  the  Regnitz,  16  m.  S.S.E. 
of  Bamberg.  Pop.  (1905)  8417.  It  has  four  Roman  Catholic 
churches,  including  the  Gothic  Collegiate  church  and  a  Pro- 
testant church.  Among  the  other  public  buildings  are  the 
progymnasium  and  an  orphanage.  The  industries  of  the  town 
include  spinning  and  weaving,  bleaching  and  dyeing,  bone  and 
glue  works,  brewing  and  paper-making.  The  spacious  chateau 
occupies  the  site  of  the  Carolingian  palace  which  was  destroyed 
in  1246. 

Forchheim  is  of  very  early  origin,  having  been  the  residence 
of  the  Carolingian  sovereigns,  including  Charlemagne,  in  the 
9th  century.  Consequently  many  diets  were  held  here,  and 
here  also  Conrad  I.  and  Louis  the  Child  were  chosen  German 
kings.  The  town  was  given  by  the  emperor  Henry  II.  in  1007 
to  the  bishopric  of  Bamberg,  and,  except  for  a  short  period 
during  the  nth  century,  it  remained  in  the  possession  of  the 
bishops  until  1802,  when  it  was  ceded  to  Bavaria.  In  August 
1796  a  battle  took  place  near  Forchheim  between  the  French 
and  the  Austrians.  The  fortifications  of  the  town  were  dis- 
mantled in  1838. 

See  Hiibsch,  Chronik  der  Stadt  Forchheim  (Nuremberg,  1867). 

FORD,  EDWARD  ONSLOW  (1852-1901),  English  sculptor, 
was  born  in  London.  He  received  some  education  as  a  painter 
in  Antwerp  and  as  a  sculptor  in  Munich  under  Professor  Wag- 
miiller,  but  was  mainly  self-taught.  His  first  contribulion  to 
the  Royal  Academy,  in  1875,  was  a  bust  of  his  wife,  and  in 
portraiture  he  may  be  said  to  have  achieved  his  greatest  success. 
His  busts  are  always  extremely  refined  and  show  his  sitters  at 
their  best.  Those  (in  bronze)  of  his  fellow-artists  Arthur  Hacker 
(1894),  Briton  Riviere  and  Sir  W.  Q.  Orchardson  (1895),  Sir 
L.  Alma  Tadema  (1896),  Sir  Hubert  von  Herkomer  and  Sir 
John  Millais  (1897),  and  of  A.  J.  Balfour  are  all  striking  likenesses, 
and  are  equalled  by  that  in  marble  of  Sir  Frederick  Bramwell 
(for  the  Royal  Institution)  and  by  many  more.  He  gained 
the  open  competition  for  the  statue  of  Sir  Rowland  Hill,  erected 
in  1882  outside  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  followed  it  in  1883 
with  "  Henry  Irving  as  Hamlet,"  now  in  the  Guildhall  art 
gallery.  This  seated  statue,  good  as  it  is,  was  soon  surpassed 
by  those  of  Dr  Dale  (1898,  in  the  city  museum,  Birmingham) 
and  Professor  Huxley  (1900),  but  the  colossal  memorial  statue 
of  Queen  Victoria  (1901),  for  Manchester,  was  less  successful. 
The  standing  statue  of  W.  E.  Gladstone  (1894,  for  the  City  Liberal 
Club,  London)  is  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  Ford's  better  portrait 
works.  The  colossal "  General  Charles  Gordon,"  eamel-mounted, 
for  Chatham,  "  Lord  Strathnairn,"  an  equestrian  group  for 
Knightsbridge,  and  the  "  Maharajah  of  Mysore  "  (1900)  comprise 
his  larger  works  of  the  kind.  A  beautiful  nude  recumbent 
statue  of  Shelley  (1892)  upon  a  cleverly-designed  base,  which  is 
not  quite  impeccable  from  the  point  of  view  of  artistic  taste, 
is  at  University  College,  Oxford,  and  a  simplified  version  was 
presented  by  him  to  be  set  up  on  the  shore  of  Viareggio,  where 
the  poet's  body  was  washed  up.  Ford's  ideal  work  has  great 
charm  and  daintiness;  his  statue  "  Folly  "  (1886)  was  bought 
by  the  trustees  of  the  Chantrey  Fund,  and  was  followed  by  other 
statues  or  statuettes  of  a  similar  order:  "  Peace  "  (1890),  which 
secured  his  election  as  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
"Echo"  (1895),  on  which  he  was  elected  full  member,  "The 


FORD,  J. 


641 


Egyptian  Singer  "  (1889),  "  Applause  "  (1893),  "  Glory  to  the 
Dead  "  (1901)  and  "  Snowdrift  "  (1902).  Ford's  influence  on 
the  younger  generation  of  sculptors  was  considerable  and  of 
good  effect.  His  charming  disposition  rendered  him  extremely 
popular,  and  when  he  died  a  monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory  (C.  Lucchesi,  sculptor,  J.  W.  Simpson,  architect)  in 
St  John's  Wood,  near  to  where  he  dwelt. 

See  SCULPTURE;    also  M.  H.  Spielmann,  British  Sculpture  and 
Sculptors  of  To-day  (London,  1901). 

FORD,  JOHN  (1586-^1640),  English  dramatist,  was  baptized 
on  the  1 7th  of  April  1586  at  Ilsington  in  north  Devon.  He  came 
of  a  good  family;  his  father  was  in  the  commission  of  the  peace 
and  his  mother  was  a  sister  of  Sir  John  Popham,  successively 
attorney-general  and  lord  chief  justice.  The  name  of  John 
Ford  appears  in  the  university  register  of  Oxford  as  matriculating 
at  Exeter  College  in  1601.  Like  a  cousin  and  namesake  (to  whom, 
with  other  members  of  the  society  of  Gray's  Inn,  he  dedicated 
his  play  of  The  Lover's  Melancholy),  the  future  dramatist  entered 
the  profession  of  the  law,  being  admitted  of  the  Middle  Temple 
in  1602;  but  he  seems  never  to  have  been  called  to  the  bar. 
Four  years  afterwards  he  made  his  first  appearance  as  an  author 
with  an  elegy  called  Fame's  Memorial,  or  the  Earl  of  Devonshire 
deceased,  and  dedicated  to  the  widow  of  the  earl  (Charles  Blount, 
Lord  Mountjoy,  "  coronized,"  to  use  Ford's  expression,  by  King 
James  in  1603  for  his  services  in  Ireland) — a  lady  who  would 
have  been  no  unfitting  heroine  for  one  of  his  own  tragedies  of 
lawless  passion,  the  famous  Penelope,  formerly  Lady  Rich. 
This  panegyric,  which  is  accompanied  by  a  series  of  epitaphs 
and  is  composed  in  a  strain  of  fearless  extravagance,  was,  as 
the  author  declares,  written  "unfee'd";  it  shows  that  Ford 
sympathized,  as  Shakespeare  himself  is  supposed  to  have  done, 
with  the  "  awkward  fate  "  of  the  countess's  brother,  the  earl  of 
Essex.  Who  the  "  flint-hearted  Lycia  "  may  be,  to  whom  the 
poet  seems  to  allude  as  his  own  disdainful  mistress,  is  unknown; 
indeed,  the  record  of  Ford's  private  life  is  little  better  than  a 
blank.  To  judge,  however,  from  the  dedications,  prologues  and 
epilogues  of  his  various  plays,  heseemsto  have  enjoyed  the  patron- 
age of  the  earl,  afterwards  duke,  of  Newcastle,  "  himself  a  muse  " 
after  a  fashion,  and  Lord  Craven,  the  supposed  husband  of  the 
ex-queen  of  Bohemia.  Ford's  tract  of  Honor  Triumphant,  or  the 
Peeres  Challenge  (printed  1606  and  reprinted  by  the  Shakespeare 
Society  with  the  Line  of  Life,  in  1843),  and  the  simultaneously  pub- 
lished verses  The  Monarches  Meeting,  or  the  King  of  Denmarkes 
Welcome  into  England,  exhibit  him  as  occasionally  meeting  the 
festive  demands  of  court  and  nobility;  and  a  kind  of  moral 
essay  by  him,  entitled  A  Line  of  Life  (printed  1620),  which 
contains  references  to  Raleigh,  ends  with  a  climax  of  fulsome 
praise  to  the  address  of  King  James  I.  Yet  at  least  one  of  Ford's 
plays  (The  Broken  Heart,  iii.  4)  contains  an  implied  protest 
against  the  absolute  system  of  government  generally  accepted 
by  the  dramatists  of  the  early  Stuart  reigns.  Of  his  relations 
with  his  brother-authors  little  is  known;  it  was  natural  that  he 
should  exchange  complimentary  verses  with  James  Shirley, 
and  that  he  should  join  in  the  chorus  of  laments  over  the  death 
of  Ben  Jonson.  It  is  more  interesting  to  notice  an  epigram  in 
honour  of  Ford  by  Richard  Crashaw,  morbidly  passionate  in 
one  direction  as  Ford  was  in  another.  The  lines  run: 
"  Thou  cheat'st  us,  Ford;  mak'st  one  seem  two  by  art: 
What  is  Love's  Sacrifice  but  the  Broken  Heart?" 

It  has  been  concluded  that  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
gratified  the  tendency  to  seclusion  for  which  he  was  ridiculed 
in  The  Time  Poets  (Choice  Drollery,  1656)  by  withdrawing  from 
business  and  from  literary  life  in  London,  to  his  native  place; 
but  nothing  is  known  as  to  the  date  of  his  death.  His  career 
as  a  dramatist  very  probably  began  by  collaboration  with  other 
authors.  With  Thomas  Dekker  he  wrote  The  Fairy  Knight 
and  The  Bristowe  Merchant  (licensed  in  1624,  but  both  unpub- 
lished), with  John  Webster  A  late  Murther  of  the  Sonne  upon 
the  Mother  (licensed  in  1624).  A  play  entitled  An  ill  Beginning 
has  a  good  End,  brought  on  the  stage  as  early  as  1613  and  attri- 
buted to  Ford,  was  (if  his)  his  earliest  acted  play;  whether 
Sir  Thomas  Overbury's  Life  and  untimely  Death  (1615)  was  a 
x.  21 


play  is  extremely  doubtful;  some  lines  of  indignant  regret  by 
Ford  on  the  same  subject  are  still  preserved.  He  is  also  said 
to  have  written,  at  dates  unknown,  The  London  Merchant 
(which,  however,  was  an  earlier  name  for  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's 
Knight  of  the  Burning  Pestle)  and  The  Royal  Combat;  a  tragedy 
by  him,  Beauty  in  a  Trance,  was  entered  in  the  Stationers' 
Register  in  1653,  but  never  printed.  These  three  (or  four) 
plays  were  among  those  destroyed  by  Warburton's  cook.  The 
Queen,  or  the  Excellency  of  the  Sea,  a  play  of  inverted  passion, 
containing  some  fine  sensuous  lines,  printed  in  1653  by  Alexander 
Singhe  for  private  performance,  has  been  recently  edited  by  W. 
Bang  (Materialienzur  Kunde d.  dlleren  engl.  Dramas,  13,  Louvain, 
1906),  and  is  by  him  on  internal  evidence  confidently  claimed 
as  Ford's.  Of  the  plays  by  Ford  preserved  to  us  the  dates  span 
little  more  than  a  decade — the  earliest,  The  Lover's  Melancholy, 
having  been  acted  in  1628  and  printed  in  1629,  the  latest,  The 
Lady's  Trial,  acted  in  1638  and  printed  in  1639. 

When  writing  The  Lover's  Melancholy,  it  would  seem  that 
Ford  had  not  yet  become  fully  aware  of  the  bent  of  his  own 
dramatic  genius,  although  he  was  already  master  of  his  powers 
of  poetic  expression.  He  was  attracted  towards  domestic  tragedy 
by  an  irresistible  desire  to  sound  the  depths  of  abnormal  conflicts 
between  passion  and  circumstances,  to  romantic  comedy  by  a 
strong  though  not  widely  varied  imaginative  faculty,  and  by 
a  delusion  that  he  was  possessed  of  abundant  comic  humour. 
In  his  next  two  works,  undoubtedly  those  most  characteristic- 
ally expressive  of  his  peculiar  strength,  'Tis  Pity  she's  a  Whore 
(acted  c.  1626)  and  The  Broken  Heart  (acted  c.  1629),  both 
printed  in  1633  with  the  anagram  of  his  name  Fide  Honor,  he 
had  found  horrible  situations  which  required  dramatic  explana- 
tion by  intensely  powerful  motives.  Ford  by  no  means  stood 
alone  among  English  dramatists  in  his  love  of  abnormal  subjects; 
but  few  were  so  capable  of  treating  them  sympathetically,  and 
yet  without  that  reckless  grossness  or  extravagance  of  expression 
which  renders  the  morally  repulsive  aesthetically  intolerable, 
or  converts  the  horrible  into  the  grotesque.  For  in  Ford's 
genius  there  was  real  refinement,  except  when  the  "  supra- 
sensually  sensual  "  impulse  or  the  humbler  self-delusion  referred 
to  came  into  play.  In  a  third  tragedy,  Love's  Sacrifice  (acted 
c.  1630;  printed  in  1633),  he  again  worked  on  similar  materials; 
but  this  time  he  unfortunately  essayed  to  base  the  interest  of 
his  plot  upon  an  unendurably  unnatural  possibility — doing 
homage  to  virtue  after  a  fashion  which  is  in  itself  an  insult. 
In  Perkin  Warbeck  (printed  1634;  probably  acted  a  year  later) 
he  chose  an  historical  subject  of  great  dramatic  promise  and 
psychological  interest,  and  sought  to  emulate  the  glory  of  the 
great  series  of  Shakespeare's  national  histories.  The  effort  is 
one  of  the  most  laudable,  as  it  was  by  no  means  one  of  the  least 
successful,  in  the  dramatic  literature  of  this  period.  The  Fancies 
Chaste  and  Noble  (acted  before  1636,  printed  1638),  though  it 
includes  scenes  of  real  force  and  feeling,  is  dramatically  a  failure, 
of  which  the  main  idea  is  almost  provokingly  slight  and  feeble; 
and  The  Lady's  Trial  (acted  1638,  printed  1639)  is  only  redeemed 
from  utter  wearisomeness  by  an  unusually  even  pleasingness 
of  form.  There  remain  two  other  dramatic  works,  of  very 
different  kinds,  in  which  Ford  co-operated  with  other  writers, 
the  mask  of  The  Sun's  Darling  (acted  1624,  printed  1657), 
hardly  to  be  placed  in  the  first  rank  of  early  compositions,  and 
The  Witch  of  Edmonton  (printed  1658,  but  probably  acted  about 
1621),  in  which  we  see  Ford  as  a  joint  writer  with  Dekker  and 
Rowley  of  one  of  the  most  powerful  domestic  dramas  of  the 
English  or  any  other  stage. 

A  few  notes  may  be  added  on  some  of  the  more  remarkable  of  the 
plays  enumerated.  A  wholly  baseless  anecdote,  condensed  into  a 
stinging  epigram  by  Endymion  Porter,  asserted  that  The  Lover's 
Melancholy  was  stolen  by  Ford  from  Shakespeare's  papers.  Un- 
doubtedly, the  madness  of  the  hero  of  this  play  of  Ford's  occasionally 
recalls  Hamlet,  while  the  heroine  is  one  of  the  many,  and  at  the  same 
time  one  of  the  most  pleasing,  parallels  to  Viola.  But  neither  of 
them  is  a  copy,  as  Friar  Bonaventura  in  Ford's  second  play  may  be 
said  to  be  a  copy  of  Friar  Lawrence,  whose  kindly  pliability  he 
disagreeably  exaggerates,  or  as  D'Avolos  in  Love's  Sacrifice  is  clearly 
modelled  on  lago.  The  plot  of  The  Lover's  Melancholy,  which  is 
ineffective  because  it  leaves  no  room  for  suspense  in  the  mind  of 


642 


FORD,  J. 


the  reader,  seems  original;  in  the  dialogue,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
justly  famous  passage  in  Act  i.  (the  beautiful  version  of  the  story 
of  the  nightingale's  death)  is  translated  from  Strada;  while  the 
scheme  of  the  tedious  interlude  exhibiting  the  various  forms  of 
madness  is  avowedly  taken,  together  with  sundry  comments,  from 
Barton's  Anatomy  of  Melancholy.  Already  in  this  play  Ford 
exhibits  the  singular  force  of  his  pathos;  the  despondent  misery 
of  the  aged  Meleander,  and  the  sweetness  of  the  last  scene,  in  which 
his  daughter  comes  back  to  him,  alike  go  to  the  heart.  A  situation 
— hazardous  in  spite  of  its  comic  substratum — between  Thaumasta 
and  the  pretended  Parthenophil  is  conducted,  as  Gifford  points  out, 
with  real  delicacy;  but  the  comic  scenes  are  merely  stagy,  not- 
withstanding, or  by  reason  of,  the  effort  expended  on  them  by  the 
author. 

'Tis  Pity  she's  a  Whore  has  been  justly  recognized  as  a  tragedy 
of  extraordinary  power.  Mr  Swinburne,  in  his  eloquent  essay  on 
Ford,  has  rightly  shown  what  is  the  meaning  of  this  tragedy,  and 
has  at  the  same  time  indicated  wherein  consists  its  poison.  He 
dwells  with  great  force  upon  the  different  treatment  applied  by  Ford 
to  the  characters  of  the  two  miserable  lovers — brother  and  sister. 
"  The  sin  once  committed,  there  is  no  more  wavering  or  flinching 
possible  to  him,  who  has  fought  so  hard  against  the  demoniac  posses- 
sion ;  while  she  who  resigned  body  and  soul  to  the  tempter,  almost 
at  a  word,  remains  liable  to  the  influences  of  religion  and  remorse." 
This  different  treatment  shows  the  feeling  of  the  poet — the  feeling 
for  which  he  seeks  to  evoke  our  inmost  sympathy — to  oscillate 
between  the  belief  that  an  awful  crime  brings  with  it  its  awful 
punishment  (and  it  is  sickening  to  observe  how  the  argument  by 
which  the  Friar  persuades  Annabella  to  forsake  her  evil  courses 
mainly  appeals  to  the  physical  terrors  of  retribution),  and  the 
notion  that  there  is  something  fatal,  something  irresistible,  and 
therefore  in  a  sense  self -justified,  in  so  dominant  a  passion.  The 
key-note  to  the  conduct  of  Giovanni  lies  in  his  words  at  the  close  of 
the  first  scene — 

"  All  this  I'll  do,  to  free  me  from  the  rod 
Of  vengeance;  else  I'll  swear  my  fate's  my  god." 

Thus  there  is  no  solution  of  the  conflict  between  passion  on  the  one 
side,  and  law,  duty  and  religion  on  the  other;  and  passion  triumphs, 
in  the  dying  words  of  "  the  student  struck  blind  and  mad  by 
passion  " — 

"  O,  I  bleed  fast! 

Death,  thou'rt  a  guest  long  look'd  for;   I  embrace 

Thee  and  thy  wounds :   O,  my  last  minute  comes! 

Where'er  I  go,  let  me  enjoy  this  grace 

Freely  to  view  my  Annabella's  face." 

It  has  been  observed  by  J.  A.  Symonds  that  "  English  poets  have 
given  us  the  right  key  to  the  Italian  temperament.  .  .  .  The  love 
of  Giovanni  and  Annabella  is  rightly  depicted  as  more  imaginative 
than  sensual."  It  is  difficult  to  allow  the  appositeness  of  this 
special  illustration ;  on  the  other  hand,  Ford  has  even  in  this  case 
shown  his  art  of  depicting  sensual  passion  without  grossness  of 
expression;  for  the  exception  in  Annabella's  language  to  Soranzo 
seems  to  have  a  special  intention,  and  is  true  to  the  pressure  of 
the  situation  and  the  revulsion  produced  by  it  in  a  naturally  weak 
and  yielding  mind.  The  entire  atmosphere,  so  to  speak,  of  the  play 
is  stifling,  and  is  not  rendered  less  so  by  the  underplot  with  Hippolita. 

'Tis  Pity  she's  a  Whore  was  translated  into  French  by  Maurice 
Maeterlinck  under  the  title  of  Annabella,  and  represented  at  the 
Theatre  de  1'QEuvre  in  1894.  The  translator  prefixes  to  the  version 
an  eloquent  appreciation  of  Ford's  genius,  especially  in  his  portraits 
of  women,  whose  fate  it  is  to  live  "dans  les  tenebres,  lescrainteset 
les  larmes." 

Like  this  tragedy,  The  Broken  Heart  was  probably  founded  upon 
some  Italian  or  other  novel  of  the  day;  but  since  in  the  latter 
instance  there  is  nothing  revolting  in  the  main  idea  of  the  subject, 
the  play  commends  itself  as  the  most  enjoyable,  while,  in  respect  of 
many  excellences,  an  unsurpassed  specimen  of  Ford's  dramatic 
genius.  The  complicated  plot  is  constructed  with  greater  skill 
than  is  usual  with  this  dramatist,  and  the  pathos  of  particular 
situations,  and  of  the  entire  character  of  Penthea — a  woman  doomed 
to  hopeless  misery,  but  capable  of  seeking  to  obtain  for  her  brother 
a  happiness  which  his  cruelty  has  condemned  her  to  forego — has  an 
intensity  and  a  depth  which  are  all  Ford's  own.  Even  the  lesser 
characters  are  more  pleasing  than  usual,  and  some  beautiful  lyrics 
are  interspersed  in  the  play. 

Of  the  other  plays  written  by  Ford  alone,  only  The  Chronicle  His- 
torie  of  Perkin  Warbeck.  A  Strange  Truth,  appears  to  call  for  special 
attention.  A  repeated  perusal  of  this  drama  suggests  the  judgment 
that  it  is  overpraised  when  ranked  at  no  great  distance  from  Shake- 
speare's national  dramas.  Historical  truth  need  not  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  the  matter;  and  if,  notwithstanding  James 
Gairdner's  essay  appended  to  his  Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  III., 
there  are  still  credulous  persons  left  to  think  and  assert  that  Perkin 
was  not  an  impostor,  they  will  derive  little  satisfaction  from  Ford's 
play,  which  with  really  surprising  skill  avoids  the  slightest  indication 
as  to  the  poet's  own  belief  on  the  subject.  That  this  tragedy  should 
have  been  reprinted  in  1714  and  acted  in  1745  only  shows  that  the 
public,  as  is  often  the  case,  had  an  eye  to  the  catastrophe  rather 


than  to  the  development  of  the  action.  The  dramatic  capabilities 
of  the  subject  are,  however,  great,  and  it  afterwards  attracted 
Schiller,  who,  however,  seems  to  have  abandoned  it  in  favour  of 
the  similar  theme  of  the  Russian  Demetrius.  Had  Shakespeare 
treated  it,  he  would  hardly  have  contented  himself  with  investing 
the  hero  with  the  nobility  given  by  Ford  to  this  personage  of  his 
play, — for  it  is  hardly  possible  to  speak  of  a  personage  as  a  character 
when  the  clue  to  his  conduct  is  intentionally  withheld.  Nor  could 
Shakespeare  have  failed  to  bring  out  with  greater  variety  and 
distinctness  the  dramatic  features  in  Henry  VII.,  whom  Ford  depicts 
with  sufficient  distinctness  to  give  some  degree  of  individuality  to 
the  figure,  but  still  with  a  tenderness  of  touch  which  would  have  been 
much  to  the  credit  of  the  dramatist's  skill  had  he  been  writing  in  the 
Tudor  age.  The  play  is,  however,  founded  on  Bacon's  Life,  of 
which  the  text  is  used  by  Ford  with  admirable  discretion,  and  on 
Thomas  Gainsford's  True  and  Wonderful  History  nf  Perkin  Warbeck 
(1618).  The  minor  characters  of  the  honest  old  Huntley,  whom  the 
Scottish  king  obliges  to  bestow  his  daughter's  hand  upon  Warbeck, 
and  of  her  lover  the  faithful  "  Dalyell,"  are  most  effectively  drawn; 
even  "  the  men  of  judgment,"  the  adventurers  who  surround  the 
chief  adventurer,  are  spirited  sketches,  and  the  Irishman  among 
them  has  actually  some  humour;  while  the  style  of  the  play  is,  as 
befits  a  "  Chronicle  History,"  so  clear  and  straightforward  as  to 
make  it  easy  as  well  as  interesting  to  read. 

The  Witch  of  Edmonton  was  attributed  by  its  publisher  to  William 
Rowley,  Dekker,  Ford,  "  &c.,"  but  the  body  of  the  play  has  been 
generally  held  to  be  ascribable  to  Ford  and  Dekker  only.  The 
subject  of  the  play  was  no  doubt  suggested  by  the  case  of  the  reported 
witch,  Elizabeth  Sawyer,  who  was  executed  in  1621.  Swinburne 
agrees  with  Gifford  in  thinking  Ford  the  author  of  the  whole  of  the 
first  act;  and  he  is  most  assuredly  right  in  considering  that  "  there 
is  no  more  admirable  exposition  of  a  play  on  the  English  stage." 
Supposing  Dekker  to  be  chiefly  responsible  for  the  scenes  dealing 
with  the  unfortunate  old  woman  whom  persecution  as  a  witch 
actually  drives  to  become  one,  and  Ford  for  the  domestic  tragedy 
of  the  bigamist  murderer,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  both  divisions 
of  the  subject  are  effectively  treated,  while  the  more  important  part 
of  the  task  fell  to  the  share  of  Ford.  Yet  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
any  such  division  can  be  safely  assumed;  and  it  may  suffice  to 
repeat  that  no  domestic  tragedy  has  ever  taught  with  more  effective 
simplicity  and  thrilling  truthfulness  the  homely  double  lesson  of  the 
folly  of  selfishness  and  the  mad  rashness  of  crime. 

With  Dekker  Ford  also  wrote  the  mask  of  The  Sun's  Darling; 
or,  as  seems  most  probable,  they  founded  this  production  upon 
Phaeton,  an  earlier  mask,  of  which  Dekker  had  been  sole  author. 
Gifford  holds  that  Dekker's  hand  is  perpetually  traceable  in  the 
first  three  acts  of  The  Sun's  Darling,  and  through  the  whole  of  its 
comic  part,  but  that  the  last  two  acts  are  mainly  Ford's.  If  so,  he 
is  the  author  of  the  rather  forced  occasional  tribute  on  the  accession 
of  King  Charles  I.,  of  which  the  last  act  largely  consists.  This 
mask,  which  furnished  abundant  opportunities  for  the  decorators, 
musicians  and  dancers,  in  showing  forth  how  the  seasons  and  their 
delights  are  successively  exhausted  by  a  "  wanton  darling,"  Ray- 
bright  the  grandchild  of  the  Sun,  is  said  to  have  been  very  popular. 
It  is  at  the  same  time  commonplace  enough  in  conception;  but 
there  is  much  that  is  charming  in  the  descriptions,  Jonson  and 
Lyly  being  respectively  laid  under  contribution  in  the  course  of  the 
dialogue,  and  in  one  of  the  incidental  lyrics. 

Ford  owes  his  position  among  English  dramatists  to  the 
intensity  of  his  passion,  in  particular  scenes  and  passages  where 
the  character,  the  author  and  the  reader  are  alike  lost  in  the 
situation  and  in  the  sentiment  evoked  by  it;  and  this  gift  is 
a  supreme  dramatic  gift.  But  his  plays — with  the  exception  of 
The  Witch  of  Edmonton,  in  which  he  doubtless  had  a  prominent 
share — too  often  disturb  the  mind  like  a  bad  dream  which  ends 
as  an  unsolved  dissonance;  and  this  defect  is  a  supreme  dramatic 
defect.  It  is  not  the  rigid  or  the  stolid  who  have  the  most  reason 
to  complain  of  the  insufficiency  of  tragic  poetry  such  as  Ford's; 
nor  is  it  that  morality  only  which,  as  Ithocles  says  in  The  Broken 
Heart,  "  is  formed  of  books  and  school-traditions,"  which  has 
a  right  to  protest  against  the  final  effect  of  the  most  powerful 
creations  of  his  genius.  There  is  a  morality  which  both 

"  Keeps  the  soul  in  tune, 
At  whose  sweet  music  all  our  actions  dance," 

and  is  able  to  physic 

"  The  sickness  of  a  mind 
Broken  with  griefs."  i 

Of  that  morality — or  of  that  deference  to  the  binding  power 
within  man  and  the  ruling  power  above  him — tragedy  is  the 
truest  expounder,  even  when  it  illustrates  by  contrasts;  but 
the  tragic  poet  who  merely  places  the  problem  before  us,  and 
bids  us  stand  aghast  with  him  at  its  cruelty,  is  not  to  be  reckoned 
among  the  great  masters  of  a  divine  art. 


FORD,  R.— FORDUN,  JOHN  OF 


643 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  best  edition  of  Ford  is  that  by  Gifford,  with 
notes  and  introduction,  revised  with  additions  to  both  text  and 
notes  by  Alexander  Dyce  (1869).  An  edition  of  the  Dramatic  Works 
of  Massinger  and  Ford  appeared  in  1840,  with  an  introduction  by 
Hartley  Coleridge.  The  Best  Plays  of  Ford  were  edited  for  the 
"  Mermaid  Series  "  in  1888,  with  an  introduction  by  W.  H.  Havelock 
Ellis,  and  reissued  in  1903.  A.  C.  Swinburne's  "  Essay  on  Ford  " 
is  reprinted  among  his  Essays  and  Studies  (1875).  Perkin  Warbeck 
and  'Tis  Pity  were  translated  into  German  by  F.  Bodenstedt  in 
1860;  and  the  latter  again  by  F.  Blei  in  1904.  The  probable  sources 
of  the  various  plays  are  discussed  in  Emil  Koeppel's  Quellenstudien 
zu  den  Dramen  George  Chapman's,  Philip  Massinger's  und  John 
Ford's  (1897).  (A.  W.  W.) 

FORD,  RICHARD  (1796-1858),  English  author  of  one  of  the 
earliest  and  best  of  travellers'  Handbooks,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Sir  Richard  Ford,  who  in  1789  was  member  of  parliament  for 
East  Grinstead,  and  for  many  years  afterwards  chief  police 
magistrate  of  London.  His  mother  was  the  daughter  and 
heiress  of  Benjamin  Booth,  a  distinguished  connoisseur  in  art. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar,  but  never  practised,  and  in  1830-1833 
he  travelled  in  Spain,  spending  much  of  his  time  in  the  Alhambra 
and  at  Seville.  His  first  literary  work  (other  than  contributions 
to  the  Quarterly  Review)  was  a  pamphlet,  An  Historical  Inquiry 
into  the  Unchangeable  Character  of  a  War  in  Spain  (Murray, 
1837),  in  reply  to  one  called  the  Policy  of  England  towards  Spain, 
issued  under  the  patronage  of  Lord  Palmerston.  He  spent  the 
winter  of  1830-1840  in  Italy,  where  he  added  largely  to  his 
collection  of  majolica;  and  soon  after  his  return  he  began,  at 
John  Murray's  invitation,  to  write  his  Handbook  for  Travellers 
in  Spain,  with  which  his  name  is  chiefly  associated.  He  died  on 
the  ist  of  September  1858,  leaving  a  fine  private  collection  of 
pictures  to  his  widow  (d.  1910),  his  third  wife,  a  daughter  of  Sir 
A.  Molesworth. 

FORD,  THOMAS  (b.  c.  1580),  English  musician,  of  whose 
life  little  more  is  known  than  that  he  was  attached  to  the  court 
of  Prince  Henry,  son  of  James  I.  His  works  also  are  few,  but 
they  are  sufficient  to  show  the  high  stage  of  efficiency  and  musical 
knowledge  which  the  English  school  had  attained  at  the  beginning 
of  the  1 7th  century.  They  consist  of  canons  and  other  concerted 
pieces  of  vocal  music,  mostly  with  lute  accompaniment.  The 
chief  collection  of  his  works  is  entitled  Musike  of  Sundrie  Kinds 
set  forth  in  Two  Books,  &c.  (1607),  and  the  histories  of  music  by 
Burney  and  Hawkins  give  specimens  of  his  art.  Together  with 
Dowland,  immortalized  in  one  of  Shakespeare's  sonnets,  Ford 
is  the  chief  representative  of  the  school  which  preceded  Henry 
Lawes. 

FORDE,  FRANCIS  (d.  1770),  British  soldier,  first  appears  in 
the  army  list  as  a  captain  in  the  3Qth  Foot  in  1 746.  This  regiment 
was  the  first  of  the  king's  service  to  serve  in  India  (hence  its 
motto  Primus  in  Indis),  and  Forde  was  on  duty  there  when  in 
1755  he  became  major,  at  the  same  time  as  Eyre  Coote,  soon  to 
become  his  rival,  was  promoted  captain.  At  the  express  invita- 
tion of  Clive,  Forde  resigned  his  king's  commission  to  take  the 
post  of  second  in  command  of  the  E.I.  Company's  troops  in 
Bengal.  Soon  after  Plassey,  Forde  was  sent  against  the  French 
of  Masulipatam.  Though  feebly  supported  by  the  motley 
rabble  of  an  army  which  Anandraz,  the  local  ally,  brought  into 
the  field,  Forde  pushed  ahead  through  difficult  country  and 
came  upon  the  enemy  entrenched  at  Condore.  For  four  days 
the  two  armies  faced  one  another;  on  the  fifth  both  commanders 
resolved  on  the  offensive  and  an  encounter  ensued.  In  spite 
of  the  want  of  spirit  shown  by  Anandraz  and  his  men,  Forde  in 
the  end  succeeded  in  winning  the  battle,  which  was  from  first 
to  last  a  brilliant  piece  of  work.  Nor  did  he  content  himself 
with  this;  on  the  same  evening  he  stormed  the  French  camp, 
and  his  pursuit  was  checked  only  by  the  guns  of  Masulipatam 
itself.  The  place  was  quickly  invested  on  the  land  side,  but 
difficulties  crowded  upon  Forde  and  his  handful  of  men.  For 
fifty  days  little  advance  was  made;  then  Forde,  seeing  the  last 
avenues  of  escape  closing  behind  him,  ordered  an  assault  at 
midnight  on  the  25th  of  January  1759.  The  Company's  troops 
lost  one-third  of  their  number,  but  the  storm  was  a  brilliant 
and  astounding  success.  Forde  received  less  than  no  reward. 
The  Company  refused  to  confirm  his  lieut. -colonel's  commission, 


and  he  found  himself  junior  to  Eyre  Coote,  his  old  subaltern 
in  the  39th  Foot.  Nevertheless  he  continued  to  assist  Clive, 
and  on  the  25th  of  November  1759  won  a  success  comparable 
to  Condore  at  Chinsurah  (or  Biderra)  against  the  Dutch.  A 
year  later  he  at  last  received  his  commission,  but  was  still 
opposed  by  a  faction  of  the  directors  which  supported  Coote. 
Clive  himself  warmly  supported  Forde  in  these  quarrels.  In 
1769,  with  Vansittart  and  Scrafton,  Colonel  Forde  was  sent  out 
with  full  powers  to  investigate  every  detail  of  Indian  administra- 
tion. Their  ship  was  never  heard  of  after  leaving  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  on  the  2  7th  of  December. 

Monographs  on  Condore,  Masulipatam  and  Chinsurah  will  be 
found  in  Malleson's  Decisive  Battles  of  India. 

FORDHAM,  formerly  a  village  of  Westchester  county,  New 
York,  U.S.A.,  and  now  a  part  of  New  York  City.  It  lies  on  the 
mainland,  along  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Harlem  river,  E.  of  the 
northern  end  of  Manhattan  Island.  It  is  the  seat  of  Fordham 
University  (Roman  Catholic),  founded  in  1841  as  St  John's 
College,  and  since  1846  conducted  by  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
In  1907  the  institution  was  rechartered  as  Fordham  University, 
and  now  includes  St  John's  College  high  school  and  grammar 
school,  St  John's  College,  the  Fordham  University  medical  school 
(all  in  Fordham),  and  the  Fordham  University  law  school  (42 
Broadway,  New  York  City).  In  1907-1908  the  university  had 
96  instructors  and  (exclusive  of  364  students  in  the  high  school) 
236  students,  of  whom  105  were  in  St  John's  College,  31  in  the 
medical  school,  and  100  in  the  law  school.  In  Fordham  still 
stands  the  house  in  which  Edgar  Allan  Poe  lived  from  1844  to 
1849  and  in  which  he  wrote  "  Annabel  Lee,"  "  Ulalume,"  &c. 

The  hamlet  of  Fordham  was  established  in  1669  by  Jan  Arcer 
(a  Dutchman,  who  called  himself  "  John  Archer  "  after  coming 
to  America),  who  in  that  year  received  permission  from  Francis 
Lovelace,  colonial  governor  of  New  York,  to  settle  sixteen 
families  on  the  mainland  close  by  a  fording-place  of  the  Spuyten 
Duyvil  Creek,  near  where  that  stream  enters  the  Harlem  river. 
Between  1655  and  1671  Archer  bought  from  the  Indians  the 
tract  of  land  lying  between  Spuyten  Duyvil  Creek  and  the 
Harlem  river  on  the  east  and  the  Bronx  river  on  the  west,  and 
extending  from  the  hamlet  of  Fordham  to  what  is  now  High 
Bridge.  In  1671  Governor  Lovelace  erected  this  tract  into  the 
manor  of  Fordham.  In  1846  it  was  included  with  Morrisanta 
in  the  township  of  West  Farms;  and  in  1872  with  part  of  the 
township  of  Yonkers  was  erected  into  the  township  of  Kings- 
bridge,  which  in  1874  was  annexed  to  the  city  of  New  York,  and 
in  1898  became  a  part  of  the  borough  of  the  Bronx,  New  York 
City. 

FORDUN,  JOHN  OF  (d.  c.  1384),  Scottish  chronicler.  The 
statement  generally  made  that  the  chronicler  was  born  at 
Fordoun  (Kincardineshire)  has  not  been  supported  by  any 
direct  evidence.  It  is  certain  that  he  was  a  secular  priest,  and 
that  he  composed  his  history  in  the  latter  part  of  the  i4th 
century;  and  it  is  probable  that  he  was  a  chaplain  in  the 
cathedral  of  Aberdeen.  The  work  of  Fordun  is  the  earliest 
attempt  to  write  a  continuous  history  of  Scotland.  We  are 
informed  that  Fordun's  patriotic  zeal  was  roused  by  the  removal 
or  destruction  of  many  national  records  by  Edward  III.  and  that 
he  travelled  in  England  and  Ireland,  collecting  material  for  his 
history.  This  work  is  divided  into  five  books.  The  first  three 
are  almost  entirely  fabulous,  and  form  the  groundwork  on  which 
Boece  and  Buchanan  afterwards  based  their  historical  fictions, 
which  were  exposed  by  Thomas  Innes  in  his  Critical  Essay 
(i.  pp.  201-214).  The  4th  and  sth  books,  though  still  mixed 
with  fable,  contain  much  valuable  information,  and  become 
more  authentic  the  more  nearly  they  approach  the  author's  own 
time.  The  5th  book  concludes  with  the  death  of  King  David  I. 
in  1153.  Besides  these  five  books,  Fordun  wrote  part  of  another 
book,  and  collected  materials  for  bringing  down  the  history  to 
a  later  period.  These  materials  were  used  by  a  continuator  who 
Vvrote  in  the  middle  of  the  isth  century,  and  who  is  identified 
with  Walter  Bower  (q.v.),  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Inchcolm. 
The  additions  of  Bower  form  eleven  books,  and  bring  down 
the  narrative  to  the  death  of  King  James  I.  in  1437.  According 


644 


FORECLOSURE— FOREST  LAWS 


to  the  custom  of  the  time,  the  continuator  did  not  hesitate  to 
interpolate  Fordun's  portion  of  the  work  with  additions  of  his 
own,  and  the  whole  history  thus  compiled  is  known  as  the 
Scotichronicon. 

The  first  printed  edition  of  Fordun's  work  was  that  of  Thomas 
Gale  in  his  Scriptores  quindecim  (vol.  iii.),  which  was  published  in 
1691.  This  was  followed  by  Thomas  Hearne's  (5  vols.)  edition  in 
1722.  The  whole  work,  including  Bower's  continuation,  was  pub- 
lished by  Walter  Goodall  at  Edinburgh  in  1759.  In  1871  and  1872 
Fordun's  chronicle,  in  the  original  Latin  and  in  an  English  transla- 
tion, was  edited  by  William  F.  Skene  in  The  Historians  of  Scotland. 
The  preface  to  this  edition  collects  all  the  biographical  details  and 
gives  full  bibliographical  references  to  MSS.  and  editions. 

FORECLOSURE,  in  the  law  of  mortgage,  the  extinguishment 
by  order  of  the  court  of  a  mortgagor's  equity  of  redemption. 
In  the  law  of  equity  the  object  of  every  mortgage  transaction 
is  eventually  the  repayment  of  a  debt,  the  mortgaged  property 
being  incidental  by  way  of  security.  Therefore,  although  the 
day  named  for  repayment  of  the  loan  has  passed  and  the  mort- 
gagor's estate  is  consequently  forfeited,  equity  steps  in  to 
mitigate  the  harshness  of  the  common  law,  and  will  decree  a 
reconveyance  of  the  mortgaged  property  on  payment  of  the 
principal,  interest  and  costs.  This  right  of  the  mortgagor  to 
relief  is  termed  his  "  equity  of  redemption."  But  the  right 
must  be  exercised  within  a  reasonable  time,  otherwise  he  will 
be  foreclosed  his  equity  of  redemption  and  the  mortgagee's 
possession  converted  into  an  absolute  ownership.  Such  fore- 
closure is  enforced  in  equity  by  a  foreclosure  action.  An  action 
is  brought  by  the  mortgagee  against  the  mortgagor  in  the 
chancery  division  of  the  High  Court  in  England,  claiming  that 
an  account  may  be  taken  of  the  principal  and  interest  due  to 
the  mortgagee,  and  that  the  mortgagor  may  be  directed  to  pay 
the  same,  with  costs,  by  a  day  to  be  appointed  by  the  court 
and  that  in  default  thereof  he  may  be  foreclosed  his  equity  of 
redemption.  English  county  courts  have  jurisdiction  in  fore- 
closure actions  where  the  mortgage  or  charge  does  not  exceed 
£500,  or  where  the  mortgage  is  for  more  than  £500,  but  less  than 
that  sum  has  been  actually  advanced.  In  a  Welsh  mortgage 
there  is  no  right  to  foreclosure.  (See  also  MORTGAGE.) 

FOREIGN  OFFICE,  that  department  of  the  executive  of  the 
United  Kingdom  which  is  concerned  with  foreign  affairs.  The 
head  of  the  Foreign  Office  is  termed  principal  secretary  of  state 
for  foreign  affairs  and  his  office  dates  from  1782.  Between 
that  date  and  the  Revolution  there  had  been  only  two  secretaries 
of  state,  whose  duties  were  divided  by  a  geographical  division 
of  the  globe  into  northern  and  southern  departments.  The 
duties  of  the  secretary  of  the  northern  department  of  Europe 
comprised  dealings  with  the  northern  powers  of  Europe,  while 
the  secretary  of  the  southern  department  of  Europe  communi- 
cated with  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Turkey, 
and  also  looked  after  Irish  and  colonial  business,  and  carried 
out  the  work  of  the  Home  Office.  In  1782  the  duties  of  these 
two  secretaries  were  revised,  the  northern  department  becoming 
the  Foreign  Office.  The  secretary  for  foreign  affairs  is  the  official 
agent  of  the  crown  in  all  communications  between  Great  Britain 
and  foreign  powers;  his  intercourse  is  carried  on  either  through 
the  representatives  of  foreign  states  in  Great  Britain  or  through 
representatives  of  Great  Britain  abroad.  He  negotiates  ah1 
treaties  or  alliances  with  foreign  states,  protects  British  subjects 
residing  abroad,  and  demands  satisfaction  for  any  injuries  they 
may  sustain  at  the  hands  of  foreigners.  He  is  assisted  by  two 
under-secretaries  of  state  (one  of  them  a  politician,  the  other 
a  permanent  civil  servant),  three  assistant  under-secretaries 
(civil  servants),  a  librarian,  a  head  of  the  treaty  department 
and  a  staff  of  clerks.  The  departments  of  the  Foreign  Office 
are  the  African,  American,  commercial  and  sanitary,  consular, 
eastern  (Europe),  far  eastern,  western  (Europe),  parliamentary, 
financial,  librarian  and  keeper  of  the  papers,  treaties  and  registry. 
In  the  case  of  important  despatches  and  correspondence,  these, 
with  the  drafts  of  answers,  are  sent  first  to  the  permanent' 
under-secretary,  then  to  the  prime  minister,  then  to  the  sovereign 
and,  lastly,  are  circulated  among  the  members  of  the  cabinet. 
The  salary  of  the  secretary  for  foreign  affairs  is  £5000  per  annum, 


that  of  the  permanent  under-secretary  £2000,  the  parliamentary 
under-secretary  and  the  first  assistant  under-secretary,  £1500, 
and  the  other  assistant  under-secretaries  £1200. 

See  Anson,  Law  and  Custom  of  the  Constitution,  part  ii. 

FORELAND,  NORTH  and  SOUTH,  two  chalk  headlands  on 
the  Kent  coast  of  England,  overlooking  the  Strait  of  Dover, 
the  North  Foreland  forming  the  eastern  projection  of  the  Isle 
of  Thanet,  and  the  South  standing  3  m.  N.E.  of  Dover.  Both 
present  bold  cliffs  to  the  sea,  and  command  beautiful  views  over 
the  strait.  On  the  North  Foreland  (51°  22^'  N.,  i°  27'  E.)  there 
is  a  lighthouse,  and  on  the  South  Foreland  (51°  8£'  N.,  i°  23'  E.) 
there  are  two.  There  is  also  a  Foreland  on  the  north  coast  of 
Devonshire,  2\  m.  N.E.  of  Lynmouth,  a  fine  projection  of  the 
highlands  of  Exmoor  Forest,  overlooking  the  Bristol  Channel, 
and  forming  the  most  northerly  point  of  the  county. 

FORESHORE,  that  part  of  the  seashore  which  lies  between 
high-  and  low-  water  mark  at  ordinary  tides.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  it  is  ordinarily  and  prima  facie  vested  in  the  crown, 
except  where  it  may  be  vested  in  a  subject  by  ancient  grant  or 
charter  from  the  crown,  or  by  prescription.  Although  numerous 
decisions,  dating  from  1795,  have  confirmed  the  prima  facie 
title  of  the  crown,  S.  A.  Moore  in  his  History  of  the  Foreshore 
contends  that  the  presumption  is  in  favour  of  the  subject  rather 
than  of  the  crown.  But  a  subject  can  establish  a  title  by  proving 
an  express  grant  from  the  crown  or  giving  sufficient  evidence 
of  user  from  which  a  grant  may  be  presumed.  The  chief  acts 
showing  title  to  foreshore  are,  taking  wreck  or  royal  fish,  right 
of  fishing,  mining,  digging  and  taking  sand,  seaweed,  &c.,  em- 
banking and  enclosing.  There  is  a  public  right  of  user  in  that 
part  of  the  foreshore  which  belongs  to  the  crown,  for  the  purpose 
of  navigation  or  fishery,  but  there  is  no  right  of  passage  over  lands 
adjacent  to  the  shore,  except  by  a  particular  custom.  So  that, 
in  order  to  make  the  right  available,  there  must  be  a  highway 
or  other  public  land  giving  access  to  the  foreshore.  Thus  it 
has  been  held  that  the  public  have  no  legal  right  to  trespass  on 
land  above  high-water  mark  for  the  purpose  of  bathing  in  the 
sea,  though  if  they  can  get  to  it  they  may  bathe  there  (Blundell 
v.  Calteral,  1821,  5  B.  &  Ad.  268).  There  is  no  right  in  the  public 
to  take  sand,  shells  or  seaweed  from  the  shore,  nor,  except  in 
certain  places  by  local  custom,  have  fishermen  the  right  to  use 
the  foreshore  or  the  soil  above  it  for  drawing  up  their  boats,  or 
for  drying  their  nets  or  similar  purposes. 

See  S.  A.  Moore,  History  of  the  Foreshore  and  the  Law  relating 
thereto  (1888);  Coulson  and  Forbes,  Law  of  Waters  (1902). 

FORESTALLING,  in  English  criminal  law,  the  offence  of  buying 
merchandise,  victual,  &c.,  coming  to  market,  or  making  any 
bargain  for  buying  the  same,  before  they  shall  be  in  the  market 
ready  to  be  sold,  or  making  any  motion  for  enhancing  the  price, 
or  dissuading  any  person  from  coming  to  market  or  forbearing 
to  bring  any  of  the  things  to  market,  &c.  See  ENGROSSING. 

FOREST  LAWS,  the  general  term  for  the  old  English  restric- 
:ion  laws,  dealing  with  forests.  One  of  the  most  cherished 
Drerogatives  of  the  king  of  England,  at  the  time  when  his 
sower  was  at  the  highest,  was  that  of  converting  any  portion 
of  the  country  into  a  forest  in  which  he  might  enjoy  the 
pleasures  of  the  chase.  The  earliest  struggles  between  the 
dng  and  the  people  testify  to  the  extent  to  which  this  pre- 
rogative became  a  public  grievance,  and  the  charter  by  which 
ts  exercise  was  bounded  (Carta  de  Foresta)  was  in  substance 
>art  of  the  greatest  constitutional  code  imposed  by  his  barons 
upon  King  John.  At  common  law  it  appears  to  have  been  the 
right  of  the  king  to  make  a  forest  where  he  pleased,  provided 
hat  certain  legal  formalities  were  observed.  The  king  having  a 
continual  care  for  the  preservation  of  the  realm,  and  for  the  peace 
and  quiet  of  his  subjects,  he  had  therefore  amongs't  many  privi- 
eges  this  prerogative,  viz.  to  have  his  place  of  recreation 
wheresoever  he  would  appoint.1  Land  once  afforested  became 
iubject  to  a  peculiar  system  of  laws,  which,  as  well  as  the  for- 
malities required  to  constitute  a  valid  afforestment,  have  been 
carefully  ascertained  by  the  Anglo-Norman  lawyers.  "  A  forest," 
1  Coke,  4  Inst.,  300. 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


645 


says  Man  wood,  "  is  a  certain  territory  of  woody  grounds  and 
fruitful  pastures,  privileged  for  wild  beasts  and  fowls  of  forest, 
chase,  and  warren  to  rest,  and  abide  there  in  the  safe  protection 
of  the  king,  for  his  delight  and  pleasure;  which  territory  of 
ground  so  privileged  is  mered  and  bounded  with  unremovable 
marks,  meres  and  boundaries,  either  known  by  matter  of  record 
or  by  prescription;  and  also  replenished  with  wild  beasts  of 
venery  or  chase,  and  with  great  coverts  of  vert,  for  the  succour 
of  the  said  beasts  there  to  abide:  for  the  preservation  and 
continuance  of  which  said  place,  together  with  the  vert  and 
venison  there  are  particular  officers,  laws,  and  privileges  belong- 
ing to  the  same,  requisite  for  that  purpose,  and  proper  only  to  a 
forest  and  to  no  other  place."  l  And  the  same  author  distin- 
guishes a  forest,  as  "  the  highest  franchise  of  princely  pleasure," 
from  the  inferior  franchises  of  chase,  park  and  warren — named 
in  the  order  of  their  importance.  The  forest  embraces  all  these, 
and  it  is  distinguished  by  having  laws  and  courts  of  its  own, 
according  to  which  offenders  are  justiceable.  An  offender  in 
a  chase  is  to  be  punished  by  the  common  law;  an  offender  in  a 
forest  by  the  forest  law.  A  chase  is  much  the  same  as  a  park, 
only  the  latter  is  enclosed,  and  all  of  them  are  distinguished 
according  to  the  class  of  wild  beasts  to  which  the  privilege 
extended.  Thus  beasts  of  forest  (the  "  five  wild  beasts  of 
venery  ")  were  the  hart,  the  hind,  the  hare,  the  boar  and  the 
wolf.  The  beasts  of  chase  were  also  five,  viz.  the  buck,  the  doe, 
the  fox,  the  marten  and  the  roe.  The  beasts  and  fowls  of  warren 
were  the  hare,  the  coney,  the  pheasant  and  the  partridge. 

The  courts  of  the  forest  were  three  in  number,  viz.  the  court 
of  attachments,  swainmote  and  justice-seat.  The  court  of 
attachments  (called  also  the  wood-mote)  is  held  every  forty 
days  for  the  foresters  to  bring  in  their  attachments  concerning 
any  hurt  done  to  vert  or  venison  (in  viridi  et  venatione)  in  the 
forest,  and  for  the  verderers  to  receive  and  mark  the  same,  but 
no  conviction  takes  place.  The  swainmote,  held  three  times  in 
the  year,  is  the  court  to  which  all  the  freeholders  within  the  forest 
owe  suit  and  service,  and  of  which  the  verderers  are  the  judges. 
In  this  court  all  offences  against  the  forest  laws  may  be  tried, 
but  no  judgment  or  punishment  follows.  This  is  reserved  for 
the  justice-seat,  held  every  third  year,  to  which  the  rolls  of 
offences  presented  at  the  court  of  attachment,  and  tried  at  the 
swainmote,  are  presented  by  verderers.  The  justice-seat  is  the 
court  of  the  chief  justice  in  eyre,  who,  says  Coke,  "  is  commonly 
a  man  of  greater  dignity  than  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  the  forests ; 
and  therefore  where  justice-seats  are  to  be  held  some  other 
persons  whom  the  king  shall  appoint  are  associated  with  him, 
who  together  are  to  determine  omnia  placita  forestae."  There 
were  two  chief  justices  for  the  forests  infra  and  ultra  Trentam 
respectively.  The  necessary  officers  of  a  forest  are  a  steward, 
verderers,  foresters,  regarders,  agisters  and  woodwards.  The 
verderer  was  a  judicial  officer  chosen  in  full  county  by  the  free- 
holders in  the  same  manner  as  the  coroner.  His  office  was  to 
view  and  receive  the  attachments  of  the  foresters,  and  to  mark 
them  on  his  rolls.  A  forester  was  "  an  officer  sworn  to  preserve 
the  vert  and  venison  in  the  forest,  and  to  attend  upon  the  wild 
beasts  within  his  bailiwick."  The  regarders  were  of  the  nature 
of  visitors:  their  duty  was  to  make  a  regard  (visitalio  nemorum) 
every  third  year,  to  inquire  of  all  offences,  and  of  the  concealment 
of  such  offences  by  any  officer  of  the  forest.  The  business  of  the 
agister  was  to  look  after  the  pasturage  of  the  forest,  and  to  receive 
the  payments  for  the  same  by  persons  entitled  to  pasture  their 
cattle  in  the  forests.  Both  the  pasturage  and  the  payment  were 
called  "  agistment."  The  woodward  was  the  officer  who  had 
the  care  of  the  woods  and  vert  and  presented  offences  at  the 
court  of  attachment. 

The  legal  conception  of  a  forest  was  thus  that  of  a  definite 
territory  within  which  the  code  of  the  forest  law  prevailed  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  common  law.  The  ownership  of  the  soil 
might  be  in  any  one,  but  the  rights  of  the  proprietor  were  limited 
by  the  laws  made  for  the  protection  of  the  king's  wild  beasts. 
These  laws,  enforced  by  fines  often  arbitrary  and  excessive,  were 
a  great  grievance  to  the  unfortunate  owners  of  land  within  or 
1  Manwood's  Treatise  of  the  Forest  Laws  (4th  edition,  1717). 


in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  forest.  The  offence  of  "  purpresture  " 
may  be  cited  as  an  example.  This  was  an  encroachment  on  the 
forest  rights,  by  building  a  house  within  the  forest,  and  it  made 
no  difference  whether  the  land  belonged  to  the  builder  or  not. 
In  either  case  it  was  an  offence  punishable  by  fines  at  discretion. 
And  if  a  man  converted  woodlands  within  the  forest  into  arable 
land,  he  was  guilty  of  the  offence  known  as  "  assarting,"  whether 
the  covert  belonged  to  himself  or  not. 

The  hardships  of  the  forest  laws  under  the  Norman  kings, 
and  their  extension  to  private  estates  by  the  process  of  afforest- 
ment,  were  among  the  grievances  which  united  the  barons  and 
people  against  the  king  in  the  reign  of  John.  The  Great  Charter 
of  King  John  contains  clauses  relating  to  the  forest  laws,  but 
no  separate  charter  of  the  forest.  The  first  charter  of  the  forest 
is  that  of  Henry  III.,  issued  in  1217.  "  As  an  important  piece 
of  legislation,"  said  Stubbs,2 "  it  must  be  compared  with  the  forest 
assize  of  1 184,  and  with  44th,  47th  and  48th  clauses  of  the  charter 
of  John.  It  is  observable  that  most  of  the  abuses  which  are 
remedied  by  it  are  regarded  as  having  sprung  up  since  the 
accession  of  Henry  II.;  but  the  most  offensive  afforestations 
have  been  made  under  Richard  and  John.  These  latter  are  at 
once  disafforested;  but  those  of  Henry  II.  only  so  far  as  they 
had  been  carried  out  to  the  injury  of  the  landowners  and  outside 
of  the  royal  demesne."  Land  which  had  thus  been  once  forest 
land  and  was  afterwards  disafforested  was  known  as  purlieu — 
derived  by  Man  wood  from  the  French  pur  and  lieu,  i.e.  "  a  place 
exempt  from  the  forest."  The  forest  laws  still  applied  in  a 
modified  manner  to  the  purlieu.  The  benefit  of  the  disafforest- 
ment  existed  only  for  the  owner  of  the  lands;  as  to  all  other 
persons  the  land  was  forest  still,  and  the  king's  wild  beasts  were 
to  "  have  free  recourse  therein  and  safe  return  to  the  forest, 
without  any  hurt  or  destruction  other  than  by  the  owners  of 
the  lands  in  the  purlieu  where  they  shall  be  found,  and  that  only 
to  hunt  and  chase  them  back  again  towards  the  forest  without 
any  forestalling "  (Manwood,  On  the  Forest  Laws — article 
"  Purlieu  "). 

The  revival  of  the  forest  laws  was  one  of  the  means  resorted 
to  by  Charles  I.  for  raising  a  revenue  independently  of  parliament, 
and  the  royal  forests  in  Essex  were  so  enlarged  that  they  were 
hyperbolically  said  to  include  the  whole  county.  The  4th  earl 
of  Southampton  was  nearly  ruined  by  a  decision  that  stripped 
him  of  his  estate  near  the  New  Forest.  The  boundaries  of 
Rockingham  Forest  were  increased  from  6  m.  to  60,  and 
enormous  fines  imposed  on  the  trespassers, — Lord  Salisbury 
being  assessed  in  £20,000,  Lord  Westmoreland  in  £19,000,  Sir 
Christopher  Hatton  in  £12,000  (Hallam's  Constitutional  History 
of  England,  c.  viii.).  By  the  statute  16  Charles  I.  c.  16  (1640) 
the  royal  forests  were  determined  for  ever  according  to  their 
boundaries  in  the  twentieth  year  of  James,  all  subsequent 
enlargements  being  annulled. 

The  forest  laws,  since  the  Revolution,  have  fallen  into  complete 
disuse. 

FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY.  Although  most  people  know 
what  a  forest  (Lat.  foris,  "  out  of  doors  ")  is,  a  definition  of  it 
which  suits  all  cases  is  by  no  means  easy  to  give.  Manwood,  in 
his  treatise  of  the  Lawes  of  the  Forest  (1598),  defines  a  forest  as 
"  a  certain  territory  of  woody  grounds,  fruitful  pastures,  privi- 
leged for  wild  beasts  and  fowls  of  forest,  chase  and  warren,  to 
rest  and  abide  in,  in  the  safe  protection  of  the  king,  for  his  princely 
delight  and  pleasure."  This  primitive  definition  has,  in  modern 
times,  when  the  economic  aspect  of  forests  came  more  into  the 
foreground,  given  place  to  others,  so  that  forest  may,  in  a  general 
way,  now  be  described  as  "  an  area  which  is  for  the  most  part  set 
aside  for  the  production  of  timber  and  other  forest  produce, 
or  which  is  expected  to  exercise  certain  climatic  effects,  or  to 
protect  the  locality  against  injurious  influences." 

As  far  as  conclusions  can  now  be  drawn,  it  is  probable  that 
the  greater  part  of  the  dry  land  of  the  earth  was,  at  some  time, 
covered  with  forest,  which  consisted  of  a  variety  of  trees  and 
shrubs  grouped  according  to  climate,  soil  and  configuration  of 
the  several  localities.  When  the  old  trees  reached  their  limit 
*  Documents  Illustrative  of  English  History,  p.  338. 


646 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


of  life,  they  disappeared,  and  younger  trees  took  their  place. 
The  conditions  for  an  uninterrupted  regeneration  of  the  forest 
were  favourable,  and  the  result  was  vigorous  production  by  the 
creative  powers  of  soil  and  climate.  Then  came  man,  and  by 
degrees  interfered,  until  in  most  countries  of  the  earth  the  area 
under  forest  has  been  considerably  reduced.  The  first  decided 
interference  was  probably  due  to  the  establishment  of  domestic 
animals;  men  burnt  the  forest  to  obtain  pasture  for  their  flocks. 
Subsequently  similar  measures  on  an  ever-increasing  scale  were 
employed  to  prepare  the  land  for  agricultural  purposes.  More 
recently  enormous  areas  of  forests  were  destroyed  by  reckless 
cutting  and  subsequent  firing  in  the  extraction  of  timber  for 
economic  purposes. 

It  will  readily  be  understood  that  the  distribution  and  character 
of  the  now  remaining  forests  must  differ  enormously  (see  PLANTS: 
Distribution).  Large  portions  of  the  earth  are  still  covered  with 
dense  masses  of  tall  trees,  while  others  contain  low  scrub  or  grass 
land,  or  are  desert.  As  a  general  rule,  natural  forests  consist  of 
a  number  of  different  species  intermixed;  but  in  some  cases 
certain  species,  called  gregarious,  have  succeeded  in  obtaining 
the  upper  hand,  thus  forming  more  or  less  pure  forests  of  one 
species  only.  The  number  of  species  differs  very  much.  In 
many  tropical  forests  hundreds  of  species  may  be  found  on  a 
comparatively  small  area,  in  other  cases  the  number  is  limited. 
Burma  has  several  thousand  species  Of  trees  and  shrubs,  Sind 
has  only  ten  species  of  trees.  Central  Europe  has  about  forty 
species,  and  the  greater  part  of  northern  Russia,  Sweden  and 
Norway  contains  forests  consisting  of  about  half  a  dozen  species. 
Elevation  above  the  sea  acts  similarly  to  rising  latitude,  but  the 
effect  is  much  more  rapidly  produced.  Generally  speaking,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  Tropics  and  adjoining  parts  of  the  earth, 
wherever  the  climate  is  not  modified  by  considerable  elevation, 
contain  broad-leaved  species,  palms,  bamboos,  &c.  Here  most 
of  the  best  and  hardest  timbers  are  found,  such  as  teak,  mahogany 
and  ebony.  The  northern  countries  are  rich  in  conifers.  Taking 
a  section  from  Central  Africa  to  North  Europe,  it  will  be  found 
that  south  and  north  of  the  equator  there  is  a  large  belt  of  dense 
hardwood  forest;  then  comes  the  Sahara,  then  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  with  forests  of  cork  oak;  then  Italy  with  oak, 
olive,  chestnut,  gradually  giving  place  to  ash,  sycamore,  beech, 
birch  and  certain  species  of  pine;  in  Switzerland  and  Germany 
silver  fir  and  spruce  gain  ground.  Silver  fir  disappears  in  central 
Germany,  and  the  countries  around  the  Baltic  contain  forests 
consisting  chiefly  of  Scotch  pine,  spruce  and  birch,  to  which, 
in  Siberia,  larch  must  be  added,  while  the  lower  parts  of  the 
ground  are  stocked  with  hornbeam,  willow,  alder  and  poplar. 
In  North  America  the  distribution  is  as  follows:  Tropical 
vegetation  is  found  in  south  Florida,  while  in  north  Florida  it 
changes  into  a  subtropical  vegetation  consisting  of  evergreen 
broad-leaved  species  with  pines  on  sandy  soils.  On  going  north 
in  the  Atlantic  region,  the  forest  becomes  temperate,  containing 
deciduous  broad-leaved  trees  and  pines,  until  Canada  is  reached, 
where  larches,  spruces  and  firs  occupy  the  ground.  Around 
the  great  lakes  on  sandy  soils  the  broad-leaved  forest  gives 
way  to  pines.  On  proceeding  west  from  the  Atlantic  region 
the  forest  changes  into  a  shrubby  vegetation,  and  this  into  the 
prairies.  Farther  west,  towards  the  Pacific  coast,  extensive 
forests  are  found  consisting,  according  to  latitude  and  elevation 
above  the  sea,  of  pines,  larches,  fir,  Thujas  and  Tsugas.  In 
Japan  a  tropical  vegetation  is  found  in  the  south,  comprising 
palms,  figs,  ebony,  mangrove  and  others.  This  is  followed  on 
proceeding  north  by  subtropical  forests  containing  evergreen 
oaks,  Podocarpus,  tree-ferns,  and,  at  higher  elevations,  Crypto- 
tneria  and  Chamaecyparis.  Then  follow  deciduous  broad-leaved 
forests,  and  finally  firs,  spruces  and  larches.  In  India  the  char- 
acter of  the  forests  is  governed  chiefly  by  rainfall  and  elevation. 
Where  the  former  is  heavy  evergreen  forests  of  Guttiferae, 
Dipterocarpeae,  Leguminosae,  Euphorbias,  figs,  palms,  ferns, 
bamboos  and  india-rubber  trees  are  found.  Under  a  less  copious 
rainfall  deciduous  forests  appear,  containing  teak  and  sal 
(Shorea  robusta)  and  a  great  variety  of  other  valuable  trees. 
Under  a  still  smaller  rainfall  the  vegetation  becomes  sparse, 


containing  acacias,  Dalbergia  sissoo  and  Tamarix.  Where  the 
rainfall  is  very  light  or  nil,  desert  appears.  In  the  Himalayas, 
subtropical  to  arctic  conditions  are  found,  the  forests  containing, 
according  to  elevation,  pines,  firs,  deodars,  oaks,  chestnuts, 
magnolias,  laurels,  rhododendrons  and  bamboos.  Australia, 
again,  has  its  own  particular  flora  of  eucalypts,  of  which  some 
two  hundred  species  have  been  distinguished,  as  well  as  wattles. 
Some  of  the  eucalypts  attain  an  enormous  height. 

Utility  of  Forests. — In  the  economy  of  man  and  of  nature 
forests  are  of  direct  and  indirect  value,  the  former  chiefly  through 
the  produce  which  they  yield,  and  the  latter  through  the  in- 
fluence which  they  exercise  upon  climate,  the  regulation  of 
moisture,  the  stability  of  the  soil,  the  healthiness  and  beauty 
of  a  country  and  allied  subjects.  The  indirect  utility  will  be 
dealt  with  first.  A  piece  of  land  bare  of  vegetation  is,  throughout 
the  year,  exposed  to  the  full  effect  of  sun  and  air  currents,  and 
the  climatic  conditions  which  are  produced  by  these  agencies. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  piece  of  land  is  covered  with  a  growth 
of  plants,  and  especially  with  a  dense  crop  of  forest  vegetation, 
it  enjoys  the  benefit  of  certain  agencies  which  modify  the 
effect  of  sun  and  wind  on  the  soil  and  the  adjoining  layers  of 
air.  These  modifying  agencies  are  as  follows:  (i)  The  crowns 
of  the  trees  intercept  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  the  falling  rain; 
they  obstruct  the  movement  of  air  currents,  and  reduce  radiation 
at  night.  (2)  The  leaves,  flowers  an{l  fruits,  augmented  by 
certain  plants  which  grow  in  the  shade  of  the  trees,  form  a  layer 
of  mould,  or  humus,  which  protects  the  soil  against  rapid  changes 
of  temperature,  and  greatly  influences  the  movement  of  water 
in  it.  (3)  The  roots  of  the  trees  penetrate  into  the  soil  in  all 
directions,  and  bind  it  together.  The  effects  of  these  agencies 
have  been  observed  from  ancient  times,  and  widely  differing 
views  have  been  taken  of  them.  Of  late  years,  however,  more 
careful  observations  have  been  made  at  so-called  parallel  stations, 
that  is  to  say,  one  station  in  the  middle  of  a  forest,  and  another 
outside  at  some  distance  from  its  edge,  but  otherwise  exposed 
to  the  same  general  conditions.  In  this  way,  the  following 
results  have  been  obtained:  (i)  Forests  reduce  the  temperature 
of  the  air  and  soil  to  a  moderate  extent,  and  render  the  climate 
more  equable.  (2)  They  increase  the  relative  humidity  of  the 
air,  and  reduce  evaporation.  (3)  They  tend  to  increase  the 
precipitation  of  moisture.  As  regards  the  actual  rainfall,  their 
effect  in  low  lands  is  nil  or  very  small;  in  hilly  countries  it  is 
probably  greater,  but  definite  results  have  not  yet  been  obtained 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  separating  the  effect  of  forests  from 
that  of  other  factors.  (4)  They  help  to  regulate  the  water  supply, 
produce  a  more  sustained  feeding  of  springs,  tend  to  reduce 
violent  floods,  and  render  the  flow  of  water  in  rivers  more 
continuous.  (5)  They  assist  in  preventing  denudation,  erosion, 
landslips,  avalanches,  the  silting  up  of  rivers  and  low  lands 
and  the  formation  of  sand  dunes.  (6)  They  reduce  the  velocity 
of  air-currents,  protect  adjoining  fields  against  cold  or  dry  winds, 
and  afford  shelter  to  cattle,  game  and  useful  birds.  (7)  They 
may,  under  certain  conditions,  improve  the  healthiness  of  a 
country,  and  help  in  its  defence.  (8)  They  increase  the  beauty 
of  a  country,  and  produce  a  healthy  aesthetic  influence  upon 
the  people. 

The  direct  utility  of  forests  is  chiefly  due  to  their  produce, 
the  capital  which  they  represent,  and  the  work  which  they  pro- 
vide. The  principal  produce  of  forests  consists  of  timber  and 
firewood.  Both  are  necessaries  for  the  daily  life  of  the  people. 
Apart  from  a  limited  number  of  broad-leaved  species,  the  conifers 
have  become  the  most  important  timber  trees  in  the  economy 
of  man.  They  are  found  in  greatest  quantities  in  the  countries 
around  the  Baltic  and  in  North  America.  In  modern  times 
iron  and  other  materials  have,  to  a  considerable  extent,  replaced 
timber,  while  coal,  lignite,  and  peat  compete  with  firewood; 
nevertheless  wood  is  still  indispensable,  and  likely  to  remain 
so.  This  is  borne  out  by  the  statistics  of  the  most  civilized 
nations.  Whereas  the  population  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
during  the  period  1880-1900,  increased  by  about  20%,  the  imports 
of  timber,  during  the  same  period,  increased  by  45%;  in  other 
words,  every  head  of  population  in  1900  used  more  timber  than 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


647 


twenty  years  earlier.  Germany  produced  in  1880  about  as  much 
timber  as  she  required;  in  1899  she  imported  4,600,000  tons, 
valued  at  £14,000,000,  and  her  imports  are  rapidly  increasing, 
although  the  yield  capacity  of  her  own  forests  is  much  higher 
now  than  it  was  formerly.  Wood  is  now  used  for  many  purposes 
which  formerly  were  no.t  thought  of.  The  manufacture  of  the 
wood  pulp  annually  imported  into  Britain  consumes  at  least 
2,000,000  tons  of  timber.  A  fabric  closely  resembling  silk 
is  now  made  of  spruce  wood.  The  variety  of  other,  or  minor, 
produce  yielded  by  forests  is  very  great,  and  much  of  it  is 
essential  for  the  well-being  of  the  people  and  for  various  industries. 
The  yield  of  fodder  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  countries 
subject  to  periodic  droughts;  in  many  places  field  crops  could 
not  be  grown  successfully  without  the  leaf-mould  and  brushwood 
taken  from  the  forests.  As  regards  industries,  attention  need 
only  be  drawn  to  such  articles  as  commercial  fibre,  tanning 
materials,  dye-stuffs,  lac,  turpentine,  resin,  rubber,  gutta- 
percha,  &c.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  alone  import  every  year 
such  materials  to  the  value  of  £12,000,000,  half  of  this  being 
represented  by  rubber. 

The  capital  employed  in  forests  consists  chiefly  of  the  value 
of  the  soil  and  growing  stock  of  timber.  The  latter  is,  ordinarily, 
of  much  greater  value  than  the  former  wherever  a  sustained 
annual  yield  of  timber  is  expected  from  a  forest.  In  the  case  of 
a  Scotch  pine  forest,  for  instance,  the  value  of  the  growing  stock 
is,  under  the  above-mentioned  condition,  from  three  to  five  times 
that  of  the  soil.  The  rate  of  interest  yielded  by  capital  invested 
in  forests  differs,  of  course,  considerably  according  to  circum- 
stances, but  on  the  whole  it  may,  under  proper  management, 
be  placed  equal  to  that  yielded  by  agricultural  land;  it  is  lower 
than  the  agricultural  rate  on  the  better  classes  of  land,  but 
higher  on  the  inferior  classes.  Hence  the  latter  are  specially 
indicated  for  the  forest  industry,  and  the  former  for  the  pro- 
duction of  agricultural  crops.  Forests  require  labour  in  a  great 
variety  of  ways,  such  as  (i)  general  administration,  formation, 
tending  and  harvesting;  (2)  transport  of  produce;  and  (3) 
industries  which  depend  on  forests  for  their  prime  material. 
The  labour  indicated  under  the  first  head  differs  considerably 
according  to  circumstances,  but  its  amount  is  smaller  than  that 
required  if  the  land  is  used  for  agriculture.  Hence  forests  provide 
additional  labour  only  if  they  are  established  on  surplus  lands. 
Owing  to  the  bulky  nature  of  forest  produce  its  transport  forms 
a  business  of  considerable  magnitude,  the  amount  of  labour 
being  perhaps  equal  to  half  that  employed  under  the  first  head. 
The  greatest  amount  of  labour  is,  however,  required  in  the 
working  up  of  the  raw  material  yielded  by  forests.  In  this 
respect  attention  may  be  drawn  to  the  chair  industry  in  and 
around  High  Wycombe  in  Buckinghamshire,  where  more  than 
20,000  workmen  are  employed  in  converting  the  beech,  grown 
on  the  adjoining  chalk  hills,  into  chairs  and  tools  of  many 
patterns.  Complete  statistics  for  Great  Britain  are  not  available 
under  this  head,  but  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  Germany  the 
people  employed  in  the  forests  amount  to  2-3  %  of  the  total 
population;  those  employed  on  transport  of  forest  produce 
1-1%;  labourers  employed  on  the  various  wood  industries, 
8-6  %;  or  a  total  of  12  %.  An  important  feature  of  the  work 
connected  with  forests  and  their  produce  is  that  a  great  part  of 
it  can  be  made  to  fit  in  with  the  requirements  of  agriculture ; 
that  is  to  say,  it  can  be  done  at  seasons  when  field  crops  do  not 
require  attention.  Thus  the  rural  labourers  or  small  farmers 
can  earn  some  money  at  times  when  they  have  nothing  else  to 
do,  and  when  they  would  probably  sit  idle  if  no  forest  work  were 
obtainable. 

Whether,  or  how  far,  the  utility  of  forests  is  brought  out  in  a 
particular  country  depends  on  its  special  conditions,  such  as 
(i)  the  position  of  a  country,  its  communications,  and  the  control 
which  it  exercises  over  other  countries,  such  as  colonies;  (2) 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  substitutes  for  forest  produce 
available  in  the  country;  (3)  the  value  of  land  and  labour,  and 
the  returns  which  land  yields  if  used  for  other  purposes;  (4) 
the  density  of  population;  (5)  the  amount  of  capital  available 
for  investment;  (6)  the  climate  and  configuration,  especially 


Per- 

Per- 

Area of 

centage 
of  Total 

centage 
of  Forest 

Forest 
Area  per 

Countries. 

Forests,  in 

Area  of 

Area  be- 

Head of 

Acres. 

Country 

longing 

Popula- 

under 

to  the 

tion,  in 

Forest. 

State. 

Acres. 

Sweden       ...» 

j  9,000,000 

48 

33 

9-5 

Norway      .... 

17,000,000 

21 

28 

7-6 

Russia,  including  Fin- 

land   

518,000,000 

40 

61 

5-9 

Bosnia     and      Herze- 

govina    .'     .      .      . 

6,400,000 

50 

78 

4-0 

Bulgaria     .... 

7,600,000 

30 

30 

2-3 

Turkey  

11,200,000 

2O 

•7 

Servia   

3,900,000 

32 

37 

•5 

Rumania    .... 

6,400,000 

18 

40 

•3 

Spain     

21,200,000 

17 

84 

•2 

Hungary    .... 

22,500,000 

28 

15 

•2 

Austria  

24,000,000 

32 

7 

•9 

Greece  

2,000,000 

13 

80 

•85 

Luxemburg 

200,000 

30 

•82 

Switzerland 

2,100,000 

20 

5 

•7 

Germany    .... 

35,000,000 

26 

34 

•6 

France  

24,000,000 

18 

12 

•6 

Italy      ..... 

10,400,000 

15 

4 

•3 

Denmark    .... 

600,000 

6 

24 

•25 

Belgium      .... 

1,300,000 

IS 

5 

•2 

Portugal     .... 

770,000 

3-5 

8 

•15 

Holland      .... 

560,000 

7 

? 

•I 

Great  Britain  . 

3,000,000 

4 

3 

•07 

the  geographical  position,  whether  inland  or  on  the  border  of 
the  sea,  &c.  No  general  rule  can  be  laid  down,  showing  whether 
forests  are  required  in  a  country,  or,  if  so,  to  what  extent;  that 
question  must  be  answered  according  to  the  special  circumstances 
of  each  case. 

The  subjoined  table  shows  the  forests  of  various  European 
states: — 


These  data  exhibit  considerable  differences,  since  the  per- 
centage of  the  forest  area  varies  from  3-5  to  50,  and  the  area 
per  head  of  population  from  -07  to  9-5  acres.  Russia,  Sweden 
and  Norway  may  as  yet  have  more  forest  than  they  require 
for  their  own  population.  On  the  other  hand,  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  Germany,  Denmark,  Portugal,  Holland,  and  even 
Belgium,  France  and  Italy  have  not  a  sufficient  forest  area 
to  meet  their  own  requirements;  at  the  same  time,  they  are 
all  sea-bound  countries,  and  importation  is  easy,  while  most 
of  them  are  under  the  influence  of  moist  sea  winds,  which  reduces 
to  a  subordinate  position  the  importance  of  forests  for  climatic 
reasons. 

Intimately  connected  with  the  area  of  forests  in  a  country 
is  the  state  of  ownership) — whether  they  belong  to  the  state, 
corporations  or  to  private  persons.  Where,  apart  from  the 
financial  aspect  and  the  supply  of  work,  forests  are  not  required 
for  the  sake  of  their  indirect  effects,  and  where  importation 
from  other  countries  is  easy  and  assured,  the  government  of 
the  country  need  not,  as  a  rule,  trouble  itself  to  maintain  or 
acquire  forests.  Where  the  reverse  conditions  exist,  and  especi- 
ally where  the  cost  of  transport  over  long  distances  becomes 
prohibitive,  a  wise  administration  will  take  measures  to  assure 
the  maintenance  of  a  suitable  proportion  of  the  country  under 
forest.  This  can  be  done  either  by  maintaining  or  constitut- 
ing a  suitable  area  of  state  forests,  or  by  exercising  a  certain 
amount  of  control  over  corporation  and  even  private  forests. 
Such  measures  are  more  called  for  in  continental  countries 
than  in  those  which  are  sea-bound,  as  is  proved  by  the  above 
statistics. 

Supply  of  Timber  —  Imports  and  Exports. — The  following 
table  shows  the  net  imports  and  exports  of  European  countries 
(average  data,  calculated  from  the  returns  of  recent  years). 

The  only  timber-exporting  countries  cf  Europe  are  Russia, 
Sweden,  Norway,  Austria-Hungary  and  Rumania;  all  the  others 
either  have  only  enough  for  their  own  consumption,  or  import 
timber.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  import  now  upwards  of 
10,000,000  tons  a  year,  Germany  about  4,600,000  tons,  and 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


Belgium  about  1,300,000  tons.  Holland,  France,  Portugal, 
Spain  and  Italy  are  all  importing  countries,  as  also  are  Asia 
Minor,  Egypt  and  Algeria.  The  west  coast  of  Africa  exports 
hardwoods,  and  imports  coniferous  timber.  The  Cape  and  Natal 
import  considerable  quantities  of  pine  and  fir  wood.  Australasia 
Net  Imports  and  Exports  of  European  Countries. 


Quantities  in  Tons. 

Value  in  £  Sterling. 

Countries. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

United  Kingdom  . 

10,004,000 

26,540,000 

Germany 

4,600,000 

14,820,000 

Belgium 

1,300,000 

5,040,000 

France. 

1,230,000 

3,950,000 

Italy     . 

620,000 

2,100,000 

Spain    . 

470,000 

1,500,000 

Denmark 

470,000 

1,250,000 

Switzerland 

204,000 

480,000 

Holland 

180,000 

720,000 

Servia   . 

110,000 

160,000 

Portugal 

60,000 

200,000 

Greece   . 

35-000 

130,000 

Rumania 

400,000 

840,000 

Norway 

1,300,000 

2,200,000 

Austria  -  Hungary 

with  Bosnia  and 

Herzegovina 

3,996,000 

.   t 

11,400,000 

Sweden 

4,460,000 

7,930,000 

Russia    with    Fin- 

land. 

6,890,000 

10,440,000 

Total      .      . 

19,283,000 

17,046,000 

56,890,000 

32,810,000 

Net  Imports    . 

2,237,000 

24,080,000 

These  net  imports  are  received  from  non-European  countries. 
They  consist  chiefly  of  valuable  hardwoods,  like  teak,  mahogany, 
eucalypts  and  others. 

exports  hardwoods  and  some  Kauri  pine  from  New  Zealand, 
but  imports  larger  quantities  of  light  pine  and  fir  timber.  British 
India  and  Siam  export  teak  and  small  quantities  of  fancy  woods. 
The  West  Indies  and  South  America  export  hardwoods,  and 
import  pine  and  fir  wood.  The  United  States  of  America  will 
not  much  longer  be  a  genuine  exporting  country,  since  they 
import  already  almost  as  much  timber  from  Canada  as  they 
export.  Canada  exports  considerable  quantities  of  timber. 
The  Dominion  has  still  a  forest  area  of  1,250,000  sq.  m.,  equal 
to  38  %  of  the  total  area,  and  giving  165  acres  of  forest  for  every 
inhabitant.  Although  only  about  one-third  of  the  forest  area 
can  be  called  regular  timber  land,  Canada  possesses  an  enormous 
forest  wealth,  with  which  she  might  supply  permanently  nearly 
all  other  countries  deficient  in  material,  if  the  governing  bodies 
in  the  several  provinces  would  only  determine  to  stop  the  present 
fearful  waste  caused  by  axe  and  fire,  and  to  introduce  a  regular 
system  of  management.  As  matters  stand,  the  supplies  of  the 
most  valuable  timber  of  Canada,  the  white  or  Weymouth  pine 
(Pinus  strobus),  are  nearly  exhausted,  the  great  stores  of  spruce 
in  the  eastern  provinces  are  being  rapidly  destroyed,  and  the 
forests  of  Douglas  fir  in  the  western  provinces  have  been  attacked 
for  export  to  the  United  States  and  to  other  countries. 

Taking  the  remaining  stocks  of  the  whole  earth  together,  it 
may  be  said  that  a  sufficient  quantity  of  hardwoods  is  available, 
but  the  only  countries  which  are  able  to  supply  coniferous  timber 
for  export  on  a  considerable  scale  are  Russia,  Sweden,  Norway, 
Austria  and  Canada.  As  these  countries  have  practically  to 
supply  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  as  the  management  of  their 
forests  is  far  from  satisfactory,  the  question  of  supplying  light 
pine  and  fir  timber,  which  forms  the  very  staff  of  life  of  the  wood 
industries,  must  become  a  very  serious  matter  before  many  years 
have  passed.  Unmistakable  signs  of  the  coming  crisis  are  every- 
where visible  to  all  who  wish  to  see,  and  it  is  difficult  to  over-state 
the  gravity  of  the  problem,  when  it  is  remembered,  for  instance, 
that  87  %  of  all  the  timber  imported  into  Great  Britain  consists 
of  light  pine  and  fir,  and  that  most  of  the  other  importing 
countries  are  similarly  situated.  In  some  of  these  countries 
little  or  no  room  exists  for  the  extension  of  woodland,  but  this 
statement  does  not  apply  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  which 


contain  upwards  of  1 2,000,000  acres  of  waste  land,  and  1 2,500,000 
acres  of  mountain  and  heath  land  used  for  light  grazing.  One- 
fourth  of  that  area,  if  put  under  forest,  would  produce  all  the 
timber  now  imported  which  can  be  grown  in  Britain,  that  is  to 
say,  about  95  %  of  the  total. 

The  subjoined  table  shows  the  movements  of  timber  within 
the  greater  part  of  the  British  empire: — 

Net  Imports  and  Exports  into  and  from  the  British  Empire. 


Countries. 

Annual  Average 
during  the  Years 
1884-1888. 

Annual  Average 
during  the  Years 
1900-1903. 

Net 
Imports. 

Net 
Exports. 

Net 
Imports. 

Net 

Exports. 

United  Kingdom    . 
Australasia 
Africa   .... 
West      Indies, 
Honduras     and 
Guiana   . 
India,  Ceylon  and 
Mauritius     . 
Dominion     of 
Canada   . 

Total        .      . 

£ 
15,000,000 
1,284,000 
72,000 

i 

207,000 
528,000 
4,025,000 

£ 
26,540,000 
568,000 
737,000 

I 

71,000 
580,000 
4,789,000 

16,356,000 

4,760,000 

27,845,000 

5,440,000 

Net     Imports  . 
Total    increase    in 
16  years 
Average       annual 
increase    of    net 
imports 

11,596,000 

22,405,000 
10,809,000 

675-562 

Forest  Management. — In  early  times  there  was  practically 
no  forest  management.  As  long  .as  the  forests  occupied  con- 
siderable areas,  their  produce  was  looked  upon  as  the  free  gift 
of  nature,  like  air  and  water;  men  took  it,  used  it,  and  even 
destroyed  it  without  let  or  hindrance.  With  the  gradual  increase 
of  population  and  the  consequent  reduction  of  the  forest  area, 
proprietary  ideas  developed;  people  claimed  the  ownership  of 
certain  forests,  and  proceeded  to  protect  them  against  outsiders. 
Subsequently  the  law  of  the  country  was  called  in  to  help  in 
protection,  leading  to  the  promulgation  of  special  forest  laws. 
By  degrees  it  was  found  that  mere  protection  was  not  sufficient, 
and  that  steps  must  be  taken  to  enforce  a  more  judicious  treat- 
ment, as  well  as  to  limit  the  removal  of  timber  to  what  the  forests 
were  capable  of  producing  permanently.  The  teaching  of  natural 
science  and  of  political  economy  was  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
subject,  so  that  now  forestry  has  become  a  special  science.  This 
is  recognized  in  many  countries,  amongst  which  Germany  stands 
first,  closely  followed  by  France,  Austria,  Denmark  and  Belgium. 
Of  non-European  countries  the  palm  belongs  to  British  India, 
and  then  follow  Ceylon,  the  Malay  States,  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  and  Japan.  The  United  States  of  America  have  also 
turned  their  attention  to  the  subject.  Most  of  the  British 
colonies  are,  in  this  respect,  as  yet  in  a  backward  state,  and  the 
matter  has  still  to  be  fought  out  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
though  many  writers  have  urged  the  importance  of  the  question 
upon  the  public  and  the  government.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  all  civilized  countries  must,  sooner  or  later,  adopt  a  rational 
and  systematic  treatment  of  their  forests. 

For  details  as  to  the  separate  countries,  see  the  articles  under 
the  country  headings;  in  this  article  only  some  of  the  more 
important  countries  are  dealt  with,  in  so  far  as  the  history  of 
their  forestry  is  important.  A  few  notes  on  Germany  and  France 
will  be  given,  because  in  these  countries  forest  management 
has  been  brought  to  highest  perfection;  Italy  is  mentioned, 
because  she  has  allowed  her  forests  to  be  destroyed;  and  a 
short  description  of  forestry  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  in  India 
follows.  A  separate  section  is  devoted  to  the  United  States. 

Germany  is  in  general  well-wooded.  The  winters  being  long 
and  severe,  an  abundant  supply  of  fuel  is  almost  as  essential 
as  a  sufficient  supply  of  food.  This  necessity  has  led,  along 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


649 


with  a  passion  for  the  chase,  to  the  preservation  of  forests,  and 
to  the  establishment  of  an  admirable  system  of  forest  cultivation, 
almost  as  carefully  conducted  as  field  tillage.  The  Black  Forest 
stretches  the  whole  length  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden  and  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Wiirttemberg,  from  the  Neckar  to  Basel  and 
the  Lake  of  Constance.  The  vegetation  resembles  that  of  the 
Vosges;  forests  of  spruce,  silver  fir,  Scotch  pine,  and,  mingled 
with  birches,  beech  and  oak,  are  the  chief  woods  met  with. 
Until  comparatively  recent  times  large  quantities  of  timber 
derived  from  these  forests  were  floated  down  the  Rhine  to  Holland 
and  also  shipped  to  England.  Now  the  greater  part  of  it  is  used 
locally  for  construction,  or  it  is  converted  into  paper  pulp.  In 
the  grand-duchy  of  Hesse  the  Odenwald  range  of  mountains, 
stretching  between  the  Main  and  the  Neckar,  contains  the  chief 
supply  of  timber.  In  the  province  of  Nassau  there  are  the  large 
wooded  tracts  of  the  Taunus  mountain  range  and  the  Westerwald. 

In  Rhenish  Prussia  valuable  forests  lie  partly  in  the  Eifel, 
on  the  borders  of  Belgium,  and  on  the  mountains  overhanging 
the  Upper  Moselle,  but  they  do  not  furnish  such  stately  trees 
as  the  Black  Forest  and  the  Odenwald.  The  Spessart,  near 
Aschaffenburg  in  Bavaria,  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  forests 
of  middle  Germany,  containing  large  masses  of  fine  oak  and  beech, 
with  plantations  of  coniferous  trees,  such  as  spruce,  Scotch  pine 
and  silver  fir.  Bavaria  possesses  other  fine  forest  tracts,  such 
as  the  Baierischewald  on  the  Bohemian  frontier,  the  Kranzberg 
near  Munich,  and  the  Frankenwald  in  the  north  of  the  kingdom. 
North  Germany  has  extensive  forests  on  the  Harz  and  Thiiringian 
Mountains,  while  in  East  Prussia  large  tracts  of  flat  ground  are 
covered  with  Scotch  pine,  spruce,  oak  and  beech. 

Every  German  state  has  its  forest  organization.  In  Prussia 
the  department  is  presided  over  by  the  Oberland  Forstmeister 
at  Berlin,  while  each  province,  or  part  of  a  province,  has  an 
Oberforstmeister,  under  whom  a  number  of  Oberforsters  admini- 
strate the  state  and  communal  forests.  These,  again,  are  assisted 
by  a  lower  class  of  orfkials  called  Forsters.  The  Oberforsters 
throughout  Germany  are  educated  at  special  schools  of  forestry, 
of  which  in  1909  the  following  nine  existed: 

In  Prussia:  at  Eberswalde  and  Miinden. 

In  Bavaria:  at  Munich  and  Aschaffenburg. 

In  Saxony:  at  Tharand. 

In  Wiirttemberg:  at  Tubingen. 

In  Baden:  at  Carlsruhe. 

In  Hesse:  at  Giessen. 

In  the  grand-duchy  of  Saxony:  at  Eisenach. 

The  schools  at  Munich,  Tubingen  and  Giessen  form  part  of 
the  universities  at  these  places;  that  at  Carlsruhe  is  attached 
to  the  technical  high  school;  the  others  are  academies  for  the 
study  of  forestry  only,  but  there  is  a  tendency  to  transfer  them 
all  to  the  universities.  The  subordinate  staff  are  trained  for 
their  work  in  so-called  silvicultural  schools,  of  which  a  large 
number  exist.  In  this  way  the  German  forests  have  been  brought 
to  a  high  degree  of  productiveness,  but  the  material  derived  from 
them  falls  far  short  of  the  requirements,  although  the  forests 
occupy  26  %  of  the  total  area  of  the  country;  hence  the  net 
imports  of  timber  amount  already  to  4,600,000  tons  a  year,  and 
they  are  steadily  rising. 

France. — The  principal  timber  tree  of  France  is  the  oak.  The 
cork  oak  is  grown  extensively  in  the  south  and  in  Corsica.  The 
beech,  ash,  elm,  maple,  birch,  walnut,  chestnut  and  poplar  are  all 
important  trees,  while  the  silver  fir  and  spruce  form  magnificent 
forests  in  the  Vosges  and  Jura  Mountains,  and  the  Aleppo  and 
maritime  pines  are  cultivated  in  the  south  and  south-west.  About 
one-seventh  of  the  entire  territory  is  still  covered  with  wood. 

Forest  legislation  took  its  rise  in  France  about  the  middle  of 
the  1 6th  century,  and  the  great  minister  Sully  urged  the  enforce- 
ment of  restrictive  forest  laws.  In  1669  a  fixed  treatment  of 
state  forests  was  enacted.  Duhamel  in  1755  published  his  famous 
work  on  forest  trees.  Reckless  destruction  of  the  forests,  however, 
was  in  progress,  and  the  Revolution  of  1789  gave  a  fresh  stimulus 
to  the  work  of  devastation.  The  usual  results  have  followed  in 
the  frequency  and  destructiveness  of  floods,  which  have  washed 
away  the  soil  from  the  hillsides  and  valleys  of  many  districts, 


especially  in  the  south,  and  the  frequent  inundations  of  the  last 
fifty  years  are  no  doubt  caused  by  the  deforesting  of  the  sources 
of  the  Rhone  and  Sa6ne.  Laws  were  passed  in  1860  and  1864, 
providing  for  the  reforesting,  "  reboisement,"  of  the  slopes  of 
mountains,  and  these  laws  take  effect  on  private  as  well  as 
state  property.  Thousands  of  acres  are  annually  planted  in  the 
departments  of  Hautes  and  Basses  Alpes;  and  during  the  summer 
of  1875,  when  much  injury  was  done  by  floods  in  the  south  of 
France,  the  Durance,  formerly  the  most  dangerous  in  this  respect 
of  French  rivers,  gave  little  cause  for  anxiety,  as  it  is  round  the 
head  waters  of  this  river  that  the  chief  plantations  have  been 
formed.  While  tracts  formerly  covered  with  wood  have  been 
replanted,  plantations  have  been  formed  on  the  shifting  sands 
or  dunes  along  the  coast  of  Gascony.  A  forest  of  Pinus  pinaster, 
150  m.  in  length,  now  stretches  from  Bayonne  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Gironde,  raised  by  means  of  sowing  steadily  continued  since 
1789;  the  cultivation  of  the  pine,  along  with  draining,  has 
transformed  low  marshy  grounds  into  productive  soil  extending 
over  an  area  of  about  two  million  acres.  The  forests  thus  created 
provide  annually  some  600,000  tons  of  pit  timber  for  the  Welsh 
coal  mines. 

The  state  forest  department  is  administered  by  the  director- 
general,  who  has  his  headquarters  at  Paris,  assisted  by  a  board 
of  administration,  charged  with  the  working  of  the  forests, 
questions  of  rights  and  law,  finance  and  plantation  works. 

The  department  is  supplied  with  officers  from  the  forest 
school  at  Nancy.  This  institution  was  founded  in  1824,  when 
M.  Lorentz,  who  had  studied  forestry  in  Germany,  was  appointed 
its  first  director. 

Italy. — The  kingdom  of  Italy  comprises  such  different  climates 
that  within  its  limits  we  find  the  birch  and  pines  of  northern 
Europe,  and  the  olive,  fig,  manna-ash,  and  palm  of  more  southern 
latitudes.  By  the  republic  of  Venice  and  the  duchy  of  Genoa 
forestal  legislation  was  attempted  at  various  periods  from  the 
1 5th  century  downwards.  These  efforts  were  not  successful, 
as  the  governments  were  lax  in  enforcing  the  laws.  In  1789 
Pius  VI.  issued  regulations  prohibiting  felling  without  licence, 
and  later  orders  were  published  by  his  successors  in  the  pontifical 
states.  In  Lombardy  the  woods,  which  in  1830  reached  nearly 
down  to  Milan,  have  almost  disappeared.  The  province  of  Como 
contains  only  a  remnant  of  the  primitive  forests,  and  the  same 
may  also  be  said  of  the  southern  slopes  of  Tirol.  At  Ravenna 
there  is  still  a  large  forest  of  stone  pine,  Pinus  pinea,  though  it 
has  been  much  reduced.  The  plains  of  Tuscany  are  adorned 
with  planted  trees,  the  olive,  mulberry,  fig  and  almond.  Sardinia 
is  rich  in  woods,  which  cover  one-fifth  of  the  area,  and  contain 
a  large  amount  of  oak,  Quercus  suber,  robur  and  cerris.  In  Sicily 
the  forests  have  long  been  felled,  save  the  zone  at  the  base  of 
Mount  Etna. 

The  destruction  of  woods  has  been  gradual  but  persistent; 
at  the  end  of  the  I7th  century  the  effects  of  denudation  were 
first  felt  in  the  destructive  force  given  to  mountain  torrents 
by  the  deforesting  of  the  Apennines.  The  work  of  devastation 
continued  until  a  comparatively  recent  time. 

In  1867  the  monastic  property  of  Vallombrosa,  Tuscany, 
30  m.  from  Florence,  was  purchased  by  government  for  the 
purposes  of  a  forest  academy,  which  was  opened  in  1869.  As 
only  4  %  of  the  total  forest  area  belongs  to  the  state,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  much  good  can  now  be  done. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. — The  British  Isles  were  formerly 
much  more  extensively  wooded  than  at  present.  The  rapid 
increase  of  population  led  to  the  disforesting  of  woodland;  the 
climate  required  the  maintenance  of  household  fires  during  a 
great  part  of  the  year,  and  the  increasing  demand  for  arable 
land  and  the  extension  of  manufacturing  industries  combined 
to  cause  the  diminution  of  woodland.  The  proportion  of  forest 
is  now  very  small,  and  yields  but  a  fraction  of  the  required  annual 
supply  of  timber  which  is  imported  with  facility  from  America, 
northern  Europe  and  the  numerous  British  colonies. 

Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  climate  of  the  British  Islands, 
with  its  abundance  of  atmospheric  moisture  and  freedom  from 
such  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  as  are  prevalent  in  continental 


650 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


Europe,  a  great  variety  of  trees  are  successfully  cultivated. 
In  England  and  Ireland  oak  and  beech  are  on  the  whole  the  most 
plentiful  trees  in  the  low  and  fertile  parts;  in  the  south  of 
Scotland  the  beech  and  ash  are  perhaps  most  common,  while 
the  Scotch  fir  and  birch  are  characteristic  of  the  arboreous 
vegetation  in  the  Highlands.  Although  few  extensive  forests 
now  exist,  woods  of  small  area,  belts  of  planting,  clumps  of  trees, 
coppice  and  hedgerows,  are  generally  distributed  over  the  country, 
constituting  a  mass  of  wood  of  considerable  importance,  giving 
a  clothed  appearance  in  many  parts,  and  affording  illustrations 
of  skilled  arboriculture  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  country. 

The  principal  state  forests  in  England  are  Windsor  Park, 
14,000  acres;  the  New  Forest,  &c.,  in  Hampshire,  76,000  acres; 
and  the  Dean  Forest  in  Gloucestershire,  22,500  acres.  The  total 
extent  of  crown  forests  is  about  125,000  acres.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  crown  forests,  having  been  formed  with  the 
object  of  supplying  timber  for  the  navy,  consists  of  oak.  The 
largest  forests  in  Scotland  are  in  Perthshire,  Inverness-shire 
and  Aberdeenshire.  Of  these  the  most  notable  are  the  earl  of 
Mansfield's  near  Scone  (8000  acres),  the  duke  of  Atholl's  larch 
plantations  near  Dunkeld  (10,000  acres),  and  in  Strathspey  a 
large  extent  of  Scotch  pine,  partly  native,  partly  planted,  be- 
longing to  the  earl  of  Seafield.  In  the  forests  of  Mar  and  Inver- 
cauld,  the  native  pine  attains  a  great  size,  and  there  are  also 
large  tracts  of  indigenous  birch  in  various  districts.  Ireland 
was  at  one  time  richly  clothed  with  wood;  this  is  proved  by 
the  abundant  remains  of  fallen  trees  in  the  bogs  which  occupy 
a  large  surface  of  the  island.  In  addition  to  the  causes  above 
alluded  to  as  tending  to  disforest  England,  the  long  unsettled  state 
of  the  country  also  conduced  to  the  diminishing  of  the  woodlands. 

The  forests  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  in  spite  of  the  large 
imports  of  timber,  have  not  been  appreciably  extended  up  to 
the  present  time  because  (i)  the  rate  at  which  foreign  timber 
has  been  laid  down  in  Britain  is  very  low,  thus  keeping  down  the 
price  of  home-grown  timber;  (2)  foreign  timber  is  preferred 
to  home-grown  material,  because  it  is  in  many  cases  of  superior 
quality,  while  the  latter  comes  into  the  market  in  an  irregular 
and  intermittent  manner;  (3)  nearly  the  whole  of  the  waste 
lands  is  private  property.  As  regards  prices,  it  can  be  shown 
that  the  lowest  point  was  reached  abput  the  year  1888,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  remarkable  development  of  means  of  communica- 
tion, that  prices  then  remained  fairly  stationary  for  some  years, 
and  that  about  1894  a  slow  but  steady  rise  set  in,  showing  during 
the  years  1894-1904  an  increase  of  about  20  %  all  round.  This 
was  due  to  the  gradual  approach  of  the  coming  crisis  in  the 
supply  of  coniferous  timber  to  the  world.  It  can  be  shown 
that  even  with  present  prices  the  growing  of  timber  can  be 
made  to  pay,  provided  it  is  carried  on  in  a  rational  and  economic 
manner.  Improved  silvicultural  methods  must  be  applied,  so 
as  to  produce  a  better  class  of  timber,  and  the  forests  must  be 
managed  according  to  well-arranged  working  plans,  which  provide 
for  a  regular  and  sustained  out-turn  of  timber  year  by  year, 
so  as  to  develop  a  healthy  and  steady  market  for  locally-grown 
material.  Unfortunately  the  private  proprietors  of  the  waste 
lands  are  in  many  cases  not  in  a  financial  position  to  plant. 
Starting  forests  demands  a  certain  outlay  in  cash,  and  the  pro- 
prietor must  forgo  the  income,  however  small,  hitherto  derived 
from  the  land  until  the  plantations  begin  to  yield  a  return.  In 
these  circumstances  the  state  may  well  be  expected  to  help  in 
one  or  all  of  the  following  ways:  (i)  The  equipment  of  forest 
schools,  where  economic  forestry,  as  elaborated  by  research, 
is  taught;  (2)  the  management  of  the  crown  forests  on  economic 
principles,  so  as  to  serve  as  patterns  to  private  proprietors; 
(3)  advances  should  be  made  to  landed  proprietors  who  desire 
to  plant  land,  but  are  short  of  funds,  just  as  is  done  in  the  case 
of  improvements  of  agricultural  holdings;  and  (4)  the  state 
might  acquire  surplus  lands  in  certain  parts  of  the  country, 
such  as  congested  districts,  and  convert  them  into  forests. 
Action  in  these  directions  would  soon  lead  to  substantial  benefits. 
The  income  of  landed  proprietors  would  rise,  a  considerable 
sum  of  money  now  sent  abroad  would  remain  in  the  country, 
and  forest  industries  would  spring  up,  thus  helping  to  counteract 


the  ever-increasing  flow  of  people  from  the  country  into  the  large 
towns,  where  only  too  many  must  join  the  army  of  the  unem- 
ployed. Even  within  a  radius  of  50  m.  of  London  700,000  acres 
of  land  are  unaccounted  for  in  the  official  agricultural  returns. 
In  Ireland  more  than  3,000,000  acres  are  waiting  to  be  utilized, 
and  it  is  well  worth  the  consideration  of  the  Irish  Land  Com- 
missioners whether  the  lands  remaining  on  their  hands,  when 
buying  and  breaking  up  large  estates,  should  not  be  converted 
into  state  forests.  Such  a  measure  might  become  a  useful 
auxiliary  in  the  peaceful  settlement  of  the  Irish  land  question. 
No  doubt  success  depends  upon  the  probable  financial  results. 
There  are  at  present  no  British  statistics  to  prove  such  success; 
hence,  by  way  of  illustration,  it  may  be  stated  what  the  results 
have  been  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  which,  from  an  industrial 
point  of  view,  is  comparable  with  England.  That  country 
has  432,085  acres  of  state  forests,  of  which  about  one-eighth 
are  stocked  with  broad-leaved  species,  and  seven-eighths  with 
conifers.  Some  of  the  forests  are  situated  on  low  lands,  but  the 
bulk  of  the  area  is  found  in  the  hilly  parts  of  the  country  up  to 
an  elevation  of  3000  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  average  price  realized 
of  late  years  per  cubic  foot  of  wood  amounts  to  sd.,  and  yet  to  such 
perfection  has  the  management  been  brought  by  a  well-trained 
staff,  that  the  mean  annual  net'  revenue,  after  meeting  all 
expenses,  comes  to  2  is.  an  acre  all  round.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that,  under  the  more  favourable  climate  of  Great  Britain,  even 
better  results  can  be  obtained,  especially  if  it  is  remembered 
that  foreign  supplies  of  coniferous  timber  must  fall  off,  or,  at 
any  rate,  the  price  per  cubic  foot  rise  considerably. 

These  things  have  been  recognized  to  some  extent,  and  a 
movement  has  been  set  on  foot  to  improve  matters.  The 
Commissioners  of  Woods  and  a  number  of  private  proprietors 
had  rational  working  plans  prepared  for  their  forests,  and 
instruction  in  forestry  has  been  developed.  There  is  now  a  well- 
equipped  school  of  forestry  connected  with  the  university  of 
Oxford,  while  Cambridge  is  following  on  similar  lines;  instruction 
in  forestry  is  given  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  the  Durham 
College  of  Science,  at  Bangor,  Cirencester  and  other  places. 
The  Commissioners  of  Woods  have  purchased  an  estate  of 
12,500  acres  in  Scotland,  which  will  be  converted  into  a  crown 
forest,  so  as  to  serve  as  an  example.  The  experience  thus  gained 
will  prove  valuable  should  action  ever  be  taken  on  the  lines 
suggested  by  a  Royal  Commission  on  Coast  Erosion,  Reclamation 
of  Tidal  Lands  and  Afforestation,  which  reported  on  the  last 
subject  in  1909. 

India. — The  history  of  forest  administration  in  India  is  exceed- 
ingly instructive  to  all  who  take  an  interest  in  the  welfare  of 
the  British  Empire,  because  it  places  before  the  reader  an  account 
of  the  gradual  destruction  of  the  greater  part  of  the  natural 
forests,  a  process  through  which  most  other  British  colonies 
are  now  passing,  and  then  it  shows  how  India  emerged  trium- 
phantly from  the  self-inflicted  calamity.  As  far  as  information 
goes,  India  was,  in  the  early  times,  for  the  most  part  covered 
with  forest.  Subsequently  settlers  opened  out  the  country 
along  fertile  valleys  and  streams,  while  nomadic  tribes,  moving 
from  pasture  to  pasture,  fired  alike  hills  and  plains.  This  process 
went  on  for  centuries.  With  the  advent  of  British  rule  forest 
destruction  became  more  rapid  than  ever,  owing  to  the  increase 
of  population,  extension  of  cultivation,  the  multiplication  of 
herds  of  cattle,  and  the  universal  firing  of  the  forests  to  produce 
fresh  crops  of  grass.  Then  railways  came,  and  with  their  ex- 
tension the  forests  suffered  anew,  partly  on  account  of  the 
increased  demand  for  timber  and  firewood,  and  partly  on 
account  of  the  fresh  impetus  given  to  cultivation  along  their 
routes.  Ultimately,  when  failure  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
public  works  was  brought  to  notice,  it  was  recognized  that  a 
grievous  mistake  had  been  made  in  allowing  the  'forests  to  be 
recklessly  destroyed.  Already  in  the  early  part  of  the  i9th 
century  sporadic  efforts  were  made  to  protect  the  forests  in 
various  parts  of  the  country,  and  these  continued  intermittently; 
but  the  first  organized  steps  were  taken  about  the  year  1855, 
when  Lord  Dalhousie  was  governor-general.  At  that  time 
conservators  of  forests  existed  in  Bombay,  Madras  and  Burma. 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


651 


Soon  afterwards  other  appointments  followed,  and  in  1864  an 
organized  state  department,  presided  over  by  the  inspector- 
general  of  forests,  was  established.  Since  then  the  Indian  Forest 
Department  has  steadily  grown,  so  that  it  has  now  become  of 
considerable  importance  for  the  welfare  of  the  people,  as  well 
as  for  the  Indian  exchequer. 

The  first  duty  of  the  department  was  to  ascertain  the  position 
and  extent  of  the  remaining  forests,  and  more  particularly 
of  that  portion  which  still  belonged  to  the  state.  Then  a  special 
forest  law  was  passed,  which  was  superseded  in  1878  by  an  im- 
proved act,  providing  for  the  legal  formation  of  permanent  state 
forests;  the  determination,  regulation,  and,  if  necessary,  com- 
mutation of  forest  rights;  the  protection  of  the  forests  against 
unlawful  acts  and  the  punishment  of  forest  offences;  the  protec- 
tion of  forest  produce  in  transit;  the  constitution  of  a  staff  of 
forest  officers,  provision  to  invest  them  with  suitable  legal  powers, 
and  the  determination  of  their  duties  and  liabilities.  The  officers 
who  administered  the  department  in  its  infancy  were  mostly 
botanists  and  military  officers.  Some  of  these  became  excellent 
foresters.  In  order  to  provide  a  technically  trained  staff  arrange- 
ments were  made  in  1866  by  Sir  Dietrich  Brandis,  the  first 
inspector-general  of  forests,  for  the  training  of  young  Englishmen 
at  the  French  Forest  School  at  Nancy  and  at  similar  institutions 
in  Germany.  In  1876  the  students  were  concentrated  at  Nancy, 
and  in  1885  an  English  forest  school  for  India  was  organized 
in  connexion  with  the  Royal  Indian  Engineering  College  at 
Cooper's  Hill.  In  1 905  the  school  was  transferred  to  the  university 
of  Oxford.  The  imperial  forest  staff  of  India  consisted  in  1909 
of — officers  not  specially  trained  before  entering  the  department, 
17;  officers  trained  in  France  and  Germany,  23;  officers  trained 
at  Cooper's  Hill,  143 — total  184. 

In  1878  a  forest  school  was  started  at  Dehra  Dun,  United 
Provinces,  for  the  training  of  natives  of  India  as  executive 
officers  on  the  provincial  staff.  Since  then  a  similar  school, 
though  on  a  smaller  scale,  has  been  established  at  Tharrawaddy 
in  Burma.  About  500  officers  of  this  class  have  been  appointed. 
In  addition,  there  are  about  11,000  subordinates,  foresters  and 
forest  guards,  who  form  the  protective  staff.  The  school  at 
Dehra  Dun  has  lately  been  converted  into  the  Imperial  Forest 
College. 

The  progress  made  since  1864  is  really  astonishing.  According 
to  the  latest  available  returns,  the  areas  taken  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  department  are — reserved  state  forests,  or  permanent 
forest  estates,  91,272  sq.  m.;  other  state  forests,  141,669  sq.  m.; 
or  a  total  of  232,941  sq.  m.,  equal  to  24  %  of  the  area  over  which 
they  are  scattered.  At  present,  therefore,  the  average  charge 
of  each  member  of  the  controlling  staff  comprises  1266  sq.  m.; 
that  of  each  executive  officer,  446  sq.  m.;  and  that  of  each 
protective  official,  21  sq.  m.  It  is  the  intention  to  increase  the 
executive  and  protective  staff  considerably,  in  the  same  degree 
as  the  management  of  the  forests  becomes  more  detailed.  Of 
the  above-mentioned  area  the  Forest  Survey  Branch,  established 
in  1872,  has  up  to  date  surveyed  and  mapped  about  65,000  sq.  m. 
From  1864  onwards  efforts  were  made  to  introduce  systematic 
management  into  the  forests,  based  upon  working  plans,  but, 
as  the  management  had  been  provincialized,  there  was  no  central 
or  continuous  control.  This  was  remedied  in  1884,  when  a 
central  Working  Plans  Office,  under  the  inspector-general  of 
forests,  was  established.  This  officer  has  since  then  controlled 
the  preparation  and  execution  of  the  plans,  a  procedure  which 
has  led  to  most  beneficial  results.  Plans  referring  to  about 
38,000  sq.  m.  are  now  (1909)  in  operation,  and  after  a  reasonable 
lapse  of  time  there  should  not  be  a  single  forest  of  importance 
which  is  not  worked  on  a  well-regulated  plan,  and  on  the  principle 
of  a  sustained  yield.  While  the  danger  of  overworking  the  forests 
is  thus  being  gradually  eliminated,  their  yield  capacity  is  in- 
creased by  suitable  silvicultural  treatment  and  by  fire  protection. 
Formerly  most  of  the  important  forests  were  annually  or  period- 
ically devastated  by  jungle  fires,  sometimes  lighted  accidentally, 
in  other  cases  purposely.  Now  38,000  sq.  m.  of  forest  are  actually 
protected  against  fire  by  the  efforts  of  the  department,  and  it  is 
the  intention  gradually  to  extend  protection  to  all  permanent 


state  forests.  Grazing  of  cattle  is  of  great  importance  in  India; 
at  the  same  time  it  is  liable  to  interfere  seriously  with  the  repro- 
duction of  the  forests.  To  meet  both  requirements  careful  and 
minute  arrangements  have  been  made,  according  to  which  at 
present  38,000  sq.  m.  are  closed  to  grazing;  19,000  sq.  m.  are 
closed  only  against  the  grazing  of  goats,  sheep  and  camels;  while 
176,000  sq.  m.  are  open  to  the  grazing  of  all  kinds  of  cattle. 
The  areas  closed  in  ordinary  years  form  a  reserve  of  fodder  in 
years  of  drought  and  scarcity.  During  famine  years  they  are 
either  opened  to  grazing,  or  grass  is  cut  in  them  and  transported 
to  districts  where  the  cattle  are  in  danger  of  starvation.  The 
service  rendered  in  this  way  by  a  wise  forest  administration 
should  not  be  underrated,  since  one  of  the  most  serious  calamities 
of  a  famine — the  want  of  cattle  to  cultivate  the  land — is  thus, 
if  not  avoided,  at  any  rate  considerably  reduced.  During  1907 
the  government  of  India  established  a  Research  Institute,  with 
six  members  engaged  in  collecting  data  regarding  silviculture, 
forest  botany,  forest  zoology,  forest  economics,  working  plans, 
and  chemistry  in  connexion  with  forest  produce  and  production. 
The  institute  is  likely  to  lead  to  further  substantial  progress  in 
the  management  of  the  forests. 

The  financial  results  of  forest  administration  in  India  for  the 
years  1865  to  1905  show  the  progress  made: 


Period. 

Mean  Annual 
Net  Revenue. 

Percentage  of 
Annual  Increase 
during  Period. 

1865-1870  . 
1870-1875  . 
1875-1880  . 
1880-1885  . 
1885-1890  . 
1890-1895  . 
1895-1900  . 
1900-1905  . 

Rupees. 

1,372,733 
1,783,248 
2,224,687 

3,385,745 
5,066,671 

7-370,572 
7,923,484 
9,004,367 

30 
25 
52 
50 

44 
7 

12 

The  highest  percentage  of  increase  occurred  in  the  period 
1880-1885.  The  revenue  since  1886  has  been  considerably 
increased  by  the  annexation  of  Upper  Burma. 

Apart  from  the  net  revenue,  large  quantities  of  produce  are 
given  free  of  charge,  or  at  reduced  rates,  to  the  people  of  the 
country.  Thus,  in  1904-1905,  the  net  revenue  amounted  to 
Rs.  11,062,094,  while  the  produce  given  free  or  at  reduced  rates 
was  valued  at  Rs.  3,500,661,  making  a  total  net  benefit  derived 
from  the  state  forests  during  that  year  of  Rs.  14,562,755,  or  in 
round  figures  one  million  pounds  sterling.  The  out-turn  during 
the  same  year  amounted  to  252  million  cub.  ft.  of  timber  and 
fuel  and  215  million  bamboos.  The  receipts  from  the  sale  of 
other  forest  produce  came  to  9  million  rupees,  out  of  a  total 
gross  revenue  of  24  million  rupees. 

These  results  are  highly  creditable  to  the  government  of  India, 
which  has  led  the  way  towards  the  introduction  of  rational  forest 
management  into  the  British  empire,  thus  setting  an  example 
which  has  been  followed  more  or  less  by  various  colonies.  Even 
the  movement  in  the  United  Kingdom  during  late  years  is  due 
to  it.  Apart  from  India,  substantial  progress  has  been  made  in 
Cape  Colony,  Ceylon,  the  Straits  Settlements  and  the  Federated 
Malay  States.  Other  British  colonies  are  more  backward  in  this 
respect.  Energetic  action  is  urgently  wanted,  especially  in 
Canada  and  Australasia,  where  an  enormous  state  property  is 
threatened  by  destruction. 

LITERATURE. — The  following  works  of  special  interest  may  be 
mentioned:  W.  Schlich,  A  Matiual  of  Forestry  (London)  (vols.  i., 
ii.  and  iii.  by  W.  Schlich;  vols.  iv.  and  v.  by  W.  R.  Fisher;  3rd  ed. 
of  vol.  i.,  1906,  of  vol.  ii.,  1904,  of  vol.  iii.,  1905;  2nd  ed.  of  vol.  iv., 
1907;  2nd  ed.  of  vol.  v.,  1908);  Baden-Powell,  Forest  Law  (London, 
1893);  Brown,  The  Forester  (ed.  by  Nisbet,  Edinburgh  and  London, 
1905);  Broilliard,  Le  Traitement  des  bois  (Paris,  1894);  Huffel, 
Economie  forestiere  (Paris,  1904-1907) ;  Lorey,  Handbuch  der 
Forstwissenschaft  (2nd  ed.  by  Stoetzer,  Tubingen,  1903) ;  Ross- 
massler,  Der  Wold.  (W.  Sen.) 

UNITED  STATES 

The  Forest  Regions. — The  great  treeless  region  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  separates  the  wooded  area  of  the  United 


652 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


States  into  two  grand  divisions,  which  may  be  called  the  Eastern 
and  the  Western  forests.  The  Eastern  forest  is  characterized 
by  the  predominance,  on  the  whole,  of  broad-leafed  trees,  the 
comparative  uniformity  of  its  general  types  over  wide  areas, 
and  its  naturally  unbroken  distribution.  In  the  Western  forest 
conifers  are  conspicuously  predominant;  the  individual  species 
often  reaches  enormous  and  even  unequalled  dimensions,  the 
forest  is  frequently  interrupted  by  treeless  areas,  and  the  tran- 
sitions from  one  type  to  another  are  often  exceedingly  abrupt. 
Both  divisions  are  botanically  and  commercially  rich  in  species. 
The  Eastern  forest  may  conveniently  be  subdivided  into  three 
members: 

1.  The  Northern  forest,  marked  by  great  density  and  large 
volume  of  standing  timber,  and  a  comparative  immunity,  in  its 
virgin  condition,  from  fire.     The  characteristic  trees  are  maples, 
birches  and  beech  (Fagus  atropunicea) ,  among  the  hardwoods 
and  white  pine  (Pinus  strobus),  spruce  (Picea  rubens  and  Picea 
mariana)  and  hemlock  ( Tsuga  canadensis)  among  conifers. 

2.  The  Southern  forest  is  on  the  whole  less  dense  than  the 
Northern,  and  more  frequently  burned  over.     Among  its  char- 
acteristic trees  are  the  longleaf  (Pinus  palustris)  and  other  pines, 
oaks,  gums,  bald  cypress  (Taxodium  distichum)  and  white  cedar 
(Chamaecyparis  thy  aides). 

3.  The  Central  Hardwood  forest,  which  differs  comparatively 
little  from  adjacent  portions  of  the  Northern  and  Southern 
forests  except  in  the  absence  of  conifers.     Among  its  trees  are 
the   chestnut    (Castanea  denlata),   hickories,   ashes   and   other 
hardwoods  already  mentioned. 

The  Western  division  has  two  members: 

1.  The  Pacific  Coast  forest,  marked  by  the  great  size  of  its 
trees   and   the   vast   accumulations   of   merchantable   timber. 
Among  its  characteristic  species  are  the  redwood  (Sequoia  semper- 
virens)  and  the  big  tree  (S.  Washingtoniana),  the  Douglas  fir 
(Pseudotsuga  taxifolia),  sugar  pine  (Pinus  lambertiana) ,  western 
hemlock  (Tsuga  heterophylla) ,  giant  arborvitae  (Thuja  plicata) 
and  Sitka  spruce  (Picea  sitchensis). 

2.  The  Rocky  Mountain  forest,  whose  characteristic  species 
are  the  western  yellow  pine  (Pinus  ponder  osa),  Engelmann  spruce 


(Picea  engelmanni)  and  lodgepole  pine  (Pinus  murrayana).  This 
forest  is  frequently  broken  by  treeless  areas  of  greater  or  less 
extent,  especially  towards  the  south,  and  it  suffers  greatly  from 
fire.  Subarid  in  character,  except  to  the  north  and  at  high 
elevations,  the  vast  mining  interests  of  the  region  and  its  treeless 
surroundings  give  this  forest  an  economic  value  out  of  proportion 
to  the  quantities  of  timber  it  contains. 

This  distribution  of  the  various  forests  is  indicated  on  the  first 
of  the  two  accompanying  maps.  The  second  map  shows  the 
situation  of  the  national  forests  hereafter  mentioned. 

The  forests  of  Alaska  fall  into  two  main  divisions:  the  com- 
mercial though  undeveloped  forests  of  the  south-east  coast, 
which  occur  along  the  streams  and  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
mountains  and  consist  chiefly  of  western  hemlock  (Tsuga 
heterophylla),  Sitka  spruce  (Picea  sitchensis),  yellow  cedar 
(Chamaecyparis  nootkalensis)  and  giant  arborvitae  (Thuja 
plicata),  usually  of  large  size  and  uninjured  by  fire;  and  the  vast 
interior  forests,  swept  by  severe  fires,  and  consisting  chiefly  of 
white  and  black  spruces  (Picea  canadensis  and  nigra),  paper  birch 
(Betula  papyrifera)  and  aspen  (Populus  tremuloides) ,  all  of  small 
size  but  of  great  importance  in  connexion  with  mining.  Northern 
Alaska  and  the  extreme  western  coast  regions  are  entirely  barren. 

The  National  Forest  Policy. — The  forest  policy  of  the  United 
States  may  be  said  to  have  had  its  origin  in  1 799  in  the  enactment 
of  a  law  which  authorized  the  purchase  of  timber  suitable  for 
the  use  of  the  navy,  or  of  land  upon  which  such  timber  was 
growing.  It  is  true  that  laws  were  in  force  under  the  early 
governments  of  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey  and  other  colonies, 
providing  for  the  care  and  protection  of  forest  interests  in 
various  ways,  but  these  laws  were  distinctly  survivals  of  tend- 
encies acquired  in  Europe,  and  for  the  most  part  of  little  use. 
It  was  not  until  the  apparent  approach  of  a  dangerous  shortage 
in  certain  timber  supplies  that  the  first  real  step  in  forest  policy 
was  taken  by  the  United  States.  Successive  laws  passed  from 
181 7  to  1831  strove  to  give  larger  effect  to  the  original  enactment, 
but  without  permanent  influence  towards  the  preservation  of  the 
live  oak  (Quercus  iiirginiana  Mill.),  which  was  the  object  in  view. 
A  long  period  of  inaction  followed  these  early  measures.  In 


\.  v  ,~: 

•••"—•W."     . 


FOREST    REGIONS 

OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES 


The  unshaded  areas  are  treeless,  except  along  the  Streams 

United  Suici   Dcpjftmtrn  ol   A gr (cult me,  FortM  Strvlct 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


653 


1831  the  solicitor  of  the  treasury  assumed  a  partial  responsibility 
for  the  care  and  protection  of  the  public  timber  lands,  and  in 
1855  this  duty  was  transferred  to  the  commissioner  of  the  general 
land  office  in  the  Department  of  the  Interior.  The  effect  of 
these  changes  upon  forest  protection  was  unimportant.  When, 
however,  at  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  railway  building  in  the 
United  States  took  on  an  unparalleled  activity,  the  destruction 
of  forests  by  fire  and  the  axe  increased  in  a  corresponding  ratio, 
and  public  sentiment  began  to  take  alarm.  Action  by  several 
of  the  states  slightly  preceded  that  of  the  Federal  government, 
but  in  1876  Congress,  acting  under  the  inspiration  of  a  memorial 
from  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 
authorized  the  appointment  of  an  officer  (Dr  Franklin  B.  Hough) 
under  the  commissioner  of  agriculture,  to  collect  and  distribute 
information  upon  forest  matters.  His  office  became  in  1880  the 
division  of  forestry  in  what  is  now  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

As  the  railways  advanced  into  the  treeless  interior,  public 
interest  in  tree-planting  became  keen.  In  1873  Congress  passed 
and  later  amended  and  repealed  the  timber  culture  acts,  which 
granted  homesteads  on  the  treeless  public  lands  to  settlers  who 
planted  one-fourth  of  their  entries  with  trees.  Though  these 
measures  were  not  successful  in  themselves  they  directed  atten- 
tion towards  forestry.  The  act  which  repealed  them  in  1891 
contained  a  clause  which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  the  present 
forest  policy  of  the  United  States.  By  it  the  president  was 
authorized  to  set  aside  "  any  part  of  the  public  lands  wholly  or 
in  part  covered  with  timber  or  undergrowth,  whether  of  com- 
mercial value  or  not,  as  public  reservations,  and  the  President 
shall,  by  public  proclamation,  declare  the  establishment  of  such 
reservations  and  the  limits  thereof."  Some  eighteen  million 
acres  had  been  proclaimed  as  reservations  at  the  time  when,  in 
1896,  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  was  asked  by  the 
secretary  of  the  interior  to  make  an  investigation  and  report 
upon  "  the  inauguration  of  a  rational  forest  policy  for  the  forest 
lands  of  the  United  States."  Upon  the  recommendation  of  a 
commission  named  by  the  Academy,  President  Cleveland  estab- 
lished more  than  twenty-one  million  acres  of  new  reserves  on 
the  22nd  of  February  1897.  His  action  was  widely  misunder- 
stood and  attacked,  but  it  awakened  a  public  interest  in  forest 
questions  without  which  the  rapid  progress  of  forestry  in  the 
United  States  since  that  time  could  never  have  been  made. 

Within  a  few  months  after  the  proclamation  of  the  Cleveland 
reserves  the  present  national  forest  policy  took  definite  shape. 
Under  this  policy  the  national  government  holds  and  manages, 
in  the  common  interest  of  all  users  of  the  forests  or  its  products, 
such  portions  of  the  public  lands  as  have  been  set  aside  by 
presidential  proclamation  in  accordance  with  the  act  of  1891. 
These  lands  are  held  against  private  acquisition  under  the  Home- 
stead Act  (except  as  to  agricultural  lands  as  hereafter  mentioned) , 
the  Timber  and  Stone  Act,  and  other  laws  under  which  the 
United  States  disposes  of  its  unappropriated  public  domain, 
but  not  against  private  acquisition  under  the  Mineral  Land  Laws. 
They  are  selected  from  lands  believed  to  be  more  valuable  for 
forest  purposes  than  for  agriculture,  and  are  managed  with  the 
purpose  of  securing  from  them  the  best  and  largest  possible 
returns,  present  and  future,  whether  in  the  form  of  water  for 
irrigation  or  power,  of  timber,  of  forage  for  stock,  or  of  any  other 
beneficial  product.  The  aggregate  area  of  the  reserves,  or 
national  forests,  has  been  steadily  increased  until  they  now 
include  nearly  all  the  timber  lands  left  of  the  public  domain. 

The  general  lines  of  this  policy  were  in  part  laid  down  by 
the  commission  already  mentioned,  in  its  report  submitted  to 
the  secretary  of  the  interior,  May  i,  1897,  and  by  the  act  of 
June  4,  1897,  which  was  largely  shaped  by  the  work  of  the 
commission.  Until  this  act  was  passed  the  national  forests  had 
been  in  theory  closed  against  any  form  o<  use;  nor  had  the 
possibility  of  securing  forest  preservation  by  wise  use  received 
much  thought  from  those  who  had  favoured  their  creation.  Such 
a  state  of  affairs  could  not  continue.  Before  long  public  opinion 
would  have  forced  the  opening  to  use  of  the  resources  thus 
arbitrarily  locked  up,  and  in  the  absence  of  any  administrative 


system  providing  for  conservative  use,  the  national  forests  would 
inevitably  have  been  abolished,  and  the  whole  policy  of  govern- 
ment forest  holdings  would  have  ceased.  The  act  of  June  4, 
1897  was  therefore  of  the  first  importance.  This  act  con- 
ferred upon  the  secretary  of  the  interior  general  powers  for  the 
proper  management  of  the  national  forests  through  the  general 
land  office  of  his  department.  It  provided  for  the  designation 
and  sale  of  dead,  mature  and  large  timber;  authorized  the 
secretary  to  permit  free  use  of  timber  in  small  quantities  by 
settlers,  miners  and  residents;  empowered  him  to  "  make  such 
rules  and  regulations  and  establish  such  service  as  will  insure  the 
objects  of  such  reservations,  namely,  to  regulate  their  occupancy 
and  use  and  to  preserve  the  forests  thereon  from  destruction  "; 
and  made  violation  of  the  act  or  of  such  rules  and  regulations  a 
misdemeanour.  The  statute  limited  the  power  to  establish  forest 
reservations  to  the  purpose  of  improving  and  protecting  the  forest, 
securing  favourable  conditions  of  water  flows,  and  furnishing  a 
continuous  supply  of  timber  for  the  use  and  necessities  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States.  Lands  found,  upon  due  examination, 
to  be  more  valuable  for  other  purposes  than  for  forest  uses 
might  be  eliminated  from  any  reservation,  and  all  mineral  lands 
within  the  reservations  were  left  open  to  private  appropriation 
under  the  mineral  laws.  The  rights  of  settlers  and  claimants 
were  safeguarded,  and  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction,  except  so 
far  as  the  punishment  of  offences  against  the  United  States  in 
the  reservations  was  concerned,  was  reserved  to  the  States. 

While  the  administration  of  the  national  forests  was  entrusted 
to  the  general  land  office,  the  same  act  assigned  the  surveying 
and  mapping  of  them  to  the  United  States  Geological  Survey, 
which  has  published  descriptions  and  maps  of  some  of  the  more 
important. 

No  attempt  was  made  in  the  general  land  office  to  develop 
a  technical  forest  service.  There  were,  indeed,  at  the  time  of 
passage  of  the  act,  less  than  ten  trained  foresters  in  the  United 
States,  no  means  of  training  more,  and  very  little  conception 
of  what  forestry  actually  meant.  The  purpose  of  the  administra- 
tion was  therefore  mainly  protection  against  trespass  and  fire, 
particularly  the  latter.  Regulations  were  made  giving  effect 
to  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  June  4,  set  forth  above,  but 
in  the  absence  of  technical  knowledge  as  to  what  might  safely 
be  done,  the  tendency  was  rather  to  restrict  than  to  extend  the 
use  of  the  forest.  Meanwhile,  however,  there  was  rapidly  develop- 
ing in  another  branch  of  the  government  service  an  organization 
qualified  for  actual  forest  management. 

One  year  after  the  passage  of  the  act  of  June  4,  1897,  the 
division  of  forestry  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture  ceased 
to  be  merely  a  bureau  of  information,  and  became  an  active 
agency  for  introducing  the  actual  practice  of  forestry  among 
private  owners  and  for  conducting  the  investigations  upon 
which  a  sound  American  forest  practice  could  be  based.  The 
work  awakened  great  interest  among  forest  owners,  and  exerted 
a  powerful  educational  influence  upon  the  country  at  large. 
The  division  extended  its  work  and  became  (July  i,  1901)  the 
Bureau  of  Forestry.  It  drew  into  its  employment  for  a  time 
nearly  all  the  men  who  were  preparing  themselves  in  increasing 
numbers  (at  first  abroad,  then  in  the  newly-founded  schools  in 
the  United  States)  for  the  profession  of  forestry,  and  was  soon 
recognized  as  qualified  to  speak  authoritatively  on  technical 
questions  connected  with  the  administration  of  the  national 
forests.  This  led  to  a  request  from  the  secretary  of  the  interior 
for  the  advice  of  the  bureau  on  such  questions.  Working  plans 
were  accordingly  undertaken  for  a  number  of  the  forests.  The 
general  land  office,  however,  was  not  ready  to  attempt  active 
forest  management.  Though  some  timber  was  sold  and  the 
grazing  of  stock  regulated  to  some  extent,  the  main  object  of 
the  land  office  administration  continued  to  be  protection  against 
fire.  Many  of  the  regulations  which  it  made  could  not  be  enforced. 

The  disadvantages  of  dispersal  of  the  Federal  government 
forest  work  among  three  separate  agencies  grew  more  and  more 
apparent,  until,  on  the  ist  of  February  1905,  control  of  the 
63,000,000  acres  of  forest  reserves  which  up  to  that  time  had 
been  set  aside  was  transferred  from  the  general  land  office  to 


654 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


North     Dafc<>ta  \        ^ 


NATIONAL  FORESTS 

and 
NATIONAL  PARKS 

of  the 
UNITED  STATES 

—  2  «•  District  Boundaries  and  Humbert 

United  StMet  Detriment  of  Agriculture,  forest  Servke. 


the  Bureau  of  Forestry.  In  recognition  of  its  new  duties  the 
designation  of  the  bureau  became  the  Forest  Service. 

Other  provisions  of  the  act  which  affected  the  transfer  were 
that  forest  supervisors  and  rangers  should  be  selected,  so  far 
as  possible,  from  qualified  citizens  of  the  state  or  territory  in 
which  each  forest  was  situated,  and  that  all  money  received 
from  the  sale  of  any  products  or  the  use  of  any  land  or  resources 
of  the  national  forests  should  be  covered  into  the  treasury  and 
constitute  a  special  fund  for  their  protection,  administration, 
improvement  and  extension.  Five  days  later  a  statute  gave 
forest  officers  the  power  to  arrest  trespassers;  and  on  the  3rd 
of  March  the  lieu  land  selection  law  was  repealed.  This  law  had 
opened  the  way  for  grave  abuses  through  the  exchange  of  worth- 
less land  by  private  owners  within  the  forests  for  an  equal  area 
of  valuable  timber  lands  outside. 

The  law  has  been  modified  since  by  the  change  of  the  old 
name  "  Forest  Reserves  "  to  "  National  Forests."  The  act 
of  June  ii,  1906,  opened  to  homestead  entry  lands  within 
national  forests  found  by  examination  to  be  chiefly  valuable  for 


agriculture.  The  administration  and  improvement  of  the  national 
forests  are  now  provided  for  directly  by  congressional  appro- 
priation. The  power  to  create  national  forests  conferred  on  the 
president  by  the  act  of  March  1891  has  been  repealed  for  the 
states  of  Washington,  Oregon,  Idaho,  Montana,  Wyoming  and 
Colorado,  but  for  no  others. 

The  Forest  Service  began  in  earnest  the  development  of  all 
the  resources  of  the  national  forests.  Mature  timber  was  sold 
wherever  there  was  a  demand  for  it  and  the  permanent  welfare 
of  the  forests  and  protection  of  the  streams  permitted,  but 
always  so  as  to  prevent  waste,  guard  against  fire,  protect  young 
growth  and  ensure  reproduction.  Regulations  were  adopted 
which  allowed  small  sales  to  be  made  without  formality  or  delay, 
secured  for  the  government  the  full  value  of  timber  sold,  and 
eliminated  unnecessary  routine.  Care  was  taken  to  safeguard 
the  interests  of  the  government  and  provide  for  the  maintenance 
of  good  technical  standards.  The  conduct  of  local  business 
was  entrusted  to  local  officers.  Large  transactions  with  general 
policies  were  controlled  from  Washington,  but  with  careful 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


655 


provision  for  first-hand  knowledge  and  close  touch  with  the  work 
in  the  field.  B  usiness  efficiency  and  the  convenience  of  the  public 
were  carefully  studied.  In  short,  an  organization  was  created 
capable  of  handling  safely,  speedily  and  satisfactorily  the  com- 
plex business  of  making  useful  a  forest  property  of  vast  extent, 
scattered  through  sixteen  different  states  of  an  aggregate  area 
of  over  1,500,000  sq.  m.  and  with  a  population  of  9,000,000. 

The  growth  since  the  ist  of  July  1897  of  the  area  of  the 
national  forests,  of  the  expenditures  of  the  government  for 
forestry,  and  of  the  receipts  from  the  national  forests,  is  shown 
by  the  statement  which  follows.  Though  the  act  of  June  4, 
1897,  became  effective  immediately  upon  its  passage,  the  fiscal 
year  1899  was  the  first  of  actual  administration,  because  the 
first  for  which  Congress  made  the  appropriation  necessary  to 
carry  out  the  law. 


forest  is  ripe  for  the  axe,  the  demand  is  strong,  and  control  by 
trained  men  makes  it  safe  to  cut  more  freely.  The  increase  is 
marked  both  in  small  and  in  large  sales,  but  a  score  of  sales  for 
less  than  $5000  are  made  against  one  for  more.  The  total  cut 
is  still  far  below  the  annual  increment  of  the  forests.  As  the 
demand  grows  restrictions  must  increase  in  order  to  husband 
the  present  supply  until  the  next  crop  matures. 

3.  The  stumpage  price  would  seem  on  the  face  of  the  figures 
to  have  risen  from  about  one  dollar  to  more  than  three  dollars 
per  thousand  board-feet.  The  receipts,  however,  for  any  one 
year  are  not  exclusively  for  the  timber  cut  in  that  year,  since 
payments  are  made  in  advance.  In  the  year  1907  the  average 
price  obtained  was  something  less  than  $2-50  per  thousand. 
It  is  therefore  true  that  stumpage  prices  have  risen  greatly, 
although  conditions  new  to  the  American  lumbermen  are  im- 


Area  of  National  Forests,  Annual  Expenditures  of  the  Federal  Government  for  Forestry  and  National  Forest  Administration, 

and  Receipts  from  National  Forests,  1898-1909. 


Area  of 

Fiscal 
Year.1 

National  Forests 
at  Close  of  Year 

Division  of  Forestry 
(Bureau  of  Forestry, 

General 
Land  Office. 

Receipts  from 
National  Forests. 

Receipts  from 
National  Forests, 

Expenditures  upon 
National  Forests, 

(June  30). 

Forest  Service). 

per  Acre. 

per  Acre. 

Acres. 

$ 

f 

$ 

$ 

$ 

1898 

40,866,184 

20,000-00 

1899 

46,168,439 

28,520-00 

175,000-00 

7-534-83 

0-00016 

0-0038 

1900 

46,515.039 

48,520-00 

210,000-00 

36,754-02 

•00078 

•0045 

1901 

46,324,479 

88,520-00 

325,000-00 

29,250-88 

•00063 

•0070 

1902 

51,896,357 

185,440-00 

300,000-00 

25,43i-87 

•00049 

•0060 

1903 

62,211,240 

291,860-00 

304,135-00 

45,838-08 

•00074 

•0054 

1904 

62,611,449 

350,000-00 

375,000-00 

58,436-19 

•00093 

•0072 

1905 

85,693,422 

632,232-362 

217,907-64' 

73-276-I5 

•00085 

•0059 

1906 

106,994,018 

1,191,400-21 

767,219-96 

•00717 

•0089 

1907 

150,832,665 

1,800,595-20 

1,571,059-44 

•01041 

•0097 

1909 

167,677,749 

2,948,153-08 

1,807,276-66 

•00931 

•0151 

Until  1906,  the  sole  source  of  receipts  was  the  sale  of  timber. 
In  the  fiscal  year  1907,  however,  timber  sales  furnished  less 
than  half  the  receipts.  The  following  statement  concerning 
the  timber  sales  of  the  fiscal  years  1904-1907  will  serve  to  bring 
out  the  change  that  followed  the  transfer  of  control  to  the  forest 
service  in  the  midst  of  the  fiscal  year  1905: — 


Fiscal 
Year. 

Amount  of 
Timber  Sold. 

Amount  of 
Timber  Cut. 

Receipts  from 
Timber  Sales. 

1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 

Bd.-ft. 
"2,773,710 
113,661,508 
328,230,326 
1,044,855,000 

Bd.-ft. 
58,435,000 
68,475,000 
138,665,000 
194,872,000 

$ 
58,436-19 

73-270-15 
245,013-49 
686,813-12 

These  figures  show  (i)  a  large  excess  each  year  in  the  amount 
of  timber  sold  over  that  cut  and  paid  for;  (2)  nine  times  as  much 
timber  sold  at  the  end  of  the  four-year  period  as  at  the  beginning 
and  three  times  as  much  cut;  and  (3)  a  much  higher  price 
obtained  per  thousand  board-feet  at  the  end  of  the  period  than 
at  the  beginning.  Each  of  these  matters  calls  for  comment. 
The  sales  are  of  stumpage  only;  the  government  does  no  logging 
on  its  own  account. 

.1.  More  timber  is  sold  each  year  than  is  cut  and  paid  for, 
because  many  of  the  sales  extend  over  several  years.  With 
increasing  sales  the  amount  sold  each  year  for  future  removal 
has  exceeded  the  amount  to  be  removed  during  that  year  under 
sales  of  earlier  years.  Large  sales  covering  a  term  of  years  are 
made  because  the  national  forests  contain  much  overmature 
timber,  which  needs  removal,  but  which  is  frequently  too  in- 
accessible to  be  saleable  in  small  amounts.  To  prevent  specula- 
tion the  time  allowed  for  cutting  is  never  more  than  five  years, 
and  cutting  must  begin  at  once  and  be  continued  steadily. 

2.  The  volume  of  sales  has  increased  rapidly  because  much 

1  The  United  States  fiscal  year  ends  June  30,  and  receives  its 
designation  from  the  calendar  year  in  which  it  terminates.     Thus, 
the  fiscal  year  1898  is  the  year  July  I,  l897-June  30,  1898. 

2  Administration  transferred  to  Bureau  of  Forestry,  February  I, 
1905. 


posed.  Full  utilization  of  all  merchantable  material,  care  of 
young  growth  in  felling  and  logging,  and  the  piling  of  brush, 
to  be  subsequently  burned  by  the  forest  officers  if  burning  is 
necessary,  are  among  these  conditions.  Timber  to  be  cut  must 
first  be  marked  by  the  forest  officers.  Sales  of  more  than  $100 
in  value  are  made  only  after  public  advertisement. 

Only  the  simplest  forms  of  silviculture  have  as  yet  been 
introduced.  The  vast  area  of  the  national  forests,  the  com- 
paratively sparse  population  of  the  West,  the  rough  and  broken 
character  of  the  forests  themselves,  and  the  newness  of  the 
problems  which  their  management  presents,  make  the  general 
application  of  intensive  methods  for  the  present  impracticable. 
Natural  reproduction  is  secured.  The  selection  system  is  most 
used,  often  under  the  rough  and  ready  method  of  an  approximate 
diameter  limit,  with  the  reservation  of  seed  trees  where  needed. 
The  tendency,  however,  is  strongly  towards  a  more  flexible  and 
effective  application  of  the  selection  principle,  as  a  better  trained 
field  force  is  developed  and  as  market  conditions  improve. 

One  conspicuous  achievement  was  the  reduction  of  loss  by 
fires  on  the  national  forests.  During  the  unusually  dry  season 
of  1905  there  were  only  eight  fires  of  any  importance,  and  the 
area  burned  over  amounted  only  to  about  -16  of  i  %  of  the 
total  area.  In  1906  about  -12  of  i%  was  burned.  This  was 
accomplished  by  efficient  patrol,  co-operation  of  the  public,  and 
by  preventive  measures,  such  as  piling  and  burning  the  brush 
on  cut-over  areas. 

Since  the  beginning  of  1906  the  largest  source  of  income  from 
the  national  forests  was  their  use  for  grazing.  Stock-raising  is 
one  of  the  most  important  industries  of  the  West.  Formerly 
cattle  and  sheep  grazed  freely  on  all  parts  of  the  public  domain. 
In  the  early  days  of  the  national  forests  the  wisdom  of  permitting 
any  grazing  at  all  upon  them  was  sharply  questioned.  Un- 
restricted grazing  had  led  to  friction  between  individuals,  the 
deterioration  of  much  of  the  range  through  overstocking,  and 
serious  injury  to  the  forests  and  stream  flow.  The  forests  of 
the  West,  however,  are  largely  of  open  growth  and  contain 
many  grassy  parks,  the  results  of  old  fires,  and  many  high 
mountain  meadows.  Under  proper  regulations  the  grass  and 


656 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


other  forage  plants  which  they  produce  in  great  quantity  can 
be  used  without  detriment  to  the  forests  themselves,  and  with 
great  benefit  to  the  stock  industry,  which  often  can  find  summer 
pasturage  nowhere  else.  Except  in  southern  California  grazing 
is  now  permitted  on  all  national  forests  unless  the  watersheds 
furnish  water  for  domestic  use;  but  the  time  of  entering  and 
leaving,  the  number  of  head  to  be  grazed  by  each  applicant,  and 
the  part  of  the  range  to  be  occupied  are  carefully  prescribed. 
Planted  areas  and  cut-over  areas  are  closed  to  stock  until  the 
young  growth  is  safe  from  harm,  and  goats  are  allowed  only  in 
the  brushland  of  the  foothills. 

The  results  of  regulation,  in  addition  to  the  protection  of 
forest  growth  and  streams,  are  the  prevention  of  disputes, 
improved  range,  better  stock,  stable  conditions  in  the  stock 
industry,  and  the  best  use  of  the  range  in  the  interest  of  progress 
and  development.  The  first  right  to  graze  stock  on  the  forests 
is  given  to  residents,  small  owners  and  those  who  have  used  the 
range  before.  Thus  the  crowding  out  of  the  weaker  by  the 
stronger  and  of  the  settler  by  the  roving  outsider  has  been 
stopped.  In  1906  the  forest  service  began  to  impose  a  moderate 
charge  for  the  use  of  the  national  forest  range.  The  following 
statement  shows  the  amount  of  stock  grazed  on  the  national 
forests  1904-09,  and  the  receipts  for  the  grazing  charge: — 


Year. 

Number  of 
Cattle  and  Horses. 

Number  of 
Sheep  and  Goats. 

Receipts. 

1904 

1905 
1906 
1907 
1909 

610,091 
692,124 
1,015,148 
1,200,158 
1,581,404 

1,806,722 
1,709,987 
5-763,100 
6,657,083 
7,819,594 

$ 

514,692-87 
863,920-32 
1,032,185-70 

A  work  of  enormous  magnitude  which  has  now  begun  is  planting 
on  the  national  forests.  At  present,  with  low  stumpage  prices 
and  incomplete  utilization  of  forest  products,  clear  cutting 
with  subsequent  planting  is  not  practicable.  There  are,  however, 
many  million  acres  of  denuded  land  within  the  national  forests 
which  require  planting.  Such  planting  is  still  confined  chiefly 
to  watersheds  which  supply  cities  and  towns  with  water.  The 
first  planting  was  done  in  1892,  in  California.  Since  then 
similar  work  has  been  done  on  city  watersheds  in  Colorado, 
Utah,  Idaho  and  New  Mexico.  Other  plantations  are  in  the 
Black  Hills  national  forest,  where  large  areas  of  cut-over  and 
burned-over  land  are  entirely  without  seed  trees,  and  in  the 
sandhill  region  of  Nebraska.  Up  to  1 908  about  2 ,000,000  seedlings 
had  been  planted,  on  over  2000  acres — a  small  beginning,  but 
the  work  was  entirely  new  and  presented  many  hard  problems. 

The  nursery  operations  of  the  forest  service  are  concentrated 
at  seven  stations,  located  in  southern  California,  Nebraska, 
Colorado,  New  Mexico  (2),  Utah  and  Idaho,  where  stock  is 
raised  for  local  planting  and  for  shipment  elsewhere.  These 
nurseries  are  small .  Their  annual  product!  ve  capacity  is  bet  ween 
8,000,000  and  10,000,000  seedlings.  Each  nursery  is  practically 
an  experimental  forest-planting  station,  at  which  a  large  variety 
of  species  are  grown  and  various  methods  are  tried. 

The  organization  of  the  administrative  work  of  the  national 
forests  is  by  single  forests.  On  the  ist  of  January  1908  the  total 
number  of  forests  was  165  with  a  total  area  of  162,023,190  acres 
(on  April  7,  1909,  the  numbers  were  146  national  forests  in  the 
U.S.  with  167,672,467  acres,  besides  two  in  Alaska  with  26,761,626 
and  one  in  Porto  Rico  with  65,950  acres).  In  charge  of  each 
forest  is  a  forest  supervisor.  Under  the  supervisors  are  forest 
rangers  and  forest  guards,  whose  duties  include  patrol,  marking 
timber  and  scaling  logs,  enforcing  the  regulations  and  conducting 
some  of  the  minor  business  arising  from  the  use  of  the  forests. 
Guards  are  temporary  employes;  rangers  are  employed  by  the 
year.  The  supervisors  report  directly  to  and  receive  instructions 
from  the  central  office  at  Washington.  In  this  office  there  are 
four  branches — operation,  grazing,  silviculture  and  products — 
each  of  which  directs  that  part  of  the  work  which  belongs  to  it, 
dealing  directly  with  the  supervisor.  For  inspection  purposes, 
however,  the  forests  are  separated  into  six  districts,  in  each  of 


which  is  located  a  chief  inspector  with  a  corps  of  assistants. 
The  inspectors  are  without  administrative  authority,  but  assist 
by  their  counsel  the  supervisors,  and  through  inspection  reports 
keep  the  Washington  office  informed  of  the  condition  of  all  lines 
of  administrative  work  in  progress.  Administrative  officers 
alternate  frequently  between  field  and  office  duties. 

The  number  of  forest  officers  in  the  several  grades  on  the  xst 
of  January  1908  were:  6  chief  inspectors,  26  inspectors,  106 
forest  supervisors,  41  deputy  forest  supervisors,  820  forest 
rangers  and  283  forest  guards.  The  total  number  of  employes 
of  the  forest  service  on  the  same  date,  including  the  clerical 
force,  was  2034. 

Besides  the  administration  of  the  national  forests,  the  forest 
service  conducts  general  investigations,  carries  on  an  extensive 
educational  work,  and  co-operates  with  private  owners  who 
contemplate  forest  management  upon  their  own  tracts.  This 
last  work  is  undertaken  because  of  the  need  of  bringing  forestry 
into  practice,  the  lack  of  trained  foresters  outside  of  the  employ 
of  the  government,  and  the  lack  of  information  as  to  how  to 
apply  forestry  and  what  returns  may  be  obtained.  Co-operation 
takes  the  form  of  advice  upon  the  ground  and,  on  occasion,  of 
the  making  of  working  plans.  The  educational  work  of  the  service 
is  performed  chiefly  through  publications,  the  purpose  of  which 
is  to  spread  very  widely  a  knowledge  of  the  importance  of  forestry 
to  the  nation  and  of  the  principles  upon  which  its  practice  rests. 
The  investigations  which  the  service  conducts  extend  from  studies 
of  the  natural  distribution  and  classification  of  American  forests 
and  of  their  varied  silvicultural  problems  to  statistics  of  lumber 
production  and  laboratory  researches  which  bear  upon  the 
economical  utilization  of  forest  products.  As  examples  of  these 
researches  may  be  mentioned  tests  of  the  strength  of  timber, 
studies  of  the  preservative  treatment  of  wood  for  various  uses, 
wood-pulp  investigations  and  studies  in  wood  chemistry. 

Forest  Instruction. — Most  of  the  men  now  in  the  forest  service 
received  their  training  in  the  United  States.  There  are  several 
professional  schools  of  forestry.  The  Yale  Forest  School,  which 
was  opened  as  a  department  of  Yale  University  in  September 
1900,  offers  a  two-years'  graduate  course  with  abundant  field 
work,  and  also  conducts  a  summer  school  of  forestry,  especially 
adapted  to  the  training  of  forest  rangers  and  special  students, 
at  Milford,  Pennsylvania.  The  university  of  Michigan  and 
Harvard  University  also  offer  a  two-years'  graduate  course  in 
forestry.  The  Pennsylvania  State  College  has  recently  established 
a  four-years'  undergraduate  course  in  forestry.  The  Biltmore 
Forest  School  in  North  Carolina,  the  oldest  of  all  these  schools, 
offers  a  one-year  course  in  technical  forestry.  A  large  number 
of  the  agricultural  colleges  give  instruction  in  forestry.  Among 
these  are  Nebraska,  Minnesota,  Maine,  Michigan,  Washington 
and  Mississippi  agricultural  colleges,  the  university  of  Georgia  and 
Iowa  State  College.  Berea  College,  Kentucky,  deserves  special 
mention  as  a  college  which  has  done  valuable  work  in  teaching 
forestry  without  attempting  to  turn  out  professional  foresters. 

Forestry  among  the  States. — Among  the  states  forestry  has 
hardly  reached  the  stage  of  practical  application  on  the  ground. 
New  York  holds  i  ,500,000  acres  of  forest  land.  It  has  a  commis- 
sion to  care  for  its  forest  preserve,  and  to  protect  the  forest  land 
throughout  the  state  from  fire.  The  constitution  of  the  state, 
however,  prohibits  the  cutting  of  timber  on  state  land,  and  thus 
confines  the  work  entirely  to  protection  of  the  forest  and  to  the 
planting  of  waste  areas.  Pennsylvania  is  at  present  showing 
the  most  efficient  activity  in  working  out  a  forest  policy.  It  has 
state  forests  of  820,000  acres,  a  good  fire  law  more  and  more 
satisfactorily  enforced,  and  eight  nurseries  for  growing  planting 
material.  In  1905,  160,000  white  pine  seedlings  were  set  out. 
It  has  also  a  school  for  forest  rangers,  to  be  employed  on  the 
state  forests,  and  it  has  just  established  a  state  professional 
school  of  forestry. 

Twenty-six  of  the  states  have  regularly  appointed  forest  officers, 
six  have  carried  on  studies  of  forest  conditions  in  co-operation 
with  the  forest  service,  and  there  if  scarcely  one  which  is  not 
actively  interested  in  forestry.  Laws,  generally  good,  to  prevent 
damage  from  forest  fires,  have  been  enacted  by  practically  all 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


657 


the  states,  but  their  enforcement  has  unfortunately  been  lax. 
Public  sentiment,  however,  is  making  rapid  progress.  Among 
the  best  laws  are  those  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Minnesota, 
New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Wisconsin.  The  New  York  law, 
for  example,  provides  for  the  appointment  of  one  or  more  fire- 
wardens in  each  town  of  the  counties  in  which  damage  by  fire 
is  especially  to  be  feared.  In  other  counties  supervisors  of  towns 
are  ex-officio  fire-wardens.'  A  chief  fire-warden  has  general 
supervision  of  their  work.  The  wardens,  half  of  the  cost  of  whose 
services  is  paid  by  the  state,  receive  compensation  only  for  the 
time  actually  employed  in  fighting  fires.  They  may  command 
the  service  of  any  citizen  to  assist  them.  Setting  fire  to  woods 
or  waste  lands  belonging  to  the  state  or  to  another,  if  such  fire 
results  in  loss,  is  punishable  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  $250  or 
imprisonment  not  exceeding  one  year,  or  both,  and  damages 
are  provided  for  the  person  injured.  Since  fire  is  beyond  question 
the  most  dangerous  enemy  of  forests  in  the  United  States,  the 
measures  taken  against  it  are  of  vital  importance. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  of  forest  land  held  by 
the  different  states,  and  by  the  territory  of  Hawaii: — 

Area  of  Stale  Forest  Reservations,  1907. 
Connecticut  1, 360  acres 


Hawaii 
Indiana    . 
Maryland 
Michigan. 
Minnesota 
New  Jersey 
New  York 
Pennsylvania 
Wisconsin 


117,532 
2,000 

3,540 
39,000 
42,800 

2,474 

1-439-998 

820,000 

254,072 


Forestry  on  Private  Lands. — The  practice  of  forestry  among 
private  owners  is  of  old  date.  One  of  the  earliest  instances 
was  that  of  Jared  Eliot,  who,  in  1730,  began  the  systematic 
cutting  of  timber  land  to  supply  charcoal  for  an  iron  furnace 
at  Old  Salisbury,  Connecticut.  The  successful  planting  of  waste 
lands  with  timber  trees  in  Massachusetts  dates  from  about  ten 
years  later.  But  such  examples  were  comparatively  rare  until 
recent  times.  At  present  the  intelligent  harvesting  of  timber 
with  a  view  to  successive  crops,  which  is  forestry,  is  much  more 
common  than  is  usually  supposed.  Among  farmers  it  is  especially 
frequent.  It  was  begun  among  lumbermen  by  the  late  E.  S. 
Coe,  of  Bangor,  Maine,  who  made  a  practice  of  restricting  the 
cut  of  spruce  from  his  forests  to  trees  10,  12  or  sometimes  even 
14  in.  in  diameter,  with  the  result  that  much  of  his  land  yielded, 
during  his  life,  a  second  crop  as  plentiful  as  the  first.  Many 
owners  of  spruce  lands  have  followed  his  example,  but  until 
very  recently  without  improving  upon  it.  Systematic  forestry 
on  a  large  scale  among  lumbermen  was  begun  in  the  Adirondacks 
during  the  summer  of  1898  on  the  lands  of  Dr  W.  S.  Webb  and 
Hon.  W.  C.  Whitney,  of  a  combined  area  of  over  100,000  acres, 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  then  Division  of  Forestry. 
In  these  forests  spruce,  maple,  beech  and  birch  predominate, 
but  the  spruce  alone  is  at  present  of  the  first  commercial  import- 
ance. The  treatment  is  a  form  of  the  selection  system.  Under 
it  a  second  crop  of  equal  yield  would  be  ripe  for  the  axe  in  thirty- 
five  years.  Spruce  and  pine  are  the  only  trees  cut.  The  work 
had  been  executed,  at  least  up  to  the  year  1902,  with  great 
satisfaction  to  the  owners  and  the  lumbering  contractors,  as 
well  as  to  the  decided  benefit  of  the  forest.  The  lumbering  is 
regulated  by  the  following  rules,  and  competent  inspectors  are 
employed  to  see  that  they  are  rightly  carried  out:  (i)  No 
trees  shall  be  cut  which  are  not  marked.  (2)  All  trees  marked 
shall  be  cut.  (3)  No  trees  shall  be  left  lodged  in  the  woods,  and 
none  shall  be  overlooked  by  the  skidders  or  haulers.  (4)  All 
merchantable  logs  which  are  as  large  as  6  in.  in  diameter  at  the 
small  end  must  be  utilized.  (5)  No  stumps  shall  be  cut  more 
than  6  in.  higher  than  the  stump  is  wide.  (6)  No  spruce  shall 
be  used  for  bridges,  corduroy,  skids,  slides,  or  for  any  purpose 
except  building  camps,  dams  or  booms,  unless  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  on  account  of  lack  of  other  timber.  (7)  All  merchant- 
able spruce  used  for  skidways  must  be  cut  into  logs  and  hauled 
out.  (8)  Contractors  must  not  do  any  unnecessary  damage 


to  young  growth  in  lumbering;  and  if  any  is  done,  they  must 
discharge  the  men  who  did  it. 

These  two  instances  of  forestry  have  been  most  useful  and 
effective  among  lumbermen  and  other  owners  of  forest  land  in 
the  north-east.  Among  those  which  have  followed  their  example 
are  the  Berlin  Mills  Paper  Company  in  northern  New  Hampshire, 
the  Cleveland  Cliffs  Iron  Company  in  northern  Michigan,  and 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Railroad  Company  in  New  York,  all 
of  which  have  employed  professional  foresters. 

The  most  notable  instance  of  forestry  in  the  south  is  on  the 
estate  of  George  W.  Vanderbilt  at  Biitmore,  N.C.  This  was  the 
first  case  of  systematic  forestry  under  regular  working  plans  in 
the  United  States.  It  was  begun  in  1891  on  about  4000  acres, 
and  has  since  been  extended  until  it  now  covers  about  100,000 
acres.  A  professional  forester  with  a  corps  of  trained  rangers 
under  him  is  in  charge  of  the  work.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
has  recently  employed  a  trained  forester  and  several  assistants 
and  has  undertaken  systematic  forestry  on  a  large  scale. 

The  effect  of  the  work  of  the  forest  service  in  assisting  private 
owners  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  down  to  the  year  1908 
670  wood  lots  and  timber  tracts  had  been  examined  by  agents 
of  the  forest  service,  of  which  250  were  tracts  over  400  acres  in 
extent,  and  planting  plans  had  been  made  for  436  owners 
covering  a  total  area  of  80,000  acres.  Expert  advice  is  also 
given  to  wood  lot  owners  upon  application  by  many  of  the  state 
foresters. 

American  Practice. — The  conditions  under  which  forestry 
is  practised  in  Europe  and  in  America  differ  so  widely  that 
rules  which  are  received  as  axiomatic  in  the  one  must  often 
be  rejected  in  the  other.  Among  these  conditions  in  America 
are  the  highly  developed  and  specialized  methods  and  machinery 
of  lumbering,  the  greater  facilities  for  transportation  and  conse- 
quent greater  mobility  of  the  lumber  trade,  the  vast  number 
of  small  holdings  of  forest  land,  and  the  enormous  supply  of 
low-grade  wood  in  the  timbered  regions.  High  taxes  on  forest 
properties,  cut-over  as  well  as  virgin,  notably  in  the  north-western 
pineries,  and  the  firmly  established  habits  of  lumbermen,  are 
factors  of  great  importance.  From  these  and  other  considera- 
tions it  follows  that  such  generally  accepted  essentials  of  European 
methods  of  forestry  as  a  sustained  annual  yield,  a  permanent 
force  of  forest  labourers,  a  permanent  road  system  and  the  like, 
are  in  most  cases  utterly  inapplicable  in  the  United  States  at 
the  present  day  in  private  forestry.  Methods  of  forest  manage- 
ment, to  find  acceptance,  must  there  conform  as  closely  as  possible 
to  existing  methods  of  lumbering.  Rules  of  marked  simplicity, 
the  observance  of  which  will  yet  secure  the  safety  of  the  forest, 
must  open  the  way  for  more  refined  methods  in  the  future.  For 
the  present  a  periodic  or  irregular  yield,  temporary  means  of 
transport,  constantly  changing  crews,  and  an  almost  total 
ignorance  of  the  silvics  of  all  but  a  few  of  the  most  important 
trees — all  combine  to  enforce  the  simplest  silvicultural  treatment 
and  the  utmost  concentration  of  purpose  on  the  two  main  objects 
of  forestry,  which  are  the  production  of  a  net  revenue  and  the 
perpetuation  of  the  forest .  Such  concentration  has  been  followed 
in  practice  by  complete  success. 

The  forests  with  which  the  American  forester  deals  are  rich 
in  species,usually  endowed  with  abundant  powers  of  reproduction, 
and,  over  a  large  part  of  their  range,  greatly  dependent  for  their 
composition  and  general  character  upon  the  action  of  forest 
fires.  Of  the  commercially  valuable  trees  there  may  be  said  to  be, 
in  round  numbers,  a  hundred  out  of  a  total  forest  flora  of  about 
500  species,  but  many  trees  not  yet  of  importance  in  the  lumber 
trade  will  become  so  hereafter,  as  has  already  happened  in  many 
cases.  The  attention  of  the  forester  must  usually  be  concen- 
trated upon  the  growth  and  reproduction  of  a  single  species,  and 
never  of  more  than  a  very  few.  Thus  the  silvicultural  problems 
which  must  be  solved  in  the  practice  of  forestry  in  America  are 
fortunately  less  complicated  than  the  presence  of  so  many  kinds 
of  trees  in  forests  of  such  diverse  types  would  naturally  seem 
to  indicate. 

The  forest  fire  problem  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  with  which 
the  American  forester  has  to  deal.  It  is  probable  that  forest 


658 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


fires  have  had  more  to  do  with  the  character  and  distribution  of 
forests  in  America  than  any  other  factor  except  rainfall.  With 
an  annual  range  over  thousands  of  square  miles,  in  many  portions 
of  the  United  States  they  occur  regularly  year  after  year  on  the 
same  ground.  Trees  whose  thick  bark  or  abundant  seeding 
gives  them  peculiar  powers  of  resistance,  frequently  owe  their 
exclusive  possessions  of  vast  areas  purely  to  the  action  of  fire. 
On  the  economic  side  fire  is  equally  influential.  The  probability, 
or  often  the  practical  certainty,  of  fire  after  the  first  cut,  commonly 
determines  lumbermen  to  leave  no  merchantable  tree  standing. 
Forest  fires  are  thus  the  most  effective  barriers  to  the  intro- 
duction of  forestry.  Excessive  taxation  of  timber  land  is  another 
of  almost  equal  effect.  Because  of  it  lumbermen  hasten  to  cut, 
and  afterwards  often  to  abandon,  lands  which  they  cannot 
afford  to  hold.  This  evil,  which  only  the  progress  of  public 
sentiment  can  control,  is  especially  prevalent  in  certain  portions 
of  the  white  pine  belt. 

Forest  Associations. — Public  sentiment  in  favour  of  the  pro- 
tection of  forests  is  now  widespread  and  increasingly  effective 
throughout  the  United  States.  As  the  general  understanding 
of  the  objects  and  methods  of  forestry  becomes  clearer,  the 
tendency,  formerly  very  marked,  to  confound  ornamental  tree 
planting  and  botanical  matters  with  forestry  proper  is  rapidly 
growing  less.  At  the  same  time,  the  number  and  activity  of 
associations  dealing  with  forest  matters  is  increasing  with  notable 
rapidity.  There  are  now  about  thirty  such  associations  in  the 
United  States.  One  of  these,  the  Society  of  American  Foresters, 
is  composed  exclusively  of  professional  foresters.  The  American 
Forestry  Association  is  the  oldest  and  largest.  It  has  been 
influential  in  preparing  the  ground  work  of  popular  interest  in 
forestry,  and  especially  in  advocating  and  securing  the  adoption 
of  the  federal  forest  reservation  policy,  the  most  important  step 
yet  taken  by  the  national  government.  It  publishes  as  its 
organ  a  monthly  magazine  called  Forestry  and  Irrigation.  The 
Pennsylvania  Forestry  Association  has  been  instrumental  in 
placing  that  state  in  the  forefront  of  forest  progress.  Its  organ 
is  a  bi-monthly  publication  called  Forest  Leaves.  Other  states 
which  have  associations  or  societies  of  special  influence  in  forest 
matters  are  California,  Massachusetts,  Minnesota,  Colorado, 
New  Hampshire,  Georgia  and  Oregon.  Arbor  Day,  instituted 
in  Nebraska  in  1872  as  a  day  for  shade-tree  planting  by  farmers 
who  had  settled  on  the  treeless  prairies,  has  been  taken  up  as  a 
means  of  interesting  school  children  in  the  planting  of  trees, 
and  has  spread  until  it  is  now  observed  in  every  state  and 
territory.  It  continues  to  serve  an  admirable  purpose. 

Lumbering. — According  to  the  census  report  for  1905  the 
capital  invested  in  logging  operations  in  the  United  States  was 
$90,454,596,  the  number  of  employes  engaged  146,596,  and 
their  wages  $66,990,000;  sawmills  represented  an  invested 
capital  of  $381,621,000,  and  employed  223,674  persons,  whose 
wages  were  $100,311,000,  while  planing  mills  represented  a 


capital  of  $222,294,000  and  employed  132,030  persons  whose 
wages  were  $66,434,000. 

All  the  operations  of  the  lumber  trade  in  the  United  States  are 
controlled,  and  to  no  small  degree  determined,  by  the  peculiar 
unit  of  measure  which  has  been  adopted.  This  unit,  the  board- 
foot,  is  generally  Hefined  as  a  board  one  foot  long,  one  foot  wide 
and  one  inch  thick,  but  in  reality  it  is  equivalent  to  144  cub.  in. 
of  manufactured  lumber  in  any  form'.  To  purchase  logs  by  this 
measure  one  must  first  know  about  what  each  log  will  yield 
in  one-inch  boards.  For  this  purpose  a  scale  or  table  is  used, 
which  gives  the  contents  of  logs  of  various  diameters  and  lengths 
in  board  feet.  Under  such  a  standard  the  purchaser  pays  for 
nothing  but  the  saleable  lumber  in  each  log,  the  inevitable 
waste  in  slabs  and  sawdust  costing  him  nothing. 

The  table  at  foot  gives  the  estimated  consumption  of  wood  for 
certain  purposes  in  the  United  States  in  1906. 

In  addition  to  this  amount,  an  immense  quantity  of  wood  is 
used  each  year  for  fuel,  posts  and  other  domestic  purposes,  and 
the  total  annual  consumption  is  not  less  than  20  billion  cub.  ft. 

The  years  1890  to  1906  were  marked  by  rapid  changes  in  the 
rank  of  the  important  timber  trees  with  reference  to  the  amount 
of  timber  cut,  and  a  shifting  of  the  important  centres  of  produc- 
tion. Among  coniferous  trees,  white  pine  has  yielded  suc- 
cessively to  yellow  pine  and  Douglas  fir,  while  the  scene  of  greatest 
activity  has  shifted  from  the  Northern  forest  to  the  Southern, 
and  from  there  is  rapidly  shifting  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  total 
cut  of  coniferous  lumber  has  increased  steadily,  but  that  of  the 
hardwoods  is  falling  off,  and  in  1906  it  was  15%  less  than  in 
1899,  while  inferior  hardwoods  are  gradually  assuming  more 
and  more  importance,  and  the  scene  of  greatest  activity  has  passed 
from  the  middle  west  to  the  south  and  the  Appalachian  region. 

Conifers. — The  coniferous  supply  of  the  country  is  derived 
from  four  forest  regions:  (i)  The  Northern  forest ;  (2)  the 
Southern  forest;  (3)  the  Pacific  Coast  forest;  and  (4)  the  Rocky 
Mountain  forest. 

i.  The  Northern  forest  was  long  the  chief  source  of  the  coni- 
ferous lumber  production  in  the  United  States.  The  principal 
timber  tree  of  this  region  is  the  white  pine,  usually  known  in 
Europe  as  the  Weymouth  pine.  It  has  an  average  height  when 
mature  of  no  ft.,  with  a  diameter  a  little  less  than  3  ft.,  but  the 
virgin  timber  is  approaching  exhaustion.  White  pine  was  one 
of  the  first  trees  to  be  cut  extensively  in  the  United  States,  and 
Maine,  the  pine  tree  state,  was  at  first  the  centre  of  production. 
In  1851  the  cut  of  white  pine  on  the  Penobscot  river  was  144 
million  ft.,  that  of  spruce  14  million  and  of  hemlock  n  million. 
Thirty  years  later  the  pine  cut  had  sunk  to  23  million,  spruce 
had  risen  to  118  million,  and  hemlock  had  passed  pine  by  a 
million  feet.  Meanwhile,  the  centre  of  production  had  passed 
from  the  north  woods  to  the  Lake  States,  and  for  many  years 
this  region  was  the  scene  of  the  most  vigorous  lumbering  activity 
in  the  world.  The  following  figures  show  the  cut  for  the  Lake 


Product. 

Output  1906. 

Equivalent 
Wood  Volume. 

Estimated 
Woods  Waste.  l 

Estimated 
Mill  Waste.2 

Total  Wood 
Volume  Consumed. 

Million 

Million 

Million 

Million 

cub.  ft. 

cub.  ft. 

cub.  ft. 

cub.  ft. 

Lumber  — 

Conifers 

30,200,000  thousand  bd.  ft. 

2517 

H73 

2170 

5860 

Hardwoods 

7,300,000            ,,           ,, 

612 

577       • 

461 

1650 

Shingles    . 

11,900,000  •         ,,          ,, 

107 

54 

109 

270 

Pulpwood 

2,900,000  cords 

261 

79 

34° 

Wood  distillation 

1,200,000      „ 

1  08 

12 

1  20 

Heading   . 

146,000,000  sets 

32 

33 

45 

no 

Staves  —  • 

Tight  cooperage 

267,000,000 

22 

36 

32 

90 

Slack  cooperage 

1,097,000,000 

27 

22 

21 

70 

Poles 

3,500,000 

35 

15 

50 

Veneer 

300,000  thousand  bd.  ft. 

50 

3° 

80 

Round  mine  timbers 

165,000,000  cub.  ft.    ' 

165 

35 

200 

Hewn  cross  ties 

77,500,000 

207 

503 

710 

4H3 

2569 

2838 

955° 

1  Woods  waste  includes  tops,  stumps,  cull  logs  and  butts,  but  does  not  include  defective  trees  left  or  trees  used  for  road  purposes. 

2  Mill  waste  includes  bark,  kerf,  slabs  and  edgings. 


FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


659 


1873  .  . 

•  3,993,780,000 

1890  . 

1874  .  . 

•  3,75i,3o6,ooo 

1891  . 

1875  .  . 

.  3,968,553,000 

1892  . 

1876  .  . 

•  3,879,046,000 

1893  - 

1877  .  . 

•  3,595,333,496 

1894  . 

1878  .  . 

.  3,629,472,759 

1895  • 

1879  .  . 

.  4,806,943,000 

1896  . 

1880  .  . 

.  5,651,295,000 

1897  . 

1881  .   . 

.  6,768,856,749 

1898  . 

1882  .   . 

•  7,552,150,744 

1899  . 

1883  .   . 

.  7,624,789,786 

1900  . 

1884  .   . 

-  7-935,033,054 

1901  . 

1885  .   . 

.  7,053,094,555 

1902  . 

1886  .   . 

.  7,425,368,443 

1903  - 

1887  .   . 

•  7,757,916,784 

1904  . 

1888  .   . 

.  8,388,716,460 

1905  • 

1889  .   . 

.  8,183,050,755 

1906  . 

States  from  1873  to  1006.  It  is  certain  that  the  remarkable 
decline  in  the  cut  of  white  pine  which  these  figures  show  will 
continue  still  farther. 

•  8,597,659,352 

•  7,879,948,349 
.  8,594,222,802 
.  7,326,263,782 
.  6,821,516,412 
.  7,050,669,235 

•  5,725,763-035 

•  6,233,454,000 

•  6,155,300,000 
.  6,056,508,000 
.  5,485,261,000 
.  5,336,000,000 
.  5,294,000,000 
.  4,792,000,000 
.  4,220,000,000 

•  3,777,ooo,ooo 
.  3,032,000,000 

Second  to  the  white  pine  among  the  coniferous  lumber  trees 
of  the  Northern  forest  is  the  hemlock  (Tsuga  canadensis).  It  is 
used  chiefly  for  construction  purposes  and  furnishes  a  com- 
paratively low  grade  of  lumber. 

The  spruce  (Picea  rubens)  is  used  chiefly  for  lumber,  but  it 
is  in  large  and  increasing  demand  in  the  manufacture  of  paper 
pulp.  For  the  latter  purpose  hemlock,  poplar  (Populus  tremu- 
loides  and  P.  grandidentata)  and  several  other  woods  are  also 
employed,  but  on  a  smaller  scale.  The  total  consumption  of 
wood  for  paper  in  the  United  States  for  1906  was  3,660,000 
cords,  of  which  2,500,000  was  spruce.  Of  this,  however,  720,000 
cords  were  imported  from  Canada. 

2.  The  chief  product  of  the  Southern  forest  is  the  yellow 
pine.     This  is  the  collective  term  for  the  longleaf,  shortleaf, 
loblolly  and  Cuban  pines.     Of  these  the  longleaf  pine  (Pinus 
palustris  Mill.) ,  called  pitch-pine  in  Europe,  is  the  most  important. 
Its  timber  is  probably  superior  in  strength  and  durability  to 
that  of  any  other  member  of  the  genus  Pinus,  and  in  addition 
to  its  value  as  a  timber  tree  it  is  the  source  of  naval  stores  in  the 
United  States.     The  average  size  of  the  mature  longleaf  pine  is 
90  ft.  in  height  and  20  in.  in  diameter.     Shortleaf  (Pinus  echinata) 
and  loblolly  (P.  taeda)  are  other  important  members  of  this 
group.     Their  wood  very  closely  resembles  that  of  the  longleaf 
pine  and  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  from  it.     The  trees  are 
also  of  about  the  same  size  and  height.     Loblolly  is,  however, 
of  more  rapid  growth.     The  total  cut  of  yellow  pine  in  1906  was 
11,661,000,000  board  ft.;  it  has  perhaps  not  yet  reached  its 
maximum,  but  is  certainly  near  it. 

Another  important  coniferous  tree  of  the  Southern  forest 
is  the  bald  cypress  (Taxodium  distichum),  which  grows  in  the 
swamps.  The  cut  in  1906  was  839,000,000  board  ft.,  a  gain  of 
69%  over  1899. 

3.  But  the  great  supply  of  coniferous  timber  is  now  on  the 
Pacific  Coast.     The  Douglas  fir  (Pseudotsuga  taxi/alia),  also 
known  as  Douglas  spruce,  red  fir  and  Oregon  pine,  is  the  foremost 
tree  in  Oregon  and  Washington,  and  the  redwood  in  California. 
When  mature  the  Douglas  fir  averages  200  ft.  in  height  and  4  ft. 
in  diameter,  and  the  redwood  225  ft.  in  height  and  8  ft.  in 
diameter.     Other  important  trees  of  the  Pacific  Coast  are  sugar 
pine  (Pinus  lambertiana) ,  western  red  cedar  (Thuja  plicata), 
western  larch  (Larix  occidentalis) ,  Sitka  spruce  (Picea  sitchensis), 
western    hemlock    (Tsuga    heterophylla)    and    western    yellow 
pine  (Pinus  ponderosa).     These  trees  wil    all  be  of  increasing 
importance. 

Logging  on  the  Pacific  Coast  is  characterized  by  the  use  of 
powerful  machinery  and  by  extreme  skill  in  handling  enormous 
weights.  This  is  especially  true  in  California,  where  the  logs 
of  redwood  and  of  the  big  tree  (Sequoia  W ashingtoniana)  are 
often  more  than  10  ft.  in  diameter.  Logging  is  usually  done  by 
wire  cables  operated  by  donkey-engines.  The  journey  to  the 
mill  is  usually  by  rail.  The  mills  are  often  of  great  size,  built  on 
piles  over  tide  water  and  so  arranged  that  their  product  is 
delivered  directly  from  the  saws  and  dry  kilns  to  vessels  moored 
alongside.  The  products  of  the  Pacific  Coast  forest  make  their 
way  over  land  to  the  markets  of  the  central  and  eastern  states 


and  into  foreign  markets.  Among  the  lumber-producing  states, 
Washington  has  in  seven  years  jumped  from  fifth  place  to  first, 
and  its  output  has  increased  from  1,428,000,000  board  ft.  in 
1899  to  4,305,000,000  ft.  in  1906.  Oregon  and  California  have 
increased  their  output  from  734,000,000  each  in  1899  to 
1,605,000,000  and  1,349,000,000  ft.  respectively  in  1906.  Of 
the  total  output  of  these  three  states  '(7,259,000,000  ft.) 
4,880,000,000  ft.  is  Douglas  fir  and  660,000,000  redwood. 

4.  The  important  lumber  trees  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  forest 
are  the  western  yellow  pine,  the  lodgepole  pine,  the  Douglas 
fir  and  the  Engelmann  spruce.  The  Douglas  fir,  here  extremely 
variable  in  size  and  value,  reaches  in  this  region  average  dimen- 
sions of  perhaps  80  ft.  in  height  by  2  ft.  in  diameter,  the  western 
yellow  pine  90  ft.  by  3  ft.  and  the  Engelmann  spruce  60  ft.  by 
2  ft.  Mining,  railroad  and  domestic  uses  chiefly  absorb  the 
annual  timber  product,  which  is  considerable  in  quantity,  and 
of  vast  importance  to  the  local  population.  The  lumber  output 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  is,  however,  increasing  very 
rapidly  both  in  the  north  and  in  the  south-west.  One  of  the 
largest  mills  in  the  United  States  is  in  Idaho. 

The  following  table  summarizes  the  cut  of  the  important  coniferous 
species  during  the  years  1899-1906: 


Per  Cent  Increase 

Kind. 

1899. 

1904. 

1906. 

(+)  or  Decrease 

(  —  )  since  1899. 

Million 

Million 

Million 

ft. 

ft. 

ft. 

Yellow  Pine    . 

9,659 

H-533 

11,661 

+    20-7 

Douglas  Fir 

1,737 

2,928 

4,970 

+  186-2 

White  Pine 

7,742 

5,333 

4,584 

-    40-8 

Hemlock    . 

3,421 

3,269 

3,537 

+      3-4 

Spruce  . 

1,448 

1,304 

1,645 

+     13-6 

Western  Pine 

944 

1,279 

1-387 

+    46-9 

Cypress 

496 

750 

839 

+    69-3 

Redwood    . 

360 

519 

683 

+    83-2 

Cedar   . 

233 

223 

358 

+    53-7 

26,040 

27,138 

29,664 

+     H 

Hardwoods. — The  hardwood  supply  of  the  country  is  derived 
almost  entirely  from  the  eastern  half  of  the  continent,  and 
comes  from  each  of  the  three  great  Eastern  forest  regions. 

The  following  table  shows  the  cut  of  the  important  species  of 
hardwoods  for  1899  and  1906: 


Per  Cent 

Kind. 

1899. 

1906. 

Increase  (+) 

or  Decrease  (  —  ). 

Thousand 

Thousand 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Oak.      .... 

4-438,027 

2,820,393 

-    36-5 

Maple   .... 

633,466 

882,878 

+    39-4 

Poplar  .... 

1,115,242 

693,076 

-    37-9 

Red  gum    . 

285,417 

453,678 

+    59-o 

Chestnut    . 

206,688 

407,379 

+    97-1 

Basswood    . 

308,069 

376,838 

+    22-3 

Birch     .... 

132,601 

370,432 

+  179-4 

Cottonwood     . 

415,124 

263,996 

-    36-4 

Beech    .... 

(a) 

275,661 

Elm       .... 

456,731 

224,795 

-    50-8 

Ash       .... 

269,120 

214,460 

-      20-8 

Hickory 

96,636 

148,212 

+    53-4 

Tupelo. 

(a) 

47,882 

Walnut.      . 

38,681 

48,174 

+    24-5 

Sycamore   . 

29,715 

(a) 

All  other     . 

208,504 

87,637 

-  '58-0 

Total     .      . 

8,634,021 

7,315,491 

-    iS-3 

a  Not  separately  reported. 

Oak,  which  in  1899  furnished  over  half  the  entire  output, 
has  fallen  off  36-5  %.  Yellow  poplar,  which  in  1899  was  second 
among  the  hardwoods,  has  fallen  off  38  %  and  now  occupies 
third  place;  and  elm,  the  great  stand-by  in  slack  cooperage, 
has  fallen  50-8  %.  On  the  other  hand  less  valuable  species 
like  maple  and  red  gum  have  advanced  39  and  59  %  respectively. 

The  decrease  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  hardwoods 
grow  naturally  on  the  better  classes  of  soil,  and  in  the  eastern 


66o 


FOREY— FORFARSHIRE 


United  States  where  the  population  has  always  been  the  densest, 
and  as  a  consequence  of  this,  a  large  proportion  of  the  original 
hardwood  land  has  been  cleared  up  and  put  under  cultivation. 
The  hardwood  supply  of  the  future  must  be  obtained  chiefly 
from  the  Appalachian  region,  where  the  conditions  are  less 
favourable  to  agriculture. 

In  addition  to  the  lumber  cut,  enormous  quantities  of  hard- 
woods are  used  each  year  for  railroad  ties,  telephone  and  other 
poles,  piles,  fence  posts  and  fuel,  and  there  is  a  great  amount 
of  waste  in  the  course  of  lumbering  and  manufacture. 

AUTHORITIES. — Sargent,  Silva  of  North  America  (Boston,  1891- 
1897),  Manual  of  Trees  of  North  America  (Boston,  1903);  Lemmon, 
Handbook  of  West  American  Cone-Bearers  (San  Francisco,  1895); 
Bruncken,  North  American  Forests  and  Forestry  (New  York,  1900); 
Fernow,  Economics  of  Forestry  (New  York,  1902);  Pinchot,  The 
Adirondack  Spruce  (New  York,  1898);  Pinchot  and  Graves,  The 
White  Pine  (New  York,  1896).  See  also  the  various  publications 
of  the  U.S.  forest  service,  including  especially  the  following  general 
works :  Forest  Influences ;  Primer  of  Forestry ;  the  Timber  Supply 
of  the  United  States;  the  Waning  Hardwood  Supply;  Forest  Products 
of  the  United  States  in  1906;  Exports  and  Imports  of  Forest  Products 
in  1906 ;  Federal  and  Stale  Forest  Laws  \  Regulations  and  Instructions 
for  the  Use  of  the  National  Forests;  The  Use  of  the  National  Forests; 
also  part  v.  of  the  Nineteenth  and  of  the  Twenty-first  Annual  Reports 
of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  and  vol.  ix.  of  the  loth  Census 
Report  on  the  Forests  of  North  America;  and  Reports  of  the  State 
Forestry  Commissions  of  New  York,  New  Hampshire,  Maine, 
Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  Ohio,  &c.,  and  of  the  State  Geological 
Surveys  of  New  Jersey,  Maryland  and  North  Carolina.  (G.  P.) 

FOREY,  tLIE  FREDERIC  (1804-1872),  tnarshal  of  France, 
was  born  at  Paris  on  the  sth  of  January  1804,  and  entered  the 
army  from  St  Cyr  in  1824.  He  took  part  in  the  earlier  Algerian 
campaigns,  and  became  captain  in  1835.  Four  years  later  he 
was  given  command  of  a  battalion  of  chasseurs  a  pied  and  in 
1844  he  became  colonel.  At  the  Revolution  of  1848  Cavaignac 
made  him  a  general  of  brigade.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
coup  d'etat  of  the  2nd  of  December  1851,  and  Napoleon  III. 
made  him  a  general  of  division  shortly  afterwards.  He  held  a 
superior  command  in  the  Crimean  War,  and  in  the  Italian 
campaign  of  1859  distinguished  himself  very  greatly  in  the  action 
of  Montebello  (aoth  May).  In  1862  Forey  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  French  expeditionary  corps  in  Mexico,  with  the  fullest 
civil  and  military  powers,  and  he  crowned  a  successful  campaign 
by  the  capture  of  Mexico  city  in  May  1863,  receiving  as  his 
reward  the  marshal's  baton.  From  December  1863  to  1867  he 
held  high  commands  in  France,  but  in  the  latter  year  he  was 
struck  with  paralysis  and  had  to  retire.  Marshal  Forey  died 
at  Paris  on  the  2oth  of  June  1872. 

FORFAR,  a  royal,  municipal  and  police  burgh,  and  capital 
of  the  county  of  Forfarshire,  Scotland.  Pop.  (1901)  12,117. 
It  lies  at  the  east  end  of  the  Loch  of  Forfar  in  the  valley  of 
Strathmore,  and  is  13  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Dundee  by  road  and  2ij  m. 
by  the  Caledonian  railway.  It  is  also  situated  on  the  same 
company's  main  line  to  Aberdeen  and  sends  off  a  branch  to 
Brechin.  The  principal  buildings  comprise  the  court  house, 
the  county  hall  (with  portraits  by  Raeburn,  Romney,  Opie  and 
others),  the  town  hall,  the  Meffan  Institute  (including  the  free 
library),  the  infirmary,  poorhouse  and  the  Reid  hall,  founded 
by  Peter  Reid,  a  merchant  in  the  burgh  who  also  gave  the  public 
park.  The  burgh  unites  with  Montrose,  Arbroath,  Brechin  and 
Inverbervie  (the  Montrose  group  of  burghs)  in  returning  one 
member  to  parliament.  The  Loch  of  Forfar,  1 1  m.  long  by  j  m. 
wide,  is  drained  by  Dean  Burn,  and  contains  pike  and  perch. 
On  a  gravel  bank  or  spit  in  the  north-west  of  the  lake  stood 
a  castle  which  was  sometimes  used  as  a  residence  by  Margaret, 
queen  of  Malcolm  Canmore.  The  staple  industries  are  linen 
and  jute  manufactures,  but  brewing,  tanning,  bleaching,  rope- 
making  and  iron-founding  are  also  carried  on. 

Forfar  is  at  least  as  old  as  the  time  of  Malcolm  Canmore,  for 
the  first  parliament  after  the  defeat  of  Macbeth  met  in  the  old 
.  castle,  which  stood  on  a  mound  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
town.  The  parliaments  of  William  the  Lion,  Alexander  II. 
and  Robert  II.  also  assembled  within  its  walls.  The  town, 
which  was  created  a  royal  burgh  by  David  I.,  was  burnt  down 
about  the  middle  of  the  i3th  century.  Edward  I.  captured  the 


castle  on  one  of  his  incursions,  but  in  1307  Robert  Bruce  seized 
it,  put  its  defenders  to  the  sword  and  then  destroyed  it,  its  site 
being  now  marked  by  the  town  cross.  Previous  to  the  reign  of 
James  VI.  the  weekly  market  was  held  on  Sunday,  but  after 
the  union  of  the  crowns  parliament  enacted  that  it  should  be 
held  on  Friday.  The  town  sided  with  Charles  I.  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  Charles  II.  presented  the  Cross  to  it  out  of  regard 
for  the  loyalty  shown  to  his  father.  Forfar  seems  to  have  played 
a  less  reputable  part  in  the  persecution  of  witches.  In  1661  a 
crown  commission  was  issued  for  the  trial  of  certain  miserable 
creatures,  some  of  whom  were  condemned  to  be  burnt.  In  the 
same  year  one  John  Ford  for  his  services  as  a  witch-finder  was 
admitted  a  burgess  along  with  Lord  Kinghorne.  The  witches' 
bridle,  a  gag  to  prevent  them  from  speaking  whilst  being  led  to 
execution,  is  still  preserved  in  the  county  hall.  One  mile  to  the 
E.  lie  the  ruins  of  Restennet  Priory,  where  a  son  of  Robert 
Bruce  was  buried.  For  twenty  five  years  after  the  Reformation 
it  was  used  as  the  parish  church  and  afterwards  by  the  Episco- 
palians, until  they  obtained  a  chapel  of  their  own  in  1822. 

FORFARSHIRE,  or  ANGUS,  an  eastern  county  of  Scotland, 
bounded  N.  by  the  shires  of  Kincardine  and  Aberdeen,  W.  by 
Perthshire,  S.  by  the  Firth  of  Tay  and  E.  by  the  North  Sea. 
It  has  an  area  of  559,171  acres,  or  873-7  sq.  m.  The  island  of 
Rossie  and  the  Bell  Rock  belong  to  the  shire. 

Forfarshire  is  characterized  by  great  variety  of  surface  and 
may  be  divided  physically  into  four  well-marked  sections.  In 
the  most  northerly  of  these  many  of  the  rugged  masses  of  the 
Grampians  are  found;  this  belt  is  succeeded  by  Strathmore, 
or  the  Howe  of  Angus,  a  fertile  valley,  from  6  to  8  m.  broad, 
which  is  a  continuation  of  the  Howe  of  the  Mearns,  and  runs 
south-westwards  till  it  enters  Strathtarn,  to  the  south-west  of 
Perth;  then  come  the  Sidlaw  Hills  and  a  number  of  isolated 
heights,  which  in  turn  give  way  to  the  plain  of  the  coast  and  the 
Firth.  The  mountains  are  all  in  the  northern  division  and  belong 
to  the  Binchinnin  group  (sometimes  rather  inexactly  called  the 
Braes  of  Angus)  of  the  Grampian  ranges.  Among  the  highest 
masses,  most  of  which  lie  on  or  near  the  confines  of  the  bordering 
counties,  are  Glas  Maol  (3502  ft.)  on  the  summit  of  which  the 
shires  of  Aberdeen,  Forfar  and  Perth  meet,  Cairn-na-Glasha 
(3484),  Fafernie  (3274),  Broad  Cairn  (3268),  Creag  Leacach 
(3238),  Tolmount  (3143),  Tom  Buidhe  (314°),  Driesh  (3105), 
Mount  Keen  (3077)  and  Mayar  (3043),  while  peaks  of  upwards  of 
2000  ft.  are  numerous.  The  Sidlaw  Hills — the  greater  part  of 
which,  however,  belongs  to  Perthshire — are  much  less  lofty 
and  of  less  striking  appearance.  They  have  a  breadth  of  from 
3  to  6  m.,  the  highest  points  within  the  county  being  Craigowl 
Hill  (1493  ft.),  Auchterhouse  Hill  (1399)  and  Gallow  Hill  (1242). 
None  of  the  rivers  is  navigable,  and  only  three  are  of  any  im- 
portance. The  Isla,  rising  in  Cairn-na-Glasha,  flows  southwards, 
then  turns  S.E.  and  finally  S.W.  till  it  enters  the  Tay  after  a 
course  of  45  m.  Its  chief  tributaries  on  the  right  are  the  Alyth, 
Ericht  and  Lunan,  and  on  the  left  the  Newton,  Melgam  and 
Dean.  Near  Bridge  of  Craig  is  the  fall  of  Reekie  Linn  (70  ft.), 
so  named  from  the  fact  that  when  the  stream  is  in  flood  the  spray 
rises  in  a  dense  cloud  like  smoke  (reek).  Near  old  Airlie  Castle 
are  the  cascades  called  the  Slugs  of  Auchrannie.  The  North  Esk, 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Lee  and  Mark  at  Invermark, 
after  a  south-easterly  course  of  28  m.  enters  the  North  Sea 
3  m.  N.  of  Montrose.  On  the  right  bank  it  receives  the  West 
Water  and  Cruick  and  on  the  left  the  Tarf  and  Luther.  It  gives 
the  title  of  earl  of  Northesk  to  a  branch  of  the  Carnegie  family. 
The  South  Esk  rises  in  the  Grampians  near  Mount  Fafernie  and 
not  far  from  its  source  forms  the  Falls  of  Bachnagairn;  after 
flowing  towards  the  south-east,  it  bends  eastwards  near  Tannadice 
and  reaches  the  North  Sea  at  Montrose,  the  length  of  its  course 
being  48  m.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the  Prosen  on  the  right 
and  the  Noran  on  the  left.  It  supplies  the  title  of  earl  of  Southesk 
to  another  branch  of  the  Carnegies.  The  lakes  are  small,  the 
two  largest  being  the  Loch  of  Forfar  and  the  mountain-girt 
Loch  Lee  (i  m.  long  by  j  m.  wide).  Lintrathen  (circular  in  shape 
and  about  f  m.  across),  to  the  north  of  Airlie  Castle,  supplies 
Dundee  with  drinking  water.  The  glens  of  the  Forfarshire 


FORFARSHIRE 


661 


Grampians  are  remarkable  for  their  beauty,  and  several  of  them 
for  the  wealth  of  their  botanical  specimens.  The  largest  and 
finest  of  them  are  Glen  Isla,  in  which  are  the  ruins  of  Forter 
Castle,  destroyed  by  Argyll  in  1640,  and  the  earl  of  Airlie's 
shooting-lodge  of  the  Tulchan;  Glen  Clova,  near  the  entrance 
to  which  stands  Cortachy  Castle,  the  seat  of  the  earl  of  Airlie; 
Glen  Esk  and  Glen  Prosen. 

Geology. — A  great  earth  fracture  traverses  this  county  from  near 
Edzell  on  the  N.E.  to  Lintrathen  Loch  on  the  S.W.  Between 
Cortachy  and  the  south-western  boundary  this  fault  runs  in  Old 
Red  Sandstone,  but  north-east  of  that  place  it  forms  the  junction 
line  of  Silurian  and  Old  Red ;  and  in  a  general  way  we  may  say 
that  on  the  N.W.  side  of  the  fault  the  metamorphosed  Silurian  rocks 
are  found,  while  the  remainder  of  the  county  is  occupied  by  the  Old 
Red  Sandstone.  On  the  margin  of  the  disturbance  the  Silurian 
rocks  are  little-altered  grey  and  green  clay  slates  with  bands  of 
pebbly  grit;  farther  towards  the  N.W.  we  find  the  same  rocks 
metamorphosed  into  mica  schists  and  gneisses  with  pebbly  quartzites. 
Rising  up  through  the  schists  between  Carn  Bannock  and  Mount 
Battock  is  a  great  mass  of  granite.  The  Old  Red  Sandstone  extends 
from  this  county  into  Perthshire  and  Kincardineshire ;  here  some 
20,000  ft.  of  these  deposits  are  seen;  an  important  part  being  formed 
of  volcanic  tuffs  and  lavas  which  are  regularly  interbedded  in  the 
sandstones  and  conglomerates.  North  of  Dundee  some  of  the  lower 
beds  are  traversed  by  intrusive dolerites,  and  Dundee  Law  is  probably 
the  remains  of  an  old  vent  through  which  some  of  the  contempor- 
aneous lavas,  &c.,  were  discharged.  The  Old  Red  Rocks  have  been 
subjected  to  a  good  deal  of  folding,  as  may  be  seen  along  the  coast. 
The  principal  direction  of  strike  is  from  N.E.  to  S.W.  A  synclinal 
fold  occupies  Strathmore,  and  between  Longforgan  and  Montrose 
the  northern  extension  of  the  Sidlaw  Hills  is  an  anticlinal  fold. 
Two  fish-bearing  beds  occur  in  the  county ;  from  the  lower  one  many 
large  Eurypterids  have  been  obtained.  The  well-known  paving 
flags  of  Arbroath  belong  to  the  lower  part  of  the  formation.  The 
Upper  Old  Red  Sandstone  is  found  only  in  one  spot  about  a  mile 
north  of  Arbroath.  During  the  Glacial  period  the  ice  travelled 
south-eastward  across  Strathmore  and  over  the  Sidlaw  Hills; 
abundant  evidence  of  this  transporting  agent  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
form  of  morainic  deposits,  the  most  striking  of  which  is  the  great 
transverse  barrier  of  Glenairn  in  the  valley  of  the  S.  Esk,  half  a  mile 
in  length  and  about  200  ft.  high.  Relics  of  the  same  period  are 
found  round  the  coast  in  the  form  of  raised  beaches  at  100,  50  and 
25  ft.  above  the  present  sea-level. 

Climate  and  Agriculture. — On  the  whole  the  climate  is  healthy 
and  favourable  to  agricultural  pursuits.  The  mean  temperature 
for  the  year  is  47-3°  F.,  for  January  38°  and  for  July  59°.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  is  34  in.,  the  coast  being  considerably 
drier  than  the  uplands.  In  the  low-lying  districts  of  the  south 
the  harvest  is  nearly  as  early  as  it  is  in  the  rest  of  Scotland,  but 
in  the  north  it  is  often  late.  The  principal  wheat  districts  are 
Strathmore  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Dundee  and  Arbroath; 
and  the  yield  is  well  up  to  the  best  Scottish  average.  Barley, 
an  important  crop,  has  increased  steadily.  Oats,  however, 
though  still  the  leading  crop,  have  somewhat  declined.  Potatoes 
are  mostly  grown  near  the  seaboard  in  the  higher  ground;  turnips 
also  are  largely  raised.  The  northern  belt,  where  it  is  not  waste 
land,  has  been  turned  into  sheep  walks  and  deer  forests.  The 
black-faced  sheep  are  the  most  common  in  the  mountainous 
country;  cross-bred  sheep  in  the  lowlands.  Though  it  is  their 
native  county  (where  they  date  from  1808),  polled  Angus 
are  not  reared  so  generally  as  in  the  neighbouring  shire  of 
Aberdeen,  but  shorthorns  are  a  favourite  stock  and  Irish  cattle 
are  imported  for  winter-feeding.  Excepting  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  towns  there  are  no  dairy  farms.  Horses  are  raised  success- 
fully, Clydesdales  being  the  commonest  breed,  but  the  small 
native  garrons  are  now  little  used.  Pigs  also  are  reared.  Save 
perhaps  in  the  case  of  the  crofts,  or  very  small  holdings  of 
less  than  10  acres,  farm  management  is  fully  abreast  of  the 
times. 

Other  Industries. — The  staple  industries  are  the  jute  and 
flax  manufactures.  Their  headquarters  are  in  Dundee,  but 
they  nourish  also  at  other  places.  Shipbuilding  is  carried  on  at 
Dundee,  Arbroath  and  Montrose.  The  manufactures  of  jams, 
confectionery,  leather,  machinery,  soap  and  chemicals,  are  all 
of  great  and  growing  value.  Sandstone  quarries  employ  many 
hands  and  the  deep-sea  fisheries,  of  which  Montrose  is  the  centre, 
are  of  considerable  importance.  The  netting  of  salmon  at  the 
mouth  of  the  North  Esk  is  also  a  profitable  pursuit. 


Two  railway  companies  serve  the  county.  The  North  British, 
entering  from  the  south  by  the  Tay  Bridge,  follows  the  coast 
north-eastwards,  sending  off  at  Montrose  a  branch  to  Bervie. 
The  Caledonian  runs  up  Strathmore  to  Forfar,  whence  it  diverges 
due  east  to  Guthrie,  where  it  again  resumes  its  north-easterly 
course  to  Dubton  and  Marykirk;  it  reaches  Dundee  from  Perth 
by  the  shore  of  the  estuary  of  the  Tay,  and  sends  branches  from 
Dundee  to  Kirriemuir  via  Monikie  and  Forfar  and  to  Alyth 
Junction  via  Newtyle,  while  a  short  line  from  Dubton  gives  it 
touch  with  Montrose. 

Population  and  Government. — The  population  was  277,735  in 
1891,  and  284,083  in  1901,  when  1303  spoke  Gaelic  and  English, 
and  13  Gaelic  only.  The  chief  towns  are  Arbroath  (pop.  in  1901, 
22,398),  Brechin  (8941),  Broughty  Ferry  (10,484),  Carnoustie 
(5204),  Dundee  (161,173),  Forfar  (11,397),  Kirriemuir  (4096), 
Monifieth  (2134)  and  Montrose  (12,427).  Forfarshire  returns 
one  member  to  Parliament.  It  is  a  sheriffdom  and  there  is  a 
resident  sheriff -substitute  at  Dundee  and  another  at  Forfar, 
the  county  town,  and  courts  are  held  also  at  Arbroath.  In 
addition  to  numerous  board  schools  there  are  secondary  schools 
at  Dundee,  Montrose,  Arbroath,  Brechin,  Forfar  and  Kirriemuir, 
and  technical  schools  at  Dundee  and  Arbroath.  Many  of  the 
elementary  schools  earn  grants  for  higher  education.  The  county 
council  and  the  Dundee  and  Arbroath  town  councils  expend  the 
"  residue  "  grant  in  subsidizing  science  and  art  and  technical 
schools  and  classes,  including  University  College,  the  textile 
school,  the  technical  institute,  the  navigation  school,  and  the 
workshop  schools  at  Dundee,  the  technical  school  at  Arbroath, 
besides  cookery,  dairy,  dress-cutting,  laundry,  plumbing  and 
veterinary  science  classes  at  different  places. 

History. — In  the  time  of  the  Romans  the  country  now  known 
as  Forfarshire  was  inhabited  by  Picts,  of  whose  occupation 
there  are  evidences  in  remains  of  weems,  or  underground  houses. 
Traces  of  Roman  camps  and  stone  forts  are  common,  and  there 
are  vitrified  forts  at  Finhaven,  Dumsturdy  Muir,  the  hill  of 
Laws  near  Monifieth  and  at  other  points.  Spearheads,  battle- 
axes,  sepulchral  deposits,  Scandinavian  bronze  pins,  and  other 
antiquarian  relics  testify  to  periods  of  storm  and  stress  before 
the  land  settled  down  into  order,  towards  which  the  Church 
was  a  powerful  contributor.  In  the  earliest  days  strife  was 
frequent.  The  battle  in  which  Agricola  defeated  Galgacus  is 
supposed  to  have  occurred  in  the  Forfarshire  Grampians  (A.D. 
84);  the  Northumbrian  King  Egfrith  and  the  Pictish  king 
Burde  fought  near  Dunnichen  in  685,  the  former  being  slain; 
conflicts  with  the  Danes  took  place  at  Aberlemno  and  other 
spots;  Elpin  king  of  the  Scots  was  defeated  by  Aengus  in  the 
parish  of  Liff  in  730;  at  Restennet,  about  835,  the  Picts  and 
Scots  had  a  bitter  encounter.  In  later  times  the  principal 
historical  events,  whether  of  peace  or  war,  were  more  immediately 
connected  with  burghs  than  with  the  county  as  a  whole.  There 
is  some  doubt  whether  the  county  was  named  Angus,  its  title 
for  several  centuries,  after  a  legendary  Scottish  prince  or  from 
the  hill  of  Angus  to  the  east  of  the  church  of  Aberlemno.  It 
was  early  governed  by  hereditary  earls  and  was  made  a  hereditary 
sheriffdom  by  David  II.  The  first  earl  of  Angus  (by  charter  of 
1389)  was  George  Douglas,  an  illegitimate  son  of  the  ist  earl 
of  Douglas  by  Margaret  Stuart,  who  was  countess  of  Angus  in 
her  own  right.  On  the  death  of  the  ist  and  only  duke  of  Douglas, 
who  was  also  i3th  earl  of  Angus,  in  1761,  the  earldom  merged 
in  the  dukedom  of  Hamilton.  Precisely  when  the  shire  became 
known  by  the  name  of  the  county  town  has  not  been  ascertained, 
but  probably  the  usage  dates  from  the  i6th  century.  Among 
old  castles  are  the  roofless  square  tower  of  Red  Castle  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Lunan;  the  tower  of  the  castle  of  Auchinleck; 
the  stronghold  of  Inverquharity  near  Kirriemuir;  the  castle  of 
Finhaven;  the  two  towers  of  old  Edzell  Castle;  the  ruins  of 
Melgund  Castle,  which  are  fairly  complete;  the  small  castle  of 
Newtyle,  and  the  old  square  tower  and  gateway  of  the  castle 
of  Craig. 

See  A.  Jervise,  Memorials  of  Angus  and  Mearns  (Edinburgh, 
1895);  Land  of  the  Lindsays  (Edinburgh,  1882);  Epitaphs  and 
Inscriptions  (Edinburgh,  1879);  Earl  of  Crawford,  Lives  of  the 


662 


FORFEITURE— FORGERY 


Lindsays  (London,  1835) ;  Sir  W.  Eraser,  History  of  the  Carnegies 
(Edinburgh,  1867);  A.  H.  Millar,  Historical  Castles  and  Mansions 
(Paisley,  1890);  G.  Hay,  History  of  Arbroath  (Arbroath,  1876); 
D.  D.  Black,  History  of  Brechin  (Edinburgh,  1867). 

FORFEITURE  (from  "forfeit,"  originally  an  offence,  and 
hence  a  fine  exacted  as  a  penalty  for  such;  derived  through  the 
O.  Fr.  forfait,  from  the  late  Lat.  joris  faclum,  a  trespass,  that 
which  is  done  foris,  outside),  in  English  law,  the  term  applied 
(i)  to  loss  or  liability  to  the  loss  of  property  in  consequence  of 
an  offence  or  breach  of  contract;  (2)  to  the  property  of  which 
the  party  is  deprived. 

Under  the  common  law,  conviction  and  attainder  on  indict- 
ment for  treason  or  felony  was  followed  not  only  by  forfeiture 
of  the  life  of  the  offender,  but  also  by  forfeiture  of  his  lands  and 
goods.  In  the  case  of  treason  all  the  traitor's  lands  of  whomso- 
ever holden  were  forfeited  to  the  king;  in  the  case  of  felony 
(including  felo-de-se,  or  suicide),  the  felon's  lands  escheated 
(exceciderunt)  to  his  immediate  lord,  subject  to  the  king's  right 
to  waste  them  for  a  year  and  a  day.  This  rule  did  not  apply 
to  lands  held  in  gavelkind  in  the  county  of  Kent.  The  goods 
of  traitors  and  felons  were  forfeited  to  the  king.  The  desire  of 
the  king  and  his  officers  to  realize  the  profits  of  these  forfeitures 
was  one  of  the  chief  motives  for  instituting  the  circuits  of  the 
king's  justices  throughout  England;  and  from  time  to  time 
conflicts  arose  from  attempts  by  these  justices  to  extend  the 
law  of  treason — under  which  the  king  levied  all  the  forfeitures — 
at  the  expense  of  felony,  in  which  the  lord  of  the  felon  benefited 
by  the  escheats.  As  regards  theft,  the  king's  rights  overrode 
those  of  the.  owner  of  the  stolen  property,  until,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,  provision  was  made  for  restitution  of  the  goods 
to  the  owner  if  he  prosecuted  the  thief  to  conviction.  In  Pepys's 
Diary,  2ist  of  January  1667-1668,  will  be  found  an  illustration 
of  the  working  of  the  old  law.  We  find  that  on  the  suicide 
of  his  brother-in-law,  Pepys  at  once  applied  to  the  king  personally 
and  obtained  a  grant  of  the  brother-in-law's  estate  in  favour 
of  his  widow  and  children  should  the  inquest  find  a  verdict  of 
felo-de-se.  It  was  common  practice  for  persons  anticipating 
conviction  for  treason  or  felony  to  assign  all  their  property  to 
others  to  avoid  the  forfeiture;  and  in  some  instances  the  accused 
refused  to  plead  to  the  indictment  and  endured  the  peine  forte 
et  dure,  until  death  supervened,  to  avoid  these  consequences 
of  conviction.  The  royal  rights  to  forfeitures  arising  within 
particular  areas  were  frequently  granted  by  charter  to  corpora- 
tions or  individuals.  In  1897  the  courts  had  to  interpret  such 
charters  granted  to  the  town  of  Nottingham  in  1399  and  1448. 
All  forfeitures  and  escheats  with  respect  to  conviction  and 
attainder  for  treason  and  felony  were  aboh'shed  as  from  the 
4th  of  July  1870,  except  forfeitures  consequent  upon  the  now 
disused  process  of  outlawry,  and  the  forfeitures  included  in  the 
penalties  of  praemunire. 

The  term  "  forfeit  "  is  also  applied  to  penalties  imposed  by 
statute  for  acts  or  omissions  which  are  neither  treasonable  nor 
felonious.  In  such  statutes  the  forfeiture  enures  in  favour  of 
the  crown  unless  the  statute  indicates  another  destination; 
and  unless  a  particular  method  of  enforcing  the  forfeiture  is 
indicated  it  is  enforceable  as  a  debt  to  the  crown  and  has  priority 
as  such.  The  words  "  forfeit  and  pay  "  are  often  used  in  imposing 
a  pecuniary  penalty  for  a  petty  misdemeanour,  and  where  they 
are  used  the  court  dealing  with  the  case  must  not  only  convict 
foe  offender  but  adjudicate  as  to  the  forfeiture. 

Statutory  forfeitures  in  some  cases  extend  to  specific  chattels, 
e.g.  of  a  British  merchant-ship  when  her  character  as  such 
is  fraudulently  dissimulated  (Merch.  Shipp.  Act  1894,  ss.  70,  76), 
or  of  goods  smuggled  in  contravention  of  the  customs  acts  or 
books  introduced  in  violation  of  the  copyright  acts.  Recognis- 
ances are  said  to  be  forfeited  when  the  conditions  are  broken 
and  an  order  of  court  is  made  for  their  enforcement  as  a  crown 
debt  against  the  persons  bound  by  them. 

The  term  "  forfeiture  "  is  now  most  commonly  used  with 
reference  to  real  property,  i.e.  with  reference  to  the  rights  of 
lords  of  the  manor  or  lessors  to  determine  the  estate  or  interest 
of  a  copyholder  or  lessee  for  breach  of  the  customary  or  con- 


tractual terms  of  tenure.  It  is  also  applied  to  express  the 
deprivation  of  a  limited  owner  of  settled  property,  real  or  personal, 
for  breach  of  the  conditions  by  which  his  rights  are  limited; 
e.g.  by  becoming  bankrupt  or  attempting  to  charge  or  alienate 
his  interest.  As  a  general  rule,  the  courts  "  lean  against  for- 
feitures "  of  this  kind;  and  are  astute  to  defeat  the  claim  of  the 
superior  landlord  or  other  person  seeking  to  enforce  them. 
By  legislation  of  1881  and  1892  there  is  jurisdiction  to  grant 
relief  upon  terms  against  the  forfeiture  of  a  lease  for  breach  of 
certain  classes  of  covenant,  e.g.  to  pay  rent  or  to  insure. 

FORGERY  (derived  through  the  French  from  Latin  fabricare, 
to  construct),  in  English  law,  "  the  fraudulent  making  or  altera- 
tion of  a  writing  to  the  prejudice  of  another  man's  right,"  or 
"  the  false  making,  or  making  malo  animo,  of  any  written 
instrument  for  the  purpose  of  fraud  or  deceit."  This  definition, 
it  will  be  seen,  comprehends  all  fraudulent  tampering  with 
documents.  ."Not  only  the  fabrication  and  false  making  of  the 
whole  of  a  written  instrument,  but  a  fraudulent  insertion,  altera- 
tion or  erasure,  even  of  a  letter,  in  any  material  part  of  a  true 
instrument  whereby  a  new  operation  is  given  to  it,  will  amount 
to  forgery, — and  this  though  it  be  afterwards  executed  by 
another  person  ignorant  of  the  deceit  "  (Russell  on  Crimes  and 
Misdemeanours,  vol.  ii.).  Changing  the  word  Dale  into  Sale 
in  a  lease,  so  that  it  appears  to  be  a  lease  of  the  manor  of  Sale 
instead  of  the  manor  of  Dale,  is  a  forgery.  And  when  a  country 
banker's  note  was  made  payable  at  the  house  of  a  banker  in 
London  who  failed,  it  was  held  to  be  forgery  to  alter  the  name 
of  such  London  banker  to  that  of  another  London  banker  with 
whom  the  country  banker  had  subsequently  made  his  notes 
payable.  As  to  the  fraud,  "  an  intent  to  defraud  is  presumed 
to  exist  if  it  appears  that  at  the  time  when  the  false  document 
was  made  there  was  in  existence  a  specific  person,  ascertained 
or  unascertained,  capable  of  being  defrauded  thereby;  and  this 
presumption  is  not  rebutted  by  proof  that  the  offender  took  or 
intended  to  take  measures  to  prevent  such  person  from  being 
defrauded  in  fact,  nor  by  the  fact  that  he  had  or  thought  he  had 
a  right  to  the  thing  to  be  obtained  by  the  false  document" 
(Stephen's  Digest  of  the  Criminal  Law).  Thus  when  a  man 
makes  a  false  acceptance  to  a  bill  of  exchange,  and  circulates  it, 
intending  to  take  it  up  and  actually  taking  it  up  before  it  is 
presented  for  payment,  he  is  guilty  of  forgery.  Even  if  it  be 
proved  as  a  matter  of  fact  that  no  person  could  be  defrauded 
(as  when  A  forges  a  cheque  in  B's  name  on  a  bank  from  which 
B  had  withdrawn  his  account),  the  intent  to  defraud  will  be 
presumed.  But  it  would  appear  that  if  A  knew  that  B  had 
withdrawn  his  account,  the  absence  of  fraudulent  intention 
would  be  inferred.  A  general  intention  to  cheat  the  public  is 
not  the  kind  of  fraud  necessary  to  constitute  forgery.  Thus  if 
a  quack  forges  a  diploma  of  the  college  of  surgeons,  in  order 
to  make  people  believe  that  he  is  a  member  of  that  body,  he  is 
not  guilty  of  forgery. 

The  crime  of  forgery  in  English  law  has  been  from  time  to 
time  dealt  with  in  an  enormous  number  of  statutes.  It  was 
first  made  a  statutory  offence  in  1562,  and  was  punishable  by 
fine,  by  standing  in  the  pillory,  having  both  ears  cut  off,  the 
nostrils  slit  up  and  seared,  the  forfeiture  of  land  and  perpetual 
imprisonment.  It  was  made  capital,  without  benefit  of  clergy 
in  1634.  The  most  notable  cases  of  those  who  have  suffered 
the  extreme  penalty  of  the  law  are  those  of  the  Rev.  Dr  W. 
Dodd  in  1777,  for  forging  Lord  Chesterfield's  name  on  a  bond, 
and  Henry  Fauntleroy,  a  partner  in  the  banking-house  of 
Marsh,  Sibbald  &  Co.,  for  the  appropriation  by  means  of 
forged  instruments  of  money  entrusted  to  the  bank,  in  1824. 
"  Anthony  Hammond,  in  the  title  Forgery  of  his  Criminal  Code, 
has  enumerated  more  than  400  statutes  which  contain  provisions 
against  the  offence  "  (Sir  J.  T.  Coleridge's  notes  to  Blackstone) . 
Blackstone  notices  the  increasing  severity  of  the  legislature 
against  forgery,  and  says  that  "  through  the  number  of  these 
general  and  special  provisions  there  is  now  hardly  a  case  possible 
to  be  conceived  wherein  forgery  that  tends  to  defraud,  whether 
in  the  name  of  a  real  or  fictitious  person,  is  not  made  a  capital 
crime."  These  acts  were  consolidated  in  1830.  The  later 


FORGET-ME-NOT— FORGING 


663 


statutes,  fixing  penalties  from  penal  servitude  for  life  downwards, 
were  consolidated  by  the  Forgery  Act  1861.  It  would  take  too 
much  space  to  enumerate  all  the  varieties  of  the  offence  with 
their  appropriate  punishments.  The  following  condensed 
summary  is  based  upon  chapter  xlv.  of  Sir  J.  Stephen's  Digest 
of  the  Criminal  Law. 

1.  Forgeries  punishable  with  penal  servitude  for  life  as  a  maximum 
are — 

(a)  Forgeries  of  the  great  seal,  privy  seal,  &c. 
(6)  Forgeries  of  transfers  of  stock,  India  bonds,  exchequer  bills, 
bank-notes,  deeds,  wills,  bills  of  exchange,  &c. 

(c)  Obliterations  or  alterations  of  crossing  on  a  cheque. 

(d)  Forgeries  of  registers  of  birth,  &c.,  or  of  copies  thereof  and 
others. 

2.  Forgeries  punishable  with  fourteen  years  penal  servitude  are— 
(a)  Forgeries  of  debentures. 

(6)  Forgeries  of  documents  relating  to  the  registering  of  deeds,  &c. 

(c)  Forgeriesof  instruments  purporting  to  be  made  by  the  account- 
ant general  and  other  officers  of  the  court  of  chancery,  &c. 

(d)  Drawing  bill  of  exchange,  &c.,  on  account  of  another,  per 
procuration  or  otherwise,  without  authority. 

(e)  Obtaining  property  by  means  of  a  forged  instrument,  knowing 
it  to  be  forged,  or  by  probate  obtained  on  a  forged  will,  false  oath,  &c. 

3.  Forgeries   punishable   with   seven   years'    penal   servitude: — 
Forgeries  of  seals  of  courts,  of  the  process  of  courts,  of  certificates, 
and  of  documents  to  be  used  in  evidence,  &c. 

By  the  Merchandise  Marks  Acts  1887  and  1891,  forgery  of 
trade  marks  is  an  offence  punishable  on  conviction  by  indictment 
with  imprisonment  not  exceeding  two  years  or  to  fine,  or  both, 
and  on  conviction  by  summary  proceedings  with  imprisonment 
not  exceeding  four  months  or  with  a  fine. 

The  Forged  Transfers  Act  1891,  made  retrospective  by  the 
Forged  Transfers  Act  1892,  enables  companies  and  local 
authorities  to  make  compensation  by  a  cash  payment  out  of 
their  funds  for  any  loss  arising  from  a  transfer  of  their  stocks, 
shares  or  securities  through  a  forged  transfer. 

United  Stales. — Forgery  is  made  a  crime  by  statute  in  most 
if  not  all  the  states,  in  addition  to  being  a  common  law  cheat. 
These  statutes  have  much  enlarged  the  common  definition  of 
this  crime.  It  is  also  made  a  crime  by  a  Federal  statute  (U.S. 
Rev.  Stat.,  ch.  5),  which  includes  forgery  of  national  banknotes, 
letters  patent,  public  bid,  record,  signature  of  a  judge,  land 
warrants,  powers  of  attorney,  ships'  papers  or  custom-house 
documents,  certificates  of  naturalization,  &c.;  the  punishment 
is  by  fine  or  by  imprisonment  from  one  to  fifteen  years  with  or 
without  hard  labour. 

In  Illinois,  fraudulently  connecting  together  different  parts 
of  several  banknotes  or  other  genuine  instruments  so  as  to  pro- 
duce one  additional  note  or  instrument  with  intent  to  pass  all 
as  genuine,  is  a  forgery  of  each  of  them  (Rev.  Stats.  1901,  ch. 
38,  §  108).  The  alleged  instrument  must  be  apparently  capable 
of  defrauding  (Goodman  v.  People  [1907],  228,  111.  154). 

In  Massachusetts,  forgery  of  any  note,  certificate  or  bill  ol 
credit  issued  by  the  state  treasurer  and  receiver  general,  or  by 
any  other  officer,  for  a  debt  of  that  commonwealth,  or  a  bank 
bill  of  any  bank,  is  punishable  by  imprisonment  for  life  or  any 
term  of  years  (Rev.  Laws  1902,  ch.  209,  §§  4  and  5). 

In  New  York,  forgery  includes  the  false  making,  counterfeiting 
alteration,   erasure   or   obliteration   of   a   genuine   instrument 
(Penal  Code,  §  520).     An  officer  or  agent  of  a  corporation  who 
with  intent  to  defraud  sells,  pledges  or  issues  a  fraudulent  scrip 
share  certificate,  is  guilty  of  forgery  in  third  degree.     Falsely 
making  any  instrument  which  purports  to  be  issued  by  a  corpora- 
tion bearing  a  pretended  signature  of  a  person  falsely  indicatec 
as  an  officer  of  the  company,  is  forgery  just  as  if  such  person 
were  in  truth  such  officer  (id.  §  519).     Counterfeiting  railroac 
tickets  is  forgery  in  the  third  degree.     Falsely  certifying  tha 
the  execution  of  a  deed  has  been  acknowledged  is  forgery  (id 
§511).     So  also  is  the  forging  a  fictitious  name  (People  v.  Brown: 
[1907],  103  N.Y.  suppl.  903).    Punishment  for  forgery  in  the 
first  degree  may  be  twenty  years,  in  the  second  degree  ten  years 
in  the  third  degree  five  years. 

In  Pennsylvania,  fraudulently  making,  signing,  altering,  utter 
ing  or  publishing  any  written  instrument  other  than  bank  bills 
cheques  or  drafts,  was  punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonmen 


'  by  separate  or  solitary  confinement  at  labour  for  a  term  not 

xceeding  ten  years  "  (L.  1860,  March  31);  forging  bank  bills, 
kc.,  for  a  term  not  exceeding  five  years.  Defacing,  removing, 
>r  counterfeiting  brands  from  lumber  floating  in  any  river  is 

unishable  by  imprisonment  for  a  term  not  exceeding  two  years 

r  a  fine  (L.  1887,  May  23).  Fraudulently  using  the  registered 
mark  of  another  on  lumber  is  punishable  by  fine  or  imprisonment 

iy  solitary  confinement  for  a  term  not  exceeding  three  years  (id.). 
In  Tennessee,  forgery  may  be  committed  by  typewriting  the 

>ody  of  and  signature  to  an  instrument  which  may  be  the  subject 
of  forgery  (1906;  State  v.  Bradley,  116  Tenn.  711). 

In  Vermont,  the  act  of  1904,  p.  135,  no.  115,  §  24,  authorizes 

icensees  to  sell  intoxicating  liquors  only  on  the  written  pre- 
scription of  a  legally  qualified  physician  stating  that  it  "  is  given 
and  necessary  for  medicinal  use."  It  was  held  that  a  prescription 
containing  no  such  statement  was  invalid  and  the  alteration 
thereof  was  not  forgery  (1906;  Stale  v.  McManus,  78  St.  433). 

AUTHORITIES. — Pollock  and  Maitland,  History  of  English  Law; 
Stephen,  Digest  of  Criminal  Law;  History  of  Criminal  Law;  L.  O. 
Pike,  History  of  Crime  in  England,  1873-1876;  Russell,  On  Crimes; 
Archbold,  Criminal  Pleadings. 

FORGET-ME-NOT,  or  SCORPION-GRASS  (Ger.  Vergissmein- 
nicht,  Fr.  gremillet,  scorpionne),  the  name  popularly  applied  to 
the  small  annual  or  perennial  herbs  forming  the  genus  Myosotis 
of  the  natural  order  Boraginaceae,  so  called  from  the  Greek 
Os,  a  mouse,  and  o5s,  an  ear,  on  account  of  the  shape  of  the 
leaves.  The  genus  is  represented  in  Europe,  north  Asia,  North 
America  and  Australia,  and  is  characterized  by  oblong  or  linear 
stem-leaves,  flowers  in  terminal  scorpioid  cymes,  small  blue, 
pink  or  white  flowers,  a  five-cleft  persistent  calyx,  a  salver- 
or  funnel-shaped  corolla,  having  its  mouth  closed  by  five  short 
scales  and  hard,  smooth,  shining  nutlets.  The  common  or  true 
forget-me-not,  M.  palustris,  is  a  perennial  plant  growing  to  a 
height  of  6  to  18  in.,  with  rootstock  creeping,  stem  clothed 
with  lax  spreading  hairs,  leaves  light  green,  and  somewhat 
shining,  buds  pink,  becoming  blue  as  they  expand,  and  corolla 
rotate,  broad,  with  retuse  lobes  and  bright  blue  with  a  yellow 
centre.  The  divisions  of  the  calyx  extend  only  about  one-third 
the  length  of  the  corolla,  whereas  in  the  other  British  species 
of  Myosotis  it  is  deeply  cleft.  The  forget-me-not,  a  favourite 
with  poets,  and  the  symbol  of  constancy,  is  a  frequent  ornament 
of  brooks,  rivers  and  ditches,  and,  according  to  an  old  German 
tradition,  received  its  name  from  the  last  words  of  a  knight  who 
was  drowned  in  the  attempt  to  procure  the  flower  for  his  lady. 
It  attains  its  greatest  perfection  under  cultivation,  and,  as  it 
flowers  throughout  the  summer,  is  used  with  good  effect  for 
garden  borders;  a  variety,  M .  slrigulosa,  is  more  hairy  and  erect, 
and  its  flowers  are  smaller.  In  M.  vcrsicolor  the  flowers  are 
yellow  when  first  open  and  change  generally  to  a  dull  blue; 
sometimes  they  are  permanently  yellowish-white.  Of  the  species 
in  cultivation,  M.  dissiliflora,  6  to  8  in.,  with  large  handsome 
abundant  sky-blue  flowers,  is  the  best  and  earliest,  flowering 
from  February  onwards;  it  does  well  in  light  cool  soils,  prefer- 
ring peaty  ones,  and  should  be  renewed  annually  from  seeds  or 
cuttings.  M.  rupicola,  or  M.  alpestris,  2  to  3  in.,  intense  blue, 
is  a  fine  rock  plant,  preferring  shady  situations  and  gritty 
soil;  M.  azorica  (a  native  of  the  Azores)  with  purple,  ultimately 
blue  flowers  about  half  an  inch  across,  has  a  similar  habit  but 
larger  flowers;  M.  sylvalica,  i  ft.,  blue,  pink  or  white,  used  for 
spring  bedding,  should  be  sown  annually  in  August. 

FORGING,  the  craft  of  the  smith,  or  "  blacksmith,"  exercised 
on  malleable  iron  and  steel,  in  the  production  of  works  of  con- 
structive utility  and  of  ornament.  It  differs  from  founding 
(q.v.)  in  the  fact  that  the  metal  is  never  melted.  It  is  essentially 
a  moulding  process,  the  iron  or  steel  being  worked  at  a  full  red, 
or  white,  heat  when  it  is  in  a  plastic  and  more  or  less  pasty 
condition.  Consequently  the  tools  used  are  in  the  main  counter- 
parts of  the  shapes  desired,  and  they  mould  by  impact.  All  the 
operations  of  forging  may  be  reduced  to  a  few  very  simple  ones: 
(i)  Reducing  or  drawing  down  from  a  larger  to  a  smaller  section 
("fullering"  and  "swaging");  (2)  enlargement  of  a  smaller 
to  a  larger  portion  ("  upsetting  ");  (3)  bending,  or  turning  round 


664 


FORGING 


to  any  angle  or  curvature;  (4)  uniting  one  piece  of  metal  to 
another  ("  welding  ");  (s)  the  formation  of  holes  by  punching; 
and  (6)  severance,  or  cutting  off.  These  include  all  the  operations 
that  are  done  at  the  anvil.  In  none  of  these  processes,  the  last 
excepted,  is  the  use  of  a  sharp  cutting  tool  involved,  and  therefore 
there  is  no  violence  done  to  the  fibre  of  the  malleable  metal.  Nor 
have  the  tools  of  the  smith  any  sharp  edges,  except  the  cutting- 
off  tools  or  "  setts."  The  essential  fact  of  the  flow  of  the  metal, 
which  is  viscous  when  at  a  full  red  heat,  must  never  be  lost  sight 
of;  and  in  forging  wrought  iron  the  judgment  of  the  smith  must 
be  exercised  in  arranging  the  direction  of  the  fibre  in  a  way  best 
calculated  to  secure  maximum  strength. 

Fullering  denotes  the  preliminary  roughing-down  of  the  material 
between  tools  having  convex  edges;  swaging,  the  completion  or 
finishing  process  between  swages,  or  dies  of  definite  shape, 
Fullering     neariy  hemispherical  in  form.    When  a  bar  has  to  be  re- 
""'  duced  from  larger  to  smaller  dimensions,  it  is  laid  upon  a 

swaging.  fu,ler  or  roun{j.faced  stake,  set  in  the  anvil,  or,  in  some 
cases,  on  a  flat  face  (fig.  l),  and  blows  are  dealt  upon  that  portion 

of  the  face  which  lies  exactly 
opposite  with  a  fullering 
tool  A,  grasped  by  a  rather 
loosely-fitting  handle  and 
struck  on  its  head  by  a 
sledge.  The  position  of  the 
piece  of  work  is  quickly 
changed  at  brief  intervals 
.  in  order  to  bring  successive 
portions  under  the  action 
of  the  swages  until  the  re- 
duction is  completed;  the 
upper  face,  and  if  a  bottom 
fuller  is  used  the  under  face  also,  is  thus  left  corrugated  slightly. 
These  corrugations  are  then  removed  either  by  a  flatter,  if  the  sur- 
faces are  plane  (fig.  2),  or  by  hollow  swages,  if  the  cross  section  is 
circular  (fig.  3).  Spring  swages  (fig.  4)  are  frequently  used  instead 
of  separate  "  top  and  bottom  tools."  Frequently  swaging  is  prac- 


FIG.  i. 


FIG.  2. 


FIG.  3. 


tised  at  once,  without  the  preliminary  detail  of  fullering.  It  is 
adopted  when  the  amount  of  reduction  is  slight,  and  also  when  a 
steam  hammer  or  other  type  of  power  hammer  is  available.  This 
process  of  drawing  down  or  fullering  is,  when  practicable,  adopted  in 
preference  to  either  upsetting  or  welding,  because  it  is  open  to  no 
objection,  and  involves  no  risk  of  damage  to  the  material,  while  it 

improves  the  metal 
by  consolidating  its 
fibres.  But  its 
limitations  in  anvil 
work  lie  in  the 
tediousness  of  the 


FIG.  4. 


operation,  when  the  part  to  be  reduced  is  very  much  less  in 
diameter,  and  very  much  longer,  than  the  original  piece  of  bar. 
Then  there  are  other  alternatives. 

If  a  long  bar  is  required  to  have  an  enlargement  at  any  portion  of 
its  length,  not  very  much  larger  in  diameter  than  the  bar,  nor  of 
Upsetting  Sreat  length,  upsetting  is  the  method  adopted.  The  part 
'  to  be  enlarged  is  heated,  the  parts  adjacent  remaining 
cold,  and  an  end  is  hammered,  or  else  lifted  and  dropped  heavily 
on  the  anvil  or  on  an  iron  plate,  with  the  result  that  the  heated  por- 
tion becomes  both  shortened  and  enlarged  (figs.  5  and  6).  This 
process  is  only  suitable  for  relatively  short  lengths,  and  has  the  dis- 
advantage that  the  fibres  of  wrought  iron  are  liable  to  open,  and  so 
cause  weakening  of  the  upset  portion.  But  steel,  which  has  no 
direction  of  fibre,  can  be  upset  without  injury;  this  method  is 
therefore  commonly  adopted  in  steel  work,  in  power  presses  to  an 
equal  extent  with  drawing  down.  The  alternative  to  upsetting  is 
generally  to  weld  a  larger  to  a  smaller  bar  or  section,  or  to  encircle 
the  bar  with  a  ring  and  weld  the  two  (fig.  7),  and  then  to  impart 
any  shape  desired  to  the  ring  in  swages. 

Bending  is  effected  either  by  the  hammer  or  by  the  simple  exercise 
of  leverage,  the  heated  bar  being  pulled  round  a  fulcrum.  It  is 
always,  when  practicable,  preferable  to  cutting  out  a.  curved  or 


angular  shape  with  a  hot  sett  or  to  welding.     The  continuity  of 
the  fibre  in  iron  is  preserved  by  bending,  and  the  risk  of  an  im- 
perfect weld  is  avoided.     Hence  it  is  a  simple  and  safe     „     .. 
process  which  is  constantly  being  performed  at  the  anvil. 
An  objection  to  sharp  bends,  or  those  having  a  small  radius,  is  that 
the  fibres  become  extended  on  the  outer  radius,  the  cross  section  being 


FIG.  5.  FIG.  6.  FIG.  7. 

at  the  same  time  reduced  below  that  of  the  bar  itself.  This  is  met  by 
imparting  a  preliminary  amount  of  upsetting  to  the  part  to  be  bent, 
sufficient  to  counteract  the  amount  of  reduction  due  to  extension 
of  the  fibres.  A  familiar  example  is  seen  in  the  corners  of  dip 
cranks. 

The  property  possessed  by  pieces  of  iron  or  steel  of  uniting  auto- 
geneously  while  in  a  condition  of  semi-fusion  is  very  valuable. 
When  portions  which  differ  greatly  in  dimensions  have  to  vyeUlag 
be  united,  welding  is  the  only  method  practicable  at  the 
anvil.  It  is  also  generally  the  best  to  adopt  when  union  has  to  be 
made  between  pieces  at  right  angles,  or  when  a  piece  on  which 
much  work  has  to  be  done  is  required  at  the  end  of  a  long  plain  bar, 
as  in  the  tension  rods  of  cranes  and  other  structures  with  eyes. 
The  art  of  welding  depends  chiefly  on  having  perfectly  clean  joint 


FlG.8.  FIG.  9. 

faces,  free  from  scale,  so  that  metal  can  unite  to  metal;  union 
would  be  prevented  by  the  presence  of  oxide  or  of  dirt.  Also  it  is 
essential  to  have  a  temperature  sufficiently  high,  yet  not  such  as  to 
overheat  the  metal.  A  dazzling  white,  at  which  small  particles  of 
metal  begin  to  drop  off,  is  suitable  for  iron,  but  steel  must  not  be 
made  so  hot.  A  very  few  hammer  blows  suffice  to  effect  the  actual 
union;  if  the  joint  be  faulty,  no  amount  of  subsequent  hammering 
will  weld  it.  The  forms  of  weld-joints  include  the  scarf  (figs.  8  and 
9),  the  butt  (fig.  10),  the  V  (fig.  n)  and  the  glut,  one  form  of  which 


FIG.  10. 


FIG.  ii. 


is  shown  in  fig.  12 ;  the  illustrations  are  of  bars  prepared  for  welding. 
These  forms  give  the  smith  a  suitable  choice  for  different  conditions. 
A  convexity  is  imparted  to  the  joint  faces  in  order  to  favour  the 
expulsion  of  slag  and  dirt  during  the  closing  of  the  joint;  these 
undesirable  matters  become  entangled  between  concave  faces. 
The  ends  are  upset  or  enlarged  in  order  to  leave  enough  metal  to  be 
dressed  down  flush,  by  swaging  or  by  flattering.  The  proportional 
lengths  of  the  joint  faces  shown  are  those  which  conform  to  good 
practice.  The  fluxes  used  for  welding  are  numerous.  Sand  alone 
is  generally  dustefl  on  wrought  iron,  but 
steel  requires  borax  applied  on  the  joint 
while  in  the  fire,  and  also  dusted  on  the 
joint  at  the  anvil  and  on  the  face  of  the 
latter  itself.  Electric  welding  is  largely 
taking  the  place  of  the  hand  process, 
but  machines  are  required  to  maintain 
the  parts  in  contact  during  the  passage 
of  the  current.  Butt  joints  are  employed, 

and  a  large  quantity  of  power  is  absorbed,  but  the  output  is  im- 
mensely greater  than  that  of  hand-made  welds. 

When  holes  are  not  very  large  they  are  formed  by  punching, 
but  large  holes  are  preferably  produced  by  bending  a  rod  round 
and  welding  it,  so  forming  an  eye  (fig.  13).  Small  holes  ft,neft/n- 
are  often  punched  simply  as  a  preliminary  stage  in  the 
formation  of  a  larger  hole  by  a  process  of  drifting.  A  piece  of  work 
to  be  punched  is  supported  either  on  the  anvil  or  on  a  ring  of  metal 
termed  a  bolster,  laid  on  the  anvil,  through  which  the  burr,  when 
severed,  falls.  But  in  making  small  holes  through  a  thick  mass, 
no  burr  is  produced,  the  metal  yielding  sideways  and  forming  an 
enlargement  or  boss.  Examples  occur  in  the  wrought  iron  stanchions 


FIG.  12. 


FORGING 


665 


FIG.  13. 


that  carry  light  hand  railing.  In  such  cases  the  hole  has  to  be 
punched  from  each  face,  meeting  in  the  centre.  Punching  under 
power  hammers  is  done  similarly,  but  occupies  less  time. 

The  cutting-off  or  severance  of  material  is  done  either  on  hot  or 
cold  metal.  In  the  first  case  the  chisels  used,  "  hot  setts,"  have 

keener  cutting  angles  than  those  employed  for  the  second, 
cutt/flf       termecl  -  cold  setts."     One  sett  is  held  in  a  hole  in  the 

anvil  face,  the  "  anvil  chisel,"  the  other  is  handled  and 
struck  with  a  sledge. 

The  difference  between  iron  and  steel  at  the  forge  is  that  iron 
possesses  a  very  marked  fibre  whereas  steel  does  not.  Many 
forgings  therefore  must  be  made  differently  according  as  they  are 
in  iron  or  in  steel.  In  the  first  the  fibre  must  never  be  allowed 
to  run  transversely  to  the  axis  of  greatest  tensile  or  bending 
stress,  but  must  be  in  line  therewith.  For  this  reason  many 
forgings,  of  which  a  common  eye  or  loop  (fig.  13) 
is  a  typical  example,  that  would  be  stamped 
from  a  solid  piece  if  made  in  steel,  must  be 
bent  round  from  bar  and  welded  if  in  wrought 
iron.  Further,  welding  which  is  practically 
uniformly  trustworthy  in  wrought  iron,  is  dis- 
trusted in  steel.  The  difference  is  due  to  the 
very  fibrous  character  of  iron,  the  welding  of 
which  gives  much  less  anxiety  to  the  smith 
than  that  of  steel.  Welds  in  iron  are  frequently 
made  without  any  flux,  those  in  steel  never. 
Though  mention  has  only  been  made  of  iron  and 
steel,  other  alloys  are  forged,  as  those  of 
aluminium,  delta  metal,  &c.  But  the  essential  operations  are 
alike,  the  differences  being  in  temperature  at  which  the  forging 
is  done  and  nature  of  the  fluxes  used  for  welding.  For 
hardening  and  tempering,  an  important  section  of  smith's  work, 
see  ANNEALING. 

Die  Forging. — The  smith  operating  by  hand  uses  the  above 
methods  only.  There  is,  however,  a  large  and  increasing  volume 
of  forgings  produced  in  other  ways,  and  comprehended  under 
the  general  terms,  "  die  forging  "  or  "  drop  forging." 

Little  proof  is  needed  to  show  that  the  various  operations 
done  at  the  anvil  might  be  performed  in  a  more  expeditious 
way  by  the  aid  of  power-operated  appliances;  for  the  elementary 
processes  of  reducing,  and  enlarging, bending, punching,  &c.,are 
extremely  simple,  and  the  most  elaborate  forged  work  involves 
only  a  repetition  of  these.  The  fact  that  the  material  used  is 
entirely  plastic  when  raised  to  a  white  heat  is  most  favourable 
to  the  method  of  forging  in  matrices  or  dies.  A  white  hot  mass 
of  metal  can  be  placed  in  a  matrix,  and  stamped  into  shape  in  a 
few  blows  under  a  hammer  with  as  much  ease  as  a  medal  can  be 
stamped  in  steel  dies  under  a  coining  press.  But  much  detail 
is  involved  in  the  translation  of  the  principle  into  practice.  The 
parallel  between  coining  dies  and  forging  dies  does  not  go  far. 
The  blank  for  the  coin  is  prepared  to  such  exact  dimensions  that 
no  surplus  material  is  left  over  by  the  striking  of  the  coin,  which 
is  struck  while  cold.  But  the  blank  used  in  die  forging  is  generally 
a  shapeless  piece,  taken  without  any  preliminary  preparation, 
a  mere  lump,  a  piece  of  bar  or  rod,  which  may  be  square  or  round 
irrespective  of  whether  the  ultimate  forging  is  to  be  square,  or 
round,  or  flat  or  a  combination  of  forms.  At  the  verge  of  the 
welding  heat  to  which  it  is  raised,  and  under  the  intensity  of 
the  impact  of  hammer  blows  rained  rapidly  on  the  upper  die, 
the  metal  yields  like  lead,  and  flows  and  fills  the  dies. 

Herein  lies  a  difference  between  striking  a  coin  and  moulding 
a  forging.  A  large  amount  of  metal  is  squeezed  out  beyond  the 
concavity  of  the  forging  dies,  and  this  would,  if  allowed  to  flow 
over  between  the  joints,  prevent  the  dies  from  being  closed  on 
the  forging.  There  are  two  methods  adopted  for  removing  this 
"  fin,"  or  "  flash  "  as  it  is  termed,  one  being  that  of  suppression, 
applicable  to  circular  work,  the  other  that  of  stripping,  applied 
to  almost  all  other  cases. 

The  suppression  of  fin  means  that  the  circular  bar  is  rotated  in  the 
dies  (fig.  14)  through  a  small  arc,  alternating  between  every  few 
blows,  with  the  result  that  the  fin  is  obliterated  immediately  when 
formed,  this  being  done  at  the  same  time  that  reduction  of  section 
is  being  effected  over  a  portion  or  the  whole  of  the  bar. 

Stripping  means  that   when  a  considerable  amount  of  fin  has 


7 


been  formed,  it  is  removed  by  laying  the  forging  on  a  die  pierced 

right  through  with  an  opening  of  the  same  shape  and  area  as  the 

forging,  and  then  dealing  the  forging  a  blow  with  the  hammer. 

The  forging  is  thus  knocked  through  the  die,  leaving  the  severed 

or  stripped  fin  behind.    The 

forging  is  then  returned  to 

the  dies  and  again  treated, 

and    the    stripping    may    be 

repeated      twice,      or     even 

oftener,    before    the    forging 

caabe  completed. 

Figs.  15  and  16  illustrate 
the  bottom  dies  of  a  set  for 
forging  in  a  particular  form 
of  eye,  the  top  dies  being  of 
exactly  the  same  shape.  The 
first  operation  takes  place  in 
fig.  15,  in  which  a  bar  of 
metal  is  reduced  to  a  globular 
and  cylindrical  form,  being 
constantly  rotated  mean- 
while. The  shank  portion  is 
then  drawn  down  in  the 
parallel  recess  to  the  left. 
The  shape  of  the  eye  is  com-  ( 
pleted  in  fig.  16,  and  the 
shank  in  the  recess  to  the  left 


1 


FIG.  14. 

of  that.  Fig.  17  shows  how  a  lever  is  stamped  between  top  and 
bottom  dies.  The  hole  in  the  larger  boss  is  formed  by  punching, 
the  punches  nearly  meeting  in  the  centre,  and  the  centre  for  the  hole 
to  be  drilled  subsequently  in  the  smaller  boss  is  located  by  a  conical 
projection  in  the  top  die. 


FIG.  15. 


FIG.  16. 


It  is  evident  that  the  methods  of  die  forging,  though  only  explained 
here  in  barest  outline,  constitute  a  principle  of  extensive  application. 

An  intricate  or  ornamental  forging,  which  might  occupy  a  smith  a 
quarter  of  a  day  in  making  at  the  anvil,  can  often  be  produced  in 
dies  within  five  minutes  (fig.  18).  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  the 
cost  of  the  preparation  of  the  dies,  which  is  often  heavy,  so  that  the 
question  of  method  is  resolved  into  the  relative  one  of  the  cost  of 


FIG.  17. 


FIG.  18. 


dies,  distributed  over  the  number  of  identical  forgings  required. 
From  this  point  of  view  it  is  clear  that  given  say  a  thousand  forgings, 
ordered  all  alike,  the  cost  of  even  expensive  dies  distributed  over 
the  whole  becomes  only  an  infinitesimal  amount  per  forging. 

There  is,  further,  the  very  important  fact  that  forgings  which 
are  produced  in  dies  are  uniform  and  generally  of  more  exact  dimen- 
sions than  anvil-made  articles.  This  is  seen  to  be  an  advantage 
when  forgings  have  to  be  turned  or  otherwise  tooled  in  the  engineer's 
machine  shop,  since  it  lessens  the  amount  of  work  required  there. 


666 


FORK— FORLORN  HOPE 


Besides,  for  many  purposes  such  forgings  do  not  require  tooling  at 
all,  or  only  superficial  grinding,  while  anvil-made  ones  would,  in 
consequence  of  their  slight  inaccuracies. 

Yet  again,  die  forging  is  a  very  elastic  system,  and  herein  lies 
much  of  its  value.  Though  it  reaches  its  highest  development  when 
thousands  of  similar  pieces  are  wanted,  it  is  also  adaptable  to  a 
hundred,  or  even  to  a  dozen,  similar  forgings. 
In  such  cases  economy  is  secured  by  using  dies 
of  a  very  cheap  character;  or,  by  employing 
such  dies  as  supplementary  to  anvil  work  for 
effecting  neat  finish  to  more  precise  dimen- 
sions than  can  be  ensured  at  the  anvil.  In 
the  first  case  use  is  made  of  dies  of  cast  iron 
moulded  from  patterns  (fig.  19)  instead  of 
having  their  matrices  laboriously  cut  in  steel 
with  drills,  chisels  and  milling  tools.  In  the 
second,  preliminary  drawing  down  is  done 
under  the  steam  hammer,  and  bending  and 
welding  at  the  anvil,  or  under  the  steam 
hammer.until  the  forgings  are  brought  approxi- 
mately to  their  final  shape  and  dimensions. 


FIG.  19. 


Then  they  are  reheated  and  inserted  in  the  dies,  when  a  few  blows 
under  the  steam  or  drop  hammer  suffice  to  impart  a  neat  and  accurate 
finish. 

The  limitations  of  die  forging  are  chiefly  those  due  to  large  dimen- 
sions. The  system  is  most  successful  for  the  smallest  forgings  and 
dies  which  can  be  handled  by  one  man  without  the  assistance  of 
cranes;  and  massive  forgings  are  not  required  in  such  large  numbers 
as  are  those  of  small  dimensions.  But  there  are  many  large  articles 
manufactured  which  do  not  strictly  come  under  the  term  forgings, 
in  which  the  aid  of  dies  actuated  by  powerful  hydraulic  presses  is 
utilized.  These  include  work  that  is  bent,  drawn  and  shaped 
from  steel  plate,  of  which  the  fittings  of  railway  wagons  constitute 
by  far  the  largest  proportion.  The  dies  used  for  some  of  these  are 
massive,  and  a  single  squeeze  from  the  ram  of  the  hydraulic  press 
employed  bends  the  steel  plate  between  the  dies  to  shape  at  once. 
Fairly  massive  forgings  are  also  produced  in  these  presses. 

Die  forging  in  its  highest  developments  invades  the  craft  of  the 
skilled  smith.  In  shops .  where  it  is  adopted  entirely,  the  only 
craftsmen  required  are  the  few  who  have  general  charge  of  the 
shops.  The  men  who  attend  to  the  machines  are  not  smiths, 
but  unskilled  helpers.  (J.  G.  H.) 

FORK  (Lat.  furca),  an  implement  formed  of  two  or  more 
prongs  at  the  end  of  a  shaft  or  handle,  the  most  familiar  type 
of  which  is  the  table-fork  for  use  in  eating.  In  agriculture  and 
horticulture  the  fork  is  used  for  pitching  hay,  and  other  green 
crops,  manure,  &c.;  commonly  this  has  two  prongs,  "tines"; 
for  digging,  breaking  up  surface  soil,  preparing  for  hand  weeding 
and  for  planting  the  three-pronged  fork  is  used.  The  word  is 
also  applied  to  many  objects  which  are  characterizedby  branching 
ends,  as  the  tuning-fork,  with  two  branching  metal  prongs, 
which  on  being  struck  vibrates  and  gives  a  musical  note,  used  to 
give  a  standard  of  pitch;  to  the  branching  into  two  streams 
of  a  river,  or  the  junction  where  a  tributary  runs  into  the  main 
river;  and  in  the  huhian  body,  to  that  part  where  the  legs 
branch  off  from  the  trunk. 

The  furca,  two  pieces  of  wood  fastened  together  in  the  form 
of  the  letter  A,  was  used  by  the  Romans  as  an  instrument  of 
punishment.  It  was  placed  over  the  shoulders  of  the  criminal, 
and  his  hands  were  fastened  to  it,  condemned  slaves  were  com- 
pelled to  carry  it  about  with  them,  and  those  sentenced  to  be 
flogged  would  be  tied  to  it;  crucifixions  were  sometimes  carried 
out  on  a  similar  shaped  instrument.  From  the  great  defeat  of 
the  Romans  by  the  Samnites  at  the  battle  of  the  Caudine  Forks 
(Furculae  Caudinae),  a  narrow  gorge,  where  the  vanquished 
were  compelled  to  pass  under  the  yoke  (jugum),  as  a  sign  of 
submission,  the  expression  "  to  pass  through  or  under  the  forks  " 
has  been  loosely  used  of  such  a  disgraceful  surrender.  The 
"  forks  "  in  any  allusion  to  this  defeat  should  refer  to  the  topo- 
graphical name  and  not  to  the  jugum,  which  consisted  of  two 
upright  spears  with  a  third  placed  transversely  as  a  cross-bar. 

FORKEL,  JOHANN  NIKOLAUS  (1749-1818),  German 
musician,  was  born  on  the  22nd  of  February  1749  at  Meeder 
in  Coburg.  He  was  the  son  of  a  cobbler,  and  as  a  practical 
musician,  especially  as  a  pianoforte  player,  achieved  some 
eminence;  but  his  claims  to  a  more  abiding  name  rest  chiefly 
upon  his  literary  skill  and  deep  research  as  an  historian  of  musical 
•science  and  literature.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  J.  S. 
Bach,  whose  music  he  did  much  to  popularize.  His  library, 
which  was  accumulated  with  care  and  discrimination  at  a  time 


when  rare  books  were  cheap,  forms  a  valuable  portion  of  the 
royal  library  in  Berlin  and  also  of  the  library  of  the  Koniglicher 
Institut  fur  Kirchenmusik.  He  was  organist  to  the  university 
church  of  Gottingen,  obtained  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy, 
and  in  1778  became  musical  director  of  the  university.  He  died 
at  Gottingen  on  the  2oth  of  March  1818.  The  following  is  a  list 
of  his  principal  works:  Uber  die  Theorie  der  Musik  (Gottingen, 
\Tli);Miisikalisch  kritische  Bibliothek  (Gotha,  1778);  Allgemeine 
Geschichte  der  Musik  (Leipzig,  1788).  The  last  is  his  most  im- 
portant work.  He  also  wrote  a  Dictionary  of  Musical  Literature, 
which  is  full  of  valuable  material.  To  his  musical  compositions, 
which  are  numerous,  little  interest  is  to-day  to  be  attached. 
But  it  is  worth  noting  that  he  wrote  variations  on  the  English 
national  anthem  "  God  save  the  king  "  for  the  clavichord,  and 
that  Abt  Vogler  wrote  a  sharp  criticism  on  them,  which  appeared 
at  Frankfort  in  1793  together  with  a  set  of  variations  as  he 
conceived  they  ought  to  be  written. 

FORL!  (anc.  Forum  Livii),  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Emilia, 
Italy,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Forli,  40  m.  S.E.  of  Bologna 
by  rail,  108  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1901)  15,461  (town); 
43,321' (commune).  Forli  is  situated  on  the  railway  between 
Bologna  and  Rimini.  It  is  connected  by  steam  tramways  with 
Ravenna  and  Meldola,  and  by  a  road  through  the  Apennines 
with  Pontassieve.  The  church  of  S.  Mercuriale  stands  in  the 
principal  square,  and  contains,  besides  paintings,  some  good 
carved  and  inlaid  choir  stalls  by  Alessandro  dei  Bigni.  The 
facade  has  been  considerably  altered,  but  the  campanile,  erected 
in  1178-1180,  still  exists;  it  is  252  ft.  in  height,  square  and  built 
of  brickwork,  and  is  one  of  the  finest  of  Lombard  campauili. 
The  pictures  in  this  church  are  the  work  of  Marco  Palmezzano 
(1456-1537)  and  others;  S.  Biagio  and  the  municipal  picture 
gallery  also  contain  works  by  him.  The  latter  has  other  interest- 
ing pictures,  including  a  fresco  representing  an  apprentice  with 
pestle  and  mortar  (Pestapepe),  the  only  authentic  work  in  Forli 
of  Melozzo  da  Forli  (1438-1494),  an  eminent  master  whose  style 
was  formed  under  the  influence  of  Piero  della  Francesca,  and 
who  was  the  master  of  Palmezzano;  the  frescoes  in  the  Sforza 
chapel  in  SS.  Biagio  e  Girolamo  are  from  the  former's  designs, 
though  executed  by  the  latter.  The  church  also  contains  the 
fine  tomb  (1466)  of  Barbara  Manfredi.  The  cathedral  (Santa 
Croce)  has  been  almost  entirely  rebuilt  since  1844.  The  Palazzo 
del  Podesta,  now  a  private  house,  is  a  brick  building  of  the  isth 
century.  The  citadel  (Rocca  Ravaldina),  constructed  about 
1360-1370,  and  later  rebuilt,  is  now  used  as  a  prison.  Flavio 
Biondo,  the  first  Renaissance  writer  on  the  topography  of  ancient 
Rome  (1388-1463),  was  a  native  of  Forli. 

Of  the  ancient  Forum  Livii,  which  lay  on  the  Via  Aemilia, 
hardly  anything  is  known.  In  the  i2th  century  we  find  Forli 
in  league  with  Ravenna,  and  in  the  i3th  the  imperial  count  of 
the  province  of  Romagna  resided  there.  In  1275  Forli  defeated 
Bologna  with  great  loss.  Martin  IV.  sent  an  army  to  besiege 
it  in  1282,  which  was  driven  out  after  severe  fighting  in  the  streets; 
but  the  town  soon  afterwards  surrendered.  In  the  i4th  and 
1 5th  centuries  it  was  under  the  government  of  the  Ordelaffi; 
and  in  1500  was  taken  by  Caesar  Borgia,  despite  a  determined 
resistance  by  Caterina  Sforza,  widow  of  Girolamo  Riario.  Forii 
finally  became  a  part  of  the  papal  state  in  1504.  (T.  As.) 

FORLIMPOPOLI  (anc.  Forum  Popillil),  a  village  of  Emilia, 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Forli,  from  which  it  is  5  m.  S.E.  by  rail, 
105  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1901)  2299  (town);  5795  (com- 
mune) .  The  ancient  Forum  Popillii,  a  station  on  the  Via  Aemilia, 
was  destroyed  by  Grimuald  in  672.  Whether  its  site  is  occupied 
by  the  present  town  is  not  certain;  the  former  should  perhaps 
be  sought  a  mile  or  so  farther  to  the  S.E.,  where  were  found  most 
of  the  inscriptions  of  which  the  place  of  discovery  is  certain. 
Forlimpopoli  was  again  destroyed  by  Cardinal  Albornoz  in  1360, 
and  rebuilt  by  Sinibaldo  Ordelaffi,  who  constructed  the  well- 
preserved  medieval  castle  (1380),  rectangular  with  four  circular 
towers  at  the  corners.  (T.  As.) 

FORLORN  HOPE  (through  Dutch  iierloren  hoop,  from  Ger. 
verlorene  Haufe  =  "  lost  troop  ";  Haufe,  "  heap,"  being  equiva- 
lent in  the  I7th  century  to  "  body  of  troops  ";  the  French 


FORM— FORMAN,  A. 


667 


equivalent  isenfanls  perdus) , a  military  term  (sometimes  shortened 
to  "  forlorn  "),  used  in  the  i6th  and  i7th  centuries  for  a  body 
of  troops  thrown  out  in  front  of  the  line  of  battle  to  engage  the 
hostile  line,  somewhat  after  the  fashion  of  skirmishers,  though 
they  were  always  solid  closed  bodies.  These  troops  ran  great 
risks,  because  they  were  often  trapped  between  the  two  lines  of 
battle  as  the  latter  closed  upon  one  another,  and  fired  upon  or 
ridden  down  by  their  friends;  further,  their  mission  was  to 
facilitate  the  attacks  of  their  own  main  body  by  striking  the 
first  blow  against  or  meeting  the  first  shock  of  the  fresh  and 
unshaken  enemy.  In  the  following  century  (i8th),  when  lines 
of  masses  were  no  longer  employed,  a  thin  line  of  skirmishers 
alone  preceded  the  three-deep  line  of  battle,  but  the  term 
"  forlorn  hope  "  continued  to  be  used  for  picked  bodies  of  men 
entrusted  with  dangerous  tasks,  and  in  particular  for  the  storming 
party  at  the  assault  of  a  fortress.  In  this  last  sense  "  forlorn 
hope,"  is  often  used  at  the  present  time.  The  misunderstanding 
of  the  word  "  hope  "  has  led  to  various  applications  of  "  forlorn 
hope  "  such  as  to  an  enterprise  offering  little  chance  of  success, 
or,  further  still  from  the  original  meaning,  to  the  faint  or  desperate 
hope  of  such  success. 

FORM  (Lat.  forma),  in  general,  the  external  shape,  appearance, 
configuration  of  an  object,  in  contradistinction  to  the  matter  of 
which  it  is  composed;  thus  a  speech  may  contain  excellent 
arguments, — the  mailer  may  be  good,  while  the  style,  grammar, 
arrangement, — the  form — is  bad.  The  term,  with  its  adjective 
"  formal  "  and  the  derived  nouns  "  formality  "  and  "  formalism," 
is  hence  contemptuously  used  for  that  which  is  superficial, 
unessential,  hypocritical:  chap,  xxiii.  of  Matthew's  gospel  is 
a  classical  instance  of  the  distinction  between  the  formalism 
of  the  Pharisaic  code  and  genuine  religion.  With  this  may  be 
compared  the  popular  phrases  "  good  form  "  and  "  bad  form  " 
applied  to  behaviour  in  society:  so  "  format  "  (from  the  French) 
is  technically  used  of  the  shape  and  size,  e.g.  of  a  book  (octavo, 
quarto,  &c.)  or  of  a  cigarette.  The  word  "  form  "  is  also  applied 
to  certain  definite  objects:  in  printing  a  body  of  type  secured 
in  a  chase  for  printing  at  one  impression  ("  form  "  or  "  forme  ") ; 
a  bench  without  a  back,  such  as  is  used  in  schools  (perhaps  to 
be  compared  with  O.  Fr.  s'asseoir  en  forme,  to  sit  in  a  row) ;  a 
mould  or  shape  on  or  in  which  an  object  is  manufactured;  the 
lair  or  nest  of  a  hare.  From  its  use  in  the  sense  of  regulated  order 
comes  the  application  of  the  term  to  a  class  in  a  school  ("  sixth 
form,"  "  fifth  form,"  &c.);  this  sense  has  been  explained  without 
sufficient  ground  as  due  to  the  idea  of  all  children  in  the  same 
class  sitting  on  a  single  form  (bench). 

The  word  has  been  used  technically  in  philosophy  with  various 
shades  of  meaning.  Thus  it  is  used  to  translate  the  Platonic 
idea,  eldos,  the  permanent  reality  which  makes  a  thing  what 
it  is,  in  contrast  with  the  particulars  which  are  finite  and  subject 
to  change.  Whether  Plato  understood  these  forms  as  actually 
existent  apart  from  all  the  particular  examples,  or  as  being  of  the 
nature  of  immutable  physical  laws,  is  matter  of  discussion.  For 
practical  purposes  Aristotle  was  the  first  to  distinguish  between 
matter  (uX?j)  and  form  (et5os).  To  Aristotle  matter  is  the 
undifferentiated  primal  element:  it  is  rather  that  from  which 
things  develop  (inoKtl^vov ,  dvvafjus)  than  a  thing  in  itself 
(evfpjfia).  The  development  of  particular  things  from  this 
germinal  matter  consists  in  differentiation,  the  acquiring  of 
particular  forms  of  which  the  knowable  universe  consists  (cf. 
CAUSATION  for  the  Aristotelian  "  formal  cause  ") .  The  perfection 
of  the  form  of  a  thing  is  its  entelechy  («pTeXexetcO  m  virtue  of 
which  it  attains  its  fullest  realization  of  function  (De  anima, 
ii.  2,  i)  filv  v\t]  8vva.iJ.is  76  6e  eiSos  ^crtXex*"*)-  Thus  the 
entelechy  of  the  body  is  the  soul.  The  origin  of  the  differentia- 
tion process  is  to  be  sought  in  a  "  prime  mover  "  (TTQUTOV  KIVOVV), 
i.e.  pure  form  entirely  separate  (xupurrov)  from  all  matter, 
eternal,  unchangeable,  operating  not  by  its  own  activity  but  by 
the  impulse  which  its  own  absolute  existence  excites  in  matter 
(o«  ipw^tvov,  ov  KIVOUIMVOV) .  The  Aristotelian  conception  of 
form  was  nominally,  though  perhaps  in  most  cases  unintelligently, 
adopted  by  the  Scholastics,  to  whom,  however,  its  origin  in  the 
observation  of  the  physical  universe  was  an  entirely  foreign 


idea.  .The  most  remarkable  adaptation  is  probably  that  of 
Aquinas,  who  distinguished  the  spiritual  world  with  its  "  sub- 
sistent  forms  "  (formae  separalae)  from  the  material  with  its 
"  inherent  forms  "  which  exist  only  in  combination  with  matter. 
Bacon,  returning  to  the  physical  standpoint,  maintained  that  all 
true  research  must  be  devoted  to  the  discovery  of  the  real  nature 
or  essence  of  things.  His  induction  searches  for  the  true  "  form  " 
of  light,  heat  and  so  forth,  analysing  the  external  "  form  "  given 
in  perception  into  simpler  "  forms  "  and  their  "  differences." 
Thus  he  would  collect  all  possible  instances  of  hot  things,  and 
discover  that  which  is  present  in  all,  excluding  all  those  qualities 
which  belong  accidentally  to  lone  or  more  of  the  examples 
investigated:  the  "  form  "  of  heat  is  the  residuum  common  to 
all.  Kant  transferred  the  term  from  the  objective  to  the  sub- 
jective sphere.  All  perception  is  necessarily  conditioned  by 
pure  "  forms  of  sensibility,"  i.e.  space  and  time:  whatever  is 
perceived  is  perceived  as  having  special  and  temporal  relations 
(see  SPACE  AND  TIME;  KANT).  These  forms  are  not  obtained 
by  abstraction  from  sensible  data,  nor  are  they  strictly  speaking 
innate:  they  are  obtained  "  by  the  very  action  of  the  mind  from 
the  co-ordination  of  its  sensation." 

FORMALIN,  or  FORMALDEHYDE,  CH2O  or  H-CHO,  the  first 
member  of  the  series  of  saturated  aliphatic  aldehydes.  It  is 
most  readily  prepared  by  passing  the  vapour  of  methyl  alcohol, 
mixed  with  air,  over  heated  copper  or  platinum.  In  order  to 
collect  the  formaldehyde,  the  vapour  is  condensed  and  absorbed, 
either  in  water  or  alcohol.  It  may  also  be  obtained,  although 
only  in  small  quantities,  by  the  distillation  of  calcium  formate. 
At  ordinary  temperatures  formaldehyde  is  a  gas  possessing 
a  pungent  smell;  it  is  a  strong  antiseptic  and  disinfectant, 
a  40%  solution  of  the  aldehyde  in  water  or  methyl  alcohol, 
sold  as  formalin,  being  employed  as  a  deodorant,  fungicide 
and  preservative.  It  is  not  possible  to  obtain  the  alde- 
hyde in  a  pure  condition,  since  it  readily  polymerizes.  It  is 
a  strong  reducing  agent;  it  combines  with  ammonia  to  form 
hexamelhylene  letramine,  (CH2)eN4,  and  easily  "  condenses " 
in  the  presence  of  many  bases  to  produce  compounds  which 
apparently  belong  to  the  sugars  (q.v.).  It  renders  glue  or  gelatin 
insoluble  in  water,  and  is  used  in  the  coal-tar  colour  industry 
in  the  manufacture  of  para-rosaniline,  pyronines  and  rosamines. 
Several  polymers  have  been  described.  Para-formaldehyde,  or 
trioxymethylene,  obtained  by  concentrating  solutions  of  form- 
aldehyde in  vacua,  is  a  white  crystalline  solid,  which  sublimes  at 
about  100°  C.  and  melts  at  a  somewhat  higher  temperature, 
changing  back  into  the  original  form.  It  is  insoluble  in  cold 
water,  alcohol  and  ether.  A  diformaldehyde  is  supposed  to 
separate  as  white  flakes  when  the  vapour  is  passed  into  chloro- 
form (Ko'rber,  Pharm.  Zeit.,  1904,  xlix.  p.  609);  F.  Auerbach 
and  H.  Barschall  (Chem.  Zentr.,  1907,  ii.  p.  1734)  obtained  three 
polymers  by  acting  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  on  solutions 
of  formaldehyde,  and  a  fourth  by  heating  one  of  the  forms  so 
obtained.  The  strength  of  solutions  of  formaldehyde  may  be 
ascertained  by  the  addition  of  excess  of  standard  ammonia  to  the 
aldehyde  solution  (hexamethylene  tetramine  being  formed), 
the  excess  of  ammonia  being  then  estimated  by  titration  with 
standard  acid.  On  the  formation  of  formaldehyde  by  the 
oxidation  of  methane  at  high  temperatures,  see  W.  A.  Bone 
(Journ.  Chem.  Soc.,  1902,  81,  p.  535;  1903,  83,  p.  1074).  Form- 
aldehyde also  appears  to  be  a  reduction  product  of  carbon 
dioxide  (see  Annual  Reports  of  the  Chemical  Society). 

FORMAN,  ANDREW  (c.  1465-1521),  Scottish  ecclesiastic,  was 
educated  at  the  university  of  St  Andrews  and  entered  the  service 
of  King  James  IV.  about  1489.  He  soon  earned  the  favour  of 
this  king,  who  treated  him  with  great  generosity  and  who  on 
several  occasions  sent  him  on  important  embassies  to  the  English, 
the  French  and  the  papal  courts.  In  1501  he  became  bishop  of 
Moray  and  in  July  1513  Louis  XII.  of  France  secured  his  appoint- 
ment as  archbishop  of  Bourges,  while  pope  Julius  II.  promised 
to  make  him  a  cardinal.  In  1514  during  a  long  absence  from  his 
own  land  Foiman  was  nominated  by  Pope  Leo  X.  to  the  vacant 
archbishopric  of  St  Andrews  and  was  made  papal  legate  in 
Scotland,  but  it  was  some  time  before  he  secured  possession  of 


668 


FORMAN,  S.— FORMIC  ACID 


the  see  owing  to  the  attempts  of  Henry  VIII.  to  subject  Scotland 
to  England  and  to  the  efforts  of  his  rivals,  Gavin  Douglas,  the 
poet,  and  John  Hepburn,  prior  of  St  Andrews,  and  their  sup- 
porters. Eventually,  however,  he  resigned  some  of  his  many 
benefices,  the  holding  of  which  bad  made  him  unpopular,  and 
through  the  good  offices  of  the  regent,  John  Stewart,  duke  of 
Albany,  obtained  the  coveted  archbishopric  and  the  primacy 
of  Scotland.  Afterwards  he  was  one  of  the  vice-regents  of  the 
kingdom  and  he  died  on  the  i ith  of  March  1521.  As  archbishop 
he  issued  a  series  of  constitutions  which  are  printed  in  J.  Robert- 
son's Concilia  Scotiae  (1866).  Mr  Andrew  Lang  (History  of 
Scotland,  vol.  i.)  describes  Forman  as  "  the  Wolsey  of  Scotland, 
and  a  fomenter  of  the  war  which  ended  at  Flodden." 

See  the  biography  of  the  archbishop  which  forms  vol.  ii.  of  The 
Archbishops  of  St  Andrews,  by  J.  Herkless  and  R.  K.  Hannay  (1909). 

FORMAN,  SIMON  (1552-1611),  English  physician  and  astro- 
loger, was  born  in  1552  at  Quidham,  a  small  village  near  Wilton, 
Wiltshire.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  became  apprentice  to  a 
druggist  at  Salisbury,  but  at  the  end  of  four  years  he  exchanged 
this  profession  for  that  of  a  schoolmaster.  "Shortly  afterwards 
he  entered  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  where  he  studied  chiefly 
medicine  and  astrology.  After  continuing  the  same  studies  in 
Holland  he  commenced  practice  as  a  physician  in  Philpot  Lane, 
London,  but  as  he  possessed  no  diploma,  he  on  this  account 
underwent  more  than  one  term  of  imprisonment.  Ultimately, 
however,  he  obtained  a  diploma  from  Cambridge  university, 
and  established  himself  as  a  physician  and  astrologer  at  Lambeth, 
where  he  was  consulted,  especially  as  a  physician,  by  many 
persons  of  rank,  among  others  by  the  notorious  countess  of 
Essex.  He  expired  suddenly  while  crossing  the  Thames  in  a 
boat  on  the  i2th  of  September  1611. 

A  list  of  Forman's  works  on  astrology  is  given  in  Bliss's  edition 
of  the  Athenae  Oxonienses;  many  of  his  MS.  works  are  contained 
in  the  Bodleian  Library,  the  British  Museum  and  the  Plymouth 
Library.  A  Brief  Description  of  the  Forman  MSS.  in  the  Public 
Library,  Plymouth,  was  published  in  1853. 

FORHERET,  a  French  architectural  term  for  the  wall-rib 
carrying  the  web  or  filling-in  of  a  vault  (q.v.). 

FORMEY,  JOHANN  HEINRICH  SAMUEL  (1711-1797), 
Franco-German  author,  was  born  of  French  parentage  at  Berlin 
on  the  3  ist  of  May  1 7 1 1 .  He  was  educated  for  the  ministry,  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty  became  pastor  of  the  French  church  at 
Brandenburg.  Having  in  1736  accepted  the  invitation  of  a 
congregation  in  Berlin,  he  was  in  the  following  year  chosen  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  in  the  French  college  of  that  city  and  in  1739 
professor  of  philosophy.  On  the  organization  of  the  academy 
of  Berlin  in  1744  he  was  named  a  member,  and  in  1748  became 
its  perpetual  secretary.  He  died  at  Berlin  on  the  7th  of  March 
1797.  His  principal  works  are  La  Belle  Wolfienne  (1741-1750, 
6  vols.),  a  kind  of  novel  written  with  the  view  of  enforcing  the 
precepts  of  the  Wolfian  philosophy;  Bibliotheque  critique,  ou 
mfmoires  pour  seroir  a  I'histoire  litteraire  ancienne  et  moderne 
(1746);  Le  Philosophe  chrftien  (17.50);  L'£mile  chritien  (1764), 
intended  as  an  answer  to  the  £mile  of  Rousseau;  and  Souvenirs 
d'un  citoyen  (Berlin,  1789).  He  also  published  an  immense 
number  of  contemporary  memoirs  in  the  transactions  of  the 
Berlin  Academy. 

FORMIA  (anc.  Formiae,  called  Mola  di  Gaeta  until  recent 
times),  a  town  of  Campania,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Caserta, 
from  which  it  is  48  m.  W.N.W.  by  rail.  Pop.  (1901)  5514 
(town);  8452  (commune).  It  is  situated  at  the  N.W.  extremity 
of  the  Bay  of  Gaeta,  and  commands  beautiful  views.  It  lay  on 
the  ancient  Via  Appia,  and  was  much  frequented  as  a  resort  by 
wealthy  Romans.  There  was  considerable  imperial  property 
here  and  along  the  coast  as  far  as  Sperlonga,  and  there  are 
numerous  remains  of  ancient  villas  along  the  coast  and  on  the 
slopes  above  it.  The  so-called  villa  of  Cicero  contains  two  well- 
preserved  nymphaea  with  Doric  architecture.  Its  site  is  now 
occupied  by  the  villa  Caposele,  once  a  summer  residence 'of  the 
kings  of  Naples.  There  are  many  other  modern  villas,  and  the 
sheltered  hillsides  (for  the  mountains  rise  abruptly  behind  the 
town)  are  covered  with  lemon,  orange  and  pomegranate  gardens. 
The  now  deserted  nromontory  of  the  Monte  Scauri  to  the  E.  is 


also  covered  with  remains  of  ancient  villas;  the  hill  is  crowned 
by  a  large  tomb,  known  as  Torre  Giano.  To  the  E.  at  Scauri  is 
a  large  villa  with  substructions  in  "  Cyclopean  "  work.  The 
ancient  Formiae  was,  according  to  the  legend,  the  home  of  the 
Laestrygones,  and  later  a  Spartan  colony  ('Opjuieu  81.0.  TO  efiopiiov, 
Strabo  v.  3.  6,  p.  233).  It  was  a  Volscian  town,  and,  like  Fundi, 
received  the  civilas  sine  suffragio  from  Rome  in  338  (or  332  B.C.) 
because  the  passage  through  its  territory  had  always  been  secure. 
This  was  strategically  important  for  the  Romans,  as  the  military 
road  definitely  constructed  by  Appius  Claudius  in  312  B.C.,  still 
easily  traceable  by  its  remains,  and  in  part  followed  by  the 
high-road,  traversed  a  narrow  pass,  which  could  easily  be  blocked, 
between  Fundi  and  Formiae.  In  188  B.C.,  with  Fundi,  it  received 
the  full  citizenship,  and,  like  it,  was  to  a  certain  extent  under 
the  control  of  a  praefectus  sent  from  Rome,  though  it  retained 
its  three  aediles.  Mamurra  was  a  native  of  Formia.  Cicero 
possessed  a  favourite  villa  here,  and  was  murdered  in  its  vicinity 
in  43  B.C.,  but  neither  the  villa  nor  the  tomb  can  be  identified 
with  any  certainty.  It  was  devastated  by  Sextus  Pompeius, 
and  became  a  colony,  with  duoviri  as  chief  magistrates,  under 
Hadrian.  Portus  Caietae  (the  modern  Gaeta)  was  dependent 
upon  it. 

See  T.  Ashby,  "  Dessins  inedits  de  Carlo  Labruzzi,"  in  Melanges 
de  I'ecolefrangaise  de  Rome  (1903),  410  seq.  (T.  As.) 

FORMIC  ACID,  H2CO2  or  H-COOH,  the  first  member  of  the 
series  of  aliphatic  monobasic  acids  of  the  general  formula 
CnH2nO2.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the 
series  by  certain  characteristic  properties;  for  example,  it 
shows  an  aldehydic  character  in  reducing  silver  salts  to  metallic 
silver,  and  it  does  not  form  an  acid  chloride  or  an  acid  anhydride. 
Its  nitrile  (prussic  acid)  has  an  acid  character,  a  property  not 
possessed  by  the  nitriles  of  the  other  members  of  the  series; 
and,  by  the  abstraction  of  the  elements  of  water  from  the  acid, 
carbon  monoxide  is  produced,  a  reaction  which  finds  no  parallel 
in  the  higher  members  of  the  series.  Finally,  formic  acid  is,  as 
shown  by  the  determination  of  its  affinity  constant,  a  much 
stronger  acid  than  the  other  acids  of  the  series.  It  occurs 
naturally  in  red  ants  (Lat.  formica),  in  stinging  nettles,  in  some 
mineral  waters,  in  animal  secretions  and  in  muscle.  It  may  be 
prepared  artificially  by  the  oxidation  of  methyl  alcohol  and  of 
formaldehyde;  by  the  rapid  heating  of  oxalic  acid  (J.  Gay- 
Lussac,  Ann.  Mm.  phys.,  1831  [2]  46,  p.  218),  but  best  by  heating 
oxalic  acid  with  glycerin,  at  a  temperature  of  100-110°  C.  (M. 
Berthelot,  Ann.,  1856,  98,  p.  139).  In  this  reaction  a  glycerol 
ester  is  formed  as  an  intermediate  product,  and  undergoes 
decomposition  by  the  water  which  is  also  produced  at  the  same 
time. 


C3H6(OH)2O-CHO+H2O  =  C3H6(OH)j-i-H2CO2. 
Many  other  synthetical  processes  for  the  production  of  the  acid 
or  its  salts  are  known.  Hydrolysis  of  hydrocyanic  acid  by  means 
of  hydrochloric  acid  yields  formic  acid.  Chloroform  boiled  with 
alcoholic  potash  forms  potassium  formate  (J.  Dumas,  Berzelius 
Jahresberichte,  vol.  15,  p.  371),  a  somewhat  similar  decomposition 
being  shown  by  chloral  and  aqueous  potash  (J.  v.  Liebig,  Ann., 
1832,  i,  p.  198).  Formates  are  also  produced  by  the  action  of 
moist  carbon  monoxide  on  soda  lime  at  190-220°  C.  (V.  Merz  and 


J.  Tibigira,  Ber.,  1880,  13,  p.  23;  A.  Geuthcr,  Ann.,  1880,  202. 
P-  317)1  or  by  the  action  of  moist  carbon  dioxide  on  potassium 
(H.  Kclbe  and  R.  Schmitt,  Ann.,  1861,  119,  p.  251).  H.  Moissau 


(Comptes  rend.,  1902,  134,  p.  261)  prepared  potassium  formate  by 
passing  a  current  of  carbon  monoxide  or  carbon  dioxide  over  heated 
potassium  hydride, 

KH+CO2  =  KHCO2and  KH+2CO  =  KHCO2+C. 

A  concentrated  acid  may  be  obtained  from  the  diluted  acid  either 
by  neutralization  with  soda,  the  sodium  salt  thus  obtained  being 
then  dried  and  heat°d  with  the  equivalent  quantity  of  anhydrous 
oxalic  acid  (Lorin,  Bull.  soc.  chim.,  37,  p.  104),  or  the  lead  or  copper 
salt  may  be  decomposed  by  dry  sulphuretted  hydrogen  at  130°  C. 
L.  Maquenne  (Bull.  soc.  chim.,  1888,  50,  p.  662)  distils  the  commercial 
acid,  in  vacua,  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  below  75°  C. 

Formic  acid  is  a  colourless,  sharp-srnelling  liquid,  which  crystal- 
lizes at  p°  C.,  melts  at  8-6°  C.  and  boils  at  100-8°  C.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  1-22  (2O°/4°).  It  is  miscible  in  all  proportions  with  water, 
alcohol  and  ether.  When  heated  with  zinc  dust,  the  acid  decomposes 
into  carbon  monoxide  and  hydrogen.  The  sodium  and  potassium 
salts,  when  heated  to  400°  C.,  give  oxalates  and  carbonates  of  the 


FORMOSA 


669 


alkali  metals,  but  the  magnesium,  calcium  and  barium  salts  yield 
carbonates  only.  The  free  acid,  when  heated  with  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid,  is  decomposed  into  water  and  pure  carbon  monoxide ; 
when  heated  with  nitric  acid,  it  is  oxidized  first  to  oxalic  acid  and 
finally  to  carbon  dioxide.  The  salts  of  the  acid  are  known  as  for- 
mates, and  are  mostly  soluble  in  water,  those  of  silver  and  lead  being 
the  least  soluble.  They  crystallize  well  and  are  readily  decomposed. 
Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  converts  them  into  sulphates,  with 
simultaneous  liberation  of  carbon  monoxide.  The  calcium  salt, 
when  heated  with  the  calcium  salts  of  higher  homologues,  gives 
aldehydes.  The  silver  and  mercury  salts,  when  heated,  yield  the 
metal,  with  liberation  of  carbon  dioxide  and  formation  of  free 
formic  acid;  and  the  ammonium  salt,  when  distilled,  gives  some 
formamide,  HCONH2.  The  esters  of  the  acid  may  be  obtained 
by  distilling  a  mixture  of  the  sodium  or  potassium  salts  and  the 
corresponding  alcohol  with  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  acids. 

Formamide,  HCONH2,  is  obtained  by  heating  ethyl  formate  with 
ammonia;  by  heating  ammonium  formate  with  urea  to  140°  C., 

2HCO-ONH4+CO(NH2)2=2HCONH2+(NH4)2CO3; 
by  heating  ammonium  formate  in  a  sealed  tube  for  some  hours  at 
230°  C.,  or  by  the  action  of  sodium  amalgam  on  a  solution  of 
potassium  cyanate  (H.  Basarow,  Ber.,  1871,  4,  p.  409).  It  is  a  liquid 
which  boils  in  vacua  at  150°,  but  at  192-195°  C.  under  ordinary 
atmospheric  pressure,  with  partial  decomposition  into  carbon 
monoxide  and  ammonia.  It  dissolves  mercuric  oxide,  with  the 
formation  of  mercuric  formamide,  (HCONH)2Hg. 

FORMOSA,  a  northern  territory  of  the  Argentine  republic, 
bounded  N.  by  Bolivia,  N.E.  and  E.  by  Paraguay,  S.  by 
the  Chaco  Territory,  and  W.  by  Salta,  with  the  Pilcomayo 
and  Bermejo  forming  its  northern  and  southern  boundaries. 
Estimated  area,  41,402  sq.  m.  It  is  a  vast  plain,  sloping  gently 
to  the  S.E.,  covered  with  marshes  and  tropical  forests.  Very 
little  is  known  of  it  except  small  areas  along  the  Bermejo  and 
Paraguay  rivers,  where  attempts  have  been  made  to  form 
settlements.  The  unexplored  interior  is  still  occupied  by  tribes 
of  wild  Indians.  The  climate  is  hot,  the  summer  tempera- 
ture rising  to  a  maximum  of  104°  F.  Timber-cutting  is  the 
principal  occupation  of  the  settlers,  though  stock-raising  and 
agriculture  engage  some  attention  in  the  settlements  on  the 
Paraguay.  The  capital,  Formosa  (founded  1879),  is  a  small 
settlement  on  the  Paraguay  with  a  population  of  about  1000  in 
1900.  The  settled  population  of  the  territory  was  4829  in  1895, 
which  it  was  estimated  had  increased  to  13,431  in  1905.  The 
nomadic  Indians  are  estimated  at  8000. 

FORMOSA  (called  Taiwan  by  the  Chinese,  and  following 
them  by  the  Japanese,  into  whose  possession  it  came  after  their 
war  with  China  in  1895),  an  island  in  the  western  Pacific  Ocean, 
between  the  Southern  and  the  Eastern  China  Sea,  separated 
from  the  Chinese  mainland  by  the  Formosa  Strait,  which  has 
a  width  of  about  90  m.  in  its  narrowest  part.  The  island  is 
225  m.  long  and  from  60  to  80  m.  broad,  has  a  coast-line  measuring 
731  m.,  an  area  of  13,429  sq.  m. — being  thus  nearly  the  same 
size  as  Kiushiu,  the  most  southern  of  the  four  chief  islands 
forming  the  Japanese  empire  proper — and  extends  from  20°  56' 
to  25°  15'  N.  and  from  120°  to  122°  E.  It  forms  part  of  the  long 
line  of  islands  which  are  interposed  as  a  protective  barrier 
between  the  Asiatic  coast  and  the  outer  Pacific,  and  is  the  cause 
of  the  immunity  from  typhoons  enjoyed  by  the  ports  of  China 
from  Amoy  to  the  Yellow  Sea.  Along  the  western  coast  is  a  low 
plain,  not  exceeding  20  m.  in  extreme  width;  on  the  east  coast 
there  is  a  rich  plain  called  Giran,  and  there  are  also  some  fertile 
valleys  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Karenko  and  Pinan,  extending 
up  the  longitudinal  valleys  of  the  rivers  Karenko  and  Pinan, 
between  which  and  the  east  coast  the  Taito  range  intervenes; 
but  the  rest  of  the  island  is  mountainous  and  covered  with  virgin 
forest.  In  the  plains  the  soil  is  generally  of  sand  or  alluvial 
clay,  covered  in  the  valleys  with  a  rich  vegetable  mould.  The 
scenery  of  Formosa  is  frequently  of  majestic  beauty,  and  to 
this  it  is  indebted  for  its  European  name,  happily  bestowed  by 
the  early  Spanish  navigators. 

On  the  addition  of  Formosa  to  her  dominions,  Fuji  ceased 
to  be  Japan's  highest  mountain,  and  took  the  third  place  on  the 
list.  Mount  Morrison  (14,270  ft.),  which  the  Japanese  re-named 
Niitaka-yama  (New  High  Mountain),  stands  first,  and  Mount 
Sylvia  (12,480  ft.),  to  which  they  give  the  name  of  Setzu-zan 
(Snowy  Mountain),  comes  second.  Mount  Morrison  stands 


nearly  under  the  Tropic  of  Cancer.  It  is  not  volcanic,  but  consists 
of  argillaceous  schist  and  quartzite.  An  ascent  made  by  Dr 
Honda  of  the  imperial  university  of  Japan  showed  that,  up  to 
a  height  of  6000  ft.,  the  mountain  is  clothed  with  primeval 
forests  of  palms,  banyans,  cork  trees,  camphor  trees,  tree  ferns, 
interlacing  creepers  and  dense  thickets  of  rattan  or  stretches 
of  grass  higher  than  a  man's  stature.  The  next  interval  of  1000 
ft.  has  gigantic  cryptomerias  and  chamoecyparis;  then  follow 
pines;  then,  at  a  height  of  9500  ft.,  a  broad  plateau,  and  then 
alternate  stretches  of  grass  and  forest  up  to  the  top,  which 
consists  of  several  small  peaks.  There  is  no  snow.  Mount 
Morrison,  being  surrounded  by  high  ranges,  is  not  a  conspicuous 
object.  Mount  Sylvia  lies  in  24°  30'  N.  lat.  There  are  many 
other  mountains  of  considerable  elevation.  In  the  north  is 
Getsurobi-zan  (4101  ft.);  and  on  either  side  of  Setzu-zan,  with 
which  they  form  a  range  running  due  east  and  west  across  the 
island,  are  Jusampunzan  (4698  ft.)  and  Kali-zan  (7027  ft.). 
Twenty-two  miles  due  south  of  Kali-zan  stands  Hakumosha-zan 
(5282  ft.),  and  just  20  m.  due  south  of  Hakumosha-zan  begins 
a  chain  of  three  peaks,  Suisha-zan  (6200  ft.),  Hoo-zan  (4928), 
and  Niitaka-yama.  These  five  mountains,  Hari-zan,  Hakumosha- 
zan,  Suisha-zan,  Hoo-zan  and  Niitaka-yama,  stand  almost 
exactly  under  1 2 1°  E.  long. ,  in  the  very  centre  of  the  island.  But 
the  backbone  of  the  island  lies  east  of  them,  extending  S.  from 
Setzu-zan  through  Gokan-zan,  and  Noko-zan  and  other  peaks 
and  bending  S.W.  to  Niitaka-yama.  Yet  farther  south,  and 
still  lying  in  line  down  the  centre  of  the  island,  are  Sankyakunan- 
zan  (3752  ft.),  Shurogi-zan  (5729  ft.),  Poren-zan  (4957  ft.),  and 
Kado-zan  (9055  ft.),  and,  finally,  in  the  south-east  Arugan-zan 
(4985  ft.).  These,  it  will  be  observed,  are  all  Japanese  names, 
and  the  heights  have  been  determined  by  Japanese  observers. 
In  addition  to  these  remarkable  inland  mountains,  Formosa's 
eastern  shores  show  magnificent  cliff  scenery,  the  bases  of  the 
hills  on  the  seaside  taking  the  form  of  almost  perpendicular 
walls  as  high  as  from  1500  to  2500  ft.  Volcanic  outbreaks  of 
steam  and  sulphur-springs  are  found.  Owing  to  the  precipitous 
character  of  the  east  coast  few  rivers  of  any  size  find  their  way  to 
the  sea  in  that  direction.  The  west  coast,  on  the  contrary,  has 
many  streams,  but  the  only  two  of  any  considerable  length 
are  the  Kotansui,  which  rises  on  Shurogi-zan,  and  has  its  mouth 
at  Toko  after  a  course  of  some  60  m.  and  the  Seirakei,  which 
rises  on  Hakumosha-zan,  and  enters  the  sea  at  a  point  57  m. 
farther  north  after  a  course  of  90  m. 

The  climate  is  damp,  hot  and  malarious.  In  the  north,  the 
driest  and  best  months  are  October,  November  and  December; 
in  the  south,  December,  January,  February  and  March.  The 
sea  immediately  south  of  Formosa  is  the  birthplace  of  innumer- 
able typhoons,  but  the  high  mountains  of  the  island  protect  it 
partially  against  the  extreme  violence  of  the  wind. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — The  vegetation  of  the  island  is  charac- 
terized by  tropical  luxuriance, — the  moutainous  regions  being 
clad  with  dense  forest,  in  which  various  species  of  palms,  the 
camphor-tree  (Laurus  Camphora),  and  the  aloe  are  conspicuous. 
Consul  R.  Swinhoe  obtained  no  fewer  than  65  different  kinds  of 
timber  from  a  large  yard  in  Taiwanfu;  and  his  specimens  are 
now  to  be  seen  in  the  museum  at  Kew.  The  tree  which  supplies 
the  materials  for  the  pith  paper  of  the  Chinese  is  not  uncommon, 
and  the  cassia  tree  is  found  in  the  mountains.  Travellers  are 
especially  struck  with  the  beauty  of  some  of  the  wild  flowers, 
more  especially  with  the  lilies  and  convolvuluses;  and  European 
greenhouses  have  been  enriched  by  several  Formosan  orchids  and 
other  ornamental  plants.  The  pine-apple  grows  in  abundance. 
In  the  lowlands  of  the  western  portion,  the  Chinese  have  intro- 
duced a  large  number  of  cultivated  plants  and  fruit  trees.  Rice 
is  grown  in  such  quantities  as  to  procure  for  Formosa,  in  former 
days,  the  title  of  the  "  granary  of  China  '*;  and  the  sweet  potato, 
taro,  millet,  barley,  wheat  and  maize  are  also  cultivated. 
Camphor,  sugar,  tea,  indigo,  ground  peanuts,  jute,  hemp,  oil 
and  rattans  are  all  articles  of  export. 

The  Formosan  fauna  has  been  but  partially  ascertained;  but 
at  least  three  kinds  of  deer,  wild  boars,  bears,  goats,  monkeys 
(probably  Macacus  speciosus),  squirrels,  and  flying  squirrels 


6?o 


FORMOSA 


are  fairly  common,  and  panthers  and  wild  cats  are  not  unfrequent. 
A  poisonous  but  beautiful  green  snake  is  often  mentioned  by 
travellers.  Pheasants,  ducks,  geese  and  snipe  are  abundant, 
and  Dr  C.  Collingwood  in  his  Naturalist's  Rambles  in  the  China 
Seas  mentions  Ardea  prasinosceles  and  other  species  of  herons, 
several  species  of  fly-catchers,  kingfishers,  shrikes  and  larks, 
the  black  drongo,  the  Cotyle  sinensis  and  the  Prinia  sonitans, 
Dogs  are  kept  by  the  savages  for  hunting.  The  horse  is  hardly 
known,  and  his  place  is  taken  by  the  ox,  which  is  regularly  bridled 
and  saddled  and  ridden  with  all  dignity.  The  rivers  and  neigh- 
bouring seas  seem  to  be  well  stocked  with  fish,  and  especial 
mention  must  be  made  of  the  turtles,  flying-fish,  and  brilliant 
coral-fish  which  swarm  in  the  waters  warmed  by  the  Kurosiwo 
current,  the  gulf-stream  of  the  Pacific.  Shell-fish  form  an 
important  article  of  diet  to  both  the  Chinese  and  the  aborigines 
along  the  coast — a  species  of  Cyrena,  a  species  of  Tapes,  Cytheraea 
petechiana  and  Modiola  leres  being  most  abundant. 

Population. — The  population  of  Formosa,  according  to  a 
census  in  1904,  is  estimated  at  3,022,687,  made  up  as  follows: 
aborigines  104,334,  Chinese  2,860,574  and  Japanese  51,770. 
The  inhabitants  of  Formosa  may  be  divided  into  four  classes: 
the  Japanese,  who  are  comparatively  few,  as  there  has  not  been 
much  tendency  to  immigration;  the  Chinese,  many  of  whom 
immigrated  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Amoy  and  speak  the 
dialect  of  that  district,  while  others  were  Hakkas  from  the 
vicinity  of  Swatow;  the  subjugated  aborigines,  who  largely 
intermingled  with  the  Chinese;  and  the  uncivilized  aborigines 
of  the  eastern  region  who  refuse  to  recognize  authority  and 
carry  on  raids  as  opportunity  occurs.  The  semi-civilized 
aborigines,  who  adopted  the  Chinese  language,  dress  and  customs, 
were  called  Pe-pa-hwan  (Anglice  Pepo-hoans),  while  their 
wilder  brethren  bear  the  name  of  Chin-hwan  or  "  green  savages," 
otherwise  Sheng-fan  or  "  wild  savages."  They  appear  to  belong 
to  the  Malay  stock,  and  their  language  bears  out  the  supposition. 
They  are  broken  up  into  almost  countless  tribes  and  clans, 
many  of  which  number  only  a  few  hundred  individuals,  and 
their  language  consequently  presents  a  variety  of  dialects,  of 
which  no  classification  has  yet  been  effected:  in  the  district 
of  Posia  alone  a  member  of  the  Presbyterian  mission  distin- 
guished eight  different  mutually  unintelligible  dialects.  The 
people  themselves  are  described  as  of  "  middle  height,  broad- 
chested  and  muscular,  with  remarkably  large  hands  and  feet, 
the  eyes  large,  the  forehead  round,  and  not  narrow  or  receding 
in  many  instances,  the  nose  broad,  the  mouth  large  and  disfigured 
with  betel."  The  custom  of  tattooing  is  universal.  In  the  north 
of  the  island  at  least,  the  dead  are  buried  in  a  sitting  posture 
under  the  bed  on  which  they  have  expired.  Petty  wars  are 
extremely  common,  not  only  along  the  Chinese  frontiers,  but 
between  the  neighbouring  clans;  and  the  heads  of  the  slain  are 
carefully  preserved  as  trophies.  In  some  districts  the  young 
men  and  boys  sleep  in  the  skull-chambers,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  inspired  with  courage.  Many  of  the  tribes  that  had 
least  intercourse  with  the  Chinese  show  a  considerable  amount 
of  skill  in  the  arts  of  civilization.  The  use  of  Manchester  prints 
and  other  European  goods  is  fairly  general;  and  the  women, 
who  make  a  fine  native  cloth  from  hemp,  introduce  coloured 
threads  from  the  foreign  stuffs,  so  as  to  produce  ornamental 
devices.  The  office  of  chieftain  is  sometimes  held  by  women. 

The  chief  town  is  Taipe  (called  by  the  Japanese  Taihoku), 
which  is  on  the  Tamsui-yei  river,  and  has  a  population  of  about 
118,000,  including  5850  Japanese.  Taipe  may  be  said  to  have 
two  ports;  one,  Tamsui,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Tamsui-yei, 
10  m.  distant  on  the  north-west  coast,  the  other  Kelung  (called 
by  the  Japanese  Kiirun),  on  the  north-east  shore,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  rail,  a  run  of  some  18  m.  The  foreign  settle- 
ment at  Taipe  lies  outside  the  walls  of  the  city,  and  is  called 
Twatutia  (Taitotei  by  the  Japanese).  Kelung  (the  ancient 
Pekiang)  is  an  excellent  harbour,  and  the  scenery  is  very  beauti- 
ful. There  are  coal-mines  in  the  neighbourhood.  Tamsui 
(called  Tansui  by  the  Japanese)  is  usually  termed  Hobe  by 
foreigners.  It  is  the  site  of  the  first  foreign  settlement,  has  a 
population  of  about  7000,  but  cannot  be  made  a  good  harbour 


without  considerable  expenditure.  On  the  west  coast  there  is 
no  place  of  any  importance  until  reaching  Anping  (23°  N.  lat.), 
a  port  where  a  few  foreign  merchants  reside  for  the  sake  of  the 
sugar  trade.  It  is  an  unlovely  place,  surrounded  by  mud  flats, 
and  a  hotbed  of  malaria.  It  has  a  population  of  4000  Chinese 
and  200  Japanese.  At  a  distance  of  some  2\  m.  inland  is  the 
former  capital  of  Formosa,  the  walled  city  of  Tainan,  which  has 
a  population  of  100,000  Chinese,  2300  Japanese,  and  a  few 
British  merchants  and  missionaries.  Connected  with  Anping 
by  rail  (26  m.)  and  laying  south  of  it  is  Takau,  a  treaty  port.  It 
has  a  population  of  6800,  and  is  prettily  situated  on  two  sides 
of  a  large  lagoon.  Six  miles  inland  from  Takau  is  a  prosperous 
Chinese  town  called  Fengshan  (Japanese,  Hozan).  The  anchor- 
ages on  the  east  coast  are  Soo,  Karenko  and  Pinan,  which  do 
not  call  for  special  notice.  Forty-seven  m.  east  of  the  extreme 
south  coast  there  is  a  little  island  called  Botel-tobago  (Japanese, 
Koto-sho),  which  rises  to  a  height  of  1914  ft.  and  is  inhabited 
by  a  tribe  whose  customs  differ  essentially  from  those  of  the 
natives  on  the  main  island. 

Administration  and  Commerce. — The  island  is  treated  as  an 
outlying  territory;  it  has  not  been  brought  within  the  full 
purview  of  the  Japanese  constitution.  Its  affairs  are  administered 
by  a  governor-general,  who  is  also  commander-in-chief  of  the 
forces,  by  a  bureau  of  civil  government,  and  by  three  prefectural 
governors,  below  whom  are  the  heads  of  twenty  territorial 
divisions  called  cho;  its  finances  are  not  included  in  the  general 
budget  of  the  Japanese  empire;  it  is  garrisoned  by  a  mixed 
brigade  taken  from  the  home  divisions;  and  its  currency  is  on 
a  silver  basis.  One  of  the  first  abuses  with  which  the  Japanese 
had  to  deal  was  the  excessive  use  of  opium  by  the  Chinese 
settlers.  To  interdict  the  importation  of  the  drug  altogether, 
as  is  done  in  Japan,  was  the  step  advocated  by  Japanese  public 
opinion.  But,  influenced  by  medical  views  and  by  the  almost 
insuperable  difficulty  of  enforcing  any  drastic  import  veto  in 
the  face  of  Formosa's  large  communications  by  junk  with  China, 
the  Japanese  finally  adopted  the  middle  course  of  licensing  the 
preparation  and  sale  of  the  drug,  and  limiting  its  use  to  persons 
in  receipt  of  medical  sanction.  Under  the  administration  of  the 
Japanese  the  island  has  been  largely  developed.  Among  other 
industries  gold-mining  is  advancing  rapidly.  In  1902  48,400 
oz.  of  gold  representing  a  value  of  £168,626  were  obtained  from 
the  mines  and  alluvial  washings.  Coal  is  also  found  in  large 
quantities  near  Kelung  and  sulphur  springs  exist  in  the  north 
of  the  island. 

An  extensive  scheme  of  railway  construction  has  been  planned, 
the  four  main  lines  projected  being  (i)  from  Takau  to  Tainan; 
(2)  from  Tainan  to  Kagi;  (3)  from  Kagi  to  Shoka;  and  (4)  from 
Shoka  to  Kelung;  these  four  forming,  in  effect,  a  main  trunk 
road  running  from  the  south-west  to  the  north-east,  its  course 
being  along  the  foot  of  the  mountains  that  border  the  western 
coast-plains.  The  Takau-Tainan  section  (26  m.)  was  opened  to 
traffic  on  the  3rd  of  November  1900,  and  by  1905  the  whole  line 
of  259  m.  was  practically  complete.  Harbour  improvements  also 
are  projected,  but  in  Formosa,  as  in  Japan  proper,  paucity  of 
capital  constitutes  a  fatal  obstacle  to  rapid  development. 

There  are  thirteen  ports  of  export  and  import,  but  75  %  of  the 
total  business  is  done  at  Tamsui.  Tea  and  camphor  are  the 
staple  exports.  The  greater  part  of  the  former  goes  to  Amoy 
for  re-shipment  to  the  west,  but  it  is  believed  that  if  harbour 
improvements  were  effected  at  Tamsui  so  as  to  render  it  accessible 
for  ocean-going  steamers,  shipments  would  be  made  thence  direct 
to  New  York.  The  camphor  trade  being  a  government  monopoly, 
the  quantity  exported  is  under  strict  control. 

History. — The  island  of  Formosa  must  have  been  known  from 
a  very  early  date  to  the  Chinese  who  were  established  in  the 
Pescadores.  The  inhabitants  are  mentioned  in  the  official  works 
of  the  Yuan  dynasty  as  Tung-fan  or  eastern  barbarians;  and 
under  the  Ming  dynasty  the  island  begins  to  appear  as  Kilung. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century  it  began  to  be  known  to 
the  Portuguese  and  Spanish  navigators,  and  the  latter  at  least 
made  some  attempts  at  establishing  settlements  or  missions. 
The  Dutch  were  the  first,  however,  to  take  footing  in  the  island; 


FORMOSUS  (POPE) 


671 


in  1624  they  built  a  fort,  Zelandia,  on  the  east  coast,  where 
subsequently  rose  the  town  of  Taiwan,  and  the  settlement  was 
maintained  for  thrity-seven  years.  On  the  expulsion  of  the 
Ming  dynasty  in  China,  a  number  of  their  defeated  adherents 
came  over  to  Formosa,  and  under  a  leader  called  in  European 
accounts  Coxinga,  succeeded  in  expelling  the  Dutch  and  taking 
possession  of  a  good  part  of  the  island.  In  1682  the  Chinese 
of  Formosa  recognized  the  emperor  K'ang-hi,  and  the  island 
then  began  to  form  part  of  the  Chinese  empire.  From  the  close 
of  the  1 7th  century  a  long  era  of  conflict  ensued  between  the 
Chinese  and  the  aborigines.  A  more  debased  population  than 
the  peoples  thus  struggling  for  supremacy  could  scarcely  be 
conceived.  The  aborigines,  Sheng-fan,  or  "  wild  savages," 
deserved  the  appellation  in  some  respects,  for  they  lived  by  the 
chase  and  had  little  knowledge  even  of  husbandry;  while  the 
Chinese  themselves,  uneducated  labourers,  acknowledged  no 
right  except  that  of  might.  The  former  were  not  implacably 
cruel  or  vindictive.  They  merely  clung  to  their  homesteads,  and 
harboured  a  natural  resentment  against  the  raiders  who  had 
dispossessed  them.  Their  disposition  was  to  leave  the  Chinese  in 
unmolested  possession  of  the  plain.  But  some  of  the  most 
valuable  products  of  the  island,  as  camphor  and  rattan,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  upland  forests,  and  the  Chinese,  whenever  they 
ventured  too  far  in  search  of  these  products,  fell  into  ambushes 
of  hill-men  who  neither  gave  nor  sought  quarter,  and  who 
regarded  a  Chinese  skull  as  a  specially  attractive  article  of 
household  furniture.  A  violent  rebellion  is  mentioned  in  1788, 
put  down  only  after  the  loss,  it  is  said,  of  100,000  men  by  disease 
and  sword,  and  the  expenditure  of  2,000,000  taels  of  silver. 
Reconciliation  never  took  place  on  any  large  scale,  though  it  is 
true  that,  in  the  course  of  time,  some  fitful  displays  of  ad- 
ministrative ability  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese,  and  the  opening 
of  partial  means  of  communication,  led  to  the  pacification  of  a 
section  of  the  Sheng-fan,  who  thenceforth  became  known  as 
Pe-pa-hwan  (Pepohoan). 

In  the  early  part  of  the  ipth  century  the  island  was  chiefly 
known  to  Europeans  on  account  of  the  wrecks  which  took  place 
on  its  coasts,  and  the  dangers  that  the  crews  had  to  run  from 
the  cannibal  propensities  of  the  aborigines,  and  the  almost 
equally  cruel  tendencies  of  the  Chinese.  Among  the  most 
notable  was  the  loss  in  1842  of  the  British  brig  "  Ann,"  with 
fifty-seven  persons  on  board,  of  whom  forty-three  were  executed 
at  Taichu.  By  the  treaty  of  Tientsin  (1860)  Taichu  was  opened 
to  European  commerce,  but  the  place  was  found  quite  unsuitable 
for  a  port  of  trade,  and  the  harbour  of  Tam-sui  was  selected 
instead.  From  1859  both  Protestant  and  Presbyterian  missions 
were  established  in  the  island.  An  attack  made  on  those  at 
Feng-shan  (Hozan)  in  1868  led  to  the  occupation  of  Fort  Zelandia 
and  Anping  by  British  forces;  but  this  action  was  disapproved 
by  the  home  government,  and  the  indemnity  demanded  from 
the  Chinese  restored.  In  1874  the  island  was  invaded  by  the 
Japanese  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  satisfaction  for  the  murder 
of  a  shipwrecked  crew  who  had  been  put  to  death  by  one  of  the 
semi-savage  tribes  on  the  southern  coast,  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment being  either  unable  or  unwilling  to  punish  the  culprits. 
A  war  was  averted  through  the  good  offices  of  the  British 
minister,  Sir  T.  F.  Wade,  and  the  Japanese  retired  on  payment 
of  an  indemnity  of  500,000  taels.  The  political  state  of  the 
island  during  these  years  was  very  bad;  in  a  report  of  1872 
there  is  recorded  a  proverb  among  the  official  classes,  '  every 
three  years  an  outbreak,  every  five  a  rebellion  ";  but  subsequent 
to  1877  some  improvement  was  manifested,  and  public  works 
were  pushed  forward  by  the  Chinese  authorities.  In  1884,  in 
the  course  of  belligerent  proceedings  arising  out  of  the  Tongking 
dispute,  the  forts  at  Kelung  on  the  north  were  bombarded  by 
the  French  fleet,  and  the  place  was  captured  and  held  for  some 
months  by  French  troops.  An  attack  on  the  neighbouring  town 
of  Tamsui  failed,  but  a  semi-blockade  of  the  island  was  main- 
tained by  the  French  fleet  during  the  winter  and  spring  of 
1884-1885.  The  troops  were  withdrawn  on  the  conclusion  of 
peace  in  June  1885. 

In   1895  the  island  was  ceded  to  Japan  by  the  treaty  of 


Shimonoseki  at  the  close  of  the  Japanese  war.  The  resident 
Chinese  officials,  however,  refused  to  recognize  the  cession,  declared 
a  republic,  and  prepared  to  offer  resistance.  It  is  even  said  they 
offered  to  transfer  the  sovereignty  to  Great  Britain  if  that 
power  would  accept  it.  A  formal  transfer  to  Japan  was  made 
in  June  of  the  same  year  in  pursuance  of  the  treaty,  the  ceremony 
taking  place  on  board  ship  outside  Kelung,  as  the  Chinese 
commissioners  did  not  venture  to  land.  The  Japanese  were 
thus  left  to  take  possession  as  best  they  could,  and  some  four 
months  elapsed  before  they  effected  a  landing  on  the  south  of 
the  island.  Takau  was  bombarded  and  captured  on  the  1 5th  of 
October,  and  the  resistance  collapsed.  Liu  Yung-fu,  the  notori- 
ous Black  Flag  general,  and  the  back-bone  of  the  resistance, 
sought  refuge  in  flight.  The  general  state  of  the  island  when  the 
Japanese  assumed  possession  was  that  the  plain  of  Giran  on 
the  eastern  coast  and  the  hill-districts  were  inhabited  by  semi- 
barbarous  folk,  the  western  plains  by  Chinese  of  a  degraded  type, 
and  that  between  the  two  there  existed  a  traditional  and  con- 
tinuous feud,  leading  to  mutual  displays  of  merciless  and 
murderous  violence.  By  many  of  these  Chinese  settlers  the 
Japanese  conquerors,  when  they  came  to  occupy  the  island, 
were  regarded  in  precisely  the  same  light  as  the  Chinese  them- 
selves had  been  regarded  from  time  immemorial  by  the  abori- 
gines. Insurrections  occurred  frequently,  the  insurgents  receiv- 
ing secret  aid  from  sympathizers  in  China,  and  the  difficulties 
of  the  Japanese  being  increased  not  only  by  their  ignorance  of 
the  country,  which  abounds  in  fastnesses  where  bandits  can  find 
almost  inaccessible  refuge,  but  also  by  the  unwillingness  of 
experienced  officials  to  abandon  their  home  posts  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  service  in  the  new  territory. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C.  Imbault-Huart,  L'lle  Formose,  histoire  et 
description  (Paris,  1893),  4°;  J.  D.  Clark,  Formosa  (Shanghai, 
1896);  W.  A.  Pickering,  Pioneering  in  Formosa  (London,  1898); 
George  Candidius,  A  Short  Account  of  the  Island  of  Formosa  in  the 
Indies  .  .  .,  vol.  i. ;  Churchill's  Collection  of  Voyages  (1744); 
Robert  Swinhoe,  Notes  on  the  Island  of  Formosa,  read  before  the 
British  Association  (1863);  W.  Campbell,  "Aboriginal  Savages  of 
Formosa,"  Ocean  Highways  (April  1873) ;  H.  J.  Klaproth,  Description 
de  I'Ue  de  Formose,  mem.  rel.  a  I'Asie  (1826);  Mrs  T.  F.  Hughes, 
Notes  of  a  Six  Years'  Residence  in  Formosa  (London,  1881);  Y. 
Takekoshi,  Japanese  Rule  in  Formosa  (transl.  by  G.  Braithwaite) 
(London,  1907). 

FORMOSUS,  pope  from  891  to  896,  the  successor  of  Stephen 
V.  (or  VI.).  He  first  appears  in  history  when,  as  bishop  of  Porto, 
he  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  Bulgarians.  Having  afterwards 
sided  with  a  faction  against  John  VIII.,  he  was  excommunicated, 
and  compelled  to  take  an  oath  never  to  return  to  Rome  or  again 
to  assume  his  priestly  functions.  From  this  oath  he  was,  however, 
absolved  by  Marinus,  the  successor  of  John  VIII.,  and  restored 
to  his  dignities;  and  on  the  death  of  Stephen  V.  in  891  he  was 
chosen  pope.  At  that  time  the  Holy  See  was  engaged  in  a  struggle 
against  the  oppression  of  the  princes  of  Spoleto,  and  a  powerful 
party  in  Rome  was  eager  to  obtain  the  intervention  of  Arnulf, 
king  of  Germany ,  agai  nst  these  dangerous  neighbours.  Formosus 
himself  shared  this  view;  but  he  was  forced  to  yield  to  circum- 
stances and  to  consecrate  as  emperor  Lambert,  the  young  son 
of  Guy  of  Spoleto.  Guy  had  already  been  consecrated  by 
Stephen  V.,  and  died  in  894.  In  the  following  year  Arnulf 
succeeded  in  seizing  Rome,  and  Formosifs  crowned  him  emperor. 
But,  as  he  was  advancing  on  Spoleto  against  Lambert,  Arnulf 
was  seized  with  paralysis,  and  was  forced  to  return  to  Germany. 
Overwhelmed  with  chagrin,  Formosus  died  on  the  4th  of  April 
896.  The  discords  in  which  he  had  been  involved  continued 
after  his  death.  The  validity  of  his  acts  was  contested  on  the 
pretext  that,  having  been  originally  bishop  of  Porto,  he  could 
not  be  a  legitimate  pope.  The  fundamental  factor  in  these 
dissensions  was  the  rivalry  between  the  princes  of  Spoleto  and 
the  Carolingian  house,  represented  by  the  king  of  Germany. 
The  body  of  Formosus  was  disinterred  in  897  by  Stephen  VI., 
and  treated  with  contumely  as  that  of  a  usurper  of  the  papal 
throne;  but  Theodore  II.  restored  it  to  Christian  burial,  and  at 
a  council  presided  over  by  John  IX.  the  pontificate  of  Formosus 
was  declared  valid  and  all  his  acts  confirmed.  (L.  D.*) 


672 


FORMULA— FORREST,  SIR  J. 


FORMULA  (Lat.  diminutive  of  forma,  shape,  pattern,  &c., 
especially  used  of  rules  of  judicial  procedure),  in  general,  a 
stereotyped  form  of  words  to  be  used  on  stated  occasions,  for 
specific  purposes,  ceremonies,  &c.  In  the  sciences,  the  word 
usually  denotes  a  symbolical  statement  of  certain  facts;  for 
example,  a  chemical  formula  exhibits  the  composition  of  a  sub- 
stance (see  CHEMISTRY)  ;  a  botanical  formula  gives  the  differentia 
of  a  plant;  a  dentition  formula  indicates  the  arrangement  and 
number  of  the  teeth  of  an  animal. 

FORNER,  JUAN  BAUTISTA  PABLO  (1756-1799),  Spanish 
satirist  and  scholar,  was  born  at  Merida  (Badajoz)  on  the  23rd 
of  February  1756,  studied  at  the  university  of  Salamanca,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  at  Madrid  in  1783.  During  the  next  few 
years — under  the  pseudonyms  of  "  Tome  Cecial,"  "  Pablo 
Segarra,"  "Don  Antonio  Varas,"  "  Bartolo,"  "Pablo  Igno- 
causto,"  "  El  Bachiller  Reganadientes,"  and  "  Silvio  Liberio  "— 
Forner  was  engaged  in  a  series  of  polemics  with  Garcia  de  la 
Huerta,  Iriarte  and  other  writers;  the  violence  of  his  attacks 
was  so  extreme  that  he  was  finally  forbidden  to  publish  any 
controversial  pamphlets,  and  was  transferred  to  a  legal  post  at 
Seville.  In  1796  he  became  crown  prosecutor  at  Madrid,  where 
he  died  on  the  i7th  of  March  1799.  Forner's  brutality  is  almost 
unexampled,  and  his  satirical  writings  give  a  false  impression  of 
his  powers.  His  Oracidn  apologetica  par  la  Espana  y  su  merito 
liter ario  (1787)  is  an  excellent  example  of  learned  advocacy, 
far  superior  to  similar  efforts  made  by  Denina  and  Antonio 
Cavanilles;  and  his  posthumous  Exequias  de  la  lengua  castellana 
(printed  in  the  Biblioteca  de  autores  espanoles,  vol.  Ixiii.)  testifies 
to  his  scholarship  and  taste. 

FORRES  (Gaelic,  far  uis,  "  near  water  "),  a  royal  and  police 
burgh  of  Elginshire,  Scotland.  Pop.  (1891)  3971;  (1901) 
4317.  It  is  situated  on  the  Findhorn,  which  sweeps  past  the  town 
and  is  crossed  by  a  suspension  bridge  about  a  mile  to  the  W., 
ii  m.  W.  of  Elgin  by  the  Highland  railway,  and  6  m.  by  road 
from  Findhorn,  its  port,  due  north.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
towns  in  the  north  of  Scotland.  King  Donald  (892-900),  son 
of  Constantine,  died  in  Forres,  not  without  suspicion  of  poisoning, 
and  in  it  King  Duff  (961-967)  was  murdered.  Macbeth  is  said 
to  have  slain  Duncan  in  the  first  structure  that  gave  its  name 
to  Castlehill,  which  was  probably  the  building  demolished  in 
1297  by  the  adherents  of  Wallace.  The  next  castle  was  a  royal 
residence  from  1189  to  1371  and  was  occupied  occasionally  by 
William  the  Lion,  Alexander  II.  and  David  II.  It  was  burned 
down  by  the  Wolf  of  Badenoch  in  1390.  The  ruins  on  the  hill, 
however,  are  those  of  a  later  edifice  and  are  surmounted  by  a 
granite  obelisk,  65  ft.  high,  raised  to  the  memory  of  Surgeon 
James  Thomson,  a  native  of  Cromarty,  who  at  the  cost  of  his 
life  tended  the  Russian  wounded  on  the  field  of  the  Alma.  The 
public  buildings  include  the  town  hall,  a  fine  and  commodious 
house  on  the  site  of  the  old  tolbooth;  the  Falconer  museum, 
containing  among  other  exhibits  several  valuable  fossils,  and 
named  after  Dr  Hugh  Falconer  (1808-1865),  the  distinguished 
palaeontologist  and  botanist,  a  native  of  the  town;  the  mechanics' 
institute;  the  agricultural  and  market  hall;  Leanchoil  hospital 
and  Anderson's  Institution  for  poor  boys.  The  cross,  in  Decorated 
Gothic,  stands  beside  the  town  hall.  Adjoining  the  town  on 
the  south-east  is  the  beautifully-wooded  Cluny  Hill,  a  favourite 
public  resort,  carrying  on  its  summit  the  tower,  70  ft.  high,  which 
was  erected  in  1806  to  the  memory  of  Nelson,  and  on  its  southern 
slopes  a  well-known  hydropathic.  An  excellent  golf-course 
extends  from  Kinloss  to  Findhorn.  The  industries  comprise 
the  manufacture  of  chemicals  and  artificial  manures,  granite 
polishing,  flour  and  sawmills,  boot-  and  shoe-making,  carriage- 
building  and  woollen  manufactures.  There  is  also  considerable 
trade  in  cattle. 

Sueno's  Stone,  about  23  ft.  high,  probably  the  finest  sculptured 
monolith  in  Scotland,  stands  in  a  field  to  the  east  of  the  town. 
Its  origin  and  character  have  given  rise  to  endless  surmises. 
It  is  carved  with  figures  of  soldiers,  priests,  slaughtered  men  and 
captives  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  with  a  cross  and  Runic 
ornamentation.  One  theory  is  that  it  is  a  relic  of  the  early 
Christian  church,  symbolizing  the  battle  of  life  and  the  triumph 


of  good  over  evil.  According  to  an  older  tradition  it  was  named 
after  Sueno,  son  of  Harold,  king  of  Denmark,  who  won  a  victory 
on  the  spot  in  1008.  A  third  conjecture  is  that  it  commemorates 
the  expulsion  of  the  Danes  from  Moray  in  1014.  Skene's  view 
is  that  it  chronicles  the  struggle  in  900  between  Sigurd,  earl  of 
Orkney,  and  Maelbrigd,  Maormor  of  Moray.  Another  storied 
stone  is  called  the  Witches'  Stone,  because  it  marks  the  place 
near  Forres  where  Macbeth  is  said  to  have  encountered  the 
weird  sisters. 

Forres  is  one  of  the  Inverness  district  group  of  parliamentary 
burghs,  the  other  members  being  Nairn,  Fortrose  and  Inverness. 
The  town  is  amongst  the  healthiest  in  Scotland  and  has  the  lowest 
rainfall  in  the  county. 

Within  2  m.  of  Forres,  to  the  S.W.,  lie  the  beautiful  woods  of 
Altyre,  the  seat  of  the  Gordon-Cummings.  Three  miles  farther 
south  is  Relugas  House,  the  favourite  residence  of  Sir  Thomas 
Dick  Lauder,  romantically  situated  on  a  height  near  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Divie  and  the  Findhorn.  Not  far  away  stand  the 
ruins  of  the  old  castle  of  Dunphail.  On  the  left  bank  of  the 
Findhorn,  3!  m.  W.  of  Forres,  is  situated  Brodie  Castle,  partly 
ancient  and  partly  modern.  The  Brodies — the  old  name  of 
their  estate  was  Brothie,  from  the  Irish  broth,  a  ditch,  in  allusion 
to  the  trench  that  ran  from  the  village  of  Dyke  to  the  north  of 
the  house — were  a  family  of  great  consequence  at  the  period 
of  the  Covenant.  Alexander  Brodie  (1617-1680),  the  fourteenth 
laird,  was  one  of  the  commissioners  who  went  to  the  Hague  to 
treat  with  Charles  II.,  and  afterwards  became  a  Scottish  lord  of 
session  and  an  English  judge.  He  and  his  son  were  regarded 
as  amongst  the  staunchest  of  the  Presbyterians.  Farther  south 
is  the  forest  of  Darnaway,  famous  for  its  oaks,  in  which  stands 
the  earl  of  Moray's  mansion  of  Darnaway  Castle.  It  occupies 
the  site  of  the  castle  which  was  built  by  Thomas  Randolph, 
the  first  earl.  Attached  to  it  is  the  great  hall,  capable  of  accommo- 
dating 1000  men,  with  an  open  roof  of  fine  dark  oak,  the  only 
remaining  portion  of  the  castle  that  was  erected  by  Archibald 
Douglas,  earl  of  Moray,  in  1450.  Queen  Mary  held  a  council 
in  it  in  1562.  Earl  Randolph's  chair,  not  unlike  the  coronation 
chair,  has  been  preserved.  Kinloss  Abbey,  now  in  ruins,  stands 
some  2|  m.  to  the  N.E.  of  Forres.  It  was  founded  in  1150  by 
David  I.,  and  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Cistercians  till  its 
suppression  at  the  Reformation.  Robert  Reid,  who  ruled  from 
1526  to  1540,  was  its  greatest  abbot.  His  hobby  was  gardening, 
and  it  is  believed  that  many  of  the  123  varieties  of  pears  and  146 
varieties  of  apples  for  which  the  district  is  famous  were  due  to 
his  skill  and  enterprise.  Edward  I.  stayed  in  the  abbey  for  a 
short  time  in  1303  and  Queen  Mary  spent  two  nights  in  it  in 
1562. 

FORREST,  EDWIN  (1806-1872),  American  actor,  was  born 
at  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  gth  of  March  1806,  of 
Scottish  and  German  descent .  He  made  his  first  stage  appearance 
on  the  27th  of  November  1820,  at  the  Walnut  Street  theatre,  in 
Home's  Douglas.  In  1826  he  had  a  great  success  in  New  York 
as  Othello.  He  played  at  Drury  Lane  in  the  Gladiator  in  1836, 
but  his  Macbeth  in  1845  was  hissed  by  the  English  audience,  and 
his  affront  to  Macready  in  Edinburgh  shortly  afterwards — when 
he  stood  up  in  a  private  box  and  hissed  him, — was  fatal  to  his 
popularity  in  Great  Britain.  His  jealousy  of  Macready  resulted 
in  the  Astor  Place  riot  in  1 849.  In  1 83  7  he  had  married  Catherine, 
daughter  of  John  Sinclair,  an  English  singer,  and  his  divorce 
suit  in  1852  was  a  cause  celebre  which  hurt  his  reputation  and 
soured  his  temper.  His  last  appearance  was  as  Richelieu  in 
Boston  in  1871.  He  died  on  the  izth  of  December  1872.  He 
had  amassed  a  large  fortune,  much  of  which  he  left  by  will  to 
found  a  home  for  aged  actors. 

See  Lawrence  Barrett's  Edwin  Forrest  (Boston,  1881). 

FORREST,  SIR  JOHN  ( 1 847-  ) ,  West  Australian  statesman 
and  explorer,  son  of  William  Forrest,  of  Bunbury,  West  Australia, 
was  born  near  Bunbury,  on  the  22nd  of  August  1847,  and 
educated  at  Perth,  W.A.  In  1865  he  became  connected  with 
the  Government  Survey  Department  at  Perth,  and  in  1869  led 
an  exploring  expedition  into  the  interior  in  search  of  D.  Leichardt, 
penetrating  through  bush  and  salt-marshes  as  far  inland  as 


FORREST,  N.  B.— FORSSELL 


673 


123"  E.  In  1870  he  again  made  an  expedition  from  Perth  to 
Adelaide,  along  the  southern  shores.  In  1874,  with  his  brother 
Alexander  Forrest  (born  1849),  he  explored  eastwards  from 
Champion  Bay,  following  as  far  as  possible  the  26th  parallel, 
and  striking  the  telegraph  line  between  Adelaide  and  Port 
Darwin;  a  distance  of  about  2000  m.  was  covered  in  about  five 
months  with  horses  and  without  carriers,  a  particularly  fine 
achievement  (see  AUSTRALIA:  Exploration).  John  Forrest  also 
surveyed  in  1878  the  north-western  district  between  the  rivers 
Ashburton  and  Lady  Grey,  and  in  1882  the  Fitzroy  district. 
In  1876  he  was  made  deputy  surveyor-general,  receiving  the 
thanks  of  the  colony  for  his  services  and  a  grant  of  5000  acres 
of  land;  for  a  few  months  at  the  end  of  1878  he  acted  as  com- 
missioner of  crown  lands  and  surveyor-general,  being  given  the 
full  appointment  in  1883  and  retaining  it  till  1890.  When  the 
colony  obtained  in  1890  its  constitution  of  self-government, 
Sir  John  Forrest  (who  was  made  K.C.M.G.  in  1891,  and  G.C.M.G. 
in  1901)  became  its  first  premier,  and  he  held  that  position  till 
in  1901  he  joined  the  Commonwealth  government,  first  as 
minister  for  defence,  later  as  minister  for  home  affairs  and 
postmaster-general,  resigning  the  office  of  federal  treasurer  in 
July  1907.  His  influence  in  West  Australia  was  one  of  an 
almost  autocratic  character,  owing  to  the 'robust  vigour  of  his 
personality  and  his  success  in  enforcing  his  views  (see  WESTERN 
AUSTRALIA:  History).  In  1897  he  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Privy  Council.  Sir  John  Forrest  married  in  1876  Margaret 
Hamersley.  He  published  Explorations  in  Australia  (1876)  and 
Notes  on  Western  Australia  (1884-1887). 

FORREST,  NATHAN  BEDFORD  (1821-1877),  Confederate 
cavalry  general  in  the  American  Civil  War,  was  born  near  Chapel 
Hill,  Tennessee,  on  the  i3th  of  July  1821.  Before  his  father's 
death  in  1837  the  family  had  removed  to  Mississippi,  and  for 
some  years  thereafter  it  was  supported  principally  by  Nathan, 
who  was  the  eldest  son.  Thus  he  never  received  any  formal 
education  (as  witnessed  by  the  uncouth  phraseology  and  spelling 
of  his  war  despatches) ,  but  he  managed  to  teach  himself  with  very 
fair  success,  and  is  said  to  have  possessed  considerable  ability 
as  a  mathematician.  He  was  in  turn  a  horse  and  cattle  trader  in 
Mississippi,  and  a  slave  dealer  and  horse  trader  in  Memphis,  until 
1859,  when  he  took  to  cotton  planting  in  north-western  Missis- 
sippi, where  he  acquired  considerable  wealth.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  in  1861  he  volunteered  as  a  private,  raised  a 
cavalry  battalion,  of  which  he  was  lieut.-colonel,  and  in  February 
1862  took  part  in  the  defence  of  Fort  Donelson,  and  refusing,  like 
Generals  Floyd  and  Pillow,  to  capitulate  with  the  rest  of  the 
Confederate  forces,  made  his  way  out,  before  the  surrender,  with 
all  the  mounted  troops  there.  He  was  promptly  made  a  colonel 
and  regimental  commander,  and  fought  at  Shiloh  with  distinction, 
receiving  a  severe  wound.  Shortly  after  this  he  was  promoted 
brigadier-general  (July  1862).  At  the  head  of  a  mounted  brigade 
he  took  a  brilliant  part  in  General  Bragg's  autumn  campaign, 
and  in  the  winter  of  1862-1863  he  was  continually  active  in 
raiding  the  hostile  lines  of  communication.  These  raids  have 
been  the  theme  of  innumerable  discussions,  and  on  the  whole 
their  value  seems  to  have  been  overrated.  At  the  same  time, 
and  apart  from  the  question  of  their  utility,  Forrest's  raids  were 
uniformly  bold  and  skilful,  and  are  his  chief  title  to  fame  in  the 
history  of  the  cavalry  arm.  Indeed,  next  to  Stuart  and  Sheridan, 
he  was  the  finest  cavalry  leader  of  the  whole  war.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  of  his  actions  was  his  capture,  near  Rome, 
Georgia,  after  five  days  of  marching  and  fighting,  of  an  entire 
cavalry  brigade  under  Colonel  A.  D.  Streight  (April  1863).  He 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga  in  September,  after 
which  (largely  on  account  of  his  criticism  of  General  Bragg,  the 
army  commander)  he  was  transferred  to  the  Mississippi.  Forrest 
was  made  a  major-general  in  December  1863.  In  the  winter  of 
1863-1864  he  was  as  active  as  ever,  and  in  the  spring  of  1864  he 
raided  as  far  north  as  Paducah,  Ky.  On  the  i2th  of  April  1864 
he  assaulted  and  captured  Fort  Pillow,  in  Tennessee  on  the 
Mississippi;  U.S.  negro  troops  formed  a  large  part  of  the  garrison 
and  according  to  survivors  many  were  massacred  after  the  fort 
had  surrendered.  The  "  Massacre  of  Fort  Pillow  "  has  been  the 
x.  22 


subject  of  much  controversy  and  there  is  much  conflicting 
testimony  regarding  it,  but  it  seems  probable  that  Forrest  himself 
had  no  part  in  it.  On  the  loth  of  June  Forrest  decisively  defeated 
a  superior  Federal  force  at  Brice's  Cross  Roads,  Miss.,  and 
throughout  the  year,  though  the  greatest  efforts  were  made  by  the 
Federals  to  crush  him,  he  raided  in  Mississippi,  Tennessee  and 
Alabama  with  almost  unvarying  success.  He  was  once  more  with 
the  main  Confederate  army  of  the  West  in  the  last  disastrous 
campaign  of  Nashville,  and  fought  stubborn  rearguard  actions  to 
cover  the  retreat  of  the  broken  Confederates.  In  February  1865 
he  was  made  a  lieut. -general,  but  the  struggle  was  almost  at 
an  end  and  General  James  H.  Wilson,  one  of  the  ablest  of  the 
Union  cavalry  generals,  rapidly  forced  back  the  few  Confederates, 
now  under  Forrest's  command,  and  stormed  Selma,  Alabama, 
on  the  2nd  of  April.  The  surrender  of  General  Forrest  and  his 
whole  command,  under  the  agreement  between  General  Richard 
Taylor  and  General  E.  S.  Canby,  followed  on  the  9th  of  May. 
After  the  war  he  lived  in  Memphis.  He  sold  his  cotton  plantation 
in  1867,  and  for  some  years  was  president  of  the  Selma,  Marion 
and  Memphis  Railroad.  He  died  at  Memphis,  Tennessee,  on  the 
29th  of  October  1877. 

The  military  character  of  General  Forrest,  apart  from  questions 
of  his  technical  skill,  horsemastership  and  detail  special  to  his 
arm  of  the  service,  was  admittedly  that  of  a  great  leader.  He 
never  commanded  a  large  force  of  all  arms.  He  was  uneducated, 
and  had  neither  experience  of  nor  training  for  the  strategical 
handling  of  great  armies.  Yet  his  personality  and  his  natural 
soldierly  gifts  were  such  that  General  Sherman  considered  him 
"  the  most  remarkable  man  the  Civil  War  produced  on  either 
side."  Joseph  Johnston,  the  Confederate  general  whose  great- 
ness lay  above  all  in  calm  and  critical  judgment,  said  that  Forrest, 
had  he  had  the  advantage  of  a  thorough  military  training,  "  would 
have  been  the  great  central  figure  of  the  war." 

See  the  biographies  by  J.  A.  Wyeth  (1899)  and  J.  H.  Mathes  (1902). 

FORSKAL,  PETER  (1736-1763),  Swedish  traveller  and 
naturalist,  was  born  in  Kalmar  in  1 736.  He  studied  at  Gottingen, 
where  he  published  a  dissertation  entitled  Dubia  de  principals 
philosophiae  recentioris  (1756).  Thence  he  returned  to  his 
native  country,  which,  however,  he  had  to  leave  after  the  publica- 
tion of  a  pamphlet  entitled  Pensees  sttr  la  liberte  civile  (1759). 
By  Linnaeus  he  was  recommended  to  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark, 
who  appointed  him  to  accompany  Carsten  Niebuhr  in  an  expedi- 
tion to  Arabia  and  Egypt  in  1761.  He  died  of  the  plague  at 
Jerim  in  Arabia  on  the  nth  of  July  1763. 

His  friend  and  companion,  Niebuhr,  was  entrusted  with  the 
care  of  editing  his  MSS.,  and  published  in  1775  Descripliones 
animalium,  avium,  amphibiorum,  piscium,  insectorum,  vermium, 
quae  in  itin.  Orient,  observavit  Petrus  Forskal.  In  the  same  year 
appeared  also  his  account  of  the  plants  of  Arabia  Felix  and  of  lower 
Egypt,  under  the  title  of  Flora  Aegyptiaco-Arabica. 

FORSSELL,  HANS  LUDVIG  (1843-1901),  Swedish  historian 
and  political  writer,  the  son  of  Adolf  Forssell,  a  distinguished 
mathematician,  was  born  at  Gefle,  where  his  father  was  pro- 
fessor, on  i4th  January  1843.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  became 
a  student  in  Upsala  University,  where  he  distinguished  himself, 
and  where,  in  1866,  having  taken  the  degree  of  doctor,  he  was 
appointed  reader  in  history.  At  the  age  of  thirty,  however, 
Forssell,  who  had  already  shown  remarkable  business  capacity, 
was  called  to  Stockholm,  where  he  filled  one  important  post 
after  another  in  the  Swedish  civil  service.  In  1875  he  was 
appointed  head  of  the  treasury,  and  in  1880  was  transferred  to 
the  department  of  inland  revenue,  of  which  he  continued  to  be 
president  until  the  time  of  his  death.  In  addition  to  the  re- 
sponsibilities which  these  offices  devolved  upon  him,  Forssell 
was  constantly  called  to  serve  on  royal  commissions,  and  his 
political  influence  was  immense.  In  spite  of  all  these  public 
duties,  which  he  carried  through  with  the  utmost  diligence, 
Forssell  also  found  leisure  for  an  abundant  literary  activity.  Of 
his  historical  writings  the  most  important  were:  The  Ad- 
ministrative and  Economical  History  of  Sweden  after  Gustavus  I. 
(1869-1875)  and  Sweden  in  1571  (1872).  He  was  also  for  several 
years,  in  company  with  the  poet  Wirsen,  editor  of  the  Swedish 
Literary  Review.  He  published  two  volumes  of  Studies  and 


674 


FORST- -FORSTER,  J.  G.  A. 


Criticisms  (1875,  1888).  In  the  year  1881,  at  the  death  of  the 
historian  Anders  Fryxell,  Forssell  was  elected  to  the  vacant  seat 
on  the  Swedish  Academy.  The  energy  of  Forssell  was  so  great, 
and  he  understood  so  little  the  economy  of  strength,  that  he 
unquestionably  overtaxed  his  vital  force.  His  death,  however, 
which  occurred  with  great  suddenness  on  the  2nd  of  August  1901 
while  he  was  staying  at  San  Bernardino  in  Switzerland,  was 
wholly  unexpected.  There  was  little  of  the  typical  Swedish 
urbanity  in  Forssell's  exterior  manner,  which  was  somewhat  dry 
and  abrupt.  Like  many  able  men  who  have  from  early  life 
administered  responsible  public  posts,  there  appeared  a  certain 
want  of  sympathy  in  his  demands  upon  others.  His  views  were 
distinct,  and  held  with  great  firmness;  for  example,  he  was  a 
free-trader,  and  his  consistent  opposition  to  what  he  called  "  the 
new  system  "  had  a  considerable  effect  on  Swedish  policy.  He 
was  not  exactly  an  attractive  man,  but  he  was  a  capable,  upright 
and  efficient  public  servant.  In  1867  he  married  Miss  Zulamith 
Eneroth,  a  daughter  of  the  well-known  pomologist  of  Upsala; 
she  survived  him,  with  two  sons  and  two  daughters.  (E.  G.) 

FORST  (originally  FORSTA  or  FORSTE),  a  town  of  Germany, 
in  the  Prussian  province  of  Brandenburg,  on  the  Neisse,  44  m. 
S.E.  of  Frankfort-on-Oder.  Pop.  (1905)  33,757.  It  has  two 
Evangelical,  a  Roman  Catholic  and  an  Old  Lutheran  church; 
there  are  two  schools  and  two  hospitals  in  the  town.  The  chief 
industry  of  Forst  is  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  but  spinning, 
dyeing  and  the  making  of  artificial  flowers  are  also  carried  on. 
Founded  in  the  i3th  century,  Forst  passed  in  1667  to  the  duke 
of  Saxe-Merseburg,  becoming  part  of  electoral  Saxony  in  1740. 
It  was  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815. 

FORSTER,  FRANCOIS  (1790-1872),  French  engraver,  was 
born  at  Locle  in  Neufchatel,  on  the  22nd  of  August  1790.  In 
1805  he  was  apprenticed  to  an  engraver  in  Paris,  and  he  also 
studied  painting  and  engraving  simultaneously  in  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux-Arts.  His  preference  was  ultimately  fixed  on  the  latter 
art,  and  on  his  obtaining  in  1814  the  first "  grand  prix  de  gravure," 
the  king  of  Prussia,  who  was  then  with  the  allies  in  Paris, 
bestowed  on  him  a  gold  medal,  and  a  pension  of  1 500  francs  for 
two  years.  With  the  aid  of  this  sum  he  pursued  his  studies  in 
Rome,  where  his  attention  was  devoted  chiefly  to  the  works 
of  Raphael.  In  1844  he  succeeded  Tardieu  in  the  Academy. 
He  died  at  Paris  on  the  27th  of  June  1872.  Forster  occupied 
the  first  position  among  the  French  engravers  of  his  time,  and 
was  equally  successful  in  historical  pieces  and  in  portraits. 
Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned — The  Three  Graces,  and 
La  Vierge  de  la  legende,  after  Raphael;  La  Vierge  au  bas-relief, 
after  Leonardo  da  Vinci;  Francis  I.  and  Charles  V.,  after  Gros; 
St  Cecilia,  after  Paul  Delaroche;  Albert  Diirer  and  Henry  IV., 
after  Porbus;  Wellington,  after  Gerard;  and  Queen  Victoria, 
after  Winterhalter. 

FORSTER,  FRIEDRICH  CHRISTOPH  (1791-1868),  German 
historian  and  poet,  was  the  second  son  of  Karl  Christoph  Forster 
(1751-1811),  and  consequently  a  brother  of  the  painter,  Ernest 
Joachim  Forster  (1800-1885).  Born  at  Munchengosserstadt  on 
the  Saale  on  the  24th  of  September  1791,  he  received  his  early 
education  at  Altenburg,  and  after  a  course  of  theology  at  Jena, 
devoted  some  time  to  archaeology  and  the  history  of  art.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  Liberation  in  1813,  he  joined  the  army, 
quickly  attaining  the  rank  of  captain;  and  by  his  war-songs 
added  to  the  national  enthusiasm.  On  the  conclusion  of  the 
war  he  was  appointed  professor  at  the  school  of  engineering  and 
artillery  in  Berlin,  but  on  account  of  some  democratic  writings 
he  was  dismissed  from  this  office  in  1817.  He  then  became 
connected  with  various  journals  until  about  1829,  when  he 
received  an  appointment  at  the  royal  museum  in  Berlin,  with 
the  title  of  court  councillor  (Hofrat).  He  was  the  founder  and 
secretary  of  the  Wissenschaftlicher  Kunstiierein  in  Berlin,  and 
died  in  Berlin  on  the  8th  of  November  1868.  Forster's  principal 
v/orks  are:  Beitrage  zur  neueren  Kriegsgeschichte  (Berlin,  1816); 
Grundzuge  der  Geschichte  des  preussischen  Staates  (Berlin,  1818); 
Der  Feldmarschall  Blucher  und  seine  Umgebungen  (Leipzig, 
1820);  Friedrich  der  Grosse,  Jugendjahre,  Bildung  und  Geist 
(Berlin,  1822);  Albrecht  von  Wallenstein  (Potsdam,  1834); 


Friedrich  Wilhelml.,  Konigwn  Preussen  (Potsdam,  1834-1835); 
Die  Hofe  und  Kabinette  Europas  im  18.  Jahrhundert  (Potsdam, 
1836-1839);  Leben  und  Taten  Friedrichs  des  Grossen  (Meissen, 
1840-1841);  Wallensleins  Prozess  (Leipzig,  1844);  and  Preussens 
Helden  in  Krieg  und  Frieden,  neuere  und  neueste  preussische 
Geschichte,  7  volumes  (Berlin,  1849-1860).  The  three  concluding 
volumes  of  this  work  contain  the  history  of  the  war  of  liberation 
of  1813-14-15.  He  brought  out  an  edition  of  Hegel's  works, 
adapted  several  of  Shakespeare's  plays  for  the  theatre,  wrote  a 
number  of  poems  and  an  historical  drama,  Gustaii  Adolf  (Berlin, 
1832). 

Many  of  bis  lesser  writings  were  collected  and  published  as 
Krifgslicder,  Romanzen,  Erzdhlungen  und  Legenden  (Berlin,  1838). 
The  beginning  of  an  autobiography  of  Forster,  edited  by  H.  Kletke. 
has  been  publishad  under  the  title,  Kunst  und  Leben  (Berlin,  1873). 

FORSTER,  JOHANN  GEORG  ADAM  (1754-1794),  German 
traveller  and  author,  was  born  at  Nassenhuben,  a  small  village 
near  Danzig,  on  the  27th  of  November  1754.  His  father,  Johann 
Reinhold  Forster,  a  man  of  great  scientific  attainments  but  an 
intractable  temper,  was  at  that  time  pastor  of  the  place;  the 
family  are  said  to  have  been  of  Scottish  extraction.  In  1765  the 
elder  Forster  was  commissioned  by  the  empress  Catherine 
to  inspect  the  Russian  colonies  in  the  province  of  Saratov, 
which  gave  his  son  an  opportunity  of  acquiring  the  Russian 
language  and  the  elements  of  a  scientific  education.  After  a 
few  years  the  father  quarrelled  with  the  Russian  government, 
and  went  to  England,  where  he  obtained  a  professorship  of 
natural  history  and  the  modern  languages  at  the  famous  non- 
conformist academy  at  Warrington.  His  violent  temper  soon 
compelled  him  to  resign  this  appointment,  and  for  two  years 
he  and  his  son  earned  a  precarious  livelihood  by  translations  in 
London — a  practical  education,  however,  exceedingly  useful 
to  the  younger  Forster,  who  became  a  thorough  master  of 
English,  and  acquired  many  of  the  ideas  which  chiefly  influenced 
his  subsequent  life.  At  length  the  turning  point  in  his  career 
came  in  the  shape  cf  an  invitation  for  him  and  his  father  to 
accompany  Captain  Cook  in  his  third  voyage  round  the  world. 
Such  an  expedition  was  admirably  calculated  to  call  forth 
Forster's  peculiar  powers.  His  account  of  Cook's  voyage 
(A  Voyage  round  the  World,  London,  1777;  in  German,  Berlin, 
1778-1780),  is  almost  the  first  example  of  the  glowing  yet 
faithful  description  of  natural  phenomena  which  has  since 
made  a  knowledge  of  them  the  common  property  of  the  educated 
world.  The  publication  of  this  work  was,  however,  impeded  for 
some  time  by  differences  with  the  admiralty,  during  which 
Forster  proceeded  to  the  continent  to  obtain  an  appointment 
for  his  father  as  professor  at  Cassel,  and  found  to  his  surprise 
that  it  was  conferred  upon  himself.  The  elder  Forster,  however, 
was  soon  provided  for  elsewhere,  being  appointed  professor 
of  natural  history  at  Halle.  At  Cassel  Forster  formed  an  intimate 
friendship  with  the  great  anatomist  Sommerring,  and  about 
the  same  time  made  the  acquaintance  of  Jacobi,  who  gave  him 
a  leaning  towards  mysticism  from  which  he  subequently 
emancipated  himself.  The  want  of  books  and  scientific  apparatus 
at  Cassel  induced  him  to  resort  frequently  to  Gottingen,  where 
he  became  betrothed  to  Therese  Heyne,  the  daughter  of  the 
illustrious  philologist,  a  clever  and  cultivated  woman,  but  ill- 
suited  to  be  Forster's  wife.  To  be  able  to  marry  he  accepted 
(1784)  a  professorship  at  the  university  of  Wilna,  which  he  did 
not  find  to  his  taste.  The  penury  and  barbarism  of  Polish 
circumstances  are  graphically  described  in  his  and  his  wife's 
letters  of  this  period.  After  a  few  years'  residence  at  Wilna  he 
resigned  his  appointment  to  participate  in  a  scientific  expedition 
projected  by  the  Russian  government,  and  upon  the  relinquish- 
ment  of  this  undertaking  became  librarian  to  the  elector  of 
Mainz.  He  actively  promoted  the  incorporation  of  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine  with  France  and  in  1793  went  to  Paris  to 
carry  on  the  negotiations.  Meanwhile,  however,  the  Germans 
seized  Mainz,  and  Forster — already  disheartened  by  the  turn 
of  events  in  France — was  cut  off  from  all  return.  Domestic 
sorrows  were  added  to  his  political  troubles  and  he  died  suddenly 
at  Paris  on  the  icth  of  January  1794. 


FORSTER,  J.— FORSTER,  W.  E. 


675 


Forster's  masterpiece  is  his  Ansichten  vom  Niederrhein,  von 
Brabant,  Flandern,  Holland,  England  und  Frankreich  (1791- 
1794),  one  of  the  ablest  books  of  travel  of  the  i8th  century. 
His  style  is  clear  and  vivid;  his  method  of  describing  what 
he  sees  extraordinarily  plastic;  above  all,  he  has  the  art  of  pre- 
senting objects  to  us  from  their  most  interesting  and  attractive 
side.  The  same  qualities  are  also  more  or  less  conspicuous  in 
his  minor  writings.  By  his  translation  (from  the  English)  of  the 
Sakuntala  of  Kalidasa  (1791),  he  first  awakened  German  interest 
in  Indian  literature. 

Forster's  Samtliche  Werke  appeared  at  Leipzig  in  9  vols.  in  1843. 
The  Ansichten  vom  Rhein,  &c.,  has  been  frequently  reprinted  (best 
edition  by  A.  Leitzmann,  Halle,  1893) ;  Leitzmann  has  also  pub- 
lished (Stuttgart,  1894)  a  selection  of  Forster's  Kleine  Schriften, 
which  originally  appeared  in  6  vols.  (1789-1797).  His  correspond- 
ence was  published  by  his  wife  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1829);  his  Brief- 
•wechsel  mil  Sommerring  by  H.  Hettner  (Brunswick,  1877).  See 
J.  Moleschott,  G.  Forster,  der  Naturforscher  des  Volks  (1854;  3rd 
ed.,  1874);  K.  Klein,  G.  Forster  in  Mainz  (Gotha,  1863);  A.  Leitz- 
mann, G.  Forster  (Vorlesung)  (Halle,  1893). 

FORSTER,  JOHN  (1812-1876),  English  biographer  and  critic, 
was  born  on  the  2nd  of  April  1812  at  Newcastle.  His  father, 
who  was  a  Unitarian  and  belonged  to  the  junior  branch  of  a 
good  Northumberland  family,  was  a  cattle-dealer.  After  being 
well  grounded  in  classics  and  mathematics  at  the  grammar  school 
of  his  native  town,  John  Forster  was  sent  in  1828  to  Cambridge, 
but  after  only  a  month's  residence  he  removed  to  London,  where 
he  attended  classes  at  University  College,  and  was  entered  at  the 
Inner  Temple.  He  devoted  himself,  however,  chiefly  to  literary 
pursuits.  He  contributed  to  The  True  Sun,  The  Morning 
Chronicle  and  to  The  Examiner,  for  which  he  acted  as  literary 
and  dramatic  critic;  and  the  influence  of  his  powerful  in- 
dividuality soon  made  itself  felt.  His  Lives  of  the  Statesmen  of 
the  Commonwealth  (1836-1839)  appeared  partly  in  Lardner's 
Cyclopaedia.  He  published  the  work  separately  in  1840  with 
a  Treatise  on  the  Popular  Progress  in  English  History.  Its 
merits  obtained  immediate  recognition,  and  Forster  became 
a  prominent  figure  in  that  distinguished  circle  of  literary  men 
which  included  Bulwer,  Talfourd,  Albany,  Fonblanque,  Landor, 
Carlyle  and  Dickens.  Forster  is  said  to  have  been  for  some  time 
engaged  to  Letitia  Landon,  but  the  engagement  was  broken  off, 
and  Miss  Landon  married  George  Maclean.  In  1843  he  was 
called  to  the  bar  but  he  never  became  a  practising  lawyer. 
For  some  years  he  edited  the  Foreign  Quarterly  Review;  in  1846, 
on  the  retirement  of  Charles  Dickens,  he  took  charge  for  some 
months  of  the  Daily  News;  and  from  1847  to  1856  he  edited  the 
Examiner.  From  1836  onwards  he  contributed  to  the  Edinburgh 
Quarterly  and  Foreign  Quarterly  Reviews  a  variety  of  articles, 
some  of  which  were  republished  in  two  volumes  of  Biographical 
and  Historical  Essays  (1858).  In  1848  appeared  his  admirable 
Life  and  Times  of  Oliver  Goldsmith  (revised  in  1854).  Continuing 
his  researches  into  English  history  under  the  early  Stuarts,  he 
published  in  1860  the  Arrest  of  the  Five  Members  by  Charles  I. — 
A  Chapter  of  English  History  rewritten,  and  The  Debates  on  the 
Grand  Remonstrance,  with  an  Introductory  Essay  on  English 
Freedom.  These  were  followed  by  his  Sir  John  Eliot:  a  Bio- 
graphy (1864),  elaborated  from  one  of  his  earlier  studies  for  the 
Lives  of  Eminent  British  Statesmen.  In  1868  appeared  his  Life 
of  Landor,  and,  on  the  death  of  his  friend  Alexander  Dyce, 
Forster  undertook  the  publication  of  his  third  edition  of  Shakes- 
peare. For  several  years  he  had  been  collecting  materials  for 
a  life  of  Swift,  but  he  interrupted  his  studies  in  this  direction 
to  write  his  standard  Life  of  Charles  Dickens.  He  had  long  been 
intimate  with  the  novelist,  and  it  is  by  this  work  that  John 
Forster  is  now  chiefly  remembered.  The  first  volume  appeared 
in  1872,  and  the  biography  was  completed  in  1874.  Towards  the 
close  of  1875  the  first  volume  of  his  Life  of  Swift  was  published; 
and  he  had  made  some  progress  in  the  preparation  of  the  second 
at  the  time  of  his  death  on  the  2nd  of  February  1876.  In  1855 
Forster  had  been  appointed  secretary  to  the  lunacy  commission, 
and  from  1861  to  1872  he  held  the  office  of  a  commissioner  in 
lunacy.  His  valuable  collection  of  manuscripts,  including  the 
original  copies  of  Charles  Dickens's  novels,  together  with  his 


books   and    pictures,    was   bequeathed    to    South    Kensington 
Museum. 

An  admirable  account  of  him  by  Henry  Morley  is  prefixed  to  the 
official  handbook  (1877)  of  the  Dyce  and  Forster  bequests. 

FORSTER,  JOHN  COOPER  (1823-1886),  British  surgeon,  was 
born  in  1823  in  Lambeth,  London,  where  his  father  and  grand- 
father before  him  had  been  local  medical  practitioners.  He  entered 
Guy's  hospital  in  1841,  was  appointed  demonstrator  of  anatomy 
in  1850,  assistant-surgeon,  1855,  and  surgeon,  1870.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  in  1844,  fellow  in  1849  and 
president  in  1884.  He  was  a  prompt  and  sometimes  bold  operator. 
In  1858  he  performed  practically  the  first  gastrostomy  in  England 
for  a  case  of  cancer  of  the  oesophagus.  Among  his  best-known 
papers  were  discussions  of  acupressure,  syphilis,  hydrophobia, 
intestinal  obstruction,  modified  obturator  hernia,  torsion,  and 
colloid  cancer  of  the  large  intestine;  and  he  published  a  book 
on  Surgical  Diseases  of  Children  in  1860,  founded  on  his  ex- 
perience as  surgeon  to  the  hospital  for  children  and  women  in 
Waterloo  Road.  He  died  suddenly  in  London  on  the  2nd  of 
March  1886. 

FORSTER,  WILLIAM  EDWARD  (1818-1886),  British  states- 
man, was  born  of  Quaker  parents  at  Bradpole  in  Dorsetshire 
on  the  nth  of  July  1818.  He  was  educated  at  the  Friends' 
school  at  Tottenham,  where  his  father's  family  had  long  been 
settled,  and  on  leaving  school  he  was  put  into  business.  He 
declined,  however,  on  principle,  to  enter  a  brewery.  Becoming 
in  due  time  a  woollen  manufacturer  in  a  large  way  at  Bradford, 
Yorkshire  (from  which  after  his  marriage  he  moved  to  Burley-in- 
Wharf edale) ,  he  soon  made  himself  known  as  a  practical  philan- 
thropist. In  1846-1847  he  accompanied  his  father  to  Ireland 
as  distributor  of  the  Friends'  relief  fund  for  the  famine  in 
Connemara,  and  the  state  of  the  country  made  a  deep  impression 
on  him.  In  1849  he  wrote  a  preface  to  a  new  edition  of  Clarkson's 
Life  of  William  Penn,  defending  the  Quaker  statesman  against 
Macaulay's  criticisms.  In  1850  he  married  Jane  Martha,  eldest 
daughter  of  the  famous  Dr  Arnold  of  Rugby.  She  was  not  a 
Quaker,  and  her  husband  was  formally  excommunicated  for 
marrying  her,  but  the  Friends  who  were  commissioned  to 
announce  the  sentence  "  shook  hands  and  stayed  to  luncheon." 
Forster  thereafter  ranked  himself  as  a  member  of  the  Church  of 
England,  for  which,  indeed,  he  was  in  later  life  charged  with 
having  too  great  a  partiality.  There  were  no  children  of  the 
marriage,  but  when  Mrs  Forster's  brother,  William  Arnold,  died 
in  1859,  leaving  four  orphans,  the  Forsters  adopted  them  as 
their  own. 

One  of  these  children  was  Mr  H.  O.  Arnold-Forster  (1855- 
1909),  the  well-known  Liberal-Unionist  member  of  parliament, 
who  eventually  became  a  member  of  Mr  Balfour's  cabinet;  he 
was  secretary  to  the  admiralty  (1900-1903),  and  then  secretary 
of  state  for  war  (1903-1905),  and  was  the  author  of  numerous 
educational  books  published  by  Cassell  &  Co.,  of  which  firm  he 
was  a  director. 

W.  E.  Forster  gradually  began  to  take  an  active  part  in  public 
affairs  by  speaking  and  lecturing.  In  1858  he  gave  a  lecture 
before  the  Leeds  Philosophical  Institution  on  "  How  we  Tax 
India."  In  1859  he  stood  as  Liberal  candidate  for  Leeds,  but 
was  beaten.  But  he  was  highly  esteemed  in  the  West  Riding, 
and  in  1861  he  was  returned  unopposed  for  Bradford.  In  1865 
(unopposed)  and  in  1868  (at  the  head  of  the  poll)  he  was  again 
returned.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  parliament  in  the  debates 
on  the  American  Civil  War,  and  in  1868  was  made  under- 
secretary for  the  colonies  in  Earl  Russell's  ministry.  It  was  then 
that  he  first  became  a  prominent  advocate  of  imperial  federation. 
In  1866  his  attitude  on  parliamentary  reform  attracted  a  good 
deal  of  attention.  His  speeches  were  full  of  knowledge  of  the 
real  condition  of  the  people,  and  contained  something  like  an 
original  programme  of  Radical  legislation.  "  We  have  other 
things  to  do,"  he  said,  "  besides  extending  the  franchise.  We 
want  to  make  Ireland  loyal  and  contented;  we  want  to  get  rid 
of  pauperism  in  this  country;  we  want  to  fight  against  a  class 
which  is  more  to  be  dreaded  than  the  holders  of  a  £7  franchise — 
I  mean  the  dangerous  class  in  our  large  towns.  We  want  to  see 


676 

whether  we  cannot  make  for  the  agricultural  labourer  some 
better  hope  than  the  workhouse  in  his  old  age.  We  want  to  have 
Old  England  as  well  taught  as  New  England."  In  these  words 
he  heralded  the  education  campaign  which  occupied  the  country 
for  so  many  years  afterwards.  Directly  the  Reform  Bill  had 
passed,  the  necessity  of  "  inducing  our  masters  to  learn  their 
letters "  (in  Robert  Lowe's  phrase)  became  pressing.  Mr 
Forster  and  Mr  Cardwell,  as  private  members  in  opposition, 
brought  in  Education  Bills  in  1867' and  1868;  and  in  1868,  when 
the  Liberal  party  returned  to  office,  Mr  Forster  was  appointed 
vice-president  of  the  council,  with  the  duty  of  preparing  a 
government  measure  for  national  education.  The  Elementary 
Education  Bill  (see  EDUCATION)  was  introduced  on  the  i7th  of 
February  1870.  The  religious  difficulty  at  once  came  to  the  front. 
The  Manchester  Education  Union  and  the  Birmingham  Education 
League  had  already  formulated  in  the  provinces  the  two  opposing 
theories,  the  former  standing  for  the  preservation  of  denomina- 
tional interests,  the  latter  advocating  secular  rate-aided  education 
as  the  only  means  of  protecting  Nonconformity  against  the 
Church.  The  Dissenters  were  by  no  means  satisfied  with  Forster's 
"  conscience  clause  "  as  contained  in  the  bill,  and  they  regarded 
him,  the  ex-Quaker,  as  a  deserter  from  their  own  side;  while 
they  resented  the  "  25th  clause,"  permitting  school  boards  to 
pay  the  fees  of  needy  children  at  denominational  schools  out  of 
the  rates,  as  an  insidious  attack  upon  themselves.  By  the  i4th 
of  March,  when  the  second  reading  came  on,  the  controversy 
had  assumed  threatening  proportions;  and  Mr  Dixon,  the 
Liberal  member  for  Birmingham  and  chairman  of  the  Education 
League,  moved  an  amendment,  the  effect  of  which  was  to 
prohibit  all  religious  education  in  board  schools.  The  govern- 
ment made  its  rejection  a  question  of  confidence,  and  the  amend- 
ment was  withdrawn;  but  the  result  was  the  insertion  of  the 
Cowper-Temple  clause  as  a  compromise  before  the  bill  passed. 
Extremists  on  both  sides  abused  Forster,  but  the  government 
had  a  difficult  set  of  circumstances  to  deal  with,  and  he  acted 
like  a  prudent  statesman  in  contenting  himself  with  what  he 
could  get.  An  ideal  bill  was  impracticable;  it  is  to  Forster's 
enduring  credit  that  the  bill  of  1870,  imperfect  as  it  was,  estab- 
lished at  last  some  approach  to  a  system  of  national  education 
in  England  without  running  absolutely  counter  to  the  most 
cherished  English  ideas  and  without  ignoring  the  principal 
agencies  already  in  existence. 

Forster's  next  important  work  was  in  passing  the  Ballot  Act 
of  1872,  but  for  several  years  afterwards  his  life  was  uneventful. 
In  1874  he  was  again  returned  for  Bradford,  in  spite  of  Dissenting 
attacks,  and  he  took  his  full  share  of  the  work  of  the  Opposition 
Front  Bench.  In  1875,  when  Mr  Gladstone  "  retired,"  he  was 
strongly  supported  for  the  leadership  of  the  Liberal  party,  but 
declined  to  be  nominated  against  Lord  Hartington.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  elected  F.R.S.,  and  made  lord  rector  of  Aberdeen 
University.  In  1876,  when  the  Eastern  question  was  looming 
large,  he  visited  Servia  and  Turkey,  and  his  subsequent  speeches 
on  the  subject  were  marked  by  studious  moderation,  distasteful 
to  extremists  on  both  sides.  On  Mr  Gladstone's  return  to  office 
in  1880  he  was  made  chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  with  Lord 
Cowper  as  lord-lieutenant.  He  carried  the  Compensation  for 
Disturbance  Bill  through  the  Commons,  only  to  see  it  thrown 
out  in  the  Lords,  and  his  task  was  made  more  difficult  by  the 
agitation  which  arose  in  consequence.  During  the  gloomy 
autumn  and  winter  of  1880-1881  Forster's  energy  and  devotion 
in  grappling  with  the  situation  in  Ireland  (see  IRELAND)  were 
indefatigable,  his  labour  was  enormous,  and  the  personal  risks 
he  ran  were  many;  but  he  enjoyed  the  Irish  character  in  spite 
of  all  obstacles,  and  inspired  genuine  admiration  in  all  his 
coadjutors.  On  the  24th  of  January  1881  he  introduced  a  new 
Coercion  Bill  in  the  House  of  Commons,  to  deal  with  the  growth  of 
the  Land  League,  and  in  the  course  of  his  speech  declared  it  to  be 
"  the  most  painful  duty  "  he  had  ever  had  to  perform,  and  one 
which  would  have  prevented  his  accepting  his  office  if  he  had 
known  that  it  would  fall  upon  him.  The  bill  passed,  among  its 
provisions  being  one  enabling  the  Irish  government  to  arrest 
without  trial  persons  "  reasonably  suspected  "  of  crime  and 


FORSTER,  W.  E. 


conspiracy.  The  Irish  party  used  every  opportunity  in  and  out 
of  parliament  for  resenting  this  act,  and  Forster  was  kept  con- 
stantly on  the  move  between  Dublin  and  London,  conducting 
his  campaign  against  crime  and  anarchy  and  defending  it  in 
the  House  of  Commons.  His  scrupulous  conscientiousness  and 
anxiety  to  meet  every  reasonable  claim  availed  him  nothing 
with  such  antagonists,  and  the  strain  was  intense  and  continuous. 
He  was  nicknamed  "  Buckshot  "  by  the  Nationalist  press,  on 
the  supposition  that  he  had  ordered  its  use  by  the  police  when 
firing  on  a  crowd.  On  the  i3th  of  October  Mr  Parnell  was 
arrested,  and  on  the  2oth  the  Land  League  was  proclaimed. 
From  that  time  Forster's  life  was  in  constant  danger,  and  he 
had  to  be  escorted  by  mounted  police  when  he  drove  in  Dublin. 
Early  in  March  1882  he  visited  some  of  the  worst  districts  in 
Ireland,  and  addressed  the  crowd  at  Tullamore  on  the  subject 
of  outrages,  denouncing  the  people  for  their  want  of  courage  in 
not  assisting  the  government,  but  adding,  "  whether  you  do  or 
not,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  government  to  stop  the  outrages,  and 
stop  them  we  will."  Forster's  pluck  in  speaking  out  like  this 
was  fully  appreciated  in  England,  but  it  was  not  till  after  the 
revelations  connected  with  the  Phoenix  Park  murders  that  the 
dangers  he  had  confronted  were  properly  realized,  and  it  became 
known  that  several  plans  to  murder  him  had  only  been  frustrated 
by  the  merest  accidents.  On  the  2nd  of  May  Mr  Gladstone 
announced  that  the  government  intended  to  release  Mr  Parnell 
and  his  fellow-prisoners  .in  Kilmainham,  and  that  both  Lord 
Cowper  and  Mr  Forster  had  in  consequence  resigned;  and 
the  following  Saturday  Forster's  successor,  Lord  Frederick 
Cavendish,  was,  with  Mr  Burke,  murdered  in  Phoenix  Park.  It 
was  characteristic  of  the  man  that  Forster  at  once  offered  to  go 
back  to  Dublin  temporarily  as  chief  secretary,  but  the  offer  was 
declined.  His  position  naturally  attracted  universal  attention 
towards  him,  particularly  during  the  debates  which  ensued  in 
parliament  on  the  "  Kilmainham  Treaty."  But  Mr  Gladstone's 
influence  with  the  Liberal  party  was  paramount,  in  spite  of  the 
damaging  appearance  of  the  compact  made  with  Parnell,  and 
Forster's  pointed  criticisms  only  caused  thoroughgoing  partisans 
to  accuse  him  of  a  desire  to  avenge  himself.  It  was  not  till  the 
next  session  that  he  delivered  his  fiercest  attack  on  Parnell  in 
the  debate  on  the  address,  denouncing  him  for  his  connexion  with 
the  Land  League,  and  quoting  against  him  the  violent  speeches 
of  his  supporters  and  the  articles  of  his  newspaper  organs.  It 
was  on  this  occasion  that  Parnell,  on  Forster's  charging  him, 
not  with  directly  planning  or  perpetrating  outrages  or  murder, 
but  with  conniving  at  them,  ejaculated  "  It's  a  lie  ";  and, 
replying  on  the  next  day,  the  Irish  leader,  instead  of  disproving 
Forster's  charges,  bitterly  denounced  his  methods  of  administra- 
tion. Though,  during  the  few  remaining  years  of  his  life, 
Forster's  political  record  covered  various  interesting  subjects, 
his  connexion  with  these  stormy  times  in  Ireland  throws  them 
all  into  shadow.  He  died  on  the  6th  of  April  1886,  on  the  eve 
of  the  introduction  of  the  Home  Rule  Bill,  to  which  he  was 
stoutly  opposed.  In  the  interval  there  had  been  other  questions 
on  which  he  found  himself  at  variance  with  Gladstonian  Liberal- 
ism, for  instance,  as  regards  the  Sudan  and  the  Transvaal,  nor 
was  he  inclined  to  stomach  the  claims  of  the  Caucus  or  the 
Birmingham  programme.  When  the  Redistribution  Act  divided 
Bradford  into  three  constituencies,  Forster  was  returned  for  the 
central  division,  but  he  never  took  his  seat  in  the  new  parliament. 
Forster,  like  John  Bright,  was  an  excellent  representative 
of  the  English  middle-class  in  public  life.  Patriotic,  energetic, 
independent,  incorruptible,  shrewd,  fair-minded,  he  was  endowed 
not  only  with  great  sympathy  with  progress,  but  also  with  a  full 
faculty  for  resistance  to  mere  democraticism.  He  was  tall  (the 
Yorkshiremen  called  him  "  Long  Forster  ")  and  strongly  though 
stiffly  built,  and,  with  his  simple  tastes  and  straightforward 
manners  and  methods,  was  a  typical  North-country  figure. 
His  oratory  was  rough  and  unpolished,  but  full  of  freshness  and 
force  and  genuine  feeling.  It  was  Forster  who,  when  appealing 
to  the  government  at  the  time  of  Gordon's  danger  at  Khartum, 
spoke  of  Mr  Gladstone  as  able  "  to  persuade  most  people  of  most 
things,  and  himself  of  almost  anything,"  and  though  the  phrase 


FORSYTH— FORT  EDWARD 


677 


was  much  resented  by  Mr  Gladstone's  entourage,  the  truth  that 
underlay  it  may  be  taken  as  representing  the  very  converse  of 
his  own  character.  His  personal  difficulties  with  some  of  his 
colleagues,  both  in  regard  to  the  Education  Act  of  1870  and  his 
Irish  administration,  must  be  properly  understood  if  a  complete 
comprehension  of  his  political  career  is  to  be  obtained.  For  an 
account  of  them  we  need  only  refer  to  the  Life  of  the  Right  Hon. 
W.  E.  Forster,  by  Sir  T.  Wemyss  Reid.  (H.  CH.) 

FORSYTH,  PETER  TAYLOR  (1848-  ),  British  Noncon- 
formist divine,  was  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1848.  He.took  first-class 
honours  in  classics  at  Aberdeen,  subsequently  studied  at  Got- 
tingen  (under  Ritschl)  and  at  New  College,  Hampstead,  and 
entered  the  Congregational  ministry.  Having  held  pastorates 
at  Shipley,  Hackney,  Manchester,  Leicester  and  Cambridge,  he 
became  principal  of  Hackney  Theological  College,  Hampstead, 
in  1901.  In  1907  he  delivered  the  Lyman  Beecher  lectures  on 
preaching  at  Yale  University,  published  as  Positive  Preaching  and 
Modern  Mind.  Among  his  other  publications  may  be  mentioned 
Religion  in  Recent  Art,  and  articles  in  the  Contemporary  Review, 
Hibbert  Journal,  and  London  Quarterly.  He  was  chairman  of  the 
Congregational  Union  of  England  and  Wales  in  1905. 

FORTALEZA  (usually  called  CEARA  by  foreigners),  a  city 
and  port  of  Brazil  and  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Ceara,  on  a 
crescent-shaped  indentation  of  the  coast-line  immediately  W. 
of  Cape  Mucuripe  or  Mocoripe,  7j  m.  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Ceara  river,  in  lat.  3°  42'  S.,  long.  38°  30'  W.  Pop.  (1890)  of  the 
municipality,  including  a  large  rural  district,  40,902.  The  city 
stands  on  an  open  sandy  plain  overlooking  the  sea,  and  is 
regularly  laid  out,  with  broad,  well-paved,  gas-lighted  streets 
and  numerous  squares.  Owing  to  the  aridity  of  the  climate 
the  vegetation  is  less  luxuriant  than  in  most  Brazilian  cities. 
The  temperature  is  usually  high,  but  it  is  modified  by  the  strong 
sea  winds.  Fortaleza  has  suffered  much  from  epidemics  of 
yellow-fever,  small-pox  and  beri-beri,  but  the  climate  is  con- 
sidered to  be  healthy.  A  small  branch  of  the  Ceara  river,  called 
the  Pajehu,  traverses  the  city  and  divides  it  into  two  parts, 
that  on  its  right  bank  being  locally  known  as  Outeiro.  Fortaleza 
is  the  see  of  a  bishopric,  created  in  1854,  but  it  has  no  cathedral, 
one  of  its  ten  churches  being  used  for  that  purpose.  Its  public 
buildings  include  the  government  house,  legislative  chambers, 
bishop's  palace,  an  episcopal  seminary,  a  lyceum  (high  school), 
Misericordia  hospital,  and  asylums  for  mendicants  and  the 
insane.  The  custom-house  stands  nearer  the  seashore,  i£  m. 
from  the  railway  station  in  the  city,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  rail.  The  port  is  the  principal  outlet  for  the  products  of  the 
state,  but  its  anchorage  is  an  open  roadstead,  one  of  the  most 
dangerous  on  the  northern  coast  of  Brazil,  and  all  ships  are 
compelled  to  anchor  well  out  from  shore  and  discharge  into 
lighters.  Port  improvements  designed  by  the  eminent  engineer 
Sir  John  Hawkshaw  have  been  under  construction  for  many 
years,  but  have  made  very  slow  progress.  The  Baturite  railway, 
built  by  the  national  government  partly  to  give  employment 
to  starving  refugees  in  times  of  long-continued  droughts,  connects 
the  city  and  its  port  with  fertile  regions  to  the  S.W.,  and  extends 
to  Senador  Pompeu,  178  m.  distant.  The  exports  include  sugar, 
coffee,  rubber,  cotton,  rum,  rice,  beans,  fruits,  hides  and 
skins. 

Fortaleza  had  its  origin  in  a  small  village  adjoining  a  fort 
established  at  this  point  in  early  colonial  times.  In  1654  it  took 
the  name  of  Villa  do  Forte  da  Assumpcao,  but  it  was  generally 
spoken  of  as  Fortaleza.  In  1810  it  became  the  capital  of  Ceara, 
and  in  1823  it  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  city  under  the  title 
of  Fortaleza  da  Nova  Braganca. 

FORT  AUGUSTUS,  a  village  of  Inverness-shire,  Scotland. 
Pop.  (1901)  706.  It  is  delightfully  situated  at  the  south-western 
extremity  of  Loch  Ness,  about  30  m.  S.W.  of  Inverness,  on  the 
rivers  Oich  and  Tarff  and  the  Caledonian  Canal.  A  branch  line 
connects  with  Spean  Bridge  on  the  West  Highland  railway  via 
Invergarry.  The  fort,  then  called  Kilchumin,  was  built  in  1716 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  Highlanders  in  check,  and  was 
enlarged  in  1730  by  General  Wade.  It  was  captured  by  the 
Jacobites  in  1745,  but  reoccupied  after  the  battle  of  Culloden, 


when  it  received  its  present  name  in  honour  of  William  Augustus, 
duke  of  Cumberland,  the  victorious  general.  The  fort  was  used 
as  a  sanatorium  until  1857,  when  it  was  bought  by  the  I2th  Lord 
Lovat,  whose  son  presented  it  in  1876  to  the  English  order  of 
Benedictines.  Within  four  years  there  rose  upon  its  site  a  pile 
of  stately  buildings  under  the  title  of  St  Benedict's  Abbey  and 
school,  a  monastic  and  collegiate  institution  intended  for  the 
higher  education  of  the  sons  of  the  Roman  Catholic  nobility  and 
gentry.  The  series  of  buildings  consists  of  the  college,  monastery, 
hospice  and  scriptorium — the  four  forming  a  quadrangle  con- 
nected by  beautiful  cloisters.  Amongst  its  benefactors  were 
many  Catholic  Scots  and  English  peers  and  gentlemen  whose 
arms  are  emblazoned  on  the  windows  of  the  spacious  refectory 
hall.  The  summit  of  the  college  tower  is  1 10  ft.  high. 

FORT  DODGE,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Webster  county, 
Iowa,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Des  Moines  river,  85  m.  (by  rail)  N.  by  W. 
fromDes  Moines.  Pop.  (1890)4871;  (1900)  12,162;  (1905,  state 
census)  14,369,  (2269  being  foreign-born);  (1910)  15,543-  It  is 
served  by  the  Illinois  Central,  the  Chicago  Great  Western,  the 
Minneapolis  &  Saint  Louis,  and  the  Fort  Dodge,  Des  Moines  & 
Southern  railways,  the  last  an  electric  interurban  line.  Eureka 
Springs  and  Wild  Cat  Cave  are  of  interest  to  visitors,  and 
attractive  scenery  is  furnished  by  the  river  and  its  bordering 
bluffs.  The  river  is  here  spanned  by  the  Chicago  Great  Western 
railway  steel  bridge,  or  viaduct,  one  of  the  longest  in  the  country. 
Fort  Dodge  is  the  seat  of  Tobin  College  (420  students  in  1907- 
1908),  a  commercial  and  business  school,  with  preparatory, 
normal  and  classical  departments,  and  courses  in  oratory  and 
music;  among  its  other  institutions  are  St  Paul's  school 
(Evangelical  Lutheran),  two  Roman  Catholic  schools,  Corpus 
Christi  Academy  and  the  Sacred  Heart  school,  Our  Lady  of 
Lourdes  convent  and  a  Carnegie  library.  Oleson  Park  and 
Reynold's  Park  are  the  city's  principal  parks.  Immediately 
surrounding  Fort  Dodge  is  a  rich  farming  country.  To  the  E. 
of  the  city  lies  a  gypsum  bed,  extending  over  an  area  of  about 
50  sq.  m.,  and  considered  to  be  the  rnost  valuable  in  the  United 
States;  to  the  S.  coal  abounds;  there  are  also  limestone  quarries 
and  deposits  of  clay  in  the  vicinity  — the  clay  being,  for  the  most 
part,  obtained  by  mining.  FortDodgeisa  marketfortheproducts 
of  the  surrounding  country,  and  is  a  shipping  centre  of  con- 
siderable importance.  It  has  various  manufactures,  including 
gypsum,  plaster,  oatmeal,  brick  and  tile,  sewer  pipe,  pottery, 
foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  and  shoes.  In  1905  the 
value  of  all  the  factory  products  was  $3,025,659,  an  increase 
of  200-8%  over  that  for  1900.  Fort  Clark  was  erected 
on  the  site  in  1850  to  protect  settlers  against  the  Indians;  in 
1851  the  name  was  changed  by  order  of  the  secretary  of  war  to 
Fort  Dodge  in  honour  of  Colonel  Henry  Dodge  (1782-1867), 
who  was  a  lieutenant-colonel  of  Missouri  Volunteers  in  the  War 
of  181 2,  served  with  distinction  as  a  colonel  of  Michigan  Mounted 
Volunteers  in  the  Black  Hawk  War,  resigned  from  the  military 
service  in  March  1833,  was  governor  of  Wisconsin  Territory 
from  1836  to  1841  and  from  1846  to  1848,  and  was  a  delegate 
from  Wisconsin  Territory  to  Congress  from  1841  to  1845,  a"d  a 
United  States  senator  from  Wisconsin  in  1848-1857.  The  fort 
was  abandoned  in  1853,  and  in  1854  a  town  was  laid  out. 
It  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1869.  From  the  gypsum  beds 
near  Fort  Dodge  was  taken  in  1868  the  block  of  gypsum  from 
which  was  modelled  the  "  Cardiff  Giant,"  a  rudely-fashioned 
human  figure,  which  was  buried  near  Cardiff,  Onondaga  county, 
New  York,  where  it  was  "  discovered  "  late  in  1869.  It  was 
then  exhibited  in  various  parts  of  the  country  as  a  "  petrified 
man."  The  hoax  was  finally  exposed  by  Professor  Othniel  C. 
Marsh  of  Yale;  and  George  Hall  of  Binghamton,  N.Y.,  confessed 
to  the  fraud,  his  object  having  been  to  discredit  belief  in  the 
"  giants  "  of  Genesis  vi.  4.  (See  "  The  Cardiff  Giant:  the  True 
Story  of  a  Remarkable  Deception,"  by  Andrew  D.  White,  in 
the  Century  Magazine,  vol.  xlii.,  1902.) 

FORT  EDWARD,  a  village  of  Washington  county,  New  York, 
U.S.A.,  in  the  township  of  Fort  Edward,  on  the  Hudson  river, 
56  m.  by  rail  N.  of  Albany.  Pop.  of  the  village  (1900)  3521,  of 
whom  385  were  foreign-born;  (1905)  3806;  (1910)  3762;  of 


678 


FORTESCUE 


the  township,  including  the  village  (1900),  5216;  (1905,  5300 
(1910)   5740.    The  village  lies  mostly  at  the  foot  of  a  steep  hill 
is  at  the  junction  of  the  main  line  and  the  Glens  Falls  branch 
of  the  Delaware  &  Hudson  railway,  and  is  also  served  by  electric 
line  to  Albany  and  Glens  Falls;  the  barge  canal  connecting 
Lake  Champlain  and  the  Hudson  river  enters  the  Hudson  here. 
The  river  furnishes  good  water-power,  which  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  paper  and  wood  pulp,  the  leading  industry. 
Shirts  and  pottery  (flower  pots,  jars  and  drain  tile)  are  manu- 
factured also.     The  village  is  the  seat  of  the    Fort    Edward 
Collegiate  Institute,  a  non-sectarian  school  for  girls,  which  was 
founded  in  1854  and  until  1893  was  coeducational.    The  village 
owns  and  operates  the  waterworks.   Indian  war  parties  on  their 
way  to  Canada  were  accustomed  to  make  a  portage  from  this 
place,  the  head  of  navigation  for  small  boats  on  the  Hudson, 
to  Lake  George  or  Lake  Champlain,  and  hence  it  was  known 
as  the  Great.  Carrying  Place.   Governor  (afterwards  Sir)  Francis 
Nicholson  in   1709,   in  his  expedition  against   Canada,   built 
here  a  stockade  which  was  named  Fort  Nicholson.    Some  years 
afterwards    John    Henry    Lydius    (1693-1791)    established    a 
settlement  and  protected  it  by  a  new  fort,  named  Fort  Lydius, 
but  this  was  destroyed  by  the  French  and  Indians  in  1745.    In 
1755,  a  third  fort  was  built  by  General  Phineas  Lyman  (1716- 
1774),  as  preliminary  to  the  expedition  against  Crown  Point 
under  General  William  Johnson,  and  was  named  Fort  Lyman; 
in  1756  Johnson  renamed  it  Fort  Edward  in  honour  of  Edward, 
Duke  of  York.    In  the  War  for  Independence  Fort  Edward  was 
the  headquarters  of  General  Philip  Schuyler  while  he  and  his 
troops  were  blocking  the  march  of  General  Burgoyne's  army 
from  Fort  Ticonderoga.    When  a  part  of  Burgoyne's  forces  was 
distant  only  3  or  4  m.  from  Fort  Edward,  on  Fort  Edward  Hill, 
on  the  27th  of  July  1777,  the  leader  of  an  Indian  band  whose 
assistance  the  British  had  sought  is  supposed  to  have  murdered 
Jane  McCrea  (c.  1757-1777),  a  young  girl  who  had  been  visiting 
friends  in  Fort  Edward,  and  who  was  to  be  escorted  on  that  day 
to  the  British  camp  and  there  to  be  married  to  David  Jones,  a 
loyalist  serving  as  a  lieutenant  in  Burgoyne's  army;  it  is  possible 
that  she  was  shot  accidentally  by  Americans  pursuing  her  Indian 
escorts,  but  her  death  did  much  to  rouse  local  sentiment  against 
Burgoyne  and  his  Indian  allies,  and  caused  many  volunteers  to 
join   the  American  army  resisting    Burgoyne's    invasion.      A 
monument  has  been  erected  by  the  Jane  McCrea  Chapter  of  the 
Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution  near  the  spot  where  she 
was  killed,  and  she  is  buried  in  Union  Cemetery  in  Fort  Edward. 
Fort  Edward  township  was  erected  in  1818  from  a  part  of  the 
township  of  Argyle.      Fort  Edward  village  was  incorporated 
in  1852. 

See  R.  O.  Bascom,  The  Fort  Edward  Book  (Fort  Edward.  1903). 
FORTESCUE,  SIR  JOHN  (c.  1394-0.  1476),  English  lawyer, 
the  second  son  of  Sir  John  Fortescue,  of  an  ancient  family  in 
Devonshire,  was  born  at  Norris,  near  South  Brent,  in  Somerset- 
shire. He  was  educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford.  During  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI.  he  was  three  times  appointed  one  of  the 
governors  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1441  he  was  made  a  king's 
sergeant  at  law,  and  in  the  following  year  chief  justice  of  the 
king's  bench.  As  a  judge  Fortescue  is  highly  recommended  for 
his  wisdom,  gravity  and  uprightness;  and  he  seems  to  have 
enjoyed  great  favour  with  the  king,  who  is  said  to  have  given 
him  some  substantial  proofs  of  esteem  and  regard.  He  held  his 
office  during  the  remainder  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  to  whom 
he  steadily  adhered;  and  having  faithfully  served  that  un- 
fortunate monarch  in  all  his  troubles,  he  was  attainted  of  treason 
in  the  first  parliament  of  Edward  IV.  When  Henry  subsequently 
fled  into  Scotland,  he  is  supposed  to  have  appointed  Fortescue, 
who  appears  to  have  accompanied  him  in  his  flight,  chancellor 
of  England.  In  1463  Fortescue  accompanied  Queen  Margaret 
and  her  court  in  their  exile  on  the  Continent,  and  returned  with 
them  afterwards  to  England.  During  their  wanderings  abroad 
the  chancellor  wrote  for  the  instruction  of  the  young  prince 
Edward  his  celebrated  work  De  laudibus  legum  Angliae.  On 
the  defeat  of  the  Lancastrian  party  he  made  his  submission 
to  Edward  IV.,  from  whom  he  received  a  general  pardon  dated 


Westminster,  October  13,  1471.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age, 
but  the  exact  date  of  his  death  has  not  been  ascertained. 

Fortescue's  masterly  vindication  of  the  laws  of  England,  though 
received  with  great  favour  by  the  learned  of  the  profession  to  whom 
it  was  communicated,  did  not  appear  in  print  until  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,  when  it  was  published,  but  without  a  date.  It  was 
subsequently  many  times  reprinted.  Another  valuable  and  learned 
work  by  Fortescue,  written  in  English,  was  published  in  1714,  under 
the  title  of  The  Difference  between  an  Absolute  and  a  Limited  Monarchy. 
In  the  Cotton  library  there  is  a  manuscript  of  this  work,  in  the  title 
of  which  it  is  said  to  have  been  addressed  to  Henry  VI.;  but  many 
passages  show  plainly  that  it  was  written  in  favour  of  Edward  IV. 
A  revised  edition  of  this  work,  with  a  very  valuable  historical  and 
biographical  introduction,  was  published  in  1 885  by  Charles  Plummer, 
under  the  title  The  Governance  of  England.  All  of  Fortescue's  minor 
writings  appear  in  The  Works  of  Sir  John  Fortescue,  now  first  Collected 
and  Arranged,  published  in  1869  for  private  circulation,  by  his 
descendant,  Lord  Clermont. 

AUTHORITIES. — Plummer's  Introduction  to  The  Governance  of 
England;  Life  in  Lord  Clermont's  edition;  Gairdner's  Paston 
Letters ;  Foss  s  Lives  of  the  Judges. 

FORTESCUE,  SIR  JOHN  (c.  1531-1607),  English  statesman, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Adrian  Fortescue  (executed  in  1539), 
and  of  his  second  wife,  Anne,  daughter  of  Sir  William  Reade  or 
Rede  of  Borstall  in  Buckinghamshire.     The  exact  date  of  his 
birth  is  unrecorded.1     He  was  restored  in  blood  and  to  his 
estate  at  Shirburn  in  Oxfordshire  in  1551.   Through  his  father's 
mother,  Alice,  daughter  of  Sir  Geoffrey  Boleyn,  he  was  a  second 
cousin  once  removed  from  Queen  Elizabeth.    He  acquired  early 
a  considerable  reputation  as  a  scholar  and  was  chosen  to  direct 
the  Princess  Elizabeth's  classical  studies  in  Mary's  reign.    On 
the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  great 
wardrobe.    He  was  returned  in  1572  to  parliament  for  Walling- 
ford,  in  1586  for  Buckingham  borough,  in  1588  and  1597  for 
Buckingham  county,  and  in  1601  for  Middlesex.    In  1589  he 
was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and  a  member  of 
the  privy  council.    In  1592  he  was  knighted,  and  in  November 
1601,  in  addition  to  his  two  great  offices,  he  received  that  of 
chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster.   By  means  of  his  lucrative 
employments  he  amassed  great  wealth,  with  which  he  bought 
large  estates  in  Oxfordshire  and  Buckinghamshire,  and  kept  up 
much  state  and  a  large  household.    He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  public  business,  was  a  member  of  the  court  of  the  star  chamber 
and  an  ecclesiastical  commissioner,  sat  on  various  important 
commissions,  and  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  explained  the 
queen's  financial  needs  and  proposed  subsidies  in  parliament. 
On  the  death  of  Elizabeth  he  suggested  that  certain  restrictions 
should  be  imposed  on  James's  powers,  in  order  probably  to  limit 
the  appointment  of  Scotchmen  to  office,2  but  his  advice  was  not 
followed.    He  was  deprived  by  James  of  the  chancellorship  of 
the  exchequer,  but  evidently  did  not  forfeit  his  favour,  as  he 
retained  his  two  other  offices  and  entertained  James  several 
times  at  Henden  and  Salden.    In  1604  Sir  John,  who  stood  for 
Buckinghamshire,  was  defeated  by  Sir  Francis  Goodwin,  whose 
election,  however,  was  declared  void  by  the  lord  chancellor  on  the 
ground  of  a  sentence  of  outlawry  under  which  he  lay,  and 
Fortescue  was  by  a  second  election  returned  in  his  place.    This 
incident  gave  rise  to  a  violent  controversy,  regarding  the  chan- 
cellor's jurisdiction  in  deciding  disputed  elections  to  parliament, 
which  was  repudiated  by  the  Commons  but  maintained  by  the 
king.  The  matter  after  much  debate  was  ended  by  a  compromise, 
which,  while  leaving  the  principle  unsettled,  set  aside  the  elec- 
:ions  of  both  candidates  and  provided  for  the  issue  of  a  new  writ. 
Fortescue  was  then  in  February  1606  returned  for  Middlesex, 
which  he  represented  till  his  death  on  the  23rd  of  December  1607. 
He  was  buried  in  Mursley  church  in  Buckinghamshire,  where  a 
monument  was  erected  to  his  memory.    His  long  public  career 
was  highly  honourable,  and  he  served  his  sovereign  and  country 
with  unswerving  fidelity  and  honesty.    His  learned  attainments 
too  were  considerable — Camden  styles  him  "  vir  integer,  Graece, 

1  The  inscription  on  his  tomb  states  that  he  was  76  at  his  death 
on  the  23rd  of  December  1607  (Lord  Clermont's  Hist,  of  the  Family 
of  Fortescue,  377),  but  according  to  a  statement  ascribed  to  himself, 
IB  was  born  the  same  year  as  Queen  Elizabeth  and  therefore  in  1533 
(Bucks.  Architect,  and  Archaeolog.  Soc.  Records  of  Bucks,  i.  p.  89). 

2  David  Lloyd's  State  Worthies  (1670),  556. 


FORTE VIOT— FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT         679 


Latineque  apprime  eruditus," l  and  his  scholarship  is  also  praised 
by  Lloyd,  while  his  friendship  with  Sir  Thomas  Bodley  procured 
gifts  of  books  and  manuscripts  to  the  latter's  library.  FcUescue 
married  (i)  Cecily,  daughter  of  Sir  Edmund  Ashfield  of  Ewelme, 
by  whom,  besides  a  daughter,  he  had  two  sons,  Sir  Francis  and 
Sir  William;  and  (2)  Alice,  daughter  of  Christopher  Smyth 
of  Annabels  in  Hertfordshire,  by  whom  he  had  one  daughter. 
His  descent  in  the  male  line  became  extinct  with  the  death  of 
Sir  John  Fortescue,  3rd  baronet,  in  1717. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Article  in  the  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biography;  Lord 
Clermont's  Hist,  of  the  Family  of  the  Fortescues;  Hist.  Notices  of  the 
Parishes  of  Swyncombe  and  Ewelme,  by  A.  Napier,  p.  390 ;  D.  Lloyd 's 
State  Worthies  (1670),  p.  556;  Add.  MSS.  12497  >•  H3  ("  Sir  John 
Fortescue's  meanes  of  gaine  by  Sir  R.  Thikstin  told  me  [Sir  Julius 
Caesar]  ") ;  Hist.  MSS.  Comm.,  Marquis  of  Salisbury's  MSS. ; 
Spedding's  Life  of  Bacon;  Architectural  and  Archaeological  Soc.  for 
Bucks,  Records  of  Bucks,  vol.  i.  p.  86.  (P.  C.  Y.) 

FORTEVIOT,  a  village  and  parish  of  Perthshire,  Scotland,  on 
the  Water  of  May,  a  right-hand  affluent  of  the  Earn,  6f  m.  S.W. 
of  Perth.  Pop.  of  parish  (1901)  562.  It  is  a  place  of  remote 
antiquity,  having  been  a  capital  of  the  Picts,  when  the  district 
was  known  as  Fortrenn,  and  afterwards  of  the  Scots.  The  army 
led  by  Edward  Baliol  camped  here  before  the  battle  of  Dupplin 
(1332),  in  which  the  regent,  Donald,  earl  of  Mar,  was  slain  along 
with  13,000  out  of  30,000  men.  The  parish  of  Findo-Gask 
adjoining  it  on  the  N.W.  contains  remains  of  a  Roman  road, 
station  and  outpost,  besides  the  "  auld  hoose"  of  Cask  in  which 
the  Baroness  Nairne  was  born,  and  which  forms  the  theme  of  one 
of  her  most  popular  songs.  The  new  house  in  which  she  died 
dates  from  1801. 

FORT  GEORGE,  a  military  station  of  Inverness-shire,  Scotland. 
It  lies  12  m.  N.E.  of  Inverness,  and  is  the  terminus  of  the  small 
branch  line  connecting  with  the  Highland  railway  at  Gollanfield 
junction.  It  occupies  a  sandy  promontory  forming  the  extreme 
end  of  the  southern  shore  of  Inner  Moray  Firth  (also  called  the 
Firth  of  Inverness),  which  is  here  only  i  m.  wide.  There  is 
communication  by  ferry  with  Fortrose  on  the  opposite  coast  of 
the  Black  Isle.  The  fort  was  begun  in  1748,  partly  after  the  plan 
of  one  of  Vauban's  works,  and  named  in  honour  of  George  II. 
Wolfe,  who  saw  it  in  course  of  erection  in  1751,  was  much  im- 
pressed with  it  and  thought  it  would,  when  finished,  be  "  the 
most  considerable  fortress  and  best  situated  in  Great  Britain." 
It  covers  16  acres  and  contains  accommodation  for  nearly  2200 
men.  It  is  the  depot  of  the  Seaforth  Highlanders,  and  a 
military  training-ground  of  some  size  and  importance  because 
the  surrounding  country  gives  ample  facilities  for  exercise  and 
manoeuvres.  General  Wade's  road  is  maintained  in  good  order. 
Fort  George,  it  is  said,  had  almost  been  chosen  as  the  place  of 
detention  for  Napoleon  when  the  claims  of  St  Helena  were  put 
forward.  About  2  m.  S.E.  is  the  fishing  village  of  Campbelltown, 
in  growing  repute  as  a  seaside  resort.  Midway  between  the  fort 
and  Inverness  stands  Castle  Stuart,  a  shooting-box  of  the  earl 
of  Moray. 

FORTH,  a  river  and  firth  of  the  east  of  Scotland.  The  river 
is  formed  by  two  head  streams,  Duchray  Water  (12  m.)  and 
Avondhu  (10  m.),  or  Laggan  as  it  is  called  after  it  leaves  Loch 
Ard,  both  rising  in  the  north-east  of  Ben  Lomond  in  Stirlingshire, 
and  uniting  i  m.  west  of  Aberfoyle.  From  this  point  till  it 
receives  the  Kelty,  the  Forth  continues  to  be  a  Perthshire 
stream,  but  afterwards  it  becomes  the  dividing  line  between 
the  counties  of  Perth  and  Stirling  as  far  as  the  confluence  of  the 
Allan.  Thence  it  belongs  to  Stirlingshire  to  a  point  15  m.  due 
west  of  Cambus,  whence  it  serves  as  the  boundary  between  the 
shires  of  Stirling  and  Clackmannan.  Owing  to  the  extremely 
tortuous  character  of  its  course  between  Gartmore  and  Alloa — 
the  famous  "  links  of  the  Forth," — the  actual  length  of  the  river 
is  66  m.,  or  nearly  double  the  distance  in  a  direct  line  (30  m.) 
between  the  source  of  the  Duchray  and  Kincardine,  where  the 
firth  begins.  The  river  drains  an  area  of  645  sq.  m.  Its  general 
direction  is  mainly  easterly  with  a  gentle  trend  towards  the 
south,  and  the  principal  tributaries  on  the  left  are  the  Goodie, 
Teith,  Allan  and  Devon,  and  on  the  right,  the  Kelty,  Boquhan 
1  Annales,  613. 


and  Bannock.  The  alluvial  plain  extending  from  Gartmore  to 
the  county  town  is  called  the  Carse  of  Stirling.  The  places  of 
interest  on  the  banks  are  Aberfoyle,  Kippen,  Sth.'ing,  Cambus- 
kenneth,  Alloa  and  Kincardine,  but  after  it  crosses  the  Highland 
line  the  Forth  does  not  present  many  passages  of  remarkable 
beauty.  There  are  bridges  at  Aberfoyle,  Gartmore,  Frew,  Drip 
and  Stirling  (2),  besides  railway  viaducts  at  Stirling  and  Alloa, 
and  there  are  ferries  at  Stirling  (for  Cambuskenneth),  Alloa  (for 
South  Alloa)  and  Kincardine  (for  Airth).  The  tide  rises  to  45  m. 
above  Stirling,  where  the  river  is  navigable  at  high  water  by 
vessels  of  100  tons.  There  is,  however,  a  brisk  shipping  trade  at 
Alloa,  where  the  dock  accommodates  vessels  of  at  least  300  tons. 

The  Firth  of  Forth  extends  from  Kincardine  to  the  North  Sea, 
that  is,  to  an  imaginary  line  drawn,  just  west  of  the  Isle  of  May, 
from  the  East  Neuk  of  Fife  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  in  Hadding- 
tonshire — a  distance  of  48  m.  Thus,  according  to  some  calcula- 
tions, the  Forth  measures  from  source  to  sea  1 14  m.  The  width 
of  the  firth  varies  from  ^  m.  at  Kincardine  and  i|  m.  at  Queens- 
ferry  to  63  m.  at  Leith  and  173  m.  at  the  mouth.  The  chief 
affluents  are,  on  the  south,  the  Carron,  Avon,  Almond,  Leith, 
Esk  and  Tyne,  and  on  the  north,  the  Tiel,  Leven,  Kiel  and 
Dreel.  The  principal  ports  on  the  south  shore  are  Grangemouth, 
Bo'ness,  Granton  and  Leith,  and  on  the  north,  Burntisland  and 
K.irkcaldy;  but  fishery  centres  and  holiday  resorts  are  very 
numerous  on  both  coasts.  Since  the  opening  of  the  Forth  Bridge 
(see  BRIDGES)  in  1890  the  ferries  at  Queensferry  and  Burntisland 
have  greatly  diminished  in  importance.  The  fisheries  are  still 
considerable,  though  the  oyster  trade  is  dwindling.  The  larger 
islands  are  Inchcolm,  with  the  ruins  of  an  abbey,  Inchkeith, 
with  fortifications  and  a  lighthouse,  and  the  Isle  of  May,  with  a 
lighthouse.  The  anchorage  of  St  Margaret's  Hope,  with  the 
naval  base  of  Rosyth,  lies  off  the  shore  of  Fife  immediately  to 
the  west  of  the  Forth  Bridge. 

The  Forth  was  the  Bodolria  of  Tacitus  and  the  Scots  Water 
of  the  chroniclers  of  the  nth  and  i2th  centuries;  while  Bede 
(d.  735)  knew  the  firth  as  Sinus  orienlalis  (the  Eastern  Gulf), 
and  Nennius  (fl.  796)  as  Mare  Friesicum  (the  Frisian  Sea). 

FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT.  "Fortification"  is 
the  military  art  of  strengthening  positions  against  attack.  The 
word  (L&t.fortis,  strong,  an&facere,  to  make)  implies  the  creation 
of  defences.  Thus  the  boy  who  from  the  top  of  a  mound  defies 
his  comrades,  or  shelters  from  their  snowballs  behind  a  fence, 
is  merely  taking  advantage  of  ground;  but  if  he  puts  up  a  hurdle 
on  his  mound  and  stands  behind  that  he  has  fortified  his  position. 

Fortification  consists  of  two  elements,  viz.  protection  and 
obstacle.  The  protection  shields  the  defender  from  the  enemy's 
missiles;  the  obstacle  prevents  the  enemy  from  coming  to  close 
quarters,  and  delays  him  under  fire. 

Protection  may  be  of  several  kinds,  direct  or  indirect.  Direct 
protection  is  given  by  a  wall  or  rampart  of  earth,  strong  enough 
to  stop  the  enemy's  missiles.  The  value  of  this  -is  reduced  in 
proportion  as  the  defender  has  to  expose  himself  to  return  the 
enemy's  fire,  or  to  resist  his  attempts  to  destroy  the  defences. 
Indirect  protection  is  given  by  distance,  as  for  instance  by  a  high 
wall  placed  on  a  cliff  so  that  the  defender  on  the  top  of  the  wall 
is  out  of  reach  of  the  enemy's  missiles  if  these  are  of  short  range, 
such  as  arrows.  This  kind  of  defence  was  very  popular  in  the 
middle  ages.  In  the  present  day  the  same  object  is  attained  by 
pushing  out  detached  forts  to  such  a  distance  from  the  town 
they  are  protecting  that  the  besieger  cannot  bombard  the  town 
as  long  as  he  is  outside  the  forts.  Another  form  of  indirect 
protection  of  great  importance  is  concealment. 

The  obstacle  may  consist  of  anything  which  will  impede  the 
enemy's  advance  and  prevent  him  from  coming  to  close  quarters. 
In  the  earliest  forms  of  fortification  the  protecting  wall  was  also 
the  obstacle,  or  it  may  be  a  wet  or  dry  ditch,  an  entanglement, 
a  swamp,  a  thorn  hedge,  a  spiked  palisade,  or  some  temporary 
expedient,  such  as  crows'  feet  or  chevaux  de  frise.  The  two 
elements  must  of  course  be  arranged  in  combination.  The 
besieged  must  be  able  to  defend  the  obstacle  from  their  protected 
position,  otherwise  it  can  be  surmounted  or  destroyed  at  leisure. 
But  a  close  connexion  is  no  longer  essential.  The  effect  of  modern 


68o 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[HISTORY 


firearms  permits  of  great  elasticity  in  the  disposition  of  the 
obstacle;  and  this  simplifies  some  of  the  problems  of  defence. 

Protection  must  be  arranged  mainly  with  reference  to  the 
enemy's  methods  of  attack  and  the  weapons  he  uses.  The 
obstacle,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
bring  out  the  best  effects  of  the  defender's  weapons.  It  follows 
from  this  that  a  well-armed  force  operating  against  a  badly- 
armed  uncivilized  enemy  may  use  with  advantage  very  simple 
old-fashioned  methods  of  protection;  or  even  dispense  with  it 
altogether  if  the  obstacle  is  a  good  one. 

When  the  assailant  has  modern  weapons  the  importance  of 
protection  is  very  great.  In  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  in  propor- 
tion as  missile  weapons  have  grown  more  effective,  the  importance 
of  protection  and  the  difficulty  of  providing  it  have  increased, 
while  the  necessity  for  a  monumental  physical  obstacle  has 
decreased. 

The  art  of  the  engineer  who  is  about  to  fortify  consists  in 
appreciating  and  harmonizing  all  the  conditions  of  the  problem, 
such  as  the  weapons  in  use,  nature  of  the  ground,  materials 
available,  temper  of  assailants  and  defenders,  strategical  possi- 
bilities, expenditure  to  be  incurred,  and  so  forth.  Few  of  these 
conditions  are  in  themselves  difficult  to  understand,  but  they  are 
so  many  and  their  reactions  are  so  complex  that  a  real  familiarity 
with  all  of  them  is  essential  to  successful  work.  The  keynote 
of  the  solution  should  be  simplicity;  but  this  is  the  first  point 
usually  lost  sight  of  by  the  makers  of  "  systems,"  especially  by 
those  who  during  a  long  period  of  peace  have  time  to  give  play 
to  their  imaginations. 

Fortification  is  usually  divided  into  two  branches,  namely 
permanent  fortification  and  field  fortification.  Permanent  fortifica- 
tions are  erected  at  leisure,  with  all  the  resources  that  a  state  can 
supply  of  constructive  and  mechanical  skill,  and  are  built  of 
enduring  materials.  Field  fortifications  are  extemporized  by 
troops  in  the  field,  perhaps  assisted  by  such  local  labour  and 
tools  as  may  be  procurable,  and  with  materials  that  do  not 
require  much  preparation,  such  as  earth,  brushwood  and  light 
timber.  There  is  also  an  intermediate  branch  known  as  semi- 
permanent fortification.  This  is  employed  when  in  the  course 
of  a  campaign  it  becomes  desirable  to  protect  some  locality 
with  the  best  imitation  of  permanent  defences  that  can  be  made 
in  a  short  time,  ample  resources  and  skilled  civilian  labour  being 
available. 

The  objects  of  fortification  are  various.  The  vast  enceintes 
of  Nineveh  and  Babylon  were  planned  so  that  in  time  of  war 
they  might  give  shelter  to  the  whole  population  of  the  country 
except  the  field  army,  with  their  flocks  and  herds  and  household 
stuff.  The  same  idea  may  be  seen  to-day  in  the  walls  of  such 
cities  as  Kano.  In  the  middle  ages  feudal  lords  built  castles 
for  security  against  the  attacks  of  their  neighbours,  and  also  to 
watch  over  towns  or  bridges  or  fords  from  which  they  drew 
revenue;  whilst  rich  towns  were  surrounded  with  walls  merely 
for  the  protection  of  their  own  inhabitants  and  their  property. 
The  feudal  castles  lost  their  importance  when  the  art  of  cannon- 
founding  was  fairly  developed;  and  in  the  leisurely  wars  of  the 
1 7th  and  i8th  centuries,  when  roads  were  few  and  bad,  a  swarm 
of  fortified  towns,  large  and  small,  played  a  great  part  in  delaying 
the  march  of  victorious  armies. 

In  the  present  day  isolated  forts  are  seldom  used,  and  only  for 
such  purposes  as  to  block  passes  in  mountainous  districts. 
Fortresses  are  used  either  to  protect  points  of  vital  importance, 
such  as  capital  cities,  military  depots  and  dockyards,  or  at 
strategic  points  such  as  railway  junctions.  Combinations  of 
fortresses  are  also  used  for  more  general  strategic  purposes, 
as  will  be  explained  later. 

I.  HISTORY 

The  most  elementary  type  of  fortification  is  the  thorn  hedge, 
a  type  which  naturally  recurs  from  age  to  age  under  primitive 
Aadeat  conditions-  Thus,  Alexander  found  the  villages  of  the 
methods.  Hyrcanians  defended  by  thick  hedges,  and  the  same 
arrangements  may  be  seen  to-day  among  the  least 
civilized  tribes  of  Africa.  The  next  advance  from  the  hedge  is 


the  bank  of  earth,  with  the  exterior  made  steep  by  revetments 
of  sods  or  hurdle-work.  This  has  a  double  advantage  over  the 
hedge,  as,  besides  being  a  better  obstacle  against  assault,  it  gives 
the  defenders  an  advantage  of  position  in  a  hand-to-hand  fight. 
Such  banks  formed  the  defences  of  the  German  towns  in  Caesar's 
time,  and  they  were  constructed  with  a  high  degree  of  skill. 
Timber  being  plentiful,  the  parapets  were  built  of  alternate 
layers  of  stones,  earth  and  tree  trunks.  The  latter  were  built  in 
at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  parapet,  and  were  thus  very 
difficult  to  displace,  while  the  earth  prevented  their  being  set 
on  fire.  The  bank  was  often  strengthened  by  a  palisade  of  tree 
trunks  or  hurdle-work. 

After  the  bank  the  most  important  step  in  advance  for  a 
nation  progressing  in  the  arts  was  the  wall,  of  masonry,  sun-dried 
brick  or  mud.  The  history  of  the  development  of  the  wall  and 
of  the  methods  of  attacking  it  is  the  history  of  fortification  for 
several  thousand  years. 

The  first  necessity  for  the  wall  was  height,  to  give  security 
against  escalade.  The  second  was  thickness,  so  that  the  defenders 
might  have  a  platform  on  the  top  which  would  give  them  space 
to  circulate  freely  and  to  use  their  weapons.  A  lofty  wall,  thick 
enough  at  the  top  for  purposes  of  defence,  would  be  very  ex- 
pensive if  built  of  solid  masonry;  therefore  the  plan  was  early 
introduced  of  building  two  walls  with  a  filling  of  earth  or  rubble 
between  them.  The  face  of  the  outer  wall  would  be  carried  up  a 
few  feet  above  the  platform,  and  crenellated  to  give  protection 
against  arrows  and  other  projectiles. 

The  next  forward  step  for  the  defence  was  the  construction 
of  lowers  at  intervals  along  the  wall.  These  provided  flanking 
fire  along  the  front;  they  also  afforded  refuges  for  the  garrison 
in  case  of  a  successful  escalade,  and  from  them  the  platform 
could  be  enfiladed. 

The  evolution  of  the  wall  with  towers  was  simple.  The  main 
requirements  were  despotic  power  and  unlimited  labour.  Thus 
the  finest  examples  of  the  system  known  to  history  are  also 
amongst  the  earliest.  One  of  these  was  Nineveh,  built  more  than 
2000  years  B.C.  The  object  of  its  huge  perimeter,  more  than 
50  m.,  has  been  mentioned.  The  wall  was  120  ft.  high  and  30  ft. 
thick;  and  there  were  1500  towers. 

After  this  no  practical  advance  in  the  art  of  fortification  was 
made  for  a  very  long  time,  from  a  constructional  point  of  view. 
Many  centuries  indeed  elapsed  before  the  inventive  genius  of 
man  evolved  engines  and  methods  of  attack  fit  to  cope  with  such 
colossal  obstacles. 

The  earliest  form  of  attack  was  of  course  escalade,  either  by 
ladders  or  by  heaping  up  a  ramp  of  faggots  or  other  portable 
materials.  When  the  increasing  height  of  walls  made  escalade 
too  difficult,  other  means  of  attack  had  to  be  invented.  Probably 
the  first  of  these  were  the  ram,  for  battering  down  the  walls,  and 
mining.  The  latter  might  have  two  objects:  (a)  to  drive  an 
underground  gallery  below  the  wall  from  the  besiegers'  position 
into  the  fortress,  or  (6)  to  destroy  the  wall  itself  by  undermining. 

The  use  of  missile  engines  for  throwing  heavy  projectiles 
probably  came  later.  They  are  mentioned  in  the  preparations 
made  for  the  defence  of  Jerusalem  against  the  Philistines  in  the 
8th  century  B.C.  They  are  not  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the 
siege  of  Troy.  At  the  sieges  of  Tyre  and  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchad- 
rezzar in  587  B.C.  we  first  find  mention  of  the  ram  and  of  movable 
towers  placed  on  mounds  to  overlook  the  walls. 

The  Asiatics,  however,  had  not  the  qualities  of  mind  necessary 
for  a  systematic  development  of  siegecraft,  and  it  was  left  for 
the  Greeks  practically  to  create  this  science.  Taking 
it  up  in  the  5th  century  B.C.  they  soon,  under  Philip  times.  ' 
of  Macedon  and  Alexander,  arrived  at  a  very  high 
degree  of  skill.  They  invented  and  systematized  methods 
which  were  afterwards  perfected  by  the  Romans.  '  Alexander's 
siegecraft  was  extremely  practical.  His  successors  endeavoured 
to  improve  on  it  by  increasing  the  size  of  their  missile  and  other 
engines,  which,  however,  were  so  cumbrous  that  they  were  of 
little  use.  When  the  Romans  a  little  later  took  up  the  science 
they  returned  to  the  practical  methods  of  Alexander,  and  by  the 
time  of  Caesar's  wars  had  become  past-masters  of  it.  The 


HISTORY] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


681 


highest  development  of  siegecraft  before  the  use  of  gunpowder 
was  probably  attained  in  the  early  days  of  the  Roman  empire. 
The  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  is  therefore  a  suitable  period 
at  which  to  take  a  survey  of  the  arts  of  fortification  and  siege- 
craft  as  practised  by  the  ancients. 

In  fortification  the  wall  \yith  towers  was  still  the  leading  idea. 

The  towers  were  preferred  circular  in  plan,  as  this  form  offered  the 

best  resistance  to  the  ram.     The  wall  was  usually  re- 

Conditions  jnforced   by  a   ditch,   which   had   three  advantages:   it 

at  opening  increasec]  the  height  of  the  obstacle,  made  the  bringing 

£l'?«         up  of  the  engines  of  attack  more  difficult,  and  supplied 

.htistlan     mater;a[  for  the  filling  of  the  wall.    In  special  cases,  as  at 

Jerusalem  and  Rhodes,  the  enclosure  walls  were  doubled 

and  trebled.    Citadels  were  also  built  on  a  large  scale. 

The  typical  site  preferred  by  the  Romans  for  a  fortified  town 
was  on  high  ground  sloping  to  a  river  on  one  side  and  with  steep 
slopes  falling  away  on  the  other  three  sides.  At  the  highest  point 
was  a  castle  serving  as  citadel.  The  town  enclosure  was  designed 
in  accordance  with  the  character  of  the  surrounding  country.  Where 
the  enemy's  approach  was  easiest,  the  walls  were  higher,  flanking 
towers  stronger  and  ditches  wider  and  deeper.  Some  of  the  towers 
were  made  high  for  look-out  posts.  If  there  was  a  bridge  over  the 
river,  it  was  defended  by  a  bridge-head  on  the  far  side ;  and  stockades 
defended  by  towers  were  built  out  from  either  bank  above  and 
below  the  bridge,  between  which  chains  or  booms  could  be  stretched 
to  bar  the  passage. 

The  natural  features  of  the  ground  were  skilfully  utilized.  Thus 
when  a  large  town  was  spread  over  an  irregular  site  broken  by  hills, 
the  enceinte  wall  would  be  carried  over  the  top  of  the  hills;  and  in 
the  intervening  valleys  the  wall  would  not  only  be  made  stronger, 
but  would  be  somewhat  drawn  back  to  allow  of  a  flanking  defence 
from  the  hill  tops  on  either  side.  The  walls  would  consist  of  two 
strong  masonry  faces,  20  ft.  apart,  the  space  between  filled  with 
earth  and  stones.  Usually  when  the  lie  of  the  ground  was  favourable, 
the  outside  of  the  wall  would  be  much  higher  than  the  inside,  the 
parapet  walk  perhaps  being  but  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  town. 
Palisades  were  used  to  strengthen  the  ditches,  especially  before  the 

There  was  little  scope,  however,  in  masonry  for  the  genius  of 
Roman  warfare,  which  had  a  better  opportunity  in  the  active  work 
of  attack  and  defence.  For  siegecraft  the  Roman  legions  were 
specially  apt.  No  modern  engineer,  civil  or  military,  accustomed 
to  rely  on  machinery,  steam  and  hydraulic  apparatus,  could  hope 
to  emulate  the  feats  of  the  legionaries.  In  earthworks  they  ex- 
celled; and  in  such  work  as  building  and  moving  about  colossal 
wooden  towers  under  war  conditions,  they  accomplished  things  at 
which  nowadays  we  can  only  wonder. 

The  attack  was  carried  on  mainly  by  the  use  of  "  engines,  under 
which  head  v:ere  included  all  mechanical  means  of  attack — towers, 
missile  engines  such  as  catapults  and  balistae,  rams  of  different 
kinds,  "  tortoises  "  (see  below),  &c.  Mining,  too,  was  freely  resorted 
to,  also  approach  trenches,  the  use  of  which  had  been  introduced 
by  the  Greeks. 

The  object  of  mining,  as  has  been  said,  might  be  the  driving  of  a 
gallery  under  the  wall  into  the  interior  of  the  place,  or  the  destruction 
of  the  wall.  The  latter  was  effected  by  excavating  large  chambers 
under  the  foundations.  These  were  supported  while  the  excavation 
was  proceeding  by  timber  struts  and  planking.  When  the  chambers 
were  large  enough  the  timber  supports  were  burnt  and  the  wall 
collapsed.  The  besieged  replied  to  the  mining  attack  by  counter- 
mines. With  these  they  would  undermine  and  destroy  the  be- 
siegers' galleries,  or  would  break  into  them  and  drive  out  the  workers, 
either  by  force  of  arms  or  by  filling  the  galleries  with  smoke. 

Breaches  in  the  wall  were  made  by  rams.  These  were  of  two 
kinds.  For  dislodging  the  cemented  masonry  of  the  face  of  the 
wall,  steel-pointed  heads  were  used;  when  this  was  done,  another 
head,  shaped  like  a  ram's  head,  was  substituted  for  battering  down 
the  filling  of  the  wall. 

For  escalade  they  used  ladders  fixed  on  wheeled  platforms;  but 
the  most  important  means  of  attack  against  a  high  wall  were  the 
movable  towers  of  wood.  These  were  built  so  high  that  from  their 
tops  the  parapet  walk  of  the  wall  could  be  swept  with  arrows  and 
stones;  and  drawbridges  were  let  down  from  them,  by  which  a 
storming  party  could  reach  the  top  of  the  wall.  The  height  of  the 
towers  was  from  70  to  150  ft.  They  were  moved  on  wheels  of  solid 
oak  or  elm,  6  to  12  ft.  in  diameter  and  3  to  4  ft.  thick.  The  ground 
floor  contained  one  or  two  rams.  The  upper  floors,  of  which  there 
might  be  as  many  as  fifteen,  were  furnished  with  missile  engines 
of  a  smaller  kind.  The  archers  occupied  the  top  floor.  There  alsc 
were  placed  reservoirs  of  water  to  extinguish  fire.  These  were  filled 
by  force  pumps  and  fitted  with  hose  made  of  the  intestines  of  cattle. 
Drawbridges,  either  hanging  or  worked  on  rollers,  were  placed  at 
the  proper  height  to  give  access  to  the  top  of  the  wall,  or  to  a  breach, 
as  might  be  required.  Apollodorus  proposed  to  place  a  couple  ol 
rams  in  the  upper  part  of  the  tower  to  destroy  the  crenellations  of 
the  wall. 

The  siege  towers  had  of  course  to  be  very  solidly  built  of  strong 
timbers  to  resist  the  heavy  stones  thrown  by  the  engines  of  the 


defence.  They  were  protected  against  fire  by  screens  of  osiers, 
plaited  rope  or  raw  hides.  Sometimes  it  was  necessary,  in  order 
:o  gain  greater  height,  to  place  them  on  high  terraces  of  earth.  In 
that  case  they  would  be  built  on  the  site.  At  the  siege  of  Marseilles, 
described  by  Caesar,  special  methods  of  attack  had  to  be  employed 
on  account  of  the  strength  of  the  engines  used  by  the  besieged  and 
their  frequent  sallies  to  destroy  the  siege  works.  A  square  fort, 
with  brick  walls  30  ft.  long  and  5  ft.  thick,  was  built  in  front  of  one 
of  the  towers  of  the  town  to  resist  sorties.  This  fort  was  subse- 
quently raised  to  a  height  of  six  storeys,  under  shelter  of  a  roof  which 
projected  beyond  the  walls,  and  from  the  eaves  of  which  hung  heavy 
mats  made  of  ships'  cables.  The  mats  protected  the  men  working 
at  the  walls,  and  as  these  were  built  up  the  roof  was  gradually 
raised  by  the  use  of  endless  screws.  The  roof  was  made  of  heavy 
beams  and  planks,  over  which  were  laid  bricks  and  clay,  and  the 
whole  was  covered  with  mats  and  hides  to  prevent  the  bricks  from 
being  dislodged.  This  structure  was  completed  without  the  loss  of 
a  man,  and  could  only  have  been  built  by  the  Romans,. whose  soldiers 
were  all  skilled  workmen. 

Although  these  towers  were  provided  with  bridges  by  which 
storming  parties  could  reach  the  top  of  the  wall,  their  main  object 
was  usually  to  dominate  the  defence  and  keep  down  the  fire  from 
the  walls  and  towers.  Under  this  protection  breaching  operations 
could  be  carried  on.  The  approaches  to  the  wall  were  usually  made 
under  shelter  of  galleries  of  timber  or  hurdle- work,  which  were  placed 
on  wheels  and  moved  into  position  as  required.  When  the  wall 
was  reached,  a  shelter  of  stronger  construction,  known  as  a  "  rat," 
was  placed  in  position  against  it.  Under  this  a  ram  was  swung  or 
worked  on  rollers;  or  the  rat  might  be  used  as  a  shelter  for  miners 
or  for  workmen  cutting  away  the  face  of  the  wall.  The  great  rat  at 
Marseilles,  which  extended  from  the  tower  already  described  to  the 
base  of  the  tower  of  the  city,  was  60  ft.  long,  and  built  largely  of 
great  beams  2  ft.  square,  connected  by  iron  pins  and  bands.  It 
was  unusually  narrow,  the  ground  sills  of  the  side  walls  being  only 
4  ft.  apart.  This  was  no  doubt  in  order  to  keep  down  the  weight 
of  the  structure,  which,  massive  as  it  was,  had  to  be  movable.  The 
sloping  roof  and  sides  of  timber  were  protected,  like  those  of  the 
tower,  with  bricks  and  moist  clay,  hides  and  wool  mattresses.  Huge 
stones  and  barrels  of  blazing  pitch  were  thrown  from  the  wall  upon 
this  rat  without  effect,  and  under  its  cover  the  soldiers  loosened  and 
removed  the  foundations  of  the  tower  until  it  fell  down. 

In  order  that  it  might  be  possible  to  move  these  heavy  structures, 
it  was  usually  necessary  to  fill  up  the  ditch  or  to  level  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  For  this  purpose  an  "  approach  tortoise  "  was  often 
used.  This  was  a  shelter,  something  between  the  ordinary  gallery 
and  the  rat,  which  was  moved  end  on  towards  the  wall,  and  had  an 
open  front  with  a  hood,  under  cover  of  which  the  earth  brought  up 
for  filling  the  ditch  was  distributed. 

The  missile  engines  threw  stones  up  to  600  Ib  weight,  heavy 
darts  from  6  to  12  ft.  long,  and  Greek  fire.  Archimedes  at  the  siege 
of  Syracuse  even  made  some  throwing  1800  Ib.  The  ranges  varied, 
according  to  the  machine  and  the  weight  thrown,  up  to  600  yds. 
for  direct  fire  and  1000  yds.  for  curved  fire.  At  the  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem Titus  employed  three  hundred  catapults  of  different  sizes 
and  forty  balistae,  of  which  the  smallest  threw  missiles  of  75  Ib 
weight.  At  Carthage  Scipio  found  120  large  and  281  medium 
catapults,  23  large  and  52  small  balistae,  and  a  great  number  of 
scorpions  and  other  small  missile  engines. 

Screens  and  mantlets  for  the  protection  of  the  engine-workers 
were  used  in  great  variety. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  great  mechanical  skill  was  shown  in 
the  construction  of  many  kinds  of  machines  for  occasional  purposes. 
A  kind  of  jib  crane  of  great  height  on  a  movable  platform  was  used 
to  hoist  a  cage  containing  fifteen  or  twenty  men  on  to  the  wall. 
A  long  spar  with  a  steel  claw  at  the  end,  swung  in  the  middle  from 
a  lofty  frame,  served  to  pull  down  the  upper  parts  of  parapets  and 
overhanging  galleries.  The  defenders  on  their  side  were  not  slow 
in  replying  with  similar  devices.  Fenders  were  let  down  from  the 
wall  to  soften  the  blow  of  the  ram,  or  the  ram  heads  were  caught 
and  held  by  cranes.  Grapnels  were  lowered  from  cranes  to  seize  the 
rats  and  overturn  them.  Archimedes  used  the  same  idea  in  the 
defence  of  Syracuse  for  lifting  and  sinking  the  Roman  galleys. 
Wooden  towers  were  built  on  the  walls  to  overtop  the  towers  of  the 
besiegers.  Many  devices  for  throwing  fire  were  employed.  The 
tradition  that  Archimedes  burnt  the  Roman  fleet,  or  a  portion  of  it, 
at  Syracuse,  by  focusing  the  rays  of  the  sun  with  reflectors,  is 
supported  by  an  experiment  made  by  Buffon  in  1747.  With  a  re- 
flector having  a  surface  of  50  sq.  ft.,  made  up  of  168  small  mirrors 
each  6  by  8  in.,  lead  was  melted  at  a  distance  of  140  ft.  and  wood  was 
set  on  fire  at  160  ft. 

The  development  of  masonry  in  permanent  fortification  had  long 
since  reached  its  practical  limit,  and  was  no  longer  proof  against  the 
destructive  methods  that  had  been  evolved.  The  extemporized 
defences  were,  as  is  always  the  case,  worn  down  by  a  resolute  besieger, 
and  the  attack  was  stronger  than  the  defence. 

Through  the  dark  ages  the  Eastern  Empire  kept  alive  the 
twin  sciences  of  fortification  and  siegecraft  long  enough  for  the 
Crusaders  to  learn  from  them  what  had  been  lost  in  the  West, 


682 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[HISTORY 


Byzantium,  however,  always  a  storehouse  of  military  science, 

while   conserving  a  knowledge   of   the   ancient   methods  and 

the  great  missile  engines,  contributed  no  new  ideas 

to  fortification,  so  far  as  we  know.     In  practice  the 

Byzantines  favoured  multiplied  enceintes  or  several 

concentric  lines  of  defence.     This  of  course  is  always  a  tendency 

of  decadent  nations. 

In  the  West  the  Roman  fortifications  remained  standing,  and 
the  Visigoths,  allies  of  Rome,  utilized  their  principles  in  the 
defences  of  Carcassonne,  Toulouse,  &c.  in  the  5th  century. 
Viollet-le-Duc's  description  and  illustrations  of  the  defences  of 
Carcassonne  will  give  a  very  good  idea  of  the  methods  then  in 
use: — 

"  The  Visigoth  fortification  of  the  city  of  Carcassonne,  which  is 
still  preserved,  offers  an  analogous  arrangement  recalling  those 
described  by  Vegetius.  The  level  of  the  town  is  much  more  elevated 
than  the  ground  outside,  and  almost  as  high  as  the  parapet  walks. 
The  curtain  walls,  of  great  thickness,  are  composed  of  two  faces 
of  small  cubical  masonry  alternating  with  courses  of  brick;  the 
middle  portion  being  filled,  not  with  earth  but  with  rubble  run  with 
lime.  The  towers  were  raised  above  these  curtains,  and  their  com- 
munication with  the  latter  might  be  cut  off,  so  as  to  make  of  each 

tower  a  small  inde- 
pendent fort ;  ex- 
ternally these  towers 
are  cylindrical,  and 
on  the  side  of  the 
town  square ;  they 
rest,  also  towards 
the  country,  upon  a 
cubical  base  or 
foundation.  We 
subjoin  (fig.  l)  the 
plan  of  one  of  these 
towers  with  the  cur- 
tains adjoining.  A 


FIG.  i. — Plan  of  one  of  the  Towers  at 
Carcassonne. 


is  the  plan  of  the  ground-level ;  B  the  plan  of  the  first  storey  at  the 
level  of  the  parapet.  We  see,  at  C  and  D,  the  two  excavations 
formed  in  front  of  the  gates  of  the  tower  to  intercept,  when  the 
drawbridges  were  raised,  all  communication  between  the  town 
or  the  parapet  walk  and  the  several  storeys  of  the  tower.  From  the 
first  storey  access  was  had  to  the  upper  crenellated  or  battlemented 
portion  of  the  tower  by  a  ladder  of  wood  placed  interiorly  against 
the  side  of  the  flat  wall.  The  external  ground-level  was  much  lower 
than  that  of  the  tower,  and  also  beneath  the  ground-level  of  the 
town,  from  which  it  was  reached  by  a  descending  flight  of  from  ten 
to  fifteen  steps.  Fig.  2  shows  the  tower  and  its  two  curtains  on  the 


FIG.  2. — One  of  the  Towers  at  Carcassonne,  inside  view. 

side  of  the  town;  the  bridges  of  communication  are  supposed  to  have 
been  removed.  The  battlemented  portion  at  the  top  is  covered  with 
a  roof,  and  open  on  the  side  of  the  town  in  order  to  permit  the 
defenders  of  the  tower  to  see  what  was  going  on  therein,  and  also 
to  allow  of  their  hoisting  up  stones  and  other  projectiles  by  means 
of  a  rope  and  pulley.  Fig.  3  shows  the  same  tower  on  the  side 
towards  the  country;  we  have  added  a  postern,  the  sill  of  which 
is  sufficiently  raised  above  the  ground  to  necessitate  the  use  of  a 
scaling  or  step  ladder,  to  obtain  ingress.  The  postern  is  defended, 
as  was  customary,  by  a  palisade  or  barrier,  each  gate  or  postern 
being  provided  with  a  work  of  this  kind." 

Meanwhile,  in  western  Europe,  siegecraft  had  almost  dis- 
appeared. Its  perfect  development  was  only  possible  for  an 
army  like  that  of  the  Romans.  The  Huns  and  Goths  knew 


nothing  of  it,  and  the  efforts  of  Charlemagne  and  others  of  the 
Prankish  kings  to  restore  the  art  were  hampered  by  the  fact  that 
their  warriors  despised  handicrafts  and  understood  nothing 
but  the  use  of  their  weapons.  During  the  dark  ages  the  towns 
of  the  Gauls  retained  their  old  Roman  and  Visigoth  defences, 
which  no  one  knew  properly  how  to  attack,  and  accordingly  the 
sieges  of  that  period  dragged  themselves  out  through  long  years, 
and  if  ultimately 
successful  were  so  as 

rule  only  through 
blockade  and  famine. 
It  was  not  until  the 
nth  century  that 
siegecraft  was  revived 
in  the  West  on  'the 
ancient  lines. 

By  this  time  a  new 
departure  of  great 
importance 
had  been 
made  in  the  seig- 
neurial  castle  (q.v.), 
which  restored  for 
some  centuries  a  defi- 
nite superiority  to 
the  defence.  Built 
primarily  as  strong- 
holds for  local  mag- 
nates or  for  small 
bodies  of 


Castles. 


FIG.  3. — One  of  the  Towers  at  Carcassonne, 
outside  view. 


warriors 

dominating  a  conquered  country,  the  conditions  which  called 
them  into  existence  offered  several  marked  advantages.  The 
defences  of  a  town  had  to  follow  the  growth  of  the  town, 
and  would  naturally  have  weak  points.  It  was  not  to  be 
expected  that  a  town  would  develop  itself  in  the  manner  most 
suitable  for  defence;  nor  indeed  that  any  position  large  enough 
for  a  town  could  be  found  that  would  be  naturally  strong 
all  round.  But  the  site  of  a  castle  could  be  chosen  purely 
for  its  natural  strength,  without  regard,  except  as  a  secondary 
consideration,  to  the  protection  of  anything  outside  it;  and  as 
its  area  was  small  it  was  often  easy  to  find  a  natural  position 
entirely  suited  for  the  purpose.  In  fact  it  frequently  happened 
that  the  existence  of  such  a  position  was  the  raison  d'etre 
of  the  castle.  A  small  hill  with  steep  sides  might  well  be  un- 
approachable in  every  direction  by  such  cumbrous  structures 
as  towers  and  rats,  while  the  height  of  the  hill,  added  to  the 
height  of  the  walls,  would  be  too  much  for  the  besiegers'  missiles. 
If  the  sides  of  the  hill  were  precipitous  and  rocky,  mining 
became  impossible,  and  the  site  was  perfect  for  defence.  A 
castle  built  under  such  conditions  was  practically  impregnable; 
and  this  was  the  cause  of  the  independence  of  the  barons  in  the 
nth  and  i2th  centuries.  They  could  only  be  reduced  by 
blockade,  and  a  blockade  of  long  duration  was  very  difficult  in 
the  feudal  age. 

A  very  instructive  example  of  12th-century  work  is  the 
Chateau  Gaillard,  built  by  Richard  Cceur-de-Lion  in  1196. 
This  great  castle,  with  ditches  and  escarpments  cut  out  of  the 
solid  rock,  and  extensive  outworks,  was  completed  in  one  year. 
In  the  article  CASTLE  will  be  found  the  plan  of  the  main  work, 
which  is  here  supplemented  by  an  elevation  of  the  donjon  (or 
keep).  The  waved  face  of  the  inner  or  main  wall  of  the  castle, 
giving  a  divergent  fire  over  the  front,  is  an  interesting  feature 
in  advance  of  the  time.  So  also  is  the  masonry  protection  of 
the  machicolation  at  the  top  of  the  donjon,  a  protection  which 
at  that  time  was  usually  given  by  wooden  hoardings.  After 
the  death  of  Richard,  Philip  Augustus  besieged  the  chateau, 
and  carried  it  after  a  blockade  of  seven  months  and  a  regular 
attack  of  one  month.  In  this  attack  the  tower  at  A  was  first 
mined,  after  which  the  whole  of  that  outwork  was  abandoned  by 
the  defenders.  The  outer  enceinte  was  next  captured  by  sur- 
prise; and  finally  the  gate  of  the  main  wall  was  breached  by  the 
pioneers.  When  this  happened  a  sudden  rush  of  the  besiegers 


HISTORY] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


683 


prevented  the  remains  of  the  garrison  from  gaining  the  shelter 
of  the  donjon,  and  they  had  to  lay  down  their  arms. 

Chateau  Gaillard,  designed  by  perhaps  the  greatest  general 
of  his  time,  exemplifies  in  its  brief  resistance  the  weak  points  of 
the  designs  of  the  i2th  century.  It  is  easy  to  understand  how 
at  each  step  gained  by  the  besiegers  the  very  difficulties  which 
had  been  placed  in  the  way  of  their  further  advance  prevented 
the  garrison  from  reinforcing  strongly  the  points  attacked. 
In  the  i3th  century  many  influences  were  at  work  in  the 
development  of  castellar  fortification.  The  experience  of  such 
sieges  as  that  of  Chateau  Gaillard,  and  still  more  that  gained  in 
the  Crusades,  the  larger  garrisons  at  the  disposal  of  the  great 
feudal  lords,  and  the  importance  of  the  interests  which  they  had 
to  protect  in  their  towns,  led  to  a  freer  style  of  design.  We  must 
also  take  note  of  an  essential  difference  between  the  forms  of 
attack  preferred  by  the  Roman  soldiery  and  by  the  medieval 
chivalry.  The  former,  who  were  artisans  as  well  as  soldiers,  pre- 
ferred in  siege  works  the  cer- 
tain if  laborious  methods  of 
breaching  and  mining.  The 
latter,  who  considered  all 
manual  labour  beneath 
them  and  whose  only  ideal 
of  warfare  was  personal 
combat,  affected  the  tower 
and  its  bridge,  giving  access 
to  the  top  of  the  wall  rather 
than  the  rat  and  battering- 
ram.  They  were  also  fond 
of  surprises,  which  the  bad 
discipline  of  the  time 
favoured. 

We  find,  therefore,  im- 
portant progress  in  enlarg- 
ing the  area  of  defence  and 
in  improving  arrangements 
for  flanking.  The  size  and 
height  of  all  works  were 
increased.  The  keep  of 
Coucy  Castle,  built  in  1220, 
was  200  ft.  high.  Mon- 
targis  Castle,  also  built 
about  this  time,  had  a 
central  donjon  and  a  large 
open  enclosure,  within 

which  the  whole  garrison  could  move  freely,  to  reinforce  quickly 
any  threatened  point.  The  effect  of  flanking  fire  was  increased 
by  giving  more  projection  to  the  towers,  whose  sides  were  in 
some  cases  made  at  right  angles  to  the  curtain  walls. 

We  find  also  a  tendency,  the  influence  of  which  lasted  long 
after  medieval  times,  towards  complexity  and  multiplication 
of  defences,  to  guard  against  surprise  and  localize  successful 
assaults.  Great  attention  was  paid  to  the  "  step  by  step  " 
defence.  Flanking  towers  were  cut  off  from  their  walls  and 
arranged  for  separate  resistance.  Complicated  entrances  with 
traps  and  many  doors  were  arranged.  Almost  all  defence  was 
from  the  tops  of  the  walls  and  towers,  the  loopholes  on  the 
lower  storeys  being  mainly  for  light  and  air  and  reconnoitring. 
Machicouli  galleries  (for  vertical  defence)  were  protected  either 
by  stone  walls  built  out  on  corbels,  or  by  strong  timber  hoardings 
built  in  war  time,  for  which  the  walls  were  prepared  beforehand 
by  recesses  left  in  the  masonry.  Loopholes  and  crenelles  were 
protected  by  shutters.  Great  care  and  much  ingenuity  were 
expended  on  details  of  all  kinds. 

Already  in  the  i2th  century  the  engineers  of  the  defence  had 
made  provision  for  countermining,  by  building  chambers  and 
galleries  at  the  base  of  the  towers  and  walls.  Further  protection 
for  the  towers  against  the  pioneer  attack  was  given  by  carrying 
out  the  masonry  in  front  of  the  tower  in  a  kind  of  projecting 
horn.  This  was  found  later  to  have  the  further  advantages  of 
doing  away  with  the  dead  ground  in  front  of  the  tower  unseen 
from  the  curtain,  and  of  increasing  the  projection  and  therefore 


FIG.  4. — Donjon,   Chateau  Gaillard. 


FIG.  5. — Plan  of  Carcassonne,  131)1  century. 


the  flanking  power  of  the  tower  itself.  The  arrangement  is  seen 
in  several  of  the  towers  at  Carcassonne,  and  has  in  it  the  germ 
of  the  idea  of  the  bastion. 

The  defences  of  Carcassonne,  remodelled  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
1 3th  century  on  the  old  Visigoth  foundations,  exemplify  some  of 
the  best  work  of  the  period.  Figs.  5  and  6  (reproduced  from  Viollet- 
le-Duc)  show  the  plan  of  the  defences  of  the  town  and  castle,  and  a 
bird's-eye  view  of  the  castle  with  its  two  barbicans.  The  thick 
black  line  shows  the  main  wall;  beyond  this  are  the  lists  and  then 
the  moat.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  wall  of  the  lists  as  well  as  the 
main  wall  is  defended  by  towers.  There  are  only  two  gates.  That 
on  the  east  is  de- 

' 


fended  by  two 
great  towers  and 
a  semicircular  bar- 
bican. The  gate 
of  the  castle,  on 
the  west,  has  a 
most  complicated 
approach  defended 
by  a  labyrinth  of 
gates  and  flanking 
walls,  which  can- 
not be  shown  on 
this  small  scale, 
and  beyond  these 
is  a  huge  circular 
barbican  in  several 
storeys,  capable  of 
holding  1500  men. 
On  the  tide  of  the 
town  the  castle  is 
protected  by  a 
wide  moat,  and  the 
entrance  is  masked 
by  another  large 
semicircular  barbi- 
can. An  interest- 
ing feature  of  the 
general  arrange- 
ment is  the  import- 
ance which  the  lists 
have  assumed.  The  slight  wooden  barricade  of  older  times  has 
developed  into  a  wall  with  towers;  and  the  effect  is  that  the 
besieger,  if  he  gains  a  footing  in  the  lists,  has  a  very  narrow  space 
in  which  to  work  the  engines  of  attack.  The  castle,  after  the 
Roman  fashion,  adjoins  the  outer  wall  of  the  town,  so  that  there 
may  be  a  possibility  of  communicating  with  a  relieving  force  from 
outside  after  the  town  has  fallen.  There  were  also  several  posterns, 
small  openings  made  in  the  wall  at  some  height  above  the  ground, 
for  use  with  rope  ladders. 

The  siegecraft  of  the  period  was  still  that  of  the  ancients. 
Mining  was  the  most  effective  form  of  attack,  and  the  approach 
to  the  walls  was  covered  by  engines  throwing  great  stones  against 
the  hoardings  of  the  parapets,  and  by  cross-bowmen  who  were 
sheltered  behind  light  mantlets  moved  on  wheels.  Barrels  of 
burning  pitch  and  other  incendiary  projectiles  were  thrown  as 
before;  and  at  one  siege  we  read  of  the  carcasses  of  dead  horses 
and  barrels  of  sewage  being  thrown  into  the  town  to  breed 
pestilence,  which  had  the  effect  of  forcing  a  capitulation. 

With  all  this  the  attack  was  inferior  to  the  defence.  As 
Professor  C.  W.  C.  Oman  has  pointed  out,  the  mechanical 
application  of  the  three  powers  of  tension,  torsion  and  counter- 
poise (in  the  missile  engines)  had  its  limits.  If  these  engines  were 
enlarged  they  grew  too  costly  and  unwieldy.  If  they  were 
multiplied  it  was  impossible  on  account  of  their  short  range  and 
great  bulk  to  concentrate  the  fire  of  enough  of  them  on  a  single 
portion  of  the  wall. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  anything  like  an  accurate  account,  in  a 
small  space,  of  the  changes  in  fortification  which  took  place  in  the 
first  two  centuries  after  the  introduction  of  gunpowder.     latroduc- 
The  number  of  existing  fortifications  that  had  to  be     tloa  of 
modified  was  infinite,   so  also  was  the  number  of     *"""" 
attempted  solutions  of  the  new  problems.     Engineers 
had  not  yet  begun  to  publish  descriptions  of  their  "  systems  "; 
also  the  new  names  and  terms  which  came  into  use  with  the  new 
works  were  spread  over  Europe  by  engineers  of  different  countries, 
and  adopted  into  new  languages  without  much  accuracy. 

Artillery  was  in  use  for  some  time  before  it  began  to  have  any 
effect  on  the  design  of  fortification.  The  earliest  cannon  threw 
so  very  light  a  projectile  that  they  had  no  effect  on  masonry  and 


684 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[HISTORY 


were  more  useful  for  the  defence  than  the  attack.  Later,  larger 
pieces  were  made,  which  acted  practically  as  mortars,  throwing 
stone  balls  with  high  elevation,  and  barrels  of  burning  com- 
position. In  the  middle  of  the  isth  century  the  art  of  cannon- 
founding  was  much  developed  by  the  brothers  Bureau  in  France. 
They  introduced  iron  cannon  balls  and  greatly  strengthened 
the  guns.  In  1428  the  English  besieging  Orleans  were  entirely 
defeated  by  the  superior  artillery  of  the  besieged.  By  1450 
Charles  VII.  was  furnished  with  so  powerful  a  siege  train  that  he 
captured  the  whole  of  the  castles  in  Normandy  from  the  English 
in  one  year. 

But  the  great  change  came  after  the  invasion  of  Italy  by 
Charles  VIII.  with  a  greatly  improved  siege  train  in  1494.  The 
astonishing  rapidity  with  which  castles  and  fortified  towns  fell 

before  him  proved 
the  uselessness  of 
the  old  defences. 


It  became  neces- 
sary to  create  a 
new  system  of 
defences,  and, 
says  Cosseron 
de  Villenoisy, 
"  thanks  to  the 
mental  activity  of 
the  Renaissance 
and  the  warlike 
conditions  pre- 
vailing every- 
where, the  time 
could  not  have 
been  more  fav- 
ourable." There 
is  no  doubt  that 
the  engineers  of 
Italy  as  a  body 
were  responsible 
for  the  first  ad- 
vance in  fortifi- 
cation. There, 
where  vital  and 
mental  energy 
were  at  boiling- 
point,  and  where 
the  first  striking 
demonstration  of 
the  new  force  had  been  given,  the  greatest  intellects,  men  such 
as  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michelangelo  and  Machiavelli,  busied 
themselves  over  the  problem  of  defence. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  Albert  DUrer  was  the  first  writer  on 
modern  fortification.  This  was  not  so;  Diirer's  work  was 
published  in  1527,  and  more  than  one  Italian  engineer,  certainly 
Martini  of  Siena  and  San  Gallo,  had  preceded  him.  Also  Machia- 
velli, writing  between  1512  and  1527,  had  offered  some  most 
valuable  criticisms  and  general  principles.  Diirer,  moreover, 
had  little  influence  on  the  progress  of  fortification;  though  we 
may  see  in  his  ideas,  if  we  choose,  the  germ  of  the  "  polygonal  " 
system,  developed  long  afterwards  by  Montalembert.  Diirer's 
work  was  to  some  extent  a  connecting  link  between  the  old 
fortification  and  the  new.  He  proposed  greatly  to  enlarge  the 
old  towers;  and  he  provided  both  them  and  the  curtains  with 
vaulted  chambers  for  guns  (casemates)  in  several  tiers,  so  as  to 
command  both  the  ditch  and  the  ground  beyond  it.  His  projects 
were  too  massive  and  costly  for  execution,  but  his  name  is 
associated  with  the  first  practical  gun  casemates. 

Before  beginning  to  trace  the  effect  of  gunpowder  on  the 
design  of  fortification,  it  may  be  noted  that  two  causes  weakened 
the  influence  of  the  castles.  First,  their  owners  were  slow  to 
adopt  the  new  ideas  and  abandon  their  high  strong  walls  for 
low  extended  parapets,  and,  secondly,  they  had  not  the  men 
necessary  for  long  lines  of  defence.  At  the  same  time  the 
corporations  of  the  towns  had  learnt  to  take  an  active  part  in 


FIG.  6. — Carcassonne  Castle  and  Barbican. 


warfare,  and  provided  trained  and  disciplined  soldiers  in  large 
numbers. 

When  artillery  became  strong  enough  to  destroy  masonry 
from  a  distance  two  results  followed:  it  was  necessary  to  modify 
the  masonry  defences  so  as  to  make  them  less  vulnerable,  and 
to  improve  the  means  of  employing  the  guns  of  the  defence. 
For  both  these  purposes  the  older  castles  with  their  restricted 
area  were  little  suited,  and  we  must  now  trace  the  development 
of  the  fortified  towns. 

Probably  the  first  form  of  construction  directly  due  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  new  weapons  was  the  bulwark  (boulevard,  baluardo  or 
bollwerk).     This  was  an  outwork  usually  semicircular  in 
plan,  built  of  earth  consolidated  with  timber  and  revetted 
with  hurdles.     Such  works  were  placed  as  a  shield  in      wark- 
front  of  the  gates,  which  could  be  destroyed  even  by  the  early  light 
cannon-balls ;  and  they  offered  at  the  same  time  advanced  positions 
for  the  guns  of  the  defence.     They  were  found  so  useful  for  gun 
positions  for  flanking  fire  that  later  they  were  placed    in  front  of 
towers  or  at  intervals  along  the  walls  for  that  purpose. 

This,  however,  was  only  a  temporary  expedient,  and  we  have  now 
to  consider  the  radical  modifications  in  designs.  These  affected 
both  the  construction  and  trace  of  the  walls. 

The  first  lesson  taught  by  improved  artillery  was  that  the  walls 
should  not  be  set  up  on  high  as  targets,  but  in  some  manner  screened. 
One  method  of  doing  this  in  the  case  of  old  works  was     _. 
by  placing  bulwarks  in  front  of  them.     In  other  cases  the  w 

lists  or  outer  walls,  being  surrounded  by  moats,  were  already  partially 
screened  and  suitable  for  conversion 
into  the  main  defence;  and  as  with 
improved  flanking  defence  great  height 
was  no  longer  essential,  the  tops  of  the 
walls  were  in  some  cases  cut  down. 
In  new  works  it  was  natural  to  sink 
the  wall  in  a  ditch,  the  earth  from 
which  was  useful  for  making  ramparts. 

As  regards  resistance  to  the  effect 
of  shot,  it  was  found  that  thin  masonry 
walls  with  rubble  filling  behind  them 
were  very  easily  destroyed.  A  bank 


FIG.  7. 


of  earth  behind  the  wall  lessened  the  vibration  of  the  shot,  but 
once  a  breach  was  made  the  earth  came  down,  making  a  slope 
easy  of  ascent.  To  obviate  this,  horizontal  layers  of  brushwood, 
timber  and  sometimes  masonry  were  built  into  the  earth  bank, 
and  answered  very  well  (fig.  7). 


FIG.  8. 


FIG.  9. 


Another  expedient  of  still  greater  value  was  the  use  of  counter- 
forts. The  earliest  counterforts  were  simply  buttresses  built 
inward  from  the  wall  into  the  rampart  instead  of  outward  (fig.  8). 
Their  effect  was  to  strengthen  the  wall  and  make  the  breaches  more 
difficult  of  ascent.  An  alternative  arrangement  for  strengthening 
the  wall  was  an  arched  gallery  built  behind  it  under  the  rampart 
^fig.  9).  This  construction  was  in  harmony  with  the  idea,  already 
amiliar,  of  a  passage  in  the  wall  from  which  countermines  could 
be  started;  but  it  has  the  obvious  weakness  that  the  destruction 
of  the  face  wall  takes  away  one  of  the  supports  of  the  arch.  The 
best  arrangement,  which  is  ascribed  to  Albert  Durer,  was  the 
"  counter-arched  revetment."  This  consisted  of  a  series  of  arches 
built  between  the  counterforts,  with  their  axes  at  right  angles  to 
the  face  of  the  wall.  Their  advantage  was  that,  while  supporting 
the  wall  and  taking  all  the  weight  of  the  rampart,  they  formed 
an  obstacle  after  the  destruction  of  the  wall  more  difficult  to  sur- 
mount than  the  wall  itself  and  very  hard  to  destroy.  The  counter- 
arches  might  be  in  one,  two  or  three  tiers,  according  to  the  height 
of  the  wall  (figs.  10  and  n,  the  latter  without  the  earth  of  the 
rampart  and  showing  also  a  countermine  gallery). 

A  more  important  question,  however,  than  the  improvement  of 
the  passive  defence  or  obstacle  was  the  development  of  the  active 


HISTORY] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


685 


n 
^=^ 

?=»* 
#=^ 

o 

f=^ 

<**=** 

!<*=^ 

o 

*=Si 
#=Ss 

/f~\ 
?=** 
&==* 

r^ 

«==>: 

~ 
*=* 

n 

^ 

/f^~*\ 
B. 

defence  by  artillery.  For  this  purpose  it  was  necessary  to  find  room 
tor  the  working  of  the  guns  At  the  outset  it  was  of  course  a  question 
,.,.  of  modifying  the  existing  defences  at  as  little  cost  as 

'  T&  '  possible.  With  this  object  the  roofs  of  towers  were 
par^  removed  and  platforms  for  guns  substituted,  but  this 

only  gave  room  for  one  or  two  guns.  Also  the  loopholes  in  the  lower 
storeys  of  towers  were  converted  into  embrasures  to  give  a  grazing 
fire  over  the  ditch  ;  this  became  the  commonest  method  of  strengthen- 

ing old  works  for 
cannon,  but  was  of 
little  use  as  the 
resulting  field  of 
fire  was  so  small. 
In  some  cases  the 
towers  were  made 
larger,  with  a  semi- 
circular front  and 
FIG.  10.  side  walls  at  right 

angles  to  the  cur- 

tain. Such  towers  built  at  Langres  early  in  the  i6th  century  had 
walls  20  ft.  thick  to  resist  battering. 

Even  in  new  works  some  attempts  were  made  to  combine  artillery 
defence  with  pure  masonry  protection.  The  works  of  Albert  Durer 
in  theory,  and  the  bridge-head  of  Schaffhausen  in  practice,  are  the 
best  examples  of  this.  The  Italian  engineers  also  showed  much 
ingenuity  in  arranging  for  the  defence  of  ditches  with  masonry 
caponiers.  These  were  developed  from  external  buttresses,  and 
equally  with  the  casemated  flanking  towers  of  Durer  contained  the 
germs  of  the  idea  of  "  polygonal  "  defence. 

The  natural  solution,  however,  which  was  soon  generally  adopted, 
was  the  rampart  ;  that  is,  a  bank  of  earth  thrown  up  behind  the  wall, 
which,  while  strengthening  the  wall  as  already  indicated,  offered 
plenty  of  space  for  the  disposal  of  the  guns. 

The  diick,  which  had  only  been  occasionally  used  in  ancient  and 
medieval  fortification,  now  became  essential  and  characteristic. 
Serving  as  it  did  for  the  double  purpose  of  supplying 
The  aitch.  eartjj  fo,.  a  rampart  and  allowing  the  wall  to  be  sunk  for 
concealment,  it  was  found  also  to  have  a  definite  use  as  an  obstacle. 
Hitherto  the  wall  had  sufficed  for  this  purpose,  the  ditch  being 

useful  mainly  to  prevent  the 
besieger  from  bringing  up  his 
engines  of  attack. 

When  the  wall  (or  escarp)  was 
lowered,  the  obstacle  offered  by 
the  ditch  was  increased  by  revet- 
ting the  far  side  of  it  with  a 
counterscarp.  Beyond  the 
counterscarp  wall  some  of  the 
earth  excavated  from  the  ditch 
was  piled  up  to  increase  the 
protection  given  to  the  escarp 
wall.  This  earth  was  sloped 
down  gently  on  the  outer  side 
to  meet  the  natural  surface  of 
the  ground  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  be  swept  by  the  fire  from  the 
ramparts  and  was  called  the 
glacis. 

Now,  however,  a  new  diffi- 
culty arose.  In  all  times  a  chief  element  in  a  successful  defence  has 
consisted  in  action  by  the  besieged  outside  the  walls.  The  old 
ditches,  when  they  existed,  had  merely  a  slope  on  the  far  side 
leading  up  to  the  ground-level;  and  the  ditch  was  a  convenient 
place  in  which  troops  preparing  for  a  sortie  could  assemble  with- 
out being  seen  by  the  enemy,  and  ascend  the  slope  to  make  their 
attack.  The  introduction  of  the  counterscarp  wall  prevented 
sorties  from  the  ditch.  At  first  it  was  customary,  after  the  intro- 
duction of  the  counterscarp,  to  leave  a  narrow  space  on  the  top  of 
it,  behind  the  glacis,  for  a  patrol  path.  Eventually  the  difficulty 
was  met  by  widening  this  patrol  path  into  a  space  of  about  30  ft., 
in  which  there  was  room  for  troops  to  assemble.  This  was  known  as 
the  covered  way. 

With  this  last  addition  the  ordinary  elements  of  a  profile  of 
modern  fortification  were  complete  and  are  exemplified  in  fig.  12. 


FIG.  II. 


Parapet 


Terrepleln 


FIG.  12. 

Up  to  the  gunpowder  period  the  trace  of  fortifications,  that  is, 
the  plan  on  which  they  were  arranged  on  the  ground,  was  very 
simple.  It  was  merely  a  question  of  an  enclosure  wall  adapted 
to  the  site  and  provided  with  towers  at  suitable  intervals.  The 


foot  of  the  wall  could  be  seen  and  defended  everywhere,  from 
the  tops  of  the  towers  and  the  machicoulis  galleries.  The  intro- 
duction of  ramparts  and  artillery  made  this  more  diffi-  The  trgaf 
cult  in  two  ways.  The  rampart,  interposed  between 
the  defenders  and  the  face  of  the  wall,  put  a  stop  to  vertical 
defence.  Also  with  the  inferior  gun-carriages  of  the  time  very 
little  depression  could  be  given  to  the  guns,  and  thus  the  top  of 
the  enceinte  wall,  with  or  without  a  rampart,  was  not  a  suitable 
position  for  guns  intended  to  flank  the  ditch  in  their  immediate 
neighbourhood.  The  problem  of  the  "  trace  "  therefore  at  the 
beginning  of  the  i6th  century  was  to  rearrange  the  line  of  defence 
so  as  to  give  due  opportunity  to  the  artillery  of  the  besieged, 
both  to  oppose  the  besiegers'  breaching  batteries  and  later  to 
defend  the  breaches.  At  the  outset  the  latter  r61e  was  the  more 
important. 

In  considering  the  early  efforts  of  engineers  to  solve  this 
problem  we  must  remember  that  for  economical  reasons  they 
had  to  make  the  best  use  they  could  of  the  existing  walls.  At 
first  for  flanking  purposes  casemates  on  the  ditch  level  were 
used,  the  old  flanking  towers  being  enlarged  for  the  purpose. 
Masonry  galleries  were  constructed  across  the  ditch,  containing 
casemates  which  could  fire  to  either  side,  and  after  this  casemates 
were  used  in  the  counterscarps.  Some  use  was  also  made  of  the 
fire  from  detached  bulwarks.  It  was  soon  realized,  however,  that 
the  flanking  defence  of  the  body  of  the  place  ought  not  to  be 
dependent  on  outworks,  and  that  greater  freedom  was  required 
for  guns  than  was  consistent  with  casemate  defence.  The 
bulwark  (which  in  its  earliest  shape  suggests  that  it  was  in  some 
sort  the  offspring  of  the  barbican,  placed  to  protect  an  entrance) 
gave  plenty  of  space  for  guns,  but  was  too  detached  for  security. 
The  enlarged  tower,  as  an  integral  part  of  the  lines,  gave  security, 
and  its  walls  at  right  angles  to  the  curtain  gave  direct  flanking 
fire,  but  the  guns  in  it  were  too  cramped.  The  blending  of  the 
two  ideas  produced  the  bastion,  an  element  of  fortification  which 
dominated  the  science  for  three  hundred  years,  and  so  impressed 
itself  on  the  imagination  that  to  this  day  any  strong  advanced 
position  in  a  defensive  line  is  called  by  that  name  by  unscientific 
writers.  The  word  had  been  in  use  for  a  long  time  in  connexion 
with  extemporized  towers  or  platforms  for  flanking  purposes, 
the  earliest  forms  being  bastille,  bastide,  baslillon,  and  in  its  origin 
it  apparently  refers  rather  to  the  quality  of  work  in  the  construc- 
tion than  to  its  defensive  intention. 

The  earliest  bastions  were  modified  bulwarks  with  straight  faces 
and  flanks,  attached  to  the  main  wall,  for  which  the  old  towers 
often  acted  as  keeps;  and  at  first  the  terms  bulwark  and  bastion 
were  more  or  less  interchangeable.  Fig.  13,  taken  from  a  con- 
temporary MS.  by 
Viollet-le-Duc, 
shows  a  bastion , 
added  to  the  old  ' 
wall  of  Troyes  about 
1528.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  fig.  14 
(taken  from  an 
English  MS.  of 
1559,  which  again  is 
based  on  the  Italian 
work  of  Zanchi  pub- 
lished in  1554),  we 
find  a  a  spoken  of 
as  "  bulwarks  "  and 
b  b  as  "  bastilions." 
The  triangular 
works  between  the 
bastilions  are  de- 
scribed as  "  ram- 
parts," intended  to 
protect  the  curtains  from  breaching  fire.  (We  may  also  notice  in 
this  design  the  broad  ditch,  the  counterscarp  with  narrow  covered 
way,  and  loopholes  indicating  counterscarp  galleries.) 

Towards  the  end  of  the  i6th  century  the  term  "  bulwark  " 
began  to  be  reserved  for  banks  of  earth  thrown  up  a  little  distance 
in  front  of  the  main  wall  to  protect  it  from  breaching  fire,  and  it 
thus  reverted  to  its  original  defensive  intention.  The  term 
"  bastion  "  henceforth  denoted  an  artillery  position  connected 
by  flanks  to  the  main  wall;  and  the  question  of  the  arrangement 
of  these  flanks  was  one  of  the  main  preoccupations  of  engineers. 


FIG.  13. — Bastion  at  Troyes. 


686 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[HISTORY 


Flanks  retired,  casemated  or  open,  or  sometimes  in  several  tiers 
were  proposed  in  infinite  variety. 


FIG.  14. 

Thus,  while  in  the  early  part  of  the  i6th  century  the  actual 
modification  of  existing  defences  was  proceeding  very  slowly  on 
account  of  the  expense  involved,  the  era  of  theoretical  "  systems  " 
had  begun,  based  on  the  mutual  relations  of  flank  and  face. 
These  can  be  grouped  under  three  heads  as  follows: — 

I.  The  cremaillere  or  indented  trace:  Faces  and  flanks  succeeding 
each  other  in  regular  order  (fig.  15). 


FIG.  15.  FIG.  16. 

2.  The  tenaille  trace:  Flanks  back  to  back  between  the  faces 
(fig.  16).  The  development  of  the  flanks  in  this  case  gives  us  the 
star  trace  (fig.  17). 


FIG.  17.  FIG.  18. 

3.  The  bastioned  trace:  Flanks  facing  each  other  and  connected 
by  curtains  (fig.  18). 

In  comparing  these  three  traces  it  will  be  observed  that  unless 
casemates  are  used  the  flanking  in  the  first  two  is  incomplete. 
Guns  on  the  ramparts  of  the  faces  cannot  defend  the  flanks,  and 
therefore  there  are  "  dead  "  angles  in  the  ditch.  In  the  bastioned 
trace  there  is  no  "  dead  "  ground,  provided  the  flanks  are  so  far 
apart  that  a  shot  from  the  rampart  of  a  flank  can  reach  the  ditch 
at  the  centre  of  the  curtain. 

Here  was  therefore  the  parting  of  the  ways.  For  those  who 
objected  to  casemate  fire,  the  bastioned  trace  was  the  way  of 
salvation.  They  were  soon  in  the  majority;  perhaps 
bastioned  because  tne  symmetry  and  completeness  of  the  idea 
trace.  captivated  the  imagination.  At  all  events  the 
bastioned  trace,  once  fairly  developed,  held  the  field  in 
one  form  or  another  practically  without  a  rival  until  near  the 
end  of  the  1 8th  century.  The  Italian  engineers,  who  were  supreme 
throughout  most  of  the  i6th  century,  started  it;  the  French, 
who  took  the  lead  in  the  following  century,  developed  it,  and 
officially  never  deserted  it  until  late  in  the  loth  century,  when 
the  increasing  power  of  artillery  made  enceintes  of  secondary 
importance. 

It  will  be  useful  at  this  point  to  go  forward  a  little,  with  a  couple 
of  explanatory  figures,  in  order  to  get  a  grasp  of  the  component 


FIG.  19. 

parts  of  the  bastioned  trace  as  ultimately  developed,  and  of  its 
outworks. 

In  fig.  19  ABCD  represents  part  of  an  imaginary  line  drawn  round 
the  place  to  be  fortified,  forming  a  polygon,  regular  or  irregular. 

ABC  is  an  exterior  angle  or  angle  of  the  polygon. 


connecting  curtain   make  the  bas- 


BC is  an  exterior  side. 

zz  is  an  interior  side. 

abcdefghijk  is  the  trace  of  the  enceinte. 

bcdef  is  a  bastion. 

zdef  is  a  demi-bastion. 

de  is  a  face  of  the  bastion. 

ef  is  a  flank  of  the  bastion. 

fg  is  the  curtain. 

bf  is  the  gorge. 

(Two  demi-bastions   with   the 
tioned  front,  defghi.) 

zd  bisecting  the  exterior  angle  ABC  is  the  capital  of  the  bastion. 

xy  is  the  perpendicular,  the  proportional^  length  of  which  to  the 
exterior  side  BC  (usually  about  one-sixth)  is  an  important  element 
of  the  trace. 

efC  is  the  angle  of  defence. 

BC/  is  the  diminished  angle. 

cde  is  the  flanked  angle  or  salient  angle  of  the  bastion. 

e  is  the  shoulder  of  the  bastion. 

def  is  the  angle  of  the  shoulder. 

efg  is  the  angle  of  the  flank. 

The  line  of  the  escarp  is  called  the  magistral  line  since  it  regulates 
the  trace.  When  plans  of  fortifications  are  given  without  much 
detail,  this  line,  with  that  of  the  counterscarp  and  the  crest  of  the 
parapet,  are  often  the  only  ones  shown,  —  the  crest  of  the  parapet, 
as  being  the  most  important  line,  whence  the  fire  proceeds,  being 
usually  emphasized  by  a  thick  black  line. 

Fig.  20,  reproduced  from  a  French  engraving  of  1705,  shows  an 
imaginary  place  fortified  as  a  hexagon  with  bastions  and  all  the 


FIG.  20. 

different  kinds  of  outworks  then  in  use.     The  following  is  the  ex- 
planation of  its  figuring  and  lettering. 

1.  Flat  bastion:  Placed  in  the  middle  of  a  curtain  when  the  lines 
of  defence  were  too  long  for  musketry  range. 

2.  Demi-bastion:  Used  generally  on  the  bank  of  a  river. 

3.  Tenaille  bastion:   Used  when  the  flanked  angle  is  too  acute: 
that  is,  less  than  70°. 

4.  Redans:  Used  along  the  bank  of  a  river,  or  when  the  parapet 
of  the  covered  way  can  be  taken  in  reverse  from  the  front. 

A,  B.  Ravelins. 

C.  Demi-lunes:  So  called  from  the  shape  of  the  gorge.     They 
differ  from  the  ravelins  in  being  placed  in  front  of  the  bastions 
instead  of  the  curtains. 

D.  Counter-guards:  Used  instead  of  demi-lunes,  which  were  then 
going  out  of  fashion. 

E.  Simple  tenaille. 

F.  Double  tenaille  (see  L  and  M). 

(If  the  tenaille  E  is  reduced  in  width  towards  the  gorge,  as  shown 
alternatively,  it  is  called  a  swallow-tail.     If  the  double  tenaille  is 


HISTORY] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


687 


reduced  as  at  G,  it  is  called  a  bonnet  de  pretre.  Such  works  were 
rarely  used.) 

H.  Hornwork:  Much  used  for  gates,  &c. 

I.    Crown-work. 

K.  Crowned  horn-work. 

L.  M.  New  forms  of  tenaille:  (N.B.— These  are  the  forms  which 
ultimately  retained  the  name.) 

N.  New  form  of  work  called  a  demi-lune  lunetlee,  the  ravelin  N 
being  protected  by  two  counter-guards,  O. 

P.  Re-entering  places  of  arms. 

Q.  Traverses. 

R.  Salient  places  of  arms. 

5.  Places  of  arms  without  traverses. 
T.  Orillon,  to  protect  the  flank  V. 
X.  A  double  bastion  or  cavalier. 

Y.  A  retrenchment  with  a  ditch,  of  the  breach  Z. 

6.  Traverses   to    protect    the    terreplein    of   the    ramparts    from 

enfilade. 

Turning  back  now  to  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century  we  find 
in  the  early  examples  of  the  use  of  the  bastion  that  there  is  no 
attempt  made  to  defend  its  faces  by  flanking  fire,  the  .curtains 
being  considered  the  only  weak  points  of  the  enceinte.  Accord- 
ingly, the  flanks  are  arranged  at  right  angles  to  the  curtain, 
and  the  prolongation  of  the  faces  sometimes  falls  near  the  middle 
of  it.  When  it  was  found  that  the  faces  needed  protection,  the 
first  attempts  to  give  it  were  made  by  erecting  cavaliers,  or 
raised  parapets,  behind  the  parapet  of  the  curtain  or  in  the 
bastions. 

The  first  example  of  the  complete  bastioned  system  is  found  in 
Paciotto's  citadel  of  Antwerp,  built  in  1568  (fig.  21).  Here  we 


The  16th 
century. 


FlG.  21. 

have  faces,  flanks  and  curtain  in  due  proportion;  the  faces 
long  enough  to  contain  a  powerful  battery,  and  the  flanks  able 
to  defend  both  curtain  and  faces.  The  weak  points  of  this  trace, 
due  to  its  being  arranged  on  a  small  pentagon,  are  that  the  terre- 
plein or  interior  space  of  the  bastions  is  rather  cramped,  and  the 
salient  angles  too  acute. 

In  the  systems  published  by  Speckle  of  Strassburg  in  1589 
we  find  a  distinct  advance.  Speckle's  actual  constructions  in 
fortification  are  of  no  great  importance;  but  he  was  a 
great  traveller  and  observer,  and  in  his  work,  published 
just  before  his  death,  he  has  evidently  assimilated, 
and  to  some  extent  improved,  the  best  ideas  that  had  been  put 
forward  up  to  that  time. 

Two  specimens  from  Speckle's  work  are  well  worth  studying 
as  connecting  links  between  the  i6th  and  i;th  centuries. 

Fig.  22  is  early  16th-century  work  much  improved.  There  are  no 
outworks,  except  the  covered  way,  now  fully  developed,  with  a 
battery  in  the  re-entering  place  of  arms.  The  bastions  are  large, 
but  the  faces  directed  on  the  curtain  get  little  protection  from  the 
flanks.  To  make  up  for  this  they  are  flanked  by  the  large  cavaliers 
in  the  middle  of  the  curtain.  The  careful  arrangement  of  the  flank 
should  be  noted ;  part  of  it  is  retired,  with  two  tiers  of  fire,  some  of 
which  is  arranged  to  bear  on  the  face  of  the  bastion.  The  great 
saliency  of  the  bastion  is  a  weak  point,  but  the  whole  arrangement 
is  simple  and  strong. 

In  the  second  example,  known  as  Speckle's  "  reinforced  trace  " 
(fig-  23),  we  find  him  anticipating  the  work  of  the  next  century. 
The  ravelin  is  here  introduced,  and  made  so  large  that  its  faces  are 
in  prolongation  of  those  of  the  bastions.  Speckle's  other  favourite 


ideas  are  here:  the  cavaliers  and  double  parapets  and  his  own 
particular  invention  of  the  low  batteries  behind  the  re-entering 
place  of  arms  and  the  gorge  of  the  ravelin.  These  low  batteries 
did  not  find  favour  with  other  writers,  being  liable  to  be  too  easily 
destroyed  by  the 
besiegers'batteries 
crowning  the 
salients  of  the 
covered  way. 

Speckle's  book 
is  of  great  import  - 
anceas  embodying 
the  best  work  of 
the  period.  His 
own  ideas  are  large 
and  simple,  but 
rather  in  advance 
of  the  powers  of 
the  artillery  of  his 
day. 

At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  I7th 
century  we  find 
the  Italian  en- 
gineers following 
Paciotto  in  de- 
veloping the  com- 
plete bastioned 
trace;  but  they 
got  on  to  a  bad  line  of  thought  in  trying  to  reduce  everything 
to  symmetry  and  system.  The  era  of  geometrical  rheirth 
fortification  (or,  as  Sir  George  Clarke  has  called  it,  ceatury. 
"  drawing-board  "  fortification)  had  already  begun 
with  Marchi,  and  his  followers  busied  themselves  entirely  in 
finding  geometrical  solutions  for  the  application  of  symmetrical 
bastioned  fronts  to  such  imaginary  forms  of  perimeter  as  the 
oval,  club,  heart,  figure  of  eight,  &c.  Marchi,  however,  was  one 
of  the  first  to  think  of  prolonging  the  resistance  of  a  place  by 
means  of  outworks  such  as  the  ravelin.  De  Villenoisy  says  that 
Busca  was  the  first  to  discuss  the  proportions  and  functions  of 


FIG.  22. 


FIG.  23. — Speckle's  Reinforced  Trace. 


all  the  component  parts  of  a  front;  and  Floriani,  about  1630, 
was  the  last  of  the  important  Italians.  The  characteristics  of 
a  good  deal  of  Spanish  fortification  carried  out  at  this  time 
were,  according  to  the  same  authority,  that  the  works  were  well 
adapted  to  sites,  and  the  masonry  excellent  but  too  much  exposed, 
while  the  bastions  were  too  small.  The  Dutch  and  German 
schools  will  be  referred  to  later. 

The  French  engineers  now  began  to  take  the  lead  in  adapting 
the  principles  already  established  to  actual  sites.  In  the  first 
half  of  the  century  the  names  of  de  Ville  and  Pagan  stand  out  as 
having  contributed  valuable  studies  to  the  advancement  of  the 
science.  In  putting  forward  their  designs  they  discussed  very 
fully  such  practical  questions  as  the  length  of  the  line  of  defence, 
whether  this  should  be  governed  by  the  range  of  artillery  or 
musketry  fire,  the  length  of  flanks,  the  use  in  them  of  orilions, 
casemates  and  retired  flanks,  the  size  of  bastions,  &c. 

It  is  the  latter  half  of  the  iyth  century,  however,  which  is  one 


688 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[HISTORY 


Vaubaa. 


of  the  most  important  periods  in  the  history  of  fortification, 
chiefly  because  it  was  illuminated  by  the  work  of  Vauban. 
It  was  at  this  time  also  that  a  prodigious  output  of  purely 
theoretical  fortification  began,  which  went  on  till  the  French 
Revolution.  Many  of  the  "systems"  published  at  this  time 
were  elaborated  by  men  who  had  no  practical  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  some  of  them  priests  who  were  engaged  in 
educating  the  sons  of  the  upper  classes,  and  who  had  to 
teach  the  elements  of  fortification  among  other  things. 
They  naturally  wrote  treatises,  which  were  valuable  for 
their  clearness  of  style;  and  with  their  industry  and 
ingenuity  the  elaboration  of  existing  methods  was  a  very 
congenial  task.  Most  of  these  essays  took  the  form  of 
multiplication  and  elaboration  of  outworks  on  an  im- 
possible scale,  and  they  culminated  in  such  fantastic 
extravagances  as  the  system  of  Rhana,  published  in  1769 
(fig.  24).  These  proposals,  however,  were  of  no  practical 
importance. 

The  work  of  the  real  masters  who  knew  more  than 
they  published  can  always  be  recognized  by  its  com- 
parative simplicity.  The  greatest  of  these  was 
Sebastien  le  Prestre  de  Vauban  (q.v.).  Born  in 
1633,  and  busied  from  his  eighteenth  year  till  his  death  in 
1707  in  war  or  preparations  for  war,  he  earned  alike  by  his 
genius,  his  experience,  his  industry  and  his  personal  char- 
acter the  chief  place  among  modern  military  engineers.  His 
experience  alone  puts  him  in  a  category  apart  from  others. 
Of  this  it  is  enough  to  say  that  he  took  part  in  forty-eight 
sieges,  forty  of  which  he  directed  as  chief  engineer  with- 
out a  single  failure,  and  repaired  or  constructed  more  than 
1 60  places.  Vauban's  genius  was  essentially  practical,  and  he  was 
no  believer  in  systems.  He  would  say,  "  One  does  not  fortify 
by  systems  but  by  common  sense."  Of  new  ideas  in  fortification 
he  introduced  practically  none,  but  he  improved  and  modified 
existing  ideas  with  consummate  skill  in  actual  construction. 
His  most  original  work  was  in  the  attack  (see  below),  which  he 
reduced  to  a  scientific  method  most  certain  in  its  results.  It 
is  therefore  one  of  the  ironies  of  fate  that  Vauban  should  be 
chiefly  known  to  us  by  three  so-called  "  systems,"  known  as  his 
"  first,"  "  second  "  and  "  third."  How  far  he  was  from  following 
a  system  is  shown  by  de  Villenoisy,  who  reproduces  twenty-eight 
fronts  constructed  by  him  between  1667  and  1698,  no  two  of 
which  are  quite  alike  and  most  of  which  vary  very  considerably 
to  suit  local  conditions. 

Vauban's  "  first  system,"  as  variously  described  by  other 
writers  even  in  his  own  time,  is  pieced  together  from  some 

of  the  early  examples  of 
his  work.  The  "  second 
system  "  is  the  "  tower 
bastion  "  defence  of  Bel- 
fort  and  Landau  (1684- 
1688), obviously  suggested 
by  a  design  of  Castriotto's 
one  hundred  years  earlier; 
and  the  "  third  system  " 
is  the  front  of  Neu- 
Breisach  (1698),  which  is 
merely  Landau  slightly 
improved.  In  other 

works,  between  1688  and  1698,  he  did  not  keep  to  the  tower 
bastion  idea. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  take  the  "  first  system,"  as  reproduced 
in  the  Royal  Military  Academy  text  book  of  fortification  (fig.  25) 
as  typical  of  much  of  Vauban's  work.  It  may  be  observed  that 
he  sometimes  uses  the  straight  flank,  and  sometimes  the  curved 
flank  with  orillon.  Parapets  in  several  tiers  are  never  used,  nor 
cavaliers.  The  ravelin  is  almost  always  used.  It  is  small, 
having  little  artillery  power  and  giving  no  protection  to  the 
shoulders  of  the  bastions.  Sometimes  it  has  flanks  and  occasion- 
ally a  keep. 

The  tenaille  is  very  generally  found.  In  this  form,  viz.  as  a 
shield  to  the  escarp  of  the  curtain,  it  was  probably  invented  by 


Rhana  1769 


him.  Fig.  25  shows  two  forms.  In  both  the  parapet  of  the 
tenaille  had  to  be  kept  low,  so  that  the  flanks  might  defend  a 
breach  at  the  shoulder  of  the  opposite  bastion,  with  artillery 
fire  striking  within  12  ft.  of  the  base  of  the  escarp.  Traverses 
are  used  for  the  first  time  on  the  covered  way  to  guard  against 
enfilade  fire;  and  the  re-entering  place  of  arms,  to  which  Vauban 
attached  considerable  importance,  is  large. 
For  the  construction  of  the  trace  an  average  length  of  about 


FIG.  25.— Vauban's  First  System. 


400  yds.  (which,  however,  is  a  matter  entirely  dependent  on  the 
site)  may  be  taken  for  the  exterior  side.  The  perpendicular,  except 
for  polygons  of  less  than  six  sides,  is  one-sixth,  and  the  faces  of  the 
bastions  two-sevenths  of  the  exterior  side.  The  flanks  are  chords 
of  arcs  struck  from  the  opposite  shoulder  as  centres.  An  arc  described 
with  the  same  radius,  but  with  the  angle  of  the  flank  as  a  centre,  and 
cutting  the  perpendicular  produced  outwardly,  gives  the  salient  of 
the  ravelin ;  the  prolongations  of  the  faces  of  the  ravelin  fall  upon 
the  faces  of  the  bastions  at  II  yds.  from  the  shoulders.  The  main 
ditch  has  a  width  of  38  yds.  at  the  salient  of  the  bastions,  and  the 
counterscarp  is  directed  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  adjoining  bastions. 
The  ditch  of  the  ravelin  is  24  yds.  wide  throughput. 

As  regards  the  profile  the  bastions  and  curtain  have  a  command 
of  25  ft.  over  the  country,  17  ft.  over  the  crest  of  the  glacis  and  8  ft. 
over  the  ravelin.  The  ditches  are  18  ft.  deep  throughout.  The 
parapets  are  1 8  ft.  thick  with  full  revetments.  In  his  later  works 
he  used  demi-revetments. 

Fig.  26  shows  the  tower  bastions  of  Neu-Breisach,  or  the 
so-called  "  third  system."  It  is  worth  introducing,  simply  as 
showing  that  even  a  mind  like  Vauban's  could  not  resist  in  old 
age  the  tendency  to  duplicate  defences.  Here  the  main  bastions 
and  tenaille  are  detached  from  the  enceinte.  The  line  of  the 
enceinte  is  broken  with  flanks  and  further  flanked  by  the  towers. 
The  ravelin  is  large  and  has  a  keep.  The  section  through  the 
face  of  the  bastion  shows  a  demi-revetment  with  wide  berm, 
and  a  hedge  as  an  additional  obstacle. 

After  Vauban  died,  though  the  theories  continued,  the  valuable 
additions  to  the  system  were  few.  Among  his  successors  in  the 
early  part  of  the  i8th  century  Cormontaingne  (q.v.) 
has  the  greatest  reputation,  though  his  experience 
and  authority  fell  far  short  of  Vauban's.  He  was  a  furies. 
clear  thinker  and  writer,  and  the  elements  of  the  system 
were  distinctly  advanced  by  him.  His  trace  includes  an  enlarged 
ravelin  with  flanks,  the  ends  of  which  were  intended  to  close  the 
gaps  at  the  end  of  the  tenaille,  and  a  keep  to  the  ravelin  with 
flanks.  He  provides  a  very  large  re-entering  place  of  arms, 
also  with  a  keep,  the  ditches  of  which  are  carefully  traced  so  as 
to  be  protected  from  enfilade  by  the  salients  of  the  ravelin  and 
bastion.  He  was  also  in  favour  of  a  permanent  retrenchment 
of  the  gorge  of  the  bastion.  His  works  were  printed,  with  many 
alterations,  more  than  twenty  years  after  his  death,  to  serve  as 
a  text-book  for  the  school  of  Mezieres.  This  school  was  estab- 
lished in  1748,  and  from  this  time  forward  there  was  an  official 
school  of  thought,  based  on  Vauban.  Cormontaingne's  work, 
therefore,  represents  the  modifications  of  Vauban's  ideas  accepted 


HISTORY] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


689 


by  French  engineers  in  the  latter  part  of  the  i8th  century.  The 
school  of  Mezieres  was  afterwards  replaced  by  that  of  Metz, 
which  carried  on  its  traditions.  Such  schools  are  necessarily 
conservative,  and  hence,  in  spite  of  the  gradual  improvement 
in  ordnance  and  firearms,  we  find  the  main  elements  of  the 
bastioned  system  remaining  unchanged  right  up  to  the  period  of 


FIG.  26. — Neu-Breisach. 

the  Franco-German  War  in  1870.  Chasseloup-Laubat  tells  us 
that,  before  the  Revolution,  to  attempt  novelties  in  fortification 
was  to  write  one's  self  down  ignorant.  How  far  the  general  form 
of  the  bastion  with  its  outworks  had  become  crystallized  is 
evident  from  a  cursory  comparison  of  fig.  27  with  Vauban's 


FIG.  27. — Noizet. 


early  work.     This  figure  is  the  front  of  the  Metz  school  in  1822, 
by  General  Noizet. 

Since,  therefore,  the  official  view  was  that  the  general  outlines 
of  the  system  were  sacred,  the  efforts  of  orthodox  engineers  from 
Cormontaingne's  time  onwards  were  given  to  improvements  of 
detail,  and  mainly  to  retard  breaching  operations  as  long  as 
possible.  We  find  enormous  pains  being  bestowed  on  the  study 
of  the  comparative  heights  of  the  masonry  walls  and  crest  levels; 
with  the  introduction  here  and  there  of  glacis  slopes  in  the  ditches, 


put  in  both  to  facilitate  their  defence  and  to  protect  portions  of 
the  escarps. 

Among  the  unorthodox  two  names  deserve  mention.  The  first 
of  these  is  Chasseloup-Laubat  (q.v.),  who  served  throughout  the 
wars  of  the  Republic  and  Empire,  and  constructed  the  fortress 
of  Alessandria  in  Piedmont. 

Chasseloup's  main  proposals  to  improve  the  bastioned  system 
were  two : 

First,  in  order  to  prevent  the  bastions  from  being  breached 
through  the  gaps  made  by  the  ditch  of  the  ravelin,  he  threw  forward 
the  ravelin  and  its  keep  outside  the  main  glacis.  This  had  the 
further  advantage  of  giving  great  saliency  to  the  ravelin  for  cross- 
fire over  the  terrain  ofthe  attack.  On  the  other  hand,  it  made  the 
ravelin  liable  to  capture  by  the  gorge.  It  is  probable  that  this 
system  would  have  lent  itself  to  a  splendid  defence  by  an  able 
commander  with  a  strong  force;  but  under  the  opposite  conditions 
it  has  a  dangerous  element  of  weakness. 

Secondly,  in  order  to  get  freedom  to  use  longer  fronts  than  those 
admissible  for  the  ordinary  bastioned  trace,  he  proposed  to  extend 
his  exterior  side  up  to  about  650  yds.  and  to  break  the  faces  of  his 
bastions;  the  portion  next  the  shoulder  being  defended  from  the 
flank  of  the  collateral  bastion  and  coinciding  with  the  line  of  defence, 
and  the  portion  next  the  salient,  up  to  about  80  yds.  in  length, 
being  defended  from  a  central  keep  or  caponier  placed  in  front  of  the 
tenaille.  The  natural  criticism  of  this  arrangement  is  that  it 
combines  some  of  the  defects  of  both  the  bastioned  and  polygonal 
systems  without  getting  the  full  advantages  of  either. 

Fig.  28  shows  a  half  front  of  Chasseloup's  system,  of  ordinary 
length,  as  actually  constructed.  The  section  shows  an  interesting 


Section  on  the  tine  AB. 

50  10  20  yds. 


too  yds. 


Reliefs  In  feet,  +above  or  -bttoat 
the  plane  of  site 


FIG.  28. — Chasseloup-Lanbat. 

detail,  viz.  the  Chasseloup  mask — a  detached  mask  with  tunnels 
for  the  casemate  guns  to  fire  through,  the  intention  of  which  is  to 
save  them  from  being  destroyed  from  a  distance. 

The  second  name  is  that  of  Captain  Choumara  of  the  French 
Engineers,  born  in  1787,  whose  work  was  published  in  1827. 


690 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[HISTORY 


Two  leading  ideas  are  due  to  him.  The  first  is  that  of  the 
"  independence  of  parapets."  A  glance  at  any  of  the  plans  that 
have  already  been  shown  will  show  that  hitherto  the  crests  of 
parapets  had  always  been  traced  parallel  to  the  escarp  or 
magistral  line.  Choumara  pointed  out  that,  while  it  was 
necessary  for  the  escarp  to  be  traced  in  straight  lines  with 
reference  to  the  flanking  arrangements,  there  was  no  such 
necessity  as  regards  the  parapets.  By  making  the  crest  of  the 
parapet  quite  independent  of  the  escarp  line  he  obtained  great 
freedom  of  direction  for  his  fire.  The  second  idea  is  that  of  the 
"  inner  glacis."  This  was  a  glacis  parapet  placed  in  the  main 
ditch  to  shield  the  escarp;  its  effect  being  to  prevent  the  escarp 
of  the  body  of  the  place  from  being  breached  in  the  usual  way 
by  batteries  crowning  the  crest  of  the  covered  way. 

The  need  for  Choumara's  improvements  has  passed  by,  but 
he  was  in  his  time  a  real  teacher.  One  sentence  of  his  strikes  a 
resounding  note:  "  What  is  chiefly  required  in  fortification  is 
simplicity  and  strength.  It  is  not  on  a  few  little  contrivances 
carefully  hidden  that  one  can  rely  for  a  good  defence.  The  fate 
of  a  place  should  not  depend  on  the  intelligence  of  a  corporal  shut 
up  in  a  small  post  prepared  for  his  detachment." 

Before  leaving  the  bastioned  system  it  will  be  of  interest  to  study 
a  couple  of  actual  and  complete  examples,  one  irregular  and  one 
regular.  Fig.  29  shows  the  defences  of  Sedan  as  they  were  at  the 
end  of  the  lyth  century.  One  sees  the  touch  of  Vauban  here  and 
there,  but  the  work  is  for  the  most  part  apparently  early  iyth 
century.  It  will  be  observed  that  on  the  river  side  of  the  town  the 
defence  consists  of  very  irregular  bastions  with  duplicated  wet 


FlG.  29. — Sedan  in  1705. 

ditches  (see  the  Dutch  style,  below);  and  on  the  other  side,  where 
water  is  not  available,  strength  is  sought  for  by  pushing  a  succession 
of  hornworks  far  out. 

Fig.  30  is  Saarlouis,  constructed  by  Vauban  in  1680  in  his  early 
manner,  a  remarkable  example  of  symmetry.  Vauban  of  course 
never  thought  of  aiming  at  symmetry,  which  is  of  itself  neither  good 
nor  bad,  but  it  is  interesting  to  note  such  a  perfect  example  of  the 
system. 

It  must  here  be  remarked  that  the  reproach  of  "  geometrical  " 
fortification  is  in  no  way  applicable  to  the  works  of  Vauban  and 
his  immediate  successors.  The  true  geometric  fortification,  which 
worshipped  symmetry  as  a  fetish,  marked,  as  has  been  already 
pointed  out,  the  decadence  of  the  Italian  school.  Vauban  and  his 
fellows  excelled  in  adapting  works  to  sites,  the  real  test  of  the 
engineer. 

The  bastioned  system  was  the  17th-century  solution  of  the  forti- 
fication problem.  Given  an  artillery  and  musketry  of  short  range 
and  too  slow  for  effective  frontal  defence,  a  ditch  is  necessary  as  an 
obstacle.  What  is  the  best  means  of  flanking  the  ditch  and  of 
protecting  the  flanking  arrangements?  If  Vauban  elected  for  the 
bastion,  we  must  before  criticizing  his  choice  remember  that  he  was 
the  most  experienced  engineer  of  his  day,  a  man  of  the  first  ability 
and  quite  without  prejudice.  What  is  matter  for  regret  is  that  the 
authority  of  Vauban  should  have  practically  paralysed  the  French 
school  during  the  l8th  and  most  of  the  igth  century,  so  that  while 
the  conditions  of  attack  and  defence  were  gradually  altering  they 
could  admit  no  change  of  idea,  and  their  best  men,  who  could  not 
help  being  original,  were  struggling  against  the  whole  weight  of 
official  opposition. 

'  .Again,  such  duplication  of  outworks  as  we  see  at  Sedan  is  not 
geometric  fortification.  It  is  a  definite  attempt  to  retard  the  attack, 
on  ground  favourable  to  it,  by  successive  lines  of  defence.  As  to  the 
policy  of  this,  no  axiom  can  be  laid  down.  Nowadays  most  of  us 
think,  as  Machiavelli  did,  that  a  single  line  of  defence  is  best  and  that 


a  second  line  only  serves  to  suggest  the  advisability  of  retreat. 
There  are  also,  of  course,  the  recognized  drawbacks  of  outworks, 
difficulty  of  retreat,  of  relief  and  so  forth,  and  the  moral  effect  of 
their  loss.  But  the  engineers  of  such  defences  as  Ostend  and  Candia 
might  well  say,  "  Oh,  if  only  when  we  had  held  on  to  that  bastion  for 
so  many  months  we  had  had  a  second  and  a  third  line  of  permanent 


FIG.  30. 

retrenchment  to  fall  back  upon,  we  could  have  held  the  place  for 
ever."  And  who  shall  say  that  they  were  wrong  ?  Let  us  at  all 
events  remember  that  the  leading  engineers  of  that  time  were  men 
who  had  passed  their  lives  in  a  state  of  war,  and  that  we  ourselves 
in  comparison  with  them  are  the  theorists. 

From  the  end  of  the  i6th  century  the  Dutch  methods  of 
fortification  acquired  a  great  reputation,  thanks  to  the  stout 
resistance  offered  to  the  Spaniards  by  some  of  their 
fortresses,  the  three  years'  defence  of  Ostend  being 
perhaps  the  most  striking  example.  Prolonged  de- 
fences, which  were  mainly  due  to  the  desperate  energy  of  the 
besieged,  were  credited  to  the  quality  of  their  defences.  In  point 
of  fact  the  Dutch  owed  more  to  nature,  and  more  still  to  their 
own  spirit,  than  to  art;  but  they  showed  a  good  deal  of  skill  in 
adapting  recent  ideas  to  their  needs. 

Three  conditions  governed  the  development  of  the  Dutch 
works  at  this  time,  viz.  want  of  time,  want  of  money  and  abun- 
dance of  water.  When  the  Netherlands  began  their  revolt 
against  Spain,  they  would  no  doubt  have  been  glad  enough  of 
expensive  masonry  fortresses  on  such  models  as  Paciotto's 
citadel  of  Antwerp.  But  there  was  neither  time  nor  money  for 
such  works.  Something  had  to  be  extemporized,  and  fortunately 
for  them  they  had  wet  ditches  to  take  the  place  of  high  revetted 
walls.  Everywhere  water  was  near  the  surface,  and  rivers  or 
canals  were  available  for  inundations.  A  wide  and  shallow 
ditch,  while  making  a  good  obstacle,  was  also  the  readiest  means 
of  obtaining  earth  for  the  ramparts.  High  command  was,  owing 
to  the  flatness  of  the  country,  unnecessary  and  even  undesirable, 
as  it  did  not  allow  of  grazing  fire. 

What  the  Dutch  actually  did  in  strengthening  their  towns 
gives  little  evidence  of  system.  Starting  as  a  rule  from  an 
existing  enceinte,  sometimes  a  medieval  wall,  they  would  provide 
a  broad  wet  ditch.  No  further  provision  was  usually  made  on 
the  sides  of  the  town  which  were  additionally  protected  by  a 
river  or  inundation.  On  the  other  sides  the  wet  ditch  was  made 
still  broader,  and  sometimes  contained  a  counterguard,  some- 
times ravelins  and  lunettes.  These  were  quite  irregular  in  their 
design  and  relation  to  each  other.  At  the  foot  of  the  glacis  would 
be  found  another  but  narrower  wet  ditch,  which  was  a  peculiarly 
Dutch  feature;  and  sometimes  if  the  town  was  in  a  bend  of  a 
river  there  would  be  a  canal  cut  across  the  bend  in  a  straight  line, 
strengthened  by  several  redans. 

Speaking  generally,  they  endeavoured  to  provide  for  the  want 


HISTORY] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


691 


of  a  first-class  masonry  obstacle  by  multiplication  of  wet  ditches, 
and  further  to  stre-ngthen  these  obstacles  by  great  quantities 
of  palisading,  for  which  purpose  the  timber  of  old  ships  was  used. 
They  also  recognized  the  inherent  weaknesses  of  wet  ditches, 
as,  for  instance,  that  when  frozen  they  no  longer  provide  an 
obstacle;  and  they  studied  the  means,  not  only  of  causing 
inundations,  but  also  of  arranging  to  empty  as  well  as  to 
fill  the  ditches  at  will.  Simon  Stevin  was  the  leader  in  this 
work. 

Nevertheless  a  Dutch  school  of  design  did  come  into  existence 
at  this  time.  The  leaders,  early  in  the  I7th  century,  were  Simon 
Stevin,  Maurice  and  Henry  of  Nassau,  Marollois  and  Freitag. 
The  fortress  of  Coevorden,  constructed  by  Prince  Maurice,  of 
which  fig.  31  shows  a  front,  is  a  well-known  example  of  this,  and 
the  section  shows  clearly  some  typical  features  of  the  school. 


FIG.  31. — Coevorden. 

The  elements  of  the  plan  are  those  of  the  early  bastioned  trace, 
but  we  find  added  both  ravelins  and  lunettes,  very  regular  in  design. 
There  is  also  the  ditch  at  the  foot  of  the  glacis,  and  surrounding 
the  rampart  of  the  enceinte  a  continuous  fausse-braie.  This  work, 
which  partook  of  the  nature  of  both  boulevard  and  counterguard, 
served  several  purposes.  It  was  desirable  that  the  weight  of  the 
rampart  should  be  drawn  back  a  little  from  the  edge  of  the  ditch, 
and  the  fausse-braie  filled  what  would  otherwise  have  been  dead 
ground  at  the  foot  of  the  rampart.  It  also  afforded  a  grazing  fire 
over  the  ditch,  which  was  very  important,  and  which  the  rampart 
supported  by  a  plunging  fire. 

Coehoorn  (q.v.),  the  contemporary  and  nearest  rival  to  Vauban, 
was  the  greatest  light  of  the  Dutch  school.  Like  Vauban  he  was 
distinguished  as  a  fighting  engineer,  both  in  attack  and 
defence;  but  in  the  attack  he  differed  from  him  in 
relying  more  on  powerful  artillery  fire  than  systematic  earth- 
works. He  introduced  the  Coehoorn  mortar.  His  "  first 
system,"  which  was  employed  at  Mannheim  (fig.  32),  is  repro- 
duced for  the  sake  of  comparison  with  the  Coevorden  front 
designed  a  hundred  years  earlier.  Among  other  points  will  be 


Coehoora. 


FIG.  32. — Coehoorn's  First  System. 

noticed  the  combination  of  wet  and  dry  ditches;  the  very  broad 
main  ditch  with  counterguard;  the  roomy  keep  of  the  ravelin; 
the  expansion  of  the  fausse-brais  into  an  independent  low 
parapet;  and  the  powerful  flanking  fire  in  three  tiers. 


The  "  tenaille  "  system  and  the  "  polygonal  "  system  which 
grew  out  of  it  are  mainly  identified  with  the  German  school. 
That  school,  says  von  Zastrow,  does  not,  like  that  of 
France,  represent  the  authoritative  teaching  of  an 
official  establishment,  but  rather  the  general  practice 
of  the  German  engineers.  It  was  founded  on  the  principles  of 
Diirer,  Speckle  and  especially  Rimpler,  and  much  influenced  in 
execution  by  Montalembert.  "  The  German  engineers  desired 
a  simple  trace,  a  strong  fortification  with  retrenchments  and 
keeps,  bomb-proof  accommodation  and  an  organization  suitable 
for  an  offensive  defence." 

These  had  always  been  the  German  principles.  Already  in  the 
1 6th  century  the  Prussian  defences  of  Kustrin,  Spandau  and 
Peitz  had  large  bomb-proof  casemates  sufficient  for  a  great 
part  of  the  garrison.  The  same  thing  is  seen  in  the  defences  of 
Giogau,  Schweidnitz,  &c.,  built  by  Frederick  the  Great.  These 
works  show  various  applications  of  the  tenaille  system.  In 
1776  Frederick  became  acquainted  with  the  work  of  Montalem- 
bert, and  his  influence  is  seen  in  the  casemates  of  Kosel. 

Whether  through  the  influence  of  Albert  Diirer  or  not  cannot 
be  said,  but  while  the  bastion  was  being  developed  in  France 
the  tenaille  and  the  accompanying  casemates  from  the  first 
found  acceptance  in  Germany,  and  thence  in  eastern  and  northern 
Europe.  De  Groote,  who  wrote  in  1618,  produced  a  sort  of 
tenaille  system,  and  may  have  been  the  inspiration  of  Rimpler. 
Dillich  (1640),  Landsberg  the  elder  (1648),  Griendel  d'Aach 
(1677),  Werthmuller  (1685)  and  others  advocated  both  bastion 
and  tenaille,  sometimes  in  combination;  the  German  bastion 
being  usually  distinguished  by  short  faces  and  long  flanks.- 

Rimpler,  who  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Candia  (taken  by  the 
Turks  in  1669)  and  died  at  that  of  Vienna  in  1683,  exercised  a 
great  influence.  He  had  been  struck  by  the  weakness  of  the 
early  Italian  bastions  at  Candia,  and  published  a  book  in  1673 
called  Fortification  with  Central  Bastions,  which  was  practically 
the  polygonal  trace.  Zastrow  thinks  that  Rimpler  inspired 
Montalembert.  He  left  unfortunately  no  designs  to  illustrate 
his  ideas. 

Landsberg  the  younger  (1670-1746),  a  major-general  in  the 
Prussian  service,  who  saw  many  sieges,  also  had  a  great  influence. 
He  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  who 
frankly  advocated 
the  tenaille  alone, 
chiefly  on  the  ground 
that  the  flank,  which 
was  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the 
bastioned  system, 
was  also  the  weakest. 
Fig.  33  shows  his 
system,  published  in 
1712. 

It  was,  however, 
ultimately  a  French- 
man, Marc  Rene 
Montalembert  (q.v.}, 
who  was  the  great 
apostle  of  the  tenaille, 
though  in  his  later 
years  he  leaned  more  to  the  polygonal  trace.  He  objected 
to  the  bastioned  trace  on  many  grounds;  principally 
that  the  bastion  was  a  shell  trap,  that  the  flanks 
crossing  their  fire  lost  the  advantage  of  the 
range  of  their  weapons,  and  that  the  curtain  was 
useless  for  defence.  He  took  the  view  that  the  bastions  with 
their  ravelins  constituted  practically  a  tenaille  trace,  spoilt  by 
the  detachment  of  the  ravelins  and  cramped  by  the  presence  of 
the  curtains  and  flanks.  His  tenaille  system  consisted  of  redans, 
with  salient  angles  of  60°  or  more,  flanking  each  other  at  right 
angles;  from  which  he  gave  to  his  system  the  name  of  "  per- 
pendicular fortification." 

Lazare  Carnot  (q.v.),  the  "Organizer  of  Victory,"  was,  in 


FIG.  33. 


692 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[HISTORY 


Carnot  i 


FIG.  34. 


fortification,  a  follower  of  Montalembert,  and  produced  in  1797 
a  tenaille  system  (fig.  34)  on  strong  and  simple  lines. 

In  1812  Carnot  offered  three  systems.  For  a  dry  and  level  site  he 
recommended  a  bastioned  trace ;  but  for  wet  ditches  and  for  irregular 
ground,  tenaille  traces.  Both  of  these  latter  differ  from  his  1797 
trace  in  that  the  re-entering  angle  is  reinforced  by  a  tenaille  whose 
faces  are  parallel  to  the  main  faces  and  reach  almost  to  the  salients. 
There  are  also  counterguards  in  front  of  the  salients,  whose  ends 
overlap  the  ends  of  the  tenaille.  (N.B.  To  avoid  confusion  between 

the  tenaille  trace  and  the 
tenaille,  it  should  be  noted 
that  the  latter  is  a  low  de- 
tached parapet  placed  in 
front  of  the  escarp  of  the 
body  of  the  place,  partly  as 
a  shield,  and  partly  as  an 
additional  line  of  defence. 
It  is  used  in  front  of  the 
curtain  in  the  bastioned 
trace,  and  in  the  re-entering 
angle  in  the  tenaille  trace.) 

Other  important  features 
of  Carnot's  work  were:  a 
continuous  general  retrench- 
ment, or  interior  parapet, 
following  more  or  less  the 
lines  of  the  main  parapet;  the  use  of  the  detached  wall  in  place 
of  the  escarp  revetment;  and  the  countersloping  glacis.  This  last 
(of  which  Carnot  was  not  the  inventor),  instead  of  sloping  gently 
outwards  from  a  crest  raised  about  8  ft.  down  to  the  natural  level 
of  the  ground,  sloped  inwards  from  the  ground-level  to  the  bottom 
of  the  ditch.  The  advantage  of  the  additional  obstacle  of  the 
counterscarp  was  thus  lost  to  the  defence.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
besiegers'  saps,  as  they  progressed  down  the  glacis,  were  exposed  to  a 
plunging  fire  from  the  parapet. 

Carnot  was  also,  like  Coehoorn,  a.  great  believer  in  the 
mortar;  but  while  Coehoorn  introduced  the  small  portable 
mortar  that  bears  his  name,  Carnot  expected  great  results  from 
a  13  in.  mortar  throwing  600  iron  balls  at  each  discharge.  He 

endeavoured  to 
-*  prove  mathemati- 
cally that  the  dis- 
charge of  these 
mortars  would  in 
due  course  kill  off 

T?  j  T\  j  iir  11    the  whole  of   the 

FIG.  35. — Mortar-casemate  and  Detached  Wall.  ,     .     .  ,. 

These  mortars  he  emplaced  in  open  fronted  mortar-casemates, 
in  concealed  positions.  Fig.  35  shows  in  section  one  of  these 
m&rtar-casemates,  placed  between  the  parapet  of  the  retrench- 
ment and  a  detached  wall. 

The  leading  idea  of  Montalembert  was  that  for  a  successful 
defence  it  was  necessary  for  the  artillery  to  be  superior  to  that 

°*  *ke  enemy-     Tms  idea  le<*  h™  to  tne  adoption  of 
casemates  in   several    tiers;    in    preference  to  open 

trace.         parapets,  exposed  to  artillery  fire  of  all  kinds,  high 
angle,  ricochet  and  reverse.  In  considering  the  defects 

of  bastions  he  had  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  for  flanking 

purposes  two  forms  of  trace  were  preferable;  either  the  tenaille 

form,  connecting  the 
ravelins  with  the  body  of 
the  place,  or  the  form  in 
which  the  primary  flank- 
ing elements,  instead  of 
facing  each  other  with 
overlapping  fire,  as  with 
the  bastions,  should  be 
placed  back  to  back  in 
the  middle  of  the  exterior 
side  Fig.  36  is  an  ex- 
ample of  this.  The  central 
flanking  work  resulting 
from  this  arrangement  is 

the  caponier  of  the  early  Italians,  reintroduced  and  developed; 

and  with  it  Montalembert  laid  the  foundation  of  the  polygonal 

system  of  our  own  time. 

Montalembert  was  one  of  the  first  to  foresee  the  coming 

necessity  for  detached  forts,  and  it  was  for  these  that  he  chiefly 


Montalembert 


FIG.  36. — Montalembert,  1786. 


proposed  to  use  his  caponier  flanking,  preferring  the  tenaille 
system  for  large  places.  In  abandoning  the  bastioned  trace 
he  was  already  committed  to  the  principle  of  casemate  defence 
for  ditches;  and  the  combination  of  this  principle  with  his 
desire  for  an  overwhelming  artillery  defence  led  him  in  the  course 
of  years  of  controversial  writing  into  somewhat  extravagant 
proposals.  For  instance,  for  a  square  fort  of  about  400  yds. 
side,  he  proposed  over  1000  casemate  guns;  and  one  of  his 
caponier  sections  shows  10  tiers  of  masonry  gun-casemates  one 
above  the  other.  Confiding  in  the  power  of  such  an  artillery, 
he  freely  exposed  the  upper  parts  of  his  casemates  to  direct  fire. 

Montalembert  is  said  to  have  contributed  more  new  ideas 
to  fortification  than  any  other  man.  His  designs  must  be 
considered  in  some  ways  unworkable  and  unsound,  but  all  the 
best  work  of  the  i  gth  century  rests  on  his  teaching.  The  Germans, 
who  already  used  the  tenaille  system  and  made  free  provision 
of  bomb-proof  casemates,  took  from  him  the  polygonal  trace  and 
the  idea  of  the  entrenched  camp. 

The  polygonal  system  in  fortification  implies  straight  or 
slightly  broken  exterior  sides,  flanked  by  casemated  caponiers. 
The  caponier  is  the  vital  point  of  the  front,  and  is  protected  in 
important  works  by  a  ravelin  and  keep.  The  essence  of  the 
system  is  its  simplicity,  which  allows  of  its  being  applied  to  any 
sort  of  ground,  level  or  broken,  and  to  long  or  short  fronts. 

The  final  period  of  smooth  bore  artillery  is  an  important  one 
in  the  history  of  fortification.  It  is  true  that  the  many  expensive 
works  that  were  constructed  at  this  time  were  obsolete 
almost  as  soon  as  they  were  finished;  but  this  was 
inevitable,  thanks  to  the  pace  at  which  the  world  was  camps. 
travelling.  After  the  Napoleonic  wars  the  Germanic 
Confederation  began  to  strengthen  its  frontiers;  and  considering 
that  they  had  not  derived  much  strategic  advantage  from  their 
existing  fort- 
resses,  the  Ger-  \\  \\ 
mans  took  up 
Montalembert's 
idea  of  entrench- 
ed camps,  utiliz- 
ing at  the  same 
time  his  poly- 
gonal system 
with  modifica- 
tions for  the 
main  enceintes. 
The  Prussians 
began  with  the 
fortresses  of  Cob- 
lenz  and  Cologne ; 
later  Posen, 
Konigsberg  and 
other  places  were 
treated  on  the 
same  lines.  The 
Austrians  con- 
structed, among 
other  places, 
Linz  and  Verona. 
The  Germanic 
Confederation 
reinforced  Mainz 
with  improved 
works,  and  re- 
organized en- 
entirely  Rastatt 
and  Ulm.  The 


FIG.  37. — Front  at  Posen. 


Bavarians  built  Germersheim  and  Ingolstadt.  While  all  these 
works  were  conceived  in  the  spirit  of  Rimpler  and  Monta- 
lembert, they  showed  the  differences  of  national  temperament. 
The  Prussian  works,  simple  in  design,  relied  upon  powerful 
artillery  fire,  and  exposed  a  good  deal  of  masonry  to  the  enemy's 
view.  The  Austrians  covered  part  of  their  masonry  with  earth 
and  gave  more  attention  to  detail. 


HISTORY] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


693 


The  German  development  of  the  polygonal  system  at  this 
time  is  not  of  great  importance,  since  the  great  masonry  caponiers 
were  designed  without  sufficient  consideration  for  the  increasing 
powers  of  artillery.  One  example  (fig.  37)  is  given  for  the 
sake  of  historical  comparison.  It  is  a  front  of  Posen. 

"  The  exterior  side  of  the  front  is  about  650  yds.  (600  metres)  long. 
It  is  flanked  by  a  central  caponier,  which  is  protected  by  a  detached 
bastion.  .  .  .  The  main  front  is  broken  back  to  flank  the  faces  of  the 
bastion  from  casemates  behind  the  escarp,  as  well  as  from  the  parapet. 

"  The  central  caponier  forms  the  keep  of  the  whole  front  and 
sweeps  both  the  interior  and  the  ditch  by  its  flanking  fire.  It  has 
two  floors  of  gun-casemates  and  one  for  musketry,  and 
Posed.  on  £ne  tOp  js  a  parapet  completely  commanding  alike  the 
outworks  and  the  body  of  the  place.  It  contains  barrack  accom- 
modation for  a  battalion  of  1000  men,  and  has  a  large  inner  courtyard 
closed  at  the  gorge  by  a  detached  wall.  The  caponier  is  itself  flanked 
by  three  small  caponiers  at  the  head,  and  one  at  the  inner  end  of  each 
flank. 

"  The  escarp  of  the  body  of  the  place  is  a  simple  detached  wall; 
that  of  the  detached  bastion  is  either  a  detached  wall  with  piers  and 
arches,  or  a  counter-arched  revetment.  At  the  salient  of  the  bastion 
there  is  a  mortar  battery  under  the  rampart,  and  a  casemated 
traverse  for  howitzers  upon  the  terreplein.  The  flanks  of  the  bastion 
are  parallel  to  those  of  the  caponier,  and  at  the  same  distance  from 
it  as  the  faces. 

"  Masonry  blockhouses,  loophpled  for  musketry,  are  provided  as 
keeps  of  the  re-entering  and  salient  places  of  arms.  In  the  latter 
case  they  have  stairs  leading  down  into  a  counterscarp  gallery, 
which  serves  as  a  base  for  countermine  galleries,  and  is  connected 
with  the  detached  bastion  by  a  gallery  under  the  ditch.  The  counter- 
scarp is  not  revetted  if  the  ditch  is  wet. 

"The  angle  of  the  polygon  should  not  be  less  than  160°,  in  order 
that  the  prolongation  of  the  main  ditch  may  fall  within  the  salients 
of  the  detached  bastions  of  the  neighbouring  fronts,  and  the  masonry 
of  the  caponiers  may  thus  be  hidden  from  outside  view."  (R.M.A. 
Text-book  of  F.  &  M.E.,  1886.) 

We  have  now  reached  a  period  when  the  "  detached  fort  " 
becomes  of  more  importance  than  the  organization  of  the  enceinte. 
The  early  conception  of  the  role  of  detached  forts  in 
Theh  d^~  connexion  with  the  fortress  was  to  form  an  entrenched 
fort.  camp  within  which  an  army  corps  could  seek  safety 

if  necessary.  The  idea  had  occurred  to  Vauban,  who 
added  to  the  permanent  defences  of  Toulon  a  large  camp  defended 
by  field  parapets  attached  to  one  side  of  the  fortress.  The 
substitution  of  a  ring  of  detached  forts,  while  giving  it  the 
greater  safety  of  permanent  instead  of  field  defences,  gave  also 
a  wider  area  and  freer  scope  for  the  operations  of  an  army 
seeking  shelter  under  the  guns  of  a  fortress,  and  at  the  same  time 
made  siege  more  difficult  by  increasing  the  line  of  investment. 
The  use  of  the  detached  fort  as  a  means  of  protecting  the  body 
of  the  place  from  bombardment  had  not  yet  been  made  necessary 
by  increased  range  of  artillery. 

When  these  detached  forts  were  first  used  by  Germany  the 
scope  of  the  idea  had  evidently  not  been  realised,  as  they  were 
placed  much  too  close  to  the  fortress.  Those  at  Cologne,  for 
instance,  were  only  some  400  or  500  yds.  in  advance  of  the 
ramparts.  The  same  leading  idea  is  seen  in  most  of  these  forts 
as  in  the  new  enceintes;  i.e.  a  lunette,  with  a  casemated  keep 
at  the  gorge.  The  keep  is  the  essential  part  of  the  work,  the 
rampart  of  the  lunette  serving  to  protect  it  from  frontal  artillery 
fire.  The  keep  projects  to  the  rear,  so  as  not  only  to  be  able  to 
flank  its  own  gorge,  but  to  give  some  support  to  the  neighbouring 
works  with  guns  protected  from  frontal  fire.  This  is  a  valuable 
arrangement,  which  is  still  sometimes  used.  The  front  ditches 
of  the  lunettes  were  flanked  by  caponiers.  Some  of  the  larger 
forts  were  simple  quadrangular  works  with  casemate  barracks 
and  caponier  ditch  defence. 

In  1830,  in  Austria,  the  archduke  Maximilian  made  an  entirely 
fresh  departure  with  the  defences  of  Linz.  The  idea  was  to 
provide  an  entrenched  camp  at  the  least  possible  cost,  whose 
works  should  require  the  smallest  possible  garrison.  With  this 
object  Linz  was  surrounded  with  a  belt  of  circular  towers  spaced 
about  600  yds.  apart.  The  towers,  25  metres  in  diameter,  were 
enclosed  by  a  ditch  and  glacis,  and  contained  3  tiers  of  casemates. 
The  masonry  was  concealed  from  view  by  the  ditch  and  glacis. 
On  the  top  of  the  tower  was  an  earth  parapet,  over  which  a 
battery  of  13  guns  fired  en  barbette.  In  order  to  find  room  for 


so  many  guns  in  the  restricted  space,  the  whole  13  were  placed 
parallel  and  close  together  on  a  single  specially  designed  mounting. 

This  new  departure  was  received  with  a  certain  amount  of 
approval  at  the  time,  which  is  somewhat  difficult  to  account  for, 
as  a  more  faulty  system  could  hardly  be  devised;  but  the 
experiment  was  never  repeated. 

The  credit  for  much  of  the  clear  views  and  real  progress  made 
in  Germany  during  this  period  is  due  to  General  von  Brese- 
Winiari,  inspector-general  of  the  Prussian  engineers. 

France,  for  a  few  years  after  1815,  could  spare  little  money  for 
fortifications,  and  nothing  was  done  but  repairs  and  minor 
improvements  on  the  old  lines.  Belgium,  having  some  money 
in  hand,  rebuilt  and  improved  in  detail  a  number  of  bastioned 
fortresses  which  had  fallen  into  disrepair. 

In  1830  France  began  to  follow  the  lead  of  Germany  with 
entrenched  camps.  The  enceinte  of  Paris  was  reconstructed, 
and  detached  forts  were  added  at  a  cost,  according  to  von 
Zastrow,  of  £8,000,060.  The  Belgian  and  German  frontiers 


FIG.  38. 

of  France  being  considered  fairly  protected  by  the  existing 
fortresses,  they  turned  their  attention  to  the  Swiss  and  Italian 
frontiers,  and  constructed  three  fortresses  with  detached  forts  at 
Belfort,  Besancon  and  Grenoble.  The  cost  of  the  new  works  at 
Lyons  was,  according  to  the  same  writer,  £1,000,000  without 
the  armament.  Here  and  elsewhere  the  enceinte  was  simplified 
on  account  of  the  advanced  defences.  That  of  Paris,  which  was 
influenced  by  political  considerations,  was  a  simple  bastioned 
trace  with  rather  long  fronts  and  without  ravelins  or  other 
outworks;  the  escarp  was  high  and  therefore  exposed,  and  the 
counterscarp  was  not  revetted. 

As  regards  the  detached  forts  there  was  certainly  a  want  of 
clearness  of  conception.  Those  of  Paris  were  simply  fortresses 
in  miniature,  square  or  pentagonal  figures  with  bastioned  fronts 
and  containing  defensible  barracks.  Those  of  Lyons  were  much 
more  carefully  designed,  but  the  authors  wavered  between  two 
ideas.  Unwilling  to  give  up  the  bastion,  but  evidently  hankering 
after  the  new  caponiers,  they  produced  a  type  which  it  is  difficult 
to  praise.  The  larger  works  were  irregular  four-  or  five-sided 
figures  with  bastioned  fronts;  and  practically  the  whole  interior 
space  was  taken  up  by  a  large  keep,  with  its  ditch,  on  the 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[HISTORY 


ENCEINTE  OF  ANTWERP 


Note.  TVie  reliefs  are  gweninfeet  relatively  to  the  plant 
of  site.Ha.boae,  -beloUJ. 


a.  Magazines 

b.  Shell  Stores 

c.  Gun  fiooms 
d.Barrack  Rooms 
e.  Guard  Rooms 
/.  Blockhouses 


FIG.  39. 


polygonal  system.  The  smaller  works,  instead  of  a  keep,  had 
defensible  barracks  in  the  gorge. 

During  the  period  1855-1870  a  considerable  impulse  was  given 
to  the  science  of  fortification,  both  by  the  Crimean  War  and  the 
arrival  of  the  rifled  gun.  One  immediate  result  of  these 
from  1855  was  t^le  condemnation  of  masonry  exposed  to  artillery 
to  1870.  fire.  The  most  important  work  of  the  period  was  the 
new  scheme  of  defence  of  Antwerp,  initiated  in  1859. 
This  is  chiefly  interesting  as  giving  us  the  last  and  finest  ex- 
pression of  the  medieval  enceinte,  at  a  time  when  the  war 
between  the  polygonal  and  bastioned  traces  was  still  raging, 
though  the  boom  of  the  long-range  guns  had  already  given 
warning  that  a  new  era  had  begun.  Antwerp  is  also  asso- 
ciated with  the  name  of  General  Brialmont  (<?.!>.)>  of  the 
Belgian  engineers,  whom  posterity  will  no  doubt  regard  as 
the  greatest  writer  on  fortification  of  the  latter  half  of  the 
1 9th  century. 

We  give  in  figs.  38,  39  and  40  the  general  plan  of  the  1859 
defences  of  Antwerp,  the  plan  of  a  front  of  the  enceinte,  and  its 
Antwerp,  sections,  as  showing  almost  the  last  word  of  fortification 
before  the  arrival  of  high  explosives. 

The  defences  of  Antwerp  were  designed,  as  the  strategic  centre 
of  the  national  defence  of  Belgium,  for  an  entrenched  camp  for 
100,000  men.  The  length  of  the  enceinte  is  about  9  m.  The 
detached  forts,  which  on  the  sides  not  defended  by  inundation 
are  about  i  J-  m.  apart  and  from  2  to  3  m.  in  front  of  the  enceinte, 
are  powerful  works,  arranged  for  a  garrison  of  1000  men.  They 
have  each  a  frontal  crest-line  of  over  700  yds.  and  are  intended 
for  an  armament  of  120  guns  and  15  mortars. 


The  general 

arrangement  of  the 
fronts  of  the  en- 
ceinte should  be 
compared  with  the 
earlier  German 
type  of  Posen.  It 
will  be  noticed  that 
while  the  large 
casemated  capo- 
nier at  Posen  breaks 
the  enceinte  and 
flanks  it  both  with- 
out and  within,  at 
Antwerp  the  capo- 
nier is  detached — 
a  much  sounder 
arrangement  —  and 
flanks  the  front 
only.  The  defence 
of  the  faces  rests 
on  the  width  of  the 
wet  ditches  and  on 
the  flanking  power 
of  the  caponier; 
there  is  no  attempt 
to  add  to  it  by 
fausse-braie  or 
detached  wall. 
The  dimensions  are 
everywhere  very 
generous,  allowing 
free  movement  for 
the  troops  of  the 
defence ;  the  cov» 
ered  way  is  22  yds. 


Section  on  G  H.    Low  Battery 


in   ?p    30    40    50 


FIG.  40.  —  Sections  of  fig.  39. 


ipoFcet 


HISTORY] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


695 


wide  and  there  is  a  double  terreplein  on  the  face.  The  parapet 
of  the  face  is  27  ft.  thick.  The  masonry  of  the  casemate  guns 
in  the  caponier,  first  flank  and  low  battery,  is  protected  by  earth, 
d  la  Haxo. 

In  1859  Austria  acknowledged  the  influence  of  the  new  artillery 
with  some  new  forts  at  Verona.  The  detached  forts  built  by 
Radetzky  in  1848  were  only  from  1000  to  2000  yds.  distant  from 
the  ramparts.  Those  now  added,  of  which  fig.  41  is  an  example, 
were  from  3000  to  4000  yds.  out. 

In  the  same  year  the  land  defences  of  some  of  the  British 
dockyards  were  taken  in  hand.  These  first  serious  attempts  at 


tojsss. 


FIG.  41.  —  Austrian  Fort  at  Verona. 

permanent  fortification  in  England  were  received  with  approval 
on  the  continent,  as  constituting  an  advance  on  anything  that 
had  been  done  before.  The  detached  forts  intended  to  keep  an 
enemy  outside  bombarding  distance  were  roomy  works  with 
small  keeps.  The  parapets  were  organized  for  artillery  and  the 
ditches  were  defended  by  caponiers  or  counterscarp  galleries. 
The  forts  were  spaced  about  a  mile  apart  and  arranged  so  as  to 
support  each  other  by  their  fire. 

The  sieges  of  the  Franco-German  War  of  1870  are  alluded 
to  in  the  section  below  dealing  with  the  "  Attack  of  Fortresses." 
As  regards  their  effect  on  the  designs  of  fortification 
l^e  most  imPortant  thing  to  note  is  the  distance  to 
which  it  was  thought  necessary  to  throw  out  the 
detached  forts.  These  distances  were  of  course  in- 
fluenced by  the  character  of  the  ground,  but  for  the  most  part 
they  were  very  largely  increased.  Thus  at  Paris  the  fort  at  St  Cyr 
was  18,000  yds.  from  the  enceinte;  at  Verdun  the  distances 
varied  from  2300  to  12,000  yds.;  at  Belfort  the  new  forts  were 
from  4500  to  11,500  yds.  out;  at  Metz  2300  to  4500;  and  at 
Strassburg  5200  to  10,000.  One  result  of  these  increased 
distances  was  of  course  to  increase  very  largely  the  length  of 
the  zone  of  investment,  and  therefore  the  strength  necessary 
for  the  besieging  force. 

As  regards  the  character  of  the  works,  the  typical  shape 
adopted  both  in  France  and  Germany  was  a  very  obtuse-angled 
lunette,  shallow  from  front  to  rear.  The  German  type  had  one 
parapet  only,  which  was  organized  for  artillery  and  heavily 
traversed,  the  living  casemates  being  under  this  parapet.  The 
ditch  defence  was  provided  for  by  caponiers  and  a  detached  wall 
(see  fig.  42). 

The  French  forts  had  two  parapets,  that  in  the  rear  being 
placed  over  living  casemates  (in  two  tiers,  as  shown  in  the  section 
of  fig.  43  by  a  dotted  line),  and  commanding  the  front  one. 
There  was  a  long  controversy  as  to  whether  the  artillery  of  the 
fort  should  be  on  the  upper  or  the  lower  parapet,  the  advocates 
of  the  upper  parapet  attaching  great  importance  to  the  command 
that  the  guns  would  have  over  the  country  in  front.  1'he  other 
school,  objecting  to  having  guns  on  the  skyline,  preferred  to 


sacrifice  the  command  and  place  them  on  the  lower  parapet,  as 
in  fig.  43,  the  infantry  occupying  the  upper  parapet.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  bastioned  trace  is  abandoned,  the  ditches, 
like  those  of  the  German  fort,  being  defended  by  caponiers. 

While  a  great  deal  of  work  was  done  on  these  lines,  a  very 
active  controversy  had  already  begun  on  the  general  question 
as  to  whether  guns  should  be  employed  in  forts  at  all.  Some 


FIG.  42. — German  Fort  about  1880. 

declared  that  the  accuracy  and  power  of  artillery  had  already 
developed  so  far,  that  guns  in  fixed  and  visible  positions  must 
needs  be  put  out  of  action  in  a  very  short  time.  The  remedy 
proposed  by  these  was  the  removal  of  the  guns  from  the  forts  into 
"  wing-batteries  "  which  should  be  less  conspicuous;  but  soon 
the  broader  idea  was  put  forward  of  placing  the  guns  in  concealed 
positions  and  moving  them  from  one  to  another  by  means  of 


Section 

FIG.  43.— French  Fort  about  1880. 

previously  prepared  roads  or  railways.  Others  declared  that 
there  was  no  safety  for  the  guns  outside  the  forts,  and  that  the 
use  of  steel  turrets  and  disappearing  cupolas  was  the  only 
solution  of  the  difficulty.  General  Brialmont,  who  had  by  this 
time  become  the  first  European  authority  on  fortification  ques- 
tions, ranged  himself  on  the  side  of  the  turrets.  The  younger 


696 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[MODERN 


school  were  largely  in  favour  of  mobility  and  expressed  them- 
selves eagerly  in  a  shower  of  pamphlets. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  a  new  factor  was  introduced, 
namely,  the  obus-torpille,  or  long  shell  with  high-explosive 
bursting  charge.  With  its  appearance  we  say  good-bye  to  the 
old  school  and  enter  upon  the  consideration  of  the  fortification 
of  to-day. 

II.  MODERN  PERMANENT  FORTIFICATION 

Modern  fortification  dates  by  universal  consent  from  1885. 
The  Germans  had  begun  experiments  a  year  or  two  before  this, 
with  long  shell  containing  large  charges  of  gun-cotton. 
frle  But  it  was  the  experimentsat  Fort  Malmaisonin  France 
longshcll.  in  1886  that  set  the  military  world  speculating  on  the 
future  of  fortification.  The  fort  was  used  as  a  target 
for  8-in.  shell  of  five  calibres  length  containing  large  charges  of 
melinite.  The  reported  effects  of  these  made  a  tremendous 
sensation,  and  it  was  thought  at  first  that  the  days  of  permanent 
fortification  were  over.  Magazine  casemates  were  destroyed 
by  a  single  shell,  and  revetment  walls  were  overturned  and 
practicable  breaches  made  by  two  or  three  shells  falling  behind 
them.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  works  were 
not  adapted  to  meet  this  kind  of  fire.  The  casemates  had 
enough  earth  over  them  to  tamp  the  shell  thoroughly,  but 
not  enough  to  prevent  it  from  coming  into  contact  with  the 


masonry,  and  the  latter  was  not  thick  enough  to  resist  the  ex- 
plosion of  the  big  charges.  Other  experiments  were  made  in 
the  same  direction  in  Germany,  Holland,  Belgium  and  Austria. 
The  Germans  used  shell  containing  from  60  to  130  Ib  of  high 
explosive. 

After  the  first  alarm  had  subsided  foreign  engineers  set  about 
adapting  their  works  to  meet  the  new  projectiles.  Revetments 
were  enormously  strengthened,  and  designed  so  that  their  weight 
resisted  overturning.  Concrete  roofs  were  made  from  6  to  10  ft. 
thick,  and  in  many  cases  the  surface  of  the  concrete  was  left  bare 
so  as  to  expose  a  hard  surface  to  the  shell  without  any  earth 
tamping.  The  idea  of  cupolas  and  shielded  guns  gained  ground, 
and  is  now  practically  accepted  all  over  the  continent  of  Europe. 
In  many  cases  the  main  armament,  in  some  only  the  safety 
armament  (see  below),  is  in  cupolas  in  the  forts. 

But  meanwhile  Europe  had  been  flooded  with  literature 
on  the  subject,  and  the  whole  policy  of  fortification  as  well  as 
its  minutest  details  were  discussed  ab  ova.  The  extremists  of 
both  sides  revelled  in  their  opportunity.  Some  declared  that, 
with  the  use  of  heavy  guns  and  armour,  fortresses  could  be  made 
stronger  than  ever.  Others  held  that  modern  fortresses  were  far 
too  expensive,  that  their  use  led  to  strategic  mistakes,  and 
(arguing  from  certain  well-known  examples)  that  extemporized 
field  defences  could  offer  as  good  a  resistance  as  permanent 
works. 


Shelters 

Batteries 

Armoured  Batteries 
O  Forts  io  Construction 
.  Heights  in  metres 


From  Plessii  and  Legrand's  Manuel  comfltl  de  la  fortif  cation,  by  permission. 

FIG.  44. — Metz  in  1899. 


MODERN] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


697 


European  military  opinion  generally  is  now  more  or  less 
agreed  on  the  following  lines: — 

Important  places  must  be  defended  by  fortresses. 

Their  girdle  of  forts  must  be  far  enough  out  to  prevent  the 

bombardment  of  the  place. 

An  enceinte  is  desirable,  but  need  not  be  elaborate. 
A  few  guns  (called  "  safety  armament  ")  should  be  in  the  forts, 

and  these  must  be  protected  by  armour. 

5.  The  bulk  of  the  artillery  of  the  defence  should  be  outside  the 

forts;  the  direct-fire  guns  preferably  in  cupolas,  the  howitzers 
in  concealed  positions. 

6.  The  forts  should  be  connected  by  lines  of  entrenched  infantry 

positions  and  obstacles,  permanent  bomb-proof  shelters  being 
provided  for  the  infantry. 

7.  There  should  be  ample  communications — radial  and  peripheral 

— between  the  place  and  the  forts,  both  by  road  and  rail. 

8.  Special  lines  of  communication— such  as  mountain  passes — 

should  be  closed  by  barrier  forts. 

These  considerations  will  now  be  taken  somewhat  more  in 
detail,  but  first  it  will  be  useful  to  deal  with  the  plan  of  Metz 
in  1899  (fig.  44). 

Here  the  fortifications  of  successive  periods  can  be  readily  recog- 
nized. First  the  old  enceinte,  unaltered  by  the  Germans  and  now 
„  ,  declassee.  Next  the  detached  forts,  begun  by  the  French 

engineers  in  1868  and  still  unfinished  in  1870,  can  be 
readily  recognized  by  their  bastioned  trace.  Among  them  are  Fort 
Manteuffel,  formerly  St  Julien,  and  Fort  Goeben  (fig.  45),  formerly 
Queuleu.  These  were  not  altered  in  their  general  lines. 


From  Plessix  and  Legrand's  Manuel  complei  de  la  fortification,  by  permission. 

FIG.  45. — Fort  Goeben,  Metz. 

This  early  line  of  detached  forts,  less  than  3000  yds.  from  the 
enceinte,  was  completed  by  the  Germans  with  forts  of  polygonal 
type  such  as  Fort  Prinz  August.  The  hill  of  St  Quentin  (fig.  46),  a 
very  important  point,  was  converted  into  a  fortified  position,  with 
two  forts  and  connecting  parapets,  and  a  communication  running 
north  to  Fort  Alvensleben. 

The  arrangement  of  wing  batteries  in  connexion  with  the  forts 
can  be  clearly  noted  at  Fort  Manteuffel.  These  are  reinforced  by 
other  batteries  either  for  the  defence  of  the  intervals  or  to  dominate 
important  lines  of  approach  such  as  the  valley  of  the  Moselle  (canal 
battery  at  Montigny).  To  these  were  added  later  armoured  batteries. 

There  are  also  infantry  positions,  shelters  and  magazines  in  con- 
nexion with  this  line. 

Finally  some  new  forts  of  modern  type  were  commenced  in  1899 
at  about  9000  yds.  from  the  place. 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  at  present  the  strategic  use  of 
Fortresses  S1011?3  °f  fortresses,  the  places  which,  as  mentioned 
above,  are  intrinsically  worth  being  defended  as 
fortresses  are: — 

(a)  Centres  of  national,  industrial  or  military  resources. 

(&)  Places  which  may  serve  as  points  d'appui  for  manoeuvres. 

(c)  Points  of  intersection  of  important  railroads. 

(d)  Bridges  over  considerable  rivers. 

(e)  Certain  lines  of  communication  across  a  frontier. 

Examples  of  (a)  are  Paris,  Antwerp,  Lyons,  Verdun.  Again 
for  (a)  and  (&),  as  is  pointed  out  by  Plessix  and  Legrand,  Metz 
in  the  hands  of  the  Germans  may  serve  both  as  a  base  of  supplies 
and  a  point  d'appui  for  one  flank.  Strassburg  is  a  bridge-head 
giving  the  Germans  a  secure  retreat  across  the  Rhine  if  beaten 
in  the  plains  of  Alsace,  and  an  opportunity  of  resuming  the 
offensive  when  they  have  re-formed  behind  the  river. 


The  distance  of  detached  forts  from  the  place  depends  on  the 
range  of  the  siege  artillery  and  the  distance  at  which  it  can 
usually  be  established  from  the  forts,  and  is  variously      j-/ie 
given  by  different  continental  writers  at  from  4  to  9  km.     ring  of 
(4500  to  10,000  yds.).     The  bombarding  range  of  siege     detached 
howitzers  with  heavy  shells  is  considered  to  be  about 
8000  yds.,  and  if  it  is  possible  for  them  to  be  emplaced  within 
say  2000  yds.  of  the  forts,  this  would  give  a  minimum  distance 
of  6000  yds.  from  the  forts  to  the  body  of  the  place.     Some  writers 
extend  the  minimum  distance  to  7  km.,  or  nearly  8000  yds. 
In  practice,  however,  it  must  happen  that  the  position  of  the 
forts  is  determined  to  a  very  large  extent  by  the  lie  of  the  ground. 
Thus  some  good  positions  for  forts  may  be  found  within  4000  or 


From  Plessix  and  Lcgrand's  Manuel  complet  de  la  jortification,  by  permission. 

FIG.  46. — St  Quentin  position,  Metz. 

5000  yds.  of  the  place,  and  no  others  suitable  on  the  same  front 
within  15,000  yds.  In  that  case  the  question  of  expense  might 
necessitate  choosing  the  nearer  positions.  Some  examples  of 
the  actual  distances  of  existing  forts  have  already  been  given. 
Others,  more  recent,  are,  at  Bucharest  7-10  km.,  Lyons  8-107, 
Copenhagen  7-8  and  Paris  14-17.  Strategic  pivots  are  in  a  different 
category  from  other  fortresses.  While  not  necessarily  protected 
from  bombardment,  they  may  yet  have  one  or  two  forts  thrown 
out  from  9  to  12  km.,  to  get  advantage  of  ground.  Such  are 
Langres,  Epinal  and  Belfort. 

The  Enceinte, — The  desirability  of  this  is  almost  universally 
allowed;  but  often  it  is  more  as  a  concession  to  tradition  than  for 
any  solid  reason.  The  idea  is  that  behind  the  line  of  forts,  which  is 
the  main  defensive' position,  any  favourable  points  that  exist  should 
be  provisionally  fortified  to  assist  in  a  "  step-by-step  "  defence:  and 
behind  these  again  the  body  of  the  place  should  be  surrounded  by  a 
last  line  of  defence,  so  that  the  garrison  may  resist  to  the  last  moment. 
It  may  be  remarked  that  apart  from  the  additional  expense  of  an 
enceinte,  such  a  position  would  not,  under  moderti  conditions,  be 
the  most  favourable  for  the  last  stages  of  a  defence.  Again,  there  is 
the  difficulty  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  shut  in  a  large 
modern  town  by  a  continuous  enceinte.  It  has  been  proposed  to 
construct  the  enceinte  in  sections  in  front  of  the  salient  portions  of 
the  place.  This  system  of  course  abandons  several  of  the  chief 
advantages  claimed  for  an  enceinte. 

In  actual  practice  enceintes  have  been  constructed  since  1870  in 
France  and  other  countries,  consisting  of  a  simple  wall  10  or  12  ft. 
high  with  a  banquette  and  loopholes  at  intervals.  This  of  course  can 
only  be  looked  upon  as  a  measure  of  police.  For  war  purposes,  in 
face  of  modern  artillery,  it  is  a  reductio  ad  absurdum. 

The  Safety  Armament. — If  the  bulk  of  the  artillery  is  to  be  placed 
in  positions  prepared  on  the  outbreak  of  war,  it  is  considered  very 
necessary  that  a  few  heavy  long-range  guns  should  be  permanently 
in  position  ready  at  any  moment  to  keep  an  enemy  at  a  distance, 
forcing  him  to  open  his  first  batteries  at  long  range  and  checking  the 
advance  of  his  investment  line.  Such  guns  would  naturally  be  in 
secure  positions  inside  the  forts,  and  if  they  are  to  be  worked  from 
such  positions  they  must  have  armour  to  shield  them  from  the 
concentrated  fire  of  the  numerous  field  artillery  that  a  besieger 
could  bring  to  bear  from  the  first. 

Artillery  outside  the  forts  constitutes  the  most  important 
part  of  the  defence,  and  there  is  room  for  much  discussion  as  to 
whether  it  should  have  positions  prepared  for  it  beforehand 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[MODERN 


or  should  be  placed  in  positions  selected  as  the  attack  develops 
itself.  On  the  one  hand  the  preparation  of  the  positions  before- 
The  gues'  hand,  which  in  many  cases  means  the  use  of  armour 
tloa  at  and  concrete,  increases  very  largely  the  initial  expense 
artillery  of  tjje  defence,  and  ties  the  defender  somewhat  in 
positions.  the  specjai  dispositions  that  become  desirable  once 
the  attack  has  taken  shape.  Moreover,  such  expenditure 
must  be  incurred  on  all  the  fronts  of  the  fortress,  whereas 
the  results  would  only  be  realized  on  the  front  or  fronts 
actually  attacked.  On  the  other  hand  much  time  and  labour 
are  involved  in  emplacing  heavy  and  medium  artillery  with 
extemporized  protection,  and  this  becomes  a  serious  considera- 
tion when  one  remembers  how  much  work  of  all  kinds  is  necessary 
in  preparing  a  fortress  against  attack.  Again,  to  avoid  the  danger 
of  a  successful  attack  on  the  intervals  between  the  forts  before 
their  defences  have  been  fully  completed,  the  fire  of  the  guns 
in  the  intermediate  positions  might  be  urgently  required.  The 
solution  in  any  given  case  would  no  doubt  depend  on  the  import- 
ance of  the  place.  In  most  cases  a  certain  amount  of  compromise 
will  come  in,  some  preparation  being  made  for  batteries,  without 
their  being  completed.  Armoured  batteries  of  whatever  kind 
must  in  any  case  be  prepared  in  peace  time.  It  should  not  be 
overlooked  that  as,  whatever  theories  may  exist  about  successive 
lines  of  defence,  the  onus  of  the  defence  will  now  lie  on  the  fort 
line,  just  as  it  formerly  did  on  the  enceintes,  so  that  line  should 
be  fully  prepared,  and  should  not  have  to  commence  its  fight  in 
a  position  of  inequality. 

Defence  of  Intervals  of  Forts. — The  frontal  fire  of  the  batteries  in 
the  intervals  and  the  flanking  fire  of  some  of  the  guns  in  the  forts 
will  play  an  important  part,  but  the  main  reliance  should  be  on 
infantry  defence.  A  fully  prepared  fortress  would  have  practically 
a  complete  chain  of  infantry  fighting  positions  and  obstacles  between 
the  forts,  at  all  events  on  the  fronts  likely  to  be  seriously  attacked. 
The  positions  would  consist  largely  of  fire  trenches,  with  good 
communications;  but  it  is  pretty  generally  recognized  that  there 

Section  and  Elevation  No.i 


Barrio- 
forts. 

But  in 


must  be  some  points  d'appui  in  the  shape  of  redoubts  or  infantry 
forts,  and  also  bomb-proof  shelter  for  men,  ammunition  and  stores 
near  the  fighting  line.  This  is  usually  included  in  the  redoubts. 
If  they  are  to  resist  the  heaviest  shell,  such  shelters  must  be  built 
in  peace  time. 

Communications  are  of  the  first  importance,  not  merely  to  facilitate 
the  movement  of  the  enormous  stores  of  ammunition  and  materials 
required  in  the  fighting  line,  but  also  that  defenders  may  fully  utilize 
the  advantage  of  acting  on  interior  lines.  They  should  include  both 
railways  and  roads  running  from  the  centre  of  the  place  to  the 
different  sectors  of  defence,  and  all  round,  in  rear  of  the  line  of  forts; 
also  ample  covered  approaches  to  the  fighting  line.  Concealment 
is  essential,  and  where  the  lie  of  the  ground  does  not  help,  it  must  be 
got  from  earth  parapets  or  plantations. 

The  principal  use  of  barrier  forts  is  in  country  where  the 
necessary  line  of  communication  cannot  be  easily  diverted. 
For  instance,  in  a  comparatively  flat  country  a  barrier 
fort  commanding  a  road  or  railway  is  of  little  use 
because  roads  may  be  found  passing  round  it,  or  a  line 
of  railway  may  be  diverted  for  some  miles  to  avoid  it 
mountainous  country,  where  such  diversion  is  impossible,  it  will 
be  necessary  fcr  the  enemy  to  capture  the  fort  before  he  can 
advance;  and  the  impossibility  of  surrounding  it,  the  few 
positions  from  which  siege  artillery  can  be  brought  into  play, 
and  the  fact  that  there  is  practically  only  one  road  of  approach 
to  be  denied,  make  these  positions  peculiarly  suitable  for  forts 
with  armoured  batteries.  Italy  makes  considerable  use  of  such 
forts  for  the  defence  of  frontier  passes. 

General  Brialmonfs  Theoretical  Claim  for  the  Defence  of  a  Country. 
— Before  going  into  details,  it  is  worth  while  to  state  the  full  claim 
of  strategic  fortification  advanced  by  General  Brialmont,  the  most 
thorough  of  all  its  advocates.  It  is  as  follows: — 

A.  Fortify  the  capital. 

B.  Fortify  the  points  where  main  lines  of  communication  pass  a 

strategic  barrier. 

C.  Make  an  entrenched  camp  at  the  most  important  centre  of 

communication  in  each  zone  of  invasion:  and  support  it  by 
one  or  two  places  arranged  so  as  to  make  a  fortified  district. 


Section  No-S 


From  Brialmont's  Progres  de  la  defense  des  Hats  el  de  la  lorlifkalion  permanente  depuis  Vauban,  by  permission  of  M.  Ic  Commandant  G.  Mceils. 

FIG.  47. 


MODERN] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


D.  Close  with  barrier  forts  the  lines  necessary  to  an  enemy  across 

mountains  or  marshes. 

E.  Make  a  central  place  behind  a  mountain  chain  as  a  pivot  for 

the  army  watching  it. 

F.  Defend  mountain  roads  by  provisional  fortifications. 


699 


G.  Make  a  large  place  in  each  theatre  of  war  which  is  far  from  the 
principal  theatre,  and  where  the  enemy  might  wish  to  estab- 
lish himself. 

H.  Fortify  coasts  and  harbours. 

Objections  to  these  proposals  will  be  readily  supplied  by  the 


riiliiiiiiiii 


Scale  of  \  ards 
o      10    20     lo    40     50    Co     70    80    GO    100 


Section  No.i 


Section  No.3 


Section  No. 4. 


From  Brialmont's  Progris  de  la  dlfcnse  des  flats  et  de  la  lorlif cation  depuis  Vauban,  by  permission  of  Commandant  G.  Meeiis. 

FIG.  48. 


yoo 


FORTIFICATION  AND   SIEGECRAFT 


[MODERN 


officials  of  the  national  treasury  and  the  commanders-in-chief  of  the 
active  armies. 

So 


Types  of 
detached 
torts. 


many  types  of  detached  forts  have  been  proposed  by 
competent  authorities,  as  well  as  actually  constructed 
in  recent  years,  that  it  is  impossible  here  to  consider 
all  of  them,  and  a  few  only  will  be  reproduced  of 
these  which  are  most  representative  of  modern  con- 
tinental thought. 

Taking  first  the  type  of  heavily  armed  fort,  which  contains  guns 
for  the  artillery  fight  as  well  as  safety  armament,  we  must  give 
precedence  to  General  Brialmont.  The  two  works  here  shown  are 
taken  from  the  Progrts  de  la  defense  des  etats,  &c.,  published  in  1898. 
The  pentagonal  fort  (fig.  47)  has  two  special  features.  In  section  I 
is  shown  a  concrete  infantry  parapet,  with  a  gallery  in  which  the 
defenders  of  the  parapet  may  take  shelter  from  the  bombardment 
preceding  an  assault.  In  section  2  it  will  be  seen  that  the  counter- 
scarp galleries  flanking  the  ditch  are  drawn  back  from  the  face  of  the 
counterscarp.  This  is  to  counteract  proposals  that  have  been  made 
to  obscure  the  view  from  the  flanking  galleries,  and  perhaps  drive 
the  defenders  out  of  them  by  throwing  smoke-producing  materials 
into  the  ditch  at  the  moment  of  an  assault.  The  arrangement  may 
save  the  occupants  of  the  galleries  from  excessive  heat  and  noxious 
fumes,  but  will  not  of  course  prevent  the  smoke  from  obscuring  the 
view. 

The  following  points  may  be  noticed  about  this  design  in  comparing 
it  with  earlier  types.     There  is  no  escarp,  the  natural  slope  of  the 
rampart  being  carried  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.    There  is  a 
counterscarp  to  the  faces,  but  no  covered  way.    The  flanks 
have  no  counterscarp,  but  a  steel  fence  at  the  foot  of  the 
slope,  and  the  covered  way  which  is  utilized  for  a  wire  en- 
tanglement which  is  under  the  fire  of  the  parapet.     The 
gorge  has  a  very  slight  bastioned  indentation,  which  allows 
for  an  efficient  flanking  of  the  ditch  by  a  couple  of  machine 
guns  placed  in  a  single  casemate  on  either  side. 

The  abolition  of  the  covered  way  as  such  is  note- 
worthy. It  marks  an  essential  difference  between 
the  fort  and  the  old  enceinte  profiles;  showing  that 
offensive  action  is  not  expected  from  the  garrison  of 
the  fort,  and  is  the  duty  of  the  troops  of  the  inter- 
mediate lines. 

The  great  central  mass  of  concrete  containing  all 
the  casemates  and  the  gun-cupolas,  a  very  popular 
feature,  is  omitted  in  this  design,  advantage  being 
taken  of  the  great  lateral  extent  of  the  fort  to  spread 
the  casemates  under  the  faces,  flanks  and  gorge, 
with   a   communication   across   the   centre   of    the 
fort.    This  arrangement  gives  more  freedom  to  the 
disposition  of   the  cupolas. 
The  thickness  of  the  con- 
crete   over    the    casemate 
arches   is   more   than   8   ft. 
Communication        between 
the  faces  and  the  counter- 
scarp  galleries   is   obtained  Section  on  AB. 
by  posterns  under  the  ditch.  From  Brialmont's  Progres  de  la  dljense  des  itals,  &c.,  by  permission  of  Commandant  G.  Meeus. 

The  armament,  which  is  all  FIG.  49.— Fort  Molsheim,  Strassburg. 

protected    by    cupolas, 


This  parapet  has  no  concrete  shelter  for  the  defenders.  The  case- 
mates are  all  collected  in  the  keep  and  the  gorge,  with  a  passage  all 
round  giving  access  to  the  parapet  and  the  cupolas. 

Fig.  49  is  a  German  work,  Fort  Molsheim  at  Strassburg.  This  is 
a  simple  type  of  triangular  fort.  The  main  mass  of  concrete  rests  on 
the  gorge,  and  is  divided  by  a  narrow  courtyard  to  give  light  and  air 
to  the  front  casemates.  The  fort  has  a  medium  armament  for  the 
artillery  fight,  consisting  of  four  6-in.  howitzers  in  cupolas.  On  each 
face  are  two  small  Q.F.  guns  in  cupolas  for  close  defence,  for  which 
purpose,  it  will  be  seen,  there  is  also  an  infantry  parapet.  At  the 
angles  are  look-out  turrets.  The  ditch  has  escarp  and  counterscarp, 
and  is  defended  by  counterscarp  galleries  at  the  angles.  There  is  no 
covered  way.  The  thickness  of  concrete  over  the  casemates,  where 
it  is  uncovered,  is  about  10  ft. 

Fig.  50  is  Fort  Lyngby  at  Copenhagen.  The  new  Copenhagen 
defences  are  very  interesting,  giving  evidence  of  clear  and  original 
thought,  and  effectiveness  combined  with  economy.  There  is  one 
special  feature  worth  noting  about  the  outer  ring  of  forts,  of  which 
Lyngby  is  one.  These  works  are  intended  for  the  artillery  fight  only, 
their  main  armament  being  four  6-in.  guns  (in  pairs)  and  three  6-in. 
howitzers,  all  in  cupolas.  The  armament  for  immediate  defence  is 


Cupola  for  Howltter 
Cupola  for  Q.F. gun 
Observing  Cupola 


is 

powerful.  It  consists  of  two  l5O-mm.  (6  in.)  guns,  four  i2O-mm. 
(4-7  in.)  guns,  two  2lo-mm.  (8-4  in.)  howitzers,  two  2lo-mm.  (8-4 
in.)  mortars,  four  57-mm.  Q.F.  guns  for  close  defence.  There  is 
also  a  shielded  electric  light  projector  in  the  centre. 

This  fort  is  a  great  advance  on  General  Brialmont's  designs  before 
1885.  These  were  marked  by  great  complexity  of  earth  parapets 
and  various  chicanes  which  would  not  long  survive  bombardment. 
This  type  is  simple  and  powerful.  It  is  also  very  expensive. 

The  second  Brialmont  fort  (fig.  48)  is  selected  because  it  shows  a 
keep  or  citadel,  an  inner  work  designed  to  hold  out  after  the  capture 
of  the  outer  parapet.  General  Brialmont  held  strongly  to  the 
necessity  of  keeps  for  all  important  works.  History  of  course  gives 
instances  of  citadels  which  have  enabled  the  garrison  to  recapture 
the  main  work  with  assistance,  or  caused  a  really  useful  delay  in  the 
progress  of  the  general  attack.  It  affords  still  more  instances  in 
which  the  keeps  have  made  no  resistance,  or  none  of  any  value. 
Some  think  that  the  existence  of  a  keep  encourages  the  defenders  of 
the  main  work;  others  that  it  encourages  the  idea  of  retreat.  The 
British  school  of  thought  is  against  keeps.  In  any  case  they  add 
largely  to  expense. 

In  the  present  design  the  keep  is  a  mass  of  concrete,  which  depends 
for  the  defence  of  its  front  ditches  on  counterscarp  galleries  in  the 
mam  work,  the  few  embrasures  for  frontal  defence  being  practically 
useless.  Its  main  function  is  to  prevent  the  attackers  from  estab- 
lishing themselves  on  the  gorge,  thus  leaving  the  way  open  for  a 
reinforcement  from  outside  to  enter  (assisted  by  bamboo  flying 
bridges)  through  the  passages  left  for  the  purpose  in  the  outer  and 
inner  gorge  parapets. 

As  regards  the  main  work,  the  arrangements  for  defence  of  the 
ditch  and  the  armament  are  similar  to  the  design  last  considered. 


trifling,  consisting  of  only  two  57-mm.  guns  and  a  machine-gun. 
There  is  no  provision  for  infantry  defence.  The  ditch  has  no  escarp 
or  counterscarp,  and  is  flanked  by  counterscarp  galleries  at  the  salient. 

It  is  usual  in  the  case  of  works  so  slightly  organized  for  their  own 
defence,  and  intended  only  for  the  long-range  artillery  fight,  to  with- 
draw them  somewhat  from  the*  front  line.  The  Danish  engineers, 
however,  have  not  hesitated  to  put  these  works  in  the  very  front  line, 
some  2000  metres  in  front  of  the  permanent  intermediate  batteries. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  force  the  enemy  to  establish  his  heavy  artillery 
at  such  long  ranges  that  it  will  be  able  to  afford  little  assistance  to 
the  trench  attack  of  the  infantry.  The  intermediate  batteries,  being 
withdrawn,  are  comparatively  safe.  They  therefore  do  not  require 
expensive  protection,  and  can  reserve  their  strength  to  resist  the 
advance  of  the  attack.  The  success  of  this  arrangement  will  depend 
on  the  fighting  strength  of  the  cupolas  under  war  conditions;  and 
what  that  may  be,  war  alone  can  tell  us. 

In  the  details  of  these  works,  besides  the  bold  cutting  down  of 
defensive  precautions,  we  may  note  the  skilful  and  economical  use 
of  layers  of  large  stones  over  the  casemates  to  diminish  the  thickness 
of  concrete  required.  The  roofs  of  the  casemates  are  stiffened 
underneath  with  steel  rails,  and  steel  lathing  is  used  to  prevent  lumps 
of  concrete  from  falling  on  the  occupants.  The  living  casemates 
look  out  on  the  gorge,  getting  plenty  of  light  and 'air,  while  the 
magazines  are  under  the  cupolas. 

The  forts  above  described  are  all  armed  with  a  view  to  their  taking 
an  important  part  in  the  distant  artillery  fight.  The  next  type  to  be 
considered  (fig.  51)  is  selected  mainly  because  it  is  a  good  example 
of  the  use  of  concealed  flanking  batteries,  known  on  the  continent 
as  batteries  traditores,  which  seem  to  be  growing  in  popularity. 

This  design  by  Colonel  Voorduin  of  the  Dutch  engineers  has  a 


MODERN] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


701 


a.  Cupola  for  2  6"guns 
6.  Cupola  for  1  6"Honjttrer 

c.  Disappearing  Cupola  for  Q.F, gun 

d.  Machine  gun 

e.  Observing  Station 


36' 


Section  No.i 


Section  No. 2 

From  Brialmont's  Progris  de  la  defense  dts  elats,  &c.,  by  permission  of  Commandant  G.  Meeus. 

FIG.  50. — Fort  Lyngby,  Copenhagen. 

the  bottom  of  the  ditch  is  a  wire  entanglement  and  the  glacis  slope  is 
planted  with  thorns.  The  thickness  of  concrete  on  the  casemates  is 
2  metres  (6  ft.  7  in.).  This  is  a  strong  and  simple  form  of  infantry 


medium  armament,  which  is  not  intended  for  the  artillery  duel,  but 
to  command  the  immediate  front  of  the  neighbouring  forts  and  the 
intervals.  The  fort  is  long  and  narrow,  with  small  casemate  accom- 
modation. It  contains  eight  4-y-in.  guns.  Two  of  these  are  in  a 


cupola  concealed  from  view,  though 
not  protected,  by  a  bank  of  earth  in 
front.  The  other  six  are  in  an  armoured 
battery  behind  the  cupola.  It  may  be 
remarked  that  as  the  cupola  gets  no 
real  protection  from  the  covering  mass 
of  earth,  it  would  be  better  to  be  able 
to  utilize  the  fire  of  its  guns  to  the 
front.  The  batterie  traditore,  if  properly 
protected  overhead,  would  be  very 
difficult  to  silence,  and  its  flanking  fire 
would  probably  be  available  up  to  the 
last  moment.  There  is  very  much  to 
be  said  both  for  and  against  the  policy 
of  so  emplacing  the  guns.  The  im- 
mediate defence  of  the  work,  with  the 
aid  of  a  broad  wet  ditch,  is  easy ;  but 
the  great  mass  of  concrete,  which  is  in- 
tended to  form  an  indestructible  plat- 
form and  breastwork  for  the  infantry, 
would  seem  to  be  a  needless  expense. 

Fig.  52,  designed  by  the  Austrian 
lieutenant  field-marshal  Moritz  Ritter 
von  Brunner(  1 839-1904),  is  selected  as 
a  type  of  the  intermediate  fort  which 
is  intended  only  to  be  a  strong  point 
in  the  infantry  line  of  defence  between 
the  main  forts.  It  has  a  pro- 
tected armament,  but  this, 
which  consists  only  of  four 
small  Q.F.  guns  in  cupolas,  is 
for  its  own  defence,  and  not 
to  take  part  in  the  artillery 
duel.  There  is  also  a  movable 
armament  of  four  light  Q.F. 
guns  on  wheels,  for  which  a 
shelter  is  provided  between  the 
two  observatory  cupolas.  The 
garrison  would  be  a  half  com- 
pany of  infantry,  for  whom 
casemates  are  provided  in  the 
gorge.  The  gorge  ditch  is 
flanked  by  a  caponier,  but 
there  is  no  flank  defence  for 
the  front  ditch.  This  is  de- 
fended by  a  glacis  parapet.  At 


work,  but  considering  its  r&le  it  appears  to  be  needlessly  expensive. 


From  Leithner's  Bestandige  Bejestigung. 


FIG.  51. 


7<32 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[MODERN 


Fig  S3  is  an  Italian  type  of  barrier  fort  in  mountainous  country. 
A  powerful  battery  of  eight  medium  guns  protected  by  a  Gruson 
shield  commands  the  approach.  The  fort  with  its  dwelling  case- 
mates is  surrounded  by  a  deep  ditch  flanked  by  counterscarp  galleries. 
There  are  certain  apparent  weaknesses  in  the  type,  but  the  difficulties 
of  the  attack  .in  such  country  and  its  limitations  must  be  borne  i 
mind. 

Modern  Details  of  Protection  and  Obstacle.—  After  considering 
the  above  types  of  fort,  it  will  be  of  use  to  note  some  of  the 
details  in  which  modern  construction  has  been  modified  to 
provide  against  the  increasing  power  of  artillery. 

The  penetration  of  projectiles  varies  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil—  the  lighter  the  better  for  protection.  Sand  offers 

the  greatest  resistance  to  penetration,  clay  the  least. 

since,  however,  the  penetration  of  heavy  shells  fired 

from  long  ranges  with  high  elevation  may  be  20  ft. 

or  more  in  ordinary  soil,  we  can  no  longer  look  to  earth 
alone  as  a  source  of  protection  against  bombardment.  Again 
a  moderate  quantity  of  earth  over  a  casemate  increases  the  ex- 
plosive effect  of  a  shell  by  "  tamping  "  it,  that  is  by  preventing 
the  force  of  the  explosion  from  being  wasted  in  the  open  air. 


Bomb- 


man  in  repelling  an  assault.  This  concrete  parapet  may  be 
further  reinforced  by  hinged  steel  bullet-proof  plates,  to  give 
head  cover;  which  when  not  in  use  hang  down  behind  the  crest. 
The  escarp  is  falling  into  disfavour,  on  account  of  the  great 
expense  of  a  revetment  that  can  withstand  breaching  fire.  A 
counterscarp  of  very  solid  construction  is  generally  ol)stacleSi 
used,  it  is  low  and  gives  cover  to  a  wire  entanglement 
in  the  ditch.  This  may  be  supplemented  by  a  steel  unclimbable 

A 


V"   Section  No. 3 

From  Brialmont's  Progres  de    la    defense    des    flats,  &c.,  by    permission  of  Com- 
mandant G.  Meeiis. 

FIG.  52. 

We  find  therefore  that  in  most  modern  designs  the  tops  of 
casemates  are  left  uncovered,  or  with  only  a  few  inches  of  earth 
over  them,  in  which  grass  may  be  grown  for  concealment. 

For  the  materials  of  casemates  and  revetment  walls  exposed 
to  fire,  concrete  (q.v.)  has  entirely  replaced  masonry  and  brick- 
work, not  because  of  its  convenience  in  construction,  but  because 
it  offers  the  best  resistance.  The  exact  composition  of  the 
concrete  is  a  matter  that  demands  great  care  and  knowledge. 
It  should  be,  like  an  armour  plate,  hard  on  the  surface  and  tough 
within.  The  great  thickness  of  10  ft.  of  concrete  for  casemate 
arches,  very  generally  prescribed  on  the  continent  in  important 
positions,  is  meant  to  meet  the  danger  of  several  successive 
shells  striking  the  same  spot.  To  stop  a  single  shell  of  any  siege 
calibre  in  use  at  present,  5  ft.  of  good  concrete  would  be  enough. 
A  good  deal  is  expected  from  the  use  of  "  reinforced  concrete 
(that  is  concrete  strengthened  by  steel)  both  for  revetment 
walls  and  casemates. 

Parapets  are  frequently  made  continuous  or  glacis-wise,  that 
is  the  superior  slope  is  prolonged  to  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  so 
Parapets.  tnat  tne  whole  rampart  can  be  swept  by  the  fire  of  the 
defenders  from  the  crest,  and  there  is  no  dead  ground 
in  front  of  it.  It  is  also  common  to  build  the  crest  of  the  parapet 
in  solid  concrete,  with  sometimes  a  concrete  banquette,  so  that 
bombardment  shall  not  destroy  the  line  the  defenders  have  to 


Section  on  AB. 


From  General  Rocchi's  Traccii  per  lo  studio  della  Icrtificazione,  by  permission. 

FIG.  53. 

fence,  and  by  entanglements  or  thorn  plantations  on  the  covered 
way  and  the  lower  slopes  of  the  parapet.  Entanglements  are 
attached  to  steel  posts  bedded  in  concrete.  The  upper  parts  of 
revetments  and  the  foundations  of  walls  are  protected  against 
the  action  of  shells,  that  falling  steeply  might  act  as  mines  to 
overturn  them,  by  thick  aprons  of  large  stones.  Fig.  54  shows 
most  of  these  dispositions. 

Electric  search-lights  are  now  used  in  all  important  works 
and  batteries.  They  are  usually  placed  in  disappearing  cupolas. 
They  are  of  great  value  for  discovering  working  parties  g^,^. 
at  night,  and  lighting  up  the  foreground  during  an  KghtSi 
attack;  and  since  only  the  projector  need  be  exposed, 
they  are  not  very  vulnerable.  Their  value,  however,  must  not 
be  over-estimated.  The  most  powerful  search-light  can  in  no 
way  compare  with  daylight  as  an  illuminant,  and,  like  all  other 
mechanical  contrivances,  they  have  certain  marked  drawbacks 
in  war.  They  may  give  rise  to  a  false  confidence;  an  important 
light  may  fail  at  a  critical  moment;  and  in  foggy  weather  they 
are  useless. 

The  use  of  armour  (see  also  ARMOUR-PLATES)  for  coast  batteries 
followed  closely  upon  its  employment  for  ships,  for  those  were 
the  days  of  short  ranges  and  close  fighting,  and  it  seemed 
natural  not  to  leave  the  battery  in  a  position  of  inferiority  to 


MODERN] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


703 


From  Deguise's  La  Fortification  pcrmanenle,  by  permission  of  J.  Polleunis. 


FIG.  54. 


the  ship  in  the  matter  of  protection.  In  England  the  coast  battery 
for  a  generation  after  the  Crimean  War  was  a  combination  of 
masonry  and  iron;  and  in  1860  Brialmont  employed 
armoured  turrets  at  Antwerp  in  the  forts  which 
commanded  the  Scheldt.  For  land  defence  purposes,  however, 
engineers  were  very  slow  to  adopt  armour.  Apart  from  all 
questions  of  difficulty  of  manufacture,  expense,  &c.,  the  idea  was 
that  sea  and  land  fronts  were  radically  different.  It  was  pointed 
out  that  a  ship  gun,  fired  from  an  unsteady  platform,  had  not 
enough  accuracy  to  strike  repeated  blows  on  the  same  spot; 
so  that  a  shield  which  was  strong  enough  to  resist  a  single  shot 
would  give  complete  protection.  A  battery  on  a  land  front,  on 
the  other  hand,  was  exposed  to  an  accurate  fire  from  guns  which 
could  strike  successive  blows  on  the  same  spot,  and  break  down 
the  resistance  of  the  strongest  shield.  But  in  time  continental 
opinion  gradually  began  to  turn  in  favour  of  iron  protection. 
Practical  types  of  disappearing  and  revolving  cupolas  were 
produced,  and  many  engineers  were  influenced  in  their  favour 
by  the  effect  of  the  big  high-explosive  shell.  Eventually  it  was 
argued  that,  after  all,  the  object  of  fortification  is  not  to  obtain  a 
resisting  power  without  limit,  but  to  put  the  men  and  guns  of  a 
work  in  an  advantageous  position  to  defend  themselves  as  long 
as  possible  against  a  superior  force;  and  that  from  this  point  of 
view  armour  cannot  but  add  strength  to  defensive  works. 

The  question  has  of  course  long  passed  beyond  the  stage  of 
theory.  Practically  every  European  state  uses  iron  or  steel 
casemates  and  cupolas.  German,  Danish,  Italian  and  other 
types  of  forts  so  armed  have  been  shown.  Recent  French  types 
have  not  been  published,  but  it  is  known  that  cupolas  are 
employed;  and  Velichko,  the  Russian  authority,  long  an 
uncompromising  opponent  of  armour,  in  the  end  changed  his 
views.  These  countries  have  had  to  proceed  gradually,  by 
improving  existing  fortresses,  and  with  such  resources  as  could 
be  spared  from  the  needs  of  the  active  armies.  Among  the 
smaller  states  Rumania  and  Belgium  have  entered  most  freely 
into  the  new  way.  In  England,  which  is  less  directly  interested, 
opinion  has  been  led  by  Sir  George  Clarke,  since  the  publication 
in  1890  of  his  well-known  book  on  fortification.  Having  witnessed 
officially  the  experiments  at  Bucharest  in  1885  with  a  St  Chamond 
turret  and  a  Gruson  cupola,  he  expressed  himself  very  strongly 
against  the  whole  system.  Besides  pointing  out  very  clearly 
the  theoretical  objections  to  it,  and  the  weak  points  of  the  con- 


structions under  experiment,  he  added:  "  The  cost  of  the  French 
turret  was  about  £10,000  exclusive  of  its  armament,  and  for 
this  sum  about  six  movable  overbank  guns  of  greater  power 
could  be  provided."  In  view  of  the  weight  that  belongs  of  right 
to  his  criticisms  it  is  as  well  to  point  out  that  while  this  remark 
is  quite  true,  yet  the  six  guns  would  require  also  six  gun  detach- 
ments, with  arrangements  for  supply,  &c.;  a  consideration 
which  alters  the  working  of  this  apparently  elementary  sum. 
The  whole  object  of  protection  is  to  enable  a  few  men  and  guns 
successfully  to  oppose  a  larger  number. 

At  the  time  when  Sir  George  Clarke's  first  edition  came  out, 
such  extravagances  were  before  the  public  as  Mougin's  fort;  "a 
mastless  turret  ship,"  as  he  called  it,  "  buried  up  to  the  deck-level 
in  the  ground  and  manned  by  mechanics."  Such  ideas  tended  to 
throw  discredit  on  the  more  reasonable  use  of  armour,  but  whether 
the  system  be  right  or  wrong,  it  exists  now  and  has  to  be  taken 
account  of.  Nowhere  has  it  been  applied  more  boldly  than  in 
Rumania.  The  defences  of  Bucharest  (designed  by  Brialmont) 
consist  of  18  main  and  18  small  forts,  with  intermediate  batteries. 
The  main  forts  are  some  4500  yds.  apart,  and  11,000  to  12,000  yds. 
from  the  centre  of  the  place.  The  typical  armament  of  a  main  fort 
is  six  6-in.  guns  in  three  cupolas  (one  for  indirect  fire),  two  8-4-in. 
howitzers  in  cupolas,  one  4'7-in.  howitzer  in  a  cupola,  six  small 
Q.F.  guns  in  disappearing  cupolas.  The  total  armament  of  the  place 
(all  protected)  is  eighty-six  6-in.  guns,  seventy-four  8-4-in.  howitzers, 
eighteen  4-7-in.  howitzers,  127  small  calibre  Q.F.  guns  in  disappear- 
ing cupolas,  476  small  calibre  Q.F.  guns  in  casemates  for  flanking 
the  ditches.  The  "  Sereth  Line  "  will  be  described  later. 

Different  Forms  of  Protection:  Casemate,  Cupola,  &c. — The 
broad  difference  between  casemates  or  shielded  batteries  and 
turrets  and  cupolas  is  that  the  former  are  fixed  while  the  latter 
revolve  and  in  some  cases  disappear.  The  casemate  thus  has 
the  disadvantages  that  the  arc  of  fire  of  the  gun,  which  has  to 
fire  through  a  fixed  embrasure  or  port-hole,  is  very  limited,  and 
that  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  and  the  port-hole,  the  weak  points 
of  the  system,  are  constantly  exposed  to  the  fire  of  the  enemy. 
The  advantage  of  the  casemate  lies  in  its  comparative  cheapness 
and  the  greater  strength  of  a  fixed  structure.  It  is  well  suited 
for  barrier  forts  (fig.  53)  and  other  analogous  positions;  and  the 
Italians  amongst  other  nations  have  so  employed  it  at  such 
places  as  the  end  of  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel.  Steel  and  iron  case- 
mates are  also  useful  as  caponiers  for  ditch  flanking  (fig.  55). 

Turrets  and  Cupolas. — The  difference  between  a  turret  and  a 
cupola  is  that  the  former  is  cylindrical  with  a  flat  or  nearly  flat 
top  and  presents  a  vertical  target;  while  the  latter  is  a  flattened 


From  Leithner's  Btsldndige  Befcsligung,  by  permission. 


FIG.  55. 


7°4 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[MODERN 


dome,  the  vertical  supports  of  which  are  entirely  concealed.  The 
turret  appears  to  be  little  used.  The  object  of  both  forms  is  at 
once  to  give  an  all-round  arc  of  fire  to  the  guns  and  to  allow  of 
the  weak  point  of  the  structure,  the  port-hole  and  muzzle  of 
the  gun,  being  turned  away  from  the  enemy  in  the  intervals  of 
firing.  Both  usually  emerge  from  a  mass  of  concrete,  which  is 
strengthened  round  the  opening  by  a  collar  of  chilled  cast  iron 
about  12  to  15  in.  thick. 

There  are  four  types  of  cupolas,  viz.  (a)  Disappearing,  (6)  Oscillat- 
ing, (c)  Central  pivot,  (d)  On  roller  rings. 

(a)  Disappearing  cupolas  are  used  chiefly  for  small  quick-firing 
guns,  on  account  of  the  expense  of  the  various  systems.  They  can 
c  .  be  used  for  medium  guns.  The  details  of  the  best  foreign 
systems  are  secret,  (ft)  The  oscillating  turret  is  a  Mougin 
type,  in  which  the  turret  is  supported  in  the  centre  by  a  knife-edge 
on  which  it  can  swing.  The  oscillation  is  controlled  by  powerful 
springs.  The  effect  of  it  is  that  after  firing,  the  front  of  the  cupola 
with  the  port-hole  swings  downwards  under  cover,  and  is  held  there 
until  the  gun  is  ready  to  fire  again,  (c)  Schumann's  centre  pivot  is 
understood  to  be  approved  in  Germany.  It  has  been  adopted  in 
Rumania  and  Belgium  for  howitzer  cupolas.  It  is  only  suitable  for 
a  single  piece;  d  is  strong  and  steady — the  best  cupola  for  coast 
batteries ;  c  and  d  are  best  for  rapid  fire  because  they  can  be  loaded 
without  lowering.  They  are  suited  for  long  guns. 

The  following  types  are  illustrated  as  being  generally  representative 
of  the  different  classes  of  cupola. 

Fig.  56  is  a  section  of  Messrs  Krupp's  typical  cupola  for  one  6-in. 
gun.  The  shield  is  of  nickel  steel,  the  collar  of  cast  steel.  A  small 
space  is  left  between  the  cupola  and  its  collar  to  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  the  shield  jamming  after  being  damaged.  The  guns  are 
muzzle-pivoting  and  thickened  out  near  the  muzzle  by  the  addition 
of  a  ring,  so  as  to  close  the  port  as  much  as  possible.  The  recoil  is 
controlled  within  narrow  limits  both  to  economize  space  and  to 
prevent  the  smoke  from  the  muzzle  from  getting  into  the  cupola. 
To  facilitate  the  elevation  and  depression  of  the  gun  (with  muzzle 
pivotings  the  breech  has  of  course  to  be  moved  through  a  much  larger 
arc  than  with  ordinary  mountings)  it  is  balanced  by  a  counterweight. 
The  cupola  rests  on  a  roller  ring  and  is  traversed  by  a  winch.  It  can 
be  turned  through  a  complete  circle  in  about  one  minute. 


Fig-  59  shows  a  disappearing  turret  for  an  electric  light  projector. 

Fig.  60  shows  a  Krupp  transportable  cupola  for  a  5'7-cm.  gun. 
This  is  drawn  on  a  four-wheeled  carriage,  and  when  coming  into 
action  slides  on  rollers  on  to  a  platform  in  the  parapet.  It  weighs 
about  2$  tons,  and  with  carriage  and  platform  about  4  tons. 


FIG.  56. — Cupola  for  6-in.  gun  (Friedr.  Krupp  A.G.). 


Fig.  57  shows  a  Schumann  shielded  mortar  (sphere-mortar, 
Kueelmorser).  In  this  case  it  will  be  observed  that  the  cupola  is 
replaced  by  an  enlargement  of  the  encircling  collar;  and  the  mortar 
(8-4-in.  calibre)  is  enclosed  in  a  sphere  of  cast  iron,  so  as  to  close 
completely  the  opening  of  the  collar  in  any  position. 

Fig.  58  shows  a  Gruson  cupola  for  one  4>7-in.  Q.F.  howitzer. 


From  Leithner's  Besliindigc  Brlestigung. 

FIG.  57. — Gruson  Spherical  Mortar. 

The  mechanism  of  these  cupolas  is  for  the  most  part  simpler  than 
it  appears.  Counterweights  and  hand  winches  are  much  in  use  for 
the  lighter  natures  of  guns.  The  armouring  of  course  keeps  pace 
with  improvements  in  manufacture.  The  chilled  cast  iron  first 
made  popular  by  the  Gruson  firm  is  now  little  used  except  for  such 
purposes  as  the  collar  round  a  cupola.  Wrought  iron,  steel  and 
compound  plates  for  the  tops  of  cupolas  have  all  been  tried,  the  most 
recent  Krupp-Gruson  designs  being  of  nickel  steel. 

The  sighting  in  some  cases  may  be  done  by  sights  on  the  gun,  with 
suitable  enlargements  in  the  port-hole; 
in  others  by  sights  affixed  to  the  cupola 
itself  (which  of  course  can  give  horizontal 
direction  only);  in  others  training  and 
elevation  are  given  in  accordance  with 
the  readings  on  electric  dials,  or  instruc- 
tions by  telephone  or  speaking  tube. 
There  is  of  course  nothing  unreasonable 
in  this  in  the  case  of  indirect  fire  guns 
and  howitzers,  for  if  not  firing  from 
cupolas  they  would  be  behind  the  shelter 
of  some  wood  or  quarry. 

Schumann's  System:  "Armoured 
Fronts. "  —  Lieut.  -  Colonel  Maximilian 
Schumann  (1827-1889)  of  the  Prussian 
engineers,  who  took  a  very  prominent 
part  in  the  design  and  advocacy  of 
armoured  defences,  eventually  produced 
a  system  which  dispensed  entirely  with 
forts  and  relied  on  the  fire  of  protected 
guns.  It  consists  of  several  lines  of  bat- 
teries for  Q.F.  guns  and  howitzers  in 
cupolas.  He  considered  that  such  bat- 
teries would  be  able  to  defend  their  own 
front,  and  the  infantry  garrison  was  not 
to  be  called  into  action  except  in  the 
case  of  the  enemy  breaking  through  at 
some  point  of  the  line. 

This  system  was  actually  adopted  by 
Rumania  (1889-1892)  for  the  Sereth  Line. 
There  are  three  routes  by  which  the 
Russians  can  enter  the  country  across 
the  Sereth  river:  through  Focshani, 
Nemolassa  and  Galatz.  These  three 
routes  are  barred  by  bridge-heads,  those 
at  Focshani,  the  most  important,  being 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Milkov,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Sereth. 

The    Focshani    works    consist    of    71 


batteries  arranged  on  a  semicircular  front  about  12  m.  long  and 
from  8000  to  10,000  yds.  in  advance  of  the  bridges.  The  batteries 
are  placed  in  three  lines,  which  are  about  500  yds.  apart,  and  are 
subdivided  into  groups.  The  normal  group  consists  of  5  batteries, 
of  which  3  are  in  the  first  line,  i  in  the  second,  and  I  in  the  third. 
The  first-line  batteries  each  contain  five  small  Q.F.  guns  in  travelling 


MODERN] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


705 


cupolas.  The  second-line  batteries,  each  six  small  Q.F.  guns  in  dis- 
appearing cupolas.  The  third-line  batteries  have  one  I2o-mm.  gun 
in  a  cupola,  and  two  2io-mm.  spherical  mortars  with  Gruson  shields. 
The  immediate  defence  of  the  batteries  consists  of  a  glacis  planted 
with  thorn  bushes  and  a  wire  entanglement. 

The  fortification  of  these  three  bridge-heads  are  said  to  have  cost 
about  £1,100,000.  But  the  system  of  "  armoured  fronts  "  is  never 
likely  to  be  reproduced,  having  been  condemned  by  all  authoritative 
continental  opinion.  Its  defects  have  been  summarized  by  Schroeter 
as  follows:  weakness  of  artillery  at  long  ranges,  want  of  security 
against  a  surprise  rush,  the  neglect  of  the  use  of  infantry  in  the 
defence,  and  the  difficulty  of  command.  This  last  is  the  most 


I 

1 


&mV"A& 

Wx&£ 


H|I 

£>;••,»'-  i-.:.*.o..'. 


fe^^S^:: 

From  Leithner's  Besliindige  Bclestigung. 

FIG.  58. — Cupola  for  4>7-in.  Howitzer. 

serious  of  all.  It  is  indeed  difficult  to  conceive  that  any  one  should 
expect  half-a-dozen  expert  gunners,  each  shut  up  in  an  iron  box  with 
a  gun,  to  stop  the  rush  of  a  thousand  men,  even  by  day.  But 
imagine  the  feelings  of  the  gunner  on  the  night  of  a  big  attack,  alone 
in  his  box,  his  nerves  already  strained  by  a  preliminary  bombardment 
and  nights  of  watching.  He  hears  the  sounds  of  battle  all  around ; 
he  knows  nothing  of  the  progress  of  the  attack,  but  expects  every- 
thing, and  feels  every  moment  the  door  of  his  box  being  opened  and 
the  bayonet  entering  his  back.  No  wise  commander  would  submit 
his  troops  to  such  a  test. 

Sir  George  Clarke  and  Unarmoured  Systems. — Before  leaving 
the  subject  of  fortresses  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  ideas  of 
those  who,  while  recognizing  the  necessity  for  places  permanently 
organized  for  defence,  prefer  to  treat  them  more  from  the  point 
of  view  of  perfected  field  defences.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  English 
military  science  that  Sir  George  Clarke  may  be  taken  as  the 
representative  of  this  school  of  thought.  His  study  of  fortifica- 
tion, as  he  tells  us,  began  with  a  history  of  the  defence  of  Plevna 
(q.v.).  He  was  led  to  compare  the  resistance  made  behind 
extemporized  defences  at  such  places  as  Sevastopol,  Kars  and 
Plevna,  with  those  at  other  places  fortified  in  the  most  complete 
manner  known  to  science.  From  this  comparison  he  drew  the 
conclusion  that  the  true  strength  of  fortification  does  not  depend 
on  great  masonry  works  intricately  pieced  together  at  vast 
expense,  but  on  organization,  communications  and  invisibility. 
In  his  1907  edition  he  says: — 

"  Future  defences  will  divide  themselves  naturally  into  the 
following  categories:  (i)  Permanent  works  wholly  constructed  in 
peace  time  and  forming  the  key  points 
of  the  position.  (2)  Gun  emplacements, 
magazines  and  shelters  for  men  in  rear 
of  the  main  line,  all  concrete  struc- 
tures and  platforms  to  be  completed, 
though  some  earthwork  may  be  left 
until  the  position  is  placed  in  a  state 
of  defence.  (3)  Field  works,  trenches, 
&c.,  guarding  the  intervals  between 
the  permanent  defences  in  the  main 
line,  or  providing  rear  positions. 
These  should  be  deliberately  planned 
in. time  of  peace  ready  to  be  put  in 
hand  at  short  notice.  The  essence  of 
a  well-fortified  position  is  that  the 
weapons  of  the  defender  shall  obtain 
the  utmost  possible  scope  of  action, 
x.  23 


and  that  those  of  the  attacker  shall  have  the  minimum  chances  of 
effecting  injury." 

Since  Sir  George  Clarke  published  his  first  edition  in  1890  conti- 
nental ideas  have  expanded  a  good  deal.  The  foregoing  statement 

as  to  the  three  categories  of  defences  would  be  accepted 

,°      ,.~  . 

anywhere  now:  the  differences  of  opinion  come  in 

when  we  reach  the  stage  of  classifying  under  the  first 
head  the  permanent  works  to  be  constructed  in  peace  time. 
In  most  countries  these  would  include  forts  with  guns  for  the 
artillery  duel,  forts  with  safety  armaments,  fixed  batteries  with 
or  without  armour,  and  forts  for  infantry  only.  Sir  George 


Infantry 


Drawn  from  illustration  in  Leithner's  Bestondigf  Befesligttng,  by  permission. 

FIG.  59. — Disappearing  Turret  for  Searchlight. 

Clarke  will  have  no  armour  for  guns  except  in  certain  special 
cases  of  barrier  forts.  Heavy  guns  and  howitzers  requiring 
permanent  emplacements  (concrete  platforms,  &c.)  must  either 
be  well  concealed  or  be  provided  with  alternative  positions. 
The  only  permanent  works  which  he  admits  are  for  infantry. 
They  are  redoubts  of  simple  form  intended  for  350  or  40x5  men, 
with  casemate  accommodation  for  three-fourths  of  that  number. 
Fig.  6 1  shows  the  design: — two  rows  of  casemates,  one  under 
the  front  parapet,  one  under  a  parados;  frontal  musketry 
defence;  obstacle  consisting  of  entanglements,  mines,  &c., 
with  or  without  escarp  and  counterscarp. 

"  The  intervals  (he  says)  between  the  infantry  redoubts  may  be 
about  2500  yds.;  but  this  will  necessarily  depend  upon  the  con- 
formation of  the  ground.  Where  there  are  good  artillery  positions 
falling  within  the  sphere  of  protection  of  the  redoubts,  large  intervals 
will  be  peimissible.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  an  extended  line  of  defence 
where  the  ground  offers  marked  tactical  features,  the  idea  of  a 
continuous  chain  of  permanent  works  may  be  abandoned  in  favour 


\ 


FIG.  60. — Transportable  Cupola  for  5-7-cm.  Gun  (Friedr.  Krupp  A.G.). 


706 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[MODERN 


From  Sir  George  S.  Clarke's  Fortification,  by  permission  of  John  Murray. 


FIG.  61. 


of  groups  of  redoubts  guarding  the  artillery  positions.  In  this  case, 
the  redoubts  in  a  group  might  be  distributed  on  a  curve  bent  back 
in  approximately  horse-shoe  form." 

The  keystones  of  the  close  defence  of  the  fighting  line  in 
future  will  undoubtedly  be  these  infantry  redoubts,  and  therefore 
it  is  of  great  interest  to  compare  with  the  above  types  two 
studies  put  forward  by  Schroeter  (Die  Festung  in  der  heuligen 
Kriegfiihrung) ,  one  in  his  first  edition  in  1898  (fig.  62),  and  the 
other  in  the  second  in  1905  (fig.  63).  In  both  these  the  defensive 
arrangements  are  merely  trenches  of  field  profile  with  entangle- 
ments, the  command  and  the  obstacle  being  less  than  in  Sir 
George  Clarke's  work;  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  1905 
type,  published  after  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  the  plan  is  much 

M 


M 


..6S6' 


aa. Shelters  for  120  men  each 

6'   Latrine 

cc.  Sentry  posts 

d.   Washplace 

ct.  Sentry  posts  for  Entanglement 

(splinter-proofl 
From  Schroeter's  Die  Festung  in  der  heuligen  Kriegjuhrung,  by  permission  of  E.  S.  Miuler  u.  Sohn. 

FIG.  62. 


less  simple  and  arrangements  for  close  flanking  defence  have  been 
introduced.  But  these  works  of  Schroeter's  are  merely  infantry 
supporting  points  in  a  line  which  contains  forts  of  the  triangular 
type  with  guns,  and  armoured  batteries,  as  well  as  a  very  com- 
plete arrangement  of  field  defences  and  communications;  while 
Sir  G.  Clarke's  redoubts  are  the  only  permanent  works  giving 
casemate  protection  in  the  front  line. 

The  comparative  merits  of  either  design  for  an  infantry 
redoubt  are  not  of  much  importance.  It  is  agreed  that  the 
main  line  of  defence  must  consist  of  a  more  or  less  continuous 
line  of  field  defences  and  obstacles,  and  that  at  some  points 
in  the  line  there  should  be  infantry  supporting  points  with 
bomb-proof  protection  capable  of  resisting  big  shells.  The 
open  question  is,  what  additional 
works,  if  any,  are  required  for  the 
artillery,  whether  for  the  medium 
and  heavy  guns  that  will  take  part 
in  the  "  artillery  duel,"  or  for  the 
lighter  natures  that  will  help  in 
the  close  fight  and  defence  of  the 
intervals.  Is  it  best  for  the  defenders 
to  rely  on  armoured  protection  or  on 
concealment  for  his  guns? 

Official  opinion  outside  England  has 
certainly  sanctioned  armour,  since  all 
over  the  continent  it  is  to  o__osto_ 
some    extent    adopted    in  views  an 
practice.  National  practice  *°  armour, 
is  usually  based  on  the  advice  *""  pos'- 

,  i.   ..         •  ,      i    tiuns,  &L. 

of  the  most  distinguished 
officers  of  the  day,  and  therefore  it  is 
unsafe  to  condemn  it  hastily.  Sir 
George  Clarke  and  those  who  are  with 
him — and  they  are  many, bothinGreat 
Britain  and  abroad — object  entirely 
to  armour.  He  says  (Fortification,  ed. 
1907,  p.  96):  "The  great  advantage 
possessed  by  the  attack  in  all  ages 
has  been  the  employment  of  a  mobile 
artillery  against  armaments  cribbed, 
cabined  and  confined  by  fortification. 
It  is  necessary  to  perpetuate  this  ad- 
vantage?" Of  course  the  effect  of 
long-range  weapons,  in  increasing  the 
length  of  front  that  can  be  held  by 
a  given  force,  has  given  much  greater 


*">       *8  |  IL'NlU,li,  ijTTT 


so  yds 


ATTACK] 


FORTIFICATION    AND    SIEGECRAFT 


707 


aa-...Sheitenfor  120  men  each 


for  defence  of  gorges 
ftd....,Ditch  defence 
etc... ..Sentry  posti 


Scale  of  Yards  for  Section  AB. 

10  20  30  40 


Section  on  CD.     Scale  of  Yards fo  ScctionsCD.  EF     Section  on  EF, 


From  Schroeter's  Die  Feslung  in  der  hculigen  Kriegluhrung,  by  permission  of  E.  S.  Mittler  u.  Sohn. 

FIG.  63. 


freedom  of  action  to  the  defence  and  this  should  be  taken  full 
advantage  of. 

The  argument  as  to  the  vulnerability  of  shielded  guns  is 
not  at  present  strong.  Sir  George  says  (ib.  p.  94),  "  If  the  high 
angle  fire  ...  is  ever  to  find  a  favourable  opportunity,  it  will 
surely  be  against  a  cupola,  the  site  of  which  can  generally  be 
determined  with  accuracy."  On  the  other  hand  he  says  (p.  90), 
"  During  the  long  and  costly  experiments  carried  on  at  Bucharest 
in  1885-1886,  164  rounds  were  fired  from  the  Krupp  21  cm. 
mortar  at  targets  of  about  40  sq.  metres  area  "  (about  430  sq.  ft.) 
"  without  obtaining  a  single  hit.  The  range  was  2700  yds.;  the 
targets  were  towers  built  upon  a  level  plain;  the  shooting 
conditions  were  ideal,  and  the  fall  of  each  shell  was  telephoned 
back  to  the  firing  point;  but  it  must  have  been  evident  to  the 
least  instructed  observer  that  to  attempt  to  group  6  or  8  shells 
on  an  invisible  area  2  metres  square  would  have  been  absolutely 
futile."  These  facts  are  adduced  to  prove  that  it  is  not  necessary 
to  give  great  thickness  to  concrete  casemates,  to  resist  successive 
bursts  of  shells  in  the  same  place;  but  surely  they  are  equally 
applicable  to  cupolas.  Again  (p.  252),  "  The  experience  gained 
at  Port  Arthur  was  not  altogether  encouraging  as  regards  the 
use  of  high  angle  fire.  The  Russian  vessels  in  the  harbour  were 
sunk  by  opening  their  sea-valves.  ...  Fire  was  subsequently 
directed  upon  them  from  u  in.  howitzers  at  ranges  up  to  about 
7500  yds.  This  was  deliberate  practice  from  siege  batteries  at 
stationary  targets;  but  the  effect  was  distinctly  disappointing." 
The  cupolas  therefore  can  hardly  be  considered  ideal  targets: 
and  the  probability  is  that  they  would  hold  their  own  against 
both  direct  and  indirect  fire  for  a  long  time.  There  are  other 


and  stronger  arguments  against  the 
general  use  of  them,  all  of  which  are 
clearly  set  forth  by  Sir  George  Clarke. 

The  worst  objections  to  the  cupola 
are  the  military  disadvantages  of 
isolation  and  immobility,  and  the 
multiplication  of  mechanical  arrange- 
ments. For  a  successful  round  from 
a  disappearing  cupola,  the  elevating 
and  traversing  arrangements,  the 
elevating  and  loading  gear  of  the 
gun,  and  the  telephone  communica- 
tion, must  all  be  in  good  order.  At 
night  the  successful  co-operation  of 
the  searchlight  is  also  in  many  cases 
necessary. 

The  teaching  of  history  is  all  against 
immobile  mechanical  defences.  Initi- 
ative, surprise,  unforeseen  offensive 
action,  keeping  the  besieger  in  ignor- 
ance of  the  dispositions  of  the 
garrison,  and  of  what  progress  he  is 
making:  all  these,  with  their  influ- 
ence on  the  morale  of  both  sides,  tend 
towards  successful  defences  and  do 
not  point  towards  the  use  of  armour. 

It  may  further  be  said  that  the 
use  of  armour  as  a  general  rule  is  un- 
necessary, because  a  concealed  battery 
is  a  protected  one;  and  with  the  long 
ranges  now  usual  for  heavy  guns  and 
howitzers, there  is  not  generally  much 
difficulty  about  concealment. 

In  the  opinion,  however,  of  the 
present  writer  an  exception  must  be 
made  for  guns  intended  to  flank  the 
line  of  defence,  which  would  generally 
need  bomb-proof  over-head  cover. 
Further,  when  we  leave  theory  and 
come  to  the  consideration  of  actual 
problems  of  defence,  it  will  often  be 
found  that  it  is  necessary  to  place  guns 
in  certain  positions  where  good  con- 
In  such  cases  some  form  of  protection 


cealment  cannot  be  got. 

must  be  given  if  the  guns  are  to  engage  the  concealed  batteries  of 

the  attack. 

III.  THE  ATTACK  or  FORTRESSES 

In  considering  the  history  of  siegccraft  since  the  introduction 
of  gunpowder,  there  are  three  main  lines  of  development  to 
follow,  viz.  the  gradually  increasing  power  of  artillery,  the 
systematizing  of  the  works  of  attack,  and  in  recent  times 
the  change  that  has  been  brought  about  by  the  effect  of  modern 
small-arm  fire. 

Cannon  appear  to  have  been  first  used  in  sieges  as  mortars, 
to  destroy  hoardings  by  throwing  round  stones  and  barrels  of 
burning  composition.  Early  in  the  1 5th  century  we  find  cannon 
throwing  metal  balls,  not  only  against  hoarding  and  battlements, 
but  also  to  breach  the  bases  of  the  walls.  It  was  only  possible 
to  work  the  guns  very  slowly,  and  archers  or  crossbowmen  were 
needed  in  support  of  them,  to  drive  the  defenders  from  the 
crenellations  or  loopholes  of  the  battlements.  At  that  period 
the  artillery  was  used  in  place  of  the  medieval  siege  engines  and 
in  much  the  same  manner.  The  guns  of  the  defence  were  in- 
accurate, and  being  placed  high  on  the  walls  were  made  ineffective 
by  bad  mountings,  which  did  not  allow  of  proper  depression. 
The  besieger  therefore  could  place  his  guns  close  to  the  walls, 
with  only  the  protection  of  a  few  large  gabions  filled  with  earth, 
set  up  on  the  ground  on  either  side  of  the  muzzle. 

In  the  course  of  the  isth  century  the  power  of  artillery  was 
largely  increased,  so  that  walls  and  gates  were  destroyed  by  it 
in  an  astonishingly  short  time.  Three  results  shortly  followed. 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


Statecraft 

before 

Vauban. 


708 

The  guns  of  the  defence  having  gained  equally  in  effectiveness, 
greater  protection  was  needed  for  the  attack  batteries;  bastions 
and  outworks  were  introduced  to  keep  the  besieger  at  a  distance 
from  the  inner  walls;  and  the  walls  were  sunk  in  ditches  so  that 
they  could  only  be  breached  by  batteries  placed  on  the  edge 
of  the  glacis. 

Early  in  the  i6th  century  fortresses  were  being  rapidly  re- 
modelled on  these  lines,  and  the  difficulties  of  the  attack  were  at 
once  very  much  increased.  The  tendency  of  the  assailants  was 
still  to  make  for  the  curtain,  which  had  always  been  considered 
the  weak  point;  but  the  besiegers  now  found  that  they  had  to 
bring  their  guns  right  up  to  the  edge  of  the  ditch  before  they  could 
make  a  breach,  and  in  doing  so  had  to  pass  over  ground  which  was 
covered  by  the  converging  fire  from  the  faces  of  the  bastions. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  century  the  attack  of  the  curtain  was 
delayed  and  the  cross-fire  over  the  ground  in  front  increased  by 
the  introduction  of  ravelins. 

The  slight  gabion  protection  for  the  siege  batteries  was  at 
first  replaced  by  strong  timber  shelters.  These  were  found  in- 
adequate; but  a  still  greater  difficulty  was  that  of  bringing  up  the 
siege  guns  to  their  positions,  emplacing  them  and  maintaining 
communication  with  them  under  fire.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
guns  of  the  defence  until  they  could  be  overpowered  (a  slow 
process)  dominated  a  wide  belt  of  ground  in  front  of  the  fortress; 
and  unless  the  besiegers  could  find  some  means  of  maintaining 
a  strong  guard  close  to  their  batteries  these  were  liable  to  be 
destroyed  by  sorties  from  the  covered  way. 

Gradually  the  whole  problem  of  siege  work  centred  round  the 
artillery.  The  besiegers  found  that  they  had  first  to  bring  up 
enough  guns  to  overpower  those  of  the  defence;  then 
to  advance  their  guns  to  positions  from  which  they 
could  breach  the  walls;  and  throughout  these  opera- 
tions to  protect  them  against  sorties.  Breaches  once 
made,  the  assault  could  follow  on  the  old  lines. 

The  natural  solution  of  the  difficulty  of  approach  to  the 
battery  positions  was  the  use  of  trenches.  The  Turks  were  the 
first  to  make  systematic  use  of  them,  having  probably  inherited 
the  idea  from  the  Eastern  Empire.  The  soldiers  of  Christendom, 
however,  strongly  disliked  digging,  and  at  first  great  leaders  like 
Bayard  and  Montluc  had  themselves  to  use  pick  and  shovel,  to 
give  their  men  an  example.  In  due  course  the  necessity  of  the 
trenches  was  recognized,  but  the  soldiers  never  took  kindly  to 
them,  and  the  difficulty  was  dealt  with  in  a  manner  reminiscent 
of  the  feudal  ages,  by  impressing  large  bodies  of  peasantry  as 
workmen  whenever  a  siege  was  in  contemplation. 

Through  the  i6th  and  most  of  the  I7th  century,  therefore, 
we  find  the  attack  being  conducted  by  means  of  trenches  leading 
to  the  batteries,  and  supported  by  redoubts  often  called  "  places 
of  arms  "  also  made  by  trench  work.  During  this  period  the 
result  of  a  siege  was  always  doubtful.  Both  trenches  and 
batteries  were  arranged  more  or  less  at  haphazard  without  any 
definite  plan;  aad  naturally  it  often  happened  that  offensive 
action  by  the  besieged  against  the  trenches  would  disorder  the 
attack  and  at  times  delay  it  indefinitely.  Fig.  64,  taken  from  a 
late  17th-century  print  by  de  Fer  of  Paris,  gives  a  good  idea  of 
the  general  practice  of  that  day  when  Vauban's  methods  were 
not  yet  generally  known. 

Another  weak  point  about  the  attack  was  that  after  the 
escarp  walls  had  been  strengthened  to  resist  artillery  fire  as  has 
been  described,  there  was  no  clear  idea  as  to  how  they  should 
be  breached.  The  usual  process  was  merely  an  indiscriminate 
pounding  from  batteries  established  on  the  crest  of  the  glacis. 
Thus  there  were  cases  of  sieges  being  abandoned  after  they  had 
been  carried  as  far  as  the  attempt  to  breach. 

It  is  in  no  way  strange  that  this  want  of  method  should  have 
characterized  the  attack  for  two  centuries  after  artillery  had 
begun  to  assert  its  power.  At  the  outset  many  new  ideas  had 
to  be  assimilated.  Guns  were  gradually  growing  in  power; 
sieges  were  conducted  under  all  sorts  of  conditions,  sometimes 
against  medieval  castles,  sometimes  against  various  and  widely- 
differing  examples  of  the  new  fortification;  and  the  military 
systems  of  the  time  were  not  favourable  to  the  evolution  of 


[ATTACK 


method.  It  is  the  special  feature  of  Vauban's  practical  genius 
for  siege  warfare  that  he  introduced  order  into  this  chaos  and 
made  the  issue  of  a  siege  ,under  normal  conditions,  a  mere  matter 
of  time,  usually  a  very  short  time. 

The  whole  of  Vauban's  teaching  and  practice  cannot  be 
condensed  into  the  limits  of  this  article,  but  special  reference 
must  be  made  to  several  points.  The  most  important  ( 

of  these  is  his  general  arrangement  of  the  attack,  teaching? 
The  ultimate  object  of  the  attack  works  was  to  make 
a  breach  for  the  assaulting  columns.  To  do  this  it  was  necessary 
to  establish  breaching  batteries  on  the  crest  of  the  glacis;  and 
before  this  could  be  done  it  was  necessary  to  overpower  the 
enemy's  artillery.  This  preliminary  operation  is  nowadays 
called  the  "  artillery  duel."  In  Vauban's  day  the  effective 
range  of  guns  was  600  to  700  yds.  He  tells  us  that  it  was  cus- 
tomary to.  establish  batteries  at  1000  yds.  from  the  place,  but 


FIG.  64. — Siege- works  of  the  I7th  century. 


that  at  that  range  they  did  little  more  than  make  a  great  deal 
of  noise.  The  first  object  of  the  attack,  therefore,  after  the 
preliminary  operations  of  investment,  &c.,  had  been  completed, 
was  to  establish  batteries  within  600  or  700  yds.  of  the  place, 
to  counter-batter  or  enfilade  all  the  faces  bearing  on  the  front 
of  attack;  and  to  protect  these  batteries  against  sorties.  After 
the  artillery  of  the  defences  had  been  subdued — if  it  could  not 
be  absolutely  silenced — it  was  necessary  to  push  trenches  to 
the  front  so  that  guns  might  be  conveyed  to  the  breaching 
positions  and  emplaced  there  in  batteries.  Throughout  these 
processes  it  was  necessary  to  protect  the  working  parties  and  the 
batteries  against  sorties. 

For  this  purpose  Vauban  devised  the  Places  d'armes  or  lignes 
paralllks.  He  tells  us  that  they  were  first  used  in  1673  at  the 
siege  of  Maestricht,  where  he  conducted  the  attack,  and  which 
was  captured  in  thirteen  days  after  the  opening  of  the  trenches. 
The  object  of  these  parallels  was  to  provide  successive  positions 
for  the  guard  of  the  trenches,  where  they  could  be  at  hand  to 
repel  sorties.  The  latter  were  most  commonly  directed  against 
the  trenches  and  batteries,  to  destroy  them  and  drive  out  the 
working  parties.  The  most  vulnerable  points  were  the  heads 
of  the  approach  trenches.  It  was  necessary,  therefore,  that  the 
guard  of  the  trenches  should  be  in  a  position  to  reach  the  heads 
of  the  approaches  more  quickly  than  the  besieged  could  do  so 
from  the  covered  way.  This  was  provided  for  as  follows. 

The  first  parallel  was  usually  established  at  about  600  yds. 
from  the  place,  this  being  considered  the  limiting  range  of  action 


ATTACK] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


709 


The 
attack. 


of  a  sortie.  The  parallel  was  a  trench  12  to  15  ft.  wide  and  3  ft. 
deep,  the  excavated  earth  being  thrown  forward  to  make  a 
parapet  3  or  4  ft.  high.  In  front  of  the  first  parallel  and  close 
to  it  were  placed  the  batteries  of  the  "  first  artillery  position." 

While  these  batteries  were  engaged  in  silencing  the  enemy's 
artillery,  for  which  purpose  most  of  them  were  placed  in  pro- 
longation of  the  faces  of  the  fortress  so  as  to  enfilade 
them,  the  "  Approach  Trenches  "  were  being  pushed 
forward.  The  normal  attack  included  a  couple  of 
bastions  and  the  ravelin  between,  with  such  faces  of  the  fortress 
as  could  support  them;  and  the  approach  trenches  (usually 
three  sets)  were  directed  on  the  capitals  of  the  bastions  and 
ravelin,  advancing  in  a  zigzag  so  arranged  that  the  prolongations 
of  the  trenches  always  fell  clear  of  the  fortress  and  could  not  be 
enfiladed. 

Fig.  65,  taken  from  Vauban's  Attack  and  Defence  of  Places, 
shows  clearly  the  arrangement  of  trenches  and  batteries. 

After  the  approach  trenches  had  been  carried  forward  nearly 
half-way  to  the  most  advanced  points  of  the  covered  way,  the 
"  second  parallel  "  was  constructed,  and  again  the  approach  trenches 
were  pushed  forward.  Midway  between  the  second  parallel  and  the 
covered  way,  short  branches  called  Demi-parallels  were  thrown  out 
to  either  flank  of  the  attacks:  and  finally  at  the  foot  of  the  glacis 
came  the  third  parallel.  Thus  there  was  always  a  secure  position 
for  a  sufficient  guard  of  the  trenches.  Upon  an  alarm  the  working 
parties  could  fall  back  and  the  guard  would  advance. 

Trenches  were  either  made  by  common  trenchwork,  flying  trench- 
work  or  sap.  In  the  first  two  a  considerable  length  of  trench  was 
excavated  at  one  time  by  a  large  working  party  extended  along  the 
trench:  flying  trenchwork  (formerly  known  as  flying  sap)  being 
distinguished  from  common  trenchwork  by  the  use  of  gabions,  by 
the  help  of  which  protection  could  be  more  quickly  obtained.  Both 
these  kinds  of  trenchwork  were  commenced  at  night,  the  position 
of  the  trench  having  been  previously  marked  out  by  tape.  The 
"  tasks  "  or  quantities  of  earth  to  be  excavated  by  each  man  were 


trench  I  ft.  6  in.  wide  and  deep.  To  protect  the  head  of  the  trench 
he  had  a  shield  on  wheels,  under  cover  of  which  he  placed  the 
gabions  in  position  one  after  another  as  the  sap-head  pro-  „ 
gressed.  Other  men  following  strengthened  the  parapet  'PP  "g. 
with  fascines,  and  increased  the  trench  to  a  depth  of  3  ft.,  and  a 
width  of  2  ft.  6  in.  to  3  ft.  Fig.  66,  taken  from  Vauban's  treatise  on 
the  attack,  shows  the  process  clearly.  The  sap  after  being  completed 
to  this  extent  could  be  widened  at  leisure  to  ordinary  trench 
dimensions  by  infantry  working  parties. 


Vuc  dc  la  Sap*     par     derricre 


FIG.  65. — Regular  Attack  (Vauban). 


so  calculated  that  by  daybreak  the  trench  would  afford  a  fair  amount 
of  cover.  Flying  trenchwork  was  generally  used  for  the  2nd  parallel 
and  its  approaches,  and  as  far  beyond  it  as  possible.  In  proportion 
as  the  attack  drew  nearer  to  the  covered  way,  the  fire  of  the  defenders' 
small-arms  and  wall-pieces  naturally  grew  more  effective,  though 
by  this  time  most  of  their  artillery  would  have  been  dismounted 
by  the  fire  of  the  siege  batteries.  It  therefore  became  necessary 
before  reaching  the  3rd  parallel  to  have  recourse  to  sap. 

Sapping  required  trained  men.  It  consisted  in  gradually  pushing 
forward  the  end  of  a  narrow  trench  in  the  desired  direction.  At  the 
sap-head  was  a  squad  of  sappers.  The  leading  man  excavated-a 


FIG.  66. — Sapping  (Vauban). 

As  the  work  at  the  sap-head  was  very  dangerous,  Vauban  encouraged 
his  sappers  by  paying  them  on  the  spot  at  piecework  rates,  which 
increased  rapidly  in  proportion  to  the  risk.  He  thus  stimulated  all 
concerned  to  do  their  best,  and  reckoned  that  under  average  con- 
ditions he  could  depend  on  a 
rate  of  progress  for  an  ordinary 
sap  of  about  50  yds.  in  24 
hours. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare 
the  more  recent  method  of 
sapping  with  that  above  de- 
scribed (fig.  67  taken  from  the 
Instruction  in  Military  Engin- 
eering, 1896).  It  is  no  longer 
possible  to  place  gabions  in 
position  at  the  sap  -  head 
under  fire.  Accordingly  the 
leading  sapper  excavates  to  the 
full  depth  of  4  ft.  6  in.,  and 
the  rate  of  progress  is  retarded 
proportionately,  so  that  an 
advance  of  only  15  to  30  yds. 
in  24  hours  can  be  reckoned 
on  instead  of  50.  The  head 
of  the  sap  is  protected  by  a 
number  of  half-filled  sandbags, 
which  the  leading  sapper 
throws  forward  as  he  goes  on. 
The  nearer  the  approaches 
drew  to  the  covered  way,  the 
more  oblique  became  the  zig- 
zags, so  that  little  forward 
progress  was  made  in  propor- 
tion to  the  length  of  the  trench. 
The  approaches  were  then 
carried  straight  to  the  front, 
by  means  of  the  "  double 
sap,"  which  consisted  of  two 
single  saps  worked  together 
with  a  parapet  on  each  side 
(fig.  68).  To  protect  these 
from  being  enfiladed  from  the 
front,  traverses  had  to  be  left 
at  intervals,  usually  by  turning  the  two  saps  at  right  angles  to  right 
or  left  for  a  few  feet,  then  forward,  and  so  on  as  shown  in  fig.  69, 
the  distance  apart  of  these  traverses  being  of  course  regulated  by 
the  height  from  which  the  enemy's  fire  commanded  the  trench. 

The  later  stages  in  the  attack  are  illustrated  in  fig.  70.  From 
the  third  parallel  the  attack  was  pushed  forward  up  the  glacis 
by  means  of  the  double  sap.  It  was  then  pushed  right  and 
left  along  the  glacis,  a  little  distance  from  the  crest  of  the 
covered  way.  This  was  called  "  crowning  "  the  covered  way, 


yio 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[ATTACK 


and  on  the  position  thus  gained  breaching  batteries  were  estab- 
lished in  full  view  of  the  escarp.  While  the  escarp  was  being 

breached,  if  it  was  intended  to  use  a  systematic  attack 
Later  throughout,  a  mine  gallery  (see  Mining  below)  was 
"the  attack,  driven  under  the  covered  way  and  an  opening  made 

through  the  counterscarp  into  the  ditch.  The  sap  was 
then  pushed  across  the  ditch,  and  if  necessary  up  the  breach,  the 
defenders'  resistance  being  kept  under  by  musketry  and  artillery 
fire  from  the  covered  way.  The  ravelin  and  bastions  were  thus 
captured  successively,  and  where  the  bastions  had  been  re- 
trenched the  same  methods  were  used  against  the  retrenchment. 
Vauban  showed  how  to  breach  the  escarp  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  ammunition.  This  was  done  by  making,  with 
successive  shots  placed  close  together  (which  was  feasible  even 
in  those  days  from  a  position  so  close  as  the  crest  of  the  covered 
way)  horizontal  and  vertical  cuts  through  the  revetment  wall. 
The  portion  of  revetment  enclosed  by  the  cuts  being  thus 
detached  from  support  was  overturned  by  the  pressure  of  the 


From  Military  Engineering,  by  permission  of  the  Controller  of  H.  M.  Stationery 
Office. 

FIG.  67. — "  Deep  "  Sap. 

earth  from  the  rampart.  Ricochet  fire  was  also  the  invention 
of  Vauban.  He  showed  how,  in  enfilading  the  face  of  a  work, 
by  using  greatly  reduced  charges  a  shot  could  be  made  to  drop 
over  the  crest  of  the  parapet  and  skim  along  the  terreplein, 
dismounting  guns  and  killing  men  as  it  went. 

The  constant  success  of  Vauban  must  be  ascribed  to  method 
and  thorough  organization.  There  was  a  deadly  certainty 
18th-  about  his  system  that  gave  rise  to  the  saying  "  Place 
century  assiegee,  place  prise."  He  left  nothing  to  chance, 
principles  and  preferred  as  a  rule  the  slow  and  certain  progress 
"'  of  saps  across  the  ditch  and  up  the  breach  to  the  loss 
and  delay  that  might  follow  an  unsuccessful  assault.  His  con- 
temporary and  nearest  rival  Coehoorn  tried  to  shorten  sieges 
by  heavy  artillery  fire  and  attacks  across  the  open;  but  in  the 
long  run  his  sieges  were  slower  than  Vauban's. 

So  much  a  matter  of  form  did  the  attack  become  under  these 
conditions,  that  in  comparing  the  supposed  defensive  powers 
of  different  systems  of  fortification  it  was  usual  to  calculate  the 
number  of  days  that  would  be  required  in  each  case  before  the 
breach  was  opened,  the  time  being  measured  by  the  number  of 
hours  of  work  required  for  the  construction  of  the  various 
trenches  and  batteries.  It  began  to  be  taken  as  a  matter  of 
course  that  no  place  under  any  circumstances  could  hold  out 
more  than  a  given  number  of  days;  and  naturally,  when  the 
whole  question  had  become  one  of  formula,  it  is  not  surprising 
to  find  that  places  were  very  often  surrendered  without  more 
than  a  perfunctory  show  of  resistance. 

The  theory  of  defence  at  this  time  appeared  to  be  that  since 
it  was  impossible  to  arrest  the  now  methodical  and  protected 
progress  of  the  besiegers'  trenches,  no  real  resistance  was  possible 
until  after  they  had  reached  the  covered  way,  and  this  idea  is 
at  the  root  of  the  extraordinary  complications  of  outworks 
and  multiplied  lines  of  ramparts  that  characterized  the  "systems" 
of  this  period.  No  doubt  if  a  successor  to  Vauban  could  have 


FIG.  68.— Double  Sap. 


brought  the  same  genius  to  bear  on  the  actual  defence  of  places 
as  he  did  en  the  attack,  he  would  have  discovered  that  the 
essence  of  successful  defence  lay  in  offensive  action  outside  the 
body  of  the  place,  viz.  with  trench  against  trench.  For  want 
of  such  a  man  the  engineers  of  the  defence  resigned  themselves 
contentedly  to  the  loss  of  the  open  ground  outside  their  walls, 
and  relied  either  upon 
successive  permanent  lines 
of  defence,  or  if  these  did 
not  exist,  upon  extem- 
porized retrenchments, 
usually  at  the  gorge  of  the  A— 3 
bastion. 

It  is  curious  that  such 
experienced  soldiers  as 
most  of  them  were  should 
not  have  realized  the  fatal 
effect  upon  the  minds  of 
the  defenders  which  this 
almost  passive  abandon- 
ment of  line  after  line 
must  needs  produce.  Even 
a  civilian — Machiavelli — 
had  seen  into  the  truth 
of  the  matter  years  before 
when  he  said  (Treatise  on 
the  Art  of  War,  Book  vii.) : 
"  And  here  I  ought  to 
give  an  advice  ...  to 
those  who  are  construct- 
ing a  fortress,  and  that 
is,  not  to  establish  within  its  circuit  fortifications  which  may 
serve  as  a  retreat  to  troops  who  have  been  driven  back  from 
the  first  line.  ...  I  maintain  that  there  is  no  greater  danger 
for  a  fortress  than  rear  fortifications  whither  troops  can  retire 
in  case  of  a  reverse;  for  once  the  soldier  knows  that  he  has  a 
secure  retreat  after  he  has  abandoned  the  first  post,  he  does 
in  fact  abandon  it  and  so  causes  the  loss  of  the  entire  fortress." 
It  must,  however,  be  remembered  that  in  those  days  when 
soldiers  were  mostly  of  a  separate  or  professional  caste,  the 
whole  thing  had  become  a  matter  of  business.  Fighting  was 
so  much  regulated  by  the  laws  and  customs  of  war  that  men 
thought  nothing  of  giving  up  a  place  if,  according  to  accepted 
opinion,  the  enemy  had  advanced  so  far  that  they  could  no 
longer  hope  to  defend  it  successfully.  Once  this  idea  had  set 
in  it  became  hopeless  to  expect  successful  defences,  save  now 
and  then  when 
some  officer  of 
very  unusual  re- 
solution was  in 
command.  This 
is  the  real  reason 
for  the  feeble  re- 
sistance so  often 
made  by  fortresses 
in  the  I7th  and 
iSth  centuries, 
which  has  been 
attributed  to  in- 
herent weakness 
in  fortifications. 


FIG.  69. — Direct  advance  by  Double  Sap. 


Custom  exacted  that  a  commandant  should  not  give  up  a  place 
until  there  was  an  open  breach  or,  perhaps,  until  he  had  stood  at 
least  one  assault.  Even  Napoleon  recognized  this  limitation 
of  the  powers  of  the  defence  when  in  the  later  years  of  his  reign 
he  was  trying  to  impress  upon  his  governors  the  importance  of 
their  charge.  The  limitation  was  perfectly  unnecessary,  for 
history  at  that  time  could  have  afforded  plenty  of  instances  of 
places  that  had  been  successfully  defended  for  many  months 
after  breaches  were  opened,  and  assault  after  assault  repulsed 
on  the  same  breach.  But  the  same  soldiers  of  the  i;th  and 
1 8th  centuries  who  had  created  this  artificial  condition  of  affairs, 


ATTACK] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


711 


established  it  by  making  it  an  understood  thing  that  a  garrison 
which  surrendered  without  giving  too  much  trouble  after  a 
breach  had  been  opened  should  have  honourable  consideration; 
while  if  they  put  the  besiegers  to  the  pains  of  storming  the  breach, 
they  were  liable  to  be  put  to  the  sword. 

It  has  been  necessary  to  dwell  at  some  length  on  the  siegecraft 
of  Vauban  and  his  time,  not  merely  for  its  historical  interest, 
but  because  the  system  he  introduced  was  practically 
unaltereci  unt;i  tne  en<j  of  tne   IQtn  century.      The 

sieges  of  the  Peninsular  War  were  conducted  on  his 
lines;  so  was  that  of  Antwerp  in  1830;  and  as  far  as  the  disposi- 
tion of  siege  trenches  was  concerned,  the  same  system  remained 
in  the  Crimea,  the  Franco-German  War  and  the  Russo-Turkish 
War.  The  sieges  in  the  Napoleonic  wars  were  few,  except  in  the 
Iberian  peninsula.  These  last  differed  from  those  of  the  Vauban 
period  and  the  i8th  century  in  this,  that  instead  of  being  deliber- 
ately undertaken  with  ample  means,  against  fortresses  that 
answered  to  the  requirements  of  the  time,  they  were  attempted 


Pealasular 


Crimea. 


FIG.  70. — Later  Stages  of  the  Attack  (Vauban). 


with  inadequate  forces  and  materials,  against  out-of-date 
works.  The  fortresses  that  Wellington  besieged  in  Spain  had 
rudimentary  outworks,  and  escarps  that  could  be  seen  and 
breached  from  a  distance.  At  that  time,  though  the  power  of 
small  arms  had  increased  very  slightly  since  the  last  century, 
there  had  been  a  distinct  improvement  in  artillery,  so  that  it 
was  possible  to  breach  a  visible  revetment  at  ranges  from  500 
to  1000  yds.  Wellington  was  very  badly  off  for  engineers, 
siege  artillery  and  material.  Trench  works  could  only  be  carried 
out  on  a  small  scale  and  slowly.  Time  being  usually  of  great 
importance,  as  in  the  first  two  sieges  of  Badajoz,  his  technical 
advisers  endeavoured  to  shorten  sieges  by  breaching  the  escarp 
from  a  distance — a  new  departure — and  launching  assaults 
from  trenches  that  had  not  reached  the  covered  way.  Under 
these  circumstances  the  direct  attacks  on  breaches  failed  several 
times,  with  great  loss  of  life.  Wellington  in  one  or  two  earlier 
despatches  reflected  on  his  engineers  for  not  establishing  their 
batteries  on  the  crest  of  the  glacis.  The  failures  are,  however, 
clearly  due  to  attempts  to  push  sieges  to  a  conclusion  without 
proper  preparation. 

So  much  has  been  written  of  late  years  in  criticism  of  the  fortifica- 
tion to  what  may  be  called  the  Vauban  period  that  it  is  important 
to  note  what  were  the  preparations  considered  necessary  for  a  siege 


at  that  time  (Journals  of  Sieges  in  Spain,  1811  to  1814).  Sir  John 
Jones  summarizes  his  own  experience  in  Spain  and  the  data  accumu- 
lated by  practical  engineers  in  former  sieges  from  the  time  of 
Vauban  onwards,  in  the  following  conclusions:  The  actual  work 
of  entrenching,  sapping,  &c.,  on  the  front  attacked  was  much  the 
same  whether  the  fortress  contained  5000  or  10,000  men.  On  the 
other  hand  the  guard  of  the  trenches  was  proportionate  to  the  fighting 
men  inside  the  fortress.  (The  total  number  of  men  had  of  course  to 
be  sufficient  to  allow  three  or  four  complete  shifts  or  "  reliefs  "  for  all 
work  and  duties.)  Adding  a  proportion  of  men  for  camp  and  other 
duties,  he  calculates,  for  the  vigorous  siege  of  an  ordinary  place 
situated  in  open  country  and  containing  5000  men,  a  corps  of  32,080 
effectives,  and  remarks  further  that  this  force  would  be  greatly 
exhausted  after  a  month's  service.  The  same  place  held  by  10,000 
would  call  for  a  besieging  army  of  50,830  men  (guards  and  duties 
increasing,  but  not  working  parties).  Thus  the  besieger  should  if 
possible  have  a  superiority  of  7  to  I  if  the  garrison  numbered  5000, 
6  to  'I  if  10,000  and  5  to  I  if  15,000  and  so  on.  As  regards  artillery, 
he  should  have  as  many,  and  if  possible  twice  as  many,  gunsas  those 
of  the  defender  on  the  front  of  attack,  as  well  as  howitzers  for  sweep- 
ing every  line  subject  to  enfilade  and  mortars  for  destroying  traverses, 
&c.  Later  in  the  siege,  more  howitzers  and  mortars  to  clear  the 

covered  way  and  places  of 
arms,  and  finally,  after  the 
covering  of  the  covered  way, 
fifty  additional  battering  guns 
would  be  required.  It  is 
apparent  from  this  that  the 
practical  engineers  of  the  day 
looked  upon  a  siege  as  a  seri- 
ous matter,  and  did  not  find 
permanent  fortifications  want- 
ing in  defensive  strength. 

During  the  long  peace  that 
followed  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  one  advance 
was  made  in  siege- 
craft.  In  England  in  1824 
successful  experiments  were 
carried  out  in  breaching  an 
unseen  wall  by  curved  or 
indirect  fire  from  howitzers. 
At  Antwerp  in  1830  the  in- 
creasing power  and  range 
of  artillery,  and  especially 
of  howitzers,  were  used  for 
bombarding  purposes,  the 
breaches  there  being  mostly 
made  by  mines.  Then  came 
one  of  the  world's  great 
sieges;  that  of  Sevastopol 
in  1854-1.855  (see  CRIMEAN 
WAR).  The  outstanding 
lesson  of  Sevastopol  is  the 
value  of  an  active  defence; 
of  going  out  to  meet  the  besieger,  with  countertrench  and 
countermine.  This  lesson  has  increased  in  value  for  us  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increased  power  of  the  rifle. 

In  comparing  the  resistance  made  behind  the  earthworks  of 
Sevastopol  with  the  recorded  defences  of  permanent  works,  it  is 
essential  to  remember  that  the  conditions  there  were  quite  abnormal. 
Sir  John  Jones  has  told  us  what  the  relative  forces  of  besiegers  and 
besieged  should  be,  and  the  necessary  preponderance  of  artillery 
for  the  attack.  The  following  quotations  may  be  added : 

"  The  siege  corps  should  be  sufficiently  strong — (l)  To  invest  the 
fortress  completely,  and  maintain  the  investment  against  all  the 
efforts  of  the  garrison.  (2)  If  a  regular  siege  is  contemplated,  to 
execute  and  guard  all  the  siege  works  required  for  it.  Complete 
investment  may  sometimes  be  impossible,  but  experience  has 
repeatedly  shown  that  the  difficulties  of  a  siege  are  enormously 
increased  if  the  garrison  are  able  to  draw  fresh  troops  and  supplies 
from  outside,  and  to  rid  themselves  of  their  sick  and  wounded  " 
(Lewis).  Again  as  regards  artillery:  "  In  a  regular  attack,  where 
every  point  is  gained  inch  by  inch,  it  is  impossible  to  succeed  without 
overpowering  the  defensive  artillery  " ;  and  "  it  is  useless  to  attempt 
to  sap  near  a  place  till  its  artillery  fire  is  subdued  .  .  .  "(Jones). 

These  conditions  were  so  far  from  being  fulfilled  at  Sevastopol 
that  (a)  there  was  no  investment — in  fact  the  Russians  came  nearer 
to  investing  the  Allies;  (6)  the  Russians  had  the  preponderance  in 
guns  almost  throughout;  (c)  the  Russian  force  in  and  about 
Sevastopol  was  numerically  superior  to  that  of  the  Allies.  We  must 
add  to  this  that  Todleben  had  been  able  to  get  rid  o\  most  of  his 


712 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[ATTACK 


civilian  population,  and  those  who  remained  were  chiefly  dockyard 
workmen,  able  to  give  most  valuable  assistance  on  the  defence  works. 
The  circumstances  were  therefore  exceptionally  favourable  to  an 
active  defence.  The  weak  point  about  the  extemporized  earthworks, 
which  eventually  led  to  the  fall  of  the  place,  was  the  want  of  good 
bomb-proof  cover  near  the  parapets. 

The  Franco-German  War  of  1870  produced  no  great  novelty. 
The  Germans  were  not  anxious  to  undertake  siege  operations 
when  it  could  be  avoided.  In  several  cases  minor 
German  fortresses  surrendered  after  a  slight  bombardment, 
n^..  In  others,  after  the  bombardment  failed,  the  Germans 

contented  themselves  with  establishing  a  blockade  or 
detaching  a  small  observing  force.  By  far  the  most  interesting 
siege  was  that  of  Belfort  (<?.».) .  Here  Colonel  Denfert-Rochereau 
employed  the  active  defence  so  successfully  by  extemporizing 
detached  redoubts  and  fortifying  outlying  villages,  that  he 
obliged  the  besiegers  (who,  however,  were  a  small  force  at  first) 
to  take  up  an  investing  line  asm.  long;  and  succeeded  in  holding 
the  village  of  Danjoutin,  2000  yds.  in  advance  of  the  enceinte, 
for  two  months  after  the  siege  began.  He  also  used  indirect  fire, 
withdrawing  guns  from  the  ramparts  and  placing  them  in  the 
ditches,  in  the  open  spaces  of  the  town,  &c.  At  Paris  the  French 
found  great  advantage  in  placing  batteries  in  inconspicuous 
positions  outside  the  forts.  Their  direct  fire  guns  were  at  a 
disadvantage  in  being  fired  through  embrasures.  These  had 
served  their  purpose  when  artillery  fire  was  very  inaccurate, 
but  had  now  for  a  long  time  been  recognized  by  the  best  engineers 
as  out  of  date.  The  Germans  since  the  siege  of  Diippel  in  1864 
had  mounted  their  siege  guns  on  "  overbank  "  carriages;  that 
is,  high  carriages  which  made  it  possible  to  fire  the  guns  over  the 
parapet  of  the  battery  without  embrasures.,'  The  guns  in  the 
Paris  forts  which  were  further  handicapped  by  conspicuous 
parapets  and  the  bad  shooting  of  the  gunners  were  easily 
silenced. 

At  Strassburg  indirect  fire  against  escarps  was  used.  The 
escarp  of  Lunette  53  was  successfully  breached  by  this  method. 
The  breaching  battery  was  870  yds.  distant,  and  the  shot  struck 
the  face  of  the  wall  at  an  angle  (horizontally)  of  55°,  the  effect 
being  observed  and  reported^from  the  counterscarp.  1000  rounds 
from  6o-pounder  guns  sufficed  to  make  a  breach  30  yds.  wide. 

Fig.  71  is  a  good  example  of  the  attack  in  the  late  stages.  It  will 
be  observed  that  batteries  for  mortars  and  field  guns  are  established  in 
the  captured  lunettes.  The  narrow  wet  ditch  of  Lunette  53  was 
crossed  by  a  dam  of  earth  and  fascines,  the  headway  protected  by  a 
parapet  or  screen  of  sandbags. 

"  Lunette  52  was  unrevetted,  and  its  ditch  was  more  than  60  yds. 
wide,  and  6  to  9  ft.  deep.  ...  It  was  determined  to  effect  the 
passage  by  a  cask  bridge,  for  which  the  casks  were  furnished  by 
breweries  near  at  hand.  .  .  .  The  formation  of  the  bridge  was  begun 
at  nightfall.  A  pioneer  swam  across,  hauled  over  a  cable,  and  made 
it  fast  to  the  hedge  on  the  berm.  Four  men  were  stationed  in  the 
water,  close  to  the  covered  way,  the  casks  were  rolled  down  to  them 
one  after  the  other,  and  fitted  with  saddles,  so  as  to  form  piers  .  .  . 
these  piers  were  successively  boomed  out  along  the  line  of  the  cable. 
...  In  two  hours  the  bridge  was  finished,  and  the  lunette  was 
entered.  .  .  .  The  work  had  not  been  discovered  by  the  besieged, 
and  the  formation  of  lodgments  inside  the  lunette  was  already  begun, 
when  the  noise  made  by  some  troops  in  passing  the  bridge  attracted 
attention,  and  drew  a  fire  which  cost  tne  besiegers  about  50  men. 
A  dam  was  afterwards  substituted  for  the  bridge,  as  it  was  repeatedly 
struck  by  shells."  (R.E.  Professional  Papers,  vol.  xix.) 

It  is  curious  to  realize  that  this  happened  at  so  recent  a  time. 
Such  operations  would  be  impossible  now,  as  long  as  any  defending 
guns  remained  in  action. 

On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that  siegecraft  gained  practically 
nothing  from  the  Franco-German  War.  The  Russo-Turkish 
war  taught  less,  Plevna  (q.v.)  having  been  defended 
.  by  field  works  and  attacked  by  the  old-fashioned 
fare.  methods.  For  the  last  ten  years  of  the  igih  century 

military  opinion  was  quite  at  a  loss  as  to  how  the 
sieges  of  the  future  would  work  out.  As  guns  and  projectiles 
continued  to  improve  the  "  attaque  brusquee  "  proposed  by  von 
Sauer  had  many  adherents.  It  was  thought  that  a  heavy 
bombardment  would  paralyse  resistance  and  open  the  way  for 
an  attack,  to  be  delivered  by  great  numbers  and  with  special 
appliances  for  crossing  obstacles.  Others  thought  that  the 
strength  of  the  defence,  as  manifested  by  the  Plevna  field  works, 


would  be  greater  than  ever  when  the  field  works  were  backed  by 
permanent  works,  good  communications  and  the  resources  of  a 
fortress.  One  thing  was  obvious — namely,  that  as  long  as  the 
artillery  of  the  place,  of  even  the  smallest  calibres,  remained 
unsubdued,  the  difficulty  of  trenchwork  and  sapping  would  be 
enormously  increased,  and  no  one  seemed  to  have  formed  a  clear 
conception  of  how  that  difficulty  was  to  be  met.  A  lecture 
delivered  in  Germany  about  1895  is  worth  quoting  as  a  fair 
example  of  the  vagueness  of  idea  then  prevailing:  "  For  the 
attack,  the  following  is  the  actual  procedure:  Accumulation  and 
preparation  of  material  for  attack  before  the  fortress:  advance 
of  attacking  artillery,  covered  by  infantry.  Artillery  duel. 
Throwing  forward  of  infantry:  destruction  of  the  capability 
for  defence  of  the  position  attacked;  when  possible  by  long- 


From  Textbook  oj  Fortification,  by  permission  of  the  Controller  H.M.  Stationery 
Office. 

FIG.  71. — Strassburg,  Lunettes  52  and  53,  1870. 

range  artillery  fire,  otherwise  by  the  aid  of  the  engineers.  Occu- 
pation of  the  defensive  position.  Assault  on  the  inner  lines 
of  the  fortress."  That  seemed  quite  a  simple  prescription,  but 
the  necessary  drugs  were  wanting.  And  even  since  Port  Arthur 
great  uncertainty  as  to  the  future  of  the  attack  remains. 

Modern  artillery  has  much  simplified  the  construction  of  siege 
batteries.  Formerly  siege  batteries  and  rampart  batteries  opposed 
each  other  with  direct  fire  at  ranges  not  too  long  for  the  unaided 
human  eye,  and  the  shells,  travelling  with  low  velocity,  bit  into  the 
parapets,  and,  exploding,  produced  their  full  effect.  Accordingly 
the  task  of  the  gunners  was,  by  accurate  fire,  to  destroy  the  parapets 
and  embrasures,  and  to  dismount  the  guns.  The  parapets  of  siege 
batteries  were  therefore  made  from  1 8  to  30  ft.  thick,  and  the  con- 
struction of  such  batteries,  with  traverses,  &c.,  involved  much  work. 
The  height  of  parapet  necessary  for  proper  protection  being  7  ft. 
6  in.  to  8  ft.,  a  great  deal  of  labour  could  be  saved  by  sinking  the 
gun-platforms  about  4  ft.  below  the  surface  level,  but  of  course  this 
was  only  possible  where  rock  or  water  were  not  near  the  surface. 

The  effect  of  modern  projectiles  was  to  reduce  the  thickness  of 
earth  necessary  for  parapets.  High  velocity  projectiles  are  very 
easily  deflected  upwards  by  even  a  slight  bank  of  earth.  This  is 


ATTACK] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


especially  the  case  with  sand.  Loose  earth  is  better  than  compacted 
earth,  and  clay  offers  the  least  resistance  to  penetration.  These 
facts  were  taken  note  of  in  England  more  than  on  the  Continent  in 
the  design  of  instructional  siege  batteries. 

The  construction  of  batteries  is  moreover  vastly  simplified  by  the 
long  ranges  at  which  artillery  will  fight  in  future.  It  will  as  a  rule 
be  possible  to  place  howitzer  batteries  in  such  positions  that  even 
from  balloons  it  will  be  difficult  to  locate  them ;  and  even  direct  fire 
batteries  can  easily  be  screened  from  view.  This  renders  parapets 
unnecessary,  and  probably  no  more  protection  will  be  used  than  light 
splinter-proof  screens  to  stop  shrapnel  bullets  or  fragments  of 
common  shell.  Moreover  batteries  can  be  constructed  at  leisure 
and  by  daylight. 

The  most  important  point  about  the  modern  battery  is  the  gun 
platform  for  the  larger  natures  of  guns  and  howitzers.  These  require 
very  solid  construction  to  resist  the  heavy  shock  of  discharge.  Not 
long  ago  it  was  thought  that  the  defence  would  have  larger  ordnance 
than  the  attack,  as  anything  heavier  than  an  8  in.  howitzer  required 
a  concrete  bed,  which  could  not  be  made  at  short  notice.  The 
Japanese,  however,  at  Port  Arthur  made  concrete  platforms  for  1 1  in. 
howitzers.  It  may  be  remarked  that  difficulties  which  loom  largely 
in  peace  are  often  overcome  easily  enough  under  the  stress  of  war. 

Another  gain  to  the  attack  is  in  connexion  with  magazines.  The 
old  powder  magazines  were  particularly  dangerous  adjuncts  to 
batteries,  and  had  to  be  very  carefully  bomb-proofed.  Such  pro- 
pellants  as  cordite,  however,  are  comparatively  harmless  in  the  open. 
They  are  very  difficult  to  detonate,  and  if  set  on  fire  do  not  explode 
like  gunpowder.  It  is  therefore  unnecessary  to  provide  bomb-proof 
magazines  for  them  in  connexion  with  the  batteries. 

In  future  sieges  the  question  of  supply  will  be  more  important 
than  it  has  ever  been.  Leaving  out  of  the  question  the  bringing  up 
of  supplies  from  the  base  of  operations,  the  task  of  distribution  at 
the  front  is  a  very  large  one.  The  Paris  siege  manoeuvres  of  1894 
furnish  some  instructive  data  on  this  point.  The  main  siege  park 
was  at  Meaux,  10  m.  from  the  1st  artillery  position,  and  the  average 
distance  from  the  1st  artillery  position  to  the  principal  fort  attacked 
was  5000  yds.  The  front  of  attack  on  Fort  Vaujours  and  its  collateral 
batteries  covered  10,000  yds.  There  were  24  batteries  in  the  1st 
artillery  position;  say  100  guns,  spread  over  a  front  of  4000  yds. 
To  connect  Meaux  with  the  front,  the  French  laid  some  30  m.  of 
narrow  gauge  railway  largely  along  existing  roads.  The  line  was 
single,  with  numerous  branches  and  sidings.  They  ran  II  regular 
trains  to  the  front  daily  and  half-a-dozen  supplementary.  The 
amount  of  artillery  material  sent  up  was  over  5000  tons,  without 
any  projectiles;  but  it  can  easily  be  imagined  that  large  demands 
were  also  made  on  transport  for  other  purposes.  For  instance,  one 
complete  bakery  train  was  sent  up  daily.  The  amount  of  ammuni- 
tion sent  up  would  be  limited  only  by  the  power  of  transporting  it. 
A  siege  train  of  100  pieces  could  probably  dispose  of  from  500  to 
1000  tons  of  ammunition  a  day,  at  the  maximum  rate  of  firing. 

But  the  most  important  question  affecting  the  sieges  of  the  future 
(putting  aside  accidental  circumstances)  will  be  the  configuration  of 
the  ground.  Assuming  that  local  conditions  do  not  specially  favour 
the  artillery  of  either  side,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  artillery 
duel  will  result  in  a  deadlock.  If  the  besiegers'  guns  do  not  succeed 
in  silencing  those  of  the  defence  from  the  1st  or  distant  artillery 
position  (which,  whether  they  are  in  cupolas  or  in  concealed  positions, 
will  in  any  case  be  an  extremely  difficult  task),  it  will  be  necessary 
for  the  infantry  to  press  in;  to  feel  for  weak  points,  and  to  fight 
for  those  that  offer  better  positions  for  fire  and  observation.  In 
doing  this  they  will  have  to  face  the  defenders'  infantry,  entrenched, 
backed  by  their  unsilenced  guns,  and  having  secure  places  of  assembly 
from  which  to  deliver  counter-attacks.  The  distance  to  which  they 
can  work  forward  and  establish  themselves  under  these  conditions 
will  depend  on  the  ground.  It  will  then  be  for  the  engineers  to 
cross  the  remaining  space  by  sap.  This,  under  present  conditions, 
will  be  a  tedious  process,  and  may  even  take  long  enough  to  cause 
the  failure  of  the  siege. 

As  to  the  manner  of  the  sap,  it  will  certainly  be  "  deep,"  as  long 
as  the  defence  retains  any  artillery  power.  When  the  4  ft.  6  in.  sap 
already  described  was  first  introduced,  it  was  known  as  a  "deep  sap  " ; 
but  the  sieges  of  the  future  will  probably  necessitate  a  true  deep 
sap,  that  is  one  in  which  the  whole  of  the  necessary  cover  is  got 
below  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

Such  a  sap  may  consist  of  an  open  trench,  about  6  ft.  deep,  the 
whole  of  the  excavated  earth  being  carried  away  through  the  trench 
to  the  rear;  or  a  blinded  trench,  covered  in  as  it  progresses  by 
splinter-proof  timbers  and  earth;  or  a  tunnelled  trench,  leaving  a 
foot  or  so  of  surface  earth  undisturbed.  In  either  case  nothing  should 
be  visible  from  the  front  to  attract  artillery  fire.  As  the  sap  is 
completed,  it  will  sometimes  be  necessary  to  add  a  slight  parapet 
in  places,  to  give  command  over  the  foreground  for  the  rifles  of  the 
guard  of  the  trenches.  > 

The  sap  will  have  to  be  pushed  up  quite  close  to  the  defenders' 
trenches  and  obstacles.  After  that  further  progress  must  either  be 
made  by  mining,  or  as  seems  very  probable,  by  getting  the  better 
of  the  defenders  in  a  contest  with  shells  from  short-range  mortars. 

Just  as  in  the  feudal  ages  a  castle  was  built  on  some  solitary 
eminence  which  lent  itself  to  the  defensive  methods  of  the  time,  so 
in  the  future  the  detached  forts  and  supporting  points  in  the  girdle 


of  a  fortress  will  be  sited  where  smooth  and  gentle  slopes  of  ground 
give  the  utmost  opportunity  to  the  defenders'  fire,  and  the  least 
chance  of  concealment  to  the  enemy.  There  will  be  considerable 
latitude  of  choice  in  the  defensive  positions;  though  not,  of  course, 
the  same  latitude  as  when  the  existence  of  a  precipitous  hill  was  the 
raison  d'etre  of  the  castle.  In  some  places,  as  at  Port  Arthur,  the 
whole  country-side  may  by  reason  of  its  steep  and  broken  slopes  be 
unfavourable  to  the  defence,  though  even  then  genius  will  turn  the 
difficulties  to  account.  But  wherever  it  is  possible  the  defender  will 

Erovide  for  a  space  of  1000  yds.  or  so,  swept  by  fire  and  illuminated 
y  searchlights,  in  front  of  his  lines.    That  space  will  have  to  be 
crossed  by  sap,  and  it  needs  little  imagination  to  realize  how  great 
the  task  will  be  for  the  besieger. 

There  are  other  modern  methods  of  siege  warfare  to  be  noticed, 
the  use  of  which  is  common  to  besiegers  and  besieged.  Much  is 
expected  of  balloons;  but  the  use  of  these  in  war  is  unlikely  to 
correspond  to  peace  expectations.  They  must  be  kept  at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  enemy's  guns,  a  distance  which  will  increase 
as  the  means  of  range-finding  improve  ;  and  as  the  height  from  which 
they  can  observe  usefully  is  limited,  so  is  the  observers'  power  to 
search  out  hidden  objects  behind  vertical  screens.  Thus,  suppose  a 
captive  balloon  at  a  height  of  2000  ft.,  and  distant  4000  yds.  from 
an  enemy's  howitzer  battery:  and  suppose  the  battery  placed 
behind  a  steep  hill-side  or  a  grove  of  trees,  at  such  a  distance  that  a 
shell  fired  with  30°  elevation  can  just  clear  this  screen.  The  line  of 
sight  from  the  observer  to  the  battery  is  inclined  to  the  horizontal 

at     ^  r^.'   tnat  is  s>  or  roughly  10°.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that 


the  observer  cannot  see  the  battery. 

Balloon  observers  are  expected  to  assist  the  batteries  by  marking 
the  effects  of  their  fire.  For  this  to  be  done  on  any  practical  scale 
a  balloon  would  be  required  for  each  battery:  that  is,  for  only  100 
guns,  some  20  or  25  balloons.  These  would  require  an  equal  number 
of  highly  skilled  observers  (of  whom  there  are  not  too  many  in 
existence),  besides  the  other  balloon  personnel  and  accessories,  and 
the  means  of  making  gas,  which  is  too  much  to  expect,  even  if  an 
enemy  were  obliging  enough  to  give  notice  of  his  intentions. 

Telephones  and  all  other  means  of  transmitting  intelligence  rapidly 
are  now  of  the  utmost  importance  to  both  attack  and  defence.  Maps 
marked  with  numbered  squares  are  necessary  for  directing  artillery 
fire,  especially  from  cupolas.  Organization  in  every  branch  will  give 
better  results  than  ever  before,  and  the  question  of  communication 
and  transport  from  the  base  of  supplies  right  up  to  the  front  needs 
detailed  study,  in  view  of  the  great  weight  of  ammunition  and 
supplies  that  will  have  to  be  handled. 

The  use  of  light  mortars  for  the  trenches,  introduced  by  Coehoorn 
and  revived  with  extemporized  means  at  Port  Arthur,  needs  great 
attention.  It  may  be  prophesied  that  the  issue  of  important  sieges 
in  the  future,  when  skilfully  conducted  on  both  sides  with  sufficient 
resources,  will  depend  mainly  on  the  energy  of  the  defenders  in 
trench  work,  on  mining  and  countermining  in  connexion  with  the 
trenches,  and  on  the  use  of  light  mortars  made  to  throw  large  charges 
of  high  explosive  for  short  distances  with  great  accuracy. 

For  a  brief  narrative  of  the  siege  of  Port  Arthur  in  1904,  one  of 
the  greatest  sieges  of  history,  both  as  regards  its  epic  interest  and  its 
military  importance,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  RUSSO- 
JAPANESE  WAR. 

DEFINITIONS.  —  The  following  definitions  may  be  useful,  but  have 
no  place  in  the  evolution  of  the  attack,  to  which  this  section  is 
mainly  devoted. 

Investment.  —  This  most  necessary,  almost  indispensable  operation 
of  every  siege  consists  in  surrounding  the  fortress  about  to  be  be- 
sieged, so  as  to  cut  off  its  communications  with  the  outside  world. 
Preliminary  investment  which  is  carried  out  by  cavalry  and  light 
troops  before  the  arrival  of  the  besieging  force,  consists  in  closing 
the  roads  so  as  to  shut  out  supplies  and  reinforcements.  Close 
investment  should  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  prevent  any  sort  of 
communication,  even  by  single  messengers  or  spies.  The  term 
"  blockade  "  is  sometimes  loosely  used  instead  of  investment. 

Lines  of  Circumvallation  and  Contravallation.  —  These  now  obsolete 
terms  were  in  great  use  until  the  igth  century.  The  circumvallation 
was  a  line  of  parapet  which  the  besieger  made  outside  the  investing 
position  of  his  own  force,  to  protect  it  when  there  was  a  chance  of 
attack  by  a  relieving  army.  The  line  of  contravallation  was  the  line 
of  parapet  and  trench  sometimes  made  by  the  besieger  all  round  the 
town  he  was  attacking,  to  check  the  sorties  of  the  garrison. 

Observing  Force.  —  When  circumstances  make  the  reduction  of  a 
particular  fortress  in  the  theatre  of  operations  unnecessary  a  force 
is  often  detached  to  "  observe  "  it.  The  duty  of  this  force  will  be 
to  watch  the  garrison  and  prevent  any  hostile  action  such  as  raids 
on  the  lines  of  communications. 

Bombardment.  —  This  operation,  common  to  all  ages,  consists  in  a 
general  (sometimes  an  indiscriminate)  fire  against  either  the  whole 
target  offered  by  the  fortress  or  a  particular  section  of  that  target. 
In  ancient  and  medieval  times  the  effect  of  a  bombardment  —  whether 
of  ordinary  missiles,  of  incendiary  projectiles,  or  of  poisonous  matters 
tending  to  breed  pestilence  —  upon  a  population  closely  crowded 
within  its  walls  was  very  powerful.  In  the  present  day  little  military 
importance  is  attached  to  bombardmenti  since  under  modern 
conditions  it  cannot  do  much  real  harm. 


7M- 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[MINING 


IV.  MILITARY  MINING 


It  has  been  noted  already  that  mining  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
resources  of  siege  warfare.  The  use  of  gunpowder  in  mining 
operations  dates  from  the  end  of  the  ijth  century.  When 
Shakespeare  makes  Fluellen  say,  at  Henry  V.'s  siege  of  Harfleur, 
"  th'athversaryisdigt  himself  fouryards  under  the  countermines; 
I  think  'a  will  plow  up  all,  if  there  is  not  better  directions," 
he  ft  anticipating  the  development  of  siegecraft  by  nearly  100 
years.  Pedro  di  Navarro,  a  Spanish  officer,  is  credited  with  the 
first  practical  use  of  explosive  mines.  He  employed  them  with 
great  success  at  the  siege  of  Naples  in  1503;  and  afterwards, 
when  rebuilding  the  Castello  Nuovo  after  the  siege,  was  probably 
the  first  to  make  permanent  provision  for  their  use  in  counter- 
mines. Countermining  had  been  a  measure  of  defence  against 
the  earlier  methods  of  attack-mining;  the  object  being  to  break 
into  the  besiegers'  galleries  and  fight  hand  to  hand  for  the  posses- 
sion of  them.  When  the  explosive  mine  was  introduced,  it 
became  the  object  of  the  defenders  to  establish  their  counter- 
mines near  the  besiegers'  galleries  and  destroy  them  by  the  effect 
of  the  explosion.  In  the  400  years  or  so  that  have  passed  this 
branch  of  warfare  has  changed  less  than  any  other.  Methods  of 
mining  have  not  advanced  much,  and  the  increased  power 
of  high  explosives  as  compared  with  gunpowder  has  its  least 
advantage  in  moving  masses  of  earth. 

When  a  besieger  has  arrived  by  means  of  trenches  within  a 
certain  distance  of  the  enemy's  works  without  having  subdued 
their  fire,  he  may  find  that  the  advance  by  sap  becomes  too  slow 
and  too  dangerous.  He  can  then  advance  underground  by  means 
of  mine  galleries,  and  by  exploding  large  charges  at  the  heads  of 
these  galleries  can  make  a  series  of  craters.  These  craters  are 
then  occupied  by  infantry,  and  are  connected  with  each  other 
and  with  the  parallel  in  rear  by  trenches,  thus  forming  a  new 
parallel.  If  not  interfered  with  by  the  defenders  the  besieger 
can  advance  in  this  way  until  he  reaches  the  counterscarp. 
His  mines  will  now  be  turned  to  a  new  purpose,  viz.  to  breach  the 
counterscarp  and  afterwards  the  escarp.  This  is  done  by 
placing  suitable  charges  at  intervals  behind  the  scarps  at  such  a 
height  above  the  foundations  that  the  pressure  of  the  earth  above 
the  mine  will  more  than  counterbalance  the  resistance  of  the 
masonry. 

But  if  the  defenders  are  active,  they  will  countermine.  There 
is  as  a  general  rule  this  broad  difference  between  the  mines  of 
the  defence  and  those  of  the  attack,  that  the  defenders 

oae.d  cl°  not  wish  the  surface  of  the  ground  broken,  lest 
mines.  increased  opportunities  of  getting  cover  should  be 
offered  to  the  besiegers.  The  object  of  the  defence, 
therefore,  is  to  destroy  the  besiegers'  galleries  without  forming 
craters,  and  for  this  purpose  they  generally  endeavour  to  get 
underneath  the  attack  galleries.  The  defenders  may,  however, 
wish,  if  the  opportunity  is  allowed  them,  to  explode  mines  under 
the  attack  parallels,  in  which  case  there  is  of  course  no  objection 
to  disturbing  the  surface. 

"  At  the  commencement  of  the  subterranean  war  the  main  object 
of  the  defence  is  to  force  the  besieger  to  take  to  mining  operations 
as  early  as  possible,  as  it  is  a  tedious  operation  and  will  prolong  the 
siege.  Every  endeavour  must  be  made  to  push  forward  counter- 
mines so  as  to  meet  and  check  the  attack.  On  the  approach  of  the 
opponents  to  each  other  careful  listening  for  the  enemy  must  be 
resorted  to.  To  this  end  it  is  necessary  at  irregular  intervals  to 
suspend  all  work  for  some  minutes  at  a  time,  closing  doors  of  com- 
munication and  employing  experienced  listeners  at  the  heads  of  the 
countermines.  This  matter  is  a  most  important  one,  as  a  premature 
explosion  of  the  defender's  mines  is  a  double  loss  to  the  defender,  a 
loss  of  a  mine  and  an  advantage  to  the  enemy  in  more  than  one  way. 
As  soon  as  the  overcharged  mines  of  the  besieger  have  been  fired,  a 
heayy  fire  should  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  craters,  and  if  possible 
sorties  should  be  made  to  prevent  the  enemy  occupying  them.  At 
the  same  time  every  effort  should  be  made  underground  to  surround 
with  galleries,  and  as  it  were  isolate,  the  craters  so  as  to  prevent  the 
besieger  making  a  new  advance  from  them.  The  efforts  of  the 
attack  at  this  stage  will  probably  be  directed  to  the  formation  of 
what  are  called  "  Boule  shafts  "  (i.e.  shafts  partially  lined  in  which 
charges  are  hastily  fired  with  little  or  no  tamping),  and  to  meet  these 
in  time  the  defender  may  resort  to  the  use  of  boring  tools,  and  so 
place  charges  somewhere  in  advance  of  the  heads  of  the  counter- 


mines. His  great  object  must  be  to  prevent  as  long  as  possible 
the  besieger  from  getting  underground  again ;  and  these  occasions, 
when  the  power  of  resistance  is  temporarily  equal  to,  if  not  greater 
than,  that  of  the  attack,  should  be  made  the  most  of  by  the  defence." 
(Lewis,  Text-book  on  Fortification,  &c.,  1893.) 

The  defence  has  the  advantage,  in  the  case  of  fortresses,  of 
being  able  to  establish  beforehand  a  system  of  countermine 
galleries  in  masonry.  Many  systems  ha've  been  worked  out  for 
this  purpose.  A  good  typical  arrangement  is  that  of  General 
Marescot,  published  in  1799,  shown  in  fig.  72 

a 


Marescot's 


System 


Dufour's    System 
for  defence  of  a  breach 


Section  on  mm. 


Section  on  ae. 


From  Textbook  oj  Fortification,  by  permission  of  the  Controller  H.M.  Stationery 
Office. 

FIG.  72. 

The  main  galleries  (those  running  out  in  a  straight  line  from 
the  counterscarp  gallery  e  to  three  of  the  points  a)  fall  gently 
to  the  front  to  a  depth  of  30  or  40  ft.  below  the  surface — the 
deeper  they  are  the  less  they  will  suffer  from  the  enemy's  mines. 
Branch  galleries  (marked  c  b+d  c)  run  obliquely  upward  from 
them  to  right  and  to  left,  leading  to  the  mines,  which  are  placed 
at  various  depths,  according  to  circumstances. 

Two  main  points  must  be  observed  in  any  system  of  counter- 
mines: the  branch  galleries  must  run  obliquely  forward,  so  as 
not  to  present  their  sides  to  the  action  of  the  enemy's  mines; 
and  the  distance  between  the  ends  of  the  branches  from  adjacent 
main  galleries  should  be  such  that  the  enemy  cannot  pass  between 
them  unheard.  This  distance  will  vary  with  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  but  may  be  taken  roughly  as  20  yds.  A  convenient  size 
for  main  galleries  is  6  ft.  high  by  3  ft.  wide:  branch  galleries 
may  be  5  ft.  by  3  ft.  When  the  enemy  is  approaching,  other 
branch  galleries,  called  listeners,  will  be  pushed  out  from  main 


MINING] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


and  branch  galleries.  The  section  to  fig.  i  of  fig.  72  shows  openings 
left  for  the  purpose. 

Another  use  of  mines  in  defence  is  in  connexion  with  breaches. 
A  permanent  arrangement  for  this  purpose,  by  General  Dufour, 
is  shown  in  fig.  72.  Yet  another  use,  on  which  much  ingenuity 
was  expended  in  the  i8th  century,  is  to  extemporize  retrench- 
ments. 

The  charges  of  mines  depend  of  course  upon  the  effect  which 
is  desired.  When  the  charge  is  strong  enough  to  produce  a 
crater,  the  radius  of  the  circular  opening  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground  is  called  the  radius  of  the  crater.  The 
mines.  line  drawn  from  the  centre  of  the  charge  to  the  nearest 
surface,  which  is  expressed  in  feet,  is  called  the  line 
of  least  resistance  (L.L.R.).  When  a  mine  produces  a  crater  the 
diameter  of  which  is  equal  to  the  line  of  least  resistance,  it  is 
called  a  one-lined  crater;  when  the  diameteris double  the L.L.R., 
a  two-lined  crater  and  so  on.  Common  mines  are  those  which 
produce  a  two-lined  crater.  Over-charged  mines  produce  craters 
greater  than  two-lined,  and  undercharged  mines  less.  A  camou- 
flet  does  not  produce  a  crater;  it  is  used  when  the  object  is  to 
destroy  an  enemy's  gallery  without  breaking  the  surface.  Fig. 
73  shows  sections  of  the  different  kinds  of  mines,  with  their 

Action  of  a  Common  Mine 


Probable  spheroids  of  rupture  for  overcharged  Mines 


H.R.R.37  6  (2'5l. )...+. 
505(3-361.) 


Crater  Charge 
3lined  W27lb3.  (3-05C) 
4linea2312  „  (6-S6C) 
5  lined  4374  „  (12-98 C) 
6 lined 7397  „  (21-950) 
7lineal1SB9n  (34-33C) 

From  Instructions  in  Military  Engineering,  by  permission  of  the  Controller  of  H.M. 
Stationery  Office. 

FIG.  73. — Mines. 

craters  and  the  effect  they  will  produce  downwards  and  horizon- 
tally in  ordinary  earth. 

Consideration  of  this  figure  will  show  that  it  is  possible  to  place 
a  long  charge  at  such  a  depth  below  the  surface  that  it  will 
destroy  all  galleries  of  the  enemy  within  a  considerable  radius, 
without  much  disturbing  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Bored  mines,  which  have  been  alluded  to  above,  are  a  com- 
paratively recent  innovation.  When  the  enemy  is  heard  at  work  in 
one  of  his  galleries  and  his  position  approximately  determined  by  the 
sound,  it  is  necessary  to  drive  a  branch  gallery  with  all  speed  in  that 
direction,  and  when  it  has  advanced  as  far  as  appears  necessary,  to 
load,  tamp  and  discharge  a  mine  before  the  enemy  can  fire  his  own 
mine.  This  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  and  dangerous  operations 
of  war,  and  success  will  fall  to  those  who  are  at  the  same  time  most 
skilful  and  most  determined.  The  work  can  be  hastened  and  made 


less  dangerous  as  follows:  Instead  of  driving  a  branch  gallery,  a 
hole  several  inches  in  diameter  is  bored  in  the  required  direction. 
With  suitable  tools  there  is  no  difficulty  in  driving  a  straight  bore 
hole  20  or  30  ft.  long.  A  small  charg.e  of  high  explosives  is  then 
pushed  up  to  the  end  of  the  borehole  and  fired.  This  forms  a  small 
camouflet  chamber  by  compressing  the  earth  around  it.  Into  this 
chamber  the  charge  for  the  mine  is  passed  up  the  bore-hole.  No 
tamping  of  course  is  required. 

Mine  warfare  is  slow,  dangerous  and  uncertain  in  its  results. 
It  will  certainly  delay  the  besiegers'  advance  very  much  and  may 
do  so  indefinitely.  One  point  is  distinctly  in  favour  of  the  defence, 
namely  that  when  ground  has  been  much  mined  it  becomes 
charged  with  poisonous  gases.  Some  explosives  are  less  noxious 
than  others  in  this  way,  and  it  will  be  advantageous  for  the  attack, 
but  not  necessarily  for  the  defence,  to  make  use  of  these. 

Calculation  of  Charges. — The  quantity  of  powder  required  for  a 
charge  is  expressed  in  Ibs.  in  terms  of  L.L.R.3,  and  the  following 
formulae  are  used : 

/  =  L.L.R.  in  feet,  r  =  radius  of  crater  in  feet,  c  =  powder  charge  in 
pounds,  s=a  variable  dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  soil. 

For  a  common  mine  c  =  -—I3 

For  an  overcharged  mine  c  =  ^i/_|_.g(r_;  )is 

For  an  undercharged  mine  c  =  —  [I  —  -<)(l  —  r)j*. 

The  values  to  be  given  to  s  are : 
Nature  of  Soil. 

Very  light  earth 

Common  earth 

Hard  sand  .        .  '.        . 

Earth  mixed  with  stones 

Clay  mixed  with  loam 

Inferior  brickwork 

Rock  or  good  new  brickwork. 

Very  good  old  brickwork         .... 


Value  of  s. 
.    0-80 
•oo 

•25 
•40 

•55 
•66 
2-25 
2-50 

Military  mining  is  carried  on  by  means  of  vertical  shafts  and 
horizontal  or  inclined  galleries.  When  the  soil  is  very  stiff,  very 
little  or  even  no  lining  is  required  for  shafts  and  galleries;  but 
usually  they  have  to  be  lined  either  with  cases  or  frames. 

Cases  make  a  complete  lining  of  2  in.  planking.  Frames  are  used 
at  intervals  of  4  or  5  ft.  to  support  a  partial  lining  of  planks.  Cases 
are  of  course  preferable  in  other  respects;  but  in  ordinary  soil  they 
take  up  more  timber. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  gallery  in  ordinary  use  in  the  British 
service,  namely  the  common  gallery  whose  interior  dimensions  with 
cases  are  5  ft.   6  in.  X2  ft.,  and  the  branch  gallery  which  Kh  „ 
is  4  ft.  X2  ft.     The  shaft  has  about  the  same  dimensions  as     "".,  a 
a  branch  gallery.     Formerly  it  was  sometimes  necessary        ' 
in  the  systematic  attack  of  a  fortress  to  get  guns  down  into  the  ditch. 
For  this  purpose  a  "  great  gallery  "  was  used,  6  ft.  6  in.  in  height  and 
6  ft.  8  in.  wide,  internal  dimensions. 

Miners'  Tools. — These  are  few  and  simple.  The  pick  and  shovel 
differ  from  the  ordinary  types  in  having  rather  shorter  helves  suitable 
for  the  confined  space  in  which  they  are  used.  There  is  also  a  push- 
pick,  an  implement  with  a  straight  helve  and  a  pointed  shovel  head 
6  in.  long  and  3 \  in.  wide.  The  miner's  truck,  used  for  drawing  the 
earth  from  the  end  of  the  gallery  to  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  is  a  small 
wooden  truck  holding  about  2  cub.  ft.  of  earth.  Formerly  the  noise 
of  the  wheels  of  the  truck  passing  over  the  uneven  wooden  floor  of 
the  gallery  was  very  liable  to  be  heard  by  the  enemy.  To  obviate 
this  they  now  have  leather  tyres  and  should  run  on  battens  nailed 
to  the  floor.  The  miner's  bucket  is  a  small  canvas  bucket  with  a 
couple  of  ropes  attached,  by  which  the  earth  can  be  drawn  up  the 
shaft.  Nowadays,  however,  the  truck  itself  has  chains  attached  to 
it,  by  which  it  is  drawn  up,  with  the  aid  of  a  windlass,  to  the  surface. 
By  this  method  more  earth  can  be  taken  up  in  one  lift,  and  time  and 
labour  are  not  wasted  in  transferring  the  contents  of  the  truck  to  the 
bucket. 

Ventilation  is  an  important  point.  The  breath  of  the  miners  and 
the  burning  of  their  candles  (when  electric  light  is  not  available) 
vitiates  the  air  in  the  galleries;  so  that  even  in  clean  ground  a 
gallery  should  not  be  driven  more  than  60  ft.  without  providing 
some  means  of  renewing  the  air.  This  is  usually  done  by  forcing 
fresh  air,  by  means  of  a  pump  or  bellows,  through  a  flexible  hose  to 
the  head  of  );he  gallery.  Where  mines  have  been  fired  close  by, 
there  is  great  danger  from  poisonous  gases  filtering  through  the  soil 
into  the  gallery.  This  difficulty  is  nowadays  met  by  the  use  of 
special  apparatus,  such  as  helmets  into  which  fresh  air  is  pumped, 
so  that  the  wearers  need  not  breathe  the  air  of  the  gallery  at  all. 
Ventilation  can  also  be  assisted  by  boring  holes  vertically  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground. 

Where  a  point  has  been  reached  at  which  it  is  proposed  to  fire  a 
mine,  a  chamber  just  large  enough  to  hold  the  charge  is  cut  in  the 


yi6 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT   [FIELD  FORTIFICATION 


side  of  the  gallery.  The  object  of  this  is  to  keep  the  charge  out  of 
the  direct  line  of  the  gallery  and  thus  increase  the  force  of  the 
explosion.  The  charge  may  be  placed  in  canvas  bags,  barrels  or 
boxes,  precautions  being  taken  against  damp. 

The  operation  of  loading  is  of  the  first  importance,  for  if  the  mine 

is  not  exploded  with  success,  not  only  is  valuable  time  lost,  which 

may  give  the  enemy  his  opportunity,  but  it  will  probably 

larglag  ^g  necessary  to  untamp  the  mine  in  order  to  renew  the 
mines.  fuze;  an  operation  attended  by  considerable  danger. 
The  loading  of  the  mine  should  therefore  be  done  by  the  officer  in 
charge  with  his  own  hands.  He  has  to  work  in  a  very  cramped 
position  and  practically  in  the  dark  (unless  with  electric  light)  as  of 
course  no  naked  lights  can  be  allowed  near  powder.  Everything 
should  therefore  be  prepared  beforehand  to  facilitate  the  loading  of 
the  mine  and  placing  of  the  fuze.  At  Chatham  a  1000  ft  mine,  at 
the  end  of  a  gallery  136  ft.  long,  has  been  loaded  in  30  minutes. 
The  powder  was  passed  up  the  gallery  by  hand  in  sandbags,  and 
emptied  into  a  box  of  the  required  size. 

Whatever  method  of  firing  (see  below)  is  employed,  the  officer 
who  loads  the  mine  must  be  careful  to  see  that  it  is  so  arranged  as  to 
make  firing  certain,  and  that  the  leads  passing  out  of  the  gallery 
are  not  liable  to  damage  in  the  process  of  tamping. 

Tamping.  —  -This  operation  consists  in  filling  up  the  head  of  the 
gallery  solidly,  for  such  a  distance  that  there  shall  be  no  possibility 
of  the  charge  wasting  its  force  along  the  gallery.  The  distance 
depends  on  the  charge  and  on  the  solidity  of  the  tamping.  For  a 
common  mine  it  should  extend  to  about  |  L.L.R.  from  the  charge, 
when  the  tamping  is  of  earth  in  sandbags;  for  a  3-lined  crater,  to 
about  2  L.L.R.  Tamping  can  be  improved  by  jamming  pieces  of 
timber  across  the  shaft  or  gallery  among  the  other  filling. 

Firing.  —  This  may  be  done  electrically,  or  by  means  of  safely  or 
instantaneous  fuze  or  powder  hose. 

Electric  firing  is  the  safest  and  best,  and  allows  of  the  charge  being 
exploded  at  any  given  moment.  For  this  purpose  electric  fuzes  (for 
powder)  or  electric  detonators  (for  guncotton  or  other  high  explosive) 
are  employed.  The  current  that  fires  them  is  passed  through  copper 
wire  leads. 

The  safety  fuze  used  in  the  British  service  burns  at  the  rate  of 
about  3  ft.  a  minute.  Instantaneous  fuze  burns  at  the  rate  of  a  mile 
a  minuted  Both  can  be  fired  under  water.  They  are  often  used  in 
conjunction,  a  considerable  length  of  instantaneous  fuze,  leading 
from  the  charge,  being  connected  to  a  short  length  of  safety  fuze. 

Powder  hose,  an  old-time  expedient,  can  be  extemporized  by 
making  a  tube  of  strong  linen,  say  I  in.  in  diameter,  and  filling  it  with 
powder.  It  burns  at  the  rate  of  10  to  20  ft.  per  second. 

Explosives.  —  The  old-fashioned  gunpowder  of  the  grained  black 
variety  is  still  the  best  for  most  kinds  of  military  mines.  Pebble  and 
prism  powders  do  not  give  as  good  results,  presumably  because 
their  action  is  so  slow  that  some  of  the  gases  of  explosion  can  escape 
through  the  pores  of  the  earth.  High  explosives,  with  their  quick 
shattering  and  rending  effect,  are  little  more  effective  than  gun- 
powder in  actually  moving  large  quantities  of  earth.  Most  of  them 
give  off  much  more  poisonous  fumes  than  gunpowder.  Some  recent 
high  explosives,  however,  have  been  specially  designed  to  be  com- 
paratively innocuous  in  this  respect. 

Some  formulae  have  been  given  above  for  the  calculation 
of  charges.  It  will,  however,  simplify  matters  for  the 
reader  to  record  some  actual  instances  of  charges 


fired  both  in  peace  and  war. 

In  the  matter  of  scientific  experiment  we  find  Vauban  as  usual 
leading  the  way,  and  the  following  results  among  others  were  obtained 
by  him  at  Tournay  in  1686  and  1689:  A  charge  of  162  Ib  placed 
13  ft.  below  the  surface  produced  a  crater  of  13  ft.  radius  (a  two-lined 
crater,  or  "  common  mine  ").  Galleries  were  destroyed  at  distances 
equal  to  the  L.L.R.  in  both  horizontal  and  vertical  directions. 
Double  the  charge,  placed  at  double  the  depth,  i.e.  324  ft  with  an 
L.L.R.  of  27  ft.  made  no  crater,  but  like  the  first  destroyed  galleries 
below  it  and  on  each  side  at  distances  equal  to  the  L.L.R.  A  charge 
of  3828  ft  with  L.L.R.  of  37  ft.  made  a  two-lined  crater  and  destroyed 
a  gallery  distant  61  ft.  horizontally. 

Bernard  Forest  de  Belidor,  a  French  engineer,  made  many  experi- 
ments at  La  Fere  about  1732,  and  20  years  later,  as  a  general  officer 
and  inspector  of  miners,  continued  them  on  a  larger  scale.  His 
experiments  were  directed  towards  destroying  an  enemy's  galleries 
at  greater  distances  than  had  hitherto  been  supposed  possible,  by 
means  of  very  large  charges  (in  proportion  to  the  L.L.R.)  which  he 
called  "  globes  of  compression."  In  one  of  them  a  charge  of  4320  ft 
of  powder  placed  only  15  ft.  9  in.  below  the  surface  damaged  or 
"  compressed  "  a  gallery  distant  65  ft.  horizontally.  The  radius  of 
the  crater  was  34  ft.  8  in. 

At  Frederick  the  Great's  siege  of  Schweidnitz  in  1762  some  very 
large  charges  were  exploded.  One  of  them,  of  5400  ft  with  an  L.L.R. 
of  16  ft.  3  in.,  made  a  crater  of  42  ft.  3  in.  radius.  Readers  of  Carlyle's 
Frederick  the  Great  may  recall  his  description  of  the  contest  of  the 
rival  engineers  on  this  occasion. 

At  Graudenz  in  1862  (experiments)  a  charge  of  1031  Ib  of  powder 
placed  ip  ft.  deep,  untamped,  in  a  vertical  shaft,  made  a  crater  of 
15  ft.  6  in.  radius.  A  charge  of  412  ft  of  guncotton,  calculated  as 


being  equivalent  to  the  above  charge  of  powder  and  placed  under 
the  same  conditions,  made  a  crater  of  14  ft.  radius.  The  absence 
of  tamping  in  both  cases  of  course  placed  the  gunpowder  at  a  dis- 
advantage. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  mine  ever  fired  was  that  at  the 
siege  of  Petersburg  in  the  American  Civil  War,  in  June  1864.  The 
circumstances  were  all  abnormal,  and  the  untechnical 
account  of  it  in  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War  (vol.  p  e 
iv.)  is  well  worth  perusal.  No  mining  tools  or  materials  u,en 
and  no  military  miners  were  available;  and  no  one  had  j86J' 
any  confidence  in  the  success  of  the  attempt  except  its 
originator,  Lieut. -Colonel  Pleasants.a  mining  engineer  by  profession, 
his  regiment  which  was  recruited  from  a  mining  population,  and 
General  Burnside  the  corps  commander.  The  opposing  entrench- 
ments were  130  yds.  apart.  The  mine  gallery  was  started  behind  the 
Federal  lines  and  driven  a  distance  of  510  ft.  till  it  came  under  a 
field  redoubt  in  the  Confederate  lines.  There  two  branches  were 
made  right  and  left,  each  about  38  ft.  long,  and  in  them  eight  mines 
aggregating  8000  ft  of  powder  were  placed.  The  first  attempt  to 
fire  them  failed,  and  an  officer  and  a  sergeant  volunteered  to  enter 
the  gallery  to  seek  the  cause  of  the  failure.  A  defective  splice  in  two 
lengths  of  fuze  was  thus  discovered  and  repaired.  At  the  second 
attempt  all  the  mines  were  fired  simultaneously  with  success,  and 
made  a  gigantic  crater  170  ft.  long  by  60  ft.  wide  and  30  ft.  deep. 
The  occupants  of  the  redoubt,  at  least  several  hundred  men  (they 
have  been  stated  at  1000),  were  blown  up  and  mostly  killed.  The 
assault  which  followed,  however,  failed  completely,  for  want  of 
organization.  The  infantry  was  drawn  up  in  readiness  to  advance, 
but  no  outlets  had  been  provided  from  the  parallel,  and  this  and  other 
causes  delayed  the  occupation  of  the  crater  and  gave  the  defending 
artillery  a  moment's  respite.  Thus  the  assailants  gained  the  crater 
but  could  not  advance  beyond  it  in  face  of  the  defenders'  fire,  nor 
could  they  establish  themselves  within  it,  on  its  steep  clay  sides, 
for  want  of  entrenching  tools_.  A  good  many  troops  were  sent  for- 
wards in  support,  but  being  in  many  cases  of  inferior  quality,  they 
could  not  be  induced  to  go  forward,  and  huddled  in  disorder  in  the 
already  overcrowded  crater.  Over  1000  of  these  were  captured 
when  the  Confederates  retook  the  crater  by  a  counter-attack  and  the 
total  loss  of  the  Federals  in  the  attack  was  nearly  4000. 

The  wars  of  the  last  generation  have  done  little  or  nothing 
to  advance  the  science  of  military  mining,  but  a  good  deal  has 
been  done  in  peace  to  improve  the  means.  Electric  lighting  and 
electric  firing  of  mines  will  be  a  great  help;  modern  drilling 
machines  may  be  used  to  go  through  rock;  ventilating  arrange- 
ments are  much  improved;  and  the  use  of  bored  mines  is  sure 
to  have  great  developments.  The  Russo-Japanese  War  taught 
nothing  new  in  mine-warfare,  or  as  to  the  effects  of  mines,  but 
the  siege  of  Port  Arthur  had  this  moral  among  others;  just  as  in 
future,  in  the  frontal  attack  of  positions,  trench  must  oppose 
trench,  so  in  fortress  warfare  mines  will  be  more  necessary  than 
ever.  It  appears  that  they  will  be  essential  to  destroy  both 
the  ditch-flanking  arrangements  of  forts  and  the  escarp  or  other 
permanent  obstacle  beyond  the  ditch. 

V.   FIELD  FORTIFICATION 

Field  Fortifications,  now  more  often  spoken  of  as  field  defences, 
are  those  which  are  constructed  at  short  notice,  with  the  means 
locally  available,  usually  when  the  enemy  is  near  at  hand. 
Subject  to  the  question  of  time,  a  very  high  degree  of  strength 
can  be  given  to  them,  if  the  military  situation  makes  it  worth 
while  to  expend  sufficient  labour.  A  century  or  more  ago, 
the  dividing  line  between  permanent  and  field  fortification 
was  very  rigidly  drawn,  since  in  those  days  a  high  masonry 
escarp  surmounted  by  a  rampart  was  essential  to  a  permanent 
fortress,  and  these  could  naturally  not  be  extemporized. 
Works  without  masonry,  in  other  ways  made  as  strong  as 
possible  with  deep  ditches  and  heavy  timbers, — such  as  would 
require  about  six  weeks  for  their  construction- — were  known 
as  semi-permanent,  and  were  used  for  the  defence  of  places 
which  acquired  strategic  importance  in  the  course  of  a 
war,  but  were  not  immediately  threatened.  The  term  field 
fortification  was  reserved  for  works  constructed  of  lighter 
materials,  with  parapets  and  ditches  of  only  moderate  develop- 
ment. Redoubts  of  this  class  required  a  fortnight  at  most  for 
their  construction. 

In  modern  fortification  if  cupolas  and  deep  revetted  ditches 
were  essential  to  permanent  defences,  the  dividing  line  would 
be  equally  clear.  But  as  has  been  shown,  this  is  not  universally 
admitted,  and  where  the  resources  exist,  the  use  of  our  present 


FIELD  FORTIFICATION]  FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


717 


means  of  construction,  such  as  steel  joists,  railway  rails,  rein- 
forced concrete  and  wire,  in  conjunction  with  the  defensive 
power  of  modern  fire-arms,  makes  it  possible  to  extemporize 
in  a  very  short  time  works  having  much  of  the  resisting  power 
of  a  permanent  fortress.  Further,  such  works  can  be  expanded 
from  the  smallest  beginnings;  and,  if  the  site  is  not  too  exposed, 
in  the  presence  of  the  enemy. 

Field  fortification  offers,  as  regards  the  actual  constructions, 
a  very  limited  scope  to  the  engineer;  and  a  little  consideration 
,  will  show  that  its  defensive  possibilities  were  not  greatly  affected 
by  the  change  from  machine-thrown  projectiles  to  those  fired 
by  rude  smooth-bore  guns.  There  is  therefore  nothing  in  the 
history  of  this  branch  of  the  subject  that  is  worth  tracing,  from 
the  earliest  ages  to  about  the  end  of  the  i8th  century.  One  or 
two  points  may  be  noticed.  The  use  of  obstacles  is  probably 
one  of  the  earliest  measures  of  defence.  Long  before  missile 
weapons  had  acquired  such  an  importance  as  to  make  it  worth 
while  to  seek  shelter  from  them,  it  would  obviously  have  been 
found  desirable  to  have  some  means  of  checking  the  onrush  of 
an  enemy  physically  or  numerically  superior.  Hence  the  use 
by  savage  tribes,  to  this  day,  of  pits,  pointed  stakes  hidden  in 
the  grass,  entanglements  and  similar  obstacles.  In  this  direction 
the  ages  have  made  no  change,  and  the  most  highly  civilized 
nations  still  use  the  same  obstacles  on  occasion. 

Another  use  of  field  defences  common  to  all  ages  is  the  protec- 
tion of  camps  at  night,  where  small  forces  are  operating  against 
an  enemy  more  numerous  but  inferior  in  arms  and  discipline. 
In  daylight  such  an  enemy  is  not  feared,  but  at  night  his  numbers 
might  be  dangerous.  Hence  the  Roman  practice  of  making 
each  foot-soldier  carry  a  couple  of  stakes  for  palisades;  and  the 
simple  defence  of  a  thorn  zariba  used  by  the  British  for  their 
camps  in  the  Sudan. 

Palisades  and  trenches,  abatis  and  sharpened  stakes  have 
always  been  used.  Except  wire,  there  is  practically  no  new 
material.  As  to  methods,  the  laagers  of  the  Boers  are  preceded 
by  the  wagon-forts  of  the  Hussites,  and  those  no  doubt  by 
similar  arrangements  of  British  or  Assyrian  war  chariots;  and 
so  in  almost  every  direction  it  will  be  found  that  the  expedient 
of  to-day  has  had  its  forerunners  in  those  of  the  countless  yester- 
days. The  only  really  marked  change  in  the  arrangements  of 
field  defences  has  been  caused  not  by  gunpowder  but  by  quick- 
firing  rifled  weapons.  For  that  reason  it  is  worth  while  to 
consider  briefly  what  were  the  principles  of  field  fortification  at 
the  end  of  the  i8th  century.  That  period  has  been  chosen 
because  it  gives  us  the  result  of  a  couple  of  centuries  of  constant 
fighting  between  disciplined  troops  with  fairly  effective  fire- 
arms. The  field  defences  of  the  igth  century  are  transitional  in 
character.  Based  mainly  on  the  old  methods,  they  show  only 
faint  attempts  at  adaptation  to  new  conditions,  and  it  was  not 
till  quite  the  end  of  the  century  that  the  methods  now  accepted 
began  to  take  shape. 

The  essential  elements  of  fieldworks  up  to  the  time  of  the 
Peninsular  War  were  command  and  obstacle;  now  they  are 
protection  and  concealment. 

The  command  and  obstacle  were  as  necessary  in  the  days  of 
smooth-bore  muskets  and  guns  as  in  those  of  javelins  and 
arrows.  When  the  enemy  could  get  close  up  to  a 
°/'r<ft?e  work  without  serious  loss,  and  attack  in  close  order, 
defences,  the  defenders  needed  a  really  good  obstacle  in  front 
of  them.  Moreover,  since  they  could  not  rely  on  their 
fire  alone  to  repulse  the  attack,  they  needed  a  two-deep  line,  with 
reserves  close  at  hand,  to  meet  it  with  the  "  arme  blanche." 
For  this  purpose  a  parapet  7  or  8  ft.  high,  with  a  steep  slope, 
perhaps  palisaded,  up  which  the  attackers  must  climb  after 
passing  the  obstacle,  was  excellent.  The  defenders  after  firing 
their  last  volley  could  use  their  bayonets  from  the  top  of  the 
parapet  with  the  advantage  of  position.  The  high  parapet  had 
also  the  advantage  that  the  attackers  could  not  tell  what  was 
going  on  inside  the  redoubt,  and  the  defenders  were  sheltered 
from  their  fire  as  well  from  view  until  the  last  moment. 

The  strength  of  a  fortified  line  in  the  i8th  century  depended 
principally  on  its  redoubts.  Lines  of  shelter  trenches  had  little 


power  of  defence  at  the  time,  unless  they  held  practically  as 
many  men  as  would  have  sufficed  to  fight  in  the  open.  Obstacles 
on  the  other  hand  had  a  greater  value,  against  the  inelastic 
tactics  of  the  time,  than  they  have  now.  A  good  position  there- 
fore was  one  which  offered, good  fire-positions  for  redoubts  and 
plenty  of  facilities  for  creating  obstacles.  Strong  redoubts 
which  could  resist  determined  assaults;  good  obstacles  in  the 
intervals,  guns  in  the  redoubts  to  sweep  the  intervals,  and  troops 
in  formed  bodies  kept  in  reserve  for  counter-strokes — these 
were  the  essentials  in  the  days  of  the  smooth-bore. 

The  redoubts  were  liable  to  a  heavy  cannonade  by  field-guns 
before  the  attack.  To  withstand  this,  the  parapets  had  to  be 
made  of  a  suitable  thickness — from  4  or  5  ft.  upwards — according 
to  the  time  available,  the  resisting  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the 
severity  of  the  bombardment  expected. 

The  whole  of  the  earth  for  the  parapet  was  as  a  rule  obtained 
from  the  ditch,  in  order  to  make  as  much  as  possible  of  thic 
obstacle.  The  garrison  in  all  parts  of  the  interior  of  the  redoubt 
were  to  be  sheltered,  if  possible,  from  the  enemy's  fire,  and  with 
this  object  great  pains  were  bestowed  on  the  principle  of  "  de- 
filade." The  object  of  defilade,  which  was  a  great  fetish  in 
theoretical  works,  was  so  to  arrange  the  height  of  the  parapet 
with  reference  to  the  terreplein  of  a  work  that  a  straight  line 
(not,  be  it  observed,  the  trajectory  of  the  projectiles)  passing 
from  the  muzzle  of  a  musket  or  gun  on  the  most  commanding 
point  of  the  enemy's  position,  over  the  crest  of  the  parapet, 
should  just  clear  the  head  of  a  defender  standing  in  any  part  of 
the  work.  This  problem  of  defilade  became  quite  out  of  date 
after  the  development  of  time  shrapnel,  but  was  nevertheless 
taught  with  great  rigour  till  within  the  last  twenty  years. 

The  sectional  area  of  the  ditch  was  calculated  so  that  with 
an  addition  of  about  10%  for  expansion  it  would  equal  that  of 
the  parapet.  If  a  wider  and  deeper  ditch  was  considered  neces- 
sary, the  surplus  earth  could  be  used  to  form  a  glacis. 

The  interior  of  the  redoubt  had  to  afford  sufficient  space  to 
allow  the  garrison  to  sleep  in  it,  which  was  sometimes  a  matter 
of  some  difficulty  if  a  small  irregularly  shaped  work  had  to 
contain  a  strong  garrison.  Consideration  of  the  plan  and  sections 
of  these  works  will  show  that  the  banquette  for  infantry  with 
its  slopes,  and  the  gun  platforms,  took  off  a  good  deal  from  the 
interior  space  within  the  crest-line.  Guns  were  usually  placed 
at  the  salients,  where  they  could  get  the  widest  field  of  fire. 
They  were  sometimes  placed  on  the  ground  level,  firing  through 
embrasures  in  the  parapet,  and  sometimes  on  platforms  so  as  to 
fire  over  the  parapet  (en  barbette). 

As  in  permanent  fortification,  immense  pains  were  taken  to 
elaborate  theoretically  the  traces  of  works.  A  distinction  was 
made  between  forts  and  redoubts,  the  former  being  those  which 
were  arranged  to  flank  their  own  ditches,  while  the  redoubts  did 
not.  Redoubts  again 'were  classed  as  "  closed,"  those  which  had 
an  equally  strong  defence  all  round;  and  "  half-closed,"  those 
which  had  only  a  slight  parapet  or  timber  stockade  for  the  gorge 
or  rear  faces.  Open  works  (those  which  had  no  gorge  defence) 
were  named  according  to  their  trace,  as  redans  and  lunettes.  A 
redan  is  a  work  with  two  faces  making  a  salient  angle.  It  was 
frequently  used  in  connexion  with  straight  lines  of  trench  or 
breastwork.  A  lunette  is  a  work  with  two  faces,  usually  forming 
an  obtuse  angle,  and  two  flanks. 

The  forts  described  in  the  text-books,  as  might  be  expected, 
were  designed  with  great  ingenuity,  with  bastioned  or  demi- 
bastioned  fronts,  star  traces,  and  so  forth,  and  in  the  same  books 
intricate  calculations  were  entered  into  to  balance  the  remblai 
and  deblai,  that  is,  the  amount  of  earth  in  the  parapets  with  that 
excavated  from  the  ditches.  In  practice  such  niceties  of  course 
disappeared,  though  occasionally  when  the  ground  allowed  of  it 
star  forts  and  bastioned  fronts  were  employed. 

On  irregular  ground  the  first  necessity  was  to  fit  the  redoubt 
to  the  ground  on  which  it  stood,  so  as  to  sweep  the  whole  of  the 
foreground,  and  this  was  generally  a  sufficiently  difficult  matter 
without  adding  the  complications  of  flanking  defences.  Sir 
John  Jones,  speaking  of  the  traces  of  the  several  works  in  the 
Torres  Vedras  lines,  says: — 


718 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT  [FIELD  FORTIFICATION 


"  The  redoubts  were  made  of  every  capacity,  from  that  of  fig.  74  a, 
limited  by  want  of  space  on  the  ground  it  occupied  to  50  men  and 
T  rres  two  P'eces  °f  artillery,  to  that  of  fig.  74  b,  for  500  men  and 
Vedras  s'x  J?'eces  °f  artillery,  the  importance  of  the  object  to  be 
attained  being  the  only  guide  in  forming  the  dimensions. 
Many  of  the  redoubts  first  thrown  up,  even  some  of  the  smallest, 
were  shaped  like  stars,  under  the  idea  of  procuring  a  flank  defence 
for  the  ditches;  but  this  construction  was  latterly  rejected,  it  being 
found  to  cut  up  the  interior  space,  and  to  be  almost  fallacious  with 


FIG.  74. — Torres  Vedras  Works. 


respect  to  flank  defence,  the  breadth  of  the  exterior  slopes  being  in 
some  cases  equal  to  the  whole  length  of  the  flanks  so  obtained.  Even 
when,  from  the  greater  size  of  the  work,  some  flanking  fire  was  thus 
gained,  the  angle  formed  by  the  faces  was  generally  so  obtuse  that  it 
demanded  more  coolness  in  the  defenders  than  ought  reasonably 
to  be  expected  to  aim  along  the  ditch  of  the  opposite  face:  and 
further,  this  construction  prevented  the  fire  of  the  work  being  more 
powerful  in  front  than  in  rear. 

In  order  to  decide  on  the  proper  trace  of  a  work,  it  is  necessary  to 
consider  whether  its  object  be  to  prevent  an  enemy  establishing 
himself  on  the  ground  on  which  it  is  to  be  placed,  or  whether  it  be  to 
insure  a  heavy  fire  of  artillery  on  some  other  point  in  its  vicinity. 
In  the  first  case  every  consideration  should  be  sacrificed  to  that  of 
adding  to  its  powers  of  self-defence  by  flanks  or  other  expedients. 
In  the  second,  its  powers  of  resistance  are  secondary  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  powerful  offensive  fire  and  its  trace  cannot  be  too 
simple.  Latterly,  the  shape  of  the  redoubts  was  invariably  that  most 
fitted  to  the  ground,  or  such  as  best  parried  the  enfilade  fire  or 
musketry  plunge  of  neighbouring  heights,  care  being  taken  to  present 
the  front  of  fire  deemed  necessary  towards  the  pass,  or  other  object 
to  be  guarded;  and  such  will  generally  be  found  the  best  rule  of 
proceeding. 

This  recommendation,  however,  is  not  intended  to  apply  to 
isolated  works  of  large  dimensions,  and  more  particularly  to  those 
considered  the  key  of  any  position.  No  labour  or  expense  should  be 
spared  to  render  such  works  capable  of  resisting  the  most  furious 
assaults,  either  by  breaking  the  parapet  into  flanks,  or  forming  a 
flank  defence  in  the  ditch ;  for  the  experience  gained  in  the  Peninsula 
shows  that  an  unflanked  work  of  even  more  than  an  ordinary  field 
profile,  if  skilfully  and  determinedly  assaulted,  will  generally  be 

carried Nor  does  the  serious  evil  of  curtailing  the  interior 

space,  which  renders  breaks  in  the  outline  so  objectionable  in  small 

works,  apply  to  works  of  large  dimensions Under  this  view 

the  great  work  on  Monte  Agraca  (fig.  75)  must  be  considered  as  very 


-.  75-— Monte  Agraga,  Torres  Vedras. 


defective,  the  flank  defence  being  confined  to  an  occasional  break 
ot  a  lew  feet  in  the  trace,  caused  by  a  change  of  direction  in  the 
contour  of  the  height,  whilst  the  interior  space  is  more  than  doubly 
sumcient  for  the  number  of  its  allotted  garrison  to  encamp. 

Interior  and  other  Defences— This  work,  however, had  some  of  its 
salient  points   .    .    .   cut  off  by  earthen  lines  of  parapet,  steeply 


revetted  externally,  and  so  traced  as  to  serve  for  traverses  to  the 
interior.  It  had  also  three  or  four  small  enclosed  posts  formed  within 
it;  and  the  work  at  Torres  Vedras  (fig.  76)  had  each  of  its  salient 
points  formed  into  an  independent  post.  These  interior  defences 
and  retrenchments  were  intended  to  guard  against  a  general  panic 
amongst  the  garrison,  which  would  necessarily  be  composed  in  part 


FIG.  76. — Torres  Vedras  Works. 

of  indifferent  troops,  and  also  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the  work  by 
the  entry  of  the  assailants  at  any  weak  or  ill-defended  point.  Such 
interior  lines  to  rally  on  are  absolutely  essential  to  the  security  of  a 
large  field-work.  They  serve  as  substitutes  for  a  blockhouse  or  tower, 
placed  in  the  interior  of  all  well-constructed  permanent  earthen 
works,  and  merit  far  more  attention  than  they  generally  receive. 

The  small  circular  windmills  of  stone,  which  were  frequently 
found  occupying  salient  knolls  .  .  .  readily  converted  into  admir- 
able interior  posts  of  that  nature.  The  profile  of  the  several  works 
varied  on  every  face  and  flank,  according  to  its  liability  to  be  attacked 
or  cannonaded ;  the  only  general  rule  enforced  being  that  all  ditches 
should  be  at  least  15  ft.  wide  at  top  and  10  ft.  in  depth,  and  the  crest 
of  the  parapet  have  at  least  5  ft.  command  over  the  crest  of  the 
counterscarp.  No  parapet  exceeded  10  ft.  in  thickness,  unless 
exposed  to  be  severely  cannonaded,  and  few  more  than  6  or  8  ft. ; 
and  some,  on  high  knolls,  where  artillery  could  not  by  any  possibility 
be  brought  against  them,  were  made  of  stone  or  rubble  less  than  2  ft. 
in  thickness,  to  gain  more  interior  space,  and  allow  full  liberty  for  the 
use  of  the  defenders'  bayonets." 

Fig.  77  gives  two  typical  sections  of  these  works. 


FIG.  77. 

The  works  of  Torres  Vedras  have  been  chosen  for  illustration 
because  they  offer  very  good  historical  examples,  and  also 
because  of  the  value  of  the  critical  remarks  of  Sir  John  Jones, 
who  as  a  captain  was  the  engineer  in  charge  of  their  construction. 
At  the  same  time  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  differ  from 
ordinary  field-works  in  having  an  unusual  degree  of  strength, 
plenty  of  time  and  civilian  labour  having  been  available  for  their 
construction.  In  this  respect  they  approximate  more  to  semi- 
permanent works,  the  main  reason  why  they  did  not  receive 
under  the  circumstances  a  greater  development  of  ditch  and 
parapet  being  that  in  addition  to  the  large  number  of  works 
required,  much  labour  was  expended  in  abatis,  inundations, 
scarping  hill-sides  and  constructing  roads. 

Some  further  remarks  of  Sir  John  on  the  situations  of  the 
works  are  very  instructive: — 

"  Many  of  the  redoubts  were  placed  on  very  elevated  situations 
on  the  summit  of  steep  hills,  which  gave  them  a  most  imposing 


FIELD  FORTIFICATION]  FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


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appearance;  but  it  was  in  reality  a  defect  .  .  .  for  the  fire  of  their 
artillery  on  the  object  to  be  guarded  became  so  plunging  as  to  lose 
half  its  powers;  the  musketry  could  not  be  made  to  scour  the  face 
of  the  hill  sufficiently;  and  during  the  night  both  arms  became  of 
most  uncertain  effect. 

"  The  domineering  situation  of  the  redoubts,  however,  gave  con- 
fidence to  the  young  troops  which  composed  their  garrisons,  pro- 
tected them  from  a  cannonade,  and  screened  their  interior  from 
musketry,  unless  fired  at  a  high  angle,  and  consequently  at  random. 
These  considerations  perhaps  justify  the  unusually  elevated  sites 
selected  for  most  of  the  redoubts  on  the  lines,  though  they  cannot 
induce  an  approval  of  them  as  a  general  measure." 

The  chief  principle  of  the  period  was  thus  that  the  redoubts 
were  the  most  important  features  of  lines  of  defence,  and  that 
they  combined  physical  obstacle  and  protection  with  good 
musketry  and  artillery  positions.  The  value  of  concealment 
was  not  ignored,  but  it  was  as  a  rule  subordinated  to  other 
considerations. 

The  principles  of  this  time  remained  unaltered  until  after  the 
Crimean  War.  In  the  American  Civil  War  the  power  of  the  rifle 
began  to  assert  itself,  and  it  was  found  that  a  simple 
centu  breastwork  defended  by  a  double  rank  of  men  could 
protect  itself  by  its  fire  against  an  ordinary  assault. 
This  power  of  the  rifle  gave  greatly  enhanced  importance  to 
any  defences  that  could  be  hastily  extemporized  behind  walls, 
hedges  or  any  natural  cover.  About  the  period  of  the  Franco- 
German  War  other  considerations  came  in.  The  increased 
velocity  of  artillery  projectiles  reduced  in  some  ways  their 
destructive  effects  against  earth  parapets,  because  the  shell  had 
an  increasing  tendency  to  deflect  upwards  on  striking  a  bank 
of  loose  earth.  Also  the  use  of  shrapnel  made  it  impossible  for 
troops  to  find  cover  on  the  terreplein  of  a  work  some  distance 
behind  the  parapet. 

These  considerations,  however,  were  not  fully  realized  at  that 
time.  The  reason  was  partly  a  want  of  touch  between  the 
engineers  and  the  non-technical  branches  of  most  armies,  and 
partly  that  original  writers  from  the  Napoleonic  wars  to  the 
present  day  have  been  more  occupied  with  the  primary  question 
of  the  value  of  field  defences  as  a  matter  of  tactics  than  with 
their  details  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  fortification. 
There  was  always  an  influential  school  of  writers  who  declaimed 
against  all  defences,  as  being  injurious  to  the  offensive  spirit  so 
essential  to  success.  Those  writers  who  treated  of  the  arrange- 
ments of  defences  devoted  themselves  to  theoretical  details  of 
trace  quite  after  the  old  style;  discussing  the  size  and  shape  of 
typical  redoubts,  their  distance  apart  and  relation  to  lines  of 
trenches,  &c.  The  profiles — the  thick  parapet  with  command 
of  7  ft.  or  more,  the  deep  ditch,  and  the  inadequate  cover  behind 
the  parapet — remained  as  they  had  been  for  a  century. 

The  American  Civil  War  snowed  the  power  of  rifles  behind 
slight  defences.  Plevna  in  1877  taught  a  further  lesson.  It 
proved  the  great  resisting  power  of  extemporized  lines;  but 
more  than  that,  we  begin  to  find  new  arrangements  for  protection 
against  shell  fire  (see  plans  and  sections  in  Greene's  The  Russian 
Army  and  Us  Campaign  in  Turkey).  The  trace  of  the  works  and 
the  sections  of  parapet  and  ditch  suggest  Torres  Vedras;  but 
a  multiplication  of  interior  traverses  and  splinter-proof  shelters 
show  the  necessity  for  a  different  class  of  protection.  The 
parapet  was  designed  according  to  the  old  type,  for  want  of  a 
better;  the  traverses  and  shelters  were  added  later,  to  meet  the 
necessities  of  the  case.  The  Turks  also  used  two  or  three  tiers 
of  musketry  fire,  as  for  instance  one  from  the  crest  of  the  glacis, 
one  from  the  parapet,  and  one  from  a  traverse  in  rear  of  it. 
This,  however,  is  a  development  which  will  not  be  necessary  in 
future,  thanks  to  magazine  rifles. 

From  1877  to  1899  the  efficiency  of  rifles  and  guns  rapidly 
increased,  and  certain  new  principles,  causing  the  field  defences 
Principles  °f  &£  present  day  to  differ  radically  from  those  of 
of  modern  the  1 8th  century,  remained  to  be  developed.  These 
Held  may  be  considered  under  the  following  heads:  the 

defences.     nature  of  protection  required,  the  diminished  need 
of  obstacle,  and  the  adaptation  of  works  to  ground. 

The  principle  that  thickness  of  parapet  is  no  longer  required, 
to  resist  artillery  fire,  was  first  laid  down  at  Chatham  in  1896. 


The  distance  at  which  guns  now  engage  makes  direct  hits  on 
parapets  comparatively  rare.  Further,  a  shell  striking  near  the 
crest  of  a  parapet  may  perhaps  kill  one  man  if  he  is  in  the  way, 
and  displace  a  bushel  of  earth.  That  is  nothing.  It  is  the 
contents  of  the  shell,  whether  shrapnel  or  explosive,  that  is 
the  source  of  danger  and  not  the  shell  itself.  Thus  the  enemy's 
object  is  to  burst  his  common  shell  immediately  behind  the 
parapet,  or  his  shrapnel  a  short  distance  in  front  of  it,  in  order 
to  get  searching  effect.  It  follows  that  a  parapet  is  thick  enough 
if  it  suffices  to  stop  rifle  bullets,  since  the  same  thickness  will 
a  fortiori  keep  out  shrapnel  bullets  or  splinters  of  shell.  For  this 
purpose  3  ft.  is  enough. 

Real  protection  is  gained  by  a  trench  close  in  rear  of  the 
parapet,  deep  enough  to  give  shelter  from  high  angle  shrapnel, 
and  narrow  enough  to  minimize  the  chance  of  a  common  shell 
dropping  into  it.  This  protection  is  increased  by  frequent 
traverses  across  the  trench. 

The  most  essential  point  of  all  is  concealment.  In  gaining  this 
we  say  good-bye  finally  to  the  old  type  of  work.  Protection 
is  now  given  by  the  trench  rather  than  the  parapet;  command 
and  the  ditch-obstacle  (which  furnished  the  earth  for  the  high 
parapet)  are  alike  unnecessary.  Concealment  can  therefore  be 
studied  by  keeping  the  parapet  down  to  the  lowest  level  above 
the  surface  from  which  the  foreground  can  be  seen.  This  may  be 
1 8  in.  or  less. 

The  need  of  obstacle,  in  daylight  and  when  the  defenders 
are  not  abnormally  few,  has  practically  disappeared.  For  night 
work,  or  when  the  assailant  is  so  strong  as  to  be  able  to  force 
home  his  attack  in  face  of  protected  rifle  fire,  what  is  needed  is  not 
a  deep  ditch  immediately  in  front  of  the  parapet,  difficult  to 
climb,  but  also  difficult  to  flank,  but  an .  obstacle  that  will 
detain  him  under  fire  at  short  range.  It  may  be  an  entangle- 
ment, an  abatis,  an  inundation:  anything  that  will  check  the 
rush  and  make  him  move  slowly. 

In  the  adaptation  of  works  to  ground,  the  governing  factor  is 
the  power  of  the  rifle  in  frontal  defence.  We  have  seen  that  in 
Peninsular  times  great  reliance  was  placed  on  the  flanking  defence 
of  lines  by  guns  in  redoubts.  Infantry  extended  behind  a  simple 
line  of  trench  could  not  resist  a  strong  attack  without  such 
support.  Now,  however,  infantry  behind  a  slight  trench,  with 
a  good  field  of  fire  should  be  able  to  defend  themselves  against 
any  infantry  attack. 

This  being  so,  the  enemy's  artillery  seeks  to  locate  the  trenches 
and  to  cover  them  with  a  steady  hail  of  shells,  so  as  to  force  the 
defenders  to  keep  down  under  cover.  If  they  can  succeed  in 
doing  this,  it  is  possible  for  the  attacking  infantry  to  advance, 
and  the  artillery  fire  is  kept  up  until  the  last  moment,  so  that  the 
attack  may  have  the  narrowest  possible  space  to  cover  after  the 
defenders  have  manned  their  parapets  and  opened  fire.  Fig.  78 
shows  the  action  of  various  natures  of  projectiles. 


From  Mil.  Engineering,  by  permission  of  the  Controller  of  H.M.  Stationery  Office. 

FIG.  78. — Effect  of  Projectiles. 

We  need  not  here  discuss  the  role  of  the  defenders'  artillery  in 
replying  to  that  of  the  enemy  and  playing  on  the  attack;  nor 
for  the  moment  consider  how  far  the  defence  of  the  trenches 
while  under  artillery  fire  can  be  made  easier  by  overhead  cover. 
The  main  question  is — what  is,  in  view  of  the  nature  of  the  attack, 


720 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT  [FIELD  FORTIFICATION 


the  best  disposition  of  lines  of  trench;  and  do  they  require  the 
addition  of  redoubts  ? 

The  most  important  point,  with  the  object  of  protection,  is 
that  the  trenches  must  not  be  conspicuous;  this  is  the  best 
defence  against  artillery.  With  the  object  of  resistance  by  their 
own  fire  they  must  have  a  good  view,  or,  as  it  is  generally 
described,  no  dead  ground  in  front  of  them.  For  this  purpose 
300  or  400  yds.  may  be  enough  if  the  ground  is  even  and  affords 
no  cover. 

This  necessity  for  invisibility,  together  with  the  shallowness 
of  the  zone  that  suffices  for  producing  a  decisive  fire  effect,  has 
of  late  years  very  much  affected  the  choice  of  ground  for  a  line 
of  trenches. 

For  a  defensive  position  on  high  ground,  it  was  usually  laid  down 

until  the  South  African  War  that  a  line  of  trenches  should  be  on  the 

"  military  crest  "   (Fr.  Crete  militaire),   i.e.   the  highest 

point  on  the  hill  from  which  the  whole  of  the  slopes  in 

'ches-    front  can  be  seen.    Thus  in  the  three  sections  of  ground 

shown  in  fig.  79  it  would  be  at  a,  b  and  c  respectively.    The  simplicity 


FIG.  79. 

of  this  prescription  made  it  attractive  and  it  came  to  be  rather 
abused  in  the  text-books.  There  were,  even  before  the  improvements 
in  artillery,  objections  to  it,  because  on  most  slopes  the  military 
crest  would  be  found  at  very  different  elevations  on  different  parts 
of  the  line,  so  that  by  a  strict  adherence  to  the  rule  some  of  the 
trenches  would  be  placed  near  the  top  of  the  hill,  and  some  in 
dangerous  isolation  near  the  bottom.  Moreover  a  rounded  hill  has 
no  military  crest. 

Further,  we  have  to  consider  nowadays  not  only  the  position  of 
the  fire-trenches,  but  those  of  supports,  reserves  and  artillery,  and 
the  whole  question  is  extremely  difficult. 

For  instance,  considering  the  sections  alone,  as  if  they  did  not 
vary  along  the  line,  the  positions  at  a  and  b,  fig.  79,  are  bad  because 
they  are  on  the  sky-line  and  therefore  a  good  mark  for  artillery. 
That  at  b  is  especially  bad  because  the  slope  in  front  is  so  steep  that 
the  defenders  would  have  to  expose  themselves  very  much  to  fire 
down  it,  and  the  artillery  fire  against  them  can  be  kept  up  until  the 
very  last  moment.  The  position  c  has  the  advantage  of  not  being 
on  the  sky-line,  but  the  position  of  the  supports  in  rear  is  exposed. 

Such  a  position  as  that  at 
d,  fig.  80,  is  good,  but  pro- 
tected or  concealed  com- 
munications must  be  made 
for  the  supports  coming 
p-Tr  cn  from  e  over  the  brow  of  the 

JT  l\J*    OU.  I'll 

hill. 

Another  possible  position  for  the  infantry  line  is  at/,  fig.  81,  with 
the  guns  on  the  high  ground  behind.  They  might  easily  be  quite 
concealed  from  the  enemy's  artillery.  The  drawback  is  that  no 

retirement  up  the 
exposed  slope 
would  be  possible 
for  them,  except 
at  night.  The  fire 
from  /  will  be 

°I-  grazing,  which  will 

be  a  great  advantage  as  compared  with  the  plunging  fire  that  would 
be  obtained  from  a  position  up  the  hill. 

It  is  idle,  however,  to  give  more  than  the  most  cursory  consideration 
to  sections  of  imaginary  positions.  It  is  only  by  actual  practice  on 
the  ground  that  skill  can  be  attained  in  laying  out  positions,  and 
only  a  trained  soldier  with  a  good  eye  can  succeed  in  it.  Briefly,  the 
advantages  of  view  and  position  given  by  high  ground  must  be  paid 
for  in  some  degree  by  exposure  to  the  enemy's  artillery;  and  at 
least  as  much  consideration — possibly  as  much  labour — must  be 
given  to  communications  with  the  fire-trenches  as  to  the  trenches 
themselves.  Irregular  ground  simplifies  the  question  of  concealment 
but  also  gives  cover  to  the  enemy's  approach.  The  lie  of  the  ground 
will  itself  dictate  the  position  of  the  trenches,  subject  to  the  pre- 
dispositions of  the  responsible  officer.  On  flat  featureless  ground  the 
general  trace  of  the  trenches  should  be  irregular.  This  makes  a 
more  difficult  target  for  artillery,  and  affords  a  certain  amount  of 
cross  and  flanking  fire,  which  is  a  very  great  advantage.  Great  care 
should,  however,  be  taken  not  to  expose  the  trenches  to  oblique 
or  enfilade  fire;  or  at  least  to  protect  them,  if  so  exposed,  by 
traversing. 


FIG.  82. 


Concealment  of  trenches  is  generally  attempted  by  covering  the 
freshly  turned  earth  of  the  small  parapet  with  sods,  leafy  branches 
or  grass.  In  this  connexion  it  should  be  remembered  _. 
that  after  a  day  or  two  cut  leaves  and  grass  wither  and  Tnacbes- 
may  become  conspicuous  against  a  green  surface.  Where  the  ground 
is  so  even  that  a  good  view  of  the  foreground  is  possible  from  the 
surface  level,  the  trench  may  be  made 
without  a  parapet;  but  this  entails 
great  labour  in  removing  and  disposing 
of  the  excavated  earth.  A  common 
device  is  to  conceal  the  parapet  as  well 
as  possible  and  to  make  a  dummy 
trench  some  distance  away  to  draw 
fire. 

Besides  the  direct  concealment  of 
trenches,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  site  is  not  conspicuous.  Thus 
a  trench  should  not  be  placed  along  the  meeting  line  of  two  different 
kinds  of  cultivation,  or  along  the  edge  of  a  belt  of  heather  on  a  hill- 
side, or  where  a  difference  of  gradient  is  sharply  defined;  or  where 
any  conspicuous 
landmark  would 
help  the  enemy's 
artillery  to  get  the  <, 
range. 

Trenches  are 
broadly  distin- 
guished as  "fire 
trenches"  and 
"  cover  trenches," 
according  as  they  FIG.  83. 

are   for    the   firing 

line  or  supporting  troops.  The  following  simple  types  are  taken 
from  the  1908  edition  of  Military  Engineering  (part  i):  "Field 
Defences." 

Fig.  82  is  the  most  common  form  of  fire  trench,  in  which  labour, 
is  saved  by  equalizing  trench  and  parapet.  This  would  take  ii  to 
2  hours  in  ordinary  soil.  Fig.  83  shows  the  same  trench  improved 
by  2  or  3  hours'  more  work.  Fig.  84  shows  a  fire  trench  without 
parapet,  with  cover  trench  and  communication. 

The  addition  of  a  loophole  of  sand-bags,  sodded  on  the  top  for 

Cover  Trench 


Notf.-Surplut  tarth  may 
tit  htaped  or  spread 
in  rear  of  trench 


From  Mil.  Engineering:  Fitld  Dejences  (1908),  by  permission  of    the    Controller 
H.  M.  Stationery  Office. 

FIG.    84. 

concealment  (called  head-cover),  gives  increased  protection,  but  at 
the  cost  of  greater  prominence  for  the  parapet  (fig.  85).  Overhead 
cover  can  only  be  provided  in  fire  trenches  by  giving  the  parapet  still 
greater  height  and  it  is  not  usually  done.  Portions  of  the  trench 
not  used  for  firing  can,  however,  be  given  splinter-proof  protection 
by  putting  over  them  branches  or  bundles,  covered  with  a  few  inches 
of  earth :  or  by  boards,  or  sheets  of  corrugated  iron  if  they  can  be 
had.  A  better  plan  when  time  permits  is  to  provide  cover  trenches 
immediately  behind  and  communicating  with  the  fire  trench. 

The  question  of  redoubts  has  been  a  vexed  one  for  years;  partly 
they  were  thought  to  be  unnecessary  in  view  of  the  resisting  power 
of  a  line  of  trenches,  but  chiefly  because  the  redoubt  was 
always  imagined  as  one  of  the  older  type,  with  a  high    "e"oa'>'s- 
conspicuous  parapet.    Of  course  a  redoubt  of  such  a  nature  would 
be  readily  identified  and  made  untenable.    But  the  idea  of  a  redoubt 
does   not   neces- 
s  a  r  i  1  y     imply 
command.       Its 
object  is  that  it 
shall  be  capable 
of  all-round  de- 
fence.    There 
can  be  no  doubt 
t  hat  as  there 
is  always  a  pos- 
sibility  of   lines 
being    pierced 
somewhere,  it  is 
desirable,  unless 
the  whole  line  is 

to    be      thrown        From  jf  a.  Engineering:  Field  Defences,  by  permission  of  the 
into      confusion  Controller  H.  M.  Stationery  Office, 
and         forced 
back,     to    have 


FIG.  85. 


some  point  at  which  the  defenders  can  maintain  themselves. 
This  is  not  possible  unless  at  such  points  Ithere  is  provision  for 
defence  towards  both  flanks  and  rear,  that  is  to  say,  when  there  are 
redoubts,  which  can  hold  on  after  certain  portions  of  the  line  have 
been  lost  and  thereby  can  localize  the  enemy's  success  and  simplify 


FIELD  FORTIFICATION]  FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


721 


the  action  of  supporting  troops.  In  order  that  redoubts  may 
exercise  this  function,  all  that  is  necessary  is  that  their  defenders 
should  be  able  to  see  the  ground  for  a  furlong  in  front  of  them  in 
every  direction.  Their  parapets,  therefore,  need  be  in  no  way  more 
conspicuous  than  those  of  the  neighbouring  fire  trenches,  and  in 
that  case  there  is  no  fear  of  their  drawing  special  attention  from  the 
enemy's  artillery.  Whatever  theories  may  have  been  put  forward 
on  the  subject,  in  practice  they  are  constantly  used,  and  in  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War,  where  the  experience  of  South  Africa  was  already 
available,  we  find  them  in  the  fighting  lines  on  both  sides. 


FIG.  86. 


The  modern  type  of  field  redoubt  is  a  fire  trench,  no  more  con- 
spicuous than  the  others,  in  any  simple  form  adapted  to  the  ground 
that  will  give  effective  all-round  fire,  such  as  a  square  with  blunted 


T  

>                                 •                               •'.                    .      ..    . 

^f  —  j 

N*-,  ?P_fP?5  „.      '  

JO.mvL.  —  -'/ 

'7"ij 

'        i 

•                                            »                                          • 



FIG.  87. 

angles.  Enhanced  strength  may  be  given  by  deepening  the  trenches 
and  improving  the  overhead  cover;  and  special  use  may  here  be 
made  of  obstacles. 

Within  the  redoubt  cover  may  be  provided  for  men  in  excess  of 
those  required  to  man  the  parapet,  by  means  of  cover  trenches  and 


FIG.  88. 

field  casemates.  Fig.  86  gives  the  general  idea  of  such  a  redoubt, 
and  figs.  87,  88  the  plan  and  section  of  the  interior  shelters.  Such  a 
work  can  easily  be  made  quite  invisible  from  a  distance.  It  gives 
excellent  cover  against  shrapnel,  but  would  not  be  tenable  against 
howitzer  common  shell,  if  the  enemy  did  manage  to  bring  an  accurate 
fire  to  bear  on  it. 

Fig.  89  shows  the  section  of  a  parapet  with  two  shelters  behind 
it  for  a  work  with  a  high  command  of  5  or  6  ft.    This  work  would 


.loopftofe 


From  Mil.  Engineering:  Fisld  Defences  (1908),  by  permission  of  the  Controller  H.M. 
Stationery  Office. 

FIG.  89. 

require  a  concealed  position,  which  can  often  be  found  a  little  in 
rear  of  the  firing  line. 

In  the  South  African  War  a  good  deal  of  interest  was  excited  by 
a  type  of  trench  used  by  the  Boers.  It  was  very  narrow  at  the 
surface,  giving  only  just  room  for  a  man  to  stand;  but  undercut 
or  hollowed  out  below,  so  that  he  could  sit  down  with  very  good 


coyer.  Such  a  section  is  only  possible  in  very  firm  soil.  Apart  from 
this,  the  type  is  really  only  suited  to  rifle  pits,  as  a  trench  proper 
should  have  room  for  officers  and  N.C.Q.'s  to  move  along 
within  it.  The  Boers  showed  great  skill  in  concealing  their 
trenches.  One  good  point  was  that  there  was  generally 
something  making  a  background  immediately  behind  the 
men's  heads,  so  that  they  did  not  stand  out  in  relief 
when  raised  above  the  parapet. 

In  the  Russo-Japanese  War  the  Russian  trenches  at  the  outset 
were  of  old-fashioned  type  and  very  conspicuous.  Later  on  better 
types  were  evolved.  Figs.  90  and  91  are  a  couple  of  sections  from 
Port  Arthur;  the  first  borrowed  from  the  Boers  but  wider  at  the 


Boer, 

Russian 

and 

Japanese 

types. 


.  4xf Strut  /fcoirt  Ift.of  tortli 

rr<"".?>.     at  intervals  /- 


Skitldtd  loaf  halt 


From  Russo-Japanese  War:  British  Officers*  'Reports,  vol.  ii.,  by  permission  of  the 
Controller  H.M.  Stationery  Office. 

FIGS.  90  and  91. 

top.  The  Japanese  appear  to  have  taken  their  type  mainly  from 
the  latest  British  official  books,  but  applied  them  with  great  skill 
to  the  ground,  studying  especially  invisibility.  In  their  prepared 
positions  they  used  large  redoubts  manned  by  several  companies. 

Cover  for  Guns. — Some  degree  of  cover  for  guns,  in  addition  to  the 
shield,  is  always  desirable.  If  the  gun  stands  on  the  natural  surface 
of  the  ground,  the  cover  is  called  an  epaulment.  In  that  case  a  bank 
is  thrown  up  in  front  of  the  gun,  about  I  ft.  high  in  the  centre,  and 


From  Mil.    Engineering:  Field   Defences,  by  permission  of  the  Controller  H.  M. 
Stationery  Office. 

FIG.  92. — Gun-pit. 

3  ft.  6  in.  high  at  the  ends.  On  either  side  of  the  gun  and  close  up 
to  the  bank  is  a  small  pit  for  the  gunners.  The  rest  of  the  earth  for 
the  epaulment  is  got  from  a  trench  in  front.  If  the  gun  is  sunk,  the 
shelter  is  called  a  gun-pit. 

In  this  case  there  is  no  bank  immediately  in  front  of  the  gun. 
Shelter  can  be  got  more  quickly  with  a  pit  than  an  epaulment,  but 
it  is  generally  undesirable  to  break  the  surface  of  the  ground. 


722 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT  [FIELD  FORTIFICATION 


The  commonest  forms  of  obstacle  now  used  are  abatis  and  wire 
entanglements.  Fig.  93  shows  a  well-finished  type  of  abatis.  The 
branches  are  stripped  and  pointed,  and  the  butts  are 
Obstacles.  jjur;e(j  ancj  pegged  firmly  down.  Wire  entanglement 
may  be  added  to  this  with  advantage.  An  abatis  should  be  protected 
from  artillery  fire,  which  is  sometimes  done  by  placing  it  in  a  shallow 
excavation  with  the  earth  thrown  up  in  front  of  it. 


it- 


Jl-Mujh 


From  Mil.  Engineering:  Field  Defences,  by  permission  of  the  Controller  H.M. 
Stationery  Office. 

FIG.  93. — Abatis. 

Wire  may  be  used  as  a  high  or  low  entanglement  or  as  a  fence  or 
trip  wire  or  concealed  obstacle.  The  usual  form  of  high  wire  entangle- 
ment consists  of  several  rows  of  stout  stakes  4  or  5  ft.  long,  driven 
firmly  into  the  ground  about  6  ft.  apart,  and  connected  horizontally 
and  diagonally  with  barbed  wire. 

Palisades  are  still  used,  and  need  no  description.  They  were 
formerly  often  made  bullet-proof,  but  this  is  no  longer  possible. 
Praises  are  seldom  heard  of  now,  though  they  may  appear  occasion- 
ally in  a  modified  form.  They  were  much  used  in  connexion  with 
deep  ditches,  and  are  palisades  placed 
so  as  to  project  horizontally  from  the 
escarp,  or  sloping  forward  in  the  bottom 
of  the  ditch.  Military  pits  both  deep  and 
shallow  (the  latter,  shown  in  fig.  95,  called 
trous  de  loup)  are  not  so  much  used  as 
formerly,  because  the  obstacle  is  hardly 
worth  the  labour  expended  on  it.  Both, 


FIG.  94.— Crows'  Feet.  FIG.  95. — Plan  and  section 

of  Trous-de-loup. 

however,  were  employed  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War.  Crows'  feet, 
formerly  much  used  as  a  defence  against  cavalry,  are  practically 
obsolete.  They  consisted  of  four  iron  spikes  joined  together  at  their 
bases  in  such  a  manner  that  however  they  were  thrown  down  one 
point  would  always  be  pointing  upwards  (fig.  94).  Chevaux-de-frise 
(q.v.)  were  formerly  a  much-used  type  of  obstacle. 

The  best  obstacle  is  that  which  can  be  made  to  fulfil  a  given  object 
with  the  least  expenditure  of  time  and  labour.  From  this  point  of 
view  barbed  wire  is  far  the  best.  One  of  its  greatest  advantages  is 
that  it  gives  no  cover  whatever  to  the  enemy. 

Fougasses  have  always  for  convenience  been  classed  as  obstacles. 
A  fougasse  is  a  charge  of  powder  buried  at  the  bottom  of  a  sloping 
pit.  Over  the  powder  is  a  wooden  shield,  3  or  4  in.  thick,  and  over 
the  shield  a  quantity  of  stones  are  piled.  The  illustration,  fig.  96, 
gives  a  clear  idea  of  the  arrangement.  A  fougasse  of  this  form, 
charged  with  80  Ib  of  powder,  will  throw  5  tons  of  stones  over  a 
surface  160  yds.  long  by  120  wide.  They  may  be  fired  by  powder 
hose,  fuze  or  electricity.  Their  actual  effect  is  very  often  a  matter 
of  chance,  but  the  moral  effect  is  usually  considerable. 

Dams  are  most  effective  obstacles,  when  circumstances  allow  of 
their  use.  They  are  constructed  by  military  engineers  as  small 
temporary  dams  would  be  in  civil  works. 

A  most  important  question,  especially  in  connexion  with  obstacles, 
is  that  of  lighting  up  the  foreground  at  night.  Portable  electric 
Illumlaa-  searcn''ghts  are  most  valuable,  especially  for  detecting 
Hon.  the  enemy's  movements  at  some  distance;  but  their  use 

will  naturally  always  be  restricted.  Star  shells  and 
parachute  lights  fired  from  guns  are  not  of  much  use  for  the  immediate 
foreground,  and  do  not  burn  very  long.  They  were  formerly  chiefly 
of  use  in  siege  works,  to  light  up  an  enemy's  working  parties. 
Germany  has  introduced  lightballs  fired  from  pistols,  which  will 
probably  have  a  considerable  future. 

Various  civilian  forms  of  flare-light  would  be  very  useful  to 
illuminate  obstacles,  but  cannot  well  be  carried  in  the  field.  Bonfires 
are  very  useful  when  material  is  available.  They  require  careful 
treatment,  e.g.  they  must  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  lighted 
instantaneously  (they  may  be  lighted  automatically,  by  means  of  a 
trip  wire  and  a  fuze) ;  they  must  give  a  bright  light  at  once  (this 
can  be  ensured  with  shavings  or  straw  sprinkled  with  petroleum); 
they  must  be  firmly  built  so  that  the  enemy  cannot  destroy  them 
easily;  and  if  possible  there  should  be  a  screen  arranged  behind 
them  so  that  they  may  not  light  up  the  defence  as  well  as  the  attack. 


Block- 
houses. 


Blockhouses  are  familiar  to  the  public  from  the  part  they  played 
in  the  South  African  War  of  1899-1902.  In  the  old-fashioned 
permanent  fortification  they  were  used  as  keeps  in  such 
positions  as  re-entering  places  of  arms  and  built  of 
masonry.  Stone  blockhouses  have  long  been  used  in  the 
Balkans  for  frontier  outposts;  they  are  sometimes  built  cruciform, 
so  as  to  get  some  flanking  defence.  In  the  form  of  bullet-proof  log- 
cabins  they  have  played  a  great  part  in  warfare  between  pioneer 
settlers  and  savages. 


Fuze 


'faultier  Box 


From  Mil.  Engineering,  by  permission  of  the  Controller  H.M.  Stationery  Office. 

FIG.  96. — Fougasse. 

In  the  igth  century  blockhouses  were  usually  designed  to  give 
partial  protection  against  field  artillery;  the  walls  being  built  of 
two  thicknesses  of  logs  with  earth  between  them,  the  roof  flat  and 
covered  with  2  or  3  ft.  of  earth,  and  earth  being  piled  against  the 
walls  up  to  the  loopholes.  Nowadays  they  are  employed  only  in 
positions  where  it  is  not  likely  that  artillery  will  be  brought  against 
them :  but  they  may  be  made  tenable  for  a  while  even  under  artillery 
fire  if  they  are  surrounded  by  a  trench  and  parapet. 

Blockhouses  are  especially  useful  for  small  posts  protecting  such 
points  as  railway  bridges,  which  the  enemy  may  attempt  to  destroy 
by  cavalry  raids.  The  essential  feature  is  a  bullet-proof  loop-holed 
wall,  arranged  for  all-round  fire,  with  enough  interior  space  for  the 
garrison  to  sleep  in.  The  roof  may  be  simply  weatherproof.  Some 
arrangement  for  storing  water  must  be  provided.  Circular  block- 
houses were  very  popular  in  South  Africa.  They  were  made  of 
sheets  of  corrugated  iron  fastened  6  in.  apart  on  a  wooden  framework, 
the  space  between  the  sheets  being  filled  with  small  stones.  The 
loop-holes  were  made  of  sheet-iron  frames  inserted  in  the  walls. 
Fig.  97  shows  a  section  of  one  of  these  blockhouses. 


Corrugated  Inn  SUM 
ith  loophole 
'Bank  of  earth 


By  permission  of  the  Controller  H.M.  Stationery  Office. 

FIG.  97. — Blockhouse,  South  Africa,  1900-1902. 

The  defence  of  woods  was  formerly  an  important  branch  of  field 
defences.  Abatis  and  entanglements  could  readily  be  extemporized, 
trunks  of  trees  made  strong  breastworks,  and  the  wood  „,  . 
concealed  the  numbers  of  the  defenders.  A  wood  was 
therefore  generally  considered  a  useful  addition  to  a  line  of  defence. 
It  was  customary  to  hold  the  front  edge  of  the  wood,  the  irregularities 
of  the  outline  being  utilized  for  frontal  and  flanking  fire,  while 
obstacles  were  disposed  some  50  yds.  in  front.  In  a  carefully  pre- 
pared position,  clearings  would  be  made  parallel  to  the  front  and 
some  distance  back  from  it,  for  support  positions,  and  great  attention 
was  paid  (in  theory  at  least)  to  clearing  communications,  erections, 
signposts,  &c.,  so  that  the  defending  troops  might  move  freely  in  any 
desired  direction. 

Woods,  however,  had  their  inherent  drawbacks.  The  ground  is 
hard  to  dig,  clearing  involves  great  labour;  and  communication, 
at  the  best,  is  cramped.  Nowadays  a  wood  can  hardly  be  considered 
a  strong  defensive  element  in  a  line.  The  front  of  it  is  an  excellent 
ranging  mark  for  artillery,  and  positions  within  the  wood  are  not 
easily  made,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  trenching,  and  the  fact  that 
no  reasonable  amount  of  timber  will  make  a  breastwork  proof  against 
the  modern  bullet.  Once  an  enemy  gets  a  footing  within  a  wood, 
the  position  is  more  favourable  to  offensive  than  to  defensive  action. 
If  a  wood  has  to  be  occupied  in  a  line  of  defence,  it  is  probable  that 
in  most  cases  the  rear  edge  or  a  line  slightly  behind  it  would  be  the 
best  to  fortify,  though  the  front  edge  would  no  doubt  be  held  by  the 
fighting  line  at  the  outset. 

The  defence  of  villages  is  another  question  which  has  been  much 
affected  by  recent  improvements  in  artillery.     Formerly  villages 
were  very  important  adjuncts  to  a  line  of  defence,    and       villages. 
strong  points  for  a  detached  force  to  hold.     There  were 
indeed  always  drawbacks.     The  preparations  for  defence  entailed 


CONCLUSION] 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


723 


a  good  deal  of  labour,  and  the  defending  force  was  scattered  in  houses 
and  enclosures,  so  that  control  and  united  action  were  difficult. 
But  the  value  of  the  ready-made  protection  afforded  by  walls  was  so 
great — and  sometimes  even  decisive — that  villages  were  occupied 
as  a  matter  of  course.  This  is  certainly  now  changed,  but  precisely 
to  what  extent  it  will  be  impossible  to  say,  until  after  the  next 
European  war.  A  village  under  fire  is  not  now  an  ideal  defensiye 
position.  A  single  shrapnel  penetrating  the  outer  wall  may  kill 
all  the  occupants  of  a  room ;  a  single  field-howitzer  shell  may 
practically  ruin  a  house.  At  the  same  time,  a  house  or  line  of  houses 
may  (without  any  preliminary  labour  at  all)  give  very  good  protection 
against  shell  fire  to  troops  behind  them.  Further,  the  value  to  the 
defence  of  the  slightest  cover,  once  the  infantry  attack  has  developed, 
is  so  great  that  the  ruins  of  walls  and  houses  occupied  at  the  right 
moment  may  prove  an  impregnable  stronghold.  This  class  of  fighting, 
however,  does  not  properly  come  under  the  present  heading.  For  the 
details  of  the  defence  of  walls,  houses,  &c.,  see  the  official  Mil. 
Engineering  (1908). 

Entrenching  under  Fire. — Progress  in  this  direction  has  been 
delayed  by  the  reluctance  of  military  authorities  to  add  a  portable 
entrenching  tool  to  the  heavy  burden  already  carried  by  the  infantry 
soldier.  Further  delay  has  resulted  from  the  attempts  of  enthusiastic 
inventors  to  produce  a  tool  that  shall  weigh  nothing,  go  easily  in  the 
pocket,  and  be  available  as  a  pick,  shovel,  saw,  hand-axe  or  cork- 
screw. A  tool  that  will  serve  more  than  one  use  is  seldom  satisfactory 
for  any. 

The  object  of  entrenching  under  fire  is  to  enable  attacking  infantry, 
when  their  advance  is  checked  by  the  enemy's  fire,  to  maintain  the 
ground  they  have  won  by  extemporizing  cover  where 
'"*'  none  exists.  The  need  of  this  was  first  felt  in  the  American 
Civil  War,  and  towards  the  close  of  it  a  small  entrenching 
spade  22  in.  long  and  weighing  only  I  jib  was  introduced 
by  Brigadier-General  H.  W.  Benham  into  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
Since  that  time  a  great  number  of  patterns  have  been  tried,  including 
shovel,  trowel  and  adze  types.  The  most  popular  of  these  has  been 
the  Linnemann  spade,  which  is  used  by  most  continental  armies 
and  by  the  Japanese.  The  Austrian  form  of  this  tool  is  a  rectangular 
spade  with  straight  handle.  The  length  over  all  is  a  little  less  than 
20  in.  The  blade  is  8  in.  long  by  6  wide.  One  side  of  it  has  a  saw 
edge, and  theothera  cuttingedge.  For  carriage,  the  blade  is  enclosed 
in  a  leather  case,  which  is  strapped  to  the  pack  or  the  waist-belt. 
In  the  British  army  the  Wallace  combined  pick  and  shovel  was  used 
for  some  time,  but  was  eventually  dropped.  There  was  always  great 
doubt  whether  the  utility  of  a  portable  entrenching  tool  was  such  as 
to  justify  the  inconvenience  caused  to  the  soldier  in  carrying  it. 
But  the  experience  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War  seems  to  have  finally 
established  the  necessity  of  it,  and  also  the  fact  that  it  must  generally 
be  used  lying  down.  For  this  purpose  and  for  convenience  in  carrying 
it  on  the  person,  a  very  light  short-handled  tool  is  required. 

The  soldier  lying  down  cannot  attempt  to  dig  a  trench,  but  can 
make  a  little  hole  by  his  side  as  he  lies,  and  put  the  earth  in  front  of 
his  head.  A  method  introduced  by  the  Japanese  is  that  at  each  check 
in  the  advance  the  front  line  should  do  this,  and,  as  they  go  forward, 
the  supporting  lines  in  succession  should  improve  the  cover  thus 
commenced. 

There  are  few  things  that  soldiers  dislike  more,  in  the  way  of 
training,  than  trenchwork.  For  men  unused  to  it.  it  is  tiring  and 
General  tedious  work,  and  it  is  difficult  for  them  to  realize  its 
remarks.  >mP°rtance-  At  the  same  time  it  is  a  commonplace  of 
recent  history  that  men  who  have  been  in  action  a  few 
times  develop  a  great  affection  for  the  shovel.  The  need  of  trenches 
grows  with  the  growth  of  firearms,  and  the  latest  feature  of  modern 
tactics  is  the  use  of  them  in  attack  as  well  as  in  defence.  The 
observation  has  often  been  made — with  what  truth  as  a  general 
proposition  we  cannot  here  discuss — that  modern  battles  tend  more 
and  more  to  resemble  a  siege.  The  weaker  side,  it  is  said,  entrenches 
itself;  the  other  bombards  and  attacks.  After  gaining  as  much 
ground  as  they  can,  the  attacking  troops  wait  for  nightfall  and 
entrench ;  perhaps  making  a  further  advance  and  entrenchment 
before  dawn.  In  the  last  stage  the  attack  might  even  be  reduced 
to  gaining  ground  by  sapping.  In  open  and  featureless  ground, 
where  the  rifle  and  gun  have  full  play,  the  trench  is  to  the  modern 
soldier  very  much  what  the  breast-plate  was  to  the  man-at-arms, 
an  absolute  essential. 

The  most  important  point  in  connexion  with  modern  field  fortifica- 
tion is  the  effect  on  both  strategy  and  tactics  of  the  increased  resisting 
power  of  the  defence.  A  small  force  well  entrenched  can  check  the 
frontal  attack  of  a  very  much  larger  force,  and  while  holding  its 
position  can  make  itself  felt  over  a  wider  radius  than  ever  before. 
This  must  needs  have  a  marked  effect  on  strategy,  and  it  is  quite 
possible  to  foresee  such  an  ultimate  triumph  of  field  fortification 
as  that  one  force  should  succeed  in  surrounding  another  stronger 
than  itself,  and  by  entrenching  prevent  the  latter  from  breaking  out 
and  compel  its  surrender. 

VI.  CONCLUSION 

In  tracing  the  history  of  the  science  of  fortification  and  in 
outlining  the  practice  of  our  own  time  it  has  been  necessary  to 


dwell  chiefly  on  the  material  means  of  dofence  and  attack. 
The  human  element  has  had  to  be  almost  ignored.  But  here 
comes  in  the  paradox,  that  the  material  means  are  after  all  the 
least  important  element  of  defence.  Certainly  it  is  inconceivable 
that  the  designer  of  a  fortress  should  not  try  to  make  it  as  strong 
as  is  consistent  with  the  object  in  view  and  the  means  at  his 
disposal.  And  yet  while  engineers  in  all  ages  have  sought  eagerly 
for  strength  and  refinements  of  strength,  the  fact  remains  that 
the  best  defences  recorded  in  history  owed  little  to  the  builder's 
art.  The  splendid  defence  in  1667  of  Candia,  whose  enceinte, 
of  early  Italian  design,  was  already  obsolete  but  whose  capture 
cost  the  Turks  100,000  men;  the  three  years  defence  of  Ostend 
in  1601 ;  the  holding  of  Arcot  by  Clive,  are  instances  that  present 
themselves  to  the  memory  at  once.  The  very  weight  of  the  odds 
against  them  sometimes  calls  out  the  best  qualities  of  the 
defenders;  and  the  man  when  at  his  best  is  worth  many  times 
more  than  the  rampart  behind  which  he  fights.  But  it  would  be  a 
poor  dependence  deliberately  to  make  a  place  weak  in  order  to 
evoke  these  qualities.  One  cannot  be  sure  that  the  garrison 
will  rise  to  the  occasion,  and  the  weakness  of  the  place  has  very 
often  been  found  an  excuse  for  giving  it  up  with  little  or  no 
resistance. 

Very  much  depends  on  the  governor.  Hence  the  French 
saying,  "  tant  vaut  1'homme,  tant  vaut  la  place."  Among  modern 
men  we  think  of  Tpdleben  (not  governor,  but  the  soul  of  the 
defence)  at  Sevastopol,  Fenwick  Williams  at  Kars,  Denfert- 
Rochereau  at  Belfort,  and  Osman  Pasha  at  Plevna.  The  sieges 
of  the  1 6th  and  i7th  centuries  offer  many  instances  in  which 
the  event  turned  absolutely  on  the  personal  qualities  of  the 
governor;  in  some  cases  distinguished  by  courage,  skill  and 
foresight,  in  others  by  incapacity,  cowardice  or  treachery. 
The  reader  is  referred  to  Carnot's  Defense  des  places  fortes  for  a 
most  interesting  summary  of  such  cases,  one  or  two  of  which 
are  quoted  below. 

Naarden  was  besieged  by  the  prince  of  Orange  in  September 
1673  and  defended  by  Philippe  de  Proce,  sieur  Dupas.  The 
duke  of  Luxemburg  visited  the  place  some  hours 
before  it  was  invested,  and  arranged  with  Dupas  to  T^^Plrlt 
relieve  him  as  soon  as  he  had  collected  his  cavalry.  °aefence. 
But  the  governor  lost  his  head  when  he  saw  the  enemy 
encamped  round  the  place,  and  surrendered  it  before  he  had  even 
lost  the  covered  way.  He  was  subsequently  tried  by  a  council  of 
war  and  sentenced  to  be  degraded  before  the  troops  and  im- 
prisoned for  life.  The  reason  the  court  gave  for  not  condemning 
him  to  death  was  that  they  could  find  no  regulation  which 
condemned  a  man  to  loss  of  life  for  being  a  coward.  (At  that 
period  the  decapitation  of  a  governor  who  was  considered  to 
have  failed  in  his  duty  was  not  uncommon.)  This  man,  however, 
was  not  wanting  in  physical  courage.  He  was  in  prison  at  Grave 
when  it  was  besieged  a  year  later,  obtained  leave  to  serve  as  a 
volunteer  in  the  defence,  fought  well  and  was  killed. 

A  similar  case  occurred  in  the  English  Civil  War.  In  1645  the 
young  governor  of  the  royal  post  at  Bletchingdon  House  was 
entertaining  a  party  of  ladies  from  Oxford,  when  Cromwell 
appeared  and  summoned  him  to  surrender.  The  attacking  force 
had  no  firearm  more  powerful  than  a  carbine,  but  the  governor, 
overawed  by  Cromwell's  personality,  yielded.  Charles  I.,  who 
was  usually  merciful  to  his  officers,  caused  this  governor  to  be 
shot. 

A  defence  of  another  kind  was  that  of  Quillebceuf  in  1592. 
Henry  IV.  had  occupied  it  and  ordered  it  to  be  fortified.  Before 
the  works  had  been  well  begun,  Mayenne  sent  5000  men  to  retake 
it.  Bellegarde  undertook  its  defence,  with  115  soldiers,  45 
gentlemen  and  a  few  inhabitants.  He  had  ammunition  but  not 
much  provisions.  With  these  forces  and  a  line  of  defence  a 
league  in  length,  he  sustained  a  siege,  beat  off  an  assault  on  the 
I7th  day,  and  was  relieved  immediately  afterwards.  The 
relieving  forces  were  astonished  to  find  that  he  had  been  defend- 
ing not  a  fortified  town  but  a  village,  with  a  ditch  which,  in  the 
places  where  it  had  been  begun,  measured  no  more  than  4  ft. 
wide  and  deep. 

At  that  period  the  business  aspect  of  siege  warfare  already 


724 


FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT 


[CONCLUSION 


alluded  to  had  b.een  recognized,  but  many  commanders  retained 
the  old  spirit  of  chivalry  in  their  reluctance  to  say  the  "  loth 
word."  The  gallant  Marshal  d'Esse,  who  feared  nothing  but  the 
idea  of  dying  in  his  bed,  was  lying  ill  at  his  country  house  when 
he  was  sent  for  by  the  king.  He  was  ordered  to  take  command 
at  Therouanne,  then  threatened  by  Charles  V.,  and  made  his 
farewell  with  these  words,  which  remind  us  somewhat  of  Grenville : 
"  Sire,  je  m'y  en  vais  done  de  bon  et  loyal  cceur;  mais  j'ai  oul  dire 
que  la  place  est  mal  envitaillee,  non  pas  settlement  pourvue  de 
palles,  de  tranches,  ni  de  hottes  pour  remparer  et  remuer  la 
terre;  mais  lors,  quand  entendrez  que  Therouanne  est  prise, 
dites  hardiment  que  d'Esse  est  gueri  de  sa  jaunisse  et  mort." 
And  he  made  good  his  word,  for  he  was  killed  at  the  breach  by 
a  shot  from  the  arquebus  of  a  Spanish  soldier. 

Sometimes  the  ardour  of  defence  inspired  the  whole  body  of 
the  inhabitants.  Fine  examples  of  this  are  the  defences  of 
Rochelle  (1627)  and  Saint-Jean  de  L6ne  (1636),  but  these  are  too 
long  to  quote.  We  may,  however,  mention  Livron,  which  is 
curious.  In  1574  Henry  III.  sent  one  of  his  favourites,  Saint 
Lary  Bellegarde,  against  the  Huguenots  in  the  Dauphine.  Being 
entrusted  with  a  good  army,  this  gentleman  hoped  to  achieve 
some  distinction.  He  began  by  attacking  the  little  town  of 
Livron,  which  had  no  garrison  and  was  defended  only  by  the 
inhabitants.  But  he  was  repulsed  in  three  assaults,  and  the 
women  of  the  town  conceived  such  a  contempt  for  him  that  they 
came  in  crowds  to  empty  their  slops  at  the  breach  by  way  of 
insult.  This  annoyed  him  very  much,  and  he  ordered  a  fresh 
assault.  The  women  alone  sustained  this  one,  repulsed  it 
lightheartedly,  and  the  siege  was  raised. 

The  history  of  siege  warfare  has  more  in  it  of  human  interest 
than  any  other  branch  of  military  history.  It  is  full  of  the 
personal  element,  of  the  nobility  of  human  endurance 
and  of  dramatic  surprises.  And  more  than  any  battles 
in  the  open  field,  it  shows  the  great  results  of  the  courage  of  men 
fighting  at  bay.  Think  of  Clive  at  Arcot.  With  4  officers,  120 
Europeans  and  200  sepoys,  with  two  i8-pounders  and  8  lighter 
guns,  he  held  the  fort  against  150  Europeans  and  some  10,000 
native  troops.  "  The  fort "  (says  Orme)  "  seemed  little  capable 
of  sustaining  the  impending  siege.  Its  extent  was  more  than  a 
mile  in  circumference.  The  walls  were  in  many  places  ruinous; 
the  rampart  too  narrow  to  admit  the  firing  of  artillery;  the 
parapet  low  and  slightly  built;  several  of  the  towers  were 
decayed,  and  none  of  them  capable  of  receiving  more  than  one 
piece  of  cannon;  the  ditch  was  in  most  places  fordable,  in  others 
dry  and  in  some  choked  up,"  &c.  These  feeble  ramparts  were 
commanded  almost  everywhere  by  the  enemy's  musketry  from 
the  houses  of  the  city  outside  the  fort,  so  that  the  defenders  were 
hardly  able  to  show  themselves  without  being  hit,  and  much 
loss  was  suffered  in  this  way.  Yet  with  his  tiny  garrison,  which 
numbered  about  one  man  for  every  7  yds.  of  the  enclosure, 
Clive  sustained  a  siege  of  50  days,  ending  with  a  really  severe 
assault  on  two  large  open  breaches,  which  was  repulsed,  and 
after  which  the  enemy  hastily  decamped. 

Such  feats  as  this  make  arguments  about  successive  lines  of 
defence  and  the  necessity  of  keeps  seem  very  barren.  History, 
as  far  as  the  writer  knows,  shows  no  instances  where  successive 
lines  have  been  held  with  such  brilliant  results. 

Clive's  defence  of  his  breaches,  which  by  all  the  then  accepted 
rules  of  war  were  untenable,  brings  us  to  another  point  which  has 
been  already  mentioned,  namely,  that  a  garrison  might  honour- 
ably make  terms  when  there  was  an  open  breach  in  their  main 
line  of  defence.  This  is  a  question  upon  which  Carnot  delivers 
himself  very  strongly  in  endeavouring  to  impress  upon  French 
officers  the  necessity  of  defence  to  the  last  moment.  Speaking  of 
Cormontaingnejs  imaginary  Journal  of  the  Attack  uf  a  Fortress 
(which  is  carried  up  to  the  35th  day,  and  finishes  by  the  words 
"  It  is  now  time  to  surrender  "),  he  says  with  great  scorn:"  Crillon 
would  have  cried, '  It  is  time  to  begin  fighting.'  He  would  have 
said  as  at  the  siege  of  Quillebceuf,  '  Crillon  is  within,  the  enemy 
is  without.'  Thus  when  Bayard  was  defending  the  shattered 
walls  of  Mezieres,  M.  de  Cormontaingne,  if  he  had  been  there, 
would  have  said,  '  It  is  time  to  surrender.'  Thus  when  Guise 


was  repairing  the  breaches  of  Metz  under  the  redoubled  fire  of 
the  enemy,  M.  de  Cormontaingne,  if  he  had  been  there,  would 
have  said,  '  It  is  time  to  surrender.'  "  Carnot  of  course  allows 
that  Cormontaingne  was  personally  brave.  His  scorn  is  for  the 
accepted  principle,  not  for  the  man. 

It  is  interesting  to  contrast  with  this  passage  some  remarks 
by  Sir  John  Jones,  made  in  answer  to  Carnot's  book.  He  says 
in  the  notes  to  the  second  volume  of  the  Journals 
of  the  Sieges  in  Spain:  "  When  the  breach  shall  be 
pushed  properly  forward,  if  the  governor  insists  upon  last. 
the  ceremony  of  his  last  retrenchment  being  stormed, 
as  by  so  doing  he  spills  the  blood  of  many  brave  men  without  a 
justifiable  object,  his  life  and  the  lives  of  the  garrison  should  be 
made  the  forfeit.  A  system  enforced  by  terror  must  be  counter- 
acted by  still  greater  terror.  Humanity  towards  an  enemy  in 
such  a  case  is  cruelty  to  one's  own  troops.  .  .  .  The  principle  to 
be  combated  is  not  the  obligation  to  resist  behind  the  breach — 
for  where  there  is  a  good  retrenchment  the  bastion  should  be 
disputed  equally  with  the  counter-guard  or  the  ravelin  and  can 
as  safely  be  so — but  the  doctrine  that  surrender  shall  not  take 
place  when  successful  resistance  becomes  hopeless." 

Carnot's  word  is  "  fight  to  the  last."  Sir  John  Jones  says  the 
commander  has  no  right  to  provoke  further  carnage  when 
resistance  is  hopeless.  The  question  of  course  is,  When  is  resist- 
ance hopeless?  Sir  John  Jones's  reputation  leaves  little  doubt 
that  if  he  had  been  commanding  a  fortress  on  British  soil  he 
would  not  have  thought  resistance  hopeless  as  long  as  there 
was  anything  whatever  left  to  defend.  The  reason  why  these 
two  men  of  similar  temper  are  found  in  opposition  is  quite 
simple:  When  Carnot  wrote,  the  French  army  occupied  most 
of  the  important  fortresses  of  Europe,  and  it  was  to  the  interest 
of  the  emperor  that  if  attacked  they  should  be  held  to  the  last 
moment,  in  order  to  cause  the  enemy  as  much  delay  and  loss 
as  possible.  Jones,  on  the  other  hand,  was  one  of  the  engineers 
who  were  engaged  in  besieging  those  fortresses,  and  his  argu- 
ments were  prompted  by  sympathy  for  his  own  countrymen 
whose  lives  were  sacrificed  by  the  prolongation  of  such  resistance. 

A  century  has  passed  since  Carnot  and  Jones  wrote,  and  the 
ideas  in  which  they  had  been  educated  were  those  of  the  pre- 
Napoleonic  era.  In  the  i8th  century  fortresses  were  many,  good 
roads  few,  and  campaigns  for  the  most  part  leisurely.  To  the 
European  nations  of  that  time,  inheritors  of  a  perennial  state 
of  war,  the  idea  of  concentrating  the  national  resources  on  a 
short  and  decisive  campaign  had  not  occurred.  The  "  knock-out 
blow  "  had  not  been  invented.  All  these  conditions  are  now 
so  changed  that  new  standards  must  be  and  indeed  have  been 
set  up,  both  for  the  defence  of  places  and  the  general  employment 
of  fortification. 

As  regards  the  conduct  of  the  defence,  the  massacre  of  a 
garrison  as  a  penalty  for  holding  out  too  long  would  meet  with 
no  sympathy  in  the  present  day.  On  the  other  hand,  the  issue 
of  modern  wars  is  worked  out  so  rapidly  that  if  a  fortress  is  well 
defended,  with  the  advantage  of  the  present  weapons,  there  is 
always  a  chance  of  holding  out  till  the  close  of  the  war.  If  the 
place  is  worth  holding,  it  should  as  a  rule  be  held  to  the  bitter 
end  on  the  chance  of  a  favourable  turn  in  affairs;  moreover, 
the  maintenance  of  an  important  siege  under  modern  conditions 
imposes  a  severe  strain  on  the  enemy  and  immobilizes  a  large 
number  of  his  troops. 

In  concluding  this  article  some  elementary  considerations 
in  connexion  with  the  use  of  permanent  defences  may  be  noticed, 
though  the  general  question  of  strategic  fortification 
is  outside  its  scope.     The  objects  of  fortification  differ,      ^™"" 
as  has  been  shown,  from  age  to  age.     In  former  times     fences. 
a  peaceful  people  exposed  to  the  raids  of  piratical 
Norsemen  might  find  their  refuge  tower  essential;  later,  a  robber- 
baron  might  look  on  his  castle  as  so  much  capital  invested; 
a  wealthy  medieval  town  might  prove  the  value  of  its  walls 
more  than  once  in  a  generation;  a  country  without  a  standing 
army  might  gain  time  for  preparation  by  means  of  fortresses 
barring  the  roads  across  the  frontier.     But  how  does  the  question 
stand  to-day  among  European  countries  which  can  mobilize 


FORTLAGE— FORTROSE 


725 


their  full  fighting  strength  at  a  few  hours'  notice?  It  can  only 
be  answered  when  the  circumstances  of  a  particular  country  are 
examined. 

If  we  assume  such  an  impossible  case  as  that  of  two  nations 
of  equal  fighting  strength  and  equal  resources  standing  ready 
The  use  'n  arms  to  defend  a  common  frontier,  and  that  the 
and  abuse  theatre  of  war  presents  no  difficulties  on  either  side, 
of  fort-  then  the  use  of  permanent  fortifications,  merely  as 
resses.  &n  a(jjunct  to  military  strength,  is  wrong.  Fortresses 
do  not  decide  the  issue  of  a  campaign;  they  can  only  influence 
it.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  put  all  the  money  the  fortress  would 
have  cost,  and  all  the  man-power  that  its  maintenance  implies, 
into  the  increase  and  equipment  of  the  active  army.  For  the 
fate  of  the  fortress  must  depend  utlimately  on  the  result  of  the 
operations  of  the  active  armies.  Moreover,  the  very  assumption 
that  resources  on  both  sides  are  equal  means  that  the  nation 
which  has  spent  money  on  permanent  fortifications  will  have 
the  smaller  active  army,  and  therefore  condemns  itself  beforehand 
to  a  defensive  role. 

This  general  negation  is  only  useful  as  a  corrective  to  the 
tendency  to  over-fortify,  for  such  a  case  cannot  occur.  In 
practice  there  will  always  be  occasion  for  some  use  of  fortification. 
A  mountain  range  may  lend  itself  to  an  economical  defence 
by  a  few  men  and  some  inexpensive  barrier  forts.  A  nation  may 
have  close  to  its  frontier  an  important  strategic  centre,  such  as  a 
railway  junction,  or  a  town  of  the  first  manufacturing  importance, 
which  must  be  protected.  In  such  a  case  it  may  be  necessary 
to  guard  against  accidents  by  means  of  a  fortress.  Again,  if  one 
nation  is  admittedly  slower  in  mobilization  than  the  other, 
it  may  be  desirable  to  guard  one  portion  of  the  frontier  by 
fortresses  so  as  to  force  invasion  into  a  district  where  concentra- 
tion against  it  is  easiest. 

As  for  the  defence  of  a  capital,  this  cannot  become  necessary 
if  it  stands  at  a  reasonable  distance  from  the  frontier  until  the 
active  armies  have  arrived  at  some  result.  If  the  fighting 
strength  of  the  country  has  been  practically  destroyed,  it  is  not 
of  much  use  to  stand  a  siege  in  the  capital.  There  can  be  but 
one  end,  and  it  is  better,  as  business  men  say,  to  cut  losses. 
If  the  fighting  strength  is  not  entirely  destroyed  and  can  be 
recruited  within  a  reasonable  time,  say  two  or  three  months, 
then  it  appears  that  under  modern  conditions  the  capital  might 
be  held  for  that  time  by  means  of  extemporized  defences. 
The  question  is  one  that  can  only  be  decided  by  going  into  the 
circumstances  of  each  particular  case. 

The  case  of  a  weak  country  with  powerful  and  aggressive 
neighbours  is  in  a  different  category.  If  she  stands  alone  she 
will  be  eaten  up  in  time,  fortifications  or  no  fortifications;  but 
if  she  can  reckon  on  assistance  from  outside,  it  may  be  worth 
while  to  expend  most  of  the  national  resources  on  permanent 
defences. 

These  hypothetical  cases  have,  however,  no  value,  except  as 
illustrations  to  the  most  elementary  arguments.  The  actual 
problems  that  soldiers  and  statesmen  have  to  consider  are  too 
complex  to  be  dealt  with  in  generalities,  and  no  mere  treatise 
can  supply  the  place  of  knowledge,  thought  and  practice. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  more  important  works  on  the  subject  are: 
Diirer,  Unterricht  zur  Befestigung  (Nuremberg,  1527);  Speckle, 
Architects  von  Festungen  (Strassburg,  1589);  Fritach,  L' Architecture 
mil.  oulaf.  nouvelle  (Paris,  1637);  Pagan,  Les  Fortif.  (Paris,  1689); 
de  Ville,  Les  Fortif.  (Lyons,  1629) ;  de  Fer,  Introduction  a  la  fortifica- 
tion (Paris,  1723);  B.  F.  de  Belidor,  Science  des  Ingenieurs,  &c. 
(Paris,  1729);  works  of  Coehoorn,  Vauban,  Montalembert,  Cormon- 
taingne;  Mandar,  De  I' architecture  des  forteresses  (Paris,  1801); 
Chasseloup-Laubat,  Essais  sur  quelques  parties  de  Vartil.  el  de  la 
fortification  (Milan,  1811);  Carnot,  Defense  des  places  fortes  (Paris, 
1812);  Jones,  Journals  of  Sieges  in  Spain  (3rd  ed.,  London,  1846); 
T.  Choumara,  Memoire  sur  la  fortification  (1847);  A.  von  Zastrow, 
Geschichte  der  bestandigen  Befestigung  (N.D.,  Fr.  trans.);  works  of 
Sir  C.  Pasley;  Noizet,  Principes  de  fortif.  (Paris,  1859);  Dufour, 
De  la  fortif .  permanente  (Paris,  1850);  E.  Viollet  le  Due,  L' Archi- 
tecture militatre  au  moyen  Age  (Paris,  1854);  Cosseron  de  Villenoisy, 
Essai  historique  sur  la  fortification  (Paris,  1869) ;  works  of  Brialmont 
(q.v.) ;  Delambre,  La  Fortification  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la  tactique 
et  la  strategic  (Paris,  1887);  v.  Sauer,  A ngriff  und  Verteidigung  fester 
Pldtze  (Berlin,  1885);  Schroeter,  Die  Festung  in  der  heutigen  Krieg- 
fiihrung  (Berlin,  1898-1906);  Baron  E.  v.  Leithner,  Die  bestandige 


Befestigung  und  der  Festungskrieg  (Vienna,  1894-1899);  W.  Staven- 
hagen,  Grundriss  der  Befestigungslehre  (Berlin,  1900-1909);  Plessix 
and  Legrand,  Manuel  complet  de  fortification  (Paris,  1900,  new  edition 
1909);  Ritter  v.  Brunner,  Die  bestandige  Befestigung  (Vienna,  1909), 
Die  Feldbefestigung  (Vienna,  1904) ;  RoCchi,  Traccia  per  lo  studio  della 
fortificazione  permanente  (Turin,  1902);  Sir  G.  S.  Clarke,  Fortification 
(1907);  V.  Deguise,  La  Fortification  permanente  contemporaine 
(Brussels,  1908) ;  Royal  Military  Academy,  Text-book  of  Fortification, 
pt.  ii.  (London,  1893);  British  official  Instruction  in  Military 
Engineering,  pts.  i.,  ii.  andiv.  (London,  1900-1908).  (L.  J.) 

FORTLAGE,  KARL  (1806-1881),  German  philosopher,  was 
born  at  Osnabriick.  After  teaching  in  Heidelberg  and  Berlin, 
he  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena  (1846),  a  post  which  he 
held  till  his  death.  Originally  a  follower  of  Hegel,  he  turned  to 
Fichte  and  Beneke  (q.v.),  with  whose  insistence  on  psychology  as 
the  basis  of  all  philosophy  he  fully  agreed.  The  fundamental  idea 
of  his  psychologyisimpulse,  which  combines  representation  (which 
presupposes  consciousness)  and  feeling  (i.e.  pleasure).  Reason 
is  the  highest  thing  in  nature,  i.e.  is  divine  in  its  nature,  God  is 
the  absolute  Ego  and  the  empirical  egos  are  his  instruments. 

Fortlage's  chief  works  are:  Genetische  Geschichte  d.  Philos.  seit 
Kant  (Leipzig,  1852);  System  d.  Psych,  als  empirische  Wissenschaft 
(2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1855);  Darstellung  und  Kritik  der  Beweise  fur  das 
Dasein  Gottes  (Heidelberg,  1840);  Beitrage  zur  Psych,  als  Wissen- 
schaft (Leipzig,  1875). 

FORT  LEE,  a  borough  of  Bergen  county,  New  Jersey,  U.S.A., 
in  the  N.E.  part  of  the  state,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Hudson 
river,  opposite  the  northern  part  of  New  York  City.  Pop.  (1905) 
3433!  C'Q10)  4472.  It  is  connected  with  the  neighbouring  towns 
and  cities  by  electric  railways,  and  by  ferry  with  New  York  City, 
of  which  it  is  a  residential  suburb.  The  main  part  of  the  borough 
lies  along  the  summit  of  the  Palisades;  north  of  Fort  Lee  is  an 
Interstate  Palisades  Park.  Early  in  the  War  of  Independence  the 
Americans  erected  here  a  fortification,  first  called  Fort  Constitu- 
tion but  later  renamed  Fort  Lee,  in  honour  of  General  Charles  Lee. 
The  name  of  the  fort  was  subsequently  applied  to  the  village  that 
grew  up  in  its  vicinity.  From  the  i$th  of  September  until  the  2oth 
of  November  1776  Fort  Lee  was  held  by  Gen.  Nathanael  Greene 
with  a  garrison  of  3500  men,  but  the  capture  by  the  British  of 
Fort  Washington  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river  and  the 
crossing  of  the  Hudson  by  Lord  Cornwallis  with  5000  men  made 
it  necessary  for  Greene  to  abandon  this  post  and  join  Washington 
in  'the  famous  "  retreat  across  the  Jerseys."  An  attempt  to 
recapture  Fort  Lee  was  made  by  General  Anthony  Wayne  in 
1780,  but  was  unsuccessful.  On  the  site  of  the  fort  a  monument, 
designed  by  Carl  E.  Tefft  and  consisting  of  heroic  figures  of  a 
Continental  trooper  and  drummer  boy,  was  erected  in  1908. 
The  borough  of  Fort  Lee  was  incorporated  in  1904. 

FORT  MADISON,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Lee  county, 
Iowa,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  in  the  S.E.  corner  of  the 
state,  and  about  20  m.  S.W.  of  Burlington.  Pop.  (1890)  7901; 
(1900)  9278,  of  whom  1025  were  foreign-born;  (1905)  8767;  (1910) 
8900.  Fort  Madison  is  served  by  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa 
Fe  (which  has  repair  shops  here)  and  the  Chicago,  Burlington 
&  Quincy  railways.  The  city  has  various  manufactures,  including 
canned  goods,  chairs,  paper  and  farm  implements;  the  value 
of  its  factory  product  in  1905  was  $2,378,892,  an  increase  of 
50-8%  over  that  of  1900.  Fort  Madison  is  the  seat  of  one  of 
Iowa's  penitentiaries.  A  stockade  fort  was  erected  on  the  site 
of  the  city  in  1808,  but  was  burned  in  1813.  Permanently 
settled  in  1833,  Fort  Madison  was  laid  out  as  a  town  in  1836, 
and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1839. 

FORTROSE  (Gaelic/or  t'rois,  "  the  wood  on  the  promontory  "), 
a  royal  and  police  burgh,  and  seaport  of  the  county  of  Ross 
and  Cromarty,  Scotland.  Pop.  (1901)  1179.  It  is  situated 
on  the  south-eastern  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  the  Black  Isle, 
8  m.  due  N.N.E.  of  Inverness,  26j  m.  by  rail.  It  is  the  terminus 
of  the  Black  Isle  branch  of  the  Highland  railway;  there  is  com- 
munication by  steamer  with  Inverness  and  also  with  Fort 
George,  2j  m.  distant,  by  ferry  from  Chanonry  Ness.  Fortrose 
consists  of  the  two  towns  of  Rosemarkie  and  Chanonry,  about  i 
m.  apart,  which  were  united  into  a  free  burgh  by  James  II.  in 
1455  and  created  a  royal  burgh  in  1 590.  It  is  a  place  of  consider- 
able antiquity,  a  monastery  having  been  established  in  the  6th 
century  by  St  Moluag,  a  friend  of  Columba's,  and  St  Peter's 


726 


FORT  SCOTT— FORTUNATUS 


church  built  in  the  8th  century.  In  1124  David  I.  instituted 
the  bishopric  of  Ross,  with  its  seat  here,  and  the  town  acquired 
some  fame  for  its  school  of  theology  and  law.  The  cathedral 
is  believed  to  have  been  founded  in  1330  by  the  countess  of  Ross 
(her  canopied  tomb,  against  the  chancel  wall,  still  exists)  and 
finished  in  1485  by  Abbot  Eraser,  whose  previous  residence  at 
Melrose  is  said  to  account  for  the  Perpendicular  features  of  his 
portion  of  the  work.  It  was  Early  Decorated  in  style,  cruciform 
in  plan,  and  built  of  red  sandstone,  but  all  that  is  left  are  the 
south  aisles  of  the  nave  and  the  chancel,  with  the  chapter-house, 
a  two-storeyed  structure,  standing  apart  near  the  north-eastern 
corner.  The  cathedral  and  bishop's  palace  were  destroyed  by 
order  of  Cromwell,  who  used  the  stones  for  his  great  fort  at 
Inverness.  Another  relic  of  the  past  survives  in  the  bell  of  1460. 
These  ruins  form  the  chief  object  of  interest  in  the  town,  but 
other  buildings  include  the  academy  and  the  Black  Isle  com- 
bination poorhouse.  The  town  is  an  agricultural  centre  of  some 
consequence,  and  the  harbour  is  kept  in  repair.  Rosemarkie, 
in  the  churchyard  of  which  is  an  ancient  Celtic  cross,  is  much 
resorted  to  for  sea-bathing,  and  there  is  a  golf  course  in  Chanonry 
Ness.  The  burgh  belongs  to  the  Inverness  district  group  of 
parliamentary  burghs. 

FORT  SCOTT,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Bourbon  county, 
Kansas,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Marmaton  river,  about  100  m.  S.  of 
Kansas  City,  Missouri.  Pop.  (1880)  5372;  (1890)  11,946; 
(1900)  10,322,  of  whom  1205  were  negroes;  (1910  census) 
10,463.  It  is  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  Kansas  City,  Fort 
Scott  &  Memphis  (St  Louis  &  San  Francisco  system),  the 
Missouri,  Kansas  &  Texas,  and  the  Missouri  Pacific  railways, 
and  has  in  consequence  a  large  traffic.  The  city  is  built  on  a 
rolling  plain.  Among  its  institutions  are  an  Epworth  house 
(1899),  Mercy  hospital  (1889),  the  Goodlander  home,  and  a 
Carnegie  library.  Near  the  city  there  is  a  national  cemetery. 
Fort  Scott  is  in  the  midst  of  the  Kansas  mineral  fields,  and  its 
trade  in  bituminous  coal  is  especially  important.  Building 
stones,  cement  rock,  clays,  oil  and  gas,  lead  and  zinc  are  also 
found  in  the  neighbourhood.  An  excellent  white  sulphur  water 
is  procured  from  artesian  wells  about  800  ft.  deep,  and  there  is 
a  mineral-water  bath  house.  The  city  is  also  a  trading  centre 
for  a  rich  farming  region,  and  is  a  horse  and  mule  market  of 
considerable  importance.  Among  its  manufactures  are  mat- 
tresses, syrup,  bricks,  pottery,  cement  and  foundry  products. 
In  1905  the  total  value  of  the  city's  factory  product  was 
$1,340,026,  being  an  increase  of  89%  since  1900.  The  city 
owns  and  operates  its  waterworks.  The  fort  after  which  the 
city  is  named  was  established  by  the  Federal  government  in  1842, 
at  a  time  when  the  whole  of  eastern  Kansas  was  still  parcelled 
out  among  Indian  tribes;  it  was  abandoned  in  1855.  The 
town  was  platted  in  1857,  and  Fort  Scott  was  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1860. 

FORT  SMITH,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Sebastian  county, 
on  the  extreme  W.  border  of  Arkansas,  U.S.A.,  lying  about 
440  ft.  above  sea-level,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Arkansas  river, 
at  its  junction  with  the  Poteau,  and  at  the  point  where  the 
Arkansas  breaks  through  the  Boston  mountains.  Pop.  (1890) 
11,311;  (1900)  11,587,  of  whom  2407  were  of  negro  descent  and 
684  were  foreign-born;  (1910  census)  23,975.  Transporta- 
tion is  afforded  by  the  river  and  by  six  railways,  the  St  Louis  & 
San  Francisco,  the  St  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern,  the 
Arkansas  Central,  the  Fort  Smith  &  Western,  the  Midland  Valley 
and  the  Kansas  City  Southern.  A  belt  line  round  the  business 
centre  of  the  city  facilitates  freight  transfers.  Some  of  the 
business  streets  are  unusually  broad,  and  the  streets  in  the 
residential  district  are  well  shaded.  Fort  Smith  is  the  business 
centre  of  a  fine  agricultural  country  and  of  the  Arkansas  coal 
and  natural  gas  region.  It  has  extensive  wholesale  jobbing 
interests  and  a  large  miscellaneous  trade,  partly  in  its  own 
manufactures,  among  which  are  cotton  and  timber  products, 
chairs,  mattresses  and  other  furniture,  wagons,  brooms  and 
bricks.  In  1905  the  total  value  of  the  factory  product  was 
J27329,4S4,  an  increase  of  66-2%  since  1900.  The  public 
schools  have  a  rich  endowment:  the  proceeds  of  lands  (about 


200  acres)  once  belonging  to  the  local  military  reservation, 
which — except  the  part  occupied  by  a  national  cemetery — was 
given  by  Congress  to  the  city  in  1884.  Near  the  centre  of  the 
city  are  a  Catholic  academy,  convent  and  infirmary;  and  there 
is  a  Carnegie  library.  A  United  States  army  post  was  established 
here  in  1817;  the  town  was  laid  out  in  1821;  and  the  county 
was  created  in  1851.  Fort  Smith  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in 
1842,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1845.  All  transportation 
was  by  river  and  wagon  until  1876,  when  the  railway  was 
completed  from  Little  Rock.  The  military  post,  in  earlier  years 
the  chief  depot  for  the  western  forts,  was  abandoned  in  1871. 
During  the  Civil  War  Fort  Smith  was  strongly  in  sympathy  with 
the  Confederacy.  The  fort  was  seized  by  state  troops  in  April 
1 86 1,  and  was  reoccupied  by  the  Union  forces  in  September 
1863.  There  was  considerable  unrest  due  to  border  "  bush- 
whacking "  throughout  the  war,  and  several  skirmishes  took 
place  here  in  1864.  The  area  of  the  city  was  more  than  doubled 
in  1905. 

FORTUNA  (FORTUNE),  an  Italian  goddess  of  great  antiquity, 
but  apparently  not  native  at  Rome,  where,  according  to  universal 
Roman  tradition,  she  was  introduced  by  the  king  Servius  Tullius 
as  Fors  Fortuna,  and  established  in  a  temple  on  the  Etruscan 
side  of  the  Tiber  outside  the  city,  and  also  under  other  titles  in 
other  shrines.  In  Latium  she  had  two  famous  places  of  worship, 
one  at  Praeneste,  where  there  was  an  oracle  of  Fortuna  primigenia 
(the  first-born),  frequented  especially  by  women  who,  as  we  may 
suppose,  desired  to  know  the  fortunes  of  their  children  or  their 
own  fortune  in  child-birth;  the  other  at  Antium,  well  known 
from  Horace's  ode  (i.  35).  It  is  highly  probable  that  Fortuna 
was  never  a  deity  of  the  abstract  idea  of  chance,  but  represented 
the  hopes  and  fears  of  men  and  especially  of  women  at  different 
stages  of  their  life  and  experience;  thus  we  find  her  worshipped 
as  time  went  on  under  numerous  cult-titles,  such  as  muliebris, 
virilis,  hujusce  did,  equestris,  redux,  &c.,  which  connected  her 
supposed  powers  with  individuals,  groups  of  individuals,  or 
particular  occasions.  Gradually  she  became  more  or  less  closely 
identified  with  the  Gr.  Tux'?,  and  was  represented  on  coins,  &c., 
with  a  cornucopia  as  the  giver  of  prosperity,  a  rudder  as  the 
controller  of  destinies,  and  with  a  wheel,  or  standing  on  a  ball, 
to  indicate  the  uncertainty  of  fortune.  In  this  semi-Greek  form 
she  came  to  be  worshipped  over  the  whole  empire,  and  Pliny 
(N.H.  ii.  22)  declares  that  in  his  day  she  was  invoked  in  all 
places  and  every  hour.  She  even  became  identified  with  Isis, 
and  as  Panthea  was  supposed  to  combine  the  attributes  of  all 
other  deities. 

The  best  account  of  this  difficult  subject  is  to  be  found  in  Roschcr's 
Mythological  Lexicon  (s.v.) ;  see  also  Wissowa,  Religion  und  Kultus 
der  Romer,  p.  206  foil.  (W.  W.  F.*) 

FORTUNATIANUS,  ATILIUS,  Latin  grammarian,  flourished 
in  the  4th  century  A.D.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on 
metres,  dedicated  to  one  of  his  pupils,  a  youth  of  senatorial  rank, 
who  desired  to  be  instructed  in  the  Horatian  metres.  The 
manual  opens  with  a  discussion  of  the  fundamental  ideas  of 
metre  and  the  chief  rules  of  prosody,  and  ends  with  a  detailed 
analysis  of  the  metres  of  Horace.  The  chief  authorities  used 
are  Caesius  Bassus  and  the  Latin  adaptation  by  Juba  the 
grammarian  of  the  T«x>^?  of  Heliodorus.  Fortunatianus  being  a 
common  name  in  the  African  provinces,  it  is  probable  that  the 
author  was  a  countryman  of  Juba,  Terentianus  Maurus  and 
Victorinus. 

Editions  of  the  Ars  in  H.  Kc\\,Grammatici  Latini,  vi.,  and  separately 
by  him  (1885). 

FORTUNATUS,  the  legendary  hero  of  a  popular  European 
chap-book.  He  was  a  native,  says  the  story,  of  Famagusta  in 
Cyprus,  and  meeting  the  goddess  of  Fortune  in  a  forest  received 
from  her  a  purse  which  was  continually  replenished  as  often  as 
he  drew  from  it.  With  this  he  wandered  through  many  lands, 
and  at  Cairo  was  the  guest  of  the  sultan.  Among  the  treasures 
which  the  sultan  showed  him  was  an  old  napless  hat  which  had 
the  power  of  transporting  its  wearer  to  any  place  he  desired. 
Of  this  hat  he  feloniously  possessed  himself,  and  returned  to 
Cyprus,  where  he  led  a  luxurious  life.  On  his  death  he  left  the 


FORTUNATUS— FORT  WAYNE 


727 


purse  and  the  hat  to  his  sons  Ampedo  and  Andelosia;  but  they 
were  jealous  of  each  other,  and  by  their  recklessness  and  folly 
soon  fell  on  evil  days.  The  moral  of  the  story  is  obvious:  men 
should  desire  reason  and  wisdom  before  all  the  treasures  of  the 
world.  In  its  full  form  the  history  of  Fortunatus  occupies  in 
Karl  Simrock's  Die  deutschen  Volksbiicher,  vol.  iii.,  upwards  of 
158  pages.  The  scene  is  continually  shifted — from  Cyprus  to 
Flanders,  from  Flanders  to  London,  from  London  to  France; 
and  a  large  number  of  secondary  characters  appear.  The  style 
and  allusions  indicate  a  comparatively  modern  date  for  the 
authorship;  but  the  nucleus  of  the  legend  can  be  traced  back 
to  a  much  earlier  period.  The  stories  of  Jonathas  and  the  three 
jewels  in  the  Gesta  Romanorum,  of  the  emperor  Frederick  and 
the  three  precious  stones  in  the  Cento  Novelle  antiche,  of  the 
Mazin  of  Khorassan  in  the  Thousand  and  one  Nights,  and  the 
flying  scaffold  in  the  Bahar  Danush,  have  all  a  certain  similarity. 
The  earliest  known  edition  of  the  German  text  of  Fortunatus 
appeared  at  Augsburg  in  1509,  and  the  modern  German  in- 
vestigators are  disposed  to  regard  this  as  the  original  form. 
Innumerable  versions  occur  in  French,  Italian,  Dutch  and 
English.  The  story  was  dramatized  by  Hans  Sachs  in  1553, 
and  by  Thomas  Dekker  in  1600;  and  the  latter's  comedy 
appeared  in  a  German  translation  in  Englische  Komodien  und 
Tragodien,  1620.  Ludwig  Tieck  has  utilized  the  legend  in  his 
Phantasus,  and  Adefbert  von  Chamisso  in  his  Peter  Schlemihl; 
and  Ludwig  Uhland  left  an  unfinished  narrative  poem  entitled 
"  Fortunatus  and  his  Sons." 

See  Dr  Fr.  W.  V.  Schmidt's  Fortunatus  und  seine  Sohne,  eine 
Zauber-Tragodie,  von  Thomas  Decker,  mil  einem  Anhang,  &c.  (Berlin, 
1819) ;  Joseph  Johann  Gorres,  Die  deutschen  Volksbiicher  (1807). 

FORTUNATUS,    VENANTIUS    HONORIUS    CLEM ENTI ANUS 

(530-609),  bishop  of  Poitiers,  and  the  chief  Latin  poet  of  his  time, 
was  born  near  Ceneda  in  Treviso  in  530.  He  studied  at  Milan 
and  Ravenna,  with  the  special  object  of  excelling  as  a  rhetorician 
and  poet,  and  in  565  he  journeyed  to  France,  where  he  was 
received  with  much  favour  at  the  court  of  Sigbert,  king  of 
Austrasia,  whose  marriage  with  Brunhild  he  celebrated  in  an 
epithalamium.  After  remaining  a  year  or  two  at  the  court  of 
Sigbert  he  travelled  in  various  parts  of  France,  visiting  persons 
of  distinction,  and  composing  short  pieces  of  poetry  on  any 
subject  that  occurred  to  him.  At  Poitiers  he  visited  Queen 
Radegunda,  who  lived  there  in  retirement,  and  she  induced  him 
to  prolong  his  stay  in  the  city  indefinitely.  Here  he  also  enjoyed 
the  friendship  of  the  famous  Gregory  of  Tours  and  other  eminent 
ecclesiastics.  He  was  elected  bishop  of  Poitiers  in  599,  and 
died  about  609.  The  later  poems  of  Fortunatus  were  collected 
in  1 1  books,  and  consist  of  hymns  (including  the  Vexilla  regis 
prodeunt,  Englished  by  J.  M.  Neale  as  "  The  royal  banners 
forward  go  "),  epitaphs,  poetical  epistles,  and  verses  in  honour 
of  his  patroness  Radegunda  and  her  sister  Agnes,  the  abbess  of 
a  nunnery  at  Poitiers.  He  also  wrote  a  large  poem  in  4  books 
in  honour  of  St  Martin,  and  several  lives  of  the  saints  in  prose. 
His  prose  is  stiff  and  mechanical,  but  most  of  his*  poetry  has  an 
easy  rhythmical  flow. 

An  edition  of  the  works  of  Fortunatus  was  published  by  C.  Brower 
at  Fulda  in  1603  (2nd  ed.,  Mainz,  1617).  The  edition  of  M.  A. 
Luschi  (Rome,  1785)  was  afterwards  reprinted  in  Migne's  Patrologiae 
cursus  completus,  vol.  Ixxxviii.  See  the  edition  by  Leo  and  Krusch 
(Berlin,  1881-1885).  There  are  French  lives  by  Nisard  (1880)  and 
Leroux  (1885). 

FORTUNE,  ROBERT  (1813-1880),  Scottish  botanist  and 
traveller,  was  born  at  Kelloe  in  Berwickshire  on  the  i6th  of 
September  1813.  He  was  employed  in  the  botanical  garden  at 
Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  in  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society's 
garden  at  Chiswick,  and  upon  the  termination  of  the  Chinese 
War  in  1842  was  sent  out  by  the  Society  to  collect  plants  in 
China.  His  travels  resulted  in  the  introduction  to  Europe  of 
many  beautiful  flowers;  but  another  journey,  undertaken  in 
1848  on  behalf  of  the  East  India  Company,  had  much  more 
important  consequences,  occasioning  the  successful  introduction 
into  India  of  the  tea-plant.  In  subsequent  journeys  he  visited 
Formosa  and  Japan,  described  the  culture  of  the  silkworm  and 
the  manufacture  of  rice  paper,  and  introduced  many  trees, 


shrubs  and  flowers  now  generally  cultivated  in  Europe.  The 
incidents  of  his  travels  were  related  in  a  succession  of  interesting 
books.  He  died  in  London  on  the  i3th  of  April  1880. 

FORTUNY,  MARIANO  JOSE  MARIA  BERNARDO  (1838- 
1874),  Spanish  painter,  was  born  at  Reus  on  the  nth  of  June 
1838.  His  parents,  who  were  in  poor  circumstances,  sent  him 
for  education  to  the  primary  school  of  his  native  town,  where  he 
received  some  instruction  in  the  rudiments  of  art.  When  he  was 
twelve  years  old  his  parents  died  and  he  came  under  the  care  of 
his  grandfather,  who,  though  a  joiner  by  trade,  had  made  a 
collection  of  wax  figures,  with  which  he  was  travelling  from 
town  to  town.  In  the  working  of  this  show  the  boy  took  an  active 
part,  modelling  and  painting  many  of  the  figures;  and  two  years 
later,  when  he  reached  Barcelona,  the  cleverness  of  his  handiwork 
made  so  much  impression  on  some  people  in  authority  there  that 
they  induced  the  municipality  to  make  him  an  allowance  of 
forty-two  francs  monthly,  so  that  he  might  be  enabled  to  go 
through  a  systematic  course  of  study.  He  entered  the  Academy 
of  Barcelona  and  worked  there  for  four  years  under  Claudio 
Lorenzale,  and  in  March  1857  he  gained  a  scholarship  that 
entitled  him  to  complete  his  studies  in  Rome.  Then  followed 
a  period  of  more  than  two  years,  during  which  he  laboured 
steadily  at  copies  of  the  old  pictures  to  which  he  had  access  at 
Rome.  To  this  period  an  end  was  put  by  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  between  Spain  and  the  emperor  of  Morocco,  as  Fortuny 
was  sent  by  the  authorities  of  Barcelona  to  paint  the  most 
striking  incidents  of  the  campaign.  The  expedition  lasted  for 
about  six  months  only,  but  it  made  upon  him  an  impression  that 
was  powerful  enough  to  affect  the  whole  course  of  his  subsequent 
development,  and  to  implant  permanently  in  his  mind  a  pre- 
ference for  the  glitter  and  brilliancy  of  African  colour.  He  re- 
turned to  Spain  in  the  summer  of  1860,  and  was  commissioned 
by  the  city  of  Barcelona  to  paint  a  large  picture  of  the  capture 
of  the  camps  of  Muley-el-Abbas  and  Muley-el-Hamed  by  the 
Spanish  army.  After  making  a  large  number  of  studies  he  went 
back  to  Rome,  and  began  the  composition  on  a  canvas  fifteen 
metres  long;  but  though  it  occupied  much  of  his  time  during 
the  next  few  years,  he  never  finished  it.  He  busied  himself 
instead  with  a  wonderful  series  of  pictures,  mostly  of  no  great 
size,  in  which  he  showed  an  astonishing  command  over  vivacities 
of  technique  and  modulations  of  colour.  He  visited  Paris  in 
1868  and  shortly  afterwards  married  the  daughter  of  Federico 
Madrazo,  the  director  of  the  royal  museum  at  Madrid.  Another 
visit  to  Paris  in  1870  was  followed  by  a  two  years'  stay  at  Granada, 
but  then  he  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  died  somewhat  suddenly 
on  the  2ist  of  November  1874  from  an  attack  of  malarial  fever, 
contracted  while  painting  in  the  open  air  at  Naples  and  Portici  in 
the  summer  of  1874. 

The  work  which  Fortuny  accomplished  during  his  short  life 
is  distinguished  by  a  superlative  facility  of  execution  and  a 
marvellous  cleverness  in  the  arrangement  of  brilliant  hues,  bul 
the  qualities  of  his  art  are  those  that  arc  attainable  by  a  master 
of  technical  resource  rather  than  by  a  deep  thinker.  His  insight 
into  subtleties  of  illumination  was  extraordinary,  his  dexterity 
was  remarkable  in  the  extreme,  and  as  a  colourist  he  was  vivacious 
to  the  point  of  extravagance.  At  the  same  time  in  such  pictures 
as  "  La  Vicaria  "  and  "  Choosing  a  Model,"  and  in  some  of  his 
Moorish  subjects,  like  "  The  Snake  Charmers  "  and  "  Moors 
playing  with  a  Vulture,"  he  showed  himself  to  be  endowed  with 
a  sensitive  appreciation  of  shades  of  character  and  a  thorough 
understanding  of  the  peculiarities  of  a  national  type.  His  love 
of  detail  was  instinctive,  and  he  chose  motives  that  gave  him  the 
fullest  opportunity  of  displaying  his  readiness  as  a  craftsman. 

See  Davillier,  Fortuny,  sa  vie,  son  eeuvre,  sa  correspondance,  &c. 
(Paris,  1876);  C.  Yriarte,  Fortuny  (Artistes  celebres  series)  (Paris, 
1889).  (A.  L.  B.) 

FORT  WAYNE,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Allen  county, 
Indiana,  U.S.A.,  102  m.  N.E.  of  Indianapolis,  at  the  point  where 
the  St  Joseph  and  St  Mary's  rivers  join  to  form  the  Maumee 
river.  Pop.  (1880)  26,880;  (1890)  35,393;  (1900)  45, 115,  of 
whom  6791  were  foreign-born;  (1910,  census)  63,933.  It  is 
served  by  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton  &  Dayton,  the  Fort  Wayne, 


728 


FORT  WILLIAM— FORT  WORTH 


Cincinnati  &  Louisville,  the  Grand  Rapids  &  Indiana,  the  Lake 
Shore  &  Michigan  Southern,  the  New  York,  Chicago  &  St  Louis, 
the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Wabash  railways,  and  also  by  inter- 
urban  electric  lines.  The  site  of  the  city  is  high  (about  770  ft. 
above  sea-level)  and  level,  and  its  land  area  was  in  1906  a  little 
more  than  6  sq.  m.  The  streets  are  laid  out  on  a  rectangular 
plan  and  bordered  by  a  profusion  of  shade  trees.  The  city  has 
several  parks,  including  Lawton  Park  (31  acres),  in  which  there 
is  a  monument  in  honour  of  Major-General  Henry  Ware  Lawton 
(1843-1899),  who  lived  in  Fort  Wayne  for  a  time,  Lake  Side 
Park  (22  acres),  Reservoir  Park  (13  acres),  Piqua  Park  (i  acre), 
and  Old  Fort  Park  (i  acre),  which  is  on  the  site  of  Old  Fort 
Wayne.  The  educational  institutions  include  the  German 
Concordia  Collegium  (Lutheran),  founded  in  1839,  and  having 
220  students  in  1908,  and  the  state  school  for  feeble-minded 
youth  (1879).  The  city  has  a  Carnegie  library.  Fort  Wayne 
is  one  of  the  most  important  railway  centres  in  the  Middle  West, 
and  several  railways  maintain  here  their  principal  car  and  repair 
shops,  which  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  its  manufacturing 
industries;  in  1905  it  ranked  first  among  the  cities  of  the  state 
in  the  value  of  cars  constructed  and  repaired  by  steam-railway 
companies.  The  other  manufactories  include  foundries  and 
machine  shops,  iron  and  steel  mills,  knitting  mills,  planing  mills, 
sash  and  door,  car-wheel,  electrical  machinery,  and  woodenware 
factories  and  flour  mills.  In  1905  the  total  value  of  the  factory 
product  of  the  city  was  $15,129,562,  showing  an  increase  of 
34-3%  since  1900. 

The  Miami  Indians  had  several  villages  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood, and  the  principal  one,  Kekionaga  (Miami  Town  or 
Great  Miami  Village),  was  situated  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  St 
Joseph  river,  within  the  limits  of  the  present  city.  On  the  E.  bank 
of  the  St  Mary's  a  French  trading  post  was  built  about  1680.  In 
1749-1750  the  French  fort  (Fort  Miami)  was  moved  to  the  E. 
bank  of  the  St  Joseph.  The  English  occupied  the  fort  in  1 760  and 
Pontiac  captured  it  in  May  1763,  after  a  siege  of  more  than  three 
months.  In  1790  the  Miami  villages  were  destroyed.  In  Septem- 
ber 1794  General  Anthony  Wayne  built  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
Maumee  river  the  stockade  fort  which  was  named  in  his  honour, 
the  site  of  which  forms  the  present  Old  Fort  Park.  By  the  treaty 
of  Greenville,  concluded  by  General  Wayne  on  the  3rd  of  August 
1795,  a  piece  of  land  6  sq.  m.  in  area,  including  the  tract  of  the 
Miami  towns,  was  ceded  to  the  United  States,  and  free  passage 
to  Fort  Wayne  and  down  the  Maumee  to  Lake  Erie  was 
guaranteed  to  the  people  of  the  United  States  by  the  Indians. 
By  the  treaty  of  Fort  Wayne,  concluded  by  General  W.  H. 
Harrison  on  the  7th  of  June  1803,  the  tract  about  Vincennes 
reserved  to  the  United  States  by  the  treaty  of  Greenville  was 
described  and  defined;  by  the  second  treaty  of  Fort  Wayne, 
concluded  by  Harrison  on  the  3oth  of  September  1809,  the 
Indians  sold  to  the  United  States  about  2,900,000  acres  of  land, 
mostly  S.E.  of  the  Wabash  river.  In  September  1813  Fort 
Wayne  was  besieged  by  Indians,  who  withdrew  on  the  arrival, 
on  the  1 2th  of  September,  of  General  Harrison  with  about  2700 
men  from  Kentucky  and  Ohio.  The  fort  was  abandoned  on  the 
i  gth  of  April  1819  and  no  trace  of  it  remains.  The  first  per- 
manent settlement  here  was  made  in  1815,  and  the  village  was 
an  important  fur-trading  depdt  until  1830.  The  opening  of  the 
Wabash  &  Erie  canal  in  1843  stimulated  its  growth.  A  town  was 
platted  and  was  made  the  county-seat  in  1824;  and  in  1840 
Fort  Wayne  was  chartered  as  a  city. 

See  W.  A.  Brice,  History  of  Fort  Wayne  (Ft.  Wayne,  1868);  John 
B.  Dillon,  History  of  Indiana,  from  its  Earliest  Exploration  by 
Europeans  to  the  Close  of  the  Territorial  Government  in  1816  (Indiana- 
polis, Ind.,  1859);  and  Charles  E.  Slocum,  History  of  the  Maumee 
River  Basin,  from  the  Earliest  Accounts  to  its  Organization  into 
Counties  (Defiance,  Ohio,  1905). 

FORT  WILLIAM,  the  principal  town  of  Thunder  Bay  district, 
Ontario,  Canada,  426  m.  (by  rail)  E.S.E.  of  Winnipeg,  on  the 
Kaministiquia  river,  about  a  mile  from  Lake  Superior.  It 
is  the  lake  terminus  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway,  of  the  new 
Grand  Trunk  Pacific  railway,  and  of  several  steamship  lines. 
Port  Arthur,  the  terminus  of  the  Canadian  Northern  railway, 
lies  4  m.  to  the  N.E.  Fort  William  contains  numerous  grain 


elevators,  railway  repair  shops  and  docks,  and  has  a  large  export 
trade  in  grain  and  other  farm  produce.  Minerals  are  also 
exported  from  the  mining  district,  of  which  it  is  the  centre. 
Industries,  such  as  saw,  planing  and  flour  mills,  have  also 
sprung  up.  The  population  was  4800  in  1901,  but  has  since 
increased  with  great  rapidity. 

FORT  WILLIAM,  a  police  burgh  of  Inverness-shire,  Scotland. 
Pop.  (1901)  2087.  It  lies  at  the  north-eastern  end  of  Loch  Linnhe, 
an  arm  of  the  sea,  about  62  m.  S.S.W.  of  Inverness  by  road  or 
canal,  and  was,  in  bygone  days,  one  of  the  keys  of  the  Highlands. 
It  is  1225  m.  N.E.  of  Glasgow  by  the  West  Highland  railway. 
The  fort,  at  first  called  Kilmallie,  was  built  by  General  Monk  in 
1655  to  hold  the  Cameron  men  in  subjection,  and  was  enlarged 
in  1690  by  General  Hugh  Mackay,  who  renamed  it  after  William 
III.,  the  burgh  then  being  known  as  Maryburgh  in  honour  of 
his  queen.  Here  the  perpetrators  of  the  massacre  of  Glencoe 
met  to  share  their  plunder.  The  Jacobites  unsuccessfully 
besieged  it  in  1715  and  1746.  The  fort  was  dismantled  in  1860, 
and  demolished  in  1890  to  provide  room  for  the  railway  and  the 
station.  Amongst  the  public  buildings  are  the  Belford  hospital, 
public  hall,  court  house  and  the  low-level  meteorological 
observatory,  constructed  in  1891,  which  was  in  connexion  with 
the  observatory  on  the  top  of  Ben  Nevis,  until  the  latter  was 
closed  in  1904.  Its  great  industry  is  distilling,  and  the  dis- 
tilleries, about  2  m.  N.E.,  are  a  familiar  feature  in  the  landscape. 
Beyond  the  railway  station  stands  the  obelisk  to  the  memory 
of  Ewen  Maclachlan  (1775-1822),  the  Gaelic  poet,  who  was  born 
in  the  parish.  Fort  William  is  a  popular  tourist  resort  and  place 
of  call  for  the  steamers  passing  through  the  Caledonian  canal. 
The  town  is  the  point  from  which  the  ascent  of  Ben  Nevis — 45  m. 
E.S.E.  as  the  crow  flies — is  commonly  made.  At  Corpach, 
about  2  m.  N.,  the  Caledonian  canal  begins,  the  series  of  locks 
between  here  and  Banavie — within  little  more  than  a  mile — 
being  known  as  "  Neptune's  Staircase."  Both  the  Lochy  and 
the  Nevis  enter  Loch  Linnhe  immediately  to  the  north  of  Fort 
William.  A  mile  and  a  half  from  the  town,  on  the  Lochy,  stands 
the  grand  old  ruin  of  Inverlochy  Castle,  a  massive  quadrangular 
pile  with  a  round  tower  at  each  corner,  a  favourite  subject  with 
landscape  painters.  Close  by  is  the  scene  of  the  battle  of  the 
2nd  of  February  1645,  in  which  Montrose  completely  defeated 
the  earl  of  Argyll.  The  modern  castle,  in  the  Scottish  Baronial 
style,  ij  m.  to  the  N.E.  of  this  stronghold  and  farther  from  the 
river,  is  the  seat  of  Lord  Abinger. 

FORT  WORTH,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Tarrant  county, 
Texas,  U.S.A.,  about  30  m.  W.  of  Dallas,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
West  Fork  of  the  Trinity  river.  Pop.  (1880)  6663;  (1890) 
23>°76;  (1900)  26,688,  of  whom  1793  were  foreign-born  and 
4249  were  negroes;  (1910,  census)  73,312.  It  is  served  by  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Gulf,  the  Fort  Worth  &  Denver  City, 
the  Fort  Worth  &  Rio  Grande,  and  the  St  Louis,  San  Francisco 
&  Texas  of  the  "  Frisco  "  system,  the  Gulf,  Colorado  &  Santa 
Fe,  the  Houston  &  Texas  Central,  the  International  &  Great 
Northern,  the  Missouri,  Kansas  &  Texas,  the  St  Louis  South- 
western, the  Texas  &  Pacific,  and  the  Trinity  &  Brazos  Valley 
(Colorado  &  Southern)  railways.  Fort  Worth  is  beautifully 
situated  on  a  level  space  above  the  river.  It  is  the  seat  of  Fort 
Worth  University  (coeducational),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  in- 
stitution, which  was  established  as  the  Texas  Wesleyan  College 
in  1881,  received  its  present  name  in  1889,  comprises  an  academy, 
a  college  of  liberal  arts  and  sciences,  a  conservatory  of  music,  a 
law  school,  a  medical  school,  a  school  of  commerce,  and  a  depart- 
ment of  oratory  and  elocution,  and  in  1907  had  802  students; 
the  Polytechnic  College  (coeducational;  Methodist  Episcopal, 
South),  which  was  established  in  1890,  has  preparatory,  collegiate, 
normal,  commercial,  and  fine  arts  departments  and  a  summer 
school,  and  in  1906  had  12  instructors  and  (altogether)  696 
students;  the  Texas  masonic  manual  training  school;  a  kinder- 
garten training  school;  St  Andrews  school  (Protestant 
Episcopal),  and  St  Ignatius  Academy  (Roman  Catholic).  There 
are  several  good  business,  municipal  and  county  buildings,  and 
a  Carnegie  library.  On  the  3rd  of  April  1909  a  fire  destroyed 
ten  blocks  in  the  centre  of  the  city.  Fort  Worth  lies  in  the 


FORTY— FOSBROKE 


729 


midst  of  a  stock-raising  and  fertile  agricultural  region;  there 
is  an  important  stockyard  and  packing  establishment  just 
outside  the  city;  and  considerable  quantities  of  cotton  are 
raised  in  the  vicinity.  Among  the  products  are  packed  meats, 
flour,  beer,  trunks,  crackers,  candy,  paint,  ice,  paste,  cigars, 
clothing,  shoes,  mattresses,  woven  wire  beds,  furniture  and 
overalls;  and  there  are  foundries,  iron  rolling  mills  and  tan- 
neries. In  1905  the  total  value  of  the  city's  factory  product 
was  $5,668,391,  an  increase  of  62-5%  since  1900;  Fort 
Worth  in  1900  ranked  fifth  among  the  cities  of  the  state  in  the 
value  of  its  factory  product;  in  1905  it  ranked  fourth.  Fort 
Worth's  numerous  railways  have  given  it  great  importance 
as  a  commercial  centre.  The  municipal!!)'  owns  and  operates 
the  waterworks  and  the  electric-lighting  plant. 

A  military  post  was  established  here  in  1849,  being  called 
first  Camp  Worth  and  then  Fort  Worth.  It  was  abandoned  in 
1853.  A  settlement  grew  up  about  the  fort,  and  the  city  was 
incorporated  in  1873.  The  fort  and  the  settlement  were  named 
in  honour  of  General  William  Jenkins  Worth  (1794-1849),  a 
native  of  Hudson,  New  York,  who  served  in  the  War  of  1812, 
commanded  the  United  States  forces  against  the  Seminole 
Indians  in  1841-1842,  served  under  both  General  Taylor  and 
General  Scott  in  the  Mexican  War,  distinguishing  himself  at 
Monterey  (where  he  earned  the  brevet  of  major-general)  and  in 
other  engagements,  and  later  commanded  the  department  of 
Texas.  In  1907  Fort  Worth  adopted  a  commission  form  of 
government. 

FORTY,  the  cardinal  number  equal  to  four  tens.  The  word 
is  derived  from  the  O.  Eng.  fedwertig,  a  combination  of  fedwer, 
four,  and  tig,  an  old  form  of  "  ten,"  used  as  a  suffix,  cf.  Icel. 
tiu,  Dan.  ti,  ten,  and  Ger.  vierzig,  forty.  The  name  "  The  Forty  " 
has  been  given  to  various  bodies  composed  of  that  number  of 
members,  particularly  to  a  judicial  body  in  ancient  Athens, 
who  tried  small  cases  in  the  rural  districts,  and  to  a  court  of 
criminal  jurisdiction  and  two  civil  appeal  courts  in  the  Venetian 
republic.  The  French  Academy  (see  ACADEMIES)  has  also  been 
known  as  "  The  Forty  "  or  "  The  Forty  Immortals."  The 
period  just  before  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws  in  the  United 
Kingdom  is  frequently  alluded  to.  particularly  by  the  free  trade 
school,  as  the  "hungry  forties";  and  the  "roaring  forties" 
is  a  sailor's  name  for  the  stormy  region  between  the  4oth  and 
5oth  latitudes  N.  and  S.,  but  more  particularly  applied  to  the 
portion  of  the  north  Atlantic  lying  between  those  latitudes. 

FORUM  (Lat.  from  foris,  "  out  of  doors "),  in  Roman 
antiquity,  any  open  place  used,  like  the  Greek  ayopa,  for  the 
transaction  of  mercantile,  judicial  or  political  business,  some- 
times merely  as  a  promenade.  It  was  level,  rectangular  in  form, 
surrounded  by  porticoes,  basilicas,  courts  of  law  and  other 
public  buildings.  In  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  the  word  is 
used  of  the  vestibule  of  a  tomb  (Cicero,  De  legibus,  ii.  24);  in 
a  Roman  camp  the  forum  was  an  open  place  immediately  beside 
the  praetorium;  and  the  term  was  no  doubt  originally  applied 
generally  to  the  space  in  front  of  any  public  building  or  gateway. 
In  Rome  (q.v.)  itself,  however,  during  the  period  of  the  early 
history,  forum  was  almost  a  proper  name,  denoting  the  flat  and 
formerly  marshy  space  between  the  Palatine  and  Capitoline  hills 
(also  called  Forum  Romanum),  which  probably  even  during  the 
regal  period  afforded  the  accommodation  necessary  for  such 
public  meetings  as  could  not  be  held  within  the  area  Capitolina. 
In  early  times  the  Forum  Romanum  was  used  for  athletic  games, 
and  over  the  porticoes  were  galleries  for  spectators;  there  were 
also  shops  of  various  kinds.  But  with  the  growth  of  the  city 
and  the  increase  of  provincial  business,  more  than  one  forum 
became  necessary,  and  under  the  empire  a  considerable  number 
of  civilia  (judicial)  and  venalia  (mercantile)  fora  came  into 
existence.  In  addition  to  the  Forum  Romanum,  the  Fora  of 
Caesar  and  Augustus  belonged  to  the  former  class;  the  Forum 
boarium  (cattle),  holitorium  (vegetable),  piscarium  (fish), 
pistorium  (bread),  mnarium  (wine),  to  the  latter.  The  Fora  of 
Nerva  (also  called  tramilorium  or  peniium,  because  a  main  road 
led  through  it  to  the  Forum  Romanum),  Trajan,  and  Vespasian, 
although  'partly  intended  to  facilitate  the  course  of  public 


business,  were  chiefly  erected  to  embellish  the  city.  The  con- 
struction of  separate  markets  was  not,  however,  necessarily  the 
rule  in  the  provincial  fora;  thus,  in  Pompeii,  at  the  north-east  end 
of  the  forum,  there  was  a  macellum  (market),  and  shops  for 
provisions  and  possibly  money  changers,  and  on  the  east  side  a 
building  supposed  to  have  been  the  clothworkers'  exchange, 
and  at  Timgad  in  North  Africa  (a  military  colony  founded  under 
Trajan)  the  whole  of  the  south  side  of  the  forum  was  occupied  by 
shops.  The  forum  was  usually  paved,  and  although  on  festal 
occasions  chariots  were  probably  driven  through,  it  was  not  a 
thoroughfare  and  was  enclosed  by  gates  at  the  entrances,  of 
which  traces  have  been  found  at  Pompeii.  When  the  sites  for 
new  towns  were  being  selected,  that  for  the  forum  was  in  the 
centre,  and  the  two  main  streets  crossed  one  another  close  to 
but  not  through  it.  At  Timgad  the  main  streets  are  some  5  or 
6  ft.  lower  than  the  forum.  The  -word  forum  frequently  appears 
in  the  names  of  Roman  market  towns;  as,  for  example,  in 
Forum  Appii,  Forum  Julii  (Frejus),  Forum  Livii  (Forli),  Forum 
Sempronii  (Fossombrone).  These  fora  were  distinguished  from 
mere  vici  by  the  possession  of  a  municipal  organization,  which, 
however,  was  less  complete  than  that  of  a  prefecture.  In  legal 
phraseology,  which  distinguishes  the  forum  commune  from  the 
forum  privilegiatum,  and  the  forum  generate  from  the  forum 
spedale,  the  word  is  practically  equivalent  to  "  court  "  or 
"  jurisdiction." 
For  the  fora  at  Rome,  see  ROME:  Archaeology,  and  works  quoted. 

FORUM  APPII,  an  ancient  post  station  on  the  Via  Appia, 
43  m.  S.E.  of  Rome,  founded,  no  doubt,  by  the  original  con- 
structor of  the  road.  Horace  mentions  it  as  the  usual  halt  at 
the  end  of  the  first  day's  journey  from  Rome,  and  describes  it 
as  full  of  boatmen  and  cheating  innkeepers.  The  presence  of 
the  former  was  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  the  starting-point  of 
a  canal  which  ran  parallel  to  the  road  through  the  Pomptine 
Marshes,  and  was  used  instead  of  it  at  the  time  of  Strabo  and 
Horace  (see  APPIA,  VIA).  It  is  mentioned  also  as  a  halting  place 
in  the  account  of  Paul's  journey  to  Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  15). 
Under  Nerva  and  Trajan  the  road  was  repaired ;  one  inscription 
records  expressly  the  paving  with  silex  (replacing  the  former 
gravelling)  of  the  section  from  Tripontium,  4  m.  N.W.,  to  Forum 
Appii;  the  bridge  near  Tripontium  was  similarly  repaired,  and 
that  at  Forum  Appii,  though  it  bears  no  inscription,  is  of  the 
same  style.  Only  scanty  relics  of  antiquity  have  been  found 
here;  a  post  station  was  placed  here  by  Pius  VI.  when  the  Via 
Appia  was  reconstructed.  (T.  As.) 

FORUM  CLODII,  a  post  station  on  the  Via  Clodia,  about 
23  m.  N.W.  of  Rome  (not  32  m.  as  in  the  Anlonine  Itinerary), 
situated  above  the  western  bank  of  the  Lacus  Sabatinus  (mod. 
Lake  of  Braccia.no),  and  connected  with  the  Via  Cassia  at 
Vacanae  by  a  branch  road  which  ran  round  the  N.  side  of  the 
lake  (Ann.  Inst.,  1859,  43).  The  site  is  marked  by  the  church  of 
SS.  Marcus,  Marcianus  and  Liberatus,  which  was  founded  in  the 
8th  or  9th  century  A.D.  Inscriptions  mentioning  the  Foro- 
Clodienses  have  come  to  light  on  the  spot;  and  an  inscription 
of  the  Augustan  period,  which  probably  stood  over  the  door  of  a 
villa,  calls  the  place  Pausilypon — a  name  justified  by  the  beauty 
of  the  site. 

See  Notizie  degli  scavi  (1889),  5;  D.  Vaglieri,  ibid.  (1895),  342. 

FORUM  TRAIANI  (mod.  Fordongianus),  an  ancient  town  of 
Sardinia,  on  the  river  Thyrsus  (Tirso),  and  a  station  on  the 
Roman  road  through  the  centre  of  the  island  from  Carales  to 
Olbia  and  Turris  Libisonis.  Many  of  its  ruins  have  been 
destroyed  since  1860.  The  best  preserved  are  the  baths,  erected 
over  hot  mineral  springs.  The  tanks  for  collecting  the  water 
and  the  large  central  piscina  are  noteworthy.  The  bridge  over 
the  Tirso  has  been  to  some  extent  modernized.  On  the  opposite 
bank  are  the  scanty  remains  of  an  amphitheatre.  Not  far  off 
is  a  group  of  nuraghi,  of  which  that  of  St  Barbara  in  the  commune 
of  Villanova  Truschedda  is  one  of  the  finest. 

See  Taramelli  in  Notizie  degli  scavi  (1903),  469. 

FOSBROKE,  THOMAS  DUDLEY  (1770-1842),  English  anti- 
quary, was  born  in  London  on  the  27th  of  May  1770.  He  was 
educated  at  St  Paul's  school  and  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 


73° 


FOSCARI— FOSCOLO 


graduating  M.A.  in  1792.  In  that  year  he  was  ordained  and 
became  curate  of  Horsley,  Gloucestershire,  where  he  remained 
till  1810.  He  then  removed  to  Walford  in  Herefordshire,  and 
remained  there  the  rest  of  his  life,  as  curate  till  1830,  and  after- 
wards as  vicar.  His  first  important  work,  British  Monachism 
(2  vols.,  1802),  was  a  compilation,  from  manuscripts  in  the 
British  Museum  and  Bodleian  libraries,  of  facts  relating  to 
English  monastic  life.  In  1799  Fosbroke  had  been  elected 
fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  The  work  for  which  he 
is  best  remembered,  the  Encyclopaedia  of  Antiquities,  appeared 
in  1824.  A  sequel  to  this,  Foreign  Topography,  was  published 
in  1828.  Fosbroke  published  many  other  volumes.  He  died 
at  Walford  on  the  ist  of  January  1842. 

FOSCARI,  FRANCESCO  (1373-1457),  doge  of  Venice,  belonged 
to  a  noble  Venetian  family,  and  held  many  of  the  highest  offices 
of  the  republic — ambassador,  president  of  the  Forty,  member 
of  the  Council  of  Ten,  inquisitor,  procurator  of  St  Mark,  awo- 
gadore  di  comun,  &c.  His  first  wife  was  Maria  Priuli  and  his 
second  Maria  Nani;  of  his  many  children  all  save  one  son 
(Jacopo)  died  young.  But  although  a  capable  administrator 
he  was  ambitious  and  adventurous,  and  the  reigning  doge 
Tommaso  Mocenigo,  when  speaking  on  his  deathbed  of  the 
various  candidates  for  the  succession,  warned  the  council  against 
electing  Foscari,  who,  he  said,  would  perpetually  plunge  the 
republic  into  disastrous  and  costly  wars.  Nevertheless  Foscari 
was  elected  (1423)  and  reigned  for  thirty-four  years.  In  pro- 
claiming the  new  doge  the  customary  formula  which  recognized 
the  people's  share  in  the  appointment  and  asked  for  their 
approval — the  last  vestige  of  popular  government — was  finally 
dropped. 

Foscari's  reign  bore  out  Mocenigo's  warning  and  was  full  of 
wars  on  the  terra  ferma,  and  through  the  doge's  influence  Venice 
joined  the  Florentines  in  their  campaign  against  Milan,  which  was 
carried  on  with  varying  success  for  eight  years.  In  1430  an 
attempt  was  made  on  Foscari's  life  by  a  noble  to  whom  he  had 
refused  an  appointment;  and  three  years  later  a  conspiracy  of 
young  bloods  to  secure  the  various  offices  for  themselves  by 
illicit  intrigues  was  discovered.  These  events,  as  well  as  the 
long  and  expensive  wars  and  the  unsatisfactory  state  of  Venetian 
finances,  induced  Foscari  to  ask  permission  to  abdicate,  which 
was,  however,  refused.  In  1444  began  that  long  domestic  tragedy 
by  which  the  name  of  Foscari  has  become  famous.  The  doge's 
son  Jacopo,  a  cultivated  and  intelligent  but  frivolous  and 
irresponsible  youth,  was  in  that  year  accused  of  the  serious 
crime  of  having  accepted  presents  from  various  citizens  and 
foreign  princes  who  either  desired  government  appointments  or 
wished  to  influence  the  policy  of  the  republic.  Jacopo  escaped, 
but  was  tried  in  contumacy  before  the  Council  of  Ten  and 
condemned  to  be  exiled  to  Napoli  di  Romania  (Nauplia)  and 
to  have  his  property  confiscated.  But  the  execution  of  the 
sentence  was  delayed,  as  he  was  lying  ill  at  Trieste,  and  eventually 
the  penalty  was  commuted  to  banishment  at  Treviso  (1446). 
Four  years  later  Ermolao  Donate,  a  distinguished  official  who 
had  been  a  member  of  the  Ten  at  the  time  of  the  trial,  was 
assassinated  and  Jacopo  Foscari  was  suspected  of  complicity 
in  the  deed.  After  a  long  inquiry  he  was  brought  to  trial  for 
the  second  time,  and  although  all  the  evidence  clearly  pointed 
to  his  guilt  the  judges  could  not  obtain  a  confession  from  the 
accused,  and  so  merely  banished  him  to  Candia  tor  the  rest  of  his 
life,  with  a  pension  of  two  hundred  ducats  a  year.  In  1456  the 
council  received  information  from  the  rector  (governor)  of  Candia 
to  the  effect  that  Jacopo  Foscari  had  been  in  treasonable  corre- 
spondence with  the  duke  of  Milan  and  the  sultan  of  Turkey. 
He  was  summoned  to  Venice,  tried  and  condemned  to  a  year's 
imprisonment,  to  be  followed  by  a  return  to  his  place  of  exile. 
His  aged  father  was  allowed  to  see  him  while  in  prison,  and  to 
Jacopo's  entreaties  that  he  should  obtain  a  full  pardon  for  him, 
he  replied  advising  him  to  bear  his  punishment  without  protest. 
When  the  year  was  up  Jacopo  returned  to  Candia,  where  he  died 
in  January  1457.  The  doge  was  overwhelmed  with  grief  at  this 
bereavement  and  became  quite  incapable  of  attending  to  busi- 
ness. Consequently  the  council  decided  to  ask  him  to  abdicate; 


at  first  he  refused,  but  was  finally  obliged  to  conform  to  their 
wishes  and  retired  on  a  yearly  pension  of  1500  ducats.  Within 
a  week  Pasquale  Malipiero  was  elected  in  his  place  and  two  days 
later  (ist  of  November  1457)  Francesco  Foscari  was  dead. 

The  story  is  a  very  sad  and  pathetic  one,  but  legend  has  added 
many  picturesque  though  quite  apocryphal  details,  most  of  them 
tending  to  show  the  iniquity  and  harshness  of  Jacopo's  judges  and 
accusers,  whereas,  as  we  have  shown,  he  was  treated  with  exceptional 
leniency.  The  most  accurate  account  is  contained  in  S.  Romanic's 
Storia  documentata  di  Venezia,  lib.  x.  cap.  iv.  vii.  and  x.  (Venice, 
1855);  where  the  original  authorities  are  quoted;  see  also  Berlan, 
/  due  Foscari  (Turin,  1852).  Among  the  poetical  works  on  the 
subject  Byron's  tragedy  is  the  most  famous  (1821),  and  Roger's 
poem  Italy  (1821);  Giuseppe  Verdi  composed  an  opera  on  the 
subject  entitled  /  due  Foscari.  (L.  V.*) 

FOSCOLO,  UGO  (1778-1827),  Italian  writer,  was  born  at 
Zante  in  the  Ionian  Isles  on  the  26th  of  January  1778.  On  the 
death  of  his  father,  a  physician  at  Spalatro,  in  Dalmatia,  the 
family  removed  to  Venice,  and  in  the  University  of  Padua 
Foscolo  prosecuted  the  studies  begun  in  the  Dalmatian  grammar 
school.  The  fact  that  amongst  his  Paduan  masters  was  the  abbe 
Cesarotti,  whose  version  of  Ossian  had  made  that  work  highly 
popular  in  Italy,  was  not  without  influence  on  Foscolo's  literary 
tastes,  and  his  early  knowledge  of  modern  facilitated  his  studies 
in  ancient  Greek.  His  literary  ambition  revealed  itself  by  the 
appearance  in  1797  of  his  tragedy  Tieste — a  production  which 
obtained  a  certain  degree  of  success.  Foscolo,  who,  from 
causes  not  clearly  explained,  had  changed  his  Christian  name 
Niccolo  to  that  of  Ugo,  now  began  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 
stormy  political  discussions  which  the  fall  of  the  republic  of 
Venice  had  provoked.  He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the 
national  committees,  and  addressed  an  ode  to  Napoleon  the 
liberator,  expecting  from  the  military  successes  of  the  French 
general,  not  merely  the  overthrow  of  the  effete  Venetian  oligarchy, 
but  the  establishment  of  a  free  republican  government. 

The  treaty  of  Campo  Formic  (i7th  Oct.  1797),  by  which 
Napoleon  handed  Venice  over  to  the  Austrians,  gave  a  rude 
shock  to  Foscolo,  but  did  not  quite  destroy  his  hopes.  The  state 
of  mind  produced  by  that  shock  is  reflected  in  the  Letters  of 
Jacopo  Ortis  (1798),  a  species  of  political  Werlher, — for  the  hero 
of  Foscolo  embodies  the  mental  sufferings  and  suicide  of  an 
undeceived  Italian  patriot  just  as  the  hero  of  Goethe  places  before 
us  the  too  delicate  sensitiveness  embittering  and  at  last  cutting 
short  the  life  of  a  private  German  scholar.  The  story  of  Foscolo, 
like  that  of  Goethe,  had  a  groundwork  of  melancholy  fact. 
Jacopo  Ortis  had  been  a  real  personage;  he  was  a  young  student 
of  Padua,  and  committed  suicide  there  under  circumstances 
akin  to  those  described  by  Foscolo.  At  this  period  Foscolo's 
mind  appears  to  have  been  only  too  familiar  with  the  thought 
of  suicide.  Cato  and  the  many  classical  examples  of  self-destruc- 
tion scattered  through  the  pages  of  Plutarch  appealed  to  the 
imaginations  of  young  Italian  patriots  as  they  had  done  in  France 
to  those  of  the  heroes  and  heroines  of  the  Gironde.  In  the  case 
of  Foscolo,  as  in  that  of  Goethe,  the  effect  produced  on  the 
writer's  mind  by  the  composition  of  the  work  seems  to  have  been 
beneficial.  He  had  seen  the  ideal  of  a  great  national  future 
rudely  shattered;  but  he  did  not  despair  of  his  country,  and 
sought  relief  in  now  turning  to  gaze  on  the  ideal  of  a  great  national 
poet.  At  Milan,  whither  he  repaired  after  the  fall  of  Venice,  he 
was  engaged  in  other  literary  pursuits  besides  the  composition 
of  Ortis.  The  friendship  formed  there  with  the  great  poet  Parini 
was  ever  afterwards  remembered  with  pride  and  gratitude. 
The  friendship  formed  with  another  celebrated  Milanese  poet  soon 
gave  place  to  a  feeling  of  bitter  enmity.  Still  hoping  that  his 
country  would  be  freed  by  Napoleon,  he  served  as  a  volunteer 
in  the  French  army,  took  part  in  the  battle  of  the  Trebbia  and 
the  siege  of  Genoa,  was  wounded  and  made  prisoner.  When 
released  he  returned  to  Milan,  and  there  gave  the  last  touches 
to  his  Ortis,  published  a  translation  of  and  commentary  upon 
Callimachus,  commenced  a  version  of  the  Iliad,  and  began  his 
translation  of  Sterne's  Sentimental  Journey.  The  result  of  a 
memorandum  prepared  for  Lyons,  where,  along  with  other 
Italian  delegates,  he  was  to  have  laid  before  Napoleon  the  state 
of  Italy,  only  proved  that  the  views  cherished  by  him  for  his 


FOSS— FOSSOMBRONE 


country  were  too  bold  to  be  even  submitted  to  the  dictator  of 
France.  The  year  1807  witnessed  the  appearance  of  his  Carme 
sui  sepolcri,  of  which  the  entire  Spirit  and  language  may  be 
described  as  a  sublime  effort  to  seek  refuge  in  the  past  from  the 
misery  of  the  present  and  the  darkness  of  the  future.  The 
mighty  dead  are  summoned  from  their  tombs,  as  ages  before 
they  had  been  in  the  masterpieces  of  Greek  oratory,  to  fight 
again  the  battles  of  their  country.  The  inaugural  lecture  on 
the  origin  and  duty  of  literature,  delivered  by  Foscolo  in  January 
1809  when  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Italian  eloquence  at  Pavia, 
was  conceived  in  the  same  spirit.  In  this  lecture  Foscolo  urged 
his  young  countrymen  to  study  letters,  not  in  obedience  to 
academic  traditions,  but  in  their  relation  to  individual  and 
national  life  and  growth.  The  sensation  produced  by  this 
lecture  had  no  slight  share  in  provoking  the  decree  of  Napoleon 
by  which  the  chair  of  national  eloquence  was  abolished  in  all  the 
Italian  universities.  Soon  afterwards  Foscolo's  tragedy  of  Ajax 
was  represented  but  with  little  success  at  Milan,  and  its  supposed 
allusions  to  Napoleon  rendering  the  author  an  object  of  suspicion, 
he  was  forced  to  remove  from  Milan  to  Tuscany.  The  chief 
fruits  of  his  stay  in  Florence  are  the  tragedy  of  Ricciarda,  the 
Ode  to  the  Graces,  left  unfinished,  and  the  completion  of  his 
version  of  the  Sentimental  Journey  (1813).  His  version  of  Sterne 
is  an  important  feature  in  his  personal  history.  When  serving 
with  the  French  he  had  been  at  the  Boulogne  camp,  and  had 
traversed  much  of  the  ground  gone  over  by  Yorick;  and  in  his 
memoir  of  Didimo  Cherico,  to  whom  the  version  is  ascribed, 
he  throws  much  curious  light  on  his  own  character.  He  returned 
to  Milan  in  1813,  until  the  entry  of  the  Austrians;  thence  he 
passed  into  Switzerland,  where  he  wrote  a  fierce  satire  in  Latin 
on  his  political  and  literary  opponents;  and  finally  he  sought  the 
shores  of  England  at  the  close  of  1816. 

During  the  eleven  years  passed  by  Foscolo  in  London,  until 
his  death  there,  he  enjoyed  all  the  social  distinction  which  the 
most  brilliant  circles  of  the  English  capital  confer  on  foreigners 
of  political  and  literary  renown,  and  experienced  all  the  misery 
which  follows  on  a  disregard  of  the  first  conditions  of  domestic 
economy.  His  contributions  to  the  Edinburgh  and  Quarterly 
Reviews,  his  dissertations  in  Italian  on  the  text  of  Dante  and 
Boccaccio,  and  still  more  his  English  essays  on  Petrarch,  of 
which  the  value  was  enhanced  by  Lady  Dacre's  admirable 
translations  of  some  of  Petrarch's  finest  sonnets,  heightened  his 
previous  fame  as  a  man  of  letters.  But  his  want  of  care  and 
forethought  in  pecuniary  matters  involved  him  in  much  em- 
barrassment, and  at  last  consigned  him  to  a  prison;  and  when 
released  he  felt,  bitterly  the  change  in  his  social  position,  and  the 
coldness  now  shown  to  him  by  many  whom  he  had  been 
accustomed  to  regard  as  friends.  His  general  bearing  in  society 
— if  we  may  accept  on  this  point  the  testimony  of  so  keen  an 
observer  and  so  tolerant  a  man  as  Sir  Walter  Scott — had  un- 
happily not  been  such  as  to  gain  and  retain  lasting  friendships. 
He  died  at  Turnham  Green  on  the  icth  of  October  1827.  Forty- 
four  years  after  his  death,  in  1871,  his  remains  were  brought  to 
Florence,  and  with  all  the  pride,  pomp  and  circumstance  of  a 
great  national  mourning,  found  their  final  resting-place  beside 
the  monuments  of  Macchiavelli  and  Alfieri,  of  Michelangelo 
and  Galileo,  in  Italy's  Westminster  Abbey,  the  church  of  Santa 
Croce.  To  that  solemn  national  tribute  Foscolo  was  fully 
entitled.  For  the  originality  of  his  thoughts  and  the  splendour 
of  his  diction  his  country  honours  him  as  a  great  classic  author. 
He  had  assigned  to  the  literature  of  his  nation  higher  aims  than 
any  which  it  previously  recognized.  With  all  his  defects  of 
character,  and  through  all  his  vicissitudes  of  forturie,  he  was 
always  a  sincere  and  courageous  patriot. 

Ample  materials  for  the  study  of  Foscolo's  character  and  career 
may  be  found  in  the  complete  series  of  his  works  published  in 
Florence  by  Le  Monnier.  The  series  consists  of  Prose  letterarie, 
(4  vols.,  1850);  Epistolario  (3  vols.,  1854);  Prose  politiche  (i  vol., 
1850);  Poesie  (i  vol.,  1856);  Lettere  di  Ortis  (i  vol.,  1858);  Saggi 
di  critica  storico-letleraria  (ist  vol.,  1859;  2nd  vol.,  1862).  To  this 
series  must  be  added  the  very  interesting  work  published  at  Leghorn 
in  1876,  Lettere  inedite  del  Foscolo,  del  Giordani,  e  delta  Signora  di 
StaH,  a  Vincenzo  Monti.  The  work  published  at  Florence  in  the 
summer  of  1878,  Vita  di  Ugo  Foscolo,  di  Pellegrino  Artusi,  throws 


much  doubt  on  the  genuineness  of  the  text  in  Foscolo's  writings  as 
given  in  the  complete  Florence  edition,  whilst  it  furnishes  some 
curious  and  original  illustrations  of  Foscolo's  familiarity  with  the 
English  language.  _  0-  M.  S.) 

FOSS,  EDWARD  (1787-1870),  English  lawyer  and  biographer, 
was  born  in  London  on  the  i6th  of  October  1787.  He  was  a 
solicitor  by  profession,  and  on  his  retirement  from  practice  in 
1840,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  legal  antiquities.  His 
Judges  of  England  (9  vols.,  1848-1864)  is  a  standard  work, 
characterized  by  accuracy  and  extensive  research.  Biographia 
Juridica,  a  Biographical  Dictionary  of  English  Judges,  appeared 
shortly  after  his  death.  He  assisted  in  founding  the  Incorporated 
Law  Society,  of  which  he  was  president  in  1842  and  1843.  He 
died  of  apoplexy  on  the  2/th  of  July  1870. 

FOSSANO,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Piedmont,  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Cuneo,  ism.  N.E.  of  it  by  rail,  1180  ft.  above 
sea-level.  Pop.  (1901)  7696  (town),  18,175  (commune).  It  has 
an  imposing  castle  with  four  towers,  begun  by  Filippo  d'Acaia 
in  1314.  The  cathedral  was  reconstructed  at  the  end  of  the 
i8th  century.  The  place  began  to  acquire  some  importance  in 
the  I3th  century.  It  appears  as  a  commune  in  1237,  but  in 
1251  had  to  yield  to  Asti.  It  finally  surrendered  in  1314  to 
Fillippo  d'Acaia,  whose  successor  handed  it  over  to  the  house  of 
Savoy.  It  lies  on  the  main  line  from  Turin  to  Cuneo,  and  has 
a  branch  line  to  Mondovi. 

FOSSANUOVA,  an  abbey  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Rome, 
near  the  railway  station  of  Sonnino,  64  m.  S.E.  of  Rome.  It 
is  the  finest  example  of  a  Cistercian  abbey,  and  of  the  Burgundian 
Early  Gothic  style,  in  Italy,  and  dates  from  the  end  of  the  i2th 
to  the  end  of  the  I3th  century.  The  church  (1187-1208)  is 
closely  similar  to  that  of  Casamari.  The  other  conventual 
buildings  also  are  noteworthy.  Thomas  Aquinas  died  here  in 
1274. 

See  C.  Enlart,  Origines  frangaises  de  I' architecture  gothique  en 
Italie  (Paris,  1894)  (Bibliotheque  des  ecoles  fran$aises  d'Athenes  el 
de  Rome,  fasc.  66). 

FOSSE  (or  Foss)  WAY,  the  Early  English  name  of  a  Roman 
road  or  series  of  roads  in  Britain,  used  later  by  the  English, 
running  from  Lincoln  by  Leicester  and  Bath  to  Exeter.  Almost 
all  the  Roman  line  is  still  in  use  as  modern  road  or  lane.  It 
passes  from  Lincoln  through  Newark  and  Leicester  (the  Roman 
Ralae)  to  High  Cross  ( Venonae) ,  where  it  intersects  Watling  Street 
at  a  point  often  called  "  the  centre  of  England."  Hence  it  runs  to 
Moreton-in-the-Marsh,  Cirencester,  Bath  and  Ilchester,  crosses 
the  hills  near  Chard,  Axminster  and  Honiton,  and  enters  Exeter. 
Antiquaries  have  taken  it  farther,  usually  to  Totnes,  but  without 
warrant.  (See  further  under  ERMINE  STREET.)  (F.  J.  H.) 

FOSSICK  (probably  an  English  dialectical  expression,  meaning 
fussy  or  troublesome),  a  term  applied  by  the  gold  diggers  of 
Australia  to  the  search  for  gold  by  solitary  individuals,  in 
untried  localities  or  in  abandoned  diggings.  A  "  fossicker," 
or  pocket  miner,  is  one  who  buys  up  the  right  to  search  old 
claims,  in  the  hope  of  finding  gold  overlooked  by  previous 
diggers. 

FOSSOMBRONE  (anc.  Forum  Sempronii),  a  town  and  episcopal 
see  of  the  Marches,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Pesaro  and  Urbino, 
ii  m.  E.S.E.  of  the  latter  by  road,  394  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop. 
(1901)  .town,  7531,  commune,  10,847.  The  town  is  situated 
in  the  valley  of  the  Metauro,  in  the  centre  of  fine  scenery,  at  the 
meeting-point  of  roads  to  Fano,  to  the  Furlo  pass  and  Fossato 
di  Vico  (the  ancient  Via  Flaminia),  to  Urbino  and  to  Sinigaglia, 
the  last  crossing  the  river  by  a  fine  bridge.  The  cathedral, 
rebuilt  in  1772-1784,  contains  the  chief  work  of  the  sculptor 
Domenico  Rosselli  of  Rovezzano,  a  richly  sculptured  ancona 
of  1480.  S.  Francesco  has  a  lunette  by  him  over  the  portal. 
The  library,  founded  by  a  nephew  of  Cardinal  Passionei,  contains 
some  antiquities.  Above  the  town  is  a  medieval  castle.  There 
is  a  considerable  trade  in  silk. 

The  ancient  Forum  Sempronii  lay  about  2  m.  to  the  N.E. 
at  S.  Martino  al  Piano,  where  remains  still  exist.  It  was  a  station 
on  the  Via  Flaminia  and  a  municipium.  The  date  of  its  founda- 
tion is  not  known.  Excavations  in  1879-1880  led  to  the  discovery 
of  a  house  and  of  other  buildings  on  the  ancient  road  (A. 


732 


FOSSOMBRONI— FOSTER,  J. 


Vernarecci  in  Notizie  degli  scavi,  1880,  458).  It  already  had 
a  bishop  in  the  years  499-502.  In  1295  the  Malatesta  obtained 
possession  of  it,  and  kept  it  until  1444,  when  it  was  sold,  with 
Pesaro,  to  Federico  di  Montefeltro  of  Urbino,  and  with  the 
latter  it  passed  to  the  papacy  under  Urban  VIII.  in  1631. 

FOSSOMBRONI,  VITTORIO,  COUNT  (1754-1844),  Tuscan 
statesman  and  mathematician,  was  born  at  Arezzo.  He  was 
educated  at  the  university  of  Pisa,  where  he  devoted  himself 
particularly  to  mathematics.  He  obtained  an  official  appoint- 
ment in  Tuscany  in  1782,  and  twelve  years  later  was  entrusted 
by  the  grand  duke  with  the  direction  of  the  works  for  the  drainage 
of  the  Val  di  Chiana,  on  which  subject  he  had  published  a  treatise 
in  1789.  In  1796  he  was  made  minister  for  foreign  affairs,  but 
on  the  French  occupation  of  Tuscany  in  1799  he  fled  to  Sicily. 
On  the  erection  of  the  grand  duchy  into  the  ephemeral  kingdom 
of  Etruria,  under  the  queen-regent  Maria  Louisa,  he  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  commission  of  finance.  In  1809  he  went 
to  Paris  as  one  of  the  senators  for  Tuscany  to  pay  homage  to 
Napoleon.  He  was  made  president  of  the  legislative  commission 
on  the  restoration  of  the  grand  duke  Ferdinand  III.  in  1814, 
and  subsequently  prime  minister,  which  position  he  retained 
under  the  grand  duke  Leopold  II.  His  administration,  which 
was  only  terminated  by  his  death,  greatly  contributed  to  promote 
the  well-being  of  the  country.  He  was  the  real  master  of  Tuscany, 
and  the  bases  of  his  rule  were  equality  of  all  subjects  before  the 
law,  honesty  in  the  administration  of  justice  and  toleration  of 
opinion,  but  he  totally  neglected  the  moral  improvement  of  the 
people.  At  the  age  of  seventy-eight  he  married,  and  twelve 
years  afterwards  died,  in  1844. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Gino  Capponi,  II  Conte  V.  Fossonibroni,  A.  von 
Reumont,  Geschichte  Toscanas  unter  dem  Hause  Lothringen-Habsburg 
(Gotha,  1877);  Zobi,  Storia  civile  delta  Toscana  (Florence,  1850- 
1853) ;  Galeotti,  Delle  Leggi  e  dell'  amminislratione  delta  Toscana 
(Florence,  1847);  Baldasseroni,  Leopoldo  II.  (Florence,  1871);  see 
also  under  CAPPONI,  GINO;  FERDINAND  III.,  of  Tuscany,  and 
LEOPOLD  II.,  of  Tuscany.  (L.  V.*) 

•  FOSTER,  SIR  CLEMENT  LE  NEVE  (1841-1904),  English 
geologist  and  mineralogist,  the  second  son  of  Peter  Le  Neve 
Foster  (for  many  years  secretary  of  the  Society  of  Arts),  was 
born  at  Camberwell  on  the  23rd  of  March  1841.  After  receiving 
his  early  education  at  Boulogne  and  Amiens,  he  studied  succes- 
sively at  the  Royal  School  of  Mines  in  London  and  at  the  mining 
college  of  Freiburg  in  Saxony.  In  1860  he  joined  the  Geological 
Survey  in  England,  working  in  the  Wealden  area  and  afterwards 
in  Derbyshire.  Conjointly  with  William  Topley  (1841-1894) 
he  communicated  to  the  Geological  Society  of  London  in  1865 
the  now  classic  paper  "  On  the  superficial  deposits  of  the  Valley 
of  the  Medway,  with  remarks  on  the  Denudation  of  the  Weald." 
In  this  paper  the  sculpturing  of  the  Wealden  area  by  rain  and 
rivers  was  ably  advocated.  Retiring  from  the  Geological 
Survey  in  1865,  Foster  devoted  his  attention  to  mineralogy 
and  mining  in  Cornwall,  Egypt  and  Venezuela.  In  1872  he  was 
appointed  an  inspector  of  mines  under  the  home  office  for 
the  S.W.  of  England,  and  in  1880  he  was  transferred  to  the  N. 
Wales  district.  In  1890  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mining 
at  the  Royal  College  of  Science  and  he  held  this  post  until  the 
close  of  his  life.  His  later  work  is  embodied  largely  in  the  reports 
of  mines  and  quarries  issued  annually  by  the  home  office.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  extensive  scientific  and  practical 
knowledge  of  metalliferous  mining  and  stone  quarrying.  He 
was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1892  and  was  knighted  in  1903.  While 
investigating  the  cause  of  a  mining  disaster  in  the  Isle  of  Man 
in  1897  his  constitution  suffered  much  injury  from  carbonic- 
oxide  gas,  and  he  never  fully  recovered  from  the  effects.  He 
died  in  London  on  the  igth  of  April  1904.  He  published  Ore  and 
Stone  Mining,  1894  (ed.  5,  1904);  and  The  Elements  of  Mining 
and  Quarrying,  1903. 

FOSTER,  GEORGE  EULAS  (1847-  ),  Canadian  politician 
and  financier,  was  born  in  New  Brunswick  on  the  3rd  of 
September  1847,  of  U.E.  Loyalist  descent.  After  a  brilliant 
university  career  at  the  university  of  Brunswick,  at  Edinburgh 
and  Heidelberg,  he  returned  to  Canada  and  taught  in  various 
local  schools,  eventually  becoming  professor  of  classics  and 


history  in  the  local  university.  In  1882  he  became  Conservative 
member  for  King's  County,  N.B.,  in  the  Dominion  parliament, 
and  in  1885  entered  the  cabinet' of  Sir  John  Macdonald  as  minister 
of  marine  and  fisheries;  in  1888  he  became  minister  of  finance, 
which  position  he  held  till  the  defeat  of  his  party  in  1896.  A 
careful  and  even  brilliant  financier,  and  a  keen  debater,  he 
became  known  as  a  strong  believer  in  protection  for  Canadian 
industries  and  in  preferential  trade  within  the  British  empire. 

FOSTER,  JOHN  (1770-1843),  English  author  and  dissenting 
minister,  generally  known  as  the  "  Essayist,"  was  born  in  a  small 
farmhouse  near  Halifax,  Yorkshire,  on  the  i7th  of  September 
1770.  Partly  from  constitutional  causes,  but  partly  also  from 
the  want  of  proper  companions,  as  well  as  from  the  grave  and 
severe  habits  of  his  parents,  his  earlier  years  were  enshrouded 
in  a  somewhat  gloomy  and  sombre  atmosphere,  which  was  never 
afterwards  wholly  dissipated.  His  youthful  energy,  finding  no 
proper  outlet,  developed  within  him  a  tendency  to  morbid 
intensity  of  thought  and  feeling;  and,  according  to  his  own 
testimony,  before  he  was  twelve  years  old  he  was  possessed  of 
a  "  painful  sense  of  an  awkward  but  entire  individuality." 

The  small  income  accruing  to  Foster's  parents  from  their 
farm  they  supplemented  by  weaving,  and  at  an  early  age  he 
began  to  assist  them  by  spinning  wool  by  the  hand  wheel,  and 
from  his  fourteenth  year  by  weaving  double  stuffs.  Even  "  when 
a  child,"  however,  he  had  the  "  feelings  of  a  foreigner  in  the 
place  ";  and  though  he  performed  his  monotonous  task  with 
conscientious  diligence,  he  succeeded  so  indifferently  in  fixing 
his  wandering  thoughts  upon  it  that  his  work  never  without 
difficulty  passed  the  ordeal  of  inspection.  He  had  acquired  a 
great  taste  for  reading,  to  gratify  which  he  sometimes  shut 
himself  up  alone  in  a  barn,  afterwards  working  at  his  loom 
"  like  a  horse,"  to  make  up  for  lost  time.  He  had  also  at  this 
period  "  a  passion  for  making  pictures  with  a  pen."  Shortly 
after  completing  his  seventeenth  year  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Baptist  church  at  Hebden  Bridge,  with  which  his  parents 
were  connected;  and  with  the  view  of  preparing  himself  for 
the  ministerial  office  he  began  about  the  same  time  to  attend 
a  seminary  at  Brearley  Hall  conducted  by  his  pastor  Dr  Fawcett. 

After  remaining  three  years  at  Brearley  Hall  he  was  admitted 
to  the  Baptist  College,  Bristol,  and  on  finishing  his  course  of 
study  at  this  institution  he  obtained  an  engagement  at  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne,  where  he  preached  to  an  audience  of  less  than  a  hundred 
persons,  in  a  small  and  dingy  room  situated  near  the  river  at  the 
top  of  a  flight  of  steps  called  Tuthill  Stairs.  At  Newcastle  he 
remained  only  three  months.  In  the  beginning  of  1793  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Dublin,  where,  after  failing  as  a  preacher,  he  attempted 
to  revive  a  classical  and  mathematical  school,  but  with  so  little 
success  that  he  did  not  prosecute  the  experiment  for  more  than 
eight  or  nine  months.  From  1797  to  1799  he  was  minister  of  a 
Baptist  church  at  Chichester,  but  though  he  applied  himself 
with  more  earnestness  and  perseverance  than  formerly  to  the 
discharge  of  his  ministerial  duties,  his  efforts  produced  little 
apparent  impression,  and  the  gradual  diminution  of  his  hearers 
necessitated  his  resignation.  After  employing  himself  for  a  few 
months  at  Battersea  in  the  instruction  of  twenty  African  youths 
brought  to  England  by  Zachary  Macaulay,  with  the  view  of 
having  them  trained  to  aid  as  missionaries  to  their  fellow-country- 
men, he  in  1800  accepted  the  charge  of  a  small  congregation  at 
Downend,  Bristol,  where  he  continued  about  four  years.  In 
1804,  chiefly  through  the  recommendation  of  Robert  Hall,  he 
became  pastor  of  a  congregation  at  Frome,  but  a  swelling  in  the 
thyroid  gland  compelled  him  in  1806  to  resign  his  charge.  In  the 
same  year  he  published  the  volume  of  Essays  on  which  his 
literary  fame  most  largely  if  not  mainly  rests.  They  were 
written  in  the  form  of  letters  addressed  to  the  lady,  whom  he 
afterwards  married,  and  consist  of  four  papers, — "  On  a  Man 
writing  Memoirs  of  himself";  "On  Decision  of  Character"; 
"  On  the  Application  of  the  Epithet  Romantic  ";  and  "  On  some 
Causes  by  which  Evangelical  Religion  has  been  rendered  un- 
acceptable to  Men  of  Cultivated  Taste."  The  success  of  this 
work  was  immediate,  and  was  so  considerable  that  on  resigning 
his  charge  he  determined  to  adopt  literature  as  his  profession. 


FOSTER,  SIR  MICHAEL— FOSTORIA 


733 


The  Eclectic  Review  was  the  only  periodical  with  which  he  estab- 
lished a  connexion;  but  his  contributions  to  that  journal, 
which  were  begun  in  1807,  number  no  fewer  than  185  articles. 
On  his  marriage  in  May  1808  he  removed  to  Bourton-on-the- 
Water,  a  small  village  in  Gloucestershire,  where  he  remained 
till  1817,  when  he  returned  to  Downend  and  resumed  his  duties 
to  his  old  congregation.  Here  he  published  in  1820  his  Essay 
on  Popular  Ignorance,  which  was  the  enlargement  of  a  sermon 
originally  preached  on  behalf  of  the  British  and  Foreign  School 
Society.  In  1821  he  removed  to  Stapleton  near  Bristol,  and  in 
1822  he  began  a  series  of  fortnightly  lectures  at  Broadmead 
chapel,  Bristol,  which  were  afterwards  published.  On  the 
settlement  of  Robert  Hall  at  Bristol  this  service  was  discontinued, 
as  in  such  circumstances  it  appeared  to  Foster  to  be  "  altogether 
superfluous  and  even  bordering  on  impertinent."  The  health 
of  Foster  during  the  later  years  of  his  life  was  somewhat  infirm, 
the  result  chiefly  of  the  toil  and  effort  of  literary  composition; 
and  the  death  of  his  only  son,  his  wife  and  the  greater  number 
of  his  most  intimate  friends  combined  with  his  bodily  ailments 
to  lend  additional  sombreness  to  his  manner  of  regarding  the 
events  and  arrangements  of  the  present  world — the  "  visage  of 
death  "  being  almost  his  "  one  remaining  luminary."  He  died 
at  Stapleton  on  the  isth  of  October  1843. 

The  cast  of  Foster's  mind  was  meditative  and  reflective  rather 
than  logical  or  metaphysical,  and  though  holding  moderately 
Calvinistic  views,  his  language  even  in  preaching  very  seldom 
took  the  mould  of  theological  forms.  Though  always  retaining 
his  connexion  with  the  Baptist  denomination,  the  evils  result- 
ing from  organized  religious  communities  seemed  to  him  so 
great  that  he  came  to  be  "  strongly  of  opinion  that  churches  are 
useless  and  mischievous  institutions,  and  the  sooner  they  are 
dissolved  the  better."  The  only  Christian  observances  which 
he  regarded  as  of  any  importance  were  public  worship  and  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  it  so  happened  that  he  never  administered 
the  ordinance  of  baptism.  His  cast  of  thought  is  largely  coloured 
by  a  constant  reference  to  the  "  endless  future."  He  was  a  firm 
believer  in  supernatural  appearances,  and  cherished  a  longing 
hope  that  a  ray  of  light  from  the  other  world  might  sometimes 
in  this  way  be  vouchsafed  to  mortals.  As  a  writer  he  was  most 
painstaking  and  laborious  in  his  choice  of  diction,  and  his  style 
has  its  natural  consequent  defects,  though  the  result  is  eloquent 
in  its  way. 

Besides  the  works  already  alluded  to,  Foster  was  the  author  of  a 
Discourse  on  Missions  (1818);  "  Introductory  Essay"  to  Dod- 
dridge's  Rise  and  Progress  of  Religion  (1825);  "Observations  on 
Mr  Hall's  Character  as  a  Preacher,  prefixed  to  the  collected  edition 
of  Hall's  Works  (1832);  an  "  Introduction  "  to  a  pamphlet  by  Mr 
Marshman  on  the  Serampore  Missionaries;  several  political  letters 
to  the  Morning  Chronicle,  and  contributions  to  the  Eclectic  Review, 
published  posthumously  in  2  vols.,  1844.  His  Life  and  Corre- 
spondence, edited  by  J.  E.  Ryland,  was  published  in  1846. 

FOSTER,  SIR  MICHAEL  (1836-1907),  English  physiologist, 
was  born  at  Huntingdon  on  the  8th  of  March  1836.  After 
graduating  in  medicine  at  London  University  in  1859,  he  began 
to  practise  in  his  native  town,  but  in  1867  he  returned  to  London 
as  teacher  of  practical  physiology  at  University  College,  where 
two  years  afterwards  he  became  professor.  In  1870  he  was 
appointed  by  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  to  its  praelectorship  in 
physiology,  and  thirteen  years  later  he  became  the  first  occupant 
of  the  newly-created  chair  of  physiology  in  the  university, 
holding  it  till  1903.  He  excelled  as  a  teacher  and  administrator, 
and  had  a  very  large  share  in  the  organization  and  development 
of  the  Cambridge  biological  school.  From  1881  to  1903  he  was 
one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  that  capacity 
exercised  a  wide  influence  on  the  study  of  biology  in  Great 
Britain.  In  1899  he  was  created  K.C.B.,  and  served  as  president 
of  the  British  Association  at  its  meeting  at  Dover.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  elected  to  represent  the  university  of 
London  in  parliament.  Though  returned  as  a  Unionist,  his 
political  action  was  not  to  be  dictated  by  party  considerations, 
and  he  gravitated  towards  Liberalism;  but  he  played  no 
prominent  part  in  parliament  and  at  the  election  of  1906  was 
defeated.  His  chief  writings  were  a  Textbook  of  Physiology 


(1876),  which  became  a  standard  work,  and  Lectures  on  the 
History  of  Physiology  in  the  idth,  ijth  and,  i8th  Centuries  (1901), 
which  consisted  of  lectures  delivered  at  the  Cooper  Medical 
College,  San  Francisco,  in  1900.  He  died  suddenly  in  London 
on  the  2gth  of  January  1907. 

FOSTER,  MYLES  BIRKET  (1825-1899),  English  painter, 
was  born  at  North  Shields.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the 
workshop  of  Ebenezer  Landells,  a  wood  engraver,  with  whom 
he  worked  for  six  years  as  an  illustrative  draughtsman,  devoting 
himself  mainly  to  landscape.  During  the  succeeding  fifteen 
years  he  became  famous  as  a  prolific  and  accomplished  illustrator, 
but  about  1 86 1  abandoned  illustration  for  painting,  and  gained 
wide  popularity  by  his  pictures,  chiefly  in  water  colours,  of 
landscapes  and  rustic  subjects,  with  figures,  mainly  of  children. 
He  was  elected  in  1860  associate  and  in  1862  full  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Painters  in  Water  Colours.  His  work  is  memor- 
able for  its  delicacy  and  minute  finish,  and  for  its  daintiness  and 
pleasantness  of  sentiment. 

See  Birket  Foster,  his  Life  and  Work  (extra  number  of  the  Art 
Journal)  by  Marcus  B.  Huish  (1800),  an  interesting  sketch;  and 
Birket  Foster,  R.W.S.,  by  H.  M.  Cundall  (London,  1906),  a  very 
complete  and  fully  illustrated  biography. 

FOSTER,  STEPHEN  COLLINS  (1826-1864),  American  song 
and  ballad  writer,  was  born  near  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
4th  of  July  1826.  He  was  the  youngest  child  of  a  merchant  of 
Irish  descent  who  became  a  member  of  the  state  legislature 
and  was  related  by  marriage  to  President  Buchanan.  Stephen 
early  showed  talent  for  music,  and  played  upon  the  flageolet, 
the  guitar  and  the  banjo;  he  also  acquired  a  fair  knowledge 
of  French  and  German.  He  was  sent  to  school  in  Towanda, 
Pennsylvania,  and  later  to  Athens,  Pennsylvania,  and  when 
thirteen  years  old  he  wrote  the  song  "  Sadly  to  Mine  Heart 
Appealing."  At  sixteen  he  wrote  "  Open  thy  Lattice,  Love  "; 
at  seventeen  he  entered  his  brother's  business  house,  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  where  he  remained  about  three  years,  composing  meanwhile 
such  popular  pieces  as  "  Old  Uncle  Ned,"  "  O  Susannah!"  and 
others.  He  then  adopted  song-writing  as  a  profession.  His  chief 
successes  were  songs  written  for  the  negro  melodists  or  Christy 
minstrels.  Besides  those  mentioned  the  following  attained 
great  popularity:  "  Nelly  was  a  Lady,"  "  Old  Kentucky  Home," 
"  Old  Folks  at  Home,"  "  Massa's  in  de  Cold,  Cold  Ground,"  &c. 
For  these  and  other  songs  the  composer  received  considerable 
sums,  "Old  Folks  at  Home"  bringing  him,  it  is  said,  15,000 
dollars.  For  most  of  his  songs  Foster  wrote  both  songs  and  music. 
In  1850  he  married  and  moved  to  New  York,  but  soon  returned 
to  Pittsburg.  His  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  negro  melodies, 
many  of  which  have  been  popular  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic 
and  sung  in  many  tongues.  "  Old  Black  Joe,"  the  last  of  these 
negro  melodies,  appeared  in  1861.  His  later  songs  were  senti- 
mental ballads.  Among  these  are  "  Old  Dog  Tray,"  "  Gentle 
Annie,"  "  Willie,  we  have  missed  you,"  &c.  His  "  Come  where 
my  Love  lies  Dreaming  "  is  a  well  known  vocal  quartet.  Al- 
though as  a  musician  and  composer  Foster  has  little  claim  to  high 
rank,  his  song-writing  gives  him  a  prominent  place  in  the  modern 
developments  of  popular  music.  He  died  at  New  York  on  the 
i3th  of  January  1864. 

FOSTORIA,  a  city,  partly  in  Seneca,  partly  in  Hancock,  and 
partly  in  Wood  county,  Ohio,  U.S.A.,  35  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Toledo. 
Pop.  (1890)  7070;  (1900)  7730  (584 foreign-born);  (1910)9597. 
It  is  served  by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  the  New  York,  Chicago  & 
St  Louis,  the  Ohio  Central,  the  Lake  Erie  &  Western,  and  the 
Hocking  Valley  railways,  and  by  two  interurban  electric  lines. 
The  city  is  situated  in  an  agricultural  region,  and  oil  abounds  in 
the  vicinity.  Among  the  city's  manufactures  are  glass,  flour, 
planing  mill  products,  brass  and  iron,  carriages,  barrels,  incan- 
descent lamps,  carbons,  wire  nails  and  fences,  automobile 
engines  and  parts,  railway  torpedoes  and  muslin  underwear. 
The  waterworks  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality. 
In  1832,  upon  the  coming  of  the  first  settlers,  two  towns,  Rome 
and  Risdon,  were  laid  out  on  the  site  of  what  is  now  Fostoria. 
A  bitter  rivalry  arose  between  them,  but  they  were  finally  united 
under  one  government,  and  the  city  thus  formed  was  named  in 


734 


FOTHERGILL— FOUCHE 


honour  of  Charles  W.  Foster,  whose  son  Charles  Foster  (1828- 
1904),  governor  of  the  state  from  1880  to  1884  and  secretary  of 
the  United  States  treasury  from  1891  to  1893,  did  much  to  pro- 
mote its  growth.  Fostoria  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1854. 

FOTHERGILL,  JOHN  (1712-1780),  English  physician,  was 
born  of  a  Quaker  family  on  the  8th  of  March  1712  at  Carr  End 
in  Yorkshire.  He  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Edinburgh  in  1 736, 
and  after  visiting  the  continent  of  Europe  he  in  1 740  settled  in 
London,  where  he  gained  an  extensive  practice.  In  the  epidemics 
of  influenza  in  1775  and  1776  he  is  said  to  have  had  sixty  patients 
daily.  In  his  leisure  he  made  a  study  of  conchology  and  botany; 
and  at  Upton,  near  Stratford,  he  had  an  extensive  botanical 
garden  where  he  grew  many  rare  plants  obtained  from  various 
parts  of  the  world.  He  was  the  patron  of  Sidney  Parkinson,  the 
South  Sea  voyager.  A  translation  of  the  Bible  (1764  sq.)  by 
Anthony  Purver,  a  Quaker,  was  made  and  printed  at  his  expense. 
His  pamphlet  entitled  "  Account  of  the  Sore  Throat  attended 
with  Ulcers  "  (1748)  contains  one  of  the  first  descriptions  of 
diphtheria  in  English,  and  was  translated  into  several  languages. 
He  died  in  London  on  the  26th  of  December  1780. 

FOTHERINGHAY,  a  village  of  Northamptonshire,  England, 
picturesquely  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Nene,  15  m. 
from  Elton  station  on  the  Peterborough  branch  of  the  London 
&  North- Western  railway.  The  castle,  of  which  nothing  but  the 
earthworks  and  foundations  remain,  is  famous  as  the  scene 
of  the  imprisonment  of  Mary  queen  of  Scots  from  September 
1586  to  her  trial  and  execution  on  the  8th  of  February  1587.  The 
earthworks,  commanding  a  ford  of  the  river,  are  apparently  of 
very  early  date,  and  probably  bore  a  castle  from  Norman  times. 
It  became  an  important  stronghold  of  the  Plantagenets  from 
the  time  of  Edward  III.,  and  was  the  birthplace  of  Richard  III. 
in  1452.  The  church  of  St  Mary  and  All  Saints,  originally 
collegiate,  is  Perpendicular,  and  only  the  nave  with  aisles,  and 
the  tower  surmounted  by  an  octagon,  remain;  but  the  building 
is  in  the  best  style  of  its  period.  Edward,  second  duke  of  York, 
who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt  in  1415,  Richard,  the 
third  duke,  and  his  duchess,  Cicely  (d.  1495),  also  his  son  the 
earl  of  Rutland,  who  with  Richard  himself,  fell  at  the  battle  of 
Wakefield  in  1460,  are  buried  in  the  church.  Their  monuments 
were  erected  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  found  the  choir  and  tombs 
in  ruins. 

FOUCAULT,  JEAN  BERNARD  LEON  (1819-1868),  French 
physicist,  was  the  son  of  a  publisher  at  Paris,  where  he  was  born 
on  the  i8th  of  September  1819.  After  an  education  received 
chiefly  at  home,  he  studied  medicine,  which,  however,  he  speedily 
abandoned  for  physical  science,  the  improvement  of  L.  J.  M. 
Daguerre's  photographic  processes  being  the  object  to  which 
he  first  directed  his  attention.  During  three  years  he  was  experi- 
mental assistant  to  Alfred  Donne  (1801-1878)  in  his  course  of 
lectures  on  microscopic  anatomy.  With  A.  H.  L.  Fizeau  he 
carried  on  a  series  of  investigations  on  the  intensity  of  the  light 
of  the  sun,  as  compared  with  that  of  carbon  in  the  electric  arc, 
and  of  lime  in  the  flame  of  the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe;  on  the 
interference  of  heat  rays,  and  of  light  rays  differing  greatly  in 
lengths  of  path;  and  on  the  chromatic  polarization  of  light. 
In  1849  he  contributed  to  the  Comptcs  Rendus  a  description 
of  an  electromagnetic  regulator  for  the  electric  arc  lamp,  and, 
in  conjunction  with  H.  V.  Regnault,  a  paper  on  binocular  vision. 
By  the  use  of  a  revolving  mirror  similar  to  that  used  by  Sir 
Charles  Wheatstone  for  measuring  the  rapidity  of  electric 
currents,  he  was  enabled  in  1850  to  demonstrate  the  greater 
velocity  of  light  in  air  than  in  water,  and  to  establish  that  the 
velocity  of  light  in  different  media  is  inversely  as  the  refractive 
indices  of  the  media.  For  his  demonstration  in  1851  of  the 
diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  by  the  rotation  of  the  plane  of  oscilla- 
tion of  a  freely  suspended,  long  and  heavy  pendulum  exhibited 
by  him  at  the  Pantheon  in  Paris,  and  again  in  the  following 
year  by  means  of  his  invention  the  gyroscope,  he  received  the 
Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1855,  and  in  the  same  year 
he  was  made  physical  assistant  in  the  imperial  observatory  at 
Paris.  In  September  of  that  year  he  discovered  that  the  force 
required  for  the  rotation  of  a  copper  disk  becomes  greater  when 


it  is  made  to  rotate  with  its  rim  between  the  poles  of  a  magnet, 
the  disk  at  the  same  time  becoming  heated  by  the  eddy  or 
"  Foucault  currents  "  induced  in  its  metal.  Foucault  invented 
in  1857  the  polarizer  which  bears  his  name,  and  in  the  succeeding 
year  devised  a  method  of  giving  to  the  speculum  of  reflecting 
telescopes  the  form  of  a  spheroid  or  a  paraboloid  of  revolution. 
With  Wheatstone's  revolving  mirror  he  in  1862  determined  the 
absolute  velocity  of  light  to  be  298,000  kilometres  (about  185,000 
m.)  a  second,  or  10,000  kilom.  less  than  that  obtained  by  previous 
experimenters.  He  was  created  in  that  year  a  member  of  the 
Bureau  des  Longitudes  and  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour, 
in  1864  a  foreign  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London, 
and  next  year  a  member  of  the  mechanical  section  of  the 
Institute.  In  1865  appeared  his  papers  on  a  modification  of 
Watt's  governor,  upon  which  he  had  for  some  time  been  experi- 
menting with  a  view  to  making  its  period  of  revolution  constant, 
and  on  a  new  apparatus  for  regulating  the  electric  light;  and  in 
the  following  year  (Compt.  Rend.  Ixiii.)  he  showed  how,  by  the 
deposition  of  a  transparently  thin  film  of  silver  on  the  outer  side 
of  the  object  glass  of  a  telescope,  the  sun  could  be  viewed  without 
injuring  the  eye  by  excess  of  light.  Foucault  died  of  paralysis 
on  the  nth  of  February  1868  at  Paris.  From  the  year  1845 
he  edited  the  scientific  portion  of  the  Journal  des  Debats.  His 
chief  scientific  papers  are  to  be  found  in  the  Comptes  Rendus, 
1847-1869. 

See  Revue  cours  sclent,  vi.  (1869),  pp.  484-489;  Proc.  Roy.  Soc. 
xvii.  (1869),  pp.  Ixxxiii.-lxxxiv. ;  Lissajous,  Notice  historique  sur  la 
vie  et  les  travaux  de  Leon  Foucault  (Paris,  1875). 

FOUCHE,  JOSEPH,  DUKE  OF  OTRANTO  (1763-1820),  French 
statesman,  was  born  in  a  small  village  near  Nantes  on  the  2ist 
of  May  1763.  His  father,  a  seafaring  man,  destined  him  for  the 
sea;  but  the  weakness  of  his  frame  and  the  precocity  of  his 
talents  soon  caused  this  idea  to  be  given  up.  He  was  educated 
at  the  college  of  the  Oratorians  at  Nantes,  and  showed  marked 
aptitude  for  studies  both  literary  and  scientific.  Desiring  to 
enter  the  teaching  profession  he  was  sent  to  an  institution  kept 
by  brethren  of  the  same  order  at  Paris.  There  also  he  made 
rapid  progress,  and  soon  entered  upon  tutorial  duties  at  the 
colleges  of  Niort,  Saumur,  Vendome,  Juilly  and  Arras.  At  Arras 
he  had  some  dealings  with  Robespierre  at  the  time  of  the  begin- 
ning of  the  French  Revolution  (1789). 

In  October  1790  he  was  transferred  by  the  Oratorians  to 
their  college  at  Nantes,  owing  to  irregularities  due  to  his  zeal 
for  revolutionary  principles;  but  at  Nantes  he  showed  even 
more  democratic  fervour.  His  abilities  and  the  zeal  with  which 
he  espoused  the  most  subversive  notions  brought  him  into 
favour  with  the  populace  at  Nantes;  he  became  a  leading 
member  of  the  local  Jacobin  club;  and  on  the  dissolution  of  the 
college  of  the  Oratorians  at  Nantes  in  May  1792,  Fouche  gave 
up  all  connexion  with  the  church,  whose  major  vows  he  had 
not  taken.  After  the  downfall  of  the  monarchy  on  the  loth  of 
August  1792,  he  was  elected  as  deputy  for  the  department  of 
the  Lower  Loire  to  the  National  Convention  which  met  at  the 
autumnal  equinox  and  proclaimed  the  republic.  The  literary 
and  pedagogic  sympathies  of  Fouche  at  first  brought  him  into 
touch  with  Condorcet  and  the  party,  or  group,  of  the  Girondists; 
but  their  vacillation  at  the  time  of  the  trial  and  execution  of 
Louis  XVI.  (December  1792-January  21,  1793)  led  him  to 
espouse  the  cause  of  the  Jacobins,  the  less  scrupulous  and  more 
thoroughgoing  champions  of  revolutionary  doctrine.  On  the 
question  of  the  execution  of  the  king,  Fouche,  after  some  pre- 
liminary hesitations,  expressed  himself  with  the  utmost  vigour 
in  favour  of  immediate  execution,  and  denounced  those  who 
"  wavered  before  the  shadow  of  a  king." 

The  crisis  which  resulted  from  the  declaration  of  war  by  the 
Convention  against  England  and  Holland  (Feb.  i,  1793),  and 
a  little  later  against  Spain,  brought  Fouche  into  notoriety  as 
one  of  the  fiercest  of  the  Jacobinical  fanatics  who  then  held 
power  at  Paris.  While  the  armies  of  the  first  coalition  threatened 
the  north-east  of  France,  a  revolt  of  the  royalist  peasants  of 
Brittany  and  la  Vendee  menaced  the  Convention  on  the  west. 
That  body  deputed  Fouche  with  a  colleague,  Villers,  to  proceed 


FOUCH£ 


735 


to  the  west  as  commissioners  invested  with  almost  dictatorial 
powers  for  the  crushing  of  the  revolt  of  "  the  whites."  The 
vigour  with  which  he  carried  out  these  duties  earned  him  other 
work,  and  he  soon  held  the  post  of  commissioner  of  the  republic 
in  the  department  of  the  Nievre.  Together  with  Chaumette, 
he  helped  to  initiate  the  atheistical  movement,  the  founders  of 
which  in  the  autumn  of  1793  began  to  aim  at  the  extinction  of 
Christianity  in  France.  In  the  department  of  the  Nievre  he 
ransacked  the  churches,  sent  their  spoils  to  the  treasury  and 
established  the  cult  of  the  goddess  of  Reason.  Over  the 
cemeteries,  he  ordered  these  words  to  be  inscribed:  "  Death  is 
an  eternal  sleep."  He  also  waged  war  against  luxury  and 
wealth,  and  desired  to  abolish  the  use  of  money.  The  new  cult 
was  inaugurated  at  Paris  at  Notre  Dame  by  the  strange  orgy 
known  as  "  The  Festival  of  Reason  "  (November  10,  1793). 

Fouche  then  proceeded  to  Lyons  to  execute  the  vengeance 
of  the  Convention  on  that  city,  which  had  revolted  against  the 
new  Jacobin  tyranny.  Preluding  his  work  by  a  festival  remark- 
able for  its  obscene  parody  of  religious  rites,  he  then,  along  with 
his  colleague,  Collot  d'Herbois,  set  the  guillotine  and  cannon  to 
work  with  a  rigour  which  made  his  name  odious.  Modern 
research,  however,  proves  that  at  the  close  of  those  horrors 
Fouche  exercised  a  moderating  influence.  Outwardly  his 
conduct  was  marked  by  the  utmost  rigour,  and  on  his  return 
to  Paris  early  in  April  1794,  he  thus  characterised  his  policy: 
"  The  blood  of  criminals  fertilises  the  soil  of  liberty  and  estab- 
lishes power  on  sure  foundations."  By  that  time  Robespierre 
had  struck  down  the  other  leaders  of  the  atheistical  party;  but 
early  in  June  1794,  at  the  time  of  the  "  Festival  of  the  Supreme 
Being,"  Fouche  ventured  to  mock  at  the  theistic  revival  which 
Robespierre  then  inaugurated.  Sharp  passages  of  arms  took 
place  between  them,  and  Robespierre  procured  the  ejection  of 
Fouche  from  the  Jacobin  Club  (July  14, 1794).  Fouche,  however, 
was  working  with  his  customary  skill  and  energy,  and  along  with 
Tallien  and  ethers,  managed  to  effect  the  overthrow  of  the 
theistic  dictator  on  Thermidor  10  (July  28),  1794.  The  ensuing 
reaction  in  favour  of  more  merciful  methods  of  government 
threatened  to  sweep  away  the  group  of  Terrorists  who  had  been 
mainly  instrumental  in  carrying  through  the  coup  d'etat  of 
Thermidor;  but,  thanks  largely  to  the  skill  of  Fouche  in  intrigue, 
they  managed  for  a  time  to  keep  at  the  head  of  affairs.  Discords, 
however,  crept  in  which  left  him  for  a  time  almost  isolated,  and 
it  needed  all  his  ability  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  the  moderates. 
A  vigorous  attack  on  him  by  Boissy  d'Anglas,  on  the  gth  of 
August  1795,  caused  him  to  be  arrested,  but  the  troubles  which 
ensued  in  Vendemiaire  averted  the  doom  that  seemed  to  be 
pending;  and  he  owed  his  release  to  the  amnesty  which  was 
passed  on  the  proclamation  of  the  new  constitution  of  the  year 

1795- 

In  the  ensuing  period,  known  as  that  of  the  Directory  (1795- 
1799),  Fouche  remained  at  first  in  obscurity,  but  the  relations 
which  he  had  with  the  communists,  once  headed  by  Chaumette 
and  now  by  Francois  N.  ("  Gracchus  ")  Babeuf  (q.v.),  helped 
him  to  rise  once  more.  He  is  said  to  have  betrayed  to  the 
director  Barras  the  secret  of  the  strange  plot  which  Babeuf  and 
a  few  accomplices  hatched  in  the  year  1796;  but  recent  research 
has  tended  to  throw  doubt  on  the  assertion.  His  rise  from 
poverty  was  slow,  but  in  1797  he  gained  an  appointment  for  the 
supply  of  military  materiel,  which  offered  opportunities  direct 
and  indirect.  After  offering  his  services  to  the  royalists,  whose 
movement  was  then  gathering  force,  he  again  decided  to  support 
the  Jacobins  and  the  director  Barras  (<?.».)•  In  the  coup  d'etat 
of  Fructidor  1797  he  made  himself  serviceable  to  Barras,  who  in 
1798  appointed  him  to  be  French  ambassador  to  the  Cisalpine 
republic.  At  Milan  he  carried  matters  with  so  high  a  hand 
against  the  Gallophobes  of  that  government  that  his  actions 
were  disavowed  and  he  himself  was  removed;  but  in  the  confused 
state  in  which  matters  then  were,  he  was  able  for  a  time  to  hold 
his  own  and  to  intrigue  successfully  against  his  successor.  Early 
in  1799  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  after  a  brief  tenure  of  office 
as  ambassador  at  The  Hague,  he  became  minister  of  police  at 
Paris  (July  20,  1799).  The  newly  elected  director,  Sieyes  (<?.!>.), 


was  then  in  the  ascendant  and  desired  to  curb  the  excesses  of 
the  Jacobins,  who  had  recently  reopened  their  club.  Fouche, 
casting  consistency  to  the  winds,  closed  the  Jacobins  club  in  a 
manner  at  once  daring  and  clever.  Thereupon  he  hunted  down 
the  pamphleteers  and  editors,  whether  Jacobins  or  royalists, 
who  were  obnoxious  to  the  government,  so  that  at  the  time  of 
the  return  of  Bonaparte  from  Egypt  (October  1799)  the  ex- 
Ja-cobin  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  men  in  France. 

Knowing  well  the  unpopularity  of  the  directors,  Fouche  lent 
himself  to  the  schemes  of  Bonaparte  and  Sieyes  for  their  over- 
throw. His  activity  in  furthering  the  coup  d'etat  of  Brumaire 
18-19  (November  9-10),  1799,  procured  him  the  favour  of 
Bonaparte,  who  kept  him  in  office  (v.  Napoleon  I.).  In  the 
ensuing  period  of  the  Consulate  (1799-1804)  Fouche  behaved 
with  the  utmost  adroitness.  While  curbing  the  royalists  and 
extreme  Jacobins  who  at  first  alone  opposed  Bonaparte,  Fouche 
was  careful  to  temper  as  far  as  possible  the  arbitrary  actions  of 
the  new  master  of  France.  In  this  difficult  task  he  acquitted 
himself  with  so  much  skill  as  to  earn  at  times  the  gratitude 
even  of  the  royalists.  Thus,  while  countermining  a  foolish 
intrigue  of  theirs  in  which  the  duchesse  de  Guiche  was  the  chief 
agent,  Fouche  took  care  that  she  s'hould  escape.  Equally  skilful 
was  his  action  in  the  affair  of  the  so-called  Arena-Ceracchi  plot, 
in  which  the  agents  provocateurs  of  the  police  were  believed  to 
have  played  a  sinister  part.  The  chief  "  conspirators  "  were 
easily  ensnared  and  were  executed  when  the  affair  of  Nivose 
(December  1800)  enabled  Bonaparte  to  act  with  rigour.  This 
far  more  serious  attempt  (in  which  royalist  conspirators  exploded 
a  bomb  near  the  First  Consul's  carriage  with  results  disastrous 
to  the  bystanders)  was  soon  seen  by  Fouche  to  be  the  work  of 
royalists;  and  when  the  First  Consul,  eager  to  entrap  the  still 
formidable  Jacobins,  sought  to  fasten  the  blame  on  them,  Fouche 
firmly  declared  that  he  would  not  only  assert  but  would  prove 
that  the  outrage  was  the  work  of  royalists.  All  his  efforts, 
however,  failed  to  avert  the  punishment  which  Bonaparte  was 
resolved  to  inflict  on  the  leading  Jacobins.  In  other  matters 
(especially  in  that  known  as  the  Plot  of  the  Placards  in  the 
spring  of  1802)  Fouche  was  thought  to  have  secured  the  Jacobins 
concerned  from  the  vengeance  of  the  First  Consul.  In  any  case 
the  latter  resolved  to  rid  himself  of  a  man  who  had  too  much 
power  and  too  much  skill  in  intrigue  to  be  desirable  as  a  sub- 
ordinate. On  the  proclamation  of  Bonaparte  as  First  Consul 
for  life  (August  i,  1802)  Fouche  was  deprived  of  his  office; 
but  the  blow  was  softened  by  the  suppression  of  the  ministry  of 
police  and  by  the  attribution  of  most  of  its  duties  to  an  extended 
ministry  of  justice.  Fouche  also  became  a  senator  and  received 
half  of  the  reserve  funds  of  the  police  which  had  accumulated 
during  his  tenure  of  office.  He  continued,  however,  to  intrigue 
through  his  spies,  whose  information  was  so  superior  to  that  of 
the  new  minister  of  police  as  to  render  great  services  to  Napoleon 
at  the  time  of  the  Cadoudal-Pichegru  conspiracy  (February- 
March  1804). 

As  a  result  Napoleon,  now  emperor,  brought  back  Fouche 
to  the  re-constituted  ministry  of  police  (July  1804);  he  also 
later  on  entrusted  to  him  that  of  the  interior.  His  work  was  no 
less  important  than  at  the  time  of  the  Consulate.  His  police 
agents  were  ubiquitous,  and  the  terror  which  Napoleon  and 
Fouche  inspired,  owing  to  their  proven  ability  to  benefit  by  plots, 
partly  accounts  for  the  absence  of  conspiracies  after  1804.  After 
Austerlitz  (December  1805)  Fouche  uttered  the  mot  of  the 
occasion:  "  Sire,  Austerlitz  has  shattered  the  old  aristocracy; 
the  boulevard  St  Germain  no  longer  conspires." 

That  Napoleon  retained  some  feeling  of  distrust,  or  even  of 
fear,  of  Fouche  was  proved  by  his  conduct  in  the  early  days 
of  1808.  While  engaged  in  the  campaign  of  Spain,  the  emperor 
heard  rumours  that  Fouche  and  Talleyrand,  once  bitter  enemies, 
were  having  interviews  at  Paris  in  which  Murat,  king  of  Naples, 
was  concerned.  At  once  the  sensitive  autocrat  hurried  to  Paris, 
but  found  nothing  to  incriminate  Fouche.  In  that  year  Fouche 
received  the  title  of  duke  of  Otranto.  During  the  absence  of 
Napoleon  in  Austria  in  the  campaign  of  1809,  the  British 
Walcheren  expedition  threatened  for  a  time  the  safety  of 


FOUCHER 


Antwerp.  Fouche  thereupon  issued  an  order  to  the  prefects  of 
the  northern  departments  of  the  empire  for  the  mobilization  of 
60,000  National  Guards.  He  added  to  the  order  a  statement 
in  which  occurred  the  words:  "  Let  us  prove  to  Europe  that 
although  the  genius  of  Napoleon  can  throw  lustre  on  France, 
his  presence  is  not  necessary  to  enable  us  to  repulse  the  enemy." 
The  emperor's  approval  of  the  measure  was  no  less  marked 
than  his  disapproval  of  the  words  just  quoted.  The  next  months 
brought  further  causes  of  friction  between  emperor  and  minister. 
The  latter,  knowing  the  desire  of  his  master  for  peace  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1809,  undertook  on  his  own  account  to  make 
secret  overtures  to  the  British  ministry.  A  little  later  Napoleon 
opened  negotiations  and  found  that  Fouche  had  forestalled  him. 
His  rage  against  his  minister  was  extreme,  and  on  the  3rd  of  June 
1810  he  dismissed  him  from  his  office.  However,  as  it  was  not 
the  emperor's  custom  completely  to  disgrace  a  man  who  might 
again  be  useful,  Fouche  received  the  governorship  of  Rome. 
He  went  thither,  not  as  governor  but  as  fugitive,  for  on  receiving 
the  emperor's  order  to  give  up  certain  important  documents  of 
his  former  ministry,  he  handed  over  only  a  few,  declaring  that 
the  rest  were  destroyed.  At  this  the  emperor's  anger  burst 
forth  again,  and  Fouche  on  learning,  after  his  arrival  at  Florence, 
that  the  storm  was  still  raging  at  Paris,  prepared  to  sail  to  the 
United  States.  Compelled,  however,  by  stress  of  weather  and 
sickness  to  put  back  again,  he  found  a  mediator  in  Elisa  Bona- 
parte, grand  duchess  of  Tuscany,  thanks  to  whom  he  was  allowed 
to  settle  at  Aix  and  finally  to  return  to  his  domain  of  Point 
Carre.  In  1812  he  sought  vainly  to  turn  Napoleon  from  the 
projected  invasion  of  Russia;  and  on  the  return  of  the  emperor 
in  haste  from  Smorgoni  to  Paris  at  the  close  of  that  year,  the 
ex-minister  of  police  was  suspected  of  complicity  in  the  con- 
spiracy of  General  Malet,  which  came  so  strangely  near  to  success. 
From  this  suspicion  Fouche  cleared  himself  and  gave  the  emperor 
useful  advice  concerning  internal  affairs  and  the  diplomatic 
situation.  Nevertheless,  the  emperor,  still  distrustful  of  the 
arch-intriguer,  ordered  him  to  undertake  the  government  of  the 
Illyrian  provinces.  On  the  break-up  of  the  Napoleonic  system 
in  Germany  in  October  1813  Fouche  was  ordered  to  repair  to 
Rome  and  thence  to  Naples,  in  order  to  watch  the  movements  of 
Murat.  Before  Fouche  arrived  at  Naples  Murat  threw  off  the 
mask  and  invaded  the  Roman  territory,  whereupon  Fouche 
received  orders  to  return  to  France.  He  arrived  at  Paris  on  the 
loth  of  April  1814  at  the  time  when  Napoleon  was  being  con- 
strained by  his  marshals  to  abdicate. 

The  conduct  of  Fouche  at  this  crisis  was  characteristic.  As 
senator  he  advised  the  senate  to  send  a  deputation  to  the  comte 
d'Artois,  brother  of  Louis  XVIII.,  with  a  view  to  a  reconciliation 
between  the  monarchy  and  the  nation.  A  little  later  he  ad- 
dressed to  Napoleon,  then  at  Elba,  a  letter  begging  him  in  the 
interests  of  peace  and  of  France  to  withdraw  to  the  United 
States.  To  the  new  sovereign  Louis  XVIII.  he  sent  an  appeal 
in  favour  of  liberty  and  recommending  the  adoption  of  measures 
which  would  conciliate  all  interests.  It  was  not  successful,  but 
Fouchfi  remained  unmolested. 

This  was  far  from  satisfying  him,  and  when  he  found  that 
there  were  no  hopes  of  advancement,  he  entered  into  relations 
with  conspirators  who  sought  the  overthrow  of  the  Bourbons. 
Lafayette  and  Davout  were  concerned  in  the  affair,  but  their 
refusal  to  take  the  course  desired  by  Fouche  and  other  bold 
spirits  led  to  nothing  being  done.  Soon  Napoleon  escaped  from 
Elba  and  made  his  way  in  triumph  to  Paris.  Shortly  before 
his  arrival  at  Paris  (March  19,  1815)  Louis  XVIII.  sent  to 
Fouche  an  offer  of  the  ministry  of  police,  which  he  declined, 
saying,  "  It  is  too  late;  the  only  plan  to  adopt  is  to  retreat." 
He  then  foiled  an  attempt  of  the  royalists  to  arrest  him,  and  on 
the  arrival  of  Napoleon  he  received  for  the  third  time  the  port- 
folio of  police.  That,  however,  did  not  prevent  him  from 
entering  into  secret  relations  with  Metternich  at  Vienna,  his  aim 
being  then,  as  always,  to  prepare  for  all  eventualities.  Meanwhile 
he  used  all  his  powers  to  induce  the  emperor  to  popularise  his 
rule,  and  he  is  said  to  have  caused  the  insertion  of  the  words 
"  The  sovereignty  resides  in  the  people;  it  is  the  source  of 


power  "  in  the  declaration  of  the  council  of  state.  But  the 
autocratic  tendencies  of  Napoleon  could  scarcely  be  held  in 
check,  and  Fouche  seeing  the  fall  of  the  emperor  to  be  imminent, 
took  measures  to  expedite  it  and  secure  his  own  interests.  On 
the  22nd  of  June  Napoleon  abdicated  for  the  second  time,  and 
Fouch6  was  next  day  elected  president  of  the  commission  which 
provisionally  governed  France.  Already  he  was  in  touch  with 
Louis  XVIII.,  then  at  Ghent,  and  now  secretly  received  the 
overtures  of  his  agent  at  Paris.  While  ostensibly  working  for 
the  recognition  of  Napoleon  II.,  he  facilitated  the  success  of  the 
Bourbon  cause,  and  thus  procured  for  himself  a  place  in  the 
ministry  of  Louis  XVIII.  Even  his  skill,  however,  was  unequal 
to  the  task  of  conciliating  hot-headed  royalists  who  remembered 
his  vote  as  regicide  and  his  fanaticism  as  terrorist.  He  resigned 
office,  and  after  acting  for  a  brief  space'as  ambassador  at  Dresden, 
he  retired  to  Prague.  Finally  he  settled  at  Trieste,  where  he 
died  on  the  2$th  of  December  1820.  He  had  accumulated  great 
wealth. 

Marked  at  the  outset  by  fanaticism,  which,  though  cruel,  was 
at  least  conscientious,  Fouche's  character  deteriorated  in  and 
after  the  year  1794  into  one  of  calculating  cunning.  The  transi- 
tion represented  all  that  was  worst  in  the  life  of  France  during 
the  period  of  the  Revolution  and  Empire.  In  Fouche  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  earlier  period  appeared  as  a  cold,  selfish  and 
remorseless  fanaticism;  in  him  the  bureaucracy  of  the  period 
1795-1799  and  the  autocracy  of  Napoleon  found  their  ablest 
instrument.  Yet  his  intellectual  pride  prevented  him  sinking 
to  the  level  of  a  mere  tool.  His  relations  to  Napoleon  were 
marked  by  a  certain  aloofness.  He  multiplied  the  means  of 
resistance  even  to  that  irresistible  autocrat,  so  that  though 
removed  from  office,  he  was  never  wholly  disgraced.  Despised 
by  all  for  his  tergiversations,  he  nevertheless  was  sought  by  all 
on  account  of  his  cleverness.  He  repaid  the  contempt  of  his 
superiors  and  the  adulation  of  his  inferiors  by  a  mask  of  im- 
penetrable reserve  or  scorn.  He  sought  for  power  and  neglected 
no  means  to  make  himself  serviceable  to  the  party  whose  success 
appeared  to  be  imminent.  Yet,  while  appearing  to  be  the 
servant  of  the  victors,  present  or  prospective,  he  never  gave 
himself  to  any  one  party.  In  this  versatility  he  resembles 
Talleyrand,  of  whom  he  was  a  coarse  replica.  Both  professed, 
under  all  their  shifts  and  turns,  to  be  desirous  of  serving  France. 
Talleyrand  certainly  did  so  in  the  sphere  of  diplomacy;  Fouchfi 
may  occasionally  have  done  so  in  the  sphere  of  intrigue. 

Bibliography. — Fouche  wrote  some  political  pamphlets  and  reports, 
the  chief  of  which  are  Reflexions  sur  lejugement  de  Louis  Capet  (i 793) ; 
Reflexions  sur  ^education  publiquc  (1793);  Rapport  et  pro  jet  de  loi 
relatif  aux  colleges  (1793);  Rapport  sur  la  situation  de  Commune- 
A/ranchie  [Lyons]  (1794);  Lettre  aux  prefets  concernant  les  pretres, 
&c.  (1801);  also  the  letters  of  1815  noted  above,  and  a  Lettre  au 
due  de  Wellington  (1817).  The  best  life  of  Fouche  is  that  by  L. 
Madelin,  Fouche  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1901).  The  so-called  Fouche  Memoirs 
are  not  genuine,  but  they  were  apparently  compiled,  at  least  in 
part,  from  notes  written  by  Fouche,  and  are  often  valuable,  though 
their  account  of  events  (e.g.  of  the  negotiations  of  1809-1810)  is 
not  seldom  untrustworthy.  For  those  negotiations  see  Coquelle, 
Napoleon  et  I'Angleterre  (Paris,  1003,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1904). 
For  the  plots  with  which  Fouche  had  to  deal  see  E.  Daudet,  La 
Police  et  les  Chouans  sous  le  Consulat  et  I' Empire  (Paris,  1895); 
P.  M.  C.  Desmarest,  Temoignages  historiques,  ou  quinze  ans  de  haute 
police  (Paris,  1833,  2nd  ed.,  1900);  E.  Picard,  Bonaparte  et  Moreau 
(Paris,  1905);  G.  A.  Thierry,  Conspirateurs  et  gens  de  police;  le 
complot  de  libelles  (Paris,  1903)  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1903);  H. 
Welschinger,  Le  Due  d'Enghien  (Paris,  1 888) ;  E.  Guillon,  Les  Complots 
militaires  sous  le  Consulat  et  V Empire  (Paris,  1894).  (J.  HL.  R.) 

FOUCHER,  SIMON  (1644-1696),  French  philosopher,  was 
born  at  Dijon  on  the  ist  of  March  1644.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
merchant,  and  appears  to  have  taken  orders  at  a  very  early  age. 
For  some  years  he  held  the  position  of  honorary  canon  at  Dijon, 
but  this  he  resigned  in  order  to  take  up  his  residence  in  Paris. 
He  graduated  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life  in  literary  work  in  Paris,  where  he  died  on  the  27th  of  April 
1696.  In  his  day  Foucher  enjoyed  considerable  repute  as  a  keen 
opponent  of  Malebranche.  His  philosophical  standpoint  was 
one  of  scepticism  in  regard  to  external  perception.  He  revived 
the  old  arguments  of  the  Academy,  and  advanced  them  with 
much  ingenuity  against  Malebranche's  doctrine.  Otherwise 


FOUCQUET— FOULD 


737 


his  scepticism  is  subordinate  to  orthodox  belief,  the  fundamental 
dogmas  of  the  church  seeming  to  him  intuitively  evident.  His 
object  was  to  reconcile  his  religious  with  his  philosophical  creed, 
and  to  remain  a  Christian  without  ceasing  to  be  an  academician. 
His  writings  against  Malebranche  were  collected  under  the 
title  Dissertations  sur  la  recherche  de  la  verite,  1693.. 

See  F.  Rabbe,  L'Abbe  Simon  Foucher  (1867);  C.  Jourdain  in 
Dictionnaire  des  sciences  philosophiques  (1875),  pp.  557-559. 

FOUCQUET,  JEAN,  or  JEHAN  (c.  1415-1485),  French  painter, 
born  at  Tours,  is  the  most  representative  and  national  French 
painter  of  the  isth  century.  Of  his  life  little  is  known,  but  it  is 
certain  that  he  was  in  Italy  about  1437,  where  he  executed  the 
portrait  of  Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  and  that  upon  his  return  to 
France,  whilst  retaining  his  purely  French  sentiment,  he  grafted 
the  elements  of  the  Tuscan  style,  which  he  had  acquired  during 
his  sojourn  in  Italy,  upon  the  style  of  the  Van  Eycks,  which  was 
the  basis  of  early  15th-century  French  art,  and  thus  became 
the  founder  of  an  important  new  school.  He  was  court  painter 
to  Louis  XI.  Though  his  supreme  excellence  as  an  illuminator 
and  miniaturist,  of  exquisite  precision  in  the  rendering  of  the 
finest  detail,  and  his  power  of  clear  characterization  in  work  on 
this  minute  scale,  have  long  since  procured  him  an  eminent 
position  in  the  art  of  his  country,  his  importance  as  a  painter 
was  only  realized  when  his  portraits  and  altarpieces  were  for 
the  first  time  brought  together  from  various  parts  of  Europe 
in  1904,  at  the  exhibition  of  the  French  Primitives  held  at  the 
Bibliotheque  Nationale  in  Paris.  One  of  Foucquet's  most 
important  paintings  is  the  diptych,  formerly  at  Notre  Dame 
de  Melun,  of  which  one  wing,  depicting  Agnes  Sorel  as  the 
Virgin,  is  now  at  the  Antwerp  Museum  and  the  other  in  the 
Berlin  Gallery.  The  Louvre  has  his  oil  portraits  of  Charles 
VII.,  of  Count  Wilczek,  and  of  Jouvenal  des  Ursins,  besides  a 
portrait  drawing  in  crayon;  whilst  an  authentic  portrait  from 
his  brush  is  in  the  Liechtenstein  collection.  Far  more  numerous 
are  his  illuminated  books  and  miniatures  that  have  come  down 
to  us.  The  Brentano-Laroche  collection  at  Frankfort  contains 
forty  miniatures  from  a  Book  of  Hours,  painted  in  1461  for 
Etienne  Chevalier  who  is  portrayed  by  Foucquet  on  the  Berlin 
wing  of  the  Melun  altarpiece.  From  Foucquet's  hand  again 
are  eleven  out  of  the  fourteen  miniatures  illustrating  a  translation 
of  Joseplms  at  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale.  The  second  volume 
of  this  MS.,  unfortunately  with  only  one  of  the  original  thirteen 
miniatures,  was  discovered  and  bought  in  1903  by  Mr  Henry 
Yates  Thompson  at  a  London  sale,  and  restored  by  him  to  France. 
'  See  CEuvres  de  Jehan  Foucquet  (Curmer,  Paris,  1866—1867); 
A.  de  Chatnpeaux  and  P.  Gauchery,  CEuvres  d'art  executees  pour  le  due 
de  Berry,  "Facsimiles  of  two  histories  by  Jean  Foucquet"  from 
vols.  i.  and  ii.  of  the  Anciennetes  des  Juifs  (London,  1902);  Charles 
Blanc,  Histoire  des  peintres  de  toutes  les  ecoles  (introduction) ;  and 
Georges  Lafenestre,  Jehan  Fouquet  (Paris,  1902). 

FOUGERES,  a  town  of  north-western  France,  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  30  m. 
N.E.  of  Rennes  by  rail.  Pop.  (1906)  21,847.  Fougeres  is 
built  on  the  summit  and  slopes  of  a  hill  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Nancon,  a  tributary  of  the  Couesnon.  It  was  formerly  one  of 
the  strongest  places  on  the  frontier  towards  Normandy,  and  it 
still  preserves  some  portions  of  its  medieval  fortifications, 
notably  a  gateway  of  the  isth  century  known  as  the  Porte  St 
Sulpice.  The  castle,  which  is  situated  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
town,  directly  overlooking  the  Nancon,  is  now  a  picturesque 
ruin,  but  gives  abundant  evidence  in  its  towers  and  outworks  of 
its  former  strength  and  magnificence.  The  finest  of  the  towers 
was  erected  in  1242  by  Hugues  of  Lusignan,  and  named  after 
Melusine,  the  mythical  foundress  of  the  family..  The  churches 
of  St  Leonard  and  St  Sulpice  both  date,  at  least  in  part,  from 
the  i  sth  century.  An  hotel  de  ville  and  a  belfry,  both  of  the  1 5th 
century,  are  of  architectural  interest,  and  the  town  possesses 
many  curious  old  houses.  There  is  a  statue  of  General  B.  de 
Lari  Coisiere  (d.  1812),  born  in  the  town.  Fougeres  is  the  seat 
of  a  subprefect,  and  has  a  tribunal  of  first  instance,  a  chamber 
of  commerce  and  a  communal  college.  It  is  the  chief  industrial 
town  of  its  department,  being  a  centre  for  the  manufacture  of 
boots  and  shoes;  tanning  and  leather-dressing  and  the  manu- 
x.  24 


facture  of  sail-cloth  and  other  fabrics  are  also  important  in- 
dustries. Trade  is  in  dairy  produce  and  in  the  granite  of  the 
neighbouring  quarries.  Fougeres  frequently  figures  in  Breton 
history  from  the  nth  to  the  isth  century.  It  was  taken  by  the 
English  in  1166,  and  again  in  1448;  and  the  name  of  Surienne, 
the  captor  on  the  second  occasion,  is  still  borne  by  one  of  the 
towers  of  the  castle. ,  In  1488  it  was  taken  by  the  troops  of 
Charles  VIII.  under  la  Tremoille.  In  the  middle  ages  Fougeres 
was  a  lordship  of  some  importance,  which  in  the  I3th  century 
passed  into  the  possession  of  the  family  of  Lusignan,  and  in 
1307  was  confiscated  by  the  crown  and  afterwards  changed 
hands  many  times.  In  1793,  during  the  wars  of  the  Vendee, 
it  was  occupied  by  the  insurgents. 

FOUILLEE,  ALFRED  JULES  EMILE  (1838-  ),  French 
philosopher,  was  born  at  La  Poueze  on  the  i8th  of  October 
1838.  He  held  several  minor  philosophical  lectureships,  and 
from  1864  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  lycees  of  Douai, 
Montpellier  and  Bordeaux  successively.  In  1867  and  1868  he 
was  crowned  by  the  Academy  of  Moral  Science  for  his  work 
on  Plato  and  Socrates.  In  1872  he  was  elected  master  of  con- 
ferences at  the  Ecole  Normale,  and  was  made  doctor  of  philosophy 
in  recognition  of  his  two  treatises,  Platonis  Hippias  Minor  sive 
Socratica  contra  liberum  arbitrium  argumenta  and  La  Liberte  et  le 
determinisme.  The  strain  of  the  next  three  years'  continuous 
work  undermined  his  health  and  his  eyesight,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  retire  from  his  professorship.  During  these  years  he 
had  published  works  on  Plato  and  Socrates  and  a  history  of 
philosophy  (1875);  but  after  his  retirement  he  further  developed 
his  philosophical  position,  a  speculative  eclecticism  through 
which  he  endeavoured  to  reconcile  metaphysical  idealism  with 
the  naturalistic  and  mechanical  standpoint  of  science.  In 
L' Ewlutionnisme  des  idees-forces  (1890),  La  Psychologic  des 
idees-forces  (1893),  and  La  Morale  des  idees-forces  (1907),  is 
elaborated  his  doctrine  of  idees-forces,  or  of  mind  as  efficient 
cause  through  the  tendency  of  ideas  to  realize  themselves  in 
appropriate  movement.  Ethical  and  sociological  developments 
of  this  theory  succeed  its  physical  and  psychological  treatment, 
the  consideration  of  the  antinomy  of  freedom  being  especially 
important.  Fouillee's  wife,  who  by  a  previous  marriage  was  the 
mother  of  the  poet  and  philosopher  Jean  Marie  Guyau  (1854- 
1888),  is  well  known,  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  G.  Bruno," 
as  the  author  of  educational  books  for  children. 

His  other  chief  works  are:  L'Idee  moderne  du  droit  en  Allemagne. 
en  Angleterre  et  en  France  (Paris,  1878);  La  Science  sociale  con- 
temporaine  (1880);  La  Propriete  sociale  et  la  democratic  (1884); 


(1891);  Descartes  (1893);  Temperament  et  caractere  (2nd  ed.,  1895); 
Le  Mouvement  positiviste  et  la  conception  sociologique  du  monde  ( 1 896) ; 
Le  Mouvement  idealiste  et  la  reaction  centre  la  science  positive  (1896) ; 
La  Psychologie  du  per  pie  franc,ais  (2nd  ed.,  1898);  La  France  au 
point  de  vue  moral  (1900) ;  L'Esquisse  psychologique  des  peuples 
europeens  (1903);  Nietzsche  et  I'  "  immoralisme  "  (1903);  Le  Mora- 
lisme  de  Kant  (1905). 

FOULD,  ACHILLE  (1800-1867),  French  financier  and  politician, 
was  born  at  Paris  on  the  I7th  of  November  1800.  The  son  of 
a  rich  Jewish  banker,  he  was  associated  with  and  afterwards 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  management  of  the  business.  As 
early  as  1842  he  entered  political  life,  having  been  elected  in 
that  year  as  a  deputy  for  the  department  of  the  Hautes  Pyrenees. 
From  that  time  to  his  death  he  actively  busied  himself  with  the 
affairs  of  his  country.  He  readily  acquiesced  in  the  revolution 
of  February  1848,  and  is  said  to  have  exercised  a  decided  influence 
in  financial  matters  on  the  provisional  government  then  formed. 
He  shortly  afterwards  published  two  pamphlets  against  the  use 
of  paper  money,  entitled,  Pas  d'Assignats  I  and  Observations 
sur  la  question  financiere.  During  the  presidency  of  Louis 
Napoleon  he  was  four  times  minister  of  finance,  and  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  economical  reforms  then  made  in  France. 
His  strong  conservative  tendencies  led  him  to  oppose  the  doctrine 
of  free  trade,  and  disposed  him  to  hail  the  coup  d'Uat  and  the 
new  empire.  On  the  25th  of  January  1852,  in  consequence  of 
the  decree  confiscating  the  property  of  the  Orleans  family, 


738 


FOULIS— FOUNDATIONS 


he  resigned  the  office  of  minister  of  finance,  but  was  on  the 
same  day  appointed  senator,  and  soon  after  rejoined  the  govern- 
ment as  minister  of  state  and  of  the  imperial  household.  In 
this  capacity  he  directed  the  Paris  exhibition  of  1855.  The 
events  of  November  1860  led  once  more  to  his  resignation,  but 
he  was  recalled  to  the  ministry  of  finance  in  November  of  the 
following  year,  and  retained  office  until  the  publication  of  the 
imperial  letter  of  the  igth  of  January  1867,  when  Emile  OHivier 
became  the  chief  adviser  of  the  emperor.  During  his  last  tenure 
of  office  he  had  reduced  the  floating  debt,  which  the  Mexican 
war  had  considerably  increased,  by  the  negotiation  of  a  loan 
of  300  millions  of  francs  (1863).  Fould,  besides  uncommon 
financial  abilities,  had  a  taste  for  the  fine  arts,  which  he  developed 
and  refined  during  his  youth  by  visiting  Italy  and  the  eastern 
coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  1857  he  was  made  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts.  He  died  at  Tarbes  on  the  5th 
of  October  1867. 

FOULIS,  ANDREW  (1712-1775)  and  ROBERT  (1707-1776), 
Scottish  printers  and  publishers,  were  the  sons  of  a  Glasgow 
mailman.  Robert  was  apprenticed  to  a  barber;  but  his  ability 
attracted  the  attention  of  Dr  Francis  Hutcheson,  who  strongly 
recommended  him  to  establish  a  printing  press.  After  spending 
1738  and  1739  in  England  and  France  in  company  with  his 
brother  Andrew,  who  had  been  intended  for  the  church  and  had 
received  a  better  education,  he  started  business  in  1741  in 
Glasgow,  and  in  1743  was  appointed  printer  to  the  university. 
In  this  same  year  he  brought  out  Demetrius  Phalereus  de 
eloculione,  in  Greek  and  Latin,  the  first  Greek  book  ever  printed 
in  Glasgow;  and  this  was  followed  in  1774  by  the  famous  I2mo 
edition  of  Horace  which  was  long  but  erroneously  believed  to 
be  immaculate:  though  the  successive  sheets  were  exposed  in 
the  university  and  a  reward  offered  for  the  discovery  of  any 
inaccuracy,  six  errors  at  least,  according  to  T.  F.  Dibdin,  escaped 
detection.  Soon  afterwards  the  brothers  entered  into  partner- 
ship, and  they  continued  for  about  thirty  years  to  issue  carefully 
corrected  and  beautifully  printed  editions  of  classical  works  in 
Latin,  Greek,  English,  French  and  Italian.  They  printed  more 
than  five  hundred  separate  publications,  among  them  the  small 
editions  of  Cicero,  Tacitus,  Cornelius  Nepos,  Virgil,  Tibullus  and 
Propertius,  Lucretius  and  Juvenal;  a  beautiful  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament,  in  small  4to;  Homer  (4  vols.  fol.,  1756-1758); 
Herodotus,  Greek  and  Latin  (9  vols.  izmo,  1761);  Xenophon, 
Greek  and  Latin  (12  vols.  I2mo,  1762-1767);  Gray's  Poems; 
Pope's  Works;  Milton's  Poems.  The  Homer,  for  which  Flax- 
man's  designs  were  executed,  is  perhaps  the  most  famous  produc- 
tion of  the  Foulis  press.  The  brothers  spared  no  pains,  and 
Robert  went  to  France  to  procure  manuscripts  of  the  classics, 
and  to  engage  a  skilled  engraver  and  a  copper-plate  printer. 
Unfortunately  it  became  their  ambition  to  establish  an  institution 
for  the  encouragement  of  the  fine  arts;  and  though  one  of  their 
chief  patrons,  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  warned  them  to 
"  print  for  posterity  and  prosper,"  they  spent  their  money  in 
collecting  pictures,  pieces  of  sculpture  and  models,  in  paying 
for  the  education  and  travelling  of  youthful  artists,  and  in 
copying  the  masterpieces  of  foreign  art.  Their  countrymen 
were  not  ripe  for  such  an  attempt,  and  the  "  Academy  "  not  only 
proved  a  failure  but  involved  the  projectors  in  ruin.  Andrew 
died  on  the  i8th  of  September  1775,  and  his  brother  went  to 
London,  hoping  to  realize  a  large  sum  by  the  sale  of  his  pictures. 
They  were  sold  for  much  less  than  he  anticipated,  and  Robert 
returned  broken-hearted  to  Scotland,  where  he  died  at  Edinburgh 
on  the  2nd  of  June  1776.  Robert  was  the  author  of  a  Catalogue 
of  Paintings  with  Critical  Remarks.  The  business  was  afterwards 
carried  on  under  the  same  name  by  Robert's  son  Andrew. 

See  W.  J.  Duncan,  Notices  and  Documents  illustrative  of  the  Literary 
History  of  Glasgow,  printed  for  the  Maitland  Club  (1831),  which 
inter  alia  contains  a  catalogue  of  the  works  printed  at  the  Foulis 
press,  and  another  of  the  pictures,  statues  and  busts  in  plaster  of 
Paris  produced  at  the  "  Academy  "  in  the  university  of  Glasgow. 

FOULLON,  JOSEPH  FRANCOIS  (1717-1789),  French  admini- 
strator, was  born  at  Saumur.  During  the  Seven  Years'  War  he 
was  intendant-general  of  the  armies,  and  intendant  of  the  army 
and  navy  under  Marshal  de  Belle-Isle.  In  1771  he  was  appointed 


intendant  of  finances.  In  1789,  when  Necker  was  dismissed, 
Foullon  was  appointed  minister  of  the  king's  household,  and 
was  thought  of  by  the  reactionary  party  as  a  substitute.  But 
he  was  unpopular  on  all  sides.  The  farmers-general  detested 
him  on  account  of  his  severity,  the  Parisians  on  account  of 
his  wealth  accumulated  in  utter  indifference  to  the  sufferings 
of  the  poor;  he  was  reported,  probably  quite  without  foundation, 
to  have  said,  "  If  the  people  cannot  get  bread,  let  them  eat  hay." 
After  the  taking  of  the  Bastille  on  the  I4th  of  July,  he  withdrew 
to  his  estate  at  Vitry  and  attempted  to  spread  the  news  of  his 
death;  but  he  was  recognized,  taken  to  Paris,  carried  off  with 
a  bundle  of  hay  tied  to  his  back  to  the  h&tel  de  ville,  and,  in  spite 
of  the  intervention  of  Lafayette,  was  dragged  out  by  the  populace 
and  hanged  to  a  lamp-post  on  the  22nd  of  July  1789. 

See  Eugene  Bonnemere,  Histoire  des  paysans  (4th  ed.,  1887), 
tome  iii. ;  C.  L.  Chassin,  Les  Elections  et  les  cahiers  de  Paris  en  1789. 
(Paris,  1889),  tomes  iii.  and  iv. 

FOUNDATION  (Lat.  fundalio,  from  fundare,  to  found),  the 
act  of  building,  constituting  or  instituting  on  a  permanent 
basis;  especially  the  establishing  of  any  institution  by  endowing 
or  providing  it  with  funds  for  its  continual  maintenance.  The 
word  is  thus  applied  also  to  the  institutions  so  established,  such 
as  a  college,  monastery  or  hospital;  and  the  terms  "  on  the 
foundation,"  or  "  foundationer,"  are  used  of  members  of  such  a 
college  or  society  who  enjoy,  as  fellows,  scholars,  &c.,  the  benefits 
of  the  endowment.  Formerly  "  foundation  "  also  meant  the 
charter  or  incorporation  of  any  such  institution  or  society,  and 
it  is  still  applied  to  the  funds  used  for  the  endowment  of  such 
institutions. 

The  terms  "  old  foundation  "  and  "  new  foundation  "  used  in 
connexion  with  the  organizing  of  English  cathedral  chapters 
have  no  reference  to  the  age  of  the  cathedrals.  At  the  time 
of  the  Reformation  under  Henry  VIII.  the  old  college  chapters 
were  left  unchanged,  and  are  referred  to  as  the  "  old  foundations," 
but  the  monastic  chapters  were  all  suppressed,  consequently 
new  chapters  had  to  be  formed  for  their  cathedrals  and  these 
constitute  the  "  new  foundations." 

"  Foundation  "  also  means  the  base  (natural  or  artificial) 
on  which  any  erection  is  built  up;  generally  made  below  the 
level  of  the  ground  (see  FOUNDATIONS  below).  A  foundation- 
stone  is.  one  of  the  stones  at  the  base  of  a  building,  generally  a 
corner-stone,  frequently  laid  with  a  public  ceremony  to  celebrate 
the  commencement  of  the  building.  The  term  is  also  applied 
to  the  ground-work  of  any  structure,  such  as,  in  dress-making, 
the  underskirt  over  which  the  real  skirt  is  hung,  any  material 
used  for  stiffening  purposes,  as  "  foundation  muslin  or  net." 
In  knitting  or  crochet  the  first  stitches  on  to  which  all  the  rest 
are  worked  are  called  the  "  foundation  chain."  In  gem-cutting 
the  "  foundation-square  "  is  the  first  of  eight  squares  round  the 
edges  of  a  brilliant  made  in  bevel  planes  and  from  which  the 
angles  are  all  removed  to  form  three-corner  facets. 

FOUNDATIONS,  in  building.  The  object  of  foundations  is 
to  distribute  the  weight  of  a  structure  equally  over  the  ground. 
In  the  construction  of  a  building  the  weights  are  concentrated 
at  given  points  on  piers,  columns,  &c.,  and  these  foundations 
require  to  be  spread  so  as  to  reduce  the  weight  to  an  average. 
In  the  preparation  of  a  foundation  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
the  lateral  escape  of  the  soil  or  the  movement  of  a  bed  upon 
sloping  ground,  and  it  is  also  necessary  to  provide  against  any 
damage  by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  The  soils  met  with 
in  ordinary  practice,  such  as  rock,  gravel,  chalk,  clay  and  sand, 
vary  as  to  their  capabilities  of  bearing  weight.  There  is  no 
provision  in  any  English  building  acts  as  to  the  load  that  may 
be  placed  on  any  of  these  soils,  but  under  the  New  York  Building 
Code  it  is  provided  that,  where  no  test  of  the  sustaining  power 
of  the  soil  is  made,  different  soils,  excluding  mud,  at  the  bottom 
of  the  footings  shall  be  deemed  to  safely  sustain' the  following 

loads  to  the  superficial  foot: 

per  sq.  ft. 

Soft  clay i  ton. 

Ordinary  soft  clay  and  sand,  together  in  layers, 

wet  and  springy 2  tons. 

Loam,  clay  or  fine  sand,  firm  and  dry    ...  3  tons. 

Very  firm  coarse  sand,  stiff  gravel  or  hard  clay    .  4  tons. 


FOUNDATIONS 


739 


A  comparison  of  the  pressure  exerted  on  an  ordinary  founda- 
tion by  the  walls  of  the  several  thicknesses  and  heights  provided 
for  by  the  London  Building  Act  of  1894,  and  a  corn- 
Load  oa  parison  of  a  few  of  the  principal  authorities,  will  be 
found  useful  in  helping  us  to  arrive  at  a  decision  as  to 
what  can  safely  be  allowed.  Take  as  an  example  a 
wall  of  the  warehouse  class,  70  ft.  high,  whose  section  at  the  base 
for  a  height  of  27  ft.  is  25  bricks  thick  (or  225  in.),  and  for  the 
same  distance  in  height  again  is  2  bricks  thick  (or  18  in.),  the 
remainder  to  the  top  being  ij  bricks  thick  (or  14  in.).  The 
weight  of  brickwork  per  foot  run  of  such  a  wall  is  4-05  tons  on 
any  area  of  3-75  ft.  super,  of  brickwork.  According  to  the  act 
the  concrete  is  to  project  4  in.  on  each  side;  we  have  then  an 
additional  area  of  -66  ft.  super,  to  add,  thus  making  the  total 
foundation  area  of  each  foot  run  of  wall  4-41  ft.  super,  to  take 
a  weight  of  4-05  tons  or  nearly  a  ton  per  foot  super,  (viz. 
•9  ton.) 

Another  factor  must,  however,  be  taken  into  consideration, 
viz.  the  weight  distributed  from  the  loaded  floor  and  from  the 
roof.  In  this  case  there  would  be  at  least  six  floors,  and  the 
entire  weight  could  hardly  be  taken  at  less  than  6  tons,  which 
would  give  a  total  weight  of  10-05  tons  on  an  area  of  4-41  ft. 
super,  or  a  load  of  2-28  tons  per  foot  super.  This  is  on  the 
assumption  that  no  extra  weight  has  been  thrown  on  the  founda- 
tions by  openings  or  piers,  or  by  girders,  &c.,  in  which  case,  in 
addition  to  the  work  being  executed  in  cement,  the  foundations 
should  be  increased  in  area.  Piers  always  involve  a  great 
increase  of  weight  on  the  foundations,  and  in  very  many  instances 
this  increased  weight,  instead  of  being  provided  for  by  increasing 
the  area  of  the  foundations  and  so  reducing  the  weight  per  foot 
super.,  is  only  partly  met  by  the  improper  method  of  merely 
increasing  the  depth  of  the  concrete,  while  keeping  the  same 
projection  of  concrete  round  the  footings  as  for  the  walls.  As  an 
example  take  an  iron  column  to  carry  a  safe  load  of  80  tons, 
standing  on  a  York  stone  template,  and  in  turn  supported  by 
a  brick  pier  225  in.  square.  In  this  case  we  should  have,  after 
allowing  for  the  projection  of  concrete  on  either  side,  an  area  of 
4  ft.  5  in.  square,  or  19-6  ft.  super.,  and  this  would  give  a  pressure 
of  4-1  tons  per  foot  on  the  foundations,  or  almost  twice  as  much 
as  in  the  previous  example  of  a  warehouse  wall.  Here,  instead 
of  increasing  the  depth  of  the  concrete,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  increase  its  width;  if  it  were  made  6  ft.  square,  we  should  have 
an  area  of  36  ft.  super,  to  take  the  80  tons,  and  thus  the  pressure 
would  only  be  2-2  tons  per  foot,  and  the  cost  of  the  foundation 
be  much  the  same. 

If  we  compare  a  section  of  wall  of  the  dwelling-house  class, 
as  prescribed  by  the  London  Building  Act,  we  find  that,  taking  a 
wall  50  ft.  high  and  having  a  thickness  at  base  of  225  in.  as  for 
the  warehouse  wall  to  which  we  have  referred,  we  have  a  wall 
weighing  3-75  tons  per  foot  super,  on  an  area  of  4-41  feet  super., 
or  -85  ton  per  foot  without  weight  of  floors  and  roof  as  against 
the  -9  ton  in  the  warehouse  example.  To  this  must  be  added  the 
weight  of,  say,  5  floors  and  roof  at  a  total  of  3  tons  per  foot  run 
of  wall,  and  we  then  have  an  aggregate  of  6-75  tons  per  foot  run 
and  1-50  tons  per  foot  super,  as  against  2-28  tons  in  the  warehouse 
class. 

If  we  turn  from  the  act  to  text-books  we  find  that  Colonel 
Seddon  in  the  A  ide  Memoir  gives  the  load  which  ordinary  f ounda- 
tions  will  bear  as  a  safe  load  per  foot  super,  as  follows: 

tons. 

Rock,  moderately  hard 9 

Rock  of  strength  of  good  concrete        ...        3 

Rock,  very  soft  1-8 

Firm  earth i  to 

Hard  clay I  to. 

Clean  dry  gravel  and  clean  sharp  sand  prevented  from 
spreading  sideways i  to  i\ 

Most  of  the  work  in  London  may  be  classed  under  one  of  the 
latter  heads,  and  according  to  this  table  we  have,  when  we  erect 
walls  in  accordance  with  the  building  act,  to  overload  our 
foundations. 

As  to  the  possibility  of  spreading  weights,  we  have  as  an 
example  the  chimney  at  Adkin's  Soap  Works  in  Birmingham, 


312  ft.  high,  so  arranged  that  its  pressure  on  the  foundations  is 
only  15  tons  per  foot  super.;  also  the  great  St  Rollox  chimney 
at  Glasgow,  which  has  a  pressure  of  if  tons;  the  weight  of  the 
Eiffel  Tower  (7500  tons)  is  so  spread  over  4  bases,  each  130  ft. 
square,  that  the  pressure  is  only  -117  ton,  or  23  cwt.,  per  foot 
super.  The  Tower  Bridge  has  a  load  of  16  tons  per  foot  on  the 
granite  bed  under  the  columns  of  towers,  reduced  by  spreading 
to  an  actual  pressure  on  the  clay  foundation  of  4  tons.  The  piers 
under  the  Holborn  Viaduct  have  a  load  of  2j  tons  only,  those  of 
the  Imperial  Institute  2j  tons,  and  those  of  the  destructor  cells 
and  chimney  shaft  at  Great  Yarmouth  4  tons  6f  cwt.  per  foot 
super.  From  these  various  examples  it  would  appear  that  on 
sound  clay  or  gravel  foundation  a  load  of  from  2 J  to  4  tons  may 
be  employed  with  safety. 

One  of  the  first  and  most  important  requirements  in  preparing 
drawings  for  a  large  building  is  to  ascertain  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
soil and  strata  at  different  levels  over  the  proposed  site, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  arrange  the  footings  accordingly  at  the  ' 
various  depths  and  to  decide  as  to  the  various  forms  and 
methods  to  be  employed.  For  this  purpose  trial  holes  or  borings 
are  sunk  until  a  suitable  bed  or  bottom  is  found,  upon  which  the 
concrete  foundation  may  safely  be  put.  If  no  such  solid  bottom  is 
found,  as  often  happens  near  the  water  side,  special  foundations 
must  be  employed,  such  as  dock,  gridiron,  cantilever  and  pile  founda- 
tions, &c.,  all  of  which  will  be  described  hereafter.  As  examples 
of  the  varying  subsoils  we  may  mention  the  following,  in  which  will 
be  noticed  the  great  depths  dug  before  getting  through  the  made 
ground :  At  the  Bank  of  England  there  were  22  ft.  of  made  ground 
resting  on  4  ft.  of  gravel.  Some  of  the  made  ground  was  of  ancient 
date,  and  preserved  relics  of  Roman  occupation.  In  some  parts  the 
subsoils  have  been  excavated  for  ballast  or  gravel,  as  at  Kensington, 
or  for  brick  earth,  as  at  Highbury,  and  the  pits  filled  in  with  rubbish. 
Rock,  which  forms  an  excellent  and  unchanging  foundation  in  one 
situation,  may  prove  a  dangerous  foundation  in  another.  Thus 
chalk  forms  a  good  limestone  foundation  in  certain  positions,  but 
when  it  dips  towards  a  slope  or  a  cliff  with  an  outcrop  of  the  gaillt 
or  underlying  clay,  it  is  a  very  unsuitable  foundation  for  any  building, 
as  the  landslips  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  on  the  Dorsetshire  coast 
bear  witness.  A  boring  made  in  Tallis  Street,  near  the  Thames 
embankment,  showed:  (l)  1 8  in.  ballast,  dirty;  (2)  6  in.  greensand, 
wet  and  dirty ;  (3)  2  ft.  peat  clay ;  (4)  6  in.  greensand ;  (5)  5 J  f t.  peaty 
bog;  (6)  9  ft.  running  sand;  and  (7)  4  ft.  clean  ballast,  resting  at  a 
depth  of  23  ft.  below  the  ground  line  upon  blue  clay.  A  boring  at 
Highbury  New  Park  gave:  (i)  2  ft.  made  ground,  (2)  18  ft.  loam, 
(3)  9  ft.  sand,  (4)  4  ft.  peat,  and  (5)  8  ft.  gravel  and  sand.  These 
examples  show  that  while  trial  holes  should  always  be  made  before 
designing  a  foundation,  to  ascertain  the  nature  of  the  subsoil,  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  calculate  upon  uniformity.  Thus  at  the  block 
2  of  the  admiralty  extension  new  buildings  (London),  one  of  the  trial 
holes  upon  the  south-west  side  of  the  old  buildings  showed  the  clay 
to  be  about  294  ft.  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  while  actual 
excavation  proved  the  dip  of  the  clay  to  be  such  that  in  the  execution 
of  the  new  building  it  became  necessary  to  underpin  the  north-west 
corner  of  the  old  building  at  the  deepest  part  42  ft.  below  the  ground. 
The  foundations  of  block  I  of  the  new  admiralty  buildings  are  placed 
in  a  dock,  built  upon  the  London  clay  at  a  depth  of  30  ft.  in  solid 
concrete  6  ft.  thick.  At  the  Hotel  Victoria,  in  Northumberland 
Avenue  (London),  the  various  subsoils  are  as  follows:  (i)  38 $  ft. 
made  ground  clay  and  gravel  mixed,  (2)  4  ft.  gravel  and  sand,  (3) 
6  ft.  rising  sand ;  (4)  2  ft.  fine  ballast,  and  at  a  depth  of  50  ft.  blue 
clay.  At  the  south  end  the  clay  was  43  ft.  down  and  at  the  north 
end  37  ft.  The  front  wall  was  constructed  on  a  concrete  bed  9  ft. 
wide.  The  site  was  surrounded  by  a  similar  wall  of  concrete  about 
6  ft.  wide,  forming  a  species  of  boxes,  and  the  whole  was  covered 
with  a  depth  of  6  ft.  of  concrete  upon  which  the  walls  were  raised. 
The  foundation  for  53  Parliament  Street,  where  running  sand  was 
encountered,  was  constructed  with  short  piles,  7  or  8  ft.  long  and 
6  in.  diam.,  pointed  and  placed  as  close  together  as  possible  over 
the  whole  foundation,  the  tops  were  then  sawn  off  level,  and  a 
concrete  raft,  7  or  8  ft.  thick,  was  built  over  the  whole  area.  At  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  Great  George  Street,  Westminster, 
the  foundations  to  the  two  party  walls  upon  each  side  of  the 
building  were  carried  down  about  22  ft.  below  the  pavement  level, 
that  on  the  west  side  being  22  ft.  deep  and  that  on  the  east  side 
24  ft. 

The  London  Building  Act  and  the  model  by-laws  prohibit  the 
erection  of  buildings  on  sites  that  have  been  used  as  "  shoots  "  for 
faecal  matter  or  vegetable  refuse,  and  in  such  cases  the 
objectionable  material   must  be  removed   prior  to  the     ~°" 
commencement   of   building   operations,   and    the   holes     ' 
from  which  it  was  taken  filled  up  with  dry  brick  or  other  rubbish 
well  rammed.     Foundations  are  usually  executed  by  excavators  or 
navvies,  and  the  tools  and  implements  used  are  boning  rods,  level 
pegs,   lines,   spirit  level,   pickaxe,  various  shovels,   wheel-barrow, 
rammer  or  punner,   &c.     In  digging  the  ordinary   trenches  and 


740 


FOUNDATIONS 


excavations,  should  the  ground  be  loose,  planking  and  strutting  have 
to  be  employed.  This  consists  of  rough  boarding  put  along  the  sides 
of  the  trenches  and  wedged  tight  with  waling  pieces  and  struts; 
this  work  is  done  by  navvies.  Figs.  I  and  2  show  the  general  forms 
of  planking  and  strutting  for  the  different  soils. 

In  very  large  works  of  excavation  in  soft  soil  a  steam  digger  is 
used  for  the  bulk  of  the  work.  It  consists  of  a  large  steel  bucket 
with  a  cutting  edge;  this  is  lowered  by  means  of  a  crane  into  the 

excavation,  and  on  being 
withdrawn  cuts  off  a  portion 
of  soil  which  is  hoisted  and 
deposited  in  carts  for  re- 
moval to  any  desired  posi- 
tion within  the  radius  com- 
manded by  the  crane.  The 
work  of  trimming  the  exca- 
vation to  a  regular  shape 
must  always  be  done  by 
manual  labour. 

Concrete  for  filling  into 
the  foundations  is  usually 
mixed  by  navvies;  for  large 
works  it  is  sometimes  mixed 
by  machinery. 

In  order  that  the  work  of 
excavating  and  constructing 
the  foundations  may  proceed 
in  a  water-logged  site,  pumps 
have  to  be  employed,  and 
where  the  inrush  of  water  is 
great  it  is  usual  to  sink  a  sump 
hole  lower  than  the  depth 
required  for  the  foundations, 
and  to  use  a  steam  pump 
kept  going  day  and  night. 

The  foundation  of  a  wall  is  required  to  be  as  follows  in  accordance 
with  the  London  Building  and  Amendment  Acts:  "  The  projection 
of  the  bottom  of  the  footings  of  every  wall  on  each  side  of  the  wall 
shall  be  at  least  equal  to  half  of  the  thickness  of  the  wall  at  its  base, 
unless  an  adjoining  wall  interferes,  in  which  case  the  projection  may 
be  omitted  where  that  wall  adjoins,  and  the  diminution  of  the 
footings  of  every  wall  shall  be  formed  in  regular  offsets  and  the 
height  from  the  bottom  of  such  footing  to  the  base  of  the  wall  shall 
be  at  least  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  thickness  of  the  wall  at  its 
base."  (See  BRICKWORK.)  The  base  of  a  wall  is  the  thickness  above 
the  footing;  the  footing  is  the  brickwork  built  directly  on  the  top 
of  the  concrete  and  diminishing  in  width  in  every  course.  Thus: 
"  The  projection  of  the  bottom  footing  to  be  equal  to  one-half  the 

thickness  of  wall  on 
both  sides  "  means 
that  a  IsJ-in.  wall 
would  require  to 
have  three  courses 
of  footings,  the 
bottom  one  being 
27  in.  wide.  "  The 
•  height  from  the 
bottom  of  such 
footing  to  the  base 
of  the  wall  shall  be 
at  least  equal  to 
two-thirds  the 
thickness  of  wall  at 
its  base  "  means 
that  in  the  case  of 
a  I3j-in.  wall  the 
height  of  footings 
would  have  to  be 
9  in.,  or  three 
courses  of  brick- 
work, each  measur- 
ing 3  in. 

The  New  York 
Building  Code 
enters  more  fully 
into  the  require- 
ments for  the  foundation  of  walls  as  regards  depth  than  that  in  use 
in  London.  Section  25,  Part  5,  requires  that  every  building,  except 
buildings  erected  upon  solid  rock,  or  upon  wharves  and  piers  on  the 
water  front,  shall  have  foundations  of  brick,  stone,  iron  or  concrete 
laid  not  less  then  4  ft.  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  on  the  solid 
ground  or  level  surface  of  rock,  or  upon  piles  or  ranging  timbers 
when  solid  earth  or  rock  is  not  found.  Piles  intended  to  sustain  a 
wall,  pier  or  post,  shall  be  spaced  not  more  than  36  in.  nor  less  than 
20  in.  on  centres;  they  must  be  driven  to  a  solid  bearing  if  practic- 
able, and  their  number  must  be  sufficient  to  support  the  super- 
structure proposed.  No  pile  shall  be  used  of  less  dimensions  than 
5  in.  at  the  small  end  and  10  in.  at  the  butt  for  short  piles,  or  piles 
20  ft.  or  less  in  length.  No  pile  shall  be  weighted  with  a  load  exceed- 
ing 40,000  Ib.  When  a  pile  is  not  driven  to  refusal,  its  safe  sustaining 


,/•*" 


FIG.  2. 


power  shall  be  determined  by  the  following  formula:  twice  the 
weight  of  the  hammer  in  tons  multiplied  by  the  height  of  the  fall 
in  feet  divided  by  the  least  penetration  of  pile  under  the  last  blow 
in  inches  plus  one.  There  are  also  further  requirements  as  to  piles, 
&c.,  and  the  commissioner  of  buildings  must  be  notified  when  the 
piles  are  to  be  driven. 

The  New  York  Code,  Section  26,  further  goes  on  to  say  that 
foundation  walls  shall  be  constructed  to  include  all  walls  and  piers 
built  below  the  curb  level  or  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  the  curb,  to 
serve  as  supports  for  the  walls,  piers,  columns,  girders,  posts  or 
beams.  Foundation  walls  shall  be  built  of  stone,  brick,  Portland 
cement  concrete,  iron  or  steel.  If  built  of  rubble  stone  or  Portland 
cement  concrete,  they  shall  be  at  least  8  in.  thicker  than  the  wall 
above  them  to  a  depth  of  12  ft.  below  the  curb  level,  and  for  every 
additional  10  ft.  or  part  thereof  deeper,  they  shall  be  increased  4  in. 
in  thickness.  If  built  of  brick,  they  shall  be  at  least  4  in.  thicker 
than  the  wall  next  above  them  to  a  depth  of  12  ft.  below  the  curb 
level,  and  for  every  additional  10  ft.  or  part  thereof  deeper,  they 
shall  be  increased  4  in.  in  thickness.  The  footing  or  base  course 
shall  be  of  stone  or  concrete,  or  both,  or  of  concrete  and  stepped  up 
brickwork  of  sufficient  thickness  and  area  to  bear  safely  the  weight 
to  be. imposed  thereon.  If  the  footing  or  base  course  be  of  concrete, 
the  concrete  shall  not  be  less  than  12  in.  thick;  if  of  stone,  the  stones 
shall  not  be  less  than  2  X3  ft.  and  at  least  8  in.  in  thickness  for  walls, 
and  not  less  than  10  in.  in  thickness  if  under  piers,  columns  or  posts. 
The  footing  or  base  course,  whether  formed  of  concrete  or  stone,  shall 
be  at  least  12  in.  wider  than  the  bottom  width  of  walls,  and  at  least 
12  in.  wider  on  all  sides  than  the  bottom  width  of  said  piers,  columns 
or  posts.  If  the  superimposed  load  is  such  as  to  cause  undue  trans- 
verse strain  on  a  footing  projecting  12  in.,  the  thickness  of  such 
footing  is  to  be  increased  so  as  to  carry  the  load  with  safety.  For 
small  structures  and  for  small  piers  sustaining  light  loads  the  com- 
missioner of  buildings  having  jurisdiction  may,  in  his  discretion, 
allow  a  reduction  in  the  thickness  and  projection  specified  for 
footing  or  base  courses.  All  base  stones  shall  be  bedded  and  laid 
crosswise,  edge  to  edge.  If  stepped-up  footing  of  brick  is  used  in  place 
of  stone  above  the  concrete,  the  offsets  if  laid  in  single  courses  shall 
each  not  exceed  i-|  in.,  or,  if  laid  in  double  courses,  then  each  shall 
not  exceed  3  in.  offsetting  the  first  course  of  brickwork  back  one-half 
the  thickness  of  the  concrete  base,  so  as  properly  to  distribute  the 
load  to  be  imposed  thereon.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  foregoing  that 
the  American  acts  are  far  more  extensive  than  in  London.  The 
London  Building  Act  mentions  that  the  footings  of  a  wall  shall  rest 
upon  the  solid  ground  or  concrete  or  upon  other  solid  substructure. 
The  building  act  amendment  says:  "  The  foundations  of  the  walls 
of  every  house  or  building  shall  be  formed  of  a  bed  of  good  concrete 
not  less  than  9  in.  thick,  and  projecting  at  least  4  in.  on  each  side 
of  the  lowest  course  of  footings." 

Various  Types  of  Foundations. — The  most  natural  foundations 
for  walls  are  those  constructed  where  the  walls  are  built  directly 
upon  the  ground ;  this  is  only  possible  where  the  ground  is  very  hard 
or  consists  of  rock,  and  in  either  of  these  cases  the  ground  is  simply 
levelled  and  the  building  commenced. 

The  next  and  most  universally  recognized  method,  which  might 
safely  be  said  to  be  adopted  in  95%  of  all  modern  buildings,  is  the 
system  of  placing  a  bed  of  concrete  under  the  walls,  digging  trenches 
where  the  walls  are  to  come  until  a  solid  bottom  is  reached,  and 
in  these  laying  the  concrete.  The  London  Building  Act  requires  this 
concrete  bed  to  be  at  least  4  in.  wider  than  the  bottom  course  of 
footings  on  each  side  of  the  wall,  but  it  is  generally  made  6  in.  wider 
on  each  side  and  in  general  circumstances  the  depth  of  the  concrete 
is  varied  according  to  the  weight  placed  upon  it. 

Where  a  site  is  in  close  proximity  to  a  river  or  old  water-course, 
&c.,  where  deep  basements  are  excavated,  or  where  the  ground  lies 
low,  naturally  water  is  met  with,  and  where  water  is  the  ground  is 
soft.  It  is  here  that  special  foundations  are  required. 

In  certain  cases  it  is  necessary  to  use  concrete  legs  or  stilts.  These 
are  placed  in  such  positions  as  to  take  the  weights  of  the  building, 
and  sunk  to  depths  of  40  ft.  more  or  less  as  the  case  may 
require  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground;  and  on 
the  tops  of  these  stilts  concrete  arches  or  lintels  are 
turned  over  (fig.  3).  As  an  example  of  the  stilt  principle, 
mention  may  be  made  of  some  premises  at  Stratford  and 
a  church  at  South  Bermondsey,  London,  in  which  concrete  piers 
were  sunk  at  12  ft.  centres  apart  and  43  ft.  square,  in  pot  holes  dug 
put  of  made  ground;  then  concrete  arches  were  formed  over  the 
intervening  untrustworthy  ground  with  a  minimum  thickness  of 
1 8  in.  or  the  piers  were  connected  by  concrete  lintels  3  ft.  thick  in 
which  steel  joists  were  embedded.  At  Sion  College,  Victoria  Em- 
bankment, London,  the  foundations  were  formed  with  cement 
concrete  stilts  or  piers  8  ft.  square,  and  going  down  to  the  London 
clay ;  from  the  tops  of  these  stilts  brick  arches  were  turned,  spanning 
the  spaces  between  the  piers,  and  upon  these  arches  the  walls  were 
built. 

Pile  foundations,  used  in  the  case  of  soft  ground,  for  small  works, 
consist  either  of  stout  scaffold  poles  or  of  timbers  varying  from  6  in. 
to  12  in.  square  according  to  requirements  (fig.  4).  The  bottom 
ends  of  these  timbers  have  an  iron  shoe  with  a  point,  so  as  to 
be  easily  driven  into  the  ground,  and  the  tops  of  the  timbers  have 
an  iron  band  round,  so  that  when  the  timbers  are  being  driven  in 


Concrete 
piers, 
legs,  or 
stilts. 


FOUNDATIONS 


the  band  prevents  them  from  splitting  (fig.  5).  The  methods  of 
driving  these  piles  are  various.  The  usual  plan  is  to  erect  a  tempor- 
ary structure,  upon  one  side  of  which  is  a  guide  path 
faced  with  sheet-iron  so  as  to  give  a  smooth  face.  Up 
and  down  this  guide  path  a  heavy  iron  weight,  called  a 
monkey,  is  worked;  the  monkey  is  hoisted  to  the  top  of 
the  guide  path  by  means  of  a  crab  worked  by  hand  or  steam,  and 


Pile 

founda- 
tions. 


LONGITU 


SECTION 


TRANSVERSE 
SECTION 


FIG.  3. 


when  released  descends  with  a  good  force,  and  so  drives  the  piles  into 
the  ground.  The  monkey  usually  weighs  from  2  cwt.  to  10  cwt. 
and  is  allowed  a  drop  of  15  to  40  ft. 

Piles  are  driven  all  round  under  the  walls  at  varying  intervals  or 
under  piers  where  the  weights  of  a  building  are  to  be  concentrated.  In 
the  erection  of  the  Chicago  public  library  four  Norway  pine  piles,  each 
with  an  average  diameter  of  13  in.,  were  driven  to  a  depth  of  52 \  ft. 
and  loaded  with  a  dead  load  of  50-7  tons  per  pile  for  a  period  of  two 
weeks,  and  no  settlement  taking  place  30  tons  per  pile  was  adopted 
as  a  safe  load.  The  following  are  some  examples  of  loads  used  in 
practice:  passenger  station,  Harrison  Street,  Chicago,  piles  50  ft. 


FIG.  4. 

in  length,  each  carrying  25  tons;  elevator,  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  piles  20  ft. 
in  length,  weight  25  tons;  Trinity  church,  Boston,  2  tons;  Schiller 
building,  Chicago,  55  tons  per  pile,  but  in  this  case  the  building 
settled  considerably.  All  timber  grillage  and  the  tops  of  all  piles 
should  be  kept  below  the  lowest  water  level,  and  be  capped  with 
concrete  or  stone.  In  Boston  it  is  obligatory  to  cap  with  blocks 
of  granite. 

Another  form  of  foundation  takes  the  shape  of  Portland  cement 
concrete  blocks,  and  is  used  chiefly  for  bridges  and  in  marshy  land, 
&c.  In  some  cases  cylinders  of  brickwork  are  built,  and 
the  centres  are  filled  with  blocks  of  concrete  and  grouted 
in.  The  Yarmouth  destructor  cells  and  chimney  shaft 
were  built  in  this  way;  the  cylinders  were  constructed  of  9  in. 
brickwork  built  in  Portland  cement,  the  lower  4  ft.  being  encased 
in  a  wooden  drum  with  cutting  edge  sunk  into  the  gravel  and  sand 


Concrete 
pile*. 


at  least  2  ft.  The  cylinders  were  sunk  by  the  aid  of  a  grab,  the 
bottom  being  levelled  and  the  concrete  blocks  laid  by  a  diver. 
Use  is  also  made  of  piles  consisting  of  Portland  cement  concrete 
having  steel  rods  embedded  in  it,  and  provided  with  iron  shoes  and 
head  for  driving  (fig.  6). 

Cast  iron  screw  piles  (fig.  7)  used  in  very  loose  sandy  soils,  consist 
of  large  hollow  cast  iron  columns  with  flat  screw  blades  cast  on  the 
lower  ends.  The  projection  of  this  screw  from  the  pile  may  vary 
from  9  in.  to  18  in.  with  a  pitch  of  from  one-quarter  to  one-half  of 
the  projection,  the  blade  making  a  little  over  one  turn  round  the 
shaft.  For  most  requirements  a  diameter  of  screw  from  3J  to  4^  ft. 
will  be  found  sufficient,  a  sandy  foundation  requiring  the  largest. 
The  lower  end  of  the  tube  is  generally  left  open,  the  edge  being 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


FIG.  7., 


FlG.    8. 


bevelled  and  occasionally  provided  with  teeth  to  assist  in   cutting 
into  and  penetrating  the  soil. 

Another  system  of  piling  known  as  sheet  piling  (fig.  8),  consists 
in  driving  piles  into  the  ground  at  intervals,  and  between  these, 
also  driven  into  the  ground,  are  timbers  measuring  3  in.  by  9  in., 
which  form  a  wall  to  keep  the  soft  earth  up  under  the  building.  In 
this  way  the  earth  is  prevented  from  spreading  out  and  so  causing 
the  building  to  settle  unevenly. 

Another  kind  of  foundation,  known  as  plank  foundation  (fig.  9), 
consists  of  elm  planks,  about  9  in.  by  3  in.  laid  across  the 
trench  and  spiked  together;  on  the  top  of  these  are  laid 
similar  planks  but  at  right  angles  to  the  last,  and  upon 
the  platform  thus  formed  the  wall  is  built.  This  method 
is  used  in  soft  ground. 

Caissons  are  usually  employed  by  engineers  for  the  construction 
of  the  foundations  of  bridge  piers,  but  instances  of  their  use  in 
foundations  for  buildings  are  to  be  found  in  the  American  Caissons 
Surety  and  the  Manhattan  Life  Insurance  buildings, 
New  York  City.  The  latter  building  is  242  ft.  high  to  the  parapet, 
and  the  dome  and  tower  rise  108  ft.  higher.  The  building  is  carried 


Plank 
founda- 
tions. 


FIG.  9. 

on  16  solid  masonry  piers,  taken  down  54  ft.  below  the  street  level 
to  solid  rock,  and  these  piers  support  the  34  cast  iron  columns  upon 
which  the  building  is  erected.  The  piers  to  each  building  were 
constructed  by  the  pneumatic  caisson  process  (see  CAISSON). 

A  good  plan  for  foundations  when  the  ground  is  loose  and  sandy 
is  to  build  upon  wells  of  brickwork,  a  method  which  has  been  suc- 
cessfully practised  in  Madras.  The  wells  are  made 
circular,  about  3  ft.  in  diameter  and  one  brick  thick. 
The  first  course  is  laid  and  cemented  together  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  when  it  is  dry,  and  the  earth  is 
excavated  inside  and  round  about  it  to  allow  it  to  sink.  Then  another 
is  laid  over  it  and  again  sunk.  The  well  is  thus  built  downwards. 
The  brickwork  is  sunk  bodily  to  a  depth  of  10  ft.  or  more,  according 


Well 
founda- 
tions. 


742 


FOUNDATIONS 


to  building  to  be  erected  upon  it,  and  the  interior  is  filled  up  with 
rubble  work.  All  the  public  buildings  at  Madras  were  erected  upon 
foundations  of  this  kind.  Well  foundations  were  employed  under 
the  city  hall,  Kansas  City,  and  the  Stock  Exchange,  Chicago. 

Coffer  dams  are  wooden  structures  used  to  keep  back  the  water 
whilst  putting  in  foundations  on  the  waterside,  and  are  constructed 
with  two  rows  of  timbers,  12  in.  square  as  piles  spaced 
about  6  ft.  apart,  and  filled  in  between  with  a  double  row 
of  2  in.  or  3  in.  boards,  the  space  between  the  rows  being 
packed  with  clay  puddle  (fig.  10).  The  general  rule  for  the  thickness  of 
a  coffer  dam  is  to  make  it  equal  to  the  depth  of  water.  An  interesting 


Coffer 
dams. 


Cantilever 
founda- 
tions. 


FlG.    10. 

example  of  a  coffer  dam  is  that  at  the  Keyham  dock  extension, 
where  piles  varied  in  length  from  65  ft.  to  85  ft.  They  were  driven  in 
a  double  row  5  ft.  apart,  and  over  13,000  were  used. 

Dock  foundations  are  constructed  after  the  fashion  of  a  large 
concrete  tank,  and  are  adapted  to  large  sites  where  a  difficulty 
arises  as  to  the  ingress  of  water.  They  are  considered 
the  best  method  of  constructing  a  building  on  soft  ground 
and  of  keeping  a  building  dry  (fig.  n).  This  type  of 
foundation  was  used  at  the  new  colonial  office,  Whitehall, 
London,  and  the  new  admiralty  buildings  at  St  James's  Park, 
London.  A  few  buildings  treated  after  the  style  of  a  dock,  but  in 
some  instances  without  the  enclosing  walls,  are  the  following: 


FIG.  ii. 

At  the  admiralty  buildings  already  mentioned  a  concrete  retaining 
wall  completely  surrounds  the  exterior  below  the  ground,  and  is 
joined  up  to  the  underpinning  work;  the  whole  site  being  covered 
with  concrete  6  ft.  thick,  a  huge  tank  is  formed  of  an  average  inside 
clear  depth  of  20  ft.  in  which  the  basements  are  built.  The  new 
"  Old  Bailey  "  buildings  in  Newgate  Street,  London,  are  constructed 
on  a  concrete  table  5  ft.  thick,  as  also  are  the  Army  and  Navy 
Auxiliary  Stores,  Victoria  Street.  At  Kennel's  Wharf,  near  South- 
wark  Bridge,  a  concrete  table,  8  ft.  thick,  was  spread  all  over  the 


site,  with  an  extra  thickness  under  the  walls.  Foundations  formed 
similarly  to  dock  foundations,  but  in  addition  having  steel  joists  and 
rods  inserted  in  the  thickness  of  the  concrete  table,  to  tie  the  whole 
together,  are  known  as  gridiron  foundations. 

In  the  Hennebique  concrete  system,  all  beams,  &c.,  are  formed 
with  small  rods  and  then  surrounded  with  concrete;  it  is  designed 
for  floors  and  for  spreading  the  weight  of  a  building  over  an  extended 
foundation  on  soft  ground. 

Where  a  heavy  wall  is  to  be  built  against  an  old  one  and  there  is 
not  sufficient  room  for  the  foundations,  the  plan  is  adopted  of 
building  pier  foundations  at  some  distance  from  the  pro- 
posed new  wall.  On  the  top  of  these  piers  rest 
steel  cantilevers  over  steel  pin  rockers  upon  cast 
iron  bedplates;  the  cantilevers  are  secured  at  one 
end  to  a  column,  while  the  other  ends  go  through  the  full 
thickness  of  the  new  wall.  Upon  these  last  ends  is  placed  a 
steel  girder  upon  which  the  wall  is  built.  This  construction 
(fig.  12)  has  been  used  in  America,  and  in  the  Ritz  Hotel, 
Piccadilly,  London. 

Another  form  of  cantilever  foundations  was  employed  in 
the  case  of  some  premises  at  Carr's  Lane,  Birmingham, 
partly  built  over  the  Great  Western  railway  tunnel  (fig.  13). 
In  this  instance  large  piers  were  built  below  the  ground  at 
the  side  of  the  tunnel.  From  the  tops  of  these  piers  large 
steel  cantilevers  were  erected  projecting  over  the  crown  of 
the  tunnel,  and  on  these  steel  girders  were  fixed  and  the 
building  constructed  upon  them. 

In  modern  Tunis,  a  section  of  which  city  is  built  on  marshy 
ground,  the  subsoil  is  an  oozy  sediment,  largely  deposited 
by  the  sewage  water  from  the  ancient  or  Arab  Found*- 
quarter  of  the  city,  which  is  situated  on  an  adjacent  tlons  la 
hill.  This  semi-fluid  mud  has  a  depth  of  about  Tunis. 
33  ft.  To  prepare  the  soil  for  supporting  an 
ordinary  house,  pits  from  8  ft.  to  10  ft.  square  are  exca- 
vated to  a  depth  of  about  10  ft.,  to  the  level  of  the  ground 
water.  A  mixture  is  made  of  the  excavated  soil  and 
powdered  fat  lime,  procured  from  clinkers  and  unburnt 
stone  from  the  lime-kilns,  which  soon  crumbles  to  fine  dust 
when  exposed  to  the  air.  The  mixture  is  thrown  into  pits  in 
layers  about  12  in.  thick  and  rammed  down  for  a  very  long 
time  by  specially  trained  labourers.  A  gang  of  15  or  20 
men  will  work  at  least  10  or  12  days  ramming  for  the 
foundations  of  a  moderate-sized  house.  An  extremely  hard 
bed  is  thus  obtained,  reaching  to  within  18  in.  of  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  and  on  this  artificial  bed  the  foundations  of 
the  building  are  laid.  Although  this  method  of  construc- 
tion is  crude,  it  is  stated  that  the  practical  results  are 
superior  to  those  obtained  by  using  piles,  concrete  or  other 
recognized  methods,  and  in  all  cases  the  cost  is  much  less, 
for  labour  is  cheap. 

A  novel  and  interesting  foundation  was  designed  for  a 
signal  station  at  Cape  Henlopen,  Delaware.    This  is  built  on 
top  of  the  highest  sandhill  at  Cape  Henlopen,  so      Building 
that   the  observer   may   have  an   unobstructed      onsaaa. 
view ;    it  rises  about  80  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  and  is  exposed  to  all  winds  and  weather,  while  it  is 
absolutely  required  that  it  shall  stand  firmly  planted    in 
such  a  way  that  even  a  hurricane  shall  not  shake   it   or 
make  it  tremble,  since  that  would  affect  the  sight  of  the  telescope 
in  the  observatory.    The  usual  mode  of  securing  such  a  building  is 
by  means  of  a  foundation  of  screw  piles  or  of  heavy  timbers  sunk 
into  the  sand;    this  method,  however,  has  the  disadvantage  that  if 


gtelcr  M\ed  dfffm  and 
with  shtidunt  obov* 


FIG.  12. 


the  wind  shifts  the  sand  away  from  around  the  foundation,  it 
becomes  undermined  and  its  effect  is  destroyed.  To  avoid  such  an 
accident,  recourse  was  had  to  the  following  design,  which  was 
considered  to  be  cheap  and  at  the  same  time  to  provide  an  effective 
anchorage.  The  building  is  entirely  of  wood;  it  has  a  cellar, 
above  which  are  two  rooms  one  above  the  other,  and  the  whole  is 


FOUNDING 


743 


surmounted  by  the  observatory  proper.  First,  the  ground  sill  is  a 
square  of  20  ft.,  made  of  yellow  pine  sticks  mortised  together  and 
pinned  with  stout  trunnels.  The  sill  of  the  observatory  is  made 
nkewise  of  heavy  timbers,  12  ft.  long.  The  two  sills  are  joined 
together  by  four  stout  yellow  pine  corner  posts,  which  in  turn  are 
mortised  into  both  sills.  The  posts  are  26  ft.  in  length.  Five  feet 
above  the  lower  sill  is  the  sill  which  supports  the  floor  of  the  first 
room.  Ten  feet  above  this  is  the  sill  which  supports  the  upper 
room.  Both  these  sills  again  are  mortised  into  the  corner  posts. 
The  structure  is  sheathed  outside  with  German  siding,  and  inside 
with  rough  boards  covered  with  felt,  and  again  by  tongued  and 
grooved  yellow  pine  boards.  The  observatory  proper,  octagonal 
in  shape,  is  securely  mortised  into  the  top  sill  and  covered  with  a 


plan   at    baftcment. 

FIG.  13. — Cantilever  Foundation  over  Railway  Tunnel. 

corrugated  iron  roof  conical  in  shape.  The  cellar  is  floored  with 
3  in.  wood,  and  boarded  all  round  on  the  inside  of  the  posts.  A  pit 
was  first  dug  in  the  sand  about  6  ft.  deep  and  fully  20  ft.  wide  on 
the  bottom.  The  cellar  sill  was  laid  on  this  bottom,  and  the  structure 
built  upon  it;  thus  the  whole  depth  of  cellar  is  sunk  below  the  top 
of  the  hill  or  the  level  of  the  sand.  The  cellar  was  then  filled  up 
with  sand  and  packed  solid  all  round,  consequently  the  building  is 
anchored  in  its  place  by  the  load  in  the  cellar,  about  100  tons  in 
weight. 

The  subject  of  foundations,  being  naturally  of  the  first  importance, 
is  one  that  calls  for  most  careful  study.  It  is  not  of  so  much  import- 
ance that  the  ground  be  hard  or  even  rocky  as  that  :t  be  compact 
and  of  similar  consistency  throughout.  It  is  not  always  that  a  site 
answers  to  this  description,  and  the  problem  of  what  will  be  the  best 
form  of  foundation  to  use  in  placing  a  building,  more  especially  if 
that  building  be  of  large  dimensions  and  consequently  great  weight, 
on  a  site  of  soft  yielding  soil,  is  one  that  is  often  most  difficult  of 
solution.  The  foregoing  article  indicates  in  a  brief  manner  some  of 
the  obstacles  the  architect  or  engineer  is  required  to  surmount  before 
his  work  can  even  be  started  on  its  way  to  completion. 

AUTHORITIES. — The  principal  books  for  reference  on  this  subject 
are:  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundations,  by  W.  M.  Patton,  C.  E. ; 
Building  Construction  and  Superintendence,  part  L,  by  F.  E.  Kidder; 
Notes  on  Building  Construction,  vols.  i.  ii.  and  iii. ;  Aide  Memoir, 
vol.  ii.,  by  Colonel  Seddon,  R.E.;  Advanced  Building  Construction, 
by  C.  F.  Mitchell;  Modern  House  Construction,  by  G.  L.  Sutcliffe; 
Building  Construction,  by  Professor  Henry  Adams;  Practical 
Building  Construction,  by  J.  P.  Allen.  (J.  BT.) 


FOUNDING  (from  Lat.  fundere,  to  pour),  the  process  of  casting 
in  metal,  of  making  a  reproduction  of  a  given  object  by  running 
molten  metal  into  a  mould  taken  in  sand,  loam  or  plaster  from 
that  object.  To  enable  the  founder  to  prepare  a  mould  for  the 
casting,  he  must  receive  a  pattern  similar  to  the  casting  required. 
Some  few  exceptions  occur,  to  be  noted  presently,  but  the  above 
statement  is  true  of  perhaps  98%  of  all  castings  produced.  The 
construction  of  such  patterns  gives  employment  to  a  large 
number  of  highly  skilled  men,  who  can  only  acquire  the  necessary 
knowledge  through  an  apprenticeship  lasting  from  five  to  seven 
years.  A  knowledge  of  two  trades  at  least  is  involved  in  the 
work  of  pattern  construction — that  of  the  craft  itself  and  that 
of  the  moulder  and  founder.  Patterns  have  to  be  constructed 
strongly.  They  are  generally  of  wood,  and  they  thus  require 
skill  in  the  use  of  woodworking  tools  and  the  making  of  timber 
joints,  together  with  a  knowledge  of  the  behaviour  of  timber, 
&c.  Some  few  patterns  are  made  in  iron,  brass  or  white  metal 
alloys.  They  have  to  be  embedded  in  a  matrix  of  sand  by  the 
founder,  and  being  enclosed,  they  have  to  be  withdrawn  without 
inflicting  any  damage  in  the  way  of  fracture  in  the  sand.  Since 
cast  work  involves  shapes  that  are  often  very  intricate,  including 
projections  and  hollow  spaces  of  all  forms,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
withdrawal  of  the  patterns  without  entailing  tearing  up  and 
fracture  of  the  sand  must  involve  many  difficult  problems  that 
have  to  be  as  fully  understood  by  the  pattern-maker  as  by  the 
moulder.  It  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  the  work  of  the  pattern- 
maker should  be  approached  in  the  first  place.  No  closed  mould 
can  possibly  be  made  without  one  or  more  joints,  for  if  a  pattern 
is  wholly  enclosed  in  a  matrix  of  sand  it  cannot  be  withdrawn 
except  by  making  a  parting  in  the  sand,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to 
conceive  that  the  parting  in  the  pattern  might  advantageously 
be  made  to  coincide,  either  exactly  or  approximately,  with  that 
of  the  mould.  Nor  must  obstacles  exist  to  the  free  withdrawal 
of  patterns.  They  must  therefore  not  be  wider  or  larger  in  the 
lower  than  in  the  upper  parts;  actually  they  are  made  a  trifle 
smaller  or  "  tapered."  Nor  may  they  have  any  lateral  extensions 
into  the  lower  sand,  unless  these  can  be  made  to  withdraw 
separately  from  the  main  portion  of  the  pattern.  Finally,  there 
are  many  internal  spaces  which  cannot  be  formed  by  a  pattern 
directly  in  the  sand,  but  provision  for  which  must  be  made  by 
some  means  extraneous  to  the  pattern,  as  by  cores. 

A  single  example  must  illustrate  the  main  principles  which  have 
just  been  stated.  The  object  selected  is  a  bracket  which  involves 
questions  of  joints,  of  cores,  of  pattern  construction  and  of  moulding. 
The  casting,  the  pattern,  and  its  mould  are  illustrated.  Fig.  I 
illustrates  in  plan  the  casting  of  a  double  bracket,  the  end  elevation 
of  which  is  seen  in  fig.  2;  the  pattern  of  which  presents  obvious 


FIG. 


FIG.   2. 


difficulties  in  the  way  of  withdrawal  from  a  mould,  supposing  it 
were  made  just  like  its  casting.  But  if  it  be  made  as  in  fig.  3,  with 
the  open  spaces  A,  B,  in  fig.  2,  occupied  with  core  prints,  and  the 
pieces  A,  A  in  fig.  3  left  loosely  skewered  on,  everything  will  "  de- 
liver "  freely.  Moreover  the  pattern  might  be  made  solidly  as 
shown  in  fig.  3,  or  else  jointed  and  dowelled  in  the  plane  a-a,  as 
in  fig.  4,  or  along  the  upper  faces  of  the  prints  b-b,  fig.  3.  The 


744 


FOUNDING 


timber  shadings  in  figs.  3  and  4  illustrate  points  in  the  most  suitable 
arrangement  of  material.  The  prints  are  "  boxed  up."  Fig.  4 
shows  a  certain  stage  of  the  moulding,  in  which  one  half  of  the  pattern 
has  been  "  rammed  "  in  sand,  and  turned  over  in  the  "  bottom^box," 
and  the  upper  half  is  ready  to  be  rammed  in  the  "  top  box,"  with 
"  runner  pin  "  or  "  git  stick  "  A,  set  in  place.  The  lower  loose  piece 
has  had  its  skewer  removed  during  the  ramming.  Fig.  5  illustrates 
the  mould  completed  and  ready  for  pouring.  The  boxes  have  been 

parted,  the  pattern  has 
been  withdrawn,  cores, 
inserted  in  the  impres- 
sions left  by  the  prints, 
vents  taken  from  the 
central  body  of 
cinders,  the  pouring 
basin  made  and  the 
boxes  cottered 
together. 

Every  single  detail 
now  briefly  noted  in 
connexion  with  this 
bracket  is  applied  and 
modified  in  an  almost 
infinite  number  of 
ways  to  suit  the  ever 
varying  character  of 

P  foundry    work.       Yet 

this   process  does   not 

touch  some  of  the  great  subdivisions  of  moulding  and  casting. 
There  is  a  large  volume  of  large  and  heavy  work  for  which  complete 
patterns  and  core  boxes  are  never  made,  because  of  the  great  expense 
that  would  be  involved  in  the  pattern  construction.  There  are  also 
some  cases  in  which  the  methods  adopted  would  not  permit  of  the 
use  of  patterns,  as  in  that  group  of  work  in  which  the  sand  or  loam 
is  "  swept  "  to  the  form  required  for  the  moulds  and  cores  by  means 
of  striking  boards,  loam  boards,  core  boards  or  strickles.  In  these 
classes  of  moulding  the  loose  green  sands  and  core  sands  are  not 
much  used;  instead,  loam — a  wet  and  plastic  sand  mixture — is 
employed,  supported  against  bricks  (loam  moulds)  or  against  core 
bars  and  plates,  and  hay  ropes  (loam  cores).  All  heavy  marine 
engine  cylinders  are  thus  made  by  sweeping,  and  all  massive  cores 
for  engine  cylinders  and  large  pipes,  besides  much  large  circular  and 
cylindrical  work,  as  foundation  cylinders,  soap  pans,  lead  pans, 
mortar  pans,  large  propeller  blades,  &c.  In  these  cases  the  edge  of 
the  striking  board  is  a  counterpart  of  the  profile  of  the  work  swept 
up.  Joints  also  have  to  be  made  in  such  moulds,  not  of  course  in 
order  to  provide  for  the  removal  of  a  pattern,  but  for  the  exposure 


Print 


FIG.  4. 

of  the  separate  parts  in  course  of  construction,  and  for  closing  them 
up,  or  putting  them  together  in  their  due  relations.  These  joints 
also  are  swept  by  the  boards,  generally  cut  to  produce  suitable 
"  checks,"  or  "  registers  "  to  ensure  that  they  accurately  fit  together. 
Fig.  6,  showing  a  portion  of  a  swept-up  mould,  illustrates  the  general 
arrangement.  A  plate,  A,  carries  a  quantity  of  bricks,  B,  which  are 
embedded  in  loam,  and  break  joint.  To  a  striking  bar,  C,  sup- 
ported in  a  step,  a  striking  board  or  sweeping  board,  D,  is  bolted, 
and  is  swept  round  against  plastic  loam,  which  is  afterwards  dried. 
The  check  on  the  board  at  A  corresponds  with  a  similar  check  on  the 
board  which  strikes  the  interior  of  the  pan,  and  by  which  top  and 
bottom  portions  of  the  mould  are  registered  together.  This  is 
indicated  in  dotted  outline.  Its  mould  also  is  swept  on  bricks,  and 


turned  over  into  place,  and  the  metal  is  poured  into  the  space  6,  b, 
between  the  two  moulds.  There  is  also  a  large  group  of  swept-up 
work  which  is  not  symmetrical  about  a  centre  of  rotation.  Then 
the  movements  of  the  sweeping  boards  are  controlled  by  the  edges 
of  "  core  plates,"  or  of  "  core  irons  "  (fig.  7).  Bend  pipes,  and  the 


Pouring  Basin 


FIG.  5. 

volute  casings  of  centrifugal  pumps  and  pipes,  afford  examples  of 
this  kind.  In  fig.  7,  A  is  the  core  iron,  held  down  by  weights,  and 
B  the  "  strickle,"  sweeping  up  the  half  bend  C,  two  such  halves 
pasted  together  completing  the  core. 


FlG,  6.          ...;•; 

Core-making  is  a  special  department  of  foundry  work,  often 
involving  as  much  detail  as  the  construction  and  moulding  of 
patterns.  Two  perfectly  plain  boxes  are  shown  in  figs.  8  and  9,  in 
both  of  which  provision  exists  for  removing  the  box  parts  from  the 
core  after  the  latter  has  been  rammed.  Core  boxes  are  jointed  and 
tapered,  and  often  have  loose  pieces  within  them,  and  also  prints, 
into  the  impressions  of  which  other  cores  are  inserted. 


FIG.  7. 

Machine-moulding. — There  is  a  development  of  modern 
methods  of  founding  which  is  effecting  radical  changes  in  some 
departments  of  foundry  practice,  namely,  moulding  by  machines. 
The  advantages  of  this  method  are  manifold,  and  its  limitations 


FOUNDING 


745 


are  being  lessened  continually.  There  are  two  broad  departments 
between  which  machine-moulding  is  divided.  One,  of  less 
importance,  is  that  of  toothed  wheels;  the  other  is  that  of  general 
work,  except  of  a  very  massive  character. 

Gear-wheel'  moulding  machines  are  essentially  a  special 
adaptation  of  the  mechanism  of  the  dividing  engine,  by  means 
of  which,  instead  of  using  a  complete  pattern  of  a  toothed  wheel, 
two  or  three  pattern  teeth 
are  used,  and  the  machine 
takes  charge  of  the  correct 
pitching  or  division  of  the 
teeth  moulded  therefrom, 
leaving  to  the  moulder  the 


FIG.  9. 

work  only  of  turning  the  handle  of  the  division  plate,  and 
ramming  the  sand  around  the  pattern  teeth.  The  result  is 
accurate  pitching,  and  the  use  of  two  or  three  teeth  instead  of  a 
full  pattern,  together  with  any  core  boxes  and  striking  boards 
that  are  necessary  for  the  arms. 

The  other  department  of  machine  moulding  includes  nearly 
every  conceivable  class  of  work  of  small  and  medium  dimensions. 
There  are  some  dozens  of  distinct  types  of  machines  in  use,  for 
no  one  type  is  suitable  for  all  classes  of  moulds,  while  some  are 
designed  specially  for  one  or  two  kinds  only. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  operation  are  briefly  these:  The 
pattern  parts  constitute,  by  their  method  of  attachment  to  a  plate 
or  table  A  (fig.  10),  an  integral  portion  of  the  machine,  so  that  they 

must  partake  of 


certain  move- 
ments which 
are  imparted  to 
it.  Often  pat- 
terns mounted, 
as  in  fig.  10,  are 
moulded  by 
hand,  without 
any  aid  from 
a  machine,  by 
met  hod  s  of 
"  plate  -  mould- 
ing." The  de- 
livery of  the 
pattern  from 
the  sand  is  in- 
variably ac- 
complished by 
a  perpendicular 
movement  of  a 
portion  of  the 
machine  (fig. 
ll),  withdraw- 
ing either  the 
pattern  from 
the  mould  or 
the  mould  from 
the  pattern. 
The  important 
point  is  that 
the  perpendicu- 
lar movement, 
being  under  the 
coercion  of  the 
vertical  guides 
provided  in  the 
hand  machines, 
or  the  hydraulic 


FIG.  10. 


ram  in  fig.  II,  is  free  from  the  unsteadiness  which  is  incidental 
to  withdrawal  by  the  hands  of  the  moulder;  and  if  the  machine 
performed  nothing  more  than  this  it  would  justify  its"  existence. 
Little  or  no  taper  is  required  in  the  pattern,  and  the  moulds 
are  more  nearly  uniform  in  dimensions  than  hand-made  moulds. 
But  there  arc  other  advantages.  In  machine-moulding  the  joint 


faces  for  parting  moulds  are  produced  by  the  faces  of  the  plates 
on  which  the  pattern  is  mounted  (figs.  10  and  ll),  instead  of  by 
the  hands  and  trowel  of  the  moulder.  When  the  joint  face  is  of 
irregular  outline,  as  it  often  is,  this  item  alone  saves  a  good  deal  of 
time,  which  again  is  multiplied  by  the  number  of  moulds  repeated, 
often  amounting  to  thousands.  Further,  provision  is  generally 
made  on  machine  plates  for  the  ingates  and  runners  (fig.  10) 
through  which  the  metal  enters  the  mould,  the  preparation  of  which 
in  hand  work  occupies  a  considerable  amount  of  time.  Another 
great  advantage  applies  especially  to  the  case  of  deep  moulds. 
These  give  much  trouble  in  hand-moulding  in  consequence  of  the 
liability  of  the  sand  to  become  torn  up  during  the  withdrawal  of 
the  pattern.  But  in  machine-moulding  such  patterns  are  encircled 
by  a  plate,  termed  a  "  stripping  plate,"  which  is  pierced  to  allow 
the  patterns  to  pass  through,  and  which,  being  maintained  firmly 
on  the  sand  during  the  lifting  of  the  pattern,  prevents  it  from 
becoming  torn  up.  This  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  convenience,  but 
is  a  necessity  in  numerous  instances.  The  most  familiar  example 
is  that  of  the  teeth  of  gear  wheels,  in  which  even  a  very  slight  amount 
of  taper  interferes  with  accurate  engagement,  and  this  is  repre- 
sentative of  many  other  portions  of  mechanism.  These  stripping 


FIG.  II. 


plates  are  of  metal,  but  in  order  to  save  the  cost  of  filing  them  in 
iron  or  steel,  many  are  cheaply  made  by  casting  a  white  metal  alloy 
round  the  actual  pattern  itself  in  the  first  place,  the  white  metal 
being  enclosed  and  retained  in  a  plain  iron  frame  which  forms  the 
body  of  the  plate.  Lastly,  many  machines,  but  not  the  majority, 
include  provision  for  mechanically  ramming  the  sand  around  the 
pattern  by  power  instead  of  by  hand.  This  is  really  the  least 
valuable  feature  of  a  moulding  machine,  because  it  is  not  applicable 
to  any  but  rather  shallow  moulds.  It  is  commonly  used  for  these, 
but  the  consistence  and  homogeneity  of  a  mass  of  sand  round  a 
pattern  having  deep  perpendicular  sides  can  only  be  ensured  by 
careful  hand  ramming. 

The  highest  economies  of  machine-moulding  are  obtained  when 
(l)  several  small  patterns  are  mounted  and  moulded  at  once  on  a 
single  plate  (fig.  10);  (2)  when  top  and  bottom  parts  of  a  mould 
are  produced  on  different  machines,  carrying  each  its  moiety  of 
the  pattern ;  (3)  when  the  machine  and  pattern  details  are  simplified 
so  much  that  the  labour  of  trained  moulders  is  displaced  by  that  of 
unskilled  attendants  who  are  taught  in  a  month  or  two  the  few 
simple  operations  required.  That  is  the  direction  in  which  repetitive 
casting  is  now  rapidly  tending. 

In  fig.  II  A  is  the  plate,  which  in  its  essentials  corresponds  with 
the  plate  A  in  fig.  10,  but  which  in  the  machine  is  made  to  swivel  so 
as  to  bring  each  half  of  the  pattern  B,  B  in  turn  uppermost  for 
ramming  in  the  box  parts  C,  C.  The  ramming  is  done  by  hand,  the 
final  squeeze  being  imparted  against  the  presser  D  by  the  action  of 
the  hydraulic  ram  E  pushing  the  plate,  mould  and  box  up  against  D. 
The  plate  being  then  lowered,  and  turned  over,  the  further  descent 
of  the  ram  withdraws  the  bottom  box  from  the  pattern,  which  is  the 
stage  seen  in  the  illustration.  Then  the  half  mould  is  run  away  on 
the  carriage  F,  provided  with  wheels  to  run  on  rails. 

Though  casting  in  iron,  steel,  the  bronzes,  aluminium,  &c.,  is 


746 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS 


carried  on  by  different  men  in  distinct  shops,  yet  the  foregoing 
principles  and  methods  apply  to  all  alike.  Work  is  done  in  green, 
i.e.  moist  sand,  in  dry  sand  (the  moulds  being  dried  before  being 
used),  and  in  plastic  loam  (which  is  subsequently  dried).  Hand  and 
machine  moulding  are  practised  in  each,  the  last-named  excepted. 
The  differences  in  working  are  those  due  to  the  various  characteristics 
of  the  different  metals  and  alloys,  which  involve  differences  in  the 
sand  mixtures  used,  in  the  dimensions  of  the  pouring  channels,  of 
the  temperature  at  which  the  metal  or  alloy  must  be  poured,  of  the 
fluxing  and  cleansing  of  the  metal,  and  other  details  of  a  practical 
character.  Hence  the  practice  which  is  suitable,  for  one  department 
must  be  modified  in  others.  Many  castings  in  steel  would  inevitably 
fracture  if  poured  into  moulds  prepared  for  iron,  many  iron  castings 
would  fracture  if  poured  into  moulds  suitable  for  brass,  and  neither 
brass  nor  steel  would  fill  a  mould  having  ingates  proportioned 
suitably  for  iron. 

A  soecial  kind  of  casting  is  that  into  "  chill  moulds,"  adopted  in 
a  considerable  number  of  iron  castings,  such  as  the  railway  wheels 
in  the  United  States,  ordinary  tramway  wheels,  the  rolls  of  iron  and 
steel  rolling  mills,  the  bores  of  cast  wheel  hubs,  &c.  The  chill  ranges 
in  depth  from  J  in.  to  I  in.,  and  is  produced  by  pouring  a  special 
mixture  of  mottled,  or  strong,  iron  against  a  cold  iron  surface,  the 
parts  of  the  casting  which  are  not  required  to  be  chilled  being  sur- 
rounded by  an  ordinary  mould  of  sand.  The  purpose  of  chill-casting 
is  to  produce  a  surface  hardness  in  the  metal. 

The  shrinkage  of  metal  is  a  fact  which  has  to  be  taken  account 
of  by  the  pattern-maker  and  moujder.  A  pattern  and  mould  are 
made  larger  than  the  size  of  the  casting  required  by  the  exact  amount 
that  the  metal  will  shrink  in  cooling  from  the  molten  to  the  cold 
state.  This  amount  varies  from  J  in.  in  15  in.,  in  thin  iron  castings, 
to  i  in.  in  12  in.  in  heavy  ones.  It  ranges  from  fg  in.  to  ft  in.  per 
foot  in  steel,  brass  and  aluminium.  Its  variable  amount  has  to  be 
borne  in  mind  in  making  light  and  heavy  castings,  and  castings  with 
or  without  cores,  for  massive  cores  retard  shrinkage.  It  is  also  a 
fruitful  cause  of  fracture  in  badly  proportioned  castings,  particularly 
of  those  in  steel.  Brass  is  less  liable  to  suffer  in  this  respect  than 
iron,  and  iron  much  less  than  steel.  (J.  G.  H.) 

FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS,  originally  institutions  for  the 
reception  of  "  foundlings,"  i.e.  children  who  have  been  abandoned 
or  exposed,  and  left  for  the  public  to  find  and  save.  The  early 
history  of  such  institutions  is  connected  with  the  practice  of 
infanticide,  and  in  western  Europe  where  social  disorder  was 
rife  and  famine  of  frequent  occurrence,  exposure  and  extensive 
sales  of  children  were  the  necessary  consequences.  Against  these 
evils,  which  were  noticed  by  several  councils,  the  church  provided 
a  rough  system  of  relief,  children  being  deposited  (jaclali)  in 
marble  shells  at  the  church  doors,  and  tended  first  by  the 
tnalricularii  or  male  nurses,  and  then  by  the  nutricarii  or  foster- 
parents.1  But  it  was  in  the  7th  and  8th  centuries  that  definite 
institutions  for  foundlings  were  established  in  such  towns  as 
Treves,  Milan  and  Montpellier.  In  the  isth  century  Garcias, 
archbishop  of  Valencia,  was  a  conspicuous  figure  in  this  charitable 
work;  but  his  fame  is  entirely  eclipsed  by  that  of  St  Vincent  de 
Paul,  who  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.,  with  the  help  of  the 
countess  of  Joigny,  Mme  le  Gras  and  other  religious  ladies, 
rescued  the  foundlings  of  Paris  from  the  horrors  of  a  primitive 
institution  named  La  Couche  (rue  St  Landry),  and  ultimately 
obtained  from  Louis  XIV.  the  use  of  the  Bicetre  for  their  accom- 
modation. Letters  patent  were  granted  to  the  Paris  hospital 
in  1670.  The  H&tel-Dieu  of  Lyons  was  the  next  in  importance. 
No  provision,  however,  was  made  outside  the  great  towns;  the 
houses  in  the  cities  were  overcrowded  and  administered  with 
laxity;  and  in  1784  Necker  prophesied  that  the  state  would  yet 
be  seriously  embarrassed  by  this  increasing  evil.2  From  1452 
to  1789  the  law  had  imposed  on  the  seigneurs  de  haute  justice  the 
duty  of  succouring  children  found  deserted  on  their  territories. 
The  first  constitutions  of  the  Revolution  undertook  as  a  state 
debt  the  support  of  every  foundling.  For  a  time  premiums  were 
given  to  the  mothers  of  illegitimate  children,  the  "  enfants  de  la 
patrie."  By  the  law  of  12  Brumaire,  An  II.  "  Toute  recherche 
de  la  paternite  est  interdite,"  while  by  art.  341  of  the  Code 
Napoleon,  "  la  recherche  de  la  maternite  est  admise." 

France. — The  laws  of  France  relating  to  this  part  of  what  is  called 
L' Assistance  Publique  are  the  decree  of  January  181 1,  the  instruction 
of  February  1823,  the  decree  of  the  5th  of  March  1852,  the  law  of 


1  See  Capitularia  regum  Francorum,  ii.  474. 

*  De  I' administration  des  finances,  iii.  136;  see  also  the  article 
"  Enfant  expose  "  in  Diderot's  Encyclopedic,  1755,  and  Chamousset's 
Memoire  politique  sur  les  enfants,  1757. 


the  sth  of  May  1869,  the  law  of  the  24th  of  July  1889  and  the  law 
of  the  27th  of  June  1904.  These  laws  carry  out  the  general  principles 
of  the  law  of  7  Frimaire  An  V.,  which  completely  decentralized  the 
system  of  national  poor  relief  established  by  the  Revolution.  The 
enfants  assistes  include,  besides  (i)  orphans  and  (2)  foundlings 
proper,  (3)  children  abandoned  by  their  parents,  (4)  ill-treated, 
neglected  or  morally  abandoned  children  whose  parents  have  been 
deprived  of  their  parental  rights  by  the  decision  of  a  court  of  justice, 
(5)  children,  under  sixteen  years  of  age,  of  parents  condemned  for 
certain  crimes,  whose  parental  rights  have  been  delegated  by  a 
tribunal  to  the  state.  Children  classified  under  1-5  are  termed 
pupilles  de  I'assistance,  "  wards  of  public  charity,"  and  are  distin- 
guished by  the  law  of  1904  from  children  under  the  protection  of  the 
state,  classified  as:  (i)  enfants  secourus,  i.e.  children  whose  parents 
or  relatives  are  unable,  through  poverty,  to  support  them;  (2) 
enfants  en  depot,  i.e.  children  of  persons  undergoing  a  judicial  sentence 
and  children  temporarily  taken  in  while  their  parents  are  in  hospital, 
and  (3)  enfants  en  garde,  i.e.  children  who  have  either  committed  or 
been  the  victim  of  some  felony  or  crime  and  are  placed  under  state 
care  by  judicial  authority.  The  asylum  which  receives  all  these 
children  is  a  departmental  (etablissement  depositaire),  and  not  a 
communal  institution.  The  Etablissement  dfepositaire  is  usually 
the  ward  of  an  hospice,  in  which — with  the  exception  of  children 
en  dep6t — the  stay  is  of  the  shortest,  for  by  the  law  of  1904,  continuing 
the  principle  laid  down  in  1811,  all  children  under  thirteen  years  of 
age  under  the  guardianship  of  the  state,  except  the  mentally  or 
physically  infirm,  must  be  boarded  out  in  country  districts.  They 
are  generally  apprenticed  to  some  one  engaged  in  the  agricultural 
industry,  and  until  majority  they  remain  under  the  guardianship 
of  the  administrative  commissioners  of  the  department.  The  state 
pays  the  whole  of  the  cost  of  inspection  and  supervision.  The 
expenses  of  administration,  the  "  home  "  expenses,  for  the  nurse 
(nourrice  sedentaire)  or  the  wet  nurse  (nourrice  au  sein),  the  prime 
de  survie  (premium  on' survival),  washing,  clothes,  and  the  "out- 
door "  expenses,  which  include  (i)  temporary  assistance  to  un- 
married mothers  in  order  to  prevent  desertion ;  (2)  allowances  to  the 
foster-parents  (nourriciers)  in  the  country  for  board,  school-money, 
&c. ;  (3)  clothing;  (4)  travelling-money  for  nurses  and  children; 
(5)  printing,  &c. ;  (6)  expenses  in  time  of  sickness  and  for  burials 
and  apprentice  fees — are  borne  in  the  proportion  of  two-fifths  by 
the  state  two-fifths  by  the  department,  and  the  remaining  fifth  by 
the  communes.  The  following  figures  show  the  number  of  children 
(exclusive  of  enfants  secourus)  relieved  at  various  periods: 

Year.  Number  relieved. 

1890     ....       95.701 

1895     ....     121,201 

1900     ....      138,308 

1905     ....     149.803 

The  droit  de  recherche  is  conceded  to  the  parent  on  payment  of  a 
small  fee.  The  decree  of  1811  contemplated  the  repayment  of  all 
expenses  by  a  parent  reclaiming  a  child.  The  same  decree  directed 
a  tour  or  revolving  box  (Drehcylinder  in  Germany)  to  be  kept  at 
each  hospital.  These  have  been  discontinued.  The  "  Assistance 
Publique  "  of  Paris  is  managed  by  a  "  directeur  "  appointed  by  the 
minister  of  the  interior,  and  associated  with  a  representative  conseil 
de  surveillance.  The  Paris  Hospice  des  Enfants-Assistes  contains 
about  700  beds.  There  are  also  in  Paris  numerous  private  charities 
for  the  adoption  of  poor  children  and  orphans.  It  is  impossible 
here  to  give  even  a  sketch  of  the  long  and  able  controversies  which 
have  occurred  in  France  on  the  principles  of  management  of  found- 
ling hospitals,  the  advantages  of  tours  and  the  system  of  admission 
d  bureau  ouvert,  the  transfer  of  orphans  from  one  department  to 
another,  the  hygiene  and  service  of  hospitals  and  the  inspection  of 
nurses,  the  education  and  reclamation  of  the  children  and  the  rights 
of  the  state  in  their  future.  Reference  may  be  made  to  the  works 
noticed  at  the  end  of  this  article. 

Belgium. — In  this  country  the  arrangements  for  the  relief  of 
foundlings  and  tha  appropriation  of  public  funds  for  that  purpose 
very  much  resemble  those  in  France,  and  can  hardly  be  usefully 
described  apart  from  the  general  questions  of  local  government  and 
poor  law  administration.  The  Commissions  des  Hospices  Civiles, 
however,  are  purely  communal  bodies,  although  they  receive 
pecuniary  assistance  from  both  the  departments  and  the  state.  A 
decree  of  1811  directed  that  there  should  be  an  asylum  and  a  wheel 
for  receiving  foundlings  in  every  arrondissement.  The  last  "  wheel," 
that  of  Antwerp,  was  closed  in  1860.  (See  Des  Institutions  de 
bienfaisance  el  de  prevoyance  en  Belgique,  1850  a  1860,  par  M.  P. 
Lentz.) 

Italy  is  very  rich  in  foundling  hospitals,  pure  and  simple,  orphans 
and  other  destitute  children  being  separately  provided  for.  (See 
Delia  carita  prevenliva  in  Italia,  by  Signer  Fano.)  Jn  Rome  one 
branch  of  the  Santo  Spirito  in  Sassia  (so  called  from  the  Schola 
Saxonum  built  in  728  by  King  Ina  in  the  Borgo)  has,  since  the  time 
of  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  been  devoted  to  foundlings.  The  average  annual 
number  of  foundlings  supported  is  about  3000.  (See  The  Charitable 
Institutions  of  Rome,  by  Cardinal  Morichini.)  In  Venice  the  Casa 
degli  Esposti  or  foundling  hospital,  founded  in  1346,  and  receiving 
450  children  annually,  is  under  provincial  administration.  The 
splendid  legacy  of  the  last  doge,  Ludovico  Manin,  is  applied  to  the 


FOUNTAIN 


747 


support  of  about  160  children  by  the  "  Congregazione  di  Carita  " 
acting  through  30  parish  boards  (deputazione  fralcrnate) . 

Austria. — InAustriafoundling  hospitals  occupiedavery  prominent 
place  in  the  general  instructions  which,  by  rescript  dated  1 6th  of  April 
1781,  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  issued  to  the  charitable  endowment 
commission.  In  1818  foundling  asylums  and  lying-in  houses  were 
declared  to  be  state  institutions.  They  were  accordingly  supported 
by  the  state  treasury  until  the  fundamental  law  of  2Oth  October 
1860  handed  them  over  to  the  provincial  committees.  They  are 
now  local  institutions,  depending  on  provincial  funds,  and  are  quite 
separate  from  the  ordinary  parochial  poor  institute.  Admission  is 
gratuitous  when  the  child  is  actually  found  on  the  street,  or  is  sent 
by  a  criminal  court,  or  where  the  mother  undertakes  to  serve  for 
four  months  as  nurse  or  midwife  in  an  asylum,  or  produces  a 
certificate  from  the  parish  priest  and  "  poor-father  "  (the  parish 
inspector  of  the  poor-law  administration)  that  she  has  no  money. 
In  other  cases  payments  of  30  to  100  florins  are  made.  When  two 
months  old  the  child  is  sent  for  six  or  ten  years  to  the  houses  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  respectable  married  persons,  who  have  certificates 
from  the  police  or  the  poor-law  authorities,  and  who  are  inspected 
by  the  latter  and  by  a  special  medical  officer.  These  persons  receive 
a  constantly  diminishing  allowance,  and  the  arrangement  may  be 
determined  by  14  days'  notice  on  either  side.  The  foster-parents 
may  retain  the  child  in  their  service  or  employment  till  the  age  of 
twenty-two,  but  the  true  parents  may  at  any  time  reclaim  the 
foundling  on  reimbursing  the  asylum  and  compensating  the  foster- 
parents. 

Russia—  Under  the  old  Russian  system  of  Peter  I.  foundlings 
were  received  at  the  church  windows  by  a  staff  of  women  paid  by 
the  state.  But  since  the  reign  of  Catherine  II.  the  foundling  hospitals 
have  been  in  the  hands  of  the  provincial  officer  of  public  charity 
(prykaz  obshestvennago  pryzrenya).  The  great  central  institutions 
(Vospitatelnoi  Dom),  at  Moscow  and  St  Petersburg  (with  a  branch 
at  Gatchina),  were  founded  by  Catherine.  When  a  child  is  brought 
the  baptismal  name  is  asked,  and  a  receipt  is  given,  by  which  the 
child  may  be  reclaimed  up  to  the  age  of  ten.  The  mother  may  nurse 
her  child.  After  the  usual  period  of  six  years  in  the  country  very 
great  care  is  taken  with  the  education,  especially  of  the  more  promis- 
ing children.  The  hospital  is  a  vajuable  source  of  recruits  for  the 
public  service.  Malthus  (The  Principles  of  Population,  vol.  i.  p.  434) 
has  made  a  violent  attack  on  these  Russian  charities.  He  argues 
that  they  discourage  marriage  and  therefore  population,  and  that 
the  best  management  is  unable  to  prevent  a  high  mortality.  He 
adds:  "  An  occasional  child  murder  from  false  shame  is  saved 
at  a  very  high  price  if  it  can  be  done  only  by  the  sacrifice  of  some 
of  the  best  and  most  useful  feelings  of  the  human  heart  in  a  great 
part  of  the  nation."  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  the  rate  of 
illegitimacy  in  Russia  is  comparatively  high ;  it  is  so  in  the  two  great 
cities.  The  rights  of  parents  over  the  children  were  very  much  re- 
stricted, and  those  of  the  government  much  extended  by  a  ukase 
issued  by  the  emperor  Nicholas  in  1837.  The  most  eminent  Russian 
writer  on  this  subject  is  M.  Gourov.  See  his  Recherches  sur  les 
enfants  trouves,  and  Essai  sur  I'hisloire  des  enfants  trouves  (Paris, 
1829). 

In  America,  foundling  hospitals,  which  are  chiefly  private  charities, 
exist  in  most  of  the  large  cities. 

Great  Britain. — The  Foundling  Hospital  of  London  was  incor- 
porated by  royal  charter  in  1 739  "  for  the  maintenance  and  education 
of  exposed  and  deserted  young  children."  The  petition  of  Captain 
Thomas  Coram,  who  isentitled  to  the  whole  credit  of  the  foundation,1 
states  as  its  objects  "  to  prevent  the  frequent  murders  of  poor 
miserable  children  at  their  birth,  and  to  suppress  the  inhuman 
custom  of  exposing  new-born  infants  to  perish  in  the  streets."  At 
first  no  questions  were  asked  about  child  or  parent,  but  a  distin- 
guishing mark  was  put  on  each  child  by  the  parent.  These  were 
often  marked  coins,  trinkets,  pieces  of  cotton  or  ribbon,  verses 
written  on  scraps  of  paper.  The  clothes,  if  any,  were  carefully 
recorded.  One  entry  is,  Paper  on  the  breast,  clout  on  the  head." 
The  applications  became  too  numerous,  and  a  system  of  balloting 
with  red,  white  and  black  balls  was  adopted.  In  1756  the  House  of 
Commons  came  to  a  resolution  that  all  children  offered  should  be 
received,  that  local  receiving  places  should  be  appointed  all  over 
the  country,  and  that  the  funds  should  be  publicly  guaranteed.  A 
basket  was  accordingly  hung  outside  the  hospital;  the  maximum 
age  for  admission  was  raised  from  two  to  twelve  months,  and  a  flood 
of  children  poured  in  from  the  country  workhouses.  In  less  than 
four  years  14,934  children  were  presented,  and  a  vile  trade  grew  up 
among  vagrants  of  undertaking  to  carry  children  from  the  country 
to  the  hospital, — an  undertaking  which,  like  the  French  meneurs, 
they  often  did  not  perform  or  performed  with  great  cruelty.  Of 
these  15,000  only  4400  lived  to  be  apprenticed  out.  The  total  ex- 
pense was  about  £500,000.  This  alarmed  the  House  of  Commons. 
After  throwing  out  a  bill  which  proposed  to  raise  the  necessary 
funds  by  fees  from  a  general  system  of  parochial  registration,  they 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  indiscriminate  admission  should  be 
discontinued.  The  hospital,  being  thus  thrown  on  its  own  resources, 
adopted  a  pernicious  system  of  receiving  children  with  considerable 

1  Addison  had  suggested  such  a  charity  (Guardian,  No.  3). 


sums  (e.g.  £100),  which  sometimes  led  to  the  children  being  re- 
claimed by  the  parent.  This  was  finally  stopped  in  1801;  and  it 
is  now  a  fundamental  rule  that  no  money  is  received.  The  com- 
mittee of  inquiry  must  now  be  satisfied  of  the  previous  good  char- 
acter and  present  necessity  of  the  mother,  and  that  the  father  of  the 
child  has  deserted  it  and  the  mother,  and  that  the  reception  of 
the  child  will  probably  replace  the  mother  in  the  course  of  virtue 
and  in  the  way  of  an  honest  livelihood.  All  the  children  at  the 
Foundling  hospital  are  those  of  unmarried  women,  and  they  are  all 
first  child/en  of  their  mothers.  The  principle  is  in  fact  that  laid 
down  by  Fielding  in  Tom  Jones — "  Too  true  I  am  afraid  it  is  that 
many  women  have  become  abandoned  and  have  sunk  to  the  last 
degree  of  vice  by  being  unable  to  retrieve  the  first  slip."  At  present 
the  hospital  supports  about  500  children  up  to  the  age  of  fifteen. 
The  average  annual  number  of  applications  is  over  200,  and  of 
admissions  between  40  and  50.  The  children  used  to  be  named 
after  the  patrons  and  governors,  but  the  treasurer  now  prepares  a 
list.  Children  are  seldom  taken  after  they  are  twelve  months  old. 
On  reception  they  are  sent  down  to  the  country,  where  they  stay 
until  they  are  about  four  or  five  years  old.  At  sixteen  the  girls 
are  generally  apprenticed  as  servants  for  four  years,  and  the  boys  at 
the  age  of  fourteen  as  mechanics  for  seven  years.  There  is  a  small 
benevolent  fund  for  adults.  The  musical  service,  which  was  origin- 
ally sung  by  the  blind  children  only,  was  made  fashionable  by  the 
generosity  of  Handel,  who  frequently  had  the  "  Messiah  "  per- 
formed there,  and  who  bequeathed  to  the  hospital  a  MS.  copy  (full 
score)  of  his  greatest  oratorio.  The  altar-piece  is  West's  picture  of 
Christ  presenting  a  little  Child.  In  1774  Dr  Burney  and  Signer 
Giardini  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  form  in  connexion  with 
the  hospital  a  public  music  school,  in  imitation  of  the  Conserva- 
torium  of  the  Continent.  In  1847,  however,  a  successful  "  Juvenile 
Band  "  was  started.  The  educational  effects  of  music  have  been 
found  excellent,  and  the  hospital  supplies  many  musicians  to  the  best 
army  and  navy  bands.  The  early  connexion  between  the  hospital 
and  the  eminent  painters  of  the  reign  of  George  II.  is  one  of  extreme 
interest.  The  exhibitions  of  pictures  at  the  Foundling,  which  were 
organized  by  the  Dilettanti  Club,  undoubtedly  led  to  the  formation 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1768.  Hogarth  painted  a  portrait  of 
Captain  Coram  for  the  hospital,  which  also  contains  his  March  to 
Finchley,  and  Roubillac's  bust  of  Handel.  (See  History  and  Objects  of 
the  Foundling  Hospital,  with  Memoir  of  its  Founder,  by  J.  Brownlow.) 

In_  1704  the  Foundling  hospital  of  Dublin  was  opened.  No 
inquiry  was  made  about  the  parents,  and  no  money  received.  From 
1500  to  2000  children  were  received  annually.  A  large  income  was 
derived  from  a  duty  on  coal  and  the  produce  of  car  licences.  In 
1822  an  admission  fee  of  £5  was  charged  on  the  parish  from  which 
the  child  came.  This  reduced  the  annual  arrivals  to  about  500. 
In  1829  the  select  committee  on  the  Irish  miscellaneous  estimates 
recommended  that  no  further  assistance  should  be  given.  The 
hospital  had  not  preserved  life  or  educated  the  foundlings.  The 
mortality  was  nearly  4  in  5,  and  the  total  cost  £10,000  a  year. 
Accordingly  in  1835  Lord  Glenelg  (then  Irish  Secretary)  closed  the 
institution. 

Scotland  never  seems  to  have  possessed  a  foundling  hospital.  In 
1759  John  Watson  left  funds  which  were  to  be  applied  to  the  pious 
and  charitable  purpose  "  of  preventing  child  murder "  by  the 
establishment  of  a  hospital  for  receiving  pregnant  women  and 
taking  care  of  their  children  as  foundlings.  But  by  an  act  of  parlia- 
ment in  1822,  which  sets  forth  "  doubts  as  to  the  propriety  "  of  the 
original  purpose,  the  money  was  given  to  trustees  to  erect  a  hospital 
for  the  maintenance  and  education  of  destitute  children. 

AUTHORITIES. — Histoire  statistiijue  et  morale  des  enfants  trouves 
by  MM.  Terme  et  Montfalcon  (Pans,  1837)  (the  authors  were  eminent 
medical  men  at  Lyons,  connected  with  the  administration  of  the 
foundling  hospital) ;  Remacle,  Des  hospices  d'enfants  trouves  e.n 
Europe  (Paris,  1838) ;  Hiigel,  Die  Findelhauser  und  das  Findehvesen 
Europas  (  Vienna,  1863) ;  Emminghaus,  "  Das  Armenwesen  und  die 
Armengesetzgebung,"  in  Europdischen  Staaten  (Berlin,  1870); 
Sennichon,  Histoire  des  enfants  abandonnes  (Paris,  1880) ;  the  annual 
Rapport  sur  le  service  des  enfants  assistes  du  dcpartement  de  la  Seine; 
Epstein,  Sludien  zur  Frage  der  Findelanstalten  (Prague,  1882)- 
Florence  D.  Hill,  Children  of  the  State  (2nd  ed.,  1889).  For  United 
States,  see  H.  Folks,  Care  of  Neglected  and  Dependent  Children  (1901 ); 
A.  G.  Warner,  American  Charities  (enlarged,  1908)  and  Reports  of 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Charities.  Information  may  also  be  got 
in  the  Reports  on  Poor  Laws  in  Foreign  Countries,  communicated  to 
the  Local  Government  Board  by  the  foreign  secretary;  Accounts  and 
Papers  (1875),  vol.  Ixv.  c.  1225;  Report  of  Committee  on  the  Infant 
Life  Protection  Bill  (1890) ;  Report  of  Lords  Committee  on  the  Infant 
Life  Protection  Bill  (1896).  (See  also  CHARITY  AND  CHARITIES.) 

FOUNTAIN  (Late  Lat.  fontana,  from  fans,  a  spring),  a  term 
applied  in  a  restricted  sense  to  such  outlets  of  water  as,  whether 
fed  by  natural  or  artificial  means,  have  contrivances  of  human 
art  at  a  point  where  the  water  emerges.  A  very  early  existing 
example  is  preserved  in  the  carved  Babylonian  basin  (about  3000 
B.C.)  found  at  Tello,  the  ancient  Lagash,  and  Layard  mentions 
an  Assyrian  fountain,  found  by  him  in  a  gorge  of  the  river  Gomc]t 


748 


FOUNTAIN 


which  consists  of  a  series  of  basins  cut  in  the  solid  rock  and 
descending  in  steps  to  the  stream.  The  water  had  been  originally 
led  from  one  to  the  other  by  small  conduits,  the  lowest  of  which 
was  ornamented  by  two  rampant  lions  in  relief.  The  term  is 
applied  equally  to  the  simpler  arrangements  for  letting  water 
gush  into  an  ornamental  basin  or  to  the  more  elaborate  ones 
by  which  water  is  mechanically  forced  into  high  jets;  and  a 
"  fountain  "  may  be  either  the  ornamental  receptacle  or  the  jet 
of  water  itself.  In  modern  times  the  examples  of  ornamental 
or  useful  fountains  are  legion,  and  it  will  suffice  here  to  mention 
some  of  the  more  important  facts  of  historical  interest. 

Among  the  Greeks  fountains  were  very  common  in  the  cities. 
Springs  being  very  plentiful  in  Greece,  little  engineering  skill 
was  required  to  convey  the  water  from  place  to  place.  Receptacles 
of  sufficient  size  were  made  for  it  at  the  springs;  and  to  maintain 
its  purity,  structures  were  raised  enclosing  and  covering  the 
receptacle.  In  Greece  they  were  dedicated  to  gods  and  goddesses, 
nymphs  and  heroes,  and  were  frequently  placed  in  or  near  temples. 
That  of  Pirene  at  Corinth  (mentioned  also  by  Herodotus)  was 
formed  of  white  stone,  and  contained  a  number  of  cells  from  which 
the  pleasant  water  flowed  into  an  open  basin.  Legend  connects 
it  with  the  nymph  Pirene,  who  shed  such  copious  tears,  when 
bewailing  her  son  who  had  been  slain  by  Diana,  that  she  was 
changed  into  a  fountain.  The  city  of  Corinth  possessed 
many  fountains.  In  one  near  the  statues  of  Diana  and  Belle- 
rophon  the  water  flowed  through  the  hoofs  of  the  horse 
Pegasus.'  The  fountain  of  Glauce,  enclosed  in  the  Odeum,  was 
dedicated  to  Glauce,  because  she  was  said  to  have  thrown 
herself  into  it  believing  that  its  waters  could  counteract  the 
poisons  of  Medea.  Another  Corinthian  fountain  had  a  bronze 
statue  of  Poseidon  standing  on  a  dolphin  from  which  the  water 
flowed.  The  fountain  constructed  by  Theagenes  at  Megara 
was  remarkable  for  its  size  and  decorations,  and  for  the  number 
of  its  columns.  One  at  Lerna  was  surrounded  with  pillars,  and 
the  structure  contained  a  number  of  seats  affording  a  cool 
summer  retreat.  Near  Pharae  was  a  grove  dedicated  to  Apollo, 
and  in  it  a  fountain  of  water.  Pausanias  gives  a  definite  archi- 
tectural detail  when  he  says  that  a  fountain  at  Patrae  was 
reached  from  without  by  descending  steps.  Mystical,  medicinal, 
surgical  and  other  qualities,  as  well  as  supernatural  origin, 
were  ascribed  to  fountains.  One  at  Cyane  in  Lycia  was  said 
to  possess  the  quality  of  endowing  all  persons  descending  into 
it  with  power  to  see  whatever  they  desired  to  see;  while  the 
legends  of  fountains  and  other  waters  with  strange  powers  to 
heal  are  numerous  in  many  lands.  The  fountain  Enneacrunus 
at  Athens  was  called  Callirrhoe  before  the  time  the  water  was 
drawn  from  it  by  the  nine  pipes  from  which  it  took  its  later  name. 
Two  temples  were  above  it,  according  to  Pausanias,  one  dedicated 
to  Demeter  and  Persephone,  and  the  other  to  Triptolemus.  The 
fountain  in  the  temple  of  Erechtheus  at  Athens  was  supplied 
by  a  spring  of  salt  water,  and  a  similar  spring  supplied  that  in 
the  temple  of  Poseidon  Hippios  at  Mantinea. 

The  water-supply  of  Rome  and  the  works  auxiliary  to  it  were 
on  a  scale  to  be  expected  fr.om  a  people  of  such  great  practical 
power.  The  remains  of  the  aqueducts  which  stretched  from  the 
city  across  the  Campagna  are  amongst  the  most  striking  monu- 
ments of  Italy.  Vitruvius  (book  viii.)  gives  minute  particulars 
concerning  the  methods  to  be  employed  for  the  discovery, 
testing  and  distribution  of  water,  and  describes  the  properties 
of  different  waters  with  great  care,  proving  the  importance  which 
was  attached  to  these  matters  by  the  Remans.  The  aqueducts 
supplied  the  baths  and  the  public  fountains,  from  which  last 
all  the  populace,  except  such  as  could  afford  to  pay  for  a  separate 
pipe  to  their  houses,  obtained  their  water.  These  fountains 
were  therefore  of  large  size  and  numerous.  They  were  formed 
at  many  of  the  castella  of  the  aqueducts.  According  to  Vitruvius, 
each  caslellum  should  have  three  pipes,— one  for  public  fountains, 
one  for  baths  and  the  third  for  private  houses.  Considerable 
revenue  was  drawn  from  the  possessors  of  private  water-pipes. 
The  Roman  fountains  were  generally  decorated  with  figures 
and  heads.'  Fountains  were  often  also  the  ornament  of  Roman 
villas  and  country  houses;  in  those  so  situated  the  water  gener- 


ally fell  from  above  into  a  large  marble  basin,  with  at  times  a 
second  fall  into  a  still  lower  receptacle.  Two  adjacent  houses 
in  Pompeii  had  very  remarkable  fountains.  One,  says  Cell, 
"  is  covered  with  a  sort  of  mosaic  consisting  of  vitrified  tesserae 
of  different  colours,  but  in  which  blue  predominates.  These  are 
sometimes  arranged  in  not  inelegant  patterns,  and  the  grand 
divisions  as  well  as  the  borders  are  entirely  formed  and  orna- 
mented with  real  sea-shells,  neither  calcined  by  the  heat  of  the 
eruption  nor  changed  by  the  lapse  of  so  many  centuries  "  (Pom- 
peiana,  i.  196).  Another  of  large  size  was  similarly  decorated 
with  marine  shells,  and  is  supposed  to  have  borne  two  sculptured 
figures,  one  of  which,  a  bronze,  is  in  the  museum  at  Naples. 
This  fountain  projects  5  ft.  7  in.  from  the  wall  against  which  it  is 
placed,  and  is  7  ft.  wide  in  front,  while  the  height  of  the  structure 
up  to  the  eaves  of  the  pediment  is  7  ft.  7  in.  On  a  central  column 
in  the  piscina  was  a  statue  of  Cupid,  with  a  dove,  from  the  mouth 
of  which  water  issued.  Cicero  had,  at  his  villa  at  Formiae,  a 
fountain  which  was  decorated  with  marine  shells. 

Fountains  were  very  common  in  the  open  spaces  and  at  the 
crossways  in  Pompeii.  They  were  supplied  by  leaden  pipes 
from  the  reservoirs,  and  had  little  ornament  except  a  human 
or  animal  head,  from  the  mouth  of  which  it  was  arranged  that  the 
water  should  issue.  Not  only  did  simple  running  fountains 
exist,  but  the  remains  of  jets  d'eau  have  been  found;  and  a 
drawing  exists  representing  a  vase  with  a  double  jet  of  water, 
standing  on  a  pedestal  placed  in  what  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  impluvium  of  a  house.  There  was  also  a  jet  d'eau  at  the 
eastern  end  of  the  peristyle  of  the  Fullonica  at  Pompeii. 

As  among  the  Greeks,  so  with  the  early  Celts,  traces  of  super- 
stitious beliefs  and  usages  with  relation  to  fountains  can  be 
traced  in  monumental  and  legendary  remains.  Near  the  village 
of  Primaleon  in  Brittany  was  a  very  remarkable  monument, — 
one  possibly  unique,  as  giving  distinct  proof  of  the  existence 
of  an  ancient  cult  of  fountains.  Here  is  a  dolmen  composed  of  a 
horizontal  table  supported  by  two  stones  only,  one  at  each  end. 
All  the  space  beneath  this  altar  is  occupied  by  a  long  square 
basin  formed  of  large  flat  stones,  which  receives  a  fountain  of 
water.  At  Lochrist  is  another  vestige  of  the  Celtic  cult  of 
fountains.  Beneath  the  church,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  upon 
which  it  is  built,  is  a  sacred  fountain,  near  which  is  erected  an 
ancient  chapel,  which  with  its  ivy-covered  walls  has  a  most 
romantic  appearance.  A  Gothic  vault  protects  this  fountain. 
Miraculous  virtues  are  still  attributed  to  its  water,  and  on 
certain  days  the  country  people  still  come  with  offerings  to  draw 
it  (see  La  Poix  de  Freminville,  Antiquitesdela  Bretagne,\.  p.  101). 
In  the  enchanted  forest  of,  Brochelande,  so  famous  from  its 
connexion  with  Merlin,  was  the  fountain  of  Baranton,  which  was 
said  to  possess  strange  characteristics.  Whoever  drew  water 
from  it,  and  sprinkled  the  steps  therewith,  produced  a  tremendous 
storm  of  thunder  and  hail,  accompanied  with  thick  darkness. 

Christianity  transferred  to  its  own  uses  the  ancient  religious 
feeling  concerning  fountains.  Statues  of  the  Virgin  or  of  saints 
were  erected  upon  the  rude  structures  that  collected  the  water 
and  preserved  its  purity.  There  is  some  uniformity  in  the 
architectural  characteristics  of  these  structures  during  the 
middle  ages.  A  very  common  form  in  rural  districts  was  that 
in  which  the  fountain  was  reached  by  descending  steps  (fontaine 
grotte).  A  large  basin  received  the  water,  sometimes  from  a 
spout,  but  often  from  the  spring  itself.  This  basin  was  covered 
by  a  sort  of  porch  or  vault,  with  at  times  moulded  arches  and 
sculptured  figures  and  escutcheons.  On  the  bank  of  the  Clain 
at  Poitiers  is  a  fountain  of  this  kind,  the  Fontaine  Joubert, 
which  though  restored  in  1597  was  originally  a  structure  of  the 
i4th  century.  This  kind  of  fountain  is  frequently  decorated  with 
figures  of  the  Virgin  or  of  saints,  or  with  the  family  arms  of  its 
founder;  often,  too,  the  water  is  the  only  ornament  of  the 
structure,  which  bears  a  simple  inscription.  A  large  number 
of  these  fountains  are  to  be  found  in  Brittany  and  indeed  through- 
out France,  and  the  great  antiquity  of  some  of  them  is  proved 
by  the  superstitions  regarding  them  which  still  exist  amongst 
the  peasantry.  A  form  more  common  in  populous  districts  was 
that  of  a  large  open  basin,  round,  square,  polygonal,  or  lobed  in 


FOUNTAINS  ABBEY— FOUQUE 


749 


form,  with  a  columnar  structure  at  the  centre,  from  the  lower 
part  of  which  it  was  arranged  that  spouts  should  issue,  playing 
into  an  open  basin,  and  supplying  vessels  brought  for  the  purpose 
in  the  cleanest  and  quickest  manner.  The  columns  take  very 
various  forms,  from  that  of  a  simple  regular  geometrical  solid, 
with  only  grotesque  masks  at  the  spouts,  to  that  of  an  elaborate 
and  ornate  Gothic  structure,  with  figures  of  virgins,  saints  and 
warriors,  with  mouldings,  arches,  crockets  and  finials.  At 
Provins  there  is  a  fountain  said  to  be  of  the  i2th  century,  which 
is  in  form  an  hexagonal  vase  with  a  large  column  in  the  centre, 
the  capital  of  which  is  pierced  by  three  mouths,  which  are 
furnished  with  heads  of  bronze  projecting  far  enough  to  cast  the 
water  into  the  basin.  In  the  public  market-place  at  Brunswick 
is  a  fountain  of  the  isth  century,  of  which  the  central  structure 
is  made  of  bronze.  Many  fountains  are  still  existing  in  France 
and  Germany  which,  though  their  actual  present  structure  may 
date  no  earlier  than  the  isth  or  i6th  century,  have  been  found 
on  the  place  of,  and  perhaps  may  almost  be  considered  as  restora- 
tions of,  pre-existing  fountains.  Except  in  Italy  few  fountains 
are  of  earlier  date  than  the  i4th  century.  Two  of  that  date  are 
at  the  abbey  of  Fontaine  Daniel,  near'Mayenne,  and  another, 
of  granite,  is  at  Limoges.  Some  of  these  middle-age  fountains 
are  simple,  open  reservoirs  enclosed  in  structures  which,  however 
plain,  still  carry  the  charm  that  belongs  to  the  stone-work  of 
those  times.  There  is  one  of  this  kind  at  Cully,  Calvados,  walled 
on  three  sides,  and  fed  from  the  spring  by  two  circular  openings. 
Its  only  ornamentation  is  a  small  empty  niche  with  mouldings. 
At  Lincoln  is  a  fountain  of  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  front  of 
the  church  of  St  Mary  Wickiord.  At  Durham  is  one  of  octangular 
plan,  which  bears  a  statue  of  Neptune. 

The  decay  of  architectural  taste  in  the  later  centuries  is  shown 
by  the  fountain  of  Limoges.  It  is  in  form  a  rock  representing 
Mount  Parnassus,  upon  which  are  carved  in  relief  Apollo,  the 
horse  Pegasus,  Philosophy  and  the  Nine  Muses.  At  the  top 
Apollo,  in  the  16th-century  costume,  plays  a  harp.  Rocks,  grass 
and  sheep  fill  up  the  scene. 

Purely  ornamental  fountains  and  jets  d'eau  are  found  \n  or 
near  many  large  cities,  royal  palaces  and  private  seats.  The 
celebrated  Fontana  di  Trevi,  at  Rome,  was  erected  early  in  the 
i8th  century  under  Pope  Clement  XII.,  and  has  all  the  character- 
istics of  decadence.  La  Fontana  Paolina  and  those  in  the  piazza 
of  St  Peter's  are  perhaps  next  in  celebrity  to  that  of  Trevi,  and 
are  certainly  in  better  taste.  At  Paris  the  Fontaine  des  Innocens 
(the  earliest)  and  those  of  the  Place  Royal,  of  the  Champs  Elysees 
and  of  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  are  the  most  noticeable.  The 
fountain  of  the  lions  and  other  fountains  in  the  Alhambra  palace 
are,  with  their  surroundings,  a  very  magnificent  sight.  The 
largest  jets  d'eau  are  those  at  Versailles,  at  the  Sydenham 
Crystal  Palace  and  at  San  Ildefonso. 

About  the  earliest  drawing  of  any  drinking  fountain  in  England 
occurs  in  Moxon's  Tutor  to  Astronomic  and  Geographic  (1659); 
it  is  "  surmounted  by  a  diall,  which  was  made  by  Mr  John  Leak, 
and  set  upon  a  composite  column  at  Leadenhall  corner,  in  the 
majoralty  of  Sir  John  Dethick,  Knight."  The  water  springs 
from  the  top  and  base  of  the  column,  which  stands  upon  a  square 
pedestal  and  bears  four  female  figures,  one  at  least  of  which 
represents  the  costume  of  the  period. 

In  the  East  the  public  drinking  fountains  are  a  very  important 
institution.  In  Cairo  alone  there  are  three  hundred.  These 
"  sebeels  "  are  not  only  to  be  seen  in  the  cities,  but  are  plentiful 
in  the  fields  and  villages. 

The  Metropolitan  Drinking  Fountain  Association  (1859)  has 
done  much  to  provide  facilities  in  London  for  both  man  and 
beast  to  get  water  to  drink  in  the  streets.  And  in  the  United 
States  liberal  provision  has  also  been  made  by  private  and  public 
enterprise. 

FOUNTAINS  ABBEY,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  ecclesiastical 
ruins  in  England.  It  lies  in  the  sequestered  valley  of  the  river 
Skell,  3  m.  S.W.  of  the  city  of  Ripon  in  Yorkshire.  The  situation 
is  most  beautiful.  The  little  Skell  descends  from  the  uplands 
of  Pateley  Moor  to  the  west  a  clear  swift  stream,  traversing  a 
valley  clothed  with  woods,  conspicuous  among  which  are  some 


ancient  yew  trees  which  may  have  sheltered  the  monks  who 
first  sought  retreat  here.  Steep  rocky  hills  enclose  the  vale. 
Mainly  on  the  north  side  of  the  stream,  in  an  open  glade,  rise 
the  picturesque  and  extensive  ruins,  the  church  with  its  stately 
tower,  and  the  numerous  remnants  of  domestic  buildings  which 
enable  the  great  abbey  to  be  almost  completely  reconstructed 
in  the  mind.  The  arrangements  are  typical  of  a  Cistercian 
house  (see  ABBEY).  Building  began  in  earnest  about  1135, 
and  was  continued  steadily  until  the  middle  of  the  i3th  century, 
after  which  the  only  important  erection  was  Abbot  Huby's 
tower  (c.  1500).  The  demesne  of  Studley  Royal  (marquess  of 
Ripon)  contains  the  ruins.  It  is  in  part  laid  out  in  the  formal 
Dutch  style,  the  work  of  John  Aislabie,  lord  cf  the  manor  in  the 
early  part  of  the  i8th  century.  Near  the  abbey  is  the  picturesque 
Jacobean  mansion  of  Fountains  Hall. 

In  1132  the  prior  and  twelve  monks  of  St  Mary's  abbey,  York, 
being  dissatisfied  with  the  easy  life  they  were  living,  left  the 
monastery  and  with  the  assistance  of  Thurstan,  archbishop  of 
York,  founded  a  house  in  the  valley  of  the  Skell,  where  they 
adopted  the  Cistercian  rule.  While  building  their  monastery 
the  monks  are  said  to  have  lived  at  first  under  an  elm  and  then 
under  seven  yew  trees  called  the  Seven  Sisters.  Two  years 
later  they  were  joined  by  Hugh,  dean  of  St  Peter's,  York,  who 
brought  with  him  a  large  sum  of  money  and  a  valuable  collection 
of  books.  His  example  was  followed  by  Serlo,  a  monk  of  St 
Mary's  abbey,  York,  and  by  Tosti,  a  canon  of  York,  and  others. 
Henry  I.  and  succeeding  sovereigns  granted  them  many  privileges. 
During  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  the  monks  appear  to  have  again 
suffered  from  poverty,  partly  no  doubt  owing  to  the  invasion  of 
the  Scots,  but  partly  also  through  their  own  "  misconduct  and  ex- 
travagance." On  account  of  this  Edward  I.  in  1291  appointed 
John  de  Berwick  custodian  of  the  abbey  so  that  he  might  pay 
their  debts  from  the  issues  of  their  estates,  allowing  them  enough 
for  their  maintenance,  and  Edward  II.  in  1319  granted  them 
exemption  from  taxes.  After  the  Dissolution  Henry  VIII.  sold 
the  manor  and  site  of  the  monastery  to  Sir  Richard  Gresham, 
and  from  him  after  passing  through  several  families  it  came  to 
the  marquess  of  Ripon. 

See  Victoria  County  History,  Yorkshire;  Dugdale,  Monasticon; 
Surtees  Society,  Memorials  of  the  Abbey  of  St  Mary  of  Fountains, 
collected  and  edited  by  J.  R.  Walbran  (1863-78). 

FOUQU6,  FERDINAND  ANDRE  (1828-1904),  French  geologist 
and  petrologist,  was  born  at  Mortain,  dept.  of  La  Manche,  on 
the  2ist  of  June  1828.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  entered  the 
Ecole  Normale  in  Paris,  and  from  1853  to  1858  he  held  the  ap- 
pointment of  keeper  of  the  scientific  collections.  In  1877  he 
became  professor  of  natural  history  at  the  College  de  France, 
in  Paris,  and  in  1881  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  As  a  stratigraphical  geologist  he  rendered  much 
assistance  on  the  Geological  Survey  of  France,  but  in  the  course 
of  time  he  gave  his  special  attention  to  the  study  of  volcanic 
phenomena  and  earthquakes,  to  minerals  and  rocks;  and  he  was 
the  first  to  introduce  modern  petrographical  methods  into  France. 
His  studies  of  the  eruptive  rocks  of  Corsica,  Santorin  and  else- 
where; his  researches  on  the  artificial  reproduction  of  eruptive 
rocks,  and  his  treatise  on  the  optical  characters  of  felspars 
deserve  special  mention;  but  he  was  perhaps  best  known  for 
the  joint  work  which  he  carried  on  with  his  friend  Michel  Levy. 
He  died  on  the  7th  of  March  1904.  His  chief  publications 
were:  Santorin  el  ses  eruptions,  1879;  (with  A.  Michel  Levy) 
Mineralogie  micrographique,  Roches  eruptives  franfaises  (2  vols., 
1879) ;  and  Synthese  des  min&raux  et  des  roches  (188:). 

FOUQUE,  FRIEDRICH  HEINRICH  KARL  DE  LA  MOTTE, 
BARON  (1777-1843),  German  writer  of  the  romantic  movement, 
was  born  on  the  i2th  of  February  1777  at  Brandenburg.  His 
grandfather  had  been  one  of  Frederick  the  Great's  generals 
and  his  father  was  a  Prussian  officer.  Although  not  originally 
intended  for  a  military  career,  Friedrich  de  la  Motte  Fouque 
ultimately  gave  up  his  university  studies  at  Halle  to  join  the 
army,  and  he  took  part  in  the  Rhine  campaign  of  1 794.  The  rest 
of  his  life  was  devoted  mainly  to  literary  pursuits.  Like  so  many 
of  the  younger  romanticists,  Fouque  owed  his  introduction  to 


75° 


FOUQUET 


literature  to  A.  W.  Schlegel,  who  published  his  first  book, 
Dramatische  Spiele  von  Pellegrin  in  1804.  His  next  work, 
Romanzen  iiom  Tal  Ronceval  (1805),  showed  more  plainly  his 
allegiance  to  the  romantic  leaders,  and  in  the  Historic  wm  edlen 
Ritler  Galmy  (1806)  he  versified  a  16th-century  romance  of 
medieval  chivalry.  Sigurd  der  Schlangentoter,  ein  Heldenspiel 
(1808),  the  first  modern  German  dramatization  of  the  Nibelungen 
saga,  attracted  attention  to  him,  and  influenced  considerably 
subsequent  versions  of  the  story,  such  as  Hebbel's  Nibelungen 
and  Wagner's  Ring  des  Nibelungen.  These  early  writings  indicate 
the  lines  which  Fouque's  subsequent  literary  activity  followed; 
his  interests  were  divided  between  medieval  chivalry  on  the  one 
hand  and  northern  mythology  on  the  other.  In  1813,  the  year 
of  the  rising  against  Napoleon,  he  again  fought  with  the  Prussian 
army,  and  the  new  patriotism  awakened  in  the  German  people 
left  its  mark  upon  his  writings. 

Between  1810  and  1815  Fouque's  popularity  was  at  its  height; 
the  many  romances  and  novels,  plays  and  epics,  which  he  turned 
out  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  appealed  exactly  to  the  mood 
of  the  hour.  The  earliest  of  these  are  the  best —  Undine,  which 
appeared  in  1811,  being,  indeed,  one  of  the  most  charming  of  all 
German  Mdrchen  and  the  only  work  by  which  Fouque's  memory 
still  lives  to-day.  A  more  comprehensive  idea  of  his  powers 
may,  however,  be  obtained  from  the  two  romances  Der  Zauberring 
(1813)  and  DieFahrten  Thiodulfs  des  Islanders  (1815).  From  1820 
onwards  the  quality  of  Fouque's  work  rapidly  degenerated,  partly 
owing  to  the  fatal  ease  with  which  he  wrote,  partly  to  his  inability 
to  keep  pace  with  the  changes  in  German  taste.  He  remained 
the  belated  romanticist,  who,  as  the  reading  world  turned  to 
new  interests,  clung  the  more  tenaciously  to  the  paraphernalia 
of  romanticism;  but  in  the  cold,  sober  light  of  the  post-romantic 
age,  these  appeared  merely  flimsy  and  theatrical.  The  vitalizing 
imaginative  power  of  his  early  years  deserted  him,  and  the 
sobriquet  of  a  "  Don  Quixote  of  Romanticism  "  which  his 
enemies  applied  to  him  was  not  unjustified. 

Fouque's  first  marriage  had  been  unhappy  and  soon  ended 
in  divorce.  His  second  wife,  Karoline  von  Briest  (1773-1831) 
enjoyed  some  reputation  as  a  novelist  in  her  day.  After  her 
death  Fouqu6  married  a  third  time.  Some  consolation  for  the 
ebbing  tide  of  popular  favour  was  afforded  him  by  the  munifi- 
cence of  Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia,  who  granted  him  a 
pension  which  allowed  him  to  spend  his  later  years  in  comfort. 
He  died  in  Berlin  on  the  23rd  of  January  1843. 

Fouque's  Ausgewdhlte  Werke,  edited  by  himself,  appeared  in  12 
yols.  (Berlin,  1841);  a  selection,  edited  by  M.  Koch,  will  be  found 
in  Kiirschner's  Deutsche  Nationalliteratur,  vol.  146,  part  ii.  (Stuttgart, 
1893);  Undine,  Sintram,  &c.,  in  innumerable  reprints.  Biblio- 
graphy in  Goedeke's  Grundriss  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Dichtung 
(2nd  ed.,  vi.  pp.  115  ff.,  Dresden,  1898).  Most  of  Fouque's  works 
have  been  translated,  and  the  English  versions  of  Aslauga's  Knight 
(by  Carlyle),  Sintram  and  his  Companions  and  Undine,  have  been 
frequently  republished.  For  Fouqu6's  life  cp.  Lebensgeschichte  des 
Baron  Friedrich  de  la  Motte  Fouque.  Aufgezeichnet  durch  ihn  selbst 
(Halle,  1840),  (only  to  the  year  1813),  and  also  the  introduction  to 
Koch's  selections  in  the  Deutsche  Nationalliteratur.  (J.  G.  R.) 

FOUQUET  (or  FOUCQUET),  NICOLAS  (i6r 5-1680),  viscount  of 
Melun  and  of  Vaux,  marquis  of  Belle-Isle,  superintendent  of 
finance  in  France  under  Louis  XIV.,  was  born  at  Paris  in  r6i5. 
He  belonged  to  an  influential  family  of  the  noblesse  de  la  robe, 
and  after  some  preliminary  schooling  with  the  Jesuits,  at  the  age 
of  thirteen  was  admitted  as  awcat  at  the  parlement  of  Paris. 
While  still  in  his  teens  he  held  several  responsible  posts,  and  in 
1636,  when  just  twenty,  he  was  able  to  buy  the  post  of  maitre 
des  requ&es.  From  1642  to  1650  he  held  various  intendancies  at 
first  in  the  provinces  and  then  with  the  army  of  Mazarin,  and, 
coming  thus  in  touch  with  the  court,  was  permitted  in  1650  to 
buy  the  important  position  of  procureur  general  to  the  parlement 
of  Paris.  During  Mazarin's  exile  Fouquet  shrewdly  remained 
loyal  to  him,  protecting  his  property  and  keeping  him  informed 
of  the  situation  at  court. 

Upon  the  cardinal's  return,  Fouquet  demanded  and  received 
as  reward  the  office  of  superintendent  of  the  finances  (1653),  a 
position  which,  in  the  unsettled  condition  of  the  government, 
threw  into  his  hands  not  merely  the  decision  as  to  which  funds 


should  be  applied  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  state's  creditors, 
but  also  the  negotiations  with  the  great  financiers  who  lent 
money  to  the  king.  The  appointment  was  a  popular  one  with 
the  moneyed  class,  for  Fouquet's  great  wealth  had  been  largely 
augmented  by  his  marriage  in  1651  with  Marie  de  Castille, 
who  also  belonged  to  a  wealthy  family  of  the  legal  nobility.  His 
own  credit,  and  above  all  his  unfailing  confidence  in  himself, 
strengthened  the  credit  of  the  government,  while  his  high  position 
at  the  parlement  (he  still  remained  procureur  general}  secured 
financial  transactions  from  investigation.  As  minister  of  finance, 
he  soon  had  Mazarin  almost  in  the  position  of  a  suppliant. 
The  long  wars,  and  the  greed  of  the  courtiers,  who  followed  the 
example  of  Mazarin,  made  it  necessary  at  times  for  Fouquet  to 
meet  the  demands  upon  him  by  borrowing  upon  his  own  credit, 
but  he  soon  turned  this  confusion  of  the  public  purse  with  his  own 
to  good  account.  The  disorder  in  the  accounts  became  hopeless; 
fraudulent  operations  were  entered  into  with  impunity,  and  the 
financiers  were  kept  in  the  position  of  clients  by  official  favours 
and  by  generous  aid  whenever  they  needed  it.  Fouquet's  fortune 
now  surpassed  even  Mazarin's,  but  the  latter  was  too  deeply 
implicated  in  similar  operations  to  interfere,  and  was  obliged  to 
leave  the  day  of  reckoning  to  his  agent  and  successor  Colbert. 
Upon  Mazarin's  death  Fouquet  expected  to  be  made  head  of  the 
government;  but  Louis  XIV.  was  suspicious  of  his'  poorly 
dissembled  ambition,  and  it  was  with  Fouquet  in  mind  that  he 
made  the  well-known  statement,  upon  assuming  the  govern- 
ment, that  he  would  be  his  own  chief  minister.  Colbert  fed  the 
king's  displeasure  with  adverse  reports  upon  the  deficit,  and 
made  the  worst  of  the  case  against  Fouquet.  The  extravagant 
expenditure  and  personal  display  of  the  superintendent  served  to 
intensify  the  ill-will  of  the  king.  Fouquet  had  bought  the  port 
of  Belle  Isle  and  strengthened  the  fortifications,  with  a  view  to 
taking  refuge  there  in  case  of  disgrace.  He  had  spent  enormous 
sums  in  building  a  palace  on  his  estate  of  Vaux,  which  in  extent, 
magnificence,  and  splendour  of  decoration  was  a  forecast  of 
Versailles.  Here  he  gathered  the  rarest  manuscripts,  the  finest 
paintings,  jewels  and  antiques  in  profusion,  and  above  all  sur- 
rounded himself  with  artists  and  authors.  The  table  was  open 
to  all  people  of  quality,  and  the  kitchen  was  presided  over  by 
Vatel.  Lafontaine,  Corneille,  Scarron,  were  among  the  multitude 
of  his  clients.  In  August  1661  Louis  XIV.,  already  set  upon  his 
destruction,  was  entertained  at  Vaux  with  a  file  rivalled  in 
magnificence  by  only  one  or  two  in  French  history,  at  which 
Moliere's  Les  Fdcheux  was  produced  for  the  first  time.  The 
splendour  of  the  entertainment  sealed  Fouquet's  fate.  The  king, 
however,  was  afraid  to  act  openly  against  so  powerful  a  minister. 
By  crafty  devices  Fouquet  was  induced  to  sell  his  office  of  pro- 
cureur general,  thus  losing  the  protection  of  its  privileges,  and  he 
paid  the  price  of  it  into  the  treasury. 

Three  weeks  after  his  visit  to  Vaux  the  king  withdrew  to 
Nantes,  taking  Fouquet  with  him,  and  had  him  arrested  when  he 
was  leaving  the  presence  chamber,  flattered  with  the  assurance 
of  his  esteem.  The  trial  lasted  almost  three  years,  and  its  viola- 
tion of  the  forms  of  justice  is  still  the  subject  of  frequent  mono- 
graphs by  members  of  the  French  bar.  Public  sympathy  was 
strongly  with  Fouquet,  and  Lafontaine,  Madame  de  Sevigne 
and  many  others  wrote  on  his  behalf;  but  when  Fouquet  was 
sentenced  to  banishment,  the  king,  disappointed,  "  commuted  " 
the  sentence  to  imprisonment  for  life.  He  was  sent  at  the 
beginning  of  1665  to  the  fortressof  Pignerol,  where  heundoubtedly 
died  on  the  23rd  of  March  1680.*  Louis  acted  throughout  "  as 
though  he  were  conducting  a  campaign,"  evidently  fearing  that 
Fouquet  would  play  the  part  of  a  Richelieu.  Fouquet  bore 
himself  with  manly  fortitude,  and  composed  several  mediocre 
translations  in  prison.  The  devotional  works  bearing  his  name 
are  apocryphal.  A  report  of  his  trial  was  published  in  Holland, 
in  15  volumes,  in  1665-1667,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances 
which  Colbert  addressed  to  the  States-General.  A  second 
edition  under  the  title  of  CEuvres  de  M.  Fouquet  appeared 
in  1696. 

1  Fouquet  has  been  identified  with  the  "  Man  with  the  Iron  Mask  " 
(see  IRON  MASK),  but  this  theory  is  quite  impossible. 


FOUQUIER-TINVILLE— FOURIER,  F.  C.  M. 


See  Cheruel,  Memoires  sur  la  vie  publique  et  privee  de  Fouquet  .  ._  . 
d'apres  ses  lettres  et  des  pieces  inedites  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1864);  J.  Lair, 
Nicolas  Foucquet,  procureur  general,  surintendant  des  finances, 
ministre  d'£tat  de  Louis  XIV  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1890) ;  U.  V.  Chatelain, 
Le  Surintendant  Nicolas  Fouquet,  protecteur  des  lettres,  des  arts  et 
des  sciences  (Paris,  1905) ;  R.  Pfnor  et  A.  France,  Le  Ch&teau  de 
Vaux-le-Vicomte  dessine  et  grave  (Paris,  1888). 

FOUQUIER-TINVILLE,  ANTOINE  QUENTIN  (1746-1795), 
French  revolutionist,  was  born  at  Herouel,  a  village  in  the 
department  of  the  Aisne.  Originally  a  procureur  attached  to 
the  Chatelet  at  Paris,  he  sold  his  office  in  1783,  and  became  a 
clerk  under  the  lieutenant-general  of  police.  He  seems  to  have 
early  adopted  revolutionary  ideas,  but  little  is  known  of  the  part 
he  played  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution.  When  the  Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal  of  Paris  was  established  on  the  loth  of  March 
1793,  he  was  appointed  public  prosecutor  to  it,  an  office  which 
he  filled  until  the  28th  of  July  1794.  His  activity  during  this 
time  earned  him  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  most  terrible  and 
sinister  figures  of  the  Revolution.  His  function  as  public 
prosecutor  was  not  so  much  to  convict  the  guilty  as  to  see  that 
the  proscriptions  ordered  by  the  faction  for  the  time  being  in 
power  were  carried  out  with  a  due  regard  to  a  show  of  legality. 
He  was  as  ruthless  and  as  incorrupt  as  Robespierre  himself;  he 
could  be  moved  from  his  purpose  neither  by  pity  nor  by  bribes; 
nor  was  there  in  his  cruelty  any  of  that  quality  which  made  the 
ordinary  Jacobin  enrage  by  turns  ferocious  and  sentimental.  It 
was  this  very  quality  of  passionless  detachment  that  made  him 
so  effective  an  instrument  of  the  Terror.  He  had  no  forensic 
eloquence;  but  the  cold  obstinacy  with  which  he  pressed  his 
charges  was  more  convincing  than  any  rhetoric,  and  he  seldom 
failed  to  secure  a  conviction. 

His  horrible  career  ended  with  the  fall  of  Robespierre  and  the 
terrorists  on  the  9th  Thermidor.  On  the  ist  of  August  1794  he 
was  imprisoned  by  order  of  the  Convention  and  brought  to  trial. 
His  defence  was  that  he  had  only  obeyed  the  orders  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety;  but,  after  a  trial  which  lasted  forty-one 
days,  he  was  condemned  to  death,  and  guillotined  on  the  7th  of 
May  1795. 

See  Memoire  pour  A.  Q.  Fouquier  ex-accusateur  public  pres  le 
tribunal  revolutionnaire,  &c.  (Paris,  1794);  Domenget,  Fouquier- 
Tinville  et  le  tribunal  revolutionnaire  (Paris,  1878);  H.  Wallon, 
Histoire  du  tribunal  revolutionnaire  de  Paris  (1880-1882)  (a  work 
of  general  interest,  but  not  always  exact) ;  George  Lecocq,  Notes  et 
documents  sur  Fouquier-Tinville  (Paris,  1885).  See  also  the  docu- 
ments relating  to  his  trial  enumerated  by  M.  Tourneux  in  Biblio- 
graphic de  I'histoire  de  Paris  pendant  la  Revolution  Franc,aise,  vol.  i. 
Nos.  4445-4454  (1890). 

FOURCHAMBAULT,  a  town  of  central  France  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Nievre,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  43  m.  N.W.  of 
Nevers,  on  the  Paris-Lyon  railway.  Pop.  (1906)  4591.  It  owes 
its  importance  to  its  extensive  iron-works,  established  in  1821, 
which  give  employment  to  2000  workmen  and  produce  engineer- 
ing material  for  railway,  military  and  other  purposes.  Among 
the  more  remarkable  chefs-d' ceuvre  which  have  been  produced  at 
Fourchambault  are  the  metal  portions  of  the  Pont  du  Carrousel, 
the  iron  beams  of  the  roof  of  the  cathedral  at  Chartres,  and  the 
vast  spans  of  the  bridge  over  the  Dordogne  at  Cubzac.  A  small 
canal  unites  the  works  to  the  Lateral  canal  of  the  Loire. 

FOURCROY,  ANTOINE  FRANCOIS,  COMTE  DE  (1755-1809), 
French  chemist,  the  son  of  an  apothecary  in  the  household  of 
the  duke  of  Orleans,  was  born  at  Paris  on  the  i5th  of  June  1755. 
He  took  up  medical  studies  by  the  advice  of  the  anatomist 
Felix  Vicq  d'Azyr  (1748-1794),  and  after  many  difficulties 
caused  by  lack  of  means  finally  in  1780  obtained  his  doctor's 
diploma.  His  attention  was  specially  turned  to  chemistry  by 
J.  B.  M.  Bucquet  (1746-1780),  the  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 
Medical  School  of  Paris,  and  in  1784  he  was  chosen  to  succeed 
P.  J.  Macquer  (1718-1784)  as  lecturer  in  chemistry  at  the  college 
of  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  where  his  lectures  attained  great  popularity. 
He  was  one  of  the  earliest  converts  to  the  views  of  Lavoisier, 
which  he  helped  to  promulgate  by  his  voluminous  writings, 
but  though  his  name  appears  on  a  large  number  of  chemical 
and  also  physiological  and  pathological  memoirs,  either  alone  or 
with  others,  he  was  rather  a  teacher  and  an  organizer  than  an 


original  investigator.  A  member  of  the  committees  for  public 
instruction  and  public  safety,  and  later,  under  Napoleon, 
director  general  of  instruction,  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
establishment  of  schools  for  both  primary  and  secondary  educa- 
tion, scientific  studies  being  especially  provided  for.  Fourcroy 
died  at  Paris  on  the  i6th  of  December  1809,  the  very  day  on 
which  he  had  been  created  a  count  of  the  French  empire.  By 
his  conduct  as  a  member  of  the  Convention  he  has  been  accused 
of  contributing  to  the  death  of  Lavoisier.  Baron  Cuvier  in  his 
£loge  historique  of  Fourcroy  repels  the  charge,  but  he  can 
scarcely  be  acquitted  of  time-serving  indifference,  if  indeed 
active,  though  secret,  participation  be  not  proved  against  him. 

The  Royal  Society's  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers  enumerates  59 
memoirs  by  Fourcroy  himself,  and  58  written  jointly  by  him  and 
others,  mostly  L.  N.  Vauquelin. 

FOURIER,  FRANCOIS  CHARLES  MARIE  (1772-1837), 
French  socialist  writer,  was  born  at  Besancon  in  Franche-Comte 
on  the  7th  of  April  1772.  His  father  was  a  draper  in  good 
circumstances,  and  Fourier  received  an  excellent  education  at 
the  college  in  his  native  town.  After  completing  his  studies 
there  he  travelled  for  some  time  in  France,  Germany  and  Holland. 
On  the  death  of  his  father  he  inherited  a  considerable  amount  of 
property,  which,  however,  was  lost  when  Lyons  was  besieged 
by  the  troops  of  the  Convention.  Being  thus  deprived  of  his 
means  of  livelihood  Fourier  entered  the  army,  but  after  two 
years'  service  as  a  chasseur  was  discharged  on  account  of  ill- 
health.  In  1803  he  published  a  remarkable  article  on  European 
politics  which  attracted  the  notice  of  Napoleon,  some  of  whose 
ideas  were  foreshadowed  in  it.  Inquiries  were  made  after  the 
author,  but  nothing  seems  to  have  come  of  them.  After  leaving 
the  army  Fourier  entered  a  merchant's  office  in  Lyons,  and 
some  years  later  undertook  on  his  own  account  a  small  business 
as  broker.  He  obtained  in  this  way  just  sufficient  to  supply  his 
wants,  and  devoted  all  his  leisure  time  to  the  elaboration  of  his 
first  work  on  the  organization  of  society. 

During  the  early  part  of  his  life,  and  while  engaged  in  com- 
merce, he  had  become  deeply  impressed  with  the  conviction  that 
social  arrangements  resulting  from  the  principles  of  individualism 
and  competition  were  essentially  imperfect  and  immoral.  He 
proposed  to  substitute  for  these  principles  co-operation  or  united 
effort,  by  means  of  which  full  and  harmonious  development 
might  be  given  to  human  nature.  The  scheme,  worked  out  in 
detail  in  his  first  work,  Theorie  des  quatre  mouvements  (2  vols., 
Lyons,  1808,  published  anonymously),  has  for  foundation  a 
particular  psychological  proposition  and  a  special  economical 
doctrine.  Psychologically  Fourier  held  what  may  with  some 
laxity  of  language  be  called  natural  optimism, — the  view  that 
the  full,  free  development  of  human  nature  or  the  unrestrained 
indulgence  of  human  passion  is  the  only  possible  way  to  happiness 
and  virtue,  and  that  misery  and  vice  spring  from  the  unnatural 
restraints  imposed  by  society  on  the  gratification  of  desire. 
This  principle  of  harmony  among  the  passions  he  regarded  as  his 
grandest  discovery — a  discovery  which  did  more  than  set  him  on 
a  level  with  Newton,  the  discoverer  of  the  principle  of  attraction 
or  harmony  among  material  bodies.  Throughout  his  works, 
in  uncouth,  obscure  and  often  unintelligible  language,  he 
endeavours  to  show  that  the  same  fundamental  fact  of  harmony 
is  to  be  found  in  the  four  great  departments, — society,  animal 
life,  organic  life  and  the  material  universe.  In  order  to  give 
effect  to  this  principle  and  obtain  the  resulting  social  harmony, 
it  was  needful  that  society  should  be  reconstructed;  for,  as 
the  social  organism  is  at  present  constituted,  innumerable 
restrictions  are  imposed  upon  the  free  development  of  human 
desire.  As  practical  principle  for  such  a  reconstruction  Fourier 
advocated  co-operative  or  united  industry.  In  many  respects 
what  he  says  of  co-operation,  in  particular  as  to  the  enormous 
waste  of  economic  force  which  the  actual  arrangements  of 
society  entail,  still  deserves  attention,  and  some  of  the  most 
recent  efforts  towards  extension  of  the  co-operative  method, 
e.g.  to  house-keeping,  were  in  essentials  anticipated  by  him. 
But  the  full  realization  of  his  scheme  demanded  much  more  than 
the  mere  admission  that  co-operation  is  economically  more 


752 

efficacious  than  individualism.  Society  as  a  whole  must  be 
organized  on  the  lines  requisite  to  give  full  scope  to  co-operation 
and  to  the  harmonious  evolution  of  human  nature.  The  details 
of  [this  reorganization  of  the  social  structure  cannot  be  given 
briefly,  but  the  broad  outlines  may  be  thus  sketched.  Society, 
on  his  scheme,  is  to  be  divided  into  departments  or  phalanges 
each  phalange  numbering  about  1600  persons.  Each  phalange 
inhabits  a  phalanstere  or  common  building,  and  has  a  certain 
portion  of  soil  allotted  to  it  for  cultivation.  The  phalansteres 
are  built  after  a  uniform  plan,  and  the  domestic  arrangements 
are  laid  down  very  elaborately.  The  staple  industry  of  the 
phalanges  is,  of  course,  agriculture,  but  the  various  series  and 
groupes  into  which  the  members  are  divided  may  devote  them- 
selves to  such  occupations  as  are  most  to  their  taste;  nor  need 
any  occupation  become  irksome  from  constant  devotion  to  it. 
Any  member  of  a  group  may  vary  his  employment  at  pleasure, 
may  pass  from  one  task  to  another.  The  tasks  regarded  as 
menial  or  degrading  in  ordinary  society  can  be  rendered  attractive 
if  advantage  is  taken  of  the  proper  principles  of  human  nature: 
thus  children,  who  have  a  natural  affinity  for  dirt,  and  a  fondness 
for  "  cleaning  up,"  may  easily  be  induced  to  accept  with  eager- 
ness the  functions  of  public  scavengers.  It  is  not,  on  Fourier's 
scheme,  necessary  that  private  property  should  be  abolished, 
nor  is  the  privacy  of  family  life  impossible  within  the  phalanstere. 
Each  family  may  have  separate  apartments,  and  there  may 
be  richer  and  poorer  members.  But  the  rich  and  poor  are  to  be 
locally  intermingled,  in  order  that  the  broad  distinction  between 
them,  which  is  so  painful  a  feature  in  actual  society,  may  become 
almost  imperceptible.  Out  of  the  common  gain  of  the  phalange 
a  certain  portion  is  deducted  to  furnish  to  each  member  the 
minimum  of  subsistence;  the  remainder  is  distributed  in  shares 
to  labour,  capital  and  talent, — five-twelfths  going  to  the  first, 
four-twelfths  to  the  second  and  three-twelfths  to  the  third. 
Upon  the  changes  requisite  in  the  private  life  of  the  members 
Fourier  was  in  his  first  work  "more  explicit  than  in  his  later 
writings.  The  institution  of  marriage,  which  imposes  unnatural 
bonds  on  human  passion,  is  of  necessity  abolished;  a  new  and 
ingeniously  constructed  system  of  licence  is  substituted  for  it. 
Considerable  offence  seems  to  have  been  given  by  Fourier's 
utterances  with  regard  to  marriage,  and  generally  the  later 
advocates  of  his  views  are  content  to  pass  the  matter  over  in 
silence  or  to  veil  their  teaching  under  obscure  and  metaphorical 
language. 

The  scheme  thus  sketched  attracted  no  attention  when  the 
Theorie  first  appeared,  and  for  some  years  Fourier  remained  in 
his  obscure  position  at  Lyons.  In  1812  the  death  of  his  mother 
put  him  in  possession  of  a  small  sum  of  money,  with  which  he 
retired  to  Bellay  in  order  to  perfect  his  second  work.  The 
Traite  de  {'association  agricole  domestique  was  published  in  2  vols. 
at  Paris  in  1822,  and  a  summary  appeared  in  the  following  year. 
After  its  publication  the  author  proceeded  to  Paris  in  the  hope 
that  some  wealthy  capitalist  might  be  induced  to  attempt  the 
realization  of  the  projected  scheme.  Disappointed  in  this 
expectation  he  returned  to  Lyons.  In  1826  he  again  visited 
Paris,  and  as  a  considerable  portion  of  his  means  had  been 
expended  in  the  publication  of  his  book,  he  accepted  a  clerkship 
in  an  American  firm.  In  1829  and  1830  appeared  what  is 
probably  the  most  finished  exposition  of  his  views,  Le  Nouveau 
Monde  industriel.  In  1831  he  attacked  the  rival  socialist  doc- 
trines of  Saint-Simon  and  Owen  in  the  small  work  Pieges  et 
charlatanisme  de  deux  sectes,  St  Simon  et  Owen.  His  writings  now 
began  to  attract  some  attention.  A  small  body  of  adherents 
gathered  round  him,  and  the  most  ardent  of  them  was  Victor 
Considerant  (q.v.).  In  1832  a  newspaper,  Le  Phalanstere  ou  la 
reforme  industriette  was  started  to  propagate  the  views  of  the 
school,  but  its  success  was  not  great.  In  1833  it  declined  from 
a  weekly  to  a  monthly,  and  in  1834  it  died  of  inanition.  It  was 
revived  in  1836  as  Le  Phalange,  and  in  1843  became  a  daily  paper, 
La  Democratic  pacifique.  In  1850  it  was  suppressed. 

Fourier  did  not  live  to  see  the  success  of  his  newspaper,  and 
the  only  practical  attempt  during  his  lifetime  to  establish  a 
phalanstere  was  a  complete  failure.  In  1832  M.  Baudet  Dulary, 


FOURIER,  J.  B.  J. 


deputy  for  Seine-et-Oise,  who  had  become  a  convert,  purchased 
an  estate  at  Conde-sur-Vesgre,  near  the  forest  of  Rambouillot, 
and  proceeded  to  establish  a  socialist  community.  The  capital 
supplied  was,  however,  inadequate,  and  the  community  broke 
up  in  disgust.  Fourier  was  in  no  way  discouraged  by  this  failure, 
and  till  his  death,  on  the  loth  of  October  1837,  he  lived  in  daily 
expectation  that  wealthy  capitalists  would  see  the  merits  of  his 
scheme  and  be  induced  to  devote  their  fortunes  to  its  realization. 
It  may  be  added  that  subsequent  attempts  to  establish  the 
phalanstere  have  been  uniformly  unsuccessful.1 

Fourier  seems  to  have  been  of  an  extremely  retiring  and  sensi- 
tive disposition.  He  mixed  little  in  society,  and  appeared,  indeed, 
as  if  he  were  the  denizen  of  some  other  planet.  Of  the  true 
nature  of  social  arrangements,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  they 
naturally  grow  and  become  organized,  he  must  be  pronounced 
extremely  ignorant.  The  faults  of  existing  institutions  presented 
themselves  to  him  in  an  altogether  distorted  manner,  and  he 
never  appears  to  have  recognized  that  the  evils  of  actual  society 
are  immeasurably  less  serious  than  the  consequences  of  his 
arbitrary  scheme.  Out  of  the  chaos  of  human  passion  he  supposed 
harmony  was  to  be  evolved  by  the  adoption  of  a  few  theoretically 
disputable  principles,  which  themselves  impose  restraints  even 
more  irksome  than  those  due  to  actual  social  facts.  With  regard 
to  the  economic  aspects  of  his  proposed  new  method,  it  is  of  course 
to  be  granted  that  co-operation  is  more  effective  than  individual 
effort,  but  he  has  nowhere  faced  the  question  as  to  the  probable 
consequences  of  organizing  society  on  the  abolition  of  those 
great  institutions  which  have  grown  with  its  growth.  His 
temperament  was  too  ardent,  his  imagination  too  strong,  and 
his  acquaintance  with  the  realities  of  life  too  slight  to  enable  him 
justly  to  estimate  the  merits  of  his  fantastic  views.  That  this 
description  of  him  is  not  expressed  in  over-strong  language 
must  be  clear  to  any  one  who  not  only  considers  what  is  true  in 
his  works, — and  the  portion  of  truth  is  by  no  means  a  peculiar 
discovery  of  Fourier's, — but  who  takes  into  account  the  whole 
body  of.  his  speculations,  the  cosmological  and  historical  as  well 
as  the  economical  and  social.  No  words  can  adequately  describe 
the  fantastic  nonsense  which  he  pours  forth,  partly  in  the  form 
of  general  speculation  on  the  universe,  partly  in  the  form  of 
prophetic  utterances  with  regard  to  the  future  changes  in 
humanity  and  its  material  environment.  From  these  extra- 
ordinary writings  it  is  no  extreme  conclusion  that  there  was  much 
of  insanity  in  Fourier's  mental  constitution. 

AUTHORITIES. — Ch.  Pellarin,  Fourier,  sa  vie  et  sa  theorie  (5th  ed.,. 
1872);  Sargant,  Social  Innovators  (1859);  Reybaud,  Reformateurs 
modernes  (7th  ed.,  1864);  Stein,  Socialismus  und  Communismus  des 
heutigen  Frankreichs  (2nd  ed.,  1848);  A.  J.  Booth,  Fortnightly 
Review,  N.  S.,  vol.  xii.;  Czynskj,  Notice  bibliographique  sur  C. 
Fourier  (1841) ;  Ferraz,  Le  Socialisme,  le  naturalisme  et  le  positivisme 
(1877) ;  Considerant,  Exposition  abregee  du  systeme  de  Fourier  (1845) ; 
Transpn,  Theorie  societaire  de  Charles  Fourier  (1832);  Stein, 
Geschichte  der  sozialen  Bewegung  in  Frankreich  (1850);  Mario, 
Untersuchungen  iiber  die  Organisation  der  Arbeit  (1853) ;  J .  H.  Noyes, 
History  of  American  Socialisms  '(1870) ;  Bebel,  Charles  Fourier 
[1888);  Varschauer,  Geschichte  des  Sozialismus  und  Kammunismus 
•m  ip.  Jahrhundert  (1903) ;  Sambuc,  Le  Socialisme  de  Fourier  (1900) ; 
VI.  Hillquit,  History  of  Socialism  in  the  United  States  (1903); 
rl.  Bourgin,  Fourier,  contribution  a  I'etude  de  Socialisme  franqais 
(1905).  (R.  AD.) 

FOURIER,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  JOSEPH  (1768-1830),  French 
mathematician,  was  born  at  Auxerre  on  the  2ist  of  March  1768. 
Se  was  the  son  of  a  tailor,  and  was  left  an  orphan  in  his  eighth 
year;  but,  through  the  kindness  of  a  friend,  admission  was  gained 
or  him  into  the  military  school  of  his  native  town,  which  was  then 
under  the  direction  of  the  Benedictines  of  Saint-Maur.  He  soon 
distinguished  himself  as  a  student  and  made  rapid  progress, 
especially  in  mathematics.  Debarred  from  entering  the  army 
on  account  of  his  lowness  of  birth  and  poverty,  he  was  appointed 

1  Several  experiments  were  made  to  this  end  in  the  United  States 

see  COMMUNISM)  by  American  followers  of  Fourier,  whose  doctrines 

were  introduced  there  by  Albert  Brisbane  (1809-1890).     Indeed,  in 

he  years  between   1840  and   1850,  during  which  the  movement 

waxed  and  waned,  no  fewer  than  forty-one  phalanges  were  founded, 

of  which  some  definite  record  can  be  found.     The  most  interesting 

of  all  the  experiments,  not  alone  from  its  own  history,  but  also  from 

:he  fact  that  it  attracted  the  support  of  many  of  the  most  iatel- 

ectual  and  cultured  Americans  was  that  of  Brook  Farm  (q.v.}. 


FOURIER'S  SERIES 


753 


professor  of  mathematics  in  the  school  in  which  he  had  been  a 
pupil.  In  1 787  he  became  a  novice  at  the  abbey  of  St  Benoit-sur- 
Loire;  but  he  left  the  abbey  in  1789  and  returned  to  his  college, 
where,  in  addition  to  his  mathematical  duties,  he  was  frequently 
called  to  lecture  on  other  subjects, — rhetoric,  philosophy  and 
history.  On  the  institution  of  the  Ecole  Normale  at  Paris  in 
1795  he  was  sent  to  teach  in  it,  and  was  afterwards  attached 
to  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  where  he  occupied  the  chair  of 
analysis.  Fourier  was  one  of  the  savants  who  accompanied 
Bonaparte  to  Egypt  in  1798;  and  during  this  expedition  he 
was  called  to  discharge  important  political  duties  in  addition  to 
his  scientific  ones.  He  was  for  a  time  virtually  governor  of  half 
Egypt,  and  for  three  years  was  secretary  of  the  Institut  du 
Caire;  he  also  delivered  the  funeral  orations  for  Kleber  and 
Desaix.  He  returned  to  France  in  1801,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  was  nominated  prefect  of  Isere,  and  was  created  baron 
and  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  He  took  an  important 
part  in  the  preparation  of  the  famous  Description  de  I'Egypte 
and  wrote  the  historical  introduction.  He  held  his  prefecture 
for  fourteen  years;  and  it  was  during  this  period  that  he  carried 
on  his  elaborate  and  fruitful  investigations  on  the  conduction 
of  heat.  On  the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  in  1815,  Fourier 
published  a  royalist  proclamation,  and  left  Grenoble  as  Napoleon 
entered  it.  He  was  then  deprived  of  his  prefecture,  and,  although 
immediately  named  prefect  of  the  Rhone,  was  soon  after  again 
deprived.  He  now  settled  at  Paris,  was  elected  to  the  Academic 
des  Sciences  in  1816,  but  in  consequence  of  the  opposition  of 
Louis  XVIII.  was  not  admitted  till  the  following  year,  when  he 
succeeded  the  Abbe  Alexis  de  Rochon.  In  1822  he  was  made 
perpetual  secretary  in  conjunction  with  Cuvier,  in  succession  to 
Delambre.  In  1826  Fourier  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  in  1827  succeeded  Laplace  as  president  of  the 
council  of  the  ficole  Polytechnique.  In  1828  he  became  a 
member  of  the  government  commission  established  for  the 
encouragement  of  literature.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  i6th  of 
May  1830. 

As  a  politician  Fourier  achieved  uncommon  success,  but  his 
fame  chiefly  rests  on  his  strikingly  original  contributions  to 
science  and  mathematics.  The  theory  of  heat  engaged  his 
attention  quite  early,  and  in  1812  he  obtained  a  prize  offered 
by  the  Academic  des  Sciences  with  a  memoir  in  two  parts, 
Theorie  des  mouvements  de  la  chaleur  dans  les  corps  solides.  The 
first  part  was  republished  in  1822  as  La  Theorie  analytique  de  la 
chaleur,  which  by  its  new  methods  and  great  results  made  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  mathematical  and  physical  science 
(see  below:  FOURIER'S  SERIES).  An  English  translation  has 
been  published  by  A.  Freeman  (Cambridge,  1872),  and  a  German 
by  Weinstein  (Berlin,  1884).  His  mathematical  researches 
were  also  concerned  with  the  theory  of  equations,  but  the 
question  as  to  his  priority  on  several  points  has  been  keenly 
discussed.  After  his  death  Navier  completed  and  published 
Fourier's  unfinished  work,  Analyse  des  equations  indeterminees 
( 1 83 1 ) ,  which  contains  much  original  matter.  In  addition  to  the 
works  above  mentioned,  Fourier  wrote  many  memoirs  on 
scientific  subjects,  and  eloges  of  distinguished  men  of  science. 
His  works  have  been  collected  and  edited  by  Gaston  Darboux 
with  the  title  (Euvres  de  Fourier  (Paris,  1880-1890). 

For  a  list  of  Fourier's  publications  see  the  Catalogue  of  Scientific 
Papers  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Reference  may  also  be  made 
to  Arago,  "  Joseph  Fourier,"  in  the  Smithsonian  Report  (1871). 

FOURIER'S  SERIES,  in  mathematics,  those  series  which 
proceed  according  to  sines  and  cosines  of  multiples  of  a  variable, 
the  various  multiples  being  in  the  ratio  of  the  natural  numbers; 
they  are  used  for  the  representation  of  a  function  of  the  variable 
for  values  of  the  variable  which  lie  between  prescribed  finite 
limits.  Although  the  importance  of  such  series,  especially  in  the 
theory  of  vibrations,  had  been  recognized  by  D.  Bernoulli, 
Lagrange  and  other  mathematicians,  and  had  led  to  some  dis- 
cussion of  their  properties,  J.  B.  J.  Fourier  (see  above)  was  the 
first  clearly  to  recognize  the  arbitrary  character  of  the  functions 
which  the  series  can  represent,  and  to  make  any  serious  attempt 
to  prove  the  validity  of  such  representation;  the  series  are 


consequently  usually  associated  with  the  name  of  Fourier. 
More  general  cases  of  trigonometrical  series,  in  which  the 
multiples  are  given  as  the  roots  of  certain  transcendental  equa- 
tions, were  also  considered  by  Fourier. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  the  special  class  of 
series  to  be  discussed,  it  is  necessary  to  define  with  some  precision 
what  is  to  be  understood  by  the  representation  of  an  arbitrary 
function  by  an  infinite  series.  Suppose  a  function  of  a  variable  x 
to  be  arbitrarily  given  for  values  of  x  between  two  fixed  values  a 
and  b;  this  means  that,  corresponding  to  every  value  of  x  such 
that  a-^x-^b,  a  definite  arithmetical  value  of  the  function  is  assigned 
by  means  of  some  prescribed  set  of  rules.  A  function  so  denned 
may  be  denoted  by  /(*) ;  the  rules  by  which  the  values  of  the 
function  are  determined  may  be  embodied  in  a  single  explicit 
analytical  formula,  or  in  several  such  formulae  applicable  to  different 
portions  of  the  interval,  but  it  would  be  an  undue  restriction  of 
the  nature  of  an  arbitrarily  given  function  to  assume  a  priori  that 
it  is  necessarily  given  in  this  manner,  the  possibility  of  the  repre- 
sentation of  such  a  function  by  means  of  a  single  analytical  ex- 
pression being  the  very  point  which  we  have  to  discuss.  The 
variable  x  may  be  represented  by  a  point  at  the  extremity  of  an 
interval  measured  along  a  straight  line  from  a  fixed  origin;  thus 
we  may  speak  of  the  point  c  as  synonymous  with  the  value  x  =  c 
of  the  variable,  and  of  f(c)  as  the  value  of  the  function  assigned  to 
the  point  c.  For  any  number  of  points  between  a  and  b  the  function 
may  be  discontinuous,  i.e.  it  may  at  such  points  undergo  abrupt 
changes  of  value;  it  will  here  be  assumed  that  the  number  of  such 
points  is  finite.  The  only  discontinuities  here  considered  will  be 
those  known  as'  ordinary  discontinuities.  Such  a  discontinuity 
exists  at  the  point  c  if  f(c  +  e),  f(c  —  t)  have  distinct  but  definite 
limiting  values  as  c  is  indefinitely  diminished ;  these  limiting  values 
are  known  as  the  limits  on  the  right  and  on  the  left  respectively 
of  the  function  at  c,  and  may  be  denoted  by  f(c+o),  f(c— o).  The 
discontinuity  consists  therefore  of  a  sudden  change  of  value  of  the 
function  from/(c  —  o)  to/(c+o),  as  x  increases  through  the  value  c. 
If  there  is  such  a  discontinuity  at  the  point  x  =  o,  we  may  denote 
the  limits  on  the  right  and  on  the  left  respectively  by/(-fo),/(— o). 

Suppose  we  have  an  infinite  series  u\  (x)  -\-Ui(x)  + .  .  .  -\-un(x)  + .  .  . 
in  which  each  term -is  a  function  of  x,  of  known  analytical  form; 
let  any  value  x  =  c(a  =  c  =  b)  be  substituted  in  the  terms  of  the 
series,  and  suppose  the  sum  of  n  terms  of  the  arithmetical  series  so 
obtained  approaches  a  definite  limit  as  n  is  indefinitely  increased ; 
this  limit  is  known  as  the  sum  of  the  series.  If  for  every  value  of 
c  such  that  a  =c  =6  the  sum  exists  and  agrees  with  the  value  of 

f(c),  the  series  ZMnOt)  is  said  to  represent  the  f unction (/*)  between 

the  values  a.,  b  of  the  variable.  If  this  is  the  case  for  all  points 
within  the  given  interval  with  the  exception  of  a  finite  number,  at 
any  one  of  which  either  the  series  has  no  sum,  or  has  a  sum  which 
does  not  agree  with  the  value  of  the  function,  the  series  is  said  to 
represent  "  in  general  "  the  function  for  the  given  interval.  If 
the  sum  of  n  terms  of  the  series  be  denoted  by  §„(<;),  the  condition 
that  Sn(c)  converges  to  the  value  f(c)  is  that,  corresponding  to  any 
finite  positive  number  8  as  small  as  we  please,  a  value  n\  of  n  can 
be  found  such  that  if  n=n\,  |/(c)  —  Sn(c)|<5. 

Functions  have  also  been  considered  which  for  an  infinite  number 
of  points  within  the  given  interval  have  no  definite  value,  and  series 
have  also  been  discussed  which  at  an  infinite  number  of  points  in 
the  interval  cease  either  to  have  a  sum,  or  to  have  one  which  agrees 
with  the  value  of  the  function;  the  narrower  conception  above  will 
however  be  retained  in  the  treatment  of  the  subject  in  this  article, 
reference  to  the  wider  class  of  cases  being  made  only  in  connexion 
with  the  history  of  the  theory  of  Fourier's  Series. 

Uniform  Convergence  of  Series. — If  the  series  Ui(x)+Uz(x)  +  .  .  .  + 
tt^(x)-\-.  .  .converge  for  every  value  of  x  in  a  given  interval  a  to  b, 
and  its  sum  be  denoted  by  S(#),  then  if,  corresponding  to  a  finite 
positive  number  8,  as  small  as  we  please,  a  finite  number  nt  can  be 
found  such  that  the  arithmetical  value  of  S(x)  —  Sn(x),  wheren=ini 
is  less  than  6,  for  every  value  of  x  in  the  given  interval,  the  series  is 
said  to  converge  uniformly  in  that  interval.  It  may  however  happen 
that  as  x  approaches  a  particular  value  the  number  of  terms  of  the 
series  which  must  be  taken  so  that|  S(x)—Sn(x)  \  may  be  <5,  in- 
creases indefinitely;  the  convergence  of  the  series  is  then  infinitely 
slow  in  the  neighbourhood  of  such  a  point,  and  the  series  is  not  uni- 
formly convergent  throughout  the  given  interval,  although  it  con- 
verges at  each  point  of  the  interval.  If  the  number  of  such  points 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  which  the  series  ceases  to  converge  uni- 
formly be  finite,  they  may  be  excluded  by  taking  intervals  of  finite 
magnitude  as  small  as  we  please  containing  such  points,  and  con- 
sidering the  convergence  of  the  series  in  the  given  interval  with 
such  sub-intervals  excluded ;  the  convergence  of  the  series  is  now 
uniform  throughout  the  remainder  of  the  interval.  The  series  is 
said  to  be  in  general  uniformly  convergent  within  the  given  interval 
a  to  b  if  it  can  be  made  uniformly  convergent  by  the  exclusion 
of  a  finite  number  of  portions  of  the  interval,  each  such  portion 
being  arbitrarily  small.  It  is  known  that  the  sum  of  an  infinite 
series  of  continuous  terms  can  be  discontinuous  only  at  points  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  which  the  convergence  of  the  series  is  not 


754 


FOURIER'S  SERIES 


uniform,  but  non-uniformity  of  convergence  of  the  series  does  not 
necessarily  imply  discontinuity  in  the  sum. 

Form  of  Fourier's  Series. — If  it  be  assumed  that  a  function  /(x) 
arbitrarily  given  for  values  of  x  such  that  o£x<l  is  capable  of 
being  represented  in  general  by  an  infinite  series  of  the  form 


A,  sin       +A2  sin 


i    .        .    mrx 
.+A»  Sin— j — 


and  if  it  be  further  assumed  that  the  series  is  in  general  uniformly 
convergent  throughout  the  interval  o  to  /,  the  form  of  the  co- 
efficients A  can  be  determined.  Multiply  each  term  of  the  series 

by  sin ?*,*,  and  integrate  the  product  between  the  limits  o  and  I, 
then  in  virtue  of  the  propertyj  0  sin  ^j^  sin  ^-j-  dx  =  0,  or  \l,  accord- 
ing as  n'is  not, or  is,  equal  to  n,  we  have  J/A»=  j  /(*)  siq-j-dx,  and 

thus  the  series  is  of  the  form  ?2sin5p^/(*)  sin^te    .     .     .     (i) 

This  method  of  determining  the  coefficients  in  the  series  would 
not  be  valid  without  the  assumption  that  the  series  is  in  general 
uniformly  convergent,  for  in  accordance  with  a  known  theorem 
the  sum  of  the  integrals  of  the  separate  terms  of  the  series  is  otherwise 
not  necessarily  equal  to  the  integral  of  the  sum.  This  assumption 

being  made,  it  is  further  assumed  that  /(x)  is  such  that  J  /(x)sin^y*dx 

has  a  definite  meaning  for  every  value  of  n. 

Before  we  proceed  to  examine  the  justification  for  the  assumptions 
made,  it  is  desirable  to  examine  the  result  obtained,  and  to  deduce 
other  series  from  it.  In  order  to  obtain  a  series  of  the  form 

~     .   T-.  TTX   i   r>  2lTX  ,  i   r»  ttirX  . 

Bo+Bi  cos-y+Bj  cos—, — f-  .  .  .  +Bn  cos  -j — h  •  •  • 
for  the  representation  of  f(x)  in  the  interval  o  to  /,  let  us  apply  the 
series  (i)  to  represent  the  function /(x)  sin-;   we  thus  find 


mrx . 
)  cos— |— dx. 


1~  •     «irx, 

•j-Ssin- 


*P/C*)i 

J  </ w  I 

On  rearrangement  of  the  terms  this  becomes 

1    .     irx/"',,  ,,     ,  2_   .   irx      mrx  ("I,,  , 
•j  sin  j-j  f(x)dx  +jX  sm-ycos—  J  /(x) 

hence /(x)  is  represented  for  the  interval  o  to  /  by  the  series  of  cosines 

1  ft,,  .,    ,  2S       mrx  ft,,  .         nirx,  ,  , 

jl  /(x)<2x+j2  cos-^-J  /(x)  cos  —dx    ...     (2) 

We  have  thus  seen,  that  with  the  assumptions  made,  the  arbitrary 
function /(x)  may  be  represented,  for  the  given  interval,  either  by  a 
series  of  sines,  as  in  (i),  or  by  a  series  of  cosines,  as  in  (2).  Some 
important  differences  between  the  two  series  must,  however,  be 
noticed.  In  the  first  place,  the  series  of  sines  has  a  vanishing  sum 
when  x  =  o  or  x=/;  it  therefore  does  not  represent  the  function  at 
the  point  x  =  o,  unless /(o)  =o,  or  at  the  point  x  =  l,  unless /(/)=o, 
whereas  the  series  (2)  of  cosines  may  represent  the  function  at  both 
these  points.  Again,  let  us  consider  what  is  represented  by  (i)  and 
(2)  for  values  of  x  which  do  not  lie  between  o  and  /.  As/(x)  is  given 
only  for  values  of  x  between  o  and  /,  the  series  at  points  beyond  these 
limits  have  no  necessary  connexion  with/(x)  unless  we  suppose  that 
/(x)  is  also  given  for  such  general  values  of  x  in  such  a  way  that  the 
series  continue  to  represent  that  function.  If  in  (i)  we  change  x  into 
-x,  leaving  the  coefficients  unaltered,  the  series  changes  sign, 
and  if  x  be  changed  into  x+2l,  the  series  is  unaltered;  we  infer  that 
the  series  (i)  represents  an  odd  function  of  x  and  is  periodic  of 
period  2l;  thus  (i)  will  represent  /(x)  in  general  for  values  of  x 
between  ±00,  only  if  /(x)  is  odd  and  has  a  period  2/.  If  in  (2)  we 
Change  x  into  — x,  the  series  is  unaltered,  and  it  is  also  unaltered 
by  changing  x  into  x+2l;  from  this  we  see  that  the  series  (2)  repre- 
sents/(x)  for  values  of  x  between  ±  o> ,  only  if /(x)  is  an  even  function, 
and  is  periodic  of  period  2l.  In  general  a  function  /(x)  arbitrarily 
given  for  all  values  of  x  between  ±QO  is  neither  periodic  nor  odd, 
nor  even,  and  is  therefore  not  represented  by  either  (i)  or  (2)  except 
for  the  interval  o  to  /. 

From  (i)  and  (2)  we  can  deduce  a  series  containing  both  sines 
and  cosines,  which  will  represent  a  function  /(x)  arbitrarily  given 
in  the  interval  -I  to  /,  for  that  interval.  We  can  express  by  (i) 
the  function  i|/(x)— /(— x)J  which  is  an  odd  function,  and  thus 
this  function  is  represented  for  the  interval  — /  to  +1  by 

2  _   .    nirx  /"!,,.,.     ,,      . .    .  nirx , 
j  2  sin  -j-j  o*l/(x)-/(-x))  sin—  dx; 

we  can  also  express  J|/(x)+/(-x)},  which  is  an  even  function,  by 
means  of  (2),  thus  for  the  interval  — /  to  +1  this  function  is  repre- 
sented by 

J  J^I/(*)+/(-x))<Zx+  j2    COS  ^J^/(*)+/(-*)|cOs2y^X. 

It  must  be  observed  that  /(-x)  is  absolutely  independent  of  /(x), 


the  former  being  not  necessarily  deducible  from  the  latter  by  putting 
—  x  for  x  in  a  formula;  both  /(x)  and  f(—x)  are  functions  given 
arbitrarily  and  independently  for  the  intervaj  o  to  /.  On  adding  the 
expressions  together  we  obtain  a  series  of  sines  and  cosines  which 
represents  f(x)  for  the  interval  —  /  to  /.  The  integrals 


f;/(- 

JO 

are  equivalent  to 

r-l,,  , 
—  I    f(x) 

thus  the  series  is 


mrx, 
cos  -j^-dx, 


,    C'f(-x)  sin  ni*_dx 

'•JO  i 

.    r-l,,  .    .     mix, 
+  I    f(x)  sin  -j-dx, 


..       nirx 
^  cos  ~~ 


iS  . 
+7Tsm 
which  may  be  written 

^x'    ...     (3) 

The  series  (3),  which  represents  a  function  f(x)  arbitrarily  given 
for  the  interval  —I  to  /,  is  what  is  known  as  Fourier's  Series;  the 
expressions  (i)  and  (2)  being  regarded  as  the  particular  forms  which 
(3)  takes  in  the  two  cases,  in  which  /(—  x)  =  —/(*),  OT}(—x)—f(x) 
respectively.  The  expression  (3)  does  not  represent  f(x)  at  points 
beyond  the  interval  —  /  to  /,  unless  f(x)  has  a  period  21.  For  a  value 
of  x  within  the  interval,  at  which  f(x)  is  discontinuous,  the  sum  of 
the  series  may  cease  to  represent  f(x),  but,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter, 
has  the  value  i{/(x+o)-|-/(x-o)!,  the  mean  of  the  limits  at  the 
points  on  the  right  and  the  left.  The  series  represents  the  function 
at  x  =  o,  unless  the  function  is  there  discontinuous,  in  which  case 
the  series  is  ||/(+o)+/(—  o)|;  the  series  does  not  necessarily 
represent  the  function  at  the  points  I  and  —/,  unless  /(/)=/(—/). 
Its  sum  at  either  of  these  points  is  i{/(/)+/(—  /)). 

Examples  of  Fourier's  Series.  —  (a)  Let  f(x)  be  given  from  o  to  /, 
by  f(x)=c,  when  o<x<%l,  and  by  /(*)  =  —  c  from  ?l  to  /;  it  is 
required  to  find  a  sine  series,  and  also  a  cosine  series,  which  shall 
represent  the  function  in  the  interval. 

We  have 


/"' 
I 


rV  .    mrx,   '      C  I  .    nirx  , 
c\     s\n—j-dx-c\     sin—  dx 


=  —  (cos  me—  2  cos 


it  is  equal  to 


This  vanishes  if  n  is  odd,  and  if  n  =  4»»,  but  if  n  = 
e,dlmc  ;   the  series  is  therefore 

4c  II    .    2irx  .  1    .    6irX  ,   1    .     lOirx  , 


For  unrestricted  values  of  x,  this  series  represents  the  ordinates 
of  the  series  of  straight  lines  in  fig.  i,  except  that  it  vanishes  at 
the  points  o,  }/,  /,  |/  .  .  . 


-21 


-I 


tl 


FIG.  i. 

We  find  similarly  that  the  same  function  is  represented  by  the 
series  . 

4c  1        irx      1         SJTX  .  1         5irx 


during  the  interval  o  to  I;  for  general  values  of  x  the  series  repre- 
sents the  ordinate  of  the  broken  line  in  fig.  2,  except  that  it  vanishes 
at  the  points  j/,  f  /  .  .  . 


-21 


FIG.  2. 

6)  Let  /(x)=x  from  o  to  %l,  and  /(x)=/-x,  from  §/  to  /;  then 

fl   .  .    .    mrx,       rV     .  mrx,    .   ft  ..      .    .    mrx, 
I   f(x)  sin  -j-dx=  I    xsm-j-dx+  j  ^(l—  x)  sin  -^j-dx 


,     P  P  mr.     P      .    mr       2P     .    Wt 

+_cosn7r__cos_+__sln_=__sln_ 


FOURIER'S  SERIES 


755 


hence  the  sine  series  is 
.  nx 


3«c 


For  general  values  of  x,  the  series  represents  the  ordinates  of  the 
row  of  broken  lines  in  fig.  3. 


/X 


FIG.  3. 

The  cosine  series,  which  represents  the  same-  function  for  the 
interval  o  to  /,  may  be  found  to  be 

1.     21  I      2*x  .  1        fax.  1         Wirx  ,          \ 
4*~^(cos~l — r-pcos— ^ — hijicos— ^ 1-  ...i 

This  series  represents  for  general  values  of  x  the  ordinate  of  the 
set  of  broken  lines  in  fig.  4. 


FIG.  4. 

Dirichlefs  Integral. — The  method  indicated  by  Fourier,  but  first 
carried  out  rigorously  by  Dirichlet,  of  proving  that,  with  certain 
restrictions  as  to  the  nature  of  the  function  f(x),  that  function  is  in 
general  represented  by  the  series  (3),  consists  in  finding  the  sum  of 
n+l  terms  of  that  series,  and  then  investigating  the  limiting  value 
of  the  sum,  when  n  is  increased  indefinitely.  It  thus  appears  that 
the  series  is  convergent,  and  that  the  value  towards  which  its  sum 
converges  is  ${f(x+o)+f(x-o)\,  which  is  in  general  equal  to  /(*). 
It  will  be  convenient  throughout  to  take  — IT  to  *  as  the  given  in- 
terval; any  interval  -/  to  I  may  be  reduced  to  this  by  changing  x 
into  Ixjir,  and  thus  there  is  no  loss  of  generality. 

We  find  by  an  elementary  process  that 

J+cos  (*-*')+  cos  2(x-x')+  .  .  .  +  cos  «(*-*') 


2  sin  y(x'  —x) 

Hence,  with  the  new  notation,  the  sum  of  the  first  n  +  i  terms 
of  (3)  is 


If  we  suppose  f(x)  to  be  continued  beyond  the  interval  -T  to  *-,  in 
such  a  way  that  f(x)=f(x-\-2ir),  we  may  replace  the  limits  in  this 
integral  by  X+JT,  x—x  respectively;  if  we  then  put  x'-x  =  2z,  and 

let  /(x')=F(z),  the  expression  becomes  „  I  '„  F(z)%—— </z,   where 

"J  Dill    Z 

this  expression  may  be  written  in  the  form 


We  require  therefore  to  find  the  limiting  value,    when    m    is 

indefinitely  increased,  of  I  *F(z)— dz;  the  form  of  the  second 

j  o          sin  z 

integral  being  essentially  the  same.     This  integral,  or  rather  the 

slightly  more  general  one  I    F(z)— = — dz,  when  0<  h<?ir,  is  known 
J  o 

as  Dirichlet's  integral.     If  we  write  X(z)=F(z)- — -,  the  integral 
becomes  j    X(z) — - —  dz,  which  is  the  form  in  which  the  integral 


is  frequently  considered. 

The  Second  Mean-Value  Theorem. — The  limiting  value  of  Dirich- 
let's integral  may  be  conveniently  investigated  by  means  of  a 
theorem  in  the  integral  calculus  known  as  the  second  mean-value 
theorem.  Let  a,  b  be  two  fixed  finite  numbers  such  that  a<6, 
and  suppose  }(x),  <t>(x)  are  two  functions  which  have  finite  and 
determinate  values  everywhere  in  the  interval  except  for  a  finite 
number  of  points;  suppose  further  that  the  functions  }(x),  <t>(x) 
are  integrable  throughout  the  interval,  and  that  as  x  increases 
from  a  to  b  the  f unction  f(x)  is  monotone,  i.e.  either  never  diminishes 
or  never  increases;  the  theorem  is  that 


when  {  is  some  point  between  a  and  6,  and/(a),/(6)  may  be  written 
for  /(a+o),  /(fr-o)  unless  a  or  b  is  a  point  of  discontinuity  of  the 
function  /(a;). 

To  prove  this  theorem,  we  observe  that,  since  the  product  of  two 

integrable  functions  is  an  integrable  function,  J  f(x)<t>(x)dx  exists, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  the  limit  of  the  sum  of  a  series 


(*K—  *K-I),  Yo  =  o. 


where  Xo  =  a,    xn  =  b    and    xi,    Xi  .  .  .   Xn-i    are    n—  l      intermediate 
points.     We  can  express  <t>(Xr)  (x^.i-xr)   in  the    form   Yr+i-Yr,  by 

putting  Yr=  S 

K.  =  i 
Writing  X,  for/(av),  the  series  becomes 

Xo(Y1-Y0)+X,(Y2-Y1)+.  .  .+X»_1(Y»-Y_,) 
or         Y1(Xo-X,)+Y2(X1-X2)  +  .  .  .  +  Yn(X_,-X.)  +  Y»Xn. 
Now,  by  supposition,  all  the  numbers  Yi,  Y2  .  .  .  Yn    are    finite, 
and  all  the  numbers  X,_i-Xr  are  of  the  same  sign,  hence  by  a  known 
algebraical  theorem  the  series  is  equal  to  M(Xo—  Xn)+YnXn  where 
M  is  a  number  intermediate  between  the  greatest  and  the  least  of 
the  numbers     Yi,     Y2,  .  .  .  Yn.     This  remains  true  however  many 
partial   intervals  are  taken,  and  therefore,  when  their  number  is 
increased  indefinitely,  and  their  breadths  are  diminished  indefinitely 
according  to  any  law,  we  have 


when  M  is  intermediate  between  the  greatest  and  least  values 
which  j  <f>(x)dx  can  have,  when  *  is  in  the  given  integral.  Now 

this  integral  is  a  continuous  function  of  its  upper  limit  x,  and  there- 
fore there  is  a  value  of  *  in  the  interval,  for  which  it  takes  any 
particular  value  between  the  greatest  and  least  values  that  it  has. 

There  is  therefore  a  value  £  between  a  and  b,  such  that  M  =  J  4>(x)dx> 
hence 


If  the  interval  contains  any  finite  numbers  of  points  of  discontinuity 
of  f(x)  or  <t>(x),  the  method  of  proof  still  holds  good,  provided  these 
points  are  avoided  in  making  the  subdivisions;  in  particular  if 
either  of  the  ends  be  a  point  of  discontinuity  of  f(x),  we  write  /(a+o) 
or/(6-o),  for  /(a)  or/(6),  it  being  assumed  that  these  limits  exist. 

Functions,  with  Limited  Variation.  —  The  condition  that  /(a:),  in  the 
mean-value  theorem,  either  never  increases  or  never  diminishes  as  x 
increases  from  a  to  b,  places  a  restriction  ^upon  the  applications  of  the 
theorem.  We  can,  however,  show  that  a  f  unction  /(x)  which  is  finite 
and  continuous  between  a  and  6,  except  for  a  finite  number  of 
ordinary  discontinuities,  and  which  only  changes  from  increasing  to 
diminishing  or  vice  versa,  a  finite  number  of  times,  as  x  increases 
from  a  to  b,  may  be  expressed  as  the  difference  of  two  functions 
fi(x),  MX),  neither  of  which  ever  diminishes  as  x  passes  from  a  to  b, 
and  that  these  functions  are  finite  and  continuous,  except  that  one 
or  both  of  them  are  discontinuous  at  the  points  where  the  given 
function  is  discontinuous.  Let  o,  /8  be  two  consecutive  points  at 
which  f(x)  is  discontinuous,  consider  any  point  x\,  such  that  a  <  x\  <  ft, 
and  suppose  that  at  the  points  MI,  M2  .  .  .  Mr  between  a  and  x\, 
f(x)  is  a  maximum,  and  at  mi,  mt  .  .  .  nir  it  is  a  minimum;  we  will 
suppose,  for  example,  that  the  ascending  order  of  values  is  a,  Mi,  mi, 
M2,  mt  .  .  .  Mr,  mr,  Xi  •  it  will  make  no  essential  difference  in  the 
argument  if  mi  comes  before  MI,  or  if  Mr  immediately  precedes  Xi, 
Mr_i  being  then  the  last  minimum. 

Let      *(*,)  =  [/(M,)-/(a+o)]  +[/(M2)-/(m,)]  +  .  .  . 

+[/(Mr)-/(«T_1)]  +  [/(*1)-/(m,)]  ; 

now  let  Xi  increase  until  it  reaches  the  value  Mr+i  at  which  /(*)  is 
again  a  maximum,  then  let 


and  suppose  as  x  increases  beyond  the  value  M,+i,  ^(*i)  remains 
constant  until  the  next  minimum  rrir+i  is  reached,  when  it  again 
becomes  variable;     we  see  that  t(xi)  is  essentially  positive  and 
never  diminishes  as  x  increases. 
Let 


then  let  Xi  increase  until  it  is  beyond  the  next  maximum  M,+i, 
and  then  let  x(*i)=[/(M1)-/(m1)]+[/(M«)-/(m,)]+  .  .  . 


thus  x(*i)  never  diminishes,  and  is  alternately  constant  and  variable. 

We  see  that  ^(xi)-x(xi)  is  continuous  as  x\  increases  from  a  to  0, 

and  that  ^(*i)-x(*i)  =f(xi)-f(a+o),  and  when  xi  reaches  /3,  we  have 
(xi)  =/(/S-o)-/(a+o).  Hence  it  is  seen  that  between  a  and 
=  [lK*)+/(a+o)]-x(*),  where  *(*)+/(•»+<>),  x(*)  are  con- 

tinuous and  never  diminish  as  x  increases;     the  same   reasoning 


756 


FOURIER'S  SERIES 


applies  to  every  continuous  portion  of  /(*),  for  which  the  functions 
<l>(x)  x(*)are  formed  in  the  same  manner;  we  nowtake/i(x)  =  il/(x)  + 
/(a+o)  +C,Mx)  =  x(x)  +C,  where  C  is  constant  between  consecutive 
discontinuities,  but  may  have  different  values  in  the  next  interval 
between  discontinuities;  the  C  can  be  so  chosen  that  neither  MX) 
nor  f,(x)  diminishes  as  x  increases  through  a  value  for  which  /(x)  is 
discontinuous.  We  thus  see  that/(*)  =fi(x)-Mx),  where  MX),  MX) 
never  diminish  as  x  increases  from  a  to  b,  and  are  discontinuous  only 
where  f(x)  is  so.  The  function/^)  is  a  particular  case  of  a  class  of 
functions  defined  and  discussed  by  Jordan,  under  the  name  "  func- 
tions with  limited  variation "  (fonctions  d  variation  bornee) ;  in 
general  such  functions  have  not  necessarily  only  a  finite  number  of 
maxima  and  minima. 

Proof  of  the  Convergence  of  Fourier's  Series. — It  will  now  be 
assumed  that  a  function  f(x)  arbitrarily  given  between  the  values 
-IT  and  +*,  has  the  following  properties:— 

(a)  The  function  is  everywhere  numerically  less  than  some  fixed 
positive  number,  and  continuous  except  for  a  finite  number  of  values 
of  the  variable,  for  which  it  may  be  ordinarily  discontinuous. 

(b)  The  function  only  changes  from  increasing  to  diminishing  or 
vice  versa,  a  finite  number  of  times  within  the  interval;  this  is 
usually  expressed  by  saying  that  the  number  of  maxima  and  minima 
is  finite. 

These  limitations  on  the  nature  of  the  function  are  known  as 
Dirichlet's  conditions;  it  follows  from  them  that  the  function  is 
integrable  throughout  the  interval. 

On  these  assumptions,  we  can  investigate  the  limiting  value  of 
Dirichlet's  integral;  it  will  be  necessary  to  consider  only  the  case 
of  a  function  F(z)  which  does  not  diminish  as  z  increases  from  o  to 
Jir,  since  it  has  been  shown  that  in  the  general  case  the  difference 
of  two  such  functions  may  be  taken.  The  following  lemmas  will 
be  required: 

i.  Since 


r| 
J  o 


osin     z 
this  result  holds  however  large  the  odd  integer  m  may  be. 


2. 


when  £'  lies  between  M  and  \TT.  When  m  is  indefinitely  increased, 
:he  two  last  integrals  have  the  limit  zero  in  virtue  of  lemma  (2). 
To  evaluate  the  first  integral  on  the  right-hand  side,  let  G(z)  = 

F(z)-F(o)l -3— ,   and  observe  that  G(z)  increases  as  z  increases 

sin  z 
from  o  to  M,  hence  if  we  apply  the  mean-value  theorem 


where  o<£<M,  since  G(z)  has  the  limit  zero  when  z  =  o.     If  «be  an 
arbitrarily  chosen  positive  number,  a  fixed  value  of  M  may  be  so 

chosenthatTG(M)'<Kandthusthat|J"^G(z)5mJ^d2  <\f.     When 
has  been  so  fixed,  m  may  now  be  so  chosen  that 


i 


It  has  now  been  shown  that  when  m  is  indefinitely  increased 
has  the  limit  zero. 


sin  z          2 
Returning  to  the  form  (4),  we  now  see  that  the  limiting  value  of 


bence  the  sum  of  »  +  i  terms  of  the  series 


1  n  /•/ 
j  _{f( 


NJ 
x)dx 


rt**n*dsa^L_  F  sin  mz  dz+-J-  P1  sin  mz  dz 
J  a  sin  z          sin  aj  „                      sin  pj  y 

where  a  <  y  <  p,  hence 

I    p  sin  mz^ 

2-(J—+-L-}<  _J_ 

n  \sin  a     sin/3/      m  sin  a' 

|  J  a  sin  z            » 

a  precisely  similar  proof  show 

-  tli-it  1  CP  sin  mzd-    -  4 

\J  a       z                ma 

h_      *u    •  *     ™i.   fPsinrntj.    ft  fame  j.  „„„„«„.,„,  tr,  tVip  limit 

hence  the  integrals  1        . 

.'   a,    bin  z 

'"'  J  a         Z 

zero,  as  m  is  indefinitely  increased. 

C°°  sin  0  ,. 
3.  Ifa>o,          -j-  de  cai 

J  a       v 

•mot   exceed    JIT.    For  by  the   mean- 

value  theorem    I    —  ?—  <20  < 

2,2 

a+h' 

,  .           rh  sin  6  ,.     . 
hence    L»—  ««  I    —s~oS  SL 
J  °-    " 

!t 
l' 

in  particular  if  a  ^  ir,     1 

r^  *  |<|- 

.      .      d  r°°  sin  8  ,a          sin  a 

A&inrJ«  —de=    —  '0>0' 

therefore  I       ^—^~dd   increases   as    a    diminishes,    when    0  <  a  <  TT  ; 

J   a        " 

but  lim                 —z—d®  =  5. 

hence      r°s-^d8   <-, 

a—  0_/   a          0                 2 

J  a        6                   2 

where  a<w,  and  <-  where  a^  TT.     It  follows  that 

7T 

\Ja~~e~d0  = 

^  IT,  provided  o^  a</3. 

To  find  the  limit  of  J  oF(z) 

sin  mz,                             . 
•  —  =  dz,  we  observe   that  it  may  be 

written  in  the  form 

converges  to  the  value  i|/(.t+o)+/(*-o)l,  or  to  f(x)  at  a  point 
where /(x)  is  continuous,  provided  f(x)  satisfies  Dirichlel's  conditions 
for  the  interval  from  -/  to  /. 

Proof  that  Fourier's  Series  is  in  General  Uniformly  Convergent. — 
To  prove  that  Fourier's  Series  converges  uniformly  to  its  sum 
for  all  values  of  x,  provided  that  the  immediate  neighbourhoods 
of  the  points  of  discontinuity  of  f(x)  are  excluded,  we  have 

"Goo+j^Ffc+oi-Fcoji 


Using  this  inequality  and  the  corresponding  one  for  F(-z),  we  have 


+|>«  cpsec 

where  A  is  some  fixed  number  independent  of  m.  In  any 
interval  (a,  b)  in  which  f(x)  is  continuous,  a  value  MI  of  M  can  be 
chosen  such  that,  for  every  value  of  x  in  (o,  6),  \f(x+2p)-f(x)\, 
\f(x-2n)-f(x)\  are  less  than  an  arbitrarily  prescribed  positive 
number  e,  provided  M  =  MI-  Also  a  value  MZ  of  M  can  be  so  chosen 
that  CMS  cosec  M2<i'7,  where  TJ  is  an  arbitrarily  assigned  positive 
number.  Take  for  M  the  lesser  of  the  numbers  MI.  M2,  then  |  Sjn+i  - 
/(*)(<  1+A|»z  cosec  M  for  every  value  of  x  in  (a,  6).  It  follows  that, 
since  i\  and  m  are  independent  of  x,  \  S^n+i-f(x)  \<2e,  provided  n  is 
greater  than  some  fixed  value  n\  dependent  only  on  t.  Therefore 
Sjn+i  converges  to/(#)  uniformly  in  the  interval  (a,  b). 

Case  of  a  Function  with  Infinities.  —  The  limitation  that  /(*)  must 
be  numerically  less  than  a  fixed  positive  number  throughout  the 
interval  may,  under  a  certain  restriction,  be  removed.  Suppose  F(z) 
is  indefinitely  great  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  point  z  =  c,  and  is 

such  that  the  limits  of  the  two  integrals  J  ~'  F(z)<fz  are  both  zero,  as  e 
is  indefinitely  diminished,  then 


K 


J 


-  F(z)  — "— <fz  denotes  the  limit  when  t  =  o,  el=o  of 
o  sin  z 


d2+  C^ 
Jc+t1 


where  M  is  a  fixed  number  as  small  as  we  please;  hence  if  we  use 
lemma  (i),  and  apply  the  second  mean-value  theorem, 


mzd     fa    h  h       ,j    j     existing  .  the 
in  z 

first  of  these  integrals  has  £jrF(+o)  for  its  limiting  value  when  m  is  in- 
definitely increased,  and  the  second  has  zero  for  its  limit.  The  theorem 
therefore  holds  if  F(z)  has  an  infinity  up  to  which  it  is  absolutely 
integrable;'  this  will,  for  example,  be  the  case  if  F(z)  near  the  point 
C  is  of  the  form  x(z)  (z-c)~»+<l'(z),  where  x(c),  t(c)  are  finite,  and 
O<M<I.  It  is  thus  seen  that/(x)  may  have  a  finite  number  of 
infinities  within  the  given  interval,  provided  the  function  is  in- 
tegrable through  any  one  of  these  points;  the  function  is  in  that 
case  still  representable  by  Fourier's  Series. 

The  Ultimate  Values  of  the  Coefficients  in  Fourier's  Series.  —  If 
f(x)  is  everywhere  finite  within  the  given  interval  —  JT  to  +ir,  it 
can  be  shown  that  o»,  6»,  the  coefficients  of  cos  nx,  sin  nx  in  the 
series  which  represent  the  function,  are  such  that  nan>  nbn,  however 


FOURIER'S  SERIES 


757 


great  n  is,  are  each  less  than  a  fixed  finite  quantity. 
f(x)=fi(x)-fi(x),  we  have 


C  f1(x)cosnxdx=fi( 

J    —T       . 

hence 


)  f 

J  ~ 


+0)  f     cos  nxdx  +^( 


)  C 

J    * 


For  writing 


cos  nxdx 


C 

J  ~v 


~ 


with  a  similar  expression,  with  f2(x)  for /,(*),  £  being  between  JT 
and  —  ir;  the  result  then  follows  at  once,  and  is  obtained  similarly 
for  the  other  coefficient. 

If  /(x)  is  infinite  at  x  =  c,  and  is  of  the  form  (%_*•!%  near  the  point 


0(x) 

(x^p 


cos  nxdx 


cos  nxdx ;  consider  the  first  of  these,  and  put  x  =  c+u, 


c,  where  o<K<i,  the  integral 
f    /(x)  cos  nxdx  contains  portions  of  the  form  j 

r7  »w 

J  _e  <»-«> 

it   thus  becomes  (   -      K       cos  n(c+u)du,  which  is  of  the  form 

J   o 

C'cosn(c+u)  . 

4,(c+0f)  |    -g -du;  now  let  nu=v,  the  integral  becomes 

•J  ° 

(  cos  nc  fnt  cos  p  ,        sin  nc  /"*'  sin  u  ,    ) 

\   n'~K  J  o     ^  n1      J  a     v          ) 

hence  n1-K  f    /(x)  cos  nxdx  becomes,  as  n  is  definitely  increased, 

(  f    cos  v  ,  T03  sin  v  ,    ) 

of  the  form  <t>(c)  j  cos  nc  I      -^g-dzi-sm  nc  J  ^    -pj-*  $ 

which  is  finite,  both  the  integrals  being  convergent  and  of  known 
value.  The  other  integral  has  a  similar  property,  and  we  infer 
that  n'-Ko,,,  n'~K6n  are  less  than  fixed  finite  numbers. 

The  Differentiation  of  Fourier's  Series. — If  we  assume  that  the 
differential  coefficient  of  a  function  /(x)  represented  by  a  Fourier's 
Series  exists,  that  function  /'(*)  |s  not  necessarily  representable  by 
the  series  obtained  by  differentiating  the  terms  of  the  Fourier's 
Series,  such  derived  series  being  in  fact  not  necessarily  convergent. 
Stokes  has  obtained  general .  formulae  for  finding  the  series  which 
represent  /'(x),  /"(x)— the  successive  differential  coefficients  of  a 
limited  function  /(x).  As  an  example  of  such  formulae,  consider 
the  sine  series  (i);/(x)  is  represented  by 


on  integration  by  parts  we  have  |  /(x)  sin-j-dx 

:cos^j%(a+0)-/(a-0)j] 


where  o  represent  the  points  where  /(x)  is  discontinuous.  Hence 
if  /(x)  is  represented  by  the  series  2an  sin  —j-,  and  f'(x)  by  the 

series  2&»  cos  -7—, we  have  the  relation 

6»  =  %n-?[/(+0)  ±/(/-0)+  2  cos^p|/(a+0)-/(a-0))l 

tr  I     \_  *•  J 

hence  only  when  the  function  is  everywhere  continuous,  and/(+o), 
/(/— o)  are  both  zero,  is  the  series  which  represents /'(x)  obtained 
at  once  by  differentiating  that  which  represents  /(x).  The  form 
of  the  coefficient  an  discloses  the  discontinuities  of  the  function  and 
of  its  differential  coefficients,  for  on  continuing  the  integration 
by  parts  we  find 

2cos^j/(a+0)-/(a-0)l] 

•  2  sin  n-^j-\  /'(/3+0)-/'(j3-0)  j    +&c. 
where  £  are  the  points  at  which /'(x)  is  discontinuous. 

HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE  OF  THE  THEORY 

The  history  of  the  theory  of  the  representation  of  functions  by 
series  of  sines  and  cosines  is  of  great  interest  in  connexion  with 
the  progressive  development  of  the  notion  of  an  arbitrary  function 
of  a  real  variable,  and  of  the  peculiarities  which  such  a  function 
may  possess;  the  modern  views  on  the  foundations  of  the  infini- 
tesimal calculus  have  been  to  a  very  considerable  extent  formed  in 
this  connexion  (see  FUNCTION).  The  representation  of  functions  by 
these  series  was  first  considered  in  the  i8th  century,  in  connexion 
with  the  problem  of  a  vibrating  cord,  and  led  to  a  controversy  as  to 
the  possibility  of  such  expansions.  In  a  memoir  published  in  1747 
(Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  vol.  iii.)  D'Alembert  showed  thai 
the  ordinate  y  at  any  time  t  of  a  vibrating  cord  satisfies  a  differentia 

equation  of  the  form  rrf  =  o-""T2'   where  x  is  measured  along  the 

undisturbed  length  of  the  cord,  and  that  with  the  ends  of  the  cord  o! 
length  /  fixed,  the  appropriate  solution  is y=f(at+x)-f(at-x),  where 


f  is  a  function  such  that  /(*)=/(*  +2/);  in  another  memoir  in  the 
>ame  volume  he  seeks  for  functions  which  satisfy  this  condition. 
:n  the  year  1748  (Berlin  Memoirs,  vol.  iv.)  Euler,  in  discussing 

:he  problem,  gave  /(*)  =  a  sin  y+£  sin  -p+   .   •   •  as  a  particular 


solution,  and  maintained  that  every  curve,  whether  regular  or 
rregular,  must  be  representable  in  this  form.  This  was  objected 
o  by  D'Alembert  (1750)  and  also  by  Lagrange  on  the  ground  that 
rregular  curves  are  inadmissible.  D.  Bernoulli  (Berlin  Memoirs, 
m\.  ix.,  1753)  based  a  similar  result  to  that  of  Euler  on  physical 
ntuition;  his  method  was  criticized  by  Euler  (1753)-  The  question 
was  then  considered  from  a  new  point  of  view  by  Lagrange,  in  a 
memoir  on  the  nature  and  propagation  of  sound  (Miscellanea 
faurensia,  1759;  (Euvres,  vol.  i.),  who,  while  criticizing  Euler's 
method,  considers  a  finite  number  of  vibrating  particles,  and  then 
makes  the  number  of  them  infinite;  he  did  not,  however,  quite  fully 
carry  out  the  determination  of  the  coefficients  in  Bernoulli's  Series. 
These  mathematicians  were  hampered  by  the  narrow  conception  of 
a  function,  in  which  it  is  regarded  as  necessarily  continuous;  a 
discontinuous  function  was  considered  only  as  a  succession  of 
several  different  functions.  Thus  the  possibility  of  the  expansion 
of  a  broken  function  was  not  generally  admitted.  The  first  cases 
n  which  rational  functions  are  expressed  in  sines  and  cosines  were 
,jiven  by  Euler  (Subsidium  calculi  sinmtm,  Novi  Comm.  Petrop., 
vol.  v.,  1754-1755),  who  obtained  the  formulae 

sin  3<t>  .  .  . 


- 

12      4=cos  <£-j  cos  20+  J  cos  3<>  .  .. 
In  a  memoir  presented  to  the  Academy  of  St  Petersburg  in  1777, 
3Ut  not  published  until  1798,  Euler  gave  the  method  afterwards 
ased  by  Fourier,  of  determining  the  coefficients  in  the  expansions  ; 
ie  remarked  that  if  *  is  expansible  in  the  form 

A+Bcos4>+Ccos2<#>+...,thenA  =  -  (%</<*>,  B=~  f^*  cos  <i>d<t>,  &c. 

Jo  Jo 

The  second  period  in  the  development  of  the  theory  commenced 
in  1807,  when  Fourier  communicated  his  first  memoir  on  the  Theory 
of  Heat  to  the  French  Academy.  His  exposition  of  the  present 
theory  is  contained  in  a  memoir  sent  to  the  Academy  in  1811,  of 
which  his  great  treatise  the  Theorie  analytique  de  la  chaleur,  pub- 
lished in  1822,  is,  in  the  main,  a  reproduction.  Fourier  set  himself 
to  consider  the  representation  of  a  function  given  graphically, 
and  was  the  first  fully  to  grasp  the  idea  that  a  single  function  may 
consist  of  detached  portions  given  arbitrarily  by  a  graph.  He 
had  an  accurate  conception  of  the  convergence  of  a  series,  and 
although  he  did  not  give  a  formally  complete  proof  that  a  function 
with  discontinuities  is  representable  by  the  series,  he  indicated  in 
particular  cases  the  method  of  procedure  afterwards  carried  out  by 
Dirichlet.  As  an  exposition  of  principles,  Fourier's  work  is  still 
worthy  of  careful  perusal  by  all  students  of  the  subject.  Poisson's 
tieatment  of  the  subject,  which  has  been  adopted  in  English  works 
(see  the  Journal  de  I'ecole  poly  technique,  vol.  xi.,  1820,  and  vol. 
xii.,  1823,  and  also  his  treatise,  Theorie  de  la  chaleur,  1835), 

TT  1—  h1* 

depends  upon  the  equality  f     /(°)  l-2h  cos  (x-o)  +hlda 

=  ^  CfW'+v  2  *B  /"V(a)  cos  "  <-x~^da 

where  o<  h<  I  ;  the  limit  of  the  integral  on  the  left-hand  side  is 
evaluated  when  h  =  l,  and  found  to  be  il/(x+o)+/(x—  o)j,  the 
series  on  the  right-hand  side  becoming  Fourier's  Series.  The 
equality  of  the  two  limits  is  then  inferred.  If  the  series  is  assumed 
to  be  convergent  when  h  =  l,  by  a  theorem  of  Abel's  its  sum  is 
continuous  with  the  sum  for  values  of  h  less  than  unity,  but  a 
proof  of  the  convergency  for  h  =  I  is  requisite  for  the  validity  of 
Poisson's  proof;  as  Poisson  gave  no  such  proof  of  convergency, 
his  proof  of  the  general  theorem  cannot  be  accepted.  The  deficiency 
cannot  be  removed  except  by  a  process  of  the  same  nature  as  that 
afterwards  applied  by  Dirichlet.  The  definite  integral  has  been 
carefully  studied  by  Schwarz  (see  two  memoirs  in  his  collected 

works  on  the  integration  of  the  equation  gp+|—2  =  0),  who  showed 

that  the  limiting  value  of  the  integral  depends  upon  the  manner 
in  which  the  limit  is  approached.  Investigations  of  Fourier's 
Series  were  also  given  by  Cauchy  (see  his  "  MiSmoire  sur  les  d6veloppe- 
ments  des  fonctions  en  s6ries  periodiques,"  Mem.  de  Vlnst.,  vol.  vi., 
also  (Euvres  completes,  vol.  vii.)  ;  his  method,  which  depends  upon 
a  use  of  complex  variables,  was  accepted,  with  some  modification, 
as  valid  by  Riemann,  but  one  at  least  of  his  proofs  is  no  longer 
regarded  as  satisfactory.  The  first  completely  satisfactory  in- 
vestigation is  due  to  Dirichlet  ;  his  first  memoir  appeared  in  Crelle's 
Journal  for  1829,  and  the.  second,  which  is  a  model  of  clearness,  in 
Dove's  Repertorium  der  Physik.  Dirichlet  laid  down  certain  definite 
sufficient  conditions  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  a  function  which 
is  expansible,  and  found  under  these  conditions  the  limiting  value 
of  the  sum  of  n  terms  of  the  series.  Dirichlet's  determination 
of  the  sum  of  the  series  at  a  point  of  discontinuity  has  been  criticized 
by  Schlafli  (see  Crelle's  Journal,  vol.  Ixxii.)  and  by  Du  Bois-Reymond 
(Mathem.  Annalen,  vol.  vii.),  who  maintained  that  the  sum  is  really 


FOURMIES— FOURNIER 


indeterminate.  Their  objection  appears,  however,  to  rest  upon  a 
misapprehension  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  sum  of  the  series;  if  *i  be 
the  point  of  discontinuity,  it  is  possible  to  make  x  approach  *i, 
and  n  become  indefinitely  great,  so  that  the  sum  of  the  series 
takes  any  assigned  value  in  a  certain  interval,  whereas  we  ought 
to  make  x  =  xl  first  and  afterwards  n=oo,  and  no  other  way  of 
going  to  the  double  limit  is  really  admissible.  Other  papers  by 
Dircksen  (Crelle,  vol.  iv.)  and  Bessel  (Astronomische  Nachrichten,  vol. 
xvi.),  on  similar  lines  to  those  by  Dirichlet,  are  of  inferior  importance. 
Many  of  the  investigations  subsequent  to  Dirichlet's  have  the  object 
of  freeing  a  function  from  some  of  the  restrictions  which  were  imposed 
upon  it  in  Dirichlet's  proof,  but  no  complete  set  of  necessary  and 
sufficient  conditions  as  to  the  nature  of  the  function  has  been  ob- 
tained. Lipschitz  ("  De  explicatione  per  series  trigonometricas," 
Crelle's  Journal,  vol.  Ixiii.,  1864)  showed  that,  under  a  certain  con- 
dition, a  function  which  has  an  infinite  number  of  maxima  and 
minima  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  point  is  still  expansible;  his 
condition  is  that  at  the  point  of  discontinuity  0,  \f(P+6)  -/(/3)  |  <  Ba° 
as  S  converges  to  zero,  B  being  a  constant,  and  a  a  positive  exponent. 
A  somewhat  wider  condition  is 

/(/5+S)-/(/3)l  log  8  =  0, 

S  =  o 

for  which  Lipschitz's  results  would  hold.  This  last  condition  is 
adopted  by  Dini  in  his  treatise  (Sopra  la  serie  di  Fourier,  &c.,  Pisa, 
1880). 

The  modern  period  in  the  theory  was  inaugurated  by  the  publi- 
cation by  Riemann  in  1867  of  his  very  important  memoir,  written 
in  1854,  Ober  die  Darstellbarkeit  einer  Function  durch  eine  trigo- 
nometrische  Reihe.  The  first  part  of  his  memoir  contains  a  historical 
account  of  the  work  of  previous  investigators;  in  the  second  part 
there  is  a  discussion  of  the  foundations  of  the  Integral  Calculus, 
and  the  third  part  is  mainly  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  what  can 
be  inferred  as  to  the  nature  of  a  function  respecting  the  changes  in 
its  value  for  a  continuous  change  in  the  variable,  if  the  function  is 
capable  of  representation  by  a  trigonometrical  series.  Dirichlet 
and  probably  Riemann  thought  that  all  continuous  functions  were 
everywhere  representable  by  the  series;  this  view  was  refuted  by  Du 
Bois-Reymond  (Abh.  der  Bayer.  Akad.  vol.  xii.  2).  It  was  shown 
by  Riemann  that  the  convergence  or  non-convergence  of  the  series 
at  a  particular  point  x  depends  only  upon  the  nature  of  the  function 
in  an  arbitrarily  small  neighbourhood  of  the  point  x.  The  first  to  call 
attention  to  the  importance  of  the  theory  or  uniform  convergence  of 
series  in  connexion  with  Fourier's  Series  was  Stokes,  in  his  memoir 
"  On  the  Critical  Values  of  the  Sums  of  Periodic  Series  "  (Camb.  Phil. 
Trans.,  1847 ;  Collected  Papers,  vol.  i.).  As  the  method  of  determin- 
ing the  coefficients  in  a  trigonometrical  series  is  invalid  unless  the 
series  converges  in  general  uniformly,  the  question  arose  whether 
series  with  coefficients  other  than  those  of  Fourier  exist  which 
represent  arbitrary  functions.  Heine  showed  (Crelle's  Journal, 
vol.  Ixxi.,  1870,  and  in  his  treatise  Kugelfunctionen,  vol.  i.)  that 
Fourier's  Series  is  in  general  uniformly  convergent,  and  that  if 
there  is  a  uniformly  convergent  series  which  represents  a  function, 
it  is  the  only  one  of  the  kind.  G.  Cantor  then  showed  (Crelle's 
Journal,  vols.  Ixxii.  Ixxiii.)  that  even  if  uniform  convergence  be 
not  demanded,  there  can  be  but  one  convergent  expansion  for  a 
function,  and  that  it  is  that  of  Fourier.  In  the  Math.  Ann.  vol. 
v.,  Cantor  extended  his  investigation  to  functions  having  an  in- 
finite number  of  discontinuities.  Important  contributions  to  the 
theory  of  the  series  have  been  published  by  Du  Bois-Reymond 
(Abh.  der  Bayer.  Akademie,  vol.  xii.,  1875,  two  memoirs,  also  in 
Crelle's  Journal,  vols.  Ixxiv.  Ixxvi.  Ixxix.),  by  Kronecker  (Berliner 
Berichte,  1885),  by  O.  Holder  (Berliner  Berichte,  1885),  by  Jordan 
(Comptes  rendus,  1881,  vol.  xcii.),  by  Ascoli  (Math.  AnnaL,  1873, 
and  Annali  di  matematica,  vol.  vi.),  and  by  Genocchi  (Atti  delta 
R.  Ace.  di  Torino,  vol.  x.,  1875).  Hamilton's  memoir  on  "  Fluctuat- 
ing Functions  "  (Trans.  R.I.A.,  vol.  xix.,  1842)  may  also  be  studied 
with  profit  in  this  connexion.  A  memoir  by  Broden  (Math.  Annalen, 
vol.  Hi.)  contains  a  good  investigation  of  some  of  the  most  recent 
results  on  the  subject.  The  scope  of  Fourier's  Series  has  been 
extended  by  Lebesgue,  who  introduced  a  conception  of  integration 
wider  than  that  due  to  Riemann.  Lebesgue's  work  on  Fourier's 
Series  will  be  found  in  his  treatise,  Lefons  sur  les  series  trigono- 
metriques  (1906) ;  also  in  a  memoir,  "  Sur  les  series  trigonometriques," 
Annales  sc.  de  Vecole  normale  superieure,  series  ii.  vol.  xx.  (1903), 
and  in  a  paper  "  Sur  la  convergence  des  series  de  Fourier,"  Math. 
Annalen,  vol.  Ixiv.  (1905). 

AUTHORITIES.— The  foregoing  historical  account  has  been  mainly 
drawn  from  A.  Sachse's  work,  "  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  der 
Darstellung  willkurlicher  Functionen  einer  Variabeln  durch  trigono- 
metrische  Reihen,"  published  in  Schlomilch's  Zeitschrift  fur  Mathe- 
malik,  Supp.,  vol.  xxv.  1880,  and  from  a  paper  by  G.  A.  Gibson 

On  the  History  of  the  Fourier  Series  "  (Proc.  Ed.  Math.  Soc.  vol. 

i"  i  S  Geschichte  der  unendlichen  Reihen  may  also  be  consulted, 
and  also  the  first  part  of  Riemann's  memoir  referred  to  above 
Besides  Dini  s  treatise  already  referred  to,  there  is  a  lucid  treatment 
ol  the  subject  from  an  elementary  point  of  view  in  C.  Neumann's 
treatise,  Uber  die  nach  Kreis-,  Kugel-  und  Cylinder- Functionen 
fortschreitenden  Entwickelungen.  Jordan's  discussion  of  the  subject 
in  his  Lours  d  analyse  is  worthy  of  attention ;  an  account  of  functions 
with  limited  variation  is  given  in  vol.  i. ;  see  also  a  paper  by  Study 


in  the  Math.  Annalen,  vol.  xlvii.  On  the  second  mean- value  theorem 
papers  by  Bonnet  (Brux.  Memoires,  vol.  xxiii.,  1849,  Lionvitte's. 
Journal,  vol.  xiv.,  1849),  by  Du  Bois-Reymond  (Crelle's  Journal,  vol. 
Ixxix.,  1875),  by  Hankel  (Zeitschrift  fur  Math,  und  Physik,  vol.  xiv., 
1869),  by  Meyer  (Math.  Ann.,  vol.  vi.,  1872)  and  by  Holder  (Gottinger 
Anzeigen,  1894)  may  be  consulted;  the  most  general  form  of  the 
theorem  has  been  given  by  Hobson  (Proc.  London  Math.  Soc.,  Series 
II.  vol.  vii.,  1909).  On  the  theory  of  uniform  convergence  of  series, 
a  memoir  by  W.  F.  Osgood  (Amer.  Journal  of  Math,  xix.)  may  be  with 
advantage  consulted.  On  the  theory  of  series  1n  general,  in  relation 
to  the  functions  which  they  can  represent,  a  memoir  by  Baire 
(Annali  di  matematica.  Series  III.  vol.  iii.)  is  of  great  import- 
ance. Bromwich's  Theory  of  Infinite  Series  (1908)  contains  much 
information  on  the  general  theory  of  series.  B6cher's  "  Intro- 
duction to  the  Theory  of  Fourier's  Series,"  Annals  of  Math.,  Series 
II.  vol.  vii.,  1906,  will  be  found  useful.  See  also  Carslaw's  In- 
troduction to  the  Theory  of  Fourier's  Series  and  Integrals,  and  the 
Mathematical  Theory  of  the  Conduction  of  Heat  (1906).  A  full  account 
of  the  theory  will  be  found  in  Hobson's  treatise  On  the  Theory 
of  Functions  of  a  Real  Variable  and  on  the  Theory  of  Fourier's  Series 
(1907).  (E.  W.  H.) 

FOURMIES,  a  town  of  northern  France,  in  the  department 
of  Nord,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Sambre,  39  m.  S.E.  of  Valenciennes 
by  rail.  Pop.  (1906)  13,308.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  centres  in 
France  for  wool  combing  and  spinning,  and  produces  a  great 
variety  of  cloths.  The  glass-works  of  Fourmies  date  from 
1 599,  and  were  the  first  established  in  the  north  of  France.  Iron 
is  worked  in  the  vicinity,  and  there  are  important  forges  and 
foundries.  Enamel-ware  is  also  manufactured.  In  1891  labour 
troubles  brought  about  military  intervention  and  consequent 
bloodshed.  A  board  of  trade  arbitration  and  a  school  of  com- 
merce and  industry  are  among  the  public  institutions. 

FOURMONT,  fiTIENNE  (1683-1745),  French  orientalist,  was 
born  at  Herbelai,  near  Saint  Denis,  on  the  23rd  of  June  1683. 
He  studied  at  the  College  Mazarin,  Paris,  and  afterwards  in  the 
College  Montaigu,  where  his  attention  was  attracted  to  Oriental 
languages.  Shortly  after  leaving  the  college  he  published  a 
Traduction  du  commentaire  du  Rabbin  Abraham  Aben  Esra  sur 
I'ecdesiaste.  In  1711  Louis  XIV.  appointed  Fourmont  to 
assist  a  young  Chinese,  Hoan-ji,  in  compiling  a  Chinese  grammar. 
Hoan-ji  died  in  1716,  and  it  was  not  until  1737  that  Fourmont 
published  Meditationes  Sinicae  and  in  1742  Crammatica  Sinica. 
He  also  wrote  Reflexions  critiques  sur  les  histoires  des  anciens 
peuples  (1735),  and  several  dissertations  printed  in  the  Memoires 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He  became  professor  of  Arabic 
in  the  College  de  France  in  1715.  In  1713  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  in  1738  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  in  1742  a  member  of  that 
of  Berlin.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  iQth  of  December  1745. 

His  brother,  Michel  Fourmont  (1690-1 746),  was  also  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  professor  of  the  Syriac 
language  in  the  Royal  College,  and  was  sent  by  the  government 
to  copy  inscriptions  in  Greece. 

An  account  of  Etienne  Fourmont's  life  and  a  catalogue  of  his 
works  will  be  found  in  the  second  edition  (1747)  of  his  Reflexions 
critiques. 

FOURNET,  JOSEPH  JEAN  BAPTISTS  XAVIER  (1801-1869), 
French  geologist  and  metallurgist,  was  born  at  Strassburg  on 
the  isth  of  May  1801.  He  was  educated  at  the  Ecole  des  Mines 
at  Paris,  and  after  considerable  experience  as  a  mining  engineer 
he  was  in  1834  appointed  professor  of  geology  at  Lyons.  He  was 
a  man  of  wide  knowledge  and  extensive  research,  and  wrote 
memoirs  on  chemical  and  mineralogical  subjects,  on  eruptive 
rocks,  on  the  structure  of  the  Jura,  the  metamorphism  of  the 
Western  Alps,  on  the  formation  of  oolitic  limestones,  on  kaolin- 
ization  and  on  metalliferous  veins.  On  metallurgical  subjects 
also  he  was  an  acknowledged  authority;  and  he  published 
observations  on  the  order  of  sulphurability  of  metals  (loi  de 
Fournet).  He  died  at  Lyons  on  the  8th  of  January  1869.  His 
chief  publications  were:  Etudes  sur  les  depdts  metalliferes  (Paris, 
1834);  Histoire  de  la  dolomie  (Lyons,  1847);  De  I' extension 
des  terrains  houillers  (1855);  Geologic  lyonnaise  (Lyons,  1861). 

FOURNIER,  PIERRE  SIMON  (1712-1768),  French  engraver 
and  typefounder,  was  born  at  Paris  on  the  isth  of  September 
1712.  He  was  the  son  of  a  printer,  and  was  brought  up  to  his 
father's  business.  After  studying  drawing  under  the  painter 


FOURNIER  L'HERITIER— FOWEY 


759 


Colson,  he  practised  for  some  time  the  art  of  wood-engraving, 
and  ultimately  turned  his  attention  to  the  engraving  and  casting 
of  types.  He  designed  many  new  characters,  and  his  foundry 
became  celebrated  not  only  in  France,  but  in  foreign  countries. 
Not  content  with  his  practical  achievements,  he  sought  to 
stimulate  public  interest  in  his  art  by  the  production  of  various 
works  on  the  subject.  In  1737  he  published  his  Table  des 
proportions  qu'il  faut  observer  entre  les  caracleres,  which  was 
followed  by  several  other  technical  treatises.  In  1 7  58  he  assailed 
the  title  of  Gutenberg  to  the  honour  awarded  him  as  inventor 
of  printing,  claiming  it  for  Schoffer,  in  his  Dissertation  sur 
I'origine  el  les  progres  de  I'art  de  graver  en  bois.  This  gave  rise 
to  a  controversy  in  which  Schopflin  and  Baer  were  his  opponents. 
Fournier's  contributions  to  this  debate  were  collected  and  re- 
printed under  the  title  of  Trailes  historiques  el  critiques  sur 
I'origine  de  I'imprimerie.  His  principal  work,  however,  was  the 
Manuel  typographique,  which  appeared  in  2  vols.  8vo  in  1764, 
the  first  volume  treating  of  engraving  and  type-founding,  the 
second  of  printing,  with  examples  of  different  alphabets.  It 
was  the  author's  design  to  complete  the  work  in  four  volumes, 
but  he  did  not  live  to  execute  it.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  8th  of 
October  1768. 

FOURNIER  L'HfiRITIER,  CLAUDE  ('745-1825),  French 
revolutionist,  called  "  I'Americain,"  was  born  at  Auzon  (Haute- 
Loire)  on  the  2ist  of  December  1745,  the  son  of  a  poor  weaver. 
He  went  to  America  to  seek  his  fortune,  and  started  at  San 
Domingo  an  establishment  for  making  tafia  (an  inferior  quality 
of  rum),  but  lost  his  money  in  a  fire.  Returning  to  France 
he  threw  himself  into  the  Revolution  with  enthusiasm,  and 
specially  distinguished  himself  by  the  active  part  he  took  in  the 
organization  of  the  popular  armed  force  by  means  of  which  the 
most  famous  of  the  revolutionary  coups  were  effected.  His 
influence  was  principally  manifested  in  the  insurrections  of  the 
5th  and  6th  of  October  1789,  the  i?th  of  July  1791,  and  the 
2oth  of  June  and  the  loth  of  August  1792.  He  was  on  bad 
terms  with  the  majority  of  the  politicians,  and  particularly 
with  Marat,  and  spent  a  great  part  of  his  time  in  prison,  all  the 
governments  regarding  him  as  an  agitator  and  accusing  him  of 
inciting  to  insurrection.  Arrested  for  the  first  time  for  trying 
to  force  an  entrance  into  the  club  of  the  Cordeliers,  from  which 
he  had  been  expelled,  he  was  released,  but  was  in  prison  from 
the  I2th  of  December  1793  to  the  2ist  of  September  1794,  and 
again  from  the  9th  of  March  1795  to  the  26th  of  October  1795. 
After  the  attempt  on  the  First  Consul  in  the  rue  Sainte-Nicaise 
he  was  deported  to  Guiana,  but  was  allowed  to  return  to  France 
in  1809.  In  1811,  while  under  surveillance  at  Auxerre,  he  was 
accused  of  having  provoked  an  emeute  against  taxes  known  as 
the  droits  reunis  (afterwards  called  contributions  indirectes), 
and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Chateau  d'lf,  where  he  remained  till 
1814.  On  the  second  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  Fournier 
was  confined  for  about  nine  months  in  the  prison  of  La  Force. 
After  1816  he  was  left  unmolested,  turned  royalist,  and  passed 
his  last  years  in  importuning  the  Restoration  government  for 
compensation  for  his  lost  property  in  San  Domingo.  He  died 
in  obscurity. 

For  further  details  see  preface  to  F.  A.  Aulard's  edition  of  Fournier's 
Memoires  secrets  (Paris,  1890),  published  by  the  Societe  de  1'histoire 
de  la  Revolution. 

FOURTOU,  MARIE  FRANCOIS  OSCAR  BARDY  DE  (1836- 
1897),  French  politician,  was  born  at  Riberac  (Dordogne)  on 
the  3rd  of  January  1836,  and  represented  his  native  department 
in  the  National  Assembly  after  the  Franco-German  War.  There 
he  proved  a  useful  adherent  to  Thiers,  who  made  him  minister 
of  public  works  in  December  1872.  He  was  minister  of  religion 
in  the  cabinet  of  May  18-24,  1873,  being  the  only  member  of  the 
Right  included  by  Thiers  in  that  short-lived  ministry.  As 
minister  of  education,  religion  and  the  fine  arts  in  the  recon- 
structed cabinet  of  the  due  de  Broglie  he  had  used  his  adminis- 
trative powers  to  further  clerical  ends,  and  as  minister  of  the 
interior  in  Broglie 's  cabinet  in  1877  he  resumed  the  adminis- 
trative methods  of  the  Second  Empire.  With  a  well-known 
Bonapartist,  Baron  R.  C.  F.  Reille,  as  his  secretary,  he  replaced 


republican  functionaries  by  Bonapartist  partisans,  reserving 
a  few  places  for  the  Legitimists.  In  the  general  elections  of 
that  year  he  used  the  whole  weight  of  officialdom  to  secure  a 
majority  for  the  Right,  to  support  a  clerical  and  reactionary 
programme.  He  accompanied  Marshal  MacMahon  in  his  tour 
through  southern  France,  and  the  presidential  manifesto  of 
September,  stating  that  the  president  would  rely  solely  on  the 
Senate  should  the  elections  prove  unfavourable,  was  generally 
attributed  to  Fourtou.  In  spite  of  these  efforts  the  cabinet  fell, 
and  a  commission  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  their  uncon- 
stitutional abuse  of  power.  Fourtou  was  unseated  in  consequence 
of  the  revelations  made  in  the  report  of  the  commission.  In  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  Gambetta  gave  the  lie  direct  to  Fourtou's 
allegation  that  the  republican  party  opposed  every  republican 
principle  that  was  not  antiquated.  A  duel  was  fought  in  con- 
sequence, but  neither  party  was  injured.  He  was  re-elected  to 
the  chamber  in  1879  and  entered  the  Senate  the  next  year. 
Failing  to  secure  re-election  to  the  Senate  in  1885  he  again  entered 
the  popular  chamber  as  Legitimist  candidate  in  1889,  but  he 
took  no  further  active  part  in  politics.  He  died  in  Paris  in  1897. 

His  works  include  Histoire  de  Louis  XVI  (1840);  Histoire  de 
Saint  Pie  V  (1845);  Mme  Swetchine,  sa  vie  et  ses  ceuvres  (2  vols., 
1859);  La  Question  italienne  (1860);  De  la  centre-revolution  (1876); 
and  Memoires  d'un  royaliste  (2  vols.,  if" 


FOUSSA,  or  FOSSA,  the  native  name  of  Cryploprocla  ferox,  a 
somewhat  cat-like  or  civet-like  mammal  peculiar  to  Madagascar, 
where  it  is  the  largest  carnivorous  animal.  It  is  about  twice 
the  size  of  a  cat  (5  ft.  from  nose  to  end  of  tail),  with  short  close 
fur  of  nearly  uniform  pale  brown.  Little  is  known  of  its  habits, 
except  that  it  is  nocturnal,  frequently  attacks  and  carries  off 
goats,  and  especially  kids,  and  shows  great  ferocity  when 
wounded,  on  which  account  it  is  much  dreaded  by  the  natives. 
An  example  lived  in  the  London  zoological  gardens  for  nearly 
fourteen  years.  See  CARNIVORA. 

FOWEY  (usually  pronounced  Foy),  a  seaport  and  market- 
town  in  the  Bodmin  parliamentary  division  of  Cornwall,  England, 
on  the  Great  Western  railway,  25  m.  by  sea  W.  of  Plymouth. 
Pop.  (1901)  2258.  It  lies  on  the  west  shore  of  the  picturesque 
estuary  of  the  river  Fowey,  close  to  the  water's  edge,  and 
sheltered  by  a  screen  of  hills.  Its  church  of  St  Nicholas  is  said 
to  have  been  built  in  the  I4th  century,  on  the  site  of  a  still  older 
edifice  dedicated  to  St  Finbar  of  Cork.  It  has  a  fine  tower  and 
late  Norman  doorway.  Within  are  a  priest's  chamber  over  the 
porch,  a  handsome  oak  ceiling,  a  15th-century  pulpit,  and  some 
curious  monuments  and  brasses.  Place  House,  adjacent  to  the 
church,  is  a  highly  ornate  Tudor  building.  A  few  ancient 
houses  remain  in  the  town.  Deep-sea  fishing  is  carried  on; 
but  the  staple  trade  consists  in  the  export  of  china  clay  and 
minerals,  coal  being  imported.  Fowey  harbour,  which  is  easy 
of  access  in  clear  weather,  will  admit  large  vessels  at  any  state 
of  the  tide.  St  Catherine's  Fort,  dating  from  the  days  of  Henry 
VIII.  and  now  ruined,  stands  at  the  harbour's  mouth,  and 
once  formed  the  main  defence  of  the  town.  Opposite  the  town, 
and  connected  with  it  by  Bodeneck  Ferry,  is  the  village  of  Polruan. 
Its  main  features  are  St  Saviour's  Chapel,  with  an  ancient  rood- 
stone,  and  the  remains  of  Hall  House,  which  was  garrisoned 
during  the  civil  wars  of  the  i7th  century. 

Fowey  (Fawy,  Vawy,  Fowyk)  held  a  leading  position  amongst 
Cornish  ports  from  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  to  the  days  of  the 
Tudors.  The  numerous  references  to  the  privateering  exploits 
of  its  ships  in  the  Patent  and  Close  Rolls  and  the  extraordinary 
number  of  them  at  the  siege  of  Calais  in  1346  alike  testify  to  its 
importance.  During  this  period  the  king's  mandates  were 
addressed  to  the  bailiffs  or  to  the  mayor  and  bailiffs,  and  no 
charter  of  incorporation  appears  to  have  been  granted  until  the 
reign  of  James  II.  Under  the  second  charter  of  1690  the  common 
council  consisted  of  a  mayor  and  eight  aldermen  and  these 
with  a  recorder  elected  the  free  burgesses.  A  member  for  Fowey 
and  Looe  was  summoned  to  a  council  at  Westminster  in  1340, 
but  from  that  date  until  1571,  when  it  was  entrusted  with  the 
privilege  of  returning  two  members,  it  had  no  parliamentary 
representation.  By  the  Reform  Act  of  1832  it  lost  both  its 


760 


FOWL— FOWLER,  E. 


members.  It  had  ceased  to  exercise  its  municipal  functions  a 
few  years  previously.  In  1316  the  prior  of  Tywardreath,  as 
lord  of  the  manor,  obtained  the  right  to  hold  a  Monday  market 
and  two  fairs  on  the  feasts  of  St  Finbar  and  St  Lucy,  but  by  the 
charter  of  1690  provision  was  made  for  a  Saturday  market  and 
three  fairs,  on  the  ist  of  May,  loth  of  September  and  Shrove 
Tuesday,  and  only  these  three  continue  to  be  held. 

FOWL  (Dan.  Fugl,  Ger.  Vogel),  a  term  originally  used  in  the 
sense  that  bird '  now  is,  but,  except  in  composition, — as  sea-fowl, 
wild-fowl  and  the  like, — practically  almost  confined 2  at  present 
to  designate  the  otherwise  nameless  species  which  struts  on  our 
dunghills,  gathers  round  our  barn-doors,  or  stocks  our  poultry 
yards — the  type  of  the  genus  Callus  of  ornithologists,  of  which 
four  well-marked  species  are  known.  The  first  of  these  is  the 
red  jungle-fowl  of  the  greater  part  of  India,  G.  ferrugineus, — 
called  by  many  writers  G.  bankiva, — which  is  undoubtedly  the 
parent  stock  of  all  the  domestic  races  (cf.  Darwin,  Animals  and 
Plants  under  Domestication,  i.  pp.  233-246) .  It  inhabits  northern 
India  from  Sind  to  Burma  and  Cochin  China,  as  well  as  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  many  of  the  islands  as  far  as  Timor,  besides  the 
Philippines.  It  occurs  on  the  Himalayas  up  to  the  height  of 
4000  ft.,  and  its  southern  limits  in  the  west  of  India  proper  are, 
according  to  Jerdon,  found  on  the  Raj-peepla  hills  to  the  south 
of  the  Nerbudda,  and  in  the  east  near  the  left  bank  of  the 
Godavery,  or  perhaps  even  farther,  as  he  had  heard  of  its  being 
killed  at  Cummum.  This  species  resembles  in  plumage  what  is 
commonly  known  among  poultry-fanciers  as  the  "  Black-breasted 
game  "  breed,  and  this  is  said  to  be  especially  the  case  with 
examples  from  the  Malay  countries,  between  which  and  examples 
from  India  some  differences  are  observable — the  latter  having 
the  plumage  less  red,  the  ear-lappets  almost  invariably  white, 
and  slate-coloured  legs,  while  in  the  former  the  ear-lappets  are 
crimson,  like  the  comb  and  wattles,  and  the  legs  yellowish.  If 
the  Malayan  birds  be  considered  distinct,  it  is  to  them  that  the 
name  G.  bankiva  properly  applies.  This  species  is  said  to  be 
found  in  lofty  forests  and  in  dense  thickets,  as  well  as  in  ordinary 
bamboo-jungles,  and  when  cultivated  land  is  near  its  haunts, 
it  may  be  seen  in  the  fields  after  the  crops  are  cut  in  straggling 
parties  of  from  10  to  20.  The  crow  to  which  the  cock  gives 
utterance  morning  and  evening  is  just  like  that  of  a  bantam, 
never  prolonged  as  in  most  domestic  birds.  The  hen  breeds 
from  January  to  July,  according  to  the  locality;  and  lays  from 
8  to  12  creamy-white  eggs,  occasionally  scraping  together  a  few 
leaves  or  a  little  dry  grass  by  way  of  a  nest.  The  so-called  G. 
giganleus,  formerly  taken  by  some  ornithologists  for  a  distinct 
species,  is  now  regarded  as  a  tame  breed  of  G.  ferrugineus  or 
bankiva.  '  The  second  good  species  is  the  grey  jungle-fowl,  G. 
sonnerali,  whose  range  begins  a  little  to  the  northward  of  the 
limits  of  the  preceding,  and  it  occupies  the  southern  part  of  the 
Indian  peninsula,  without  being  found  elsewhere.  The  cock 
has  the  end  of  the  shaft  of  the  neck-hackles  dilated,  forming  a 
horny  plate,  like  a  drop  of  yellow  sealing-wax.  His  call  is  very 
peculiar,  being  a  broken  and  imperfect  kind  of  crow,  quite  unlike 
that  of  G.  ferrugineus  and  more  like  a  cackle.  The  two  species 
where  their  respective  ranges  overlap,  occasionally  interbreed 
in  a  wild  state,  and  the  present  readily  crosses  in  confinement 
with  domestic  poultry,  but  the  hybrids  are  nearly  always  sterile. 
The  third  species  is  the  Sinhalese  jungle-fowl,  G.  stanleyi  (the 
G.  lafayellii  of  some  authors),  peculiar  to  Ceylon.  This  also 
greatly  resembles  in  plumage  some  domestic  birds,  but  the  cock 
is  red  beneath,  and  has  a  yellow  comb  with  a  red  edge  and 
purplish-red  cheeks  and  wattles.  He  has  also  a  singularly 
different  voice,  his  crow  being  dissyllabic.  This  bird  crosses 
readily  with  tame  hens,  but  the  hybrids  are  believed  to  be  infertile. 
The  fourth  species,  G.  varius  (the  G.  furcalus  of  some  authors) , 
inhabits  Java  and  the  islands  eastwards  as  far  as  Flores.  This 
differs  remarkably  from  the  others  in  not  possessing  hackles,  and 

1  Bird  (cognate  with  breed  and  brood)  was  originally  the  young  of 
any  animal,  and  an  early  Act  of  the  Scottish  parliament  speaks  of 
"  Wolf-birdis,"  i.e.  Wolf-cubs. 

2  Like  Deer  (Dan.  Dyr.  Ger.  Tier).     Beast,  too,  with  some  men 
has  almost  attained  as  much  specialization. 


in  having  a  large  unserrated  comb  of  red  and  blue  and  only  a 
single  chin  wattle.  The  predominance  of  green  in  its  plumage 
is  another  easy  mark  of  distinction.  Hybrids  between  this 
species  and  domestic  birds  are  often  produced,  but  they  are  most 
commonly  sterile.  Some  of  them  have  been  mistaken  for  distinct 
species,  as  those  which  have  received  the  names  of  G.  aeneus 
and  G.  temmincki. 

Several  circumstances  seem  to  render  it  likely  that  fowls 
were  first  domesticated  in  Burma  or  the  countries  adjacent 
thereto,  and  it  is  the  tradition  of  the  Chinese  that  they  received 
their  poultry  from  the  West  about  the  year  1400  B.C.  By  the 
Institutes  of  Manu,  the  tame  fowl  is  forbidden,  though  the  wild 
is  allowed  to  be  eaten — showing  that  its  domestication  was 
accomplished  when  they  were  written.  The  bird  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament  nor  by  Homer,  though  he  has  'AXewcop 
(cock)  as  the  name  of  a  man,  nor  is  it  figured  on  ancient  Egyptian 
monuments.  Pindar  mentions  it,  and  Aristophanes  calls  it  the 
Persian  bird,  thus  indicating  it  to  have  been  introduced  to  Greece 
through  Persia,  and  it  is  figured  on  Babylonian  cylinders  between 
the  6th  and  7th  centuries  B.C.  It  is  sculptured  on  the  Lycian 
marbles  in  the  British  Museum  (c.  600  B.C.),  and  E.  Blyth 
remarks  (Ibis,  1867,  p.  157)  that  it  is  there  represented  with  the 
appearance  of  a  true  jungle-fowl,  for  none  of  the  wild  Galli 
have  the  upright  bearing  of  the  tame  breed,  but  carry  their 
tail  in  a  drooping  position.  For  further  particulars  of  these 
breeds  see  POUL!RY.  (A.  N.) 

FOWLER,  CHARLES  (1792-1867),  English  architect,  was 
born  at  Cullompton,  Devon,  on  the  i7th  of  May  1792.  After 
serving  an  apprenticeship  of  five  years  at  Exeter,  he  went  to 
London  in  1814,  and  entered  the  office  of  David  Laing,  where 
he  remained  till  he  commenced  practice  for  himself.  His  first 
work  of  importance  was  the  court  of  bankruptcy  in  Basinghall 
Street,  finished  in  1821.  In  the  following  year  he  gained  the 
first  premium  for  a  design  for  the  new  London  bridge,  which, 
however,  was  ultimately  built  according  to  the  design  of  another 
architect.  Fowler's  other  designs  for  bridges  include  one  con- 
structed across  the  Dart  at  Totnes.  He  was  also  the  architect 
for  the  markets  of  Covent  Garden  and  Hungerford,  the  new 
market  at  Gravesend,  and  Exeter  lower  market,  and  besides 
several  churches  he  designed  Devon  lunatic  asylum  (1845), 
the  London  fever  hospital  (1849),  and  the  hall  of  the  Wax 
Chandlers'  Company,  Gresham  Street  (1853).  For  some  years 
he  was  honorary  secretary  of  the  institute  of  British  architects, 
and  he  was  afterwards  created  vice-president.  He  retired  from 
his  profession  in  1853,  and  died  at  Great  Marlow,  Bucks,  on  the 
26th  of  September  1867. 

FOWLER,  EDWARD  (1632-1714),  English  divine,  was  born 
in  1632  at  Westerleigh,  Gloucestershire,  and  was  educated  at 
Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  afterwards  migrating  to  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  He  was  successively  rector  of  Norhill, 
Bedfordshire  (1656)  and  of  All  Hallows,  Bread  Street,  London 
(1673),  and  in  1676  was  elected  a  canon  of  Gloucester,  his  friend 
Henry  More,  the  Cambridge  Platonist,  resigning  in  his  favour. 
In  1 68 1  he  became  vicar  of  St  Giles,  Cripplegate,  but  after  four 
years  was  suspended  for  Whiggism.  When  the  Declaration 
of  Indulgence  was  published  in  1687  he  successfully  influenced 
the  London  clergy  against  reading  it.  In  1691  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Gloucester  and  held  the  see  until  his  death  on  the 
26th  of  August  1714.  Fowler  was  suspected  of  Pelagian  ten- 
dencies, and  his  earliest  book  was  a  Free  Discourse  in  defence  of 
The  Practices  of  Certain  Moderate  Divines  called  Laliludinarians 
(1670).  The  Design  of  Christianity,  published  by  him  in  the 
following  year,  in  which  he  laid  stress  on  the  moral  design  of 
revelation,  was  criticized  by  Baxter  in  his  How  far  Holiness 
is  the  Design  of  Christianity  (1671)  and  by  Bunyan  in  his  Defence 
of  the  Doctrine  of  Justification  by  Faith  (1672),  the  latter  describing 
the  Design  as  "a  mixture  of  Popery,  Socinianism  and  Quakerism," 
a  horrid  accusation  to  which  Fowler  replied  in  a  scurrilous 
pamphlet  entitled  Dirt  Wip'd  Off.  He  also  published,  in  1693, 
Twenty-Eight  Propositions,  by  which  the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
is  endeavoured  to  be  explained,  challenging  with  some  success  the 
Socinian  position. 


FOWLER,  J.— FOX,  C.  J. 


761 


FOWLER,  JOHN  (1826-1864),  English  inventor,  was  born 
at  Melksham,  Wilts,  on  the  nth  of  July  1826.  He  learned 
practical  engineering  at  Middlesborough-on-Tees,  and  about 
1850  invented  a  mechanical  system  for  the  drainage  of  land. 
In  1852  he  began  experiments  in  steam  cultivation,  and  in  1858 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  awarded  him  the  prize  of  £500 
which  it  had  offered  for  a  steam-cultivator  that  should  be  an 
economic  substitute  for  the  plough  or  the  spade.  In  1860  he 
founded  at  Hunslet,  Leeds,  the  firm  of  Fowler  &  Co.,  manu- 
facturers of  agricultural  machinery,  traction  engines,  &c.  He 
died  at  Ackworth,  Yorkshire,  on  the  4th  of  December  1864. 

FOWLER,  SIR  JOHN  (1817-1898),  English  civil  engineer, 
was  born  on  the  1 5th  of  July  1 8 1 7  at  Wadsley  Hall,  near  Sheffield, 
where  his  father  was  a  land-surveyor.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
he  became  a  pupil  of  John  Towlerton  Leather,  the  engineer  of 
the  Sheffield  water-works.  The  latter's  uncle,  George  Leather, 
was  engineer  of  the  Great  Aire  and  Calder  Navigation  Company, 
of  the  Goole  Docks,  and  other  similar  works,  and  Fowler  passed 
occasionally  into  his  employment,  in  which  he  acquired  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  hydraulic  engineering.  The  era  of 
railway  construction  soon  swept  both  Fowler  and  his  employers 
into  its  service,  and  one  of  his  first  employments  was  to  oppose 
the  route  of  the  Midland  railway,  chosen  by  the  Stephensons, 
which  left  Sheffield  on  a  branch  line,  and  was  therefore  strongly 
resented  by  the  inhabitants.  The  prestige  of  the  Stephensons 
carried  all  before  it,  but  in  later  life  Sir  John  Fowler  had  the 
satisfaction  of  seeing  the  opposition  of  his  clients  justified,  and 
Sheffield  placed  on  the  main  line.  In  1838  he  went  into  the 
office  of  John  Urpeth  Rastrick,  one  of  the  leading  railway 
engineers  of  the  day,  where  he  was  employed  in  designing  bridges 
lor  the  line  from  London  to  Brighton,  and  also  in  surveying  for 
railways  in  Lancashire.  In  1839  he  went  as  representative  of 
Mr  Leather  to  take  charge  of  the  construction  of  the  Stockton 
&  Hartlepool  railway  and  remained  as  manager  of  the  line  after 
it  was  finished.  In  1844  he  began  his  independent  career  as  an 
engineer,  and  from  the  first  was  largely  employed,  more  particu- 
larly in  laying  out  the  small  railway  systems  which  eventually 
were  amalgamated  under  the  title  of  the  Manchester,  Sheffield 
&  Lincolnshire.  In  the  course  of  this  work  he  designed  a 
bridge  known  as  Torksey  Bridge,  which  was  disallowed  by  the 
Board  of  Trade  inspector,  Captain  (afterwards  Field-Marshal  Sir) 
Lintorn  Simmons.  The  engineering  profession  espoused  Fowler's 
side  in  the  controversy  which  followed,  and  as  a  result  the  verdict 
of  the  Board  of  Trade  was  modified.  The  episode  was  the 
beginning  of  a  warm  friendship  between  these  distinguished 
representatives  of  civil  and  military  engineering.  Fowler  was 
engineer  of  the  London  Metropolitan  railway,  the  pioneer  of 
underground  railways,  and  noteworthy  in  that  it  was  mostly 
made  not  by  tunnelling,  but  by  excavating  from  the  surface  and 
then  covering  in  the  permanent  way;  and  he  lived  to  be  one  of 
the  engineers  officially  connected  with  the  deep  tunnelling  "  tube" 
system  extensively  adopted  for  electric  railways  in  London. 
He  was  also  engaged  in  the  making  of  railways  in  Ireland,  and 
in  1867  he  was  selected  by  Disraeli  to  serve  on  a  commission  to 
advise  the  government  in  respect  of  a  proposal  for  a  state- 
purchase  of  the  Irish  railway  system.  He  also  carried  out 
considerable  works  in  relation  to  the  Nene  Valley  drainage  and 
the  reclamation  of  land  at  the  Norfolk  estuary. 

In  1865  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  the  youngest  president  who  had  ever  sat  in  the  chair. 
He  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  project  of  a  Channel  tunnel  to 
France,  and  in  1872  he  endeavoured  to  obtain  the  consent  of 
parliament  to  a  Channel  ferry  scheme,  whereby  trains  were  to  be 
transported  across  the  strait  in  large  ferry  steamers.  The 
proposal  involved  the  making  of  enlarged  harbours  at  Dover 
and  Audresselles  on  the  French  coast,  and  the  bill,  after  passing 
the  Commons,  was'  thrown  out  by  the  casting  vote  of  the  chairman 
of  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Lords.  In  1875  he  was  enabled 
to  render,  in  his  private  capacity,  a  signal  service  to  the  Italian 
government,  which  was  much  embarrassed  by  impracticable 
proposals  pressed  on  it  by  Garibaldi  for  a  rectification  of  the 
course  of  the  Tiber  and  other  engineering  works.  He  had 


several  interviews  with  the  Italian  patriot,  and  persuaded  him 
of  the  impracticable  nature  of  his  plan,  thereby  obtaining  for 
the  government  leisure  to  devise  a  more  reasonable  scheme. 
For  eight  years  from  1871  he  acted  as  general  engineering  adviser 
in  Egypt  to  the  Khedive  Ismail.  He  projected  a  railway  to  the 
Sudan,  and  also  the  reparation  of  the  barrage.  These  and  many 
other  plans  came  to  an  end  owing  to  financial  reasons.  But  the 
maps  and  surveys  for  the  railway  were  given  to  the  war  office, 
and  proved  most  useful  to  Lord  Wolseley  in  his  Nile  expedition. 
For  his  service  Fowler  was  made  K.C.M.G.  (1885).  He  was 
created  a  baronet  in  1890  on  the  completion  of  the  Forth  bridge, 
of  which  with  his  partner  Sir  Benjamin  Baker  he  was  joint 
engineer.  He  died  at  Bournemouth  on  the  2oth  of  November 
1898. 

FOWLER,  WILLIAM  (c.  1560-1614),  Scottish  poet,  was  born 
about  the  year  1560.  He  attended  St  Leonard's  college,  St 
Andrews,  between  1574  and  1578,  and  in  1581  he  was  in  Paris 
studying  civil  law.  In  1581  he  issued  a  pamphlet  against  John 
Hamilton  and  other  Catholics,  who  had,  he  said,  driven  him  from 
his  country.  He  subsequently  (about  ?i59o)  became  private 
secretary  and  Master  of  Requests  to  Anne  of  Denmark,  wife  of 
James  VI.,  and  was  renominated  to  these  offices  when  the  queen 
went  to  England.  In  1609  his  services  were  rewarded  by  a  grant 
of  2000  acres  in  Ulster.  His  sister  Susannah  Fowler  married 
Sir  John  Drummond,  and  was  mother  of  the  poet  William 
Drummond  of  Hawthornden.  On  the  title-page  of  The  Triumphs 
of  Petrarke,  Fowler  styles  himself  "  P.  of  Hawick,"  whii-h  has 
been  held  to  mean  that  he  was  parson  of  Hawick,  but  this  is 
doubtful.  A  MS.  collection  of  seventy-two  sonnets,  entitled 
The  Tarantula  of  Love,  and  a  translation  (1587)  from  the  Italian 
of  the  Triumphs  of  Petrarke  are  preserved  in  the  library  of  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  in  the  collection  bequeathed  by  his 
nephew,  William  Drummond.  Two  other  volumes  of  his  manu- 
script notes,  scrolls  of  poems,  &c.,  are  preserved  among  the 
Drummond  MSS.,  now  in  the  library  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries of  Scotland.  Specimens  of  Fowler's  verses  were  pub- 
lished in  1803  by  John  Leyden  in  his  Scottish  Descriptive  Poems. 
Fowler  contributed  a  prefatory  sonnet  to  James  VI.  's  Furies; 
and  James,  in  return,  commended,  in  verse,  Fowler's  Triumphs. 

FOX,  CHARLES  JAMES  (1749-1806),  British  statesman  and 
orator,  was  the  third  son  of  Henry  Fox,  ist  Lord  Holland,  and 
his  wife,  Lady  Caroline  Lennox,  eldest  daughter  of  Charles 
Lennox,  2nd  duke  of  Richmond.  He  was  born  at  9  Conduit 
Street,  Westminster,  on  the  24th  of  January  1749.  The  father, 
who  treated  his  children  with  extreme  indulgence,  allowed  him 
to  choose  his  school,  and  he  elected  to  go  to  one  kept  at  Wands- 
worth  by  a  French  refugee,  named  Pampelonne.  In  a  very  short 
time  he  asked  to  be  sent  to  Eton,  where  he  went  in  1757.  At 
Eton  he  did  no  more  work  than  was  acceptable  to  him,  but  he 
had  an  inborn  love  of .  literature,  and  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
that  knowledge  of  the  classic  languages  which  in  after  years  was 
the  delight  of  his  life.  The  vehemence  of  his  temper  was  con- 
trolled by  an  affectionate  disposition.  When  quite  a  boy  he 
checked  his  own  tendency  to  fits  of  passion  on  learning  that  his 
father  trusted  him  to  cure  his  defects. 

That  he  learnt  anything,  and  that  he  grew  up  an  amiable  and 
magnanimous  man,  were  solely  due  to  his  natural  worth,  for  no 
one  ever  owed  less  to  education  or  to  family  example.  The 
relations  of  Lord  Holland  to  his  sons  would  be  difficult  to  parallel. 
He  not  only  treated  them,  and  in  particular  Charles,  as  friends 
and  companions  in  pleasure  from  the  first,  but  he  did  his  best 
to  encourage  them  in  dissipation.  In  1763  he  took  Charles  for 
a  tour  on  the  continent,  introduced  him  to  the  most  immoral 
society  of  the  time  and  gave  him  money  with  which  to  gamble. 
The  boy  came  back  to  Eton  a  precocious  rake.  It  was  his  good 
fortune  that  he  did  go  back,  for  he  was  subjected  to  a  wholesome 
course  of  ridicule  by  the  other  boys,  and  was  flogged  by  Dr 
Barnard,  the  headmaster.  In  1764  Charles  proceeded  to 
Hertford  College,  Oxford.  At  Oxford,  as  at  Eton,  he  read 
literature  from  natural  liking,  and  he  paid  some  attention  to 
mathematics.  His  often  quoted  saying  that  he  found  mathe- 
matics entertaining  was  probably  meant  as  a  jest  at  the  expense 


762 


FOX,  C.  J. 


of  Sir  G.  Macartney,  to  whom  he  was  writing,  and  who  was 
known  to  maintain  that  it  was  useless.  His  own  account  of  his 
school  and  college  training,  given  in  a  letter  to  the  same  corre- 
spondent (6th  August  1767),  is:  "I  employed  almost  my 
whole  time  at  Oxford  in  the  mathematical  and  classical  know- 
ledge, but  more  particularly  in  the  latter,  so  that  I  understand 
Latin  and  Greek  tolerably  well.  I  am  totally  ignorant  in  every 
part  of  useful  knowledge.  I  am  more  convinced  every  day  how 
little  advantage  there  is  in  being  what  at  school  and  the  uni- 
versity is  called  a  good  scholar:  one  receives  a  good  deal  of 
amusement  from  it,  but  that  is  all.  At  present  I  read  nothing 
but  Italian,  which  I  am  immoderately  fond  of,  particularly  of 
the  poetry.  ...  As  for  French,  I  am  far  from  being  so  thorough 
a  master  of  it  as  I  could  wish,  but  I  know  so  much  of  it  that  I 
could  perfect  myself  in  it  at  any  time  with  very  little  trouble, 
especially  if  I  pass  three  or  four  months  in  France."  The  passage 
is  characteristic.  It  shows  at  once  his  love  of  good  literature 
and  his  thoroughness.  Fox's  youth  was  disorderly,  but  it  was 
never  indolent.  He  was  incapable  of  half  doing  anything  which 
he  did  at  all.  He  did  perfect  himself  in  French,  and  he  showed 
no  less  determination  to  master  mere  sports.  At  a  later  period 
when  he  had  grown  fat  he  accounted  for  his  skill  in  taking  "  cut 
balls  "  at  tennis  by  saying  that  he  was  a  very  "  painstaking 
man."  He  was  all  his  life  a  great  and  steady  walker. 

The  disorders  of  his  early  years  were  notorious,  and  were  a 
common  subject  of  gossip.  In  the  spring  of  1767  he  left  Oxford 
and  joined  his  father  on  the  continent  during  a  tour  in  France 
and  Italy.  In  1768  Lord  Holland  bought  the  pocket  borough 
of  Midhurst  for  him,  and  he  entered  on  his  parliamentary  career, 
and  on  London  society,  in  1769.  Within  the  next  few  years  Lord 
Holland  reaped  to  the  full  the  reward  for  all  that  was  good,  and 
whatever  was  evil,  in  the  training  he  had  given  his  son.  The 
affection  of  Charles  Fox  for  his  father  was  unbounded,  but  the 
passion  for  gambling  which  had  been  instilled  in  him  as  a  boy 
proved  the  ruin  of  the  family  fortune.  He  kept  racehorses, 
and  bet  on  them  largely.  On  the  racecourse  he  was  successful, 
and  it  is  another  proof  of  his  native  thoroughness  that  he  gained 
a  reputation  as  a  handicapper.  It  is  said  that  he  won  more  than 
he  lost  on  the  course.  At  the  gambling  table  he  was  unfortunate, 
and  there  can  be  little  question  that  he  was  fleeced  both  in 
London  and  in  Paris  by  unscrupulous  players  of  his  own  social 
rank,  who  took  advantage  of  his  generosity  and  whose  worth- 
lessness  he  knew.  In  the  ardour  of  his  passion  Fox  took  his 
losses  and  their  consequences  with  an  attractive  gaiety.  He 
called  the  room  in  which  he  did  business  with  the  Jew  money- 
lenders his  "  Jerusalem  chamber."  When  his  elder  brother  had 
a  son,  and  his  prospects  were  injured,  he  said  that  the  boy  was 
a  second  Messiah,  who  had  appeared  for  the  destruction  of  the 
Jews.  "  He  had  his  jest,  and  they  had  his  estate."  In  1774 
Lord  Holland  had  to  find  £140,000  to  pay  the  gambling  debts  of 
his  sons.  For  years  Charles  lived  in  pecuniary  embarrassment, 
and  during  his  later  years,  when  he  had  given  up  gambling,  he 
was  supported  by  the  contributions  of  wealthy  friends,  who  in 
1793  formed  a  fund  of  £70,000  for  his  benefit. 

His  public  career  did  not  supply  him  with  a  check  on  habits 
of  dissipation  in  the  shape  of  the  responsibilities  of  office.  He 
began,  as  was  to  be  expected  in  his  father's  son,  by  supporting 
the  court;  and  in  1770,  when  only  twenty-one,  he  was  appointed 
a  junior  lord  of  the  admiralty  with  Lord  North.  During  the 
violent  conflict  over  the  Middlesex  election  (see  WILKES,  JOHN) 
he  took  the  unpopular  side,  and  vehemently  asserted  the  right 
of  the  House  of  Commons  to  exclude  Wilkes.  In  1772  during 
the  proceedings  against  Crosby  and  Oliver — a  part  of  the  "  Wilkes 
and  liberty  "  agitation — he  and  Lord  North  were  attacked  by 
a  mob  and  rolled  in  the  mud.  But  Fox's  character  was  incom- 
patible with  ministerial  service  under  King  George  III.  The 
king,  himself  a  man  of  orderly  life,  detested  him  as  a  gambler 
and  a  rake.  And  Fox  was  too  independent  to  please  a  master 
who  expected  obedience.  In  February  1772  he  threw  up  his 
place  to  be  free  to  oppose  the  Royal  Marriage  Act,  on  which 
the  king's  heart  was  set.  He  returned  to  office  as  junior  lord 
of  the  treasury  in  December.  But  he  was  insubordinate;  his 


sympathy'  with  the  American  colonies,  which  were  now  beginning 
to  resist  the  claims  of  the  mother  country  to  tax  them,  made 
him  intolerable  to  the  king  and  he  was  dismissed  in  February 
1774.  The  death  of  his  father  on  the  ist  of  July  of  that  year 
removed  an  influence  which  tended  to  keep  him  subordinate  to 
the  court,  and  his  friendship  for  Burke  drew  him  into  close 
alliance  with  the  Rockingham  Whigs.  From  the  first  his  ability 
had  won  him  admiration  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He  had 
prepared  to  distinguish  himself  as  an  orator  by  the  elaborate 
cultivation  of  his  voice,  which  was  naturally  harsh  and  shrill. 
His  argumentative  force  was  recognized  at  once,  but  the  full  scope 
of  his  powers  was  first  shown  on  the2ndof  February  1775, when 
he  spoke  on  the  disputes  with  the  colonies.  The  speech  is 
unfortunately  lost,  but  Gibbon,  who  heard  it,  told  his  friend 
Holroyd  (afterwards  Earl  of  Sheffield)  that  Fox,  "  taking  the 
vast  compass  of  the  question  before  us,  discovered  powers  for 
regular  debate  which  neither  his  friends  hoped  nor  his  enemies 
dreaded." 

His  great  political  career  dates  from  that  day.  It  is  unique 
among  the  careers  of  British  statesmen  of  the  first  rank,  for  it  was 
passed  almost  wholly  in  opposition.  Except  for  a  few  months  in 
1782  and  1783,  and  again  for  a  few  months  before  his  death  in 
1806,  he  was  out  of  office.  If  he  was  absolutely  sincere  in  the 
statement  he  made  to  his  friend  Fitzpatrick,  in  a  letter  of  the 
3rd  of  February  1778,  his  life  -was  all  he  could  have  wished. 
"  I  am,"  he  wrote,  "  certainly  ambitious  by  nature,  but  I  really 
have,  or  think  I  have,  totally  subdued  that  passion.  I  have  still 
as  much  vanity  as  ever,  which  is  a  happier  passion  by  far,  because 
great  reputation  I  think  I  may  acquire  and  keep,  great  situation 
I  never  can  acquire,  nor  if  acquired  keep,  without  making 
sacrifices  that  I  never  will  make."  His  words  show  that  he  judged 
himself  and  read  the  future  accurately.  Yet  it  was  certainly 
a  cause  of  bitter  disappointment  to  him  that  he  had  to  stand  by 
while  the  country  was  in  his  opinion  not  only  misgoverned,  but 
led  to  ruin.  His  reputation  as  an  orator  and  a  political  critic, 
which  was  great  from  the  first  and  grew  as  he  lived,  most  assuredly 
did  not  console  him  for  his  impotence  as  a  statesman.  Of  the 
causes  which  rendered  his  brilliant  capacity  useless  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  practical  success  the  most  important, 
perhaps  the  only  one  of  real  importance,  was  his  personal 
character.  Lord  John  Russell  (afterwards  Earl  Russell),  his 
friendly  biographer,  has  to  confess  that  Fox  might  have  joined  in 
the  confession  of  Mirabeau:  "  The  public  cause  suffers  for  the 
immoralities  of  my  youth."  His  reputation  as  a  rake  and 
gambler  was  so  well  established  at  the  very  beginning  of  his 
career  that  when  he  was  dismissed  from  office  in  1774  there  was 
a  general  belief  among  the  vulgar  that  he  had  been  detected  in 
actual  theft.  His  perfect  openness,  the  notoriety  of  his  bank- 
ruptcies and  of  the  seizure  of  his  books  and  furniture  in  execution, 
kept  him  before  the  world  as  a  model  of  dissipation.  In  1776, 
when  he  was  leading  the  resistance  to  Lord  North's  colonial 
policy,  he  "  neither  abandoned  gaming  nor  his  rakish  life.  He 
was  seldom  in  bed  before  five  in  the  morning  nor  out  of  it  before 
two  at  noon."  At  the  most  important  crisis  of  his  life  in  1783, 
he  almost  made  an  ostentation  of  disorder  and  of  indifference  not 
only  to  appearances,  but  even  to  decency.  Horace  Walpole  has. 
drawn  a  picture  of  him  at  that  time  which  Lord  Holland,  Fox's 
beloved  and  admiring  nephew,  speaking  from  his  early  recollec- 
tions of  his  uncle,  confesses  has  "  some  justification."  Coming, 
from  such  an  authority  the  certificate  may  be  held  to  confirm  the 
substantial  accuracy  of  Walpole.  "  Fox  lodged  in  St  James's 
Street,  and  as  soon  as  he  rose,  which  was  very  late,  had  a  levee 
of  his  followers  and  of  the  gaming  club  at  Brooks's — all  his 
disciples.  His  bristly  black  person,  and  shagged  breast  quite 
open  and  rarely  purified  by  any  ablutions,  was  wrapped  in  a  foul 
linen  nightgown  and  his  bushy  hair  dishevelled.  In  these  cynic 
weeds  and  with  Epicurean  good  humour  did  he  dictate  his  politics, 
and  in  this  school  did  the  heir  of  the  empire  attend  his  lessons, 
and  imbibe  them."  That  this  cynic  manner,  and  Epicurean 
speech,  were  only  the  outside  of  a  manly  and  generous  nature- 
was  well  known  to  the  personal  friends  of  Fox,  and  is  now 
universally  allowed.  But  by  the  bulk  of  his  contemporaries,. 


FOX,  C.  J. 


763 


who  could  not  fail  to  see  the  weaknesses  he  ostentatiously 
displayed,  Fox  was,  not  unnaturally,  suspected  as  being  immoral 
and  untrustworthy.  Therefore  when  he  came  into  collision  with 
the  will  of  the  king  he  failed  to  secure  the  confidence  of  the  nation 
which  was  his  only  support.  Nor  ought  any  critical  admirer 
of  Fox  to  deny  that  George  III.  was  not  wholly  wrong  when 
he  said  that  the  great  orator  "  was  totally  destitute  of  discretion 
and  sound  judgment."  Fox  made  many  mistakes,  due  in  some 
cases  to  vehemence  of  temperament,  and  in  others  only  to  be 
ascribed  to  want  of  sagacity.  That  he  fought  unpopular  causes 
is  a  very  insufficient  explanation  of  his  failure  as  a  practical 
statesman.  He  could  have  profited  by  the  reaction  which 
followed  popular  excitement  but  for  his  bad  reputation  and  his 
want  of  discretion. 

During  the  eight  years  between  his  expulsion  from  office  in 
1774  and  the  fall  of  Lord  North's  ministry  in  March  1782  he 
may  indeed  be  said  to  have  done  one  very  great  thing  in  politics. 
He  planted  the  seed  of  the  modern  Liberal  party  as  opposed  to 
the  pure  Whigs.  In  political  allegiance  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Rockingham  party  and  worked  in  alliance  with  the  marquis 
and  with  Burke,  whose  influence  on  him  was  great.  In  opposing 
the  attempt  to  coerce  the  American  colonists,  and  in  assailing 
the  waste  and  corruption  of  Lord  North's  administration,  as 
well  as  the  undue  influence  of  the  crown,  he  was  at  one  with  the 
Rockingham  Whigs.  During  the  agitation  against  corruption, 
and  in  favour  of  honest  management  of  the  public  money, 
which  was  very  strong  between  1779  and  1782,  he  and  they 
worked  heartily  together.  It  had  a  considerable  effect,  and 
prepared,  the  way  for  the  reforms  begun  by  Burke  and  continued 
by  Pitt.  But  if  Fox  learnt  much  from  Burke  he  learnt  with 
originality.  He  declined  to  accept  the  revolution  settlement 
as  final,  or  to  think  with  Burke  that  the  constitution  of  the  House 
•of  Commons  could  not  be  bettered.  Fox  acquired  the  conviction 
that,  if  the  House  was  to  be  made  an  efficient  instrument  for 
restraining  the  interference  of  the  king  and  for  securing  good 
:government,  it  must  cease  to  be  filled  to  a  very  large  extent 
by  the  nominees  of  boroughmongers  and  the  treasury.  He  be- 
•came  a  strong  advocate  for  parliamentary  reform.  In  all  ways 
he  was  the  ardent  advocate  of  what  have  in  later  times  been 
known  as  "  Liberal  causes,"  the  removal  of  all  religious  dis- 
abilities and  tests,  the  suppression  of  private  interests  which 
hampered  the  public  good,  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and 
the  emancipation  of  all  classes  and  races  of  men  from  the  strict 
control  of  authority. 

A  detailed  account  of  his  activity  from  1774  to  1782  would 
entail  the  mention  of  every  crisis  of  the  American  War  of  In- 
dependence and  of  every  serious  debate  in  parliament.  Through- 
out the  struggle  Fox  was  uniformly  opposed  to  the  coercion  of 
the  colonies  and  was  the  untiring  critic  of  Lord  North.  While 
the  result  must  be  held  to  prove  that  he  was  right,  he  prepared 
future  difficulties  for  himself  by  the  fury  of  his  language.  He 
was  the  last  man  in  the  world  to  act  on  the  worldly-wise  maxim 
that  an  enemy  should  always  be  treated  as  if  he  may  one  day 
be  a  friend,  and  a  friend  as  if  he  might  become  an  enemy.  On 
the  29th  of  November  1779  Fox  was  wounded  in  a  duel  with 
Mr  William  Adam,  a  supporter  of  Lord  North's  whom  he  had 
savagely  denounced.  He  assailed  Lord  North  with  unmeasured 
invective,  directed  not  only  at  his  policy  but  at  his  personal 
•character,  though  he  well  knew  that  the  prime  minister  was  an 
amiable  though  pliable  man,  who  remained  in  office  against 
his  own  wish,  in  deference  to  the  king  who  appealed  to  his 
loyalty.  When  the  disasters  of  the  American  war  had  at  last 
made  a  change  of  ministry  necessary,  and  the  king  applied  to 
the  Whigs,  through  the  intermediary  of  Lord  Shelburne,  Fox 
made  a  very  serious  mistake  in  persuading  the  marquess  of 
Rockingham  not  to  insist  on  dealing  directly  with  the  sovereign. 
The  result  was  the  formation  of  a  cabinet  belonging,  in  Fox's 
•own  words,  partly  to  the  king  and  partly  to  the  country — that 
is  to  say,  partly  of  Whigs  who  wished  to  restrain  the  king,  and 
partly  of  the  king's  friends,  represented  by  Lord  Shelburne, 
whose  real  function  was  to  baffle  the  Whigs.  Dissensions  began 
from  the  first,  and  were  peculiarly  acute  between  Shelburne 


and  Fox,  the  two  secretaries  of  state.  The  old  division  of  duties 
by  which  the  southern  secretary  had  the  correspondence  with 
the  colonies  and  the  western  powers  of  Europe,  and  the  northern 
secretary  with  the  others,  had  been  abolished  on  the  formation 
of  the  Rockingham  cabinet.  All  foreign  affairs  were  entrusted 
to  Fox.  Lord  Shelburne  meddled  in  the  negotiations  for  the 
peace  at  Paris.  He  also  persuaded  his  colleagues  to  grant  some 
rather  scandalous  pensions,  and  Fox's  acquiescence  in  this  abuse 
after  his  recent  agitation  against  Lord  North's  waste  did  him 
injury.  When  the  marquess  of  Rockingham  died  on  the  ist  of 
July  1782,  and  the  king  offered  the  premiership  to  Shelburne, 
Fox  resigned,  and  was  followed  by  a  part  of  the  Rockingham 
Whigs. 

In  refusing  to  serve  under  Shelburne  he  was  undoubtedly 
consistent,  but  his  next  step  was  ruinous  to  himself  and  his 
party.  On  the  i4th  of  February  1783  he  formed  a  coalition 
with  Lord  North,  based  as  they  declared  on  "  mutual  goodwill 
and  confidence."  Plausible  excuses  were  made  for  the  alliance, 
but  to  the  country  at  large  this  union,  formed  with  a  man  whom 
he  had  denounced  for  years,  had  the  appearance  of  an  un- 
scrupulous conspiracy  to  obtain  office  on  any  terms.  In  the 
House  of  Commons  the  coalition  was  strong  enough  to  drive 
Shelburne  from  office  on  the  24th  of  February.  The  king  made 
a  prolonged  resistance  to  the  pressure  put  on  him  to  accept  Fox 
and  North  as  his  ministers  (see  PITT,  WILLIAM).  On  the  2nd 
of  April  he  was  constrained  to  submit  to  the  formation  of  a  new 
ministry,  in  which  the  duke  of  Portland  was  prime  minister  and 
Fox  and  North  were  secretaries  of  state.  The  new  administration 
was  ill  liked  by  some  of  the  followers  of  both.  Fox  increased  its 
unpopularity  both  in  the  House  and  in  the  country  by  consenting 
against  the  wish  of  most  of  his  colleagues  to  ask  for  the  grant 
of  a  sum  of  £100,000  a  year  to  the  prince  of  Wales.  The  act  had 
the  appearance  of  a  deliberate  offence  to  the  king,  who  was  on 
bad  terms  with  his  son.  The  magnitude  of  the  sum,  and  his 
acquiescence  in  the  grant  of  pensions  by  the  Shelburne  ministry, 
convinced  the  country  that  his  zeal  for  economy  was  hypocritical. 
The  introduction  of  the  India  Bill  in  November  1783  alarmed 
many  vested  interests,  and  offended  the  king  by  the  provision 
which  gave  the  patronage  of  India  to  a  commission  to  be  named 
by  the  ministry  and  removable  only  by  parliament.  The 
coalition,  and  Fox  in  particular,  were  assailed  in  a  torrent  of 
most  telling  invective  and  caricature.  Encouraged  by  the 
growing  unpopularity  of  his  ministers,  George  III.  gave  it  to 
be  understood  that  he  would  not  look  upon  any  member  of  the 
House  of  Lords  who  voted  for  the  India  Bill  as  his  friend.  The 
bill  was  thrown  out  in  the  upper  House  on  the  i7th  of  December, 
and  next  day  the  king  dismissed  his  ministers. 

Fox  now  went  into  opposition  again.  The  remainder  of  his 
life  may  be  divided  into  four  portions — his  opposition  to  Pitt 
during  the  session  of  1784;  his  parliamentary  activity  till  his 
secession  in  1797;  his  retirement  till  1800;  his  return  to 
activity  and  his  short  tenure  of  office  before  his  death  in  1806. 
During  the  first  of  these  periods  he  deepened  his  unpopularity 
by  assailing  the  undoubted  prerogatives  of  the  crown,  by  claiming 
for  the  House  of  Commons  the  right  to  override  not  only  the 
king  and  the  Lords  but  the  opinion  of  the  country,  and  by 
resisting  a  dissolution.  This  last  pretension  came  very  ill  from 
a  statesman  who  in  1780  had  advocated  yearly  elections.  He 
lost  ground  daily  before  the  steady  good  judgment  and  un- 
blemished character  of  Pitt.  When  parliament  was  dissolved 
at  the  end  of  the  session  of  1784,  the  country  showed  its  senti- 
ments by  unseating  180  of  the  followers  of  Fox  and  North. 
Immense  harm  was  done  to  both  by  the  publication  of  a  book 
called  The  Beauties  of  Fox,  North  and  Burke,  a  compilation  of 
their  abuse  of  one  another  in  recent  years. 

Fox  himself  was  elected  for  Westminster  with  fewer  votes 
than  Admiral  Lord  Hood,  but  with  a  majority  over  the  ministerial 
candidate,  Sir  Cecil  Wray.  The  election  was  marked  by  an 
amazing  outflow  of  caricatures  and  squibs,  by  weeks  of  rioting 
in  which  Lord  Hood's  sailors  fought  pitched  battles  in  St  James's 
Street  with  Fox's  hackney  coachmen,  and  by  the  intrepid 
canvassing  of  Whig  ladies.  The  beautiful  duchess  of  Devonshire 


764 


FOX,  C.  J. 


(Georgiana  Spencer)  is  said  to  have  won  at  least  one  vote  for 
Fox  by  kissing  a  shoemaker  who  had  a  romantic  idea  of  what 
constituted  a  desirable  bribe.  The  high  bailiff  refused  to  make 
a  return,  and  the  confirmation  of  Fox's  election  was  delayed 
by  the  somewhat  mean  action  of  the  ministry.  He  had,  however, 
been  chosen  for  Kirkwall,  and  could  fight  his  cause  in  the  House. 
In  the  end  he  recovered  damages  from  the  high  bailiff.  In  his 
place  in  parliament  he  sometimes  supported  Pitt  and  sometimes 
opposed  him  with  effect.  His  criticism  on  the  ministers'  bill 
for  the  government  of  India  was  sound  in  principle,  though  the 
evils  he  foresaw  did  not  arise.  Little  excuse  can  be  made  for 
his  opposition  to  Pitt's  commercial  policy  towards  Ireland. 
But  as  Fox  on  this  occasion  aided  the  vested  interests  of  some 
English  manufacturers  he  secured  a  certain  revival  of  popularity. 
His  support  of  Pitt's  Reform  Bill  was  qualified  by  a  just  dislike 
of  the  ministers'  proposal  to  treat  the  possession  of  the  franchise 
by  a  constituency  as  a  property  and  not  as  a  trust.  His  un- 
successful opposition  to  the  commercial  treaty  with  France  in 
1787  was  unwise  and  most  injurious  to  himself.  He  committed 
himself  to  the  proposition  that  France  was  the  natural  enemy 
of  Great  Britain,  a  saying  often  quoted  against  him  in  coming 
years.  It  has  been  excused  on  the  ground  that  when  he  said 
France  he  meant  the  aggressive  house  of  Bourbon.  A  statesman 
whose  words  have  to  be  interpreted  by  an  esoteric  meaning 
cannot  fairly  complain  if  he  is  often  misunderstood.  In  1788 
he  travelled  in  Italy,  but  returned  in  haste  on  hearing  of  the 
illness  of  the  king.  Fox  supported  the  claim  of  the  prince  of 
Wales  to  the  regency  as  a  right,  a  doctrine  which  provoked  Pitt 
into  declaring  that  he  would  "  unwhig  the  gentleman  for  the  rest 
of  his  life."  The  friendship  between  him  and  the  prince  of 
Wales  (see  GEORGE  IV.)  was  always  injurious  to  Fox.  In  1787 
he  was  misled  by  the  prince's  ambiguous  assurances  into  denying 
the  marriage  with  Mrs  Fitzherbert.  On  discovering  that  he  had 
been  deceived  he  broke  off  all  relations  with  the  prince  for  a 
year,  but  their  alliance  was  renewed.  During  these  years  he 
was  always  in  favour  of  whatever  measures  could  be  described 
as  favourable  to  emancipation  and  to  humanity.  He  actively 
promoted  the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  which  had  the 
support  of  Pitt.  He  was  always  in  favour  of  the  abolition  of 
the  slave  trade  (which  he  actually  effected  during  his  short 
tenure  of  office  in  1806),  of  the  repeal  of  the  Test  Acts,  and  of 
concessions  to  the  Roman  Catholics,  both  in  Great  Britain  and 
in  Ireland. 

The  French  Revolution  affected  Fox  profoundly.  Together 
with  almost  all  his  countrymen  he  welcomed  the  meeting  of  the 
states-general  in  1789  as  the  downfall  of  a  despotism  hostile 
to  Great  Britain.  But  when  the  development  of  the  Revolution 
caused  a  general  reaction,  he  adhered  stoutly  to  his  opinion  that 
the  Revolution  was  essentially  just  and  ought  not  to  be  con- 
demned for  its  errors  or  even  for  its  crimes.  As  a  natural 
consequence  he  was  the  steady  opponent  of  Pitt's  foreign  policy, 
which  he  condemned  as  a  species  of  crusade  against  freedom  in 
the  interest  of  despotism.  Between  1790  and  1800  his  un- 
popularity reached  its  height.  He  was  left  almost  alone  in 
parliament,  and  was  denounced  as  the  enemy  of  his  country. 
On  the  6th  of  May  1791  occurred  the  painful  scene  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  in  which  Burke  renounced  his  friendship.  In  1792 
there  was  some  vague  talk  of  a  coalition  between  him  and  Pitt, 
which  came  to  nothing.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  scene  with 
Burke  took  place  in  the  course  of  the  debate  on  the  Quebec  Bill, 
in  which  Fox  displayed  real  statesmanship  by  criticizing  the 
division  of  Upper  from  Lower  Canada,  and  other  provisions  of 
the  bill,  which  in  the  end  proved  so  injurious  as  to  be  unworkable. 
In  this  year  he  carried  the  Libel  Bill.  In  1792  his  ally,  the  duke 
of  Portland,  and  most  of  his  party  left  him.  In  1 797  he  withdrew 
from  parliament,  and  only  came  forward  in  1798  to  reaffirm 
the  doctrine  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  at  a  great  Whig 
dinner.  On  the  gth  of  May  he  was  dismissed  from  the  privy 
council. 

The  interval  of  secession  was  perhaps  the  happiest  in  his  life. 
In  1783  he  formed  a  connexion  with  Elizabeth  Bridget  Cane, 
commonly  known  as  Mrs  Armstead  or  Armistead,  an  amiable 


and  well-mannered  woman  to  whom  he  was  passionately 
attached.  In  company  with  her  he  established  himself  at  St 
Anne's  Hill  near  Chertsey  in  Surrey.  In  1795  he  married  her 
privately,  but  did  not  avow  his  marriage  till  1802.  In  his  letters 
he  spoke  of  her  always  as  Mrs  Armistead,  and  some  of  his  friends — 
Mr  Coke  of  Holkham,  afterwards  Lord  Leicester,  with  whom  he 
stayed  every  year,  being  one  of  them — would  not  invite  her  to 
their  houses.  It  is  hard  to  explain  this  solitary  instance  of 
shabby  conduct  in  a  thoroughly  generous  man  towards  a  person 
to  whom  he  was  unalterably  attached  and  who  fully  deserved  his 
affection.  Fox's  time  at  St  Anne's  was  largely  spent  in  garden- 
ing, in  the  enjoyment  of  the  country,  and  in  correspondence  on 
literary  subjects  with  his  nephew,  the  3rd  Lord  Holland,  and 
with  Gilbert  Wakefield,  the  editor  of  Euripides.  His  letters 
show  that  he  had  a  very  sincere  love  for,  and  an  enlightened 
appreciation  of,  good  literature.  Greek  and  Italian  were  his  first 
favourites,  but  he  was  well  read  in  English  literature  and  in 
French,  and  acquired  some  knowledge  of  Spanish.  His  favourite 
authors  were  Euripides,  Virgil  and  Racine,  whom  he  defends 
against  the  stock  criticisms  of  the  admirers  of  Corneille  with 
equal  zeal  and  insight. 

Fox  reappeared  in  parliament  to  take  part  in  the  vote  of 
censure  on  ministers  for  declining  Napoleon's  overtures  for  a 
peace.  The  fall  of  Pitt's  firs  t  ministry  and  the  formation  of  the 
Addington  cabinet,  the  peace  of  Amiens,  and  the  establishment 
of  Napoleon  as  first  consul  with  all  the  powers  of  a  military 
despot,  seemed  to  offer  Fox  a  chance  of  resuming  power  in  public 
life.  The  struggle  with  Jacobinism  was  over,  and  he  could  have 
no  hesitation  in  supporting  resistance  to  a  successful  general  who 
ruled  by  the  sword,  and  who  pursued  a  policy  of  perpetual 
aggression.  During  1802  he  visited  Paris  in  company  with  his 
wife.  An  account  of  his  journey  was  published  in  1811  by  his 
secretary,  Mr  Trotter,  in  an  otherwise  poor  book  of  reminiscence. 
It  gives  an  attractive  picture  of  Fox's  good-humour,  and  of  his 
enjoyment  of  the  "  species  of  minor  comedy  which  is  constantly 
exhibited  in  common  life."  His  main  purpose  in  visiting  Paris 
was  to  superintend  the  transcription  of  the  correspondence  of 
Barillon,  which  he  needed  for  his  proposed  life  of  James  II.  The 
book  was  never  finished,  but  the  fragment  he  completed  was 
published  in  1808,  and  was  translated  into  French  by  Armand 
Carrel  in  1846.  Fox  was  not  favourably  impressed  by  Napoleon. 
He  saw  a  good  deal  of  French  society,  and  was  himself  much 
admired  for  his  hearty  defence  of  his  rival  Pitt  against  a  foolish 
charge  of  encouraging  plots  for  Napoleon's  assassination.  On 
his  return  he  resumed  his  regular  attendance  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  The  history  of  the  renewal  of  the  war,  of  the  fall  of 
Addington's  ministry,  and  of  the  formation  of  Pitt's  second 
administration  is  so  fully  dealt  with  in  the  article  on  Pitt  (q.v.) 
that  it  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

The  death  of  Pitt  left  Fox  so  manifestly  the  foremost  man  in 
public  life  that  the  king  could  no  longer  hope  to  exclude  him 
from  office.  The  formation  of  a  ministry  was  entrusted  by  the 
king  to  Lord  Grenville,  but  when  he  named  Fox  as  his  proposed 
secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  George  III.  accepted  him 
without  demur.  Indeed  his  hostility  seems  to  a  large  extent 
to  have  died  out.  A  long  period  of  office  might  now  have 
appeared  to  lie  before  Fox,  but  his  health  was  undermined.  Had 
he  lived  it  may  be  considered  as  certain  that  the  war  with 
Napoleon  would  have  been  conducted  with  a  vigour  which  was 
much  wanting  during  the  next  few  years.  In  domestic  politics 
Fox  had  no  time  to  do  more  than  insist  on  the  abolition  of  the 
slave  trade.  He,  like  Pitt,  was  compelled  to  bow  to  the  king's 
invincible  determination  not  to  allow  the  emancipation  of  the 
Roman  Catholics.  When  a  French  adventurer  calling  himself 
Guillet  de  la  Gevrilliere,  whom  Fox  at  first  "  did  the  honour  to 
take  for  a  spy,"  came  to  him  with  a  scheme  for  the  murder  of 
Napoleon,  he  sent  a  warning  on  the  2oth  of  February  to  Talley- 
rand. The  incident  gave  him  an  opportunity  for  reopening 
negotiations  for  peace.  A  correspondence  ensued,  and  British 
envoys  were  sent  to  Paris.  But  Fox  was  soon  convinced  that  the 
French  ministers  were  playing  a  false  game.  He  was  resolved 
not  to  treat  apart  from  Russia,  then  the  ally  of  Great  Britain, 


FOX,  E.— FOX,  G. 


765 


nor  to  consent  to  the  surrender  of  Sicily,  which  Napoleon  insisted 
upon,  unless  full  compensation  could  be  obtained  for  King 
Ferdinand.  The  later  stages  of  the  negotiation  were  not 
directed  by  Fox,  but  by  colleagues  who  took  over  his  work  at 
the  foreign  office  when  his  health  began  to  fail  in  the  summer 
of  1806.  He  showed  symptoms  of  dropsy,  and  operations  only 
procured  him  temporary  relief.  After  carrying  his  motion  for 
the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  on  the  lothof  June,  he  was  forced 
to  give  up  attendance  in  parliament,  and  he  died  in  the  house  of 
the  duke  of  Devonshire,  at  Chiswick,  on  the  i3th  of  September 
1806.  His  wife  survived  him  till  the  8th  of  July  1842.  No 
children  were  born  of  the  marriage.  Fox  is  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey  by  the  side  of  Pitt. 

The  striking  personal  appearance  of  Fox  has  been  rendered 
very  familiar  by  portraits  and  by  innumerable  caricatures.  The 
latter  were  no  doubt  deliberately  exaggerated,  and  yet  a  com- 
parison between  the  head  of  Fox  in  Sayer's  plate  "  Carlo  Khan's 
triumphal  entry  into  Leadenhall,"  and  in  Abbot's  portrait,  shows 
that  the  caricaturist  did  not  depart  from  the  original.  Fox  was 
twice  painted  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  once  when  young  in  a 
group  with  Lady  Sarah  Bunbury  and  Lady  Susan  Strangeways, 
and  once  at  full  length.  A  half-length  portrait  by  the  German 
painter,  Karl  Anton  Hickel,  is  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery, 
where  there  is  also  a  terra-cotta  bust  by  Nollekens. 

AUTHORITIES. — The  materials  for  a  life  of  Fox  were  first  collected 
by  his  nephew,  Lord  Holland,  and  were  then  revised  and  rearranged 
by  Mr  Allen  and  Lord  John  Russell.  These  materials  appear  as 
Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  C.J.  Fox  (London,  1853-1857).  On 
them  Lord  John  Russell  based  his  Life  and  Times  of  C.  J.  Fox 
(London,  1859-1866);  Sir  G.  O.  Treyelyan's  Early  History  of  C.  J. 
Fox  (London.  1880)  brings  new  evidence;  Charles  James  Fox,  a 
Political  Study,  by  J.  L.  Le  B.  Hammond  (London,  1903),  is  a  series 
of  studies  written  by  an  extreme  admirer.  His  Speeches  were 
collected  and  published  in  1815.  The  newspaper  articles  (e.g.  in 
The  Times)  published  on  the  occasion  of  the  centenary  of  his  death 
contain  interesting  appreciations.  See  also  Lloyd  Sanders,  The 
Holland  House  Circle  (1908).  (D.  H.) 

FOX,  EDWARD  (c.  1496-1538),  bishop  of  Hereford,  was  born 
about  1496  at  Dursley  in  Gloucestershire;  he  is  said  on  very 
doubtful  authority  to  have  been  related  to  Richard  Fox  (q.v.). 
From  Eton  he  proceeded  to  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  after 
graduating  was  made  secretary  to  Wolsey.  In  1528  he  was  sent 
with  Gardiner  to  Rome  to  obtain  from  Clement  VII.  a  decretal 
commission  for  the  trial  and  decision  of  the  case  between  Henry 
VIII.  and  Catherine  of  Aragon.  On  his  return  he  was  elected 
provost  of  King's  College,  and  in  August  1529  was  the  means  of 
conveying  to  the  king  Cranmer's  historic  advice  that  he  should 
apply  to  the  universities  of  Europe  rather  than  to  the  pope.  This 
introduction  led  eventually  to  Cranmer's  promotion  over  Fox's 
head  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury.  After  a  brief  mission 
to  Paris  in  October  1529,  Fox  in  January  1530  befriended 
Latimer  at  Cambridge  and  took  an  active  part  in  persuading  that 
university  and  Oxford  to  decide  in  the  king's  favour.  He  was 
sent  to  employ  similar  methods  of  persuasion  at  the  French 
universities  in  1530-1531,  and  was  also  engaged  in  negotiating  a 
closer  league  between  England  and  France.  In  April  1533  he 
was  prolocutor  of  convocation  when  it  decided  against  the  validity 
of  Henry's  marriage  with  Catherine,  and  in  1534  published  his 
treatise  De  vera  differentia  regiae  polestatis  et  ecclesiae  (second 
ed.  1538,  English  transl.  1548).  Various  ecclesiastical  prefer- 
ments were  now  granted  him,  including  the  archdeaconry  of 
Leicester  (1531)  and  the  bishopric  of  Hereford  (1535).  In  1535- 
1536  he  was  sent  to  Germany  to  discuss  the  basis  of  a  political 
and  theological  understanding  with  the  Lutheran  princes  and' 
divines,  and  had  several  interviews  with  Luther,  who  could  not 
be  persuaded  of  the  justice  of  Henry  VIII. 's  divorce.  The 
principal  result  of  the  mission  was  the  Wittenberg  articles  of 
1536,  which  had  no  slight  influence  on  the  English  Ten  Articles 
of  the  same  year.  Buccr  dedicated  to  him  in  1536  his  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Gospels,  and  Fox's  Protestantism  was  also 
illustrated  by  his  patronage  of  Alexander  Aless,  whom  he  defended 
before  Convocation.  Fox  is  credited  with  the  authorship  of 
several  proverbial  sayings,  such  as  "  the  surest  way  to  peace  is  a 
constant  preparedness  for  war  "  and  "  time  and  I  will  challenge 


any  two  in  the  world."  The  former  at  any  rate  is  only  a  variation 
of  the  Latin  si  vis  pacem,  para  bellum,  and  probably  the  latter  is 
not  more  original  in  Fox  than  in  Philip  II.,  to  whom  it  is  usually 
ascribed.  Fox  died  on  the  8th  of  May  1 538  and  was  buried  in  the 
church  of  St  Mary  Mounthaw,  London.  His  chief  distinction  is 
perhaps  that  he  was  the  most  Lutheran  of  Henry  VIII. 's  bishops, 
and  was  largely  responsible  for  the  Ten  Articles  of  1536. 

See  Letters  and  Papers  of  Henry  VIII.,  vols.  iv.-xiv.;  Cooper's 
Athenae  Cantabrigienses ;  Diet.  Nat.  Bipgr.;  R.  W.  Dixon's •  Church 
History;  G.  Mentz,  Die  Wittenberger  Artikel  von  1536  (1905).  (A.  F.P.) 

FOX,  GEORGE  (1624-1691),  the  founder  of  the  "  Society  of 
Friends  "  or  "  Quakers,"  was  born  at  Drayton,  Leicestershire, 
in  July  1624.  His  father,  Christopher  Fox,  called  by  the  neigh- 
bours "  Righteous  Christer,"  was  a  weaver  by  occupation; 
and  his  mother,  Mary  Lago,  "  an  upright  woman  and  accom- 
plished above  most  of  her  degree,"  was  "  of  the  stock  of  the 
martyrs."  George  from  his  childhood  "  appeared  of  another 
frame  than  the  rest  of  his  brethren,  being  more  religious,  inward, 
still,  solid  and  observing  beyond  his  years  " ;  and  he  himself 
declares:  "  When  I  came  to  eleven  years  of  age  I  knew  pureness 
and  righteousness;  for  while  a  child  I  was  taught  how  to  walk 
to  be  kept  pure."  Some  of  his  relations  wished  that  he  should 
be  educated  for  the  ministry;  but  his  father  apprenticed  him  to 
a  shoemaker,  who  also  dealt  in  wool  and  cattle.  In  this  service 
he  remained  till  his  nineteenth  year.  According  to  Penn,  "  he 
took  most  delight  in  sheep,"  but  he  himself  simply  says:  "  A 
good  .deal  went  through  my  hands.  .  .  .  People  had  generally 
a  love  to  me  for  my  innocency  and  honesty."  In  1643,  being 
upon  business  at  a  fair,  and  having  accompanied  some  friends 
to  the  village  public-house,  he  was  troubled  by  a  proposal  to 
"  drink,  healths,"  and  withdrew  in  grief  of  spirit.  "  When  I 
had  done  what  business  I  had  to  do  I  returned  home,  but  did 
not  go  to  bed  that  night,  nor  could  I  sleep,  but  sometimes 
walked  up  and  down,  and  sometimes  prayed  and  cried  to  the 
Lord,  who  said  unto  me,  'Thou  seest  .how  young  people  go 
together  into  vanity  and  old  people  into  the  earth;  thou  must 
forsake  all,  both  young  and  old,  and  keep  out  of  all,  and  be  a 
stranger  unto  all.'  Then,  at  the  command  of  God,  on  the  ninth 
day  of  the  seventh  month,  1643,  I  left  my  relations  and  broke 
off  all  familiarity  or  fellowship  with  old  or  young." 

Thus  briefly  he  describes  what  appears  to  have  been  the 
greatest  moral  crisis  in  his  life.  The  four  years  which  followed 
were  a  time  of  great  perplexity  and  distress,  though  sometimes 
"  I  had  intermissions,  and  was  sometimes  brought  into  such  a 
heavenly  joy  that  I  thought  I  had  been  in  Abraham's  bosom." 
He  would  go  from  town  to  town,  "travelling  up  and  down  as  a 
stranger  in  the  earth,  which  way  the  Lord  inclined  my  heart; 
taking  a  chamber  to  myself  in  the  town  where  I  came,  and 
tarrying  sometimes  a  month,  more  or  less,  in  a  place  ";  and  the 
reason  he  gives  for  this  migratory  habit  is  that  he  was  "  afraid 
both  of  professor  and  profane,  lest,  being  a  tender  young  man, 
he  should  be  hurt  by  conversing  much  with  either."  The  same 
fear  often  led  him  to  shun  all  society  for  days  at  a  time;  but 
frequently  he  would  apply  to  "  professors  "  for  spiritual  direction 
and  consolation.  These  applications,  however,  never  proved 
successful;  he  invariably  found  that  his  advisers  "  possessed 
not  what  they  professed."  Some  recommended  marriage, 
others  enlistment  as  a  soldier  in  the  civil  wars;  one  "  ancient 
priest  "  bade  him  take  tobacco  and  sing  psalms;  another  of 
the  same  fraternity,  "  in  high  account,"  advised  physic  and 
blood-letting. 

About  the  beginning  of  1646  his  thoughts  began  to  take  more 
definite  shape.  One  day,  approaching  Coventry,  "  the  Lord 
opened  to  him  "  that  none  were  true  believers  but  such  as  were 
born  of  God  and  had  passed  from  death  unto  life;  and  this  was 
soon  followed  by  other  "openings"  to  the  effect  that  "  being 
bred  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge  was  not  enough  to  fit  and  qualify 
men  to  be  ministers  of  Christ,"  and  that  "  God  who  made  the 
world  did  not  dwell  in  temples  made  with  hands."  He  also 
experienced  deeper  manifestations  of  Christ  within  his  own 
soul.  "  When  I  myself  was  in  the  deep,  shut  up  under  all  [the 
burden  of  corruptions],  I  could  not  believe  that  I  should  ever 


f. 


766  FOX,  R. 

overcome;  my  troubles,  my  sorrows  and  my  temptations 
were  so  great  that  I  thought  many  times  I  should  have  despaired, 
I  was  so  tempted.  But  when  Christ  opened  to  me  how  He  was 
tempted  by  the  same  devil,  and  overcame  him  and  bruised  his 
head,  and  that  through  Him,  and  His  power,  light,  grace  and 
spirit,  I  should  overcome  also,  I  had  confidence  in  Him;  so  He 
it  was  that  opened  to  me,  when  I  was  shut  up  and  had  no  hope 
nor  faith.  Christ,  who  had  enlightened  me,  gave  me  His  light 
to  believe  in}  He  gave  me  hope  which  He  himself  revealed  in 
me;  and  He  gave  me  His  spirit  and  grace,  which  I  found 
sufficient  in  the  deeps  and  in  weakness."  In  1647  he  records 
that  at  a  time  when  all  outward  help  had  failed  "  I  heard  a 
voice  which  said,  '  There  is  one,  even  Christ  Jesus,  that  can 
speak  to  thy  condition.'  And  when  I  heard  it  my  heart  did 
leap  for  joy."  In  the  same  year  he  first  openly  declared  his 
message  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dukinfield  and  Manchester 
(see  FRIENDS,  SOCIETY  OF). 

In  1649,  as  he  was  walking  towards  Nottingham,  he  heard  the 
bell  of  the  "  steeple  house  "  of  the  city,  and  was  admonished 
by  an  inward  voice  to  go  forward  and  cry  against  the  great  idol 
and  the  worshippers  in  it.  Entering  the  church  he  found  the 
preacher  engaged  in  expounding  the  words,  "  We  have  also  a 
more  sure  word  of  prophecy,"  from  which  the  ordinary  Protestant 
doctrine  of  the  supreme  authority  of  Scripture  was  being  enforced 
in  a  manner  which  appeared  to  Fox  so  defective  or  erroneous 
as  to  call  for  his  immediate  and  most  energetic  protest.  Lifting 
up  his  voice  against  the  preacher's  doctrine,  he  declared  that  it 
is  not  by  the  Scripture  alone,  but  by  the  divine  light  by  which 
the  Scriptures  were  given,  that  doctrines  ought  to  be  judged. 
He  was  carried  off  to  prison,  where  he  was  detained  for  some 
time,  and  from  which  he  was  released  only  by  the  favour  of  the 
sheriff,  whose  sympathies  he  had  succeeded  in  enlisting.  In 
1650  he  was  imprisoned  for  about  a  year  at  Derby  on  a  charge 
of  blasphemy.  On  his  release,  overwrought  and  weakened 
by  six  months  spent  "  in  the  common  gaol  and  dungeon,"  he 
performed  what  was  almost  the  only  and  certainly  the  most 
pronounced  act  of  his  life  which  had  the  appearance  of  wild 
fanaticism.  Through  the  streets  of  Lichfield,  on  market  day, 
he  walked  barefoot,  crying,  "  Woe  to  the  bloody  city  of  Lich- 
field." His  own  explanation  of  the  act,  connecting  it  with  the 
martyrdom  of  a  thousand  Christians  in  the  time  of  Diocletian, 
is  not  convincing.  His  proceeding  was  probably  due  to  a 
horror  of  the  city  arising  from  a  subconscious  memory  of  what 
he  must  have  heard  in  childhood  from  his  mother  ("  of  the 
stock  of  the  martyrs  ")  concerning  a  martyr,  a  woman,  burnt 
in  the  reign  of  Mary  at  Lichfield,  who  had  been  taken  thither 
from  Mancetter,  a  village  two  miles  from  his  home  in  which 
he  had  worked  as  a  journeyman  shoemaker  (see  The  Martyrs 
Glover  and  Lewis  of  Mancelter,  by  the  Rev.  B.  Rich  ings).  He 
must  also  have  heard  of  the  burning  of  Edward  Wightman  in 
the  same  city  in  1612.  the  last  person  burned  for  heresy  in 
England. 

It  would  be  here  out  of  place  to  follow  with  any  minuteness 
the  details  of  his  subsequent  imprisonments,  such  as  that  at 
Carlisle  in  1653;  London  1654;  Launceston  1656;  Lancaster 
1660,  and  again  in  1663,  whence  he  was  taken  to  Scarborough 
in  1665;  and  Worcester  1673.  During  these  terms  of  imprison- 
ment his  pen  was  not  idle,  as  is  amply  shown  by  the  very 
numerous  letters,  pastorals  and  exhortations  which  have  been 
preserved;  while  during  his  intervals  of  liberty  he  was  unwearied 
in  the  work  of  "declaring  truth"  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
In  1669  he  married  Margaret,  widow  of  Judge  Fell,  of  Swarth- 
moor,  near  Ulverston,  who,  with  her  family,  had  been  among 
his  earliest  converts.  In  1671  he  visited  Barbados,  Jamaica, 
and  the  American  continent,  and  shortly  after  his  return  in  1673 
he  was,  as  has  been  already  noted,  apprehended  in  Worcester- 
shire for  attending  meetings  that  were  forbidden  by  the  law. 
At  Worcester  he  suffered  a  captivity  of  nearly  fourteen  months. 
In  1677  he  visited  Holland  along  with  Barclay,  Penn  and  seven 
others;  and  this  visit  he  repeated  (with  five  others)  in  1684. 
The  later  years  of  his  life  were  spent  mostly  in  London,  where 
he  continued  to  speak  in  public,  comparatively  unmolested, 


until  within  a  few  days  of  his  death,  which  took  place  on  the 
I3th  of  January  1691  (1690  o.s.). 

William  Penn  has  left  on  record  an  account  of  Fox  from 
personal  knowledge — a  Brief  Account  of  the  Rise  and  Progress 
of  the  People  called  Quakers,  written  as  a  preface  to  Fox's  Journal. 
Although  a  man  of  large  size  and  great  bodily  strength,  he  was 
"  very  temperate,  eating  little  and  sleeping  less."  He  was  a 
man  of  strong  personality,  of  measured  utterance,  "  civil  " 
(says  Penn)  "  beyond  all  forms  of  breeding."'  From  his  Journal 
we  gather  that  he  had  piercing  eyes  and  a  very  loud  voice,  and 
wore  good  clothes.  Unlike  the  Roundheads,  he  wore  his  hair 
long.  Even  before  his  marriage  with  Margaret  Fell  he  seems 
to  have  been  fairly  well  off;  he  does  not  appear  to  have  worked 
for  a  living  after  he  was  nineteen,  and  yet  he  had  a  horse,  and 
speaks  of  having  money  to  give  to  those  who  were  in  need.  He 
had  much  practical  common-sense,  and  keen  sympathy  for  all 
who  were  in  distress  and  for  animals.  The  mere  fact  that  he 
was  able  to  attract  to  himself  so  considerable  a  body  of  re- 
spectable followers,  including  such  men  as  Ellwood,  Barclay, 
Penington  and  Penn,  is  sufficient  to  prove  that  he  possessed 
in  a  very  eminent  degree  the  power  of  conviction,  persuasion, 
and  moral  ascendancy;  while  of  his  personal  uprightness, 
single-mindedness  and  sincerity  there  can  be  no  question. 

The  writings  of  Fox  are  enumerated  in  Joseph  Smith's  Catalogue 
Friends'  Books.     The  Journal  is  especially  interesting;  of  it  Sir 


_ames  Mackintosh  has  said  that  "  it  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
and  instructive  narratives  in  the  world,  which  no  reader  of  competent 
judgment  can  peruse  without  revering  the  virtue  of  the  writer." 
The  Journal  was  originally  published  in  London  in  1694;  the 
edition  known  as  the  Bicentenary  Edition,  with  notes  biographical 
and  historical  (reprint  of  1901  or  later),  will  be  found  the  most 
useful  in  practice.  An  exact  transcript  of  the  Journal  has  been 
issued  by  the  Cambridge  University  Press.  A  Life  of  George  Fox, 
by  Dr  Thomas  Hodgkin;  The  Fells  of  Swarthmoor  Hall,  by  Maria 
Webb ;  and  The  Life  and  Character  of  George  Fox,  by  John  Stephenson 
Rowntree,  are  valuable.  For  a  mention  of  other  works,  and  for 
details  of  the  principles  and  history  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  to- 
gether with  some  further  information  about  Fox,  see  the  article 
FRIENDS,  SOCIETY  OF.  (A.  N.  B.) 

FOX,  RICHARD  (c.  1448-1528),  successively  bishop  of  Exeter, 
Bath  and  Wells,  Durham,  and  Winchester,  lord  privy  seal,  and 
founder  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  was  born  about  1448 
at  Ropesley  near  Grantham,  Lincolnshire.  His  parents  belonged 
to  the  yeoman  class,  and  there  is  some  obscurity  about  Fox's 
early  career.  It  is  not  known  at  what  school  he  was  educated, 
nor  at  what  college,  though  the  presumption  is  in  favour  of 
Magdalen,  Oxford,  whence  he  drew  so  many  members  of  his 
subsequent  foundation,  Corpus  Christi.  He  also  appears  to 
have  studied  at  Cambridge,  but  nothing  definite  is  known  of 
the  first  thiry-five  years  of  his  career.  In  1484  he  was  in  Paris, 
whether  merely  for  the  sake  of  learning  or  because  he  had 
rendered  himself  obnoxious  to  Richard  III.  is  a  matter  of  specula- 
tion. At  any  rate  he  was  brought  into  contact  with  the  earl  of 
Richmond,  who  was  then  beginning  his  quest  for  the  English 
throne,  and  was  taken  into  his  service.  In  January  1485  Richard 
intervened  to  prevent  Fox's  appointment  to  the  vicarage  of 
Stepney  on  the  ground  that  he  was  keeping  company  with  the 
"  great  rebel,  Henry  ap  Tuddor." 

The  important  offices  conferred  on  Fox  immediately  after 
the  battle  of  Bosworth  imply  that  he  had  already  seen  more 
extensive  political  service  than  can  be  traced  in  records.  Doubt- 
less Henry  VII.  had  every  reason  to  reward  his  companions  in 
exile,  and  to. rule  like  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  by  means  of  lawyers 
and  churchmen  rather  than  trust  nobles  like  those  who  had 
made  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  But  without  an  intimate  knowledge 
of  Fox's  political  experience  and  capacity  he  would  hardly  have 
made  him  his  principal  secretary,  and  soon  afterwards  lord 
privy  seal  and  bishop  of  Exeter  (1487).  The  ecclesiastical 
preferment  was  merely  intended  to  provide  a  salary  not  at 
Henry's  expense;  for  Fox  never  saw  either  Exeter  or  the  diocese 
of  Bath  and  Wells  to  which  he  was  translated  in  1492.  His 
activity  was  confined  to  political  and  especially  diplomatic 
channels;  so  long  as  Morton  lived,  Fox  was  his  subordinate, 
but  after  the  archbishop's  death  he  was  second  to  none  in  Henry's 
confidence,  and  he  had  an  important  share  in  all  the  diplomatic 


FOX,  R.  W. 


767 


work  of  the  reign.  In  1487  he  negotiated  a  treaty  with  James 
III.  of  Scotland,  in  1491  he  baptized  the  future  Henry  VIII., 
in  1492  he  helped  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Etaples,  and  in  1497 
he  was  chief  commissioner  in  the  negotiations  for  the  famous 
commercial  agreement  with  the  Netherlands  which  Bacon  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  to  call  the  Magnus  Inlercursus. 

Meanwhile  in  1494  Fox  had  been  translated  to  Durham, 
not  merely  because  it  was  a  richer  see  than  Bath  and  Wells 
but  because  of  its  political  importance  as  a  palatine  earldom 
and  its  position  with  regard  to  the  Borders  and  relations  with 
Scotland.  For  these  reasons  rather  than  from  any  ecclesiastical 
scruples  Fox  visited  and  resided  in  his  new  diocese;  and  he 
occupied  Norham  Castle,  which  he  fortified  and  defended  against 
a  Scottish  raid  in  Perkin  Warbeck's  interests  (1497).  But  his 
energies  were  principally  devoted  to  pacific  purposes.  In  that 
same  year  he  negotiated  Perkin's  retirement  from  the  court  of 
James  IV.,  and  in  1498-1499  he  completed  the  negotiations 
for  that  treaty  of  marriage  between  the  Scottish  king  and 
Henry's  daughter  Margaret  which  led  ultimately  to  the  union 
of  the  two  crowns  in  1603  and  of  the  two  kingdoms  in  1707. 
The  marriage  itself  did  not  take  place  until  1503,  just  a  century 
before  the  accession  of  James  I. 

This  consummated  Fox's  work  in  the  north,  and  in  1501  Le 
was  once  more  translated  to  Winchester,  then  reputed  the 
richest  bishopric  in  England.  In  that  year  he  brought  to  a 
conclusion  marriage  negotiations  not  less  momentous  in  their 
ultimate  results,  when  Prince  Arthur  was  betrothed  to  Catherine 
of  Aragon.  His  last  diplomatic  achievement  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VII.  was  the  betrothal  of  the  king's  younger  daughter 
Mary  to  the  future  emperor  Charles  V.  In  1300  he  was  elected 
chancellor  of  Cambridge  University,  an  office  not  confined  to 
noble  lords  until  a  much  more  democratic  age,  and  in  1507 
master  of  Pembroke  Hall  in  the  same  university.  The  Lady 
Margaret  Beaufort  made  him  one  of  her  executors,  and  in  this 
capacity  as  well  as  in  that  of  chancellor,  he  had  the  chief  share 
with  Fisher  in  regulating  the  foundation  of  St  John's  College 
and  the  Lady  Margaret  professorships  and  readerships.  His 
financial  work  brought  him  a  less  enviable  notoriety,  though  a 
curious  freak  of  history  has  deprived  him  of  the  credit  which 
is  his  due  for  "  Morton's  fork."  The  invention  of  that  ingenious 
dilemma  for  extorting  contributions  from  poor  and  rich  alike 
is  ascribed  as  a  tradition  to  Morton  by  Bacon;  but  the  story 
is  told  in  greater  detail  of  Fox  by  Erasmus,  who  says  he  had  it 
from  Sir  Thomas  More,  a  well-informed  contemporary  authority. 
It  is  in  keeping  with  the  somewhat  malicious  saying  about  Fox 
reported  by  Tyndale  that  he  would  sacrifice  his  father  to  save 
his  king,  which  after  all  is  not  so  damning  as  Wolsey's  dying 
words. 

The  accession  of  Henry  VIII.  made  no  immediate  difference 
to  Fox's  position.  If  anything,  the  substitution  of  the  careless 
pleasure-loving  youth  for  Henry  VII.  increased  the  power  of 
his  ministry,  the  personnel  of  which  remained  unaltered.  The 
Venetian  ambassador  calls  Fox  "  alter  rex  "  and  the  Spanish 
ambassador  Carroz  says  that  Henry  VIII.  trusted  him  more  than 
any  other  adviser,  although  he  also  reports  Henry's  warning 
that  the  bishop  of  Winchester  was,  as  his  name  implied,  "  a  fox 
indeed."  He  was  the  chief  of  the  ecclesiastical  statesmen  who 
belonged  to  the  school  of  Morton,  believed  in  frequent  parlia- 
ments, and  opposed  the  spirited  foreign  policy  which  laymen 
like  Surrey  are  supposed  to  have  advocated.  His  colleagues 
were  Warham  and  Ruthal,  but  Warham  and  Fox  differed  on 
the  question  of  Henry's  marriage,  Fox  advising  the  completion 
of  the  match  with  Catherine  while  Warham  expressed  doubts 
as  to  its  canonical  validity.  They  also  differed  over  the  pre- 
rogatives of  Canterbury  with  regard  to  probate  and  other 
questions  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction. 

Wolsey's  rapid  rise  in  1511  put  an  end  to  Fox's  influence. 
The  pacific  policy  of  the  first  two  years  of  Henry  VIII. 's  reign 
was  succeeded  by  an  adventurous  foreign  policy  directed  mainly 
against  France;  and  Fox  complained  that  no  one  durst  do 
anything  in  opposition  to  Wolsey's  wishes.  Gradually  Warham 
and  Fox  retired  from  the  government;  the  occasion  of  Fox's 


resignation  of  the  privy  seal  was  Wolsey's  ill-advised  attempt 
to  drive  Francis  I.  out  of  Milan  by  financing  an  expedition  led 
by  the  emperor  Maximilian  in  1516.  Tunstall  protested,  Wolsey 
took  Warham's  place  as  chancellor,  and  Fox  was  succeeded  by 
Ruthal,  who,  said  the  Venetian  ambassador,  "  sang  treble  to 
Wolsey's  bass."  He  bore  Wolsey  no  ill-will,  and  warmly  con- 
gratulated him  two  years  later  when  warlike  adventures  were 
abandoned  at  the  peace  of  London.  But  in  1522  when  war  was 
again  declared  he  emphatically  refused  to  bear  any  part  of  the 
responsibility,  and  in  1523  he  opposed  in  convocation  the 
financial  demands  which  met  with  a  more  strenuous  resistance 
in  the  House  of  Commons. 

He  now  devoted  himself  assiduously  to  his  long-neglected 
episcopal  duties.  He  expressed  himself  as  being  as  anxious 
for  the  reformation  of  the  clergy  as  Simeon  for  the  coming  of 
the  Messiah;  but  while  he  welcomed  Wolsey's  never- realized 
promises,  he  was  too  old  to  accomplish  much  himself  in  the  way 
of  remedying  the  clerical  and  especially  the  monastic  depravity, 
licence  and  corruption  he  deplored.  His  sight  failed  during  the 
last  ten  years  of  his  life,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  Matthew 
Parker's  story  that  Wolsey  suggested  his  retirement  from  his 
bishopric  on  a  pension.  Fox  replied  with  some  warmth,  and 
Wolsey  had  to  wait  until  Fox's  death  before  he  could  add 
Winchester  to  his  archbishopric  of  York  and  his  abbey  of  St 
Albans,  and  thus  leave  Durham  vacant  as  he  hoped  for  the 
illegitimate  son  on  whom  (aged  18)  he  had  already  conferred 
a  deanery,  four  archdeaconries,  five  prebends  and  a  chancellor- 
ship. 

The  crown  of  Fox's  career  was  his  foundation  of  Corpus  Christi 
College,  which  he  established  in  1515-1516.  Originally  he  in- 
tended it  as  an  Oxford  house  for  the  monks  of  St  Swithin's, 
Winchester;  but  he  is  said  to  have  been  dissuaded  by  Bishop 
Oldham,  who  denounced  the  monks  and  foretold  their  fall.  The 
scheme  adopted  breathed  the  spirit  of  the  Renaissance;  provision 
was  made  for  the  teaching  of  Greek,  Erasmus  lauded  the  institu- 
tion and  Pole  was  one  of  its  earliest  fellows.  The  humanist 
Viveswas  brought  from  Italy  to  teach  Latin,  and  the  reader 
in  theology  was  instructed  to  follow  the  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers 
rather  than  the  scholastic  commentaries.  Fox  also  built  and 
endowed  schools  at  Taunton  and  Grantham,  and  was  a  benefactor 
to  numerous  other  institutions.  He  died  at  Wolvesey  on  the 
5th  of  October  1528;  Corpus  possesses  several  portraits  and 
other  relics  of  its  founder. 

See  Letters  and  Papers  of  Henry  VII,  and  Henry  VIII.,  vols.  i.-iv. ; 
Spanish  and  Venetian  Calendars  of  State  Papers;  Gairdner's  Lollardy 
and  the  Reformation  and  Church  History  1485-1558;  Pollard's 
Henry  VIII. ;  Longman's  Political  History,  vol.  v. ;  other  authorities 
cited  in  the  article  by  Dr  T.  Fowler  (formerly  president  of  Corpus)  in 
the  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  (A.  F.  P.) 

FOX,  ROBERT  WERE  (1789-1877),  English  geologist  and 
natural  philosopher,  was  born  at  Falmouth  on  the  26th  of  April 
1789.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  was 
descended  from  members  who  had  long  settled  in  Cornwall, 
although  he  was  not  related  to  George  Fox  who  had  introduced 
the  community  into  the  county.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
researches  on  the  internal  temperature  of  the  earth,  being  the 
first  to  prove  that  the  heat  increased  definitely  with  the  depth; 
his  observations  being  conducted  in  Cornish  mines  from  1815 
for  a  period  of  forty  years.  In  1829  he  commenced  a  series  of 
experiments  on  the  artificial  production  of  miniature  metalli- 
ferous veins  by  means  of  the  long-continued  influence  of  electric 
currents,  and  his  main  results  were  published  in  Observations 
on  Mineral  Veins  (Rep.  Royal  Cornwall  Polytech.  Soc.,  1836). 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  in  1833  of  the  Royal  Cornwall  Poly- 
technic Society.  He  constructed  in  1834  an  improved  form  of 
deflector  dipping  needle.  In  1848  he  was  elected  F.R.S.  His 
garden  at  Penjerrick  near  Falmouth  became  noted  for  the 
number  of  exotic  plants  which  he  had  naturalized.  He  died  on 
the  25th  of  July  1877.  (See  A  Catalogs  of  the  Works  of  Robert 
Were  Fox,  F.R.S. ,  with  a  Sketch  of  his  Life,  by  J.  H.  Collins, 
1878.) 

His  daughter,  CAROLINE  Fox  (1819-1871),  born  at  Falmouth 
on  the  24th  of  May  1819,  is  well  known  as  the  authoress  of  a 


768 


FOX,  SIR  S.— FOX 


diary,  recording  memories  of  many  distinguished  people,  such 
as  John  Stuart  Mill,  John  Sterling  and  Carlyle.  Selections  from 
her  diary  and  correspondence  (1835-1871)  were  published  under 
the  title  of  Memories  of  Old  Friends  (ed.  by  H.  N.  Pym,  1881; 
2nd  ed.,  1882).  She  died  on  the  i2th  of  January  1871. 

FOX,  SIR  STEPHEN  (1627-1716),  English  statesman,  born 
on  the  27th  of  March  1627,  was  the  son  of  William  Fox,  of 
Farley,  in  Wiltshire,  a  yeoman  farmer.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he 
first  obtained  a  situation  in  the  household  of  the  earl  of  North- 
umberland; then  he  entered  the  service  of  Lord  Percy,  the  earl's 
brother,  and  was  present  with  the  royalist  army  at  the  battle 
of  Worcester  as  Lord  Percy's  deputy  at  the  ordnance  board. 
Accompanying  Charles  II.  in  his  flight  to  the  continent,  he  was 
appointed  manager  of  the  royal  household,  on  Clarendon's 
recommendation  as  "a  young  man  bred  under  the  severe 
discipline  of  Lord  Percy  .  .  .  very  well  qualified  with  languages, 
and  all  other  parts  of  clerkship,  honesty  and  discretion."  The 
skill  with  which  he  managed  the  exiguous  finances  of  the  exiled 
court  earned  him  further  confidence  and  promotion.  He  was 
employed  on  several  important  missions,  and  acted  eventually 
as  intermediary  between  the  king  and  General  Monk.  Honours 
and  emolument  were  his  reward  after  the  Restoration;  he  was 
appointed  to  the  lucrative  offices  of  first  clerk  of  the  board  of 
green  cloth  and  paymaster-general  of  the  forces.  In  November 
1661  he  became  member  of  parliament  for  Salisbury.  In  1665 
he  was  knighted,  was  returned  as  M.P.  for  Westminster  on  the 
27th  of  February  1679,  and  succeeded  the  earl  of  Rochester  as 
a  commissioner  of  the  treasury,  filling  that  office  for  twenty-three 
years  and  during  three  reigns.  In  1680  he  resigned  the  pay- 
mastership  and  was  made  first  commissioner  of  horse.  In  1684 
he  became  sole  commissioner  of  horse.  He  was  offered  a  peerage 
by  James  II.,  on  condition  of  turning  Roman  Catholic,  but 
refused,  in  spite  of  which  he  was  allowed  to  retain  his  com- 
missionerships.  In  1685  he  was  again  M.  P.  for  Salisbury,  and 
opposed  the  bill  for  a  standing  army  supported  by  the  king. 
During  the  Revolution  he  maintained  an  attitude  of  decent 
reserve,  but  on  James's  .flight,  submitted  to  William  III.,  who 
confirmed  him  in  his  offices.  He  was  again  elected  for  West- 
minster in  1691  and  1695,  for  Cricklade  in  1698,  and  finally  in 
1713  once  more  for  Salisbury.  He  died  on  the  28th  of  October 
1716.  It  is 'his  distinction  to  have  founded  Chelsea  hospital, 
and  to  have  contributed  £13,000  in  aid  of  this  laudable  public 
work.  Though  his  place  as  a  statesman  is  in  the  second  or  even 
the  third  rank,  yet  he  was  a  useful  man  in  his  generation,  and  a 
public  servant  who  creditably  discharged  all  the  duties  with 
which  he  was  entrusted.  Unlike  other  statesmen  of  his  day, 
he  grew  rich  in  the  service  of  the  nation  without  being  suspected 
of  corruption,  and  without  forfeiting  the  esteem  of  his  con- 
temporaries. 

He  was  twice  married  (1651  and  1703);  by  his  first  wife, 
Elizabeth  Whittle,  he  had  seven  sons,  who  predeceased  him, 
and  three  daughters;  by  his  second,  Christian  Hopes,  he  had 
two  sons  and  two  daughters.  The  elder  son  by  the  second 
marriage,  Stephen  (1704-1776),  was  created  Lord  Ilchester  and 
Stavordale  in  1747  and  earl  of  Ilchester  in  1756;  in  1758  he 
took  the  additional  name  of  Strangways,  and  his  descendants, 
the  family  of  Fox-Strangways,  still  hold  the  earldom  of  Ilchester. 
The  younger  son,  Henry,  became  the  ist  Lord  Holland  (?.».). 

FOX,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1812-1893),  New  Zealand  statesman, 
third  son  of  George  Townshend  Fox,  deputy-lieutenant  for 
Durham  county,  was  born  in  England  on  the  gth  of  June  1812, 
and  educated  at  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  where  he  took  his 
degree  in  1832.  Called  to  the  bar  in  1842,  he  emigrated  im- 
mediately thereafter  to  New  Zealand,  where,  on  the  death  of 
Captain  Arthur  Wakefield,  killed  in  1843  in  the  Wairau  massacre, 
he  became  the  New  Zealand  Company's  agent  for  the  South 
Island.  While  holding  this  position  he  made  a  memorable 
exploring  march  on  foot  from  Nelson  to  Canterbury,  through 
Cannibal  Gorge,  in  the  course  of  which  he  discovered  the  fertile 
pastoral  country  of  Amuri.  In  1848  Governor  Grey  made  Fox 
attorney-general,  but  he  gave  up  the  post  almost  at  once  in 
order  to  join  the  agitation,  then  at  its  height,  for  a  free  constitu- 


tion. As  the  political  agent  of  the  Wellington  settlers  he  sailed 
to  London  in  1850  to  urge  their  demands  in  Downing  Street. 
The  colonial  office,  however,  refused  to  recognize  him,  and, 
after  publishing  a  sketch  of  the  New  Zealand  settlements,  The 
Six  Colonies  of  New  Zealand,  and  travelling  in  the  United  States, 
he  returned  to  New  Zealand  and  again  threw  himself  with  energy 
into  public  affairs.  When  government  by  responsible  ministers 
was  at  last  initiated,  in  1856,  Fox  ousted  the  first  ministry  and 
formed  a  cabinet,  only  to  be  himself  beaten  in  turn  after  holding 
office  but  thirteen  days.  In  1861  he  regained  office,  and  was 
somewhat  more  fortunate,  for  he  remained  premier  for  nearly 
thirteen  months.  Again,  in  the  latter  part  of  1863  he  took  office: 
this  time  with  Sir  Frederick  Whitaker  as  premier,  an  arrangement 
which  endured  for  another  thirteen  months.  Fox's  third  premier- 
ship began  in  1869  and  lasted  until  1872.  His  fourth,  which  was 
a  matter  of  temporary  convenience  to  his  party,  lasted  only 
five  weeks  in  March  and  April  1873.  Soon  afterwards  he  left 
politics,  and,  though  he  reappeared  after  some  years  and  led  the 
attack  which  overthrew  Sir  George  Grey's  ministry  in  1879,  he 
lost  his  seat  in  the  dissolution  which  followed  in  that  year  and 
did  not  again  enter  parliament.  'He  was  made  K.C.M.G.  in  1880. 

For  the  thirty  years  between  1850  and  1880  Sir  William  Fox 
was  one  of  the  half-dozen  most  notable  public  men  in  the  colony. 
Impulsive  and  controversial,  a  fluent  and  rousing  speaker,  and 
a  ready  writer,  his  warm  and  sympathetic  nature  made  him  a 
good  friend  and  a  troublesome  foe.  He  was  considered  for  many 
years  to  be  the  most  dangerous  leader  of  the  Opposition  in  the 
colony's  parliament,  though  as  premier  he  was  at  a  disadvantage 
when  measured  against  more  patient  and  more  astute  party 
managers.  His  activities  were  first  devoted  to  secure  self- 
government  for  the  New  Zealand  colonists.  Afterwards  his 
sympathies  made  him  prominent  among  the  champions  of  the 
Maori  race,  and  he  laboured  indefatigably  for  their  rights  and  to 
secure  permanent  peace  with  the  tribes  and  a  just  settlement 
of  their  claims.  It  was  during  his  third  premiership  that  this 
peace,  so  long  deferred,  was  at  last  gained,  mainly  through  the 
influence  and  skill  of  Sir  Donald  M'Lean,  native  minister  in  the 
Fox  cabinet.  Finally;  after  Fox  had  left  parliament  he  devoted 
himself,  as  joint-commissioner  with  Sir  Francis  Dillon  Bell, 
to  the  adjustment  of  the  native  land-claims  on  the  west  coast 
of  the  North  Island.  The  able  reports  of  the  commissioners 
were  his  last  public  service,  and  the  carrying  out  of  their  recom- 
mendations gradually  removed  the  last  serious  native  trouble 
in  New  Zealand.  When,  however,  in  the  course  of  the  native 
wars  from  1860  to  1870  the  colonists  of  New  Zealand  were 
exposed  to  cruel  and  unjust  imputations  in  England,  Fox 
zealously  defended  them  in  a  book,  The  War  in  New  Zealand 
(1866),  which  was  not  only  a  spirited  vindication  of  his  fellow- 
settlers,  but  a  scathing  criticism  of  the  generalship  of  the  officers 
commanding  the  imperial  troops  in  New  Zealand.  Throughout 
his  life  Fox  was  a  consistent  advocate  of  total  abstinence.  It 
was  he  who  founded  the  New  Zealand  Alliance,  and  he  un- 
doubtedly aided  the  growth  of  the  prohibition  movement  after- 
wards so  strong  in  the  colony.  He  died  on  the  23rd  of  June 
1893,  exactly  twelve  months  after  his  wife,  Sarah,  daughter  of 
William  Halcombe.  (W.  P.  R.) 

FOX,  a  name  (female,  "vixen"1)  properly  applicable  to  the 
single  wild  British  representative  of  the  family  Canidae  (see 
CARNIVORA)  ,  but  in  a  wider  sense  used  to  denote  fox-like  species 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,  inclusive  of  many  from  South  America 
which  do  not  really  belong  to  the  same  group.  The  fox  was 
included  by  Linnaeus  in  the  same  genus  with  the  dog  and  the 
wolf,  under  the  name  of  Canis  vulpes,  but  at  the  present  day  is 
regarded  by  most  naturalists  as  the  type  of  a  separate  genus,  and 
should  then  be  known  as  Vulpes  alopex  or  Vulpes  vulpes.  From 

1  The  word  is  common  to  the  Teutonic  languages,  cf.  Dutch  vos, 
Ger.  Fuchs;  the  ultimate  origin  is  unknown,  but  a  connexion 
has  been  suggested  with  Sanskrit  puccha,  tail.  The  feminine 
"  vixen  "  represents  the  O.  Eng.  fyxen,  due  to  the  change  from  o  to  y, 
and  addition  of  the  feminine  termination  -en,  cf .  O.  Eng.  gyden,  goddess, 
and  Ger.  Fiichsin,  vixen.  The  y,  for  /,  is  common  in  southern 
English  pronunciation;  vox,  for  fox,  is  found  in  the  Ancren  Riwle, 
c.  1230. 


FOX 


769 


dogs,  wolves,  jackals,  &c.,  which  constitute  the  genus  Canis  in 
its  more  restricted  sense,  foxes  are  best  distinguished  by  the 
circumstance  that  in  the  skull  the  (postorbital)  projection 
immediately  behind  the  socket  for  the  eye  has  its  upper  surface 
concave,  with  a  raised  ridge  in  front,  in  place  of  regularly  convex. 
Another  character  is  the  absence  of  a  hollow  chamber,  or  sinus, 
within  the  frontal  bone  of  the  forehead.  Foxes  are  likewise 
distinguished  by  their  slighter  build,  longer  and  bushy  tail, 
which  always  exceeds  half  the  length  of  the  head  and  body, 
sharper  muzzle,  and  relatively  longer  body  and  shorter  limbs. 
Then  again,  the  ears  are  large  in  proportion  to  the  head,  the  pupil 
of  the  eye  is  elliptical  and  vertical  when  in  a  strong  light,  and 
the  female  has  six  pairs  of  teats,  in  place  of  the  three  to  five  pairs 
found  in  dogs,  wolves  and  jackals.  From  the  North  American 
grey  foxes,  constituting  the  genus  or  subgenus  Urocyon,  the  true 
foxes  are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a  crest  of  erectile  long 
hairs  along  the  middle  line  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail,  and 
also  of  a  projection  (subangular  process)  to  the  postero-inferior 
angle  of  the  lower  jaw.  With  the  exception  of  certain  South 
African  species,  foxes  differ  from  wolves  and  jackals  in  that  they 
do  not  associate  in  packs,  but  go  about  in  pairs  or  are  solitary. 

From  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  the  British  Islands 
the  range  of  the  fox  extends  eastwards  across  Europe  and 
central  and  northern  Asia  to  Japan,  while  to  the  south  it  embraces 
northern  Africa  and  Arabia,  Persia,  Baluchistan,  and  the  north- 
western districts  of  India  and  the  Himalaya.  On  the  North 
American  side  of  the  Atlantic  the  fox  reappears.  With  such  an 
enormous  geographical  range  the  species  must  of  necessity 
present  itself  under  a  considerable  number  of  local  phases,  differ- 
ing from  one  another  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  in  the  matters 
of  size  and  colouring.  By  some  naturalists  many  of  these  local 
forms  are  regarded  as  specifically  distinct,  but  it  seems  better 
and  simpler  to  class  them  all  as  local  phases  or  races  of  a  single 
species  primarily  characterized  by  the  white  tip  to  the  tail  and 
the  black  or  dark-brown  hind  surface  of  the  ear.  The  "  foxy 
red  "  colouring  of  the  typical  race  of  north-western  Europe  is 
too  well  known  to  require  description.  From  this  there  is  a  more 
or  less  nearly  complete  gradation  on  the  one  hand  to  pale- 
coloured  forms  like  the  white-footed  fox  ( V.  alopex  leucopus)  of 
Persia,  N.W.  India  and  Arabia,  and  on  the  other  to  the  silver 
or  black  fox  (V.  a.  argentatus)  of  North  America  which  yields 
the  valuable  silver-tipped  black  fur.  Silver  foxes  apparently 
also  occur  in  northern  Asia. 

To  mention  all  the  other  local  races  would  be  superfluous,  and 
it  will  suffice  to  note  that  the  North  African  fox  is  known  as 
V.  a.  niloticus,  the  Himalayan  as  V.  a.  montanus,  the  Tibetan  as 
V.  a.  wadelli,  the  North  American  red  or  cross  fox  as  V.  a. 
pennsylvanicus,  and  the  Alaskan  as  V.  a.  harrimani;  the  last 
named,  like  several  other  animals  from  Alaska,  being  the  largest 
of  its  kind. 

The  cunning  and  stratagem  of  the  fox  have  been  proverbial  for 
many  ages,  and  he  has  figured  as  a  central  character  in  fables 
from  the  earliest  times,  as  in  Aesop,  down  to  "  Uncle  Remus," 
most  notably  as  Reynard  (Raginohardus,  strong  in  counsel)  in 
the  great  medieval  beast-epic  "  Reynard  the  Fox  "  (<?.».).  It 
is  not  unlikely  that,  owing  to  the  conditions  under  which 
it  now  lives,  these  traits  are  even  more  developed  in  England 
than  elsewhere.  In  habits  the  fox  is  to  a  great  extent  solitary, 
and  its  home  is  usually  a  burrow,  which  may  be  excavated  by 
its  own  labour,  but  is  more  often  the  usurped  or  deserted  tene- 
ment of  a  badger  or  a  rabbit.  Foxes  will,  however,  often  take 
up  their  residence  in  woods,  or  even  in  water-meadows  with 
large  tussocks  of  grass,  remaining  concealed  during  the  day  and 
issuing  forth  on  marauding  expeditions  at  night.  Rabbits, 
hares,  domesticated  poultry,  game-birds,  and,  when  these  run 
short,  rats,  mice  and  even  insects,  form  the  chief  diet  of  the  fox. 
When  living  near  the  coast  foxes  will,  however,  visit  the  shore 
at  low  water  in  search  of  crabs  and  whelks;  and  the  old  story 
of  the  fox  and  the  grapes  seems  to  be  founded  upon  a  partiality 
on  the  part  of  the  creature  for  that  fruit.  Flesh  that  has  become 
tainted  appears  to  be  specially  acceptable;  but  it  is  a  curious 
fact  that  on  no  account  will  a  fox  eat  any  kind  of  bird  of  prey, 
x.  25 


After  a  gestation  of  from  60  to  65  days,  the  vixen  during  the 
month  of  April  gives  birth  to  cubs,  of  which  from  five  to  eight 
usually  go  to  form  a  litter.  When  first  born  these  are  clothed 
with  a  uniform  slaty-grey  fur,  which  in  due  course  gives  place 
to  a  coat  of  more  tawny  hue  than  the  adult  livery.  In  a  year  and 
a  half  the  cubs  attain  their  full  development;  and  from  observa- 
tions on  captive  specimens  it  appears  that  the  duration  of  life 
ought  to  extend  to  some  thirteen  or  fourteen  years.  In  the  care 
and  defence  of  her  young  the  vixen  displays  extraordinary 
solicitude  and  boldness,  altogether  losing  on  such  occasions  her 
accustomed  timidity  and  caution.  Like  most  other  young 
animals,  fox-cubs  are  exceedingly  playful,  and  may  be  seen 
chasing  one  another  in  front  of  the  mouth  of  the  burrow,  or  even 
running  after  their  own  tails. 

Young  foxes  can  be  tamed  to  a  certain  extent,  and  d"o  not  then 
emit  the  well-known  odour  to  any  great  degree  unless  excited. 
The  species  cannot,  however,  be  completely  domesticated,  and 
never  displays  the  affectionate  traits  of  the  dog.  It  was  long 
believed  that  foxes  and  dogs  would  never  interbreed;  but 
several  instances  of  such  unions  have  been  recorded,  although 
they  are  undoubtedly  rare.  When  suddenly  confronted  in  a 
situation  where  immediate  escape  is  impossible,  the  fox,  like  the 
wolf,  will  not  hesitate  to  resort  to  the  death-feigning  instinct. 
Smartness  in  avoiding  traps  is  one  of  the  most  distinctive  traits 
in  the  character  of  the  species;  but  when  a  trap  has  once  claimed 
its  victim,  and  is  consequently  no  longer  dangerous,  the  fox  is 
always  ready  to  take  advantage  of  the  gratuitous  meal. 

Red  fox-skins  are  largely  imported  into  Europe  for  various 
purposes,  the  American  imports  alone  formerly  reaching  as  many 
as  60,000  skins  annually.  Silver  fox  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  all  furs,  as  much  as  £480  having  been  given  for  an  unusually 
fine  pair  of  skins  in  1902. 

Of  foxes  certainly  distinct  specifically  from  the  typical  repre- 
sentative of  the  group,  one  of  the  best  known  is  the  Indian 
Vulpes  bengalensis,  a  species  much  inferior  in  point  of  size  to  its 
European  relative,  and  lacking  the  strong  odour  of  the  latter, 
from  which  it  is  also  distinguished  by  the  black  tip  to  the  tail 
and  the  pale-coloured  backs  of  the  ears.  The  corsac  fox  (V. 
cor  sac),  ranging  from  southern  Russia  and  the  Caspian  provinces 
across  Asia  to  Amurland,  may  be  regarded  as  a  northern  repre- 
sentative of  the  Indian  species;  while  the  pale  fox  (V.  pallidus), 
of  the  Suakin  and  Dongola  deserts,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
African  representative  of  the  group.  Possibly  the  kit-fox  ( V. 
velox),  which  has  likewise  a  black  tail- tip  and  pale  ears,  may 
be  the  North  American  form  of  the  same  group.  The  northern 
fennec  (V.  famelicus),  whose  range  extends  apparently  from 
Egypt  and  Somaliland  through  Palestine  and  Persia  into  Afghan- 
istan, seems  to  form  a  connecting  link  between  the  more  typical 
foxes  and  the  small  African  species  properly  known  as  fennecs. 
The  long  and  bushy  tail  in  the  northern  species  has  a  white  tip 
and  a  dark  gland-patch  near  the  root,  but  the  backs  of  the  ears 
are  fawn-coloured.  The  enormous  length  of  the  ears  and  the 
small  bodily  size  (inferior  to  that  of  any  other  member  of  the 
family)  suffice  to  distinguish  the  true  fennec  ( V.  zerda)  of  Algeria 
and  Egypt,  in  which  the  general  colour  is  pale  and  the  tip  of 
the  relatively  short  tail  black.  South  of  the  Zambezi  the  group 
reappears  in  the  shape  of  the  asse-fox  or  fennec.  (V.  cama),  a 
dark-coloured  species,  with  a  black  tip  to  the  long,  bushy  tail 
and  reddish-brown  ears. 

Passing  from  South  Africa  to  the  north  polar  regions  of  both 
the  Old  and  the  New  World,  inclusive  of  Iceland,  we  enter  the 
domain  of  the  Arctic  fox  (V.  lagopus),  a  very  distinct  species 
characterized  by  the  hairy  soles  of  its  feet,  the  short,  blunt  ears, 
the  long,  bushy  tail,  and  the  great  length  of  the  fur  in  winter. 
The  upper  parts  in  summer  are  usually  brownish  and  the  under 
parts  white;  but  in  winter  the  whole  coat,  in  this  phase  of  the 
species,  turns  white.  In  a  second  phase  of  the  species,  the 
colour,  which  often  displays  a  slaty  hue  (whence  the  name  of  blue 
fox),  remains  more  or  less  the  same  throughout  the  year,  the 
winter  coat  being,  however,  recognizable  by  the  great  length 
of  the  fur.  Many  at  least  of  the  "  blue  fox  "  skins  of  the  fur- 
trade  are  white  skins  dyed.  About  2000  blue  fox-skins  were 


770  FOXE,  J. 

annually  imported  into  London  from  Alaska  some  five-and- 
twenty  years  ago.  Arctic  foxes  feed  largely  on  sea-birds  and 
lemmings,  laying  up  hidden  stores  of  the  last-named  rodents  for 
winter  use. 

The  American  grey  fox,  or  Virginian  fox,  is  now  generally 
ranged  as  a  distinct  genus  (or  a  subgenus  of  Canis)  under  the 
name  of  Urocyon  cinereo-argenlatus,  on  account  of  being  dis- 
tinguished, as  already  mentioned,  by  the  presence  of  a  ridge  of 
long  erectile  hairs  along  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  and  of  a 
projection  to  the  postero-inferior  angle  of  the  lower  jaw.  The 
prevailing  colour  of  the  fur  of  the  upper  parts  is  iron-grey. 

The  so-called  foxes  of  South  America,  such  as  the  crab-eating 
fox  (C.  Ihous),  Azara's  fox  (C.  azarae),  and  the  colpeo  (C.  magel- 
lanicus),  are  aberrant  members  of  the  typical  genus  Canis.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  long-eared  fox  or  Delalande'S  fox  (Otocyon 
megalotis)  of  south  and  east  Africa  represents  a  totally  distinct 
genus. 

See  St  George  Mivart,  Dogs,  Jackals,  Wolves  and  Foxes  (London, 
1890);  R.  I.  Pocock,  "Ancestors  and  Relatives  of  the  Dog,"  in 
The  Kennel  Encyclopaedia  (London,  1907).  For  fox-hunting,  see 
HUNTING.  (R.  L.*) 

FOXE,  JOHN  (1516-1587),  the  author  of  the  famous  Book  of 
Martyrs,  was  born  at  Boston,  in  Lincolnshire,  in  1516.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  is  said  to  have  entered  Brasenose  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  was  the  pupil  of  John  Harding  or  Hawarden, 
and  had  for  room-mate  Alexander  Nowell,  afterwards  dean  of 
St.  Paul's.  His  authenticated  connexion  at  the  university  is, 
however,  with  Magdalen  College.  He  took  his  B.A.  degree  in 
1537  and  his  M.A.  in  1543.  He  was  lecturer  on  logic  in  1540- 
1541.  He  wrote  several  Latin  plays  on  Scriptural  subjects,  of 
which  the  best,  De  Christo  triumphante,  was  repeatedly  printed, 
(London,  1551;  Basel,  1556,  &c.),  and  was  translated  into  English 
by  Richard  Day,  son  of  the  printer.  He  became  a  fellow  of 
Magdalen  College  in  1539,  resigning  in  1545.  It  is  said  that  he 
refused  to  conform  to  the  rules  for  regular  attendance  at  chapel, 
and  that  he  protested  both  against  the  enforced  celibacy  of 
fellows  and  the  obligation  to  take  holy  orders  within  seven 
years  of  their  election.  The  customary  statement  that  he  was 
expelled  from  his  fellowship  is  based  on  the  untrustworthy 
biography  attributed  to  his  son  Samuel  Foxe,  but  the  college 
records  state  that  he  resigned  of  his  own  accord  and  ex  honesta 
causa.  The  letter  in  which  he  protests  to  President  Oglethorpe 
against  the  charges  of  irreverence,  &c.,  brought  against  him  is 
printed  in  Pratt's  edition  (vol.  i.  Appendix,  pp.  58-61). 

On  leaving  Oxford  he  acted  as  tutor  for  a  short  time  in  the 
house  of  the  Lucys  of  Charlecote,  near  Stratford-on-Avon,  where 
he  married  Agnes  Randall.  Late  in  1547  or  early  in  the  next 
year  he  went  to  London.  He  found  a  patron  in  Mary  Fitzroy, 
duchess  of  Richmond,  and  having  been  ordained '  deacon  by 
Ridley  in  1550,  he  settled  at  Reigate  Castle,  where  he  acted 
as  tutor  to  the  duchess's  nephews,  the  orphan  children  of  Henry 
Howard,  earl  of  Surrey.  On  the  accession  cf  Queen  Mary,  Foxe 
was  deprived  of  his  tutorship  by  the  boys'  grandfather,  the  duke 
of  Norfolk,  who  was  now  released  from  prison.  He  retired  to 
Strassburg,  and  occupied  himself  with  a  Latin  history  of  the 
Christian  persecutions  which  he  had  begun  at  the  suggestion  of 
Lady  Jane  Grey.  He  had  assistance  from  two  clerics  of  widely 
differing  opinions — from  Edmund  Grindal,  who  was  later,  as 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to  maintain  his  Puritan  convictions 
in  opposition  to  Elizabeth;  and  from  John  Aylmer,  afterwards 
one  of  the  bitterest  opponents  of  the  Puritan  party.  This  book, 
dealing  chiefly  with  Wycliffe  and  Huss,  and  coming  down  to 
1500,  formed  the  first  outline  of  the  Acles  and  Monuments.  It 
was  printed  by  Wendelin  Richelius  with  the  title  of  Commentarii 
rerum  in  ecclesia  geslarum  (Strasburg,  1554).  In  the  year  of  its 
publication  Foxe  removed  to  Frankfort,  where  he  found  the 
English  colony  of  Protestant  refugees  divided  into  two  camps. 
He  made  a  vain  attempt  to  frame  a  compromise  which  should 
be  accepted  by  the  extreme  Calvinists  and  by  the  partisans  of 
the  Anglican  doctrine.  He  removed  (1555)  to  Basel,  where 
he  worked  as  printer's  reader  to  Johann  Herbst  or  Oporinus. 
He  made  steady  progress  with  his  great  book  as  he  received 


reports  from  England  of  the  religious  persecutions  there,  and  he 
issued  from  the  press  of  Oporinus  his  pamphlet  Ad  indytos  ac 
praepolentes  Angliae  proceres  .  .  .  supplicatio  (1557),  a  plea  for 
toleration  addressed  to  the  English  nobility.  In  1559  he  com- 
pleted the  Latin  edition1  of  his  martyrology  and  returned  to 
England.  He  lived  for  some  time  at  Aldgate,  London,  in  the 
house  of  his  former  pupil,  Thomas  Howard,  now  duke  of  Norfolk, 
who  retained  a  sincere  regard  for  his  tutor  and  left  him  a  small 
pension  in  his  will.  He  became  associated  with  John  Day  the 
printer,  himself  once  a  Protestant  exile.  Foxe  was  ordained 
priest  by  Edmund  Grindal,  bishop  of  London,  in  1560,  and 
besides  much  literary  work  he  occasionally  preached  at  Paul's 
Cross  and  other  places.  His  work  had  rendered  great  service 
to  the  government,  and  he  might  have  had  high  preferment  in 
the  Church  but  for  the  Puritan  views  which  he  consistently 
maintained.  He  held,  however,  the  prebend  of  Shipton  in 
Salisbury  cathedral,  and  is  said  to  have  been  for  a  short  time 
rector  of  Cripplegate. 

In  1563  was  issued  from  the  press  of  John  Day  the  first  English 
edition  of  the  Actes  and  Monuments  of  these  latter  and  perillous 
Dayes,  touching  matters  of  the  Church,  wherein  are  comprehended 
and  described  the  great  Persecution  and  horrible  Troubles  that 
have  been  •wrought  and  practised  by  the  Romishe  Prelates,  speciallye 
in  this  Realme  of  England  and  Scotland,  from  the  yeare  of  our 
Lorde  a  thousands  to  the  time  now  present.  Gathered  and  collected 
according  to  the  true  Copies  and  Wrylinges  certificatorie  as  well  of 
the  Parlies  themselves  that  Suffered,  as  also  out  of  the  Bishop's 
Registers,  which  were  the  Doers  thereof,  by  John  Foxe,  commonly 
known  as  the  Book  of  Martyrs.  Several  gross  errors  which  had 
appeared  in  the  Latin  version,  and  had  been  since  exposed,  were 
corrected  in  this  edition.  Its  popularity  was  immense  and  signal. 
The  Marian  persecution  was  still  fresh  in  men's  minds,  and  the 
graphic  narrative  intensified  in  its  numerous  readers  the  fierce 
hatred  of  Spain  and  of  the  Inquisition  which  was  one  of  the 
master  passions  of  the  reign.  Nor  was  its  influence  transient. 
For  generations  the  popular  conception  of  Roman  Catholicism 
was  derived  from  its  bitter  pages.  Its  accuracy  was  immediately 
attacked  by  Catholic  writers,  notably  in  the  Dialogi  sex  (1566), 
nominally  from  the  pen  of  Alan  Cope,  but  in  reality  by  Nicholas 
Harpsfield  and  by  Robert  Parsons  in  Three  Conversions  of 
England  (1570).  These  criticisms  induced  Foxe  to  produce  a 
second  corrected  edition,  Ecclesiastical  History,  contayning  the 
Actes  and  Monuments  of  things  passed  in  every  kynges  lyme  .  .  . 
in  1570,  a  copy  of  which  was  ordered  by  Convocation  to  be 
placed  in  every  collegiate  church.  Foxe  based  his  accounts  of 
the  martyrs  partly  on  authentic  documents  and  reports  of  the 
trials,  and  on  statements  received  direct  from  the  friends  of 
the  sufferers,  but  he  was  too  hasty  a  worker  and  too  violent  a 
partisan  to  produce  anything  like  a  correct  or  impartial  account 
of  the  mass  of  facts  with  which  he  had  to  deal.  Anthony  a 
Wood  says  that  Foxe  "  believed  and  reported  all  that  was  told 
him,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  he  was  purposely 
misled,  and  continually  deceived  by  those  whose  interest  it  was 
to  bring  discredit  on  his  work,"  but  he  admits  that  the  book  is 
a  monument  of  his  industry,  his  laborious  research  and  his 
sincere  piety.  The  gross  blunders  due  to  carelessness  have 
often  been  exposed,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  Foxe  was  only 
too  ready  to  believe  evil  of  the  Catholics,  and  he  cannot  always 
be  exonerated  from  the  charge  of  wilful  falsification  of  evidence. 
It  should,  however,  be  remembered  in  his  honour  that  his 
advocacy  of  religious  toleration  was  far  in  advance  of  his  day. 
He  pleaded  for  the  despised  Dutch  Anabaptists,  and  remon- 
strated with  John  Knox  on  the  rancour  of  his  First  Blast  of  the 
Trumpet.  Foxe  was  one  of  the  earliest  students  of  Anglo- 
Saxon,  and  he  and  Day  published  an  edition  of  the  Saxon 
gospels  under  the  patronage  of  Archbishop  Parker.  He  died 
on  the  i8th  of  April  1587  and  was  buried  at  St  Giles's, 
Cripplegate. 

1  Printed   by   Oporinus   and    Nicolaus   Brylinger.     The   title  is 

Rerum  in  ecclesia  geslarum  .  .  .  pars  prima,  in  qua  primum  de 
rebus  per  A  ngliam  et  Scotiam  gestis  atque  in  primis  de  horrenda  sub 
Maria  nuper  regina  persecutione  narratio  continetur. 


FOXGLOVE— FOY 


771 


A  list  of  his  Latin  tracts  and  sermons  is  given  by  Wood,  and  others, 
some  of  which  were  never  printed,  appear  in  Bale.  Four  editions 
of  the  Actes  and  Monuments  appeared  in  Foxe's  lifetime.  The 
eighth  edition  (1641)  contains  a  memoir  of  Foxe  purporting  to  be 
by  his  son  Samuel,  the  MS.  of  which  is  in  the  British  Museum  (Lans- 
downe  MS.  388).  Samuel  Foxe's  authorship  is  disputed,  with  much 
show  of  reason,  by  Dr  S.  R.  Maitland  in  On  the  Memoirs  of  Foxe 
ascribed  to  his  Son  (1841).  The  best-known  modern  edition  of  the 
Martyrology  is  that  (1837-1841)  by  the  Rev.  Stephen  R.  Cattley, 
with  an  introductory  life  by  Canon  George  Townsend.  The  numer- 
ous inaccuracies  of  this  life  and  the  frequent  errors  of  Foxe's  narra- 
tive were  exposed  by  Dr  Maitland  in  a  series  of  tracts  (1837-1842), 
collected  (1841-1842)  as  Notes  on  the  Contributions  of  the  Rev.  George 
Townsend,  M.A.  .  .  .  to  the  New  Edition  of  Fox's  Martyrology. 
The  criticism  lavished  on  Cattley  and  Townsend's  edition  led  to  a 
new  one  (1846—1849)  under  the  same  editorship.  A  new  text 
prepared  by  the  Rev.  Josiah  Pratt  was  issued  (1870)  in  the  "  Refor- 
mation Series  "  of  the  Church  Historians  of  England,  with  a  revised 
version  of  Townsend's  Life  and  appendices  giving  copies  of  original 
documents.  Later  edition  by  W.  Grinton  Berry  (1907). 

Foxe's  papers  are  preserved  in  the  Harleian  and  Lansdowne 
collections  in  the  British  Museum.  Extracts  from  these  were 
edited  by  J.  G.  Nichols  for  the  Camden  Society  (1859).  See  also 
W.  Winters,  Biographical  Notes  on  John  Foxe  (1876);  James 
Gairdner,  History  of  the  English  Church  in  the  Sixteenth  Century. 

FOXGLOVE,  a  genus  of  biennial  and  perennial  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Scrophulariaceae.  The  common  or  purple  foxglove, 


Foxglove  (Digitalis  purpurea),  one-third  nat.  size. 


1.  Corolla  cut  open  showing  the 
four    stamens;    rather    more 
than  half  nat.  size. 

2.  Unripe   fruit   cut   lengthwise, 


showing  the  thick  axial  pla- 
centa bearing  numerous  small 
seeds. 
Ripe  capsule  split  open. 


D.  purpurea,  is  common  in  dry  hilly  pastures  and  rocky  places 
and  by  road-sides  in  various  parts  of  Europe ;  it  ranges  in  Great 
Britain  from  Cornwall  and  Kent  to  Orkney,  but  it  does  not 
occur  in  Shetland  or  in  some  of  the  eastern  counties  of  England.  I 


It  flourishes  best  in  siliceous  soils,  and  is  not  found  in  the  Jura 
and  Swiss  Alps.  The  characters  of  the  plant  are  as  follows: 
stem  erect,  roundish,  downy,  leafy  below,  and  from  18  in.  to 
5  ft.  or  more  in  height;  leaves  alternate,  crenate,  rugose,  ovate 
or  elliptic  oblong,  and  of  a  dull  green,  with  the  under  surface 
downy  and  paler  than  the  upper;  radical  leaves  together  with 
their  stalks  often  a  foot  in  length;  root  of  numerous,  slender, 
whitish  fibres;  flowers  if-2j  in.  long,  pendulous,  on  one  side  of 
the  stem,  purplish  crimson,  and  hairy  and  marked  with  eye-like 
spots  within;  segments  of  calyx  ovate,  acute,  cleft  to  the  base; 
corolla  bell-shaped  with  a  broadly  two-lipped  obtuse  mouth,  the 
upper  lip  entire  or  obscurely  divided;  stamens  four,  two  longer 
than  the  other  two  (didynamous) ;  anthers  yellow  and  bilobed ; 
capsule  bivalved,  ovate  and  pointed;  and  seeds  numerous, 
small,  oblong,  pitted  and  of  a  pale  brown.  As  Parkinson  re- 
marks of  the  plant,  "  It  flowreth  seldome  before  July,  and  the 
seed  is  ripe  in  August  ";  but  it  may  occasionally  be  found  in 
blossom  as  late  as  September.  Many  varieties  of  the  common 
foxglove  have  been  raised  by  cultivation,  with  flowers  varying 
in  colour  from  white  to  deep  rose  and  purple;  in  the  variety 
gloxinioides  the  flowers  are  almost  regular,  suggesting  those  of 
the  cultivated  gloxinia.  Other  species  of  foxglove  with  variously 
coloured  flowers  have  been  introduced  into  Britain  from  the 
continent  of  Europe.  The  plants  may  be  propagated  by  un- 
flowered  off-sets  from  the  roots,  but  being  biennials  are  best 
raised  from  seed. 

The  foxglove,  probably  from  folks'-glove,  that  is  fairies'  glove, 
is  known  by  a  great  variety  of  popular  names  in  Britain.  In 
the  south  of  Scotland  it  is  called  bloody  fingers;  farther  north, 
dead-men's-bells;  and  on  the  eastern  borders,  ladies'  thimbles, 
wild  mercury  and  Scotch  mercury.  In  Ireland  it  is  generally 
known  under  the  name  of  fairy  thimble.  Among  its  Welsh 
synonyms  are  menyg-cllyllon  (elves'  gloves),  menyg  y  llwynog 
(fox's  gloves),  bysedd  cochion  (redfingers)  and  bysedd  y  cwn 
(dog's  fingers).  In  France  its  designations  are  gants  de  noire 
dame  and  doigts  de  la  Vierge.  The  German  name  Fingerhut 
(thimble)  suggested  to  Fuchs,  in  1542,  the  employment  of  the 
Latin  adjective  digitalis  as  a  designation  for  the  plant.  Other 
species  of  foxglove  or  Digitalis  although  found  in  botanical 
collections  are  not  generally  grown.  For  medicinal  uses  see 
DIGITALIS. 

FOX  INDIANS,  the  name,  from  one  of  their  clans,  of  an  Algon- 
quian  tribe,  whose  former  range  was  central  Wisconsin.  They 
call  themselves  Muskwakiuk,  "  red  earth  people."  Owing  to 
heavy  losses  in  their  wars  with  the  Ojibways  and  the  French, 
they  allied  themselves  with  the  Sauk  tribe  about  1780,  the  two 
tribes  being  now  practically  one. 

FOX  MORCILLO,  SEBASTIAN  (is26?-iS59?),  Spanish  scholar 
and  philosopher,  was  born  at  Seville  between  1526  and  1528. 
About  1548  he  studied  at  Louvain,  and,  following  the  example 
of  the  Spanish  Jew,  Judas  Abarbanel,  published  commentaries 
on  Plato  and  Aristotle  in  which  he  endeavoured  to  reconcile 
their  teaching.  In  1559  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  Don  Carlos, 
son  of  Philip  II.,  but  did  not  live  to  take  up  the  duties  of  the  post, 
as  he  was  lost  at  sea  on  his  way  to  Spain.  His  most  original 
work  is  the  De  imilalione,  seu  de  informandi  styli  ratione  librill. 
(1554),  a  dialogue  in  which  the  author  and  his  brother  take  part 
under  the  pseudonyms  of  Caspar  and  Francisco  Enuesia.  Among 
Fox  Morcillo's  other  publications  are  :  (i)  In  Topica  Ciceronis 
paraphrasis  et  scholia  (1550);  (2)  In  Platonis  Timaeum  com- 
menlarii  (1554);  (3)  Compendium  ethices  philosophiae  ex  Platone, 
Aristotele,  aliisque  philosophis  colleclum;  (4)  De  historiae  in- 
slitutione  dialogus  (1557),  and  (5)  De  naturae  philosophic,. 

He  is  the  subject  of  an  excellent  monograph  by  Urbano  Gonzalez 
de  Calle,  Sebastian  Fox  Morcillo:  estudio  historico-critico  de  sus 
doctrinas  (Madrid,  1903). 

FOY,  MAXIMILIEN  S^BASTIEN  (1775-1825),  French  general 
and  statesman,  was  born  at  Ham  in  Picardy  on  the  3rd 
of  February  1775.  He  was  the  son  of  an  old  soldier  who  had 
fought  at  Fontenoy  and  had  become  post-master  of  the  town 
in  which  he  lived.  His  father  died  in  1780,  and  his  early  instruc- 
tion was  given  by  his  mother,  a  woman  of  English  origin  and  of 


772 


FRAAS— FRAGONARD 


superior  ability.  He  continued  his  education  at  the  college  of 
Soissons,  and  thence  passed  at  the  'age  of  fifteen  to  the  artillery 
school  of  La  Fere.  After  eighteen  months'  successful  study  he 
entered  the  army,  served  his  first  campaign  in  Flanders  (1791-92), 
and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Jemmapes.  He  soon  attained 
the  rank  of  captain,  and  served  successively  under  Dampierre, 
Jourdan,  Pichegru  and  Houchard.  In  1794,  in  consequence  of 
having  spoken  freely  against  the  violence  of  the  extreme  party 
it  Paris,  he  was  imprisoned  by  order  of  the  commissioner  of  the 
Convention,  Joseph  Lebon,  at  Cambray,  but  regained  his  liberty 
soon  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  He  served  under  Moreau 
in  the  campaigns  of  1796  and  1797,  distinguishing  himself  in 
many  engagements.  The  leisure  which  the  treaty  of  Campo 
Formio  gave  him  he  devoted  to  the  study  of  public  law  and 
modern  history,  attending  the  lectures  of  Christoph  Wilhelm  von 
Koch  (1737-1813),  the  famous  professor  of  public  law  at  Strass- 
burg.  He  was  recommended  by  Desaix  to  the  notice  of  General 
Bonaparte,  but  declined  to  serve  on  the  staff  of  the  Egyptian 
expedition.  In  the  campaign  of  Switzerland  (1798)  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  afresh,  though  he  served  only  with  the  greatest 
reluctance  against  a  people  which  possessed  republican  institu- 
tions. In  Mass6na's  brilliant  campaign  of  1799  Foy  won  the 
rank  of  chef  de  brigade.  In  the  following  year  he  served  under 
Moncey  in  the  Marengo  campaign  and  afterwards  in  Tirol. 

Foy's  republican  principles  caused  him  to  oppose  the  gradual 
rise  of  Napoleon  to  the  supreme  power  and  at  the  time  of  Moreau's 
trial  he  escaped  arrest  only  by  joining  the  army  in  Holland. 
Foy  voted  against  the  establishment  of  the  empire,  but  the  only 
penalty  for  his  independence  was  a  long  delay  before  attaining 
the  rank  of  general.  In  1806  he  married  a  daughter  of  General 
Baraguay  d'Hilliers.  In  the  following  year  he  was  sent  to 
Constantinople,  and  there  took  part  in  the  defence  of  the  Darda- 
nelles against  the  English  fleet.  He  was  next  sent  to  Portugal, 
and  thenceforward  he  served  in  the  Peninsular  War  from  first 
to  last.  Under  Junot  he  won  at  last  his  rank  of  general  of 
brigade,  under  Soult  he  held  a  command  in  the  pursuit  of  Sir 
John  Moore's  army,  and  under  Massena  he  fought  in  the  third 
invasion  of  Portugal  (1810).  Mass6na  reposed  the  greatest 
confidence  in  Foy,  and  employed  him  after  Busaco  in  a  mission 
to  the  emperor.  Napoleon  now  made  Foy's  acquaintance  for  the 
first  time,  and  was  so  far  impressed  with  his  merits  as  to  make 
him  a  general  of  division  at  once.  The  part  played  by  General 
Foy  at  the  battle  of  Salamanca  won  him  new  laurels,  but  above 
all  he  distinguished  himself  when  the  disaster  of  Vittoria  had 
broken  the  spirit  of  the  army.  Foy  rose  to  the  occasion;  his 
resistance  in  the  Pyrenees  was  steady  and  successful,  and  only 
a  wound  (at  first  thought  mortal)  which  he  received  at  Orthez 
prevented  him  from  keeping  the  field  to  the  last.  At  the  first 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  received  the  grand  cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour  and  a  command,  and  on  the  return  of  Napoleon 
from  Elba  he  declined  to  join  him  until  the  king  had  fled  from  the 
country.  He  held  a  divisional  command  in  the  Waterloo 
campaign,  and  at  Waterloo  was  again  severely  wounded  at  the 
head  of  his  division  (see  WATERLOO  CAMPAIGN).  After  the  second 
restoration  he  returned  to  civil  life,  devoting  his  energies  for  a 
time  to  his  projected  history  of  the  Peninsular  War,  and  in  1819 
was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies.  For  this  position  his 
experience  and  his  studies  had  especially  fitted  him,  and  by  his 
first  speech  he  gained  a  commanding  place  in  the  chamber, 
which  he  never  lost,  his  clear,  manly  eloquence  being  always 
employed  on  the  side  of  the  liberal  principles  of  1789.  In  1823 
he  made  a  powerful  protest  against  French  intervention  in  Spain, 
and  after  the  dissolution  of  1824  he  was  re-elected  for  three 
constituencies.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  28th  of  November  1825, 
and  his  funeral  was  attended,  it  is  said,  by  100,000  persons. 
His  early  death  was  regarded  by  all  as  a  national  calamity.  His 
family  was  provided  for  by  a  general  subscription. 

The  Hisloire  de  la  guerre  de  la  Peninsula  sous  Napoleon  was  pub- 
lished from  his  notes  in  1827,  and  a  collection  of  his  speeches  (with 
memoir  by  Tisspt)  appeared  in  1826  soon  after  his  death.  See 
Cuisin,  Vie  militaire,  poliiique,  fife.,  du  general  Foy;  Vidal,  Vie 
mililaire  el  poliiique  du  general  Foy. 


FRAAS,  KARL  NIKOLAS  (1810-1875),  German  botanist  and 
agriculturist,  was  born  at  Rattelsdorf,  near  Bamberg,  on  the  8th 
of  September  1810.  After  receiving  his  preliminary  education  at 
the  gymnasium  of  Bamberg,  he  in  1830  entered  the  university  of 
Munich,  where  he  took  his  doctor's  degree  in  1834.  Having 
devoted  great  attention  to  the  study  of  botany,  he  went  to 
Athens  in  1835  as  inspector  of  the  court  garden;  and  in  April 
1836  he  became  professor  of  botany  at  the  university.  In  1842 
he  returned  to  Germany  and  became  teacher  at  the  central 
agricultural  school  at  Schleissheim.  In  1847  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  agriculture  at  Munich,  and  in  1851  director  of  the 
central  veterinary  college.  For  many  years  he  was  secretary 
of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Bavaria,  but  resigned  in  1861.  He 
died  at  his  estate  of  Neufreimann,  near  Munich,  on  the  gth  of 
November  1875. 

His  principal  works  are :  STOIX«O  TTJJ  Boraiairijs  (Athens,  1 835) ; 
Synopsis  florae  classicae  (Munich,  1845);  Klima  und  Pflanzenwell  in 
der  Zeil  (Landsh.,  1847);  Hislor.-encyklopad.  Grundriss  der  Land- 
wirlhschaftslehre  (Stuttgart,  1848);  Geschichle  der  Landwirthschaft 
Prague,  1851);  Die  Schule  des  Landbaues  (Munich,  1852);  Baierns 
^inderrassen  (Munich,  1853);  Die  kunsttiche  Fischerzeugung 
(Munich,  1854);  Die  Nalur  der  Landwirihschaft  (Munich,  1857); 
Buch  der  Nalur  fur  Landwirlhe  (Munich,  1860);  Die  Ackerbaukrisen 
und  ihre  Heilmillel  (Munich,  1866);  Das  Wurzelleben  der  Cullur- 
pflanzen  (Berlin,  1872) ;  and  Geschichle  der  Landbau  und  Forstwissen- 
schafl  seil  dent  i6'cn  Jahrh.  (Munich,  1865).  He  also  founded  and 
edited  a  weekly  agricultural  paper,  the  Schranne. 

FRACASTORO  [FRACASTORIUS],  GIROLAMO  [HIERONYMUS] 
(1483-1553),  Italian  physician  and  poet,  was  born  at  Verona  in 
1483.  It  is  related  of  him  that  at  his  birth  his  lips  adhered  so 
closely  that  a  surgeon  was  obliged  to  divide  them  with  his  in- 
cision knife,  and  that  during  his  infancy  his  mother  was  killed  by 
lightning,  while  he,  though  in  her  arms  at  the  moment,  escaped 
unhurt.  Fracastoro  became  eminently  skilled,  not  only  in 
medicine  and  belles-lettres,  but  in  most  arts  and  sciences.  He 
studied  at  Padua,  and  became  professor  of  philosophy  there  in 
1502,  afterwards  practising  as  a  physician  in  Verona.  It  was  by 
his  advice  that  Pope  Paul  III.,  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  a 
contagious  distemper,  removed  the  council  of  Trent  to  Bologna. 
He  was  the  author  of  many  works,  both  poetical  and  medical, 
and  was  intimately  acquainted  with  Cardinal  Bembo,  Julius 
Scaliger,  Gianbattista  Ramusio  (q.v.),  and  most  of  the  great  men 
of  his  time.  In  1517,  when  the  builders  of  the  citadel  of  San 
Felice  (Verona)  found  fossil  mussels  in  the  rocks,  Fracastoro  was 
consulted  about  the  marvel,  and  he  took  the  same  view — follow- 
ing Leonardo  da  Vinci,  but  very  advanced  for  those  days — that 
they  were  the  remains  of  animals  once  capable  of  living  in  the 
locality.  He  died  of  apoplexy  at  Casi,  near  Verona,  on  the  8th 
of  August  1553;  and  in  1559  the  town  of  Verona  erected  a  statue 
in  his  honour. 

The  principal  work  of  Fracastoro  is  a  kind  of  medical  poem 
entitled  Syphilidis,  sive  Morbi  Gallici,  libri  Ires  (Verona,  1530), 
which  has  been  often  reprinted  and  also  translated  into  French 
and  Italian.  Among  his  other  works  (all  published  at  Venice)  are 
De  vini  lemperalura  (1534);  Homocentricorum  (1535);  De  sym- 
palha  el  anhpalhia  rerum  (1546);  and  De  contagionibus  (1546). 
His  complete  works  were  published  at  Venice  in  1555,  and  his 
poetical  productions  were  collected  and  printed  at  Padua  in  1728. 

FRAGONARD,  JEAN-HONOR^  (1732-1806),  French  painter, 
was  born  at  Grasse,  the  son  of  a  glover.  He  was  articled  to  a 
Paris  notary  when  his  father's  circumstances  became  straitened 
through  unsuccessful  speculations,  but  he  showed  such  talent 
and  inclination  for  art  that  he  was  taken  at  the  age  of  eighteen  to 
Boucher,  who,  recognizing  the  youth's  rare  gifts  but  disinclined 
to  waste  his  time  with  one  so  inexperienced,  sent  him  to  Chardin's 
atelier.  Fragonard  studied  for  six  months  under  the  great 
luminist,  and  then  returned  more  fully  equipped  to  Boucher, 
whose  style  he  soon  acquired  so  completely  that  the  master 
entrusted  him  with  the  execution  of  replicas  of  his  paintings. 
Though  not  a  pupil  of  the  Academy,  Fragonard  gained  the  Prix 
de  Rome  in  1752  with  a  painting  of  "  Jeroboam  sacrificing  to  the 
Idols,"  but  before  proceeding  to  Rome  he  continued  to  study  for 
three  years  under  Van  Loo.  In  the  year  preceding  his  departure 
he  painted  the  "  Christ  washing  the  Feet  of  the  Apostles  "  now 
at  Grasse  cathedral.  In  1755  he  took  up  his  abode  at  the  French 
Academy  in  Rome,  then  presided  over  by  Natoire.  There  he 


FRAHN— FRAMINGHAM 


773 


benefited  from  the  study  of  the  old  masters  whom  he  was  set  to 
copy — always  remembering  Boucher's  parting  advice  not  to 
take  Raphael  and  Michelangelo  too  seriously.  He  successively 
passed  through  the  studios  of  masters  as  widely  different  in  their 
aims  and  technique  as  Chardin,  Boucher,  Van  Loo  and  Natoire, 
and  a  summer  sojourn  at  the  Villa  d'Este  in  the  company  of  the 
abbe  de  Saint-Non,  who  engraved  many  of  Fragonard's  studies  of 
these  entrancing  gardens,  did  more  towards  forming  his  personal 
style  than  all  the  training  at  the  various  schools.  It  was  in  these 
romantic  gardens,  with  their  fountains,  grottos,  temples  and 
terraces,  that  he  conceived  the  dreams  which  he  was  subsequently 
to  embody  in  his  art.  Added  to  this  influence  was  the  deep 
impression  made  upon  his  mind  by  the  florid  sumptuousness  of 
Tiepolo,  whose  works  he  had  an  opportunity  of  studying  in 
Venice  before  he  returned  to  Paris  in  1761.  In  1765  his  "  Coresus 
et  Callirhoe  "  secured  his  admission  to  the  Academy.  It  was  made 
the  subject  of  a  pompous  eulogy  by  Diderot,  and  was  bought  by 
the  king,  who  had  it  reproduced  at  the  Gobelins  factory.  Hither- 
to Fragonard  had  hesitated  between  religious,  classic  and  other 
subjects;  but  now  the  demand  of  the  wealthy  art  patrons  of 
Louis  XV. 's  pleasure-loving  and  licentious  court  turned  him 
definitely  towards  those  scenes  of  love  and  voluptuousness  with 
which  his  name  will  ever  be  associated,  and  which  are  only  made 
acceptable  by  the  tender  beauty  of  his  colour  and  the  virtuosity 
of  his  facile  brushwork — such  works  as  the  "  Serment  d'amour  " 
(Love  Vow),  "Le  Verrou  "  (The  Bolt),  "La  Culbute  "  (The 
Tumble),  "  La  Chemise  tnlevee  "  (The  Shift  Withdrawn),  and 
"  The  Swing  "  (Wallace  collection),  and  his  decorations  for  the 
apartments  of  Mme  du  Barry  and  the  dancer  Marie  Guimard. 

The  Revolution  made  an  end  to  the  ancien  regime,  and  Fra- 
gonard, who  was  so  closely  allied  to  its  representatives,  left  Paris 
in  1793  and  found  shelter  in  the  house  of  his  friend  Maubert  at 
Grasse,  which  he  decorated  with  the  series  of  decorative  panels 
known  as  the  "  Roman  d'amour  de  la  jeunesse,"  originally 
painted  for  Mme  du  Barry's  pavilion  at  Louvreciennes.  The 
panels  in  recent  years  came  into  the  possession  of  Mr  Pierpont 
Morgan.  Fragonard  returned  to  Paris  early  in  the  igth  cen- 
tury, where  he  died  in  1806,  neglected  and  almost  forgotten. 
For  half  a  century  or  more  he  was  so  completely  ignored  that 
Liibke,  in  his  history  of  art  (1873),  omits  the  very  mention  of  his 
name.  But  within  the  last  thirty  years  he  has  regained  the  posi- 
tion among  the  masters  of  painting  to  which  he  is  entitled  by  his 
genius.  If  the  appreciation  of  his  art  by  the  modern  collector 
can  be  expressed  in  figures,  it  is  significant  that  the  small  and 
sketchy  "  Billet  Doux,"  which  appeared  at  the  Cronier  sale  in 
Paris  in  1905  and  was  subsequently  exhibited  by  Messrs  Duveen 
in  London  (1906),  realized  close  on  £19,000  at  the  Hotel  Drouot. 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  there  are  four  important 
pictures  by  Fragonard  in  the  Wallace  collection:  "  The  Foun- 
tain of  Love,"  "  The  Schoolmistress,"  "  A  Lady  carving  her 
Name  on  a  Tree  "  (usually  known  as  "  Le  Chiffre  d'amour  ") 
and  "  The  Fair-haired  Child."  The  Louvre  contains  thirteen 
examples  of  his  art,  among  them  the  "  Coresus,"  "  The  Sleeping 
Bacchante,"  "  The  Shift  Withdrawn,"  "  The  Bathers,"  "  The 
Shepherd's  Hour"  ("L'Heure  du  berger"),  and  "Inspiration." 
Other  works  are  in  the  museums  of  Lille,  Besangon,  Rouen, 
Tours,  Nantes,  Avignon,  Amiens,  Grenoble,  Nancy,  Orleans, 
Marseilles,  &c.,  as  well  as  at  Chantilly.  Some  of  Fragonard's 
finest  work  is  in  the  private  collections  of  the  Rothschild  family 
in  London  and  Paris. 

See  R.  Portalis,  Fragonard  (Paris,  1899),  fully  illustrated;  Felix 
Naquet,  Fragonard  (Paris,  1890);  Virgile  Josz,  Fragonard — mieurs 
du  XVIII'  siecle  (Paris,  1901);  E.  and  J.  de  Goncourt,  L'Art  du 
dix-huitieme  siecle — Fragonard  (Paris,  1883).  (P.  G.  K.) 

FRAHN,  CHRISTIAN  MARTIN  (1782-1851),  German  numis- 
matist and  historian,  was  born  at  Rostock.  He  began  his 
Oriental  studies  under  Tychsen  at  the  university  of  Rostock,  and 
afterwards  prosecuted  them  at  Gottingen  and  Tubingen.  He 
became  a  Latin  master  in  Pestalozzi's  famous  institute  in  1804, 
returned  home  in  1806,  and  in  the  following  year  was  chosen  to 
fill  the  chair  of  Oriental  languages  in  the  Russian  university  of 
Kazan.  Though  in  1815  he  was  invited  to  succeed  Tychsen  at 


Rostock,  he  preferred  to  go  to  St  Petersburg,  where  he  became 
director  of  the  Asiatic  museum  and  councillor  of  state.  He  died 
at  St  Petersburg. 

Frahn  wrote  over  150  works.  Among  the  more  important  are: 
Numophylacium  orientate  Pototianum  (1813) ;  De  numorum  Bulghari- 
corum  fonte  antiquissimo  (1816);  Das  muhammedanische  Miinz- 
kabinet  des  asiatischen  Museum  der  kaiserl.  Akademie  der  Wissen- 
schaften  zu  St  Petersburg  (1821);  Numi  cufici  ex  variis  museis  selecti 
(1823);  Notice  d'une  centaine  d'ouvrages  arabes,  &c.,  qui  manquent 
en  grande  partie  aux  bioliotheques  de  I' Europe  (1834);  and  Nova 
supplementa  ad  recensionem  Num.  Muham.  Acad.  Imp.  Sci.  Petro- 
politanae  (1855).  His  description  of  some  medals  struck  by  the 
Samanid  and  Bouid  princes  (1804)  was  composed  in  Arabic  because 
he  had  no  Latin  types. 

FRAME,  a  word  employed  in  many  different  senses,  signifying 
something  joined  together  or  shaped.  It  is  derived  ultimately 
from  O.E.  from,  from,  in  its  primary  meaning  "  forward." 
In  constructional  work  it  connotes  the  union  of  pieces  of  wood, 
metal  or  other  material  for  purposes  of  enclosure  as  in  the  case 
of  a  picture  or  mirror  frame.  Frames  intended  for  these  uses 
are  of  great  artistic  interest  but  comparatively  modern  origin. 
There  is  no  record  of  their  existence  earlier  than  the  i6th  century, 
but  the  decorative  opportunities  which  they  afforded  caused 
speedy  popularity  in  an  artistic  age,  and  the  Renaissance  found 
in  the  picture  frame  a  rich  and  attractive  means  of  expression. 
The  impulses  which  made  frames  beautiful  have  long  been  ex- 
tinct or  dormant,  but  fine  work  was  produced  in  such  profusion 
that  great  numbers  of  examples  are  still  extant.  Frames  for 
pictures  or  mirrors  are  usually  square,  oblong,  round  or  oval, 
and,  although  they  have  usually  been  made  of  wood  or  com- 
position overlaid  upon  wood,  the  richest  and  most  costly 
materials  have  often  been  used.  Ebony,  ivory  and  tortoiseshell; 
crystal,  amber  and  mother-of-pearl;  lacquer,  gold  and  silver, 
and  almost  every  other  metal  have  been  employed  for  this 
purpose.  •  The  domestic  frame  has  in  fact  varied  from  the 
simplest  and  cheapest  form  of  a  plain  wooden  moulding  to  the 
most  richly  carved  examples.  The  introduction  in  the  i7th 
century  of  larger  sheets  of  glass  gave  the  art  of  frame-making 
a  great  essor,  and  in  the  i8th  century  the  increased  demand 
for  frames,  caused  chiefly  by  the  introduction  of  cheaper  forms 
of  mirrors,  led  to  the  invention  of  a  composition  which  could 
be  readily  moulded  into  stereotyped  patterns  and  gilded.  This 
was  eventually  the  deathblow  of  the  artistic  frame,  and  since 
the  use  of  composition  moulding  became  normal,  no  important 
school  of  wood-carving  has  turned  its  attention  to  frames.  The 
carvers  of  the  Renaissance,  and  down  to  the  middle  of  the 
i8th  century,  produced  work  which  was  often  of  the  greatest 
beauty  and  elegance.  In  England  nothing  comparable  to  that 
of  Grinling  Gibbons  and  his  school  has  since  been  produced. 
Chippendale  was  a  great  frame  maker,  but  he  not  only  had 
recourse  to  composition,  but  his  designs  were  often  extravagantly 
rococo.  Even  in  France  there  has  been  no  return  of  the  great 
days  when  Oeben  enclosed  the  looking-glasses  which  mirrored 
the  Pompadour  in  frames  that  were  among  the  choicest  work 
of  a  gorgeous  and  artificial  age.  In  the  decoration  of  frames 
as  in  so  many  other  respects  France  largely  followed  the  fashions 
of  Italy,  which  throughout  the  i6th  and  i7th  centuries  produced 
the  most  elaborate  and  grandiose,  the  richest  and  most  palatial, 
of  the  mirror  frames  that  have  come  down  to  us.  English  art 
in  this  respect  was  less  exotic  and  more  restrained,  and  many 
of  the  mirrors  of  the  i8th  century  received  frames  the  grace 
and  simplicity  of  which  have  ensured  their  constant  reproduction 
even  to  our  own  day. 

FRAMINGHAM,  a  township  of  Middlesex  county,  Massa- 
chusetts, U.S.A.,  having  an  area  of  27  sq.  m.  of  hilly  surface, 
dotted  with  lakes  and  ponds.  Pop.  (1890)  9239;  (1900)  11,302, 
of  whom  2391  were  foreign-born;  (1910  census)  12,948. 
It  is  served  by  the  Boston  &  Albany,  and  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  &  Hartford  railways.  Included  within  the  township 
are  three  villages,  Framingham  Center,  Saxonville  and  South 
Framingham,  the  last  being  much  the  most  important.  Framing- 
ham  Academy  was  established  in  1792,  and  in  1851  became  a  part 
of  the  public  school  system.  A  state  normal  school  (the  first 
normal  school  in  the  United  States,  established  at  Lexington 


774 


FRAMLINGHAM— FRANCATELLI 


in  1839,  removed  to  Newton  in  1844  and  to  Framingham  in  1853) 
is  situated  here;  and  near  South  Framingham,  in  the  township 
of  Sherborn,  is  the  state  reformatory  prison  for  women.  South 
Framingham  has  large  manufactories  of  paper  tags,  shoes, 
boilers,  carriage  wheels  and  leather  board;  formerly  straw 
braid  and  bonnets  were  the  principal  manufactures.  Saxonville 
manufactures  worsted  cloth.  The  value  of  the  township's  fac- 
tory products  increased  from  $3,007,301  in  1900  to  $4,173,579  in 
1905,  or  38-8%.  Framingham  was  first  settled  about  1640,  and 
was  named  in  honour  of  the  English  home  (Framlingham)  of 
Governor  Thomas  Danforth  (1622-1699),  to  whom  the  land  once 
belonged.  In  1700  it  was  incorporated  as  a  township.  The  "  old 
Connecticut  path,"  the  Boston-to-Worcester  turnpike,  was  im- 
portant to  the  early  fortunes  of  Framingham  Center,  while  the 
Boston  &  Worcester  railway  (1834)  made  the  greater  fortune  of 
South  Framingham. 

See  J.  H.  Temple,  History  of  Framingham  .  .  .  1640-1880 
(Framingham,  1887). 

FRAMLINGHAM,  a  market  town  in  the  Eye  parliamentary 
division  of  Suffolk,  91  m.  N.E.  from  London  by  a  branch  of 
the  Great  Eastern  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  2526.  The  church  of 
St  Michael  is  a  fine  Perpendicular  and  Decorated  building  of 
black  flint,  surmounted  by  a  tower  96  ft.  high.  In  the  interior 
there  are  a  number  of  interesting  monuments,  among  which  the 
most  noticeable  are  those  of  Thomas  Howard,  3rd  duke  of 
Norfolk,  and  of  Henry  Howard,  the  famous  earl  of  Surrey, 
who  was  beheaded  by  Henry  VIII.  The  castle  forms  a  picturesque 
ruin,  consisting  of  the  outer  walls  44  ft.  high  and  8  ft.  thick, 
13  towers  about  58  ft.  high,  a  gateway  and  some  outworks. 
About  half  a  mile  from  the  town  is  the  A'bert  Memorial  Middle 
Class  College,  opened  in  1865,  and  capable  of  accommodating 
300  boys.  A  bronze  statue  of  the  Prince  Consort  by  Joseph 
Durham  adorns  the  front  terrace. 

Framlingham  (Frendlingham,  Framalingaham)  in  early  Saxon 
times  was  probably  the  site  of  a  fortified  earthwork  to  which 
St  Edmund  the  Martyr  is  said  to  have  fled  from  the  Danes  in 
870.  The  Danes  captured  the  stronghold  after  the  escape  of 
the  king,  but  it  was  won  back  in  921,  and  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  crown,  passing  to  William  I.  at  the  Conquest.  Henry  I. 
in  i  too  granted  it  to  Roger  Bigod,  who  in  all  probability  raised 
the  first  masonry  castle.  Hugh,  son  of  Roger,  created  earl  of 
Norfolk  in  1141,  succeeded  his  father,  and  the  manor  and  castle 
remained  in  the  Bigod  family  until  1306,  when  in  default  of 
heirs  it  reverted  to  the  crown,  and  was  granted  by  Edward  II. 
to  his  half-brother  Thomas  de  Brotherton,  created  earl  of 
Norfolk  in  1312.  On  an  account  roll  of  Framlingham  Castle 
of  1324  there  is  an  entry  of  "  rent  received  from  the  borough," 
also  of  "  rent  from  those  living  outside  the  borough,"  and  in 
all  probability  burghal  rights  had  existed  at  a  much  earlier 
date,  when  the  town  had  grown  into  some  importance  under  the 
shelter  of  the  castle.  Town  and  castle  followed  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  dukedom  of  Norfolk,  passing  to  the  crown  in  1405,  and 
being  alternately  restored  and  forfeited  by  Henry  V.,  Richard 
III.,  Henry  VII.,  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  Elizabeth  and  James  I., 
and  finally  sold  in  1635  to  Sir  Robert  Hitcham,  who  left  it  in 
1636  to  the  master  and  fellows  of  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge. 

In  the  account  roll  above  mentioned  reference  is  made  to  a  fair 
and  a  market,  but  no  early  grant  of  either  is  to  be  found.  In 
1792  two  annual  fairs  were  held,  one  on  Whit  Monday,  the 
other  on  the  loth  of  October;  and  a  market  was  held  every 
Saturday.  The  market  day  is  still  Saturday,  but  the  fairs 
are  discontinued. 

See  Robert  Hawes,  History  of  Framlingham  in  the  County  of 
Suffolk,  edited  by  R.  Loder  (Woodbridge,  1798). 

FRANC,  a  French  coin  current  at  different  periods  and  of 
varying  values.  The  first  coin  so  called  was  one  struck  in  gold 
by  John  II.  of  France  in  1360.  On  it  was  the  legend  Johannes 
Dei  gracia  Francorum  rex;  hence,  it  is  said,  the  name.  It 
also  bore  an  effigy  of  King  John  on  horseback,  from  which 
it  was  called  a  franc  d  cheval,  to  distinguish  it  from  another 
coin  of  the  same  value,  issued  by  Charles  V.,  on  which  the  king 
was  represented  standing  upright  under  a  Gothic  dais;  this 


coin  was  termed  a.  franc  a  pied.  As  a  coin  it  disappeared  after  the 
reign  of  Charles  VI.,  but  the  name  continued  to  be  used  as  an 
equivalent  for  the  livre  tournois,  which  was  worth  twenty  sols. 
French  writers  would  speak  without  distinction  of  so  many 
livres  or  so  many  francs,  so  long  as  the  sum  mentioned  was  an 
even  sum;  otherwise  livre  was  the  correct  term,  thus  "trois 
livres  "  or  "  trois  francs,"  but  "  trois  livres  cinq  sols."  In  1795 
the  livre  was  legally  converted  into  the  franc,  at  the  rate  of  81 
livres  to  80  francs,  the  silver  franc  being  made  to  weigh  exactly 
five  grammes.  The  franc  is.  now  the  unit  of  the  monetary  system 
and  also  the  money  of  account  in  France,  as  well  as  in  Belgium 
and  Switzerland.  In  Italy  the  equivalent  is  the  lira,  and  in 
Greece  the  drachma.  The  franc  is  divided  into  100  centimes, 
the  lira  into  100  centesimi  and  the  drachma  into  100  lepta. 
Gold  is  now  the  standard,  the  coins  in  common  use  being  ten 
and  twenty  franc  pieces.  The  twenty  franc  gold  piece  weighs 
6-4516  grammes,  -900  fine.  The  silver  coins  are  five,  two, 
one,  and  half  franc  pieces.  The  five  franc  silver  piece  weighs 
25  grammes,  -900  fine,  while  the  franc  piece  weighs  5  grammes, 
•835  fine.  See  also  MONEY. 

FRANC.AIS,  ANTOINE,  COUNT  (1756-1836),  better  known  as 
FRANCAIS  OF  NANTES,  French  politician  and  author,  was  born 
at  Beaurepaire,  in  the  department  of  Isere.  In  1791  he  was 
elected  to  the  legislative  assembly  by  the  department  of  Loire 
Inferieure,  and  was  noted  for  his  violent  attacks  upon  the  farmers 
general,  the  pope  and  the  priests;  but  he  was  not  re-elected  to 
the  Convention.  During  the  Terror,  as  he  had  belonged  to  the 
Girondin  party,  he  was  obliged  to  seek  safety  in  the  mountains. 
In  1798  he  was  elected  to  the  council  of  Five  Hundred  by  the 
department  of  Isere,  and  became  one  of  its  secretaries;  and  in 
the  following  year  he  voted  against  the  Directory.  He  took  office 
under  the  consulate  as  prefect  of  Charente  Inferieure,  rose  to 
be  a  member  of  the  council  of  state,  and  in  1804  obtained  the 
important  post  of  director-general  of  the  indirect  taxes  (droits 
reunis) .  The  value  of  his  services  was  recognized  by  the  titles  of 
count  of  the  empire  and  grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 
On  the  second  restoration  he  retired  into  private  life;  but  from 
1819  to  1822  he  was  representative  of  the  department  of  Isere, 
and  after  the  July  revolution  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France.  He 
died  at  Paris  on  the  7th  of  March  1836. 

Frangais  wrote  a  number  of  works,  but  his  name  is  more  likely 
to  be  preserved  by  the  eulogies  of  the  literary  men  to  whom  he 
afforded  protection  and  assistance.  It  is  sufficient  to  mention 
Le  Manuscrit  de  feu  M.  Jerome  (1825);  Recueil  de  fadaises  compose 
sur  la  montagne  a  I'usage  des  habitants  de  la  plaine  (1826);  Voyage 
dans  la  vallee  des  originaux  (1828);  Tableau  de  la  vie  rurale,  ou 
V agriculture  enseignee  d'une  maniere  dramatique  (1829). 

FRANCAIS,  FRANCOIS  LOUIS  (1814-1897),  French  painter, 
was  born  at  Plombieres  (Vosges),  and,  on  attaining  the  age  of 
fifteen,  was  placed  as  office-boy  with  a  bookseller.  After  a  few 
years  of  hard  struggle,  during  which  he  made  a  precarious  living 
by  drawing  on  stone  and  designing  woodcut  vignettes  for  book 
illustration,  he  studied  painting  under  Gigoux,  and  subsequently 
under  Corot,  whose  influence  remained  decisive  upon  Francais's 
style  of  landscape  painting.  He  generally  found  his  subjects  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  and  though  he  never  rivalled  his 
master  in  lightness  of  touch  and  in  the  lyric  poetry  which  is  the 
principal  charm  of  Corot's  work,  he  is  still  counted  among  the 
leading  landscape  painters  of  his  country  and  period.  He  ex- 
hibited first  at  the  Salon  in  1837  and  was  elected  to  the  Academic 
des  Beaux- Arts  in  1890.  Comparatively  few  of  his  pictures  are 
to  be  found  in  public  galleries,  but  his  painting  of  "  An  Italian 
Sunset  "  is  at  the  Luxembourg  Museum  in  Paris.  Other  works 
of  importance  are  "Daphnis  et  Chlo6  "  (1872),  "  Bas  Meudon" 
(1861),  "Orpheus"  (1863),  "Le  Bois  sacre"  (1864),  "Le  Lac 
de  Nemi"'(i868). 

FRANCATELLI,  CHARLES  ELMfc  (1805-1876),  Anglo- 
Italian  cook,  was  born  in  London,  of  Italian  extraction,  in  1805, 
and  was  educated  in  France,  where  he  studied  the  art  of  cookery. 
Coming  to  England,  he  was  employed  successively  by  various 
noblemen,  subsequently  becoming  manager  of  Crockford's  club. 
He  left  Crockford's  to  become  chief  cook  to  Queen  Victoria, 
and  afterwards  he  was  chef  at  the  Reform  Club.  He  was  the 


FRANCA  VILLA  FONTANA— FRANCE 


775 


author  of  The  Modern  Cook  (1845),  which  has  since  been  fre- 
quently republished;  of  a  Plain  Cookery  Book  for  the  Working 
Classes  (1861),  and  of  The  Royal  English  and  Foreign  Con- 
fectionery Book  (1862).  Francatelli  died  at  Eastbourne  on  the 
loth  of  August  1876. 

FRANCAVILLA  FONTANA,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of 
Apulia,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Lecce,  22  m.  by  rail  E.  by  N. 
of  Taranto,  460  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1901)  17,759  (town); 
20,510  (commune).  It  is  in  a  fine  situation,  and  has  a  massive 
square  castle  of  the  Umperiali  family,  to  whom,  with  Oria,  it 
was  sold  by  S.  Carlo  Borromeo  in  the  i6th  century  for  40,000 
ounces  of  gold,  which  he  distributed  in  one  day  to  the  poor. 

FRANCE,  ANATOLE  (1844-  ),  French  critic,  essayist  and 
novelist  (whose  real  name  was  Jacques  Anatole  Thibault),  was 
born  in  Paris  on  the  i6th  of  April  1844.  His  father  was  a  book- 
seller, one  of  the  last  of  the  booksellers,  if  we  are  to  believe  the 
Goncourts,  into  whose  establishment  men  came,  not  merely  to 
order  and  buy,  but  to  dip,  and  turn  over  pages  and  discuss.  As 
a  child  he  used  to  listen  to  the  nightly  talks  on  literary  subjects 
which  took  place  in  his  father's  shop.  Nurtured  in  an  atmosphere 
so  essentially  bookish,  he  turned  naturally  to  literature.  In  1868 
his  first  work  appeared,  a  study  of  Alfred  de  Vigny,  followed 
in  1873  by  a  volume  of  verse,  Les  Poemes  dores,  dedicated  to 
Leconte  de  Lisle,  and,  as  such  a  dedication  suggests,  an  outcome 
of  the  "Parnassian"  movement;  and  yet  another  volume  of 
verse  appeared  in  1876,  Les  Noces  corinthiennes.  But  the  poems 
in  these  volumes,  though  unmistakably  the  work  of  a  man  of 
great  literary  skill  and  cultured  taste,  are  scarcely  the  poems 
of  a  man  with  whom  verse  is  the  highest  form  of  expression. 

He  was  to  find  his  richest  vein  in  prose.   He  himself,  avowing 
his  preference  for  a  simple,  or  seemingly  simple,  style  as  compared 
with  the  artistic  style,  vaunted  by  the  Goncourts — a  style  com- 
pounded   of    neologisms    and    "  rare "    epithets,  and  startling 
forms  of  expression — observes:  "  A  simple  style  is  like  white 
light.    It  is  complex,  but  not  to  outward  seeming.    In  language, 
a  beautiful  and  desirable  simplicity  is  but  an  appearance,  and 
results  only  from  the  good  order  and  sovereign  economy  of  the 
various  parts  of  speech."  And  thus  one  may  say  of  his  own  style 
that  its  beautiful  translucency  is  the  result  of  many  qualities — 
felicity,  grace,  the  harmonious  grouping  of  words,  a  perfect 
measure.    Anatole  France  is  a  sceptic.     The   essence    of   his 
philosophy,  if  a  spirit  so  light,  evanescent,  elusive,  can  be  said 
to  have  a  philosophy,  is  doubt.     He  is  a  doubter  in  religion, 
metaphysics,  morals,  politics,  aesthetics,  science — a  most  genial 
and  kindly  doubter,  and  not  at  all  without  doubts  even  as  to  his 
own  negative  conclusions.    Sometimes  his  doubts  are  expressed 
in  his  own  person — as  in  the  Jardin  d'epicure  (1894)  from  which 
the  above  extracts  are  taken,  or  Le  Livre  de  man  ami  (1885), 
which  may  be  accepted,  perhaps,  as  partly  autobiographical; 
sometimes,  as  in  La  Rolisserie  de  la  reine  Pedauque  (1893)  and 
Les  Opinions  de  M.  Jerome  Coignard  (1893),  or  L'Orme  du  mail 
(i&97),LeMannequind'osicr  (1897),  L'Anneaud'amethyste  (1899), 
and  M.  Bergcrel  a  Paris  (1901),  he  entrusts  the  expression  of 
his  opinions,  dramatically,  to  some    fictitious    character — the 
abbe  Coignard,  for  instance,  projecting,  as  it  were,  from  the 
i8th  century  some  very  effective  criticisms  on  the  popular 
political  theories  of  contemporary  France — or  the  M.  Bergeret 
of  the  four  last-named  novels,  which  were  published  with  the 
collective   title  of   Histoire  contemporaine.      This  series  deals 
with  some  modern  problems,  and  particularly,  in  L'Anncau 
d'amethysle  and  M .  Bergeret  a  Paris,  with  the  humours  and  follies 
of  the  anti-Drey fusards.   All  this  makes  a  piquant  combination. 
Neither  should  reference  be  omitted  to  his  Crime  de  Sylvestre 
Bonnard  (1881),  crowned  by  the  Institute,  nor  to  works  more 
distinctly  of  fancy,  such  as  Balthasar  (1889),  the  story  of  one  of 
the  Magi  or  Thais  (1890),  the  story  of  an  actress  and  courtesan 
of  Alexandria,  whom  a  hermit  converts,  but  with  the  loss  oi 
his  own  soul.     His  ironic  ccmedy,  Crainquebille  (Renaissance 
theatre,  1903),  was  founded  on  his  novel  (1902)  of  the  same  year. 
His  more  recent  work  includes  his  anti-clerical  Vie  de  Jeanne 
d'Arc  (1908);  his  pungent  satire  the  lie  des  penguins  (1908) 
and  a  volume  of  stories,  Les  Sept  Femmes  de  la  Barbe-Bleue  (1909) 


,ightly  as  he  bears  his  erudition,  it  is  very  real  and  extensive, 
and  is  notably  shown  in  his  utilization  of  modern  archaeological 
and  historical  research  in  his  fiction  (as  in  the  stories  in  Sur  une 
pierre  blanche).  As  a  critic — see  the  Vie  litleraire  (1888-1892), 
reprinted  mainly  from  Le  Temps — he  is  graceful  and  appreciative. 
Academic  in  the  best  sense,  he  found  a  place  in  the  French 
Academy,  taking  the  seat  vacated  by  Lesseps,  and  was  received 
nto  that  body  on  the  24th  of  December  1896.  In  the  affaire 
Dreyfus  he  sided  with  M.  Zola. 

For  studies  of  M.  Anatole  France's  talent  see  Maurice  Barres, 
Anatole  France  (1885);  Jules  Lemaitrc,  Les  Contemporains  (2nd 
series,  1886);  and  G.  Brandcs,  Anatole  France  (1908).  In  1908 
Frederic  Chapman  began  an  edition  of  The  works  of  Anatole  France 
in  an  English  translation  (John  Lane). 

FRANCE,  a  country  of  western  Europe,  situated  between 
51°  5'  and  42°  20'  N.,  and  4°  42'  W.  and  7°  39'  E.  It  is  hexagonal 
in  form,  being  bounded  N.W.  by  the  North  Sea,  the  Strait  of 
Dover  (Pas  de  Calais)  and  the  English  Channel  (La  Manche), 
W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  S.W.  by  Spain,  S.E.  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  E.  by  Italy,  Switzerland  and  Germany,  N.E.  by 
Germany,  Luxemburg  and  Belgium.  From  north  to  south  its 
length  is  about  600  m.,  measured  from  Dunkirk  to  the  Col  de 
Falgueres;  its  breadth  from  east  to  west  is  528  m.,  from  the 
Vosges  to  Cape  Saint  Mathieu  at  the  extremity  of  Brittany. 
The  total  area  is  estimated1  at  207,170  sq.  m.,  including  the 
island  of  Corsica,  which  comprises  3367  sq.  m.  The  coast-line 
of  France  extends  for  384  m.  on  the  Mediterranean,  700  on  the 
North  Sea,  the  Strait  of  Dover  and  the  Channel,  and  865  on  the 
Atlantic.  The  country  has  the  advantage  of  being  separated 
from  its  neighbours  over  the  greater  part  of  its  frontier  by 
natural  barriers  of  great  strength,  the  Pyrenees  forming  a' 
powerful  bulwark  on  the  south-west,  the  Alps  on  the  south-east, 
and  the  Jura  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  Vosges  Mountains 
on  the  east.  The  frontier  generally  follows  the  crest  line  of  these 
ranges.  Germany  possesses  both  slopes  of  the  Vosges  north 
of  Mont  Donon,  from  which  point  the  north-east  boundary  is 
conventional  and  unprotected  by  nature. 

France  is  geographically  remarkable  for  its  possession  of  great 
natural  and  historical  highways  between  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  one,  following  the  depression 
between  the  central  plateau  and  the  eastern  mountains  by  way 
of  the  valleys  of  the  Rhone  and  Saone,  traverses  the  Cote  d'Or 
hills  and  so  gains  the  valley  of  the  Seine;  the  other,  skirting 
the  southern  base  of  the  Cevennes,  reaches  the  ocean  by  way  of 
the  Garonne  valley.  Another  natural  highway,  traversing  the 
lowlands  to  the  west  of  the  central  plateau,  unites  the  Seine 
basin  with  that  of  the  Garonne. 

Physiography. — A  line  drawn  from  Bayonne  through  Agen, 
Poitiers,  Troyes,  Reims  and  Valenciennes  divides  the  country 
roughly  into  two  dissimilar  physical  regions — to  the  west  and 
north-west  a  country  of  plains  and  low  plateaus;  in  the  centre, 
east  and  south-east  a  country  of  mountains  and  high  plateaus 
with  a  minimum  elevation  of  650  ft.  To  the  west  of  this  line  the 
only  highlands  of  importance  are  the  granitic  plateaus  of  Brittany 
and  the  hills  of  Normandy  and  Perche,  which,  uniting  with  the 
plateau  of  Beauce,  separate  the  basins  of  the  Seine  and  Loire.  The 
highest  elevations  of  these  ranges  do  not  exceed  1400  ft.  The 
configuration  of  the  region  east  of  the  dividing  line  is  widely  different. 
Its  most  striking  feature  is  the  mountainous  and  eruptive  area 
known  as  the  Massif  Central,  which  covers  south-central  France. 
The  central  point  of  this  huge  tract  is  for'med  by  the  mountains 
of  Auvergne  comprising  the  group  of  Cantal,  where  the  Plomb  du 
Cantal  attains  6096  ft.,  and  that  of  Mont  Dore,  containing  the 
Puy  de  Sancy  (6188  ft.),  the  culminating  point  of  the  Massif,  and  to 
the  north  the  lesser  elevations  of  the  Monts  Dome.  On  the  west 
the  downward  slope  is  gradual  by  way  of  lofty  plateaus  to  the  heights 
of  Limousin  and  Marche  and  the  table-land  of  Quercy,  thence,  to 
the  plains  of  Poitou,  Angoumois  and  Guienne.  On  the  east  only 
river  valleys  divide  the  Auvergne  mountains  from  those  of  Forez 
and  Margeride,  western  spurs  of  the  Cevennes.  On  the  south  the 
Aubrac  mountains  and  the  barren  plateaus  known  as  the  Gausses 
intervene  between  them  and  the  Cevennes.  The  main  range  of  the 
Cevennes  (highest  point  Mont  Lozere,  5584  ft.)  sweeps  in  a  wide 
curve  from  the  granitic  table-land  of  Morvan  in  the  north  along  the 
right  banks  of  the  Saone  and  RhSne  to  the  Montagne  Noire  in  the 
south,  where  it  is  separated  from  the  Pyrenean  system  by  the  river 
Aude.  On  the  south-western  border  of  France  the  Pyrenees  include 

1  By  the  Service  geographique  de  I'armte. 


FRANCE 


[GEOGRAPHY 


FRANCE 

(Physical  Divisions) 
Scale.  1:5,700,000 

English  Miles 


Land  between  600  A  1500  feet. 
Land  between  1500  4  3000  feet 
Land  above  3000  feet 


\  °  Channel  Island!, 


UEOITfRKA NEA 


,*  p   Longitude  East   6"  of  Greenwich  Q 


several  peaks  over  10,090  ft.  within  French  territory;  the  highest 
elevation  therein,  the  Vignemale,  in  the  centre  of  the  range,  reaches 
10,820  ft.  On  the  north  their  most  noteworthy  offshoots  are,  in  the 
centre,  the  plateau  of  Lannemezan  from  which  rivers  radiate  fanwise 
to  join  the  Adour  and  Garonne;  and  in  the  east  the  Corbiere. 
On  the  south-eastern  frontier  the  French  Alps,  which  include  Mont 
Blanc  (15,800  ft.),  and,  more  to  the  south,  other  summits  over 
1 1 ,000  ft.  in  height,  cover  Savoy  and  most  of  Dauphine  and  Provence, 
that  is  to  say,  nearly  the  whole  of  France  to  the  south  and  east  of  the 
Rh6ne.  North  of  that  river  the  parallel  chains  of  the  Jura  form  an 
arc  of  a  circle  with  its  convexity  towards  the  north-west.  In  the 
southern  and  most  elevated  portion  of  the  range  there  are  several 
summits  exceeding  5500  ft.  Separated  from  the  Jura  by  the  defile 
of  Belfort  (Trouee  de  Belfort)  the  Vosges  extend  northward  parallel 
to  the  course  of  the  Rhine.  Their  culminating  points  in  French 
territory,  the  Ballon  d'Alsace  and  the  Hohneck  in  the  southern 
portion  of  the  chain,  reach  4100  ft.  and  4480  ft.  The  Vosges  are 
buttressed  on  the  west  by  the  Faucilles,  which  curve  southwards 
to  meet  the  plateau  of  Langres,  and  by  the  plateaus  of  Haute- 


Marne,  united  to  the  Ardennes  on  the  north-eastern  frontier  by  the 
wooded  highlands  of  Argonne. 

Seaboard. — The  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  encircling  the  Gulf  of 
the  Lion  (Golfe  du  Lion)  '  from  Cape  Cerbera  to  Martigues  is  low- 
lying  and  unbroken,  and  characterized  chiefly  by  lagoons  separated 
from  the  sea  by  sand-dunes.  The  coast,  constantly  encroaching  on 
the  sea  by  reason  of  the  alluvium  washed  down  by  the  rivers  of  the 
Pyrenees  and  Cevennes,  is  without  important  harbours  saving  that 
of  Cette,  itself  continually  invaded  by  the  sand.  East  of  Martigues 
the  coast  is  rocky  and  of  greater  altitude,  and  is  broken  by  projecting 
capes  (Couronne,  Croisette,  Sicie,  the  peninsula  of  ,Giens  and  Cape 
Antibes),  and  by  deep  gulfs  forming  secure  roadsteads  such  as  those 
of  Marseilles,  \vhich  has  the  chief  port  in  France,  Toulon,  with  its 

§reat  naval  harbour,  and  Hyeres,  to  which  may  be  added  the  Gulf  of 
t  Tropez. 
Along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Adour  to  the 

1  The  etymology  of  this  name  (sometimes  wrongly  written  Golfe 
de  Lyon)  is  unknown. 


GEOGRAPHY] 


FRANCE 


777 


estuary  of  the  Gironde  there  stretches  a  monotonous  line  of  sand- 
dunes  bordered  by  lagoons  on  the  land  side,  but  towards  the  sea 
harbourless  and  unbroken  save  for  the  Bay  of  Arcachon.  To  the 
north  as  far  as  the  rocky  point  of  St  Gildas,  sheltering  the  mouth 
of  the  Loire,  the  shore,  often  occupied  by  salt  marshes  (marshes  of 
Poitou  and  Brittany),  is  low-lying  and  hollowed  by  deep  bays 
sheltered  by  large  islands,  those  of  Oleron  and  Re  lying  opposite 
the  ports  of  Rochefort  and  La  Rochelle,  while  Noirmoutier  closes  the 
Bay  of  Bourgneuf. 

Beyond  the  Loire  estuary,  on  the  north  shore  of  which  is  the  port 
of  St  Nazaire,  the  peninsula  of  Brittany  projects  into  the  ocean  and 
here  begins  the  most  rugged,  wild  and  broken  portion  of  the  French 
seaboard;  the  chief  of  innumerable  indentations  are,  on  the  south 
the  Gulf  of  Morbihan,  which  opens  into  a  bay  protected  to  the  west 
by  the  narrow  peninsula  of  Quiberon,  the  Bay  of  Lorient  with  the 
port  of  Lorient,  and  the  Bay  of  Concarneau;  on  the  west  the 
dangerous  Bay  of  Audierne  and  the  Bay  of  Douarnenez  separated 
from  the  spacious  roadstead  of  Brest,  with  its  important  naval  port, 
by  the  peninsula  of  Crozon,  and  forming  with  it  a  great  indentation 
sheltered  by  Cape  St  Mathieu  on  the  north  and  by  Cape  Raz  on  the 
south ;  on  the  north,  opening  into  the  English  Channel,  the  Morlaix 
roads,  the  Bay  of  St  Brieuc,  the  estuary  of  the  Ranee,  with  the  port 
of  St  Malo  and  the  Bay  of  St  Michel.  Numerous  small  archipelagoes 
and  islands,  of  which  the  chief  are  Belle  Tie,  Groix  and  Ushant, 
fringe  the  Breton  coast.  North  of  the  Bay  of  St  Michel  the  peninsula 
of  Cotentin,  terminating  in  the  promontories  .of  Hague  and  Barfleur, 
juts  north  into  the  English  Channel  and  closes  the  bay  of  the  Seine 
on  the  west.  Cherbourg,  its  chief  harbour,  lies  on  the  northern 
shore  between  the  two  promontories.  The  great  port  of  Le  Havre 
stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine  estuary,  which  opens  into  the  bay 
of  the  Seine  on  the  east.  North  of  that  point  a  line  of  high  cliffs, 
in  which  occur  the  ports  of  Fecamp  and  Dieppe,  stretches  nearly  to 
the  sandy  estuary  of  the  Somme.  North  of  that  river  the  coast  is 
low-lying  and  bordered  by  sand-dunes,  to  which  succeed  on  the 
Strait  of  Dover  the  cliffs  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  port  of 
Boulogne  and  the  marshes  and  sand-dunes  of  Flanders,  with  the 
ports  of  Calais  and  Dunkirk,  the  latter  the  principal  French  port  on 
the  North  Sea. 

To  the  maritime  ports  mentioned  above  must  be  added  the  river 
ports  of  Bayonne  (on  the  Adour),  Bordeaux  (on  the  Garonne),  Nantes 
(on  the  Loire),  Rouen  (on  the  Seine).  On  the  whole,  however, 
France  is  inadequately  provided  with  natural  harbours;  her  long 
tract  of  coast  washed  by  the  Atlantic  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay  has 
scarcely  three  or  four  good  seaports,  and  those  on  the  southern  shore 
of  the  Channel  form  a  striking  contrast  to  the  spacious  maritime 
inlets  on  the  English  side. 

Rivers. — The  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  France  is  divided 
between  four  principal  and  several  secondary  basins. 

The  basin  of  the  Rh&ne,  with  an  area  (in  France)  of  about  35,000 
sq.  m.,  covers  eastern  France  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Vosges, 
from  the  Cevennes  and  the  Plateau  de  Langres  to  the  crests  of  the 
Jura  and  the  Alps.  Alone  among  French  rivers,  the  Rh6ne,  itself 
Alpine  in  character  in  its  upper  course,  is  partly  fed  by  Alpine 
rivers  (the  Arve,  the  Isere  and  the  Durance)  which  have  their  floods  in 
spring  at  the  melting  of  the  snow,  and  are  maintained  by  glacier- 
water  in  summer.  The  Rh6ne,  the  source  of  which  is  in  Mont  St 
Gothard,  in  Switzerland,  enters  France  by  the  narrow  defile  of 
L'Ecluse,  and  has  a  somewhat  meandering  course,  first  flowing 
south,  then  north-west,  and  then  west  as  far  as  Lyons,  whence  it 
runs  straight  south  till  it  reaches  the  Mediterranean,  into  which  it 
discharges  itself  by  two  principal  branches,  which  form  the  delta 
or  island  of  the  Camargue.  The  Ain,  the  Saflne  (which  rises  in  the 
Paucities  and  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course  skirting  the  regions  of 
Bresse  and  Dombes,  receives  the  Doubs  and  joins  the  Rhone  at 
Lyons),  the  Ardeche  and  the  Gard  are  the  affluents  on  the  right; 
on  the  left  it  is  joined  by  the  Arve,  the  Isere,  the  Drome  and  the 
Durance.  The  small  independent  river,  the  Var,  drains  that  portion 
of  the  Alps  which  fringes  the  Mediterranean. 

The  basin  of  the  Garonne  occupies  south-western  France  with  the 
exception  of  the  tracts  covered  by  the  secondary  basins  of  the  Adour, 
the  Aude,  the  Herault,  the  Orb  and  other  smaller  rivers,  and  the  low- 
lying  plain  of  the  Landes,  which  is  watered  by  numerous  coast  rivers, 
notably  by  the  Leyre.  Its  area  is  nearly  33,000  sq.  m.,  and  extends 
from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  uplands  of  Saintonge,  Perigord  and  Limousin. 
The  Garonne  rises  in  the  valley  of  Aran  (Spanish  Pyrenees),  enters 
France  near  Bagneres-de-Luchon,  has  first  a  north-west  course, 
then  bends  to  the  north-east,  and  soon  resumes  its  first  direction. 
Joining  the  Atlantic  between  Royan  and  the  Pointe  de  Grave, 
opposite  the  tower  of  Cordouan.  In  the  lower  part  of  its  course, 
from  the  Bec-d'Ambez,  where  it  receives  the  Dordogne,  it  becomes 
considerably  wider,  and  takes  the  name  of  Gironde.  The  principal 
affluents  are  the  Ariege,  the  Tarn  with  the  Aveyron  and  the  Agout, 
the  Lot  and  the  Dordogne,  which  descends  from  Mont  Dore-les- 
Bains,  and  joins  the  Garonne  at  Bec-d'Ambez,  to  form  the  Gironde. 
All  these  affluents  are  on  the  right,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
Ariege,  which  descends  from  the  eastern  Pyrenees,  rise  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Auvergne  and  the  southern  Cevennes,  their  sources  often 
lying  close  to  those  of  the  rivers  of  the  Loire  and  Rhone  basins. 
The  Neste,  a  Pyrenean  torrent,  and  the  Save,  the  Gers  and  the  Ba'ise, 
rising  on  the  plateau  of  Lannemezan,  are  the  principal  left-hand 


tributaries  of  the  Garonne.  North  of  the  basin  of  the  Garonne  an 
area  of  over  3800  sq.  m.  is  watered  by  the  secondary  system  of  the 
Charente,  which  descends  from  Cheronnac  (Haute-Vienne),  traverses 
Angouleme  and  falls  into  the  Atlantic  near  Rochefort.  Farther  to 
the  north  a  number  of  small  rivers,  the  chief  of  which  is  the  Sevre 
Niortaise,  drain  the  coast  region  to  the  south  of  the  plateau  of 
Gatine. 

The  basin  of  the  Loire,  with  an  area  of  about  47,000  sq.  m., 
includes  a  great  part  of  central  and  western  France  or  nearly  a 
quarter  of  the  whole  country.  The  Loire  rises  in  Mont  Gerbier  de 
lone,  in  the  range  of  the  Vivarais  mountains,  flows  due  north  to 
Nevers,  then  turns  to  the  north-west  as  far  as  Orleans,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  which  it  separates  the  marshy  region  of  the  Sologne 
(j.»-)  on  the  south  from  the  wheat-growing  region  of  Beauce  and  the 
Gatinais  on  the  north.  Below  Orleans  it  takes  its  course  towards 
the  south-west,  and  lastly  from  Saumur  runs  west,  till  it  reaches 
the  Atlantic  between  Paimbceuf  and  St  Nazaire.  On  the  right  the 
Loire  receives  the  waters  of  the  Furens,  the  Arroux,  the  Nievre,  the 
Maine  (formed  by  the  Mayenne  and  the  Sarthe  with  its  affluent  the 
Loir),  and  the  Erdre,  which  joins  the  Loire  at  Nantes;  on  the  left, 
the  Allier  (which  receives  the  Dore  and  the  Sioule),  the  Loiret,  the 
Cher,  the  Indre,  the  yienne  with  its  affluent  the  Creuse,  the  Thouet, 
and  the  Sevre-Nantaise.  The  peninsula  of  Brittany  and  the  coasts 
of  Normandy  on  both  sides  of  the  Seine  estuary  are  watered  by 
numerous  independent  streams.  Amongst  these  the  Vilaine,  which 
passes  Rennes  and  Redon,  waters,  with  its  tributaries,  an  area  of 
4200  sq.  m.  The  Orne,  which  rises  in  the  hills  of  Normandy  and 
falls  into  the  Channel  below  Caen,  is  of  considerably  less  importance. 

The  basin  of  the  Seine,  though  its  area  of  a  little  over  30,000  sq.  m. 
is  smaller  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  main  systems,  comprises  the 
finest  network  of  navigable  rivers  in  the  country.  It  is  by  far  the 
most  important  basin  of  northern  France,  those  of  the  Somme  and 
Scheldt  m  the  north-west  together  covering  less  than  5000  sq.  m., 
those  of  the  Meuse  and  the  Rhine  in  the  north-east  less  than  7000 
sq.  m.  The  Seine  descends  from  the  Langres  plateau,  flows  north- 
west down  to  Mery,  turns  to  the  west,  resumes  its  north-westerly 
direction  at  Montereau,  passes  through  Paris  and  Rouen  and  dis- 
charges itself  into  the  Channel  between  Le  Havre  and  Honfleur. 
Its  affluents  are,  on  the  right,  the  Aube;  the  Marne,  which  joins  the 
Seine  at  Charenton  near  Paris;  the  Oise,  which  has  its  source  in 
Belgium  and  is  enlarged  by  the  Aisne;  and  the  Epte;  on  the  left 
the  Yonne,  the  Loing,  the  Essonne,  the  Eure  and  the  Rille. 

Lakes. — France  has  very  few  lakes.  The  Lake  of  Geneva,  which 
forms  32  m.  of  the  frontier,  belongs  to  Switzerland.  The  most 
important  French  lake  is  that  of  Grand-Lieu,  between  Nantes  and 
Paimbceuf  (Loire-Inferieure),  which  presents  a  surface  of  17,300 
acres.  There  may  also  be  mentioned  the  lakes  of  Bourget  and 
Annecy  (both  in  Savoy),  St  Point  (Jura),  Paladru  (Isere)  and 
Nantua  (Ain).  The  marshy  districts  of  Sologne,  Brenne,  Landes 
and  Dombes  still  contain  large  undrained  tracts.  The  coasts  present 
a  number  of  maritime  inlets,  forming  inland  bays,  which  communicate 
with  the  sea  by  channels  of  greater  or  less  width.  Some  of  these 
are  on  the  south-west  coast,  in  the  Landes,  as  Carcaiis,  Lacanau, 
Biscarosse,  Cazau,  Sanguinet;  but  more  are  to  be  found  in  the  south 
and  south-east,  in  Languedoc  and  Provence,  as  Leucate,  Sigean, 
Thau,  Vaccares,  Berre,  &c.  Their  want  of  depth  prevents  them 
from  serving  as  roadsteads  for  shipping,  and  they  are  useful  chiefly 
for  fishing  or  for  the  manufacture  of  bay-salt. 

Climate. — The  north  and  north-west  of  France  bear  a  great  resem- 
blance, both  in  temperature  and  produce,  to  the  south  of  England, 
rain  occurring  frequently,  and  the  country  being  consequently 
suited  for  pasture.  In  the  interior  the  rains  are  less  frequent,  but 
when  they  occur  are  far  more  heavy,  so  that  there  is  much  less 
difference  in  the  annual  rainfall  there  as  compared  with  the  rest  of 
the  country  than  in  the  number  of  rainy  days.  The  annual  rainfall 
for  the  whole  of  France  averages  about  32  in.  The  precipitation  is 
greatest  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  in  the  elevated  regions  of  the 
interior.  It  attains  over  60  in.  in  the  basin  of  the  Adour  (71  in. 
at  the  western  extremity  of  the  Pyrenees),  and  nearly  as  much  in 
the  Vosges,  Morvan,  Cevennes  and  parts  of  the  central  plateau. 
The  zone  of  level  country  extending  from  Reims  and  Troyes  to 
Angers  and  Poitiers,  with  the  exception  of  the  Loire  valley  and  the 
Brie,  receives  less  than  24  in.  of  rain  annually  (Paris  about  23  in.), 
as  also  does  the  Mediterranean  coast  west  of  Marseilles.  The  pre- 
vailing winds,  mild  and  humid,  are  west  winds  from  the  Atlantic; 
continental  climatic  influence  makes  itself  felt  in  the  east  wind, 
which  is  frequent  in  winter  and  in  the  east  of  France,  while  the 
mistral,  a  violent  wind  from  the  north-west,  is  characteristic  of  the 
Mediterranean  region.  The  local  climates  of  France  may  be  grouped 
under  the  following  seven  designations:  (i)  Sequan  climate,  char- 
acterizing the  Seine  basin  and  northern  France,  with  a  mean 
temperature  of  50°  F.,  the  winters  being  cold,  the  summers  mild ; 
(2)  Breton  climate,  with  a  mean  temperature  of  51-8"  F.,  the  winters 
being  mild,  the  summers  temperate,  it  is  characterized  by  west 
and  south-west  winds  and  frequent  fine  rains;  (3)  Girondin  climate 
(characterizing  Bordeaux,  Agen,  Pau,  &c.),  having  a  mean  of 
53-6°  F.,  with  mild  winters  and  hot  summers,  the  prevailing  wind 
is  from  the  north-west,  the  average  rainfall  about  28  in.;  (4) 
Auvergne  climate,  comprising  the  Cevennes,  central  plateau,  Cler- 
mont,  Limoges  and  Rodez,  mean  temperature  51-8°  F.,  with  cold 


FRANCE 


[GEOLOGY 


winters  and  hot  summers;  (5)  Vosges  climate  (comprehending 
Epinal,  Mezieres  and  Nancy),  having  a  mean  of  48-2°  F;,  with  long 
and  severe  winters  and  hot  and  rainy  summers;  (6)  Rh&ne  climate 
(experienced  by  Lyons,  Chalon,  Macon,  Grenoble)  mean  tempera- 
ture' Sl-80  F.,  with  cold  and  wet  winters  and  hot  summers,  the 
prevailing  winds  are  north  and  south;  (7)  Mediterranean  climate, 
ruling  at  Valence,  Nimes,  Nice  and  Marseilles,  mean  temperature, 
57.5  °F.,  with  mild  winters  and  hot  and  almost  rainless  summers. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — The  flora  of  southern  France  and  the  Medi- 
terranean is  distinct  from  that  of  the  rest  of  the  country,  which  does 
not  differ  in  vegetation  from  western  Europe  generally.  Evergreens 
predominate  in  the  south,  where  grow  subtropical  plants  such  as 
the  myrtle,  arbutus,  laurel,  holm-oak,  olive  and  fig;  varieties  of 
the  same  kind  are  also  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast  (as  far  north  as 
the  Cotentin),  where  the  humidity  and  mildness  of  the  climate 
favour  their  growth.  The  orange,  date-palm  and  eucalyptus  have 
been  acclimatized  on  the  coast  of  Provence  and  the  Riviera.  Other 
trees  of  southern  France  are  the  cork-oak  and  the  Aleppo  and  mari- 
time pines.  In  north  and  central  France  the  chief  trees  are  the  oak, 
the  beech,  rare  south  of  the  Loire,  and  the  hornbeam ;  less  important 
varieties  are  the  birch,  poplar,  ash,  elm  and  walnut.  The  chestnut 
covers  considerable  areas  in  Perigord,  Limousin  and  Beam;  resinous 
trees  (firs,  pines,  larches,  &c.)  form  fine  forests  in  the  Vosges  and 
Jura. 

The  indigenous  fauna  include  the  bear,  now  very  rare  but  still 
found  in  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  the  wolf,  harbouring  chiefly  in  the 
Cdvennes  and  Vosges,  but  in  continually  decreasing  areas;  the  fox, 
marten,  badger,  weasel,  otter,  the  beaver  in  the  extreme  south  of  the 
Rhone  valley,  and  in  the  Alps  the  marmot;  the  red  deer  and  roe 
deer  are  preserved  in  many  of  the  forests,  and  the  wild  boar  is  found 
in  several  districts ;  the  chamois  and  wild  goat  survive  in  the  Pyre- 
nees and  Alps.  Hares,  rabbits  and  squirrels  are  common.  Among 
birds  of  prey  may  be  mentioned  the  eagle  and  various  species  of  hawk, 
and  among  game-birds  the  partridge  and  pheasant.  The  reptiles 
include  the  ringed-snake,  slow-worm,  viper  and  lizard.  (R,  TR.) 

Geology. — Many  years  ago  it  was  pointed  out  by  Elie  de  Beaumont 
and  Dufr6noy  that  the  Jurassic  rocks  of  France  form  upon  the  map 
an  incomplete  figure  of  8.  Within  the  northern  circle  of  the  8  lie 
the  Mesozoic  and  Tertiary  beds  of  the  Paris  basin,  dipping  inwards; 
within  the  southern  circle  lie  the  ancient  rocks  of  the  Central  Plateau, 
from  which  the  later  beds  dip  outwards.  Outside  the  northern  circle 
lie  on  the  west  the  folded  Palaeozoic  rocks  of  Brittany,  and  on  the 
north  the  Palaeozoic  massif  of  the  Ardennes.  Outside  the  southern 
circle  lie  on  the  west  the  Mesozoic  and  Tertiary  beds  of  the  basin 
of  the  Garonne,  with  the  Pyrenees  beyond,  and  on  the  east  the 
Mesozoic  and  Tertiary  beds  of  the  valley  of  the  Rh6ne,  with  the 
Alps  beyond. 

In  the  geological  history  of  France  there  have  been  two  great 
periods  of  folding  since  Archean  times.  The  first  of  these  occurred 
towards  the  close  of  the  Palaeozoic  era,  when  a  great  mountain 
system  was  raised  in  the  north  running  approximately  from  E.  to  W., 
and  another  chain  arose  in  the  south,  running  from  S.W.  to  N.E. 
Of  the  former  the  remnants  are  now  seen  in  Brittany  and  the 
Ardennes;  of  the  latter  the  CeVennes  and  the  Montagne  Noire  are 
the  last  traces  visible  on  the  surface.  The  second  great  folding  took 
place  in  Tertiary  times,  and  to  it  was  due  the  final  elevation  of  the 
Jura  and  the  Western  Alps  and  of  the  Pyrenees.  No  great  mountain 
chain  was  ever  raised  by  a  single  effort,  and  folding  went  on  to  some 
extent  in  other  periods  besides  those  mentioned.  There  were, 
moreover,  other  and  broader  oscillations  which  raised  or  lowered 
extensive  areas  without  much  crumpling  of  the  strata,  and  to  these 
are  due  some  of  the  most  important  breaks  in  the  geological  series. 

The  oldest  rocks,  the  gneisses  and  schists  of  the  Archean  period, 
form  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Central  Plateau,  and  are  also  exposed 
in  the  axes  of  the  folds  in  Brittany.  The  Central  Plateau  has 
probably  been  a  land  mass  ever  since  this  period,  but  the  rest  of  the 
country  was  flooded  by  the  Palaeozoic  sea.  The  earlier  deposits 
of  that  sea  now  rise  to  the  surface  in  Brittany,  the  Ardennes,  the 
Montagne  Noire  and  the  C£vennes,  and  in  all  these  regions  they  are 
intensely  folded.  Towards  the  close  of  the  Palaeozoic  era  France  had 
become  a  part  of  a  great  continent;  in  the  north  the  Coal  Measures 
of  the  Boulonnais  and  the  Nord  were  laid  down  in  direct  connexion 
with  those  of  Belgium  and  England,  while  in  the  Central  Plateau 
the  Coal  Measures  were  deposited  in  isolated  and  scattered  basins. 
The  Permian  and  Triassic  deposits  were  also,  for  the  most  part,  of 
continental  origin;  but  with  the  formation  of  the  Rhaetic  beds  the 
sea  again  began  to  spread,  and  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
Jurassic  period  it  covered  nearly  the  whole  of  the  country  except 
the  Central  Plateau,  Brittany  and  the  Ardennes.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  period,  however,  during  the  deposition  of  the  Portlandian 
beds,  the  sea  again  retreated,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  Cretaceous 
period  was  limited  (in  France)  to  the  catchment  basins  of  the  Sa6ne 
and  Rh6ne — -in  the  Paris  basin  the  contemporaneous  deposits  were 
chiefly  estuarine  and  were  confined  to  the  northern  and  eastern  rim. 
Beginning  with  the  Aptian  and  Albian  the  sea  again  gradually 
spread  over  the  country  and  attained  its  maximum  in  the  early  part 
of  the  Senonian  epoch,  when  once  more  the  ancient  massifs  of  the 
Central  Plateau,  Brittany  and  the  Ardennes,  alone  rose  above  the 
waves.  There  was  still,  however,  a  well-marked  difference  between 
the  deposits  of  the  northern  and  the  southern  parts  of  France,  the 


former  consisting  of  chalk.as  in  England,  and  the  latter  of  sandstones 
and  limestones  with  Hippurites.  During  the  later  part  of  the 
Cretaceous  period  the  sea  gradually  retreated  and  left  the  whole 
country  dry. 

During  the  Tertiary  period  arms  of  the  sea  spread  into  France — 
in  the  Paris  basin  from  the  north,  in  the  basins  of  the  Loire  and  the 
Garonne  from  the  west,  and  in  the  Rhone  area  from  the  south.  The 
changes,  however,  were  too  numerous  and  complex  to  be  dealt 
with  here. 

In  France,  as  in  Great  Britain,  volcanic  eruptions  occurred  during 
several  of  the  Palaeozoic  periods,  but  during  the  Mesozoic  era  the 


1 I  Quaternary 

Tertiary 

Cretacecus 

Jurassic 


I  Triassic 
I  Permian 
I  Carboniferous 
J  Devonian 


Emery  V  il 

Siluro-Carribrian 


•  Archaean  A  Metamorphio 

!•»  •*••*!  Plutonic  Rocks 
^^B  Volcanic  Rocks 

country  was  free  from  outbursts,  except  in  the  regions  of  the  Alps 
and  Pyrenees.  In  Tertiary  times  the  Central  Plateau  was  the  theatre 
of  great  volcanic  activity  from  the  Miocene  to  the  Pleistocene 
periods,  and  many  of  the  volcanoes  remain  as  nearly  perfect  cones 
to  the  present  day.  The  rocks  are  mainly  basalts  and  andesites, 
together  with  trachytes  and  phonolites,  and  some  of  the  basaltic 
flows  are  of  enormous  extent. 

On  the  geology  of  France  see  the  classic  Explication  de  la  carte 
geolopique  de  la  France  (Paris,  vol.  i.  1841,  vol.  ii.  1848),  by  Dufr6noy 
and  Elie  de  Beaumont ;  a  more  modern  account,  with  full  references, 
is  given  by  A.  de  Lapparent,  Traite  de  geologic  (Paris,  1906). 

(J.  A.  H.) 

Population. 

The  French  nation  is  formed  of  many  different  elements. 
Iberian  influence  in  the  south-west,  Ligurian  on  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean,  Germanic  immigrations  from  east  of  the 
Rhine  and  Scandinavian  immigrations  in  the  north-west  have 
tended  to  produce  ethnographical  diversities  which  ease  of 
intercommunication  and  other  modern  conditions  have  failed  to 
obliterate.  The  so-called  Celtic  type,  exemplified  by  individuals 
of  rather  less  than  average  height,  brown-haired  and  brachy- 
cephalic,  is  the  fundamental  element  in  the  nation  and  peoples 
the  region  between  the  Seine  and  the  Garonne;  in  southern 
France  a  different  type,  dolichocephalic,  short  and  with  black 
hair  and  eyes,  predominates.  The  tall,  fair  and  blue-eyed 
individuals  who  are  found  to  the  north-east  of  the  Seine  and  in 
Normandy  appear  to  be  nearer  in  race  to  the  Scandinavian  and 
Germanic  invaders;  a  tall  and  darker  type  with  long  faces 
and  aquiline  noses  occurs  in  some  parts  of  Franche-Comt6  and 
Champagne,  the  Vosges  and  the  Perche.  From  the  Celts  has 
been  derived  the  gay,  brilliant  and  adventurous  temperament 
easily  moved  to  extremes  of  enthusiasm  and  depression,  which 


3 


FRANCE 

Scale,  1:3,000,000 

English  Milus 
lo      20      30      40      50      60 


Capitals  of  Countries 

Capitals  of  Departments 

Railways 

Canals 

Glaciers 

Fortifications 


48 


hannel  'islands       •"•"•fi*" 

(British)  lisle*** 


Environs  of 

PARIS' 

Scale.  i:3"o.coo 
English  Miles 


4* 


Longitude  West    6    of  Grcenwicl 


kkdfS«tt»f 

,^flV 


M 


•  *•  "«.    -•"  £»£4n*3<Ss 


EDITERRANEAN 


L£!fesu,M,,F  4° 

•85^;  ^— 


%W., 

/'les 

5  f  >? 


'**  "/:'"nu«( 

'•:-.        (i          I*' 


G  Longitude  E.ist    6' of  Greenwich    H 


Emery  Walker  sc. 


POPULATION] 


FRANCE 


779 


combined  with  logical  and  organizing  faculties  of  a  high  order, 
the  heritage  from  the  Latin  domination,  and  with  the  industry, 
frugality  and  love  of  the  soil  natural  in  an  agricultural  people 
go  to  make  up  the  national  character.  The  Bretons,  who  most 
nearly  represent  the  Celts,  and  the  Basques,  who  inhabit 
parts  of-  the  western  versant  of  the  Pyrenees,  have  preserved 
their  distinctive  languages  and  customs,  and  are  ethnically  the 
most  interesting  sections  of  the  nation;  the  Flemings  of  French 
Flanders  where  Flemish  is  still  spoken  are  also  racially  distinct. 
The  immigration  of  Belgians  into  the  no'rthern  departments  and 
of  Italians  into  those  of  the  south-east  exercise  a  constant 
modifying  influence  on  the  local  populations. 

During  the  igth  century  the  population  of  France 
increased  to  a  less  extent  than  that  of  any  other 
country  (except  Ireland)  for  which  definite  data  exist, 
and  during  the  last  twenty  years  of  that  period  it 
was  little  more  than  stationary.  The  following  table 
exhibits  the  rate  of  increase  as  indicated  by  the 
censuses  from  1876  to  1906.  Population. 

1876  ....   36,905,788 

1881    ....   37,672,048 

1886   .        .        .          .38,218,903 

1891 38,342,948 

1896   ....   38,517,975 

1901    ....   38,961,945 

1906   ....   39,252,245 

Thus  the  rate  of  increase  during  the  decade  1891- 
1901  was  -16%,  whereas  during  the  same  period  the 
population  of  England  increased  1-08%.  The  birth- 
rate markedly  decreased  during  the  igth  century; 
despite  an  increase  of  population  between  1801  and 
1901  amounting  to  40%,  the  number  of  births  in 
the  former  was  904,000,  as  against  857,000  in  the 
latter  year,  the  diminution  being  accompanied  by 
a  decrease  in  the  annual  number  of  deaths.1  In 
the  following  table  the  decrease  in  births  and  deaths 
for  the  decennial  periods  during  the  thirty  years 
ending  1900  are  compared. 

Births. 

•  935.°°°  or  25-4  per  1000 
.  909,000  ,,  23-9    „ 

.        .     853,000  „     22-2 

Deaths. 

.   870,900  or  23-7  per  1000 

.     841,700  ,,     22-1  „ 

.     829,OOO  „     21-5  „ 

About  two-thirds  of  the  French  departments,  com- 
prising a  large  proportion  of  those  situated  in 
mountainous  districts  and  in  the  basin  of  the  Garonne, 
where  the  birth-rate  is  especially  feeble,  show  a 
decrease  in  population.  Those  which  show  an  in- 
crease usually  possess  large  centres  of  industry  and  are 
already  thickly  populated,  e.g.  Seine  and  Pas-de-Calais. 
In  most  departments  the  principal  cause  of  decrease 
of  population  is  the  attraction  of  great  centres.  The 
average  density  of  population  in  France  is  about  190 
to  the  square  mile,  the  tendency  being  for  the  large 
towns  to  increase  at  the  expense  of  the  small  towns 
as  well  as  the  rural  communities.  In  1901  37  %  of  the 
population  lived  in  centres  containing  more  than  2000 
inhabitants,  whereas  in  1861  the  proportion  was  28%. 
Besides  the  industrial  districts  the  most  thickly 
populated  regions  include  the  coast  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Seine-Inferieure  and  Brittany,  the  wjne-grow- 
ing  region  of  the  Bordelais  and  the  Riviera.2 

1  In  1907  deaths  were  superior  in  number  to  births  by 
nearly  20,000. 

2  The  following  list  comprises  the  three  most  densely- 
populated  and  the  three  most  sparsely  populated  depart- 
ments in  France: 


In  the  quinquennial  period  1901-1905,  out  of  the  total 
number  of  births  the  number  of  illegitimate  births  to  every 
1000  inhabitants  was  2-0,  as  compared  with  2-1  in  the  four 
preceding  periods  of  like  duration. 

In  1906  the  number  of  foreigners  in  France  was  1,009,415 
as  compared  with  1,027,491  in  1896  and  1,115,214  in  1886. 
The  departments  with  the  largest  population  of  foreigners 
were  Nord  (191,678),  in  which  there  is  a  large  proportion 
of  Belgians;  Bouches-du-Rhone  (123,497),  Alpes-Maritimes 
(93,554),  Var  (47,475),  Italians  being  numerous  in  these  three 
departments;  Seine  (153,647),  Meurthe-et-Moselle(44, 595),  Pas- 
de-Calais  (21,436)  and  Ardennes  (21,401). 

The  following  table  gives  the  area  in  square  miles  of  each  of  the  eighty-seven 
departments  with  its  population  according  to  the  census  returns  of  1886,  1896 
and  1906: 


1871-1880 
1881-1890 
1891-1900 

1871-1880 
1881-1890 
1891-1900 


Seine 
Nord 
Rhone 


Inhabitants  to  the  Square  Mile. 


.   20,803 
850 

•        778 


Basses- Alpes 
Hautes-Alpes 
Lozere  . 


42 
49 
64 


Departments. 

Area, 
sq.  m. 

Population. 

1886. 

1896. 

1906. 

Ain      

2,249 

364,408 

351,569 

345,856 

Aisne  

2,867 

555,925 

541,613 

534,495 

Allier  .        ... 

2,849 

424,582 

424,378 

417,961 

Alpes-Maritimes 

1,442 

238,057 

265,155 

334,007 

Ardeche      .        .        . 

2,H5 

375,472 

363,501 

347,140 

Ardennes    .... 

2,028 

332,759 

318,865 

317,505 

Ariege         .... 

1,893 

237,619 

219,641 

205,684 

Aube  

2,326 

257,374 

251,435 

243,670 

Aude  

2,448 

332,080 

310,513 

308,327 

Aveyron     .... 

3,386 

415,826 

389,464 

377,299 

Basses-Alpes     .        .        . 

2,698 

129,494 

118,142 

113,126 

Basses-Pyrenees        .        . 

2,977 

432,999 

423,572 

426,817 

Belfort,  Tcrritoire  de 

235 

79,758 

88,047 

95,421 

Bouches-du-Rh6ne  . 

2,026 

604,857 

673,820 

765,918 

Calvados    .... 

2,197 

437,267 

4'7,i76 

403,431 

Cantal        .... 

2,231 

241,742 

234,382 

228,690 

Charente    .... 

2,305 

366,408 

356,236 

351,733 

Charente-Inferieure 

2,79i 

462,803 

453,455 

453,793 

Cher^  ..... 

2,819 

355,349 

347,725 

343,484 

Correze       .        .                  . 

2,273 

326,494 

322,393 

317,430 

Corse  (Corsica) 

3-367 

278,501 

290,168 

291,160 

C6te-d'Or  .        .        .        . 

3,392 

38i,574 

368,168 

357,959 

C6tes-du-Nord 

2,786 

628,256 

616,074 

611,506 

Creuse        .... 

2,164 

284,942 

279,366 

274,094 

Deux-Sevres 

2,337 

353,766 

346,694 

339466 

Dordogne  .... 

3,56i 

492,205 

464,822 

447,052 

Doubs        .        .        ... 

2,030 

310,963 

302,046 

298,438 

Dr6me        .        .        .        . 

2,533 

3H,6i5 

303,491 

297,270 

Eure   

2,33° 

358,829 

340,652 

330,140 

Eure-et-Loir      .     (  . 

2,293 

283,719 

280,469 

273,823 

Finistere     .... 

2,713 

707,820 

739,648 

795,103 

Card  

2,270 

417,099 

416,036 

421,166 

Gers    

2,428 

274,391 

250,472 

231,088 

Gironde      .... 

4,140 

775,845 

809,902 

823,925 

Haute-Garonne 

2,458 

481,169 

459,377 

442,065 

Haute-Loire       .        .        . 

i,93i 

320,063 

316,699 

314,770 

Haute-Marne    . 

2,415 

247,78i 

232,057 

221,724 

Hautes-Alpes     . 

2,178 

122,924 

113,229 

107,498 

Haute-Sa6ne 

2,075 

290,954 

272,891 

263,890 

Haute-Savoie    . 

1,775 

275,018 

265,872 

260,617 

Hautes-Pyrenees 

i,75o 

234,825 

218,973 

209,397 

Haute-Vienne    . 

2,144 

363,182 

375,724 

385,732 

Herault      .... 

2,403 

439,044 

469,684 

482,799 

Ille-et-Vilaine    . 

2,699 

621,384 

622,039 

611,805 

Indre  

2,666 

296,147 

289,206 

290,216 

Indre-et-Loire   . 

2,377 

340,921 

337,064 

337,9i6 

Isere   

3,179 

581,680 

568,933 

562,315 

Jura     

i,95i 

281,292 

266,143 

257,725 

Landes        .... 

3,6i5 

302,266 

292,884 

293,397 

Loir-et-Cher 

2,479 

279,214 

278,153 

276,019 

Loire  
Loire-Inferieure 

1,853 
2,694 

603,384 
643,884 

625,336 
646,172 

643,943 
666,748 

Loiret         .... 

2,629 

374,875 

371,019 

364,999 

Lot      

2,017 

271,514 

240,403 

216,611 

Lot-et-Garonne 

2,079 

307,437 

286,377 

274,610 

Lozere        .... 

1,999 

141,264 

132,151 

128,016 

Maine-et-Loire 

2,706 

527,680 

514,870 

513,490 

Manche      .... 

2,475 

520,865 

500,052 

487,443 

Marne        .... 

3,i67 

429,494 

439,577 

434,157 

Mayenne    .... 
Meurthe-et-Moselle  . 

2,012 
2,038 

340,063 
431,693 

321,187 
466,417 

305,457 
517,508 

Meuse         .... 

2,409 

291,971 

290,384 

280,220 

Morbihan  .... 

2,738 

535,256 

552,028 

573,152 

Nievre        .... 

2,659 

347,645 

333,899 

313,972 

Nord   

2,229 

1,670,184 

1,811,868 

1,895,861 

780 


FRANCE 


Area, 

1 

Copulation. 

Departments. 

sq.  m. 

1886. 

1896. 

1906. 

Oise    . 

2,272 

403,146 

404,511 

410,049 

Orne   . 

2,372 

367,248 

339,162 

315,993 

Pas-de-Calais    . 

2,606 

853,526 

906,249 

1,012,466 

Puy-de-D6me    . 
Pyrenees-Orientales 

3.°94 
1.599 

570,964 
211,187 

555,078 
208,387 

535419 
213,171 

Rh6ne 

1,104 

772,912 

839,329 

858,907 

Sa6ne-et-Loire  . 

3.33° 

625,885 

621,237 

613,377 

Sarthe 

2,410 

436,111 

425,077 

421,470 

Savoie 

2,389 

267,428 

259,790 

253,297 

Seine  . 

185 

2,961,089 

3,340,514 

3,848,618 

Seine-Inferieure 

2,448 

833,386 

837,824 

863,879 

Seine-et-Marne 

2,289 

355.136 

359.044 

36i,939 

Seine-et-Oise 

2,184 

618,089 

669,098 

749,753 

Somme 

2,423 

548,982 

543,279 

532,567 

Tarn  . 

2,231 

358,757 

339,827 

330,533 

Tarn-et-Garonne 

1,440 

214,046 

200,390 

188,553 

Var     . 

2,325 

283,689 

3°9.'9i 

324,638 

Vaucluse 

1,381 

241,787 

236,313 

239,178 

Vendee 

2,708 

434,808 

441-735 

442,777 

Vienne 

2,719 

342.785 

338,"4 

333,621 

Vosges 

2,279 

413.707 

421,412 

429,812 

Yonne 

2,880 

355.364 

332,656 

315,199 

Total    . 

207,076 

38,218,903 

38,517,975 

39,252,245 

[RELIGION 

Of  the  population  in  1901,  18,016,889  were  males  and 
19,533,899  females,  an  excess  of  females  over  males  of 
617,010,  i.e.  1-6%  or  about  508  females  to  every  492 
males.  In  1881  the  proportion  was  501  females  to  every 
499  males,  since  when  the  disparity  has  been  slightly 
more  marked  at  every  census.  Below  is  a  list  of  the 
departments  in  which  the  number  of  women  to  every 
thousand  men  was  (l)  greatest  and  (2)  least. 


1131 
1117 
1103 

IIOO 

1098 
1084 
1080 

(2) 

Belfort.      . 
Basses-  Alpes 
Var.     .      . 
Meuse  . 
Hautes-  Alpes 
Meurthe-et-M 
Haute-Savoie  . 

oselle 

886 

893 
894 

905 
908 
918 
947 

The  French  census  uses  the  commune  as  the  basis  of  its  returns, 
and  employs  the  following  classifications  in  respect  to  communal 
population:  (i)  Total  communal  population.  (2)  Population 
compile  A  part,  which  includes  soldiers  and  sailors,  inmates  of 
prisons,  asylums,  schools,  members  of  religious  communities, 
and  workmen  temporarily  engaged  in  public  works.  (3)  Total 
municipal  population,  i.e.  communal  population  minus  the 
population  comptee  a  part.  (4)  Population  municipale  agglomeree 
au  chef-lieu  de  la  commune,  which  embraces  the  urban  population 
as  opposed  to  the  rural  population.  The  following  tables, 
showing  the  growth  of  the  largest  towns  in  France,  are  drawn 
up  on  the  basis  of  the  fourth  classification,  which  is  used  through- 
out this  work  in  the  articles  on  French  towns,  except  where 
otherwise  stated. 

In  1906  there  were  in  France  twelve  towns  with  a  population  of 
over  100,000  inhabitants.  Their  growth  or  decrease  from  1886  to 
1906  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


1886. 

1896. 

1906. 

Paris 

2,294,108 

2,481,223 

2,711,931 

Lyons     . 
Marseilles 

344,124 
249,938 

398,867 
332,515 

430,186 
421,116 

Bordeaux 

225,281 

239,806 

237,707 

Lille 

143-135 

160,723 

196,624 

St  Etienne 

103,229 

120,300 

130,940 

Le  Havre 

109,199 

117,009 

129,403 

Toulouse 

123,040 

124,187 

125,856 

Roubaix 

89,781 

"3,899 

"9,955 

Nantes   . 

110,638 

107,137 

118,244 

Rouen     . 

100,043 

106,825 

111,402 

Reims     . 

91,130 

99,001 

102,800 

In  the  same  years  the  following  eighteen  towns,  now  numbering 
from  50,000  to  100,000  inhabitants,  each  had: 


1886. 

1896. 

1906. 

Nice 

61,464 

69,140 

99,556 

Nancy    . 

69,463 

83,668 

98,302 

Toulon   . 

53.941 

70,843 

87,997 

Amiens 

,,68,177 

74,808 

78,407 

Limoges 

56,699 

64,718 

75,906 

Angers    . 

65.152 

69,484 

73-585 

Brest       . 

59.352 

64,144 

71,163 

Nimes     . 

62,198 

66,905 

70,708 

Montpellier 

45,930 

62,717 

65,983 

Dijon 

50,684 

58,355 

65,516 

Tourcoing 

41-183 

55,705 

62,694 

Rennes   . 

52,614 

57,249 

62,024 

Tours 

51,467 

56,706 

61,507 

Calais     . 

52,839 

50,818 

59,623 

Grenoble 

43,26o 

50,084 

58,641 

Orleans 

51,208 

56,915 

57,544 

Le  Mans 

46,991 

49,665 

54,907 

Troyes    . 

44,864 

50,676 

51,228 

Departments  from  which  the  adult  males  emigrate 
regularly  either  to  sea  or  to  seek  employment  in  towns 
tend  to  fall  under  the  first  head,  those  in  which  large 
bodies  of  troops  are  stationed  under  the  second. 

The  annual  number  of  emigrants  from  France  is  small. 
The  Basques  of  Basses-Pyrenees  go  in  considerable 
numbers  to  the  Argentine  Republic,  the  inhabitants  of 
Basses  Alpes  to  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  and 
there  are  important  French  colonies  in  Algeria  and 
Tunisia. 

The  following  table  shows  thedistributionof  theactive 
population  of  France  according  to  their  occupations  in 
1901. 


Occupation. 

Males. 

Females. 

Total. 

Forestry  and  agriculture. 
Manufacturing  industries 
Trade    

5,5i7,6i7 
3,695,213 
1,132,621 

2,658,952 
2,124,642 
68o,99Q 

8,176,569 

5,819,855 
1,822,620 

Domestic  service  . 
Transport  . 
Public  service  . 
Liberal  professions 
Mining,  quarries  . 
Fishing. 

223,861 
617,849 

1,157,835 
226,561 
261,320 

6^.^72 

791,176 
212,794 

139,734 
173,278 
•       5,031 
4,400 

1,015,037 
830,643 
1,297,569 
399,839 
266,351 
67,772 

;T     .    °    ,                          v 
Urclassed  

14,316 

4,504 

0,  .  18,820 

Grand  Total  . 

12,910,565 

6,804,510 

19,715,075 

Religion. 

Great  alterations  were  made  with  regard  to  religious  matters 
in  France  by  a  law  of  December  1905,  supplemented  by  a  law 
of  January  1907  (see  below,  Law  and  Institutions).  Before  that 
time  three  religions  (cultes)  were  recognized  and  supported  by 
the  state — the  Roman  Catholic,  the  Protestant  (subdivided  into 
the  Reformed  and  Lutheran)  and  the  Hebrew.  In  Algeria 
the  Mahommedan  religion  received  similar  recognition.  By 
the  law  of  1905  all  the  churches  ceased  to  be  recognized  or 
supported  by  the  state  and  became  entirely  separated  therefrom, 
while  the  adherents  of  all  creeds  were  permitted  to  form  associa- 
tions for  public  worship  (associations  cultuelles),  upon  which  the 
expenses  of  maintenance  were  from  that  time  to  devolve.  The 
state,  the  departments,  and  the  communes  were  thus  relieved 
from  the  payment  of  salaries  and  grants  to  religious  bodies, 
an  item  of  expenditure  which  amounted  in  the  last  year  of  the 
old  system  to  £1,101,000  paid  by  the  state  and  £302,200  contri- 
buted by  the  departments  and  communes.  Before  these  altera- 
tions the  relations  between  the  state  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
communion,  by  far  the  largest  and  most  important  in  France, 
were  chiefly  regulated  by  the  provisions  of  the  Concordat  of  1801, 
concluded  between  the  first  consul,  Bonaparte,  and  Pope  Pius 
VII.  and  by  other  measures  passed  in  1802. 

France  is  divided  into  provinces  and  dioceses  as  follows: 

Archbishoprics.      .  Bishoprics. 

PARIS    .      .      .   Chartres,  Meaux,  Orleans,  Blois,  Versailles. 
AlX       .      .      .   Marseilles,  Frejus,  Digne,  Gap,  Nice,  Ajaccio. 
ALBI      .      .      .   Rodez,  Cahors,  Mende,  Perpignan. 
AUCH    .      .      .  Aire,  Tarbes,  Bayonne. 
AVIGNON    .      .   Nimes,  Valence,  Viviers,  Montpellier. 
BESANCON.      .   Verdun,  Bellay,  St  Die,  Nancy. 
BORDEAUX      .   Agen,  Angouleme,  Poitiers,  Perigueux,  La  Rochelle, 

Lucon. 

BOURGES   .      .   Clermont,  Limoges,  Le  Puy,  Tulle,  St  Flour. . 
CAMBRAI   .      .   Arras. 

CHAMBERY      .   Annecy,  Tarentaise,  St  Jean-de-Maurienne. 
LYONS  .      .      .   Autun,  Langres,  Dijon,  St  Claude,  Grenoble. 


AGRICULTURE] 

Archbishoprics.  Bishoprics. 

REIMS     .      .      .  Soissons,  Chalons-sur-Marne,  Beauvais,  Amiens. 
RENNES       .      .  Quimper,  Vannes,  St  Brieuc. 
ROUEN   .      .      .  Bayeux,  Evreux,  Sees,  Coutances. 
SENS       .      .      .  Troyes,  Nevers,  Moulins. 
TOULOUSE   .      .  Montauban,  Pamiers,  Carcassonne. 
TOURS  .  Le  Mans,  Angers,  Nantes,  Laval. 

The  dioceses  are  divided  into  parishes  each  under  a  parish  priest 
known  as  a  cure  or  desservant  (incumbent).  The  bishops  and  arch- 
bishops, formerly  nominated  by  the  government  and  canonically 
confirmed  by  the  pope,  are  now  chosen  by  the  latter.  The  appoint- 
ment of  cures  rested  with  the  bishops  and  had  to  be  confirmed  by 
the  government,  but  this  confirmation  is  now  dispensed  with. 
The  archbishops  used  to  receive  an  annual  salary  of  £600  each  and 
the  bishops  £400. 

The  archbishops  and  bishops  are  assisted  by  vicars-general  (at 
salaries  previously  ranging  from  £100  to  £180),  and  to  each  cathedral 
is  attached  a  chapter  of  canons.  A  cure,  in  addition  to  his  regular 
salary,  received  fees  for  baptisms,  marriages,  funerals  and  special 
masses,  and  had  the  benefit  of  a  free  house  called  a  presbytere.  The 
total  personnel  of  state-paid  Roman  Catholic  clergy  amounted  in 
1903  to  36,169.  The  Roman  priests  are  drawn  from  the  seminaries, 
established  by  the  church  for  the  education  of  young  men  intending 
to  join  its  ranks,  and  divided  into  lower  and  higher  seminaries 
(grands  et  petits  seminaires),  the  latter  giving  the  same  class  of 
instruction  as  the  lycees. 

The  number  of  Protestants  may  be  estimated  at  about  600,000 
and  the  Jews  at  about  70,000.  The  greatest  number  of  Jews  is  to 
be  found  at  Paris,  Lyons  and  Bordeaux,  while  the  departments  of 
the  centre  and  of  the  south  along  the  range  of  the  Cevennes,  where 
Calvinism  flourishes,  are  the  principal  Protestant  localities,  Nimes 
being  the  most  important  centre.  Considerable  sprinklings  of 
Protestants  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  two  Charentes,  in  Dauphine, 
in  Paris  and  in  Franche-Comte.  The  two  Protestant  bodies  used 
to  cost  the  state  about  £60,000  a  year  and  the  Jewish  Church  about 
£6000. 

Both  Protestant  churches  have  a  parochial  organization  and  a 
presbyterian  form  of  church  government.  In  the  Reformed  Church 
(far  the  more  numerous  of  the  two  bodies)  each  parish  has  a 
council  of  presbyters,  consisting  of  the  pastor  and  lay-members 
elected  by  the  congregation.  Several 
parishes  form  a  consistorial  circum- 
scription, which  has  a  consistorial 
council  consisting  of  the  council  of 
presbyters  of  the  chief  town  of  the 
circumscription,  the  pastor  and  one 
delegate  of  the  council  of  presbyters 
from  each  parish  and  other  elected 
members.  There  are  103  circum- 
scriptions (including  Algeria),  which 
are  grouped  into  21  provincial  synods 
composed  of  a  pastor  and  lay  dele- 
gate from  each  consistory.  All  the 
more  important  questions  of  church 


FRANCE 


781 


sizes  of  holdings,  but  in  general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  about 
3  million  persons  are  proprietors  of  holdings  under  25  acres  in 
extent  amounting  to  between  15  and  20%  of  the  cultivated 
area,  the  rest  being  owned  by  some  750,000  proprietors,  of  whom 
150,000  possess  half  the  area  in  holdings  averaging  400  acres  in 
extent.  About  80%  of  holdings  (amounting  to  about  60% 
of  the  cultivated  area)  are  cultivated  by  the  proprietor;  of  the 
rest  approximately  13  %  are  let  on  lease  and  7  %  are  worked  on 
the  system  known  as  metayage  (q.v.). 

The  capital  value  of  land,  which  greatly  decreased  during 
the  last  twenty  years  of  the  igth  century,  is  estimated  at 
£3,120,000,000,  and  that  of  stock,  buildings,  implements,  &c., 
at  £340,000,000.  The  value  per  acre  of  land,  which  exceeds 
£48  in  the  departments  of  Seine,  Rhone  and  those  fringing  the 
north-west  coast  from  Nord  to  Manche  inclusive,  is  on  the 
average  about  £29,  though  it  drops  to  £16  and  less  in  Morbihan, 
Landes,  Basses-Pyrenees,  and  parts  of  the  Alps  and  the  central 
plateau. 

While  wheat  and  wine  constitute  the  staples  of  French  agricul- 
ture, its  distinguishing  characteristic  is  the  variety  of  its  products. 
Cereals  occupy  about  one-third  of  the  cultivated  area.  For  the 
production  of  wheat,  in  respect  of  which  France  is  self-supporting, 
French  Flanders,  the  Seine  basin,  notably  the  Beauce  and  the  Brie, 
and  the  regions  bordering  on  the  lower  course  of  the  Loire  and  the 
upper  course  of  the  Garonne,  are  the  chief  areas.  Rye,  on  the 
other  hand,  one  of  the  least  valuable  of  the  cereals,  is  grown  chiefly 
in  the  poor  agricultural  territories  of  the  central  plateau  and  western 
Brittany.  Buckwheat  is  cultivated  mainly  in  Brittany.  Oats  and 
barley  are  generally  cultivated,  the  former  more  especially  in  the 
Parisian  region,  the  latter  in  Mayenne  and  one  or  two  of  the  neigh- 
bouring departments.  Meslin,  a  mixture  of  wheat  and  rye,  is 
produced  in  the  great  majority  of  French  departments,  but  to  a 
marked  extent  in  the  basin  of  the  Sarthe.  Maize  covers  considerable 
areas  in  Landes,  Basses-Pyrenees  and  other  south-western  de- 
partments. 


Average  Acreage 
(Thousands  of  Acres). 

Average  Production 
(Thousands  of  Bushels). 

Average  Yield 
per  Acre  (Bushels). 

1886-1895. 

1896-1905. 

1886-1895. 

1896-1905. 

1886-1895. 

1896-1905. 

Wheat    .      . 
Meslin  . 
Rye      .  '  . 
Barley  .      . 
Oats      .     . 
Buckwheat 
Maize   . 

17,004 
720 
3,888  ' 
2,303 
9,507 
1,484 
i,39i 

16,580 
491 
3-439 
1,887 
9,601 
1,392 
1,330 

294,564 
12,193 
64,651 

47,197 
240,082 

26,345 
25,723 

317,707 
8,826 
56,612 
41,066 
253,799 
23,136 
24,459 

17-3 
16-9 
16-6 
20-4 
25-2 
17-7 
18-4 

19-1 
17-0 
16-4 

21-0 
26-4 

16-6 
18-4 

discipline  and  all  decisions  regulating  the  doctrine  and  practice  of 
the  church  are  dealt  with  by  the  synods.  At  the  head  of  the  whole 
organization  is  a  General  Synod,  sitting  at  Paris.  The  organization 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  (Eglise  de  la.  confession  d' Augsburg)  is 
broadly  similar.  Its  consistories  are  grouped  into  two  special 
synods,  one  at  Paris  and  one  at  Montbeliard  (for  the  department 
of  Doubs  and  Haute-Sa6ne  and  the  territory  of  Belfort,  where 
the  churches  of  this  denomination  are  principally  situated).  It 
also  has  a  general  synod — composed  of  2  inspectors,1  5  pastors 
elected  by  the  synod  of  Paris,  and  6  by  that  of  Montbeliard, 
22  laymen  and  a  delegate  of  the  theological  faculty  at  Paris— ^which 
holds  periodical  meetings  and  is  represented  in  its  relations  with  the 
government  by  a  permanent  executive  commission. 

The  Jewish  parishes,  called  synagogues,  are  grouped  into  depart- 
mental consistories  (Paris,  Bordeaux,  Nancy,  Marseilles,  Bayonne, 
Lille,  Vesoul,  Besancon  and  three  in  Algeria).  Each  synagogue  is 
served  by  a  rabbi  assisted  by  an  officiating  minister,  and  in  each 
consistory  is  a  grand  rabbi.  At  Paris  is  the  central  consistory, 
controlled  by  the  government  and  presided  over  by  the  supreme 
grand  rabbi. 

Agriculture. 

Of  the  population  of  France  some  17,000,000  depend  upon 
agriculture  for  their  livelihood,  though  only  about  6,500,000 
are  engaged  in  work  on  the  land.  The  cultivable  land  of  the 
country  occupies  some  195,000  sq.  m.  or  about  94%  of  the  total 
area;  of  this  171,000  sq.  m.  are  cultivated.  There  are  besides 
12,300  sq.  m.  of  uncultivable  area  covered  by  lakes,  rivers, 
towns,  &c.  Only  the  roughest  estimate  is  possible  as  to  the 

1  Inspectors  are  placed  at  the  head  of  the  synodal  circumscriptions ; 
their  functions  are  to  consecrate  candidates  for  the  ministry,  install 
the  pastors,  &c. 


Forage  Crops. — The  mangold-wurzel,  occupying  four  times  the 
acreage  of  swedes  and  turnips,  is  by  far  the  chief  root-crop  in  France. 
It  is  grown  largely  in  the  departments  of  Nord  and  Pas-de-Calais 
and  in  those  of  the  Seine  basin,  the  southern  limit  of  its  cultivation 
being  roughly  a  line  drawn  from  Bordeaux  to  Lyons.  The  average 
area  occupied  by  it  in  the  years  from  1896  to  1905  was  1,043,000 
acres,  the  total  average  production  being  262,364,000  cwt.  and  the 
average  production  per  acre  roj  tons.  Clover,  lucerne  and  sainfoin 
make  up  the  bulk  of  artificial  pasturage,  while  vetches,  crimson 
clover  and  cabbage  are  the  other  chief  forage  crops. 

Vegetables. — Potatoes  are  not  a  special  product  of  any  region, 
though  grown  in  great  quantities  in  the  Bresse  and  the  Vosges. 
Early  potatoes  and  other  vegetables  (primeurs)  are  largely  cultivated 
in  the  districts  bordering  trie  English  Channel.  Market-gardening 
is  an  important  industry  in  the  regions  round  Paris,  Amiens  ana 
Angers,  as  it  is  round  Toulouse,  Montauban,  Avignon  and  in  southern 
France  generally.  The  market-gardeners  of  Paris  and  its  vicinity 
have  a  high  reputation  for  skill  in  the  forcing  of  early  vegetables 
under  glass. 

Potatoes!    Decennial  Averages. 


•  */ 

I 

,.  '  Acreage. 
1 

Total  Yield 
(Tons). 

Average  Yield 
per  Acre 
(Tons). 

1886-1895  fc( 
^    1896-1905 

3,690,000 
3,735,000 

11,150,000 
1  1  ,594,000 

3-02 

3'i 

Industrial  Plants? — The  manufacture  of  sugar  from  beetroot, 
owing  to  the  increased  use  of  sugar,  became  highly  important  during 


2  Cultures  induslrielles — Under  this  head  the  French  group 
beetroot,  hemp,  flax  and  other  plants,  the  products  of  which  pass 
through  some  process  of  manufacture  before  they  reach  the  con- 
sumer. 


782 


FRANCE 


[AGRICULTURE 


the  latter  half  of  the  igth  century,  the  industry  both  of  cultivation 
and  manufacture  being  concentrated  in  the  northern  departments 
of  Aisne,  Nord,  Pas-de-Calais,  Somme  and  Oise,  the  first  named 
supplying  nearly  a  quarter  of  the  whole  amount  produced  in  France. 

Flax  and  hemp  showed  a  decreasing  acreage  from  1881  onwards. 
Flax  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  the  northern  departments  of  Nord, 
Seine-Inferieure,  Pas-de-Calais,  C&tes-du-Nord,  hemp  in  Sarthe, 
Morbihan  and  Maine-et-Loire. 

Colza,  grown  chiefly  in  the  lower  basin  of  the  Seine  (Seine- 
InfeVieure  and  Eure),  is  the  most  important  of  the  oil-producing 
plants,  all  of  which  show  a  diminishing  acreage.  The  three  principal 
regions  for  the  production  of  tobacco  are  the  basin  of  the  Garonne 
(Lot-et-Garonne,  Dordogne,  Lot  and  Gironde),  the  basin  of  the  Isere 
(Isere  and  Savoie)  and  the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais.  The  state 
controls  its  cultivation,  which  is  allowed  only  in  a  limited  number  of 
departments.  Hops  cover  only  about  7000  acres,  being  almost 
confined  to  the  departments  of  Nord,  C&te  d'Or  and  Meurthe-et- 
Moselle. 

Decennial  Averages  1896-1905. 


Acreage. 

Production 
(Tons). 

Average  Yield 
per  Acre 
(Tons). 

Sugar  beet    . 
Hemp     . 
Flax        .      .      . 
Colza      .      .      . 
Tobacco 

672,000 
64,856 
57-893 
102,454 
41,564 

6,868,000 
18,451  ' 
17,857  ' 
47,697 
22,453 

IO-2 

•28  » 
•30  ' 
•46 

•54 

Vineyards  (see  WINE). — The  vine  grows  generally  in  France, 
except  in  the  extreme  north  and  in  Normandy  and  Brittany.  The 
great  wine-producing  regions  are : 

1.  The  country  fringing  the  Mediterranean  coast  and  including 
Herault  (240,822,000  gals,  in  1905),  and  Aude  (117,483,000  gals,  in 
1905),  the  most  productive  departments  in  France  in  this  respect. 

2.  The  department  of  Gironde  (95,559,000  gals,  in  1905),  whence 
come  Medoc  and  the  other  wines  for  which  Bordeaux  is  the  market. 

3.  The  lower  valley  of  the  Loire,  including  Touraine  and  Anjou, 
and  the  district  of  Saumur. 

4.  The  valley  of  the  Rh6ne. 

5.  The  Burgundian  region,  including  C6te  d'Or  and  the  valley  of 
the  Sa6ne  (Beaujolais,  Maconnais). 

6.  The  Champagne. 

7.  The  Charente  region,  the  grapes  of  which  furnish  brandy,  as  do 
those  of  Armagnac  (department  of  Gers). 

The  decennial  averages  for  the  years  1896-1905  were  as  follows: 
Acreage  of  productive  vines  .        .  4,056,725 

Total  production  in  gallons  .        .    1,072,622,000 

Average  production  in  gallons  per  acre  .  .  260 
Fruit. — Fruit-growing  is  general  all  over  France,  which,  apart 
from  bananas  and  pine-apples,  produces  in  the  open  air  all  the 
ordinary  species  of  fruit  which  its  inhabitants  consume.  Some  of 
these  may  be  specially  mentioned.  The  cider  apple,  which  ranks 
first  in  importance,  is  produced  in  those  districts  where  cider  is  the 
habitual  drink,  that  is  to  say, 
chiefly  in  the  region  north-west  of 
a  line  drawn  from  Paris  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Loire.  The  average 
annual  production  of  cider  dur- 
ing the  years  1896  to  1905  was 
304,884,000  gallons.  Dessert  apples 
and  pears  are  grown  there  and  in 
the  country  on  both  banks  of  the 
lower  Loire,  the  valley  of  which 
abounds  in  orchards  wherein  many 
varieties  of  fruit  flourish  and  in  nursery-gardens.  The  hilly  regions 
of  Limousin,  Perigord  and  the  Cevennes  are  the  home  of  the  chestnut, 
which  in  some  places  is  still  a  staple  food ;  walnuts  grow  on  the  lower 
levels  of  the  central  plateau  and  in  lower  Dauphin*;  and  Provence, 
figs  and  almonds  in  Provence,  oranges  and  citrons  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast,  apricots  in  central  France,  the  olive  in  Provence  and 
the  lower  valleys  of  the  Rh&neand  Durance.  Truffles  are  found  under 


along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  Silk-worm  rearing,  which  is 
encouraged  by  state  grants,  is  carried  on  in  the  valleys  mentioned 
and  on  the  Mediterranean  coast  east  of  Marseilles.  The  numbers  of 
growers  decreased  from  139,000  in  1891  to  124,000  in  1905.  The 
decrease  in  the  annual  average  production  of  cocoons  is  shown  in  the 
preceding  table. 

Snails  are  reared  in  some  parts  of  the  country  as  an  article  of 
food,  those  of  Burgundy  being  specially  esteemed. 

Stock-raising. — From  this  point  of  view  the  soil  of  France  may  be 
divided  into  four  categories: 

1.  The  rich  pastoral  regions  where  dairy-farming  and  the  fattening 
of  cattle  are  carried  on  with  most  success,  viz.  (a)  Normandy,  Perche, 
Cotentin  and  maritime  Flanders,  where  horses  are  bred  in  great 
numbers;   (b)  the  strip  of  coast  between  the  Gironde  and  the  mouth 
of  the  Loire;      (c)  the  Morvan  including  the  Nivernais  and  the 
Charolais,  from  which  the  famous  Charolais  breed  of  oxen  takes  its 
name;     (d)  the  central  region  of  the  central  plateau  including  the 
districts  of  Cantal  and  Aubrac,  the  home  of  the  famous  beef-breeds 
of  Salers  and  Aubrac.2     The  famous  pre-sale  sheep  are  also  reared 
in  the  Vendee  and  Cotentin. 

2.  The  poorer  grazing  lands  on  the  upper  levels  of  the  Alps, 
Pyrenees,  Jura  and  Vosges,  the  Landes,  the  more  outlying  regions 
of  the  central  plateau,  southern  Brittany ,  Sologne,  Berry ,  Champagne- 
Pouilleuse,  the  Crau  and  the  Camargue,  these  districts  being  given 
over  for  the  most  part  to  sheep-raising. 

3.  The  plain  of  Toulouse,  which  with  the  rest  of  south-western 
France  produces  good  draught  oxen,  the  Parisian  basin,  the  plains 
of  the  north  to  the  east  of  the  maritime  region,  the  lower  valley  of 
the  Rh6ne  and  the  Bresse,  where  there  is  little  or  no  natural  pastur- 
age, and  forage  is  grown  from  seed. 

4.  West,   west-central  and  eastern  France  outside  these  areas, 
where  meadows  are  predominant  and  both  dairying  and  fattening 
are  general.     Included  therein  are  the  dairying  and  horse-raising 
district  of  northern  Brittany  and  the  dairying  regions  of  Jura  and 
Savoy. 

In  the  industrial  regions  of  northern  France  cattle  are  stall-fed 
with  the  waste  products  of  the  beet-sugar  factories,  oil-works  and 
distilleries.  Swine,  bred  all  over  France,  are  more  numerous  in 
Brittany,  Anjou  (whence  comes  the  well-known  breed  of  Craon), 
Poitou,  Burgundy,  the  west  and  north  of  the  central  plateau  and 
Beam.  Upper  Poitou  and  the  zone  of  south-western  France  to  the 
north  of  the  Pyrenees  are  the  chief  regions  for  the  breeding  of  mules. 
Asses  are  reared  in  Beam,  Corsica,  Upper  Poitou,  the  Limousin, 
Berry  and  other  central  regions.  Goats  are  kept  in  the  mountainous 
regions  (Auvergne,  Provence,  Corsica).  The  best  poultry  come 
from  the  Bresse,  the  district  of  Houdan  (Seine-et-Oise) ,  the  district 
of  Le  Mans  and  Crevecceur  (Calvados). 

The  pres  naturels  (meadows)  and  herbages  (unmown  pastures)  of 
France,  i.e.  the  grass-land  of  superior  quality  as  distinguished  from 
paturages  el  pacages,  which  signifies  pasture  of  poorer  quality,  in- 
creased in  area  between  1895  and  1905  as  is  shown  below: 

1895  (Acres).          1905  (Acres). 
Pres  naturels     .     .   10,852,000  11,715,000 

Herbages     .      .      .     2,822,000  3,022,000 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  live  stock  in  the  country 
at  intervals  of  ten  years  since  1885. 


Cattle. 

Sheep  and 
Lambs. 

Pigs. 

Horses. 

Mules. 

Asses. 

Cows. 

Other 
Kinds. 

Total. 

1885 
1895 
1905 

6,414,487 

6,359,795 
7,515,564 

6,690,483 
6,874,033 
6,799,988 

13,104,970 
13,233,828 
14-315,552 

22,616,547 
21,163,767 
17,783,209 

5,881,088 
6,306,019 
7,558,779 

2,911,392 
2,812,447 
3,169,224 

238,620 

2ii,479 
198,865 

387,227 
357,778 
365,181 

Silk  Cocoons. 

1891-1895. 

1896-1900. 

1901-1905. 

Annual  average  pro-") 
duction  over  quin-  1 
quennial  periods  [ 
in  Ib.  J 

19,587,000 

17,696,000 

16,566,000 

the  oaks  of  PeVigord,  Comtat-Venaissin  and  lower  Dauphin^.  The 
mulberry  grows  in  the  valleys  of  the  Rh6ne  and  its  tributaries,  the 
Isere,  the  Dr6me,  the  Ardeche,  the  Card  and  the  Durance,  and  also 


1  Fibre  only.  In  the  years  1896-1905,  8130  tons  of  hemp-seed 
and  12,137  tons  of  flax-seed  was  the  average  annual  production  in 
addition  to  fibre. 


Agricultural  Organization. — In  France  the  interests  of  agriculture 
are  entrusted  to  a  special  ministry,  comprising  the  following  divi- 
sions: (l)  forests,  (2)  breeding-studs  (haras) ;  (3)  agriculture,  a 
department  which  supervises  agricultural  instruction  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  grants  and  premiums;  (4)  agricultural  improvements, 
draining,  irrigation,  &c. ;  (5)  an  intelligence  department  which 
prepares  statistics,  issues  information  as  to  prices  and  markets,  &c. 
The  minister  is  assisted  by  a  superior  council  of  agriculture,  the 
members  of  which,  numbering  a  hundred,  include  senators,  deputies 
and  prominent  agriculturists.  The  ministry  employs  inspectors, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  visit  the  different  parts  of  the  country  and  to 
report  on  their  respective  position  and  wants.  The  reports  which 
they  furnish  help  to  determine  the  distribution  of  the  moneys 
dispensed  by  the  state  in  the  form  of  subventions  to  agricultural 

1  The  chief  breeds  of  horses  are  the  Boulonnais  (heavy  draught), 
the  Percheron  (light  and  heavy  draught),  the  Anglo-Norman  (light 
draught  and  heavy  cavalry  )and  the  Tarbais  of  the  western  Pyrenees 
(saddle  horses  and  light  cavalry).  Of  cattle  besides  the  breeds  named 
the  Norman  (beef  and  milk),  the  Limousin  (beef),  the  Montbeliard, 
the  Bazadais,  the  Flamand,  the  Breton  and  the  Parthenais  breeds 
may  be  mentioned. 


INDUSTRIES] 


FRANCE 


783 


societies  and  in  many  other  ways.  The  chief  type  of  agricultural 
society  is  the  cornice  agricole,  an  association  for  the  discussion  of 
agricultural  problems  and  the  organization  of  provincial  shows. 
There  are  besides  several  thousands  of  local  syndicates,  engaged  in 
the  purchase  of  materials  and  sale  of  produce  on  the  most  advan- 
tageous terms  for  their  members,  credit  banks  and  mutual  insurance 
societies  (see  CO-OPERATION).  Three  societies  demand  special 
mention:  the  Union  centrale  des  agriculteurs  de  France,  to  which 
the  above  syndicates  are  affiliated;  the  Societe  nationale d 'agricul- 
ture, whose  mission  is  to  further  agricultural  progress  and  to  supply 
the  government  with  information  on  everything  appertaining 
thereto  and  the  Societe  des  agriculteurs  de  France. 

Among  a  variety  of  premiums  awarded  by  the  state  are  those  for 
the  best  cultivated  estates  and  for  irrigation  works,  and  to  the 
owners  of  the  best  stallions  and  brood-mares.  Haras  or  stallion 
stables  containing  in  all  over  3000  horses  are  established  in  twenty- 
two  central  towns,  and  annually  send  stallions,  which  are  at  the 
disposal  of  private  individuals  in  return  for  a  small  fee,  to  various 
stations  throughout  the  country.  Other  institutions  belonging  to 
the  state  are  the  national  sheep-fold  of  Rambouillet  (Seine-et-Oise) 
and  the  cow-house  of  Vieux-Pin  (Orne)  for  the  breeding  of  Durham 
cows.  Four  different  grades  of  institution  for  agricultural  instruction 
are  under  state  direction:  (l)  farm-schools  and  schools  of  apprentice- 
ship in  dairying,  &c.,  to  which  the  age  of  admission  is  from  14  to 
16  years;  (2)  practical  schools,  to  which  boys  of  from  13  to  18 
years  of  age  are  admitted.  These  number  forty-eight,  and  are 
intended  for  sons  of  farmers  of  good  position ;  (3)  national  schools, 
which  are  established  at  Grignon  (Seine-et-Oise),  Rennes  and 
Montpellier,  candidates  for  which  must  be  17  years  of  age;  (4)  the 
National  Agronomic  Institute  at  Paris,  which  is  intended  for  the  train- 
ing of  estate  agents,  professors,  &c.  There  are  also  depart- 
mental chairs  of  agriculture,  the  holders  of  which  give  instruc- 
tion in  training-colleges  and  elsewhere  and  advise  farmers. 

Forests. — In  relation  to  its  total  extent,  France  presents 
but  a  very  limited  area  of  forest  land,  amounting  to  only 
36,700  sq.  m.  or  about  18%  of  the  entire  surface  of  the 
country.  Included  under  the  denomination  of  "  forest  " 
are  lands — surfaces  boisees — which  are  bush  rather  than 
forest.  The  most  wooded  parts  of  France  are  the  mountains 
and  plateaus  of  the  east  and  of  the  north-east,  comprising 
the  pine-forests  of  the  Vosges  and  Jura  (including  the  beau- 
tiful Forest  of  Chaux),  the  Forest  of  Haye,  the  Forest  of 
Ardennes,  the  Forest  of  Argonne,  &c. ;  the  Landes,  where 
replanting  with  maritime  pines  has  transformed  large  areas 
of  marsh  into  forest;  and  the  departments  of  Var  and 
Ariege.  The  Central  Mountains  and  the  Morvan  also  have 
considerable  belts  of  wood.  In  the  Parisian  region  there 
are  the  Forests  of  Fontainebleau  (66  sq.  m.),  of  Compiegne 
(56  sq.  m.),  of  Rambouillet,  of  Villers-Cotterets,  &c.  The 
Forest  of  Orleans,  the  largest  in  France,  covers  about  145  sq.  m. 
The  Alps  and  Pyrenees  are  in  large  part  deforested,  but  reafforesta- 
tion with  a  view  to  minimizing  the  effects  of  avalanches  and  sudden 
floods  is  continually  in  progress. 

Of  the  forests  of  the  country  approximately  one-third  belongs  to 
the  state,  communes  and  public  institutions.  The  rest  belongs  to 
private  owners  who  are,  however,  subject  to  certain  restrictions. 
The  Department  of  Waters1  and 
Forests  (Administration  des  Eaux  et 
Forfits)  forms  a  branch  of  the  min- 
istry of  agriculture.  It  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  director-general,  who  has 
his  headquarters  at  Paris,  assisted  by 
three  administrators  who  are  charged 
with  the  working  of  the  forests, 
questions  of  rights  and  law,  finance 
and  plantation  works.  The  estab- 
lishment consists  of  32  cpnservators, 
each  at  the  head  of  a  district  com- 
prising one  or  more  departments,  200 
inspectors,  215  sub-inspectors  and 
about  300  gardes  generaux.  These 
officials  form  the  higher  grade  of  the 
service  (agents}.  There  are  besides 
several  thousand  forest-rangers  and 
other  employes  (preposes).  The  de- 
partment is  supplied  with  officials  of 
the  higher  class  from  the  National 
School  of  Waters  and  Forests  at 
Nancy,  founded  in  1824. 


whether  run  by  steam,  water-power  or  other  motive  forces, 
has  played  a  great  part  in  the  promotion  of  industry;  the  increase 
in  the  amount  of  steam  horse-power  employed  in  industrial 
establishments  is,  to  a  certain  degree,  an  index  to  the  activity 
of  the  country  as  regards  manufactures. 

The  appended  table  shows  the  progress  made  since  1850  with 
regard  to  steam  power.  Railway  and  marine  locomotives  are 
not  included. 


Years. 

No.  of 
Establishments. 

No.  of 
Steam-Engines. 

Total 
Horse-  Power. 

1852 
1861 
1871 
1881 
1891 
1901 
1905 

6,543 
14,153 
22,192 

35,712 
46,828 

58,151 
61,112 

6,080 
15,805 
26,146 
44,010 

58,967 
75,866 
79,203 

76,000 
191,000 
316,000 
576,000 
916,000 
1,907,730 
2,232,263 

With  the  exception  of  Loire,  Bouches-du-Rhone  and  Rhone, 
the  chief  industrial  departments  of  France  are  to  be  found  in  the 
north  and  north-east  of  the  country.  In  1901  and  1896  those  in 
which  the  working  inhabitants  of  both  sexes  were  engaged  in 
industry  as  opposed  to  agriculture  to  the  extent  of  50%  (approxi- 
mately) or  over,  numbered  eleven,  viz.: — 


Percentage  engaged 

Total  Working 

Industrial 

in  Industry. 

Departments. 

Population 

Population 

(1901). 

(1901). 

1901. 

1896. 

Nord  .... 

848,306 

544,177 

64-15 

63-45 

Territoire  de  Belfort 

40,703 

24,470 

60-  10 

58-77 

Loire  .        .       .  |    . 

292,808 

167,693 

57-27 

54-73 

Seine  .... 

2,071,344 

1,143,809 

55-22 

53-54 

Bouches-du-Rh6ne   . 

341,823 

187,801 

54-94 

51-00 

Rh6ne 

449,121 

243,571 

54-23 

54-78 

Meurthe-et-Moselle 

215,501 

115,214 

53-46 

50-19 

Ardennes    . 

139,270 

73-250 

52-60 

52-42 

Vosges 

208,142 

107,547 

51-67 

51-05 

Pas-de-Calais    . 

404,153 

200,402 

49-58 

46-55 

Seine-Inferieure 

428,591 

206,612 

48-21 

49-85 

The  department  of  Seine,  comprising  Paris  and  its  suburbs, 
which  has  the  largest  manufacturing  population,  is  largely 
occupied  with  the  manufacture  of  dress,  millinery  and  articles 
of  luxury  (perfumery,  &c.),  but  it  plays  the  leading  part  in 
almost  every  great  branch  of  industry  with  the  exception  of 


Industries. 

In  France,  as  in  other  countries, 
the  development  of  machinery, 

1  The  department  is  also  entrusted 
with  surveillance  over  river-fishing, 
pisciculture  and  the  amelioration  of 
pasture. 


Groups. 

Basins. 

Departments. 

Average  Production 
(Thousands  of 
Metric  Tons) 
1901-1905. 

Nord  and  Pas-de-     ( 
Calais       .      .      .     j 

Valenciennes 
Le  Boulonnais 

Nord,  Pas-de-Calais 
Pas-de-Calais 

\             20,965 

Loire      ....-< 

St  Etienne  and  Rive-de-Gier 
Communay 
Ste  Foy  1'Argentiere 
Roannais 

Loire 
Isere 
Rhone 
Loire 

3,6oi 

Card      ....    1 

Alais 
Aubenas 
Le  Vigan 

Gard,  Ardeche 
Ardeche 
Gard 

f             1,954 

Bourgogne    and  I 
Nivernais    .        .    j 

Decize 
La  Chapelle-sous-Dun 
Bert 
Sincey  ' 

Nievre 
Sa&ne-et-Loire 
Allier 
Cote-d'Or 

1,881 

Tarn  and  Aveyron    -I 

Aubin 
Carmaux  and  Albi 
Rodez 
St  Perdoux 

Aveyron 
Tarn 
Aveyron 
Lot 

1,770 

Bourbonnais  .        .  •! 

Commentry  and  Doyet 
St  Eloi 
L'Aumance 
La  Queune 

Allier 
Puy-de-D&me 
Allier 
Allier 

994 

784 


FRANCE 


[INDUSTRIES 


spinning  and  weaving.  The  typically  industrial  region  of  France 
is  the  department  of  Nord,  the  seat  of  the  woollen  industry, 
but  also  prominently  concerned  in  other  textile  industries, 
in  metal  working,  and  in  a  variety  of  other  manufactures,  fuel 
for  which  is  supplied  by  its  coal-fields.  The  following  sketch 
of  the  manufacturing  industry  of  France  takes  account  chiefly 
of  those  of  its  branches  which  are  capable  in  some  degree  of 
localization.  Many  of  the  great  industries  of  the  country,  e.g. 
tanning,  brick-making,  the  manufacture  of  garments,  &c.,  are 
evenly  distributed  throughout  it,  and  are  to  be  found  in  or  near 
all  larger  centres  of  population. 

Coal. — The  principal  mines  of  France  are  coal  and  iron  mines. 
The  production  of  coal  and  lignite  averaging  33,465,000  metric  tons  ' 
in  the  years  1901-1905  represents  about  73%  of  the  total  consump- 
tion of  the  country;  the  surplus  is  supplied  from  Great  Britain, 
Belgium  and  Germany.  The  preceding  table  shows  the  average  out- 
put of  the  chief  coal-groups  for  the  years  1901-1905  inclusive.  The 
Flemish  coal-basin,  employing  over  100,000  hands,  produces  60% 
of  the  coal  mined  in  France. 

French  lignite  comes  for  the  most  part  from  the  department  of 
Bouches-du-Rh6ne  (near  Fuveau). 

The  development  of  French  coal  and  lignite  mining  in  the  igth 
century,  together  with  records  of  prices,  which  rose  considerably  at 
the  end  of  the  period,  is  set  forth  in  the  table  below: 


Years. 

Average  Yearly 
Production 
(Thousands  of 
Metric  Tons). 

Average  Price 
per  Ton  at 
Pit  Mouth 
(Francs). 

1821-1830 
1831-1840 
1841-1850 
1851-1860 
1861-1870 
1871-1880 
1881-1890 
1891-1900 
1901-1905 

1-495 
2-571 
4,078-5 
6,857 
11,831 

16,774 
2i,542 
29,190 

33,465 

10-23 

9-83 
9-69 

n-45 
11-61 

14-34 
11-55 
11-96 
14-18 

Iron. — The  iron-mines  of  France  are  more  numerous  than  its  coal- 
mines, but  they  do  not  yield  a  sufficient  quantity  of  ore  for  the 
needs  of  the  metallurgical  industries  of  the  country ;  as  will  be  seen 
in  the  table  below  the  production  of  iron  in  France  gradually  in- 
creased during  the  1 9th  century;  on  the  other  hand,  a  decline  in 
prices  operated  against  a  correspondingly  marked  increase  in  its 
annual  value. 


Years. 

Average  Annual 
Production 
(Thousands  of 
Metric  Tons). 

Price  per 
Metric  Ton 
(Francs). 

1841-1850 
1851-1860 
1861-1870 
1871-1880 
1881-1890 
1891-1900 
1901-1905 

1247 
24I4-5 
3035 
25H 
2934 
4206 
6072 

6-76 

5-51 
4-87 

5-39 
3-99 
3-37 
3-72 

The  department  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle  (basins  of  Nancy  and 
Longwy-Briey)  furnished  84  %  of  the  total  output  during  the  quin- 
quennial period  1901-1905,  may  be  reckoned  as  one  of  the  principal 
iron-producing  regions  of  the  world.  The  other  chief  producers 
were  Pyrenees-Orientales,  Calvados,  Haute-Marne  (Vassy)  and  Sa6ne- 
et-Loire  (Mazenay  and  Change). 

Other  Ores. — The  mining  of  zinc,  the  chief  deposits  of  which  are  at 
Malines  (Card),  Les  Bormettes  (Var)  and  Planioles  (Lot),  and  of 
lead,  produced  especially  at  Chaliac  (Ardeche),  ranks  next  in  im- 
portance to  that  of  iron.  Iron-pyrites  come  almost  entirely  from 


Sain- Bel  (Rh6ne),  manganese  chiefly  from  Ariege  and  Sa6ne-et- 
Loire,  antimony  from  the  departments  of  Mayenne,  Haute-Loire 
and  Cantal.  Copper  and  mispickel  are  mined  only  in  small  quantities. 
The  table  below  gives  the  average  production  of  zinc,  argentiferous 
lead,  iron-pyrites  and  other  ores  during  the  quinquennial  period 
1901-1905. 


Production 
(Thousands  of 
Metric  Tons). 

Value  £ 

Zinc 
Lead    .      .      . 
Iron-pyrites    . 
Other  ores 

60-3 
18-5 
297-2 
36-0 

206,912 
100,424 
170,312 
68,376 

Salt,  &c. — Rock-salt  is  worked  chiefly  in  the  department  of 
Meurthe-et-Moselle,which  produces  more  than  half  the  average  annual 
product  of  salt.  For  the  years  1896-1905  this  was  1,010,000  tons, 
including  both  rock-  and  sea-salt.  The  salt-marshes  of  the  Medi- 
terranean coast,  especially  the  Etang  de  Berre  and  those  of  Loire- 
Inferieure,  are  the  principal  sources  of  sea-salt.  Sulphur  is  obtained 
near  Apt  (Vaucluse)  and  in  a  few  other  localities  of  south-eastern 
France;  bituminous  schist  near  Autun  (Sa6ne-et-Loire)  and 
Buxieres  (Allier).  The  most  extensive  peat-workings  are  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Somme ;  asphalt  comes  from  Seyssel  (Ain)  and  Puy- 
de-D6me. 

The  mineral  springs  of  France  are  numerous,  of  varied  character 
and  much  frequented.  Leading  resorts  are:  in  the  Pyrenean 
region,  Amelie-les-Bains,  Bagneres-de-Luchon,  Bagneres-de-Bigorre, 
Bareges,  Cauterets,  Eaux-Bonnes,  Eaux-Chaudes  and  Dax;  in 
the  Central  Plateau,  Mont-Dore,  La  Bourboule,  Bourbon  1'Archam- 
bault,  Vichy,  Royat,  Chaudes-Aigues,  Vals,  Lamalon;  in  the  Alps, 
Aix-les- Bains  and  Evian ;  in  the  Vosges  and  Faucilles,  P'ombieres, 
Luxeuil,  Contrexeville,  Vittel,  Martigny  and  Bourbonne-les-Bains. 
Outside  these  main  groups  St  Amand-les-Eaux  and  Foyes-les-Eaux 
may  be  mentioned. 

Quarry- Products. — Quarries  of  various  descriptions  are  numerous 
all  over  France.  Slate  is  obtained  in  large  quantities  from  the 
departments  of  Maine-et-Loire  (Angers),  Ardennes  (Fumay)  and 
Mayenne  (Renaze).  Stone-quarrying  is  specially  active  in  the 
departments  round  Paris, Seine-et-Oise  employing  more  personsinthis 
occupation  than  any  other  department.  The  environs  of  Creil  (Oise) 
and  Chateau-Landon  (Seine-et-Marne)  are  noted  for  their  freestone 
(pierre  de  tattle),  which  is  also  abundant  at  Euville  and  Lerouville 
in  Meuse ;  the  production  of  plaster  is  particularly  important  in  the 
environs  of  Pans,  of  kaolin  of  fine  quality  at  Yrieix  (Haute- Vienne), 
of  hydraulic  lime  in  Ardeche  (Le  Teil),  of  lime  phosphates  in  the 
department  of  Somme,  of  marble  in  the  departments  of  Haute- 
Garonne  (St  Beat),  Hautes- Pyrenees  (Campan,  Sarrancolin),  Isere 
and  Pas-de-Calais,  and  of  cement  in  Pas-de-Calais  (vicinity  of 
Boulogne)  and  Isere  (Grenoble).  Paying-stone  is  supplied  in  large 
quantities  by  Seine-et-Oise,  and  brick-clay  is  worked  chiefly  in 
Nord,  Seine  and  Pas-de-Calais.  The  products  of  the  quarries  of 
France  for  the  five  years  1901-1905  averaged  £9,311,000  per  annum 
in  value,  of  which  building  material  brought  in  over  two-thirds. 

Metallurgy. — The  average  production  and  value  of  iron  and  steel 
manufactured  in  France  in  the  last  four  decades  of  the  igth  century 
is  shown  below: 


Years. 

Cast  Iron. 

Wrought  Iron  and  Steel. 

Product 
(Thousands 
of  Metric 
Tons). 

Value 
(Thousands 
of£). 

Product 
(Thousands 
of  Metric 
Tons). 

Value 
(Thousands 
of£). 

1861-1870 
1871-1880 
1881-1890 
1891-1900 
1903 

II9I-5 

1391 
1796 
2267 
2841 

5012 
5783 
5"9 
5762 

7334 

844 
I058-5 
1376 
1686 
1896 

8,654 
11,776 
11,488 
14,540 
15,389 

Taking  the  number  of  hands  engaged  in  the  industry  as  a  basis  of 
comparison,  the  most  important  departments  as  regards  iron  and 
steel  working  in  1901  were : 


Hands   engaged  in 

Department. 

Chief  Centres. 

Hands  engaged  in 
Production  of 

Production  of 
Engineering 

Pig-iron  and  Steel. 

Manufactured 

Goods. 

Seine 

600 

102,500 

Nord          
Loire          
Meurthe-et-Moselle 
Ardennes           

Lille,  Anzin,  Denain,  Douai,  Hautmont,  Maubeuge 
Rive-de-Gier,  Firminy,  St  Etienne,  St  Chamond 
Pont-a-Mousson,  Frouard,  Longwy,  Nancy 
Charleville,  Nouzon 

14,000 
9,5oo 
16,500 
800 

45,000 
17,500 
6,500 
23,000 

1  The  metric  ton  =  1000  kilogrammes  or  2204  Ib. 


INDUSTRIES] 


FRANCE 


785 


Rh6ne  (Lyons),  Sa&ne-et-Loire  (Le  Creusot,  Chalon-sur-Sa6ne) 
and  Loire-Inferieure  (Basse-Indre,  Indret,  Coueron,  Trignac)  also 
play  a  considerable  part  in  this  industry. 

The  chief  centres  for  the  manufacture  of  cutlery  are  Chattelerault 
(Vienne),  Langres  (Haute-Marne)  and  Thiers  (Puy-de-D6me) ; 
for  that  of  arms  St  Etienne,  Tulle  and  Chattelerault;  for  that  of 
watches  and  clocks,  Besancon  (Doubs)  and  Montbeliard  (Doubs) ; 
for  that  of  optical  and  mathematical  instruments  Paris,  Morez 
(Jura)  and  St  Claude  (Jura) ;  for  that  of  locksmiths'  ware  the  region 
of  Vimeu  (Pas-de-Calais). 

There  are  important  zinc  works  at  Auby  and  St  Amand  (Nord) 
and  Viviez  (Aveyron)  and  Noyelles-Godault  (Pas-de-Calais) ;  there 
are  lead  works  at  the  latter  place,  and  others  of  greater  importance 
at  Coueron  (Loire-Inferieure).  Copper  is  smelted  in  Ardennes  and 
Pas-de-Calais.  The  production  of  these  metals,  which  are  by  far 
the  most  important  after  iron  and  steel,  increased  steadily  during 
the  period  1890-1905,  and  reached  its  highest  point  in  1905,  details 
for  which  year  are  given  below : 


Zinc. 

Lead. 

Copper. 

Production  (in  metric  tons) 
Value      

43,200 
£1,083,000 

24,100 
£386,000 

7,600 
£526,000 

Wool. — In  1901,  161,000  persons  were  engaged  in  the  spinning 
and  other  preparatory  processes  and  in  the  weaving  of  wool.  The 
woollen  industry  is  carried  on  most  extensively  in  the  department  of 
Nord  (Roubaix,  Tourcoing,  Fourmies).  Of  second  rank  are  Reims 
and  Sedan  in  the  Champagne  group;  Elbeuf,  Louviers  and  Rouen 
in  Normandy;  and  Mazamet  (Tarn). 

Cotton. — In  IQOI,  166,000  persons  were  employed  in  the  spinning 
and  weaving  of  cotton,  French  cotton  goods  being  distinguished 
chiefly  for  the  originality  of  their  design.  The  cotton  industry  is 
distributed  in  three  principal  groups.  The  longest  established  is  that 
of  Normandy,  having  its  centres  at  Rouen,  Havre,  Evreux,  Falaise 
and  Flers.  Another  group  in  the  north  of  France  has  its  centres  at 
Lille,  Tourcoing,  Roubaix,  St  Quentin  and  Amiens.  That  of  the 
Vosges,  which  has  experienced  a  great  extension  since  the  loss  of 
Alsace-Lorraine,  comprises  Epinal,  St  Die,  Remiremont  and  Belfort. 
Other  groups  of  less  importance  are  situated  in  the  Lyonnais  (Roanne 
and  Tarare)  and  Mayenne  (Laval  and  Mayenne). 

Silk. — The  silk  industry  occupied  134,000  hands  in  1901.  The 
silk  fabrics  of  France  hold  the  first  place,  particularly  the  more 
expensive  kinds.  The  industry  is  concentrated  in  the  departments 
bordering  the  river  Rhdne,  the  chief  centres  being  Lyons  (Rh&ne), 
Voiron  (Isere),  St  Etienne  and  St  Chamond  (Loire)  (the  two  latter 
being  especially  noted  for  their  ribbons  and  trimmings)  and  Annonay 
(Ardeche)  and  other  places  in  the  departments  of  Ain,  Gard  and 
Dr6me. 

Flax,  Hemp,  Jute,  &c. — The  preparation  and  spinning  of  these 
materials  and  the  manufacture  of  nets  and  rope,  together  with  the 
weaving  of  linen  and  other  fabrics,  give  occupation  to  112,000 
persons  chiefly  in  the  departments  of  Nord  (Lille,  Armentieres, 
Dunkirk),  Somme  (Amiens)  and  Maine-et-Loire  (Angers,  Cholet). 

Hosiery,  the  manufacture  of  which  employs  55,000  hands,  has  its 
chief  centre  in  Aube  (Troyes).  The  production  of  lace  and  guipure, 
occupying  112,000  persons,  is  carried  on  mainly  in  the  towns  and 
villages  of  Haute-Loire  and  in  Vosges  (Mirecourt),  Rh6ne  (Lyons), 
Pas-de-Calais  (Calais)  and  Paris. 

Leather. — Tanning  and  leather-dressing  are  widely  spread  in- 
dustries, and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  manufacture  of  boots  and 
shoes,  though  these  trades  employ  more  hands  in  the  department 
of  Seine  than  elsewhere;  in  the  manufacture  of  gloves  Isere  (Gren- 
oble) and  Aveyron  (Millau)  hold  the  first  place  amongst  French 
departments. 

Sugar. — The  manufacture  of  sugar  is  carried  on  in  the  depart- 
ments of  the  north,  in  which  the  cultivation  of  beetroot  is  general — 
Aisne,  Nord,  Somme,  Pas-de-Calais,  Oise  and  Seine-et-Marne,  the 
three  first  being  by  far  the  largest  producers.  The  increase  in 
production  in  the  last  twenty  years  of  the  igth  century  is  indicated 
in  the  following  table : — 


Years. 

Annual  Average  of 
Men  employed. 

Average  Annual 
Production  in 
Metric  Tons. 

1881-1891 
1891-1901 
1901-1906 

43,108 
42,841 
43,o6i 

415,786 
696,038 
820,553 

Alcohol. — The  distillation  of  alcohol  is  in  the  hands  of  three  classes 
of  persons,  (i)  Professional  distillers  (bouilleurs  et  distillateurs  de 
profession);  (2)  private  distillers  (bouilleurs  de  cru)  under  state 
control;  (3)  small  private  distillers,  not  under  state  control,  but 
giving  notice  to  the  state  that  they  distil.  The  two  last  classes 
number  over  400,000  (1903),  but  the  quantity  of  alcohol  distilled 
by  them  is  small.  Beetroot,  molasses  and  grain  are  the  chief 
sources  of  spirit.  The  department  of  Nord  produces  by  far  the 
greatest  quantity,  its  average  annual  output  in  the  decade  1895-1904 


being  13,117,000  gallons,  or  about  26%  of  the  average  annual 
production  of  France  during  the  same  period  (49,945,000  gallons). 
Aisne,  Pas-de-Calais  and  Somme  rank  next  to  Nord. 

Glass  is  manufactured  in  the  departments  of  Nord  (Aniche,  &c.), 
Seine,  Loire  (Rive-de-Gier)  and  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  Baccarat  in 
the  latter  department  being  famous  for  its  table-glass.  Limoges  is 
the  chief  centre  for  the  manufacture  of  porcelain,  and  the  artistic 
products  of  the  national  porcelain  factory  of  Sevres  have  a  world- 
wide reputation. 

The  manufacture  of  paper  and  cardboard  is  largely  carried  on 
in  Isere  (Voiron),  Seine-et-Oise  (Essonnes),  Vosges  (Epinal)  and  of 
the  finer  sorts  of  paper  in  Charente  (AngoulSme).  That  of  oil, 
candles  and  soap  has  its  chief  centre  at  Marseilles.  Brewing  and 
malting  are  localized  chiefly  in  Nord.  There  are  well-known  chemical 
works  at  Dombasle  (close  to  Nancy)  and  Chauny  (Aisne)  and  in 
Rh6ne. 

Occupations. — The  following  table,  which  shows  the  approximate 
numbers  of  persons  engaged  in  the  various  manufacturing  industries 
of  France,  who  number  in  all  about  5,820,000,  indicates  their  relative 
importance  from  the  point  of  view  of  employment: 


Occupation. 

1901. 

1866. 

Baking        
Milling       
Charcuterie         
Other  alimentary  industries   . 

163,500 
99,400 
39,600 
161,500 

Alimentary  industries:  total 

464,000 

308,000 

Gas-works         
Tobacco  factories     
Oil-  works   
Other  "  chemical  "  l  industries 

26,000 

16,000 
10,000 
58,000 

Chemical  industries:  total    . 

110,000 

49,000 

Rubber  factories       
Paper  factories          .        .      •  .    '    . 

9,000 
61,000 

|      25,000 

Typographic  and  lithographic  printing 
Other  branches  of  book  production 

76,000 
23,000 

Book  production:  total 

99,000 

38,000 

Spinning  and  weaving     .... 

892,000 

i  ,072,000 

Clothing,  millinery  and  making  up  of 
fabrics  generally   

1,484,000 

(     761,000 

Basket  work,  straw  goods,  feathers        . 

39,000 

Leather  and  skin      

338,000 

286,000 

Joinery       
Builder's  carpentering     .... 
Wheelwright's  work         .... 
Cooperage          
Wooden  shoes   
Other  wood  industries     .... 

153.000 
94,900 
82,700 
46,600 
52,400 
280,400 

Wood  industries:  total 

710,000 

671,000 

Metallurgy  and  metal  working 

783,000 

345,000 

Goldsmiths'  and  jewellers'  work    . 

35.000 

55,ooo 

Stone-working  ....';. 

56,000 

12,000 

Construction,  building,  decorating 

572,000 

443,000 

Glass  manufacture   
Tiles    
Porcelain  and  faience       .... 
Bricks         .        
Other  kiln  industries        .... 

43,000 
29,000 
27,000 
17,000 
45,000 

•• 

Kiln   industries:   total 

161.000 

110,000 

Some  9000  individuals  were  engaged  in  unclassified  industries. 

Fisheries. — The  fishing  population  of  France  is  most  numerous  in 
the  Breton  departments  of  Finistere,  C6tes-du-Nord  and  Morbihan 
and  in  Pas-de-Calais.  Dunkirk,  Gravelines,  Boulogne  and  Paimpol 
send  considerable  fleets  to  the  Icelandic  cod-fisheries,  and  St  Malo, 
F6camp,  Granville  and  Cancale  to  those  of  Newfoundland.  The 
Dogger  Bank  is  frequented  by  numbers  of  French  fishing-boats. 

1  Includes  manufactories  of  glue,  tallow,  soap,  perfumery,  ferti- 
lizers, soda,  &c. 


786 


FRANCE 


[COMMUNICATIONS 


Besides  the  above,  Boulogne,  the  most  important  fishing  port  in 
the  country,  Calais,  Dieppe,  Concarneau,  Douarnenez,  Les  Sables 
d'Olonne,  La  Rochelle,  Marennes  and  Arcachon  are  leading  ports 
for  the  herring,  sardine,  mackerel  and  other  coast-fisheries  of  the 
ocean,  while  Cette,  Agde  and  other  Mediterranean  ports  are  engaged 
in  the  tunny  and  anchovy  fisheries.  Sardine  preserving  is  an 
important  industry  at  Nantes  and  other  places  on  the  west  coast. 
Oysters  are  reared  chiefly  at  Marennes,  which  is  the  chief  French 
market  for  them,  and  at  Arcachon,  Vannes,  Oleron,  Auray,  Cancale 
and  Courseulles.  The  total  value  of  the  produceof  fisheries  increased 
from  £4,537,000  in  1892  to  £5,259,000  in  1902.  In  1902  the  number 
of  men  employed  in  the  home  fisheries  was  144,000  and  the  number 
of  vessels  25,481  (tonnage  127,000);  in  the  deep-sea  fisheries  10,500 
men  and  450  vessels  (tonnage  51,000)  were  employed. 

Communications. 

Roads. — Admirable  highways  known  as  routes  nationales  and 
kept  up  at  the  expense  of  the  state  radiate  from  Paris  to  the 
great  towns  of  France.  Averaging  525  ft.  in  breadth,  they 
covered  in  1905  a  distance  of  nearly  24,000  m.  The  ficole  des 
Fonts  et  Chaussees  at  Paris  is  maintained  by  the  government 
for  the  training  of  the  engineers  for  the  construction  and  upkeep 
of  roads  and  bridges.  Each  department  controls  and  maintains 
the  routes  departementales,  usually  good  macadamized  roads 
connecting  the  chief  places  within  its  limits  and  extending  in 
1903  over  9700  m.  The  routes  nationales  and  the  routes  departe- 
mentales come  under  the  category  of  la  grande  voirie  and  are 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works.  The 
urban  and  rural  district  roads,  covering  a  much  greater  mileage 
and  classed  as  la  petite  voirie,  are  maintained  chiefly  by  the 
communes  under  the  supervision  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior. 

Waterways.1 — The  waterways  of  France,  7543  m.  in  length, 
of  which  canals  cover  3031  m.,  are  also  classed  under  la  grande 
voirie;  they  are  the  property  of  the  state,  and  for  the  most 
part  are  free  of  tolls.  They  are  divided  into  two  classes.  Those 
of  the  first  class,  which  comprise  rather  less  than  half  the  entire 
system,  have  a  minimum  depth  of  6|  ft.,  with  locks  126  ft.  long 
and  17  ft.  wide;  those  of  the  second  class  are  of  smaller  dimen- 
sions. Water  traffic,  which  is  chiefly  in  heavy  merchandise, 
as  coal,  building  materials,  and  agriculture  and  food  produce, 
more  than  doubled  in  volume  between  1881  and  1905.  The  canal 
and  river  system  attains  its  greatest  utility  in  the  north,  north- 
east and  north-centre  of  the  country;  traffic  is  thickest  along 
the  Seine  below  Paris;  along  the  rivers  and  small  canals  of  the 
rich  departments  of  Nord  and  Pas-de-Calais  and  along  the  Oise 
and  the  canal  of  St  Quentin  whereby  they  communicate  with 
Paris;  along  the  canal  from  the  Marne  to  the  Rhine  and  the 
succession  of  waterways  which  unite  it  with  the  Oise;  along 
the  Canal  de  1'Est  (departments  of  Meuse  and  Ardennes); 
and  along  the  waterways  uniting  Paris  with  the  Sa&ne  at  Chalon 
(Seine,  Canal  du  Loing,  Canal  de  Briare,  Lateral  canal  of  the 
Loire  and  Canal  du  Centre)  and  along  the  Saone  between  Chalon 
and  Lyons. 


In  point  of  length  the  following  aretM  principal  canals: 

Est  (uniting  Meuse  with  Moselle  and  Saone) 

From  Nantes  to  Brest 

Berry  (uniting  Montlucon  with  the  canalized  Cher 

and  the  Loire  canal) 

Midi  (Toulouse  to  Mediterranean  via  Beziers) ;  see 

CANAL  

Burgundy  (uniting  the  Yonne  and  Sa6ne)  . 

Lateral  canal  of  Loire 

From  Marne  to  Rhine  (on  French  territory) 

Lateral  canal  of  Garonne 

Rhone  to  Rhine  (on  French  territory) 

Nivernais  (uniting  Loire  and  Yonne)    .... 

Canal  de  la  Somme 

Centre  (uniting  Sa6ne  and  Loire)          .... 

Canal  de  1'Ourcq 

Ardennes  (uniting  Aisne  and  Canal  de  1'Est)      . 
From  Rh6ne  to  Cette 

Canal  de  la  Haute  Marne 

St  Quentin  (uniting  Scheldt  with  Somme  and  Oise) 


Miles. 

270 

225 

163 

175 
I5i 
137 
131 
133 
119 
in 

97 
81 

67 
62 

77 
60 

58 


*  See  the  Guide  officiel  de  la  navigation  interieure  issued  by  the 
ministry  of  public  works  (Paris,  1903). 


The  chief  navigable  rivers  are : 


Total 
navigated 
Length. 

First  Class 
Navigability. 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Seine  . 

339 

293 

Aisne 

37 

37 

Marne 

114 

114 

Oise    . 

99 

65 

Yonne 

67 

53 

Rh6ne 

309 

30 

Sa6ne 

234 

234 

Adour 

72 

21 

Garonne 

289 

96 

Dordogne 

167 

26 

Loire  . 

452 

35 

Charente 

1  06 

16 

Vilaine 

9i 

31 

Escaut  (in 

Frat 

ce) 

39 

39 

Scarpe 

4i 

41 

Lys 

45 

45 

Aa      . 

18 

18 

Railways. — The  first  important  line  in  France,  from  Paris  to 
Rouen,  was  constructed  through  the  instrumentality  of  Sir 
Edward  Blount  (1800-1905),  an  English  banker  in  Paris,  who 
was  afterwards  for  thirty  years  chairman  of  the  Quest  railway. 
After  the  rejection  in  1838  of  the  government's  proposals  for  the 
construction  of  seven  trunk  lines  to  be  worked  by  the  state,  he 
obtained  a  concession  for  that  piece  of  line  on  the  terms  that 
the  French  treasury  would  advance  one-third  of  the  capital  at 
3  %  if  he  would  raise  the  remaining  two-thirds,  half  in  France 
and  half  in  England.  The  contract  for  building  the  railway  was 
put  in  the  hands  of  Thomas  Brassey ;  English  navvies  were  largely 
employed  on  the  work,  and  a  number  of  English  engine-drivers 
were  employed  when  traffic  was  begun  in  1843.  A  law  passed 
in  1842  laid  the  foundation  of  the  plan  under  which  the  railways 
have  since  been  developed,  and  mapped  out  nine  main  lines, 
running  from  Paris  to  the  frontiers  and  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  Rhine  and  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  Under  it  the  cost  of  the 
necessary  land  was  to  be  found  as  to  one-third  by  the  state  and 
as  to  the  residue  locally,  but  this  arrangement  proved  unworkable 
and  was  abandoned  in  1845,  when  it  was  settled  that  the  state 
should  provide  the  land  and  construct  the  earthworks  and 
stations,  the  various  companies  which  obtained  concessions  being 
left  to  make  the  permanent  way,  provide  rolling  stock  and  work 
the  lines  for  certain  periods.  Construction  proceeded  under  this 
law,  but  not  with  very  satisfactory  results,  and  new  arrange- 
ments had  to  be  made  between  1852  and  1857,  when  the  railways 
were  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  six  great  companies,  the 
Nord,  the  Est,  the  Quest,  the  Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee,  the 
Orleans  and  the  Midi.  Each  of  these  companies  was  allotted  a 
definite  sphere  of  influence,  and  was  granted  a  concession  for 
ninety-nine  years  from  its  date  of  formation,  the  concessions 
thus  terminating  at  various  dates  between  1950  and  1960.  In 
return  for  the  privileges  granted  them  the  companies  undertook 
the  construction  out  of  their  own  unaided  resources  of  1500  m. 
of  subsidiary  lines,  but  the  railway  expenditure  of  the  country  at 
this  period  was  so  large  that  in  a  few  years|they  found  it  impossible 
to  raise  the  capital  they  required.  In  these  circumstances  the 
state  agreed  to  guarantee  the  interest  on  the  capital,  the  sums  it 
paid  in  this  way  being  regarded  as  advances  to  be  reimbursed 
in  the  future  with  interest  at  4  %.  This  measure  proved  success- 
ful and  the  projected  lines  were  completed.  But  demands  for 
more  lines  were  constantly  arising,  and  the  existing  companies, 
in  view  of  their  financial  position,  were  disinclined  to  undertake 
their  construction.  The  government  therefore  found  itself 
obliged  to  inaugurate  a  system  of  direct  subventions,  not  only  to 
the  old  large  companies,  but  also  to  new  small  ones,  to  encourage 
the  development  of  branch  and  local  lines,  and  local  authorities 
were  also  empowered  to  contribute  a  portion  of  the  required 
capital.  The  result  came  to  be  that  many  small  lines  were  begun 
by  companies  that  had  not  the  means  to  complete  them,  and 
again  the  state  had  to  come  to  the  rescue.  In  1878  it  agreed  to 
spend  £26,000,000  in  purchasing  and  completing  a  number  of 


COMMERCE] 


FRANCE 


787 


these  lines,  some  of  which  were  handed  over  to  the  great 
companies,  while  others  were  retained  in  the  hands  of  the  govern- 
ment, forming  the  system  known  as  the  Chemins  de  Fer  de  1'Etat. 
Next  year  a  large  programme  of  railway  expansion  was  adopted, 
at  an  estimated  cost  to  the  state  of  £140,000,000,  and  from  1880 
to  1882  nearly  £40,000,000  was  expended  and  some  1800  m. 
of  line  constructed.  Then  there  was  a  change  in  the  financial 
situation,  and  it  became  difficult  to  find  the  money  required. 
In  these  circumstances  the  conventions  of  1883  were  concluded, 
and  the  great  companies  partially  relieved  the  government  of 
its  obligations  by  agreeing  to  contribute  a  certain  proportion  of 
the  cost  of  the  new  lines  and  to  provide  the  rolling  stock  for 
working  them.  In  former  cases  when  the  railways  had  had 
recourse  to  state  aid,  it  was  the  state  whose  contributions  were 
fixed,  while  the  railways  were  left  to  find  the  residue;  but  on 
this  occasion  the  position  was  reversed.  The  state  further 
guaranteed  a  minimum  rate  of  interest  on  the  capital  invested, 
and  this  guarantee,  which  by  the  convention  of  1859  had  applied 
to  "  new  "  lines  only,  was  now  extended  to  cover  both  "  old  " 
and  "  new  "  lines,  the  receipts  and  expenditure  from  both  kinds 
being  lumped  together.  As  before,  the  sums  paid  out  in  respect 
of  guaranteed  dividend  were  to  be  regarded  as  advances  which 
were  to  be  paid  back  to  the  state  out  of  the  profits  made,  when 
these  permitted,  and  when  the  advances  were  wiped  out,  the 
profits,  after  payment  of  a  certain  dividend,  were  to  be  divided 
between  the  state  and  the  railway,  two-thirds  going  to  the  former 
and  one-third  to  the  latter.  All  the  companies,  except  the  Nord, 
have  at  one  time  or  another  had  to  take  advantage  of  the 
guarantee,  and  the  fact  that  the  Quest  had  been  one  of  the  most 
persistent  and  heavy  borrowers  in  this  respect  was  one  of  the 
reasons  that  induced  the  government  to  take  it  over  as  from  the 
ist  of  January  1909.  By  the  1859  conventions  the  state  railway 
system  obtained  an  entry  into  Paris  by  means  of  running  powers 
over  the  Quest  from  Chartres,  and  its  position  was  furcher  im- 
proved by  the  exchange  of  certain  lines  with  the  Orleans  company. 
The  great  railway  systems  of  France  a  re  as  follows: 

1.  The  Nord,  which  serves  the  rich  mining,  industrial  and  farming 
districts  of  Nord,  Pas-de-Calais,  Aisne  and  Somme,  connecting  with 
the  Belgian  railways  at  several  points.     Its  main  lines  run  from 
Paris -to  Calais,  via  Creil,  Amiens  and  Boulogne  from  Paris  to  Lille, 
via  Creil  and  Arras,  and  from  Paris  to  Maubeuge  via  Creil,  Tergnier 
and  St  Quentin. 

2.  The  Ouest-Etat,  a  combination  of  the  West  and  state  systems. 
The  former  traversed  Normandy  inevery  directionand  connected  Paris 
with  the  towns  of  Brittany.     Its  chief  lines  ran  from  Paris  to  Le  Havre 
via  Mantes  and  Rouen,  to  Dieppe  via  Rouen,  to  Cherbourg,  to  Gran- 
villeand  to  Brest.   The  state  railways  served  a  large  portion  of  western 
France,  their  chief  lines  being  from  Nantes  via  La  Rochelle  to  Bor- 
deaux, and  from  Bordeaux  via  Saintes,  Niort  and  Saumur  to  Chartres. 

3.  The  Est,  running  from  Paris  via  Chalons  and  Nancy  to  Avri- 
court  (for  Strassburg),  via  Troyes  and  Langres  to  Belfort  and  on  via 
Basel  to  the  Saint  Gotthard,  and  via  Reims  and  Mezieres  to  Longwy. 

4.  The  Orleans,  running  from  Paris  to  Orleans,  and  thence  serving 
Bordeaux  via  Tours,  Poitiers  and  Angoulfime,  Nantes  via  Tours  and 
Angers,  and  Montauban  and  Toulouse  via  Vierzon  and  Limoges. 

5.  The  Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee,  connecting  Paris  with  Marseilles 
via  Moret,  Laroche,  Dijon,  Macon  and  Lyons,  and  with  Nimes  via 
Moret,   Nevers  and   Clermont-Ferrand.     It  establishes  communi- 
cation between  France  and  Switzerland  and  Italy  via  Macon  and 
Culoz  (for  the  Mt.  Cenis  Tunnel)  and  via  Dijon  and  Pontarlier  (for 
the  Simplon) ,  and  also  has  a  direct  line  along  the  Mediterranean  coast 
from  Marseilles  to  Genoa  via  Toulon  and  Nice. 

6.  The  Midi   (Southern)   has  lines  radiating  from  Toulouse  to 
Bordeaux  via  Agen,  to  Bayonne  via  Tarbes  and  Pau,  and  to  Cette  via 
Carcassonne,  Narbonne  and  Beziers.     From  Bordeaux  there  is  also  a 
direct  line  to  Bayonne  and  Irun  (for  Madrid),  and  at  the  other  end  of 
the  Pyrenees  a  line  leads  from  Narbonne  to  Perpignan  and  Barcelona. 

The  following  table,  referring  to  lines  "  of  general  interest,"  indi- 
cates the  development  of  railways  after  1885: 


Year. 

Mileage. 

Receipts  in 
Thousands 
of  £. 

Expenses  in 
Thousands 
of  £• 

Passengers 
carried 
(IOOQ'S). 

Goods  carried 
(  1000  Metric 
Tons). 

1885 
1890 

1895 
1900 
1904 

18,650 
2O,8OO 
22,650 
23,818 
24,755 

42,324 
46,145 
50,542 
60,674 
60,589 

23-508 
24.239 
27,363 
32,966 

31,477 

214,451 
241,119 
348,852 
453,193 
433,913 

75.192 
92,506 
100,834 
126,830 
130,144 

Narrow  gauge  aim  uu 
covered  3905  m.  in  1904. 


Commerce. 

After  entering  on  a  regime  of  free  trade  in  1860  France  gradu- 
ally reverted  towards  protection;  this  system  triumphed  in  the 
Customs  Law  of  1892,  which  imposed  more  or  less  considerable 
duties  on  imports — a  law  associated  with  the  name  of  M.  Meline. 
While  raising  the  taxes  both  on  agricultural  products  and  manu- 
factured goods,  this  law  introduced,  between  France  and  all  the 
powers  trading  with  her,  relations  different  from  those  in  the  past. 
It  left  the  government  free  either  to  apply  to  foreign  countries 
the  general  tariff  or  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  them  for  the 
application,  under  certain  conditions,  of  a  minimum  tariff. 
The  policy  of  protection  was  further  accentuated  by  raising  the 
impost  on  corn  from  5  to  7  francs  per  hectolitre  (2j  bushels). 
This  system,  however,  which  is  opposed  by  a  powerful  party, 
has  at  various  times  undergone  modifications.  On  the  one  hand 
it  became  necessary,  in  face  of  an  inadequate  harvest,  to  suspend 
in  1898  the  application  of  the  law  on  the  import  of  corn.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  order  to  check  the  decline  of  exports  and 
neutralize  the  harmful  effects  of  a  prolonged  customs  war,  a 
commercial  treaty  was  in  1896  concluded  with  Switzerland, 
carrying  with  it  a  reduction,  in  respect  of  certain  articles,  of 
the  imposts  which  had  been  fixed  by  the  law  of  1892.  An  accord 
was  likewise  in  1898  effected  with  Italy,  which  since  1886  had 
been  in  a  state  of  economic  rupture  with  France,  and  in  July 
1899  an  accord  was  concluded  with  the  United  States  of  America. 
Almost  all  other  countries,  moreover,  share  in  the  benefit  of  the 
minimum  tariff,  and  profit  by  the  modifications  it  may  suc- 
cessively undergo. 

Being  in  the  main  a  self-supporting  country  France  carries 
on  most  of  her  trade  within  her  own  borders,  and  ranks  below 
Commerce,  in  Millions  of  Pounds  Sterling. 


General 

Special 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Total. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Total. 

1876-1880 
1881-1885 
1886-1890 
1891-1895 

1896-1900 
1901-1905 

2IO-I 
224-I 
208-2 
205-9 
237-8 
233-3 

175-3 
177-8 
179-4 
I78-6 
2OI-O 
227-5 

385-4 
401-9 
387-6 

384-5 
438-8- 
460-8 

I7I-7 
183-4 
168-8 
163-0 
I7I-9 
182-8 

I35-I 
135-3 
137-6 

133-8 
150-8 

174-7 

306-8 

318-7 
306-4 
296-8 
322-7 

357-5 

Great  Britain,  Germany  and  the  United  States  in  volume  of 
exterior  trade.  The  latter  is  subdivided  into  general  commerce, 
which  includes  all  goods  entering  or  leaving  the  country,  and 
special  commerce  which  includes  imports  for  home  use  and 
exports  of  home  produce.  The  above  table  shows  the  develop- 
ments of  French  trade  during  the  years  from  1876  to  1905  by 
means  of  quinquennial  averages.  A  permanent  body  (the  com- 
mission permanente  des  valeurs)  fixes  the  average  prices  of  the 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Value 
(Thousands 
of,Q. 

Per  cent 
of  Total 
Value. 

Value 
(Thousands 
of£). 

Per  cent 
of  Total 
Value. 

Articles  of  Food  — 
1886-1890 
1891-1895 
1896-1900 
1901-1905 

Raw  Materials  * 
1886-1890 
1891-1895 
1896-1900 
1901-1905 

Manufactured 
Articles  * 
1886-1890 
1891-1895 
1896-1900 
1901-1905 

58,856 

50-774 
42,488 

33,631 

34-9 
30-9 
24-9 
18-4 

30,830 
28,287 
27,838 
28,716 

22-4 
2I-I 

18-6 
16-5 

85,778 
88,211 
101,727 
116,580 

50-8 
54-3 
59-2 
63-8 

33-848 
32,557 
40,060 

47-385 

24-6 

24-4 
26-6 
27-1 

24,125 
24.054 
27,330 
32,554 

H-3 
14-8 

15-9 
17-8 

72,917 
72,906 
82,270 
98,582 

53-o 

54-5 
54-8 
56-4 

1  Includes  horses,  mules  and  asses. 

*  Except  certain  manufactures  which  come  under  the  category 
of  articles  of  food. 


788 


FRANCE 


[COMMERCE 


articles  in  the  customs  list;  this  value  is  estimated  at  the  end  of 
the  year  in  accordance  with  the  variations  that  have  taken  place 
and  is  applied  provisionally  to  the  following  year. 

Amongst  imports  raw  materials  (wool,  cotton  and  silk,  coal,  oil- 
seeds, timber,  &c.)  hold  the  first  place,  articles  of  food  (cereals,  wine, 
coffee,  &c.)  and  manufactured  goods  (especially  machinery)  ranking 
next.  Amongst  exports  manufactured  goods  (silk,  cotton  and 
woollen  goods,  fancy  wares,  apparel,  &c.)  come  before  raw  materials 
and  articles  of  food  (wine  and  dairy  products  bought  chiefly  by 
England). 

Divided  into  these  classes  the  imports  and  exports  (special  trade) 
for  quinquennial  periods  from  1886  to  1905  averaged  as  shown  in  the 
preceding  table. 

The  decline  both  in  imports  and  in  exports  of  articles  ot  food, 
which  is  the  most  noteworthy  fact  exhibited  in  the  preceding  table, 
was  due  to  the  almost  prohibitive  tax  in  the  Customs  Law  of  1892, 
upon  agricultural  products. 

The  average  value  of  the  principal  articles  of  import  and  export 
(special  trade)  over  quinquennial  periods  following  1890  is  shown 
in  the  two  tables  below. 


i  ne  loiiowmg  were  tne  countries  sending  the  largest  quantities  ot 
goods  (special  trade)  to  France  (during  the  same  periods  as  in  previous 
table). 

Trade  with  Principal  Countries.     Imports  (Thousands  of  £). 


1891-1895. 

1896-1900. 

1901-1905. 

Germany      

-  I3.'78 

I  -a  QOd. 

17  "*6^ 

Belgium        

IS.J.^8 

T-5    T  I  7 

T-l    0^7 

United  Kingdom    <. 
Spain      .... 

20,697 

IO  2Q4. 

22,132 
10  560 

22,725 

6  525* 

United  States    .... 
Argentine  Republic 

15,577 
7.H9 

18,491 

10,009 

19,334 

10,094 

Trade  with  Principal  Countries.    Exports  (Thousands  of  £). 


1891-1895. 

1896-1900. 

1901-1905. 

Germany      
Belgium        
United  Kingdom     . 
United  States    .... 
Algeria    

13,712 
19,857 
39-310 
9,337 

7,872 

16,285 
22,135 
45-203 
9.497 
9,434 

21,021 

24-542 
49-156 
10,411 
1  1  ,652 

The  other  chief  customers  of  France  were  Switzerland  and  Italy, 
whose  imports  from  France  averaged  in  1901-1905  nearly  £10,000,000 
and  over  £7,200,000  respectively  in  value.  In  the  same  period  Spain 
received  exports  from  France  averaging  £4,700,000. 

The  trade  of  France  was  divided  between  foreign  countries  and 
her  colonies  in  the  following  proportions  (imports  and  exports 
combined). 


Principal  Imports  (Thousands  of  £). 

1891-1895. 

1896-1900. 

1901-1905. 

Coal,  coke,  &c  

7,018 

'  9,883 

10,539 

Coffee     

6,106 

4,553 

3,717 

Cotton,  raw      .... 

7,446 

7,722 

11,987 

Flax             

2,346 

2,435 

3,173 

Fruit  and  seeds  (oleaginous) 

7,175 

6,207 

8,464 

Hides  and  skins,  raw  . 

6,141 

5,261 

6,369 

2,181 

3,632 

4,614 

9,488 

10,391 

11.765 

Timber  

6,054 

6,284 

6,760 

Wheat    .      .  f.      .      .      . 

10,352 

5,276 

1,995 

Wine       

9,972 

10,454 

5,i67 

Wool,  raw    

13,372 

16,750 

16,395 

Principal  Exports  (Thousands  of  £). 

1891-1895. 

1896-1900. 

1901-1905. 

Apparel  

4,726 

4-513 

5,079 

Brandy  and  other  spirits  . 

2,402 

1,931 

1,678 

Butter    

2,789 

2,783 

2,618 

Cotton  manufactures  . 

4.233 

;  5,874 

7-965 

Haberdashery  *  . 

5-830 

6,039 

6,599 

Hides,  raw  

.   2,839 

3.494 

4.813 

Hides,  tanned  or  curried    . 

4.037 

,4.321 

4-753 

Iron  and   steel,   manufac- 

tures of    

~*    2,849 

4,201 

Millinery      

1.957 

3,308 

4,951 

Motor  cars  and  vehicles    . 

160 

2,147 

Paper  and  manufactures  of 

2,095 

2,145 

2,55i 

Silk,    raw,    thrown,   waste 

and  cocoons  .... 

4,738 

4,807 

6,090 

Silk  and  waste  silk,  manu- 

factures of      .... 

9,769 

io,443 

11,463 

Wine       

8,824 

9,050 

9.139 

Wool,  raw    

5.003 

7,8i3 

9-!59 

Wool,  manufactures  of 

11,998 

10,190 

8,459 

_,     ,  .. 

General  Trade. 

Special  Trade. 

Foreign 
Countries. 

Colonies. 

Foreign 
Countries. 

Colonies. 

1891-1895 

1896-1900 
1901-1905 

92-00 
91-18 
90-41 

8-00 
8-82 
9-59 

90-89 
89-86 
88-78 

9-n 
10-14 

11-22 

Other  countries  importing  largely  into  France  are  Russia,  Algeria 
and  British  India,  whose  imports  in  each caseaveraged over £9,000,000 
in  value  in  the  period  1901-1905 ;  China  (average  value  £7,000,000) ; 
and  Italy  (average  value  £6,000,000). 

The  following  are  the  principal  countries  receiving  the  exports  of 
France  (special  trade) ,  with  values  for  the  same  periods. 

1  Includes  small  fancy  wares,  toys,  also  wooden  wares  and  furni- 
ture, brushes,  &c. 

8  Decrease  largely  due  to  Spanish-American  War  (1898). 


The  respective  shares  of  the  leading  customs  in  the  trade  of  the 
country  is  approximately  shown  in  the  following  table,  which  gives 
the  value  of  their  exports  and  imports  (general  trade)  in  1905  in 
millions  sterling. 

Marseilles  ....  88-8  Boulogne  ....  17-5 

Le  Havre  ....  79-5  Calais 14-1 

Paris 42-8  Dieppe       ....  13-5 

Dunkirk     ....  34-8  Rouen 11-3 

Bordeaux  ....  27-4  Belfort-Petit-Croix    .  10-7 

In  the  same  year  the  other  chief  customs  in  order  of  importance 
were  Tourcoing,  Jeumont,  Cette,  St  Nazaire  and  Avricourt. 

The  chief  local  bodies  concerned  with  commerce  and  industry  are 
the  chambres  de  commerce  and  the  chambres  consultative!  d'arts  et 
manufactures,  the  members  of  which  are  elected  from  their  own 
number  by  the  traders  and  industrialists  of  a  certain  standing. 
They  are  established  in  the  chief  towns,  and  their  principal  function 
js  to  advice  the  government  on  measures  for  improving  and  facilitat- 
ing commerce  and  industry  within  their  circumscription.  See  also 
BANKS  AND  BANKING;  SAVINGS  BANKS;  POST  AND  POSTAL  SERVICE. 

Shipping. — The  following  table  shows  the  increase  in  tonnage  of 
sailing  and  steam  shipping  engaged  in  foreign  trade  entered  and 
cleared  at  the  ports  of  France  over  quinquennial  periods  from  1890. 


Entered. 

Cleared. 

French. 

Foreign. 

French. 

Foreign. 

1891-1895 
1896-1900 
1901-1905 

4-277,967 
4,665,268 
4,782,101 

9-947,893 
12,037,571 
14,744,626 

4,521,928 
5-005,563 
5-503,463 

10,091,000 
12,103,358 
14,823,217 

The  increase  of  the  French  mercantile  marine  (which  is  fifth  in 
importance  in  the  world)  over  the  same  period  is  traced  in  the 
following  table.  Vessels  of  2  net  tons  and  upwards  are  enumerated. 


Sailing. 

Steam. 

Total. 

Number 
of 
Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Number 
of 
Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Number 
of 
Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

1891-1895 
1896-1900 
1901-1905 

I4,l83 

14,327 
14,867 

402,982 
437.468 
642,562 

Il82 
1231 

L  1388 

502,363 
504,674 
^17,536 

15,365 
15,558 
16,255 

905,345 
942,142 
1,260,098 

At  the  beginning  of  1908  the  total  was  17,193  (tonnage,  1,402,647) ; 
of  these  13,601  (tonnage,  81,833)  were  vessels  of  less  than  20  tons, 
while  502  (tonnage,  1,014,506)  were  over  800  tons. 

The  increase  in  the  tonnage  of  sailing  vessels,  which  in  other 
countries  tends  to  decline,  was  due  to  the  bounties  voted  by  parlia- 
ment to  its  merchant  sailing  fleet  with  the  view  of  increasing  the 
number  of  skilled  seamen.  The  prosperity  of  the  French  shipping 
trade  is  hampered  by  the  costliness  of  shipbuilding  and  by  the 
scarcity  of  outward-bound  cargo.  Shipping  has  been  fostered  by 
paying  bounties  for  vessels  constructed  in  France  and  sailing  under 
the  French  flag,  and  by  reserving  the  coasting  trade,  traffic  between 
France  and  Algeria,  &c.,  to  French  vessels.  Despite  these  mono- 
polies, three-fourths  of  the  shipping  in  French  ports  is  foreign,  and 
France  is  without  shipping  companies  comparable  in  importance 
to  those  of  other  great  maritime  nations.  The  three  chief  companies 
are  the  Messageries  Maritimes  (Marseilles  and  Bordeaux),  the 
Compagnie  Generate  Transatlantique  (Le  Havre,  St  Nazaire  and 
Marseilles)  and  the  Chargeurs  Reunis  (Le  Havre). 


GOVERNMENT] 


FRANCE 


789 


Government  and  Administration. 


Central  Government. — The  principles  upon  which  the  French 
constitution  is  based  are  representative  government  (by  two 
chambers),  manhood  suffrage,  responsibility  of  ministers  and 
irresponsibility  of  the  head  of  the  state.  Alterations  or  modifica- 
tions of  the  constitution  can  only  be  effected  by  the  National 
Assembly,  consisting  of  both  chambers  sitting  together  ad  hoc. 
The  legislative  power  resides  in  these  two  chambers — the  Senate 
and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies;  the  executive  is  vested  in  the 
president  of  the  republic  and  the  ministers.  The  members  of 
both  chambers  owe  their  election  to  universal  suffrage;  but  the 
Senate  is  not  elected  directly  by  the  people  and  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  is. 

The  Chamber  of  Deputies,  consisting  of  584  members,  is 
elected  by  the  scrulin  d' arrondissement  (each  elector  voting  for 
one  deputy)  for  a  term  of  four  years,  the  conditions  of  election 
being  as  follows:  Each  arrondissement  sends  one  deputy  if  its 
population  does  not  exceed  100,000,  and  an  additional  deputy 
for  every  additional  100,000  inhabitants  or  fraction  of  that 
number.  Every  citizen  of  twenty-one  years  of  age,  unless  subject 
to  some  legal  disability,  such  as  actual  engagement  in  military 
service,  bankruptcy  or  condemnation  to  certain  punishments, 
has  a  vote,  provided  that  he  can  prove  a  residence  of  six  months' 
duration  in  any  one  town  or  commune.  A  deputy  must  be  a 
French  citizen,  not  under  twenty-five  years  old.  Each  candidate 
must  make,  at  least  five  days  before  the  elections,  a  declaration 
setting  forth  in  what  constituency  he  intends  to  stand.  He  may 
only  stand  for  one,  and  all  votes  given  for  him  in  any  other  than 
that  specified  in  the  declaration  are  void.  To  secure  election  a 
candidate  must  at  the  first  voting  poll  an  absolute  majority 
and  a  number  of  votes  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  number  of 
electors.  If  a  second  poll  is  necessary  a  relative  majority  is 
sufficient. 

The  Senate  (see  below,  Law  and  Institutions)  is  composed  of 
300  members  who  must  be  French  citizens  at  least  forty  years 
of  age.  They  are  elected  by  the  "  scrutin  de  lisle  "  for  a  period  of 
nine  years,  and  one-third  of  the  body  retires  every  three  years. 
The  department  which  is  to  elect  a  senator  when  a  vacancy 
occurs  is  settled  by  lot. 

Both  senators  and  deputies  receive  a  salary  of  £600  per  annum. 
No  member  of  a  family  that  has  reigned  in  France  is  eligible  for 
either  chamber. 

Bills  may  be  proposed  either  by  ministers  (in  the  name  of  the 
president  of  the  republic),  or  by  private  members,  and  may  be 
initiated  in  either  chamber,  but  money-bills  must  be  submitted 
in  the  first  place  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Every  bill  is  first 
examined  by  a  committee,  a  member  of  which  is  chosen  to 
"  report  "  on  it  to  the  chamber,  after  which  it  must  go  through 
two  readings  (deliberations),  before  it  is  presented  to  the  other 
chamber.  Either  house  may  pass  a  vote  of  no  confidence  in  the 
government,  and  in  practice  the  government  resigns  in  face  of 
the  passing  of  such  a  vote  by  the  deputies,  but  not  if  it  is  passed 
by  the  Senate  only.  The  chambers  usually  assemble  in  January 
each  year,  and  the  ordinary  session  lasts  not  less  than  five 
months;  usually  it  continues  till  July.  There  is  an  extraordinary 
session  from  October  till  Christmas. 

The  president  (see  below,  Law  and  Institutions)  is  elected  for 


seven  years,  by  a  majority  of  votes,  by  the  Senate  and  Chamber 
of  Deputies  sitting  together  as  the  National  Assembly.  Any 
French  citizen  may  be  chosen  president,  no  fixed  age  being 
required.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  that  no  member  of 
a  royal  family  which  has  once  reigned  in  France  can  be  elected. 
The  president  receives  1,200,000  francs  (£48,000)  a  year,  half  as 
salary,  half  for  travelling  expenses  and  the  charges  incumbent 
upon  the  official  representative  of  the  country.  Both  the 
chambers  are  summoned  by  the  president,  who  has  the  power  of 
dissolving  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  with  the  assent  of  the  Senate. 
When  a  change  of  Government  occurs  the  president  chooses  a 
prominent  parliamentarian  as  premier  and  president  of  the 
council.  This  personage,  who  himself  holds  a  portfolio,  nominates 
the  other  ministers,  his  choice  being  subject  to  the  ratification  of 
the  chief  of  the  state.  The  ministerial  council  (conseil  des 
ministres)  is-  presided  over  by  the  president  of  the  republic; 
less  formal  meetings  (conseils  de  cabinet)  under  the  presidency  of 
the  premier,  or  even  of  some  other  minister,  are  also  held. 

The  ministers,  whether  members  of  parliament  or  not,  have 
the  right  to  sit  in  both  chambers  and  can  address  the  house 
whenever  they  choose,  though  a  minister  may  only  vote  in  the 
chamber  of  which  he  happens  to  be  a  member.  There  are  twelve 
ministries1  comprising  those  of  justice;  finance;  war;  the 
interior;  marine;  colonies;  public  instruction  and  fine  arts; 
foreign  affairs;  commerce  and  industry;  agriculture;  public 
works;  and  labour  and  public  thrift.  Individual  ministers 
are  responsible  for  all  acts  done  in  connexion  with  their  own 
departments,  and  the  body  of  ministers  collectively  is  responsible 
for  the  general  policy  of  the  government. 

The  council  of  state  (conseil  d'etat)  is  the  principal  council 
of  the  head  of  the  state  and  his  ministers,  who  consult  it  on 
various  legislative  problems,  more  particularly  on  questions 
of  administration.  It  is  divided  for  despatch  of  business  into 
four  sections,  each  of  which  corresponds  to  a  group  of  two  or  three 
ministerial  departments,  and  is  composed  of  (i)  32  councillors 
"en  service  ordinaire"  (comprising  a  vice-president  and  sectional 
presidents),  and  19  councillors  "  en  service  extraordinaire,"  i.e. 
government  officials  who  are  deputed  to  watch  the  interests  of 
the  ministerial  departments  to  which  they  belong,  and  in  matters 
not  concerned  with  those  departments  have  a  merely  con- 
sultative position;  (2)  32  matlres  des  requites;  (3)  40  auditors. 

The  presidency  of  the  council  of  state  belongs  ex  officio  to  the 
minister  of  justice. 

The  theory  of  "droit  administratif"  lays  down  the  principle  that 
an  agent  of  the  government  cannot  be  prosecuted  or  sued  for 
acts  relating  to  his  administrative  functions  before  the  ordinary 
tribunals.  Consequently  there  is  a  special  system  of  administra- 
tive jurisdiction  for  the  trial  of  "  le  contentieux  adminislralif  "  or 
disputes  in  which  the  administration  is  concerned.  The  council 
of  state  is  the  highest  administrative  tribunal,  and  includes  a 
special  "  Section  du  contentieux  "  to  deal  with  judicial  work  of 
this  nature. 

Local  Government. — France  is  divided  into  86  administrative 
departments  (including  Corsica)  or  87  if  the  Territory  of  Belfort, 
a  remnant  of  the  Haul  Rhin  department,  be  included.  These 
departments  are  subdivided  into  362  arrondissements,  2911 
cantons  and  36,222  communes. 


Departments. 

Capital  Towns. 

Ancient  Provinces.2 

AIN     .        .  C'A 

AISNE 
ALLIER 
,  ALPES-MARITI 
ARDECHE  . 
ARDENNES 
ARIEGE     .    •' 
AUBE 
AUDE        .• 

AVEYRON  . 

VIES 

1 

/ 

Bourg        
Laon  .        .  •    «— 

Bourgogne  (Bresse,  Bugey,  Valromey,  Dombes). 
Ile-de-France;   Picardie. 
Bourbonnais. 

\\ 

Languedoc  (Vivarais). 
Champagne. 
Foix;   Gascogne  (Couserans). 
Champagne;  Bourgogne. 
Languedoc. 
Guienne  (Rouergue). 

Nice 
Privas 
Mezi^res    . 
Foix   . 
Troyes 
Carcassonne 
Rodez 

I 
'.        .        . 

1  The  administration  of  posts,  telegraphs  and  telephones  is  assigned  to  the  ministry  of  commerce  and  industry  or  to  that  of  public 
works. 

1  The  province  or  provinces  named  are  those  out  of  which  the  department  was  chiefly  formed. 


79° 


FRANCE 


[GOVERNMENT 


Departments. 

Capital  Towns. 

Ancient  Provinces. 

BASSES-ALPES  

Digne         ...... 

Provence. 

BASSES-PYRENEES    .... 

Pau     

Beam;   Gascogne  (Basse-  Navarre,  Soule,  Labourd). 

BELFORT,  TERRITOIRE  DE 

Belfort       

Alsace. 

BOUCHES-DU-RHONE 

Marseilles  

Provence. 

CALVADOS  

Caen  

Normandie  (Bessin,  Bocage). 

CANTAL      

Aurillac      

Auvergne. 

CHARENTE         

AngoulSme        

Angoumois;   Saintonge. 

CHARENTE-INFERIEURE  . 

La  Rochelle      

Aunis  ;   Saintonge. 

CHER  

Bourges     

Berry  ;   Bourbonnais. 

CORREZE    

Tulle          

Limousin. 

COTE-D'OR         

Dijon         

Bourgogne  (Dijonnais,  Auxois). 

COTES-DU-NORD          .... 

St  Brieuc  

Bretagne. 

CREUSE       

Gueret       

Marche. 

DEUX-SEVRES   

Niort          

Poitou. 

DORDOGNE  ...... 

Perigueux          ..... 

Guienne  (Perigord). 

DOUBS        

Besancon  

Franche-Comte;   Montbeliard. 

DROME       

Valence     

Dauphine. 

EURE          

Evreux       

Normandie;   Perche. 

EURE-ET-LOIR               .... 

Chartres     ...... 

Orleanais  ;   Normandie. 

FlNISTERE  

Quimper     

Bretagne. 

CARD  

Nlmes        

Languedoc. 

Auch 

Gascogne  (Astarac,  Armagnac). 

GlRONDE       

Bordeaux  

Guienne  (Bordelais,  Bazadais). 

HAUTE-GARONNE     .... 

Toulouse    

Languedoc;   Gascogne  (Comminges). 

HAUTE-LOIRE      .          .          .          .          . 

Le  Puy      .    .            .... 

Languedoc  (Velay)  ;   Auvergne  ;   Lyonnais. 

HAUTE-MARNE  

Chaumont         

Champagne  (Bassigny,  Vallage). 

HAUTES-ALPES  

Gap    

Dauphine. 

HAUTE-SA6NE     

Vesoul       

Franche-Comte. 

HAUTE-SAVOIE         .... 

Annecy 

HAUTES-PYRENEES  ,       .       .       . 

Tarbes       

Gascogne. 

HAUTE-  VIENNE  , 

Limoges 

Limousin;   Marche. 

HERAULT   

Montpellier      .       .        . 

Languedoc. 

iLLE-ET-VlLAINE         .... 

Rennes       

Bretagne. 

INDRE         

Chateauroux     

Berry. 

INDRE-ET-LOIRE          .... 

Tours         

Touraine. 

ISERE              

Grenoble   

Dauphine. 

JURA           

Lons-le-Saunier        .... 

Franche-Comte. 

LANDES      

Mont-de-Marsan      .... 

GascogYie  (Landes,  Chalosse). 

LOIRE         

St-Etienne         

Lyonnais. 

LOIRE-INFERIEURE    .... 

Nantes       

Bretagne. 

LOIRET           

Orleans      

Orleanais  (Orleanais  proper,  Gatinais,  Dunois). 

LOIR-ET-CHER    

Blois  

Orleanais. 

LOT      

Cahors       

Guienne  (Quercy). 

LOT-ET-GARONNE     .... 

Agen  

Guienne  ;  Gascogne. 

LOZERE       

Mende       

Languedoc  (Gevaudan). 

MAINE-ET-LOIRE      .... 

Angers       .... 

Anjou. 

MANCHE    

St-L6 

Normandie  (Cotentin). 

MARNE       

Chalons-sur-Marne 

Champagne. 

MAYENNE  . 

Lavai 

•»iC  _  •         .      A  n  ir»n 

MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE  . 

Nancy        

Lorraine;   Trois-Eve'ches. 

MEUSE        

Bar-le-Duc        

Lorraine  (Barrois,  Verdunois). 

MORBIHAN  

Vannes      . 

Bretagne. 

NlEVRE         

Nevers       

Nivernais;   Orleanais. 

NORD   

Lille   

Flandre;   Hainaut. 

OlSE      

Beauvais   

lle-de-France. 

ORNE   

Alencon     

Normandie;   Perche. 

PAS-DE-CALAIS         .... 

Arras          

Artois  ;   Picardie. 

PUY-DE-D6ME      .          .          . 

Clermont-Ferrand   .... 

Auvergne. 

PYRENEES-ORIENTALES  . 
RHONE       

SAdNE-ET-LoiRE          .... 

Perpignan         
Lyon          
Macon    

Roussillon;   Languedoc. 
Lyonnais;   Beaujolais. 
Bourgogne. 

SARTHE       

Le  Mans    

Maine;  Anjou. 

SAVOIE        

Chambery 

SEINE          .       .     •  . 

Paris          

Ile-de-France. 

SEINE-ET-MARNE      .... 
SEINE-ET-OISE          .... 

Melun        
Versailles  

tie-de-France;   Champagne. 
Tie-de-France. 

SEINE-INFERIEURE   .... 

Rouen        

Normandie. 

SOMME        

Amiens 

Picardie. 

TARN          .       .       . 
TARN-ET-GARONNE  . 
VAR     

Albi    
Montauban       
Draguignan       

Languedoc  (Albigeois). 
Guienne;  Gascogne;  Languedoc.  ' 
Provence. 

VAUCLUSE  
VENDEE 

Avignon     
La  Roche-sur-  Yon 

Comtat;  Venaissin;   Provence;   Principautd  d  'Orange. 

VIENNE 

Poitiers 

JrOltOU. 

VOSGES       .... 

Epinal 

1  oitou  |    1  ouro.in6. 
Lorraine. 

YONNE        
CORSE  (CORSICA)      .... 

Auxerre     
Ajaccio      

Bourgogne;   Champagne. 
Corse. 

Before  1790  France  was  divided  into  thirty-three  great  and  seven 
small  military  governments,  often  called  provinces,  which  are, 
however,  to  be  distinguished  from  the  provinces  formed  under  the 
feudal  system.  The  great  governments  were:  Alsace,  Saintonge 
and  Angoumois,  Anjou,  Artois,  Aunis,  Auvergne,  Beam  and  Navarre, 
Berry,  Bourbonnais,  Bourgogne  (Burgundy),  Bretagne  (Brittany), 
Champagne,  Dauphine,  Flandre,  Foix,  Franche-Comte,  Guienne  and 
Gascogne  (Gascony),  Ile-de-France,  Languedoc,  Limousin,  Lorraine, 
Lyonnais,  Maine,  Marche,  Nivernais,  Normandie,  Orleanais,  Picardie, 


Poitou,  Provence,  Roussillon,  Touraine  and  Corse.  The  eight  small 
governments  were:  Paris,  Boulogne  and  Boulonnais,  Le  Havre, 
Sedan,  Toulois,  Pays  Messin  and  Verdunois  and  Saumurois. 

At  the  head  of  each  department  is  a  prefect,  a  political  official 
nominated  by  the  minister  of  the  interior  and  appointed  by  the 
president,  who  acts  as  general  agent  of  the  government  and 
representative  of  the  central  authority.  To  aid  him  the  prefect 


GOVERNMENT] 


FRANCE 


791 


has  a  general  secretary  and  an  advisory  body  (conseil  de  pre- 
fecture), the  members  of  which  are  appointed  by  the  president, 
which  has  jurisdiction  in  certain  classes  of  disputes  arising  out 
of  administration  and  must,  in  certain  cases,  be  consulted, 
though  the  prefect  is  not  compelled  to  follow  its  advice.  The 
prefect  supervises  the  execution  of  the  laws;  has  wide  authority 
in  regard  to  policing,  public  hygiene  and  relief  of  pauper  children; 
has  the  nomination  of  various  subordinate  officials;  and  is  in 
correspondence  with  the  subordinate  functionaries  in  his  depart- 
ment, to  whom  he  transmits  the  orders  and  instructions  of  the 
government.  Although  the  management  of  local  affairs  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  prefect  his  power  with  regard  to  these  is  checked 
by  a  deliberative  body  known  as  the  general  council  (conseil 
general).  This  council,  which  consists  for  the  most  part  of 
business  and  professional  men,  is  elected  by  universal  suffrage, 
each  canton  in  the  department  contributing  one  member.  The 
general  council  controls  the  departmental  administration  of 
the  prefect,  and  its  decisions  on  points  of  local  government  are 
usually  final.  It  assigns  its  quota  of  taxes  (contingent)  to  each 
arrondissement,  authorizes  the  sale,  purchase  or  exchange  of 
departmental  property,  superintends  the  management  thereof, 
authorizes  the  construction  of  new  roads,  railways  or  canals, 
and  advises  on  matters  of  local  interest.  Political  questions 
are  rigorously  excluded  from  its  deliberations.  The  general 
council,  when  not  sitting,  is  represented  by  a  permanent  delega- 
tion (commission  departementale). 

As  the  prefect  in  the  department,  so  the  sub-prefect  in  the 
arrondissement,  though  with  a  more  limited  power,  is  the 
representative  of  the  central  authority.  He  is  assisted,  and  in 
some  degree  controlled,  in  his  work  by  the  district  council 
(conseil  d' arrondissement),  to  which  each  canton  sends  a  member, 
chosen  by  universal  suffrage.  As  the  arrondissement  has  neither 
property  nor  budget,  the  principal  business  of  the  council  is 
to  allot  to  each  commune  its  share  of  the  direct  taxes  imposed 
on  the  arrondissement  by  the  general  council. 

The  canton  is  purely  an  administrative  division,  containing, 
on  an  average,  about  twelve  communes,  though  some  exceptional 
communes  are  big  enough  to  contain  more  than  one  canton. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  justice  of  the  peace,  and  is  the  electoral  unit  for 
the  general  council  and  the  district  council. 

The  communes,  varying  greatly  in  area  and  population,  are  the 
administrative  units  in  France.  The  chief  magistrate  of  the 
commune  is  the  mayor  (maire),  who  is  (i)  the  agent  of  the 
central  government  and  charged  as  such  with  the  local  promulga- 
tion and  execution  of  the  general  laws  and  decrees  of  the  country; 
(2)  the  executive  head  of  the  municipality,  in  tyhich  capacity 
he  supervises  the  police,  the  revenue  and  public  works  of  the 
commune,  and  acts  as  the  representative  of  the  corporation  in 
general.  He  also  acts  as  registrar  of  births,  deaths  and  marriages, 
and  officiates  at  civil  marriages.  Mayors  are  usually  assisted 
by  deputies  (adjoints).  In  a  commune  of  2500  inhabitants  or 
less  there  is  one  deputy;  in  more  populous  communes  there 
may  be  more,  but  in  no  case  must  the  number  exceed  twelve, 
except  at  Lyons,  where  as  many  as  seventeen  are  allowed.  Both 
mayors  and  deputy  mayors  are  elected  by  and  from  among 
members  of  the  municipal  council  for  four  years.  This  body 
consists,  according  to  the  population  of  the  commune,  of  from 
10  to  36  members,  elected  for  four  years  on  the  principle  of  the 
scrutin  de  lisle  by  Frenchmen  who  have  reached  the  age  of 
twenty-one  years  and  have  a  six  months'  residence  qualification. 

The  local  affairs  of  the  commune  are  decided  by  the  municipal 
council,  and  its  decisions  become  operative  after  the  expiration 
of  a  month,  save  in  matters  which  involve  interests  transcending 
those  of  the  commune.  In  such  cases  the  prefect  must  approve 
them,  and  in  some  cases  the  sanction  of  the  general  council 
or  even  ratification  by  the  president  is  necessary.  The  council 
also  chooses  communal  delegates  to  elect  senators;  and  draws 
up  the  list  of  repartiteurs,  whose  function  is  to  settle  how  the 
commune's  share  of  direct  taxes  shall  be  allotted  among  the 
taxpayers.  The  sub-prefect  then  selects  from  this  list  ten  of 
whom  he  approves  for  the  post.  The  meetings  of  the  council 
are  open  to  the  public. 


Justice. 


The  ordinary  judicial  system  of  France  comprises  two  classes 
of  courts:  (i)  civil  and  criminal,  (2)  special,  including  courts 
dealing  only  with  purely  commercial  cases;  in  addition  there 
are  the  administrative  courts,  including  bodies,  the  Conseil 
d'fitat  and  the  Conseils  de  Prefecture,  which  deal,  in  their 
judicial  capacity,  with  cases  coming  under  the  droit  administratij. 
Mention  may  also  be  made  of  the  Tribunal  des  Conflits,  a  special 
court  whose  function  it  is  to  decide  which  is  the  competent 
tribunal  when  an  administration  and  a  judicial  court  both 
claim  or  refuse  to  deal  with  a  given  case. 

Taking  the  first  class  of  courts,  which  have  both  civil  and 
criminal  jurisdiction,  the  lowest  tribunal  in  the  system  is  that  of 
the  juge  de  paix. 

In  each  canton  is  a.  juge  de  paix,  who  in  his  capacity  as  a  civil 
judge  takes  cognizance,  without  appeal,  of  disputes  where  the 
amount  sought  to  be  recovered  does  not  exceed  £12  in  value. 
Where  the  amount  exceeds  £12  but  not  £24  an  appeal  lies  from 
his  decision  to  the  court  of  first  instance.  In  some  particular 
cases  where  special  promptitude  or  local  knowledge  is  necessary, 
as  disputes  between  hotelkeepers  and  travellers,  and  the  like, 
he  has  jurisdiction  (subject  to  appeal  to  the  court  of  first  instance) 
up  to  £60.  He  has  also  a  criminal  jurisdiction  in  contraventions, 
i.e.  breaches  of  law  punishable  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  125. 
or  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  five  days.  If  the  sentence 
be  one  of  imprisonment  or  the  fine  exceeds  45.,  appeal  lies  to  the 
court  of  first  instance.  It  is  an  important  function  of  the  juge 
de  paix  to  endeavour  to  reconcile  disputants  who  come  before 
him,  and  no  suit  can  be  brought  before  the  court  of  first  instance 
until  he  has  endeavoured  without  success  to  bring  the  parties  to 
an  agreement. 

Tribunaux  de  premiere  instance,  also"  called  tribunaux 
d' arrondissement,  of  which  there  is  one  in  every  arrondissement 
(with  few  exceptions),  besides  serving  as  courts  of  appeal  from 
the  juges  de  paix  have  an  original  jurisdiction  in  matters  civil 
and  criminal.  The  court  consists  of  a  president,  one  or  more 
vice-presidents  and  a  variable  number  of  judges.  A  procureur, 
or  public  prosecutor,  is  also  attached  to  each  court.  In  civil 
matters  the  tribunal  takes  cognizance  of  actions  relating  to 
personal  property  to  the  value  of  £60,  and  actions  relating  to 
land  to  the  value  of  60  fr.  (£2 :  8s.)  per  annum.  When  it  deals 
with  matters  involving  larger  sums  an  appeal  lies  to  the  courts 
of  appeal.  In  penal  cases  its  jurisdiction  .extends  to  all  offences 
of  the  class  known  as  delits — offences  punishable  by  a  more 
serious  penalty  than  the  "  contraventions  "  dealt  with  by  the 
juge  de  paix,  but  not  entailing  such  heavy  penalties  as  the  code 
applies  to  crimes,  with  which  the  assize  courts  (see  below) 
deal.  When  sitting  in  its  capacity  as  a  criminal  court  it  is 
known  as  the  tribunal  correctionnel.  Its  judgments  are  in- 
variably subject  in  these  matters  to  appeal  before  the  court 
of  appeal. 

There  are  twenty-six  courts  of  appeal  (cours  d'appel),  to  each 
of  which  are  attached  from  one  to  five  departments. 
Cours  d'Appel.  Departments  depending  on  them. 

PARIS  .      .      .   Seine,  Aube,  Eure-et-Loir,  Marne,  Seine-et-Marne, 

Seine-et-Oise,  Yonne. 

AGEN   .      .      .   Gers,  Lot,  Lot-et-Garonne. 
Aix      .      .      .   Basses-Alpes,  Alpes-Maritimes,  Bouches-du-Rhone, 

Var. 

AMIENS      .      .   Aisne,  Oise,  Somme. 
ANGERS     .      .   Maine-et-Loire,  Mayenne,  Sarthe. 
BASTIA      .      .   Corse. 

BESANJON      .   Doubs,  Jura,  Haute-Sa6ne,  Territoire  de  Belfort. 
BORDEAUX      .   Charente,  Dordogne,  Gironde. 
BOURGES  .      .   Cher,  Indre,  Ni£vre. 
CAEN  .      .      .   Calvados,  Manche,  Orne. 
CHAMBERY     .   Savoie,  Haute-Savoie. 
DIJON  .      .      .   Cdte-d'Or,  Haute-Marne,  Sa&ne-et-Loire. 
DOUAI.      .      .    Nord,  Pas-de-Calais. 
GRENOBLE      .   Hautes-Alpes,  Dr&me,  Is£re. 
LIMOGES    .      .   Cprreze,  Creuse,  Haute- Vienna. 
LYONS  .     .      .   Ain,  Loire,  Rh&ne. 

MONTPELHER   Aude,  Aveyron,  Herault,  Pyrenees-Orientates. 
NANCY      .      .   Meurthe-et-Moselle,  Meuse,  Vosges,  Ardennes. 
NIMES  .     .      .   Ardeche,  Card,  Lozere,  Vaucluse. 


792 

Cours  d'Appel. 
ORLEANS 
PAU     . 
POITIERS 
RENNES 


FRANCE 


[JUSTICE 


Departments  depending  on  them. 
Indre-et-Loire,  Loir-et-Cher,  Loiret. 
Landes,  Basses-Pyrenees,  Hautes-Pyrenees. 
Charente-Inferieure,  Deux- Sevres,  Vendee,  Vienne. 
C6tes-du-Nord,     Finistere,     Ule-et-Vilaine,     Loire- 

Inferieure,  Morbihan. 
Allier,  Cantal,  Haute-Loire,  Puy-de-D&me. 
Eure,  Seine-Inferieure. 
Ariege,  Haute-Garonne,  Tarn,  Tarn-et.-Garonne. 


RIOM     . 
ROUEN  .    , 
TOULOUSE 

At  the  head  of  each  court,  which  is  divided  into  sections 
(chambres),  is  a  premier  president.  Each  section  (chambre)  con- 
sists of  a  president  de  chambre  and  four  judges  (consettlers). 
Procureurs-genZraux  and  avocals-genSraux  are  also  attached  to 
the  parquet,  or  permanent  official  staff,  of  the  courts  of  appeal. 
The  principal  function  of  these  courts  is  the  hearing  of  appeals 
both  civil  and  criminal  from  the  courts  of  first  instance;  only  in 
some  few  cases  (e.g.  discharge  of  bankrupts)  do  they  exercise  an 
original  jurisdiction.  One  of  the  sections  is  termed  the  chambre 
des  mises  en  accusation.  Its  function  is  to  examine  criminal 
cases  and  to  decide  whether  they  shall  be  referred  for  trial  to  the 
lower  courts  or  the  cours  d'assises.  It  may  also  dismiss  a  case  on 
grounds  of  insufficient  evidence. 

The  cours  d'assises  are  not  separate  and  permanent  tribunals. 
Every  three  months  an  assize  is  held  in  each  department,  usually 
at  the  chief  town,  by  a  conseiller,  appointed  ad  hoc,  of  the  court 
of  appeal  upon  which  the  department  depends.  The  cour 
d'assises  occupies  itself  entirely  with  offences  of  the  most  serious 
type,  classified  under  the  penal  code  as  crimes,  in  accordance 
with  the  severity  of  the  penalties  attached.  The  president  is 
assisted  in  his  duties  by  two  other  magistrates,  who  may  be 
chosen  either  from  among  the  conseillers  of  the  court  of  appeal 
or  the  presidents  or  judges  of  the  local  court  of  first  instance. 
In  this  court  and  in  this  court  alone  there  is  always  a  jury  of 
twelve.  They  decide,  as  in  England,  on  facts  only,  leaving  the 
application  of  the  law  to  the  judges.  The  verdict  is  given  by  a 
simple  majority. 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  other  than  those  coming  before 
the  juge  de  paix,  a  secret  preliminary  investigation  is  made  by 
an  official  called  a  juge  d' instruction.  He  may  either  dismiss 
the  case  at  once  by  an  order  of  "  non-lieu,"  or  order  it  to  be 
tried,  when  the  prosecution  is  undertaken  by  the  procureur 
or  procureur-general.  This  process  in  some  degree  corre- 
sponds to  the  manner  in  which  English  magistrates  dismiss  a 
case  or  commit  the  prisoner  to  quarter  sessions  or  assizes,  but 
the  powers  of  the  juge  ^'instruction  are  more  arbitrary  and 
absolute. 

The  highest  tribunal  in  France  is  the  cour  de  cassation,  sitting 
at  Paris,  and  consisting  of  a  first  president,  three  sectional 
presidents  and  forty-five  conseillers,  with  a  ministerial  staff 
(parquet)  consisting  of  a  procureur-general  and  six  advocates- 
general.  It  is  divided  into  three  sections:  the  Chambre  des 
Requetes,  or  court  of  petitions,  the  civil  court  and  the  criminal 
court.  The  cour  de  cassation  can  review  the  decision  of  any 
other  tribunal,  except  administrative  courts.  Criminal  appeals 
usually  go  straight  to  the  criminal  section,  while  civil  appeals  are 
generally  taken  before  the  Chambre  des  Requetes,  where  they 
undergo  a  preliminary  examination.  If  the  demand  for  re- 
hearing is  refused  such  refusal  is  final;  but  if  it  is  granted  the 
case  is  then  heard  by  the  civil  chamber,  and  after  argument 
cassation  (annulment)  is  granted  or  refused.  The  Court  of 
Cassation  does  not  give  the  ultimate  decision  on  a  case;  it 
pronounces,  not  on  the  question  of  fact,  but  on  the  legal  principle 
at  issue,  or  the  competence  of  the  court  giving  the  original 
decision.  Any  decision,  even  one  of  a  cour  d'assises,  may  be 
brought  before  it  in  the  last  resort,  and  may  be  casse — annulled. 
If  it  pronounces  cassation  it  remits  the  case  to  the  hearing  of  a 
court  of  the  same  order. 

Commercial  courts  (tribunaux  de  commerce)  are  established  in 
all  the  more  important  commercial  towns  to  decide  as  expediti- 
ously  as  possible  disputed  points  arising  out  of  business  trans- 
actions. They  consist  of  judges,  chosen,  from  among  the  leading 
merchants,  and  elected  by  commerc.ants  patentes  depuis  cinq  ans, 
i.e.  persons  who  have  held  the  licence  to  trade  (see  FINANCE)  for 


five  years  and  upwards.  In  the  absence  of  a  tribunal  de  commerce 
commercial  cases  come  before  the  ordinary  tribunal  d' arrondisse- 
ment. 

In  important  industrial  towns  tribunals  called  conseils  de 
prud'hommes  are  instituted  to  deal  with  disputes  between 
employers  and  employees,  actions  arising  out  of  contracts  of 
apprenticeship  and  the  like.  They  are  composed  of  employers 
and  workmen  in  equal  numbers  and  are  established  by  decree  of 
the  council  of  state,  advised  by  the  minister  of  justice.  The 
minister  of  justice  is  notified  of  the  necessity  for  a  conseil  de 
prud'hommes  by  the  prefect,  acting  on  the  advice  of  the 
municipal  council  and  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  or  the 
Chamber  of  Arts  and  Manufactures.  The  judges  are  elected 
by  employers  and  workmen  of  a  certain  standing.  When  the 
amount  claimed  exceeds  £12  appeal  lies  to  the  tribunaux 
d'arrondissement. 

Police. — Broadly,  the  police  of  France  may  be  divided  into 
two  great  branches — administrative  police  (la  police  admini- 
strative) and  judicial  police  (la  police  judiciaire) ,  the  former  having 
for  its  object  the  maintenance  of  order,  and  the  latter  charged 
with  tracing  out  offenders,  collecting  the  proofs,  and  delivering 
the  presumed  offenders  to  the  tribunals  charged  by  law  with 
their  trial  and  punishment.  Subdivisions  may  be,  and  often  are, 
named  according  to  the  particular  duties  to  which  they  are 
assigned,  as  la  police  politique,  police  des  moiurs,  police  sanitaire, 
&c.  The  officers  of  the  judicial  police  comprise  the  juge  de  paix 
(equivalent  to  the  English  police  magistrate),  the  maire,  the 
commissaire  de  police,  the  gendarmerie  and,  in  rural  districts,  the 
gardes  champttres  and  the  gardes  forestiers.  Gardiens  de  la  paix 
(sometimes  called  sergents  de  wile,  gardes  de  mile  or  agents  de 
police)  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  gendarmerie,  being  a 
branch  of  the  administrative  police  and  corresponding  more  or 
less  nearly  with  the  English  equivalent  "  police  constables," 
which  the  gendarmerie  do  not,  although  both  perform  police 
duty.  The  gendarmerie,  however,  differ  from  the  agents  pr 
gardes  both  in  uniform  and  in  the  fact  that  they  are  for  the 
most  part  country  patrols.  The  organization  of  the  Paris  police, 
which  is  typical  of  that  in  other  large  towns,  may  be  outlined 
briefly.  The  central  administration  (administration  centrale) 
comprises  three  classes  of  functions  which  together  constitute 
la  police.  First  there  is  the  office  or  cabinet  of  the  prefect  for  the 
general  police  (la  police  generate),  with  bureaus  for  various 
objects,  such  as  the  safety  of  the  president  of  the  republic,  the 
regulation  and  order  of  public  ceremonies,  theatres,  amusements 
and  entertainments,  &c.;  secondly,  the  judicial  police  (la  police 
judiciaire),  with  numerous  bureaus  also,  in  constant  communica- 
tion with  the  courts  of  judicature;  thirdly,  the  administrative 
police  (la  police  administrative)  including  bureaus,  which  super- 
intend navigation,  public  carriages,  animals,  public  health,  &c. 
Concurrently  with  these  divisions  there  is  the  municipal  police, 
which  comprises  all  the  agents  in  enforcing  police  regulations  in 
the  streets  or  public  thoroughfares,  acting  under  the  orders  of  a 
chief  (chef  de  la  police  municipale)  with  a  central  bureau.  The 
municipal  police  is  divided  into  two  principal  branches — the 
service  in  uniform  of  the  agents  de  police  and  the  service  out  of 
uniform  of  inspecteurs  de  police.  In  Paris  the  municipal  police 
are  divided  among  the  twenty  arrondissements,  which  the 
uniform  police  patrol  (see  further  PARIS  and  POLICE). 

Prisons. — The  prisons  of  France,  some  of  them  attached  to  the 
ministry  of  the  interior,  are  complex  in  their  classification.  It 
is  only  from  the  middle  of  the  ipth  century  that  close  attention 
has  been  given  to  the  principle  of  individual  separation.  Cellular 
imprisonment  was,  however,  partially  adopted  for  persons 
awaiting  trial.  Central  prisons,  in  which  prisoners  lived  and 
worked  in  association,  had  been  in  existence  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  i  pth  century.  These  prisons  received  >all  sentenced 
to  short  terms  of  imprisonment,  the  long-term  convicts  going  to 
the  bagnes  (the  great  convict  prisons  at  the  arsenals  of  Rochefort, 
Brest  and  Toulon),  while  in  1851  transportation  to  penal  colonies 
was  adopted.  In  1869  and  1871  commissions  were  appointed  to 
inquire  into  prison  discipline,  and  as  a  consequence  of  the  report 
of  the  last  commission,  issued  in  1874,  the  principle  of  cellular 


FINANCE] 


FRANCE 


793 


confinement  was  put  in  operation  the  following  year.  There 
were,  however,  but  few  prisons  in  France  adapted  for  the  cellular 
system,  and  the  process  of  reconstruction  has  been  slow.  In 
1898  the  old  Paris  prisons  of  Grande-Roquette,  Saint-Pelagic 
and  Mazas  were  demolished,  and  to  replace  them  a  large  prison 
with  1500  cells  was  erected  at  Fresnes-les-Rungis.  There  are 
(i)  the  maison  d'arret,  temporary  places  of  durance  in  every 
arrondissement  for  persons  charged  with  offences,  and  those 
sentenced  to  more  than  a  year's  imprisonment  who  are  awaiting 
transfer  to  a  maison  cenlrale;  (2)  the  maison  de  justice,  often  part 
and  parcel  of  the  former,  but  only  existing  in  the  assize  court 
towns  for  the  safe  custody  of  those  tried  or  condemned  at  the 
assizes;  (3)  departmental  prisons,  or  maisons  de  correction,  for 
summary  convictions,  or  those  sentenced  to  less  than  a  year,  or, 
if  provided  with  sufficient  cells,  those  amenable  to  separate  con- 
finement; (4)  maisons  cenlrales  and  penitenciers  agricoles,  for  all 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  more  than  a  year,  or  to  hard 
labour,  or  to  those  condemned  to  travaux  forces  for  offences  com- 
mitted in  prison.  There  are  eleven  maisons  centrales,  nine  for 
men  (Loos,  Clairvaux,  Beaulieu,  Poissy,  Melun,  Fontevrault, 
Thouars,  Riom  and  Nimes);  two  for  women  (Rennes  and 
Montpellier).  The  penitenciers  agricoles  only  differ  from  the 
maisons  cenlrales  in  the  matter  of  regime;  there  are  two — at 
Castelluccio  and  at  Chiavari  (Corsica).  There  are  also  re- 
formatory establishments  for  juvenile  offenders,  and  depots  de 
surete  for  prisoners  who  are  travelling,  at  places  where  there  are 
no  other  prisons.  For  the  penal  settlements  at  a  distance  from 
France  see  DEPORTATION. 

Finance. 

At  the  head  of  the  financial  organization  of  France,  and 
exercising  a  general  jurisdiction,  is  the  minister  of  finance, 
who  co-ordinates  in  one  general  budget  the  separate  budgets 
prepared  by  his  colleagues  and  assigns  to  each  ministerial 
department  the  sums  necessary  for  its  expenses. 

The  financial  year  in  France  begins  on  the  ist  of  January, 
and  the  budget  of  each  financial  year  must  be  laid  on  the  table 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  the  course  of  the  ordinary 
session  of  the  preceding  year  in  time  for  the  discussion 
upon  it  to  begin  in  October  and  be  concluded  before  the  3ist  of 
December.  It  is  then  submitted  to  a  special  commission  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  elected  for  one  year,  who  appoint  a  general 
reporter  and  one  or  more  special  reporters  for  each  of  the  minis- 
tries. When  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  has  voted  the  budget  it 
is  submitted  to  a  similar  course  of  procedure  in  the  Senate. 
When  the  budget  has  passed  both  chambers  it  is  promulgated  by 
the  president  under  the  title  of  Loi  des  finances.  In  the  event  of 
its  not  being  voted  before  the  3ist  of  December,  recourse  is  had 
to  the  system  of  "  provisional  twelfths  "  (douziemes  provisoires), 
whereby  the  government  is  authorized  by  parliament  to  incur 
expenses  for  one,  two  or  three  months  on  the  scale  of  the  previous 
year.  The  expenditure  of  the  government  has  several  times 
been  regulated  for  as  long  as  six  months  upon  this  system. 

In  each  department  an  official  collector  (Tresorier  payeur  general) 
receives  the  taxes  and  public  revenue  collected  therein  and  accounts 
for  them  to  the  central  authority  in  Paris.  In  view  of  his 
Taxation.  responsibiHties  he  has,  before  appointment,  to  pay  a  large 
deposit  to  the  treasury.  Besides  receiving  taxes,  they  pay  the 
creditors  of  the  state  in  their  departments,  conduct  all  operations 
affecting  departmental  loans,  buy  and  sell  government  stock  (rentes) 
on  behalf  of  individuals,  and  conduct  certain  banking  operations. 
The  tresorier  nearly  always  lives  at  the  chief  town  of  the  department, 
and  is  assisted  by  a  receveur  particulier  des  finances  in  each  arrondisse- 
ment (except  that  in  which  the  tresorier  himself  resides).  From  the 
receveur  is  demanded  a  security  equal  to  five  times  his  total  income. 
The  direct  taxes  are  actually  collected  by  percepteufs.  In  the 
commune  an  official  known  as  the  receveur  municipal  receives  all 
moneys  due  to  it,  and,  subject  to  the  authorization  of  the  mayor, 
makes  all  payments  due  from  it.  In  communes  with  a  revenue 
of  less  than  £2400  the  percepteur  fulfils  the  functions  of  receveur 
municipal,  but  a  special  official  may  be  appointed  in  communes 
with  large  incomes. 

The  direct  taxes  fall  into  two  classes.  (l)  Impels  de  repartition 
(apportionment),  the  amount  to  be  raised  being  fixed  in  advance 
annually  and  then  apportioned  among  the  departments.  They 


Budget 


include  the  land  tax,1  the  personal  and  habitation  tax  (contribution 
personnelle-mobiliere) ,  and  door  and  window  tax.  (2)  Impels  de 
quotite,  which  are  levied  directly  on  the  individual,  who  pays  his 
quota  according  to  a  fixed  tariff.  These  comprise  the  tax  on 
buildings1  and  the  trade-licence  tax  (impot  des  patentes).  Besides 
these,  certain  other  taxes  (taxes  assimilees  aux  contributions  directes) 
are  included  under  the  heading  of  direct  taxation,  e.g.  the  tax  on 
property  in  mortmain,  dues  for  the  verification  of  weights  and 
measures,  the  tax  on  royalties  from  mines,  on  horses,  mules  and 
carriages,  on  cycles,  &c. 

The  land  tax  falls  upon  land  not  built  upon  in  proportion  to  its  net 
yearly  revenue.  It  is  collected  in  accordance  with  a  register  of 
property  (cadastre)  drawn  up  for  the  most  part  in  the  first  half  of  the 
igth  century,  dealing  with  every  piece  of  property  in  France,  and 
giving  its  extent  and  value  and  the  name  of  the  owner.  The  re- 
sponsibility of  keeping  this  register  accurate  and  up  to  date  is  divided 
between  the  state,  the  departments  and  the  communes,  and  involves 
a  special  service  and  staff  of  experts.  The  building  tax  consists  of  a 
levy  of  3-20%  of  the  rental  value  of  the  property,  and  is  charged 
upon  the  owner. 

The  personal  and  habitation  tax  consists  in  fact  of  two  different 
taxes,  one  imposing  a  fixed  capitation  charge  on  all  citizens  alike 
of  every  department,  the  charge,  however,  varying  according  to  the 
department  from  I  fc.  50  c.  (is.  3d.)  to  4  fcs.  50  c.  (33.  gd.),  the  other 
levied  on  every  occupier  of  a  furnished  house  or  of  apartments  in 
proportion  to  its  rental  value. 

The  tax  on  doors  and  windows  is  levied  in  each  case  according  to  the 
number  of  apertures,  and  is  fixed  with  reference  to  population,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  more  populous  paying  more  than  those  of  the  less 
populous  communes. 

The  trade-licence  tax  (impot  des  patentes)  is  imposed  on  every  person 
carrying  on  any  business  whatever;  it  affects  professional  men, 
bankers  and  manufacturers,  as  well  as  wholesale  and  retail  traders, 
and  consists  of  (l)  a  fixed  duty  levied  not  on  actual  profits  but  with 
reference  to  the  extent  of  a  business  or  calling  as  indicated  by  number 
of  employes,  population  of  the  locality  and  other  considerations. 
(2)  An  assessment  on  the  letting  value  of  the  premises  in  which  a 
business  or  profession  is  carried  on. 

The  administrative  staff  includes,  for  the  purpose  of  computing  the 
individual  quotas  of  the  direct  taxes,  a  director  assisted  by  contrdleurs 
in  each  department  and  subordinate  to  a  central  authority  in  Paris, 
the  direction  generate  des  contributions  directes. 

The  indirect  taxes  comprise  the  charges  on  registration;  stamps; 
customs;  and  a  group  of  taxes  specially  described  as  "indirect 
taxes." 

Registration  (enregistrement)  duties  are  charged  on  the  transfer  of 
property  in  the  way  of  business  (a  litre  onereux) ;  on  changes  in 
ownership  effected  in  the  way  of  donation  or  succession  (a  litre 
gratuit),  and  on  a  variety  of  other  transactions  which  must  be 
registered  according  to  law.  The  revenue  from  stamps  includes 
as  its  chief  items  the  returns  from  stamped  paper,  stamps  on 
goods  traffic,  securities  and  share  certificates  and  receipts  and 
cheques. 

The  Direction  generate  de  I' enregistrement,  des  domaines  et  du  timbre, 
comprising  a  central  department  and  a  director  and  staff  of  agents 
in  each  department,  combines  the  administration  of  state  property 
(not  including  forests)  with  the  exaction  of  registration  and  stamp 
duties. 

The  C\istoms(douane),  at  one  time  only  a  branch  of  the  administra- 
tion of  the  contributions  indirectes,  were  organized  in  1869  as  a  special 
service.  The  central  office  at  Paris  consists  of  a  directeur  general 
and  two  administraleurs,  nominated  by  the  president  of  the  republic. 
These  officials  form  a  council  of  administration  presided  over  by  the 
minister  of  finance.  The  service  in  the  departments  comprises 
brigades,  which  are  actually  engaged  in  guarding  the  frontiers,  and  a 
clerical  staff  (service  de  bureau)  entrusted  with  the  collection  of  the 
duties.  There  are  twenty-four  districts,  each  under  the  control  of  a 
directeur,  assisted  by  inspectors,  sub-inspectors  and  other  officials. 
The  chief  towns  of  these  districts  are  Algiers,  Bayonne,  Besangon, 
Bordeaux,  Boulogne,  Brest,  Chambery,  Chaneville,  Dunkirk, 
Epinal,  La  Rochelle,  Le  Havre,  Lille,  Lyons,  Marseilles,  Montpellier, 
Nancy,  Nantes,  Nice, Paris,  Perpignan, Rouen,  St-Malo,Valenciennes. 
There  is  also  an  official  performing  the  functions  of  a  director  at 
Bastia,  in  Corsica. 

The  group  specially  described  as  indirect  taxes  includes  those  on 
alcohol,  wine,  beer,  cider  and  other  alcoholic  drinks,  on  passenger 
and  goods  traffic  by  railway,  on  licences  to  distillers,  spirit-sellers, 
&c.,  on  salt  and  on  sugar  of  home  manufacture.  The  collection  of 
these  excise  duties  as  well  as  the  sale  of  matches,  tobacco  and  gun- 
powder to  retailers,  is  assigned  to  a  special  service  in  each  department 
subordinated  to  a  central  administration.  To  the  above  taxes 
must  be  added  the  tax  on  Stock  Exchange  transactions  and  the  tax  of 
4  %  on  dividends  from  stocks  and  shares  (other  than  stale  loans). 

Other  main  sources  of  revenue  are:  the  domains  and  forests 
managed  by  the  state;  government  monopolies,  comprising  tobacco, 
matches,  gunpowder;  posts,  telegraphs,  telephones;  and  state 

1  The  tax  on  land  (proprietes  non  b&ties)  and  that  on  buildings 
(proprietes  baties)  are  included  under  the  head  of  contribution  fonciere. 


794 


FRANCE 


[ARMY 


railways.  An  administrative  tribunal  called  the  cour  des  comptes 
subjects  the  accounts  of  the  state's  financial  agents  (tresoriers- 
payeurs,  receveurs  of  registration  fees,  of  customs,  of  indirect  taxes, 
&c.)  and  of  the  communes1  to  a  close  investigation,  and  a  vote  of 
definitive  settlement  is  finally  passed  by  parliament.  The  Cour  des 
Comptes,  an  ancient  tribunal,  was  abolished  in  1791,  and  reorganized 
by  Napoleon  I.  in  1807.  It  consists  of  a  president  and  no  other 
officials,  assisted  by  25  auditors.  All  these  are  nominated  for  life 
by  the  president  of  the  republic.  Besides  the  accounts  of  the  state 
and  of  the  communes,  those  of  charitable  institutions1  and  training 
colleges1  and  a  great  variety  of  other  public  establishments  are 
scrutinized  by  the  Cour  des  Comptes. 

The  following  table  shows  the  rapid  growth  of  the  state  revenue  of 
France  during  the  period  1875-1905,  the  figures  for  the  specified  years 
representing  millions  of  pounds. 


1875- 


1 08 


1880. 


118 


1885. 


1890.      1895. 


129 


137 


Average 
1896-1900. 


144 


Average 
1901-1905. 


Of  the  revenue  in  1905  (1505  million  pounds)  the  four  direct  taxes 
produced  approximately  20  millions.  Other  principal  items  of 
revenue  were :  Registration  25  millions,  stamps  7  J  millions,  customs 
18  millions,  inland  revenue  on  liquors  16^  millions,  receipts  from  the 
tobacco  monopoly  18  millions,  receipts  from  post  office  ioj  millions. 

Since  1875  the  expenditure  of  the  state  has  passed  through  con- 
siderable fluctuations.  It  reached  its  maximum  in  1883,  descended 
Exoendl-  'n  l^^  anc^  I889»  and  since  then  has  continuously  in- 
tu£f  creased.  It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  divide  the  credits 

voted  for  the  discharge  of  the  public  services  into  two 
heads — the  ordinary  and  extraordinary  budget.  The  ordinary 
budget  of  expenditure  was  that  met  entirely  by  the  produce  of  the 
taxes,  while  the  extraordinary  budget  of  expenditure  was  that  which 
had  to  be  incurred  either  in  the  way  of  an  immediate  loan  or  in  aid 
of  the  funds  of  the  floating  debt.  The  policy  adopted  after  1890 
of  incorporating  in  the  ordinary  budget  the  expenditure  on  war, 
marine  and  public  works,  each  under  its  own  head,  rendered  the 
"  extraordinary  budget  "  obsolete,  but  there  are  still,  besides  the 
ordinary  budget,  budgets  annexes,  comprising  the  credits  voted  to 
certain  establishments  under  state  supervision,  e.g.  the  National 
Savings  Bank,  state  railways,  &c.  The  growth  of  the  expenditure 
of  France  is  shown  in  the  following  summary  figures,  which  represent 
millions  of  pounds. 


1875. 

1880. 

1885. 

1890. 

1895- 

Average 
1896-1900. 

Average 
1901-1905. 

"7 

135 

139 

132 

137 

H3 

H7 

The  chief  item  of  expenditure  (which  totalled  148  million  pounds 
in  1905)  is  the  service  of  the  public  debt,  which  in  1905  cost  48} 
million  pounds  sterling.  Of  the  rest  of  the  sum  assigned  to  the 
ministry  of  finance  (59!  millions  in  all)  8£  millions  went  in  the  ex- 
pense of  collection  of  revenue.  The  other  ministries  with  the  largest 
outgoings  were  ths  ministry  of  war  (the  expenditure  of  which  rose 
from  25  j  millions  in  1895  to  over  30  millions  in  1905),  the  ministry 
of  marine  (lof  millions  in  1895,  over  \2\  millions  in  1905),  the  ministry 
of  public  works  (with  an  expenditure  in  1905  of  over  20  millions, 
10  millions  of  which  was  assigned  to  posts,  telegraphs  and  telephones) 
and  the  ministry  of  public  instruction,  fine  arts  and  public  worship, 
the  expenditure  on  education  having  risen  from  7J  millions  in  1895 
to  9!  millions  in  1905. 

Public  Debt. — The  national  debt  of  France  is  the  heaviest  of  any 
country  in  the  world.  Its  foundation  was  laid  early  in  the  15th 
century,  and  the  continuous  wars  of  succeeding  centuries,  combined 
with  the  extravagance  of  the  monarchs,  as  well  as  deliberate  dis- 
regard of  financial  and  economic  conditions,  increased  it  at  an  alarm- 
ing rate.  The  duke  of  Sully  carried  out  a  revision  in  1604,  and  other 
attempts  were  made  by  Mazarin  and  Colbert,  but  the  extravagances 
of  Louis  XV.  swelled  it  again  heavily.  In  1764  the  national  debt 
amounted  to  2,360,000,000  livres,  and  the  annual  change  to  93,000,000 
hvres.  A  consolidation  was  effected  in  1793,  but  the  lavish  issue  of 
assignats  fg.ii.)  destroyed  whatever  advantage  might  have  accrued, 
and  the  debt  was  again  dealt  with  by  a  law  of  the  9th  of  Vendemiaire 
year  VI.  (27th  of  September  1797),  the  annual  interest  paid  yearly 
to  creditors  then  amounting  to  40,216,000  francs  (£1,600,000) 
During  the  Directory  a  sum  of  £250,000  was  added  to  the  interest 
charge,  and  by  1814  this  annual  charge  had  risen  to  £2, -510,000 
1  his  large  increase  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  during  the 
Napoleonic  regime  the  government  steadily  refused  to  issue  in- 
convertible paper  currency  or  to  meet  war  expenditure  by  borrowing. 
Ihe  following  table  shows  the  increase  of  the  funded  debt  since 
1014. 

1  With  revenues  of  over  £1200. 

1  For  a  history  of  the  French  debt,  see  C.  F.  Bastable,  Public 
Finance  (1903). 


Date. 

Nominal  Capital 
(Millions  of  £). 

Interest 
(Millions  of  £). 

April  j, 
April  I, 
March  I, 
January  I, 

1814  .  .  . 
1830  .  .  . 
1848  .  .  . 
1852  .  .  . 
1871  .  .  . 
1876  .  .  . 
1887  .  .  . 

1895  •  •  • 
1905  .  .  . 

50J 
I77i 

22Oj 
796} 

986^ 
iQ37i 

8 

Ji 

3°! 
34i 

32  1 

The  French  debt  as  constituted  in  1905  was  made  up  of  funded 
debt  and  floating  debt  as  follows: 

Funded  Debt. 

Perpetual  3  %  rentes £888,870,400 

Terminable  3  %  renter 148,490,400 

Total  of  funded  debt £1,037,360,800 

Guarantees  to  railway  companies,  &c.  (in 

capital).  .  £89,724,080 

Other  debt  m  capital 46,800,840 

Floating  Debt. 

Exchequer  bills £9.923,480 

Liabilities  on  behalf  of  communes  and  public 
establishments,  including  departmental 

services 17,366,520 

Deposit  and  current  accounts  of  Caisse  des 

depdts,  &c.,  including  savings  banks  .  .  15,328,840 

Caution  money  of  Tresoriers  payeurs-generaux  1 ,43 1 ,680 

Other  liabilities 6,456,200 

Total  of  floating  debt      ....         £50,506,720 

Departmental  Finances. — Every  department  has  a  budget  of  its 
own,  which  is  prepared  and  presented  by  the  prefect,  voted  by  the 
departmental  council  and  approved  by  decree  of  the  president  of  the 
republic.  The  ordinary  receipts  include  the  revenues  from  the 
property  of  the  department,  the  produce  of  additional  centimes, 
which  are  levied  in  conjunction  with  the  direct  taxes  for  the  main- 
tenance of  both  departmental  and  communal  finances,  state  sub- 
ventions and  contributions  of  the  communes  towards  certain  branches 
of  poor  relief  and  to  maintenance  of  roads.  The  chief  expenses  of  the 
departments  are  the  care  of  pauper  children  and  lunatics,  the 
maintenance  of  high-roads  and  the  service  of  the  departmental  debt. 

Communal  Finances. — The  budget  of  the  commune  is  prepared 
by  the  mayor,  voted  by  the  municipal  council  and  approved  by  the 
prefect.  But  in  communes  the  revenues  of  which  exceed  £120,000, 
the  budget  is  always  submitted  to  the  president  of  the  republic. 
The  ordinary  revenues  include  the  produce  of  "  additional  centimes  " 
allocated  to  communal  purposes,  the  rents  and  profits  of  communal 
property,  sums  produced  by  municipal  taxes  and  dues,  concessions 
to  gas,  water  and  other  companies,  and  by  the  octroi  (q.v.)  or  duty 
on  a  variety  of  articles  imported  into  the  commune  for  local  con- 
sumption. The  repairing  of  highways,  the  upkeep  of  public  build- 
ings, the  support  of  public  education,  the  remuneration  of  numerous 
officials  connected  with  the  collection  of  state  taxes,  the  keeping 
of  the  cadastre,  &c.,  constitute  the  principal  objects  of  communal 
expenditure. 

Both  the  departments  and  the  communes  have  considerable 
public  debts.  The  departmental  debt  in  1904  stood  at  24  million 
pounds,  and  the  communal  debt  at  153  million  pounds.  (R.  TR.) 

Army. 

Recruiting  and  Strength. — Universal  compulsory  service  was 
adopted  after  the  disasters  of  1870-1871,  though  in  principle 
it  had  been  established  by  Marshal  Niel's  reforms  a  few  years 
before  that  date.  The  most  important  of  the  recruiting  laws 
passed  since  1870  are  those  of  1872,  1889  and  1905,  the  last 
the  "  loi  de  deux  ans  "  which  embodies  the  last  efforts  of  the 
French  war  department  to  keep  pace  with  the  ever-growing 
numbers  of  the  German  empire.  Compulsory  service  with  the 
colours  is  in  Germany  no  longer  universal,  as  there  are  twice 
as  many  able-bodied  men  presented  by  the  recruiting  com- 
missions as  the  active  army  can  absorb.  France,  with  a  greatly 
inferior  population,  now  trains  every  man  who  is  physically 
capable.  This  law  naturally  made  a  deep  impression  on  military 
Europe,  not  merely  because  the  period  of  colour  service  was 
reduced — Germany  had  taken  this  step  years  before — but 
because  of  the  almost  entire  absence  of  the  usual  exemptions. 

3  In  1894  the  rentes  then  standing  at  4!%  were  reduced  to  3$%, 


ARMY] 


FRANCE 


795 


Even  bread-winners  are  required  to  serve,  the  state  pensioning 
their  dependants  (75  centimes  per  diem,  up  to  10%  of  the 
strength)  during  their  period  of  service.  Dispensations,  and  also 
the  one-year  voluntariat,  which  had  become  a  short  cut  for  the 
so-called  "  intellectual  class  "  to  employment  in  the  civil  service 
rather  than  a  means  of  training  reserve  officers,  were  abolished. 
Every  Frenchman  therefore  is  a  member  of  the  army  practically 
or  potentially  from  the  age  of  twenty  to  the  age  of  forty-five. 
Each  year  there  is  drawn  up  in  every  commune  a  list  of  the 
young  men  who  attained  the  age  of  twenty  during  the  previous 
year.  These  young  men  are  then  examined  by  a  revising  body 
(Conseil  de  revision  cantonal)  composed  of  civil  and  military 
officials.  Men  physically  unfit  are  wholly  exempted,  and  men 
who  have  not,  at  the  time  of  the  examination,  attained  the 
required  physical  standard  are  put  back  for  re-examination 
after  an  interval.  Men  who,  otherwise  suitable,  have  some 
slight  infirmity  are  drafted  into  the  non-combatant  branches. 
The  minimum  height  for  the  infantry  soldier  is  1-54  m.,  or 
5  ft.  |  in.,  but  men  of  special  physique  are  taken  below  this 
height.  In  1904,  under  the  old  system  of  three-years'  service 
with  numerous  total  and  partial  exemptions,  324,253  men 
became  liable  to  incorporation,  of  whom  25,432  were  rejected 
as  unfit,  55,265  were  admitted  as  one-year  volunteers,  62,160 
were  put  back,  27,825  had  already  enlisted  with  a  view  to  making 
the  army  a  career,  5257  were  taken  for  the  navy,  and  thus,  with 
a  few  extra  details  and  casualties,  the  contingent  for  full  service 
dwindled  to  147,549  recruits.  In  1906,  326,793  men  had  to 
present  themselves,  25,348  had  already  enlisted,  4923  went  to 
the  navy,  68,526  were  put  back,  33,777  found  unfit,  which, 
deducting  3128  details,  gives  an  actual  incorporated  contingent 
of  191,091  young  men  of  twenty-one  to  serve  for  two  full  years  (in 
each  case,  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  men  put  back  from  former 
years  who  were  enrolled  are  omitted).  In  theory  a  two-years' 
contingent  of  course  should  be  half  as  large  again  as  a  three-years' 
one,  but  in  practice,  France  has  not  men  enough  for  so  great 
an  increase.  Still  the  law  of  1905  provides  a  system  whereby 
there  is  room  with  the  colours  for  every  available  man,  and 
moreover  ensures  his  services.  The  net  gain  in  the  1906  class 
is  not  far  short  of  50,000,  and  the  proportion  of  the  new  contingent 
to  the  old  is  practically  5  : 4.  The  loi  des  cadres  of  1907  introduced 
many  important  changes  of  detail  supplementary  to  the  loi  de 
deux  ans.  Important  changes  were  also  made  in  the  provisions 
and  administration  of  military  law.  The  active  army,  then, 
at  a  given  moment,  say  November  i,  1908,  is  composed  of  all 
the  young  men,  not  legally  exempted,  who  have  reached  the  age 
of  twenty  in  the  years  1906  and  1907.  It  is  at  the  disposal 
of  the  minister  of  war,  who  can  decree  the  recall  of  all  men  dis- 
charged to  the  reserve  the  previous  year  and  all  those  whose 
time  of  service  has  for  any  reason  been  shortened.  The  reserves 
of  the  active  army  are  composed  of  those  who  have  served 
the  legal  period  in  the  active  army.  These  are  recalled  twice, 
in  the  eleven  years  during  which  they  are  members  of  the  reserve, 
for  refresher  courses.  The  active  army  and  its  reserve  are  not 
localized,  but  drawn  from  and  distributed  over  the  whole  of 
France.  The  advantages  of  a  purely  territorial  system  have 
tempted  various  War  Ministers  to  apply  it,  but  the  results  were 
not  good,  owing  to  the  want  of  uniformity  in  the  military 
qualities  and  the  political  subordination  of  the  different  districts. 
One  result  of  this  is  that  mobilization  and  concentration  are 
much  slower  processes  than  they  are  in  Germany. 

The  Territorial  Army  and  its  reserve  (members  of  which 
undergo  two  short  periods  of  training)  are,  however,  allocated 
to  local  service.  The  soldier  spends  six  years  in  the  Territorial 
Army,  and  six  in  the  reserve  of  the  Territorial  Army.  The 
reserves  of  the  active  army  and  the  Territorial  Army  and  its 
reserve  can  only  be  recalled  to  active  service  in  case  of  emergency 
and  by  decree  of  the  head  of  the  state. 

The  total  service  rendered  by  the  individual  soldier  is  thus 
twenty-five  years.  He  is  registered  at  the  age  of  twenty,  is 
called  to  the  colours  on  the  ist  of  October  of  the  next  year, 
discharged  to  the  active  army  reserve  on  the  3oth  of  September 
of  the  second  year  thereafter,  to  the  Territorial  Army  at  the 


same  date  thirteen  complete  years  after  his  incorporation,  and 
finally  discharged  from  the  reserve  of  the  Territorial  Army 
on  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  his  entry  into  the  active  army. 
On  November  i,  1908,  then  the  active  army  was  composed  of 
the  classes  registered  1906  and  1907,  the  reserve  of  the  classes 
1895-1905,  the  Territorial  Army  of  those  of  1889-1894  and  the 
Territorial  Army  reserve  of  those  of  1883-1888. 

In  1906  the  peace  strength  of  the  army  in  France  was  estimated 
at  532>593  officers  and  men;  in  Algeria  54,580;  in  Tunis  20,320; 
total  607,493.  Deducting  vacancies,  sick  and  absent,  the 
effective  strength  of  the  active  army  in  1906  was  540,563;  of 
the  gendarmerie  and  Garde  Republicaine  24,512;  of  colonial 
troops  in  the  colonies  58,568.  The  full  number  of  persons  liable 
to  be  called  upon  for  military  service  and  engaged  in  such  service 
is  calculated  (1908)  as  4,800,000,  of  whom  1,350,000  of  the  active 
army  and  the  younger  classes  of  army  reserve  would  constitute 
the  field  armies  set  on  foot  at  the  outbreak  of  war.  150,000 
horses  and  mules  are  maintained  on  a  peace  footing  and  600,000 
on  a  war  footing. 

Organization. — The  general  organization  of  the  French  army 
at  home  is  based  on  the  system  of  permanent  army  corps,  the 
headquarters  of  which  are  as  follows:  I.  Lille,  II.  Amiens, 
III.  Rouen,  IV.  Le  Mans,  V.  Orleans,  VI.  Chalons-sur-Marne, 
VII.  Besangon,  VIII.  Bourges,  IX.  Tours,  X.  Rennes,  XI. 
Nantes,  XII.  Limoges,  XIII.  Clermont-Ferrand,  XIV.  Lyons, 
XV.  Marseilles,  XVI.  Montpellier,  XVII.  Toulouse,  XVIII. 
Bordeaux,  XIX.  Algiers  and  XX.  Nancy.  Each  army  corps 
consists  in  principle  of  two  infantry  divisions,  one  cavalry 
brigade,  one  brigade  of  horse  and  field  artillery,  one  engineer 
battalion  and  one  squadron  of  train.  But  certain  army  corps 
have  a  special  organization.  The  VI.  corps  (Chalons)  and  the 
VII.  (Besancon)  consist  of  three  divisions  each,  and  the  XIX. 
(Algiers)  has  three  divisions  of  its  own  as  well  as  the  division 
occupying  Tunis.  In  addition  to  these  corps  there  are  eight 
permanent  cavalry  divisions  with  headquarters  at  Paris,  Lune- 
ville,  Meaux,  Sedan,  Reims,  Lyons,  Melun  and  Dole.  The 
military  government  of  Paris  is  independent  of  the  army  corps 
system  and  comprises,  besides  a  division  of  the  colonial  army 
corps  (see  below),  3!  others  detached  from  the  II.,  III.,  IV.  and 
V.  corps,  as  well  as  the  ist  and  3rd  'cavalry  divisions  and  many 
smaller  bodies  of  troops.  The  military  government  of  Lyons 
is  another  independent  and  special  command;  it  comprises 
practically  the  XIV.  army  corps  and  the  6th  cavalry  division. 
The  infantry  division  consists  of  2  brigades,  each  of  2  regiments 
of  3  or  4  battalions  (the  4  battalion  regiments  have  recently 
been  reduced  for  the  most  part  to  3),  with  i  squadron  cavalry 
and  12  batteries,  attached  from  the  corps  troops,  in  war  a  pro- 
portion of  the  artillery  would,  however,  be  taken  back  to  form 
the  corps  artillery  (see  ARTILLERY  and  TACTICS).  The  cavalry 
division  consists  of  2  or  3  brigades,  each  of  2  regiments  or  8 
squadrons,  with  2  horse  artillery  batteries  attached.  The  army 
corps  consists  of  headquarters,  2  (or  3)  infantry  divisions,  i 
cavalry  brigade,  i  artillery  brigade  (2  regiments,  comprising  21 
field  and  2  horse  batteries),  i  engineer  battalion,  &c.  In  war 
a  group  of  "  Rimailho "  heavy  howitzers  (see  ORDNANCE: 
Heavy  Field  and  Light  Siege  Units)  would  be  attached.  It  is 
proposed,  and  accepted  in  principle,  to  increase  the  number  of 
guns  in  the  army  corps  by  converting  the  horse  batteries  in  18 
army  corps  to  field  batteries,  which,  with  other  measures,  enables 
the  number  of  the  latter  to  be  increased  to  36  (144  guns). 

The  organization  of  the  "  metropolitan  troops  "  by  regiments 
is  (a)  163  regiments  of  line  infantry,  some  of  which  are  affected 
to  "  regional  "  duties  and  do  not  enter  into  the  composition  of 
their  army  corps  for  war,  31  battalions  of  chasseurs  a  pied, 
mostly  stationed  in  the  Alps  and  the  Vosges,  4  regiments  of 
Zouaves,  4  regiments  of  Algerian  tirailleurs  (natives,  often 
called  Turcos1),  2  foreign  legion  regiments,  5  battalions  of 
African  light  infantry  (disciplinary  regiments),  &c.;  (6)  12 

1  Algerian  native  troops  are  recruited  by  voluntary  enlistment. 
But  in  1908,  owing  to  the  prevailing  want  of  trained  soldiers  in 
France,  it  was  proposed  to  set  free  the  white  troops  in  Algeria  by 
applying  the  principles  of  universal  service  to  the  natives,  as  in  Tunis. 


796 

regiments  of  cuirassiers,  32  of  dragoons,  21  of  chasseurs  a  cheval, 
14  of  hussars,  6  of  chasseurs  d'Afrique  and  4  of  Spahis  (Algerian 
natives);  (c)  40  regiments  of  artillery,  comprising  445  field 
batteries,  14  mountain  batteries  and  52  horse  batteries  (see, 
however,  above),  18  battalions  of  garrison  artillery,  with  in 
addition  13  companies  of  artificers,  &c.;  (d)  6  regiments  of 
engineers  forming  22  battalions,  and  i  railway  regiment;  (e) 
20  squadrons  of  train,  27  legions  of  gendarmerie  and  the  Paris 
Garde  Republicaine,  administrative  and  medical  units. 

Colonial  Troops. — These  form  an  expeditionary  army  corps 
in  France  to  which  are  attached  the  actual  corps  of  occupation 
to  the  various  colonies,  part  white,  part  natives.  The  colonial 
army  corps,  headquarters  at  Paris,  has  three  divisions,  at  Paris, 
Toulon  and  Brest. 

The  French  colonial  (formerly  marine)  infantry,  recruited  by 
voluntary  enlistment,  comprises  18  regiments  and  5  independent 
battalions  (of  which  12  regiments  are  at  home),  74  batteries  of 
field,  fortress  and  mountain  artillery  (of  which  32  are  at  home), 
with  a  few  cavalry  and  engineers,  &c.,  and  other  services  in 
proportion.  The  native  troops  include  13  regiments  and  8 
independent  battalions.  The  strength  of  this  army  corps  is 
28,700  in  France  and  61,300  in  the  colonies. 

Command. — The  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  armed  forces 
is  the  president  of  the  Republic,  but  the  practical  direction  of 
affairs  lies  in  the  hand  of  the  minister  of  war,  who  is  assisted 
by  the  Conseil  supSrieur  de  la  guerre,  a  body  of  senior  generals 
who  have  been  selected  to  be  appointed  to  the  higher  commands 
in  war.  The  vice-president  is  the  destined  commander-in-chief 
of  the  field  armies  and  is  styled  the  generalissimo.  The  chief  of 
staff  of  the  army  is  also  a  member  of  the  council.  In  war 
the  latter  would  probably  remain  at  the  ministry  of  war  in  Paris, 
and  the  generalissimo  would  have  his  own  chief  of  staff.  The 
ministry  of  war  is  divided  into  branches  for  infantry,  cavalry, 
&c. — and  services  for  special  subjects  such  as  military  law, 
explosives,  health,  &c.  The  general  staff  (elat  major  de  I'armee) 
has  its  functions  classed  as  follows:  personnel;  material  and 
finance;  ist  bureau  (organization  and  mobilization),  2nd 
(intelligence),  3rd  (military  operations  and  training)  and  4th 
(communications  and  transport);  and  the  famous  historical 
section.  The  president  of  the  Republic  has  a  military  household, 
and  the  minister  a  cabinet,  both  of  which  are  occupied  chiefly 
with  questions  of  promotion,  patronage  and  decorations. 

The  general  staff  and  also  the  staff  of  the  corps  and  divisions 
are  composed  of  certificated  (brevets)  officers  who  have  passed 
all  through  the  Ecole  de  Guerre.  In  time  of  peace  an  officer  is 
attached  to  the  staff  for  not  more  than  four  years.  He  must 
then  return  to  regimental  duty  for  at  least  two  years. 

The  officers  of  the  army  are  obtained  partly  from  the  old- 
established  military  schools,  partly  from  the  ranks  of  the  non- 
commissioned officers,  the  proportion  of  the  latter  being  about 
one-third  of  the  total  number  of  officers.  Artillery  and  engineer 
officers  come  from  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  infantry  and  cavalry 
from  the  Ecole  speciale  militaire  de  St-Cyr.  Other  important 
training  institutions  are  the  staff  college  (Ecole  superieure  de 
Guerre)  which  trains  annually  70  to  90  selected  captains  and 
lieutenants;  the  musketry  school  of  Chalons,  the  gymnastic 
school  at  Joinville-le-Pont  and  the  schools  of  St  Maixent,  Saumur 
and  Versailles  for  the  preparation  of  non-commissioned  officers 
for  commissions  in  the  infantry,  cavalry,  artillery  and  en- 
gineers respectively.  The  non-commissioned  officers  are,  as 
usual  in  universal  service  armies,  drawn  partly  from  men  who 
voluntarily  enlist  at  a  relatively  early  age,  and  partly  from  men 
who  at  the  end  of  their  compulsory  period  of  service  are  re-engaged. 
Voluntary  enlistments  in  the  French  army  are  permissible, 
within  certain  limits,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  the  engages 
serve  for  at  least  three  years.  The  law  further  provides  for  the 
re-engagement  of  men  of  all  ranks,  under  conditions  varying 
according  to  their  rank.  Such  re-engagements  are  for  one  to  three 
years'  effective  service  but  may  be  extended  to  fifteen.  They 
date  from  the  time  of  the  legal  expiry  of  each  man's  com- 
pulsory active  service.  Rengages  receive  a  bounty,  a  higher 
rate  of  pay  and  a  pension  at  the  conclusion  of  their  service. 


FRANCE 


[ARMY 


The  total  number  of  men  who  had  re-enlisted  stood  in  1903  at 

8594. 

Armament. — The  field  artillery  is  armed  with  the  75  mm.  gun, 
a  shielded  quick-firer  (see  ORDNANCE:  Field  Equipments, 
for  illustration  and  details);  this  weapon  was  the  forerunner 
of  all  modern  models  of  field  gun,  and  is  handled  on  tactical 
principles  specially  adapted  for  it,  which  gives  the  French  field 
artillery  a  unique  position  amongst  the  military  nations.  The 
infantry,  which  was  the  first  in  Europe  to  be  armed  with  the 
magazine  rifle,  still  carries  this,  the  Lebel,  rifle  which  dates  from 
1886.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  a  satisfactory  type  of  auto- 
matic rifle  (see  RIFLE)  has  been  evolved  and  is  now  (1908)  in 
process  of  manufacture.  Details  are  kept  strictly  secret.  The 
cavalry  weapons  are  a  straight  sword  (that  of  the  heavy  cavalry 
is  illustrated  in  the  article  SWORD),  a  bamboo  lance  and  the 
Lebel  carbine. 

It  is  convenient  to  mention  in  this  place  certain  institutions 
attached  to  the  war  department  and  completing  the  French 
military  organization.  The  Hotel  des  Invalides  founded  by 
Louis  XIV.  and  Louvois  is  a  house  of  refuge  for  old  and  infirm 
soldiers  of  all  grades.  The  number  of  the  inmates  is  decreasing; 
but  the  institution  is  an  expensive  one.  In  1875  the  "  Invalides  " 
numbered  642,  and  the  hdtel  cost  the  state  1,123,053  francs. 
The  order  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  is  treated  under  KNIGHTHOOD 
AND  CHIVALRY.  The  medaille  militaire  is  awarded  to  private 
soldiers  and  non-commissioned  officers  who  have  distinguished 
themselves  or  rendered  long  and  meritorious  services.  This 
was  introduced  in  1852,  carries  a  yearly  pension  of  100  frs.  and 
has  been  granted  occasionally  to  officers. 

Fortifications. — After  1870  France  embarked  upon  a  policy 
of  elaborate  frontier  and  inner  defences,  with  the  object  of 
ensuring,  as  against  an  unexpected  German  invasion,  the  time 
necessary  for  the  effective  development  of  her  military  forces, 
which  were  then  in  process  of  reorganization.  Some  information 
as  to  the  types  of  fortification  adopted  in  1870-1875  will  be 
found  in  FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT.  The  general  lines 
of  the  scheme  adopted  were  as  follows:  On  the  Meuse,  which 
forms  the  principal  natural  barrier  on  the  side  of  Lorraine, 
Verdun  (q.v.)  was  fortified  as  a  large  entrenched  camp,  and 
along  the  river  above  this  were  constructed  a  series  of  forts 
d'arret  (see  MEUSE  LINE)  ending  in  another  entrenched  camp 
at  Toul  (q.v.).  From  this  point  a  gap  (the  troupe  d'£pinal)  was 
left,  so  as  "  in  some  sort  to  canalize  the  flow  of  invasion  "  (General 
Bonnal),  until  the  upper  Moselle  was  reached  at  Epinal  (q.v.). 
Here  another  entrenched  camp  was  made  and  from  it  the  "Moselle 
line  "  (q.v.)  of  forts,  d'arret  continues  the  barrier  to  Belfort  (q.v.), 
another  large  entrenched  camp,  beyond  which  a  series  of  fortifica- 
tions at  Montbeliard  and  the  Lomont  range  carries  the  line  of 
defence  to  the  Swiss  border,  which  in  turn  is  protected  by 
works  at  Pontarlier  and  elsewhere.  In  rear  of  these  lines  Verdun- 
Toul  and  Epinal-Belfort,  respectively,  lie  two  large  defended 
areas  in  which  under  certain  circumstances  the  main  armies 
would  assemble  preparatory  to  offensive  movements.  One  of 
these  areas  is  defined  by  the  three  fortresses,  La  Fere,  Laon 
and  Reims,  the  other  by  the  triangle,  Langres — Dijon — Besancon. 
On  the  side  of  Belgium  the  danger  of  irruption  through  neutral 
territory,  which  has  for  many  years  been  foreseen,  is  provided 
against  by  the  fortresses  of  Lille,  Valenciennes  and  Maubeuge, 
but  (with  a  view  to  tempting  the  Germans  to  attack  through 
Luxemburg,  as  is  stated  by  German  authorities)  the  frontier 
between  Maubeuge  and  Verdun  is  left  practically  undefended. 
The  real  defence  of  this  region  lies  in  the  field  army  which  would, 
if  the  case  arose,  assemble  in  the  area  La  Fere-Reims-Laon. 
On  the  Italian  frontier  the  numerous/orts  d'arret  in  the  mountains 
are  strongly  supported  by  the  entrenched  camps  of  Besancon, 
Grenoble  and  Nice.  Behind  all  this  huge  development  of  fixed 
defences  lie  the  central  fortresses  of  Paris  and  Lyons.  The 
defences  of  the  Spanish  frontier  consist  of  the  entrenched  camps 
of  Bayonne  and  Perpignan  and  the  various  small  forts  d'arret 
of  the  Pyrenees.  Of  the  coast  defences  the  principal  are  Toulon, 
Antibes,  Rochefort,  Lorient,  Brest,  Oleron,  La  Rochelle,  Belle- 
Isle,  Cherbourg,  St-Malo,  Havre,  Calais,  Gravelines  and  Dunkirk. 


NAVY] 


FRANCE 


797 


A  number  of  the  older  fortresses,  dating  for  the  most  part  from 
Louis  XIV.'s  time,  are  still  in  existence,  but  are  no  longer  of 
military  importance.  Such  are  Arras,  Longwy,  Mezieres  and 
Montmedy. 

Navy. 

Central  Administration. — The  head  of  the  French  navy  is 
the  Minister  of  Marine,  who  like  the  other  ministers  is  appointed 
by  decree  of  the  head  of  the  state,  and  is  usually  a  civilian. 
He  selects  for  himself  a  staff  of  civilians  (the  cabinet  du  minislre), 
which  is  divided  into  bureaux  for  the  despatch  of  business. 
The  head  of  the  cabinet  prepares  for  the  consideration  of  the 
minister  all  the  business  of  the  navy,  especially  questions  of 
general  importance.  His  chief  professional  assistant  is  the 
chefd'etat-major  general  (chief  of  the  general  staff),  a  vice-admiral, 
who  is  responsible  for  the  organization  of  the  naval  forces,  the 
mobilization  and  movements  of  the  fleet,  &c. 

The  central  organization  also  comprises  a  number  of  depart- 
ments (services)  entrusted  with  the  various  branches  of  naval 
administration,  such  as  administration  of  the  active  fleet,  con- 
struction of  ships,  arsenals,  recruiting,  finance,  &c.  The  minister 
has  the  assistance  of  the  Conseil  superieur  de  la  Marine,  over 
which  he  presides,  consisting  of  three  vice-admirals,  the  chief 
of  staff  and  some  other  members.  The  Conseil  superieur 
devotes  its  attention  to  all  questions  touching  the  fighting 
efficiency  of  the  fleet,  naval  bases  and  arsenals  and  coast  defence. 
Besides  the  Conseil  superieur  the  minister  is  advised  on  a  very 
wide  range  of  naval  topics  (including  pay,  quarters  and  recruiting) 
by  the  Comite  consultatif  de  la  Marine.  Advisory  committees  are 
also  appointed  to  deal  with  special  subjects,  e.g.  the  commissions 
de  classement  which  attend  to  questions  of  promotion  in  the 
various  branches  of  the  navy,  the  naval  works  council  and  others. 

The  French  coast  is  divided  into  five  naval  arrondissements, 
which  have  their  headquarters  at  the  five  naval  ports,  of  which 
Cherbourg,  Brest,  and  Toulon  are  the  most  important,  Lorient 
and  Rochefort  being  of  lesser  degree.  All  are  building  and 
fitting-out  yards.  Each  arrondissement  is  divided  into  sous- 
arrondissements,  having  their  centres  in  the  great  commercial 
ports,  but  this  arrangement  is  purely  for  the  embodiment  of  the 
men  of  the  Inscription  Maritime,  and  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  dockyards  as  naval  arsenals.  In  each  arrondissement 
the  vice-admiral,  who  is  naval  prefect,  is  the  immediate  repre- 
sentative of  the  minister  of  marine,  and  has  full  direction  and 
command  of  the  arsenal,  which  is  his  headquarters.  He  is  thus 
commander-in-chief,  as  also  governor-designate  for  time  of  war, 
but  his  authority  does  not  extend  to  ships  belonging  to  organized 
squadrons  or  divisions.  The  naval  prefect  is  assisted  by  a  rear- 
admiral  as  chief  of  the  staff  (except  at  Lorient  and  Rochefort, 
where  the  office  is  filled  by  a  captain),  and  a  certain  number  of 
other  officers,  the  special  functions  of  the  chief  of  the  staff 
having  relation  principally  to  the  efficiency  and  personnel  of  the 
fleet,  while  the  "  major-general,"  who  is  usually  a  rear-admiral, 
is  concerned  chiefly  with  the  materiel.  There  are  also  directors 
of  stores,  of  naval  construction,  of  the  medical  service,  and  of  the 
submarine  defences  (which  are  concerned  with  torpedoes,  mines 
and  torpedo-boats),  as  well  as  of  naval  ordnance  and  works, 
The  prefect  directs  the  operations  of  the  arsenal,  and  is  responsible 
for  its  efficiency  and  for  that  of  the  ships  which  are  there  in 
reserve.  In  regard  to  the  constitution  and  maintenance  of  the 
naval  forces,  the  administration  of  the  arsenals  is  divided  into 
three  principal  departments,  the  first  concerned  with  naval 
construction,  the  second  with  ordnance,  including  gun-mountings 
and  small-arms,  and  the  third  with  the  so-called  submarine 
defences,  dealing  with  all  torpedo  materiel. 

The  French  navy  is  manned  partly  by  voluntary  enlistment, 
partly  by  the  transference  to  the  navy  of  a  certain  proportion 
of  each  year's  recruits  for  the  army,  but  mainly  by  a  system 
known  as  inscription  maritime.  This  system,  devised  and 
introduced  by  Colbert  in  1681,  has  continued,  with  various 
modifications,  ever  since.  All  French  sailors  between  the  ages 
of  eighteen  and  fifty  must  be  enrolled  as  members  of  the  armee 
de  mer.  The  term  sailor  is  used  in  a  very  wide  sense  and  includes 


all  persons  earning  their  living  by  navigation  on  the  sea,  or  in 
the  harbours  or  roadsteads,  or  on  salt  lakes  or  canals  within 
the  maritime  domain  of  the  state,  or  on  rivers  and  canals  as  far 
as  the  tide  goes  up  or  sea-going  ships  can  pass.  The  inscript 
usually  begins  his  service  at  the  age  of  twenty  and  passes  through 
a  period  of  obligatory  service  lasting  seven  years,  and  generally 
comprising  five  years  of  active  service  and  two  years  furlough. 

Besides  the  important  harbours  already  referred  to,  the 
French  fleet  has  naval  bases  at  Oran  in  Algeria,  Bizerta  in 
Tunisia,  Saigon  in  Cochin  China  and  Hongaj  in  Tongking,  Diego- 
Suarez  in  Madagascar,  Dakar  in  Senegal,  Fort  de  France  in 
Martinique,  Noumea  in  New  Caledonia. 

The  ordnance  department  of  the  navy  is  carried  on  by  a  large 
detachment  of  artillery  officers  and  artificers  provided  by  the 
war  office  for  this  special  duty. 

The  fleet  is  divided  into  the  Mediterranean  squadron,  the 
Northern  squadron,  the  Atlantic  division,  the  Far  Eastern 
division,  the  Pacific  division,  the  Indian  Ocean  division,  the 
Cochin  China  division. 

The  chief  naval  school  is  the  £cole  nawle  at  Brest,  which  is 
devoted  to  the  training  of  officers;  the  age  of  admission  is  from 
fifteen  to  eighteen  years,  and  pupils  after  completing  their  course 
pass  a  year  on  a  frigate  school.  At  Paris  there  is  a  more  advanced 
school  (£cole  superieure  de  la  Marine)  for  the  supplementary 
training  of  officers.  Other  schools  are  the  school  of  naval 
medicine  at  Bordeaux  with  annexes  at  Toulon,  Brest  and  Roche- 
fort;  schools  of  torpedoes  and  mines  and  of  gunnery  at  Toulon, 
&c.,  &c.  The  ecoles  d'hydrographie  established  at  various  ports 
are  for  theoretical  training  for  the  higher  grades  of  the  merchant 
service.  (See  also  NAVY.) 

The  total  personnel  of  the  armee  de  mer  in  1909  is  given  as 
56,800  officers  and  men.  As  to  the  number  of  vessels,  which 
fluctuates  from  month  to  month,  little  can  be  said  that  is  whojly 
accurate  at  any  given  moment,  but,  very  roughly,  the  French 
navy  in  1909  included  25  battleships,  7  coast  defence  ironclads, 
19  armoured  cruisers,  36  protected  cruisers,  22  sloops,  gunboats, 
&c.,  45  destroyers,  319  torpedo  boats,  71  submersibles  and 
submarines  and  8  auxiliary  cruisers.  It  was  stated  that,  according 
to  proposed  arrangements,  the  principal  fighting  elements  of 
the  fleet  would  be,  in  1919,  34  battleships,  36  armoured  cruisers, 
6  smaller  cruisers  of  modern  type,  109  destroyers,  170  torpedo 
boats  and  171  submersibles  and  submarines.  The  budgetary 
cost  of  the  navy  in  1908  was  stated  as  312,000,000  fr. 
(£12,480,000).  (C.  F.  A.) 

Education. 

The  burden  of  public  instruction  in  France  is  shared  by  the 
communes,  departments  and  state,  while  side  by  side  with  the 
public  schools  of  all  grades  are  private  schools  subjected  to 
a  state  supervision  and  certain  restrictions.  At  the  head  of  the 
whole  organization  is  the  minister  of  public  instruction.  He 
is  assisted  and  advised  by  the  superior  council  of  public  instruc- 
tion, over  which  he  presides. 

France  is  divided  into  sixteen  academies  or  educational  districts, 
having  their  centres  at  the  seats  of  the  universities.  The  capitals 
of  these  academies,  together  with  the  departments  included  in 
them,  are  tabulated  below: 

Academies.  Departments  included  in  them. 

PARIS       ....  Seine,  Cher,  Eure-et-Loir,  Loir-et-Cher,Loiret, 

Marne,  Oise,  Seine-et-Marne,  Seine-et-Oise. 
Aix Bouches-du-Rh6ne,  Basses-AIpes,Alpes-Mari- 

times,  Corse,  Var,  Vaucluse. 
BESANCON     .      .      .   Doubs,     Jura,    Haute-Sa6ne,    Territoire    de 

Belfort. 
BORDEAUX   .      .      .   Gironde,   Dordogne,  Landes,  Lot-et-Garonne, 

Basses-  Pyrenees. 
CAEN       ....   Calvados,  Eure,  Manche,  Orne,  Sarthe,  Seine- 

Inferieure. 

CHAMBERY    .      .      .   Savoie,  Haute-Savoie. 
CLERMONT-FERRAND  Puy-de-D6me,  Allier,  Cantal,  Correze,  Creuse, 

Haute-Loire. 

DIJON C6te-d'Or,Aube,  Haute-Marne,Nievre,Yonne. 

GRENOBLE     .      .      .   Isere,  Hautes-Alpes,  Ardeche,  Dr6me. 
LILLE       ....   Nord.Aisne,  Ardennes,  Pas-de-Calais,  Somme. 
LYONS      ....    Rh6ne,  Ain,  Loire,  Sa6ne-et-Loire. 


FRANCE 


[EDUCATION 


Academies.  Departments  included  in  them. 

MONTPELLIER    .     .   Herault,    Aude,    Card,    Lozere,     Pyrenees- 

Orientales. 

NANCY     ....   Meurthe-et-Moselle,  Meuse,  Vosges. 
POITIERS        .      .      .   Vienne,  Charente,  Charente-Inferieure,  Indre, 

Indre-et-Loire,  Deux-Sevres,  Vendee,  Haute- 

Vienne. 
RENNES   ....   Ille-et-Vilaine.Cotes-du-Nprd,  Finistere,Loire- 

Inferieure,  Maine-et-Loire,  Mayenne,  Mor- 

bihan. 
TOULOUSE     .      .      .   Haute-Garonne,  Ariege,  Aveyron,  Gers,  Lot, 

Hautes-Pyrenees,  Tarn,  Tarn-et-Garonne. 
There  is  also  an  academic  comprising  Algeria. 

For  the  administrative  organization  of  education  in  France 
see  EDUCATION. 

Any  person  fulfilling  certain  legal  requirements  with  regard 
to  capacity,  age  and  character  may  set  up  privately  an  educational 
establishment  of  any  grade,  but  by  the  law  of  1904  all  religious 
congregations  are  prohibited  from  keeping  schools  of  any  kind 
whatever. 

Primary  Instruction. — All  primary  public  instruction  is  free  and 
compulsory  for  children  of  both  sexes  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
thirteen,  but  if  a  child  can  gain  a  certificate  of  primary  studies  at  the 
age  of  eleven  or  after,  he  may  be  excused  the  rest  of  the  period 
demanded  by  law.  A  child  may  receive  instruction  in  a  public  or 
private  school  or  at  home.  But  if  the  parents  wish  him  to  be 
taught  in  a  private  school  they  must  give  notice  to  the  mayor  of 
the  commune  of  their  intention  and  the  school  chosen.  If  educated 
at  home,  the  child  (after  two  years  of  the  compulsory  period  has 
expired)  must  undergo  a  yearly  examination,  and  if  it  is  unsatis- 
factory the  parents  will  be  compelled  to  send  him  to  a  public  or 
private  school. 

Each  commune  is  in  theory  obliged  to  maintain  at  least  one 
public  primary  school,  but  with  the  approval  of  the  minister,  the 
departmental  council  may  authorize  a  commune  to  combine  with 
other  communes  in  the  upkeep  of  a  school.  If  the  number  of  in- 
habitants exceed  500,  the  commune  must  also  provide  a  special 
school  for  girls,  unless  the  Departmental  Council  authorizes  it  to 
substitute  a  mixed  school.  Each  department  is  bound  to  maintain 
two  primary  training  colleges,  one  for  masters,  the  other  for  mistresses 
of  primary  schools.  There  are  two  higher  training  colleges  of 
primary  instruction  at  Fontenay-aux-Roses  and  St  Cloud  for  the 
training  of  mistresses  and  masters  of  training  colleges  and  higher 
primary  schools. 

The  Laws  of  1882  and  1886  "  laicized  "  the  schools  of  this  class, 
the  former  suppressing  religious  instruction,  the  latter  providing 
that  only  laymen  should  be  eligible  for  masterships.  There  were 
also  a  great  many  schools  in  the  control  of  various  religious  congre- 
gations, but  a  law  of  1904  required  that  they  should  all  be  suppressed 
within  ten  years  from  the  date  of  its  enactment. 

Public  primary  schools  include  (l)  ecoles  maternelles — infant 
schools  for  children  from  two  to  six  years  old;  (2)  elementary 
primary  schools — these  are  the  ordinary  schools  for  children  from 
six  to  thirteen;  (3)  higher  primary  schools  (ecoles  primaires 
superieures')  and  "supplementary  courses";  these  admit  pupils 
who  have  gained  the  certificate  of  primary  elementary  studies 
(certificat  d' etudes  primaires),  offer  a  more  advanced  course  and 
prepare  for  technical  instruction;  (4)  primary  technical  schools 
(ecoles  manuelles  d'apprentissage,  ecoles  primaires  superieures^  pro- 
fessionnelles)  kept  by  the  communes  or  departments.  Primary 
courses  for  adults  are  instituted  by  the  prefect  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  municipal  council  and  academy  inspector. 

Persons  keeping  private  primary  schools  are  free  with  regard  to 
their  methods,  programmes  and  books  employed,  except  that  they 
may  not  use  books  expressly  prohibited  by  the  superior  council  of 
public  instruction.  Before  opening  a  private  school  the  person 
proposing  to  do  so  must  give  notice  to  the  mayor,  prefect  and  academy 
inspector,  and  forward  his  diplomas  and  other  particulars  to  the 
latter  official. 

Secondary  Education.- — Secondary  education  is  given  by  the  state 
in  lycees,  by  the  communes  in  colleges  and  by  private  individuals 
and  associations  in  private  secondary  schools.  It  is  not  compulsory, 
nor  is  it  entirely  gratuitous,  but  the  fees  are  small  and  the  state 
offers  a  great  many  scholarships,  by  means  of  which  a  clever  child 
can  pay  for  its  own  instruction.  Cost  of  tuition  (simply)  ranges 
from  £2  to  £16  a  year.  The  lycees  also  take  boarders — the  cost  of 
boarding  ranging  from  £22  to  £52  a  year.  A  lycee  is  founded  in  a 
town  by  decree  of  the  president  of  the  republic,  with  the  advice  of 
the  superior  council  of  public  instruction.  The  municipality  has  to 
pay  the  cost  of  building,  furnishing  and  upkeep.  At  the  head  of 
the  lycee  is  the  principal  (proviseur),  an  official  nominated  by  the 
minister,  and  assisted  by  a  teaching  staff  of  professors  and  charges 
de  cours  or  teachers  of  somewhat  lower  standing.  To  become  pro- 
fessor in  a  lycee  it  is  necessary  to  pass  an  examination  known  as  the 
"  agregation,"  candidates  for  which  must  be  licentiates  of  a  faculty 
(or  have  passed  through  the  &ole  normale  superieure). 

The  system  of  studies — reorganized   in   1902 — embraces  a  full 


curriculum  of  seven  years,  which  is  divided  into  two  periods.  The 
first  lasts  four  years,  and  at  the  end  of  this  the  pupil  may  obtain 
(after  examination)  the  "  certificate  of  secondary  studies."  During 
the  second  period  the  pupil  has  a  choice  of  four  courses:  (l)  Latin 
and  Greek;  (2)  Latin  and  sciences;  (3)  Latin  and  modern  languages; 
(4)  sciences  and  modern  languages.  At  the  end  of  this  period  he 
presents  himself  for  a  degree  called  the  Baccalaureat  de  I' enseignement 
secondaire.  This  is  granted  (after  two  examinations)  by  the  faculties 
of  letters  and  sciences  jointly  (see  below),  and  in  most  cases  it  is 
necessary  for  a  student  to  hold  this  general  degree  before  he  may  be 
enrolled  in  a  particular  faculty  of  a  university  and  proceed  to  a 
Baccalaureat  in  a  particular  subject,  such  as  law,  theology  or 
medicine. 

The  colleges,  though  of  a  lower  grade,  are  in  most  respects  similar 
to  the  lycees,  but  they  are  financed  by  the  communes:  the  professors 
may  have  certain  less  important  qualifications  in  lieu  of  the  "  agre- 
gation." Private  secondary  schools  are  subjected  to  state  inspection. 
The  teachers  must  not  belong  to  any  congregation,  and  must  have  a 
diploma  of  aptitude  for  teaching  and  the  degree  of  "  licencie."  The 
establishment  of  lycees  for  girls  was  first  attempted  in  1880.  They 
give  an  education  similar  to  that  offered  in  the  lycees  for  boys — 
with  certain  modifications — in  a  curriculum  of  five  or  six  years. 
There  is  a  training-college  for  teachers  in  secondary  schools  for  girls 
at  Sevres. 

Higher  education  is  given  by  the  state  in  the  universities,  and  in 
special  higher  schools;  and,  since  the  law  of  1875  established  the 
freedom  of  higher  education,  by  private  individuals  and  bodies  in 
private  schools  and  "  faculties  "  (facultes  libres).  The  law  of  1880 
reserved  to  the  state  "  faculties  "  the  right  to  confer  degrees,  and 
the  law  of  1896  established  various  universities  each  containing  one 
or  more  faculties.  There  are  five  kinds  of  faculties:  medicine, 
letters,  science,  law  and  Protestant  theology.  The  faculties  of 
letters  and  sciences,  besides  granting  the  Baccalaureat  de  I' enseigne- 
ment secondaire,  confer  the  degrees  of  licentiate  and  doctor  (la 
Licence,  le  Doctoral}.  The  faculties  of  medicine  confer  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  medicine.  The  faculties  of  theology  confer  the  degrees 
of  bachelor,  licentiate  and  doctor  of  theology.  The  faculties  of  law 
confer  the  same  degrees  in  law  and  also  grant  "  certificates  of 
capacity,"  which  enable  the  holder  to  practise  as  an  avoue;  a 
licence  is  necessary  for  the  profession  of  barrister.  Students  of  the 
private  faculties  have  to  be  examined  by  and  take  their  degrees 
from  the  state  faculties.  There  are  2  faculties  of  Protestant  theology 
(Paris  and  Montauban) ;  12  faculties  of  law  (Paris,  Aix,  Bordeaux, 
Caen,  Grenoble,  Lille,  Lyons,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  Poitiers,  Rennes, 
Toulouse);  3  faculties  of  medicine  (Paris,  Montpellier  and  Nancy), 
and  4  joint  faculties  of  medicine  and  pharmacy  (Bordeaux,  Lille, 
Lyons,  Toulouse);  15  faculties  of  sciences  (Paris,  Besancon,  Bor- 
deaux, Caen,  Clermont,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille,  Lyons,  Marseilles, 
Montpellier,  Nancy,  Poitiers,  Rennes,  Toulouse) ;  15  faculties  of 
letters  (at  the  same  towns,  substituting  Aix  for  Marseilles).  The 
private  faculties  are  at  Paris  (the  Catholic  Institute  with  a  faculty 
of  law) ;  Angers  (law,  science  and  letters) ;  Lille  (law,  medicine 
and  pharmacy,  science,  letters) ;  Lyons  (law,  science,  letters) ; 
Marseilles  (law) ;  Toulouse  (Catholic  Institute  with  faculties  of 
theology  and  letters).  The  work  of  the  faculties  of  medicine  and 
pharmacy  is  in  some  measure  shared  by  the  ecoles  superieures  de 
pharmacie  (Paris,  Montpellier,  Nancy),  which  grant  the  highest 
degrees  in  pharmacy,  and  by  the  ecoles  de  plein  exercice  de  medecine 
et  de  pharmacie  (Marseilles,  Rennes  and  Nantes)  and  the  more 
numerous  ecoles  preparatoires  de  medecine  et  de  pharmacie;  there 
are  also  ecoles  preparatoires  a  I' enseignement  superieur  des  sciences  et 
des  lettres  at  Chambery,  Rouen  and  Nantes. 

Besides  the  faculties  there  are  a  number  of  institutions,  both 
state-supported  and  private,  giving  higher  instruction  of  various 
special  kinds.  In  the  first  class  must  be  mentioned  the  College  de 
France,  founded  1530,  giving  courses  of  highest  study  of  all  sorts, 
the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  the  Ecole  des  Chartes  (palaeography 
and  archives),  the  School  of  Modern  Oriental  Languages,  the  Ecole 
Pratique  des  Hautes  Etudes  (scientific  research),  &c.  All  these 
institutions  are  in  Paris.  The  most  important  free  institution  in 
this  class  is  the  Ecole  des  Sciences  Politiques,  which  prepares  pupils 
for  the  civil  services  and  teaches  a  great  number  of  political  subjects, 
connected  with  France  and  foreign  countries,  not  included  in  the 
state  programmes. 

Commercial  and  technical  instruction  is  given  in  various  in- 
stitutions comprising  national  establishments  such  as  the  ecoles 
nationales  professionnelles  of  Armentieres,  Vierzon,  Voiron  and 
Nantes  for  the  education  of  working  men ;  the  more  advanced  ecoles 
d'  arts  et  metiers  of  Chalons,  Angers,  Aix,  Lille  and  Cluny ;  and  the 
Central  School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures  at  Paris ;  schools  depending 
on  the  communes  and  state  in  combination,  e.g.  the  ecoles  pratiques 
de  commerce  et  d' Industrie  for  the  training  of  clerks  and  workmen; 
private  schools  controlled  by  the  state,  such  as  the  ecoles  superieures 
de  commerce;  certain  municipal  schools,  such  as  the  Industrial 
Institute  of  Lille;  and  private  establishments,  e.g.  the  school  of 
watch-making  at  Paris.  At  Paris  the  Ecole  Superieure  des  Mines 
and  the  Ecole  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees  are  controlled  by  the  minister 
of  public  works,  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  the  Ecole  des  Arts 
Decoratifs  and  the  Conservatoire  National  de  Musique  et  de  De- 
clamation by  the  under-secretary  for  fine  arts,  and  other  schools 


COLONIES] 


FRANCE 


799 


mentioned  elsewhere  are  attached  to  several  of  the  ministries.  In 
the  provinces  there  are  national  schools  of  fine  art  and  of  music  and 
other  establishments  and  free  subventioned  schools. 

In  addition  to  the  educational  work  done  by  the  state,  communes 
and  private  individuals,  there  exist  in  France  a  good  many  societies 
which  disseminate  instruction  by  giving  courses  of  lectures  and 
holding  classes  both  for  children  and  adults.  Examples  of  such 
bodies  are  the  Society  for  Elementary  Instruction,  the  Polytechnic 
Association,  the  Philotechnic  Association  and  the  French  Union  of 
the  Young  at  Paris;  the  Philomathic  Society  of  Bordeaux;  the 
Popular  Education  Society  at  Havre;  the  Rhone  Society  of  Pro- 
fessional Instruction  at  Lyons;  the  Industrial  Society  of  Amiens 
and  others. 

The  highest  institution  of  learning  is  the  Institut  de  France, 
founded  and  kept  up  by  the  French  govern- 
ment on  behalf  of  science  and  literature, 
and  composed  of  five  academies:  the 
Academie  fran^aise,  the  Academic  des  In- 
scriptions et  Belles-Lettres,  the  Academie  des 
Sciences,  the  Academie  des  Beaux- Arts 
and  the  Academie  des  Sciences  Morales 
et  Politigues  (see  ACADEMIES).  The 
Academie  de  Medecine  is  a  separate  body. 

Poor  Relief  (Assistance  publique). — In 
France  the  pauper,  as  such,  has  no  legal 
claim  to  help  from  the  community,  which 
however,  is  bound  to  providefordestitute 
children  (see  FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS) 
and  pauper  lunatics  (both  these  being 
under  the  care  of  the  department),  aged 
and  infirm  people  without  resources  and 
victims  of  incurable  illness,  and  to  furnish 
medical  assistance  gratuitously  to  those 
without  resources  who  are  afflicted  with 
curable  illness.  The  funds  for  these 
purposes  are  provided  by  thedepartment, 
the  commune  and  the  central  authority. 

There  are  four  main  types  of  public 
benevolent  institutions,  all  of  which  are 
communal  in  character:  (l)  The  hopital, 
for  maternity  cases  and  cases  of  curable 
illness;  (2)  the  hospice,  where  the  aged 
poor,  cases  of  incurable  malady,  orphans, 
foundlings  and  other  children  without 
means  of  support,  and  in  some  cases 
lunatics,  are  received;  (3)  the  bureau  de 
bien-faisance,  charged  with  the  provision  of 
out-door  relief  (secours  a  domicile)  in  money 
or  in  kind,  to  the  aged  poor  or  those  who, 
though  capable  of  working,  are  prevented 
from  doing  so  by  illness  or  strikes;  (4) 
the  bureau  d'assistance,  which  dispenses 
free  medical  treatment  to  the  destitute. 

These  institutions  are  under  the  super- 
vision of  a  branch  of  the  ministry  of  the 
interior.  The  hospices  and  hopitaux  and 
the  bureaux  de  bienfaisance,  the  founda- 
tion of  which  is  optional  for  the  commune, 
are  managed  by  committees  consisting  of 
the  mayor  of  the  municipality  and  six 
members,  two  elected  by  the  municipal 
council  and  four  nominated  by  the  prefect. 
The  members  of  these  committees  are  un- 
paid, and  have  no  concern  with  ways  and 
means  which  are  in  the  hands  of  a  paid 
treasurer  (receveur).  The  bureaux  de  bien- 
faisance in  the  larger  centres  are  aided  by 
unpaid  workers  (commissaires  or  dames 
de  charile),  and  in  the  big  towns  by  paid 
inquiry  officers.  Bureaux  d'assistance  exist  in  every  commune, 


Colonies. 


In  the  extent  and  importance  of  her  colonial  dominion  France 
is  second  only  to  Great  Britain.  The  following  table  gives 
the  name,  area  and  population  of  each  colony  and  protectorate 
as  well  as  the  date  of  acquisition  or  establishment  of  a  pro- 
tectorate. It  should  be  noted  that  the  figures  for  area  and 
population  are,  as  a  rule,  only  estimates,  but  in  most  instances 
they  probably  approximate  closely  to  accuracy.  Detailed 
notices  of  the  separate  countries  will  be  found  under  their 
several  heads: 


Colony. 

Date  of 
Acquisition. 

Area  in  sq.  m. 

Population. 

In  Asia  — 

Establishments  in  India.        .        .        . 

1683-1750 

200 

273,000 

In  Indo-China  — 

188-1 

60,000 

6,000,000 

Cambodia        

T**w 

1863 

65,000 

1  ,500,000 

Cochin-China  

1862 

22,000 

3,000,000 

Tongking         < 

1883 

46,000 

6,000,000 

Laos  .                .        ...        .        .       .        . 

1893 

100,000 

600,000 

Kwang-Chow-Wan        

1898 

325 

189,000 

Total  in  Asia    

.. 

293-525 

17,562,000 

In  Africa  and  the  Indian  Ocean  — 

Algeria       '     . 

1830-1847 

185,000 

5,231,850 

Algerian  Sahara       

1872-1890 

760,000 

Tunisia      

1881 

51,000 

2,000,000 

West  Africa  —  • 

Senegal      

1626 

74,000 

1  ,800,000 

Upper  Senegal  and  Niger  (including  part  of 

Sahara)      

1880 

1,580,000 

4,000,000 

Guinea       . 

1848 

107,000 

2,500,000 

Ivory  Coast      

1842 

129,000 

2,000,000 

Dahomey  ...                .... 
Congo  (French  Equatorial  Africa)  — 

1863-1894 

40,000 

1,000,000 

Gabun       

1839       ) 

376,000 

Mid.  Congo      

1882       [ 

700,000 

259,000 

Ubangi-Chad    

1885-1899  } 

3,015,000 

Madagascar        •       -,« 
Nossi-be  Island        

1885-1896) 
1840       [ 

228,000 

2,664,000 

Ste  Marie  Island      

1750       ) 

Comoro  Islands        

1843-1886 

760 

82,000 

Somali  Coast      

1862-1884 

12,000 

50,000 

Reunion       

1643 

965  N 

173-315 

St  Paul         ) 
Amsterdam  $ 

1892 

3) 

19  ( 

uninhabited 

Kerguelen1  

1893 

1,400  ) 

Total  in  Africa  and  Indian  Ocean. 

3-869,147 

25,151,165 

In  America  — 

Guiana       

1626 

51,000 

30,000 

Guadeloupe      

1634 

619 

182,112 

Martinique        

1635 

380 

182,024 

St  Pierre  and  Miquelon          .... 

1635 

92 

6,500 

Total  in  America     .... 

52,092 

400,636 

In  Oceania  — 

New  Caledonia  and  Dependencies 

1854-1887 

7,500 

72,000 

Establishments  in  Oceania     .... 

1841-1881 

1,641 

34,300 

Total  in  Oceania      .... 

9,Hi 

106,300 

Grand  Total 

4,223,905 

43,220,101 

and 


are  managed  by  the  combined  committees  of  the  hospices  and  the 
bureaux  de  bienfaisance  or  by  one  of  these  in  municipalities,  where 
only  one  of  those  institutions  exists. 

No  poor-rate  is  levied  in  France.      Funds  for  h6pitals,  hospices 
and  bureaux  de  bienfaisance  comprise : 

1.  A  10%  surtax  on  the  fees  of  admission  to  places  of    public 

amusement. 

2.  A  proportion  of  the  sums  payable  in  return  for  concessions   of 

land  in  municipal  cemeteries. 

3.  Profits  of  the  communal  Monts  de  Piete  (pawn-shops). 

4.  Donations,    bequests    and    the    product    of     collections     in 

churches. 

5.  The  product  of  certain  fines. 

6.  Subventions  from  the  departments  and  communes. 

7.  Income  from  endowments.  (R.  TR.) 


It  will  be  seen  that  nearly  all  the  colonies  and  protectorates  lie 
within  the  tropics.  The  only  countries  in  which  there  is  a  con- 
siderable white  population  are  Algeria,  Tunisia  and  New  Caledonia. 
The  "  year  of  acquisition  "  in  the  table,  when  one  date  only  is  given, 
indicates  the  period  when  the  country  or  some  part  of  it  first  fell  under 
French  influence,  and  does  not  imply  continuous  possession  since. 

Government. — The  principle  underlying  the  administration 
of  the  French  possessions  overseas,  from  the  earliest  days  until 
the  close  of  the  igth  century,  was  that  of  "  domination  "  and 
"  assimilation,"  notwithstanding  that  after  the  loss  of  Canada 
and  the  sale  of  Louisiana  France  ceased  to  hold  any  considerable 
colony  in  which  Europeans  could  settle  in  large  numbers.  With 

1  Kerguelen  lies  in  the  Great  Southern  Ocean,  but  is  included  here 
for  the  sake  of  convenience. 


8oo 


FRANCE 


[COLONIES 


the  vast  extension  of  the  colonial  empire  in  tropical  countries 
in  the  last  quarter  of  the  igth  century  the  evils  of  the  system 
of  assimilation,  involving  also  intense  centralization,  became 
obvious.  This,  coupled  with  the  realization  of  the  fact  that 
the  value  to  France  of  her  colonies  was  mainly  commercial, 
led  at  length  to  the  abandonment  of  the  attempt  to  impose 
on  a  great  number  of  diverse  peoples,  some  possessing  (as  in 
Indo-China  and  parts  of  West  Africa)  ancient  and  highly  complex 
civilizations,  French  laws,  habits  of  mind,  tastes  and  manners. 
For  the  policy  of  assimilation  there  was  substituted  the  policy 
of  "  association,"  which  had  for  aim  the  development  of  the 
colonies  and  protectorates  upon  natural,  i.e.  national,  lines. 
Existing  civilizations  were  respected,  a  considerable  degree  of 
autonomy  was  granted,  and  every  effort  made  to  raise  the  moral 
and  economic  status  of  the  natives.  The  first  step  taken  in 
this  direction  was  in  1900  when  a  law  was  passed  which  laid 
down  that  the  colonies  were  to  provide  for  their  own  civil  ex- 
penditure. This  law  was  followed  by  further  measures  tending 
to  decentralization  and  the  protection  of  the  native  races. 

The  system  of  administration  bears  nevertheless  many  marks 
of  the  "  assimilation  "  era.  None  of  the  French  possessions 
is  self-governing  in  the  manner  of  the  chief  British  colonies. 
Several  colonies,  however,  elect  members  of  the  French  legisla- 
ture, in  which  body  is  the  power  of  fixing  the  form  of  govern- 
ment and  the  laws  of  each  colony  or  protectorate.  In  default 
of  legislation  the  necessary  measures  are  taken  by  decree  of  the 
head  of  the  state;  these  decrees  having  the  force  of  law.  A 
partial  exception  to  this  rule  is  found  in  Algeria,  where  all  laws 
in  force  in  France  before  the  conquest  of  the  country  are  also 
(in  theory,  not  in  practice)  in  force  in  Algeria.  In  all  colonies 
Europeans  preserve  the  political  rights  they  held  in  France, 
and  these  rights  have  been  extended,  in  whole  or  in  part,  to 
various  classes  of  natives.  Where  these  rights  have  not  been 
conferred,  native  races  are  subjects  and  not  citizens.  To  this 
rule  Tunisia  presents  an  exception,  Tunisians  retaining  their 
nationality  and  laws. 

In  addition  to  Algeria,  which  sends  three  senators  and  six 
deputies  to  Paris  and  is  treated  in  many  respects  not  as  a  colony 
but  as  part  of  France,  the  colonies  represented  in  the  legislature 
are:  Martinique,  Guadeloupe  and  Reunion  (each  electing  one 
senator  and  two  deputies),  French  India  (one  senator  and  one 
deputy),  Guiana,  Senegal  and  Cochin-China  (one  deputy  each). 
The  franchise  in  the  three  first-named  colonies  is  enjoyed  by  all 
classes  of  inhabitants,  white,  negro  and  mulatto,  who  are  all 
French  citizens.  In  India  the  franchise  is  exercised  without 
distinction  of  colour  or  nationality;  in  Senegal  the  electors 
are  the  inhabitants  (black  and  white)  of  the  communes  which 
have  been  given  full  powers.  In  Guiana  and  Cochin-China 
the  franchise  is  restricted  to  citizens,  in  which  category  the 
natives  (in  those  colonies)  are  not  included.1  The  inhabitants 
of  Tahiti  though  accorded  French  citizenship  have  not  been 
allotted  a  representative  in  parliament.  The  colonial  repre- 
sentatives enjoy  equal  rights  with  those  elected  for  constituencies 
in  France. 

The  oversight  of  all  the  colonies  and  protectorates  save 
Algeria  and  Tunisia  is  confided  to  a  minister  of  the  colonies 
(law  of  March  20,  i894)2  whose  powers  correspond  to  those 
exercised  in  France  by  the  minister  of  the  interior.  The  colonial 
army  is  nevertheless  attached  (law  of  1900)  to  the  ministry  of  war. 
The  colonial  minister  is  assisted  by  a  number  of  organizations 
of  which  the  most  important  is  the  superior  council  of  the  colonies 
(created  by  decree  in  1883),  an  advisory  body  which  includes 
the  senators  and  deputies  elected  by  the  colonies,  and  delegates 
elected  by  the  universal  suffrage  of  all  citizens  in  the  colonies 
and  protectorates  which  do  not  return  members  to  parliament. 
To  the  ministry  appertains  the  duty  of  fixing  the  duties  on  foreign 
produce  in  those  colonies  which  have  not  been,  by  law,  subjected 
to  the  same  tariff  as  in  France.  (Nearly  all  the  colonies  save  those 

1  In  1906  the  number  of  registered  electors  in  these  colonies  was 
199,055,  of  whom  106,695  exercised  their  suffrage. 

2  In  the  case  of  Madagascar  by  decree  of  the  nth  of  December 
1895- 


of  West  Africa  and  the  Congo  have  been,  with  certain  modifica- 
tions, placed  under  the  French  tariff.)  The  budget  of  all  colonies 
not  possessing  a  council  general  (see  below)  must  also  be  approved 
by  the  minister.  Each  colony  and  protectorate,  including 
Algeria,  has  a  separate  budget.  As  provided  by  the  law  of  1900 
all  local  charges  are  borne  by  the  colonies — supplemented  at 
need  by  grants  in  aid— but  the  military  expenses  are  borne  by 
the  state.  In  all  the  colonies  the  judicature  has  been  rendered 
independent  of  the  executive. 

The  colonies  are  divisible  into  two  classes,  (i)  those  possessing 
considerable  powers  of  local  self-government,  (2)  those  in  which 
the  local  government  is  autocratic.  To  this  second  class  may 
be  added  the  protectorates  (and  some  colonies)  where  the  native 
form  of  government  is  maintained  under  the  supervision  of 
French  officials. 

Class  (i)  includes  the  American  colonies,  Reunion,  French 
India,  Senegal,  Cochin-China  and  New  Caledonia.  In  these 
colonies  the  system  of  assimilation  was  carried  to  great  lengths. 
At  the  head  of  the  administration  is  a  governor  under  whom  is 
a  secretary-general,  who  replaces  him  at  need.  The  governor  is 
aided  by  a  privy  council,  an  advisory  body  to  which  the  governor 
nominates  a  minority  of  unofficial  members,  and  a  council  general, 
to  which  is  confided  the  control  of  local  affairs,  including  the 
voting  of  the  budget.  The  councils  general  are  elected  by 
universal  suffrage  of  all  citizens  and  those  who,  though  not 
citizens,  have  been  granted  the  political  franchise.  In  Cochin- 
China.  in  place  of  a  council  general,  there  is  a  colonial  council 
which  fulfils  the  functions  of  a  council  general. 

In  the  second  class  of  colonies  the  governor,  sometimes 
assisted  by  a  privy  council,  on  which  non-official  members  find 
seats,  sometimes  simply  by  a  council  of  administration,  is  re- 
sponsible only  to  the  minister  of  the  colonies.  In  Indo-China, 
West  Africa,  French  Congo  and  Madagascar,  the  colonies  and 
protectorates  are  grouped  under  governors-general,  and  to  these 
high  officials  extensive  powers  have  been  granted  by  presidential 
decree.  The  colonies  under  the  governor-general  of  West 
Africa  are  ruled  by  lieutenant-governors  with  restricted  powers, 
the  budget  of  each  colony  being  fixed  by  the  governor-general, 
who  is  assisted  fey  an  advisory  government  council  comprising 
representatives  of  all  the  colonies  under  his  control.  In  Indo- 
China  the  governor-general  has  under  his  authority  thelieutenant- 
governor  of  the  colony  of  Cochin-China,  and  the  residents 
superior  at  the  courts  of  the  kings  of  Cambodia  and  Annam 
and  in  Tongking  (nominally  a  viceroyalty  of  Annam).  There 
is  a  superior  council  for  the  whole  of  Indo-China  on  which  the 
natives  and  the  European  commercial  community  are  repre- 
sented, while  in  Cochin-China  a  privy  council,  and  in  the  pro- 
tectorates a  council  of  the  protectorate,  assists  in  the  work  of 
administration.  In  each  of  the  governments  general  there  is 
a  financial  controller  with  extensive  powers  who  corresponds 
directly  with  the  metropolitan  authorities  (decree  of  March  22, 
1907).  Details  and  local  differences  in  form  of  government  will 
be  found  under  the  headings  of  the  various  colonies  and  pro- 
tectorates. 

Colonial  Finance. — The  cost  of  the  extra-European  possessions, 
other  than  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  to  the  state  is  shown  in  the  expenses 
of  the  colonial  ministry.  In  the  budget  of  1885  these  expenses 
were  put  at  £1,380,000;  in  1895  they  had  increased  to  £3,200,000 
and  in  1900  to  £5,100,000.  In  1905  they  were  placed  at  £4,431,000. 
Fully  three-fourths  of  the  state  contributions  is  expenditure  on 
military  necessities;  in  addition  there  are  subventions  to  various 
colonies  and  to  colonial  railways  and  cables,  and  the  expenditure  on 
the  penitentiary  establishments ;  an  item  not  properly  chargeable 
to  the  colonies.  In  return  the  state  receives  the  produce  of  convict 
labour  in  Guiana  and  New  Caledonia.  Save  for  the  small  item  of 
military  expenditure  Tunisia  is  no  charge  to  the  French  exchequer. 
The  similar  expenses  of  Algeria  borne  by  the  state  are  not  separately 
shown,  but  are  estimated  at  £2,000,000. 

The  colonial  budgets  totalled  in  1907  some  £16,760,000,  being 
divisible  into  six  categories:  Algeria  £4,120,000;  Tunisia  £3,640,000; 
Indo-China3  about  £5,000,000;  West  Africa  £1,600,000;  Madagascar 
£960,000;  all  other  colonies  combined  £1,440,000. 

3  The  Indo-China  budget  is  reckoned  in  piastres,  a  silver  coin  of 
fluctuating  value  (is.  lod.  to  2s.).  The  budget  of  1907  balanced  at 
50,000,000  piastres. 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


801 


The  authorized  colonial  loans,  omitting  Algeria  and  Tunisia, 
during  the  period  1884—1904  amounted  to  £19,200,000,  the  sums 
paid  for  interest  and  sinking  funds  on  loans  varying  from  £600,000 
to  £800,000  a  year.  The  amount  of  French  capital  invested  in 
French  colonies  and  protectorates,  including  Algeria  and  Tunisia, 
was  estimated  in  1905  at  £120,000,000,  French  capital  invested  in 
foreign  countries  at  the  same  date  being  estimated  at  ten  times  that 
amount  (see  Ques,  Dip.  el  Col.,  February  16,  1905). 

Commerce. — The  value  of  the  external  trade  of  the  French  posses- 
sions, exclusive  of  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  increased  in  the  ten  years 
1896-1905  from  £18,784,060  to  £34,957,479.  In  the  last-named 
year  the  commerce  of  Algeria  amounted  to  £24,506,020  and  that  of 
Tunisia  to  £5,969,248,  making  a  grand  total  for  French  colonial 
trade  in  1905  of  £65,432,746.  The  figures  were  made  up  as  follows : 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Total. 

Algeria 
Tunisia 
Indo-China 
West  Africa 
Madagascar 
AH  other  colonies 

£i5-355-5oo 
3,638.185 
10,182,411 

3,874,698 
1,247,936 

4,258,134 

£9,  150,520 

2,33  i.  063 
6,750,306 

2,248,317 
914,024 
5,481,652 

£24,506,020 
5,969,248 
16,932,717 
6,123,015 
2,161,960 
9,739,786 

Total 

£38,556,864 

£26,875,882 

£65,432,746 

Over  three-fourths  of  the  trade  of  Algeria  and  Tunisia  is  with 
France  and  other  French  possessions.  In  the  other  colonies  and 
protectorates  more  than  half  the  trade  is  with  foreign  countries. 
The  foreign  countries  trading  most  largely  with  the  French  colonies 
are,  in  the  order  named,  British  colonies  and  Great  Britain,  China 
and  Japan,  the  United  States  and  Germany.  The  value  of  the 
trade  with  British  colonies  and  Great  Britain  in  1905  was  over 
£7,200,000.  (F.  R.  C.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  —  P.  Joanne,  Diciionnaire  geographique  et  adminis- 
trative de  la  France  (8  vols.,  Paris,  1890-1905);  C.  Brossard,  La 
France  et  ses  colonies  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1900-1906);  O.  Reclus,  Le  Plus 
Beau  Royaume  sous  le  del  (Paris,  1899);  Vidal  de  La  Blache,  La 
France.  Tableau  geographique  (Paris,  1908);  V.  E.  Ardouin- 
Dumazet,  Voyage  en  France  (Paris,  1894);  H.  Havard,  La  France 
artistique  et  monumentale  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1892-1895);  A.  Lebon  and 
P.  Pelet,  France  as  it  is,  tr.  Mrs  W.  Arnold  (London,  1888);  articles 
on  "  Local  Government  in  France  "  in  the  Stock  Exchange  Official 
Intelligence  Annuals  (London,  1908  and  1909);  M.  Block,  Diction- 
naire  de  I'  administration  franc.aise,  the  articles  in  which  contain  full 
bibliographies  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1905);  E.  Levasseur,  La  France  et  ses 
colonies  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1890)  ;  M.  Fallex  and  A.  Mairey,  La  France 
et  sss  colonies  au  debut  du  XX'  siecle,  which  has  numerous  biblio- 
graphies (Paris,  1909);  J.  du  Plessis  de  Grenedan,  Geographie 
agricole  de  la  France  et  du  monde  (Paris,  1903);  F.  de  St  Genis,  La 
Propriete  rurale  en  France  (Paris,  1902)  ;  H.  Baudrillart,  Les  Popu- 
lations agricoles  de  la  France  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1885-1893);  J.  E.  C. 
Bodley,  France  (London,  1899)  ;  A.  Girault,  Principes  de  colonisation 
et  de  legislation  colonicle  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1907-1908)  ;  Les  Colonies 
franfaises,  an  encyclopaedia  edited  by  M.  Petit  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1902).  Official  statistical  works:  Annuaire  statistique  de  la  France 
(a  summary  of  the  statistical  publications  of  the  government), 
Statistique  agricole  annuelle,  Statistique  de  V  Industrie  minerale  et  des 
appareils  de  vapeur,  Tableau  general  du  commerce  et  de  la  navigation, 
Reports  on  the  various  colonies  issued  annually  by  the  British  Foreign 
Office,  &c.  Guide  Books:  Karl  Baedeker,  Northern  France, 
Southern  France;  P.  Joanne,  Nord,  Champagne  et  Ardenne;  Nor- 
mandie  ;  and  other  volumes  dealing  with  every  region  of  the  country. 

HISTORY 

The  identity  of  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Gaul  is  veiled  in 
obscurity,  though  philologists,  anthropologists  and  archaeologists 
are  using  the  glimmer  of  traditions  collected  by  ancient 
historians  to  shed  a  faint  twilight  upon  that  remote 
past.  The  subjugation  of  those  primitive  tribes  did 
not  mean  their  annihilation:  their  blood  still  flows  in 
the  veins  of  Frenchmen;  and  they  survive  also  on  those  megalithic 
monuments  (see  STONE  MONUMENTS)  with  which  the  soil  cf 
France  is  dotted,  in  the  drawings  and  sculptures  of  caves  hollowed 
out  along  the  sides  of  the  valleys,  and  in  the  arms  and  ornaments 
yielded  by  sepulchral  tumuli,  while  the  names  of  the  rivers  and 
mountains  of  France  probably  perpetuate  the  first  utterances  of 
those  nameless  generations. 

The  first  peoples  of  whom  we  have  actual  knowledge  are  the 
Iberians  and  Ligurians.  The  Basques  who  now  inhabit  both 
sides  of  the  Pyrenean  range  are  probably  the  last  representatives 
of  the  Iberians,  who  came  from  Spain  to  settle  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  The  Ligurians,  who 
exhibited  the  hard  cunning  characteristic  of  the  Genoese  Riviera, 

x.  26 


Pre~ 


must  have  been  descendants  of  that  Indo-European  vanguard 
who  occupied  all  northern  Italy  and  the  centre  and  south-east 
of  France,  who  in  the  7th  century  B.C.  received  the 
Phocaean  immigrants  at  Marseilles,  and  who  at  a  much 
later  period  were  encountered  by  Hannibal  during  his 
march  to  Rome,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone,  the 
frontier  of  the  Iberian  and  Ligurian  territories.  Upon  these 
peoples  it  was  that  the  conquering  minority  of  Celts  or  Gauls 
imposed  themselves,  to  be  succeeded  at  a  later  date  by  the 
Roman  aristocracy. 

When  Gaul  first  enters  the  field  of  history,  Rome  has  already 
laid  the  foundation  of  her  freedom,  Athens  dazzles  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  with  her  literature  and  her  art,  while 
in  the  west  Carthage  and  Marseilles  are  lining  opposite  tlle  ^^ 
shores  with  their  great  houses  of  commerce.  Coming 
from  the  valley  of  the  Danube  in  the  6th  century,  the  Celts  or 
Gauls  had  little  by  little  occupied  central  and  southern  Europe 
long  before  they  penetrated  into  the  plains  of  the  Sa6ne,  the 
Seine,  and  the  Loire  as  far  as  the  Spanish  border,  driving  out 
the  former  inhabitants  of  the  country.  A  century  later  their 
political  hegemony,  extending  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar,  began  to  disintegrate,  and  the  Gauls  then  embarked 
on  more  distant  migrations,  from  the  Columns  of  Hercules  to 
the  plateaux  of  Asia  Minor,  taking  Rome  on  their  way.  Their 
empire  in  Gaul,  encroached  upon  in  the  north  by  the  Belgae, 
a  kindred  race,  and  in  the  south  by  the  Iberians,  gradually 
contracted  in  area  and  eventually  crumbled  to  pieces.  This 
process  served  the  turn  of  the  Romans,  who  little  by  little  had 
subjugated  first  the  Cisalpine  Gauls  and  afterwards  those  in- 
habiting the  south-east  of  France,  which  was  turned 
into  a  Roman  province  in  the  2nd  century.  Up  to  !T*e 
this  time  Hellenism  and  the  mercantile  spirit  of  the  conquest, 
Jews  had  almost  exclusively  dominated  the  Mediter- 
ranean littoral,  and  at  first  the  Latin  spirit  only  won  foothold 
for  itself  in  various  spots  on  the  western  coast — as  at  Aix  in 
Provence  (123  B.C.)  and  at  Narbonne  (118  B.C.).  A  refuge  of 
Italian  pauperism  in  the  time  of  the  Gracchi,  after  the  triumph 
of  the  oligarchy  the  Narbonnaise  became  a  field  for  shameless 
exploitation,  besides  providing,  under  the  proconsulate  of 
Caesar,  an  excellent  point  of  observation  whence  to  watch  the 
intestine  quarrels  between  the  different  nations  of  Gaul. 

These  are  divided  by  Caesar  in  his  Commentaries  into  three 
groups:  the  Aquitanians  to  the  south  of  the  Garonne;  the  Celts, 
properly  so  called,  from  the  Garonne  to  the  Seine 
and  the  Marne;  and  the  Belgae,  from  the  Seine  to  the 
Rhine.  But  these  ethnological  names  cover  a  very 
great  variety  of  half-savage  tribes,  differing  in  speech 
and  in  institutions,  each  surrounded  by  frontiers  of  dense  forests 
abounding  in  game.  On  the  edges  of  these  forests  stood  isolated 
dwellings  like  sentinel  outposts;  while  the  inhabitants  of  the 
scattered  hamlets,  caves  hollowed  in  the  ground,,  rude  circular 
huts  or  lake-dwellings,  were  less  occupied  with  domestic  life 
than  with  war  and  the  chase.  On  the  heights,  as  at  Bibracte, 
or  on  islands  in  the  rivers,  as  at  Lutetia,  or  protected  by  marshes, 
as  at  Avaricum,  oppida — at  once  fortresses  and  places  of  refuge, 
like  the  Greek  Acropolis — kept  watch  and  ward  over  the  beaten 
tracks  and  the  rivers  of  Gaul. 

These  primitive  societies  of  tall,  fair-skinned  warriors,  blue- 
eyed  and  red-haired,  were  gradually  organized  into  political 
bodies  of  various  kinds — kingdoms,  republics  and  political 
federations — and  divided  into  districts  or  pagi  (pays) 
to  which  divisions  the  minds  of  the  country  folk  have 
remained  faithfully  attached  ever  since.  The  victorious 
aristocracy  of  the  kingdom  dominated  the  other  classes, 
strengthened  by  the  prestige  of  birth,  the  ownership  of  the  soil 
and  the  practice  of  arms.  Side  by  side  with  this  martial  nobility 
the  Druids  constituted  a  priesthood  unique  in  ancient  times; 
neither  hereditary  as  in  India,  nor  composed  of  isolated  priests 
as  in  Greece,  nor  of  independent  colleges  as  at  Rome,  it  was  a 
true  corporation,  which  at  first  possessed  great  moral  authority, 
though  by  Caesar's  time  it  had  lost  both  strength  and  prestige. 
Beneath  these  were  the  common  people  attached  to  the  soil, 


divisions 


Institu- 
tions ot 
daul. 


802 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


who  did  not  count  for  much,  but  who  reacted  against  the  in- 
sufficient protection  of  the  regular  institutions  by  a  voluntary 
subordination  to  certain  powerful  chiefs. 

This  impotence  of  the  state  was  a  permanent  cause  of  those 
discords  and  revolts,  which  in  the  ist  century  B.C.  were  so 
singularly  favourable  to  Caesar's  ambition.  Thus 
after  e'Sht  vears  of  incoherent  struggles,  of  scattered 
revolts,  and  then  of  more  and  more  energetic  efforts, 
Gaul,  at  last  aroused  by  Vercingetorix,  for  once  concentrated 
her  strength,  only  to  perish  at  Alesia,  vanquished  by  Roman 
discipline  and  struck  at  from  the  rear  by  the  conquest  of  Britain 
(58-50  B.C.). 

This  defeat  completely  altered  the  destiny  of  Gaul,  and  she 
became  one  of  the  principal  centres  of  Roman  civilization. 
Of  the  vast  Celtic  empire  which  had  dominated 
Gau/f"  Europe  nothing  now  remained  but  scattered  remnants 
in  the  farthest  corners  of  the  land,  refuges  for  all 
the  vanquished  Gaels,  Picts  or  Gauls;  and  of  its  civilization 
there  lingered  only  idioms  and  dialects — Gaelic,  Pict  and  Gallic 
— which  gradually  dropped  out  of  use.  During  five  centuries 
Gaul  was  unfalteringly  loyal  to  her  conquerors;  for  to  conquer 
is  nothing  if  the  conquered  be  not  assimilated  by  the  conqueror, 
and  Rome  was  a  past-mistress  of  this  art.  The  personal  charm 
of  Caesar  and  the  prestige  of  Rome  are  not  of  themselves  sufficient 
to  explain  this  double  conquest.  The  generous  and  enlightened 
policy  of  the  imperial  administration  asked  nothing  of  the  people 
of  Gaul  but  military  service  and  the  payment  of  the  tax;  in 
return  it  freed  individuals  from  patronal  domination,  the  people 
from  oligarchic  greed  or  Druidic  excommunication,  and  every  one 
in  general  from  material  anxiety.  Petty  tyrannies  gave  place 
to  the  great  Pax  Romana.  The  Julio-Claudian  dynasty  did 
much  to  attach  the  Gauls  to  the  empire;  they  always  occupied 
the  first  place  in  the  mind  of  Augustus,  and  the  revolt  of  the 
Aeduan  Julius  Sacrovir,  provoked  by  the  census  of  A.D.  21,  was 
easily  repressed  by  Tiberius.  Caligula  visited  Gaul  and  founded 
literary  competitions  at  Lyons,  which  had  become  the  political 
and  intellectual  capital  of  the  country.  Claudius,  who  was 
a  native  of  Lyons,  extended  the  right  of  Roman  citizenship 
to  many  of  his  fellow-townsmen,  gave  them  access  to  the  magis- 
tracy and  to  the  senate,  and  supplemented  the  annexation  of 
Gaul  by  that  of  Britain.  The  speech  which  he  pronounced 
on  this  occasion  was  engraved  on  tables  of  bronze  at  Lyons, 
and  is  the  first  authentic  record  of  Gaul's  admission  to  the 
citizenship  of  Rome.  Though  the  crimes  of  Nero  and  the 
catastrophes  which  resulted  from  his  downfall,  provoked  the 
troubles  of  the  year  A.D.  70,  the  revolt  of  Sabinus  was  in  the 
main  an  attempt  by  the  Germans  to  pillage  Gaul  and  the  prelude 
to  military  insurrections.  The  government  of  the  Flavians 
and  the  Antonines  completed  a  definite  reconciliation.  After 
the  extinction  of  the  family  of  Augustus  in  the  ist  century 
Gaul  had  made  many  emperors — Galba,  Otho,  Vitellius,  Ves- 
pasian and  Domitian;  and  in  the  2nd  century  she  provided 
Gauls  to  rule  the  empire — Antoninus  (138-161)  came  from 
Nimes  and  Claudius  from  Lyons,  as  did  also  Caracalla  later  on 
(211-217). 

The  romanization  of  the  Gauls,  like  that  of  the  other  subject 
nations,  was  effected  by  slow  stages  and  by  very  diverse  means, 
Material  ^Urn'snm8  an  example  of  the  constant  adaptability 
aadpoiiti-  °f  Roman  policy.  It  was  begun  by  establishing  a 
cai  trans-  network  of  roads  with  Lyons  as  the  central  point, 
'"tKom""  and  by  tlle  devel°Pment  °f  a  prosperous  urban  life 
°aaui"  '  m  tne  increasingly  wealthy  Roman  colonies;  and  it 
was  continued  by  the  disintegration  into  independent 
cities  of  nearly  all  the  Gaulish  states  of  the  Narbonnaise,  together 
with  the  substitution  of  the  Roman  collegial  magistracy  for  the 
isolated  magistracy  of  the  Gauls.  This  alteration  came  about 
more  quickly  in  the  north-east  in  the  Rhine-land  than  in  the 
west  and  the  centre,  owing  to  the  near  neighbourhood  of  the 
legions  on  the  frontiers.  Rome  was  too  tolerant  to  impose 
her  own  institutions  by  force;  it  was  the  conquered  peoples 
who  collectively  and  individually  solicited  as  a  favour  the  right 
of  adopting  the  municipal  system,  the  magistracy,  the  sacerdotal 


and  aristocratic  social  system  of  their  conquerors.  The  edict 
of  Caracalla,  at  the  beginning  of  the  3rd  century,  by  conferring 
the  right  of  citizenship  on  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  empire, 
completed  an  assimilation  for  which  commercial  relations, 
schools,  a  taste  for  officialism,  and  the  adaptability  and  quick  in- 
telligence of  the  race  had  already  made  preparation.  The  Gauls 
now  called  themselves  Romans  and  their  language  Romance. 
There  was  neither  oppression  on  the  one  hand  nor  servility  on 
the  other  to  explain  this  abandonment  of  their  traditions. 
Thanks  to  the  political  and  religious  unity  which  a  common 
worship  of  the  emperor  and  of  Rome  gave  them,  thanks  to 
administrative  centralization  tempered  by  a  certain  amount 
of  municipal  autonomy,  Gaul  prospered  throughout  three 
centuries. 

But  this  stability  of  the  Roman  peace  had  barely  been  realized 
when  events  began  to  threaten  it  both  from  within  and  without. 
The  Pax  Romana  having  rendered  any  armed  force  D 
unnecessary  amid  a  formerly  very  bellicose  people,  only  of  the 
eight  legions  mounted  guard  over  the  Rhine  to  protect  Imperial 
it  from  the  barbarians  who  surrounded  the  empire,  authority 
The  raids  made  by  the  Germansontheeasternf  rentiers, 
the  incessant  competitions  for  the  imperial  power,  and  the 
repeated  revolts  of  the  Pretorian  guard,  gradually  undermined 
the  internal  cohesion  of  Gaul;  while  the  insurrections  of  the 
Bagaudae  aggravated  the  destruction  wrought  by  a  grasping 
treasury  and  by  barbarian  incursions;  so  that  the  anarchy  of 
the  3rd  century  soon  aroused  separatist  ideas.  Under  Postumus 
Gaul  had  already  attempted  to  restore  an  independent  though 
short-lived  empire  (258-267);  and  twenty-eight  years  later 
the  tetrarchy  of  Diocletian  proved  that  the  blood  now  circulated 
with  difficulty  from  the  heart  to  the  extremities  of  an  empire 
on  the  eve  of  disintegration.  Rome  was  to  see  her  universal 
dominion  gradually  menaced  from  all  sides.  It  was  in  Gaul 
that  the  decisive  revolutions  of  the  time  were  first  prepared; 
Constantine's  crusades  to  overthrow  the  altars  of  paganism, 
and  Julian's  campaigns  to  set  them  up  again.  After  Constantine 
the  emperors  of  the  East  in  the  4th  century  merely  put  in  an 
occasional  appearance  at  Rome;  they  resided  at  Milan  or  in 
the  prefectorial  capitals  of  Gaul  —  at  Aries,  at  Treves  (Trier), 
at  Reims  or  in  Paris.  The  ancient  territorial  divisions  — 
Belgium,  Gallia  Lugdunensis  (Lyonnaise),  Gallia  Narbonensis 
(Narbonnaise)  —  were  split  up  into  seventeen  little  provinces, 
which  in  their  turn  were  divided  into  two  dioceses.  Thus  the 
great  historic  division  was  made  between  southern  and  northern 
France.  Roman  nationality  persisted,  but  the  administrative 
system  was  tottering. 

Upon  ground  that  had  been  so  well  levelled  by  Roman  legis- 
lation aristocratic  institutions  naturally  flourished.  From  the 
4th  century  onward  the  balance  of  classes  was  dis-  social  dis- 
turbed  by  the  development  of  a  landed  aristocracy  organiza- 
that  grew  more  powerful  day  by  day,  and  by  the 
corresponding  ruin  of  the  small  proprietors  and  in- 
dustrial  and  commercial  corporations.  The  members  of  the 
curia  who  assisted  the  magistrates  in  the  cities,  crushed  by  the 
burden  of  taxes,  now  evaded  as  far  as  possible  public  office  or 
senatorial  honours.  The  vacancies  left  in  this  middle  class  by 
this  continual  desertion  were  not  compensated  for  by  the  pro- 
gressive advance  of  a  lower  class  destitute  of  personal  property 
and  constantly  unsettled  in  their  work.  The  peasants,  no  less 
than  the  industrial  labourers,  suffered  from  the  absence  of  any 
capital  laid  by,  which  alone  could  have  enabled  them  to  improve 
their  land  or  to  face  a  time  of  bad  harvests.  Having  no  credit 
they  found  themselves  at  the  mercy  of  their  neighbours,  the 
great  landholders,  and  by  degrees  fell  into  the  position  of  tenants, 
or  into  servitude.  The  curia  was  thus  emptied  both  from  above 
and  from  below.  It  was  in  vain  that  the  emperors  tried  to 
rivet  the  chains  of  the  curia  in  this  hereditary  bondage,  by 
attaching  the  small  proprietor  to  his  glebe,  like  the  artisan 
to  his  gild  and  the  soldier  to  his  legion.  To  such  a  miserable 
pretence  of  freedom  they  all  preferred  servitude,  which  at  least 
ensured  them  a  livelihood;  and  the  middle  class  of  freemen 
thus  became  gradually  extinct. 


"  ' 


FRANCE 

in  the 
I3th.  Century 


FRANCE 

at  the  end  of  the 
loth.  Century 


English  Miles 
50          100 


c  M.   =M,NEReE 

/   /     /^^^*&       /         RAS.=  RASEZ 
^  /  /G/ ?  O          N  FEN.=FENOUILLEOES 


-•<  CAVlPHAT,E      0j(/< 


FRANCE 


in  the 
Century 


Frontier  after  the 

Treaty  of  Vervins,  1598 „ 

Acquisitions  under  Henry  IV.  1598-1610.. 
Acquisitions  under  Louis  Xllf,  1610-43 


Acquisitions  by  the  Peace  of 
t/jc  Pyrenees,  1659 


Acquisitions  by  the  Peace 
ofNijmwegen  1678-1679 

Various  Acquisitions  (Reunions) 

till  1697 

Acquisitions  1697-1715 

Acquisitions  under  Louis  XV  1715-74 
Dates  of  Acquisition  or  occupation 

Dates  of  Losses ., 

The  10  Imperial  cities  in  Alsace 
incooorated  in  1672  underlined  blue 


Royal  Domain  in  1328 

cauisitmns  under  Phi/lip  VI  I 1 

nd  John  II,  1328-64 !. 


FRANCE 


taglM  King's  Land, 
after  the  Treaties  of 
Bretignfj  &  Calais,  1360-..  11— 


The  Eastern  Frontier,  1598-1789 

English  Miles 
o  50  100  150 


Emery  Walker  sc. 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


803 


The  aristocracy,  on  the  contrary,  went  on  increasing  in  power, 

and  eventually  became  masters  of  the  situation.     It  was  through 

them  that  the  emperor,  theoretically  absolute,  practi- 

Absorp-       Cally  carried  on  his  administration;    but  he  was  no 

tloa  of  *  .... 

land  and  longer  either  strong  or  a  divinity,  and  possessed 
power  by  nothing  but  the  semblance  of  omnipotence.  His 
thearis-  omcjai  despotism  was  opposed  by  the  passive  but 

invincible  competition  of  an  aristocracy,  more  powerful 

than  himself  because  it  derived  its  support  from  the 
revived  relation  of  patron  and  dependants.  But  though  the 
aristocracy  administered,  yet  they  did  not  govern.  They 
suffered,  as  did  the  Empire,  from  a  general  state  of  lassitude. 
Like  their  private  life,  their  public  life,  no  longer  stimulated 
by  struggles  and  difficulties,  had  become  sluggish;  their  power 
of  initiative  was  enfeebled.  Feeling  their  incapacity  they  no 
longer  embarked  on  great  political  schemes;  and  the  army,  the 
instrument  by  which  such  schemes  were  carried  on,  was  only 
held  together  by  the  force  of  habit.  In  this  society,  where  there 
was  no  traffic  in  anything  but  wealth  and  ideas,  the  soldier  was 
nothing  more  than  an  agitator  or  a  parasite.  The  egoism  cf  the 
upper  classes  held  military  duty  in  contempt,  while  their  avarice 
depopulated  the  countryside,  whence  the  legions  had  drawn  their 
recruits.  And  now  come  the  barbarians!  A  prey  to  perpetual 
alarm,  the  people  entrenched  themselves  behind  those  high  walls 
of  the  oppida  which  Roman  security  had  razed  to  the  ground, 
but  imperial  impotence  had  restored,  and  where  life  in  the 
middle  ages  was  destined  to  vegetate  in  unrestful  isolation. 

Amidst  this  general  apathy,  intellectual  activity  alone  persisted. 
In  the  4th  century  there  was  a  veritable  renaissance  in  Gaul,  the 
Intel-  last  outburst  of  a  dying  flame,  which  yet  bore  witness 
lectuai  also  to  the  general  decadence.  The  agreeable  versi- 
decadeace  fication  of  an  amateur  like  Ausonius,  the  refined 
oftjaui.  panegyrics  of  a  Eumenius,  disguising  nullity  of  thought 
beneath  elegance  of  form,  already  foretold  the  perilous  sterility 
of  scholasticism.  Art,  so  widespread  in  the  wealthy  villas  of 
Gaul,  contented  itself  with  imitation,  produced  nothing  original 
and  remained  mediocre.  Human  curiosity,  no  longer  concerned 
with  philosophy  and  science,  seemed  as  though  stifled,  religious 
polemics  alone  continuing  to  hold  public  attention.  Disinclina- 
tion for  the  self-sacrifice  of  active  life  and  weariness  of  the  things 
of  the  earth  lead  naturally  to  absorption  in  the  things  of  heaven. 
After  bringing  about  the  success  of  the  Asiatic  cults  of  Mithra 
and  Cybele,  these  same  factors  now  assured  the  triumph  over 
exhausted  paganism  of  yet  another  oriental  religion — Christianity 
— after  a  duel  which  had  lasted  two  centuries. 

This  new  faith  had  appeared  to  Constantine  likely  to  infuse 
young  and  healthy  blood  into  the  Empire.  In  reality  Christianity, 

which  had  contributed  not  a  little  to  stimulate  the 
Christian-  political  unity  of  continental  Gaul,  now  tended  to 
Qaul.  dissolve  it  by  destroying  that  religious  unity  which 

had  heretofore  been  its  complement.  Before  this 
there  had  been  complete  harmony  between  Church  and  State; 
but  afterwards  came  indifference  and  then  disagreement  between 
political  and  religious  institutions,  between  the  City  of  God  and 
that  of  Caesar.  Christianity,  introduced  into  Gaul  during  the 
ist  century  of  the  Christian  era  by  those  foreign  merchants  who 
traded  along  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  had  by  the  middle 
of  the  2nd  century  founded  communities  at  Vienne,  at  Autun 
and  at  Lyons.  Their  propagandizing  zeal  soon  exposed  them  to 
the  wrath  of  an  ignorant  populace  and  the  contempt  of  the 
educated;  and  thus  it  was  that  in  A.D.  177,  under  Marcus 
Aurelius,  the  Church  of  Lyons,  founded  by  St  Pothinus,  suffered 
those  persecutions  which  were  the  effective  cause  of  her  ultimate 
victory.  These  Christian  communities,  disguised  under  the 
legally  authorized  name  of  burial  societies,  gradually  formed  a 
vast  secret  cosmopolitan  association,  superimposed  upon  Roman 
society  but  incompatible  with  the  Empire.  Christianity  had 
to  be  either  destroyed  or  absorbed.  The  persecutions  under 
Aurelian  and  Diocletian  almost  succeeded  in  accomplishing  the 
former;  the  Christian  churches  were  saved  by  the  instability  of 
the  existing  authorities,  by  military  anarchy  and  by  the  incursions 
of  the  barbarians.  Despite  tortures  and  martyrdoms,  and  thanks 


to  the  seven  apostles  sent  from  Rome  in  250,  during    the  3rd 
century  their  branches  extended  all  over  Gaul. 

The  emperors  had  now  to  make  terms  with  these  churches, 
which  served  to  group  together  all  sorts  of  malcontents, 
and  this  was  the  object  of  the  edict  of  Milan  (313),  Triumph 
by  which  the  Church,  at  the  outset  simply  a  Jewish  ofChris- 
institution,  was  naturalized  as  Roman;  while  in  325  tianity  In 
the  Council  of  Nicaea  endowed  her  with  unity.  But  Oaul- 
for  the  security  and  the  power  thus  attained  she  had  to  pay  with 
her  independence.  On  the  other  hand,  pagan  and  Christian 
elements  in  society  existed  side  by  side  without  intermingling, 
and  even  openly  antagonistic  to  each  other — one  aristocratic 
and  the  other  democratic.  In  order  to  induce  the  masses  of  the 
people  once  more  to  become  loyal  to  the  imperial  form  of  govern- 
ment the  emperor  Julian  tried  by  founding  a  new  religion  to 
give  its  functionaries  a  religious  prestige  which  should  impress 
the  popular  mind.  His  plan  failed ;  and  the  emperor  Theodosius, 
aided  by  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  preferred  to  make  the 
Christian  clergy  into  a  body  of  imperial  and  conservative  officials ; 
while  in  return  for  their  adhesion  he  abolished  the  Arian  heresy 
and  paganism  itself,  which  could  not  survive  without  his  support. 
Thenceforward  it  was  in  the  name  of  Christ  that  persecutions 
took  place  in  an  Empire  now  entirely  won  over  to  Christianity. 

In  Gaul  the  most  famous  leader  of  this  first  merciless,  if  still 
perilous  crusade,  was  a  soldier-monk,  Saint  Martin  of  Tours. 
Thanks  to  him  and  his  disciples  in  the  middle  of  the 
4th  century  and  the  beginning  of  the  $th  many  of  the  ?,rgaalfziL' 
towns  possessed  well-established  churches;  but  the  church. 
militant  ardour  of  monks  and  centuries  of  labour 
were  needed  to  conquer  the  country  districts,  and  in  the  mean- 
time both  dogma  and  internal  organization  were  subjected  to 
important  modifications.  As  regards  the  former  the  Church 
adopted  a  course  midway  between  metaphysical  explanations 
and  historical  traditions,  and  reconciled  the  more  extreme 
theories;  while  with  the  admission  of  pagans  a  great  deal  of 
paganism  itself  was  introduced.  On  the  other  hand,  the  need  for 
political  and  social  order  involved  the  necessity  for  a  disciplined 
and  homogeneous  religious  body;  the  exercise  of  power,  more- 
over, soon  transformed  the  democratic  Christianity  of  the  earlier 
churches  into  a  federation  of  little  conservative  monarchies. 
The  increasing  number  of  her  adherents,  and  her  inexperience  of 
government  on  such  a  vast  and  complicated  scale,  obliged  her  to 
comply  with  political  necessity  and  to  adopt  the  system  of  the 
state  and  its  social  customs.  The  Church  was  no  longer  a 
fraternity,  on  a  footing  of  equality,  with  freedom  of  belief  and 
tentative  as  to  dogma,  but  an  authoritative  aristocratic  hier- 
archy. The  episcopate  was  now  recruited  from  the  great  families 
in  the  same  way  as  the  imperial  and  the  municipal  public  services. 
The  Church  called  on  the  emperor  to  convoke  and  preside  over 
her  councils  and  to  combat  heresy;  and  in  order  more  effectually 
to  crush  the  latter  she  replaced  primitive  independence  and  local 
diversity  by  uniformity  of  doctrine  and  worship,  and  by  the 
hierarchy  of  dioceses  and  ecclesiastical  provinces.  The  heads  of 
the  Church,  her  bishops,  her  metropolitans,  took  the  titles 
of  their  pagan  predecessors  as  well  as  their  places,  and  their 
jurisdiction  was  enforced  by  the  laws  of  the  state.  Rich  and 
powerful  chiefs,  they  were  administrators  as  much  as  priests: 
Germanus  (Germain),  bishop  of  Auxerre  (d.  448),  St  Eucherius 
of  Lyons  (d.  430),  Apollinaris  Sidonius  of  Clermont  (d.  c.  490) 
assumed  the  leadership  of  society,  fed  the  poor,  levied  tithes, 
administered  justice,  and  in  the  towns  where  they  resided, 
surrounded  by  priests  and  deacons,  ruled  both  in  temporal  and 
spiritual  matters. 

But  the  humiliation  of  Theodosius  before  St  Ambrose  proved 
that  the  emperor  could  never  claim  to  be  a  pontiff,  and  that  the 
dogma  of  the  Church  remained  independent  of  the  Thg 
sovereign  as  well  as  of  the  people;    if  she  sacrificed  church's 
her  liberty  it  was  but  to  claim  it  again  and  maintain  ladepead- 
it  more  effectively  amid  the  general  languor.     The  e>>ce°ftl"> 
Church  thus  escaped  the  unpopularity  of  this  decadent    mp  " 
empire,  and  during  the  5th  century  she  provided  a  refuge  for 
all  those  who,  wishing  to  preserve  the  Roman  unity,  were  terrified 


8  04 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


by  the  blackness  of  the  horizon.  In  fact,  whilst  in  the  Eastern 
Church  the  metaphysical  ardour  of  the  Greeks  was  spending 
itself  in  terrible  combats  in  the  oecumenical  councils  over  the 
interpretation  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  the  clergy  of  Gaul,  more 
simple  and  strict  in  their  faith,  abjured  these  theological  logo- 
machies; from  the  first  they  had  preferred  action  to  criticism 
and  had  taken  no  part  in  the  great  controversy  on  free-will 
raised  by  Pelagius.  Another  kind  of  warfare  was  about  to  absorb 
their  whole  attention;  the  barbarians  were  attacking  the  frontiers 
of  the  Empire  on  every  side,  and  their  advent  once  again  modified 
Gallo-Roman  civilization. 

For  centuries  they  had  been  silently  massing    themselves 
around  ancient  Europe,   whether  Iberian,   Celtic  or  Roman. 

Many  times  already  during  that  evening  of  a  decadent 
The  bar-  civiiization,  their  threatening  presence  had  seemed 
invasion.  like  a  dark  cloud  veiling  the  radiant  sky  of  the  peoples 

established  on  the  Mediterranean  seaboard.  The  cruel 
lightning  of  the  sword  of  Brennus  had  illumined  the  night, 
setting  Rome  or  Delphi  on  fire.  Sometimes  the  storm  had  burst 
over  Gaul,  and  there  had  been  need  of  a  Marius  to  stem  the  torrent 
of  Cimbri  and  Teutons,  or  of  a  Caesar  to  drive  back  the  Helvetians 
into  their  mountains.  On  the  morrow  the  western  horizon  would 
clear  again,  until  some  such  disaster  as  that  which  befell  Varus 
would  come  to  mortify  cruelly  the  pride  of  an  Augustus.  The 
Romans  had  soon  abandoned  hope  of  conquering  Germany, 
with  its  fluctuating  frontiers  and  nomadic  inhabitants.  For 
more  than  two  centuries  they  had  remained  prudently  entrenched 
behind  the  earthworks  that  extended  from  Cologne  to  Ratisbon 
(Regensburg) ;  but  the  intestine  feuds  which  prevailed  among 
the  barbarians  and  were  fostered  by  Rome,  the  organization 
under  bold  and  turbulent  chiefs  of  the  bands  greedy  for  booty, 
the  pressing  forward  on  populations  already  settled  of  tribes  in 
their  rear;  all  this  caused  the  Germanic  invasion  to  filter  by 
degrees  across  the  frontier.  It  was  the  work  of  several  genera- 
tions and  took  various  forms,  by  turns  and  simultaneously 
colonization  and  aggression;  but  from  this  time  forward  the 
pax  romana  was  at  an  end.  The  emperors  Probus,  Constantine, 
Julian  and  Valentinian,  themselves  foreigners,  were  worn  out 
with  repulsing  these  repeated  assaults,  and  the  general  enervation 
of  society  did  the  rest.  The  barbarians  gradually  became  part 
of  the  Roman  population;  they  permeated  the  army,  until  after 
Theodosius  they  recruited  it  exclusively;  they  permeated 
civilian  society  as  colonists  and  agriculturists,  till  the  command 
of  the  army  and  of  important  public  duties  was  given  over  to  a 
Stilicho  or  a  Crocus.  Thus  Rome  allowed  the  wolves  to  mingle 
with  the  dogs  in  watching  over  the  flock,  just  at  a  time  when  the 
civil  wars  of  the  4th  century  had  denuded  the  Rhenish  frontier 
of  troops,  whose  numbers  had  already  been  diminished  by  Con- 
stantine. Then  at  the  beginning  of  the  sth  century,  during  a 
furious  irruption  of  Germans  fleeing  before  Huns,  the  limes  was 
carried  away  (406-407) ;  and  for  more  than  a  hundred  years  the 
torrent  of  fugitives  swept  through  the  Empire,  which  retreated 
behind  the  Alps,  there  to  breathe  its  last. 

Whilst  for  ten  years  Alaric's  Goths  and  Stilicho's  Vandals 
were  drenching  Italy  with  blood,  the  Vandals  and  the  Alani  from 

the  steppes  of  the  Black  Sea,  dragging  in  their  wake  the 
Germans  reluctant  German  tribes  who  had  been  allies  of  Rome 
in  OauL  and  who  had  already  settled  down  to  the  cultivation  of 

their  lands,  invaded  the  now  abandoned  Gaul,  and 
having  come  as  far  as  the  Pyrenees,  crossed  over  them.  After  the 
passing  of  this  torrent  the  Visigoths,  under  their  kings  Ataulphus, 
Wallia  and  Theodoric,  still  dazzled  by  the  splendours  of  this 
immense  empire,  established  themselves  like  submissive  vassals 
in  Aquitaine,  with  Toulouse  as  their  capital.  About  the  same 
time  the  Burgundians  settled  even  more  peaceably  in  Rhenish 
Gaul,  and,  after  456,  to  the  west  of  the  Jura  in  the  valleys  of 
rhe  the  Saone  and  the  Rhone.  The  original  Franks  of 

Franks       Germany,  already  established  in  the  Empire,   and 

pressed  upon  by  the  same  Huns  who  had  already  forced 

the  Goths  across  the  Danube,  passed  beyond  the 
Rhine  and  occupied  north-eastern  Gaul;  Ripuarians  of  the  Rhine 
establishing  themselves  on  the  Sambre  and  the  Meuse,  and 


before 
Clovis. 


Salians  in  Belgium,  as  far  as  the  great  fortified  highroad  from 
Bavai  to  Cologne.  Accepted  as  allies,  and  supported  by  Roman 
prestige  and  by  the  active  authority  of  the  general  Aetius,  all 
these  barbarians  rallied  round  him  and  the  Romans  of  Gaul,  and 
in  451  defeated  the  hordes  of  Attila,  who  had  advanced  as  far 
as  Orleans,  at  the  great  battle  of  the  Catalaunian  plains. 

Thus  at  the  end  of  the  5th  century  the  Roman  empire  was 
nothing  but  a  heap  of  ruins,  and  fidelity  to  the  empire  was  now 
only  maintained  by  the  Catholic  Church;  she  alone  The  clergy 
survived,  as  rich,  as  much  honoured  as  ever,  and  more  and  the 
powerful,  owing  to  the  disappearance  of  the  imperial  barbar- 
officials  for  whom  she  had  found  substitutes,  and  the  lans' 
decadence  of  the  municipal  bodies  into  whose  inheritance  she 
had  entered.  Owing  to  her  the  City  of  God  gradually  replaced  the 
Roman  imperial  polity  and  preserved  its  civilization;  while  the 
Church  allied  herself  more  closely  with  the  new  kingdoms  than 
she  had  ever  done  with  the  Empire.  In  the  Gothic  or  Burgundian 
states  of  the  period  the  bishops,  after  having  for  a  time  opposed 
the  barbarian  invaders,  sought  and  obtained  from  their  chief 
the  support  formerly  received  from  the  emperor.  Apollinaris 
Sidonius  paid  court  to  Euric,  since  476  the  independent  king  of 
the  Visigoths,  against  whom  he  had  defended  Auvergne;  and 
Avitus,  bishop  of  Vienne,  was  graciously  received  by  Gundibald, 
king  of  the  Burgundians.  But  these  princes  were  Arians,  i.e. 
foreigners  among  the  Catholic  population;  the  alliance  sought 
for  by  the  Church  could  not  reach  her  from  that  source,  and  it 
was  from  the  rude  and  pagan  Franks  that  she  gained  the  material 
support  which  she  still  lacked.  The  conversion  of  Clovis  was  a 
master-stroke;  it  was  fortunate  both  for  himself  and  for  the 
Franks.  Unity  in  faith  brought  about  unity  in  law. 

Clovis  was  king  of  the  Sicambrians,  one  of  the  tribes  of  the 
Salian  Franks.  Having  established  themselves  in  the  plains 
of  Northern  Gaul,  but  driven  by  the  necessity  of  finding 
new  land  to  cultivate,  in  the  days  of  their  king  Childeric 
they  had  descended  into  the  fertile  valleys  of  the  ChM. 
Somme  and  the  Oise.  Clevis's  victory  at  Soissons 
over  the  last  troops  left  in  the  service  of  Rome  (486)  extended 
their  settlements  as  far  as  the  Loire.  By  his  conversion,  which 
was  due  to  his  wife  Clotilda  and  to  Remigius,  bishop  of  Reims, 
more  than  to  the  victory  of  Tolbiac  over  the  Alamanni, 
Clovis  made  definitely  sure  of  the  Roman  inhabitants  and  gave 
the  Church  an  army  (496).  Thenceforward  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  foundation  of  the  Prankish  monarchy  by  driving  the  ex- 
hausted and  demoralized  heretics  out  of  Gaul,  and  by  putting 
himself  in  the  place  of  the  now  enfeebled  emperor.  In  500  he 
conquered  Gundibald,  king  of  the  Burgundians,  reduced  him 
to  a  kind  of  vassalage,  and  forced  him  into  reiterated  promises 
of  conversion  to  orthodoxy.  In  507  he  conquered  and  killed 
Alaric  II.,  king  of  the  Arian  Visigoths,  and  drove  the  latter  into 
Spain.  Legend  adorned  his  campaign  in  Aquitaine  with  miracles; 
the  bishops  were  the  declared  allies  of  both  him  and  his  son 
Theuderich  (Thierry)  after  his  conquest  of  Auvergne.  At  Tours 
he  received  from  the  distant  emperor  at  Constantinople  the 
diploma  and  insignia  of  patricius  and  Roman  consul,  which 
legalized  his  military  conquests  by  putting  him  in  possession 
of  civil  powers.  From  this  time  forward  a  great  historic  trans- 
formation was  effected  in  the  eyes  of  the  bishops  and 
of  the  Gallo-Romans;  the  Frankish  chief  took  the  f7^'^ 
place  of  the  ancient  emperors.  Instead  of  blaming  officer. 
him  for  the  murder  of  the  lesser  kings  of  the  Franks, 
his  relatives,  by  which  he  had  accomplished  the  union  of  the 
Frankish  tribes,  they  saw  in  this  the  hand  of  God  rewarding  a 
faithful  soldier  and  a  converted  pagan.  He  became  their  king, 
their  new  David,  as  the  Christian  emperors  had  formerly  been; 
he  built  churches,  endowed  monasteries,  protected  St  Vaast 
(Vedastus,  d.  540),  first  bishop  of  Arras  and  Cambrai,  who 
restored  Christianity  in  northern  Gaul.  Like  the  emperors 
before  him  Clovis,  too,  reigned  over  the  Church.  Of  his  own 
authority  he  called  together  a  council  at  Orleans  in  511,  the  year 
of  his  death.  He  was  already  the  grand  distributor  of  ecclesi- 
astical benefices,  pending  the  time  when  his  successors  were  to 
confirm  the  episcopal  elections,  and  his  power  began  to  take 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


805 


on  a  more  and  more  absolute  character.  But  though  he  felt  the 
ascendant  influence  of  Christian  teaching,  he  was  not  really 
penetrated  by  its  spirit;  a  professing  Christian,  and  a  friend  to 
the  episcopate,  Clovis  remained  a  barbarian,  crafty  and  ruthless. 
The  bloody  tragedies  which  disfigured  the  end  of  his  reign  bear 
sad  witness  to  this;  they  were  a  fit  prelude  to  that  period  during 
the  course  of  which,  as  Gregory  of  Tours  said,  "  barbarism  was 
let  loose." 

The  conquest  of  Gaul,  begun  by  Clovis,  was  finished  by  his 
sons:  Theuderich,  Chlodomer,  Childebert  and  Clotaire.  In 
three  successive  campaigns,  from  523  to  532,  they 
annihilated  the  Burgundian  kingdom,  which  had 
maintained  its  independence,  and  had  endured  for 
nearly  a  century.  Favoured  by  the  war  between  Justinian, 
the  East  Roman  emperor,  and  Theodoric's  Ostrogoths,  the 
Frankish  kings  divided  Provence  among  them  as  they  had  done 
in  the  case  of  Burgundy.  Thus  the  whole  of  Gaul  was  subjected 
to  the  sons  of  Clovis,  except  Septimania  in  the  south-east,  where 
the  Visigoths  still  maintained  their  power.  The  Frankish  armies 
then  overflowed  into  the  neighbouring  countries  and  began  to 
pillage  them.  Their  disorderly  cohorts  made  an  attack  upon 
Italy,  which  was  repulsed  by  the  Lombards,  and  another  on 
Spain  with  the  same  want  of  success;  but  beyond  the  Rhine 
they  embarked  upon  the  conquest  of  Germany,  where  Clovis 
had  already  reduced  to  submission  the  country  on  the  banks  of 
the  Maine,  later  known  as  Franconia.  In  531  the  Thuringians  in 
the  centre  of  Germany  were  brought  into  subjection  by  his  eldest 
son,  King  Theuderich,  and  about  the  same  time  the  Bavarians 
were  united  to  the  Franks,  though  preserving  a  certain  autonomy. 
The  Merovingian  monarchy  thus  attained  the  utmost  limits  of 
its  territorial  expansion,  bounded  as  it  was  by  the  Pyrenees, 
the  Alps  and  the  Rhine;  it  exercised  influence  over  the  whole  of 
Germany,  which  it  threw  open  to  the  Christian  missionaries,  and 
its  conquests  formed  the  first  beginnings  of  German  history. 

But  to  these  wars  of  aggrandizement  and  pillage  succeeded 
those  fratricidal  struggles  which  disgraced  the  whole  of  the  sixth 
century  and  arrested  the  expansion  of  the  Merovingian 
power.  When  Clotaire,  the  last  surviving  son  of 
Clovis,  died  in  561,  the  kingdom  was  divided  between 
his  four  sons  like  some  piece  of  private  property,  as  in  511,  and 
according  to  the  German  method.  The  capitals  of  these  four 
kings — Charibert,  who  died  in  567,  Guntram,  Sigebert  and 
Chilperic — were  Paris,  Orleans,  Reims  and  Soissons — all  near  one 
another  and  north  of  the  Loire,  where  the  Germanic  inhabitants 
predominated ;  but  their  respective  boundaries  were  so  confused 
that  disputes  were  inevitable.  There  was  no  trace  of  a  political 
idea  in  these  disputes;  the  mutual  hatred  of  two  women  aggra- 
vated jealousy  to  the  point  of  causing  terrible  civil  wars  from 
561  to  613,  and  these  finally  created  a  national  conflict  which 
resulted  in  the  dismemberment  of  the  Frankish  empire.  Recog- 
nized, in  fact,  already  as  separate  provinces  were  Austrasia,  or 
the  eastern  kingdom,  Neustria,  or  north-west  Gaul  and  Burgundy; 
Aquitaine  alone  was  as  yet  undifferentiated. 

Sigebert  had  married  Brunhilda,  the  daughter  of  a  Visigoth 
king;  she  was  beautiful  and  well  educated,  having  been  brought 
up  in  Spain,  where  Roman  civilization  still  flourished. 
chilPeric  had  married  Galswintha,  one  of  Brunhilda's 
sisters,  for  the  sake  of  her  wealth;  but  despite  this 
marriage  he  had  continued  his  amours  with  a  waiting- 
woman  named  Fredegond,  who  pushed  ambition  to  the  point  of 
crime,  and  she  induced  him  to  get  rid  of  Galswintha.  In  order  to 
avenge  her  sister,  Brunhilda  incited  Sigebert  to  begin  a  war 
which  terminated  in  575  with  the  assassination  of  Sigebert  by 
Fredegond  at  the  very  moment  when,  thanks  to  the  help  of  the 
Germans,  he  had  gained  the  victory,  and  with  the  imprisonment 
of  Brunhilda  at  Rouen.  Fredegond  subsequently  caused  the 
death  of  Merovech  (Merovee),  the  son  of  Chilperic,  who  had  been 
secretly  married  to  Brunhilda,  and  that  of  Bishop  Praetextatus, 
who  had  solemnized  their  union.  After  this,  Fredegond  en- 
deavoured to  restore  imperial  finance  to  a  state  of  solvency,  and 
to  set  up  a  more  regular  form  of  government  in  her  Neustria, 
which  was  less  romanized  and  less  wealthy  than  Burgundy, 


Civil 
wars. 


where  Guntram  was  reigning,  and  less  turbulent  than  the  eastern 
kingdom,  where  most  of  the  great  warlike  chiefs  with  their  large 
landed  estates  were  somewhat  impatient  of  royal  authority. 
But  the  accidental  death  of  two  of  her  children,  the  assassination 
of  her  husband  in  584,  and  the  advice  of  the  Church,  induced 
her  to  make  overtures  to  her  brother-in-law  Guntram.  A  lover 
of  peace  through  sheer  cowardice,  and  as  depraved  in  his  morals 
as  Chilperic,  Guntram  had  played  a  vacillating  and  purely 
self-interested  part  in  the  family  tragedy.  He  declared  himself 
the  protector  of  Fredegond,  but  his  death  in  593  delivered  up 
Burgundy  and  Neustria  to  Brunhilda's  son  Childebert,  king  of 
Austrasia,  in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  Andelot,  made  in  587. 
An  ephemeral  triumph,  however;  for  Childebert  died  in  596, 
followed  a  year  later  by  Fredegond. 

The  whole  of  Gaul  was  now  handed  over  to  three  children: 
Childebert's  two  sons,  Theudebert  and  Theuderich  (Thierry), 
and  the  son  of  Fredegond,  Clotaire  II.  The  latter, 
having  vanquished  the  two  former  at  Latofao  in 
596,  was  in  turn  beaten  by  them  at  Dormelles  in 
600,  and  a  year  later  a  fresh  fratricidal  struggle  broke  out 
between  the  two  grandsons  of  the  aged  Brunhilda.  Theuderich 
joined  with  Clotaire  against  Theodobert,  and  invaded  his  brother's 
kingdom,  conquering  first  an  army  of  Austrasians  and  then  one 
composed  of  Saxons  and  Thuringians.  Strife  began  again  in  613 
in  consequence  of  Theuderich's  desire  to  join  Austrasia  to 
Neustria,  but  his  death  delivered  the  kingdoms  into  the  hands 
of  Clotaire  II.  This  weak  king  leant  for  support  upon  the  nobles 
of  Burgundy  and  Austrasia,  impatient  as  they  were  of  obedience 
to  a  woman  and  the  representative  of  Rome.  The  ecclesiastical 
party  also  abandoned  Brunhilda  because  of  her  persecution  of 
their  saints,  after  which  Clotaire,  having  now  got  the  upper  hand, 
thanks  to  the  defection  of  the  Austrasian  nobles,  of  Arnulf, 
bishop  of  Metz,  with  his  brother  Pippin,  and  of  Warnachaire, 
mayor  of  the  palace,  made  a  terrible  end  of  Brunhilda  in  613. 
Her  long  reign  had  not  lacked  intelligence  and  even  greatness; 
she  alone,  amid  all  these  princes,  warped  by  self-indulgence  or 
weakened  by  discord,  had  behaved  like  a  statesman,  and  she 
alone  understood  the  obligations  of  the  government  she  had 
inherited.  She  wished  to  abolish  the  fatal  tradition  of  dividing 
up  the  kingdom,  which  so  constantly  prevented  any  possible 
unity;  in  opposition  to  the  nobles  she  used  her  royal  authority 
to  maintain  the  Roman  principles  of  order  and  regular  administra- 
tion. Towards  the  Church  she  held  a  courteous  but  firm  policy, 
renewing  relations  between  the  Frankish  kingdom  and  the 
pope;  and  she  so  far  maintained  the  greatness  of  the  Empire 
that  tradition  associated  her  name  with  the  Roman  roads  in 
the  north  of  France,  entitling  them  "  les  chaussees  de  Brunehaut." 

Like  his  grandfather,  Clotaire  II.  reigned  over  a  once  more 
united  Gaul  of  Franks  and  Gallo-Romans,  and  like  Clovis  he 
was  not  too  well  obeyed  by  the  nobles;  moreover, 
his  had  been  a  victory  more  for  the  aristocracy  than  <^°tain 
for  the  crown,  since  it  limited  the  power  of  the  latter. 
Not  that  the  permanent  constitution  of  the  i8th  of  October  614 
was  of  the  nature  of  an  anti-monarchic  revolution,  for  the 
royal  power  still  remained  very  great,  decking  itself  with  the 
pompous  titles  of  the  Empire,  and  continuing  to  be  the  dominant 
institution;  but  the  reservations  which  Clotaire  II.  had  to  make 
in  conceding  the  demands  of  the  bishops  and  great  laymen  show 
the  extent  and  importance  of  the  concessions  these  latter  were 
already  aiming  at.  The  bishops,  the  real  inheritors  of  the 
imperial  idea  of  government,  had  become  great  landowners 
through  enormous  donations  made  to  the  Church,  and  allied  as 
they  were  to  the  aristocracy,  whence  their  ranks  were  continually 
recruited,  they  had  gradually  identified  themselves  with  the 
interests  of  their  class  and  had  adopted  its  customs;  while  thanks 
to  long  minorities  and  civil  wars  the  aristocracy  of  the  high 
officials  had  taken  an  equally  important  social  position.  The 
treaty  of  Andelot  in  587  had  already  decided  that  the  benefices 
or  lands  granted  to  them  by  the  kings  should  be  held  for  life. 
In  the  7th  century  the  Merovingian  kings  adopted  the  custom 
of  summoning  them  all,  and  not  merely  the  officials  of  their 
Palatium,  to  discuss  political  affairs;  they  began,  moreover, 


8o6 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


to  choose  their  counts  or  administrators  from  among  the  great 
landholders.  This  necessity  for  approval  and  support  points 
to  yet  another  alteration  in  the  nature  of  the  royal  power, 
absolute  as  it  was  in  theory. 

The  Mayoralty  of  the  Palace  aimed  a  third  and  more  serious 
blow  at  the  royal  authority.  By  degrees,  the  high  officials 

of  the  Palatium,  whether  secular  or  ecclesiastical, 
The  and  also  the  provincial  counts,  had  rallied  round 

"'.  the  mayors  of  the  palace  as  their  real  leaders.     As 

under  the  Empire,  the  Palatium  was  both  royal  court 
and  centre  of  government,  with  the  same  bureaucratic  hierarchy 
and  the  same  forms  of  administration;  and  the  mayor  of  the 
palace  was  premier  official  of  this  itinerant  court  and  ambulatory 
government.  Moreover,  since  the  palace  controlled  the  whole 
of  each  kingdom,  the  mayors  gradually  extended  their  official 
authority  so  as  to  include  functionaries  and  agents  of  every 
kind,  instead  of  merely  those  attached  immediately  to  the 
king's  person.  They  suggested  candidates  for  office  for  the 
royal  selection,  often  appointed  office-holders,  and,  by  royal 
warrant,  supported  or  condemned  them.  Mere  subordinates 
while  the  royal  power  was  strong,  they  had  become,  owing 
to  the  frequent  minorities,  and  to  civil  wars  which  broke  the 
tradition  of  obedience,  the  all-powerful  ministers  of  kings 
nominally  absolute  but  without  any  real  authority.  Before  long 
they  ceased  to  claim  an  even  greater  degree  of  independence 
than  that  of  Warnachaire,  who  forced  Clotaire  II.  to  swear 
that  he  should  never  be  deprived  of  his  mayoralty  of  Burgundy; 
they  wished  to  take  the  first  place  in  the  kingdoms  they  governed, 
and  to  be  able  to  attack  neighbouring  kingdoms  on  their  own 
account.  A  struggle,  motived  by  self-interest,  no  doubt;  but 
a  struggle,  too,  of  opposing  principles.  Since  the  Prankish 
monarchy  was  now  in  their  power  some  of  them  tried  to  re- 
establish the  unity  of  that  monarchy  in  all  its  integrity,  together 
with  the  superiority  of  the  State  over  the  Church;  others, 
faithless  to  the  idea  of  unity,  saw  in  the  disintegration  of  the 
state  and  the  supremacy  of  the  nobles  a  warrant  for  their  own 
independence.  These  two  tendencies  were  destined  to  strive 
against  one  another  during  an  entire  century  (613-714),  and  to 
occasion  two  periods  of  violent  conflict,  which,  divided  by  a  kind  of 
renascence  of  royalty,  were  to  end  at  last  in  the  triumphant  substi- 
tution of  the  Austrasian  mayors  for  royalty  and  aristocracy  alike. 
The  first  struggle  began  on  the  accession  of  Clotaire  II., 
when  Austrasia,  having  had  a  king  of  her  own  ever  since  561, 

demanded  one  now.  In  623  Clotaire  was  obliged 
struggle  to  ser>d  her  his  son  Dagobert  and  even  to  extend  his 
between  territory.  But  in  Dagobert's  name  two  men  ruled, 
monarchy  representing  the  union  of  the  official  aristocracy  and 
"mayoralty  t'le  Church.  One,  Pippin  of  Landen,  derived  his 
'  power  from  his  position  as  mayor  of  the  palace,  from 
great  estates  in  Aquitaine  and  between  the  Meuse  and  the  Rhine, 
and  from  the  immense  number  of  his  supporters;  the  other, 
Arnulf,  bishop  of  Metz,  sprang  from  a  great  family,  probably 
of  Roman  descent,  and  was  besides  immensely  wealthy  in 
worldly  possessions.  By  the  union  of  their  forces  Pippin  and 
Arnulf  were  destined  to  shape  the  future.  They  had  already, 
in  613,  treated  with  Clotaire  and  betrayed  the  hopes  of  Brunhilda, 
being  consequently  rewarded  with  the  guardianship  of  young 
Dagobert.  Burgundy  followed  the  example  of  Austrasia, 
demanded  the  abolition  of  the  mayoralty,  and  in  627  succeeded 
in  obtaining  her  independence  of  Neustria  and  Austrasia  and 
direct  relations  with  the  king. 

The  death  of  Clotaire  (629)  was  the  signal  for  a  revival  of 
the  royal  power.  Dagobert  deprived  Pippin  of  Landen  of 
Renas  n's  autnority  and  forced  him  to  fly  to  Aquitaine; 
cence  of  ^u'  st'N  he  had  to  give  the  Austrasians  his  son  Sigebert 
monarchy  III.  for  their  king  (634).  He  made  administrative 
under  progresses  through  Neustria  and  Burgundy  to  recall 

tne  n°bles  to  their  allegiance,  but  again  he  was  forced 

to  designate  his  second  son  Clovis  as  king  of  Neustria. 
He  did  subdue  Aquitaine  completely,  thanks  to  his  brother 
Charibert,  with  whom  he  had  avoided  dividing  the  kingdom, 
and  he  tried  to  restore  his  own  demesne,  which  had  been  despoiled 


by  the  granting  of  benefices  or  by  the  pious  frauds  of  the  Church. 
In  short,  this  reign  was  one  of  great  conquests,  impossible 
except  under  a  strong  government.  Dagobert's  victories  over 
Samo,  king  of  the  Slavs  along  the  Elbe,  and  his  subjugation 
of  the  Bretons  and  the  Basques,  maintained  the  prestige  of  the 
Prankish  empire;  while  the  luxury  of  his  court,  his  taste  for 
the  fine  arts  (ministered  to  by  his  treasurer  Eloi J),  his  numerous 
achievements  in  architecture — especially  the.  abbey  of  St  Denis, 
burial-place  of  the  kings  of  France — the  brilliance  and  the  power 
of  the  churchmen  who  surrounded  him  and  his  revision  of  the 
Salic  law,  ensured  for  his  reign,  in  spite  of  the  failure  of  his  plans 
for  unity,  a  fame  celebrated  in  folksong  and  ballad. 

But  for  barbarous  nations  old-age  comes  early,  and  after 
Dagobert's  death  (639),  the  monarchy  went  swiftly  to  its  doom. 
The  mayors  of  the  palace  again  became  supreme,  The  4.Rols 
and  the  kings  not  only  ceased  to  appoint  them,  but  faineants" 
might  not  even  remove  them  from  office.  Such  mayors  (do- 
were  Aega  and  Erchinoald,  in  Neustria,  Pippin  and 
Otto  in  Austrasia,  and  Flaochat  in  Burgundy.  One 
of  them,  Grimoald,  son  of  Pippin,  actually  dared  to  take 
the  title  of  king  in  Austrasia  (640).  This  was  a  premature 
attempt  and  barren  of  result,  yet  it  was  significant;  and  not 
less  so  is  the  fact  that  the  palace  in  which  these  mayors 
bore  rule  was  a  huge  association  of  great  personages,  laymen 
and  ecclesiastics  who  seem  to  have  had  much  more  independence 
than  in  the  6th  century.  We  find  the  dukes  actually  raising 
troops  without  the  royal  sanction,  and  even  against  the  king. 
In  641  the  mayor  Flaochat  was  forced  to  swear  that  they  should 
hold  their  offices  for  life;  and  though  these  offices  were  not  yet 
hereditary,  official  dynasties,  as  it  were,  began  to  be  established 
permanently  within  the  palace.  The  crown  lands,  the  governor- 
ships, the  different  offices,  were  looked  upon  as  common  property 
to  be  shared  between  themselves.  Organized  into  a  compact 
body  they  surrounded  the  king  and  were  far  more  powerful  than 
he.  In  the  general  assembly  of  its  members  this  body  of  officials 
decided  the  selection  of  the  mayor;  it  presented  Flaochat 
to  the  choice  of  Queen  Nanthilda,  Dagobert's  widow;  after 
long  discussion  it  appointed  Ebroin  as  mayor;  it  submitted 
requests  that  were  in  reality  commands  to  the  Assembly  of  Bon- 
neuil  in  616  and  later  to  Childeric  in  670.  Moreover,  the  countries 
formerly  subdued  by  the  Franks  availed  themselves  of  this 
opportunity  to  loosen  the  yoke;  Thuringia  was  lost  by  Sigebert 
in  641,  and  the  revolt  of  Alamannia  in  643  set  back  the  frontier 
of  the  kingdom  from  the  Elbe  to  Austrasia.  Aquitaine,  hitherto 
the  common  prey  of  all  the  Prankish  kings,  having  in  vain  tried 
to  profit  by  the  struggles  between  Fredegond  and  Brunhilda, 
and  set  up  an  independent  king,  Gondibald,  now  finally  burst 
her  bonds  in  670.  Then  came  a  time  when  the  kings  were  mere 
children,  honoured  with  but  the  semblance  of  respect,  under  the 
tutelage  of  a  single  mayor,  Erbroiin  of  Neustria. 

This  representative  of  royalty,  chief  minister  for  four-and- 
twenty  years  (656-681),  attempted  the  impossible,  endeavouring 
to  re-establish  unity  in  the  midst  of  general  dissolution  s^™^ 
and  to  maintain  intact  a  royal  authority  usurped  between 
everywhere  by  the  hereditary  power  of  the  great  Bbroin  and 
palatine  families.  He  soon  stirred  up  against  himself  L*zer- 
all  the  dissatisfied  nobles,  led  by  Leger  (Leodegarius),  bishop  of 
Autun  and  his  brother  Gerinus.  Clotaire  III.'s  death  gave 
the  signal  for  war.  Ebroin's  enemies  set  up  Childeric  II.  in 
opposition  to  Theuderich,  the  king  whom  he  had  chosen  without 
summoning  the  great  provincial  officials.  Despite  a  temporary 
triumph,  when  Childeric  was  forced  to  recognize  the  principle 
of  hereditary  succession  in  public  offices,  and  when  the  mayor- 
alties of  Neustria  and  Burgundy  were  alternated  to  the  profit  of 
both,  Leger  soon  fell  into  disgrace  and  was  exiled  to  that  very 
monastery  ot  Luxeuil  to  which  Ebroin  had  been  relegated. 
Childeric  having  regained  the  mastery  restored  the  mayor's 
office,  which  was  immediately  disputed  by  the  two  rivals; 
Ebroin  was  successful  and  established  himself  as  mayor  of  the 
palace  in  the  room  of  Leudesius,  a  partisan  of  Leger  (675), 

1  St  Eligius,  bishop  of  Noyon,  apostle  of  the  Belgians  and  Frisians 
(d.  659?). 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


807 


following  this  up  by  a  distribution  of  offices  and  dignities  right 
and  left  among  his  adherents.  Leger  was  put  to  death  in  678, 
and  the  Austrasians,  commanded  by  the  Carolingian  Pippin  II., 
with  whom  many  of  the  chief  Neustrians  had  taken  refuge, 
were  dispersed  near  Laon  (680).  But  Ebroin  was  assassinated 
next  year  in  the  midst  of  his  triumph,  having  like  Fredegond 
been  unable  to  do  more  than  postpone  for  a  quarter  of  a  century 
the  victory  of  the  nobles  and  of  Austrasia;  for  his  successor, 
Berthar,  was  unfitted  to  carry  on  his  work,  having  neither 
his  gifts  and  energy  nor  the  powerful  personality  of  Pippin. 
Berthar  met  his  death  at  the  battle  of  Tertry  (687),  which 
gave  the  king  into  the  hands  of  Pippin,  as  also  the 
royal  treasure  and  the  mayoralty,  and  by  thus  enabling 
him  to  reward  his  followers  made  him  supreme  over 
the  Merovingian  dynasty.  Thenceforward  the  degenerate 
descendants  of  Clovis  offered  no  further  resistance  to  his 
claims,  though  it  was  not  until  752  that  their  line  became 
extinct. 

In  that  year  the  Merovingian  dynasty  gave  place  to  the  rule 
of  Pippin  II.  of  Heristal,  who  founded  a-  Carolingian  empire 
fated  to  be  as  ephemeral  as  that  of  the  Merovingians.  This 
political  victory  of  the  aristocracy  was  merely  the  consummation 
of  a  slow  subterranean  revolution  which  by  innumerable  reiterated 
blows  had  sapped  the  structure  of  the  body  politic,  and  was  about 
to  transfer  the  people  of  Gaul  from  the  Roman  monarchical 
and  administrative  government  to  the  sway  of  the  feudal 
system. 

The  Merovingian  kings,  mere  war-chiefs  before  the  advent  of 
Clovis,  had  after  the  conquest  of  Gaul  become  absolute  hereditary 
Causes  of  nionarchs,  thanks  to  the  disappearance  of  the  popular 
the  fail  of  assemblies  and  to  the  perpetual  state  of  warfare. 
the  Men>-  They  concentrated  in  their  own  hands  all  the  powers 
vingians.  Qj  ^g  empire,  judicial,  fiscal  and  military;  and  even 
the  so-called  "  rois  faineants  "  enjoyed  this  unlimited  power, 
in  spite  of  the  general  disorder  and  the  civil  wars.  To 
make  their  authority  felt  in  the  provinces  they  had  an  army  of 
officials  at  their  disposal — a  legacy,  this,  from  imperial  Rome — 
who  represented  them  in  the  eyes  of  their  various  peoples.  They 
had  therefore  only  to  keep  up  this  established  government,  but 
they  could  not  manage  even  this  much;  they  allowed  the  idea 
of  the  common  interests  of  kings  and  their  subjects  gradually  to 
die  out,  and  forgetting  that  national  taxes  are  a  necessary  impost, 
a  charge  for  service  rendered  by  the  state,  they  had  treated  these 
as  though  they  were  illicit  and  unjustifiable  spoils.  The  tax- 
payers, with  the  clergy  at  their  head,  adopted  the  same  idea,  and 
every  day  contrived  fresh  methods  of  evasion.  Merovingian 
justice  was  on  the  same  footing  as  Merovingian  finance:  it 
was  arbitrary,  violent  and  self-seeking.  The  Church,  too,  never 
failed  to  oppose  it — at  first  not  so  much  on  account  of  her  own 
ambitions  as  in  a  more  Christian  spirit — and  proceeded  to  weaken 
the  royal  jurisdiction  by  repeated  interventions  on  behalf  of  those 
under  sentence,  afterwards  depriving  it  of  authority  over  the 
clergy,  and  then  setting  up  ecclesiastical  tribunals  in  opposition 
to  those  held  by  the  dukes  and  counts.  At  last,  just  as  the 
kingdom  had  become  the  personal  property  of  the  king,  so  the 
officials — dukes,  counts,  royal  vicars,  tribunes,  centenarii — who 
had  for  the  most  part  bought  their  unpaid  offices  by  means  of 
presents  to  the  monarch,  came  to  look  upon  the  public  service 
rather  as  a  mine  of  official  wealth  than  as  an  administrative 
organization  for  furthering  the  interests,  material  or  moral,  of 
the  whole  nation.  They  became  petty  local  tyrants,  ail  the  more 
despotic  because  they  had  nothing  to  fear  save  the  distant 
authority  of  the  king's  missi,  and  the  more  rapacious  because 
they  had  no  salary  save  the  fines  they  inflicted  and  the  fees  that 
they  contrived  to  multiply.  Gregory  of  Tours  tells  us  that  they 
were  robbers,  not  protectors  of  the  people,  and  that  justice  and 
the  whole  administrative  apparatus  were  merely  engines  of  in- 
satiable greed.  It  was  the  abuses  thus  committed  by  the  kings 
and  their  agents,  who  did  not  understand  the  art  of  gloving  the 
iron  hand,  aided  by  the  absolutely  unfettered  licence  of  conduct 
and  the  absence  of  any  popular  liberty,  that  occasioned  the 
gradual  increase  of  charters  of  immunity. 


Immunity  was  the  direct  and  personal  privilege  which  forbade 
any  royal  official  or  his  agents  to  decide  cases,  to  levy  taxes,  or 
to  exercise  any  administrative  control  on  the  domains  . 

c      ,.  ,  c    .,  Immunity. 

of  a  bishop,  an  abbot,  or  one  of  the  great  secular 
nobles.  On  thousands  of  estates  the  royal  government 
gradually  allowed  the  law  of  the  land  to  be  superseded  by  local 
law,  and  public  taxation  to  change  into  special  contributions; 
so  that  the  duties  of  the  lower  classes  towards  the  state  were 
transferred  to  the  great  landlords,  who  thus  became  loyal 
adherents  of  the  king  but  absolute  masters  on  their  own  territory. 
The  Merovingians  had  no  idea  that  they  were  abdicating  the 
least  part  of  their  authority,  nevertheless  the  deprivations 
acquiesced  in  by  the  feebler  kings  led  of  necessity  to  the  diminu- 
tion of  their  authority  and  their  judicial  powers,  and  to  the 
abandonment  of  public  taxation.  They  thought  that  by  granting 
immunity  they  would  strengthen  their  direct  control;  in  reality 
they  established  the  local  independence  of  the  great  landowners, 
by  allowing  royal  rights  to  pass  into  their  hands.  Then  came 
confusion  between  the  rights  of  the  sovereign  and  the  rights  of 
property.  The  administrative  machinery  of  the  state  still  existed, 
but  it  worked  in  empty  air:  its  taxpayers  disappeared,  those 
who  were  amenable  to  its  legal  jurisdiction  slipped  from  its  grasp, 
and  the  number  of  those  whose  affairs  it  should  have  directed 
dwindled  away.  Thus  the  Merovingians  had  shown  themselves 
incapable  of  rising  above  the  barbarous  notion  that  royalty  is 
a  personal  asset  to  the  idea  that  royalty  is  of  the  state,  a  power 
belonging  to  the  nation  and  instituted  for  the  benefit  of  all. 
They  represented  in  society  nothing  more  than  a  force  which 
grew  feebler  and  feebler  as  other  forces  grew  strong;  they  never 
stood  for  a  national  magistracy. 

Society  no  less  than  the  state  was  falling  asunder  by  a  gradual 
process  of  decay.  Under  the  Merovingians  it  was  a  hierarchy 
wherein  grades  were  marked  by  the  varied  scale  of  the 
wergild,  a  man  being  worth  anything  from  thirty  to  six  Ofthe 
hundred  gold  pieces.  The  different  degrees  were  those  social 
of  slave,  freedman,  tenant-farmer  and  great  landowner.  tra™-- 
As  in  every  social  scheme  where  the  government  is 
without  real  power,  the  weakest  sought  protection  of  the 
strongest;  and  the  system  of  patron,  client  and  journeyman, 
which  had  existed  among  the  Romans,  the  Gauls  and  the 
Germans,  spread  rapidly  in  the  6th  and  7th  centuries,  owing  to 
public  disorder  and  the  inadequate  protection  afforded  by  the 
government.  The  Church's  patronage  provided  some  with  a 
refuge  from  violence;  others  ingratiated  themselves  with  the 
rich  for  the  sake  of  shelter  and  security;  others  again  sought 
place  and  honour  from  men  of  power;  while  women,  churchmen 
and  warriors  alike  claimed  the  king's  direct  and  personal  pro- 
tection. 

This  hierarchy  of  persons,  these  private  relations  of  man  to 
man,  were  recognized  by  custom  in  default  of  the  law,  and  were 
soon  strengthened  by  another  and  territorial  hierarchy. 
The  large  estate,  especially  if  it  belonged  to  the  Church, 
very  soon  absorbed  the  few  fields  of  the  freeman. 
In  order  to  farm  these,  the  Church  and  the  rich  landowners 
granted  back  the  holdings  on  the  temporary  and  conditional 
terms  of  tenancy-at-will  or  of  the  beneficium,  thus  multiplying 
endlessly  the  land  subject  to  their  overlordship  and  the  men  who 
were  dependent  upon  them  as  tenants.  The  kings,  like  private 
individuals  and  ecclesiastical  establishments,  made  use  of  the 
beneficium  to  reward  their  servants;  till  finally  their  demesne 
was  so  reduced  by  these  perpetual  grants  that  they  took  to  dis- 
tributing among  their  champions  land  owning  the  overlordship 
of  the  Church,  or  granted  their  own  lands  for  single  lives  only. 
These  various  "  benefactions  "  were,  as  a  rule,  merely  the  indirect 
methods  which  the  great  landowners  employed  in  order  to  absorb 
the  small  proprietor.  And  so  well  did  they  succeed,  that  in  the 
6th  and  7th  centuries  the  provincial  hierarchy  consisted  of  the 
cultivator,  the  holder  of  the  beneficium  and  the  owner;  while 
this  dependence  of  one  man  upon  another  affected  the  personal 
liberty  of  a  large  section  of  the  community,  as  well  as  the  con- 
dition of  the  land.  The  great  landowner  tended  to  become  not 
only  lord  over  his  tenants,  but  also  himself  a  vassal  of  the  king. 


8o8 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


Thus  by  means  of  immunities,  of  the  beneficium  and  of 
patronage,  society  gradually  organized  itself  independently 

of  the  state,  since  it  required  further  security.  Such 
Heftetai'  extra  security  was  first  provided  by  the  conqueror  of 

Tertry;  for  Pippin  II.  represented  the  two  great 
families  of  Pippin  and  of  Arnulf,  and  consequently  the  two 
interests  then  paramount,  i.e.  land  and  religion,  while  he 
had  at  his  back  a  great  company  of  followers  and  vast  landed 
estates.  For  forty  years  (615-655)  the  office  of  mayor  of  Aus- 
trasia  had  gone  down  in  his  family  almost  continuously  in  direct 
descent  from  father  to  son.  The  death  of  Grimoald  had  caused 
the  loss  of  this  post,  yet  Ansegisus  (Ansegisel),  Amulf's  son  and 
Pippin's  son-in-law,  had  continued  to  hold  high  office  in  the 
Austrasian  palace;  and  about  680  his  son,  Pippin  II.,  became 
master  of  Austrasia,  although  he  had  held  no  previous  office  in 
the  palace.  His  dynasty  was  destined  to  supplant  that  of  the 
Merovingian  house. 

Pippin  of  Heristal  was  a  pioneer;  he  it  was  who  began  all 
that  his  descendants  were  afterwards  to  carry  through.  Thus  he 
gathered  the  nobles  about  him  not  by  virtue  of  his  position,  but 
because  of  his  own  personal  prowess,  and  because  he  could  assure 
them  of  justice  and  protection;  instead  of  being  merely  the  head 
of  the  royal  palace  he  was  the  absolute  lord  of  his  own  followers. 
Moreover,  he  no  longer  bore  the  title  of  mayor,  but  that  of  duke 
or  prince  of  the  Franks;  and  the  mayoralty,  like  the  royal  power 
now  reduced  to  a  shadow,  became  an  hereditary  possession  which 
Pippin  could  bestow  upon  his  sons.  The  reigns  of  Theuderich  III., 
Clovis  III.  or  Childebert  III.  are  of  no  significance  except  as 
serving  to  date  charters  and  diplomas.  Pippin  it  was  who 
administered  justice  in  Austrasia,  appointed  officials  and  dis- 
tributed dukedoms;  and  it  was  Pippin,  the  military  leader, 
who  defended  the  frontiers  threatened  by  Frisians,  Alamanni 
and  Bavarians.  Descended  as  he  was  from  Arnulf,  bishop  of 
Metz,  he  was  before  all  things  a  churchman,  and  behind  his 
armies  marched  the  missionaries  to  whom  the  Carolingian  dynasty, 
of  which  he  was  the  founder,  were  to  subject  all  Christendom. 
Pippin  it  was,  in  short,  who  governed,  who  set  in  order 
the  social  confusions  of  Neustria,  who,  after  long  wars,  put 
a  stop  to  the  malpractices  of  the  dukes  and  counts,  and 
summoned  councils  of  bishops  to  make  good  regulations. 
But  at  his  death  in  714  the  child-king  Dagobert  III.  found 
himself  subordinated  to  Pippin's  two  grandsons,  who,  being 
minors,  were  under  the  wardship  of  their  grandmother 
Plectrude. 

Pippin's  work  was  almost  undone — a  party  among  the 
Neustrians  under  Raginfrid,  mayor  of  the  palace,  revolted 

against  Pippin  II. 's  adherents,  and  Radbod,  duke  of 
^"rt"?  l^e  Frisians,  joined  them.  But  the  Austrasians 
(715-741).  appealed  to  an  illegitimate  son  of  Pippin,  Charles 

Martel,  who  had  escaped  from  the  prison  to  which 
Plectrude,  alarmed  at  his  prowess,  had  consigned  him,  and  took 
him  for  their  leader.  With  Charles  Martel  begins  the  great  period 
of  Austrasian  history.  Faithful  to  the  traditions  of  the  Austrasian 
mayors,  he  chose  kings  for  himself — Clotaire  I  V.,then  Chilperic  II. 
and  lastly  Theuderich  IV.  After  Theuderich 's  death  (737)  he 
left  the  throne  vacant  until  742,  but  he  himself  was  king  in  all 
but  name;  he  presided  over  the  royal  tribunals,  appointed  the 
royal  officers,  issued  edicts,  disposed  of  the  funds  of  the  treasury 
and  the  churches,  conferred  immunities  upon  adherents,  who  were 
no  longer  the  king's  nobles  but  his  own,  and  even  appointed  the 
bishops,  though  there  was  nothing  of  the  ecclesiastic  about  him- 
self. He  decided  questions  of  war  and  peace,  and  re-established 
unity  in  Gaul  by  defeating  the  Neustrians  and  the  Aquitanian 
followers  of  Duke  Odo  (Eudes)  at  Vincy  in  717.  When  Odo, 
brought  to  bay,  appealed  for  help  to  the  Arab  troops  of  Abd-ar- 
Rahman,  who  after  conquering  Spain  had  crossed  the  Pyrenees, 
Charles,  like  a  second  Clovis,  saved  Catholic  Christendom  in  its 
peril  by  crushing  the  Arabs  at  Tours  (732).  The  retreat  of  the 
Arabs,  who  were  further  weakened  by  religious  disputes,  enabled 
him  to  restore  Prankish  rule  in  Aquitaine  in  spite  of  Hunald, 
son  of  Odo.  But  Charles's  longest  expeditions  were  made  into 
Germany,  and  in  these  he  sought  the  support  of  the  Church,  then 


the  greatest  of  all  powers  since  it  was  the  depositary  of  the 
Roman  imperial  tradition. 

No  less  unconscious  of  his  mission  than  Clovis  had  been,  Charles 
Martel  also  was  a  soldier  of  Christ.  He  protected  the  missionaries 
who  paved  the  way  for  his  militant  invasions.  Without  charks 
him theapostleof  Germany,  theEnglish monk  Boniface,  Martel 
would  never  have  succeeded  in  preserving  the  purity  and  the 
of  the  faith  and  keeping  the  bishops  submissive  to  Cbunh. 
the  Holy  See.  The  help  given  by  Charles  had  two  very  far- 
reaching  results.  Boniface  was  the  instrument  of  the  union  of 
Rome  and  Germany,  of  which  union  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in 
Germany  was  in  the  loth  century  to  become  the  most  perfect 
expression,  continuing  up  to  the  time  of  Luther.  And  Boniface 
also  helped  on  the  alliance  between  the  papacy  and  the  Carolingian 
dynasty,  which,  more  momentous  even  than  that  between  Clovis'" 
and  the  bishops  of  Gaul,  was  to  sanctify  might  by  right. 

This  union  was  imperative  for  the  bishops  of  Rome  if  they 
wished  to  establish  their  supremacy,  and  their  care  for  orthodoxy 
by  no  means  excluded  all  desire  of  domination.  Mere  tfiar/es 
religious  authority  did  not  secure  to  them  the  obedience  Martel  and 
of  either  the  faithful  or  the  clergy;  moreover,  they  Gregory 
had  to  consider  the  great  secular  powers,  and  in  this  tu' 
respect  their  temporal  position  in  Italy  was  growing  unbear- 
able. Their  relations  with  the  East  Roman  emperor  (sole 
lord  of  the  world  after  the  Roman  Senate  had  sent  the  imperial 
insignia  to  Constantinople  in  476)  were  confined  to  receiving 
insults  from  him  or  suspecting  him  of  heresy.  Even  in  northern 
Italy  there  was  no  longer  any  opposition  to  the  progress  of  the 
Lombards,  the  last  great  nation  to  be  established  towards  the 
end  of  the  6th  century  within  the  ancient  Roman  empire — their 
king  Liudprand  clearly  intended  to  seize  Italy  and  even  Rome 
itself.  Meanwhile  from  the  south  attacks  were  being  made  by 
the  rebel  dukes  of  Spoleto  and  Beneventum.  Pope  Gregory  III. 
cherished  dreams  of  an  alliance  with  the  powerful  duke  of  the 
Franks,  as  St  Remigius  before  him  had  thought  of  uniting 
with  Clovis  against  the  Goths.  Charles  Martel  had  protected 
Boniface  on  his  German  missions:  he  would  perhaps  lend 
Gregory  the  support  of  his  armies.  But  the  warrior,  like  Clovis 
aforetime,  hesitated  to  put  himself  at  the  disposal  of  the  priest. 
When  it  was  a  question  of  winning  followers  or  keeping  them, 
he  had  not  scrupled  to  lay  hands  on  ecclesiastical  property, 
nor  to  fill  the  Church  with  his  friends  and  kinsfolk,  and  this 
alliance  might  embarrass  him.  So  if  he  loaded  the  Roman 
ambassadors  with  gifts  in  739,  he  none  the  less  remembered  that 
the  Lombards  had  just  helped  him  to  drive  the  Saracens  from 
Provence.  However,  he  died  soon  after  this,  on  the  22nd  of 
October  74 1,  and  Gregory  III.  followed  him  almost  immediately. 

Feeling  his  end  near,  Charles,  before  an  assembly  of  nobles, 
had  divided  his  power  between  his  two  sons,  Carloman  and 
Pippin  III.     The   royal  line  seemed  to   have  been 
forgotten  for  six  years,  but  in  742  Pippin  brought  a    Tl'eCaro- 
son  of  Chilperic  II.  out  of  a  monastery  and  made  him    ^fyaaffy. 
king.     This  Childeric  III.  was  but   a   shadow — and 
knew  it.     He  made  a  phantom  appearance  once  every  spring 
at  the  opening  of  the  great  annual  national  convention  known  as 
the  Campus  Martius  (Champ  de  Mars) :  a  dumb  idol,  his  chariot 
drawn  in  leisurely  fashion  by  oxen,  he  disappeared  again  into 
his  palace  or  monastery.     An  unexpected  event  re-established 
unity. in  the  Caroh'ngian  family.     Pippin's  brother,  the  pious 
Carloman,  became  a  monk  in  747,  and  Pippin,  now  sole  ruler 
of  the  kingdom,  ordered  Childeric  also  to  cut  off  his  royal  locks; 
after  which,  being  king  in  all  but  name,  he  adopted  that  title 
in  752.     Thus  ended  the  revolution  which  had  been  going  on 
for   two   centuries.    The   disappearance   of    Grippo,    Pippin's 
illegitimate  brother,    who,  with    the  help  of  all  the 
enemies  of  the  Franks — Alamanni,  Aquitanians' and    £?''!?*** 
Bavarians — had  disputed  his  power,  now  completed  the    752-768. 
work  of  centralization,  and  Pippin  had  only  to  maintain 
it.     For  this  the  support  of  the  Church  was  indispensable,  and 
Pippin  understood  the  advantages  of  such  an  alliance  better 
than  Charles  Martel.    A  son  of  the  Church,  a  protector  of  bishops, 
a  president  of  councils,  a  collector  of  relics,  devoted  to  Boniface 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


809 


(whom  he  invited,  as  papal  legate,  to  reform  the  clergy  of 
Austrasia),  he  astutely  accepted  the  new  claims  of  the  vicar 
of  St  Peter  to  the  headship  of  the  Church,  perceiving  the  value 
of  an  alliance  with  this  rising  power. 

Prudent  enough  to  fear  resistance  if  he  usurped  the  Merovingian 
crown,  Pippin  the  Short  made  careful  preparations  for  his 
Sacred  accession,  and  discussed  the  question  of  the  dynasty 
character  with  Pope  Zacharias.  Receiving  a  favourable  opinion, 
of  the  new  he  had  himself  anointed  and  crowned  by  Boniface 
monarchy.  jn  ^e  name  of  the  bishops,  and  was  then  proclaimed 
king  in  an  assembly  of  nobles,  counts  and  bishops  at 
Soissons  in  November  751.  Still,  certain  disturbances  made 
him  see  that  aristocratic  approval  of  his  kingship  might  be 
strengthened  if  it  could  claim  a  divine  sanction  which  no  Mero- 
vingian had  ever  received.  Two  years  later,  therefore,  he  de- 
manded a  consecration  of  his  usurpation  from  the  pope,  and  in 
St  Denis  on  the  28th  of  July  754  Stephen  II.  crowned  and 
anointed  not  only  Pippin,  but  his  wife  and  his  two  sons  as  well. 

The  political  results  of  this  custom  of  coronation  were  all- 
important  for  the  Carolingians,  and  later  for  the  first  of  the 
Capets.  Pippin  was  hereby  invested  with  new  dignity, 
a  when  Boniface's  anointing  had  been  confirmed 
Papacy.  by  that  of  the  pope,  he  became  the  head  of  the  Prankish 
Church,  the  equal  of  the  pope.  Moreover,  he  astutely 
contrived  to  extend  his  priestly  prestige  to  his  whole  family; 
his  royalty  was  no  longer  merely  a  military  command  or  a  civil 
office,  but  became  a  Christian  priesthood.  This  sacred  character 
was  not,  however,  conferred  gratuitously.  On  the  very  day 
of  his  coronation  Pippin  allowed  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
patrician  of  the  Romans  by  the  pope,  just  as  Clovis  had  been 
made  consul.  This  title  of  theimperial  court  waspurely  honorary, 
but  it  attached  him  still  more  closely  to  Rome,  though  without 
lessening  his  independence.  He  had  besides  given  a  written 
promise  to  defend  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  that  not  against  the 
Lombards  only.  Qualified  by  letters  of  the  papal  chancery  as 
"  liberator  and  defender  of  the  Church,"  his  armies  twice  (754- 
756)  crossed  the  Alps,  despite  the  opposition  of  the  Prankish 
aristocracy,  and  forced  Aistulf,  king  of  the  Lombards,  to  cede 
to  him  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna  and  the  Pentapolis.  Pippin 
gave  them  back  to  Pope  Stephen  II.,  and  by  this  famousdonation 
founded  that  temporal  power  of  the  popes  which  was  to  endure 
until  1870.  He  also  dragged  the  Western  clergy  into  the  pope's 
quarrel  with  the  emperor  at  Constantinople,  by  summoning 
the  council  of  Gentiily,  at  which  the  iconoclastic  heresy  was 
condemned  (767).  Matters  being  thus  settled  with  Rome, 
Pippin  again  took  up  his  wars  against  the  Saxons,  against  the 
Arabs  (whom  he  drove  from  Narbonne  in  758),  and  above  all 
against  Waifer,  duke  of  Aquitaine,  and  his  ally,  duke  Tassilo 
of  Bavaria.  This  last  war  was  carried  on  systematically  from 
760  to  768,  and  ended  in  the  death  of  Waifer  and  the  definite 
establishment  of  the  Prankish  hold  on  Aquitaine.  When* 
Pippin  died,  aged  fifty-four,  on  the  24th  of  September  768,  the 
whole  of  Gaul  had  submitted  to  his  authority. 

Pippin  left  two  sons,  and  before  he  died  he  had,  with  the 
consent  of  the  dignitaries  of  the  realm,  divided  his  kingdom 
between  them,  making  theelder,  Charles(Charlemagne)  , 
king  °f  Austrasia,  and  giving  the  younger,  Carloman, 
Burgundy,  Provence,  Septimania,  Alsace  and 
Alamannia,  and  half  of  Aquitaine  to  each.  On  the  gth  of  October 
768  Charles  was  enthroned  at  Noyon  in  solemn  assembly,  and 
Carloman  at  Soissons.  The  Carolingian  sovereignty  was  thus 
neither  hereditary  nor  elective,  but  was  handed  down  by  the  will 
of  the  reigning  king,  and  by  a  solemn  acceptance  of  the  future 
king  on  the  part  of  the  nobles.  In  771  Carloman,  with  whom 
Charles  had  had  disputes,  died,  leaving  sons;  but  bishops,  abbots 
and  counts  all  declared  for  Charles,  save  a  few  who  took  refuge 
in  Italy  with  Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lombards.  Desiderius, 
whose  daughter  Bertha  or  Desiderata  Charles,  despite  the  pope, 
had  married  at  the  instance  of  his  mother  Bertrade,  supported 
the  rights  of  Carloman's  sons,  and  threatened  Pope  Adrian  in 
Rome  itself  after  he  had  despoiled  him  of  Pippin's  territorial 
gift.  At  the  pope's  appeal  Charles  crossed  the  Alps,  took 


Verona  and  Pavia  after  a  long  siege,  assumed  the  iron  crown  of 
the  Lombard  kings  (June  774),  and  made  a  triumphal  entry 
into  Rome,  which  had  not  formed  part  of  the  pope's  desires. 
Pippin's  donation  was  restored,  but  the  protectorate  was  no 
longer  so  distant,  respectful  and  intermittent  as  the  pope  liked. 
After  the  departure  of  the  imperious  conqueror,  a  fresh  revolt 
of  the  Lombards  of  Beneventum  under  Arichis,  Desiderius's 
son-in-law,  supported  by  a  Greek  fleet,  obliged  Pope  Adrian  to 
write  fresh  entreaties  to  Charlemagne;  and  in  two  campaigns 
(776-777)  the  latter  conquered  the  whole  Lombard  kingdom. 
But  another  of  Desiderius's  daughters,  married  to  the  powerful 
duke  Tassilo  of  Bavaria,  urged  her  husband  to  avenge  her 
father,  now  imprisoned  in  the  monastery  of  Corbie.  After 
endless  intrigues,  however,  the  duke,  hemmed  in  by  three 
different  armies,  had  in  his  turn  to  submit  (788),  and  all  Italy 
was  now  subject  to  Charlemagne.  These  wars  in  Italy,  even  the 
fall  of  the  Lombard  kingdom  and  the  recapture  of  the  duchy  of 
Bavaria,  were  merely  episodes:  Charlemagne's  great  war  was 
against  the  Saxons  and  lasted  thirtyyears  (772-804). 

The  work  of  organizing  the  three  great  Carolingian  conquests — 
Aquitaine,  Italy  and  Saxony — had  yet  to  be  done.  Charlemagne 
approached  it  with  a  moderation  equal  to  the  vigour 
which  he  had  shown  in  the  war.  But  by  multiplying 
its  advance-posts,  the  Prankish  kingdom  came  into  conquests. 
contact  with  new  peoples,  and  each  new  neighbour 
meant  a  new  enemy.  Aquitaine  bordered  upon  Mussulman 
Spain;  the  Avars  of  Hungary  threatened  Bavaria  with  their 
tireless  horsemen;  beyond  the  Elbe  and  the  Saal  the  Slavs 
were  perpetually  at  war  with  the  Saxons,  and  to  the  north  of 
the  Eider  were  the  Danes.  All  were  pagans;  all  enemies  of 
Charlemagne,  defender  of  Christ's  Church,  and  hence  the 
appointed  conqueror  of  the  world. 

Various  causes — the  weakening  of  the  Arabs  by  the  struggle 
between  the  Omayyads  and  the  Abbasids  just  after  the  battle 
of  Tours;  the  alliance  of  the  petty  Christian  kings  of  Wars  wlth 
the  Spanish  peninsula;  an  appeal  from  the  northern  the  Arabs, 
amirs  who  had  revolted  against  the  new  caliphate  of  S/avs  and 
Cordova  (755) — made  Charlemagne  resolve  to  cross  Daaes- 
the  Pyrenees.  He  penetrated  as  far  as  the  Ebro,  but  was 
defeated  before  Saragossa;  and  in  their  retreat  the  Franks 
were  attacked  by  Vascons,  losing  many  men  as  they  came 
through  the  passes.  This  defeat  of  the  rear-guard,  famous 
for  the  death  of  the  great  Roland  and  the  treachery  of  Ganelo, 
induced  the  Arabs  to  take  the  offensive  once  more  and  to  conquer 
Septimania.  Charlemagne  had  created  the  kingdom  of  Aquitaine 
especially  to  defend  Septimania,  and  William,  duke  of  Toulouse, 
from  790  to  806,  succeeded  in  restoring  Prankish  authority 
down  to  the  Ebro,  thus  founding  the  Spanish  March  with  Barce- 
lona as  its  capital.  For  two  centuries  and  a  half  the  Avars, 
a  remnantof  the  Huns  entrenched  in  the  Hungarian  Mesopotamia, 
had  made  descents  alternately  upon  the  Germans  and  upon  the 
Greeks  of  the  Eastern  empire.  They  had  overrun  Bavaria  in 
the  very  year  of  its  subjugation  by  Charlemagne  (788),  and  it 
took  an  eight-years'  struggle  to  destroy  the  robber  stronghold. 
The  empire  thus  pushed  its  frontier-line  on  from  the  Elbe  to 
the  Oder,  ever  as  it  grew  menaced  by  increasing  dangers.  The 
sea  came  to  the  help  of  the  depopulated  land,  and  Danish  pirates, 
Widukind's  old  allies,  came  in  their  leathern  boats  to  harry 
the  coasts  of  t'  e  North  Sea  and  the  Channel.  Permanent  armies 
and  walls  across  isthmuses  were  alike  useless;  Charlemagne  had 
to  build  fleets  to  repulse  his  elusive  foes  (808-810),  and  even 
after  forty  years  of  war  the  danger  was  only  postponed. 

Meanwhile  Pippin's  Prankish  kingdom,  vast  and  powerful 
as  it  had  been,  was  doubled.  All  nations  from  the  Oder  to  the 
Elbe  and  from  the  Danube  to  the  Atlantic  were  subject 
or  tributary,  and  Charlemagne's  power  even  crossed 
these  frontiers.  At  his  summons  Christian  princes 
and  Mussulman  amirs  flocked  to  his  palaces.  The 
kings  of  Northumbria  and  Sussex,  the  kings  of  the  Basques 
and  of  Galicia,  Arab  amirs  of  Spain  and  Fez,  and  even  the  caliph 
of  Bagdad  came  to  visit  him  in  person  or  sent  gifts  by  the  hands 
of  ambassadors.  A  great  warrior  and  an  upright  ruler,  his 


8io 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


conquests  recalled  those  of  the  great  Christian  emperors,  and 
the  Church  completed  the  parallel  by  training  him  in  her  lore. 
This  still  barely  civilized  German  literally  went  to  school  to  the 
English  Alcuin  and  to  Peter  of  Pisa,  who,  between  two  campaigns, 
taught  him  history,  writing,  grammar  and  astronomy,  satisfying 
also  his  interest  in  sacred  music,  literature  (religious  literature 
especially) ,  and  the  traditions  of  Rome  and  Constantinople.  Why 
should  he  not  be  the  heir  of  their  Caesars?  And  so,  little  by 
little,  this  man  of  insatiable  energy  was  possessed  by  the  ambition 
of  restoring  the  Empire  of  the  West  in  his  own  favour. 

There  were,  however,  two  serious  obstacles  in  the  way:  first, 
the  supremacy  of  the  emperor  of  the  East,  which  though  nominal 
Charie-  rather  than  real  was  upheld  by  peoples,  princes,  and 
magoe  even  by  popes;  secondly,  the  rivalry  of  the  bishops 
emperor  of  Rome,  who  since  the  early  years  of  Adrian's 
(800).  pontificate  had  claimed  the  famous  "  Donation  of 
Constantine  "  (q.v.) .  According  to  that  apocryphal  document,  the 
emperor  after  his  baptism  had  ceded  to  the  sovereign  pontiff 
his  imperial  power  and  honours,  the  purple  chlamys,  the  golden 
crown,  "  the  town  of  Rome,  the  districts  and  cities  of  Italy  and 
of  all  the  West."  But  in  797  the  empress  of  Constantinople 
had  just  deposed  her  son  Constantine  VI.  after  putting  out  his 
eyes,  and  the  throne  might  be  considered  vacant;  while  on  the 
other  hand,  Pope  Leo  III.,  who  had  been  driven  from  Rome 
by  a  revolt  in  799,  and  had  only  been  restored  by  a  Prankish 
army,  counted  for  little  beside  the  Prankish  monarch,  and 
could  not  but  submit  to  the  wishes  of  the  Carolingian  court. 
So  when  next  year  the  king  of  the  Franks  went  to  Rome  in 
person,  on  Christmas  Eve  of  the  year  800  and  in  the  basilica 
of  St  Peter  the  pope  placed  on  his  head  the  imperial  crown  and 
did  him  reverence  "  after  the  established  custom  of  the  time 
of  the  ancient  emperors."  The  Roman  ideal,  handed  down 
in  tradition  through  the  centuries,  was  here  first  revived. 

This  event,  of  capital  importance  for  the  middle  ages,  was 
fertile  in  results  both  beneficial  and  the  reverse.  It  brought 
about  the  rupture  between  the  West  and  Constantinople.  Then 
Charlemagne  raised  the  papacy  on  the  ruins  of  Lombardy  to 
the  position  of  first  political  power  in  Italy;  and  the  universal 
Church,  headed  by  the  pope,  made  common  cause  with  the 
Empire,  which  all  the  thinkers  of  that  day  regarded  as  the  ideal 
state.  Confusion  between  these  powers  was  inevitable,  but  at 
this  time  neither  Charles,  the  pope,  nor  the  people  had  a  suspicion 
of  the  troubles  latent  in  the  ceremony  that  seemed  so  simple. 
Thirdly,  Charlemagne's  title  of  emperor  strengthened  his  other 
title  of  king  of  the  Franks,  as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  at  the 
great  assembly  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  802  he  demanded  from  all, 
whether  lay  or  spiritual,  a  new  oath  of  allegiance  to  himself 
as  Caesar.  His  increased  power  came  rather  from  moral  value, 
from  the  prestige  attaching  to  one  who  had  given  proof  of  it, 
than  from  actual  authority  over  men  or  centralization;  this 
is  shown  by  the  division  between  the  Empire  and  feudalism. 
Universal  sovereignty  claimed  as  a  heritage  from  Rome  had  a 
profound  influence  upon  popular  imagination,  but  in  no  way 
modified  that  tendency  to  separation  of  the  various  nations 
which  was  already  manifest.  Charles  himself  in  his  government 
preferred  to  restore  the  ancient  Empire  by  vigorous  personal 
action,  rather  than  to  follow  old  imperial  traditions;  he  intro- 
duced cohesion  into  his  "palace,"  and  perfect  centralization 
into  his  official  administration,  inspiring  his  followers  and 
servants,  clerical  and  lay,  with  a  common  and  determined  zeal. 
The  system  was  kept  in  full  vigour  by  the  missi  dominici,  who 
regularly  reported  or  reformed  any  abuses  of  administration, 
and  by  the  courts,  military,  judicial  or  political,  which  brought 
to  Charlemagne  the  strength  of  the  wealth  of  his  subjects,  carry- 
ing his  commands  and  his  ideas  to  the  farthest  limits  of  the 
Empire.  Under  him  there  was  in  fact  a  kind  of  early  renaissance 
after  centuries  of  barbarism  and  ignorance. 

The  Can-  This  emperor,  who  assumed  so  high  a  tone  with  his 
lingian  subjects,  his  bishops  and  his  counts,  who  undertook 
Kenals-  to  uphold  public  order  in  civil  life,  held  himself  no 
less  responsible  for  the  eternal  salvation  of  men's  souls 
in  the  other  world.  Thanks  to  Charlemagne,  and  through  the 


restoration  of  order  and  of  the  schools,  a  common  civilization 
was  prepared  for  the  varied  elements  of  the  Empire.  By 
his  means  the  Church  was  able  to  concentrate  in  the  palatine 
academy  all  the  intellectual  culture  of  the  middle  ages,  having 
preserved  some  of  the  ancient  traditions  of  organization  and 
administration  and  guarded  the  imperial  ideal.  Charlemagne 
apparently  wished,  like  Theodoric,  to  use  German  blood  and 
Christian  unity  to  bring  back  life  to  the  great  body  of  the  Empire. 
Not  the  equal  of  Caesar  or  Augustus  in  genius  or  in  the  lastingness 
of  his  work,  he  yet  recalls  them  in  his  capitularies,  his  periodic 
courts,  his  official  hierarchy,  his  royal  emissaries,  his  ministers, 
his  sole  right  of  coinage,  his  great  public  works,  his  campaigns 
against  barbarism  and  heathenry,  his  zeal  for  learning  and 
literature,  and  his  divinity  as  emperor.  Once  more  there  existed 
a  great  public  entity  such  as  had  not  been  seen  for  many  years; 
but  its  duration  was  not  to  be  a  long  one. 

Charlemagne  had  for  the  moment  succeeded  in  uniting  western 
Europe  under  his  sway,  but  he  had  not  been  able  to  arrest  its 
evolution  towards  feudal  dismemberment.     He  had,  D/SSOA,. 
doubtless   conscientiously,   laboured   for   the   recon-   tionofthe 
stitution  of  the  Empire;  but  it  often  happens  that  Prankish 
individual  wills  produce  results  other  than  those  at  Bmpln- 
which      they      aimed,      sometimes  results  even  contrary  to 
their  wishes,  and  this  was  what  happened  in  Charlemagne's 
case.     He   had    restored    the   superstructure   of   the   imperial 
monarchy,   but   he   had   likewise   strengthened   and   legalized 
methods  and  institutions  till  then  private  and  insecure,  and  these, 
passing  from  custom  into  law,  undermined  the  foundations  of 
the  structure  he  had  thought  himself  to  be  repairing.     A  quarter 
of  a  century  after  his  death  his  Empire  was  in  ruins. 

The  practice  of  giving  land  as  a  beneficium  to  a  grantee  who 
swore  personal  allegiance  to  the  grantor  had  persisted,  and  by 
his  capitularies  Charlemagne  had  made  these  personal  engage- 
ments, these  contracts  of  immunity — hitherto  not  transferable, 
nor  even  for  life,  but  quite  conditional — regular,  legal,  even 
obligatory  and  almost  indissoluble.  The  beneficium  was  to  be 
as  practically  irrevocable  as  the  oath  of  fidelity.  He  submitted 
to  the  yoke  of  the  social  system  and  feudal  institutions  at  the 
very  moment  when  he  was  attempting  to  revive  royal  authority; 
he  was  ruler  of  the  state,  but  ruler  of  vassals  also.  The  monar- 
chical principle  no  longer  sufficed  to  ensure  social  discipline;  the 
fear  of  forfeiting  the  grant  became  the  only  powerful  guarantee 
of  obedience,  and  as  this  only  applied  to  his  personal  vassals, 
Charlemagne  gave  up  his  claim  to  direct  obedience  from  the 
rest  of  the  people,  accepting  the  mediation  of  the  counts,  lords 
and  bishops,  who  levied  taxes,  adjudicated  and  administered 
in  virtue  of  the  privileges  of  patronage,  not  of  the  right  of  the 
state.  The  very  multiplication  of  offices,  so  noticeable  at  this 
time,  furthered  this  triumph  of  feudalism  by  multiplying  the 
Blinks  of  personal  dependence,  and  neutralizing  more  and  more 
the  direct  action  of  the  central  authority.  The  frequent  con- 
vocations of  military  assemblies,  far  from  testifying  to  political 
liberty,  was  simply  a  means  of  communicating  the  emperor's 
commands  to  the  various  feudal  groups. 

Thus  Charlemagne,  far  from  opposing,  systematized  feudalism, 
in  order  that  obedience  and  discipline  might  pass  from  one  man 
to  another  down  to  the  lowest  grades  of  society,  and  he  succeeded 
for  his  own  lifetime.  No  authority  was  more  weighty  or  more 
respected  than  that  of  this  feudal  lord  of  Gaul,  Italy  and 
Germany;  none  was  more  transient,  because  it  was  so  purely 
personal. 

When  the  great  emperor  was  buried  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in 
814,  his  work  was  entombed  with  him.  The  fact  was  that  his 
successors  were  incapable  of  maintaining  it.  Twenty-  Causes  for 
nine  years  after  his  death  the  Carolingian  Empire  had  the  dis- 
been  divided  into  three  kingdoms;  forty  years  'later  solution 
one  alone  of  these  kingdoms  had  split  into  seven; 
while  when  a  century  had  passed  France  was  a  litter  of 
tiny  states  each  practically  independent.  This  disintegration 
was  caused  neither  by  racial  hate  nor  by  linguistic  patriotism. 
It  was  the  weakness  of  princes,  the  discouragement  of  freemen 
and  landholders  confronted  by  an  inexorable  system  of  financial 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


811 


and  military  tyranny,  and  the  incompatibility  of  a  vast  empire 
with  a  too  primitive  governmental  system,  that  wrecked  the 
work  of  Charlemagne. 

The  Empire  fell  to  Louis  the  Pious,  sole  survivor  of  his  three 
sons.  At  the  Aix  assembly  in  813  his  father  had  crowned  him 

with  his  own  hand,  thus  avoiding  the  papal  sanction 
P/OUS('SM-  t^lat  ^ad  'Deen  almost  forced  upon  himself  in  800. 
840).  Louis  was  a  gentle  and  well-trained  prince,  but  weak 

and  prone  to  excessive  devotion  to  the  Church.  He 
had  only  reigned  a  few  years  when  dissensions  broke  out  on  all 
sides,  as  under  the  Merovingians.  Charlemagne  had  assigned 
their  portions  to  his  three  sons  in  781  and  again  in  806;  like 
Charles  Martel  and  Pippin  the  Short  before  him,  however, 
what  he  had  divided  was  not  the  imperial  authority,  nor  yet 
countries,  but  the  whole  system  of  fiefs,  offices  and  adherents 
which  had  been  his  own  patrimony.  The  division  that  Louis  the 
Pious  made  at  Aix  in  817  among  his  three  sons,  Lothair,  Pippin 
and  Louis,  was  of  like  character,  since  he  reserved  the  supreme 
authority  for  himself,  only  associating  Lothair,  the  eldest,  with 
him  in  the  government  of  the  empire.  Following  the  advice 
of  his  ministers  Walla  and  Agobard,  supporters  of  the  policy 
of  unity,  Louis  the  Pious  put  Bernard  of  Italy,  Charlemagne's 
grandson,  to  death  for  refusing  to  acknowledge  Lothair  as  co- 
emperor;  crushed  a  revolt  in  Brittany;  and  carried  on  among 
the. Danes  the  work  of  evangelization  begun  among  the  Slavs. 
A  fourth  son,  Charles,  was  born  to  him  by  his  second  wife,  Judith 
of  Bavaria.  Jealousy  arose  between  the  children  of  the  two 
marriages.  Louis  tried  in  vain  to  satisfy  his  sons  and  their 
followers  by  repeated  divisions — at  Worms  (829)  and  at  Aix 
(831) — in  which  there  was  no  longer  question  of  either  unity  or 
subordination.  Yet  his  elder  sons  revolted  against  him  in  831 
and  832,  and  were  supported  by  Walla  and  Agobard  and  by 
their  followers,  weary  of  all  the  contradictory  oaths  demanded 
of  them.  Louis  was  deposed  at  the  assembly  of  Compiegne 
(833),  the  bishops  forcing  him  to  assume  the  garb  of  a  penitent; 
but  he  was  re-established  on  his  throne  in  St  Etienne  at  Metz, 
the  28th  of  February  835,  from  which  time  until  his  death  in 
840  he  fell  more  and  more  under  the  influence  of  his  ambitious 
wife,  and  thought  only  of  securing  an  inheritance  for  Charles, 
his  favourite  son. 

Hardly  was  Louis  buried  in  the  basilica  of  Metz  before  his  sons 
flew  to  arms. ,  The  first  dynastic  war  broke  out  between  Lothair, 

who  by  the  settlement  of  817  claimed  the  whole 
Tf?so?"  monarchy  with  the  imperial  title,  and  his  brothers 
°he  Pious.  Louis  and  Charles.  Lothair  wanted,  with  the  Empire, 

the  sole  right  of  patronage  over  the  adherents  of  his 
house,  but  each  of  these  latter  chose  his  own  lord  according  to 
individual  interests,  obeying  his  fears  or  his  preferences.  The 
three  brothers  finished  their  discussion  by  fighting  for  a  whole 
day  (June  2sth,  841)  on  the  plain  of  Fontanet  by  Auxerre;  but 
the  battle  decided  nothing,  so  Charles  and  Louis,  in  order  to  get 
the  better  of  Lothair,  allied  themselves  and  their  vassals  by  an 

oath  taken  in  the  plain  of  Strassburg  (Feb.  I4th,  842). 
The  This,  the  first  document  in  the  vulgar  tongue  in  the 

burg  oath,    history  of  France  and  Germany,  was  merely  a  mutual 

contract  of  protection  for  the  two  armies,  which  never- 
theless did  not  risk  another  battle.  An  amicable  division  of  the 
imperial  succession  was  arranged,  and  after  an  assessment  of 
the  empire  which  took  almost  a  year,  an  agreement  was  signed 
at  Verdun  in  August  843. 

This  was  one  of  the  important  events  in  history.  Each 
brother  received  an  equal  share  of  the  dismembered  empire. 
Partition  Louis  ^a(^  t^le  territory  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
of  the  with  Spires,  Worms  and  Mainz  "  because  of  the  abund- 
Bmpireat  ance  of  wine."  Lothair  took  Italy,  the  valleys  of  the 

Rhone,  the  Sa6ne  and  the  Meuse,  with  the  two  capitals 

of  the  empire,  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Rome,  and  the 
title  of  emperor.  Charles  had  all  the  country  watered  by  the 
Scheldt,  the  Seine,  the  Loire  and  the  Garonne,  as  far  as  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Ebro.  The  partition  of  Verdun  separated  once 
more,  and  definitively,  the  lands  of  the  eastern  and  western 
Franks.  The  former  became  modern  Germany,  the  latter 


Verdun 
(843). 


France,  and  each  from  this  time  forward  had  its  own  national 
existence.  However,  as  the  boundary  between  the  possessions 
of  Charles  the  Bald  and  those  of  Louis  was  not  strictly  defined, 
and  as  Lothair's  kingdom,  having  no  national  basis,  soon  dis- 
integrated into  the  kingdoms  of  Italy,  Burgundy  and  Aries,  in 
Lotharingia,  this  great  undefined  territory  was  to  serve  as  a 
tilting-ground  for  France  and  Germany  on  the  very  morrow  of 
the  treaty  of  Verdun  and  for  ten  centuries  after. 

Charles  the  Bald  was  the  first  king  of  western  France.  Anxious 
as  he  was  to  preserve  Charlemagne's  traditions  of  government, 
he  was  not  always  strong  enough  to  do  so,  and  warfare 
within  his  own  dominions  was  often  forced  on  him. 
The  Norse  pirates  who  had  troubled  Charlemagne  (843-877). 
showed  a  preference  for  western  France,  justified  by 
the  easy  access  afforded  by  river  estuaries  with  rich  monasteries 
on  their  shores.  They  began  in  841  with  the  sack  of  Rouen; 
and  from  then  until  912,  when  they  made  a  settlement  in  one 
part  of  the  country,  though  few  in  numbers  they  never  ceased 
attacking  Charles's  kingdom,  coming  in  their  ships  up  the  Loire 
as  far  as  Auvergne,  up  the  Garonne  to  Toulouse,  and  up  the 
Seine  and  the  Scheldt  to  Paris,  where  they  made  four  descents 
in  forty  years,  burning  towns,  pillaging  treasure,  destroying 
harvests  and  slaughtering  the  peasants  or  carrying  them  off  into 
slavery.  Charles  the  Bald  thus  spent  his  life  sword  in  hand, 
fighting  unsuccessfully  against  the  Bretons,  whose  two  kings, 
Nomenoe  and  Erispoe,  he  had  to  recognize  in  turn;  and  against 
the  people  of  Aquitaine,  who,  in  full  revolt,  appealed  for  help  to 
his  brother,  Louis  the  German.  He  was  beaten  everywhere 
and  always:  by  the  Bretons  at  Ballon  (845)  and  Juvardeil 
(851);  by  the  people  of  Aquitaine  near  Angouleme  (845);  and 
by  the  Northmen,  who  several  times  extorted  heavy  ransoms 
from  him.  Before  long,  too,  Louis  the  German  actually  allied 
himself  with  the  people  of  Brittany  and  Aquitaine,  and  invaded 
France  at  the  summons  of  Charles  the  Bald's  own  vassals! 
Though  the  treaty  of  Coblenz  (860)  seemed  to  reconcile  the  two 
kings  for  the  moment,  no  peace  was  ever  possible  in  Charles 
the  Bald's  kingdom.  His  own  son  Charles,  king  of  Aquitaine, 
revolted,  and  Salomon  proclaimed  himself  king  of  Brittany  in 
succession  to  Erispoe,  who  had  been  assassinated.  To  check 
the  Bretons  and  the  Normans,  who  were  attacking  from  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean,  Charles  the  Bald  found  himself 
obliged  to  entrust  the  defence  of  the  country  to  Robert  the  Strong, 
ancestor  of  the  house  of  Capet  and  duke  of  the  lands  between 
Loire  and  Seine.  Robert  the  Strong,  however,  though  many 
times  victorious  over  the  incorrigible  pirates,  was  killed  by  them 
in  a  fight  at  Brissarthe  (866). 

Despite  all  this,  Charles  spoke  authoritatively  in  his  capitularies, 
and  though  incapable  of  defending  western  France,  coveted 
other  crowns  and  looked  obstinately  eastwards.  D/vte/on 
He  managed  to  become  king  of  Lorraine  on  the  death  cfthe 
of  his  nephew  Lothair  II.,  and  emperor  and  king  of  kingdom 
Germany  on  that  of  his  other  nephew  Louis  II.  (875);  '"'" large 
though  only  by  breaking  the  compact  of  the  year  800. 
In  876,  the  year  before  his  death,  he  took  a  third  crown,  that  of 
Italy,  though  not  without  a  fresh  defeat  at  Andernach  by  Louis 
the  German's  troops.  His  titles  increased,  indeed,  but  not  his 
power;  for  while  his  kingdom  was  thus  growing  in  area  it  was 
falling  to  pieces.  The  duchy  with  which  he  rewarded  Robert 
the  Strong  was  only  a  military  command,  but  became  a  powerful 
fief.  Baldwin  I.  (d.  879),. count  of  Flanders,  turned  the  country 
between  the  Scheldt,  the  Somme  and  the  sea  into  another  feudal 
principality.  Aquitaine  and  Brittany  were  almost  independent, 
Burgundy  was  in  full  revolt,  and  within  thirty  years  Rollo, 
a  Norman  leader,  was  to  be  master  of  the  whole  of  the  lower 
Seine  from  the  Cotentin  to  the  Somme.  The  fact  was  that 
between  the  king's  inability  to  defend  the  kingdom,  and  the 
powerlessness  of  nobles  and  peasants  to  protect  themselves  from 
pillage,  every  man  made  it  his  business  to  seek  new  protectors, 
and  the  country,  in  spite  of  Charles  the  Bald's  efforts,  began  to  be 
covered  with  strongholds,  the  peasant  learning  to  live  beneath 
the  shelter  of  the  donjon  keeps.  Such  vassals  gave  themselves 
utterly  to  the  lord  who  guarded  them',  working  for  him  sword 


8l2 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


or  pickaxe  in  hand.  The  king  was  far  away,  the  lord  close 
at  hand.  Hence  'the  sixty  years  of  terror  and  confusion 
which  came  between  Charlemagne  and  the  death  of  Charles 
the  Bald  suppressed  the  direct  authority  of  the  king  in 
favour  of  the  nobles,  and  prepared  the  way  for  a  second  de- 
struction of  the  monarchy  at  the  hands  of  a  stronger  power 
(see  FEUDALISM). 

Before  long  Charles  the  Bald's  followers  were  dictating  to 
him;  and  in  the  disaffection  caused  by  his  feebleness  and 
cowardice  prelates  and  nobles  allied  themselves 
aSainst  nim-  If  tney  acknowledged  the  king's  authority 
feudalism,  at  the  assemblies  of  Yiitz  (near  Thionville)  in  844, 
they  forced  from  him  a  promise  that  they  should  keep 
their  fiefs  and  their  dignities;  and  while  establishing  a  right  of 
control  over  all  his  actions  they  deprived  him  of  his  right  of 
jurisdiction  over  them.  Despite  Charles's  resistance  his  royal 
power  dwindled  steadily:  an  appeal  to  Hincmar,  archbishop  of 
Reims,  entailed  concessions  to  the  Church.  In  856  some  of  his 
vassals  deserted  him  and  went  over  to  Louis  the  German.  To 
win  them  back  Charles  had  to  sign  a  new  charter,  by  the  terms 
of  which  loyalty  was  no  longer  a  one-sided  engagement  but 
a  reciprocal  contract  between  king  and  vassal.  He  gave  up  his 
personal  right  of  distributing  the  fiefs  and  honours  which  were 
the  price  of  adherence,  and  thus  lost  for  the  Carolingians  the  free 
disposal  of  the  immense  territories  they  had  gradually  usurped; 
they  retained  the  over-lordship,  it  is  true,  but  this  over-lordship, 
without  usufruct  and  without  choice  of  tenant,  was  but  a 
barren  possession. 

Like  their  territories  public  authority  little  by  little  slipped 
from  the  grasp  of  the  Carolingians,  largely  because  of  their 
Decay  Of  abuse  of  their  too  great  power.  They  had  concentrated 
the  Caro-  the  entire  administration  in  their  own  hands.  Like 
iiogian  Charlemagne,  Louis  the  Pious  and  Charles  the  Bald 
rer'  were  omnipotent.  There  were  no  provincial  assemblies, 
no  municipal  bodies,  no  merchant-gilds,  no  autonomous  churches; 
the  people  had  no  means  of  making  themselves  heard;  they 
had  no  place  in  an  administration  which  was  completely  in  the 
hands  of  a  central  hierarchy  of  officials  of  all  ranks,  from  dukes 
to  scabini,  with  counts,  viscounts  and  centenarii  in  between. 
However,  these  dukes  and  counts  were  not  merely  officials:  they 
too  had  become  lords  oifideles,  of  their  own  advocati,  centenarii 
and  scabini,  whom  they  nominated,  and  of  all  the  free  men  of 
the  county,  who  since  Charlemagne's  time  had  been  first  allowed 
and  then  commanded  to  "  commend  "  themselves  to  a  lord, 
receiving  feudal  benefices  in  return.  Any  deprivation  or  super- 
session of  the  count  might  impoverish,  dispossess  or  ruin  the 
vassals  of  the  entire  county;  so  that  all,  vassals  or  officials, 
small  and  great,  feeling  their  danger,  united  their  efforts,  and 
lent  each  other  mutual  assistance  against  the  permanent  menace 
of  an  overweening  monarchy.  Hence,  at  the  end  of  the  (jth 
century,  the  heredity  of  offices  as  well  as  of  fiefs.  In  the  dis- 
ordered state  of  society  official  stability  was  a  valuable  warrant 
of  peace,  and  the  administrative  hierarchy,  lay  or  spiritual, 
thus  formed  a  mould  for  the  hierarchy  of  feudalism.  There 
was  no  struggle  with  the  king,  simply  a  cessation  of  obedience; 
for  without  strength  or  support  in  the  kingdom  he  was  powerless 
to  resist.  In  vain  Charles  the  Bald  affirmed  his  royal  authority 
in  the  capitularies  of  Quierzy-sur-Oise  (857),  Reims  (860),  Pistes 
(864),  Gondreville  (872)  and  Quierzy-sur-Oise  (877);  each  time 
in  exchange  for  assent  to  the  royal  will  and  renewal  of  oaths 
he  had  to  acquiesce  in  new  safeguards  against  himself  and  by 
so  much  to  diminish  that  power  of  protection  against  violence 
and  injustice  for  which  the  weak  had  always  looked  to  the  throne. 
Far  from  forbidding  the  relation  of  lord  and  vassal,  Charles  the 
Bald  imposed  it  upon  every  man  in  his  kingdom,  himself  proclaim- 
ing the  real  incapacity  and  failure  of  that  theoretic  royal  power 
to  which  he  laid  claim.  Henceforward  royalty  had  no  servants, 
since  it  performed  no  service.  There  was  no  longer  the  least 
hesitation  over  the  choice  between  liberty  with  danger  and 
subjection  with  safety;  men  sought  and  found  in  vassalage 
the  right  to  live,  and  willingly  bartered  away  their  liberty 
for  it. 


The  degeneration  of  the  monarchy  was  clearly  apparent  on 
the  death  of  Charles  the  Bald,  when  his  son,  Louis  the  Stammerer, 
was  only  assured  of  the  throne,  which  had  passed  by   Louls  <Ae 
right   of   birth   under   the   Merovingians  and   been  stam- 
hereditary  under  the  earlier  Carolingians,  through  his  merer 
election  by  nobles  and  bishops  under  the  direction   t877"879)- 
of  Hugh  the  Abbot,  successor  of  Robert  the  Strong,  each  voter 
having  been  won  over  by  gift  of  abbeys,  counties  or  manors. 
When  Louis  died  two  years  later  (879),  the  same  nobles  met, 
some  at  Creil,  the  rest  at  Meaux,  and  the  first  party  chose  Louis 
of  Germany,  who  preferred  Lorraine  to  the  crown;  while  the 
rest  anointed  Louis  III.  and  Carloman,  sons  of  the  /,„„/,  ///. 
late  king,  themselves  deciding  how  the  kingdom  was  andCario- 
to  be  divided  between  the  two  princes.     Thus  the  matt  (8lr9' 
king  no  longer  chose  his  own  vassals;  but  vassals 
and  fief-holders  actually  elected  their  king  according  to  the 
material  advantages  they  expected  from  him.     Louis  III.  and 
Carloman   justified  their  election  by  their  brilliant  victories 
over  the  Normans  at  Saucourt  (88 1)  and  near  Epernay  (883); 
but  at  their  deaths  (882-884),  the  nobles,  instead  of  taking 
Louis's  boy-son,  Charles  the  Simple,  as  king,  chose  Charles  the 
Fat,  king  of  Germany,  because  he  was  emperor  and  seemed 
powerful.     He  united  once  more  the  dominions  of 
Charlemagne;  but  he  disgraced  the  imperial  throne  ^^" 
by  his  feebleness,  and  was  incapable  of  using  his    (884-888.) 
immense  army  to  defend  Paris  when  it  was  besieged 
by  the  Normans.     Expelled  from  Italy,  he  only  came  to  France 
to  buy  a  shameful  peace.     When  he  died  in  January  888  he  had 
not  a  single  faithful  vassal,  and  the  feudal  lords  resolved  never 
again  to  place  the  sceptre  in  a  hand  that  could  not  wield  the 
sword. 

The  death-struggle  of  the  Carolingians  lasted  for  a  century 
of  uncertainty  and  anarchy,  during  which  time  the  bishops, 
counts  and  lords  might  well  have  suppressed  the   „ 
monarchy  had  they  been  hostile  to  it.     Such,  however,  straggle  of 
was  not  their  policy;  on  the  contrary,  they  needed  a  the  Can- 
king  to  act  as  agent  for  their  private  interests,  since  '!"*'*? s_ 
he  alone  could  invest  their  rank  and  dignities  with 
an  official  and  legitimate  character.     They  did  not  at  once 
agree  on  Charles's  successor;  for  some  of  them  chose  Eudes 
(Odo) ,  son  of  Robert  the  Strong,  for  his  brilliant  defence  of  Paris 
against  the  Normans  in  885;  others  Guy,  duke  of  Spoleto  in 
Italy,  who  had  himself  crowned  at  Langres;  while  many  wished 
for  Arnulf,  illegitimate  son  of  Carloman,  king  of  Germany  and 
emperor.     Eudes  was  victor  in  the  struggle,  and  was  crowned 
and  anointed  at  Compiegne  on  the  29th  of  February  888;  but 
five  years  later,  meeting  with  defeat  after  defeat  at  the  hands  of 
the  Normans,  his  followers  deserted  from  him  to  Charles  the 
Simple,  grandson  of  Charles  the  Bald,  who  was  also  supported 
by  Fulk,  archbishop  of  Reims. 

This  first  Carolingian  restoration  took  place  on  the  a8th  of 
January  893,  and  thenceforward  throughout  this  warlike  period 
from  888  to  936  the  crown  passed  from  one  dynasty 
to  the  other  according  to  the  interests  of  the  nobles.    ^* 
After  desperate  strife,  an  agreeement  between  the  two   (888-893). 
rivals,    Arnulf's    support,    and    the    death    of   Odo, 
secured  it  for  Charles  III.,  surnamed  the  Simple.    His  subjects 
remained  faithful  to  him  for  a  good  while,  as  he  put  an  end  to  the 
Norman  invasions  which  had  desolated  the  kingdom  for  two 
centuries,  and  cowed  those  barbarians,  much  to  the  benefit  of 
France.     By  the  treaty  of  St  Clair-sur-Epte  (911)  their  leader 
Rolf  (Rollo)  obtained  one  of  Charles's  daughters  in  marriage 
and  the  district  of  the  Lower  Seine  which  the  Normans  had  long 
occupied,  on  condition  that  he  and  his  men  ceased  their  attacks 
and  accepted  Christianity.     Having  thus  tranquillized  the  west, 
Charles  took  advantage  of  Louis  the  Child's  death,  and 
conquered  Lorraine,  in  spite  of  opposition  from  Conrad,  ^"^mple 
king  of  Germany  (921).     But  his  preference  for  his  new  (893-929}. 
conquest,  and  for  a  Lorrainer  of   low  birth  named 
Hagano,  aroused  the  jealousy  and    discontent  of  his  nobles. 
They  first  elected  Robert,  count  of  Paris  (923),  and  then  after 
his  death  in  a  successful  battle  near  Soissons  against  Charles  the 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


813 


Simple,  Rudolph  of  Burgundy,  his  son-in-law.  But  Herbert  of 
Vermandois,  one  of  the  successful  combatants  at 
B^g'uady'  Soissons»  coveted  the  countship  of  Laon,  which 
(92J-9J6).  Rudolph  refused  him;  and  he  thereupon  proclaimed 
Charles  the  Simple,  who  had  confided  his  cause  to  him, 
as  king  once  more.  Seeing  his  danger  Rudolph  ceded  the  count- 
ship  to  Herbert,  and  Charles  was  relegated  to  his  prison  until 
his  death  in  929.  After  unsuccessful  wars  against  the  nobles 
of  the  South,  against  the  Normans,  who  asserted  that  they  were 
bound  to  no  one  except  Charles  the  Simple,  and  against  the 
Hungarians  (who,  now  the  Normans  were  pacified,  were  acting 
their  part  in  the  East),  Rudolph  had  a  return  of  good  fortune 
in  the  years  between  930  and  936,  despite  the  intrigues  of  Herbert 
of  Vermandois.  Upon  his  death  the  nobles  assembled  to  elect 
a  king;  and  Hugh  the  Great,  Rudolph's  brother-in-law,  moved 
by  irresolution  as  much  as  by  prudence,  instead  of  taking  the 
crown,  preferred  to  restore  the  Carolingians  once  more  in  the 
person  of  Charles  the  Simple's  son,  Louis  d'Outremer,  himself 
claiming  numerous  privileges  and  enjoying  the  exercise  of  power 
unencumbered  by  a  title  which  carried  with  it  the  jealousy  of 
the  nobles. 

This  restoration  was  no  more  peaceful  than  its  predecessor. 
The  Carolingians  had  as  it  were  a  fresh  access  of  energy,  and  the 
Louis  IV  struggle  against  the  Robertinians  went  on  relentlessly. 
the  Both  sides  employed  similar  methods:  one  was  sup- 

Foreigaer  ported  by  Normandy,  the  other  by  Germany;  the 
(936-934.)  archbishop  of  Reims  was  for  the  Carolingians,  the 
Robertinians  had  to  be  content  with  the  less  influential  bishop 
of  Sens.  Louis  soon  proved  to  Hugh  the  Great,  who  was  trying 
to  play  the  part  of  a  mayor  of  the  palace,  that  he  was  by  no 
means  a  roi  faineant;  and  the  powerful  duke  of  the  Franks, 
growing  uneasy,  allied  himself  with  Herbert  of  Vermandois, 
William  of  Normandy  and  his  brother-in-law  Otto  I.  king  of 
Germany,  who  resented  the  loss  of  Lorraine.  Louis  defended 
himself  with  energy,  aided  chiefly  by  the  nobles  of  the  South, 
by  his  relative  Edmund,  king  of  the  English,  and  then  by  Otto 
himself,  whose  brother-in-law  he  also  had  become.  A  peace 
advantageous  to  him  was  made  in  942,  and  on  the  deaths  of  his 
two  opponents,  Herbert  of  Vermandois  and  William  of  Nor- 
mandy, all  seemed  to  be  going  well  for  him;  but  his  guardian- 
ship of  Richard,  son  of  the  duke  of  Normandy,  aroused  fresh 
strife,  and  on  the  I3th  of  July  945  he  fell  into  an  ambush  and 
suffered  a  captivity  similar  to  his  father's  of  twenty-two  years 
before.  No  one  had  befriended  Charles  the  Simple,  but  Louis  had 
his  wife  Gerberga,  who  won  over  to  his  cause  the  kings  of  England 
and  Germany  and  even  Hugh.  Hugh  set  him  free,  insisting,  as 
payment  for  his  aid,  on  the  cession  of  Laon,  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  and  the  last  fortified  town  remaining  to  the  Carolingians 
(946) .  Louis  was  hardly  free  before  he  took  vengeance,  harried 
the  lands  of  his  rival,  restored  to  the  archiepiscopal  throne  of 
Reims  Artald,  his  faithful  adviser,  in  place  of  the  son  of  Herbert 
of  Vermandois,  and  managed  to  get  Hugh  excommunicated 
by  the  council  of  Ingelheim  (948)  and  by  the  pope.  A  two  years' 
struggle  wearied  the  rivals,  and  they  made  peace  in  950.  Louis 
once  more  held  Laon,  and  in  the  following  year  further 
strengthened  his  position  by  a  successful  expedition  into  Bur- 
gundy. Still  his  last  years  were  not  peaceful;  for  besides  civil 
wars  there  were  two  Hungarian  invasions  of  France  (951 
and  954). 

Louis's  sudden  death  in  954  once  more  placed  the  Carolingian 
line  in  peril,  since  he  had  not  had  time  to  have  his  son  Lothair 
crowned.  For  a  third  time  Hugh  had  the  disposal  of 
(954*986)  the  crown,  and  he  was  no  more  tempted  to  take  it  him- 
self in  954  than  in  923  or  936:  it  was  too  profitless  a 
possession.  Thanks  to  Hugh's  support  and  to  the  good  offices 
of  Otto  and  his  brother  Bruno,  archbishop  of  Cologne  and  duke 
of  Lorraine,  Lothair  was  chosen  king  and  crowned  at  Reims. 
Hugh  exacted,  as  payment  for  his  disinterestedness  and  fidelity, 
a  renewal  of  his  sovereignty  over  Burgundy  with  that  of  Aquitaine 
as  well;  he  was  in  fact  the  viceroy  of  the  kingdom,  and  others 
imitated  him  by  demanding  indemnities,  privileges  and  con- 
firmation of  rights,  as  was  customary  at  the  beginning  of  a  reign. 


Hugh  strengthened  his  position  in  Burgundy,  Lorraine  and 
Normandy  by  means  of  marriages;  but  just  as  his  power  was 
at  its  height  he  died  (956).  His  death  and  the  minority  of  his 
sons,  Hugh  Capet  and  Eudes,  gave  the  Carolingian  dynasty  thirty 
years  more  of  life. 

For  nine  years  (956-965)  Bruno,  archbishop  of  Cologne,  was 
regent  of  France,  and  thanks  to  him  there  was  a  kind  of  entente 
cordiale  between  the  Carolingians  and  the  Robertinians  and  Otto. 
Bruno  made  Lothair  recognize  Hugh  as  duke  of  France  and 
Eudes  as  duke  of  Burgundy;  but  the  sons  preserved  the  father's 
enmity  towards  king  Louis,  despite  the  archbishop's  repeated 
efforts.  His  death  deprived  Lothair  of  a  wise  and  devoted 
guardian,  even  if  it  did  set  him  free  from  German  influence; 
and  the  death  of  Odalric,  archbishop  of  Reims,  in  969,  was 
another  fatal  loss  for  the  Carolingians,  succeeded  as  he  was  by 
Adalbero,  who,  though  learned,  pious  and  highly  intelligent, 
was  none  the  less  ambitious.  On  the  death  of  Otto  I.  (973) 
Lothair  wished  to  regain  Lorraine;  but  his  success  was  small, 
owing  to  his  limited  resources  and  the  uncertain  support  of  his 
vassals.  In  980,  regretting  his  fruitless  quarrel  with  Otto  II., 
who  had  ravaged  the  whole  country  as  far  as  Paris,  and  fearing 
that  even  with  the  support  of  the  house  of  Vermandois  he  would 
be  crushed  like  his  father  Louis  IV.  between  the  duke  of  France 
and  the  emperor,  who  could  count  on  the  archbishop  of  Reims, 
Lothair  made  peace  with  Otto — a  great  mistake,  which  cost  him 
the  prestige  he  had  gained  among  his  nobles  by  his  fairly  success- 
ful struggle  with  the  emperor,  drawing  down  upon  him,  moreover, 
the  swift  wrath  of  Hugh,  who  thought  himself  tricked.  Otto, 
meanwhile,  whom  he  was  unwise  enough  to  trust,  made  peace 
secretly  with  Hugh,  as  it  was  his  interest  to  play  off  his  two  old 
enemies  one  against  the  other.  However,  Otto  died  first  (983), 
leaving  a  three-year-old  son,  Otto  III.,  and  Lothair,  hoping  for 
Lorraine,  upheld  the  claims  of  Henry  of  Bavaria,  who  wished  to 
oust  Otto.  This  was  a  war-signal  for  Archbishop  Adalbero 
and  his  adviser  Gerbert,  devoted  to  the  idea  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and  determined  that  it  should  still  be  vested  in  the  race 
of  Otto,  which  had  always  been  beneficent  to  the  Church. 

They  decided  to  set  the  Robertinians  against  the  Carolingians, 
and  on  their  advice  Hugh  Capet  dispersed  the  assembly  of 
Compiegne  which  Lothair  had  commissioned  to  ex- 
amine Adalbero's  behaviour.  On  Lothair's  death  in  igs6-9S7) 
986,  Hugh  surrounded  his  son  and  successor,  Louis  V., 
with  intrigues.  Louis  was  a  weak-minded  and  violent  young  man 
with  neither  authority  nor  prestige,  and  Hugh  tried  to  have  him 
placed  under  tutelage.  After  Louis  V.'s  sudden  death,  aged 
twenty,  in  987,  Adalbero  and  Gerbert,  with  the  support  of  the 
reformed  Cluniac  clergy,  at  the  Assembly  of  Senlis  eliminated 
from  the  succession  the  rightful  heir,  Charles  of  Lorraine,  who, 
without  influence  or  wealth,  had  become  a  stranger  in  his  own 
country,  and  elected  Hugh  Capet,  who,  though  rich  and  powerful, 
was  superior  neither  in  intellect  nor  character.  Thus  the  triple 
alliance  of  Adalbero's  bold  and  adroit  imperialism  with  the 
cautious  and  vacillating  ambition  of  the  duke  of  the  Franks, 
and  the  impolitic  hostility  towards  Germany  of  the  ruined 
Carolingians,  resulted  in  the  unlooked-for  advent  of  the  new 
Capetian  dynasty. 

This  event  completed  the  evolution  of  the  forces  that  had 
produced  feudalism,  the  basis  of  the  medieval  social  system. 
The  idea  of  public  authority  had  been  replaced  by  one  o/smem. 
that  was  simpler  and  therefore  better  fitted  for  a  half-  bermeat  of 
civilized  society — that  of  dependence  of  the  weak  on  <*e  kiay 
the  strong,  voluntarily  entered  on  by  means  of  mutual  aom' 
contract.  Feudalism  had  gained  ground  in  the  8th  century; 
feudalism  it  was  which  had  raised  the  first  Carolingian  to  the 
throne  as  being  the  richest  and  most  powerful  person  in  Austrasia; 
and  Charlemagne  with  all  his  power  had  been  as  utterly  unable 
as  the  Merovingians  to  revive  the  idea  of  an  abstract  and  im- 
personal state.  Charlemagne's  vassals,  however,  had  needed 
him;  while  from  Charles  the  Bald  onward  it  was  the  king  who 
needed  the  vassals — a  change  more  marked  with  each  successive 
prince.  The  feudal  system  had  in  fact  turned  against  the  throne, 
the  vassals  using  it  to  secure  a  permanent  hold  upon  offices  and 


814 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


fiefs,  and  to  get  possession  of  estates  and  of  power.  After  Charles 
the  Bald's  death  royalty  had  only,  so  to  speak,  a  shell — administra- 
tive officialdom.  No  longer  firmly  rootedin  the  soil,  the  monarchy 
was  helpless  before  local  powers  which  confronted  it,  seized  upon 
the  land,  and  cut  off  connexion  between  throne  and  people. 
The  king,  the  supreme  lord,  was  the  only  lord  without  lands,  a 
nomad  in  his  own  realms,  merely  lingering  there  until  starved  out. 
Feudalism  claimed  its  new  rights  in  the  capitulary  of  Quierzy-sur- 
Oise  in  857;  the  rights  of  the  monarchy  began  to  dwindle  in 
877. 

But  vassalage  could  only  be  a  cause  of  disintegration,  not  of 
unity,  and  that  this  disintegration  did  not  at  once  spread  in- 
definitely was  due  to  the  dozen  or  so  great  military  commands 
— Flanders,  Burgundy,  Aquitaine,  &c. — which  Charles  the  Bald 
had  been  obliged  to  establish  on  a  strong  territorial  basis.  One 
of  these  great  vassals,  the  duke  of  France,  was  amply  provided 
with  estates  and  offices,  in  contrast  to  the  landless  Carolingian, 
and  his  power,  like  that  of  the  future  kings  of  Prussia  and 
Austria,  was  based  on  military  authority,  for  he  had  a  frontier — 
that  of  Anjou.  Then  the  inevitable  crisis  had  come.  For  a 
hundred  years  the  great  feudal  lords  had  disposed  of  the  crown 
as  they  pleased,  handing  it  back  and  forward  from  one  dynasty 
to  another.  At  the  same  time  the  contrast  between  the  vast 
proportions  of  the  Carolingian  empire  and  its  feeble  administra- 
tive control  over  a  still  uncivilized  community  became  more 
and  more  accentuated.  The  Empire  crumbled  away  by  degrees. 
Each  country  began  to  lead  its  own  separate  existence,  stammer- 
ing its  own  tongue;  the  different  nations  no  longer  understood 
one  another,  and  no  longer  had  any  general  ideas  in  common. 
The  kingdoms  of  France  and  Germany,  still  too  large,  owed  their 
existence  to  a  series  of  dispossessions  imposed  on  sovereigns 
too  feeble  to  hold  their  own,  and  consisted  of  a  great  number 
of  small  states  united  by  a  very  slight  bond.  At  the  end  of  the 
loth  century  the  duchy  of  France  was  the  only  central  part  of 
the  kingdom  which  was  still  free  and  without  organization.  The 
end  was  bound  to  come,  and  the  final  struggle  was  between  Laon, 
the  royal  capital,  and  Reims,  the  ecclesiastical  capital,  the 
former  carrying  with  it  the  soil  of  France,  and  the  latter  the 
crown.  The  Capets  captured  the  first  in  985  and  the  other  in 
987.  Thenceforth  all  was  over  for  the  Carolingians,  who  were 
left  with  no  heritage  save  their  great  name. 

Was  the  day  won  for  the  House  of  Capet?  In  the  1 1  th  century 
the  kings  of  that  line  possessed  meagre  domains  scattered  about 

in  the  He  de  France  among  the  seigniorial  possessions 
The  House  c  T>  •  -o  •  •  j  w  i  •  >ni_ 

Of Capet.     °*  Brie,  Beauce,  Beauvaisis  and  Valois.     They  were 

hemmed  in  by  the  powerful  duchy  of  Normandy,  the 
counties  of  Blois,  Flanders  and  Champagne,  and  the  duchy 
of  Burgundy.  Beyond  these  again  stretched  provinces  prac- 
tically impenetrable  to  royal  influence:  Brittany,  Gascony, 
Toulouse,  Septimania  and  the  Spanish  March.  The  monarchy 
lay  stifling  in  the  midst  of  a  luxuriant  feudal  forest  which  sur- 
rounded its  only  two  towns  of  any  importance:  Paris,  the  city 
of  the  future,  and  Orleans,  the  city  of  learning.  Its  power, 
exercised  with  an  energy  tempered  by  prudence,  ran  to  waste 
like  its  wealth  in  a  suzerainty  over  turbulent  vassals  devoid  of 
common  government  or  administration,  and  was  undermined 
by  the  same  lack  of  social  discipline  among  its  vassals  which  had 
sapped  the  power  of  the  Carolingians.  The  new  dynasty  was 
thus  the  poorest  and  weakest  of  the  great  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
lordships  which  occupied  the  country  from  the  estuary  of  the 
Scheldt  to  that  of  the  Llobregat,  and  bounded  approximately 
by  the  Meuse,  the  Sa6ne  and  the  ridge  of  the  Cevennes;  yet  it 
cherished  a  great  ambition  which  it  revealed  at  times  during  its 
first  century  (987-1108) — a  determination  not  to  repeat  the 
Carolingian  failure.  It  had  to  wait  two  centuries  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  987  before  it  was  strong  enough  to  take  up  the  dormant 
tradition  of  an  authority  like  that  of  Rome;  and  until  then  it 
cunningly  avoided  unequal  strife  in  which,  victory  being  im- 
possible, reverses  might  have  weakened  those  titles,  higher  than 
any  due  to  feudal  rights,  conferred  by  the  heritage  of  the  Caesars 
and  the  coronation  at  Reims,  and  held  in  reserve  for  the 
future. 


The  new  dynasty  thus  at  first  gave  the  impression  rather  of 
decrepitude  than  of  youth,  seeming  more  a  continuation  of  the 
Carolingian  monarchy  than  a  new  departure.  Hugh 
Capet's  reign  was  one  of  disturbance  and  danger;  l£"g*t 
behind  his  dim  personality  may  be  perceived  the  (987.996). 
struggle  of  greater  forces — royalty  and  feudalism,  the 
French  clergy  and  the  papacy,  the  kingdom  of  France  and  the 
Empire.  Hugh  Capet  needed  more  than  three  years  and  the  be- 
trayal of  his  enemy  into  his  hands  before  he  could  parry  the  attack 
of  a  quite  second-rate  adversary,  Charles  of  Lorraine  (990),  the 
last  descendant  of  Charlemagne.  The  insubordination  of  several 
great  vassals — the  count  of  Vermandois,  the  duke  of  Burgundy, 
the  count  of  Flanders — who  treated  him  as  he  had  treated  the 
Carolingian  king;  the  treachery  of  Arnulf,  archbishop  of  Reims, 
who  let  himself  be  won  over  by  the  empress  Theophano;  the 
papal  hostility  inflamed  by  the  emperor  against  the  claim  of 
feudal  France  to  independence, — all  made  it  seem  for  a  time 
as  though  the  unity  of  the  Roman  empire  of  the  West  would 
be  secured  at  Hugh's  expense  and  in  Otto's  favour;  but  as 
a  matter  of  fact  this  papal  and  imperial  hostility  ended  by 
making  the  Capet  dynasty  a  national  one.  When  Hugh  died 
in  996,  he  had  succeeded  in  maintaining  his  liberty  mainly,  it 
is  true,  by  diplomacy,  not  force,  despite  opposing  powers  and 
his  own  weakness.  Above  all,  he  had  secured  the  future  by 
associating  his  son  Robert  with  him  on  the  throne;  and  although 
the  nobles  and  the  archbishop  of  Reims  were  disturbed  by  this 
suspension  of  the  feudal  right  of  election,  and  tried  to  oppose  it, 
they  were  unsuccessful. 

Robert  the  Pious,  a  crowned  monk,  resembled  his  father  in 
eschewing  great  schemes,  whether  from  timidity  or  prudence; 
yet  from  996  to  1031  he  preserved  intact  the  authority     jy0jert 
he  had  inherited  from  Hugh ,  despite  many  domestic  dis-     the  Pious 
turbances.   He  maintained  a  defiant  attitude  towards     (996- 
Germany;  increased  his  heritage;  strengthened  his     I03t)- 
royal  title  by  the  addition  of  that  of  duke  of  Burgundy  after 
fourteen  years  of  pillage;  and  augmented  the  royal  domain  by 
adding  several  countships  on  the  south-east  and  north-west. 
Limited  in  capacity,  he  yet  understood  the  art  of  acquisition. 

Henry  I.,  his  son,  had  to  struggle  with  a  powerful  vassal, 
Eudes,  count  of  Chartres  and  Troyes,  and  was  obliged  for  a  time 
to  abandon  his  father's  anti-German  policy.  Eudes, 
who  was  rash  and  adventurous,  in  alliance  with  the 
queen-mother,  supported  the  second  son,  Robert,  t060). 
and  captured  the  royal  town  of  Sens.  In  order  to 
retake  it  Henry  ceded  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Saone  and  the 
Rhone  to  the  German  emperor  Conrad,  and  henceforth  the 
kingdom  of  Burgundy  was,  like  Lorraine,  to  follow  the  fortunes 
of  Germany.  Henry  had  besides  to  invest  his  brother  with  the 
duchy  of  Burgundy — a  grave  error  which  hampered  French 
politics  during  three  centuries.  Like  his  father,  he  subsequently 
managed  to  retrieve  some  of  the  crown  lands  from  William  the 
Bastard,  the  too-powerful  duke  of  Normandy;  and  he  made 
a  praiseworthy  though  fruitless  attempt  to  regain  possession 
of  Lorraine  for  the  French  crown.  Finally,  by  the  coronation 
of  his  son  Philip  (1059)  he  confirmed  the  hereditary  right  of  the 
Capets,  soon  to  be  superior  to  the  elective  rights  of  the  bishops 
and  great  barons  of  the  kingdom.  The  chief  merit  of  these 
early  Capets,  indeed,  was  that  they  had  sons,  so  that  their 
dynasty  lasted  on  without  disastrous  minorities  or  quarrels 
over  the  division  of  inheritance. 

Philip  I.  achieved  nothing  during  his  long  reign  of  forty-eight 
years  except  the  necessary  son,  Louis  the  Fat.  Unsuccessful 
even  in  small  undertakings  he  was  utterly  incapable 
of  great  ones;  and  the  two  important  events  of  his 
reign  took  place,  the  one  against  his  will,  the  other 
without  his  help.  The  first,  which  lessened  Norman 
aggression  in  his  kingdom,  was  William  the  Bastard's  conquest 
of  England  (1066);  the  second  was  the  First  Crusade  preached 
by  the  French  pope  Urban  II.  (1095).  A  few  half-hearted 
campaigns  against  recalcitrant  vassals  and  a  long  and  obstinate 
quarrel  with  the  papacy  over  his  adulterous  union  with  Bertrade 
de  Montfort,  countess  of  Anjou,  represented  the  total  activity 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


815 


of  Philip's  reign;  he  was  greedy  and  venal,  by  no  means  disdain- 
ing the  petty  profits  of  brigandage,  and  he  never  left  his  own 
domains. 

After  a  century's  lethargy  the  house  of  Capet  awoke  once  more 
with  Louis  VI.  and  began  the  destruction  of  the  feudal  polity. 
Louis  VI.  For  thirty-four  years  of  increasing  warfare  this  active 
the  Fat  and  energetic  king,  this  brave  and  persevering  soldier, 
(H08-  never  spared  himself,  energetically  policing  the  royal 

demesne  against  such  pillagers  as  Hugh  of  Le  Puiset 
or  Thomas  of  Marie.  There  was,  however,  but  little  difference 
yet  between  a  count  of  Flanders  or  of  Chartres  and  Louis  VI., 
the  possessor  of  a  but  small  and  perpetually  disturbed  realm, 
who  was  praised  by  his  minister,  the  monk  Suger,  for  making 
his  power  felt  as  far  as  distant  Berri!  This  was  clearly  shown 
when  he  attempted  to  force  the  great  feudal  lords  to  recognize 
his  authority.  His  bold  endeavour  to  establish  William  Ciito 
in  Flanders  ended  in  failure;  and  his  want  of  strength  was 
particularly  humiliating  in  his  unfortunate  struggle  with  Henry 
L,  king  of  the  English  and  duke  of  Normandy,  who  was  powerful 
and  well  served,  the  real  master  of  a  comparatively  weak  baron- 
age. Louis  only  escaped  being  crushed  because  he  remembered, 
as  did  his  successors  for  long  after  him,  that  his  house  owed  its 
power  to  the  Church. 

The  Church  has  never  loved  weakness;  she  has  always  had  a 
secret  sympathy  for  power,  whatever  its  source,  when  she  could 
hope  to  capture  it  and  make  it  serve  her  ends.  Louis  VI.  de- 
fended her  against  feudal  robbers;  and  she  supported  him  in  his 
struggles  against  the  nobles,  making  him,  moreover,  by  his  son's 
marriage  with  the  heiress  of  Aquitaine,  the  greatest  and  richest 
landholder  of  the  kingdom.  But  Louis  was  not  the  obedient 
tool  she  wished  for.  With  equal  firmness  and  success  he  vindi- 
cated his  rights,  whether  against  the  indirect  attacks  of  the 
papacy  on  his  independence,  or  the  claims  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  which,  in  principle,  he  made  subordinate  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  crown;  whether  in  episcopal  elections,  or  in  ecclesi- 
astical reforms  which  might  possibly  imperil  his  power  or  his 
revenues.  The  prestige  of  this  energetic  king,  protector  of  the 
Church,  of  the  infant  communes  in  the  towns,  and  of  the  peasants 
as  against  the  constant  oppressions  of  feudalism,  became  still 
greater  at  the  end  of  his  reign,  when  an  invasion  of  the  German 
emperor  Henry  V.  in  alliance  with  Henry  Beauclerk  of  Normandy 
(Henry  I.  of  England),  rallied  his  subjects  round  the  oriflamme  of 
St  Denis,  awakening  throughout  northern  France  the  unanimous 
and  novel  sentiment  of  national  danger. 

Unfortunately  his  successor,  Louis  VII.,  almost  destroyed 
his  work  by  a  colossal  blunder,  although  circumstances 
seemed  much  in  his  favour.  Germany  and  England,  the  two 
Louis  vn.  powers  especially  to  be  dreaded,  were  busy  with 
the  Young  internal  troubles  and  quarrels  of  succession.  On  the 
(1137-  other  hand,  thanks  to  his  marriage  with  Eleanor 

of  Aquitaine,  Louis's  own  domains  had  been  increased 
by  the  greater  part  of  the  country  between  the  Loire  and  the 
Pyrenees;  while  his  father's  minister,  the  monk  Suger,  continued 
to  assist  him  with  his  moderation  and  prudence.  His  first 
successes  against  Theobald  of  Champagne,  who  for  thirty  years 
had  been  the  most  dangerous  of  the  great  French  barons  and 
had  refused  a  vassal's  services  to  Louis  VI.,  as  well  as  the  adroit 
diplomacy  with  which  he  wrested  from  Geoffrey  the  Fair,  count 
of  Anjou,  a  part  of  the  Norman  Vexin  long  claimed  by  the  French 
kings,  in  exchange  for  permitting  him  to  conquer  Normandy, 
augured  well  for  his  boldness  and  activity,  had  he  but  confined 
them  to  serving  his  own  interests.  The  second  crusade,  under- 
taken to  expiate  his  burning  of  the  church  of  Vitry,  inaugurated 
a  series  of  magnificent  but  fruitless  exploits;  while  his  wife 
was  the  cause  of  domestic  quarrels  still  more  disastrous.  Piety 
and  a  thirst  for  glory  impelled  Louis  to  take  the  lead  in  this 

fresh  expedition  to  the  Holy  Land,  despite  the 
lecood  opposition  of  Suger,  and  the  hesitation  of  the  pope, 
crusade.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  and  the  barons.  The  alliance 

with  the  German  king  Conrad  III.  only  enhanced  the 
difficulties  of  an  enterprise  already  made  hazardous  by  the 
misunderstandings  between  Greeks  and  Latins.  The  Crusade 


ended  in  the  double  disaster  of  military  defeat  and  martial 
dishonour  (1147-1149);  and  Suger's  death  in  1151  deprived 
Louis  of  a  counsellor  who  had  exercised  the  regency  skilfully 
and  with  success,  just  at  the  very  moment  when  his  divorce 
from  Eleanor  was  to  jeopardize  the  fortunes  of  the  Capets. 

For  the  proud  and  passionate  Eleanor  married,  two  months 
later  (May  1152),  the  young  Henry,  count  of  Anjou  and  duke 
of  Normandy,  who  held,  besides  these  great  fiefs, 
the  whole  of  the  south-west  of  France,  and  in  two  Rivalry  of 
years'  time  the  crown  of  England  as  well.  Henry  and 
Louis  at  once  engaged  in  the  first  Capet-Angevin  duel, 
destined  to  last  a  hundred  years  (1152-1242).  When  France 
and  England  thus  entered  European  history,  their  conditions 
were  far  from  being  equal.  In  England  royal  power  was  strong; 
the  size  of  the  Angevin  empire  was  vast,  and  the  succession 
assured.  It  was  only  abuse  of  their  too-great  powers  that  ruined 
the  early  Angevin  kings.  France  in  the  1 2th  century  was  merely 
a  federation  of  separate  states,  jealously  independent,  which 
the  king  had  to  negotiate  with  rather  than  rule;  while  his  own 
possessions,  shorn  of  the  rich  heritage  of  Aquitaine,  were,  so  to 
speak,  swamped  by  those  of  the  English  king.  For  some  time 
it  was  feared  that  the  French  kingdom  would  be  entirely  ab- 
sorbed in  consequence  of  the  marriage  between  Louis's  daughter 
and  Henry  II. 's  eldest  son.  The  two  rivals  were  typical  of  their 
states,  Henry  II.  being  markedly  superior  to  Louis  in  political 
resource,  military  talent  and  energy.  He  failed,  however,  to 
realize  his  ambition  of  shutting  in  the  Capet  king  and  isolating 
him  from  the  rest  of  Europe  by  crafty  alliances,  notably  that 
with  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa — while  watching  an 
opportunity  to  supplant  him  upon  the  French  throne.  It  is 
extraordinary  that  Louis  should  have  escaped  final  destruction, 
considering  that  Henry  had  subdued  Scotland,  retaken  Anjou 
from  his  brother  Geoffrey,  won  a  hold  over  Brittany,  and  schemed 
successfully  for  Languedoc.  »  But  the  Church  once  more  came 
to  the  rescue  of  her  devoted  son.  The  retreat  to  France  of  Pope 
Alexander  III.,  after  he  had  been  driven  from  Rome  by  the 
emperor  Frederick  in  favour  of  the  anti-pope  Victor,  revived 
Louis's  moral  prestige.  Henry  II. 's  quarrel  with  Thomas  Becket, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  which  ran  its  course  in  France  (i  164- 
1 1 7 1)  as  a  struggle  for  the  independence  and  reform  of  the  Church, 
both  threatened  by  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  and  ended 
with  the  murder  of  Becket  in  1172,  gave  Louis  yet  another 
advantage  over  his  rival.  Finally  the  birth  of  Philip  Augustus 
(1165),  after  thirty  years  of  childless  wedlock,  saved  the  kingdom 
from  a  war  of  succession  just  at  the  time  when  the  powerful 
Angevin  sway,  based  entirely  upon  force,  was  jeopardized  by 
the  rebellion  of  Henry  II. 's  sons  against  their  father.  Louis 
naturally  joined  the  coalition  of  1173,  but  showed  no  more 
vigour  in  this  than  in  his  other  wars;  and  his  fate  would  have  been 
sealed  had  not  the  pope  checked  Henry  by  the  threat  of  an 
interdict,  and  reconciled  the  combatants  (1177).  Louis  had  still 
time  left  to  effect  the  coronation  of  his  son  Philip  Augustus 
(1179),  and  to  associate  him  with  himself  in  the  exercise  of  the 
royal  power  for  which  he  had  grown  too  old  and  infirm. 

Philip  Augustus,  who  was  to  be  the  bitterest  enemy  of  Henry 
II.  and  the  Angevins,  was  barely  twenty  before  he  revealed  the 
full  measure  of  his  cold  energy  and  unscrupulous  phulp 
ambition.  In  five  years  (1180-1186)  he  rid  himself  Augustus 
of  the  overshadowing  power  of  Philip  of  Alsace,  count  (iiso- 
of  Flanders,  and  his  own  uncles,  the  counts  of  a23^ 
Champagne;  while  the  treaty  of  May  2oth,  1186,  was  his  first 
rough  lesson  to  the  feudal  leagues,  which  he  had  reduced  to 
powerlessness,  and  to  the  subjugated  duke  of  Burgundy  and 
count  of  Flanders.  Northern  and  eastern  France  recognized  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Capet,  and  Philip  Augustus  was  now  bold 
enough  to  attack  Henry  II.,  the  master  of  the  west,  whose 
friendly  neutrality  (assured  by  the  treaty  of  Gisors)  had  made 
possible  the  successive  defeats  of  the  great  French  barons. 
Like  his  father,  Philip  understood  how  to  make  capital  out  of  the 
quarrels  of  the  aged  and  ailing  Henry  II.  with  his  sons,  especially 
with  Richard,  who  claimed  his  French  heritage  in  his  father's 
lifetime,  and  raised  up  enemies  for  the  disunited  Angevins  even 


8i6 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


Caeurde 

Lion. 


in  Germany.  After  two  years  of  constant  defeat,  Henry's 
capitulation  at  Azai  proved  once  more  that  fortune  is  never 
with  the  old.  The  English  king  had  to  submit  himself  to  "  the 
advice  and  desire  of  the  king  of  France,"  doing  him  homage  for 
all  continental  fiefs  (1187-1189). 

The  defection  of  his  favourite  son  John  gave  Henry  his  death- 
blow, and  Philip  Augustus  found  himself  confronted  by  a  new 
king  of  England,  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  as  powerful, 
besides  being  younger  and  more  energetic.     Philip's 
and  ambition   could   not   rest   satisfied   with   the   petty 

Richard  principalities  of  Amiens,  Vermandois  and  Valois, 
which  he  had  added  to  the  royal  demesne.  The  third 
crusade,  undertaken,  sorely  against  Philip's  will,  in 
alliance  with  Richard,  only  increased  the  latent  hostility  between 
the  two  kings;  and  in  1191  Philip  abandoned  the  enterprise 
in  order  to  return  to  France  and  try  to  plunder  his  absent  rival. 
Despite  his  solemn  oath  no  scruples  troubled  him:  witness  the 
large  sums  of  money  he  offered  to  the  emperor  Henry  VI.  if  he 
would  detain  Richard,  who  had  been  made  prisoner  by  the  duke 
of  Austria  on  his  return  from  the  crusade;  and  his  negotiations 
with  his  brother  John  Lackland,  whom  he  acknowledged  king  of 
England  in  exchange  for  the  cession  of  Normandy.  But  Henry 
VI.  suddenly  liberated  Richard,  and  in  five  years  that  "  devil 
set  free  "  took  from  Philip  all  the  profit  of  his  trickery,  and  shut 
him  off  from  Normandy  by  the  strong  fortress  of  Chateau- 
Gaiflard  (1194-1199). 

Happily  an  accident  which  caused  Richard's  death  at  the 
siege  of  Chalus,  and  the  evil  imbecility  of  his  brother  and  suc- 
Phiiip  cessor,  John  Lackland,  brilliantly  restored  the  fortunes 
Augustus  of  the  Capets.  The  quarrel  between  John  and  his 
and  John  nephew  Arthur  of  Brittany  gave  Philip  Augustus 
Lackland.  one  Q£  tjjOse  opportunities  of  profiting  by  family 
discord  which,  coinciding  with  discontent-  among  the  various 
peoples  subject  to  the  house  of  A.njou,  had  stood  him  in  such 
good  stead  against  Henry  II.  and  Richard.  He  demanded 
renunciation  on  John's  part,  not  of  Anjou  only,  but  of  Poitou 
and  Normandy —  of  all  his  French-speaking  possessions,  in  fact — 
in  favour  of  Arthur,  who  was  supported  by  William  des  Roches, 
the  most  powerful  lord  of  the  region  of  the  Loire.  Philip's 
divorce  from  Ingeborg  of  Denmark,  who  appealed  successfully 
to  Pope  Innocent  HI.,  merely  delayed  the  inevitable  conflict. 
John  of  England,  moreover,  was  a  past-master  in  the  art  of 
making  enemies  of  his  friends,  and  his  conduct  towards  his  vassals 
of  Aquitaine  furnished  a  judicial  pretext  for  conquest.  The 
royal  judges  at  Paris  condemned  John,  as  a  felon,  to  death  and 
the  forfeiture  of  his  fiefs  (1203),  and  the  murder  of  Arthur  com- 
pleted his  ruin.  Philip  Augustus  made  a  vigorous  onslaught  on 
Normandy  in  right  of  justice  and  of  superior  force,  took  the 
formidable  fortress  of  Chateau-Gaillard  on  the  Seine  after  several 
months'  siege,  and  invested  Rouen,  which  John  abandoned, 
fleeing  to  England.  In  Anjou,  Touraine,  Maine  and  Poitou, 
lords,  towns  and  abbeys  made  their  submission,  won  over  by 
Philip's  bribes  despite  Pope  Innocent  III.'s  attempts  at  inter- 
vention. In  1208  John  was  obliged  to  own  the  Plantagenet 
continental  power  as  lost.  There  were  no  longer  two  rival 
monarchies  in  France;  the  feudal  equilibrium  was  destroyed, 
to  the  advantage  of  the  duchy  of  France. 

But  Philip  in  his  turn  nearly  allowed  himself  to  be  led  into  an 
attempt  at  annexing  England,  and  so  reversing  for  his  own 
benefit  the  work  of  the  Angevins  (1213);  but,  happily  for  the 
future  of  the  dynasty,  Pope  Innocent  III.  prevented  this. 
Thanks  to  the  ecclesiastical  sanction  of  his  royalty,  Philip  had 
successfully  braved  the  pope  for  twenty  years,  in  the  matter  of 
Ingeborg  and  again  in  that  of  the  German  schism,  when  he  had 
supported  Philip  of  Swabia  against  Otto  of  Brunswick,  the 
pope's  candidate.  In  1213,  John  Lackland,  having  been  in  con- 
flict with  Innocent  regarding  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Canterbury, 
had  made  submission  and  done  homage  for  his  kingdom,  and 
Philip  wished  to  take  vengeance  for  this  at  the  expense  of  the 
rebellious  vassals  of  the  north-west,  and  of  Renaud  and  Ferrand, 
counts  of  Boulogne  and  Flanders,  thus  combating  English 
influence  in  those  quarters. 


This  was  a  return  to  the  old  Capet  policy;  but  it  was  also 
menacing  to  many  interests,  and  sure  to  arouse  energetic  re- 
sistance. John  seized  the  opportunity  to  consolidate  coalition 
against  Philip  a  European  coalition,  which  included  against 
most  of  the  feudal  lords  in  Flanders,  Belgium  and  Pump 
Lorraine,  and  the  emperor  Otto  IV.  So  dangerous  did  ?$%**""' 
the  French  monarchy  already  seem!  John  began 
operations  with  an  attack  from  Anjou,  supported  by  the  notably 
capricious  nobles  of  Aquitaine,  and  was  routed  by  Philip's  son 
at  La  Roche  aux  Moines,  near  Angers,  on  the  2nd  of  July 
1214.  Twenty-five  days  later  the  northern  allies,  intending  to 
surprise  the  smaller  French  army  on  its  passage  over  the  bridge 
at  Bouvines,  themselves  sustained  a  complete  defeat.  This  first 
national  victory  had  not  only  a  profound  effect  on  the  whole 
kingdom,  but  produced  consequences  of  far-reaching  importance: 
in  Germany  it  brought  about  Otto's  fall  before  Frederick  II.; 
in  England  it  introduced  the  great  drama  of  1215,  the  first  act 
of  which  closed  with  Magna  Carta — John  Lackland  being  forced 
to  acknowledge  the  control  of  his  barons,  and  to  share  with  them 
the  power  he  had  abused  and  disgraced.  In  France,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  throne  was  exalted  beyond  rivalry,  raised  far  above  a 
feudalism  which  never  again  ventured  on  acts  of  independence 
or  rebellion.  Bouvines  gave  France  the  supremacy  of  the  West. 
The  feudalism  of  Languedoc  was  all  that  now  remained  to 
conquer. 

The  whole  world,  in  fact,  was  unconsciously  working  for 
Philip  Augustus.  Anxious  not  to  risk  his  gains,  but  to  consolidate 
them  by  organization,  Philip  henceforth  until  his  death  in  1223 
operated  through  diplomacy  alone,  leaving  to  others  the  toil 
and  trouble  of  conquests,  the  advantages  of  which  were  not  for 
them.  When  his  son  Louis  wished  to  wrest  the  English  crown 
from  John,  now  crushed  by  his  barons,  Philip  intervened  without 
seeming  to  do  so,  first  with  the  barons,  then  with  Innocent  III., 
supporting  and  disowning  his  son  by  turns;  until  the  latter, 
held  in  check  by  Rome,  was  forced  to  sign  the  treaty  of  Lambeth 
(1217).  When  the  Church  and  the  needy  and  fanatical  nobles 
of  northern  and  central  France  destroyed  the  feudal  dynasty 
of  Toulouse  and  the  rich  civilization  of  the  south  in  the 
Albigensian  crusade,  it  was  for  Philip  Augustus  that  their 
leader,  Simon  de  Montfort,  all  unknowing,  conquered  Languedoc. 
At  last,  instead  of  the  two  Frances  of  the  langue  d'oc  and  the 
langue  d'oil,  there  was  but  one  royal  France  comprising  the  whole 
kingdom. 

Philip  Augustus  was  not  satisfied  with  the  destruction  of  a 
turbulent  feudalism;  he  wished  to  substitute  for  it  such  unity 
and  peace  as  had  obtained  in  the  Roman  Empire;  Adminis- 
and  just  as  he  had  established  his  supremacy  over  the  tration  of 
feudal  lords,  so  now  he  managed  to  extend  it  over  the  Philip 
clergy,  and  to  bend  them  to  his  will.  He  took  ad-  '4u«™s'u*' 
vantage  of  their  weakness  in  the  midst  of  an  age  of  violence. 
By  contracts  of  "  pariage  "  the  clergy  claimed  and  obtained 
the  king's  protection  even  in  places  beyond  the  king's  jurisdiction, 
to  their  common  advantage.  Philip  thus  set  the  feudal  lords 
one  against  the  other;  and  against  them  all,  first  the  Church, 
then  the  communes.  He  exploited  also  the  townspeople's  need 
for  security  and  the  instinct  of  independence  which  made  them 
claim  a  definite  place  in  the  feudal  hierarchy.  He  was  the  actual 
creator  of  the  communes,  although  an  interested  creator,  since 
they  made  a  breach  in  the  fortress  of  feudalism  and  extended 
the  royal  authority  far  beyond  the  king's  demesne.  He  did 
even  more:  he  gave  monarchy  the  instruments  of  which  it 
still  stood  in  need,  gathering  round  him  in  Paris  a  council 
of  men  humble  in  origin,  but  wise  and  loyal;  while  in  1190 
he  instituted  baillis  and  seneschals  throughout  his  enlarged 
dominions,  all-powerful  over  the  nobles  and  subservient  to 
himself.  He  filled  his  treasury  with  spoils  harshly  wrung  from 
all  classes;  thus  inaugurating  the  monarchy's  long  and  patient 
labours  at  enlarging  the  crown  lands  bit  by  bit  through  taxes 
on  private  property.  Finally  he  created  an  army,  no  longet 
the  temporary  feudal  ost,  but  a  more  or  less  permanent  royal 
force.  By  virtue  of  all  these  organs  of  government  the  throne 
guaranteed  peace,  justice  and  a  secure  future,  having  routed 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


817 


feudalism  with  sword  and  diplomacy.  Philip's  son  was  the  first 
of  the  Capets  who  was  not  crowned  during  his  father's  lifetime; 
a  fact  clearly  showing  that  the  principle  of  heredity  had  _  now 
been  established  beyond  discussion. 

Louis  VIII. 's  short  reign  was  but  a  prolongation  of  Philip's 
in  its  realization  of  his  two  great  designs:  the  recovery  from 

Henry  III.  of  England  of  Poitou  as  far  as  the  Garonne; 
(1223-  '  an<^  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  which  with 
1226).  small  pains  procured  him  the  succession  of  Amaury 

de  Montfort,  and  the  Languedoc  of  the  counts  of 
Toulouse,  if  not  the  whole  of  Gascony.  Louis  VIII.  died  on 
his  return  from  this  short  campaign  without  having  proved  his 
full  worth. 

But  the  history  of  France  during  the  nth  and  I2th  centuries 
does  not  entirely  consist  of  these  painful  struggles  of  the  Capet 

dynasty  to  shake  off  the  fetters  of  feudalism.     France, 

no  l°nger  sPut  UP  into  separate  fragments,  now  began 
activity.  to  exercise  both  intellectual  and  military  influence 

over  Europe.  Everywhere  her  sons  gave  proof  of 
rejuvenated  activity.  The  Christian  missions  which  others 
were  reviving  in  Prussia  and  beginning  in  Hungary  were  under- 
taken on  a  vaster  scale  by  the  Capets.  These  "  elder  sons  of 
the  Church  "  made  themselves  responsible  for  carrying  out  the 
"  work  of  God,"  and  French  pilgrims  in  the  Holy  Land  pre- 
pared the  great  movement  of  the  Crusades  against  the  infidels. 
Religious  faith,  love  of  adventure,  the  hope  of  making  ad- 
vantageous conquests,  anticipations  of  a  promised  paradise — 
all  combined  to  force  this  advance  upon  the  Orient,  which 
though  failing  to  rescue  the  sepulchre  of  Christ,  the  ephemeral 
kingdoms  of  Jerusalem  and  Cyprus,  the  dukedom  of  Athens, 
or  the  Latin  empire  of  Constantinople,  yet  gained  for  France 
that  prestige  for  military  glory  and  religious  piety  which  for 
centuries  constituted  her  strength  in  the  Levant  (see  CRUSADES). 
At  the  call  of  the  pope  other  members  of  the  French  chivalry 
also  made  victorious  expeditions  against  the  Mussulmans,  and 
founded  the  Christian  kingdom  of  Portugal.  Obeying  that 
enterprising  spirit  which  was  to  take  them  to  England  half  a 
century  later,  Normans  descended  upon  southern  Italy  and 
wrested  rich  lands  from  Greeks  and  Saracens. 

In  the  domain  of  intellect  the  advance  of  the  French  showed 
a  no  less  dazzling  and  a  no  less  universal  activity;  they  sang 
Intel-  as  well  as  they  fought,  and  their  epics  were  worthy 
factual  of  their  swordsmanship,  while  their  cathedrals  were 
develop-  hymns  in  stone  as  ardent  as  their  soaring  flights  of 

devotion.  In  this  period  of  intense  religious  life 
France  was  always  in  the  vanguard.  It  was  the  ideas  of  Cluniac 
monks  that  freed  the  Church  from  feudal  supremacy,  and  in 
the  nth  century  produced  a  Pope  Gregory  VII.;  the  spirit 
of  free  investigation  shown  by  the  heretics  of  Orleans  inspired 
the  rude  Breton,  Abelard,  in  the  I2th  century;  and  with 
Gerbert  and  Fulbert  of  Chartres  the  schools  first  kindled  that 
brilliant  light  which  the  university  of  Paris,  organized  by  Philip 
Augustus,  was  to  shed  over  the  world  from  the  heights  of 
Sainte-Genevieve.  In  the  quarrels  of  the  priesthood  under 
the  Empire  it  was  St  Bernard,  the  great  abbot  of  Clairvaux, 
who  tried  to  arrest  the  papacy  on  the  slippery  downward  path 
of  theocracy;  finally,  it  was  in  Suger's  church  of  St  Denis 
that  French  art  began  that  struggle  between  light  against 
darkness  which,  culminating  in  Notre-Dame  and  the  Sainte- 
Chapelle,  was  to  teach  the  architects  of  the  world  the  delight 
of  building  with  airiness  of  effect.  The  old  basilica  which 
contains  the  history  of  the  monarchy  sums  up  the  whole  of  Gothic 
art  to  this  day,  and  it  was  Suger  who  in  the  domain  of  art  and 
politics  brought  forward  once  more  the  conception  of  unity. 
The  courteous  ideal  of  French  chivalry,  with  its  "  delectable  " 
language,  was  adopted  by  all  seigniorial  Europe,  which  thus 
became  animated,  as  it  were,  by  the  life-blocd  of  France.  Simi- 
larly, in  the  universal  movement  of  those  forces  which  made  for 
freedom,  France  began  the  age-long  struggle  to  maintain  the 
rights  of  civil  society  and  continually  to  enlarge  the  social 
categories.  The  townsman  enriched  by  commerce  and  the 
emancipated  peasant  tried  more  or  less  valiantly  to  shake  off 


' 


the  yoke  of  the  feudal  system,  which  had  been  greatly  weakened, 
if  not  entirely  broken  down,  by  the  crusades.  Grouped  around 
their  belfry-towers  and  organized  within  their  gilds,  they  made 
merry  in  their  free  jocular  language  over  their  own  hardships, 
and  still  more  over  the  vices  of  their  lords.  They  insinuated 
themselves  into  the  counsels  of  their  ignorant  masters,  and 
though  still  sitting  humbly  at  the  feet  of  the  barons,  these 
upright  and  well-educated  servitors  were  already  dreaming 
of  the  great  deeds  they  would  do  when  their  tyrants  should  have 
vacated  their  high  position,  and  when  royalty  should  have 
summoned  them  to  power. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  I3th  century  the  Capet  monarchy 
was  so  strong  that  the  crisis  occasioned  by  the  sudden  death 
of  Louis  VIIL  was  easily  surmounted  by  the  foreign 
woman  and  the  child  whom  he  left  behind  him.  It  (°226-  *' 
is  true  that  that  woman  was  Blanche  of  Castile,  and  1270). 
that  child  the  future  Louis  IX.  A  virtuous  and  very 
devout  Spanish  princess,  Blanche  assumed  the  regency  of  the 
kingdom  and  the  tutelage  of  her  child,  and  carried  them  on  for 
nine  years  with  so  much  force  of  character  and  capacity 
for  rule  that  she  soon  impressed  the  clamorous  and 
disorderly  leaders  of  the  opposition  (1226-1235).  By 
the  treaty  of  Meaux  (1229),  her  diplomacy  combined  with  the 
influence  of  the  Church  to  prepare  effectually  for  the  annexation 
of  Languedoc  to  the  kingdom,  supplementing  this  again  by  a 
portion  of  Champagne;  and  the  marriage  of  her  son  to  Margaret 
of  Provence  definitely  broke  the  ties  which  held  the  country 
within  the  orbit  of  the  German  empire.  She  managed  also  to  keep 
out  of  the  great  quarrel  between  Frederick  II.  and  the  papacy 
which  was  convulsing  Germany.  But  her  finest  achievement 
was  the  education  of  her  son;  she  taught  him  that  lofty  religious 
morality  which  in  his  case  was  not  merely  a  rule  for  private 
conduct,  but  also  a  political  programme  to  which  he  remained 
faithful  even  to  the  detriment  of  his  apparent  interests.  With 
Louis  IX.  morality  for  the  first  time  permeated  and  dominated 
politics;  he  had  but  one  end:  to  do  justice  to  every  one  and  to 
reconcile  all  Christendom  in  view  of  a  general  crusade. 

The  oak  of  Vincennes,  under  which  the  king  would  sit  to 
mete  out  justice,  cast  its  shade  over  the  whole  political  action 
of  Louis  IX.  He  was  the  arbiter  of  townspeople,  of  feudal 
lords  and  of  kings.  The  interdiction  of  the  judicial  Louis  ix.'s 
duel,  the  "  quarantaine  le  roi,"  i.e.  "  the  king's  truce  policy  of 
of  forty  days  "  during  which  no  vengeance  might  "bltT*- 
be  taken  for  private  wrongs,  and  the  assurement,1 
went  far  to  diminish  the  abuses  of  warfare  by  allowing  his 
mediation  to  make  for  a  spirit  of  reconciliation  throughout  his 
kingdom.  When  Thibaud  (Theobald),  count  of  Champagne, 
attempted  to  marry  the  daughter  of  Pierre  Mauclerc,  duke  of 
Brittany,  without  the  king's  consent,  Louis  IX.,  who  held  the 
county  of  Champagne  at  his  mercy,  contented  himself  with 
exacting  guarantees  of  peace.  Beyond  the  borders  of  France, 
at  the  time  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  's  conflict  with  a  papacy 
threatened  in  its  temporal  powers,  though  he  made  no  response 
to  Frederick's  appeal  to  the  civil  authorities  urging  them  to 
present  a  solid  front  against  the  pretensions  of  the  Church,  and 
though  he  energetically  supported  the  latter,  yet  he  would  not 
admit  her  right  to  place  kingdoms  under  interdict,  and  refused  the 
imperial  crown  which  Gregory  IX.  offered  him  for  one  of  his 
brothers.  He  always  hoped  to  bring  about  an  honourable 
agreement  between  the  two  adversaries,  and  in  his  estimation 

1  The  assurement  (assecuratio,  assecuramentum)  differed  from  the 
truce,  which  was  a  suspension  of  hostilities  by  mutual  consent, 
in  so  far  as  it  was  a  peace  forced  by  judicial  authority  on  one  of  the 
parties  at  the  request  of  the  other.  The  party  desiring  protection 
applied  for  the  assurement,  either  before  or  during  hostilities,  to  any 
royal,  seigniorial  or  communal  judge,  who  thereupon  cited  the  other 
party  to  appear  and  take  an  oath  that  he  would  assure  the  person, 
property  and  dependents  of  his  adversary  (qu'il  Vassurera,  elle  et  les 
siens).  This  custom,  which  became  common  in  the  I3th  century, 
of  course  depended  for  its  effectiveness  on  the  degree  of  respect 
inspired  in  the  feudal  nobles  by  the  courts.  It  was  difficult,  for 
instance,  to  refuse  or  to  violate  an  assurement  imposed  by  a  royal 
bailli  or  by  the  parlement  itself.  See  A.  Luchaire,  Manuel  des 
institutions  frangaises  (Paris,  1892),  p.  233.  —  (W.  A.  P.) 


8i8 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


the  advantages  of  peace  outweighed  personal  interest.  In 
matters  concerning  the  succession  in  Flanders,  Hainaut  and 
Navarre;  in  the  quarrels  of  the  princes  regarding  the  Empire, 
and  in  those  of  Henry  III.  of  England  with  his  barons;  it  was 
because  of  his  justice  and  his  disinterestedness  that  he  was 
appealed  to  as  a  trusted  mediator.  His  conduct  towards  Henry 
III.  was  certainly  a  most  characteristic  example  of  his  behaviour. 
The  king  of  England  had  entered  into  the  coalition  formed 
by  the  nobility  of  Poitou  and  the  count  of  Toulouse  to  prevent 
the  execution  of  the  treaty  of  1229  and  the  enfeoffment 
Louis  IX.  Of  p0itou  to  the  king's  brother  Alphonse.  Louis  IX. 
"nearyin.  defeated  Henry  III.  twice  within  two  days,  at  Taille- 
bourg  and  at  Saintes,and  obliged  him  to  demand  a  truce 
(1242).  It  was  forbidden  that  any  lord  should  be  a  vassal  both 
of  the  king  of  France  and  of  the  king  of  England.  After  this 
Louis  IX.  had  set  off  upon  his  first  crusade  in  Egypt  (1248-54), 
and  on  his  return  he  wanted  to  make  this  truce  into  a  definite 
treaty  and  to  "  set  love  "  between  his  children  and  those  of.  the 
English  king.  By  a  treaty  signed  at  Paris  (1259),  Henry  III. 
renounced  all  the  conquests  of  Philip  Augustus,  and  Louis  IX. 
those  of  his  father  Louis  VIII. — an  example  unique  in  history  of  a 
victorious  king  spontaneously  giving  up  his  spoil  solely  for  the 
sake  of  peace  and  justice,  yet  proving  by  his  act  that  honesty  is 
the  best  policy;  for  monarchy  gained  much  by  that  moral 
authority  which  made  Louis  IX.  the  universal  arbitrator. 

But  his  love  of  peace  and  concord  was  not  always  "  sans  grands 
despens  "  to  the  kingdom.  In  1 2  38,  by  renouncing  his  rights  over 
Roussillon  and  the  countship  of  Barcelona,  conquered 
ky  Charlemagne,  he  made  an  advantageous  bargain 
because  he  kept  Montpellier;  but  he  committed  a 
grave  fault  in  consenting  to  accept  the  offers  regarding 
Sicily  made  by  Pope  Urban  IV.  to  his  brother  the  count  of  Anjou 
and  Provence.  That  was  the  origin  of  the  expeditions  into  Italy 
on  which  the  house  of  Valois  was  two  centuries  later  to  squander 
the  resources  of  France  unavailingly,  compromising  beyond  the 
Alps  its  interests  in  the  Low  Countries  and  upon  the  Rhine. 
But  Louis  IX.'s  worst  error  was  his  obsession  with  regard  to  the 
crusades,  to  which  he  sacrificed  everything.  Despite  the  signal 
failure  of  the  first  crusade,  when  he  had  been  taken  prisoner; 
despite  the  protests  of  his  mother,  of  his  counsellors,  and  of  the 
pope  himself,  he  flung  himself  into  the  mad  adventure  of  Tunis. 
Nowhere  was  his  blind  faith  more  plainly  shown,  combined  as 
it  was  with  total  ignorance  of  the  formidable  migrations  that  were 
convulsing  Asia,  and  of  the  complicated  game  of  politics  just  then 
proceeding  between  the  Christian  nations  and  the  Moslems  of  the 
Mediterranean.  At  Tunis  he  found  his  death,  on  the  25th  of 
August  1270. 

The  death  of  Louis  IX.  and  that  of  his  brother  Alphonse 
of  Poitiers,  heir  of  the  count  of  Toulouse,  made  Philip  III.,  the 
Philip  in.,  Bold,  legitimate  master  of  northern  France  andundis- 
the  Bold  puted  sovereign  of  southern  France.  From  the  latter 
(/270-  he  detached  the  comlal  Venaissin  in  1274  and  gave  it  to 
"  the  papacy,  which  held  it  until  1791.  But  he  had  not 
his  father's  great  soul  nor  disinterested  spirit.  Urged  by  Pope 
Martin  IV.  he  began  the  fatal  era  of  great  international  wars  by 
his  unlucky  crusade  against  the  king  of  Aragon,  who,  thanks  to  the 
massacre  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers,  substituted  his  own  predomin- 
ance in  Sicily  for  that  of  Charles  of  Anjou.  Philip  returned  from 
Spain  only  to  die  at  Perpignan,  ending  his  insignificant  reign  as  he 
had  begun  it ,  amid  the  sorrows  of  a  disastrous  retreat(i27o-i285). 
His  reign  was  but  a  halting-place  of  history  between  those  of 
Louis  IX.  and  Philip  the  Fair,  just  when  the  transition  was 
taking  place  from  the  last  days  of  the  middle  ages  to  the  modern 
epoch. 

The  middle  ages  had  been  dominated  by  four  great  problems. 
The  first  of  these  had  been  to  determine  whether  there  should 
Philip  iv.  be  a  universal  empire  exercising  tutelage  over  the 
theFair  nations;  and  if  so,  to  whom  this  empire  should 
belong,  to  pope  or  emperor.  The  second  had  been 
the  extension  to  the  East  of  that  Catholic  unity  which 
reigned  in  the  West.  Again,  for  more  than  a  century,  the 
question  had  also  been  debated  whether  the  English  kings  were 


to  preserve  and  increase  their  power  over  the  soil  of  France. 
And,  finally,  two  principles  had  been  confronting  one  another 
in  th.e  internal  life  of  all  the  European  states:  the  feudal  and  the 
monarchical  principles.  France  had  not  escaped  any  of  these 
conflicts;  but  Philip  the  Fair  was  the  initiator  or  the  instrument 
(it  is  difficult  to  say  which)  who  was  to  put  an  end  to  both  imperial 
and  theocratic  dreams,  and  to  the  international  crusades;  who 
was  to  remove  the  political  axis  from  the  centre  of  Europe,  much 
to  the  benefit  of  the  western  monarchies,  now  definitely  emanci- 
pated from  the  feudal  yoke  and  firmly  organized  against  both  the 
Church  and  the  barons.  The  hour  had  come  for  Dante,  the  great 
Florentine  poet,  to  curse  the  man  who  was  to  dismember  the 
empire,  precipitate  the  fall  of  the  papacy  and  discipline  feudalism. 

Modern  in  his  practical  schemes  and  in  his  calculated  purpose, 
Philip  the  Fair  was  still  more  so  in  his  method,  that  of  legal 
procedure,  and  in  his  agents,  the  lawyers.  With  him  Lltlj.,ous 
the  French  monarchy  defined  its  ambitions,  and  little  character 
by  little  forsook  its  feudal  and  ecclesiastical  character  of  Philip 
in  order  to  clothe  itself  in  juridical  forms.  His  aggres-  the  Falr>* 
sive  and  litigious  policy  and  his  ruthless  financial  nga' 
method  were  due  to  those  lawyers  of  the  south  and  of  Normandy 
who  had  been  nurtured  on  Roman  law  in  the  universities  of 
Bologna  or  Montpellier,  had  practised  chicanery  in  the  provincial 
courts,  had  gradually  thrust  themselves  into  the  great  arena  of 
politics,  and  were  now  leading  the  king  and  filling  his  parlement. 
It  was  no  longer  upon  religion  or  morality,  it  was  upon  imperial 
and  Roman  rights  that  these  chevaliers  es  lois  based  the  prince's 
omnipotence;  and  nothing  more  clearly  marks  the  new  tradition 
which  was  being  elaborated  than  the  fact  that  all  the  great  events 
of  Philip  the  Fair's  reign  were  lawsuits. 

The  first  of  these  was  with  the  papacy.     The  famous  quarrel 
between  the  priesthood  and  the  Empire,  which  had  culminated 

at  Canossa  under  Gregory  VII.,  in  the  apotheosis  of    ......   .. 

'     J  Philip  the 

the  Lateran  council  under  Innocent  III.,  and  again  pairana 
in  the  fall  of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen  under  Innocent  the 
IV.,  was  reopened  with  the  king  of  France  by  Boniface  Paaa<y- 
VIII.  The  quarrel  began  in  1294  about  a  question  of  money. 
In  his  bull  Clericis  luicos  the  pope  protested  against  the  taxes 
levied  upon  the  French  clergy  by  the  king,  whose  expenses  were 
increasing  with  his  conquests.  But  he  had  not  insisted;  because 
Philip,  between  feudal  vassals  ruined  by  the  crusades  and 
lower  classes  fleeced  by  everybody,  had  threatened  to  forbid 
the  exportation  from  France  of  any  ecclesiastical  gold  and 
silver.  In  1301  and  1302  the  arrest  of  Bernard  Saisset,  bishop 
of  Pamiers,  by  the  officers  of  the  king,  and  the  citation  of  this 
cleric  before  the  king's  tribunal  for  the  crime  of  lese-majesti, 
revived  the  conflict  and  led  Boniface  to  send  an  order  to  free 
Saisset,  and  to  put  forward  a  claim  to  reform  the  kingdom 
under  the  threat  of  excommunication.  In  view  of  the  gravity 
of  the  occasion  Philip  made  an  unusually  extended  appeal  to 
public  opinion- by  convoking  the  states-general  at  Notre-Dame 
in  Paris  (1302).  Whatever  were  their  views  as  to  the  relations 
between  ecclesiastical  and  secular  jurisdiction,  the  French 
clergy,  ruined  by  the  dues  levied  by  the  papal  court,  ranged 
themselves  on  the  national  side  with  the  nobility  and  the 
bourgeoisie;  whereupon  the  king,  with  a  bold  stroke  far  ahead 
of  his  time,  gave  tit  for  tat.  His  chancellor,  Nogaret,  went  to 
Anagni  to  seize  the  pope  and  drag  him  before  a  council;  but 
Boniface  died  without  confessing  himself  vanquished.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  the  king  and  his  lawyers  triumphed,  where  the 
house  of  Swabia  had  failed.  After  the  death  of  Boniface  the 
splendid  fabric  of  the  medieval  theocracy  gave  place  to  the 
rights  of  civil  society,  the  humiliation  of  Avignon,  the  disruption 
of  the  great  schism,  the  vain  efforts  of  the  councils  for  reform, 
and  the  radical  and  heretical  solutions  of  Wycliffe  and  Huss. 

The  affair  of  the  Templars  was  another  legal  process  carried 
out  by  the  same  Nogaret.     Of  course  this  military  religious 
order  had  lost  utility  and  justification  when  the  Holy    pAW/-  the 
Land  had  been  evacuated  and  the  crusades  were  over.    Fair  and 
Their  great  mistake  had  lain  in  becoming  rich,  and    '*» 
rich  to  excess,  through  serving  as  bankers  to  princes,    TemPIars- 
kings  and  popes;  for    great    financial    powers    soon    became 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


819 


unpopular.  Philip  took  advantage  of  this  hatred  of  the  lower 
classes  and  the  cowardice  of  his  creature,  Pope  Clement  V., 
to  satisfy  his  desire  for  money.  The  trial  of  the  order  (1307- 
I3I3)  was  a  remarkable  example  of  the  use  of  the  religious 
tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  as  a  political  instrument.  There  was 
a  dramatic  completeness  about  this  unexpected  result  of  the 
crusades.  A  general  arbitrary  arrest  of  the  Templars,  the 
sequestration  of  their  property,  examination  under  torture, 
the  falsifying  of  procedure,  extortion  of  money  from  the  pope, 
the  auto-da-fe  of  innocent  victims,  the  dishonest  pillaging  of 
their  goods  by  the  joint  action  of  the  king  and  the  pope:  such 
was  the  outcome  of  this  vast  process  of  secularization,  which 
foreshadowed  the  events  of  the  i6th  and  i8th  centuries. 

External   policy   had   the   same   litigious  character.     Philip 

the  Fair  instituted  suits  against  his  natural  enemies,  the  king 

of  England  and  the  count  of  Flanders,  foreign  princes 

Philip  the    holding  possessions  within  his  kingdom ;  and  against 

Fair  find          ,  i  »  .  *  T  • 

Edward  I.  tne  emperor,  whose  ancient  province  of  Lorraine  and 
kingdom  of  Aries  constantly  changed  hands  between 
Germany  and  France.  Philip  began  by  interfering  in  the 
affairs  of  Sicily  and  Aragon,  his  father's  inheritance;  after 
which,  on  the  pretext  of  a  quarrel  between  French  and  English 
sailors,  he  set  up  his  customary  procedure:  a  citation  of  the  king 
of  England  before  the  parlement  of.  Paris,  and  in  case  of  default 
a  decree  of  forfeiture;  the  whole  followed  by  execution — that 
is  to  say  by  the  unimportant  war  of  1295.  A  truce  arranged 
by  Boniface  VIII.  restored  Guienne  to  Edward  I.,  gave  him 
the  hand  of  Philip's  sister  for  himself  and  that  of  the  king's 
daughter  for  his  son  (1298). 

A  still  more  lengthy  and  unfortunate  suit  was  the  attempt 
of  Philip  the  Fair  and  his  successors  to  incorporate  the  Flemish 
fief  like  the  English  one  (130x3-1326),  thus  coming 
into  conflict  witn  proud  and  turbulent  republics 
Flanders,  composed  of  wool  and  cloth  merchants,  weavers, 
fullers  and  powerful  counts.  Guy  de  Dampierre, 
count  of  Namur,  who  had  become  count  of  Flanders  on  the 
death  of  his  mother  Margaret  II.  in  1279— an  ambitious,  greedy 
and  avaricious  man — was  arrested  at  the  Louvre  on  account 
of  his  attempt  to  marry  his  daughter  to  Edward  I.'s  eldest  son 
without  the  consent  of  his  suzerain  Philip.  Released  after  two 
years,  he  sided  definitely  with  the  king  of  England  when  the  latter 
was  in  arms  against  Philip;  and  being  only  weakly  supported 
by  Edward,  he  was  betrayed  by  the  nobles  who  favoured  France, 
and  forced  to  yield  up  not  only  his  personal  liberty  but  the  whole 
of  Flanders  (1300).  The  Flemings,  however,  soon  wearying  of 
the  oppressive  administration  of  the  French  governor,  Jacques 
de  Chatillon,  and  the  recrudescence  of  patrician  domination, 
rose  and  overwhelmed  the  French  chivalry  at  Courtrai  (1302) — 
a  prelude  to  the  coming  disasters  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War. 
Philip's  double  revenge,  on  sea  at  Zierikzee  and  on  land  at 
Mons-en-Pe vele  ( 1304) ,  led  to  the  signing  of  a  treaty  at  Athis-sur- 
Orge  (1305). 

The  efforts  of  Philip  the  Fair  to  expand  the  limits  of  his 
kingdom  on  the  eastern  border  were  more  fortunate.  His 
Eastern  marriage  had  gained  him  Champagne;  and  he  after- 
poiicyof  wards  extended  his  influence  over  Franche  Comte, 
Philip  the  Bar  and  the  bishoprics  of  Lorraine,  acquiring  also 
Fair.  Viviers  and  the  important  town  of  Lyons — all  this 

less  by  force  of  arms  than  by  the  expenditure  of  money.  Disdain- 
ing the  illusory  dream  of  the  imperial  crown,  still  cherished 
by  his  legal  advisers,  he  pushed  forward  towards  that  fluctuating 
eastern  frontier,  the  line  of  least  resistance,  which  would  have 
yielded  to  him  had  it  not  been  for  the  unfortunate  interruption 
of  the  Hundred  Years'  War. 

His  three  sons,  Louis  X.,  Philip  V.  the  Tall,  and  Charles  IV., 
continued  his  work.  They  increased  the  power  of  the  monarchy 
The  sons  ^>o\\\.\c3\\y  by  destroying  the  feudal  reaction  excited 
of  Philip  m  I3I4  by  the  tyrannical  conduct  of  the  jurists,  like 
the  Fair  Enguerrand  de  Marigny ,  and  by  the  increasingfinancial 
(131-4-  extortions  of  their  father;  and  they  also — notably 
Philip  V.,  one  of  the  most  hard-working  of  the  Capets — 
increased  it  on  the  administrative  side  by  specializing  the  services 


of  justice  and  of  finance,  which  were  separated  from  the  king's 
council.  Under  these  mute  self-effacing  kings  the  progress  of 
royal  power  was  only  the  more  striking.  With  them  the  senior 
male  line  of  the  house  of  Capet  became  extinct. 

During  three  centuries  and  a  half  they  had  effected  great 
things:  they  had  founded  a  kingdom,  a  royal  family  and  civil 
institutions.  The  land  subject  to  Hugh  Capet  in 
987,  barely  representing  two  of  the  modern  departments  Ttle  myal 
of  France,  in  1328  covered  a  space  equal  to  fifty-nine  capet.° 
of  them.  The  political  unity  of  the  kingdom  was  only 
fettered  by  the  existence  of  four  large  isolated  fiefs:  Flanders 
on  the  north,  Brittany  on  the  west,  Burgundy  on  the  east  and 
Guienne  on  the  south.  The  capital,  which  for  long  had  been 
movable,  was  now  established  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris,  fortified 
by  Philip  Augustus.  Like  the  fiefs,  feudal  institutions  at  large 
had  been  shattered.  The  Roman  tradition  which  made  the 
will  of  the  sovereign  law,  gradually  propagated  by  the  teaching 
of  Roman  law — the  law  of  servitude,  not  of  liberty — and  already 
proclaimed  by  the  jurist  Philippe  de  Beaumanoir  as  superior 
to  the  customs,  had  been  of  immense  support  to  the  interest  of 
the  state  and  the  views  of  the  monarchs;  and  finally  the  Capets, 
so  humble  of  origin,  had  created  organs  of  general  administration 
common  to  all  in  order  to  effect  an  administrative  centralization. 
In  their  grand  council  and  their  domains  they  would  have  none 
but  silent,  servile  and  well-disciplined  agents.  The  royal 
exchequer,  which  was  being  painfully  elaborated  in  the  chambre 
des  comptes,  and  the  treasury  of  the  crown  lands  at  the  Louvre, 
together  barely  sufficed  to  meet  the  expenses  of  this  more  compli- 
cated and  costly  machinery.  The  uniform  justice  exercised  by 
the  parlement  spread  gradually  over  the  whole  kingdom  by 
means  of  cas  royaux  (royal  suits) ,  and  at  the  same  time  the  royal 
coinage  became  obligatory.  Against  this  exaltation  of  their 
power  two  adversaries  might  have  been  formidable;  but  one, 
the  Church,  was  a  captive  in  Babylon,  and  the  second,  the 
people,  was  deprived  of  the  communal  liberties  which  it  had 
abused,  or  humbly  effaced  itself  in  the  states-general  behind  the 
declared  will  of  the  king.  This  well-established  authority  was 
also  supported  by  the  revered  memory  of  "  Monseigneur  Saint 
Louis  ";  and  it  is  this  prestige,  the  strength  of  this  ideal  superior 
to  all  other,  that  explains  how  the  royal  prerogative  came  to 
survive  the  mistakes  and  misfortunes  of  the  Hundred  Years' 
War. 

On  the  extinction  of  the  direct  line  of  the  Capets  the  crown 
passed  to  a  younger  branch,  that  of  the   Valois.     Its  seven 
representatives  (1328-1498)  were  on  the  whole  very 
inferior  to  the  Capets,  and,  with  the  exception  of  ^veat  of 
Charles  V.   and  Louis  XL,  possessed  neither  their    Valois. 
political  sense  nor  even  their  good  common  sense; 
they  cost  France  the  loss  of  her  great  advantage  over  all  other 
countries.     During  this  century  and  a  half  France  passed  through 
two  very  severe  crises;  under  the  first  five  Valois  the  Hundred 
Years'  War  imperilled  the  kingdom's  independence;  and  under 
Louis  XI.  the  struggle  against  the  house  of  Burgundy  endangered 
the  territorial  unity  of  the  monarchy  that  had  been  established 
with  such  pains  upon  the  ruins  of  feudalism. 

Charles  the  Fair  having  died  and  left  only  a  daughter,  the 
nation's  rights,  so  long  in  abeyance,  were  once  more  regained. 
An  assembly  of  peers  and  barons,  relying  on  two 
precedents  under  Philip  V.  and  Charles  IV.,  declared  p™'£  n 
that  "  no  woman,  nor  therefore  her  son,  could  in  1350). 
accordance  with  custom  succeed  to  the  monarchy  of 
France."  This  definite  decision,  to  which  the  name  of  the  Salic 
law  was  given  much  later,  set  aside  Edward  III.,  king  of  England, 
grandson  of  Philip  the  Fair,  nephew  of  the  late  kings  and  son  of 
their  sister  Isabel.  Instead  it  gave  the  crown  to  the  feudal 
chief,  the  hard  and  coarse  Philip  VI.  of  Valois,  nephew  of  Philip 
the  Fair.  This  at  once  provoked  war  between  the  two  monarchies, 
English  and  French,  which,  including  periods  of  truce,  lasted 
for  a  hundred  and  sixteen  years.  Of  active  warfare  there  were 
two  periods,  both  disastrous  to  begin  with,  but  ending  favourably: 
one  lasted  from  1337  to  1378  and  the  other  from  1413  to  1453, 
thirty-three  years  of  distress  and  folly  coming  in  between. 


820 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


However,  the  Hundred  Years'  War  was  not  mainly  caused 
by  the  pretensions  of  Edward  III.  to  the  throne  of  the  Capets; 
The  since  after  having  long  hesitated  to  do  homage  to 

Hundred  Philip  VI.  for  his  possessions  in  Guienne,  Edward  at 
years'  last  brought  himself  to  it — though  certainly  only  after 
**''"'•  lengthy  negotiations,  and  even  threats  of  war  in  1331. 
It  is  true  that  six  years  later  he  renounced  his  homage  and  again 
claimed  the  French  inheritance;  but  this  was  on  the  ground 
of  personal  grievances,  and  for  economic  and  political  reasons. 
There  was  a  natural  rivalry  between  Edward  III.  and  Philip  VI., 
both  of  them  young,  fond  of  the  life  of  chivalry,  festal  magnifi- 
cence, and  the  "  belles  apertises  d'armes."  This  rivalry  was 
aggravated  by  the  enmity  between  Philip  VI.  and  Robert  of 
Artois,  his  brother-in-law,  who,  after  having  warmly  supported 
the  disinheriting  of  Edward  III.,  had  been  convicted  of  deceit 
in  a  question  of  succession,  had  revenged  himself  on  Philip  by 
burning  his  waxen  effigy,  and  -had  been  welcomed  with  open 
arms  at  Edward's  court.  Philip  VI.  had  taken  reprisals  against 
him  in  1336  by  making  his  parlement  declare  the  forfeiture  of 
Edward's  lands  and  castles  in  Guienne;  but  the  Hundred  Years' 
War,  at  first  simply  a  feudal  quarrel  between  vassal  and  suzerain, 
soon  became  a  great  national  conflict,  in  consequence  of  what 
was  occurring  in  Flanders. 

The  communes  of  Flanders,  rich,  hard-working,  jealous  of 
their  liberties,  had  always  been  restive  under  the  authority  of 
their  counts  and  the  influence  of  their  suzerain,  the  king  of 
France.  The  affair  at  Cassel,  where  Philip  VI.  had  avenged 
the  injuries  done  by  the  people  of  Bruges  in  1325  to  their 
count,  Louis  of  Nevers,  had  also  compromised  English 
interests.  To  attack  the  English  through  their  colonies,  Guienne 
and  Flanders,  was  to  injure  them  in  their  most  vital  interests 
— cloth  and  claret;  for  England  sold  her  wool  to  Bruges  in 
order  to  pay  Bordeaux  for  her  wine.  Edward  III.  had  replied 
by  forbidding  the  exportation  of  English  wool,  and  by  threaten- 
ing the  great  industrial  cities  of  Flanders  with  the  transference 
to  England  of  the  cloth  manufacture — an  excellent  means  of 
stirring  them  up  against  the  French,  as  without  wool  they  could 
do  nothing.  Workless,  and  in  desperation,  they  threw  themselves 
on  Edward's  mercy,  by  the  advice  of  a  rich  citizen  of  Ghent, 
Jacob  van  Artevelde  (?.».);  and  their  last  scruples  of  loyalty 
gave  way  when  Edward  decided  to  follow  the  counsels  of  Robert 
of  Artois  and  of  Artevelde,  and  to  claim  the  crown  of  France. 

The  war  began,  like  every  feudal  war  of  that  day,  with  a 
solemn  defiance,   and  it  was  soon  characterized  by  terrible 
disasters.     The    destruction    of    the    finest    French 
The  fleet  that  had  yet  been  seen,  surprised  in  the  port  of 

Sluys,  closed  the  sea  to  the  king  of  France;  the 
struggle  was  continued  on  land,  but  with  little  result. 
Flanders  tired  of  it,  but  fortunately  for  Edward  III.  Brittany 
now  took  fire,  through  a  quarrel  of  succession,  analogous  to  that 
in  France,  between  Charles  of  Blois  (who  had  married  the 
daughter  of  the  late  duke  and  was  a  nephew  of  Philip  VI.,  by 
whom  he  was  supported)  and  John  of  Montfort,  brother  of  the 
old  duke,  who  naturally  asked  assistance  from  the  king  of 
England.  But  here,  too,  nothing  important  was  accomplished; 
the  capture  of  John  of  Montfort  at  Nantes  deprived  Edward  of 
Brittany  at  the  very  moment  when  he  finally  lost  Flanders 
by  the  death  of  Artevelde,  who  was  killed  by  the  people  of  Ghent 
in  1345.  Under  the  influence  of  Godefroi  d'Harcourt,  whom 
Philip  VI.  had  wished  to  destroy  on  account  of  his  ambitions 
with  regard  to  the  duchy  of  Normandy,  Edward  III.  now 
invaded  central  France,  ravaged  Normandy,  getting  as  near 
to  Paris  as  Saint-Germain;  and  profiting  by  Philip  VI. 's  hesita- 
tion and  delay,  he  reached  the  north  with  his  spoils  by  dint  of 
forced  marches.  Having  been  pursued  and  encountered  at 
The  Crecy,  Edward  gained  a  complete  victory  there  on  the 

defeat  at  26th  of  April  1346.  The  seizure  of  Calais  in  1347, 
Crecy  and  despite  heroic  resistance,  gave  the  English  a  port 
'ofcaia'is*  where  they  could  always  find  entry  into  France,  just 
when  the  queen  of  England  had  beaten  David  of 
Scotland,  the  ally  of  France,  at  Neville's  Cross,  and  when 
Charles  of  Blois,  made  prisoner  in  his  turn,  was  held  captive 


in  London.  The  Black  Death  put  the  finishing  touch  to  the 
military  disasters  and  financial  upheavals  of  this  unlucky 
reign;  though  before  his  death  in  1350  Philip  VI.  was  fortunate 
enough  to  augment  his  territorial  acquisitions  by  the  purchase 
of  the  rich  port  of  Montpellier,  as  well  as  by  that  of  Dauphine, 
which  extended  to  the  Alpine  frontier,  and  was  to  become  the 
appanage  of  the  eldest  son  of  the  king  of  France  (see  DAUPHINE 
and  DAUPHIN). 

Philip  VI. 's  successor  was  his  son  John  the  Good — or  rather, 
the  stupid  and  the  spendthrift.  This  noble  monarch  was  un- 
speakably brutal  (as  witness  the  murders,  simply  on 
suspicion,  of  the  constable  Raoul  de  Brienne,  count 
of  Eu,  and  of  the  count  of  Harcourt)  and  incredibly 
extravagant.  His  need  of  money  led  him  to  debase 
the  currency  eighty-one  times  between  1350  and  1355.  And 
this  money,  so  necessary  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  with 
England,  which  had  been  interrupted  for  a  year,  thanks  to  the 
pope's  intervention,  was  lavished  by  him  upon  his  favourite, 
Charles  of  La  Cerda.  The  latter  was  murdered  in  1354  by 
order  of  Charles  of  Navarre,  the  king's  son-in-law,  who  also 
prevented  the  levying  of  the  taxes  voted  by  the  states  in  1355 
with  the  object  of  replenishing  the  treasury.  The  Black  Prince 
took  this  opportunity  to  ravage  the  southern  provinces,  and 
then  marched  to  join  the  duke  of  Lancaster  and  Charles  of 
Navarre  in  Normandy.  John  the  Good  managed 
to  bring  the  English  army  to  bay  at  Maupertuis, 
not  far  from  Poitiers;  but  the  battle  was  conducted 
with  such  a  want  of  intelligence  on  his  part  that  the  French 
army  was  overwhelmed,  though  very  superior  in  numbers,  and 
King  John  was  made  prisoner,  after  a  determined  resistance, 
on  the  igth  of  September  1356. 

The  disaster  at  Poitiers  almost  led  to  the  establishment  in 
France  of  institutions  analogous  to  those  which  England  owed 
to  Bouvines.  The  king  a  prisoner,  the  dauphin  dis- 
credited and  deserted,  and  the  nobility  decimated, 
the  people — that  is  to  say,  the  states-general — could 
raise  their  voice.  Philip  the  Fair  had  never  regarded 
the  states-general  as  a  financial  institution,  but  merely  as  a 
moral  support.  Now,  however,  in  order  to  obtain  substantial 
help  from  taxes  instead  of  mere  driblets,  the  Valois  needed  a 
stronger  lever  than  cunning  or  force.  War  against  the  English 
assured  them  the  support  of  the  nation.  Exactions,  debasement 
of  the  currency  and  extortionate  taxation  were  ruinous  palliatives, 
and  insufficient  to  supply  a  treasury  which  the  revenue  from 
crown  lands  and  various  rights  taken  from  the  nobles  could 
not  fill  even  in  times  of  peace.  By  the  I4th  century  the  motto 
"  N'impose  qui  ne  iieut "  (i.e.  no  taxation  without  consent)  was 
as  firmly  established  in  France  as  in  England.  After  Crecy 
Philip  VI.  called  the  states  together  regularly,  that  he  might 
obtain  subsidies  from  them,  as  an  assistance,  an  "aid"  which 
subjects  could  not  refuse  their  suzerain.  In  return  for  this 
favour,  which  the  king  could  not  claim  as  a  right,  the  states, 
feeling  their  power,  began  to  bargain,  and  at  the  session  of 
November  1355  demanded  the  participation  of  all  classes  in  the 
tax  voted,  and  obtained  guarantees  both  for  its  levy  and  the  use 
to  be  made  of  it.  A  similar  situation  in  England  had  given 
birth  to  political  liberty;  but  in  France  the  great  crisis  of  the 
early  i5th  century  stifled  it.  It  was  with  this  money  that  John 
the  Good  got  himself  beaten  and  taken  prisoner  at  Poitiers. 
Once  more  the  states-general  had  to  be  convoked.  Confronted 
by  a  pale  weakly  boy  like  the  dauphin  Charles  and  the  remnants 
of  the  discredited  council,  the  situation  of  the  states  was  stronger 
than  ever.  Predominant  in  influence  were  the  deputies  Robert  le 
from  the  towns,  and  above  all  the  citizens  of  the  Coq  and 
capital,  led  by  Robert  le  Coq,  bishop  of  Laon,  and 
Etienne  Marcel,  provost  of  the  merchants  of  Paris. 
Having  no  cause  for  confidence  in  the  royal  administration, 
the  states  refused  to  treat  with  the  dauphin's  councillors,  and 
proposed  to  take  him  under  their  own  tutelage.  He  himself 
hesitated  whether  to  sacrifice  the  royal  authority,  or  else, 
without  resources  or  support,  to  resist  an  assembly  backed  by 
public  opinion.  He  decided  for  resistance.  Under  pretext  of 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


821 


grave  news  received  from  his  father,  and  of  an  interview  at 
Metz  with  his  uncle,  the  emperor  Charles  IV.,  he  begged  the 
states  to  adjourn  till  the  3rd  of  November  1356.  This  was  a 
political  coup  d'etat,  and  when  the  time  had  expired  he  attempted 
a  financial  coup  d'etat  by  debasing  the  currency.  An  uprising 
obliged  him  to  call  the  states-general  together  again  in  February 
1357,  when  they  transformed  themselves  into  a  deliberative, 
independent  and  permanent  assembly  by  means  of  the  Grande 
Ordonnance. 

In  order  to  make  this  great  French  charter  really  effective 
resistance  to  the  royal  authority  should  have  been  collective, 
Thg  national  and  even  popular,  as  in  the  case  of  the  charters 

Grande  of  1215  and  1 258  in  England.  But  the  lay  and  ecclesi- 
Ordon-  astical  feudal  lords  continued  to  show  themselves 
nvMce  or  jn  Francej  as  everywhere  else  except  across  the  Straits 
of  Dover,  a  cause  of  division  and  oppression.  More- 
over, the  states  were  never  really  general;  those  of  the  Langue 
d'oc  and  the  Langue  d'oil  sometimes  acted  together;  but  there 
was  never  a  common  understanding  between  them  and  always 
two  Frances  within  the  kingdom.  Besides,  they  only  represented 
the  three  classes  who  alone  had  any  social  standing  at  that 
period:  the  nobles,  the  clergy,  and  the  burgesses  of  important 
towns.  Etienne  Marcel  himself  protested  against  councillors 
"  de  petit  etat."  Again,  the  states,  intermittently  convoked 
according  to  the  king's  good  pleasure,  exercised  neither  periodical 
rights  nor  effective  control,  but  fulfilled  a  duty  which  was  soon 
felt  as  onerous.  Indifference  and  satiety  spread  speedily;  the 
bourgeoisie  forsook  the  reformers  directly  they  had  recourse 
to  violence  (February  1358),  and  the  Parisians  became  hostile 
when  Etienne  Marcel  complicated  his  revolutionary  work  by 
intrigues  with  Navarre,  releasing  from  prison  the  grandson  of 
Louis  X.,  the  Headstrong,  an  ambitious,  fine-spoken  courier  of 
popularity,  covetous  of  the  royal  crown.  The  dauphin's  flight 
from  Paris  excited  a  wild  outburst  of  monarchist  loyalty  and 
anger  against  the  capital  among  the  nobility  and  in  the  states- 
general  of  Compiegne.  Marcel,  like  the  dauphin,  was  not  a  man 
to  turn  back.  But  neither  the  support  of  the  peasant  insurgents 
— the  "  Jacques  " — who  were  annihilated  in  the  market  of 
Meaux,  nor  a  last  but  unheeded  appeal  to  the  large  towns,  nor 
yet  the  uncertain  support  of  Charles  the  Bad,  to  whom  Marcel 
in  despair  proposed  to  deliver  up  Paris,  saved  him  from  being 
put  to  death  by  the  royalist  party  of  Paris  on  the  3ist  of  July 

1358. 

Isolated  as  he  was,  Etienne  Marcel  had  been  unable  either  to 
seize  the  government  or  to  create  a  fresh  one.  In  the  reaction 
which  followed  his  downfall  royalty  inherited  the  financial 
administration  which  the  states  had  set  up  to  check  extravagance. 
The  "  elus  "  and  the  superintendents,  instead  of  being  delegates 
of  the  states,  became  royal  functionaries  like  the  baillis  and  the 
provosts;  imposts,  hearth-money  (fouage),  salt-tax  (gabelle), 
sale-dues  (droils  de  vente),  voted  for  the  war,  were  levied  during 
the  whole  of  Charles  V.'s  reign  and  added  to  his  personal  revenue. 
The  opportunity  of  founding  political  liberty  upon  the  vote  and 
the  control  of  taxation,  and  of  organizing  the  administration 
of  the  kingdom  so  as  to  ensure  that  the  entire  military  and 
financial  resources  should  be  always  available,  was  gone  beyond 
recall. 

Re-establishing  the  royal  authority  in  Paris  was  not  enough ; 
an  end  had  to  be  put  to  the  war  with  England  and  Navarre,  and 

this  was  effected  by  the  treaty  of  Bretigny  (1360). 
Treat  of  King  John  ceded  Poitou,  Saintonge,  Agenais,  Perigord 
Bretigoy.  and  Limousin  to  Edward  III.,  and  was  offered  his 

liberty  for  a  ransom  of  three  million  gold  crowns; 
but,  unable  to  pay  that  enormous  sum,  he  returned  to  his 
agreeable  captivity  in  London,  where  he  died  in  1364. 

Yet  through  the  obstinacy  and  selfishness  of  John  the  Good, 
France,  in  stress  of  suffering,  was  gradually  realizing  herself. 

More  strongly  than  her  king  she  felt  the  shame  of 
(1364-*  defeat.  Local  or  municipal  patriotism  waxed  among 
1380).  peasants  and  townsfolk,  and  combined  with  hatred 

of  the  English  to  develop  national  sentiment.  Many 
of  the  conquered  repeated  that  proud,  sad  answer  of  the  men 


of  Rochelle  to  the  English:  "  We  will  acknowledge  you  with 
our  lips;  but  with  our  hearts,  never  I " 

The  peace  of  Bretigny  brought  no  repose  to  the  kingdom. 
War  having  become  a  congenial  and  very  lucrative  industry, 
its  cessation  caused  want  of  work,  with  all  the  evils  The 
that  entails.  For  ten  years  the  remnants  of  the  armies  "  Orandes 
of  England,  Navarre  and  Brittany — the  "  Grandes  Com- 
Compagnies,"  as  they  were  called — ravaged  the  pa*ales-" 
country;  although  Charles  V.,  "  durement  subtil  et  sage," 
succeeded  in  getting  rid  of  them,  thanks  to  du  Guesclin,  one  of 
their  chiefs,  who  led  them  to  any  place  where  fighting  was  going 
on — to  Brittany,  Alsace,  Spain.  Charles  also  had  all  towns 
and  large  villages  fortified;  and  being  a  man  of  affairs  he  set 
about  undoing  the  effect  of  the  treaty  of  Bretigny  by  alliances 
with  Flanders,  whose  heiress  he  married  to  his  brother  Philip, 
duke  of  Burgundy;  with  Henry,  king  of  Castile,  and  Ferdinand 
of  Portugal,  who  possessed  fine  navies;  and,  finally,  with  the 
emperor  Charles  IV.  Financial  and  military  preparations 
were  made  no  less  seriously  when  the  harsh  administration 
of  the  Black  Prince,  to  whom  Edward  III.  had  given  Guienne 
in  fief,  provoked  the  nobles  of  Gascony  to  complain  to  Charles  V. 
Cited  before  the  court  of  Paris,  the  Black  Prince  refused  to 
attend,  and  war  broke  out  in  Gascony,  Poitou  and  Normandy, 
but  with  fresh  tactics  (1369).  Whilst  the  English  adhered  to 
the  system  of  wide  circuits,  under  Chandos  or  Robert  Knolles, 
Charles  V.  limited  himself  to  defending  the  towns  and  exhausting 
the  enemy  without  taking  dangerous  risks.  Thanks  to  the 
prudent  constable  du  Guesclin,  sitting  quietly  at  home  he  re- 
conquered bit  by  bit  what  his  predecessors  had  lost  upon  the 
battlefield,  helm  on  head  and  sword  in  hand;  and  when  he 
died  in  1380,  after  the  decease  of  both  Edward  III.  and  the 
Black  Prince,  the  only  possessions  of  England  in  a  liberated 
but  ruined  France  were  Bayonne,  Bordeaux,  Brest,  Cherbourg 
and  Calais. 

The  death  of  Charles  V.  and  dynastic  revolutions  in  England 
stopped  the  war  for  thirty-five  years.  Then  began  an  era  of 
internal  disorder  and  misery.  The  men  of  that 
period,  coarse,  violent  and  simple-minded,  with  few  y 
political  ideas,  loved  brutal^and  noisy  pleasures —  1422), 
witness  the  incredible  festivities  at  the  marriage  of 
Charles  VI.,  and  the  assassinations  of  the  constable  de  Clisson, 
the  duke  of  Orleans  and  John  the  Fearless.  It  would  have 
needed  an  energetic  hand  to  hold  these  passions  in  check;  and 
Charles  VI.  was  a  gentle-natured  child,  twelve  years  of  age, 
who  attained  his  majority  only  to  fall  into  a  second  childhood. 
Thence  arose  a  question  which  remained  without  reply  during 
the  whole  of  his  reign.  Who  should  have  possession  of  the 
royal  person,  and,  consequently,  of  the  royal  power  ?  The  klng,s 
Should  it  be  the  uncles  of  the  king,  or  his  followers  uncles  and 
Clisson  and  Bureau  de  la  Riviere,  whom  the  nobles  the  Mar- 
culled  in  mockery  the  Marmousets  ?  His  uncles  first  mousets- 
seized  the  government,  each  with  a  view  to  his  own  particular 
interests,  which  were  by  no  means  those  of  the  kingdom  at 
large.  The  duke  of  Anjou  emptied  the  treasury  in  conquering 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  at  the  call  of  Queen  Joanna  of  Sicily. 
The  duke  of  Berry  seized  upon  Languedoc  and  the  wine-tax. 
The  duke  of  Burgundy,  heir  through  his  wife  to  the  countship 
of  Flanders,  wanted  to  crush  the  democratic  risings  among  the 
Flemings.  Each  of  them  needed  money,  but  Charles  V.,  pricked 
by  conscience  on  his  death-bed,  forbade  the  levying  of  the 
hearth-tax  (1380).  His  brother's  attempt  to  re-establish  it  set 
Paris  in  revolt.  The  Maillotins  of  Paris  found  imitators 
in  other  great  towns;  and  in  Auvergne  and  Vivarais  ™^™v°" 
the  Tuchins  renewed  the  Jacquerie.  Revolutionary  Maltlotiat. 
attempts  between  1380  and  1385  to  abolish  all  taxes 
were  echoed  in  England,  Florence  and  Flanders.  These  isolated 
rebellions,  however,  were  crushed  by  the  ever-ready  coalition 
of  royal  and  feudal  forces  at  Roosebeke  (1382).  Taxes  and 
subsidies  were  maintained  and  the  hearth-money  re-established. 

The  death  of  the  duke  of  Anjou  at  Bari  (1384)  gave  pre- 
ponderant influence  to  Philip  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  who 
increased  the  large  and  fruitless  expenses  of  his  Burgundian 


822 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


Struggle 

between 

tbeAr- 

magaacs 

and  the 

Bur- 

guadlans. 


policy  to  such  a  point  that  on  the  return  of  a  last  unfortunate 
expedition  into  Gelderland  Charles  VI.,  who  had  been  made 

by  him  to  marry  Isabel  of  Bavaria,  took  the  govern- 
Madaess  m£nt  from  m's  uncies  on  the  3rd  of  May  1389,  and 
otCha  »  reca]]e(j  the  Marmousets.  But  this  young  king,  aged 

only  twenty,  very  much  in  love  with  his  young  wife 
and  excessively  fond  of  pleasure,  soon  wrecked  the  delicate 
poise  of  his  mental  faculties  in  the  festivities  of  the  Hotel  Saint- 
Paul;  and  a  violent  attack  of  Pierre  de  Craon  on  the  constable 
de  Clisson  having  led  to  an  expedition  against  his  accomplice, 
the  duke  of  Brittany,  Charles  was  seized  by  insanity  on  the 
road.  The  Marmousets  were  deposed,  the  king's  brother,  the 
duke  of  Orleans,  set  aside,  and  the  old  condition  of  affairs  began 

again  (1392). 

The  struggle  was  now  between  the  two  branches  of  the  royal 
family,  the  Orleanist  and  the  Burgundian,  between  the  aristo- 
cratic south  and  the  democratic  north;  while  the 
deposition  of  Richard  II.  of  England  in  favour  of 
Henry  of  Lancaster  permitted  them  to  vary  civil  war 
by  war  against  the  foreigner.  Philip  the  Bold,  duke 
of  Burgundy,  the  king's  uncle,  had  certain  advantages 
over  his  rival  Louis  of  Orleans,  Charles  VI.'s  brother: 
superiority  in  age,  relations  with  the  Lancastrians 
and  with  Germany,  and  territorial  wealth  and  power.  The  two 
adversaries  had  each  the  same  scheme  of  government:  each 
wanted  to  take  charge  of  Charles  VI.,  who  was  intermittently 
insane,  and  to  exclude  his  rival  from  the  pillage  of  the  royal 
exchequer;  but  this  rivalry  of  desires  brought  them  into  opposi- 
tion on  all  the  great  questions  of  the  day — the  war  with  England, 
the  Great  Schism  and  the  imperial  election.  The  struggle 
became  acute  when  John  the  Fearless  of  Burgundy  succeeded 
his  father  in  1404.  Up  to  this  time  the  queen,  Isabel  of  Bavaria, 
had  been  held  in  a  kind  of  dependency  upon  Philip  of  Burgundy, 
who  had  brought  about  her  marriage ;  but  less  eager  for  influence 
than  for  money,  since  political  questions  were  unintelligible  to 
her  and  her  situation  was  a  precarious  one,  she  suddenly  became 
favourable  to  the  duke  of  Orleans.  Whether  due  to  passion 
or  caprice  this  cost  the  duke  his  life,  for  John  the  Fearless 
had  him  assassinated  in  1407,  and  thus  let  loose  against  one 
another  the  Burgundians  and  the  Armagnacs,  so-called  because 
the  son  of  the  murdered  duke  was  the  son-in-law  of  the  count  of 
Armagnac  (see  ARMAGNAC).  Despite  all  attempts  at  reconciliation 
the  country  was  divided  into  two  parties.  Paris,  with  her 
tradesmen — the  butchers  in  particular — and  her  university, 
played  an  important  part  in  this  quarrel;  for  to  be  master  of 
Paris  was  to  be  master  of  the  king.  In  1413  the  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy gained  the  upper  hand  there,  partly  owing  to  the  rising 
of  the  Cabochiens,  i.e.  the  butchers  led  by  the  skinner  Simon 
Caboche,  partly  to  the  hostility  of  the  university  to  the  Avignon 
pope  and  partly  to  the  Parisian  bourgeoisie. 

Amid  this  reign  of  terror  and  of  revolt  the  university,  the  only 
moral  and  intellectual  force,  taking  the  place  of  the  impotent 
states-general  and  of  a  parlement  carefully  restricted  to 
the  judiciary  sphere,  vainly  tried  to  re-establish  a  firm 
monarchical  system  by  means  of  the  Ordonnance  Cabo- 
chienne;  but  this  had  no  effect,  the  government  being 
now  at  the  mercy  of  the  mob,  themselves  at  the  mercy 
of  incapable  hot-headed  leaders.  The  struggle  ended  in  becoming 
one  between  factions  of  the  townsmen,  led  respectively  by  the 
h&chier  Cirasse  and  by  Jean  Caboche.  The  former  overwhelmed 
John  the  Fearless,  who  fled  from  Paris;  and  the  Armagnacs, 
re-entering  on  his  exit,  substituted  white  terror  for  red  terror, 
from  the  I2th  of  December  1413  to  the  28th  of  July  1414.  The 
butchers'  organization  was  suppressed  and  all  hope  of  reform 
lost.  Such  disorders  allowed  Henry  V.  of  England  to  take  the 
offensive  again. 

The  Armagnacs  were  in  possession  of  Paris  and  the  king 
when  Henry  V.  crushed  them  at  Agincourt  on  the  25th  of 
October  1415.  It  was  as  at  Crecy  and  Poitiers; 
the  French  chivalry,  accustomed  to  mere  playing  at 
battle  in  the  tourneys,  no  longer  knew  how  to  fight.  Charles 
of  Orleans  being  a  captive  and  his  father-in-law,  the  count  of 


The  Or- 

doaaaace 

Cabo- 

chtenae, 

1413. 


Aglacourt. 


Armagnac,  highly  unpopular,  John  the  Fearless,  hitherto 
prudently  neutral,  re-entered  Paris,  amid  scenes  of  carnage,  on 
the  invitation  of  the  citizen  Perrinet  le  Clerc. 

Secure  from  interference,  Henry  V.  had  occupied  the  whole 
of  Normandy  and  destroyed  in  two  years  the  work  of  Philip 
Augustus.  The  duke  of  B  urgundy,  feeling  as  incapable 
of  coming  to  an  understanding  with  the  masterful 
Englishman  as  of  resisting  him  unaided,  tried  to  1420. 
effect  a  reconciliation  with  the  Armagnacs,  who  had 
with  them  the  heir  to  the  throne,  the  dauphin  Charles;  but  his 
assassination  at  Montereau  in  1419  nearly  caused  the  destruction 
of  the  kingdom,  the  whole  Burgundian  party  going  over  to  the 
side  of  the  English.  By  the  treaty  of  Troyes  (1420)  the  son 
of  John  the  Fearless,  Philip  the  Good,  in  order  to  avenge  his 
father  recognized  Henry  V.  (now  married  to  Catherine,  Charles 
VI.'s  daughter)  as  heir  to  the  crown  of  France,  to  the  detriment 
of  the  dauphin  Charles,  who  was  disavowed  by  his  mother  and 
called  in  derision  "  the  soi-disant  dauphin  of  Viennois,"  When 
Henry  V.  and  Charles  VI.  died  in  1422,  Henry  VI. — son  of 
Henry  V.  and  Catherine — was  proclaimed  at  Paris  king  of  France 
and  of  England,  with  the  concurrence  of  Philip  the  Good,  duke 
of  Burgundy.  Thus  in  1428  the  English  occupied  all  eastern 
and  northern  France,  as  far  as  the  Loire;  while  the  two  most 
important  civil  powers  of  the  time,  the  parlement  and  the 
university  of  Paris,  had  acknowledged  the  English  king. 

But  the  cause  of  greatest  weakness  to  the  French  party  was 
still  Charles  VII.  himself,  the  king  of  Bourges.  This  youth  of 
nineteen,  the  ill-omened  son  of  a  madman  and  of  a 
Bavarian  of  loose  morals,  was  a  symbol  of  France, 
timorous  and  mistrustful.  The  chateaux  of  the 
Loire,  where  he  led  a  restless  and  enervating  existence, 
held  an  atmosphere  little  favourable  to  enthusiasm  and  energy. 
After  his  victories  at  Cravant  (1423)  and  Verneuil  (1424),  the 
duke  of  Bedford,  appointed  regent  of  the  kingdom,  had  given 
Charles  VII.  four  years'  respite,  and  these  had  been  occupied 
in  violent  intrigues  between  the  constable  de  Richemont l  and 
the  sire  de  la  Tremoille,  the  young  king's  favourites,  and  solely 
desirous  of  enriching  themselves  at  his  expense.  The  king, 
melancholy  spectacle  as  he  was,  seemed  indeed  to  suit  that  tragic 
hour  when  Orleans,  the  last  bulwark  of  the  south,  was  besieged 
by  the  earlof  Salisbury,  now  roused  from  inactivity  (1428). 
He  had  neither  taste  nor  capacity  like  Philip  VI.  or  John  the 
Good  for  undertaking  "belles  apertises  d'armes";  but  then 
a  lack  of  chivalry  combined  with  a  temporizing  policy  had 
not  been  particularly  unsuccessful  in  the  case  of  his  grandfather 
Charles  V. 

Powerful  aid  now  came  from  an  unexpected  quarter.  The 
war  had  been  long  and  cruel,  and  each  successive  year  naturally 
increased  feeling  against  the  English.  The  damage 
done  to  Burgundian  interests  by  the  harsh  yet  impotent 
government  of  Bedford,  disgust  at  the  iniquitous 
treaty  of  Troyes,  the  monarchist  loyalty  of  many  of  the  warriors, 
the  still  deeper  sentiment  felt  by  men  like  Alain  Chartier  towards 
"  Dame  France,"  and  the  "  great  misery  that  there  was  in  the 
kingdom  of  France  ";  all  these  suddenly  became  incarnate  in 
the  person  of  Joan  of  Arc,  a  young  peasant  of  Domremy  in 
Lorraine.  Determined  in  her  faith  and  proud  in  her  meekness, 
in  opposition  to  the  timid  counsels  of  the  military  leaders,  to 
the  interested  delays  of  the  courtiers,  to  the  scruples  of  the 
experts  and  the  quarrelling  of  the  doctors,  she  quoted  her 
"  voices,"  who  had,  she  said,  commissioned  her  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Orleans  and  to  conduct  the  gentle  dauphin  to  Reims, 
there  to  be  crowned.  Her  sublime  folly  turned  out  to  be  wiser 
than  their  wisdom;  in  two  months,  from  May  to  July  1429, 
she  had  freed  Orleans,  destroyed  the  prestige  of  v  the  English 
army  at  Patay,  and  dragged  the  doubting  and  passive  king 
against  his  will  to  be  crowned  at  Reims.  All  this  produced  a 
marvellous  revulsion  of  political  feeling  throughout  France, 
Charles  VII.  now  becoming  incontestably  "  him  to  whom  the 
kingdom  of  France  ought  to  belong."  After  Reims  Joan's 
first  thought  was  for  Paris,  and  to  achieve  the  final  overthrow 

1  Earl  of  Richmond ;  afterwards  Arthur,  duke  of  Brittany  (q.v.). 


Joan  of 
Arc. 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


823 


of  the  English;  while  Charles  VII.  was  already  sighing  for  the 
easy  life  of  Touraine,  and  recurring  to  that  policy  of  truce  which 
was  so  strongly  urged  by  his  counsellors,  and  so  keenly  irritating 
to  the  clear-sighted  Joan  of  Arc.  A  check  before  Paris  allowed 
the  jealousy  of  La  Tremoille  to  waste  the  heroine  for  eight  months 
on  operations  of  secondary  importance,  until  the  day  when  she 
was  captured  by  the  Burgundians  under  the  walls  of  Compiegne, 
and  sold  by  them  to  the  English.  The  latter  incontinently 
prosecuted  her  as  a  heretic;  they  had,  indeed,  a  great  interest 
in  seeing  her  condemned  by  the  Church,  which  would  render 
her  conquests  sacrilegious.  After  a  scandalous  four  months' 
duel  between  this  simple  innocent  girl  and  a  tribunal  of  crafty 
malevolent  ecclesiastics  and  doctors  of  the  university  of  Paris, 
Joan  was  burned  alive  in  the  old  market-place  of  Rouen,  on  the 
30th  of  May  1431  (see  JOAN  OF  ARC). 

On  Charles  VII. 's  part  this  meant  oblivion  and  silence  until 
the  day  when  in  1450,  more  for  his  own  sake  than  for  hers,  he 
caused  her  memory  to  be  rehabilitated;  but  Joan  had  given  the 
country  new  life  and  heart.  From  1431  to  1454  the  struggle 
against  the  English  went  on  energetically;  and  the  king, 
relieved  in  1433  of  his  evil  genius,  La  Tremoille,  then  became 
a  man  once  more,  playing  a  kingly  part  under  the  guidance  of 
Dunois,  Richemont,  La  Hire  and  Saintrailles,  leaders  of  worth 
on  the  field  of  battle.  Moreover,  the  English  territory,  a  great 
triangle,  with  the  Channel  for  base  and  Paris  for  apex,  was  not 
a  really  solid  position.  Yet  the  war  seemed  interminable; 
until  at  last  Philip  of  Burgundy,  for  long  embarrassed  by  his 
English  alliance,  decided  in  1435  to  become  reconciled  with 
Charles  VII.  This  was  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  his  sister, 
who  had  been  married  to  Bedford,  and  the  return  of  his  brother- 
in-law  Richemont  into  the  French  king's  favour.  The  treaty 
of  Arras,  which  made  him  a  sovereign  prince  for  life,  though 
harsh,  at  all  events  gave  a  united  France  the  opportunity  of 
expelling  the  English  from  the  east,  and  allowed  the  king  to 
re-enter  Paris  in  1436.  From  1436  to  1439  there  was  a  terrible 
repetition  of  what  happened  after  the  Peace  of  Bretigny; 
famine,  pestilence,  extortions  and,  later,  the  aristocratic  revolt 
of  the  Praguerie,  completed  the  ruin  of  the  country.  But  thanks 
to  the  permanent  tax  of  the  taille  during  this  time  of  truce 
Charles  VII.  was  able  to  effect  the  great  military  reform  of  the 
Compagnies  d'Ordonnance,  of  the  Francs-Archers,  and  of  the 
artillery  of  the  brothers  Bureau.  From  this  time  forward  the 
English,  ruined,  demoralized  and  weakened  both  by  the  death 
of  the  duke  of  Bedford  and  the  beginnings  of  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses,  continued  to  lose  territory  on  every  recurrence  of  conflict. 
Normandy  was  lost  to  them  at  Formigny  (1450),  and  Guienne, 
English  since  the  i2th  century,  at  Castillon  (1453).  They  kept 
only  Calais;  and  now  it  was  their  turn  to  have  a  madman, 
Henry  VI.,  for  king. 

France  issued  from  the  Hundred  Years'  War  victorious, 
but  terribly  ruined  and  depopulated.  It  is  true  she  had  de- 
finitely freed  her  territory  from  the  stranger,  and 
quencesot  through  the  sorrows  of  defeat  and  the  menace  of 
the  Hun-  disruption  had  fortified  her  national  solidarity,  and 
ared  defined  her  patriotism,  still  involved  in  and  not  yet 

dissociated  from  loyalty  to  the  monarchy.  A  happy 
awakening,  although  it  went  too  far  in  establishing 
royal  absolutism;  and  a  victory  too  complete,  in  that  it  enervated 
all  the  forces  of  resistance.  The  nation,  worn  out  by  the  long 
disorders  consequent  on  the  captivity  of  King  John  and  the 
insanity  of  Charles  VI.,  abandoned  itself  to  the  joys  of  peace. 
Preferring  the  solid  advantage  of  orderly  life  to  an  unstable 
liberty,  it  acquiesced  in  the  abdication  of  1439,  when  the  States 
consented  to  taxation  for  the  support  of  a  permanent  army 
without  any  periodical  renewal  of  their  authorization.  No 
doubt  by  the  prohibition  to  levy  the  smallest  taille  the  feudal 
lords  escaped  direct  taxation;  but  from  the  day  when  the 
privileged  classes  selfishly  allowed  the  taxing  of  the  third  estate, 
provided  that  they  themselves  were  exempt,  they  opened  the 
door  to  monarchic  absolutism.  The  principle  of  autocracy 
triumphed  everywhere  over  the  remnants  of  local  or  provincial 
authority,  in  the  sphere  of  industry  as  in  that  of  administration; 


Years' 
War. 


while  the  gild  system  became  much  more  rigid.  A  loyal  bureau- 
cracy, far  more  powerful  than  the  phantom  administration  of 
Bourges  or  of  Poitiers,  gradually  took  the  place  of  the  court 
nobility;  and  thanks  to  this  the  institutions  of  control  which 
the  war  had  called  into  power — the  provincial  states-general — 
were  nipped  in  the  bud,  withered  by  the  people's  poverty  of 
political  idea  and  by  the  blind  worship  of  royalty.  Without  the 
nation's  concurrence  the  king's  creatures  were  now  to  endow 
royalty  with  all  the  organs  necessary  for  the  exertion  of  authority; 
by  which  imprudent  compliance,  and  above  all  thanks  to  Jacques 
Cceur  (q.v.),  the  financial  independence  of  the  provinces  dis- 
appeared little  by  little,  and  all  the  public  revenues  were  left 
at  the  discretion  of  the  king  alone  (1436-1440).  By  this  means, 
too,  and  chiefly  owing  to  the  constable  de  Richemont  and  the 
brothers  Bureau,  the  first  permanent  royal  army  was  established 

(i445)- 

Henceforward  royalty,  strengthened  by  victory  and  organized 
for  the  struggle,  was  able  to  reduce  the  centrifugal  social  forces 
to  impotence.  The  parlement  of  Paris  saw  its  monopoly  Monarch- 
encroached  upon  by  the  court  of  Toulouse  in  1443,  Icaicen- 
and  by  the  parlement  of  Grenoble  in  1453.  The  *£•""• 
university  of  Paris,  compromised  with  the  English, 
like  the  parlement,  witnessed  the  institution  and  growth  of 
privileged  provincial  universities.  The  Church  of  France  was 
isolated  from  the  papacy  by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges 
(1438)  only  to  be  exploited  and  enslaved  by  royalty.  Monarchic 
centralization,  interrupted  for  the  moment  by  the  war,  took 
up  with  fresh  vigour  its  attacks  upon  urban  liberties,  especially 
in  the  always  more  independent  south.  It  caused  a  slackening 
of  that  spirit  of  communal  initiative  which  had  awakened  in  the 
midst  of  unprecedented  disasters.  The  decimated  and  im- 
poverished nobility  proved  their  impotence  in  the  coalitions 
they  attempted  between  1437  and  1442,  of  which  the  most 
important,  the  Praguerie,  fell  to  pieces  almost  directly,  despite 
the  support  of  the  dauphin  himself. 

The  life  of  society,  now  alarmingly  unstable  and  ruthlessly 
cruel,  was  symbolized  by  the  danse  macabre  painted  on  the 
walls  of  the  cemeteries;  the  sombre  and  tragic  art  social 
of  the  i  sth  century,  having  lost  the  fine  balance  w/e- 
shown  by  that  of  the  I3th,  gave  expression  in  its 
mournful  realism  to  the  general  state  of  exhaustion.  The 
favourite  subject  of  the  mysteries  and  of  other  artistic  manifesta- 
tions was  no  longer  the  triumphant  Christ  of  the  middle  ages, 
nor  the  smiling  and  teaching  Christ  of  the  i3th  century,  but  the 
Man  of  sorrows  and  of  death,  the  naked  bleeding  Jesus,  lying 
on  the  knees  of  his  mother  or  crowned  with  thorns.  France, 
like  the  Christ,  had  known  all  the  bitterness  and  weakness  of  a 
Passion. 

The  war  of  independence  over,  after  a  century  of  fatigue, 
regrets  and  doubts,  royalty  and  the  nation,  now  more  united 
and  more  certain  of  each  other,  resumed  the  methodic  and 
utilitarian  war  of  widening  boundaries.  Leaving  dreams  about 
crusades  to  the  poets,  and  to  a  papacy  delivered  from  schism, 
Charles  VII.  turned  his  attention  to  the  ancient  appanage  of 
Lothair,  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  those  lands  of  the  north  and  the 
east  whose  frontiers  were  constantly  changing,  and  which 
seemed  to  invite  aggression.  But  the  chance  of  annexing  them 
without  great  trouble  was  lost;  by  the  fatal  custom  of  appanages 
the  Valois  had  set  up  again  those  feudal  institutions  which  the 
Capets  had  found  such  difficulty  in  destroying,  and  Louis  XI. 
was  to  make  sad  experience  of  this. 

To  the  north  and  east  of  the  kingdom  extended  a  wide  territory 
of   uncertain   limits;   countries   without   a   chief   like   Alsace; 
principalities   like   Lorraine,    ecclesiastical   lordships 
like  the  bishopric  of  Liege;  and,  most  important  of   Tfg"™se 
all,  a  royal  appanage,  that  of  the  duchy  of  Burgundy,   °guaa^. 
which  dated  back  to  the  time  of  John  the  Good. 
Through  marriages,  conquests  and  inheritance,  the  dukes  of 
Burgundy   had    enormously    increased    their   influence;    while 
during  the  Hundred  Years'  War  they  had  benefited  alternately 
by  their  criminal  alliance  with  the  English  and  by  their  self- 
interested    reconciliation    with    their    sovereign.      They    soon 


824 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


(1461- 

1483). 


appeared  the  most  formidable  among  the  new  feudal  chiefs 
so  imprudently  called  into  being  by  Louis  XL's  predecessors. 
Fleeing  from  the  paternal  wrath  which  he  had  drawn  down  upon 
himself  by  his  ambition  and  by  his  unauthorized  marriage 
with  Charlotte  of  Savoy,  the  future  Louis  XL  had  passed  five 
years  of  voluntary  exile  at  the  court  of  the  chief  of  the  House 
of  Burgundy,  Philip  the  Good;  and  he  was  able  to  appreciate 
the  territorial  power  of  a  duchy  which  extended  from  the  Zuyder 
Zee  to  the  Somme,  with  all  the  country  between  the  Sa6ne 
and  the  Loire  in  addition,  and  its  geographical  position  as  a 
commercial  intermediary  between  Germany,  England  and 
France.  He  had  traversed  the  fertile  country  of  Flanders; 
he  had  visited  the  rich  commercial  and  industrial  republics  of 
Bruges  and  Ghent,  which  had  escaped  the  disasters  of  the 
Hundred  Years'  War;  and,  finally,  he  had  enjoyed  a  hospitality 
as  princely  as  it  was  self-interested  at  Brussels  and  at  Dijon, 
the  two  capitals,  where  he  had  seen  the  brilliancy  of  a  court 
unique  in  Europe  for  the  ideal  of  chivalric  life  it  offered. 

But  the  dauphin  Louis,  although  a  bad  son  and  impatient  for 
the  crown,  was  not  dazzled  by  all  this.  With  very  simple 
tastes,  an  inquiring  mind,  and  an  imagination  always 
at  work,  he  combined  a  certain  easy  good-nature 
which  inspired  confidence,  and  though  stingy  in 
spending  money  on  himself,  he  could  be  lavish  in 
buying  men  either  dangerous  or  likely  to  be  useful.  More  inclined 
to  the  subtleties  of  diplomacy  than  to  the  risks  of  battle,  he  had 
recognized  and  speedily  grasped  the  disadvantages  of  warfare. 
The  duke  of  Burgundy,  however  rich  and  powerful,  was  still  the 
king's  vassal;  his  wide  but  insecure  authority,  of  too  rapid 
growth  and  unpopular,  lacked  sovereign  rights.  Hardly,  there- 
fore, had  Louis  XL  heard  of  his  father's  death  than  he  made  his 
host  aware  of  his  perfectly  independent  spirit,  and  his  very 
definite  intention  to  be  master  in  his  own  house. 

But  by  a  kind  of  poetic  justice,  Louis  XI.  had  for  seven  years, 
from  1465  to  1472,  to  struggle  against  fresh  Pragueries,  called 
_.  Leagues  of  the  Public  Weal  (presumably  from  their 

Leagues  disregard  of  it),  composed  of  the  most  powerful 
of  the  French  nobles,  to  whom  he  had  set  the  example  of 
Public  revolt.  His  first  proceedings  had  indeed  given  no 
promise  of  the  moderation  and  prudence  afterwards 
to  characterize  him;  he  had  succeeded  in  exasperating  all 
parties;  the  officials  of  his  father,  "  the  well-served,"  whom  he 
dismissed  in  favour  of  inferiors  like  Jean  Balue,  Oliver  le  Daim 
and  Tristan  Lermite;  the  clergy,  by  abrogating  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction;  the  university  of  Paris,  by  his  ill-treatment  of  it; 
and  the  nobles,  whom  he  deprived  of  their  hunting  rights,  among 
them  being  those  whom  Charles  VII.  had  been  most  careful 
to  conciliate  in  view  of  the  inevitable  conflict  with  the  duke  of 
Burgundy — in  particular,  Francis  II.,  duke  of  Brittany.  The 
repurchase  in  1463  of  the  towns  of  the  Somme  (to  which  Philip 
the  Good,  now  grown  old  and  engaged  in  a  quarrel  with  his  son, 
the  count  of  Charolais,  had  felt  obliged  to  consent  on  considera- 
tion of  receiving  four  hundred  thousand  gold  crowns),  and  the 
intrigues  of  Louis  XI.  during  the  periodical  revolts  of  the  Liegois 
against  their  prince-bishop,  set  the  powder  alight.  On  three 
different  occasions  (in  1465,  1467  and  1472),  Louis  XL's  own 
brother,  the  duke  of  Berry,  urged  by  the  duke  of  Brittany,  the 
count  of  Charolais,  the  duke  of  Bourbon,  and  the  other  feudal 
lords,  attempted  to  set  up  six  kingdoms  in  France  instead  of  one, 
and  to  impose  upon  Louis  XL  a  regency  which  should  give  them 
enormous  pensions.  This  was  their  idea  of  Public  Weal. 

Louis  XL  won  by  his  favourite  method,  diplomacy 
rather  than  arms.  At  the  time  of  the  first  league,  the  battle 
ch  of  Montlhery  (i6th  of  July  1465)  having  remained 

the  Bold,  undecided  between  the  two  equally  badly  organized 
armies,  Louis  XI.  conceded  everything  in  the  treaties 
of  Conflans  and  Saint-Maur — promises  costing  him  little,  since 
he  had  no  intention  of  keeping  them.  But  during  the  course  of 
the  second  league,  provoked  by  the  recapture  of  Normandy, 
which  he  had  promised  to  his  brother  in  exchange  for  Berry, 
he  was  nearly  caught  in  his  own  trap.  On  the  isth  of  June 
1467  Philip  the  Good  died,  and  the  accession  of  the  count  of 


Charolais  was  received  with  popular  risings.  In  order  to 
embarrass  him  Louis  XL  had  secretly  encouraged  the  people 
of  Liege  to  revolt;  but  preoccupied  with  the  marriage  of  Charles 
the  Bold  with  Margaret  of  York,  sister  of  Edward  IV.  of  England, 
he  wished  to  negotiate  personally  with  him  at  Peronne,  and 
hardly  had  he  reached  that  place  when  news  arrived  there  of  the 
revolt  of  Liege  amid  cries  of  "  Vive  France."  Charles  the  Bold, 
proud,  violent,  pugnacious,  as  treacherous  as  his  rival,  a  hardier 
soldier,  though  without  his  political  sagacity,  im- 
prisoned Louis  in  the  tower  where  Charles  the  Simple  ™IK  «<"* 
had  died  as  a  prisoner  of  the  count  of  Vermandois.  Peroone. 
He  only  let  him  depart  when  he  had  sworn  in  the 
treaty  of  Peronne  to  fulfil  the  engagements  made  at  Conflans 
and  Saint-Maur  to  assist  in  person  at  the  subjugation  of  rebellious 
Liege,  and  to  give  Champagne  as  an  appanage  to  his  ally  the  duke 
of  Berry. 

Louis  XL,  supported  by  the  assembly  of  notables  at  Tours 
(1470),  had  no  intention  of  keeping  this  last  promise,  since  the 
duchy  of  Champagne  would  have  made  a  bridge 
between  Burgundy  and  Flanders — the  two  isolated  ^g"f°^dal 
branches  of  the  house  of  Burgundy.  He  gave  the  duke  coalitions. 
of  Berry  distant  Guienne.  But  death  eventually  rid 
him  of  the  duke  in  1472,  just  when  a  third  league  was  being 
organized,  the  object  of  which  was  to  make  the  duke  of  Berry 
king  with  the  help  of  Edward  IV.,  king  of  England.  The  duke  of 
Brittany,  Francis  II.,  was  defeated;  Charles  the  Bold,  having 
failed  at  Beauvais  in  his  attempt  to  recapture  the  towns  of  the 
Somme  which  had  been  promised  him  by  the  treaty  of  Conflans, 
was  obliged  to  sign  the  peace  of  Senlis  (1472).  This  was  the  end 
of  the  great  feudal  coalitions,  for  royal  vengeance  soon  settled 
the  account  of  the  lesser  vassals;  the  duke  of  Alencon  was 
condemned  to  prison  for  life;  the  count  of  Armagnac  was 
killed;  and  "the  Germans"  were  soon  to  disembarrass  Louis 
of  Charles  the  Bold. 

Charles  had  indeed  only  signed  the  peace  so  promptly  because 
he  was  looking  eastward  towards  that  royal  crown  and  territorial 
cohesion  of  which  his  father  had  also  dreamed.  The  Charles 
king,  he  said  of  Louis  XL,  is  always  ready.  He  wanted  the  Bold1* 
to  provide  his  future  sovereigntywith  organs  analogous  Imperial 
to  those  of  France;  a  permanent  army,  and  a  judiciary  dnams" 
and  financial  administration  modelled  on  the  French  parlement 
and  exchequer.  Since  he  could  not  dismember  the  kingdom 
of  France,  his  only  course  was  to  reconstitute  the  ancient  kingdom 
of  Lotharingia;  while  the  conquest  of  the  principality  of  Liege 
and  of  the  duchy  of  Gelderland,  and  the  temporary  occupation 
of  Alsace,  pledged  to  him  by  Sigismund  of  Austria,  made  him 
greedy  for  Germany.  To  get  himself  elected  king  of  the  Romans 
he  offered  his  daughter  Mary,  his  eternal  candidate  for  marriage, 
to  the  emperor  Frederick  III.  for  his  son.  Thus  either  he  or 
his  son-in-law  Maximilian  would  have  been  emperor. 

But  the  Tarpeian  rock  was  a  near  neighbour  of  the  Capitol. 
Frederick — distrustful,  and  in  the  pay  of  Louis  XI. — evaded  a 
meeting  arranged  at  Trier,  and  Burgundian  influence 
in  Alsace  was  suddenly  brought  to  a  violent  end  by  the 
putting  to  death  of  its  tyrannical  agent,  Peter  von  the  Bold. 
Hagenbach.  Charles  thought  to  repair  the  rebuff 
of  Trier  at  Cologne,  and  wasted  his  resources  in  an  attempt  to 
win  over  its  elector  by  besieging  the  insignificant  town  of  Neuss. 
But  the  "  universal  spider " — as  he  called  Louis  XL — was 
weaving  his  web  in  the  darkness,  and  was  eventually  to  entangle 
him  in  it.  First  came  the  reconciliation,  in  his  despite,  of  those 
irreconcilables,  the  Swiss  and  Sigismund  of  Austria;  and  then 
the  union  of  both  with  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  who  was  also 
disturbed  at  the  duke  of  Burgundy's  ambition.  In  vain  Charles 
tried  to  kindle  anew  the  embers  of  former  feudal  intrigues; 
the  execution  of  the  duke  of  Nemours  and  the  c6unt  of  Saint 
Pol  cooled  all  enthusiasm.  In  vain  did  he  get  his  dilatory 
friends,  the  English  Yorkists,  to  cross  the  Channel;  on  the  29th 
of  August  1475,  at  Picquigny,  Louis  XL  bribed  them  with  a 
sum  of  seventy-five  thousand  crowns  to  forsake  him,  Edward 
further  undertaking  to  guarantee  the  loyalty  of  the  duke  of 
Brittany.  Exasperated,  Charles  attacked  and  took  Nancy,. 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


825 


wishing,  as  he  said,  "  to  skin  the  Bernese  bear  and  wear  its  fur." 
To  the  hanging  of  the  brave  garrison  of  Granson  the  Swiss  re- 
sponded by  terrible  reprisals  at  Granson  and  at  Morat  (March 
to  June  1476);  while  the*  people  of  Lorraine  finally  routed 
Charles  at  Nancy  on  the  sth  of  January  1477,  the  duke  himself 
falling  in  the  battle. 

The  central  administration  of  Burgundy  soon  disappeared, 
swamped  by  the  resurgence  of  ancient  local  liberties;  the  army 
Ruin  of  fell  to  pieces;  and  all  hope  of  joining  the  two  limbs 
the  house  of  the  great  eastern  duchy  was  definitely  lost.  As  for 
of  Bur-  tne  remnants  that  were  left,  French  provinces  and 
gundy.  imperial  territory,  Louis  XI.  claimed  the  whole. 
He  seized  everything,  alleging  different  rights  in  each  place; 
but  he  displayed  such  violent  haste  and  such  trickery  that  he 
threw  the  heiress  of  Burgundy,  in  despair,  into  the  arms  of 
Maximilian  of  Austria.  At  the  treaty  of  Arras  (December  1482) 
Louis  XI.  received  only  Picardy,  the  Boulonnais  and  Burgundy; 
by  the  marriage  of  Charles  the  Bold's  daughter  the  rest  was 
annexed  to  the  Empire,  and  later  to  Spain.  Thus  by  Louis  XL's 
short-sighted  error  the  house  of  Austria  established  itself  in  the 
Low  Countries.  An  age-long  rivalry  between  the  houses  of 
France  and  Austria  was  the  result  of  this  disastrous  marriage; 
and  as  the  son  who  was  its  issue  espoused  the  heiress  of  a  now 
unified  Spain,  France,  hemmed  in  by  the  Spaniards  and  by  the 
Empire,  was  thenceforward  to  encounter  them  everywhere  in 
her  course.  The  historical  progress  of  France  was  once  more 
endangered. 

The  reasons  of  state  which  governed  all  Louis  XL's  external 
policy  also  inspired  his  internal  administration.  If  they  justified 
The  him  m  employing  lies  and  deception  in  international 

adminis-  affairs,  in  his  relations  with  his  subjects  they  led  him 
tration  of  J.Q  regard  as  lawful  everything  which  favoured  his 
°"  s  '  authority;  no  question  of  right  could  weigh  against  it. 
The  army  and  taxation,  as  the  two  chief  means  of  domina- 
tion within  and  without  the  kingdom,  constituted  the  main 
bulwarks  of  his  policy.  As  for  the  nobility,  his  only  thought 
was  to  diminish  their  power  by  multiplying  their  number, 
as  his  predecessors  had  done;  while  he  reduced  the  rebels  to 
submission  by  his  iron  cages  or  the  axe  of  his  gossip  Tristan 
Lermite.  The  Church  was  treated  with  the  same  unconcerned 
cynicism;  he  held  her  in  strict  tutelage,  accentuating  her  moral 
decadence  still  further  by  the  manner  in  which  he  set  aside 
or  re-established  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  according  to  the 
fluctuations  of  his  financial  necessities  or  his  Italian  ambitions. 
It  has  been  said  that  on  the  other  hand  he  was  a  king  of  the 
common  people,  and  certainly  he  was  one  of  them  in  his  simple 
habits,  in  his  taste  for  rough  pleasantries,  and  above  all  in  his 
religion,  which  was  limited  to  superstitious  practices  and  small 
devoutnesses.  But  in  the  states  of  Tours  in  1468  he  evinced 
the  same  mistrust  for  fiscal  control  by  the  people  as  for  the 
privileges  of  the  nobility.  He  inaugurated  that  autocratic  rule 
which  was  to  continue  gaining  strength  until  Louis  XV. 's  time. 
Louis  XI.  was  the  king  of  the  bourgeoisie;  he  exacted  much 
from  them,  but  paid  them  back  with  interest  by  allowing  them 
to  reduce  the  power  of  all  who  were  above  them  and  to  lord  it 
over  all  who  were  below.  As  a  matter  of  fact  Louis  XL's  most 
faithful  ally  was  death.  Saint-Pol,  Nemours,  Charles  the  Bold, 
his  brother  the  duke  of  Berry,  old  Rene  of  Anjou  and  his  nephew 
the  count  of  Maine,  heir  to  the  riches  of  Provence  and  to  rights 
over  Naples — the  skeleton  hand  mowed  down  all  his  adversaries 
as  though  it  too  were  in  his  pay;  until  the  day  when  at  Plessis- 
les-Tours  it  struck  a  final  blow,  claimed  its  just  dues  from  Louis 
XL,  and  carried  him  off  despite  all  his  relics  on  the  3oth  of 
August  1483. 

There  was  nothing  noble  about  Louis  XL  but  his  aims,  and 
nothing  great  but  the  results  he  attained;  yet  however  different 
Charles  ^e  mi§ht  have  been  he  could  not  have  done  better, 
vin.  ana  for  what  he  achieved  was  the  making  of  France. 
Brittany  This  was  soon  seen  after  his  death  in  the  reaction 
\4*>8)~  which  menaced  his  work  and  those  who  had  served 
him;  but  thanks  to  himself  and  to  his  true  successor, 
his  eldest  daughter  Anne,  married  to  the  sire  de  Beaujeu,  a 


younger  member  of  the  house  of  Bourbon,  the  set-back  was 
only  partial.  Strife  began  immediately  between  the  numerous 
malcontents  and  the  Beaujeu  party,  who  had  charge  of  the  little 
Charles  VIII.  These  latter  prudently  made  conces- 
sions: reducing  the  tattle,  sacrificing  some  of  Louis  XL's  w*r  " 
creatures  to  the  rancour  of  the  parlement,  and  restoring  i48s'. 
a  certain  number  of  offices  cr  lands  to  the  hostile  princes 
(chief  of  whom  was  the  duke  of  Orleans),  and  even  consenting 
to  a  convocation  of  the  states-general  at  Tours  (1484).  But  the 
elections  having  been  favourable  to  royalty,  the  Beaujeu  family 
made  the  states  reject  the  regency  desired  by  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
and  organize  the  king's  council  after  their  own  views.  When 
they  subsequently  eluded  the  conditions  imposed  by  the  states, 
the  deputies — nobles,  clergy  and  burgesses — showed  their 
incapacity  to  oppose  the  progress  of  despotism.  In  vain  did 
the  malcontent  princes  attempt  to  set  up  a  new  League  of 
Public  Weal,  the  Guerre  folk  (Mad  War),  in  which  the  duke  of 
Brittany,  Francis  II.,  played  the  part  of  Charles  the  Bold, 
dragging  in  the  people  of  Lorraine  and  the  king  of  Navarre. 
In  vain  did  Charles  VIII. ,  his  majority  attained,  at  once  abandon 
in  the  treaty  of  Sable  the  benefits  gained  by  the  victory  of 
Saint-Aubin  du  Cormier  (1488).  In  vain  did  Henry  VII.  of 
England,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  and  Maximilian  of  Austria 
try  to  prevent  the  annexation  of  Brittany  by  France;  its  heiress 
Anne,  deserted  by  every  one,  made  peace  and  married  Charles 
VIII.  in  1491.  There  was  no  longer  a  single  great  fief  in  France 
to  which  the  malcontents  could  fly  for  refuge. 

It  now  remained  to  consolidate  the  later  successes  attained 
by  the  policy  of  the  Valois — the  acquisition  of  the  duchies  of 
Burgundy  and  Brittany;  but  instead  there  was  a 
sudden  change  and  that  policy  seemed  about  to  be  «^L^/° 
lost  in  dreams  of  recapturing  the  rights  of  the  Angevins  ticeace. " 
over  Naples,  and  conquering  Constantinople.  Charles 
VIII.,  a  prince  with  neither  intelligence  nor  resolution,  his 
head  stuffed  with  chivalric  romance,  was  scarcely  freed  from 
his  sister's  control  when  he  sought  in  Italy  a  fatal  distraction 
from  the  struggle  with  the  house  of  Austria.  By  this  "  war  of 
magnificence  "  he  caused  an  interruption  of  half  a  century 
in  the  growth  of  national  sentiment,  which  was  only  revived  by 
Henry  II.;  and  he  was  not  alone  in  thus  leaving  the  bone  for 
the  shadow:  his  contemporaries,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic 
when  delivered  from  the  Moors,  and  Henry  VII.  from  the  power 
of  the  English  nobles,  followed  the  same  superficial  policy,  not 
taking  the  trouble  to  work  for  that  real  strength  which  comes 
from  the  adhesion  of  willing  subjects  to  their  sovereign.  They 
only  cared  to  aggrandize  themselves,  without  thought  of  national 
feeling  or  geographical  conditions.  The  great  theorist  of  these 
"  conquistadores "  was  Machiavelli.  The  regent,  Anne  of 
Beaujeu,  worked  in  her  daughter's  interest  to  the  detriment  of 
the  kingdom,  by  means  of  a  special  treaty  destined  to  prevent 
the  property  of  the  Bourbons  from  reverting  to  the  crown; 
while  Anne  of  Brittany  did  the  like  for  her  daughter  Claude. 
Louis  XII.,  the  next  king  of  France,  thought  only  of  the  Milanese; 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic  all  but  destroyed  the  Spanish  unity  at 
the  end  of  his  life  by  his  marriage  with  Germaine  de  Foix;  while 
the  house  of  Austria  was  for  centuries  to  remain  involved  in  this 
petty  course  of  policy.  Ministers  followed  the  example  of  their 
self-seeking  masters,  thinking  it  no  shame  to  accept  pensions 
from  foreign  sovereigns.  The  preponderating  consideration 
everywhere  was  direct  material  advantage;  there  was  dis- 
proportion everywhere  between  the  means  employed  and  the 
poverty  of  the  results,  a  contradiction  between  the  interests 
of  the  sovereigns  and  those  of  their  subjects,  which  were  associ- 
ated by  force  and  not  naturally  blended.  For  the  sake  of  a 
morsel  of  Italian  territory  every  one  forgot  the  permanent 
necessity  of  opposing  the  advance  of  the  Turkish  crescent,  the 
two  horns  of  which  were  impinging  upon  Europe  on  the  Danube 
and  on  the  Mediterranean. 

Italy  and  Germany  were  two  great  tracts  of  land  at  the  mercy 
of  the  highest  bidder,  rich  and  easy  to  dominate,  where  these 
coarse  and  alien  kings,  still  reared  on  medieval  traditions,  were 
for  fifty  years  to  gratify  their  love  of  conquest.  Italy  was  their 


826 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


first  battlefield;  Charles  VEIL  was  summoned  thither  by 
Lodovico  II  Moro,  tyrant  of  Milan,  involved  in  a  quarrel  with 
his  rival,  Ferdinand  II.  of  Aragon.  The  Aragonese 
had  snatched  the  kingdom  of  Naples  from  the 
French  house  of  Anjou,  whose  claims  Louis  XI.  had 
inherited  in  1480.  To  safeguard  himself  in  the  rear  Charles  VIII. 
handed  over  Roussillori  and  Cerdagne  (Cerdana)  to  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic  (that  is  to  say,  all  the  profits  of  Louis  XL's  policy) ; 
gave  enormous  sums  of  money  to  Henry  VII.  of  England;  and 
finally,  by  the  treaty  of  Senlis  ceded  Artois  and  Franche-Comte 
to  Maximilian  of  Austria.  After  these  fool's  bargains  the  paladin 
set  out  for  Naples  in  1494.  His  journey  was  long  and  triumphant, 
and  his  return  precipitate;  indeed  it  very  nearly  ended  in  a 
disaster  at  Fornovo,  owing  to  the  first  of  those  Italian  holy 
leagues  which  at  the  least  sign  of  friction  were  ready  to  turn 
against  France.  At  the  age  of  twenty-eight,  however,  Charles 
VIII.  died  without  issue  (1498). 

The  accession  of  his  cousin,  Louis  of  Orleans,  under  the  title 
of  Louis  XII.,  only  involved  the  kingdom  still  further  in  this 
Italian  imbroglio.  Louis  did  indeed  add  the  fief  of 
Louis  XII.  Orleans  to  the  royal  domain  and  hastened  to  divorce 
isiS) '  Jeanne  of  France  in  order  to  marry  Anne,  the  widow 
of  his  predecessor,  so  that  he  might  keep  Brittany. 
But  he  complicated  the  Naples  affair  by  claiming  Milan  in  con- 
sideration of  the  marriage  of  his  grandfather,  Louis  of  Orleans, 
to  Valentina,  daughter  of  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti,  duke  of  Milan. 
In  1499,  appealed  to  by  Venice,  and  encouraged  by  his  favourite, 
Cardinal  d'Amboise  (who  was  hoping  to  succeed  Pope  Alexander 
VI.),  and  also  by  Cesare  Borgia,  who  had  lofty  ambitions  in 
Italy,  Louis  XII.  conquered  Milan  in  seven  months  and  held 
it  for  fourteen  years;  while  Lodovico  Sforza,  betrayed  by  his 
Swiss  mercenaries,  died  a  prisoner  in  France.  The  kingdom 
of  Naples  was  still  left  to  recapture;  and  fearing  to  be  thwarted 
by  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  Louis  XII.  proposed  to  this  master 
of  roguery  that  they  should  divide  the  kingdom  according  to 
the  treaty  of  Granada  (1500).  But  no  sooner  had  Louis  XII. 
assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Naples  than  Ferdinand  set  about 
despoiling  him  of  it,  and  despite  the  bravery  of  a  Bayard  and  a 
Louis  d'Ars,  Louis  XII.,  being  also  betrayed  by  the  pope,  lost 
Naples  for  good  in  1504.  The  treaties  of  Blois  occasioned  a 
vast  amount  of  diplomacy,  and  projects  of  marriage  between 
Claude  of  France  and  Charles  of  Austria,  which  came  to  nothing 
but  served  as  a  prelude  to  the  later  quarrels  between  Bourbons 
and  Habsburgs. 

It  was  Pope  Julius  II.  who  opened  the  gates  of  Italy  to  the 
horrors  of  war.  Profiting  by  Louis  XII. 's  weakness  and  the 
emperor  Maximilian's  strange  capricious  character,  this  martial 
pope  sacrificed  Italian  and  religious  interests  alike  in  order  to 
re-establish  the  temporal  power  of  the  papacy.  Jealous  of 
Venice,  at  that  time  the  Italian  state  best  provided  with  powers 
of  expansion,  and  unable  to  subjugate  it  single-handed,  Julius 
succeeded  in  obtaining  help  from  France,  Spain  and  the  Empire. 
The  league  of  Cambrai  (1508)  was  his  finest  diplomatic  achieve- 
ment. But  he  wanted  to  be  sole  master  of  Italy;  so  in  order  to 
expel  the  French  "  barbarians  "  whom  he  had  brought  in,  he 
appealed  to  other  barbarians  who  were  far  more  dangerous — 
Spaniards,  Germans  and  Swiss — to  help  him  against  Louis  XII., 
and  stabbed  him  from  behind  with  the  Holy  League  of  1511. 

Weakened  by  the  death  of  Cardinal  d'Amboise,  his  best 
counsellor,  Louis  XII.  tried  vainly  in  the  assembly  of  Tours 
and  in  the  unsuccessful  council  of  Pisa  to  alienate  the 
and'*  Xl1'  French  clergy  from  a  papacy  which  was  now  so  little 
Julius  ii.  worthy  of  respect.  But  even  the  splendid  victories 
of  Gaston  de  Foix  could  not  shake  that  formidable 
coalition;  and  despite  the  efforts  of  Bayard,  La  Palice  and 
La  Tremoille,  it  was  the  Church  that  triumphed.  Julius  II. 
died  in  the  hour  of  victory;  but  Louis  XII.  was  obliged  to 
evacuate  Milan,  to  which  he  had  sacrificed  everything,  even 
France  itself,  with  that  political  stupidity  characteristic  of  the 
first  Valois.  He  died  almost  immediately  after  this,  on  the 
ist  of  January  1515,  and  his  subjects,  recognizing  his  thrift, 
bis  justice  and  the  secure  prosperity  of  the  kingdom,  forgot  the 


seventeen  years  of  war  in  which  they  had  not  been  consulted, 
and  rewarded  him  with  the  fine  title  of  Father  of  his  People. 

As  Louis  XII.  left  no  son,  the  crown  devolved  upon  his  cousin 
and  son-in-law  the  count  of  Angouleme,  Francis  I.  No  sooner 
king,  Francis,  in  alliance  with  Venice,  renewed  the 
chimerical  attempts  to  conquer  Milan  and  Naples; 
also  cherishing  dreams  of  his  own  election  as  emperor  1547). 
and  of  a  partition  of  Europe.  The  heroic  episode  of 
Marignano,  when  he  defeated  Cardinal  Schinner's  Swiss  troops 
(13-1 S  of  September  1515),  made  him  master  of  the  duchy  of  Milan 
and  obliged  his  adversaries  to  make  peace.  Leo  X.,  Julius  II. 's 
successor,  by  an  astute  volte-face  exchanged  Parma  and  the 
Concordat  for  a  guarantee  of  all  the  Church's  possessions,  which 
meant  the  defeat  of  French  plans  (1515).  The  Swiss  signed 
the  permanent  peace  which  they  were  to  maintain  until  the 
Revolution  of  1789;  while  the  emperor  and  the  king  of  Spain 
recognized  Francis  II. 's  very  precarious  hold  upon  Milan.  Once 
more  the  French  monarchy  was  pulled  up  short  by  the  indigna- 
tion of  all  Italy  (1518). 

The  question  now  was  how  to  occupy  the  military  activity 
ot  a  young,  handsome,  chivalric  and  gallant  prince,  "  ondoyant 
et  divers,"  intoxicated  by  his  first  victory  and  his 
tardy  accession  to  fortune.  This  had  been  hailed  with  ^Aaracter 
joy  by  all  who  had  been  his  comrades  in  his  days  of  Francis  I. 
difficulty;  by  his  mother,  Louise  of  Savoy,  and  his 
sister  Marguerite;  by  all  the  rough  young  soldiery;  by  the 
nobles,  tired  of  the  bourgeois  ways  of  Louis  XI.  and  the  patri- 
archal simplicity  of  Louis  XIL;  and  finally  by  all  the  aristocracy 
who  expected  now  to  have  the  government  in  their  own  hands. 
So  instead  of  heading  the  crusade  against  the  Turks,  Francis 
threw  himself  into  the  electoral  contest  at  Frankfort,  which 
resulted  in  the  election  of  Charles  V.,  heir  of  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic,  Spain  and  Germany  thus  becoming  united.  Pope 
Leo  X.,  moreover,  handed  over  three-quarters  of  Italy  to  the 
new  emperor  in  exchange  for  Luther's  condemnation,  thereby 
kindling  that  rivalry  between  Charles  V.  and  the  king  of  France 
which  was  to  embroil  the  whole  of  Europe  throughout  half  a 
century  (1519-1559),  from  Pavia  to  St  Quentin. 

The  territorial  power  of  Charles  V.,  heir  to  the  houses  of 
Burgundy,  Austria,  Castile  and  Aragon,  which  not  only  arrested 
the  traditional  policy  of  France  but  hemmed  her  Rivairyof 
in  on  every  side ;  his  pretensions  to  be  the  head  of  Francis  I. 
Christendom;  his  ambition  to  restore  the  house  of  **"* 
Burgundy  and  the  Holy  Roman  Empire;  his  grave 
and  forceful  intellect  all  rendered  rivalry  both  inevitable  and 
formidable.  But  the  scattered  heterogeneity  of  his  possessions, 
the  frequent  crippling  of  his  authority  by  national  privileges 
or  by  political  discords  and  religious  quarrels,  his  perpetual 
straits  for  money,  and  his  cautious  calculating  character,  almost 
outweighed  the  advantages  which  he  possessed  in  the  terrible 
Spanish  infantry,  the  wealthy  commerce  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  the  inexhaustible  mines  of  the  New  World.  Moreover, 
Francis  I.  stirred  up  enmity  everywhere  against  Charles  V., 
and  after  each  defeat  he  found  fresh  support  in  the  patriotism 
of  his  subjects.  Immediately  after  the  treaty  of  Madrid  (1526), 
which  Francis  I.  was  obliged  to  sign  after  the  disaster  at  Pavia 
and  a  period  of  captivity,  he  did  not  hesitate  between  De/ea<  at 
his  honour  as  a  gentleman  and  the  interests  of  his  Pavia  and 
kingdom.  Having  been  unable  to  win  over  Henry  'jJJ"^?' 
VIII.  of  England  at  their  interview  on  the  Field  of 
the  Cloth  of  Gold,  he  joined  hands  with  Suleiman  the  Magnificent, 
the  conqueror  of  Mohacs;  and  the  Turkish  cavalry,  crossing 
the  Hungarian  Puszta,  made  their  way  as  far  as  Vienna,  while 
the  mercenaries  of  Charles  V.,  under  the  constable  de  Bourbon, 
were  reviving  the  saturnalia  of  Alaric  in  the  sack  of  Rome  (1527). 
In  Germany,  Francis  I.  assisted  the  Catholic  princes  to  maintain 
their  political  independence,  though  he  did  not  make  the  capital 
he  might  have  made  of  the  reform  movement.  Italy  remained 
faithful  to  the  vanquished  in  spite  of  all,  while  even  Henry  VIII. 
of  England,  who  only  needed  bribing,  and  Wolsey,  accessible  to 
flattery,  took  part  in  the  temporary  coalition.  Thus  did  France, 
menaced  with  disruption,  embark  upon  a  course  of  action  imposed 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


827 


expedi- 
tions. 


The  truce 
at  Nice. 


upon  her  by  the  harsh  conditions  of  the  treaty  of  Madrid — 
otherwise  little  respected — and  later  by  those  of  Cambrai  (1529) ; 
but  it  was  not  till  later,  too  late  indeed,  that  it  was  defined  and 
became  a  national  policy. 

After  having,  despite  so  many  reverses  and  mistakes,  saved 
Burgundy,  though  not  Artois  nor  Flanders,  and  joined  to  the 

crown  lands  the  domains  of  the  constable  de  Bourbon 
prose-'  wno  nad  gone  over  to  Charles  V.,  Francis  I.  should 
cation  at  have  had  enough  of  defending  other  people's  independ- 
romaatic  ence  as  weu  as  his  own,  and  should  have  thought  more 

of  his  interests  in  the  north  and  east  than  of  Milan. 

Yet  between  1531  and  1547  he  manifested  the  same 
regrets  and  the  same  invincible  ambition  for  that  land  of  Italy 
which  Charles  V.,  on  his  side,  regarded  as  the  basis  of  his  strength. 
Their  antagonism,  therefore,  remained  unabated,  as  also  the 
contradiction  of  an  official  agreement  with  Charles  V.,  combined 
with  secret  intrigues  with  his  enemies.  Anne  de  Montmorency, 
now  head  of  the  government  in  place  of  the  headstrong  chancellor 
Duprat,  for  four  years  upheld  a  policy  of  reconciliation  and  of 
almost  friendly  agreement  between  the  two  monarchs  (1531- 
IS3S)-  The  death  of  Francis  I.'s  mother,  Louise  of  Savoy  (who 
had  been  partly  instrumental  in  arranging  the  peace  of  Cambrai), 
the  replacement  of  Montmorency  by  the  bellicose  Chabot,  and 
the  advent  to  power  of  a  Burgundian,  Granvella,  as  Charles  V.'s 
prime  minister,  put  an  end  to  this  double-faced  policy,  which 
attacked  the  Calviru'sts  of  France  while  supporting  the  Lutherans 
of  Germany;  made  advances  to  Clement  VII.  while  pretending 
to  maintain  the  alliance  with  Henry  VIII.  (just  then  consummat- 
ing the  Anglican  schism);  and  sought  an  alliance  with  Charles 
V.  without  renouncing  the  possession  of  Italy.  The  death  of 
the  duke  of  Milan  provoked  a  third  general  war  (1536-1538); 

but  after  the  conquest  of  Savoy  and  Piedmont  and  a 

fruitless  invasion  of  Provence  by  Charles  V.,  it  resulted 

in  another  truce,  concluded  at  Nice,  in  the  interview 
at  Aigues-mortes,  and  in  the  old  contradictory  policy  of  the 
treaty  of  Cambrai.  This  was  confirmed  by  Charles  V.'s  triumphal 
journey  through  France  (1539). 

Rivalry  between  Madame  d'Etampes,  the  imperious  mistress 
of  the  aged  Francis  I.,  and  Diane  de  Poitiers,  whose  ascendancy 

over  the  dauphin  was  complete,  now  brought  court 
outbreak  int"gues  and  constant  changes  in  those  who  held 
of  war.  office,  to  complicate  still  further  this  wearisome 

policy  of  ephemeral  "  combinazioni  "  with  English, 
Germans,  Italians  and  Turks,  which  urgent  need  of  money  always 
brought  to  naught.  The  disillusionment  of  Francis  I.,  who 
had  hitherto  hoped  that  Charles  V.  would  be  generous  enough 
to  give  Milan  back  to  him,  and  then  the  assassination  of  Rincon, 
his  ambassador  at  Constantinople,  led  to  a  fourth  war  (1544- 
1546),  in  the  course  of  which  the  king  of  England  went  over  to 
the  side  of  Charles  V. 

Unable  in  the  days  of  his  youth  to  make  Italy  French,  when 
age  began  to  come  upon  him,  Francis  tried  to  make  France 
Koyaiab-  Italian.  In  his  chateau  at  Blois  he  drank  greedily 
soiutism  of  the  cup  of  Renaissance  art;  but  he  found  the 
under  exciting  draughts  of  diplomacy  which  he  imbibed 
Francis  I.  from  Machiavelli's  Prince  even  more  intoxicating, 
and  he  headed  the  ship  of  state  straight  for  the  rock  of  absolutism. 
He  had  been  the  first  king  "  du  bon  plaisir  "  ("  of  his  own  good 
pleasure  ") — a  "  Caesar,"  as  his  mother  Louise  of  Savoy  proudly 
hailed  him  in  1515 — and  to  a  man  of  his  gallant  and  hot-headed 
temperament  love  and  war  were  schools  little  calculated  to 
teach  moderation  in  government.  Italy  not  only  gave  him  a 
taste  for  art  and  letters,  but  furnished  him  with  an  arsenal  of 
despotic  maxims.  Yet  his  true  masters  were  the  jurists  of  the 
southern  universities,  passionately  addicted  to  centralization 
and  autocracy,  men  like  Duprat  and  Poyet,  who  revived  the 
persistent  tradition  of  Philip  the  Fair's  legists.  Grouped  together 
on  the  council  of  affairs,  they  managed  to  control  the  policy 
of  the  common  council,  with  its  too  mixed  and  too  independent 
membership.  They  successfully  strove  to  separate  "  the  grandeur 
and  superexcellence  of  the  king  "  from  the  rest  of  the  nation; 
to  isolate  the  nobility  amid  the  seductions  of  a  court  lavish  in 


promises  of  favour  and  high  office;  and  to  win  over  the 
bourgeoisie  by  the  buying  and  selling  and  afterwards  by  the 
hereditary  transmission  of  offices.  Thanks  to  their  action, 
feudalism  was  attacked  in  its  landed  interest  in  the  person  of 
the  constable  de  Bourbon;  feudalism  in  its  financial  aspect 
by  the  execution  of  superintendent  Semblanfay  and  the  special 
privileges  of  towns  and  provinces  by  administrative  centraliza- 
tion. The  bureaucracy  became  a  refuge  for  the  nobles,  and  above 
all  for  the  bourgeois,  whose  fixed  incomes  were  lowered  by  the 
influx  of  precious  metals  from  the  New  World,  while  the  wages 
of  artisans  rose.  All  those  time-worn  medieval  institutions 
which  no  longer  allowed  free  scope  to  private  or  public  life  were 
demolished  by  the  legists  in  favour  of  the  monarchy. 

Their  masterstroke  was  the  Concordat  of  1516,  which  meant 
an  immense  stride  in  the  path  towards  absolutism.  While 
Germany  and  England,  where  ultramontane  doctrines 

had  been  allowed  to  creep  in,  were  seeking  a  remedy      Thecoam 
.,  .  ..  ,   .,  .      *       conlatot 

against  the  economic  exactions  of  the  papacy  in  a     isie. 

reform  of  dogma  or  in  schism,  France  had  supposed 
herself  to  have  found  this  in  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges. 
But  to  the  royal  jurists  the  right  of  the  churches  and  abbeys 
to  make  appointments  to  all  vacant  benefices  was  a  guarantee 
of  liberties  valuable  to  the  clergy,  but  detestable  to  themselves 
because  the  clergy  thus  retained  the  great  part  of  public  wealth 
and  authority.  By  giving  the  king  the  ecclesiastical  patronage 
they  not  only  made  a  docile  instrument  of  him,  but  endowed 
him  with  a  mine  of  wealth,  even  more  productive  than  the  sale 
of  offices,  and  a  power  of  favouring  and  rewarding  that  trans- 
formed a  needy  and  ill-obeyed  king  into  an  absolute  monarch. 
To  the  pope  they  offered  a  mess  of  pottage  in  the  shape  of  onnates 
and  the  right  of  canonical  institution,  in  order  to  induce  him 
to  sell  the  Church  of  France  to  the  king.  By  this  royal  reform 
they  completely  isolated  the  monarchy,  in  the  presumptuous 
pride  of  omnipotence,  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Church  and  the 
aristocracy,  despite  both  the  university  and  the  parlement 
of  Paris. 

Thus  is  explained  Francis  I.'s  preoccupation  with  Italian 
adventures  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  and  also  the  inordinate 
squandering  of  money,  the  autos-da-fe  in  the  provinces  and  in 
Paris,  the  harsh  repression  of  reform  and  free  thought,  and  the 
sale  of  justice;  while  the  nation  became  impoverished  and  the 
state  was  at  the  mercy  of  the  caprices  of  royal  mistresses — all 
of  which  was  to  become  more  and  more  pronounced  during 
the  twelve  years  of  Henry  II. 's  government. 

Henry  II.  shone  but  with  a  reflected  light — in  his  private 
life  reflected  from  his  old  mistress,  Diane  de  Poitiers,  and  in  his 
political  action  reflected  from  the  views  of  Mont- 
morency or  the  Guises.     He  only  showed  his  own     ("J"/K//' 
personality  in  an  egoism   more   narrow-minded,   in      1559.) 
hatred  yet  bitterer  than  his  father's;  or  in  a  haughty 
and  jealous  insistence  upon  an  absolute  authority  which  he  never 
had  the  wit  to  maintain. 

The  struggle  with  Charles  V.  was  at  first  delayed  by  differences 
with  England.  The  treaty  of  Ardres  had  left  two  bones  of 
contention:  the  cession  of  Boulogne  to  England 
and  the  exclusion  of  the  Scotch  from  the  terms  of  "gjty"' 
peace.  At  last  the  regent,  the  duke  of  Somerset,  Charles  v. 
endeavoured  to  arrange  a  marriage  between  Edward 
VI.,  then  a  minor,  and  Mary  Stuart,  who  had  been  offered  in 
marriage  to  the  dauphin  Francis  by  her  mother,  Marie  of 
Lorraine,  a  Guise  who  had  married  the  king  of  Scotland.  The 
transference  of  Mary  Stuart  to  France,  and  the  treaty  of  1550 
which  restored  Boulogne  to  France  for  a  sum  of  400,000  crowns, 
suspended  the  state  of  war;  and  then  Henry  II. 's  opposition 
to  the  imperial  policy  of  Charles  V.  showed  itself  everywhere: 
in  Savoy  and  Piedmont,  occupied  by  the  French  and  claimed  by 
Philibert  Emmanuel,  Charles  V.'s  ally;  in  Navarre,  unlawfully 
conquered  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  and  claimed  by  the  family 
of  Albret;  in  Italy,  where,  aided  and  abetted  by  Pope  Paul  III., 
Henry  II.  was  trying  to  regain  support;  and,  finally,  in  Germany, 
where  after  the  victory  of  Charles  V.  at  Miihlberg  (1547)  the 
Protestant  princes  called  Henry  II.  to  their  aid,  offering  to 


828 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


Defence 
of  Met*. 


subsidize  him  and  cede  to  him  the  towns  of  Metz,  Toul  and 
Verdun.  The  Protestant  alliance  was  substituted  for  the 
Turkish  alliance,  and  Henry  II.  hastened  to  accept  the  offers 
made  to  him  (1552);  but  this  was  rather  late  in  the  day,  for 
the  reform  movement  had  produced  civil  war  and  evoked 
fresh  forces.  The  Germans,  in  whom  national  feeling  got  the 
better  of  imperialistic  ardour,  as  soon  as  they  saw  the  French 
at  Strassburg,  made  terms  with  the  emperor  at  Passau  and 
permitted  Charles  to  use  all  his  forces  against  Henry  II.  The 
defence  of  Metz  by  Francis  of  Guise  was  admirable 
and  successful;  but  in  Picardy  operations  continued 
their  course  without  much  result,  owing  to  the  in- 
capacity of  the  constable  de  Montmorency.  Fortunately, 
despite  the  marriage  of  Charles  V.'s  son  Philip  to  Mary  Tudor, 
which  gave  him  the  support  of  England  (1554),  and  despite 
the  religious  pacification  of  Germany  through  the  peace  of 
Augsburg  (1555),  Charles  V.,  exhausted  by  illness 
and  bv  tmrty  years  of  intense  activity,  in  the  truce 
of  Vaucelles  abandoned  Henry  II. 's  conquests — 
Piedmont  and  the  Three  Bishoprics.  He  then  abdicated  the 
government  of  his  kingdoms,  which  he  divided  between  his  son 
Philip  II.  and  his  brother  Ferdinand  (1556).  A  double  victory, 
this,  for  France. 

Henry  II. "s  resumption  of  war,  without  provocation  and 
without  allies,  was  a  grave  error;  but  more  characterless  than 
ever,  the  king  was  urged  to  it  by  the  Guises,  whose 
1e°.ry  II'  influence  since  the  defence  of  Metz  had  been  supreme 
Philip  U.  at  court  and  who  were  perhaps  hoping  to  obtain 
Naples  for  themselves.  On  the  other  hand,  Pope  Paul 
IV.  and  his  nephew  Carlo  Caraffa  embarked  upon  the  struggle, 
because  as  Neapolitans  they  detested  the  Spaniards,  whom  they 
Peace  of  considered  as  "  barbarous  "  as  the  Germans  or  the 
Gateau-  French.  The  constable  de  Montmorency's  disaster 
c*^'  at  Saint  Quentin  (August  1557),  by  which  Philip  II. 
had  not  the  wit  to  profit,  was  successfully  avenged 
by  Guise,  who  was  appointed  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom. 
He  took  Calais  by  assault  in  January  1558,  after  the  English 
had  held  it  for  two  centuries,  and  occupied  Luxemburg.  The 
treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis  (August  1559)  finally  put  an  end  to 
the  Italian  follies,  Naples,  Milan  and  Piedmont;  but  it  also 
lost  Savoy,  making  a  gap  in  the  frontier  for  a  century.  The 
question  of  Burgundy  was  definitely  settled,  too;  but  the 
Netherlands  had  still  to  be  conquered.  By  the  possession  of 
the  three  bishoprics  and  the  recapture  of  Calais  an  effort  towards 
a  natural  line  of  frontier  and  towards  a  national  policy  seemed 
indicated;  but  while  the  old  soldiers  could  not  forget  Marignano, 
Ceresole,  nor  Italy  perishing  with  the  name  of  France  on  her 
lips,  the  secret  alliance  between  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine  and 
Granvella  against  the  Protestant  heresy  foretold  the  approaching 
subordination  of  national  questions  to  religious  differences,  and 
a  decisive  attempt  to  purge  the  kingdom  of  the  new  doctrines. 

The  origin  and  general  history  of  the  religious  reformation 
in  the  i6th  century  are  dealt  with  elsewhere  (see  CHURCH 
HISTORY  and  REFORMATION).  In  France  it  had 
formation.  originally  no  revolutionary  character  whatever;  it 
proceeded  from  traditional  Galilean  theories  and  from 
the  innovating  principle  of  humanism,  and  it  began  as  a  protest 
against  Roman  decadence  and  medieval  scholasticism.  It 
found  its  first  adherents  and  its  first  defenders  among  the  clerics 
and  learned  men  grouped  around  Faber  (Lefevre)  of  Etaples 
at  Meaux;  while  Marguerite  of  Navarre,  "  des  Roynes  la  non 
pareille,"  was  the  indefatigable  Maecenas  of  these  innovators, 
and  the  incarnation  of  the  Protestant  spirit  at  its  purest.  The 
reformers  shook  off  the  yoke  of  systems  in  order  boldly  to  renovate 
both  knowledge  and  faith;  and,  instead  of  resting  on  the  abstract 
a  priori  principles  within  which  man  and  nature  had  been 
imprisoned,  they  returned  to  the  ancient  methods  of  observation 
and  analysis.  In  so  doing,  they  separated  intellectual  from 
popular  life;  and  acting  in  this  spirit,  through  the  need  of  a 
moral  renaissance,  they  reverted  to  primitive  Christianity, 
substituting  the  inner  and  individual  authority  of  conscience 
for  the  general  and  external  authority  of  the  Church.  Their 


efforts  would  not,  however,  have  sufficed  if  they  had  not  been 
seconded  by  events;  pure  doctrine  would  not  have  given  birth 
to  a  church,  nor  that  church  to  a  party;  in  France,  as  in 
Germany,  the  religious  revolution  was  conditioned  by  an  economic 
and  social  revolution. 

The  economic  renaissance  due  to  the  great  maritime  discoveries 
had  the  consequence  of  concentrating  wealth  in  the  hands  of  the 
bourgeoisie.  Owing  to  their  mental  qualities,  their  tendencies  and 
their  resources,  the  bourgeoisie  had  been,  if  not  alone,  at  least 
most  apt  in  profiting  by  the  development  of  industry,  by  the 
extension  of  commerce,  and  by  the  formation  of  a  new  and  mobile 
means  of  enriching  themselves.  But  though  the  bourgeois  had 
acquired  through  capitalism  certain  sources  of  influence,  and 
gradually  monopolized  municipal  and  public  functions,  the  king 
and  the  peasants  had  also  benefited  by  this  revolution.  After  a 
hundred  and  fifty  years  of  foreign  war  and  civil  discord,  at  a 
period  when  order  and  unity  were  ardently  desired,  an  absolute 
monarchy  had  appeared  the  only  power  capable  of  realizing 
such  aspirations.  The  peasants,  moreover,  had  profited  by  the 
reduction  of  the  idle  landed  aristocracy;  serfdom  had  decreased 
or  had  been  modified;  and  the  free  peasants  were  more  prosper- 
ous, had  reconquered  the  soil,  and  were  selling  their  produce 
at  a  higher  rate  while  they  everywhere  paid  less  exorbitant 
rents.  The  victims  of  this  process  were  the  urban  proletariat, 
whose  treatment  by  their  employers  in  trade  became  less  and 
less  protective  and  beneficent,  and  the  nobility,  straitened 
in  their  financial  resources,  uprooted  from  their  ancient  strong- 
holds, and  gradually  despoiled  of  their  power  by  a  monarchy 
based  on  popular  support.  The  unlimited  sovereignty  of  the 
prince  was  established  upon  the  ruins  of  the  feudal  system; 
and  the  capitalism  of  the  merchants  and  bankers  upon  the 
closing  of  the  trade-gilds  to  workmen,  upon  severe  economic 
pressure  and  upon  the  exploitation  of  the  artisans'  labour. 

Though  reform  originated  among  the  educated  classes  it 
speedily  found  an  echo  among  the  industrial  classes  of  the 
1 6th  century,  further  assisted  by  the  influence  of 
German  and  Flemish  journeymen.  The  popular  f™m*atioa 
reform-movement  was  essentially  an  urban  movement;  of  religious 
although  under  Francis  I.  and  Henry  II.  it  had  already  reform  into 
begun  to  spread  into  the  country.  The  artisans, 
labourers  and  small  shop-keepers  who  formed  the 
first  nucleus  of  the  reformed  church  were  numerous  enough 
to  provide  an  army  of  martyrs,  though  too  few  to  form  a  party. 
Revering  the  monarchy  and  established  institutions,  they 
endured  forty  years  of  persecution  before  they  took  up  arms. 
It  was  only  during  the  second  half  of  Henry  II. 's  reign  that 
Protestantism,  having  achieved  its  religious  evolution,  became 
a  political  party.  Weary  of  being  trodden  under  foot,  it  now 
demanded  much  more  radical  reform,  quitting  the  ranks  of 
peaceable  citizens  to  pass  into  the  only  militant  class  of  the  time 
and  adopt  its  customs.  Men  like  Cohgny,  d'Andelot  and  Cond£ 
took  the  place  of  the  timid  Lefevre  of  Etaples  and  the  harsh  and 
bitter  Calvin;  and  the  reform  party,  in  contradiction  to  its 
doctrines  and  its  doctors,  became  a  political  and  religious  party 
of  opposition,  with  all  the  compromises  that  presupposes.  The 
struggle  against  it  was  no  longer  maintained  by  the  university 
and  the  parlement  alone,  but  also  by  the  king,  whose  authority 
it  menaced.  , 

With  his  intrepid  spirit,  his  disdain  for  ecclesiastical  authority 
and  his  strongly  personal  religious  feeling,  Francis  I.  had  for 
a  moment  seemed  ready  to  be  a  reformer  himself;  Ro  alper. 
but  deprived  by  the  Concordat  of  all  interest  in  the  secutloa 
confiscation  of  church  property,  aspiring  to  political  under 
alliance  with  the  pope,  and  as  mistrustful  of  popular  F"Jlcl*  l' 
forces  as  desirous  of  absolute  power  and  devoted  neary  //. 
to  Italy,  he  paused  and  then  drew  back.    Hence  came 
the   revocation  in   1540  of  the  edict  of  tolerance  of   Coucy 
(!S3S)>  and  the  massacre  of  the  Vaudois  (1545).     Henry  II., 
a  fanatic,  went  still  further  in  his  edict  of  Chateaubriant  (1551), 
a  code  of  veritable  persecution,  and  in  the  coup  d'etat  carried  out 
in  the  parlement  against  Antoine  du  Bourg  and  his  colleagues 
(1559).     At  the  same  time  the  pastors  of  the  reformed  religion, 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


829 


met  in  synod  at  Paris,  were  setting  down  their  confession  of 
faith  founded  upon  the  Scriptures,  and  their  ecclesiastical 
discipline  founded  upon  the  independence  of  the  churches. 
Thenceforward  Protestantism  adopted  a  new  attitude,  and 
refused  obedience  to  the  orders  of  a  persecuting  monarchy  when 
contrary  to  its  faith  and  its  interests.  After  the  saints  came 
men.  Hence  those  wars  of  religion  which  were  to  hold  the 
monarchy  in  check  for  forty  years  and  even  force  it  to  come  to 
terms. 

In  slaying  Henry  II.  Montgomery's  lance  saved  the  Protestants 
for  the  time  being.     His  son  and  successor,  Francis  II.,  was  but 

a  nervous  sickly  boy,  bandied  between  two  women: 
'   his  mother,  Catherine  de'  Medici,  hitherto  kept  in  the 
1S60).          background,  and  his  wife,   Mary  Stuart,  queen  of 

Scotland,  who  being  a  niece  of  the  Guises  brought  her 
uncles,  the  constable  Francis  and  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  into 
power.  These  ambitious  and  violent  men  took  the  government 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  constable  de  Montmorency  and  the 
princes  of  the  blood:  Antoine  de  Bourbon,  king  of  Navarre, 
weak,  credulous,  always  playing  a  double  game  on  account  of  his 
preoccupation  with  Navarre;  Conde,  light-hearted  and  brave, 
but  not  fitted  to  direct  a  party;  and  the  cardinal  de  Bourbon, 
a  mere  nonentity.  The  only  plan  which  these  princes  could 
adopt  in  the  struggle,  once  they  had  lost  the  king,  was  to  make 
a  following  for  themselves  among  the  Calvinist  malcontents 
and  the  gentlemen  disbanded  after  the  Italian  wars.  The 
Guises,  strengthened  by  the  failure  of  the  conspiracy  of  Amboise, 
which  had  been  aimed  at  them,  abused  the  advantage  due  to 
their  victory.  Despite  the  edict  of  Romorantin,  which  by 
giving  the  bishops  the  right  of  cognizance  of  heresy  prevented 
the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition  on  the  Spanish  model  into 
France;  despite  the  assembly  of  Fontainebleau,  where  an 
attempt  was  made  at  a  compromise  acceptable  to  both  Catholics 
and  moderate  Calvinists;  the  reform  party  and  its  Bourbon 
leaders,  arrested  at  the  states-general  of  Orleans,  were  in  danger 
of  their  lives.  The  death  of  Francis  II.  in  December  1560 
compromised  the  influence  of  the  Guises  and  again  saved 
Protestantism. 

Charles  IX.  also  was  a  minor,  and  the  regent  should  legally 
have  been  the  first  prince  of  the  blood,  Antoine  de  Bourbon; 

but  cleverly  flattered  by  the  queen-mother,  Catherine 

^e>  Medici,  he  let  her  take  the  reins  of  government. 
1574).  Hitherto  Catherine  had  been  merely  the  resigned 

and  neglected  wife  of  Henry  II.,  and  though  eloquent, 
insinuating  and  ambitious,  she  had  been  inactive.  She  had 
attained  the  age  of  forty-one  when  she  at  last  came  into  power 
amidst  the  hopes  and  anxieties  aroused  by  the  fall  of  the  Guises 
and  the  return  of  the  Bourbons  to  fortune.  Indifferent  in 
religious  matters,  she  had  a  passion  for  authority,  a  character- 
istically Italian  adroitness  in  intrigue,  a  fine  political  sense, 
and  the  feeling  that  the  royal  authority  might  be  endangered 
both  by  Calvinistic  passions  and  Catholic  violence.  She  decided 
for  a  system  of  tolerance;  and  Michel  de  1'Hopital,  the  new 
chancellor,  was  her  spokesman  at  the  states  of  Orleans  (1560). 
He  was  a  good  and  honest  man,  moderate,  conciliatory  and 
temporizing,  anxious  to  lift  the  monarchy  above  the  strife  of 
parties  and  to  reconcile  them;  but  he  was  so  little  practical 
that  he  could  believe  in  a  reformation  of  the  laws  in  the  midst 
of  all  the  violent  passions  which  were  now  to  be  let  loose.  These 
two,  Catherine  and  her  chancellor,  attempted,  like  Charles  V. 
at  Augsburg,  to  bring  about  religious  pacification  as  a  necessary 
condition  for  the  maintenance  of  order;  but  they  were  soon 
overwhelmed  by  the  different  factions. 

On  one  side  was  the  Catholic  triumvirate  of  the  constable 
de  Montmorency,  the  duke  of  Guise,  and  the  marshal  de  St 

Andre;  and  on  the  other  the  Huguenot  party  of 
parties  Conde  and  Coligny,  who,  having  obtained  liberty 

of  conscience  in  January  1561,  now  demanded  liberty 
of  worship.  The  colloquy  at  Poissy  between  the  cardinal  of 
Lorraine  and  Theodore  Beza  (September  1561),  did  not  end 
in  the  agreement  hoped  for,  and  the  duke  of  Guise  so  far  abused 
its  spirit  as  to  embroil  the  French  Calvinists  with  the  German 


Lutherans.  The  rupture  seemed  irremediable  when  the  assembly 
of  Poissy  recognized  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  which  the  French 
church  had  held  in  suspicion  since  its  foundation.  However, 
yielding  to  the  current  which  was  carrying  the  greater  part  of  the 
nation  towards  reform,  and  despite  the  threats  of  Philip  II. 
who  dreaded  Calvinistic  propaganda  in  his  Netherlands,  Michel 
de  1'Hopital  promulgated  the  edict  of  January  17, 
1562 — a  true  charter  of  enfranchisement  for  the  tolerance. 
Protestants.  But  the  pressure  of  events  and  of  parties 
was  too  strong;  the  policy  of  toleration  which  had  mis- 
carried at  the  council  of  Trent  had  no  chance  of  success  in 
France. 

The  triumvirate's  relations  with  Spain  and  Rome  were  very 
close;  they  had  complete  ascendancy  over  the  king  and  over 
Catherine;  and  now  the  massacre  of  two  hundred  character 
Protestants  at  Vassy  on  the  ist  of  March  1562  made  of  the 
the  cup  overflow.  The  duke  of  Guise  had  either  religious 
ordered  this,  or  allowed  it  to  take  place,  on  his  return 
from  an  interview  with  the  duke  of  Wiirttemberg  at  Zabern, 
where  he  had  once  more  demanded  the  help  of  his  Lutheran 
neighbours  against  the  Calvinists;  and  the  Catholics  having 
celebrated  this  as  a  victory  the  signal  was  given  for  the  commence- 
ment of  religious  wars.  When  these  eight  fratricidal  wars  first 
began,  Protestants  and  Catholics  rivalled  one  another  in  respect 
for  royal  authority;  only  they  wished  to  become  its  masters 
so  as  to  get  the  upper  hand  themselves.  But  in  course  of  time, 
as  the  struggle  became  embittered,  Catholicism  itself  grew 
revolutionary;  and  this  twofold  fanaticism,  Catholic  and 
Protestant,  even  more  than  the  ambition  of  the  leaders,  made 
the  war  a  ferocious  one  from  the  very  first.  Beginning  with 
surprise  attacks,  if  these  failed,  the  struggle  was  continued  by 
means  of  sieges  and  by  terrible  exploits  like  those  of  the  Catholic 
Montluc  and  the  Protestant  des  Adrets  in  the  south  of  France. 
Neither  of  these  two  parties  was  strong  enough  to  crush  the 
other,  owing  to  the  apathy  and  continual  desertions  of  the  gentle- 
men-cavaliers who  formed  the  elite  of  the  Protestant  army 
and  the  insufficient  numbers  of  the  Catholic  forces.  Allies  from 
outside  were  therefore  called  in,  and  this  it  was  that  gave  a 
European  character  to  these  wars  of  religion;  the  two  parties 
were  parties  of  foreigners,  the  Protestants  being  supported  by 
German  Landsknechls  and  Elizabeth  of  England's  cavalry,  and 
the  royal  army  by  Italian,  Swiss  or  Spanish  auxiliaries.  It  was 
no  longer  patriotism  but  religion  that  distinguished  the  two 
camps.  There  were  three  principal  theatres  of  war:  in  the 
north  Normandy  and  the  valley  of  the  Loire,  where  Orleans, 
the  general  centre  of  reform,  ensured  communications  between 
the  south  and  Germany;  in  the  south-west  Gascony  and 
Guienne;  in  the  south-east  Lyonnais  and  Vivarais. 

In  the  first  war,  which  lasted  for  a  year  (1562-1563),  the 
triumvirs  wished  to  secure  Orleans,  previously  isolated.  The 
threat  of  an  English  landing  decided  them  to  lay 
siege  to  Rouen,  and  it  was  taken  by  assault;  but  this 
cost  the  life  of  the  versatile  Antoine  de  Bourbon.  On  . 

the  ipth  of  December  1562  the  duke  of  Guise  barred 
the  way  to  Dreux  against  the  German  reinforcements  of 
d'Andelot,  who  after  having  threatened  Paris  were  marching 
to  join  forces  with  the  English  troops  for  whom  Coligny  and 
Conde  had  paid  by  the  cession  of  Havre.  The  death  of  marshal 
de  St  Andre,  and  the  capture  of  the  constable  de  Montmorency 
and  of  Conde,  which  marked  this  indecisive  battle,  left  Coligny 
and  Guise  face  to  face.  The  latter's  success  was  of  brief  duration ; 
for  on  the  i8th  of  February  1563  Poltrot  de  Mere  assassinated 
him  before  Orleans,  which  he  was  trying  to  take  once  and  for 
all.  Catherine,  relieved  by  the  loss  of  an  inconvenient  preceptor, 
and  by  the  disappearance  of  the  other  leaders,  became  mistress 
of  the  Catholic  party,  of  whose  strength  and  popularity  she  had 
now  had  proof,  and  her  idea  was  to  make  peace  at  once  on  the 
best  terms  possible.  The  egoism  of  Conde,  who  got  himself 
made  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom,  and  bargained  for 
freedom  of  worship  for  the  Protestant  nobility  only,  compromised 
the  future  of  both  his  church  and  his  party,  though  rendering 
possible  the  peace  of  Amboise,  concluded  the  igth  of  March 


83o 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


Ambolse 
(1563). 


civil 
war. 


1563.     All  now  set  off  together  to  recapture  Havre  from  the 
English. 

The  peace,  however,  satisfied  no  one;  neither  Catholics 
(because  of  the  rupture  of  religious  unity)  nor  the  parlements; 

the  pope,  the  emperor  and  king  of  Spain  alike  protested 
Peace  of  against  it.  Nor  yet  did  it  satisfy  the  Protestants, 

who  considered  its  concessions  insufficient,  above  all 

for  the  people.  It  was,  however,  the  maximum  of 
tolerance  possible  just  then,  and  had  to  be  reverted  to;  Catherine 
and  Charles  IX.  soon  saw  that  the  times  were  not  ripe  for  a 
third  party,  and  that  to  enforce  real  toleration  would  require 
an  absolute  power  which  they  did  not  possess.  After  three 
years  the  Guises  reopened  hostilities  against  Coligny,  whom  they 
accused  of  having  plotted  the  murder  of  their  chief;  while 
the  Catholics,  egged  on  by  the  Spaniards,  rose  against  the 
Protestants,  who  had  been  made  uneasy  by  an  interview  between 
Catherine  and  her  daughter  Eh'zabeth,  wife  of  Philip  II.  of 
Spain,  at  Bayonne,  and  by  the  duke  of  Alva's  persecutions  of 
the  reformed  church  of  the  Netherlands — a  daughter-church  of 
Geneva,  like  their  own.  The  second  civil  war  began  like  the 

first  with  a  frustrated  attempt  to  kidnap  the  king,  at 
Second  (-he  castle  of  Montceaux,  near  Meaux,  in  September 

1567;  and  with  a  siege  of  Paris,  the  general  centre 

of  Catholicism,  in  the  course  of  which  the  constable 
de  Montmorency  was  killed  at  Saint-Denis.  Conde,  with  the 
men-at-arms  of  John  Casimir,  son  of  the  Count  Palatine,  tried 

to  starve  out  the  capital;  but  once  more  the  defection 
Peace  of  of  tne  nODies  obliged  him  to  sign  a  treaty  of  peace  at 

Longjumeau  on  the  23rd  of  March  1568,  by  which 

the  conditions  of  Amboise  were  re-established.  After 
the  attempt  at  Montceaux  the  Protestants  had  to  be  contented 
with  Charles  IX. 's  word. 

This  peace  was  not  of  long  duration.  The  fall  of  Michel 
de  1'Hopital,  who  had  so  often  guaranteed  the  loyalty  of  the 

Huguenots,  ruined  the  moderate  party  (May  1568). 

Catholic  propaganda,  revived  by  the  monks  and  the 

Jesuits,  and  backed  by  the  armed  confraternities  and 
by  Catherine's  favourite  son,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  now  entrusted 
with  a  prominent  part  by  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine;  Catherine's 
complicity  in  the  duke  of  Alva's  terrible  persecution  in  the 
Netherlands;  and  her  attempt  to  capture  Coligny  and  Conde 
at  Noyers  all  combined  to  cause  a  fresh  outbreak  of  hostilities 
in  the  west.  Thanks  to  Tavannes,  the  duke  of  Anjou  gained 
easy  victories  at  Jarnac  over  the  prince  of  Conde,  who  was  killed, 
and  at  Moncontour  over  Coligny,  who  was  wounded  (March- 
October  1569);  but  these  successes  were  rendered  fruitless  by 
the  jealousy  of  Charles  IX.  Allowing  the  queen  of  Navarre  to 
shut  herself  up  in  La  Rochelle,  the  citadel  of  the  reformers,  and 
the  king  to  loiter  over  the  siege  of  Saint  Jean  d'Angely,  Coligny 
pushed  boldly  forward  towards  Paris  and,  having  reached 
Burgundy,  defeated  the  royal  army  at  Arnay-le-duc.  Catherine 
had  exhausted  all  her  resources;  and  having  failed  in  her 
project  of  remarrying  Philip  II.  to  one  of  her  daughters,  and  of 
betrothing  Charles  IX. to  the  eldest  of  the  Austrian  archduchesses, 
exasperated  also  by  the  presumption  of  the  Lorraine  family,  who 
aspired  to  the  marriage  of  their  nephew  with  Charles  IX. 's 
Peace  of  sister>  she  signed  the  peace  of  St  Germain  on  the  8th 
s<  of  August  157°-  This  was  the  culminating  point  of 

(iermain     Protestant  liberty;  for  Coligny  exacted  and  obtained, 

first,  liberty  of  conscience  and  of  worship,  and  then, 
as  a  guarantee  of  the  king's  word,  four  fortified  places:  La 
Rochelle,  a  key  to  the  sea;  La  Charite,  in  the  centre;  Cognac 
and  Montauban  in  the  south. 

The  Guises  set  aside,  Coligny,  supported  as  he  was  by  Jeanne 
d'Albret,  queen  of  Navarre,  now  received  all  Charles  IX. 's 
Coiignv  favour.  Catherine  de'  Medici,  an  inveterate  match- 
and  the  maker,  and  also  uneasy  at  Philip  II. 's  increasing 
Nether-  power,  made  advances  to  Jeanne,  proposing  to  marry 

her  own  daughter, Marguerite  deValois.to  Jeanne's  son, 
Henry  of  Navarre,  now  chief  of  the  Huguenot  party.  Coligny 
was  a  Protestant,  but  he  was  a  Frenchman  before  all;  and 
wishing  to  reconcile  all  parties  in  a  national  struggle,  he 


Third 
war. 


"  trumpeted  war  "  (cornait  la  guerre)  against  Spain  in  the 
Netherlands  —  despite  the  lukewarmness  of  Elizabeth  of  England 
and  the  Germans,  and  despite  the  counter-intrigues  of  the  pope 
and  of  Venice.  He  succeeded  in  getting  French  troops  sent 
to  the  Netherlands,  but  they  suffered  defeat.  None  the  less 
Charles  IX.  still  seemed  to  see  only  through  the  eyes  of  Coligny; 
till  Catherine,  fearing  to  be  supplanted  by  the  latter,  dreading 
the  results  of  the  threatened  war  with  Spain,  and  egged  on  by  a 
crowd  of  Italian  adventurers  in  the  pay  of  Spain  —  men  like 
Gondi  and  Birague,  reared  like  herself  in  the  political  theories 
and  customs  of  their  native  land  —  saw  no  hope  but  in  the  assassi- 
nation of  this  rival  in  her  son's  esteem.  A  murderous  attack 
upon  Coligny,  who  had  opposed  the  candidature  of  Catherine's 
favourite  son,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  for  the  throne  of  Poland,  having 
only  succeeded  in  wounding  him  and  in  exciting  the  Calvinist 
leaders,  who  were  congregated  in  Paris  for  the  occasion  of 
Marguerite  deValois'marriage  with  the  king  of  Navarre,Catherine 
and  the  Guises  resolved  together  to  put  them  all  to  death.  There 
followed  the  wholesale  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew's  stgar. 
Eve,  in  Paris  and  in  the  provinces;  a  natural  con-  thoiomew, 
sequence  of  public  and  private  hatreds  which  had  August 
poisoned  the  entire  social  organism.  This  massacre  j^ 
had  the  effect  of  preventing  the  expedition  into 
Flanders,  and  destroying  Francis  I.'s  policy  of  alliance  with  the 
Protestants  against  the  house  of  Austria. 

Catherine  de'  Medici  soon  perceived  that  the  massacre  of  St 
Bartholomew  had  settled  nothing.  It  had,  it  is  true,  dealt 
a  blow  to  Calvinism  just  when,  owing  to  the  reforms 
of  the  council  of  Trent,  the  religious  ground  had  been  The  party 
crumbling  beneath  it.  Moreover,  within  the  party  Opomfques. 
itself  a  gulf  had  been  widening  between  the  pastors, 
supported  by  the  Protestant  democracy  and  the  political  nobles. 
The  reformers  had  now  no  leaders,  and  their  situation  seemed 
as  perilous  as  that  of  their  co-religionists  in  the  Netherlands; 
while  the  sieges  of  La  Rochelle  and  Leiden,  the  enforced  exile 
of  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  the  conversion  under  pain  of  death 
of  Henry  of  Navarre  and  the  prince  of  Conde,  made  the  common 
danger  more  obvious.  Salvation  came  from  the  very  excess  of 
the  repressive  measures.  A  third  party  was  once  more  formed, 
composed  of  moderates  from  the  two  camps,  and  it  was  recruited 
quite  as  much  by  jealousy  of  the  Guises  and  by  ambition  as  by 
horror  at  the  massacres.  There  were  the  friends  of  the  Mont- 
morency party  —  Damville  at  their  head;  Coligny's  relations; 
the  king  of  Navarre;  Cond6;  and  a  prince  of  the  blood,  Catherine 
de'  Medici's  third  son,  the  duke  of  Alencon,  tired  of  being  kept 
in  the  background.  This  party  took  shape  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  war,  followed  by  the  edict  of 
Boulogne  (1573),  forced  from  Charles  IX.  when  the  Edict  of 
Catholics  were  deprived  of  their  leader  by  the  election  Boulogne 
of  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  as  king  of  Poland. 
A  year  later  the  latter  succeeded  his  brother  on  the  throne  of 
France  as  Henry  III.  This  meant  a  new  lease  of  power  for  the 
queen-mother. 

The  politiques,  as  the  supporters  of  religious  tolerance  and 
an  energetic  repression  of  faction  were  called,  offered  their 
alliance  to  the  Huguenots,  but  these,  having  foimed 
themselves,  by  means  of  the  Protestant  Union,  into 
a  sort  of  republic  within  the  kingdom,  hesitated  to 
accept.  It  is,  however,  easy  to  bring  about  an  understanding 
between  people  in  whom  religious  fury  has  been  extinguished 
either  by  patriotism  or  by  ambition,  like  that  of  the  duke  of 
Alencon,  who  had  now  escaped  from  the  Louvre  where  he  had 
been  confined  on  account  of  his  intrigues.  The  compact  was 
concluded  at  Millau;  Conde  becoming  a  Protestant  once  more 
in  order  to  treat  with  Damville,  Montmorency's  brother.  Henry 
of  Navarre  escaped  from  Paris.  The  new  king,,  Henry  III., 
vacillating  and  vicious,  and  Catherine  herself,  eager 
for  war  as  she  was,  had  no  means  of  separating  the 
Protestants  and  the  politiques.  Despite  the  victory 
of  Guise  at  Dormans,  the  agreement  between  the 
duke  of  Alencon  and  John  Casimir's  German  army  obliged  the 
royal  party  to  grant  all  that  the  allied  forces  demanded  of  them 


Pourtfi, 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


831 


in  the  "peace  of  Monsieur,"  signed  at  Beaulieu  on  the  6th  of  May 
1576,  the  duke  of  Alencon  receiving  the  appanage  of  Anjou, 

Touraine  and  Berry,  the  king  of  Navarre  Guienne, 
Monsieur  anc^  Conde  Picardy,  while  the  Protestants  were  granted 
(1S76).  freedom  of  worship  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom 

except  Paris,  the  rehabilitation  of  Coligny  and  the 
other  victims  of  St  Bartholomew,  their  fortified  towns,  and  an 
equal  number  of  seats  in  the  courts  of  the  parlements. 

This  was  going  too  fast;  and  in  consequence  of  a  reaction 
against  this  too  liberal  edict  a  fourth  party  made  its  appearance, 

that  of  the  Catholic  League,  under  the  Guises  —  Henry 
Catholic  ^e  Balafre,  duke  of  Guise,  and  his  two  brothers,  Charles, 
League.  duke  of  Mayenne,  and  Louis,  archbishop  of  Reims 

and  cardinal.  With  the  object  of  destroying  Calvinism 
by  effective  opposition,  they  imitated  the  Protestant  organization 
of  provincial  associations,  drawing  their  chief  supporters  from 
the  upper  middle  class  and  the  lesser  nobility.  It  was  n°t  at 
first  a  demagogy  maddened  by  the  preaching  of  the  irreconcilable 
clergy  of  Paris,  but  a  union  of  the  more  honest  and  prudent 
classes  of  the  nation  in  order  to  combat  heresy.  Despite  the 
immorality  and  impotence  of  Henry  III.  and  the  Protestantism 
of  Henry  of  Navarre,  this  party  talked  of  re-establishing  the 
authority  of  the  king;  but  in  reality  it  inclined  more  to  the 
Guises,  martyrs  in  the  good  cause,  who  were  supported  by  Philip 
II.  of  Spain  and  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  A  sort  of  popular  govern- 
ment was  thus  established  to  counteract  the  incapacity  of 
royalty,  and  it  was  in  the  name  of  the  imperilled  rights  of  the 
people  that,  from  the  States  of  Blois  onward,  this  Holy  League 
demanded  the  re-establishment  of  Catholic  unity,  and  set  the 
religious  right  of  the  nation  in  opposition  to  the  divine  right  of 
incapable  or  evil-doing  kings  (1576). 

In  order  to  oust  his  rival  Henry  of  Guise,  Henry  III.  made 
a  desperate  effort  to  outbid  him  in  the  eyes  of  the  more  extreme 

Catholics,  and  by  declaring  himself  head  of  the  League 
of  Blois  degraded  himself  into  a  party  leader.  The  League, 
(1576).  furious  at  this  stroke  of  policy,  tried  to  impose  a  council 

of  thirty-six  advisers  upon  the  king.  But  the  deputies 
of  the  third  estate  did  not  support  the  other  two  orders,  and 
the  latter  in  their  turn  refused  the  king  money  for  making  war 

on  the  heretics,  desiring,  they  said,  not  war  but  the 
an</  destruction  of  heresy.  This  would  have  reduced 

peace  of  Henry  III.  to  impotence;  fortunately  for  him,  how- 
Bergerac  ever;  the  break  of  the  Huguenots  with  the  "  Mal- 
Sevea'th  contents,"  and  the  divisions  in  the  court  of  Navarre 
War  and  and  in  the  various  parties  at  La  Rochelle,  allowed 
peace  of  Henry  III.,  after  two  little  wars  in  the  south  west, 

during  which    fighting    gradually   degenerated    into 

brigandage,  to  sign  terms  of  peace  at  Bergerac  (1577), 
which  much  diminished  the  concessions  made  in  the  edict  of 
Beaulieu.  This  peace  was  confirmed  three  years  after  by  that 
of  Fleix.  The  suppression  of  both  the  leagues  was  stipulated 
for  (1580).  It  remained,  however,  a  question  whether  the  Holy 
League  would  submit  to  this. 

The  death  of  the  duke  of  Anjou  after  his  mad  endeavour 
to  establish  himself  in  the  Netherlands  (1584),  and  the  accession 
Union  °f  Henrv  of  Navarre,  heir  to  the  effeminate  Henry  III., 
between  reversed  the  situations  of  the  two  parties:  the  Pro- 
the  dulses  testants  again  became  supporters  of  the  principle  of 

heredity  and   divine   right;   the   Catholics  appealed 

to  right  of  election  and  the  sovereignty  of  the  people. 
Could  the  crown  of  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  Church  be  allowed 
to  devolve  upon  a  relapsed  heretic?  Such  was  the  doctrine 
officially  preached  in  pulpit  and  pamphlet.  But  between 
Philip  II.  on  the  one  hand  —  now  master  of  Portugal  and  delivered 
from  William  of  Orange,  involved  in  strife  with  the  English 
Protestants,  and  desirous  of  avenging  the  injuries  inflicted  upon 
him  by  the  Valois  in  the  Netherlands  —  and  the  Guises  on  the 
other  hand,  whose  cousin  Mary  Stuart  was  a  prisoner  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  there  was  a  common  interest  in  supporting  one 
another  and  pressing  things  forward.  A  definite  agreement 
was  made  between  them  at  Joinville  (December  31,  1584),  the 
religious  and  popular  pretext  being  the  danger  of  leaving  the 


Fleix 

(1580). 


it 


. 


kingdom  to  the  king  of  Navarre,  and  the  ostensible  end  to  secure 
the  succession  to  a  Catholic  prince,  the  old  Cardinal  de  Bourbon, 
an  ambitious  and  violent  man  of  mean  intelligence;  while  the 
secret  aim  was  to  secure  the  crown  for  the  Guises,  who  had 
already  attempted  to  fabricate  for  themselves  a  genealogy 
tracing  their  descent  from  Charlemagne.  In  the  meantime 
Philip  II.,  being  rid  of  Don  John  of  Austria,  whose  ambition  he 
dreaded,  was  to  crush  the  Protestants  of  England  and  the 
Netherlands  ;  and  the  double  result  of  the  compact  at  Joinville 
was  to  allow  French  politics  to  be  controlled  by  Spain,  and 
to  transform  the  wars  of  religion  into  a  purely  political 
quarrel. 

The  pretensions  of  the  Guises  were,  in  fact,  soon  manifested 
in  the  declaration  of  Peronne  (March  30,  1585)  against  the  foul 
court  of  the  Valois;  they  were  again  manifested  in  a   The  com- 
furious   agitation,    fomented   by   the   secret   council  mittee  of 
of  the  League  at  Paris,  which  favoured  the  Guises,   sixteea  at 

P3rls 

and  which  now  worked  on  the  people  through  their 
terror  of  Protestant  retaliations  and  the  Church's  peril.  Incited 
by  Philip  II.,  who  wished  to  see  him  earning  his  pension  of 
600,000  golden  crowns,  Henry  of'Guise  began  the  war  in  the  end 
of  April,  and  in  a  few  days  the  whole  kingdom  was  on  fire.  The 
situation  was  awkward  for  Henry  III.,  who  had  not  Eighth 
the  courage  to  ask  Queen  Elizabeth  for  the  soldiers  war  of  the 
and  money  that  he  lacked.  The  crafty  king  of  Navarre 
being  unwilling  to  alienate  the  Protestants  save  by  an 
apostasy  profitable  to  himself,  Henry  III.,  by  the  treaty  of 
Nemours  (July  7,  1585),  granted  everything  to  the  head  of 
the  League  in  order  to  save  his  crown.  By  a  stroke  of  the  pen 
he  suppressed  Protestantism,  while  Pope  Sixtus  V.,  who  had 
at  first  been  unfavourable  to  the  treaty  of  Joinville  as  a  purely 
political  act,  though  he  eventually  yielded  to  the  solicitations 
of  the  League,  excommunicated  the  two  Bourbons,  Henry  and 
Conde.  But  the  duke  of  Guise's  audacity  did  not  make  Henry  III. 
forget  his  desire  for  vengeance.  He  hoped  to  ruin  him  by 
attaching  him  to  his  cause.  His  favourite  Joyeuse  was  to  defeat 
the  king  of  Navarre,  whose  forces  were  very  weak,  while  Guise 
was  to  deal  with  the  strong  reinforcement  of  Germans  that 
Elizabeth  was  sending  to  Henry  of  Navarre.  Exactly  the 
contrary  happened.  By  the  defeat  of  Joyeuse  at  Coutras 
Henry  III.  found  himself  wounded  on  his  strongest  side  ;  and 
by  Henry  of  Guise's  successes  at  Vimory  and  Auneau  theGermans, 
who  should  have  been  his  best  auxiliaries  against  the  League, 
were  crushed  (October-November  1587). 

The  League  now  thought  they  had  no  longer  anything  to  fear. 
Despite  the  king's  hostility  the  duke  of  Guise  came  to  Paris, 
urged  thereto  by  Philip  II.,  who  wanted  to  occupy 
Paris  and  be  master  of  the  Channel  coasts  whilst  he  9?y2f^ 
launched  his  invincible  Armada  to  avenge  the  death  of  ca</es. 
Mary  Stuart  in  1587.     On  the  Day  of  the  Barricades 
(May  12,  1588)  Henry  III.  was  besieged  in  the  Louvre  by  the 
populace  in  revolt;  but  his  rival  dared  not  go  so  far  as  to  depose 
the  king,  and  appeased  the  tumult.     The  king,  having  succeeded 
in  taking  refuge  at  Chartres,  ended,  however,  by  granting  him 
in  the  Act  of  Union  all  that  he  had  refused  in  face  of  the  barricades 
—  the  post  of  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom  and  the  pro- 
scription of  Protestantism.     At  the  second  assembly  of  the  states 
of  Blois,  called  together  on  account  of  the  need  for  money(is88), 
all  of  Henry  III.'s  enemies  who  were  elected  showed 
themselves  even  bolder  than  in  1576  in  claiming  the  t^o^  "he 
control  of  the  financial  administration  of  the  kingdom;  dulses  at 
but  the  destruction  of  the  Armada  gave  Henry  III.,  the  second 
already  exasperated  by  the  insults  he  had  received,  se^,"J/ 
new  vigour.     He  had  the  old  Cardinal  de  Bourbon  Of  Blois. 
imprisoned,  and  Henry  of  Guise  and  his  brother  the 
cardinal   assassinated    (December   23,    1588).     On  the   sth  of 
January,  1589,  died  his  mother,  Catherine  de'Medici,  the  astute 
Florentine. 

"  Now  I  am  king!  "  cried  Henry  III.  But  Paris  being 
dominated  by  the  duke  of  Mayenne,  who  had  escaped  assassina- 
tion, and  by  the  council  of  "Sixteen,"  the  chiefs  of  the  League, 
most  of  the  provinces  replied  by  open  revolt,  and  Henry  III. 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


I6W). 


had  no  alternative  but  an  alliance  with  Henry  of  Navarre. 

Thanks  to  this  he  was  on  the  point  of  seizing  Paris, 
Assassiaa-  wnen  in  his  turn  he  was  assassinated  on  the  ist  of 

AuKust  J589  by  a  Jacobin  monk,  Jacques  C16ment; 

with  his  dying  breath  he  designated  the  king  of 
Navarre  as  his  successor. 

Between  the  popular  League  and  the  menace  of  the  Protestants 
it  was  a  question  whether  the  new  monarch  was  to  be  powerless 

in  his  turn.  Henry  IV.  had  almost  the  whole  of  his 
Bourbons  kingdom  to  conquer.  The  Cardinal  de  Bourbon,  king 

according  to  the  League  and  proclaimed  under  the  title 
of  Charles  X.,  could  count  upon  the  Holy  League  itself,  upon  the 
Spaniards  of  the  Netherlands,  and  upon  the  pope.  Henry  IV. 
was  only  supported  by  a  certain  number  of  the  Calvinists  and 
by  the  Catholic  minority  of  the  Politiques,  who,  however, 
gradually  induced  the  rest  of  the  nation  to  rally  round  the  only 
legitimate  prince.  The  nation  wished  for  the  establishment 
of  internal  unity  through  religious  tolerance  and  the  extinction 
of  private  organizations;  it  looked  for  the  extension  of  France's 
external  power  through  the  abasement  of  the  house  of  Spain, 
protection  of  the  Protestants  in  the  Netherlands  and  Germany, 
and  independence  of  Rome.  Henry  IV.,  moreover,  w^s  forced 
to  take  an  oath  at  the  camp  of  Saint  Cloud  to  associate  the  nation 
in  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  by  means  of  the  states-general. 
These  three  conditions  were  interdependent;  and  Henry  IV., 
with  his  persuasive  manners,  his  frank  and  charming  character, 
and  his  personal  valour,  seemed  capable  of  keeping  them  all 
three. 

The  first  thing  for  this  soldier-king  to  do  was  to  conquer  his 
kingdom  and  maintain  its  unity.     He  did  not  waste  time  by 

withdrawing  towards  the  south;  he  kept  in  the  neigh- 

bourhood  °f  Paris>  on  the  banks  of  tKe  Seine,  within 

reach  of  help  from  Elizabeth;  and  twice  —  at  Arques 

and  at  Ivry  (1589-1590)  —  he  vanquished  the  duke 
of  Mayenne,  lieutenant-general  of  the  League.  But  after  having 
tried  to  seize  Paris  (as  later  Rouen)  by  a  coup-de-main,  he  was 
obliged  to  raise  the  siege  in  view  of  reinforcements  sent  to 
Mayenne  by  the  duke  of  Parma.  Pope  Gregory  XIV.,  an 
enthusiastic  supporter  of  the  League  and  a  strong  adherent 
of  Spain,  having  succeeded  Sixtus  V.,  who  had  been  very  luke- 
warm towards  the  League,  made  Henry  IV.'s  position  still 
more  serious  just  at  the  moment  when,  the  old  Cardinal  de 
Bourbon  having  died,  Philip  II.  wanted  to  be  declared  the  pro- 
tector of  the  kingdom  in  order  that  he  might  dismember  it,  and 
when  Charles  Emmanuel  of  Savoy,  a  grandson  of  Francis  I.,  and 
Charles  III.,  duke  of  Lorraine,  a  son-in-law  of  Henry  II.,  were 
both  of  them  claiming  the  crown.  Fortunately,  however,  the 
Sixteen  had  disgusted  the  upper  bourgeoisie  by  their  demagogic 
airs;  while  their  open  alliance  with  Philip  II.,  and  their  accept- 
ance of  a  Spanish  garrison  in  Paris  had  offended  the  patriotism 
of  the  Poliliques  or  moderate  members  of  the  League.  Mayenne, 
who  oscillated  between  Philip  II.  and  Henry  IV.,  was  himself 
obliged  to  break  up  and  subdue  this  party  of  fanatics  and 
theologians  (December  1591).  This  game  of  see-saw  between 
the  Politiques  and  the  League  furthered  his  secret  ambition,  but 
also  the  dissolution  of  the  kingdom;  and  the  pressure  of  public 
opinion,  which  desired  an  effective  monarchy,  put  an  end  to  this 
temporizing  policy  and  caused  the  convocation  of  the  states- 

general  in  Paris  (December  1592).  Philip  II.,  through 
S<oera/  tne  duke  of  Feria's  instrumentality,  demanded  the 
oUS92.  throne  for  his  daughter  Isabella,  grand-daughter  of 

Henry  II.  through  her  mother.  But  who  was  to  be  her 
husband?  The  archduke  Ernest  of  Austria,  Guise  or  Mayenne? 
The  parlement  cut  short  these  bargainings  by  condemning  all 
ultramontane  pretensions  and  Spanish  intrigues.  The  unpopu- 
larity of  Spain,  patriotism,  the  greater  predominance  of  national 
questions  in  public  opinion,  and  weariness  of  both  religious 
disputation  and  indecisive  warfare,  all  these  sentiments  were 
expressed  in  the  wise  and  clever  pamphlet  entitled  the  Satire 
Mi  nipple.  What  had  been  a  slow  movement  between  1585 
and  1592  was  quickened  by  Henry  IV.'s  abjuration  of  Protestant- 
ism at  Saint-Denis  on  the  23rd  of  July  1593. 


The  coronation  of  the  king  at  Chartres  in  February  1594 
completed  the  rout  of  the  League.     The  parlement  of  Paris 
declared  against  Mayenne,  who  was  simply  the  mouth-  obturation 
piece  of  Spain,  and  Brissac,  the  governor,  surrendered  ot Henry 
the  capital  to  the  king.    The  example  of  Paris  and'  lv.,Juiy 
Henry  IV.'s  clemency  rallied  round  him  all  prudent  23<1593- 
Catholics,  like  Villeroy  and  Jeannin,  anxious  for  national  unity; 
but  he  had  to  buy  over  the  adherents  of  the  League,  who  sold 
him  his  own  kingdom  for  sixty  million  francs.    The  pontifical 
absolution  of  September  17,  1595,  finally  stultified  the  League, 
which  had  been  again  betrayed  by  the  unsuccessful  plot  of  Jean 
Chastel,  the  Jesuit's  pupil. 

Nothing  was  now  left  but  to  expel  the  Spaniards,  who  under 
cover  of  religion  had  worked  for  their  own  interests  alone. 
Despite  the  brilliant  charge  of  Fontaine-Franfaise 
in  Burgundy  (June  5,  1595),  and  the  submission  of  the 
heads  of  the  League,  Guise,  Mayenne,  Joyeuse,  and 
Mercceur,  the  years  1595-1597  were  not  fortunate  for  Henry  IV.'s 
armies.  Indignant  at  his  conversion,  Elizabeth,  the  Germans, 
and  the  Swiss  Protestants  deserted  him;  while  the  taking  of 
Amiens  by  the  Spaniards  compromised  for  the  moment  the 
future  both  of  the  king  and  the  country.  But  exhaustion  of 
each  other,  by  which  only  England  and  Holland  profited,  brought 
about  the  Peace  of  Vervins.  This  confirmed  the  results  of  the 
treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis  (May  2,  1598),  that  is  to  say,  the 
decadence  of  Spanish  power,  and  its  inability  either  to  conquer 
or  to  dismember  France. 

The  League,  having  now  no  reason  for  existence,  was  dissolved; 
but  the  Protestant  party  remained  very  strong,  with  its 
political  organization  and  the  fortified  places  which 
the  assemblies  of  Millau,  Nimes  and  La  Rochelle  Edict  ot 
(1573-1574)  had  established  in  the  south  and  the  west.  1593"' 
It  was  a  republican  state  within  the  kingdom,  and, 
being  unwilling  to  break  with  it,  Henry  IV.  came  to  terms  by 
the  edict  of  Nantes,  on  the  i3th  of  April  1598.  This  was  a 
compromise  between  the  royal  government  and  the  Huguenot 
government,  the  latter  giving  up  the  question  of  public  worship, 
which  was  only  authorized  where  it  bad  existed  before  1597 
and  in  two  towns  of  each  bailliage,  with  the  exception  of  Paris; 
but  it  secured  liberty  of  conscience  throughout  the  kingdom, 
state  payment  for  its  ministers,  admission  to  all  employments, 
and  courts  composed  equally  of  Catholics  and  Protestants  in  the 
parlements.  An  authorization  to  hold  synods  and  political 
assemblies,  to  open  schools,  and  to  occupy  a  hundred  strong 
places  for  eight  years  at  the  expense  of  the  king,  assured  to  the 
Protestants  not  only  rights  but  privileges.  In  no  other  country 
did  they  enjoy  so  many  guarantees  against  a  return  of  persecu- 
tion. This  explains  why  the  edict  of  Nantes  was  not  registered 
without  some  difficulty. 

Thus  the  blood-stained  i6th  century  closed  with  a  promise 
of  religious  toleration  and  a  dream  of  international  arbitration. 
This  was  the  end  of  the  long  tragedy  of  civil  strife 
and  of  wars  of  conquest,  mingled  with  the  sound  of  Kesulis  °r 
madrigals  and  psalms  and  pavanes.  It  had  been  the  OUs™afs" 
golden  age  of  the  arquebus  and  the  viol,  of  sculptors 
and  musicians,  of  poets  and  humanists,  of  fratricidal  conflicts 
and  of  love-songs,  of  mignons  and  martyrs.  At  the  close  of  this 
troubled  century  peace  descends  upon  exhausted  passions; 
and  amidst  the  choir  of  young  and  ardent  voices  celebrating 
the  national  reconciliation,  the  tocsin  no  longer  sounds  its 
sinister  and  persistent  bass.  Despite  the  leagues  of  either  faith, 
religious  liberty  was  now  confirmed  by  the  more  free  and  generous 
spirit  of  Henry  IV. 

Why  was  this  king  at  once  so  easygoing  and  so  capricious? 
Why,  again,  had  the  effort  and  authority  of  feudal  and  popular 
resistance  been  squandered  in  the  follies  of  the  League  and  to 
further  the  ambitions  of  the  rebellious  Guises?  Why  had  the 
monarchy  been  forced  to  purchase  the  obedience  of  the  upper 
classes  and  the  provinces  with  immunities  which  enfeebled  it 
without  limiting  it?  At  all  events,  when  the  kingdom  had  been 
reconquered  from  the  Spaniards  and  religious  strife  ended,  in 
order  to  fulfil  his  engagements,  Henry  IV.  need  only  have 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


833 


associated  the  nation  with  himself  in  the  work  of  reconstructing 
the  shattered  monarchy.  But  during  the  atrocious  holocausts 
formidable  states  had  grown  up  around  France,  observing  her 
and  threatening  her;  and  on  the  other  hand,  as  on  the  morrow 
of  the  Hundred  Years'  War,  the  lassitude  of  the  country,  the 
lack  of  political  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  upper  classes  and  their 
selfishness,  led  to  a  fresh  abdication  of  the  nation's  rights.  The 
need  of  living  caused  the  neglect  of  that  necessity  for  control 
which  had  been  maintained  by  the  states-general  from  1560 
to  1593.  And  this  time,  moderation  on  the  part  of  the  monarchy 
no  longer  made  for  success.  Of  the  two  contrary  currents  which 
have  continually  mingled  and  conflicted  throughout  the  course 
of  French  history,  that  of  monarchic  absolutism  and  that  of 
aristocratic  and  democratic  liberty,  the  former  was  now  to 
carry  all  before  it. 

The  kingdom  was  now  issuing  from  thirty-eight  years  of 
civil  war.  Its  inhabitants  had  grown  unaccustomed  to  work; 
The  its  finances  were  ruined  by  dishonesty,  disorder,  and 

Bourbons,  a  very  heavy  foreign  debt.  The  most  characteristic 
France  la  symptom  of  this  distress  was  the  brigandage  carried 
I6IO-  on  incessantly  from  1598  to  1610.  Side  by  side  with 

this  temporary  disorder  there  was  a  more  serious  administrative 
disorganization,  a  habit  of  no  longer  obeying  the  king.  The 
harassed  population,  the  municipalities  which  under  cover  of 
civil  war  had  resumed  the  right  of  self-government,  and  the 
parlements  elated  with  their  social  importance  and  their  security 
of  position,  were  not  alone  in  abandoning  duty  and  obedience. 
Two  powers  faced  each  other  threateningly:  the  organized  and 
malcontent  Protestants;  and  the  provincial  governors,  all  great 
personages  possessing  an  armed  following,  theoretically  agents 
of  the  king,  but  practically  independent.  The  Montmorencys, 
the  D'Epernons,  the  Birons,  the  Guises,  were  accustomed  to 
consider  their  offices  as  hereditary  property.  Not  that  these 
two  powers  entered  into  open  revolt  against  the  king;  but  they 
had  adopted  the  custom  of  recriminating,  of  threatening,  of 
coming  to  understandings  with  the  foreign  powers,  which  with 
some  of  them,  like  Marshal  Biron,  the  D'Entragues  and  the  due 
de  Bouillon,  amounted  to  conspiracy  (1602-1606). 

As  to  the  qualifications  of  the  king:  he  had  had  the  good 
fortune  not  to  be  educated  for  the  throne.  Without  much 
learning  and  sceptical  in  religious  matters,  he  had  the 
Chfa™cter  lively  intelligence  of  the  Gascon,  more  subtle  than 
°v.  el>ry  profound,  more  brilliant  than  steady.  Married  to  a 
woman  of  loose  morals,  and  afterwards  to  a  devout 
Italian,  he  was  gross  and  vulgar  in  his  appetites  and  pleasures. 
He  had  retained  all  the  habits  of  a  country  gentleman  of  his 
native  Beam,  careless,  familiar,  boastful,  thrifty,  cunning, 
combined  since  his  sojourn  at  the  court  of  the  Valois  with  a 
taint  of  corruption.  He  worked  little  but  rapidly,  with  none 
of  the  bureaucratic  pedantry  of  a  Philip  II.  cloistered  in  the  dark 
towers  of  the  Escurial.  Essentially  a  man  of  action  and  a  soldier, 
he  preserved  his  tone  of  command  after  he  had  reached  the 
throne,  the  inflexibility  of  the  military  chief,  the  conviction  of 
his  absolute  right  -to  be  master.  Power  quickly  intoxicated 
him,  and  his  monarchy  was  therefore  anything  but  parliamentary. 
His  personality  was  everything,  institutions  nothing.  If,  at 
the  gathering  of  the  notables  at  Rouen  in  1596,  Henry  IV. 
spoke  of  putting  himself  in  tutelage,  that  was  but  preliminary 
to  a  demand  for  money.  The  states-general,  called  together  ten 
times  in  the  i6th  century,  and  at  the  death  of  Henry  III.  under 
promise  of  convocation,  were  never  assembled.  To  put  his 
absolute  right  beyond  all  control  he  based  it  upon  religion,  and 
to  this  sceptic  disobedience  became  a  heresy.  He  tried  to 
make  the  clergy  into  an  instrument  of  government  by  recalling  the 
Jesuits,  who  had  been  driven  away  in  1 594,  partly  from  fear  of 
their  regicides,  partly  because  they  have  always  been  the  best 
teachers  of  servitude;  and  he  gave  the  youth  of  the  nation  into 
the  hands  of  this  cosmopolitan  and  ultramontane  clerical  order. 
His  government  was  personal,  not  through  departments;  he 
retained  the  old  council  though  reducing  its  members;  and  his 
ministers,  taken  from  every  party,  were  never — not  even  Sully — 
anything  more  than  mere  clerks,  without  independent  position, 

x.  27 


mere  instruments  of  his  good  pleasure.     Fortunately  this  was 
not  always  capricious. 

Henry  IV.  soon  realized  that  his  most  urgent  duty  was  to 
resuscitate  the  corpse  of  France.  Pilfering  was  suppressed, 
and  the  revolts  of  the  malcontents — the  Gauthiers  of  Tlle 
Normandy,  the  Croquants  and  Tard-avises  of  Perigord  achieve- 
and  Limousin — were  quelled,  adroitly  at  first,  and  meats  of 
later  with  a  sterner  hand.  He  then  provided  for  the  neary  lv- 
security  of  the  country  districts,  and  reduced  the  taxes  on  the 
peasants,  the  most  efficacious  means  of  making  them  productive 
and  able  to  pay.  Inspired  by  Barthelemy  de  Laffemas  (1545- 
1612),  controller-general  of  commerce,  and  by  Olivier  de  Serres 
(1539-1619), *  Henry  IV.  encouraged  the  culture  of  silk,  though 
without  much  result,  had  orchards  planted  and  marshes  drained; 
while  though  he  permitted  the  free  circulation  of  wine  and  corn, 
this  depended  on  the  harvests.  But  the  twofold  effect  of  civil 
war — the  ruin  of  the  farmers  and  the  scarcity  and  high  price  of 
rural  labour — was  only  reduced  arbitrarily  and  by  fits  and 
starts. 

Despite  the  influence  of  Sully,  a  convinced  agrarian  because 
of  his  horror  of  luxury  and  love  of  economy,  Henry  IV.  likewise 
attempted  amelioration  in  the  towns,  where  the  state 
of  affairs  was  even  worse  than  in  the  country.  But  the  industrial 
edict  of  1597,  far  from  inaugurating  individual  liberty, 
was  but  a  fresh  edition  of  that  of  1581,  a  second 
preface  to  the  legislation  of  Colbert,  and  in  other  ways  no  better 
respected  than  the  first.  As  for  the  new  features,  the  syndical 
courts  proposed  by  Laffemas,  they  were  not  even  put  into 
practice.  Various  industries,  nevertheless,  concurrent  with 
those  of  England,  Spain  and  Italy,  were  created  or  reorganized: 
silk-weaving,  printing,  tapestry,  &c.  Sully  at  least  provided 
renascent  manufacture  with  the  roads  necessary  for  communica- 
tion and  planted  them  with  trees.  In  external  commerce 
Laffemas  and  Henry  IV.  were  equaMy  the  precursors  of  Colbert, 
freeing  raw  material  and  prohibiting  the  import  of  products 
similar  to  those  manufactured  within  the  kingdom.  Without 
regaining  that  preponderance  in  the  Levant  which  had  been 
secured  after  the  victory  of  Lepanto  and  before  the  civil  wars, 
Marseilles  still  took  an  honourable  place  there,  confirmed  by 
the  renewal  in  1604  of  the  capitulations  of  Francis  I.  with  the 
sultan.  Finally,  the  system  of  commercial  companies,  anti- 
pathetic to  the  French  bourgeoisie,  was  for  the  first  time  practised 
on  a  grand  scale;  but  Sully  never  understood  that  movement 
of  colonial  expansion,  begun  by  Henry  II.  in  Brazil  and  continued 
in  Canada  by  Champlain,  which  had  so  marvellously  enlarged 
the  European  horizon.  His  point  of  view  was  altogether  more 
limited  than  that  of  Henry  IV.;  and  he  did  not  foresee,  like 
Elizabeth,  that  the  future  would  belong  to  the  peoples  whose 
national  energy  took  that  line  of  action. 

His  sphere  was  essentially  the  superintendence  of  finance, 
to  which  he  brought  the  same  enthusiasm  that  he  had  shown 
in  fighting  the  League.  Vain  and  imaginative, 
his  reputation  was  enormously  enhanced  by  his 
"  Economies  royales ";  he  was  no  innovator,  and 
being  a  true  representative  of  the  nation  at  that  period,  like  it 
he  was  but  lukewarm  towards  reform,  accepting  it  always  against 
the  grain.  He  was  not  a  financier  of  genius;  but  he  administered 
the  public  moneys  with  the  same  probity  and  exactitude  which 
he  used  in  managing  his  own,  retrieving  alienated  property, 
straightening  accounts,  balancing  expenditure  and  receipts, 
and  amassing  a  reserve  in  the  Bastille.  He  did  not  reform  the 
system  of  aides  and  lailles  established  by  Louis  XI.  in  1482; 
but  by  charging  much  upon  indirect  taxation,  and  slightly 
lessening  the  burden  of  direct  taxation,  he  avoided  an  appeal 
to  the  states-general  and  gave  an  illusion  of  relief. 

Nevertheless,  economic  disasters,  political  circumstances  and 
the  personal  government  of  Henry  IV.  (precursor  in  this  also 

1  Olivier  de  Serres,  sieur  de  Pradel,  spent  most  of  his  life  on  his 
model  farm  at  Pradel.  In  1599  he  dedicated  a  pamphlet  on  the 
cultivation  of  silk  to  Henry  IV.,  and  in  1600  published  his  Thedtre 
d' agriculture  et  menage  des  champs,  which  passed  through  nineteen 
editions  up  to  1675. 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


of  Louis  XIV.)  rendered  his  task  impossible  or  fatal.  The 
nobility  remained  in  debt  and  disaffected;  and  the  clergy,  more 
Criticism  remarkable  for  wealth  and  breeding  than  for  virtues, 
oiheary  were  won  over  to  the  ultramontane  ideas  of  the 
iv.'s  '  triumphant  Jesuits.  The  rich  bourgeoisie  began  more 
achieve-  an(j  more  to  monopolize  the  magistracy;  and  though 

the  country-people  were  somewhat  relieved  from  the 
burden  which  had  been  crushing  them,  the  working-classes 
remained  impoverished,  owing  to  the  increase  of  prices  which 
followed  at  a  distance  the  rise  of  wages.  Moreover,  under 
insinuating  and  crafty  pretexts,  Henry  IV.  undermined  as 
far  as  he  could  the  right  of  control  by  the  states-general,  the 
right  of  remonstrance  by  the  parlements,  and  the  communal 
franchises,  while  ensuring  the  impoverishment  of  the  munici- 
palities by  his  fiscal  methods.  Arbitrary  taxation,  scandalous 
intervention  in  elections,  forced  candidatures,  confusion  in  their 
financial  administration,  bankruptcy  and  revolt  on  the  part  of 
the  tenants:  all  formed  an  anticipation  of  the  personal  rule 
of  Richelieu  and  Louis  XIV. 

Thus  Henry  IV.  evinced  very  great  activity  in  restoring  order 
and  very  great  poverty  of  invention  in  his  methods.     His  sole 

original  creation,  the  edict  of  La  Paulette  in  1604, 
Edict  of  was  disastrous.  In  consideration  of  an  annual  payment 
ette."'  °f  one-sixtieth  of  the  salary,  it  made  hereditary 

offices  which  had  hitherto  been  held  only  for  life; 
and  the  millions  which  it  daily  poured  into  the  royal  exchequer 
removed  the  necessity  for  seeking  more  regular  and  better 
distributed  resources.  Political  liberty  and  social  justice  were 
equally  the  losers  by  this  extreme  financial  measure,  which 
paved  the  way  for  a  catastrophe. 

In  foreign  affairs  the  abasement  of  the  house  of  Austria 
remained  for  Henry  IV.,  as  it  had  been  for  Francis  I.  and  Henry 

II.,  a  political  necessity,  while  under  his  successors 

Ucv*'f      *l  was  *°  Decorne  a  mechanical  obsession.     The  peace 

neary  iv.    of  Vervins  had  concluded   nothing.     The  difference 

concerning  the  marquisate  of  Saluzzo,  which  the  duke 
of  Savoy  had  seized  upon  in  1588,  profiting  by  Henry  III.'s 
embarrassments,  is  only  worth  mentioning  because  the  treaty 
of  Lyons  (1601)  finally  dissipated  the  Italian  mirage,  and 
because,  in  exchange  for  the  last  of  France's  possessions  beyond 
the  Alps,  it  added  to  the  royal  domain  the  really  French  territory 
of  La  Bresse,  Bugey,  Valromey  and  the  district  of  Gex.  The 
great  external  affair  of  the  reign  was  the  projected  war  upon 
which  Henry  IV.  was  about  to  embark  when  he  was  assassinated. 
The  "  grand  design  "  of  Sully,  the  organization  of  a  "  Christian 
Republic  "  of  the  European  nations  for  the  preservation  of 
peace,  was  but  the  invention  of  an  irresponsible  minister,  soured 
by  defeat  and  wishing  to  impress  posterity.  Henry  IV.,  the 
least  visionary  of  kings,  was  between  1598  and  1610  really 
hesitating  between  two  great  contradictory  political  schemes: 
the  war  clamoured  for  by  the  Protestants,  politicians  like  Sully, 
and  the  nobility;  and  the  Spanish  alliance,  to  be  cemented  by 
marriages,  and  preached  by  the  ultramontane  Spanish  camarilla 
formed  by  the  queen,  Perc  Coton,  the  king's  confessor,  the 
minister  Villeroy,  and  Ubaldini,  the  papal  nuncio.  Selfish  and 
suspicious,  Henry  IV.  consistently  played  this  double  game  of 
policy  in  conjunction  with  president  Jeannin.  By  his  alliance 
with  the  Grisons  (1603)  he  guaranteed  the  integrity  of  the 
Valtellina,  the  natural  approach  to  Lombardy  for  the  imperial 
forces;  and  by  his  intimate  union  with  Geneva  he  controlled 
the  routes  by  which  the  Spaniards  could  reach  their  hereditary 
possessions  in  Franche-Comte  and  the  Low  Countries  from 
Italy.  But  having  defeated  the  duke  of  Savoy  he  had  no  hesita- 
tion in  making  sure  of  him  by  a  marriage;  though  the  Swiss 
might  have  misunderstood  the  treaty  of  Brusol  (1610)  by  which 
he  gave  one  of  his  daughters  to  the  grandson  of  Philip  II.  On 
the  other  hand  he  astonished  the  Protestant  world  by  the 
imprudence  of  his  mediation  between  Spain  and  the  rebellious 
United  Provinces  (1609).  When  the  succession  of  Cleves  and  of 
Jiilich,  so  long  expected  and  already  discounted  by  the  treaty 
of  Halle  (1610),  was  opened  up  in  Germany,  the  great  war  was 
largely  due  to  an  access  of  senile  passion  for  the  charms  of  the 


princesse  de  Conde.  The  stroke  of  Ravaillac's  knife  caused  a 
timely  descent  of  the  curtain  upon  this  new  and  tragi-comic 
Trojan  War.  Thus,  here  as  elsewhere,  we  see  a  vacillating 
hand-to-mouth  policy,  at  the  mercy  of  a  passion  for  power  or 
for  sensual  gratification.  The  Cornette  blanche  of  Arques,  the 
Poule  au  pot  of  the  peasant,  successes  as  a  lover  and  a  dashing 
spirit,  have  combined  to  surround  Henry  IV.  with  a  halo  of 
romance  not  justified  by  fact. 

The  extreme  instability  of  monarchical  government  showed 
itself  afresh  after  Henry  IV. 's  death.  The  reign  of  Louis  XIII., 
a  perpetual  regency  by  women,  priests,  and  favourites,  The 
was  indeed  a  curious  prelude  to  the  grand  age  of  the  regency  of 
French  monarchy.  The  eldest  son  of  Henry  IV.  Marie  de' 
being  a  minor,  Marie  de'  Medici  induced  the  parlement  Medlcl- 
to  invest  her  with  the  regency,  thanks  to  Villeroy  and  contrary 
to  the  last  will  of  Henry  IV.  This  second  Florentine,  at  once 
jealous  of  power  and  incapable  of  exercising  it,  bore  little  resem- 
blance to  her  predecessor.  Light-minded,  haughty,  apathetic 
and  cold-hearted,  she  took  a  sort  of  passionate  delight  in  changing 
Henry  IV. 's  whole  system  of  government.  Who  would  support 
her  in  this  ?  On  one  side  were  the  former  ministers,  Sillery 
and  president  Jeannin,  ex-leaguers  but  loyalists,  no  lovers  of 
Spain  and  still  less  of  Germany;  on  the  other  the  princes  of  the 
blood  and  the  great  nobles,  Conde,  Guise,  Mayenne  and  Nevers, 
apparently  still  much  more  faithful  to  French  ideas,  but  in 
reality  convinced  that  the  days  of  kings  were  over  and  that 
their  own  had  arrived.  Instead  of  weakening  this  aristocratic 
agitation  by  the  see-saw  policy  of  Catherine  de'  Medici,  Marie 
could  invent  no  other  device  than  to  despoil  the  royal  treasure 
by  distributing  places  and  money  to  the  chiefs  of  both  parties. 
The  savings  all  expended  and  Sully  fallen  into  disgrace,  she 
lost  her  influence  and  became  the  almost  unconscious  instrument 
of  an  ambitious  man  of  low  birth,  the  Florentine  Concini,  who 
was  to  drag  her  down  with  him  in  his  fall;  petty  shifts  became 
thenceforward  the  order  of  the  day. 

Thus  Villeroy  thought  fit  to  add  still  further  to  the  price 
already  paid  to  triumphant  Madrid  and  Vienna  by  disbanding 
the  army,  breaking  the  treaty  of  Brusol,  and  abandon- 
ing the  Protestant  princes  beyond  the  Rhine  and  the  f^jjj*  XIHt 
trans-Pyrenean  Moriscos.  France  joined  hands  with  1^43). 
Spain  in  the  marriages  of  Louis  XIII.  with  Anne 
of  Austria  and  Princess  Elizabeth  with  the  son  of  Philip  III., 
and  the  Spanish  ambassador  was  admitted  to  the  secret  council 
of  the  queen.  To  soothe  the  irritation  of  England  the  due  de 
Bouillon  was  sent  to  London  to  offer  the  hand  of  the  king's 
sister  to  the  prince  of  Wales.  Meanwhile,  however,  still  more 
was  ceded  to  the  princes  than  to  the  kings;  and  after  a  pretence 
of  drawing  the  sword  against  the  prince  of  Conde,  rebellious 
through  jealousy  of  the  Italian  surroundings  of  the  queen-mothei, 
recourse  was  had  to  the  purse.  The  peace  of  Sainte  Menehould, 
four  years  after  the  death  of  Henry  IV.,  was  a  virtual  abdication 
of  the  monarchy  (May  1614) ;  it  was  time  for  a  move  in  the  other 
direction.  Villeroy  inspired  the  regent  with  the  idea  of  an 
armed  expedition,  accompanied  by  the  little  king,  into  the  West. 
The  convocation  of  the  states-general  was  about  to  take  place, 
wrung,  as  in  all  minorities,  from  the  royal  weakness — this  time 
by  Condi;  so  the  elections  were  influenced  in  the  monarchist 
interest.  The  king's  majority,  solemnly  proclaimed  on  the  a8th 
of  October  1614,  further  strengthened  the  throne;  while  owing 
to  the  bungling  of  the  third  estate,  who  did  not  contrive  to  gain 
the  support  of  the  clergy  and  the  nobility  by  some  sort  of  con- 
cessions, the  states-general,  the  last  until  1789,  proved  like  the 
others  a  mere  historic  episode,  an  impotent  and  inorganic 
expedient.  In  vain  Conde  tried  to  play  with  the  parlement  of 
Paris  the  same  game  as  with  the  states-general,  in  a  sort  of 
anticipation  of  the  Fronde.  Villeroy  demurred;  and  the 
parlement,  having  illegally  assumed  a  political  r61e,  broke  with 
Conde  and  effected  a  reconciliation  with  the  court.  After  this 
double  victory  Marie  de'  Medici  could  at  last  undertake  the 
famous  journey  to  Bordeaux  and  consummate  the  Spanish 
marriages.  In  order  not  to  countenance  by  his  presence  an 
act  which  had  been  the  pretext  for  his  opposition,  Conde  rebelled 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


835 


once  more  in  August  1615;  but  he  was  again  pacified  by  the 
governorships  and  pensions  of  the  peace  of  Loudun  (May  1616). 
But  Villeroy  and  the  other  ministers  knew  not  how  to  reap 
the  full  advantage  of  their  victory.  They  had  but  one  desire, 
to  put  themselves  on  a  good  footing  again  with  Conde, 
Coadai,  insteaci  of  applying  themselves  honestly  to  the  service 
d'Aacre.  °f  the  king.  The  "  marshals,"  Concini  and  his  wife 
Leonora  Galigai,  more  influential  with  the  queen  and 
more  exacting  than  ever,  by  dint  of  clever  intrigues  forced  the 
ministers  to  retire  one  after  another;  and  with  the  last  of  Henry 
IV.'s  "  greybeards  "  vanished  also  all  the  pecuniary  reserves  left. 
Concini  surrounded  himself  with  new  men,  insignificant  persons 
ready  to  do  his  bidding,  such  as  Barbin  or  Mangot,  while  in 
the  background  was  Richelieu,  bishop  of  Lucon.  Conde  now 
began  intrigues  with  the  princes  whom  he  had  previously 
betrayed;  but  his  pride  dissolved  in  piteous  entreaties  when 
Themines,  captain  of  the  guard,  arrested  him  in  September 
1616.  Six  months  later  Concini  had  not  even  time  to  protest 
when  another  captain,  Vitry,  slew  him  at  the  Louvre,  under 
orders  from  Louis  XIII.,  on  the  24th  of  April  1617. 

Richelieu  had  appeared  behind  Marie  de'  Medici;  Albert 
de  Luynes  rose  behind  Louis  XIII.,  the  neglected  child  whom 
he  had  contrived  to  amuse.  "  The  tavern  remained  the  same, 
having  changed  nothing  but  the  bush."  De  Luynes  was  made 
a  duke  and  marshal  in  Concini's  place,  with  no  better  title; 
while  the  due  d'Epernon,  supported  by  the  queen-mother 
(now  in  disgrace  at  Blois),  took  Conde's  place  at  the  head  of 
the  opposition.  The  treaties  of  Angouleme  and  Angers  (1619- 
1620),  negotiated  by  Richelieu,  recalled  the  "  unwholesome  " 
treaties  of  Sainte-Menehould  and  Loudun.  The  revolt  of  the 
Protestants  was  more  serious.  Goaded  by  the  vigorous  revival 
of  militant  Catholicism  which  marked  the  opening  of  the  i?th 
century,  de  Luynes  tried  to  put  a  finishing  touch  to  the  triumph 
of  Catholicism  in  France,  which  he  had  assisted,  by  abandoning 
in  the  treaty  of  Ulm  the  defence  of  the  small  German  states 
against  the  ambition  of  the  ruling  house  of  Austria,  and  by 
sacrificing  the  Protestant  Grisons  to  Spain.  The  re-establish- 
ment of  Catholic  worship  in  Beam  was  the  pretext  for  a  rising 
among  the  Protestants,  who  had  remained  loyal  during  these 
troublous  years;  and  although  the  military  organization 
of  French  Protestantism,  arranged  by  the  assembly  of  La 
Rochelle,  had  been  checked  in  1621,  by  the  defection  of  most 
of  the  reformed  nobles,  like  Bouillon  and  Lesdiguieres,  de  Luynes 
had  to  raise  the  disastrous  siege  of  Montauban.  Death  alone 
saved  him  from  the  disgrace  suffered  by  his  predecessors 
(December  15,  1621). 

From  1621  to  1624  Marie  de'  Medici,  re-established  in  credit, 
prosecuted  her  intrigues;  and  in  three  years  there  were  three 
different  ministries:  de  Luynes  was  succeeded  by  the 
Pr^nce  de  Conde,  whose  Montauban  was  found  at 
Montpellier;  the  Brularts  succeeded  Conde,  and 
having,  like  de  Luynes,  neglected  France's  foreign 
interests,  they  had  to  give  place  to  La  Vieuville;  while  this 
latter  was  arrested  in  his  turn  for  having  sacrificed  the  interests 
of  the  English  Catholics  in  the  negotiations  regarding  the 
marriage  of  Henrietta  of  France  with  the  prince  of  Wales.  All 
these  personages  were  undistinguished  figures  beyond  whom 
might  be  discerned  the  cold  clear-cut  profile  of  Marie  de'  Medici's 
secretary,  now  a  cardinal,  who  was  to  take  the  helm  and  act 
as  viceroy  during  eighteen  years. 

Richelieu  came  into  power  at  a  lucky  moment.  Every  one 
was  sick  of  government  by  deputy;  they  desired  a  strong  hand 
Cardinal  an^  an  energetic  foreign  policy,  after  the  defeat  of 
Richelieu  the  Czechs  at  the  White  Mountain  by  the  house  of 
1624-  Austria,  the  Spanish  intrigues  in  the  Valtellina,  and 
the  resumption  of  war  between  Spain  and  Holland. 
Richelieu  contrived  to  raise  hope  in  the  minds  of  all.  As 
president  of  the  clergy  at  the  states-general  of  1614  he  had 
figured  as  an  adherent  of  Spain  and  the  ultramontane  interest; 
he  appeared  to  be  a  representative  of  that  religious  party  which 
was  identical  with  the  Spanish  party.  But  he  had  also  been 
put  into  the  ministry  by  the  party  of  the  Poliliques,  who  had 


Xl11' 


terminated  the  civil  wars,  acclaimed  Henry  IV.,  applauded  the 
Protestant  alliance,  and  by  the  mouth  of  Miron,  president  of  the 
third  estate,  had  in  1614  proclaimed  its  intention  to  take  up 
the  national  tradition  once  more.  Despite  the  concessions 
necessary  at  the  outset  to  the  partisans  of  a  Catholic  alliance, 
it  was  the  programme  of  the  Poliliques  that  Richelieu  adopted 
and  laid  down  with  a  master's  hand  in  his  Political  Testament. 

To  realize  it  he  had  to  maintain  his  position.  This  was  very 
difficult  with  a  king  who  "  wished  to  be  governed  and  yet  was 
impatient  at  being  governed."  Incapable  of  applying 
himself  to  great  affairs,  but  of  sane  and  even  acute 
judgment,  Louis  XIII.  excelled  only  in  a  passion  for 
detail  and  for  manual  pastimes.  He  realized  the 
superior  qualities  of  his  minister,  though  with  a  lively  sense  of 
his  own  dignity  he  often  wished  him  more  discreet  and  less 
imperious;  he  had  confidence  in.  him  but  did  not  love  him. 
Cold-hearted  and  formal  by  nature,  he  had  not  even  self-love, 
detested  his  wife  Anne  of  Austria  —  too  good  a  Spaniard  —  and 
only  attached  himself  fitfully  to  his  favourites,  male  or  female, 
who  were  naturally  jealously  suspected  by  the  cardinal.  He 
was  accustomed  to  listen  to  his  mother,  who  detested  Richelieu 
as  her  ungrateful  protege.  Neither  did  he  love  his  brother, 
Gaston  of  Orleans,  and  the  feeling  was  mutual;  for  the  latter, 
remaining  for  twenty  years  heir-presumptive  to  a  crown  which 
he  could  neither  defend  nor  seize,  posed  as  the  beloved  prince 
in  all  the  conspiracies  against  Richelieu,  and  issued  from  them 
each  time  as  a  Judas.  Add  to  this  that  Louis  XIII.,  like 
Richelieu  himself,  had  wretched  health,  aggravated  by  the 
extravagant  medicines  of  the  day;  and  it  is  easy  to  understand 
how  this  pliable  disposition  which  offered  itself  to  the  yoke 
caused  Richelieu  always  to  fear  that  his  king  might  change 
his  master,  and  to  declare  that  "  the  four  square  feet  of  the  king's 
cabinet  had  been  more  difficult  for  him  to  conquer  than  all  the 
battlefields  of  Europe." 

Richelieu,  therefore,  passed  his  time  in  safeguarding  himself 
from  his  rivals  and  in  spying  upon  them;  his  suspicious  nature, 
rendered  still  more  irritable  by  his  painful  practice  of  a  dissimula- 
tion repugnant  to  his  headstrong  character,  making  him  fancy 
himself  threatened  more  than  was  actually  the  case.  He  brutally 
suppressed  six  great  plots,  several  of  which  were  scandalous, 
and  had  more  than  fifty  persons  executed;  and  he  identified 
himself  with  the  king,  sincerely  believing  that  he  was  maintaining 
the  royal  authority  and  not  merely  his  own.  He  had  a  preference 
for  irregular  measures  rather  than  legal  prosecutions,  and  a 
jealousy  of  all  opinions  save  his  own.  He  maintained  his  power 
through  the  fear  of  torture  and  of  special  commissions.  It 
was  Louis  XIII.  whose  cold  decree  ordained  most  of  the  rigorous 
sentences,  but  the  stain  of  blood  rested  on  the  cardinal's  robe 
and  made  his  reasons  of  state  pass  for  private  vengeance.  Chalais 
was  beheaded  at  Nantes  in  1626  for  having  upheld  Gaston  of 
Orleans  in  his  refusal  to  wed  Mademoiselle  de  Montpensier, 
and  Marshal  d'Ornano  died  at  Vincennes  for  having  given  him 
bad  advice  in  this  matter;  while  the  duellist  de  Boutteville 
was  put  to  the  torture  for  having  braved  the  edict  against  duels. 
The  royal  family  itself  was  not  free  from  his  attacks;  after  the 
Day  of  Dupes  (1630)  he  allowed  the  queen-mother  to  die  in  exile, 
and  publicly  dishonoured  the  king's  brother  Gaston  of  Orleans 
by  the  publication  of  his  confessions;  Marshal  de  Marillac 
was  put  to  the  torture  for  his  ingratitude,  and  the  constable 
de  Montmorency  for  rebellion  (1632).  The  birth  of  Louis  XIV. 
in  1638  confirmed  Richelieu  in  power.  However,  at  the  point 
of  death  he  roused  himself  to  order  the  execution  of  the  king's 
favourite,  Cinq-Mars,  and  his  friend  de  Thou,  guilty  of  treason 
with  Spain  (1642). 

Absolute  authority  was  not  in  itself  sufficient;  much  money 
was  also  needed.  In  his  state-papers  Richelieu  has  shown  that 
at  the  outset  he  desired  that  the  Huguenots  should 
share  no  longer  in  public  affairs,  that  the  nobles  should  Flaaaclal 
cease  to  behave  as  rebellious  subjects,  and  the  powerful 
provincial  governors  as  suzerains  over  the  lands 
committed  to  their  charge.  With  his  passion  for  the  uniform 
and  the  useful  on  a  grand  scale,  he  hoped  by  means  of  the  Code 


836 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


Michaud  to  put  an  end  to  the  sale  of  offices,  to  lighten  imposts, 
to  suppress  brigandage,  to  reduce  the  monasteries,  &c.  To  do 
this  it  would  have  been  necessary  to  make  peace,  for  it  was 
soon  evident  that  war  was  incompatible  with  these  reforms.  He 
chose  war,  as  did  his  Spanish  rival  and  contemporary  Olivares. 
War  is  expensive  sport;  but  Richelieu  maintained  a  lofty 
attitude  towards  finance,  disdained  figures,  and  abandoned  all 
petty  details  to  subordinate  officials  like  D'Effiat  or  Bullion. 
He  therefore  soon  reverted  to  the  old  and  worse  measures, 
including  the  debasement  of  coinage,  and  put  an  extreme 
tension  on  all  the  springs  of  the  financial  system.  The  land-tax 
was  doubled  and  trebled  by  war,  by  the  pensions  of  the  nobles, 
by  an  extortion  the  profits  of  which  Richelieu  disdained  neither 
for  himself  nor  for  his  family;  and  just  when  the  richer  and 
more  powerful  classes  had  been  freed  from  taxes,  causing  the 
wholesale  oppression  of  the  poorer,  these  few  remaining  were 
jointly  and  severally  answerable.  Perquisites,  offices,  forced 
loans  were  multiplied  to  such  a  point  that  a  critic  of  the  times, 
Guy  Patin,  facetiously  declared  that  duties  were  to  be  exacted 
from  the  beggars  basking  in  the  sun.  Richelieu  went  so  far  as  to 
make  poverty  systematic  and  use  famine  as  a  means  of  govern- 
ment. This  was  the  price  paid  for  the  national  victories. 

Thus  he  procured  money  at  all  costs,  with  an  extremely 
crude  fiscal  judgment  which  ended  by  exasperating  the  people; 
hence  numerous  insurrections  of  the  poverty-stricken;  Dijon 
rose  in  revolt  against  the  aides  in  1630,  Provence  against  the 
tax-officers  (elus)  in  1631,  Paris  and  Lyons  in  1632,  and  Bordeaux 
against  the  increase  of  customs  in  1635.  In  1636  theCroquants 
ravaged  Limousin,  Poitou,  Angoumois,  Gascony  and  Perigord; 
in  1 639  it  needed  an  army  to  subdue  the  Va-nu-pieds  (bare-feet) 
in  Normandy.  Even  the  rentiers  of  the  H6tel-de-Ville,  big  and 
little,  usually  very  peaceable  folk,  were  excited  by  the  curtail- 
ment of  their  incomes,  and  in  1639  and  1642  were  roused  to  fury. 

Every  one  had  to  bend  before  this  harsh  genius,  who  insisted 
on  uniformity  in  obedience.  After  the  feudal  vassals,  decimated 
Struggle  ky  the  wars  of  religion  and  the  executioner's  hand, 
with  the  and  after  the  recalcitrant  taxpayers,  the  Protestants, 
Protest-  in  their  turn,  and  by  their  own  fault,  experienced  this. 
Mte"  While  Richelieu  was  opposing  the  designs  of  the  pope 

and  of  the  Spaniards  in  the  Valtellina,  while  he  was  arming 
the  duke  of  Savoy  and  subsidizing  Mansfeld  in  Germany, 
Henri,  due  de  Rohan,  and  his  brother  Benjamin  de  Rohan,  due 
de  Soubise,  the  Protestant  chiefs,  took  the  initiative  in  a  fresh 
revolt  despite  the  majority  of  their  party  (1625).  This  Huguenot 
rising,  in  stirring  up  which  Spanish  diplomacy  had  its  share, 
was  a  revolt  of  discontented  and  ambitious  individuals  who 
trusted  for  success  to  their  compact  organization  and  the  ultimate 
assistance  of  England.  Under  pressure  of  this  new  danger  and 
urged  on  by  the  Catholic  devdts,  supported  by  the  influence  of 
Pope  Urban  VIII.,  Richelieu  concluded  with  Spain  the  treaty 
of  Monzon  (March  5,  1626),  by  which  the  interests  of  his  allies 
Venice,  Savoy  and  the  Grisons  were  sacrificed  without  their 
being  consulted.  The  Catholic  Valtellina,  freed  from  the  claims 
of  the  Protestant  Grisons,  became  an  independent  state  under 
the  joint  protection  of  France  and  Spain;  the  question  of  the 
right  of  passage  was  left  open,  to  trouble  France  during  the 
campaigns  that  followed;  but  the  immediate  gain,  so  far  as 
Richelieu  was  concerned,  was  that  his  hands  were  freed  to  deal 
with  the  Huguenots. 

Soubise  had  begun  the  revolt  (January  1625)  by  seizing 
Port  Blavet  in  Brittany,  with  the  royal  squadron  that  lay  there, 
and  in  command  of  the  ships  thus  acquired,  combined  with 
those  of  La  Rochelle,  he  ranged  the  western  coast,  intercepting 
commerce.  In  September,  however,  Montmorency  succeeded, 
with  a  fleet  of  English  and  Dutch  ships  manned  by  English 
seamen,  in  defeating  Soubise,  who  took  refuge  in  England. 
La  Rochelle  was  now  invested,  the  Huguenots  were  hard  pressed 
also  on  land,  and,  but  for  the  reluctance  of  the  Dutch  to  allow 
their  ships  to  be  used  for  such  a  purpose,  an  end  might  have  been 
made  of  the  Protestant  opposition  in  France;  as  it  was,  Richelieu 
was  forced  to  accept  the  mediation  of  England  and  conclude  a 
treaty  with  the  Huguenots  (February  1626). 


He  was  far,  however,  from  forgiving  them  for  their  attitude 
or  being  reconciled  to  their  power.  So  long  as  they  retained 
their  compact  organization  in  France  he  could  undertake  no 
successful  action  abroad,  and  the  treaty  was  in  effect  no  more 
than  a  truce  that  was  badly  observed.  The  oppression  of  the 
French  Protestants  was  but  one  of  the  pretexts  for  the  English 
expedition  under  James  I.'s  favourite,  the  duke  of  Buckingham, 
to  La  Rochelle  in  1627;  and,  in  the  end,  this  intervention  of  a 
foreign  power  compromised  their  cause.  When  at  last  the  citizens 
of  the  great  Huguenot  stronghold,  caught  between  two  dangers, 
chose  what  seemed  to  them  the  least  and  threw  in  their  lot 
with  the  English,  they  definitely  proclaimed  their  attitude  as 
anti-national;  and  when,  on  the  29th  of  October  1628,  after 
a  heroic  resistance,  the  city  surrendered  to  the  French  king, 
this  was  hailed  not  as  a  victory  for  Catholicism  only, 
but  for  France.  The  taking  of  La  Rochelle  was  a  ***»  of 
crushing  blow  to  the  Huguenots,  and  the  desperate  i&g' 
alliance  which  Rohan,  entrenched  in  the  Cevennes, 
entered  into  with  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  could  not  prolong  their 
resistance.  The  amnesty  of  Alais,  prudent  and  moderate  in 
religious  matters,  gave  back  to  the  Protestants  their  common 
rights  within  the  body  politic.  Unfortunately  what  was  an  end 
for  Richelieu  was  but  a  first  step  for  the  Catholic  party. 

The  little  Protestant  group  eliminated,  Richelieu  next  wished 
to  estabh'sh  Catholic  religious  uniformity;  for  though  in  France 
the  Catholic  Church  was  the  state  church,  unity  did 
not  exist  in  it.  There  were  no  fixed  principles  in  the 
relations  between  king  and  church,  hence  incessant 
conflicts  between  Gallicans  and  Ultramontanes,  in 
which  Richelieu  claimed  to  hold  an  even  balance.  Moreover, 
a  Catholic  movement  for  religious  reform  in  the  Church  of 
France  began  during  the  ryth  century,  marked  by  the  creation 
of  seminaries,  the  foundation  of  new  orthodox  religious  orders, 
and  the  organization  of  public  relief  by  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul. 
Jansenism  was  the  most  vigorous  contemporary  effort  to  renovate 
not  only  morals  but  Church  doctrine  (see  JANSENISM).  But 
Richelieu  had  no  love  for  innovators,  and  showed  this  very 
plainly  to  du  Vergier  de  Hauranne,  abbot  of  Saint  Cyran,  who 
was  imprisoned  at  Vincennes  for  the  good  of  Church  and  State. 
In  affairs  of  intellect  dragooning  was  equally  the  policy;  and, 
as  Corneille  learnt  to  his  cost,  the  French  Academy  was  created 
in  1635  simply  to  secure  in  the  republic  of  letters  the  same  unity 
and  conformity  to  rules  that  was  enforced  in  the  state. 

Before  Richelieu,  there  had  been  no  effective  monarchy  and 
no  institutions  for  controlling  affairs;  merely  advisory  institu- 
tions which  collaborated  somewhat  vaguely  in  the  Destno 
administration  of  the  kingdom.  Had  the  king  been  tloa  of 
willing  these  might  have  developed  further;  but  public 
Richelieu  ruthlessly  suppressed  all  such  growth,  and  sP'r/t 
they  remained  embryonic.  According  to  him,  the  king  must 
decide  in  secret,  and  the  king's  will  must  be  law.  No  one  might 
meddle  in  political  affairs,  neither  parlements  nor  states-general; 
still  less  had  the  public  any  right  to  judge  the  actions  of  the 
government.  Between  1631  and  the  edict  of  February  1641 
Richelieu  strove  against  the  continually  renewed  opposition 
of  the  parlements  to  his  system  of  special  commissions  and 
judgments;  in  1641  he  refused  them  any  right  of  interference 
in  state  affairs;  at  most  would  he  consent  occasionally  to  take 
counsel  with  assemblies  of  notables.  Provincial  and  municipal 
liberties  were  no  better  treated  when  through  them  the  king's 
subjects  attempted  to  break  loose  from  the  iron  ring  of  the  royal 
commissaries  and  intendants.  In  Burgundy,  Dijon  saw  her 
municipal  liberties  restricted  in  1631;  the  provincial  assembly 
of  Dauphine  was  suppressed  from  1628  onward,  and  that  of 
Languedoc  in  1629;  that  of  Provence  was  in  1639  replaced  by 
communal  assemblies,  and  that  of  Normandy  was  prorogued 
from  1639  to  1642.  Not  that  Richelieu  was  hostile  to  them 
in  principle;  but  he  was  obliged  at  all  hazards  to  find  money 
for  the  upkeep  of  the  army,  and  the  provincial  states  were  a 
slow  and  heavy  machine  to  put  in  motion.  Through  an  excessive 
reaction  against  the  disintegration  that  had  menaced  the  kingdom 
after  the  dissolution  of  the  League,  he  fell  into  the  abuse  of 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


837 


The 
results. 


over-centralization;  and  depriving  the  people  of  the  habit 
of  criticizing  governmental  action,  he  taught  them  a  fatal 
acquiescence  in  uncontrolled  and  undisputed  authority.  Like 
one  of  those  physical  forces  which  tend  to  reduce  everything 
to  a  dead  level,  he  battered  down  alike  characters  and  fortresses; 
and  in  his  endeavours  to  abolish  faction,  he  killed  that  public 
spirit  which,  formed  in  the  i6th  century,  had  already  produced  the 
Republique  of  Bodin,  de  Thou's  History  of  his  Times,  La  Boetie's 
Contre  un,  the  Satire  Mlnippee,  and  Sully's  Economies  royales. 

In  order  to  establish  this  absolute  despotism  Richelieu  created 
no  new  instruments,  but  made  use  of  a  revolutionary  institution 
Methods  °f  tne  Io^h  century,  namely  "  intendants  "  (q.v.), 
employed  agents  who  were  forerunners  of  the  commissaries  of 
by  Riche-  tjje  Convention,  gentlemen  of  the  long  robe  of  inferior 
condition,  hated  by  every  one,  and  for  that  reason  the 
more  trustworthy.  He  also  drew  most  of  the  members  of  his 
special  commissions  from  the  grand  council,  a  supreme  adminis- 
trative tribunal  which  owed  all  its  influence  to  him. 

However,  having  accomplished  all  these  great  things,  the 
treasury  was  left  empty  and  the  reforms  were  but  ill-established; 
for  Richelieu's  policy  increased  poverty,  neglected 
the  toiling  and  suffering  peasants,  deserted  the  cause 
of  the  workers  in  order  to  favour  the  privileged  classes, 
and  left  idle  and  useless  that  bourgeoisie  whose  intellectual 
activity,  spirit  of  discipline,  and  civil  and  political  culture  would 
have  yielded  solid  support  to  a  monarchy  all  the  stronger  for 
being  limited.  Richelieu  completed  the  work  of  Francis  I.; 
he  endowed  France  with  the  fatal  tradition  of  autocracy.  This 
priest  by  education  and  by  turn  of  mind  was  indifferent  to 
material  interests,  which  were  secondary  in  his  eyes;  he  could 
organize  neither  finance,  nor  justice,  nor  an  army,  nor  the 
colonies,  but  at  the  most  a  system  of  police.  His  method  was 
not  to  reform,  but  to  crush.  He  was  great  chiefly  in  negotiation, 
the  art  par  excellence  of  ecclesiastics.  His  work  was  entirely 
abroad;  there  it  had  more  continuity,  more  future,  perhaps 
because  only  in  his  foreign  policy  was  he  unhampered  in  his 
designs.  He  sacrificed  everything  to  it;  but  he  ennobled  it  by 
the  genius  and  audacity  of  his  conceptions,  by  the  energetic 
tension  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  body  politic. 

The  Thirty  Years'  War  in  fact  dominated  all  Richelieu's 
foreign  policy;  by  it  he  made  France  and  unmade  Germany. 
It  was  the  support  of  Germany  which  Philip  II.  had 
poifcyot  kicked  in  order  to  realize  his  Catholic  empire;  and  the 
Richelieu,  election  of  the  archduke  Ferdinand  II.  of  Styria  as 
emperor  gave  that  support  to  his  Spanish  cousins 
(1619).  Thenceforward  all  the  forces  of  the  Habsburg  monarchy 
would  be  united,  provided  that  communication  could  be  main- 
tained in  the  north  with  the  Netherlands  and  in  the  south  with 
the  duchy  of  Milan,  so  that  there  should  be  no  flaw  in  the  iron 
vice  which  locked  France  in  on  either  side.  It  was  therefore  of 
the  highest  importance  to  France  that  she  should  dominate  the 
valleys  of  the  Alps  and  Rhine.  As  soon  as  Richelieu  became 
minister  in  1624  there  was  an  end  to  cordial  relations  with  Spain. 
He  resumed  the  policy  of  Henry  IV.,  confining  his  military 
operations  to  the  region  of  the  Alps,  and  contenting  himself 
at  first  with  opposing  the  coalition  of  the  Habsburgs  with  a 
coalition  of  Venice,  the  Turks,  Bethlen  Gabor,  king  of  Hungary, 
and  the  Protestants  of  Germany  and  Denmark.  But  the  revolts 
of  the  French  Protestants,  the  resentment  of  the  nobles  at  his 
dictatorial  power,  and  the  perpetual  ferment  of  intrigues  and 
treason  in  the  court,  obliged  him  almost  immediately  to  draw 
back.  During  these  eight  years,  however,  Richelieu  had  pressed 
on  matters  as  fast  as  possible. 

While  James  I.  of  England  was  trying  to  get  a  general  on  the 
cheap  in  Denmark  to  defend  his  son-in-law,  the  elector  palatine, 
Richelieu  was  bargaining  with  the  Spaniards  in  the 
ing'poiicy,  treaty  °f  Monzon  (March  1626);  but  as  the  strained 
except  la'  relations  between  France  and  England  forced  him 
Italy,  to  conciliate  Spain  still  further  by  the  treaty  of  April 
1627,  the  Spaniards  profited  by  this  to  carry  on  an 
intrigue  with  Rohan,  and  in  concert  with  the  duke 
of  Savoy,  to  occupy  Montferrat  when  the  death  of  Vicenzo  II. 


1624- 
1630. 


(December  26,  1627)  left  the  succession  of  Mantua,  under  the 
will  of  the  late  duke,  to  Charles  Gonzaga,  duke  of  Nevers,  a 
Frenchman  by  education  and  sympathy.  But  the  taking  of 
La  Rochelle  allowed  Louis  to  force  the  pass  of  Susa,  to  induce 
the  duke  of  Savoy  to  treat  with  him,  and  to  isolate  the  Spaniards 
in  Italy  by  a  great  Italian  league  between  Genoa,  Venice  and 
the  dukes  of  Savoy  and  Mantua  (April  1629).  Unlike  the  Valois, 
Richelieu  only  desired  to  free  Italy  from  Spain  in  order  to 
restore  her  independence. 

The  fact  that  the  French  Protestants  in  the  Cevennes  were 
again  in  arms  enabled  the  Habsburgs  and  the  Spaniards  to  make 
a  fresh  attack  upon  the  Alpine  passes;  but  after  the  peace  of 
Alais  Richelieu  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  forty  thousand 
men,  and  stirred  up  enemies  everywhere  against  the  emperor, 
victorious  now  over  the  king  of  Denmark  as  in  1621  over  the 
elector  palatine.  He  united  Sweden,  now  reconciled  with  Poland, 
and  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  electors,  disquieted  by  the  edict 
of  Restitution  and  the  omnipotence  of  Wallenstein;  and  he 
aroused  the  United  Provinces.  But  the  disaffection  of  the 
court  and  the  more  extreme  Catholics  made  it  impossible  for 
him  as  yet  to  enter  upon  a  struggle  against  both  Austria  and 
Spain;  he  was  only  able  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  Italy  with 
much  prudence.  The  intervention  of  Mazarin,  despatched  by 
the  pope,  who  saw  no  other  means  of  detaching  Italy  from  Spain 
than  by  introducing  France  into  the  affair,  brought  about  the 
signature  of  the  armistice  of  Rivalte  on  the  4th  of  September 
1630,  soon  developed  into  the  peace  of  Cherasco,  which  re- 
established the  agreement  with  the  still  fugitive  duke  of  Savoy 
(June  1631).  Under  the  harsh  tyranny  of  Spain,  Italy  was  now 
nothing  but  a  lifeless  corpse;  young  vigorous  Germany  was 
better  worth  saving.  So  Richelieu's  envoys,  Brulart  de  Leon 
and  Father  Joseph,  disarmed  *  the  emperor  at  the  diet  of  Regens- 
burg,  while  at  the  same  time  Louis  XIII.  kept  Casale  and 
Pinerolo,  the  gates  of  the  Alps.  Lastly,  by  the  treaty  of  Fontaine- 
bleau  (May  3oth,  1631),  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  the  head  of 
the  Catholic  League,  engaged  to  defend  the  king  of  France  against 
all  his  enemies,  even  Spain,  with  the  exception  of  the  emperor. 
Thus  by  the  hand  of  Richelieu  a  union  against  Austrian  imperial- 
ism was  effected  between  the  Bavarian  Catholics  and  the 
Protestants  who  dominated  in  central  and  northern  Germany. 

Twice  had  Richelieu,  by  means  of  the  purse  and  not  by  force 
of  arms,  succeeded  in  reopening  the  passes  of  the  Alps  and  of 
the  Rhine.  The  kingdom  at  peace  and  the  Huguenot  Richelieu 
party  ruined,  he  was  now  able  to  engage  upon  his  and 
policy  of  prudent  acquisitions  and  apparently  dis-  Oustavua 
interested  alliances.  But  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  AdolPhus- 
of  Sweden,  called  in  by  Richelieu  and  Venice  to  take  the  place 
of  the  played-out  king  of  Denmark,  brought  danger  to  all  parties. 
He  would  not  be  content  merely  to  serve  French  interests  in 
Germany,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  secret  treaty  of  Barwalde 
(June  1631);  but,  once  master  of  Germany  and  the  rich  valley 
of  the  Rhine,  considered  chiefly  the  interests  of  Protestantism 
and  Sweden.  Neither  the  prayers  nor  the  threats  of  Richelieu, 
who  wished  indeed  to  destroy  Spain  but  not  Catholicism,  nor 
the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  at  Lutzen  (1632),  could  repair 
the  evils  caused  by  this  immoderate  ambition.  A  violent 
Catholic  reaction  against  the  Protestants  ensued;  and  the 
union  of  Spain  and  the  Empire  was  consolidated  just  when  that 
of  the  Protestants  was  dissolved  at  Nordlingen,  despite  the 
efforts  of  Oxenstierna  (September  1634) .  Moreover,  Wallenstein, 
who  had  been  urged  by  Richelieu  to  set  up  an  independent 
kingdom  in  Bohemia,  had  been  killed  on  the  23rd  of  February 
1634.  In  the  course  of  a  year  Wurttemberg  and  Franconia 
were  reconquered  from  the  Swedes;  and  the  duke  of  Lorraine, 
who  had  taken  the  side  of  the  Empire,  called  in  the  Spanish  and 
the  imperial  forces  to  open  the  road  to  the  Netherlands  through 
Franche-Comte. 

His  allies  no  longer  able  to  stand  alone,  Richelieu  was  obliged 
to  intervene  directly  (May  igth,  1635).  By  the  treaty  of  Saint- 
Germain-en-Laye  he  purchased  the  army  of  Bernard  of  Saxe- 

1  Ferdinand  is  reported  to  have  said:  "  Le  capucin  m'a  desarme 
avec  son  scapulaire  et  a  mis  dans  capuchon  six  bonnets  electoraux." 


838 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


The 


Years' 
War. 


Weimar;  by  that  of  Rivoli  he  united  against  Spain  the  dukes 
of  Modena,  Parma  and  Mantua;  he  signed  an  open  alliance  with 
the  league  of  Heilbronn,  the  United  Provinces  and 
Sweden;  and  after  these  alliances  military  operations 
Thirty  began,  Marshal  de  la  Force  occupying  the  duchy  of  Lor- 
raine. Richelieu  attempted  to  operate  simultaneously 
in  the  Netherlands  by  joining  hands  with  the  Dutch, 
and  on  the  Rhine  by  uniting  with  the  Swedes;  but  the  bad 
organization  of  the  French  armies,  the  double  invasion  of  the 
Spaniards  as  far  as  Corbie  and  the  imperial  forces  as  far  as  the 
gates  of  Saint-Jean-de-Losne  (1636),  and  the  death  of  his  allies, 
the  dukes  of  Hesse-Cassel,  Savoy  and  Mantua  at  first  frustrated 
his  efforts.  A  decided  success  was,  however,  achieved  between 
1638  and  1640,  thanks  to  Bernard  of  Saxe-Weimar  and  after- 
wards to  Guebriant,  and  to  the  parallel  action  of  the  Swedish 
generals,  Baner,  Wrangel  and  Torstensson.  Richelieu  obtained 
Alsace,  Breisach  and  the  forest-towns  on  the  Rhine;  while 
in  the  north,  thanks  to  the  Dutch  and  owing  to  the  conquest  of 
Artois,  marshals  de  la  Meilleraye,  de  Chatillon  and  de  Breze 
forced  the  barrier  of  the  Netherlands.  Turin,  the  capital  of 
Piedmont,  was>  taken  by  Henri  de  Lorraine,  comte  d'Harcourt; 
the  alliance  with  rebellious  Portugal  facilitated  the  occupation 
of  Roussillon  and  almost  the  whole  of  Catalonia,  and  Spain  was 
reduced  to  defending  herself;  while  the  embarrassments  of  the 
Habsburgs  at  Madrid  made  those  of  Vienna  more  tractable. 
The  diet  of  Regensburg,  under  the  mediation  of  Maximilian  of 
Bavaria,  decided  in  favour  of  peace  with  France,  and  on  the  25th 
of  December  1641  the  preliminary  settlement  at  Hamburg 
fixed  the  opening  of  negotiations  to  take  place  at  Miinster  and 
Osnabriick.  Richelieu's  death  (December  4,  1642)  prevented 
him  from  seeing  the  triumph  of  his  policy,  but  it  can  be  judged 
by  its  results;  in  1624  the  kingdom  had  in  the  east  only  the 
frontier  of  the  Meuse  to  defend  it  from  invasion;  in  1642  the 
whole  of  Alsace,  except  Strassburg,  was  occupied  and  the  Rhine 
guarded  by  the  army  of  Guebriant.  Six  months  later,  on  the 
i4th  of  May  1643,  Louis  XIII.  rejoined  his  minister  in  his  true 
kingdom,  the  land  of  shades. 

But  thanks  to  Mazarin,  who  completed  his  work,  France 
gathered  in  the  harvest  sown  by  Richelieu.  At  the  outset  no 
one  believed  that  the  new  cardinal  would  have  any 
SUCcess.  Every  one  expected  from  Anne  of  Austria 
a  change  in  the  government  which  appeared  to  be 
justified  by  the  persecutions  of  Richelieu  and  the 
disdainful  unscrupulousness  of  Louis  XIII.  On  the  i6th  of 
May  the  queen  took  the  little  four-year-old  Louis  XIV.  to  the 
parlement  of  Paris  which,  proud  of  playing  a  part  in  politics, 
hastened,  contrary  to  Louis  XIII. 's  last  will,  to  acknowledge 
the  command  of  the  little  king,  and  to  give  his  mother  "  free, 
absolute  and  entire  authority."  The  great  nobles  were  already 
looking  upon  themselves  as  established  in  power,  when  they 
learnt  with  amazement  that  the  regent  had  appointed  as  her 
chief  adviser,  not  Gaston  of  Orleans,  but  Mazarin.  The  political 
revenge  which  in  their  eyes  was  owing  to  them  as  a  body,  the 
queen  claimed  for  herself  alone,  and  she  made  it  a  romantic  one. 
This  Spaniard  of  waning  charms,  who  had  been  neglected  by  her 
husband  and  insulted  by  Richelieu,  now  gave  her  indolent  and 
full-blown  person,  together  with  absolute  power,  into  the  hands 
of  the  Sicilian.  Whilst  others  were  triumphing  openly,  Mazarin, 
in  the  shadow  and  silence  of  the  interregnum,  had  kept  watch 
upon  the  heart  of  the  queen;  and  when  the  old  party  of  Marie 
de'  Medici  and  Anne  of  Austria  wished  to  come  back  into  power, 
to  impose  a  general  peace,  and  to  substitute  for  the  Protestant 
alliances  an  understanding  with  Spain,  the  arrest  of  Francois 
de  Vendome,  duke  of  Beaufort,  and  the  exile  of  other  important 
nobles  proved  to  the  great  families  that  their  hour  had  gone 
by  (September  1643). 

Mazarin  justified  Richelieu's  confidence  and  the  favour  of 
Anne  of  Austria.  It  was  upon  his  foreign  policy  that  he  relied 
to  maintain  his  authority  within  the  kingdom.  Thanks  to  him, 
the  duke  of  Enghien  (Louis  de  Bourbon,  afterwards  prince  of 
Conde),  appointed  commander-in-chief  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
two,  caused  the  downfall  of  the  renowned  Spanish  infantry  at 


1643- 
1661. 


Rocroi;  and  he  discovered  Turenne,  whose  prudence  tempered 
Conde's  overbold  ideas.     It  was  he  too  who  by  renewing  the  tradi- 
tional alliances  and  resuming  against  Bavaria,  Fer- 
dinand III.'s  most  powerful  ally,  the  plan  of  common      Treaties 
action  with  Sweden  which  Richelieu  had  sketched  out, 
pursued   it   year   after   year:   in    1644   at    Freiburg 
im  Breisgau,  despite  the  death  of  Guebriant  at  Rottweil;  in 

1645  at  Nordlingen,  despite  the  defeat  of  Marienthal;  and  in 

1646  in  Bavaria,  despite  the  rebellion  of  the  Weimar  cavalry; 
to  see  it  finally  triumph  at  Zusmarshausen  in  May  1648.     With 
Turenne  dominating  the  Eiser  and  the  Inn,  Conde  victorious 
at  Lens,  and  the  Swedes  before  the  gates  of  Prague,  the  emperor, 
left  without  a  single  ally,  finally  authorized  his  plenipotentiaries 
to  sign  on  the  24th  of  October  1648  the  peace  about  which 
negotiations  had  been  going  on  for  seven  years.     Mazarin  had 
stood  his  ground  notwithstanding  the  treachery  of  the  duke  of 
Bavaria,  the  defection  of  the  United  Provinces,  the  resistance  of 
the  Germans,  and  the  general  confusion  which  was  already 
pervading  the  internal  affairs  of  the  kingdom. 

The  dream  of  the  Habsburgs  was  shattered.  They  had 
wished  to  set  up  a  centralized  empire,  Catholic  and  German; 
but  the  treaties  of  Westphalia  kept  Germany  in  its  passive 
and  fragmentary  condition;  while  the  Catholic  and  Protestant 
princes  obtained  formal  recognition  of  their  territorial  inde- 
pendence and  their  religious  equality.  Thus  disappeared  the 
two  principles  which  justified  the  Empire's  existence;  the 
universal  sovereignty  to  which  it  laid  claim  was  limited  simply 
to  a  German  monarchy  much  crippled  in  its  powers;  and  the 
enfranchisement  of  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  from  papal 
jurisdiction  cut  the  last  tie  which  bound  the  Empire  to  Rome. 
The  victors'  material  benefits  were  no  less  substantial:  the  con- 
gress of  Miinster  ratified  the  final  cession  of  the  Three  Bishoprics 
and  the  conquest  of  Alsace,  and  Breislch  and  Philippsburg 
completed  these  acquisitions.  The  Spaniards  had  no  longer 
any  hope  of  adding  Luxemburg  to  their  Franche-Comte;  while 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  Germany,  taken  in  the  rear  by 
Sweden  (now  mistress  of  the  Baltic  and  the  North  Sea),  cut  off 
for  good  from  the  United  Provinces  and  the  Swiss  cantons,  and 
enfeebled  by  the  recognized  right  of  intervention  in  German 
affairs  on  the  part  of  Sweden  and  France,  was  now  nothing  but 
a  meaningless  name. 

Mazarin  had  not  been  so  fortunate  in  Italy,  where  in  1642 
the  Spanish  remained  masters.  Venice,  the  duchy  of  Milan  and 
the  duke  of  Modena  were  on  his  side;  the  pope  and  the  grand- 
duke  of  Tuscany  were  trembling,  but  the  romantic  expedition 
of  the  duke  of  Guise  to  Naples,  and  the  outbreak  of  the  Fronde, 
saved  Spain,  who  had  refused  to  take  part  in  the  treaties  of 
Westphalia  and  whose  ruin  Mazarin  wished  to  compass. 

It  was,  however,  easier  for  Mazarin  to  remodel  the  map  of 
Europe  than  to  govern  France.  There  he  found  himself  face  to 
face  with  all  the  difficulties  that  Richelieu  had  neglected 
to  solve,  and  that  were  now  once  more  giving  trouble.  state 
The  Lit  de  Justice  of  the  i8th  of  May  1643  had  proved  kingdom. 
authority  to  remain  still  so  personal  an  affair  that  the 
person  of  the  king,  insignificant  though  that  was,  continued  to 
be  regarded  as  its  absolute  depositary.  Thus  regular  obedience 
to  an  abstract  principle  was  under  Mazarin  as  incomprehensible 
to  the  idle  and  selfish  nobility  as  it  had  been  under  Richelieu. 
The  parlement  still  kept  up  the  same  extra-judicial  pretensions; 
but  beyond  its  judicial  functions  it  acted  merely  as  a  kind  of  town- 
crier  to  the  monarchy,  charged  with  making  known  the  king's 
edicts.  Yet  through  its  right  of  remonstrance  it  was  the  only 
body  that  could  legally  and  publicly  intervene  in  politics;  a  large 
and  independent  body,  moreover,  which  had  its  own  demands 
to  make  upon  the  monarchy  and  its  ministers.  Richelieu,  by 
setting  his  special  agents  above  the  legal  but  complicated 
machinery  of  financial  administration,  had  so  corrupted  it  as 
to  necessitate  radical  reform;  all  the  more  so  because  financial 
charges  had  been  increased  to  a  point  far  beyond  what  the  nation 
could  bear.  With  four  armies  to  keep  up,  the  insurrection  in 
Portugal  to  maintain,  and  pensions  to  serve  the  needs  of  the 
allies,  the  burden  had  become  a  crushing  one. 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


839 


Richelieu  had  been  able  to  surmount  these  difficulties  because 
he  governed  in  the  name  of  a  king  of  full  age,  and  against  isolated 
adversaries;  while  Mazarin  had  the  latter  against 
him  in  a  coalition  which  had  lasted  ten  years,  with 
"iHazarin.  the  further  disadvantages  of  his  foreign  origin  and  a 
royal  minority  at  a  time  when  every  one  was  sick  of 
government  by  ministers.  He  was  the  very  opposite  of  Richelieu, 
as  wheedling  in  his  ways  as  the  other  had  been  haughty  and 
scornful,  as  devoid  of  vanity  and  rancour  as  Richelieu  had  been 
full  of  jealous  care  for  his  authority;  he  was  gentle  where  the 
other  had  been  passionate  and  irritable,  with  an  intelligence  as 
great  and  more  supple,  and  a  far  more  grasping  nature. 

It  was  the  fiscal  question  that  arrayed  against  Mazarin  a 
coalition  of  all  petty  interests  and  frustrated  ambitions;  this 
was  always  the  Achilles'  heel  of  the  French  monarchy, 
which  in  1648  was  at  the  last  extremity  for  money. 
"uliics.  All  imposts  were  forestalled,  and  every  expedient  for 
obtaining  either  direct  or  indirect  taxes  had  been 
exhausted  by  the  methods  of  the  financiers.  As  the  country 
districts  could  yield  nothing  more,  it  became  necessary  to 
demand  money  from  the  Parisians  and  from  the  citizens  of  the 
various  towns,  and  to  search  out  and  furbish  up  old  disused 
edicts — edicts  as  to  measures  and  scales  of  prices — at  the  very 
moment  when  the  luxury  and  corruption  of  the  parvenus  was 
insulting  the  poverty  and  suffering  of  the  people,  and  exasperating 
all  those  officials  who  took  their  functions  seriously. 

A  storm  burst  forth  in  the  parlement  against  Mazarin  as  the 
patron  of  these  expedients,  the  occasion  for  this  being  the  edict 
of  redemption  by  which  the  government  renewed  for 
nine  years  the  "  Paulette  "  which  had  now  expired, 
"pariement.  by  withholding  four  years'  salary  from  all  officers  of 
the  Great  Council,  of  the  Chambres  des  comples,  and  of 
the  Gourdes  aides.  The  parlement,  although  expressly  exempted, 
associated  itself  with  their  protest  by  the  decree  of  union  of 
May  13,  1648,  and  deliberations  in  a  body  upon  the  reform  of 
the  state.  Despite  the  queen's  express  prohibition,  the  in- 
surrectionary assembly  of  the  Chambre  Saint  Louis  criticized 
the  whole  financial  system,  founded  as  it  was  upon  usury,  claimed 
the  right  of  voting  taxes,  respect  for  individual  liberty,  and  the 
suppression  of  the  intendants,  who  were  a  menace  to  the  new 
bureaucratic  feudalism.  The  queen,  haughty  and  exasperated 
though  she  was,  yielded  for  the  time  being,  because  the  invasion 
of  the  Spaniards  in  the  north,  the  arrest  of  Charles  I.  of  England, 
and  the  insurrection  of  Masaniello  at  Naples  made  the  moment 
a  critical  one  for  monarchies;  but  immediately  after  the  victory 
at  Lens  she  attempted  a  coup  d'ttat,  arresting  the  leaders,  and 
among  them  Broussel,  a  popular  member  of  the  parlement 
(August  26,  1648).  Paris  at  once  rose  in  revolt — a  Paris  of 
swarming  and  unpoliced  streets,  that  had  been  making  French 
history  ever  since  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  and  that  had  not 
forgotten  the  barricades  of  the  League.  Once  more  a  pretence 
of  yielding  had  to  be  made,  until  Conde's  arrival  enabled  the 
court  to  take  refuge  at  Saint-Germain  (January  15,  1649). 

Civil  war  now  began  against  the  rebellious  coalition  of  great 
nobles,  lawyers  of  the  parlement,  populace,  and  mercenaries 
Tne  just  set  free  from  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  It  lasted 

Fronde  four  years,  for  motives  often  as  futile  as  the  Grande 
(1648-  Mademoiselle's  ambition  to  wed  little  Louis  XIV., 
1652).  Cardinal  deRetz's  red  hat,  or  Madame  de  Longueville's 
stool  at  the  queen's  side;  it  was,  as  its  name  of  Fronde  indicates, 
a  hateful  farce,  played  by  grown-up  children,  in  several  acts. 

Its  first  and  shortest  phase  was  the  Fronde  of  the  Parlement. 
At  a  period  when  all  the  world  was  a  little  mad,  the  parlement 
The  had  imagined  a  loyalist  revolt,  and,  though  it  raised 

Fronde  an  armed  protest,  this  was  not  against  the  king  but 
of  the  against  Mazarin  and  the  persons  to  whom  he  had 
Pariemeat.  Delegated  pOwer.  ]jut  the  parlement  soon  became 
disgusted  with  its  allies — the  princes  and  nobles,  who  had  only 
drawn  their  swords  in  order  to  beg  more  effectively  with  arms 
in  their  hands;  and  the  Parisian  mob,  whose  fanaticism  had 
been  aroused  by  Paul  de  Gondi,  a  warlike  ecclesiastic,  a  Catiline 
in  a  cassock,  who  preached  the  gospel  at  the  dagger's  point. 


When  a  suggestion  was  made  to  the  parlement  to  receive  an 
envoy  from  Spain,  the  members  had  no  hesitation  in  making 
terms  with  the  court  by  the  peace  of  Rueil  (March  n,  1649), 
which  ended  the  first  Fronde. 

As  an  entr'acte,  from  April  1649  to  January  1650,  came  the 
affair  of  the  Petits  Maitres:  Conde,  proud  and  violent;  Gaston 
of  Orleans,  pliable  and  contemptible;  Conti,  the  The 
simpleton;  and  Longueville,  the  betrayed  husband.  Fronde 
The  victor  of  Lens  and  Charenton  imagined  that  every  of  the 
one  was  under  an  obligation  to  him,  and  laid  claim  to  a 
dictatorship  so  insupportable  that  Anne  of  Austria  and  Mazarin 
— assured  by  Gondi  of  the  concurrence  of  the  parlement  and 
people — had  him  arrested.  To  defend  Conde  the  great  con- 
spiracy of  women  was  formed:  Madame  de  Chevreuse,  the 
subtle  and  impassioned  princess  palatine,  and  the  princess  of 
Conde  vainly  attempted  to  arouse  Normandy,  Burgundy  and 
the  mob  of  Bordeaux;  while  Turenne,  bewitched  by  Madame 
de  Longueville,  allowed  himself  to  become  involved  with  Spain 
and  was  defeated  at  Rethel  (December  1 5, 1650).  Unfortunately, 
after  his  custom  when  victor,  Mazarin  forgot  his  promises — 
above  all,  Condi's  cardinal's  hat.  A  union  was  effected  between 
the  two  Frondes,  that  of  the  Petits  Maitres  and  that  of  the 
parlements,  and  Mazarin  was  obliged  to  flee  for  safety  to  the 
electorate  of  Cologne  (February  1651),  whence  he  continued 
to  govern  the  queen  and  the  kingdom  by  means  of  secret  letters. 
But  the  heads  of  the  two  Frondes — Conde,  now  set  free  from 
prison  at  Havre,  and  Gondi  who  detested  him — were  not  long  in 
quarrelling  fatally.  Owing  to  Mazarin's  exile  and  to  the  king's 
attainment  of  his  majority  (September  5,  1651)  quiet  was  being 
restored,  when  the  return  of  Mazarin,  jealous  of  Anne  of  Austria, 
nearly  brought  about  another  reconciliation  of  all  his  opponents 
(January  1652).  Conde  resumed  civil  war  with  the  support  of 
Spain,  because  he  was  not  given  Mazarin's  place;  but  though 
he  defeated  the  royal  army  at  B16neau,  he  was  surprised  at 
Etampes,  and  nearly  crushed  by  Turenne  at  the  gate  of  Saint- 
Antoine.  Saved,  however,  by  the  Grande  Mademoiselle,  daughter 
of  Gaston  of  Orleans,  he  lost  Paris  by  the  disaster  of  the  Hotel  de 
Ville  July  4,  1652),  where  he  had  installed  an  insurrectionary 
government.  A  general  weariness  of  civil  war  gave  plenty  of 
opportunity  after  this  to  the  agents  of  Mazarin,  who  in  order  to 
facilitate  peace  made  a  pretence  of  exiling  himself  for  a  second 
time  to  Bouillon.  Then  came  the  final  collapse:  Conde  having 
taken  refuge  in  Spain  for  seven  years,  Gaston  of  Orleans  being 
in  exile,  Retz  in  prison,  and  the  parlement  reduced  to  its  judiciary 
functions  only,  the  field  was  left  open  for  Mazarin,  who,  four 
months  after  the  king,  re-entered  in  triumph  that  Paris  which 
had  driven  him  forth  with  jeers  and  mockery  (February  1653). 

The  task  was  now  to  repair  these  four  years  of  madness  and 
folly.  The  nobles  who  had  hoped  to  set  up  the  League  again, 
half  counting  upon  the  king  of  Spain,  were  held  in  The 
check  by  Mazarin  with  the  golden  dowries  of  his  admtais- 
numerous  nieces,  and  were  now  employed  by  him  in  tratioa  of 
warfare  and  in  decorative  court  functions;  while  Hazarln- 
others,  De  Retz  and  La  Rochefoucauld,  sought  consolation  in 
their  Memoirs  or  their  Maxims,  one  for  his  mortifications  and  the 
other  for  his  rancour  as  a  statesman  out  of  employment.  The 
parlement,  which  had  confused  political  power  with  judiciary 
administration,  was  given  to  understand,  in  the  session  of  April 
!3>  !6SS,  at  Vincennes,  that  the  era  of  political  manifestations 
was  over;  and  the  money  expended  by  Gourville,  .Mazarin's 
agent,  restored  the  members  of  the  parlement  to  docility.  The 
power  of  the  state  was  confided  to  middle-class  men,  faithful 
servants  during  the  evil  days:  Abel  Servien,  Michel  le  Tellier, 
Hugues  de  Lionne.  Like  Henry  IV.  after  the  League,  Mazarin, 
after  having  conquered  the  Fronde,  had  to  buy  back  bit  by  bit 
the  kingdom  he  had  lost,  and,  like  Richelieu,  he  spread  out  a 
network  of  agents,  thenceforward  regular  and  permanent,  who 
assured  him  of  that  security  without  which  he  could  never 
have  carried  on  his  vast  plunderings  in  peace  and  quiet.  His 
imitator  and  superintendent,  Fouquet,  the  Maecenas  of  the 
future  Augustus,  concealed  this  gambling  policy  beneath  the 
lustre  of  the  arts  and  the  glamour  of  a  literature  remarkable  for 


840 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


elevation  of  thought  ana  vigour  oi  style,  and  further  characterized 
by  the  proud  though  somewhat  restricted  freedom  conceded  to 
men  like  Corneille,  Descartes  and  Pascal,  but  soon  to  disappear. 
It  was  also  necessary  to  win  back  from  Spain  the  territory 
which  the  Frondeurs  had  delivered  up  to  her.  Both  countries, 
exhausted  by  twenty  years  of  war,  were  incapable 
.sT'to"'**  °f  bringing  it  to  a  successful  termination,  yet  neither 
would  be  first  to  give  in;  Mazarin,  therefore,  dis- 
quieted by  Conde's  victory  at  Valenciennes  (1656),  reknit  the 
bond  of  Protestant  alliances,  and,  having  nothing  to  expect 
from  Holland,  he  deprived  Spain  of  her  alliance  with  Oliver 
Cromwell  (March  23,  1657).  A  victory  in  the  Dunes  by  Turenne, 
now  reinstalled  in  honour,  and  above  all  the  conquest  of  the 
Flemish  seaboard,  were  the  results  (June  1658);  but  when,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  emperor's  intervention  in  the  Netherlands, 
Mazarin  attempted,  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand  III.,  to  wrest 
the  Empire  from  the  Habsburgs,  he  was  foiled  by  the  gold  of 
the  Spanish  envoy  Penaranda  (1657).  When  the  abdication  of 
Christina  of  Sweden  caused  a  quarrel  between  Charles^Gustavus 
of  Sweden  and  John  Casimir  of  Poland,  by  which  the  emperor 
and  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  hoped  to  profit,  Mazarin  (August 
15,  1658)  leagued  the  Rhine  princes  against  them;  while  at 
the  same  time  the  substitution  of  Pope  Alexander  VII.  for 
Innocent  X.,  and  the  marriage  of  Mazarin's  two  nieces  with 
the  duke  of  Modena  and  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Savoy,  made 
Spain  anxious  about  her  Italian  possessions.  The  suggestion 
of  a  marriage  between  Louis  XIV.  and  a  princess  of  Savoy 
decided  Spain,  now  brought  to  bay,  to  accord  him  the 
^^  hand  of  Maria  Theresa  as  a  chief  condition  of  the  peace 
Pyrenees,  of  the  Pyrenees  (November  1659).  Roussillon  and 
Artois,  with  a  line  of  strongholds  constituting  a 
formidable  northern  frontier,  were  ceded  to  France;  and  the 
acquisition  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  under  certain  conditions  was 
ratified.  Thus  from  this  long  duel  between  the  two  countries 
Spain  issued  much  enfeebled,  while  France  obtained  the  pre- 
ponderance in  Italy,  Germany,  and  throughout  northern  Europe, 
as  is  proved  by  Mazarin's  successful  arbitration  at  Copenhagen 
and  at  Oliva  (May-June  1660).  That  dream  of  Henry.  IV.  and 
Richelieu,  the  ruin  of  Philip  II. 's  Catholic  empire,  was  made  a 
realized  fact  by  Mazarin;  but  the  clever  engineer,  dazzled  by 
success,  took  the  wrong  road  in  national  policy  when  he  hoped 
to  crown  his  work  by  the  Spanish  marriage. 

The  development  of  events  had  gradually  enlarged  the  royal 
prerogative,  and  it  now  came  to  its  full  flower  in  the  administra- 
tive monarchy  of  the  i7th  century.  Of  this  system 
Louis  XIV.  was  to  be  the  chief  exponent.  His 
1715).  reign  may  be  divided  into  two  very  distinct  periods. 
The  death  of  Colbert  and  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes  brought  the  first  to  a  close  (1661-1683-1685);  coin- 
ciding with  the  date  when  the  Revolution  in  England  definitely 
reversed  the  traditional  system  of  alliances,  and  when  the 
administration  began  to  disorganize.  In  the  second  period 
(1685-1715)  all  the  germs  of  decadence  were  developed  until  the 
moment  of  final  dissolution. 

In  a  monarchy  so  essentially  personal  the  preparation  of 
the  heir  to  the  throne  for  his  position  should  have  been  the  chief 
task.     Anne  of  Austria,  a  devoted  but  unintelligent 
mother,  knew  no  method  of  dealing  with  her  son, 
xiv.  save   devotion   combined   with    the   rod.     His   first 

preceptors  were  nothing  but  courtiers;  and  the  most 
intelligent,  his  valet  Laporte,  developed  in  the  royal  child's 
mind  his  natural  instinct  of  command,  a  very  lively  sense  of  his 
rank,  and  that  nobly  majestic  air  of  master  of  the  world  which 
he  preserved  even  in  the  commonest  actions  of  his  life.  The 
continual  agitations  of  the  Fronde  prevented  him  from  persever- 
ing in  any  consistent  application  during  those  years  which  are 
the  most  valuable  for  study,  and  only  instilled  in  him  a  horror 
of  revolution,  parliamentary  remonstrance,  and  disorder  of 
all  kinds;  so  that  this  recollection  determined  the  direction 
of  his  government.  Mazarin,  in  his  later  years,  at  last  taught 
him  his  trade  as  king  by  admitting  him  to  the  council,  and  by 
instructing  him  in  the  details  of  politics  and  of  administration. 


H' 


In  1661  Louis  XIV.  was  a  handsome  youth  of  twenty-two, 
of  splendid  health  and  gentle  serious  mien;  eager  for  pleasure, 
but    discreet    and    even  dissimulating;    his    rather    mediocre 
intellectual   qualities  relieved   by  solid   common   sense;   fully. 
alive  to  his  rights  and  his  duties. 

The  duties  he  conscientiously  fulfilled,  but  he  considered  he 
need  render  no  account  of  them  to  any  one  but  his  Maker,  the 
last  humiliation  for  God's  vicegerent  being  "  to  take 
the  law  from  his  people."  In  the  solemn  language  of 
the  "  Memoirs  for  the  Instruction  of  the  Dauphin  " 
he  did  but  affirm  the  arbitrary  and  capricious  character 
of  his  predecessors'  action.  As  for  his  rights,  Louis  XIV.  looked 
upon  these  as  plenary  and  unlimited.  Representative  of  God 
upon  earth,  heir  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
a  universal  suzerain  and  master  over  the  goods  and  the  lives 
of  his  vassals,  he  could  conceive  no  other  bounds  to  his  authority 
than  his  own  interests  or  his  obligations  towards  God,  and  in  this 
he  was  a  willing  believer  of  Bossuet.  He  therefore  had  but  two 
aims:  to  increase  his  power  at  home  and  to  enlarge  his  kingdom 
abroad.  The  army  and  taxation  were  the  chief  instruments 
of  his  policy.  Had  not  Bodin,  Hobbes  and  Bossuet  taught 
that  the  force  which  gives  birth  to  kingdoms  serves  best  also  to 
feed  and  sustain  them?  His  theory  of  the  state,  despite  Grotius 
and  Jurieu,  rejected  as  odious  and  even  impious  the  notion 
of  any  popular  rights,  anterior  and  superior  to  his  own.  A 
realist  in  principle,  Louis  XIV.  was  terribly  utilitarian  and 
egotistical  in  practice;  and  he  exacted  from  his  subjects  an 
absolute,  continual  and  obligatory  self-abnegation  before  his 
public  authority,  even  when  improperly  exercised. 

This  deified  monarch  needed  a  new  temple,  and  Versailles, 
where  everything  was  his  creation,  both  men  and  things,  adored 
its  maker.  The  highest  nobility  of  France,  beginning  The  /orms 
with  the  princes  of  the  blood,  competed  for  posts  at  Louis 
in  the  royal  household,  where  an  army  of  ten  thousand  XIV-'* 
soldiers,  four  thousand  servants,  and  five  thousand  ** 
horses  played  its  costly  and  luxurious  part  in  the  ordered  and 
almost  religious  pageant  of  the  king's  existence.  The  "  anciennes 
cohues  de  France,"  gay,  familiar  and  military,  gave  place  to  a 
stilted  court  life,  a  perpetual  adoration,  a  very  ceremonious  and 
very  complicated  ritual,  in  which  the  demigod  "  pontificated  " 
even  "  in  his  dressing-gown."  To  pay  court  to  himself  was  the 
first  and  only  duty  in  the  eyes  of  a  proud  and  haughty  prince 
who  saw  and  noted  everything,  especially  any  one's  absence. 
Versailles,  where  the  delicate  refinements  of  Italy  and  the  grave 
politeness  of  Spain  were  fused  and  mingled  with  French  vivacity, 
became  the  centre  of  national  life  and  a  model  for  foreign  royalties  ; 
hence  if  Versailles  has  played  a  considerable  part  in  the  history 
of  civilization,  it  also  seriously  modified  the  life  of  France. 
Etiquette  and  self-seeking  became  the  chief  rules  of  a  courtier's 
life,  and  this  explains  the  division  of  the  nobility  into  two 
sections:  the  provincial  squires,  embittered  by  neglect;  and 
the  courtiers,  who  were  ruined  materially  and  intellectually 
by  their  way  of  living.  Versailles  sterilized  ah1  the  idle  upper 
classes,  exploited  the  industrious  classes  by  its  extravagance, 
and  more  and  more  broke  relations  between  king  and 
kingdom. 

But  however  divine,  the  king  could  not  wield  his  power 
unaided.  Louis  XIV.  called  to  his  assistance  a  hierarchy  of 
humbly  submissive  functionaries,  and  councils  over 
which  he  regularly  presided.  Holding  the  very  name  jfi"  * 
of  roi  faineant  in  abhorrence,  he  abolished  the  office  ministers. 
of  mayor  of  the  palace  —  that  is  to  say,  the  prime 
minister  —  thus  imposing  upon  himself  work  which  he  always 
regularly  performed.  In  choosing  his  collaborators  his  principle 
was  never  to  select  nobles  or  ecclesiastics,  but  persons  of  inferior 
birth.  Neither  the  immense  fortunes  amassed  by  these  men, 
nor  the  venality  and  robust  vitality  which  made  their  families 
veritable  races  of  ministers,  altered  the  fact  that  De  Lionne,  Le 
Tellier,  Louvois  and  Colbert  were  in  themselves  of  no  account, 
even  though  the  parts  they  played  were  much  more  important 
than  Louis  XIV.  imagined.  This  was  the  age  of  plebeians,  to 
the  great  indignation  of  the  duke  and  peer  Saint  Simon.  Mere 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


841 


reflected  lights,  these  satellites  professed  to  share  their  master's 
honor  of  all  individual  and  collective  rights  of  such  a 
despotism,  nature  as  to  impose  any  check  upon  his  public  authority. 
Louis  XIV.  detested  the  states-general  and  never 
convoked  them,  and  the  parlements  were  definitely  reduced 
to  silence  in  1673;  he  completed  the  destruction  of  municipal 
liberties,  under  pretext  of  bad  financial  administration;  suffered 
no  public,  still  less  private  criticism;  was  ruthless  when  his 
exasperated  subjects  had  recourse  to  force;  and  made  the  police 
the  chief  bulwark  of  his  government.  Prayers  and  resignation 
were  the  only  solace  left  for  the  hardships  endured  by  his  subjects. 
All  the  ties  of  caste,  class,  corporation  and  family  were  severed; 
the  jealous  despotism  of  Louis  XIV.  destroyed  every  opportunity 
of  taking  common  action;  he  isolated  every  man  in  private  life, 
in  individual  interests,  just  as  he  isolated  himself  more  and  more 
from  the  body  social.  Freedom  he  tolerated  for  himself  alone. 

His  passion  for  absolutism  made  him  consider  himself  master 
of  souls  as  well  as  bodies,  and  Bossuet  did  nothing  to  contravene 
an  opinion  which  was,  indeed,  common  to  every 
sovere!gn  of  m's  day.  Louis  XIV.,  like  Philip  II., 
Chunh.  pretending  to  not  only  political  but  religious  authority, 
would  not  allow  the  pope  to  share  it,  still  less  would 
he  abide  any  religious  dissent;  and  this  gave  rise  to  many 
conflicts,  especially  with  the  pope,  at  that  time  a  temporal 
sovereign  both  at  Rome  and  at  Avignon,  and  as  the  head  of 
Christendom  bound  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  France.  Louis 
XIV.'s  pride  caused  the  first  struggle,  which  turned  exclusively 
upon  questions  of  form,  as  in  the  affair  of  the  Corsican  Guard 
in  1662.  The  question  of  the  right  of  regale  (right  of  the  Crown 
to  the  revenues  of  vacant  abbeys  and  bishoprics),  which  touched 
the  essential  rights  of  sovereignty,  further  inflamed  the  hostility 
between  Innocent  XI.  and  Louis  XIV.  Conformably  with  the 
traditions  of  the  administrative  monarchy  in  1673,  the  king 
wanted  to  extend  to  the  new  additions  to  the  kingdom  his 
rights  of  receiving  the  revenues  of  vacant  bishoprics  and  making 
appointments  to  their  benefices,  including  taking  oaths  of  fidelity 
from  the  new  incumbents.  A  protest  raised  by  the  bishops  of 
Pamiers  and  Aleth,  followed  by  the  seizure  of  their  revenues, 
provoked  the  intervention  of  Innocent  XI.  in  1678;  but  the 
king  was  supported  by  the  general  assembly  of  the  clergy,  which 
declared  that,  with  certain  exceptions,  the  regale  extended  over 
the  whole  kingdom  (1681).  The  pope  ignored  the  decisions  of 
the  assembly;  so,  dropping  the  regale,  the  king  demanded  that, 
to  obviate  further  conflict,  the  assembly  should  define  the  limits 
of  the  authority  due  respectively  to  the  king,  the  Church  and  the 
pope.  This  was  the  object  of  the  Declaration  of  the  Four 
Deciara-  Articles:  the  pope  has  no  power  in  temporal  matters; 
ttoa  at  general  councils  are  superior  to  the  pope  in  spiritual 
the  Four  affairs;  the  rules  of  the  Church  of  France  are  inviolable; 
Articles.  dec;sions  of  the  pope  in  matters  of  faith  are  only  irre- 
vocable by  consent  of  the  Church.  The  French  laity  transferred 
to  the  king  this  quasi-divine  authority,  which  became  the  political 
theory  of  the  ancien  regime;  and  since  the  pope  refused  to  submit, 
or  to  institute  the  new  bishops,  the  Sorbonne  was  obliged  to 
interfere.  The  affair  of  the  "  diplomatic  prerogatives,"  when 
Louis  XIV.  was  decidedly  in  the  wrong,  made  relations  even 
more  strained  (1687),  and  the  idea  of  a  schism  was  mooted  with 
greater  insistence  than  in  1681.  The  death  of  Innocent  XI.  in 
1689  allowed  Louis  XIV.  to  engage  upon  negotiations  rendered 
imperative  by  his  check  in  the  affair  of  the  Cologne  bishopric, 
where  his  candidate  was  ousted  by  the  pope's.  In  1693,  under 
the  pontificate  of  Innocent  XII.,  he  went,  like  so  many  others, 
to  Canossa. 

Recipient  now  of  immense  ecclesiastical  revenues,  which, 
owing  to  the  number  of  vacant  benefices,  constituted  a  powerful 
engine  of  government,  Louis  XIV.  had  immense  power  over  the 
French  Church.  Religion  began  to  be  identified  with  the  state; 
and  the  king  combated  heresy  and  dissent,  not  only  as  a  religious 
duty,  but  as  a  matter  of  political  expediency,  unity  of  faith 
being  obviously  conducive  to  unity  of  law. 

Richelieu  having  deprived  the  Protestants  of  all  political 
guarantees  for  their  liberty  of  conscience,  an  anti-Protestant 


testaats- 


party  (directed  by  a  cabal  of  religious  devotees,  the  Compagnie 
du  Saint  Sacremenl)  determined  to  suppress  it  completely  by 
conversions  and  by  a  Jesuitical  interpretation  of  the  LOUIS 
terms  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  Louis  XIV.  made  xiv.  ana 
this  impolitic  policy  his  own.  His  passion  for  absolu-  the 
tism,  a  religious  zeal  that  was  the  more  active  because 
it  had  to  compensate  for  many  affronts  to  public  and  private 
morals,  the  financial  necessity  of  augmenting  the  free  donations 
of  the  clergy,  and  the  political  necessity  of  relying  upon  that  body 
in  his  conflicts  with  the  pope,  led  the  king  between  1661  and 
1685  to  embark  upon  a  double  campaign  of  arbitrary  proceedings 
with  the  object  of  nullifying  the  edict,  conversions  being  procured 
either  by  force  or  by  bribery.  The  promulgation  and  application 
of  systematic  measures  from  above  had  a  response  from  below, 
from  the  corporation,  the  urban  workshop,  and  the  village  street, 
which  supported  ecclesiastical  and  royal  authority  in  its  suppres- 
sion of  heresy,  and  frequently  even  went  further:  individual 
and  local  fanaticism  co-operating  with  the  head  of  the  state, 
the  intendants,  and  the  military  and  judiciary  authorities. 
Protestants  were  successively  removed  from  the  states-general, 
the  consulates,  the  town  councils,  and  even  from  the  humblest 
municipal  offices;  they  were  deprived  of  the  charge  of  their 
hospitals,  their  academies,  their  colleges  and  their  schools,  and 
were  left  to  ignorance  and  poverty;  while  the  intolerance 
of  the  clergy  united  with  chicanery  of  procedure  to  invade 
their  places  of  worship,  insult  their  adherents,  and  put  a  stop 
to  the  practice  of  their  ritual.  Pellisson's  methods  of  conversion, 


considered  too  slow,  were  accelerated  by  the  violent 


guppres- 


persecution  of  Louvois  and  by  the  king's  galleys,  sioa  Ot 
until  the  day  came  when  Louis  XIV.,  deceived  by  the  the  edict 
clergy,  crowned  his  record  of  complaisant  legal  methods  ?i^ates 
by  revoking  the  edict  of  Nantes.  This  was  the  signal 
for  a  Huguenot  renaissance,  and  the  Camisards  of  the  Cevehnes 
held  the  royal  armies  in  check  from  1  703  to  1  7  1  1  .  Notwithstand- 
ing this,  however,  Louis  XIV.  succeeded  only  too  well,  since 
Protestantism  was  reduced  both  numerically  and  intellectually. 
He  never  perceived  how  its  loss  threw  France  back  a  full 
century,  to  the  great  profit  of  foreign  nations;  while  neither 
did  the  Church  perceive  that  she  had  been  firing  on  her  own 
troops. 

The  same  order  of  ideas  produced  the  persecution  of  the 
Jansenists,  as  much  a  political  as  a  religious  sect.  Founded 
by  a  bishop  of  Ypres  on  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  ^ou/s 
and  growing  by  persecution,  it  had  speedily  recruited  xiv.  ana 
adherents  among  the  disillusioned  followers  of  the  the  Jan- 
Fronde,  the  Gallican  clergy,  the  higher  nobility,  even  *ealsts- 
at  court,  and  more  important  still,  among  learned  men  and 
thinkers,  such  as  the  great  Arnauld,  Pascal  and  Racine.  Pure 
and  austere,  it  enjoined  the  strictest  morals  in  the  midst  of 
corruption,  and  the  most  dignified  self-respect  in  face  of  idolatrous 
servility.  Amid  general  silence  it  was  a  formidable  and  much 
dreaded  body  of  opinion;  and  in  order  to  stifle  it  Louis  XIV., 
the  tool  of  his  confessor,  the  Jesuit  Le  Tellier,  made  use  of  his 
usual  means.  The  nuns  of  Port  Royal  were  in  their  turn  sub- 
jected to  persecution,  which,  after  a  truce  between  1666  and 
1679,  became  aggravated  by  the  affair  of  the  regale,  the  bishops 
of  Aleth  and  Pamiers  being  Jansenists.  Port  Royal  was  de- 
stroyed, the  nuns  dispersed,  and  the  ashes  of  the  dead  scattered 
to  the  four  winds.  The  bull  Unigenitus  launched  by  Pope 
Clement  XI.  in  1713  against  a  Jansenist  book  by  Father  Quesnel 
rekindled  a  quarrel,  the  end  of  which  Louis  XIV.  did  not  live  to 
see,  and  which  raged  throughout  the  i8th  century. 

Bossuet,  Louis  XIV.'s  mouthpiece,  triumphed  in  his  turn  over 
the   quietism   of  Madame   Guyon,   a  mystic   who  recognized 
neither    definite    dogmas    nor    formal    prayers,    but 
abandoned  herself  "  to  the  torrent  of  the  forces  of  amM-Ae^' 
God."     Fenelon,  who  in  his  Maximes  des  Saints  had  ubertins. 
given  his  adherence  to  her  doctrine,  was  obliged  to 
submit  in  1699;  but  Bossuet  could   not    make    the   spirit    of 
authority  prevail  against  the  religious  criticism  of  a  Richard 
Simon  or  the  philosophical  polemics  of  a  Bayle.     He  might 
exile    their   persons;    but  their   doctrines,    supported    by   the 


842 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


scientific  and  philosophic  work  of  Newton  and  Leibnitz,  were 
to  triumph  over  Church  and  religion  in  the  i8th  century. 

The  chaos  of  the  administrative  system  caused  difficulties 
no  less  great  than  those  produced  by  opinions  and  creeds. 
Traditional  rights,  differences  of  language,  provincial  autonomy, 
ecclesiastical  assemblies,  parlements,  governors,  intendants — 
vestiges  of  the  past,  or  promises  for  the  future — all  jostled 
against  and  thwarted  each  other.  The  central  authority  had  not 
yet  acquired  a  vigorous  constitution,  nor  destroyed  all  the 
intermediary  authorities.  Colbert  now  offered  his  aid  in  making 
Louis  XIV.  the  sole  pivot  of  public  life,  as  he  had  already  become 
the  source  of  religious  authority,  thanks  to  the  Jesuits  and  to 
Bossuet. 

Colbert,  an  agent  of  Le  Tellier,  the  honest  steward  of 
Mazarin's  dishonest  fortunes,  had  a  future  opened  to  him  by 

the  fall  of  Fouquet  (1661).  Harsh  and  rough,  he 
e  '  compelled  admiration  for  his  delight  in  work,  his 
aptitude  in  disentangling  affairs,  his  desire  of  continually  aug- 
menting the  wealth  of  the  state,  and  his  regard  for  the 
public  welfare  without  forgetting  his  own.  Born  in  a  draper's 
shop,  this  great  administrator  always  preserved  its  narrow 
horizon,  its  short-sighted  imagination,  its  taste  for  detail,  and  the 
conceit  of  the  parvenu;  while  with  his  insinuating  ways,  and 
knowing  better  than  Fouquet  how  to  keep  his  distance,  he 
made  himself  indispensable  by  his  savoir-faire  and  his  readiness 
for  every  emergency.  He  gradually  got  everything  into  his 
control:  finance,  industry,  commerce,  the  fine  arts,  the  navy 
and  colonies,  the  administration,  even  the  fortifications,  and — 
through  his  uncle  Pussort — the  law,  with  all  the  profits  attaching 
to  its  offices. 

His  first  care  was  to  restore  the  exhausted  resources  of  the 
country  and  to  re-establish  order  in  finance.  He  began  by 

measures  of  liquidation:  the  Chambre  ardente  of 
•albert  jggj  £O  j66j  to  deal  with  the  farmers  of  the  revenue, 
"{nance.  tne  condemnation  of  Fouquet,  and  a  revision  of  the 

funds.  Next,  like  a  good  man  of  business,  Colbert 
determined  that  the  state  accounts  should  be  kept  as  accurately 
as  those  of  a  shop;  but  though  in  this  respect  a  great  minister, 
he  was  less  so  in  his  manner  of  levying  contributions.  He 
kept  to  the  old  system  of  revenues  from  the  demesne  and  from 
imposts  that  were  reactionary  in  their  effect,  such  as  the  taille, 
aids,  salt- tax  (gabelle)  and  customs;  only  he  managed  them 
better.  His  forest  laws  have  remained  a  model.  He  demanded 
less  of  the  taille,  a  direct  impost,  and  more  from  indirect  aids, 
of  which  he  created  the  code — not,  however,  out  of  sympathy 
for  the  common  people,  towards  whom  he  was  very  harsh,  but 
because  these  aids  covered  a  greater  area  and  brought  in  larger 
returns.  He  tried  to  import  more  method  into  the  very  unequal 
distribution  of  taxation,  less  brutality  in  collection, .less  confusion 
in  the  fiscal  machine,  and  more  uniformity  in  the  matter  of  rights; 
while  he  diminished  the  debts  of  the  much-involved  towns 
by  putting  them  through  the  bankruptcy  court.  With  revolu- 
tionary intentions  as  to  reform,  this  only  ended,  after  several 
years  of  normal  budgets,  in  ultimate  frustration.  He  could 
never  make  the  rights  over  the  drink  traffic  uniform  and  equal, 
nor  restrict  privileges  in  the  matter  of  the  taille;  while  he 
was  soon  much  embarrassed,  not  only  by  the  coalition  of 
particular  interests  and  local  immunities,  which  made  despotism 
acceptable  by  tempering  it,  but  also  by  Louis  XIV. 's  two  master- 
passions  for  conquest  and  for  building.  To  his  great  chagrin 
he  was  obliged  to  begin  borrowing  again  in  1672,  and  to  have 
recourse  to  "  affaires  extraordinaires  ";  and  this  brought  him  at 
last  to  his  grave. 

Order  was  for  Colbert  the  prime  condition  of  work.  He 
desired  all  France  to  set  to  work  as  he  did  "  with  a  contented 

air   and   rubbing   his   hands   for   joy  ";   but   neither 

general  theories  nor  individual  happiness  preoccupied 
industry.  ^is  attention.  He  made  economy  truly  political: 

that  is  to  say,  the  prosperity  of  industry  and  commerce 
afforded  him  no  other  interest  than  that  of  making  the  country 
wealthy  and  the  state  powerful.  Louis  XIV. 's  aspirations 
towards  glory  chimed  in  very  well  with  the  extremely  positive 


views  of  his  minister;  but  here  too  Colbert  was  an  innovator 
and  an  unsuccessful  one.  He  wanted  to  give  i  yth-century  France 
the  modern  and  industrial  character  which  the  New  World 
had  imprinted  on  the  maritime  states;  and  he  created  industry 
on  a  grand  scale  with  an  energy  of  labour,  a  prodigious  genius 
for  initiative  and  for  organization;  while,  in  order  to  attract  a 
foreign  clientele,  he  imposed  upon  it  the  habits  of  meticulous 
probity  common  to  a  middle-class  draper.  But  he  maintained 
the  legislation  of  the  Valois,  who  placed  industry  in  a  state  of 
strict  dependency  on  finance,  and  he  instituted  a  servitude  of 
labour  harder  even  than  that  of  individuals;  his  great  factories 
of  soap,  glass,  lace,  carpets  and  cloth  had  the  same  artificial 
life  as  that  of  contemporary  Russian  industry,  created  and 
nourished  by  the  state.  It  was  therefore  necessary,  in  order  to 
compensate  for  the  fatal  influence  of  servitude,  that  administra- 
tive protection  should  be  lavished  without  end  upon  the  royal 
manufactures;  moreover,  in  the  course  of  its  development, 
industry  on  a  grand  scale  encroached  in  many  ways  upon  the 
resources  of  smaller  industries.  After  Colbert's  day,  when  the 
crutches  lent  by  privilege  were  removed,  his  achievements  lost 
vigour;  industries  that  ministered  to  luxury  alone  escaped 
decay;  the  others  became  exhausted  in  struggling  against  the 
persistent  and  teasing  opposition  of  the  municipal  bodies  and 
the  bourgeoisie — conceited,  ignorant  and  terrified  at  any  innova- 
tion— and  against  the  blind  and  intolerant  policy  of  Louis  XIV. 

Colbert,  in  common  with  all  his  century,  believed  that  the 
true  secret  of  commerce  and  the  indisputable  proof  of  a  country's 
prosperity  was  to  sell  as  many  of  the  products  of 
national  industry  to  the  foreigner  as  possible,  while  co*ert 
purchasing  as  little  as  possible.  In  order  to  do  this,  cammene 
he  sometimes  figured  as  a  free-trader  and  sometimes 
as  a  protectionist,  but  always  in  a  practical  sense;  if  he  imposed 
prohibitive  tariffs,  in  1664  and  1667,  he  also  opened  the  free 
ports  of  Marseilles  and  Dunkirk,  and  engineered  the  Canal  du 
midi.  But  commerce,  like  industry,  was  made  to  rely  only  on 
the  instigation  of  the  state,  by  the  intervention  of  officials; 
here,  as  throughout  the  national  life,  private  initiative  was 
kept  in  subjection  and  under  suspicion.  Once  more  Colbert 
failed;  with  regard  to  internal  affairs,  he  was  unable  to  unify 
weights  and  measures,  or  to  suppress  the  many  custom-houses 
which  made  France  into  a  miniature  Europe;  nor  could  he  in 
external  affairs  reform  the  consulates  of  the  Levant.  He  did 
not  understand  that,  in  order  to  purge  the  body  of  the  nation 
from  its  traditions  of  routine,  it  would  be  necessary  to  reawaken 
individual  energy  in  France.  He  believed  that  the  state,  or 
rather  the  bureaucracy,  might  be  the  motive  power  of  national 
activity. 

His  colonial  and  maritime  policy  was  the  newest  and  most 
fruitful  part  of  his  work.  He  wished  to  turn  the  eyes  of  con- 
temporary adventurous  France  towards  her  distant 
interests,  the  wars  of  religion  having  diverted  her  Col^e^ 
attention  from  them  to  the  great  profit  of  English  colonies. 
and  Dutch  merchants.  Here  too  he  had  no  pre- 
conceived ideas;  the  royal  and  monopolist  companies  were 
never  for  him  an  end  but  a  means;  and  after  much  experimenting 
he  at  length  attained  success.  In  the  course  of  twenty  years 
he  created  many  dependencies  of  France  beyond  sea.  To  her 
colonial  empire  in  America  he  added  the  greater  part  of  Santo 
Domingo,  Tobago  and  Dominica;  he  restored  Guiana;  prepared 
for  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana  by  supporting  Cavelier  de  la 
Salle;  extended  the  suzerainty  of  the  king  on  the  coast  of  Africa 
from  the  Bay  of  Arguin  to  the  shores  of  Sierra  Leone,  and 
instituted  the  first  commercial  relations  with  India.  The 
population  of  the  Antilles  doubled;  that  of  Canada  quintupled; 
while  if  in  1672  at  the  time  of  the  war  with  Holland  Louis  XIV. 
had  listened  to  him,  Colbert  would  have  sacrificed  his  pride  to 
the  acquisition  of  the  rich  colonies  of  the  Netherlands.  In  order 
to  attach  and  defend  these  colonies  Colbert  created  a  navy  which 
became  his  passion;  he  took  convicts  to  man  the  galleys  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  for  the  fleet  in  the  Atlantic  he  established 
the  system  of  naval  reserve  which  still  obtains.  But,  in  the  i8th 
century,  the  monarchy,  hypnotized  by  the  classical  battle-fields 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


843 


tratloo. 


of  Flanders  and  Italy,  madly  squandered  the  fruits  of  Colbert's 
work  as  so  much  material  for  barter  and  exchange. 

In  the  administration,  the  police  and  the  law,  Colbert  preserved 
all  the  old  machinery,  including  the  inheritance  of  office.  In 
Colbert  the  great  codification  of  laws,  made  under  the  direction 
and  the  of  his  uncle  Pussort,  he  set  aside  the  parlement  of 
Paris,  and  justice  continued  to  be  ill-administered 
and  cruel.  The  police,  instituted  in  1667  by  La 
Reynie,  became  a  public  force  independent  of  magistrates  and 
under  the  direct  orders  of  the  ministers,  making  the  arbitrary 
royal  and  ministerial  authority  absolute  by  means  of  lettres  de 
cachet  (?.».),  which  were  very  convenient  for  the  government 
and  very  terrible  for  the  individuals  concerned. 

Provincial  administration  was  no  longer  modified;  it  was 
regularized.  The  intendant  became  the  king's  factotum,  not 
purchasing  his  office  but  liable  to  dismissal,  the  government's 
confidential  agent  and  the  real  repository  of  royal  authority, 
the  governor  being  only  for  show  (see  INTENDANT). 

Colbert's  system  went  on  working  regularly  up  to  the  year 
1675;  from  that  time  forward  he  was  cruelly  embarrassed 
for  money,  and,  seeking  new  sources  of  revenue, 
Coibe'rf's  Begged  for  subsidies  from  the  assembly  of  the  clergy. 
wort.  He  did  not  succeed  either  in  stemming  the  tide  of 
expense,  nor  in  his  administration,  being  in  no  way 
in  advance  of  his  age,  and  not  perceiving  that  decisive  reform 
could  not  be  achieved  by  a  government  dealing  with  the  nation 
as  though  it  were  inert  and  passive  material,  made  to  obey  and  to 
pay.  Like  a  good  Cartesian  he  conceived  of  the  state  as  an 
immense  machine,  every  portion  of  which  should  receive  its 
impulse  from  outside — that  is  from  him,  Colbert.  Leibnitz  had 
not  yet  taught  that  external  movement  is  nothing,  and  inward 
spirit  everything.  As  the  minister  of  an  ambitious  and  magnifi- 
cent king,  Colbert  was  under  the  hard  necessity  of  sacrificing 
everything  to  the  wars  in  Flanders  and  the  pomp  of  Versailles — 
a  gulf  which  swallowed  up  all  the  country's  wealth; — and, 
amid  a  society  which  might  be  supposed  submissively  docile 
to  the  wishes  of  Louis  XIV.,  he  had  to  retain  the  most  absurd 
financial  laws,  making  the  burden  of  taxation  weigh  heaviest 
on  those  who  had  no  other  resources  than  their  labour,  whilst 
landed  property  escaped  free  of  charge.  Habitual  privation 
during  one  year  in  every  three  drove  the  peasants  to  revolt:  in 
Boulonnais,  the  Pyrenees,  Vivarais,  in  Guyenne  from  1670 
onwards  and  in  Brittany  in  1675.  Cruel  means  of  repression 
assisted  natural  hardships  and  the  carelessness  of  the  administra- 
tion in  depopulating  and  laying  waste  the  countryside;  while 
Louis  XIV. 's  martial  and  ostentatious  policy  was  even  more 
disastrous  than  pestilence  and  famine,  when  Louvois'  advice 
prevailed  in  council  over  that  of  Colbert,  now  embittered  and 
desperate.  The  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  vitiated 
through  a  fatal  contradiction  all  the  efforts  of  the  latter  to 
create  new  manufactures;  the  country  was  impoverished  for 
the  benefit  of  the  foreigner  to  such  a  point  that  economic  condi- 
tions began  to  alarm  those  private  persons  most  noted  for  their 
talents,  their  character,  or  their  regard  for  the  public  welfare; 
such  as  La  Bruyere  and  Fenelon  in  1692,  Bois-Guillebert  in 
1697  and  Vauban  in  1707.  The  movement  attracted  even 
the  ministers,  Boulainvilliers  at  their  head,  who  caused  the 
intendants  to  make  inquiry  into  the  causes  of  this  general 
ruin.  There  was  a  volume  of  attack  upon  Colbert;  but  as  the 
fundamental  system  remained  unchanged,  because  reform  would 
have  necessitated  an  attack  upon  privilege  and  even  upon  the 
constitution  of  the  monarchy,  the  evil  only  went  on  increasing. 
The  social  condition  of  the  time  recalls  that  of  present-day 
Morocco,  in  the  high  price  of  necessaries  and  the  extortions  of 
the  financial  authorities;  every  man  was  either  soldier,  beggar 
or  smuggler. 

Under  Pontchartrain,  Chamillard  and  Desmarets,  the  expenses 
of  the  two  wars  of  1688  and  1701  attained  to  nearly  five  milliards. 
In  order  to  cover  this  recourse  was  had  as  usual,  not  to  remedies, 
but  to  palliatives  worse  than  the  evil:  heavy  usurious  loans, 
debasement  of  the  coinage,  creation  of  stocks  that  were  per- 
petually being  converted,  and  ridiculous  charges  which  the 


bourgeois,  sickened  with  officialdom,  would  endure  no  longer. 
Richelieu  himself  had  hesitated  to  tax  labour;  Louis  XIV.  trod 
the  trade  organizations  under  foot.  It  was  necessary  Recourse 
to  have  recourse  to  revolutionary  measures,  to  direct  to  revoiu- 
taxation,  ignoring  all  class  distinction.  In  1695  the  tloaary 
graduated  poll-tax  was  a  veritable  coup  d'etat  against  * 
privileged  persons,  who  were  equally  brought  under  the  tax; 
in  1710  was  added  the  tithe  (dixieme),  a  tax  upon  income  from 
all  landed  property.  Money  scarce,  men  too  were  lacking; 
the  institution  of  the  militia,  the  first  germ  of  obligatory  enlist- 
ment, was  a  no  less  important  innovation.  But  these  were  only 
provisionary  and  desperate  expedients,  superposed  upon  the 
old  routine,  a  further  charge  in  addition  to  those  already  existing; 
and  this  entirely  mechanical  system,  destructive  of  private 
initiative  and  the  very  sources  of  public  life,  worked  with  diffi- 
culty even  in  time  of  peace.  As  Louis  XIV.  made  war  continually 
the  result  was  the  same  as  in  Spain  under  Philip  II.:  depopula- 
tion and  bankruptcy  within  the  kingdom  and  the  coalitions 
of  Europe  without. 

In  1660  France  was  predominant  in  Europe;  but  she  aroused 
no  jealousy  except  in  the  house  of  Habsburg,  enfeebled  and 
divided  against  itself.  It  was  sufficient  to  remain 
faithful  to  the  practical  policy  of  Henry  IV.,  of 
Richelieu  and  of  Mazarin:  that  of  moderation  in  Louis  xiv, 
strength.  This  Louis  XIV.  very  soon  altered,  while 
yet  claiming  to  continue  it;  he  superseded  it  by  one  principle: 
that  of  replacing  the  proud  tyranny  of  the  Habsburgs  of  Spain  by 
another.  He  claimed  to  lay  down  the  law  everywhere,  in  the 
preliminary  negotiations  between  his  ambassador  and  the 
Spanish  ambassador  in  London,  in  the  affair  of  the  salute  exacted 
from  French  vessels  by  the  English,  and  in  that  of  the  Corsican 
guard  in  Rome;  while  he  proposed  to  become  the  head  of  the 
crusade  against  the  Turks  in  the  Mediterranean  as  in  Hungary. 

The  eclipse  of  the  great  idea  of  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe 
was  no  sudden  affair;  the  most  flourishing  years  of  the  reign 
were  still  enlightened  by  it:  witness  the  repurchase  of  Dunkirk 
from  Charles  II.  in  1662,  the  cession  of  the  duchies  of  Bar  and 
of  Lorraine  and  the  war  against  Portugal.  But  soon  the  partial 
or  total  conquest  of  the  Spanish  inheritance  proved  "  the  grandeur 
of  his  beginnings  and  the  meanness  of  his  end."  Like  Philip 
the  Fair  and  like  Richelieu,  Louis  XIV.  sought  support  for  his 
external  policy  in  that  public  opinion  which  in  internal  matters 
he  held  so  cheap;  and  he  found  equally  devoted  auxiliaries 
in  the  jurists  of  his  parlements. 

It  was  thus  that  the  first  of  his  wars  for  the  extension  of 
frontiers  began,  the  War  of  Devolution.  On  the  death  of  his 
father-in-law,  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  he  transferred 
into  the  realm  of  politics  a  civil  custom  of  inheritance  - 

prevailing  in  Brabant,  and  laid  claim  to  Flanders  in  tioa,i667. 
the  name  of  his  wife  Maria  Theresa.  The  Anglo-Dutch 
War  (1665-1667),  in  which  he  was  by  way  of  supporting  the 
United  Provinces  without  engaging  his  fleet,  retarded  this 
enterprise  by  a  year.  But  after  his  mediation  in  the  treaty  of 
Breda  (July  1667),  when  Hugues  de  Lionne,  secretary  of  state 
for  foreign  affairs,  had  isolated  Spain,  he  substituted  soldiers 
for  the  jurists  and  cannon  for  diplomacy  in  the  matter  of  the 
queen's  rights. 

The  secretary  of  state  for  war,  Michel  le  Tellier,  had  organized 
his  army;  and  thanks  to  his  great  activity  in  reform,  especially 
after  the  Fronde,  Louis  XIV.  found  himself  in  possession  of  an 
army  that  was  well  equipped,  well  clothed,  well  provisioned, 
and  very  different  from  the  rabble  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
fitted  out  by  dishonest  jobbing  contractors.  Severe  discipline, 
suppression  of  fraudulent  interference,  furnishing  of  clothes 
and  equipment  by  the  king,  regulation  of  rank  among  the 
officers,  systematic  revictualling  of  the  army,  settled  means  of 
manufacturing  and  furnishing  arms  and  ammunition,  placing 
of  the  army  under  the  direct  authority  of  the  king,  abolition  of 
great  military  charges,  subordination  of  the  governors  of  strong- 
holds, control  by  the  civil  authority  over  the  soldiers  effected 
by  means  of  paymasters  and  commissaries  of  stores;  all  this 
organization  of  the  royal  army  was  the  work  of  le  Tellier. 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


" 


His  son,  Francois  Michel  le  Tellier,  marquis  de  Louvois,  had 
one  sole  merit,  that  of  being  his  father's  pupil.  A  parvenu  of 
the  middle  classes,  he  was  brutal  in  his  treatment  of  the  lower 
orders  and  a  sycophant  in  his  behaviour  towards  the  powerful; 
prodigiously  active,  ill-obeyed  —  as  was  the  custom  —  but  much 
dreaded.  From  1677  onwards  he  did  but  finish  perfecting  Louis 
XIV.'s  army  in  accordance  with  the  suggestions  left  by  his 
father,  and  made  no  fundamental  changes:  neither  the  definite 
abandonment  of  the  feudal  arriere-ban  and  of  recruiting  —  sources 
of  disorder  and  insubordination  —  nor  the  creation  of  the  militia, 
which  allowed  the  nation  to  penetrate  into  all  the  ranks  of  the 
army,  nor  the  adoption  of  the  gun  with  the  bayonet,  —  which 
was  to  become  the  ultima  ratio  of  peoples  as  the  cannon  was  that 
of  sovereigns,  —  nor  yet  the  uniform,  intended  to  strengthen 
esprit  de  corps,  were  due  to  him.  He  maintained  the  institutions 
of  the  day,  though  seeking  to  diminish  their  abuse,  and  he 
perfected  material  details;  but  misfortune  would  have  it  that 
instead  of  remaining  a  great  military  administrator  he  flattered 
Louis  XIV.'s  megalomania,  and  thus  caused  his  perdition. 

Under  his  orders  Turenne  conquered  Flanders  (June-August 
1667);  and  as  the  queen-mother  of  Spain  would  not  give  in, 
Conde  occupied  Franche  Comte  in  fourteen  days 
The  triple  (February  1668).  But  Europe  rose  up  in  wrath;  the 
"the  Hague  United  Provinces  and  England,  jealous  and  disquieted 
by  this  near  neighbourhood,  formed  with  Sweden 
the  triple  alliance  of  the  Hague  (January  1668),  ostensibly 
to  offer  their  mediation,  though  in  reality  to  prevent  the 
occupation  of  the  Netherlands.  Following  the  advice  of  Colbert 
and  de  Lionne,  Louis  XIV.  appeared  to  accede,  and  by  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  he  preserved  his  conquests  in  Flanders 
(May  1668). 

This  peace  was  neither  sufficient  nor  definite  enough  for  Louis 
XIV.;  and  during  four  years  he  employed  all  his  diplomacy 
to  isolate  the  republic  of  the  United  Provinces  in 
Europe,  as  he  had  done  for  Spain.  He  wanted  to  ruin 
this  nation  both  in  a  military  and  an  economic  sense, 
in  order  to  annex  to  French  Flanders  the  rest  of  the 
Catholic  Netherlands  allotted  to  him  by  a  secret  treaty  for  parti- 
tioning the  Spanish  possessions,  signed  with  his  brother-in-law  the 
emperor  Leopold  on  the  ipth  of  January  1668.  Colbert  —  very 
envious  of  Holland's  wealth  —  prepared  the  finances,  le  Tellier 
the  army  and  de  Lionne  the  alliances.  In  vain  did  the  grand- 
pensionary  of  the  province  of  Holland,  Jan  de  Witt, 
Holiaad.  °^er  concessions  of  all  kinds;  both  England,  bound 
by  the  secret  treaty  of  Dover  (January  1670),  and 
France  had  need  of  this  war.  Avoiding  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands, Louis  XIV.  effected  the  passage  of  the  Rhine  in 
June  1672;  and  the  disarmed  United  Provinces,  which  had  on 
their  side  only  Brandenburg  and  Spain,  were  occupied  in  a  few 
days.  The  brothers  de  Witt,  in  consequence  of  their  fresh  offer 
to  treat  at  any  price,  were  assassinated;  the  broken  dykes  of 
Muiden  arrested  the  victorious  march  of  Conde  and  Turenne; 
while  the  popular  and  military  party,  directed  by  the  stadtholder 
William  of  Orange,  took  the  upper  hand  and  preached  resistance 
to  the  death.  "  The  war  is  over,"  said  the  new  secretary  of 
state  for  foreign  affairs,  Arnauld  de  Pomponne;  but  Louvois 
and  Louis  XIV.  said  no.  The  latter  wished  not  only  to  take 
possession  of  the  Netherlands,  which  were  to  be  given  up  to  him 
with  half  of  the  United  Provinces  and  their  colonial  empire; 
he  wanted  "  to  play  the  Charlemagne,"  to  re-establish  Catholicism 
in  that  country  as  Philip  II.  had  formerly  attempted  to  do, 
to  occupy  all  the  territory  as  far  as  the  Lech,  and  to  exact  an 
annual  oath  of  fealty.  But  the  patriotism  and  the  religious 
fanaticism  of  the  Dutch  revolted  against  this  insupportable 
tyranny.  Power  had  passed  from  the  -hands  of  the  burghers 
of  Amsterdam  into  those  of  William  of  Orange,  who  on  the  3oth 
Peace  ot  of  Au8ust  l673,  profiting  by  the  arrest  of  the  army 
Nijm-  brought  about  by  the  inundation  and  by  the  fears  of 
wegen,  Europe,  joined  in  a  coalition  with  the  emperor,  the 
king  of  Spain,  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  many  of  the 
princes  of  the  Empire,  and  with  England,  now  at  last  enlightened 
as  to  the  projects  of  Catholic  restoration  which  Louis  XIV.  was 


° 


planning  with  Charles  II.  It  was.  necessary  to  evacuate  and 
then  to  settle  with  the  United  Provinces,  and  to  turn  against 
Spain.  After  fighting  for  five  years  against  the  whole  of  Europe 
by  land  and  by  sea,  the  efforts  of  Turenne,  Conde  and  Duquesne 
culminated  at  Nijmwegen  in  fresh  acquisitions  (1678).  Spain 
had  to  cede  to  Louis  XIV.,  Franche  Comte,  Dunkirk  and  half 
of  Flanders.  This  was  another  natural  and  glorious  result 
of  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees.  The  Spanish  monarchy  was 
disarmed. 

But  Louis  XIV.  had  already  manifested  that  unmeasured 
and  restless  passion  for  glory,  that  claim  to  be  the  exclusive 
arbiter  of  western  Europe,  that  blind  and  narrow 
insistence,  which  were  to  bear  out  his  motto  "  Seul 
centre  tons."  Whilst  all  Europe  was  disarming  he 
kept  his  troops,  and  used  peace  as  a  means  of  conquest. 
Under  orders  from  Colbert  de  Croissy  the  jurists  came  upon  the 
scene  once  more,  and  their  unjust  decrees  were  sustained  by 
force  of  arms.  The  Chambres  de  Reunion  sought  for  and  joined 
to  the  kingdom  those  lands  which  were  not  actually  dependent 
upon  his  new  conquests,  but  which  had  formerly  been  so:  such 
as  Saarbriicken,  Deux  Fonts  (Zweibriicken)  and  Montbeliard  in 
1680,  Strassburg  and  Casale  in  1681.  The  power  of  the  house 
of  Habsburg  was  paralysed  by  an  invasion  of  the  Turks,  and 
Louis  XIV.  sent  35,000  men  into  Belgium;  while  Luxemburg 
was  occupied  by  Crequi  and  Vauban.  The  truce  of  Ratisbon 
(Regensburg)  imposed  upon  Spain  completed  the  work  of  the 
peace  of  Nijmwegen  (1684);  and  thenceforward  Louis  XIV.'s 
terrified  allies  avoided  his  clutches  while  making  ready  to  fight 
him.  i 

This  was  the  moment  chosen  by  Louis  XIV.'s  implacable 
enemy,  William  of  Orange,  to  resume  the  war.  His  surprise 
of  Marshal  Luxembourg  near  Mons,  after  the  signature 
of  the  peace  of  Nijmwegen,  had  proved  that  in  his  eyes 
war  was  the  basis  of  his  authority  in  Holland  and 
in  Europe.  His  sole  arm  of  support  amidst  all  his  allies  was  not 
the  English  monarchy,  sold  to  Louis  XIV.,  but  Protestant 
England,  jealous  of  France  and  uneasy  about  her  independence. 
Being  the  husband  of  the  duke  of  York's  daughter,  he  had  an 
understanding  in  this  country  with  Sunderland,  Godolphin  and 
Temple  —  a  party  whose  success  was  retarded  for  several  years 
by  the  intrigues  of  Shaf  tesbury.  But  Louis  XIV.  added  mistake 
to  mistake;  and  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  added 
religious  hatreds  to  political  jealousies.  At  the  same  time  the 
Catholic  powers  responded  by  the  league  of  Augsburg 
(July  1686)  to  his  policy  of  unlimited  aggrandisement. 
The  unsuccessful  attempts  of  Louis  XIV.  to  force 
his  partisan  Cardinal  Wilhelm  Egon  von  Furstenberg  (sec 
FURSTENBERG:  House)  into  the  electoral  see  of  Cologne;  the 
bombardment  of  Genoa;  the  humiliation  of  the  pope  in  Rome 
itself  by  the  marquis  de  Lavardin;  the  seizure  of  the  Huguenot 
emigrants  at  Mannheim,  and  their  imprisonment  at  Vincennes 
under  pretext  of  a  plot,  precipitated  the  conflict.  The  question 
of  the  succession  in  the  Palatinate,  where  Louis  XIV.  supported 
the  claims  of  his  sister-in-law  the  duchess  of  Orleans,  gave  the 
signal  for  a  general  war.  The  French  armies  devastated  the 
Palatinate  instead  of  attacking  William  of  Orange  in  the  Nether- 
lands, leaving  him  free  to  disembark  at  Torbay,  usurp  the  throne 
of  England,  and  construct  the  Grand  Alliance  of  1689. 

Far  from  reserving  all  his  forces  for  an  important  struggle 
elsewhere,  foreshadowed  by  the  approaching  death  of  Charles  II. 
of  Spain,  Louis  XIV.,  isolated  in  his  turn,  committed 
the  error  of  wasting  it  for  a  space  of  ten  years  in  a  War°itlte 
war  of  conquest  ,  by  which  he  alienated  all  that  remained  Alliance. 
to  him  of  European  sympathy.     The  French  armies, 
notwithstanding  the  disappearance  of  Conde  and  Turenne,  had 
still  glorious  days  before  them  with  Luxembourg  at  Fleurus,  at 
Steenkirk  and  at  Neerwinden  (1690-1693),  and  with  Catinat 
in  Piedmont,  at  Staffarda,  and  at  Marsaglia;  but  these  successes 
alternated  with  reverses.     Tourville's  fleet,  victorious  at  Beachy 
Head,  came  to  grief  at  La  Hogue  (1692);  and  though  the  ex* 
peditions  to  Ireland  in  favour  of  James  II.  were  unsuccessful, 
thanks  to  the  Huguenot  Schomberg,  Jean  Bart  and  Duguay- 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


845 


Trouin  ruined  Anglo-Dutch  maritime  commerce.  Louis  XIV. 
assisted  in  person  at  the  sieges  of  Mons  and  Namur,  operations 
for  which  he  had  a  liking,  because,  like  Louvois,  who  died  in 
1691,  he  thought  little  of  the  French  soldiery  in  the  open  field. 
After  three  years  of  strife,  ruinous  to  both  sides,  he  made  the  first 
overtures  of  peace,  thus  marking  an  epoch  in  his  foreign  policy; 
though  William  took  no  unfair  advantage  of  this,  remaining 
content  with  the  restitution  of  places  taken  by  the  Chambres  de 
Reunion,  except  Strassburg,  with  a  frontier-line  of  fortified 
places  for  the  Dutch,  and  with  the  official  deposition 
^s^fct.  of  the  Stuarts.  But  the  treaty  of  Ryswick  (1697) 
marked  the  condemnation  of  the  policy  pursued 
since  that  of  Nijmwegen.  While  signing  this  peace  Louis  XIV. 
was  only  thinking  of  the  succession  in  Spain.  By  partitioning 
her  in  advance  with  the  other  strong  powers,  England  and 
Holland,  by  means  of  the  treaties  of  the  Hague  and  of  London 
(1698-1699), — as  he  had  formerly  done  with  the  emperor  in 
1668, — he  seemed  at  first  to  wish  for  a  pacific  solution  of  the  eternal 
conflict  between  the  Habsburgs  and  the  Bourbons,  and  to  restrict 
himself  to  the  perfecting  of  his  natural  frontiers;  but  on  the 
death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain  (1700)  he  claimed  everything  in 
favour  of  his  grandson,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  now  appointed 
universal  heir,  though  risking  the  loss  of  all  by  once  more  letting 
himself  fall  into  imprudent  and  provocative  action  in  the  dynastic 
interest. 

English  public  opinion,  desirous  of  peace,  had  forced  William 
III.  to  recognize  Philip  V.  of  Spain;  but  Louis  XIV.'s  mainten- 
Warofthe  ance  °*  tne  eventual  right  of  his  grandson  to  the  crown 
Spanish  of  France,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Dutch,  who  had 
Suites-  not  recognized  Philip  V.,  from  the  Barrier  towns, 
sloo.  brought  about  the  Grand  Alliance  of  1701  between 

the  maritime  Powers  and  the  court  of  Vienna,  desirous  of  parti- 
tioning the  inheritance  of  Charles  II.  The  recognition  of  the  Old 
Pretender  as  James  III.,  king  of  England,  was  only  a  response 
to  the  Grand  Alliance,  but  it  drew  the  English  Tories  into  an 
inevitable  war.  Despite  the  death  of  William  III.  (March  19, 
1702)  his  policy  triumphed,  and  in  this  war,  the  longest  in  the 
reign,  it  was  the  names  of  the  enemy's  generals,  Prince  Eugene 
of  Savoy,  Mazarin's  grand-nephew,  and  the  duke  of  Marlborough, 
which  sounded  in  the  ear,  instead  of  Conde,  Turenne  and 
Luxembourg.  Although  during  the  first  campaigns  (1701-1703) 
in  Italy,  in  Germany  and  in  the  Netherlands  success  was  equally 
balanced,  the  successors  of  Villars — thanks  to  the  treason  of  the 
duke  of  Savoy — were  defeated  at  Hochstadt  and  Landau,  and 
were  reduced  to  the  defensive  (1704).  In  1706  the  defeats  at 
Ramillies  and  Turin  led  to  the  evacuation  of  the  Netherlands 
and  Italy,  and  endangered  the  safety  of  Dauphine.  In  1708 
Louis  XIV.  by  a  supreme  effort  was  still  able  to  maintain  his 
armies;  but  the  rout  at  Oudenarde,  due  to  the  misunderstanding 
between  the  duke  of  Burgundy  and  Vendome,  left  the  northern 
frontier  exposed,  and  the  cannons  of  the  Dutch  were  heard  at 
Marly.  Louis  XIV.  had  to  humble  himself  to  the  extent  of  asking 
the  Dutch  for  peace;  but  they  forgot  the  lesson  of  1673,  and 
revolted  by  their  demands  at  the  Hague,  he  made  a  last  appeal 
to  arms  and  to  the  patriotism  of  his  subjects  at  Malplaquet 
(September  1709).  After  this  came  invasion.  Nature  herself 
conspired  with  the  enemy  in  the  disastrous  winter  of  1709. 

What  saved  Louis  XIV.  was  not  merely  his  noble  constancy  of 
resolve,  the  firmness  of  the  marquis  de  Torcy,  secretary  of  state 
for  foreign  affairs,  the  victory  of  Vendome  at  Villaviciosa,  nor 
the  loyalty  of  his  people.  The  interruption  of  the  conferences 
at  Gertruydenberg  having  obliged  the  Whigs  and  Marlborough  to 
resign  their  power  into  the  hands  of  the  Tories,  now  sick  of  war, 
the  death  of  the  emperor  Joseph  I.  (April  1711),  which  risked 
the  reconstruction  of  Charles  V.'s  colossal  and  unwieldy  monarchy 
upon  the  shoulders  of  the  archduke  Charles,  and  Marshal  Villars' 
famous  victory  of  Denain  (July  1712)  combined  to  render  possible 
the  treaties  of  Utrecht,  Rastatt  and  Baden  (1713-1714). 
These  8ave  Italv  and  the  Netherlands  to  the  Habsburgs, 
Spain  and  her  colonies  to  the  Bourbons,  the  places  on 
the  coast  and  the  colonial  commerce  to  England  (who 
had  the  lion's  share),  and  a  royal  crown  to  the  duke  of  Savoy 


and  the  elector  of  Brandenburg.  The  peace  of  Utrecht  was  to 
France  what  the  peace  of  Westphalia  had  been  to  Austria,  and 
curtailed  the  former  acquisitions  of  Louis  XIV. 

The  ageing  of  the  great  king  was  betrayed  not  only  by  the 
fortune  of  war  in  the  hands  of  Villeroy,  la  Feuillade,  or  Marsin; 
disgrace  and  misery  at  home  were  worse  than  defeat.  Bad  of 
By  the  strange  and  successive  deaths  of  the  Grand  Louis 
Dauphin  (1711),  the  duke  and  duchess  of  Burgundy  xiv.'* 
(1712) — who  had  been  the  only  joy  of  the  old  monarch  reif. 
— and  of  his  two  grandsons  (1712-1714),  it  seemed  as  though  his 
whole  family  were  involved  under  the  same  curse.  The  court, 
whose  sentimental  history  has  been  related  by  Madame  de  la 
Fayette,  its  official  splendours  by  Loret,  and  its  intrigues  by  the 
due  de  Saint-Simon,  now  resembled  an  infirmary  of  morose 
invalids,  presided  over  by  Louis  XIV.'s  elderly  wife,  Madame 
de  Maintenon,  under  the  domination  of  the  Jesuit  le  Tellier. 
Neither  was  it  merely  the  clamours  of  the  people  that  arose  against 
the  monarch.  All  the  more  remarkable  spirits  of  the  time,  like 
prophets  in  Israel,  denounced  a  tyranny  which  put  Chamillart 
at  the  head  of  the  finances  because  he  played  billiards  well,  and 
Villeroy  in  command  of  the  armies  although  he  was  utterly 
untrustworthy;  which  sent  the  "  patriot  "  Vauban  into  disgrace, 
banished  from  the  court  Catinat,  the  Pere  la  Pensee,  "  exiled  " 
to  Cambrai  the  too  clear  sighted  Fenelon,  and  suspected  Racine 
of  Jansenism  and  La  Fontaine  of  independence. 

Disease  and  famine;  crushing  imposts  and  extortions; 
official  debasement  of  the  currency;  bankruptcy;  state  prisons; 
religious  and  political  inquisition;  suppression  of  all  institutions 
for  the  safe-guarding  of  rights;  tyranny  by  the  intendants; 
royal,  feudal  and  clerical  oppression  burdening  every  faculty 
and  every  necessary  of  life;  "  monstrous  and  incurable  luxury  "; 
the  horrible  drama  of  poison;  the  twofold  adultery  of  Madame  de 
Montespan;  and  the  narrow  bigotry  of  Madame  de  Maintenon — 
all  concurred  to  make  the  end  of  the  reign  a  sad  contrast  with  the 
splendour  of  its  beginning.  When  reading  Moliere  and  Racine, 
Bossuet  and  Fenelon,  the  campaigns  of  Turenne,  or  Colbert's 
ordinances;  when  enumerating  the  countless  literary  and 
scientific  institutions  of  the  great  century;  when  considering  the 
port  of  Brest,  the  Canal  du  Midi,  Perrault's  colonnade  of  the 
Louvre,  Mansart's  Invalides  and  the  palace  of  Versailles,  and 
Vauban's  fine  fortifications — admiration  is  kindled  for  the 
radiant  splendour  of  Louis  XIV.'s  period.  But  the  art  and 
literature  expressed  by  the  genius  of  the  masters,  reflected  in  the 
tastes  of  society,  and  to  be  taken  by  Europe  as  a  model  throughout 
a  whole  century,  are  no  criterion  of  the  social  and  political  order 
of  the  day.  They  were  but  a  magnificent  drapery  of  pomp  and 
glory  thrown  across  a  background  of  poverty,  ignorance,  super- 
stition, hypocrisy  and  cruelty;  remove  it,  and  reality  appears  in 
all  its  brutal  and  sinister  nudity.  The  corpse  of  Louis  XIV., 
left  to  servants  for  disposal,  and  saluted  all  along  the  road  to 
Saint  Denis  by  the  curses  of  a  noisy  crowd  sitting  in  the  cabarets, 
celebrating  his  death  by  drinking  more  than  their  fill  as  a  com- 
pensation for  having  suffered  too  much  from  hunger  during  his 
lifetime — such  was  the  coarse  but  sincere  epitaph  which  popular 
opinion  placed  on  the  tomb  of  the  "  Grand  Monarque."  The 
nation,  restive  under  his  now  broken  yoke,  received  with  a 
joyous  anticipation,  which  the  future  was  to  discount,  the  royal 
infant  whom  they  called  Louis  the  Well-beloved,  and  whose 
funeral  sixty  years  later  was  to  be  greeted  with  the  same  proofs 
of  disillusionment. 

The  death  of  Louis  XIV.  closed  a  great  era  of  French  history; 
the  i8th  century  opens  upon  a  crisis  for  the  monarchy.  From 
1715  to  1723  came  the  reaction  of  the  Regency,  with  its  character 
marvellous  effrontery,  innovating  spirit  and  frivolous  otthe 
immorality.  From  1723  to  1743  came  the  mealy-  eighteenth 
mouthed  despotism  of  Cardinal  Fleury,  and  his  centl"y- 
apathetic  policy  within  and  without  the  kingdom.  From  1743 
to  1 7  74  came  the  personal  rule  of  Louis  XV. ,  when  all  the  different 
powers  were  in  conflict — the  bishops  and  parlement  quarrelling, 
the  government  fighting  against  the  clergy  and  the  magistracy, 
and  public  opinion  in  declared  opposition  to  the  state.  Till  at 
last,  from  1774  to  1789,  came  Louis  XVI.  with  his  honest  illusions. 


846 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


his  moral  pusillanimity  and  his  intellectual  impotence,  to 
aggravate  still  further  the  accumulated  errors  of  ages  and  to 
prepare  for  the  inevitable  Revolution. 

The  i8th  century,  like  the  I7th,  opened  with  a  political 
coup  d'etat.  Louis  XV.  was  five  years  old,  and  the  duke  of 
The  Orleans  held  the  regency.  But  Louis  XIV.  had  in  his 

Regency  will  delegated  all  the  power  of  the  government  to  a 
(1715-  council  on  which  the  duke  of  Maine,  his  legitimated 
I723)'  son,  had  the  first,  but  Madame  de  Maintenon  and  the 
Jesuits  the  predominant  place.  This  collective  administration, 
designed  to  cripple  the  action  of  the  regent,  encountered  a  two- 
fold opposition  from  the  nobles  and  the  parlement;  but  on  the 
2nd  of  September  1715  the  emancipated  parlement  set  aside 
the  will  in  favour  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  who  thus  together 
with  the  title  of  regent  had  all  the  real  power.  He  therefore 
reinstituted  the  parlement  in  its  ancient  right  of  remonstrance 
(suspended  since  the  declarations  of  1667  and  1673),  and  handed 
over  ministerial  power  to  the  nobility,  replacing  the  secretaries 
of  state  by  six  councils  composed  in  part  of  great  nobles,  on  the 
advice  of  the  famous  due  de  Saint-Simon.  The  due  de  Noailles, 
president  of  the  council  of  finance,  had  the  direction  of  this 
"  Polysynodie." 

The  duke  of  Orleans,  son  of  the  princess  palatine  and  Louis 
XIV.'s  brother,  possessed  many  gifts — courage,  intelligence 

and  agility  of  mind — but  he  lacked  the  one  gift  of 
Orieaa"  using  these  to  good  advantage.  The  political  crisis 

that  had  placed  him  in  power  had  not  put  an  end  to 
the  financial  crisis,  and  this,  it  was  hoped,  might  be  effected  by 
substituting  partial  and  petty  bankruptcies  for  the  general 
bankruptcy  cynically  advocated  by  Saint-Simon.  The  reduction 
of  the  royal  revenues  did  not  suffice  to  fill  the  treasury;  while 
the  establishment  of  a  chamber  of  justice  (March  1716)  had  no 
other  result  than  that  of  demoralizing  the  great  lords  and  ladies 
already  mad  for  pleasure,  by  bringing  them  into  contact  with 
the  farmers  of  the  revenue  who  purchased  impunity  from  them. 
A  very  clever  Scotch  adventurer  named  John  Law  (q.v.)  now 
offered  his  assistance  in  dealing  with  the  enormous  debt  of  more 
than  three  milliards,  and  in  providing  the  treasury.  Being  well 
acquainted  with  the  mechanism  of  banking,  he  had  adopted 
views  as  to  cash,  credit  and  the  circulation  of  values  which 
contained  an  admixture  of  truth  and  falsehood.  Authorized 
after  many  difficulties  to  organize  a  private  bank  of  deposit  and 
account,  which  being  well  conceived  prospered  and  revived 
commerce,  Law  proposed  to  lighten  the  treasury  by  the  profits 
accruing  to  a  great  maritime  and  colonial  company.  Payment 
for  the  shares  in  this  new  Company  of  the  West,  with  a  capital 
of  a  hundred  millions,  was  to  be  made  in  credit  notes  upon  the 
government,  converted  into  4%  stock.  These  aggregated 
funds,  needed  to  supply  the  immense  and  fertile  valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  the  annuities  of  the  treasury  destined  to  pay 
for  the  shares,  were  non-transferable.  Law's  idea  was  to  ask  the 
bank  for  the  floating  capital  necessary,  so  that  the  bank  and  the 
Company  of  the  West  were  to  be  supplementary  to  each  other; 
this  is  what  was  called  Law's  system.  After  the  chancellor 
D'Aguesseau  and  the  due  de  Noailles  had  been  replaced  by 
D'Argenson  alone,  and  after  the  lit  de  justice  of  the  26th  of 
August  1718  had  deprived  the  parlement,  hostile  to  Law,  of  the 
authority  left  to  it,  the  bank  became  royal  and  the  Company 
of  the  West  universal.  But  the  royal  bank,  as  a  state  establish- 
ment, asked  for  compulsory  privilege  to  increase  the  emission 
of  its  credit  notes,  and  that  they  should  receive  a  premium  upon 
all  metallic  specie.  The  Company  of  the  Indies  became  the 
grantee  for  the  farming  of  tobacco,  the  coinage  of  metals,  and 
farming  in  general;  and  in  order  to  procure  funds  it  multiplied 
the  output  of  shares,  which  were  adroitly  launched  and  became 
more  and  more  sought  for  on  the  exchange  in  the  rue  Quin- 
campoix.  This  soon  caused  a  frenzy  of  stock-jobbing,  which 
disturbed  the  stability  of  private  fortunes  and  social  positions, 
and  depraved  customs  and  manners  with  the  seductive  notion 
of  easily  obtained  riches.  The  nomination  of  Law  to  the  con- 
troller-generalship, re-established  for  his  benefit  on  the  resignation 
of  D'Argenson  (January  5, 1 720),  let  loose  still  wilder  speculation ; 


till  the  day  came  when  he  could  no  longer  face  the  terrible 
difficulty  of  meeting  both  private  irredeemable  shares  with  a 
variable  return,  and  the  credit  notes  redeemable  at  sight  and 
guaranteed  by  the  state.  Gold  and  silver  were  proscribed; 
the  bank  and  the  company  were  joined  in  one;  the  credit  notes 
and  the  shares  were  assimilated.  But  credit  cannot  be  com- 
manded either  by  violence  or  by  expedients;  between  July 
and  September  1720  came  the  suspension  of  payments,  the 
flight  of  Law,  and  the  disastrous  liquidation  which  proved  once 
again  that  respect  for  the  state's  obligations  had  not  yet  entered 
into  the  law  of  public  finance. 

Reaction  on  a  no  less  extensive  scale  characterized  foreign 
policy  during  the  Regency.  A  close  alliance  between  France 
and  her  ancient  enemies,  England  and  Holland,  was  yfie 
concluded  and  maintained  from  1717  to  1739:  France,  Anglo- 
after  thirty  years  of  fighting,  between  two  periods  of  Dutch 
bankruptcy;  Holland  reinstalled  in  her  commercial  Aaia°ce. 
position;  and  England,  seeing  before  her  the  beginning  of  her 
empire  over  the  seas — all  three  had  an  interest  in  peace.  On  the 
other  hand,  peace  was  imperilled  by  Philip  V.  of  Spain  and  by 
the  emperor  (who  had  accepted  the  portion  assigned  to  them 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  while  claiming  the  whole),  by  Savoy 
and  Brandenburg  (who  had  profited  too  much  by  European 
conflicts  not  to  desire  their  perpetuation),  by  the  crisis  from 
which  the  maritime  powers  of  the  Baltic  were  suffering,  and  by 
the  Turks  on  the  Danube.  The  dream  of  Cardinal  Alberoni, 
Philip  V.'s  minister,  was  to  set  fire  to  all  this  inflammable 
material  in  order  to  snatch  therefrom  a  crown  of  some  sort  to 
satisfy  the  maternal  greed  of  Elizabeth  Farnese;  and  this  he 
might  have  attained  by  the  occupation  of  Sardinia  and  the 
expedition  to  Sicily  (1717-1718),  if  Dubois,  a  priest  without  a 
religion,  a  greedy  parvenu  and  a  diplomatist  of  second  rank, 
though  tenacious  and  full  of  resources  as  a  minister,  had  not 
placed  his  common  sense  at  the  disposal  of  the  regent's  interests 
and  those  of  European  peace.  He  signed  the  triple  alliance  at 
the  Hague,  succeeding  with  the  assistance  of  Stanhope,  the 
English  minister,  in  engaging  the  emperor  therein,  after  attempt- 
ing this  for  a  year  and  a  half.  Whilst  the  Spanish  fleet  was 
destroyed  before  Syracuse  by  Admiral  Byng,  the  intrigue  of 
the  Spanish  ambassador  Cellamare  with  the  duke  of  Maine  to 
exclude  the  family  of  Orleans  from  the  succession  on  Louis  XV. 's 
death  was  discovered  and  repressed;  and  Marshal  Berwick 
burned  the  dockyards  at  Pasajes  in  Spain.  Alberoni's  dream 
was  shattered  by  the  treaty  of  London  in  1720. 

Seized  in  his  turn  with  a  longing  for  the  cardinal's  hat,  Dubois 
paid  for  it  by  the  registering  of  the  bull  Unigenitus  and  by  the 
persecution  of  the  Jansenists  which  the  regent  had  stopped. 
After  the  majority  of  Louis  XV.  had  been  proclaimed  on  the  i6th 
of  February  1723,  Dubois  was  the  first  to  depart;  and  four 
months  after  his  disappearance  the  duke  of  Orleans,  exhausted 
by  his  excesses,  carried  with  him  into  the  grave  that  spirit  of 
reform  which  he  had  compromised  by  his  frivolous  voluptuous- 
ness (December  2,  1723). 

The  Regency  had  been  the  making  of  the  house  of  Orleans; 
thenceforward  the  question  was  how  to  humble  it,  and  the  due 
de  Bourbon,  now  prime  minister — a  great-grandson  ministry 
of  the  great  Conde,  but  a  narrow-minded  man  of  of  the 
limited  intelligence,  led  by  a  worthless  woman —  ttucde 
set  himself  to  do  so.  The  marquise  de  Prie  was  the 
first  of  a  series  of  publicly  recognized  mistresses;  from  1723 
to  1726  she  directed  foreign  policy  and  internal  affairs  despite 
the  king's  majority,  moved  always  more  by  a  spirit  of  vengeance 
than  by  ambition.  This  sad  pair  were  dominated  by  the  self- 
interested  and  continual  fear  of  becoming  subject  to  the  son  of 
the  Regent,  whom  they  detested;  but  danger  came  upon  them 
from  elsewhere.  They  found  standing  in  their  way  the  very 
man  who  had  been  the  author  of  their  fortunes,  Louis  XV. 's 
tutor,  uneasy  in  the  exercise  of  a  veiled  authority;  for  the 
churchman  Fleury  knew  how  to  wait,  on  condition  of  ultimately 
attaining  his  end.  Neither  the  festivities  given  at  Chantilly 
in  honour  of  the  king,  nor  the  dismissal  (despite  the  most  solemn 
promises)  of  the  Spanish  infanta,  who  had  been  betrothed 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


847 


to  Louis  XV.,  nor  yet  the  young  king's  marriage  to  Maria 
Leszczynska  (1725) — a  marriage  negotiated  by  the  marquise 
de  Prie  in  order  to  bar  the  throne  from  the  Orleans  family — 
could  alienate  the  sovereign  from  his  old  master.  The  irritation 
kept  up  by  the  agents  of  Philip  V.,  incensed  by  this  affront, 
and  the  discontent  aroused  by  the  institutions  of  the  cinquantieme 
and  the  militia,  by  the  re-establishment  of  the  feudal  tax  on 
Louis  XV.'s  joyful  accession,  and  by  the  resumption  of  a  persecu- 
tion of  the  Protestants  and  the  Jansenists  which  had  apparently 
died  out,  were  cleverly  exploited  by  Fleury;  and  a  last  ill-timed 
attempt  by  the  queen  to  separate  the  king  from  him  brought 
about  the  fall  of  the  due  de  Bourbon,  very  opportunely  for 
France,  in  June  1726. 

From  the  hands  of  his  unthinking  pupil  Fleury  eventually 
received  the  supreme  direction  of  affairs,  which  he  retained  for 
Cardinal  seventeen  years.  He  was  aged  seventy-two  when 
Fleury,  he  thus  obtained  the  power  which  had  been  his  un- 
1726-  measured  though  not  ill-calculated  ambition.  Soft- 

1743'  spoken  and  polite,  crafty  and  suspicious,  he  was 

pacific  by  temperament  and  therefore  allowed  politics  to  slumber. 
His  turn  for  economics  made  Orry,1  the  controller-general  of 
finance,  for  long  his  essential  partner.  The  latter  laboured  at 
re-establishing  order  in  fiscal  affairs;  and  various  measures 
like  the  impost  of  the  dixieme  upon  all  property  save  that  of  the 
clergy,  together  with  the  end  of  the  corn  famine,  sufficed  to 
restore  a  certain  amount  of  well-being.  Religious  peace  was 
more  difficult  to  secure;  in  fact  politico-religious  quarrels 
dominated  all  the  internal  policy  of  the  kingdom  during  forty 
years,  and  gradually  compromised  the  royal  authority.  The 
Jesuits,  returned  to  power  in  1723  with  the  due  de  Bourbon 
and  in  1726  with  Fleury,  rekindled  the  old  strife  regarding  the 
bull  Unigenitus  in  opposition  to  the  Gallicans  and  the  Jansenists. 
•  The  retractation  imposed  upon  Cardinal  de  Noailles,  and  his 
replacement  in  the  archbishopric  of  Paris  by  Vintimille,  an 
unequivocal  Molinist,  excited  among  the  populace  a  very 
violent  agitation  against  the  court  of  Rome  and  the  Jesuits, 
the  prelude  to  a  united  Fronde  of  the  Sorbonne  and  the  parlement. 
Fleury  found  no  other  remedy  for  this  agitation — in  which 
appeal  was  made  even  to  miracles — than  lits  de  justice  and  leltres 
de  cachet;  Jansenism  remained  a  potent  source  of  trouble 
within  the  heart  of  Catholicism. 

This  worn-out  septuagenarian,  who  prized  rest  above  every- 
thing, imported  into  foreign  policy  the  same  mania  for  economy 
and  the  same  sloth  in  action.  He  naturally  adopted 
Fieury's  ^jje  j(jea  of  reconciling  Louis  XIV.'s  descendants, 
policy"  who  had  all  been  embroiled  ever  since  the  Polish 
marriage.  He  succeeded  in  this  by  playing  very 
adroitly  on  the  ambition  of  Elizabeth  Farnese  and  her  husband 
Philip  V.,  who  was  to  reign  in  France  notwithstanding 
any  renunciation  that  might  have  taken  place.  Despite 
the  birth  of  a  dauphin  (September  1729),  which  cut  short  the 
Spanish  intrigues,  the  reconciliation  was  a  lasting  one  (treaty  of 
Seville) ;  it  led  to  common  action  in  Italy,  and  to  the  installation 
of  Spanish  royalties  at  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  soon  after  at 
Naples.  Fleury,  supported  by  the  English  Hanoverian  alliance, 
to  which  he  sacrificed  the  French  navy,  obliged  the  emperor 
Charles  VI.  to  sacrifice  the  trade  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands  to 
the  maritime  powers  and  Central  Italy  to  the  Bourbons,  in 
order  to  gain  recognition  for  his  Pragmatic  Sanction.  The 
question  of  the  succession  in  France  lay  dormant  until  the  end 
of  the  century,  and  Fleury  thought  he  had  definitely  obtained 
peace  in  the  treaty  of  Vienna  (1731). 

The  war  of  the  Polish  succession  proved  him  to  have  been 
deceived.  On  the  death  of  Augustus  II.  of  Saxony,  king  of 
Poland,  Louis  XV.'s  father-in-law  had  been  proclaimed  king  by 
the  Polish  diet.  This  was  an  ephemeral  success,  ill-prepared 
and  obtained  by  taking  a  sudden  advantage  of  national  senti- 
ment ;  it  was  soon  followed  by  a  check,  owing  to  a  Russian  and 

'Jean  Orry  Louis  Orry  de  Fulvy  (1703-1751),  counsel  to  the 
parlement  in  1723,  intendant  of  finances  in  1737,  founded  at  Vincennes 
the  manufactory  of  porcelain  which  was  bought  in  175°  by  the 
farmers  general  and  transferred  to  Sevres. 


German  coalition  and  the  baseness  of  Cardinal  Fleury,  who,  in 
order  to  avoid  intervening,  pretended  to  tremble  before  an 
imaginary  threat  of  reprisals  on  the  part  of  England. 
But  Chauvelin,  the  keeper  of  the  seals,  supported  by  p,,//.,/, 
public  opinion,  avenged  on  the  Rhine  and  the  Po  the  Succes- 
unlucky  heroism  of  the  comte  de  Plelo  at  Danzig,2  the  ^°°  <-t733' 
vanished  dream  of  the  queen,  the  broken  word  of  Louis 
XV.,  and  the  treacherous  abandonment  of  Poland.     Fleury  never 
forgave  him  for  this:  Chauvelin  had  checkmated  him  with  war; 
he  checkmated  Chauvelin  with  peace,  and  hastened  to  replace 
Marshals   Berwick   and    Villars   by   diplomatists.     The   third 
treaty  of  Vienna  (1738),  the  reward  of  so  much  effort,  would  only 
have  claimed  for  France  the  little  duchy  of  Bar,  had  not  Chauvelin 
forced  Louis  XV.  to  obtain  Lorraine  for  his  father-in-law — still 
hoping  for  the  reversion  of  the  crown;  but  Fleury  thus  rendered 
impossible  any  influence  of  the  queen,  and  held  Stanislaus  at 
his  mercy.     In  order  to  avenge  himself  upon  Chauvelin  he 
sacrificed  him  to  the  cabinets  of  Vienna  and  London,  alarmed 
at  seeing  him  revive  the  national  tradition  in  Italy. 

Fleury  hardly  had  time  to  breathe  before  a  new  conflagration 
broke  out  in  the  east.     The  Russian  empress  Anne  and  the 
emperor  Charles  VI.  had  planned  to  begin  dismember- 
ing the  Turkish  empire.     More  fortunate  than  Plelo,     g*gtero 
Villeneuv'e,  the  French  ambassador  at  Constantinople,     question. 
endeavoured   to  postpone  this  event,  and  was  well 
supported;  he  revived  the  courage  of  the  Turks  and  provided 
them  with  arms,  thanks  to  the  comte  de  Bonneval  (q.v.),  one 
of  those  adventurers  of  high  renown  whose  influence  in  Europe 
during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  is  one  of  the 
most  piquant  features  of  that  period.     The  peace  of  Belgrade 
(September  1739)  was,  by  its  renewal  of  the  capitulations,  a 
great  material  success  for  France,  and  a  great  moral  victory  by 
the  rebuff  to  Austria  and  Russia. 

France  had  become  once  more  the- arbiter  of  Europe,  when 
the  death  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  in  1740  opened  up  a  new 
period  of  wars  and  misfortunes  for  Europe  and  for  jyaro/f/,e 
the  pacific  Fleury.  E  very  one  had  signed  Charles  VI. 's  Austrian 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  proclaiming  the  succession-rights  Succes- 
of  his  daughter,  the  archduchess  Maria  Theresa;  but  sloa' 
on  his  death  there  was  a  general  renunciation  of  signatures 
and  an  attempt  to  divide  the  heritage.  The  safety  of  the 
house  of  Austria  depended  on  the  attitude  of  France;  for 
Austria  could  no  longer  harm  her.  Fieury's  inclination  was 
not  to  misuse  France's  traditional  policy  by  exaggerating  it, 
but  to  respect  his  sworn  word;  he  dared  not  press  his  opinion, 
however,  and  yielded  to  the  fiery  impatience  of  young  hot-heads 
like  the  two  Belle-Isles,  and  of  all  those  who,  infatuated  by 
Frederick  II.,  felt  sick  of  doing  nothing  at  Versailles  and  were 
backed  up  by  Louis  XV.'s  bellicose  mistresses.  He  had  to 
experience  the  repeated  defections  of  Frederick  II.  in  his  own 
interests,  and  the  precipitate  retreat  from  Bohemia.  He  had  to 
humble  himself  before  Austria  and  the  whole  of  Europe;  and  it 
was  high  time  for  Fleury,  now  fallen  into  second  childhood,  to 
vanish  from  the  scene  (January  1743). 

Louis  XV.  was  at  last  to  become  his  own  prime  minister 
and  to  reign  alone;  but  in  reality  he  was  more  embarrassed 
than  pleased  by  the  responsibility  incumbent  upon  him. 
He  therefore  retained  the  persons  who  had  composed 
Fieury's  staff;  though  instead  of  being  led  by  a  single 
one  of  them,  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  several,  who 
disputed  among  themselves  for  the  ascendancy:  Maurepas, 
incomparable  in  little  things,  but  neglectful  of  political  affairs; 
D'Argenson,  bold,  and  strongly  attached  to  his  work  as  minister 

2  Louis  Robert  Hippolyte  de  Brehan,  comte  de  Plelo  (1699-1734), 
a  Breton  by  birth,  originally  a  soldier,  was  at  the  time  of  the  siege 
of  Danzig  French  ambassador  to  Denmark.  Enraged  at  the  return 
to  Copenhagen,  without  having  done  anything,  of  the  French  force 
sent  to  help  Stanislaus,  he  himself  led  it  back  to  Danzig  and  fell  in  an 
attack  on  the  Russians  on  the  27th  of  May  1734.  Plelo  was  a  poet 
of  considerable  charm,  and  well-read  both  in  science  and  literature. 

See  Marquis  de  Brehan,  Le  Comte  de  Plelo  (Nantes,  1874);  R. 
Rathery,  Le  Comte  de  Plelo  (Paris,  1876);  and  P.  Boye,  Stanislaus 
Leszczynski  et  le  troisieme  traite  de  Vienne  (Paris,  1898). 


848 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


Pompa- 
dour. 


of  war;  and  the  cardinal  de  Tencin,  a  frivolous  and  worldly 
priest.  Old  Marshal  de  Noailles  tried  to  incite  Louis  XV.  to 
take  his  kingship  in  earnest,  thinking  to  cure  him  by  war  of  his 
effeminate  passions^  and,  in  the  spring  of  1744,  the  king's 
grave  illness  at  Metz'gave  a  momentary  hope  of  reconciliation 
between  him  and  the  deserted  queen.  But  the  due  de  Richelieu, 
a  roue  who  had  joined  hands  with  the  sisters  of  the  house  of 
Nesle  and  was  jealous  of  Marshal  de  Noailles,  soon  regained 
his  lost  ground;  and,  under  the  influence  of  this  panderer  to 
his  pleasures,  Louis  XV.  settled  down  into  a  life  of  vice.  Holding 
aloof  from  active  affairs,  he  tried  to  relieve  the  incurable  boredom 
of  satiety  in  the  violent  exercise  of  hunting,  in  supper-parties 
with  his  intimates,  and  in  spicy  indiscretions.  Brought  up 
religiously  and  to  shun  the  society  of  women,  his  first  experiences 
in  adultery  had  been  made  with  many  scruples  and  intermittently. 
Little  by  little,  however,  jealous  of  power,  yet  incapable  of 
exercising  it  to  any  purpose,  he  sank  into  a  sensuality  which 
became  utterly  shameless  under  the  influence  of  his  chief  mistress 
the  duchesse  de  Chateauroux. 

Hardly  had  a  catastrophe  snatched  her  away  in  the  zenith 
of  her  power  when  complete  corruption  and  the  flagrant  triumph 

of  egoism  supervened  with  the  accession  to  power  of 
Madame  de  tke  marquise  de  Pompadour,  and  for  nearly  twenty 

years  (1745-1764)   the  whims  and  caprices  of  this 

little  bourgeoise  ruled  the  realm.  A  prime  minister 
in  petticoats,  she  had  her  political  system:  reversed  the  time- 
honoured  alliances  of  France,  appointed  or  disgraced  ministers, 
directed  fleets  and  armies,  concluded  treaties,  and  failed  in  all 
her  enterprises !  She  was  the  queen  of  fashion  in  a  society 
where  corruption  blossomed  luxuriantly  and  exquisitely,  and 
in  a  century  of  wit  hers  was  second  to  none.  Amidst  this 
extraordinary  instability,  when  everything  was  at  the  mercy 
of  a  secret  thought  of  the  master,  the  mistress  alone  held  lasting 
sway;  in  a  reign  of  all-pervading  satiety  and  tedium,  she 
managed  to  remain  indispensable  and  bewitching  to  the  day 
of  her  death. 

Meanwhile  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  broke  out 
again,  and  never  had  secretary  of  state  more  intricate  questions 

to  solve  than  had  D'Argenson.  In  the  attempt 
x/x-to"'  to  make  a  stage-emperor  of  Charles  Albert  of  Bavaria, 
cisapeiie.  defeat  was  incurred  at  Dettingen,  and  the  French 

were  driven  back  on  the  Rhine  (1743).  The  Bavarian 
dream  dissipated,  victories  gained  in  Flanders  by  Marshal  Saxe, 
another  adventurer  of  genius,  at  Fontenoy,  Raucoux  and 
Lawfeld  (1745-1747),  were  hailed  with  joy  as  continuing  those 
of  Louis  XIV.;  even  though  they  resulted  in  the  loss  of  Germany 
and  the  doubling  of  English  armaments.  The  "  disinterested  " 
peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (October  1748)  had  no  effectual  result 
other  than  that  of  destroying  in  Germany,  and  for  the  benefit 
of  Prussia,  a  balance  of  power  that  had  yet  to  be  secured  in 
Italy,  despite  the  establishment  of  the  Spanish  prince  Philip  at 
Parma.  France,  meanwhile,  was  beaten  at  sea  by  England, 
Maria  Theresa's  sole  ally.  While  founding  her  colonial  empire 
England  had  come  into  collision  with  France;  and  the  rivalry 
of  the  Hundred  Years'  War  had  immediately  sprung  up  again 
between  the  two  countries.  Engaged  already  in  both  Canada 
and  in  India  (where  Dupleix  was  founding  an  empire  with  a 
mere  handful  of  men) ,  it  was  to  France's  interest  not  to  become 
involved  in  war  upon  the  Rhine,  thus  falling  into  England's 
continental  trap.  She  did  fall  into  it,  however:  for  the  sake  of 
conquering  Silesia  for  the  king  of  Prussia,  Canada  was  left  exposed 
by  the  capture  of  Cape  Breton;  while  in  order  to  restore  this 
same  Silesia  to  Maria  Theresa,  Canada  was  lost  and  with  it  India. 
France  had  worked  for  the  king  of  Prussia  from  1740  to 
1748;  now  it  was  Maria  Theresa's  game  that  was  played  in 
TheSeven  tne  Seven  Years'  War.  In  1755,  the  English  having 
Years'  made  a  sudden  attack  upon  the  French  at  sea,  and 
War,  Frederick  II.  having  by  a  fresh  volte-face  passed  into 
/7«!  alliance  with  Great  Britain,  Louis  XV.'s  government 

accepted  an  alliance  with  Maria  Theresa  in  the  treaty 
of  the  ist  of  May  1 7  56.  Instead  of  remaining  upon  the  defensive 
in  this  continental  war — merely  accessory  as  it  was — he  made 


it  his  chief  affair,  and  placed  himself  under  the  petticoat  govern- 
ment of  three  women,  Maria  Theresa,  Elizabeth  of  Russia  and  the 
marquise  de  Pompadour.  This  error — the  worst  of  all — laid  the 
foundations  of  the  Prussian  and  British  empires.  By  three 
battles,  victories  for  the  enemies  of  France — Rossbach  in 
Germany,  1757,  Plassey  in  India,  1757,  and  Quebec  in  Canada, 
1759  (owing  to  the  recall  of  Dupleix,  who  was  not  bringing  in 
large  enough  dividends  to  the  Company  of  the  Indies,  and  to 
the  abandonment  of  Montcalm,  who  could  not  interest  any  one 
in  "  a  few  acres  of  snow  "),  the  expansion  of  Prussia  was  assured, 
and  the  British  relieved  of  French  rivalry  in  the  expansion  of 
their  empire  in  India  and  on  the  North  American  continent. 

Owing  to  the  blindness  of  Louis  XV.  and  the  vanity  of  the 
favourite,  the  treaties  of  Paris  and  Hubertusburg  (1763)  once 
more  proved  the  French  splendid  in  their  conceptions,  Treaties  ol 
but  deficient  in  action.  Moreover,  Choiseul,  secretary  Paris  and 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs  since  1758,  made  out  of  this  Hubertus- 
deceptive  Austrian  alliance  a  system  which  put  the  "'*' 
finishing  touch  to  disaster;  and  after  having  thrown  away 
everything  to  satisfy  Maria  Theresa's  hatred  of  Frederick  II., 
the  reconciliation  between  these  two  irreconcilable  Germans  at 
Neisse  and  at  Neustadt  (1769-1770)  was  witnessed  by  France, 
to  the  prejudice  of  Poland,  one  of  her  most  ancient  adherents. 
The  expedient  of  the  Family  Compact,  concluded  with  Spain 
in  1761 — with  a  view  to  taking  vengeance  upon  England,  whose 
fleets  were  a  continual  thorn  in  the  side  to  France — served  only 
to  involve  Spain  herself  in  misfortune.  Choiseul,  who  at  least 
had  a  policy  that  was  sometimes  in  the  right,  and  who  was  very 
anxious  to  carry  it  out,  then  realized  that  the  real  quarrel  had 
to  be  settled  with  England.  Amid  the  anguish  of  defeat  and  of 
approaching  ruin,  he  had  an  acute  sense  of  the  actualities  of 
the  case,  and  from  1763  to  1766  devoted  himself  passionately 
to  the  reconstruction  of  the  navy.  To  compensate  for  the  loss 
of  the  colonies  he  annexed  Lorraine  ( 1 766) ,  and  by  the  acquisition 
of  Corsica  in  1768  he  gave  France  an  intermediary  position  in 
the  Mediterranean,  between  friendly  Spain  and  Italy,  looking 
forward  to  the  time  when  it  should  become  a  stepping-stone  to 
Africa. 

But  Louis  XV.  had  two  policies.  The  incoherent  efforts 
which  he  made  to  repair  by  the  secret  diplomacy  of  the  comte 
de  Broglie  the  evils  caused  by  his  official  policy  only 
aggravated  his  shortcomings  and  betrayed  his  weak- 
ness.  The  contradictory  intrigues  of  the  king's  Of Poland. 
secret  proceedings  in  the  candidature  of  Prince  Xavier, 
the  dauphine's  brother,  and  the  patriotic  efforts  of  the  confedera- 
tion of  Bar,  contributed  to  bring  about  the  Polish  crisis  which 
the  partition  of  1772  resolved  in  favour  of  Frederick  II.;  and 
the  Turks  were  in  their  turn  dragged  into  the  same  disastrous 
affair.  Of  the  old  allies  of  France,  Choiseul  preserved  at  least 
Sweden  by  the  coup  d'etat  of  Gustavus  III.;  but  instead  of  being 
as  formerly  the  centre  of  great  affairs,  the  cabinet  of  Versailles 
lost  all  its  credit,  and  only  exhibited  before  the  eyes  of  con- 
temptuous Europe  France's  extreme  state  of  decay. 

The  nation  felt  this  humiliation,  and  showed  all  the  greater 
irritation  as  the  want  of  cohesion  in  the  government  and  the 
anarchy  in  the  central  authority  became  more  and 
more  intolerable  in  home  affairs.  Though  the  adminis- 
tration  still  possessed  a  fund  of  tradition  and  a  Louis  XV. 
personnel  which,  including  many  men  of  note,  protected 
it  from  the  enfeebling  influence  of  the  court,  it  looked  as  though 
chance  regulated  everything  so  far  as  the  government  was 
concerned.  These  fluctuations  were  owing  partly  to  the  character 
of  Louis  XV.,  and  partly  also  to  the  fact  that  society  in  the  i8th 
century  was  too  advanced  in  its  ideas  to  submit  without  resistance 
to  the  caprice  of  such  a  man.  His  mis'tresses  were  not  the  only 
cause  of  this;  for  ever  since  Fleury's  advent  political  parties 
had  come  to  the  fore.  From  1749  to  1757  the  party  of  religious 
devotees  grouped  round  the  queen  and  the  king's  daughters, 
with  the  dauphin  as  chief  and  the  comte  D'Argenson  and 
Machault  d'Arnouville,  keeper  of  the  seals,  as  lieutenants,  had 
worked  against  Madame  de  Pompadour  (who  leant  for  support 
upon  the  parlements,  the  Jansenists  and  the  philosophers), 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


849 


and  had  gained  the  upper  hand.  Thenceforward  poverty, 
disorders,  and  consequently  murmurs  increased.  The  financial 
reform  attempted  by  Machault  d'Arnouville  between  1745 
and  1749 — a  reduction  of  the  debt  through  the  impost  of  the 
twentieth  and  the  edict  of  1749  against  the  extensive  pro- 
perty held  in  mortmain  by  the  Church — after  his  disgrace  only 
resulted  in  failure.  The  army,  which  D'Argenson  (likewise 
dismissed  by  Madame  de  Pompadour)  had  been  from  1743  to 
1747  trying  to  restore  by  useful  reforms,  was  riddled  by  cabals. 
Half  the  people  in  the  kingdom  were  dying  of  hunger,  while 
the  court  was  insulting  poverty  by  its  luxury  and  waste;  and 
from  1750  onwards  political  ferment  was  everywhere  manifest. 
It  found  all  the  more  favourable  foothold  in  that  the  Church, 
the  State's  best  ally,  had  made  herself  more  and  more  unpopular. 
Her  refusal  of  the  sacraments  to  those  who  would  not  accept 
the  bull  Unigenitus  (1746)  was  exploited  in  the  eyes  of  the 
masses,  as  in  those  of  more  enlightened  people  was  her  selfish 
and  short-sighted  resistance  to  the  financial  plans  of  Machault. 
The  general  discontent  was  expressed  by  the  parlements  in  their 
attempt  to  establish  a  political  supremacy  amid  universal 
confusion,  and  by  the  popular  voice  in  pamphlets  recalling  by 
their  violence  those  of  the  League.  Every  one  expected  and 
desired  a  speedy  revolution  that  should  put  an  end  to  a  policy 
which  alternated  between  overheated  effervescence,  abnormal 
activity  and  lethargy.  Nothing  can  better  show  the  point  to 
which  things  had  descended  than  the  attempted  assassination 
of  Louis  the  Well-beloved  by  Damiens  in  1757. 

Choiseul  was  the  means  of  accelerating  this  revolution,  not 
only  by  his  abandonment  of  diplomatic  traditions,  but  still 
more  by  his  improvidence  and  violence.  He  reversed 
the  policy  of  his  predecessors  in  regard  to  the  parletnent. 
Supported  by  public  opinion,  which  clamoured  for  guarantees 
against  abitrary  power,  the  parlements  had  dared  not  only  to 
insist  on  being  consulted  as  to  the  budget  of  the  state  in  1763, 
but  to  enter  upon  a  confederation  throughout  the  whole  of 
France,  and  on  repeated  occasions  to  ordain  a  general  strike 
of  the  judicial  authorities.  Choiseul  did  not  hesitate  to  attack 
through  lits  de  justice  or  by  exile  a  judiciary  oligarchy  which 
doubtless  rested  its  pretensions  merely  on  wealth,  high  birth, 
or  that  encroaching  spirit  that  was  the  only  counteracting 
agency  to  the  monarchy.  Louis  XV. ,  wearied  with  their  clamour , 
called  them  to  order.  Choiseul's  religious  policy  was  no  less 
venturesome;  after  the  condemnation  in  1759  of  the  Jesuits 
who  were  involved  in  the  bankruptcy  of  Father  de  la  Valette, 
their  general,  in  the  Antilles,  he  had  the  order  dissolved  for 
refusing  to  modify  its  constitution  (1761-1764).  Thus,  not 
content  with  encouraging  writers  with  innovating  ideas  to  the 
prejudice  of  traditional  institutions,  he  attacked,  in  the  order 
of  the  Jesuits,  the  strongest  defender  of  these  latter,  and  delivered 
over  the  new  generation  to  revolutionary  doctrines. 

A  woman  had  elevated  him  into  power;  a  woman  brought 
him  to  the  ground.  He  succumbed  to  a  coalition  of  the  chancellor 
The  7W-  Maupeou,  the  due  d'Aiguillon  and  the  Abbe  Terray, 
umvirate,  which  depended  on  the  favour  of  the  king's  latest 
1770-  mistress,  Madame  du  Barry  (December  1770);  and 

t774'  the  Jesuits  were  avenged  by  a  stroke  of  authority 

similar  to  that  by  which  they  themselves  had  suffered.  Following 
on  an  edict  registered  by  the  lit  de  justice,  which  forbade  any 
remonstrance  in  political  matters,  the  parlement  had  resigned, 
and  had  been  imitated  by  the  provincial  parlements;  whereupon 
Maupeou,  an  energetic  chancellor,  suppressed  the  parlements 
and  substituted  superior  councils  of  magistrates  appointed  by 
the  king  (1771).  This  reform  was  justified  by  the  religious 
intolerance  of  the  parlements;  by  their  scandalous  trials  of 
Calas,  Pierre  Paul  Sirven  (1709-1777),  the  chevalier  de  la  Barre 
and  the  comte  de  Lally;  by  the  retrograde  spirit  that  had  made 
them  suppress  the  Encyclopaedia  in  1759  and  condemn  Entile 
in  1762;  and  by  their  selfishness  in  perpetuating  abuses  by 
which  they  profited.  But  this  reform,  being  made  by  the  minister 
of  a  hated  sovereign,  only  aided  in  exasperating  public  opinion, 
which  was  grateful  to  the  parlements  in  that  their  remonstrances 
had  not  always  been  fruitless. 


Thus  all  the  buttresses  of  the  monarchical  institution  began 
to  fall  to  pieces:  the  Church,  undermined  by  the  heresy  of 
Jansenism,  weakened  by  the  inroads  of  philosophy,  Anclent 
discredited  by  evil-livers  among  the  priesthood,  and  influences 
divided  against  itself,  like  all  losing  parties;  the  ana  insti- 
nobility  of  the  court,  still  brave  at  heart,  though  tutloas- 
incapable  of  exertion  and  reduced  to  beggary,  having  lost  all 
respect  for  discipline  and  authority,  not  only  in  the  camp,  but  in 
civilian  society;  arid  the  upper-class  officials,  narrow-minded 
and  egotistical,  unsettling  by  their  opposition  the  royal  authority 
which  they  pretended  to  safeguard.  Even  the  "  liberties," 
among  the  few  representative  institutions  which  the  ancien 
regime  had  left  intact  in  some  provinces,  turned  against  the 
people.  The  estates  opposed  most  of  the  intelligent  and  humane 
measures  proposed  by  such  intendants  as  Tourny  and  Turgot 
to  relieve  the  peasants,  whose  distress  was  very  great;  they  did 
their  utmost  to  render  the  selfishness  of  the  privileged  classes 
more  oppressive  and  vexatious. 

Thus  the  terrible  prevaknce  of  poverty  and  want;  the 
successive  famines;  the  mistakes  of  the  government;  the 
scandals  of  the  Pare  aux  Cerfs;  and  the  parlements 
playing  the  Roman  senate:  all  these  causes,  added 
together  and  multiplied,  assisted  in  setting  a  general 
fermentation  to  work.  The  philosophers  only  helped  to  pre- 
cipitate a  movement  which  they  had  not  created;  with- 
out pointing  to  absolute  power  as  the  cause  of  the  trouble, 
and  without  pretending  to  upset  the  traditional  system,  they 
attempted  to  instil  into  princes  the  feeling  of  new  and  more 
precise  obligations  towards  their  subjects.  Voltaire,  Montesquieu, 
the  Encyclopaedists  and  the  Physiocrats  (recurring  to  the 
tradition  of  Bayle  and  Fontenelle) ,  by  dissolving  in  their  analyti- 
cal crucible  all  consecrated  beliefs  and  all  fixed  institutions, 
brought  back  into  the  human  society  of  the  i8th  century  that 
humanity  which  had  been  so  rudely  eliminated.  They  demanded 
freedom  of  thought  and  belief  with  passionate  insistence;  they 
ardently  discussed  institutions  and  conduct;  and  they  imported 
into  polemics  the  idea  of  natural  rights  superior  to  all  political 
arrangements.  Whilst  some,  like  Voltaire  and  the  Physiocrats, 
representatives  of  the  privileged  classes  and  careless  of  political 
rights,  wished  to  make  use  of  the  omnipotence  of  the  prince 
to  accomplish  desirable  reforms,  or,  like  Montesquieu,  adversely 
criticized  despotism  and  extolled  moderate  governments, 
other,  plebeians  like  Rousseau,  proclaimed  the  theory  of  the 
social  contract  and  the  sovereignty  of  the  people.  So  that  during 
this  reign  of  frivolity  and  passion,  so  bold  in  conception  and  so 
poor  in  execution,  the  thinkers  contributed  still  further  to  mark 
the  contrast  between  grandeur  of  plan  and  mediocrity  of  result. 

The  preaching  of  all  this  generous  philosophy,  not  only  in 
France,  but  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe,  would  have  been  in 
vain  had  there  not  existed  at  the  time  a  social  class  interested 
in  these  great  changes,  and  capable  of  compassing  them.  Neither 
the  witty  and  lucid  form  in  which  the  philosophers  clothed 
their  ideas  in  their  satires,  romances,  stage-plays  and  treatises, 
nor  the  salons  of  Madame  du  Deffand,  Madame  Geoff rin  and 
Mademoiselle  de  Lespinasse,  could  possibly  have  been  sufficiently 
far-reaching  or  active  centres  of  political  propaganda.  The 
former  touched  only  the  more  highly  educated  classes;  while 
to  the  latter,  where  privileged  individuals  alone  had  entry, 
novelties  were  but  an  undiluted  stimulant  for  the  jaded  appetites 
of  persons  whose  ideas  of  good-breeding,  moreover,  would  have 
drawn  the  line  at  martyrdom. 

The  class  which  gave  the  Revolution  its  chiefs,  its  outward 
and  visible  forms,  and  the  irresistible  energy  of  its  hopes,  was 
the  bourgeoisie,  intelligent,  ambitious   and   rich;    in   _. 
the  forefront  the  capitalists  and  financiers  of  the  haute  geoisie— 
bourgeoisie,   farmers-general  and  army    contractors,  theincar- 
who  had  supplanted  or  swamped  the  old  landed  and  natloa  °f 
military  aristocracy,  had  insensibly  reconstructed  the  " 
interior  of  the  ancient  social  edifice  with  the  gilded  and  incon- 
gruous   materials    of    wealth,    and    in    order   to   consolidate 
or   increase   their   monopolies,   needed    to    secure    themselves 
against  the  arbitrary  action  of  royalty  and  the  bureaucracy. 


850 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


Next  came  the  crowd  of  stockholders  and  creditors  of  the  state, 
who,  in  face  of  the  government's  "  extravagant  anarchy,"  no 
longer  felt  safe  from  partial  or  total  bankruptcy.  More  powerful 
still,  and  more  masterful,  was  the  commercial,  industrial  and 
colonial  bourgeoisie;  because  under  the  Regency  and  under 
Louis  XV.  they  had  been  more  productive  and  more  creative. 
Having  gradually  revolutionized  the  whole  economic  system, 
in  Paris,  in  Lyons,  in  Nantes,  in  Bordeaux,  in  Marseilles,  they 
could  not  tamely  put  up  with  being  excluded  from  public  affairs, 
which  had  so  much  bearing  upon  their  private  or  collective 
enterprises.  Finally,  behind  this  bourgeoisie,  and  afar  off,  came 
the  crowd  of  serfs,  rustics  whom  the  acquisition  of  land  had 
gradually  enfranchised,  and  who  were  the  more  eager  to  enjoy 
their  definitive  liberation  because  it  was  close  at  hand. 

The  habits  and  sentiments  of  French  society  showed  similar 
changes.  From  having  been  almost  exclusively  national  during 
Louis  XIV. 's  reign,  owing  to  the  perpetual  state 
formation  oi.  war  and  to  a  sort  of  proud  isolation,  it  had  gradually 
of  man-  become  cosmopolitan.  After  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 
oers  and  Chapelle,  France  had  been  flooded  from  all  quarters 
of  the  civilized  world,  but  especially  from  England, 
by  a  concourse  of  refined  and  cultured  men  well  acquainted 
with  her  usages  and  her  universal  language,  whom  she  had 
received  sympathetically.  Paris  became  the  brain  of  Europe. 
This  revolution  in  manners  and  customs,  coinciding  with  the 
revolution  in  ideas,  led  in  its  turn  to  a  transformation  in  feeling, 
and  to  new  aesthetic  needs.  Gradually  people  became  sick  of 
openly  avowed  gallantry,  of  shameless  libertinism,  of  moral 
obliquity  and  of  the  flattering  artifices  of  vice;  a  long  shudder 
ran  through  the  selfish  torpor  of  the  social  body.  After  reading 
the  Nouiielle-Heloise,  Clarissa  and  Sir  Charles  Grandison, 
fatigued  and  wearied  society  revived  as  though  beneath  the 
fresh  breezes  of  dawn.  The  principle  of  examination,  the 
reasoned  analysis  of  human  conditions  and  the  discussion  of 
causes,  far  from  culminating  in  disillusioned  nihilism,  every- 
where aroused  the  democratic  spirit,  the  life  of  sentiment  and 
of  human  feeling:  in  the  drama,  with  Marivaux,  Diderot  and 
La  Chaussee;  in  art,  with  Chardin  and  Greuze;  and  in  the 
salons,  in  view  of  the  suppression  of  privilege.  So  that  to 
Louis  XV. 's  cynical  and  hopeless  declaration:  "  Apres  moi 
le  deluge,"  the  setting  i8th  century  responded  by  a  belief  in 
progress  and  an  appeal  to  the  future.  A  long-drawn  echo  from 
all  classes  hailed  a  revolution  that  was  possible  because  it  was 
necessary. 

If  this  revolution  did  not .  burst  forth  sooner,  in  the  actual 
lifetime  of  Louis  XV.,  if  in  Louis  XVI. 's  reign  there  was  a 
renewal  of  loyalty  to  the  king,  before  the  appeal  to  liberty  was 
made,  that  is  to  be  explained  by  this  hope  of  recovery.  But 
Louis  XVI. 's  reign  (1774-1792)  was  only  to  be  a  temporary 
halting-place,  an  artifice  of  history  for  passing  through  the 
transition  period  whilst  elaborating  the  transformation  which 
was  to  revolutionize,  together  with  France,  the  whole  world. 

Louis  XVI.  was  twenty  years  of  age.  Physically  he  was 
stout,  and  a  slave  to  the  Bourbon  fondness  for  good  living; 
Louis  xvi.  intellectually  a  poor  creature  and  but  ill-educated, 
he  loved  nothing  so  much  as  hunting  and  lock- 
smith's work.  He  had  a  taste  for  puerile  amusements,  a 
mania  for  useless  little  domestic  economies  in  a  court  where 
millions  vanished  like  smoke,  and  a  natural  idleness  which 
achieved  as  its  masterpiece  the  keeping  a  diary  from  1766  to 
1792  of  a  life  so  tragic,  which  was  yet  but  a  foolish  chronicle 
of  trifles.  Add  to  this  that  he  was  a  virtuous  husband,  a  kind 
father,  a  fervent  Christian  and  a  good-natured  man  full  of 
excellent  intentions,  yet  a  spectacle  of  moral  pusillanimity  and 
ineptitude. 

From  1770  onwards  lived  side  by  side  with  this  king,  rather 

than  at  his  side,  the  archduchess  Marie  Antoinette  of  Austria — 

one  of  the  very  graceful  and  very  frivolous  women 

AnMa-       who  were  to  be  f°und  at  Versailles,  opening  to  life 

e«e.  like  the  flowers  she  so  much  loved,  enamoured  of 

pleasure  and  luxury,  delighting  to  free  herself  from 

the  formalities  of  court  life,  and  mingling  in  the  amusements 


of  society;  lovable  and  loving,  without  ceasing  to  be  virtuous. 
Flattered  and  adored  at  the  outset,  she  very  soon  furnished  a 
sinister  illustration  to  Beaumarchais'  Basile;  for  evil  tongues 
began  to  calumniate  the  queen:  those  of  her  brothers-in-law, 
the  due  d'Aiguillon  (protector  of  Madame  du  Barry  and  dismissed 
from  the  ministry),  and  the  Cardinal  de  Rohan,  recalled  from 
his  embassy  in  Vienna.  She  was  blamed  for  her  friendship 
with  the  comtesse  de  Polignac,  who  loved  her  only  as  the  dispenser 
of  titles  and  positions;  and  when  weary  of  this  persistent 
begging  for  rewards,  she  was  taxed  with  her  preference  for 
foreigners  who  asked  nothing.  People  brought  up  against  her 
the  debts  and  expenditure  due  to  her  belief  in  the  inexhaustible 
resources  of  France;  and  hatred  became  definite  when  she 
was  suspected  of  trying  to  imitate  her  mother  Maria  Theresa  and 
play  the  part  of  ruler,  since  her  husband  neglected  his  duty.  They 
then  became  persuaded  that  it  was  she  who  caused  the  weight  of  . 
taxation;  in  the  most  infamous  libels  comparison  was  made 
between  her  freedom  of  behaviour  and  that  of  Louis  XV. 's 
former  mistresses.  Private  envy  and  public  misconceptions 
very  soon  summed  up  her  excessive  unpopularity  in  the  menacing 
nickname,  "  L'Autrichienne."  (See  MARIE  ANTOINETTE.) 

All  this  shows  that  Louis  XVI.  was  not  a  monarch  capable 
of  directing  or  suppressing  the  inevitable  revolution.  His 
reign  was  but  a  tissue  of  contradictions.  External  poreiga 
affairs  seemed  in  even  a  more  dangerous  position  than  policy  of 
those  at  home.  Louis  XVI.  confided  to  Vergennes  Louis 
the  charge  of  reverting  to  the  traditions  of  the  crown  xvl' 
and  raising  France  from  the  humiliation  suffered  by  the  treaty 
of  Paris  and  the  partition  of  Poland.  His  first  act  was  to  release 
French  policy  from  the  Austrian  alliance  of  1756;  in  this  he 
was  aided  both  by  public  opinion  and  by  the  confidence  of  the 
king — the  latter  managing  to  set  aside  the  desires  of  the  queen, 
whom  the  ambition  of  Maria  Theresa  and  Joseph  II.  hoped  to 
use  as  an  auxiliary.  Vergennes'  object  was  a  double  one:  to 
free  the  kingdom  from  English  supremacy  and  to  shake  off  the 
yoke  of  Austria.  Opportunities  offered  themselves  simul- 
taneously. In  1 7  7  s  the  English  colonies  in  America  rebelled,  and 
Louis  XVL,  after  giving  them  secret  aid  and  encouragement 
almost  from  the  first,  finally  in  February  1778,  despite  Marie 
Antoinette,  formed  an  open  alliance  with  them;  while  when 
Joseph  II.,  after  having  partitioned  Poland,  wanted  in  addition  to 
balance  the  loss  of  Silesia  with  that  of  Bavaria,  Vergennes  pre- 
vented him  from  doing  so.  In  vain  was  he  offered  a  share  in  the 
partition  of  the  Netherlands  by  way  of  an  inducement.  France's 
disinterested  action  in  the  peace  of  Teschen  (1779)  restored  to  her 
the  lost  adherence  of  the  secondary  states.  Europe  began  to 
respect  her  again  when  she  signed  a  Franco-Dutch-Spanish 
alliance  (1770-1780),  and  when,  after  the  capitulation  of  the 
English  at  Yorktown,  the  peace  of  Versailles  (1783)  crowned 
her  efforts  with  at  least  formal  success.  Thenceforward, 
partly  from  prudence  and  partly  from  penury,  Vergennes 
cared  only  for  the  maintenance  of  peace — a  not  too  easy  task, 
in  opposition  to  the  greed  of  Catherine  II.  and  Joseph  II.,  who 
now  wished  to  divide  the  Ottoman  empire.  Joseph  II.,  recogniz- 
ing that  Louis  XVI.  would  not  sacrifice  the  "sick  man"  to  him, 
raised  the  question  of  the  opening  of  the  Scheldt,  against  the 
Dutch.  Vainly  did  Joseph  II.  accuse  his  sister  of  ingratitude 
and  complain  of  her  resistance;  the  treaty  of  Fontainebleau  in 
1785  maintained  the  rights  of  Holland.  Later  on,  Joseph  II., 
sticking  to  his  point,  wanted  to  settle  the  house  of  Bavaria 
in  the  Netherlands;  but  Louis  XVI.  supported  the  confederation 
of  princes  (Fiirstenbund)  which  Frederick  II.  called  together 
in  order  to  keep  his  turbulent  neighbour  within  bounds.  Ver- 
gennes completed  his  work  by  signing  a  commercial  treaty 
in  1786  with  England,  whose  commerce  and  industry  were 
favoured  above  others,  and  a  second  in  1787  with' Russia.  He 
died  in  1787,  at  an  opportune  moment  for  himself;  though 
he  bad  temporarily  raised  France's  position  in  Europe,  his 
work  was  soon  ruined  by  the  very  means  taken  to  secure  its 
successes:  warfare  and  armaments  had  hastened  the  "  hideous 
bankruptcy." 

From  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign  Louis  XVI.  fell  into 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


851 


contradictions  and  hesitation  in  internal  affairs,  which  could 

not  but  bring  him  to  grief.     He  tried  first  of  all  to 

internal      gOvern  jn  accordance  with  public  opinion,  and  was 

PLo'uisXvi.  induced  to  flatter  it  beyond  measure;  in  an  extreme 

of    inconsistency    he    re-established  the  parlements, 

the  worst  enemies  of  reform,  at  the  very  moment  when  he  was 

calling  in  the  reformers  to  his  councils. 

Turgot,  the  most  notable  of  these  latter,  was  well  fitted  to 
play  his  great  part  as  an  enlightened  minister,  as  much  from 
the  principle  of   hard  work  and  domestic  economy 
traditional  in  his  family,  as  from  a  maturity  of  mind 
1776.  developed  by  extensive  study  at  the  Sorbonne  and 

by  frequenting  the  salons  of  the  Encyclopaedists. 
He  had  proved  this  by  his  capable  administration  in  the  pay- 
master's office  at  Limoges,  from  1761  to  1774.  A  disciple  of 
Quesnay  and  of  Gournay,  he  tried  to  repeat  in  great  affairs  the 
experience  of  liberty  which  he  had  found  successful  in  small, 
and  to  fortify  the  unity  of  the  nation  and  the  government 
by  social,  political  and  economic  reforms.  He  ordained  the 
free  circulation  of  grain  within  the  kingdom,  and  was  supported 
by  Louis  XVI.  in  the  course  of  the  flour-war  (guerre  des  farines) 
(April-May  1775);  he  substituted  a  territorial  subsidy  for  the 
royal  corvee — so  burdensome  upon  the  peasants — and  thus 
tended  to  abolish  privilege  in  the  matter  of  imposts;  and  he 
established  the  freedom  of  industry  by  the  dissolution  of 
privileged  trade  corporations  (1776).  Finance  was  in  a  deplorable 
state,  and  as  controller-general  he  formulated  a  new  fiscal  policy, 
consisting  of  neither  fresh  taxation  nor  loans,  but  of  retrenchment. 
At  one  fell  stroke  the  two  auxiliaries  on  which  he  had  a  right 
to  count  failed  him:  public  opinion,  clamouring  for  reform  on 
condition  of  not  paying  the  cost;  and  the  king,  too  timid  to 
dominate  public  opinion,  and  not  knowing  how  to  refuse  the 
demands  of  privilege.  Economy  in  the  matter  of  public  finance 
implies  a  grain  of  severity  in  the  collection  of  taxes  as  well  as  in 
expenditure.  By  the  former  Turgot  hampered  the  great  interests ; 
by  the  second  he  thwarted  the  desires  of  courtiers  not  only  of 
the  second  rank  but  of  the  first.  Therefore,  after  he  had  aroused 
the  complaints  of  the  commercial  world  and  the  bourgeoisie, 
the  court,  headed  by  Marie  Antoinette,  profited  by  the  general 
excitement  to  overthrow  him.  The  Choiseul  party,  which  had 
gradually  been  reconstituted,  under  the  influence  of  the  queen, 
the  princes,  parlement,  the  prebendaries,  and  the  trade  corpora- 
tions, worked  adroitly  to  eliminate  this  reformer  of  lucrative 
abuses.  The  old  courtier  Maurepas,  jealous  of  Turgot  and 
desirous  of  remaining  a  minister  himself,  refrained  from  defending 
his  colleague;  and  when  Turgot,  who  never  knew  how  to  give 
in,  spoke  of  establishing  assemblies  of  freeholders  in  the  communes 
and  the  provinces,  in  order  to  relax  the  tension  of  over-centraliza- 
tion, Louis  XVI.,  who  never  dared  to  pass  from  sentiment  to 
action,  sacrificed  his  minister  to  the  rancour  of  the  queen,  as 
he  had  already  sacrificed  Malesherbes  (1776).  Thus  the  first 
governmental  act  of  the  queen  was  an  error,  and  dissipated 
the  hope  of  replacing  special  privileges  by  a  general  guarantee 
given  to  the  nation,  which  alone  could  have  postponed  a  revolu- 
tion. It  was  still  too  early  for  a  Fourth  of  August;  but  the 
queen's  victory  was  none  the  less  vain,  since  Turgot's  ideas 
were  taken  up  by  his  successors. 

The  first  of  these  was  Necker,  a  Genevese  financier.  More 
able  than  Turgot,  though  a  man  of  smaller  ideas,  he  abrogated 
the  edicts  registered  by  the  lits  de  justice;  and  unable 
Necker,  or  not  (jaring  to  attack  the  evil  at  its  root,  he  thought 
he  could  suppress  its  symptoms  by  a  curative  process 
of  borrowing  and  economy.  Like  Turgot  he  failed, 
and  for  the  same  reasons.  The  American  war  had  finally 
exhausted  the  exchequer,  and,  in  order  to  replenish  it,  he  would 
have  needed  to  inspire  confidence  in  the  minds  of  capitalists; 
but  the  resumption  in  1778  of  the  plan  of  provincial  assemblies 
charged  with  remodelling  the  various  imposts,  and  his  compte- 
rendu  in  which  he  exhibited  the  monarchy  paying  its  pensioners 
for  their  inactivity  as  it  had  never  paid  its  agents  for  their  zeal, 
aroused  a  fresh  outburst  of  anger.  Necker  was  carried  away  in 
his  turn  by  the  reaction  he  had  helped  to  bring  about  (1781). 


1776- 
1781. 


Having  fought  the  oligarchy  of  privilege,  the  monarchy  next 
tried  to  rally  it  to  its  side,  and  all  the  springs  of  the  old  regime 
were  strained  to  the  breaking-point.  The  military  Theretum 
rule  of  the  marquis  de  Segur  eliminated  the  plebeians  oifeudzi- 
from  the  army;  while  the  great  lords,  drones  in  the  ism  to  the 
hive,  worked  with  a  kind  of  fever  at  the  enforcement  offenslve- 
of  their  seigniorial  rights;  the  feudal  system  was  making 
a  last  struggle  before  dying.  The  Church  claimed  her  right 
of  ordering  the  civil  estate  of  all  Frenchmen  as  an  absolute 
mistress  more  strictly  than  ever.  Joly  de  Fleury  and  D  'Ormesson , 
Necker's  successors,  pushed  their  narrow  spirit  of  reaction  and 
the  temerity  of  their  inexperience  to  the  furthest  limit;  but 
the  reaction  which  reinforced  the  privileged  classes  was  not 
sufficient  to  fill  the  coffers  of  the  treasury,  and  Marie  Antoinette, 
who  seemed  gifted  with  a  fatal  perversity  of  instinct,  confided 
the  finances  of  the  kingdom  to  Calonne,  an  upper-class  official 
and  a  veritable  Cagliostro  of  finance. 

From  1783  to  1787,  this  man  organized  his  astounding  system 
of  falsification  all  along  the  line.     His   unbridled   prodigality, 
by  spreading  a  belief  in  unlimited  resources,  augmented 
the  confidence  necessary  for  the  success  of  perpetual     ^gj"ne' 
loans;  until  the  day  came  when,  having  exhausted  the     1737. 
system,  he  tried  to  suppress  privilege  and  fall  back  upon 
the  social  reforms  of  Turgot,  and  the  financial  schemes  of  Necker, 
by  suggesting  once  more  to  the  assembly  of  notables  a  territorial 
subsidy  from  all  landed  property.     He  failed,  owing  to  the  same 
reaction  that  was  causing  the  feudal  system  to  make  inroads 
upon  the  army,  the  magistracy  and  industry;  but  in  his  fall  he 
put  on  the  guise  of  a  reformer,  and  by  a  last  wild  plunge  he  left 
the  monarchy,  already  compromised  by  the  affair  of  the  Diamond 
Necklace  (?.».),  hopelessly  exposed  (April  1787). 

The  volatile  and  brilliant  archbishop  Lomenie  de  Brienne  was 
charged  with  the  task  of  laying  the  affairs  of  the  ancien  regime 
before  the  assembly  of  notables,  and  with  asking  the 
nation  for  resources,  since  the  monarchy  could  no  Lomtaie 
longer  provide  for  itself;  but  the  notables  refused,  and  Brienne. 
referred  the  minister  to  the  states-general,  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  nation.  Before  resorting  to  this  extremity, 
Brienne  preferred  to  lay  before  the  parlement  his  two  edicts 
regarding  a  stamp  duty  and  the  territorial  subsidy;  to  be  met 
by  the  same  refusal,  and  the  same  reference  to  the  states- 
general.  The  exile  of  the  parlement  to  Troyes,  the  arrest  of 
various  members,  and  the  curt  declaration  of  the  king's  absolute 
authority  (November  9,  1787)  were  unsuccessful  in  breaking 
down  its  resistance.  The  threat  of  Chretien  Francois  de  Lamoig- 
non,  keeper  of  the  seals,  to  imitate  Maupeou,  aroused  public 
opinion  and  caused  a  fresh  confederation  of  the  parlements  of 
the  kingdom.  The  royal  government  was  too  much  exhausted 
to  overthrow  even  a  decaying  power  like  that  of  the  parlements, 
and  being  still  more  afraid  of  the  future  representatives  of  the 
French  people  than  of  the  supreme  courts,  capitulated  to  the 
insurgent  parlements.  The  recalled  parlement  seemed  at  the 
pinnacle  of  power. 

Its  next  action  ruined  its  ephemeral  popularity,  by  claiming 
the  convocation  of  the  states-general  "  according  to  the  formula 
observed  in  1614,"  as  already  demanded  by  the 
estates  of  Dauphine  at  Vizille  on  the  2 ist  of  July  1 788. 
The  exchequer  was  empty;  it  was  necessary  to  comply. 
The  royal  declaration  of  the  23rd  of  September  1788  convoked 
the  states-general  for  the  ist  of  May  1789,  and  the  fall  of  Brienne 
and  Lamoignon  followed  the  recall  of  Necker.  Thenceforward 
public  opinion,  which  was  looking  for  something  quite  different 
from  the  superannuated  formula  of  1614,  abandoned  the  parle- 
ments, which  in  their  turn  disappeared  from  view;  for  the 
struggle  beginning  between  the  privileged  classes  and  the  govern- 
ment, now  at  bay,  had  given  the  public,  through  the  states-genera  1, 
that  means  of  expression  which  they  had  always  lacked. 

The  conflict  immediately  changed  ground,  and  an  engagement 
began  between  privilege  and  the  people  over  the  twofold  question 
of  the  number  of  deputies  and  the  mode  of  voting.  Voting  by 
head,  and  the  double  representation  of  the  third  estate  (tiers 
etaf);  this  was  the  great  revolution;  voting  by  order  meant  the 


852 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


continued  domination  of  privilege,  and  the  lesser  revolution.  The 
monarchy,  standing  apart,  held  the  balance,  but  needed  a  decisive 

policy.  Necker,  with  little  backing  at  court,  could  not 
Prelude  to  act  energetically,  and  Louis  XVI.,  wavering  between 
'general.™'  Necker  and  the  queen,  chose  the  attitude  most 

convenient  to  his  indolence  and  least  to  his  interest : 
he  remained  neutral,  and  his  timidity  showed  clearly  in  the  council 
of  the  27th  of  December  1788.  Separating  the  two  questions 
which  were  so  closely  connected,  and  despite  the  sensational 
brochure  of  the  abbe  Sieyes,  "  What  is  the  Third  Estate?  " 
he  pronounced  for  the  doubling  of  the  third  estate  without 
deciding  as  to  the  vote  by  head,  yet  leaving  it  to  be  divined  that 
he  preferred  the  vote  by  order.  As  to  the  programme  there  was 
no  more  decisive  resolution;  but  the  edict  of  convocation  gave 
it  to  be  understood  that  a  reform  was  under  consideration:  "  the 
establishment  of  lasting  and  permanent  order  in  all  branches 
of  the  administration."  The  point  as  to  the  place  of  convoca- 
tion gave  rise  to  a  compromise  between  the  too-distant  centre 
of  France  and  too-tumultuous  Paris.  Versailles  was  chosen 
"  because  of  the  hunting!  "  In  the  procedure  of  the  elections 

the  traditional  system  of  the  states-general  of  1614 
electorate  was  preserved,  and  the  suffrage  was  almost  universal, 

but  in  two  kinds:  for  the  third  estate  nearly  all  citizens 
over  twenty-five  years  of  age,  paying  a  direct  contribu- 
tion, voted — peasants  as  well  as  bourgeois;  the  country  clergy 
were  included  among  the  ecclesiastics;  the  smaller  nobility 
among  the  nobles;  and  finally,  Protestants  were  electors  and 
eligible. 

According  to  custom,  documents  (cahiers)  were  drawn  up, 
containing  a  list  of  grievances  and  proposals  for  reform.  All  the 

orders  were  agreed  in  demanding  prudently  modified 
addresses,  ref°rm:  the  vote  on  the  budget,  order  in  finance, 

regular  convocation  of  the  states-general,  and  a  written 
constitution  in  order  to  get  rid  of  arbitrary  rule.  The  address 
of  the  clergy,  inspired  by  the  great  prelates,  sought  to  make 
inaccurate  lamentations  over  the  progress  of  impiety  a  means 
of  safeguarding  their  enormous  spiritual  and  temporal  powers, 
their  privileges  and  exemptions,  and  their  vast  wealth.  The 
nobility  demanded  voting  by  order,  the  maintenance  of  their 
privileges,  and,  above  all,  laws  to  protect  them  against  the 
arbitrary  proceedings  of  royalty.  The  third  estate  insisted  on  the 
vote  by  head,  the  graduated  abolition  of  privilege  in  all  govern- 
mental affairs,  a  written  constitution  and  union.  The  programme 
went  on  broadening  as  it  descended  in  the  social  scale. 

The  elections  sufficed  finally  to  show  that  the  ancien  regime, 
characterized  from  the  social  point  of  view  by  inequality,  from 

the  political  point  of  view  by  arbitrariness,  and  from 
elections.  tne  religious  point  of  view  by  intolerance,  was  com- 
pleted from  the  administrative  point  of  view  by  in- 
extricable disorder.  As  even  the  extent  of  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  bailliages  was  unknown,  convocations  were  made  at 
haphazard,  according  to  the  good  pleasure  of  influential  persons, 
and  in  these  assemblies  decisions  were  arrived  at  by  a  process 
that  confused  every  variety  of  rights  and  powers,  and  was 
governed  by  no  logical  principle;  and  in  this  extreme  confusion 
terms  and  affairs  were  alike  involved. 

Whilst  the  bureaucracy  of  the  ancien  regime  sought  for 
desperate  expedients  to  prolong  its  domination,  the  whole  social 
The  body  gave  signs  of  a  yet  distant  but  ever  nearing  dis- 

couater-  integration.  The  revolution  was  already  complete 
currents  before  it  was  declared  to  the  world.  Two  distinct 
ome  currents  of  disaffection,  one  economic,  the  other 
Won.  "  philosophic,  had  for  long  been  pervading  the  nation. 

There  had  been  much  suffering  throughout  the  I7th 
and  i8th  centuries;  but  no  one  had  hitherto  thought  of  a 
politico-social  rising.  But  the  other,  the  philosophic  current, 
had  been  set  going  in  the  i8th  century;  and  the  policy  of 
despotism  tempered  by  privilege  had  been  criticized  in  the  name 
of  liberty  as  no  longer  justifying  itself  by  its  services  to  the 
state.  The  ultramontane  and  oppressively  burdensome  church 
had  been  taunted  with  its  lack  of  Christian  charity,  apostolic 
poverty  and  primitive  virtue.  All  vitality  had  been  sapped 


from  the  old  order  of  nobles,  reduced  in  prestige  by  the  savonnelte 
d  vilains  (office  purchased  to  ennoble  the  holder),  enervated 
by  court  life,  and  so  robbed  of  its  roots  in  the  soil,  from  which 
it  had  once  drawn  its  strength,  that  it  could  no  longer  live  save 
as  a  ruinous  parasite  on  the  central  monarchy.  Lastly,  to  come 
to  the  bottom  of  the  social  scale,  there  were  the  common  people, 
taxable  at  will,  subject  to  the  arbitrary  and  burdensome  forced 
labour  of  the  corvee,  cut  off  by  an  impassable  barrier  from  the 
privileged  classes  whom  they  hated.  For  them  the  right  to  work 
had  been  asserted,  among  others  by  Turgot,  as  a  natural  right 
opposed  to  the  caprices  of  the  arbitrary  and  selfish  aristocracy 
of  the  corporations,  and  a  breach  had  been  made  in  the  tyranny 
of  the  masters  which  had  endeavoured  to  set  a  barrier  to  the 
astonishing  outburst  of  industrial  force  which  was  destined  to 
characterize  the  coming  age. 

The  outward  and  visible  progress  of  the  Revolution,  due 
primarily  to  profound  economic  disturbance,  was  thus  accelerated 
and  rendered  irresistible.  Economic  reformers  found  a  moral 
justification  for  their  dissatisfaction  in  philosophical  theories; 
the  chance  conjunction  of  a  philosopho-political  idea  with  a 
national  deficit  led  to  the  preponderance  of  the  third  estate  at 
the  elections,  and  to  the  predominance  of  the  democratic  spirit 
in  the  states-general.  The  third  estate  wanted  civil  liberty  above 
all;  political  liberty  came  second  only,  as  a  means  and  guarantee 
for  the  former.  They  wanted  the  abolition  of  the  feudal  system, 
the  establishment  of  equality  and  a  share  in  power.  Neither  the 
family  nor  property  was  violently  attacked;  the  church  and  the 
monarchy  still  appeared  to  most  people  two  respectable  and 
respected  institutions.  The  king  and  the  privileged  classes  had 
but  so  to  desire  it,  and  the  revolution  would  be  easy  and  peaceful. 

Louis  XVI.  was  reluctant  to  abandon  a  tittle  of  his  absolute 
power,  nor  would  the  privileged  classes  sacrifice  their  time- 
honoured  traditions;  they  .were  inexorable.  The  king, 

more  ponderous  and  irresolute  every  day,  vacillated  M*etlas°l 

•j  j    TLI     •      the  states- 

between  Necker  the  liberal  on  one  side  and  Marie  general. 

Antoinette,  whose  feminine  pride  was  opposed  to  any 
concessions,  with  the  comte  d'Artois,  a  mischievous  nobody  who 
could  neither  choose  a  side  nor  stick  to  one,  on  the  other.  When 
the  states-general  opened  on  the  5th  of  May  1789  Louis  XVI.  had 
decided  nothing.  The  conflict  between  him  and  the  Assembly 
immediately  broke  out,  and  became  acute  over  the  verification 
of  the  mandates;  the  third  estate  desiring  this  to  be  made  in 
common  by  the  deputies  of  the  three  orders,  which  would  involve 
voting  by  head,  the  suppression  of  classes  and  the  preponderance 
of  the  third  estate.  On  the  refusal  of  the  privileged  classes  and 
after  an  interval  of  six  weeks,  the  third  estate,  considering  that 
they  represented  96%  of  the  nation,  and  in  accordance  with  the 
proposal  of  Sieyes,  declared  that  they  represented  the  nation 
and  therefore  were  authorized  to  take  resolutions  unaided,  the 
first  being  that  in  future  no  arrangement  for  taxation  could  take 
place  without  their  consent. 

The  king,  urged  by  the  privileged  classes,  responded  to  this 
first  revolutionary  act,  as  in  1614,  by  closing  the  Salle  des  Menus 
Plaisirs  where  the  third  estate  were  sitting;  where-       Oath  ot 
upon,  gathered  in  one  of  the  tennis-courts  under  the       the 
presidency  of  Bailly,  they  swore  on  the  2oth  of  June       tennis- 
not  to  separate  before  having  established  the  con-       court> 
stitution  of  the  kingdom. 

Louis  XVI.  then  decided,  on  the  23rd,  to  make  known  his 
policy  in  a  royal  lit  de  justice.     He  declared  for  the  lesser  reform, 
the  fiscal,  not  the  social;  were  this  rejected,  he  declared   fhe  LHdc 
that  "  he  alone  would  arrange  for  the  welfare  of  his  Justice  ot 
people."     Meanwhile  he  annulled  the  sitting  of  the  •*•«•**• 
1 7th,  and  demanded  the  immediate  dispersal  of  the 
Assembly.     The   third   estate   refused   to   obey,   and   by   the 
mouth  of  Bailly  and  Mirabeau  asserted  the  legitimacy  of  the 
Revolution.     The  refusal  of  the  soldiers  to  coerce  the  Assembly 
showed  that  the  monarchy  could  no  longer  rely  on  the  army;  and 
a  few  days  later,  when  the  lesser  nobility  and  the  lower  ranks 
of  the  clergy  had  united  with  the  third  estate  whose  cause  was 
their  own,  the  king  yielded,  and  on  the  27th  of  June  commanded 
both  orders  to  join  in  the  National  Assembly,  which  was  thereby 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


853 


recognized  and  the  political  revolution  sanctioned.  But  at  the 
same  time,  urged  by  the  "  infernal  cabal  "  of  the  queen  and  the 
comte  d'Artois,  Louis  XVI.  called  in  the  foreign  regiments — 
the  only  ones  of  which  he  could  be  certain — and  dismissed 
Necker.  The  Assembly,  dreading  a  sudden  attack,  demanded 
the  withdrawal  of  the  troops.  Meeting  with  a  refusal,  Paris 

opposed  the  king's  army  with  her  citizen-soldiers;  and 

ky  the  taking  of  the  Bastille,  that  mysterious  dark 
Bastille.  fortress  which  personified  the  ancien  regime,  secured 

the  triumph  of  the  Revolution  (July  14).  The  king 
was  obliged  to  recall  Necker,  to  mount  the  tricolor  cockade 
at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and  to  recognize  Bailly  as  mayor  of  Paris 
and  La  Fayette  as  commander  of  the  National  Guard,  which 
remained  in  arms  after  the  victory.  The  National  Assembly 
had  right  on  its  side  after  the  2oth  of  June  and  might  after  the 
I4th  of  July.  Thus  was  accomplished  the  Revolution  which 
was  to  throw  into  the  melting-pot  all  that  had  for  centuries 
appeared  fixed  and  stable. 

As  Paris  had  taken  her  Bastille,  it  remained  for  the  towns 
and  country  districts  to  take  theirs— all  the  Bastilles  of  feudalism. 

Want,  terror  and  the  contagion  of  examples  precipitated 
faneous  l^e  disruption  of  governmental  authority  and  of  the 
anarchy.  °ld  political  status;  and  sudden  anarchy  dislocated 

all  the  organs  of  authority.  Upon  the  ruins  of  the 
central  administration  temporary  authorities  were  founded  in 
various  isolated  localities,  limited  in  area  but  none  the  less 
defiant  of  the  government.  The  provincial  assemblies  of 
Dauphine  and  elsewhere  gave  the  signal;  and  numerous  towns, 
following  the  example  of  Paris,  instituted  municipalities  which  sub- 
stituted their  authority  for  that  of  the  intendants  and  their  sub- 
ordinates. Clubs  were  openly  organized,  pamphlets  and  journals 
appeared,  regardless  of  administrative  orders;  workmen's  unions 
multiplied  in  Paris,  Bordeaux  and  Lyons,  in  face  of  drastic  pro- 
hibition; and  anarchy  finally  set  in  with  the  defection  of  the 
army  in  Paris  on  the  23rd  of  June,  at  Nancy,  at  Metz  and  at  Brest. 
The  crying  abuses  of  the  old  regime,  an  insignificant  factor  at  the 
outset,  soon  combined  with  the  widespread  agrarian  distress, 
due  to  the  unjust  distribution  of  land,  the  disastrous  exploitation 
of  the  soil,  the  actions  of  the  government,  and  the  severe  winter 
of  1788.  Discontent  showed  itself  in  pillage  and  incendiarism  on 
country  estates;  between  March  and  July  1789  more  than  three 
hundred  agrarian  riots  took  place,  uprooting  the  feudal  idea  of 
property,  already  compromised  by  its  own  excesses.  Not  only 
did  pillaging  take  place;  the  boundaries  or  property  were  also 
ignored,  and  people  no  longer  held  themselves  bound  to  pay 
taxes.  These  jacqueries  hastened  the  movement  of  the  regular 
revolution. 

The  decrees  of  the  4th  of  August,  proposed  by  those  noble 
"  patriots  "  the  due  d'Aiguillon  and  the  vicomte  de  Noailles, 

who  had  already  on  the  23rd  of  June  made  armed 
of "ht  of  resistance  to  the  evacuation  of  the  Hall  of  Assembly, 
August*,  put  the  final  touch  to  the  revolution  begun  by  the 

provincial  assemblies,  by  liberating  land  and  labour, 
and  proclaiming  equality  among  all  Frenchmen.  Instead  of 
exasperating  the  demands  of  the  peasants  and  workmen  by 
repression  and  raising  civil  war  between  the  bourgeoisie  and  the 
proletariat,  they  drew  a  distinction  between  personal  servitude, 
which  was  suppressed,  and  the  rights  of  contract,  which  were 
to  be  redeemed — a  laudable  but  impossible  distinction.  The 
whole  feudal  system  crumbled  before  the  revolutionary  in- 
sistence of  the  peasants;  for  their  masters,  bourgeois  or  nobles, 
terrified  by  prolonged  riots,  capitulated  and  gradually  had  to 
consent  to  make  the  resolutions  of  the  4th  of  August  a 
reality. 

Overjoyed  by  this  social  liberation,  the  Assembly  awarded 
Louis  XVI.  the  title  of  "  renewer  of  French  liberty";  but 
FJabora-  remaining  faithful  to  his  hesitating  policy  of  the 
tioaofthe  23rd  of  June,  he  ratified  the  decrees  of  the  4th  of 
coastltu-  August,  only  with  a  very  ill  grace.  On  the  other  hand, 
tioa.  £jje  priviieged  classes,  and  notably  the  clergy,  who  saw 

the  whole  traditional  structure  of  their  power  threatened,  now 
rallied  to  him,  and  when  after  the  28th  of  August  the  Assembly 


set  to  work  on  the  new  constitution,  they  combined  in  the  effort 
to  recover  some  of  the  position  they  had  lost.  But  whatever 
their  theoretical  agreement  on  social  questions,  politically  they 
were  hopelessly  at  odds.  The  bourgeoisie,  conscious  of  their 
opportunity,  decided  for  a  single  chamber  against  the  will  of  the 
noblesse;  against  that  of  the  king  they  declared  it  permanent, 
and,  if  they  accorded  him  a  suspensory  veto,  this  was  only  in 
order,  to  guard  them  against  the  extreme  assertion  of  popular 
rights.  Thus  the  progress  of  the  Revolution,  so  far,  had  left  the 
mass  of  the  people  still  excluded  from  any  constitutional  influence 
on  the  government,  which  was  in  the  hands  of  the  well-to-do 
classes,  which  also  controlled  the  National  Guard  and  the  munici- 
palities. The  irritation  of  the  disfranchised  proletariat  was  more- 
over increased  by  the  appalling  dearness  of  bread  and  food 
generally,  which  the  suspicious  temper  of  the  times — fomented  by 
the  tirades  of  Marat  in  the  Ami  du  peuple — ascribed  to  English 
intrigues  in  revenge  for  the  aid  given  by  France  to  the  American 
colonies,  and  to  the  treachery  in  high  places  that  made  these 
intrigues  successful.  The  climax  came  with  the  rumour  that  the 
court  was  preparing  a  new  military  coup  d'etat,  a  rumour  that 
seemed  to  be  confirmed  by  indiscreet  toasts  proposed  at  a  banquet 
by  the  officers  of  the  guard  at  Versailles;  and  on  the  night  of 
the  5th  to  the  6th  of  October  a  Parisian  mob  forced  the  king 
and  royal  family  to  return  with  them  to  Paris  amid  cries  of 
"  We  are  bringing  the  baker,  the  baker's  wife  and  the  little 
baker's  boy!"  The  Assembly  followed;  and  henceforth  king 
and  Assembly  were  more  or  less  under  the  influence  of  the 
whims  and  passions  of  a  populace  maddened  by  want  and 
suspicion,  by  the  fanatical  or  unscrupulous  incitements  of 
an  unfettered  press,  and  by  the  unrestrained  oratory  of 
obscure  demagogues  in  the  streets,  the  cafes  and  the  political 
clubs. 

Convened  for  the  purpose  of  elaborating  a  system  that  should 
conciliate  all  interests,  the  Assembly  thus  found  itself  forced 
into  a  conflict  between  the  views  of  the  people,  who  feared 
betrayal,  and  the  court,  which  dreaded  being  overwhelmed. 
This  schism  was  reflected  in  the  parties  of  the  Assembly;  the 
absolutists  of  the  extreme  Right;  the  moderate  monarchists 
of  the  Right  and  Centre;  the  constitutionalists  of  the  Left 
Centre  and  Left;  and,  finally,  on  the  extreme  Left  the  democratic 
revolutionists,  among  whom  Robespierre  sat  as  yet  all  but 
unnoticed.  Of  talent  there  was  enough  and  to  spare  in  the 
Assembly;  what  was  conspicuously  lacking  was  common  sense 
and  a  practical  knowledge  of  affairs.  Of  all  the  orators  who 
declaimed  from  the  tribune,  Mirabeau  alone  realized  the  perils 
of  the  situation  and  possessed  the  power  of  mind  and  will  to 
have  mastered  them.  Unfortunately,  however,  he  was  dis- 
credited by  a  disreputable  past,  and  yet  more  by  the  equivocal 
attitude  he  had  to  assume  in  order  to  maintain  his  authority 
in  the  Assembly  while  working  in  what  he  believed  to  be  the  true 
interests  of  the  court.  His  political  ideal  for  France  was  that 
of  the  monarchy,  rescued  from  all  association  with  the  abuses 
of  the  old  regime  and  "  broad-based  upon  the  people's  will  "; 
his  practical  counsel  was  that  the  king  should  frankly  proclaim 
this  ideal  to  the  people  as  his  own,  should  compete  with  the 
Assembly  for  popular  favour,  while  at  the  same  time  using 
every  means  to  win  over  those  by  whom  his  authority  was 
flouted.  For  a  time  Mirabeau  influenced  the  counsels  of  the 
court  through  the  comte  de  Montmorin;  but  the  king  neither 
trusted  him  nor  could  be  brought  to  see  his  point  of  view,  and 
Marie  Antoinette,  though  she  resigned  herself  to  negotiating 
with  him,  was  very  far  from  sympathizing  with  his  ideals. 
Finally,  all  hope  of  the  conduct  of  affairs  being  entrusted  to  him 
was  shattered  when  the  Assembly  passed  a  law  forbidding  its 
members  to  become  ministers. 

The  attempted  reconciliation  with  the  king  having  failed,  the 
Assembly  ended  by  working  alone,  and  made  the  control  that 
it  should  have  exerted  an  instrument,   not  of  co-  Decjara. 
operation  but  of  strife.     It  inaugurated  its  legislative   tionofthe 
labours  by  a  metaphysical  declaration  of  the  Rights  rights  ot 
of  Man  and  of  the  Citizen  (October  2,  1789).     This  maa- 
enunciation  of  universal  verities,  the  bulk  of  which  have,  sooner 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


or  later,  been  accepted  by  all  civilized  nations  as  "  the  gospel 
of  modern  times,"  was  inspired  by  all  the  philosophy  of  the  i8th 
century  in  France  and  by  the  Central  Social.  It  comprised 
various  rational  and  humane  ideas,  no  longer  theological,  but 
profoundly  and  deliberately  thought  out:  ideas  as  to  the 
sovereign-right  of  the  nation,  law  by  general  consent,  man 
superior  to  the  pretensions  of  caste  and  the  fetters  of  dogma, 
the  vindication  of  the  ideal  and  of  human  dignity.  Unable 
to  rest  on  historic  precedent  like  England,  the  Constituent 
Assembly  took  as  the  basis  for  its  labours  the  tradition  of  the 
thinkers. 

Upon  the  principles  proclaimed  in  this  Declaration  the  con- 
stitution of  1791  was  founded.  Its  provisions  are  discussed  else- 
where (see  the  section  below  on  Law  and  Institutions) ; 
The  here  it  will  suffice  to  say  that  it  established  under  the 

Ct°oa.M  sovereign  people,  for  the  king  was  to  survive  merely 
as  the  supreme  executive  official,  a  wholly  new  model 
of  government  in  France,  both  in  Church  and  State.  The 
historic  divisions  of  the  realm  were  wiped  out;  for  the  old 
provinces  were  substituted  eighty-three  departments;  and 
with  the  provinces  vanished  the  whole  organization,  territorial, 
administrative  and  ecclesiastical,  of  the  ancien  regime.  In  one 
respect,  indeed,  the  system  of  the  old  monarchy  remained  intact; 
the  tradition  of  centralization  established  by  Louis  XIV.  was 
.00  strong  to  be  overthrown,  and  the  destruction  of  the  historic 
privileges  and  immunities  with  which  this  had  been  ever  in 
conflict  only  served  to  strengthen  this  tendency.  In  1791 
France  was  pulverized  into  innumerable  administrative  atoms 
incapable  of  cohesion;  and  the  result  was  that  Paris  became 
more  than  ever  the  brain  and  nerve-centre  of  France.  This  fact 
was  soon  to  be  fatal  to  the  new  constitution,  though  the  admini- 
strative system  established  by  it  still  survives.  Paris  was  in 
effect  dominated  by  the  armed  and  organized  proletariat,  and 
this  proletariat  could  never  be  satisfied  with  a  settlement  which, 
while  proclaiming  the  .sovereignty  of  the  people,  had,  by  means 
of  the  property  qualification  for  the  franchise,  established  the 
political  ascendancy  of  the  middle  classes.  The  settlement  had, 
in  fact,  settled  nothing;  it  had,  indeed,  merely  intensified  the 
profound  cleavage  between  the  opposing  tendencies;  for  if  the 
democrats  were  alienated  by  the  narrow  franchise,  the  Civil 
Constitution  of  the  Clergy,  which  cut  at  the  very  roots  of 
the  Catholic  system,  drove  into  opposition  to  the  Revolution 
not  only  the  clergy  themselves  but  a  vast  number  of  their 
flocks. 

The  policy  of  the  Assembly,  moreover,  hopelessly  aggravated 
its  misunderstanding  with  the  king.  Louis,  indeed,  accepted 
the  constitution  and  attended  the  great  Feast  of  Federation 
(July  14,  1790),  when  representatives  from  all  the  new  depart- 
ments assembled  in  the  Champ  de  Mars  to  ratify  the  work  of  the 
Assembly;  but  the  king  either  could  not  or  would  not  say  the 
expected  word  that  would  have  dissipated  mistrust.  The  Civil 
Constitution  of  the  Clergy,  too,  seemed  to  him  not  only  to 
violate  his  rights  as  a  king,  but  his  faith  as  a  Christian  also; 
and  when  the  emigration  of  the  nobility  and  the  death  of  Mirabeau 
(April  2,  1791)  had  deprived  him  of  his  natural  supporters  and 
his  only  adviser,  resuming  the  old  plan  of  withdrawing  to  the 
army  of  the  marquis  de  Bouille  at  Metz,  he  made  his  ill-fated 
attempt  to  escape  from  Paris  (June  20,  1791).  The  flight  to 
Varennes  was  an  irreparable  error;  for  during  the  king's  absence 
and  until  his  return  the  insignificance  of  the  royal  power  became 
apparent.  La  Fayette's  fusillade  of  the  republicans,  who 
demanded  the  deposition  of  the  king  (July  17,  1791),  led  to  a 
definite  split  between  the  democratic  party  and  the  bourgeois 
party.  Vainly  did  Louis,  brought  back  a  captive  to  Paris,  swear 
on  the  I4th  of  September  1791  solemnly  mere  lip-service  to  the 
constitution;  the  mistrustful  party  of  revolution  abandoned 
the  constitution  they  had  only  just  obtained,  and  to  guard 
against  the  sovereign's  mental  reservations  and  the  selfish  policy 
of  the  middle  classes,  appealed  to  the  main  force  of  the  people. 
The  conflict  between  the  ancien  regime  and  the  National  Assembly 
ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  royalists. 

Through  lassitude  or  disinterestedness  the  men  of  1791,  on 


Robespierre's  suggestion,  had  committed  one  last  mistake,  by 
leaving   the   task  of  putting   the   constitution  into 
practice  to  new  men  even  more  inexperienced  than  J^*  *•'***• 
themselves.     Thus    the    new   Assembly's    time    was  Assembly 
occupied  in  a  conflict  between  the  Legislative  Assembly  (Oct.  i, 
and  the  king,  who  plotted  against  it;  and,  as  a  result, 
the  monarchy,  insulted  by  the  proceedings  of  the  2oth 
of  June,  was  eliminated  altogether  by  those  of  the  joth 
of  August  1792. 

The  new  Assembly  which  had  met  on  the  ist  of  October  1791 
had  a  majority  favourable  to  the  constitutional  monarchy  and 
to  the  bourgeois  franchise.  But,  among  these  bourgeois 
those  who  were  called  Feuillants,  from  the  name  of  parties. 
their  club  (see  FEUILLANTS,  CLUB  or  THE),  desired  the 
strict  and  loyal  application  of  the  constitution  without  encroach- 
ing upon  the  authority  of  the  king;  the  triumvirate,  Duport, 
Barnave  and  Lameth,  were  at  the  head  of  this  party.  The 
Jacobins,  on  the  contrary,  considered  that  the  king  should 
merely  be  hereditary  president  of  the  Republic,  to  be  deposed 
if  he  attempted  to  violate  the  constitution,  and  that  universal 
suffrage  should  be  established.  The  dominant  group  among 
these  was  that  of  the  Girondins  or  Girondists,  so  called  because 
its  most  brilliant  members  had  been  elected  in  the  Gironde 
(see  GIRONDISTS).  But  the  republican  party  was  more  powerful 
without  than  within.  Their  chief  was  not  so  much  Robespierre, 
president  of  the  parliamentary  and  bourgeois  club  of  the  Jacobins 
(q.v.),  which  had  acquired  by  means  of  its  two  thousand  affiliated 
branches  great  power  in  the  provinces  as  the  advocate  Danton, 
president  of  the  popular  and  Parisian  club  of  the  Cordeliers  (q.v.). 
Between  the  Feuillants  and  the  Jacobins,  the  independents, 
incapable  of  keeping  to  any  fixed  programme,  vacillated  some- 
times to  the  right,  sometimes  to  the  left. 

But  the  best  allies  of  the  republicans  against  the  Feuillants 
were  the  royalists  pure  and  simple,  who  cared  nothing  about 
the  constitution,  and  claimed  to  "  extract  good  from 
the  excess  of  evil."  The  election  of  a  Jacobin,  Petion, 
instead  of  Bailly,  the  resigning  mayor,  and  La  Fayette, 
the  candidate  for  office,  was  their  first  achievement.  The  court, 
on  its  side,  showed  little  sign  of  a  conciliatory  spirit,  though, 
realizing  its  danger,  it  attempted  to  restrain  the  foolish  violence 
of  the  Emigres,  i.e.  the  nobles  who  after  the  sup- 
pression  of  titles  of  nobility  in  1790  and  the  arrest  fmigrfs. 
of  the  king  at  Varennes,  had  fled  in  a  body  to  Coblenz 
and  joined  Louis  XVI.  's  brothers,  the  counts  of  Provence  and 
Artois.  They  it  was  who  set  in  motion  the  national  and  European 
conflict.  Under  the  prince  of  Conde  they  had  collected  a  little 
army  round  Trier;  and  in  concert  with  the  "  Austrian  Committee  " 
of  Paris  they  solicited  the  armed  intervention  of  monarchical 
Europe.  The  declaration  of  Pilnitz,  which  was  but  an  excuse 
for  non-interference  on  the  part  of  the  emperor  and  the 
king  of  Prussia,  interested  in  the  prolongation  of  these 
internal  troubles,  was  put  forward  by  them  as  an 
assurance  of  forthcoming  support  (August  27,  1791). 
At  the  same  time  the  application  of  the  Civil  Constitution  of 
the  Clergy  roused  the  whole  of  western  La  Vendee;  and  in  face 
of  the  danger  threatened  by  the  refractory  clergy  and  by  the 
army  of  the  emgires,  the  Girondins  set  about  confounding  the 
court  with  the  Feuillants  in  the  minds  of  the  public,  and  com- 
promising Louis  XVI.  by  a  national  agitation,  denouncing  him 
as  an  accomplice  of  the  foreigner.  Owing  to  the  decrees  against 
the  comte  de  Provence,  the  emigrants,  and  the  ^ 
refractory  priests,  voted  by  the  Legislative  Assembly  acmes. 
in  November  1791,  they  forced  Louis  XVI.  to  show  , 
his  hand  by  using  his  veto,  so  tnat  his  complicity  should  be 
plainly  declared,  to  replace  his  Feuillant  ministry  —  disparate 
in  birth,  opinions  and  ambitions  —  by  the  Girond'in  ministry  of 
Dumouriez-Roland  (March  10),  no  more  united  than  the  other, 
but  believers  in  a  republican  crusade  for  the  overthrow  Thf  wfri 
of  thrones,  that  of  Louis  XVI.  first  of  all;  and  finally 
to  declare  war  against  the  king  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  a  step 
also  desired  by  the  court  in  the  hope  of  ridding  itself  of  the 
Assembly  at  the  first  note  of  victory  (April  20,  1792). 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


855 


But  when,  owing  to  the  disorganization  of  the  army  through 
emigration  and  desertion,  the  ill-prepared  Belgian  war  was 

followed  by  invasion  and  the  trouble  in  La  Vendee 

increased,  all  France  suspected  a  betrayal.  The 
Juae20.  Assembly,  in  order  to  reduce  the  number  of  hostile 

forces,  voted  for  the  exile  of  all  priests  who  had  refused 
to  swear  to  the  Civil  Constitution  and  the  substitution  of  a  body 
of  twenty  thousand  volunteer  national  guards,  underthe  authority 
of  Paris  for  the  king's  constitutional  guard  (May  27 -June  8, 
1792).  Louis  XVI. 's  veto  and  the  dismissal  of  the  Girondin 
ministry — thanks  to  an  intrigue  of  Dumouriez,  analogous  to 
that  of  Mirabeau  and  as  ineffectual — dismayed  the  Feuillants  and 
maddened  the  Girondins;  the  latter,  to  avert  popular  fury, 
turned  it  upon  the  king.  The  emeute  of  the  2oth  of  June,  a 
burlesque  which,  but  for  the  persistent  good-humour  of  Louis 
XVI.,  might  have  become  a  tragedy,  alarmed  but  did  not 
overthrow  the  monarchy. 

The  bourgeoisie,  the  Assembly,  the  country  and  La  Fayette, 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  army,  now  embarked  upon  a  royalist 

reaction,  which. would  perhaps  have  been  efficacious, 

o/Bnins"  nad  'li  not  been  for  tne  entrv  mto  tne  affair  of  the 
wkk.  Prussians  as  allies  of  the  Austrians,  and  for  the  insolent 
manifesto  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick.  The  Assembly's 
cry  of  "  the  country  in  danger  "  (July  n)  proved  to  the  nation 
that  the  king  was  incapable  of  defending  France  against  the 
foreigner;  and  the  appeal  of  the  federal  volunteers  in  Paris 
gave  to  the  opposition,  together  with  the  war-song  of  the  Mar- 
seillaise, the  army  which  had  been  refused  by  Louis  XVI.,  now 
disarmed.  The  vain  attempts  of  the  Gironde  to  reconcile  the 
king  and  the  Revolution,  the  ill-advised  decree  of  the  Assembly 
on  the  8th  of  August,  freeing  La  Fayette  from  his  guilt  in  for- 
saking his  army;  his  refusal  to  vote  for  the  deposition  of  the 
king,  and  the  suspected  treachery  of  the  court,  led  to  the  success 
of  the  republican  forces  when,  on  the  loth  of  August,  the  mob 
of  Paris  organized  by  the  revolutionary  Commune  rose  against 
the  monarchy. 

The  suspension  and  imprisonment  of  the  king  left  the  supreme 
authority  nominally  in  the  hands  of  the  Assembly,  but  actually 
Theiasur-  *n  those  of  the  Commune,  consisting  of.  delegates 
rectionai  from  the  administrative  sections  of  Paris.  Installed 
commune  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville  this  attempted  to  influence  the 
otParis.  discredited  government,  entered  into  conflict  with 
the  Legislative  Assembly,  which  considered  its  mission  at 
an  end,  and  paralyzed  the  action  of  the  executive  council, 
particularly  during  the  bloody  days  of  September,  provoked 
by  the  discovery  of  the  court's  intrigues  with  the  foreigner, 
The  by  the  treachery  of  La  Fayette,  the  capture  of  Longwy, 

September  the  investiture  of  Verdun  by  the  Prussians  (August 
mas-  19-30),  and  finally  by  the  incendiary  placards  of  Marat. 
Danton,  a  master  of  diplomatic  and  military  operations, 
had  to  avoid  any  rupture  with  the  Commune.  Fortunately, 
on  the  very  day  of  the  dispersal  of  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
Dumouriez  saved  France  from  a  Prussian  invasion  by  the 
victory  of  Valmy,  and  by  unauthorized  negotiations  which 
prefigured  those  of  Bonaparte  at  Leoben  (September  22, 
1792). 

The  popular  insurrection  against  Louis  XVI.  determined 
the  simultaneous  fall  of  the  bourgeois  regime  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  democracy  in  power.  The  Legislative  Assembly, 
without  a  mandate  for  modifying  a  constitution  that  had 
become  inapplicable  with  the  suspension  of  the  monarch,  had 
before  disappearing  convoked  a  National  Convention,  and  as 
the  reward  of  the  struggle  for  liberty  had  replaced  the  limited 
franchise  by  universal  suffrage.  Public  opinion  became  re- 
publican from  an  excess  of  patriotism,  and  owing  to  the  propa- 
ganda of  the  Jacobin  club;  while  the  decree  of  the  2 5th  of 
August  1792,  which  marked  the  destruction  of  feudalism,  now 
abolished  in  principle,  caused  the  peasants  to  rally  definitely 
to  the  Republic. 

This  had  hardly  been  established  before  it  became  distracted 
by  the  fratricidal  strife  of  its  adherents,  from  September  22, 
1792,  to  the  i8th  Fructidor  (September  4,  1797).  The  electoral 


The 
parties. 


assemblies,  in  very  great  majority,  had  desired  this  Republic  to 
be  democratic  and  equalizing  in  spirit,  but  on  the  face     _ 
of  it,  liberal,   uniform  and  propagandist;  in  conse-     veatioa, 
quence,  the  782  deputies  of  the  Convention  were  not     Sept.  21, 
divided  on  principles,  but  only  by  personal  rivalries     I792~ 
and  ambition.     They  all  wished  for  a  unanimity  and     I79's    ' 
harmony  impossible  to  obtain;  and  being  unable  to 
convince  they  destroyed  one  another. 

The  Girondins  in  the  Convention  played  the  part  of  the 
Feuillants  in  the  Legislative  Assembly.  Their  party  was  not 
well  disciplined,  they  purposely  refrained  from  making 
it  so,  and  hence  their  ruin.  Oratorically  they  repre- 
sented the  spirit  of  the  South;  politically,  the  ideas 
of  the  bourgeoisie  in  opposition  to  the  democracy  —  which  they 
despised  although  making  use  of  it  —  and  the  federalist  system, 
from  an  objection  to  the  preponderance  of  Paris.  Paris,  on  the 
other  hand,  had  elected  only  deputies  of  the  Mountain,  as  the 
more  advanced  of  the  Jacobins  were  called,  that  party  being 
no  more  settled  and  united  than  the  others.  They  drew  support 
from  the  Parisian  democracy,  and  considered  the  decentralization 
of  the  Girondins  as  endangering  France's  unity,  circumstances 
demanding  a  strong  and  highly  concentrated  government; 
they  opposed  a  republic  on  the  model  of  that  of  Rome  to  the 
Polish  republic  of  the  Gironde.  Between  the  two  came  the 
Plaine,  the  Marais,  the  troop  of  trembling  bourgeois,  sincerely 
attached  to  the  Revolution,  but  very  moderate  in  the  defence 
of  their  ideas;  some  seeking  a  refuge  from  their  timidity  in 
hard-working  committees,  others  partaking  in  the  violence  of 
the  Jacobins  out  of  weakness  or  for  reasons  of  state. 

The  Girondins  were  the  first  to  take  the  lead;  in  order  to 
retain  it  they  should  have  turned  the  Revolution  into  a  govern- 
ment. They  remained  an  exclusive  party,  relying  on 
the  mob  but  with  no  influence  over  it.  Without  a 
leader  or  popular  power,  they  might  have  found  both 
in  Danton;  for,  occupied  chiefly  with  the  external  danger,  he 
made  advances  towards  them,  which  they  repulsed,  partly  in 
horror  at  the  proceedings  of  September,  but  chiefly  because  they 
saw  in  him  the  most  formidable  rival  in  the  path  of  the  govern- 
ment. They  waged  war  against  him  as  relentlessly  as  did  the 
Constitutionalists  against  Mirabeau,  whom  he  resembled  in  his 
extreme  ugliness  and  his  volcanic  eloquence.  They  drove  him 
into  the  arms  of  Robespierre,  Marat  and  the  Commune  of  Paris. 
On  the  other  hand,  after  the  2jrd  of  September  they  declared 
Paris  dangerous  for  the  Convention,  and  wanted  to  reduce 
it  to  "  eighty-three  influential  members."  Danton  and  the 
Mountain  responded  by  decreeing  the  unity  and  indivisibility 
of  the  Republic,  in  order  to  emphasize  the  suspicions  of  federalism 
which  weighed  upon  the  Girondins. 

The  trial  of  Louis  XVI.  still  further  enhanced  the  contrasts 
of  ideas  and  characters.  The  discovery  of  fresh  proofs  of  treachery 
in  the  iron  chest  (November  20,  1792)  gave  the  Moun-  Triaiand 
tain  a  pretext  for  forcing  on  the  clash  of  parties  and  death  of 
raising  the  question  not  of  legality  but  of  public  safety.  Louis 
By  the  execution  of  the  king  (January  21,  1793)  they 
"  cast  down  a  king's  head  as  a  challenge  to  the  kings  of  Europe." 
In  order  to  preserve  popular  favour  and  their  direction  of  the 
Republic,  the  Girondins  had  not  dared  to  pronounce  against 
the  sentence  of  death,  but  had  demanded  an  appeal  to  the  people 
which  was  rejected;  morally  weakened  by  this  equivocal  attitude 
they  were  still  more  so  by  foreign  events. 

The  king's  death  did  not  result  in  the  unanimity  so  much 
desired  by  all  parties;  it  only  caused  the  reaction  on  themselves 
of  the  hatred  which  had  been  hitherto  concentrated 
upon  the  king,  and  also  an  augmentation  in  the  armies    ILlrst 

e     .        ,        .  1.*       i  i.       i      i  i  European 

of  the  foreigner,  which  obliged  the  revolutionists  to  coalition. 
face  all  Europe.  There  was  a  coalition  of  monarchs, 
and  the  people  of  La  Vendee  rose  in  defence  of  their  faith. 
Dumpuriez,  the  conqueror  of  Jemappes  (November  6,  1792), 
who  invaded  Holland,  was  beaten  by  the  Austrians  (March  1  793)  . 
A  levy  of  300,000  men  was  ordered;  a  Committee  of  General 
Security  was  charged  with  the  search  for  suspects;  and  thence- 
forward military  occurrences  called  forth  parliamentary  crises 


856 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


Struggle 
between 
the  com- 
mune 
tad  the 
Qlroade. 


and  popular  upheavals.  Girondins  and  Jacobins  unjustly 
accused  one  another  of  leaving  the  traitors,  the  conspirators, 
the  "  stipendiaries  of  Coblenz "  unpunished.  To  avert  the 
danger  threatened  by  popular  dissatisfaction,  the  Gironde  was 
persuaded  to  vote  for  the  creation  of  a  revolutionary  tribunal 
to  judge  suspects,  while  out  of  spite  against  Danton  who  de- 
manded it,  they  refused  the  strong  government  which  might  have 
made  a  stand  against  the  enemy  (March  10, 1 793) .  This  was  the 
first  of  the  exceptional  measures  which  were  to  call  down  ruin 
upon  them.  Whilst  the  insurrection  in  La  Vendee  was  spreading, 
and  Dumouriez  falling  back  upon  Neerwinden,  sentence  of  death 
was  laid  upon  Emigres  and  refractory  priests;  the  treachery  of 
Dumouriez,  disappointed  in  his  Belgian  projects,  gave  grounds 
First  com-  for  a11  kinds  °*  suspicion,  as  that  of  Mirabeau  had 
mMeeof  formerly  done,  and  led  the  Gironde  to  propose  the 
public  new  government  which  they  had  refused  to  Danton. 
safety.  -p^e  transformation  of  the  provisional  executive  council 
into  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety — omnipotent  save  in  financial 
matters — was  voted  because  the  Girondins  meant  to  control  it; 
but  Danton  got  the  upper  hand  (April  6). 

The  Girondins,  discredited  in  Paris,  multiplied  their  attacks 
upon  Danton,  now  the  master:  they  attributed  the  civil  war 
and  the  disasters  of  the  foreign  campaign  to  the 
despotism  of  the  Paris  Commune  and  the  clubs;  they 
accused  Marat  of  instigating  the  September  massacres; 
and  they  began  the  supreme  struggle  by  demanding  the 
election  of  a  committee  of  twelve  deputies,  charged  with 
breaking  up  the  anarchic  authorities  in  Paris  (May  18). 
The  complete  success  of  the  Girondin  proposals;  the  arrest  of 
Hebert — the  violent  editor  of  the  Pert  Duchhie;  the  insurrection 
of  the  Girondins  of  Lyons  against  the  Montagnard  Commune; 
the  bad  news  from  La  Vendee — the  military  reverses;  and  the 
economic  situation  which  had  compelled  the  fixing  of  a  maximum 
price  of  corn  (May  4)  excited  the  "  moral  insurrections  "  of 
May  31  and  June  2.  Marat  himself  sounded  the  tocsin,  and 
Hanriot,  at  the  head  of  the  Parisian  army,  surrounded  the 
Convention.  Despite  the  efforts  of  Danton  and  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety,  the  arrest  of  the  Girondins  sealed  the  victory 
of  the  Mountain. 

The  threat  of  the  Girondin  Isnard  was  fulfilled.  The  federalist 
insurrection,  to  avenge  the  violation  of  national  representation, 
responded  to  the  Parisian  insurrection.  Sixty-nine 
Fatt  of  departmental  governments  protested  against  the 
'aironde.  violence  done  to  the  Convention;  but  the  ultra- 
democratic  constitution  of  1 793  deprived  the  Girondins, 
who  were  arming  in  the  west,  the  south  and  the  centre,  of  all  legal 
force.  To  the  departments  that  were  hostile  to  the  dictatorship 
of  Paris,  and  the  tyranny  of  Danton  or  Robespierre,  it  promised 
the  referendum,  an  executive  of  twenty-four  citizens,  universal 
suffrage,  and  the  free  exercise  of  religion.  The  populace,  who 
could  not  understand  this  parliamentary  quarrel,  and  were  in  a 
hurry  to  set  up  a  national  defence,  abandoned  the  Girondins,  and 
the  latter  excited  the  enthusiasm  of  only  one  person,  Charlotte 
Corday,  who  by  the  murder  of  Marat  ruined  them  irretrievably. 
The  battle  of  Brecourt  was  a  defeat  without  a  fight  for  their 
party  without  stamina  and  their  general  without  troops  (July 
13);  while  on  the  3ist  of  October  their  leaders  perished  on  the 
guillotine,  where  they  had  been  preceded  by  the  queen,  Marie 
Antoinette.  The  Girondins  and  their  adversaries  were  differen- 
tiated by  neither  religious  dissensions  nor  political  divergency, 
but  merely  by  a  question  of  time.  The  Girondins,  when  in  power, 
had  had  scruples  which  had  not  troubled  them  while  scaling  the 
ladder;  idols  of  Paris,  they  had  flattered  her  in  turn,  and  when 
Paris  scorned  them  they  sought  support  in  the  provinces.  A 
great  responsibility  for  this  defeat  of  the  liberal  and  republican 
bourgeoisie,  whom  they  represented,  is  to  be  laid  upon  Madame 
Roland,  the  Egeria  of  the  party.  An  ardent  patriot  and  re- 
publican, her  relations  with  Danton  resembled  those  of  Marie 
Antoinette  with  Mirabeau,  in  each  case  a  woman  spoilt  by 
flattery,  enraged  at  indifference.  She  was  the  ruin  of  the  Gironde, 
but  taught  it  how  to  die. 
The  fall  of  the  Gironde  left  the  country  disturbed  by  civil  war, 


and  the  frontiers  more  seriously  threatened  than  before  Valmy. 
Bouchotte,  a  totally  inefficient  minister  for  war,  the  Commune's 
man  of  straw,  left  the  army  without  food  or  ammunition,  while 
the  suspected  officers  remained  inactive.  In  the  Angevin 
Vendee  the  incapable  leaders  let  themselves  be  beaten  at  Aubiers, 
Beaupreau  and  Thouars,  at  a  time  when  Cathelineau  was  taking 
possession  of  Saumur  and  threatening  Nantes,  the  capture  of 
which  would  have  permitted  the  insurgents  in  La  Vendee  to  join 
those  of  Brittany  and  receive  provisions  from  England.  Mean- 
while, the  remnants  of  the  Girondin  federalists  were  overcome 
by  the  disguised  royalists,  who  had  aroused  the  whole  of  the 
Rhone  valley  from  Lyons  to  Marseilles,  had  called  in  the 
Sardinians,  and  handed  over  the  fleet  and  the  arsenal  at  Toulon 
to  the  English,  whilst  Paoli  left  Corsica  at  their  disposal.  The 
scarcity  of  money  due  to  the  discrediting  of  the  assignats,  the 
cessation  of  commerce,  abroad  and  on  the  sea,  and  the  bad 
harvest  of  1793,  were  added  to  all  these  dangers,  and  formed  a 
serious  menace  to  France  and  the  Convention. 

This  meant  a  hard  task  for  the  first  Committee  of  Public  Safety 
and  its  chief  Danton.  He  was  the  only  one  to  understand  the 
conditions  necessary  to  a  firm  government;  he  caused 
the  adjournment  of  the  decentralizing  constitution 
of  1793,  and  set  up  a  revolutionary  government.  The  Ot°be 
Committee  of  Public  Safety,  now  a  permanency,  first 
annulled  the  Convention  and  was  itself  the  central 
authority,  its  organization  in  Paris  being  the  twelve 
committees  substituted  for  the  provisional  executive 
committee  and  the  six  ministers,  the  Committee  of  General 
Security  for  the  maintenance  of  the  police,  and  the  arbitrary 
Revolutionary  Tribunal.  The  execution  of  its  orders  in  the 
departments  was  carried  out  by  omnipotent  representatives 
"  on  mission  "  in  the  armies,  by  popular  societies — veritable 
missionaries  of  the  Revolution — and  by  the  revolutionary 
committees  which  were  its  backbone. 

Despite  this  Reign  of  Terror  Danton  failed;  he  could  neither 
dominate  foes  within  nor  divide  those  without.  Representing 
the  sane  and  vigorous  democracy,  and  like  Jefferson  > 

a  friend  to  liberty  and  self-government,  he  had  been  /a//"«"  * 
obliged  to  set  up  the  most  despotic  of  governments 
in  face  of  internal  anarchy  and  foreign  invasion.  Being  of  a 
temperament  that  expressed  itself  only  in  action,  and  neither 
a  theorist  nor  a  cabinet-minister,  he  held  the  views  of  a  statesman 
without  having  a  following  sufficient  to  realize  them.  Moreover, 
the  proceedings  of  the  and  of  June,  when  the  Commune  of  Paris 
had  triumphed,  had  dealt  him  a  mortal  blow.  He  is  his  turn 
tried  to  stem  the  tumultuous  current  which  had  borne  him 
along,  and  to  prevent  discord;  but  the  check  to  his  policy  of 
an  understanding  with  Prussia  and  with  Sardinia,  to  whom, 
like  Richelieu  and  D'Argenson,  he  offered  the  realization  of  her 
transalpine  ambition  in  exchange  for  Nice  and  Savoy,  was 
added  to  the  failure  of  his  temporizing  methods  in  regard  to  the 
federalist  insurgents,  and  of  his  military  operations  against 
La  Vendee.  A  man  of  action  and  not  of  cunning  shifts,  he 
succumbed  on  the  loth  of  July  to  the  blows  of  his  own  govern- 
ment, which  had  passed  from  his  hands  into  those  of  Robespierre, 
his  ambitious  and  crafty  rival. 

The  second  Committee  of  Public  Safety  lasted  until  the 
27th  of  July  1794.  Composed  of  twelve  members,  re-eligible 
every  month,  and  dominated  by  the  triumvirate,  second 
Robespierre,  Saint-Just  and  Couthon,  it  was  stronger  committee 
than  ever,  since  it  obtained  the  right  of  appointing  °^?"w/c 
leaders,  disposed  of  money,  and  muzzled  the  press. 
Many  of  its  members  were  sons  of  the  bourgeoisie,  men  who 
having  been  educated  at  college,  thanks  to  some  charitable 
agency,  in  the  pride  of  learning,  and  raised  above  their  original 
station,  were  ready  for  anything  but  had  achieved  nothing. 
They  had  plenty  of  talent  at  command,  were  full  of  classical 
tirades  against  tyranny,  and,  though  sensitive  enough  in  their 
private  life,  were  bloodthirsty  butchers  in  their  public  relations. 
Such  were  Robespierre,  Saint-Just,  Couthon,  Billaud-Varenne, 
Cambon,  Thuriot,  Collot  d'Herbois,  Barrere  and  Prieur  de 
la  Marne.  Working  hand  in  hand  with  these  politicians,  not 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


857 


always  in  accordance  with  them,  but  preserving  a  solid  front, 
were  the  specialists,  Carnot,  Robert  Lindet,  Jean  Bon  Saint- 
Andre  and  Prieur  de  la  Cote  d'Or,  honourable  men,  anxious 
above  all  to  safeguard  their  country.  At  the  head  of  the  former 
type  Robespierre,  without  special  knowledge  or  exceptional 
talent,  devoured  by  jealous  ambition  and  gifted  with  cold  grave 
eloquence,  enjoyed  a  great  moral  ascendancy,  due  to  his  in- 
corruptible purity  of  life  and  the  invariably  correct  behaviour 
that  had  been  wanting  in  Mirabeau,  and  by  the  persevering  will 
which  Danton  had  lacked.  His  marching  orders  were:  no  more 
temporizing  with  the  federalists  or  with  generals  who  are  afraid  of 
conquering;  war  to  the  death  with  all  Europe  in  the  name  of  re- 
volutionary propaganda  and  the  monarchical  tradition  of  natural 
frontiers;  and  fear,  as  a  means  of  government.  The  specialists 
answered  foreign  foes  by  their  organization  of  victory;  as  for  foes 
at  home,  the  triumvirate  crushed  them  beneath  the  Terror. 

France  was  saved  by  them  and  by  that  admirable  outburst 
of  patriotism  which  provided  750,000  patriots  for  the  army 

through  the  general  levy  of  the  i6th  of  August  1793, 
Defeat  of  aj(je(ji  moreover,  by  the  mistakes  of  her  enemies. 
coalition.  Instead  of  profiting  by  Dumouriez's  treachery  and 

the  successes  in  La  Vendee,  the  Coalition,  divided 
over  the  resuscitated  Polish  question,  lost  time  on  the  frontiers 
of  this  new  Poland  of  the  west  which  was  sacrificing  itself  for 
the  sake  of  a  Universal  Republic.  Thus  in  January  1794  the 
territory  of  France  was  cleared  of  the  Prussians  and  Austrians 
by  the  victories  at  Hondschoote,  Wattignies  and  Wissembourg; 
the  army  of  La  Vendee  was  repulsed  from  Granville,  over- 
whelmed by  Hoche's  army  at  Le  Mans  and  Savenay,  and 
its  leaders  shot;  royalist  sedition  was  suppressed  at  Lyons, 
Bordeaux,  Marseilles  and  Toulon;  federalist  insurrections 
were  wiped  out  by  the  terrible  massacres  of  Carrier  at  Nantes, 
the  atrocities  of  Lebon  at  Arras,  and  the  wholesale  executions 
of  Fouche  and  Collot  d'Herbois  at  Lyons;  Louis  XVI.  and 
Marie  Antoinette  guillotined,  the  emigres  dispersed,  denied  or 
forsaken  by  all  Europe. 

But  the  triumphant  Mountain  was  not  as  united  as  it  boasted. 
The  second  Committee  of  Public  Safety  had  now  to  struggle 

against  two  oppositions:  one  of  the  left,  represented 
parties.  ^y  Hebert,  the  Commune  of  Paris  and  .the  Cordeliers; 

another  of  the  right,  Danton  and  his  followers.  The 
former  would  not  admit  that  the  Terror  was  only  a  temporary 
method  of  defence;  for  them  it  was  a  permanent  system  which 
was  even  to  be  strengthened  in  order  to  crush  all  who  were 
hostile  to  the  Revolution.  Their  sanguinary  violence  was  com- 
bined with  an  anti-religious  policy,  not  atheistical,  but  inspired 
by  mistrust  of  the  clergy,  and  by  a  civic  and  deistic  creed  that 
was  a  direct  outcome  of  the  federations.  To  these  latter  were 
due  the  substitution  of  the  Republican  for  the  Gregorian  calendar, 
and  the  secular  Feasts  of  Reason  (November  19,  1793).  The 
followers  of  Hebert  wanted  to  push  forward  the  movement  of 
May  31,  1793,  in  order  to  become  masters  in  their  turn;  while 
those  of  Danton  were  by  way  of  arresting  it.  They  considered  it 

time  to  re-establish  the  reign  of  ordinary  laws  and 

Just'ce!  s'ck  °f  bloodshed,  with  Camille  Desmoulins 
.  they  demanded  a   "  Committee  of   Clemency."     A 

deist  and  therefore  hostile  to  "anti-religious  masque- 
rades," while  uneasy  at  the  absolute  authority  of  the  Paris 
Commune,  which  aimed  at  suppressing  the  State,  and  at  its 
armed .  propaganda  abroad,  Robespierre  resumed  the  struggle 
against  its  illegal  power,  so  fatal  to  the  Gironde.  His  boldness 
succeeded  (March  24,  1794),  and  then,  jealous  of  Danton's 
activity  and  statesmanship,  and  exasperated  by  the  jeers  of  his 
friends,  he  rid  himself  of  the  party  of  tolerance  by  a  parody 
of  justice  (April  5). 

Robespierre  now  stood  alone.  During  five  months,  while 
affecting  to  be  the  representative  of  "  a  reign  of  justice  and 
Robes-  virtue,"  he  laboured  at  strengthening  his  politico- 
piem's  religious  dictatorship — already  so  formidably  armed — 
dictator-  with  new  powers.  "  The  incorruptible  wanted  to 
****•  become  the  invulnerable"  and  the  scaffold  of  the 

guillotine  was  crowded.     By  his  dogma  of  the  supreme  state 


Robespierre  founded  a  theocratic  government  with  the  police 
as  an  Inquisition.  The  festival  of  the  new  doctrine,  which 
turned  the  head  of  the  new  pontiff  (June  8),  the  loi  de  Prairial, 
or  "  code  of  legal  murder  "  (June  10),  which  gave  the  deputies 
themselves  into  his  hand;  and  the  multiplication  of  executions 
at  a  time  when  the  victory  of  Fleurus  (June  25)  showed  the 
uselessness  and  barbarity  of  this  aggravation  of  the  Reign  of 
Terror  provoked  against  him  the  victorious  coalition  of  revenge, 
lassitude  and  fear.  Vanquished  and  imprisoned,  he 
refused  to  take  part  in  the  illegal  action  proposed 
by  the  Commune  against  the  Convention.  Robespierre 
was  no  man  of  action.  On  the  9th  Thermidor  (July  27,  1794) 
he  fell  into  the  gulf  that  had  opened  on  the  3ist  of  May,  and 
through  which  the  i8th  Brumaire  was  visible. 

Although  brought  about  by  the  Terrorists,  the  tragic  fall  of 
Robespierre  put  an  end  to  the  Reign  of  Terror;  for  their  chiefs 
having  disappeared,  the  subordinates  were  too  much  Thlrd 
divided  to  keep  up  the  dictatorship  of  the  third  committee 
Committee  of  Public  Safety,  and  reaction  soon  set  in.  of  public 
After  a  change  in  personnel  in  favour  of  the  surviving  saiety- 
Dantonists,  came  a  limitation  to  the  powers  of  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety,  now  placed  in  dependence  upon  the  Convention; 
and  next  followed  the  destruction  of  the  revolutionary  system, 
the  Girondin  decentralization  and  the  resuscitation  of  depart- 
mental governments;  the  reform  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal 
on  the  loth  of  August;  the  suppression  of  the  Commune  of 
Paris  on  the  ist  of  September,  and  of  the  salary  of  forty  sous 
given  to  members  of  the  sections;  the  abolition  of  the  maximum, 
the  suppression  of  the  Guillotine,  the  opening  of  the  prisons, 
the  closing  of  the  Jacobin  club  (November  ji),  and  the  hence- 
forward insignificant  existence  of  the  popular  societies. 

Power  reverted  to  the  Girondins  and  Dantonists,  who  re- 
entered  the  Convention  on  the  i8th  of  December;  but  with 
them  re-entered  likewise  the  royalists  of  Lyons,  ffesusclta. 
Marseilles  and  Toulon,  and  further,  after  the  peace  of  tion  of  the 
Basel,  many  young  men  set  free  from  the  army,  hostile  royalist 
to  the  Jacobins  and  defenders  of  the  now  moderate  t>arty- 
and  peace-making  Convention.  These  muscodins  and  in- 
croyables,  led  by  Freron,  Tallien  and  Barras — former  revolu- 
tionists who  had  become  aristocrats — profited  by  the  restored 
liberty  of  the  press  to  prepare  for  days  of  battle  in  the  salons 
of  the  merveilleuses  Madame  Tallien,  Madame  de  Stael  and 
Madame  Recamier,  as  the  sans-culottes  had  formerly  done  in 
the  clubs.  The  remnants  of  Robespierre's  faction  became 
alarmed  at  this  Thermidor  reaction,  in  which  they  scented 
royalism.  Aided  by  famine,  by  the  suppression  of  the  maximum, 
and  by  the  imminent  bankruptcy  of  the  assignats,  they  en- 
deavoured to  arouse  the  working  classes  and  the  former  Hanriot 
companies  against  a  government  which  was  trying  to  destroy  the 
republic,  and  had  broken  the  busts  of  Marat  and  guillotined 
Carrier  and  Fouquier-Tinville,  the  former  public  prosecutor. 
Thus  the  risings  of  the  i2th  Germinal  (April  i,  1795)  _ 
and  of  the  ist  Prairial  (May  20)  were  economic  revolts  rteingsfof 
rather  than  insurrections  excited  by  the  deputies  of  the  Germinal 
Mountain;  in  order  to  suppress  them  the  reactionaries  a°d 
called  in  the  army.  Owing  to  this  first  intervention 
of  the  troops  in  politics,  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  which 
aimed  not  so  much  at  a  moderate  policy  as  at  steering  a  middle 
course  between  the  Thermidorians  of  the  Right  and  of  the  Left, 
was  able  to  dispense  with  the  latter. 

The  royalists  now  supposed  that  their  hour  had  come.     In 
the  south,  the  companions  of  Jehu  and  of  the  Sun  inaugurated 
a  "  White  Terror,"  which  had  not  even  the  apparent 
excuse  of  the  public  safety  or  of  exasperated  patriotism.         n° 
At  the  same  time  they  prepared  for  a  twofold  in-          terror. 
surrection  against  the  republic — in  the  west  with  the 
help  of  England,  and  in  the  east  with  that  of  Austria — by  an 
attempt  to  bribe  General  Pichegru.     But  though  the  heads  of 
the  government  wanted  to  put  an  end  to  the  Revolution  they  had 
no  thought  of  restoring  the  monarchy  in  favour  of  the  Comte  de 
Provence,  who  had  taken  the  title  of  Louis  XVIII.  on  hearing 
of  the  death  of  the  dauphin  in  the  Temple,  and  still  less  of  bringing 


858 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


the  con- 
vention. 


back  the  ancien  regime.  Hoche  crushed  the  insurrection  of  the 
Chouans  and  the  Bretons  at  Quiberon  on  the  2nd  of  July  1795, 
and  Pichegru,  scared,  refused  to  entangle  himself  any  further. 

To  cut  off  all  danger  from  royalists  or  terrorists  the  Convention 
now  voted  the  Constitution  of  the  year  III.;  suppressing  that 
of  1793,  in  order  to  counteract  the  terrorists,  and' 
stituiion  re-establishing  the  bourgeois  limited  franchise  with 
of  the  election  in  two  degrees — a  less  liberal  arrangement  than 
year  in.  tjjat  granted  from  1 789  to  1 792.  The  chambers  of  the 
Five  Hundred  and  of  the  Ancients  were  elected  by  the  moneyed 
and  intellectual  aristocracy,  and  were  to  be  re-elected  by  thirds 
annually.  The  executive  authority,  entrusted  to  five  Directors, 
was  no  more  than  a  definite  and  very  strong  Committee  of  Public 
Safety;  but  Sieyes,  the  author  of  the  new  constitution,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  royalists,  had  secured  places  of  refuge  for  his  party 
by  reserving  posts  as  directors  for  the  regicides,  and  two-thirds 
of  the  deputies'  seats  for  members  of  the  Convention.  In  self- 
defence  against  this  continuance  of  the  policy  and  the 
The  13th  personnel  of  the  Convention — a  modern  "  Long  Parlia- 
ment  " — tne  royalists,  persistent  street-fighters  and 
masters  in  the  "  sections  "  after  the  suppression  of 
the  daily  indemnification  of  forty  sous,  attempted  the  insurrection 
of  the  i3th  Vendemiaire  (October  5,  1795),  which  was  easily 
put  down  by  General  Bonaparte. 

Thus  the  bourgeois  republic  reaped  the  fruits  of  its  predecessor's 
external  policy.  After  the  freeing  of  the  land  in  January  1794 
.,...,  an  impulse  had  been  given  to  the  spirit  of  conquestwhich 

achieve-  had  gradually  succeeded  to  the  disinterested  fever  of 
mentsnf  propaganda  and  overheated  patriotism.  This  it  was 
which  had  sustained  Robespierre's  dictatorship;  and, 
owing  to  the  "  amalgam  "  and  the  re-establishment  of 
discipline,  Belgium  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  had  been  con- 
quered and  Holland  occupied,  simultaneously  with  Kosciusko's 
rising  in  Poland,  Prussia's  necessity  of  keeping  and  extending 
her  Polish  acquisitions,  Robespierre's  death,  the  prevalent 
desires  of  the  majority,  and  the  continued  victories  of  Pichegru, 
Jourdan  and  Moreau,  enfeebled  the  coalition.  At  Basel  (April- 
July  1795)  republican  France,  having  rejoined  the 
concert  of  Europe,  signed  the  long-awaited  peace  with 
Prussia,  Spain,  Holland  and  the  grand-duke  of  Tuscany. 
But  thanks  to  the  past  influence  of  the  Girondin  party,  who 
had  caused  the  war,  and  of  the  regicides  of  the  Mountain,  this 
peace  not  only  ratified  the  conquest  of  Belgium,  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine  and  Santo  Domingo,  but  paved  the  way  for  fresh 
conquests;  for  the  old  spirit  of  domination  and  persistent 
hostility  to  Austria  attracted  the  destinies  of  the  Revolution 
definitely  towards  war. 

The  work  of  internal  construction  amidst  this  continued  battle 
against  the  whole  world  had  been  no  less  remarkable.  The 
Constituent  Assembly  had  been  more  destructive  than 
'"IT""'  constructive;  but  the  Convention  preserved  intact 
meats'"  those  fundamental  principles  of  civil  liberty  which 
had  been  the  main  results  of  the  Revolution:  the 
equality  so  dear  to  the  French,  and  the  sovereignty  of  the 
people — the  foundation  of  democracy.  It  also  managed  to 
engage  private  interests  in  state  reform  by  creating  the  Grand 
Livre  de  la  Dette  Publique  (September  13-26,  1793),  and  enlisted 
peasant  and  bourgeois  savings  in  social  reforms  by  the  distribu- 
tion and  sale  of  national  property.  But  with  views  reaching 
beyond  equality  of  rights  to  a  certain  equality  of  property,  the 
committees,  as  regards  legislation,  poor  relief  and  instruction, 
laid  down  principles  which  have  never  been  realized,  save  in 
the  matter  of  the  metric  system;  so  that  the  Convention  which 
was  dispersed  on  the  i6th  of  October  1795  made  a  greater 
impression  on  political  history  and  social  ideas  than  on  institu- 
tions. Its  disappearance  left  a  great  blank. 

During  four  years  the  Directory  attempted  to  fill  this  blank. 
Being  the  outcome  of  the  Constitution  of  the  year  III.,  it  should 
The  ^ave  keen  tne  organizing  and  pacifying  government 

Directory.    °^  tne  Republic;  in  reality  it  sought  not  to  create,  but 
to  preserve  its  own  existence.     Its  internal  weakness, 
between  the  danger  of  anarchy  and  the  opposition  of  the  monar- 


chists, was  extreme;  and  it  soon  became  discredited  by  its  own 
coups  d'etat  and  by  financial  impotence  in  the  eyes  of  a  nation 
sick  of  revolution,  aspiring  towards  peace  and  the  resumption 
of  economic  undertakings.  As  to  foreign  affairs,  its  aggressive 
policy  imperilled  the  conquests  that  had  been  the  glory  of  the 
Convention,  and  caused  the  frontiers  of  France,  the  defence  of 
which  had  been  a  point  of  honour  with  the  Republic,  to  be  called 
in  question.  Finally,  there  was  no  real  government  on  the  part 
of  the  five  directors:  La  Revelliere-Lepeaux,  an  honest  man 
but  weak;  Reubell,  the  negotiator  of  the  Hague;  Letourneur, 
an  officer  of  talent;  Barras,  a  man  of  intrigue,  corrupt  and 
without  real  convictions;  and  Carnot,  the  only  really  worthy 
member.  They  never  understood  one  another,  and  never  con- 
sulted together  in  hours  of  danger,  save  to  embroil  matters  in 
politics  as  in  war.  Leaning  on  the  bourgeois,  conservative, 
liberal  and  anti-clerical  republicans,  they  were  no  more  able 
than  was  the  Thermidor  party  to  re-establish  the  freedom  that 
had  been  suspended  by  revolutionary  despotism;  they  created 
a  ministry  of  police,  interdicted  the  clubs  and  popular  societies, 
distracted  the  press,  and  with  partiality  undertook  the  separation 
of  Church  and  State  voted  on  the  i8th  of  September  1794. 
Their  real  defence  against  counter  revolution  was  the  army; 
but,  by  a  further  contradiction,  they  reinforced  the  army  attached 
to  the  Revolution  while  -seeking  an  alliance  with  the  peace- 
making bourgeoisie.  Their  party  had  therefore  no  more  homo- 
geneity than  had  their  policy. 

Moreover  the  Directory  could  not  govern  alone;  it  had  to 
rely  upon  two  other  parties,  according  to  circumstances:  the 
republican-democrats  and  the  disguised  royalists.' 
The  former,  purely  anti-royalist,  thought  only  of  parties 
remedying  the  sufferings  of  the  people.  Roused  by 
the  collapse  of  the  assignats,  following  upon  the  ruin  of  industry 
and  the  arrest  of  commerce,  they  were  still  further  exasperated 
by  the  speculations  of  the  financiers,  by  the  jobbery  which 
prevailed  throughout  the  administration,  and  by  the  sale  of 
national  property  which  had  profited  hardly  any  but  the 
bourgeoisie.  After  the  i3th  Vendemiaire  the  royalists  too, 
deceived  in  their  hopes,  were  expecting  to  return  gradually  to 
the  councils,  thanks  to  the  high  property  qualification  for  the 
franchise.  Under  the  name  of  "  moderates  "  they  demanded 
an  end  to  this  war  which  England  continued  and  Austria 
threatened  to  recommence,  and  that  the  Directory  from  self- 
interested  motives  refused  to  conclude;  they  desired  the 
abandonment  of  revolutionary  proceedings,  order  in  finance 
and  religious  peace. 

The  Directory,  then,  was  in  a  minority  in  the  country,  and 
had  to  be  ever  on  the  alert  against  faction;  all  possible  methods 
seemed  legitimate,  and  during  two  years  appeared     struggle 
successful.      Order  was  maintained  in  France,  even  the    against 
royalist  west  being  pacified,  thanks  to  Hoche,  who    the 
finished    his    victorious   campaign   of    1796   against    myaas**- 
Stofflet,  Charette  and  Cadoudal,  by  using  mild  and  just  measures 
to  complete  the  subjection  of  the  country.     The  greatest  danger 
lay  in  the  republican-democrats  and  their  socialist  ally,  Francois 
Noel  ("  Gracchus  ")  Babeuf  (q.v.).     The  former  had  united  the 
Jacobins  and  the  more  violent  members  of  the  Conven- 
tion in  their  club,   the   Societe  du   Pantheon;   and 
their  fusion,  after  the  closing  of  the  club,  with  the   there- 
secret    society    of    the    Babouvists    lent    formidable  publican- 
strength  to  this  party,  with  which  Barras  was  secretly   *™J^a" 
in  league.     The  terrorist  party,  deprived  of  its  head,   sociaiists. 
had  found  a  new  leader,  who,    by   developing   the 
consequences  of  the   Revolution's  acts  to   their  logical  con- 
clusion, gave  first  expression  to  the  levelling  principle  of  com- 
munism.    He  proclaimed  the  right  of  property  as  appertain- 
ing to  the  state,  that  is,  to  the  whole  community;       Babeuf 
the  doctrine  of  equality  as  absolutely  opposed  to  social 
inequality  of  any  kind — that  of  property  as  well  as  that  of  rank; 
and  finally  the  inadequacy  of  the  solution  of  the  agrarian  question, 
which  had  profited  scarcely  any  one,  save  a  new  class  of  privileged 
individuals.     But    these    socialist    demands    were    premature; 
the  attack  of  the  camp  of  Crenelle  upon  constitutional  order 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


859 


ended  merely  in  the  arrest  and  guillotining  of  Babeuf  (September 
9,  i790-May  25,  1797). 

The  liquidation  of  the  financial  inheritance  of  the  Convention 
was  no  less  difficult.  The  successive  issues  of  assignats,  and  the 
Financial  multiplication  of  counterfeits  made  abroad,  had  so 
policy  depreciated  this  paper  money  that  an  assignat  of  100 
of  the  francs  was  in  February  1796  worth  only  30  centimes; 
ory'  while  the  government,  obliged  to  accept  them  at  their 
nominal  value,  no  longer  collected  any  taxes  and  could  not  pay 
salaries.  The  destruction  of  the  plate  for  printing  assignats, 
on  the  i8th  of  February  1796,  did  not  prevent  the  drop  in  the 
forty  milliards  still  in  circulation.  Territorial  mandates  were 
now  tried,  which  inspired  no  greater  confidence,  but  served  to 
liquidate  two-thirds  of  the  debt,  the  remaining  third  being  con- 
solidated by  its  dependence  on  the  Grand  Livre  (September  30, 
1797).  This  widespread  bankruptcy,  falling  chiefly  on  the 
bourgeoisie,  inaugurated  a  reaction  which  lasted  until  1830 
against  the  chief  principle  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  which 
had  favoured  indirect  taxation  as  producing  a  large  sum  without 
imposing  any  very  obvious  burden.  The  bureaucrats  of  the  old 
system — having  returned  to  their  offices  and  being  used  to  these 
indirect  taxes — lent  their  assistance,  and  thus  the  Directory  was 
enabled  to  maintain  its  struggle  against  the  Coalition. 

All  system  in  finance  having  disappeared,  war  provided  the 
Directory,  now  in  extremis,  with  a  treasury,  and  was  its  only 
source  for  supplying  constitutional  needs;  while  it 
f alley"'1  opened  a  path  to  the  military  commanders  who  were 
to  be  the  support  and  the  glory  of  the  state.  England 
remaining  invulnerable  in  her  insular  position  despite  Heche's 
attempt  to  land  in  Ireland  in  1796,  the  Directory  resumed  the 
traditional  policy  against  Austria  of  conquering  the  natural 
frontiers,  Carnot  furnishing  the  plans;  hence  the  war  in  southern 
Germany,  in  which  Jourdan  and  Moreau  were  repulsed  by  an 
inferior  force  under  the  archduke  Charles,  and  Bonaparte's 
triumphant  Italian  campaign.  Chief  of  an  army  that  he  had 
made  irresistible,  not  by  honour  but  by  glory,  and  master  of 
wealth  by  rapine,  Bonaparte  imposed  his  will  upon  the  Directory, 
which  he  provided  with  funds.  After  having  separated  the  Pied- 
montese  from  the  Austrians,  whom  he  drove  back  into  Tyrol,  and 
repulsed  offensive  reprisals  of  Wurmser  and  Alvinzi  on  four  occa- 
sions, he  stopped  short  at  the  preliminary  negotiations  of  Leoben 
just  at  the  moment  when  the  Directory,  discouraged  by  the 
problem  of  Italian  reconstitution,  was  preparing  the  army  of  the 
Rhine  to  re-enter  the  field  under  the  command  of  Hoche.  Bona- 
parte thus  gained  the  good  opinion  of  peace-loving  Frenchmen; 
he  partitioned  Venetian  territory  with  Austria,  contrary  to  French 
interests  but  conformably  with  his  own  in  Italy,  and  henceforward 
was  the  decisive  factor  in  French  and  European  policy,  like 
Caesar  or  Pompey  of  old.  England,  in  consternation,  offered 
in  her  turn  to  negotiate  at  Lille. 

These  military  successes  did  not  prevent  the  Directory,  like 
the  Thermidorians,  from  losing  ground  in  the  country.  Every 
Struggle  strategic  truce  since  1795  had  been  marked  by  a  political 
against  crisis;  peace  reawakened  opposition.  The  constitu- 
the  tional  party,  royalist  in  reality,  had  made  alarming 

royalists.  prOgresS;  chiefly  owing  to  the  Babouvist  conspiracy ; 
they  now  tried  to  corrupt  the  republican  generals,  and  Conde 
procured  the  treachery  of  Pichegru,  Kellermann  and  General 
Ferrand  at  Besancon.  Moreover,  their  Clichy  club,  directed 
by  the  abbe  Brottier,  manipulated  Parisian  opinion;  while 
many  of  the  refractory  priests,  having  returned  after  the  liberal 
Public  Worship  Act  of  September  1795,  made  active  propaganda 
against  the  principles  of  the  Revolution,  and  plotted  the  fall 
of  the  Directory  as  maintaining  the  State's  independence  of  the 
Church.  Thus  the  partial  elections  of  the  year  V.  (May  20, 
1797)  had  brought  back  into  the  two  councils  a  counter-revolu- 
tionary majority  of  royalists,  constitutionalists  of  1791,  Catholics 
and  moderates.  The  Director  Letourneur  had  been  replaced 
by  Barthelemy,  who  had  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Basel  and  was 
a  constitutional  monarchist.  So  that  the  executive  not  only 
found  it  impossible  to  govern,  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the 
councils  and  a  vehement  press-campaign,  but  was  distracted 


by  ceaseless  internal  conflict.  Carnot  and  Barthelemy  wished 
to  meet  ecclesiastical  opposition  by  legal  measures  only,  and 
demanded  peace;  while  Barras,  La  Revelliere  and  Reubell 
saw  no  other  remedy  save  military  force.  The  attempt  of  the 
counter-revolutionaries  to  make  an  army  for  themselves  out  of 
the  guard  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  and  the  success  of  the 
Catholics,  who  had  managed  at  the  end  of  August  1797  to  repeal 
the  laws  against  refractory  priests,  determined  the  Directory 
to  appeal  from  the  rebellious  parliament  to  the  ready  swords  of 
Augereau  and  Bernadotte.  On  the  i8th  Fructidor  (September 
4,  1797)  Bonaparte's  lieutenants,  backed  up  by  the 
whole  army,  stopped  the  elections  in  forty-nine 
departments,  and  deported  to  Guiana  many  deputies 
of  both  councils,  journalists  and  non-juring  priests,  as 
well  as  the  director  Barthelemy,  though  Carnot  escaped  into 
Switzerland.  The  royalist  party  was  once  more  overthrown, 
but  with  it  the  republican  constitution  itself.  Thus  every  act 
of  violence  still  further  confirmed  the  new  empire  of  the  army 
and  the  defeat  of  principles,  preparing  the  way  for  military 
despotism. 

Political  and  financial  coups  d'etat  were  not  enough  for  the 
directors.  In  order  to  win  back  public  opinion,  tired  of  inter- 
necine quarrels  and  sickened  by  the  scandalous  Aggressive 
immorality  of  the  generals  and  of  those  in  power,  policy 
and  to  remove  from  Paris  an  army  which  after  having  of  the 
given  them  a  fresh  lease  of  life  was  now  a  menace  to  Dlrectofy- 
them,  war  appeared  their  only  hopeful  course.  They  attempted 
to  renew  the  designs  of  Louis  XIV.  and  anticipate  those  of 
Napoleon.  But  Bonaparte  saw  what  they  were  planning;  and 
to  the  rupture  of  the  negotiations  at  Lille  and  an  order  for  the 
resumption  of  hostilities  he  responded  by  a  fresh  act  of  dis- 
obedience and  the  infliction  on  the  Directory  of  the  peace  of 
Campo-Formio,  on  October  17,  1797.  The  directors  were  con- 
soled for  this  enforced  peace  by  acquiring  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine  and  Belgium,  and  for  the  forfeiture  of  republican  principles 
by  attaining  what  had  for  so  long  been  the  ambition  of  the 
monarchy.  But  the  army  continued  a  menace.  To  avoid 
disbanding  it,  which  might,  as  after  the  peace  of  Basel,  have 
given  the  counter-revolution  further  auxiliaries,  the  Directory 
appointed  Bonaparte  chief  of  the  Army  of  England,  and  employed 
Jourdan  to  revise  the  conscription  laws  so  as  to  make  military 
service  a  permanent  duty  of  the  citizen,  since  war  was  now  to  be 
the  permanent  object  of  policy.  The  Directory  finally  conceived 
the  gigantic  project  of  bolstering  up  the  French  Republic  —  the 
triumph  of  which  was  celebrated  by  the  peace  of  Campo-Formio 
—  by  forming  the  neighbouring  weak  states  into  tributary 
vassal  republics.  This  system  had  already  been  applied  to  the 
Batavian  republic  in  1795,  to  the  Ligurian  and  Cisalpine  republics 
in  June  1797;  it  was  extended  to  that  of  Miilhausen  on  the  28th 
of  January  1798,  to  the  Roman  republic  in  February,  to  the 
Helvetian  in  April,  while  the  Parthenopaean  republic  (Naples) 
was  to  be  established  in  1  799.  This  was  an  international  coup  de 
force,  which  presupposed  that  all  these  nations  in  whose  eyes 
independence  was  flaunted  would  make  no  claim  to  enjoy  it; 
that  though  they  had  been  beaten  and  pillaged  they  would  not 
learn  to  conquer  in  their  turn;  and  that  the  king  of  Sardinia, 
dispossessed  of  Milan,  the  grand-duke  of  Tuscany  who  had 
given  refuge  to  the  pope  when  driven  from  Rome,  and  the 
king  of  Naples,  who  had  opened  his  ports  to  Nelson's  fleet, 
would  not  find  allies  to  make  a  stand  against  this  hypocritical 
system. 

What  happened  was  exactly  the  contrary.  Meanwhile,  the 
armies  were  kept  in  perpetual  motion,  procuring  money  for  the 
impecunious  Directory,  making  a  diversion  for  internal  Coup 
discontent,  and  also  permitting  of  a  "reversed  d'etat  of. 
Fructidor,"  against  the  anarchists,  who  had  got  the  the  22nd 
upper  hand  in  the  partial  elections  of  May  1798. 
The  social  danger  was  averted  in  its  turn  after  the  clerical 
danger  had  been  dissipated.  The  next  task  was  to  relieve 
Paris  of  Bonaparte,  who  had  already  refused  to  repeat 
Hoche's  unhappy  expedition  to  Ireland  and  to  attack  England 
at  home  without  either  money  or  a  navy.  The  pecuniary 


86o 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


resources  of  Berne  and  the  wealth  of  Rome  fortunately  tided 
over  the  financial  difficulty  and  provided  for  the  expedi- 
tion to  Egypt,  which  permitted  Bonaparte  to  wait 
"  for  the  fruit  to  ripen  "—i.e.  till  the  Directory 
should  be  ruined  in  the  eyes  of  France  and  of  all 
Europe.  The  disaster  of  Aboukir  (August  i,  1798)  speedily 
decided  the  coalition  pending  between  England,  Austria,  the 
Empire,  Portugal,  Naples,  Russia  and  Turkey.  The  Directory 
had  to  make  a  stand  or  perish,  and  with  it  the  Republic.  The 
directors  had  thought  France  might  retain  a  monopoly 
The  in  numbers  and  in  initiative.  They  soon  perceived 

tnat  enthusiasm  is  not  as  great  for  a  war  of  policy 
and  conquest  as  for  a  war  of  national  defence;  and 
the  army  dwindled,  since  a  country  cannot  bleed  itself  to  death. 
The  law  of  conscription  was  voted  on  the  5th  of  September  1798; 
and  the  tragedy  of  Rastadt,  where  the  French  commissioners 
were  assassinated,  was  the  opening  of  a  war,  desired  but  ill- 
prepared  for,  in  which  the  Directory  showed  hesitation  in 
strategy  and  incoherence  in  tactics,  over  a  disproportionate 
area  in  Germany,  Switzerland  and  Italy.  Military  reverses 
were  inevitable,  and  responsibility  for  them  could  not  be  shirked. 
As  though  shattered  by  a  reverberant  echo  from  the  cannon  of 
the  Trebbia,  the  Directory  crumbled  to  pieces,  succumbing 
on  the  i8th  of  June  1799  beneath  the  reprobation  showered  on 
Treilhard,  Merlin  de  Douai,  and  La  Revelliere-Lepeaux.  A 
few  more  military  disasters,  royalist  insurrections  in  the  south, 
Chouan  disturbances  in  Normandy,  Orleanist  intrigues  and  the 
end  came.  To  soothe  the  populace  and  protect  the  frontier 
more  was  required  than  the  resumption,  as  in  all  grave  crises  of 
the  Revolution,  of  terrorist  measures  such  as  forced  taxation 
or  the  law  of  hostages;  the  new  Directory,  Sieyes  presiding, 
saw  that  for  the  indispensable  revision  of  the  constitution 
"a  head  and  a  sword  "  were  needed.  Moreau  being  unattainable, 
Joubert  was  to  be  the  sword  of  Sieyes;  but,  when  he  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Novi,  the  sword  of  the  Revolution  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Bonaparte. 

Although  Brune  and  Massena  retrieved  the  fight  at  Bergen 
and  Zurich,  and  although  the  Allies  lingered  on  the  frontier  as 
they  had  done  after  Valmy,  still  the  fortunes  of  the 
Directory  were  not  restored.  Success  was  reserved 
for  Bonaparte,  suddenly  landing  at  Frejus  with  the 
prestige  of  his  victories  in  the  East,  and  now,  after 
Hoche's  death,  appearing  as  sole  master  of  the  armies. 
He  manoeuvred  among  the  parties  as  on  the  I3th  Vende- 
miaire.  On  the  i8th  Brumaire  of  the  year  VIII.  France  and 
the  army  fell  together  at  his  feet.  By  a  twofold  coup  d'etat, 
parliamentary  and  military,  he  culled  the  fruits  of  the  Directory's 
systematic  aggression  and  unpopularity,  and  realized  the 
universal  desires  of  the  rich  bourgeoisie,  tired  of  warfare;  of 
the  wretched  populace;  of  landholders,  afraid  of  a  return  to  the 
old  order  of  things;  of  royalists,  who  looked  upon  Bonaparte 
as  a  future  Monk;  of  priests  and  their  people,  who  hoped  for  an 
indulgent  treatment  of  Catholicism;  and  finally  of  the  immense 
majority  of  the  French,  who  love  to  be  ruled  and  for  long  had 
had  no  efficient  government.  There  was  hardly  any  one  to  defend 
a  liberty  which  they  had  never  known.  France  had,  indeed, 
remained  monarchist  at  heart  for  all  her  revolutionary  appear- 
ance; and  Bonaparte  added  but  a  name,  though  an  illustrious 
one,  to  the  series  of  national  or  local  dictatorships,  which,  after 
the  departure  of  the  weak  Louis  XVI.,  had  maintained  a  sort 
of  informal  republican  royalty. 

On  the  night  of  the  igth  Brumaire  a  mere  ghost  of  an 
Assembly  abolished  the  constitution  of  the  year  III.,  ordained 
the  provisionary  Consulate,  and  legalized  the  coup 
d'etat  in  favour  of  Bonaparte.  A  striking  and  singular 
event;  for  the  history  of  France  and  a  great  part 
of  Europe  was  now  for  fifteen  years  to  be  summed 
up  in  the  person  of  a  single  man  (see  NAPOLEON). 
This  night  of  Brumaire,  however,  seemed  to  be  a  victory  for 
Sieyes  rather  than  for  Bonaparte.  He  it  was  who  originated 
the  project  which  the  legislative  commissions,  charged  with 
elaborating  the  new  constitution,  had  to  discuss.  Bonaparte's 


Coup 
d'etat  of 
the  18th 
Brumaire. 


The  Con- 
sulate, 
Sept.  11, 
1799-May 
18,  1804. 


cleverness  lay  in  opposing  Daunou's  plan  to  that  of  Sieyes,  and 
in  retaining  only  those  portions  of  both  which  could  serve  his 
ambition.  Parliamentary  institutions  annulled  by  the  The  mn_ 
complication  of  three  assemblies — the  Council  of  State  stitution 
which  drafted  bills,  the  Tribunate  which  discussed  of  the 
them  without  voting  them,  and  the  Legislative  year  vm' 
Assembly  which  voted  them  without  discussing  them;  popular 
suffrage,  mutilated  by  the  lists  of  notables  (on  which  the  members 
of  the  Assemblies  were  to  be  chosen  by  the  conservative  senate) ; 
and  the  triple  executive  authority  of  the  consuls,  elected  for  ten 
years:  all  these  semblances  of  constitutional  authority  were 
adopted  by  Bonaparte.  But  he  abolished  the  post  of  Grand 
Elector,  which  Sieyes  had  reserved  for  himself,  in  order  to 
reinforce  the  real  authority  of  the  First  Consul  himself — by 
leaving  the  two  other  consuls,  Cambaceres  and  Lebrun,  as  well  as 
the  Assemblies,  equally  weak.  Thus  the  aristocratic  constitution 
of  Sieyes  was  transformed  into  an  unavowed  dictatorship,  a 
public  ratification  of  which  the  First  Consul  obtained  by  a  third 
coup  d'tlat  from  the  intimidated  and  yet  reassured  electors — 
reassured  by  his  dazzling  but  unconvincing  offers  of  peace  to  the 
victorious  Coalition  (which  repulsed  them),  by  the  rapid  dis- 
armament of  La  Vendee,  and  by  the  proclamations  in  which 
he  filled  the  ears  of  the  infatuated  people  with  the  new  talk  of 
stability  of  government,  order,  justice  and  moderation.  He  gave 
every  one  a  feeling  that  France  was  governed  once  more  by  a 
real  statesman,  that  a  pilot  was  at  the  helm. 

Bonaparte  had  now  to  rid  himself  of  Sieyes  and  those  re- 
publicans who  had  no  desire  to  hand  over  the  republic  to  one 
man,  particularly  of  Moreau  and  Massena,  his  military  rivals. 
The  victory  of  Marengo  (June  14,  1800)  momentarily  in  the 
balance,  but  secured  by  Desaix  and  Kellermann,  offered  a  further 
opportunity  to  his  jealous  ambition  by  increasing  his  popularity. 
The  royalist  plot  of  the  Rue  Saint-Nicaise  (December  24,  1800) 
allowed  him  to  make  a  clean  sweep  of  the  democratic  republicans, 
who  despite  their  innocence  were  deported  to  Guiana,  and  to 
annul  Assemblies  that  were  a  mere  show  by  making  the  senate 
omnipotent  in  constitutional  matters;  but  it  was  necessary 
for  him  to  transform  this  deceptive  truce  into  the  general 
pacification  so  ardently  desired  for  the  last  eight  years.  The 
treaty  of  Luneville,  signed  in  February  1801  with  Austria  who 
had  been  disarmed  by  Moreau's  victory  at  Hohenlinden,  restored 
peace  to  the  continent,  gave  nearly  the  whole  of  Italy  to  France, 
and  permitted  Bonaparte  to  eliminate  from  the  Assemblies 
all  the  leaders  of  the  opposition  in  the  discussion  of  the  Civil 
Code.  The  Concordat  (July  1801),  drawn  up  not  in  the  Church's 
interest  but  in  that  of  his  own  policy,  by  giving  satisfaction 
to  the  religious  feeling  of  the  country,  allowed  him  to  put  down 
the  constitutional  democratic  Church,  to  rally  round  him  the 
consciences  of  the  peasants,  and  above  all  to  deprive  the  royalists 
of  their  best  weapon.  The  "  Articles  Organiques  "  hid  from 
the  eyes  of  his  companions  in  arms  and  councillors  a  reaction 
which,  in  fact  if  not  in  law,  restored  to  a  submissive  Church, 
despoiled  of  her  revenues,  her  position  as  the  religion  of  the  state. 
The  peace  of  Amiens  with  England  (March  1802), 
of  which  France's  allies,  Spain  and  Holland,  paid  all 
the  costs,  finally  gave  the  peacemaker  a  pretext  for 
endowing  himself  with  a  Consulate,  not  for  ten  years  but  for  life, 
as  a  recompense  from  the  nation.  The  Rubicon  was  crossed 
on  that  day:  Bonaparte's  march  to  empire  began  with  the 
constitution  of  the  year  X.  (August  1802). 

Before  all  things  it  was  now  necessary  to  reorganize  France, 
ravaged  as  she  was  by  the  Revolution,  and  with  her  institutions 
in  a  state  of  utter  corruption.  The  touch  of  the  master 
was  at  once  revealed  to  all  the  foreigners  who  rushed     ^^jan/- 
to  gaze  at  the  man  about  whom,  after  so  many  cata-     Zatioa. 
strophesandstrangeadventures,  Paris,  "la  villelumiere," 
and  all  Europe  were  talking.     First  of  all,  Louis  XV.'s  system 
of  roads  was  improved  and  that  of  Louis  XVI. 's  canals  developed; 
then  industry  put  its  shoulder  to  the  wheel;  order  and  discipline 
were  re-established  everywhere,  from  the  frontiers  to  the  capital, 
and  brigandage  suppressed:  and  finally  there  was  Paris,  the 
city  of  cities!     Everything  was  in  process  of  transformation: 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


861 


a  second  Rome  was  arising,  with  its  forum,  its  triumphal  arches, 
its  shows  and  parades;  and  in  this  new  Rome  of  a  new  Caesar 
fancy,  elegance  and  luxury,  a  radiance  of  art  and  learning 
from  the  age  of  Pericles,  and  masterpieces  rifled  from  the  Nether- 
lands, Italy  and  Egypt  illustrated  the  consular  peace.  The 
Man  of  Destiny  renewed  the  course  of  time.  He  borrowed  from 
the  ancien  regime  its  plenipotentiaries;'  its  over-centralized, 
strictly  utilitarian  administrative  and  bureaucratic  methods; 
and  afterwards,  in  order  to  bring  them  into  line,  the  subservient 
pedantic  scholasticism  of  its  university.  On  the  basis  laid  down 
by  the  Constituent  Assembly  and  the  Convention  he  constructed 
or  consolidated  the  funds  necessary  for  national  institutions, 
local  governments,  a  judiciary  system,  organs  of  finance,  banking, 
codes,  traditions  of  conscientious  well-disciplined  labour,  and 
in  short  all  the  organization  which  for  three-quarters  of  a  century 
was  to  maintain  and  regulate  the  concentrated  activity  of  the 
French  nation  (see  the  section  Law  and  Institutions).  Peace  and 
order  helped  to  raise  the  standard  of  comfort.  Provisions,  in 
this  Paris  which  had  so  often  suffered  from  hunger  and  thirst, 
and  lacked  fire  and  light,  had  become  cheap  and  abundant; 
while  trade  prospered  and  wages  ran  high.  The  pomp  and 
luxury  of  the  nouveaux  riches  were  displayed  in  the  salons  of  the 
good  Josephine,  the  beautiful  Madame  Tallien,  and  the  "  divine  " 
Juliette  Recamier. 

But  the  republicans,  and  above  all  the  military,  saw  in  all  this 
little  but  the  fetters  of  system;  the  wily  despotism,  the  bullying 
The  re-  police,  the  prostration  before  authority,  the  sympathy 
publican  lavished  on  royalists,  the  recall  of  the  emigres,  the 
opposi-  contempt  for  the  Assemblies,  the  purification  of  the 
tioa.  Tribunate,  the  platitudes  of  the  servile  Senate,  the 

silence  of  the  press.  In  the  formidable  machinery  of  state,  above 
all  in  the  creation  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  the  Concordat,  and 
the  restoration  of  indirect  taxes,  they  saw  the  rout  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. But  the  expulsion  of  persons  like  Benjamin  Constant 
and  Madame  de  Stael  sufficed  to  quell  this  Fronde  of  the  salons. 
The  expedition  to  San  Domingo  reduced  the  republican  army 
to  a  nullity;  war  demoralized  or  scattered  the  leaders,  who  were 
jealous  of  their  "  comrade  "  Bonaparte;  and  Moreau,  the  last 
of  his  rivals,  cleverly  compromised  in  a  royalist  plot,  as  Danton 
had  formerly  been  by  Robespierre,  disappeared  into  exile.  In 
contradistinction  to  this  opposition  of  senators  and  republican 
generals,  the  immense  mass  of  the  people  received  the  ineffaceable 
impression  of  Bonaparte's  superiority.  No  suggestion  of  the 
possibility  of  his  death  was  tolerated,  of  a  crime  which  might 
cut  short  his  career.  The  conspiracy  of  Cadoudal  and  Pichegru, 
after  Bonaparte's  refusal  to  give  place  to  Louis  XVIII.,  and  the 
political  execution  of  the  due  d'Enghien,  provoked  an  outburst 
of  adulation,  of  which  Bonaparte  took  advantage  to  put  the 
crowning  touch  to  his  ambitious  dream. 

The  decision  of  the  senate  on  the  i8th  of  May  1804,  giving 
him  the  title  of  emperor,  was  the  counterblast  to  the  dread 
he  had  excited.  Thenceforward  "  the  brow  of  the 
emperor"  emperor  broke  through  the  thin  mask  of  the  First 
May  18,  Consul."  Never  did  a  harder  master  ordain  more 
l804'  imperiously,  nor  understand  better  how  to  command 
obedience.  "  This  was  because,"  as  Goethe  said, 
"  under  his  orders  men  were  sure  of  accomplishing 
their  ends.  That  is  why  they  rallied  round  him,  as  one  to  inspire 
them  with  that  kind  of  certainty."  Indeed  no  man  ever  con- 
centrated authority  to  such  a  point,  nor  showed  mental  abilities 
at  all  comparable  to  his:  an  extraordinary  power  of  work, 
prodigious  memory  for  details  and  fine  judgment  in  their  selec- 
tion; together  with  a  luminous  decision  and  a  simple  and  rapid 
conception,  all  placed  at  the  disposal  of  a  sovereign  will.  No 
head  of  the  state  gave  expression  more  imperiously  than  this 
Italian  to  the  popular  passions  of  the  French  of  that  day: 
abhorrence  for  the  emigrant  nobility,  fear  of  the  ancien  regime, 
dislike  of  foreigners,  hatred  of  England,  an  appetite  for  conquest 
evoked  by  revolutionary  propaganda,  and  the  love  of  glory. 
In  this  Napoleon  was  a  soldier  of  the  people:  because  of  this  he 
judged  and  ruled  his  contemporaries.  Having  seen  their  actions 
in  the  stormy  hours  of  the  Revolution,  he  despised  them  and 


April  6, 
1814. 


looked  upon  them  as  incapable  of  disinterested  conduct,  con- 
ceited, and  obsessed  by  the  notion  of  equality.  Hence  his 
colossal  egoism,  his  habitual  disregard  of  others,  his  jealous 
passion  for  power,  his  impatience  of  all  contradiction,  his  vain 
untruthful  boasting,  his  unbridled  self-sufficiency  and  lack  of 
moderation  —  passions  which  were  gradually  to  cloud  his  clear 
faculty  of  reasoning.  His  genius,  assisted  by  the  impoverish- 
ment of  two  generations,  was  like  the  oak  which  admits  beneath 
its  shade  none  but  the  smallest  of  saplings.  With  the  exception 
of  Talleyrand,  after  1808  he  would  have  about  him  only  mediocre 
people,  without  initiative,  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  the  giant: 
his  tribe  of  paltry,  rapacious  and  embarrassing  Corsicans;  his 
admirably  subservient  generals;  his  selfish  ministers,  docile 
agents,  apprehensive  of  the  future,  who  for  fourteen  long  years 
felt  a  prognostication  of  defeat  and  discounted  the  inevitable 
catastrophe. 

So  France  had  no  internal  history  outside  the  plans  and 
transformations  to  which  Napoleon  subjected  the  institutions 
of  the  Consulate,  and  the  after-effects  of  his  wars.  Well  knowing 
that  his  fortunes  rested  on  the  delighted  acquiescence  of  France, 
Napoleon  expected  to  continue  indefinitely  fashioning  public 
opinion  according  to  his  pleasure.  To  his  contempt  for  men 
he  added  that  of  all  ideas  which  might  put  a  bridle  on  his  am- 
bition; and  to  guard  against  them,  he  inaugurated  the  Golden 
Age  of  the  police  that  he  might  tame  every  moral  force  to  his 
hand.  Being  essentially  a  man  of  order,  he  loathed,  as  he  said, 
all  demagogic  action,  Jacobinism  and  visions  of  liberty,  which 
he  desired  only  for  himself.  To  make  his  will  predominant,  he 
stifled  or  did  violence  to  that  of  others,  through  his  bishops,  his 
gendarmes,  his  university,  his  press,  his  catechism.  Nourished 
likeFrederickll.andCatherinethe  Great  in  iSth-century  maxims, 
neither  he  nor  they  would  allow  any  of  that  ideology  to  filter 
through  into  their  rough  but  regular  ordering  of  mankind.  Thus 
the  whole  political  system,  being  summed  up  in  the  emperor, 
was  bound  to  share  his  fall. 

Although  an  enemy  of  idealogues,  in  his  foreign  policy  Napoleon 
was  haunted  by  grandiose  visions.  A  condottiere  of  the  Renais- 
sance living  in  the  igth  century,  he  used  France,  and 
all  those  nations  annexed  or  attracted  by  the  Revolu- 
tion,  to  resuscitate  the  Roman  conception  of  the  idea. 
Empire  for  his  own  benefit.  On  the  other  hand,  he  was 
enslaved  by  the  history  and  aggressive  idealism  of  the  Conven- 
tion, and  of  the  republican  propaganda  under  the  Directory; 
he  was  guided  by  them  quite  as  much  as  he  guided  them.  Hence 
the  immoderate  extension  given  to  French  activity  by  his  classical 
Latin  spirit;  hence  also  his  conquests,  leading  on  from  one  to 
another,  and  instead  of  being  mutually  helpful  interfering  with 
each  other;  hence,  finally,  his  not  entirely  coherent  policy, 
interrupted  by  hesitation  and  counter-attractions.  This  explains 
the  retention  of  Italy,  imposed  on  the  Directory  from  1796  on- 
ward, followed  by  his  criminal  treatment  of  Venice,  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Cisalpine  republic  —  a  foretaste  of  future  annexations  — 
the  restoration  of  that  republic  after  his  return  from  Egypt,  and 
in  view  of  his  as  yet  inchoate  designs,  the  postponed  solution 
of  the  Italian  problem  which  the  treaty  of  Luneville  had  raised. 

Marengo  inaugurated  the  political  idea  which  was  to  continue 
its  development  until  his  Moscow  campaign.  Napoleon  dreamed 
as  yet  only  of  keeping  the  duchy  of  Milan,  setting  aside  Austria, 
and  preparing  some  new  enterprise  in  the  East  or  in  Egypt. 
The  peace  of  Amiens,  which  cost  him  Egypt,  could  only  seem  to 
him  a  temporary  truce;  whilst  he  was  gradually  extending  his 
authority  in  Italy,  the  cradle  of  his  race,  by  the  union  of  Pied- 
mont, and  by  his  tentative  plans  regarding  Genoa,  Parma, 
Tuscany  and  Naples.  He  wanted  to  make  this  his  Cisalpine 
Gaul,  laying  siege  to  the  Roman  state  on  every  hand,  and  pre- 
paring in  the  Concordat  for  the  moral  and  material  servitude  of 
the  pope.  When  he  recognized  his  error  in  having  raised  the 
papacy  from  decadence  by  restoring  its  power  over  all  the 
churches,  he  tried  in  vain  to  correct  it  by  the  Articles  Organiques 
—  wanting,  like  Charlemagne,  to  be  the  legal  protector  of  the 
pope,  and  eventually  master  of  the  Church.  To  conceal  his  plan 
he  aroused  French  colonial  aspirations  against  England,  and  also 


"  * 


862 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


the  memory  of  the  spoliations  of  1763,  exasperating  English 
jealousy  of  France,  whose  borders  now  extended  to  the  Rhine, 
and  laying  hands  on  Hanover,  Hamburg  and  Cuxhaven.  By  the 
"  Recess  "  of  1803,  which  brought  to  his  side  Bavaria,  Wiirttem- 
berg  and  Baden,  he  followed  up  the  overwhelming  tide  of  revolu- 
tionary ideas  in  Germany,  to  stem  which  Pitt,  back  in  power, 
appealed  once  more  to  an  Anglo-Austro-Russian  coalition  against 
this  new  Charlemagne,  who  was  trying  to  renew  the  old  Empire, 
who  was  mastering  France,  Italy  and  Germany;  who  finally  on 
the  2nd  of  December  1804  placed  the  imperial  crown  upon  his 
head,  after  receiving  the  iron  crown  of  the  Lombard  kings,  and 
made  Pius  VII.  consecrate  him  in  Notre-Dame. 

After  this,  in  four  campaigns  from  1805  to  1809,  Napoleon 
transformed  his  Carolingian  feudal  and  federal  empire  into  one 
modelled  on  the  Roman  empire.  The  memories  of  imperial 
Rome  were  for  a  third  time,  after  Caesar  and  Charlemagne,  to 
modify  the  historical  evolution  of  France.  Though  the  vague 
plan  for  an  invasion  of  England  fell  to  the  ground  Ulm  and 
Austerlitz  obliterated  Trafalgar,  and  the  camp  at  Boulogne  put 
the  best  military  resources  he  had  ever  commanded  at  Napoleon's 
disposal. 

In  the  first  of  these  campaigns  he  swept  away  the  remnants 
of  the  old  Roman-Germanic  empire,  and  out  of  its  shattered 

fragments  created  in  southern  Germany  the  vassal 
Pressure  states  °f  Bavaria,  Baden,  WUrttemberg,  Hesse- 
1805.  Darmstadt  and  Saxony,  which  he  attached  to  France 

under  the  name  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine; 
but  the  treaty  of  Presburg  gave  France  nothing  but  the 
danger  of  a  more  centralized  and  less  docile  Germany.  On 
the  other  hand,  Napoleon's  creation  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy, 
his  annexation  of  Venetia  and  her  ancient  Adriatic  empire — 
wiping  out  the  humiliation  of  1797 — and  the  occupation  of 
Ancona,  marked  a  new  stage  in  his  progress  towards  his  Roman 
Empire.  His  good  fortune  soon  led  him  from  conquest  to 
spoliation,  and  he  complicated  his  master-idea  of  the  grand 
empire  by  his  Family  Compact;  the  clan  of  the  Bonapartes 
invaded  European  monarchies,  wedding  with  princesses  of  blood- 
royal,  and  adding  kingdom  to  kingdom.  Joseph  replaced  the 
dispossessed  Bourbons  at  Naples;  Louis  was  installed  on  the 
throne  of  Holland;  Murat  became  grand-duke  of  Berg,  Jerome 
son-in-law  to  the  king  of  Wiirttemberg,  and  Eugene  de  Beau- 
harnais  to  the  king  of  Bavaria;  while  Stephanie  de  Beauharnais 
married  the  son  of  the  grand-duke  of  Baden. 

Meeting  with  less  and  less  resistance, Napoleon  went  still  further 
and  would  tolerate  no  neutral  power.  On  the  6th  of  August  1806 
Jena.  ^e  f°rced  the  Habsburgs,  left  with  only  the  crown  of 

Austria,  to  abdicate  their  Roman-Germanic  title  of 
emperor.  Prussia  alone  remained  outside  the  Confederation  of 
the  Rhine,  of  which  Napoleon  was  Protector,  and  to  further  her 
decision  he  offered  her  English  Hanover.  In  a  second  campaign 
he  destroyed  at  Jena  both  the  army  and  the  state  of  Frederick 
Wilh'am  III.,  who  could  not  make  up  his  mind  between  the 
Napoleonic  treaty  of  Schonbrunn  and  Russia's  counter-proposal 
at  Potsdam  (October  14,  1806).  The  butchery  at  Eylau  and  the 
aad  vengeance  taken  at  Friedland  finally  ruined  Frederick 
Friediaad.  the  Great's  work,  and  obliged  Russia,  the  ally  of 

England  and  Prussia,  to  allow  the  latter  to  be  despoiled, 
and  to  join  Napoleon  against  the  maritime  tyranny  of  the  former. 
After  Tilsit,  however  (July  1807),  instead  of  trying  to  reconcile 
Peace  of  Europe  to  his  grandeur,  Napoleon  had  but  one  thought : 
Tilsit,  to  make  use  of  his  success  to  destroy  England  and 

complete  his  Italian  dominion.     It  was  from  Berlin, 

on  the  2ist  of  November  1806,  that  he  had  dated  the 
first  decree  of  a  continental  blockade,  a  monstrous  conception 
intended  to  paralyze  his  inveterate  rival,  but  which  on  the  con- 

trary  caused  his  own  fall  by  its  immoderate  extension 

°f  tne  empire.  To  the  coalition  of  the  northern  powers 
blockade,  he  added  the  league  of  the  Baltic  and  Mediterranean 

ports,  and  to  the  bombardment  of  Copenhagen  by  an 
English  fleet  he  responded  by  a  second  decree  of  blockade,  dated 
from  Milan  on  the  I7th  of  December  1807. 

But  the  application  of  the  Concordat  and  the  taking  of  Naples 


July  8, 
1807. 


Contl- 


led  to  the  first  of  those  struggles  with  the  pope,  in  which  were 
formulated  two  antagonistic  doctrines:  Napoleon  declaring 
himself  Roman  emperor,  and  Pius  VII.  renewing  the  theocratic 
affirmations  of  Gregory  VII.  The  former's  Roman  ambition  was 
made  more  and  more  plainly  visible  by  the  occupation  of  the 
kingdom  of  Naples  and  of  the  Marches,and  the  entry ,of  Miollis  into 
Rome;  while  Junot  invaded  Portugal,  Radet  laid  hands  on  the 
pope  himself,  and  Murat  took  possession  of  formerly  Roman  Spain, 
whither  Joseph  was  afterwards  to  be  transferred.  But  Napoleon 
little  knew  the  flame  he  was  kindling.  No  more  far-seeing  than 
the  Directory  or  the  men  of  the  year  III.,  he  thought  that,  with 
energy  and  execution,  he  might  succeed  in  the  Peninsula  as  he 
had  succeeded  in  Italy  in  1796  and  1797,  in  Egypt,  and  in  Hesse, 
and  that  he  might  cut  into  Spanish  granite  as  into  Italian  mosaic 
or  "  that  big  cake,  Germany."  He  stumbled  unawares  upon  the 
revolt  of  a  proud  national  spirit,  evolved  through  ten  historic 
centuries;  and  the  trap  of  Bayonne,  together  with  the  enthron- 
ing of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  made  the  contemptible  prince  of  the 
Asturias  the  elect  of  popular  sentiment,  the  representative  of 
religion  and  country. 

Napoleon  thought  he  had  Spain  within  his  grasp,  and  now 
suddenly  everything  was  slipping  from  him.  The  Peninsula 
became  the  grave  of  whole  armies  and  a  battlefield  Bailea 
for  England.  Dupont  capitulated  at  Bailen  into  the 
hands  of  Castanos,  and  Junot  at  Cintra  to  Wellesley;  while 
Europe  trembled  at  this  first  check  to  the  hitherto  invincible 
imperial  armies.  To  reduce  Spanish  resistance  Napoleon  had  in 
his  turn  to  come  to  terms  with  the  tsar  Alexander  at  Erfurt; 
so  that  abandoning  his  designs  in  the  East,  he  could  mats  the 
Grand  Army  evacuate  Prussia  and  return  in  force  to  Madrid. 

Thus  Spain  swallowed  up  the  soldiers  who  were  wanted  for 
Napoleon's  other  fields  of  battle,  and  they  had  to  be  replaced 
by  forced  levies.  Europe  had  only  to  wait,  and  he  \vagram 
would  eventually  be  found  disarmed  in  face  of  a  last 
coalition;  but  Spanish  heroism  infected  Austria,  and  showed 
the  force  of  national  resistance.  The  provocations  of  Talley- 
rand and  England  strengthened  the  illusion:  Why  should  not 
the  Austrians  emulate  the  Spaniards?  The  campaign  of  1809, 
however,  was  but  a  pale  copy  of  the  Spanish  insurrection.  After 
a  short  and  decisive  action  in  Bavaria,  Napoleon  opened  up  the 
road  to  Vienna  for  a  second  time;  and  after  the  two  days'  battle 
at  Essling,  the  stubborn  fight  at  Wagram,  the  failure  of  a  patriotic 
insurrection  in  northern  Germany  and  of  the  English  expedition 
against  Antwerp,  the  treaty  of  Vienna  (December  14,  1809),  with 
the  annexation  of  the  Illyrian  provinces,  completed 
the  colossal  empire.  Napoleon  profited,  in  fact,  by  this  vieeiaa. 
campaign  which  had  been  planned  for  his  overthrow. 
The  pope  was  deported  to  Savona  beneath  the  eyes  of  indifferent 
Europe,  and  his  domains  were  incorporated  in  the  Empire;  the 
senate's  decision  on  the  I7th  of  February  1810  created  the  title 
of  king  of  Rome,  and  made  Rome  the  capital  of  Italy.  The  pope 
banished,  it  was  now  desirable  to  send  away  those  to  whom  Italy 
had  been  more  or  less  promised.  Eugene  de  Beauharnais, 
Napoleon's  stepson,  was  transferred  to  Frankfort,  and  Murat 
carefully  watched  until  the  time  should  come  to  take  him  to 
Russia  and  instal  him  as  king  of  Poland.  Between  1810  and 
1812  Napoleon's  divorce  of  Josephine,  and  his  marriage  with 
Marie  Louise  of  Austria,  followed  by  the  birth  of  the  king  of 
Rome,  shed  a  brilliant  light  upon  his  future  policy.  He  renounced 
a  federation  in  which  his  brothers  were  not  sufficiently  docile ;  he 
gradually  withdrew  power  from  them;  he  concentrated  all  his 
affection  and  ambition  on  the  son  who  was  the  guarantee  of  the 
continuance  of  his  dynasty.  This  was  the  apogee  of  his  reign. 

But  undermining  forces  were  already  at  work:  the  faults  in- 
herent in  his  unwieldy  achievement.     England,  his  chief  enemy, 
was  persistently  active;  and  rebellion  both  of'  the   Beglnnlag 
governing  and  the  governed  broke  out  everywhere,    of  the  end. 
Napoleon  felt  his  impotence  in  coping  with  the  Spanish   uprising 
insurrection,  which  he  underrated,  while  yet  unable    °/;^  " 
to  suppress  it  altogether.     Men  like  Stein,  Harden- 
berg    and    Scharnhorst      were    secretly    preparing    Prussia's 
retaliation.     Napoleon's  material  omnipotence  could  not  stand 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


863 


against  the  moral  force  of  the  pope,  a  prisoner  at  Fontainebleau; 
and  this  he  did  not  realize.  The  alliance  arranged  at  Tilsit  was 
seriously  shaken  by  the  Austrian  marriage,  the  threat  of  a 
Polish  restoration,  and  the  unfriendly  policy  of  Napoleon  at  Con- 
stantinople. The  very  persons  whom  he  had  placed  in  power  were 
counteracting  his  plans:  after  four  years'  experience  Napoleon 
found  himself  obliged  to  treat  his  Corsican  dynasties  like  those 
of  the  ancien  regime,  and  all  his  relations  were  betraying  him. 
Caroline  conspired  against  her  brother  and  against  her  husband ; 
the  hypochondriacal  Louis,  now  Dutch  in  his  sympathies,  found 
the  supervision  of  the  blockade  taken  from  him,  and  also  the 
defence  of  the  Scheldt,  which  he  had  refused  to  ensure;  Jerome, 
idling  in  his  harem,  lost  that  of  the  North  Sea  shores;  and  Joseph, 
who  was  attempting  the  moral  conquest  of  Spain,  was  continually 
insulted  at  Madrid.  The  very  nature  of  things  was  against  the 
new  dynasties,  as  it  had  been  against  the  old. 

After  national  insurrections  and  family  recriminations  came 
treachery  from  Napoleon's  ministers.  Talleyrand  betrayed  his 
Treacbe  designs  to  Metternich,  and  had  to  be  dismissed; 
ery'  Fouche  corresponded  with  Austria  in  1809  and  1810, 
entered  into  an  understanding  with  Louis,  and  also  with  England; 
while  Bourrienne  was  convicted  of  peculation.  By  a  natural  con- 
sequence of  the  spirit  of  conquest  he  had  aroused,  all  these  par- 
venus, having  tasted  victory,  dreamed  of  sovereign  power: 
Bernadotte,  who  had  helped  him  to  the  Consulate,  played 
Napoleon  false  to  win  the  crown  of  Sweden;  Soult,  like  Murat, 
coveted  the  Spanish  throne  after  that  of  Portugal,  thus  anticipat- 
ing the  treason  of  1813  and  the  defection  of  1814;  many  persons 
hoped  for  "  an  accident  "  which  might  resemble  the  tragic  end  of 
Alexander  and  of  Caesar.  The  country  itself,  besides,  though 
flattered  by  conquests,  was  tired  of  self-sacrifice.  It  had  become 
satiated;  "the  cry  of  the  mothers  rose  threateningly"  against 
"  the  Ogre  "  and  his  intolerable  imposition  of  wholesale  conscrip- 
tion. The  soldiers  themselves,  discontented  after  Austerlitz, 
cried  out  for  peace  after  Eylau.  Finally,  amidst  profound  silence 
from  the  press  and  the  Assemblies,  a  protest  was  raised  against 
imperial  despotism  by  the  literary  world,  against  the  excom- 
municated sovereign  by  Catholicism,  and  against  the  author 
of  the  continental  blockade  by  the  discontented  bourgeoisie, 
ruined  by  the  crisis  of  1811. 

Napoleon  himself  was  no  longer  the  General  Bonaparte  of  his 
campaign  in  Italy.  He  was  already  showing  signs  of  physical 
decay;  the  Roman  medallion  profile  had  coarsened, 
^Di-To/™"  tne  °bese  body  was  often  lymphatic.  Mental  degenera- 
Napoieon.  ticm,  too,  betrayed  itself  in  an  unwonted  irresolution. 
At  Eylau,  at  Wagram,  and  later  at  Waterloo,  his  method 
of  acting  by  enormous  masses  of  infantry  and  cavalry,  in  a  mad 
passion  for  conquest,  and  his  misuse  of  his  military  resources, 
were  all  signs  of  his  moral  and  technical  decadence;  and  this 
at  the  precise  moment  when,  instead  of  the  armies  and  govern- 
ments of  the  old  system,  which  had  hitherto  reigned  supreme, 
the  nations  themselves  were  rising  against  France,  and  the  events 
of  1792  were  being  avenged  upon  her.  The  three  campaigns  of 
two  years  brought  the  final  catastrophe. 

Napoleon  had  hardly  succeeded  in  putting  down  the  revolt 
in  Germany  when  the  tsar  himself  headed  a  European  insurrec- 
tion against  the  ruinous  tyranny  of  the  continental 
blockade.  To  put  a  stop  to  this,  to  ensure  his  own 
access  to  the  Mediterranean  and  exclude  his  chief 
rival,  Napoleon  made  a  desperate  effort  in  1812  against  a  country 
as  invincible  as  Spain.  Despite  his  victorious  advance,  the 
taking  of  Smolensk,  the  victory  on  the  Moskwa,  and  the  entry 
into  Moscow,  he  was  vanquished  by  Russian  patriotism  and 
religious  fervour,  by  the  country  and  the  climate,  and  by 
Alexander's  refusal  to  make  terms.  After  this  came  the  lament- 
able retreat,  while  all  Europe  was  concentrating  against  him. 
Pushed  back,  as  he  had  been  in  Spain,  from  bastion  to  bastion, 
after  the  action  on  the  Beresina,  Napoleon  had  to  fall  back 
upon  the  frontiers  of  1809,  and  then — having  refused  the  peace 
offered  him  by  Austria  at  the  congress  of  Prague,  from  a  dread  of 
losing  Italy,  where  each  of  his  victories  had  marked  a  stage  in 
the  accomplishment  of  his  dream — on  those  of  1805,  despite 


Russian 
campaign. 


Liitzen  and  Bautzen,  and  on  those  of  1802  after  his  defeat  at 
Leipzig,  where  Bernadotte  turned  upon  him,  Moreau  figured 
among  the   Allies,   and   the   Saxons  and   Bavarians 
forsook  him.     Following  his  retreat  from  Russia  came     C™"os  t 
his  retreat  from  Germany.     After  the  loss  of  Spain,     ?aa°i4° 
reconquered  by  Wellington,  the  rising  in  Holland  pre- 
liminary to  the  invasion  and  the  manifesto  of  Frankfort  which 
proclaimed  it,  he  had  to  fall  back  upon  the  frontiers  of  1795; 
and  then  later  was  driven  yet  farther  back  upon  those  of  1792, 
despite  the  wonderful  campaign  of  1814  against  the  invaders,  in 
which  the  old  Bonaparte  of  1796  seemed  to  have  returned. 
Paris  capitulated  on  the  3oth  of  March,  and  the  "  Delenda 
Carthago,"  pronounced  against  England,  was  spoken  of  Napoleon. 
The  great  empire  of  East  and  West  fell  in  ruins  with  the  emperor's 
abdication  at  Fontainebleau. 

The  military  struggle  ended,  the  political  struggle  began. 
How  was  France  to  be  governed?  The  Allies  had  decided  on 
the  eviction  of  Napoleon  at  the  Congress  ot  Chatillon; 
and  the  precarious  nature  of  the  Bonapartist  monarchy  Downfall 
in  France  itself  was  made  manifest  by  the  exploit  of  °Empin. 
General  Malet,  which  had  almost  succeeded  during  the 
Russian  campaign,  and  by  Laine's  demand  for  free  exercise  of 
political  rights,  when  Napoleon  made  a  last  appeal  to  the  Legis- 
lative Assembly  for  support.  The  defection  of  the  military  and 
civil  aristocracy,  which  brought  about  Napoleon's  abdication, 
the  refusal  of  a  regency,  and  the  failure  of  Bernadotte,  who 
wished  to  resuscitate  the  Consulate,  enabled  Talleyrand,  vice- 
president  of  the  senate  and  desirous  of  power,  to  persuade  the 
Allies  to  accept  the  Bourbon  solution  of  the  difficulty.  The 
declaration  of  St  Ouen  (May  2,  1814)  indicated  that  the  new 
monarchy  was  only  accepted  upon  conditions.  After  Napoleon's 
abdication,  and  exile  to  the  island  of  Elba,  came  the  Revolution's 
abdication  of  her  conquests:  the  first  treaty  of  Paris  (May  3oth) 
confirmed  France's  renunciation  of  Belgium  and  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  and  her  return  within  her  pre-revolutionary  frontiers, 
save  for  some  slight  rectifications. 

After  the  scourge  of  war,  the  horrors  of  conscription,  and  the 
despotism  which  had  discounted  glory,  every  one  seemed  to 
rejoice  in  the  return  of  the  Bourbons,  which  atoned  for 
humiliations  by  restoring  liberty.  But  questions  of  Faults 
form,  which  aroused  questions  of  sentiment,  speedily  Bourbons 
led  to  grave  dissensions.  The  hurried  armistice  of 
the  23rd  of  April,  by  which  the  comte  d'Artois  delivered  over 
disarmed  France  to  her  conquerors;  Louis  XVIII. 's  excessive 
gratitude  to  the  prince  regent  of  England;  the  return  of  the 
emigres;  the  declaration  of  St  Ouen,  dated  from  the  nineteenth 
year  of  the  new  reign;  the  charter  of  June  4th,  "  concedfe  el 
octroyte,"  maintaining  the  effete  doctrine  of  legitimacy  in  a 
country  permeated  with  the  idea  of  national  sovereignty;  the 
slights  put  upon  the  army;  the  obligatory  processions  ordered 
by  Comte  Beugnot,  prefect  of  police;  all  this  provoked  a 
conflict  not  only  between  two  theories  of  government  but 
between  two  groups  of  men  and  of  interests.  An  avowedly 
imperialist  party  was  soon  again  formed,  a  centre  of  heated 
opposition  to  the  royalist  party;  and  neither  Baron  Louis' 
excellent  finance,  nor  the  peace,  nor  the  charter  of  June  4th — 
which  despite  the  irritation  of  the  emigres  preserved  the  civil 
gains  of  the  Revolution — prevented  the  man  who  was  its  incar- 
nation from  seizing  an  opportunity  to  bring  about  another 
military  coup  d'etat.  Having  landed  in  the  Bay  of  Jouan  on 
the  ist  of  March,  on  the  2oth  Napoleon  re-entered  the  Tuileries 
in  triumph,  while  Louis  XVIII.  fled  to  Ghent.  By  the  Acte 
additionnel  of  the  22nd  of  April  he  induced  Carnot  and  Fouche — 
the  last  of  the  Jacobins — and  the  heads  of  the  Liberal 
opposition,  Benjamin  Constant  and  La  Fayette,  to  side  Hundred 
with  him  against  the  hostile  Powers  of  Europe,  occupied  Days. 
in  dividing  the  spoils  at  Vienna.  He  proclaimed  his  March' 
intention  of  founding  a  new  democratic  empire;  and 
French  policy  was  thus  given  another  illusion,  which 
was  to  be  exploited  with  fatal  success  by  Napoleon's  namesake. 
But  the  cannon  of  Waterloo  ended  this  adventure  (June  18, 1815), 
and,  thanks  to  Fouche's  treachery,  the  triumphal  progress  of 


June 
ISIS. 


864 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


Louis 
XVIII. 


Milan,  Rome,  Naples,  Vienna,  Berlin,  and  even  of  Moscow,  was 
to  end  at  St  Helena. 

The  consequences  of  the  Hundred  Days  were  very  serious; 
France  was  embroiled  with  all  Europe,  though  Talleyrand's 
clever  diplomacy  had  succeeded  in  causing  division 
over  Saxony  and  Poland  by  the  secret  Austro-Anglo- 
French  alliance  of  the  3rd  of  January  1815,  and  the 
Coalition  destroyed  both  France's  political  independence  and 
national  integrity  by  the  treaty  of  peace  of  November  2Oth: 
she  found  herself  far  weaker  than  before  the  Revolution,  and  in 
the  power  of  the  European  Alliance.  The  Hundred  Days 
divided  the  nation  itself  into  two  irreconcilable  parties:  one 
ultra-royalist,  eager  for  vengeance  and  retaliation,  refusing  to 
accept  the  Charter;  the  other  imperialist,  composed  of  Bona- 
partists  and  Republicans,  incensed  by  their  defeat — of  whom 
Beranger  was  the  Tyrtaeus — both  parties  equally  revolutionary 
and  equally  obstinate.  Louis  XVIII.,  urged  by  his  more  fervent 
supporters  towards  the  ancien  regime,  gave  his  policy  an  exactly 
contrary  direction;  he  had  common-sense  enough  to  maintain 
the  Empire's  legal  and  administrative  tradition,  accepting  its 
institutions  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  the  Bank,  the  University, 
and  the  imperial  nobility — modifying  only  formally  certain 
rights  and  the  conscription,  since  these  had  aroused  the  nation 
against  Napoleon.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to  accept  advice  from 
the  imperial  ministers  Talleyrand  and  Fouche.  Finally,  as  the 
chief  political  organization  had  become  thoroughly  demoralized, 
he  imported  into  France  the  entire  constitutional  system  of 
England,  with  its  three  powers,  king,  upper  hereditary  chamber, 
and  lower  elected  chamber;  with  its  plutocratic  electorate, 
and  even  with  details  like  the  speech  from  the  throne,  the 
debate  on  the  address,  &c.  This  meant  importing  also  difficulties 
such  as  ministerial  responsibility,  as  well  as  electoral  and  press 
legislation. 

Louis  XVIIL,  taught  by  time  and  misfortune,  wished  not  to 
reign  over  two  parties  exasperated  by  contrary  passions  and 
desires;  but  his  dynasty  was  from  the  outset  implicated  in  the 
struggle,  which  was  to  be  fatal  to  it,  between  old  France  and 
revolutionary  France.  Anti-monarchical,  liberal  and  anti- 
clerical France  at  once  recommenced  its  revolutionary  work; 
the  whole  igth  century  was  to  be  rilled  with  great  spasmodic 
upheavals,  and  Louis  XVIII.  was  soon  overwhelmed  by  the 
White  Terrorists  of  1815. 

Vindictive  sentences  against  men  like  Ney  and  Labedoyere 
were  followed  by  violent  and  unpunished  action  by  the  White 
Terror,  which  in  the  south  renewed  the  horrors  of  St  Bartholomew 
and  the  September  massacres.  The  elections  of  August  14, 
1815,  made  under  the  influence  of  these  royalist  and  religious 
passions,  sent  the  "  Chambre  inlrouiiable  "  to  Paris,  an  unforeseen 
revival  of  the  ancien  regime.  Neither  the  substitution  of  the 
due  de  Richelieu's  ministry  for  that  of  Talleyrand  and  Fouche, 
nor  a  whole  series  of  repressive  laws  in  violation  of  the  charter, 
were  successful  in  satisfying  its  tyrannical  loyalism,  and  Louis 
XVIII.  needed  something  like  a  coup  d'etat,  in  September  1816, 
to  rid  himself  of  the  "  ultras." 

He  succeeded  fairly  well  in  quieting  the  opposition  between 
the  dynasty  and  the  constitution,  until  a  reaction  took  place 
The  Con-  between  1820  and  1822.  State  departments  worked 
stitutional  regularly  and  well,  under  the  direction  of  Decazes, 
party's  Laine,  De  Serre  and  Pasquier,  power  alternating 
between  two  great  well-disciplined  parties  almost  in 
the  English  fashion,  and  many  useful  measures  were  passed: 
the  reconstruction  of  finance  stipulated  for  as  a  condition  of 
evacuation  of  territory  occupied  by  foreign  troops;  the  electoral 
law  of  February  5,  1817,  which,  by  means  of  direct  election 
and  a  qualification  of  three  hundred  francs,  renewed  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  bourgeoisie;  the  Gouvion  St-Cyr  law  of 

1818,  which  for  half  a  century  based  the  recruiting  of  the 
French  army  on  the  national  principle  of  conscription;  and  in 

1819,  after  Richelieu's  dismissal,  liberal  regulations  for  the  press 
under  control  of  a  commission.     But  the  advance  of  the  Liberal 
movement,  and  the  election  of  the  generals — Foy,  Lamarque, 
Lafayette  and  of  Manuel,  excited  the  "  ultras  "  and  caused  the 


dismissal  of  Richelieu;  while  that  of  the  constitutional  bishop 
Gregoire  led  to  the  modification  in  a  reactionary  direction  of  the 
electoral  law  of  1817.     The  assassination  of  the  due  de  Berry, 
second  son  of  the  comte  d'Artois  (attributed  to  the  influence  of 
Liberal  ideas),  caused  the  downfall  of  Decazes,  and  caused  the 
king — more  weak  and  selfish  than  ever — to  override  the  charter 
and  embark  upon  a  reactionary  path.     After  1820,  Madame  du 
Cayla,  a  trusted  agent  of  the  ultra-royalist  party, 
gained  great  influence  over  the  king;  and   M.   de      rhe 
Villele,  its  leader,  supported  by  the  king's  brother,       0*1820° 
soon  eliminated  the  Right  Centre  by  the  dismissal 
of  the  due  de  Richelieu,  who  had  been  recalled  to  tide  over  the 
crisis — just  as  the  fall  of  M.  Decazes  had  signalized  the  defeat 
of  the  Left  Centre  (December  15,  1821) — and  moderate  policy 
thus  received  an  irreparable  blow. 

Thenceforward  the  government  of  M.  de  Villele — a  clever 
statesman,  but  tied  to  his  party — did  nothing  for  six  years  but 
promulgate  a  long  series  of  measures  against  Liberalism  and  the 
social  work  of  the  Revolution;  to  retain  power  it  had  to  yield 
to  the  impatience  of  the  comte  d'Artois  and  the  majority. 
The  suspension  of  individual  liberty,  the  re-establishment  of  the 
censorship;  the  electoral  right  of  the  "  double  vote,"  favouring 
taxation  of  the  most  oppressive  kind;  and  the  handing  over 
of  education  to  the  clergy:  these  were  the  first  achievements 
of  this  anti-revolutionary  ministry.  The  Spanish  expedition,  in 
which  M.  de  Villele's  hand  was  forced  by  Montmorency  and 
Chateaubriand,  was  the  united  work  of  the  association  of 
Catholic  zealots  known  as  the  Congregation  and  of  the  autocratic 
powers  of  the  Grand  Alliance;  it  was  responded  to — as  at  Naples 
and  in  Spain — by  secret  Carbonari  societies,  and  by  severely 
repressed  military  conspiracies.  Politics  now  bore  the  double 
imprint  of  two  rival  powers:  the  Congregation  and  Carbonarism. 
By  1824,  nevertheless,  the  dynasty  seemed  firm — the  Spanish 
War  had  reconciled  the  army,  by  giving  back  military  prestige; 
the  Liberal  opposition  had  been  decimated;  revolutionary 
conspiracies  discouraged;  and  the  increase  of  public  credit  and 
material  prosperity  pleased  the  whole  nation,  as  was  proved  by 
the  "  Chambre  retrouvee  "  of  1824.  The  law  of  septennial  elections 
tranquillized  public  life  by  suspending  any  legal  or  regular 
manifestation  by  the  nation  for  seven  years. 

It  was  the  monarchy  which  next  became  revolutionary,  on 
the  accession  of  Charles  X.  (September  16,  1824).  This  incon- 
sistent prince  soon  exhausted  his  popularity,  and  „.  .  „ 
remained  the  fanatical  head  of  those  emigres  who  had 
learnt  nothing  and  forgotten  nothing.  While  the  opposition 
became  conservative  as  regards  the  Charter  and  French  liberties, 
the  king  and  the  clerical  party  surrounding  him  challenged  the 
spirit  of  modern  France  by  a  law  against  sacrilege,  by  a  bill  for 
re-establishing  the  right  of  primogeniture,  by  an  indemnity  of  a 
milliard  francs,  which  looked  like  compensation  given  to  the' 
emigres,  and  finally  by  the  "  loi  de  liberte  et  d'amour  "  against  the 
press.  The  challenge  was  so  definite  that  in  1826  the  Chamber 
of  Peers  and  the  Academy  had  to  give  the  Villele  ministry  a 
lesson  in  Liberalism,  for  having  lent  itself  to  this  ancien  regime 
reaction  by  its  weakness  and  its  party-promises.  The  elections 
"  decol'ereetde  vengeance  "of  January  1827  gave  the  Left  victory  ot 
a  majority,  and  the  resultant  short-lived  Martignac  the  coo- 
ministry  tried  to  revive  the  Right  Centre  which  had  stitutioaal 
supported  Richelieu  and  Decazes  (January  1828). 
Martignac's  accession  to  power,  however,  had  only 
meant  personal  concessions  from  Charles  X.,  not  any  conces- 
sion of  principle:  he  supported  his  ministry  but  was  no  real 
stand-by.  The  Liberals,  on  the  other  hand,  made  bargains  for 
supporting  the  moderate  royalists,  and  Charles  X.  profited  by 
this  to  form  a  fighting  ministry  in  conjunction  with  the  prince  de 
Polignac,  one  of  the  emigres,  an  ignorant  and  visionary  person, 
and  the  comte  de  Bourmont,  the  traitor  of  Waterloo.  Despite 
all  kinds  of  warnings,  the  former  tried  by  a  coup  d'etat  to  put  into 
practice  his  theories  of  the  supremacy  of  the  royal  prerogative; 
and  the  battle  of  Navarino,  the  French  occupation  of  the  Morea, 
and  the  Algerian  expedition  could  not  make  the  nation  forget 
this  conflict  at  home.  The  united  opposition  of  monarchist 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


865 


Liberals  and  imperialist  republicans  responded  by  legal  resist- 
ance, then  by  a  popular  coup  d'etat,  to  the  ordinances  of  July 
1830,  which  dissolved  the  intractable  Chamber,  elimi- 
Ketoiutioa  nate<^  licensed  dealers  from  the  electoral  list,  and 
of  1830.       muzzled  the  press.    After  fighting  for  three  days  against 
the  troops  feebly  led  by  the  Marmont  of  1814,  the 
workmen,  driven  to  the  barricades  by  the  deliberate  closing  of 
Liberal  workshops,  gained  the  victory,  and  sent  the  white  flag 
of  the  Bourbons  on  the  road  to  exile. 

The  rapid  success  of  the  "  Three  Glorious  Days  "  ("  les  Trots 
Glorieuses  "),  as  the  July  Days  were  called,  put  the  leaders  of  the 
Ki-puhii-  parliamentaryoppositionintoanembarrassing  position. 
can  and  While  they  had  contented  themselves  with  words, 
Orieaaist  the  small  Republican-Imperialist  party,  aided  by  the 
'"'  almost  entire  absence  of  the  army  and  police,  and  by 
the  convenience  which  the  narrow,  winding,  paved  streets  of  those 
times  offered  for  fighting,  had  determined  upon  the  revolution 
and  brought  it  to  pass.  But  the  Republican  party,  which  desired 
to  re-establish  the  Republic  of  1793,  recruited  chiefly  from  among 
the  students  and  workmen,  and  led  by  Godefroy  Cavaignac, 
the  son  of  a  Conventionalist,  and  by  the  chemist  Raspail,  had 
no  hold  on  the  departments  nor  on  the  dominating  opinion  in 
Paris.  Consequently  this  premature  attempt  was  promptly 
seized  upon  by  the  Liberal  bourgeoisie  and  turned  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  Orleanist  party,  which  had  been  secretly  organized 
since  1829  under  the  leadership  of  Thiers,  with  the  National  as  its 
organ.  Before  the  struggle  was  yet  over,  Benjamin  Constant, 
Casimir  Perier,  Lafitte,  and  Odilon  Barrot  had  gone  to  fetcM 
the  duke  of  Orleans  from  Neuilly,  and  on  receiving  his  promise 
to  defend  the  Charter  and  the  tricolour  flag,  installed  him  at  the 
Palais  Bourbon  as  lieutenant-general  of  the  realm,  whileLa  Fayette 
and  the  Republicans  established  themselves  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville. 
An  armed  conflict  between  the  two  governments  was 
imminent,  when  Lafayette,  by  giving  his  support  to 
Louis  Philippe,  decided  matters  in  his  favour.  In 
order  to  avoid  a  recurrence  of  the  difficulties  which  had  arisen 
with  the  Bourbons,  the  following  preliminary  conditions  were 
imposed  upon  the  king:  the  recognition  of  the  supremacy 
of  the  people  by  the  title  of  "  king  of  the  French  by  the  grace  of 
God  and  the  will  of  the  people,"  the  responsibility  of  ministers, 
the  suppression  of  hereditary  succession  to  the  Chamber  of  Peers, 
now  reduced  to  the  rank  of  a  council  of  officials,  the  suppression  of 
article  14  of  the  charter  which  had  enabled  Charles  X.  to  super- 
sede the  laws  by  means  of  the  ordinances,  and  the  liberty  of  the 
press.  The  qualification  for  electors  was  lowered  from  300  to  200 
francs,  and  that  for  eligibility  from  1000  to  500  francs,  and  the 
age  to  25  and  30  instead  of  30  and  40;  finally,  Catholicism  lost 
its  privileged  position  as  the  state  religion.  The  bourgeois 
National  Guard  was  made  the  guardian  of  the  charter.  The 
liberal  ideas  of  the  son  of  Philippe  Egalite,  the  part  he  had  played 
at  Valmy  and  Jemappes,  his  gracious  manner  and  his  domestic 
virtues,  all  united  in  winning  Louis  Philippe  the  good  opinion 
of  the  public. 

He  now  believed,  as  did  indeed  the  great  majority  of  the 
electors,  that  the  revolution  of  1830  had  changed  nothing  but 
the  head  of  the  state.  But  in  reality  the  July  monarchy 
was  affected  by  a  fundamental  weakness.  It  sought 
monarchy  to  m°del  itself  upon  the  English  monarchy,  which 
rested  upon  one  long  tradition.  But  the  tradition  of 
France  was  both  twofold  and  contradictory,  i.e.  the  Catholic- 
legitimist  and  the  revolutionary.  Louis  Philippe  had  them 
both  against  him.  His  monarchy  had  but  one  element  in  common 
with  the  English,  namely,  a  parliament  elected  by  a  limited 
electorate.  There  was  at  this  time  a  cause  of  violent  outcry 
against  the  English  monarchy,  which,  on  the  other  hand,  met 
with  firm  support  among  the  aristocracy  and  the  clergy.  The 
July  monarchy  had  no  such  support.  The  aristocracy  of  the 
ancien  regime  and  of  the  Empire  were  alike  without  social 
influence;  the  clergy,  which  had  paid  for  its  too  close  alliance 
with  Charles  X.  by  a  dangerous  unpopularity,  and  foresaw  the 
rise  of  democracy,  was  turning  more  and  more  towards  the  people, 
the  future  source  of  all  power.  Even  the  monarchical  principle 
x.  28 


The 
bourgeol* 


itself  had  suffered  from  the  shock,  having  proved  by  its  easy 
defeat  how  far  it  could  be  brought  to  capitulate.  Moreover, 
the  victory  of  the  people,  who  had  shown  themselves  in  the  late 
struggle  to  be  brave  and  disinterested,  had  won  for  the  idea  of 
national  supremacy  a  power  whi'ch  was  bound  to  increase. 
The  difficulty  of  the  situation  lay  in  the  doubt  as  to  whether  this 
expansion  would  take  place  gradually  and  by  a  progressive 
evolution,  as  in  England,  or  not. 

Now  Louis  Philippe,  beneath  the  genial  exterior  of  a  bourgeois 
and  peace-loving  king,  was  entirely  bent  upon  recovering  an 
authority  which  was  menaced  from  the  very  first  on  the  one 
hand  by  the  anger  of  the  royalists  at  their  failures,  and  on  the 
other  hand  by  the  impatience  of  the  republicans  to  follow  up 
their  victory.  He  wanted  the  insurrection  to  stop  at  a  change 
in  the  reigning  family,  whereas  it  had  in  fact  revived  the  revolu- 
tionary tradition,  and  restored  to  France  the  sympathies  of  the 
nationalities  and  democratic  parties  oppressed  by  Metternich's 
"  system."  The  republican  party,  which  had  retired  from  power 
but  not  from  activity,  at  once  faced  the  new  king  with  the 
serious  problem  of  the  acquisition  of  political  power  by  the 
people,  and  continued  to  remind  him  of  it.  He  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  party  of  progress  ("  parti  du  mouvement  ") 
as  opposed  to  the  ("  parti  de  la  cour  ")  court  party,  and  of  the 
"  resistance,"  which  considered  that  it  was  now  necessary  "  to 
check  the  revolution  in  order  to  make  it  fruitful,  and  in  order 
to  save  it."  But  none  of  these  parties  were  homogeneous; 
in  the  chamber  they  split  up  into  a  republican  or 
radical  Extreme  Left,  led  by  Gamier-Pages  and 
Arago;  a  dynastic  Left,  led  by  the  honourable  and 
sincere  Odilon  Barrot;  a  constitutional  Right  Centre  and 
Left  Centre,  differing  in  certain  slight  respects,  and  presided 
over  respectively  by  Thiers,  a  wonderful  political  orator,  and 
Guizot,  whose  ideas  were  those  of  a  strict  doctrinaire;  not 
to  mention  a  small  party  which  clung  to  the  old  legitimist  creed, 
and  was  dominated  by  the  famous  avocat  Berryer,  whose 
eloquence  was  the  chief  ornament  of  the  cause  of  Charles  X.'s 
grandson,  the  comte  de  Chambord.  The  result  was  a  ministerial 
majority  which  was  always  uncertain;  and  the  only  occasion 
on  which  Guizot  succeeded  in  consolidating  it  during  seven  years 
resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy. 

Louis  Philippe  first  summoned  to  power  the  leaders  of  the 
party  of  "  movement,"  Dupont  de  1'Eure,  and  afterwards 
Lafitte,  in  order  to  keep  control  of  the  progressive  forces  for 
his  own  ends.  They  wished  to  introduce  democratic  reforms 
and  to  uphold  throughout  Europe  the  revolution,  which  had 
spread  from  France  into  Belgium,  Germany,  Italy  and  Poland, 
while  Paris  was  still  in  a  state  of  unrest.  But  Louis  Philippe 
took  fright  at  the  attack  on  the  Chamber  of  Peers  after  the 
trial  of  the  ministers  of  Charles  X.,  at  the  sack  of  the  church 
of  Saint  Germain  1'Auxerrois  and  the  archbishop's  palace 
(February,  1831),  and  at  the  terrible  strike  of  the  silk  weavers 
at  Lyons.  Casimir  Perier,  who  was  both  a  Liberal  and  a  believer 
in  a  strong  government,  was  then  charged  with  the  task  of 
heading  the  resistance  to  advanced  ideas,  and  applying  the 
principle  of  non-intervention  in  foreign  affairs  (March  13,  1831). 
After  his  death  by  cholera  in  May  1832,  the  agitation  which  he 
had  succeeded  by  his  energy  in  checking  at  Lyons,  at  Grenoble 
and  in  the  Vendee,  where  it  had  been  stirred  up  by  the  romantic 
duchess  of  Berry,  began  to  gain  ground.  The  struggle  against 
the  republicans  was  still  longer;  for  having  lost  all  their  chance 
of  attaining  power  by  means  of  the  Chamber,  they  proceeded 
to  reorganize  themselves  into  armed  secret  societies.  The  press, 
which  was  gaining  that  influence  over  public  opinion  which  had 
been  lost  by  the  parliamentary  debates,  openly  attacked  the 
government  and  the  king,  especially  by  means  of  caricature. 
Between  1832  and  1836  the  Soult  ministry,  of  which 
Guizot,  Thiers  and  the  due  de  Broglie  were  members, 
had  to  combat  the  terrible  insurrections  in  Lyons 
and  Paris  (1834).  The  measures  of  repression  were 
threefold:  military  repression,  carried  out  by  the  National 
Guard  and  the  regulars,  both  under  the  command  of  Bugeaud; 
judicial  repression,  effected  by  the  great  trial  of  April  1835; 


866 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


and  legislative  repression,  consisting  in  the  laws  of  September, 
which,  when  to  mere  ridicule  had  succeeded  acts  of  violence, 
such  as  that  of  Fieschi  (July  28th,  1835),  aimed  at  facilitating 
the  condemnation  of  political  offenders  and  at  intimidating  the 
press.  The  party  of  "  movement  "  was  vanquished. 

But  the  July  Government,  born  as  it  was  of  a  popular  move- 
ment, had  to  make  concessions  to  popular  demands.  Casimir 
Perier  had  carried  a  law  dealing  with  municipal 
organization,  which  made  the  municipal  councils 
elective,  as  they  had  been  before  the  year  VIII.;  and 
in  1833  Guizot  had  completed  it  by  making  the 
conseils  gtneraux  also  elective.  In  the  same  year  the  law  dealing 
with  primary  instruction  had  also  shown  the  mark  of  new  ideas. 
But  now  that  the  bourgeoisie  was  raised  to  power  it  did  not 
prove  itself  any  more  liberal  than  the  aristocracy  of  birth  and 
fortune  in  dealing  with  educational,  fiscal  and  industrial  questions. 
In  spite  of  the  increase  of  riches,  the  bourgeois  regime  maintained 
a  fiscal  and  social  legislation  which,  while  it  assured  to  the 
middle  class  certainty  and  permanence  of  benefits,  left  the  labour- 
ing masses  poor,  ignorant,  and  in  a  state  of  incessant  agitation. 
The  Orleanists,  who  had  been  unanimous  in  supporting  the 
king,  disagreed,  after  their  victory,  as  to  what  powers  he  was 
to  be  given.  The  Left  Centre,  led  by  Thiers,  held 
Socialist  tnat  ne  should  reign  but  not  govern;  the  Right 
party.  Centre,  led  by  Guizot,  would  admit  him  to  an  active 
part  in  the  government;  and  the  third  party  (tiers- 
parti)  wavered  between  these  two.  And  so  between  1836  and 
1840,  as  the  struggle  against  the  king's  claim  to  govern  passed 
from  the  sphere  of  outside  discussion  into  parliament,  we  see 
the  rise  of  a  bourgeois  socialist  party,  side  by  side  with  the 
now  dwindling  republican  party.  It  no  longer  confined  its 
demands  to  universal  suffrage,  on  the  principle  of  the  legitimate 
representation  of  all  interests,  or  in  the  name  of  justice.  Led 
by  Saint-Simon,  Fourier,  P.  Leroux  and  Lamennais,  it  aimed 
at  realizing  a  better  social  organization  for  and  by  means  of  the 
state.  But  the  question  was  by  what  means  this  was  to  be 
accomplished.  The  secret  societies,  under  the  influence  of 
Blanqui  and  Barbes,  two  revolutionaries  who  had  revived  the 
traditions  of  Babeuf,  were  not  willing  to  wait  for  the  complete 
education  of  the  masses,  necessarily  a  long  process.  On  the 
1 2th  of  May  1839  the  Societe  des  Saisons  made  an  attempt  to 
overthrow  the  bourgeoisie  by  force,  but  was  defeated.  Demo- 
crats like  Louis  Blanc,  Ledru-Rollin  and  Lamennais  continued  to 
repeat  in  support  of  the  wisdom  of  universal  suffrage  the  old  pro- 
fession of  faith:  vox  populi,  vox  Dei.  And  finally  this  republican 
doctrine,  already  confused,  was  still  further  complicated  by  a 
kind  of  mysticism  which  aimed  at  reconciling  the  most  extreme 
differences  of  belief,  the  Catholicism  of  Buchez,  the  Bonapartism 
of  Cormenin,  and  the  humanitarianism  of  the  cosmopolitans. 
It  was  in  vain  that  Auguste  Comte,  Michelet  and  Quinet  de- 
nounced this  vague  humanitarian  mysticism  and  the  pseudo- 
liberalism  of  the  Church.  The  movement  had  now  begun. 

At  first  these  moderate  republicans,  radical  or  communist, 
formed  only  imperceptible  groups.  Among  the  peasant  classes, 
The  and  even  in  the  industrial  centres,  warlike  passions 

Rnna-         were  still  rife.     Louis  Philippe  tried  to  find  an  outlet 
['**         for  them  in  the  Algerian  war,  and  later  by  the  revival 
of  the  Napoleonic  legend,  which  was  held  to  be  no 
longer  dangerous,  since  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Reichstadt  in 
1832.     It  was  imprudently  recalled  by  Thiers'  History  of  the 
Consulate  and  Empire,  by  artists  and  poets,  in  spite  of  the  pro- 
phecies of  Lamartine,  and  by  the  solemn  translation  of  Napoleon 
I.'s  ashes  in  1840  to  the  Invalides  at  Paris. 

All  theories  require  to  be  based  on  practice,  especially  those 
which  involve  force.  Now  Louis  Philippe,  though  as  active  as 
ParUa-  n's  Predecessors  had  been  slothful,  was  the  least  warlike 
mentary  of  men.  His  only  wish  was  to  govern  personally,  as 
opposition  George  III.  and  George  IV.  of  England  had  done, 
r»'*;  especially  in  foreign  affairs,  while  at  home  was  being 
pwer.  waged  the  great  duel  between  Thiers  and  Guizot, 
with  Mole  as  intermediary.  Thiers,  head  of  the  cabinet 
of  the  22nd  of  February  1836,  an  astute  man  but  not  pliant 


enough  to  please  the  king,  fell  after  a  few  months,  in  consequence 
of  his  attempt  to  stop  the  Carlist  civil  war  in  Spain,  and  to  support 
the  constitutional  government  of  Queen  Isabella.  Louis  Philippe 
hoped  that,  by  calling  upon  Mole  to  form  a  ministry,  he  would 
be  better  able  to  make  his  personal  authority  felt.  From  1837 
to  1839  Mole  aroused  opposition  on  all  hands;  this  was  empha- 
sized by  the  refusal  of  the  Chambers  to  vote  one  of  those  endow- 
ments which  the  king  was  continually  asking  them  to  grant  for 
his  children,  by  two  dissolutions  of  the  Chambers,  and  finally  by 
the  Strasburg  affair  and  the  stormy  trial  of  Louis  Napoleon, 
son  of  the  former  king  of  Holland  (1836-1837).  At  the  elections 
of  1839  Mole  was  defeated  by  Thiers,  Guizot  and  Barrot,  who 
had  combined  to  oppose  the  tyranny  of  the  "  Chateau,"  and 
after  a  long  ministerial  crisis  was  replaced  by  Thiers  (March  i, 
1840).  But  the  latter  was  too  much  in  favour  of  war  to  please  the 
king,  who  was  strongly  disposed  towards  peace  and  an  alliance 
with  Great  Britain,  and  consequently  fell  at  the  time  of  the 
Egyptian  question,  when,  in  answer  to  the  treaty  of  London 
concluded  behind  his  back  by  Nicholas  I.  and  Palmerston  on  the 
1 5th  of  July  1840,  he  fortified  Paris  and  proclaimed  his  intention 
to  give  armed  support  to  Mehemet  AH,  the  ally  of  France  (see 
MEHEMET  ALI).  But  the  violence  of  popular  Chauvinism  and 
the  renewed  attempt  of  Louis  Napoleon  at  Boulogne  proved  to 
the  holders  of  the  doctrine  of  peace  at  any  price  that  in  the  long- 
run  their  policy  tends  to  turn  a  peaceful  attitude  into  a  warlike 
one,  and  to  strengthen  the  absolutist  idea. 

In  spite  of  all,  from  1840  to  1848  Louis  Philippe  still  further 
extended  his  activity  in  foreign  affairs,  thus  bringing  himself 

into  still  greater  prominence,  though  he  was  already 

.,1,        ttt  •       r       •          Guizot' s 

frequently   held   responsible   for   failures   in   foreign     miaistry. 

politics  and  unpopular  measures  in  home  affairs.  The 
catchword  of  Guizot,  who  was  now  his  minister,  was:  Peace 
and  no  reforms.  With  the  exception  of  the  law  of  1842  concern- 
ing the  railways,  not  a  single  measure  of  importance  was  proposed 
by  the  ministry.  France  lived  under  a  regime  of  general  corrup- 
tion: parliamentary  corruption,  due  to  the  illegal  conduct  of 
the  deputies,  consisting  of  slavish  or  venal  officials;  electoral 
corruption,  effected  by  the  purchase  of  the  200,000  electors 
constituting  the  "  pays  legal,"  who  were  bribed  by  the  advantages 
of  power;  and  moral  corruption,  due  to  the  reign  of  the  pluto- 
cracy, the  bourgeoisie,  a  hard-working,  educated  and  honourable 
class,  it  is  true,  but  insolent,  like  all  newly  enriched  parvenus 
in  the  presence  of  other  aristocracies,  and  with  unyielding 
selfishness  maintaining  an  attitude  of  suspicion  towards  the 
people,  whose  aspirations  they  did  not  share  and  with  whom 
they  did  not  feel  themselves  to  have  anything  in  common. 
This  led  to  a  slackening  in  political  life,  a  sort  of  exhaustion  of 
interest  throughout  the  country,  an  excessive  devotion  to  material 
prosperity.  Under  a  superficial  appearance  of  calm  a  tempest 
was  brewing,  of  which  the  industrial  writings  of  Balzac,  Eugene 
Sue,  Lamartine,  H.  Heine,  Vigny,  Montalembert  and  Tocqueville 
were  the  premonitions.  But  it  was  in  vain  that  they  denounced 
this  supremacy  of  the  bourgeoisie,  relying  on  its  two  main  sup- 
ports, the  suffrage  based  on  a  property  qualification  and  the 
National  Guard,  for  its  rallying-cry  was  the  "  Enrichissez-vous  " 
of  Guizot,  and  its  excessive  materialism  gained  a  sinister  dis- 
tinction from  scandals  connected  with  the  ministers  Teste  and 
Cubieres,  and  such  mysterious  crimes  as  that  of  Choiseul-Praslin.1 
In  vain  also  did  they  point  out  that  mere  riches  are  not  so  much 
a  protection  to  the  ministry  who  are  in  power  as  a  temptation 
to  the  majority  excluded  from  power  by  this  barrier  of  wealth. 

1  Charles  LaureHugues  Theobald,  due  de  Choiseul-Praslin  (1805- 
1847),  was  deputy  in  1839,  created  a  peer  of  France  in  1840.  He 
had  married  a  daughter  of  General  Sebastian!,  with  whom  he  lived 
on  good  terms  till  1840,  when  he  entered  into  open  relations  with 
his  children's  governess.  The  duchess  threatened  a  separation; 
and  the  duke  consented  to  send  his  mistress  out  of  the  house,  but 
did  not  cease  to  correspond  with  and  visit  her.  On  the  l8th  of 
August  1847  the  duchess  was  found  stabbed  to  death,  with  more 
than  thirty  wounds,  in  her  room.  The  duke  was  arrested  on  the 
2Oth  and  imprisoned  in  the  Luxembourg,  where  he  died  of  poison, 
self-administered  on  the  24th.  It  was,  however,  popularly  believed 
that  the  government  had  smuggled  him  out  of  the  country  and  that 
he  was  living  under  a  feigned  name  in  England. 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


867 


It  was  in  vain  that  beneath  the  inflated  haute  bourgeoisie  which 
speculated  in  railways  and  solidly  supported  the  Church,  behind 
the  shopkeeper  clique  who  still  remained  Voltairian,  who 
enviously  applauded  the  pamphlets  of  Cormenin  on  the  luxury 
of  the  court,  and  who  were  bitterly  satirized  by  the  pencil  of 
Daumier  and  Gavarni,  did  the  thinkers  give  voice  to  the  mutter- 
ings  of  an  immense  industrial  proletariat,  which  were  re-echoing 
throughout  the  whole  of  western  Europe. 

In  face  of  this  tragic  contrast   Guizot   remained  unmoved, 
blinded  by  the  superficial  brilliance  of  apparent  success  and 

prosperity.  He  adorned  by  flights  of  eloquence  his 
Guizofs  invariable  theme:  no  new  laws,  no  reforms,  no  foreign 
Policy.  complications,  the  policy  of  material  interests.  He 

preserved  his  yielding  attitude  towards  Great  Britain 
in  the  affair  of  the  right  of  search  in  1841,  and  in  the  affair  of 
the  missionary  Pritchard  at  Tahiti  (1843-1845).  And  when  the 
marriage  of  the  due  de  Montpensier  with  a  Spanish  infanta 
in  1846  had  broken  this  entente  cordiale  to  which  he  clung,  it  was 
only  to  yield  in  turn  to  Metternich,  when  he  took  possession 
of  Cracow,  the  last  remnant  of  Poland,  to  protect  the  Sonderbund 
in  Switzerland,  to  discourage  the  Liberal  ardour  of  Pius  IX., 
and  to  hand  over  the  education  of  France  to  the  Ultramontane 
clergy.  Still  further  strengthened  by  the  elections  of  1846,  he 
refused  the  demands  of  the  Opposition  formed  by  a  coalition  of 
the  Left  Centre  and  the  Radical  party  for  parliamentary  and 
electoral  reform,  which  would  have  excluded  the  officials  from 
the  Chambers,  reduced  the  electoral  qualification  to  100  francs, 
and  added  to  the  number  of  the  electors  the  capacitaires 
whose  competence  was  guaranteed  by  their  education.  For 
Guizot  the  whole  country  was  represented  by  the  "  pays  legal," 
consisting  of  the  king,  the  ministers,  the  deputies  and  the 

electors.  When  the  Opposition  appealed  to  the  country, 
Campaign  jje  flung  down  a  disdainful  challenge  to  what  "  les 
'banquets,  brouillons  et  les  badauds  appellent  le  peuple."  The 

challenge  was  taken  up  by  all  the  parties  of  the  Opposi- 
tion in  the  campaign  of  the  banquets  got  up  somewhat  artificially 
in  1847  in  favour  of  the  extension  of  the  franchise.  The  monarchy 
had  arrived  at  such  a  state  of  weakness  and  corruption  that  a 
determined  minority  was  sufficient  to  overthrow  it.  The  pro- 
hibition of  a  last  banquet  in  Paris  precipitated  the  catastrophe. 
The  monarchy  which  for  fifteen  years  had  overcome  its  adversaries 
collapsed  on  the  24th  of  February  1848  to  the  astonishment  of  all. 
The  industrial  population  of  the  faubourgs  on  its  way  towards 
the  centre  of  the  town  was  welcomed  by  the  National  Guard, 
The  Re-  among  cries  of  "  Vive  la  reforme."  Barricades  were 
volution  raised  after  the  unfortunate  incident  of  the  firing  on 
of  Feb.  24,  the  crowd  in  the  Boulevard  des  Capucines.  On  the 
'***•  2$rd  Guizot's  cabinet  resigned,  abandoned  by  the 

petite  bourgeoisie,  on  whose  support  they  thought  they  could 
depend.  The  heads  of  the  Left  Centre  and  the  dynastic  Left, 
Mole  and  Thiers,  declined  the  offered  leadership.  Odilon 
Barrot  accepted  it,  and  Bugeaud,  commander-in-chief  of 
the  first  military  division,  who  had  begun  to  attack  the  barri- 
cades, was  recalled.  But  it  was  too  late.  In  face  of  the  insurrec- 
tion which  had  now  taken  possession  of  the  whole  capital,  Louis 
Philippe  decided  to  abdicate  in  favour  of  his  grandson,  the  comte 
de  Paris.  But  it  was  too  late  also  to  be  content  with  the  regency 
of  the  duchess  of  Orleans.  It  was  now  the  turn  of  the  Republic, 
and  it  was  proclaimed  by  Lamartine  in  the  name  of  the  pro- 
visional government  elected  by  the  Chamber  under  the  pressure 
of  the  mob. 

This  provisional  government  with  Dupont  de  1'Eure  as  its 
president,  consisted  of  Lamartine  for  foreign  affairs,  Cremieux 
The  Pro-  for  Justice»  Ledru-Rollin  for  the  interior,  Carnot  for 
visional  public  instruction,  Gondchaux  for  finance,  Arago  for 
Govern-  the  navy,  and  Bedeau  for  war.  Gamier-Pages  was 
ment-  mayor  of  Paris.  But,  as  in  1830,  the  republican- 
socialist  party  had  set  up  a  rival  government  at  the  H6tel  de 
V'ille,  including  L.  Blanc,  A.  Marrast,  Flocon,  and  the  workman 
Albert,  which  bid  fair  to  involve  discord  and  civil  war.  But 
this  time  the  Palais  Bourbon  was  not  victorious  over  the  H6tel 
de  Ville.  It  had  to  consent  to  a  fusion  of  the  two  bodies, 


in  which,  however,  the  predominating  elements  were  the  moderate 
republicans.  It  was  doubtful  what  would  eventually  be  the 
policy  of  the  new  government.  One  party,  seeing  that  in  spite 
of  the  changes  in  the  last  sixty  years  of  all  political  institutions, 
the  position  of  the  people  had  not  been  improved,  demanded  a 
reform  of  society  itself,  the  abolition  of  the  privileged  position  of 
property,  the  only  obstacle  to  equality,  and  as  an  emblem  hoisted 
the  red  flag.  The  other  party  wished  to  maintain  society  on  the 
basis  of  its  ancient  institutions,  and  rallied  round  the  tricolour. 

The  first  collision  took  place  as  to  the  form  which  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848  was  to  take.  Were  they  to  remain  faithful  to  their 

original  principles,  as  Lamartine  wished,  and  accept 

.1      j     .  .          tTu  Universal 

the  decision  of  the  country  as  supreme,  or  were  they,    suffrage. 

as  the  revolutionaries  under  Ledru-Rollin  claimed,  to 
declare  the  republic  of  Paris  superior  to  the  universal  suffrage  of 
an  insufficiently  educated  people?  On  the  5th  of  March  the 
government,  under  the  pressure  of  the  Parisian  clubs,  decided 
in  favour  of  an  immediate  reference  to  the  people,  and  direct 
universal  suffrage,  and  adjourned  it  till  the  26th  of  April.  In 
this  fateful  and  unexpected  decision,  which  instead  of  adding 
to  the  electorate  the  educated  classes,  refused  by  Guizot,  admitted 
to  it  the  unqualified  masses,  originated  the  Constituent  Assembly 
of  the  4th  of  May  1848.  The  provisional  government  having 
resigned,  the  republican  and  anti-socialist  majority  on  the  Qth 
of  May  entrusted  the  supreme  power  to  an  executive  The 
commission  consisting  of  five  members:  Arago,  Executive 
Marie,  Garnier-Pages,  Lamartine  and  Ledru-Rollin.  Commis- 
But  the  spell  was  already  broken.  This  revolution  sloa' 
which  had  been  peacefully  effected  with  the  most  generous 
aspirations,  in  the  hope  of  abolishing  poverty  by  organizing 
industry  on  other  bases  than  those  of  competition  and  capitalism, 
and  which  had  at  once  aroused  the  fraternal  sympathy  of  the 
nations,  was  doomed  to  be  abortive. 

The  result  of  the  general  election,  the  return  of  a  constituent 
assembly  predominantly  moderate  if  not  monarchical,  dashed 
the  hopes  of  those  who  had  looked  for  the  establishment,  by  a 
peaceful  revolution,  of  their  ideal  socialist  state;  but  they  were 
not  prepared  to  yield  without  a  struggle,  and  in  Paris  itself  they 
commanded  a  formidable  force.  In  spite  of  the  preponderance  of 
the  "  tricolour  "  party  in  the  provisional  government,  so  long  as 
the  voice  of  France  had  not  spoken,  the  socialists,  supported  by 
the  Parisian  proletariat,  had  exercised  an  influence  on  policy  out 
of  all  proportion  to  their  relative  numbers  or  personal  weight. 
By  the  decree  of  the  24th  of  February  the  provisional  govern- 
ment had  solemnly  accepted  the  principle  of  the  "  right  to  work," 
and  decided  to  establish  "  national  workshops  "  for  the  unem- 
ployed; at  the  same  time  a  sort  of  industrial  parliament  was 
established  at  the  Luxembourg,  under  the  presidency  of  Louis 
Blanc,  with  the  object  of  preparing  a  scheme  for  the  organization 
of  labour;  and,  lastly,  by  the  decree  of  the  8th  of  March  the 
property  qualification  for  enrolment  in  the  National  Guard  had 
been  abolished  and  the  workmen  were  supplied  with  arms. 
The  socialists  thus  formed,  in  some  sort,  a  state  within  the  state, 
with  a  government,  an  organization  and  an  armed  force. 

In  the  circumstances  a  conflict  was  inevitable;  and  on  the 
1 5th  of  May  an  armed  mob,  headed  by  Raspail,  Blanqui  and 
Barbes,  and  assisted  by  the  proletariat  Guard,  attempted  to 
overwhelm  the  Assembly.  They  were  defeated  by  the  bourgeois 
battalions  of  the  National  Guard;  but  the  situation  none  the 
less  remained  highly  critical.  The  national  workshops  were 
producing  the  results  that  might  have  been  foreseen.  It  was 
impossible  to  provide  remunerative  work  even  for  the  genuine 
unemployed,  and  of  the  thousands  who  applied  the  greater 
number  were  employed  iri  perfectly  useless  digging  and  refilling; 
soon  even  this  expedient  failed,  and  those  for  whom  work  could 
not  be  invented  were  given  a  half  wage  of  i  franc  a  day.  Even 
this  pitiful  dole,  with  no  obligation  to  work,  proved  attractive, 
and  all  over  France  workmen  threw  up  their  jobs  and  streamed 
to  Paris,  where  they  swelled  the  ranks  of  the  army  under  the 
red  flag.  It  was  soon  clear  that  the  continuance  of  this  experi- 
ment would  mean  financial  ruin;  it  had  been  proved  by  the 
entente  of  the  isth  of  May  that  it  constituted  a  perpetual  menace 


868 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


to  the  state ;  and  the  government  decided  to  end  it.  The  method 
chosen  was  scarcely  a  happy  one.  On  the  2ist  of  June  M.  de 
Falloux  decided  in  the  name  of  the  parliamentary  commission 
on  labour  that  the  workmen  should  be  discharged  within  three 
days  and  such  as  were  able-bodied  should  be  forced  to  enlist. 

A  furious  insurrection  at  once  broke  out.  Throughout 
™e/"De  the  whole  of  the  24th,  zsth  and  26th  of  June,  the 

eastern  industrial  quarter  of  Paris,  led  by  Pujol, 
carried  on  a  furious  struggle  against  the  western  quarter,  led 
by  Cavaignac,  who  had  been  appointed  dictator.  Vanquished 
and  decimated,  first  by  fighting  and  afterwards  by  deportation, 
the  socialist  party  was  crushed.  But  they  dragged  down  the 
Republic  in  their  ruin.  This  had  already  become  unpopular 
with  the  peasants,  exasperated  by  the  new  land  tax  of  45  centimes 
imposed  in  order  to  fill  the  empty  treasury,  and  with  the  bourgeois, 
in  terror  of  the  power  of  the  revolutionary  clubs  and  hard  hit 
by  the  stagnation  of  business.  By  the  "  massacres  "  of  the  June 
Days  the  working  classes  were  also  alienated  from  it;  and  abiding 
fear  of  the  "  Reds  "  did  the  rest.  "  France,"  wrote  the  duke  of 
Wellington  at  this  time,  "  needs  a  Napoleon!  I  cannot  yet  see 
him  ...  Where  is  he  ?  " l 

France  indeed  needed,  or  thought  she  needed,  a  Napoleon; 
and  the  demand  was  soon  to  be  supplied.  The  granting  of 

universal  suffrage  to  a  society  with  Imperialist 
Itifutioa'  sympathies,  and  unfitted  to  reconcile  the  principles 
of  1848.  of  order  with  the  consequences  of  liberty,  was  indeed 

bound,  now  that  the  political  balance  in  France  was 
so  radically  changed,  to  prove  a  formidable  instrument  of 
reaction;  and  this  was  proved  by  the  election  of  the  president 
of  the  Republic.  On  the  4th  of  November  1848  was  promulgated 
the  new  constitution,  obviously  the  work  of  inexperienced 
hands,  proclaiming  a  democratic  republic,  direct  universal 
suffrage  and  the  separation  of  powers;  there  was  to  be  a  single 
permanent  assembly  of  750  members  elected  for  a  term  of  three 
years  by  the  scrutin  de  lisle,  which  was  to  vote  on  the  laws 
prepared  by  a  council  of  state  elected  by  the  Assembly  for  six 
years;  the  executive  power  was  delegated  to  a  president  elected 
for  four  years  by  direct  universal  suffrage,  i.e.  on  a  broader 
basis  than  that  of  the  chamber,  and  not  eligible  for  re-election;  he 
was  to  choose  his  ministers,  who,  like  him,  would  be  responsible. 
Finally,  all  revision  was  made  impossible  since  it  involved 
'obtaining  three  times  in  succession  a  majority  of  three-quarters 
of  the  deputies  in  a  special  assembly.  It  was  in  vain  that 
M.  Grevy,  in  the  name  of  those  who  perceived  the  obvious  and 
inevitable  risk  of  creating,  under  the  name  of  a  president,  a 
monarch  and  more  than  a  king,  proposed  that  the  head  of  the 
state  should  be  no  more  than  a  removable  president  of  the 
ministerial  council.  Lamartine,  thinking  that  he  was  sure  to 
be  the  choice  of  the  electors  under  universal  suffrage,  won  over 
the  support  of  the  Chamber,  which  did  not  even  take  the  pre- 
caution of  rendering  ineligible  the  members  of  families  which 
had  reigned  over  France.  It  made  the  presidency  an  office 
dependent  upon  popular  acclamation. 

The  election  was  keenly  contested;  the  socialists  adopted 
as  their  candidate  Ledru-Rollin,  the  republicans  Cavaignac; 
Louis  an<*  t'le  recently  reorganized  Imperialist  party  Prince 
Napoleon.  Bonaparte.  Louis  Napoleon,  unknown  in  1835,  and 

forgotten  or  despised  since  1840,  had  in  the  last  eight 
years  advanced  sufficiently  in  the  public  estimation  to  be 
elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1848  by  five  departments. 
He  owed  this  rapid  increase  of  popularity  partly  to  blunders 
of  the  government  of  July,  which  had  unwisely  aroused  the 
memory  of  the  country,  filled  as  it  was  with  recollections  of  the 
Empire,  and  partly  to  Louis  Napoleon's  campaign  carried  on 
from  his  prison  at  Ham  by  means  of  pamphlets  of  socialistic 
tendencies.  Moreover,  the  monarchists,  led  by  Thiers  and  the 
committee  of  the  Rue  de  Poitiers,  were  no  longer  content  even 
with  the  safe  dictatorship  of  the  upright  Cavaignac,  and  joined 
forces  with  the  Bonapartists.  On  the  loth  of  December  the 
peasants  gave  over  5,000,000  votes  to  a  name:  Napoleon, 
which  stood  for  order  at  all  costs,  against  i  ,400,000  for  Cavaignac. 
'T.  T.  de  Martens,  Recueil  des  traites,  &c.,  xii.  248. 


For  three  years  there  went  on  an  indecisive  struggle  between 
the  heterogeneous  Assembly  and  the  prince  who  was  silently 
awaiting  his  opportunity.  He  chose  as  his  ministers 
men  but  little  inclined  towards  republicanism,  for 
preference  Orleanists,  the  chief  of  whom  was  Odilon 
Barrot.  In  order  to  strengthen  his  position,  he 
endeavoured  to  conciliate  the  reactionary  parties,  without 
committing  himself  to  any  of  them.  The  chief  instance  of  this 
was  the  expedition  to  Rome,  voted  by  the  Catholics  with  the 
object  of  restoring  the  papacy,  which  had  been  driven  out  by 
Garibaldi  and  Mazzini.  The  prince-president  was  also  in  favour 
of  it,  as  beginning  the  work  of  European  renovation  and  recon- 
struction which  he  already  looked  upon  as  his  mission.  General 
Oudinot's  entry  into  Rome  provoked  in  Paris  a  foolish  insurrec- 
tion in  favour  of  the  Roman  republic,  that  of  the  Chateau  d'Eau, 
which  was  crushed  on  the  I3th  of  June  1849.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  Pius  IX.,  though  only  just  restored,  began  to  yield  to  the 
general  movement  of  reaction,  the  president  demanded  that  he 
should  set  up  a  Liberal  government.  The  pope's  dilatory  reply 
having  been  accepted  by  his  ministry,  the  president  replaced 
it  on  the  ist  of  November  by  the  Fould-Rouher  cabinet. 

This  looked  like  a  declaration  of  war  against  the  Catholic  and 
monarchist  majority  in  the  Legislative  Assembly  which  had 
been  elected  on  the  28th  of  May  in  a  moment  of  panic. 
But  the  prince-president  again  pretended  to  be  TheLegis- 
playing  the  game  of  the  Orleanists,  as  he  had  done  Assembly. 
in  the  case  of  the  Constituent-Assembly.  The  comple- 
mentary elections  of  March  and  April  1850  having  resulted  in  an 
unexpected  victory  for  the  advanced  republicans,  which  struck 
terror  into  the  reactionary  leaders,  Thiers,  Berryer  and  Monta- 
lembert,  the  president  gave  his  countenance  to  a  clerical  campaign 
against  the  republicans  at  home.  The  Church,  which  had  failed 
in  its  attempts  to  gain  control  of  the  university  under  Louis 
XVIII.  and  Charles  X.,  aimed  at  setting  up  a  rival  establishment 
of  its  own.  The  Lot  Falloux  of  the  isth  of  March 
1850,  under  the  pretext  of  establishing  the  liberty  " 
of  instruction  promised  by  the  charter,  again  placed 
the  teaching  of  the  university  under  the  direction  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  as  a  measure  of  social  safety,  and,  by  the  facilities  which 
it  granted  to  the  Church  for  propagating  teaching  in  harmony 
with  its  own  dogmas,  succeeded  in  obstructing  for  half  a  century 
the  work  of  intellectual  enfranchisement  effected  by  the  men  of 
the  i8th  century  and  of  the  Revolution.  The  electoral  law 
of  the  3ist  of  May  was  another  class  law  directed 
against  subversive  ideas.  It  required  as  a  proof  of  Electoral 
thi  ;e  years'  domicile  the  entries  in  the  record  of  direct 
taxes,  thus  cutting  down  universal  suffrage  by  taking 
away  the  vote  from  the  industrial  population,  which  was  not  as 
a  rule  stationary.  The  law  of  the  i6th  of  July  aggravated  the 
severity  of  the  press  restrictions  by  re-establishing  the  "  caution 
money  "  (cautionnemeni)  deposited  by  proprietors  and  editors 
of  papers  with  the  government  as  a  guarantee  of  good  behaviour. 
Finally,  a  skilful  interpretation  of  the  law  on  clubs  and  political 
societies  suppressed  about  this  time  all  the  Republican  societies. 
It  was  now  their  turn  to  be  crushed  like  the  socialists. 

But  the  president  had  only  joined  in  Montalembert's  cry  of 
"  Down  with  the  Republicans! "     in   the  hope  of  effecting  a 
revision  of  the  constitution  without  having  recourse 
to  a  coup  d'etat.     His  concessions  only  increased  the  betweea 
boldness  of  the  monarchists;     while  they  had  only   thePnsi- 
accepted  Louis  Napoleon  as  president  in  opposition   deatand 
to  the  Republic  and  as  a  step  in  the  direction  of  the  ^/semi,/y 
monarchy.     A  conflict  was  now  inevitable  between 
his  personal  policy  and  the  majority  of  the  Chamber,  who  were, 
moreover,  divided  into  legitimists  and  Orleanists,  in  spite  of  the 
death  of  Louis  Philippe  in  August  1850.     Louis  Napoleon  skilfully 
exploited  their  projects  for  a  restoration  of  the  monarchy,  which 
he  knew  to  be  unpopular  in  the  country,  and  which  gave  him 
the   opportunity   of   furthering   his   own   personal   ambitions. 
From  the  8th  of  August  to  the  i2th  of  November  1850  he  went 
about  France  stating  the  case  for  a  revision  of  the  constitution 
in  speeches  which  he  varied  according  to  each  place;    he  held 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


869 


reviews,  at  which  cries  of  "  Vive  Napoleon  "  showed  that  the 
army  was  with  him;  he  superseded  General  Changarnier,  on 
whose  arms  the  parliament  relied  for  the  projected  monarchical 
coup  d'ttat;  he  replaced  his  Orleanist  ministry  by  obscure  men 
devoted  to  his  own  cause,  such  as  Morny,  Fleury  and  Persigny, 
and  gathered  round  him  officers  of  the  African  army,  broken 
men  like  General  Saint-Arnaud;  in  fact  he  practically  declared 
open  war. 

His  reply  to  the  votes  of  censure  passed  by  the  Assembly,  and 
their  refusal  to  increase  his  civil  list,  was  to  hint  at  a  vast  com- 
munistic plot  in  order  to  scare  the  bourgeoisie,  and  to  denounce 
Coup  t^6  electoral  law  of  the  3  ist  of  May  in  order  to  gain  the 

d'Etat  of  support  of  the  mass  of  the  people.  The  Assembly  re- 
Dec.2,  taliated  by  throwing  out  the  proposal  for  a  partial 
reform  of  that  article  of  the  constitution  which  pro- 
hibited the  re-election  of  the  president  and  the  re-establish- 
ment of  universal  suffrage  (July).  All  hope  of  a  peaceful  issue 
was  at  an  end.  When  the  questors  called  upon  the  Chamber 
to  have  posted  up  in  all  barracks  the  decree  of  the  6th  of  May 
1848  concerning  the  right  of  the  Assembly  to  demand  the  support 
of  the  troops  if  attacked,  the  Mountain,  dreading  a  restoration  of 
the  monarchy,  voted  with  the  Bonapartists  against  the  measure, 
thus  disarming  the  legislative  power.  Louis  Napoleon  saw  his 
opportunity.  On  the  night  between  the  ist  and  2nd  of  December 

1851,  the  anniversary  of  Austerlitz,  he  dissolved  the  Chamber, 
re-established  universal  suffrage,  had  all  the  party  leaders  arrested, 
and  summoned  a  new  assembly  to  prolong  his  term  of  office 
for  ten  years.     The  deputies  who  had  met  under  Berryer  at  the 
Mairie  of  the  tenth  arrondissement  to  defend  the  constitution 
and  proclaim  the  deposition  of  Louis  Napoleon  were  scattered 
by  the  troops  at  Mazas  and  Mont  Valerian.     The  resistance 
organized  by  the  republicans  within  Paris  under  Victor  Hugo 
was  soon  subdued  by  the  intoxicated  soldiers.     The  more  serious 
resistance  in  the  departments  was  crushed  by  declaring  a  state 
of  siege  and  by  the  "  mixed  commissions."     The  plebiscite  of 
the  20th  of  December  ratified  by  a  huge  majority  the  coup  d'  etat 
in  favour  of  the  prince-president,  who  alone  reaped  the  benefit 
of  the  excesses  of  the  Republicans  and  the  reactionary  passions 
of  the  monarchists. 

The  second  attempt  to  revive  the  principle  of  1789  only  served 
as  a  preface  to  the  restoration  of  the  Empire.  The  new  anti- 
parliamentary  constitution  of  the  I4th  of  January 
™coad  J^^2  was  to  a  large  extent  merely  a  repetition  of  that 
Empire.  °f  the  year  VIII.  All  executive  power  was  entrusted 
to  the  head  of  the  state,  who  was  solely  responsible  to 
the  people,  now  powerless  to  exercise  any  of  their  rights.  He 
was  to  nominate  the  members  of  the  council  of  state,  whose  duty 
it  was  to  prepare  the  laws,  and  of  the  senate,  a  body  permanently 
established  as  a  constituent  part  of  the  empire.  One  innovation 
was  made,  namely,  that  the  Legislative  Body  was  elected  by 
universal  suffrage,  but  it  had  no  right  of  initiative,  all  laws 
being  proposed  by  the  executive  power.  This  new  and  violent 
political  change  was  rapidly  followed  by  the  same  consequence 
as  had  attended  that  of  Brumaire.  On  the  2nd  of  December 

1852,  France,  still  under   the  effect  of   the  Napoleonic  virus, 
and  the  fear  of  anarchy,  conferred  almost  unanimously  by  a 
plebiscite  the  supreme  power,  with  the  title  of  emperor,  upon 
Napoleon  III. 

But  though  the  machinery  of  government  was  almost  the  same 
under  the  Second  Empire  as  it  had  been  under  the  First,  the 
principles  upon  which  its  founder  based  it  were  different.  The 
function  of  the  Empire,  as  he  loved  to  repeat,  was  to  guide  the 
people  internally  towards  justice  and  externally  towards  perpetual 
peace.  Holding  his  power  by  universal  suffrage,  and  having 
frequently,  from  his  prison  or  in  exile,  reproached  former  oligar- 
chical governments  with  neglecting  social  questions,  he  set  out 
to  solve  them  by  organizing  a  system  of  government  based  on  the 
principles  of  the  "  Napoleonic  Idea,"  i.e.  of  the  emperor,  the 
elect  of  the  people  as  the  representative  of  the  democracy,  and 
as  such  supreme;  and  of  himself,  the  representative  of  the 
great  Napoleon,  "  who  had  sprung  armed  from  the  Revolution 
like  Minerva  from  the  head  of  Jove,"  as  the  guardian  of  the 


social  gains  of  the  revolutionary  epoch.  But  he  soon  proved  that 
social  justice  did  not  mean  liberty;  for  he  acted  in  such  a 
way  that  those  of  the  principles  of  1848  which  he  had  preserved 
became  a  mere  sham.  He  proceeded  to  paralyze  all  those  active 
national  forces  which  tend  to  create  the  public  spirit  of  a  people, 
such  as  parliament,  universal  suffrage,  the  press,  education  and 
associations.  The  Legislative  Body  was  not  allowed  either  to 
elect  its  own  president  or  to  regulate  its  own  procedure,  or  to 
propose  a  law  or  an  amendment,  or  to  vote  on  the  budget  in  detail, 
or  to  make  its  deliberations  public.  It  was  a  dumb  parliament. 
Similarly,  universal  suffrage  was  supervised  and  controlled  by 
means  of  official  candidature,  by  forbidding  free  speech  and 
action  in  electoral  matters  to  the  Opposition,  and  by  a  skilful  ad- 
justment of  the  electoral  districts  in  such  a  way  as  to  overwhelm 
the  Liberal  vote  in  the  mass  of  the  rural  population.  The  press 
was  subjected  to  a  system  of  cautionnemenls,  i.e.  "  caution 
money,"  deposited  as  a  guarantee  of  good  behaviour,  and 
avertissemenls,  i.e.  requests  by  the  authorities  to  cease  publication 
of  certain  articles,  under  pain  of  suspension  or  suppression; 
while  books  were  subject  to  a  censorship.  France  was  like  a  sick- 
room, where  nobody  might  speak  aloud.  In  order  to  counteract 
the  opposition  of  individuals,  a  surveillance  of  suspects  was 
instituted.  Orsini's  attack  on  the  emperor  in  1858,  though 
purely  Italian  in  its  motive,  served  as  a  pretext  for  increasing 
the  severity  of  this  regime  by  the  law  of  general  security  (sure/S 
genirale)  which  authorized  the  internment,  exile  or  deportation 
of  any  suspect  without  trial.  In  the  same  way  public  instruction 
was  strictly  supervised,  the  teaching  of  philosophy  was  sup- 
pressed in  the  Lycees,  and  the  disciplinary  powers  of  the  adminis- 
tration were  increased.  In  fact  for  seven  years  France  had  no 
political  life.  The  Empire  was  carried  on  by  a  series  of  plebiscites. 
Up  to  1857  the  Opposition  did  not  exist;  from  then  till  1860  it 
was  reduced  to  five  members:  Darimon,  Emile  Ollivicr,  Henon, 
J.  Favre  and  E.  Picard.  The  royalists  waited  inactive  after  the 
new  and  unsuccessful  attempt  made  at  Frohsdorf  in  1853,  by  a 
combination  of  the  legitimists  and  Orleanists,  to  re-create  a 
living  monarchy  out  of  the  ruin  of  two  royal  families.  Thus  the 
events  of  that  ominous  night  in  December  were  closing  the  future 
to  the  new  generations  as  well  as  to  those  who  had  grown  up  during 
forty  years  of  liberty. 

But  it  was  not  enough  to  abolish  liberty  by  conjuring  up  the 
spectre  of  demagogy.  It  had  to  be  forgotten,  the  great  silence 
had  to  be  covered  by  the  noise  of  festivities  and  material  material 
enjoyment,  the  imagination  of  the  French  people  had  prosperity 
to  be  distracted  from  public  affairs  by  the  taste  for  aeon- 
work,  the  love  of  gain,  the  passion  for  good  living,  ditioa  of 
The  success  of  the  imperial  despotism,  as  of  any  other,  espo 
was  bound  up  with  that  material  prosperity  which  would  make 
all  interests  dread  the  thought  of  revolution.  Napoleon  III., 
therefore,  looked  for  support  to  the  clergy,  the  great  financiers, 
industrial  magnates  and  landed  proprietors.  He  revived  on 
his  own  account  the  "  Let  us  grow  rich  "  of  1840.  Under  the 
influence  of  the  Saint-Simonians  and  men  of  business  great  credit 
establishments  were  instituted  and  vast  public  works  entered 
upon:  the  Credit  foncier  de  France,  the  Credit  mobilier,  the 
conversion  of  the  railways  into  six  great  companies  between  1852 
and  1857.  The  rage  for  speculation  was  increased  by  the  inflow 
of  Californian  and  Australian  gold,  and  consumption  was 
facilitated  by  a  general  fall  in  prices  between  1856  and  1860, 
due  to  an  economic  revolution  which  was  soon  to  overthrow  the 
tariff  wall,  as  it  had  done  already  in  England.  Thus  French 
activity  flourished  exceedingly  between  1852  and  1857,  and  was 
merely  temporarily  checked  by  the  crisis  of  1857.  The  universal 
Exhibition  of  1855  was  its  culminating  point.  Art  felt  the 
effects  of  this  increase  of  comfort  and  luxury.  The  great  en- 
thusiasms of  the  romantic  period  were  over;  philosophy  became 
sceptical  and  literature  merely  amusing.  The  festivities  of  the 
court  at  Compiegne  set  the  fashion  for  the  bourgeoisie,  satisfied 
with  this  energetic  government  which  kept  such  good  guard  over 
their  bank  balances. 

If  the  Empire  was  strong,  the  emperor  was  weak.     At  once 
headstrong  and  a  dreamer,  he  was  full  of  rash  plans,  but  irresolute 


8yo 


FRANCE. 


[HISTORY 


in  carrying  them  out.  An  absolute  despot,  he  remained  what  his 
life  had  made  him,  a  conspirator  through  the  very  mysticism  of 
his  mental  habit,  and  a  revolutionary  by  reason  of  his  demagogic 

imperialism  and  his  democratic  chauvinism.  In  his 
Napokoa  Opjnjon  the  artificial  work  of  the  congress  of  Vienna, 
ideas.  involving  the  downfall  of  his  own  family  and  of 

France,  ought  to  be  destroyed,  and  Europe  organized 
as  a  collection  of  great  industrial  states,  united  by  community 
of  interests  and  bound  together  by  commercial  treaties,  and 
expressing  this  unity  by  periodical  congresses  presided  over  by 
himself,  and  by  universal  exhibitions.  In  this  way  he  would 
reconcile  the  revolutionary  principle  of  the  supremacy  of  the 
people  with  historical  tradition,  a  thing  which  neither  the 
Restoration  nor  the  July  monarchy  nor  the  Republic  of  1848 
had  been  able  to  achieve.  Universal  suffrage,  the  organization 
of  Rumanian,  Italian  and  German  nationality,  and  commercial 
liberty;  this  was  to  be  the  work  of  the  Revolution.  But  the 
creation  of  great  states  side  by  side  with  France  brought  with  it 
the  necessity  for  looking  for  territorial  compensation  elsewhere, 
and  consequently  for  violating  the  principle  of  nationality  and 
abjuring  his  system  of  economic  peace.  Napoleon  III.'s  foreign 
policy  was  as  contradictory  as  his  policy  in  home  affairs, 
"  L'Empire,  c'est  la  paix,"  was  his  cry;  and  he  proceeded  to 
make  war. 

So  long  as  his  power  was  not  yet  established,  Napoleon  III. 
made  especial  efforts  to  reassure  European  opinion,  which  had 

been  made  uneasy  by  his  previous  protestations 
Crimean  a8amst  *ne  treaties  of  1815.  The  Crimean  War,  in 
War.  which,  supported  by  England  and  the  king  of  Sardinia, 

he  upheld  against  Russia  the  policy  of  the  integrity 
of  the  Turkish  empire,  a  policy  traditional  in  France  since 
Francis  I.,  won  him  the  adherence  both  of  the  old  parties  and 
and  the  Liberals.  And  this  war  was  the  prototype  of  all  the  rest. 
It  was  entered  upon  with  no  clearly  defined  military  purpose, 
and  continued  in  a  hesitating  way.  This  was  the  cause,  after 
the  victory  of  the  allies  at  the  Alma  (September  14,  1854),  of 
the  long  and  costly  siege  of  Sevastopol  (September  8,  1855). 
Napoleon  III.,  whose  joy  was  at  its  height  owing  to  the  signature 
of  a  peace  which  excluded  Russia  from  the  Black  Sea,  and  to  the 
birth  of  the  prince  imperial,  which  ensured  the  continuation  of 
his  dynasty,  thought  that  the  time  had  arrived  to  make  a 
beginning  in  applying  his  system.  Count  Walewski,  his  minister 
for  foreign  affairs,  gave  a  sudden  and  unexpected  extension  of 
scope  to  the  deliberations  of  the  congress  which  met  at  Paris  in 
1856  by  inviting  the  plenipotentiaries  to  consider  the  questions 
of  Greece,  Rome,  Naples,  &c.  This  motion  contained  the 
principle  of  all  the  upheavals  which  were  to  effect  such  changes 
in  Europe  between  1859  and  1871.  It  was  Cavour  and  Piedmont 
who  immediately  benefited  by  it,  for  thanks  to  Napoleon  III. 
they  were  able  to  lay  the  Italian  question  before  an  assembly 
of  diplomatic  Europe. 

It  was  not  Orsini's  attack  on  the  I4th  of  January  1858  which 
brought  this  question  before  Napoleon.  It  had  never  ceased  to 
The  War  OCCUPV  ^m  since  he  had  taken  part  in  the  patriotic 
in  Italy.  conspiracies  in  Italy  in  his  youth.  The  triumph  of  his 

armies  in  the  East  now  gave  him  the  power  necessary 
to  accomplish  this  mission  upon  which  he  had  set  his  heart. 
The  suppression  of  public  opinion  made  it  impossible  for  him 
to  be  enlightened  as  to  the  conflict  between  the  interests  of 
the  country  and  his  own  generous  visions.  The  sympathy  of  all 
Europe  was  with  Italy,  torn  for  centuries  past  between  so  many 
masters;  under  Alexander  II.  Russia,  won  over  since  the 
interview  of  Stuttgart  by  the  emperor's  generosity  rather  than 
conquered  by  armed  force,  offered  no  opposition  to  this  act  of 
justice;  while  England  applauded  it  from  the  first.  The 
emperor,  divided  between  the  empress  Eugenie,  who  as  a  Spaniard 
and  a  devout  Catholic  was  hostile  to  anything  which  might 
threaten  the  papacy,  and  Prince  Napoleon,  who  as  brother-in-law 
of  Victor  Emmanuel  favoured  the  cause  of  Piedmont,  hoped  to 
conciliate  both  sides  by  setting  up  an  Italian  federation,  intending 
to  reserve  the  presidency  of  it  to  Pope  Pius  IX.,  as  a  mark  of 
respect  to  the  moral  authority  of  the  Church.  Moreover,  the 


very  difficulty  of  the  undertaking  appealed  to  the  emperor, 
elated  by  his  recent  success  in  the  Crimea.  At  the  secret  meeting 
between  Napoleon  and  Count  Cavour  (July  20, 1858)  the  eventual 
armed  intervention  of  France,  demanded  by  Orsini  before  he 
mounted  the  scaffold,  was  definitely  promised. 

The  ill-advised  Austrian  ultimatum  demanding  the  immediate 
cessation  of  Piedmont's  preparations  for  war  precipitated  the 
Italian  expedition.     On  the  3rd  of  May  1859  Napoleon 
declared  his  intention  of  making  Italy  "  free  from  the    ^yuh^ 
Alps  to  the  Adriatic."    As  he  had  done  four  years  ago,    franca. 
he  plunged  into  the  war  with  no  settled  scheme  and 
without  preparation;     he  held  out  great  hopes,  but  without 
reckoning  what  efforts  would  be  necessary  to  realize  them.     Two 
months  later,  in  spite  of  the  victories  of  Montebello,  Magenta 
and  Solferino,  he  suddenly  broke  off,  and  signed  the  patched-up 
peace  of  Villaf ranca  with  Francis  Joseph  (July  9) .     Austria  ceded 
Lombardy  to  Napoleon  III.,  who  in  turn  ceded  it  to  Victor 
Emmanuel;    Modena    and    Tuscany    were    restored    to    their 
respective  dukes,  the  Romagna  to  the  pope,  now  president  of  an 
Italian  federation.     The  mountain  had  brought  forth  a  mouse. 

The  reasons  for  this  breakdown  on  the  part  of  the  emperor 
in  the  midst  of  his  apparent  triumph  were  many.  Neither 
Magenta  nor  Solferino  had  been  decisive  battles. 
Further,  his  idea  of  a  federation  was  menaced  by  the  T.  % 
revolutionary  movement  which  seemed  likely  to  drive  problem. 
out  all  the  princes  of  central  Italy,  and  to  involve  him 
in  an  unwelcome  dispute  with  the  French  clerical  party.  More- 
over, he  had  forgotten  to  reckon  with  the  Germanic  Confedera- 
tion, which  was  bound  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  Austria. 
The  mobilization  of  Prussia  on  the  Rhine,  combined  with  military 
difficulties  and  the  risk  of  a  defeat  in  Venetian  territory,  rather 
damped  his  enthusiasm,  and  decided  him  to  put  an  end  to  the 
war.  The  armistice  fell  upon  the  Italians  as  a  bolt  from  the  blue, 
convincing  them  that  they  had  been  betrayed;  on  all  sides 
despair  drove  them  to  sacrifice  their  jealously  guarded  inde- 
pendence to  national  unity.  On  the  one  hand  the  Catholics 
were  agitating  throughout  all  Europe  to  obtain  the  independence 
of  the  papal  territory;  and  the  French  republicans  were  pro- 
testing, on  the  other  hand,  against  the  abandonment  of  those 
revolutionary  traditions,  the  revival  of  which  they  had  hailed 
so  enthusiastically.  The  emperor,  unprepared  for  the  turn  which 
events  had  taken,  attempted  to  disentangle  this  confusion  by 
suggesting  a  fresh  congress  of  the  Powers,  which  should  reconcile 
dynastic  interests  with  those  of  the  people.  After  a  while  he  gave 
up  the  attempt  and  resigned  himself  to  the  position,  his  actions 
having  had  more  wide-reaching  results  than,  he  had  wished. 
The  treaty  of  Zurich  proclaimed  the  fallacious  principle  of  non- 
intervention (November  10,  1859);  and  then,  by  the  treaty  of 
Turin  of  the  24th  of  May  1860,  Napoleon  threw  over  his  ill- 
timed  confederation.  He  conciliated  the  mistrust  of  Great 
Britain  by  replacing  Walewski,  who  was  hostile  to  his  policy, 
by  Thouvenel,  an  anti-clerical  and  a  supporter  of  the  English 
alliance,  and  he  counterbalanced  the  increase  of  the  new  Italian 
kingdom  by  the  acquisition  of  Nice  and  Savoy.  Napoleon,  like 
all  French  governments,  only  succeeded  in  finding  a  provisional 
solution  for  the  Italian  problem. 

But  this  solution  would  only  hold  good  so  long  as  the  emperor 
was  in  a  powerful  position.     Now  this  Italian  war,  in  which  he  had 
given  his  support  to  revolution  beyond  the  Alps,  and,     catholic 
though  unintentionally,  compromised   the   temporal     and  pro- 
power  of  the  popes,  had  given  great  offence  to  the     tectioaist 
Catholics,  to  whose  support  the  establishment  of  the     °££°sl' 
Empire  was  largely  due.     A  keen  Catholic  opposition 
sprang  up,  voiced  in  L.  Veuillot's  paper  the  Univers,  and  was 
not  silenced  even  by  the  Syrian  expedition  (1860)  in  favour  of  the 
Catholic  Maronites,  who  were  being  persecuted  by  the  Druses. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  commercial  treaty  with  Great  Britain 
which  was  signed  in  January  1860,  and  which  ratified  the  free- 
trade  policy  of  Richard  Cobden  and  Michael    Chevalier,  had 
brought  upon  French  industry  the  sudden  shock  of  foreign 
competition.     Thus  both  Catholics  and  protectionists  made  the 
discovery  that  absolutism  may  be  an  excellent  thing  when  it 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


871 


serves  their  ambitions  or  interests,  but  a  bad  thing  when  it  is 
exercised  at  their  expense.  But  Napoleon,  in  order  to  restore 
the  prestige  of  the  Empire  before  the  newly-awakened  hostility 
of  public  opinion,  tried  to  gain  from  the  Left  the  support  which 
he  had  lost  from  the  Right.  After  the  return  from  Italy  the 
general  amnesty  of  the  i6th  of  August  1859  had  marked  the 
evolution  of  the  absolutist  empire  towards  the  liberal,  and  later 
parliamentary  empire,  which  was  to  last  for  ten  years. 

Napoleon  began  by  removing  the  gag  which  was  keeping  the 
country  in  silence.  On  the  24th  of  November  1860,-"  by  a  coup 
d'etat  matured  during  his  solitary  meditations," 
Lib  ai  ''ke  a  c°nspirator  in  his  love  of  hiding  his  mysterious 
Empire.  thoughts  even  from  his  ministers,  he  granted  to  the 
Chambers  the  right  to  vote  an  address  annually  in 
answer  to  the  speech  from  the  throne,  and  to  the  press  the  right 
of  reporting  parliamentary  debates.  He  counted  on  the  latter 
concession  to  hold  in  check  the  growing  Catholic  opposition,  which 
was  becoming  more  and  more  alarmed  by  the  policy  of  laissez- 
faire  practised  by  the  emperor  in  Italy.  But  the  government 
majority  already  showed  some  signs  of  independence.  The  right 
of  voting  on  the  budget  by  sections,  granted  by  the  emperor  in 
1 86 1,  was  a  new  weapon  given  to  his  adversaries.  Everything 
conspired  in  their  favour :  the  anxiety  of  those  candid  friends 
who  were  calling  attention  to  the  defective  budget;  the  com- 
mercial crisis,  aggravated  by  the  American  Civil  War;  and  above 
all,  the  restless  spirit  of  the  emperor,  who  had  annoyed  his 
opponents  in  1860  by  insisting  on  an  alliance  with  Great  Britain 
in  order  forcibly  to  open  the  Chinese  ports  for  trade,  in  1863  by 
his  ill-fated  attempt  to  put  down  a  republic  and  set  up  a  Latin 
empire  in  Mexico  in  favour  of  the  archdukeMaximilian  of  Austria, 
and  from  1861  to  1863  by  embarking  on  colonizing  experiments 
in  Cochin  China  and  Annam. 

The  same  inconsistencies  occurred  in  the  emperor's  European 
politics.  The  support  which  he  had  given  to  the  Italian  cause 
The  had  aroused  the  eager  hopes  of  other  nations.  The 

policy  of  proclamation  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  on  the  i8th  of 
national-  February  1861  after  the  rapid  annexation  of  Tuscany 
/sn7'  and  the  kingdom  of  Naples  had  proved  the  danger 

of  half-measures.  But  when  a  concession,  however  narrow, 
had  been  made  to  the  liberty  of  one  nation,  it  could  hardly 
be  refused  to  the  no  less  legitimate  aspirations  of  the  rest. 
In  1863  these  "  new  rights  "  again  clamoured  loudly  for  recogni- 
tion, in  Poland,  in  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  in  Italy,  now  indeed 
united,  but  with  neither  frontiers  nor  capital,  and  in  the  Danubian 
principalities.  In  order  to  extricate  himself  from  the  Polish 
impasse,  the  emperor  again  had  recourse  to  his  expedient — 
always  fruitless  because  always  inopportune — of  a  congress.  He 
was  again  unsuccessful :  England  refused  even  to  admit  the 
principle  of  a  congress,  while  Austria,  Prussia  and  Russia  gave 
their  adhesion  only  on  conditions  which  rendered  it  futile,  i.e. 
they  reserved  the  vital  questions  of  Venetia  and  Poland. 

Thus  Napoleon  had  yet  again  to  disappoint  the  hopes  of  Italy, 
let  Poland  be  crushed,  and  Germany  triumph  over  Denmark  in 
the  Schleswig-Holstein  question.  These  inconsistencies  resulted 
in  a  combination  of  the  opposition  parties,  Catholic,  Liberal  and 
Republican,  in  the  Union  liberate.  The  elections  of  May- June 
1863  gained  the  Opposition  forty  seats  and  a  leader,  Thiers,  who 
at  once  urgently  gave  voice  to  its  demand  for  "  the  necessary 
liberties." 

It  would  have  been  difficult  for  the  emperor  to  mistake  the 
importance  of  this  manifestation  of  French  opinion,  and  in  view 
The  °^  ms  internati°nal  failures,  impossible  to  repress  it. 

regime  of  The  sacrifice  of  Persigny,  minister  of  the  interior, 
coaces-  who  was  responsible  for  the  elections,  the  substitution 
sioas.  for  the  ministers  without  portfolio  of  a  sort  of  presidency 
of  the  council  filled  by  Rouher,  the  "  Vice-Emperor,"  and  the 
nomination  of  V.  Duruy,  an  anti-clerical,  as  minister  of  public 
instruction,  in  reply  to  those  attacks  of  the  Church  which  were 
to  culminate  in  the  Syllabus  of  1864,  all  indicated  a  distinct 
rapprochement  between  the  emperor  and  the  Left.  But  though 
the  opposition  represented  by  Thiers  was  rather  constitutional 
than  dynastic,  there  was  another  and  irreconcilable  opposition, 


that  of  the  amnestied  or  voluntarily  exiled  republicans,  of  whom 
Victor  Hugo  was  the  eloquent  mouthpiece.  Thus  those  who  had 
formerly  constituted  the  governing  classes  were  again  showing 
signs  of  their  ambition  to  govern.  There  appeared  to  be  some 
risk  that  this  movement  among  the  bourgeoisie  might  spread  to 
the  people.  As  Antaeus  recruited  his  strength  by  touching  the 
earth  Napoleon  believed  that  he  would  consolidate  his  menaced 
power  by  again  turning  to  the  labouring  masses,  by  whom  that 
power  had  been  established. 

This  industrial  policy  he  embarked  upon  as  much  from  motives 
of  interest  as  from  sympathy,  out  of  opposition  to  the  bourgeoisie, 
which  was  ambitious  of  governing  or  desirous  of  his  /nrfus<ria/ 
overthrow.  His  course  was  all  the  easier,  since  he  had  policy 
only  to  exploit  the  prejudices  of  the  working  classes.  ot  the 
They  had  never  forgotten  the  loi  Chapelle  of  1 791 ,  which  Bmpin. 
by  forbidding  all  combinations  among  the  workmen  had  placed 
them  at  the  mercy  of  their  employers,  nor  had  they  forgotten  how 
the  limited  suffrage  had  conferred  upon  capital  a  political 
monopoly  which  had  put  it  out  of  reach  of  the  law,  nor  how  each 
time  they  had  left  their  position  of  rigid  isolation  in  order  to  save 
the  Charter  or  universal  suffrage,  the  triumphant  bourgeoisie  had 
repaid  them  at  the  last  with  neglect.  The  silence  of  public 
opinion  under  the  Empire  and  the  prosperous  state  of  business 
had  completed  the  separation  of  the  labour  party  from  the 
political  parties.  The  visit  of  an  elected  and  paid  labour  delega- 
tion to  the  Universal  Exhibition  of  1862  in  London  gave  the 
emperor  an  opportunity  for  re-establishing  relations  with  that 
party,  and  these  relations  were  to  his  mind  all  the  more  profitable, 
since  the  labour  party,  by  refusing  to  associate  their  social  and 
industrial  claims  with  the  political  ambitions  of  the  bourgeoisie, 
maintained  a  neutral  attitude  between  the  parties,  and  could,  if 
necessary,  divide  them,  while  by  its  keen  criticism  of  society  it 
aroused  the  conservative  instincts  of  the  bourgeoisie  and  con- 
sequently checked  their  enthusiasm  for  liberty.  A  law  of  the 
23rd  of  May  1863  gave  the  workmen  the  right,  as  in  England, 
to  save  money  by  creating  co-operative  societies.  Another  law, 
of  the  25th  of  May  1864,  gave  them  the  right  to  enforce  better 
conditions  of  labour  by  organizing  strikes.  Still  further,  the 
emperor  permitted  the  workmen  to  imitate  their  employers  by 
establishing  unions  for  the  permanent  protection  of  their  interests. 
And  finally,  when  the  ouvriers,  with  the  characteristic  French 
tendency  to  insist  on  the  universal  application  of  a  theory,  wished 
to  substitute  for  the  narrow  utilitarianism  of  the  English  trade- 
unions  the  ideas  common  to  the  wage-earning  classes  of  the 
whole  world,  he  put  no  obstacles  in  the  way  of  their  leader 
M.  Tolain's  plan  for  founding  an  International  Association  of 
Workers  (Societe  Internationale  des  Travailleurs) .  At  the  same 
time  he  encouraged  the  provision  made  by  employers  for  thrift 
and  relief  and  for  improving  the  condition  of  the  working- 
classes. 

Thus  assured  of  support,  the  emperor,  through  the  mouth- 
piece of  M.  Rouher,  who  was  a  supporter  of  the  absolutist  regime, 
was  able  to  refuse  all  fresh  claims  on  the  part  of  the 
Liberals.  He  was  aided  by  the  cessation  of  the  in- 
dustrial  crisis  as  the  American  civil  war  came  to  an 
end,  by  the  apparent  closing  of  the  Roman  question  by  the  con- 
vention of  the  isth  of  September,  which  guaranteed  to  the  papal 
states  the  protection  of  Italy,  and  finally  by  the  treaty  of  the  3oth 
of  October  1864,  which  temporarily  put  an  end  to  the  crisis  of 
the  Schleswig-Holstein  question.  But  after  1865  the  momentary 
agreement  which  had  united  Austria  and  Prussia  for  the  purpose 
of  administering  the  conquered  duchies  gave  place  to  a  silent 
antipathy  which  foreboded  a  rupture.  Yet,  though  the  Austro- 
Prussian  War  of  1866  was  not  unexpected,  its  rapid  termination 
and  fateful  outcome  came  as  a  severe  and  sudden  shock  to  France. 
Napoleon  had  hoped  to  gain  fresh  prestige  for  his  throne  and  new 
influence  for  France  by  an  intervention  at  the  proper  moment 
between  combatants  equally  matched  and  mutually  exhausted. 
His  calculations  were  upset  and  his  hopes  dashed  by  the  battle 
of  Sadowa  (Koniggratz)  on  the  4th  of  July.  The  treaty  of  Prague 
put  an  end  to  the  secular  rivalry  of  Habsburg  and  Hohen- 
zollern  for  the  hegemony  of  Germany,  which  had  been  France's 


872 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


opportunity;  and  Prussia  could  afford  to  humour  the  just  claims 
of  Napoleon  by  establishing  between  her  North  German  Con- 
federation and  the  South  German  states  the  illusory  frontier  of 
the  Main.  The  belated  efforts  of  the  French  emperor  to  obtain 
"  compensation  "  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  at  the  expense 
of  the  South  German  states,  made  matters  worse.  France 
realized  with  an  angry  surprise  that  on  her  eastern  frontier  had 
arisen  a  military  power  by  which  her  influence,  if  not  her  existence, 
was  threatened;  that  in  the  name  of  the  principle  of  nationality 
unwilling  populations  had  been  brought  under  the  sway  of  a 
dynasty  by  tradition  militant  and  aggressive,  by  tradition  the 
enemy  of  France;  that  this  new  and  threatening  power  had 
destroyed  French  influence  in  Italy,  which  owed  the  acquisition 
oi:  Venetia  to  a  Prussian  alliance  and  to  Prussian  arms;  and 
that  all  this  had  been  due  to  Napoleon,  outwitted  and  out- 
manoeuvred at  every  turn,  since  his  first  interview  with  Bis- 
marck at  Biarritz  in  October  1865. 

All  confidence  in  the  excellence  of  imperial  regime  vanished 
at  once.  Thiers  and  Jules  Favre  as  representatives  of  the 
Further  Opposition  denounced  in  the  Legislative  Body  the 
coaces-  blunders  of  1866.  Emile  Ollivier  split  up  the  official 
s/nnsof  majority  by  the  amendment  of  the  45,  and  gave  it  to 
Napekoa  ^e  understood  that  a  reconciliation  with  the  Empire 
would  be  impossible  until  the  emperor  would  grant 
entire  liberty.  The  recall  of  the  French  troops  from  Rome, 
in  accordance  with  the  convention  of  1864,  also  led  to  further 
attacks  by  the  Ultramontane  party,  who  were  alarmed  for  the 
stru  fe  PaPacv-  Napoleon  III.  felt  the  necessity  for  developing 
between  "  the  great  act  of  1860  "  by  the  decree  of  the  ipth  of 
OUMer  January  1867.  In  spite  of  Rouher,  by  a  secret  agree- 
""'.  ment  with  Ollivier  the  right  of  interpellation  was 

restored  to  the  Chambers.  Reforms  in  press  supervision 
and  the  right  of  holding  meetings  were  promised.  It  was  in 
vain  that  M.  Rouher  tried  to  meet  the  Liberal  opposition  by 
organizing  a  party  for  the  defence  of  the  Empire,  the  "  Union 
dynastique."  But  the  rapid  succession  of  international  reverses 
prevented  him  from  effecting  anything. 

The  year  1867  was  particularly  disastrous  for  the  Empire. 
In  Mexico  "  the  greatest  idea  of  the  reign  "  ended  in  a  humiliating 
withdrawal  before  the  ultimatum  of  the  United  States, 
while  Italy,  relying  on  her  new  alliance  with  Prussia 
and  already  forgetful  of  her  promises,  was  mobilizing 
the  revolutionary  forces  to  complete  her  unity  by  conquering 
Rome.  The  chassepots  of  Mentana  were  needed  to  check  the 
Garibaldians.  And  when  the  imperial  diplomacy  made  a 
belated  attempt  to  obtain  from  the  victorious  Bismarck  those 
territorial  compensations  on  the  Rhine,  in  Belgium  and  in 
Luxemburg,  which  it  ought  to  have  been  possible  to  exact  from 
him  earlier  at  Biarritz,  Benedetti  added  to  the  mistake  of 
asking  at  the  wrong  time  the  humiliation  of  obtaining  nothing 
(see  LUXEMBURG).  Napoleon  did  not  dare  to  take  courage  and 
confess  his  weakness.  And  finally  was  seen  the  strange  contrast 
of  France,  though  reduced  to  such  a  state  of  real  weakness, 
courting  the  mockery  of  Europe  by  a  display  of  the  external 
magnificence  which  concealed  her  decline.  In  the  Paris  trans- 
formed by  Baron  Haussmann  and  now  become  almost  exclusively 
a  city  of  pleasure  and  frivolity,  the  opening  of  the  Universal 
Exhibition  was  marked  by  Berezowski's  attack  on  the  tsar 
Alexander  II.,  and  its  success  was  clouded  by  the  tragic  fate 
of  the  unhappy  emperor  Maximilian  of  Mexico.  Well  might 
Thiers  exclaim,  "  There  are  no  blunders  left  for  us  to  make." 

But  the  emperor  managed  to  commit  still  more,  of  which  the 
consequences  both  for  his  dynasty  and  for  France  were  irrepar- 
Peace  or  a^e'  ^^'  *nfirm  an<l  embittered,  continually  keeping 
wafi  his  ministers  in  suspense  by  the  uncertainty  and 

secrecy  of  his  plans,  surrounded  by  a  people  now  bent 
almost  entirely  on  pleasure,  and  urged  on  by  a  growing  opposition, 
there  now  remained  but  two  courses  open  to  Napoleon  III.: 
either  to  arrange  a  peace  which  should  last,  or  to  prepare  for  a 
decisive  war.  He  allowed  himself  to  drift  in  the  direction  of  war, 
but  without  bringing  things  to  a  necessary  state  of  preparation. 
It  was  in  vain  that  Count  Beust  revived  on  behalf  of  the  Austrian 


The  year 
1867. 


government  the  project  abandoned  by  Napoleon  since  1866  of 
a  settlement  on  the  basis  of  the  status  quo  with  reciprocal  dis- 
armament. Napoleon  refused,  on  hearing  from  Colonel  Stoffel, 
his  military  attach6  at  Berlin,  that  Prussia  would  not  agree  to 
disarmament.  But  he  was  more  anxious  than  he  was  willing 
to  show.  A  reconstitution  of  the  military  organization  seemed 
to  him  to  be  necessary.  This  Marshal  Niel  was  unable  to  obtain 
either  from  the  Bonapartist  Opposition,  who  feared  the  electors, 
in  whom  the  old  patriotism  had  given  place  to  the  commercial 
or  cosmopolitan  spirit,  or  from  the  Republican  opposition,  who 
were  unwilling  to  strengthen  the  despotism.  Both  of  them 
were  blinded  by  party  interest  to  the  danger  from  outside. 

The  emperor's  good  fortune  had  departed;  he  was  abandoned 
by  men  and  disappointed  by  events.  He  had  vainly  hoped  that, 
though  by  the  laws  of  May-June  1868,  granting  the  Action 
freedom  of  the  press  and  authorizing  meetings,  he  had  of  the 
conceded  the  right  of  speech ,  he  would  retain  the  right  of  revoiu- 
action;  but  he  had  played  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  tlonalies- 
Victor  Hugo's  Chatiments,  the  insults  of  Rochefort's  Lanterne, 
the  subscription  for  the  monument  to  Baudin,  the  deputy  killed 
at  the  barricades  in  1851,  followed  by  Gambetta's  terrible 
speech  against  the  Empire  on  the  occasion  of  the  trial  of  Deles- 
cluze,  soon  showed  that  the  republican  party  was  irreconcilable, 
and  bent  on  the  Republic.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Ultramontane 
party  were  becoming  more  and  more  discontented,  while  the 
industries  formerly  protected  were  equally  dissatisfied  with  the 
free-trade  reform.  Worse  still,  the  working  classes  had  abandoned 
their  political  neutrality,  which  had  brought  them  nothing  but 
unpopularity,  and  gone  over  to  the  enemy.  Despising  Proudhon's 
impassioned  attacks  on  the  slavery  of  communism,  they  had 
gradually  been  won  over  by  the  collectivist  theories  of  Karl 
Marx  or  the  revolutionary  theories  of  Bakounine,  as  set  forth 
at  the  congresses  of  the  International.  At  these  Labour  con- 
gresses, the  fame  of  which  was  only  increased  by  the  fact  that 
they  were  forbidden,  it  had  been  affirmed  that  the  social  emanci- 
pation of  the  worker  was  inseparable  from  his  political  emancipa- 
tion. Henceforth  the  union  between  the  internationalists  and 
the  republican  •  bourgeois  was  an  accomplished  fact.  The 
Empire,  taken  by  surprise,  sought  to  curb  both  the  middle 
classes  and  the  labouring  classes,  and  forced  them  both  into 
revolutionary  actions.  On  every  side  took  place  strikes,  forming 
as  it  were  a  review  of  the  effective  forces  of  the  Revolution. 

The  elections  of  May  1869,  made  during  these  disturbances, 
inflicted  upon  the  Empire  a  serious  moral  defeat.  In  spite  of 
the  revival  by  the  government  of  the  cry  of  the  red  The 
terror,  Ollivier,  the  advocate  of  conciliation,  was  pariia- 
rejected  by  Paris,  while  40  irreconcilables  and  116  meatary 
members  of  the  Third  Party  were  elected.  Concessions  mP1"- 
had  to  be  made  to  these,  so  by  the  senatus-consulte  of  the  8th  of 
September  1869  a  parliamentary  monarchy  was  substituted  for 
personal  government.  On  the  2nd  of  January  1870  Ollivier 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  first  homogeneous,  united  and 
responsible  ministry.  But  the  republican  party,  unlike  the 
country,  which  hailed  this  reconciliation  of  liberty  and  order, 
refused  to  be  content  with  the  liberties  they  had  won;  they 
refused  all  compromise,  declaring  themselves  more  than  ever 
decided  upon  the  overthrow  of  the  Empire.  The  murder  of  the 
journalist  Victor  Noir  by  Pierre  Bonaparte,  a  member  of  the 
imperial  family,  gave  the  revolutionaries  their  long  desired 
opportunity  (January  10).  But  the  emeute  ended  in  a  failure, 
and  the  emperor  was  able  to  answer  the  personal  threats  against 
him  by  the  overwhelming  victory  of  the  plebiscite  of  the  8th  of 
May  1870. 

But  this  success,  which  should  have  consolidated  the  Empire, 
determined   its   downfall.1    It  was  thought  that  a  diplomatic 
success  should  complete  it,  and  make  the  country       The 
forget  liberty  for  glory.     It  was  in  vain  that  after  the       Franco- 
parliamentary  revolution  of  the  2nd  of  January  that       German 
prudent    statesman  Comte    Daru    revived,  through 
Lord    Clarendon,  Count   Beust's   plan   of   disarmament   after 
Sadowa.     He  met  with  a  refusal  from  Prussia  and  from  the 
imperial  entourage.     The  Empress  Eugenie  was  credited  with 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


873 


The 

Hohea 


candi- 
dature. 


the  remark,  "  If  there  is  no  war,  my  son  will  never  be  emperor." 
The  desired  pretext  was  offered  on  the  3rd  of  July  1870  by  the 
candidature  of  a  Hohenzollern  prince  for  the  throne 
of  Spain.  To  the  French  people  it  seemed  that  Prussia, 
barely  mistress  of  Germany,  was  reviving  against 
France  the  traditional  policy  of  the  Habsburgs. 
France,  having  rejected  for  dynastic  reasons  the 
candidature  of  a  Frenchman,  the  due  de  Montpensier,  saw 
herself  threatened  with  a  German  prince.  Never  had  the 
emperor,  now  both  physically  and  morally  ill,  greater  need  of 
the  counsels  of  a  clear-headed  statesman  and  the  support  of  an 
enlightened  public  opinion  if  he  was  to  defeat  the  statecraft  of 
Bismarck.  But  he  could  find  neither. 

Ollivier's  Liberal  ministry,  wishing  to  show  itself  as  jealous 
for  national  interests  as  any  absolutist  ministry,  bent  upon 
Ti,e  doing  something  great,  and  swept  away  by  the  force 

deciara-  of  that  opinion  which  it  had  itself  set  free,  at  once 
tion  of  accepted  the  war  as  inevitable,  and  prepared  for  it 
with  a  light  heart.  In  face  of  the  decided  declaration 
of  the  due  de  Gramont,  the  minister  for  foreign  affairs,  before 
the  Legislative  Body  of  the  6th  of  July,  Europe,  in  alarm, 
supported  the  efforts  of  French  diplomacy  and  obtained  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Hohenzollern  candidature.  This  did  not 
suit  the  views  either  of  the  war  party  in  Paris  or  of  Bismarck, 
who  wanted  the  other  side  to  declare  war.  The  ill-advised  action 
of  Gramont  in  demanding  from  King  William  one  of  those 
promises  for  the  future  which  are  humiliating  but  never  binding, 
gave  Bismarck  his  opportunity,  and  the  king's  refusal  was 
transformed  by  him  into  an  insult  by  the  "  editing  "  of  the  Ems 
telegram.  The  chamber,  in  spite  of  the  desperate  efforts  of 
Thiers  and  Gambetta,  now  voted  by  246  votes  to  10  in  favour 
of  the  war. 

France  found  herself  isolated,  as  much  through  the  duplicity 
of  Napoleon  as  through  that  of  Bismarck.  The  disclosure  to  the 
diets  of  Munich  and  Stuttgart  of  the  written  text  of 
the  claims  laid  by  Napoleon  on  the  territories  of  Hesse 
and  Bavaria  had  since  the  22nd  of  August  1866 
estranged  southern  Germany  from  France,  and  disposed  the 
southern  states  to  sign  the  military  convention  with  Prussia. 
Owing  to  a  similar  series  of  blunders,  the  rest  of  Europe  had 
become  hostile.  Russia,  which  it  had  been  Bismarck's  study 
both  during  and  after  the  Polish  insurrection  of  1863  to  draw 
closer  to  Prussia,  learnt  with  annoyance,  by  the  same 
indiscretion,  how  Napoleon  was  keeping  his  promises  made 
at  Stuttgart.  The  hope  of  gaining  a  revenge  in  the  East  for 
her  defeat  of  1856  while  France  was  in  difficulties  made  her 
decide  on  a  benevolent  neutrality.  The  disclosure  of  Benedetti's 
designs  of  1867  on  Belgium  and  Luxemburg  equally  ensured  an 
unfriendly  neutrality  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain.  The  emperor 
counted  at  least  on  the  alliance  of  Austria  and  Italy,  for  which 
he  had  been  negotiating  since  the  Salzburg  interview  (August 
1867).  But  Austria,  having  suffered  at  his  hands  in  1859  and 
1866,  was  not  ready  and  asked  for  a  delay  before  joining  in  the 
war;  while  the  hesitating  friendships  of  Italy  could  only  be 
won  by  the  evacuation  of  Rome.  The  chassepots  of  Mentana, 
Rouher's  "  Never,"  and  the  hostility  of  the  Catholic  empress  to 
any  secret  article  which  should  open  to  Italy  the  gates  of  the 
capital,  deprived  France  of  her  last  friend. 

Marshal    Leboeuf's    armies    were    no    more    effective    than 
Gramont's  alliances.     The  incapacity  of  the  higher  officers  of 
the  French  army,  the  lack  of  preparation  for  war  at 
Sedan.        headquarters,  the  selfishness  and  shirking  of  responsi- 
bility  on  the  part  of  the  field  officers,  the  absence  of  any 
fixed  plan  when  failure  to  mobilize  had  destroyed  all 
chance  of  the  strong  offensive  which  had  been  counted  on,  and 
the  folly  of  depending  on  chance,  as  the  emperor  had  so  often 

1  In  the  I4th  volume  of  his  L'Empire  liberal  (1909)  M.  Emile 
OHivier  gives  a  detailed  and  illuminating  account  of  the  events  that 
led  up  to  the  war.  He  indignantly  denies  that  he  ever  said  that  he 
contemplated  it  "  with  a  light  heart,"  and  says  that  he  disapproved 
of  Gramont's  demand  for  "  guarantees,"  to  which  he  was  not  privy. 
His  object  is  to  prove  that  France  was  entrapped  by  Bismarck  into  a 
position  in  which  she  was  bound  in  honour  to  declare  war.  (En.) 


France 
Isolated. 


done  successfully,  instead  of  scientific  warfare,  were  all  plainly 
to  be  seen  as  early  as  the  insignificant  engagement  of  Saarbriicken. 
Thus  the  French  army  proceeded  by  diastrous  stages  from 
Weissenburg,  Forbach,  Froeschweiler,  Borny,  Gravelotte,  Noisse- 
ville  and  Saint-Privat  to  the  siege  of  Metz  and  the  slaughter  at 
Illy.  By  the  capitulation  of  Sedan  the  Empire  lost  its  only 
support,  the  army,  and  fell.  Paris  was  left  unprotected  and 
emptied  of  troops,  with  only  a  woman  at  the  Tuileries,  a  terrified 
Assembly  at  the  Palais-Bourbon,  a  ministry,  that  of  Palikao, 
without  authority,  and  leaders  of  the  Opposition  who  fled  as 
the  catastrophe  approached.  (P.  W.) 

THE  THIRD  REPUBLIC  1870-1909 

The  Third  Republic  may  be  said  to  date  from  the  revolution 
of  the  4th  of  September  1870,  when  the  republican  deputies  of 
Paris  at  the  hotel  de  ville  constituted  a  provisional  aovera- 
government  under  the  presidency  of  General  Trochu,  meat  ot 
military  governor  of  the  capital.  The  Empire  had  National 
fallen,  and  the  emperor  was  a  prisoner  in  Germany, 
As,  however,  since  the  great  Revolution  regimes  in 
France  have  been  only  passing  expedients,  not  inextricably 
associated  with  the  destinies  of  the  people,  but  bound  to  disappear 
when  accounted  responsible  for  national  disaster,  the  surrender 
of  Louis  Napoleon's  sword  to  William  of  Prussia  did  not  disarm 
the  country.  Hostilities  were  therefore  continued.  The  pro- 
visional government  had  to  assume  the  part  of  a  Committee  of 
National  Defence,  and  while  insurrection  was  threatening  in 
Paris,  it  had,  in  the  face  of  the  invading  Germans,  to  send  a 
delegation  to  Tours  to  maintain  the  relations  of  France  with  the 
outside  world.  Paris  was  invested,  and  for  five  months  endured 
siege,  bombardment  and  famine.  Before  the  end  of  October 
the  capitulation  of  Metz,  by  the  treason  of  Marshal  Bazaine, 
deprived  France  of  the  last  relic  of  its  regular  army.  With 
indomitable  courage  the  garrison  of  Paris  made  useless  sorties, 
while  an  army  of  irregular  troops  vainly  essayed  to  resist  the 
invader,  who  had  reached  the  valley  of  the  Loire.  The  acting 
Government  of  National  Defence,  thus  driven  from  Tours,  took 
refuge  at  Bordeaux,  where  it  awaited  the  capitulation  of  Paris, 
which  took  place  on  the  2gth  of  January  1871.  The  same  day 
the  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  at  Versailles,  which, 
confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Frankfort  of  the  loth  of  May,  trans- 
ferred from  France  to  Germany  the  whole  of  Alsace,  excepting 
Belfort,  and  a  large  portion  of  Lorraine,  including  Metz,  with 
a  money  indemnity  of  two  hundred  millions  sterling. 

On  the  I3th  of  February  1871  the  National  Assembly,  elected 
after  the  capitulation  of  Paris,  met  at  Bordeaux  and  assumed 
the  powers  hitherto  exercised  by  the  Government  of  poua^a. 
National  Defence.  Since  the  meeting  of  the  states-  tloa  of  the 
general  in  1789  no  representative  body  in  France  had  Third 
ever  contained  so  many  men  of  distinction.  Elected 
to  conclude  a  peace,  the  great  majority  of  its  members 
were  monarchists,  Gambetta,  the  rising  hope  of  the  republicans, 
having  discredited  his  party  in  the  eyes  of  the  weary  population 
by  his  efforts  to  carry  on  the  war.  The  Assembly  might  thus  have 
there  and  then  restored  the  monarchy  had  not  the  monarchists 
been  divided  among  themselves  as  royalist  supporters  of  the 
comte  de  Chambord,  grandson  of  Charles  X.,  and  as  Orleanists 
favouring  the  claims  of  the  comte  de  Paris,  grandson  of  Louis 
Philippe.  The  majority  being  unable  to  unite  on  the  essential 
point  of  the  choice  of  a  sovereign,  decided  to  allow  the  Republic, 
declared  on  the  morrow  of  Sedan,  to  liquidate  the  disastrous 
situation.  Consequently,  on  the  1 7th  of  February  the  National 
Assembly  elected  Thiers  as  "  Chief  of  the  Executive  Power  of 
the  French  Republic,"  the  abolition  of  the  Empire  being  formally 
voted  a  fortnight  later.  The  old  minister  of  Louis  Philippe, 
who  had  led  the  opposition  to  the  Empire,  and  had  been  the  chief 
opponent  of  the  war,  was  further  marked  out  for  the  position 
conferred  on  him  by  his  election  to  the  Assembly  in  twenty-six 
departments  in  recognition  of  his  tour  through  Europe  after  the 
first  defeats,  undertaken  in  the  patriotic  hope  of  obtaining  the 
intervention  of  the  Powers  on  behalf  of  France.  Thiers  composed 
a  ministry,  and  announced  that  the  first  duty  of  the  government, 


874 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


before  examining  constitutional  questions,  would  be  to  reorganize 
the  forces  of  the  nation  in  order  to  provide  for  the  enormous  war 
indemnity  which  had  to  be  paid  to  Germany  before  the  territory 
could  be  liberated  from  the  presence  of  the  invader.  The  tacit 
acceptance  of  this  arrangement  by  all  parties  was  known  as  the 
"  pacte  de  Bordeaux."  Apart  from  the  pressure  of  patriotic  con- 
siderations, it  pleased  the  republican  minority  to  have  the  govern- 
ment of  France  officially  proclaimed  a  Republic,  while  the 
monarchists  thought  that  pending  their  choice  of  a  monarch  it 
might  popularize  their  cause  not  to  have  it  associated  with 
the  imposition  of  the  burden  of  war  taxation.  From  this  for- 
tuitous and  informal  transaction,  accepted  by  a  monarchical 
Assembly,  sprang  the  Third  Republic,  the  most  durable  regime 
established  in  France  since  the  ancient  monarchy  disappeared 
in  1792. 

The  Germans  marched   down   the    Champs  Elysees  on  the 
ist  of  March  1871,  and  occupied  Paris  for  forty-eight  hours. 

The  National  Assembly  then  decided  to  remove  its 
commune  sittings  to  Versailles;  but  two  days  before  its  arrival 

at  the  palace,  where  the  king  of  Prussia  had  just  been 
proclaimed  German  emperor,  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  Paris. 
The  revolutionary  element,  which  had  been  foremost  in  pro- 
claiming the  Republic  on  the  4th  of  September,  had  shown 
signs  of  disaffection  during  the  siege.  On  the  conclusion  of  the 
peace  the  triumphal  entry  of  the  German  troops,  the  threatened 
disbanding  of  the  national  guard  by  an  Assembly  known  to  be 
anti-republican,  and  the  resumption  of  orderly  civic  existence 
after  the  agitated  life  of  a  suffering  population  isolated  by 
siege,  had  excited  the  nerves  of  the  Parisians,  always  prone  to 
revolution.  The  Commune  was  proclaimed  on  the  1 8th  of  March, 
and  Paris  was  declared  to  be  a  free  town,  which  recognized  no 
government  but  that  chosen  by  the  people  within  its  walls, 
the  communard  theory  being  that  the  state  should  consist  of  a 
federation  of  self-governing  communes  subject  to  no  central 
power.  Administrative  autonomy  was  not,  however,  the  real 
aim  of  the  insurgent  leaders.  The  name  of  the  Commune  had 
always  been  a  rallying  sign  for  violent  revolutionaries  ever 
since  the  Terrorists  had  found  their  last  support  in  the  munici- 
pality of  Paris  in  1794.  In  1871  among  the  communard  chiefs 
were  revolutionaries  of  every  sect,  who,  disagreeing  on  govern- 
mental and  economic  principles,  were  united  in  their  vague  but 
perpetual  hostility  to  the  existing  order  of  things.  The  regular 
troops  of  the  garrison  of  Paris  followed  the  National  Assembly 
to  Versailles,  where  they  were  joined  by  the  soldiers  of  the  armies 
of  Sedan  and  Metz,  liberated  from  captivity  in  Germany.  With 
this  force  the  government  of  the  Republic  commenced  the 
second  siege  of  Paris,  in  order  to  capture  the  city  from  the 
Commune,  which  had  established  the  parody  of  a  government 
there,  having  taken  possession  of  the  administrative  departments 
and  set  a  minister  at  the  head  of  each  office.  The  second  siege 
lasted  six  weeks  under  the  eyes  of  the  victorious  Germans 
encamped  on  the  heights  overlooking  the  capital.  The  presence 
of  the  enemy,  far  from  restraining  the  humiliating  spectacle  of 
Frenchmen  waging  war  on  Frenchmen  in  the  hour  of  national 
disaster,  seemed  to  encourage  the  fury  of  the  combatants.  The 
communards,  who  had  begun  their  reign  by  the  murder  of  two 
generals,  concluded  it",  when  the  Versailles  troops  were  taking  the 
city,  with  the  massacre  of  a  number  of  eminent  citizens,  including 
the  archbishop  of  Paris,  and  with  the  destruction  by  fire  of  many 
of  the  finest  historical  buildings,  including  the  palace  of  the 
Tuileries  and  the  hotel  de  ville.  History  has  rarely  known  a 
more  unpatriotic  crime  than  that  of  the  insurrection  of  the 
Commune;  but  the  punishment  inflicted  on  the  insurgents  by 
the  Versailles  troops  was  so  ruthless  that  it  seemed  to  be  acounter- 
manif  estation  of  French  hatred  for  Frenchmen  in  civil  disturbance 
rather  than  a  judicial  penalty  applied  to  a  heinous  offence. 
The  number  of  Parisians  killed  by  French  soldiers  in  the  last 
week  of  May  1871  was  probably  20,000,  though  the  partisans 
of  the  Commune  declared  that  36,000  men  and  women  were  shot 
in  the  streets  or  after  summary  court-martial. 

It  is  from  this  point  that  the  history  of  the  Third  Republic 
commences.     In  spite  of  the  doubly  tragic  ending  of  the  war 


the  vitality  of  the  country  seemed  unimpaired.  With  ease  and 
without  murmur  it  supported  the  new  burden  of  taxation  called 
for  by  the  war  indemnity  and  by  the  reorganization  „ 
of  the  shattered  forces  of  France.  Thiers  was  thus  iicaasaatt 
aided  in  his  task  of  liberating  the  territory  from  the  Monarch- 
presence  of  the  enemy.  His  proposal  at  Bordeaux  to  '*'*  atter 
make  the  "  essai  loyal  "  of  the  Republic,  as  the  form  of 
government  which  caused  the  least  division  among  Frenchmen, 
was  discouraged  by  the  excesses  of  the  Commune  which  associated 
republicanism  with  revolutionary  disorder.  Nevertheless,  the 
monarchists  of  the  National  Assembly  received  a  note  of  warning 
that  the  country  might  dispense  with  their  services  unless  they 
displayed  governmental  capacity,  when  in  July  1871  the  re- 
publican minority  was  largely  increased  at  the  bye-elections. 
The  next  month,  within  a  year  of  Sedan,  a  provisional  constitution 
was  voted,  the  title  of  president  of  the  French  Republic  being 
then  conferred  on  Thiers.  The  monarchists  consented  to  this 
against  their  will;  but  they  had  their  own  way  when  they 
conferred  constituent  powers  on  the  Assembly  in  opposition  to 
the  republicans,  who  argued  that  it  was  a  usurpation  of  the 
sovereignty  of  the  people  for  a  body  elected  for  another  purpose 
to  assume  the  power  of  giving  a  constitution  to  the  land  without  a 
special  mandate  from  the  nation.  The  debate  gave  Gambetta 
his  first  opportunity  of  appearing  as  a  serious  politician.  The 
"  fou  furieux  "  of  Tours,  whom  Thiers  had  denounced  for  his 
efforts  to  prolong  the  hopeless  war,  was  about  to  become  the 
chief  support  of  the  aged  Orleanist  statesman  whose  supreme 
achievement  was  to  be  the  foundation  of  the  Republic. 

It  was  in  1872  that  Thiers  practically  ranged  himself  with 
Gambetta  and  the  republicans.  The  divisions  in  the  monarchical 
party  made  an  immediate  restoration  impossible. 
This  situation  induced  some  of  the  moderate  deputies, 
whose  tendencies  were  Orleanist,  to  support  the  Qambetta. 
organization  of  a  Republic  which  now  no  longer 
found  its  chief  support  in  the  revolutionary  section  of  the  nation, 
and  it  suited  the  ideas  of  Thiers,  whose  personal  ambition  was 
not  less  than  his  undoubted  patriotism.  Having  become 
unexpectedly  chief  of  the  state  at  seventy-four  he  had  no  wish 
to  descend  again  to  the  position  of  a  minister  of  the  Orleans 
dynasty  which  he  had  held  at  thirty-five.  So,  while  the  royalists 
refused  to  admit  the  claims  of  the  comte  de  Paris,  the  old  minister 
of  Louis  Philippe  did  his  best  to  undermine  the  popularity  of 
the  Orleans  tradition,  which  had  been  great  among  the  Liberals 
under  the  Second  Empire.  He  moved  the  Assembly  to  restore 
to  the  Orleans  princes  the  value  of  their  property  confiscated 
under  Louis  Napoleon.  This  he  did  in  the  well-founded  belief 
that  the  family  would  discredit  itself  in  the  eyes  of  the  nation  by 
accepting  two  millions  sterling  of  public  money  at  a  moment 
when  the  country  was  burdened  with  the  war  indemnity.  The 
incident  was  characteristic  of  his  wary  policy,  as  in  the  face 
of  the  anti-republican  majority  in  the  Assembly  he  could  not 
openly  break  with  the  Right;  and  when  it  was  suggested  that 
he  was  too  favourable  to  the  maintenance  of  the  Republic  he 
offered  his  resignation,  the  refusal  of  which  he  took  as  indicating 
the  indispensable  nature  of  his  services.  Meanwhile  Gambetta, 
by  his  popular  eloquence,  had  won  for  himself  in  the  autumn 
a  triumphal  progress,  in  the  course  of  which  he  declared  at 
Grenoble  that  political  power  had  passed  into  the  hands  of 
""  une  couche  sociale  nouvelle,"  and  he  appealed  to  the  new  social 
strata  to  put  an  end  to  the  comedy  of  a  Republic  without 
republicans.  When  the  Assembly  resumed  its  sittings,  order 
having  been  restored  in  the  land  disturbed  by  war  and  revolution, 
the  financial  system  being  reconstituted  and  the  reorganization 
of  the  army  planned,  Thiers  read  to  the  house  a  presidential 
message  which  marked  such  a  distinct  movement  towards  the 
Left  that  Gambetta  led  the  applause.  "  The  Republic  exists," 
said  the  president,  "  it  is  the  lawful  government  of  the  country, 
and  to  devise  anything  else  is  to  devise  the  most  terrible  of 
revolutions." 

The  year  1873  was  full  of  events  fateful  for  the  history  of  France. 
It  opened  with  the  death  of  Napoleon  III.  at  Chislehurst;  but 
the  disasters  amid  which  the  Second  Empire  had  ended  were  too 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


875 


recent  for  the  youthful  promise  of  his  heir  to  be  regarded  as 
having  any  connexion  with  the  future  fortunes  of  France,  except 
by  the  small  group  of  Bonapartists.  Thiers  remained  the  centre 
of  interest.  Much  as  the  monarchists  disliked  him,  they  at  first 
shrank  from  upsetting  him  before  they  were  ready  with  a  scheme 
of  monarchical  restoration,  and  while  Gambetta's  authority  was 
growing  in  the  land.  But  when  the  Left  Centre  took  alarm  at  the 
return  of  radical  deputies  at  numerous  by-elections  the  reaction- 
aries utilized  the  divisions  in  the  republican  party,  and  for  the 
only  time  in  the  history  of  the  Third  Republic  they  gave  proof  of 
parliamentary  adroitness.  The  date  for  the  evacuation  of  France 
by  the  German  troops  had  been  advanced,  largely  owing  to 
Thiers'  successful  efforts  to  raise  the  war  indemnity.  The  monar- 
chical majority,  therefore,  thought  the  moment  had 
Resigna-  arrived  when  his  services  might  safely  be  dispensed 
Thiers.  with,  and  the  campaign  against  him  was  ably  con- 
ducted by  a  coalition  of  Legitimists,  Orleanists  and 
Bonapartists.  The  attack  on  Thiers  was  led  by  the  due 
de  Broglie,  the  son  of  another  minister  of  Louis  Philippe  and 
grandson  of  Madame  de  Stae'l.  Operations  began  with  the 
removal  from  the  chair  of  the  Assembly  of  Jules  Grevy,  a  moderate 
republican,  who  was  chosen  president  at  Bordeaux,  and  the 
substitution  of  Buffet,  an  old  minister  of  the  Second  Republic 
who  had  rallied  to  the  Empire.  A  debate  on  the  political  ten- 
dency of  the  government  brought  Thiers  himself  to  the  tribune 
to  defend  his  policy.  He  maintained  that  a  conservative 
Republic  was  the  only  regime  possible,  seeing  that  the  monarchists 
in  the  Assembly  could  not  make  a  choice  between  their  three 
pretenders  to  the  throne.  A  resolution,  however,  was  carried 
which  provoked  the  old  statesman  into  tendering  his  resignation. 
This  time  it  was  not  declined,  and  the  majority  with  unseemly 
Marshal  ^aste  elected  as  president  of  the  Republic  Marshal 
MacMahoa  MacMahon,  due  de  Magenta,  an  honest  soldier  of 
president  royalist  sympathies,  who  had  won  renown  and  a  ducal 
of  the  He-  tjtje  on  tjje  battlefields  of  the  Second  Empire.  In  the 
eyes  of  Europe  the  curt  dismissal  of  the  aged  liberator 
of  the  territory  was  an  act  of  ingratitude.  Its  justification 
would  have  been  the  success  of  the  majority  in  forming  a 
stable  monarchical  government;  but  the  sole  result  of  the  24th 
of  May  1873  was  to  provide  a  definite  date  to  mark  the  opening 
of  the  era  of  anti-republican  incompetency  in  France  which  has 
lasted  for  more  than  a  generation,  and  has  been  perhaps  the  most 
effective  guardian  of  the  Third  Republic. 

The  political  incompetency  of  the  reactionaries  was  fated  never 
to  be  corrected  by  the  intelligence  of  its  princes  or  of  its  chiefs, 
and  the  year  which  saw  Thiers  dismissed  to  make  way  for  a 
restoration  saw  also  that  restoration  indefinitely  postponed  by 
the  fatal  action  of  the  legitimist  pretender.  The  comte  de  Paris 
went  to  Frohsdorf  to  abandon  to  the  comte  de  Chambord  his 
claims  to  the  crown  as  the  heir  of  the  July  Monarchy,  and  to 
accept  the  position  of  dauphin,  thus  implying  that  his  grand- 
father Louis  Philippe  was  a  usurper.  With  the  "  Government 
of  Moral  Order"  in  command  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy 
seemed  imminent,  when  the  royalists  had  their  hopes  dashed 
by  the  announcement  that  "  Henri  V."  would  accept  the  throne 
only  on  the  condition  that  the  nation  adopted  as  the  standard 
of  France  the  white  flag — at  the  very  sight  of  which  Marshal 
MacMahon  said  the  rifles  in  the  army  would  go  off  by  themselves. 
The  comte  de  Chambord's  refusal  to  accept  the  tricolour  was 
probably  only  the  pretext  of  a  childless  man  who 
The  had  no  wish  to  disturb  his  secluded  life  for  the  ultimate 

.  benefit  of  the  Orleans  family  which  had  usurped  his 
'  crown,  had  sent  him  as  a  child  into  exile,  and  out- 
raged his  mother  the  duchesse  de  Berry.  Whatever  his  motive, 
his  decision  could  have  no  other  effect  than  that  of  establishing 
the  Republic,  as  he  was  likely  to  live  for  years,  during  which  the 
comte  de  Paris'  claims  had  to  remain  suspended.  It  was  not 
possible  to  leave  the  land  for  ever  under  the  government  im- 
provised at  Bordeaux  when  the  Germans  were  masters  of  France; 
so  the  majority  in  the  Assembly  decided  to  organize  another 
provisional  government  on  more  regular  lines,  which  might 
possibly  last  till  the  comte  de  Chambord  had  taken  the  white  flag 


Septea- 
nate. 


to  the  grave,  leaving  the  way  to  the  throne  clear  for  the  comte 
de  Paris.  On  the  ipth  of  November  1873  a  Bill  was  passed 
which  instituted  the  Septennate,  whereby  the  executive 
power  was  confided  to  Marshal  MacMahon  for  seven 
years.  It  also  provided  for  the  nomination  of  a  com- 
mission of  the  National  Assembly  to  take  in  hand  the 
enactment  of  a  constitutional  law.  Before  this  an  important 
constitutional  innovation  had  been  adopted.  Under  Thiers 
there  were  no  changes  of  ministry.  The  president  of  the  Republic 
was  perpetual  prime  minister,  constantly  dismissing  individual 
holders  of  portfolios,  but  never  changing  at  one  moment  the 
whole  council  of  ministers.  Marshal  MacMahon,  the  day  after 
his  appointment,  nominated  a  cabinet  with  a  vice-president 
of  the  council  as  premier,  and  thus  inaugurated  the  system 
of  ministerial  instability  which  has  been  the  most  conspicuous 
feature  of  the  government  of  the  Third  Republic.  Under  the 
Septennate  the  ministers,  monarchist  or  moderate  republican, 
were  socially  and  perhaps  intellectually  of  a  higher  class  than 
those  who  governed  France  during  the  last  twenty  years  of  the 
igth  century.  But  the  duration  of  the  cabinets  was  just  as  brief, 
thus  displaying  the  fact,  already  similarly  demonstrated  under 
the  Restoration  and  the  July  Monarchy,  that  in  France  parlia- 
mentary government  is  an  importation  not  suited  to  the  national 
temperament. 

The  due  de  Broglie  was  the  prime  minister  in  MacMahon's 
first  two  cabinets  which  carried  on  the  government  of  the  country 
up  to  the  first  anniversary  of  Thiers'  resignation.  The  due  de 
Broglie's  defeat  by  a  coalition  of  Legitimists  and  Bonapartists 
with  the  Republicans  displayed  the  mutual  attitude  of  parties. 
The  Royalists,  chagrined  that  the  fusion  of  the  two  branches  of 
the  Bourbons  had  not  brought  the  comte  de  Chambord  to  the 
throne,  vented  their  rage  on  the  Orleanists,  who  had  the  chief 
share  in  the  government  without  being  able  to  utilize  it  for  their 
dynasty.  The  Bonapartists,  now  that  the  memory  of  the  war 
was  receding,  were  winning  elections  in  the  provinces,  and  were 
further  encouraged  by  the  youthful  promise  of  the  Prince 
Imperial.  The  republicans  had  so  improved  their  position  that 
the  due  d'Audiffret-Pasquier,  great-nephew  of  the  chancellor 
Pasquier,  tried  to  form  a  coalition  ministry  with  M.  Waddington, 
afterwards  ambassador  of  the  Republic  in  London,  and  other 
members  of  the  Left  Centre.  Out  of  this  uncertain  state  of 
affairs  was  evolved  the  constitution  which  has  lasted  the  longest 
of  all  those  that  France  has  tried  since  the  abolition  of  the  old 
monarchy  in  1792.  Its  birth  was  due  to  chance.  Not  being 
able  to  restore  a  monarchy,  the  National  Assembly  was  unwill- 
ing definitively  to  establish  a  republic,  and  as  no  limit  was  set  by 
the  law  on  the  duration  of  its  powers,  it  might  have  continued 
the  provisional  state  of  things  had  it  not  been  for  the  Bona- 
partists. That  party  displayed  so  much  activity  in  agitating  for 
a  plebiscite,  that  when  the  rural  voters  at  by-elections  began  to 
rally  to  the  Napoleonic  idea,  alarm  seized  the  constitutionalists 
of  the  Right  Centre  who  had  never  been  persuaded  by  Thiers' 
exhortations  to  accept  the  Republic.  Consequently  in  January 
1875  the  Assembly,  having  voted  the  general  principle  that  the 
legislative  power  should  be  exercised  by  a  Senate  and 
a  Chamber  of  Deputies,  without  any  mention  of  the  CoostUu- 
executive  regime,  accepted  by  a  majority  of  one  a 
momentous  resolution  proposed  by  M.  Wallon,  a 
member  of  the  Right  Centre.  It  provided  that  the  president  of 
the  Republic  should  be  elected  by  the  absolute  majority  of  the 
Senate  and  the  Chamber  united  as  a  National  Assembly,  that  he 
should  be  elected  for  seven  years,  and  be  eligible  for  re-election. 
Thus  by  one  vote  the  Republic  was  formally  established,  "  the 
Father  of  the  Constitution  "  being  M.  Wallon,  who  began  his 
political  experiences  in  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  1849,  and 
survived  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  Senate  until  the  twentieth 
century. 

The  Republic  being  thus  established,  General  de  Cissey,  who 
had  become  prime  minister,  made  way  for  M.  Buffet,  but  retained 
his  portfolio  of  war  in  the  new  coalition  cabinet,  which  contained 
some  distinguished  members  of  the  two  central  groups,  includ- 
ing M.  Leon  Say.  A  fortnight  previously,  at  the  end  of  February 


876 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


1875,  were  passed  two  statutes  defining  the  legislative  and 
executive  powers  in  the  Republic,  and  organizing  the  Senate. 
Provisions  These  joined  to  a  third  enactment,  voted  in  July,  form 
of  the  Coa-  the  body  of  laws  known  as  the  "  Constitution  of  1875," 
stitution  which  though  twice  revised,  lasted  without  essential 
ofi»75.  alteration  to  the  twentieth  century.  The  legislative 
power  was  conferred  on  a  Senate  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
which  might  unite  in  congress  to  revise  the  constitution, 
if  they  both  agreed  that  revision  was  necessary,  and  which 
were  bound  so  to  meet  for  the  election  of  the  president  of  the 
Republic  when  a  vacancy  occurred.  It  was  enacted  that  the 
president  so  elected  should  retain  office  for  seven  years,  and  be 
eligible  for  re-election  at  the  end  of  his  term.  He  was  also  held 
to  be  irresponsible,  except  in  the  case  of  high  treason.  The  other 
principal  prerogatives  bestowed  on  the  presidential  office  by  the 
constitution  of  1875  were  the  right  of  initiating  laws  concurrently 
with  the  members  of  the  two  chambers;  the  promulgation  of 
the  laws;  the  right  of  dissolving  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  before 
its  legal  term  on  the  advice  of  the  Senate,  and  that  of  adjourning 
the  sittings  of  both  houses  for  a  month;  the  right  of  pardon; 
the  disposal  of  the  armed  forces  of  the  country;  the  reception  of 
diplomatic  envoys,  and,  under  certain  limitations,  the  power 
to  ratify  treaties.  The  constitution  relieved  the  president  of 
the  responsibility  of  private  patronage,  by  providing  that  every 
act  of  his  should  be  countersigned  by  a  minister.  The  con- 
stitutional law  provided  that  the  Senate  should  consist  of  300 
members,  75  being  nominated  for  life  by  the  National  Assembly, 
and  the  remaining  225  elected  for  nine  years  by  the  departments 
and  the  colonies.  Vacancies  among  the  life  members,  after  the 
dissolution  of  the  National  Assembly,  were  filled  by  the  Senate 
until  1884,  when  the  nominative  system  was  abolished,  though 
the  survivors  of  it  were  not  disturbed.  The  law  of  1875  enacted 
that  the  elected  senators,  who  were  distributed  among  the 
departments  on  a  rough  basis  of  population,  should  be  elected 
for  nine  years,  a  third  of  them  retiring  triennially.  It  was  pro- 
vided that  the  senatorial  electors  in  each  department  should  be 
the  deputies,  the  members  of  the  conseil  general  and  of  the  conseils 
d'arrondissement,  and  delegates  nominated  by  the  municipal 
councils  of  each  commune.  As  the  municipal  delegates  composed 
the  majority  in  each  electoral  college,  Gambetta  called  the 
Senate  the  Grand  Council  of  the  Communes;  but  in  practice 
the  senators  elected  have  always  been  the  nominees  of  the  local 
deputies  and  of  the  departmental  councillors  (conseillers  generaux). 
The  Constitutional  Law  further  provided  that  the  deputies 
should  be  elected  to  the  Chamber  for  four  years  by  direct  man- 
Scrutia  hood  suffrage,  which  had  been  enjoyed  in  France  ever 
d'arron-  since  1848.  The  laws  relating  to  registration,  which  is 
dissemeat  of  admirable  simplicity  in  France,  were  left  practically 
0  the  same  as  under  the  Second  Empire.  From  1875  to 
1885  the  elections  were  held  on  the  basis  of  scrutin 
d'arrondissement,  each  department  being  divided  into  single- 
member  districts.  In  1885  scrutin  de  lisle  was  tried,  the  depart- 
ment being  the  electoral  unit,  and  each  elector  having  as  many 
votes  as  there  were  seats  ascribed  to  the  department  without 
the  power  to  cumulate — like  the  voting  in  the  city  of  London 
when  it  returned  four  members.  In  1 889  scrutin  d'arrondissement 
was  resumed.  The  payment  of  members  continued  as  under 
the  Second  Empire,  the  salary  now  being  fixed  at  9000  francs 
a  year  in  both  houses,  or  about  a  pound  sterling  a  day.  The 
Senate  and  the  Chamber  were  endowed  with  almost  identical 
powers.  The  only  important  advantage  given  to  the  popular 
house  in  the  paper  constitution  was  its  initiative  in  matters  of 
finance,  but  the  right  of  rejecting  or  of  modifying  the  financial 
proposals  of  the  Chamber  was  successfully  upheld  by  the  Senate. 
In  reality  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  has  overshadowed  the  upper 
house.  The  constitution  did  not  prescribe  that  ministers  should 
be  selected  from  either  house  of  parliament,  but  in  practice  the 
deputies  have  been  in  cabinets  in  the  proportion  of  five  to  one 
in  excess  of  the  senators.  Similarly  the  very  numerous  ministerial 
crises  which  have  taken  place  under  the  Third  Republic  have 
with  the  rarest  exceptions  been  caused  by  votes  in  the  lower 
chamber.  Among  minor  differences  between  the  two  houses 


ordained  by  the  constitution  was  the  legal  minimum  age  of  their 
members,  that  of  senators  being  forty  and  of  deputies  twenty-five. 
It  was  enacted,  moreover,  that  the  Senate,  by  presidential 
decree,  could  be  constituted  into  a  high  court  for  the  trial  of 
certain  offences  against  the  security  of  the  state. 

The  constitution  thus  produced,  the  fourteenth  since  the 
Revolution  of  1789,  was  the  issue  of  a  monarchical  Assembly 
forced  by  circumstances  to  establish  a  republic.  It 
was  therefore  distinguished  from  others  which  preceded  ^^icai 
it  in  that  it  contained  no  declaration  of  principle  and  parties 
no  doctrinal  theory.  The  comparative  excellence  of  under  the 
the  work  must  be  recognized,  seeing  that  it  has  lasted.  "^J^"" 
But  it  owed  its  duration,  as  it  owed  its  origin  and  its 
character,  to  the  weakness  of  purpose  and  to  the  dissensions  of 
the  monarchical  parties.  The  first  legal  act  under  the  new 
constitution  was  the  selection  by  the  expiring  National  Assembly 
of  seventy-five  nominated  senators,  and  here  the  reactionaries 
gave  a  crowning  example  of  that  folly  which  has  ever  marked 
their  conduct  each  time  they  have  had  the  chance  of  scoring  an 
advantage  against  the  Republic.  The  principle  of  nomination 
had  been  carried  in  the  National  Assembly  by  the  Right  and 
opposed  by  the  Republicans.  But  the  quarrels  of  the  Legitimists 
with  the  due  de  Broglie  and  his  party  were  so  bitter  that  the 
former  made  a  present  of  the  nominated  element  in  the  Senate 
to  the  Republicans  in  order  to  spite  the  Orleanists;  so  out  of 
seventy-five  senators  nominated  by  the  monarchical  Assembly, 
fifty-seven  Republicans  were  chosen.  Without  this  suicidal 
act  the  Republicans  would  have  been  in  a  woeful  minority  in  the 
Senate  when  parliament  met  in  1876  after  the  first  elections 
under  the  new  system  of  parliamentary  government.  The 
slight  advantage  which,  in  spite  of  their  self-destruction,  the 
reactionaries  maintained  in  the  upper  house  was  outbalanced 
by  the  republican  success  at  the  elections  to  the  Chamber. 
In  a  house  of  over  500  members  only  about  1 50  monarchical 
deputies  were  returned,  of  whom  half  were  Bonapartists.  The 
first  cabinet  under  the  new  constitution  was  formed  by  Dufaure, 
an  old  minister  of  Louis  Philippe  like  Thiers,  and  like  him  born  in 
the  1 8th  century.  The  premier  now  took  the  title  of  president 
of  the  council,  the  chie*t  of  the  state  no  longer  presiding  at  the 
meetings  of  ministers,  though  he  continued  to  be  present  at  their 
deliberations.  Although  the  republican  victories  at  the  elections 
were  greatly  due  to  the  influence  of  Gambetta,none  of  his  partisans 
was  included  in  the  ministry,  which  was  composed  of  members 
of  the  two  central  groups.  At  the  end  of  1876  Dufaure  retired, 
but  nearly  all  his  ministers  retained  their  portfolios  under  the 
presidency  of  Jules  Simon,  a  pupil  of  Victor  Cousin,  who  first 
entered  political  life  in  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1848,  and 
was  later  a  leading  member  of  the  opposition  in  the  last  seven 
years  of  the  Second  Empire. 

The  premiership  of  Jules  Simon  came  to  an  end  with  the 
abortive  coup  d'etat  of  1877,  commonly  called  from  its  date  the 
Seize  Mai.  After  the  election  of  Marshal  MacMahon 
to  the  presidency,  the  clerical  party,  irritated  at  the  Mai  1877. 
failure  to  restore  the  comte  de  Chambord,  commenced 
a  campaign  in  favour  of  the  restitution  of  the  temporal  power  to 
the  Pope.  It  provoked  the  Italian  government  to  make  common 
cause  with  Germany,  as  Prince  Bismarck  was  likewise  attacked 
by  the  French  clericals  for  his  ecclesiastical  policy.  At  last 
Jules  Simon,  who  was  a  liberal  most  friendly  to  Catholicism, 
had  to  accept  a  resolution  of  the  Chamber,  inviting  the  ministry 
to  adopt  the  same  disciplinary  policy  towards  the  Church  which 
had  been  followed  by  the  Second  Empire  and  the  Monarchy  of 
July.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Gambetta  used  his  famous 
expression,  "  Le  clericolisme,  voild.  I'ennemi."  Some  days  later 
a  letter  appeared  in  the  Journal  officiel,  dated  i6th  May  1877, 
signed  by  President  MacMahon,  informing  Jules  Simon  that  he 
had  no  longer  his  confidence,  as  it  was  clear  that  he  had  lost 
that  influence  over  the  Chamber  which  a  president  of  the  Council 
ought  to  exercise.  The  dismissal  of  the  prime  minister  and  the 
presidential  acts  which  followed  did  not  infringe  the  letter  of 
the  new  constitution;  yet  the  proceeding  was  regarded  as  a 
coup  d'etat  in  favour  of  the  clerical  reactionaries.  The  due  de 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


877 


Broglie  formed  an  anti-republican  ministry,  ana  Marshal  Mac- 
Mahon,  in  virtue  of  the  presidential  prerogative  conferred  by  the 
law  of  1875,  adjourned  parliament  for  a  month.  When  the 
Chamber  reassembled  the  republican  majority  of  363  denounced 
the  coalition  of  parties  hostile  to  the  Republic.  The  president, 
again  using  his  constitutional  prerogative,  obtained  the  author- 
ization of  the  Senate  to  dissolve  the  Chamber.  Meanwhile  the 
Broglie  ministry  had  put  in  practice  the  policy,  favoured  by  all 
parties  in  France,  of  replacing  the  functionaries  hostile  to  it 
with  its  own  partisans.  But  in  spite  of  the  administrative 
electoral  machinery  being  thus  in  the  hands  of  the  reactionaries, 
a  republican  majority  was  sent  back  to  the  Chamber,  the  sudden 
death  of  Thiers  on  the  eve  of  his  expected  return  to  power,  and 
the  demonstration  at  his  funeral,  which  was  described  as  a 
silent  insurrection,  aiding  the  rout  of  the  monarchists.  The 
due  de  Broglie  resigned,  and  Marshal  MacMahon  sent  for  General 
de  Rochebouet,  who  formed  a  cabinet  of  unknown  reactionaries, 
but  it  lasted  only  a  few  days,  as  the  Chamber  refused  to  vote 
supply.  Dufaure  was  then  called  back  to  office,  and  his  moderate 
republican  ministry  lasted  for  the  remainder  of  the  MacMahon 
presidency. 

Thus  ended  the  episode  of  the  Seize  Mai,  condemned  by  the 
whole  of  Europe  from  its  inception.  Its  chief  effects  were  to 
prove  again  to  the  country  the  incompetency  of  the  monarchists, 
and  by  associating  in  the  public  mind  the  Church  with  this 
ill-conceived  venture,  to  provoke  reprisals  from  the  anti-clericals 
when  they  came  into  power.  After  the  storm,  the  year  1878 
was  one  of  political  repose.  The  first  international  exhibition 
held  at  Paris  after  the  war  displayed  to  Europe  how  the  secret 
of  France's  recuperative  power  lay  in  the  industry  and  artistic 
instinct  of  the  nation.  Marshal  MacMahon  presided  with 

dignity  over  the  fetes  held  in  honour  of  the  exhibition, 
Jules  and  had  he  pleased  he  might  have  tranquilly  fulfilled 

Qrtvy  the  term  of  his  Septennate.  But  in  January  1879 
president  ne  made  a  difference  of  opinion  on  a  military  question 
"Republic.  an  excuse  for  resignation,and  Jules  Grevy,  the  president 

of  the  Chamber,  was  elected  to  succeed  him  by  the 
National  Assembly,  which  thus  met  for  the  first  time  under  the 
Constitutional  Law  of  1875. 

Henceforth  the  executive  as  well  as  the  legislative  power 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  republicans.  The  new  president  was 
a  leader  of  the  bar,  who  had  first  become  known  in  the  Constituent 
Assembly  of  1848  as  the  advocate  of  the  principle  that  a  republic 
would  do  better  without  a  president.  M.  Waddington  was  his 
first  prime  minister,  and  Gambetta  was  elected  president  of  the 
Chamber.  The  latter,  encouraged  by  his  rivals  in  the  idea  that 
the  time  was  not  ripe  for  him  openly  to  direct  the  affairs  of  the 
country,  thus  put  himself,  in  spite  of  his  occult  dictatorship,  in 
a  position  of  official  self-effacement  from  which  he  did  not  emerge 
until  the  jealousies  of  his  own  party-colleagues  had  undermined 
the  prestige  he  had  gained  as  chief  founder  of  the  Republic. 
The  most  active  among  them  was  Jules  Ferry,  minister  of 

Education,  who  having  been  a  republican  deputy  for 

JFerry-  Par's  at  tne  enc*  of  l^e  EmPire>  was  one  of  the  members 
of  the  provisional  government  proclaimed  on  4th 
September  1870.  Borrowing  Gambetta's  cry  that  clericalism 
was  the  enemy,  he  commenced  the  work  of  reprisal  for  the  Seize 
Mai.  His  educational  projects  of  1879  were  thus  anti-clerical 
in  tendency,  the  most  famous  being  article  7  of  his  education 
bill,  which  prohibited  members  of  any  "  unauthorized  "  religious 
orders  exercising  the  profession  of  teaching  in  any  school  in 
France,  the  disability  being  applied  to  all  ecclesiastical  com- 
munities, excepting  four  or  five  which  had  been  privileged  by 
special  legislation.  This  enactment,  aimed  chiefly  at  the  Jesuits, 
was  advocated  with  a  sectarian  bitterness  which  will  be  associated 
with  the  name  of  Jules  Ferry  long  after  his  more  statesmanlike 
qualities  are  forgotten.  The  law  was  rejected  by  the  Senate, 
Jules  Simon  being  the  eloquent  champion  of  the  clericals,  whose 
intrigues  had  ousted  him  from  office.  The  unauthorized  orders 
were  then  dissolved  by  decree;  but  though  the  forcible  expulsion 
of  aged  priests  and  nuns  gave  rise  to  painful  scenes,  it  cannot 
be  said  that  popular  feeling  was  excited  in  their  favour,  so 


grievously  had  the  Church  blundered  in  identifying  itself  with 
the  conspiracy  of  the  Seize  Mai. 

Meanwhile  the  death  of  the  Prince  Imperial  in  Zululand  had 
shattered  the  hopes  of  the  Bonapartists,  and  M.  de  Freycinet, 
a  former  functionary  of  the  Empire,  had  become  prime  minister 
at  the  end  of  1879.  He  had  retained  Jules  Ferry  at  the  ministry 
of  Education,  but  unwilling  to  adopt  all  his  anti-clerical  policy, 
he  resigned  the  premiership  in  September  1 880.  The  constitution 
of  the  first  Ferry  cabinet  secured  the  further  exclusion  from  office 
of  Gambetta,  to  which,  however,  he  preferred  his  "  occult  dictator- 
ship." In  August  he  had,  as  president  of  the  Chamber,  accom- 
panied M.  Grevy  on  an  official  visit  to  Cherbourg,  and  the  accla- 
mations called  forth  all  over  France  by  his  speech,  which  was 
a  hopeful  defiance  to  Germany,  encouraged  the  wily  chief 
of  the  state  to  aid  the  republican  conspiracy  against  the  hero 
of  the  Republic.  In  1881  the  only  political  question  before 
the  country  was  the  destiny  of  Gambetta.  His  influence  in  the 
Chamber  was  such  that  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  prime 
minister  he  carried  his  electoral  scheme  of  scrutin  de  lisle,  descend- 
ing from  the  presidential  chair  to  defend  it.  Its  rejection  by 
the  Senate  caused  no  conflict  between  the  houses.  The  check 
was  inflicted  not  on  the  Chamber,  but  on  Gambetta,  who  counted 
on  his  popularity  to  carry  the  lists  of  his  candidates  in  all 
the  republican  departments  in  France  as  a  quasi-plebiscitary 
demonstration  in  his  favour.  His  rivals  dared  not  openly 
quarrel  with  him.  There  was  the  semblance  of  a  reconciliation 
between  him  and  Ferry,  and  his  name  was  the  rallying-cry  of 
the  Republic  at  the  general  election,  which  was  conducted  on 
the  old  system  of  scrutin  d'arrondissement. 

The  triumph  for  the  Republic  was  great,  the  combined  force 
of  reactionary  members  returned  being  less  than  one-fifth  of  the 
new  Chamber.  M.  Grevy  could  no  longer  abstain  from 
asking  Gambetta  to  form  a  ministry,  but  he  had  °*/™*e"a 
bided  his  time  till  jealousy  of  the  "  occult  power  "  m/n/ster. 
of  the  president  of  the  Chamber  had  undermined  his 
position  in  parliament.  Consequently,  when  on  the  i4th  of 
November  1881  Gambetta  announced  the  composition  of  his 
cabinet,  ironically  called  the  "  grand  ministere,"  which  was  to 
consolidate  the  Republic  and  to  be  the  apotheosis  of  its  chief, 
a  great  feeling  of  disillusion  fell  on  the  country,  for  his  colleagues 
were  untried  politicians.  The  best  known  was  Paul  Bert,  a  man 
of  science,  who  as  the  "  reporter  "  in  the  Chamber  of  the  Ferry 
Education  Bill  had  distinguished  himself  as  an  aggressive  free- 
thinker, and  he  inappropriately  was  named  minister  of  public 
worship.  All  the  conspicuous  republicans  who  had  held  office 
refused  to  serve  under  Gambetta.  His  cabinet  was  condemned 
in  advance.  His  enemies  having  succeeded  in  ruining  its  com- 
position, declared  that  the  construction  of  a  one-man  machine 
was  ominous  of  dictatorship,  and  the  "  grand  ministere  "  lived  for 
only  ten  weeks. 

Gambetta  was  succeeded  in  January  1882  by  M.  de  Freycinet, 
who  having  first  taken  office  in  the  Dufaure  cabinet  of  1877,  and 
having  continued  to  hold  office  at  intervals  until  1899, 
was  the  most  successful  specimen  of  a  "  minislraUe  " —  aambetta 
as  recurrent  portfolio-holders  have  been  called  under 
the  Third  Republic.  His  second  ministry  lasted  only  six  months. 
The  failure  of  Gambetta,  though  pleasing  to  his  rivals,  discouraged 
the  republican  party  and  disorganized  its  majority  in  the  Chamber. 
M.  Duclerc,  an  old  minister  of  the  Second  Republic,  then  became 
president  of  the  council,  and  before  his  short  term  of  office  was 
run  Gambetta  died  on  the  last  day  of  1882,  without  having  had 
the  opportunity  of  displaying  his  capacity  as  a  minister  or  an 
administrator.  He  was  only  forty- four  at  his  death,  and  his  fame 
rests  on  the  unfulfilled  promise  of  a  brief  career.  The  men  who 
had  driven  him  out  of  public  life  and  had  shortened  his  existence 
were  the  most  ostentatious  of  the  mourners  at  the  great  pageant 
with  which  he  was  buried,  and  to  have  been  of  his  party  was  in 
future  the  popular  trade-mark  of  his  republican  enemies. 

Gambetta's  death  was  followed  by  a  period  of  anarchy,  during 
which  Prince  Napoleon,  the  son  of  Jerome,  king  of  Westphalia, 
placarded  the  walls  of  Paris  with  a  manifesto.  The  Chamber 
thereupon  voted  the  exile  of  the  members  of  the  families  which 


878 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


Oppor- 
tunism. 


had  reigned  in  France.  The  Senate  rejected  the  measure,  and  a 
conflict  arose  between  the  two  houses.  M.  Duclerc  resigned  the 
premiership  in  January  1883  to  his  minister  of  the 
Interior,  M.  Fallieres,  a  Gascon  lawyer,  who  became 
president  of  the  Senate  in  1899  and  president  of  the 
Republic  in  1906.  He  held  office  for  three  weeks,  when  Jules  Ferry 
became  president  of  the  council  for  the  second  time.  Several  of 
the  closest  of  Gambetta's  friends  accepted  office  under  the  old 
enemy  of  their  chief,  and  the  new  combination  adopted  the 
epithet  "opportunist,"  which  had  been  invented  by  Gambetta 
in  1875  to  justify  the  expediency  of  his  alliance  with  Thiers. 
The  Opportunists  thenceforth  formed  an  important  group  stand- 
ing between  the  Left  Centre,  which  was  now  excluded  from  office, 
and  the  Radicals.  It  claimed  the  tradition  of  Gambetta,  but  the 
guiding  principle  manifested  by  its  members  was  that  of  securing 
the  spoils  of  place.  To  this  end  it  often  allied  itself  with  the 
Radicals,  and  the  Ferry  cabinet  practised  this  policy  in  1883 
when  it  removed  the  Orleans  princes  from  the  active  list  in  the 
army  as  the  illogical  result  of  the  demonstration  of  a  Bonaparte. 
How  needless  was  this  proceeding  was  shown  a  few  months  later 
when  the  comte  de  Chambord  died,  as  his  death,  which  finally 
fused  the  Royalists  with  the  Orleanists,  caused  no  commotion 
in  France. 

The  year  1884  was  unprecedented  seeing  that  it  passed 
without  a  change  of  ministry.  Jules  Ferry  displayed  real  admini- 
Revisioa  "strative  ability,  and  as  an  era  of  steady  government 
of  the  Con-  seemed  to  be  commencing,  the  opportunity  was  taken 
stitution,  to  revise  the  Constitution.  The  two  Chambers  there- 

1884.  fore  met  ;n  congresSj  and  enacted  that  the  republican 
form  of  government  could  never  be  the  subject  of  revision,  and 
that  all  members  of  families  which  had  reigned  in  France  were 
ineligible  for  the  presidency  of  the  Republic — a  repetition  of  the 
adventure  of  Louis  Bonaparte  in  the  middle  of  the  century  being 
thus  made  impossible.     It  also  decided  that  the  clauses  of  the 
law  of  1875  relating  to  the  organization  of  the  Senate  should  no 
longer  have   a   constitutional  character.     This   permitted   the 
reform  of  the  Upper  House  by  ordinary  parliamentary  procedure. 
So  an  organic  law  was  passed  to  abolish  the  system  of  nominating 
senators,  and  to  increase  the  number  of  municipal  delegates  in 
the  electoral  colleges  in  proportion  to  the  population  of  the 
communes.   The  French  nation,  for  the  first  time  since  it  had 
enjoyed  political  life,  had  revised  a  constitution  by  pacific  means 
without  a    revolution.     Gambetta  being  out  of  the  way,  his 
favourite  electoral  system  of  scrutin  de  lisle  had  no  longer  any 
terror  for  his  rivals,  so  it  was  voted  by  the  Chamber  early  in 

1885.  Before  the    Senate  had  passed  it  into  law  the  Ferry 
ministry  had  fallen  at  the  end  of  March,  after  holding  office  for 
twenty-five  months,  a  term  rarely  exceeded  in  the  annals  of  the 
Third  Republic.    This  long  tenure  of  power  had  excited  the 
dissatisfaction  of  jealous  politicians,  and  the  news  of  a  slight 
disaster  to  the  French  troops  in  Tongking  called  forth  all  the 
pent-up  rancour  which  Jules  Ferry  had  inspired  in  various 
groups.     By  the  exaggerated  news  of  defeat  Paris  was  excited 
_      . .       to  the  brink  of  a  revolution.     The  approaches  of  the 

Chamber  were  invaded  by  an  angry  mob,  and  Jules 
Ferry  was  the  object  of  public  hate  more  bitter  than  any  man 
had  called  forth  in  France  since  Napoleon  III.  on  the  days  after 
Sedan.  Within  the  Chamber  he  was  attacked  in  all  quarters. 
The  Radicals  took  the  lead,  supported  by  the  Monarchists,  who 
remembered  the  anti-clerical  rigour  of  the  Ferry  laws,  by  the 
Left  Centre,  not  sorry  for  the  tribulation  of  the  group  which  had 
supplanted  it,  and  by  place-hunting  republicans  of  all  shades.  The 
attack  was  led  by  a  politician  who  disdained  office.  M.  Georges 
Clemenceau,  who  had  originally  come  to  Paris  from  the  Vendee 
as  a  doctor,  had  as  a  radical  leader  in  the  Chamber  used  his 
remarkable  talent  as  an  overthrower  of  ministries,  and  nearly 
every  one  of  the  eight  ministerial  crises  which  had  already 
occurred  during  the  presidency  of  Grevy  had  been  hastened  by 
his  mordant  eloquence. 

The  next  prime  minister  was  M.  Brisson,  a  radical  lawyer  and 
journalist,  who  in  April  1885  formed  a  cabinet  of  "  concentration  " 
— that  is  to  say,  it  was  recruited  from  various  groups  with  the 


idea  of  concentrating  all  republican  forces  in  opposition  to  the  re- 
actionaries. MM.  de  Freycinet  and  Carnot,  afterwards  president 
of  theRepublic,  represented  the  moderate  element  in  this  ministry, 
which  superintended  the  general  elections  under  scrutin  de  liste. 
That  system  was  recommended  by  its  advocates  as  a  remedy 
for  the  rapid  decadence  in  the  composition  of  the  Chamber. 
Manhood  suffrage,  which  had  returned  to  the  National  Assembly 
a  distinguished  body  of  men  to  conclude  peace  with  Germany, 
had  chosen  a  very  different  type  of  representative  to  sit  in  the 
Chamber  created  by  the  constitution  of  1875.  At  each  succeed- 
ing election  the  standard  of  deputies  returned  grew  lower,  till 
Gambetta  described  them  contemptuously  as  "  sous-iieterinaires," 
indicating  that  they  were  chiefly  chosen  from  the  petty  pro- 
fessional class,  which  represented  neither  the  real  democracy 
nor  the  material  interests  of  the  country.  His  view  was  that 
the  election  of  members  by  departmental  lists  would  ensure  the 
candidature  of  the  best  men  in  each  region,  who  under  the  system 
of  single-member  districts  were  apt  to  be  neglected  in  favour  of 
local  politicians  representing  narrow  interests.  When  his  death 
had  removed  the  fear  of  his  using  scrutin  de  liste  as  a  plebiscitary 
organization,  parliament  sanctioned  its  trial.  The  result  was 
not  what  its  promoters  anticipated.  The  composition 
of  the  Chamber  was  indeed  transformed,  but  only  by 
the  substitution  of  reactionary  deputies  for  republicans. 
Of  the  votes  polled,  45%  were  given  to  the  Monarchists,  and 
if  they  had  obtained  one-half  of  the  abstentions  the  Republic 
would  have  come  to  an  end.  At  the  same  time  the  character 
of  the  republican  deputies  returned  was  not  improved;  so  the  sole 
effect  of  scrutin  de  lisle  was  to  show  that  the  electorate,  weary  of 
republican  dissensions,  was  ready  to  make  a  trial  of  monarchical 
government,if  only  the  reactionary  party  proved  that  it  contained 
statesmen  capable  of  leading  the  nation.  So  menacing  was  the 
situation  that  the  republicans  thought  it  wise  not  further  to 
expose  their  divisions  in  the  presidential  election  which  was 
due  to  take  place  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Consequently,  on 
the  28th  of  December  1885,  M.  Grevy,  in  spite  of  his  growing 
unpopularity,  was  elected  president  of  the  Republic  for  a  second 
term  of  seven  years. 

The  Brisson  cabinet  at  once  resigned,  and  on  the  7th  of  January 
1886  its  most  important  member,  M.  de  Freycinet,  formed  his 
third  ministry,  which  had  momentous  influence  on  the 
history  of  the  Republic.  The  new  minister  of  war 


General 
Boulaager. 


was  General  Boulanger,a  smart  soldier  of  no  remarkable 
military  record ;  but  being  the  nominee  of  M.  C16menceau,  he  began 
his  official  career  by  taking  radical  measures  against  command- 
ing officers  of  reactionary  tendencies.  He  thus  aided  the  govern- 
ment in  its  campaign  against  the  families  which  had  reigned  in 
France,  whose  situation  had  been  improved  by  the  result  of  the 
elections.  The  fetes  given  by  the  comte  de  Paris  to  celebrate 
his  daughter's  marriage  with  the  heir-apparent  of  Portugal 
moved  the  republican  majority  in  the  Chambers  to  expel  from 
France  the  heads  of  the  houses  of  Orleans  and  of  Bonaparte, 
with  their  eldest  sons.  The  names  of  all  the  princes  on  the  army 
list  were  erased  from  it,  the  decree  being  executed  with  un- 
seemly ostentation  by  General  Boulanger,  who  had  owed  early 
promotion  to  the  protection  of  the  due  d'Aumale,  and  on  that 
prince  protesting  he  was  exiled  too.  Meanwhile  General  Bou- 
langer took  advantage  of  GreVy's  unpopularity  to  make  himself 
a  popular  hero,  and  at  the  review,  held  yearly  on  the  I4th  of 
July,  the  anniversary  of  the  fall  of  the  Bastille,  his  acclamation 
by  the  Parisian  mob  showed  that  he  was  taking  an  unexpected 
place  in  the  imagination  of  the  people.  He  continued  to  work 
with  the  Radicals,  so  when  they  turned  out  M.  de  Freycinet  in 
December  1886,  one  of  their  group,  M.  Goblet,  a  lawyer  from 
Amiens,  formed  a  ministry,  and  retained  Boulanger  as  minister  of 
war.  M.  Clemenceau,  however,  withdrew  his  support  from  the 
general,  who  was  nevertheless  loudly  patronized  by  the  violent 
radical  press.  His  bold  attitude  towards  Germany  in  connexion 
with  the  arrest  on  the  German  frontier  of  a  French  official  named 
Schnaebele  so  roused  the  enthusiasm  of  the  public,  that  M. Goblet 
was  not  sorry  to  resign  in  May  1887  in  order  to  get  rid  of  his  too 
popular  colleague. 


HISTORY 


FRANCE 


879 


To  form  the  twelfth  of  his  ministries,  Grevy  called  upon  M. 
Rouvier,  an  Opportunist  from  Marseilles,  who  had  first  held  office 
Th  Wilson  'n  Gambetta's  short-lived  cabinet.  General  Boulanger 
scandal.  was. sent  to  command  a  corps  d'arm&e  at  Clermont- 
Ferrand;  but  the  popular  press  and  the  people 
clamoured  for  the  hero  who  was  said  to  have  terrorized  Prince 
Bismarck,  and  they  encouraged  him  to  play  the  part  of  a 
plebiscitary  candidate.  There  were  grave  reasons  for  public  dis- 
content. Parliament  in  1887  was  more  than  usually  sterile  in 
legislation,  and  in  the  autumn  session  it  had  to  attend  to  a  scandal 
which  had  long  been  rumoured:  The  son-in-law  of  Grevy, 
Daniel  Wilson,  a  prominent  deputy  who  had  been  an  under 
secretary  of  state,  was  accused  of  trafficking  the  decoration  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour,  and  of  using  the  Elysee,  the  president's  official 
residence,  where  he  lived,  as  an  agency  for  his  corrupt  practices. 
The  evidence  against  him  was  so  clear  that  his  colleagues  in  the 
Chamber  put  the  government  into  a  minority  in  order  to  pre- 
cipitate a  presidential  crisis,  and  on  Grevy  refusing  to  accept  this 
hint,  a  long  array  of  politicians,  representing  all  the  republican 
groups,  declined  his  invitation  to  aid  him  in  forming  a  new 
ministry,  all  being. bent  on  forcing  his  resignation.  Had  General 
Boulanger  been  a  man  of  resolute  courage  he  might  at  this  crisis 
have  made  a  coup  d'&tat,  for  his  popularity  in  the  street  and  in  the 
army  increased  as  the  Republic  sank  deeper  into  scandal  and 
anarchy.  At  last,  when  Paris  was  on  the  brink  of  revolution, 
Grevy  was  prevailed  on  to  resign.  The  candidates  for  his  succes- 
sion to  the  presidency  were  two  ex-prime  ministers,  MM.  Ferry 
and  de  Freycinet,  and  Floquet,  a  barrister,  who  had  been  con- 
spicuous in  the  National  Assembly  for  his  sympathy  with  the  Com- 
mune. The  Monarchists  had  no  candidate  ready,  and  resolved 
to  vote  for  Ferry,  because  they  believed  that  if  he  were  elected 
his  unpopularity  with  the  democracy  would  cause  an  insurrection 
in  Paris  and  the  downfall  of  the  Republic.  MM.  de  Freycinet 
and  Floquet  each  looked  for  the  support  of  the  Radicals,  and  each 
had  made  a  secret  compact,  in  the  event  of  his  election,  to  restore 
General  Boulanger  to  the  war  office.  But  M.  Clemenceau,  fearing 
the  election  of  Jules  Ferry,  advised  his  followers  to  vote  for  an 
"  outsider,"  and  after  some  manoeuvring  the  congress  elected  by  a 
large  majority  Sadi  Carnot. 

The  new  president,  though  the  nominee  of  chance,  was  an 
excellent  choice.  The  grandson  of  Lazare  Carnot,  the '  'organizer 

_  of  victory  "  of  the  Convention,  he  was  also  a  man  of 

president  unsullied  probity.  The  tradition  of  his  family  name, 
of  the  only  less  glorious  than  that  of  Bonaparte  in  the  annals 
Republic,  Of  the  Revolution,  was  welcome  to  France,  almost 
ready  to  throw  herself  into  the  arms  of  a  soldier  of 
fortune,  while  his  blameless  repute  reconciled  some  of  those 
whose  opposition  to  the  Republic  had  been  quickened  by  the 
mean  vices  of  Grevy.  But  the  name  and  character  of  Carnot 
would  have  been  powerless  to  check  the  Boulangist  movement 
without  the  incompetency  of  its  leader,  who  was  getting  the 
democracy  at  his  back  without  knowing  how  to  utilize  it.  The 
new  president's  first  prime  minister  was  M.  Tirard,  a  senator  who 
had  held  office  in  six  of  Grevy 's  ministries,  and  he  formed  a 
cabinet  of  politicians  as  colourless  as  himself.  The  early  months 
of  1888  were  occupied  with  the  trial  of  Wilson,  who  was  sentenced 
to  two  years'  imprisonment  for  fraud,  and  with  the  conflicts 
of  the  government  with  General  Boulanger,  who  was  deprived 
of  his  command  for  coming  to  Paris  without  leave.  Wilson 
appealed  against  his  sentence,  and  General  Boulanger  was 
elected  deputy  for  the  department  of  the  Aisne  by  an  enormous 
majority.  It  so  happened  that  the  day  after  his  election  a 
presidential  decree  was  signed  on  the  advice  of  the  minister  of 
war  removing  General  Boulanger  from  the  army,  and  the  court 
of  appeal  quashed  Wilson's  conviction.  Public  feeling  was 
profoundly  moved  by  the  coincidence  of  the  release  of  the 
relative  of  the  ex-president  by  the  judges  of  the  Republic  on 
the  same  day  that  its  ministers  expelled  from  the  army  the 
popular  hero  of  universal  suffrage. 

As  General  Boulanger  had  been  invented  by  the  Radicals 
it  was  thought  that  a  Radical  cabinet  might  be  a  remedy  to 
cope  with  him,  so  M.  Floquet  became  president  of  the  council 


in  April  1888,  M.  de  Freycinet  taking  the  portfolio  of  war, 
which  he  retained  through  many  ministries.  M.  Floquet's  chief 
achievement  was  a  duel  with  General  Boulanger,  B  „/  n  / 
in  which,  though  an  elderly  civilian,  he  wounded  him. 
Nothing,  however,  checked  the  popularity  of  the  military  politi- 
cian, and  though  he  was  a  failure  as  a  speaker  in  the  Chamber, 
several  departments  returned  him  as  their  deputy  by  great 
majorities.  The  Bonapartists  had  joined  him,  and  while  in  his 
manifestos  he  described  himself  as  the  defender  of  the  Republic, 
themassof  the  Monarchists,  with  the  consent  of  the  comte  deParis, 
entered  the  Boulangist  camp,  to  the  dismay  both  of  old-fashioned 
Royalists  and  of  many  Orleanists,  who  resented  his  recent 
treatment  of  the  due  d'Aumale.  The  centenary  of  the  taking 
of  the  Bastille  was  to  be  celebrated  in  Paris  by  an  international 
exhibition,  and  it  appeared  likely  that  it  would  be  inaugurated 
by  General  Boulanger,  so  irresistible  seemed  his  popularity. 
In  January  1889  he  was  elected  member  for  the  metropolitan 
department  of  the  Seine  with  a  quarter  of  a  million  votes,  and 
by  a  majority  of  eighty  thousand  over  the  candidate  of  the 
government.  Had  he  marched  on  the  Elysee  the  night  of  his 
election,  nothing  could  have  saved  the  parliamentary  Republic; 
but  again  he  let  his  chance  go  by.  The  government  in  alarm 
proposed  the  restoration  of  scrutin  d'arrondissement  as  the 
electoral  system  for  scrutin  de  lisle.  The  change  was  rapidly 
enacted  by  the  two  Chambers,  and  was  a  significant  commentary 
on  the  respective  advantages  of  the  two  systems.  M.  Tirard  was 
again  called  to  form  a  ministry,  and  he  selected  as  minister  of 
the  interior  M.  Constans,  originally  a  professor  at  Toulouse,  who 
had  already  proved  himself  a  skilful  manipulator  of  elections  when 
he  held  the  same  office  in  1881.  He  was  therefore  given  the 
supervision  of  the  machinery  of  centralization  with  which  it 
was  supposed  that  General  Boulanger  would  have  to  be  fought 
at  the  general  election.  That  incomplete  hero,  how- 
ever, saved  all  further  trouble  by  flying  the  country 
when  he  heard  that  his  arrest  was  imminent.  The 
government,  in  order  to  prevent  any  plebiscitary  manifestation 
in  his  favour,  passed  a  law  forbidding  a  candidate  to  present 
himself  for  a  parliamentary  election  in  more  than  one  con- 
stituency; it  also  arraigned  the  general  on  the  charge  of  treason 
before  the  Senate  sitting  as  a  high  court,  and  he  was  sentenced 
in  his  absence  to  perpetual  imprisonment.  Such  measures 
were  needless.  The  flight  of  General  Boulanger  was  the  death 
of  Boulangism.  He  alone  had  saved  the  Republic  which  had 
done  nothing  to  save  itself.  Its  government  had,  on  the  contrary, 
displayed  throughout  the  crisis  an  anarchic  feebleness  and 
incoherency  which  would  have  speeded  its  end  had  the  leader 
of  the  plebiscitary  movement  possessed  sagacity  or  even  common 
courage. 

The  elections  of  1889  showed  how  completely  the  reactionaries 
had  compromised  their  cause  in  the  Boulangist  failure.  Instead 
of  45%  of  the  votes  polled  as  in  1885,  they  obtained  only  21  %, 
and  the  comte  de  Paris,  the  pretender  of  constitutional  monarchy, 
was  irretrievably  prejudiced  by  his  alliance  with  the  military 
adventurer  who  had  outraged  the  princes  of  his  house.  A 
period  of  calm  succeeded  the  storm  of  Boulangism,  and  for  the 
first  time  under  the  Third  Republic  parliament  set  to  work  to 
produce  legislation  useful  for  the  state,  without  rousing  party 
passion,  as  in  its  other  period  of  activity  when  the  Ferry  educa- 
tion laws  were  passed.  Before  the  elections  of  1889  the  reform 
of  the  army  was  undertaken,  the  general  term  of  active  com- 
pulsory service  was  made  three  years,  while  certain  classes 
hitherto  dispensed  from  serving,  including  ecclesiastical  semin- 
arists and  lay  professors,  had  henceforth  to  undergo  a  year's 
military  training.  The  new  parliament  turned  its  attention  to 
social  and  labour  questions,  as  the  only  clouds  on  the  political 
horizon  were  the  serious  strikes  in  the  manufacturing  districts, 
which  displayed  the  growing  political  organization  of  the  socialist 
party.  Otherwise  nothing  disturbed  the  calm  of  the  country. 
The  young  due  d'Orleans  vainly  tried  to  ruffle  it  by  breaking 
his  exile  in  order  to  claim  his  citizen's  right  to  perform  his 
military  service.  The  cabinet  was  rearranged  in  March  1890,  M. 
de  Freycinet  becoming  prime  minister  for  the  fourth  time,  and 


88o 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


retaining  the  portfolio  of  war.  All  seemed  to  point  to  the  con- 
solidation of  the  Republic,  and  even  the  Church  made  signals 
of  reconciliation.  Cardinal  Lavigerie,  a  patriotic  missionary 
and  statesman,  entertained  the  officers  of  the  fleet  at  Algiers, 
and  proposed  the  toast  of  the  Republic  to  the  tune  of  the 
"  Marseillaise  "  played  by  his  peres  blancs.  The  royalist  Catholics 
protested,  but  it  was  soon  intimated  that  the  archbishop  of 
Algiers'  demonstration  was  approved  at  Rome.  The  year  1891 
was  one  of  the  few  in  the  annals  of  the  Republic  which  passed 
without  a  change  of  ministry,  but  the  agitations  of  1892  were  to 
counterbalance  the  repose  of  the  two  preceding  years. 

The  first  crisis  arose  out  of  the  peacemaking  policy  of  the 
Pope.     Following  up  his  intimation  to  the  archbishop  of  Algiers, 

Leo  XIII.  published  in  February  1892  an  encyclical, 
The  papal  bidding  French  Catholics  accept  the  Republic  as  the 
'1892!  '  '  firmly  established  form  of  government.  The  papal 

injunction  produced  a  new  political  group  called  the 
"  Rallies,"  the  majority  of  its  members  being  Monarchists  who 
rallied  to  the  Republic  in  obedience  to  the  Vatican.  The  most 
conspicuous  among  them  was  Comte  Albert  de  Mun,  an  eloquent 
exponent  in  the  Chamber  of  legitimism  and  Christian  socialism. 
The  extreme  Left  mistrusted  the  adhesion  of  the  new  converts  to 
the  Republic,  and  ecclesiastical  questions  were  the  constant 
subjects  of  acrimonious  debates  in  parliament.  In  the  course 
of  one  of  them  M.  de  Freycinet  found  himself  in  a  minority.  He 
ceased  to  be  prime  minister,  being  succeeded  by  M.  Loubet,  a 
lawyer  from  Montelimar,  who  had  previously  held  office  for 
three  months  in  the  first  Tirard  cabinet;  but  M.  de  Freycinet 
continued  to  hold  his  portfolio  of  war.  The  confusion  of  the 
republican  groups  kept  pace  with  the  disarray  of  the  reactionaries, 
and  outside  parliament  the  frequency  of  anarchist  outrages  did 
not  increase  public  confidence.  The  only  figure  in  the  Republic 
which  grew  in  prestige  was  that  of  M.  Carnot,  who  in  his  frequent 
presidential  tours  dignified  his  office,  though  his  modesty  made 
him  unduly  efface  his  own  personality. 

When  the  autumn  session  of  1892  began  all  other  questions 
were  overwhelmed  by  the  bursting  of  the  Panama  scandal. 

The  company  associated  for  the  piercing  of  the  Isthmus 
p*^  of  Panama,  undertaken  by  M.  de  Lesseps,  the  maker 

scandal.      of  the  Suez  Canal,  had  become  insolvent  some  years 

before.  Fifty  millions  sterling  subscribed  by  the 
thrift  of  France  had  disappeared,  but  the  rumours  involving 
political  personages  in  the  disaster  were  so  confidently  asserted 
to  be  reactionary  libels,  that  a  minister  of  the  Republic,  after- 
wards sent  to  penal  servitude  for  corruption,  obtained  damages 
for  the  publication  of  one  of  them.  It  was  known  that  M.  de 
Lesseps  was  to  be  tried  for  misappropriating  the  money  sub- 
scribed; but  considering  the  vast  sums  lost  by  the  public,  little 
interest  was  taken  in  the  matter  till  it  was  suddenly  stirred  by 
the  dramatic  suicide  of  a  well-known  Jewish  financier  closely 
connected  with  republican  politicians,  driven  to  death,  it  was 
said,  by  menaces  of  blackmail.  Then  succeeded  a  period  of 
terror  in  political  circles.  Every  one  who  had  a  grudge  against 
an  enemy  found  vent  for  it  in  the  press,  and  the  people  of  Paris 
lived  in  an  atmosphere  of  delation.  Unhappily  it  was  true 
that  ministers  and  members  of  parliament  had  been  subsidized 
by  the  Panama  company.  Floquet,  the  president  of  the  Chamber, 
avowed  that  when  prime  minister  he  had  laid  hands  on  £12,000 
of  the  company's  funds  for  party  purposes,  and  his  justification 
of  the  act  threw  a  light  on  the  code  of  public  morality  of  the 
parliamentary  Republic.-  Other  politicians  were  more  seriously 
implicated  on  the  charge  of  having  accepted  subsidies  for  their 
private  purposes,  and  emotion  reached  its  height  when  the  cabinet 
ordered  the  prosecution  of  two  of  its  members  for  corrupt  traffic 
of  their  offices.  These  two  ministers  were  afterwards  discharged, 
and  they  seem  to  have  been  accused  with  recklessness;  but  their 
prosecution  by  their  own  colleagues  proved  that  the  statesmen 
of  the  Republic  believed  that  their  high  political  circles  were 
sapped  with  corruption.  Finally,  only  twelve  senators  and 
deputies  were  committed  for  trial,  and  the  only  one  convicted 
was  a  minister  of  M.  de  Freycinet's  third  cabinet,  who  pleaded 
guilty  to  receiving  large  bribes  from  the  Panama  company.  The 


public  regarded  the  convicted  politician  as  a  scapegoat,  believing 
that  there  were  numerous  delinquents  in  parliament,  more  guilty 
than  he,  who  had  not  even  been  prosecuted.  This  feeling  was 
aggravated  by  the  sentence  passed,  but  afterwards  remitted,  on 
the  aged  M.  de  Lesseps,  who  had  involved  French  people  in 
misfortune  only  because  he  too  sanguinely  desired  to  repeat  the 
triumph  he  had  achieved  for  France  by  his  great  work  in  Egypt. 

Within  the  nation  the  moral  result  of  the  Panama  affair  was 
a  general  feeling  that  politics  had  become  under  the  Republic 
a  profession  unworthy  of  honest  citizens.  The  sentiment  evoked 
by  the  scandal  was  one  of  sceptical  lassitude  rather  than  of 
indignation.  The  reactionaries  had  crowned  their  record  of 
political  incompetence.  At  a  crisis  which  gave  legitimate  oppor- 
tunity to  a  respectable  and  patriotic  Opposition  they  showed 
that  the  country  had  nothing  to  expect  from  them  but  incoherent 
and  exaggerated  invective.  If  the  scandal  had  come  to  light 
in  the  time  of  General  Boulanger  the  parliamentary  Republic 
would  not  have  survived  it.  As  it  was,  the  sordid  story  did  little 
more  than  produce  several  changes  of  ministry.  M.  Loubet 
resigned  the  premiership  in  December  1892  to  M.  Ribot,  a  former 
functionary  of  the  Empire,  whose  ministry  lived  for  three  stormy 
weeks.  On  the  first  day  of  1893  M.  Ribot  formed  his  second 
cabinet,  which  survived  till  the  end  of  March,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  minister  of  education,  M.  Charles  Dupuy,  an  ex- 
professor  who  had  never  held  office  till  four  months  previously. 
M.  Dupuy,  having  taken  the  portfolio  of  the  interior,  supervised 
the  general  election  of  1893,  which  took  place  amid  the  profound 
indifference  of  the  population,  except  in  certain  localities  where 
personal  antagonisms  excited  violence.  An  intelligent  Opposi- 
tion would  have  roused  the  country  at  the  polls  against  the  regime 
compromised  by  the  Panama  affair.  Nothing  of  the  sort  occurred, 
and  the  electorate  preferred  the  doubtful  probity  of  their  re- 
publican representatives  to  the  certain  incompetence  of  the 
reactionaries.  The  adversaries  of  the  Republic  polled  only  16% 
of  the  votes  recorded,  and  the  chief  feature  of  the  election  was 
the  increased  return  of  socialist  and  radical-socialist  deputies. 
When  parliament  met  it  turned  out  the  Dupuy  ministry,  and 
M.  Casimir-Perier  quitted  the  presidency  of  the  Chamber  to 
take  his  place.  The  new  prime  minister  was  the  bearer  of  an 
eminent  name,  being  the  grandson  of  the  statesman  of  1831, 
and  the  great-grandson  of  the  owner  of  Vizille,  where  the  estates 
of  Dauphine  met  in  1788,  as  a  prelude  to  the  assembling  of  the 
states-general  the  next  year.  His  acceptance  of  office  aroused 
additional  interest  because  he  was  a  minister  possessed  of  in- 
dependent wealth,  and  therefore  a  rare  example  of  a  French 
politician  free  from  the  imputation  of  making  a  living  out  of 
politics.  Neither  his  repute  nor  his  qualities  gave  long  life  to  his 
ministry,  which  fell  in  four  months,  and  M.  Dupuy  was  sent  for 
again  to  form  a  cabinet  in  May  1894. 

Before  the  second  Dupuy  ministry  had  been  in  office  a  month 
President  Carnot  died  by  the  knife  of  an  anarchist  at  Lyons. 
He  was  perhaps  the  most  estimable  politician  of  the  ,4Ssass/na. 
Third  Republic.  Although  the  standard  of  political  tion  of 
life  was  not  elevated  under  his  presidency,  he  at  all  president 
events  set  a  good  personal  example,  and  to  have  filled  Cwaot- 
unscathed  the  most  conspicuous  position  in  the  land  during  a 
period  unprecedented  for  the  scurrility  of  libels  on  public  men 
was  a  testimony  to  his  blameless  character.     As  the  term  of  his 
septennate  was  near,  parliament  was  not  unprepared  for  a  presi- 
dential election,  and  M.  Casimir-Perier,  who  had  been  spoken 
of  as  his  possible  successor,  was  elected  by  the  Congress    casimir- 
which  met  at  Versailles  on  the  27th  of  June  1894,  three    Perier 
days  after  Carnot's   assassination.     The   election  of   president, 
one  who  bore  respectably  a  name  not  less  distinguished 
in  history  than  that  of  Carnot  seemed  to  ensure  that  the  Republic 
would  reach  the  end  of  the  century  under  the  headship  of  a 
president  of  exceptional  prestige.     But  instead  of  remaining  chief 
of  the  state  for  seven  years,  in  less  than  seven  months  M.  Casimir- 
Perier  astonished  France  and  Europe  by  his  resignation.      Scurril- 
ously  defamed  by  the  socialist  press,  the  new  president  found 
that  the  Republicans  in  the  Chamber  were  not  disposed  to  defend 
him  in  his  high  office;  so,  on  the  isth  of  January  1895,  he  seized 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


the  occasion  of  the  retirement  of  the  Dupuy  ministry  to  address 
a  message  to  the  two  houses  intimating  his  resignation  of  the 
presidency,  which,  he  said,  was  endowed  with  too  many  responsi- 
bilities and  not  sufficient  powers. 

This  time  the  Chambers  were  unprepared  'for  a  presidential 
vacancy,  and  to  fill  it  in  forty-eight  hours  was  necessarily  a 
Fill*  matter  of  haphazard.  The  choice  of  the  congress  fell 
Faure  on  Felix  Faure,  a  merchant  of  Havre,  who,  though 
president,  minister  of  marine  in  the  retiring  cabinet,  was  one  of 
189s.  tne  ieast-known  politicians  who  had  held  office.  The 

selection  was  a  good  one,  and  introduced  to  the  presidency  a 
type  of  politician  unfortunately  rare  under  the  Third  Republic — 
a  successful  man  of  business.  Felix  Faure  had  a  fine  presence 
and  polished  manners,  and  having  risen  from  a  humble  origin 
he  displayed  in  his  person  the  fact  that  civilization  descends 
to  a  lower  social  level  in  France  than  elsewhere.  Although  he 
was  in  a  sense  a  man  of  the  people  the  Radicals  and  Socialists 
in  the  Chambers  had  voted  against  him.  Their  candidate,  like 
almost  all  democratic  leaders  in  France,  had  never  worked  with 
his  hands — M.  Brisson,  the  son  of  an  attorney  at  Bourges,  a 
member  of  the  Parisian  bar,  and  perpetual  candidate  for  the 
presidency.  Nevertheless  the  Left  tried  to  take  possession  of 
President  Faure.  His  first  ministry,  composed  of  moderate 
republicans  and  presided  over  by  M.  Ribot,  lasted  until  the 
autumn  session  of  18951  when  it  was  turned  out  and  a  radical 
cabinet  was  formed  by  M.  Leon  Bourgeois,  an  ex-functionary, 
who  when  a  prefect  had  been  suspected  of  reactionary  tendencies. 

The  Bourgeois  cabinet  of  1895  was  remarkable  as  the  first 
ministry  formed  since  1877  which  did  not  contain  a  single 
member  of  the  outgoing  cabinet.  It  was  said  to  be  exclusively 
radical  in  its  composition,  and  thus  to  indicate  that  the  days  of 
"  republican  concentration  "  were  over,  and  that  the  Republic, 
being  firmly  established,  an  era  of  party  government  on  the 
English  model  had  arrived.  The  new  ministry,  however,  on 
analysis  did  not  differ  in  character  from  any  of  its  predecessors. 
Seven  of  its  members  were  old  office-holders  of  the  ordinary 
"  ministrable  "  type.  The  most  conspicuous  was  M.  Cavaignac, 
the  son  of  the  general  who  had  opposed  Louis  Bonaparte  in  1848, 
and  the  grandson  of  J.  B.  Cavaignac,  the  regicide  member  of  the 
Convention.  Like  Carnot  and  Casimir-Perier,  he  was,  therefore, 
one  of  those  rare  politicians  of  the  Republic  who  possessed  some 
hereditary  tradition.  An  ambitious  man,  he  was  now  classed 
as  a  Radical  on  the  strength  of  his  advocacy  of  the  income-tax, 
the  principle  of  which  has  never  been  popular  in  France,  as  being 
adverse  to  the  secretive  habits  of  thrift  cultivated  by  the  people, 
which  are  a  great  source  of  the  national  wealth.  The  radicalism 
of  the  rest  of  the  ministry  was  not  more  alarming  in  character, 
and  its  tenure  of  office  was  without  legislative  result.  Its  fall,  how- 
ever, occasioned  the  only  constitutionally  interesting  ministerial 
crisis  of  the  twenty-four  which  had  taken  place  since  Grevy's 
election  to  the  presidency  sixteen  years  before.  The  Senate, 
disliking  the  fiscal  policy  of  the  government,  refused  to  vote 
supply  in  spite  of  the  support  which  the  Chamber  gave  to  the 
ministry.  The  collision  between  the  two  houses  did  not  produce 
the  revolutionary  rising  which  the  Radicals  predicted,  and  the 
Senate  actually  forced  the  Bourgeois  cabinet  to  resign  amid 
profound  popular  indifference. 

The  new  prime  minister  was  M.  Meline,  who  began  his  long 
political  career  as  a  member  of  the  Commune  in  1871,  but  was  so 
little  compromised  in  the  insurrection  that  Jules  Simon  gave 
him  an  under-secretaryship  in  his  ministry  of  1876.  After  that 
he  was  once  a  cabinet  minister,  and  was  for  a  year  president  of 
the  Chamber.  He  was  chiefly  known  as  a  protectionist;  but  it 
was  as  leader  of  the  Progressists,  as  the  Opportunists  now  called 
themselves,  that  he  formed  his  cabinet  in  April  1896,  which  was 
announced  as  a  moderate  ministry  opposed  to  the  policy  of  the 
Radicals.  It  is  true  that  it  made  no  attempt  to  tax  incomes,  but 
otherwise  its  achievements  did  not  differ  from  those  of  other 
ministries,  radical  or  concentration,  except  in  its  long  survival. 
It  lasted  for  over  two  years,  and  lived  as  long  as  the  second 
Ferry  cabinet.  Its  existence  was  prolonged  by  certain  incidents 
of  the  Franco-Russian  alliance.  The  visit  of  the  Tsar  to  Paris 


in  October  1896,  being  the  first  official  visit  paid  by  a  Euro- 
pean sovereign  to  the  Republic,  helped  the  government  over  the 
critical  period  at  which  ministries  usually  succumbed, 
and  it  was  further  strengthened  in  parliament  by  the 
invitation  to  the  president  of  the  Republic  to  return  alliance. 
the  imperial  visit  at  St  Petersburg  in  1897.  The 
Chamber  came  to  its  normal  term  that  autumn;  but  a  law  had 
been  passed  fixing  May  as  the  month  for  general  elections,  and 
the  ministry  was  allowed  to  retain  office  till  the  dissolution  at 
Easter  1898. 

The  long  duration  of  the  Meline  government  was  said  to  be 
a  further  sign  of  the  arrival  of  an  era  of  party  government  with 
its  essential  accompaniment,  ministerial  stability.  But  in  the 
country  there  was  no  corresponding  sign  that  the  electorate 
was  being  organized  into  two  parties  of  Progressists  and  Radicals; 
while  in  the  Chamber  it  was  ominously  observed  that  persistent 
opposition  to  the  moderate  ministry  came  from  nominal  sup- 
porters of  its  views,  who  were  dismayed  at  one  small  band  of 
fellow-politicians  monopolizing  office  for  two  years.  The  last 
election  of  the  century  was  therefore  fought  on  a  confused  issue, 
the  most  tangible  results  being  the  further  reduction  of  the 
Monarchists,  who  secured  only  12%  of  the  total  poll,  and  the 
advance  of  the  Socialists,  who  obtained  nearly  20%  of  the  votes 
recorded.  The  Radicals  returned  were  less  numerous  than  the 
Moderates,  but  with  the  aid  of  the  Socialists  they  nearly  balanced 
them.  A  new  group  entitled  Nationalist  made  its  appearance, 
supported  by  a  miscellaneous  electorate  representing  the  mal- 
content element  in  the  nation  of  all  political  shades  from  mon- 
archist to  revolutionary  socialist.  The  Chamber,  so  composed, 
was  as  incoherent  as  either  of  its  predecessors.  It  refused  to  re- 
elect  the  radical  leader  M.  Brisson  as  its  president,  and  then 
refused  its  confidence  to  the  moderate  leader  M.  Meline.  M. 
Brisson,  the  rejected  of  the  Chamber,  was  sent  for  to  form  a 
ministry,  on  the  28th  of  June  1  898,  which  survived  till  the  adjourn- 
ment, only  to  be  turned  out  when  the  autumn  session  began.  M. 
Charles  Dupuy  thus  became  prime  minister  for  the  third  time  with 
a  cabinet  of  the  old  concentration  pattern,  and  for  the  third 
time  in  less  than  five  years  under  his  premiership  the  Presidency 
of  the  Republic  became  vacant.  Felix  Faure  had  increased  in 
pomposity  rather  than  in  popularity.  His  contact  with  European 
sovereigns  seems  to  have  made  him  over-conscious  of  jggg. 
his  superior  rank,  and  he  cultivated  habits  which  death  of 
austere  republicans  make  believe  to  be  the  mono-  President 
poly  of  frivolous  courts.  The  regular  domesticity 
of  middle-class  life  may  not  be  disturbed  with  impunity  when 
age  is  advancing,  and  Felix  Faure  died  with  tragic  unexpected- 
ness on  the  1  6th  of  February  1899.  The  joys  of  his  high  office 
were  so  dear  to  him  that  nothing  but  death  would  have  induced 
him  to  lay  it  down  before  the  term  of  his  septennate.  There  was 
therefore  no  candidate  in  waiting  for  the  vacancy;  and  as  Paris 
was  in  an  agitated  mood  the  majority  in  the  Congress  elected 
M.  Loubet  president  of  the  Republic,  because  he  happened  to  hold 
the  second  place  of  dignity  in  the  state,  the  presidency 
of  the  Senate,  and  was,  moreover,  a  politician  who  had 
the  confidence  of  the  republican  groups  as  an  adversary 
of  plebiscitary  pretensions.  His  only  competitor  was  M.  Meline, 
whose  ambitions  were  not  realized,  in  spite  of  the  alliance  of  his 
Progressist  supporters  with  the  Monarchists  and  Nationalists. 
The  Dupuy  ministry  lasted  till  June  1899,  when  a  new  cabinet 
was  formed  by  M.  Waldeck-  Rousseau,  who,  having  held  office 
under  Gambetta  and  Jules  Ferry,  had  relinquished  politics  for 
the  bar,  of  which  he  had  become  a  distinguished  leader.  Though 
a  moderate  republican,  he  was  the  first  prime  minister  to  give 
portfolios  to  socialist  politicians.  This  was  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  last  cabinet  of  the  century  —  the  thirty-seventh 
which  had  taken  office  in  the  twenty-six  years  which  had  elapsed 
since  the  resignation  of  Thiers  in  1873. 

It  is  now  necessary  to  go  back  a  few  years  in  order  to  refer 
to  a  matter  which,  though  not  political  in  its  origin,  in  its  de- 
velopment filled  the  whole  political  atmosphere  of  France  in  the 
closing  period  of  the  igth  century.  Soon  after  the  failure  of  the 
Boulangist  movement  a  journal  was  founded  at  Paris  called  the 


882 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


Libre  Parole.  Its  editor,  M.  Drumont,  was  known  as  the  author 
.of  La  France  June,  a  violent  anti-Semitic  work,  written  to  de- 
nounce the  influence  exercised  by  Jewish  financiers  in 
Aatl'  the  politics  of  the  Third  Republic.  It  may  be  said  to 
nave  started  the  anti-Semitic  movement  in  France, 
where  hostility  to  the  Jews  had  not  the  pretext 
existing  in  those  lands  which  contain  a  large  Jewish  population 
exercising  local  rivalry  with  the  natives  of  the  soil,  or  spoiling 
them  with  usury.  That  state  of  things  existed  in  Algeria,  where 
the  indigenous  Jews  were  made  French  citizens  during  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  to  secure  their  support  against  the  Arabs 
in  rebellion.  But  political  anti-Semitism  was  introduced  into 
Algeria  only  as  an  offshoot  of  the  movement  in  continental 
France,  where  the  great  majority  of  the  Jewish  community  were 
of  the  same  social  class  as  the  politicians  of  the  Republic. 
Primarily  directed  against  the  Jewish  financiers,  the  movement 
was  originally  looked  upon  as  a  branch  of  the  anti-capitalist 
propaganda  of  the  Socialists.  Thus  the  Libre  Parole  joined  with 
the  revolutionary  press  in  attacking  the  repressive  legislation 
provoked  by  the  dynamite  outrages  of  the  anarchists,  clerical 
reactionaries  who  supported  it  being  as  scurrilously  abused  by 
the  anti-Semitic  organ  as  its  republican  authors.  The  Panama 
affair,  in  the  exposure  of  which  the  Libre  Parole  took  a  prominent 
part  soon  after  its  foundation,  was  also  a  bond  between  anti- 
Semites  and  Socialists,  to  whom,  however,  the  Monarchists, 
always  incapable  of  acting  alone,  united  their  forces.  The 
implication  of  certain  Jewish  financiers  with  republican  politicians 
in  the  Panama  scandal  aided  the  anti-Semites  in  their  special 
propaganda,  of  which  a  main  thesis  was  that  the  government  of 
the  Third  Republic  had  been  organized  by  its  venal  politicians  for 
the  benefit  of  Jewish  immigrants  from  Germany,  who  had  thus 
enriched  themselves  at  the  expense  of  the  laborious  and  un- 
suspecting French  population.  The  Libre  Parole,  which  had 
become  a  popular  organ  with  reactionaries  and  with  malcontents 
of  all  classes,  enlisted  the  support  of  the  Catholics  by  attributing 
the  anti-religious  policy  of  the  Republic  to  the  influence  of  the 
Jews,  skilfully  reviving  bitter  memories  of  the  enaction  of  the 
Ferry  decrees,  when  sometimes  the  laicization  of  schools  or  the 
expulsion  of  monks  and  nuns  had  been  carried  out  by  a  Jewish 
functionary.  Thus  religious  sentiment  and  race  prejudice  were 
introduced  into  a  movement  which  was  at  first  directed  against 
capital;  and  the  campaign  was  conducted  with  the  weapons  of 
scurrility  and  defamation  which  had  made  an  unlicensed  press 
under  the  Third  Republic  a  demoralizing  national  evil. 

An  adroit  feature  of  the  anti-Semitic  campaign  was  an  appeal 
to  national  patriotism  to  rid  the  army  of  Jewish  influence.  The 
Condem-  Jews>  it  was  sa^,  not  content  with  directing  the 
nation  of  financial,  and  thereby  the  general  policy  of  the  Re- 
Captain  public,  had  designs  on  the  French  army,  in  which  they 
Dreyfus.  wisi,ecj  to  act  ^  secret  agents  of  their  German 
kindred.  In  October  1894  the  Libre  Parole  announced  that  a 
Jewish  officer  of  artillery  attached  to  the  general  staff,  Captain 
Alfred  Dreyfus,  had  been  arrested  on  the  charge  of  supplying 
a  government  of  the  Triple  Alliance  with  French  military  secrets. 
Tried  by  court-martial,  he  was  sentenced  to  military  degradation 
and  to  detention  for  life  in  a  fortress.  He  was  publicly  degraded 
at  Paris  in  January  1895,  a  few  days  before  Casimir-Perier 
resigned  the  presidency  of  the  Republic,  and  was  transported 
to  the  lie  du  Diable  on  the  coast  of  French  Guiana.  His  con- 
viction, on  the  charge  of  having  betrayed  to  a  foreign  power 
documents  relating  to  the  national  defence,  was  based  on  the 
alleged  identity  of  his  handwriting  with  that  of  an  intercepted 
covering-letter,  which  contained  a  list  of  the  papers  treason- 
ably communicated.  The  possibility  of  his  innocence  was  not 
raised  outside  the  circle  of  his  friends;  the  Socialists,  who  sub- 
sequently defended  him.  even  complained  that  common  soldiers 
were  shot  for  offences  less  than  that  for  which  this  richly  con- 
nected officer  had  been  only  transported.  The  secrecy  of  his 
trial  did  not  shock  public  sentiment  in  France,  where  at  that  time 
all  civilians  charged  with  crime  were  interrogated  by  a  judge  in 
private,  and  where  all  accused  persons  are  presumed  guilty 
until  proved  innocent.  In  a  land  subject  to  invasion  there  was 


less  disposition  to  criticize  the  decision  of  a  military  tribunal 
acting  in  the  defence  of  the  nation  even  than  there  would  have 
been  in  the  case  of  a  doubtful  judgment  passed  in  a  civil  court. 
The  country  was  practically  unanimous  that  Captain  Dreyfus 
had  got  his  deserts.  A  few,  indeed,  suggested  that  had  he  not 
been  a  Jew  he  would  never  have  been  accused;  but  the  greater 
number  replied  that  an  ordinary  French  traitor  of  Gentile  birth 
would  have  been'forgotten  from  the  moment  of  his  condemnation. 
The  pertinacity  with  which  some  of  'his  co-religionists  set  to 
work  to  show  that  he  had  been  irregularly  condemned  seemed  to 
justify  the  latter  proposition.  But  it  was  not  a  Jew  who  brought 
about  the  revival  of  the  affair.  Colonel  Picquart,  an  officer  of 
great  promise,  became  head  of  the  intelligence  department  at  the 
war  office,  and  in  1896  informed  the  minister  of  his  suspicion 
that  the  letter  on  which  Dreyfus  had  been  condemned  was 
written  by  a  certain  Major  Esterhazy.  The  military  authorities, 
not  wishing  to  have  the  case  reopened,  sent  Colonel  Picquart 
on  foreign  service,  and  put  in  his  place  Colonel  Henry.  The  all- 
seeing  press  published  various  versions  of  the  incident,  and  the 
anti-Semitic  journals  denounced  them  as  proofs  of  a  Jewish 
conspiracy  against  the  French  army. 

At  the  end  of  1897  M.  Scheurer-Kestner,  an  Alsatian  devoted 
to  France  and  a  republican  senator,  tried  to  persuade  his  political 
friends  to  reopen  the  case;  but  M.  Meline,  the  prime  Dre  fagm 
minister,  declared  in  the  name  of  the  Republic  that  the  eras  and 
Dreyfus  affair  no  longer  existed.  The  fact  that  the  anti-Dny- 
senator  who  championed  Dreyfus  was  a  Protestant  fusaras- 
encouraged  the  clerical  press  in  its  already  marked  tendency  to 
utilize  anti-Semitism  as  a  weapon  of  ecclesiastical  warfare. 
But  the  religious  side-issues  of  the  question  would  have  had 
little  importance  had  not  the  army  been  involved  in  the  con- 
troversy, which  had  become  so  keen  that  all  the  population, 
outside  that  large  section  of  it  indifferent  to  all  public  questions, 
was  divided  into  "  Dreyfusards  "  and  "  anti-Dreyfusards." 
The  strong  position  of  the  latter  was  due  to  their  assuming  the 
position  of  defenders  of  the  army,  which,  at  an  epoch  when 
neither  the  legislature  nor  the  government  inspired  respect,  and 
the  Church  was  the  object  of  polemic,  was  the  only  institution  in 
France  to  unite  the  nation  by  appealing  to  its  martial  and 
patriotic  instincts.  That  is  the  explanation  of  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  public  for  generals  and  other  officers  by  whom  the  trial 
of  Dreyfus  and  subsequent  proceedings  had  been  conducted  in  a 
manner  repugnant  to  those  who  do  not  favour  the  arbitrary  ways 
of  military  dictatorship,  which,  however,  are  not  unpopular 
in  France.  The  acquittal  of  Major  Esterhazy  by  a  court-martial, 
the  conviction  of  Zola  by  a  civil  tribunal  for  a  violent  criticism 
of  the  military  authorities,  and  the  imprisonment  without  trial 
of  Colonel  Picquart  for  his  efforts  to  exonerate  Dreyfus,  were 
practically  approved  by  the  nation.  This  was  shown  by  the 
result  of  the  general  elections  in  May  1 898.  The  clerical  reaction- 
aries were  almost  swept  out  of  the  Chamber,  but  the  overwhelm- 
ing republican  majority  was  practically  united  in  its  hostility,  to 
the  defenders  of  Dreyfus,  whose  only  outspoken  representatives 
were  found  in  the  socialist  groups.  The  moderate  Meline 
ministry  was  succeeded  in  June  1898  by  the  radical  Brisson 
ministry.  But  while  the  new  prime  minister  was  said  to  be 
personally  disposed  to  revise  the  sentence  on  Dreyfus,  his  civilian 
minister  of  war,  M.  Cavaignac,  was  as  hostile  to  revision  as  any 
of  his  military  predecessors — General  Mercier,  under  whom  the 
trial  took  place,  General  Zurlinden,  and  General  Billot,  a  re- 
publican soldier  devoted  to  the  parliamentary  regime. 

The  radical  minister  of  war  in  July  1898  laid  before  the 
Chamber  certain  new  proofs  of  the  guilt  of  Dreyfus,  in  a  speech 
so  convincing  that  the  house  ordered  it  to  be  placarded  p^^/ 
in  all  the  communes  of  France.  The  next  month  results  of 
Colonel  Henry,  the  chief  of  the  intelligence  department,  Dreyfus 
confessed  to  having  forged  those  new  proofs,  and  then  azltatloa- 
committed  suicide.  M.  Cavaignac  thereupon  resigned  office, 
but  declared  that  the  crime  of  Henry  did  not  prove  the  innocence 
of  Dreyfus.  Many,  however,  who  had  hitherto  accepted  the 
judgment  of  1894,  reflected  that  the  offence  of  a  guilty  man  did 
not  need  new  crime  for  its  proof.  It  was  further  remarked  that 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


883 


the  forgery  had  been  committed  by  the  intimate  colleague  of 
the  officers  of  the  general  staff,  who  had  zealously  protected 
Esterhazy,  the  suspected  author  of  the  document  on  which 
Dreyfus  had  been  convicted.  An  uneasy  misgiving  became 
widespread;  but  partisan  spirit  was  too  excited  for  it  to  cause 
a  general  revulsion  of  feeling.  Some  journalists  and  politicians 
of  the  extreme  Left  had  adopted  the  defence  of  Dreyfus  as  an 
anti-clerical  movement  in  response  to  the  intemperate  partisan- 
ship of  the  Catholic  press  on  the  other  side.  Other  members  of 
the  socialist  groups,  not  content  with  criticizing  the  conduct  of 
the  military  authorities  in  the  Dreyfus  affair,  opened  a  general 
attack  on  the  French  army, — an  unpopular  policy  which  allowed 
the  anti-Dreyfusards  to  utilize  the  old  revolutionary  device  of 
making  the  word  "  patriotism  "  a  party  cry.  The  defamation 
and  rancour  with  which  the  press  on  both  sides  flooded  the  land 
obscured  the  point  at  issue.  However,  the  Brisson  ministry 
just  before  its  fall  remitted  the  Dreyfus  judgment  to  the  criminal 
division  of  the  cour  de  cassation — the  supreme  court  of  revision 
in  France.  M.  Dupuy  formed  a  new  cabinet  in  November  1898, 
and  made  M.  de  Freycinet  minister  of  war,  but  that  adroit 
office-holder,  though  a  civilian  and  a  Protestant,  did  not  favour 
the  anti-military  and  anti-clerical  defenders  of  Dreyfus.  The 
refusal  of  the  Senate,  the  stronghold  of  the  Republic,  to  re-elect 
M.  Scheurer-Kestner  as  its  vice-president,  showed  that  the 
opportunist  minister  of  war  understood  the  feeling  of  parliament, 
which  was  soon  displayed  by  an  extraordinary  proceeding. 
The  divisional  judges,  to  whom  the  case  was  remitted,  showed 
signs  that  their  decision  would  be  in  favour  of  a  new  trial  of 
Dreyfus.  The  republican  legislature,  therefore,  disregarding 
the  principle  of  the  separation  of  the  powers,  which  is  the  basis 
of  constitutional  government,  took  the  arbitrary  step  of  interfer- 
ing with  the  judicial  authority.  It  actually  passed  a  law  with- 
drawing the  partly-heard  cause  from  the  criminal  chamber  of  the 
cour  de  cassation,  and  transferring  it  to  the  full  court  of  three 
divisions,  in  the  hope  that  a  majority  of  judges  would  thus  be 
found  to  decide  against  the  revision  of  the  sentence  on  Dreyfus. 
This  flagrant  confusion  of  the  legislative  with  the  judicial 
power  displayed  once  more  the  incompetence  of  the  French 
rightly  to  use  parliamentary  institutions;  but  it  left  the  nation 
indifferent.  It  was  during  the  passage  of  the  bill  that  the 
president  of  the  Republic  suddenly  died.  Felix  Faure  was  said 
to  be  hostile  to  the  defenders  of  Dreyfus  and  disposed  to  utilize 
the  popular  enthusiasm  for  the  army  as  a  means  of  making  the 
presidential  office  independent  of  parliament.  The  Chambers, 
therefore,  in  spite  of  their  anti-Dreyfusard  bias,  were  determined 
not  to  relinquish  any  of  their  constitutional  prerogative.  The 
military  and  plebiscitary  parties  were  now  fomenting  the  public 
discontent  by  noisy  demonstrations.  The  president  of  the  Senate, 
M.  Loubet,  as  has  been  mentioned,  was  known  to  have  no 
sympathy  with  this  agitation,  so  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  Republic  by  a  large  majority  at  the  congress  held  at  Versailles 
on.i8th  February  1899.  The  new  president,  who  was  unknown 
to  the  public,  though  he  had  once  been  prime  minister  for  nine 
months,  was  respected  in  political  circles;  but  his  elevation  to 
the  first  office  of  the  State  made  him  the  object  of  that  defama- 
tion which  had  become  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  partisan 
press  under  the  Third  Republic.  He  was  recklessly  accused  of 
having  been  an  accomplice  of  the  Panama  frauds,  by  screening 
certain  guilty  politicians  when  he  was  prime  minister  in  1892, 
and  because  he  was  not  opposed  to  the  revision  of  the  Dreyfus 
sentence  he  was  wantonly  charged  with  being  bought  with 
Jewish  money.  Meanwhile  the  united  divisions  of  the  cour  de 
cassation  were,  in  spite  of  the  intimidation  of  the  legislature, 
reviewing  the  case  with  an  independence  worthy  of  praise  in  an 
ill-paid  magistracy  which  owed  its  promotion  to  political  influence. 
Instead  of  justifying  the  suggestive  interference  of  parliament 
it  revised  the  judgment  of  the  court-martial,  and  ordered  Dreyfus 
to  be  re-tried  by  a  military  tribunal  at  Rennes.  The  Dupuy 
ministry,  which  had  wished  to  prevent  this  decision,  resigned, 
and  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  formed  a  heterogeneous  cabinet  in 
which  Socialists,  who  for  the  first  time  took  office,  had  for  their 
colleague  as  minister  of  war  General  de  Galliffet,  whose  chief 


political  fame  had  been  won  as  the  executioner  of  the  Commu- 
nards after  the  insurrection  of  1871.  Dreyfus  was  brought  back 
from  the  Devil's  Island,  and  in  August  1899  was  put 
upon  his  trial  a  second  time.  His  old  accusers,  led  tfiai'o/ 
by  General  Mercier,  the  minister  of  war  of  1894,  Dreyfus. 
redoubled  their  efforts  to  prove  his  guilt,  and  were 
permitted  by  the  officers  composing  the  court  a  wide  license 
according  to  English  ideas  of  criminal  jurisprudence.  The 
published  evidence  did  not,  however,  seem  to  connect  Dreyfus 
with  the  charges  brought  against  him.  Nevertheless  the  court, 
by  a  majority  of  five  to  two,  found  him  guilty,  and  with  illogical 
inconsequence  added  that  there  were  in  his  treason  extenuating 
circumstances.  He  was  sentenced  to  ten  years'  detention,  and 
while  it  was  being  discussed  whether  the  term  he  had  already 
served  would  count  as  part  of  his  penalty,  the  ministry  completed 
the  inconsequency  of  the  situation  by  advising  the  president  of 
the  Republic  to  pardon  the  prisoner.  The  result  of  the  second 
trial  satisfied  neither  the  partisans  of  the  accused,  who  desired 
his  rehabilitation,  some  of  them  reproaching  him  for  accepting 
a  pardon,  nor  his  adversaries,  whose  vindictiveness  was  unsated 
by  the  penalty  he  had  already  suffered.  But  the  great  mass  of 
the  French  people,  who  are  always  ready  to  treat  a  public 
question  with  indifference,  were  glad  to  be  rid  of  a  controversy 
which  had  for  years  infected  the  national  life. 

The  Dreyfus  affair  was  severely  judged  by  foreign  critics  as 
a  miscarriage  of  justice  resulting  from  race-prejudice.  If  that 
simple  appreciation  rightly  describes  its  origin,  it  Regl 
became  in  its  development  one  of  those  scandals  character 
symptomatic  of  the  unhealthy  political  condition  of  ofthe 
France,  which  on  a  smaller  scale  had  often  recurred  ^^sa 
under  the  Third  Republic,  and  which  were  made  the 
pretext  by  the  malcontents  of  all  parties  for  gratifying  their 
animosities.  That  in  its  later  stages  it  was  not  a  question  of 
race-persecution  was  seen  in  the  curious  phenomenon  of  journals 
owned  or  edited  by  Jews  leading  the  outcry  against  the  Jewish 
officer  and  his  defenders.  That  it  was  not  a  mere  episode  of  the 
rivalry  between  Republicans  and  Monarchists,  or  between  the 
advocates  of  parliamentarism  and  of  military  autocracy,  was 
evident  from  the  fact  that  the  most  formidable  opponents  of 
Dreyfus,  without  whose  hostility  that  of  the  clericals  and 
reactionaries  would  have  been  ineffective,  were  republican 
politicians.  That  it  was  not  a  phase  of  the  anti-capitalist 
movement  was  shown  by  the  zealous  adherence  of  the  socialist 
leaders  and  journalists  to  the  cause  of  Dreyfus;  indeed,  one 
remarkable  result  of  the  affair  was  its  diversion  of  the  socialist 
party  and  press  for  several  years  from  their  normal'  campaign 
against  property.  The  Dreyfus  affair  was  utilized  by  the  reac- 
tionaries against  the  Republic,  by  the  clericals  against  the  non- 
Catholics,  by  the  anti-clericals  against  the  Church,  by  the  military 
party  against  the  parliamentarians,  and  by  the  revolutionary 
socialists  against  the  army.  It  was  also  conspicuously  utilized 
by  rival  republican  politicians  against  one  another,  and  the  chaos 
of  political  groups  was  further  confused  by  it. 

An  epilogue  to  the  Dreyfus  affair  was  the  trial  for  treason  before 
the  Senate,  at  the  end  of  1899,  of  a  number  of  persons,  mostly 
obscure  followers  either  of  M.  Deroulede  the  poet, 
who  advocated  a  plebiscitary  republic,  or  of  the  due  <r///0/a  e 
d'Orleans,  thepretenderof  theconstitutionalmonarchy.  K99. 
On  the  day  of  President  Faure's  funeral  M.  Deroulede 
had  vainly  tried  to  entice  General  Roget,  a  zealous  adversary 
of  Dreyfus,  who  was  on  duty  with  his  troops,  to  march  on  the 
Elysee  in  order  to  evict  the  newly-elected  president  of  the 
Republic.  Other  demonstrations  against  M.  Loubet  ensued, 
the  most  offensive  being  a  concerted  assault  upon  him  on  the 
racecourse  at  Auteuil  in  June  1899.  The  subsequent  resistance 
to  the  police  of  a  band  of  anti-Semites  threatened  with  arrest, 
who  barricaded  themselves  in  a  house  in  the  rue  Chabrol,  in  the 
centre  of  Paris,  and,  with  the  marked  approval  of  the  populace, 
sustained  a  siege  for  several  weeks,  indicated  that  the  capital 
was  in  a  condition  not  far  removed  from  anarchy.  M.  Deroulede, 
indicted  at  the  assizes  of  the  Seine  for  his  misdemeanour  on 
the  day  of  President  Faure's  funeral,  had  been  triumphantly 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


acquitted.  It  was  evident  that  no  Jury  would  convict  citizens 
prosecuted  for  political  offences  and  the  government  therefore 
decided  to  make  use  of  the  article  of  the  Law  of  1875,  which 
allowed  the  Senate  to  be  constituted  a  high  court  for  the  trial  of 
offences  endangering  the  state.  A  respectable  minority  of  the 
Senate,  including  M.  Wallon,  the  venerable  "  Father  of  the 
Constitution  "  of  1875,  vainly  protested  that  the  framers  of  the 
law  intended  to  invest  the  upper  legislative  chamber  with 
judicial  power  only  for  the  trial  of  grave  crimes  of  high  treason, 
and  not  of  petty  political  disorders  which  a  well-organized 
government  ought  to  be  able  to  repress  with  the  ordinary 
machinery  of  police  and  justice.  The  outvoted  protest  was 
justified  by  the  proceedings  before  the  High  Court,  which,  un- 
dignified and  disorderly,  displayed  both  the  fatuity  of  the  so- 
called  conspirators  and  the  feebleness  of  the  government  which 
had  to  cope  with  them.  The  trial  proved  that  the  plebiscitary 
faction  was  destitute  of  its  essential  factor,  a  chief  to  put  forward 
for  the  headship  of  the  state,  and  that  it  was  resolved,  if  it  over- 
turned the  parliamentary  system,  not  to  accept  under  any 
conditions  the  due  d'Orleans,  the  only  pretender  before  the 
public.  It  was  shown  that  royalists  and  plebiscitary  republicans 
alike  had  utilized  as  an  organization  of  disorder  the  anti-Semitic 
propaganda  which  had  won  favour  among  the  masses  as  a 
nationalist  movement  to  protect  the  French  from  foreign  com- 
petition. The  evidence  adduced  before  the  high  court  revealed, 
moreover,  the  curious  fact  that  certain  Jewish  royalists  had  given 
to  the  due  d'Orle'ans  large  sums  of  money  to  found  anti-Semitic 
journals  as  the  surest  means  of  popularizing  his  cause. 

The  last  year  of  the  iQth  century,  though  uneventful  for 
France,  was  one  of  political  unrest.  This,  however,  did  not  take 
the  form  of  ministerial  crises,  as,  for  the  fourth  time 
parties  at  smce  responsible  cabinets  were  introduced  in  1873, 
the  dose  a  whole  year,  from  the  ist  of  January  to  the  3ist  of 
ofthe  December,  elapsed  without  a  change  of  ministry. 
The  prime  minister,  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau,  though 
his  domestic  policy  exasperated  a  large  section  of  the 
political  world,  including  one  half  of  the  Progressive  group 
which  he  had  helped  to  found,  displayed  qualities  of  statesman- 
ship always  respected  in  France,  but  rarely  exhibited  under  the 
Third  Republic.  He  had  proved  himself  to  be  what  the  French 
call  un  homme  de  gouvernement — that  is  to  say,  an  authoritative 
administrator  of  unimpassioned  temperament  capable  of  govern- 
ing with  the  arbitrary  machinery  of  Napoleonic  centralization. 
His  alliance  with  the  extreme  Left  and  the  admission  into  his 
cabinet  of  socialist  deputies,  showed  that  he  understood  which 
wing  of  the  Chamber  it  was  best  to  conciliate  in  order  to  keep  the 
government  in  his  hands  for  an  abnormal  term.  The  advent  to 
office  of  Socialists  disquieted  the  respectable  and  prosperous 
commercial  classes,  which  in  France  take  little  part  in  politics, 
though  they  had  small  sympathy  with  the  nationalists,  who 
were  the  most  violent  opponents  of  the  Waldeck-Rousseau 
ministry.  The  alarm  caused  by  the  handing  over  of  important 
departments  of  the  state  to  socialist  politicians  arose  upon  a 
danger  which  is  not  always  understood  beyond  the  borders  of 
France.  Socialism  in  France  is  a  movement  appealing  to  the 
revolutionary  instincts  of  the  French  democracy,  advocated  in 
vague  terms  by  the  members  of  rival  groups  or  sects.  Thus  the 
increasing  number  of  socialist  deputies  in  parliament  had  pro- 
duced no  legislative  results,  and  their  presence  in  the  cabinet 
was  not  feared  on  that  account.  The  fear  which  their  office- 
holding  inspired  was  due  to  the  immense  administrative  patron- 
age which  the  centralized  system  confides  to  each  member  of 
the  government.  French  ministers  are  wont  to  bestow  the  places 
at  their  disposal  on  their  political  friends,  so  the  prospect  of 
administrative  posts  being  filled  all  over  the  land  by  revolu- 
tionaries caused  some  uneasiness.  Otherwise  the  presence  of 
Socialists  on  the  ministerial  bench  seemed  to  have  no  other  effect 
than  that  of  partially  muzzling  the  socialist  groups  in  the 
Chamber.  The  opposition  to  the  government  was  heterogeneous. 
It  included  the  few  Monarchists  left  in  the  Chamber,  the  Nation- 
alists, who  resembled  the  Boulangists  of  twelve  years  before,  and 
who  had  added  anti-Semitism  to  the  articles  of  the  revisionist 


creed,  and  a  number  of  republicans,  chiefly  of  the  old  Opportunist 
group,  which  had  renewed  itself  under  the  name  of  Progressist 
at  the  time  when  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  was  its  most  important 
member  in  the  Senate. 

The  ablest  leaders  of  this  Opposition  were  all  malcontent 
Republicans;  and  this  fact  seemed  to  show  that  if  ever  any 
form  of  monarchy  were  restored  in  France,  political  office  would 
probably  remain  in  the  hands  of  men  who  were  former  ministers 
of  the  Third  Republic.  Thus  the  most  conspicuous  opponents 
of  the  cabinet  were  three  ex-prime  ministers,  MM.  Meline, 
Charles  Dupuy  and  Ribot.  Less  distinguished  republican 
"  ministrables  "  had  their  normal  appetite  for  office  whetted 
in  1900  by  the  international  exhibition  at  Paris.  It  brought  the 
ministers  of  the  day  into  unusual  prominence,  and  endowed 
them  with  large  subsidies  voted  by  parliament  for  official 
entertainments.  The  exhibition  was  planned  on  too  ambitious 
a  scale  to  be  a  financial  success.  It  also  called  forth  the  just 
regrets  of  those  who  deplored  the  tendency  of  Parisians  under 
the  Third  Republic  to  turn  their  once  brilliant  city  into  an 
international  casino.  Its  most  satisfactory  feature  was  the 
proof  it  displayed  of  the  industrial  inventiveness  and  the  artistic 
instinct  of  the  French.  The  political  importance  of  the  exhibition 
lay  in  the  fact  that  it  determined  the  majority  in  the  Chamber 
not  to  permit  the  foreigners  attracted  by  it  to  the  capital  to 
witness  a  ministerial  crisis.  Few  strangers  of  distinction,  how- 
ever, came  to  it,  and  not  one  sovereign  of  the  great  powers 
visited  Paris;  but  the  ministry  remained  in  office,  and  M. 
Waldeck-Rousseau  had  uninterrupted  opportunity  of  showing 
his  governmental  ability.  The  only  change  in  his  cabinet  took 
place  when  General  de  Galliffet  resigned  the  portfolio  of  war 
to  General  Andre.  The  army,  as  represented  by  its  officers, 
had  shown  symptoms  of  hostility  to  the  ministry  in  consequence 
of  the  pardon  of  Dreyfus.  The  new  minister  of  war  repressed 
such  demonstrations  with  proceedings  of  the  same  arbitrary 
character  as  those  which  had  called  forth  criticism  in  England 
when  used  in  the  Dreyfus  affair.  In  both  cases  the  high-handed 
policy  was  regarded  either  with  approval  or  with  indifference  by 
the  great  majority  of  the  French  nation,  which  ever  since  the 
Revolution  has  shown  that  its  instincts  are  in  favour  of  authorita- 
tive government.  The  emphatic  support  given  by  the  radical 
groups  to  the  autocratic  policy  of  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  and  his 
ministers  was  not  surprising  to  those  who  have  studied  the 
history  of  the  French  democracy.  It  has  always  had  a  taste 
for  despotism  since  it  first  became  a  political  power  in  the  days 
of  the  Jacobins,  to  whose  early  protection  General  Bonaparte 
owed  his  career.  On  the  other  hand  liberalism  has  always  been 
repugnant  to  the  masses,  and  the  only  period  in  which  the 
Liberals  governed  the  country  was  under  the  regime  of  limited 
suffrage — during  the  Restoration  and  the  Monarchy  of  July. 

The  most  important  event  in  France  during  the  last  year  of 
the  century,  not  from  its  political  result,  but  from  the  lessons 
it  taught,  was  perhaps  the  Paris  municipal  election.  The 
quadrennial  renewal  of  all  the  municipal  councils  of  France  took 
place  in  May  1900.  The  municipality  of  the  capital  had  been 
for  many  years  in  the  hands  of  the  extreme  Radicals  and  the 
revolutionary  Socialists.  The  Parisian  electors  now  sent  to  the 
Hotel  de  Ville  a  council  in  which  the  majority  were  Nationalists, 
in  general  sympathy  with  the  anti-Semitic  and  plebiscitary 
movements.  The  nationalist  councillors  did  not,  however,  form 
one  solid  party,  but  were  divided  into  five  or  six  groups,  represent- 
ing every  shade  of  political  discontent,  from  monarchism  to 
revisionist-socialism.  While  the  electorate  of  Paris  thus  pro- 
nounced for  the  revision  of  the  Constitution,  the  provincial 
elections,  as  far  as  they  had  a  political  bearing,  were  favourable 
to  the  ministry  and  to  the  Republic.  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau 
accepted  the  challenge  of  the  capital,  and  dealt  with  its  repre- 
sentatives with  the  arbitrary  weapons  of  centralization  which 
the  Republic  had  inherited  from  the  Napoleonic  settlement  of 
the  Revolution.  Municipal  autonomy  is  unknown  in  France,  and 
the  town  council  of  Paris  has  to  submit  to  special  restrictions  on 
its  liberty  of  action.  The  prefect  of  the  Seine  is  always  present 
at  its  meetings  as  agent  of  the  government  and  the  minister  of 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


885 


the  interior  can  veto  any  of  its  resolutions.  The  Socialists,  when 
their  party  ruled  the  municipality,  clamoured  in  parliament  for 
the  removal  of  this  administrative  control.  But  now 
aad'the  being  in  a  minority  they  supported  the  government 
provinces,  in  its  anti-autonomic  rigours.  The  majority  of  the 
municipal  council  authorized  its  president  to  invite 
to  a  banquet,  in  honour  of  the  international  exhibition, 
the  provincial  mayors  and  a  number  of  foreign  municipal 
magnates,  including  the  lord  mayor  of  London.  The  ministers 
were  not  invited,  and  the  prefect  of  the  Seine  thereupon  informed 
the  president  of  the  municipality  that  he  had  no  right,  without 
consulting  the  agent  of  the  government,  to  offer  a  banquet  to  the 
provincial  mayors;  and  they,  with  the  deference  which  French 
officials  instinctively  show  to  the  central  authority,  almost  all 
refused  the  invitation  to  the  H6tel  de  Ville.  The  municipal 
banquet  was  therefore  abandoned,  but  the  government  gave 
one  in  the  Tuileries  gardens,  at  which  no  fewerthan  22,000 mayors 
paid  their  respects  to  the  chief  of  the  state.  These  events  showed 
that,  as  in  the  Terror,  as  at  the  coup  d'etat  of  1851,  and  as  in  the 
insurrection  of  the  Commune,  the  French  provinces  were  never 
disposed  to  follow  the  political  lead  of  the  capital,  whether 
the  opinions  prevailing  there  were  Jacobin  or  reactionary. 
These  incidents  displayed  the  tendency  of  the  French  democracy, 
in  Paris  and  in  the  country  alike,  to  submit  to  and  even  to  en- 
courage the  arbitrary  working  of  administrative  centralization. 
The  elected  mayors  of  the  provincial  communes,  urban  and 
rural,  quitted  themselves  like  well-drilled  functionaries  of  the 
state,  respectful  of  their  hierarchical  superiors,  just  as  in  the  days 
when  they  were  the  nominees  of  the  government;  while  the 
population  of  Paris,  in  spite  of  its  perennial  proneness  to  revolu- 
tion, accepted  the  rebuff  inflicted  on  its  chosen  representatives 
without  any  hostile  demonstration.  The  municipal  elections 
in  Paris  afforded  fresh  proof  of  the  unchanging  political  ineptitude 
of  the  reactionaries.  The  dissatisfaction  of  the  great  capital 
with  the  government  of  the  Republic  might,  in  spite  of  the 
reluctance  of  the  provinces  to  follow  the  lead  of  Paris,  have  had 
grave  results  if  skilfully  organized.  But  the  anti-republican 
groups,  instead  of  putting  forward  men  of  high  ability  or  reputa- 
tion to  take  possession  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  chose  their  candidates 
among  the  same  inferior  class  of  professional  politicians  as  the 
Radicals  and  the  Socialists  whom  they  replaced  on  the  municipal 
council. 

The  beginning  of  a  century  of  the  common  era  is  a  purely 
artificial  division  of  time.  Yet  it  has  often  marked  a  turning- 
point  in  the  history  of  nations.  This  was  notably  the 
case  m  France  m  1800.  The  violent  and  anarchical 
opening  phases  of  the  Revolution  of  1789  came  to  an  end  with 
ofthe  the  i8th  century;  and  the  dawn  of  the  igth  was 
20th  cen-  co[nc[fant  wjth  the  administrative  reconstruction 
of  France  by  Napoleon,  on  lines  which  endured  with 
little  modification  till  the  end  of  that  century,  surviving  seven 
revolutions  of  the  executive  power.  The  opening  years  of  the 
2oth  century  saw  no  similar  changes  in  the  government  of  the 
country.  The  Third  Republic,  which  was  about  to  attain  an 
age  double  that  reached  by  any  other  regime  since  the  Revolution, 
continued  to  live  on  the  basis  of  the  Constitution  enacted  in 
1875,  before  it  was  five  years  old.  Yet  it  seems  not  unlikely  that 
historians  of  the  future  may  take  the  date  1900  as  a  landmark 
between  two  distinct  periods  in  the  evolution  of  the  French 
nation. 

Wjth  the  close  of  the  igth  century  the  Dreyfus  affair  came 
practically  to  an  end.  Whatever  the  political  and  moral  causes 
Results  of  the  agitation  which  attended  it,  its  practical  result 
ofthe  was  to  strengthen  the  Radical  and  Socialist  parties  in 
Dreyfus  tjje  Republic,  and  to  reduce  to  unprecedentedimpotence 
the  forces  of  reaction.  This  was  due  more  to  the 
maladroitness  of  the  Reactionaries  than  to  the  virtues  or  the 
prescience  of  the  extreme  Left,  as  the  imprisonment  of  the  Jewish 
captain,  which  agitated  and  divided  the  nation,  could  not  have 
been  inflicted  without  the  ardent  approval  of  Republicans  of 
all  shades  of  opinion.  But  when  the  majority  at  last  realized 
that  a  mistake  had  been  committed,  the  Reactionaries,  in  great 


measure  through  their  own  unwise  policy,  got  the  chief  credit 
for  it.  Consequently,  as  the  clericals  formed  the  militant  section 
of  the  anti-Republican  parties,  and  as  the  Radical-Socialists 
were  at  that  time  keener  in  their  hostility  to  the  Church  than  in 
their  zeal  for  social  or  economic  reform,  the  issue  of  the  Dreyfus 
affair  brought  about  an  anti-clerical  movement,  which,  though 
initiated  and  organized  by  a  small  minority,  met  with  nothing 
to  resist  it  in  the  country,  the  reactionary  forces  being  effete 
and  the  vast  majority  of  the  population  indifferent.  The  main 
and  absorbing  feature  therefore  of  political  life  in  France  in  the 
first  years  of  the  2oth  century  was  a  campaign  against  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  unparalleled  in  energy  since  the  Revolution. 
Its  most  striking  result  was  the  rupture  of  the  Concordat  between 
France  and  the  Vatican.  This  act  was  additionally  important 
as  being  the  first  considerable  breach  made  in  the  administrative 
structure  reared  by  Napoleon,  which  had  hitherto  survived  all 
the  vicissitudes  of  the  ipth  century.  Concurrently  with  this 
the  influence  of  the  Socialist  party  in  French  policy  largely 
increased.  A  primary  principle  professed  by  the  Socialists 
throughout  Europe  is  pacificism,  and  its  dissemination  in  France 
acted  in  two  very  different  ways.  It  encouraged  in  the  French 
people  a  growth  of  anti-military  spirit,  which  showed  some  sign 
of  infecting  the  national  army,  and  it  impelled  the  government 
of  the  Republic  to  be  zealous  in  cultivating  friendly  relations 
with  other  powers.  The  result  of  the  latter  phase  of  pacificism 
was  that  France,  under  the  Radical-Socialist  administrations 
of  the  early  years  of  the  2oth  century,  enjoyed  a  measure  of 
international  prestige  of  that  superficial  kind  which  is  expressed 
by  the  state  visits  of  crowned  heads  to  the  chief  of  the  executive 
power,  greater  than  at  any  period  since  the  Second  Empire. 

The  voting  of  the  law  which  separated  the  Church  from  the 
state  will  probably  mark  a  capital  date  in  French  history;  so, 
as   the   ecclesiastical   policy  of  successive  ministries 
filled  almost  entirely  the  interior  chronicles  of  France        pout* 
for  the  first  five  years  of  the  new  century,  it  will  be 
convenient  to  set  forth  in  order  the  events  which  during  that 
period  led  up  to  the  passing  of  the  Separation  Act. 

The  French  legislature  during  the  first  session  of  the  2oth 
century  was  chiefly  occupied  with  the  passing  of  the  Associations 
Law.  That  measure,  though  it  entirely  changed  the  legal 
position  of  all  associations  in  France,  was  primarily  directed 
against  the  religious  associations  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Their  influence  in  the  land,  according  to  the  anti-clericals,  had 
been  proved  by  the  Dreyfus  affair  to  be  excessive.  The  Jesuits 
were  alleged,  on  their  own  showing,  to  exercise  considerable 
power  over  the  officers  of  the  army,  and  in  this  way  to  have  been 
largely  responsible  for  the  blunders  of  the  Dreyfus  case.  Another 
less  celebrated  order,  which  took  an  active  part  against  Dreyfus, 
the  Assumptionists,  had  achieved  notoriety  by  its  journalistic 
enterprise,  its  cheap  newspapers  of  wide  circulation  being  re- 
markable for  the  violence  of  their  attacks  on  the  institutions 
and  men  of  the  Republic.  The  mutual  antagonism  between  the 
French  government  and  religious  congregations  is  a  tradition 
which  dates  from  the  ancient  monarchy  and  was  continued  by 
Napoleon  I.  long  before  the  Third  Republic  adopted  it  in  the 
legislation  associated  with  the  names  of  Jules  Ferry  and  Paul 
Bert.  The  prime  minister,  under  whose  administration  the 
20th  century  succeeded  the  ipth,  was  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau, 
who  had  been  the  colleague  of  Paul  Bert  in  Gambetta's  grand 
ministere,  and  in  1883  had  served  under  Jules  Ferry  in  his  second 
ministry.  He  had  retired  from  political  life,  though  he  remained 
a  member  of  the  Senate,  and  was  making  a  large  fortune  at  the 
bar,  when  in  June  1899,  at  pecuniary  sacrifice,  he  consented  to 
form  a  ministry  for  the  purpose  of  "  liquidating  "  the  Dreyfus 
affair.  In  1900,  the  year  after  the  second  condemnation  of 
Dreyfus  and  his  immediate  pardon  by  the  government,  M. 
Waldeck-Rousseau  in  a  speech  at  Toulouse  announced  that 
legislation  was  about  to  be  undertaken  on  the  subject  of  associa- 
tions. 

At  that  period  the  hostility  of  the  Revolution  to  the  principle 
of  associations  of  all  kinds,  civil  as  well  as  religious,  was  still 
enforced  by  the  law.  With  the  exception  of  certain  commercial 


886 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


societies  subject  to  special  legislation,  no  association  composed 
of  more  than  twenty  persons  could  be  formed  without  govern- 
mental authorization  which  was  always  revocable,  the  restriction 
applying  equally  to  political  and  social  clubs  and  to  religious 
communities.  The  law  was  the  same  for  all,  but  was  differently 
applied.  Authorization  was  rarely  refused  to  political  or  social 
societies,  though  any  club  was  liable  to  have  its  authorization 
withdrawn  and  to  be  shut  up  or  dissolved.  But  to  religious 
orders  new  authorization  was  practically  never  granted.  Only 
four  of  them,  the  orders  of  Saint  Lazare,  of  the  Saint  Esprit, 
of  the  Missions  Etrangeres  and  of  Saint  Sulpice,  were  authorized 
under  the  Third  Republic — their  authorization  dating  from  the 
First  Empire  and  the  Restoration.  The  Freres  de  la  Doctrine 
Chretienne  were  also  recognized,  not,  however,  as  a  religious 
congregation  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  minister  of  public 
worship,  but  as  a  teaching  body  under  that  of  the  minister  of 
education.  All  the  great  historical  orders,  preaching,  teaching 
or  comtemplative,  were  "  unauthorized  ";  they  led  a  precarious 
life  on  sufferance,  having  as  corporations  no  civil  existence, 
and  being  subject  to  dissolution  at  a  moment's  notice  by  the 
administrative  authority.  In  spite  of  this  disability  and  of  the 
decrees  of  1880  directed  against  unauthorized  monastic  orders 
they  had  so  increased  under  the  anti-clerical  Republic,  that  the 
religious  of  both  sexes  were  more  numerous  in  France  at  the 
beginning  of  the  2oth  century  than  at  the  end  of  the  ancient 
monarchy.  Moreover,  in  the  twenty  years  during  which  un- 
authorized Orders  had  been  supposed  to  be  suppressed  under 
the  Ferry  Decrees,  their  numbers  had  become  six  times  more 
numerous  than  before,  while  it  was  the  authorized  Congregations 
which  had  diminished.  The  bare  catalogue  of  the  religious 
houses  in  the  land,  with  the  value  of  their  properties  (estimated 
by  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  at  a  milliard — £40,000,000)  filled 
two  White  Books  of  two  thousand  pages,  presented  to  parlia- 
ment on  the  4th  of  December  1900.  The  hostility  to  the  Con- 
gregations was  not  confined  to  the  anti-clericals.  The  secular 
clergy  were  suffering  materially  from  the  enterprising  competition 
of  their  old  rivals  the  regulars.  Had  the  legislation  for  defining 
the  legal  situation  of  the  religious  orders  been  undertaken  with 
the  sole  intention  of  limiting  their  excessive  growth,  such  a 
measure  would  have  been  welcome  to  the  parochial  clergy. 
But  they  saw  that  the  attack  upon  the  congregations  was  only 
preliminary  to  a  general  attack  upon  the  Church,  in  spite  of  the 
sincere  assurances  of  the  prime  minister,  a  statesman  of  con- 
servative temperament,  that  no  harm  would  accrue  to  the  secular 
clergy  from  the  passing  of  the  Associations  Law. 

In  January  1901,  on  the  eve  of  the  first  debate  in  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  on  the  Associations  bill,  a  discussion  took  place 
which  showed  that  the  rupture  of  the  Concordat  might 
be  nearm8  the  range  of  practical  politics,  though 
parliament  was  as  yet  unwilling  to  take  it  into  consider- 
tion.  The  archbishop  of  Paris,  Cardinal  Richard,  had  pub- 
lished a  letter  addressed  to  him  by  Leo  XIII.  deploring  the 
projected  legislation  as  being  a  breach  of  the  Concordat  under 
which  the  free  ex^rcise  of  the  Catholic  religion  in  France  was 
assured.  The  Socialists  argued  that  this  letter  was  an  intolerable 
intervention  on  the  part  of  the  Vatican  in  the  domestic  politics 
of  the  Republic,  and  proposed  that  parliament  should  after 
voting  the  Associations  Law  proceed  to  separate  Church  and 
State.  '  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau,  the  prime  minister,  calm  and 
moderate,  declined  to  take  this  view  of  the  pope's  letter,  and  the 
resolution  was  defeated  by  a  majority  of  more  than  two  to  one. 
But  another  motion,  proposed  by  a  Nationalist,  that  the  Chamber 
should  declare  its  resolve  to  maintain  the  Concordat,  was  rejected 
by  a  small  majority.  The  discussion  of  the  Associations  bill 
was  then  commenced  by  the  Chamber  and  went  on  until  the 
Easter  recess.  Its  main  features  when  finally  voted  were  that 
the  right  to  associate  for  purposes  not  illicit  should  be  henceforth 
free  of  all  restrictions,  though  "  juridical  capacity  "  would  be 
accorded  only  to  such  associations  as  were  formally  notified 
to  the  administrative  authority.  The  law  did  not,  however, 
accord  liberty  of  association  to  religious  "  Congregations," 
none  of  which  could  be  formed  without  a  special  statute,  and 


any  constituted  without  such  authorization  would  be  deemed 
illicit.  The  policy  of  the  measure,  as  applying  to  religious 
orders,  was  attacked  by  the  extreme  Right  and  the  extreme 
Left  from  their  several  standpoints.  The  clericals  proposed 
that  under  the  new  law  all  associations,  religious  as  well  as  civil, 
should  be  free. «  The  Socialists  proposed  that  all  religious  com- 
munities, authorized  or  unauthorized,  should  be  suppressed. 
The  prime  minister  took  a  middle  course.  But  he  went  farther 
than  the  moderate  Republicans,  with  whom  he  was  generally 
classed.  While  he  protected  the  authorized  religious  orders 
against  the  attacks  of  the  extreme  anti-clericals,  he  accepted 
from  the  latter  a  new  clause  which  disqualified  any  member 
of  an  unauthorized  order  from  teaching  in  any  school.  This 
was  a  blow  at  the  principle  of  liberty  of  instruction,  which  had 
always  been  supported  by  Liberals  of  the  old  school,  who  had 
no  sympathy  with  the  pretensions  of  clericalism.  Consequently 
this  provision,  though  voted  by  a  large  majority,  was  opposed 
by  the  Liberals  of  the  Republican  party,  notably  by  M.  Ribot, 
who  had  been  twice  prime  minister,  and  M.  Aynard,  almost  the 
sole  survivor  of  the  Left  Centre.  It  was  remarked  that  in  these, 
as  in  all  subsequent  debates  on  ecclesiastical  questions,  the  ablest 
defenders  of  the  Church  were  not  found  among  the  clericals, 
but  among  the  Liberals,  whose  primary  doctrine  was  that  of 
tolerance,  which  they  believed  ought  to  be  applied  to  the  exercise 
of  the  religion  nominally  professed  by  a  large  majority  of  the 
nation.  Few  of  the  ardent  professors  of  that  religion  gave 
effective  aid  to  the  Church  during  that  period  of  crisis.  M.  de 
Mun  still  used  his  eloquence  in  its  defence,  but  the  brilliant 
Catholic  orator  had  entered  his  sixtieth  year  with  health  impaired, 
and  among  the  young  reactionary  members  there  was  not  one 
who  displayed  any  talent.  At  the  other  end  of  the  Chamber 
M.  Viviani,  a  Socialist  member  for  Paris,  made  an  eloquent 
speech.  As  was  anticipated  the  bill  received  no  serious  opposi- 
tion in  the  Senate.  Though  not  in  sympathy  with  the  attacks 
of  the  Socialists  in  the  Chamber  on  property,  the  Upper  House 
had  as  a  whole  no  objection  to  their  attacks  on  the  Church,  and 
had  become  a  more  persistently  anti-clerical  body  than  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  bill  was  therefore  passed  without 
any  serious  amendments,  even  those  which  were  moved  for  the 
purpose  of  affirming  the  principle  of  liberty  of  education  being 
supported  by  very  few  Republican  senators.  In  the  debates 
some  of  the  utterances  of  the  prime  minister  were  important. 
On  the  proposal  of  M.  Rambaud,  a  professor  who  was  minister 
of  education  in  the  Meline  cabinet  of  1896,  that  religious  associa- 
tions should  be  authorized  by  decree  and  not  by  law,  M.  Waldeck- 
Rousseau  said  that  inasmuch  as  vows  of  poverty  and  celibacy 
were  illegal,  nothing  but  a  law  would  suffice  to  give  legality 
to  any  association  in  which  such  vows  were  imposed  on  the 
members.  It  was  thus  laid  down  by  the  responsible  author 
of  the  law  that  the  third  clause,  providing  that  any  association 
founded  for  an  illicit  cause  was  null,  applied  to  religious  com- 
munities. On  the  other  hand  the  prime  minister  in  another 
speech  repudiated  the  suggestion  that  the  proposed  law  was 
aimed  against  any  form  of  religion.  He  argued  that  the  religious 
orders,  far  from  being  essential  to  the  existence  of  the  Church, 
were  a  hindrance  to  the  work  of  the  parochial  clergy,  and  that 
inasmuch  as  the  religious  orders  were  organizations  independent 
of  the  State  they  were  by  their  nature  and  influence  a  danger  to 
the  State.  Consequently  their  regulation  had  become  necessary 
in  the  interests  both  of  Church  and  State.  The  general  suppres- 
sion of  religious  congregations,  the  prime  minister  said,  was  not 
contemplated;  the  case  of  each  one  would  be  decided  on  its 
merits,  and  he  had  no  doubt  that  parliament  would  favourably 
consider  the  authorization  of  those  whose  aim  was  to  alleviate 
misery  at  home  or  to  extend  French  influence  abroad.  The 
tenor  of  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau's  speech  was  eminently  Con- 
cordatory.  One  of  his  chief  arguments  against  the  religious 
orders  was  that  they  were  not  mentioned  in  the  Concordat,  and 
that  their  unregulated  existence  prejudiced  the  interests  of  the 
Concordatory  clergy.  The  speech  was  therefore  an  official 
declaration  in  favour  of  the  maintenance  of  the  relations  between 
Church  and  State.  That  being  so,  it  is  important  to  notice  that 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


887 


by  a  majority  of  nearly  two  to  one  the  Senate  voted  the  placard- 
ing of  the  prime  minister's  speech  in  all  the  communes  of  France, 
and  that  the  mover  of  the  resolution  was  M.  Combes,  senator 
of  the  Charente-Inferieure,  a  politician  of  advanced  views  who 
up  to  that  date  had  held  office  only  once,  when  he  was  minister 
of  education  and  public  worship  for  about  six  months,  in  the 
Bourgeois  administration  in  1895-1896. 

The  "  Law  relating  to  the  contract  of  Association "  was 
promulgated  on  the  2nd  of  July  1901,  and  its  enactment  was  the 
Socialism.  on'v  political  event  of  high  importance  that  year. 
The  Socialists,  except  in  their  anti-clerical  capacity, 
were  more  active  outside  parliament  than  within.  Early  in  the 
year  some  formidable  strikes  took  place.  At  Montceau-les-Mines 
in  Burgundy,  where  labour  demonstrations  had  often  been 
violent,  a  new  feature  of  a  strike  was  the  formation  of  a  trade- 
union  by  the  non-strikers,  who  called  their  organization  "  the 
yellow  trade-union  "  (le  syndical  jaune)  in  opposition  to  the  red 
trade-union  of  the  strikers,  who  adopted  the  revolutionary 
flag  and  were  supported  by  the  Socialist  press.  At  the  same 
time  the  dock-labourers  at  Marseilles  went  out  on  strike,  by  the 
orders  of  an  international  trade-union  in  that  port,  as  a  protest 
against  the  dismissal  of  a  certain  number  of  foreigners.  The 
number  of  strikes  in  France  had  increased  considerably  under 
the  Waldeck-Rousseau  government.  Its  opponents  attributed 
this  to  the  presence  in  the  cabinet  of  M.  Millerand,  who  had  been 
ranked  as  a  Socialist.  On  the  other  hand,  the  revolutionary 
Socialists  excommunicated  the  minister  of  commerce  for  having 
joined  a  "  bourgeois  government  "  and  retired  from  the  general 
congress  of  the  Socialist  party  at  Lyons,  where  MM.  Briand  and 
Viviani,  themselves  future  ministers,  persuaded  the  majority 
not  to  go  so  far.  The  federal  committee  of  miners  projected  a 
general  strike  in  all  the  French  coal-fields,  and  to  that  end 
organized  a  referendum.  But  of  125,000  miners  inscribed  on 
their  lists  nearly  70,000  abstained  from  voting,  and  although 
the  general  strike  was  voted  in  October  by  a  majority  of  34,000, 
it  was  not  put  into  effect.  Another  movement  favoured  by  the 
Socialists  was  that  of  anti-militarism.  M.  Herve,  a  professor 
at  the  lycee  of  Sens,  had  written,  in  a  local  journal,  the  Pioupiou 
de  I'Yonne,  on  the  occasion  of  the  departure  of  the  conscripts 
for  their  regiments,  some  articles  outraging  the  French  flag. 
He  was  prosecuted  and  acquitted  at  the  assizes  at  Auxerre  in 
November,  a  number  of  his  colleagues  in  the  teaching  profession 
coming  forward  to  testify  that  they  shared  his  views.'  The  local 
educational  authority,  the  academic  council  of  Dijon,  however, 
dismissed  M.  Herve  from  his  official  functions,  and  its  sentence 
was  confirmed  by  the  superior  council  of  public  education  to 
which  he  had  appealed.  Thereupon  the  Socialists  in  the  Chamber, 
under  the  lead  of  M.  Viviani,  violently  attacked  the  Government 
shortly  before  the  prorogation  at  the  end  of  the  year.  M. 
Leygues,  the  minister  of  education,  defended  the  policy  of  his 
department  with  equal  vigour,  declaring  that  if  a  professor  in  the 
"  university  "  claimed  the  right  of  publishing  unpatriotic  and 
anti-military  opinions  he  could  exercise  it  only  on  the  condition 
of  giving  up  his  employment  under  government — a  thesis  which 
was  supported  by  the  entire  Chamber  with  the  exception  of  the 
Socialists.  This  manifestation  of  anti-military  spirit,  though 
not  widespread,  was  the  more  striking  as  it  followed  close  upon 
a  second  visit  of  the  emperor  and  empress  of  Russia  to  France, 
which  took  place  in  September  1901  and  was  of  a  military  rather 
than  of  a  popular  character.  The  Russian  sovereigns  did  not 
come  to  Paris.  After  a  naval  display  at  Dunkirk,  where  they 
landed,  they  were  the  guests  of  President  Loubet  at  Compiegne, 
and  concluded  their  visit  by  attending  a  review  near  Reims  of 
the  troops  which  had  taken  part  in  the  Eastern  manoeuvres. 
Compared  with  the  welcome  given  by  the  French  population 
to  the  emperor  and  empress  in  1896  their  reception  on  this 
occasion  was  not  enthusiastic.  By  not  visiting  Paris  they  seemed 
to  wish  to  avoid  contact  with  .  the  people,  who  were  per- 
suaded by  a  section  of  the  press  that  the  motive  of  the  imperial 
journey  to  France  was  financial.  The  Socialists  openly  repudi- 
ated the  Russian  alliance,  and  one  of  them,  the  mayor  of  Lille, 
who  refused  to  decorate  his  municipal  buildings  when  the 


sovereigns  visited  the  department  of  the  Nord,  was  neither 
revoked  nor  suspended,  although  he  publicly  based  his  refusal 
on  grounds  insulting  to  the  tsar. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  census  returns  of  1901  showed 
that  the  total  increase  of  the  population  of  France  since  the 
previous  census  in  1896  amounted  only  to  412,364,  of  which 
289,662  was  accounted  for  by  the  capital,  while  on  the  other 
hand  the  population  of  sixty  out  of  eighty-seven  departments 
had  diminished. 

As  the  quadrennial  election  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  was 
due  to  take  place  in  the  spring  of  1902,  the  first  months  of  that 
year  were  chiefly  occupied  by  politicians  in  preparing  for  it, 
though  none  of  them  gave  any  sign  of  being  aware  that  the 
legislation  to  be  effected  by  the  new  Chamber  would  be  the 
most  important  which  any  parliament  had  undertaken  under  the 
constitution  of  1875.  At  the  end  of  the  recess  the  prime  minister 
in  a  speech  at  Saint  Etienne,  the  capital  of  the  Loire,  of  which 
department  he  was  senator,  passed  in  review  the  work  of  his 
ministry.  With  regard  to  the  future,  on  the  eve  of  the  election 
which  was  to  return  the  Chamber  destined  to  disestablish  the 
Church,  he  assured  the  secular  clergy  that  they  must  not  consider 
the  legislation  of  the  last  session  as  menacing  them:  far  from 
that,  the  recent  law,  directed  primarily  against  those  monastic 
orders  which  were  anti-Republican  associations,  owning  political 
journals  and  organizing  electioneering  funds  (whose  members 
he  described  as  "  moines  ligueurs  et  moines  d'affaires  "),  would 
be  a  guarantee  of  the  Republic's  protection  of  the  parochial 
clergy.  The  presence  of  his  colleague,  M.  Millerand,  on  this 
occasion  showed  that  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  did  not  intend  to 
separate  himself  from  the  Radical-Socialist  group  which  had 
supported  his  government;  and  the  next  day  the  Socialist 
minister  of  commerce,  at  Firminy,  a  mining  centre  in  the  same 
department,  made  a  speech  deprecating  the  pursuit  of  unpractical 
social  ideals,  which  might  have  been  a  version  of  Gambetta's 
famous  discourse  on  opportunism  edited  by  an  economist  of  the 
school  of  Leon  Say.  The  Waldeck-Rousseau  programme  for 
the  elections  seemed  therefore  to  be  an  implied  promise  of  a 
moderate  opportunist  policy  which  would  strengthen  and  unite 
the  Republic  by  conciliating  all  sections  of  its  supporters. 
When  parliament  met,  M.  Delcasse,  minister  for  foreign  affairs, 
on  a  proposal  to  suppress  the  Embassy  to  the  Vatican,  declared 
that  even  if  the  Concordat  were  ever  revoked  it  would  still  be 
necessary  for  France  to  maintain  diplomatic  relations  with  the 
Holy  See.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ministry  voted,  against  the 
moderate  Republicans,  for  an  abstract  resolution,  proposed 
by  M.  Brisson,  in  favour  of  the  abrogation  of  the  Loi  Falloux  of 
1850,  which  law,  by  abolishing  the  monopoly  of  the  "  university," 
had  established  the  principle  of  liberty  of  education.  Another 
abstract  resolution,  supported  by  the  government,  which 
subsequently  become  law,  was  voted  in  favour,  of  the  reduction 
of  the  terms  of  compulsory  military  service  from  three  years  to 
two. 

The  general  elections  took  place  on  the  27th  of  April   1902, 
with  the  second  ballots  on  the  nth  of  May,  and  were  favourable 
to  the  ministry,  321  of  its  avowed  supporters  being   Kestgaa- 
returned  and  268  members  of  the  Opposition,  including    tioa  of 

140  "  Progressist  "  Republicans,  many  of  whom  were    ^aUeck- 
.    .  ,.„        ,  ..    . J    .  ,    Rousseau. 

deputies  whose  opinions  differed  little  from  those  of 

M.  Waldeck-Rousseau.  In  Paris  the  government  lost  a  few  seats 
which  were  won  by  the  Nationalist  group  of  reactionaries. 
The  chief  surprise  of  the  elections  was  the  announcement  made 
by  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  on  the  2pth  of  May,  while  the  president 
of  the  Republic  was  in  Russia  on  a  visit  to  the  tsar,  of  his 
intention  to  resign  office.  No  one  but  the  prime  minister's 
intimates  knew  that  his  shattered  health  was  the  true  cause  of 
his  resignation,  which  was  attributed  to  the  unwillingness  of  an 
essentially  moderate  man  to  be  the  leader  of  an  advanced  party 
and  the  instrument  of  an  immoderate  policy.  His  retirement 
from  public  life  at  this  crisis  was  the  most  important  event  of 
its  kind  since  the  death  of  his  old  master  Gambetta.  He  had 
learned  opportunist  statesmanship  in  the  short-lived  grand 
ministere  and  in  the  long-lived  Ferry  administration  of  1883- 


888 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


1885,  after  which  he  had  become  an  inactive  politician  in  the 
Senate,  while  making  a  large  fortune  at  the  bar.  In  spite  of 
having  eschewed  politics  he  had  been  ranked  in  the  public  mind 
with  Gambetta  and  Jules  Ferry  as  one  of  the  small  number  of 
politicians  of  the  Republic  who  had  risen  high  above  mediocrity. 
While  he  had  none  of  the  magnetic  exuberance  which  furthered 
the  popularity  of  Gambetta,  his  cold  inexpansiveness  had  not 
made  him  unpopular  as  was  his  other  chief,  Jules  Ferry.  Indeed, 
his  unemotional  coldness  was  one  of  the  elements  of  the  power 
with  which  he  dominated  parliament;  and  being  regarded  by  the 
nation  as  the  strong  man  whom  France  is  always  looking  for, 
he  was  the  first  prime  minister  of  the  Republic  whose  name  was 
made  a  rallying  cry  at  a  general  election.  Yet  the  country  gave 
him  a  majority  only  for  it  to  be  handed  over  to  other  politicians 
to  use  in  a  manner  which  he  had  not  contemplated.  On  the  3rd 
of  June  1902  he  formally  resigned  office,  his  ministry  having 
lasted  for  three  years,  all  but  a  few  days,  a  longer  duration  than 
that  of  any  other  under  the  Third  Republic. 

M.  Loubet  called  upon  M.  Leon  Bourgeois,  who  had  already 
been  prime  minister  under  M.  Felix  Faure,  to  form  a  ministry, 

but  he  had  been  nominated  president  of  the  new 
M.  Combes  Chamber.  The  president  of  the  Republic  then  offered 
m/flfcter  ^e  post  to  M.  Brisson,  who  had  been  twice  prime 

minister  in  1885  and  1898,  but  he  also  refused.  A 
third  member  of  the  Radical  party  was  then  sent  for,  M.  Emile 
Combes,  and  he  accepted.  The  senator  of  the  Charente  Inf  erieure, 
in  his  one  short  term  of  office  in  the  Bourgeois  ministry,  had  made 
no  mark.  But  he  had  attained  a  minor  prominence  in  the  debates 
of  the  Senate  by  his  ardent  anti-clericalism.  He  had  been 
educated  as  a  seminarist  and  had  taken  minor  orders,  without 
proceeding  to  the  priesthood,  and  had  subsequently  practised 
as  a  country  doctor  before  entering  parliament.  M.  Combes 
retained  two  of  the  most  important  members  of  the  Waldeck- 
Rousseau  cabinet,  M.  Delcasse,  who  had  been  at  the  foreign 
office  for  four  years,  and  General  Andre,  who  had  become  war 
minister  in  1900  on  the  resignation  of  General  de  Galliffet. 
General  Andre  was  an  ardent  Dreyfusard,  strongly  opposed  to 
clerical  and  reactionary  influences  in  the  army.  Among  the 
new  ministers  was  M.  Rouvier,  a  colleague  of  Gambetta  in  the 
grand  ministere  and  prime  minister  in  1887,  whose  participation  in 
the  Panama  affair  had  caused  his  retirement  from  official  life. 
Being  a  moderate  opportunist  and  reputed  the  ablest  financier 
among  French  politicians,  his  return  to  the  ministry  of  finance 
reassured  those  who  feared  the  fiscal  experiments  of  an  adminis- 
tration supported  by  the  Socialists.  The  nomination  as  minister 
of  marine  of  M.  Camille  Pelletan  (the  son  of  Eugene  Pelletan, 
a  notable  adversary  of  the  Second  Empire),  who  had  been  a 
Radical-Socialist  deputy  since  1881,  though  new  to  office,  was 
less  reassuring.  M.  Combes  reserved  for  himself  the  departments 
of  the  interior  and  public  worship,  meaning  that  the  centralized 
administration  of  France  should  be  in  his  own  hands  while  he 
was  keeping  watch  over  the  Church.  But  in  spite  of  the  prime 
minister's  extreme  anti-clericalism  there  was  no  hint  made  in 
his  ministerial  declaration,  on  the  loth  of  June  1902,  on  taking 
office  that  there  would  be  any  question  of  the  new  Chamber 
dealing  with  the  Concordat  or  with  the  relations  of  Church  and 
state.  M.  Combes,  however,  warned  the  secular  clergy  not  to 
make  common  cause  with  the  religious  orders,  against  which 
he  soon  began  vigorous  action.  Before  the  end  of  June  he  directed 
the  Prefets  of  the  departments  to  bring  political  pressure  to 
bear  on  all  branches  of  the  public  service,  and  he  obtained  a 
presidential  decree  closing  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  schools, 
which  had  been  recently  opened  in  buildings  belonging  to  private 
individuals,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  conducted  by  members 
of  religious  associations  and  that  this  brought  the  schools  under 
the  law  of  1901.  Such  action  seemed  to  be  opposed  to  M. 
Waldeck-Rousseau's  interpretation  of  the  law;  but  the  Chamber 
having  supported  M.  Combes  he  ordered  in  July  the  closing  of 
2.500  schools,  conducted  by  members  of  religious  orders,  for  which 
authorization  had  not  been  requested.  This  again  seemed 
contrary  to  the  assurances  of  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau,  and  it  called 
forth  vain  protests  in  the  name  of  liberty  from  Radicals  of  the 


old  school,  such  as  M.  Goblet,  prime  minister  in  1886,  and  from 
Liberal  Protestants,  such  as  M.  Gabriel  Monod.  The  execution 
of  the  decrees  closing  the  schools  of  the  religious  orders  caused 
some  violent  agitation  in  the  provinces  during-  the  parliamentary 
recess.  But  the  majority  of  the  departmental  councils,  at  their 
meetings  in  August,  passed  resolutions  in  favour  of  the  govern- 
mental policy,  and  a  movement  led  by  certain  Nationalists, 
including  M.  Drumont,  editor  of  the  anti-semitic  Libre  Parole, 
and  M.  Francois  Coppee,  the  Academician,  to  found  a  league 
having  similar  aims  to  those  of  the  "  passive  resisters  "  in  our 
country,  was  a  complete  failure.  On  the  reassembling  of  parlia- 
ment, both  houses  passed  votes  of  confidence  in  the  ministry  and 
also  an  act  supplementary  to  the  Associations  Law  penalizing 
the  opening  of  schools  by  members  of  religious  orders. 

In  spite  of  the  ardour  of  parliamentary  discussions  the  French 
public  was  less  moved  in  1902  by  the  anti-clerical  action  of  the 
government  than  by  a  vulgar  case  of  swindling  known 
as  the  "  Humbert  affair."  The  wife  of  a  former  deputy 
for  Seine-et-Marne,  who  was  the  son  of  M.  Gustave 
Humbert,  minister  of  justice  in  1882,  had  for  many  years  main- 
tained a  luxurious  establishment,  which  included  a  political 
salon,  on  the  strength  of  her  assertion  that  she  and  her  family  had 
inherited  several  millions  sterling  from  one  Crawford,  an  English- 
man. Her  story  being  believed  by  certain  bankers  she  had  been 
enabled  to  borrow  colossal  sums  on  the  legend,  and  had  almost 
married  her  daughter  as  a  great  heiress  to  a  Moderate  Republican 
deputy  who  held  a  conspicuous  position  in  the  Chamber.  The 
flight  of  the  Humberts,  the  exposure  of  the  fraud  and  their  arrest 
in  Spain  excited  the  French  nation  more  deeply  than  the  relative 
qualities  of  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  and  M.  Combes  or  the  woes 
of  the  religious  orders.  A  by-election  to  the  Senate  in  the  spring 
of  1902  merits  notice  as  it  brought  back  to  parliament  M. 
Clemenceau,  who  had  lived  in  comparative  retirement  since 
1893  when  he  lost  his  seat  as  deputy  for  Draguignan,  owing  to  a 
series  of  unusually  bitter  attacks  made  against  him  by  his  political 
enemies.  He  had  devoted  his  years  of  retirement  to  journalism, 
taking  a  leading  part  in  the  Dreyfus  affair  on  the  side  of  the 
accused.  His  election  as  senator  for  the  Var,  where  he  had 
formerly  been  deputy,  was  an  event  of  importance  unanticipated 
at  the  time. 

The  year  1903  saw  in  progress  a  momentous  development 
of  the  anti-clerical  movement  in  France,  though  little  trace  of 
this  is  found  in  the  statute-book.  The  chief  act  of 
parliament  of  that  year  was  one  which  interested  the  *."*!". 
population  much  more  than  any  law  affecting  the  movement. 
Church.  This  was  an  act  regulating  the  privileges 
of  the  bouilleurs  de  cru,  the  peasant  proprietors  who,  permitted 
to  distil  from  their  produce  an  annual  quantity  of  alcohol  sup- 
posed to  be  sufficient  for  their  domestic  needs,  in  practice  fabri- 
cated and  sold  so  large  an  amount  as  to  prejudice  gravely  the 
inland  revenue.  As  there  were  a  million  of  these  illicit  distillers 
in  the  land  they  formed  a  powerful  element  in  the  electorate. 
The  crowded  and  excited  debates  affecting  their  interests,  in 
which  Radicals  and  Royalists  of  the  rural  districts  made  common 
cause  against  Socialists  and  Clericals  of  the  towns,  were  in 
striking  contrast  with  the  less  animated  discussions  concerning 
the  Church.  The  prime  minister,  an  anti-clerical  zealot,  bitterly 
hostile  to  the  Church  of  which  he  had  been  a  minister,  took 
advantage  of  the  relative  indifference  of  parliament  and  of  the 
nation  in  matters  ecclesiastical.  The  success  of  M.  Combes  in 
his  campaign  against  the  Church  was  an  example  of  what  energy 
and  pertinacity  can  do.  There  was  no  great  wave  of  popular 
feeling  on  the  question,  no  mandate  given  to  the  deputies  at  the 
general  election  or  asked  for  by  them.  Neither  was  M.  Combes 
a  popular  leader  or  a  man  of  genius.  He  was  rather  a  trained 
politician,  with  a  fixed  idea,  who  knew  how  to  utilize  to  his  ends 
the  ability  and  organization  of  the  extreme  anti-clerical  element 
in  the  Chamber,  and  the  weakness  of  the  extreme  clerical 
party.  The  majority  of  the  Chamber  did  not  share  the  prime 
minister's  animosity  towards  the  Church,  for  which  at  the  same 
time  it  had  not  the  least  enthusiasm,  and  under  the  concordatory 
lead  of  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  it  would  have  been  content  to 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


curb  clerical  pretensions  without  having  recourse  to  extreme 
measures  of  repression.  It  was,  however,  equally  content  to 
follow  the  less  tolerant  guidance  of  M.  Combes.  Thus,  early 
in  the  session  of  1903  it  approved  of  his  circular  forbidding  the 
priests  of  Brittany  to  make  use  of  the  Breton  language  in  their 
religious  instruction  under  pain  of  losing  their  salaries.  It  like- 
wise followed  him  on  the  26th  of  January  when  he  declined  to 
accept,  as  being  premature  and  unpractical,  a  Socialist  resolution 
in  favour  of  suppressing  the  budget  of  public  worship,  though 
the  majority  was  indeed  differently  composed  on  those  two 
occasions.  In  the  Senate  on  the  2gth  of  January  M.  Waldeck- 
Rousseau  indicated  what  his  policy  would  have  been  had  he 
retained  office,  by  severely  criticizing  his  successor's  method  of 
applying  the  Associations  Law.  Instead  of  asking  parliament 
to  judge  on  its  merits  each  several  demand  for  authorization 
made  by  a  congregation,  the  government  had  divided  the  re- 
ligious orders  into  two  chief  categories,  teaching  orders  and 
preaching  orders,  and  had  recommended  that  all  should  be 
suppressed  by  a  general  refusal  of  authorization.  The  Grande 
Chartreuse  was  put  into  a  category  by  itself  as  a  trading  associa- 
tion and  waa  dissolved;  but  Lourdes,  which  with  its  crowds 
of  pilgrims  enriched  the  Pyrenean  region  and  the  railway  com- 
panies serving  it,  was  spared  for  electioneering  reasons.  A 
dispute  arose  between  the  government  and  the  Vatican  on  the 
nomination  of  bishops  to  vacant  sees.  The  Vatican  insisted  on 
the  words  "  nobis  nominamt "  in  the  papal  bulls  instituting  the 
bishops  nominated  by  the  chief  of  the  executive  in  France  under 
the  Concordat.  M.  Combes  objected  to  the  pronoun,  and  main- 
tained that  the  complete  nomination  belonged  to  the  French 
government,  the  Holy  See  having  no  choice  in  the  matter,  but 
only  the  power  of  canonical  institution.  This  produced  a  dead- 
lock, with  the  consequence  that  no  more  bishops  were  ever  again 
appointed  under  the  Concordat,  which  both  before  and  after  the 
Easter  recess  M.  Combes  now  threatened  to  repudiate.  These 
menaces  derived  an  increased  importance  from  the  failing  health 
of  the  pope.  Leo  XIII.  had  attained  the  great  age  of  ninety- 
three,  and  on  the  choice  of  his  successor  grave  issues  depended. 
He  died  on  the  2Oth  of  July  1903.  The  conclave  indicated  as 
his  successor  his  secretary  of  state,  Cardinal  Rampolla,  an  able 
exponent  of  the  late  pope's  diplomatic  methods  and  also  a  warm 
friend  of  France.  It  was  said  to  be  the  latter  quality  which 
induced  Austria  to  exercise  its  ancient  power  of  veto  on  the  choice 
of  a  conclave,  and  finally  Cardinal  Sarto,  patriarch  of  Venice, 
a  pious  prelate  inexperienced  in  diplomacy,  was  elected  and  took 
the  title  of  Pius  X.  In  September  the  inauguration  of  a  statue  of 
Renan  at  Treguier,  his  birthplace,  was  made  the  occasion  of  an 
anti-clerical  demonstration  in  Catholic  and  reactionary  Brittany, 
at  which  the  prime  minister  made  a  militant  speech  in  the  name 
of  the  freethinkers  of  France,  though  Renan  was  a  Voltairian 
aristocrat  who  disliked  the  aims  and  methods  of  modern  Radical- 
Socialists.  In  the  course  of  his  speech  M.  Combes  pointed  out 
that  the  anti-clerical  policy  of  the  government  had  not  caused 
the  Republic  to  lose  prestige  in  the  eyes  of  the  monarchies  of 
Europe,  which  were  then  showing  it  unprecedented  attentions. 
This  assertion  was  true,  and  had  reference  to  the  visit  of  the  king 
of  England  to  the  president  of  the  Republic  in  May  and  the 
projected  visit  of  the  king  of  Italy.  That  of  Edward  VII., 
which  was  the  first  state  visit  of  a  British  sovereign  to  France 
for  nearly  fifty  years,  was  returned  by  President  Loubet  in  July, 
and  was  welcomed  by  all  parties,  excepting  some  of  the  re- 
actionaries. M.  Millevoye,  a  Nationalist  deputy  for  Paris,  in 
the  Patrie  counselled  the  Parisians  to  remember  Fashoda,  the 
Transvaal  War,  and  the  attitude  of  the  English  in  the  Dreyfus 
affair,  and  to  greet  the  British  monarch  with  cries  of  "  Vivent  les 
Boers."  M.  Deroulede,  the  most  interesting  member  of  the 
Nationalist  party,  wrote  from  his  exile  at  Saint-Sebastien 
protesting  against  the  folly  of  this  proceeding,  which  merits  to 
be  put  on  record  as  an  example  of  the  incorrigible  ineptitude 
of  the  reactionaries  in  France.  The  incident  served  only  to 
prove  their  complete  lack  of  influence  on  popular  feeling,  while 
it  damaged  the  cause  of  the  Church  at  a  most  critical  moment 
by  showing  that  the  only  persons  in  France  willing  to  insult  a 


friendly  monarch  who  was  the  guest  of  the  nation,  belonged 
to  the  clerical  party.  Of  the  royal  visits  that  of  the  king  of  Italy 
was  the  more  important  in  its  immediate  effects  on  the  history 
of  France,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  narration  of  the  events  of  1904. 

The  session  of  1904  began  with  the  election  of  a  new  president 
of  the  Chamber,  on  the  retirement  of  M.  Bourgeois.  The  choice 
fell  on  M.  Henri  Brisson,  an  old  Radical,  but  not  a  Socialist, 
who  had  held  that  post  in  1881  and  had  subsequently  filled  it 
on  ten  occasions,  the  election  to  the  office  being  annual.  The 
narrow  majority  he  obtained  over  M.  Paul  Bertrand,  a  little- 
known  moderate  Republican,  by  secret  ballot,  followed  by  the 
defeat  of  M.  Jaures,  the  Socialist  leader,  for  one  of  the  vice- 
presidential  chairs,  showed  that  one  half  of  the  Chamber  was  of 
moderate  tendency.  But,  as  events  proved,  the  Moderates 
lacked  energy  and  leadership,  so  the  influence  of  the  Radical 
prime  minister  prevailed.  In  a  debate  on  the  22nd  of  January 
on  the  expulsion  of  an  Alsatian  priest  of  French  birth  from  a 
French  frontier  department  by  the  French  police,  M.  Ribot, 
who  set  an  example  of  activity  to  younger  men  of  the  moderate 
groups,  reproached  M.  Combes  with  reducing  all  questions  in 
which  the  French  nation  was  interested  to  the  single  one  of  anti- 
clericalism,  and  the  prime  minister  retorted  that  it  was  solely 
for  that  purpose  that  he  took  office.  In  pursuance  of  this  policy 
a  bill  was  introduced,  and  was  passed  by  the  Chamber  before 
Easter,  interdicting  from  teaching  all  members  of  religious 
orders,  authorized  or  not  authorized.  Among  other  results  this 
law,  which  the  Senate  passed  in  the  summer,  swept  out  of  exist- 
ence the  schools  of  the  Freres  de  la  Doctrine  Chretienne  (Christian 
Brothers)  and  closed  in  all  2400  schools  before  the  end  of  the 
year. 

This  drastic  act  of  anti-clerical  policy,  which  was  a  total 
repudiation  by  parliament  of  the  principle  of  liberty  of  education, 
should  have  warned  the  authorities  of  the  Church  of  the  relentless 
attitude  of  the  government.  The  most  superficial  observation 
ought  to  have  shown  them  that  the  indifference  of  the  nation 
would  permit  the  prime  minister  to  go  to  any  length,  and  common 
prudence  should  have  prevented  them  from  affording  him  any 
pretext  for  more  damaging  measures.  The  President  of  the 
Republic  accepted  an  invitation  to  return  the  visit  of  the  king 
of  Italy.  When  it  was  submitted  to  the  Chamber  on  March 
25th,  1904,  a  reactionary  deputy  moved  the  rejection  of  the  vote 
for  the  expenses  of  the  journey  on  the  ground  that  the  chief 
of  the  French  executive  ought  not  to  visit  the  representative 
of  the  dynasty  which  had  plundered  the  papacy.  The  amend- 
ment was  rejected  by  a  majority  of  502  votes  to  12,  which  showed 
that  at  a  time  of  bitter  controversy  on  ecclesiastical  questions 
French  opinion  was  unanimous  in  approving  the  visit  of  the 
president  of  the  Republic  to  Rome  as  the  guest  of  the  king  of 
Italy.  Nothing  could  be  more  gratifying  to  the  entire  French 
nation,  both  on  racial  and  on  traditional  grounds,  than  such  a 
testimony  of  a  complete  revival  of  friendship  with  Italy,  of  late 
years  obscured  by  the  Triple  Alliance.  Yet  the  Holy  See  saw 
fit  to  advance  pretensions  inevitably  certain  to  serve  the  ends 
of  the  extreme  anti-clericals,  whose  most  intolerant  acts  at  that 
moment,  such  as  the  removal  of  the  crucifixes  from  the  law- 
courts,  were  followed  by  new  electoral  successes.  Thus  the 
reactionary  majority  on  the  Paris  municipal  council  was  dis- 
placed by  the  Radical-Socialists  on  the  ist  of  May,  the  day  that 
M.  Loubet  returned  from  his  visit  to  Rome.  On  the  i6th  of 
May  M.  Jaures'  Socialist  organ,  L'Humanite,  published  the  text 
of  a  protest,  addressed  by  the  pope  to  the  powers  having  diplo- 
matic relations  with  the  Vatican,  against  the  visit  of  the  president 
of  the  Republic  to  the  King  of  Italy.  This  document,  dated 
the  28th  of  April,  was  offensive  in  tone  both  to  France  and  to 
Italy.  It  intimated  that  while  Catholic  sovereigns  refrained 
from  visiting  the  person  who,  contrary  to  right,  exercised  civil 
sovereignty  in  Rome,  that  "  duty  "  was  even  more  "  imperious" 
for  the  ruler  of  France  by  reason  of  the  "  privileges  "  enjoyed 
by  that  country  from  the  Concordat;  that  the  journey  of  M. 
Loubet  to  "  pay  homage  "  within  the  pontifical  see  to  that 
person  was  an  insult  to  the  sovereign  pontiff;  and  that  only  for 
reasons  of  special  gravity  was  the  nuncio  permitted  to  remain 


890 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


in  Paris.  The  publication  of  this  document  caused  some  joy 
among  the  extreme  clericals,  but  this  was  nothing  to  the  exulta- 
tion of  the  extreme  anti-clericals,  who  saw  that  the  prudent 
diplomacy  of  Leo  XIII.,  which  had  risen  superior  to  many  a 
provocation  of  the  French  government,  was  succeeded  by  a 
papal  policy  which  would  facilitate  their  designs  in  a  manner 
unhoped  for.  Moderate  men  were  dismayed,  seeing 
Diplomatic  tnat  the  Concordat  was  now  in  instant  danger;  but 
<RomeW'tl'  the  majority  of  the  French  nation  remained  entirely 
indifferent  to  its  fate.  Within  a  week  France  took 
the  initiative  by  recalling  the  ambassador  to  the  Vatican, 
M.  Nisard,  leaving  a  third-secretary  in  charge.  In  the  debate 
in  the  Chamber  upon  the  incident,  the  foreign  minister,  M. 
Delcasse,  said  that  the  ambassador  was  recalled,  not  because 
the  Vatican  had  protested  against  the  visit  of  the  president 
to  the  king  of  Italy,  but  because  it  had  communicated  this 
protest,  in  terms  offensive  to  France,  to  foreign  powers.  The 
Chamber  on  the  27th  of  May  approved  the  recall  of  the  ambassador 
by  the  large  majority  of  420  to  90.  By  a  much  smaller  majority 
it  rejected  a  Socialist  motion  that  the  Nuncio  should  be  given  his 
passports.  The  action  of  the  Holy  See  was  not  actually  an 
infringement  of  the  Concordat;  so  the  government,  satisfied 
with  the  effect  produced  on  public  opinion,  which  was  now 
quite  prepared  for  a  rupture  with  the  Vatican,  was  willing 
to  wait  for  a  new  pretext,  which  was  not  long  in  coming.  Two 
bishops,  Mgr.  Geay  of  Laval  and  Mgr.  Le  Nordez  of  Dijon,  were 
on  bad  terms  with  the  clerical  reactionaries  in  their  dioceses. 
The  friends  of  the  prelates,  including  some  of  their  episcopal 
brethren,  thought  that  their  chief  offence  was  their  loyalty  to  the 
Republic,  and  it  was  an  unfortunate  coincidence  that  these 
bishops,  subjected  to  proceedings  which  had  been  unknown  under 
the  long  pontificate  of  Leo  XIII.,  should  have  been  two  who 
had  incurred  the  animosity  of  anti-republicans.  Their  enemies 
accused  Mgr.  Geay  of  immorality  and  Mgr.  Le  Nordez  of  being 
in  league  with  the  freemasons.  The  bishop  of  Laval  was 
summoned  by  the  Holy  Office,  without  any  communication 
with  the  French  government,  to  resign  his  see,  and  he  submitted 
the  citation  forthwith  to  the  minister  of  public  worship.  The 
French  charge  d'affaires  at  the  Vatican  was  instructed  to  protest 
against  this  grave  infringement  of  an  article  of  the  Concordat, 
and,  soon  after,  against  another  violation  of  the  Concordat 
committed  by  the  Nuncio,  who  had  written  to  the  bishop  of 
Dijon  ordering  him  to  suspend  his  ordinations,  the  Nuncio 
being  limited,  like  all  other  ambassadors,  to  communicating 
the  instructions  of  his  government  through  the  intermediary 
of  the  minister  for  foreign  affairs.  The  Vatican  declined  to 
give  any  satisfaction  to  the  French  government  and  summoned 
the  two  bishops  to  Rome  under  pain  of  suspension.  So  the 
French  charge  d'affaires  was  directed  to  leave  Rome,  after  having 
informed  the  Holy  See  that  the  government  of  the  Republic 
considered  that  the  mission  of  the  apostolic  Nuncio  in  Paris  was 
terminated.  Thus  came  to  an  end  on  the  3oth  of  July  1904 
the  diplomatic  relations  which  under  the  Concordat  had  subsisted 
between  France  and  the  Vatican  for  more  than  a  hundred  years. 
Twelve  days  later  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  died,  having  lived 
just  long  enough  to  see  this  unanticipated  result  of  his  policy. 
It  was  said  that  his  resolve  to  regulate  the  religious  associations 
arose  from  his  feeling  that  whatever  injustice  had  been  com- 
mitted in  the  Dreyfus  case  had  been  aggravated  by  the  action  of 
certain  unauthorized  orders.  However  that  may  be,  his  own 
utterances  showed  that  he  believed  that  his  policy  was  one  of 
finality.  But  he  had  not  reckoned  that  his  legislation,  which 
needed  hands  as  calm  and  impartial  as  his  own  to  apply  it, 
would  be  used  in  a  manner  he  had  not  contemplated  by  sectarian 
politicians  who  would  be  further  aided  by  the  self-destructive 
policy  of  the  highest  authorities  of  the  Church.  When  parlia- 
ment assembled  for  the  autumn  session  a  general  feeling  was 
expressed,  by  moderate  politicians  as  well  as  by  supporters  of 
the  Combes  ministry,  that  disestablishment  was  inevitable.  The 
prime  minister  said  that  he  had  been  long  in  favour  of  it,  though 
the  previous  year  he  had  intimated  to  M.  Nisard,  ambassador 
to  the  Vatican,  that  he  had  not  a  majority  in  parliament  to  vote 


it.  But  the  papacy  and  the  clergy  had  since  done  everything 
to  change  that  situation.  The  Chamber  did  not  move  in  the 
matter  beyond  appointing  a  committee  to  consider  the  general 
question,  to  which  M.  Combes  submitted  in  his  own  name  a 
bill  for  the  separation  of  the  churches  from  the  State. 

During  the  last  three  months  of  1904  public  opinion  was 
diverted  to  the  cognate  question  of  the  existence  of  masonic 
delation  in  the  army.  M.  Guyot  de  Villeneuve,  War 
Nationalist  deputy  for  Saint  Denis,  who  had  been  office 
dismissed  from  the  army  by.  General  de  Galliffet  in 
connexion  with  the  Dreyfus  affair,  brought  before  the 
Chamber  a  collection  of  documents  which,  it  seemed,  had  been 
abstracted  from  the  Grand  Orient  of  France,  the  headquarters 
of  French  freemasonry,  by  an  official  of  that  order.  These  papers 
showed  that  an  elaborate  system  of  espionage  and  delation 
had  been  organized  by  the  freemasons  throughout  France  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  information  as  to  the  political  opinions 
and  religious  practices  of  the  officers  of  the  army,  and  that  this 
system  was  worked  with  the  connivance  of  certain  officials 
of  the  ministry  of  war.  Its  aim  appeared  to  be  to  ascertain  if 
officers  went  to  mass  or  sent  their  children  to  convent  schools 
or  in  any  way  were  in  sympathy  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion,  the  names  of  officers  so  secretly  denounced  being  placed 
on  a  black-list  at  the  War  Office,  whereby  they  were  disqualified 
for  promotion.  There  was  no  doubt  about  the  authenticity  of 
the  documents  or  of  the  facts  which  they  revealed.  Radical 
ex-ministers  joined  with  moderate  Republicans  and  reactionaries 
in  denouncing  the  system.  Anti-clerical  deputies  declared 
that  it  was  no  use  to  cleanse  the  war  office  of  the  influence  of  the 
Jesuits,  which  was  alleged  to  have  prevailed  there,  if  it  were  to 
be  replaced  by  another  occult  power,  more  demoralizing  because 
more  widespread.  Only  the  Socialists  and  a  few  of  the  Radical- 
Socialists  in  the  Chamber'  supported  the  action  of  the  freemasons. 
General  Andre,  minister  of  war,  was  so  clearly  implicated,  with 
the  evident  approval  of  the  prime  minister,  that  a  revulsion 
of  feeling  against  the  policy  of  the  anti-clerical  cabinet  began  to 
operate  in  the  Chamber.  Had  the  opposition  been  wisely  guided 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  a  moderate  ministry  would 
have  been  called  to  office  and  the  history  of  the  Church  in  France 
might  have  been  changed.  But  the  .reactionaries,  with  their 
accustomed  folly,  played  into  the  hands  of  their  adversaries. 
The  minister  of  war  had  made  a  speech  which  produced  a  bad 
impression.  As  he  stepped  down  from  the  tribune  he  was 
struck  in  the  face  by  a  Nationalist  deputy  for  Paris,  a  much 
younger  man  than  he.  The  cowardly  assault  did  not  save  the 
minister,  who  was  too  deeply  compromised  in  the  delation  scandal. 
But  it  saved  the  anti-clerical  party,  by  rallying  a  number  of 
waverers  who,  until  this  exhibition  of  reactionary  policy,  were 
prepared  to  go  over  to  the  Moderates,  from  the  "  bloc,"  as  the 
ministerial  majority  was  called.  The  Nationalist  deputy  was 
committed  to  the  assizes  on  the  technical  charge  of  assaulting  a 
functionary  while  performing  his  official  duties.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  year,  on  the  eve  of  his  trial,  he  met  with  a  violent 
death,  and  the  circumstances  which  led  to  it,  when  made 
public,  showed  that  this  champion  of  the  Church  was  a  man 
of  low  morality.  General  Andre  had  previously  resigned  and 
was  succeeded  as  minister  of  war  by  M.  Berteaux,  a  wealthy 
stock-broker  and  a  Socialist. 

The  Combes  cabinet  could  not  survive  the  delation  scandal, 
in  spite  of  the  resignation  of  the  minister  of  war  and  the  in- 
eptitude of  the  opposition.     On  the  8th  of  January      pga 
1905,  two  days  before  parliament  met,  an  election  took     of  the 
place  in  Paris  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  death     Combes 
of  the  Nationalist  deputy  who  had  assaulted  General 
Andre.     The  circumstances  of  his  death,  at  that  time  partially 
revealed,  did  not  deter  the  electors  from  choosing'  by   a   large 
majority  a  representative  of  the  same  party,  Admiral  Bienaime, 
who  the  previous  year  had  been  removed  for  political  reasons 
from  the  post  of  maritime  prefect  at  Toulon,  by  M.  Camille 
Pelletan,  minister  of  marine.    A  more  serious  check  to  the  Combes 
ministry  was  given  by  the  refusal  of  the  Chamber  to  re-elect  as 
president  M.  Brisson,  who  was  defeated  by  a  majority  of  twenty- 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


891 


five  by  M.  Doumer,  ex-Governor-General  of  Indo-China,  who, 
though  he  had  entered  politics  as  a  Radical,  was  now  supported 
by  the  anti-republican  reactionaries  as  well  as  by  the  moderate 
Republicans.  A  violent  debate  arose  on  the  question  of  expelling 
from  the  Legion  of  Honour  certain  members  of  that  order, 
including  a  general  officer,  who  had  been  involved  in  the  delation 
scandal.  M.  Jaures,  the  eloquent  Socialist  deputy  for  Albi,  who 
played  the  part  of  Eminence  grise  to  M.  Combes  in  his  anti- 
clerical campaign,  observed  that  the  party  which  was  now 
'demanding  the  purification  of  the  order  had  been  in  no  hurry 
to  expel  from  it  Esterhazy  long  after  his  crimes  had  been  proved 
in  connexion  with  the  Dreyfus  case.  The  debate  was  inconclusive, 
and  the  government  on  the  i4th  of  January  obtained  a  vote 
of  confidence  by  a  majority  of  six.  But  M.  Combes,  whose 
animosity  towards  the  church  was  keener  than  his  love  of  office, 
saw  that  his  ministry  would  be  constantly  liable  to  be  put  in  a 
minority,  and  that  thus  the  consideration  of  separation  might 
be  postponed  until  after  the  general  elections  of  1906.  So 
he  announced  his  resignation  in  an  unprecedented  manifesto 
addressed  to  the  president  of  the  Republic  on  the  i8th  January. 
M.  Rouvier,  minister  of  finance  in  the  outgoing  government, 
was  called  upon  for  the  second  time  in  his  career  to  form  a  ministry. 
A  moderate  opportunist  himself,  he  intended  to  form 
Rouvier  a  coalition  cabinet  in  which  all  groups  of  Republicans, 
ministry,  from  the  Centre  to  the  extreme  Left,  would  be  repre- 
sented. But  he  failed,  and  the  ministry  of  the  24th 
of  January  1905  contained  no  members  of  the  Republican  opposi- 
tion which  had  combated  M.  Combes.  The  prime  minister 
retained  the  portfolio  of  finance;  M.  Delcasse  remained  at  the 
foreign  office,  which  he  had  directed  since  1898,  and  M.  Berteaux 
at  the  war  office;  M.  Etienne,  member  for  Oran,  went  to  the 
ministry  of  the  interior;  another  Algerian  deputy,  M.  Thomson, 
succeeded  M.  Camille  Pelletan  at  the  ministry  of  marine,  which 
department  was  said  to  have  fallen  into  inefficiency;  public 
worship  was  separated  from  the  department  of  the  interior 
and  joined  with  that  of  education  under  M.  Bienvenu-Martin, 
Radical-Socialist  deputy  for  Auxerre,  who  was  new  to  official 
life.  Although  M.  Rouvier,  as  befitted  a  politician  of  the  school 
of  Waldeck-Rousseau,  disliked  the  separation  of  the  churches 
from  the  state,  he  accepted  that  policy  as  inevitable.  After  the 
action  of  the  Vatican  in  1904,  which  had  produced  the  rupture  of 
diplomatic  relations  with  France,  many  moderates  who  had  been 
persistent  in  their  opposition  to  the  Combes  ministry,  and  even 
certain  Nationalists,  accepted  the  principle  of  separation,  but 
urged  that  it  should  be  effected  on  liberal  terms.  So  on  the  27th 
of  January,  after  the  minister  of  education  and  public  worship 
had  announced  that  the  government  intended  to  introduce  a 
separation  bill,  a  vote  of  confidence  was  obtained  by  a  majority 
of  373  to  99,  half  of  the  majority  being  opponents  of  the  Combes 
ministry  of  various  Republican  and  reactionary  groups,  while 
the  minority  was  composed  of  84  Radicals  and  Socialists  and 
only  15  reactionaries. 

On  the  2ist  of  March  the  debates  on  the  separation  of  the 
churches  from  the  state  began.  A  commission  had  been  appointed 
in  1904  to  examine  the  subject.  Its  reporter  was  M. 
Aristide  Briand,  Socialist  member  for  Saint  Etienne. 
r/onTsw.  According  to  French  parliamentary  procedure,  the 
reporter  of  a  commission,  directed  to  draw  up  a  great 
scheme  of  legislation,  can  make  himself  a  more  important  person 
in  conducting  it  through  a  house  of  legislature  than  the  minister 
in  charge  of  the  bill.  This  is  what  M.  Briand  succeeded  in  doing. 
He  produced  with  rapidity  a  "  report  "  on  the  whole  question, 
in  which  he  traced  with  superficial  haste  the  history  of  the  Church 
in  France  from  the  baptism  of  Clovis,  and  upon  this  drafted  a 
bill  which  was  accepted  by  the  government.  He  thus  at  one 
bound  came  from  obscurity  into  the  front  rank  of  politicians, 
and  in  devising  a  revolutionary  measure  learned  a  lesson  of 
moderate  statesmanship.  In  conducting  the  debates  he  took 
the  line  of  throwing  the  responsibility  for  the  rupture  of  the 
Concordat  on  the  pope.  The  leadership  of  the  Opposition  fell 
on  M.  Ribot,  who  had  been  twice  prime  minister  of  the  Republic 
and  was  not  a  practising  Catholic.  He  recognized  that  separation 


had  become  inevitable,  but  argued  that  it  could  be  accomplished 
as  a  permanent  act  only  in  concert  with  the  Holy  See.  The 
clerical  party  in  the  Chamber  did  little  in  defence  of  the  Church. 
The  abbes  Lemire  and  Gayraud,  the  only  ecclesiastics  in  parlia- 
ment, spoke  with  moderation,  and  M.  Groussau,  a  Catholic 
jurist,  attacked  the  measure  with  less  temperate  zeal;  but  the 
best  serious  defence  of  the  interests  of  the  Church  came  from  the 
Republican  centre.  Few  amendments  from  the  extreme  Left 
were  accepted  by  M.  Briand,  whose  general  tone  was  moderate 
and  not  illiberal.  One  feature  of  the  debates  was  the  reluctance 
of  the  prime  minister  to  take  part  in  them,  even  when  financial 
clauses  were  discussed  in  which  his  own  office  was  particularly 
concerned.  The  bill  finally  passed  the  Chamber  on  the  3rd  of 
July  by  341  votes  against  233,  the  majority  containing  a  certain 
number  of  conservative  Republicans  and  Nationalists.  At  the 
end  the  Radical-Socialists  manifested  considerable  discontent 
at  the  liberal  tendencies  of  M.  Briand,  and  declared  that  the 
measure  as  it  left  the  Chamber  could  be  considered  only  pro- 
visional. In  the  Senate  it  underwent  no  amendment  whatever, 
not  a  single  word  being  altered.  The  prime  minister,  M.  Rouvier, 
never  once  opened  his  lips  during  the  lengthy  debates,  in  the 
course  of  which  M.  Clemenceau,  as  a  philosophical  Radical  who 
voted  for  the  bill,  criticized  it  as  too  concordatory,  while  M. 
Meline,  as  a  moderate  Republican,  who  voted  against  it,  pre- 
dicted that  it  would  create  such  a  state  of  things  as  would 
necessitate  new  negotiations  with  Rome  a  few  years  later.  It 
was  finally  passed  by  a  majority  of  181  to  102,  the  complete 
number  of  senators  being  300,  and  three  days  later,  on  the  gth 
of  December  1905,  it  was  promulgated  as  law  by  the  president 
of  the  Republic. 

The  main  features  of  the  act  were  as  follows.  The  first  clauses 
guaranteed  liberty  of  conscience  and  the  free  practice  of  public 
worship,  and  declared  that  henceforth  the  Republic  neither 
recognized  nor  remunerated  any  form  of  religion,  except  in  the 
case  of  chaplains  to  public  schools,  hospitals  and  prisons.  It 
provided  that  after  inventories  had  been  taken  of  the  real  and 
personal  property  in  the  hands  of  religious  bodies,  hitherto 
remunerated  by  the  state,  to  ascertain  whether  such  property 
belonged  to  the  state,  the  department,  or  the  commune,  all  such 
property  should  be  transferred  to  associations  of  public  worship 
(associations  cultuelles)  established  in  each  commune  in  accordance 
with  the  rules  of  the  religion  which  they  represented,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  on  the  practices  of  that  religion.  As  the  Vatican 
subsequently  refused  to  permit  Catholics  to  take  part  in  these 
associations,  the  important  clauses  relating  to  their  organization 
and  powers  became  a  dead  letter,  except  in  the  case  of  the  Pro- 
testant and  Jewish  associations,  which  affected  only  a  minute 
proportion  of  the  religious  establishments  under  the  act.  Nothing, 
therefore,  need  be  said  about  them  except  that  the  chief  discus- 
sions in  the  Chamber  took  place  with  regard  to  their  constitution, 
which  was  so  amended,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  the  extreme 
anti-clericals,  that  many  moderate  critics  of  the  original  bill 
thought  that  thereby  the  regular  practice  of  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion, under  episcopal  control,  had  been  safeguarded.  A  system 
of  pensions  for  ministers  of  religion  hitherto  paid  by  the  state  was 
provided,  according  to  the  age  and  the  length  of  service  of  the 
ecclesiastics  interested,  while  in  small  communes  of  under  a 
thousand  inhabitants  the  clergy  were  to  receive  in  any  case  their 
full  pay  for  eight  years.  The  bishops'  palaces  were  to  be  left 
gratuitously  at  the  disposal  of  the  occupiers  for  two  years,  and 
the  presbyteries  and  seminaries  for  five  years.  This  provision 
too  became  a  dead  letter,  owing  to  the  orders  given  by  the  Holy 
See  to  the  clergy.  Other  provisions  enacted  that  the  churches 
should  not  be  used  for  political  meetings,  while  the  services  held 
in  them  were  protected  by  the  law  from  the  acts  of  disturbers. 
As  the  plenary  operation  of  the  law  depended  on  the  associations 
cultuelles,  the  subsequent  failure  to  create  those  bodies  makes 
it  useless  to  give  a  complete  exposition  of  a  statute  of  which 
they  were  an  essential  feature. 

The  passing  of  the  Separation  Law  was  the  chief  act  of  the 
last  year  of  the  presidency  of  M.  Loubet.  One  other  important 
measure  has  to  be  noted,  the  law  reducing  compulsory  military 


892 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


service  to  two  years.  The  law  of  1889  had  provided  a  general 
service  of  three  years,  with  an  extensive  system  of  dispensations 
accorded  to  persons  for  domestic  reasons,  or  because  they  belonged 
to  certain  categories  of  students,  such  citizens  being  let  off  with 
one  year's  service  with  the  colours  or  being  entirely  exempted. 
The  new  law  exacted  two  years'  service  from  every  Frenchman, 
no  one  being  exempted  save  for  physical  incapacity.  Under 
the  act  of  1905  even  the  cadets  of  the  military  college  of  Saint 
Cyr  and  of  the  Polytechnic  had  to  serve  in  the  ranks  before 
entering  those  schools.  Anti-military  doctrines  continued  to 
be  encouraged  by  the  Socialist  party,  M.  Herve,  the  professor 
who  had  been  revoked  in  1901  for  his  suggestion  of  a  military 
strike  in  case  of  war  and  for  other  unpatriotic  utterances,  being 
elected  a  member  of  the  administrative  committee  of  the  Unified 
Socialist  party,  of  which  M.  Jaures  was  one  of  the  chiefs.  At 
a  congress  of  elementary  schoolmasters  at  Lille  in  August,  anti- 
military  resolutions  were  passed  and  a  general  adherence  was 
given  to  the  doctrines  of  M.  Herve.  At  Longwy,  in  the  Eastern 
coal-field,  a  strike  took  place  in  September,  during  which  the 
military  was  called  out  to  keep  order  and  a  workman  was  killed 
in  a  cavalry  charge.  The  minister  of  war,  M.  Berteaux,  visited 
the  scene  of  the  disturbance,  and  was  reported  to  have  saluted 
the  red  revolutionary  flag  which  was  borne  by  a  procession  of 
strikers  singing  the  "  Internationale." 

During  the  autumn  session  in  November  M.  Berteaux  suddenly 
resigned  the  portfolio  of  war  during  a  sitting  of  the  Chamber, 
and  was  succeeded  by  M.  Etienne,  minister  of  the  interior,  a 
moderate  politician  who  inspired  greater  confidence.  Earlier 
in  the  year  other  industrial  strikes  of  great  gravity  had  taken 
place,  notably  at  Limoges,  among  the  potters,  where  several 
deaths  took  place  in  a  conflict  with  the  troops  and  a  factory 
was  burnt.  Even  more  serious  were  the  strikes  in  the  govern- 
ment arsenals  in  November.  At  Cherbourg  and  Brest  only  a 
small  proportion  of  the  workmen  went  out,  but  at  Lorient, 
Rochefort  and  especially  at  Toulon  the  strikes  were  on  a  much 
larger  scale.  In  1905  solemn  warnings  were  given  in  the  Chamber 
of  the  coming  crisis  in  the  wine-growing  regions  of  the  South. 
Radical-Socialists  such  as  M.  Doumergue,  the  deputy  for  Nimes 
and  a  member  of  the  Combes  ministry,  joined  with  monarchists 
such  as  M.  Lasies,  deputy  of  the  Gers,  in  calling  attention  to 
the  distress  of  the  populations  dependent  on  the  vine.  They 
argued  that  the  wines  of  the  South  found  no  market,  not  because 
of  the  alleged  over-production,  but  because  of  the  competition 
of  artificial  wines;  that  formerly  only  twenty  departments  of 
France  were  classed  in  the  atlas  as  wine-producing,  but  that 
thanks  to  the  progress  of  chemistry  seventy  departments  were 
now  so  described.  The  deputies  of  the  north  of  France  and  of 
Paris,  irrespective  of  party,  opposed  these  arguments,  and  the 
government,  while  promising  to  punish  fraud,  did  not  seem  to 
take  very  seriously  the  legitimate  warnings  of  the  representa- 
tives of  the  South. 

The  Republic  continued  to  extend  its  friendly  relations  with 
foreign  powers,  and  the  end  of  M.  Loubet's  term  of  office  was 
signalized  by  a  procession  of  royal  visits  to  Paris,  some  of  which 
the  president  returned.  At  the  end  of  May  the  king  of  Spain 
came  and  narrowly  escaped  assassination  from  a  bomb  which 
was  thrown  at  him  by  a  Spaniard  as  he  was  returning  with 
the  president  from  the  opera.  In  October  M.  Loubet  returned 
this  visit  at  Madrid  and  went  on  to  Lisbon  to  see  the  king  of 
Portugal,  being  received  by  the  queen,  who  was  the  daughter 
of  the  comte  de  Paris  and  the  sister  of  the  due  d'Orleans,  both 
exiled  by  the  Republic.  In  November  the  king  of  Portugal 
came  to  Paris,  and  the  president  of  the  Republic  also  received 
during  the  year  less  formal  visits  from  the  kings  of  England  and 
of  Greece. 

One    untoward    international    event    affecting    the    French 
ministry  occurred  in  June  1905.     M.  Delcasse  (see  section  on 
Exterior  Policy) ,  who  had  been  foreign  minister  longer 
t^lan  anv  holder  of   that  office  under  the  Republic, 
resigned,  and  it  was  believed  that  he  had  been  sacrificed 
by  the  prime  minister  to  the  exigencies  of  Germany, 
which  power  was  said  to  be  disquieted  at  his  having,  in  connexion 


with  the  Morocco  question,  isolated  Germany  by  promoting  the 
friendly  relations  of  France  with  England,  Spain  and  Italy. 
Whether  it  be  true  or  not  that  the  French  government  was 
really  in  alarm  at  the  possibility  of  a  declaration  of  war  by 
Germany,  the  impression  given  was  unfavourable,  nor  was  it 
removed  when  M.  Rouvier  himself  took  the  portfolio  of  foreign 
affairs. 

The  year  1906  is  remarkable  in  the  history  of  the  Third 
Republic  in  that  it  witnessed  the  renewal  of  all  the  public 
powers  in  the  state.  A  new  president  of  the  Republic  „  E  „ 

ii_j         .t»  jipT  i  •.         •      "*•  raiueres 

was  elected  on  the  i7th  of  January  ten  days  after  the  president 
triennial  election  of  one  third  of  the  senate,  and  the  of  the 
general  election  of  the  chamber  of  deputies  followed  KeP"bllc- 
in  May — the  ninth  which  had  taken  place  under  the  constitution 
of  1875.  The  senatorial  elections  of  the  7th  of  January  showed 
that  the  delegates  of  the  people  who  chose  the  members  of  the 
upper  house  and  represented  the  average  opinion  of  the  country 
approved  of  the  anti-clerical  legislation  of  parliament.  The 
election  of  M.  Fallieres,  president  of  the  senate,  to  the  presidency 
of  the  Republic  was  therefore  anticipated,  he  being  the  candidate 
of  the  parliamentary  majorities  which  had  disestablished  the 
church.  At  the  congress  of  the  two  chambers  held  at  Versailles 
on  the  lyth  of  January  he  received  the  absolute  majority  of  449 
votes  out  of  849  recorded.  The  candidate  of  the  Opposition  was 
M.  Paul  Doumer,  whose  anti-clericalism  in  the  past  was  so 
extreme  that  when  married  he  had  dispensed  with  a  religious 
ceremony  and  his  children  were  unbaptized.  So  the  curious 
spectacle  was  presented  of  the  Moderate  Opportunist  M.  Fallieres 
being  elected  by  Radicals  and  Socialists,  while  the  Radical 
candidate  was  supported  by  Moderates  and  Reactionaries.  For 
the  second  time  a  president  of  the  senate,  the  second  official 
personage  in  the  Republic,  was  advanced  to  the  chief  magistracy, 
M.  Loubet  having  been  similarly  promoted.  As  in  his  case, 
M.  Fallieres  owed  his  election  to  M.  Clemenceau.  When  M. 
Loubet  was  elected  M.  Clemenceau  had  not  come  to  the  end 
of  his  retirement  from  parliamentary  life;  but  in  political 
circles,  with  his  powerful  pen  and  otherwise,  he  was  resuming 
his  former  influence  as  a  "  king-maker."  He  knew  of  the 
precariousness  of  Felix  Faure's  health  and  of  the  indiscretions 
of  the  elderly  president.  So  when  the  presidency  suddenly 
became  vacant  in  January  1899  he  had  already  fixed  his  choice 
on  M.  Loubet,  as  a  candidate  whose  unobtrusive  name  excited 
no  jealousy  among  the  republicans.  At  that  moment,  owing 
to  the  crisis  caused  by  the  Dreyfus  affair,  the  Republic  needed 
a  safe  man  to  protect  it  against  the  attacks  of  the  plebiscitary 
party  which  had  been  latterly  favoured  by  President  Faure. 
M.  Constans,  it  was  said,  had  in  1899  desired  the  presidency  of 
the  senate,  vacant  by  M.  Loubet's  promotion,  in  preference  to 
the  post  of  ambassador  at  Constantinople.  ButM.  Clemenceau, 
deeming  that  his  name  had  been  too  much  associated  with 
polemics  in  the  past,  contrived  the  election  of  M.  Fallieres  to  the 
second  place  of  dignity  in  the  Republic,  so  as  to  have  another 
safe  candidate  in  readiness  for  the  Elysee  in  case  President 
Loubet  suddenly  disappeared.  M.  Loubet,  however,  completed 
his  septennate,  and  to  the  end  of  it  M.  Fallieres  was  regarded  as 
his  probable  successor.  As  he  fulfilled  his  high  duties  in  the 
senate  inoffensively  without  making  enemies  among  his  political 
friends,  he  escaped  the  fate  which  had  awaited  other  presidents- 
designate  of  the  Republic.  Previously  to  presiding  over  the  senate 
this  Gascon  advocate,  who  had  represented  his  native  Lot-et- 
Garonne,  in  either  chamber,  since  1876,  had  once  been  prime 
minister  for  three  weeks  in  1883.  He  had  also  held  office  in 
six  other  ministries,  so  no  politician  in  France  had  a  larger 
experience  in  administration  and  in  public  affairs. 

On  New  Year's  Day  1906,  the  absence  of  the  Nuncio  from 
the  presidential  reception  of  the  diplomatic  body  marked  con- 
spicuously the  rupture  of  the  Concordat ;  for  hitherto  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  Holy  See  had  ranked  as  doyen  of  the  ambassadors 
to  the  Republic,  whatever  the  relative  seniority  of  his  colleagues, 
and  in  the  name  of  all  the  foreign  powers  had  officially  saluted 
the  chief  of  the  state.  On  the  2oth  of  January  the  inventories 
of  the  churches  were  commenced,  under  the  3rd  clause  of  the 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


893 


The 


menceaa 
minister 
of  the 
Interior. 


Separation  Act,  for  the  purpose  of  assessing  the  value  of  the 
furniture  and  other  objects  which  they  contained.  In  Paris 
they  occasioned  some  disturbance;  but  as  the  protesting  rioters 
were  led  by  persons  whose  hostility  to  the  Republic  was  more 
notorious  than  their  love  for  religion,  the  demonstrations  were 
regarded  as  political  rather  than  religious.  In  certain  rural 
districts,  where  the  church  had  retained  its  influence  and  where 
its  separation  from  the  state  was  unpopular,  the  taking  of  the 
inventories  was  impeded  by  the  inhabitants,  and  in  some  places, 
where  the  troops  were  called  out  to  protect  the  civil  authorities, 
further  feeling  was  aroused  by  the  refusal  of  officers  to  act. 
But,  as  a  rule,  this  first  manifest  operation  of  the  Separation  Law 
was  received  with  indifference  by  the  population.  One  region 
where  popular  feeling  was  displayed  in  favour  of  the  church  was 
Flanders,  where,  in  March,  at  Boeschepe  on  the 
Belgian  frontier,  a  man  was  killed  during  the  taking 
ministry.  °f  an  inventory.  This  accident  caused  the  fall  of  the 
ministry.  The  moderate  Republicans  in  the  Chamber, 
who  had  helped  to  keep  M.  Rouvier  in  office,  withheld  their 
support  in  a  debate  arising  out  of  the  incident,  and  the  govern- 
ment was  defeated  by  thirty-three  votes.  M.  Rouvier  resigned, 
and  the  new  president  of  the  Republic  sent  for  M .  Sarrien,  a  Radical 
of  the  old  school  from  Burgundy,  who  had  been  deputy  for  his 
native  Saone-et-Loire  from  the  foundation  of  the  Chamber  in 
1876  and  had  previously  held  office  in  four  cabinets.  In  M. 
Sarrien's  ministry  of  the  I4th  of  March  1906  the  president  of  the 
council  was  only  a  minor  personage,  its  real  conductor  being 
M.  Clemenceau,  who  accepted  the  portfolio  of  the  interior.  Upon 
him,  therefore  devolved  the  function  of  "  making  the  elections  " 
of  1906,  as  it  is  the  minister  at  the  Place  Beauvau, 
where  all  the  wires  of  administrative  government  are 
centralized,  who  gives  the  orders  to  the  prefectures 
at  each  general  election.  As  in  France  ministers  sit 
and  speak  in  both  houses  of  parliament,  M.  Clemenceau, 
though  a  senator,  now  returned,  after  an  absence  of  thirteen  years, 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which  he  had  played  a  mighty  part 
in  the  first  seventeen  years  of  its  existence.  His  political  ex- 
perience'was  unique.  From  an  early  period  after  entering  the 
Chamber  in  1876  he  had  exercised  there  an  influence  not  exceeded 
by  any  deputy.  Yet  it  was  not  until  1906,  thirty  years  after  his 
first  election  to  parliament,  that  he  held  office — though  in  1888 
he  just  missed  the  presidency  of  the  Chamber,  receiving  the  same 
number  of  votes  as  M.  Meline,  to  whom  the  post  was  allotted  by 
right  of  seniority.  He  now  returned  to  the  tribune  of  the  Palais 
Bourbon,  on  which  he  had  been  a  most  formidable  orator. 
During  his  career  as  deputy  his  eloquence  was  chiefly  destructive, 
and  of  the  nineteen  ministries  which  fell  between  the  election 
of  M.  Grevy  to  the  presidency  of  the  Republic  in  1879  and  his 
own  departure  from  parliamentary  life  in  1893  there  were  few 
of  which  the  fall  had  not  been  expedited  by  his  mordant  criticism 
or  denunciation.  He  now  came  back  to  the  scene  of  his  former 
achievements  not  to  attack  but  to  defend  a  ministry.  Though 
his  old  occupation  was  gone,  his  re-entry  excited  the  keenest 
interest,  for  at  sixty-five  he  remained  the  biggest  political  figure 
in  France.  After  M.  Clemenceau  the  most  interesting  of  the 
new  ministers  was  M.  Briand,  who  was  not  nine  years  old  when 
M.  Clemenceau  had  become  conspicuous  in  political  life  as  the 
mayor  of  Montmartre  on  the  eve  of  the  Commune.  M.  Briand 
had  entered  the  Chamber,  as  Socialist  deputy  for  Saint  fitienne, 
only  in  1902.  The  mark  he  had  made  as  "  reporter  "  of  the 
Separation  Bill  has  been  noted,  and  on  that  account  he  became 
minister  of  education  and  public  worship — the  terms  of  the 
Separation  Law  necessitating  the  continuation  of  a  department 
for  ecclesiastical  affairs.  As  he  had  been  a  militant  Socialist 
of  the  "  unified  "  group  of  which  M.  Jaures  was  the  chief,  and 
also  a  member  of  the  superior  council  of  labour,  his  appointment 
indicated  that  the  new  ministry  courted  the  support  of  the 
extreme  Left.  It,  however,  contained  some  moderate  men, 
notably  M.  Poincare,  who  had  the  repute  of  making  the  largest 
income  at  the  French  bar  after  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau  gave  up 
his  practice,  and  who  became  for  the  second  time  minister  of 
finance.  The  portfolios  of  the  colonies  and  of  public  works  were 


°C 


also  given  to  old  ministers  of  moderate  tendencies,  M.  Georges 
Leygues  and  M.  Barthou.  A  former  prime  minister,  M.  Leon 
Bourgeois,  went  to  the  foreign  office,  over  which  he  had  already 
presided,  besides  having  represented  France  at  the  peace  con- 
ference at  the  Hague;  while  MM.  fitienne  and  Thomson  re- 
tained their  portfolios  of  war  and  marine.  The  cabinet  contained 
so  many  men  of  tried  ability  that  it  was  called  the  ministry  of  all 
the  talents.  But  the  few  who  understood  the  origin  of  the  name 
knew  that  it  would  be  even  more  ephemeral  than  was  the  British 
ministry  of  1806;  for  the  fine  show  of  names  belonged  to  a 
transient  combination  which  could  not  survive  the  approaching 
elections  long  enough  to  leave  any  mark  in  politics. 

Before  the  elections  took  place  grave  labour  troubles  showed 
that  social  and  economical  questions  were  more  likely  to  give 
anxiety  to  the  government  than  any  public  movement 
resulting  from  the  disestablishment  of  the  church. 
Almost  the  first  ministerial  act  of  M.  Clemenceau  was 
to  visit  the  coal  basin  of  the  Pas  de  Calais,  where  an 
accident  causing  great  loss  of  life  was  followed  by  an  uprising  of 
the  working  population  of  the  region,  which  spread  into  the 
adjacent  department  of  the  Nord  and  caused  the  minister  of  the 
intericr  to  take  unusual  precautions  to  prevent  violent  demonstra- 
tions in  Paris  on  Labour  Day,  the  ist  of  May.  The  activity  of 
the  Socialist  leaders  in  encouraging  anti-capitalist  agitation 
did  not  seem  to  alarm  the  electorate.  Nor  did  it  show  any  sym- 
pathy with  the  appeal  of  the  pope,  who  in  his  encyclical  letter, 
Vehementer  nos,  addressed  to  the  French  cardinals  on  the  nth 
of  February,  denounced  the  Separation  Law.  So  the  result  of 
the  elections  of  May  1906  was  a  decisive  victory  for  the  anti- 
clericals  and  Socialists. 

A  brief  analysis  of  the  composition  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
is  always  impossible,  the  limits  of  the  numerous  groups  being 
ill-defined.  But  in  general  terms  the  majority  supporting  the 
radical  policy  of  the  bloc  in  the  last  parliament,  which  had 
usually  mustered  about  340  votes,  now  numbered  more  than  400, 
including  230  Radical-Socialists  and  Socialists.  The  gains  of  the 
extreme  Left  were  chiefly  at  the  expense  of  the  moderate  or 
progressist  republicans,  who,  about  1  20  strong  in  the  old  Chamber, 
now  came  back  little  more  than  half  that  number.  The  anti- 
republican  Right,  comprising  Royalists,  Bonapartists  and 
Nationalists,  had  maintained  their  former  position  and  were 
about  130  all  told.  The  general  result  of  the  polls  of  the  6th 
and  2oth  of  May  was  thus  an  electoral  vindication  of  the  advanced 
policy  adopted  by  the  old  Chamber  and  a  repudiation  of  moderate 
Republicanism;  while  the  stationary  condition  of  the  reactionary 
groups  showed  that  the  tribulations  inflicted  by  the  last  parlia- 
ment on  the  church  had  not  provoked  the  electorate  to  increase 
its  support  of  clerical  politicians. 

The  Vatican,  however,  declined  to  recognize  this  unmistakable 
demonstration.  The  bishops,  taking  advantage  of  their  release 
from  the  concordatory  restrictions  which  had  withheld  from 
them  the  faculty  of  meeting  in  assembly,  had  met  at  a  preliminary 
conference  to  consider  their  plan  of  action  under  the  Separation 
Law.  They  had  adjourned  for  further  instructions  from  the 
Holy  See,  which  were  published  on  the  loth  of  August  1906, 
in  a  new  encyclical  Gramssimo  officii,  wherein,  to  the  consterna- 
tion of  many  members  of  the  episcopate,  the  pope  interdicted 
the  associations  cultuelles,  the  bodies  which,  under  the  Separation 
Law,  were  to  be  established  in  each  parish,  to  hold  and  to  organize 
the  church  property  and  finances,  and  were  essential  to  the 
working  of  the  act.  On  the  4th  of  September  the  bishops  met 
again  and  passed  a  resolution  of  submission  to  the  Holy  See. 
In  spite  of  their  loyalty  they  could  not  but  deplore  an  injunction 
which  inevitably  would  cause  distress  to  the  large  majority  of 
the  clergy  after  the  act  came  into  operation  on  the  i2th  of 
December  1906.  They  knew  only  too  well  how  hopeless  was 
the  idea  that  the  distress  of  the  clergy  would  call  forth  any 
revulsion  of  popular  feeling  in  France.  The  excitement  of  the 
public  that  summer  over  a  painful  clerical  scandal  in  the  diocese 
of  Chartres  showed  that  the  interest  taken  by  the  mass  of  the 
population  in  church  matters  was  not  of  a  kind  which  would  aid 
the  clergy  in  their  difficult  situation. 


8  94 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


At  the  close  of  the  parliamentary  recess  M.  Sarrien  resigned 
the  premiership  on  the  pretext  of  ill-health,  and  by  a  presidential 
decree  of  the  25th  of  October  1906  M.  Clemenceau, 
The  Cle-  wjjQ  j,a(j  been  caued  to  fill  the  vacancy,  took  office. 
MM.  Bourgeois,  Poincare,  Etienne  and  Leygues 
retired  with  M.  Sarrien.  The  new  prime  minister 
placed  at  the  foreign  office  M.  Pichon,  who  had  learned  politics 
on  the  staff  of  the  Justice,  the  organ  of  M.  Clemenceau,  by  whose 
influence  he  had  entered  the  diplomatic  service  in  1893,  after 
eight  years  in  the  chamber  of  deputies.  He  had  been  minister 
at  Pekin  during  the  Boxer  rebellion  and  resident  at  Tunis, 
and  he  was  now  radical  senator  for  the  Jura.  M.  Caillaux,  a 
more  adventurous  financier  than  M.  Rouvier  or  M.  Poincare, 
who  had  been  Waldeck-Rousseau's  minister  of  finance,  resumed 
that  office.  The  most  significant  appointment  was  that  of 
General  Picquart  to  the  war  office.  The  new  minister  when  a 
colonel  had  been  willing  to  sacrifice  his  career,  although  he  was 
an  anti-Semite,  to  redressing  the  injustice  which  he  believed 
had  been  inflicted  on  a  Jewish  officer — whose  second  condemna- 
tion, it  may  be  noted,  had  been  quashed  earlier  in  1906.  M. 
Viviani  became  the  first  minister  of  labour  ( Travail  et  Pr&uoyance 
sociale).  The  creation  of  the  office  and  the  appointment  of  a 
socialist  lawyer  and  journalist  to  fill  it  showed  that  M.  Clemenceau 
recognized  the  increasing  prominence  of  social  and  industrial 
questions  and  the  growing  power  of  the  trade-unions. 

The  acts  and  policy  of  the  Clemenceau  ministry  and  the  events 
which  took  place  during  the  years  that  it  held  office  are  too 
near  the  present  time  to  be  appraised  historically.  It  seems  not 
unlikely  that  the  first  advent  to  power,  after  thirty-five  years 
of  strenuous  political  life,  of  one  who  must  be  ranked  among  the 
ablest  of  the  twenty-seven  prime  ministers  of  the  Third  Republic 
will  be  seen  to  have  been  coincident  with  an  important  evolution 
in  the  history  of  the  French  nation.  The  separation  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  from  the  state,  by  the  law  of  December  1905, 
had  deprived  the  Socialists,  the  now  most  powerful  party  of  the 
extreme  Left,  of  the  chief  outlet  for  their  activity,  which  hitherto 
had  chiefly  found  its  scope  in  anti-clericalism.  Having  no  longer 
the  church  to  attack  they  turned  their  attention  to  economical 
questions,  the  solution  of  which  had  always  been  their  theoreti- 
cal aim.  At  the  same  period  the  law  relating  to  the  Contract  of 
Association  of  1901,  by  removing  the  restrictions  (save  in  the 
case  of  religious  communities)  which  previously  had  prevented 
French  citizens  from  forming  association  without  the  authoriza- 
tion of  the  government,  had  formally  abrogated  the  individualistic 
doctrine  of  the  Revolution,  which  in  all  its  phases  was  intolerant 
of  associations.  The  law  of  June  1791  declared  the  destruction 
of  all  corporations  of  persons  engaged  in  the  same  trade  or 
profession  to  be  a  fundamental  article  of  the  French  constitution, 
and  it  was  only  in  the  last  six  years  of  the  Second  Empire  that 
some  tolerance  was  granted  to  trade-unions,  which  was  extended 
by  the  Third  Republic  only  in  1884.  In  that  year  the  prohibition 
of  1791  was  repealed.  Not  quite  70  unions  existed  at  the  end  of 
1884.  In  1890  they  had  increased  to  about  1000,  in  1894  to  2000, 
and  in  1901,  when  the  law  relating  to  the  Contract  of  Association 
was  passed,  they  numbered  3287  with  588,832  members.  The 
law  of  1901  did  not  specially  affect  them;  but  this  general  act, 
completely  emancipating  all  associations  formed  for  secular 
purposes,  was  a  definitive  break  with  the  individualism  of  the 
Revolution  which  had  formed  the  basis  of  all  legislation  in  France 
for  nearly  a  century  after  the  fall  of  the  ancient  monarchy. 
It  was  an  encouragement  and  at  the  same  time  a  symptom  of  the 
spread  of  anti-individualistic  doctrine.  This  was  seen  in  the 
accelerated  increase  of  syndicated  workmen  during  the  years 
succeeding  the  passing  of  the  Associations  Law,  who  in  1909  were 
over  a  million  strong.  The  power  exercised  by  the  trade-unions 
moved  the  functionaries  of  the  government,  a  vast  army  under 
the  centralized  system  of  administration,  numbering  not  less  than 
800,000  persons,  to  demand  equal  freedom  of  association  for  the 
purpose  of  regulating  their  salaries  paid  by  the  state  and  their 
conditions  of  labour.  This  movement  brought  into  new  relief 
the  long-recognized  incompatibility  of  parliamentary  government 
with  administrative  centralization  as  organized  by  Napoleon. 


In  another  direction  the  increased  activity  in  the  rural  districts 
of  the  Socialists,  who  hitherto  had  chiefly  worked  in  the  industrial 
centres,  indicated  that  they  looked  for  support  from  the  peasant 
proprietors,  whose  ownership  in  the  soil  had  hitherto  opposed 
them  to  the  practice  of  collectivist  doctrine.  In  the  summer  of 
1907  an  economic  crisis  in  the  wine-growing  districts  of  the  South 
created  a  general  discontent  which  spread  to  other  rural  regions. 
The  Clemenceau  ministry,  while  opposing  the  excesses  of  revolu- 
tionary socialism  and  while  incurring  the  strenuous  hostility 
of  M.  Jaures,  the  Socialist  leader,  adopted  a  programme  which 
was  more  socialistic  than  that  of  any  previous  government 
of  the  republic.  Under  its  direction  a  bill  for  the  imposition 
of  a  graduated  income  tax  was  passed  by  the  lower  house, 
involving  a  scheme  of  direct  taxation  which  would  transform 
the  interior  fiscal  system  of  France.  But  the  income  tax  was 
still  only  a  project  of  law  when  M.  Clemenceau  unexpectedly 
fell  in  July  1909,  being  succeeded  as  prime  minister  by  his 
colleague  M.  Briand.  His  ministry  had,  however,  passed  one 
important  measure  which  individualists  regarded  as  an  act  of 
state-socialism.  It  took  a  long  step  towards  the  nationalization 
of  railways  by  purchasing  the  important  Western  line  and  adding 
it  to  the  relatively  small  system  of  state  railways.  Previously 
a  more  generally  criticized  act  of  the  representatives  of  the 
people  was  not  of  a  nature  to  augment  the  popularity  of  parlia- 
mentary institutions  at  a  period  of  economic  crisis,  when  senators 
and  deputies  increased  their  own  annual  salary,  or  indemnity  as 
it  is  officially  called,  to  1 5,000  francs.  ( J.  E.  C.  B.) 

EXTERIOR  POLICY  1870-1909 

The  Franco-German  War  marks  a  turning-point  in  the  history 
of  the  exterior  policy  of  France  as  distinct  as  does  the  fall  of  the 
ancient  monarchy  or  the  end  of  the  Napoleonic  epoch. 
With  the  disappearance  of  the  Second  Empire,  by  epoch™ 
its  own  fault,  on  the  field  of  Sedan  in  September  1870, 
followed  in  the  early  months  of  1871  by  the  proclamation 
of  the  German  empire  at  Versailles  and  the  annexation  of 
Alsace  and  Lorraine  under  the  treaty  of  peace  of  Frankfort, 
France  descended  from  its  primacy  among  the  nations 'of  conti- 
nental Europe,  which  it  had  gradually  acquired  in  the  half- 
century  subsequent  to  Waterloo.  It  was  the  design  of  Bismarck 
that  united  Germany,  which  had  been  finally  established  under 
his  direction  by  the  war  of  1870,  should  take  the  place  hitherto 
occupied  by  France  in  Europe.  The  situation  of  France  in  1871 
in  no  wise  resembled  that  after  the  French  defeat  of  1815, 
when  the  First  Empire,  issue  of  the  Revolution,  had  been  upset 
by  a  coalition  of  the  European  monarchies  which  brought  back 
and  supported  on  his  restored  throne  the  legitimate  heir  to  the 
French  crown.  In  1871  the  Republic  was  founded  in  isolation. 
France  was  without  allies,  and  outside  its  frontiers  the  form  of 
its  executive  government  was  a  matter  of  interest  only  to  its 
German  conquerors.  Bismarck  desired  that  France  should 
remain  isolated  in  Europe  and  divided  at  home.  He  thought 
that  the  Republican  form  of  government  would  best  serve  these 
ends.  The  revolutionary  tradition  of  France  would,  under  a 
Republic,  keep  aloof  the  monarchies  of  Europe,  whereas,  in  the 
words  of  the  German  ambassador  at  Paris,  Prince  Hohenlohe, 
a  "  monarchy  would  strengthen  France  and  place  her  in  a  better 
position  to  make  alliances  and  would  threaten  our  alliances." 
At  the  same  time  Bismarck  counted  on  governmental  instability 
under  a  Republic  to  bring  about  domestic  disorganization  which 
would  so  disintegrate  the  French  nation  as  to  render  it  unformid- 
able  as  a  foe  and  ineffective  as  an  ally.  The  Franco-German 
War  thus  produced  a  situation  unprecedented  in  the  mutual 
relations  of  two  great  European  powers.  From  that  situation 
resulted  all  the  exterior  policy  of  France,  for  a  whole  generation, 
colonial  as  well  as  foreign. 

In  1875  Germany  saw  France  in  possession  of  a  constitution 
which  gave  promise  of  durability  if  not  of  permanence.  German 
opinion  had  already  been  perturbed  by  the  facility  and  speed 
with  which  France  had  paid  off  the  colossal  war  indemnity 
exacted  by  the  conqueror,  thus  giving  proof  of  the  inexhaustible 
resources  of  the  country  and  of  its  powers  of  recuperation.  The 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


895 


The  crisis 
of  1875. 


successful  reorganization  of  the  French  army  under  the  military 
law  of  1872  caused  further  alarm  when  there  appeared  to  be 
some  possibility  of  the  withdrawal  of  Russia  from  the  Dreikaiser- 
bund,  which  had  set  the  seal  on  Germany's  triumph  and  France's 
abasement  in  Europe.  It  seemed,  therefore,  as  though  it 
might  be  expedient  for  Germany  to  make  a  sudden  aggression 
upon  France  before  that  country  was  adequately  prepared  for 
war,  in  order  to  crush  the  nation  irreparably  and  to  remove  it 
from  among  the  great  powers  of  Europe. 

The  constitution  of  the  Third  Republic  was  voted  by  the 
National  Assembly  on  the  zsth  of  February  1875.  The  new 
constitution  had  to  be  completed  by  electoral  laws  and  other 
complementary  provisions,  so  it  could  not  become  effective 
until  the  following  year,  after  the  first  elections  of  the  newly 
founded  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies.  M.  Buffet  was  then 
charged  by  the  president  of  the  republic,  Marshal  MacMahon, 
to  form. a  provisional  ministry  in  which  the  due  Decazes,  who 
had  been  foreign  minister  since  1873,  was  retained  at  the  Quai 
d'Orsay.  The  cabinet  met  for  the  first  time  on  the  i  ith  of  March, 
and  ten  days  later  the  National  Assembly  adjourned  for  a  long 
recess. 

It  was  during  that  interval  that  occurred  the  incident  known 
as  "  The  Scare  of  1875."  The  Kulturkampf  had  left  Prince 
Bismarck  in  a  state  of  nervous  irritation.  In  all 
directions  he  was  on  the  look  out  for  traces  of  Ultra- 
montane intrigue.  The  clericals  in  France  after  the 
fall  of  Thiers  had  behaved  with  great  indiscretion  in  their  desire 
to  see  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  revived.  But  when  the 
reactionaries  had  placed  MacMahon  at  the  head  of  the  state, 
their  divisions  and  their  political  ineptitude  had  shown  that 
the  government  cf  France  would  soon  pass  from  their  hands, 
and  of  this  the  voting  of  the  Republican  constitution  by 
a  monarchical  assembly  was  the  visible  proof.  Nevertheless 
Bismarck,  influenced  by  the  presence  at  Berlin  of  a  French 
ambassador,  M.  de  Gontaut-Biron,  whom  he  regarded  as  an 
Ultramontane  agent,  seems  to  have  thought  otherwise.  A 
military  party  at  Berlin  affected  alarm  at  a  law  passed  by  the 
French  Assembly  on  the  izth  of  March,  which  continued  a 
provision  increasing  from  three  to  four  the  battalions  of  each 
infantry  regiment,  and  certain  journals,  supposed  to  be  inspired 
by  Bismarck,  argued  that  as  the  French  were  preparing,  it 
might  be  well  to  anticipate  their  designs  before  they  were 
ready.  Europe  was  scared  by  an  article  on  the  6th  of  May  in 
The  Times,  professing  to  reveal  the  designs  of  Bismarck,  from 
its  Paris  correspondent,  Blowitz,  who  was  in  relations  with 
the  French  foreign  minister,  the  due  Decazes,  and  with  Prince 
Hohenlohe,  German  ambassador  to  France,  both  being  prudent 
diplomatists,  and,  though  Catholics,  opposed  to  Ultramontane 
pretensions.  Europe  was  astounded  at  the  revelation  and 
alarmed  at  the  alleged  imminence  of  war.  In  England  the 
Disraeli  ministry  addressed  the  governments  of  Russia,  Austria 
and  Italy,  with  a  view  to  restraining  Germany  from  its  aggressive 
designs,  and  Queen  Victoria  wrote  to  the  German  emperor  to 
plead  the  cause  of  peace.  It  is  probable  that  there  was  no  need 
either  for  this  intervention  or  for  the  panic  which  had  produced 
it.  We  know  now  that  the  old  emperor  William  was  steadfastly 
opposed  to  a  fresh  war,  while  his  son,  the  crown  prince  Frederick, 
who  then  seemed  likely  soon  to  succeed  him  for  a  long  reign, 
was  also  determined  that  peace  should  be  maintained.  The 
scare  had,  however,  a  most  important  result,  in  sowing  the  seeds 
of  the  subsequent  Franco-Russian  alliance.  Notwithstanding 
that  the  tsar  Alexander  II.  was  on  terms  of  affectionate  intimacy 
with  his  uncle,  the  emperor  William,  he  gave  a  personal  assurance 
to  General  Le  F16,  French  ambassador  at  St  Petersburg,  that 
France  should  have  the  "  moral  support  "  of  Russia  in  the  case 
of  an  aggression  on  the  part  of  Germany.  It  is  possible  that  the 
danger  of  war  was  exaggerated  by  the  French  foreign  minister 
and  his  ambassador  at  Berlin,  as  is  the  opinion  of  certain  French 
historians,  who  think  that  M.  de  Gontaut-Biron,  as  an  old 
royalist,  was  only  too  glad  to  see  the  Republic  under  the  protec- 
tion, as  it  were,  of  the  most  reactionary  monarchy  of  Europe. 
At  the  same  time  Bismarck's  denials  of  having  acted  with 


terrorizing  intent  cannot  be  accepted.  He  was  more  sincere  when 
he  criticized  the  ostentation  with  which  the  Russian  Chancellor, 
Prince  Gortchakoff,  had  claimed  for  his  master  the  char- 
acter of  the  defender  of  France  and  the  obstacle  to  German 
ambitions.  It  was  in  memory  of  this  that,  in  1878  at  the 
congress  of  Berlin,  Bismarck  did  his  best  to  impair  the 
advantages  which  Russia  had  obtained  under  the  treaty  of  San 
Stefano. 

The  events  which  led  to  that  congress  put  into  abeyance  the 
prospect  of  a  serious  understanding  between  France  and  Russia. 
The  insurrection  in  Herzegovina  in  July  1875  reopened 
the  Eastern  question,  and  in  the  Orient  the  interests 
of  France  and  Russia  had  been  for  many  years  con- 
flicting, as  witness  the  controversy  concerning  the  Holy 
Places,  which  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  Crimean  War.  France 
had  from  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  claimed  the  exclusive  right 
of  protecting  Roman  Catholic  interests  in  the  East.  This  claim 
was  supported  not  only  by  the  monarchists,  for  the  most  part 
friendly  to  Russia  in  other  respects,  who  directed  the  foreign 
policy  of  the  Third  Republic  until  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of 
1877,  but  by  the  Republicans,  who  were  coming  into  perpetual 
power  at  the  time  of  the  congress  of  Berlin — the  ablest  of  the 
anti-clericals,  Gambetta,  declaring  in  this  connexion  that 
"  anti-clericalism  was  not  an  article  of  exportation."  The 
defeat  of  the  monarchists  at  the  elections  of  1877,  after  the 
"  Seize  Mai,"  and  the  departure  from  office  of  the  due  Decazes, 
whose  policy  had  tended  to  prepare  the  way  for  an  alliance  with 
the  tsar,  changed  the  attitude  of  French  diplomacy  towards 
Russia.  M.  Waddington,  the  first  Republican  minister  for  foreign 
affairs,  was  not  a  Russophil,  while  Gambetta  was  ardently 
anti-Russian,  and  he,  though  not  a  minister,  was  exercising  that 
preponderant  influence  in  French  politics  which  he  retained 
until  1882,  the  last  year  of  his  life.  Many  Republicans  considered 
that  the  monarchists,  whom  they  had  turned  out,  favoured  the 
support  of  Russia  not  only  as  a  defence  against  Germany,  which 
was  not  likely  to  be  effective  so  long  as  a  friendly  uncle  and 
nephew  were  reigning  at  Berlin  and  at  St  Petersburg  respectively, 
but  also  as  a  possible  means  of  facilitating  a  monarchical  restora- 
tion in  France.  Consequently  at  the  congress  of  Berlin  M. 
Waddington  and  the  other  French  delegates  maintained  a  very 
independent  attitude  towards  Russia.  They  supported  the 
resolutions  which  aimed  at  diminishing  the  advantages  obtained 
by  Russia  in  the  war,  they  affirmed  the  rights  of  France  over 
the  Holy  Places,  and  they  opposed  the  anti-Semitic  views  of 
the  Russian  representatives.  The  result  of  the  congress  of  Berlin 
seemed  therefore  to  draw  France  and  Russia  farther  apart, 
especially  as  Gambetta  and  the  Republicans  now  in  power  were 
more  disposed  towards  an  understanding  with  England.  The 
contrary,  however,  happened.  The  treaty  of  Berlin,  which  took 
the  place  of  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  was  the  ruin  of  Russian 
hopes.  It  was  attributed  to  the  support  given  by  Bismarck 
to  the  anti-Russian  policy  of  England  and  Austria  at  the 
congress,  the  German  chancellor  having  previously  discouraged 
the  project  of  an  alliance  between  Russia  and  Germany.  The 
consequence  was  that  the  tsar  withdrew  from  the  Dreikaiserbund, 
and  Germany,  finding  the  support  of  Austria  inadequate  for  its 
purposes,  sought  an  understanding  with  Italy.  Hence  arose 
the  Triple  Alliance  of  1882,  which  was  the  work  of  Bismarck, 
who  thus  became  eventually  the  author  of  the  Franco-Russian 
alliance,  which  was  rather  a  sedative  for  the  nervous  tempera- 
ment of  the  French  than  a  remedy  necessary  for  their  protection. 
The  twofold  aim  of  the  Triplice  was  the  development  of  the 
Bismarckian  policy  of  the  continued  isolation  of  France  and  of 
the  maintenance  of  the  situation  in  Europe  acquired  by  the 
German  empire  in  1871.  The  most  obvious  alliance  for  Germany 
was  that  with  Russia,  but  it  was  clear  that  it  could  be  obtained 
only  at  the  price  of  Russia  having  a  free  hand  to  satisfy  its 
ambitions  in  the  East.  This  not  only  would  have  irritated 
England  against  Germany,  but  also  Austria,  and  so  might  have 
brought  about  a  Franco-Austrian  alliance,  and  a  day  of  reckoning 
for  Germany  for  the  combined  rancours  of  two  nations,  left 
by  1866  and  1871.  It  was  thus  that  Germany  allied  itself  first 


896 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


with  Austria  and  then  with  Italy,  leaving  Russia  eventually 
to  unite  with  France. 

As  the  congress  of  Berlin  took  in  review  the  general  situation 
of  the  Turkish  empire,  it  was  natural  that  the  French  delegates 
should  formulate  the  position  of  France  in  Egypt. 
Euesfion  Thus  the  powers  of  Europe  accepted  the  maintenance 
of  the  condominium  in  Egypt,  financial  and  administra- 
tive, of  England  and  France.  Egypt,  nominally  a  province  of 
the  Turkish  empire,  had  been  invested  with  a  large  degree  of 
autonomy,  guaranteed  by  an  agreement  made  in  1840  and  1841 
between  the  Porte  and  the  then  five  great  powers,  though  some 
opposition  was  made  to  France  being  a  party  to  this  compact. 
By  degrees  Austria,  Prussia  and  Russia  (as  well  as  Italy  when  it 
attained  the  rank  of  a  great  power)  had  left  the  international 
control  of  Egypt  to  France  and  England  by  reason  of  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  interests  of  those  two  powers  on  the  Nile. 

In  1875  the  interests  of  England  in  Egypt,  which  had  hitherto 
been  considered  inferior  to  those  of  France,  gained  a  superiority 
owing  to  the  purchase  by  the  British  government  of  the  shares 
of  the  khedive  Ismail  in  the  Suez  Canal.  Whatever  rivalry  there 
may  have  been  between  England  and  France,  they  had  to  present 
a  united  front  to  the  pretensions  of  Ismail,  whose  prodigalities 
made  him  impatient  of  the  control  which  they  exercised  over  his 
finances.  This  led  to  his  deposition  and  exile.  The  control  was 
re-established  by  his  successor  Tewfik  on  the  4th  of  September 
1879.  The  revival  ensued  of  a  so-called  national  party,  which 
Ismail  for  his  own  purposes  had  encouraged  in  its  movement 
hostile  to  foreign  domination.  In  September  1881  took  place 
the  rising  led  by  Arabi,  by  whose  action  an  assembly  of  notables 
was  convoked  for  the  purpose  of  deposing  the  government 
authorized  by  the  European  powers.  The  fear  lest  the  sultan 
should  intervene  gave  an  appearance  of  harmony  to  the  policy 
of  England  and  France,  whose  interests  were  too  great  to  permit 
of  any  such  interference.  At  the  end  of  1879  the  first  Freycinet 
cabinet  had  succeeded  that  of  M.  Waddington  and  had  in  turn 
been  succeeded  in  September  1880  by  the  first  Ferry  cabinet. 
In  the  latter  the  foreign  minister  was  M.  Barthelemy  Saint- 
Hilaire,  an  aged  philosopher  who  had  first  taken  part  in  politics 
when  he  helped  to  dethrone  Charles  X.  in  1830.  In  September 
1 88 1  he  categorically  invited  the  British  government  to  join 
France  in  a  military  intervention  to  oppose  any  interference 
which  the  Porte  might  attempt,  and  the  two  powers  each  sent 
a  war-ship  to  Alexandria.  On  the  i4th  of  November  Gambetta 
formed  his  grand  ministtre,  in  which  he  was  foreign  minister. 
Though  it  lasted  less  than  eleven  weeks,  important  measures 
were  taken  by  it,  as  Arabi  had  become  under-secretary  for  war  at 
Cairo,  and  was  receiving  secret  encouragement  from  the  sultan. 
On  the  7th  of  January  1882,  at  the  instance  of  Gambetta,  a 
joint  note  was  presented  by  the  British  and  French  consuls  to 
the  khedive,  to  the  effect  that  their  governments  were  resolved 
to  maintain  the  status  quo,  Gambetta  having  designed  this  as  a 
consecration  of  the  Anglo-French  alliance  in  the  East.  There- 
upon the  Porte  protested,  by  a  circular  addressed  to  the  powers, 
against  this  infringement  of  its  suzerainty  in  Egypt.  Meanwhile, 
the  assembly  of  notables  claimed  the  right  of  voting  the  taxes 
and  administering  the  finances  of  the  country,  and  Gambetta, 
considering  this  as  an  attempt  to  emancipate  Egypt  from  the 
financial  control  of  Europe,  moved  the  British  government  to 
join  with  France  in  protesting  against  any  interference  on  the 
part  of  the  notables  in  the  budget.  But  when  Lord  Granville 
accepted  this  proposal  Gambetta  had  fallen,  on  the  26th  of 
January,  being  succeeded  by  M.  de  Freycinet,  who  for  the  second 
time  became  president  of  the  council  and  foreign  minister. 
Gambetta  fell  nominally  on  a  scheme  of  partial  revision  of  the 
constitution.  It  included  the  re-establishment  of  scrutin  de  liste, 
a  method  of  voting  to  which  many  Republicans  were  hostile,  so 
this  gave  his  enemies  in  his  own  party  their  opportunity.  He 
thus  fell  the  victim  of  republican  jealousy,  nearly  half  the  Re- 
publicans in  the  chamber  voting  against  him  in  the  fatal  division. 
The  subsequent  debates  of  1882  show  that  many  of  Gambetta's 
adversaries  were  also  opposed  to  his  policy  of  uniting  with 
England  on  the  Egyptian  question.  Henceforth  the  interior 


affairs  of  Egypt  have  little  to  do  with  the  subject  we  are  treating; 
but  some  of  the  incidents  in  France  which  led  to  the  English 
occupation  of  Egypt  ought  to  be  mentioned.  M.  de  Freycinet 
was  opposed  to  any  armed  intervention  by  France;  but  in  the 
face  of  the  feeling  in  the  country  in  favour  of  maintaining  the 
traditional  influence  of  France  in  Egypt,  his  declarations  of 
policy  were  vague.  On  the  23rd  of  February  1882  he  said  that 
he  would  assure  the  non-exclusive  preponderance  in  Egypt  of 
France  and  England  by  means  of  an  understanding  with  Europe, 
and  on  the  nth  of  May  that  he  wished  to  retain  for  France  its 
peculiar  position  of  privileged  influence.  England  and  France 
sent  to  Alexandria  a  combined  squadron,  which  did  not  prevent 
a  massacre  of  Europeans  there  on  the  nth  of  June,  the  khedive 
being  now  in  the  hands  of  the  military  party  under  Arabi.  On 
the  nth  of  July  the  English  fleet  bombarded  Alexandria,  the 
French  ships  in  anticipation  of  that  action  having  departed  the 
previous  day.  On  the  i8th  of  July  the  Chamber  debated  the 
supplementary  vote  for  the  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  M.  de 
Freycinet  declaring  that  France  would  take  no  active  part  in 
Egypt  except  as  the  mandatory  of  the  European  powers.  This 
was  the  occasion  for  the  last  great  speech  of  Gambetta  in  parlia- 
ment. In  it  he  earnestly  urged  close  co-operation  with  England, 
which  he  predicted  would  otherwise  become  the  mistress  of 
Egypt,  and  in  his  concluding  sentences  he  uttered  the  famous 
"  Ne  rompez  jatnais  I' alliance  anglaise."  A  further  vote,  pro- 
posed in  consequence  of  Arabi's  open  rebellion,  was  abandoned, 
as  M.  de  Freycinet  announced  that  the  European  powers  declined 
to  give  France  and  England  a  collective  mandate  to  intervene 
in  their  name.  In  the  Senate  on  the  25th  of  July  M.  Scherer, 
better  known  as  a  philosopher  than  as  a  politician,  who  had 
Gambetta's  confidence,  read  a  report  on  the  supplementary  votes 
which  severely  criticized  the  timidity  and  vacillation  of  the 
government  in  Egyptian  policy.  Four  days  later  in  the  Chamber 
M.  de  Freycinet  proposed  an  understanding  with  England  limited 
to  the  protection  of  the  Suez  Canal.  Attacked  by  M.  Clemenceau 
on  the  impossibility  of  separating  the  question  of  the  canal 
from  the  general  Egyptian  question,  the  ministry  was  defeated 
by  a  huge  majority,  and  M.  de  Freycinet  fell,  having  achieved 
the  distinction  of  being  the  chief  instrument  in  removing  Egypt 
from  the  sphere  of  French  interest. 

Some  of  the  Republicans  whose  votes  turned  out  M.  de  Frey- 
cinet wanted  Jules  Ferry  to  take  his  place,  as  he  was  considered 
to  be  a  strong  man  in  foreign  policy,  and  Gambetta,  for  this 
reason,  was  willing  to  see  his  personal  enemy  at  the  head  of  public 
affairs.  But  this  was  prevented  by  M.  Clemenceau  and  the 
extreme  Left,  and  the  new  ministry  was  formed  by  M.  Duclerc, 
an  old  senator  whose  previous  official  experience  had  been  under 
the  Second  Republic.  On  its  taking  office  on  the  7th  of  August, 
the  ministerial  declaration  announced  that  its  policy  would  be  in 
conformity  with  the  vote  which,  by  refusing  supplies  for  the 
occupation  of  the  Suez  Canal,  had  overthrown  M.  de  Freycinet. 
The  declaration  characterized  this  vote  as  "  a  measure  of  reserve 
and' of  prudence  but  not  as  an  abdication."  Nevertheless  the 
action  of  the  Chamber— which  was  due  to  the  hostility  to 
Gambetta  of  rival  leaders,  who  had  little  mutual  affection, 
including  MM.  de  Freycinet,  Jules  Ferry,  Clemenceau  and  the 
president  of  the  Republic,  M.  Grevy,  rather  than  to  a  desire  to 
abandon  Egypt — did  result  in  the  abdication  of  France.  After 
England  single-handed  had  subdued  the  rebellion  and  restored 
the  authority  of  the  khedive,  the  latter  signed  a  decree  on  the 
nth  of  January  1883  abolishing  the  joint  control  of  England 
and  France.  Henceforth  Egypt  continued  to  be  a  frequent  topic 
of  debate  in  the  Chambers;  the  interests  of  France  in  respect 
of  the  Egyptian  finances,  the  judicial  system  and  other  institu- 
tions formed  the  subject  of  diplomatic  correspondence,  as  did 
the  irritating  question  of  the  eventual  evacuation'  of  Egypt  by 
England.  But  though  it  caused  constant  friction  between  the 
two  countries  up  to  the  Anglo-French  convention  of  the  8th  of 
April  1904,  there  was  no  longer  a  French  active  policy  with  regard 
to  Egypt.  The  lost  predominance  of  France  in  that  country 
did,  however,  quicken  French  activity  in  other  regions  of  northern 
Africa. 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


897 


The  idea  that  the  Mediterranean  might  become  a  French  lake 
has,  in  different  senses,  been  a  preoccupation  for  France  and  for 

its  rivals  in  Europe  ever  since  Algeria  became  a  French 
policy*.0  province  by  a  series  of  fortuitous  incidents — an  insult 

offered  by  the  dey  to  a  French  consul,  his  refusal  to 
make  reparation,  and  the  occasion  it  afforded  of  diverting  public 
attention  in  France  from  interior  affairs  after  the  Revolution 
of  1830.  The  French  policy  of  preponderance  in  Egypt  had  only 
for  a  secondary  aim  the  domination  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  French  tradition  in  Egypt  was  a  relic  of  Napoleon's  vain 
scheme  to  become  emperor  of  the  Orient  even  before  he  had  made 
himself  emperor  of  the  West.  It  was  because  Egypt  was  the 
highway  to  India  that  under  Napoleon  III.  the  French  had  con- 
structed the  Suez  Canal,  and  for  the  same  reason  England  could 
never  permit  them  to  become  masters  of  the  Nile  delta.  But 
the  possessors  of  Algeria  could  extend  their  coast-line  of  North 
Africa  without  seriously  menacing  the  power  which  held  Gibraltar 
and  Malta.  It  was  Italy  which  objected  to  a  French  occupation 
of  Tunis.  Algeria  has  never  been  officially  a  French  "  colony." 
It  is  in  many  respects  administered  as  an  integral  portion  of 
French  territory,  the  governor-general,  as  agent  of  the  central 
power,  exercising  wide  jurisdiction.  Although  the  Europeans 
in  Algeria  are  less  than  a  seventh  of  the  population,  and 
although  the  French  are  actually  a  minority  of  the  European 
inhabitants — Spaniards  prevailing  in  •  the  west,  Italians  and 
Maltese  in  the  east — the  three  departments  of  Constantine, 
Algiers  and  Oran  are  administered  like  three  French  departments. 
Consequently,  when  disturbances  occurred  on  the  borderland 
separating  Constantine  from  Tunis,  the  French  were  able  to  say 
to  Europe  that  the  integrity  of  their  national  frontier  was  threat- 
ened by  the  proximity  of  a  turbulent  neighbour.  The  history  of 
the  relations  between  Tunis  and  France  were  set  forth,  from  the 
French  standpoint,  in  a  circular,  of  which  Jules  Ferry  was  said 
to  be  the  author,  addressed  by  theforeignminister,M.Barthelemy 
Saint-Hilaire  on  the  gth  of  May  1881,  to  the  diplomatic  agents 
of  France  abroad.  The  most  important  point  emphasized  by 

the  French  minister  was  the  independence  of  Tunis 

from  the  Porte,  a  situation  which  would  obviate  diffi- 
culties with  Turkey  such  as  had  always  hampered  the  European 
powers  in  Egypt.  In  support  of  this  contention  a  protest  made 
by  the  British  government  in  1830,  against  the  French  conquest 
of  Algiers,  was  quoted,  as  in  it  Lord  Aberdeen  had  declared  that 
Europe  had  always  treated  the  Barbary  states  as  independent 
powers.  On  the  other  hand,  there  was  the  incident  of  the  bey 
of  Tunis  having  furnished  to  Turkey  a  contingent  during  the 
Crimean  War,  which  suggested  a  recognition  of  its  vassalage 
to  the  Sublime  Porte.  But  in  1864,  when  the  sultan  had  sent  a 
fleet  to  La  Goulette  to  affirm  his  "  rights  "  in  Tunis,  the  French 
ambassador  at  Constantinople  intimated  that  France  declined 
to  have  Turkey  for  a  neighbour  in  Algeria.  France  also  in  1868 
essayed  to  obtain  control  over  the  finances  of  the  regency;  but 
England  and  Italy  had  also  large  interests  in  the  country,  so  an 
international  financial  commission  was  appointed.  In  1871, 
when  France  was  disabled  after  the  war,  the  bey  obtained  from 
Constantinople  a  firman  of  investiture,  thus  recognizing  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Porte.  Certain  English  writers  have  reproached 
the  Foreign  Office  for  its  lack  of  foresight  in  not  taking  advantage 
of  France's  disablement  by  establishing  England  as  the  pre- 
ponderant power  in  Tunis.  The  fact  that  five-sixths  of  the  com- 
merce of  Tunis  is  now  with  France  and  Algeria  may  seem  to 
justify  such  regrets.  Yet  by  the  light  of  subsequent  events  it 
seems  probable  that  England  would  have  been  diverted  from 
more  profitable  undertakings  had  she  been  saddled  with  the 
virtual  administration  and  military  occupation  of  a  vast  territory 
which  such  preponderance  would  have  entailed.  The  wonder  is 
that  this  opportunity  was  not  seized  by  Italy;  for  Mazzini  and 
other  workers  in  the  cause  of  Italian  unity,  before  the  Bourbons 
had  been  driven  from  Naples,  had  cast  eyes  on  Tunis,  lying  over 
against  the  coasts  of  Sicily  at  a  distance  of  barely  100  m.,  as  a 
favourable  field  for  colonization  and  as  the  key  of  the  African 
Mediterranean.  But  when  Rome  became  once  more  the  capital 
of  Italy,  Carthage  was  not  fated  to  fall  again  under  its  domination 

x.  29 


Tunis. 


and  the  occasion  offered  by  France's  temporary  impotence  was 
neglected.  In  1875  when  France  was  rapidly  recovering,  there 
went  to  Tunis  as  consul  an  able  Frenchman,  M.  Roustan,  who 
became  virtual  ruler  of  the  regency  in  spite  of  the  resistance  of 
the  representative  of  Italy.  French  action  was  facilitated  by 
the  attitude  of  England.  On  the  26th  of  July  1878  M.  Wadding- 
ton  wrote  to  the  marquis  d'Harcourt,  French  ambassador  in 
London,  that  at  the  congress  of  Berlin  Lord  Salisbury  had  said  to 
him — the  two  delegates  being  the  foreign  ministers  of  their 
respective  governments — in  reply  to  his  protest,  on  behalf  of 
France,  against  the  proposed  English  occupation  of  Cyprus, 
"  Do  what  you  think  proper  in  Tunis:  England  will  offer  no 
opposition."  This  was  confirmed  by  Lord  Salisbury  in  a  despatch 
to  Lord  Lyons,  British  ambassador  in  Paris,  on  the  8th  of  August, 
and  it  was  followed  in  October  by  an  intimation  made  by  the 
French  ambassador  at  Rome  that  France  intended  to  exercise 
a  preponderant  influence  in  Tunis.  Italy  was  not  willing  to 
accept  this  situation.  In  January  1881  a  tour  made  by  King 
Humbert  in  Sicily,  where  he  received  a  Tunisian  mission,  was 
taken  to  signify  that  Italy  had  not  done  with  Tunis,  and  it  was 
answered  in  April  by  a  French  expedition  in  the  regency  sent  from 
Algeria,  on  the  pretext  of  punishing  the  Kroumirs  who  had  been 
marauding  on  the  frontier  of  Constantine.  Itwasonthisoccasion 
that  M.  Barthelemy  Saint-Hilaire  issued  the  circular  quoted 
above.  France  nominally  was  never  at  war  with  Tunis;  yet  the 
result  of  the  invasion  was  that  that  country  became  virtually  a 
French  possession,  although  officially  it  is  only  under  the  pro- 
tection of  France.  The  treaty  of  El  Bardo  of  the  1 2th  of  May 
1881,  confirmed  by  the  decree  of  the  22nd  of  April  1882,  placed 
Tunis  under  the  protectorate  of  France.  The  country  is 
administered  under  the  direction  of  the  French  Foreign  Office, 
in  which  there  is  a  department  of  Tunisian  affairs.  The  governor 
is  called  minister  resident-general  of  France,  and  he  also  acts 
as  foreign  minister,  being  assisted  by  seven  French  and  two 
native  ministers. 

The  annexation  of  Tunis  was  important  for  many  reasons. 
It  was  the  first  successful  achievement  of  France  after  the 
disasters  of  the  Franco-German  War,  and  it  was  the 
first  enterprise  of  serious  utility  to  France  undertaken 
beyond  its  frontiers  since  the  early  period  of  the  Second  territory. 
Empire.  It  was  also  important  as  establishing  the 
hegemony  of  France  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 
When  M.  Jules  Cambon  became  governor-general  of  Algeria,  his 
brother  M.  Paul  Cambon  having  been  previously  French  resident 
in  Tunis  and  remaining  the  vigilant  ambassador  to  a  Mediter- 
ranean power,  a  Parisian  wit  said  that  just  as  Switzerland  had  its 
Lac  des  quatre  Cantons,  so  France  had  made  of  the  midland  sea 
its  Lac  des  deux  Cambons.  The  jeu  d'esprit  indicated  what  was 
the  primary  significance  to  the  French  of  their  becoming  masters 
of  the  Barbary  coast  from  the  boundary  of  Morocco  to  that  of 
Tripoli.  Apart  from  the  Mediterranean  question,  when  the 
scramble  for  Africa  began  and  the  Hinterland  doctrine  was 
asserted  by  European  powers,  the  possession  of  this  extended 
coast-line  resulted  in  France  laying  claim  to  the  Sahara  and  the 
western  Sudan.  Consequently,  on  the  maps,  the  whole  of  north- 
west Africa,  from  Tunis  to  the  Congo,  is  claimed  by  France  with 
the  exception  of  the  relatively  small  areas  on  the  coast  belonging 
to  Morocco,  Spain,  Portugal,  Liberia,  Germany  and  England. 
On  this  basis,  in  point  of  area,  France  is  the  greatest  African 
power,  in  spite  of  British  annexations  in  south  and  equatorial 
Africa,  its  area  being  estimated  at  3,866,950  sq.  m.  (including 
227,950  in  Madagascar)  as  against  2,101,411  more  effectively 
possessed  by  Great  Britain.  The  immensity  of  its  domain  on 
paper  is  no  doubt  a  satisfaction  to  a  people  which  prefers  to 
pursue  its  policy  of  colonial  expansion  without  the  aid  of  emigra- 
tion. The  acquisition  of  Tunis  by  France  is  also  important  as 
an  example  of  the  system  of  protectorate  as  applied  to  coloniza- 
tion. Open  annexation  might  have  more  gravely  irritated  the 
powers  having  interests  in  the  country.  England,  in  spite  of 
Lord  Salisbury's  suggestions  to  the  French  foreign  minister, 
was  none  too  pleased  with  France's  policy;  while  Italy,  with 
its  subjects  outnumbering  all  other  European  settlers  in  the 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


regency,  was  in  a  mood  to  accept  a  pretext  for  a  quarrel  for  the 
reasons  already  mentioned.     Apart  from  these  considerations 

the  French  government  favoured  a  protectorate 
Jectorate  because  it  did  not  wish  to  make  of  Tunis  a  second 
system.  Algeria.  While  the  annexation  of  the  latter  had 

excellent  commercial  results  for  France,  it  had  not 
been  followed  by  successful  colonization,  though  it  had  cost 
France  160  millions  sterling  in  the  first  sixty  years  after  it 
became  French  territory.  The  French  cannot  govern  at  home 
or  abroad  without  a  centralized  system  of  administration. 
The  organization  of  Algeria,  as  departments  of  France  with  their 
administrative  divisions,  was  not  an  example  to  imitate.  In  the 
beylical  government  France  found,  ready-made,  a  sufficiently 
centralized  system,  such  as  did  not  exist  in  Algeria  under  native 
rule,  which  could  form  a  basis  of  administration  by  French 
functionaries  under  the  direction  of  the  Quai  d'Orsay.  The 
result  has  not  been  unpleasing  to  the  numerous  advocates  in 
France  of  protectorates  as  a  means  of  colonization.  Accord- 
ing to  M.  Paul  Leroy-Beaulieu,  the  most  eminent  French  authority 
on  colonization,  who  knows  Tunis  well,  a  protectorate  is  the 
most  pacific,  the  most  supple,  and  the  least  costly  method  of 
colonization  in  countries  where  an  organized  form  of  native 
government  exists;  it  is  the  system  in  which  the  French  can  most 
nearly  approach  that  of  English  crown  colonies.  One  evil  which 
it  avoids  is  the  so-called  representative  system,  under  which 
senators  and  deputies  are  sent  to  the  French  parliament  not  only 
from  Algeria  as  an  integral  part  of  France,  but  from  the  colonies 
of  Martinique,  Guadeloupe  and  French  India,  while  Cochin- 
China,  Guiana  and  Senegal  send  deputies  alone.  These  sixteen 
deputies  and  seven  senators  attach  themselves  to  the  various 
Moderate,  Radical  and  Socialist  groups  in  parliament,  which 
have  no  connexion  with  the  interests  of  the  colonies;  and  the 
consequent  introduction  of  French  political  controversies  into 
colonial  elections  has  not  been  of  advantage  to  the  oversea 
possessions  of  France.  From  this  the  protectorate  system  has 
spared  Tunis,  and  the  paucity  of  French  immigration  will  con- 
tinue to  safeguard  that  country  from  parliamentary  representa- 
tion. After  twenty  years  of  French  rule,  of  120,000  European 
residents  in  Tunis,  not  counting  the  army,  only  22,000  were 
French,  while  nearly  70,000  were  Italian.  If  under  a  so-called 
representative  system  the  Italians  had  demanded  nationalization, 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  franchise,  complications  might 
have  arisen  which  are  not  to  be  feared  under  a  protectorate. 

But  of  all  the  results  of  the  French  annexation  of  Tunis,  the 
most   important   was   undoubtedly   the   Triple   Alliance,   into 

which  Italy  entered  in  resentment  at  having  been 

deprived  of  the  African  territory  which  seemed  marked 
Aii'iaace.  out  as  its  natural  field  for  colonial  expansion.  The 

most  manifest  cause  of  Italian  hostility  towards  France 
had  passed  away  four  years  before  the  annexation  of  Tunis, 
when  the  reactionaries, who  had  favoured  the  restitution  of  the 
temporal  power  of  the  pope,  fell  for  ever  from  power.  The 
clericalism  of  the  anti-republicans,  who  favoured  a  revival 
of  the  fatal  policy  of  the  Second  Empire  whereby  France,  after 
Magenta  and  Solferino,  had  by  leaving  its  garrison  at  St  Angelo, 
been  the  last  obstacle  to  Italian  unity,  was  one  of  the  chief 
causes  of  their  downfall.  For  after  the  war  with  Germany,  the 
mutilated  land  and  the  vanquished  nation  had  need  to  avoid 
wanton  provocations  of  foreign  powers.  Henceforth  the  French 
Republic,  governed  by  Republicans,  was  to  be  an  anti-clerical 
force  in  Europe,  sympathizing  with  the  Italian  occupation  of 
Rome.  But  to  make  Italy  realize  that  France  was  no  longer 
the  enemy  of  complete  Italian  unity  it  would  have  been  necessary 
that  all  causes  of  irritation  between  the  two  Latin  sister  nations 
were  removed.  Such  causes  of  dissension  did,  however,  remain, 
arising  from  economic  questions.  The  maritime  relations  of 
the  two  chief  Mediterranean  powers  were  based  on  a  treaty 
of  navigation  of  1862 — when  Venice  was  no  party  to  it  being 
an  Austrian  port — which  Crispi  denounced  as  a  relic  of  Italian 
servility  towards  Napoleon  III.  Gommercial  rivalry  was 
induced  by  the  industrial  development  of  northern  Italy,  when 
freed  from  Austrian  rule.  Moreover,  the  emigrant  propensity 


The 
Triple 


of  the  Italians  flooded  certain  regions  of  France  with  Italian 
cheap  labour,  with  the  natural  result  of  bitter  animosity  between 
the  intruders  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  districts  thus  invaded. 
The  annexation  of  Tunis,  coming  on  the  top  of  these  causes 
of  irritation,  exasperated  Italy.  A  new  treaty  of  commerce 
was  nevertheless  signed  between  the  two  countries  on  the  3rd 
of  November  1881.  Unfortunately  for  its  stability,  King 
Humbert  the  previous  week  had  gone  to  Vienna  to  see  the 
emperor  of  Austria.  In  visiting  in  his  capital  the  former  arch- 
enemy of  Italian  unity,  who  could  never  return  the  courtesy, 
Rome  being  interdicted  for  Catholic  sovereigns  by  the  "  prisoner 
of  the  Vatican,"  Humbert  had  only  followed  the  example  of  his 
father  Victor  Emmanuel,  who  went  both  to  Berlin  and  to  Vienna 
in  1873.  But  that  was  when  in  France  the  due  de  Broglie  was 
prime  minister  of  a  clerical  government  of  which  many  of  the 
supporters  were  clamouring  for  the  restitution  of  the  temporal 
power.  King  Humbert's  visit  to  Vienna  at  the  moment  when 
Gambetta,  the  great  anti-clerical  champion,  was  at  the  height 
of  his  influence  was  significant  for  other  reasons.  Since  the 
7th  of  October  1879  Germany  and  Austria  had  been  united  by  a 
defensive  treaty,  and  though  its  provisions  were  not  published 
until  1888,  the  two  central  empires  were  known  to  be  in  the 
closest  alliance.  The  king  of  Italy's  visit  to  Vienna,  where  he 
was  accompanied  by  his  ministers  Depretis  and  Mancini,  had 
therefore  the  same  significance  as  though  he  had  gone  to  Berlin 
also.  On  the  2oth  of  May  1882  was  signed  the  treaty  of  the 
Triple  Alliance,  which  for  many  years  bound  Italy  to  Germany 
in  its  relations  with  the  continental  powers.  The  alliance  was 
first  publicly  announced  on  the  i3th  of  March  1883,  in  the 
Italian  Chamber,  by  Signer  Mancini,  minister  for  foreign  affairs. 
The  aim  of  Italy  in  joining  the  combination  was  alliance  with 
Germany,  the  enemy  of  France.  The  connexion  with  Austria 
was  only  tolerated  because  it  secured  a  union  with  the  powerful 
government  of  Berlin.  It  effected  the  complete  isolation  of 
France  in  Europe.  An  understanding  between  the  French 
Republic  and  Russia,  which  alone  could  alter  that  situation,  was 
impracticable,  as  its  only  basis  seemed  to  be  the  possibility  of 
having  a  common  enemy  in  Germany  or  even  in  England.  But 
that  double  eventuality  was  anticipated  by  a  secret  convention 
concluded  at  Skiernewice  in  September  1884  by  the  tsar  and 
the  German  emperor,  in  which  they  guaranteed  to  one  another 
a  benevolent  neutrality  in  case  of  hostilities  between  England 
and  Russia  arising  out  of  the  Afghan  question. 

It  will  be  convenient  here  -to  refer  to  the  relations  of  France 
with  Germany  and  Italy  respectively  in  the  years  succeeding 
the  signature  of  the  Triple  Alliance.  With  Germany  both 
Gambetta,  who  died  ten  weeks  before  the  treaty  was  announced 
and  who  was  a  strong  Russophobe,  and  his  adversary  Jules  Ferry 
were  inclined  to  come  to  an  understanding.  But  in  this  they 
had  not  the  support  of  French  opinion.  In  September  1883 
the  king  of  Spain  had  visited  the  sovereigns  of  Austria  and 
Germany.  Alphonso  XII.,  to  prove  that  this  journey  was  not 
a  sign  of  hostility  to  France,  came  to  Paris  on  his  way  home 
on  Michaelmas  Day  on  an  official  visit  to  President  Grevy. 
Unfortunately  it  was  announced  that  the  German  emperor  had 
made  the  king  colonel  of  a  regiment  of  Uhlans  garrisoned  at 
Strassburg,  the  anniversary  of  the  taking  of  which  city  was  being 
celebrated  by  the  emperor  by  the  inauguration  of  a  monument 
made  out  of  cannon  taken  from  the  French,  on  the  very  eve  of 
King  Alphonso's  arrival.  Violent  protests  were  made  in  Paris 
in  the  monarchical  and  in  not  a  few  republican  journals, 
with  the  result  that  the  king  of  Spain  was  hooted  by  the  crowd 
as  he  drove  with  the  president  from  the  station  to  his  embassy, 
and  again  on  his  way  to  dine  the  same  night  at  the  Elysee.  The 
incident  was  closed  by  M.  Grevy's  apologies  and  by  the  retirement 
of  the  minister  of  war,  General  Thibaudin,  who  under  pressure 
from  the  extreme  Left  had  declined  to  meet  le  rvi  uhlan.  Though 
it  displayed  the  bitter  hostility  of  the  population  towards 
Germany,  the  incident  did  not  aggravate  Franco- German 
relations.  This  was  due  to  the  policy  of  the  prime  minister, 
Jules  Ferry,  who  to  carry  it  out  made  himself  foreign  minister 
in  November,  in  the  place  of  Challemel-Lacour,  who  resigned. 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


899 


Jules  Ferry's  idea  was  that  colonial  expansion  was  the  surest 
means  for  France  to  recover  its  prestige,  and  that  this  could 

he  obtained  only  by  maintaining  peaceful  relations 
German  w^  aH  the  powers  of  Europe.  His  consequent 
relations,  unpopularity  caused  his  fall  in  April  1885,  and  the  next 

year  a  violent  change  of  military  policy  was  marked 
by  the  arrival  of  General  Boulanger  at  the  ministry  of 
war,  where  he  remained,  in  the  Freycinet  and  Goblet  cabinets, 
from  January  1886  to  the  i7th  of  May  1887.  His  growing  popu- 
larity in  France  was  answered  by  Bismarck,  who  asked  for 
an  increased  vote  for  the  German  army,  indicating  that  he 
considered  Boulanger  the  coming  dictator  for  the  war  of  revenge; 
so  when  the  Reichstag,  on  the  i4th  of  January  1887,  voted  the 
supplies  for  three  years,  instead  of  for  the  seven  demanded  by  the 
chancellor,  it  was  dissolved.  Bismarck  redoubled  his  efforts  in  the 
press  and  in  diplomacy,  vainly  attempting  to  come  to  an  under- 
standing with  Russia  and  with  more  success  moving  the  Vatican 
to  order  the  German  Catholics  to  support  him.  He  obtained 
his  vote  for  seven  years  in  March,  and  the  same  month  renewed 
the  Triple  Alliance.  In  April  the  Schnaebele  incident  seemed 
nearly  to  cause  war  between  France  and  Germany.  The  com- 
missary-special, an  agent  of  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  at 
Pagny-sur-Moselle,  the  last  French  station  on  the  frontier  of  the 
annexed  territory  of  Lorraine,  having  stepped  across  the  boundary 
to  regulate  some  official  matter  with  the  corresponding  func- 
tionary on  the  German  side,  was  arrested.  It  was  said  that 
Schnaebele  was  arrested  actually  on  French  soil,  and  on  whichever 
side  of  the  line  he  was  standing  he  had  gone  to  meet  the  German 
official  at  the  request  of  the  latter.  Bismarck  justified  the 
outrage  in  a  speech  in  the  Prussian  Landtag"  which  suggested 
that  it  was  impossible  to  live  at  peace  with  a  nation  so  bellicose 
as  the  French.  In  France  the  incident  was  regarded  as  a  trap 
laid  by  the  chancellor  to  excite  French  opinion  under  the  aggres- 
sive guidance  of  Boulanger,  and  to  produce  events  which  would 
precipitate  a  war.  The  French  remained  calm,  in  spite  of  the 
growing  popularity  of  Boulanger.  The  Goblet  ministry  resigned 
on -the  1 7th  of  May  1887  after  a  hostile  division  on  the  budget, 
and  the  opportunity  was  taken  to  get  rid  of  the  minister  of  war, 
who  posed  as  the  coming  restorer  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  to  France. 
The  Boulangist  movement  soon  became  anti-Republican,  and 
the  opposition  to  it  of  successive  ministries  improved  the  official 
relations  of  the  French  and  German  governments.  The  circum- 
stances attending  the  fall  of  President  Grevy  the  same  year 
strengthened  the  Boulangist  agitation,  and  Jules  Ferry,  who 
seemed  indicated  as  his  successor,  was  discarded  by  the  Republi- 
can majority  in  the  electoral  congress,  as  a  revolution  was 
threatened  in  Paris  if  the  choice  fell  on  "  the  German  Ferry." 
Sadi  Carnot  was  consequently  elected  president  of  the  Republic 
on  the  3rd  of  December  1887.  Three  months  later,  on  the  gth 
of  March  1888,  died  the  old  emperor  William  who  had  personified 
the  conquest  of  France  by  Germany.  His  son,  the  pacific  emperor 
Frederick,  died  too,  on  the  isth  of  June,  so  the  accession  of 
William  II.,  the  pupil  of  Bismarck,  at  a  moment  when  Boulanger 
threatened  to  become  plebiscitary  dictator  of  France,  was 
ominous  for  the  peace  of  Europe.  But  in  April  1889  Boulanger 
ignominiously  fled  the  country,  and  in  March  1890  Bismarck 
fell.  France  none  the  less  rejected  all  friendly  overtures  made 
by  the  young  emperor.  In  February  1891  his  mother  came  to 
Paris  and  was  unluckily  induced  to  visit  the  scenes  of  German 
triumph  near  the  capital — the  ruins  of  St  Cloud  and  the  Chateau 
of  Versailles  where  the  German  empire  was  proclaimed.  The 
incident  called  forth  such  an  explosion  of  wrath  from  the  French 
press  that  it  was  clear  that  France  had  not  forgotten  1871. 
By  this  time,  however,  France  was  no  longer  isolated  and  at 
the  mercy  of  Germany,  which  by  reason  of  the  increase  of  its 
population  while  that  of  France  had  remained  almost  stationary, 
was,  under  the  system  of  compulsory  military  service  in  the 
two  countries,  more  than  a  match  for  its  neighbour  in  a  single- 
handed  conflict.  Even  the  Triple  Alliance  ceased  to  be  a  terror 
for  France.  An  understanding  arose  between  France  and 
Russia  preliminary  to  the  Franco-Russian  alliance,  which  became 
the  pivot  of  French  exterior  relations  until  the  defeat  of  Russia 


in  the  Japanese  war  of  1904.  So  the  second  renewal  of  the 
Triplice  was  forthwith  answered  by  a  visit  of  the  French  squadron 
to  Kronstadt  in  July  1891. 

While  such  were  the  relations  between  France  and  the  principal 
party  to  the  Triple  Alliance,  the  same  period  was  marked  by- 
bitter  dissension  between  France  and  Italy.  Tunis 
had  made  Italy  Gallophobe,  but  the  diplomatic 
relations  between  the  two  countries  had  been  courteous 
until  the  death  of  Depretis  in  1887.  When  Crispi 
succeeded  him  as  prime  minister,  and  till  1891  was  the  director 
of  the  exterior  policy  of  Italy,  a  change  took  place.  Crispi, 
though  not  the  author  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  entered  with 
enthusiasm  into  its  spirit  of  hostility  to  France.  The  old  Sicilian 
revolutionary  hastened  to  pay  his  respects  to  Bismarck  at  Fried- 
richsruh  in  October  1887,  the  visit  being  highly  approved  in 
Italy.  Before  that  the  French  Chamber  had,  in  July  1886,  by  a 
small  majority,  rejected  a  new  treaty  of  navigation  between 
France  and  Italy,  this  being  followed  by  the  failure  to  renew 
the  commercial  treaty  of  1881.  Irritating  incidents  were  of 
constant  occurrence.  In  1888  a  conflict  between  the  French 
consul  at  Massowah  and  the  Italians  who  occupied  that  Abyssinian 
port  induced  Bismarck  to  instruct  the  German  ambassador  in 
Paris  to  tell  M.  Goblet,  minister  for  foreign  affairs  in  the  Floquet 
cabinet,  in  case  he  should  refer  to  the  matter,  that  if  Italy  were 
involved  thereby  in  complications  it  would  not  stand  alone 
— this  menace  being  communicated  to  Crispi  by  the  Italian 
ambassador  at  Berlin  and  officially  printed  in  a  green-book. 
But  after  Bismarck's  fall  relations  improved  a  little,  and  in  April 
1890  the  Italian  fleet  was  sent  to  Toulon  to  salute  President 
Carnot  in  the  name  of  King  Humbert,  though  this  did  not 
prevent  the  French  government  being  suspected  of  having 
designs  on  Tripoli.  Italian  opinion  was  again  incensed  against 
France  by  the  action  of  the  French  clericals,  represented  by  a 
band  of  Catholic  "  pilgrims  "  who  went  to  Rome  to  offer  their 
sympathy  to  the  pope  in  the  autumn  of  1891,  and  outraged  the 
burial-place  of  Victor  Emmanuel  by  writing  in  the  visitors'  register 
kept  at  the  Pantheon  the  words  "  Vive  le  pape."  In  August 
1893  a  fight  took  place  at  Aigues  Mortes,  the  medieval  walled 
city  on  the  salt  marshes  of  the  Gulf  of  Lyons,  between  French 
and  Italian  workmen,  in  which  seven  Italians  were  killed.  But 
Crispi  had  gone  out  of  office  early  in  1891,  and  the  ministers 
who  succeeded  him  were  more  disposed  to  prevent  a  rupture 
between  Italy  and  France.  Crispi  became  prime  minister  again 
in  December  1893,  but  this  time  without  the  portfolio  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  placed  at  the  Consulta  Baron  Blanc,  who  though  a 
strong  partisan  of  the  Triple  Alliance  was  closely  attached  to 
France,  being  a  native  of  Savoy,  where  he  spent  his  yearly 
vacations  on  French  soil.  That  the  relations  between  the  two 
nations  were  better  was  shown  by  what  occurred  after  the 
murder  of  President  Carnot  in  June  1894.  The  fact  that  the 
assassin  was  an  Italian  might  have  caused  trouble  a  little  earlier; 
but  the  grief  of  the  Italians  was  so  sincere,  as  shown  by  popular 
demonstrations  at  Rome,  that  no  anti-Italian  violence  took 
place  in  France,  and  in  the  words  of  the  French  ambassador, 
M.  Billot,  Caserio's  crime  seemed  likely  to  further  an  under- 
standing between  the  two  peoples.  The  movement  was  very 
slight  and  made  no  progress  during  the  short  presidency  of  M. 
Casimir-Perier.  On  the  ist  of  November  1894  Alexander  III. 
died,  when  the  Italian  press  gave  proof  of  the  importance  attri- 
buted by  the  Triplice  to  the  Franco-Russian  understanding 
by  expressing  a  hope  that  the  new  tsar  would  put  an  end  to  it. 
But  on  the  loth  of  June  1895,  the  foreign  minister,  M.  Hanotaux, 
intimated  to  the  French  Chamber  that  the  understanding  had 
become  an  alliance,  and  on  the  I7th  the  Russian  ambassador 
in  Paris  conveyed  to  M.  Felix  Faure,  who  was  now  president 
of  the  Republic,  the  collar  of  St  Andrew,  while  the  same  day 
the  French  and  Russian  men-of-war,  invited  to  the  opening  of 
the  Kiel  Canal,  entered  German  waters  together.  The  union  of 
France  with  Russia  was  no  doubt  one  cause  of  the  cessation  of 
Italian  hostility  to  France  ;  but  others  were  at  work.  The  in- 
auguration of  the  statue  of  MacMahon  at  Magenta  the  same  week 
as  the  announcement  of  the  Franco-Russian  alliance  showed  that 


goo 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


there  was  a  disposition  to  revive  the  old  sentiment  of  fraternity 
which  had  once  united  France  with  Italy.  More  important  was 
the  necessity  felt  by  the  Italians  of  improved  commercial  re- 
lations with  the  French.  Crispi  fell  on  the  4th  of  March  1896, 
after  the  news  of  the  disaster  to  the  Italian  troops  at  Adowa, 
the  war  with  Abyssinia  being  a  disastrous  legacy  left  by  him. 
The  previous  year  he  had  caused  the  withdrawal  from  Paris  of 
the  Italian  ambassador  Signer  Ressmann,  a  friend  of  France, 
transferring  thither  Count  Tornielli,  who  during  his  mission 
in  London  had  made  a  speech,  after  the  visit  of  the  Italian  fleet 
to  Toulon,  which  qualified  him  to  rank  as  a  misogallo.  But  with 
the  final  disappearance  of  Crispi  the  relations  of  the  two  Latin 
neighbours  became  more  natural.  Commerce  between  them  had 
diminished,  and  the  business  men  of  both  countries,  excepting 
certain  protectionists,  felt  that  the  commercial  rupture  was 
mutually  prejudicial.  Friendly  negotiations  were  initiated  on 
both  sides,  and  almost  the  last  act  of  President  Felix  Faure 
before  his  sudden  death — M.  Delcasse  being  then  foreign  minister 
— was  to  promulgate,  on  the  2nd  of  February  1899,  a  new  com- 
mercial arrangement  between  France  and  Italy  which  the 
French  parliament  had  adopted.  By  that  time  M.  Barrere  was 
ambassador  at  the  Quirinal  and  was  engaged  in  promoting 
cordial  relations  between  Italy  and  France,  of  which  Count 
Tornielli  in  Paris  had  already  become  an  ardent  advocate. 
Italy  remained  a  party  to  the  Triple  Alliance,  which  was  renewed 
for  a  third  period  in  1902.  But  so  changed  had  its  significance 
become  that  in  October  1903  the  French  Repubh'c  received  for 
the  first  time  an  official  visit  from  the  sovereigns  of  Italy. 
This  reconciliation  of  France  and  Italy  was  destined  to  have  most 
important  results  outside  the  sphere  of  the  Triple  Alliance. 
The  return  visit  which  President  Loubet  paid  to  Victor  Emmanuel 
III.  in  April  1904,  it  being  the  first  time  that  a  French  chief  of  the 
state  had  gone  to  Rome  since  the  pope  had  lost  the  temporal 
sovereignty,  provoked  a  protest  from  the  Vatican  which  caused 
the  rupture  of  diplomatic  relations  between  France  and  the  Holy 
See,  followed  by  the  repudiation  of  the  Concordat  by  an  act 
passed  in  France,  in  1905,  separating  the  church  from  the  state. 

While  the  decadence  of  the  Triple  Alliance  had  this  important 
effect  on  -the  domestic  affairs  of  France,  its  inception  had  pro- 
duced the  Franco- Russian  alliance,  which  took  France 
aMaace.  out  of  its  isolation  in  Europe,  and  became  the  pivot 
of  its  exterior  policy.  It  has  been  noted  that  in  the 
years  succeeding  the  Franco-Prussian  War  the  tsar  Alexander  II. 
had  shown  a  disposition  to  support  France  against  German 
aggression,  as  though  to  make  up  for  his  neutrality  during  the 
war,  which  was  so  benevolent  for  Germany  that  his  uncle 
William  I.  had  ascribed  to  it  a  large  share  of  the  German  victory. 
The  assassination  of  Alexander  II.  by  revolutionaries  in  1881 
made  it  difficult  for  the  new  autocrat  to  cultivate  closer  relations 
with  a  Republican  government,  although  the  Third  Republic, 
under  the  influence  of  Gambetta,  to  whom  its  consolidation  was 
chiefly  due,  had  repudiated  that  proselytizing  spirit,  inherited 
from  the  great  Revolution,  which  had  disquieted  the  monarchies 
of  Europe  in  1848  and  had  provoked  their  hostility  to  the  Second 
Republic.  But  the  Triple  Alliance  which  was  concluded  the 
year  after  the  murder  of  the  tsar  indicated  the  possible  expediency 
of  an  understanding  between  the  two  great  powers  of  the  West 
and  the  East,  in  response  to  the  combination  of  the  three  central 
powers  of  Europe, — though  Bismarck  after  his  fall  revealed  that 
in  1884  a  secret  treaty  was  concluded  between  Germany  and 
Russia,  which  was,  however,  said  to  have  in  view  a  war  between 
England  and  Russia.  Internal  dissension  on  the  subject  of 
colonial  policy  in  the  far  East,  followed  by  the  fall  of  Jules 
Ferry  and  the  Boulangist  agitation  were  some  of  the  causes 
which  prevented  France  from  strengthening  its  position  in 
Europe  by  seeking  a  formal  understanding  with  Russia  in  the 
first  part  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  III.  But  when  the  Boulangist 
movement  came  to  an  end,  entirely  from  the  incompetency  of 
its  leader,  it  behoved  the  government  of  the  Republic  to  find  a 
means  of  satisfying  the  strong  patriotic  sentiment  revealed  in 
the  nation,  which,  directed  by  a  capable  and  daring  soldier, 
would  have  swept  away  the  parliamentary  republic  and  estab- 


lished a  military  dictatorship  in  its  place.  The  Franco-Russian 
understanding  provided  that  means,  and  Russia  was  ready  for 
it,  having  become,  by  the  termination  in  1890  of  the  secret 
treaty  with  Germany,  not  less  isolated  in  Europe  than  France. 
In  July  1891,  when  the  French  fleet  visited  Kronstadt  the 
incident  caused  such  enthusiasm  throughout  the  French  nation 
that  the  exiled  General  Boulanger's  existence  would  have  been 
forgotten,  except  among  his  dwindling  personal  followers,  had 
he  not  put  an  end  to  it  by  suicide  two  months  later  at  Brussels. 
The  Franco-Russian  understanding  united  all  parties,  not  in 
love  for  one  another  but  in  the  idea  that  France  was  thereby 
about  to  resume  its  place  in  Europe.  The  Catholic  Royalists 
ceased  to  talk  of  the  restitution  of  the  temporal  power  of  the 
pope  in  their  joy  at  the  deference  of  the  government  of  the 
republic  for  the  most  autocratic  monarchy  of  Christendom; 
the  Boulangists,  now  called  Nationalists,  hoped  that  it  would 
lead  to  the  war  of  revenge  with  Germany,  and  that  it  might  also 
be  the  means  of  humiliating  England,  as  shown  by  their  resent- 
ment at  the  visit  of  the  French  squadron  to  Portsmouth  on  its 
way  home  from  Kronstadt.  It  is,  however,  extremely  improbable 
that  the  understanding  and  subsequent  alliance  would  have  been 
effected  had  the  Boulangist  movement  succeeded.  For  the  last 
thing  that  the  Russian  government  desired  was  war  with  Ger- 
many. What  it  needed  and  obtained  was  security  against 
German  aggression  on  its  frontier  and  financial  aid  from  France ; 
so  a  French  plebiscitary  government,  having  for  its  aim  the 
restitution  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  would  have  found  no  support 
in  Russia.  As  the  German  chancellor,  Count  von  Caprivi,  said 
in  the  Reichstag  on  the  27th  of  November  1891,  a  few  weeks 
after  a  Russian  loan  had  been  subscribed  in  France  nearly 
eight  times  over,  the  naval  visit  to  Kronstadt  had  not  brought 
war  nearer  by  one  single  inch.  Nevertheless  when  in  1893  the 
Russian  fleet  paid  a  somewhat  tardy  return  visit  to  Toulon, 
where  it  was  reviewed  by  President  Carnot,  a  party  of  Russian 
officers  who  came  to  Paris  was  received  by  the  population  of 
the  capital,  which  less  than  five  years  before  had  acclaimed 
General  Boulanger,  with  raptures  which  could  not  have  been 
exceeded  had  they  brought  back  to  France  the  territory  lost  in 
1871.  In  November  1894,  Alexander  III.  died,  and  in  January 
1895,  M.  Casimir-Perier  resigned  the  presidency  of  the  Republic, 
to  which  he  had  succeeded  only  six  months  before  on  the  assassi- 
nation of  M.  Carnot.  So  it  was  left  to  Nicholas  II.  and  President 
Felix  Faure  to  proclaim  the  existence  of  a  formal  alliance  between 
France  and  Russia.  It  appears  that  in  1891  and  1892,  at  the 
time  of  the  first  public  manifestations  of  friendship  between 
France  and  Russia,  in  the  words  of  M.  Ribot,  secret  conventions 
were  signed  by  him,  being  foreign  minister,  and  M.  de  Freycinet, 
president  of  the  council,  which  secured  for  France  "  the  support 
of  Russia  for  the  maintenance  of  the  equilibrium  in  Europe  "; 
and  on  a  later  occasion  the  same  statesman  said  that  it  was  after 
the  visit  of  the  empress  Frederick  to  Paris  in  1891  that  Alexander 
III.  made  to  France  certain  offers  which  were  accepted.  The 
word  "  alliance  "  was  not  publicly  used  by  any  minister  to 
connote  the  relations  of  France  with  Russia  until  the  loth  of  June 
1895,  when  M.  Hanotaux  used  the  term  with  cautious  vagueness 
amid  the  applause  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Yet  not  even 
when  Nicholas  II.  came  to  France  in  October  1896  was  the  word 
"  alliance  "  formally  pronounced  in  any  of  the  official  speeches. 
But  the  reception  given  to  the  tsar  and  tsaritsa  in  Paris,  where 
no  European  sovereign  had  come  officially  since  William  of 
Germany  passed  down  the  Champs  Elysees  as  a  conqueror, 
was  of  such  a  character  that  none  could  doubt  that  this  was  the 
consecration  of  the  alliance.  It  was  at  last  formally  proclaimed 
by  Nicholas  II.,  on  board  a  French  man-of-war,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  visit  of  the  president  of  the  Republic  to  Russia  in  August 
1897.  From  that  date  until  the  formation  of.  M.  Briand's 
cabinet  in  1909,  nine  different  ministries  succeeded  one  another 
and  five  ministers  of  foreign  affairs;  but  they  all  loyally  sup- 
ported the  Franco-Russian  alliance,  although  its  popularity 
diminished  in  France  long  before  the  war  between  Russia  and 
Japan,  which  deprived  it  of  its  efficacy  in  Europe.  In  1901 
Nicholas  II.  came  again  to  France  and  was  the  guest  of  President 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


901 


Loubet  at  Compiegne.  His  visit  excited  little  enthusiasm 
in  the  nation,  which  was  disposed  to  attribute  it  to  Russia's 
financial  need  of  France;  while  the  Socialists,  now  a  strong 
party  which  provided  the  Waldeck-Rousseau  ministry  with  an 
important  part  of  its  majority  in  the  Chamber,  violently  attacked 
the  alliance  of  the  Republic  with  a  reactionary  autocracy. 
However  anomalous  that  may  have  been  it  did  not  prevent  the 
whole  French  nation  from  welcoming  the  friendship  between 
the  governments  of  Russia  and  of  France  in  its  early  stages. 
Nor  can  there  be  any  doubt  that  the  popular  instinct  was  right 
in  according  it  that  welcome.  France  in  its  international  rela- 
tions was  strengthened  morally  by  the  understanding  and  by 
the  alliance,  which  also  served  as  a  check  to  Germany.  But 
its  association  with  Russia  had  not  the  results  hoped  for  by 
the  French  reactionaries.  It  encouraged  them  in  their  opposition 
to  the  parliamentary  Republic  during  the  Dreyfus  agitation, 
the  more  so  because  the  Russian  autocracy  is  anti-Semitic.  It 
also  made  a  Nationalist  of  one  president  of  the  Republic,  Felix 
Faure,  whose  head  was  so  turned  by  his  imperial  frequentations 
that  he  adopted  some  of  the  less  admirable  practices  of  princes, 
and  also  seemed  ready  to  assume  the  bearing  of  an  autocrat. 
His  sudden  death  was  as  great  a  relief  to  the  parliamentary 
Republicans  as  it  was  a  disappointment  to  the  plebiscitary 
party,  which  anti-Dreyfusism,  with  its  patriotic  pretensions, 
had  again  made  a  formidable  force  in  the  land.  But  the  election 
of  the  pacific  and  constitutional  M.  Loubet  as  president  of  the 
Republic  at  this  critical  moment  in  its  history  counteracted 
any  reactionary  influence  which  the  Russian  alliance  might  have 
had  in  France;  so  the  general  effect  of  the  alliance  was  to 
strengthen  the  Republic  and  to  add  to  its  prestige.  The  visit 
of  the  tsar  to  Paris,  the  first  paid  by  a  friendly  sovereign  since 
the  Second  Empire,  impressed  a  population,  proud  of  its  capital, 
by  an  outward  sign  which  seemed  to  show  that  the  Republic 
was  not  an  obstacle  to  the  recognition  by  the  monarchies  of 
Europe  of  the  place  still  held  by  France  among  the  great  powers. 
Before  M.  Loubet  laid  down  office  the  nation,  grown  more 
republican,  saw  the  visit  of  the  tsar  followed  by  those  of  the 
kings  of  England  and  of  Italy,  who  might  never  have  been 
moved  to  present  their  respects  to  the  French  Republic  had  not 
Russia  shown  them  the  way. 

While  the  French  rejoiced  at  the  Russian  alliance  chiefly  as 
a  check  to  the  aggressive  designs  of  Germany,  they  also  liked 
the  association  of  France  with  a  power  regarded  as 
hostile  to  England.  This  traditional  feeling  was  not 
England,  discouraged  by  one  of  the  chief  artificers  of  the  alliance, 
Baron  Mohrenheim,  Russian  ambassador  in  Paris, 
who  until  1884  had  filled  the  same  position  in  London,  where  he 
had  not  learned  to  love  England,  and  who  enjoyed  in  France  a 
popularity  rarely  accorded  to  the  diplomatic  agent  of  a  foreign 
power.  An  entente  cordiale  has  since  been  initiated  between 
England  and  France.  But  it  is  necessary  to  refer  to  the  less 
agreeable  relations  which  existed  between  the  two  countries, 
as  they  had  some  influence  on  the  exterior  policy  of  the  Third 
Republic.  England  and  France  had  no  causes  of  friction  within 
Europe.  But  in  its  policy  of  colonial  expansion,  during  the  last 
twenty  years  of  the  igth  century,  France  constantly  encountered 
England  allover  theglobe.  The  first  important  enterprise  beyond 
the  seas  seriously  undertaken  by  France  after  the  Franco- 
German  War.  was,  as  we  have  seen,  in  Tunis.  But  even  before 
that  question  had  been  mentioned  at  the  congress  of  Berlin, 
in  1878,  France  had  become  involved  in  an  adventure  in  the  Far 
East,  which  in  its  developments  attracted  more  public  attention 
at  home  than  the  extension  of  French  territory  in  northern 
Africa.  Had  these  pages  been  written  before  the  end  of  the 
1 9th  century  it  would  have  seemed  necessary  to  trace  the 
operations  of  France  in  Indo-China  with  not  less  detail  than 
has  been  given  to  the  establishment  of  the  protectorate  in  Tunis. 
But  French  hopes  of  founding  a  great  empire  in  the  Far  East 
came  to  an  end  with  the  partial  resuscitation  of  China  and  the 
rise  to  power  of  Japan.  As  we  have  seen,  Jules  Ferry's  idea 
was  that  in  colonial  expansion  France  would  find  the  best  means 
of  recovering  prestige  after  the  defeat  of  1870-71  in  the  years 


of  recuperation  when  it  was  essential  to  be  diverted  from  European 
complications.  Jules  Ferry  was  not  a  friend  of  Gambetta,  in 
spite  of  later  republican  legends.  But  the  policy  of  colonial 
expansion  in  Tunis  and  in  Indo-China,  associated  with  Ferry's 
name,  was  projected  by  Gambetta  to  give  satisfaction  to  France 
for  the  necessity,  imposed,  in  his  opinion,  on  the  French  govern- 
ment, of  taking  its  lead  in  foreign  affairs  from  Berlin.  How 
Jules  Ferry  developed  that  system  we  know  now  from  Bismarck's 
subsequent  expressions  of  regret  at  Ferry's  fall.  He  believed 
that,  had  Ferry  remained  in  power,  an  amicable  arrangement 
would  have  been  made  between  France  and  Germany,  a  formal 
agreement  having  been  almost  concluded  to  the  effect  that  France 
should  maintain  peaceable  and  friendly  relations  with  Germany, 
while  Bismarck  supported  France  in  Tunis,  in  Indo-China  and 
generally  in  its  schemes  of  oversea  colonization.  Even  though  the 
friendly  attitude  of  Germany  towards  those  schemes  was  not 
official  the  contrast  was  manifest  between  the  benevolent  tone 
of  the  German  press  and  that  of  the  English,  which  was  generally 
hostile.  Jules  Ferry  took  his  stand  on  the  position  that  his 
policy  was  one  not  of  colonial  conquest,  but  of  colonial  conserva- 
tion, that  without  Tunis,  Algeria  was  insecure,  that  without 
Tongking  and  Annam,  there  was  danger  of  losing  Cochin-China, 
where  the  French  had  been  in  possession  since  1861.  It  was  on 
the  Tongking  question  that  Ferry  fell.  On  the  3oth  of  March 
i885,onthe  news  of  the  defeat  of  the  French  troops  at  Lang-Son, 
the  Chamber  refused  to  vote  the  money  for  carrying  on  the  cam- 
paign by  a  majority  of  306  to  149.  Since  that  day  public  opinion 
in  France  has  made  amends  to  the  memory  of  Jules  Ferry. 
His  patriotic  foresight  has  been  extolled.  Criticism  has  not  been 
spared  for  the  opponents  of  his  policy  in  parliament  of  whom 
the  most  conspicuous,  M.  Clemenceau  andM.  Ribot,havesurvived 
to  take  a  leading  part  in  public  affairs  in  the  2oth  century. 
The  attitude  of  the  Parisian  press,  which  compared  Lang-Son 
with  Sedan  and  Jules  Ferry  with  Emile  Ollivier,  has  been 
generally  deplored,  as  has  that  of  the  public  which  was  ready 
to  offer  violence  to  the  fallen  minister,  and  which  was  still  so 
hostile  to  him  in  1887  that  the  congress  at  Versailles  was  per- 
suaded that  there  would  be  a  revolution  in  Paris  if  it  elected 
"the  German  Ferry"  president  of  the  Republic.  Nevertheless 
his  adversaries  in  parliament,  in  the  press  and  in  the  street  have 
been  justified — not  owing  to  their  superior  sagacity,  but  owing 
to  a  series  of  unexpected  events  which  the  most  foreseeing 
statesmen  of  the  world  never  anticipated.  The  Indo-China 
dream  of  Jules  Ferry  might  have  led  to  a  magnificent  empire  in 
the  East  to  compensate  for  that  which  Dupleix  lost  and  Napoleon 
failed  to  reconquer. 

The  Russian  alliance,  which  came  at  the  time  when  Ferry's 
policy  was  justified  in  the  eyes  of  the  public,  too  late  for  him 
to  enjoy  any  credit,  gave  a  new  impetus  to  the  French  idea 
of  establishing  an  empire  in  the  Far  East.  In  the  opinion  of  all 
the  prophets  of  Europe  the  great  international  struggle  in  the 
near  future  was  to  be  that  of  England  with  Russia  for  the 
possession  of  India.  If  Russia  won,  France  might  have  a  share 
in  the  dismembered  Indian  empire,  of  which  part  of  the  frontier 
now  marched  with  that  of  French  Indo-China,  since  Burma 
had  become  British  and  Tongking  French.  Such  aspirations  were 
not  formulated  in  white-books  or  in  parliamentary  speeches. 
Indeed,  the  apprehension  of  difficulty  with  England  limited 
French  ambition  on  the  Siamese  frontier.  That  did  not  prevent 
dangerous  friction  arising  between  England  and  France  on  the 
question  of  the  Mekong,  the  river  which  flows  from  China  almost 
due  south  into  the  China  Sea  traversing  the  whole  length  of 
French  Indo-China,  and  forming  part  of  the  eastern  boundary 
of  Upper  Burma  and  Siam.  The  aim  of  France  was  to  secure  the 
whole  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Mekong,  the  highway  of  commerce 
from  southern  China.  The  opposition  of  Siam  to  this  delimitation 
was  believed  by  the  French  to  be  inspired  by  England,  the 
supremacy  of  France  on  the  Mekong  river  being  prejudicial  to 
British  commerce  with  China.  The  inevitable  rivalry  between 
the  two  powers  reached  an  acute  crisis  in  1893,  the  British 
ambassador  in  Paris  being  Lord  Dufferin,  who  well  understood 
the  question,  upper  Burma  having  been  annexed  to  India  under 


902 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


his  viceroyalty  in  1885.  The  matter  was  not  settled  until  1894, 
when  not  only  was  the  French  claim  to  the  left  bank  of  the 
Mekong  allowed,  but  the  neutrality  of  a  25-kilometre  zone  on  the 
Siamese  bank  was  conceded  as  open  to  French  trade.  It  is  said 
that  at  one  moment  in  July  1893  England  and  France  were  more 
nearly  at  war  than  at  any  other  international  crisis  under  the 
Third  Republic,  not  excluding  that  of  Fashoda,  though  the  acute 
tension  between  the  governments  was  unknown  to  the  public. 

The  Panama  affair  had  left  French  public  opinion  in  a  nervous 
condition.  Fantastic  charges  were  brought  not  only  in  the 
press,  but  in  the  chamber  of  deputies,  against  newspapers  and 
politicians  of  having  accepted  bribes  from  the  British  govern- 
ment. At  the  general  election  in  August  and  September  1893 
M.  Clemenceau  was  pursued  into  his  distant  constituency  in  the 
Var  by  a  crowd  of  Parisian  politicians,  who  brought  about  his 
defeat  less  by  alleging  his  connexion  with  the  Panama  scandal 
than  by  propagating  the  legend  that  he  was  the  paid  agent  of 
England.  The  official  republic,  which  changed  its  prime  minister 
three  times  and  its  foreign  minister  twice  in  1893,  M.  Develle 
filling  that  post  in  the  Ribot  and  Dupuy  ministries  and  M. 
Casimir-Perier  in  his  own,  repudiated  with  energy  the  calumnies 
as  to  the  attempted  interference  of  England  in  French  domestic 
affairs.  But  the  successive  governments  were  not  in  a  mood  to 
make  concessions  in  foreign  questions,  as  all  France  was  under 
the  glamour  of  the  preliminary  manifestations  of  the  Russian 
alliance.  This  was  seen,  a  few  weeks  after  the  elections,  in  the 
wild  enthusiasm  with  which  Paris  received  Admiral  Avelane 
and  his  officers,  who  had  brought  the  Russian  fleet  to  Toulon  to 
return  the  visit  of  the  French  fleet  to  Kronstadt  in  1891.  The 
death  of  Marshal  MacMahon,  who  had  won  his  first  renown  in  the 
Crimea,  and  his  funeral  at  the  Invalides  while  the  Russians  were 
in  Paris,  were  used  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  allies  before 
Sebastopol  were  no  longer  friends.  The  projector  of  the  French 
empire  in  the  Far  East  did  not  live  to  see  this  phase  of  the  seeming 
justification  of  the  policy  which  had  cost  him  place  and  popularity. 
Jules  Ferry  had  died  on  the  i7th  of  March  1893,  only  three  weeks 
after  his  triumphant  rehabilitation  in  the  political  world  by  his 
election  to  the  presidency  of  the  Senate,  the  second  post  in  the 
state.  The  year  he  died  it  seemed  as  though  with  the  active 
aid  of  Russia  and  the  sympathy  of  Germany  the  possessions  of 
France  in  south-eastern  Asia  might  have  indefinitely  expanded 
into  southern  China.  A  few  years  later  the  defeat  of  Russia 
by  Japan  and  the  rise  of  the  sea-power  of  the  Japanese  practic- 
ally ended  the  French  empire  in  Indo-China.  What  the  French 
already  had  at  the  end  of  the  last  century  is  virtually  guaranteed 
to  them  only  by  the  Anglo- Japanese  alliance.  It  is  in  the  irony 
of  things  that  these  possessions  which  were  a  sign  of  French  rivalry 
with  England  should  now  be  secured  to  France  by  England's 
friendliness.  For  it  is  now  recognized  by  the  French  that  the 
defence  of  Indo-China  is  impossible. 

Had  the  French  dream  been  realized  of  a  large  expansion  of 
territory  into  southern  China,  the  success  of  the  new  empire  would 
have  been  based  on  free  Chinese  labour.  This  might 
policy"  have  counterbalanced  an  initial  obstacle  to  all  French 
colonial  schemes,  more  important  than  those  which 
arise  from  international  difficulties — the  reluctance  of  the 
French  to  establish  themselves  as  serious  colonists  in  their 
oversea  possessions.  We  have  noted  how  Algeria,  which  is 
nearer  to  Toulon  and  Marseilles  than  are  Paris  and  Havre, 
has  been  comparatively  neglected  by  the  French,  after  eighty 
years  of  occupation,  in  spite  of  the  amenity  of  its  climate  and 
its  soil  for  European  settlers.  The  new  French  colonial  school 
advocates  the  withdrawal  of  France  from  adventures  in  distant 
tropical  countries  which  can  be  reached  only  by  long  sea  voyages, 
and  the  concentration  of  French  activity  in  the  northern  half 
of  the  African  continent.  Madagascar  is,  as  we  have  seen, 
counted  as  Africa  in  computing  the  area  of  French  colonial 
territory.  But  it  lies  entirely  outside  the  scheme  of  African 
colonization,  and  in  spite  of  the  loss  of  life  and  money  incurred 
in  its  conquest,  its  retention  is  not  popular  with  the  new  school, 
although  the  first  claim  of  France  to  it  was  as  long  ago  as  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIII.,  when  in  1642  a  company  was  founded  under 


the  protection  of  Richelieu  for  the  colonization  of  the  island. 
The  French  of  the  igth  and  2Oth  centuries  may  well  be  considered 
less  enterprising  in  both  hemispheres  than  were  their  ancestors 
of  the  iyth,  and  Madagascar,  after  having  been  the  cause  of 
much  ill-feeling  between  England  and  France  under  the  Third 
Republic  down  to  the  time  of  its  formal  annexation,  by  the 
law  of  the  9th  of  August  1896,  is  not  now  the  object  of  much 
interest  among  French  politicians.  On  the  African  continent 
it  is  different.  When  the  Republic  succeeded  to  the  Second 
Empire  the  French  African  possessions  outside  Algiers  were 
inconsiderable  in  area.  The  chief  was  Senegal,  which  though 
founded  as  a  French  station  under  Louis  XIII.,  was  virtually 
the  creation  of  Faidherbe  under  the  Second  Empire,  even  in 
a  greater  degree  than  were  Tunis  and  Tongking  of  Jules  Ferry 
under  the  Third  Republic.  There  was  also  Gabun,  which  is 
now  included  in  French  Congo.  Those  outposts  in  the  tropics 
became  the  starting-points  for  the  expansion  of  a  French  sphere 
cf  influence  in  north  Africa,  which  by  the  beginning  of  the  2oth 
century  made  France  the  nominal  possessor  of  a  vast  territory 
stretching  from  the  equatorial  region  on  the  gulf  of  Guinea  to 
the  Mediterranean.  A  large  portion  of  it  is  of  no  importance, 
including  the  once  mysterious  Timbuktu  and  the  wilds  of  the 
waterless  Sahara  desert.  But  the  steps  whereby  these  wide 
tracts  of  wilderness  and  of  valuable  territory  came  to  French 
be  marked  on  the  maps  in  French  colours,  by  inter-  aaa 
national  agreement,  are  important,  as  they  were  English 
associated  with  the  last  serious  official  dispute  between  rivalry. 
England  and  France  before  the  period  of  entente.  M.  Hanotaux, 
who  was  foreign  minister  for  the  then  unprecedented  term  of 
four  years,  from  1894  to  1898,  with  one  short  interval  of  a  few 
months,  has  thrown  an  instructive  light  on  the  feeling  with  which 
French  politicians  up  to  the  end  of  the  igth  century  regarded 
England.  He  declared  in  1909,  with  the  high  authority  of 
one  who  was  during  years  of  Anglo-French  tension  the  mouth- 
piece of  the  Republic  in  its  relations  with  other  powers,  that 
every  move  in  the  direction  of  colonial  expansion  made  by 
France  disquieted  and  irritated  England.  He  complained 
that  when  France,  under  the  stimulating  guidance  of  Jules 
Ferry,  undertook  the  reconstitution  of  an  oversea  domain, 
England  barred  the  way — in  Egypt,  in  Tunis,  in  Madagascar, 
in  Indo-China,  in  the  Congo,  in  Oceania.  Writing  with  the 
knowledge  of  an  ex-foreign  minister,  who  had  enjoyed  many 
years  of  retirement  to  enable  him  to  weigh  his  words,  M. 
Hanotaux  asserted  without  any  qualification  that  when  he 
took  office  England  "  had  conceived  a  triple  design,  to  assume 
the  position  of  heir  to  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Africa, 
to  destroy  the  independence  of  the  South  African  republics, 
and  to  remain  in  perpetuity  in  Egypt."  We  have  not  to  discuss 
the  truth  of  those  propositions,  we  have  only  to  note  the  tendency 
of  French  policy;  and  in  so  doing  it  is  useful  to  remark  that  the 
official  belief  of  the  Third  Republic  in  the  last  period  of  the 
1 9th  century  was  that  England  was  the  enemy  of  French  colonial 
expansion  all  over  the  globe,  and  that  in  the  so-called  scramble 
for  Africa  English  ambition  was  the  chief  obstacle  to  the  schemes 
of  France.  M.  Hanotaux,  with  the  authority  of  official  know- 
ledge, indicated  that  the  English  project  of  a  railway  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Cairo  was  the  provocation  which  stimu- 
lated the  French  to  essay  a  similar  adventure;  though  he  denied 
that  the  Marchand  mission  and  other  similar  expeditions  about 
to  be  mentioned  were  conceived  with  the  specific  object  of 
preventing  the  accomplishment  of  the  British  plan.  The  explora- 
tions of  Stanley  had  demonstrated  that  access  to  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  Upper  Nile  could  be  effected  as  easily  from  the  west 
coast  of  Africa  as  from  other  directions.  The  French,  from  their 
ancient  possession  of  Gabun,  had  extended  their  operations  far 
to  the  east,  and  had  by  treaties  with  European  powers  obtained 
the  right  bank  of  the  Ubanghi,  a  great  affluent  of  the  Congo, 
as  a  frontier  between  their  territory  and  that  of  the  Congo 
Independent  State.  They  thus  found  themselves,  with  respect 
to  Europe,  in  possession  of  a  region  which  approached  the 
valley  of  the  Upper  Nile.  Between  the  fall  of  Jules  Ferry 
in  1885  and  the  beginning  of  the  Russian  alliance  came  a  period 


HISTORY] 


FRANCE 


9°3 


of  decreased  activity  in  French  colonial  expansion.  The  un- 
popularity of  the  Tongking  expedition  was  one  of  the  causes 
of  the  popularity  of  General  Boulanger,  who  diverted  the  French 
public  from  distant  enterprises  to  a  contemplation  of  the  German 
frontier,  and  when  Boulangism  came  to  an  end  the  Panama 
affair  took  its  place  in  the  interest  it  excited.  But  the  colonial 
party  in  France  did  not  lose  sight  of  the  possibility  of  establishing 
Upper  a  position  on  the  Upper  Nile.  The  partition  of  Africa 
Nile  seemed  to  offer  an  occasion  for  France  to  take  com- 

expiora-  pensation  for  the  English  occupation  of  Egypt.  In 
1892  the  Budget  Commission,  on  the  proposal  of 
M.  Etienne,  deputy  for  Oran,  who  had  three  times  been  colonial 
under  secretary,  voted  300,000  francs  for  the  despatch  of  a 
mission  to  explore  and  report  on  those  regions,  which  had  not 
had  much  attention  since  the  days  of  Emin.  But  the  project 
was  not  then  carried  out.  Later,  parliament  voted  a  sum  six 
times  larger  for  strengthening  the  French  positions  on  the  Upper 
Ubanghi  and  their  means  of  communication  with  the  coast. 
But  Colonel  Monteil's  expedition,  which  was  the  consequence 
of  this  vote,  was  diverted,  and  the  1,800,000  francs  were  spent 
at  Loango,  the  southern  port  of  French  Congo,  and  on  the  Ivory 
Coast,  the  French  territory  which  lies  between  Liberia  and 
the  British  Gold  Coast  Colony,  where  a  prolonged  war  ensued 
with  Samory,  a  Nigerian  chieftain.  In  September  1894,  M. 
Delcasse  being  colonial  minister,  M.  Liotard  was  appointed 
commissioner  of  the  Upper  Ubanghi  with  instructions  to  extend 
French  influence  in  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  up  to  the  Nile.  In 
addition  to  official  missions,  numerous  expeditions  of  French 
explorers  took  place  in  Central  Africa  during  this  period,  and 
negotiations  were  continually  going  on  between  the  British 
and  French  governments.  Towards  the  end  of  1895  Lord  Salis- 
bury, who  had  succeeded  Lord  Kimberley  at  the  foreign  office, 
informed  Baron  de  Courcel,  the  French  ambassador,  that  an 
expedition  to  the  Upper  Nile  was  projected  for  the  purpose  of 
putting  an  end  to  Mahdism.  M.  Hanotaux  was  not  at  this 
moment  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He  had  been  succeeded 
by  M.  Berthelot,  the  eminent  chemist,  who  resigned  that  office 
on  the  26th  of  March  1896,  a  month  before  the  fall  of  the  Bour- 
geois cabinet  of  which  he  was  a  member,  in  consequence  of  a 
question  raised  in  the  chamber  on  this  subject  of  the  English 
expedition  to  the  Soudan.  According  to  M.  Hanotaux,  who 
returned  to  the  Quai  d'Orsay,  in  the  Meline  ministry,  on  the 
agth  of  April  1896,  Lord  Salisbury  at  the  end  of  the  previous 
year,  in  announcing  the  expedition  confidentially  to  M.  de 
Courcel,  had  assured  him  that  it  would  not  go  beyond  Dongola 
without  a  preliminary  understanding  with  France.  There  must 
have  been  a  misunderstanding  on  this  point,  as  after  reaching 
Dongola  in  September  1896  the  Anglo-Egyptian  army  proceeded 
up  the  Nile  in  the  direction  of  Khartoum.  Before  M.  Hanotaux 
resumed  office  the  Marchand  mission  had  been  formally 
Panned.  On  the  24th  of  February  1896  M.  Guieysse, 
colonial  minister  in  the  Bourgeois  ministry,  had  signed 
Captain  Marchand's  instructions  to  the  effect  that  he  must 
march  through  the  Upper  Ubanghi,  in  order  to  extend  French 
influence  as  far  as  the  Nile,  and  try  to  reach  that  river 
before  Colonel  Colvile,  who  was  leading  an  expedition  from 
the  East.  He  was  also  advised  to  conciliate  the  Mahdi  if  the  aim 
of  the  mission  could  be  benefited  thereby.  M.  Liotard  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  governor  of  the  Upper  Ubanghi,  and  in 
a  despatch  to  him  the  new  colonial  minister,  M.  Andre  Lebon, 
wrote  that  the  Marchand  mission  was  not  to  be  considered  a 
military  enterprise,  it  being  sent  out  with  the  intention  of 
maintaining  the  political  line  which  for  two  years  M.  Liotard 
had  persistently  been  following,  and  of  which  the  establishment 
of  France  in  the  basin  of  the  Nile  ought  to  be  the  crowning 
reward.  Two  days  later,  on  the  25th  of  June  1896,  Captain 
Marchand  embarked  for  Africa.  This  is  not  the  place  for  a 
description  of  his  adventures  in  crossing  the  continent  or  when 
he  encountered  General  Kitchener  at  Fashoda,  two 
months  after  his  arrival  there  in  July  1898  and  a 
fortnight  after  the  battle  of  Omdurman  and  the  capture  of 
Khartoum.  The  news  was  made  known  to  Europe  by  the 


sirdar's  telegrams  to  the  British  government  in  September 
announcing  the  presence  of  the  French  mission  at  Fashoda. 
Then  ensued  a  period  of  acute  tension  between  the  French  and 
English  governments,  which  gave  the  impression  to  the  public 
that  war  between  the  two  countries  was  inevitable.  But  those 
who  were  watching  the  situation  in  France  on  the  spot  knew 
that  there  was  no  question  of  fighting.  France  was  unprepared, 
and  was  also  involved  in  the  toils  of  the  Dreyfus  affair.  Had 
the  situation  been  that  of  a  year  later,  when  the  French  domestic 
controversy  was  ending  and  the  Transvaal  War  beginning, 
England  might  have  been  in  a  very  difficult  position.  General 
Kitchener  declined  to  recognize  a  French  occupation  of  any 
part  of  the  Nile  valley.  A  long  discussion  ensued  between  the 
British  and  French  governments,  which  was  ended  by  the  latter 
deciding  on  the  6th  of  November  1898  not  to  maintain  the 
Marchand  mission  at  Fashoda.  Captain  Marchand  refused  to 
return  to  Europe  by  way  of  the  Nile  and  Lower  Egypt,  marching 
across  Abyssinia  to  Jibuti  in  French  Somaliland,  where  he 
embarked  for  France.  He  was  received  with  well-merited 
enthusiasm  in  Paris.  But  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  his 
reception  was  that  the  ministry  became  so  alarmed  lest  the 
popularity  of  the  hero  of  Fashoda  should  be  at  the  expense 
of  that  of  the  parliamentary  republic,  that  it  put  an  end  to  the 
public  acclamations  by  despatching  him  >ecretly  from  the 
capital  —  a  somewhat  similar  treatment  having  been  accorded  to 
General  Dodds  in  1893  on  his  return  to  France  after  conquering 
Dahomey.  The  Marchand  mission  had  little  effect  on  African 
questions  at  issue  between  France  and  Great  Britain,  as  a  great 
settlement  had  been  effected  while  it  was  on  its  way 
across  the  continent.  On  the  I4th  of  June  1898,  the  tioo^of' 
day  before  the  fall  of  the  Meline  ministry,  when  M.  ts98. 
Hanotaux  finally  quitted  the  Quai  d'Orsay,  a  conven- 
tion of  general  delimitation  was  signed  at  Paris  by  that  minister 
and  by  the  British  ambassador,  Sir  Edmund  Monson,  which  as 
regards  the  respective  claims  of  England  and  France  covered 
in  its  scope  the  whole  of  the  northern  half  of  Africa  from  Sene- 
gambia  and  the  Congo  to  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  Comparatively 
little  attention  was  paid  to  it  amid  the  exciting  events  which 
followed,  so  little  that  M.  de  Courcel  has  officially  recorded 
that  three  months  later,  on  the  eve  of  the  Fashoda  incident, 
Lord  Salisbury  declared  to  him  that  he  was  not  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  the  geography  of  Africa  to  express  an  opinion 
on  certain  questions  of  delimitation  arising  out  of  the  success 
of  the  British  expedition  on  the  Upper  Nile.  The  convention 
of  June  1898  was,  however,  of  the  highest  importance,  as  it 
affirmed  the  junction  into  one  vast  territory  of  the  three  chief 
African  domains  of  France,  Algeria  and  Tunis,  Senegal  and  the 
Niger,  Chad  and  the  Congo,  thus  conceding  to  France  the  whole 
of  the  north-western  continent  with  the  exception  of  Morocco, 
Liberia  and  the  European  colonies  on  the  Atlantic.  This 
arrangement,  which  was  completed  by  an  additional  convention 
on  the  2ist  of  March  1899,  made  Morocco  a  legitimate  object 
of  French  ambition. 

The  other  questions  which  caused  mutual  animosity  between 
England  and  France  in  the  decline  of  the  igth  century  had 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  their  conflicting  inter-  The 
national  interests.  The  offensive  attitude  of  the  entente 
English  press  towards  France  on  account  of  the 
Dreyfus  affair  was  repaid  by  the  French  in  their 
criticism  of  the  Boer  War.  When  those  sentimental  causes  of 
mutual  irritation  had  become  less  acute,  the  press  of  the  two 
countries  was  moved  by  certain  influences  to  recognize  that  it 
was  in  their  interest  to  be  on  good  terms  with  one  another. 
The  importance  of  their  commerical  relations  was  brought 
into  relief  as  though  it  were  a  new  fact.  At  last  in  1903  state 
visits  between  the  rulers  of  England  and  of  France  took  place 
in  their  respective  capitals,  for  the  first  time  since  the  early  days 
of  the  Second  Empire,  followed  by  an  Anglo-French  convention 
signed  on  the  8th  of  April  1904.  By  this  an  arrangement  was 
come  to  on  outstanding  questions  of  controversy  between 
England  and  France  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  France 
undertook  not  to  interfere  with  the  action  of  England  in  Egypt, 


9°4 


FRANCE 


[HISTORY 


while  England  made  a  like  undertaking  as  to  French  influence 
in  Morocco.  France  conceded  certain  of  its  fishing  rights  in 
Newfoundland  which  had  been  a  perpetual  source  of  irritation 
between  the  two  countries  for  nearly  two  hundred  years  since 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht  of  1713.  In  return  England  made  several 
concessions  to  France  in  Africa,  including  that  of  the  Los 
Islands  off  Sierra  Leone  and  some  rectifications  of  frontier  on 
the  Gambia  and  between  the  Niger  and  Lake  Chad.  Other 
points  of  difference  were  arranged  as  to  Siam,  the  New  Hebrides 
and  Madagascar.  The  convention  of  1904  was  on  the  whole 
more  advantageous  for  England  than  for  France.  The  free 
hand  which  England  conceded  to  France  in  dealing  with  Morocco 
was  a  somewhat  burdensome  gift  owing  to  German  interference; 
but  the  incidents  which  arose  from  the  Franco-German  conflict 
in  that  country  are  as  yet  too  recent  for  any  estimate  of  their 
possible  consequences. 

One  result  was  the  retirement  of  M.  Delcasse  from  the  foreign 

office  on  the  6th  of  June  1905.     He  had  been  foreign  minister 

for  seven  years,  a  consecutive  period  of  rare  length, 

The.       ,.  only  once  exceeded  in  England  since  the  creation  of 

work  of  Jn.     ,          „,  ~       ,  i     i     i  j    ...    r 

Delcasse.  the  office,  when  Castlereagh  held  it  for  ten  years, 
and  one  of  prodigious  duration  in  the  history  of  the 
Third  Republic.  He  first  went  to  the  Quai  d'Orsay  in  the  Brisson 
ministry  of  June  1^98,  remained  there  during  the  Dupuy  ministry 
of  the  same  year,  was  reappointed  by  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau 
in  his  cabinet  which  lasted  from  June  1899  to  June  1902,  was 
retained  in  the  post  by  M.  Combes  till  his  ministry  fell  in  January 
1905,  and  again  by  his  successor  M.  Rouvier  till  his  own  resignation 
in  June  of  that  year.  M.  Delcasse  had  thusan  uninterrupted  reign 
at  the  foreign  office  during  a  long  critical  period  of  transition 
both  in  the  interior  politics  of  France  and  in  its  exterior  relations. 
He  went  to  the  Quai  d'Orsay  when  the  Dreyfus  agitation  was 
most  acute,  and  left  it  when  parliament  was  absorbed  in  dis- 
cussing the  separation  of  church  and  state.  He  saw  the  Franco- 
Russian  alliance  lose  its  popularity  in  the  country  even  before  the 
Russian  defeat  by  the  Japanese  in  the  last  days  of  his  ministry. 
Although  in  the  course  of  his  official  duties  at  the  colonial  office 
he  had  been  partly  responsible  for  some  of  the  expeditions  sent 
to  Africa  for  the  purpose  of  checking  British  influence,  he  was 
fully  disposed  to  pursue  a  policy  which  might  lead  to  a  friendly 
understanding  with  England.  In  this  he  differed  from  M. 
Hanotaux,  who  was  essentially  the  man  of  the  Franco-Russian 
alliance,  owing  to  it  much  of  his  prestige,  including  his  election 
to  the  French  Academy,  and  Russia,  to  which  he  gave  exclu- 
sive allegiance,  was  then  deemed  to  be  primarily  the  enemy  of 
England.  M.  Delcasse  on  the  contrary,  from  the  first,  desired  to 
assist  a  rapprochement  between  England  and  Russia  as  pre- 
liminary to  the  arrangement  he  proposed  between  England 
and  France.  He  was  foreign  minister  when  the  tsar  paid  his 
second  visit  to  France,  but  there  was  no  longer  the  national 
unanimity  which  welcomed  him  in  1896.  M.  Delcasse  also  accom- 
panied President  Loubet  to  Russia  when  he  returned  the  tsar's 
second  visit  in  1902.  But  exchange  of  compliments  between 
France  and  Russia  were  no  longer  to  be  the  sole  international 
ceremonials  within  the  attributes  of  the  French  foreign  office; 
M.  Delcasse  was  minister  when  the  procession  of  European 
sovereigns  headed  by  the  kings  of  England  and  of  Italy  in  1903, 
came  officially  to  Paris,  and  he  went  with  M.  Loubet  to  London 
and  to  Rome  on  the  president's  return  visits  to  those  capitals — 
the  latter  being  the  immediate  cause  of  the  rupture  of  the  con- 
cordat with  the  Vatican,  though  M.  Delcasse  was  essentially  a 
concordatory  minister.  His  retirement  from  the  Rouvier 
ministry  in  June  1905  was  due  to  pressure  from  Germany  in 
consequence  of  his  opposition  to  German  interference  in  Morocco. 
His  resignation  took  place  just  a  week  after  the  news  had  arrived 
of  the  destruction  of  the  Russian  fleet  by  the  Japanese,  which 
completed  the  disablement  of  the  one  ally  of  France.  The 
impression  was  current  in  France  that  Germany  wished  to  give 
the  French  nation  a  fright  before  the  understanding  with  England 
had  reached  an  effective  stage,  and  it  was  actually  believed 
that  the  resignation  of  M.  Delcasse  averted  a  declaration  of  war. 
Although  that  belief  revived  to  some  extent  the  fading  enmity 


of  the  French  towards  the  conquerors  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  the 
fear  which  accompanied  it  moved  a  considerable  section  of  the 
nation  to  favour  an  understanding  with  Germany  in  preference 
to,  or  even  at  the  expense  of,  friendly  relations  with  England. 
M.  Clemenceau,  who  only  late  in  life  came  into  office,  and 
attained  it  at  the  moment  when  a  better  understanding  with 
England  was  progressing,  had  been  throughout  his  long  career, 
of  all  French  public  men  in  all  political  groups,  the  most  con- 
sistent friend  of  England.  His  presence  at  the  head  of  affairs 
was  a  guarantee  of  amicable  Anglo-French  relations,  so  far  as 
they  could  be  protected  by  statesmanship. 

By  reason  of  the  increased  duration  and  stability  of  ministries, 
the  personal  influence  of  ministers  in  directing  the  foreign  policy 
of  France  has  in  one  sense  become  greater  in  the  2oth  century 
than  in  those  earlier  periods  when  France  had  first  to  recuperate 
its  strength  after  the  war  and  then  to  take  its  exterior  policy 
from  Germany.  Moreover,  not  only  have  cabinets  lasted  longer, 
but  the  foreign  minister  has  often  been  retained  in  a  succession 
of  them.  Of  the  thirty  years  which  in  1909  had  elapsed  since 
Marshal  MacMahon  retired  and  the  republic  was  governed  by 
republicans,  in  the  first  fifteen  years  from  1879  to  1894  fourteen 
different  persons  held  the  office  of  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
while  six  sufficed  for  the  fifteen  years  succeeding  the  latter  date. 
One  must  not,  however,  exaggerate  the  effect  of  this  greater 
stability  in  office-holding  upon  continuity  of  policy,  which  was 
well  maintained  even  in  the  days  when  there  was  on  an  average 
a  new  foreign  minister  every  year.  Indeed  the  most  marked 
breach  in  the  continuity  of  the  foreign  policy  of  France  has  been 
made  in  that  later  period  of  long  terms  of  office,  which,  with  the 
repudiation  of  the  Concordat,  has  seen  the  withdrawal  of  the 
French  protectorate  over  Roman  Catholic  missions  in  the  East — 
though  it  is  too  soon  to  estimate  the  result.  In  another  respect 
France  has  under  the  republic  departed  a  long  way  from  a  tradi- 
tion of  the  Quai  d'Orsay.  It  no  longer  troubles  itself  on  the 
subject  of  nationalities.  Napoleon  III.,  who  had  more  French 
temperament  than  French  blood  in  his  constitution,  was  an 
idealist  on  this  question,  and  one  of  the  causes  of  his  own  down- 
fall and  the  defeat  of  France  was  his  sympathy  in  this  direction 
with  German  unity.  Since  Sedan  little  has  been  done  in  France 
to  further  the  doctrine  of  nationalities.  A  faint  echo  of  it  was 
heard  during  the  Boer  war,  but  French  sympathy  with  the 
struggling  Dutch  republics  of  South  Africa  was  based  rather  on 
anti-English  sentiment  than  on  any  abstract  theory.  (J.  E.  C.  B.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  FRENCH  HISTORY. — The  scientific  study  of 
the  history  of  France  only  begins  with  the  i6th  century.  It  was 
hampered  at  first  by  the  traditions  of  the  middle  ages  and  by  a 
servile  imitation  of  antiquity.  Paulus  Aemilius  of  Verona  (De 
rebus  gestis  Francorum,  1517),  who  may  be  called  the  first  of  modern 
historians,  merely  applies  the  oratorical  methods  of  the  Latin 
historiographers.  It  is  not  till  the  second  half  of  the  century  that 
history  emancipates  itself;  Catholics  and  Protestants  alike  turn 
to  it  for  arguments  in  their  religious  and  political  controversies. 
Francois  Hotman  published  (1574)  his  Franco-Gallia;  Claude 
Fauchet  his  Antiquites  gauloises  et  franfoises  (1579);  Etienne 
Pasquier  his  Recherches  de  la  France  (1611),  "the  only  work  of 
erudition  of  the  i6th  century  which  one  can  read  through  without 
being  bored."  Amateurs  like  Petau,  A.  de  Thou,  Bongars  and 
Peiresc  collected  libraries  to  which  men  of  learning  went  to  draw 
their  knowledge  of  the  past;  Pierre  Pithou,  one  of  the  authors  of 
the  Satire  Menippee,  published  the  earliest  annals  of  France  (Annales 
Francorum,  1588,  and  Historiae  Francorum  scriptores  coelanei  XI., 
J596),  Jacques  Bongars  collected  in  his  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos  (1611- 
1617)  the  principal  chroniclers  of  the  Crusades.  Others  made  a 
study  of  chronology  like  J.  J.  Scaliger  (De  emendatione  temporum, 
1583 ;  Thesaurus  temporum,  1606),  sketched  the  history  of  literature, 
like  Francois  Crude,  sieur  of  La  Croix  in  Maine  (Bibliotheque  frang oise, 
1584),  and  Antoine  du  Verdier  (Catalogue  de  tons  les  auteurs  qui  ont 
ecrit  ou  traduit  enfranfois,  1585),  or  discussed  the  actual  principles  of 
historical  research,  like  Jean  Bodin  (Methodus  adfacilem  historiarum 
cognitionem,  1566)  and  Henri  Lancelot  Voisin  de  La  Popeliniere 
(Histoire  des  histoires,  1599). 

But  the  writers  of  history  are  as  yet  very  inexpert;  the  Histoire 
generate  des  rois  de  France  of  Bernard  de  Girard,  seigneur  de  Haillan 
(1576),  the  Grandes  Annales  de  France  of  Francois  de  Belief orest 
(1579),  the  Inventaire  general  de  I'hisloire  de  France  of  Jean  de  Sjerres 
(1597),  the  Histoire  generate  de  France  depuis  Pharamond  of  Scipion 
Dupleix  (1621-1645),  the  Histoire  de  France  (1643-1651)  of  Francois 
Eudes  de  Mezeray,  and  above  all  his  Abregt  chronologique  de  I'histoire 


HISTORIOGRAPHY] 


FRANCE 


905 


de  France  (1668),  are  compilations  which  were  eagerly  read  when  they 
appeared,  but  are  worthless  nowadays.  Historical  research  lacked 
method,  leaders  and  trained  workers;  it  found  them  all  in  the  1 7th 
century,  the  golden  age  of  learning  which  was  honoured  alike  by 
laymen,  priests  and  members  of  the  monastic  orders,  especially  the 
Benedictines  of  the  congregation  of  St  Maur.  The  publication  of 
original  documents  was  carried  on  with  enthusiasm.  To  Andre 
Duchesne  we  owe  two  great  collections  of  chronicles:  the  Historiae 
Normannorum  scriptores  antiqui  (1619)  and  the  Historiae  Francorum 
scriptores,  continued  by  his  son  Francois  (5  vols.,  1636-1649). 
These  publications  were  due  to  a  part  only  of  his  prodigious  activity ; 
his  papers  and  manuscripts,  preserved  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale 
at  Paris,  are  an  inexhaustible  mine.  Charles  du  Fresne,  seigneur 
du  Cange,  published  Villehardouin  (1657)  and  Joinville  (1668); 
Etienne  Baluze,  the  Capitularia  regum  Francorum  (1674),  the  Nova 
coliectio  conciliorum  (1677),  the  Vitae  papatum  Avenionensium 
(1693).  The  clergy  were  very  much  aided  in  their  work  by  their 
private  libraries  and  by  their  co-operation;  Pere  Philippe  Labbe 
published  his  Bibliotheca  nova  manuscriptorum  (1657),  and  began 
(1671)  his  Collection  des  candles,  which  was  successfully  completed 
by  his  colleague  Pere  Cossart  (18  vols.).  In  1643  the  Jesuit  Jean 
Bolland  brought  out  vol.  i.  of  the  Acta  sanctorum,  a  vast  collection 
of  stories  and  legends  which  has  not  yet  been  completed  beyond  the 
4th  of  November.  (See  BOLLANDISTS.)  The  Benedictines,  for 
their  part,  published  the  Acta  sanctorum  ordinis  sancti  Benedicti 
(9  vols.,  1668-1701).  One  of  the  chief  editors  of  this  collection,  Dom 
Jean  Mabillon,  published  on  his  own  account  the  Vetera  analecta 
(4  vols.,  1675-1685)  and  prepared  the  Annales  ordinis  sancti  Benedicti 
(6  vols.,  I7°3~I793)-  To  Dom  Thierri  Ruinart  we  owe  good  editions 
of  Gregory  of  Tours  and  Fredegarius  (1699).  The  learning  of  the 
1 7th  century  further  inaugurated  those  specialized  studies  which  are 
important  aids  to  history.  Mabillon  in  his  De  re  diplomatica  (1681) 
creates  the  science  of  documents  or  diplomatics.  Adrien  de  Valois 
lays  a  sound  foundation  for  historical  geography  by  his  critical 
edition  of  the  Notitia  Galliarum  (1675).  Numismatics  finds  an  en- 
lightened pioneer  in  Francois  Leblanc  (Traite  hislorique  des  monnaies 
de  France,  1690).  Du  Cange,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  French 
scholars  who  have  studied  the  middle  ages,  has  denned  terms 
bearing  on  institutions  in  his  Clossarium  mediae  et  infimae  latinitatis 
(1678),  recast  by  the  Benedictines  (1733),  with  an  important  supple- 
ment by  Dom  Carpentier  (1768),  republished  twice  during  the  igth 
century,  with  additions,  by  F.  Didot  (1840-1850),  and  by  L.  Favre  at 
Niort  (1883-1888) ;  this  work  is  still  indispensable  to  every  student 
of  medieval  history.  Finally,  great  biographical  or  bibliographical 
works  were  undertaken ;  the  Gallia  Christiana,  which  gave  a  chrono- 
logical list  of  the  archbishops,  bishops  and  abbots  of  the  Gauls  and 
of  France,  was  compiled  by  two  twin  brothers,  Scevole  and  Louis 
de  Sainte-Marthe,  and  by  the  two  sons  of  Louis  (4  vols.,  1656) ;  a 
fresh  edition,  on  a  better  plan,  and  with  great  additions,  was  begun 
in  1715  by  Denys  de  Sainte-Marthe,  continued  throughout  the  l8th 
century  by  the  Benedictines,  and  finished  in  the  igth  century  by 
Barthelemy  Haureau  (1856-1861). 

As  to  the  nobility,  a  series  of  researches  and  publications,  begun 
by  Pierre  d'Hozier  (d.  1660)  and  continued  well  on  into  the  igth 
century  by  several  of  his  descendants,  developed  into  the  Armorial 
general  de  la  France,  which  was  remodelled  several  times.  A  similar 
work,  of  a  more  critical  nature,  was  carried  out  by  Pere  Anselme 
(Histoire  genealogique  de  la  maison  de  France  et  des  grands  officiers 
de  la  couronne,  1674)  and  by  Pere  Ange  and  Pere  Simplicien,  who 
completed  the  work  (3rd  ed.  in  9  vols.,  1726-1733).  Critical  biblio- 
graphy is  especially  represented  by  certain  Protestants,  expelled 
From  France  by  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Pierre 
Bayle,  the  sceptic,  famous  for  his  Dictionnaire  critique  (1699), 
which  is  in  part  a  refutation  of  the  Dictionnaire  historique  et  geo- 
graphique  published  in  1673  by  the  Abbe  Louis  Moreri,  was  the 
first  to  publish  the  Nouvelles  de  la  republique  des  lettres  (1684-1687), 
which  was  continued  by  Henri  Basnage  de  Beauval  under  the  title 
of  Histoire  des  ouvrages  des  savants  (24  vols.).  In  imitation  of  this, 
Jean  Le  Clerc  successively  edited la  Bibliotheque  universelleet  historique 
(1686-1693),  a  Bibliotheque  choisie  (1703-1713),  and  a  Bibliotheque 
ancienne  et  moderne  (1714-1727).  These  were  the  first  of  our 
"  periodicals." 

The  i8th  century  continues  the  traditions  of  the  I7th.  The 
Benedictines  still  for  some  time  hold  the  first  place.  Dom  Edmond 
Martene  visited  numerous  archives  (which  were  then  closed)  in 
France  and  neighbouring  countries,  and  drew  from  them  the  material 
for  two  important  collections:  Thesaurus  novus  anecdotorum  (9  vols., 
1717,  in  collaboration  with  Dom  Ursin  Durand)  and  Veterum  scrip- 
torum  coliectio  (9  vols.,  1724-1733).  Dom  Bernard  de  Montfaucon 
also  travelled  in  search  of  illustrated  records  of  antiquity;  private 
collections,  among  others  the  celebrated  collection  of  Gaignieres 
(now  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale),  provided  him  with  the  illus- 
trations which  he  published  in  his  Monuments  de  la  monarchie 
franfoise  (5  vols.,  1729-1733).  The  text  is  in  two  languages,  Latin 
and  French.  Dom  Martin  Bouquet  took  up  the  work  begun  by  the 
two  Duchesnes,  and  in  1738  published  vol.  i.  of  the  Historians  of 
France  (Rerum  Callicarum  et  Francicarum  scriptores),  an  enormous 
collection  which  was  intended  to  include  all  the  sources  of  the  history 
of  France,  grouped  under  centuries  and  reigns.  He  produced  the 
first  eight  volumes  himself;  his  work  was  continued  by  several 


collaborators,  the  most  active  of  whom  was  Dom  Michel  J.  Brial, 
and  already  comprised  thirteen  volumes  when  it  was  interrupted 
by  the  Revolution.  In  1733,  Antoine  Rivet  de  La  Grange  produced 
vol.  i.  of  the  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  France,  which  in  1789  numbered 
twelve  volumes.  While  Dom  C.  Francois  Toustaint  and  Dom 
Rene  Prosper  Tassin  published  a  Nouveau  Traite  de  diplomatique 
(6  vols.,  1750-1765),  others  were  undertaking  the  Art  de  verifier  les 
dates  (1750;  new  and  much  enlarged  edition  in  1770).  Still  others, 
with  more  or  less  success,  attempted  histories  of  the  provinces. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  i8th  century,  the  ardour  of  the  Benedic- 
tines of  St  Maur  diminished,  and  scientific  work  passed  more  and 
more  into  the  hands  of  laymen.  The  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et 
Belles-lettres,  founded  in  1663  and  reorganized  in  1701,  became  its 
chief  instrument,  numbering  among  its  members  Denis  Francois 
Secousse,  who  continued  the  collection  of  Ordonnances  des  rois  de 
France,  begun  (1723)  by  J.  de  Lauriere;  J.-B.de  La  Curne  de  Sainte 
Palaye  (Memoires  sur  I' ancienne  chevalerie,  1759—1781;  Glossaire  de 
la  langue  frangaise  depuis  son  origine  jusqu'd,  la  fin  de  Louis  XIV, 
printed  only  in  1875-1882);  J.-B.  d'Anville  (Notice  sur  I'ancienne 
Gaule  tiree  des  monuments,  1760);  and  L.  G.  de  Brequigny,  the 
greatest  of  them  all,  who  continued  the  publication  of  the  Ordon- 
nances, began  the  Table  chronologique  des  diplomes  concernant 
I'histoire  de  France  (3  vols.,  I76o/-l783),  published  the  Diplomata, 
chartae,  ad  res  Francicas  spectantia  (1791,  with  the  collaboration  of 
La  Porte  du  Theil),  and  directed  fruitful  researches  in  the  archives  in 
London,  to  enrich  the  Cabinet  des  chartes,  where  Henri  Berlin  (1719— 
1792),  an  enlightened  minister  of  Louis  XV.,  had  in  1764  set  himself 
the  task  of  collecting  the  documentary  sources  of  the  national  history. 
The  example  set  by  the  religious  orders  and  the  government  bore 
fruit.  The  general  assembly  of  the  clergy  gave  orders  that  its 
Proces  verbaux  (9  vols.,  1767-1789)  should  be  printed;  some  of  the 
provinces  decided  to  have  their  history  written,  and  mostly  applied 
to  the  Benedictines  to  have  this  done.  Brittany  was  treated  by 
Dom  Lobineau  (1707)  and  Dom  Morice  (1742);  the  duchy  of  Bur- 
gundy by  Dom  Urbain  Plancher  (1739-1748);  Languedoc  by  Dom 
Dominique  Vaissete  (1730—1749,  in  collaboration  with  Dom  Claude 
de  Vic;  new  ed.  1873—1893);  for  Paris,  its  secular  history  was 
treated  by  Dom  Michel  Felibien  and  Dom  Lobineau  (1725),  and  its 
ecclesiastical  history  by  the  abbe  Lebeuf  (1745-1760;  new  ed. 
1883-1890). 

This  ever-increasing  stream  of  new  evidence  aroused  curiosity, 
gave  rise  to  pregnant  comparisons,  developed  and  sharpened  the 
critical  sense,  but  further  led  to  a  more  and  more  urgent  need  for 
exact  information.  The  Academic  des  Inscriptions  brought  out  its 
Histoire  de  I'Academie  avec  les  memoires  de  litterature  tires  de  ses 
rcgistres  (vol.  i.  1717;  51  vols.  appeared  before  the  Revolution,  with 
five  indexes;  vide  the  Bibliographie  of  Lasteyrie,  vol.  iii.  pp.  256  et 
seq.).  Other  collections,  mostly  of  the  nature  of  bibliographies, 
were  the  Journal  des  savants  (ill  vols.,  from  1665  to  1792;  vide  the 
Table  methodique  by  H.  Cocheris,  1860) ;  the  Journal  de  Trevoux,  or 
Memoires  pour  I'histoire  des  sciences  et  des  beaux-arts,  edited  by 
Jesuits  (265  vols.,  1701-1790);  the  Mercure  de  France  (977  vols., 
from  1724  to  1791).  To  these  must  be  added  the  dictionaries  and 
encyclopaedias:  the  Dictionnaire  de  Moreri,  the  last  edition  of 
which  numbers  10  vols.  (1759);  the  Dictionnaire  geographique, 
historique  et  politique  des  Gaules  et  de  la  France,  by  the  abbe  J.  J. 
Expilly  (6  vols.,  1762-1770;  unfinished);  the  Repertoire  universel 
et  raisonne  de  jurisprudence  civile,  criminelle,  canomque  et  beneficiale, 
by  Guypt  (64  vols.,  1775-1786;  supplement  in  17  vols.,  1784-1785), 
reorganized  and  continued  by  Merlin  de  Douai,  who  was  afterwards 
one  of  the  Montagnards,  a  member  of  the  Directory,  and  a  count 
under  the  Empire. 

The  historians  did  not  use  to  the  greatest  advantage  the  treasures 
of  learning  provided  for  them ;  they  were  for  the  most  part  super- 
ficial, and  dominated  by  their  political  or  religious  prejudices. 
Thus  works  like  that  of  Pere  Gabriel  Daniel  (Histoire  de  France,  3 
vols.,  1713),  of  President  Henault  (Abrege  chronologique,  1744;  25 
editions  between  1770  and  1834),  of  the  abbe  Paul  Frangois  Velly 
and  those  who  completed  his  work  (Histoire  de  France,  33  vols., 
1765  to  1783),  of  G.  H.  Gaillard  (Histoire  de  la  rivalite  de  la  France 
et  de  I'Angleterre,  II  vols.,  1771-1777),  and  of  L.  P.  Anquetil  (1805), 
in  spite  of  the  brilliant  success  with  which  they  met  at  first,  have 
fallen  into  a  just  oblivion.  A  separate  place  must  be  given  to  the 
works  of  the  theorists  and  philosophers :  Histoire  de  I'ancien  gouverne- 
ment  de  la  France,  by  the  Comte  de  Boulainvilliers  (1727),  Histoire 
critique  de  I '  etablissement  de  la  monarchie  Jran$oise  dans  les  deux 
Gaules,  by  the  abbe  J.  B.  Dubos  (1734);  L'Esprit  des  lois,  by  the 
president  de  Montesquieu  (1748);  the  Observations  sur  I'histoire  de 
France,  by  the  abbe  de  Mably  (1765) ;  the  Theorie  de  la  politique  de 
la  monarchie  fran$aise,  by  Marie  Pauline  de  Lezardiere  (1792).  These 
works  have,  if  nothing  else,  the  merit  of  provoking  reflection. 

At  the  time  of  the  Revolution  this  activity  was  checked.  The 
religious  communities  and  royal  academies  were  suppressed,  and 
France  violently  broke  with  even  her  most  recent  past,  which  was 
considered  to  belong  to  the  ancien  regime.  When  peace  was  re- 
established, she  began  the  task  of  making  good  the  damage  which 
had  been  done,  but  a  greater  effort  was  now  necessary  in  order  to 
revive  the  spirit  of  the  institutions  which  had  been  overthrown. 
The  new  state,  which  was,  in  spite  of  all,  bound  by  so  many  ties 
to  the  former  order  of  things,  seconded  this  effort,  and  during  the 


9o6  FRANCE 

whole  of  the  igth  century,  and  even  longer,  had  a  strong  influence  on 
historical  production.  The  section  of  the  Institut  de  France, 
which  in  1816  assumed  the  old  name  of  Academic  des  Inscriptions 
et  Belles-lettres,  began  to  reissue  the  two  series  of  the  Memoires 
and  of  the  Notices  et  extraits  des  manuscrits  tires  de  la  bibliotheque 
royale  (the  first  volume  had  appeared  in  1787);  began  (1844)  that 
of  the  Memoires  presentes  par  divers  savants  and  the  Comptes  rendus 
(subject  index  1857-1900,  by  G.  Ledos,  1906) ;  and  continued  the 
Recueil  des  historiens  de  France,  the  plan  of  which  ^was  enlarged  by 
degrees  (Historiens  des  croisades,  obituaires,  pouilles,  comptes,  &c.), 
the  Ordonnances  and  the  Table  chronologique  des  diplpmes.  During 
the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe,  the  ministry  of  the  interior  reorganized 
the  administration  of  the  archives  of  the  departments,  communes 
and  hospitals,  of  which  the  Inventaires  sommaires  are  a  mine  of 
precious  information  (see  the  Rapport  au  ministre,  by  G.  Servois, 
1902).  In  '834  the  ministry  of  public  instruction  founded  a  com- 
mittee, which  has  been  called  since  1 88 1  the  Comite  des  Travaux 
historiques  et  sci°ntifiques,  under  the  direction  of  which  have  been 
published:  (i)  the  Collection  des  documents  inedits  relatifs  a  I'histoire 
de  France  (more  than  260  vols.  have  appeared  since  1836);  (2)  the 
Catalogue  general  des  manuscrits  des  bibliotheques  de  France;  (3) 
the  Dictionnaires  topographiques  (25  vols.  have  appeared));  and  the 
Repertoires  archeologiques  of  the  French  departments  (8  vols.  between 
1861  and  1888) ;  (4)  several  series  of  Bulletins,  the  details  of  which  will 
be  found  in  the  Bibliographic  of  Lasteyrie.  At  the  same  time  were 
founded  or  reorganized,  both  in  Paris  and  the  departments,  numerous 
societies,  devoted  sometimes  partially  and  sometimes  exclusively  to 
history  and  archaeology;  the  Academic  Celtique  (1804),  which  in 
1813  became  the  Societe  des  Antiquaires  de  France  (general  index  by 
M.  Prou,  1894);  the  Societe  de  1'Histoire  de  France  (1834);  the 
Societe  del'Ecole  des  Charles  (1839) ;  the  Societe  de  1'Histoire  de  Paris 
et  de l'Ile-de-France  (1874;  four  decennial  indexes),  &c.  The  details 
will  bs  found  in  the  excellent  Bibliographie  generate  des  travaux 
historiques  et  archeologiques  publies  par  les  societes  savantes  de  France, 
which  has  appeared  since  1885  under  the  direction  of  Robert  de 
Lasteyrie. 

Individual  scholars  also  associated  themselves  with  this  great 
literary  movement.  Guizot  published  a  Collection  de  memoires 
relatifs  a  I'histoire  de  France  (31  vols.,  1824-1835);  Buchon,  a 
Collection  des  chroniques  nationales  franqaises  ecrites  en  langue 
vulgaire  du  XIII'  au  XVI'  siecle  U7  vols.,  1824-1829),  and  a 
Choix  de  chroniques  et  memoires  sur  I'histoire  de  France  (14^  vols. 


[HISTORIOGRAPHY 


de  France  (32  vols.,  1836-1839);  Barriere  and  de  Lescure,  a  Biblio- 
theque de  memoires  relatifs  a  I'histoire  de  France  pendant  le  X  VIII' 
siecle  (30  vols.,  1855-1875);  and  finally  Bervilfe  and  Barriere,  a 
Collection  des  memoires  relatifs  a  la  Revolution  Frangaise  (55  vols., 
1820-1827).  The  details  are  to  be  found  in  the  Sources  de  I'histoire 
de  France,  by  Alfred  Franklin  (1876).  The  abbe  J.  P.  Migne  in  his 
Patro'ogia  Latina  (221  vols.,  1844-1864),  re-edited  a  number  of  texts 
anterior  to  the  I3th  century.  Under  the  second  empire,  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  imperial  archives  at  Paris  published  ten  volumes 
of  documents  (Monuments  historiques,  1866;  Layettes  du  tresor  des 
charles,  1863,  which  were  afterwards  continued  up  to  1270;  Actes 
du  parlement  de  Paris,  1863-1867),  not  to  mention  several  volumes 
of  Inventaires.  The  administration  of  the  Bibliotheque  imperiale 
had  printed  the  Catalogue  general  de  I'histoire  de  France  (io  vols., 
1855-1870;  vol.  xi.,  containing  the  alphabetical  index  to  the  names 
of  the  authors,  appeared  in  1895).  Other  countries  also  supplied 
a  number  of  useful  texts;  there  is  much  in  the  English  Rolls  series, 
in  the  collection  of  Chroniques  beiges,  and  especially  in  the  Monumenta 
Germaniae  historica. 

At  the  same  time  the  scope  of  history  and  its  auxiliary  sciences 
becomes  more  clearly  defined ;  the  Ecole  des  Chartes  produces  some 
excellent  palaeographers,  as  for  instance  Natalis  de  Wailly  (Elements 
de  paleographie,  1838),  and  L.  Delisle  (q.v.),  who  has  also  left  traces  of 
his  profound  researches  in  the  most  varied  departments  of  medieval 
history  (Bibliographie  des  travaux  de  M.  Leopold  Delisle,  1902); 
Anatole  de  Barthelemy  made  a  study  of  coins  and  medals,  Douet 
d'Arcq  and  G.  Demay  of  seals.  The  works  of  Alexandra  Lenoir 


1844),  of  Jules  Quicherat  (Melanges  d'archeologie  et  d'histoire,  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  1886),  and  the  dictionaries  of  Viollet  le  Due 
(Dictionnaire  raisonne  de  I' architecture  f ran  faise,  1853-1868;  Diction- 
naire  du  mobilier  franc,ais,  1855)  displayed  to  the  best  advantage 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  sides  of  the  French  intellect,  while  other 
sciences,  such  as  geology,  anthropology,  the  comparative  study  of 
languages,  religions  and  folk-lore,  and  political  economy,  continued 
to  enlarge  the  horizon  of  history.  The  task  of  writing  the  general 
history  of  a  country  became  more  and  more  difficult,  especially 
for  one  man,  but  the  task  was  none  the  less  undertaken  by  several 
historians,  and  by  some  of  eminence.  Francois  Guizot  treated  of 
the  Histoire  de  Id  civilisation  en  France  (1828-1830);  Augustin 
Thierry  after  the  Recits  des  temps  merovingiens  (1840)  published 
the  Monuments  de  I'histoire  du  tiers  etat  (1849-1856),  the  intro- 
duction to  which  was  expanded  into  a  book  (1855) ;  Charles  Simonde 


de  Sismondi  produced  a  mediocre  Histoire  des  frangais  in  31  vols. 
(1821-1844),  and  Henri  Martin  a  Histoire  de  France  in  16  vols. 
(1847-1854),  now  of  small  use  except  for  the  two  or  three  last  cen- 
turies of  the  ancien  regime.  Finally  J.  Michelet,  in  his  Histoire 
de  France  (17  vols.,  1833-1856)  and  his  Histoire  de  la  Revolution 
(7  vols.,  1847-1853),  aims  at  reviving  the  very  soul  of  the  nation's 
past. 

After  the  Franco-German  War  begins  a  better  organization  of 
scientific^  studies,  modelled  on  that  of  Germany.  The  Ecole  des 
Hautes  Etudes,  established  in  1868,  included  in  its  programme  the 
critical  study  of  the  sources,  both  Latin  and  French,  of  the  history 
of  France;  and  from  the  seminaire  of  Gabriel  Monod  came  men  of 
learning,  already  prepared  by  studying  at  the  Ecole  des  Chartes: 
Paul  Viollet,  who  revived  the  study  of  the  history  of  French  law ; 
Julien  Havet,  who  revived  that  of  Merovingian  diplomatics;  Arthur 
Giry,  who  resumed  the  study  of  municipal  institutions  where  it 
had  been  left  by  A.  Thierry,  prepared  the  Annales  carolingiennes 
(written  by  his  pupils,  Eckel,  Favre,  Lauer,  Lot,  Poupardin),  and 
brought  back  into  honour  the  study  of  diplomatics  (Manuel  de 
diplomatique,  1894) ;  Auguste  Molinier,  author  of  the  Sources  de 
I'histoire  de  France  (1902-1904;  general  index,  1906),  &c.  Auguste 
Longnon  introduced  at  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes  the  study  of 
historical  geography  (Atlas  historique  de  la  France,  in  course  of 
publication  since  1888).  The  universities,  at  last  reorganized, 
popularized  the  employment  of  the  new  methods.  The  books  of 
Fustel  de  Coulanges  and  Achille  Luchaire  on  the  middle  ages,  and 
those  of  A.  Aulard  on  the  revolution,  gave  a  strong,  though  well- 
regulated,  impetus  to  historical  production.  The  Ecole  du  Louvre 
(1881)  increased  the  value  of  the  museums  and  placed  the  history 
of  art  among  the  studies  of  higher  education,  while  the  Musee 
archeologique  of  St-Germain-en-Laye  offered  a  fruitful  field  for 
research  on  Gallic  and  Gallo-Roman  antiquities.  Rich  archives, 
hitherto  inaccessible,  were  thrown  open  to  students;  at  Rome 
those  of  the  Vatican  (Registres  pontificaux,  published  by  students 
at  the  French  school  of  archaeology,  since  1884);  at  Paris,  those  of 
the  Foreign  Office  (Recueil  des  instructions  donnees  aux  ambassadeurs 
depuis  le  traite  de  Westphalie,  16  vols.,  1885-1901;  besides  various 
collections  of  diplomatic  papers,  inventories,  &c.).  Those  of  the 
War  Office  were  used  by  officers  who  published  numerous  documents 
bearing  on  the  wars  of  the  Revolution  and  the  Empire,  and  on  that  of 
1870-1871).  In  1904  a  commission,  generously  endowed  by  the 
French  parlement,  was  entrusted  with  the  task  of  publishing  the 
documents  relating  to  economic  and  social  life  of  the  time  of  the 
Revolution,  and  four  volumes  had  appeared  by  1908.  Certain 
towns,  Paris,  Bordeaux,  &c.,  have  made  it  a  point  of  honour  to  have 
their  chief  historical  monuments  printed.  The  work  now  becomes 
more  and  more  specialized.  L'Histoire  de  France,  by  Ernest  Lavisse 
(1900,  &c.),  is  the  work  of  fifteen  different  authors.  It  is  therefore 
more  than  ever  necessary  that  the  work  should  be  under  sound 
direction.  The  Manuel  de  bibliographic  historique  of  Ch.  V.  Langlqis 
(2nd  edition,  1901-1904)  is  a  good  guide,  as  is  his  Archives  de  I'histoire 
de  France  (1891,  in  collaboration  with  H.  Stein). 

Besides  the  special  bibliographies  mentioned  above,  it  will  be 
useful  to  consult  the  Bibliotheque  historique  of  Pere  Jacques  Lelong 
(1719;  new  ed.  by  Fevret  de  Fontette,  5  vols.,  1768-1778);  the 
Geschichte  der  historischen  Forschung  und  Kunst  of  Ludwig  Wachler 
(2  vols.,  1812-1816);  the  Bibliographie  de  la  France,  established 
in  1811  (ist  series,  1811-1856,  45  vols.;  2nd  series,  I  vol.  per  annum 


(Biobibliographie;  new  ed.  1903-1907;  and  Topobibliographie, 
1894-1899).  Bearing  exclusively  on  the  middle  ages  are  the  Btblio- 
theca  historica  medii  aevi  of  August  Potthast  (new  ed.  1896)  and  the 
Manuel  (Les  Sources  de  I'histoire  de  France,  1901,  &c.)  of  A.  Molinier; 
but  the  latter  is  to  be  continued  up  to  modern  times,  the  l6th  century 
having  already  been  begun  by  Henri  Hausser  (ist  part,  1906). 
Finally,  various  special  reviews,  besides  teaching  historical  method 
by  criticism  and  by  example,  try  to  keep  their  readers  au  courant 
with  literary  production ;  the  Revue  critique  d'histoire  et  de  litterature 
(1866  fol.),  the  Revue  des  questions  historiques  (1866  fol.),  the  Revue 
historique  (1876  fol.),  the  Revue  d'histoire  moderne  et  contemporaine, 
accompanied  annually  by  a  valuable  Repertoire  methodique  (1898 
fol.) ;  the  Revue  de  synthese  historique  (1900  fol.),  &c.  (C.  B.*) 

FRENCH  LAW  AND  INSTITUTIONS 

Celtic  Period. — The  remotest  times  to  which  history  gives  us 
access  with  reference  to  the  law  and  institutions  formerly 
existing  in  the  country  which  is  now  called  France  are  those  in 
which  the  dominant  race  at  least  was  Celtic.  On  the  whole, 
our  knowledge  is  small  of  the  law  and  institutions  of  these  Celts, 
or  Gauls,  whose  tribes  constituted  independent  Gaul.  For  their 
reconstruction,  modern  scholars  draw  upon  two  sources;  firstly, 
there  is  the  information  furnished  by  the  classical  writers  and  by 
Caesar  and  Strabo  in  particular,  which  is  trustworthy  but  some- 
what scanty;  the  other  source,  which  is  not  so  pure,  consists  in 


INSTITUTIONS] 


FRANCE 


907 


the  accounts  found  in  those  legal  works  of  the  middle  ages  written 
in  the  neo-Celtic  dialects,  the  most  important  and  the  greater 
number  of  which  belong  to  Ireland.  A  reconstruction  from  them 
is  always  hazardous,  however  delicate  and  scientific  be  the 
criticism  which  is  brought  to  bear  on  it,  as  in  the  case  of  d'Arbois 
de  Jubainville,  for  example.  Moreover,  in  the  historical  evolution 
of  French  institutions  those  of  the  Celts  or  Gauls  are  of  little 
importance.  Not  one  of  them  can  be  shown  to  have  survived 
in  later  law.  What  has  survived  of  the  Celtic  race  is  the  blood 
and  temperament,  still  found  in  a  great  many  Frenchmen, 
certain  traits  which  the  ancients  remarked  in  the  Gauls  being 
still  recognizable:  helium  gerere  et  argute  loqui. 

Roman  Period. — It  was  the  Roman  conquest  and  rule  which 
really  formed  Gaul,  for  she  was  Romanized  to  the  point  of  losing 
almost  completely  that  which  persists  most  stubbornly  in  a 
conquered  nation,  namely,  the  language;  the  Breton-speaking 
population  came  to  France  later,  from  Britain.  The  institutions 
of  Roman  Gaul  became  identical  with  those  of  the  Roman  empire, 
provincial  and  municipal  government  undergoing  the  same 
evolution  as  in  the  other  parts  of  the  empire.  It  was  under 
Roman  supremacy  too,  as  M.  d'Arbois  de  Jubainville  has  shown, 
that  the  ownership  of  land  became  personal  and  free  in  Gaul. 
The  law  for  the  Gallo-Romans  was  that  which  was  administered 
by  the  conventus  of  the  magistrate;  there  are  only  a  few  peculi- 
arities, mere  Gallicisms,  resulting  from  conventions  or  usage, 
which  are  pointed  out  by  Roman  jurisconsults  of  the  classical 
age.  The  administrative  reforms  of  Diocletian  and  Constantine 
applied  to  Gaul  as  to  the  rest  of  the  empire.  Gaul  under  this 
rule  consisted  of  seventeen  provinces,  divided  between  two 
dioceses,  ten  in  the  diocese  of  the  Gauls,  under  the  authority 
of  the  praetorian  prefect,  who  resided  at  Treves;  and  the  other 
seven  in  the  dioecesis  scptem  provinciarum,  under  the  authority 
of  a  mcarius.  The  Gallo-Romans  became  Christian  with  the 
other  subjects  of  the  empire;  the  Church  extended  thither  her 
powerful  organization  modelled  on  the  administrative  organiza- 
tion, each  civitas  having  a  bishop,  just  as  it  had  a  curia  and 
municipal  magistrates.  But,  although  endowed  with  privileges 
by  the  Christian  emperors,  the  Church  did  not  yet  encroach  upon 
the  civil  power.  She  had  the  right  of  acquiring  property,  of 
holding  councils,  subject  to  the  imperial  authority,  and  of  the 
free  election  of  bishops.  But  only  the  first  germs  of  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  are  to  be  traced.  In  virtue  of  the  laws,  the  bishops 
were  privileged  arbitrators,  and  in  the  matter  of  public  sins 
exercised  a  disciplinary  jurisdiction  over  the  clergy  and  the 
faithful.  In  the  second  half  of  the  4th  century,  monasteries 
appeared  in  Gaul.  After  the  fall  of  the  Western  empire;  there  was 
left  to  the  Gallo-Romans  as  an  expression  of  its  law,  which  was 
also  theirs,  a  written  legislation.  It  consisted  of  the  imperial 
constitutions,  contained  in  the  Gregorian,  Hermogenian  and 
Theodosian  codes  (the  two  former  being  private  compilations, 
and  the  third  an  official  collection),  and  the  writings  of  the 
five  jurists  (Gaius,  Papinian,  Paulus,  Ulpian  and  Modestinus), 
to  which  Valentinian  III.  had  in  426  given  the  force  of  law. 
.  The  Barbarian  Invasion. — The  invasions  and  settlements  of 
the  barbarians  open  a  new  period.  Though  there  were  robbery 
and  violence  in  every  case,  the  various  barbarian  kingdoms 
set  up  in  Gaul  were  established  under  different  conditions. 
In  those  of  the  Burgundians  and  Visigoths,  the  owners  of  the  great 
estates,  which  had  been  the  prevailing  form  of  landed  property 
in  Roman  Gaul,  suffered  partial  dispossession,  according  to  a 
system  the  rules  regulating  which  can,  in  the  case  of  the  Bur- 
gundians, be  traced  almost  exactly.  It  is  doubtful  whether  a 
similar  process  took  place  in  the  case  of  the  Prankish  settlements, 
but  their  first  conquests  in  the  north  and  east  seem  to  have  led 
to  the  extermination  or  total  expulsion  of  the  Gallo-Roman 
population.  It  is  impossible  to  say  to  what  extent,  in  these 
various  settlements,  the  system  of  collective  property  prevailing 
among  the  Germanic  tribes  was  adopted.  Another  important 
difference  was  that,  in  embracing  Christianity,  some  of  the 
barbarians  became  Arians,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Visigoths  and 
Burgundians;  others  Catholic,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Franks. 
This  was  probably  the  main  cause  of  the  absorption  of  the  other 


kingdoms  into  the  Prankish  monarchy.  In  each  case,  however, 
the  barbarian  king  appeared  as  wishing  not  to  overthrow  the 
Roman  administration,  but  to  profit  by  its  continuation.  The 
kings  of  the  Visigoths  and  Burgundians  were  at  first  actually 
representatives  of  the  Western  empire,  and  Clovis  himself  was 
ready  to  accept  from  the  emperor  Anastasius  the  title  of  consul; 
but  these  were  but  empty  forms,  similar  to  the  fictitious  ties 
which  long  existed  or  still  exist  between  China  or  Turkey  and 
certain  parts  of  their  former  empires,  now  separated  from  them 
for  ever. 

As  soon  as  the  Merovingian  monarch  had  made  himself  master 
of  Gaul,  he  set  himself  to  maintain  and  keep  in  working  order 
the  administrative  machinery  of  the  Romans,  save  that  the 
administrative  unit  was  henceforth  no  longer  the  provincia  but 
the  civitas,  which  generally  took  the  name  of  pagus,  and  was 
placed  under  the  authority  of  a  count,  comes  or  grafio  (Graf). 
Perhaps  this  was  not  entirely  an  innovation,  for  it  appears  that 
at  the  end  of  the  Roman  supremacy  certain  civitales  had  already 
a  comes.  Further,  several  pagi  could  be  united  under  the 
authority  of  a  dux.  The  pagus  seems  to  have  generally  been 
divided  into  hundreds  (cenlenae). 

But  the  Roman  administrative  machinery  was  too  delicate 
to  be  handled  by  barbarians;  it  could  not  survive  for  long, 
but  underwent  changes  and  finally  disappeared.  Thus  the 
Merovingians  tried  to  levy  the  same  direct  taxes  as  the  Romans 
had  done,  the  capitalio  terrena  and  the  capilalio  humana,  but 
they  ceased  to  be  imposts  reassessed  periodically  in  accordance 
with  the  total  sum  fixed  as  necessary  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
state,  and  became  fixed  annual  taxes  on  lands  or  persons; 
finally,  they  disappeared  as  general  imposts,  continuing  to 
exist  only  as  personal  or  territorial  dues.  In  the  same  way  the 
Roman  municipal  organization,  that  of  the  curiae,  survived 
for  a  considerable  time  under  the  Merovingians,  but  was  used 
only  for  the  registration  of  written  deeds;  under  the  Carolingians 
it  disappeared,  and  with  it  the  oJd  senatorial  nobility  which 
had  been  that  of  the  Empire.  The  administration  of  justice 
(apart  from  the  king's  tribunal)  seems  to  have  been  organized 
on  a  system  borrowed  partly  from  Roman  and  partly  from 
Germanic  institutions;  it  naturally  tends  to  assume  popular 
forms.  Justice  is  administered  by  the  count  (comes)  or  his 
deputy  (centenarius  or  mcarius),  but  on  the  verdict  of  notables 
called  in  the  texts  boni  homines  or  rachimburgii.  This  takes 
place  in  an  assembly  of  all  the  free  subjects,  called  mallus,  at 
which  every  free  man  is  bound  to  attend  at  least  a  certain  number 
of  times  a  year,  and  in  which  are  promulgated  the  general  acts 
emanating  from  the  king.  The  latter  could  issue  commands 
or  prohibitions  under  the  name  of  bannus,  the  violation  of  which 
entailed  a  fine  of  60  solidi;  the  king  also  administered  justice 
(in  palalio),  assisted  by  the  officers  of  his  household,  his  jurisdic- 
tion being  unlimited  and  at  the  same  time  undefined.  He  could 
hear  all  causes,  but  was  not  bound  to  hear  any,  except,  apparently, 
accusations  of  deliberate  failure  of  justice  and  breach  of  trust 
on  the  part  of  the  rachimburgii. 

But  what  proved  the  great  disturbing  element  in  Gallo-Roman 
society  was  the  fact  that  the  conquerors,  owing  to  their  former 
customs  and  the  degree  of  their  civilization,  were  all  warriors, 
men  whose  chief  interest  was  to  become  practised  in  the  handling 
of  arms,  and  whose  normal  state  was  that  of  war.  It  is  true 
that  under  the  Roman  empire  all  the  men  of  a  civitas  were 
obliged,  in  case  of  necessity,  to  march  against  the  enemy,  and 
under  the  Prankish  monarchy  the  count  still  called  together  his 
pagenses  for  this  object.  But  the  condition  of  the  barbarian 
was  very  different;  he  lived  essentially  for  fighting.  Hence 
those  gatherings  or  annual  reviews  of  the  Campus  Marlius, 
which  continued  so  long,  in  Austrasia  at  least.  They  constituted 
the  chief  armed  force;  for  mercenary  troops,  in  spite  of  the 
assertions  of  some  to  the  contrary,  play  at  this  period  only  a 
small  part.  But  this  military  class,  though  not  an  aristocracy 
(for  among  the  Franks  the  royal  race  alone  was  noble),  was 
to  a  large  extent  independent,  and  the  king  had  to  attach 
these  leudes  or  fideles  to  himself  by  gifts  and  favours.  At  the 
same  time  the  authority  of  the  king  gradually  underwent  a 


908 


FRANCE 


[LAW  AND 


change  in  character,  though  he  always  claimed  to  be  the 
successor  of  the  Roman  emperor.  It  gradually  assumed  that 
domestic  or  personal  character  that,  among  the 
otthe  "  Germans,  marked  most  of  the  relations  between 
Merovia-  men.  The  household  of  the  king  gained  in  political 
*laa  importance,  by  reason  that  the  heads  of  the  principal 

kings  p.  0£gces  jn  tne  paiace  became  at  the  same  time  high 
public  officials.  There  was,  moreover,  a  body  of  men  more 
especially  attached  to  the  king,  the  antrustions  (q.v.)  and  the 
commensals  (comiivae  regis)  whose  weregeld  (i.e.  the  price  of  a 
man's  life  in  the  system  of  compensation  then  prevalent)  was  three 
times  greater  than  that  of  the  other  subjects  of  the  same  race. 

The  Prankish  monarch  had  also  the  power  of  making  laws, 
which  he  exercised  after  consulting  the  chief  men  of  the  kingdom, 
both  lay  and  ecclesiastical,  in  the  placita,  which  were  meetings 
differing  from  the  Campus  Martins  and  apparently  modelled 
principally  on  the  councils  of  the  Church.  But  throughout  the 
kingdom  in  many  places  the  direct  authority  of  the  king  over 
the  people  ceased  to  make  itself  felt.  The  immunitates,  granted 
chiefly  to  the  great  ecclesiastical  properties,  limited  this  authority 
in  a  curious  way  by  forbidding  public  officials  to  exercise  their 
functions  in  the  precinct  of  land  which  was  immunis.  The 
judicial  and  fiscal  rights  frequently  passed  to  the  landowner, 
who  in  any  case  became  of  necessity  the  intermediary  between 
the  supreme  power  and  the  people.  In  regard  to  this  last  point, 
moreover,  the  case  seems  to  have  been  the  same  with  all  the 
great  landowners  or  potentes,  whose  territory  was  called  potestas, 
and  who  gained  a  real  authority  over  those  living  within  it; 
later  in  the  middle  ages  they  were  called  homines  potestalis 
(hommes  de  poeste). 

Other  principles,  arising  perhaps  less  from  Germanic  custom 
strictly  speaking  than  from  an  inferior  level  of  civilization,  also 
contributed  towards  the  weakening  of  the  royal  power.  The 
monarch,  like  his  contemporaries,  considered  the  kingdom  and 
the  rights  of  the  king  over  it  to  be  his  property;  consequently, 
he  had  the  power  of  dealing  with  it  as  if  it  were  a  private  posses- 
sion; it  is  this  which  gave  rise  to  the  concessions  of  royal  rights 
to  individuals,  and  later  to  the  partitions  of  the  kingdom,  and 
then  of  the  empire,  between  the  sons  of  the  king  or  emperor, 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  daughters,  as  in  the  division  of  an  inherit- 
ance in  land.  This  proved  one  of  the  chief  weaknesses  of  the 
Merovingian  monarchy. 

In  order  to  rule  the  Gallo-Romans,  the  barbarians  had  had 
inevitably  to  ask  the  help  of  the  Church,  which  was  the  repre- 
sentative of  Roman  civilization.  Further,  the  Mero- 
Positioa  vingian  monarch  and  the  Catholic  Church  had  come 
"church.  into  cl°se  alliance  in  their  struggle  with  the  Arians. 
The  result  for  the  Church  had  been  that  she  gained  new 
privileges,  but  at  the  same  time  became  to  a  certain  extent 
dependent.  Under  the  Merovingians  the  election  of  the  bishop 
a  clero  et  populo  is  only  valid  if  it  obtains  the  assent  (assensus) 
of  the  king,  who  often  directly  nominates  the  prelate.  But  at 
the  same  time  the  Church  retains  her  full  right  of  acquiring 
property,  and  has  her  jurisdiction  partially  recognized;  that  is  to 
say,  she  not  only  exercises  more  freely  than  ever  a  disciplinary 
jurisdiction,  but  the  bishop,  in  place  of  the  civil  power,  ad- 
ministers civil  and  criminal  justice  over  the  clergy.  The  councils 
had  for  a  long  time  forbidden  the  clergy  to  cite  one  another  before 
secular  tribunals;  they  had  also,  in  the  6th  century,  forbidden 
secular  judges  under  pain  of  excommunication  to  cite  before  them 
and  judge  the  clergy,  without  permission  of  the  bishop.  A 
decree  of  Clotaire  II.  (614)  acknowledged  the  validity  of  these 
claims,  but  not  completely;  a  precise  interpretation  of  the  text 
is,  however,  difficult. 

The  Merovingian  dynasty  perished  of  decay,  amid  increasing 
anarchy.  The  crown  passed,  with  the  approval  of  the  papacy, 
to  an  Austrasian  mayor  of  the  palace  and  his  family, 
C*an""'  one  °^  those  mayors  of  the  palace  (i.e.  chief  officer  of 
period.  the  king's  household)  who  had  been  the  last  support 
of  the  preceding  dynasty.  It  was  then  that  there 
developed  a  certain  number  of  institutions,  which  offered  them- 
selves as  useful  means  of  consolidating  the  political  organism, 


and  were  in  reality  the  direct  precursors  of  feudalism.  One  was 
the  royal  benefice  (beneficium) ,  of  which,  without  doubt,  the 
Church  provided  both  the  model  and,  in  the  first  instance,  the 
material.  The  model  was  the  precaria,  a  form  of  concession  by 
which  it  was  customary  for  the  Church  to  grant  the  possession 
of  her  lands  to  free  men;  this  practice  she  herself  had  copied 
from  the  five-years  leases  granted  by  the  Roman  exchequer. 
Gradually,  however,  the  precaria  had  become  a  concession  made, 
in  most  cases,  free  and  for  life.  As  regards  the  material,  when 
the  Austrasian  mayors  of  the  palace  (probably  Charles  Benin- 
Martel)  wished  to  secure  the  support  of  the  fideles  niags 
by  fresh  benefits,  the  royal  treasury  being  exhausted,  of  the 
they  turned  to  the  Church,  which  was  at  that  time  the 
greatest  landowner,  and  took  lands  from  her  to  give  to 
their  warriors.  In  order  to  disguise  the  robbery  it  was  decided — 
perhaps  as  an  afterthought — that  these  lands  should  be  held  as 
precariae  from  the  Church,  or  from  the  monastic  houses  which 
had  furnished  them.  Later,  when  the  royal  treasury  was 
reorganized,  the  grants  of  land  made  by  the  kings  naturally  took 
a  similar  form :  the  beneficium,  as  a  free  grant  for  life.  Under  the 
Merovingians  royal  grants  of  land  were  in  principle  made  in  full 
ownership,  except,  as  Brunner  has  shown,  that  provision  was 
made  for  a  revocation  under  certain  circumstances.  No  special 
services  seem  to  have  been  attached  to  the  benefice,  whether 
granted  by  the  king  or  by  some  other  person,  but,  in  the  second 
half  of  the  pth  century  at  least,  the  possession  of  the  benefice 
is  found  as  the  characteristic  of  the  military  class  and  the  form 
of  their  pay.  This  we  find  clearly  set  forth  in  the  treatise 
de  ecclesiis  et  capellis  of  Hincmar  of  Reims.  The  beneficium,  in 
obedience  to  a  natural  law,  soon  tended  to  crystallize  into  a 
perpetual  and  hereditary  right.  Another  institution  akin  to  the 
beneficium  was  the  senioratus;  by  the  commendatio,  a  form  of 
solemn  contract,  probably  of  Germanic  origin,  and  chiefly 
characterized  by  the  placing  of  the  hands  between  those  of  the 
lord,  a  man  swore  absolute  fidelity  to  another  man,  who  became 
his  senior.  It  became  the  generally  received  idea  (as  expressed 
in  the  capitularies)  that  it  was  natural  and  normal  for  every 
free  man  to  have  a  senior.  At  the  same  time  a  benefice  was 
never  granted  unless  accompanied  by  the  commendatio  of  the 
beneficiary  to  the  grantor.  As  the  most  important  seniores  were 
thus  bound  to  the  king  and  received  from  him  their  benefices, 
he  expected  through  them  to  command  their  men;  but  in  reality 
the  king  disappeared  little  by  little  in  the  senior.  The  king 
granted  as  benefices  not  only  lands,  but  public  functions,  such 
as  those  of  count  or  dux,  which  thus  became  possessions,  held,  first 
for  life,  and  later  as  hereditary  properties.  The  Capitulary  of 
Kiersy-sur-Oise  (877),  which  was  formerly  considered  to  have 
made  fiefs  legally  and  generally  hereditary,  only  proves  that  it 
was  already  the  custom  for  benefices  of  this  kind,  honores,  to 
pass  from  the  father  to  one  of  the  sons. 

Charlemagne,  while  sanctioning  these  institutions,  tried  to 
arrest  the  political  decomposition.  He  reorganized  the  administra- 
tion of  justice,  fixing  the  respective  jurisdictions  of  the 
count  and  the  centenarius,  substituting  for  the  rachim- 
burgii  permanent  scabini,  chosen  by  the  count  in  the  magat_ 
presence  of  the  people,  and  defining  the  relations  of 
the  count,  as  the  representative  of  the  central  authority,  with 
the  advocati  or  judices  of  immunitates  and  potestates.  He  re- 
organized the  army,  determining  the  obligations  and  the  military 
outfit  of  free  men  according  to  their  means.  Finally,  he  estab- 
lished those  regular  inspections  by  the  missi  dominici  which  are 
the  subject  of  so  many  of  his  capitularies.  From  the  De  ordine 
palatii  of  Hincmar  of  Reims,  who  follows  the  account  of  a  con- 
temporary of  the  great  emperor,  we  learn  that  he  also  regularly 
established  two  general  assemblies,  coniientus  or  placita,  in  the 
year,  one  in  the  autumn,  the  other  in  the  spring,  which  were 
attended  by  the  chief  officials,  lay  and  ecclesiastical.  It  was 
here  that  the  capitularies  (q.ii.)  and  all  important  measures  were 
first  drawn  up  and  then  promulgated.  The  revenues  of  the 
Carolingian  monarch  (which  are  no  longer  indentical  with  the 
finances  of  the  state)  consisted  chiefly  in  the  produce  of  the 
royal  Iands(w7/ae),  which  the  king  and  his  suite  often  came  and 


INSTITUTIONS] 


FRANCE 


909 


Church 
under 
Charle- 
magne. 


consumed  on  the  spot;  and  it  is  known  how  carefully  Charle- 
magne regulated  the  administration  of  the  villas.  There  were 
also  the  free  gifts  which  the  great  men  were  bound,  according 
to  custom,  to  bring  to  the  conventus,  the  contributions 
of  this  character  from  the  monasteries  practically 
system.  amounting  to  a  tax;  the  regular  personal  or  territorial 
dues  into  which  the  old  taxes  had  resolved  themselves ; 
the  profits  arising  from  the  courts  (the  royal  bannus,  and  the 
fredum,  or  part  of  the  compensation-money  which  went  to  the 
king) ;  finally,  numberless  requisitions  in  kind,  a  usage  which  had 
without  doubt  existed  continuously  since  Roman  times.  The 
Church  was  loaded  with  honours  and  had  added  a  fresh  pre- 
rogative to  her  former  privileges,  namely,  the  right  of  levying  a 
real  tax  in  kind,  the  tithe.  Since  the  3rd  century  she  had  tried  to 
exact  the  payment  of  tithes  from  the  faithful,  interpreting  as 
applicable  to  the  Christian  clergy  the  texts  in  the  Old  Testament 
bearing  on  the  Levites;  Gallican  councils  had  repeatedly 
proclaimed  it  as  an  obligation,  though,  it  appears,  with  little 
success.  But  from  the  reign  of  Pippin  the  Short  onwards  the 
civil  law  recognized  and  sanctioned  this  obligation,  and  the 
capitularies  of  Charlemagne  and  Louis  the  Debonnaire  contain 
numerous  provisions  dealing  with  it.  Ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
The  extended  farther  and  farther,  but  Charlemagne,  the 

protector  of  the  papacy,  maintained  firmly  his  authority 
over  the  Church.  He  nominated  its  dignitaries,  both 
bishops  and  abbots,  who  were  true  ecclesiastical 
officials,  parallel  with  the  lay  officials.  In  each  pagus, 
bishop  and  count  owed  each  other  mutual  support,  and  the  missi 
on  the  same  circuit  were  ordinarily  a  count  and  a  bishop.  In 
the  first  collection  of  capitularies,  that  of  Ansegisus,  two  books 
out  of  four  are  devoted  to  ecclesiastical  capitularies. 

What,  then,  was  the  private  and  criminal  law  of  this  Prankish 
monarchy  which  had  come  to  embrace  so  many  different  races  ? 
The  law  The  men  of  Roman  descent  continued  under  the  Roman 
under  the  law,  and  the  conquerors  could  not  hope  to  impose  their 
Frank  customs  upon  them.  The  authorized  expression  of 
monarchy.  ^&  Roman  iaw  was  henceforth  to  be  found  in  the  Lex 
romana  Wisigothorum  or  Breviarium  Alarici,  drawn  up  by  order 
of  Alaric  II.  in  506.  It  is  an  abridgment  of  the  codes,  of  that 
of  Theodosius  especially,  and  of  certain  of  the  writings  of  the 
jurists  included  under  the  Law  of  Citations.  As  to  the  barbarians, 
they  had  hitherto  had  nothing  but  customs,  and  these  customs, 
of  which  the  type  nearest  to  the  original  is  to  be  found  in  the  oldest 
text  of  the  Lex  Salica,  were  nothing  more  than  a  series  of  tariffs 
of  compensations,  that  is  to  say,  sums  of  money  due  to  the  injured 
party  or  his  family  in  case  of  crimescommittedagainstindividuals, 
for  which  crimes  these  compensations  were  the  only  penalty. 
They  also  introduced  a  barbarous  system  of  trial,  that  by  corn- 
purgation,  i.e.  exculpation  by  the  oath  of  the  defendant  supported 
by  a  certain  number  of  cojurantes,  and  that  by  ordeal,  later  called 
judicium  Dei.  In  each  new  kingdom  the  barbarians  naturally 
kept  their  own  laws,  and  when  these  men  of  different  races  all 
became  subject  to  the  Prankish  monarchy,  there  evolved  itself 
a  system  (called  the  personnalM  des  lois)  by  which  every  subject 
had,  in  principle,  the  right  to  be  tried  by  the  law  of  the  race  to 
which  he  belonged  by  birth  (or  sometimes  for  some  other  reason, 
such  as  emancipation  or  marriage).  When  the  two  adversaries 
were  of  different  race,  it  was  the  law  of  the  defendant  which  had 
to  be  applied.  The  customs  of  the  barbarians  had  been  drawn 
up  in  Latin.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  first  text  of  the 
Salic  law,  the  system  on  which  they  were  compiled  is  not  exactly 
known;  but  it  was  generally  done  under  the  royal  authority. 
At  this  period  only  these  written  documents  bear  the  name  of 
"law"  (leges  romanorum;  leges  barbarorum),  and  at  least  the 
tacit  consent  of  the  people  seems  to  have  been  required  for  these 
collections  of  laws,  in  accordance  with  an  axiom  laid  down  in  a 
later  capitulary;  lex  Jit  consensu  populi  et  constitutione  regis. 
It  is  noteworthy,  too,  that  in  the  process  of  being  drawn  up  in 
Latin,  most  of  the  leges  barbarorum  were  very  much  Romanized. 
In  the  midst  of  this  diversity,  a  certain  number  of  causes 
tended  to  produce  a  partial  unity.  The  capitularies,  which  had 
in  themselves  the  force  of  law,  when  there  was  no  question  of 


modifying  the  leges,  constituted  a  legislation  which  was  the  same 
for  all;  often  they  inflicted  corporal  punishment  for  grave 
offences,  which  applied  to  all  subjects  without  distinction.  Usage 
and  individual  convenience  led  to  the  same  result.  The  Gallo- 
Romans,  and  even  the  Church  itself,  to  a  certain  extent,  adopted 
the  methods  of  trial  introduced  by  the  Germans,  as  was  likely 
in  a  country  relapsing  into  barbarism.  On  the  other  hand, 
written  acts  became  prevalent  among  the  barbarians,  and  at 
the  same  time  they  assimilated  a  certain  amount  of  Roman  law; 
for  these  acts  continued  to  be  drawn  up  in  Latin,  after  Roman 
models,  which  were  in  most  cases  simply  misinterpreted  owing 
to  the  general  ignorance.  The  type  is  preserved  for  us  in  those 
collections  of  Formulae,  of  which  complete  and  scientific  editions 
have  been  published  by  Eugene  de  Roziere  and  Carl  Zeumer. 
During  this  period,  too,  the  Gallican  Church  adopted  the  collec- 
tion of  councils  and  decretals,  called  later  the  Codex  canomim 
ecclesiae  Gallicanae,  which  she  continued  to  preserve.  This 
collection  was  that  of  Dionysius  Exiguus,  which  was  sent  to 
Charlemagne  in  774  by  Pope  Adrian  I.  But  in  the  course  of 
the  pth  century  apocryphal  collections  were  also  formed  in  the 
Gallican  Church:  the  False  Capitularies  of  Benedictus  Levita, 
and  the  False  Decretals  of  Isidorus  Mercator  (see  DECRETALS). 

All  the  subjects  of  the  Frankish  monarchy  were  not  of  equal 
status.  There  was,  strictly  speaking,  no  nobility,  both  the 
Roman  and  the  Germanic  nobility  having  died  out;  but  slavery 
continued  to  exist.  The  Church,  however,  was  preparing  the 
transformation  of  the  slave  into  the  serf,  by  giving  force  and 
validity  to  their  marriages,  in  cases,  at  least,  when  the  master 
had  approved  of  them,  and  by  forbidding  the  latter  unjustly 
to  seize  the  slave's  peculium.  But  between  the  free  man  (ingenuus) 
and  the  slave  lay  a  number  of  persons  of  intermediate  status; 
they  possessed  legal  personality  but  were  subject  to  incapacities 
of  various  kinds,  and  had  to  perform  various  duties  towards 
other  men.  There  was,  to  begin  with,  the  Roman  colonist 
(colonus),  a  class  as  to  the  origin  of  which  there  is  still  a  contro- 
versy, and  of  which  there  is  no  clear  mention  in  the  laws  before 
the  4th  century;  they  and  their  children  after  them  were 
attached  perpetually  to  a  certain  piece  of  land,  which  they  were 
allowed  to  cultivate  on  payment  of  a  rent.  There  were,  further, 
the  liti  (litus  or  lidus),  a  similar  class  of  Germanic  origin;  also 
the  greater  number  of  the  freedmen  or  descendants  of  freedmen. 
Many  free  men  who  had  fled  to  the  great  landowners  for  protec- 
tion took,  by  arrangement  or  by  custom,  a  similar  position. 
Under  the  Merovingian  regime,  and  especially  under  the  Carolin- 
gians,  the  occupation  of  the  land  tended  to  assume  the  character 
of  tenure;  but  free  ownership  of  land  continued  to  exist  under 
the  name  of  alod  (alodis),  and  there  is  even  evidence  for  the 
existence  of  this  in  the  form  of  small  properties,  held  by  free 
men;  the  capitularies  contain  numerous  complaints  and  threats 
against  the  counts,  who  endeavoured  by  the  abuse  of  their 
power  to  obtain  the  surrender  of  these  properties. 

Period  of  Anarchy  and  the  Rise  of  Feudalism. — The  loth  and 
nth  centuries  were  a  period  of  profound  anarchy,  during  which 
feudalism  was  free  to  develop  itself  and  to  take  defini- 
tive shape.  At  that  time  the  French  people  may  be  3"^.*^  ; 
said  to  have  lived  without  laws,  without  even  fixed  origins. 
customs  and  without  government.  The  legislative 
power  was  no  longer  exercised,  for  the  last  Carolingian  capitularies 
date  from  the  year  884,  and  the  first  laws  of  the  Capetian  kings 
(if  they  may  be  called  laws)  do  not  appear  till  during  the  1 2th 
century.  During  this  period  the  old  capitularies  and  leges  fell 
into  disuse  and  in  their  place  territorial  customs  tended  to  grow 
up,  their  main  constituents  being  furnished  by  the  law  of  former 
times,  but  which  were  at  the  outset  ill-defined  and  strictly 
local.  As  to  the  government,  if  the  part  played  by  the  Church 
be  excepted,  we  shall  see  that  it  could  be  nothing  but  the  applica- 
tion of  brute  force.  In  this  anarchy,  as  always  happens  under 
similar  conditions,  men  drew  together  and  formed  themselves 
into  groups  for  mutual  defence.  A  nucleus  was  formed  which 
was  to  become  the  new  social  unit,  that  is  to  say,  the  feudal 
group.  Of  this  the  centre  was  a  chief,  around  whom  gathered 
men  capable  of  bearing  arms,  who  commended  themselves  to 


FRANCE 


[LAW  AND 


him  according  to  the  old  form  of  vassalage,  per  manus.  They 
owed  him  fidelity  and  assistance,  the  support  of  their  arms  but 
not  of  their  purse,  save  in  quite  exceptional  cases;  while  he 
owed  them  protection.  Some  of  them  lived  in  his  castle  or 
fortified  house,  receiving  their  equipment  only  and  eating  at  his 
table.  Others  received  lands  from  him,  which  were,  or  later 
became,  fiefs,  on  which  they  lived  casati.  The  name  fief,  fcudum, 
does  not  appear,  however,  till  towards  the  end  of  this  period; 
these  lands  are  frequently  called  beneficia  as  before;  the  term 
most  in  use  at  first,  in  many  parts,  is  casamentum.  The  fief, 
moreover,  was  generally  held  for  life  and  did  not  become  generally 
hereditary  till  the  second  half  of  the  nth  century.  The  lands 
kept  by  the  chief  and  those  which  he  granted  to  his  men  were 
for  the  most  part  rented  from  him,  or  from  them,  for  a  certain 
amount  in  money  or  in  kind.  All  these  conditions  had  already 
existed  previously  in  much  the  same  form;  but  the  new  develop- 
ment is  that  the  chief  was  no  longer,  as  before,  merely  an  inter- 
mediary between  his  men  and  the  royal  power.  The  group 
had  become  in  effect  independent,  so  organized  as  to  be  socially 
and  politically  self-sufficient.  It  constituted  a  small  army, 
led,  naturally,  by  the  chief,  and  composed  of  his  feudatories, 
supplemented  in  case  of  need  by  the  rustici.  It  also  formed  an 
assembly  in  which  common  interests  were  discussed,  the  lord, 
according  to  custom,  being  bound  to  consult  his  feudatories 
and  they  to  advise  him  to  the  best  of  their  power.  It  also 
formed  a  court  of  justice,  in  which  the  feudatories  gave  judgment 
under  the  presidency  of  their  lord;  and  all  of  them  claimed 
to  be  subject  only  to  the  jurisdiction  of  this  tribunal  composed 
of  their  peers.  Generally  they  also  judged  the  villeins  (villani) 
and  the  serfs  dependent  on  the  group,  except  in  cases  where 
the  latter  obtained  as  a  favour  judges  of  their  own  status,  which 
was,  however,  at  that  time  a  very  rare  occurrence. 

Under  these  conditions  a  nobility  was  formed,  those  men 
becoming  nobles  who  were  able  to  devote  themselves  to  the 
profession  of  arms  and  were  either  chiefs  or  soldiers  in  one  of  the 
groups  which  have  just  been  described.  The  term  designating 
a  noble,  miles,  corresponds  also  to  that  of  knight  (Fr.  chevalier, 
Low  Lat.  caballerius) ,  for  the  reason  that  chivalry,  of  which  the 
origins  are  uncertain,  represents  essentially  the  technical  skill 
and  professional  duties  of  this  military  class.  Every  noble  was 
destined  on  coming  of  age  to  become  a  knight,  and  the  knight 
equally  as  a  matter  of  course  received  a  fief,  if  he  had  not  one 
already  by  hereditary  title.  This  nobility,  moreover,  was  not 
a  caste  but  could  be  indefinitely  recruited  by  the  granting  of 
fiefs  and  admission  to  knighthood  (see  KNIGHTHOOD  AND 
CHIVALRY). 

The  state  of  anarchy  was  by  now  so  far  advanced  that  war 
became  an  individual  right,  and  the  custom  of  private  war  arose. 
Every  man  had  in  principle  the  right  of  making  war 
to  defend  his  rights  or  to  avenge  his  wrongs.  Later 
on,  doubtless,  in  the  i3th  century,  this  was  a  privilege 
of  the  noble  (gentilhomme);  but  the  texts  defining  the  limits 
which  the  Church  endeavoured  to  set  to  this  abuse,  namely,  the 
Peace  of  God  and  the  Truce  of  God,  show  that  this  was  at  the 
outset  a  power  possessed  by  men  of  all  classes.  Even  a  man 
who  had  appeared  in  a  court  of  law  and  received  judgment 
had  the  choice  of  refusing  to  accept  the  judgment  and  of 
making  war  instead.  Justice,  moreover,  with  its  frequent 
employment  of  trial  by  combat,  did  not  essentially  differ  from 
private  war. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  go  further  and  to  affirm,  with  certain 
historians  of  our  time,  for  example  Guilhermoz  and  See,  that 
the  only  free  men  at  that  time,  besides  the  clergy,  were  the  nobles, 
all  the  rest  being  serfs.  There  are  many  indications  which  lead 
us  to  assume,  not  only  in  the  towns  but  even  in  the  country 
districts,  the  existence  of  a  class  of  men  of  free  status  who  were 
not  milites,  the  class  later  known  in  the  i3th  century  as  mlains, 
hommes  de  poesle,  and,  later,  roturiers.  The  fact  more  probably 
was  that  only  the  nobles  and  ecclesiastics  were  exempt  from  the 
exactions  of  the  feudal  lords;  while  from  all  the  others  the 
seigneurs  could  at  pleasure  levy  the  taille  (a  direct  and  arbitrary 
tax),  and  those  innumerable  rights  then  called  consuetudines. 


Private 
war. 


Free  ownership,  the  allodium,  even  under  the  form  of  small 
freeholds,  still  existed  by  way  of  exception  in  many  parts. 

Had,  then,  the  main  public  authority  disappeared?  This  is 
practically  the  contention  of  certain  writers,  who,  like  M.  See, 
maintain  that  real  property,  the  possession  of  a  domain,  conferred 
on  the  big  landed  proprietor  all  rights  of  taxation,  command  and 
coercion  over  the  inhabitants  of  his  domain,  who,  according  to 
this  view,  were  always  serfs.  But  this  is  an  exaggeration  of 
the  thesis  upheld  by  old  French  authors,  who  saw  in  feudalism, 
though  in  a  different  sense,  a  confusion  of  property  with 
sovereignty.  It  appears  that  in  this  state  of  political  disintegra- 
tion each  part  of  the  country  which  had  a  homogeneous  character 
tended  to  form  itself  into  a  higher  unit.  In  this  unit  there  arose 
a  powerful  lord,  generally  a  duke,  a  count,  or  a  viscount,  who 
sometimes  came  to  be  called  the  capitalis  dominus.  He  was 
either  a  former  official  of  the  monarchy,  whose  function  had 
become  hereditary,  or  a  usurper  who  had  formed  himself  on  this 
model.  He  laid  claim  to  an  authority  other  than  that  conferred 
by  the  possession  of  real  property.  He  still  claimed  to  exercise 
over  the  whole  of  his  former  district  certain  rights,  which  we  see 
him  sometimes  surrendering  for  the  benefit  of  churches  or 
monasteries.  His  court  of  justice  was  held  in  the  highest  honour, 
and  to  it  were  referred  the  most  important  affairs.  But  in  this 
district  there  were  generally  a  number  of  more  or  less  powerful 
lords,  who  as  a  rule  had  as  yet  no  particular  feudal  title  and  are 
often  given  the  name  of  principes.  Often,  but  not  always,  they 
had  commended  themselves  to  this  duke  or  count  by  doing 
homage. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  royal  power  continued  to  exist,  being 
recognized  by  a  considerable  part  of  old  Gaul,  the  regnum 
Francorum.  But  under  the  last  of  the  Carolingians  it 
had  in  fact  become  elective,  as  is  shown  by  the  elections  now-?" 
of  Odo  and  Robert  before  that  of  Hugh  Capet.  The  ' 
electors  were  the  chief  lords  and  prelates  of  the  regnum  Fran- 
corum. But  following  a  clever  policy,  each  king  during  his 
lifetime  took  as  partner  of  his  kingdom  his  eldest  son  and  con- 
secrated and  crowned  him  in  advance,  so  that  the  first  of  the 
Capetians  revived  the  principle  of  heredity  in  favour  of  the 
eldest  son,  while  establishing  the  hereditary  indivisibility  of 
the  kingdom.  This  custom  was  recognized  at  the  accession  of 
Louis  the  Fat,  but  the  authority  of  the  king  was  very  weak, 
being  merely  a  vague  allegiance.  His  only  real  authority  lay 
where  his  own  possessions  were,  or  where  there  had  not  arisen 
a  duke,  a  count,  or  lord  of  equal  rank  with  them.  He  maintained, 
however,  a  general  right  of  administering  justice,  a  curia,  the 
jurisdiction  of  which  seems  to  have  been  universal.  It  is  true 
that  the  parties  in  a  suit  had  to  submit  themselves  to  it  voluntarily, 
and  could  accept  or  reject  the  judgment  given,  but  this  was  at 
that  time  the  general  rule.  The  king  dispensed  justice  surrounded 
by  the  officers  of  his  household  (domeslici),  who  thus  formed  his 
council;  but  these  were  not  the  only  ones  to  assist  him,  whether 
in  court  or  council.  Periodically,  at  the  great  yearly  festivals, 
he  called  together  the  chief  lords  and  prelates  of  his  kingdom, 
thus  carrying  on  the  tradition  of  the  Carolingian  placita  or 
conventus;  but  little  by  little,  with  the  appropriation  of  the 
honores,  the  character  of  the  gathering  changed;  it  was  no 
longer  an  assembly  of  officials  but  of  independent  lords.  This 
was  now  called  the  curia  regis. 

While  the  power  of  the  State  was  almost  disappearing,  that 
of  the  Church,  apart  from  the  particular  acts  of  violence  of 
which  she  was  often  the  victim,  continued  to  grow. 
Her  jurisdiction  gained  ground,  since  her  procedure  church 
was  reasonable  and  comparatively  scientific  (except 
that  she  admitted  to  a  certain  extent  compurgation  by  oath 
and  the  judicia  Dei,  with  the  exception  of  trial  by  combat). 
Not  only  was  the  privilege  of  clergy,  by  which  accused  clerks 
were  brought  under  her  jurisdiction,  almost  absolute,  but  she 
had  cognizance  of  a  number  of  causes  in  which  laymen  only  were 
concerned,  marriage  and  everything  nearly  or  remotely  affecting 
it,  wills,  crimes  and  offences  against  religion;  and  even  contracts, 
when  the  two  parties  wished  it  or  when  the  agreement  was  made 
on  oath,  came  within  her  competence.  Such,  then,  were  the 


INSTITUTIONS] 


FRANCE 


911 


The 
feudal 


Roman 


ecclesiastical  orChristian  courts  (coursd'eglise,coursedechretiente). 
The  Church,  moreover,  remained  in  close  connexion  with  the 
crown,  the  king  preserving  a  quasi-ecclesiastical  character, 
while  the  royal  prerogatives  with  regard  to  the  election  of  bishops 
were  maintained  more  successfully  than  the  rights  of  the  crown, 
though  in  many  of  the  great  fiefs  they  none  the  less  passed  to 
the  count  or  the  duke.  It  was  at  this  time  too  that  the  Church 
tried  to  break  the  last  ties  which  still  kept  her  more  or  less 
dependent  on  the  civil  power;  this  was  the  true  import  of  the 
Investiture  Contest  (see  INVESTITURE,  and  CHURCH  HISTORY), 
though  this  was  not  very  acute  in  France. 

The  period  of  the  true  feudal  monarchy  is  embraced  by  the  1 2th 
and  I3th  centuries,  that  is  to  say,  it  was  at  this  time  that  the 

crown  again  assumed  real  strength  and  authority; 

but  so  far  it  had  no  organs  and  instruments  save  those 
monarchy,  which  were  furnished  by  feudalism,  now  organized 

under  a  regular  hierarchy,  of  which  the  king  was  the 
head,  the  "  sovereign  enfeoffer  of  the  kingdom  "  (souverain 
fiefeux  du  royaume),  as  he  came  later  on  to  be  called.  This  new 
position  of  affairs  was  the  result  of  three  great  factors:  the 
revival  of  Roman  Law,  the  final  organization  of  feudalism 
and  the  rise  of  the  privileged  towns.  The  revival  of  Roman 

'aw  ^e8an  'n  France  and  Italy  in  the  second  half 

of  the  nth  century,  developing  with  extraordinary 

brilliance  in  the  latter  country  at  the  university  of 
Bologna,  which  was  destined  for  a  long  time  to  dominate  Europe. 
Roman  law  spread  rapidly  in  the  French  schools  and  universities, 
except  that  of  Paris,  which  was  closed  to  it  by  the  papacy;  and 
the  influence  of  this  study  was  so  great  that  it  transformed 
society.  On  the  one  hand  it  contributed  largely  to  the  recon- 
stitution  of  the  royal  power,  modelling  the  rights  of  the  king  on 
those  of  the  Roman  emperor.  On  the  other  hand  it  wrought  a 
no  less  profound  change  in  private  law.  From  this  time  dates 
the  division  of  old  France  into  the  Pays  de  droil  ecrit,  in  which 
Roman  law,  under  the  form  in  which  it  was  codified  by  Justinian, 

was  received  as  the  ordinary  law;  and  the  Pays  de 
customs,  coutume,  where  it  played  only  a  secondary  part,  being 

generally  valid  only  as  ratio  scripta  and  not  as  lex 
scripta.  In  this  period  the  customs  also  took  definitive  form, 
and  over  and  above  the  local  customs  properly  so  called  there 
were  formed  customs  known  as  general,  which  held  good  through 
a  whole  province  or  bailliage,  and  were  based  on  the  jurisprudence 
of  the  higher  jurisdictions. 

The  final  organization  of  feudalism  resulted  from  the  struggle 
for  organization  which  was  proceeding  in  each  district  where 

the  more  powerful  lords  compelled  the  others  to  do 

them  homage  and  become  their  vassals;  the  capitalis 

dominus  had  beneath  him  a  whole  hierarchy,  and  was 
feudalism.  njmseif  a  part  of  tne  feudal  system  of  France  (see 
FEUDALISM).  Doubtless  in  the  case  of  lords  like  the  dukes  of 
Brittany  and  Burgundy,  the  king  could  not  actually  demand 
the  strict  fulfilment  of  the  feudal  obligations;  but  the  principle 
was  established.  The  question  now  arises,  did  free  and  absolute 
property,  the  allodium,  entirely  disappear  in  this  process,  and 
were  all  lands  held  as  tenures  ?  It  continued  to  exist,  by  way 
of  exception,  in  most  districts,  unchanged  save  in  the  burden 
of  proof  of  ownership,  with  which,  according  to  the  customs, 
sometimes  the  lord  and  sometimes  the  holder  of  the  land  was  held 

charged.  In  one  respect,  however,  namely  in  the 
character  ^ministration  of  justice,  the  feudal  hierarchy  had 
o//ustfce.  absolute  sway.  Towards  the  end  of  the  I3th  century 

Beaumanoir  clearly  laid  down  this  principle:  "  All 
secular  jurisdiction  in  France  is  held  from  the  king  as  a  fief  or 
an  arriere-fief.  "  Henceforth  it  could  also  be  said  that  "  All 
justice  emanates  from  the  king.  "  The  law  concerning  fiefs 
became  settled  also  from  another  point  of  view,  the  fief  becoming 
patrimonial;  that  is  to  say,  not  only  hereditary,  but  freely 
alienable  by  the  vassal,  subject  in  both  cases  to  certain  rights  of 
transfer  due  to  the  lord,  which  were  at  first  fixed  by  agreement 
and  later  by  custom.  The  most  salient  features  of  feudal 
succession  were  the  right  of  primogeniture  and  the  perference 
given  to  heirs-male;  but  from  the  I3th  century  onwards  the 


Float 
organlza 
tioa  of 


right  of  primogeniture,  which  had  at  first  involved  the  total 
exclusion  of  the  younger  members  of  a  family,  tended  to  be 
modified,  except  in  the  case  of  the  chief  lords,  the  eldest  son 
obtaining  the  preponderant  share  or  preciput.  Non-noble 
(roturier)  tenancies  also  became  patrimonial  in  similar  circum- 
stances, except  that  in  their  case  there  was  no  right  of  primo- 
geniture nor  any  privilege  of  males.  The  tenure  of  serfs  did  not 
become  alienable,  and  only  became  hereditary  by  certain 
devices. 

Feudal  society  next  saw  the  rise  of  a  new  element  within  it: 
the  privileged  towns.  At  this  time  many  towns  acquired 
privileges,  the  movement  beginning  towards  the  end 
of  the  nth  century;  they  were  sanctioned  by  a  formal 
concession  from  the  lord  to  whom  the  town  was  sub-  . 

ject,  the  concession  being  embodied  in  a  charter  or  in 
a  record  of  customs  (coutume).  Some  towns  won  for  themselves 
true  political  rights,  for  instance  the  right  of  self-administration, 
rights  of  justice  over  the  inhabitants,  the  right  of  not  being 
taxed  except  by  their  own  consent,  of  maintaining  an  armed 
force,  and  of  controlling  it  themselves.  Others  only  obtained 
civil  rights,  e.g.  guarantees  against  the  arbitrary  rights  of  justice 
and  taxation  of  the  lord  or  his  provost.  The  chief  forms  of 
municipal  organization  at  this  time  were  the  commune  jurie  of 
the  north  and  east,  and  the  consulat,  which  came  from  Italy  and 
penetrated  as  far  as  Auvergne  and  Limousin.  The  towns  with 
important  privileges  formed  in  feudal  society  as  it  were  a  new 
class  of  lordships;  but  their  lords,  that  is  to  say  their  burgesses, 
were  inspired  by  quite  a  new  spirit.  The  crown  courted  their 
support,  taking  them  under  its  protection,  and  championing 
the  causes  in  which  they  were  interested  (see  COMMUNE).  Finally, 
it  is  in  this  period,  under  Philip  Augustus,  that  the  great  fiefs 
began  to  be  effectually  reannexed  to  the  crown,  a  process  which, 
continued  by  the  kings  up  to  the  end  of  the  ancien  regime,  re- 
founded  for  their  profit  the  territorial  sovereignty  of  France. 

The  crown  maintained  the  machinery  of  feudalism,  the  chief 
central  instruments  of  which  were  the  great  officers  of  the  crown, 
the  seneschal,  butler,  constable  and  chancellor,  who  Q 
were  to  become  irremovable  officials,  those  at  least  officers  of 
who  survived.  But  this  period  saw  the  rise  of  a  the  crown 
special  college  of  dignitaries,  that  of  the  Twelve  Peers  an<*peers 
of  France,  consisting  of  six  laymen  and  six  ecclesi-  ' 
astics,  which  took  definitive  shape  at  the  beginning  of  the 
I3th  century.  We  cannot  yet  discern  with  any  certainty  by 
what  process  it  was  formed,  why  those  six  prelates  and  those  six 
great  feudatories  in  particular  were  selected  rather  than  others 
equally  eligible.  But  there  is  no  doubt  that  we  have  here  a 
result  of  that  process  of  feudal  organization  mentioned  above; 
the  formation  of  a  similar  assembly  of  twelve  peers  occurs  also 
in  a  certain  number  of  the  great  fiefs.  Besides  the  part  which 
they  played  at  the  consecration  of  kings,  the  peers  of  France 
formed  a  court  in  which  they  judged  one  another  under  the 
presidency  of  the  king,  their  overlord,  according  to  feudal  custom. 
But  the  cour  des  pairs  in  this  sense  was  not  separate  from  the 
curia  regis,  and  later  from  the  parlement  of  Paris,  of  which  the 
peers  of  France  were  by  right  members.  From  this  time,  too, 
dates  another  important  institution,  that  of  the  matlres  des 
rtquttes. 

The  legislative  power  of  the  crown  again  began  to  be  exercised 
during  the  izth  century,  and  in  the  I3th  century  had  full  authority 
over  all  the  territories  subject  to  the  crown.    Beau- 
manoir has  a  very  interesting  theory  on  this  subject.    Growth  of 
The  right  of  war  tends  to  regain  its  natural  equilibrium,    powr." 
the  royal  power  following  the  Church  in  the  endeavour 
to  check  private   wars.     Hence  arose  the  quarantaine  Ic  roi, 
due  to  Philip  Augustus  or  Saint  Louis,  by  which  those  relatives 
of  the  parties  to  a  quarrel  who  had  not  been  present  at  the  quarrel 
were  rendered  immune  from  attack  for  forty  days  after  it; 
and  above  all  the  assurements  imposed  by  the  king  or  lord; 
on   these  points  too   Beaumanoir  has  an  interesting  theory. 
The  rule  was,  moreover,  already  in  force  by  which  private  wars 
had  to  cease  during  the  time  that  the  king  was  engaged  in  a 
foreign  war.  But  the  most  appreciable  progress  took  place  in  the 


9I2 

administrative  and  judicial  institutions.  Under  Philip  Augustus 
arose  the  royal  baillis  (see  BAILIFF:  section  Bailli),  and  seneschals 
(q.v.),  who  were  the  representatives  of  the  king  in  the  provinces, 
and  superior  judges.  At  the  same  time  the  form  of  the  feudal 
courts  tended  to  change,  as  they  began  more  and  more  to  be 
influenced  by  the  Romano-canonical  law.  Saint  Louis  had 
striven  to  abolish  trial  by  combat,  and  the  Church  had  condemned 
other  forms  of  ordeal,  the  purgatio  vulgaris.  In  most  parts  of 
the  country  the  feudal  lords  began  to  give  place  in  the  courts  of 
law  to  the  provosts  (prevdts)  and  baillis  of  the  lords  or  of  the 
crown,  who  were  the  judges,  having  as  their  councillors  the 
avocats  (advocates)  and  procureurs  (procurators)  of  the  assize. 
The  feudal  courts,  which  were  founded  solely  on  the  relations  of 
homage  and  tenure,  before  which  the  vassals  and  tenants  as 
such  appeared,  disappeared  in  part  from  the  i3th  century  on. 
Of  the  seigniorial  jurisdictions  there  soon  remained  only  the 
hautes  or  basses  justices  (in  the  i4th  century  arose  an  intermediate 
grade,  the  may  enne  justice),  all  of  which  were  considered  to  be 
concessions  of  the  royal  power,  and  so  delegations  of  the  public 
authority.  As  a  result  of  the  application  of  Roman  and  canon 
law,  there  arose  the  appeal  strictly  so  called,  both  in  the  class  of 
royal  and  of  seigniorial  jurisdictions,  the  case  in  the  latter  instance 
going  finally  before  a  royal  court,  from  which  henceforth  there 
was  no  appeal.  In  the  i3th  century  too  appeared  the  theory 
of  crown  cases  (cas  royaux),  cases  which  the  lords  became  in- 
competent to  try  and  which  were  reserved  for  the  royal  court. 
Finally,  the  curia  regis  was  gradually  transformed  into  a  regular 
court  of  justice,  the  Parlement  (q.v.),  as  it  was  already  called 
in  the  second  half  of  the  I3th  century.  At  this  time  the  king 
no  longer  appeared  in  it  regularly,  and  before  each  session  (for 
it  was  not  yet  a  permanent  body)  a  list  of  properly  qualified  men 
was  drawn  up  in  advance  to  form  the  parlement,  only  those  whose 
names  were  on  the  list  being  capable  of  sitting  in  it.  Its  main 
function  had  come  to  be  that  of  a  final  court  of  appeal.  At  the 
various  sessions,  which  were  regularly  held  at  Paris,  appeared 
the  baillis  and  seneschals,  who  were  called  upon  to  answer  for 
the  cases  they  had  judged  and  also  for  their  administration. 
The  accounts  were  received  by  members  of  the  parlement  at 
the  Temple,  and  this  was  the  origin  of  the  Cour  or  Chambre  des 
Comptes. 

At  the  end  of  this  period  the  nobility  became  an  exclusive 
class.  It  became  an  established  rule  that  a  man  had  to  be  noble 
in  order  to  be  made  a  knight,  and  even  in  order  to 
commons  acquire  a  fief;  but  in  this  latter  respect  the  king 
ant  the  made  exceptions  in  the  case  of  roturiers,  who  were 
Church  la  iicensed  to  take  up  fiefs,  subject  to  a  payment  known 
as  ^ne  droits  de  franc-fief.  The  roturiers,  or  villeins 
who  were  not  in  a  state  of  thraldom,  were  already  a 
numerous  class  not  only  in  the  towns  but  in  the  country. 
The  Church  maintained  her  privileges;  a  few  attempts  only 
were  made  to  restrain  the  abuse,  not  the  extent,  of  her  jurisdic- 
tion. This  jurisdiction  was,  during  the  izth  century,  to  a  certain 
extent  regularized,  the  bishop  nominating  a  special  functionary 
to  hold  his  court;  this  was  the  officialis  (Fr.  official),  whence  the 
name  of  officialite  later  applied  in  France  to  the  ecclesiastical 
jurisdictions.  On  one  point,  however,  her  former  rights  were 
diminished.  She  preserved  the  right  of  freely  acquiring  personal 
and  real  property,  but  though  she  could  still  acquire  feudal 
tenures  she  could  not  keep  them;  the  customs  decided  that  she 
must  vider  les  mains,  that  is,  alienate  the  property  again  within 
a  year  and  a  day.  The  reason  for  this  new  rule  was  that  the 
Church,  the  ecclesiastical  establishment,  is  a  proprietor  who 
does  not  die  and  in  principle  does  not  surrender  her  property; 
consequently,  the  lords  had  no  longer  the  right  of  exacting  the 
transfer  duties  on  those  tenures  which  she  acquired.  It  was 
possible,  however,  to  compromise  and  allow  the  Church  to  keep 
the  tenure  on  condition  of  the  consent  not  only  of  the  lord 
directly  concerned,  but  of  all  the  higher  lords  up  to  the  capitalis 
dominus;  it  goes  without  saying  that  this  concession  was  only 
obtained  by  the  payment  of  pecuniary  compensations,  the  chief 
of  which  was  the  droil  d'amortissemenl,  paid  to  these  different 
lords.  In  this  period  the  form  of  the  episcopal  elections  under- 


FRANCE 


[LAW  AND 


century 


went  a  change,  the  electoral  college  coming  to  consist  only  of  the 
canons  composing  the  chapter  of  the  cathedral  church.  But 
except  for  the  official  candidatures,  which  were  abused  by  the 
kings  and  great  lords,  the  elections  were  regular;  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  attributed  to  Saint  Louis,  which  implies  the  contrary, 
is  nowadays  considered  apocryphal  by  the  best  critics. 

Finally,  it  must  be  added  that  during  the  i3th  century  criminal 
law  was  profoundly  modified.  Under  the  influence  of  Roman 
law  a  system  of  arbitrary  penalties  replaced  those 
laid  down  by  the  customs,  which  had  usually  been 
fixed  and  cruel.  The  criminal  procedure  of  the  feudal  law. 
courts  had  been  based  on  the  right  of  accusation 
vested  only  in  the  person  wronged  and  his  relations;  for  this 
was  substituted  the  inquisitorial  procedure  (processus  per 
inquisilionem) ,  which  had  developed  in  the  canon  law  at  the  very 
end  of  the  i2th  century,  and  was  to  become  the  procedure  A 
I' extraordinaire  of  the  ancien  regime,  which  was  conducted  in 
secret  and  without  free  defence  and  debate.  Of  this  procedure 
torture  came  to  be  an  ordinary  and  regular  part. 

The  customs,  which  at  that  time  contained  almost  the  whole 
of  the  law  for  a  great  part  of  France,  were  not  fixed  by  being 
written  down.  In  that  part  of  France  which  was 
subject  to  customary  law  (la  France  coutumiere)  they  customs. 
were  defined  when  necessary  by  the  verdict  of  a  jury 
of  practitioners  in  what  was  called  the  enqueue  par  turbes;  some 
of  them,  however,  were,  in  part  at  least,  authentically  recorded 
in  seigniorial  charters,  chartes  de  mile  or  diaries  de  coutume. 
Their  rules  were  also  recorded  by  experts  in  private  works  or 
collections  called  livres  coulumiers,  or  simply  coutumiers 
(customaries).  The  most  notable  of  these  are  Les  Coutumes 
de  Beamoisis  of  Philippe  de  Beaumanoir,  which  Montesquieu 
justly  quotes  as  throwing  light  on  those  times;  also  the  Tres 
ancienne  coutume  de  Normandie  and  the  Grand  Coulumier  de 
Normandie;  the  Conseil  a  un  ami  of  Pierre  des  Fontaines,  the 
£tablissements  de  Saint  Louis;  the  Livre  de  jostice  et  de  plet. 
At  the  same  time  the  clerks  of  important  judges  began  to  collect 
in  registers  notable  decisions;  it  is  in  this  way  that  we  have 
preserved  to  us  the  old  decisions  of  the  exchequer  of  Normandy, 
and  the  Olim  registers  of  the  parlement  of  Paris. 

The  Limited  Monarchy. — The  I4.th  and  isth  centuries  were 
the  age  of  the  limited  monarchy.  Feudal  institutions  kept 
their  political  importance;  but  side  by  side  with  them  arose 
others  of  which  the  object  was  the  direct  exercise  of  the  royal 
authority;  others  also  arose  from  the  very  heart  of  feudalism, 
but  at  the  same  time  transformed  its  laws  in  order  to  adapt  them 
to  the  new  needs  of  the  crown.  In  this  period  certain  rules  for 
the  succession  to  the  throne  were  fixed  by  precedents:  the 
exclusion  of  women  and  of  male  descendants  in  the  female 
line,  and  the  principle  that  a  king  could  not  by  an  act  of  will 
change  the  succession  of  the  crown.  The  old  curia  regis  dis- 
appeared and  was  replaced  by  the  parlement  as  to  its  judicial 
functions,  while  to  fulfil  its  deliberative  functions  there  was 
formed  a  new  body,  the  royal  council  (conseil  du  roi),  an  ad- 
ministrative and  governing  council,  which  was  in  no  way  of  a 
feudal  character.  The  number  of  its  members  was  at  first  small, 
but  they  tended  to  increase;  soon  the  brevet  of  conseiller  du 
roi  en  ses  conseils  was  given  to  numerous  representatives  of  the 
clergy  and  nobility,  the  great  officers  of  the  crown  becoming 
members  by  right.  Side  by  side  with  these  officials,  whose  power 
was  then  at  its  height,  there  were  gradually  evolved  more 
subservient  ministers  who  could  be  dispensed  with  at  will; 
the  secretaires  des  commandements  du  roi  of  the  15th  century, 
who  in  the  i6th  century  developed  into  the  secretaires  d'etat, 
and  were  themselves  descended  from  the  clercs  du  secret  and 
secr&taires  des  finances  of  the  i4th  century.  The  College  of  the 
Twelve  Peers  of  France  had  not  its  full  numbers  at  the  end  of 
the  1 3th  century;  the  six  ecclesiastical  peerages  existed  and 
continued  to  exist  to  the  end,  together  with  the  archbishopric 
and  bishoprics  to  which  they  were  attached,  not  being  suppressed; " 
but  several  of  the  great  fiefs  to  which  six  lay  peerages  had  been 
attached  had  been  annexed  to  the  crown.  To  fill  these  vacancies, 
Philip  the  Fair  raised  the  duchies  of  Brittany  and  Anjou  and 


INSTITUTIONS] 


FRANCE 


States 
general 
and  pro* 
vlncial 
estates. 


the  countship  of  Artois  to  the  rank  of  peerages  of  France.  This 
really  amounted  to  changing  the  nature  of  the  institution; 
for  the  new  peers  held  their  rank  merely  at  the  king's  will, 
though  the  rank  continued  to  belong  to  a  great  barony  and  to 
be  handed  down  with  it.  Before  long  peers  began  to  be  created 
when  there  were  no  gaps  in  the  ranks  of  the  College,  and  there 
was  a  constant  increase  in  the  numbers  of  the  lay  peers. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  I4th  century  appeared  the  states 
general  (etats  generaux),  which  were  often  convoked,  though  not 
a^  frxed  intervals,  throughout  the  whole  of  the  i4th 
century  and  the  greater  part  of  the  I5th.  Their 
power  reached  its  height  at  a  critical  moment  of  the 
Hundred  Years'  War  during  the  reign  of  King  John. 
At  the  same  time  there  arose  side  by  side  with  them, 
and  from  the  same  causes,  the  provincial  estates,  which  were 
in  miniature  for  each  province  what  the  states  general  were  for 
the  whole  kingdom.  Of  these  provincial  assemblies  some  were 
founded  in  one  or  other  of  the  great  fiefs,  being  convoked  by  the 
duke  or  count  under  the  pressure  of  the  same  needs  which  led 
the  king  to  convoke  the  states  general;  others,  in  provinces 
which  had  already  been  annexed  to  the  crown,  probably  had 
their  origin  in  the  councils  summoned  by  the  bailli  or  seneschal  to 
aid  him  in  his  administration.  Later  it  became  a  privilege  for 
a  province  to  have  its  own  assembly;  those  which  did  so  were 
never  of  right  subject  to  the  royal  tattle,  and  kept,  at  least 
formally,  the  right  of  sanctioning,  by  means  of  the  assembly,  the 
subsidies  which  took  its  place.  Hence  it  became  the  endeavour 
of  the  crown  to  suppress  these  provincial  assemblies,  which  in 
the  1 4th  century  were  to  be  found  everywhere;  from  the  outset 
of  the  isth  century  they  began  to  disappear  in  central  France. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  of  this  period  was  the  institu- 
tion of  universal  taxation  by  the  crown.  So  far  the  king's  sole 
revenues  were  those  which  he  exacted,  in  his  capacity 
taxation  °^  ^ eudal  lord,  wherever  another  lord  did  not  intervene 
between  him  and  the  inhabitants,  in  addition  to  the  in- 
come arising  from  certain  crown  rights  which  he  had  preserved  or 
regained.  But  these  revenues,  known  later  as  the  income  of  the 
royal  domain  and  later  still  as  the  finances  ordinaires,  became 
insufficient  in  proportion  as  the  royal  power  increased;  it 
became  a  necessity  for  the  monarch  to  be  able  to  levy  imposts 
throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  provinces  annexed  to  the 
crown,  even  upon  the  subjects  of  the  different  lords.  This  he 
could  only  do  by  means  of  the  co-operation  of  those  lords,  lay  and 
ecclesiastical,  who  alone  had  the  right  of  taxing  their  subjects; 
the  co-operation  of  the  privileged  towns,  which  had  the  right  to 
tax  themselves,  was  also  necessary.  It  was  in  order  to  obtain 
this  consent  that  the  states  general,  in  most  cases,  and  the  pro- 
vincial assemblies,  in  all  cases,  were  convoked.  In  some  cases, 
however,  the  king  adopted  different  methods;  for  instance, 
he  sometimes  utilized  the  principle  of  the  feudal  aids.  In  cases 
where  his  vassals  owed  him,  as  overlord,  a  pecuniary  aid,  he 
substituted  for  the  sum  paid  directly  by  his  vassals  a  tax  levied 
by  his  own  authority  on  their  subjects.  It  is  in  this  way  that  for 
thirty  years  the  necessary  sums  were  raised,  without  any  vote 
from  the  states  general,  to  pay  the  ransom  of  King  John.  But 
in  principle  the  taxes  were  in  the  I4th  century  sanctioned  by 
the  states  general.  Whatever  form  they  took,  they  were  given 
the  generic  name  of  Aids  or  auxilia,  and  were  considered  as 
occasional  and  extraordinary  subsidies,  the  king  being  obliged 
in  principle  to  "  live  of  his  own  "  (wire  de  son  domaine).  Certain 
aids,  it  is  true,  tended  to  become  permanent  under  the  reign  of 
Charles  VI.;  but  the  taxes  subject  to  the  consent  of  the  states 
general  were  at  first  the  sole  resource  of  Charles  VII.  In  the 
second  half  of  his  reign  the  two  chief  taxes  became  permanent: 
in  1435  that  °f  tne  a'ds  (a  tax  on  the  sale  of  articles  of  con- 
sumption, especially  on  wine),  with  the  formal  consent  of  the 
states  general,  and  that  of  the  tattle  in  1439.  In  the  latter  case 
the  consent  of  the  states  general  was  not  given;  but  only  the 
nobility  protested,  for  at  the  same  time  as  the  royal  tattle  became 
permanent  the  seigniorial  tattle  was  suppressed.  These  imposts 
were  increased,  on  the  royal  authority,  by  Louis  XI.  After  his 
death  the  states  general,  which  met  at  Tours  in  1484,  endeavoured 


to  re-establish  the  periodical  vote  of  the  tax,  and  only  granted 
it  for  two  years,  reducing  it  to  the  sum  which  it  had  reached 
at  the  death  of  Charles  VII.  But  the  promise  that  they  would 
again  be  convoked  before  the  expiry  of  two  years  was  not  kept. 
These  imposts  and  that  of  the  gabelle  were  henceforth  permanent. 
Together  with  the  taxes  there  was  evolved  the  system  of  their 
administration.  Their  main  outlines  were  laid  down  by  the 
states  general  in  the  reign  of  King  John,  in  1355  and  the  following 
years.  For  the  administration  of  the  subsidies  which  they 
granted,  they  nominated  from  among  their  own  numbers 
surinlendants  generaux  or  generaux  des  finances,  and  further, 
for  each  diocese  or  equivalent  district,  elus.  Both  had  not  only 
the  active  administration  but  also  judicial  rights,  the  latter 
constituting  courts  of  the  first  instance  and  the  former  courts  of 
final  appeal.  After  1360  the  crown  again  adopted  this  organiza- 
tion, which  had  before  been  only  temporary;  but  henceforth 
generaux  and  elus  were  nominated  by  the  king.  The  elus,  or 
qfficiers  des  flections,  only  existed  in  districts  which  were  subject 
to  the  royal  tattle;  hence  the  division,  so  important  in  old  France, 
into  pays  Selections  and  pays  d'etats.  The  elus  kept  both 
administration  and  jurisdiction;  but  in  the  higher  stage  a  differ- 
entiation was  made:  the  generaux  des  finances,  who  numbered 
four,  kept  the  administration,  while  their  jurisdiction  as  a  court 
of  final  appeal  was  handed  over  to  another  body,  the  cour  des 
aides,  which  had  already  been  founded  at  the  end  of  the  i4th 
century.  Besides  the  four  generaux  des  finances,  who  administered 
the  taxation,  there  were  four  Treasurers  of  France  (tresoriers 
de  France),  who  administered  the  royal  domain;  and  these  eight 
officials  together  formed  in  the  isth  century  a  kind  of  ministry 
of  finance  to  the  monarchy. 

The  army  also  was  organized.  On  the  one  hand,  the  military 
service  attached  to  the  fiefs  was  transformed  for  the  profit 
of  the  king,  who  alone  had  the  right  of  making  war: 
it  became  the  arriere-ban,  a  term  which  had  formerly  m * 
applied  to  the  levee  en  masse  of  all  the  inhabitants  in 
times  of  national  danger.  Before  the  I4th  century  the  king 
had  only  had  the  power  of  calling  upon  his  own  immediate  vassals 
for  service.  Henceforth  all  possessors  of  fiefs  owed  him,  whether 
within  the  kingdom  or  on  the  frontiers,  military  service  without 
pay  and  at  their  own  expense.  This  was  for  long  an  important 
resource  for  the  king.  But  Charles  VII.  organized  an  army  on 
another  footing.  It  comprised  the  francs-archers  furnished  by 
the  parishes,  a  militia  which  was  only  summoned  in  case  of  war, 
but  in  time  of  peace  had  to  practise  archery,  and  companies  of 
gendarmerie  or  heavy  cavalry,  forming  a  permanent  establish- 
ment, which  were  called  compagnies  d'ordonnance.  It  was 
chiefly  to  provide  for  the  expense  of  the  first  nucleus  of  a  per- 
manent army  that  the  tattle  itself  had  been  made  permanent. 

The  new  army  led  to  the  institution  of  the  governors  of  pro- 
vinces, who  were  to  command  the  troops  quartered  there.  At 
first  they  were  only  appointed  for  the  frontiers  and  fortified 
places,  but  later  the  kingdom  was  divided  into  gouvernemenls 
generaux.  There  were  at  first  twelve  of  these,  which  were  called 
in  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century  the  douze  anciens  gouvernemenls. 
Although,  strictly  speaking,  they  had  only  military  powers,  the 
governors,  always  chosen  from  among  the  great  lords,  became 
in  the  provinces  the  direct  representatives  of  the  king  and  caused 
the  battlis  and  seneschals  to  take  a  secondary  place. 

The  courts  of  law  continued  to  develop  on  the  lines  already 
laid  down.    The  parlement,  which  had  come  to  be  a  judicial 
committee  nominated  every  year,  but  always  consisting 
in  fact  of  the  same  persons,  changed  in  the  course  of  the      courts 
1 4th  century  into  a  body  of  magistrates  who  were 
permanent  but  as  yet  subject  to  removal.    During  this  period 
were  evolved  its  organization  and  definitive  features  (see  PARLE- 
MENT). The  provincial  parlements  had  arisen  after  and  in  imita- 
tion of  that  of  Paris,  and  had  for  the  most  part  taken  the  place  of 
some  superior  jurisdiction  which  had  formerly  existed  in  the  same 
district  when  it  had  been  independent  (like  Provence)  or  had 
formed  one  of  the  great  fiefs  (like  Normandy  or  Burgundy). 
It  was  during  this  period  also  that  the  parlements  acquired  the 
right  of  opposing  the  registration,  that  is  to  say,  the  promulgation 


9*4 


FRANCE 


[LAW  AND 


of  laws,  of  revising  them,  and  of  making  representations  (remon- 
trances)  to  the  king  when  they  refused  the  registration,  giving 
the  reasons  for  such  refusal.  The  other  royal  jurisdictions  were 
completed  (see  BAILIFF,  CHATELET)  .  Besides  them  arose  another 
of  great  importance,  which  was  of  military  origin,  but  came  to 
include  all  citizens  under  its  sway.  These  were  the  provosts 
of  the  marshals  of  France  (prevSts  des  marfchaux  de  France), 
who  were  officers  of  the  Marechaussee  (the  gendarmerie  of  the 
time);  they  exercised  criminal  jurisdiction  without  appeal  in 
the  case  of  crimes  committed  by  vagabonds  and  fugitives  from 
justice,  this  class  being  called  their  gibier  (game) ,  and  of  a  number 
of  crimes  of  violence,  whatever  the  rank  of  the  offender.  Further, 
another  class  of  officers  was  created  in  connexion  with  the  law 
courts:  the  "  king's  men  "  (gens  du  roi),  the  procureurs  and 
avocats  du  roi,  who  were  at  first  simply  those  lawyers  who 
represented  the  king  in  the  law  courts,  or  pleaded  for  him  when 
he  had  some  interest  to  follow  up  or  to  defend.  Later  they  became 
officers  of  the  crown.  In  the  case  of  the  procureurs  du  roi  this 
development  took  place  in  the  first  half  of  the  i4th  century. 
Their  duty  was  not  only  to  represent  the  king  in  the  law  courts, 
whether  as  plaintiff  or  defendant,  but  also  to  take  care  that  in 
each  case  the  law  was  applied,  and  to  demand  its  application. 
From  this  time  on  the  procureurs  du  roi  had  full  control  over 
matters  concerning  the  public  interest,  and  especially  over 
public  prosecution.  In  this  period,  too,  appeared  what  was 
afterwards  called  justice  retenue,  that  is  to  say,  the  justice  which 
the  king  administered,  or  was  supposed  to  administer,  in  person. 
It  was  based  on  the  idea  that,  since  all  justice  and  all  judicial 
power  reside  in  the  king,  he  could  not  deprive  himself  of  them 
by  delegating  their  exercise  to  his  officers  and  to  the  feudal 
lords.  Consequently  he  could,  if  he  thought  fit,  take  the  place 
of  the  judges  and  call  up  a  case  before  his  own  council.  He  could 
reverse  even  the  decisions  of  the  courts  of  final  appeal,  and  in 
some  cases  used  this  means  of  appealing  against  the  decrees  of  the 
parlements  (proposition d'erreur,  requete  civile,  pounioi  en  revision). 
In  these  cases  the  king  was  supposed  to  judge  in  person;  in 
reality  they  were  examined  by  the  mattres  des  requites  and 
submitted  to  the  royal  council  (conseil  du  roi) ,  at  which  the  king 
was  always  supposed  to  be  present  and  which  had  in  itself  no 
power  of  giving  a  decision.  For  this  purpose  there  was  soon 
formed  a  special  committee  of  the  council,  which  was  called  the 
conseil  prive  or  de  justice.  At  the  end  of  the  isth  century, 
Charles  VIII.,  in  order  to  relieve  the  council  of  some  of  its  func- 
tions, created  a  new  final  court,  the  grand  conseil,  to  deal  with 
a  number  of  these  cases.  But  before  long  it  again  became  the 
custom  to  appeal  to  the  conseil  du  roi,  so  that  the  grand  conseil 
became  almost  useless.  The  king  frequently,  by  means  of 
lettres  de  justice,  intervened  in  the  procedure  of  the  courts,  by 
granting  benefices,  by  which  rules  which  were  too  severe  were 
modified,  and  faculties  or  facilities  for  overcoming  difficulties 
arising  from  flaws  in  contracts  or  judgments,  cases  at  that  time 
not  covered  by  the  common  law.  By  lettres  de  grace  he  granted 
reprieve  or  pardon  in  individual  cases.  The  most  extreme 
form  of  intervention  by  the  king  was  made  by  means  of  lettres  de 
cachet  (<?.».),  which  ordered  a  subject  to  go  without  trial  into  a 
state  prison  or  into  exile. 

The  condition  of  the  Church  changed  greatly  during  this  period. 
The  jurisdiction  of  the  officialites  was  very  much  reduced,  even 
The  over  ^e  c^etSy-  They  ceased  to  be  competent  to 

Church.  Judge  actions  concerning  the  possession  of  real  property, 
in  which  the  clergy  were  defendants.  In  criminal 
law  the  theory  of  the  cas  prvnlegie,  which  appears  in  the  i4th 
century,  enabled  the  royal  judges  to  take  action  against  and  judge 
the  clergy  for  all  serious  crimes,  though  without  the  power  of 
inflicting  any  penalties  but  arbitrary  fines,  the  ecclesiastical 
judge  remaining  competent,  in  accordance  with  the  privileges  of 
clergy,  to  try  the  offender  for  the  same  crime  as  what  was 
technically  called  a  delit  commun.  The  development  of  juris- 
prudence gradually  removed  from  the  officialites  causes  of  a 
purely  secular  character  in  which  laymen  only  were  concerned, 
such  as  wills  and  contracts;  and  in  matrimonial  cases  their 
jurisdiction  was  limited  to  those  in  which  the  foedus  ntatrimonii 


was  in  question.  For  the  acquisition  of  real  property  by  ecclesi- 
astical establishments  the  consent  of  the  king  to  the  amortize- 
ment  was  always  necessary,  even  in  the  case  of  allodial  lands; 
and  if  it  was  a  case  of  feudal  tenures  the  king  and  the  direct 
overlords  alone  kept  their  rights,  the  intermediate  lords  being 
left  out  of  the  question. 

As  regards  the  conferring  of  ecclesiastical  benefices,  from  the 
1 4th  century  onwards  the  papacy  encroached  more  and  more 
upon  the  rights  of  the  bishops,  in  whose  gift  the  inferior 

benefices  generally  were,   and  of  the  electors,  who    Pai'al 

°,         ,  ',  encroach- 

usually  conferred  the  superior  benefices;  at  the  same    meats. 

time  it  exacted  from  newly  appointed  incumbents 
heavy  dues,  which  were  included  under  the  generic  name  of 
annates  (q.v.).  During  the  Great  Schism  of  the  Western  Church, 
these  abuses  became  more  and  more  crying,  until  by  a  series  of 
edicts,  promulgated  with  the  consent  and  advice  of  the  parlement 
and  the  clergy,  the  Gallican  Church  was  restored  to  the  possession 
of  its  former  liberties,  under  the  royal  authority.  Thus  France 
was  ready  to  accept  the  decrees  of  reform  issued  by  the  council 
of  Basel  (q.v.),  which  she  did,  with  a  few  modifications,  in  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Charles  VII.,  adopted  after  a  solemn 
assembly  of  the  clergy  and  nobles  at  Bourges  and  registered 
by  the  parlement  of  Paris  in  1438.  It  suppressed  the  annates 
and  most  of  the  means  by  which  the  popes  disposed  of  the  inferior 
benefices:  the  reservations  and  the  gratiae  expectalivae.  For 
the  choice  of  bishops  and  abbots,  it  restored  election  by  the 
chapters  and  convents.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction,  however, 
was  never  recognized  by  the  papacy,  nor  was  it  consistently  and 
strictly  applied  by  the  royal  power.  The  transformation  of  the 
civil  and  criminal  law  under  the  influence  of  Roman  and  canon 
law  had  become  more  and  more  marked.  The  production  of  the 
coutumiers,  or  livres  de  pratiques,  also  continued.  The  chief  of 
them  were:  in  the  I4th  century,  the  Stylus  Vetus  Curiae  Parla- 
menti  of  Guillaume  de  Breuil;  the  Tres  ancienne  coutume  de 
Bretagne;  the  Grand  Coutumier  de  France,  or  Coutumier  de 
Charles  VI.;  the  Somme  rural  of  Boutillier;  in  the  isth  century, 
for  Auvergne,  the  Practica  forensis  of  Masuer.  Charles  VII., 
in  an  article  of  the  Grand  Ordonnance  of  Montil-les-Tours  (1453), 
ordered  the  general  customs  to  be  officially  recorded  under  the 
supervision  of  the  crown.  It  was  an  enormous  work,  which 
would  almost  have  transformed  them  into  written  laws;  but 
up  to  the  1 6th  century  little  recording  was  done,  the  procedure 
established  by  the  Ordonnance  for  the  purpose  not  being  very 
suitable. 

The  Absolute  Monarchy. — From  the  i6th  century  to  the 
Revolution  was  the  period  of  the  absolute  monarchy,  but  it 
can  be  further  divided  into  two  periods:  that  of  the  Oovera. 
establishment  of  this  regime,  from  1515  to  about  meat 
1673;  and  that  of  the  ancien  regime  when  definitively  under  the 
established,  from  1673  to  1789.  The  reigns  of  Francis 
I.  and  Henry  II.  clearly  laid  down  the  principle  of  the 
absolute  power  of  the  crown  and  applied  it  effectually,  as  is 
plainly  seen  from  the  temporary  disappearance  of  the  states 
general,  which  were  not  assembled  under  these  two  reigns. 
There  were  merely  a  few  assemblies  of  notables  chosen  by  the 
royal  power,  the  most  important  of  which  was  that  of  Cognac, 
under  Francis  I.,  summoned  to  advise  on  the  non-fulfilment 
of  the  treaty  of  Madrid.  It  is  true  that  in  the  second  half  of 
the  1 6th  century  the  states  general  reappeared. .  They  were 
summoned  in  1560  at  Orleans,  then  in  1561  at  Pontoise,  and  in 
1576  and  1588  at  Blois.  The  League  even  convoked  one,  which 
was  held  at  Paris  in  1593.  This  represented  a  crucial  and  final 
struggle.  Two  points  were  then  at  issue:  firstly,  whether 
France  was  to  be  Protestant  or  Catholic;  secondly,  whether 
she  was  to  have  a  limited  or  an  absolute  monarchy.  The  two 
problems  were  not  necessarily  bound  up  with  one  another.  For 
if  the  Protestants  desired  political  liberty,  many  of  the  Catholics 
wished  for  it  too,  'as  is  proved  by  the  writings  of  the  time,  and 
even  by  the  fact  that  the  League  summoned  the  estates.  But 
the  states  general  of  the  i6th  century,  in  spite  of  their  good  in- 
tentions and  the  great  talents  which  were  at  their  service,  were 
dominated  by  religious  passions,  which  made  them  powerless 


INSTITUTIONS] 


FRANCE 


for  any  practical  purpose.  They  only  produced  a  few  great 
ordinances  of  reform,  which  were  not  well  observed.  They  were, 
however,  to  be  called  together  yet  again,  as  a  result  of  the 
disturbances  which  followed  the  death  of  Henry  IV.;  but  their 
dissensions  and  powerlessness  were  again  strikingly  exemplified 
and  they  did  not  reappear  until  1789.  Other  bodies,  however, 
which  the  royal  power  had  created,  were  to  carry  on  the  struggle 
against  it.  There  were  the  parlements,  the  political  rivals  of 
the  states  general.  Thanks  to  the  principle  according  to  which 
no  law  came  into  effect  so  long  as  it  had  not  been  registered  by 
them,  they  had,  as  we  have  seen,  won  for  themselves  the  right 
of  a  preliminary  discussion  of  those  laws  which  were  presented 
to  them,  and  of  refusing  registration,  explaining  their  reasons 
to  the  king  by  means  of  the  remonlrances.  The  royal  power  saw 
in  this  merely  a  concession  from  itself,  a  consultative  power, 
which  ought  to  yield  before  the  royal  will,  when  the  latter  was 
clearly  manifested,  either  by  Ictlres  de  jussion  or  by  the  actual 
words  and  presence  of  the  king,  when  he  came  in  person  to  procure 
the  registration  of  a  law  in  a  so-called  lit  de  justice.  But  from 
the  1 6th  century  onwards  the  members  of  the  parlements 
claimed,  on  the  strength  of  a  historical  theory,  to  have  inherited 
the  powers  of  the  ancient  assemblies  (the  Merovingian  and 
Carolingian  placita  and  the  curia  rcgis),  powers  which  they, 
moreover,  greatly  exaggerated.  The  successful  assertion  of 
this  claim  would  have  made  them  at  once  independent  of  and 
necessary  to  the  crown.  During  the  minority  of  kings,  they  had 
possessed,  in  fact,  special  opportunities  for  asserting  their  preten- 
sions, particularly  when  they  had  been  called  upon  to  intervene 
in  the  organization  of  the  regency.  It  is  on  this  account  that  at 
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  the  parlement  of  Paris 
wished  to  take  part  in  the  government,  and  in  1648,  in  concert 
with  the  other  supreme  courts  of  the  capital,  temporarily  imposed 
a  sort  of  charter  of  liberties.  But  the  first  Fronde,  of  which 
the  parlement  was  the  centre  and  soul,  led  to  its  downfall,  which 
was  completed  when  later  on  Louis  XIV.  became  all-powerful. 
The  ordinance  of  1667  on  civil  procedure,  and  above  all  a  declara- 
tion of  1673,  ordered  the  parlement  to  register  the  laws  as 
soon  as  it  received  them  and  without  any  modification.  It  was 
only  after  this  registration  that  they  were  allowed  to  draw  up 
remonstrances,  which  were  henceforth  futile.  The  nobles,  as  a 
body,  had  also  become  politically  impotent.  They  had  been 
sorely  tried  by  the  wars  of  religion,  and  Richelieu,  in  his  struggles 
against  the  governors  of  the  provinces,  had  crushed  their  chief 
leaders.  The  second  Fronde  was  their  last  effort  (see  FRONDE). 
At  the  same  time  the  central  government  underwent  changes. 
The  great  officers  of  the  crown  disappeared  one  by  one.  The 
office  of  constable  of  France  was  suppressed  by  purchase  during 
the  first  half  of  the  i7th  century,  and  of  those  in  the  first  rank 
only  the  chancellor  survived  till  the  Revolution.  But  though 
his  title  could  only  be  taken  from  him  by  condemnation  on  a 
capital  charge,  the  king  was  able  to  deprive  him  of  his  functions 
by  taking  from  him  the  custody  and  use  of  the  seal  of  France, 
which  were  entrusted  to  a  garde  des  sceaux.  Apart  from  the  latter, 
the  king's  real  ministers  were  the  secretaries  of  state,  generally 
four  in  number,  who  were  always  removable  and  were  not  chosen 
from  among  the  great  nobles.  For  purposes  of  internal  adminis- 
tration, the  provinces  were  divided  among  them,  each  of  them 
corresponding  by  despatches  with  those  which  were  assigned  to 
him.  Any  other  business  (with  the  exception  of  legal  affairs, 
which  belonged  to  the  chancellor,  and  finance,  of  which  we  shall 
speak  later)  was  divided  among  them  according  to  convenience. 
At  the  end  of  the  i6th  century,  however,  were  evolved  two 
regular  departments,  those  of  war  and  foreign  affairs.  Under 
Francis  I.  and  Henry  II.,  the  chief  administration  of  finance 
underwent  a  change;  for  the  four  generaux  des  finances,  who 
had  become  too  powerful,  were  substituted  the  intendants  des 
finances,  one  of  whom  soon  became  a  chief  minister  of  finance, 
with  the  title  surinlendant.  The  generaux  des  finances,  like  the 
trtsoriers  de  France,  became  provincial  officials,  each  at  the  head 
of  a  generalile  (a  superior  administrative  district  for  purposes 
of  finance) ;  under  Henry  III.  the  two  functions  were  combined 
and  assigned  to  the  bureaux  des  finances.  The  fall  of  Fouquet 


led  to  the  suppression  of  the  office  of  surintendant;  but  soon 
Colbert  again  became  practically  a  minister  of  finance,  under  the 
name  of  controlcur  general  des  finances,  both  title  and  office 
continuing  to  exist  up  to  the  Revolution. 

The  conseil  du  roi,  the  origin  of  which  we  have  described, 
was  an  important  organ  of  the  central  government,  and  for  a 
long  time  included  among  its  members  a  large  number  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  nobility  and  clergy.  Besides  the  councillors 
of  state  (conseillers  d'etat),  its  ordinary  members,  the  great  officers 
of  the  crown  and  secretaries  of  state,  princes  of  the  blood  and 
peers  of  France  were  members  of  it  by  right.  Further,  the  king 
was  accustomed  to  grant  the  brevet  of  councillor  to  a  great 
number  of  the  nobility  and  clergy,  who  could  be  called  upon 
to  sit  in  the  council  and  give  an  opinion  on  matters  of  importance. 
But  in  the  I7th  century  the  council  tended  to  differentiate  its 
functions,  forming  three  principal  sections,  one  for  political, 
one  for  financial,  and  the  third  for  legal  affairs.  Under  Louis 
XIV.  it  took  a  definitely  professional,  administrative  and 
technical  character.  The  conseillers  d,  brevet  were  all  suppressed 
in  1673,  and  the  peers  of  France  ceased  to  be  members  of  the 
council.  The  political  council,  or  conseil  d'en  haul,  had  no  ex 
officio  members,  not  even  the  chancellor;  the  secretary  of  state 
for  foreign  affairs,  however,  necessarily  had  entry  to  it;  it  also 
included  a  small  number  of  persons  chosen  by  the  king  and 
bearing  the  title  of  ministers  of  state  (ministres  d'etat}.  The 
other  important  sections  of  the  conseil  du  roi  were  the  conseil 
des  finances,  organized  after  the  fall  of  Fouquet,  and  the  conseil 
des  depeches,  in  which  sat  the  four  secretaries  of  state  and  where 
everything  concerned  with  internal  administration  (except 
finance)  was  dealt  with,  including  the  legal  business  connected 
with  this  administration.  As  to  the  government  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  laws,  under  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XV.,  the  conseil  du  roi 
often  passed  into  the  background,  when,  as  the  saying  went, 
a  minister  who  was  projecting  some  important  measure  traiiail- 
lait  seul  avec  le  roi  (worked  alone  with  the  king),  having  from 
the  outset  gained  the  king's  ear. 

The  chief  authority  in  the  provincial  administration  belonged 
in  the  i6th  century  to  the  governors  of  the  provinces,  though, 
strictly   speaking,   the   governor   had   only   military 
powers  in  his  gouvernement;  for,  as  we  have  seen,  he    ^°v'nc'a' 

i.  r  admlals- 

was  the  direct  representative  of  the  king  for  general    tratioa. 
purposes.     But    at    the   end    of   this   century   were 
created  the  intendants  of  the  provinces,  who,  after  a  period 
of  conflict  with   the  governors  and   the  parlements,   became 
absolute  masters  of  the  administration  in  all  those  provinces 
which  had  no  provincial  estates,  and  the  instruments  of  a 
complete  administrative  centralization  (see  INTENDANT). 

The  towns  having  a  corps  de  mile,  that  is  to  say,  a  municipal 
organization,  preserved  in  the  i6th  century  a  fairly  wide 
autonomy,  and  played  an  important  part  in  the  wars 
of  religion,  especially  under  the  League. .  But  under 
Louis  XIV.  their  independence  rapidly  declined. 
They  were  placed  under  the  tutelage  of  the  intendants,  whose 
sanction,  or  that  of  the  conseil  du  roi,  was  necessary  for  all  acts 
of  any  importance.  In  the  closing  years  of  the  I7th  century, 
the  municipal  officials  ceased,  even  in  principle,  to  be  elective. 
Their  functions  ranked  as  offices  which  were,  like  royal  offices, 
saleable  and  heritable.  The  pretext  given  by  the  edicts  were  the 
intrigues  and  dissensions  caused  by  the  elections;  the  real 
cause  was  that  the  government  wanted  to  sell  these  offices, 
which  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  it  frequently  allowed  towns 
to  redeem  them  and  to  re-establish  the  elections. 

The  sale  of  royal  offices  is  one  of  the  characteristic  features  of 
the  ancien  regime.     It  had  begun  early,  and,   apparently,  with 
the  office  of  councillor  of  the  parlement  of  Paris,  when 
this  became  permanent,  in  the  second  half  of  the  i4th        offices 
century.     It  was  first  practised  by  magistrates  who 
wished  to  dispose  of  their  office  in  favour  of  a  successor  of  their 
own  choice.     The  resignatio  infavorem  of  ecclesiastical  benefices 
served  as  model,  and  at  first  care  was  taken  to  conceal  the 
money  transaction  between  the  parties.     The  crown  winked 
at  these  resignations  in  consideration  of  a  payment  in  money. 


The 
towns. 


916 


FRANCE 


[LAW  AND 


But  in  the  i6th  century,  under  Francis  I.  at  the  latest,  the  crown 
itself  began  officially  to  sell  offices,  whether  newly  created  or 
vacant  by  the  death  of  their  occupiers,  taking  a  fee  from  those 
upon  whom  they  were  conferred.  Under  Charles  IX.  the  right 
of  resigning  in  favorem  was  recognized  by  law  in  the  case  of 
royal  officials,  in  return  for  a  payment  to  the  treasury  of  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  price.  In  the  case  of  judicial  offices 
there  was  a  struggle  for  at  least  two  centuries  between  the  system 
of  sale  and  another,  also  imitated  from  canon  law,  i.e.  the  election 
or  presentation  of  candidates  by  the  legal  corporations.  The 
ordinances  of  the  second  half  of  the  i6th  century,  granted  in 
answer  to  complaints  of  the  states  general,  restored  and  con- 
firmed the  latter  system,  giving  a  share  in  the  presentation 
to  the  towns  or  provincial  notables  and  forbidding  sales.  The 
system  of  sale,  however,  triumphed  in  the  end,  and,  in  the  case 
of  judges,  had,  moreover,  a  favourable  result,  assuring  to  them 
that  irremovability  which  Louis  XI.  had  promised  in  vain;  for, 
under  this  system,  the  king  could  not  reasonably  dismiss  an 
official  arbitrarily  without  refunding  the  fee  which  he  had 
paid.  On  the  other  hand,  it  contributed  to  the  development 
of  the  epices,  or  dues  paid  by  litigants  to  the  judges.  The  system 
of  sale,  and  with  it  irremovability,  was  extended  to  all  official 
functions,  even  to  financial  posts.  The  process  was  completed 
by  the  recognition  of  the  rights  in  the  sale  of  offices  as  hereditary, 
i.e.  the  right  of  resigning  the  office  on  payment  of  a  fee,  either 
in  favour  of  a  competent  descendant  or  of  a  third  party,  passed 
to  the  heirs  of  an  official  who  had  died  without  having  exercised 
this  right  himself.  It  was  established  under  Henry  IV.  in  1604 
by  the  system  called  the  Paulette,  in  return  for  the  payment 
by  the  official  of  an  annual  fee  (droit  annuel)  which  was  definitely 
fixed  at  a  hundredth  part  of  the  price  of  the  office.  Thus  these 
offices,  though  the  royal  nomination  was  still  required  as  well 
as  the  professional  qualifications  required  by  the  law,  became 
heritable  property  in  virtue  of  the  finance  attached  to  them. 
This  led  to  the  formation  of  a  class  of  men  who,  though  bound 
in  many  ways  to  the  crown,  were  actually  independent.  Hence 
the  tendency  in  the  i8th  century  to  create  new  and  important 
functions  under  the  form,  not  of  offices,  but  of  simple  commissions. 

In  this  period  of  the  history  of  France  were  evolved  and  defined 
the  essential  principles  of  the  old  public  law.  There  were, 
Panda-  ^n  'ne  ^rst  place>  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  realm, 
mental  which  were  true  constitutional  principles,  established 
laws  of  for  the  most  part  not  by  law  but  by  custom,  and 
France.  considered  as  binding  in  respect  of  the  king  himself; 
so  that,  although  he  was  sovereign,  he  could  neither  abrogate, 
nor  modify,  nor  violate  them.  There  was,  however,  some  discus- 
sion as  to  what  rules  actually  came  under  this  category,  except  in 
the  case  of  two  series  about  which  there  was  no  doubt.  These 
were,  on  the  one  hand,  those  which  dealt  with  the  succession 
to  the  crown  and  forbade  the  king  to  change  its  order,  and  those 
which  proclaimed  the  inalienability  of  the  royal  domain,  against 
which  no  title  by  prescription  was  valid.  This  last  principle, 
introduced  in  the  i4th  century,  had  been  laid  down-  and  defined 
by  the  edict  of  Moulins  in  1566;  it  admitted  only  two  exceptions: 
the  formation  of  appanages  (q.v.),  and  selling  (engagement),  to 
meet  the  necessities  of  war,  with  a  perpetual  option  of  redeem- 
ing it. 

There  was  in  the  second  place  the  theory  of  the  rights,  franchises 
and  liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church,  formed  of  elements  some 
of  which  were  of  great  antiquity,  and  based  on  the  conditions 
which  had  determined  the  relations  of  the  Gallican  Church 
with  the  crown  and  papacy  during  the  Great  Schism  and  under 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges,  and  defined  at  the  end  of 
the  i6th  and  the  beginning  of  the  i7th  century.  This  body  of 
doctrine  was  defined  by  the  writings  of  three  men  especially, 
Guy  Coquille,  Pierre  Pithou  and  Pierre  Dupuy,  and  was  solemnly 
confirmed  by  the  declaration  of  the  clergy  of  France,  or  Declara- 
tion des  quatres  articles  of  1682,  and  by  the  edict  which  promul- 
gated it.  Its  substance  was  based  chiefly  on  three  principles: 
firstly,  that  the  temporal  power  was  absolutely  independent  of 
the  spiritual  power;  secondly,  that  the  pope  had  authority 
over  the  clergy  of  France  in  temporal  matters  and  matters  of 


discipline  only  by  the  consent  of  the  king;  thirdly,  that  the 
king  had  authority  over  and  could  legislate  for  the  Gallican 
Church  in  temporal  matters  and  matters  of  discipline.  The  old 
public  law  provided  a  safeguard  against  the  violation  of  these 
rules.  This  was  the  process  known  as  the  appel  comme  d'abus, 
formed  of  various  elements,  some  of  them  very  ancient,  and 
definitely  established  during  the  i6th  century.  It  was  heard 
before  the  parlements,  but  could,  like  every  other  case,  be 
evoked  before  the  royal  council.  Its  effect  was  to  annul  any 
act  of  the  ecclesiastical  authority  due  to  abuse  or  contrary  to 
French  law.  The  clergy  were,  when  necessary,  reduced  to 
obedience  by  means  of  arbitrary  fines  and  by  the  seizure  of  their 
temporalities.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  had  been  abrogated 
and  replaced  by  the  Concordat  of  1515,  concluded  between 
Francis  I.  and  Leo  X.,  which  remained  in  force  until  suppressed 
by  the  Constituent  Assembly.  The  Concordat,  moreover, 
preserved  many  of  the  enactments  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
notably  those  which  protected  the  collation  of  the  inferior  benefices 
from  the  encroachments  of  the  papacy,  and  which  had  introduced 
reforms  in  certain  points  of  discipline.  But  in  the  case  of  the 
superior  benefices  (bishoprics  and  abbeys)  election  by  the 
chapters  was  suppressed.  The  king  of  France  nominated  the 
candidate,  to  whom  the  pope  gave  canonical  institution.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  pope  had  no  choice;  he  had  to  institute  the 
nominee  of  the  king,  unless  he  could  show  his  unworthiness  or 
incapacity,  as  the  result  of  inquiries  regularly  conducted  in 
France;  for  the  pope  it  was,  as  the  ancient  French  authors 
used  to  say,  a  case  of  compulsory  collation.  The  annates  were 
re-established  at  the  time  of  the  Concordat,  but  considerably 
diminished  in  comparison  with  what  they  had  been  before  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction.  We  must  add,  to  complete  this  account, 
that  many  of  the  inferior  benefices,  in  France  as  in  the  rest  of 
Christendom,  were  conferred  according  to  the  rules  of  patronage, 
the  patron,  whether  lay  or  ecclesiastic,  presenting  a  candidate 
whom  the  bishop  was  bound  to  appoint,  provided  he  was  neither 
incapable  nor  unsuitable.  There  was  some  difficulty  in  getting 
the  Concordat  registered  by  the  parlement  of  Paris,  and  the 
latter  even  announced  its  intention  of  not  taking  the  Concordat 
into  account  in  those  cases  concerning  benefices  which  might 
come  before  it.  The  crown  found  an  easy  method  of  making 
this  opposition  ineffectual,  namely,  to  transfer  to  the  Grand 
Conseil  the  decision  of  cases  arising  out  of  the  application  of  the 
Concordat. 

In  the  1 6th  century  also,  contributions  to  the  public  services 
drawn  from  the  immense  possessions  of  the  clergy  were  regu- 
larized. Since  the  second  half  of  the  isth  century  at  least,  the 
kings  had  in  times  of  urgent  need  asked  for  subsidies  from  the 
church,  and  ever  since  the  Saladin  tithe  (dime  saladine)  of  Philip 
Augustus  this  contribution  had  assumed  the  form  of  a  tithe, 
taking  a  tenth  part  of  the  revenue  of  the  benefices  for  a  given 
period.  Tithes  of  this  kind  were  fairly  frequently  granted  by 
the  clergy  of  France,  either  with  the  pope's  consent  or  without 
(this  being  a  disputed  point).  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
Concordat,  Leo  X.  granted  the  king  a  tithe  (decime)  under  the 
pretext  of  a  projected  war  against  the  Turks;  hitherto  con- 
cessions of  this  kind  had  been  made  by  the  papacy  in  view  of 
the  Crusades  or  of  wars  against  heretics.  The  concession  was 
several  times  renewed,  until,  by  force  of  custom,  the  levying  of 
these  tithes  became  permanent.  But  in  the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century  the  system  changed.  The  crown  was  heavily  in  debt, 
and  its  needs  had  increased.  The  property  of  the  clergy  having 
been  threatened  by  the  states  general  of  1560  and  1561,  the 
king  proposed  to  them  to  remit  the  bulk  of  the  tithes  and  other 
dues,  in  return  for  the  payment  by  them  of  a  sum  equivalent 
to  the  proceeds  of  the  taxes  which  he  had  mortgaged.  A  formal 
contract  to  this  effect  was  concluded  at  Poissy  in  1561  between 
the  king  and  the  clergy  of  France,  represented  by  the  prelates 
who  were  then  gathered  together  for  the  Colloquy  of  Poissy  with 
the  Protestants,  and  some  of  those  who  had  been  sitting  at  the 
states  general  of  Pontoise.  The  fulfilment  of  this  agreement  was, 
however,  evaded  by  the  king,  who  diverted  part  of  the  funds 
provided  by  the  clergy  from  their  proper  purpose.  In  1380, 


INSTITUTIONS] 


FRANCE 


917 


after  a  period  of  ten  years  which  had  been  agreed  on,  a  new 
assembly  of  the  clergy  was  called  together  and,  after  protesting 
against  this  action,  renewed  the  agreement,  which  was  hence- 
forward always  renewed  every  ten  years.  Such  was  the  definitive 
form  of  the  contribution  of  the  clergy,  who  also  acquired  the 
right  of  themselves  assessing  and  levying  these  taxes  on  the 
holders  of  benefices.  Thus  every  ten  years  there  was  a  great 
assembly  of  the  clergy,  the  members  of  which  were  elected. 
There  were  two  stages  in  the  election,  a  preliminary  one  in  the 
dioceses  and  a  further  election  in  the  ecclesiastical  provinces, 
each  province  sending  four  deputies  to  the  general  assembly, 
two  of  the  first  rank,  that  is  to  say,  chosen  from  the  episcopate, 
and  two  of  the  second  rank,  which  included  all  the  other  clergy. 
The  dons  gratuits  (benevolences)  voted  by  the  assembly  comprised 
a  fixed  sum  equivalent  to  the  old  tithes  and  supplementary  sums 
paid  on  one  occasion  only,  which  were  sometimes  considerable. 
The  church,  on  her  side,  profited  by  this  arrangement  in  order 
to  obtain  the  commutation  or  redemption  of  the  taxes  affecting 
ecclesiastics  considered  as  individuals.  This  settlement  only 
applied  to  the  "  clergy  of  France,"  that  is  to  say,  to  the  clergy 
of  those  districts  which  were  united  to  the  crown  before  the  end 
of  the  1 6th  century.  The  provinces  annexed  later,  called  pays 
Grangers,  or  pays  conquis,  had  in  this  matter,  as  in  many  others, 
an  arrangement  of  their  own.  At  last,  under  Louis  XV.  the 
edict  of  1749,  concernant  les  etablissements  et  acquisitions  des  gens 
de  mainmorle,  was  completely  effective  in  subordinating  the 
acquisition  of  property  by  ecclesiastical  establishments  to  the 
consent  and  control  of  the  crown,  rendering  them  incapable 
of  acquiring  real  property  by  bequests. 

At  the  end  of  the  i6th  century  a  wise  law  had  been  made  which, 
in  spite  of  the  traces  which  it  bore  of  past  struggles,  had  estab- 
lished a  reasonable  balance  among  the  Christians  of  France. 
The  edict  of  Nantes,  in  1598,  granted  the  Protestants  full  civil 
rights,  liberty  of  conscience  and  public  worship  in  many  places, 
and  notably  in  all  the  royal  battliages.  The  Catholics,  whose 
religion  was  essentially  a  state  religion,  had  never  accepted  this 
arrangement  as  final,  and  at  last,  in  1685,  under  Louis  XIV., 
the  edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked  and  the  Protestant  pastors 
expelled  from  France.  Their  followers  were  forbidden  to  leave 
the  country,  but  many  succeeded  nevertheless  in  escaping  abroad. 
The  position  of  those  who  remained  behind  was  peculiar.  Laws 
passed  in  1715  and  1724  established  the  legal  theory  that  there 
were  no  longer  any  Protestants  in  France,  but  only  vieux  catho- 
liques  and  nouveaux  convertis.  The  result  was  that  henceforth 
they  had  no  longer  any  regular  civil  status,  the  registers  con- 
taining the  lists  of  Catholics  enjoying  civil  rights  being  kept  by 
the  Catholic  clergy. 

The  form  of  government  established  under  Louis  XIV.  was 
preserved  without  any  fundamental  modification  under  Louis 
XV.  After  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.,  however,  the  regent,  under 
the  inspiration  of  the  due  de  St  Simon,  made  trial  of  a  system  of 
which  the  latter  had  made  a  study  while  in  a  close  correspondence 
with  the  duke  of  Burgundy.  It  consisted  in  substituting  for  the 
authority  of  the  ministers,  secretaries  of  state  and  controller- 
general  councils,  or  governmental  bodies,  mainly  composed  of 
great  lords  and  prelates.  These  only  lasted  for  a  few  years, 
when  a  return  was  made  to  the  former  organization.  The  parle- 
ments  had  regained  their  ancient  rights  in  consequence  of  the 
parlement  of  Paris  having,  in  1715,  set  aside  the  will  of  Louis 
XIV.  as  being  contrary  to  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  kingdom, 
in  that  it  laid  down  rules  for  the  composition  of  the  council  of 
regency,  and  limited  the  power  of  the  regent.  This  newly 
revived  power  they  exercised  freely,  and  all  the  more  so  since  they 
were  the  last  surviving  check  on  the  royal  authority.  During  this 
reign  there  were  numerous  conflicts  between  them  and  the 
government,  the  causes  of  this  being  primarily  the  innumerable 
incidents  to  which  the  bun  Unigenitus  gave  rise,  and  the  increase 
of  taxation;  proceedings  against  Jesuits  also  figure  conspicuously 
in  the  action  of  the  parlements.  They  became  at  this  period 
the  avowed  representatives  of  the  nation;  they  contested  the 
validity  of  the  registration  of  laws  in  the  lits  de  justice,  asserting 
that  laws  could  only  be  made  obligatory  when  the  registration 


had  been  freely  endorsed  by  themselves.  Before  the  registration 
of  edicts  concerning  taxation  they  demanded  a  statement  of  the 
financial  situation  and  the  right  of  examining  the  accounts. 
Finally,  by  the  theory  of  the  classes,  which  considered  the  various 
parlements  of  France  as  parts  of  one  and  the  same  body,  they 
established  among  them  a  political  union.  These  pretensions 
the  crown  refused  to  recognize.  Louis  XV.  solemnly  condemned 
them  in  a  lit  de  justice  of  December  1770,  and  in  1771  the  chan- 
cellor Maupeou  took  drastic  measures  against  them.  The 
magistrates  of  the  parlement  of  Paris  were  removed,  and  a  new 
parlement  was  constituted,  including  the  members  of  the  grand 
conseil,  which  had  also  been  abolished.  The  com  des  aides  of 
Paris,  which  had  made  common  cause  with  the  parlement,  was 
also  suppressed.  Many  of  the  provincial  parlements  were  re- 
organized, and  a  certain  number  of  useful  reforms  were  carried 
out  in  the  jurisdiction  of  the  parlement  of  Paris;  the  object  of 
these,  however,  was  in  most  cases  that  of  diminishing  its  import- 
ance. These  actions,  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  chancellor  Maupeou, 
as  they  were  called,  produced  an  immense  sensation.  The 
repeated  conflicts  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  had  already  given 
rise  to  a  whole  literature  of  books,  pamphlets  and  tracts  in  which 
the  rights  of  the  crown  were  discussed.  At  the  same  time  the 
political  philosophy  of  the  i8th  century  was  disseminating  new 
principles,  and  especially  those  of  the  supremacy  of  the  people 
and  the  differentiation  of  powers,  the  government  of  England 
alsojjecame  known  among  the  French.  Thus  men's  minds  were 
being  prepared  for  the  Revolution. 

The  personal  government  of  Louis  XVI.  from  1774  to  1789 
was  chiefly  marked  by  two  series  of  facts.  Firstly,  there  was 
the  partial  application  of  the  principles  propounded  by  the 
French  economists  of  this  period,  the  Physiocrats,  who  had  a 
political  doctrine  peculiar  to  themselves.  They  were  not  in 
favour  of  political  liberty,  but  attached  on  the  contrary  to  the 
absolute  monarchy,  of  which  they  did  not  fear  the  abuses 
because  they  were  convinced  that  so  soon  as  they  should  be 
known,  reason  (evidence)  alone  would  suffice  to  make  the  crown 
respe*ct  the  "  natural  and  essential  laws  of  bodies  politic  " 
(Lois  naturelles  et  essentiettes  des  societes  politiques,  the  title  of  a 
book  by  Mercier  de  La  Riviere).  On  the  other  hand,  they 
favoured  civil  and  economic  liberty.  They  wished,  in  particular, 
to  decentralize  the  administration  and  restore  to  the  landed 
proprietors  the  administration  and  levying  of  taxes,  which  they 
wished  to  reduce  to  a  tax  on  land  only.  This  school  came  into 
power  with  Turgot,  who  was  appointed  controller-general  of 
the  finances,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  many  reforms.  He 
actually  accomplished  for  the  moment  one  very  important 
reform,  namely,  the  suppression  of  the  trade  and  craft  gilds 
(commttnaules,  jurandes  et  maltrises).  This  organization,  which 
was  common  to  the  whole  of  Europe  (see  GILDS),  had  taken 
definitive  shape  in  France  in  the  i3th  and  i4th  centuries,  but 
had  subsequently  been  much  abused.  Turgot  suppressed  the 
privileges  of  the  mailres,  who  alone  had  been  able  to  work  on 
their  own  account,  or  to  open  shops  and  workshops,  and  thus 
proclaimed  the  freedom  of  labour,  industry  and  commerce. 
However,  the  old  organization,  slightly  amended,  was  restored 
under  his  successor  Necker.  It  was  Turgot's  purpose  to  organize 
provincial  and  other  inferior  assemblies,  whose  chief  business 
was  to  be  the  assessment  of  taxes.  Necker  applied  this  idea, 
partially  and  experimentally,  by  creating  a  few  of  these  provin- 
cial assemblies  in  various  generalitts  of  the  pays  d'elections.  A 
general  reform  on  these  lines  and  on  a  very  liberal  basis  was 
proposed  by  Calonne  to  the  assembly  of  notables  in  1787,  and 
it  was  brought  into  force  for  all  the  pays  d'elections,  though  not 
under  such  good  conditions,  by  an  edict  of  the  same  year. 
Louis  XVI.  had  inaugurated  his  reign  by  the  restoration  of  the 
parlements;  all  the  bodies  which  had  been  suppressed  by 
Maupeou  and  all  the  officials  whom  he  had  dismissed  were 
restored,  and  all  the  bodies  and  officials  cieated  by  him  were 
suppressed.  But  it  was  not  long  before  the  old  struggle  between 
the  crown  and  parlements  again  broke  out.  It  began  by  the 
conservative  opposition  offered  by  the  parlement  of  Paris  to 
Turgot's  reforms.  But  the  real  struggle  broke  out  in  1787 


918 


FRANCE 


[LAW  AND 


over  the  edicts  coming  from  the  assembly  of  notables,  and 
particularly  over  the  two  new  taxes,  the  stamp  duty  and  the 
land  tax.  The  parlement  of  Paris  refused  to  register  them, 
asserting  that  the  consent  of  the  taxpayers,  as  represented  by  the 
states  general,  was  necessary  to  fresh  taxation.  The  struggle 
seemed  to  have  come  to  an  end  in  September;  but  in  the 
following  November  it  again  broke  out,  in  spite  of  the  king's 
promise  to  summon  the  states  general.  It  reached  its  height 
in  May  1788,  when  the  king  had  created  a  cour  pleniere  distinct 
from  the  parlements,  the  chief  function  of  which  was  to  register 
the  laws  in  their  stead.  A  widespread  agitation  arose,  amounting 
to  actual  anarchy,  and  was  only  ended  by  the  recall  of  Necker 
to  power  and  the  promise  to  convoke  the  states  general  for  1789. 

Various  Institutions. — The  permanent  army  which,  as  has 
been  stated  above,  was  first  established  under  Charles  VII., 
The  arm  was  developed  and  organized  during  the  ancien 
rigime.  The  gendarmerie  or  heavy  cavalry  was 
continuously  increased  in  numbers.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
francs  archers  fell  into  disuse  after  Louis  XI.;  and,  after  a 
fruitless  attempt  had  been  made  under  Francis  I.  to  establish 
a  national  infantry,  the  system  was  adopted  for  this  also  of 
recruiting  permanent  bodies  of  mercenaries  by  voluntary 
enlistment.  First  there  were  the  "  old  bands  "  (mettles  bandes), 
chiefly  those  of  Picardy  and  Piedmont,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
i6th  century  appeared  the  first  regiments,  the  number  of  which 
was  from  time  to  time  increased.  There  were  also  in  the  service 
and  pay  of  the  king  French  and  foreign  regiments,  the  latter 
principally  Swiss,  Germans  and  Scots.  The  system  of  purchase 
penetrated  also  to  the  army.  Each  regiment  was  the  property 
of  a  great  lord;  the  captain  was,  so  to  speak,  owner  of  his 
company,  or  rather  a  contractor,  who,  in  return  for  the  sums 
paid  him  by  the  king,  recruited  his  men  and  gave  them  their 
uniform,  arms  and  equipment.  In  the  second  half  of  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.  appeared  the  militia  (milices) .  To  this  force  each 
parish  had  to  furnish  one  recruit,  who  was  at  first  chosen  by  the 
assembly  of  the  inhabitants,  later  by  drawing  lots  among  the 
bachelors  or  widowers  without  children,  who  were  not  exempt. 
The  militia  was  very  rarely  raised  from  the  towns.  The  purpose 
for  which  these  men  were  employed  varied  from  time  to  time. 
Sometimes,  as  under  Louis  XIV.,  they  were  formed  into  special 
active  regiments.  Under  Louis  XV.  and  Louis  XVI.  they  were 
formed  into  regiments  provinciaux,  which  constituted  an  organized 
reserve.  But  their  chief  use  was  during  war,  when  they  were 
individually  incorporated  into  various  regiments  to  fill  up  the 
gaps. 

Under  Louis  XV.,  with  the  due  de  Choiseul  as  minister  of 
war,  great  and  useful  reforms  were  effected  in  the  army.  Choiseul 
suppressed  what  he  called  the  "  farming  of  companies  "  (com- 
pagnie-ferme) ;  recruiting  became  a  function  of  the  state,  and 
voluntary  enlistment  a  contract  between  the  recruit  and  the 
state.  Arms,  uniform  and  equipment  were  furnished  by  the 
king.  Choiseul  also  equalized  the  numbers  of  the  military 
units,  and  his  reforms,  together  with  a  few  others  effected  under 
Louis  XVI.,  produced  the  army  which  fought  the  first  campaigns 
of  the  Revolution. 

One  of  the  most  distinctive  features  of  the  ancien  regime 
was  excessive  taxation.  The  taxes  imposed  by  the  king  were 
numerous,  and,  moreover,  hardly  any  of  them  fell  on 
taxation  a^  Pafts  of  the  kingdom.  To  this  territorial  inequality 
was  added  the  inequality  arising  from  privileges. 
Ecclesiastics,  nobles,  and  many  of  the  crown  officials  were 
exempted  from  the  heaviest  imposts.  The  chief  taxes  were  the 
taille  (q.v.) ,  the  aides  and  the  gabelle  (q.v.) ,  or  monopoly  of  salt,  the 
consumption  of  which  was  generally  made  compulsory  up  to  the 
amount  determined  by  regulations.  In  the  i7th  and  i8th 
centuries  certain  important  new  taxes  were  established:  from 
1695  to  1698  the  capitation,  which  was  re-established  in  1701 
with  considerable  modifications,  and  in  1710  the  tax  of  the 
dixieme,  which  became  under  Louis  XV.  the  tax  of  the  inngtiemes. 
These  two  imposts  had  been  established  on  the  principle  of 
equality,  being  designed  to  affect  every  subject  in  proportion 
to  his  income;  but  so  strong  was  the  system  of  privileges,  that 


of 


as  a  matter  of  fact  the  chief  burden  fell  upon  the  roturiers. 
The  income  of  a  roturier  who  was  not  exempt  was  thus  subject 
in  turn  to  three  direct  imposts:  the  taille,  the  capitation  and  the 
vingtiemes,  and  the  apportioning  or  assessment  of  these  was 
extremely  arbitrary.  In  addition  to  indirect  taxation  strictly 
so  called,  which  was  very  extensive  in  the  i7th  and  i8th  centuries, 
France  under  the  ancien  regime  was  subject  to  the  traites,  or 
customs,  which  were  not  only  levied  at  the  frontiers  on  foreign 
trade,  but  also  included  many  internal  custom-houses  for  trade 
between  different  provinces.  Their  origin  was  generally  due  to 
historical  reasons;  thus,  among  the  provinces  reputees  etrangeres 
were  those  which  in  the  i4th  century  had  refused  to  pay  the 
aids  for  the  ransom  of  King  John,  also  certain  provinces  which 
had  refused  to  allow  customs  offices  to  be  established  on  their 
foreign  frontier.  Colbert  had  tried  to  abolish  these  internal 
duties,  but  had  only  succeeded  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  indirect  taxes,  the  traites  and  the  revenues  of  the  royal 
domain  were  farmed  out  by  the  crown.  At  first  a  separate 
contract  had  been  made  for  each  impost  in  each  election,  but 
later  they  were  combined  into  larger  lots,  as  is  shown  by  the 
name  of  one  of  the  customs  districts,  I'enceinte  des  cinq  grosses 
fermes.  From  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  on  the  levying  of  each 
indirect  impost  was  farmed  en  bloc  for  the  whole  kingdom,  a 
system  known  as  the  fermes  generales;  but  the  real/erme  gSnerale, 
including  all  the  imposts  and  revenues  which  were  farmed  in 
the  whole  of  France,  was  only  established  under  Colbert.  The 
ferme  generale  was  a  powerful  company,  employing  a  vast  number 
of  men,  most  of  whom  enjoyed  various  privileges.  Besides  the 
royal  taxes,  seigniorial  imposts  survived  under  the  form  of  tolls 
and  market  dues.  The  lords  also  often  possessed  local  monopolies, 
e.g.  the  right  of  the  common  bakehouse  (four  banal),  which  were 
called  the  banalites. 

The  organization  of  the  royal  courts  of  justice  underwent  but 
few  modifications  during  the  ancien  regime.  The  number  of 
parlements,  of  cours  des  aides  and  of  cours  des  comptes 
increased;  in  the  i7th  century  the  name  of  conseil 
superieur  was  given  to  some  new  bodies  which  actually 
discharged  the  functions  of  the  parlement,  this  being  the  period 
of  the  decline  of  the  parlement.  In  the  i6th  century,  under 
Henry  II.,  had  been  created  presidiaux,  or  courts  of  final  juris- 
diction, intended  to  avoid  numerous  appeals  in  small  cases,  and 
above  all  to  avoid  a  final  appeal  to  the  parlements.  Seigniorfal 
courts  survived,  but  were  entirely  subordinate  to  the  royal 
jurisdictions  and  were  badly  officered  by  ill-paid  and  ignorant 
judges,  the  lords  having  long  ago  lost  the  right  to  sit  in  them  in 
person.  Their  chief  use  was  to  deal  with  cases  concerning  the 
payment  of  feudal  dues  to  the  lord.  Both  lawyers  and  people 
would  have  preferred  only  two  degrees  of  justice;  and  an 
ordinance  of  May  1788  realized  this  desire  in  the  main.  It  did 
not  suppress  the  seigniorial  jurisdictions,  but  made  their  extinc- 
tion a  certainty  by  allowing  litigants  to  ignore  them  and  go 
straight  to  the  royal  judges.  This  was,  however,  reversed  on  the 
recall  of  Necker  and  the  temporary  triumph  of  the  parlements. 

The  ecclesiastical  jurisdictions  survived  to  the  end,  but  with 
diminished  scope.  Their  competency  had  been  considerably 
reduced  by  the  Ordinance  of  Villers  Cotterets  of  1539, 
and  by  an  edict  of  1693.  But  a  series  of  ingenious  legal 
theories  had  been  principally  efficacious  in  gradually 
depriving  them  of  most  of  the  cases  which  had  hitherto 
come  under  them.  In  the  i8th  century  the  privilege  of  clergy  did 
not  prevent  civil  suits  in  which  the  clergy  were  defendants  from 
being  almost  always  taken  before  secular  tribunals,  and  ever  since 
the  first  half  of  the  i7th  century,  for  all  grave  offences,  or  cas 
privilegies,  the  royal  judge  could  pronounce  a  sentence  of  corporal 
punishment  on  a  guilty  cleric  without  this  necessitating  his 
previous  degradation.  The  inquiry  into  the  case  was,  it  is  true, 
conducted  jointly  by  the  royal  and  the  ecclesiastical  judge,  but 
each  of  them  pronounced  his  sentence  independently.  All  cases 
concerning  benefices  came  before  the  royal  judges.  Finally, 
the  officialites  had  no  longer  as  a  rule  any  jurisdiction  over 
laymen,  even  in  the  matter  of  marriage,  except  in  questions  of 
betrothals,  and  sometimes  in  cases  of  opposition  to  marriages. 


INSTITUTIONS] 


FRANCE 


919 


The  parish  priests,  however,  continued  to  enter  declarations  of 
baptisms,  marriages  and  burials  in  registers  kept  according  to 
the  civil  laws. 

The  general  customs  of  the  pays  coutumiers  were  almost  all 
officially  recorded  in  the  :6th  century,  definite  procedure  for 
this  purpose  having  been  adopted  at  the  end  of  the 
toms."US'  I5t^1  century.  Drafts  were  prepared  by  the  officials 
of  the  royal  courts  in  the  chief  town  of  the  district 
in  which  the  particular  customs  were  valid,  and  were  then 
submitted  to  the  government.  The  king  then  appointed  com- 
missioners to  visit  the  district  and  promulgate  the  customs  on 
the  spot.  For  the  purpose  of  this  publication  the  lords,  lay  and 
ecclesiastical,  of  the  district,  with  representatives  of  the  towns 
and  of  various  bodies  of  the  inhabitants,  were  summoned  for  a 
given  day  to  the  chief  town.  In  this  assembly  each  article  was 
read,  discussed  and  put  to  the  vote.  Those  which  were  approved 
by  the  majority  were  thereupon  decreed  (decretes]  by  the  com- 
missioners in  the  king's  name;  those  which  gave  rise  to  diffi- 
culties were  put  aside  for  the  parlement  to  settle  when  it  registered 
the  coutume.  The  coutumes  in  this  form  became  practically 
written  law;  henceforward  their  text  could  only  be  modified 
by  a  formal  revision  carried  out  according  to  the  same  procedure 
as  the  first  version.  Throughout  the  i6th  century  a  fair  number 
of  coutumes  were  thus  revised  (reformees),  with  the  express  object 
of  profiting  by  the  observations  and  criticisms  on  the  first  text 
which  had  appeared  in  published  commentaries  and  notes,  the 
most  important  of  which  were  those  of  Charles  Dumoulin. 
In  the  1 6th  century  there  had  been  a  revival  of  the  study  of 
Roman  law,  thanks  to  the  historical  school,  among  the  most 
illustrious  representatives  of  which  were  Jacques  Cujas,  Hugues 
Doneau  and  Jacques  Godefroy;  but  this  study  had  only  slight 
influence  on  practical  jurisprudence.  Certain  institutions, 
however,  such  as  contracts  and  obligations,  were  regulated 
throughout  the  whole  of  France  by  the  principles  of  Roman  law. 
Legislation  by  ordonnances,  edits,  declarations  or  lettres 
patentes,  emanating  from  the  king,  became  more  and  more 
frequent;  but  the  character  of  the  grandes  ordonnances,  which 
were  of  a  far-reaching  and  comprehensive  nature,  underwent 
a  change  during  this  period.  In  the  i4th,  i  sth  and  i6th  centuries 
they  had  been  mainly  ordonnances  de  reformation  (i.e.  revising 
previous  laws),  which  were  most  frequently  drawn  up  after  a 
sitting  of  the  states  general,  in  accordance  with  the  suggestions 
submitted  by  the  deputies.  The  last  of  this  type  was  the 
ordinance  of  1629,  promulgated  after  the  states  general  of  1614 
and  the  assemblies  of  notables  which  had  followed  it.  In  the 
i  ;th  and  i8th  centuries  they  became  essentially  codifications, 
comprising  a  systematic  and  detailed  statement  of  the  whole 
branch  of  law.  There  are  two  of  these  series  of  codifying  ordin- 
ances: the  first  under  Louis  XIV.,  inspired  by  Colbert  and 
carried  out  under  his  direction.  The  chief  ordinances  of  this 
group  are  that  of  1667  on  civil  procedure  (code  of  civil  pro- 
cedure); that  of  1670  on  the  examination  of  criminal  cases 
(code  of  penal  procedure);  that  of  1673  on  the  commerce  of 
merchants,  and  that  of  1681  on  the  regulation  of  shipping,  which 
form  between  them  a  complete  code  of  commerce  by  land  and 
sea.  The  ordinance  of  1670  determined  the  formalities  of  that 
secret  and  written  criminal  procedure,  as  opposed  to  the  hearing 
of  both  parties  in  a  suit,  which  formerly  obtained  in  France; 
'  it  even  increased  its  severity,  continuing  the  employment  of 
torture,  binding  the  accused  by  oath  to  speak  the  truth,  and 
refusing  them  counsel  save  in  exceptional  cases.  The  second 
series  of  codifications  was  made  under  Louis  XV.,  through  the 
action  of  the  chancellor  d'Aguesseau.  Its  chief  result  was  the 
regulation,  by  the  ordinances  of  1731,  1735  and  1747,  of  deeds 
of  gift  between  living  persons,  wills,  and  property  left  in  trust. 
Under  Louis  XVI.  some  mitigation  was  made  of  the  criminal 
law,  notably  the  abolition  of  torture. 

The  feudal  regime,  in  spite  of  the  survival  of  seigniorial  couits 
and  tolls,  was  no  longer  of  any  political  importance;  but  it  still 
furnished  the  common  form  of  real  property.  The  fief,  although 
it  still  implied  homage  from  the  vassal,  no  longer  involved  any 
service  on  his  part  (excepting  that  of  the  arriere-ban  due  to  the 


Serfdom. 


king) ;  but  when  a  fief  changed  hands  the  lord  still  exacted  his 

profits.     Tenures  held  by  roluriers,  in  addition  to  some  similar 

rights  of  transfer,  were  generally  subject  to  periodical 

and  fixed  contributions  for  the  profit  of  the  lord.     This        tenure 

system  was  still  further  complicated  by  tenures  which 

were   simply  real  and   not  feudal,   e.g.   that   by  payment  of 

ground  rent,  which  were  superadded  to  the  others,  and  had 

become  all  the  heavier  since,  in  the  i8th  century,  royal  rights  of 

transfer  had  been  added  to  the  feudal  rights.     The  inhabitants 

of  the  country  districts  were  longing  for  the  liberation  of  real 

property. 

Serfdom  had  disappeared  from  most  of  the  provinces  of  the 
kingdom;  among  all  the  coutumes  which  were  officially  codified, 
not  more  than  ten  or  so  still  recognized  this  institution. 
This  had  been  brought  about  especially  by  the  agency 
of  the  custom  by  which  serfs  had  been  transformed  into  roturiers. 
An  edict  of  Louis  XVI.  of  1779  abolished  serfdom  on  crown  lands, 
and  mitigated  the  condition  of  the  serfs  who  still  existed  on 
the  domains  of  individual  lords.  The  nobility  still  remained  a 
privileged  class,  exempt  from  certain  taxes.  Certain  offices 
were  restricted  to  the  nobility;  according  to  an  edict  of  Louis 
XVI.  (1781)  it  was  even  necessary  to  be  a  noble  in 
order  to  become  an  officer  in  the  army.  In  fact, 
the  royal  favours  were  reserved  for  the  nobility. 
Certain  rules  of  civil  and  criminal  procedure  also  distinguished 
nobles  from  roturiers.  The  acquisition  of  fiefs  had  ceased  to 
bring  nobility  with  it,  but  the  latter  was  derived  from  three 
sources:  birth,  lettres  d'anoblissement  granted  by  the  king  and 
appointment  to  certain  offices.  In  the  i7th  and  i8th  centuries 
the  peers  of  France  can  be  reckoned  among  the  nobility,  forming 
indeed  its  highest  grade,  though  the  rank  of  peer  was  still  attached 
to  a  fief,  which  was  handed  down  with  it;  on  the  eve  of  the 
Revolution  there  were  thirty-eight  lay  peers.  The  rest  of  the 
nation,  apart  from  the  ecclesiastics,  consisted  of  the  roturiers, 
who  were  not  subject  to  the  disabilities  of  the  serfs,  but  had  not 
the  privileges  of  the  nobility.  Hence  the  three  orders  (estates) 
of  the  kingdom:  the  clergy,  the  nobility  and  the  tiers  etat  (third 
estate).  An  edict  of  Louis  XVI.  had  made  a  regular  civil  status 
possible  to  the  Protestants,  and  had  thrown  open  offices  and 
professions  to  them,  though  not  entirely;  but  the  exercise  of 
their  religion  was  still  forbidden. 

The  Revolution. — With  the  Revolution  France  entered  the 
ranks  of  constitutional  countries,  in  which  the  liberty  of  men  is 
guaranteed  by  fixed  and  definite  laws;  from  this  time  on,  she  has 
had  always  (except  in  the  interval  between  two  revolutions)  a 
written  constitution,  which  could  not  be  touched  by  the  ordinary 
legislative  power.  The  first  constitution  was  that  of  1791; 
the  states  general  of  1789,  transformed  by  their  own  will,  backed 
by  public  opinion,  into  the  Constituent  Assembly,  drew  it  up  on 
their  own  authority.  But  their  work  did  not  stop  there.  They 
abolished  the  whole  of  the  old  public  law  of  France  and  part  of 
the  criminal  law,  or  rather,  transformed  it  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  laid  down  by  the  political  philosophy  of  the  i8th 
century.  The  principles  which  were  then  proclaimed  are  still, 
on  most  points,  the  foundation  of  modern  French  law.  The 
development  resulting  from  this  extraordinary  impetus  can  be 
divided  into  two  quite  distinct  phases:  the  first,  from  1789  to 
the  coup  d'etat  of  the  i8th  Brumaire  in  the  year  VIII.,  was  the 
continuation  of  the  impulse  of  the  Revolution;  the  second 
includes  the  Consulate  and  the  first  Empire,  and  was,  as  it  were, 
the  marriage  or  fusion  of  the  institutions  arising  from  the  Revolu- 
tion with  those  of  the  ancien  regime. 

On  the  whole,  the  constitutional  law  of  the  Revolution  is  a 
remarkably  united  whole,  if  we  consider  only  the  two  consitutions 
which  were  effectively  applied  during  this  first  phase,  The  Coa_ 
that  of  the  3rd  of  September  1791,  and  that  of  the  stitatioas 
5th  Fructidor  in  the  year  III.  It  is  true  that  between 
them  occurred  the  ultra-democratic  constitution  of  the 
24th  of  June  1793,  the  fiist  voted  by  the  Convention; 
but  although  this  was  ratified  by  the  popular  vote,  to  which  it 
had  been  directly  submitted,  in  accordance  with  a  principle  pro- 
claimed by  the  Convention  and  kept  in  force  under  the  Consulate 


Revolu- 
tion. 


920 


FRANCE 


[LAW  AND 


and  the  Empire,  it  was  never  carried  into  effect.  It  was  first 
suspended  by  the  establishment  of  the  revolutionary  government 
strictly  so  called,  and  after  Thermidor,  under  £he  pretext  of 
completing  it,  the  Convention  put  it  aside  and  made  a  new  one, 
being  taught  by  experience.  As  long  as  it  existed  it  was  the 
sovereign  assembly  of  the  Convention  itself  which  really  exercised 
the  executive  power,  governing  chiefly  by  means  of  its  great 
committees. 

The  constitution  of  1791  was  without  doubt  monarchical, 
in  so  far  as  it  preserved  royalty.  The  constitution  of  the  year 
III.  was,  on  the  contrary,  republican.  The  horror  of  monarchy 
was  still  so  strong  at  that  time  that  an  executive  college  was 
created,  a  Directory  of  five  members,  one  of  whom  retired  every 
year;  they  were  elected  by  a  complicated  and  curious  procedure, 
in  which  each  of  the  two  legislative  councils  played  a  distinct  part. 
But  this  difference,  though  apparently  essential,  was  not  in  reality 
very  profound;  this  is  proved,  for  example,  by  the  fact  that  the 
Directory  had  distinctly  more  extensive  powers  than  those  con- 
ferred on  Louis  XVI.  by  the  Constituent  Assembly.  'On  almost 
all  points  of  importance  the  two  constitutions  were  similar. 
They  were  both  preceded  by  a  statement  of  principles,  a  "  Declara- 
tion of  the  Rights  of  Man  and  of  the  Citizen."  They  were  both 
based  on  two  principles  which  they  construed  alike:  the 
sovereignty  of  the  people  and  the  separation  of  powers.  Both 
of  them  (with  the  exception  of  what  has  been  said  with  regard  to 
the  ratification  of  constitutions  after  1793)  recognized  only  repre- 
sentative government.  From  the  principle  of  the  sovereignty 
of  the  people  they  had  not  deduced  universal  suffrage;  though, 
short  of  this,  they  had  extended  the  suffrage  as  far  as  possible. 
According  to  the  constitution  of  1791,  in  addition  to  the  con- 
ditions of  age  and  residence,  an  elector  was  bound  to  pay  a 
direct  contribution  equivalent  to  three  days'  work;  the  con- 
stitution of  the  year  III.  recognized  the  payment  of  any  direct 
contribution  as  sufficient;  it  even  conferred  on  every  citizen 
the  right  of  having  himself  enrolled,  without  any  other  qualifica- 
tion than  a  payment  equivalent  to  three  days'  work,  and  thus 
to  become  an  elector.  Further,  neither  of  the  two  constitutions 
admitted  of  a  direct  suffrage;  the  elections  were  carried  out  in 
two  stages,  and  only  those  who  paid  at  a  higher  rating  could  be 
chosen  as  electors  for  the  second  stage.  The  executive  power, 
which  was  in  the  case  of  both  constitutions  clearly  separated 
from  the  legislative,  could  not  initiate  legislation.  The  Directory 
had  no  veto;  Louis  XVI.  had  with  difficulty  obtained  a  merely 
suspensive  veto,  which  was  overridden  in  the  event  of  three 
legislatures  successively  voting  against  it.  The  right  of  dis- 
solution was  possessed  by  neither  the  king  nor  the  Directory. 
Neither  the  king's  ministers  nor  those  of  the  Directory  could  be 
members  of  the  legislative  body,  nor  could  they  even  be  chosen 
from  among  its  ranks.  The  ministers  of  Louis  XVI.  had,  how- 
ever, thanks  to  an  unfortunate  inspiration  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly  of  1791,  the  right  of  entry  to,  and,  to  a  certain  extent, 
of  speaking  in  the  Legislative  Assembly;  the  constitution  of  the 
year  III.  showed  greater  wisdom  in  not  bringing  them  in  any  way 
into  contact  with  the  legislative  power.  The  greatest  and  most 
notable  difference  between  the  two  constitutions  was  that  that 
of  1791  established  a  single  chamber  which  was  entirely  renewed 
every  two  years;  that  of  the  year  III.,  on  the  contrary,  profiting 
by  the  lessons  of  the  past,  established  two  chambers,  one-third  of 
the  members  of  which  were  renewed  every  year.  Moreover, 
the  two  chambers,  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  and  the  Council  of 
Ancients,  were  appointed  by  the  same  electors,  and  almost  the 
only  difference  between  their  members  was  that  of  age. 

The  Revolution  entirely  abolished  the  ancien  regime,  and  in 
the  first  instance  whatever  remained  of  feudalism.  The  Con- 
Ahuintoa  stituent  Assembly,  in  the  course  of  its  immense  work 
at  the  of  settlement,  wished  to  draw  distinctions,  abolishing 
re^to'e."  aDS°lutely,  without  indemnity,  all  rights  which  had 
amounted  in  the  beginning  to  a  usurpation  and  could 
not  be  justified,  e.g.  serfdom  and  seigniorial  courts  of  justice. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  declared  subject  to  redemption  such  feudal 
charges  as  had  been  the  subject  of  contract  or  of  a  concession 
of  lands.  But  as  it  was  almost  impossible  to  discover  the  exact 


origin  of  various  feudal  rights,  the  Assembly  had  proceeded  to 
do  this  by  means  of  certain  legal  assumptions  which  sometimes 
admitted  of  a  proof  to  the  contrary.  It  carefully  regulated  the 
conditions  and  rate  of  repurchase,  and  forbade  the  creation  in 
the  future  of  any  perpetual  charge  which  could  not  be  redeemed: 
a  principle  that  has  remained  permanent  in  French  law.  This 
was  a  rational  and  equitable  solution;  but  in  a  period  of  such 
violent  excitement  it  could  not  be  maintained.  The  Legislative 
Assembly  declared  the  abolishment  without  indemnity  of  all 
feudal  rights  for  which  the  original  deed  of  concession  could  not  be 
produced;  and  to  produce  this  was,  of  course,  in  most  cases 
impossible.  Finally,  the  Convention  entirely  abolished  all  feudal 
rights,  and  commanded  that  the  old  deeds  should  be  destroyed; 
it  maintained  on  the  contrary,  though  subject  to  redemption, 
those  tenures  and  charges  which  were  solely  connected  with 
landed  property  and  not  feudal. 

With  feudalism  had  been  abolished  serfdom.  Further,  the 
Constituent  Assembly  suppressed  nobility;  it  even  forbade  any 
one  to  assume  and  bear  the  titles,  emblems  and  arms  of  nobility. 
Thus  was  established  the  equality  of  citizens  before  the  law. 
The  Assembly  also  proclaimed  the  liberty  of  labour  and  industry, 
and  suppressed  the  corporations  of  artisans  and  workmen,  the 
jurandes  and  mattrises,  as  Turgot  had  done.  But,  in  order  to 
maintain  this  liberty  of  the  individual,  it  forbade  all  associations 
between  workers  or  employers,  fearing  that  such  contracts 
would  again  lead  to  the  formation  of  corporations  similar  to  the 
old  ones.  It  even  forbade  and  declared  punishable,  as  being 
contrary  to  the  declaration  of  the  rights  of  man  and  the  citizen, 
combinations  or  strikes,  or  an  agreement  between  workmen  or 
employers  to  refuse  to  work  or  to  give  work  except  on  given 
conditions.  Such,  for  a  long  time,  was  French  legislation  on  this 
point. 

The  Constituent  Assembly  gave  to  France  a  new  administrative 
division,  that  into  departments,  districts,  cantons  and  communes; 
and  this  division,  which  was  intended  to  make  the  Admlnls- 
old  provincial  distinctions  disappear,  had  to  serve  all  trative 
purposes,  the  department  being  the  unit  for  all  public  ""Jjf"'" 
services.  This  settlement  was  definitive,  with  the 
exception  of  certain  modifications  in  detail,  and  exists  to  the 
present  day.  But  there  was  a  peculiar  administrative  organism 
depending  on  this  arrangement.  The  constitution  of  1791, 
it  is  true,  made  the  king  the  titulary  head  of  the  executive 
power;  but  the  internal  administration  of  the  kingdom  was  not 
actually  in  his  hands.  It  was  deputed,  under  his  orders, 
to  bodies  elected  in  each  department,  district  and  commune. 
The  municipal  bodies  were  directly  elected  by  citizens  duly 
qualified;  other  bodies  were  chosen  by  the  method  of  double 
election.  Each  body  consisted  of  two  parts:  a  council,  for 
deliberative  purposes,  and  a  bureau  or  directoire  chosen  by  the 
council  from  among  its  numbers  to  form  the  executive.  These 
were  the  only  instruments  for  the  general  administration  and 
for  that  of  the  direct  taxes.  The  king  could,  it  is  true,  annul 
the  illegal  acts  of  these  bodies,  but  not  dismiss  their  members; 
he  could  merely  suspend  them  from  exercising  their  functions, 
but  the  matter  then  went  before  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
which  could  maintain  or  remit  the  suspension  as  it  thought  fit. 
The  king  had  not  a  single  agent  chosen  by  himself  for  general 
administrative  purposes.  This  was  a  reaction,  though  a  very 
exaggerated  one,  against  the  excessive  centralization  of  the 
ancien  regime,  and  resulted  in  an  absolute  administrative  anarchy. 
The  organization  of  the  revolutionary  government  partly  restored 
the  central  authority;  the  councils  of  the  departments  were 
suppressed;  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  and  the  "  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people  on  mission  "  were  able  to  remove  and 
replace  the  members  of  the  elected  bodies;  and  also,  by  an 
ingenious  arrangement,  national  agents  were  established  in 
the  districts.  The  constitution  of  the  year  III.  continued  in 
this  course,  simplifying  the  organization  established  by  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  while  maintaining  its  principle.  The 
department  had  an  administration  of  five  members,  elected  as 
in  the  past,  but  having  executive  as  well  as  deliberative  functions. 
The  district  was  suppressed.  The  communes  retained  only  a 


INSTITUTIONS] 


FRANCE 


921 


municipal  agent  elected  by  themselves,  and  the  actual  municipal 
body,  the  importance  of  which  was  considerably  increased, 
was  removed  to  the  canton,  and  consisted  of  the  municipal 
agents  from  each  commune,  and  a  president  elected  by  the  duly 
qualified  citizens  of  the  canton.  The  Directory  was  represented 
in  each  departmental  and  communal  administration  by  a 
commissary  appointed  and  removable  by  itself,  and  could  dismiss 
the  members  of  these  administrations. 

The  Constituent  Assembly  decided  on  the  complete  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  judicial  organization.  This  was  accomplished  on  a 
/  /  verv  s*mP^e  plan>  which  realized  that  ideal  of  the  two 
system.  degrees  of  justice  which,  as  we  have  noticed,  was 
that  of  France  under  the  ancien  regime.  In  the  lower 
degrees  it  created  in  each  canton  a  justice  of  the  peace  (juge  de 
paix),  the  idea  and  name  of  which  were  borrowed  from  England, 
but  which  differed  very  much  from  the  English  justice  of  the 
peace.  He  judged,  both  with  and  without  appeal,  civil  cases 
of  small  importance;  and,  in  cases  which  did  not  come  within 
his  competency,  it  was  his  duty  to  try  to  reconcile  the  parties. 
In  each  district  was  established  a  civil  court  composed  of  five 
judges.  This  completed  the  judicial  organization,  except  for 
the  court  of  cassation,  which  had  functions  peculiar  to  itself, 
never  judging  the  facts  of  the  case  but  only  the  application  of 
the  law.  For  cases  coming  under  the  district  court,  the  Assembly 
had  not  thought  fit  to  abolish  the  guarantee  of  the  appeal  in 
cases  involving  sums  above  a  certain  figure.  But  by  a  curious 
arrangement  the  district  tribunals  could  hear  appeals  from  one 
another.  With  regard  to  penal  prosecutions,  there  was  in  each 
department  a  criminal  court  which  judged  crimes  with  the 
assistance  of  a  jury;  it  consisted  of  judges  borrowed  from 
district  courts,  and  had  its  own  president  and  public  prosecutor. 
Correctional  tribunals,  composed  of  juges  de  paix,  dealt  with 
misdemeanours.  The  Assembly  preserved  the  commercial 
courts,  or  consular  jurisdictions,  of  the  ancien  regime.  There 
was  a  court  of  cassation,  the  purpose  of  which  was  to  preserve 
the  unity  of  jurisprudence  in  France;  it  dealt  with  matters 
of  law  and  not  of  fact,  considering  appeals  based  on  the  violation 
of  law,  whether  in  point  of  matter  or  of  form,  and  if  such  violation 
were  proved,  sending  the  matter  before  another  tribunal  of 
the  same  rank  for  re-trial.  All  judges  were  elected  for  a  term 
of  years;  the  juges  de  paix  by  the  primary  assembly  of  the  canton, 
the  district  judges  by  the  electoral  assembly  consisting  of  the 
electors  of  the  second  degree  for  the  district,  the  members  of  the 
court  of  cassation  by  the  electors  of  the  departments,  who  were 
divided  for  the  purpose  into  two  series,  which  voted  alternately. 
The  Constituent  Assembly  did,  it  is  true,  require  professional 
guarantees,  by  proof  of  a  more  or  less  extended  exercise  of 
the  profession  of  lawyer  from  all  judges  except  the  juges  de  paix. 
But  the  system  was  really  the  same  as  that  of  the  administrative 
organization.  The  king  only  appointed  ihe  commissaires  du  roi 
attached  to  the  district  courts,  criminal  tribunals  and  the  court 
of  cassation;  but  the  appointment  once  made  could  not  be 
revoked  by  him.  These  commissaries  fulfilled  one  of  the  functions 
of  the  old  minist'ere  public,  their  duty  being  to  demand  the 
application  of  laws.  The  Convention  did  not  change  this  general 
organization;  but  it  suppressed  the  professional  guarantees 
required  in  the  case  of  candidates  for  a  judgeship,  so  that  hence- 
forth all  citizens  were  eligible;  and  it  also  caused  new  elections 
to  take  place.  Moreover,  the  Convention,  either  directly  or  by 
means  of  one  of  its  committees,  not  infrequently  removed  and 
replaced  judges  without  further  election.  The  constitution  of 
the  year  III.  preserved  this  system,  but  introduced  one  consider- 
able modification.  It  suppressed  the  district  courts,  and  in 
their  place  created  in  each  department  a  civil  tribunal  consisting 
of  twenty  judges.  The  idea  was  a  happy  one,  for  it  gave  the 
courts  more  importance,  and  therefore  more  weight  and  dignity. 
But  this  reform,  beneficial  as  it  would  be  nowadays,  was  at  the 
time  premature,  in  view  of  the  backward  condition  of  means 
of  communication. 

The  Constituent  Assembly  suppressed  the  militia  and  main- 
tained the  standing  army,  according  to  the  old  type,  the  numbers 
of  which  were  henceforth  to  be  fixed  every  year  by  the  Legis- 


lative Assembly.  The  army  was  to  be  recruited  by  voluntary 
enlistment,  careful  rules  for  which  were  drawn  up;  the  only 
change  was  in  the  system  of  appointment  to  ranks;  _ 
promotion  went  chiefly  by  seniority,  and  in  the  lower 
ranks  a  system  of  nomination  by  equals  or  inferiors  was 
organized.  The  Assembly  proclaimed,  however,  the  principle 
of  compulsory  and  personal  service,  but  under  a  particular 
form,  that  of  the  National  Guard,  to  which  all  qualified  citizens 
belonged,  and  in  which  almost  all  ranks  were  conferred  by 
election.  Its  chief  purpose  was  to  maintain  order  at  home; 
but  it  could  be  called  upon  to  furnish  detachments  for  defence 
against  foreign  invasion.  This  was  an  institution  which,  with 
many  successive  modifications,  and  after  various  long  periods 
of  inactivity  followed  by  a  revival,  lasted  more  than  three- 
quarters  of  a  century,  and  was  not  suppressed  till  1871.  For 
purposes  of  war  the  Convention,  in  addition  to  voluntary  enlist- 
ments and  the  resources  furnished  by  the  National  Guards, 
and  setting  aside  the  forced  levy  of  200,000  men  in  1793,  decided 
on  the  expedient  of  calling  upon  the  communes  to  furnish  men, 
a  course  which  revived  the  principle  of  the  old  militia.  But  the 
Directory  drew  up  an  important  military  law,  that  of  the  6th 
Fructidor  of  the  year  VI.,  which  established  compulsory  military 
service  for  all,  under  the  form  of  conscription  strictly  so  called. 
Frenchmen  aged  from  20  to  25  (defenseurs  conscrits)  were  divided 
into  five  classes,  each  including  the  men  born  in  the  same  year, 
and  were  liable  until  they  were  25  years  old  to  be  called  up  for 
active  service,  the  whole  period  of  service  not  exceeding  four 
years.  No  class  was  called  upon  until  the  younger  classes 
had  been  exhausted,  and  the  sending  of  substitutes  was  forbidden. 
This  law,  with  a  few  later  modifications,  provided  for  the  French 
armies  up  to  the  end  of  the  Empire. 

The  Constituent  Assembly  abolished  nearly  all  the  taxes 
of  the  ancien  regime.  Almost  the  only  taxes  preserved  were 
the  stamp  duty  and  that  on  the  registration  of  acts 
(the  old  controle  and  centieme  denier),  and  these  were 
completely  reorganized;  the  customs  were  maintained  only  at 
the  frontiers  for  foreign  trade.  In  the  establishment  of  new 
taxes  the  Assembly  was  influenced  by  two  sentiments:  the 
hatred  which  had  been  inspired  by  the  former  arbitrary  taxation, 
and  the  influence  of  the  school  of  the  Physiocrats.  Consequently 
it  did  away  with  indirect  taxation  on  objects  of  consumption, 
and  made  the  principal  direct  tax  the  tax  on  land.  Next  in 
importance  were  the  contribution  personnelle  et  mobiliere  and  the 
patenies.  The  essential  elements  of  the  former  were  a  sort  of 
capitation-tax  equivalent  to  three  days'  work,  which  was  the 
distinctive  and  definite  sign  of  a  qualified  citizen,  and  a  tax  on 
personal  income,  calculated  according  to  the  rent  paid.  The 
patentes  were  paid  by  traders,  and  were  also  based  on  the  amount 
of  rent.  These  taxes,  though  considerably  modified  later,  are 
still  essentially  the  basis  of  the  French  system  of  direct  taxation. 
The  Constituent  Assembly  had  on  principle  repudiated  the  tax 
on  the  gross  income,  much  favoured  under  the  ancien  regime, 
which  everybody  had  felt  to  be  arbitrary  and  oppressive.  The 
system  of  public  contributions  under  the  Convention  was 
arbitrary  and  revolutionary,  but  the  councils  of  the  Directory, 
side  by  side  with  certain  bad  laws  devised  to  tide  over  temporary 
crises,  made  some  excellent  laws  on  the  subject  of  taxation. 
They  resumed  the  regulation  of  the  land  tax,  improving  and 
partly  altering  it,  and  also  dealt  with  the  contribution  personnelle 
et  mobiliere,  the  patentes,  and  the  stamp  and  registration  duties. 
It  was  at  this  time,  too,  that  the  door  and  window  tax,  which 
still  exists,  was  provisionally  established;  there  was  also  a 
partial  reappearance  of  indirect  taxation,  in  particular  the 
octrois  of  the  towns,  which  had  been  suppressed  by  the  Constituent 
Assembly. 

The  Constituent  Assembly  gave  the  Protestants  liberty  of 
worship  and  full  rights;  it  also  gave  Jews  the  status  of  citizen, 
which  they  had  not  had  under  the  ancien  regime, 
together  with  political  rights.  With  regard  to  the 
Catholic  Church,  the  Assembly  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  the  nation  the  property  of  the  clergy,  which  had  already, 
in  the  course  of  the  i8th  century,  been  regarded  by  most  political 


922 


FRANCE 


[LAW  AND 


writers  as  a  national  possession;  at  the  same  time  it  provided 
for  salaries  for  the  members  of  the  clergy  and  pensions  for  those 
who  had  been  monks.  It  abolished  tithes  and  the  religious 
orders,  and  forbade  the  re-formation  of  the  latter  in  the  future. 
The  ecclesiastical  districts  were  next  reorganized,  the  depart- 
ment being  always  taken  as  the  chief  unit,  and  a  new  church 
was  organized  by  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy,  the  bishops 
being  elected  by  the  electoral  assembly  of  the  department  (the 
usual  electors),  and  the  cures  by  the  electoral  assembly  of  the 
district.  This  was  an  unfortunate  piece  of  legislation,  inspired 
partly  by  the  old  Gallican  spirit,  partly  by  the  theories  on  civil 
religion  of  J.  J.  Rousseau  and  his  school,  and,  together  with  the 
civic  oath  imposed  on  the  clergy,  it  was  a  source  of  endless 
troubles.  The  constitutional  church  established  in  this  way 
was,  however,  abolished  as  a  state  institution  by  the  Convention. 
By  laws  of  the  years  III.  and  IV.  the  Convention  and  the 
Directory,  in  proclaiming  the  liberty  of  worship,  declared  that 
the  Republic  neither  endowed  nor  recognized  any  form  of 
worship.  Buildings  formerly  consecrated  to  worship,  which 
had  not  been  alienated,  were  again  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
worshippers  for  this  purpose,  but  under  conditions  which  were 
hard  for  them  to  accept. 

The  Assemblies  of  the  Revolution,  besides  the  laws  which, 
by  abolishing  feudalism,  altered  the  character  of  real  property, 
Clviilaw  Passed  many  others  concerning  civil  law.  The  most 
important  are  those  of  1792,  passed  by  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  which  organized  the  registers  of  the  etot  civil  kept 
by  the  municipalities,  and  laid  down  rules  for  marriage 
as  a  purely  civil  contract.  Divorce  was  admitted  to  a  practically 
unlimited  extent;  it  was  possible  not  only  for  causes  determined 
by  law,  and  by  mutual  consent,  but  also  for  incompatibility 
of  temper  and  character  proved,  by  either  husband  or  wife, 
to  be  of  a  persistent  nature.  Next  came  the  laws  of  the  Conven- 
tion as  to  inheritance,  imposing  perfect  equality  among  the 
natural  heirs  and  endeavouring  to  ensure  the  division  of  properties. 
Illegitimate  children  were  considered  by  these  laws  as  on  the 
same  level  with  legitimate  children.  The  Convention  and  the 
councils  of  the  Directory  also  made  excellent  laws  on  the  ad- 
ministration of  hypotheques,  and  worked  at  the  preparation  of  a 
Civil  Code  (see  CODE  NAPOLEON).  In  criminal  law 
their  work  was  still  more  important.  In  1791  the 
Constituent  Assembly  gave  France  her  first  penal 
code.  It  was  inspired  by  humanitarian  ideas,  still  admitting 
capital  punishment,  though  accompanied  by  no  cruelty  in  the 
execution;  but  none  of  the  remaining  punishments  was  for 
life.  Long  imprisonment  with  hard  labour  was  introduced. 
Finally,  as  a  reaction  against  the  former  system  of  arbitrary 
penalties,  there  came  a  system  of  fixed  penalties  determined, 
both  as  to  its  assessment  and  its  nature,  for  each  offence,  which 
the  judge  could  not  modify.  The  Constituent  Assembly  also 
reformed  the  procedure  of  criminal  trials,  taking  English  law  as 
model.  It  introduced  the  jury,  with  the  double  form  of  jury 
d' accusation  and  jury  de  jugement.  Before  the  judges  procedure 
was  always  public  and  oral.  The  prosecution  was  left  in  principle 
to  the  parties  concerned,  plaintiffs  or  dtnonciateurs  civiques, 
and  the  preliminary  investigation  was  handed  over  to  two 
magistrates;  one  was  the  juge  de  paix,  as  in  English  procedure 
at  this  period,  and  the  other  a  magistrate  chosen  from  the 
district  court  and  called  the  directeur  dujury.  The  Convention, 
before  separating,  passed  the  Code  des  delits  et  des  peines  of  the 
3rd  Brumaire  in  the  year  IV.  This  piece  of  work,  which  was 
due  to  Merlin  de  Douai,  was  intended  to  deal  with  criminal 
procedure  and  penal  law;  but  only  the  first  part  could  be 
completed.  It  was  the  procedure  established  by  the  Constituent 
Assembly,  but  further  organized  and  improved. 

The  Consulate  and  the  Empire. — The  constitutional  law  of 
the  Consulate  and  the  Empire  is  to  be  found  in  a  series  of  docu- 
ments called  later  the  Constitutions  de  I' Empire,  the  constitution 
promulgated  during  the  Hundred  Days  being  consequently 
given  the  name  of  Acte  additionnel  aux  Constitutions  de  I' Empire. 
These  documents  consist  of  (i)  the  Constitution  of  the  22nd 
Frimaire  of  the  year  VIII.,  the  work  of  Sieyes  and  Bonaparte, 


Criminal 
law. 


the  text  on  which  the  others  were  based;  (2)  the  senatus  consulte 
of  the  i6th  Thermidor  in  the  year  X.,  establishing  the  consulate 
for  life;  and  (3)  the  senatus  consulte  of  the  28th  Floreal  in  the 
year  XII.,  which  created  the  Empire.  These  constitutional  acts, 
which  were  all,  whether  in  their  full  text  or  in  principle,  sub- 
mitted to  the  popular  vote  by  means  of  a  plebiscite,  had  all  the 
same  object:  to  assure  absolute  power  to  Napoleon,  while 
preserving  the  forms  and  appearance  of  liberty.  Popular  suffrage 
was  maintained,  and  even  became  universal;  but,  since  the 
system  was  that  of  suffrage  in  many  stages,  which,  moreover, 
varied  very  much,  the  citizens  in  effect  merely  nominated  the 
candidates,  and  it  was  the  Senate,  playing  the  part  of  grand 
tlecteur  which  Sieyes  had  dreamed  of  as  his  own,  which  chose 
from  among  them  the  members  of  the  various  so-called  elected 
bodies,  even  those  of  the  political  assemblies.  According  to  the 
constitution  of  the  year  VIII.,  the  first  consul  (to  whom  had 
been  added  two  colleagues,  the  second  and  third  consuls,  who 
did  not  disappear  until  the  Empire)  possessed  the  executive 
power  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word,  and  he  alone  could  initiate 
legislation.  There  were  three  representative  assemblies  in 
existence,  elected  as  we  have  seen;  but  one  of  them,  the  Corps 
Legislatif,  passed  laws  without  discussing  them,  and  without 
the  power  of  amending  the  suggestions  of  the  government. 
The  Tribunate,  on  the  contrary,  discussed  them,  but  its  vote 
was  not  necessary  for  the  passing  of  the  law.  The  Senate  was 
the  guardian  and  preserver  of  the  constitution;  in  addition  to  its 
role  of  grand  (lecteur,  its  chief  function  was  to  annul  laws  and 
acts  submitted  to  it  by  the  Tribunate  as  being  unconstitutional. 
This  original  organization  was  naturally  modified  during  the 
course  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire;  not  only  did  the 
emperor  obtain  the  right  of  directly  nominating  senators,  and 
the  princes  of  the  imperial  family,  and  grant  dignitaries  of  the 
Empire  that  of  entering  the  Senate  by  right;  but  a  whole  body, 
the  Tribunate,  which  was  the  only  one  which  could  preserve 
some  independence,  disappeared,  without  resort  having  been 
had  to  a  plebiscite;  it  was  modified  and  weakened  by  senatus 
consulte  of  the  year  X.,  and  was  suppressed  in  1807  by  a  mere 
senatus  consulte.  The  importance  of  another  body,  on  the 
contrary,  the  conseil  d'etat,  which  had  been  formed  on  the 
improved  type  of  the  ancient  conseil  du  roi,  and  consisted  of 
members  appointed  by  Napoleon  and  carefully  chosen,  continu- 
ally increased.  It  was  this  body  which  really  prepared  and 
discussed  the  laws;  and  it  was  its  members  who  advocated 
them  before  the  Corps  Legislatif,  to  which  the  Tribunate  also 
sent  orators  to  speak  on  its  behalf.  The  ministers,  who  had  no 
relation  with  the  legislative  power,  were  merely  the  agents 
of  the  head  of  the  state,  freely  chosen  by  himself.  Napoleon, 
however,  found  these  powers  insufficient,  and  arrogated  to 
himself  others,  a  fact  which  the  Senate  did  not  forget  when  it 
proclaimed  his  downfall.  Thus  he  frequently  declared  war  upon 
his  own  authority,  in  spite  of  the  provisions  to  the  contrary 
made  by  the  constitution  of  the  year  VIII. ;  and  similarly,  under 
the  form  of  dicrets,  made  what  were  really  laws.  They  were 
afterwards  called  decrets-lois ,  and  those  that  were  not  indissolubly 
associated  with  the  political  regime  of  the  Empire,  and  survived 
it,  were  subsequently  declared  valid  by  the  court  of  cassation, 
on  the  ground  that  they  had  not  been  submitted  to  the  Senate 
as  unconstitutional,  as  had  been  provided  by  the  constitution 
of  the  year  VIII. 

This  period  saw  the  rise  of  a  whole  new  series  of  great  organic 
laws.     For  administrative  organization,   the   most   important 
was  that  of  the  28th  Pluvi&se  in  the  year  VIII.     It 
established  as  chief  authority  for  each  department  a    tra?iv°  s" 
prefect,  and  side  by  side  with  him  a  conseil  general    changes 
for   deliberative   purposes;    for   each    arrondissement    under 
(corresponding  to  the  old  district)  a  sub-prefect  (sous-    C 
prefci)  and  a  conseil  d' arrondissement;   and  for  each    Empire. 
commune,  a  mayor  and  a  municipal  council.     But  all 
these  officials,  both  the  members  of  the  councils  and  the  individual 
agents,  were  appointed  by  the  head  of  the  state  or  by  the  prefect, 
so  that  centralization  was  restored  more  completely  than  ever. 
Together  with  the  prefect  there  was  also  established  a  conseil 


INSTITUTIONS] 


FRANCE 


923 


de  prefecture,  having  administrative  functions,  and  generally 
acting  as  a  court  of  the  first  instance  in  disputes  and  litigation 
arising  out  of  the  acts  of  the  administration;  for  the  Constituent 
Assembly  had  removed  such  cases  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
civil  tribunals,  and  referred- them  to  the  administrative  bodies 
themselves.  The  final  appeal  in  these  disputes  was  to  the  conseil 
d'etat,  which  was  supreme  judge  in  these  matters.  In  1807 
was  created  another  great  administrative  jurisdiction,  the  cour 
des  comptes,  after  the  pattern  of  that  which  had  existed  under 
the  ancien  regime. 

Judicial  organization  had  also  been  fundamentally  altered. 
The  system  of  election  was  preserved  for  a  time  in  the  case  of 

the  juges  de  paix  and  the  members  of  the  court  of 
changes,  cassation,  but  finally  disappeared  there,  even  where 

it  had  already  been  no  more  than  a  form.  The 
magistrates  were  in  principle  appointed  for  life,  but  under  the 
Empire  a  device  was  found  for  evading  the  rule  of  irremovability. 
For  the  judgment  of  civil  cases  there  was  a  court  of  first  instance 
in  every  arrondissement,  and  above  these  a  certain  number  of 
courts  of  appeal,  each  of  which  had  within  its  province  several 
departments.  The  separate  criminal  tribunals  were  abolished 
in  1800  by  the  Code  d' Instruction  Criminelle,  and  the  magistrates 
forming  the  cour  d'assises,  which  judged  crimes  with  the  aid  of 
a  jury,  were  drawn  from  the  courts  of  appeal  and  from  the  civil 
tribunals.  The  jury  d 'accusation  was  also  abolished  by  the 
Code  d' Instruction  Criminelle,  and  the  right  of  pronouncing  the 
indictment  was  transferred  to  a  chamber  of  the  court  of  appeal. 
The  correctional  tribunals  were  amalgamated  with  the  civil 
tribunals  of  the  first  instance.  The  tribunal  de  cassation,  which 
took  under  the  Empire  the  name  of  cour  de  cassation,  consisted 
of  magistrates  appointed  for  life,  and  still  kept  its  powers. 
The  ministere  public  (consisting  of  imperial  avocats  and  procureurs) 
was  restored  in  practically  the  same  form  as  under  the  ancien 
regime. 

The  former  system  of  taxation  was  preserved  in  principle, 
but  with  one  considerable  addition:    Napoleon  re-established 

indirect  taxation  on  articles  of  consumption,  which 
""'    had  been  abolished  by  the  Constituent  Assembly; 
the  chief  of  these  were  the  duties  on  liquor  (droils  reunis,  or 
excise)  and  the  monopoly  of  tobacco. 

The  Concordat  concluded  by  Napoleon  with  the  papacy  on 
the  26th  Messidor  of  the  year  IX.  re-established  the  Catholic 

religion  in  France  as  the  form  of  worship  recognized 
cordst"" '  an£l  endowed  by  the  state.  It  was  in  principle  drawn 

up  on  the  lines  of  that  of  1516,  and  assured  to  the 
head  of  the  French  state  in  his  dealings  with  the  papacy  the 
same  prerogatives  as  had  formerly  been  enjoyed  by  the  kings; 
the  chief  of  these  was  that  he  appointed  the  bishops,  who  after- 
wards had  to  ask  the  pope  for  canonical  institution.  The 
territorial  distribution  of  dioceses  was  preserved  practically 
as  it  had  been  left  by  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy.  The 
state  guaranteed  the  payment  of  salaries  to  bishops  and  cures; 
and  the  pope  agreed  to  renounce  all  claims  referring  to  the 
appropriation  of  the  goods  of  the  clergy  made  by  the  Constituent 
Assembly.  Later  on,  a  decree  restored  to  thefabriques  (vestries) 
'  such  of  their  former  possessions  as  had  not  been  alienated, 
and  the  churches  which  had  not  been  alienated  were  restored 
for  the  purposes  of  worship.  The  law  of  the  i8th  Germinal 
in  the  year  X.,  ratifying  the  Concordat,  reasserted,  under  the 
name  of  articles  organiques  du  culte  catholique,  all  the  main 
principles  contained  in  the  old  doctrine  of  the  liberties  of  the 
Gallican  Church.  The  Concordat  did  not  include  the  restoration 
of  the  religious  orders  and  congregations;  Napoleon  sanctioned 
by  decrees  only  a  few  establishments  of  this  kind. 

One  important  creation  of  the  Empire  was  the  university. 
The  ancien  regime  had  had  its  universities  for  purposes  of  in- 
struction and  for  the  conferring  of  degrees;  it  had 
™rs«"'"      also>  tllough  without  any  definite  organization,  such 

secondary  schools  as  the  towns  admitted  within  their 
walls,  and  the  primary  schools  of  the  parishes.  The  Revolution 
suppressed  the  universities  and  the  teaching  congregations. 
The  constitution  of  the  year  III.  proclaimed  the  liberty  of 


instruction  and  commanded  that  public  schools,  both  elementary 
and  secondary,  should  be  established.  Under  the  Directory 
there  was  in  each  department  an  ecole  cenlrale,  in  which  all 
branches  of  human  knowledge  were  taught.  Napoleon,  develop- 
ing ideas  which  had  been  started  in  the  second  half  of  the  iSth 
century,  founded  by  laws  and  decrees  of  1806,  1808  and  1811 
the  Universite  de  France,  which  provided  and  organized  higher, 
secondary  and  primary  education;  this  was  to  be  the  monopoly 
of  the  state,  carried  on  by  itsfacullts,  lycees  and  primary  schools. 
No  private  educational  establishment  could  be  opened  without 
the  authorization  of  the  state. 

But  chief  among  the  documents  dating  from  this  period  are 
the  Codes,  which  still  give  laws  to  France.  These  are  the  Civil 
Code  of  1804,  the  Code  de  Procedure  Civile  of  1806, 
the  Code  de  Commerce  of  1807,  the  Code  d' Instruction  codes 
Criminelle  of  1809,  and  the  Code  Penal  of  1810. 
These  monumental  works,  in  the  elaboration  of  which  the  conseil 
d'etat  took  the  chief  part,  contributed,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  towards  the  fusion  of  the  old  law  of  France  with  the  laws 
of  the  Revolution.  It  was  in  the  case  of  the  Code  Civil  that  this 
task  presented  the  greatest  difficulty  (see  CODE  NAPOLEON). 
The  Code  de  Commerce  was  scarcely  more  than  a  revised  and 
emended  edition  of  the  ordonnances  of  1673  and  1681;  while  the 
Code  de  Procedure  Civile  borrowed  its  chief  elements  from  the 
ordonnance  of  1667.  In  the  case  of  the  Code  d  'Instruction 
Criminelle  a  distinctly  new  departure  was  made;  the  procedure 
introduced  by  the  Revolution  into  courts  where  judgment  was 
given  remained  public  and  oral,  with  full  liberty  of  defence; 
the  preliminary  procedure,  however,  before  the  examining  court 
(juge  d'instruction  or  chambre  des  mises  en  accusation)  was 
borrowed  from  the  ordonnance  of  1670;  it  was  the  procedure 
of  the  old  law,  without  its  cruelty,  but  secret  and  written,  and 
generally  not  in  the  presence  of  both  parties.  The  Code  Final 
maintained  the  principles  of  the  Revolution,  but  increased  the 
penalties.  It  substituted  for  the  system  of  fixed  penalties,  in 
cases  of  temporary  punishment,  a  maximum  and  a  minimum, 
between  the  limits  of  which  judges  could  assess  the  amount. 
Even  in  the  case  of  misdemeanours,  it  admitted  the  system  of 
extenuating  circumstances,  which  allowed  them  still  further  to 
decrease  and  alter  the  penalty  in  so  far  as  the  offence  was  mitigated 
by  such  circumstances.  (See  further  under  NAPOLEON  I.) 

The  Restored  Monarchy. — The  Restoration  and  the  Monarchy 
of  July,  though  separated  by  a  revolution,  form  one  period  in 
the  history  of  French  institutions,  a  period  in  which 
the  same  regime  was  continued  and  developed.  This  Coastlm 
was  the  constitutional  monarchy,  with  a  parliamentary 
body  consisting  of  two  chambers,  a  system  imitated 
from  England.  The  same  constitution  was  preserved  under 
these  two  monarchies — the  charter  granted  by  Louis  XVIII. 
in  1814.  The  revolution  of  1830  took  place  in  defence  of  the 
charter  which  Charles  X.  had  violated  by  the  ordonnances 
of  July,  so  that  this  charter  was  naturally  preserved  under  the 
"  July  Monarchy."  It  was  merely  revised  by  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  which  had  been  one  of  the  movers  of  the  revolution, 
and  by  what  remained  of  the  House  of  Peers.  In  order  to  give 
the  constitution  the  appearance  of  originating  in  the  will  of  the 
people,  the  preface,  which  made  it  appear  to  be  a  favour  granted 
by  the  king,  was  destroyed.  The  two  chambers  acquired  the 
initiative  in  legislation,  which  had  not  been  recognized  as  theirs 
under  the  Restoration,  but  from  this  time  on  belonged  to  them 
equally  with  the  king.  The  sittings  of  the  House  of  Peers  were 
henceforth  held  in  public;  but  this  chamber  underwent  another 
and  more  fundamental  transformation.  The  peers  were  nomin- 
ated by  the  king,  with  no  limit  of  numbers,  and  according 
to  the  charter  of  1814  their  appointment  could  be  either  for  life 
or  hereditary;  but,  in  execution  of  an  ordinance  of  Louis  XVIII., 
during  the  Restoration  they  were  always  appointed  under  the 
latter  condition.  Under  the  July  Monarchy  their  tenure  of 
office  was  for  life,  and  the  king  had  to  choose  them  from  among 
twenty-two  classes  of  notables  fixed  by  law.  The  franchise 
for  the  election  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  had  been  limited 
by  a  system  of  money  qualifications;  but  while,  under  the 


924 


FRANCE 


[LAW  AND 


Restoration,  it  had  been  necessary,  in  order  to  be  an  elector, 
to  pay  three  hundred  francs  in  direct  taxation,  this  sum  was 
reduced  in  1831  to  two  hundred  francs,  while  in  certain  cases  even 
a  smaller  amount  sufficed.  In  order  to  be  elected  as  a  deputy 
it  was  necessary,  according  to  the  charter  of  1814,  to  pay  a 
thousand  francs  in  direct  taxation,  and  according  to  that  of  1830 
five  hundred  francs.  From  1817  onwards  there  was  direct 
suffrage,  the  electors  directly  electing  the  deputies.  The  idea  of 
those  who  had  framed  the  charter  of  1814  had  been  to  give  the 
chief  influence  to  the  great  landed  proprietors,  though  the  means 
adopted  to  this  end  were  not  adequate:  in  1830  the  chief  aim 
had  been  to  give  a  preponderating  influence  to  the  middle  and 
lower  middle  classes,  and  this  had  met  with  greater  success. 
The  House  of  Peers,  under  the  name  of  cour  des  pairs,  had  also 
the  function  of  judging  attempts  and  plots  against  the  security 
of  the  state,  and  it  had  frequently  to  exercise  this  function  both 
under  the  Restoration  and  the  July  Monarchy. 

This  was  a  period  of  parliamentary  government;  that  is,  of 
government  by  a  cabinet,  resting  on  the  responsibility  of  the 
ministers  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  only  interruption 
was  that  caused  by  the  resistance  of  Charles  X.  at  the  end  of  his 
reign,  which  led  to  the  revolution  of  July.  Parliamentary  govern- 
ment was  practised  regularly  and  in  an  enlightened  spirit  under 
the  Restoration,  although  the  Chamber  had  not  then  all  the 
powers  which  it  has  since  acquired.  It  is  noteworthy  that  during 
this  period  the  right  of  the  House  of  Peers  to  force  a  ministry  to 
resign  by  a  hostile  vote  was  not  recognized.  By  the  creation  of  a 
certain  number  of  new  peers,  a  Journee  de  pairs,  as  it  was  then 
called,  the  majority  in  this  House  could  be  changed  when 
necessary.  But  the  government  of  the  Restoration  had  to  deal 
with  two  extreme  parties  of  a  very  opposite  nature:  the  Ultras, 
who  wished  to  restore  as  far  as  possible  the  ancien  regime,  to 
whom  were  due  the  acts  of  the  chambre  introuvable  of  1816,  and 
later  the  laws  of  the  ministry  of  Villele,  especially  the  law  of 
sacrilege  and  that  voting  compensation  to  the  dispossessed 
nobles,  known  as  the  milliard  des  emigres;  and  on  the  other 
hand  the  Liberals,  including  the  Bonapartists  and  Republicans, 
who  were  attached  to  the  principles  of  the  Revolution.  In  order 
to  prevent  either  of  these  parties  from  predominating  in  the 
chamber,  the  government  made  a  free  use  of  its  power  of  dis- 
solution. It  further  employed  two  means  to  check  the  progress 
of  the  Liberals;  firstly,  there  were  various  alterations  successively 
made  in  the  electoral  law,  and  the  press  laws,  frequently  restrictive 
in  their  effect,  which  introduced  the  censorship  and  a  preliminary 
authorization  in  the  case  of  periodical  publications,  and  gave 
the  correctional  tribunals  jurisdiction  in  cases  of  press  offences. 
The  best  electoral  law  was  that  of  1817,  and  the  best  press  laws 
were  those  of  1819;  but  these  were  not  of  long  duration.  Under 
the  July  Monarchy  parliamentary  government,  although  its 
machinery  was  further  perfected,  was  not  so  brilliant.  The 
majorities  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  were  often  uncertain,  so 
much  so,  that  more  than  once  the  right  of  dissolution  was  exer- 
cised in  order  to  try  by  new  elections  to  arrive  at  an  undivided 
and  certain  majority.  King  Louis  Philippe,  though  sober- 
minded,  wished  to  exercise  a  personal  influence  on  the  policy 
of  the  cabinet,  so  that  there  were  then  two  schools,  represented 
respectively  by  Thiers  and  Guizot,  one  of  which  held  the  theory 
that  "  the  king  reigns  but  does  not  govern"  ;  while  the  other 
maintained  that  he  might  exercise  a  personal  influence,  provided 
that  he  could  rely  on  a  ministry  supported  by  a  majority  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  But  the  weak  point  in  the  July  Monarchy 
was  above  all  the  question  of  the  franchise.  A  powerful  move- 
ment of  opinion  set  in  towards  demanding  an  extension,  some 
wishing  for  universal  suffrage,  but  the  majority  proposing  what 
was  called  the  adjonclion  des  capacites,  that  is  to  say,  that  to  the 
number  of  qualified  electors  should  be  added  those  citizens  who, 
by  virtue  of  their  professions,  capacity  or  acquirements,  were 
inscribed  after  them  on  the  general  list  for  juries.  But  the 
government  obstinately  refused  all  electoral  reform,  and  held 
to  the  law  of  1831.  It  also  refused  parliamentary  reform,  by 
which  was  meant  a  rule  which  would  have  made  most  public 
offices  incompatible  with  the  position  of  deputy,  the  Chamber  of 


Deputies  being  at  that  time  full  of  officials.  The  press,  thanks 
to  the  Charter,  was  perfectly  free,  without  either  censorship 
or  preliminary  authorization,  and  press  offences  were  judged  by 
a  jury. 

In  another  respect  also  the  Restoration  and  the  July  Monarchy 
were  at  one,  the  second  continuing  the  spirit  of  the  first,  viz. 
in  maintaining  in  principle  the  civil,  legal  and  adminis-  Tlle 
trative  institutions  of  the  Empire.  The  preface  to  system 
the  charter  of  1814  sanctioned  and  guaranteed  most  of  the 
of  the  legal  rights  won  by  the  Revolution;  even  the 
alienation  of  national  property  was  confirmed.  It 
was  said,  it  is  true,  that  the  old  nobility  regained  their  titles,  and 
that  the  nobility  of  the  Empire  kept  those  which  Napoleon  had 
given  them;  but  these  were  merely  titles  and  nothing  more; 
there  was  no  privileged  nobility,  and  the  equality  of  citizens 
before  the  law  was  maintained.  Judicial  and  administrative 
organization,  the  system  of  taxation,  military  organization,  the 
relations  of  church  and  state,  remained  the  same,  and  the  univer- 
sity also  continued  to  exist.  The  government  did,  it  is  true, 
negotiate  a  new  Concordat  with  the  papacy  in  1817,  but  did  not 
dare  even  to  submit  it  to  the  chambers.  The  most  important 
reform  was  that  of  the  law  concerning  recruiting  for  the  army. 
The  charter  of  1814  had  promised  the  abolition  of  conscription, 
in  the  form  in  which  it  had  been  created  by  the  law  of  the  year 
VI.  The  law  of  the  loth  of  March  1818  actually  established 
a  new  system.  The  contingent  voted  by  the  chambers  for  annual 
incorporation  into  the  standing  army  was  divided  up  among  all 
the  cantons;  and,  in  order  to  furnish  it,  lots  were  drawn  among 
all  the  men  of  a  certain  class,  that  is  to  say,  among  the  young 
Frenchmen  who  arrived  at  their  majority  that  year.  Those 
who  were  not  chosen  by  lot  were  definitely  set  free  from  military 
service.  The  sending  of  substitutes,  a  custom  which  had  been 
permitted  by  Napoleon,  was  recognized.  This  was  the  type  of  all 
the  laws  on  recruiting  in  France,  of  which  there  were  a  good 
number  in  succession  up  to  1867.  On  other  points  they  vary,  in 
particular  as  to  the  duration  of  service,  which  was  six  years, 
and  later  eight  years,  under  the  Restoration;  but  the  system 
remained  the  same. 

The  Restoration  produced  a  code,  the  Code  forestier  of  1827, 
for  the  regulation  of  forests  (eaux  etforets).  In  1816  a  law  had 
abolished  divorce,  making  marriage  indissoluble,  as  it  had  been 
in  the  old  law.  But  the  best  laws  of  this  period  were  those  on 
finance.  Now,  for  the  first  time,  was  introduced  the  practice  of 
drawing  up  regular  budgets,  voted  before  the  year  to  which  they 
applied,  and  divided  since  1819  into  the  budget  of  expenditure 
and  budget  of  receipts. 

Together  with  other  institutions  of  the  Empire,  the  Restora- 
tion had  preserved  the  exaggerated  system  of  administrative 
centralization  established  in  the  year  VIII.;  and  proposals  for 
its  relaxation  submitted  to  the  chambers  had  come  to  nothing. 
It  was  only  under  the  July  Monarchy  that  it  was  relaxed.  The 
municipal  law  of  the  2ist  of  March  1831  made  the  municipal 
councils  elective,  and  extended  widely  the  right  of  voting  in  the 
elections  for  them;  the  maires  and  their  assistants  continued 
to  be  appointed  by  the  government,  but  had  to  be  chosen  from 
among  the  members  of  the  municipal  councils.  The  law  of  the 
22nd  of  June  1833  made  the  general  councils  of  the  departments 
also  elective,  and  brought  the  adjonclion  des  capacites  into  effect 
for  their  election.  The  powers  of  these  bodies  were  enlarged  in 
1838,  and  they  gained  the  right  of  electing  their  president. 
In  1833  was  granted  another  liberty,  that  of  primary  education; 
but  in  spite  of  violent  protestations,  coming  especially  from  the 
Catholics,  secondary  and  higher  education  continued  to  be  a 
monopoly  of  the  state.  Many  organic  laws  were  promulgated, 
one  concerning  the  National  Guard,  which  was  reorganized  in 
order  to  adapt  it  to  the  system  of  citizen  qualifications;  one  in 
1832  on  the  recruiting  of  the  army,  fixing  the  period  of  service  at 
seven  years;  and  another  in  1834  securing  the  status  of  officers. 
A  law  of  the  nth  of  June  1842  established  the  great  railway 
lines.  In  1832  the  Code  Penal  and  Code  d' Instruction  Criminelle 
were  revised,  with  the  object  of  lightening  penalties;  the  system 
of  extenuating  circumstances,  as  recognized  by  a  jury,  was 


INSTITUTIONS] 


FRANCE 


925 


extended  to  the  judgment  of  all  crimes.  There  was  also  a  re- 
vision of  Book  III.  of  the  Code  de  Commerce,  treating  of  bank- 
ruptcy. Finally ,f  rom  this  period  date  the  laws  of  the  3rd  of  May 
1841,  on  expropriation  for  purposes  of  public  utility,  and  of  the 
3oth  of  June  1838,  on  the  treatment  of  the  insane,  which  is  still 
in  force.  Judicial  organization  remained  as  it  was,  but  the 
amount  of  the  sum  up  to  which  civil  tribunals  of  the  first  instance 
could  judge  without  appeal  was  raised  from  1000  francs  to  1500, 
and  the  competency  of  the  juges  de  paix  was  widened. 

The  Second  Republic  and  the  Second  Empire. — From  the  point 
of  view  of  constitutional  law,  the  Second  Republic  and  the  Second 
Empire  were  each  in  a  certain  sense  a  return  to  the  past.  The 
former  revived  the  tradition  of  the  Assemblies  of  the  Revolution; 
the  latter  was  obviously  and  avowedly  an  imitation  of  the  Con- 
sulate and  the  First  Empire. 

The  provisional  government  set  up  by  the  revolution  of  the 
24th  of  February  1848  proclaimed  universal  suffrage,  and  by 
Kepubll-  *-n's  means  was  elected  a  Constituent  Assembly,  which 
cancan-  sat  till  May  1849,  and,  after  first  organizing  various 
stitution  forms  of  another  provisional  government,  passed  the 
ofis-ts.  Republican  constitution  of  the  4th  of  November  1848. 
This  constitution,  which  was  preceded  by  a  preface  recalling 
the  Declarations  of  Rights  of  the  Revolution,  gave  the  legislative 
power  to  a  single  permanent  assembly,  elected  by  direct  universal 
suffrage,  and  entirely  renewed  every  three  years.  The  executive 
authority,  with  very  extensive  powers,  was  given  to  a  president 
of  the  Republic,  also  elected  by  the  universal  and  direct  suffrage 
of  the  French  citizens.  The  constitution  was  not  very  clear  upon 
the  point  of  whether  it  adopted  parliamentary  government 
in  the  strict  sense,  or  whether  the  president,  who  was  declared 
responsible,  was  free  to  choose  his  ministers  and  to  retain  or 
dismiss  them  at  his  own  pleasure.  This  gave  rise  to  an  almost 
permanent  dispute  between  the  president,  who  claimed  to  have 
his  own  political  opinions  and  to  direct  the  government,  and  the 
Assembly,  which  wished  to  carry  on  the  traditions  of  cabinet 
government  and  to  make  the  ministers  fully  responsible  to  itself. 
Consequently,  in  January  1851,  a  solemn  debate  was  held,  which 
ended  in  the  affirmation  of  the  responsibility  of  ministers  to  the 
Assembly.  On  the  other  hand,  the  president,  though  very 
properly  given  great  power  by  the  constitution,  was  not  imme- 
diately eligible  for  re-election  on  giving  up  his  office.  Now  Louis 
Napoleon,  who  was  elected  president  on  the  loth  of  December 
1848  by  a  huge  majority,  wished  to  be  re-elected.  Various 
propositions  were  submitted  to  the  Assembly  in  July  1851  with 
a  view  to  modifying  the  constitution;  but  they  could  not  succeed, 
as  the  number  of  votes  demanded  by  the  constitution  for  the 
convocation  of  a  Constituent  Assembly  was  not  reached.  More- 
over, the  Legislative  Assembly  elected  in  May  1849  was  very 
different  from  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1848.  The  latter  was 
animated  by  that  spirit  of  harmony  and,  in  the  main,  of  adhesion 
to  the  Republic  which  had  followed  on  the  February  Revolution. 
The  new  assembly,  on  the  contrary,  was  composed  for  the  most 
part  of  representatives  of  the  old  parties,  and  had  monarchist 
aspirations.  By  the  unfortunate  law  of  the  3ist  of  May  1850  it 
even  tried  by  a  subterfuge  to  restrict  the  universal  suffrage 
guaranteed  by  the  constitution.  It  suspended  the  right  of  hold- 
ing meetings,  but,  on  the  whole,  respected  the  liberty  of  the  press. 
It  was  especially  impelled  to  these  measures  by  the  growing 
fear  of  socialism.  The  result  was  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  2nd  of 
December  1851.  A  detail  of  some  constitutional  importance 
is  to  be  noticed  in  this  period.  The  conseil  d'etat,  which  had 
remained  under  the  Restoration  and  the  July  Monarchy  an 
administrative  council  and  the  supreme  arbiter  in  administrative 
trials,  acquired  new  importance  under  the  Second  Republic. 
The  ordinary  conseillers  d'etat  (en  service  ordinaire)  were  elected 
by  the  Legislative  Assembly,  and  consultation  with  the  conseil 
d'Uat  was  often  insisted  on  by  the  constitution  or  by  law.  This 
was  the  means  of  obtaining  a  certain  modifying  power  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  second  chamber,  which  had  not  met  with  popular 
approval.  During  its  short  existence  the  Second  Republic 
produced  many  important  laws.  It  abolished  the  penalty  of 
death  for  political  crimes,  and  suppressed  negro  slavery  in  the 


colonies.  The  election  of  conseillers  generaux  was  thrown  open 
to  universal  suffrage,  and  the  municipal  councils  were  allowed 
to  elect  the  maires  and  their  colleagues.  Thd  law  of  the  i5th 
of  March  1850  established  the  liberty  of  secondary  education, 
but  it  conferred  certain  privileges  on  the  Catholic  clergy,  a  clear 
sign  of  the  spirit  of  social  conservatism  which  was  the  leading 
motive  for  its  enactment.  Certain  humanitarian  laws  were 
passed,  applying  to  the  working  classes. 

With  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  2nd  of  December  1851  began  a  new 
era  of  constitutional  plebiscites  and  disguised  absolutism. 
The  proclamations  of  Napoleon  on  the  2nd  of  December  constit 
contained  a  criticism  of  parliamentary  government,  tioaof 
and  formulated  the  wish  to  restore  to  France  the  •!«"•  14, 
constitutional  institutions  of  the  Consulate  and  the  I8S2' 
Empire,  just  as  she  had  preserved  their  civil,  administrative 
and  military  institutions.  Napoleon  asked  the  people  for  the 
powers  necessary  to  draw  up  a  constitution  on  these  principles; 
the  plebiscite  issued  in  a  vast  majority  of  votes  in  his  favour, 
and  the  constitution  of  the  i4th  of  January  1852  was  the  result. 
It  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  constitution  of  the  First 
Empire  after  1807.  The  executive  power  was  conferred  on 
Louis  Napoleon  for  ten  years,  with  the  title  of  president  of  the 
Republic  and  very  extended  powers.  Two  assemblies  were 
created.  The  conservative  Senate,  composed  of  ex  qfficio  members 
(cardinals,  marshals  of  France  and  admirals)  and  life  members 
appointed  by  the  head  of  the  state,  was  charged  with  the  task 
of  seeing  that  the  laws  were  constitutional,  of  opposing  the 
promulgation  of  unconstitutional  laws,  and  of  receiving  the 
petitions  of  citizens;  it  had  also  the  duty  of  providing  everything 
not  already  provided  but  necessary  for  the  proper  working  of 
the  constitution.  The  second  assembly  was  the  Corps  Legislatif, 
elected  by  direct  universal  suffrage  for  six  years,  which  passed 
the  laws,  the  government  having  the  initiative  in  legislation. 
This  body  was  not  altogether  a  corps  des  muets,  as  in  the  year 
VIII.,  but  its  powers  were  very  limited;  thus  the  general  session 
assured  to  it  by  the  constitution  was  only  for  three  months, 
and  it  could  only  discuss  and  put  to  the  vote  amendments 
approved  by  the  conseil  d'etat;  the  ministers  did  not  in  any  way 
come  into  contact  with  it  and  could  not  be  members  of  it,  being 
responsible  only  to  the  head  of  the  state,  and  only  the  Senate 
having  the  right  of  accusing  them  before  a  high  court  of  justice. 
The  conseil  d'etat  was  composed  in  the  same  way  and  had  the 
same  authority  as  it  had  possessed  from  the  year  VIII.  to  1814; 
and  it  was  the  members  of  it  who  supported  projected  laws 
before  the  Corps  Legislatif.  To  this  was  added  a  Draconian 
press  legislation;  not  only  were  press  offences,  many  of  which 
were  mere  expressions  of  opinion,  judged  not  by  a  jury  but  by 
the  correctional  tribunals;  but  further,  political  papers  could 
not  be  founded  without  an  authorization,  and  were  subject  to 
a  regular  administrative  discipline;  they  could  be  warned, 
suspended  or  suppressed  without  a  trial,  by  a  simple  act  of 
the  administration.  The  constitution  of  January  1852  was 
still  Republican  in  name,  though  less  so  than  that  of  the  year 
VIII.  The  period  corresponding  with  the  Consulate  was  also 
shorter  in  the  case  of  Louis  Napoleon.  The  year  1852  had 
not  come  to  an  end  before  a  senatus  consulte,  that  of  the 
loth  of  November,  ratified  by  ;i  plebiscite,  re-established 
the  imperial  rank  in  favour  ot  Napoleon  III.;  it  also 
conferred  on  him  certain  new  powers,  especially  with 
reference  to  the  budget  and  foreign  treaties;  thus  Kestora- 
various  cracks,  which  experience  had  revealed  in  the 
original  structure  of  the  Empire,  were  filled  up.  This 
period  was  called  that  of  the  empire  autoritaire.  Further  features 
of  it  were  the  free  appointment  of  the  maires  by  the  emperor, 
the  oath  of  fidelity  to  him  imposed  on  all  officials,  and  the  legal 
organization  of  official  candidatures  for  the  elections.  Two 
measures  marked  the  highest  point  reached  by  this  system: 
the  loi  de  furete  generale  of  the  27th  of  February  1858,  which 
allowed  the  government  to  intern  in  France  or  Algeria,  or  to 
exile  certain  French  citizens,  without  a  trial.  The  other  was 
the  senatus  consulte  of  the  i7th  of  February  1858,  which  made 
the  validity  of  candidatures  for  the  Corps  Legislatif  subject 


926 


FRANCE 


[LAW  AND 


to  a  preliminary  oath  of  fidelity  on  the  part  of  the  candidate. 
But  for  various  causes,  which  cannot  be  examined  here,  a  series 
of  measures  was  soon  to  be  initiated  which  were  gradually  to 
lead  back  again  to  political  liberty,  and  definitively 
The  to  found  what  has  been  called  the  empire  liberal, 

'liberal.  One  by  one  the  different  rules  and  proceedings  of 
parliamentary  government  as  it  had  existed  in  France 
regained  their  force.  The  first  step  was  the  decree  of  the  24th 
of  November  1860,  which  re-established  for  each  ordinary  session 
the  address  voted  by  the  chambers  in  response  to  the  speech 
from  the  throne.  In  1867  this  movement  took  a  more  decisive 
form.  It  led  to  a  new  constitution,  that  of  the  2ist  of  May 
1870,  which  was  again  ratified  by  popular  suffrage.  While 
maintaining  the  Empire  and  the  imperial  dynasty,  it  organized 
parliamentary  government  practically  in  the  form  in  which  it 
had  operated  under  the  July  Monarchy,  with  two  legislative 
chambers,  the  Senate  and  the  Corps  Legislatif,  the  consent  of 
both  of  which  was  necessary  for  legislation,  and  which,  together 
with  the  emperor,  had  the  initiative  in  this  matter.  The  laws 
of  the  nth  of  May  1868  and  the  6th  of  June  1868  restored  to  a 
certain  extent  the  liberty  of  the  press  and  of  holding  meetings, 
though  without  abolishing  offences  of  opinion,  or  again  bringing 
press  offences  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  jury.  Laws  of  the  22nd 
and  23rd  of  July  1870  gave  the  conseils  gineraux,  whose  powers 
had  been  somewhat  widened,  the  right  of  electing  their  presidents, 
and  provided  that  the  maires  and  their  colleagues  should  be 
chosen  from  among  the  members  of  the  municipal  councils. 

The  legislation  of  the  Second  Empire  led  to  a  considerable 
number  of  reforms.     Its  chief  aim  was  the  development  of 

commerce,  industry  and  agriculture,  and  generally  the 
antisocial  material  prosperity  of  the  country.  The  Empire, 
reforms  though  restricting  liberty  in  political  matters,  increased 
under  the  ;t  ;n  economic  matters.  Such  were  the  decrees  and 
imp/re  ^aws  °*  I^52  anc^  J^53  relating  to  land-banks  (etablisse- 

mentsde  credit  fonder)  and  that  of  1857  on  trade-marks, 
those  of  1863  and  1867  on  commercial  companies,  that  of  1858 
on  general  stores  (magasins  generaux)  and  warrants,  that  of 
1856  on  drainage,  that  of  1865  on  the  associations  syndicates  de 
proprietaires,  that  of  1866  on  the  mercantile  marine.  The  law 
of  the  I4th  of  June  1865  introduced  into  France  the  institution, 
borrowed  from  England,  of  cheques.  But  of  still  greater  import- 
ance for  economic  development  than  all  these  laws  were  the 

treaties  concluded  by  the  emperor  with  foreign  powers, 
Com-  jn  orcier  to  introduce,  as  far  as  possible,  free  exchange 
treaties.  °^  commodities;  the  chief  of  these,  which  was  the 

model  of  all  the  others,  was  that  concluded  with  Great 
Britain  on  the  23rd  of  January  1860.  Moreover,  the  law  of 
the  25th  of  May  1864  admitted  for  the  first  time  the  right  of 
strikes  and  lock-outs  among  workmen  or  employers,  annulling 
articles  414  and  following  of  the  Code  Penal,  which  had  so  far 
made  them  a  penal  offence,  even  when  not  accompanied  by 
fraudulent  practices,  threats  or  violence,  tending  to  hinder  the 
liberty  of  labour.  The  superannuation  fund  (caisse  des  retraites 
pour  la  iiieillesse) ,  supported  by  voluntary  payments  from  those 
participating  in  it,  which  had  been  created  by  the  law  of  the  i8th 
of  June  1850,  was  reorganized  and  perfected,  and  a  law  of  the 
nth  of  July  1868  established,  with  the  guarantee  of  the  state, 
two  funds  for  voluntary  insurance,  one  in  case  of  death,  the  other 
against  accidents  occurring  in  industrial  or  agricultural  employ- 
ment. A  decree  of  1863  established  in  principle  the  freedom 
of  bakeries,  and  another  in  1864  that  of  theatrical  management. 
Criminal  law  was  the  subject  of  important  legislation.  Two 
codes  were  promulgated  on  special  points,  the  codes  of  military 
Retotjns  Justice  for  the  land  forces  (1857)  and  for  the  naval 
lathe  forces  (1858).  But  the  common  law  was  also  largely 
criminal  remodelled.  A  law  of  the  loth  of  June  1858,  it  is  true, 

created  certain  new  crimes,  with  a  view  to  protecting 
the  members  of  the  imperial  family,  and  that  of  the  I7th  of 
July  1856  increased  the  powers  and  independence  of  the  juges 
d' instruction;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  useful  improvements 
were  introduced  by  laws  of  1856  and  1865,  and  notably  with 
regard  to  precautionary  detention  and  provisional  release  with  or 


without  bail.  A  law  of  the  2oth  of  May  1863  organized  a  simple 
and  rapid  procedure,  copied  from  that  followed  in  England 
before  the  police  courts,  for  summary  jurisdiction.  A  law  of 
1868  permitted  the  .revision  of  criminal  trials  after  the  death 
of  the  condemned  person.  But  the  most  far-reaching  reforms 
took  place  in  1854,  namely,  the  abolition  of  the  total  loss  of 
civil  rights  which  formerly  accompanied  condemnation  to 
imprisonment  for  life,  and  the  law  of  the  3Oth  of  May  on  penal 
servitude  (Iravaux  fonts)  which  substituted  transportation  to 
the  colonies  for  the  system  of  continental  convict  prisons. 
Finally,  in  1863,  there  was  a  revision  of  the  Code  Penal,  which, 
in  the  process  of  lightening  penalties,  made  a  certain  number  of 
crimes  into  misdemeanours,  and  in  consequence  transferred 
the  judgment  of  them  from  the  assize  courts  to  the 
correctional  tribunals.  In  civil  legislation  may  be  CMI 
noted  the  law  of  the  23rd  of  March  1855  on  hypothecs  'tioa!"' 
(see  CODE  NAPOLEON);  that  of  the  22nd  of  July  1857, 
which  abolished  seizure  of  the  person  (conlrainte  par  corps)  for 
civil  and  commercial  debts;  and  finally,  the  law  of  the  i4th 
of  July  1866,  on  literary  copyright.  The  system  of  taxation  was 
hardly  modified  at  all,  except  for  the  establishment 
of  a  tax  on  the  income  arising  from  investments  Taxation 
(shares  and  bonds  of  companies)  in  1857,  and  the  tax  a°my. 
on  carriages  (1862).  On  the  ist  of  February  1868 
was  promulgated  an  important  military  law,  which,  however, 
passed  the  Corps  Legislatif  with  some  difficulty.  It  asserted 
the  principle  of  universal  compulsory  military  service,  at  least, 
in  time  of  war.  It  preserved,  however,  the  system  of  drawing 
lots  to  determine  the  annual  contingent  to  be  incorporated 
into  the  standing  army;  the  term  of  service  was  fixed  at  five 
years,  and  it  was  still  permissible  to  send  a  substitute.  But 
able-bodied  men  who  were  not  included  in  the  annual  contingent 
formed  a  reserve  force  called  the  garde  nationale  mobile,  each 
department  organizing  its  own  section.  These  gardes  mobiles, 
though  they  were  not  effectively  organized  or  exercised  under  the 
Empire,  took  part  in  the  war  of  1870-71. 

The  Third  Republic.— The  Third  Republic  had  at  first  a 
provisional  government,  unanimously  acclaimed  by  the  people 
of  Paris.  It  was  accepted  by  France,  exercised  full  powers, 
and  sustained  by  no  means  ingloriously  a  desperate  struggle 
against  the  enemy;  a  certain  number  of  its  dtcrets-lois  are  still 
in  force.  After  the  capitulation  of  Paris,  a  National  Assembly 
was  elected  to  treat  with  Germany.  It  was  elected  in  accordance 
with  the  electoral  law  of  1849,  which  had  been  revived  with  a 
few  modifications,  and  it  met  at  Bordeaux  to  the  number  of 
753  members  on  the  i3th  of  February  1871.  It  was  a  sovereign 
assembly,  since  France  had  no  longer  a  constitution,  and  for 
this  very  reason  it  claimed  from  the  outset  constituent  powers; 
the  Republican  party  at  the  time,  however,  contested  this  claim, 
the  majority  in  the  assembly  being  frankly  monarchist,  though 
divided  as  to  the  choice  of  a  monarch.  But  for  some  time  the 
National  Assembly  either  could  not  or  would  not  exercise  this 
power,  and  up  to  1875  affairs  remained  in  a  provisional  state, 
legalized  and  regulated  this  time  by  the  Assembly.  This  was  an 
application,  though  unconscious,  of  a  form  of  government  which 
M.  Grevy  had  proposed  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1848. 
There  was  a  single  assembly,  with  one  man  elected  by  it  as  head 
of  the  executive  power  (the  first  to  be  elected  was  M.  Thiers, 
who  received  the  title  of  president  of  the  Republic  in  August 
1871),  who  was  responsible  to  the  Assembly  and  governed  with 
the  help  of  ministers  chosen  by  himself,  who  were  also  responsible 
toil.  Thiers  fell  on  the  24th  of  May  1873.  His  place  was  taken 
by  Marshal  MacMahon,onwhom  the  Assembly  later  conferred,  in 
November  1873,  the  position  of  president  of  the  Republic  for 
seven  years,  when  the  refusal  of  the  comte  de  Chambord  to 
accept  the  tricolour  in  place  of  the  white  flag  of  the  Bourbons 
had  made  any  attempt  to  restore  the  monarchy  impossible. 
Henceforth  the  definitive  adoption  of  the  Republican  form  of 
government  became  inevitable,  and  the  opinion  of  the  country 
began  to  turn  in  this  direction,  as  was  shown  by.  the  elections 
of  deputies  which  took  place  to  fill  up  the  gaps  occurring  in  the 
Assembly.  The  Assembly,  however,  shrank  from  the  inevitable 


INSTITUTIONS] 


FRANCE 


927 


solution,  and  when  a  discussion  was  begun  in  January  1875  on 
the  projected  constitutional  laws  prepared  by  the  commission 
des  (rente,  the  only  proposals  made  by  the  latter  were  for  a  more 
complete  organization  of  the  powers  of  one  man,  Marshal 
MacMahon.  But  on  the  3oth  of  January  1875  was  adopted, 
by  353  votes  to  352,  an  amendment  by  M.  Wallon  which  provided 
for  the  election  of  an  indefinite  succession  of  presidents  of  the 
Wye  Republic;  this  amounted  to  a  definitive  recognition 
establish-  of  the  Republic.  In  this  connexion  it  has  often  been 
meat  of  said  that  the  Republic  was  established  by  a  majority 
"Ie  of  one.  This  is  not  an  accurate  statement,  for  it  was 

Repu    c.     on]v  (-ne  case  on  tne  first  reading  of  the  law;  the 

majority  on  the  second  and  third  readings  increased  until  it 
became  considerable.  There  was  a  strong  movement  in  the 
direction  of  a  reconciliation  between  the  parties;  and  there  had 
been  a  rapprochement  between  the  Republicans  and  the  Right 
Centre.  At  the  end  of  February  were  passed  and  promulgated 
two  constitutional  laws,  that  of  the  2Sth  of  February  1875,  on 
the  organization  of  the  public  powers,  and  that  of  the  24th  of 
February  1875,  on  the  organization  of  the  senate.  In  the  middle 
of  the  year  they  were  supplemented  by  a  third,  that  of  the  i6th 
of  July  1875,  on  the  relations  between  the  public  powers. 

Thus  was  built  up  the  actual  constitution  of  France.  It 
differs  fundamentally,  both  in  form  and  contents,  from  previous 
The  constitutions.  As  to  its  form,  instead  of  a  single 

French  methodical  text  divided  into  an  uninterrupted  series  of 
Constitu-  articles,  it  consisted  of  three  distinct  laws.  As  to 
tloa'  matter,  it  is  obviously  a  work  of  an  essentially  practical 

nature,  the  result  of  compromise  and  reciprocal  concessions. 
It  does  not  lay  down  any  theoretical  principles,  and  its  provisions, 
which  were  arrived  at  with  difficulty,  confine  themselves  strictly 
to  what  is  necessary  to  ensure  the  proper  operation  of  the 
governmental  machinery.  The  result  is  a  compromise  between 
Republican  principles  and  the  rules  of  constitutional  and  parlia- 
mentary monarchy.  On  this  account  it  has  been  accused,  though 
unjustly,  of  being  too  monarchical.  Its  duration,  by  far  the 
longest  of  any  French  constitution  since  1791,  is  a  sign  of  its 
value  and  vitality.  It  is  in  fact  a  product  of  history,  and  not 
of  imagination.  Its  composition  is  as  follows.  The  legislative 
power  was  given  to  two  elective  chambers,  having  equal  powers, 
the  vote  of  both  of  which  is  necessary  for  legislation,  and  both 
having  the  right  of  initiating  and  amending  laws.  The  constitu- 
tion assures  them  an  ordinary  session  of  five  months,  which 
opens  by  right  on  the  second  Tuesday  in  January.  One  house, 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  is  elected  by  direct  universal  suffrage 
and  is  entirely  renewed  every  four  years;  the  other,  the  Senate, 
consists  of  300  members,  divided  by  the  law  of  the  27th  of 
February  1875  into  two  categories;  75  of  the  senators  were 
elected  for  life  and  irremovable,  and  the  first  of  them  were  elected 
by  the  National  Assembly,  but  afterwards  it  was  the  Senate 
itself  which  held  elections  to  fill  up  vacancies.  The  225  remaining 
senators  were  elected  by  the  departments  and  by  certain  colonies, 
among  which  they  were  apportioned  in  proportion  to  the  popula- 
tion; they  are  elected  for  nine  years,  a  third  of  the  house  being 
renewed  every  three  years.  The  electoral  college  in  each  depart- 
ment which  nominated  them  included  the  deputies,  the  members 
of  the  general  council  of  the  department  and  of  the  councils 
of  the  arrondissements,  and  one  delegate  elected  by  each  municipal 
council,  whatever  the  importance  of  the  commune.  This  was 
practically  a  system  of  election  in  two  and,  partly,  three  degrees, 
but  with  this  distinguishing  feature,  that  the  electors  of  the 
second  degree  had  not  been  chosen  purely  with  a  view  to  this 
election,  but  chiefly  for  the  exercise  of  other  functions.  The 
most  important  elements  in  this  electoral  college  were  the 
delegates  from  the  municipal  councils,  and  by  giving  one  delegate 
to  each,  to  Paris  just  as  to  the  smallest  commune  in  France,  the 
National  Assembly  intended  to  counterbalance  the  power  of 
numbers,  which  governed  the  elections  for  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  give  a  preponderance  to  the 
country  districts.  The  75  irremovable  senators  were  another 
precaution  against  the  danger  from  violent  waves  of  public 
opinion.  The  executive  power  was  entrusted  to  a  president, 


elected  for  seven  years  (as  Marshal  MacMahon  had  been  in  1873), 
by  the  Chamber  and  the  Senate,  combined  into  a  single  body 
under  the  name  of  National  Assembly.  He  is  always  eligible 
for  re-election,  and  is  irresponsible  except  in  case  of  high  treason. 
His  powers  are  of  the  widest,  including  the  initiative  in  legislation 
jointly  with  the  two  chambers,  the  appointment  to  all  civil  and 
military  offices,  the  disposition,  and,  if  he  wish  it,  the  leadership 
of  the  armed  forces,  the  right  of  pardon,  the  right  of  negotiating 
treaties  with  foreign  powers,  and,  in  principle,  of  ratifying  them 
on  his  own  authority,  the  consent  of  the  two  chambers  being 
required  only  in  certain  cases  defined  by  the  constitution.  The 
nomination  of  conseillers  d'etat  for  ordinary  service,  whom  the 
National  Assembly  had  made  elective,  as  in  1848,  and  elected 
itself,  was  restored  to  the  president  of  the  Republic,  together 
with  the  right  of  dismissing  them.  But  these  powers  he  can 
only  exercise  through  the  medium  of  a  ministry,  politically  and 
jointly  responsible  to  the  chambers,  and  forming  a  council, 
over  which  the  president  usually  presides. 

The  French  Republic  is  essentially  a  parliamentary  republic. 
The  right  of  dissolving  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  before  the 
expiration  of  its  term  of  office  belongs  to  the  president,  but  in 
order  to  do  so  he  must  have,  besides  a  ministry  which  will  take 
the  responsibility  for  it,  the  preliminary  sanction  of  the  Senate. 
The  Senate  is  at  the  same  time  a  high  court  of  justice,  which  can 
judge  the  president  of  the  Republic  and  ministers  accused  of 
crimes  committed  by  them  in  the  exercise  of  their  functions; 
in  these  two  cases  the  prosecution  is  instituted  by  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  The  Senate  can  also  be  called  upon  to  judge  any 
person  accused  of  an  attempt  upon  the  safety  of  the  state,  who 
is  then  seized  by  a  decree  of  the  president  of  the  Republic, 
drawn  up  in  the  council  of  ministers.  Possible  revision  of  the 
constitution  is  provided  for  very  simply:  it  has  to  be  proposed 
as  a  law,  and  for  its  acceptance  a  resolution  passed  by  each 
chamber  separately,  by  an  absolute  majority,  is  necessary. 
The  revision  is  then  carried  out  by  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  to  form  a  National  Assembly.  There  have  been  two 
revisions  since  1875.  The  first  time,  in  1879,  it  was  simply  a 
question  of  transferring  the  seat  of  the  government  and  of  the 
chambers  back  to  Paris  from  Versailles,  where  it  had  been  fixed 
by  one  of  the  constitutional  laws.  The  second  time,  in  1884, 
more  fundamental  modifications  were  required.  The  most 
important  point  was  to  change  the  composition  and  election 
of  the  Senate.  With  a  view  to  this,  the  new  constitutional  law 
of  the  i4th  of  August  1884  abolished  the  constitutional  character 
of  a  certain  number  of  articles  of  the  law  of  the  24th  of  February 
1875,  thus  making  it  possible  to  modify  them  by  an  ordinary 
law.  This  took  place  in  the  same  year;  the  75  senators  for  life 
were  suppressed  for  the  future  by  a  process  of  extinction,  and 
their  seats  divided  among  the  most  populous  departments. 
Further,  in  the  electoral  college  which  elects  the  senators,  there 
was  allotted  to  the  municipal  councils  a  number  of  delegates 
proportionate  to  the  number  of  members  of  the  councils,  which 
depends  on  the  importance  of  the  commune.  The  law  of  the 
i4th  of  August  1884  also  modified  the  constitution  in  another 
important  respect.  The  law  of  the  25th  of  February  1875  had 
admitted  the  possibility  riot  only  of  a  partial,  but  even  of  a  total 
revision,  which  could  affect  and  even  change  the  form  of  the 
state.  The  law  of  the  I4th  of  August  1884,  however,  declared 
that  no  proposition  for  a  revision  could  be  accepted  which 
aimed  at  changing  the  republican  form  of  government.  The 
composition  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  was  not  fixed  by  the 
constitution,  and  consequently  admitted  more  easily  of  variation. 
Since  1871  the  mode  of  election  has  oscillated  between  the  scrulin 
de  lisle  for  the  departments  and  the  scrutin  uninominal  for  the 
arrondissements.  The  organic  law  of  the  3Oth  of  November  1875 
had  established  the  latter  system;  in  1885  the  scrutin  de  lisle 
was  established  by  law,  but  in  1889  the  scrutin  d'arrondissement 
was  restored;  and  in  this  same  year,  on  account  of  the  ambitions 
of  General  Boulanger  and  the  suggestion  which  was  made  for  a 
sort  of  plebiscite  in  his  favour,  was  passed  the  law  on  plural 
candidatures,  which  forbids  anyone  to  become  a  candidate  for 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  more  than  one  district  at  a  time. 


928 


FRANCE 


[LAW  AND 


The  system  established  by  the  constitution  of  1875  has  worked 
excellently  in  some  of  its  departments;  for  instance,  the  mode  of 
Working  electing  the  president  of  the  Republic.  Between  1875 
of  the  and  1906  there  were  seven  elections,  sometimes  under 
constltu-  tragic  or  very  difficult  conditions ;  the  election  has 
always  taken  place  without  delay  or  obstruction, 
and  the  choice  has  been  of  the  best.  The  high  court  of  justice, 
which  has  twice  been  called  into  requisition,  in  1889  and  in 
1899-1900,  has  acted  as  an  efficient  check,  in  spite  of  the  diffi- 
culties confronting  such  a  tribunal  when  feeling  runs  high. 
Parliamentary  government  in  the  form  set  up  by  the  constitution, 
besides  the  criticism  to  which  this  system  is  open  in  all  countries 
where  it  is  established,  even  in  England,  met  with  special 
difficulties  in  France.  In  the  first  place,  the  useful  but  rather 
secondary  role  assigned  to  the  president  of  the  Republic  has  by 
no  means  satisfied  all  those  who  have  occupied  this  high  office. 
Two  presidents  have  resigned  on  the  ground  that  their  powers 
were  insufficient.  Another,  even  after  re-election,  had  to 
withdraw  in  face  of  the  opposition  of  the  two  chambers,  being 
no  longer  able  to  obtain  a  parliamentary  ministry.  It  is  difficult, 
however,  to  accept  the  theory  of  an  eminent  American  political 
writer,  Mr  John  W.  Burgess,1  that  in  order  to  attain  to  a  position 
of  stable  equilibrium,  the  French  Republic  ought  to  adopt  the 
presidential  system  of  the  United  States.  In  France  this  sharp 
division  between  the  two  powers  has  never  been  observed  except 
in  those  periods  when  the  representative  assemblies  were  power- 
less, under  the  First  and  Second  Empires.  It  is  true  that  the 
apparent  multiplicity  of  parties  and  their  lack  of  discipline, 
together  with  the  French  procedure  of  interpellations  and  the 
orders  of  the  day  by  which  they  are  concluded,  make  the  forma- 
tion of  homogeneous  and  lasting  cabinets  difficult;  but  since 
the  end  of  the  igth  century  there  has  been  great  progress  in  this 
respect.  Another  difficulty  arose  in  1896.  The  Senate,  appealing 
to  the  letter  of  the  constitution  and  relying  on  its  elective  char- 
acter, claimed  the  right  of  forcing  a  ministry  to  resign  by  its  vote, 
in  the  same  way  as  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  Senate  was 
victorious  in  the  struggle,  and  forced  the  ministry  presided  over 
by  M.  Leon  Bourgeois  to  resign;  but  the  precedent  is  not 
decisive,  for  in  order  to  gain  its  ends  the  Senate  had  recourse  to 
the  means  of  refusing  to  sanction  the  taxes,  declining  to  consider 
the  proposals  for  the  supplies  necessary  for  the  Madagascar 
expedition  so  long  as  the  ministry  which  it  was  attacking  was 
in  existence.  The  weakest  point  in  the  French  parliamentary 
organism  is  perhaps  the  right  of  dissolution.  It  is  difficult  of 
application,  for  the  reason  that  the  president  must  obtain  the 
preliminary  consent  of  the  Senate  before  exercising  it;  more- 
over, this  valuable  right  has  been  discredited  by  its  abuse  by 
Marshal  MacMahon  in  the  campaign  of  the  i6th  of  May  1877, 
on  which  occasion  he  exercised  his  right  of  dissolution  against 
a  chamber,  the  moderate  but  decidedly  republican  majority  in 
which  was  re-elected  by  the  country. 

The  legislative  reforms  carried  out  under  the  Third  Republic 
are  very  numerous.  As  to  public  law,  it  is  only  possible  to 
Reforms  mention  here  those  of  a  really  organic  character, 
under  the  chief  among  which  are  those  which  safeguard  and 
pA'r<h/fc.  re6ulate  tne  exercise  of  the  liberties  of  the  individual. 
The  law  of  the  30th  of  June  1881,  modified  in  1901, 
established  the  right  of  holding  meetings.  Public  meetings, 
whether  for  ordinary  or  electoral  purposes,  may  be  held  without 
preliminary  authorization;  the  law  of  1881  prescribed  a  declara- 
tion made  by  a  certain  number  of  citizens  enjoying  full  civil 
and  political  rights,  which  is  now  remitted.  The  only  really 
restrictive  provision  is  that  which  does  not  allow  them  to  be 
held  in  the  public  highway,  but  only  in  an  enclosed  space.  But 
this  is  made  necessary  by  the  customs  of  France.  The  law  of  the 
2ist  of  July  1881  on  the  press  is  one  of  the  most  liberal  in  the 
world.  By  it  all  offences  committed  by  any  kind  of  publication 
are  submitted  to  a  jury;  the  punishment  for  the  mere  expression 
of  obnoxious  opinions  is  abolished,  the  only  punishment  being 
for  slander,  libel,  defamation,  inciting  to  crime,  and  in  certain 

1  Political  Science  and  Comparative  Constitutional  Law  (Boston, 
1896). 


cases  the  publication  of  false  news.  The  law  of  the  ist  of  July 
1901  established  in  France  the  right  of  forming  associations. 
It  recognizes  the  legality  of  all  associations  strictly  so  called, 
the  objects  of  which  are  not  contrary  to  law  or  to  public  order 
or  morality.  On  condition  of  a  simple  declaration  to  the  admini- 
strative authority,  it  grants  them  a  civil  status  in  a  wide  sense 
of  the  term.  Religious  congregations,  on  the  contrary,  which 
are  not  authorized  by  a  law,  are  forbidden  by  this  law.  j-/,e 
This  was  not  a  new  principle,  but  the  traditional  rule  religious 
in  France  both  before  and  after  the  Revolution,  coagrega- 
except  that  under  certain  governments  authorization  °"s' 
by  decree  had  sufficed.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  unauthorized 
congregations  had  been  tolerated  for  a  long  time,  although  on 
various  occasions,  and  especially  in  1881,  their  partial  dissolution 
had  been  proclaimed  by  decrees.  The  law  of  1901  dissolved 
them  all,  and  made  it  an  offence  to  belong  to  such  a  congregation. 
The  members  of  unauthorized  congregations,  and  later,  in  1904, 
even  those  of  the  authorized  congregations,  were  disqualified 
from  teaching  in  any  kind  of  establishment.  The  liberty  of 
primary  education  was  confirmed  and  reorganized  by  the  law 
of  the  30th  of  October  1886,  which  simply  deprived  the  clergy 
of  the  privileges  granted  them  by  the  law  of  1850,  though  the 
latter  remains  in  force  with  regard  to  the  liberty  of  secondary 
education.  A  law  passed  by  the  National  Assembly  (July  12, 
1875)  established  the  liberty  of  higher  education.  It  even  went 
beyond  this,  for  it  granted  to  students  in  private  EducaUoa 
facultes  who  aspired  to  state  degrees  the  right  of  being 
examined  before  a  board  composed  partly  of  private  and  partly 
of  state  professors.  The  law  of  the  i8th  of  March  1880  abolished 
this  privilege.  Another  law,  that  of  the  22nd  of  March  1882, 
made  primary  education  obligatory,  though  allowing  parents  to 
send  their  children  either  to  private  schools  or  to  those  of  the 
state;  the  law  of  the  i6th  of  June  1881  established  secular 
(laique)  education  in  the  case  of  the  latter.  The  Third  Republic 
also  organized  secondary  education  for  girls  in  lycees  or  special 
colleges  (colleges  de  fille).  Finally,  a  law  of  the  icjth  of  July 
1896  dealing  with  higher  education  and  the  faculties  of  the  state 
reorganized  the  universities,  which  form  distinct  bodies,  enjoying 
a  fairly  wide  autonomy.  A  law  of  the  igth  of  December  1905, 
abrogating  that  of  the  i8th  Germinal  in  the  year  X.,  which 
had  sanctioned  the  Concordat,  proclaimed  the  separa-  separa- 
tion of  the  church  from  the  state.  It  is  based  on  the  tion  of 
principle  of  the  secular  state  (etat  laique)  which  recog-  church 
nizes  no  form  of  religion,  though  respecting  the  right  aadstate- 
of  every  citizen  to  worship  according  to  his  beliefs,  and  it  aimed 
at  organizing  associations  of  citizens,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
collect  the  funds  and  acquire  the  property  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  of  worship,  under  the  form  of  associations  cultuelles, 
differing  in  certain  respects  from  the  associations  sanctioned 
by  the  law  of  the  ist  of  July  1901,  but  having  a  wider  scope.  It 
also  handed  over  to  these  regularly  formed  associations  the  pro- 
perty of  the  ecclesiastical  establishments  formerly  in  existence, 
while  taking  precautions  to  ensure  their  proper  application, 
and  allowed  the  associations  the  free  use  of  the  churches  and 
places  of  worship  belonging  to  the  state,  the  departments  or  the 
communes.  If  no  association  cultuelle  was  founded  in  a  parish, 
the  property  of  the  former  fabrique  should  devolve  to  the  com- 
mune. But  this  law  was  condemned  by  the  papacy,  as  contrary 
to  the  church  hierarchy;  and  almost  nowhere  were  associations 
cultuelles  formed,  except  by  Protestants  and  Jews,  who  complied 
with  the  law.  After  many  incidents,  but  no  church  having  been 
closed,  a  new  law  of  the  2nd  of  January  1907  was  enacted. 
It  permits  the  public  exercise  of  any  cult,  by  means  of  ordinary 
associations  regulated  by  the  law  of  the  ist  of  July  1901,  and  even 
of  public  meetings  summoned  by  individuals.  Failing  all  associa- 
tions, either  culluelles  or  others,  churches,  with  their  ornaments 
and  furniture,  are  left  to  the  disposition  of  the  faithful  and 
ministers,  for  the  purpose  of  exercising  the  cult;  and,  on  certain 
conditions,  the  long  use  of  them  can  be  granted  as  a  free  gift  to 
ministers  of  the  cult. 

Among  the  organic  laws  concerning  administrative  affairs 
there  are  two  of  primary  importance;   that  of  the   loth  of 


INSTITUTIONS] 


FRANCE 


929 


August  1871,  on  the  conseils  ginerawx,  considerably  increased 
the  powers  and  independence  of  these  elective  bodies, 
wnich  have  become  important  deliberative  assemblies, 
tneir  sessions  being  held  in  public.  The  law  of  1871 
created  a  new  administrative  organ  for  the  depart- 
ments, the  commission  departmentale,  elected  by  the  council- 
general  of  the  department  from  among  its  own  members  and 
associated  with  the  administration  of  the  prefect.  The  other  law 
is  the  municipal  law  of  the  5th  of  April  1884,  which  effected  a 
widespread  decentralization;  the  maires  and  their  adjoints  are 
elected  by  the  municipal  council. 

The  war  of  1870-71  necessarily  led  to  a  modification  of  the 
military  organization.  The  law  of  the  25th  of  July  1872  estab- 
Kf  organ!-  lished  the  principle  of  compulsory  service  for  all,  first  in 
tattoo  the  standing  army,  the  period  of  service  in  which  was 
of  the  fixed  at  five  years,  then  in  the  reserve,  and  finally  in 
•rmy.  the  territorial  army.  Buttheapplicationofthisprinciple 
was  by  no  means  absolute,  only  holding  good  in  time  of  war. 
Each  annual  class  was  divided  into  two  parts,  by  means  of  draw- 
ing lots,  and  in  time  of  peace  one  of  these  parts  had  only  a  year  of 
service  with  the  active  army.  The  previous  exemptions,  based 
either  on  the  position  of  supporter  of  the  family  (as  in  the  case  of 
the  son  of  a  widow  or  aged  father,  &c.)  or  on  equivalent  services 
rendered  to  the  state  (as  in  the  case  of  young  ecclesiastics  or 
members  of  the  teaching  profession),  were  preserved,  but  only 
held  good  for  service  in  the  active  army  in  times  of  peace. 
Finally,  the  system  of  conditional  engagement  for  a  year  allowed 
young  men,  for  the  purposes  of  study  or  apprenticeship  to  their 
profession,  only  to  serve  a  year  with  the  active  army  in  time  of 
peace.  By  this  means  it  Was  sought  to  combine  the  advantages  of 
an  army  of  veterans  with  those  of  a  numerous  and  truly  national 
army.  But  the  conditional  volunteering  (volontariat  conditionnel) 
for  a  year  was  open  to  too  great  a  number  of  people,  and  so 
brought  the  system  into  discredit.  As  those  who  profited  by 
it  had  to  be  clothed  and  maintained  at  their  own  expense,  and 
the  sum  which  they  had  to  furnish  for  this  purpose  was  generally 
fixed  at  1500  francs,  it  came  to  be  considered  the  privilege  of 
those  who  could  pay  this  sum.  A  new  law  of  the  1  5th  of  July  1  889 
lessened  the  difference  between  the  two  terms  which  it  attempted 
to  reconcile.  It  reduced  the  term  of  service  in  the  active  army 
to  three  years,  and  the  exemptions,  which  were  still  preserved, 
merely  reduced  the  period  to  a  year  in  times  of  peace.  The  same 
reduction  was  also  granted  to  those  who  were  really  pursuing 
important  scientific,  technical  or  professional  studies;  the  system 
was  so  strict  on  this  point  that  the  number  of  those  who  profited 
by  those  exemptions  did  not  amount  to  2000  in  a  year.  This  was 
a  compromise  between  two  opposing  principles;  the  democratic 
principle  of  equality,  being  the  stronger,  was  bound  to  triumph. 
The  law  of  the  2ist  of  March  1905  reduced  the  term  of  service 
in  the  active  army  to  two  years,  but  made  it  equal  for  all,  admit- 
ting of  no  exemption,  but  only  certain  facilities  as  to  the  age  at 
which  it  had  to  be  accomplished. 

In  1883  the  judicial  personnel  was  reorganized  and  reduced 

in  number.     With  the  exception  of  a  few  modifications  the  main 

lines   of   judicial   organization   remained   the   same. 

Justice        jn  jgyg  tne  conseji  d'etat  was  also  reorganized.     The 

'taxation,     whole  fabric  of  administrative  jurisdiction  was  carefully 

organized,  and  almost  entirely  separated  from  the 

active  administration. 

The  system  of  taxation  has  remained  essentially  unaltered; 
we  may  notice,  however,  the  laws  of  1897,  1898  and  1900,  which 
abolished  or  lessened  the  duties  on  so  called  hygienic  drinks 
(wine,  beer,  cider),  and  the  financial  law  of  1901,  which  rearranged 
and  increased  the  transfer  fees,  and  established  a  system  of 
progressive  taxation  in  the  case  of  succession  dues. 

The   labour  laws,   which  generally   partook  of   the   nature 
both  of  public  and  of  private  law,  are  a  sign  of  our  times.   Under 
the  Third  Republic  they  have  been  numerous,  the 
most  notable  being:  the  law  of  the  2ist  of  March 
^84  on  professional   syndicates,   which   introduced 
the  liberty  of  association  in  matters  of  this  kind 
before  it  became  part  of  the  common  law  (see  TRADE  UNIONS)  ; 
x.  30 


tion. 


the  law  of  the  9th  of  April  1898  on  the  liability  for  accidents 
incurred  during  work,  and  those  which  have  completed  it; 
that  of  the  22nd  of  December  1892  on  conciliation  and  arbitration 
in  the  case  of  collective  disputes  between  employers  and  workmen; 
that  of  the  29th  of  June  1893  on  the  hygiene  and  safeguarding 
of  workers  in  industrial  establishments,  and  the  laws  which 
regulate  the  work  of  children  and  women  in  factories;  finally, 
that  of  the  isth  of  July  1893  on  free  medical  attendance  (see 
LABOUR  LEGISLATION). 

As  to  criminal  law,  there  have  been  more  than  fifty  enactments, 
mostly  involving  important  modifications,  due  to  more  scientific 
ideas  of  punishment,  so  that  we  may  say  that  it  has 
been  almost  entirely  recast  since  the  establishment  .r™  " 
of  the  Third  Republic.  The  separate  system  applied  in 
cases  of  preventive  detention  and  imprisonment  for  short 
periods;  liberation  before  the  expiry  of  the  term  of  sentence, 
subject  to  the  condition  that  no  fresh  offence  shall  be  committed 
within  a  given  time;  transportation  to  the  colonies  of  habitual 
offenders;  the  remission  of  the  penalty  in  the  case  of  first 
offenders,  and  the  lapsing  of  the  penalty  when  a  certain  time 
has  gone  by  without  a  fresh  condemnation;  greater  facilities 
for  the  rehabilitation  of  condemned  persons,  which  now  became 
simply  a  matter  for  the  courts,  and  occurred  as  a  matter  of 
course  at  the  end  of  a  certain  time;  such  were  the  chief  results 
of  this  legislation.  Finally,  the  law  of  the  8th  of  December  1897 
completely  altered  the  form  of  the  preliminary  examination 
before  the  juge  d' instruction,  which  had  been  the  weakest  point 
in  the  French  criminal  procedure,  though  it  was  still  held  in 
private;  the  new  law  made  this  examination  really  a  hearing 
of  both  sides,  and  made  the  appearance  cf  counsel  for  the  defence 
practically  compulsory. 

As  to  private  law,  both  civil  and  commercial,  we  could 
enumerate  between  1871  and  1906  more  than  a  hundred  laws 
which  have  modified  it,  sometimes  profoundly,  and  have  for 
the  most  part  done  very  useful  work  without  attracting  much 
attention.  They  are  generally  examined  and  drawn  up  by 
commissions  of  competent  men,  and  pass  both  chambers  almost 
without  discussion.  There  have,  however,  been  a  few  which 
aroused  public  interest  and  even  deep  feeling.  Firstly,  there 
was  the  law  of  the  27th  of  July  1884,  and  those  which  completed 
it;  this  law  re-established  divorce,  which  had  been  abolished 
since  1816,  but  only  permitted  it  for  certain  definite  causes 
determined  by  law.  On  the  other  hand,  the  law  of  the  6th  of 
F'ebruary  1893  increased  the  liberty  and  independence  of  a 
woman  who  was  simply  judicially  separated,  in  order  to 
encourage  separation,as  opposed  to  divorce,  when  the  conditions 
allowed  it.  The  law  of  the  25th  of  March  1896  on  the  succession 
of  illegitimate  children,  who  were  recognized  by  the  parents, 
treated  them  not  in  the  same  way  as  legitimate  children,  but 
gave  them  the  title  of  heirs  in  the  succession  of  their  father  and 
mother,  together  with  much  greater  rights  than  they  had 
possessed  under  the  Code  Civil.  The  law  of  the  24th  of  Juiy  1899, 
on  the  protection  of  children  who  are  ill-treated  or  morally 
neglected,  also  modified  some  of  the  provisions  of  the  law 
as  applied  to  the  family,  with  a  view  to  greater  justice  and 
humanity.  Finally,  on  the  occasion  of  the  centenary  of  the 
Code  Civil  (see  CODE  NAPOLEON),  a  commission,  composed 
of  members  of  the  chambers,  magistrates,  professors  of  law, 
lawyers,  political  writers,  and  even  novelists  and  dramatic 
authors,  was  given  the  task  of  revising  the  whole  structure  of 
the  code. 

See  generally  Adhemar  Esmein,  Cours  elementaire  d'hisloire  du 
droit  franfais  (6th  ed.,  1906);  J.  Brissand,  Cours  d'histcire  generate 
du  droit  franfais  public  et  prive  (1904);  Ernest  Glasson,  Histoire  du 
droit  et  des  institutions  en  France  (1887-1904) ;  Paul  Viollet,  Histoire 
des  institutions  politiques  et  administratives  de  la  France  (3rd  ed., 
1903);  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  Histoire  des  institutions  politiques  de 
I'ancienne  France ;  Jacques  Flach,  Les  Origines  de  I'ancienne  France 
(1875-1889) ;  Achilla  Luchaire,  Histoire  des  institutions  monarchiques 
de  la  France  sous  les  premiers  Capetiens  (2nd  ed.,  1900);  Hippolyte 
Taine,  Les  Origines  de  la  France  contemporaine  (1878-1894) ;  Adhemar 
Esmein,  Elements  de  droit  constitutionnel  franc, ais  et  compare  (4th ed., 
1906) :  Leon  Duguit  et  Henry  Monnier.Les  Constitutions  et  les  princi- 
pales  lois  politiques  de  la.  France  depuis  1789  (1898).  (J.  P.  E.) 


930 


FRANCESCHI— FRANCESCHINI 


FRANCESCHI,  JEAN  BAPTISTE,  BARON  (1766-1813),  French 
general,  was  born  at  Bastia  on  the  sth  of  December  1766  and 
entered  the  French  service  in  1793.  He  took  part  in  the  opera- 
tions in  Corsica  in  the  following  year,  and  received  a  wound  at 
the  siege  of  San  Fiorenzo.  After  this  he  left  the  island  and  was 
appointed  a  field  officer  in  the  French  Army  of  Italy,  with  which 
he  served  from  1795  to  1799.  He  served  as  a  general  officer  in 
the  campaign  of  Marengo,  in  the  Naples  campaign  of  1805-1806, 
and  in  the  Peninsular  War  from  1807  to  1809.  He  was  created 
a  baron  by  Napoleon.  He  commanded  a  Neapolitan  brigade 
in  the  Russian  War  of  1812,  and  after  the  retreat  from  Moscow 
took  refuge,  with  the  remnant  of  his  command,  in  Danzig, 
where  in  the  course  of  the  siege  of  1813  he  died  on  the  i9th  of 
March. 

Two  other  generals  of  brigade  in  Napoleon's  wars  bore  the 
name  of  Franceschi,  and  the  three  have  often  been  mistaken  for 
each  other.  The  first  was  born  at  Lyons,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  MARIE 
FRANCESCHI-DELONNE  (1767-1810),  who  served  throughout 
the  Revolutionary  campaign  on  the  Rhine,  took  part  in  the 
campaign  of  Zurich  in  1799,  and  distinguished  himself  very 
greatly  by  his  escape  from,  and  subsequent  return  to,  Genoa, 
when  in  1800  Massena  was  closely  besieged  in  that  city.  He 
became  a  cavalry  colonel  in  1803,  was  promoted  general  of 
brigade  on  the  field  of  Austerlitz,  and  served  in  southern  Italy 
and  in  Spain  on  the  staff  of  King  Joseph  Bonaparte.  During 
the  Peninsular  War  he  won  great  distinction  as  a  cavalry  general, 
and  in  1810  Napoleon  made  him  a  baron.  At  this  time  he  was  a 
prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  into  whose  hands  he  had 
fallen  while  bearing  important  despatches  during  the  campaign 
of  Talavera.  He  was  harshly  treated  by  his  captors,  and  died 
at  Carthagena  on  the  23rd  of  October  1810.  The  second  was 
FRANCOIS  FRANCESCHI-LOSIO  (1770-1810),  born  at  Milan,  who 
entered  the  French  Revolutionary  army  in  1795.  He  served 
through  the  Italian  campaign  of  1796-97,  and  subsequently, 
like  Franceschi-Delonne,  with  Massena  at  Zurich  and  at  Genoa, 
and  at  the  headquarters  of  King  Joseph  in  Italy  and  Spain. 
He  was  killed  in  a  duel  by  the  Neapolitan  colonel  Filangieri 
in  1810. 

FRANCESCHI,  PIERO  (or  PIETRO)  DE'  (c.  1416-1492), 
Italian  painter  of  the  Umbrian  school.  This  master  is  generally 
named  Piero  della  Francesca  (Peter,  son  of  Frances) ,  the  tradition 
being  that  his  father,  a  woollen-draper  named  Benedetto,  had 
died  before  his  birth.  This  is  not  correct,  for  the  mother's 
name  was  Romana,  and  the  father  continued  living  during 
many  years  of  Piero's  career.  The  painter  is  also  named  Piero 
Borghese,  from  his  birthplace,  Borgo  San  Sepolcro,  in  Umbria. 
The  true  family  name  was,  as  above  stated,  Franceschi,  and 
the  family  still  exists  under  the  name  of  Martini-Franceschi. 

Piero  first  received  a  scientific  education,  and  became  an 
adept  in  mathematics  and  geometry.  This  early  bent  of  mind 
and  course  of  study  influenced  to  a  large  extent  his  development 
as  a  painter.  He  had  more  science  than  either  Paolo  Uccello 
or  Mantegna,  both  of  them  his  contemporaries,  the  former 
older  and  the  latter  younger.  Skilful  in  linear  perspective, 
he  fixed  rectangular  planes  in  perfect  order  and  measured  them, 
and  thus  got  his  figures  in  true  proportional  height.  He  preceded 
and  excelled  Domenico  Ghirlandajo  in  projecting  shadows, 
and  rendered  with  considerable  truth  atmosphere,  the  harmony 
of  colours,  and  the  relief  of  objects.  He  was  naturally  therefore 
excellent  in  architectural  painting,  and,  in  point  of  technique, 
he  advanced  the  practice  of  oil-colouring  in  Italy. 

The  earliest  trace  that  we  find  of  Piero  as  a  painter  is  in  1439, 
when  he  was  an  apprentice  of  Domenico  Veneziano,  and  assisted 
him  in  painting  the  chapel  of  S.  Egidio,  in  S.  Maria  Novella  of 
Florence.  Towards  1450  he  is  said  to  have  been  with  the  same 
artist  in  Loreto;  nothing  of  his,  however,  can  now  be  identified 
in  that  locality.  In  1451  he  was  by  himself,  painting  in  Rimini, 
where  a  fresco  still  remains.  Prior  to  this  he  had  executed 
some  extensive  frescoes  in  the  Vatican;  but  these  were  destroyed 
when  Raphael  undertook  on  the  same  walls  the  "  Liberation 
of  St  Peter  "  and  other  paintings.  His  most  extensive  extant 
series  of  frescoes  is  in  the  choir  of  S.  Francesco  in  Arezzo, — the 


"  History  of  the  Cross,"  beginning  with  legendary  subjects  of 
the  death  and  burial  of  Adam,  and  going  on  to  the  entry  of 
Heraclius  into  Jerusalem  after  the  overthrow  of  Chosroes. 
This  series  is,  in  relation  to  its  period,  remarkable  for  effect, 
movement,  and  mastery  of  the  nude.  The  subject  of  the  "  Vision 
of  Constantine  "  is  particularly  vigorous  in  chiaroscuro;  and  a 
preparatory  design  of  the  same  composition  was  so  highly  effective 
that  it  used  to  be  ascribed  to  Giorgione,  and  might  even  (accord- 
ing to  one  authority)  have  passed  for  the  handiwork  of  Correggio 
or  of  Rembrandt.  A  noted  fresco  in  Borgo  San  Sepolcro,  the 
"  Resurrection,"  may  be  later  than  this  series;  it  is  preserved 
in  the  Palazzo  de'  Conservatori.  An  important  painting  of  the  • 
"  Flagellation  of  Christ,"  in  the  cathedral  of  Urbino,  is  later 
still,  probably  towards  1470.  Piero  appears  to  have  been  much 
in  his  native  town  of  Borgo  San  Sepolcro  from  about  1445,  and 
more  especially  after  1454,  when  he  finished  the  series  in  Arezzo. 
He  grew  rich  there,  and  there  he  died,  and  in  October  1492  was 
buried. 

Two  statements  made  by  Vasari  regarding  "Piero  della  Francesca" 
are  open  to  much  controversy.  He  says  that  Piero  became  blind 
at  the  age  of  sixty,  which  cannot  be  true,  as  he  continued  paint- 
ing some  years  later;  but  scepticism  need  perhaps  hardly  go  to  the 
extent  of  inferring  that  he  was  never  blind  at  all.  Vasari  also  says 
that  Fra  Luca  Pacioli,  a  disciple  of  Piero  in  scientific  matters, 
defrauded  his  memory  by  appropriating  his  researches  without 
acknowledgment.  This  is  hard  upon  the  friar,  who  constantly 
shows  a  great  reverence  for  his  master  in  the  sciences.  One  of 
Pacioli's  books  was  published  in  1509,  and  speaks  of  Piero  as  still 
living.  Hence  it  has  been  propounded  that  Piero  lived  to  the 
patriarchal  age  of  ninety-four  or  upwards;  but,  as  it  is  now  stated 
that  he  was  buried  in  1492,  we  must  infer  that  there  is  some  mistake 
in  relation  to  Pacioli's  remark — perhaps  the  date  of  writing  was 
several  years  earlier  than  that  of  publication.  Piero  was  known 
to  have  left  a  manuscript  of  his  own  on  perspective ;  this  remained 
undiscovered  for  a  long  time,  but  eventually  was  found  by  E.  Harzen 
in  the  Ambrosian  library  of  Milan,  ascribed  to  some  supposititious 
"  Pietro,  Pittore  di  Bruges."  The  treatise  shows  a  knowledge  of 
perspective  as  dependent  on  the  point  of  distance. 

In  the  National  Gallery,  London,  are  three  paintings  attributed 
to  Piero  de'  Franceschi.  Another  work,  a  profile  of  Isotfa  da  Rimini, 
may  safely  be  rejected.  The  "  Baptism  of  Christ,"  which  used  to  be 
the  altar-piece  of  the  Priory  of  the  Baptist  in  Borgo  San  Sepolcro, 
is  an  important  example;  and  still  more  so  the  "  Nativity,"  with  the 
Virgin  kneeling,  and  five  angels  singing  to  musical  instruments. 
This  is  a  very  interesting  and  characteristic  specimen,  and  has 
indeed  been  praised  somewhat  beyond  its  deservings  on  aesthetic 
grounds. 

Piero's  earlier  style  was  energetic  but  unrefined,  and  to  the  last 
he  lacked  selectness  of  form  and  feature.  The  types  of  his  visages 
are  peculiar,  and  the  costumes  (as  especially  in  the  Arezzo  series) 
singular.  He  used  to  work  assiduously  from  clay  models  swathed 
in  real  drapery.  Luca  Signorelli  was  his  pupil,  and  probably  to 
some  extent  Perugino;  and  his  own  influence,  furthered  by  that  of 
Signorelli,  was  potent  over  all  Italy.  Belonging  as  he  does  to  the 
Umbrian  school,  he  united  with  that  style  something  of  the  Sienese 
and  more  of  the  Florentine  mode. 

Besides  Vasari  and  Crowe  &  Cavalcaselle,  the  work  by  W.  G. 
Waters,  Piero  della  Francesca  (1899)  should  be  consulted. 

(W.  M.  R.) 

FRANCESCHINI,  BALDASSARE  (1611-1689),  Italian  painter 
of  the  Tuscan  school,  named,  from  Volterra  the  place  of  his 
birth,  II  Volterrano,  or  (to  distinguish  him  from  Ricciarelli) 
II  Volterrano  Giuniore,  was  the  son  of  a  sculptor  in  alabaster. 
At  a  very  early  age  he  learned  from  Cosimo  Daddi  some  of  the 
elements  of  art,  and  he  started  as  an  assistant  to  his  father. 
This  employment  being  evidently  below  the  level  of  his  talents, 
the  marquises  Inghirami  placed  him,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  under 
the  Florentine  painter  Matteo  Rosselli.  In  the  ensuing  year  he 
had  advanced  sufficiently  to  execute  in  Volterra  some  frescoes, 
skilful  in  foreshortening,  followed  by  other  frescoes  for  the 
Medici  family  in  the  Valle  della  Petraia.  In  1652  the  marchese 
Filippo  Niccolini,  being  minded  to  employ  Franceschini  upon  the 
frescoes  for  the  cupola  and  back-wall  of  his  chapel  in  S.  Croce, 
Florence,  despatched  him  to  various  parts  of  Italy  to  perfect 
his  style.  The  painter,  in  a  tour  which  lasted  some  months, 
took  more  especially  to  the  qualities  distinctive  of  the  schools 
of  Parma  and  Bologna,  and  in  a  measure  to  those  of  Pietro 
da  Cortona,  whose  acquaintance  he  made  in  Rome.  He  then 
undertook  the  paintings  commissioned  by  Niccolini,  which 


FRANCHE-COMTE 


constitute  his  most  noted  performance,  the  design  being  good, 
and  the  method  masterly.  Franceschini  ranks  higher  in  fresco 
than  in  oil  painting.  His  works  in  the  latter  mode  were  not 
unfrequently  left  unfinished,  although  numerous  specimens 
remain,  the  cabinet  pictures  being  marked  by  much  sprightliness 
of  invention.  Among  his  best  oil  paintings  of  large  scale  is  the 
"  St  John  the  Evangelist  "  in  the  church  of  S.  Chiara  at  Volterra. 
One  of  his  latest  works  was  the  fresco  of  the  cupola  of  the  Annun- 
ziata,  Florence,  which  occupied  him  for  two  years  towards 
1683,  a  production  of  much  labour  and  energy.  Franceschini 
died  of  apoplexy  at  Volterra  on  the  6th  of  January  1689.  He  is 
reckoned  among  those  painters  of  the  decline  of  art  to  whom  the 
general  name  of  "  machinist  "  is  applied. 

He  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  another  Franceschini  of  the 
same  class,  and  of  rather  later  date,  also  of  no  small  eminence 
in  his  time — the  Cavaliere  Marcantonio  Franceschini  (1648- 
1729),  who  was  a  Bolognese. 

FRANCHE-COMTfi,  a  province  of  France  from  1674  to  the 
Revolution.  It  was  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Switzerland,  on  the 
S.  by  Bresse  and  Bugey,  on  the  N.  by  Lorraine,  and  on  the  W. 
by  the  duchy  of  Burgundy  and  by  Bassigny,  embracing  to  the  E. 
of  the  Jura  the  valley  of  the  Saone  and  most  of  that  of  the 
Doubs.  Under  the  Romans  it  corresponded  to  Maxima  Sequa- 
norum,  and  after  having  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy 
was  in  the  early  part  of  the  middle  ages  split  up  into  the  four 
countships  of  Portois,  Varais,  Amons  and  Escuens.  In  the 
loth  century  these  four  countships  were  united  to  form  a  whole, 
which  came  to  be  called  the  countship  of  Burgundy,  and  belonged 
at  that  time  to  the  family  of  the  counts  of  Macon. 

The  limits  of  the  countship  were  definitely  settled  under 
Otto  William,  son  of  Albert  or  Adalbert,  king  of  Italy  (tiQ27), 
who  on  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  Henry  (1002),  tried  to 
seize  the  duchy  of  Burgundy ,but  without  success.  The  countship, 
which  formed  a  fief  dependent  on  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy, 
passed  to  Renaud  I.,  the  second  son  of  Otto  William.  When 
the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  was  joined  to  the  Germanic  empire, 
he  refused  to  pay  homage  to  the  emperor  Henry  III.,  whose 
suzerainty  over  him  never  existed  except  in  theory.  William 
I.,  surnamed  the  Great  or  Headstrong  (1059-1087),  still  further 
added  to  the  power  of  his  house  by  marrying  Etiennette,  heiress 
of  the  count  of  Vienne,  and  by  acquiring  from  his  cousin  Guy, 
when  the  latter  became  a  monk  at  Cluny,  the  countship  of  Macon. 
One  of  his  sons,  Guy,  became  pope,  under  the  name  of  Calixtus 

II.  His  grandson,  Renaud  III.  (1097-1148),  in  his  turn  refused 
to  pay  homage  to  the  emperor  Lothair,  who  retaliated  by  con- 
fiscating his  dominions  and  giving  them  to  Conrad  of  Zahringen. 
Renaud,  however,  succeeded  in-maintaining  until  his  death  his 
possession  of  the  countships  of  Burgundy,  Vienne  and  Macon. 
He  left  as  sole  heiress  a  daughter,  Beatrix,  whom  his  brother 
William  III.  imprisoned,  in  order  to  make  an  attempt  on  her 
inheritance;  she  was  set  free,  however,  by  the  emperor  Frederick 
Barbarossa,  who  married  her  in  1156. 

On  the  death  of  Beatrix  (1185)  the  countship  of  Burgundy 
passed  to  Otto  I.  (1190-120x3),  the  youngest  but  one  of  her  sons, 
who  had  to  dispute  its  possession  with  Stephen,  count  of  Auxonne, 
the  grandson  of  William  III.  Beatrix,  the  daughter  and  heiress 
of  Otto  I.  (1200-1231),  married  Otto,  duke  of  Meran  (fi234), 
under  whose  government  the  inhabitants  of  Besanfon,  which 
had  been  since  the  time  of  Frederick  Barbarossa  an  imperial 
city,  formed  themselves  definitely  into  a  commune.  Alix, 
daughter  of  Beatrix  and  of  Otto  of  Meran,  and  heiress  to  the 
countship  of  Burgundy,  married  Hugh  of  Chalon,  son  of  John 
the  Ancient  or  the  Wise  (d.  1248),  and  a  descendant  of  William 

III.  and  consequently  of  William  the  Headstrong,  thus  bringing 
the  countship  back  into  the  family  of  its  former  lords.     His 
son  Otto  IV.  (1279-1303)  engaged  in  war  against  the  bishop 
of  Basel,  and  the  German  king  Rudolph  I.,  who  supported  the 
latter,   entered   Franche-Comte   and   besieged   Besancon,   but 
without  success  (1289).     Otto,  in  fulfilment  of  the  treaties  of 
Ervennes  and  Vincennes  (1291-1295)  gave  Jeanne,  his  daughter 
by   Mahaut  of  Artois,  in  marriage  to  Philip,   count  of  Poitiers, 
son  of  Philip  the  Fair.     The  latter  took  over  the  administration 


of  the  countship  in  spite  of  strong  opposition  from  the  nobles 
of  the  country,  but  their  leader,  John  of  Chalon-Arlay,  was 
compelled  to  make  his  submission.  Another  of  Otto's  daughters 
married  Charles  IV.,  the  Handsome,  and  both  princesses, 
together  with  their  sister-in-law  Margaret  of  Burgundy,  were 
concerned  in  the  celebrated  trial  of  the  Tour  de  Nesle.  Jeanne, 
however,  continued  to  govern  her  countship  when  Philip  her 
husband  became  king  of  France  (Philip  V.,  "the  Long"). 
Jeanne,  their  daughter  and  heiress,  married  Odo  IV.,  duke  of 
Burgundy  (1330-1347),  and  her  sister  Margaret  became  the 
wife  of  Louis  II.,  count  of  Flanders.  The  countship  returned 
to  Margaret  at  the  death  of  Odo  IV.,  who  was  succeeded  in  his 
duchy  by  his  grandson  Philip  of  Rouvre. 

The  marriage  of  Philip  the  Bold  with  Margaret,  daughter  of 
Louis  of  Male,  caused  Franche-Comte  to  pass  to  the  princes  of 
the  ducal  house  of  Burgundy,  who  kept  it  up  till  the  death  of 
Charles  the  Bold  (1477).  On  his  death  Louis  XI.  laid  claim  to  the 
government  of  the  countship  as  well  as  of  the  duchy,  as  trustee 
for  the  property  of  the  princess  Mary,  who  was  closely  related 
to  him  and  destined  to  marry  the  dauphin  (later  Charles  VIII.). 
French  garrisons  occupied  the  principal  towns,  and  the  lord  of 
Craon  was  appointed  governor  of  the  country.  In  consequence 
of  his  severity  there  was  a  general  rising,  and  at  the  same  time 
Mary  married  Maximilian,  archduke  of  Austria,  to  whom  her 
father  had  formerly  betrothed  her  (Aug.  1477).  The  French  were 
expelled  from  the  fortified  towns  and  Craon  beaten  by  the  people 
of  D61e.  Charles  of  Amboise,  who  took  his  place,  reconquered 
the  province,  and  even  Besancon  submitted  to  the  authority 
of  the  king  of  France,  who  promised  to  respect  its  privileges. 

On  the  death  of  Louis  XI.  (1483) ,  the  estates  of  Franche-Comte 
recognized  as  sovereign  his  son  Charles,  who  was  betrothed  to 
"the  little  Margaret  of  Burgundy,  daughter  of  Maximilian  and 
Mary  (d.  1482),  but  when  Charles  VIII.  refused  Margaret's 
hand  in  order  to  marry  Anne  of  Brittany  there  was  a  fresh  rising, 
and  the  French  were  again  driven  out.  The  treaty  of  Senlis 
(23rd  May  1483)  put  an  end  to  the  struggle:  Charles  abandoned 
all  his  pretensions,  and  Maximilian  was  thus  left  in  possession 
of  Franche-Comte,  the  sovereignty  of  which  he  handed  on  to 
his  son  Philip  and  ultimately  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  He  had, 
however,  constituted  his  daughter  Margaret  sovereign-governess 
of  Franche-Comte  for  life,  and  under  the  administration  of  this 
princess  (who  died  in  1530),  as  under  the  rule  of  Charles  V.,  the 
country  enjoyed  comparative  independence,  paying  a  "  don 
gratuit"  of  200,000  livres  every  three  years,  and  being  actually 
governed  by  the  parliament  of  Dole,  and  by  governors  chosen 
from  the  nobility  of  the  country.  It  was  Franche-Comte  which 
furnished  Philip  II.  of  Spain  with  one  of  his  best  counsellors, 
Cardinal  Perrenot  de  Granvella. 

In  the  1 6th  century  the  country  was  disturbed  by  the  preaching 
of  Protestant  doctrines,  which  gained  adherents  especially  in  the 
district  of  Montbeliard,  and  later  by  the  wars  between  France 
and  Spain.  In  1 505  the  armies  of  Henry  IV.  levied  contributions 
on  Besancon  and  other  towns;  but  the  people  of  Franche-Comte 
succeeded  in  obtaining  special  terms  of  neutrality  in  order  to 
shelter  themselves  from  injury  from  either  of  the  parties  in  the 
war,  and  enjoyed  a  period  of  calm  under  the  government  of  the 
infanta  Isabella  Clara  Eugenie  and  the  archduke  Albert  (1599- 
1621).  But  the  country  suffered  greatly  from  the  ravages  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  from  the  presence  of  the  army  of  the  Cond6s, 
which  besieged  D61e,  from  the  devastation  of  the  troops  of  Gallas, 
and  later  of  those  of  Bernard  of  Saxe-Weimar.  The  peace  of 
Westphalia  (1648)  confirmed  Spain  in  the  possession  of  Franche- 
Comte.  In  1668  the  French  again  entered  it,  and  the  conquest, 
of  which  the  foundations  had  been  laid  by  the  intrigues  of  the 
abbot  of  Watteville  and  the  French  party  constituted  by  him, 
was  easily  accomplished  by  Conde  and  Luxemburg,  Louis  XIV. 
directing  the  army  in  Franche-Comt6  for  some  time  in  person. 
None  the  less,  the  country  was  restored  to  Spain  at  the  peace 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1668),  but  in  1674  Louis  headed  another 
expedition  there.  Besanfon  capitulated  after  a  siege  of  twenty- 
seven  days,  and  D61e  and  Salins  also  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
invaders. 


932 


FRANCHISE— FRANCIA 


In  1678  the  treaty  of  Nijmwegen  gave  Franche-Comte  to 
France  (the  principality  of  Montbeliard  remaining  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  house  of  Wurttemberg,  which  had  acquired  it  by 
marriage),  and  it  was  in  celebration  of  this  conquest  that  the 
Arc  de  Triomphe  of  the  Fortes  Saint  Denis  and  Saint  Martin 
at  Paris  was  erected.  Franche-Comte  became  a  military  govern- 
ment (gomernement).  The  estates  ceased  to  meet,  and  the  old 
"  don  gratuit  "  was  replaced  by  a  tax  which  became  increasingly 
heavy.  Louis  made  Besancon,  which  Vauban  fortified,  into  the 
capital  of  the  province,  and  transferred  to  it  the  parliament 
and  the  university,  the  seat  of  which  had  hitherto  been  D61e. 
For  purposes  of  administration,  the  county  was  divided  among 
the  four  great  bailliages  of  Besancon,  D61e,  Amont  (chief  town 
Vesoul)  and  Aval  (chief  town  Salins).  At  the  Revolution  were 
formed  from  it  the  departments  of  Jura,  Doubs  and  Haute- 
Saone. 

See  Dunod,  Histoire  des  Sequanois;  Hist,  du  comte  de  Bourgogne 
(Dijon,  1735-1740);  E.  Clerc,  Essai  sur  I' histoire  de  la  Franche-Comte 
(2nd  ed.,  Besancon,  1870).  (R.  Po.) 

FRANCHISE  (from  O.  Fr.  franchise,  freedom,  franc,  free), 
in  English  law,  a  royal  privilege  or  branch  of  the  crown's  pre- 
rogative subsisting  in  the  hands  of  a  subject.  A  franchise  is  an 
incorporeal  hereditament,  and  arises  either  from  royal  grants  or 
from  prescription  which  presupposes  a  grant.  Such  franchises  are 
bodies  corporate,  the  right  to  hold  a  fair,  market,  ferry,  free 
fishery,  &c.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  right  of  voting  at 
elections  and  the  qualifications  upon  which  that  right  is  based 
(see  REGISTRATION;  REPRESENTATION;  VOTE).  In  the  United 
States  the  term  is  especially  applied  to  the  right  or  powers 
of  partial  appropriation  of  public  property  by  exclusive  use, 
or  to  a  privilege  of  a  public  nature  conferred  on  a  corporation 
created  for  the  purpose. 

FRANCIA  (c.  1450-1517),  a  Bolognese  painter,  whose  real 
name  was  Francesco  Raibolini,  his  father  being  Marco  di  Giacomo 
Raibolini,  a  carpenter,  descended  from  an  old  and  creditable 
family,  was  born  at  Bologna  about  1450.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  a  goldsmith  currently  named  Francia,  and  from  him  probably 
he  got  the  nickname  whereby  he  is  generally  known;  he  more- 
over studied  design  under  Marco  Zoppo.  The  youth  was  thus 
originally  a  goldsmith,  and  also  an  engraver  of  dies  and  niellos, 
and  in  these  arts  he  became  extremely  eminent.  He  was  particu- 
larly famed  for  his  dies  for  medals;  he  rose  to  be  mint-master 
at  Bologna,  and  retained  that  office  till  the  end  -of  his  life.  A 
famous  medal  of  Pope  Julius  II.  as  liberator  of  Bologna  is 
ascribed  to  his  hand,  but  not  with  certainty.  As  a  type-founder 
he  made  for  Aldus  Manutius  the  first  italic  type. 

At  a  mature  age — having  first,  it  appears,  become  acquainted 
with  Mantegna — he  turned  his  attention  to  painting.  His 
earliest  known  picture  is  dated  1494  (not  1490,  as  ordinarily 
stated).  It  shows  so  much  mastery  that  one  is  compelled  to 
believe  that  Raibolini  must  before  then  have  practised  painting 
for  some  few  years.  This  work  is  now  in  the  Bologna  gallery, — 
the  "  Virgin  enthroned,  with  Augustine  and  five  other  saints." 
It  is  an  oil  picture,  and  was  originally  painted  for  the  church 
of  S.  Maria  della  Misericordia,  at  the  desire  of  the  Bentivoglio 
family,  the  rulers  of  Bologna.  The  same  patrons  employed  him 
upon  frescoes  in  their  own  palace;  one  of  "Judith  and  Holo- 
phernes  "  is  especially  noted,  its  style  recalling  that  of  Mantegna. 
Francia  probably  studied  likewise  the  works  of  Perugino;  and 
he  became  a  friend  and  ardent  admirer  of  Raphael,  to  whom  he 
addressed  an  enthusiastic  sonnet.  Raphael  cordially  responded  to 
the  Bolognese  master's  admiration,  and  said,  in  a  letter  dated  in 
1508,  that  few,  painters  or  none  had  produced  Madonnas  more 
beautiful,  more  devout,  or  better  portrayed  than  those  of  Francia. 
If  we  may  trust  Vasari — but  it  is  difficult  to  suppose  that  he 
was  entirely  correct — the  exceeding  value  which  Francia  set  on 
Raphael's  art  brought  him  to  his  grave.  Raphael  had  consigned 
to  Francia  his  famous  picture  of  "  St  Cecilia,"  destined  for  the 
church  of  S.  Giovanni  in  Monte,  Bologna;  and  Francia,  on 
inspecting  it,  took  so  much  to  heart  his  own  inferiority,  at  the 
advanced  age  of  about  sixty-six,  to  the  youthful  Umbrian,  that 
he  sickened  and  shortly  expired  on  the  6th  of  January  1517. 


A  contemporary  record,  after  attesting  his  pre-eminence  as  a 
goldsmith,  jeweller  and  painter,  states  that  he  was  "  most  hand- 
some in  person  and  highly  eloquent." 

Distanced  though  he  may  have  been  by  Raphael,  Francia 
is  rightly  regarded  as  the  greatest  painter  of  the  earlier  Bolognese 
school,  and  hardly  to  be  surpassed  as  representing  the  art 
termed  "  antico-moderno,"  or  of  the  "  quattrocento."  It  has 
been  well  observed  that  his  style  is  a  medium  between  that  of 
Perugino  and  that  of  Giovanni  Bellini;  he  has  somewhat  more 
of  spontaneous  naturalism  than  the  former,  and  of  abstract 
dignity  in  feature  and  form  than  the  latter.  The  magnificent 
portrait  in  the  Louvre  of  a  young  man  in  black,  of  brooding 
thoughtfulness  and  saddened  profundity  of  mood,  would  alone 
suffice  to  place  Francia  among  the  very  great  masters,  if  it  could 
with  confidence  be  attributed  to  his  hand,  but  in  all  probability 
its  real  author  was  Franciabigio;  it  had  erewhile  passed  under 
the  name  of  Raphael,  of  Giorgione,  or  of  Sebastian  del  Piombo. 
The  National  Gallery,  London,  contains  two  remarkably  fine 
specimens  of  Francia,  once  combined  together  as  principal 
picture  and  lunette,— the  '•'  Virgin  "  and  "  Child  and  St  Anna  " 
enthroned,  surrounded  by  saints,  and  (in  the  lunette)  the  "  Pieta," 
or  lamentation  of  angels  over  the  dead  Saviour.  They  come 
from  the  Buonvisi  chapel  in  the  church  of  S.  Frediano,  Lucca, 
and  were  among  the  master's  latest  paintings.  Other  leading 
works  are — in  Munich,  the  "  Virgin  "  sinking  on  her  knees  in 
adoration  of  the  Divine  Infant,  who  is  lying  in  a  garden  within 
a  rose  trellis;  in  the  Borghese  gallery,  Rome,  a  Peter  Martyr; 
in  Bologna,  the  frescoes  in  the  church  of  St  Cecilia,  illustrating 
the  life  of  the  saint,  all  of  them  from  the  design  of  Raibolini, 
but  not  all  executed  by  himself.  His  landscape  backgrounds 
are  of  uncommon  excellence.  Francia  had  more  than  200 
scholars.  Marcantonio  Raimondi,  the  famous  engraver,  is 
the  most -renowned  of  them;  next  to  him  Amico  Aspertini,  and 
Francia's  own  son  Giacomo,  and  his  cousin  Julio.  Lorenzo 
Costa  was  much  associated  with  Francia  in  pictorial  work. 

Among  the  authorities  as  to  the  life  and  work  of  Francia  may  be 
mentioned  J.  A.Calvi,  Memorie  della  vita  di  Francesco  Raibolini  (1812), 
and  especially  G.  C.  Williamson,  Francia  (1900).  (W.  M.  R.) 

FRANCIA,    JOSfi    CASPAR    RODRIGUEZ     (c.     1757-1840), 

dictator  of  Paraguay,  was  born  probably  about  1757.  According 
to  one  account  he  was  of  French  descent;  but  the  truth  seems 
to  be  that  his  father,  Garcia  Rodriguez  Francia,  was  a  native 
of  S.  Paulo  in  Brazil,  and  came  to  Paraguay  to  take  charge  of 
a  plantation  of  black  tobacco  for  the  government.  He  studied 
theology  at  the  college  of  Cordova  de  Tucuman,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  for  some  time  a  professor  in  that  faculty;  but  he 
afterwards  turned  his  attention  to  the  law,  and  practised  in 
Asuncion.  Having  attained  a  high  reputation  at  once  for 
ability  and  integrity,  he  was  selected  for  various  important 
offices.  On  the  declaration  of  Paraguayan  independence  in 
1811,  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  national  junta,  and 
exercised  an  influence  on  affairs  greatly  out  of  proportion  to 
his  nominal  position.  When  the  congress  or  junta  of  1813 
changed  the  constitution  and  established  a  duumvirate,  Dr 
Francia  and  the  Gaucho  general  Yegres  were  elected  to  the 
office.  In  1814  he  secured  his  own  election  as  dictator  for  three 
years,  and  at  the  end  of  that  period  he  obtained  the  dictatorship 
for  life.  In  the  accounts  which  have  been  published  of  his  ad- 
ministration we  find  a  strange  mixture  of  capacity  and  caprice, 
of  far-sighted  wisdom  and  reckless  infatuation,  strenuous 
endeavours  after  a  high  ideal  and  flagrant  violations  of  the 
simplest  principles  of  justice.  He  put  a  stop  to  the  foreign 
commerce  of  the  country,  but  carefully  fostered  its  internal 
industries;  was  disposed  to  be  hospitable  to  strangers  from 
other  lands,  and  kept  them  prisoners  for  years;  lived  a  life  of 
republican  simplicity,  and  punished  with  Dionysian  severity 
the  slightest  want  of  respect.  As  time  went  on  he  appears  to 
have  grown  more  arbitrary  and  despotic.  Deeply  imbued  with 
the  principles  of  the  French  Revolution,  he  was  a  stern  antagonist 
of  the  church.  He  abolished  the  Inquisition,  suppressed  the 
college  of  theology,  did  away  with  the  tithes,  and  inflicted 
endless  indignities  on  the  priests.  He  discouraged  marriage 


FRANCIABIGIO— FRANCIS  II.   (ROMAN  EMPEROR)          933 


both  by  precept  and  example,  and  left  behind  him  several 
illegitimate  children.  For  the  extravagances  of  his  later  years 
the  plea  of  insanity  has  been  put  forward.  On  the  zoth  of 
September  1840  he  was  seized  with  a  fit  and  died. 

The  first  and  fullest  account  of  Dr  Francia  was  given  to  the  world 
by  two  Swiss  surgeons,  Rengger  and  Longchamp,  whom  he  had 
detained  from  1819  to  1825 — Essai  historique  sur  la  revolution  de 
Paraguay  et  la  gouvernement  dictatorial  du  docteur  Francia  (Paris, 
1827).  Their  work  was  almost  immediately  translated  into  English 
under  the  title  of  The  Reign  of  Doctor  Joseph  G.  R.  De  Francia 
in  Paraguay  (1827).  About  eleven  years  after  there  appeared  at 
London  Letters  on  Paraguay,  by  J.  P.  and  W.  P.  Robertson,  two 
young  Scotsmen  whose  hopes  of  commercial  success  had  been  rudely 
destroyed  by  the  dictator's  interference.  The  account  which  they 
gave  of  his  character  and  government  was  of  the  most  unfavourable 
description,  and  they  rehearsed  and  emphasized  their  accusations  in 
Francia' s  Reign  of  Terror  (1839)  and  Letters  on  South  America  (3  vols., 
1843).  From  the  very  pages  of  his  detractors  Thomas  Carlyle 
succeeded  in  extracting  materials  for  a  brilliant  defence  of  the  dic- 
tator "  as  a  man  or  sovereign  of  iron  energy  and  industry,  of  great 
and  severe  labour."  It  appeared  in  the  Foreign  Quarterly  Review 
for  1843,  and  is  reprinted  in  his  Critical  and  Miscellaneous  Essays. 
Sir  Richard  F.  Burton  gives  a  graphic  sketch  of  Francia's  life  and  a 
favourable  notice  of  his  character  in  his  Letters  from  the  Battlefields 
of  Paraguay  (1870),  while  C.  A.  Washburn  takes  up  a  hostile  position 
in  his  History  of  Paraguay  (1871). 

FRANCIABIGIO  (1482-1525),  Florentine  painter.  The  name 
of  this  artist  is  generally  given  as  Mercantonio  Franciabigio; 
it  appears,  however,  that  his  only  real  ascertained  name  was 
Francesco  di  Cristofano;  and  that  he  was  currently  termed 
Francia  Bigio,  the  two  appellatives  being  distinct.  He  was 
born  in  Florence,  and  studied  under  Albertinelli  for  some  months. 
In  1505  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Andrea  del  Sarto;  and 
after  a  while  the  two  painters  set  up  a  shop  in  common  in  the 
Piazza  del  Grano.  Franciabigio  paid  much  attention  to  anatomy 
and  perspective,  and  to  the  proportions  of  his  figures,  though 
these  are  often  too  squat  and  puffy  in  form.  He  had  a  large 
stock  of  artistic  knowledge,  and  was  at  first  noted  for  diligence. 
As  years  went  on,  and  he  received  frequent  commissions  for 
all  sorts  of  public  painting  for  festive  occasions,  his  diligence 
merged  in  something  which  may  rather  be  called  workmanly 
offhandedness.  He  was  particularly  proficient  in  fresco,  and 
Vasari  even  says  that  he  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries  in  this 
method — a  judgment  which  modern  connoisseurship  does  not 
accept.  In  the  court  of  the  Servites  (or  cloister  of  the  Annunziata) 
in  Florence  he  painted  in  1513  the  "Marriage  of  the  Virgin," 
as  a  portion  of  a  series  wherein  Andrea  del  Sarto  was  chiefly 
concerned.  The  friars  having  uncovered  this  w6rk  before  it 
was  quite  finished,  Franciabigio  was  so  incensed  that,  seizing 
a  mason's  hammer,  he  struck  at  the  head  of  the  Virgin,  and  some 
other  heads;  and  the  fresco,  which  would  otherwise  be  his 
masterpiece  in  that  method,  remains  thus  mutilated.  At  the 
Scalzo,  in  another  series  of  frescoes  on  which  Andrea  was  likewise 
employed,  he  executed  in  1518-1519  the  "  Departure  of  John 
the  Baptist  for  the  Desert,"  and  the  "  Meeting  of  the  Baptist 
with  Jesus";  and,  at  the  Medici  palace  at  Poggio  a  Caiano, 
in  1521,  the  "  Triumph  of  Cicero."  Various  works  which  have 
been  ascribed  to  Raphael  are  now  known  or  reasonably  deemed 
to  be  by  Franciabigio.  Such  are  the  "  Madonna  del  Pozzo," 
in  the  Uffizi  Gallery;  the  half  figure  of  a  "  Young  Man,"  in 
the  Louvre  (see  also  FRANCIA);  and  the  famous  picture  in 
the  Fuller-Maitland  collection,  a  "  Young  Man  with  a  Letter." 
These  two  works  show  a  close  analogy  in  style  to  another  in  the 
Pitti  gallery,  avowedly  by  Franciabigio,  a  "  Youth  at  a  Window," 
and  to  some  others  which  bear  this  painter's  recognized  monogram. 
The  series  of  portraits,  taken  collectively,  placed  beyond  dispute 
the  eminent  and  idiosyncratic  genius  of  the  master.  Two  other 
works  of  his,  of  some  celebrity,  are  the  "  Calumny  of  Apelles," 
in  the  Pitti,  and  the  "  Bath  of  Bathsheba  "  (painted  in  1523), 
in  the  Dresden  gallery. 

FRANCIS  (Lat.  Franciscus,  Ital.  Francesco,  Span.  Francisco, 
Fr.  Francois,  Ger.  Franz),  a  masculine  proper  name  meaning 
"  Frenchman."  As  a  Christian  name  it  originated  with  St 
Francis  of  Assisi,  whose  baptismal  name  was  Giovanni,  but  who 
was  called  Francesco  by  his  father  on  returning  from  a  journey 


in  France.  The  saint's  fame  made  the  name  exceedingly  popular 
from  his  day  onwards. 

FRANCIS  I.  (1708-1765),  Roman  emperor  and  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany,  second  son  of  Leopold  Joseph,  duke  of  Lorraine,  and 
his  wife  Elizabeth  Charlotte,  daughter  of  Philip,  duke  of  Orleans, 
was  born  on  the  8th  of  December  1708.  He  was  connected 
with  the  Habsburgs  through  his  grandmother  Eleanore,  daughter 
of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  III.,  and  wife  of  Charles  Leopold  of 
Lorraine.  The  emperor  Charles  VI.  favoured  the  family,  who, 
besides  being  his  cousins,  had  served  the  house  of  Austria  with 
distinction.  He  had  designed  to  marry  his  daughter  Maria 
Theresa  to  Clement,  the  elder  brother  of  Francis.  On  the  death 
of  Clement  he  adopted  the  younger  brother  as  her  husband. 
Francis  was  brought  up  at  Vienna  with  Maria  Theresa  on  the 
understanding  that  they  were  to  be  married,  and  a  real  affection 
arose  between  them.  At  the  age  of  fifteen,  when  he  was  brought 
to  Vienna,  he  was  established  in  the  Silesian  duchy  of  Teschen, 
which  had  been  mediatized  and  granted  to  his  father  by  the 
emperor  in  1722.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  duke  of  Lorraine 
in  1729,  but  the  emperor,  at  the  end  of  the  Polish  War  of  Succes- 
sion, desiring  to  compensate  his  candidate  Stanislaus  Leszczynski 
for  the  loss  of  his  crown  in  1735,  persuaded  Francis  to  exchange 
Lorraine  for  the  reversion  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany.  On 
the  1 2th  of  February  1736  he  was  married  to  Maria  Theresa, 
and  they  went  for  a  short  time  to  Florence,  when  he  succeeded 
to  the  grand  duchy  in  1737  on  the  death  of  John  Gaston,  the 
last  of  the  ruling  house  of  Medici.  His  wife  secured  his  election 
to  the  Empire  on  the  I3th  of  September  1745,  in  succession  to 
Charles  VII.,  and  she  made  him  co-regent  of  her  hereditary 
dominions.  Francis  was  well  content  to  leave  the  reality  of 
power  to  his  able  wife.  He  had  a  natural  fund  of  good  sense 
and  some  business  capacity,  and  was  a  useful  assistant  to  Maria 
Theresa  in  the  laborious  task  of  governing  the  complicated 
Austrian  dominions,  but  his  functions  appear  to  have  been  of  a 
purely  secretarial  character.  He  died  suddenly  in  his  carriage 
while  returning  from  the  opera  at  Innsbruck  on  the  i8th  of 
August  1765. 

See  A.  von  Arneth,  Geschichte  Maria  Theresias  (Vienna,  1863- 
1879). 

FRANCIS  II.  (1768-1835),  the  last  Roman  emperor,  and,  as 
Francis  I.,  first  emperor  of  Austria,  was  the  son  of  Leopold  II., 
grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  afterwards  emperor,  and  of  his  wife 
Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  Charles  III.  of  Spain.  He  was  born 
at  Florence  on  the  i2th  of  February  1768.  In  1784  he  was 
brought  to  Vienna  to  complete  his  education  under  the  eye  of 
his  uncle  the  emperor  Joseph  II.,  who  was  childless.  Joseph 
was  repelled  by  the  frigid  and  retiring  character  of  his  nephew, 
and  is  said  to  have  treated  him  with  an  impatient  contempt 
which  confirmed  his  natural  timidity;  but  after  the  marriage 
of  Francis  to  Elizabeth  of  Wurttemberg  (1788)  their  relations 
improved.  At  the  close  of  his  uncle's  reign  he  saw  some  service 
in  the  ill-conducted  war  with  Turkey,  and  kept  a  careful  diary 
of  his  experiences.  The  death  of  his  wife  in  childbirth  on  the 
1 8th  of  February  1790  was  followed  by  the  death  of  his  uncle 
on  the  20th;  and  Francis  acted  as  icgent  with  Prince  Kaunitz 
until  his  father  came  from  Florence.  On  the  igth  of  September 
he  married  his  first  cousin  Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  Ferdinand, 
king  of  Naples,  by  whom  he  was  the  father  of  his  successor 
Ferdinand  I.,  of  Maria  Louisa,  wife  of  Napoleon,  and  of  the 
archduke  Francis,  father  of  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph.  After 
her  death  (1807)  he  married  Maria  Ludovica  Beatrix  of  Este 
(1808),  and  when  she  died  he  made  a  fourth  marriage  with 
Carolina  Augusta  of  Bavaria  (1816). 

He  succeeded  to  the  Austrian  dominions  and  the  empire  on 
the  death  of  his  father  on  the  ist  of  March  1792.  The  position 
was  a  trying  one  for  a  young  prince  twenty-four  years  of  age. 
The  dominions  of  the  house  of  Austria,  widely  scattered  in  the 
Low  Countries,  Germany  and  Italy,  were  exposed  to  the  attacks 
of  the  French  revolutionary  governments  and  of  Napoleon.  He 
was  dragged  into  all  the  coalitions  against  France,  and  in  the 
early  days  of  his  reign  he  had  to  guard  against  the  ambition  of 
Prussia,  and  the  aggressions  of  Russia  in  Poland  and  Turkey. 


934 


FRANCIS  I.  OF  FRANCE 


For  long  he  had  no  adviser  save  such  diplomatists  as  Prince 
Kaunitz  and  Thugut,  who  had  been  trained  in  the  old  Austrian 
diplomacy.  His  own  best  quality  was  an  invincible  patience 
supported  by  reliance  on  the  loyalty  of  his  subjects,  and  a  sense 
of  his  duty  to  the  state.  (For  the  general  events  of  this  reign  till 
1815  see  EUROPE,  AUSTRIA,  NAPOLEON,  FRENCH  REVOLUTIONARY 
WARS,  &c.)  The  emperor's  firmness  averted  what  would  have 
been  an  irreparable  loss  of  position.  Seeing  that  the  Empire 
was  in  the  last  stage  of  dissolution,  and  that,  even  were  it  to 
survive,  it  would  pass  from  the  house  of  Habsburg  to  that  of 
Bonaparte,  he  in  1804  assumed  the  title  of  hereditary  emperor 
of  Austria.  The  object  of  this  prudent  measure  was  double. 
In  the  first  place,  he  guarded  against  the  danger  that  his  house 
should  gink  to  a  lower  rank  than  the  Russian  or  the  French. 
In  the  second  place,  he  gave  some  semblance  of  unity  to  his  com- 
plex dominions  in  Germany,  Bohemia,  Hungary  and  Italy, 
by  providing  a  common  title  for  the  supreme  ruler.  His  action 
was  justified  when,  in  1806,  the  establishment  of  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine  forced  him  to  abdicate  the  empty  title  of  Holy 
Roman  emperor. 

In  1805  he  made  an  important  change  in  the  working  of  his 
administration.  He  had  hitherto  been  assisted  by  a  cabinet 
minister  who  was  in  direct  relation  with  all  the  "  chanceries  " 
and  boards  which  formed  the  executive  government,  and  who 
acted  as  the  channel  of  communication  between  them  and  the 
emperor,  and  was  in  fact  a  prime  minister.  In  1805  Napoleon 
insisted  on  the  removal  of  Count  Colloredo,  who  held  the  post. 
From  that  time  forward  the  emperor  Francis  acted  as  his  own 
prime  minister,  superintending  every  detail  of  his  administration. 
In  foreign  affairs  after  1809  he  reposed  full  confidence  in  Prince 
Mettefnich.  But  Metternich  himself  declared  at  the  close  of  his 
life  that  he  had  sometimes  held  Europe  in  the  palm  of  his  hand, 
but  never  Austria.  Francis  was  sole  master,  and  is  entitled  to 
whatever  praise  is  due  to  his  government.  It  follows  that  he 
must  bear  the  blarne  for  its  errors.  The  history  of  the  Austrian 
empire  under  his  rule  and  since  his  death  bears  testimony  to 
both  his  merits  and  his  limitations.  His  indomitable  patience 
and  loyalty  to  his  inherited  task  enabled  him  to  triumph  over 
Napoleon.  By  consenting  to  the  marriage  of  his  daughter, 
Marie  Louise,  to  Napoleon  in  1810,  he  gained  a  respite  which  he 
turned  to  good  account.  By  following  the  guidance  of  Metternich 
in  foreign  affairs  he  was  able  to  intervene  with  decisive  effect  in 
1813.  The  settlement  of  Europe  in  1815  left  Austria  stronger 
and  more  compact  than  she  had  been  in  1792,  and  that  this 
was  the  case  was  largely  due  to  the  emperor. 

During  the  twenty  years  which  preceded  his  death  in  1835, 
Francis  continued  to  oppose  the  revolutionary  spirit.  He  had 
none  of  the  mystical  tendencies  of  the  tsar  Alexander  I.,  and  only 
adhered  to  the  half  fantastic  Holy  Alliance  of  1815  out  of  pure 
politeness.  But  he  was  wholly  in  sympathy  with  the  policy  of 
"  repression  "  which  came,  in  popular  view,  to  be  identified  with 
the  Holy  Alliance;  and  though  Metternich  was  primarily  re- 
sponsible for  the  part  played  by  Austria  in  the  "  policing  "  of 
Europe,  Francis  cannot  but  be  held  personally  responsible  for  the 
cruel  and  impolitic  severities,  associated  especially  with  the 
sinister  name  of  the  fortress  prison  of  the  Spielberg,  which  made 
so  many  martyrs  to  freedom.  It  is  not  surprising  that  Francis 
was  denounced  by  Liberals  throughout  Europe  as  a  tyrant  and  an 
obscurantist.  But  though  at  home,  as  abroad,  he  met  all  sugges- 
tions of  innovation  by  a  steady  refusal  to  depart  from  old  ways, 
he  was  always  popular  among  the  mass  of  his  subjects,  who 
called  him  "  our  good  Kaiser  Franz."  In  truth,  if  in  the  spirit 
of  the  traditional  Landesvater  he  chastised  his  disobedient  children 
mercilessly,  he  was  essentially  a  well-meaning  ruler  who  for- 
warded the  material  and  moral  good  of  his  subjects  according 
to  his  lights.  But  he  held  that,  by  the  will  of  God,  the  whole 
sovereign  authority  resided  in  his  person,  and  could  not  be 
shared  with  others  without  a  dereliction  of  duty  on  his  part  and 
disastrous  consequences;  and  his  capital  error  as  a  ruler  of 
Austria  was  that  he  persisted  in  maintaining  a  system  of  adminis- 
tration which  depended  upon  the  indefatigable  industry  of  a 
single  man,  and  was  entirely  outgrown  by  the  modern  develop- 


ment of  his  subjects.  Before  his  death,  government  in  Austria 
was  almost  choked,  and  it  broke  down  under  a  successor  who 
had  not  his  capacity  for  work.  Like  his  ancestor  Philip  II.  of 
Spain,  Francis  carried  caution,  and  a  disposition  to  sleep  upon 
every  possible  proposal,  to  a  great  length.  He  died  on  the  2nd 
of  March  1835. 

See  Baron  J.  A.  Helfert,  Kaiser  Franz  und  die  osterreichischen 
Befreiungs-Kriege  (Vienna,  1867).  Ample  bibliographies  will  be 
found  in  Krones  von  Marchland's  Grundriss  der  osterreichischen 
Geschichte  (Berlin,  1882). 

FRANCIS  I.  (1494-1547),  king  of  France,  son  of  Charles  of 
Valois,  count  of  Angouleme,  and  Louise  of  Savoy,  was  born  at 
Cognac  on  the  1 2th  of  September  1494.  The  count  of  Angouleme, 
who  was  the  great-grandson  of  King  Charles  V.,  died  in  1496, 
and  Louise  watched  over  her  son  with  passionate  tenderness. 
On  the  accession  of  Louis  XII.  in  1498,  Francis  became  heir- 
presumptive.  Louis  invested  him  with  the  duchy  of  Valois, 
and  gave  him  as  tutor  Marshal  de  Gie,  and,  after  Gie's  disgrace 
in  1503,  the  sieur  de  Boisy,  Artus  Gouffier.  Francois  de  Roche- 
fort,  abbot  of  St  Mesmin,  instructed  Francis  and  his  sister 
Marguerite  in  Latin  and  history;  Louise  herself  taught  them 
Italian  and  Spanish;  and  the  library  of  the  chateau  at  Amboise 
was  well  stocked  with  romances  of  the  Round  Table,  which 
exalted  the  lad's  imagination.  Francis  showed  an  even  greater 
love  for  violent  exercises,  such  as  hunting,  which  was  his  ruling 
passion,  and  tennis,  and  for  tournaments,  masquerades  and 
amusements  of  all  kinds.  His  earliest  gallantries  are  described  by 
his  sister  in  the  25th  and  42nd  stories  of  the  Heptameron.  In 
1507  Francis  was  betrothed  to  Claude,  the  daughter  of  Louis  XII., 
and  in  1 508  he  came  to  court.  In  1 5 1 2  he  gained  his  first  military 
experience  in  Guienne,  and  in  the  following  year  he  commanded 
the  army  of  Picardy.  He  married  Claude  on  the  iSth  of  May 
1514,  and  succeeded  Louis  XII.  on  the  ist  of  January  1515. 
Of  noble  bearing,  and,  in  spite  of  a  very  long  and  large  nose, 
extremely  handsome,  he  was  a  sturdy  and  valiant  knight,  affable, 
courteous,  a  brilliant  talker  and  a  facile  poet.  He  had  a  sprightly 
wit,  some  delicacy  of  feeling,  and  some  generous  impulses  which 
made  him  amiable.  These  brilliant  qualities,  however,  were  all 
on  the  surface.  At  bottom  the  man  was  frivolous,  profoundly 
selfish,  unstable,  and  utterly  incapable  of  consistency  or  appli- 
cation. The  ambassadors  remarked  his  negligence,  and  his 
ministers  complained  of  it.  Hunting,  tennis,  jewelry  and  his 
gallantry  were  the  chief  preoccupations  of  his  life. 

His  character  was  at  once  authoritative  and  weak.  He  was 
determined  to  be  master  and  to  decide  everything  himself,  but 
he  allowed  himself  to  be  dominated  and  easily  persuaded. 
Favourites,  too,  without  governing  entirely  for  him,  played 
an  important  part  in  his  reign.  His  capricious  humour  elevated 
and  deposed  them  with  the  same  disconcerting  suddenness. 
In  the  early  years  of  his  reign  the  conduct  of  affairs  was  chiefly 
in  the  hands  of  Louise  of  Savoy,  Chancellor  Antoine  Duprat, 
Secretary  Florimond  Robertet,  and  the  two  Gouffiers,  Boisy  and 
Bonnivet.  The  royal  favour  then  elevated  Anne  de  Montmorency 
and  Philippe  de  Chabot,  and  in  the  last  years  of  the  reign  Marshal 
d'Annebaud  and  Cardinal  de  Tournon.  Women  too  had  always  a 
great  influence  over  Francis — his  sister,  Marguerite  d'Angouleme, 
and  his  mistresses.  Whatever  the  number  of  these,  he  had  only 
two  titular  mistresses — at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  Francoise 
de  Chateaubriant,  and  from  about  1526  to  his  death  Anne  de 
Pisseleu,  whom  he  created  duchesse  d'Etampes  and  who  entirely 
dominated  him.  It  has  not  been  proved  that  he  was  the  lover  of 
Diane  de  Poitiers,  nor  does  the  story  of  "  La  belle  Ferronniere  " 
appear  to  rest  on  any  historical  foundation.1 

Circumstances  alone  gave  a  homogeneous  character  to  the 
foreign  policy  of  Francis.  The  struggle  against  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  filled  the  greater  part  of  the  reign.  In  reality,  the 
policy  of  Francis,  save  for  some  flashes  of  sagacity,  'was  irresolute 
and  vacillating.  Attracted  at  first  by  Italy,  dreaming  of  fair 
feats  of  prowess,  he  led  the  triumphal  Marignano  expedition, 
which  gained  him  reputation  as  a  knightly  king  and  as  the  most 
powerful  prince  in  Europe.  In  1519,  in  spite  of  wise  counsels, 

1  On  this  point  see  Paulin  Paris,  Etudes  sur  le  regne  de  Francois  I". 


FRANCIS  II.  OF  FRANCE 


935 


he  stood  candidate  for  the  imperial  crown.  The  election  of 
Charles  V.  caused  an  inevitable  rivalry  between  the  two  monarchs 
which  accentuated  still  further  the  light  and  chivalrous  temper  of 
the  king  and  the  cold  and  politic  character  of  the  emperor. 
Francis's  personal  intervention  in  this  struggle  was  seldom 
happy.  He  did  not  succeed  in  gaining  the  support  of  Henry  VIII. 
of  England  at  the  interview  of  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  in 
1520;  his  want  of  tact  goaded  the  Constable  de  Bourbon  to 
extreme  measures  in  1522-1523;  and  in  the  Italian  campaign 
of  1525  he  proved  himself  a  mediocre,  vacillating  and  foolhardy 
leader,  and  by  his  blundering  led  the  army  to  the  disaster  of 
Pavia  (the  25th  of  February  1525),  where,  however,  he  fought 
with  great  bravery.  "  Of  all  things,"  he  wrote  to  his  mother 
after  the  defeat,  "  nothing  remains  to  me  but  honour  and  life, 
which  is  safe  " — the  authentic  version  of  the  legendary  phrase 
"  All  is  lost  save  honour."  He  strove  to  play  the  part  of  royal 
captive  heroically,  but  the  prison  life  galled  him.  He  fell  ill  at 
Madrid  and  was  on  the  point  of  death.  For  a  moment  he  thought 
of  abdicating  rather  than  of  ceding  Burgundy.  But  this  was  too 
great  a  demand  upon  his  fortitude,  and  he  finally  yielded  and 
signed  the  treaty  of  Madrid,  after  having  drawn  up  a  secret  protest. 
After  Madrid  he  wavered  unceasingly  between  two  courses,  either 
that  of  continuing  hostilities,  or  the  policy  favoured  by  Montmor- 
ency  of  peace  and  understanding  with  the  emperor.  At  times  he  ' 
had  the  sagacity  to  recognize  the  utility  of  alliances,  as  was  shown 
by  those  he  concluded  with  the  Porte  and  with  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany.  But  he  could  never  pledge  himself  frankly 
in  one  sense  or  the  other,  and  this  vacillation  prevented  him 
from  attaining  any  decisive  results.  At  his  death,  however, 
France  was  in  possession  of  Savoy  and  Piedmont. 

In  his  religious  policy  Francis  showed  the  same  instability. 
Drawn  between  various  influences,  that  of  Marguerite 
d'Angouleme,  the  du  Bellays,  and  the  duchesse  d'Etampes, 
who  was  in  favour  of  the  Reformation  or  at  least  of  toleration, 
and  the  contrary  influence  of  the  uncompromising  Catholics, 
Duprat,  and  then  Montmorency  and  de  Tournon,  he  gave 
pledges  successively  to  both  parties.  In  the  first  years  of  the 
reign,  following  the  counsels  of  Marguerite,  he  protected  Jacques 
Lefevre  of  Etaples  and  Louis  de  Berquin,  and  showed  some 
favour  to  the  new  doctrines.  But  the  violence  of  the  Reformers 
threw  him  into  the  arms  of  the  opposite  party.  The  affair  of  the 
Placards  in  1534  irritated  him  beyond  measure,  and  determined 
him  to  adopt  a  policy  of  severity.  From  that  time,  in  spite  of 
occasional  indulgences  shown  to  the  Reformers,  due  to  his  desire 
to  conciliate  the  Protestant  powers,  Francis  gave  a  free  hand 
to  the  party  of  repression,  of  which  the  most  active  and  most 
pitiless  member  was  Cardinal  de  Tournon;  and  the  end  of  the 
reign  was  sullied  by  the  massacre  of  the  Waldenses  (1545). 

Francis  introduced  new  methods  into  government.  In  his 
reign  the  monarchical  authority  became  more  imperious  and 
more  absolute.  His  was  the  government  "  du  ban  plaisir."  By 
the  unusual  development  he  gave  to  the  court  he  converted  the 
nobility  into  a  brilliant  household  of  dependants.  The  Concordat 
brought  the  clergy  into  subjection,  and  enabled  him  to  distribute 
benefices  at  his  pleasure  among  the  most  docile  of  his  courtiers. 
He  governed  in  the  midst  of  a  group  of  favourites,  who  formed 
the  conseildes  affaires.  The  states-general  did  not  meet,  and  the 
remonstrances  of  the  parlement  were  scarcely  tolerated.  By 
centralizing  the  financial  administration  by  the  creation  of  the 
Tresor  de  V&pargne,  and  by  developing  the  military  establish- 
ments, Francis  still  further  strengthened  the  royal  power.  His 
government  had  the  vices  of  his  foreign  policy.  It  was  uncertain, 
irregular  and  disorderly.  The  finances  were  squandered  in 
gratifying  the  king's  unbridled  prodigality,  and  the  treasury 
was  drained  by  his  luxurious  habits,  by  the  innumerable  gifts  and 
pensions  he  distributed  among  his  mistresses  and  courtiers,  by 
his  war  expenses  and  by  his  magnificent  buildings.  His  govern- 
ment, too,  weighed  heavily  upon  the  people,  and  the  king  was 
less  popular  than  is  sometimes  imagined. 

Francis  owes  the  greater  measure  of  his  glory  to  the  artists  and 
men  of  letters  who  vied  in  celebrating  his  praises.  He  was 
pre-eminently  the  king  of  the  Renaissance.  Of  a  quick  and 


cultivated  intelligence,  he  had  a  sincere  love  of  letters  and  art. 
He  holds  a  high  place  in  the  history  of  humanism  by  the  founda- 
tion of  the  College  de  France;  he  did  not  found  an  actual  college, 
but  after  much  hesitation  instituted  in  1530,  at  the  instance  of 
Guillaume  Bude  (Budaeus),  Lecteurs  royaux,  who  in  spite  of  the 
opposition  of  the  Sorbonne  were  granted  full  liberty  to  teach 
Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  mathematics,  &c.  The  humanists 
Bude,  Jacques  Colin  and  Pierre  Duchatel  were  the  king's 
intimates,  and  Clement  Marot  was  his  favourite  poet.  Francis 
sent  to  Italy  for  artists  and  for  works  of  art.  but  he  protected 
his  own  countrymen  also.  Here,  too,  he  showed  his  customary 
indecision,  wavering  between  the  two  schools.  At  his  court  he 
installed  Benvenuto  Cellini,  Francesco  Primaticcio  and  Rosso 
del  Rosso,  but  in  the  buildings  at  Chambord,  St  Germain, 
Villers-Cotterets  and  Fontainebleau  the  French  tradition 
triumphed  over  the  Italian. 

Francis  died  on  the  3ist  of  March  1547,  of  a  disease  of  the 
urinary  ducts  according  to  some  accounts,  of  syphilis  according 
to  others.  By  his  first  wife  Claude  (d.  1524)  he  had  three  sons 
and  four  daughters:  Louise,  who  died  in  infancy;  Charlotte, 
who  died  at  the  age  of  eight;  Francis  (d.  1536);  Henry,  who 
came  to  the  throne  as  Henry  II.;  Madeleine,  who  became 
queen  of  Scotland;  Charles  (d.  1545);  and  Margaret,  duchess 
of  Savoy.  In  1530  he  married  Eleanor,  the  sister  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V. 

AUTHORITIES. — For  the  official  acts  of  the  reign,  the  Catalogue 
des  actes  de  Francois  I",  published  by  the  Academic  des  Sciences 
morales  et  politiques  (Paris,  1887-1907),  is  a  valuable  guide.  The 
Bibliotheque  Nationale,  the  National  Archives,  &c.,  contain  a  mass  of 
unpublished  documents.  Of  the  published  documents,  see  N. 
Camuzat,  Meslanges  historiques  .  .  .  (Troyes,  1619);  G.  Ribier, 
Lettres  et  memoires  d'estat  (Paris,  1666) ;  Letters  de  Marguerite 
d'Angouleme,  ed.  by  F.  Genin  (Paris,  1841  and  1842) ;  the  Correspond- 
ence of  CastUlon  and  Marillac  (ed.  by  Kaulek,  Paris,  1885),  of  Odet 
de  Selve  (ed.  by  Lefevre-Pontalis,  Paris,  1888),  and  of  Guillaume 
Pellicier  (ed.  by  Tausserat-Radel,  Paris,  1900) ;  Captivite  du  rot 
Francois  I'T,  and  Poesies  de  Francois  I"  (both  ed.  by  Champollion- 
Figeac,  Paris,  1847,  of  doubtful  authenticity);  Relations  des  am- 
bassadeurs  venitiens,  &c.  Of  the  memoirs  and  chronicles,  see  the 
journal  of  Louise  of  Savoy  in  S.  Guichenon's  Histoire  de  la  maison 
de  Savoie,  vol.  iv.  (ed.  of  1778-1780);  Journal  de  Jean  Barillon,  ed. 
by  de  Vaissiere  (Paris,  1897-1899) ;  Journal  d'un  bourgeois  de  Paris, 
ed.  by  Lalanne  (Paris,  1854);  Cronique  du  roy  Francois  I",  ed.  by 
Guiffrey  (Paris,  1868) ;  and  the  memoirs  of  Fleuranges,  Montluc, 
Tavannes,  Vieilleville,  Brant6me  and  especially  Martin  du  Bellay 
(coll.  Michaud  and  Poujoulat).  Of  the  innumerable  secondary 
authorities,  see  especially  Paulin  Paris,  f.tudes  sur  le  regnede  Francois 
I"  (Paris,  1885),  in  which  the  apologetic  tendency  is  excessive; 
and  H.  Lemonnier  in  vol.  y.  (Paris,  1903-1904)  of  E.  Lavisse's 
Histoire  de  France,  which  gives  a  list  of  the  principal  secondary 
authorities.  There  is  a  more  complete  bibliographical  study  by 
V.  L.  Bourrilly  in  the  Revue  d'histoire  moderne  et  contemporaine,  vol. 
iv.  (1902-1903).  The  printed  sources  have  been  catalogued  by 
H.  Hauser,  Les  Sources  de  I'histoire  de  France,  XVI'  siecle,  tome  ii. 
(Paris,  1907).  (J.  I.) 

FRANCIS  II.  (1544-1560),  king  of  France,  eldest  son  of  Henry 
II.  and  of  Catherine  de'  Medici,  was  born  at  Fontainebleau  on 
the  icith  of  January  1544.  He  married  the  famous  Mary  Stuart, 
daughter  of  James  V.  of  Scotland,  on  the  25th  of  April  1558,  and 
ascended  the  French  throne  on  the  loth  of  July  1559.  During 
his  short  reign  the  young  king,  a  sickly  youth  and  of  feeble 
understanding,  was  the  mere  tool  of  his  uncles  Francis,  duke  of 
Guise,  and  Charles,  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  into  whose  hands  he 
virtually  delivered  the  reins  of  government.  The  exclusiveness 
with  which  they  were  favoured,  and  their  high-handed  pro- 
ceedings, awakened  the  resentment  of  the  princes  of  the  blood, 
Anthony  king  of  Navarre  and  Louis  prince  of  Conde,  who  gave 
their  countenance  to  a  conspiracy  (conspiracy  of  Amboise) 
with  the  Protestants  against  the  house  of  Guise.  It  was,  however, 
discovered  shortly  before  the  time  fixed  for  its  execution  in 
March  1560,  and  an  ambush  having  been  prepared,  most  of  the 
conspirators  were  either  killed  or  taken  prisoners.  Its  leadership 
and  organization  had  been  entrusted  to  Godfrey  de  Barri,  lord  of 
la  Renaudie  (d.  1 560) ;  and  the  prince  of  Conde,  who  was  not 
present,  disavowed  all  connexion  with  the  plot.  The  duke  of 
Guise  was  now  named  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom,  but 
his  Catholic  leanings  were  somewhat  held  in  check  by  the 


93 6         FRANCIS  I.  OF  SICILY—FRANCIS  IV.  OF  MODENA 


chancellor  Michel  de  I'H&pital,  through  whose  mediation  the  edict 
of  Romorantin,  providing  that  all  cases  of  heresy  should  be  decided 
by  the  bishops,  was  passed  in  May  1560,  in  opposition  to  a  pro- 
posal to  introduce  the  Inquisition.  At  a  meeting  of  the  states- 
general  held  at  Orleans  in  the  December  following,  the  prince  of 
Conde,  after  being  arrested,  was  condemned  to  death,  and  ex- 
treme measures  were  being  enacted  against  the  Huguenots; 
but  the  deliberations  of  the  Assembly  were  broken  off,  and  the 
prince  was  saved  from  execution,  by  the  king's  somewhat  sudden 
death,  on  the  sth  of  the  month,  from  an  abscess  in  the  ear. 

PRINCIPAL  AUTHORITIES. — "  Lettres  de  Catherine  de  Medicis," 
edited  by  Hector  de  la  Ferriere  (1880  seq.),  and  "  Negociations  . . . 
relatives  au  regne  de  Francois  II,"  edited  by  Louis  Paris  (1841), 
both  in  the  Collection  de  documents  inedits  sur  I'histoire  de  France; 
notice  of  Francis,  duke  of  Guise,  in  the  Nouvelle  Collection  des 
memoires  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  de  France,  edited  by  J.  F.  Michaud 
and  J.  J.  F.  Poujoulat,  series  i.  vol.  vi.  (1836  seq.);  Memoires  de 
Conde  servant  d'eclaircissement  ...  a  I'histoire  de  M.  de  Thou, 
vols.  i  and  ii.  (1743);  Pierre  de  la  Place,  Commentaires  de  I'estat  de 
la  religion  el  de  la  republique  sous  les  rois  Henri  II,  Francois  II, 
Charles  IX  (1565);  and  Louis  Regnier  de  la  Planche,  Histoire  de 
I'estat  de  France  . . .  sous  . . .  Fran(oii  II  (Pantheon  litter  air  e, 
new  edition,  1884).  See  also  Ernest  Lavisse,  Histoire  de  France 
(vol.  vi.  by  J.  H.  Mariejol,  1904),  which  contains  a  bibliography. 

FRANCIS  I.  (1777-1830),  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  was  the  son 
of  Ferdinand  IV.  (I.)  and  Maria  Carolina  of  Austria.  He  married 
Clementina,  daughter  of  the  emperor  Leopold  II.  of  Austria, 
in  1796,  and  at  her  death  Isabella,  daughter  of  Charles  IV.  of 
Spain.  After  the  Bourbon  family  fled  from  Naples  to  Sicily 
in  1806,  and  Lord  William  Bentinck,  the  British  resident,  had 
established  a  constitution  and  deprived  Ferdinand  IV.  of  all 
power,  Francis  was  appointed  regent  (1812).  On  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  his  father  returned  to  Naples  and  suppressed  the 
Sicilian  constitution  and  autonomy,  incorporating  his  two 
kingdoms  into  that  of  the  Two  Sicilies  (1816);  Francis  then 
assumed  the  revived  title  of  duke  of  Calabria.  While  still  heir- 
apparent  he  professed  liberal  ideas,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  of  1820  he  accepted  the  regency  apparently  in  a 
friendly  spirit  towards  the  new  constitution.  But  he  was 
playing  a  double  game  and  proved  to  be  the  accomplice  of  his 
father's  treachery.  On  succeeding  to  the  throne  in  1825  he  cast 
aside  the  mask  of  liberalism  and  showed  himself  as  reactionary 
as  his  father.  He  took  little  part  in  the  government,  which  he 
left  in  the  hands  of  favourites  and  police  officials,  and  lived 
with  his  mistresses,  surrounded  by  soldiers,  ever  in  dread  of 
assassination.  During  his  reign  the  only  revolutionary  move- 
ment was  the  outbreak  on  the  Cilento  (1828),  savagely  repressed 
by  the  marquis  Delcarretto,  an  ex-Liberal  turned  reactionary. 

See  Nisco,  //  Reame  di  Napoli  sotto  Francesco  I  (Naples,  1893). 

FRANCIS  II.  (1836-1894),  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  son  of 
Ferdinand  II.  and  Maria  Cristina  of  Savoy,  was  the  last  of  the 
Bourbon  kings  of  Naples.  His  education  had  been  much 
neglected  and  he  proved  a  man  of  weak  character,  greatly 
influenced  by  his  stepmother  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  by  the 
priests,  and  by  the  Camarilla,  or  reactionary  court  set.  He 
ascended  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father  (22nd  of  May 
1859).  As  prime  minister  he  at  once  appointed  Carlo  Filangieri, 
who,  realizing  the  importance  of  the  Franco-Piedmontese 
victories  in  Lombardy,  advised  Francis  to  accept  the  alliance 
with  Piedmont  proposed  by  Cavour.  On  the  7th  of  June  a  part 
of  the  Swiss  Guard  mutinied,  and  while  the  king  mollified  them 
by  promising  to  redress  their  grievances,  General  Nunziante 
collected  other  troops,  who  surrounded  the  mutineers  and  shot 
them  down.  The  incident  resulted  in  the  disbanding  of  the 
whole  Swiss  Guard,  the  strongest  bulwark  of  the  dynasty. 
Cavour  again  proposed  an  alliance  to  divide  the  papal  states 
between  Piedmont  and  Naples,  the  province  of  Rome  excepted, 
but  Francis  rejected  an  idea  which  to  him  savoured  of  sacrilege. 
Filangieri  strongly  advocated  a  constitution  as  the  only  measure 
which  might  save  the  dynasty,  and  on  the  king's  refusal  he 
resigned.  Meanwhile  the  revolutionary  parties  were  conspiring 
for  the  overthrow  of  the  Bourbons  in  Calabria  and  Sicily,  and 
Garibaldi  was  preparing  for  a  raid  in  the  south.  A  conspiracy 
in  Sicily  was  discovered  and  the  plotters  punished  with  brutal 


severity,  but  Rosalino  Pilo  and  Francesco  Crispi  had  organized 
the  movement,  and  when  Garibaldi  landed  at  Marsala  (May 
1860)  he  conquered  the  island  with  astonishing  ease.  These 
events  at  last  frightened  Francis  into  granting  a  constitution, 
but  its  promulgation  was  followed  by  disorders  in  Naples  and 
the  resignation  of  ministers,  and  Liborio  Romano  became  head 
of  the  government.  The  disintegration  of  the  army  and  navy 
proceeded  apace,  and  Cavour  sent  a  Piedmontese  squadron 
carrying  troops  on  board  to  watch  events.  Garibaldi,  who  had 
crossed  the  straits  of  Messina,  was  advancing  northwards  and 
was  everywhere  received  by  the  people  as  a  liberator.  Francis, 
after  long  hesitations  and  even  an  appeal  to  Garibaldi  himself, 
left  Naples  (6th  of  September)  with  his  wife  Maria  Sophia,  the 
court,  the  diplomatic  corps  (the  French  and  English  ministers 
excepted),  and  went  by  sea  to  Gaeta,  where  a  large  part  of 
the  army  was  concentrated.  The  next  day  Garibaldi  entered 
Naples,  was  enthusiastically  welcomed,  and  formed  a  provisional 
government.  King  Victor  Emmanuel  had  decided  on  the  in- 
vasion of  the  papal  states,  and  after  occupying  Romagna  and 
the  Marche  entered  the  Neapolitan  kingdom.  Garibaldi's  troops 
defeated  the  Neapolitan  royalists  on  the  Volturno  (ist  and  2nd 
of  October),  while  the  Piedmontese  captured  Capua.  Only 
Gaeta,  Messina,  and  Civitella  del  Tronto  still  held  out,  and  the 
siege  of  the  former  by  the  Piedmontese  began  on  the  6th  of 
November  1860.  Both  Francis  and  Maria  Sophia  behaved  with 
great  coolness  and  courage,  and  even  when  the  French  fleet, 
whose  presence  had  hitherto  prevented  an  attack  by  sea,  was 
withdrawn,  they  still  resisted;  it  was  not  until  the  i2th  of 
February  1861  that  the  fortress  capitulated.  Thus  the  kingdom 
of  Naples  was  incorporated  in  that  of  Italy,  and  the  royal  pair 
from  that  time  forth  led  a  wandering  life  in  Austria,  France  and 
Bavaria.  Francis  died  on  the  2?th  of  December  1894  at  Arco 
in  Tirol.  His  widow  survived  him. 

Francis  II.  was  weak-minded,  stupid  and  vacillating,  but, 
although  his  short  reign  was  stained  with  some  cruel  massacres 
and  persecutions,  he  was  less  of  a  tyrant  than  his  father.  The 
courage  and  dignity  he  displayed  during  his  reverses  inspired 
pity  and  respect.  But  the  fact  that  he  protected  brigandage 
in  his  former  dominions  and  countenanced  the  most  abominable 
crimes  in  the  nameof  legitimismgreatlydiminishedthesympathy 
which  was  felt  for  the  fallen  monarch. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — R.  de  Cesare,  La  Fine  d'  un  regno,  vol.  ii.  (Citta 
di  Castello,  1900)  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  reign  of  Francis  II., 
while  H.  R.  Whitehouse's  Collapse  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  (New 
York,  1899)  may  be  recommended  to  English  readers;  Nisco's 
Francesco  II  (Naples,  1887)  should  also  be  consulted.  See  under 
NAPLES;  GARIBALDI;  BIXIO;  CAVOUR;  ITALY;  FILANGIERI;  &c. 

(L.  V.*) 

FRANCIS  IV.  (1779-1846)  duke  of  Modena,  was  the  son  of  the 
archduke  Ferdinand,  Austrian  governor  of  Lombardy,  who 
acquired  the  duchy  of  Modena  through  his  wife  Marie  Beatrice, 
heiress  of  the  house  of  Este  as  well  as  of  many  fiefs  of  the  Mala- 
spina,  Pio  da  Carpi,  Pico  della  Mirandola,  Cibo,  and  other  families. 
At  the  time  of  the  French  invasion  (1796)  Francis  was  sent  to 
Vienna  to  be  educated,  and  in  1809  was  appointed  governor  of 
Galicia.  Later  he  went  to  Sardinia,  where  the  exiled  King  Victor 
Emmanuel  I.  and  his  wife  Maria  Theresa  were  living  in  retirement. 
The  latter  arranged  a  marriage  between  her  daughter  Marie 
Beatrice  and  Francis,  and  a  secret  family  compact  was  made 
whereby  if  the  king  and  his  two  brothers  died  without  male 
issue,  the  Salic  law  would  be  changed  so  that  Francis  should 
succeed  to  the  kingdom  instead  of  Charles  Albert  of  Carignano 
(N.  Bianchi,  Storia  della  diplomazia  europea  in  Italia,  i.  42-43). 
On  the  fall  of  Napoleon  in  1814  Francis  received  the  duchy  of 
Modena,  including  Massa-Carrara  and  Lunigiana;  his  mother's 
advice  was  "  to  be  above  the  law  .  .  .  never  to  forgive  the 
Republicans  of  1 796,  nor  to  listen  to  the  complaints  of  his  subjects, 
whom  nothing  satisfies;  the  poorer  they  are  the  quieter  they 
are  "  (Silingardi,  "  Giro  Menotti,"  in  Rivista  europea,  Florence, 
1880). 

The  duke  was  well  received  at  Modena;  inordinately  ambitious, 
strong-willed,  immensely  rich,  avaricious  but  not  unintelligent, 
he  soon  proved  one  of  the  most  reactionary  despots  in  Italy. 


FRANCIS  V.  OF  MODENA— FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 


937 


He  still  hoped  to  acquire  either  Piedmont  or  some  other  part 
of  northern  Italy,  and  he  was  in  touch  with  the  Sanfedisti  and 
the  Concistoro,  reactionary  Catholic  associations  opposed  to 
the  Carbonari,  but  not  always  friendly  to  Austria.  Against  the 
Carbonari  and  other  Liberals  he  issued  the  severest  edicts,  and 
although  there  was  no  revolt  at  Modena  in  1821  as  in  Piedmont 
and  Naples,  he  immediately  instituted  judicial  proceedings 
against  the  supposed  conspirators.  Some  350  persons  were 
arrested  and  tortured,  56  being  condemned  to  death  (only  a 
few  of  them  were  executed)  and  237  to  imprisonment;  a  large 
number,  however,  escaped,  including  Antonio  Panizzi  (afterwards 
director  of  the  British  Museum).  The  ferocious  police  official 
Besini  who  conducted  the  trials  was  afterwards  murdered. 
The  duke  actually  proposed  to  Prince  Metternich,  the  Austrian 
chancellor,  an  agreement  whereby  the  various  Italian  rulers 
were  to  arrest  every  Liberal  in  the  country  on  a  certain  day,  but 
the  project  fell  through  owing  to  opposition  from  the  courts  of 
Florence  and  Rome.  At  the  congress  of  Verona  Metternich 
made  another  attempt  to  secure  the  Piedmontese  succession 
for  Francis,  but  without  success.  The  duke  became  ever  more 
despotic;  Modena  swarmed  with  spies  and  informers,  education 
was  hampered,  feudalism  strengthened;  for  the  duke  hoped 
to  consolidate  his  power  by  means  of  the  nobility,  and  the  least 
expression  of  liberalism,  or  even  failure  to  denounce  a  Carbonaro, 
involved  arrest  and  imprisonment.  But  strange  to  say,  in  1830 
we  find  Francis  actually  coquetting  with  revolution.  Having 
lost  all  hope  of  acquiring  the  Piedmontese  throne,  he  entered 
into  negotiations  with  the  French  Orleanist  party  with  a  view 
to  obtaining  its  support  in  his  plans  for  extending  his  dominions. 
He  was  thus  brought  into  touch  with  Giro  Menotti  (1798-1831) 
and  the  Modenese  Liberals;  what  the  nature  of  the  connexion 
was  is  still  obscure,  but  it  was  certainly  short-lived  and  merely 
served  to  betray  the  Carbonari.  As  soon  as  Francis  learned  that 
a  conspiracy  was  on  foot  to  gain  possession  of  the  town,  he  had 
Menotti  and  several  other  conspirators  arrested  on  the  night 
of  the  3rd  of  February  1831,  and  sent  the  famous  message 
to  the  governor  of  Reggio:  "  The  conspirators  are  in  my  hands; 
send  me  the  hangman  "  (there  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  actual  words).  But  the  revolt  broke  out  in  other 
parts  of  the  duchy  and  in  Rornagna,  and  Francis  retired  to 
Mantua  with  Menotti.  A  provisional  government  was  formed 
at  Modena  which  proclaimed  that  "  Italy  is  one,"  but  the  duke 
returned  a  few  weeks  later  with  Austrian  troops,  and  resistance 
was  easily  quelled.  Then  the  political  trials  began;  Menotti 
and  two  others  were  executed,  and  hundreds  condemned  to 
imprisonment.  The  population  was  now  officially  divided  into 
four  classes,  viz.  "  very  loyal,  loyal,  less  loyal,  and  disloyal," 
and  the  reaction  became  worse  than  ever,  the  duke  interfering 
in  the  minutest  details  of  administration,  such  as  hospitals, 
schools,  and  roads.  New  methods  of  procedure  were  introduced 
to  deal  with  political  trials,  but  the  ministerial  cabal  by  which 
the  country  was  administered  intrigued  and  squabbled  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  had  to  be  dismissed. 

On  the  20th  of  February  1846  Francis  died.  Although  he  had 
many  domestic  virtues  and  charming  manners,  was  charitable  in 
times  of  famine,  and  was  certainly  the  ablest  of  the  Italian  despots, 
Liberalism  was  in  his  eyes  the  most  heinous  of  crimes,  and  his 
reign  is  one  long  record  of  barbarous  persecution.  (L.  V.*) 

FRANCIS  V.  (1810-1875),  duke  of  Modena,  son  of  Francis  IV., 
succeeded  his  father  in  1846.  Although  less  cruel  and  also  less 
intelligent  than  his  father,  he  had  an  equally  high  opinion  of 
his  own  authority.  His  reign  began  with  disturbances  at  Fiviz- 
zano  and  Pontremoli,  which  Tuscany  surrendered  to  him  accord- 
ing to  treaty  but  against  the  wishes  of  the  inhabitants  (1847), 
and  at  Massa  and  Carrara,  where  the  troops  shot  down  the 
people.  Feeling  his  position  insecure,  the  duke  asked  for  and 
obtained  an  Austrian  garrison,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  revolution 
throughout  Italy  and  at  Vienna  in  1848,  further  disorders 
occurred  in  the  duchy,  and  on  the  2oth  of  March  he  fled  with  his 
family  to  Mantua.  A  provisional  government  was  formed,  and 
volunteers  were  raised  who  fought  with  the  Piedmontese  against 
Austria.  But  after  the  Piedmontese  defeat  Francis  returned  to 


Modena,  with  Austrian  assistance,  in  August  and  conferred  many 
appointments  on  Austrian  officers.  Like  his  father,  he  interfered 
in  the  minutest  details  of  administration,  and  instituted  proceed- 
ings against  all  who  were  suspected  of  Liberalism.  Not  content 
with  the  severity  of  his  judges,  he  overrode  their  sentences  in 
favour  of  harsher  punishments.  The  disturbances  at  Carrara 
were.ruthlessly  suppressed,  and  the  prisons  filled  with  politicals. 
In  1859  numbers  of  young  Modenese  fled  across  the  frontier  to  join 
the  Piedmontese  army,  as  war  with  Austria  seemed  imminent; 
and  after  the  Austrian  defeat  at  Magenta  the  duke  left  Modena  to 
lead  his  army  in  person  against  the  Piedmontese,  taking  with  him 
the  contents  of  the  state  treasury  and  many  valuable  books, 
pictures,  coins,  tapestries  and  furniture  from  the  palace.  The 
events  of  1850-1860  made  his  return  impossible;  and  after  a  short 
spell  of  provisional  government  the  duchy  was  united  to  Italy. 
He  retired  to  Austria,  and  died  at  Munich  in  November  1875. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— N.  Bianchi,  I  Ducali  Estensi  (Turin,  1852); 
Galvani,  Memorie  di  S.A.R.  Francesco  IV  (Modena,  1847);  Docu- 
menti  riguardanti  il  governo  degli  Atistro-Estensi  in  Modena  (Modena, 
1860) ;  C.  Tivaroni,  L'ltalia  durante  il  dominio  austriaco,  i.  606-653 
(Turin,  1892),  and  L'ltalia  degli  Italiani,  i.  114-125  (Turin,  1895); 
Silingardi,  "  Giro  Menotti,"  in  the  Rivista  eurppea  (Florence,  1880) ; 
F.  A.  Gualterio,  Gli  ultimi  rivolgimenti  italiani  (Florence,  1850) ; 
Bayard  de  Volo,  Vita  di  Francesco  V  (4  vols.,  Modena,  1878-1885). 

(L.  V.*) 

FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI,  ST.  (1181  or  1182-1226),  founder  of 
the  Franciscans  (q.ii.),  was  born  in  1181  or  1182  at  Assisi,  one 
of  the  independent  municipal  towns  of  Umbria.  He  came 
from  the  upper  middle  class,  his  father,  named  Pietro  Bernardone, 
being  one  of  the  larger  merchants  of  the  city.  Bernardone's 
commercial  enterprises  made  him  travel  abroad,  and  it  was 
from  the  fact  that  the  father  was  in  France  at  the  time  of  his 
son's  birth  that  the  latter  was  called  Francesco.  His  education 
appears  to  have  been  of  the  slightest,  even  for  those  days.  It 
is  difficult  to  decide  whether  words  of  the  early  biographers 
imply  that  his  youth  was  not  free  from  irregularities;  in  any 
case,  he  was  the  recognized  leader  of  the  young  men  of  the  town 
in  their  revels;  he  was,  however,  always  conspicuous  for  his 
charity  to  the  poor.  When  he  was  twenty  (1201)  the  neighbour- 
ing and  rival  city  of  Perugia  attempted  to  restore  by  force  of 
arms  the  nobles  who  had  been  expelled  from  Assisi  by  the 
burghers  and  the  populace,  and  Francis  took  part  in  the  battle 
fought  in  the  plain  that  lies  between  the  two  cities;  the  men 
of  Assisi  were  defeated  and  Francis  was  among  the  prisoners. 
He  spent  a  year  in  prison  at  Perugia,  and  when  peace  was  made 
at  the  end  of  1202  he  returned  to  Assisi  and  recommenced  his 
old  life. 

Soon  a  serious  and  prolonged  illness  fell  upon  him,  during 
which  he  entered  into  himself  and  became  dissatisfied  with  his 
way  of  life.  On  his  recovery  he  set  out  on  a  military  expedition, 
but  at  the  end  of  the  first  day's  march  he  fell  ill,  and  had  to  stay 
at  Spoleto  and  return  to  Assisi.  This  disappointment  brought 
on  again  the  spiritual  crisis  he  had  experienced  in  his  illness,  and 
for  a  considerable  time  the  conflict  went  on  within  him.  One 
day  he  gave  a  banquet  to  his  friends,  and  after  it  they  sallied 
forth  with  torches,  singing  through  the  streets,  Francis  being 
crowned  with  garlands  as  the  king  of  the  revellers;  after  a  time 
they  missed  him,  and  on  retracing  their  steps  they  found  him  in 
a  trance  or  reverie,  a  permanently  altered  man.  He  devoted 
himself  to  solitude,  prayer  and  the  service  of  the  poor,  and 
before  long  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome.  Finding  the  usual 
crowd  of  beggars  before  St  Peter's,  he  exchanged  his  clothes 
with  one  of  them,  and  experienced  an  overpowering  joy  in 
spending  the  day  begging  among  the  rest.  The  determining 
episode  of  his  life  followed  soon  after  his  return  to  Assisi;  as 
he  was  riding  he  met  a  leper  who  begged  an  alms;  Francis  had 
always  had  a  special  horror  of  lepers,  and  turning  his  face  he 
rode  on;  but  immediately  an  heroic  act  of  self-conquest  was 
wrought  in  him;  returning  he  alighted,  gave  the  leper  all  the 
money  he  had  about  him,  and  kissed  his  hand.  From  that  day  he 
gave  himself 'up  to  the  service  of  the  lepers  and  the  hospitals. 
To  the  confusion  of  his  father  and  brothers  he  went  about 
dressed  in  rags,  so  that  his  old  companions  pelted  him  with  mud. 


938 


FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 


Things  soon  came  to  a  climax  with  his  father:  in  consequence 
of  his  profuse  alms  to  the  poor  and  to  the  restoration  of  the 
ruined  church  of  St  Damian,  his  father  feared  his  property  would 
be  dissipated,  so  he  took  Francis  before  the  bishop  of  Assisi 
to  have  him  legally  disinherited;  but  without  waiting  for  the 
documents  to  be  drawn  up,  Francis  cast  off  his  clothes  and  gave 
them  back  to  his  father,  declaring  that  now  he  had  better  reason 
to  say  "  Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven,"  and  having  received 
a  cloak  from  the  bishop,  he  went  off  into  the  woods  of  Mount 
Subasio  singing  a  French  song;  some  brigands  accosted  him 
and  he  told  them  he  was  the  herald  of  the  great  king  (1206). 

The  next  three  years  he  spent  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Assisi 
in  abject  poverty  and  want,  ministering  to  the  lepers  and  the 
outcasts  of  society.  It  was  now  that  he  began  to  frequent  the 
ruined  little  chapel  of  St  Mary  of  the  Angels,  known  as  the 
Portiuncula,  where  much  of  his  time  was  passed  in  prayer. 
One  day  while  Mass  was  being  said  therein,  the  words  of  the 
Gospel  came  to  Francis  as  a  call:  "  Everywhere  on  your  road 
preach  and  say— The  kingdom  of  God  is  at  hand.  Cure  the  sick, 
raise  the  dead,  cleanse  the  lepers,  drive  out  devils.  Freely  have 
you  received,  freely  give.  Carry  neither  gold  nor  silver  nor 
money  in  your  girdles,  nor  bag,  nor  two  coats,  nor  sandals, 
nor  staff,  for  the  workman  is  worthy  of  his  hire  "  (Matt.  x.  7-10). 
He  at  once  felt  .that  this  was  his  vocation,  and  the  next  day, 
layman  as  he  was,  he  went  up  to  Assisi  and  began  to  preach  to 
the  poor  (1209).  Disciples  joined  him,  and  when  they  were 
twelve  in  number  Francis  said:  "  Let  us  go  to  our  Mother, 
the  holy  Roman  Church,  and  tell  the  pope  what  the  Lord  has 
begun  to  do  through  us,  and  carry  it  out  with  his  sanction." 
They  obtained  the  sanction  of  Innocent  III.,  and  returning 
to  Assisi  they  gave  themselves  up  to  their  life  of  apostolic 
preaching  and  work  among  the  poor. 

The  character  and  development  of  the  order  are  traced  in  the 
article  FRANCISCANS;  here  the  story  of  Francis's  own  life  and 
the  portrayal  of  his  personality  will  be  attempted.  To  delineate 
in  a  few  words  the  character  of  the  Poverello  of  Assisi  is  indeed 
a  difficult  task.  There  is  such  a  many-sided  richness,  such  a 
tenderness,  such  a  poetry,  such  an  originality,  such  a  distinction 
revealed  by  the  innumerable  anecdotes  in  the  memoirs  of  his 
disciples,  that  his  personality  is  brought  home  to  us  as  one  of 
the  most  lovable  and  one  of  the  strongest  of  men.  It  is  probably 
true  to  say  that  no  one  has  ever  set  himself  so  seriously  to  imitate 
the  life  of  Christ  and  to  carry  out  so  literally  Christ's  work  in 
Christ's  own  way.  This  was  the  secret  of  his  love  of  poverty  as 
manifested  in  the  following  beautiful  prayer  which  he  addressed 
to  our  Lord:  "  Poverty  was  in  the  crib  and  like  a  faithful  squire 
she  kept  herself  armed  in  the  great  combat  Thou  didst  wage  for 
our  redemption.  During  Thy  passion  she  alone  did  not  forsake 
Thee.  Mary  Thy  Mother  stopped  at  the  foot  of  the  Cross,  but 
poverty  mounted  it  with  Thee  and  clasped  Thee  in  her  embrace 
unto  the  end;  and  when  Thou  wast  dying  of  thirst,  as  a  watchful 
spouse  she  prepared  for  Thee  the  gall.  Thou  didst  expire  in  the 
ardour  of  her  embraces,  nor  did  she  leave  Thee  when  dead,  O 
Lord  Jesus,  for  she  allowed  not  Thy  body  to  rest  elsewhere  than 
in  a  borrowed  grave.  0  poorest  Jesus,  the  grace  I  beg  of  Thee 
is  to  bestow  on  me  the  treasure  of  the  highest  poverty.  Grant 
that  the  distinctive  mark  of  our  Order  may  be  never  to  possess 
anything  as  its  own  under  the  sun  for  the  glory  of  Thy  name, 
and  to  have  no  other  patrimony  than  begging  "  (in  the  Legenda 
3  Soc.) .  This  enthusiastic  love  of  poverty  is  certainly  the  keynote 
of  St  Francis's  spirit ;  and  so  one  of  his  disciples  in  an  allegorical 
poem  (translated  into  English  as  The  Lady  of  Poverty  by 
Montgomery  Carmichael,  1901),  and  Giotto  in  one  of  the  frescoes 
at  Assisi,  celebrated  the  "  holy  nuptials  of  Francis  with  Lady 
Poverty." 

Another  striking  feature  of  Francis's  character  was  his  constant 
joyousness;  it  was  a  precept  in  his  rule,  and  one  that  he  enforced 
strictly,  that  his  friars  should  be  always  rejoicing  in  the  Lord. 
He  retained  through  life  his  early  love  of  song,  and  during  his 
last  illness  he  passed  much  of  his  time  in  singing.'  His  love  of 
nature,  animate  and  inanimate,  was  very  keen  and  manifested 
itself  in  ways  that  appear  somewhat  naive.  His  preaching  to 


the  birds  is  a  favourite  representation  of  St  Francis  in  art.  All 
creatures  he  called  his  "  brothers  "  or  "  sisters  " — the  chief 
example  is  the  poem  of  the  "  Praises  of  the  Creatures,"  wherein 
"  brother  Sun,"  "  sister  Moon,"  "  brother  Wind,"  and  "  sister 
Water  "  are  called  on  to  praise  God.  In  his  last  illness  he  was 
cauterized,  and  on  seeing  the  burning  iron  he  addressed  "  brother 
Fire,"  reminding  him  how  he  had  always  loved  him  and  asking 
him  to  deal  kindly  with  him.  It  would  be  an  anachronism  to 
think  of  Francis  as  a  philanthropist  or  a  "  social  worker  "  or  a 
revivalist  preacher,  though  he  fulfilled  the  best  functions  of  all 
these.  Before  everything  he  was  an  ascetic  and  a  mystic — 
an  ascetic  who,  though  gentle  to  others,  wore  out  his  body  by 
self-denial,  so  much  so  that  when  he  came  to  die  he  begged  pardon 
of  "  brother  Ass  the  body  "  for  having  unduly  ill  treated  it:  a 
mystic  irradiated  with  the  love  of  God,  endowed  in  an  extra- 
ordinary degree  with  the  spirit  of  prayer,  and  pouring  forth  his 
heart  by  the  hour  in  the  tenderest  affections  to  God  and  our  Lord. 
St  Francis  was  a  deacon  but  not  a  priest. 

From  the  return  of  Francis  and  his  eleven  companions  from 
Rome  to  Assisi  in  1209  ori2io,theirworkprosperedinawonderful 
manner.  The  effect  of  their  preaching,  and  their  example  and 
their  work  among  the  poor,  made  itself  felt  throughout  Umbria 
and  brought  about  a  great  religious  revival.  Great  numbers  came 
to  join  the  new  order  which  responded  so  admirably  to  the  needs 
of  the  time.  In  1212  Francis  invested  St  Clara  (q.v.)  with  the 
Franciscan  habit,  and  so  instituted  the  "  Second  Order,"  that  of 
the  nuns.  As  the  friars  became  more  and  more  numerous  their 
missionary  labours  extended  wider  and  wider,  spreading  first  over 
Italy,  and  then  to  other  countries.  Francis  himself  set  out, 
probably  in  1212,  for  the  Holy  Land  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the 
Saracens,  but  he  was  shipwrecked  and  had  to  return.  A  year  or 
two  later  he  went  into  Spain  to  preach  to  the  Moors,  but  had 
again  to  return  without  accomplishing  his  object  (1215  probably) . 
After  another  period  of  preaching  in  Italy  and  watching  over 
the  development  of  the  order,  Francis  once  again  set  out  for 
the  East  (1219).  This  time  he  was  successful;  he  made  his  way 
to  Egypt,  where  the  crusaders  were  besieging  Damietta,  got 
himself  taken  prisoner  and  was  led  before  the  sultan,  to  whom 
he  openly  preached  the  Gospel.  The  sultan  sent  him  back  to 
the  Christian  camp,  and  he  passed  on  to  the  Holy  Land.  Here 
he  remained  until  September  1220.  During  his  absence  were 
manifested  the  beginnings  of  the  troubles  in  the  order  that  were 
to  attain  to  such  magnitude  after  his  death.  The  circumstances 
under  which,  at  an  extraordinary  general  chapter  convoked 
by  him  shortly  after  his  return,  he  resigned  the  office  of  minister- 
general  (September  1220)  are  explained  in  the  article  FRANCIS- 
CANS: here,  as  illustrating  the  spirit  of  the  man,  it  is  in  place  to 
cite  the  words  in  which  his  abdication  was  couched:  "  Lord, 
I  give  Thee  back  this  family  which  Thou  didst  entrust  to  me. 
Thou  knowest,  most  sweet  Jesus,  that  I  have  no  more  the  power 
and  the  qualities  to  continue  to  take  care  of  it.  I  entrust  it, 
therefore,  to  the  ministers.  Let  them  be  responsible  before  Thee 
at  the  Day  of  Judgment,  if  any  brother  by  their  negligence,  or 
their  bad  example,  or  by  a  too  severe  punishment,  shall  go  astray." 
These  words  seem  to  contain  the  mere  truth:  Francis's  peculiar 
religious  genius  was  probably  not  adapted  for  the  government 
of  an  enormous  society  spread  over  the  world,  as  the  Friars 
Minor  had  now  become. 

The  chief  works  of  the  next  years  were  the  revision  and  final 
redaction  of  the  Rule  and  the  formation  or  organization  of  the 
"  Third  Order  "  or  "  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Penance,"  a  vast 
confraternity  of  lay  men  and  women  who  tried  to  carry  out, 
without  withdrawing  from  the  world,  the  fundamental  principles 
of  Franciscan  life  (see  TERTIARIES)  . 

If  for  no  other  reason  than  the  prominent  place  they  hold  in 
art,  it  would  not  be  right  to  pass  by  the  Stigmata  without  a 
special  mention.  The  story  is  well  known;  two  years  before 
his  death  Francis  went  up  Mount  Alverno  in  the  Apennines 
with  some  of  his  disciples,  and  after  forty  days  of  fasting  and 
prayer  and  contemplation,  on  the  morning  of  the  i4th  of 
Sejotember  1224  (to  use  Sabatier's  words),  "he  had  a  vision: 
in  the  warm  rays  of  the  rising  sun  he  discerned  suddenly  a  strange 


FRANCIS  OF  MAYRONE— FRANCIS  OF  PAOLA 


939 


figure.  A  seraph  with  wings  extended  flew  towards  him  from 
the  horizon  and  inundated  him  with  pleasure  unutterable. 
At  the  centre  of  the  vision  appeared  a  cross,  and  the  seraph  was 
nailed  to  it.  When  the  vision  disappeared  Francis  felt  sharp 
pains  mingling  with  the  delights.of  the  first  moment.  Disturbed 
to  the  centre  of  his  being  he  anxiously  sought  the  meaning  of  it 
all,  and  then  he  saw  on  his  body  the  Stigmata  of  the  Crucified." 
The  early  authorities  represent  the  Stigmata  not  as  bleeding 
wounds,  the  holes  as  it  were  of  the  nails,  but  as  fleshy  excrescences 
resembling  in  form  and  colour  the  nails,  the  head  on  the  palm 
of  the  hand,  and  on  the  back  as  it  were  a  nail  hammered  down. 
In  the  first  edition  of  the  Vie,  Sabatier  rejected  the  Stigmata; 
but  he  changed  his  mind,  and  in  the  later  editions  he  accepts  their 
objective  reality  as  an  historically  established  fact;  in  an 
appendix  he  collects  the  evidence:  there  exists  what  is  according 
to  all  probability  an  autograph  of  Br.  Leo,  the  saint's  favourite 
disciple  and  companion  on  Mount  Alverno  at  the  time,  which 
describes  the  circumstances  of  the  stigmatization;  Elias  of 
Cortona  (<?.».),  the  acting  superior,  wrote  on  the  day  after  his 
death  a  circular  letter  wherein  he  uses  language  clearly  implying 
that  he  had  himself  seen  the  Stigmata,  and  there  is  a  considerable 
amount  of  contemporary  authentic  second  hand  evidence.  On 
the  strength  of  this  body  of  evidence  Sabatier  rejects  all  theories 
of  fraud  or  hallucination,  whatever  may  be  the  explanation  of 
the  phenomena. 

Francis  was  so  exhausted  by  the  sojourn  on  Mount  Alverno 
that  he  had  to  be  carried  back  to  Assisi.  The  remaining  months 
of  his  life  were  passed  in  great  bodily  weakness  and  suffering, 
and  he  became  almost  blind.  However,  he  worked  on  with 
his  wonted  cheerfulness  and  joyousness.  At  last,  on  the  3rd 
of  October  1226,  he  died  in  the  Portiuncula  at  the  age  of  forty-five. 
Two  years  later  he  was  canonized  by  Gregory  IX.,  whom,  as 
Cardinal  Hugolino  of  Ostia,  he  had  chosen  to  be  the  protector 
of  his  order. 

The  works  of  St  Francis  consist  of  the  Rule  (in  two  redactions), 
the  Testament,  spiritual  admonitions,  canticles  and  a  few 
letters.  They  were  first  edited  by  Wadding  in  1623.  Two 
critical  editions  were  published  in  1904,  one  by  the  Franciscans 
of  Quaracchi  near  Florence,  the  other  (in  a  longer  and  a  shorter 
form)  by  Professor  H.  Boehmer  of  Bonn.  Sabatier  and  Goetz 
(see  below)  have  investigated  the  authenticity  of  the  several 
works;  and  the  four  lists,  while  exhibiting  slight  variations, 
are  in  substantial  accord.  Besides  the  works,  properly  so  called, 
there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  traditional  matter — anecdotes, 
sayings,  sermons — preserved  in  the  biographies  and  in  the 
Fiorelli; *  a  great  deal  of  this  matter  is  no  doubt  substantially 
authentic,  but  it  is  not  possible  to  subject  it  to  any  critical 
sifting. 

Note  on  Sources. — The  sources  for  the  life  of  St  Francis  and  early 
Franciscan  history  are  very  numerous,  and  an  immense  literature 
has  grown  up  around  them.  Any  attempt  to  indicate  even  a  selec- 
tion of  this  literature  would  here  be  impossible  and  also  futile; 
for  the  discovery  of  new  documents  has  by  no  means  ceased,  and  the 
criticism  of  the  materials  is  still  in  full  progress,  nor  can  it  be  said 
that  final  results  have  yet  emerged  from  the  discussion.  Students 
will  find  the  chief  materials  in  the  following  collections:  Archiv  fur 
Litteratur  und  Kirchengeschichte  lies  Mittelalters  (ed.  by  Ehrle  and 
Denifle,  1885,  &c.) ;  publications  of  the  Franciscans  of  Quaracchi 
(list  to  be  obtained  from  Herder,  Freiburg  im  Breisgau);  and  the 
two  series  edited  by  Paul  Sabatier,  Collection  d'etudes  et  de  documents 
sur  I'histoire  religieuse  et  litteraire  du  moyen  age  (5  vols.  published  up 
to  1906)  and  Opuscules  de  critique  historique  (12  fascicules):  the 
easiest  and  most  consecutive  way  of  following  the  controversy  is 
by  the  aid  of  the  "  Bulletin  Hagiographique  "  in  Analecta  Bollan- 
diana.  Relatively  popular  accounts  of  the  most  important  sources 
are  supplied  in  the  introductory  chapters  of  Sabatier's  Vie  de  S. 
Francois  and  Speculum  perfectionis,  and  Lempp's  Frere  Elie  de 
Cortone. 

Concerning  the  life  of  St  Francis  and  the  beginnings  of  the  orcler, 
the  chief  documents  that  come  under  discussion  are:  the  two  Lives 
by  Thomas  of  Celano  (1228  and  1248  respectively;  Eng.  trans, 
with  introduction  by  A.  G.  Ferrers  Howell,  1908),  of  which  the  only 
critical  edition  is  that  of  Friar  Ed.  d'Alengon  (1906);  the  so-called 
Legenda  trium  sociorum;  the  Speculum  perfectionis,  discovered  by 
Paul  Sabatier  and  edited  in  1898  (Eng.  trans,  by  Sebastian  Evans, 

1  The  Little  Flowers  of  St  Francis. 


Mirror  of  Perfection,  1899).  Sabatier's  theory  as  to  the  nature  of 
these  documents  was,  in  brief,  that  the  Speculum  perfectionis  was 
the  first  of  all  the  Lives  of  the  saint,  written  in  1227  by  Br.  Leo,  his 
favourite  and  most  intimate  disciple,  and  that  the  Legenda  j  Soc. 
is  what  it  claims  to  be — the  handiwork  of  Leo  and  the  two  other 
most  intimate  companions  of  Francis,  compiled  in  1246;  these  are 
the  most  authentic  and  the  only  true  accounts,  Thomas  of  Celano's 
Lives  being  written  precisely  in  opposition  to  them,  in  the  interests 
of  the  majority  of  the  order  that  favoured  mitigations  of  the  Rule 
especially  in  regard  to  poverty.  For  ten  years  the  domain  of 
Franciscan  origins  was  explored  and  discussed  by  a  number  of 
scholars;  and  then  the  whole  ground  was  reviewed  by  Professor  W. 
Goetz  of  Munich  in  a  study  entitled  Die  Quellen  zur  Geschichte  des 
hi.  Franz  von  Assisi  (1904).  His  conclusions  are  substantially  the 
same  as  those  of  Pere  van  Ortroy,  the  Bollandist,  and  Friar  Lemmens, 
an  Observant  Franciscan,  and  are  the  direct  contrary  of  Sabatier's : 
the  Legenda  3  Soc.  is  a  forgery ;  the  Speculum  perfectionis  is  a  com- 
pilation made  in  the  I4th  century,  also  in  large  measure  a  forgery, 
but  containing  an  element  (not  to  be  precisely  determined)  derived 
from  Br.  Leo;  on  the  other  hand,  Thomas  of  Celano's  two  Lives 
are  free  from  the  "  tendencies  "  ascribed  to  them  by  Sabatier,  and 
that  of  1248  was  written  with  the  collaboration  of  Leo  and  the  other 
companions;  thus  the  best  sources  of  information  are  those  portions 
of  the  Speculum  that  can  with  certainty  be  carried  back  to  Br.  Leo, 
and  the  Lives  by  Thomas  of  Celano,  especially  the  second  Life. 
Goetz's  criticism  of  the  documents  is  characterized  by  exceeding 
carefulness  and  sobriety.  Of  course  he  does  not  suppose  that  his 
conclusions  are  in  all  respects  final ;  but  his  investigations  show 
that  the  time  has  not  yet  come  when  a  biography  of  St  Francis 
could  be  produced  answering  to  the  demands  of  modern  historical 
criticism.  The  official  life  of  St  Francis  is  St  Bonaventura's  Legenda, 
published  in  a  convenient  form  by  the  Franciscans  of  Quaracchi 
(1898);  Goetz's  estimate  of  it  (op.  cit.)  is  much  more  favourable 
than  Sabatier's. 

Paul  Sabatier's  fascinating  and  in  many  ways  sympathetic  Vie  de 
S.  Franfois  (1894;  33rd  ed.,  1906;  Eng.  trans,  by  L.  S.  Houghton, 
1901)  will  probably  for  a  long  time  to  come  be  accepted  by  the 
ordinary  reader  as  a  substantially  correct  portrait  of  St  Francis; 
and  yet  Goetz  declares  that  the  most  competent  and  independent 
critics  have  without  any  exception  pronounced  that  Sabatier  has 
depicted  St  Francis  a  great  deal  too  much  from  the  standpoint  of 
modern  religiosity,  and  has  exaggerated  his  attitude  in  face  of  the 
church  (op.  cit.  p.  5).  In  articles  in  the  Hist.  Vierteljahrsschrift 
(1902,  1903)  Goetz  has  shown  that  Sabatier's  presentation  of  St 
Francis's  relations  with  the  ecclesiastical  authority  in  general,  and 
with  Cardinal  Hugolino  (Gregory  IX.)  in  particular,  is  largely  based 
on  misconception ;  that  the  development  of  the  order  was  not  forced 
on  Francis  against  his  will;  and  that  the  differences  in  the  order 
did  not  during  Francis's  lifetime  attain  to  such  a  magnitude  as  to 
cause  him  during  his  last  years  the  suffering  depicted  by  Sabatier. 
This  from  a  Protestant  historian  like  Goetz  is  most  valuable  criticism. 
In  truth  Sabatier's  St  Francis  is  an  anachronism — a  man  at  heart,  a 
modern  pietistic  French  Protestant  of  the  most  liberal  type,  with  a 
veneer  of  I3th  century  Catholicism. 

Of  lives  of  St  Francis  in  English  may  be  mentioned  those  by  Mrs 
Oliphant  (2nd  ed.,  1871)  and  by  Canon  Knox  Little  (1897).  For 
general  information  and  references  to  the  literature  of  the  subject, 
see  Otto  Zockler,  Askese  und  Monchtum  (1897),  ii.  470-493,  and  his 
article  in  Herzog's  Realencyklopddie  (ed.  3),  "  Franz  von  Assisi  " 
(1899);  also  Max  Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Kongregationen  (1896),  i. 
§  38.  The  chapter  on  St  Francis  in  Emile  Gebhart's  Italie  mystique 
(ed.  3,  1899)  is  very  remarkable;  indeed,  though  this  writer  is  as 
little  ecclesiastically-minded  as  Sabatier  himself,  his  general  picture 
of  the  state  of  religion  in  Italy  at  the  time  is  far  truer;  here  also 
Sabatier  has  given  way  to  the  usual  temptation  of  biographers  to 
exalt  their  hero  by  depreciating  everybody  else.  (E.  C.  B.) 

FRANCIS  OF  MAYRONE  [FRANCISCXIS  DE  MAYRONIS]  (d. 
1325),  scholastic  philosopher,  was  born  at  Mayrone  in  Provence. 
He  entered  the  Franciscan  order  and  subsequently  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  was  a  pupil  of  Duns  Scotus.  At  the  Sorbonne  he 
acquired  a  great  reputation  for  ability  in  discussion,  and  was 
known  as  the  Doctor  Illuminalus  and  Magisler  Acutus.  He 
became  a  professor  of  philosophy,  and  took  part  in  the  discussions 
on  the  nature  of  Universals.  Following  Duns  Scotus,  he  adopted 
the  Platonic  theory  of  ideas,  and  denied  that  Aristotle  had  made 
any  contribution  to  metaphysical  speculation.  It  is  a  curious 
commentary  on  the  theories  of  Duns  Scotus  that  one  pupil, 
Francis,  should  have  taken  this  course,  while  another  pupil, 
Occam,  should  have  used  his  arguments  in  a  diametrically 
opposite  direction  and  ended  in  extreme  Nominalism. 

His  works  were  collected  and  published  at  Venice  in  1520  under 
the  title  Praeclarissima  ac  multum  sublilia  scripta  Illuminati  Doctoris 
Francisci  de  Mayronis,  &fc. 

FRANCIS  OF  PAOLA  (or  PAULA),  ST,  founder  of  the  Minims, 
a  religious  order  in  the  Catholic  Church,  was  born  of  humble 


940 


FRANCIS  OF  SALES 


parentage  at  Paola  in  Calabria  in  1416,  or  according  to  the 
Bollandists  1438.  As  a  boy  he  entered  a  Franciscan  friary, 
but  left  it  and  went  to  live  as  a  hermit  in  a  cave  on  the  seashore 
near  Paola.  Soon  disciples  joined  him,  and  with  the  bishop's 
approval  he  built  a  church  and  monastery.  At  first  they  called 
themselves  "  Hermits  of  St  Francis ";  but  the  object  they 
proposed  to  themselves  was  to  go  beyond  even  the  strict  Francis- 
cans in  fasts  and  bodily  austerities  of  all  kinds,  in  poverty  and 
in  humility;  and  therefore,  as  the  Franciscans  were  the  Minors 
(minores,  less),  the  new  order  took  the  name  of  Minims  (minimi, 
least).  By  1474  a  number  of  houses  had  been  established  in 
southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  the  order  was  recognized  and 
approved  by  the  pope.  In  1482  Louis  XI.  of  France,  being  on 
his  deathbed  and  hearing  the  reports  of  the  holiness  of  Francis, 
sent  to  ask  him  to  come  and  attend  him,  and  at  the  pope's 
command  he  travelled  to  Paris.  On  this  occasion  Philip  de 
Comines  in  his  Memoirs  says:  "  I  never  saw  any  man  living  so 
holily,  nor  out  of  whose  mouth  the  Holy  Ghost  did  more  mani- 
festly speak."  He  remained  with  Louis  till  his  death,  and  Louis' 
successor,  Charles  VIII.,  held  him  in  such  high  esteem  that  he 
kept  him  in  Paris,  and  enabled  him  to  found  various  houses  of 
his  order  in  France;  in  Spain  and  Germany,  too,  houses  were 
founded  during  Francis's  lifetime.  He  never  left  France, 
and  died  in  1507  in  the  monastery  of  his  order  at  Plessis- 
les-Tours. 

The  Rule  was  so  strict  that  the  popes  long  hesitated  to  confirm 
it  in  its  entirety;  not  until  1506  was  it  finally  sanctioned.  The 
most  special  feature  is  an  additional  vow  to  keep  a  perpetual 
Lent  of  the  strictest  kind,  not  only  flesh  meat  but  fish  and  all 
animal  products — eggs,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  dripping — being 
forbidden,  so  that  the  diet  was  confined  to  bread,  vegetables, 
fruit  and  oil,  and  water  was  the  only  drink.  Thus  in  matter 
of  diet  the  Minims  surpassed  in  austerity  all  orders  in  the  West, 
and  probably  all  permanently  organized  orders  in  the  East. 
The  strongly  ascetical  spirit  of  the  Minims  manifested  itself  in 
the  title  borne  by  the  superiors  of  the  houses — not  abbot  (father), 
or  prior,  or  guardian,  or  minister,  or  rector,  but  corrector;  and 
the  general  superior  is  the  corrector  general.  Notwithstanding 
its  extreme  severity  the  order  prospered.  At  the  death  of  the 
founder  it  had  five  provinces — Italy,  France,  Tours,  Germany, 
Spain.  Later  there  were  as  many  as  450  monasteries,  and  some 
missions  in  India.  There  never  was  a  Minim  house  in  England 
or  Ireland.  It  ranks  as  one  of  the  Mendicant  orders.  In  1909 
there  were  some  twenty  monasteries,  mostly  in  Sicily,  but  one 
in  Rome  (S.  Andrea  delle  Fratte),  and  one  in  Naples,  in  Marseilles 
and  in  Cracow.  There  have  been  Minim  nuns  (only  one  convent 
has  survived,  till,  recently  at  Marseilles)  and  Minim  Tertiaries, 
in  imitation  of  the  Franciscan  Tertiaries.  The  habit  of  the 
Minims  is  black. 

See  Helyot,  Hist,  des  ordres  religieux  (1714),  vii.  c.  56:  Max 
Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Kongregationen  (1896),  i.  §  52;  the  article 
"  Franz  von  Paula  "  in  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchenlexicpn  (ed.  2), 
and  in  Herzog,  Realencyklopadie  (ed.  3) ;  Catholic  Dictionary,  art. 
"  Minims."  (E.  C.  B.) 

FRANCIS  (FRANCOIS)  OF  SALES,  ST  (1567-1622),  bishop  of 
Geneva  and  doctor  of  the  Church  (1877),  was  born  at  the  castle 
of  Sales,  near  Annecy,  Savoy.  His  father,  also  Francois,  comte  de 
Sales,  but  better  known  as  M.  de  Boisy,  a  nobleman  and  soldier, 
had  been  employed  in  various  affairs  of  state,  but  in  1560,  at 
the  age  of  thirty-eight,  settled  down  on  his  ancestral  estates  and 
married  Franchise  de  Sionnay,  a  Savoyard  like  himself,  and  an 
heiress.  St  Francis,  the  first  child  of  this  union,  was  born  in 
August  1567  when  his  mother  was  in  her  fifteenth  year.  M.  de 
Boisy  was  renowned  for  his  experience  and  sound  judgment, 
and  both  parents  were  distinguished  by  piety,  love  of  peace, 
charity  to  the  poor,  qualities  which  early  showed  themselves  in 
their  eldest  son. 

He  received  his  education  first  at  La  Roche,  in  the  Arve  valley, 
then  at  the  college  of  Annecy,  founded  by  Eustace  Chappius, 
ambassador  in  England  of  Charles  V.,  in  1549.  At  the  age  of 
thirteen  or  fourteen  he  went  to  the  Jesuit  College  of  Clermont 
at  Paris,  where  he  stayed  till  the  summer  of  1 588,  and  where  he 


laid  the  foundations  of  his  profound  knowledge,  while  perfecting 
himself  in  the  exercises  of  a  young  nobleman  and  practising  a 
life  of  exemplary  virtue.  At  this  time  also  he  developed  an 
ardent  love  of  France,  a  country  which  was  politically  in  antagon- 
ism with  his  own,  though  so  closely  linked  to  it  geographically, 
socially  and  by  language.  At  the  end  of  1588  he  went  to  Padua, 
to  take  his  degree  in  canon  and  civil  law,  a  necessary  prelude  in 
Savoy  at  that  time  to  discinction  in  a  civil  career.  His  heart, 
however,  especially  from  the  date  of  his  receiving  the  tonsure 
(1578),  was  already  turned  towards  the  Church,  and  he  gave  his 
attention  even  more  to  theology,  under  the  great  masters 
Antonio  Possevino,  S.J.,  and  Gesualdo,  afterwards  general  of 
the  Friars  Minor,  than  to  his  legal  course.  "  At  Padua,"  he  said 
to  a  friend,  "  I  studied  law  to  please  my  father,  and  theology  to 
please  myself."  In  that  licentious  university  Francis  found 
the  greatest  difficulty  in  resisting  attacks  on  his  virtue,  and  once 
at  least  had  to  draw  his  sword  to  defend  his  personal  safety 
against  a  band  of  ruffians.  The  gentleness  for  which  he  was 
already  renowned  was  not  that  of  a  weak,  but  of  a  strong 
character.  He  returned  to  Savoy  in  1592,  and,  while  seeking 
the  occasion  to  overcome  his  father's  resistance  to  his  resolution 
of  embracing  the  ecclesiastical  profession,  took  the  diploma 
of  advocate  to  the  senate.  Meantime,  without  his  knowledge, 
his  friends  procured  for  him  the  post  of  provost  of  the  chapter  of 
Geneva,  an  honour  which  reconciled  M.  de  Boisy  to  the  sacrifice 
of  more  ambitious  hopes.  After  a  year  of  zealous  work  as  preacher 
and  director  he  was  sent  by  the  bishop,  Claude  de  Granier,  to 
try  and  win  back  the  province  of  Chablais,  which  had  embraced 
Calvinism  when  usurped  by  Bern  in  1535,  and  had  retained  it 
even  after  its  restitution  to  Savoy  in  1564.  At  first  the  people 
refused  to  listen  to  him,  for  he  was  represented  to  them  as  an 
instrument  of  Satan,  and  all  who  had  dealings  with  him  were 
threatened  with  the  vengeance  of  the  consistory.  He  therefore 
wrote  out  his  message  on  sheets  which  were  passed  from  hand  to 
hand,  and  these,  with  the  spectacle  of  his  virtues  and  disinterested- 
ness, soon  produced  a  strong  effect.  The  sheets  just  spoken  of 
still  exist  in  the  Chigi  library  at  Rome,  and  were  published, 
though  with  many  alterations,  in  1672,  under  the  title  of 
Les  Controverses.  This  must  be  considered  the  first  work  of 
St  Francis. 

The  re-erection  of  a  wayside  cross  in  Annemasse,  at  the  gates  of 
Geneva,  amid  an  enormous  concourse  of  converts,  an  event 
which  closed  the  three  years  of  his  apostolate,  led  to  the  com- 
position of  the  Defense  .  .  .  de  la  Croix,  published  in  1600. 
An  illness  brought  on  by  toil  and  privation  forced  him  to  leave 
his  work  to  others  for  nearly  a  year,  but  in  August  1598  he  re- 
turned to  his  field  of  labour,  and  in  October  of  that  year  practi- 
cally the  whole  country  was  Catholic  again.  Up  to  that  time 
preaching  and  conference  had  been  the  only  weapons  employed. 
The  stories  of  the  use  of  soldiers  to  produce  simulated  con- 
versions are  incorrect.1  Possibly  the  lamentable  events  of  the 
campaigns  of  1 589  in  Gex  and  Chablais  have  been  applied  to  the 

1  This,  at  least,  is  the  account  given  by  Catholic  authorities. 
Less  favourable  is  the  view  taken  by  non-Catholic  historians,  which 
seems  in  some  measure  to  be  confirmed  by  St  Francis  himself. 
According  to  this,  Duke  Charles  Emmanuel  of  Savoy,  who  succeeded 
his  more  tolerant  father  in  1580,  was  determined  to  reduce  the 
Chablais  to  the  Catholic  religion,  by  peaceful  means  if  possible, 
by  force  if  necessary.  After  two  years  of  preaching  Francis  wrote 
to  the  duke  (CEuvres  compl.  ii.  p.  551):  "  During  27  months  I  have 
scattered  the  seed  of  the  Word  of  God  in  this  miserable  land ;  shall 
I  say  among  thorns  or  on  stony  ground?  Certainly,  save  for  the 
conversion  of  the  seigneur  d'Avully  and  the  advocate  Poncet,  I 
have  little  to  boast  of."  In  the  winter  of  1596-1597  Francis  was 
at  Turin,  and  at  his  suggestion  the  duke  decided  on  a  regular  plan 
for  the  coercion  of  the  refractory  Protestants.  This  plan  anticipated 
that  employed  later  by  Louis  XIV.  against  the  Huguenots  in  France. 
The  Calvinist  ministers  were  expelled;  Protestant  books  were 
confiscated  and  destroyed ;  the  acts  of  Protestant  lawyers  and 
officials  were  declared  invalid.  The  country  was  flooded  with 
Jesuits  and  friars,  whose  arguments  were  reinforced  by  quartering 
troops,  veterans  of  the  Indian  wars  in  Mexico,  on  the  refractory 
inhabitants.  Those  whose  stubborn  persistence  in  error  survived 
all  these  inducements  to  repent  were  sent  into  exile.  Seethe  article 
"  Franz  von  Sales  "  by  J.  Ehni  in  Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyklopadie 
(3rd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1899).  (W.  A.  P.) 


FRANCIS,  SIR  PHILIP 


period  1594-1598.  In  .October  of  this  last  year,  however,  the 
duke  of  Savoy,  who  came  then  to  assist  in  person  at  the  great 
religious  feasts  which  celebrated  the  return  of  the  countiy  to 
unity  of  faith,  expatriated  such  of  the  leading  men  as  obstinately 
refused  even  to  listen  to  the  Catholic  arguments.  He  also  forbade 
Calvinist  ministers  to  reside  in  the  Chablais,  and  substituted 
Catholic  for  Huguenot  officials.  St  Francis  concurred  in  these 
measures,  and,  three  years  later,  even  requested  that  those  who, 
as  he  said,  "  follow  their  heresy,  rather  as  a  party  than  a  religion," 
should  be  ordered  either  to  conform  or  to  leave  their  country, 
with  leave  to  sell  their  goods.  His  conduct,  judged  not  by  a 
modern  standard,  but  by  the  ideas  of  his  age,  will  be  found 
compatible  with  the  highest  Christian  charity,  as  that  of  the  duke 
with  sound  political  prudence.  At  this  time  he  was  nominated 
to  the  pope  as  coadjutor  of  Geneva,1  and  after  a  visit  to  Rome 
he  assisted  Bishop  de  Granier  in  the  administration  of  the  newly 
converted  countries  and  of  the  diocese  at  large. 

In  1602  he  made  his  second  visit  to  the  French  capital,  when 
his  transcendent  qualities  brought  him  into  the  closest  relations 
with  the  court  of  Henry  IV.,  and  made  him  the  spiritual  father 
of  that  circle  of  select  souls  who  centred  round  Madame  Acarie. 
Among  the  celebrated  personages  who  became  his  life  friends  from 
this  time  were  Pierre  de  Berulle,  founder  of  the  French  Oratorians, 
Guillaume  Duval,  the  scholar,  and  the  due  de  Bellegarde,  the 
latter  a  special  favourite  of  the  king,  who  begged  to  be  allowed 
to  share  the  Saint's  friendship.  At  this  time  also  his  gift  as  a 
preacher  became  fully  recognized,  and  de  Sanzea,  afterwards 
bishop  of  Bethlehem,  records  that  Duval  exhorted  all  his 
students  of  the  Sorbonne  to  listen  to  him  and  to  imitate  this, 
"  the  true  and  excellent  method  of  preaching."  His  principles 
are  expressed  in  the  admirable  letter  to  Andre  Fremyot  of 
October  1604. 

De  Granier  died  in  September  1602,  and  the  new  bishop 
entered  on  the  administration  of  his  vast  diocese,  which,  as 
a  contemporary  says,  "  he  found  brick  and  left  marble."  His 
first  efforts  were  directed  to  securing  a  virtuous  and  well- 
instructed  clergy,  with  its  consequence  of  a  people  worthy  of 
their  pastors.  All  his  time  was  spent  in  preaching,  confessing, 
visiting  the  sick,  relieving  the  poor.  His  zeal  was  not  confined 
to  his  diocese.  In  concert  with  Jeanne  Francoise  Fremyot 
(1572-1641),  widow  of  the  baron  de  Chantal,  whose  acquaintance 
he  made  while  preaching  through  Lent  at  Dijon  in  1604,  he 
founded  the  order  of  the  Visitation,  in  favour  of  "  strong  souls 
with  weak  bodies,"  as  he  said,  deterred  from  entering  the  orders 
already  existing,  by  their  inability  to  undertake  severe  corporal 
austerities.  The  institution  rapidly  spread,  counting  twenty 
houses  before  his  death  and  eighty  before  that  of  St  Jeanne. 
The  care  of  his  diocese  and  of  his  new  foundation  were  not 
enough  for  his  ardent  charity,  and  in  1609  he  published  his 
famous  Introduction  to  a  Devout  Life,  a  work  which  was  at  once 
translated  into  the  chief  European  languages  and  of  which 
he  himself  published  five  editions.  In  1616  appeared  his  Treatise 
on  the  Love  of  God,  which  teaches  that  perfection  of  the  spiritual 
life  to  which  the  former  work  is  meant  to  be  the  "  Introduction." 

The  important  Lents  of  1617  and  1618  at  Grenoble  were  a 
prelude  to  a  still  more  important  apostolate  in  Paris,  "  the  theatre 
of  the  world,"  as  St  Vincent  de  Paul  calls  it.  This  third  visit 
to  the  great  city  lasted  from  the  autumn  of  1618  to  that  of  1619; 
the  direct  object  of  it  was  to  assist  in  negotiating  the  marriage 
of  the  prince  of  Piedmont  with  Chretienne  of  France,  but  nearly 
all  his  time  was  spent  in  preaching  and  works  of  mercy,  spiritual 
or  corporal.  He  was  regarded  as  a  living  saint.  St  Vincent 
scarcely  left  him,  and  has  given  the  most  extraordinary  testi- 
monies (as  yet  unpublished)  of  his  heroic  virtues.  Mere  Angelique 
Arnaud,  who  at  this  time  put  herself  under  his  direction  and 
wished  to  join  the  Order  of  the  Visitation,  attracted  by  its  humility 
and  sweetness,  may  be  named  as  the  most  interesting  of  his 
innumerable  penitents  of  this  period.  He  returned  to  Savoy, 
and  after  three  years  more  of  unwearying  labour  died  at  Lyons 
on  the  28th  of  December  1622.  A  universal  outburst  of  venera- 
tion followed;  indeed  his  cult  had  already  begun,  and  after 
1  With  the  title  of  Nicopolis  in  partibus. — ED. 


an  episcopal  inquiry  the  pontifical  commission  in  view  of  his 
beatification  was  instituted  by  decree  of  the  2ist  of  July  1626, 
a  celerity  unique  in  the  annals  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites. 
The  depositions  of  witnesses  were  returned  to  Rome  in  1632, 
but  meantime  the  forms  of  the  Roman  chancery  had  been 
changed  by  Urban  VIII.,  and  the  advocates  could  not  at  once 
continue  their  work.  Eventually  a  new  commission  was  issued 
in  1656,  and  on  its  report,  into  which  were  inserted  nineteen  of 
the  former  depositions,  the  "  servant  of  God  "  was  beatified  in 
1661.  The  canonization  took  place  in  1665. 

Besides  the  works  which  we  have  named,  there  were  published 
posthumously  his  Entretiens,  i.e.  a  selection  of  the  lectures  given 
to  the  Visitation,  reported  by  the  sisters  who  heard  them,  some  of 
his  sermons,  a  large  number  of  his  letters,  various  short  treatises  of 
devotion.  The  first  edition  of  his  united  or  so-called  "  Complete  " 
works  was  published  at  Toulouse  in  1637.  Others  followed  in  1641, 
1647,  1652,  1663,  1669,  1685.  The  Lettres  and  Opuscules  were  re- 
published  in  1768. 

The  only  modern  editions  of  the  complete  works  which  it  is  worth 
while  to  name  are  those  of  Blaise  (1821),  Vires  (1856^1858),  Migne 
(1861),  and  the  critical  edition  published  by  the  Visitation  of  Annecy, 
of  which  the  idth  volume  appeared  in  1905. 

The  biography  of  St  Francis  de  Sales  was  written  immediately 
after  his  death  by  the  celebrated  P.  de  La  Riviere  and  Dom  John  de 
St  Frangois  (Goulu),  as  well  as  by  two  other  authors  of  less  import- 
ance. The  saint's  nephew  and  successor,  Charles  Auguste  de  Sales, 
brought  out  a  more  extended  life,  Latin  and  French,  in  1635.  The 
lives  of  Giarda  (1650),  Maupas  du  Tour  (1657)  and  Cotolendi  (1687) 
add  little  to  Charles  Auguste.  Marsollier's  longer  life,  in  two  volumes 
(1700),  is  quite  untrustworthy ;  still  more  so  that  by  Loyaud'Amboise 
(1833),  which  is  rather  a  romance  than  a  biography.  The  lives  by 
Hamon  (1856)  and  Perennes  (1860),  without  adding  much  to  preced- 
ing biographies,  are  serious  and  edifying.  A  complete  life,  founded 
on  the  lately  discovered  process  of  1626  and  the  new  letters,  was  being 
prepared  by  the  author  of  the  present  article  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
With  the  Lives  must  be  mentioned  the  Esprit  du  B.  F.  de  Sales  by 
Camus,  bishop  of  Belley,  who,  amid  innumerable  errors,  gives 
various  interesting  traits  and  sayings  of  his  saintly  friend.  Among 
the  very  numerous  modern  studies  may  be  named  an  essay  by  Leigh 
Hunt  entitled  "  The  Gentleman  Saint  "  (The  Seer,  pt.  ii.  No.  41); 
a  remarkable  causerie  by  Sainte-Beuve  (Lundis,  3rd  Jan.  1853); 
Le  Rsveil  du  sentiment  religieux  en  France  au  XVII'  sitcle,  by 
Strowski  (Paris,  1898) ;  Four  Essays  on  S.  F.  de  S.  and  Three  Essays 
on  S.  F.  de  S.  as  Preacher,  by  Canon  H.  B.  Mackey.  (H.  B.  M.) 

FRANCIS,  SIR  PHILIP  (1740-1818),  English  politician  and 
pamphleteer,  the  supposed  author  of  the  Letters  of  Junius, 
and  the  chief  antagonist  of  Warren  Hastings,  was  born  in  Dublin 
on  the  22nd  of  October  1740.  He  was  the  only  son  of  Dr  Philip 
Francis  (c.  1708-1773),  a  man  of  some  literary  celebrity  in  his 
time,  known  by  his  translations  of  Horace,  Aeschines  and 
Demosthenes.  He  received  the  rudiments  of  an  excellent 
education  at  a  free  school  in  Dublin,  and  afterwards  spent  a 
year  or  two  (1751-1752)  under  his  father's  roof  at  Skeyton 
rectory,  Norfolk,  and  elsewhere,  and  for  a  short  time  he  had 
Gibbon  as  a  fellow-pupil.  In  March  1753  he  entered  St  Paul's 
school,  London,  where  he  remained  for  three  years  and  a  half, 
becoming  a  proficient  classical  scholar.  In  1756,  immediately 
on  his  leaving  school,  he  was  appointed  to  a  junior  clerkship  in 
the  secretary  of  state's  office  by  Henry  Fox  (afterwards  Lord 
Holland),  with  whose  family  Dr  Francis  was  at  that  time  OD 
intimate  terms;  and  this  post  he  retained  under  the  succeeding 
administration.  In  1758  he  was  employed  as  secretary  to 
General  Bligh  in  the  expedition  against  Cherbourg;  and  in  the 
same  capacity  he  accompanied  the  earl  of  Kinnoul  on  his  special 
embassy  to  the  court  of  Portugal  in  1760. 

In  1761  he  became  personally  known  to  Pitt,  who,  recognizing 
his  ability  and  discretion,  once  and  again  made  use  of  his  services 
as  private  amanuensis.  In  1762  he  was  appointed  to  a  principal 
clerkship  in  the  war  office,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship 
with  Christopher  D'Oyly,  the  secretary  of  state's  deputy,  whose 
dismissal  from  office  in  1772  was  hotly  resented  by  "  Junius  "; 
and  in  the  same  year  he  married  Miss  Macrabie,  the  daughter 
of  a  retired  London  merchant.  His  official  duties  brought  him 
into  direct  relations  with  many  who  were  well  versed  in  the 
politics  of  the  time.  In  1763  the  great  constitutional  questions 
arising  out  of  the  arrest  of  Wilkes  began  to  be  sharply  canvassed. 
It  was  natural  that  Francis,  who  from  a  very  early  age  had 
been  in  the  habit  of  writing  occasionally  to  the  newspapers, 


FRANCIS  JOSEPH  I.  OF  AUSTRIA 


942 

should  be  eager  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  discussion,  though 
his  position  as  a  government  official  made  it  necessary  that  his 
intervention  should  be  carefully  disguised.  He  is  known  to  have 
written  to  the  Public  Ledger  and  Public  Advertiser,  as  an  advocate 
of  the  popular  cause,  on  many  occasions  about  and  after  the 
year  1763;  he  frequently  attended  debates  in  both  Houses  of 
Parliament,  especially  when  American  questions  were  being 
discussed:  and  between  1769  and  1771  he  is  also  known  to  have 
been  favourable  to  the  scheme  for  the  overthrow  of  the  Grafton 
government  and  afterwards  of  that  of  Lord  North,  and  for 
persuading  or  forcing  Lord  Chatham  into  power.  In  January 
1769  the  first  of  the  Letters  of  Junius  appeared,  and  the  series 
was  continued  till  January  21,  1772.  They  had  been  pre- 
ceded by  others  under  various  signatures  such  as  "  Candor," 
"  Father  of  Candor,"  "  Anti-Sejanus,"  "  Lucius,"  "  Nemesis," 
which  have  all  been  attributed,  some  of  them  certainly  in 
error,  to  one  and  the  same  hand.  The  authorship  of  the  Letters 
of  Junius  has  been  assigned  to  Francis  on  a  variety  of  grounds 
(see  JUNIUS). 

In  March  1772  Francis  finally  left  the  war  office,  and  in  July 
of  the  same  year  he  left  England  for  a  tour  through  France, 
Germany  and  Italy,  which  lasted  until  the  following  December. 
On  his  return  he  was  contemplating  emigration  to  New  England, 
when  in  June  1773  Lord  North,  on  the  recommendation  of  Lord 
Barrington,  appointed  him  a  member  of  the  newly  constituted 
supreme  council  of  Bengal  at  a  salary  of  £10,000  per  annum. 
Along  with  his  colleagues  Monson  and  Clavering  he  reached 
Calcutta  in  October  1774,  and  a  long  struggle  with  Warren 
Hastings,  the  governor-general,  immediately  began.  These 
three,  actuated  probably  by  petty  personal  motives,  combined 
to  form  a  majority  of  the  council  in  harassing  opposition  to  the 
governor-general's  policy;  and  they  even  accused  him  of 
corruption,  mainly  on  the  evidence  of  Nuncomar.  The  death  of 
Monson  in  1776,  and  of  Clavering  in  the  following  year,  made 
Hastings  again  supreme  in  the  council.  But  a  dispute  with 
Francis,  more  than  usually  embittered,  led  in  August  1780 
to  a  minute  being  delivered  to  the  council  board  by  Hastings, 
in  which  he  stated  that  "  he  judged  of  the  public  conduct  of 
Mr  Francis  by  his  experience  of  his  private,  which  he  had  found 
to  be  void  of  truth  and  honour."  A  duel  was  the  consequence, 
in  which  Francis  received  a  dangerous  wound  (see  HASTINGS, 
WARREN).  Though  his  recovery  was  rapid  and  complete,  he 
did  not  choose  to  prolong  his  stay  abroad.  He  arrived  in  England 
in  October  1781,  and  was  received  with  little  favour. 

Little  is  known  of  the  nature  of  his  occupations  during  the 
next  two  years,  except  that  he  was  untiring  in  his  efforts  to  pro- 
cure first  the  recall,  and  afterwards  the  impeachment  of  his 
hitherto  triumphant  adversary.  In  1783  Fox  produced  his  India 
Bill,  which  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  coalition  government.  In 
1784  Francis  was  returned  by  the  borough  of  Yarmouth,  Isle 
of  Wight;  and  although  he  took  an  opportunity  to  disclaim 
every  feeling  of  personal  animosity  towards  Hastings,  this  did 
not  prevent  him,  on  the  return  of  the  latter  in  1785,  from  doing 
all  in  his  power  to  bring  forward  and  support  the  charges  which 
ultimately  led  to  the  impeachment  resolutions  of  1 787.  Although 
excluded  by  a  majority  of  the  House  from  the  list  of  the  managers 
of  that  impeachment,  Francis  was  none  the  less  its  most  energetic 
promoter,  supplying  his  friends  Burke  and  Sheridan  with  all  the 
materials  for  their  eloquent  orations  and  burning  invectives. 
At  the  general  election  of  1790  he  was  returned  member  for 
Bletchingley.  He  sympathized  warmly  and  actively  with  the 
French  revolutionary  doctrines,  expostulating  with  Burke  on 
his  vehement  denunciation  of  the  same.  In  1793  he  supported 
Grey's  motion  for  a  return  to  the  old  constitutional  system  of 
representation,  and  so  earned  the  title  to  be  regarded  as  one 
of  the  earliest  promoters  of  the  cause  of  parliamentary  reform; 
and  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Society  of  the  Friends 
of  the  People."  The  acquittal  of  Hastings  in  April  1795  dis- 
appointed Francis  of  the  governor-generalship,  and  in  1798 
he  had  to  submit  to  the  additional  mortification  of  a  defeat  in 
the  general  election.  He  was  once  more  successful,  however, 
in  1802,  when  he  sat  for  Appleby,  and  it  seemed  as  if  the  great 


ambitions  of  his  life  were  about  to  be  realized  when  the  Whig 
party  came  into  power  in  1806.  His  disappointment  was  great 
when  the  governor-generalship  was,  owing  to  party  exigencies, 
conferred  on  Sir  Gilbert  Elliot  (Lord  Minto) ;  he  declined,  it  is 
said,  soon  afterwards  the  government  of  the  Cape,  but  accepted 
a  K.C.B.  Though  re-elected  for  Appleby  in  1806,  he  failed 
to  secure  a  seat  in  the  following  year;  and  the  remainder  of  his 
life  was  spent  in  comparative  privacy. 

Among  the  later  productions  of  his  pen  were,  besides  the 
Plan  of  a  Reform  in  the  Election  of  the  House  of  Commons,  pamph- 
lets entitled  Proceedings  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  Slave 
Trade  (1796),  Reflections  on  the  A  bundance  of  Paper  in  Circulation 
and  the  Scarcity  of  Specie  (1810),  Historical  Questions  Exhibited 
(1818),  and  a  Letter  to  Earl  Grey  on  the  Policy  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  Allies  towards  Norway  (1814).  His  first  wife,  by  whom 
he  had  six  children,  died  in  1806,  and  in  1814  he  married  his 
second  wife,  Emma  Watkins,  who  long  survived  him,  and  who 
left  voluminous  manuscripts  relating  to  his  biography.  Francis 
died  on  the  23rd  of  December  1818.  In  his  domestic  relations 
he  was  exemplary,  and  he  lived  on  terms  of  mutual  affection  with 
a  wide  circle  of  friends.  He  was,  however,  full  of  vindictiveness, 
dissimulation  and  treachery,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
in  his  historic  conflict  with  Warren  Hastings  unworthy  personal 
motives  played  a  leading  part. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — -For  the  evidence  identifying  Francis  with  Junius 
see  the  article  JUNIUS,  and  the  authorities  there  cited.  See  also 
Memoirs  of  Sir  Philip  Francis,  with  Correspondence  and  Journals,  by 
Joseph  Parkes  and  Herman  Merivale  (2  vols.,  London,  1867);  The 
Francis  Letters,  edited  by  Beata  Francis  and  Eliza  Keary  (2  vols., 
London,  1901);  Sir  J.  F.  Stephen,  The  Story  of  Nuncomar  and  the 
Impeachment  of  Sir  E.  Impey  (2  vols.,  London,  1885) ;  Lord  Macaulay's 
Essay  on  "  Warren  Hastings  ";  G.  B.  Malleson,  Life  of  Warren 
Hastings  (London,  1894);  G.  W.  Forrest,  The  Administration  of 
Warren  Hastings,  1772-178$  (Calcutta,  1892);  Sir  Leslie  Stephen's 
article  on  Francis  in  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.  vol.  xx. 

FRANCIS  JOSEPH  I.  (1830-  ),  emperor  of  Austria,  king 
of  Bohemia,  and  apostolic  king  of  Hungary,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  the  archduke  Francis  Charles,  second  son  of  the  reigning 
emperor  Francis  I.,  being  born  on  the  i8th  of  August  1830.  His 
mother,  the  archduchess  Sophia,  was  daughter  of  Maximilian  I., 
king  of  Bavaria.  She  was  a  woman  of  great  ability  and  strong 
character,  and  during  the  years  which  followed  the  death  of  the 
emperor  Francis  was  probably  the  most  influential  personage 
at  the  Austrian  court;  for  the  emperor  Ferdinand,  who  succeeded 
in  1835,  was  physically  and  mentally  incapable  of  performing 
the  duties  of  his  office;  as  he  was  childless,  Francis  Joseph  was 
in  the  direct  line  of  succession.  During  the  disturbances  of  1848, 
Francis  Joseph  spent  some  time  in  Italy,  where,  under  Radetzky, 
at  the  battle  of  St  Lucia,  he  had  his  first  experience  of  warfare. 
At  the  end  of  that  year,  after  the  rising  of  Vienna  and  capture  of 
the  city  by  Windischgratz,  it  was  clearly  desirable  that  there 
should  be  a  more  vigorous  ruler  at  the  head  of  the  empire,  and 
Ferdinand,  now  that  the  young  archduke  was  of  age,  was  able 
to  carry  out  the  abdication  which  he  and  his  wife  had  long  desired. 
All  the  preparations  were  made  with  the  utmost  secrecy;  on  the 
2nd  of  December  1848,  in  the  archiepiscopal  palace  at  Olmiitz, 
whither  the  court  had  fled  from  Vienna,  the  emperor  abdicated. 
His  brother  resigned  his  rights  of  succession  to  his  son,  and 
Francis  Joseph  was  proclaimed  emperor.  Ferdinand  retired 
to  Prague,  where  he  died  in  1875. 

The  history  of  the  Dual  Monarchy  during  his  reign  is  told  under 
the  heading  of  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  and  here  it  is  only  necessary 
to  deal  with  its  personal  aspects.  The  young  emperor  was  during 
the  first  years  of  his  reign  completely  in  the  hands  of  Prince  Felix 
Schwarzenberg,  to  whom,  with  Windischgratz  and  Radetzky, 
he  owed  it  that  Austria  had  emerged  from  the  revolution 
apparently  stronger  than  it  had  been  before.  The  first  task  was 
to  reduce  Hungary  to  obedience,  for  the  Magyars  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  validity  of  the  abdication  in  so  far  as  it  con- 
cerned Hungary,  on  the  ground  that  such  an  act  would  only  be 
valid  with  the  consent  of  the  Hungarian  parliament.  A  further 
motive  for  their  attitude  was  that  Francis  Joseph,  unlike  his 
predecessor,  had  not  taken  the  oath  to  observe  the  Hungarian 
constitution,  which  it  was  the  avowed  object  of  Schwarzenberg 


FRANCIS  JOSEPH  I.  OF  AUSTRIA 


943 


to  overthrow.  In  the  war  which  followed  the  emperor  himself 
took  part,  but  it  was  not  brought  to  a  successful  conclusion  till 
the  help  of  the  Russians  had  been  called  in.  Hungary,  deprived 
of  her  ancient  constitution,  became  an  integral  part  of  the  Austrian 
empire.  The  new  reign  began,  therefore,  under  sinister  omens, 
with  the  suppression  of  liberty  in  Italy,  Hungary  and  Germany. 
In  1853  a  Hungarian  named  Lebenyi  attempted  to  assassinate 
the  emperor,  and  succeeded  in  inflicting  a  serious  wound  with  a 
knife.  With  the  death  of  Schwarzenberg  in  1852  the  personal 
government  of  the  emperor  really  began,  and  with  it  that  long 
series  of  experiments  of  which  Austria  has  been  the  subject. 
Generally  it  may  be  said  that  throughout  his  long  reign  Francis 
Joseph  remained  the  real  ruler  of  his  dominions;  he  not  only 
kept  in  his  hands  the  appointment  and  dismissal  of  his  ministers, 
but  himself  directed  their  policy,  and  owing  to  the  great  know- 
ledge of  affairs,  the  unremitting  diligence  and  clearness  of 
apprehension,  to  which  all  who  transacted  business  with  him 
have  borne  testimony,  he  was  able  to  keep  a  very  real  control  even 
of  the  details  of  government. 

The  recognition  of  the  separate  status  of  Hungary,  and  the 
restoration  of  the  Magyar  constitution  in  1866,  necessarily  made 
some  change  in  his  position,  and  so  far  as  concerns  Hungary 
he  fully  accepted  the  doctrine  that  ministers  are  responsible 
to  parliament.  In  the  other  half  of  the  monarchy  (the  so-called 
Cisleithan)  this  was  not  possible,  and  the  authority  and  influence 
of  the  emperor  were  even  increased  by  the  contrast  with  the 
weaknesses  and  failures  of  the  parliamentary  system.  The  most 
noticeable  features  in  his  reign  were  the  repeated  and  sudden 
changes  of  policy,  which,  while  they  arose  from  the  extreme 
difficulty  of  finding  any  system  by  which  the  Habsburg  monarchy 
could  be  governed,  were  due  also  to  the  personal  idiosyncrasies 
of  the  emperor.  First  we  have  the  attempt  at  the  autocratic 
centralization  of  the  whole  monarchy  under  Bach;  the  personal 
influence  of  the  emperor  is  seen  in  the  conclusion  of  the  Concordat 
with  Rome,  by  which  in  1855  the  work  of  Joseph  II.  was  undone 
and  the  power  of  the  papacy  for  a  while  restored.  The  foreign 
policy  of  this  period  brought  about  the  complete  isolation  of 
Austria,  and  the  "  ingratitude "  towards  Russia,  as  shown 
during  the  period  of  the  Crimean  War,  which  has  become 
proverbial,  caused  a  permanent  estrangement  between  the  two 
great  Eastern  empires  and  the  imperial  families.  The  system 
led  inevitably  to  bankruptcy  and  ruin;  the  war  of  1859,  by 
bringing  it  to  an  end,  saved  the  monarchy.  After  the  first 
defeat  Francis  Joseph  hastened  to  Italy;  he  commanded  in 
person  at  Solferino,  and  by  a  meeting  with  Napoleon  arranged 
the  terms  of  the  peace  of  Villafranca.  The  next  six  years,  both 
in  home  and  foreign  policy,  were  marked  by  great  vacillation. 
In  order  to  meet  the  universal  discontent  and  the  financial 
difficulties  constitutional  government  was  introduced;  a  parlia- 
ment was  established  in  which  all  races  of  the  empire  were 
represented,  and  in  place  of  centralized  despotism  was  established 
Liberal  centralization  under  Schmerling  and  the  German  Liberals. 
But  the  Magyars  refused  to  send  representatives  to  the  central 
parliament;  the  Slavs,  resenting  the  Germanizing  policy  of  the 
government,  withdrew;  and  the  emperor  had  really  withdrawn 
his  confidence  from  Schmerling  long  before  the  constitution 
was  suspended  in  1865  as  a  first  step  to  a  reconciliation  with 
Hungary.  In  the  complicated  German  affairs  the  emperor  in 
vain  sought  for  a  minister  on  whose  knowledge  and  advice  he 
could  depend.  He  was  guided  in  turn  by  the  inconsistent  advice 
of  Schmerling,  Rechberg,  Mensdorff,  not  to  mention  more 
obscure  counsellors,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  Austria  was 
repeatedly  outmatched  and  outwitted  by  Prussia.  In  1863, 
at  the  Filrstentag  in  Frankfort,  the  emperor  made  an  attempt 
by  his  personal  influence  to  solve  the  German  question.  He 
invited  all  the  German  sovereigns  to  meet  him  in  conference, 
and  laid  before  them  a  plan  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  con- 
federation. The  momentary  effect  was  immense;  for  some 
of  the  halo  of  the  Holy  Empire  still  clung  round  the  head  of 
the  house  of  Habsburg,  and  Francis  Joseph  was  welcomed  to 
the  ancient  free  city  with  enthusiasm.  In  spite  of  this,  however, 
and  of  the  skill  with  which  he  presided  over  the  debates,  the 


conference  came  to  nothing  owing  to  the  refusal  of  the  king  of 
Prussia  to  attend. 

The  German  question  was  settled  definitively  by  the  battle 
of  Koniggratz  in  1866;  and  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph,  with 
characteristic  Habsburg  opportunism,  was  quick  to  accommodate 
himself  to  the  new  circumstances.  Above  all,  he  recognized 
the  necessity  for  reconciling  the  Magyars  to  the  monarchy;  for 
it  was  their  discontent  that  had  mainly  contributed  to  the 
collapse  of  the  Austrian  power.  He  had  already,  in  1859,  as  the 
result  of  a  visit  to  Budapest,  made  certain  modifications  in  the 
Bach  system  by  way  of  concession  to  Magyar  sentiment,  and  in 
1861  he  had  had  an  interview  with  Deak,  during  which,  though 
unconvinced  by  that  statesman's  arguments,  he  had  at  least 
assured  himself  of  his  loyalty.  He  now  made  Beust,  Bismarck's 
Saxon  antagonist,  the  head  of  his  government,  as  the  result 
of  whose  negotiations  with  Deak  the  Austro-Hungarian  Com- 
promise of  1867  was  agreed  upon.  A  law  was  passed  by  the 
Hungarian  diet  regularizing  the  abdication  of  Ferdinand;  at 
the  beginning  of  June  Francis  Joseph  signed  the  inaugural 
diploma  and  took  the  oath  in  Magyar  to  observe  the  constitution; 
on  the  8th  he  was  solemnly  crowned  king  of  Hungary.  The 
traditional  coronation  gift  of  100,000  florins  he  assigned  to  the 
widows  and  orphans  of  those  who  had  fallen  in  the  war  against 
Austria  in  1849. 

Once  having  accepted  the  principle  of  constitutional  govern- 
ment, the  emperor-king  adhered  to  it  loyally,  in  spite  of  the 
discouragement  caused  by  party  struggles  embittered  by  racial 
antagonisms.  If  in  the  Cisleithan  half  of  the  monarchy  parlia- 
mentary government  broke  down,  this  was  through  no  fault 
of  the  emperor,  who  worked  hard  to  find  a  modus  vivendi  between 
the  factions,  and  did  not  shrink  from  introducing  manhood 
suffrage  in  the  attempt  to  establish  a  stable  parliamentary 
system.  This  expedient,  indeed,  probably  also  conveyed  a 
veiled  threat  to  the  Magyar  chauvinists,  who,  discontented  with 
the  restrictions  placed  upon  Hungarian  independence  under  the 
Compromise,  were  agitating  for  the  complete  separation  of 
Austria  and  Hungary  under  a  personal  union  only;  for  universal 
suffrage  in  Hungary  would  mean  the  subordination  of  the  Magyar 
minority  to  the  hitherto  subject  races.  For  nearly  forty  years 
after  the  acceptance  of  the  Compromise  the  attitude  of  the 
emperor-king  towards  the  Magyar  constitution  had  been  scrupu- 
lously correct.  The  agitation  for  the  completely  separate 
organization  of  the  Hungarian  army,  and  for  the  substitution 
of  Magyar  for  German  in  words  of  command  in  Hungarian 
regiments,  broke  down  the  patience  of  the  emperor,  tenacious 
of  his  prerogative  as  supreme  "  war  lord  "  of  the  common  army. 
A  Hungarian  deputation  which  came  to  Vienna  in  September 
1905  to  urge  the  Magyar  claims  was  received  ungraciously  by 
the  emperor,  who  did  not  offer  his  hand  to  the  members.addressed 
them  in  German,  and  referred  them  brusquely  to  the  chancellor, 
Count  Goluchowski.  This  incident  caused  a  considerable  sensa- 
tion, and  was  the  prelude  to  a  long  crisis  in  Hungarian  affairs, 
during  which  the  emperor-king,  while  quick  to  repair  the  un- 
fortunate impression  produced  by  his  momentary  pique,  held 
inflexibly  to  his  resolve  in  the  matter  of  the  common  army. 

In  his  relations  with  'the  Slavs  the  emperor  displayed  the 
same  conciliatory  disposition  as  in  the  case  of  the  Magyars; 
but  though  he  more  than  once  held  out  hopes  that  he  would  be 
crowned  at  Prague  as  king  of  Bohemia,  the  project  was  always 
abandoned.  In  this,  indeed,  as  in  other  cases,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  emperor  was  guided  less  by  any  abstract  principles 
than  by  a  common-sense  appreciation  of  the  needs  and  possi- 
bilities of  the  moment.  Whatever  his  natural  prejudices  or 
natural  resentments,  he  never  allowed  these  to  influence  his 
policy.  The  German  empire  and  the  Italian  kingdom  had  been 
built  up  out  of  the  ruins  of  immemorial  Habsburg  ambitions; 
yet  he  refused  to  be  drawn  into  an  alliance  with  France  in  1869 
and  1870,  and  became  the  mainstay  of  the  Triple  Alliance  of 
Austria-Hungary,  Germany  and  Italy.  His  reputation  as  a 
consistent  moderating  influence  in  European  policy  and  one  of 
the  chief  guarantors  of  European  peace  was  indeed  rudely 
shaken  in  October  1908,  the  year  in  which  he  celebrated  his 


FRANCIS  JOSEPH  I.  OF  AUSTRIA 


944 

sixty  years'  jubilee  as  emperor,  by  the  issue  of  the  imperial 
rescript  annexing  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  to  the  Habsburg 
dominions,  in  violation  of  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Berlin. 
But  his  opportunism  was  again  justified  by  the  result.  Europe 
lost  an  ideal;  but  Austria  gained  two  provinces. 

In  his  private  life  the  emperor  was  the  victim  of  terrible 
catastrophes — his  wife,  his  brother  and  his  only  son  having 
been  destroyed  by  sudden  and  violent  deaths.  He  married 
in  1854  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Maximilian  Joseph,  duke  of 
Bavaria,  who  belonged  to  the  younger  and  non-royal  branch 
of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach.  The  empress,  who  shared  the 
remarkable  beauty  common  to  all  her  family,  took  little  part 
in  the  public  life  of  Austria.  After  the  first  years  of  married 
life  she  was  seldom  seen  in  Vienna,  and  spent  much  of  her  time 
in  travelling.  She  built  a  castle  of  great  beauty  and  magnificence, 
called  the  Achilleion,  in  the  island  of  Corfu,  where  she  often 
resided.  In  1867  she  accompanied  the  emperor  to  Budapest, 
and  took  much  interest  in  the  reconciliation  with  the  Magyars. 
She  became  a  good  Hungarian  scholar,  and  spent  much  time  in 
Hungary.  An  admirable  horsewoman,  in  later  years  she  re- 
peatedly visited  England  and  Ireland  for  the  hunting  season. 
In  1897  she  was  assassinated  at  Geneva  by  an  Italian  anarchist; 
previous  attempts  had  been  made  on  her  and  on  her  husband 
during  a  visit  to  Trieste. 


There  was  one  son  of  the  marriage,  the  crown  prince  Rudolph 
(1857-1889).  A  man  of  much  ability  and  promise,  he  was  a 
good  linguist,  and  showed  great  interest  in  natural  history. 
He  published  two  works,  Fifteen  Days  on  the  Danube  and  A 
Journey  in  the  East,  and  also  promoted  the  publication  of  an 
important  illustrated  work  giving  a  full  description  of  the  whole 
Austro-Hungarian  monarchy;  he  personally  shared  the  labours 
of  the  editorial  work.  In  1881  he  married  St6phanie,  daughter 
of  the  king  of  the  Belgians.  On  3oth  January  1889  he  committed 
suicide  at  Mayerling,  a  country  house  near  Vienna.  He  left 
one  daughter,  Elizabeth,  who  was  betrothed  to  Count  Alfred 
Windischgratz  in  1901.  In  .1900  his  widow,  the  crown  princess 
Stephanie,  married  Count  Lonyay;  by  this  she  sacrificed  her 
rank  and  position  within  the  Austrian  monarchy.  Besides 
the  crown  prince  the  empress  gave  birth  to  three  daughters, 
of  whom  two  survive:  Gisela  (born  1857),  who  married  a 
son  of  the  prince  regent  of  Bavaria;  and  Marie  Valerie 
(born  1868),  who  married  the  archduke  Franz  Salvator  of 
Tuscany. 

See.  J.  Emmer,  Kaiser  Franz  Joseph  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1898); 
J.  Schnitzer,  Franz  Joseph  I.  und  seine  Zeit  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1899); 
Viribis  unitis.  Das  Buck  vom  Kaiser,  with  introduction  by  J.  A.  v. 
Halfert,  ed.  M.  Herzig  (ib.,  1898);  R.  Rostok,  Die  Regierungszeit 
des  K.  u.  K.  Franz  Joseph  I.  (3rd  ed.  ib.,  1903). 


END    OF    TENTH    VOLUME 


HILL 

REFERENCE 
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